11th Proceedings

Farm Animal Biodiversity in Ethiopia: Status and Prospects
Proceedings of the 11th annual conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP) held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, August 28-30, 2003
ESAP Proceedings
Ethiopian Society of Animal Production P.O. Box 80019, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Proceedings of the 11th annual conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP) held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, August 28-30, 2003
Ethiopian Society of Animal Production P.O. Box 80019, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Members of the Executive Committee of ESAP:

Dr Tesfaye Kumsa (EARO, Addis Ababa), President W/ro Yalemshet Wolde Amanuel (EARO, D/Z Agricultural Research Center), Vice-president Dr Yoseph Shiferaw (EARO, Holetta), Secretary Dr. Misker Tessema (IBC, Addis Ababa), Assistant Secretary Ato Asfaw Yimegnuhal (ILRI, Debre Zeit), Chief Editor Dr Tamrat Degefa (EARO, D/Z Agricultural Research Center), Assistant Editor W/ro Mebrat Alem (MoARD, Addis Ababa), Accountant W/ro Menfese Abebe (MoARD, Addis Ababa), Treasurer Ato Desalegne Gebre Medhin (NAIC, Addis Ababa), Auditor Dr. Kassahun Awgchew (IBC, Addis Ababa), Liaison Officer
ESAP Office Secretary:

W/ro Diribua Kelelaw
Sponsors of the Conference:

Institute of Biodiversity Conservation and Reseaech, Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization, Ethiopian Science and Technology Commission, and Alemaya University.
Correct citation:
ESAP (Ethiopian Society of Animal Production) 2004. Farm Animal Biodiversity in Ethiopia: Status and Prospects. Asfaw Yimegnuhal and Tamrat Degefa (Eds). Proceedings of the 11th Annual conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP) held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, August 28-30, 2003. ESAP, Addis Ababa. 441pp.
CONTENTS
Welcome Address...................................................................................................................................vii Opening Speech ......................................................................................................................................xi Keynote Address.................................................................................................................................... xv
FARM ANIMAL BIODIVERSITY IN ETHIOPIA: STATUS AND PROSPECTS

Current State of Knowledge on Characterisation of Farm Animal Genetic Resources in Ethiopia Workneh Ayalew, Ephrem Getahun, Markos Tibbo, Yetnayet Mamo and J.E.O. Rege................ 1 Operational Policy Instruments for Conservation and Sustainable Utilization of Animal Genetic Resources (AnGR) in Ethiopia Kassahun Awgichew.......................................................................................................................... 23 Economics of AnGR Conservation and Sustainable Use: Theory, Practice and Implications Adam G. Drucker............................................................................................................................... 29 Reasons for the Loss of Animal Genetic Resources (AnGR) and the Importance of IK in AnGR Management Nigatu Alemayehu, Getachew Gebru and Adam G. Drucker ........................................................ 37 Economic Valuation of Unique Characteristics of Indigenous Cattle Breeds: A Conceptual Framework Kerstin Zander and Detlef Virchow ................................................................................................. 47 Lessons Learned from the Borana Cattle Improvement Programme at Adami Tulu and Abernossa Cattle Multiplication and Improvement Centre in Ethiopia Azage Tegegne .................................................................................................................................... 59 Status and Strategies for Genetic Improvement Programs on Sheep in Ethiopia Solomon Abegaz and Gemeda Duguma .......................................................................................... 73 The Genetic Resources Perspective of Equines in Ethiopia and their Contribution to the Rural Livelihoods Mengistu Alemayehu ......................................................................................................................... 81 Indigenous Chicken in Ethiopia: Neglected but Worth the Cost of Conservation through Improved Utilisation Tadelle Dessie and K. J. Peters ........................................................................................................ 87
PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
Survey on the Traditional Utilization of Beles or Prickly pear Cactus (Opuntia ficus indica) as Animal Feed in Southern and Eastern Zones of Tigray Mengistu Woldehanna and Peter Udn......................................................................................... 103 Prediction of Physical Body Composition and Carcass Components from Live-weight and body Measurements in Ethiopian Highland Zebu (Bos indicus) Oxen Tesfaye Wolde Michael, Asfaw Yimegnuhal, P.O. Osuji, and M.L. Diedhiou. .......................... 113
Ethiopian Society of Animal Production
Observation on the Effect of Levels of Salt and Stocking Periods on Putrefaction in Preserving Sheep skin at Three Altitudes in Ethiopia Akloweg Nigatu and Workneh Ayalew .......................................................................................... 121 Smallholder Cattle Marketing in the Central Rift Valley of Oromiya, Ethiopia Ebrahim Jemal, Abdissa Abelti, Tatek Woldu, Mengistu Nigussie and Berhanu Shelima..... 129 Survey on Traditional Livestock Production Ssystems in Manasibu District of West Wallaga, Ethiopia Alganesh Tola, Mathewos Belissa and Gizaw Kebede ................................................................. 141 Honey Production and Utilization in Manasibu District; West Wallaga, Ethiopia Mathewos Belissa, Alganesh Tola and Gizaw Kebede ................................................................. 151 Growth Pattern of the One Humped Camel (Camelus dromedarius) Yesihak Yusuf and Bekele Tafesse ................................................................................................. 157 Exotic Dairy Breed Turns into Exhausted Dairy Breed When Forced to Reproduce, Lactate and Perform Work at the Same Time: On-Farm Testing of Multipurpose Breed, Experience from Holetta Area C.E.S. Larsen, T. Kumsa and Azage Tegegne............................................................................... 167
ANIMAL BREEDING/REPRODUCTION
Community-Based Animal Genetic Resources Conservation: Lessons and Practical Applications Nigatu Alemayehu, Getachew Gebru and Adam G. Drucker ...................................................... 181 Understanding the Purposes for Keeping Cattle and their Perceived Traits by Farmers in Oromiya Regional State, Ethiopia H.A. van Dorland, Workneh Ayalew, Asfaw Tolessa, G.J. Rowlands and J.E.O Rege............. 191 Preliminary Report on the Distribution of Fogera Cattle around Lake Tana, Ethiopia Gebeyehu Goshu, Azage Tegegne, Tezera Mulugeta and Aklilu Agdie....................................... 203 Observations on the Performance of Crossbred Dairy Cattle in Smallholder Herds in Degem District, Ethiopia Ababu Dekeba, Workneh Ayalew and B P Hegde ......................................................................... 209 Application of Artificial Insemination on Poultry in Ethiopia Getnet Zelleke and Workneh Ayalew.............................................................................................. 215 Genetic Studies of Age at First Calving for Holstein-Friesians Melaku Negash ................................................................................................................................ 223 Influence of Dam Genotype, Age of Dam and Parity on Age at First Calving, Calving Interval and Birth Weight in Indigenous and Crossbred Cattle at Adami Tulu Hailu Dadi and Tadele Mirkena.................................................................................................... 227 Growth Performance of Boran Cattle and Their Simmental Crosses in Ethiopia Amsalu Sisay ................................................................................................................................... 233 Effect of Semen Quality and Artificial Insemination (AI) on Fertility and Hatchability of Rhode Island Red (RIR) Breed of Chicken Getnet Zelleke, R.P. Moudgal, and Asefa Asmare ........................................................................ 241
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FEED PRODUCTION AND USE

