Riemannian geometry, also called elliptic geometry, one of the non-Euclidean geometries that completely rejects the validity

of Euclids fifth postulate and modifies his second postulate. Simply stated, Euclids fifth postulate is: through a point not on a given line there is only one line parallel to the given line. In Riemannian geometry, there are no lines parallel to the given line. Euclids second postulate is: a straight line of finite length can be extended continuously without bounds. In Riemannian geometry, a straight line of finite length can be extended continuously without bounds, but all straight lines are of the same ... (100 of 248 words).

Unlike other branches of math, geometry has been connected with two purposes since the ancient Greeks. Not only is it an intellectual discipline, but also, it has been considered an accurate description of our physical space. However in order to talk about the different types of geometries, we must not confuse the term geometry with how physical space really works. Geometry was devised for practical purposes such as constructions, and land surveying. Ancient Greeks, such as Pythagoras (around 500 BC) used geometry, but the various geometric rules that were being passed down and inherited were not well connected. So around 300 BC, Euclid was studying geometry in Alexandria and wrote a thirteen-volume book that compiled all the known and accepted rules of geometry called The Elements, and later referred to as Euclids Elements. Because math was a science where every theorem is based on accepted assumptions, Euclid first had to establish some axioms with which to use as the basis of other theorems. He used five axioms as the 5 assumptions, which he needed to prove all other geometric ideas. The use and assumption of these five axioms is what it means for something to be categorized as Euclidean geometry, which is obviously named after Euclid, who literally wrote the book on geometry. The first four of his axioms are fairly straightforward and easy to accept, and no mathematician has ever seriously doubted them. The first four of Euclids axioms are: 1.) One straight line may be drawn from any two points. 2.) Any terminated straight line may be extended indefinitely. 3.) A circle may be drawn with any given center and any given radius. 4.) All right angles are congruent. With no concern over the first four axioms, they are regarded as the axioms of all geometries or basic geometry for short. The fifth and last axiom listed by Euclid stands out a little bit. It is a bit less intuitive and a lot more convoluted. It looks like a condition of the geometry more than something fundamental about it. The fifth axiom is: 5.) If two straight lines lying in a plane are met by another line, and if the sum of he internal angles on one side is less than two right angles, then the straight lines will meet if the extended on the side on which the sum of the angles is less than two right angles. The fifth axiom, also known as Euclids parallel postulate deals with parallel lines, and it is equivalent to this slightly more clear statement: For a given line and point there is only one line parallel to the first line passing through the point (This statement was first proved to be equivalent to Euclids fifth axiom by John Playfair in the 18th century). This seems obvious to us because of what we have been taught, but it is far less as intuitive as the first four. Later

mathematicians, and even Euclid himself were not comfortable with axiom five; it is quite a complicated statement and axioms are meant to be small, simple and straightforward. Axiom five looked more like a theorem than an axiom, and as such it should have to be proved to be true and not assumed. The problem is that mathematicians were not comfortable using the fifth axiom (Even Euclid did not use it in The Elements until his 29th example). However, mathematicians found no way of showing that this problematic axiom it could be proven from the first four 4 axioms. However, all the theorems that can be proved from it worked and many mathematicians were happy just to leave it. So they came up with a version of geometry that included the fifth postulate and one that excluded it. Basic geometry was defined as being based on the first 4 axioms alone. However, Euclidean geometry was defined as using all five of the axioms. The type of geometry we are all most familiar with today is called Euclidean geometry. Euclidean geometry consists basically of the geometric rules and theorems taught to kids in todays schools. Such as the Pythagorean theorem, rules about triangles and congruency and most other rules concerning shapes, areas, and angles. It is amazing to consider that Euclids axioms still form the basis of our practical understanding of geometry over two thousand years later. The Elements had been the most widely purchased non-religious work in the world. Introducing non-Euclidean Geometries The historical developments of non-Euclidean geometry were attempts to deal with the fifth axiom. Mathematicians first tried to directly prove that the first 4 axioms could prove the fifth. However, mathematicians were becoming frustrated and tried some indirect methods. Girolamo Saccheri (1667-1733) tried to prove a contradiction by denying the fifth axiom. He started with quadrilateral ABCD (later called the Saccheri Quadrilateral) with right angles at A and B and where AD = BC. Since he is not using the fifth axiom, he concludes there are three possible outcomes. Angles at C and D are right angles, C and D are both obtuse, or C and D are both acute. Saccheri knew that the only possible solution was right angles. Saccheri said this was enough to claim a contradiction and he stopped. His reasoning to stop was based on faulty logic. He was going on the presumption that lines and parallel lines worked like those in flat geometry. So his contradiction was only applicable in Euclidean geometry, which was not a contradiction to what he was actually trying to prove. Of course Saccheri did not realize this at the time and he died thinking he had proved Euclids fifth axiom from the first four. A contemporary of Saccheri, Johann Lambert (1728-1777), picked up where Saccheri left off and took the problem just a few steps further. Lambert considered the three possibilities that Saccheri had concluded as consequences of the first four axioms. Instead of finding a contradiction, he found two alternatives to Euclidean geometry. The first option represented Euclidean geometry and while the other two appeared silly, they could not be proven wrong. Through time (and quite a lot of criticism), these two other possibilities were now being considered as alternative geometries to Euclids geometry. Eventually these alternate geometries were scholarly acknowledged as geometries, which could stand alone to Euclidean geometry. The two non-Euclidean geometries were known as hyperbolic and elliptic. Hyperbolic geometry was explained by taking the acute angles for C and D on the Saccheri Quadrilateral while elliptic assumed them to be obtuse. Lets compare hyperbolic, elliptic and Euclidean geometries with respect to Playfairs parallel axiom and see what role parallel lines have in these geometries:

1.) Euclidean: Given a line L and a point P not on L, there is exactly one line passing through P, parallel to L. 2.) Hyperbolic: Given a line L and a point P not on L, there are at least two lines passing through P, parallel to L. 3.) Elliptic: Given a line L and a point P not on L, there are no lines passing through P, parallel to L. It is important to realize that these statements are like different versions of the parallel postulate and all these types of geometries are based on a root idea of basic geometry and that the only difference is the use of the altering versions of the parallel postulate. Similar to the way variations of a game are played, non-Euclidean geometries are geometries that use varying rules. Of course, when you change the rules of a game, the consequences are different and of course using varying axioms leads to different geometries. Acknowledging that there are different types of geometries is the reason we can no longer view geometry as an accurate description of our physical space. To say our space is Euclidean, is to say our space is not curved, which seems to make a lot of sense regarding our drawings on paper, however non-Euclidean geometry is an example of curved space. Although mathematicians showed the possibility of non-Euclidean space, people were still reluctant to reject Euclids fifth postulate. In fact, German philosopher, Immanuel Kant, argued that since space is largely a creation of our minds, and since we cannot imagine nonEuclidean space, that Euclids fifth postulate must necessarily be true. However, not much later, people were giving examples (models) of the non-Euclidean axiomatic systems. For instance, mathematicians long regarded a straight line as the shortest route between two points no matter what type of geometry we are considering, but when they tried this on the surface of a sphere, the arc connecting two points did not appear straight. However appearance was not important because the lines were only curved extrinsically (as part of our perception, and not as part of a different type of geometry). Ultimately, the surface of a sphere became the prime example of elliptic geometry in 2 dimensions (although all positively curved surfaces such as a football-shaped and other elliptical objects are examples too). Elliptic Geometry Elliptic geometry also says that the shortest distance between two points is an arc on a great circle (the greatest size circle that can be made on a spheres surface). As part of the revised parallel postulate for elliptic geometries, we learn that there are no parallel lines in elliptical geometry. This means that all straight lines on the spheres surface intersect (specifically, they all interesect in two places). A famous non-Euclidean geometer, Bernhard Riemann, who dealt mostly with and is credited with the development of elliptical geometries, theorized that the space (we are talking about outer space now) could be boundless without necessarily implying that space extends forever in all directions. This theory suggests that if we were to travel one direction in space for a really long time, we would eventually come back to where we started! This theory involves the existence of fourdimensional space similar to how the surface of a sphere (which is three dimensional) represents an elliptic 2 dimensional geometry. Einstein addressed the idea that space could be unbounded without being in finite in his theory of relativity. However, it should be noted that this idea raises some issues regarding Euclids second axiom, which says a line segment can be extended indefinitely.

