l fi 39

THE EVOLUTION OF
THE BUDDHA IMAGE
BENJAMTN ROWLAND JR

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THE ASIA SOCIETY. INC.
DISTRIBUTED BY HARRY N. ABRAMS. INC.
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TilE l VOI U 110'-J Or IIIE BL.. DD I IA I1\I 1\Gl "u cautlvguc of an exhibition
,elected b) l'rore.sor !lenjamin Ro" land. Jr and ' hown in the O.tllcries of Asia
Hou>c '" nn acttvtt) of the A<iil to further grc;uer umlen.tnnding and
mutu<tl apprecinuon bet\\ccn the Lnitcll SUite' und the people, <>f A<iu.
\ n '"" llou>e Gall<l') Publicution all nghb rc.,.,ned.
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PREFACE
If 'r llrt (ortu11ott m hoi11g ohlllmtd tilt ltamrd serriru of Pro(tssor 8rnjamil1 Ro11/and
attht Wil/iam Hayu Fogg An \lustum ofllanard Lnitrsity i11 asstmbling tlu.r <'X-
hibitioll N01 Olll) has Professor Ro .. Jand hrillen tht complttt t<'W of this catnlollut.
11'/iir/1 ujfers liS o wliq11t ami s urrey cl) the theme, hut he has <1/so
illustrations to his tt.w a'i a_s the uork.f of art that pcrmu us to trme
of the Buddha through n serirs of da<umtiiiS. Tlte catalogue. as a hook.
and tM ,.,,hibition Itself hart bu11 designtd h) Richard Cleefand of tilt' Asia lloi.S<'
Gttlfery. .
IVt ll'ish to express our 11'/trllltst.grar/tm/e tu all of the lt11ders. hoth .fmtric'a/1 ami
"ho ptrmltied i1.1to borroh Jhtlr 011 this OC't'OSion Somt fl{
lenders hart o/ttll lte/ptJ/. .u/(1 Hotut in tills f{rnerous forltion and others 11011 rt'spo11d
w our first requests for loans. Among tM /mter ""particularly ish to tltr Or/en
ral \fuuw11 111 Rome, i7ii 'baitokuji 11useums.
Withom tltt kmd {Wtmissioll o{tht Japanese CommLuio11 for tltt Protution o{ Cu/-
11/ra/ Proptrties amltlrl> eu rt-ody assisto11rt of.\lr. ltro E11Ja}i. \ftlllogmg Director oj
tlrt Nfltoll Kei:m Sltimb1111 ( Jopo11 Eco11omi< Jotu11ol) . tire spec ill/ /QliiiS from Jopa11
multl110t hme ht>e11 ftussib/e. /11 tlrls COIIIIertloll ,..,. deep( CtJJprecilllt' the ltelp gi''''" 11s
in Japo11 b)' \fr. Jolm Rosell}itld, Research Ft-IIOh of llofl'nrd ('llhwslt)' OIIti
Pro(nsor Ro11/and's m Tokyo,
'
As a cull image and an anistic ideal the Bud-
dha image is for the entire Eastern world the
equivalent of the rcrresentation of Christ, first
invented in early Christian times and brought to
perfection b) the great master;, of the medie,al
period and the Renaissance. This single iconic
fo m. which may be understood to include por-
trayals of the mortal Buddha. Sakyamuni or
Gautama. as well as the di,ine Buddhas of the
Mahayana pantheon, presents o concentrated
focal point for the ;tudy of the development of
a single ae;,thetic ideal in rehgious an. The
changes that the type underwent O\Cr a penod of
many centuries illustrate throughout this long
history the de,elopment of religious and nation-
al ideals in all the realms of the Orient. In this
one invention of religious anists we can see un-
fold the whole history of Eastern an.
According to a legend reported in many
different sources. the very lim image of Buddha
was a sandalwood statue carved in the Master's
lifetime for King Udayana of Kau.sambi. The
story relates that .. When Tathagata lirst arrived
at complete Enlightenment. he ascended into
Heaven to preach the Law for the benefit of his
mother. and for three months remained absent.
King Udaynna. thinling of him \\ith affection.
desired to have an image of hi s person: there-
fore, he asked Mudgal)'ayanaputra by a spiri-
INTRODUCTION
tual po\\er to transpon an artist to the heavenly
mansion> to obsel'\e the e\ccllem marks of the
Buddha's body and cnrve a sandalwood >tatue.
When Tnthagata returned from the heavenly
palace. the cal'\ed figure of .andah' ood arose
and saluted the Lord of the World. The Lord
then graciously addressed it and said. 'The work
expected from you is to toil in the con,er;.ion of
unbelie,ers and 10 lead in the wa} of religion
future age.: One could hnvc no more eloquent
statement of the missionary function that was to
be performed by the tronslntion of the Buddha
image to the entire Asian \\Orld. HsUnn-tsang,
the famous Chinese pilgrim of the seventh
century. referring 10 the Udnyana Buddha. re-
lates that peoples of m3lly regions \\orshipped
copies of it and they pretend that the likeness is
a true original one and this is the original of all
such figures." We shall encounter reflections of
this famous sandal\' ood statue in many exam-
ples of Chinese and Japanese art. Probably the
Udayana legend is a pious fabrication which at
some ume before Hsiinn-tsang's 'i;,it was
nnached to the firM images of Buddha carved in
Gandhara as early as the first century A.D. The
legend of the Uda)ana statue b embroidered in
certain Tibetan te\t;, b) the additional informa-
tion that the Buddha. in order to facilitate 1he
task of the artist who wa> blinded by the
6
Tathng:un's effulgent brilliance. obligingly ca,t
hi' rctlection upon the surface of a pool. The
fact that the likeness was taken from a reflection
on \\3ter. these accounts .:I). e\plains the
"riprling" drapery in >tntue> of the so-<:alled
Uda)ana t} pe. lt is perhaps not too much to
;uppo>c that this pan of the story was in,ented
con.iderably later to explain the ripples of the
clnssicul garments of thc>e fir>t icons of
Snkyamuni.
lt is plain that, the beautiful Udnyana myth
notwith>tnnding. the fir>t representations of
Sakyamuni in human form \\Cre only crented
cent uric> after his death" hen a special need was
felt for ;.uch anthropomorphic reproentations
of the Teacher. In early Buddhism. "hich \\35 a
wa> of life or a philosophical system based on
the doctrine of the founder. there was no need
for representations of the Ma>ter. lt was be-
lieved that the Buddha "who h:ts gone beyond
the fetters of th<! body cannot be endowed by
art "ith the likeness of a body" or. as "e may
read in the Digha-nikaya. "On the dissolution of
the body bc)ond the end of his life neither gods
nor men shall knO\\ him ... The monal Teacher
had pa;.scd with his irvana mto a realm of
m'isibilit). and in early Buddhi>t art his pres-
ence m narratives of his earthly career was sym-
bolit.ed by such emblems ns the empty throne
for the Enlightenment. the wheel for the First
Preaching. and the stupn or relic mound for his
'irvana (Figure /). In the Kalingahodhi Jaraka
the Buddha states that he c:1n be properly shown
a bodhi tree.
With the passing of the centurie5 Buddhism
wa; tmn;formed from a r:uher hmited and
selfish religious system. in \\hich the way to
salvation was open only to those who could
renounce the world for n monastic existence. to
n religiou alTering the promise of salvation to all
men who foUowed the eight-fold path. Gradu-
ally the demand arose for the reassurances and
comfort of devotion to the per>On and founder
him>elf rather than his doctrine. The cult of
relics fo>tered by the Emperor Asoka in the
third century B. C. is an early of this
gro" 1ng "orship of the Buddha himself. Puja or
prayer to Sakyamuni himself replaces yajna or
the contemplation and practice of his message.
This process of change was abetted by the
gro\\ th of the blwkri cult, which means essen-
tiall) the passionate love of the devotee (bhakra)
for a particulnr di,inity. This was a de,elop-
ment from a S)Stem of thought to a popular
religion. Sahation became possible through the
devotion of the worshipper to his god as a reac-
tion against the tedious intellectualism of the
Upunislwds or the hard road to salvation offered
by the early Buddhist creed. The development
was affected. too, by the cult of the Hindu god
Kri>hna who said. "None who is devoted to me
is lo>t." Blwk1i. "the less troublesome way,''
itself to the manifestation of the deity
that 1s most accessible and most at hand.
Blwlw 1mplies the of the Buddha,
ju>t n; this auachment to a personal god implies
the deification of the Buddha, and idolatry. 1t is
also probable that the steps leading to the first
Buddha image included the influence of the
anthropomorphic tradition of the Hellenic
world "hich since the conque>t of Alexander
had been in close contact with India.
The worship of divinities in anthropomorphic
form had existed in the cult or nature spirits as
early a> the Indus Valley period. Such divinities
as .l'llkshis and a proto-Siva nrc commonly found
on the Indus Valley seals. In the Maurya period
the )'llk.1his arc portrayed ns superhuman titans,
FIG. 2. COIN Of KANISHKA.
MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS, BOSTON
FIG. 1. REliC MOUND SYMBOLIZING THE NIRVANA
FREER GALlERY OF ART.
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8
and the rcprnenl(!lion of these and other old
Ora' 1dian >Pirit> .uch as the naga;, common in
;ome of the great monuments of the early
Cla>>ic period. in which the Buddha is portrayed
onl) in aniconie form.
In the beginning. at least. the image
in India was only ;I ;ubstitute for the prototype.
lh function may be explained by the 1\0rd> of
the Hermeneia of Athos regarding Christian
ICOn<: .. All honor that 1\C pay the image 1\C refer
to the pe: namely him who$e image it
b. Ami iu no wise honor we the col or or th: nrt.
but the archetype in Christ who i; in Heaven."
A> in the history of all rehgJOns it wa> only later
that a fetishi>tic 1\0r>hip came to be pa1d to the
icon;; rather than their pro tot} pc>.
The amhropomorph1c representation of the
Buddha almost certnmly went hand 1n hand
"1th n change in the religion frnmthe ll inn).ln:l
to the Mahayana doctrine. In .uch sutra> as the
Mahtll'fiS/11 and the Saddltarma Pwularika.
1\hlch must date from the Kushan period of the
firM and SCC011J centorics A.D .. the Buddh:t is
nhetd) described a> a superhuman per.onage.
no longer a mortal teacher. but a god
and eternal as Orohmn himself.
' In Hinayan:1 Buddhism. salvation was po>
''ble through the ex unction ofauachm.:nttl.l the
b) p1acticmg the and meditation
prncribed b) Sakyamuni. The repre>entallons
of in Hinayana Buddhi>m 1\Cre not
neccs;;.u ily portro)nh of Gautama "'a dh mit)
but reminders of the Mus1er"s earthly tcuching
exemplified in his image. At the same time. they
offered the of devotion to his person.
Cenamly it "a;, hoped that . .omcho" from
be)ond the gate;, of 1nana. the departed
tcncheJ might anwer pr-.1yers and be\10" boons
a> LorJ Krishna re\\arded devotee>. Such na
atlltudc of de,otion to Sakyamum inevitably led
to hb .:onception as a god. stemming as it d1d
from the ancient Indian nttac.hment to personal
divin111e;,.
In Muhnyana Sakyamum the
mortul teacher is regarded ns the earthly ex
pr.:s;ion or appearance of a might) spiritual
bcmg. One of the fundamental tenet> of the
Great Vehicle is the concept of the Three
or Tril.mu: the Dlwmwkm11 the Buddhist
logo.,. an in>isible force permeating the uni,er>e
as the spiritual essence of' the ultimate and abso-
lute Buddha: the Sambltogak(t)'ll or Body of
Bhss 1s that tran;,figured Body of Sl>lendor
which the eterual Buddha reveals only to the
Bodhi>au,a;,: and the .Virmanakaya is the
noumenal earthly >hapc in which the co!>mic
Buddha re,ealed himself an illusion for the
benefit of mortals. lt is obvtously impossible to
H.inayana from Mahayana images
except by context or special :ntributes. We must
remember. too. that, in the iconography of the
Grcnt Vehicle. the cosm1c Buddha Va1rocana
and regents. the Dh)am Buddhas, governing
the four of the assume the
auitudcs und muclms of particular actions in
life of the mortal Buddha symbolized by these
same poses and gestures.
The I) pical Buddha image. beginning with the
>ery cnrlie;,t representation> 111 Gandhara and
shows the master "caring the
tic garment or stmg/wti, sometimes co,cring
both shoulder> or with the right shoulder burc.
As will be seen in specific examples later. the
head and body and limb' are characteli?.ed by
laJ. \ltonar or magic that distin
the anatom) of a Buddha from that or
ordinary monals. In both Mandmg and seated
image' the position of the hands or mudra ind1-
cates a certain power or function of the Buddha
or the gesture rnay bo associated "ith a parti-
cular event in his life. The most common of
these gestures is the ablwy11 mutlra. a gesture of
reassurance or blessing, not connected with any
specific event in the Buddha's life, in which the
roght hand is raised. palm outward. Other fami-
liar mwlras are the Dhpmlmudm or gesture of
meditation with the bands folded in the lap and
the hlmmispar.m mudra with the right hand of
the seated Buddha reachi ng down to touch the
earth. Both of these arc associated with the
Great Enlightenment and later arc adopted for
images of the Dhyani Buddhas Amitabha and
Akshobhya. TI1ere are essentially only two types
of Buddha image: the standing figure or the
seated Buddha. In the lancr the legs arc folded
as an invariable convention in the yoga posture.
even though the position of the hands may not
have anything to do with the act of meditat ion.
The representation of certain individual
/okshanos is extremely interesting for the
changes in form and iconography in
chapters in the evolution of the Buddha image.
One of more distinctive of these marks is the
uslmisha. the lump at the summit of the Bud-
dha' s head which. as a kind of auxilinry brain
ac.:ording to the accommodated that cos-
mic consciousness or supreme wisdom which
Sakyamuni auai ned at his Enlightenment. In
Gandhara sculpture this feat ure. perhaps be-
cause is was incomprehensible or distasteful to
artist> trained in the Graeco-Roman tradition.
was disguised by wavy locks or by a topknot
like that worn by Apollo in Hellenic sculpture.
In the purely l ndinn schools, the uslmisha is
frankly portrayed us a cranial protuberance
usually witb snail-shell curls. A11 ultimate devel-
opment in late Thai sculpture places a flame-
shaped fi nial at the top of the Buddha"s head,
perhaps as a symbol of the divine radiance
emanating from this magic center.
The halo or nimbus which comes to be an
inevitable a ttribute for al l Buddhist divinities
probably derives from the ancient Iranian con-
vention of symboliLing the celestial light of
t\hura Mazda by a disc or sun. sometimes. as in
the reliefs of Per,epolb. placed behind amhro
pomorphic representations of the Mazdaean
personification of light. From this so\J rce the
disc or halo found its way into early Christian
and BuddJt ist art as a means of signifying the
divine mdiance or ft'}as emanating from the per-
son of Christ and Buddha.
lt is generally believed that the earliest images
of the were mnde in the ancient prov-
ince of Gandhara toward the close of the first
century A.D. This region. comprising tbe pres-
ent northwest Pakistan and Afghanistan. was
then under the rule of Kusban Scythian kings, a
race of eastern Central Astan origin. who were
in close commercial nnd diplomatic contact with
the West. The craftsmen who served the KushaJt
religiou;, establishments were in the begi nning
Roman journeymen craftsmen From such east-
ern Mediterranean si tes as Alexandria and
Antioch. i\mong the li-st portrayals of Buddha
in human form is a likenes> on a gold coin of the
Emperor Kanishka. inscribed in provincial
Greek, BOO DO ( Figure 2) . Kanishb is known
as one of the great patrons of Buddhism who is
temembered for convening the second gc:ll
Buddhist council. His reign is belicwd to have
begun in 78 or 128 A. D. The presence of this
likeness or the Bud cl ha on the money of Kunish-
kn would seem to connote the previous
of statues of similar type.
The earliest Gandhnra Buddhas were u com-
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bi111tlion of various elemcnl> druwn from 1he
pnnn repertory of the foreil!ll cruflsmen who
were Cllllcd upon to in,cnl on icon of the Bud-
dha. The head i> an adaptauon of the mdianl
)Outhful face of >uch a clasMcul pro1o1ype as the
Apollo Behedcrc. and the mantle 11 tlh its 'olu-
minou, fold' i> a Roman toga or pallium. 11 has
been 'Ui!!!C>Ied that the choacc of the Apollo
type :1> :a model for the features of Buddha had
a ccrwm iconographical approprin1cncS> 10 sig-
nlf'y that the Buddha. too, 11:t\ a Jler>Onification
of incll'ablc light. In the IV:tY the pallium
could be thought of as a suuablc garment for
the Buddha. since it had been a>sociated "ith
the great teachers and lhc prie>l> 11ho \\elcomed
the ;oul for the other world in the ffi)>tCI) cults
m the pagan West. The >lyle of the earliest
Gandhara Buddhas appro,imate' late Hellcnis
tic or Roman Imperial art of the early centuries
of the Christian era. As Indian carvers took
over the work of the firstgcncrotion of Roman
sculptor\, the Gandhara Buddhas gradually
undcn\ent a process of I ndianization. The
tmagc> become more ri@Jdl) frontal. and the
drapery. :b in the Roman pro,incial art of
Palm)rn. i reduced to a ;chematic pauem of
Mringhke loop> appliqu&:d 10 I he ;,urfact of the
body: at the same time the face assumes the
more hicroaic mask-like character ,,r an.
11 wa\ this ILliCSt type of Gam.lhara Buddha
which provided ahe model for countless repeti-
aions of the style in Central A;ia and the Far
Ea't.
Ju;t as 1hc relief of Gnndhara is
de\(lled entire!) to >ubjccb enhcr from the
Jowkaf or M:ene. from the life of the mortal
Buddha, 11 appears that pracltcally all of 1he
Buddha image> of lhb are rcpre>enta-
tion> of Snkyamuni. During the flr.t few ccn-
turic; of its existence. the region of Gandhara
and the nrt it produced seem 10 have been
dedicated to the expression of the ideals of
Htna)nn:l Buddhism. Only rorcl) doe> 11 seem
passable 10 rccogntzc port m} ab of the m) thical
Buddh:b of the \1ahayana pantheon. One cer-
tain mdication of the gradual predominance of
the Great \'ehicle i> the appearance of the colos-
>nl image. The most notable examples of the
Mahnynna concept of the Buddha ns a trons-
ccndcnt personage. the equivnlent of the ancient
Mahnpurusa or cosmic man. arc the colossal
image, of the Bamiyan Valley in Afghanistan.