Effect of Tree Age, Row Spacing and Harvesting Interval on Edible Foliage Dry Matter Yield of Leucaena pallida Diriba Geleti..................................................................................................................................... 253 Inter-annual Yield Dynamics and Trends of Botanical Composition of Component Species in Panicum-Stylosanthes Binary Mixture in Sub-humid Climate of Western Ethiopia Diriba Geleti..................................................................................................................................... 259 Chemical Constituents, in vitro Digestibility and Ruminal Degradation of NapierGgrass (Pennisetum purpureum (L.) Schumach.) Mixed with Different Levels of Sesbania sesban ((L.) Merr.) Tessema Zewdu................................................................................................................................ 271 Effect of Height and Stage of Harvest on Forage Yield and Quality of Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) at Adami Tulu Ashenafi Mengistu, Belete Shenkute and Hailu Dadi.................................................................. 283 Fodder and wood production of Calliandra calothyrsus planted in hedgerows as influenced by intra-row spacing and cutting height Abebe Yadessa, Diriba Bekere, Teshome Takele and Nega Emiru ............................................. 287 Effect of Methods and Dates of Clearing Regrowths of Rhodes (Chloris gayana) and Colored Guinea Grasses (Panicum coloratum) on Seed Productivity Getnet Assefa, Abreham Gebeyehu, Fekede Feyissa and Tadesse Tekletsadik .......................... 297 Characterization of Selected Oats Varieties for Their Important Production Traits in the Highlands of Ethiopia Getnet Assefa, Fekede Feyissa, Abreham Gebeyehu and Muluneh Minta.................................. 305 Dependence of Standing Crop on Different Range Condition Rating Methods in the Mid Rift Valley, Ethiopia Amsalu Sisay ................................................................................................................................... 315 Factors Influencing Adoption of Crossbred Dairy Goats: The Case of Three Districts in Eastern Ethiopia Teressa Adugna ............................................................................................................................... 325 Rangeland Evaluation in the Middle Awash Valley of Ethiopia: Woody Vegetation E Abule, H.A. Snyman and G.N. Smit .......................................................................................... 335
ANIMAL NUTRITION
Associations Between Forage Quality Traits and Determination of Regression Models for in vitro Dry Matter Digestibility Estimation: a case for Panicum coloratum Diriba Geleti..................................................................................................................................... 347 Growth Performance of Weaned Horro Lambs Fed a Basal Diet of Barley (Mosnoo) Straw and Supplemented with Different Levels of Concentrate Gemeda Duguma, Takele Kumsa, Ulfina Galmessa and Solomon Abegaz ............................... 355 Effect of Fungal Treatment on Chemical Composition, in vitro Digestibility and Tannin Degradation of Babul Pods (Acacia nilotica) Aemiro Kehaliew, S.N.Rai and A.K. PunIya ................................................................................ 363
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Effect of Different Levels of Chemical, Moisture and Reaction Periods on Chemical Composition, in vitro Digestibility and Tannin Degradation of Mango seed Kernel (Maningifera indica) Aemiro Kehaliew and S.N.Rai ....................................................................................................... 369 Feeding Noug 'Guizotia abyssinca' Cake as Protein Source to Lactating Boran x Jersey Crossbred Cows: Performances in Milk Yield, Reproduction, and Feed Efficiency Tadesse Bekele and Zelalem Yilma................................................................................................ 375 The Effect of Different Calf Starter Rations on Growth Rate of Crossbred Dairy Calves Weaned at Different Ages Tadesse Bekele and Yohannes Gojam............................................................................................ 387 Major Milk Chemical Composition and Feed Dry Matter Intake of Multiparous Boran Cows as Affected by Level of Milk Production under Bucket Feeding and Partial Suckling Calf-Rearing Methods Zelalem Yilma, Yohannes Gojjam, Gizachew Bekele, Alemu Gebre Wold and Sendros Demeke.............................................................................................................................................. 397 Effect of Undersowing Annual Forage Legumes on Grain and Dry Matter Stalk Yield of Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor l.) and Dry Matter Forage Yield in the Eastern Amhara region Samuel Menbere and Mesfin Dejene.............................................................................................. 403 List of Participants..............................................................................................................................413
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Welcome Address
Workneh Ayalew President, Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP), 28 August 2003
Your Excellency Ato Belay Ejigu, Acting Minister of Agriculture, Invited Guests, Members of ESAP, On behalf of the Executive Committee of ESAP and sponsors of this Conference, I welcome all participants to the 11th Annual Conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production, which is organized around the Theme Farm Animal Biodiversity in Ethiopia: Status and Prospects. The Institute of Biodiversity Conservation and Research (IBCR) kindly provided home for this Theme, and partly sponsored the Conference. The term Farm Animal Biodiversity includes all animal species, breeds, strains and their wild relatives that are of economic, scientific and cultural interest to humankind in terms of food and agricultural production for the present as well as future generations. There are more than 40 species of animals that have been domesticated (or semi-domesticated) during the past 10000 12000 years, which contribute directly or indirectly to agricultural production. The common species in Ethiopia include cattle, sheep, goats, chicken, camels, horses and donkeys. The pressing concern at this point in time is that these resources and their genetic diversity are gradually disappearing. This loss is also happening in crops, but it is much more serious in livestock because the gene pool is smaller and very few wild relatives remain. An estimated 82% of the total contribution of animal genetic resources to global food and agricultural production comes from only 14 species. Whereas seed stores or planted crops will often survive such catastrophes as droughts, famines and civil strife, livestock are often destroyed. The fact that 32% of livestock breeds worldwide are at risk of extinction, and that the rate of extinction is increasing at an alarming rate, continues to be a serious cause for concern. Animals of different characteristics and hence outputs suit differing local community needs. The loss of livestock diversity seriously limits our efforts towards poverty alleviation, improved food security and promoting sustainable agriculture. Given the fact that livestock convert resources that have less alternative uses into products and services that people use to secure livelihoods and achieve economic growth, the existing animal genetic diversity represents an important resource base for development. Dear Conference participants, In Ethiopia, little comprehensive effort has been exerted to systematically conserve and utilise these genetic resources. The only substantive attempts were the establishment of breeding ranches for cattle (the Ethiopian Boran, Fogera and Horro cattle breeds) sheep (Menz, Horro), and recently goats (Long and Short-eared Somali, Arsi-Bale). More importantly, these were associated with development projects for promotion of crossbreeding the indigenous breeds with selected exotic breeds to improve total output. Ideally F1 crosses between indigenous and improved exotic breeds could serve as platforms for investment to improve management conditions, and transform the production system from subsistence to market oriented. The focus of livestock development programmes has been the resource-poor smallholder farmers who had
neither the financial means, nor access to essential market opportunities, nor the skill to invest in intensive ways of livestock production. The results have, therefore, been almost universal failure of the introduced technologies in meeting their objectives. The extensive cattle crossbreeding exercises are still heavily subsidised, and pose serious threat to indigenous cattle breeds; the dairy goat crossbreeding program failed to pick up momentum with the smallholder farmers; the sheep crossbreeding trails had their own problems; the extensive distribution of exotic breeds of chicken at heavily subsidised prices is reaching out even the remotest villages, but the real danger to the maintenance of indigenous chicken all over the country is just beginning to emerge. What often goes unrecognised is that the smallholder producers use very low external inputs probably commensurate with the expected output in a ratio, which is probably very efficient, and the increased inputs can come only after believing that the additional investment can ultimately generate more net benefits. In reality this strong desire from government development programs to increase production through crossbreeding and breed replacement, represents an important threat to indigenous animal genetic diversity. The level of threat to maintenance of animal genetic diversity in Ethiopia is not known precisely, but as will be discussed in detail in this Conference, the existing genetic diversity is under threat from: Interbreeding among the indigenous populations; Uncontrolled crossbreeding with and replacement by exotic breeds in projects designed to improve animal production; Neglect; Droughts and consequences of drought-associated restocking schemes; Political instability and associated civil unrest, and Changes in producer preferences, usually in response to changes in socio-economic factors leading to change in breed use.
