Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Abstract
Do
you
remember
the
first
time
you
took
a
flight?
It
is
an
incredible
experience
and
for
sure
you
wanted
to
sit
next
to
the
window
to
see
all
that
what
was
happening
outside
the
aircraft.
Windows
are
an
essential
component
of
the
aircraft.
Without
them,
planes
will
be
very
closed
and
claustrophobics.
The
objective
of
this
project
is
to
understand
what
is
inside
aircrafts
windows.
For
that,
we
are
going
to
explain
what
materials
are
used
in
aircrafts
windows
and
windshields,
why
these
materials
are
used
and
which
are
their
properties.
We
also
will
see
how
the
maintenance
has
to
be
done
to
take
care
of
them
and
to
be
sure
that
them
keep
being
safe
and
gleaming.
Finally
we
are
going
see
how
windows
may
change
in
the
future
to
be
more
interactive
with
the
passenger.
Table
of
Contents
ABSTRACT
.......................................................................................................................................
2
INTRODUCTION
...............................................................................................................................
4
A
LITTLE
BIT
OF
HISTORY:
DE
HAVILLAND
COMET
LONG-RANGE
JETLINER
..........................................................
4
TRANSPARENT
MATERIALS
FOR
THE
WINDOW
...............................................................................
6
POLYMETHYL
METHACRYLATE
(PMMA)
......................................................................................................
6
Background
.....................................................................................................................................
6
The
Manufacturing
Process
............................................................................................................
7
Characteristics
................................................................................................................................
7
Kind
of
PMMA
allowed
to
be
used
in
windows
by
the
FAA
.............................................................
8
Uses
PMMA
.....................................................................................................................................
9
The
Future
.....................................................................................................................................
10
CHEMICALLY
STRENGTHENED
GLASS-HERCULITE
..........................................................................................
10
Manufacturing
process
.................................................................................................................
10
Characteristics
..............................................................................................................................
11
Uses
...............................................................................................................................................
13
POLYCARBONATE
...................................................................................................................................
14
Background
...................................................................................................................................
14
Manufacturing
process
.................................................................................................................
15
Characteristics
..............................................................................................................................
16
Uses
...............................................................................................................................................
17
POLYURETHANE
....................................................................................................................................
19
Background
...................................................................................................................................
19
The
Manufacturing
Process
..........................................................................................................
19
Characteristics
..............................................................................................................................
20
Uses
...............................................................................................................................................
21
The
Future
.....................................................................................................................................
23
OTHER
MATERIALS
........................................................................................................................
24
SEALANTS
............................................................................................................................................
24
COMPARISON
COMMERCIAL,
MILITARY
AND
REGIONAL
AIRCRAFTS
WINDOW
.............................
25
AIRCRAFT
WINDSHIELD
AND
WINDOW
CARE
AND
MAINTENANCE
...............................................
28
FUTURE ......................................................................................................................................... 31 ALTEOS INTERACTIVE WINDOW SYSTEMS, FOR PASSENGER CABIN WINDOWS .................................................. 31 CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................................................... 33 BILBIOGRAFIA ............................................................................................................................... 34
Introduction
In
this
Project
we
are
going
to
see
the
materials
windows
are
made
of.
More
in
particular
we
will
talk
about
Polymethyl
methacrylate
(PMMA),
the
Chemically
strengthened
glass-Herculite,
the
Polycarbonate
and
the
Polyurethane.
This
kind
of
material
are
used
for
the
main
glass
windows,
but
there
are
other
components
such
as
the
sealeants,
we
will
took
a
look
to
them
too.
The
materials
are
very
important
when
designing
the
windows,
but
we
want
them
to
last
as
long
as
posible,
thats
why
we
explian
also
how
to
properly
do
the
maintainance.
We
are
also
interested
to
know
how
the
windows
will
change
in
the
future.
Will
the
manufacturers
improve
the
materials
or
will
they
redifine
the
concept
of
the
window
for
the
passanger?
First
of
all,
we
will
introduce
the
importance
of
this
component
of
the
aircraft
by
explaining
how
the
fatigue
was
discovered
and
show
how
really
significant
the
windows
are.
certifications over three years. {1} In spite of having successfully completed the tests with no apparent difficulties, a Comet mysteriously crashed shortly after take-off on 2 May 1953, one year after the Comet received permission to begin commercial operations. Two similar crashes forced British authorities to ground the entire fleet pending investigation. Over the following months, extensive tests were performed on the aircraft to determine what could have caused these mysterious accidents. {1} The answer finally came after a fuselage had been submerged in a tank of water and repeatedly pressurized and depressurized to represent repeated flight cycles (see Illustration 2). After several thousand of these cycles, fatigue cracks were found to be spreading from the square edges of the windows in the passenger cabin. These cracks would eventually reach a critical size where they would grow rapidly resulting in a catastrophic depressurization that would destroy an aircraft in flight. {1} Thanks to the Havilland Comet, the fatigue effect was investigated in more detail, even though nowadays we cannot fully understand it. All the aircraft now are always designed with rounded-corner windows to correct the fatigue problem. {1}
Illustration 3 view from inside of failure at the forward escape hatch on the port side - Comet G-ALYU {4}
Background
The
first
plastic
polymer,
celluloid,
a
combination
of
cellulose
nitrate
and
camphor,
was
developed
in
1869.
It
was
based
on
the
natural
polymer
cellulose,
which
is
present
in
plants.
Celluloid
was
used
to
make
many
items
including
photographic
film,
combs,
and
men's
shirt
collars.{6}
In
1909,
Leo
Baekeland
developed
the
first
commercially
successful
synthetic
plastic
polymer
when
he
patented
phenol
formalde-hyde
resin,
which
he
named
Bakelite.
Bakelite
was
an
immediate
success.
It
could
be
machined
and
molded.
It
was
an
excellent
electrical
insulator
and
was
resistant
to
heat,
acids,
and
weather.
It
could
also
be
colored
and
dyed
for
use
in
decorative
objects.
Bakelite
plastic
was
used
in
radio,
telephone,
and
electrical
equipment,
as
well
as
counter
tops,
buttons,
and
knife
handles.{6}
Acrylic
acid
was
first
prepared
in
1843.
Methacrylic
acid,
which
is
a
derivative
of
acrylic
acid,
was
formulated
in
1865.
When
methacrylic
acid
is
reacted
with
methyl
alcohol,
it
results
in
an
ester
known
as
methyl
methacrylate.
The
polymerization
process
to
turn
methyl
methacrylate
into
polymethyl
methacrylate
was
discovered
by
the
German
chemists
Fittig
and
Paul
in
1877,
but
it
wasn't
until
1936
that
the
process
was
used
to
produce
sheets
of
acrylic
safety
glass
commercially.