The smaller 125-foot Buddha is an enlargement
of a relati,el) earl) Gandhara l)pe. and ahe 175-
foot Buddha (Figure 3) "ath ttS drape!) actually
allhed 10 the body on a net of strings co,ered
with clay is a magnification of the final lndian-
ized I) pe of Buddha image. The;c statues.
which were the wonder of the Chinese pilgrims
who visited the holy land of Buddhism from the
l'ourth century onward. provided the models for
the giant statues of the di' imzcd Buddha in
China and Japan.
Probabl) at a he same momentthattheentirely
foreign I) pe of Buddhist icon was created in
Gandhara, the workshops at Mathura, the
southern capital of the Ku;hans. produced an
Indian Buddha image. These of which
the one dedicated by Friar Baln at Sarnath is the
most famous. arc usually over-life-si:tc figures.
recalling the massive of the J'tli..fhi
\tatue> of the Maul) a and Sungu Period>. From
proiOI)peS they derhcd the l)pcal Indian
fcehng for expanshe \olume and the connOLa
taon of the softness and "armth of the flesh by
the ;\\citing roundnes> of simple interlocking
For reasons that are not entirely dear.
these Ku,han statues usually represent Sakya-
fiG. 3. COlOSSAl BUDDHA.
IAMtYAN, AfGHANISTAN.

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mun1 a Bodhisnnm: that is, wearing not the
mona>1ic mantle but a skirt or dhoti. and nude
from the \\aist up sa\e for the robe O\er the left
;,houlder. In contrast to the cold expres;ionle>;
of the Gandharn statues. the fucc, of the
Mat hum Buddhas arc shown with open eyes and
softly lips, so that they have a kind of
radiance and friendly warmth that welcome the
devotee'> adoration. Just as the Gandhara
sculpture rchcd on classical protol) pe>. the
Mathura cnr.crs created their \cr,ion of the
Buddha 1mage on the foundation of type> and
tcchmque' of the early Indian tradition.
tmagc, "ere made in accordance wtth
a li\ed >)'tcm of proportions and \\ith >etupu
lou' aucntion to representing the magtc marks
or lakfiltllltl\ that distinguished the body of a
Buddh:t from ordinary mortals. Folio" ing the
technique of the ancient Indian schools. the
drtt i)Cry i> mdicatcd only by incised line; "ith
u conceptual cmphu'i' on the seam> and border>
of the gum1cnt. There ''ere occu;ional unita
ton; of the Gandharn type in Muttrn. butthe;c
tra\C>tiC> of the provincial Roman ;,t) le are
V:htl> outnumbered b) the cult of com
plctcl) lndtan l)pc The Ku;.han Buddha\ of
1\lathura ,till remm something of the dtrcct
;.tatemcnl and po"er C\prCCd the ;.heer
bulk and ..ea le of the Maurya and Sunga 'latuc,.
Such charactcri,tb of the;e image> a' the
cnormou' breadth of ;.houldcrs and tin) \\al>l>
indicate lhe emergence of a formula for por
trU) ing the anatom) of a superman that wa' to
dewlofl intO U ;.ophi;ticated language or CX(WC>
'ion in the Gupta period.
A nwdilkation of the Kushan Buddha tyre
wa' ildOfllCd in the Andhm l.ingdom or
Amara-.tll and l\:ag<1rjunakunda in the e:lfl)
ccnturic' ol our era. These imagcs. 'duch arc
caned from a beautiful grccmsh\1 hite lime
are characterized by a rather \lilT hiemtic
quality; the bodies ha\e of the full
ne>s of the Mathura type. whi le the drapery.
usuall y represented in a series of li nes or ridges.
appears to be a convcntionulitation of the
Gandhara formula. The pla>tic au>tcrity and
sophistication of these images a I read) anticipate
the idea of the Gupta period. Close contacts
bet\\een the Andhra Empire and Ccylon led to
the introduction of thi> SI) le to Anuradham-
pura. perhaps as earl) as the fourth or fifth
centur) A.D. Image, of the Amara,au type.
both in stone and in bronLe. have been found in
lndo-China. Borneo. and the Celebe,. indieat
ing the enormous inlluence of the Buddhist
ci\ ili7.ation of South India.
The Gupta period. often a\ the
Golden Age of Indian art. i> not so much a
Renaissance in 1hc European sense of the term
ns it i' a culmination and refinement of many
earlier forms and of Indian art. The
cuhi\'atcd beauty of exprc,;,ion in poetry.
drama. and the dance ha'> 11; parallel m the
pl:t>tic arts. 11 is quite po"tblc to \U) "ithout
re'-Cr.ation that the Buddha tmage> of the
Gupta period repre.em the final \lCp m the
eolution of the Indian ideal of the cult image.
11 I> belie,ed th:ll the fourth or
fifth century the of Indian art "ere al-
ready formulated in such \\Ork; a; the K1111W
\11/rtl and the l'i.llmwlflflflll<ltwrum. These
\ll.\lrlrr e>tablished the norm' for ac>thctic pmc
ticc'> in much the .amc way U> the manuals or
the Byzantine tradi tion perpetuated the rule>
for nrti\lic procedures. ProportiOn\, mca;ure-
mcnh, posture>. ge;ture>. rnooth. and e\pres
'10n" fo1 different type' of images in p:unting
and -.culpture are all defined. Thc'e -.amc princi
., -
FIG. . CANON OF PROPORTIONS FOR
FIGURE OF THE BUDDHA TIIET AN.
pies of artbtic procedure continued 10 ,hape the
of art in India long after the c\Unction
of Buddh1sm in the thirteenth centul)
Ccnam lhed canons for the of ..acr<-d
images made their appeamnl-.: in India at an
earl} pcr1od. The purpose of the <';mons fixed b)
iconomctry 11as to produce likcnc"e' of the
gods valid and correct for wor,hip. and any
dc\iation from the formula 11oulu rc,uh in an
icon unlit for devotion. Such pro1>0rtion' were
intended 10 produce a nature tr:lll,ccnding
humanit} and its ephemeral. imperfect beauty.
The ba,ic unit of 11a' the angula
or linger. \ometimes from the breadth of
the finger 10 render hi' 1dcntilkation

4
I
I
I
1!1
I
'
I
I
I
12
1
4f
-
4'

11ith the icon more complete. \ppro\lmatcly
twelve con\tltutcd a thalcm or palm and
this unit 11as repeated mnc 11mcs for the hc1ght
of the standing figure and lh c umcs for the
<.eated figure'> I Figurt ./). mathema1ical
of proport1on. \IIth no reference to the
anatomy of human beings. 11as till
arbitrary one designild to produce a supernat-
ural rather than a human proportion. This
mathematical ,)',ICill of IOC;It-UrCI11Cill \\'liS bused
in part. too. on the magical properties of ccrtttin
numbers. Its u\c j, cumpaablc to the tnvcntion
of a super-human ana con,tructetl on the
bl:.is of an nb,trac:t modulu>. for the of
Eg) pt and Greece of the :trchaic period. The
13
14
angulas determined the proportion of eve!)
section of the image. and the face was generally
divided into three equal parts of four angulas
each: from hairline to eyes, eyes to base of nose,
and nose to the tip of the chin.
During the Gupta period the principal
schools or workshops for Buddhist sculptUre
were Mathura and Sarnath. and the types estab-
lished at these ccnters continued to influence the
making of cult images into the Period of the
Hindu Dynasties.
In style the statues of the fourth and firth
centuries from Mathura, like the superb exam-
ple lent by the William Rock hill Nelson Gallery
of Art. are a combination of elements assimi
lated from the Kushan and Gandhara Buddha
types. The standing image has the massive and
heavy proportions of the Kushan Buddha; the
drapery has been reduced to a schematic con
vention of quilted ridges fa lling in repeated
loops down the median line of the body. so that
the form appears nude as seen through a net
work of cords. The bodies of these Buddhas
retain the same feeling of expansive vol ume
through the construction in simplified rounded
planes that at the same time connote in abstract
fashion the warmth and fullness of the fleshly
envelope. The head of a typical Gupta Buddha
from Mathura is conceived as a spheroidal
mask with its smooth interlocking planes even
more suggestive of u pure- geometric volume
than its Kushan prototypes. This fullness com
municates a feel ing of warmth and aliveness to
the facial mask. The features of these Gupta
icons are unmistakably represented according
to a metaphorical method. whereby the individ
ual parts of the face are not imitated from
counterparts in any human model but from
certain shapes in the world of nature. regarded
as more beautiful and finnl than anything to be
found in the accidental and never perfect beauty
of a mortal face. Accordingly the countenance
has the perfect oval of the egg: the eyes arc
shaped l.ikc lotus buds or lotus petals: the lips
huve the fullness of the mango. and the brows
the curve of Krishnas bow. In the heads of the
Gupta images the hair is invariably represented
in the form of snail-shell curls covering the head
like a cap. This convention of tightly wound
spirals for the short locks exactly follows the
textual description of the appearance of the
Buddha's hair after he had cut ofr his princely
ringlets at the time of the Great Renunciation.
In a similar way the l t ~ k s l w n t l s likening the
Buddha"s Herculean shoulders to the head of
an elephant and his torso to the tapered body of
a lion are literally followed in the carving or
painting of a supernatural rather than a human
anatomy.
Among the great masterpieces of Gupta
sculpture are the Buddha images of Sarnath.
the sacred site near Benares that witnessed the
Buddha"s First Preaching. These statues are
fashioned of the same chunar sandstone that
more than five centuries earlier had been used
for the Asokan piJ iars. The Sarnath Buddha
type differs specificaUy from the Mathura ideal,
in that all traces of drapery folds have dis
appeared. so that the body appears swathed in
a sheath-like garment that completely reveals
its immaculate perfection. The standing images
are generally carved wit h the body bent in a
Praxitelean $-curve. a posture certainly derived
from the repertory of the Indian dance. which
serves to confer an extraordinary vitali ty and
grace to the forn1. In tJ1e Sarnath Buddhas the
bodies become a kind of geometric abstraction
of combined spheroidal and cylindrical shapes,
and the very purity of these textureless smooth
surfaces communicates the idea of the trans-
figured and immortal nature of the body of the
Tathagata. The heads of the Sarnath Buddhas
have a sofl, lyric beauty based on a similar
geometric purity or form. Oocasional inscrip-
tions like that on a Buddha dedicated by
Amitabhyamitra in 474 A.D. seem to indicate
an aesthetic concern for the beauty of religious
icons: '' Image of images. unparalleled for its
merits ... adorned with wonderful an."
A rare example of metal sculpture of the
Gupta period is the small bronze Buddha from
Dhanesar Khera lent by the William Rockhill
Nelson Gallery of Art. ll is a miniature version
of some of the great masterpieces in stone in
which the head recalls the founh and fifth cen-
tury Buddhas of Mathura and the robe is a
combination of the transparcm robe of tbe
Sarnath school with reminiscences of the mll-
uralistic treatment of drapery in Gandhara.
Small images of this type, often repealing tradi-
tional types, were made at centers like Nalanda
as late as the eighth and ninth ceutury: their
export provided a means of spreading Indian
styles of Buddhist sculpture to every region of
the Indian world.
The only parallels in painting for the canons
of beauty observed in Gupta sculpture are the
surviving images in the wall paintings of Ajanta.
Examples dating from the fifth to the seventh
century in Caves I and 9 seem to indicate the
same formula observed at Surnath. with the
Buddha represented in the most simplified
shapes. which in these pictorial counterparts arc
made to appear in relief by a slight reinforcing
of the wiry contour lines with arbitrary shading.
Like the immortal inlluence of the forms and
types of the Greek gods in Western art the ideal
Buddha im:1ge developed in Gupta India be-
came, as it were. the everlasti ng canon for
Buddhist icons throughout the Indian world and
for the entire later development of religious art
in the Far East.
Even as early as the times of Asoka and
Kanishka the Vale of Kashmir was intimately
connected with India. Kashmir was a pocket of
culture that. in its mountainous isolation, per-
petuated the ideals of Gandhara and Gupta art
long after the eclipse of these schools in India
proper. The great era of Buddltism and artistic
expression came under the reign of King Lali-
taditya i11 the eighth century. To this period
belongs the dedication of the monastic estab-
lishment at Ushkur. The ruins of this convent
have yielded numerous examples of stucco and
ierra-coila sculpture. Buddha heads like the
magnificent example lent by Mr. Georgc
Bickford are reminiscent of the type developed
in the Gandharn cemers ofTaxi la and Hadda as
well as of the seventh century Afghan site of
Fondukistan (Figure 5). The free. impressionis-
tic trca1111ent of the hair reminds us of the tech-
nique of Gandhara stucco sculptUJe while the
arching brows and lotiform eyes suggest the
fully developed Gupta formula. The feeling for
roundness and warmth in the modeling of the
facia l mnsk and the softly expressive lips suggest
some of the Indian masterpieces of the fourth
and fifth centuries.
The fina l development of Buddhist art in
India took place under the Pala and Sena
dynasties in the Bengal Valley. The great centers
of Buddhism from the seventh century onward
were at Bodh Gaya and Nalanda, where.
accordi ng to the testimony of the Chinese pil-
grim. Hslian-tsang. the Mahayana faith was at
its zeni th. This final phase of Indian Buddhism
15
t6
wru. dommatcd by the Y:1Jf3)ana doctrine. the
ancestor of Jnpanesc Shu1gon. in which rcliunc:c
on spell>. ritual. and magic diugrams marked the
gradual ab..orption of the rcli!!ion into llmdu-
ism. Some of the more cx.-cult conccph of
Yajrayana. such as the beJc"eled Buddha 3'> an
emblem of the resplendent body 11 hich he
reveal> only to the Bodhi>uttvus. replaced the
simple cult or earlier times. In the ca..c of
man) of the >t:ltue. caned in the hard. blacJ..
stone of Magadha. it b mpo"ble to tell llheth-
er the icon rcpre.ent> the mortul Teacher or one
or the my,tic Buddhm, who had assumed the
mudrm of Sakyamuni'> mortal career. AJ...,ho-
bhya. the L<lrd of the [:1\t. b sho"n m the
fiG. 5. BUDDHA FROM FONDUKISTAN
KABUl MUSEUM. AfGHANISTAN.
mutlm of the Enlightenment. and
Vairocana. the co:,mie Buddha. the
<llwrmacakra mudra of the Fir:,t Preaching.
From the point or \iCII of St)IC. the Buddh:l
tmagc;. from the eighth to the thirteenth century
reveal a faithful imitation of Gupta prototypes.
The cani ng is often dry and mechanical in
execution. There i> an elab01ation of ncccs-
sorie,. and a hard preci;.ion of car,mg seems to
taJ..e precedence O\ er the formal sculpturnt qu-
alillc;. of the 110rk. 1 he stone and bronLe images
of 'alanda. which mu;t have been exported in
quuntitic;,, furnished the models for later Buddh-
ist urt in Tibet and epal and the regions of
South ell>l A>ia. or c'ccpLional beaU!) are the
seventh and eighth century bronzestatuelles from
Bihar"hich perperuateGupta types in miniature.
According to tradition. Buddhi>m was intro-
duced to Nepal by the Emperor Asoka. but the
great period of Buddhism and Buddhist nrt
begins in the eighth and ninth centuries wi th
contacts with the Pala culture of Bengal and the
introduction of Vajrayana Buddhism. The
iconography and forms of Pala an were literally
transplanted to this Himalayan kingdom. prob-
ably in the beginning through the participation
of imported artists. and these forms have been
perpetuated with little change for more than a
thousand years. Although the Nepalese paint-
ings nnd sculptures of the Buddha image repeat
Lhe old types of the Bengal Valley. they are
invariabl) informed with a feeling for
linear rhythms and an precision of
craftsmanship that give them an unmistakable
national character.
Before the appearance of Buddhism. the
religion of Tibet- Bonpo \\3S an antmtsuc
cult including man) elements of sorcery and
sexual The entire culture of Tibet has
been determined by Lhe eh iliting influence of
Buddhi>m. probably first introduced through
alliances wi th Nepal and Chinu in the seventh
century and firmly established by the holy man
Padmasambhava in the eighth. As in ' epal. the
form of the religion adopted by the Tibetans
was the socalled Third Vehicle or Vajrayana.
In the art of such a religious system the simpler
forms of Buddha images arc outnum-
bered by the great host of deities. many of Hindu
origin, thnt crowd its teeming pantheon. So
great was the feeling of rc,erencc and indebted-
ness to Indian Buddhism for its rai>ing Tibet to
a higher le,el of chilization that e\ery effort
was made to retain as close an approximation
as possible to the types and techniques ongt-
nally borro\\ed. This reverence for canonical
types was so firmly rooted that Lhe types and
techniques of surviving paintings of the tenth
century can scarcely be distinguished from
replicas of the same iconography painted in the
eighteenth century. In the course of centuries
Tibetan art inlluenccd by the Buddhist
culture of Khotan in Central Asia and repeat-
edly by Chinese an. especially folio" ing Lhe
conquest of the country b) K 'ang hsi in Lhe
eighteenth century.
Although wall paintings exist in the monastic
ccnters of both Nepal and Tibet, our knowledge
of painting in these Himalayan regions is limited
largely to the great numbers of survh ing ta11kas
or religious banners. Undoubted!) based on
earlier Indian temple icons, the painting of
umkas in Nepal and Tibet was rigidly codified
by iconographic:ll and technical manuals of
Indian origin. The function of these icons in
Vajrayana \\:IS magical, as their
painting itself \\a;, a liturgical rite perfom1ed b)
the artist after yogic meditation on the divini-
ties he was to portray. The were magic
symbols to defend the devotee from the ;nares
:tnd hazards of the world of nature. tO facilita te
for the beholder escape from the world of
C\istence to immaculate celestial;phcrcs evoked
in the picture'>. The concept of religious icons
as emblems of terrible po''er that could O\er-
come karma to transport the worshipper to the
paradise of hi;, choice is identical with the
regard for icon;, in the an of Shingon Buddhism
of Japan.