There are many practical uses for elliptical geometries. Elliptical geometry, which describes the surface of a sphere, is used by pilots and ship captains as they navigate around the spherical Earth, which we live. In fact, working in elliptical geometry has some non-intuitive results. For example, the shortest flying distance from Florida to the Philippine Islands is a path across Alaska. The Philippines are South of Florida so it is not apparent why flying North to Alaska would be shorter. The answer is that Florida, Alaska, and the Philippines are collinear locations in elliptical geometry. Another odd property of elliptical geometry is that the sum of the angles of a triangle is always greater then 180. Relatively small triangles, such as a triangle that is formed by three intersecting roads have angle sums very close to 180. In order to notice the effect of triangles with larger angle sums, we have to consider much larger triangles such as the triangle formed by New York, Los Angeles and Miami. Because a triangles angle sum distortion is proportional to the size of the triangle, we also can deduce that a triangles area is related to its angle sum! Furthermore, this notion destroys our idea of similar triangles, because similar triangles are triangles with the same angle measurments but different areas but since area is related to angle sum in elliptic geometry, there are no similar triangles (just congruent ones)! Hyperbolic Geometry: The other type of non-Euclidean geometry we have yet to examine is hyperbolic geometry. Recalling the corresponding Playfairs axiom for hyperbolic geometry, we see that in hyperbolic geometry, there is more than one parallel line to L, passing through point P, not on L. Furthermore, hyperbolic geometries comes with some more restrictions about parallel lines. In Euclidean geometry, we can show that parallel lines are always equidistant, but in hyperbolic geometries, of course, this is not the case. Therefore, in hyperbolic geometries, we merely can assume that parallel lines carry only the restriction that they dont interesect. Furthermore, the parallel lines dont seem straight in the conventional sense. They can even approach each other in an asymptotically fashion. The surfaces on which these rules on lines and parallels hold true are on negatively curved surfaces. When compared with the other geometrys triangle angle sums, we see that in hyperbolic geometry, the triangles angle sum is less than 180 degrees whereas elliptic geomtry has more than 180 degrees. Similarly, the larger the sides of the triangle, the greater the distortion of the angle sums on both elliptic and hyperbolic geometries. Much like elliptic geometries, the area of a triangle is proportional to its angle sum and of course this implies that there are no similar triangles as well. In some ways, hyperbolic geometry is simpler than elliptic so technically hyperbolic was discovered first. Gauss, Schweikart, Lobachevsky and Jnos Bolyai all separately and all in the first half of the 19th century, are credited with the discovery of hyperbolic geometry. Now that we see what the nature of a hyperbolic geometry, we probably might wonder what some models of hyperbolic surfaces are. Some traditional hyperbolic surfaces are that of the saddle (hyperbolic parabola) where the surface curves in two different directions and more scholarly, the Poincar Disc. The Poincar Disc is a model of hyperbolic geometry envisioned by French mathematician/philosopher, Poincar (1854 1912). His model is a sort of 2 dimensional model, which makes it appealing to those who are working on paper. In one of his philosophical writings, Science and Hypothesis 1901, he wrote of his model as an imaginary universe occupying the interior of a disc (or circle) in the Euclidean plane. And we as observers get to watch the inhabitants move around. However, they appear to shrink as they approach the infinitely distant horizon (the boundary of the disc). Furthermore, the inhabitants do not notice the effect because their ruler shrinks with them as they move. They think that they live in a normal Euclidean space, but

we see them in a non-Euclidean space with their dimensions behaving strangely. Since the edge of the disc represents infinity, their universe still contains infinite space, however large line segments appear to grow smaller as they get closer to the circles edge. Straight lines, in the Poincar Disc, intersect the discs edge at 90-degree angles. Like many of our examples of non-Euclidean geometries, measurements on the Poincar Disc become more distorted when we are looking at larger areas and line segments. In fact, if you were to draw a triangle with vertices close to the edge of the disc (infinity), the triangles area would be near zero! Applications of non-Euclidean Geometries: Practically, non-Euclidean geometries have long been regarded as curiousities because they seemed to have little to do with our real universe. Thanks to Einstein and subsequent cosmologists, non-Euclidean geometries began to replace the use of Euclidean geometries in many contexts. For example, physics is largely founded upon the constructs of Euclidean geometry but was turned upside-down with Einstein's non-Euclidean "Theory of Relativity" (1915). Newtonian physics, based upon Euclidean geometry, failed to consider the curvature of space, and that this constituted for major errors in the equations of planetary motion and gravity. Einstein's general theory of relativity proposes that gravity is a result of an intrinsic curvature of spacetime (as opposed to a Newtonian action-at-a-distance explanation). Intrinsic curvature, explains how straight lines could have the properties associated with curvature without actually being curved in the ordinary sense, is now used to explain how something which is obviously curved, like the orbit of a planet, is really straight. Also, it means that if we accept an intrinsic curvature of spacetime (a curve of spacetime, as opposed to a curve within spacetime), then these curved lines in three dimensional space (such as those used to describe gravity), then we must assume that the lines are curved in a higher dimension, into which the straight lines are curved in the conventional sense. In laymans terms, this explains that the phrase curved space is not a curvature in the usual sense but a curve that exists of spacetime itself and that this curve is in the direction of the fourth dimension. So if our space has a non-conventional curvature in the direction of the fourth dimension, that that means our universe is not flat in the Euclidean sense and finally we realize our universe is probably best described by a non-Euclidean geometry! The future of the universe will be determined by whatever is the geometry of the universe happens to be. According to current theories in cosmology, if the geometry is hyperbolic, the universe will expand indefinitely; if the geometry is Euclidean, the universe will expand indefinitely at escape velocity; and if the geometry is elliptic, the expansion of the universe will coast to a halt, and then the universe will start to shrink back to a singularity and possibly to explode again with a whole new big bang. Conclusion: It would be fallacious to assume that because math works that we understand what is happening in our real space. However there are those that speak as though math somehow explains what is going on in the real world. The mathematics of Euclid were were simple and straightforward, but it did not confer an understanding about what the nature of the universe was. Many people who, with an almost religious fervor, proclaimed that Euclidean geometry was the one and only geometry resisted the recognition of the existence of the non-Euclidean geometries as mathematical systems. Such attitudes reflect a failure to recognize that

geometry is a mathematical system that is determined by its assumptions. The most we can assume about our universe now is that Euclidean geometry provides an excellent representation for the localized part of the universe that we inhabit. Poincar added some insight to the debate between Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometries when he said, One geometry cannot be more true than another; it can only be more convenient.
http://www.reocities.com/CapeCanaveral/7997/noneuclid.html

Elliptic geometry
Recall that one model for the Real projective plane is the unit sphere S2 with opposite points identified. On this model we will take "straight lines" (the shortest routes between points) to be great circles (the intersection of the sphere with planes through the centre). We may then measure distance and angle and we can then look at the elements of PGL(3, R) which preserve his distance. This is a group PO(3) which is in fact the quotient group of O(3) by the scalar matrices. (In fact, since the only scalars in O(3) are I it is isomorphic to SO(3)). This geometry then satisfies all Euclid's postulates except the 5th. Since any two "straight lines" meet there are no parallels. This geometry is called Elliptic geometry and is a non-Euclidean geometry. Some properties 1. All lines have the same finite length . 2. The area of the elliptic plane is 2. 3. The sum of the angles of a triangle is always > . In fact one has the following theorem (due to the French mathematician Albert Girard (1595 to 1632) who proved the result for spherical triangles). Girard's theorem The sum of the angles of a triangle - is the area of the triangle. Proof Take the triangle to be a spherical triangle lying in one hemisphere.

The lines b and c meet in antipodal points A and A' and they define a lune with area 2 .

We get a picture as on the right of the sphere divided into 8 pieces with ' the antipodal triangle to and 1 the above lune, etc. The area = area ', 1 = '1,etc. Then + 1 = area of the lune = 2 and + 2 = 2 and + 1 = 2 Also 2 + 2 1 + 2 2 + 2 3 = 4 2 = 2 + 2 + 2 - 2 as required.

What is elliptic geometry?

An elliptic geometry is a non-Euclidean geometry with positive curvature which replaces the parallel postulate with the statement through any point in the plane, there exists no line parallel to a given line. dianne18, Answers Expert

Euclidean geometry
Euclidean geometry is a mathematical system attributed to the Greek mathematician Euclid of Alexandria. Euclid's text Elements is the earliest known systematic discussion of geometry. It has been one of the most influential books in history, as much for its method as for its mathematical content. The method consists of assuming a small set of intuitively appealing axioms, and then proving many other propositions ( theorems) from those axioms. Although many of Euclid's results had been stated by earlier Greek mathematicians, Euclid was the first to show how these propositions could be fit together into a comprehensive deductive and logical system. The Elements begin with plane geometry, still taught in secondary school as the first axiomatic system and the first examples of formal proof. The Elements goes on to the solid geometry of three dimensions, and Euclidean geometry was subsequently extended to any finite number of dimensions. Much of the Elements states results of what is now called number theory, proved using geometrical methods. For over two thousand years, the adjective "Euclidean" was unnecessary because no other sort of geometry had been conceived. Euclid's axioms seemed so intuitively obvious that any theorem proved from them was deemed true in an absolute sense. Today, however, many other self-consistent non-Euclidean geometries are known, the first ones having been discovered in the early 19th century. It also is no longer taken for granted that Euclidean geometry describes physical space. An implication of Einstein's theory of general relativity is that Euclidean geometry is a good approximation to the properties of physical space only if the gravitational field is not too strong.