Your Excellency, Dear Conference Participants, This Conference discusses the status of, and key threats to, livestock genetic resources; the justifications for the conservation of such resources; and potential conservation strategies. Invited papers discuss the importance of livestock and livestock diversity in sustaining livelihoods, and how such understanding is critical to the design of strategies that aim to improve the livelihoods of the poor. Related policy issues will also be reviewed. There will be a paper on the merit of community-based management approaches in strategies that aim to improve food security and to alleviate poverty through the conservation of animal genetic resources. This is because the utilisation of indigenous livestock populations depends, in large part, on the ability of communities to decide on and implement appropriate breeding strategies. Ladies and Gentlemen, Why do we care for conservation of farm animal biodiversity in Ethiopia? The poor that live in low potential and unfavourable agricultural areas depend directly upon genetic, species and ecosystem biodiversity for their livelihoods. In many regions animal genetic resources (AnGR) are a vital component of this biodiversity. The rural poor living complex, diverse and risk-prone livelihood systems in marginal areas, and the marginalized living from scarce resources in more
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favourable areas, need AnGR that are flexible, resistant and diverse. Our indigenous animal genetic resources do largely meet these expectations; nevertheless many of these are being threatened and endangered by extinction. Unfortunately conservation is often taken to mean maintaining the status quo in population size and diversity. Apart from the 'natural' courses of genetic evolution, these resources are being influenced by well-intended improvement interventions as well as natural disasters. So long as these forces are at play, the genetic resources are bound to change. Maintaining the status quo of genetic diversity is therefore neither realistic nor logical. Conservation is in fact for preservation of as much of the existing genetic diversity in these animals, ideally through sustainable utilisation. Sustainable utilization of AnGR is consistent with the operational national development guidelines for rapid rural prosperity and poverty alleviation. This is so because the existing indigenous livestock genetic resources provide cost-effective and sustainable options for improvement of livelihoods. So the concern for the conservation of genetic diversity is about wealth generation and sustainability at the level of the farm, production system and the country as a whole. In effect conservation is simplified in practical terms to better livelihood security and less economic risk for these communities. That is where the concern for genetic diversity makes economic sense: What feed resources do we have to sustain production levels? What level of health care can we provide to livestock on production line? What market opportunities are there to provide the incentives for improvement?
Most of the rural communities do not necessarily share the global concern for conservation of livestock genetic diversity, as they have to focus mainly on their immediate subsistence needs. Under these circumstances, development practitioners and researchers alike have to be concerned about the status of livestock biodiversity not that the status quo in diversity has to be maintained but it is the basis for any improvement (management or genetic). Our concern for existing genetic diversity also serves the future needs for unique genes. We learn from experiences in crops that it is the developed nations who managed to reap the benefits of the surviving genetic diversity in crops indigenous to developing countries, simply because they invested in exploring, collecting, characterizing, conserving and improving these genetic resources. Making judicious use of these natural resources is well justified, and countries like Ethiopia should also be engaged in exploiting the surviving resources. To cite a few very valuable attributes in our indigenous animal genetic resources: The Boran cattle has always been a promising beef type breed to exploit the low and medium altitude rangelands of the country; yet this breed is now being endangered by genetic dilution and neglect; three papers on this issue will be presented in this conference; The less recognized sheep breeds like the Dangille or Washera in north-western highlands and the Bonga sheep in south-western Ethiopia have great potential for commercial mutton production; The Long-eared Somali goat in Borena and the Hararghe Highland goat in the eastern highlands have exceptionally high milk producers worthy of improvement; The broody attribute of our indigenous chicken is a potentially high value genetic trait
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worthy of protection from external patenting; The extreme hardiness and diversity in our indigenous camels is highly sought after in arid and semi-arid areas of the world.
Your Excellency, Dear Conference participants, By facilitating professional discussion on these and related issues in this Conference ESAP will continue to provide the necessary forums for the synthesis of current state of knowledge on animal production in Ethiopia. Apart from the Proceedings of the last Conference, which includes a total of 9 invited and 37 other technical scientific articles, ESAP has produced this year the third volume of its Journal (The Ethiopian Journal of Animal Production). Both of these publications are available during the course of this Conference. Let us also mark this Conference by celebrating the recognition of long and dedicated scientific work, and valuable contribution to research and academic development in Ethiopia of an active member of ESAP, who was awarded this year the rank of full Professorship from Addis Ababa University. He is Professor Tesfu Kassa, who taught, supervised and collaborated with many of us at Alemaya University, the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine of Addis Ababa University as well as the Institute of Pathobiology of the Addis Ababa University. On behalf of the Executive Committee as well as members of ESAP and that of my own, I congratulate Prof. Tesfu Kassa for having achieved this academic rank. We have also another long-standing member of our Society who was awarded this years National Prize for a distinguished innovator in agriculture. His research led him to the development of a simple, low-cost, effective and appropriate hay-box chick brooder in which no artificial heat is employed. It specifically addressed the needs of rural and peri-urban chicken producers who find the electric chick brooder very expensive and inappropriate and the services of broody hens very slow and wasteful. The technology is slowly gaining popularity in different parts of rural Ethiopia. The award winner is a veteran staff member of the Jimma College of Agriculture, Ato Solomon Demeke. Let us applaud this exemplary outstanding achievement for the advancement of animal production in Ethiopia; congratulations Ato Solomon Demeke! Your Excellency Ato Belay, Dear Conference participants, At this juncture, let me express my gratitude to the joint sponsors of this Conference: the Institute of Biodiversity Conservation and Research, the Ethiopian Science and Technology Commission, the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization and Alemaya University. Once again, on behalf of the Executive Committee as well as all members of ESAP, I welcome you all to this Conference. Thank you.