The actual t)pe> of Buddhas. as \\ell as the
style of painting them. in Nepalese and Tibetan
ta11kas are a faithful perpetuation of the style of
the Pala period. although certain type,, like the
t7
t8
Paradi>c 1conograph). "ere deri\ed
from Central Asia. In the Tibetan painting, of
the eighteenth century something of the precios-
ity of Chinese art or the Ch"ing period recals
itself in the intricate and e\quisite preci;ion of
ornament.
Among the earliest indicauons of the pene-
tration of the Gupta sytle into Further India arc
the Buddhist of Thailand and Cambodia
in the sixth and seventh ccnlUries. These icons.
generall) referred to as the pre-Khmer period.
"ere the accompaniment or Indian
acti,it) m these region;. The beautiful sultues
or the Ovuru,ati period in stone and bronze
follow the ideal of the Sarnath school. including
the transparent sheath-like garment and the
dehanchement of the bod) . The) displn) certain
nathe trail> at the same time. The snail-shell
curls are enormously enlarged. and the feulUres
have a peculiarly beautiful decorative quality.
The metaphorical character or the individual
fe:nure> t> e'agerated. ;o that the e}e> are
e'en more hke actuallotu' petals in shape and
the mouth hth the of an exquisite Horal
shape. The lotiform shape of the eyes is echoed
in the curve of the full The body and head
alike have the simplicit) :tnd sculptural solidity
of Gupta imaes. and the \\hole icon i> 1mbued
"ith a feclmg or tcn:.e ali,enes. that make> u a
veritable emblem or ;creOil) and religious
ecstasy.
The fina l evol ution or the Cambodi:m ideal of
the Buddha image took place during the clti>Sic
centurie> that "itnes;ed the rise or the eapual
and the famou, lO\\ered temple<; of Angkor. In
the head; of Buddha image\ of the l\\elfth and
thirteenth centuries the ultimate indcbtcdnes>
to the Gupta canon i; >ti ll apparent m the
essentiall) spheroidal conception of
the head. What ma) be regarded as a peculiarly
Khmer fo1 mu la or even a cticbl! for indicating
the self-contained bliss and serenity of the En
lightened One appear> in counties> exumple> in
the C)t' closed in rever) and the lips distended
into a long mystenou> smile. Man) of Lhe
Khmer heads of thi> cla.-ic period ha\c a posi-
ti\C suggestion or personality or individuality
within the mould of iconographical and formal
con,cntion. This is perhaps to be explained by
the fact that these "ere at the l>Bme time
idealited of the reignin monarch in
the guise of a demraja or god-king. Whether
the state religion wus Hinduism or Buddhism
the conception of the ruler as the earthly em-
bodiment of the presiding deity of the realm had
for centuries been an C>tablished tenet of belief
in Cambodia. Generally the chief cult image of
the empire sho\\ ing the ;overeign in the likeness
of V ish nu or Buddha was enshrined in a temple
mountain, an architectural symbol of the sacred
Mount Meru of Indian cosmology. at the magic
center of the empire. In Khmer sculpture the
pre' ale nee of the icono11raphy of the Buddha
seated on the coils of n giant serpent and shel-
tered by cobra hood is not entirely a portrayal
of the obscure legend ofSakyamuni"; encounter
"ith a 11uga after hi> enlightenment. lt is a
reference to the legend that the 11agM or serpent
dei tie> \\ere the dh ine progenitors and pro-
of the Cambodian throne.
In general, the heads or Buddhas of the later
ccnturie> of Khmer sculpture tend to a>sume a
more hard linear character in the mci>ed defini-
tion of the features. ln,ariably the mass of the
hair IS separated from the face. sometime> by a
broad band. as though it were a cap literally
pulled over the skull. In certain examples of the
period of the 83)0n m the thirteenth century.
the indi' idual features do not stand out as
5Cparate parts attached to the block of the head.
but melt into this mass. so that to degree
there b a return to the strong plnstic conception
of the earliest period. The best of these late
Buddha masks have a soft. dreamy expression.
a wonderful of a being rapt in inner
contemplation. Although verging on the >ent i-
mcntal. these final Khmer masks are the perfcx:t
;ymbob of the self-contained beatnudc and
benevolence inherent in Buddhi>m
a rclig1on dedicated to the sal\ at ion of human-
it) .
The indigenous tradition of monumental art
in Cambodia came to an end with the linal
Siamese conquest of Angkor in the fifteenth
century. All later development> take place in
Thailand "here the earlier continue to be
repeated with innumerable local variations until
modern times. The ramifications of this >tylistic
evolution of these later centuries arc far too
complex to fo lio" here. The best of the Thai
Buddha> through the sixteenth century >till
rcta&n the plastic integrity of the cltl>>ic >t)lc in
Cambodia. The de,elopment is toward a more
and more decorati,el) stylized concept of the
Buddha mage culminating in the elegant :lllcn-
uated formula achie'ed at Ayudhya. Familiar
a>pcch of this St) le arc the Hame finial that
seem> to carry up"ard the 10\\Cring aucnumion
of the ;lim image. the svelte unmodclcd ;mooth-
nc>s of torso and tubular limbs. the pliant cunes
of elongated lingers. and the in which the
features are a decorative repeti tion of :&re' and
curve>. In its reduction of earlier monumental
often very moving in their pla>tic gran-
deur. to a mannered :.tercot) pc. this
ultimate Siamese style in "hich only grace prc-
'ail; i\ the eastern counterpart of the ncocla;:.&c.
The last outpost of Buddh&;m in the Indian
"orld was the island of Java. where the Sailen-
dra, King of the Mountain and the lord of the
Isles: was the ruler of a great Indonesian em-
pire in the eighth and ninth centuries. Javanese
Buddhism w:ts dependent on the Indian center
at Nalanda. Many bron1c images from Bengal
have been found in the i;land and the prevailiJlg
type of Buddhism was an oiT;hoot of the eso-
teric doctrine of the Pain period.
The great monument of Ja,anesc Buddhism_
one of the \\Onde!'> of the Asian "Orld. ;, the
stupa of Borobudur. Th1s dedicated
to Vairocana. the hi>torical Buddha idealized
in the Dhamwknytt. the eternal body of the
L:m. The "hole >lructure \\ith it> hundred> of
reliefs and statue> wa; conceived as a vast
moudaltt that reveals nil phase' of existence at all
time; and in all place; as ;o m:tny material
manifestations of 1hc divine and universal
essence of Vairocana. Like the painted mondttfas
ofTibet and Japan, Borobudur i'> a magic replica
of the Material and Spiritual world;. "ith each
of its Ooors or store}> reprc>entmg a separate
"orld or plane of life. The 'ecreh of Borobudur
are linked with the identity and function of the
Dh)ani Buddha &magc> that co,cr the monu-
ment from top to bouom. In deep grouo-like
niches on the four >ide> arc in,tallcd the mystic
Buddhas of the four dircct&On> and. on the
upper terrace>. se,ent) -1" o image;, of Vairocana
{Figure 6). These statues of the co;mic lord arc
half hidden under lauiccd bcll->haped stupas as
though to empha>ilc by their partial conceal-
ment the mysterious. ne, er completely revealed
nature of the ultimate reality in a world without
form. "bich is the realm of the Dlwmwkaya.
Presumably the image placed in the closed
terminal Mupa "a> another final form of
19
20
Vairocana enthroned at the cent er of the cosmic
"'heel. at the \Cl) pole of lhe "orld. as the
;upreme manifestauon of \'amx:ana and. as in
Cambodia. a, the e'sence and apotheo>is of
divine kingship.
The style of the Buddha images of Borobudur.
as may be seen even in single detached heads, is
dcri\Cd direct!) from the Gupta style ofSarnmh.
These Buddhas arc made" ith great mathemat-
Ical mccty of measurement from one of the
systems of propomon for sacred images fol-
lowed throughout the Indian world. The finest
of them represent such u beautiful realizntion of
plastic mass and volume. such breathing life and
transcendent spintual clarity of e>.pre.sion that
they ma) r:1nk among the greatest examples of
sculptural genius m the entire world. In these
1mage; there is scarcely any longer the
uon of real flesh. but rather these statues seem
to be made of an imperishable and pure >pi ri-
tual oubstance that marvelously symbolizes in
stone the incorruptible and radiant and ada-
ma1uine nature of the Diamond. the Buddha's
eternal bod).
The extension of Buddhism and it> art to
Central Asia or Turkestnn certainly began as
enrly as the period when the western
pam of the region were under Kushan >uzer-
aint) . The sculpture oft he early >ites lile
Khotan and \hran is the1efore a pro\meial
cxtemion of the Gandhara style ca>tY.Jrd along
the trade route to China. of Buddha
image> from the;e monastic centers and from
rumschuq are mi;understood and conven-
tionalized l.lf the originally Gr:tcco-
Roman type, of Buddha statue> of Hndda and
Ta\ila.
h \\35 ccruunl} on theS<! and later rcpetttions
of this manner at K that the ea1lic<.1
images of China were based. According to
record. m1ssionaries bcarmg >Utras found their
\lay to the Han coun as earl) as 2 B.C. The
famou' legend of the Emperor Ming and his
dream of a golden image lending to the import
or a copy of the famous Udayana statue in 66
A-D. C. probably to be interpreted as a symbol
of the introduction of replicas of famous Indian
to the Far EasL Certainly Buddhism "as
no more than a sporad1c fad in court circles
during the Han period. although it may be
possible to identify crude representations of the
Buddhtl in the Cbiating caves in Szechwan.
The Horcscenee of Buddhism in China
in the Six Dynasties period following the in-
\a;ion of northern China by the Topa Tartars
in 386 A.D. h has been assumed that thc.c
barbarians already had some acquaintance with
Buddhi>111 in their original homeland near Lake
Bnik;tl. lt appears evident that the foreign reli-
gion may have served a political purpose for
these rulers as a unifymg force in opposition to
the native Rligious S}>tcms of Confucianism
and Taoism. just as the Kushnns in India es-
pou>ed the docmne of Sakynmuni as an instru-
ment of imperialism. Although a few bronze
images lil..c the famous gilt bronze from ihc
Brundngc Collection dated 338 antedate the
foundmg of the Wei 0} nasty by the Topa
rulers. the first official patronage of the religion
recorded \1 ith the caning of the rock-cut
temples of YUn Kang under imperial patronage.
YUn Kang is located some thirty miles from
the Tartctr c:tpitnl of Ta-t'ung-fu in the shadow
of the Great Wall. The vn;l undertaking of
he\\ing out more than t\\cnty grotto temple>
\\:IS begun. as the ll'fl S/111 under the
auspu:e; of the priest Tan )30 in -150 and con-
tinued until 494. The concept of carving an
FIG. 6. VAIROCANA BUDDHA.
80R0BUDUR, JAVA.
21
22
- ,
entire monastic e;,tublishment from the living
rock had been anticipated in the Thousand
Buddha Caves in Tun-huang. which. according
to tradition, were consecrated in 366. Indian
prototypes exist for these complexes such as the
Buddhist dwitylls of the Western ghm:. and the
fa mous cave sanctuaries of Bamiyan. There i, a
probable connection between YUn Kang a nd
the Tun-huang caves , incc the Wei Slw informs
u' that in 435. 35,000 families from Liang, the
present Kansu. were seulcd m Ta-t'ung. Of
further interest is the mention that the people of
Linng took their models for buildi ng and stat-
uary from .. the Wes tern Countries," u collcc-
fiG. 7. COLOSSAL BUDDHAS.
YUN KANG, CHINA.
Live tern1 by which the Chinese described the
kingdoms of Central Asia and India as well.
The fi rst dedications at YUn Kang comprised
five colossal Buddhas in memory of the first
rulers of the house of Wei. Such a memorial to
ances tors suggests the infiltration of Confucian
conceptS into Buddhism. lt reminds us that
Buddhism only came to China relatively late in
the development of the civili7.ation and thro ugh-
out ils entire history was hardly more tha n a
ripple o n the face of the sea of indigenous
tradition. Although the inspiration fo r the colos-
sal images at YUn Kang, some of them seventy
feet in height. might have but probably did not
come from the famo us giants at Ba miyan. the
style of this sculpture clearly reveals a Central
Asian origin (Figure 7). it may well be that the
sculptors e mployed at this site were drawn from
the Central Asian colony moved from Tun-
huang to the capital in 435. The Buddha images
of every dimension at YDn Ka ng clearly s how
a tra nslation into stone of the expressionless
round faces of the s tucco images of Kizi l and
Tumschuq. Similarly the drapery reduced to a
network of tape-like bands breaking into forked
folds is a further conventionalizat ion of a man-
nerism found at these sites. Interes ting from the
iconographical point of view is the fact that the
colossi of the western caves a t YOn Kang were
intended to portray the concept of the cosmic
Buddha as described in such sutras as the
Saddltamw Pwtdarikfl and the A 1'0/am.wka.
The famous bronze Buddha Maitreya dated
477 or 486. lent by the Metropolitan Museum
of Art is an illustration of the style of YUn Kang
colossi in a smaller replica. The mantle with its
folds indicated by ribbon-like forms applied to
the surface is characteristic of the Central Asian
formula but the beautiful rhythm of the robe.
spread out like 1\ings unfurled. and the block-
like nbstraction of the head with its wedge nose.
almond eyes. and archaic smile already suggest
the evolution of the Chinese ideal of the Six
Dynasties period.
Toward the close of the period of activity nt
YUn Kang. a much more Chinese conception of
the Buddha image begins to its appear-
ance. The faces become more cubic with sharp
breals bet\\een the planes of the face. and the
completely linear treatment of the drapery tends
to reduce all feeling of the plastic existence of
the body to a llat silhoucuc. Detail> of the cos-
tume, ;uch the trailing passing
through n Jade ring. the cusped necklaces. and
the serrated swallow-tail contour of the flaring
skirts repluce the Central Asian dress. especially
in the imugcs of the Buddha of the Future,
Maitreya.
These tendencies intensified in the
carving of the ea'e temples of Lung-men begun
after the removal of the \\'ci capatal to Loyang
in 494. These images take on a truly Roman-
esque appearance in the that their abstract
linenr style. hier',llic frontality. and disembodied
spiritUality suggest some of the great sculpiUres
of t\\elfth century Europe. Thi> conception of
the figure in geometric and linear teams has
nothing to do "ith an) Indian prototype. The
image has an almost ideographic simplification,
in that the only aspects of significance to the
worshipper the benign mask of the face and
the blessing hand - are modeled in relief. The
rest of the body is flattened out so that it ap-
pears an immaterial rather than a sub>tan-
tially convincing shape. lt ma) be that. with the
removal of the capital and centcr of Buddhbm
to the ancient centcr of Chinese culture at
Loyang. a of the ancient Chinese
feeling for design in calligraphic line and llat
patterned surface, was directed to the making
of Buddhist images. At the same time this ab-
wact mode in the creation of such awe-inspi ring
hieratic forms wns peculiarly appropriate for
expressing the Chinese attitude tO\\ard the
imponed divinaties as strange magacal >pirits
promising all of boons and at the same
time reminiscent of the nl"ays abstractly con-
ceaved deities of the native pantheon.
A new era of purely Indian inlluence in
Chinese Buddhist art begins in the seventh
century" ith the founding of the Tang Dynasty.
This was a moment "hen the subjugation of
rebellions within and barbarians "ithout the
girdle of the Great Wall once more mnde China
:1 great united empire. The military conquests
of T'ni Tsung were followed by even more
memorable triumphs in an. From the seventh
to the ninth ceniUry China. in her material and
spiritual splendor. \\3S the greatest po"er on
earth unrivaled e'en by theempircsof B)Z:Intium
and Iran. In Buddhi;,t art. the haunting abstract
style of the si.\lh century is replaced b) a closer
imitation of lndiun models as a direct result of
the ne\\ diplomatic and religious contacts with
the West.
This renC\\3( of relation, with India begins
"ith tbe ne\\ unit) of China under T'na Tsung
and the subjugation of the Turkt>h khans
beyond the \\C>tern limits of the Great Wall.
The travels nnd >tudies of Hsllnn-t>ang, the
independent pilgrim adventurer. initimcd a new
chapter in the hi;tory of Mahayana Buddhism
10 the Far East. An imentOI') of the sutras
translated b) the Master of the Lll\\ at Ch"ang-
an re, eats how the first real conception of the
23
24
FIG. 8. Gll T 8RONZE BUDDHA.
FOGG ART MUSEUM.
faith of the Great Vehicle was due entirely to his
enterprise. The contribution of HsUan-tsung is
comparable to the discoveries and influence of
the Renaissance humanists on the later devel-
opment of classic learning in the West.
No less important \\ere the official missions
of the Imperial envoy. Wang Hsllan-tS'c, who.
with a corps of artists and scribes. brought back
not only religious texts but what must have been
fairly accurate pictorial records of the holy
place> of India. Of great import for the problem
of the transmission of Indian types to China are
the itemized lists of actual replicas of famous
Indian statues collected by these visitors to the
""Western Countries": for example. Hslian-
tsang had copied the famous sandalwood image
of King Udayana and other famous icons. A
unique wall painting from Tun-huang shows the
transportation of such an Indian image in a
boat across a body of water. A banner from the
library at Tun-huang reproduces copies of many
of the famous sacred statues venerated in the
West in a purely linear technique which seeks.
however, to capture the style of the originals.
A gill bronze Buddha in the Fogg Art Museum
so completely follows a Gandharan original
that it may have been one of these replicas of
famous Indian statues (Figure 8).
IL seems thal a definite merit was anached to
copies- even remote ones - of images at the
sites that were associated with the great cvems
of the Buddha's career. "Something of the
Buddha" was believed to survive in these effigies
related to him: indeed the whole effort of later
Mahayana art in the Far East as in India was 10
imitate by time. place, and form ihe corporeal
manifestation of the absolute truth. The ' 'irtues
of these copies of famous statues from the holy
land of Buddhism lay in the belief that they
incorporated the omnipresence of the Dlwrma-
koyo; something of the Buddha's transcendental
personality remained anached to places where
his human form had appeared as well as to
icons commemorating these appearances. so
that copies of these statues at famous sites were
thought to derive supernatural power from
their relation to originals thus animated by the
Buddha himself.