During
World
War
II,
acrylic
glass
was
used
for
periscope
ports
on
submarines
and
for
windshields,
canopies,
and
gun
turrets
on
airplanes.
{6}
Characteristics
PMMA
is
a
strong
and
lightweight
material.
It
also
has
good
impact
strength,
higher
than
both
glass
and
polystyrene;
however,
PMMAs
impact
strength
is
still
significantly
lower
than
polycarbonate
and
some
engineered
polymers.
{5}
Physical
Properties
This
material
is
made
up
of
lightweight,
rigid
thermoplastic
material
that
has
many
times
the
breakage
resistance
of
standard
window
pane
glass.
It
is
highly
resistant
to
weather
conditions.
It
is
suitable
for
most
utilitarian
applications
and
is
ultraviolet
light
absorbing
up
to
approximately
360
nanometers.
PMMA
also
is more impact-resistant than glass. If subjected to impact beyond the limit of its resistance, it
does not shatter into small slivers but breaks into comparatively large pieces. {7] Focusing in terms of weight PMMA is less than half the weight of glass and 43% the weight of aluminum and it is not as rigid as glass or metals. However, it is more rigid than many other plastics such as acetates, polycarbonates, or vinyls. {7}
Although the tensile strength of Acrylic is 69 at room temperature, stress crazing can be caused by continuous loads below this value. For most applications, continuously imposed design loads should not exceed 10.4 MPa. Its surface is not as hard as that of glass.{7} PMMA can be used at temperatures from (-40C) up to 93C depending on the application. Also the clear, colorless PMMA has a light transmittance of 92%. {7}
Crazing Both basic forms of acrylics used in aircraft transparencies are affected by crazing. Crazing is a network of fine cracks that extend over the surface of the plastic sheet (it is not confined to acrylic materials) and are often difficult to discern. These fine cracks tend to be perpendicular to the surface, very narrow, and are usually less than 0.025 mm in depth. Crazing is induced by prolonged exposure to surface tensile stresses above a critical level or by exposure to organic fluids and vapours. [8} Chemical resistance of acrylic materials Typically, acrylic materials are resistant to inorganic chemicals and to some organic compounds, such as aliphatic (paraffin) hydrocarbons, hydrogenated aromatic compounds, fat and oils. Acrylic materials are attacked and weakened by some organic compounds such as aromatic hydrocarbons (benzene), esters (generally in the form of solvents, and some de-icing fluids), ketones (acetone), and chlorinated hydrocarbons. Some hydraulic fluids are very detrimental to acrylic materials.{8} Some detrimental compounds can induce crazing; others may dissolve the acrylic or be absorbed in the material. Crazing induced by solvent and other organic compounds has more severe effects on the mechanical properties than stress crazing. Dissolution of the acrylic and chemical absorption into the acrylic degrades the mechanical properties. {8}
letting it harden without applying external pressure. Although not as notch sensitive as glass, unstretched acrylics have a notch sensitivity. This unplasticised methyl-methacrylate base polymer has good forming characteristics, optical characteristics and outdoor weathering properties.{8} - Biaxially stretched acrylic material: Stretching acrylic material aligns the polymer chains to give a
laminar structure parallel to the axis of stretch, which enhances resistance to crazing, reduces crack
propagation rates, and improves tensile properties. Stretching acrylic material reduces the materials formability. In addition, stretched acrylics have less notch sensitivity than unstretched acrylics. {8}
Uses
PMMA
Aircrafts
related
uses
Historically,
PMMA
was
an
important
improvement
in
the
design
of
aircraft
windows,
making
possible
such
iconic
designs
as
the
bombardier's
transparent
nose
compartment
in
the
Boeing
B-17
Flying
Fortress
or
the
aircraft
windows.
{5}
Also
there
are
a
lot
of
aircrafts
canopies
and
windshields
of
little
regional
aircrafts
are
made
of
PMMA,
as
for
example
Robin
DR
400.
{9}
Illustration
5:
Robin
DR
400
{11}
Illustration
4:
Boeing
B-17G
nose
detail.
(U.S.
Air
Force
photo)
{10}
Curiosities related to aeronautic world PMMA has a good degree of compatibility with human tissue, and it is used in the manufacture of rigid intraocular lenses in the eye when the original lens has been removed in the treatment of cataracts. This compatibility was discovered in WWII RAF pilots, whose eyes had been riddled with PMMA splinters coming from the side windows of their Supermarine Spitfire fighters the plastic scarcely caused any rejection, compared to glass splinters coming from aircraft such as the Hawker Hurricane. {5}
Other common uses Industrial Uses: water tank liner, hand-held computer case, liquid chemical pump, conveyor rollers, soap dispensers hatch covers, bumper guards Automotive Industry: lenses of exterior lights, trunk release handles, master cylinder, dashboard lighting Consumer products: aquariums, motorcycle helmet lenses, paint, furniture, picture framing, umbrella clamps, cell phone antennas, bicycle air pumps {6}
The
Future
The
average
annual
increase
in
the
rate
of
consumption
of
acrylic
plastics
has
been
about
10%.
A
future
annual
growth
rate
of
about
5%
is
predicted.
Despite
the
fact
that
acrylic
plastics
are
one
of
the
oldest
plastic
materials
in
use
today,
they
still
hold
the
same
advantages
of
optical
clarity
and
resistance
to
the
outdoor
environment
that
make
them
the
material
of
choice
for
many
applications.
{6}
Manufacturing
process
The
glass
is
chemically
strengthened
by
a
surface
finishing
process.
The
glass
to
be
treated
is
dipped
into
a
bath
of
dissolved
potassium
salts
at
a
temperature
about
380C
for
duration
from
4
to
30
hours,
producing
an
ionic
exchange
between
the
superficial
sodium
ions
in
the
glass
and
potassium
ions
inside
the
bath.
The
cycle
time
would
be
greatly
reduced
if
the
glass
is
made
of
certain
elements
such
as
lithium
or
magnesium
because
ion
mobility
between
potassium
and
these
elements
is
a
lot
faster.
The
process
parameters
such
as
ion
exchanging
time
and
temperature
would
be
modified
according
to
the
type
of
glass
to
be
treated
and
the
required
strengthen
specification.