Opening Speech
H.E. Ato Belay Ejigu Acting Minister of Agriculture
Honourable Guests, Conference Participants, Ladies and Gentlemen, It gives me great pleasure and feel honoured to address the opening session of the 11th annual conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production that deliberates on a theme "Farm Animal Bio-diversity in Ethiopia: Status and Prospects". Ethiopia is known as the centre of origin of diverse genetic resources, both in Africa and the world at large. The existence of broad diversity is due in large part to its geographical location, its diverse topography, climate, the wide range of production systems and the huge livestock population size. The diversity is also embodied in the numerous breed types and strains known to exist within each species. Ethiopia is also a home of enormous population of livestock. More importantly this resource harbours huge genetic diversity that is relevant even at the global scale. For generations, livestock play a pivotal role in our economy. At the household level, livestock provide essential products, sustain employment and income of millions of people and contribute draught power and manure for crop production. In rural Ethiopia, livestock are an important source of food and cash, and hence are crucial for the purchase of consumer goods and procurement of farm inputs. Livestock are also a means of saving, accumulating assets, insurance etc. They also serve as buffer stocks when other income generating activities do not provide the expected returns. Livestock are not only a source of high value animal protein and micronutrients but they are also source of non-food items as hides, skins, wool and fuel. In view of the environmental and disease stresses in many parts of the country as well as in the low-input smallholder systems, locally adapted livestock can serve best these functions. This is the reason why the existing diversity in animal genetic resources is said to be vital for the sustenance of not only the present generation but also the needs of future generations. Conference Participants, Ladies and Gentlemen, The diversity in farm animal genetic resources provides the basis for potential improvements in production and productivity of local agricultural systems, particularly in areas where climatic limitations, disease challenges and water availability dictate the type of animal that can survive and produce to support human livelihood. Planning for such improvements should however start by careful assessment of the current as well as future potential uses of existing genetic resources and the production systems in which they are kept. Despite the broad appreciation of the need for characterization, conservation and sustainable utilization of indigenous farm animal genetic resource in the country, there is very limited and scattered activity by different stakeholders. On the other hand, there are growing needs to import exotic livestock breeds into the country both
for commercial production as well as to improve selected smallholder livestock. This conference is expected to deliberate on some of these issues, and come up with specific recommendations for consideration by the concerned stakeholders. The loss of genetic diversity both at the level of species and breeds is of an important concern because of its consequent impact on food supply and security at the national level; in particular: 1. It determines the opportunities for transforming the largely subsistent mode of agricultural production to one that is more market oriented not only for overall economic growth but also to secure adequate supplies of animal products at the national level. 2. It determines the sustainability of locally adapted subsistent agricultural practices, which currently support a large majority of the rural population. Conference Participants, Ladies and Gentlemen, Apart from the current committement of the Ethiopian government to develop the agricultural sector and play its part as an engine of overall national economic prosperity, the global trends in agricultural development indicate that huge increases are expected in the coming two decades in the demand for meat and milk, mainly in developing countries like Ethiopia. Increase in demand is expected to result from increased human population, urbanisation and increased incomes. To meet these demands, production will have to increase by more than double. Under the current levels of development, commercial production alone will not be able to meet this demand, and smallholder producers should be extensively involved with the animal genetic resources they maintain. As in other developing countries, the smallholder farmers and pastoralists are currently the custodians of most of the surviving animal genetic diversity in this country. It is both a challenge and an opportunity to improve the conservation and utilisation of surviving farm animals genetic diversity. In line with this, the establishment of the Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute and the results so far achieved are commendable. Besides, our Ministry in collaboration with other development partners is undertaking livestock master plan study which is expected to help us know the actual potential, risks, threats and opportunities to conserve, develop and wisely utilize our livestock resources. The Ministry of Agriculture, being convinced of protecting the genetic erosion of indigenous breeds, is also working towards drafting National Breeding Policy. It is also timely and appropriate for the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production to choose the theme of this Conference to be Farm Animal biodiversity in Ethiopia: status and prospects. The important known causes of loss of animal genetic diversity in Ethiopia are neglect, recurrent drought, political instability and weak development interventions. Little comprehensive effort has been exerted to systematically conserve and wisely utilise animal genetic resources in Ethiopia. The only substantive attempts were the establishment of breeding ranches for cattle, sheep and recently goats. There are also a number of exotic chicken multiplication centres. More importantly these were associated with development projects for promotion of crossbreeding some indigenous animals with selected exotic breeds to improve total output. Both in policy and practice the focus of livestock development programs has so far been, on the resource-poor smallholder farmers, who had limited financial resources, poor access to essential market opportunities, low skills in intensive ways of livestock production promoted in the genetic improvement programs. Subsistent smallholder producers use very low external inputs and accept generally low outputs, although these development projects have been
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targeting for major increased in overall output. Hence, the results of many of those crossbreeding programs and the introduced technologies were below the expected standards. This needs to be critically evaluated with the view to devising sustainable development pathways that enable rapid progress in alleviating the widespread rural poverty while also maintaining the opportunities for long-term future developments. Dear Conference Participants, Ladies and Gentlemen, As I can see from the program, this conference is expected to address some of the critical issues on the current status as well as prospects of existing animal genetic diversity, including: The principles and practices in the sustainable utilisation and conservation of animal genetic resources; The ex situ and in situ conservation of endangered animal resources. Lessons learnt from past and on-going breed improvement programs, and The existing policy frameworks in the country.
I believe this gathering of researchers, academicians, development practitioners and policy makers will have successful deliberations on the issues in order that the current state of knowledge in policy and practice around the Theme of this Conference can be brought together, synthesised and put forward to enable all stakeholders roll the ball towards the right direction and tackle the present and future development challenges of farm animal genetic diversity in the country. Incidentally, with this remarks, allow me to congratulate the organizers and sponsors for making this Conference a reality and for choosing the timely Theme. Finally wishing you success in your deliberations, it is now my pleasure to declare the conference is officially open. I thank you all.