Axiomatic approach
Euclidean geometry is an axiomatic system, in which all theorems ("true statements") are derived from a finite number of axioms. Near the beginning of the first book of the Elements , Euclid gives five postulates (axioms): 1. 2. 3. 4. Any two points can be joined by a straight line. Any straight line segment can be extended indefinitely in a straight line. Given any straight line segment, a circle can be drawn having the segment as radius and one endpoint as center. All right angles are congruent.

5. Parallel postulate. If two lines intersect a third in such a way that the sum of the inner angles on one side is less than two right angles, then the two lines inevitably must intersect each other on that side if extended far enough.

These axioms invoke the following concepts: point, straight line segment and line, side of a line, circle with radius and center, right angle, congruence, inner and right angles, sum. The following verbs appear: join, extend, draw, intersect. The circle described in postulate 3 is tacitly unique. Postulates 3 and 5 hold only for plane geometry; in three dimensions, postulate 3 defines a sphere. Postulate 5 leads to the same geometry as the following statement, known as Playfair's axiom, which also holds only in the plane: Postulates 1, 2, 3, and 5 assert the existence and uniqueness of certain geometric figures, and these assertions are of a constructive nature: that is, we are not only told that certain things exist, but are also given methods for creating them with no more than a compass and an unmarked straightedge. In this sense, Euclidean geometry is more concrete than many modern axiomatic systems such as set theory, which often assert the existence of objects without saying how to construct them, or even assert the existence of objects that cannot be constructed within the theory. Strictly speaking, the constructs of lines on paper etc are models of the objects defined within the formal system, rather than instances of those objects. For example a Euclidean straight line has no width, but any real drawn line will. The Elements also include the following five "common notions":
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Things that equal the same thing also equal one another. If equals are added to equals, then the wholes are equal. If equals are subtracted from equals, then the remainders are equal. Things that coincide with one another equal one another. The whole is greater than the part.

Euclid also invoked other properties pertaining to magnitudes. 1 is the only part of the underlying logic that Euclid explicitly articulated. 2 and 3 are "arithmetical" principles; note that the meanings of "add" and "subtract" in this purely geometric context are taken as given. 1 through 4 operationally define equality, which can also be taken as part of the underlying logic or as an equivalence relation requiring, like "coincide," careful prior definition. 5 is a principle of mereology. "Whole", "part", and "remainder" beg for precise definitions. In the 19th century, it was realized that Euclid's ten axioms and common notions do not suffice to prove all of theorems stated in the Elements . For example, Euclid assumed implicitly that any line contains at least two points, but this assumption cannot be proved from the other axioms, and therefore needs to be an axiom itself. The very first geometric proof in the Elements, shown in the figure on the right, is that any line segment is part of a triangle; Euclid constructs this in the usual way, by drawing circles around both endpoints and taking their intersection as the third vertex. His axioms, however, do not guarantee that the circles actually intersect, because they are consistent with discrete, rather than continuous, space. Starting with Moritz Pasch in 1882, many improved axiomatic systems for geometry have been proposed, the best known being those of Hilbert, George Birkhoff, and Tarski. To be fair to Euclid, the first formal logic capable of supporting his geometry was that of Frege's 1879 Begriffsschrift, little read until the 1950s. We now see that Euclidean geometry should be embedded in first-order logic with identity, a formal system first set out in Hilbert and Wilhelm Ackermann's 1928 Principles of Theoretical Logic. Formal mereology began only in 1916, with the work of Lesniewski and A. N. Whitehead. Tarski and his students did major work on the foundations of elementary geometry as recently as between 1959 and his death in 1983.

The parallel postulate

To the ancients, the parallel postulate seemed less obvious than the others; verifying it physically would require us to inspect two lines to check that they never intersected, even at some very distant point, and this inspection could potentially take an infinite amount of time. Euclid himself seems to have considered it as being qualitatively different from the others, as evidenced by the organization of the Elements : the first 28 propositions he presents are those that can be proved without it. Many geometers tried in vain to prove the fifth postulate from the first four. By 1763 at least 28 different proofs had been published, but all were found to be incorrect. In fact the parallel postulate cannot be proved from the other four: this was shown in the 19th century by the construction of alternative ( non-Euclidean) systems of geometry where the other axioms are still true but the parallel postulate is replaced by a conflicting axiom. One distinguishing aspect of these systems is that the three angles of a triangle do not add to 180: in hyperbolic geometry the sum of the three angles is always less than 180 and can approach zero, while in elliptic geometry it is greater than 180. If the parallel postulate is dropped from the list of axioms without replacement, the result is the more general geometry called absolute geometry.

Treatment using analytic geometry

The development of analytic geometry provided an alternative method for formalizing geometry. In this approach, a point is represented by its Cartesian (x,y) coordinates, a line is represented by its equation, and so on. In the 20th century, this fit into David Hilbert's program of reducing all of mathematics to arithmetic, and then proving the consistency of arithmetic using finitistic reasoning. In Euclid's original approach, the Pythagorean theorem follows from Euclid's axioms. In the Cartesian approach, the axioms are the axioms of algebra, and the equation expressing the Pythagorean theorem is then a definition of one of the terms in Euclid's axioms, which are now considered to be theorems. The equation |PQ|=sqrt{(p-r)^2+(q-s)^2}

defining the distance between two points P=(p,q) and Q=(r,s) is then known as the Euclidean metric, and other metrics define non-Euclidean geometries.

As a description of physical reality

Euclid believed that his axioms were self-evident statements about physical reality. This led to deep philosophical difficulties in reconciling the status of knowledge from observation as opposed to knowledge gained by the action of thought and reasoning. A major investigation of this area was conducted by Immanuel Kant in The Critique of Pure Reason. However, Einstein's theory of general relativity shows that the true geometry of spacetime is non-Euclidean geometry. For example, if a triangle is constructed out of three rays of light, then in general the interior angles do not add up to 180 degrees due to gravity. A relatively weak gravitational field, such as the Earth's or the sun's, is represented by a metric that is approximately, but not exactly, Euclidean. Until the 20th century, there was no technology capable of detecting the deviations from Euclidean geometry, but Einstein predicted that such deviations would exist. They were later verified by observations such as the observation of the slight bending of starlight by the Sun during a solar eclipse in 1919, and non-Euclidean geometry is now, for example, an integral part of the software that runs the GPS system. It is possible to object to the non-Euclidean interpretation of general relativity on the grounds that light rays might be improper physical models of Euclid's lines, or that relativity could be rephrased so as to avoid the geometrical interpretations. However, one of the consequences of Einstein's theory is that there is no possible physical test that can do any better than a beam of light as a model of geometry. Thus, the only logical possibilities are to accept non-Euclidean geometry as physically real, or to reject the entire notion of physical tests of the axioms of geometry, which can then be imagined as a formal system without any intrinsic real-world meaning. Because of the incompatibility of the Standard Model with general relativity, and because of some recent empirical evidence against the former, both theories are now under increased scrutiny, and many theories have been proposed to replace or extend the former and, in many cases, the latter as well. The disagreements between the two theories come from their claims about space-time, and it is now accepted that physical geometry must describe space-time rather than merely space. While Euclidean geometry, the Standard Model and general relativity are all in principle compatible with any number of spatial dimensions and any

specification as to which of these if any are compactified (see string theory), and while all but Euclidean geometry (which does not distinguish space from time) insist on exactly one temporal dimension, proposed alternatives, none of which are yet part of scientific consensus, differ significantly in their predictions or lack thereof as to these details of space-time. The disagreements between the conventional physical theories concern whether space-time is Euclidean (since quantum field theory in the standard model is built on the assumption that it is) and on whether it is quantized. Few if any proposed alternatives deny that space-time is quantized, with the quanta of length and time are respectively the Planck length and the Planck time. However, which geometry to use - Euclidean, Riemannian, de Stitter, anti de Stitter and some others - is a major point of demarcation between them. Many physicists expect some Euclidean string theory to eventually become the Theory Of Everything, but their view is by no means unanimous, and in any case the future of this issue is unpredictable. Regarding how if at all Euclidean geometry will be involved in future physics, what is uncontroversial is that the definition of straight lines will still be in terms of the path in a vacuum of electromagnetic radiation (including light) until gravity is explained with mathematical consistency in terms of a phenomenon other than space-time curvature, and that the test of geometrical postulates (Euclidean or otherwise) will lie in studying how these paths are affected by phenomena. For now, gravity is the only known relevant phenomenon, and its effect is uncontroversial (see gravitational lensing).