{12}
10
The introduction of potassium ions which are larger in size than the sodium ions results in the establishment of a system of residual stress characterized by compression stretches on the surface counterbalanced by traction stretches within the glass. {12} Sodium ions and thus, creates stress on glass surface. During cooling, the potassium on surface shrinks little while the sodium in inner shrinks larger. Hence, stress is induced between glass surface and inside and consequently, the glass is strengthened. {12} There also exists a more advanced two-stage process for making chemically strengthened glass, in which the glass article is first immersed in a sodium nitrate bath at 450 C, which enriches the surface with sodium ions. This leaves more sodium ions on the glass for the immersion in potassium nitrate to replace with potassium ions. In this way, the use of a sodium nitrate bath increases the potential for surface compression in the finished article. {12}
Ilustration
5:Manufacturing
Process
Chemically
Strengthened
Glass
{13}
Characteristics
Chemically
strengthened
glass
is
a
type
of
glass
that
has
increased
strength
as
a
result
of
a
post- production
chemical
process.
Chemical
strengthening
is
the
name
given
to
glass
products
that
have
been
strengthened
by
means
of
an
ion-exchange
process.
It
is
a
surface
treatment
which
occurs
at
a
11
temperature lower than glass melting temperature. The process is particularly useful for thin glass, tiny glass and shape glass which cannot be tempered by ordinary physical tempering. {12} Chemically strengthened glass is typically six to eight times the strength of float glass. In the case of breakage, chemically strengthened glass breaks into bigger pieces which are not as sharp as those of non-toughened glass. The surface compression condition which is higher in the case of a chemically strengthened glass also involves an increase of flexion resistance, which is one of the main characteristics of chemically strengthened glass. {12} Chemical strengthening results in a strengthening similar to toughened glass. Chemically strengthened glass has little or no bow or warp, optical distortion or strain pattern. This differs from toughened glass, in which slender pieces can be significantly bowed.{12} Chemically strengthened glass may be cut after strengthening, but loses its added strength within the region of approximately 20 mm of the cut. Similarly, when the surface of chemically strengthened glass is deeply scratched, this area loses its additional strength. Chemically strengthened glass retains its colour and light transmission properties after treatment. {12} Chemically strengthened glass offers an improved scratching, impact and bending strength, as well as an increased temperature stability {12} Properties Chemically strengthened glass is eight times stronger than comparable annealed glass. The surface compression of chemically strengthened glass may reach up to 690 MPa for a thickness of approx. 32 m. Chemically strengthened glass retains its colour and light transmission properties after treatment. Due to its manufacturing process, chemically strengthened glass has little or no bow or warp, optical distortion or strain pattern. Chemically strengthened glass breaks into sharp fragments like annealed glass. Chemically strengthened glass cannot be used alone as safety glass; it must be laminated. Chemically strengthened glass may be cut after tempering, but totally loses its added strength for about 1 254 mm on either side of the cut. These strips revert to annealed glass. It is preferable to cut and edge the glass before it is chemically strengthened. When the surface chemically strengthened glass is deeply scratched, this area loses its added strength. {14}
12
Uses
Aeronautic
uses
One
variety
of
a
chemically
strengthened
glass
very
important
in
the
aeronautic
world
is
Herculite
II.
This
strengthened
glass
is
the
main
material
of
most
of
the
windows
and
-windshields
of
most
Airbus
and
Boeing
aircrafts,
as
for
example
B-737,
747,
767,
777
787
or
A300,
A310,
A330,
A340,
or
all
the
series
of
the
A320.
{15}
Illustration
6:
Boeing
787
Windshields
structure
{16}
Illustration
7:
Airbus
A320
Series
windshields
structure{17}
{17}
13
Ilustration
8:
Airbus
320
Series
windows
structure
{17}
Other uses It can be used in numerous applications that demand toughness and optical clarity. The material is also useful for viewports, protective covers, and front surface optics in hostile environments whose elements may include high temperature, high pressure and vacuum conditions. Less demanding applications include point of sale scanner windows used in grocery store and retail scanners. {12}
Polycarbonate
Polycarbonate
plastic
is
a
lightweight,
high-performance
plastic
found
in
commonly
used
items
such
as
automobiles,
cell
phones,
computers
and
other
business
equipment,
sporting
goods,
consumer
electronics,
household
appliances,
CDs,
DVDs,
food
storage
containers
and
bottles.
The
tough,
durable,
shatter-
and
heat-resistant
material
is
ideal
for
a
myriad
of
applications
and
is
found
in
thousands
of
every
day
products.
{18}
Polycarbonate's
versatility
makes
it
excellent
for
creating
functional,
as
well
as
aesthetically
pleasing
products.
It
can
be
easily
moulded
and
dyed
in
hundreds
of
colours
-
for
products
from
car
mirror
housings
to
mobile
phone
coverings
to
microwaveable
containers,
and
can
also
be
perfectly
transparent,
making
it
ideal
for
use
in
eyeglasses.
{18}
Background
In
1953,
polycarbonate
was
discovered
by
Dr.
H.
Schnell
at
Bayer
AG,
Germany,
and
by
D.
W.
Fox
at
General
Electric
Company,
USA
working
independently.
In
the
late
1950s
polycarbonate
began
to
be
used
in
commercial
applications.
{18}
Polycarbonate
was
initially
used
for
electrical
and
electronic
applications
such
as
distributor
and
fuse
boxes,
displays
and
plug
connections
and
subsequently
for
glazing
for
greenhouses
and
public
buildings.
Soon
polycarbonates
outstanding
combination
of
beneficial
characteristics
made
it
the
material
of
choice
for
many
other
applications.
{18}
14
In 1982, the first audio-CD was introduced to the market, quickly replacing audio records. Within 10 years optical media technology included CD-ROMs, and within 15 years DVDs. All these optical data storage systems depend on polycarbonate. {18} Since the mid 1980s, 18 litre water bottles made of polycarbonate have increasingly replaced heavy and fragile glass bottles. These light-weight and shatter resistant bottles can now be found in many public buildings and offices. {18} Already used in the USA since the end of the 1980s, automotive headlamps made of polycarbonate became authorised in Europe in 1992. Today, only 10 years later, almost every new European car is equipped with polycarbonate headlamps.{18}
Manufacturing
process
Originally,
the
first
industrial
process
proposed
for
the
production
of
polycarbonate
was
via
melt
transesterification
between
diphenyl
carbonate
(DPC)
and
bisphenol
A
(BPA).
From
the
mid-1990s,
there
has
been
renewed
interest
in
this
production
method
and
a
significant
emergence
of
the
use
of
melt
technology.
{19}
First,
the
use
of
phosgene,
owing
to
its
extreme
toxicity,
requires
rigorous
process
design
standards
and
controls
as
well
as
specialized
training.