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Keynote Address
Dr. Girma Balcha A/General Manager Institute of Biodiversity Conservation and Research (IBCR)

Your Excellency Ato Belay Ejigu, A/ Minister, Ministry of Agriculture Dear distinguished guests, Conference Participants I am deeply honored to give a keynote address at the opening of the 11th Annual Conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production. Animal genetic resources exist in the form of a vast array of breeds, species and livestock populations, which have evolved and adapted over many centuries, inhabiting a wide range of environmental conditions throughout the world. The pressure of selection imposed by climate, soil type, altitude, available feed supply, endemic diseases and parasites, variability in management techniques and market demands have resulted in the immergence of many breeds, types and strains, each having a specific genetic make-up and adapted to a particular environmental niche. Such selection process will continue in the future and is the source of the diversity of animal genetic resources we have at present. The size and diversity of Ethiopia's agro-ecological zones and cultural conditions have enhanced the existence of large numbers and types of livestock. Farm animal diversity is the result of the way in which farmers and pastoralists managed their Animal Genetic Resources in their respective habitats, according to their own traditional, preferences and needs. Ethiopia has long been recognized as center of diversity and in some instances origin for plant, animal and microbial genetic resources. Although not substantiated through a proper population census, it is often quoted, that Ethiopia has 30 million cattle, 24 million sheep, 18 million goats, 7 million equines, 2.5 million camels and 53 million chickens (MoA, 1997; IBCR, 2003). The country has also served as a gateway of genetic material from Asia to Africa and its diverse ecology has enhanced the diversification and development of the flora and fauna it presently hosts. As far as the diversity of wild animals are concerned, the country has 277 mammal species of which some 30 are believed to be endemic, 861 avifauna of which 16 are endemic to Ethiopia and 13 are found in Ethiopia and Eritrea. Ethiopia has also some 200 reptile species of which 14 are endemic of the 63 amphibian species the country has, 24 species are endemic (IBCR, 2000; IBCR, 2003). The country has also over 180 fish species of which 14 are endemic (IBCR, 2003). The country has also over 1200 arthropod species of which 7 are endemic (IBCR, 2003). Livestock genetic resources are vital to the economic, social and environmental development of the country. More than 85% of Ethiopia's population is dependent on agriculture-based economy of which livestock play a very significant role. Livestock are major sources of income, meat and milk and their contribution, as sources of draught power, transport, fuel and security could not be over emphasized. Although the country has a large potential for livestock development and the contribution of the sub-sector to the total GDP (15-18%) is substantial, much has not been done to explore the resources. One possible reason is the unavailability of complete and reliable
information on the composition, breed types and population size by species. To date, no comprehensive livestock population census has been done. This can be seen in the inconsistency of the livestock population figures quoted and the large livestock resources of the country, which are under valued and have not been adequately utilized. Livestock remain to be the backbone of the national economy for the foreseeable future. However, these natural resources are threatened by irretrievable loss of biodiversity as a result of resource mismanagement and degradation leading to genetic erosion. Environmental and genetic factors including increasing human population, natural calamities, major livestock diseases and outbreaks, importation of exotic breeds are expected to cause genetic erosion to the indigenous animal genetic resources of the country. The indigenous livestock breeds and types, which are adapted to the climate and farming practices, will gradually disappear if unplanned and uncontrolled exotic genetic material utilization such as the current ambitious distribution of exotic poultry breeds and crossbred dairy cattle continue. In light of these, future livestock development strategies should include the exploration, conservation and proper utilization of the rich farm animal biodiversity of the country. Breed introductions and crossbreeding activities will lead to the replacement of local stocks through prolonged dilution of the gene pool. These activities have been and are being carried out without a through initial characterization or evaluation of indigenous breeds and with no or very little effort to conserve the local strain. It can generally be said that the attention given to characterization and conservation of Farm Animal Genetic Resource base is very limited thus impeding the understanding and sustainable use of the resource. Therefore, Farm Animal Biodiversity conservation and sustainable utilization should be critical components of Animal Genetic Resources management. The need for targeted conservation of animal genetic resources, as raw material for future animal breeding programs, is recognized and is becoming an important development issue in international, regional and national agricultural planning. Conservation is of particular concern in regions of rapid agricultural change, where indigenous breeds and farming methods are being replaced. We have to conserve local breeds particularly those at risk of extinction because these animals may: Be able to withstand lower-quality feed; Be more resilient to climate stress; Have stronger resistance to local parasites and diseases; Be a source of unique genes for use in improving the health and performance of breeds chosen for specialized animal production.
This shows that there is an urgent need to survey the situation and build more constructive approaches to livestock breeding ensuring that valuable local types are identified and preserved. However, at the same time a guided approach and clear policy are required for specialized breed substitution and crossbreeding programs. As you all know Ethiopia's farm animal population is primarily composed of indigenous type. However, breed level data and information is lacking. An attempt was made by the Ministry of Agriculture in 1975 to classify Ethiopia's sheep breeds based on the type of tail and coat cover (MoA, 1975). In 1982 Albero and Solomon Hailemariam have attempted to describe some of the cattle breeds (Albero and Solomon H/ Mariam, 1982a, b). Very little efforts have been made to classify the indigenous poultry and Ethiopian Honey bees. The only systematically organized and properly designed characterization work done was in 1990 when three post graduate students of Alemaya University phenotypically characterized the indigenous goat population
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and described the traditional goat husbandry practices (Alemayehu Reda, 1993, Nigatu Alemayehu, 1994, Workineh Ayalew, 1992). At present, the Ethiopian Government has given a due emphasis in its Rural Development Strategy for the protection of the country's natural resources of which the Farm Animal Biodiversity is an important component. Having this in mind, the Government has earlier established the Institute of Biodiversity Conservation and Research (IBCR) in 1998 with a responsibility to lead the national effort to conserve, develop, manage and sustainably utilize the country's plant, animal and microbial genetic resources and their ecosystem. In the same year, the National Policy on Biodiversity Conservation and Research has been approved and published. Following that IBCR has established various departments to discharge the responsibilities bestowed upon it. Among these, is the Animal Genetic Resources Department which was established to spearhead activities on Animal Genetic Resources management that are of economic, cultural and scientific interest to the country so that they could give sustainable benefit to the present generation while maintaining the potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generation. The first step to be taken, in seeking a new balance in the development of the livestock sector, is a careful evaluation of the viability of each breed/type of animal and the production system under which they are maintained in terms of their contribution to the economy, ecological and socio-political sustainability. The attention given to characterization and conservation of the domestic animal genetic resource base in its broader sense is very limited thus impeding to understand the sustainable use of the resource. If our development strategies don't address this, the crossbreeding and breed substitution activities currently underway in all parts of the country will have negative effects on the farm animal biodiversity we have. One of the consequences could be the loss of genetic diversity both at species and breed level, which will in turn have an impact on food supply and food security at the national level. It is essential not only to conserve local breeds that may have unique features but also to use breeding methods to develop animals further in response to the food security needs of our country. Developing local breeds is also equally important because an animal that is genetically adapted to its environment will: Be most productive at the lowest cost and be sustainable in the long term; Support food, agriculture and cultural diversity; Be most effective in achieving local food security objectives.