Conic sections and gravitational theory

Apollonius and other Ancient Greek geometers made an extensive study of the conic sections curves created by intersecting a cone and a plane. The (nondegenerate) ones are the ellipse, the parabola and the hyperbola, distinguished by having zero, one, or two intersections with infinity. This turned out to facilitate the work of Galileo, Kepler and Newton in the 17th Century, as these curves accurately modeled the movement of bodies under the influence of gravity. Using Newton's law of universal gravitation, the orbit of a comet around the Sun is

an ellipse, if it is moving too slowly for its position (below escape velocity), in which case it will eventually return; a parabola, if it is moving with exact escape velocity (unlikely), and will never return because the curve reaches to infinity; or a hyperbola, if it is moving fast enough (above escape velocity), and likewise will never return.

In each case the Sun will be at one focus of the conic, and the motion will sweep out equal areas in equal times. Galileo experimented with objects falling small distances at the surface of the Earth, and empirically determined that the distance travelled was proportional to the square of the time. Given his timing and measuring apparatus, this was an excellent approximation. Over such small distances that the acceleration of gravity can be considered constant, and ignoring the effects of air (as on a falling feather) and the rotation of the Earth, the trajectory of a projectile will be a parabolic path. Later calculations of these paths for bodies moving under gravity would be performed using the techniques of analytical geometry (using coordinates and algebra) and differential

calculus, which provide straightforward proofs. Of course these techniques had not been invented at the time that Galileo investigated the movement of falling bodies. Once he found that bodies fall to the earth with constant acceleration (within the accuracy of his methods), he proved that projectiles will move in a parabolic path using the procedures of Euclidean geometry. Similarly, Newton used quasiEuclidean proofs to demonstrate the derivation of Keplerian orbital movements from his laws of motion and gravitation. Centuries later, one of the first experimental measurements to support Einstein's general theory of relativity, which postulated a non-Euclidean geometry for space, was the orbit of the planet Mercury. Kepler described the orbit as a perfect ellipse. Newtonian theory predicted that the gravitational influence of other bodies would give a more complicated orbit. But eventually all such Newtonian corrections fell short of experimental results; a small perturbation remained. Einstein postulated that the bending of space would precisely account for that perturbation.

Logical status
Euclidean geometry is a first-order theory. That is, it allows statements such as those that begin as "for all triangles ...", but it is incapable of forming statements such as "for all sets of triangles ...". Statements of the latter type are deemed to be outside the scope of the theory.

We owe much of our present understanding of the properties of the logical and metamathematical properties of Euclidean geometry to the work of Alfred Tarski and his students, beginning in the 1920s. Tarski proved his axiomatic formulation of Euclidean geometry to be complete in a certain sense: there is an algorithm which, for every proposition, can show it to be either true or false. Gdel's incompleteness theorems showed the futility of Hilbert's program of proving the consistency of all of mathematics using finitistic reasoning. Tarski's findings do not violate Gdel's theorem, because Euclidean geometry cannot describe a sufficient amount of arithmetic for the theorem to apply. Although complete in the formal sense used in modern logic, there are things that Euclidean geometry cannot accomplish. For example, the problem of trisecting an angle with a compass and straightedge is one that naturally occurs within the theory, since the axioms refer to constructive operations that can be carried out with those tools. However, centuries of efforts failed to find a solution to this problem, until Pierre Wantzel published a proof in 1837 that such a construction was impossible. Absolute geometry, first identified by Bolyai, is Euclidean geometry weakened by omission of the fifth postulate, that parallel lines do not meet. Of strength intermediate between absolute geometry and Euclidean are geometries derived from Euclid's by alterations of the parallel postulate that can be shown to be consistent by exhibiting models of them. For example, geometry on the surface of a sphere is a model of elliptical geometry. Another weakening of Euclidean geometry is affine geometry, first identified by Euler, which retains the fifth postulate unmodified while weakening postulates three and four in a way that eliminates the notions of angle (whence right triangles become meaningless) and of equality of length of line segments in general (whence circles become meaningless) while retaining

the notions of parallelism as an equivalence relation between lines, and equality of length of parallel line segments (so line segments continue to have a midpoint).

Classical theorems

Ceva's theorem Heron's formula Nine-point circle Pythagorean theorem Tartaglia's formula Menelaus's theorem Angle bisector theorem The butterfly theorem Parallel Postulate

See also

Analytic geometry Interactive geometry software Non-Euclidean geometry Ordered geometry Incidence geometry Birkhoff's axioms Hilbert's axioms Tarski's axioms Parallel postulate Schopenhauer's criticism of the proofs of the Parallel Postulate

Notes References

Ball, W.W. Rouse (1960). A Short Account of the History of Mathematics . 4th ed. [Reprint. Original publication: London: Macmillan & Co., 1908], New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-20630-0. Boyer, Carl B. (1991). A History of Mathematics . Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc..

Franzn, Torkel (2005). Gdel's Theorem: An Incomplete Guide to its Use and Abuse . AK Peters. Heath, Thomas L. (1956). The Thirteen Books of Euclid's Elements . 2nd ed. [Facsimile. Original publication: Cambridge University Press, 1925], New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-60088-2 (vol. 1), ISBN 0-48660089-0 (vol. 2), ISBN 0-486-60090-4 (vol. 3). Heath's authoritative translation of Euclid's Elements plus his extensive historical research and detailed commentary throughout the text. Hofstadter, Douglas R. (1979). Gdel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid . New York: Basic Books. Nagel, E. and Newman, J.R. (1958). Gdel's Proof . New York University Press. Alfred Tarski (1951) A Decision Method for Elementary Algebra and Geometry . Univ. of California Press. http://www.reference.com/browse/Euclidean_geometry

2.7.3 Elliptic Parallel Postulate

The postulate on parallels...was in antiquity the final solution of a problem that must have preoccupied Greek mathematics for a long period before Euclid. Hans Freudenthal (19051990) Elliptic Parallel Postulate. Any two lines intersect in at least one point. An important note is how elliptic geometry differs in an important way from either Euclidean geometry or hyperbolic geometry. Whereas, Euclidean geometry and hyperbolic geometry are neutral geometries with the addition of a parallel postulate, elliptic geometry cannot be a neutral geometry due to Theorem 2.14, which stated that parallel lines exist in a neutral geometry. Hence, the Elliptic Parallel Postulate is inconsistent with the axioms of a neutral geometry. Elliptic geometry requires a different set of axioms for the axiomatic system to be consistent and contain an elliptic parallel postulate. Georg Friedrich Bernhard Riemann (18261866) was the first to recognize that the geometry on the surface of a sphere, spherical geometry, is a type of non-Euclidean geometry. This is the reason we name the spherical model for elliptic geometry after him, the Riemann Sphere. (To help with the visualization of the concepts in this section, use a ball or a globe with rubber bands or string.) Click here to download Spherical Easel a java exploration of the Riemann Sphere model. In a spherical model:

Two lines, which are great circles, intersect in two points called poles or antipodal points. A line is unbounded, by this it is meant that a line has no endpoints. A great circle has no beginning and no end. A line has finite length. The concept of betweenness of points does not make sense. What does it mean for a point to be between two other points on a line (great circle)?