The
interfacial
process
produces
corrosive
byproducts
that
need
to
be
contained
in
particular
equipment
and
require
constant
maintenance.
Additionally,
the
typical
solvent
used
for
the
interfacial
system
is
methylene
chloride
which
also
has
strict
exposure
limits.
Disposal
of
the
corrosive
byproducts
of
the
interfacial
system,
the
chlorinated
solvent
and
the
other
waste
salt
solutions
formed
from
the
caustic
soda
are
serious
environmental
concerns.
Growing
worry
about
environmental
effects
of
the
interfacial
process,
its
byproducts
and
the
use
of
phosgene
have
pushed
the
commercialization
of
melt
techniques
(where
no
phosgene
or
chlorinated
solvents
are
required)
and
newer,
more
efficient,
catalysts
and
process
designs.
{19}
There
are
some
engineering
design
differences
and
individual
plant
specifications
but
the
general
chemistry
of
polycarbonate
production
via
melt
transesterification
remains
the
same.
Major
technology
differences
are
in
the
production
route
to
the
key
feedstock,
diphenyl
carbonate
(DPC).
{19}
Melt
transesterification
takes
place
in
two
stages.
In
the
first
stage,
DPC
and
BPA
are
combined
with
small
amounts
of
basic
catalysts
such
as
sodium,
lithium
or
tetraalkylammonium
hydroxides
or
15
carbonates in a melt reactor and the reaction shown below occurs, giving a pre-polymer and liberating phenol. This phenol is removed via distillation. By the end of all the reaction stages, the melt is so viscous that usually specialized equipment such as stirred tanks, helical reactors, screw extruders and wiped film evaporators must be used. As no solvent is used, the polycarbonate melt, when isolated from the phenol formed, is spun in the form of strands and granulated. {19} One of the key requirements for the transesterification process is the use of clean starting materials and most technologies incorporate specific techniques for rigorous purification of BPA and DPC. Initial incarnations of the melt process produced sub-par polycarbonate that was discolored due to extensive heat exposure and impure reactants. In recent years, improved catalyst systems, more reactive carbonates and more efficient processes (discussed further) have enabled polycarbonate equivalent to interfacial polycarbonate to be produced. {19}
Characteristics
Polycarbonate
derived
from
BPA
is
a
very
durable
material.
Although
it
has
high
impact-resistance.
The
characteristics
of
polycarbonate
are
quite
like
those
of
polymethyl
methacrylate
(PMMA,
acrylic),
but
polycarbonate
is
stronger,
usable
in
a
wider
temperature
range.
This
polymer
is
highly
transparent
to
visible
light
and
has
better
light
transmission
characteristics
than
many
kinds
of
glass.
Unlike
most
thermoplastics,
polycarbonate
can
undergo
large
plastic
deformations
without
cracking
or
breaking.
As
a
result,
it
can
be
processed
and
formed
at
room
temperature
using
sheet
metal
techniques,
such
as
forming
bends
on
a
brake.
Even
for
sharp
angle
bends
with
a
tight
radius,
no
heating
is
generally
necessary.
This
makes
it
valuable
in
prototyping
applications
where
transparent
or
electrically
non-conductive
parts
are
needed,
which
cannot
be
made
from
sheet
metal.
Low
water
absorption
high
heat
resistance,
thermal
stability
and
good
electrical
properties
and
very
high
impact
strength
are
among
the
many
desirable
properties
that
Polycarbonates
possess.{20}
Polycarbonate
exhibits
very
high
deflections
under
impact
conditions,
which
can
result
in
higher
loading
into
the
aircraft
structure,
compared
to
glass
or
acrylic
windshield
and
window
panels.
This
polymer
it
is
very
susceptible
to
degradation
by
the
environment
due
to
moisture
absorption
and
solvent
stress
cracking,
as
well
as
UV
degradation.
It
is
possible
to
prevent
degradation
by
using
good
design
and
production
practices
and
incorporating
coatings
and
other
forms
of
encapsulation.
It
also
suffers
from
phenomena
known
as
physical
aging.
This
results
in
change
from
ductile
properties
to
brittle
properties
16
that occur when polycarbonate is exposed to temperatures between 80C and 130C. This materials fatigue properties are similar to metals when working stresses are used for operating pressure loading design. {8}
Uses
Aeronautic
uses
The
cockpit
canopy
of
the
F-22
Raptor
jet
fighter
is
made
from
a
piece
of
high
optical
quality
polycarbonate,
and
is
the
largest
piece
of
its
type
formed
in
the
world.
{21}
[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/aircraft/f-22-cockpit.htm]
Illustration
9:
F-22
Raptor
Cockpit
{22}
Illustration
10:
Gulfstream
G100
windshield
structure
Other uses The characteristics explained above make polycarbonate suitable for many applications, including:
17
Automotive: Polycarbonate plastic moulded mirror housings, tail lights, turn signals, back-up lights, fog lights, and headlamps all contribute to a vehicles unique style. Packaging: Polycarbonate bottles, containers and tableware can withstand extreme stress during use and cleaning, including sterilisation. They can be used to serve, freeze and reheat food in the microwave making them time and energy savers. Shatterproof and virtually unbreakable, polycarbonate is a safer alternative to glass. Appliances & Consumer Goods: Polycarbonates moulding flexibility styling and colouring possibilities make it perfect for use in electric kettles, fridges, food mixers, electrical shavers and hairdryers, while fulfilling all safety requirements such as heat resistance and electrical insulation. Electrical & Electronics: Polycarbonates light weight and impact- and shatter-resistant qualities make it perfect for housing cell phones, computers, fax machines, and pagers while at the same time withstanding the bangs, scratches and accidental drops of everyday use. Also its very important that CDs and DVDs are made from Polycarbonate.