There are several governmental and non-governmental institutions that are directly or indirectly involved in the management of farm animal genetic diversity at present. It is therefore very important that these institutions closely cooperate to identify, characterize and set guidelines for the sustainable utilization of Ethiopia's Farm Animal Genetic Resources. Recognizing the important role animals play in food security, FAO started developing a Global Strategy for the management of Farm Animal Genetic Resources as early as 1993. Five years later in 1998, at the first meeting of the Intergovernmental Technical Working Group on Animal Genetic Resources, FAO was asked to coordinate the preparation of the Report on the State of World Animal Genetic Resources in the form of Country Reports. Ethiopia being one of the signatories, we are expected to prepare a Country Report on the State of our Animal Genetic Resources. Following a consultation between the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization and the Institute of Biodiversity Conservation and
xvii
Research, it has been agreed that IBCR would coordinate this initiative. We have requested all concerned stakeholders to nominate professionals for the membership of the National Consultative Committee (NCC), which will oversee the preparation of the Country Report as set in the FAO's guideline. Although the response is not as expected, we are planning to hold the first meeting and the inauguration of the NCC before the end of September 2003. It is hoped that the Country Report will provide us essential information that could help us to develop strategies for the conservation and development of our Farm Animal Genetic Resources. Based on the information obtained we would be able to: Determine core genetic resources for each species; Monitor breed population at risk; Establish conservation priorities; Establish genetic improvement priorities; Assist the development of an early warning system for breeds at risk; Identify appropriate environments for breeds to be most productive.
I hope with the full participation of the key stakeholders such as the Ministries of Rural Development, Agriculture and Federal Affairs, Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization, Regional Agricultural Bureaus and Research Institutes, Higher Learning Institutions, NGOs, other relevant institutions and organizations and the professionals to be involved in the preparation of the Country Report, we will make this a reality. It is therefore timely and appropriate for the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP) to choose the theme of this conference to be "Farm Animal Biodiversity in Ethiopia: Status and Prospects". I would like to wish you all every success in your deliberations. Thank you very much.
References
MoA, Ministry of Agriculture. 1997. National Livestock Development Program-Draft. MoA Animal and Fisheries Resources Development Department. January 1997. Addis Ababa. IBCR, Institute of Biodiversity Conservation and Research. 2000. Animal Genetic Resources Conservation and Development Strategic and Action Plan In: Biodiversity Conservation and Development Strategic and Action Plan for Ethiopia. Volume II, pp 69-98, October 2000. Addis Ababa. IBCR, Institute of Biodiversity Conservation and Research. 2003. Animal Genetic Resources - Three years Strategic and Management Plan- Draft. 2003. Addis Ababa. MoA, Ministry of Agriculture. 1975. National Sheep Breeding Policy. Addis Ababa. Albero, M. and Solomon Haile-Mariam. 1982a. The Indigenous Cattle of Ethiopia. Part I. World Animal Review 41: 2-10. FAO, Rome. Albero, M. and Solomon Haile-Mariam. 1982a. The Indigenous Cattle of Ethiopia. Part II. World Animal Review 41: 27-42. FAO, Rome. Alemayehu Reda, 1993. Phenotypic Characterization of Indigenous Goats and Goat Husbandry Practices in East and Southeastern Ethiopia. M.Sc. Thesis, Alemaya University of Agriculture. Alemaya, Ethiopia. 135pp.
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Nigatu Alemayehu, 1994. Characterization of Indigenous Goats Types of Western Ethiopia and Eritrea. M.Sc. Thesis, Alemaya University of Agriculture. Alemaya, Ethiopia. 136pp. Workneh Ayalew, 1992. Preliminary Survey of Indigenous Goats and Goat Husbandry Practices in Southern Ethiopia. M.Sc. Thesis, Alemaya University of Agriculture. Alemaya, Ethiopia. 155pp.
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FARM ANIMAL BIODIVERSITY IN ETHIOPIA: STATUS AND PROSPECTS
Current State of Knowledge on Characterisation of Farm Animal Genetic Resources in Ethiopia

Workneh Ayalew*, Ephrem Getahun, Markos Tibbo, Yetnayet Mamo and J.E.O. Rege International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P. O. Box 5689, Addis Ababa
Abstract
Ethiopia has a large farm animal genetic diversity. The existence of this diversity is due in large part to its geographical location near the historical entry point of many livestock populations from Asia, its diverse topographic and climatic conditions, the huge livestock population size and the wide range in production systems. Livestock diversity in Ethiopia has suffered considerably due to the many wars, civil strife and cyclical famines. Growing transhumance and migrations in the lower altitude areas have resulted in massive interbreeding between traditionally isolated livestock populations. In the highlands, government sponsored crossbreeding programmes have severely compromised the sustenance of genetic diversity in indigenous livestock, especially cattle and poultry. Yet not much has been done to document the existing indigenous livestock breeds and the impacts of agricultural development, increasing human populations and the booms and bursts in livestock population numbers associated with periodic good years and bad years. The national effort in Ethiopia towards systematic characterisation and documentation of livestock biodiversity has been negligible let alone planned interventions to curb the continuing threat of loss of genetic diversity. There is no national focal point to co-ordinate and monitor activities in characterisation, documentation and conservation of farm animal genetic resources in Ethiopia, and the two major sources of systematic information on characterization of Ethiopian AnGR are administered by international research institutions who have no functional links with any one national institution. This rather substantive national task therefore remains unattended for, and needs serious attention from researchers, policy makers and development practitioners. There is a need to identify and mandate a national institution to be the focal point of such activities. This is indeed essential because, both inter-species and intra-species (between and within breeds) diversity provide better household livelihood security for the majority of rural and urban households. There is cause for concern on the low level of research and development interest on the characterisation and conservation of farm animal genetic resources in this country.