IL i> not aL all surprising in view of this new
first-hand acquaintance with Indian models
that many examples of rang sculpture are
clearly aucmpts to imiunc the >tyle of the Gupta
period. The >landing imnt:e lent by the Scaule
Art Museum i> n uanslationmto Chine<e terms
of the Sam:uh type" ith the characten>ttc robe.
>rnooth and devoid of and the e:.scntially
spheroida I conception of 1 he head. Only the
feature;. ;.uch the "edge-shaped no;.e and the
archaic smile ;.ccm 10 be a perpetuation of the
purely Chine>c ideal de-eloped in the Sh Dynas
tics period. In the same way. a small bronze
Buddha in the present exhibition is a reduction
of a familiar Pala type.
In some Tang sculptun: like the famous
;tmua!) of T'tcn Lung-;hnn /()) "c
;cnse the presence of the Gupta canon as nn
ultimate precedent but the reduction of the
head and body to e'en more geometricall)
:tbstrnct shapes result> in a loss of the feeling of
warmth and breathing life inherent in the Indian
prototype just the rhythmic and in a sense
naturalistic S\\cCp of the drapery is mon: sug
gesthe of the brush stroke than the car-er"s
tool.
ReHection> of Indian forms are paramount in
the Buddhi>t p:1inting ofT'nng times as may be
seen in the murals of Tun-huang and the lost
\\all painting> of Hol)ujt at Kara \\hich 11ere
painted in the fashionable Indian >I} le of the
eighth century. The annat. of Tang paltlting are
filled with references to artiSt>" ho arc credited
with introducing the le of the We;tem
Countries: They are credited "ith rcpre.enting
forms with :1 \\Onderful illusion of relief. pre
sumably by the use of the type of abwact ;had-
ing found nt Ajanta and in Central A;iu. The
name of \\ci-ch"ih 1-seng i> >Ornetime> attached
to a painting of the Buddha in the M u,eum of
Fine Arts, Bo>ton. in which the figure of
Snkyamuni appears as a free and linear adupt3
FIG. 9. BUDDHA FROM T'IENLUNG.SHAN
FOGG AU MUSEUM.
tion of a Gandharn I} pc.
In C\amples of Tang sculpture in
bronze and >tone "e note the beginning of a
tendency to L'Oncci'e the form in u pictorial
ra.hion. This releals itself Ill the intricacy of the
can in g. the depth of undercutting. and multi
plication of These characteri>tics
would be even more apparent if the images
retained their original polychromy. In the
painted 11ooden image, of Sung and YUan
tomes the depth of can ong and dependence on
color make the.e statues uppear like p:unted
forms transferred to sculpture. Their immediate
25
26
PIG. 10. BUDDHA f ROM f'IE" LUNGSHAN.
FOGG ART MUSEUM,
nntcccdcnts may be the painted clay statues
found '" great number> '" the Liao Dynasty
temples located in Ta T' ungfu. At the same
time the greater delicac) of e'ecuuon. the ;cnti
mental preniness of type. and the v.insome e>-
pre.."ons of both Buddha and Bodhisan'a
t) pe> mal.c it possible to equate these icom
v.ith Baroque rdigiou; art in the We;t. These
Jigurc> with their ingratiating >miles and lan-
guid, tender gestures offer the more immediate
,olace or a religion devoted more and more to
ca;y mean> of sal,ation by dc,otion and oft'cr
ing. to 1mages of such pcr;onablc rcprcsenla
ti\C> of n Buddha no longer remote or inacces
>1ble.
One of the most famou' Buddha images
in Japan is the statue ofS3k}amuni at Seif)oji in
the outskirts of Kyoto ( Fig11rt' //) According 10
the \ ilwngi R,rllkll. thb was n COp) of the
famou; ;andalwood image of King Udayana
rnnde for the priest Chonen Ql K'ai Feng-fu and
brought to Japan in 987. All such copies of this
lcgcndaf) statue of Buddha. it>clf regarded as a
\trllable material facsimi le of were
e>tccmed as onl) potent embodi-
of the Buddha"s earthly manifestation.
The Seir}Oji icon. \\hether 11 is the original
Chinese ;1a1ue or the tenth centuf) Japanese
replica. demonstrates the veritable immortality
of the Gandhara style in the tyliLed reprcsen
tntion or u classical robe in n mesh of closely
pleated folds that had come to symbolize the
"nppling" drapery or the mm1eutous Udayana
ICOn
Throughout the v.hole hi;tory of Chinese
Buddh1>m certain tradillonal type; continue 10
be repea ted sometime> \\ith liule change. The
hronze of the Ming period lent by the Detroit
ln'>titute of Arts is a perfect illuw ation of the
of the famous Udayuna image 111
this nrchaistic reiteration of a drapery style of
the Six Dynasties period. The same miracle-
\\Orl.ing prototype i, rc:prc,entcd in countless
rcphcas made 111 Nepal and Tibet as late as Lhe
t\\entielh century.
The name of Chang S>u-l.ung, a painter
belie,ed to ha\e \\orked in the orthern Sung
penod. 1S anached by tradition 10 a number of
Buddhi;t paintings found mostly in Japanese
collection>. A parliculurly line example of the
style of this rare master is the Buddha Trinity
lent by the Museum. The figures have
a swaying grace and elegance enhanced by the
SOftl) flo\\ing gttrrllents. The p3111tl0g has an
e\traordinnry refinement in e'<ecuuon and. like
Sung sculptured image>. the appeal of these
forms IS 10 their bOfl grace and decorati\c
splcndor. The use or gold leaf. the delicacy or
drnughtsmanship in hnir-tbin line>. and beauty
of calor in thi> and other attributed to
Chang Ssu-kung are so suggesti\e of Japanese
Buddhist painting of the Fujhnra period that
one wonders if this nebulous artbt may ha' e
influenced the idcttl; or that mo;t exquisite
period of Japanese religious an.
The kind or delicate superficial refinement
alread) exemplified in Lbe painting. b) Chang
Ssu-kung wa> perpetuated "ell into the late
Ming and Ch'ing periods. The example in the
pre>crH collection rc>eals a desiccation and
hardening of the drawing of ib prototype. and
nt the same time the tmage is lost in a \\eallb of
>urfa<-e decoration. The fascinaung and elabo-
nnc architectun: or Sakynmuni"s throne vies for
;mention with the bhape of the Buddha himself.
As in the declining phase of religious an in so
man) pans of Asia and the We,t. the 'irtuoSII)'
of the technical performance take> precedence
O\er the no longer meaningful icon.
Ch'an or Zen Buddhism >pecifically
denied the validity of ritual and attachment to
icon5. the Buddha image seldom appc-Jrs in the
an of tlus purified philosopbjcaJ >CCt e'cept in
such occasional temple banners a; the fnmou>
painting of Buddha b) Liang K 'at. formerly in
the collection of Count Sakai. in which the
MU!>ter is shown. not in any U>Unl iconographi
cal form. but as a "ild-eyed. ragged 'agabond
C\emrlif)ing the rugged austerit> and unonho-
dox po" er of Zen tdeals.
The traditional date for the introduction of
to Japan is the year 552. when the
kmg ofKudnrn in Korea sent n gift ora Buddha
tmage and to the reigning emperor.
The national religion of Japan at thi> moment
\>US the cult of the Shinto Jwmi stmlll. the
of elements und natural forccb. upon whose
favor the ver) >tabi)j ty of the empire and indi
'idual "ell-being depended. lt not strange
that the mtroduction of this foreil!Jl faith .hould
ha\C aroused a; "ell as the fear of
offending the native dcitie<. The Emperor b
reported to have spoken us follows: .. The
countenance of this Buddhu "hich has been
presented .. 1> of severe dignity >uch as "e have
ne, er seen before. Ought it to be \\Orshipped or
not"! Shall Yamato alone rcfu;e to \\Orship it'!
"'Those \\ho have ruled the Empire in this our
state have always made n their care to worship
In spring. summer. autumn. aud "inter. the 180
gods of hea,cn and earth. nnd the gods of the
land and of gram;. lf ... \\C \\Cre to in
their stead foretgn deities. it muy be feared thnt
we >hould incur the wrath of our national
lt was not long before an outbreak or pc>ti-
lence seemed tndeed to indicate the displeawrc
of the sun godd=. and >O the>e first tokens of
Buddhbt ritual \\ere fonhwnh thro"n into the
>C:t ut Naniwn. lt \\:lS onl) in the beginning of
the seventh century under the Empress Suiko
and the enlightened Prince Shotoku that Bud-
dhism" ith their fer,ent patronage "as acecptcd
in Japan. The founding or the carlic.t ;hrinl'S nt
Gangoji and Hor) uji in the t\arn plain date
from thi$ period. as do the earliest Buddhibt
icons to be made in Japan. Among the earliest
;urviving religiou; images arc the golden brontc
trinities of " aJ..u;hi and ShaJ..n by a certain Tori
27
28
fiG 11 BUDDHA FROM SEIRY0J1.
JAPAN.
Busshi dedicated at Horyuji in 607 and 623
/1). The cult of Yakushi
guru). the Buddha of Healing. wa. one of the
fir.t to gain popularity in Japan because of the
miraculous cures offered by this divine physi-
cian.
Tori Busshi 11ns the grandson of n sculptor
11 ho had emigrated from the kingdom of Linng
m South Chma in 522. The SI) le of Tori's reli-
gious images marks the introduction to Japan
of the forms and technique, of Chinese Bud-
dhi>t !>Culpture of the Six Dynasties period. The
central Shaka of the trinity dedic-.1ted m mcmol)
of Shotoku Taisbi in 623 the slight
modifications thi> style has undergone in its
translation to Japan (Figure 11). The image is
domonatcd by the two plastoc elements of the
block-like head and the great hand rnised in
blessing: the body itself, as in continental
>Culpt urc. uppears almost dematcrializcd under
the intricate surface linear rhythms of the orn-
pcry. The face itself is a darkly brooding mask,
;ugge,ting the mysterious and onscrutablc prop-
erties attached to Buddhism by the Japanese
of the sc1enth century. Perhap:. the mo;t Japa-
ne>e features of this icon nre the delicac) and
preci:.ion of Lhc: craftsmanship and the abstract
beauty of design in Lhe flame halo and the
tlo\\cr-likc comolution> of the pattern of the
drapery falling over the dais. Although many
icon> of the Suiko period have the same rather
and awe-inspiring coutcnancc;, the
fncial rnn>ks of a certain number of thcoc curly
,tntuc; have a wangcly child-like cast. ti lled
"ilh n radiant expression of innocence nnd
cnndor. This typically Japane;c quality is des-
cribed by words like ltt!imt'i or mean-
ing litcmll) "radiant Hatnes>.'' or simplocoty and
and e'er) thing opposue to the dark and occult.
fiG t2 SH,KA lRtNI!Y, HORYUJI.
NARA, JAPAN
30
The terms may also be applied to Lhe specifically
flat. pancrnized conception of the images as a
whole and the decorative manipulation of sur-
face design. This is a quality which continues to
appear as an immortal thread throughout the
whole Inter fabric of Japanese art.
By the end of the seventh century the manner-
isms of Six Dynasties art had been replaced by
an assimilation of the Tang style. Japanese
Buddha images of the Hakuho and Tcmpyo
periods the same refinement of con
tinental models begun in the Suiko era. The
great black bronze Trinity of Yakushiji is the
metal counterpart of Chinese stone sculpture of
the seventh and eighth centuries 13). The
FIG. 13. YAKUSHI, YAKUSHIJI.
HARA, JAPAN.
central Buddha has the feeling of volume and
weightiness of Tang statues set off by the fluid
naturalism in the disposition of the drapery
folds.
The painted equivalents of such eighth cen-
tury masterpieces were the Buddhas of the Four
Paradises of Horyuji Kondo. the famous wall
paintings destroyed by fire in 1949. The iconog-
raphy of this cycle illustrates the complexity of
Japanese Buddhism in the Hakuho period. The
four Buddhas portrayed - Shaka, Amida,
Miroku, and Yakushi - form a mandala or
magic diagram of the four directions. each with
its heaven presided over by a divine Buddha. It
may be assumed that the basis of this icono-
graph teal arrangement is not to be found in an)
one text but in n number of difTercnt sutras
popular at the time. The style of figu res
like the Amida has nothing Japanese about it :
the form itself the rang ''all paintings
at Tun-huang. and the shading of the robe in
bands of dark pigment reinforcing the lines of
drnpery is a Chinese technique that may be seen
in such famous rang origi nals as the Scroll of
the Thirteen Emperor;, by Yen Li-pen. Some of
the small figure> of reborn souls in thts compo-
;,ilion are so strong!) Indian in fot m and in use
of a heavy chiaroscuro that they might have
been inspired di rectly by Indian originab.
The Tempyo period was an age of secular and
religious po"er and splendor rivaling the Tang
ci' ilizatioo of China. China continued to pro-
vide the models for C\ery phase of Japanese art:
the capital at Nnra was laid out on the plan of
the Chinese city of Ch'ang-an and the Oaibutsu.
the giant Buddha of Todaiji, was inspired by
the colossus dedicated by the Empre.s Wu at
Lung-men. ln the eighth centuf) Buddhism and
Shin to were reconciled in the tenet that the uni-
versal Buddha Vairocana and the sun goddess
Amuterasu were only different mani festations
of the same cosmic splendor. The doctrine of t he
Bommokyo. in which the universal Buddha is
the center of the 1\0rld system with all phenom-
ena. spiritual and material, emanating from
hi m. provided a religious parallel for the polit-
ical structure of Japan with the emperor at the
summit of the social and religious S)stem of the
realm.
Many Japanese Buddha images such as the
famous Roshana at Kanimanji arc informed
with a feeling of expansive volume. described by
the Japanese term ryo. which approximates the
suggestion of the presence of an inner breath or
pneumatic force of Indian image>. It is well to
note that even Matues of >uch colossal siLe
reveal somethi ng of the expres>ion of gentleness
and ingenuous S\\eetness that emerged a; 11
Japanese trait in the \ery earliest period of Bud-
dhist art. For the presentauon of sheer plastic
mass. the conception of sculpture as an exercise
in inter-locking abstract volumes proclaiming
the solidity and weightiness of the form. the
masterpieces of Japanese caning of the eighth
century "ere scarcely equated b) the sculptors
of rang China. The Tempyo masterpieces hae
a classic nobility and serenity that was to be
emulated in many later periods.
The dangers inherent in the ever-encroaching
inRuenceofthe Nara priesthood on the admins-
stration of the empire. led to the removal of the
court to K)oto in 794 and the withdra\\al of
further govcrnmettt support of the Buddhi>t
church. The whole program of Buddhism in
Japan had perforce to be revised with the specif-
ic end of gaining the support of the nobilit) m
the new capital. This aim 1\35 achie'ed through
the appeal of the cults of esoteric Buddhism.
Tendai and Shi ngon, which were introduced by
the priests Saicho nnd Kobo Daishi in the early
runth centuf). In essence the esoteric sects pro-
vided a read) ritual for exorcism. healing. and
1\0rldly benefits. 1t was no \\Onder that the
convenience and practicality of obtaining such
boons simply by recourse to a pric;,t >hould have
appealed to the effete ruling hierarchy in Kyoto
"hose faith \\3S partly a form of 1\0rldly
amusement. partly superstitious trust in super-
natural aid.
From the philosophical point of view. Shin-
son or The True Word was an esoteric doct rine
(Mikk,ro. "secret teaching") descended from the
lndtan Vajrayana >ystem. ln Shingon the cos-
3t
32
fiG. tc. AMtDA, BYODO-IN.
UJI, JAPAN.
mos is identified 11 hh the Universal Buddha.
Vairoc;ma or Dninichi. The particular features
of the unil'ersc in the form of multiple deities
are all manifest:uions of the cosmic Buddha.
All things in the material and spirilUal worlds
are emanations of Vairocana, a va;t con>tella-
tion revolving around the mystic ccntcr of the
worlds. This occult system was pictorially pre-
sented in the form of the maudula.f or magic
diagrams of the material and spiritual worlds.
As in Vajrayana. the recitation of magic spells
and yogic meditation admitted the devotee to
the secret heart of the uwuda/a and identifica-
tion with the cosmic lord. A> Jung expressed it,
.. llte secret instrumenl (of yogn) is therefore
only intended for him whose light of conscious-
ness is capable of freei ng him from the powers
of life (and consciousness) in order to enter into
the ultimate undivided unity. into the ccnter, the
heart of the psyche: lt was no wonder that such
a doctrine would impose an even more abstract
and hieratic form upon the Buddha image. con-
ceived now as a remote godhead and an emblem
of terrible magic power. especially since these
images were regarded as actual emhodiments of
this deity.
In all the esoteric sects mystic union with the
Buddha was the eventual goal. These cults based
on superstition and implicit faith demanded the
employment of secret rituals and spells with
priestly aid for all manner of cures and worldly
benefits. Specific icons were required for differ-
ent rituals and needs. and the reliance on
matical rites for concrete benefits made the
religion approximate the Brahmanism against
which the mortal Buddha had rebelled.
The Buddha images of the Jogan period have
a new and heavy solemnity and imposing
weighty grandeur in keeping with the trans-
cendental aspect of the Shingon deity. The
tendency toward expansiveness and heaviness of
form is so exaggerated in some Buddhas of the
Jogan period that they appear imbued wi th an
oppressile heaviness and bulk. lt is as though
the t-drvers wished to connote the supernalUral
power of the divine beings through the emphasis
on their sheer massiveness of bodily form. In
these images of the ninth century the drapery is
often reduced to shallow su.rface grooves, as
though the carver were unwilling to interrupt
the sensation of volume and mass by a deeper
carving. One formula. the so-called rolling
wave style" ( Hompa Sltiki) which occasionally
appears provides for folds with a rounded pro-
file alternating with sharp ridges. a convention
which goes back to the school of Gandhara. In
some Jogan sculpture, like the famous torso of
Toshodaiji, the drapery appears to be a copy of
the more Huid manner of lacquer sculpture.
In the Fujiwarn period the cit) of Kyoto
became the center of a wonderful but narrow
culture, the chivalric pageant of the Ttde of
Genji. in which the cultivation of aesthetic
refinement in every detail of life was the preoccu-
pation of emperor and nobility. The an of the
Fujiwara period is the art of the capttal. FoUow-
ing the cancellation of further official missions
tO China in 894, Japan entered a period of
isolation. For this very reason the icons of
Fuji"ara times, created apart from continental
inHuences. were more expressive of national
ideals.