18
Polyurethane
Polyurethane
(PUR
and
PU)
is
a
polymer
composed
of
a
chain
of
organicunits
joined
by carbamate (urethane) links. While most polyurethanes are thermosetting polymers that do not melt when heated, thermoplastic polyurethanes are also available. {23} Polyurethane polymers are formed by reacting an isocyanate with a polyol. Both the isocyanates and polyols used to make polyurethanes contain on average two or more functional groups per molecule. {28} Background In the 1990s new two-component polyurethane and hybrid polyurethane-polyurea elastomers were used for spray-in-place load bed liners and military marine applications for the U.S. Navy. A one-part polyurethane is specified as high durability deck coatings under MIL-PRF-32171 for the US Navy. This technique for coating creates a durable, abrasion resistant composite with the metal substrate, and eliminates corrosion and brittleness associated with drop-in thermoplastic bed liners. {24} Rising costs of petrochemical feedstocks and an enhanced public desire for environmentally friendly green products raised interest in polyols derived from vegetable oils. One of the most vocal supporters of these polyurethanes made using natural oil polyols is the Ford Motor Company. {24} The Manufacturing Process While polyurethane polymers are used for a vast array of applications, their production method can be broken into three distinct phases. First, the bulk polymer product is made. Next, the polymer is exposed to various processing steps. Finally, the polymer is transformed into its final product and shipped. This production process can be illustrated by looking at the continuous production of polyurethane foams. {24} Polymer reactions At the start of polyurethane foam production, the reacting raw materials are held as liquids in large, stainless steel tanks. These tanks are equipped with agitators to keep the materials fluid. A metering device is attached to the tanks so that the appropriate amount of reactive material can be pumped out. A typical ratio of polyol to diisocyanate is 1:2. Since the ratio of the component materials produces polymers with varying characteristics, it is strictly controlled. {24}
19
The reacting materials are passed through a heat exchanger as they are pumped into pipes. The exchanger adjusts the temperature to the reactive level. Inside the pipes, the polymerization reaction occurs. By the time the polymerizing liquid gets to the end of the pipe, the polyurethane is already formed. On one end of the pipe is a dispensing head for the polymer. {24} Processing The dispensing head is hooked up to the processing line. For the production of rigid polyurethane foam insulation, a roll of baking paper is spooled at the start of the processing line. This paper is moved along a conveyor and brought under the dispensing head. {25} As the paper passes under, polyurethane is blown onto it. As the polymer is dispensed, it is mixed with carbon dioxide which causes it to expand. It continues to rise as it moves along the conveyor. (The sheet of polyurethane is known as a bun because it "rises" like dough.) {25} After the expansion reaction begins, a second top layer of paper is rolled on. Additionally, side papers may also be rolled into the process. Each layer of paper contains the polyurethane foam giving it shape. The rigid foam is passed through a series of panels that control the width and height of the foam bun. As they travel through this section of the production line, they are typically dried. {25} At the end of the production line, the foam insulation is cut with an automatic saw to the desired length. The foam bun is then conveyored to the final processing steps that include packaging, stacking, and shipping. {25}
Characteristics
Parts
made
of
polyurethane
will
often
outwear
other
materials
by
a
margin
of
5
to
50/one
when
severe
abrasion
is
a
factor.
It
has
been
proven
to
be
vastly
superior
to
rubber
plastics
and
metal
in
many
applications.
Polyurethane
has
excellent
resistance
to
oils,
solvents,
fats,
greases
and
gasoline.
Polyurethane
has
a
higher
load-bearing
capacity
than
any
conventional
rubber.
Because
of
this
characteristic,
it
is
an
ideal
material
for
load
wheels,
heavy
duty
couplings,
metal-forming
pads,
shock
pads,
expansion
joints
and
machine
mounts.
Tear-strength
ranges
between
500-100
Ibs./linear
inch,
which
is
far
superior
to
rubbers.
As
a
result,
urethane
is
often
used
as
drive
belts,
diaphragms,
roll
covers,
cutting
pads,
gaskets
and
chute
liners.
20
Polyurethane has outstanding resistance to oxygen, ozone, sunlight and general weather conditions. The hard urethanes are now being used as gears in products where engineers desire sound reduction. The soft urethanes are used to replace rubbers for improved sound/vibration dampening. Most formulations offer extremely high flex-life and can be expected to outlast other elastomer materials where this feature is an important requirement. Dust boots, bellows, diaphragms, belts, couplings and similar products are made from urethane for this reason. Polyurethane has excellent electrical insulating properties and is used successfully in many moulded wire and cable harness assemblies. Continuous use above 225F is not recommended nor is urethane recommended in hot water over 175F. At low temperatures, polyurethane will remain flexible down to -90F. A gradual stiffening will occur at 0F, but will not become pronounced until much lower temperatures are obtained. {25}
Uses
Aerospace:
polyurethane
is
used
as
a
material
in
the
production
of
commercial
and
military
aircrafts
transparencies.
Automotive:
Polyurethanes
are
used
throughout
cars.
In
addition
to
the
foam
that
makes
car
seats
comfortable,
bumpers,
interior
headline
ceiling
sections,
the
car
body,
spoilers,
doors
and
windows
all
use
polyurethanes.
Polyurethane
also
enables
manufacturers
to
provide
drivers
and
passengers
significantly
more
automobile
mileage
by
reducing
weight
and
increasing
fuel
economy,
comfort,
corrosion
resistance,
insulation
and
sound
absorption.
21
Building and Construction: Polyurethane helps conserve natural resources and helps preserve the environment by reducing energy usage. With its excellent strength-to-weight ratio, insulation properties, durability and versatility, polyurethane is frequently used in building and construction applications. Composite Wood: Polyurethanes play a major role in modern materials, such as composite wood. Polyurethane-based binders are used in composite wood products to permanently glue organic materials into oriented strand board, medium-density fiberboard, long-strand lumber, laminated- veneer lumber and even strawboard and particleboard. Furnishings: Polyurethane, mostly in the form of flexible foam, is one of the most popular materials used in home furnishings such as furniture, bedding and carpet underlay. As a cushioning material for upholstered furniture, flexible polyurethane foam works to make furniture more durable, comfortable and supportive. Marine: Polyurethane epoxy resins seal boat hulls from water, weather, corrosion and elements that increase drag, affect hydrodynamics and reduce durability. In addition, rigid polyurethane foam insulates boats from noise and temperature extremes, provides abrasion and tear resistance, and increases load-bearing capacity all while adding minimal weight. Thermoplastic polyurethane is also great for use in the maritime industry. It is elastic, durable and an easily processed substance, well suited for wire and cable coatings, engine tubing, drive belts, hydraulic hoses and seals and even ship molding. Packaging: Polyurethane packaging foam (PPF) can provide more cost-effective, form-fitting cushioning that uniquely and securely protecting items that need to stay safely in place during transit. PPF is widely used to safely protect and transport many items, such as electronic and medical diagnostic equipment, delicate glassware and large industrial parts. A versatile on-site solution for many packaging challenges, PPF can save time and be more cost-effective by providing a custom-fit container with each shipment. {27} 22
The Future The quality of polyurethanes has steadily improved since they were first developed. Research in a variety of areas should continue to help make superior materials. For example, scientists have found that by changing the starting prepolymers they can develop polyurethane fibers which have even better stretching characteristics. Other characteristics can be modified by incorporating different fillers, using better catalysts, and modifying the prepolymer ratios. In addition to the polymers themselves, the future will likely bring improvements in the production process resulting in faster, less expensive, and more environmentally friendly polyurethanes. A recent trend in polyurethane production is the replacement of toluene diisocyanates with less-volatile polymeric isocyanates. Also, manufacturers have tried to eliminate chlorinated fluorocarbon blowing agents which are often used in the production of polyurethane foams. {28}
23
Other
materials
Sealants
A
sealant
may
be
viscous
material
that
has
little
or
no
flow
characteristics
and
stay
where
they
are
applied
or
thin
and
runny
so
as
to
allow
it
to
penetrate
the
substrate
by
means
of
capillary
action.