Introduction
Ethiopia has an estimated 29 million heads of cattle, 22 million heads of sheep, 17 million goats, and 54 million chickens (991). The number of equines is estimated at 7 million, and that of camels is at least 1 million. The country also has the largest number of indigenous cattle breeds/strains, and a substantial diversity in its sheep, goat, donkey and chicken populations. It is home to a considerable number of dromedary and indigenous horse populations. The existence of the large livestock diversity in Ethiopia is due in large part to its geographical location near the historical entry point of many livestock populations from Asia, its diverse topographic and climatic conditions, the huge livestock population size and the wide range in production systems. Ethiopia (specifically the Abyssinian highlands) is considered the melting pot of farm animal genetic resources, especially cattle of Africa and the centre of diversity (100). For example, it is believed that a large majority of cattle breeds in the Horn of Africa were derived from interbreeding between cattle domesticated in Africa (African B. taurus) and
* Corresponding author 1 To keep the subsequent summary tables compact, the references cited are related to cited information by serial numbers instead of the
standard citation style of ESAP publications
B. indicus cattle brought into Africa from Asia about 700 A.D. This interbreeding occurred principally in present day Ethiopia. Although not much has been done to document the extent of diversity in many of these species, evidence emerging from the study of cattle diversity in the country (77) indicates that many indigenous breeds are under threat. Livestock diversity in Ethiopia has suffered considerably due to the many wars, civil strife and cyclical famines. Growing transhumance and migrations in the lower altitude areas have resulted in massive interbreeding between traditionally isolated livestock populations. In the highlands, government sponsored crossbreeding programmes have severely compromised the sustenance of genetic diversity in indigenous livestock, especially cattle and poultry. Yet not much has been done to document the existing indigenous livestock breeds and the impacts of agricultural development, increasing human populations and the booms and bursts in livestock population numbers associated with periodic good years and bad years. The national effort in Ethiopia towards systematic characterisation and documentation of livestock biodiversity has been negligible let alone planned interventions to curb the continuing threat of loss of genetic diversity. However, there are encouraging developments from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (101), and the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) as part of their global research programs for characterisation, documentation and conservation of farm animal genetic resources (AnGR) (102). The concern for conservation of livestock diversity arises because the majority of rural and urban households in developing countries like Ethiopia depend directly upon genetic, species and ecosystem biodiversity for their livelihoods. Apart from supplying part or whole of the daily needs for food, many risk-prone peasant livelihood systems need animal genetic resources that are capable of performing the various production, input and socio-economic functions, i.e. AnGR that are flexible, resistant and diverse. In order to assess the importance of AnGR, as distinct from livestock per se, for sustaining and improving the livelihoods of the poor, the factors that differentiate between species and breeds in terms of the current and potential functions that animals fulfil in livelihoods and household economies need to be better understood through phenotypic and genetic identification and documentation of animal genetic resources, a processes generally known as characterisation. This paper reviews the current state of knowledge from documented research information on characterisation of farm animal genetic resources in Ethiopia, and draws heavily on the experiences with the developments of the Domestic Animal Genetic Resources Information System (DAGRIS) of ILRI. DAGRIS is electronic information resource for breed level research information on indigenous animal genetic resources, now for African countries but later for other developing countries of Asia and Latin America (114). Staring by defining the term characterisation, it identifies the currently important means and sources of systematic information on characterisation of Ethiopian AnGR, and then enquires whether there is a national focal point to manage systematic information on characterisation of AnGR in Ethiopia. It then summarizes the available documented characterisation information on the major Ethiopian AnGR.
What is meant by characterisation of AnGR?

Characterisation of AnGR encompasses a broad range of exploratory research outcomes on description of the origin, development, population size, structure, distribution, typical features and phenotypic performance of these resources in defined management and climatic environments. Animal performance is explained in terms of production of specific outputs, reproduction and
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Farm Animal biodiversity in Ethiopia: Status and prospects
adaptation, and these values may be related to the genotype of animal populations in the form of estimated genetic parameters. Characterisation also includes displaying of the typical images of representative mature females, males as well as those of average herds. Phenotypic characterisation is undertaken as a measure of genetic diversity between distinctly defined breeds or animal populations to understand the extent, distribution, basic characteristics, comparative performance, utility value and current status of the animal genetic resources. In the absence of direct measures of genetic diversity, breeds, varieties within breeds, or distinct populations within breeds are taken as unit of reference to provide general indication of diversity in animal genetic resources. The essential activities include identification and inventory of the different breeds and a detailed description of their natural and adapted habitat where the breeds are known to exist. Such baseline information is essential to establish country, regional and global priorities for the management of animal genetic resources (101,102). The classical description of breeds is based upon phenotype because an organisms phenotype is principally a manifestation of its genotype, and that it lends itself to direct measurement on the organism. As such, phenotypic characterisation is therefore complementary to the powerful biotechnological techniques for measuring genetic diversity on the genome (103). The motivation of any characterisation work is improved harnessing of these animal genetic resources to support human livelihood for present and future generations (104). Therefore the focus is on traits that relate to productive and adaptive attributes of the breeds. While qualitative traits, like coat colour, are based on a small number of loci and can be precisely recorded and predicted for defined animal populations, the economically important quantitative traits require considerable recording on direct and indirect indicators of the trait on individual animals. The methodologies for comprehensive characterisation as part of the global strategy for management of AnGR have been developed and documented in a series of publications in the FAO Animal Production and Health Paper Series (e.g. 104, 101, 105, 106, 107,). Accordingly, FAO (108, 109, 110) published a comprehensive list of variables for describing the phenotypic and genetic characteristics (descriptor lists) of AnGR as the basis for systematic phenotypic characterisation and to facilitate valid comparison, classification or enumeration of breeds within a species. To the extent that production environments affect the development and utility of livestock breeds over time and space, characterisation of the phenotypes also include description of the production environments with respect to relevant input-output relationships. These relationships can have biological, climatic, economic, social and cultural dimensions (102, 104, 107). The need for globally accessible databases on AnGR These and other similar studies generate comprehensive accounts of breed specific information as a baseline to develop realistic livestock development programs. The utility of such information depends on how efficiently it is archived and delivered to the right stakeholders. Not only that such research information quickly accumulate to challenging proportions, but also that the information is continually updated and enriched as new breeds evolve and major changes develop in breeding objectives or production as well as market circumstances. It is therefore natural that such growing wealth of research information needs a system of data and information management in the form of databanks (105, 108, 114). Undoubtedly, information on the extent of existing genetic diversity, characteristics and use of indigenous farm animal genetic resources, particularly in developing countries, is the basis for