The Fujiwara period saw the creation of a
new canon of Buddhist sculpture established by
the famous image of Amida by the sculptor
Jocho in the Byodoin at Uji (Figurt' 14). The
inert hea"iness of the Jogan style has disap-
peared in what is a conscious return to the ideal
of the Tempyo period. Characteristic of Jocho's
type are the benevolent face with downcast
eyes, small nose and mouth. the slender a.rms
\\ith tiny feminine hands. and the robe designed
in flowing parallel curves of drapery. There is
in this formula a balance between massiveness
and grace. Although the Jocho canon revived
something of the classic form of the eighth
century. the Fuji\\nra images gie an impression
of greater lightness and delicacy enhanced by
the exquisite delicacy of their gestures and the
feminine gentleness nnd beauty of the facial
masks. This was a type which with little change
continued to be repeated in later centuries in
Japanese an.
It was the special cult of the Buddha Amida
that more than anything else affected the devel-
opment of the new aesthetic ideal in Buddhist
art of the Fujiwara period. The worship of the
Buddha of Light. Amitabhn. the ruler of the
Westetn Paradise. bad long been known in
Japan. but only in the tenth century did it
develop into a special sect. This new faith in the
saving grace of Amida was furthered even more
by the generally held belief that two thousand
)ears after the Buddha's death a terrible period
of degenerntion "ould set in. The devotion to
Amida was popularized by the preaching of the
holy man Eshin Sozu who held out the prom-
ise of rebirth in the land of Bliss beyond the
sunset. Even more attractive \\US the easy
possibility of salvation by mere in"ocation of
the name of Amida - "namu Amida butsu."
Such a simple formula, without the bocus-pocus
of esoteric sects, to gain an eternal reprieve from
suffering had a mighty appeal for men of all
classes in these troubled times. Many paintings
are actually associated "ith Eshin as their
creator, such as the famous triptych of Koya-
san. which shows Eshin's vision of Amida and
his hosts supported on wreaths of cloud drifting
down from the sky over the hills of Kyoto
(Figure IS). The picture is a faithful represcnta
tion of the account of the descent of Amida in
the Amirayur sulra: "When one who has prac-
ticed these merits is about to be born in that
country. Buddha Amitayus. together with the
two Bodhisan,as Avalokitesvara and Mahas-
thamaprnpta, also numberless created Buddhas,
and a hundred thousand 8/riksus and Sra\"0/.:os
with their whole retinue, and innumerable gods,
together with the palaces of the seven jewels.
will appear before him; Avalokitesvara and
Mahasthamaprapta will offer a diamond seat to
33
34
h1m: thereupon Amita)US himself "ill ;end
fonh magnilkcnt r:I)S to shine O\er the d) ing
pcr.on'; lxxl): In this as in countle..; other
paintml)> from iL the centrnl figure of
Am1da I> e\CCuted in the technique of
cut gold: Gold leaf is cut \\ith a bamboo
knife into a lace" paucrn of geometric or
noral dc,ign,. and then this \\eightleM, ;pidcr-
web of gold i' nrJllied to the silk, sometime> over
an undcrlaycr of gold lcnf, to symbolitc in its
metallic Jumc the mdiant golden glory of
Amida. Thb refinement of technique i> mmched
by thnt of the ligurc>. dr.l\\n in line; of infinite
thin ne;; and churacteri7cd b) a feeling of l.U.tcc
and elegance. an arbtocrotic aloofness and
FIG. IS. YAMAGOSHI AMIDA.
ZENRI NJII, KYOTO, JAPAN.
delicacy that are the religious countcrpan of the
refinement of eanhl) society. The Fuji\\aro
porlrn)al> of Amida ma) be 1cgardcd as an
in JaJ)anese term; of the Buddha
I) JlC introduced from Tang China m
protol)Jl<'S of the eighth century as the Amida
of Horyuji Kondo.
11 \\as inevitable that the >Oft civilitntion of
the Fujiwara. in which the inlluencc of the
monarchy sc:1rccly extended beyond the capital.
fall to one of the powerful military clans
that for long had been disputing the rc<tl rule of
the country. With the installation or a military
dietntor.hip under Minamoto no Yoritomo. it
"a> not >urprising that an era of practicality and
materialism should replace the etfete dream
world of the Fujiwom. These quali tie> assert
themselves particularly in the new realism and
force and austerity in religious art. The ortho-
do>. types of Buddha images in both painting
and .culpture are >ea reel) more than mechanical
repetitions of the earlier formula.
The Kamakura painti ngs of Amida Raigo,
"Amida coming (to ;,a,e)." or the Yamagoshi
Amida in "hich the Buddha loom;. a great
;.un beyond the mountains 15).
created not only for the benefit of the li' in g. but
e.pecinlly for tho;.e in 1!.\tremi.r. Such painting:>.
sometimes in the form or screen;.. were brought
to the death-bed to facili tate the dying man's
translation to Paradi>e.
In the Buddhist p:lintings of the Kamakurn
period. as though to emphasi1e the urgcnc) of
their celestial mission of salvation, the velocity
of the descent of Amida and hi. heavenly host
in the Rnigo compo;itions as;.umcs a 'eritable
rocket-like sp..'Cd. The Buddha and hi;. 'ariou;.
attendants arc as tender and gentle.
intimate and infinitely solicitou;. The 'ery
haste of tl1e divine beings to ;uccor their
devotee-s and their radiant benevolent character
;eem to reflect the increased and implicit reli-
:lllce on Amida for 1he promise of rebinh to a
beuer "orld. In thC>C da)s of ;.trife and unccr
tainty 1here was no longer, :1s in lhe golden
dream of the Fujiwara. with its reliance on
c>oteric magic. an) thought of bringing paradi>c
to earth. bu1 on I) the hope of e'caping to the
L:md of Blhs 1hrough the intcnention of
Amida. In many Kamakura painting> of the
Amidist sects, f..irigum or cut gold leaf almost
enti rely replaces pigmcnL and the forms of
Buddha Amida nnd his train shine like lumi-
nou;. disembodied appearnnec>. Their fragile
gmce and delicate linear definition reminds the
beholder of the radiant. unearthly shapes
created by the fourteenth century painters of
Italy. In Kamukura scuip1ure certain type> of
Buddha image. created by sculptors like Kaikei
and Kokei combined 1he new realism \\ith an
archaistie rciUrn 10 the s1ylc of Jogao and the
Fujiwara periods.
In the la1er centuries orthodox Buddhism was
challenged b) the more dynnmic appeal of Zen
and the doctnnes of Nichircn. and its pic1orial
tmagery enlcr> a long period of decline. The
exquisite delicacy of the J..irigtme technique i.
replaced by gold paint. so that figures tnkc ono
metnllic rather than a iuminou. quali ty. As in
c\cry spent tradition. a hard ne;; and df)
charnctcrize the process of atroph) in work> of
the Ashiknga period and later.
lt is hardly filling to end our accoum of the
evolution of the Buddha image on a note of
decay and aurition in Buddhi;m and its an.
E'en today. in the region' of the religion'>
strength. icon;. continue to b.: produced and in
accordance with traditional canons that emun:
their power and beauty. Finally. it should be
;uid that 1hc purpose of the prc;ent exhibllion
and its description in the page;, of this catalogue
has not been >imply to d1>pla) the ob' 1ous
borro" ing and endless repetition of the t) pc of
Buddh:1 image originally developed in Iodin. but
r:tther to show how the canon for these superb
C\OCatiOnS Of invisible presences. these para-
digms of ben ut) in the religious image. "ere
adopted b) e'er) Asian land \\here Buddhhm
prevailed a;. a point of departure for the creation
of icons approprintc for the religious need, :1nd
reHecLing the ucMhetic ideals of many peoples
for nearly 1\\0 thousand )Can,. The history of
the evolution of the Buddha image in it> mani
35
36
fold translations into national artistic idioms
O\er Asia parallels the e\er-renewed reworking
or the canons of the Graeco-Roman world and
the forms of Christian an and its iconography
through all the centuries of our Western culture.
Benjamin Rowland. Jr.
Harvard University
SOUTH ASIA
1. HEAD Of BUDDHA
INDIA, GANDHARA
2ND CENTURY A.D.
2. $TANDII'IG IUOOHA
INDIA, GANDIIAltA
2MD aNT\lltY A.D.
3. SEATED BUDDHA
INDIA, GAI'(DHARA
laD OR .TH a t ~ T \ l l t Y A.D.
~ . SEATED IUOOHA
INDIA, GANDHARA
3110 Olt ~ T H CENTURY A.O.
5. STAttOING IUOOHA
INDIA, GANOHAIIA, KUSHAN
Ja!>-4TH CfNTIMY A.O.
43
6. IUDDHA FU.GM.ENT
INDIA. KUSIIAN PEliOO
2ND CEiffilRY A.D.
7. HfAO Of IUOOHA
IHOIA. KUSHAH l'fliOO
2HO QHTUitY A.O.
8. SU. TEO IUOOHA
IHDIA, KUSH.VI l'fiiOD
3RD 01 4TH QNTUIY A.O.
9, TOSO Of A IUOOHA
IMOIA, GUPT A PElt lOO
STH CfMTIJIIY A.O.
10. HfAO Of A 11U00HA
IMOIA, GUPTA PUIOO
5 rH CfMTIJIIY A..O.
49
11. TORSO Of BUDDHA STATUE
INDIA, GUPTA PERIOD
5TH CfNTURY A.D.
12. HEAD Of BUDDHA
INDIA, GUPTA PERIOD
STH CENTURY A.D.
52
I 3. SEATfD aUOOHA
IHOIA. GUPTA 1'01100
$1H CftmJIIY A.D.
14. STANDING BUDDKA
INDIA, GUI'TA PERIOO
slH CfNTURY A.D.
53
1$. HfAO Of IUOOHA
KA$11-
nH Ct1TUIY A.O.
16. SU.TfD IUODHA
KASHM.
IJTH-10111 CfHT\IIIY A.D.
ss
17. STLE ~ IUOOHA
INDIA. ,AlA PU100
9TH- 10TH CENT\JI't A.O.
11. STANDING IUOOHA
INDIA, ,AlA l'fliOO
10TH CENTUIY A.O.

19. CIIOWNfD BUDDHA
INDIA, PAI.A PERIOD
10TK CENTURY A.D.
60
20. $EA no euooHA
INDIA, PALA PUIOO
7TH-8TH CEHTUitY A.D.
61
62
71 . SEATED BUODHA
INDIA. PALA l'fRIOD
7TK-tTH CfNTURY A.D.

22. CROWNED IUDDHA
INDIA, PERIOD
lOTH CENTURY A.D.
23. SEATED BUDDHA
HEr Al.
16TH CENTURY A.D.
2. PAMCAVJCSIIA MAMOAlA
nan
lllll CEMTUitY A.D.
2S. PAGE FIOM A PI>LJA LEAF SIITJA
NEPAL
lllli- 12TH CEMTUitY A.D.
~ 6 . IUOOHA ANO THE EIGHT IOOHISATTVAS
NEPAL
14TH CENTVU A.O.
69
SOUTHEAST ASIA
70
17. tUOOIIA
ll1AILANO, OVARAVAtl PfRIOO
7TH A.D.
72
28. STANDING BUDDHA
THAILAND, MON.DVARAVATI PElUOO
7TH CENT\IItY A.D.
29. HEAD Of IUDOHA
KHMEII
13TH CEHTUitY A.D.
JO. SEA TD BUDDHA
THAilAI'{(), SUKHOOAYA STYLE
I ~ T H CENTURY A,O.
31. STANDING BUDDHA
THAILAI'{()
13TH CfNTURY A.D.
32. HEAD Of 8UDOHA
THAILAND
16TH CfNTURY A.D.
33. $TANDING 8UOOHA
THAILAND, AYUOifYA SlYlf
16Tll CENT\IIY A.D.
n
78
30. 8UDOHA
JAVA
8lli-9TH CfHTUIY A.D.
80
35. HEAD Of IUDDHA
INDONESIA
CA. 800 A.D.
81
CHINA
82
36. STANDING IUDDHA
CHINA, SIX DYNASTIES PERIOD
DATED <144 A.O.
37. SU.TtO IUOOHA
Oil HA
OA TEO 338 A.O.
38. IUOOHA WITH TWO Ami<ANTS
OIIHA
5TH C!I4TIMY A.O.
as
39. STANDING MAilllfYA IUOOKA
CKINA, Sill DYNASTIES PEIOO
DATED 477 OR .136 A.D.
87
o. IUOOHA MAITUYA
CHINA. SIX OYNA511fS
PERIOD
OATIO 538 A,O,
41, SEA T0 MAl TUYA IUOOHA
CWIW., SIX OYHAS TitS
PEIIOO
~ 2 . STtl.f Wltl1 IIUOiliiA lo\AilllfYA
CHINA. SIX DYNASTIES rt'IIOO
92
43. SU. TtO tVOOHA
CHINA. T' AHG PERIOD
93
... MAHDALA
CHINA. r A ~ rEIIOO
s. STANDING &UDOHA
CHINA
6TH CNTURY A. D.
ol6. HEAD Of' &UDOHA
CHINA. rANG PUIOO
98
4. STAI'IDING IUODHA
Oil !'lA
DAT0 1107 A. O.
~ 9 . STANDING IUOOHA
CHINA, MING r01100
101
102
~ . STANDING uDDHA
CHINA, CH'ING ffitiOD
Sl . SEATED IUDDHA
CHINA. M t t ~ 01 CHtHG PEIIOO
105
JAPAN and KOREA
106
52. MAITIEYA IN MEDITATION
JAPAN, SUIKO PEliOO
nH CENTUIIY A.D.
108
53. IUOOKA AMIDA
COrY fROM WALl r AltrnHG
fROM HOIIYU Jl
- ~
54, SHAKA TRINITY
JAPAN, SUIICO PUIOD
DATED "IN THf YfAR
Of BOSHI" 628 A.O.
109
110
. ~
....
.
SS. HEAD Of IUDOHA
JAPAN, TfMPYO PEaiOD
56. IUDOHA SEA TfD OH A LOTUS
JAPAN, TfMPYO PEIIOD
111
112
51. TOIISO Of STANDING lUOOHA
JAPAN, lOGAN PERIOD
9TH CENTUitY A.D.
11 4
~ . suno I UDOIIA
),r. P,r.H, AALY f UJlWAJI,r. PBtiOD
$9. S IAHDIHG IUDOit ..
J"'""' JOG .. H PBIIOD
9TI1 CDITWY ... o.
60. ICHIJI KONIIIN (DAINICHI)
JAPAN, LATE fUJIWARA OR EARLY
KAIMKURA PERIOD
111
118
61. SVlltA
JAPAN
fUJIWARA
ffRIOO
121
62. J000 MANDA.A
JAPAN, I(AMAI(URA PUIOD
63. SEA TtD IUODIIA
JAPAN, fUJIWAAA PUIIOD
122
64. STANDING BUDDHA
ATTRIIUTED lO KAIKfl
JAPAN. KAMAKURA PERIOD
65. AMIDA GOSON
JAPAN, KAMAKURA PERIOD
1 2 ~
66. IUDOHA
KOitfA, $1LLA PEIIOO
668 93S A 0.
61 SfAitO IIJDOtiA
JA'AH. ASHIIC,AGA 'EliOD
126
68. AMITAIHA ntiHITY
ICOitfA, Yl PEIOO
18TH C f H T ~ Y A..O.
DESCRIPTIVE NOTES
128
I. HEAD OF BUDDHA
India. Gandbara
2nd -ury
Sdlisl
Htl;lu: 6'
Mr.&: Mrs. Beojamio Roll land,
Jr.
2. STANDING BUDDHA
India. Gondhara
2nd
Schlsl
llelglll : 40'
An.onymOU loon
J. SEATED BUDDHA
I ndla. Gandbara
Jrd-llh
Sb1<
trolglu: 2lW
\ ' ale lJnlnrshy Art Gallery
Anonymous gift
4. SI':ATEI) BUDDHA
lndlo. Gondhara
l'rom Snd Dh<ri. Paldslan
Jrd-llh Ct'IIIUr)'
Slot
Htlllbl: 4l'
Mr. &: Mrs. Beojamin Rowbnd,
Jr.
71ris htod Is typlcol of tire l'ery rarlitst Gandhora stJit, In tht type of
turn oJtd still strorrgly of
71rt w[t. ffmrlnor. ftaturtS and tlut wavy lwir srniq to disgu/u tlut ush-
nisha opptor duivtdfrom a Grotct>oRomlln Apollo type. l""""'raphicolfta-
tuus such os thr tlongattd tar-loiNs and the uma or mmk /Nt,.trn tht
art, of COUTK. lndi.tm rle,...nts rombiMd ith Wrstrrn r.chniqur.
71rt hrod with Its soft, r/feminorefraturu is dtril'td from a Gratct>oRaman
t)pr, possibly tire Apollo /klrrdert. 71re robe is a schematl:rtil'trslon of the
rarmtntl of RomaJr lmptrial portrait Slll/UtS of the August Oil Otrd Claudion
periods. Tl,. strongly cliJSSical charac,.r of this am/ other early Gandlwra
Budflllns 10 /ndlratr tltar M'Cre corvtd by k'Orktrs rralntd ill the
pagan orkslrops of the Roman Near East, possibly In SJria or Egypt. 71re
JYtsttrn tulmlqut has been JuperilllPOS'd 011 an lmlla11 /co11ography.
Tltls/moge i1111stratrs "indianl:atloll" of orlgilw/ly classical type of
Gandhora Buddha. 71rr lutariness of tlr< bed)' and tht fiillllus of the fau are
m()rr Indian, and I'Q(aminous tota of early BuJJira type has been
into a formula in 'M h/ch tht folds by
quilttd applied to tlut srnfact of tht ix>d) 71rls Is a formula thor pro-
i<lrd a model for COWitltSS imitations of Gandhtua t)peS in Cmtral Asia
DJtr.l tht Far Eon. The statw INan an inscription In t.ht name
"&1," probably that of tht riDIIDr of tht lnflllt. 71rt Buddha is rrpresenttd
in tlrr mud m of m<rlttotlon or dhyani, a gesturr lndicatlllJithotthls is Sakya-
mulll atthr time oftht! Lzllghltnmtnt.