Anaerobic
acrylic
sealants
generally
referred
to
as
impregnants
are
the
most
desirable
as
they
are
required
to
cure
in
the
absence
of
air,
unlike
surface
sealants
that
require
air
as
part
of
the
cure
mechanism
that
changes
state
to
become
solid,
once
applied,
and
is
used
to
prevent
the
penetration
of
air,
gas,
noise,
dust,
fire,
smoke
or
liquid
from
one
location
through
a
barrier
into
another.
Typically,
sealants
are
used
to
close
small
openings
that
are
difficult
to
shut
with
other
materials,
such
as
concrete,
drywall,
etc.
Desirable
properties
of
sealants
include
insolubility,
corrosion
resistance,
and
adhesion.
Uses
of
sealants
vary
widely
and
sealants
are
used
in
many
industries,
for
example,
construction,
automotive
and
aerospace
industries.
{29}
The
main
difference
between
adhesives
and
sealants
is
that
sealants
typically
have
lower
strength
and
higher
elongation
than
do
adhesives.
Since
the
main
objective
of
a
sealant
is
to
seal
assemblies
and
joints,
sealants
need
to
have
sufficient
adhesion
to
the
substrates
and
resistance
to
environmental
conditions
to
remain
bonded
over
the
required
life
of
the
assembly.
When
sealants
are
used
between
substrates
having
different
thermal
coefficients
of
expansion
or
differing
elongation
under
stress,
they
need
to
have
adequate
flexibility
and
elongation.
Sealants
generally
contain
inert
filler
material
and
are
usually
formulated
with
an
elastomer
to
give
the
required
flexibility
and
elongation.
They
usually
have
a
paste
consistency
to
allow
filling
of
gaps
between
substrates.
Low
shrinkage
after
application
is
often
required.
Many
adhesive
technologies
can
be
formulated
into
sealants.
{29}
A
sealant
that
is
used
in
the
aircraft
window
is
PR-1425
Class
B
Windshield
and
Canopy
Sealant
it
has
a
service
temperature
range
from
-54C
to
121C.
This
material
is
designed
for
a
fillet
sealing
of
properly
prepared
glass,
polycarbonate,
acrylic
and
other
aircraft
sealing
application.
This
sealant
exhibits
excellent
resistance
to
UV
and
weather
exposure.
PR-1425
class
B
is
a
two-part,
dichromate
cured
polysulfide
compound.
The
uncured
material
is
low
sag,
thyrotrophic
paste,
suitable
for
application
by
extrusion
gun
or
spatula.
This
sealant
has
excellent
adhesion
to
common
aircraft
substrates.
{30}
Another
sealant
used
is
PR-1829
Class
B
Rapid
Curing
Windshield
and
Canopy
Sealant,
it
has
a
service
temperature
range
from
-62C
to
216C.
This
material
is
designed
for
a
fillet
sealing
of
properly
prepared
glass,
polycarbonate,
acrylic
and
other
aircraft
sealing
application.
PR-1829
Class
B
is
a
two- part,
epoxy
cured
Permapol
P-3
polythioether
compound.
The
uncured
material
is
a
low
sag,
thixotropic
24
paste, suitable for application by extrusion gun or spatula. Unlike standard polysulfide windshield sealants, it can cure at low temperatures and unaffected by changes in relative humidity. This sealant has excellent adhesion to commn aircraft substrates. {31}
25
In the case of military aircrafts the example took is the Lockheed Martin F-16. The canopy transparencies of F-16 are composed of 2 main ply coats and an interlayer, that are protected in inbound and outbound with protective coat and metal coat respectively. The main plies of the F-16 can be made by Herculite II chemically strengthened glass that provides superior strength and durability, special-composition glass that incorporates enhanced optical properties such as high light transmittance, acrylic that is strong and lightweight, and polycarbonate that has superior impact resistance and a high strength-to-weight ratio. {33}
In the Regional Aircraft case the example choosed was Bombardier Aerospace
CRJ100/CRJ200/CRJ700/CRJ900/CRJ1000 that uses a main windshield structure similar at commercial aircfrats one. Herculite II Chemically Strengthened Glass Structural Plies is used as a main glass material, it has high strength-to-weight ratio and Chemical and abrasion resistance as it was introduced before. But in this case 3 coats of Herculite II are used, the third one was used for outbound glass. Between each Herculite II coat it can be found a Vinyl interlayer and in the boundary with vinyl interlayer and outbound coat it can be found another coat. That coat is PPG 112 Urethane that is applied as another interlayer. {34}
26
Depending of the function of the aircraft that is window made for, it will have a different structure. Three different aircraft function structure has been briefly explained and looked the difference between three ones. The regional and commercial have a very different function than militaries so the materials and structure are similar, taking in account that commercial aircrafts flight higher and at more speed. Military aircraft have a different structure and materials because the function is to resist attacks for example, and they have to be prepared.