From these properties of a sphere, we see that in order to formulate a consistent axiomatic system, several of the axioms from a neutral geometry need to be dropped or modified, whether using either Hilbert's or Birkhoff's axioms. The incidence axiom that "any two points determine a unique line," needs to be modified to read "any two points determine at least one line." Hilbert's Axioms of Order (betweenness of points) may be replaced with axioms of separation that give the properties of how points of a line separate each other. (For a listing of separation axioms see Euclidean and Non-Euclidean Geometries Development and History by Greenberg.) With these modifications made to the axiom system, the Elliptic Parallel Postulate may be added to form a consistent system. Often spherical geometry is called double elliptic geometry, since two distinct lines intersect in two points. One problem with the spherical geometry model is that two lines intersect in more than one point. Felix Klein (18491925) modified the model by identifying each pair of antipodal points as a single point, see the Modified Riemann Sphere. With this model, the axiom that any two points determine a unique line is satisfied. Often an elliptic geometry that satisfies this axiom is called a single elliptic geometry. Note that with this model, a line no longer separates the plane into distinct half-planes, due to the association of antipodal points as a single point. Klein formulated another model for elliptic geometry through the use of a circle. The model is similar to the Poincar Disk. Given a Euclidean circle, a point in the model is of two types: a point in the interior of the Euclidean circle or a point formed by the identification of two antipodal points which are the endpoints of a diameter of the Euclidean circle. The lines are of two types: diameters of the Euclidean circle or arcs of Euclidean circles that intersect the given Euclidean circle at the endpoints of diameters of the given circle. The model on the left illustrates four lines, two of each type. The model can be viewed as taking the Modified Riemann Sphere and flattening onto a Euclidean plane. Click here for a javasketchpad construction that uses the Klein model. Exercise 2.75. In the Riemann Sphere, what properties are true about all lines perpendicular to a given line? Exercise 2.76. How does a Mbius strip relate to the Modified Riemann Sphere? Exercise 2.77. Describe how it is possible to have a triangle with three right angles. Exercise 2.78. Find an upper bound for the sum of the measures of the angles of a triangle in the Riemann Sphere. Exercise 2.79. Use a ball to represent the Riemann Sphere, construct a Saccheri quadrilateral on the ball. Are the summit angles acute, right, or obtuse? Is the length of the summit more or less than the length of the base? (Remember the sides of the quadrilateral must be segments of great circles.) Non-Euclidean space is the false invention of demons, who gladly furnish the dark understanding of the non-Euclideans with false knowledge... The non-Euclideans, like the ancient sophists, seem unaware that their understandings have become obscured by the promptings of the evil spirits. Matthew Ryan (1905)

http://web.mnstate.edu/peil/geometry/c2euclidnoneuclid/7elliptic.htm

Geometri Non Euclid

Non-Euclidean geometri adalah salah satu dari dua geometri tertentu yang, longgar berbicara, diperoleh dengan meniadakan Euclidean paralel postulat , yaitu hiperbolik dan geometri eliptik . Ini adalah satu istilah yang, untuk alasan sejarah, memiliki arti dalam matematika yang jauh lebih sempit dari yang terlihat untuk memiliki dalam bahasa Inggris umum. Ada banyak sekali geometri yang tidak geometri Euclidean , tetapi hanya dua yang disebut sebagai non-Euclidean geometri. Perbedaan penting antara geometri Euclidean dan non-Euclidean adalah sifat paralel baris. Euclid s kelima mendalilkan, yang paralel mendalilkan , setara dengan yang Playfair postulat yang menyatakan bahwa, dalam bidang dua dimensi, untuk setiap garis yang diketahui dan A titik, yang tidak pada , ada tepat satu garis melalui A yang tidak berpotongan . Dalam geometri hiperbolik, sebaliknya, ada tak terhingga banyak baris melalui A tidak berpotongan, sementara dalam geometri eliptik, setiap baris melalui A memotong (lihat entri pada geometri hiperbolik , geometri berbentuk bulat panjang , dan geometri mutlak untuk informasi lebih lanjut). Cara lain untuk menggambarkan perbedaan antara geometri adalah mempertimbangkan dua garis lurus tanpa batas waktu diperpanjang dalam bidang dua dimensi yang baik tegak lurus ke saluran ketiga:

Dalam geometri Euclidean garis tetap konstan jarak dari satu sama lain bahkan jika diperpanjang hingga tak terbatas, dan dikenal sebagai paralel. Dalam geometri hiperbolik mereka kurva pergi satu sama lain, peningkatan jarak sebagai salah satu bergerak lebih jauh dari titik persimpangan dengan tegak lurus umum, garis-garis ini sering disebut ultraparallels. Dalam geometri berbentuk bulat panjang garis kurva ke arah satu sama lain dan akhirnya berpotongan.

Sejarah
Sejarah awal Sementara geometri Euclidean , dinamai matematikawan Yunani Euclid , termasuk beberapa dari matematika tertua, non-Euclidean geometri tidak secara luas diterima sebagai sah sampai abad ke-19. Perdebatan yang akhirnya menyebabkan penemuan non-Euclidean geometri mulai segera setelah karya Euclid s Elemen ditulis. Dalam Elemen, Euclid dimulai dengan sejumlah asumsi (23 definisi, lima pengertian umum, dan lima postulat) dan berusaha untuk

membuktikan semua hasil lain ( proposisi ) dalam pekerjaan. Yang paling terkenal dari postulat sering disebut sebagai Kelima Postulat Euclid, atau cukup dengan paralel mendalilkan , yang dalam formulasi asli Euclid adalah: Jika garis lurus jatuh pada dua garis lurus sedemikian rupa sehingga sudut interior pada sisi yang sama bersama-sama kurang dari dua sudut yang tepat, maka garis-garis lurus, jika diproduksi tanpa batas waktu, bertemu di sisi itu yang adalah sudut kurang dari dua kanan sudut. Lain yang hebat matematika telah menemukan bentuk-bentuk sederhana dari properti ini (lihat postulat paralel untuk laporan setara). Terlepas dari bentuk dalil, bagaimanapun, secara konsisten tampaknya lebih rumit dari yang lain Euclid postulat (termasuk, misalnya, Antara dua titik garis lurus bisa diambil). Setidaknya seribu tahun, geometers merasa kesulitan akibat kompleksitas yang berbeda dari kelima postulat, dan percaya itu bisa dibuktikan sebagai teorema dari keempat lainnya. Banyak berusaha untuk menemukan bukti oleh kontradiksi , termasuk matematikawan Arab Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen, abad ke-11), dengan Persia matematikawan Umar Khayym (abad 12) dan Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (abad ke-13), dan dengan Italia matematika Giovanni Girolamo Saccheri (abad 18). Teorema Ibn al-Haytham, Khayyam dan al-Tusi pada segiempat , termasuk segiempat Lambert dan Saccheri segiempat , adalah teorema pertama dari hiperbolik dan geometri berbentuk bulat panjang . Teorema-teorema bersama dengan alternatif mereka mendalilkan, seperti aksioma Playfair s , memainkan peran penting dalam perkembangan selanjutnya dari non-Euclidean geometri. Upaya-upaya awal pada menantang kelima postulat memiliki pengaruh yang besar terhadap pembangunan di antara geometers kemudian Eropa, termasuk Witelo , Levi ben Gerson , Alfonso , John Wallis dan Saccheri. Semua upaya awal dibuat di mencoba untuk merumuskan non-Euclidean Namun geometri diberikan bukti cacat dari paralel mendalilkan, mengandung asumsi yang pada dasarnya setara dengan postulat paralel. Upaya-upaya awal itu, bagaimanapun, memberikan beberapa sifat awal dari geometri hiperbolik dan eliptik. Khayyam, misalnya, mencoba untuk mendapatkan dari setara mendalilkan ia merumuskan dari prinsip-prinsip Bertuah ( Aristoteles ): Dua garis lurus berpotongan konvergen dan tidak mungkin untuk dua garis lurus konvergen menyimpang ke arah di mana mereka bertemu. Khayyam kemudian dianggap sebagai tiga kasus yang tepat, tumpul, dan akut yang sudut puncak dari sebuah segiempat Saccheri dapat mengambil dan setelah membuktikan sejumlah teorema tentang mereka, ia benar membantah kasus tumpul dan akut berdasarkan dalil nya dan karena berasal klasik postulat Euclid yang tidak disadarinya adalah setara dengan postulat sendiri. Contoh lain adalah anak al-Tusi, Sadr al-Din (kadang-kadang dikenal sebagai Pseudo-Tusi), yang menulis sebuah buku tentang subjek di 1298, berdasarkan pengalaman kemudian al-Tusi, yang disajikan lain setara hipotesis untuk paralel dalil . Dia pada dasarnya revisi kedua sistem Euclidean aksioma dan dalil-dalil dan buktibukti proposisi banyak dari Elemen. Karyanya diterbitkan di Roma tahun 1594 dan dipelajari oleh geometers Eropa, termasuk Saccheri yang mengkritik pekerjaan ini serta yang dari Wallis.