Sari Is tl silt ntar Peshawar tltat has ylcrltltd objects from tht Indus
Vallt)' ptrlod to Kuslrau times. T1u"s small fragme/11 lllmtrotts one of t he
moll,.' ('01114!111/0mlll:ations of tht cltwlcal of tarty Gnm/110rn Butldlras
to a simple 1/rrtor incision. 71rr Budtlha, probably parr of a long slob from a
monaJttry fa<atle, Is s/tOk'n In the nbbaya mudrn, the trsture ofbltsslng or
ltaJJtJfQIICt.
5. STANDING BUDDHA
lndl. Gandhanl
3rd4tb tftltury
Bronu
Hdghr: u;
Tbe MttropoUtao Muswm of
Art
Edith Ptrr)' Chapman fund,
1948
6. BUDDHA
lndb. Kusban Period
From Motbura
2nd ttntury
Redsancb1ont
Height: u;
1\fus<um of fine Arts. ll<toa
7. HEAD 01' BUDDHA
lodb. Ku>lw> Period
2lld .... tur)
Red sandstOM
Height: 9!
Mr. & Mrs. Nsli Heuamontck
8. SEATED BUDDHA
Jndilo. Kusbln Period
From Matbura
3rd4th century
Red sondston
Height: 24'
Tbe Clcdand liiUSCtllll of Art:
Ed\Ollrcl 1.. WitttmOrt' Fund
71ril objt<t is one of a small nmnbtr of Gond/rora mt1a/ sratuts that reflect
tht ll)'lt of the more familiar stone lmagts. lt is liktly that it 'Os through
the txport of such smailtrslotu of the Gtwiluua type of Buddha that tht
form ond ltanograplry found tlttir 14't1J' to CtnirtJl Ana ond tltt For &st.
11ris fragmmt of o llotut /1 a smoiltr I'Orfont of such famous Kuslr<VJ Bud-
dluu DJ that dtditatttl by Friar &la in tht! Afllltum at Sar-
11(11/t or thtt Stott*tl Bmltllw from Katra ;, the ftftlllra A1,stum. ThfJ Is a
complttt.f)' Indian I)'JH lth the lxKi)l anti/act represemtd In txptmslc,
roundtJ nrrus.t!s indlt'otnl b) simplt. skt/ling plants, on Indian ttch-
nlqut tlrot, in all tfosslc sculpturt, connotts tlrt fullnus tutd ormth of
in on abstract mlt. 11rt drapt'ry, indicottJ b) incisions and rltftrs, Jttms
from tlrr ttchnlqut of tht archaic Indian schools. As in all fnllton Butldlros
Is scr11pu!ous illllltatlon oftht laksh3nn or magic marJ..s.
11rls lrtad is on rxamp/r of thr tarfitll l ntflan t)pc of Buddha. 711t sharply
ploMs. tht roth" iltOI'fonic. application hroJ
thr tttlrnlqw oftltt Indian schools of gulpturt. Tlrtrt iJ an C'titknt
atumpt to rt!!fder the fact o/thC' OM -..arm ond b<ntoftnl by
tht k'ldt-optn ryts. smiling mouth, and tilt radlanr wt!lfIH'Ing connoted
by tlrt >'tr)' of tilt fo<lalmask.
11ris Buddlta ltos tlrr mosslr hraoy proportions of the Kushon ranon. Tht
trtotmtnt of tht droptr) m o sptrm of pora/M quilttd rldtfu ontiripotu tlrt
formula of tht Gupto lmagts of tlrt fouTth onJ fifilr ttnturl-s. os dHs the
srlu oftht torso tmd the shorp prttislon oftht cunlrw.
129
130
9. TORSO OF A BUDDHA
lndlo. Cuptll Ptrlnd
From Madwr2
Sth cmtury
Rt'd S:lndstOM
lght : -IS!'
Nt l'iOn Gallery (Nol.,.;n Fund)
Kun<aS Oty
10. HEAD OF A BUDDHA
lndlo. Cuplo Period
From l\lolhuro
Sth cmtury
Rt'd
Htlght: llf"
Mustum of Fme Arts, Boston
11. TORSO OF BUDOiiA
STATUE
l ndl. Cuplll Period
From Samotb
Sth cmtW')
Chunnr
Height : 30'
The Clecltlnd J\lustum of Art :
Purclwe from IM J . H.
\ \ odt Fond
Tilt BuddJws durin/{ tire Gupta prr/od ou a combination of the mas
slr. typically Indian type of body of thr Kushan and thr originally
drapery of Gantllrara. Tlor folds. as In thr latt Gant!Jrara aamplrs
orr simplifirtl to stnnzlikr ritfgrs fallinz In paral/rlloops tlo11 thr ntral
axis form. 11tt rippling /710l'rmt'nt ofthi.s of folds stnu to nliee
tht static colwmwr rigltlit) of the body.
This I.J the IJ'JN' of htad that 'M'OJ1ftl lrrne /Ntn auachtd ro thtt torso from
Ka11JIIS Cit)'. Thr fact has tire spherical fullness o/thr Kus/1011 Buddha, carc<tl
witlt ltrji11ite soph/Jtlcatlo11 and frrllnt for the btaury oftht s/mplr inrulack-
lng pluMs thot t:ontptlst tire masA. Tltt t)'C*J,follo-.ing tht unhtrStJlltWtD--
I'horlcal n>mrnrlon, art s/taptd liAr /otUJ petals: thr bros haw: the subtlr
.<printint curr of thr nttm plant or thr bow. 11rr snail-sht/1 rorls tkttri
tht Buddha's hair afur ht had cut off ltls printrl)' locks at thr Grrot Rt-
uunrlmlon. T11r greatly In t!Jis ami otlttr Buddha
11rr to be txp/ain.,l by tht focr tlrot. as a Prinu of tht Sokyo t/an, Sltl
tllmrtlm likt! ertry lndltlll nobleman tnormowly ltt!avy earrings -..hlch
oruficiall)' srmchrrlthr /obts.
n,r, is a fragmtltl ,, Ollt! o/tht! grt!CII IIUJfltrpitct!J of Gllpltl sculptuu tltat
llhmrotts rhr finttl rrali:arlon of tht lt1rllon itltol o/tlrr ButfJha lnUJgt. Tlrr
rW has to a smoorlt trantpartm ltlrmt'nl rompltttlyurm/iJ11
tht form bttntotlt. lt is a t.ol'llkr/ullllrntratlon o/tht! Indian sculptor'.s ro,.
reption ofrht bocl) as on abstract shoJW compoRd o/lmtncamr!Nrtd plaMs
that in thdr gentlt tnltrlorking ronnott hotlt tht swtllilf)f fitllntss of tht form
tmd tht k'ilfluth offltslr. lu simplidt>' nnd crystalliut' perfittion it a
f"tf.ct symbol uf tht immomlott purity o/thr body o/tlr. Tothogara.
12. HEAD OF BUDDHA
I ndla. Gupr Ptriocl
From Sarnarb
5th t't'll tury
Chunar snndslont
Height: Uij'
Mr. & MtS. Nasll HttnDilllltd:
13. SEATED BUDDHA
India. Gupm Ptrlod
Slb t't'lltury
Bromr
Htighr : 7'
Or. &: Mrs. Samutl Eil<nbtrg
14. STANDING BUDDHA
India. Gupla Period
From Ohllnesar Khenl, 8anda
dislrict. Urtor Prod<Sb
Sth ctniUry
Bromr
Height: 14}:
Nelson Galltr) (Ntlson Fund)
15. NEAD OF BUDDIIA
Kashmir
From Ushkur
7lb century
Tun..mtta
Htigbt : 9J'
Bid:ronl, Cledand,
Ohio
111u I>Muri/ul fragmrnt Is from of th Buddlta miHk at th slu
of /M First Pnachl1f6 In tht mid-fifth ctntury. 111< IFfW npnunts tht ultl
matt nfintm.nt of prtctdtnts of th< Gandhara and Kushon schools. lt is th
final fiUIIan id.al for th Butldha foe.. Under tht bros t11nrd lib o bow.
arc tiiJ!rarttl in lo rtlief. 771f full,jlowerliktlips rtptot
gou/e curres. All O/tlrtse features art compltttly
mass of tht head a1td tht Oloid of its contour. A sin oiiiiHJSttrpltrtl
of tht Gupta ptriod, thrrt fs an ollnost perfrction of form In thr
unlnttrrupud SliiOOthntss of tht fodJJI p/an.s and, at tht sa""' timt, b) Its
dtstription in quitt, circular shopts, tht fact rodiatrs a fttling of inforflt
sutnity and purity.
n,t Buddha iS stoud on a raisttl dfa1, hl.s riglltltand in tht mmlrn
of charity. Tlrll btmll/fill JlllttU!tU has all tlu! WQIIIImttrtalfty of the grtat
txnmplrs of Gupta in stone.
11111 ll'tftal imagt' is a in small scalt of tht stylt o/tlrt fourth and
fifth stotrt imogts of Sornnth. lt retains at tht same somtthlng
of tht soft IIOIIJTOIJstlc trtollnelll of draptry setn In early Gatrdhclfn sru/pturt.
Coumftss small sratut.l of tltls "''trt mmlt' In Gupta times and. lutu, at
lialolllfD untltr tht Palas. 111rlr upon ltd to tilt sprtad of Indian st)lrs
throughouttht l11<1iun urld.
Kasltmlr remollttti us an isolatt'd ompost o/lnd/a, Buddhism anti its art t'll
d11rtd long Qjitr the tcflp.re nf tht Kushan ami Gupta empires. In st)'lt'. tltt'
ltt'ad with its [rte, .fomtM-Imt ncllllralisrlt' fiiOdtllt.g suggtsts tht> ttclml(filt' of
tlrt srurco satlpturrs of Gandhara. This Is romblnt"d with somt"thmg of tht
ltltol absrraclton of form llSJIXiattd 'ilh thr Gupta st)lt of Mothura anJ
SamarJr.
131
132
16. SEATED BliDDHA
Kasbmlt
91h-101h t'ftllury
Gill bront<
Hoighl: 4t'
Mr. & Mrs. Nasli Hooramancck
17. STELE OF BlrDDHA
IDdis. Pab Period
9th-101h t'ftllury
Blark thlorioe soone
Helglll : 25'
Nelson Call..-y (Nelsoo Fund),
Kansas Cily
18. S1'ANOINC BlJDDHA
lndlu. PaiA period
IOih nlury
Blatk thlorile Slone
Heighl: 41'
Frank Caro
19. CROWNED BUDDHA
India. Pab Porlod
lOth <ftllllr)'
Diad< dllorho SIOOO
Heighl: 16}'
Mr. & MN. NllSii
This u onotAtr iffusrrotion of of tM Gupta
itkol, long afttr th Dlfd tlrt r<-litlon lt S<'n'td in India hod wmlslrtd.
Tht rtlotionshtp of this statumt to -to/ Buddlras of Npal and Tibtot is
not only by thtir common from tilt art of tht &ngal
Valley, but olso h) tht txcharrg.s artistic, rtlltlous, and tllplomotlc. which
are known to ltawt taken plau Kashmir and t!te Comrtry ofrhe
Snows.
This imogt u l)#col of countless uompl.s of stotuts dMring tlrls lost
ptriod of Buddilism in India. srylt Is tss.ntiJJI/y o r<-ptt/tlon of th<- tdrJJI
l)'ptS of tht Gupta ptriod, htr rtduc.d to o somtwhot mechanical. dry at-
cm ion. The Budtllra Is sllo11'n in the bhumispnrs.a. or earthtouclu'tfl, mudra.
71tis is a rtft'ttiiCt! to fill of the Grtar Enlightenment"'"'" assaulted
by th< Dt111011 Mt1ra, Sokyumuni cnllrtlupon tht Eonh Godtl.ss 10 support
his rig hi to takt his s-at btontolh tM Bodhl Trtt 01 Ill< pal< of tltt unilerst.
In Moha)ona ButldJriJm, this poSt' is takn Ol'tr for ponro)ols of Akslrobhya,
the Dhyani Bwldlro oftlr< East, and /t mo)' tll bttlrot this
<ntotion of thil m>stlc diint Buddlro.
71re sttle slrows the Butldha with hi's bolly brill in a Cllfl.'C as /11 the
images of tht Guptu JMrlod. The pou ,.,,, urtalnly origlnnlly to Im-
port a of niO\'tml'nt. almost a suggtsrlon of the But.ldhal moviq
toard tht Tht stylt, as 1uuo/ In tht Polo sculptur<- of &ngal, ,._
fttcts 1ht Gupto canon in" dry prteisl! ttchnlqur. The btost of tlrt Po/Q Icons,
ilk< tht prtSMt onr. still rrtoin somttlung of the -onduful fnling for im-
moculatt surfou and o/ume tlrat t)'pl/itd tltt srylt of Samath In the fifth
ctlttury.
Suclr c:row11td and images nre gtntrally rtgaFdtd as rtpresl'nta.
rlons of tht &uldl1o trunsfigurtd ;, SambhOI!Ilkaya with ro)ol our/butts
S)'mboli:irrg th< di>inr rodionu and spltntlor Body of Bliss. This t)'pt
ith tht Jrands In tht guruu of Turmng 1hr 11'11<-tl of l.o (Dharma-
cakra mudra) Is rtP'ottd in Npol, Tibtot, ond tht Far Eos1 for rtprtstn
rations o/tht suprtmt Buddha Vafroama.
20. SEATED BUDDHA
India. Pa!a Period
From Kurkilulr (Bihar)
7tb-81b century
Gilt bromc
Height: 3 1/ 16'
Mr. & Mrs. Nosli Heeramaneck
21. SEATED BUDDHA
Iodin. Palll Period
From Sirpur
7th-Sib century
Gilt bronu
Height: 7f'
Mr. & Mrs. Nasli HeemJlllllWek
22. CROWNED BUDDHA
Beogal, India. Pnla Period
lOtb ""ntury
Gill bronze
Height: 9 llfl6'
Mr. & Mrs. Nasli Hceramantd<
23. SEATED BUDDHA
Nepal
!6tb
Gilt bronze
Rclgbt: 9i'
Mr. & Mrs. Nasli Heeramaned:
24. PANCARAKSHA MANDALA
Tibet
18th century
Color and gold oo linen
E1en more than stone sculptures oft/re Polo puiod. tire small bronzt
from sites like Kurkihar and Sirpur and re/ine--
Gup111 Tltey ttnd ro bl! ltluarlc:. and formaliud, but
the examoles in the presellf eol/ectlon:disp/ay a much greater bto11ty of rec.h-
and form tlratJ the beltt rknown bronzes mmle at NCifanda in the Polo
era.
71Jl.s image represents the Buddha stated in European fashion and may,for
tiJis reason. be a portrayal of type of and rlr11 body tn ..
dosed in tile smO(Jth mantle tm a small scaltt the beautiful tDJl OII
of the Gupta style of Sarttath.
Thi.s mBtal image is a minlature counterpart of the iconographical type
qmmtly in stone sc11fpture of tilt period. The preselll image
in the Bhum.isparsa or earth-touching mudra may be a rtprtsvuario, of
the Buddha Akshobhya. Statumes of this tYP< are the aucstors of the
Dhyani Buddlms and
Tire strict adltf'rt.wce 10 cunonkal rules for /C(JnS in Nepal and Ti/Nt made for
(I clrtmgtltss repetition of earlier types. This rigid traditionnli.rm ;, the mak
ing of icons Is to be explai11t!d by tht fact that a special sanctity was auachffl
to BudiUw lmages mOlle in India. or famous situ were
somehow thought to partake of essence of tire Buddha once mam-
festtd himself there, so that .wmething of tlu"s virtue and miraculous property
would be tratu/trred 10 a Strict of originals.
71tis palming Is of o type deJcribed br Tibet ti.S a gser t'an I.Jr "goltle" ranka"
characterl;etl by the goldfiguus against a red ground. In this beomifitl
rothtt mode rite figurts emerge iridt.ft:l!flf against the ruby
bockgromul. Tile C'entral figure is Sakyomunl auended by the /kJdllisauas
133
134
JSt' by 26!"
Fogg Art Museum (Wmel
Bequest)
25. PAGE fROM A PALM
LEAFSUTRA
Nepal
11 tbl2tb century
22:l' by 21'
Mr. &: Mls. NasU Hetr.ullllneek
26. B U DDHA RATNASAM-
BHA VA (Rin-chen abyunldlln
and the Eight Bodhisathas
Nepal
141b <"'ntury
Color on Uneo
Mr. & Mrs. Nasli Heeramantd<
(Co.,.. flluslnltloo)
26a. SEATED BUDDHA
Centrnl Asia, from Tumscbuq
4tbStb eentury
Oay
Muse< Gulmet, Paris
(Not iiiU!tnlted)
27. BUDDHA
Thailand. Dvaravati Period
From Chieog Mal
Alolokltl'nara and &low, to the le/1 and right, Kuvna the
god oftalth and the Hi1uiu deity of w!Jdom Gonuha. and, at the <r)l bot
tom. Mahakala, great Black One," one of the eight prottctlng
dilnitln of Jhe Vajrayana pantheon. As always in Tibetan art, tire forms are
based on prc-txlsting paradigms. so that the close resemblance to earliest
examples of Nepalese pointilll in the collection are not at all surprising.
The miniarure illustrations accompanying the inrocations of,arfoiiS deities
in tlts ma11uscripts are faithful copies of the style of the Pala period in
Jndia. The hove bun uduud to a fiat /or m of the same
beauty of eo/or that characterizes the earliest examples of Nepalese painting.
Ratnasambhava Is the Dhyani Buddha of the South, and thisranko may hae
formed part of a s<t Including all fie oft he mystic Buddhas of the dlr<ctions.
His distincriw! eo/or is yellow, and he is shown in tht varada mudra or
geswre of charity. Tlte costume with crown and jn.e/s follows the lconogrtr
phy of impllcotions of/ridden erotlc charm in tire f!.nigmt:ltic expressions, the
svelte elegance of the bodies, and the sinuo11s moving line. a quality entirely
compatible with tlie magic se:tUill dr11racur of Jlajrayana Buddhism. In this
early example of paintiltg in Ni!pal the brr'/liant colors and the mo.nu
mental figurt.'i seem like a dlstam ecl1o of classic Indian style of Ajanta.