27
28
First, it's best to understand what types of products are available. They can be loosely grouped into three categories: 1. Non-abrasive liquid sprays, in pumps or aerosols, that may or may not have scratch filling properties. 2. Non-abrasive creams that have scratch filling properties. 3. Mildly-abrasive creams that have scratch removing properties. Since windows do accumulate minute scratches as part of everyday life (the kind you can't feel with a fingernail but can really see when flying into the sun), the products that fill fine scratches are great for regular use. If scratches still appear when flying toward the sun, the abrasive variety and some elbow grease are called for. This type of cleaner should be used occasionally only as needed. Most manufacturers of abrasive cleaners recommend following up with a scratch filling product as a second step. So what happens when you have scratches that you can't take care of with the above methods and perhaps you can feel with a fingernail? You have to get more aggressive. The danger, though, is in getting too aggressive. Practically speaking, the only way to remove a scratch from clear acrylic is to remove material from around the scratch down to the greatest depth of the scratch, then polishing the window back to clarity. There are two problems with this process. First, polishing back to clarity can be a difficult process especially if you started with a coarser than necessary abrasive. Second, it is very easy to induce an annoying and possibly dangerous optical distortion if you have not worked evenly in a large enough area. Another consideration, especially on light aircraft, is the feasibility of trying to repair some windows. The windshield on the Cessna 150, for instance, is .125 (or 1/8") thick, and some Piper Cherokee rear windows are only .080 (or 5/64") thick. So when you start to remove material, you have to be aware of what you will have left structurally. Keep in mind that most repairable windows, such as those found on pressurized air liners, have published specifications for minimum allowable thickness. Most light aircraft have no such specification. Sometimes, labor spent on a repair attempt would probably be better spent installing a new window. Another word of caution. If you are working on a homebuilt with polycarbonate, or "Lexan," windows, there is no good way to remove scratches. Polycarbonate is so soft that any attempt to remove material
29
by abrasion will do more harm that good. There are hard coated varieties of polycarbonate that are less scratchable, but trying to repair a scratch in these will only remove the hard coating. Your only option will be to fill minor scratches with a scratch-filling polish or replace the window. OTHER CARE PROBLEMS Occasionally, there are reports of canopy covers and sun shields that do damage in ways that are surprising. Canopy covers, the ones that cover the outside of the windshield and windows, certainly have to be made of a soft material on the side that contacts the windows, but they must also be cinched down tight to prevent fluttering in the wind. Keep in mind that minute abrasive particles between the canopy cover and the windows are practically impossible to eliminate, and any movement of the cover grinds away at the windows. Sun shields, the reflective curtains applied to the inside of the windshield and windows, sometimes have sharp metallic edges (especially the home made variety) that can scratch severely enough to warrant window replacement in short order. Trying to remove scratches from the inside of a sharply sloping windshield can be especially trying. But both canopy covers and sun shields can cause damage of a chemical nature also. Some plastics, especially vinyls, can release plasticizers that will attack acrylics. A common example of this type of reaction is a fresh photocopy placed inside a vinyl notebook with the ink touching the vinyl. Soon you have everything sticking together. On an aircraft, if you have a volatile plastic in close proximity to your windows and add the heat of the sun, you may soon have severely crazed and damaged windows. Certainly not all canopy covers and sun shields cause this problem, but it is a good question to ask at purchase time. Just be sure you are not sacrificing your windshield and windows at the same time you are protecting the avionics and interior. But for all that can go wrong and shorten the life of aircraft windshields and windows, many flying today are well over 20 years old. If properly installed and maintained, longevity can, and regularly is, attained. It is needed to understand the material and the processes, and the rest is easy. {35}
30
Future
ALTEOS
Interactive
window
systems,
for
passenger
cabin
windows
Designed
to
replace
conventional
plastic
pull-down
shades,
Alteos
interactive
window
systems
afford
operating
efficiencies
while
putting
passengers
in
control
of
their
environment.
The
worlds
first
electrochromic
window
shades
for
commercial
aircraft
passenger
cabins,
these
advanced
systems
switch
from
a
bright
clear
state
to
a
totally
dark
state
or
a
comfortable
intermediate
level
all
at
the
touch
of
a
button.
Passengers
can
enjoy
expansive
views
from
their
seats
without
annoying
glare
for
a
feeling
of
openness
in
the
cabin.
Or
they
can
darken
the
window
system
at
their
seat
to
keep
light
out.
Alteos
interactive
window
systems
are
self-contained
with
no
moving
parts
and
lightweight,
making
them
easy
to
maintain.
An
electronically
dimmable
panel
is
installed
between
the
inboard
dust
cover
and
outboard
structural
cabin
window
system.
A
window-seat
control
allows
the
passenger
to
activate
the
system
and
change
the
amount
of
visible
light
transmitted
to
maximize
it,
minimize
it
or
select
an
intermediate
setting.
Passengers
see
only
a
stylish
window
and
control
button.
With
Alteos
interactive
window
systems,
keeping
the
cabin
comfortable
is
easy.
Ultraviolet
and
infrared
radiation
transmission
are
reduced,
lowering
the
heat
load
inside
the
cabin
and
enhancing
the
operating
efficiency
of
the
aircrafts
heating,
ventilating
and
air
conditioning
system.
If
desired,
the
interactive
devices
can
be
linked
via
the
onboard
network
to
allow
for
flight
crew
override
and
continuous
monitoring
of
system
performance.
Should
a
power
loss
occur,
the
window
systems
default
to
a
clear
state
to
maintain
maximum
light
transmittance,
ensuring
compliance
with
aviation
standards.
Benefits
of
Alteos
Interactive
Window
System
Time-tested
chemistry
and
durable
device
construction
designed
to
perform
more
than
70,000
darken/bleach
cycles
Low-voltage
DC
operation
Color
neutral
throughout
transmission
range
High
vision
clarity
at
all
light
transmittance
levels
Operation
across
typical
flight
temperature
ranges
Widest
available
light
transmission
range
through
an
electrochromic
panel
31
Default to clear state on loss of power Complete ultraviolet blocking Electrochomic Technology
Electrochromic technology uses electricity to change the color of and light transmission through a transparent medium (very thin films, gels, etc.) that is typically sandwiched between two thin glass plies. The electric current passes across transparent conductive coatings on the inner-facing surfaces of the glass, causing a chemical reaction to occur in the electrochromic medium. This chemical reaction causes the electrochromic medium to change opacity. The Gentex electrochromic technology utilizes gel as the electrochromic medium. Applying a small electrical voltage across the gel causes it to darken, while removing the voltage allows the gel to return to its natural transparent state. The voltage can be precisely controlled and adjusted in small increments to allow intermediate states of light transmittance to be selected. {36} ComparativaPMMA is an economical alternative to polycarbonate (PC) when extreme strength is not necessary. Additionally, PMMA does not contain the potentially harmful bisphenol-A subunits found in polycarbonate. It is often preferred because of its moderate properties, easy handling and processing, and low cost.
32
Conclusions
In
this
project
we
have
learned
about:
The
importance
on
the
aircrafts
windows.
Them
have
to
be
there
for
aloud
pilots
and
passengers
to
see
through
them.
How
it
can
affect
the
shape
that
the
windows
have.
It
is
important
that
them
have
rounded
shapes
to
avoid
fatigue
problems.
Which
are
the
main
materials
used.
The
more
used
material
in
aviation
windows
is
Herculite,
manufactured
by
the
PPG
Company
and
it
is
a
Chemical
strengthened
glass
that
aloud
to
do
the
glass
more
thin
for
the
same
pressure
difference.
How
to
properly
take
care
of
the
windows
to
avoid
cracks
and
to
how
to
treat
them.