Giordano Vitale , dalam bukunya Euclide restituo (1680, 1686), menggunakan Saccheri segiempat untuk membuktikan bahwa jika tiga poin adalah jarak yang sama di pangkalan AB dan CD KTT, maka AB dan CD di mana-mana berjarak sama. Dalam sebuah karya berjudul Euclides ab Omni Naevo Vindicatus (Euclid Dibebaskan dari Semua Cacat), yang diterbitkan tahun 1733, Saccheri geometri eliptik cepat dibuang sebagai kemungkinan (beberapa orang lain dari aksioma Euclid harus dimodifikasi untuk geometri berbentuk bulat panjang untuk bekerja) dan mulai bekerja membuktikan besar jumlah hasil dalam geometri hiperbolik. Dia akhirnya mencapai titik di mana ia percaya bahwa hasil menunjukkan ketidakmungkinan geometri hiperbolik. Klaimnya tampaknya telah didasarkan pada pengandaian Euclidean, karena tidak ada kontradiksi logis hadir. Dalam upaya untuk membuktikan geometri Euclidean ia malah tidak sengaja menemukan sebuah geometri baru yang layak, tapi tidak menyadarinya. Pada 1766 Johann Lambert menulis, tetapi tidak mempublikasikan, Theorie der Parallellinien di mana ia mencoba, sebagai Saccheri lakukan, untuk membuktikan postulat kelima. Dia bekerja dengan angka yang hari ini kita sebut segiempat Lambert, suatu segiempat dengan tiga sudut kanan (dapat dianggap setengah dari segiempat Saccheri). Dia segera menghilangkan kemungkinan bahwa sudut keempat adalah tumpul, karena memiliki Saccheri dan Khayyam, dan kemudian melanjutkan untuk membuktikan teorema banyak berdasarkan asumsi sudut akut. Tidak seperti Saccheri, ia tidak pernah merasa bahwa ia telah mencapai kontradiksi dengan asumsi ini. Dia telah membuktikan hasil non-Euclidean bahwa jumlah sudut dalam segitiga meningkat sebagai luas segitiga berkurang, dan ini menyebabkan dia untuk berspekulasi mengenai kemungkinan model kasus akut pada bola berjari-jari imajiner. Dia tidak membawa ide ini lebih jauh. Pada saat ini itu sangat percaya bahwa alam semesta bekerja menurut prinsip-prinsip geometri Euclidean. Penciptaan non-Euclidean geometri Awal abad ke-19 akhirnya akan menyaksikan langkah-langkah yang menentukan dalam penciptaan non-Euclidean geometri. Sekitar 1830, Hungaria matematika Jnos Bolyai dan Rusia matematika Nikolai Lobachevsky secara terpisah diterbitkan risalah pada geometri hiperbolik. Akibatnya, geometri hiperbolik disebut Bolyai-Lobachevskian geometri, baik sebagai matematikawan, independen satu sama lain, adalah penulis dasar non-Euclidean geometri. Gauss disebutkan kepada ayah Bolyai, ketika ditampilkan karya Bolyai muda, bahwa ia telah dikembangkan seperti geometri sekitar 20 tahun sebelumnya, meskipun ia tidak mempublikasikan. Sementara Lobachevsky menciptakan geometri non-Euclidean dengan meniadakan paralel mendalilkan, Bolyai bekerja di luar geometri di mana kedua Euclidean dan geometri hiperbolik yang mungkin tergantung pada k parameter. Bolyai berakhir karyanya dengan menyebutkan bahwa tidak mungkin untuk memutuskan melalui penalaran matematis saja jika geometri alam semesta fisik Euclid atau non-Euclidean, ini adalah tugas untuk ilmu fisik. Bernhard Riemann , dalam sebuah kuliah yang terkenal pada 1854, mendirikan bidang geometri Riemann , membahas khususnya ide-ide sekarang disebut manifold , Riemannian metrik , dan kelengkungan . Ia dibangun sebuah keluarga tak terbatas geometri yang tidak Euclidean dengan memberikan rumus untuk keluarga metrik Riemann pada bola unit dalam

ruang Euclidean . Yang paling sederhana ini disebut geometri berbentuk bulat panjang dan dianggap menjadi geometri non-Euclidean karena kurangnya garis paralel. Terminologi Itu Gauss yang menciptakan istilah non-euclidean geometri. Dia merujuk pada karyanya sendiri yang hari ini kita sebut geometri hiperbolik. Beberapa penulis modern yang masih menganggap non-euclidean geometri dan geometri hiperbolik menjadi sinonim. Pada tahun 1871, Felix Klein , dengan mengadaptasi metrik dibahas oleh Arthur Cayley pada tahun 1852, mampu membawa sifat metrik menjadi sebuah lokasi yang proyektif dan karena itu mampu menyatukan perawatan geometri hiperbolik, euclidean dan berbentuk bulat panjang di bawah payung projective geometri . Klein bertanggung jawab untuk istilah hiperbolik dan eliptik (dalam sistem, ia disebut geometri Euclidean parabola, sebuah istilah yang belum selamat dari ujian waktu). Pengaruhnya telah menyebabkan penggunaan saat ini dari geometri non-euclidean untuk berarti baik geometri hiperbolik atau berbentuk bulat panjang. Ada beberapa hebat matematika yang akan memperpanjang daftar geometri yang harus disebut non-euclidean dengan berbagai cara. Dalam disiplin ilmu lainnya, terutama yang paling matematika fisika , istilah non-euclidean sering diartikan tidak Euclidean . aksioma dasar non-Euclidean geometri Geometri Euclidean aksiomatik dapat dijelaskan dalam beberapa cara. Sayangnya, sistem yang asli Euclid lima postulat (aksioma) bukan salah satu dari ini sebagai bukti nya mengandalkan asumsi tak tertulis beberapa yang juga seharusnya diambil sebagai aksioma. sistem Hilbert yang terdiri dari 20 aksioma paling dekat mengikuti pendekatan Euclid dan memberikan pembenaran untuk semua bukti Euclid. Sistem lain, menggunakan set yang berbeda dari istilah terdefinisi mendapatkan geometri yang sama dengan jalan yang berbeda. Dalam semua pendekatan, bagaimanapun, ada aksioma yang secara logis setara dengan kelima Euclid postulat, paralel dalil. Hilbert menggunakan bentuk aksioma Playfair, sementara Birkhoff , misalnya, menggunakan aksioma yang mengatakan bahwa tidak ada sepasang yang sama tetapi tidak kongruen segitiga. Dalam salah satu sistem, penghapusan satu aksioma yang setara dengan postulat sejajar, dalam bentuk apapun yang diperlukan, dan meninggalkan semua aksioma lainnya utuh, menghasilkan geometri absolut . Sebagai pertama 28 proposisi Euclid (dalam The Elements) tidak memerlukan penggunaan postulat paralel atau apa setara dengan itu, mereka semua pernyataan benar dalam geometri mutlak. Untuk mendapatkan geometri non-Euclidean, paralel dalil (atau ekuivalen) harus diganti oleh yang negasi . Meniadakan aksioma Playfair s bentuk, karena itu adalah pernyataan majemuk ( terdapat satu dan hanya satu ), bisa dilakukan dengan dua cara. Entah ada akan ada lebih dari satu baris melalui paralel titik ke garis diberikan atau akan ada tidak ada garis melalui titik paralel ke garis yang diberikan. Dalam kasus pertama, menggantikan paralel dalil (atau ekuivalen) dengan pernyataan Di pesawat, diberi titik P dan garis l tidak melewati P, terdapat dua garis melalui P yang tidak memenuhi l dan menjaga semua aksioma lainnya, hasil geometri hiperbolik . Kasus kedua tidak ditangani dengan mudah. Cukup mengganti paralel mendalilkan dengan pernyataan, Dalam pesawat, diberi titik P dan garis l tidak melewati P, semua garis melalui P memenuhi l, tidak memberikan satu set konsisten aksioma. Ini mengikuti sejak garis paralel ada di geometri mutlak , tetapi pernyataan ini mengatakan bahwa tidak ada garis paralel. Masalah ini dikenal (dalam kedok yang berbeda)

untuk Khayyam, Saccheri dan Lambert dan merupakan dasar untuk menolak mereka apa yang dikenal sebagai kasus sudut tumpul. Untuk mendapatkan satu set konsisten aksioma yang meliputi aksioma ini tentang tidak memiliki garis paralel, beberapa aksioma lain harus tweak. Penyesuaian harus dibuat tergantung pada sistem aksioma yang digunakan. Beberapa diantaranya tweak akan memiliki efek memodifikasi kedua postulat Euclid dari pernyataan bahwa segmen garis dapat diperpanjang tanpa batas waktu untuk pernyataan bahwa garis tak terbatas. Riemann s geometri eliptik muncul sebagai geometri paling alami memuaskan aksioma ini. Model non-Euclidean geometri