This fragmem from the o/Tmnsdmq in Turkesta11 was
by an ltd by Pa11/ Pel/lot early 111 tht presem century. sculp-
ture of Tumschuq represents an eastward exrensio11 of the styles of clay Q.Jtd
stucco SCiilplllre found at Hadda and Folldukistan in Afgham'stan. ne treat-
ment oflht drapery illustralts a fitrther formoll:.atlon of whal H'al OftCl! tlze
classic ro!N of 1.he GandJ1ara sta.tue.s and proo;idt.s the dlrtCI prototype for
thtt earliest Buddhist sculplllre of Chinll.
This beautiful image of the or pedod Is clearly derio;ed
fromthf Gupta Buddhas of rlre Sarnath Sclrool. Tire breadth of shoulders ancl
the ntltt tapered prof'()rtion oflht body hme btt11 exaggerated iniO a mol ...
7th wuury
Black
Height: Slt'
Nelson Gallery (Ndson Fund)
28. STANDING BUDDHA
Tballancl. Dvatll>"llti Period
7th century
Bronze
Height: Sl'
The Cleveland Museum or Art;
Norman 0. Stone aod Ella
A. Stone Memor!l Fund
29. HEAD OF BUDDHA
Khmtr
13th eeorury
Limt'Stooe
Hight: sr
Fogg Ar1 Museum
30. SEATED BUDDHA
Thailand. Sukhod:ly style
14th eeotury
Bronze, with Jl'ltina unci traces
of gilding
Height : Z4l'
Breeu"ood Foundation,
Monkton, Md.
31. STANDING BUDDHA
Thailand. From Lopbwi
13th century
ing canon of beauty. Touchts of uafism, as in the swelling fold of flesh at
rht waist DJtd the indlcarlon of thl' knte. caps., tUiimatt the. abstract collctp-
tion. Particularly beautiful and typical of .ar/y Thai Buddhas is the decora
of the lines of the indiw'dual in ethoing curvts.
This srafl1t-lle is a ,small of the standing stone Buddha from
Cltieng Mal. Its deril'tuion from a model of the Gupta JH!rlod at Sarnath is
in the disposition of the hotly in an Scune and in the chmaCJeristic
sheath-like Local traits of this imported Indian style ore the enlarged
curls, open eyrs. und full lips, parts of a head h'lrich, as usttal, is somewhat
out of scale with the proportion of the body.
The /"ads of Buddha imagts of the last cenwry of the classic period of
Cambodian art prestrve the solid cubic mass of The fraturl!s,
Instead of being applied to the .rurface and reilljorutl with engravt!d outlines,
are llOW absorbed in tlrr plastic mass oftlrr head. 11Jls teclmique ruulrs in a
greatu softness of modelling which Sr!ned to accentuate the introspectite
dreamy exprts.st'on implltd by the familiar formula of tire dosed eyts and
smlling /lps. The Sl4gge.ttlon of personality is to M explained by the fact that
in Cambodia images of divinities were ideal portraits of the king in the guise
of the presiding dttity of th' rra/m.
1?1e robe is -...orrr in the .. open'' mode, one rnd being folder/ back and forming
o shoulder flap. 71te of the image I$ known to tilt Siamese os Maravi-
jaya. The noble, decorotlie of the image ltas many rtminisuncu of the
classic nroJml'r.
The Buddha is rtpresenud with both hands in the gesture of
(Abhayo mudra) and wearing a crown. This /attu emblem designated tllf
concttption of tlrt' Buddlro as in Samblrogakayo a11d a/ludtJ to
135
136
Broau
Htlgbt: 6j
u- P. Coollclge
JZ. HEAD OF BUDDHA
Thaibuld
16tb ttoltlr)'
Bronze
Holght : UW
Fogg Art MUS<'um
33. STANDING BUDDHA
Thailand. Ayudbya style
16th = tury
Broau, <<ntml with lacq_.
intei'IMd as ao adbesin to
the gold letf
llolgbt: 28!
lltftwoood Fouodatioa.
Monl..tOII, Maryland
33a. STANDING BUDDHA
Thailand. Bangkok sryle
19th <"fii iUr)'
Wood, lacquered and gilded
Height : 103 on.
Foundation,
Monkton, Md.
tht Cam/xJdian and Siamt: cult of dcva raja. Tlo< stylt u that of tht laJt
tiOJstc monumtnts of tht JWriod of tht &)-on at Aqkor.
11rt BudJha htads in 11railand of thU f"rlod rontlnut tht formula of tM
classic period of Khmtr scu/pturt in Cam/xJdla. 11rt Yparatlon of tltt hair from
tht fact by a broad band is a tftict of Khmtr htadJ oftht Aqkor JWriod,
and attht samt tlmt the 11raiftt1i"8 for the dtcoratlt persists In tht petal
slroJWd t)'ts that rtpeat tht formula for tht tarlim imOJ/<3 of tht D-oraatl
JWrlod.
/11 adtlltlon to the mOIIIJStlc robe, .. :/rich is In the ''c<ntrbtg" modt, tltt 811d
tlha wtorl tht ornamtms of TDJ'tllty. The abh.ayamudra of Indian Iconogra-
phy U know11 to tht Slomts.t as Ham Nati . .. prttntbtg klnsmtn from qUJlr
rtllq o>tr tht "''altr rights of tht Rohini." Tlo< imOJI<IJ doubtltss a ropy of
some rrtat CJJ/1 .statut, which tttYJre a gold croktn ONJ liad rtal orfW.ItlDfts
tuJWr/mpostd on tht monastic drtss, possibly tht Sorbtjno, tht Palladium of
A)'udh)a. Bodl)' damagtd duriJtg tht Burmst or$ of th late tight .. ntlr
etntury,tht Sorlw}nafound its t<ay to IJol!lkak tarly In tht nin<tttntlr antu-
r) anJ "41 Malt*d up insilk a cetiya tott.tT. /t is J.M,.n tltatlt -.w a stDlfli"llll
lnaagt. bur {urlhtr ducription is lackin,g.
suptrnatura/ anatomy is ratlrtr in.s.isted on htrt! and the ushnisha, thl!
diJttlldtd tarlobrs. gold..colortd skill are almost llnhtrsolln Si.amtst
Bmldhn lmagn. Tht tt'tn fingers antlrMt and tht pro}trlilfG hrtls au usual,
hut urnn IJ much ltss common. The monastic tlrns, rcpust!ntt'd as red
cloth rmbroltlered with gilt flo-..,rs. Is om In thr "OJWn" mode. a11d tholtlfh
ltls styllutl, lt IJ coherently and comprthtnJfte/y nndtrtd. Certain tltmenu
of tltt "''alst doth, wlliclr is ,.aJ/y undtr tilt robt, ar< vlslbl btcoutt tht
radiance of tht Buddha's /xJdy malct3 the robt tronspattnt. 71rl! visible tft.
nwnll lnciUilt tht part of tht cloth. turntd tlottrn ovtr an lnrlsiblt
cloth btlt, and a pant/ of pftattd doth fal/iq tJo,.n vtrtlcally btt .. n tlrt
l<gs.
34. BUDDHA
Indonesia . From J ava
8th-9th century
Bro=
Height: 7t'
Professor Samuel Eilenberg
35. HEAD O F BUDDHA
Indonesia. From Borobudur
ea. 800
Grey voleanlr stone
Height: I Si'
Seattle Art Museum; gift of
Mr$. J ohn C. Atwoud, Jr.
36. STANDING BUDDHA
37.
China. S ix Dynasties Period
Dated 444
Bronze
Height : 111'
Museo Nazionale deU' Arte
Orlentale, Rome
SEATED BUDDHA
China
Datod 338
Gilibronze
Height: l ;Ji'
M. H. De Yo-
t.fuseum, San
Afery Brundage
Memorial
Francisco,
CoUectlon
This small statue, like. all such metal h'tlS by a peculiarly
fined use of the cire-perdue process. The fact that tire Budtllla is in vitarka
mudra, tlte gesmre of inslrucrlon. makl's it likdy tltaJ tltis is a represmto-
tion of Vairocana, probably inundttd for prh'ate in a monastic
establlshmem. The style of tM.t Mautifu/ suuuette with Its softly
smooth p!UlleS o11d radiam spiritual e:cpressil'tmess Is ;, reality o mi11iaturc
replica of the guat stat11es of Borobmlur.
This head of om! of the Dhyani Buddhas from mommrenr of
Indonesian Bmld/Jism represents allttltimau oft he Gupra formu-
la. The moviltg simplicity of tlte planes of the mask make this a symbol of
the perftttion of the myslic Buddha.
This Jtatt"tte is one of the t>atlfest known examples of elated Bmldilist sculp-
ture in China. 71Je style of drapery is a lini'ar comemionalization of t he
Gatulharaformulo. The figure with the lorgeltead and pudgy feawru DPMOrs
to be on imitation of some Cemral Asian proto-tyM", rather than an actual
Indian model. lt amiclpates the ttl'en more formo/i:ed presentations of feo
mres and drapery In the Buddha Images of Ynn Ka11g and the large bronze
Mairreya of 477 ltnt by the Metropolitan Mustum of Art. The aurtol<
bordettd with pal/erns is frequently encounured in Chinese Buddha
images of the first hD/f of the fifth cmtury.
1/ authellfic. the inscription orr the rt:l'ersc of tlu's image 'i''Ould make ir the
earliest known of Buddhist sculpture in China. Tlrt: rather
is an imitat/f)n of Cemral Asian Buddhist sc-u/pt11re. in which the Gan-
dltara has already been reduced ro !deographlc slmpllcity. The rigid in
organic portrayal of body and face seems like a ptrpe.tuarion of the purely
Chlnese abstract manner of symboli:lng human figures In Hnn rimts.
137
138
38. BUDDHA \'11TH TWO
ATTENDANTS
ChlD2
Sth -tury
Sandsl ooo
H<lgbl: 25!
Mr. & MIS. Null Ht<nlma!Wk
39. STANDING MAITREYA
BUDDHA
China. Six D)'llaSiics Period
O.lod 477 or 486
Gilt bronze
Ht lghl: SSi"
'Th<- M<lropolilsn Museum or
An . New York; Kennedy
Fund 1926
40. BUDDHA M..UTRYA
Chloo. Six Dyaaslies Period
Oalod S38
C01 broftu
H<lgbl: 24
Unhtr'Sily or Pmsylfllnill Mu-
seum, Plllladdphla
41. SEATED MAITREYA BUD-
DHA
Chlno. Six Dynasties Period
From t.ung-mon
61h cenlury
Bl11<k llmeslooe
Hel&hl : IIW
Mr. & MJS. Beojamio Row land.
Jr.
The ctntrol figure of Buddha illusrrotu the Imitation of tltbaud Gondhoro
motlels/rom Central Asia that preoiled m Chintsc Buddhist art during the
tarty period of its dt,.lopmLnt. Tht txtrmH"I) archaic technique of carvillg,
as '"'11 as tht type and drapery of the Buddlro figure, co"tSPOnd to tilt style
of tht fifth untlfl'}' sculptuns of Yiin K0111.
This Is one of the tar/lest and most important doud &1ddJrist bron=u in tltt
WtJ'ttrn world. According to tht dart, it 'lt"(ZJ modt or tht timt of the firn
grtat period of Buddhist sculpturt at Yiln Kong. Thc drapery Is rtndertd in
the sam comentlon of ribbanlike bands breaking Into forked folds that
wtz.r ustd for some of tht stone colossi m tlttt t:Ol'tf temples In Sllansi. The
ratfltr block-like trtatment of the head I tit Its ttfgt-shoptd nose and or
Jmllt sttm 10 mdicatt tht tmtrgtnct mort abJtract ltyle of
Chfntst Biuldlrfsr Jtulpturr.
This beautiful imogr ill.strotts thl! choflle In stylr that hod tokm
p/ou In thl! sixth ctntury. lnsttod of thr complrttly Crntro/ Asian
rtpustnttd by rlw of 4n. tht pttHnt exampiL is co_n..
cried m o complrtrly Chineg modi!. Tht body is prtsrntrd as a jfiJt profilt
tmphosl:ed by the SLrrated s..o/Jo .. -toil s/wpt of tht /fa/ring robe. in hich
lintar Jurfa pautrn pre,aiJs otr any piMtlr ni/JJS. Tltt abnroet cubic
formula/or the htod '"'ith its archaic smlft and almond t)'l!l is typical of this
>'l!fY Chlnu phose of Buddhist SCIIIptufl!.
This "Pfl!.<entation o/tht Budtlha of the Futurt Is t)plcul of the type of
Bndtllllst sculpture tolreJ in the early sixth ctnwry at the site oftht famous
tae rtmplrs at Lsmgmtn. The ButMhisr Messiolr Is <lrtssd In o toltume
lllllally for Bodhisatr,as or Budilhlsr atthmrgel.r with long scon-es or
srolts troJSetl over rhe torso. 17tt hitrotk and fiat mamttr of rtpusLnfing
the body In linrar ttrms, tht geometric simplification of thr farm art typical
of this most Chinrg phase of Boddhist sculptufl!, ofln romportd to Roman-
aqw stulpturt by uQSQn of its att.ro-i!Uplrlng 1tr-trlty and obJtrattlon.
42. STELE WITH BUDDHA
MAJTR\'A
Northtra \'"ei Prriod
Dattd 500
UmostOM
Hclgbt: 37!"
Tbt Cle<land M115eWD or Art:
Mr. & Mrs. Sennmce A.
Milikan Colltlon
43.. SEATED BUDDHA
China. T'ang Period
7th-8th <tntury
Cllt bronze
Height: 4'
Mr. & Mnl. IJetllamjo Rowbnd.
Jr.
44. MA>.., DALA
China. T'aog Period
lkh-9111 c:tllttlr)'
CUt bnln:tt
Si"
Mtblu KODIOt
-15. STANDING BUDDHA
China
uuo 6th or early 7th century
Llmt>10IKI
Height: SO!"
Art Museum; Eugeoe
Fu.lltr Memorial Collecrioo
This Is on Iron rhor illusrrora rh fully d .. 't'lopro Chin.s st>1 of
Butldhlst In the sixth S4ggtsllon of tlrt rtWSthtntl$
of on JnJ/rm or Crntra/ A.sion origlnal rtmoilfS. but tlrt formoll:nl hlrrolic
ronptfon of rh bod)' mainly in "P'oted linror rhythms Is rompltel) Chi-
as Is tltt o/tM fau witlt iJs smllt and IMmnrical/y
sinrp/ifiro /"'runs.
This ln101e In its so/tntlS and of form illuslfotts tht JHittffotion
of Gupta to China in tht setnth and right)! rrmurfts. Tht jf11ltl plc
tor/a/ trtutmtnt of the Jraptry is t)rpical of CltlntU rrmiJformalion of
tltc- /ndi1111 formula.
In the- rtll'r of tht' il a rrinit)1 of Buddha DJtd ,.,.'0 Bodhl.safll'DS sur
roulllkd by u galaxy of smullrr Buddha This Is o slmplrr form ofrll
ostl)' NJmpl/<a,.d diagrams of Ul)lrric Buddhism. n.. orflin of this mult/-
plirotk>n of /Judd)oos around IM antral Tar/ragota Is in th Grrot \flrad
Sraostl, htn SoJ..)amuni <GJULd myriad .-pli<as of himM/f ID fillth JA)'.
Eun In such tiny scol it is poJJibl 10 su thottM /igurts ho th orfllnolly
lntlion fullncu offonn fa-or<d in T'ang rtligious art.
711/s sltfllllllrl)' beautf/ill imagt, which IN/ongs to tht tron.ritioffol Sui
per/O<I or th arly T'ong, Is a prrfcr illustration of rh translation of Indian
Gupta IJtals Into Chlmse terms. repruematlon of tilt body a.r a smooth
''olumr rtrcasttl In a sllt'othllkt' roiH is a familiar tlevlrt of the Samarh
sc1mo/, htrt rtduced to an slmp/ificotiolf of the- sltDJH!S that hal't'
rh of gromttric solids. Th round, !Hn/g'n mOJk o/rhfau, dtt-
portiflg from rh ongulor formula ofrk Six DynOJtf-. P"rlod, is 11ltirttDUiy
/ nd/on, 100, but rh/N11Jif.S main som.thiflg of rh orcholc ronvntions of
tht' .-orllut &Jtldhist sculpt'ilrt ill Chi110.
139
1<40
46. HEAD OF BUDDHA
China. T'ang P<riod. From tbt
"Elephant Chapel," Chlng
Chow, Kansu Provl-
lale 6lb 0<' early 7th cealllr)'
Limes! OM
Heigbt: 12'
Fogg An MUStU111
47. THE GOLDEN IMAGE OF
CH'ANC KANSSU
China. T'ang P<riod
WaU plnting from Ca>< 140.
Tunhllllng
8th c<!ntury
10' by 37'
Fogg Arl Museum
48. STANDL"' C BUDDHA
China. Nortl>ern Sung Pmod
Oaled 1107
hory
Height: 161'
Rlllph M. Chait
49. ST Al'i.'DINC BUDDHA
Clllna. Mlng P<riod
16th-17th century
CUt bronze
Heigbt: 45l'
Tbe Odrol1 lDStitvlt or ArU
This is OM of a nunlbu r<<OIVM from this rmtot< sit< by Longdon
Worn<r during his exprdttion to Tu,.huang in 1924. The style of the head
In such /taltlrts as rht hair and the archaic smilt! repeats the formula
oftlte Yiin Kong cats ofth< fifih century, but th< <Onctption of the form
as a more rouNkd plastic mass betokens the infiltration of Indian Gupta
influence that to transform Chlnue sculpture ofth< T'ang pniod.
The paiming/11/lstratts the legettd of a golden image ofBudtllta 11t<Jtlt by the
fourth daaghttr of AsoAa and mlraculot4/y transported to C/Una. The s10ry
rontinuts that in the Chin era(JZ6JJ4) tho Image recorertdfrom th<
bay by a nrtain Kno U and carried b> boat to the ttmple of Ch'arl/! Kan
JS/1. This Is ont of many Jllch legends dta/lng with lntllan in"''ts finding
their ay to China, rmut be <YtntUJJI/y basM on th< <Ktuollmpartt>-
rlon of icons from tht IYt"sttrn t'OIIJttrlu. lt is nor oulrrly an acci-
dtnr that the rt'prt.rrnrtd in tht poinfiltJl IHar:s some 10 a
Gandhura original.