The
future
of
the
windows
that
will
probably
be
replaced
by
a
display
that
aloud
the
passenger
to
moderate
the
brightness.
33
Bilbiografia
{1} http://www.aerospaceweb.org/aircraft/jetliner/comet/
{2} David
Cardinal,
May
25,
2012
at
10:00
am.
Tech
wrecks:
Lessons
from
some
of
the
biggest
hardware
screw-ups.
[http://www.extremetech.com/wpcontent/uploads/2012/05/de-Havilland- Comet-1-showing-square-windows.jpg]
{3} http://www.oocities.org/capecanaveral/lab/8803/p5cyp06.jpg
{4} http://www.oocities.org/capecanaveral/lab/8803/p5cyp07.jpg
Autor(Apellidos,
Nombre).
"Ttulo
del
recurso",[tipo
de
recurso].
Fecha
de
creacin,
fecha
de
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[fecha
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la
cita].
Direccin
de
la
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{5}
PMMA-Wikipedia.
[Online].
[2013].
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poly%28methyl_methacrylate%29
{6}
Evelyn S. Dorman /Chris Cavette. How products are made. Acrylic [Online] [2002] http://www.madehow.com/Volume-2/Acrylic-Plastic.html
{7}
Physical
Properties
of
Acrylic
Sheets,
[PDF]
http://www.builditsolar.com/References/Glazing/physicalpropertiesAcrylic.pdf
{8}
L.Lipski
Advisory
Circular:
Windows
and
Windshields.
FAA
[PDF].
[2003].
http://rgl.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgAdvisoryCircular.nsf/list/AC%2025.775- 1/$FILE/AC25-775-1.pdf {9} Josef Weiss. Canopies Side Transparencies &Co.[Online]. [2013].
http://www.plexiweiss.de/en/aircraft-glazing-corporate/canopies-and-transparencies.php {10} U.S. Air Force Boeing B-17 nose detail. [Photo]. [1944]. http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/shared/media/photodb/photos/060518-F-1234S-002.jpg {11} Karsten Palt. Robin DR 400. [Photo]. [2013]. http://www.flugzeuginfo.net/acdata_php/acdata_robindr400_en.php {12} Glazzete Co. Chemically Strengthened Glass [Online]
34
http://www.glazette.com/Glass-Knowledge-Bank-87/Chemically-Strengthened-Glass.html {13} Prel Co. Chemically Strengthened Glass manufacturing process [Photo] [2004]. http://www.prelco.ca/en/?p=prod_prelgard-tc {14} Prel Co. Chemically Strengthened [Online] [2004]. http://www.prelco.ca/en/?p=prod_prelgard-tc {15} PPG Co. Aerospace Transparencies [Online ] [2013]. http://www.ppg.com/coatings/aerospace/transparencies/Pages/default.aspx {16} PPG Co. Boeing 787 Transparencies [Online ] [2013]. http://www.ppg.com/coatings/aerospace/transparencies1/B787_tb_v9.pdf {17} PPG Co. Airubs A320 series Transparencies [Online ] [2013]. http://www.ppg.com/coatings/aerospace/transparencies/Documents/Airbus_A318_319_320_321_final .pdf {18} Plastics Europe What is polycarbonate?[Online] http://www.plasticseurope.org/what-is-plastic/types-of-plastics/polycarbonate/what-is- polycarbonate.aspx {19} Nexant Inc.PERP Program Polycarbonate. [Online] [2013]. http://www.chemsystems.com/about/cs/news/items/PERP0910_7_Polycarbonate.cfm {20} Laird Plastics Co. Polycarbonate. [Online] [http://www.lairdplastics.com/product/materials/polycarbonate. {21} Global Security. F-22 Raptor Cockpit. [Online] http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/aircraft/f-22-cockpit.htm {22} U.S. Air Force photo by Lisa Carroll Maj. Michael Hoepfner completes his checkout flight in Raptor No. 18 recently as the first local F/A-22 fighter pilot to finish his training here. [2008] [Photo] http://www.af.mil/shared/media/photodb/photos/040114-F-0000S-001.jpg
35
{23} {PPG Co. Gulstream G100 Transparencies PPG [Online ] [2013]. http://www.ppg.com/coatings/aerospace/transparencies1/IAI-Astra-GulfstreamG100.pdf
{24} http://www.wisegeek.org/what-is-polyurethane.html
{25}
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyurethane
{26}
http://www.sdplastics.com/polyuret.html
{27}
http://www.ppg.com/coatings/aerospace/ballistics/Documents/Polyurethanes_Specialty_Product.pdf
{28}
http://polyurethane.americanchemistry.com/Introduction-to-Polyurethanes/Applications
{29}
http://www.madehow.com/Volume-6/Polyurethane.html
{30}
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sealant
{31}
http://www.ppg.com/coatings/aerospace/sealants1/pr_1425_class_b.pdf
{32} http://www.ppg.com/coatings/aerospace/sealants1/pr_1829.pdf
{33}
http://www.ppg.com/coatings/aerospace/transparencies/Documents/Airbus_A318_319_320_321_final .pdf
{34}
http://www.ppg.com/coatings/aerospace/transparencies1/F-16_tb.pdf
{35}
http://www.ppg.com/coatings/aerospace/transparencies1/CRJ100_tb_final.pdf
{46}
http://www.lpaero.com/CAREINS.html
{37}
http://www.ppg.com/coatings/aerospace/transparencies1/alteos_comm_tb_09.pdf
OTHER
REFERENCES
Ashby,
Michael
F.
(2005).
Materials
Selection
in
Mechanical
Design
(3rd
ed.).
Elsevier.
ISBN
0-7506- 6168-2.
^
"Acrylic
Plastic:
How
Products
are
Made".
080515
enotes.com
36
Myer Ezrin Plastics failure guide: cause and prevention, Hanser Verlag, 1996 ISBN 1-56990184-8, p. 168 ^ Chiemi Ishiyama, Yoshito Yamamoto and Yakichi Higo (2005). "Effects of Humidity History on the Tensile Deformation Behaviour in Poly(methyl-methacrylate) (PMMA) Films". MRS Proceedings 875: O12.7. ^ "Tangram Technology Ltd. Polymer Data File PMMA"
Robert
A.
Meyers,
"Molecular
biology
and
biotechnology:
a
comprehensive
desk
reference",
Wiley-VCH,
1995,
p.
722
ISBN
1-56081-925-1
http://www.blackwellplastics.com/PMMA.html
http://www.glazette.com/Glass-Knowledge-Bank-87/Chemically-Strengthened-Glass.html
http://www.prelco.ca/en/?p=prod_prelgard-tc
37