Untuk rincian lebih lanjut tentang topik ini, lihat Model non-Euclidean geometri . Pada bola, jumlah sudut segitiga tidak sama dengan 180 . Permukaan sebuah bola bukan ruang Euclidean, tetapi secara lokal hukum geometri Euclidean adalah perkiraan yang baik. Dalam sebuah segitiga kecil di muka bumi, jumlah dari sudut sangat hampir 180 . Dua geometri Euclidean dimensi dimodelkan dengan gagasan kita tentang datar pesawat . geometri Elliptic Model sederhana untuk geometri eliptik adalah bola, di mana garis lingkaran besar (seperti ekuator atau meridian di dunia ), dan poin yang berlawanan satu sama lain (disebut poin antipodal ) diidentifikasi (dianggap sama). Ini juga salah satu model standar dari pesawat proyektif nyata . Perbedaannya adalah bahwa sebagai model geometri eliptik metrik diperkenalkan memungkinkan pengukuran panjang dan sudut, sedangkan pada model pesawat proyektif tidak ada metrik tersebut. Dalam model berbentuk bulat panjang, untuk setiap garis yang diketahui dan titik A, yang tidak pada , semua baris melalui A akan berpotongan . geometri hiperbolik Bahkan setelah pekerjaan Lobachevsky, Gauss, dan Bolyai, pertanyaannya tetap: apakah model seperti itu ada untuk geometri hiperbolik ? Model untuk geometri hiperbolik dijawab oleh Eugenio Beltrami , pada 1868, yang pertama kali menunjukkan bahwa permukaan yang

disebut pseudosphere memiliki sesuai kelengkungan untuk model sebagian dari ruang hiperbolik , dan dalam makalah kedua di tahun yang sama, mendefinisikan Model Klein yang model keseluruhan dari ruang hiperbolik, dan digunakan ini untuk menunjukkan bahwa geometri Euclidean dan geometri hiperbolik adalah equiconsistent , sehingga geometri hiperbolik adalah logis konsisten jika dan hanya jika geometri Euclidean adalah. (Implikasi terbalik berikut dari horosphere model geometri Euclidean.) Dalam model hiperbolik, dalam bidang dua dimensi, untuk setiap garis yang diketahui dan Titik, yang tidak pada , ada tak terhingga banyak baris melalui A yang tidak berpotongan . Dalam model ini konsep-konsep non-Euclidean geometri sedang diwakili oleh objek Euclidean dalam pengaturan Euclidean. Ini memperkenalkan sebuah distorsi perseptual dimana garis-garis lurus dari geometri non-Euclidean yang diwakili oleh kurva Euclidean yang secara visual membungkuk. Ini lentur bukan milik non-Euclidean baris, hanya kecerdasan dari cara mereka diwakili. sifat Jarang Euclid dan geometri non-Euclidean secara alami memiliki sifat serupa, yaitu mereka yang tidak tergantung pada sifat paralelisme. Kesamaan ini adalah subjek dari geometri netral (juga disebut geometri absolut). Namun, sifat yang membedakan satu geometri dari yang lain adalah orang-orang yang secara historis menerima perhatian yang besar. Selain perilaku baris sehubungan dengan tegak lurus umum, disebutkan dalam pendahuluan, kami juga memiliki berikut ini:

Sebuah segiempat Lambert adalah segiempat yang memiliki tiga sudut kanan. Sudut keempat dari segiempat Lambert adalah akut jika geometri hiperbolik, sebuah sudut yang tepat jika geometri Euclidean adalah atau tumpul jika geometri adalah berbentuk bulat panjang. Akibatnya, empat persegi panjang hanya ada dalam geometri Euclidean. Sebuah segiempat Saccheri adalah segiempat yang memiliki dua sisi dengan panjang yang sama, baik tegak lurus ke samping disebut basis. Dua lainnya dari sudut segiempat Saccheri disebut sudut puncak dan mereka memiliki ukuran yang sama. Sudut puncak dari sebuah segiempat Saccheri yang akut jika geometri hiperbolik, sudut yang tepat jika geometri Euclidean adalah sudut tumpul dan jika geometri adalah berbentuk bulat panjang. Jumlah dari ukuran sudut segitiga apapun adalah kurang dari 180 jika geometri hiperbolik, sama dengan 180 jika geometri Euclidean, dan lebih besar dari 180 jika geometri adalah berbentuk bulat panjang. Cacat segitiga adalah nilai numerik (180 jumlah dari ukuran sudut segitiga). Hasil ini juga dapat dinyatakan sebagai: cacat segitiga dalam geometri hiperbolik adalah positif, cacat segitiga dalam geometri Euclidean adalah nol, dan cacat segitiga dalam geometri eliptik adalah negatif.

Pentingnya

Non-Euclidean geometri adalah contoh dari sebuah pergeseran paradigma dalam sejarah ilmu pengetahuan . Sebelum model pesawat non-Euclidean yang disajikan oleh Beltrami, Klein, dan Poincar, geometri Euclidean berdiri tertandingi sebagai model matematika dari ruang . Selain itu, karena substansi subjek dalam geometri sintetis adalah pameran kepala rasionalitas, titik Euclidean pandang diwakili otoritas mutlak. Non-Euclidean geometri, meskipun diasimilasi oleh peneliti dipelajari, terus menjadi tersangka bagi mereka yang tidak memiliki paparan konsep hiperbolis dan elips. Penemuan non-Euclidean geometri memiliki efek riak yang jauh melampaui batas-batas matematika dan ilmu pengetahuan. Filsuf Immanuel Kant pengobatan itu pengetahuan manusia memiliki peran khusus untuk geometri. Itu adalah contoh utama tentang sintetis pengetahuan apriori, tidak berasal dari indera atau disimpulkan melalui logika pengetahuan kita tentang ruang merupakan kebenaran bahwa kita dilahirkan dengan. Sayangnya bagi Kant, konsepnya ini geometri unalterably benar adalah Euclidean. Teologi juga dipengaruhi oleh perubahan dari kebenaran absolut untuk kebenaran relatif dalam matematika yang adalah hasil dari pergeseran paradigma. Keberadaan non-Euclidean geometri berdampak pada kehidupan intelektual dari Inggris Victoria dalam banyak hal dan khususnya adalah salah satu faktor yang menyebabkan yang menyebabkan pemeriksaan ulang pengajaran geometri berdasarkan Euclid s Elemen . Masalah kurikulum yang hangat diperdebatkan pada saat itu dan bahkan subyek dari bermain, Euclid dan Rivals modern, ditulis oleh penulis Alice in Wonderland .
http://existsbox.wordpress.com/filsafat/geometri-non-euclid/

Jumat, 18 Mei 2012

Review of History of Non-Euclidean Geometry
Geometri non-Euclidean adalah geometri yang berbeda dengan geometri Euclid. Setiap geometri non-Euclidean adalah sistem yang konsisten dari definisi, asumsi, dan buktibukti yang menggambarkan objek, seperti titik, garis dan bidang. Yang paling umum dalam geometri non-Euclidean adalah geometri eliptik dan geometri hiperbolik. Perbedaan penting antara geometri Euclid dan geometri non-Euclidean adalah sifat dari garis parallel. Munculnya geometri non-Euclidean diawali dengan adanya kecacatan pada postulat kelima yang dibuktikan oleh Euclid tanpa memberikan cara pembuktian. Matematikawan terkemuka Jerman, yaitu Gauss adalah orang pertama yang menemukan kesalahan postulat kelima Euclid tersebut. Janos Bolya dari Hongaria dan Nicolay Lobachevsky secara terpisah mampu membuktikan kecacatan postulat kelima Euclid dengan cara yang berbeda pula. Bolya menerbitkan penemuannya pada tahun 1832 dalam suatu lampiran. Lobachevsky juga menemukan secara terpisah geometri non-Euclidean, tetapi geometrinya berlaku untuk dimensi-dimensi yang lebih rendah. Pada abad ke-19, geometri non-Euclidean dikembangkan secara terpisah di Jerman. Ilmu ukur ini sangat bermanfaat pada abad ke-20 dan ke-21 yang digunakan untuk meneliti dimensi-dimensi atau ukuran-ukuran, seperti panjang, lebar, tinggi atau kedalaman. Georg Bernhard Riemann juga secara terpisah menemukan geometri non-Euclidean. Riemann sebelumnya mempelajari geometri jenis ini pada dosennya, Carl Friedrich Gauss. Geometri Riemann bisa diterapkan untuk menjelaskan "dimensi keempat" dari ruang dan dimensi-