17tls statum Is a perfect illustration of tile elaboratt pl<torlol style tlrat
clwracterl"" Buddhist SCIIIpture of the Sung prriad and /mer. Typical, too,
of this last sentimental phOS< of Buddhism is the grau and feminin< refine
o[/Nturts and T1rt exqulsilt pttd5;on and dtplh of caning that
lht medium lnlo a cotutlt r/tit of painlerly tlfec/.S art JH!rhaps
more approprlou to i-.ory than sctllpture. The rich grain and pal
ina perftctly complt-nt the tl<tant beauty of this baroque style, in which
the rtligiouJ image U only a pretext for a virtuoso
This sraJue Is a l}'plco/ 11/usrratlon ofth< archaistic re>i'Ois of corlter Jtylu
in China in lottr prriads. Ultimately the style ith rippling drapery foldr
goes back to Garrdlrara. Its romtntlonallzatlan into applied ribbofls breaking
Into forked folds uprats the style of Chinue Buddha lnliJ8U Dfth< lo.tt
fifth etntury at Yun KDng. Th< figure is probably to be itkntiMt/ tu Dnt of
the innu,.rable laltr copies of the famous sanda/'00<1 lmnge of Jang
Utlayana.
SO. STANDING BUDDHA
China. Cll'ing Pmod
1811> or 19th c:mtary
CUr IJroonu
Hrigbr: Si'
FoaAr1M.......,.
SOa. CHANC SSU-KUNC. BUD-
DHA TRINITY
China. Northern Sung Period
llrh <entury
CoiOI'$ on silk
Hdll)lt: 51 3/ 16'
Srooklyn Museum
51. SEATED BUDDHA
China. Mlng or Cl> 'ing Period
1711>-1811>
Coloroo .. .,...
49' by 28i'
Mr. & Mn. ll<ojamin Rowland,
Jr.
52. MAITREVA IN MEDITA-
TION (HANKA-5HrYUI-
ZO)
Ja .. n. Suiko Pmod
7rh """rury
Cllr
18'
1'ht- Clnlaod M...,.,.. of Ar1;
Job L S..tnnce F'UDd
Statumts afth/J t)'pe "<re 1PliNh- in large num/wrs in TI!Nt and In t!rt LAma-
ist in China as as tM ctntury. Ukt tht /argtr
bron:t ltffl by tht Dtrroit lnstituu of Arts, rltU is a1t0tht'r txamplt of tlrt
Utlayano ltt'rt rnlud to tln mort rigid ron-.tnrloiiDii:atlon.
Chant Ssu-kung Is o ntbulous figure -..lrost namt has b<tn prtstntd only In
Japantst rtrord.s and is rt'prtstnttd almost tntirtly by polllfi1rgs prtstn-td
in Japan. Ills stylt rtprts-nts a rtd/JC/ion oftht pouful T'ang mann<r to
a formula of txtrrnw dtlica('y and duoratl\t /Homy of to/or mu/ Unt. 71tt
compOSition of tilt prtsent po1ntiltg with the Buddha attd his smnlltr
tlams on a diagonal the o/tlrr trlnltiuof emper
ors and acolytes In the famous scroll of Thl' 11rirtrtn EmMrors by Yen
Llpen In the of Fine Arts. BostOn.
In this last pltast of Buddlrm art in China, tltt actual figur< oftht Buddho
is a/mon lost in tlrr intrlcatr rirtliOsity of pointilfK the dropt'ry pollrflfS and
tht lntriC11tt Drc"lritturt oftht thront. 17rt Buddlro figur< Is o rothtr
dr)' anJ Mtorotbt rtfHtition of a rypt goin;r htJck to T'tJIC6 tlnws.
11rls IHtmtlful im(lgt Is an Illustration of tire artiiDir' St)lr of Japotrl'St! Bud
tlhlsr inauguratctl by Tor/ Bussltl. Uke all thtl stotuts of the sr,tmh
century it Is o more rl'/ilt(d ''trsion of tlte abstract stylt oft he Six Dyno.'ftlrs
Cltlna. more Jt1pt1nrJ't In its lightness. the dreamy lnuorence o/tht /ado/
rxprru;on and the txquisltt rtfincment of its "aftsmanshlp.
141
1.42
53. BUDDHA AMIOA: COPY
OF A WALL PAINTING
FR0 :-1 KONDO. HORYU
.II,NARA
J opu
69' by 4sr
Fogg Art Museum
54. SHAKA TRJNITY
Japan. Sulko Pw od
O:ar<d ''In the )tar of Bo-sbi,"
628
CUt btonzt
HO<)bji Museum. Nana
SS. HE.>.D OF BUOOHA
J apan. Trmpyo Period
811\ <eGIUJ')'
From O:alanji Ttmpk
Wood, ptrhaps orfginnlly
lllcqutred
Nothaa V. Ham...,.
56. BUDDHA SEATED ON
A LOTUS
JapAn. T mpyo 1
1
w od
8tlt <ftllury
Bronu
litigbl :
Natba.n V. Hammer
This of ant ofthfomous tlghth c.mury paintings, d.stroyl'd b)
jiu In 1949. 1iru an itka oftht scale and approximatt OpPforonu oftlr<"
original. Various attributions lra>"<" bun ojftud for tl,. Horyl;}l murnls.
lnclutllng tO a onlsr numtd Doncho. but it ntoJtliktly tluJI
tlrt)' ..,. th<" -orA of a hfllrl) comprunt poup of artists imported from
rang Chilln. Tllis tDPJ' of untrol clearly shows combination
of 1/M and abs1rac1 shod/111 tlrot tharottt'Tiznl sunirllfl examplts
of Tang poillfing. Tht imagt pustniJ a txomplt' of the translation
o/tht tmJ massJ-..ely bnprtJsft Indian Ideal into Far Eosttrn
17ris Trinity. of .,.,.Jtirh Bodhisath'D is mining, r6peats tltt iconopaphy of
thrfamous group by Tor/ Busshlln the Horyujl Kondo: Shaka atttntkd by
thr to BotlJrisatrrtn of hroling. Yakuo and Yokujo. This txtrrmrly impor
tant objut Is In tht stylr of tit Tor/ workshop. on Importation to Jopa11 of
Si:t monMr Thr mask of tht ntrol Buddltt1 is SOnH!-
Irot ltss mystrriou.< and o<Nnsp/ring titan the fact of tl,. great S/1oka
Trinity by Tori. it rt>rals something oftht mort irrgtnuous. bland. ond
sutt thsrrilxd by Japanut heimci. Uke somt Clrfntst
Six D)'nastlt1S Buddhas. tltt central figurt Is nttt11uoud from tht waist up to
gilt thr icon a fnling of riSIII/f grondtur and n111jesty. The beautiful abstract
forms and tht dtsigns of tht halo ore- o Jopontst rt'/intmtnt of tlrt-
Cililltst sty/ ofthr si.Tih ctntury.
E'f!n In its ruinous condition this llrod possesses tht classic sertnity of tX
prtJJfon ami /ttllng for sculptural mass that choratttri:cd tht ITN/
pitcts of Ttmpyo scu/prurn. HounniV{ suggestions remtzln oftht contr's
/etlfng for Ms mtdlum tmd Stnslriw'ry for the modtlli!IK o/t.ht surfau in
softly inttrlocAing plants.
lt opPfors 1/krl)' that this Is a of tht Buddha Amido and
orfl/nol/y formtd port of a"""" p/nJiic rtprntlllnllon of tht Poratliu of the
WtJI, likt the famous sJufn of L.ody Tochlbano at Horyuj/, Nora. E>tn in
its small SCIJit tht fixure displays tire imposing. classic dflmty of Tempyo

S1. TORSO OF STANDING
BUDDHA
Japu. Jopo P<riod
9tb C<ft!W)'
Wood
Height: 73!
ToshodJIIjl, Nara
S9. STANDING BUDDHA
.faJIIln. Jopn P<riod
9tb C<ftlW)'
Wood
Height : 281'
Nathan V. HllDllliOr
S8. SEATED BUDDHA (DAI
NI CHI!)
JapRn. Early Fujiwara Period
IOih lllh ..,..tury
Wood
Bosoml Colledion. Osaka
111is blluutifil and lmposlnl! fragmmt of sculpture illustraus tire final de-
tlopmmt oft/re TtmNO style in the Jogan periiHI. The form has tak.n on
att e\"tllfrmto fu.lhtt>s.tllltd sqgfition of than the
of the f/ghth Unt1H'y. The JII#Utfon ofs.el/ilfl IOUJMIIU.S U enJuurd rwt
only by th mosslve proportiotrS oft/re limbs and trunk, but also by the re-
peoml tlln'tt of the lin.s of drapery over tire abdomm and The dls
appearanu of all the thief anthropomorphic /'lllllrtt. head, hands, and feet,
make it possible for us to o" the lntrfnslc sculpwrol form of this
obstroctly /Nautiful ruin. As Langdcn Jflarntr once onr can the
mDrt eosily grasp certailf IIIJked ,_ntia/s of and o "beauty
lntkpen<knt of humanity." This torso Is an illustration of how In Jagan limn
sculptors souglrt to imprtiJ upon the ttorshipJWr the m}'Sttry OJUI pt)'ltt'tr
sltiiJ18 ln the by an O\'trWhtlming SUI(ftstion of lmpllt!d in its
rlronfc form and weightlnt!JS. drapery, t/r(t a/urnnrl'ly rounded and
pointed profiles oft he folds, Is o per/etllllustrutlon oft he so-callrd "rolliJ'If
are" Jlylr. The ctu\lng of the softly flolng folds of the outer mantle may
perltops be rDgni=ed to lmltart tu mDre fluid ttthnique of /ocquer
in a'VXKI.
Thi1 U an t-xamplr of the trtmtndous fotling for 1'0illmt
and solidity of form tltot typified Joponese religious sculpture of the
Jogon period. This ..... " sty!. originally d..-1.-ed from ralfl motkls. m
-hi eh the very mossi>eness of the form lntrndd to suggesttlte mystrrlou.s
poer to the Shingon tleltles.
The Image witlJ tlJe luurJs sltoping the mudra o/instnlctio Is probably o
rtprestntatlon of the Japoneu form of the Unlrersol Buddho Vairoeana.
Or/giMIIy this imagt aas pari oftM plastic manila/a or COimlc di'ogrum in-
cluding all fie of the Dhyani Buddha.r. 71re style of the lmfl/le, with Its
ll{glurr, mort g-rauful propottlo11s and tht mort ff,'(quisite of the
/ac.J and ltondJ. illustrates tire drporture /tom the massb-e conon of Jogan
titMS to the ideal o/tlte Fu}lora periiHI.
143
I
60. ICHIJI KONIUN(OAlNICHI)
Japan. Late Fujhllft oo- Early
Kamakun Period
Late 12th or early 13th century
Colors on silk
sst b> 3zi
Howard Hollis
61. SUTRA
Japan. Fujiwara Ptrlocl
From Kyoto
11 tb-12th <elltllr)'
Gold on paper
01"<r11111ength: 93'
Mathru Komor
62. JOOO MANDARA
Japan. KIUJillkuru Period
From Jakujo-in, Koyu!Oin
JJtb <ttuury
Colors on silk
4'9. b)
Nakomum Collecllon
63. SEA TEO BUD OH\
Japan. Fujinra Period
llth llth century
Gilt bronze
H<lgllt: 7i.
Mr. & \lrs. Btnj:unin Rowlaad,
Jr.
This is a rtprr .. ntation of Dofnichl. "tht Grrat 1/fumilltltor," in his supr<nr<
mllll/fmotlon in tlot DiamDIId or Konaokai Mandata. 11ot tntur< of tht
hands 'lth tht fi fingtrs oftht right hand rrmpittg the ind.x finger of th
ltft is tht mudra of thr Six iemtms, the fi material tltmtnts of
man Is and tht Jpirittwl tsJence or mind of the cosmic Buddha.
The joining of tht hands thus signJ/itl th union oftht motu/a/ and SPiritual
'AOr/ih of tltt ma!klo/as. In Shllflon BudJhism the auirulks tutd gutu:rtl
oftht polnttd or St11fpn1Ud inrQitl M"trt I D M assumed by tltotees os o
mean.t of achieving mystic ldentljicatiOtt with tht ob}tct of orsltlp. 11ylt
with 111 softly grad11ottd co/ors ami -v.-ould sttm to
plau this pointing In tht thirtc.nth untury.
TIJis rt!prtsrnting .Dutldha's paradisr Is typical of n lnrge mmJ.
INr uligious ttxllformtrly at Jingo}/. uchnlqut of pointing in
gohl Olf a dark purple ground is a mtthod ofttn in mtl11iktlas
and m)Stic diQgrams of Shlngon Buddhism. <lctcurion htu all tht dtli
cac)' anti t)'pitol of Fujlk'tlfD dt'aftsmmuhip.
Tilt composition lth Amltobho ( Amlda) S<!Qttd In tht midst of tlr< po/ac<S
and /ttl'rl trtes of tht WcJttm Para(I/Je probably originated in Ctmral
It IIWJ' IN found both In tltt wall polntlttgs ofTun-lmang and in f<lrly
pointiJII. According to Japontu tradition all lattr Yersio111 of this subft
strm from a mandata k'O\tn/or TalttJO<ojt in Trmp)'O .{H!rlod. Tht extrtnH!
refincmmt of rolor anti drowint >till uf/tet oftht FtiflaraptriiXI.
This objrct is to IN dt<cri/Nd as u kal.ebutsu or "hanging BuJJJoa," "'"of
a luttt numbtr of s11ch small figurrs In uli<f nuorhtd to tht halo of a /argrr
swtur ro j)'mboli:t' Ollt' of tht m)'rltul bunshin ur tmmnationJ of tht Unbersa/
BmMha, Vairoca11a ur Dainic:hi. The soft idtali:ttl/ace tdtlr itJ small/to
tureJ. tht full form, onJ f/o"'ing droptrlu lllwtralt tht ref>ol of tht tarlttr
dasslt' Slylrs of Jcponnr m Fujiwara combm'd tdtlt a M'-'
dtltrory of technique arul rathtr S'- gtfltlt tXprtsst'on.
64. STANDING BUDDHA AT
TRIBUTED TO KAIKEI
J apan. KlliDllkllnl Period
13th """'IUJ'
Wood, lacqoertd and glided
Height:

65. AMIDA GOSON (Amitabbl
with BodbisattTas A .. lokil ..
sara and Mahasthamapnplll
stnd the Arhals Allllndo and
Kas)'ll ... )
J apan. Kwnakura Period
13th =tul')'
Gold and color on silk
Height: 3Si' Width: IS'
Mr. & Mrs. B<ajamirt Ro" land,
J r.
66. BUDDHA
Ko,..., Silla period
(A. D. 668-935)
CJU broJU<
Height: 19'
Nolhon Hammer
67. SEATED BUDDHA
Jopan. Asblbp Period
16th <mhlrY
Lacquerrd wood, gill
Height: :zs
Fogg Art Museum
is onr of a m1mber of sculptors act Ne in tht lntt and tarty
thirteenth cenlllrlt.r. Although acontempqrDryofthefamous Unkti. his scu/p.
rure lacks tht boltlnus anti tltpth of carv/llfl typ/co/ of that mmtrr. Koik<i's
likr the is mort s/lght 011d dtllcort with u shai-
IOM' ltthnlqutt of caning. His lmQgtl hint tht air of sent/
mentallztd uunft)' that tll.stinguh.hes Kllmokura pclnllffl.
The pn'Mnu of the thlrf diniplu of Sak}'omun/ i1 prrhaps to aplainM
by tht /actlhar. In many sutrus to Amitla ond lr/$ ptJradise. ir h the
mortal &uldha ho explains these mysr.ries. T)plcal of Xomakura pointltllf
is the lavish use of npplitd gold /rof or kirignne to suggest the luminous
splentlor of tlltles of light. n tltlitacy amlg-.ult tendtmes.s of tl!<
fYJMS c-ontlmte tltt Meal of Fujiwara arr.
This Image 11/ustratrs a prriod of KDrrl1JI ort hen the impart of T'DJII
hofl an nlionu 011 modtls of rht Six D}nnstitl
Typical of this ami tmmy otlrtr Stlla bro11us Is tht squat cono11 of
proptJrtltms wllh tht heat/ ;, a ratio of 10 toto/height of the stafllt.
Tilt oft/re form and the reductio, of the tlrt1ptry 10 a paunn
of flol11g ,,,..,. rtstrlttttl to the .<urfau of tltr body foruasrs the style of
Japanese srulptur< of tire Jogon prriod.
Xortatt rrllgloUJ po.lntllfiS of the late unturlts tllfpla) rtrtuln contmllOII)
manne-risms and arrltaistic borrottinr$ usN fi.,- J.-corotite PllTJIOSD.
71re prrRnt polntt111f rrJW1Ju the iconography of the KantiJJ..uro Amida
Goson, /'io. 65. 11te rolors are inroriably applirtl In flat ar.os and the polrtte
limited to r.hltt, Oflltflt, grHn, and blue. alltn.dotll &>dlu"sattlas tt:ith
tht st"attd Ollfllllt of their reptot of Six
The composition is tluoratbe .. itll tl fontbtess for sharp.
spikty fomu. as In tlte lo/IIJ pttals and tht da'"./lkt fingtrs.
1-45
68. AMITABHA TRINITY WlTH
AliiANDA AND KASYAPA
Kor ... Yl Period. 18th tftllllr)'
Colors on silk
3'4' by 3'41'
Mr. & Mr<. lknjamin Rowland,
Jr.
T1ris i111111e lth the hands foldrd In thr grnwe of 11Witatlon is probably a
of Budt:Uta AmitiJJ, a uporau cult or paTI of a plastic
rnandal11 containing the FiY! Dhyani Buddhas. Tire style Is a late, J<Jmeohat
dry dassic canon Joclro"s famous suuue
of Amida f11tlte B)'odo-in at Uji. As /11 painted upuse11tatlons of Amlda, the
gold leaf Is llltellllrd to SYmboli:t tht rf!u/gtllt splendor of tl,. Buddha of
the Wrst.
Central Archaeological Library,
NEW DELHI. 4/IJ
9
I
Call No 7 0 4 1'-f 09)7(a. / Rcro..
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