dimensi yang "lebih tinggi" dari dimensi-dimensi lebih rendah apabila orang tersebut memakai geometri Lobachevsky. Geometri non-Euclidean tidak hanya dipakai di matematika, tetapi digunakan juga di fisika. Pada abad ke-20, geometri non-Euclidean dipakai fisikawan untuk menjelaskan alam semesta dan evolusinya. Ahli-ahli ilmu fisika teoritis abad ke-20 sering memakai geometri non-Euclidean untuk menjelaskan ruang hiper, disebut hyperspace dalam bahasa Inggris. Ruang hiper adalah ruang berdimensi lebih "tinggi" dari sekadar ruang tri-dimensional ruang berukuran panjang, lebar, tinggi atau kedalaman. Geometri non-Euclidean adalah matematika yang cocok untuk membahas ruang hiper. Geometri non-Euclidean berisi ciri-ciri ruang hiper. Penemuan geometri non-Euclidean juga memiliki dampak yang besar pada perkembangan matematika pada abad 19 dan 20. Selama lebih dari dua ribu tahun, Elemen menjabat sebagai Alkitab matematika, dasar dari metode aksiomatik dan sumber pengetahuan deduktif. Sebagai hasilnya, metode aksiomatik telah terpisah dari intuisi dan diformalkan, yang akhirnya menyebabkan perkembangan metamatika, Teori Model, Godel dan NonStandar Analisis Abraham Robinson. Teori Relativitas Einstein didasarkan pada gagasan bahwa benda-benda material mendistorsi ruang dan mendefinisikan kembali geometri. Adanya geometri non-Euclidean tidak berarti geometri klasik Yunani kuno itu diabaikan. Geometri Euclidean masih dipelajari karena kegunaannya yang khusus untuk memahami dan membentuk ruang-ruang di tempat yang datar. Jadi, apa relevansi geometri non-Euclidean temuan Nikolay Ivanovich Lobachevsky dengan geometri yang ditemukan Georg Bernhard Riemann? Lobachevsky adalah salah seorang penemu geometri non-Euclidean. Meskipun demikian, geometri temuannya dibatasi pada dimensi-dimensi yang lebih rendah. Dengan adanya penemuan kesalahan pada postulat V, membuat berkembangnya geometri model baru. Geometri model baru tersebut dirintis oleh Beltrami dari Italia, disusul Cayley dari Inggris, Poincare dari Perancis dan Felix Klein dari Jerman. Terakhir, geometri model baru tersebut diubah dan dilakukan penyesesuaian kecil terhadap postulat-postulat Euclid oleh Bernhard Riemann dari Jerman sehingga muncul bentuk-bentuk baru, seperti : hiperbola, parabola, dan ellips yang merupakan jawaban bahwa alam semesta bukanlah pengikut aliran Euclid (non-Euclidian). Pada tahun 1854, Riemann menunjukkan bahwa sifat tak terhingga dari suatu garis lurus disisihkan dan yang diterima hanyalah sifatnya yang tanpa batas. Maka dengan beberapa perubahan kecil dari postulat-postulat lainnya akan dapat dikembangkan geometri non-Euclidian lain yang konsisten
http://ntiberliiy.blogspot.com/2012/05/review-of-history-of-noneuclidean.html

Geometri Euclid dan Non Euclid Euclid and NonEuclid Geometry

07 Monday Nov 2011 Posted by lutfi4math in Uncategorized Leave a Comment

Geometri Euclid adalah pembelajaran geometri yang didasarkan pada definisi, teorema/aksioma (titik, garis dan bidang) dan asumsi-asumsi dari seorang matematikawan yunani (330 B.C) yakni Euclid. Buku Euclid yang berjudul Element adalah buku pertama yang membahas tentang geometri secara sistemetis. Banyak penemuan-penemuan Euclid telah didahului oleh matematikawan Yunani, tatapi penemuan itu tidak terstruktur dengan rapi seperti yang dilakukan Euclid. Euclid membuat pola deduktif secara komprehensif untuk membentuk geometri. Pendekatan dari Euclid terdiri dari pembuktian semua teorema dari aksiomaaksiomanya. Geometri Euclid mempelajari bidang datar. Kita dapat dengan mudah menggambarkannya dalam bidang datar. Kita bisa menggunakan buku atau kertas untuk mengetahui konsepkonsep dari geometri Euclid. Dalam bidang datar kita tahu bahwa: .

1. Jarak terpendek dari dua titik adalah sebuah garis (dari dua buah titik bisa tepat dibuat satu garis). 2. Jumlah sudut dalam segitiga adalah 180 derajat 3. Konsep dari jarak antar garis dapat diilustrasikan seperti pada gambar ini.

untuk melanjutkan anda bisa clik di sini (Moch. Lutfianto)

Euclidean Geometry (the high school geometry we all know and

love) is the study of geometry based on definitions, undefined terms (point, line and plane) and the assumptions of the mathematician Euclid (330 B.C.) Euclid's text Elements was the first systematic discussion of geometry. While many of Euclid's findings had been previously stated by earlier Greek

mathematicians, Euclid is credited with developing the first comprehensive deductive system. Euclid's approach to geometry consisted of proving all theorems from a finite number of postulates (axioms). Euclidean Geometry is the study of flat space. We can easily illustrate these geometrical concepts by drawing on a flat piece of paper or chalkboard. In flat space, we know such concepts as:

the shortest distance between two points is one unique straight line. the sum of the angles in any triangle equals 180 degrees.

the concept of perpendicular to a line can be illustrated as seen in the picture at the right.

In his text, Euclid stated his fifth postulate, the famous parallel postulate, in the following manner: If a straight line crossing two straight lines makes the interior angles on the same side less than two right angles, the two straight lines, if extended indefinitely, meet on that side on which are the angles less than the two right angles. Today, we know the parallel postulate as simply stating: Through a point not on a line, there is no more than one line parallel to the line. The concepts in Euclid's geometry remained unchallenged until the early 19th century. At that time, other forms of geometry started to emerge, called nonEuclidean geometries. It was no longer assumed that Euclid's geometry could be used to describe all physical space.

non-Euclidean geometries: are any forms of geometry that

contain a postulate (axiom) which is equivalent to the negation of the Euclidean parallel postulate.

Examples: 1. Riemannian Geometry

(also called elliptic geometry or spherical geometry): A non-Euclidean geometry using as its parallel postulate any statement equivalent to the following: If l is any line and P is any point not on l , then there are no lines through P that are parallel to l .
Riemannian Geometry is named for the German mathematician, Bernhard Riemann, who in 1889 rediscovered the work of Girolamo Saccheri (Italian) showing certain flaws in Euclidean Geometry.

Riemannian Geometry is the study of curved surfaces. Consider what would happen if instead of working on the Euclidean flat piece of paper, you work on a curved surface, such as a sphere. The study of Riemannian Geometry has a direct connection to our daily existence since we live on a curved surface called planet Earth. What effect does working on a sphere, or a curved space, have on what we think of as geometrical truths?

In curved space, the sum of the angles of any triangle is now always greater than 180. On a sphere, there are no straight lines. As soon as you start to draw a straight line, it curves on the sphere.

In curved space, the shortest distance between any two points (called a geodesic) is not unique. For example, there are many geodesics between the north and south poles of the Earth (lines of longitude) that are not parallel since they intersect at the poles. In curved space, the concept of perpendicular to a line can be illustrated as seen in the picture at the right.

2. Hyperbolic Geometry (also called saddle geometry or

Lobachevskian geometry): A non-Euclidean geometry using as its parallel postulate any statement equivalent to the following: If l is any line and P is any point not on l , then there exists at least two lines through P that are parallel to l .
Lobachevskian Geometry is named for the Russian mathematician, Nicholas Lobachevsky, who, like Riemann, furthered the studies of non-Euclidean Geometry.

Hyperbolic Geometry is the study of a saddle shaped space. Consider what would happen if instead of working on the Euclidean flat piece of paper, you work on a curved surface shaped like the outer surface of a saddle or a Pringle's potato chip. Unlike Riemannian Geometry, it is more difficult to see practical applications of Hyperbolic Geometry. Hyperbolic geometry does, however, have applications to certain areas of science such as the orbit prediction of objects within intense gradational fields, space travel and astronomy. Einstein stated that space is curved and his general theory of relativity uses hyperbolic geometry. What effect does working on a saddle shaped surface have on what we think of as geometrical truths?

In hyperbolic geometry, the sum of the angles of a triangle is less than 180.

In hyperbolic geometry, triangles with the same angles have the same areas. There are no similar triangles in hyperbolic geometry.

In hyperbolic space, the concept of perpendicular to a line can be illustrated as seen in the picture at the right. Lines can be drawn in hyperbolic space that are parallel (do not intersect). Actually, many lines can be drawn parallel to a given line through a given point.

Graphically speaking, the hyperbolic saddle shape is called a hyperbolic paraboloid, as seen at the right.

It has been said that some of the works of artist M. C. Escher illustrate hyperbolic geometry. In his work Circle Limit III (follow the link below), the effect of a hyperbolic space's negative curve on the sum of the angles in a triangle can be seen. Escher's print illustrates a model devised by French mathematician Henri Poincare for visualizing the theorems of hyperbolic geometry, the orthogonal circle. M. C. Escher web site: http://www.mcescher.com Choose Galleries: Recognition and Success 1955-1972: Circle Limit III
http://regentsprep.org/Regents/math/geometry/GG1/Euclidean.htm