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their present as well as future sustainable utilization. Distilled information has always been an important component of economic development, but it is becoming even more so as the world moves towards an information-based economy. Astonishing technological advancements in the areas of information and communications technology now provide tremendous opportunities to improve the efficiency of storage, processing, distribution and exchange of such research information on characterisation of AnGR. The idea for the establishment of regional AnGR databanks for developing countries emerged from the FAO/UNEP Joint Expert Panel on AnGR Conservation and Management meeting in Rome in October 1983 (104,105). The reason behind this was that although about 70% of this global livestock biodiversity is in the hands of smallholder farmers who do not necessary share the same global concern for maintenance of livestock biodiversity, the countries lack the capacity to respond adequately and effectively to the alarming rate of irreversible loss of genetic diversity. Databases can help establish mechanisms to monitor and report regularly on the status of AnGR. Comprehensive synthesized information in databases on the past, present as well as potential future roles of indigenous AnGR helps in priority setting and targeting for specific interventions. At present there are four globally accessible, public domain electronic databases on livestock biodiversity. The first two of these (DAD-IS and EAAP Animal Genetic Databank) are related to the FAO global databank on AnGR; the third one (DAGRIS) is managed by ILRI; the fourth resource is database of the Oklahoma State University on Breeds of livestock of the World. DADIS and DAGRIS have greater relevance to the status of AnGR characterisation in Ethiopia, and deserve a more detailed discussion. DAD-IS [http://www.fao.org/dad-is] The Domestic Animal Diversity Information System (DAD-IS) is the first globally accessible database on AnGR, and it is being developed and administered by the FAO. It was initiated as a key communication and information tool for implementing the Global Strategy for the Management of AnGR, mainly to assist countries and country networks in their respective country programs (107, 115). Apart from the country-level breed information, DAD-IS delivers a virtual library service on selected technical and policy documents, including tools and guidelines for research on AnGR. It also offers important web-links to relevant electronic information resources. It also has a facility to exchange views and address specific information requests, by linking the range of stakeholders: farmers, scientists, researchers, development practitioners and policy makers. DAD-IS provides a summary of breed (or sometime variety) level information on the origin, population, risk status, special characteristics, morphology and performance of breeds as provided by the FAO member countries. Currently the database displays 5300 breeds in 35 species from 180 countries. A key feature of DAD-IS is that it provides country-secure information storage and communication tool for use by the countries with individual countries deciding when and what breed data are released through the officially delegated contact person (115). Ethiopia has an officially delegated contact person to verify and update the database, but it was last updated back in 1995. DAD-IS provides only summary fact sheet on the list of known breed names and varieties, and only average values of performance indicators. DAGRIS [http://dagris.ilri.cgiar.org/] The Domestic Animal Genetic Resources Information System (DAGRIS) is developed and managed by ILRI. It was initiated in 1999 to facilitate efficient compilation, organization and
dissemination of information on the origin, distribution, diversity, characteristics, present uses and status of indigenous AnGR from past and present research results. It is meant to support research, training, public awareness, genetic improvement and conservation. As stated earlier, the need for African database on AnGR was felt in 1983, and the then International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA), the predecessor of ILRI, undertook extensive search and collation of breed level information from Sub-Saharan Africa before initiating development of the databank. Version I of the database was released on the web in April 2003 (116). The same electronic resource is available on CD-ROM to cater for the needs of those users who have poor or no access to the Internet, as is the case in many developing countries. It is currently available, free of charge, on the web as well as on CD-ROM. Currently the database consists of over 16000 trait records on 152 cattle, 96 sheep and 62 goat breeds of Africa, including 23 cattle, 7 sheep and 12 goat breed types from Ethiopia. DAGRIS currently covers only Africa, where about 72% of ILRIs current research activity is directed. But it is planned to expand the scope of DAGRIS to Asia, which according to ILRIs global poverty map is home to 57% of the worlds poor that are associated with livestock (118). A unique feature of this database is that the breed information is backed up with detailed bibliographic references together with abstracts for relevant publications. Future developments of the database will include setting up additional system structures for: 1) remote uploading and downloading non-curated breed information to allow the range of users participate in the development of the database; 2) module to incorporate decision support tools needed for sustainable use and conservation of animal genetic resources in developing countries; 3) module for capturing molecular genetic information, and 4) facilities to link with GIS to provide overlays of various geo-referenced data (114). Where is (should be) the national focal point for characterisation of AnGR in Ethiopia? It is crucial to note here that both of these databases are developed and administered by international institutions and neither is operationally linked to any national institution for active involvement now or in the future. Potential candidate institutions for this task are the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA), the Institute of Biodiversity Conservation and Research (IBCR), the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organisation (EARO) and Academic Institutions engaged in Agricultural subjects, as these are officially entrusted with national mandates in agricultural development, research and conservation. MoA is more engaged in extension of identified technologies; IBCR has only just set up its department of animal genetic resources with a few professional staff. EARO has a well defined livestock research strategy that gives due emphasis to current issues in AnGR; however, that part of strategy has yet to be translated into specific action for national level characterisation, documentation and conservation of priority livestock species. Academic Institutions have been, and still are, actively involved in the characterization of indigenous AnGR with their comparative advantage in using their Graduate Studies as well as regular research programs in addressing specific current research issues as resources become available. However, none of these institutions are currently active, or have concrete plans to handle the national-level task of at least co-ordinating the characterisation, documentation and conservation of these resources. None of them are known to have the primary responsibility in this regard. This rather substantive national task therefore remains unattended for, and needs serious attention from researchers, policy makers and development practitioners. There is a need to identify and mandate a national institution to be the focal point of such activities. This is indeed essential because both inter-species and intra-species (between and within breeds) diversity provide better household livelihood security for the majority of rural and urban
households. There is also cause for concern on the low level of research and development interest on the characterisation and conservation of farm animal genetic resources in this country.
What is known and documented in characterisation of AnGR in Ethiopia?

The first comprehensive treatment of all known indigenous livestock breeds of Ethiopia appeared in the published literature by the works of Mason and Maule published in 1960 (49), and later in Masons World Dictionary of Livestock Breeds and varieties in 1988 (111). These books provide breed names, synonyms, locations where breeds are found and give a basic description of the origin, physical appearance and main uses of each breed. They do not provide estimates of population sizes (other than occasionally indicating known breed status and population trends) or of production characteristics for the breed cited. The seminal work of Epstein (22) also presents a detailed review of the origin and development of domestic animals of Africa, including farm animals; it is particularly important in bringing together the different theories in the evolution of livestock breeds groups, and in highlighting major events in history that mark evolution of livestock agriculture in Africa. Another major contribution, though only on one species cattle is the Cattle Breeds Encyclopaedia of Felius that appeared in 1995 (112), which presents a brief account of the worlds over 1000 cattle breeds, including those from Ethiopia. The book provides a synthesis of origins, developments and relationships of the breeds, a brief description of the typical appearance and dimension of each breed, and cites some estimates of population figures as these relate to the status of the breed. This book also has image illustrations of each breed. Another important contribution was made through ILCAs Research Report Series, for instance, the work of Kiwuwa and colleagues in 1983 (113) on evaluation of crossbred dairy cattle in the Arsi Region. Similar serial reports provide some descriptive information on AnGR. Mention should also be made of the comprehensive review by Wilson in 1991 on small ruminant genetic resources of sub-Saharan Africa, which also included Ethiopian breeds (96). The series of surveys on indigenous goat breed types, summarised in the ILRI monograph by FARM-Africa (25), produced exemplary standardised phenotypic descriptions as well as preliminary reproductive performance indicators. Cattle genetic resources Documented in the published and grey literature are a total of 23 recognized indigenous cattle breed types in Ethiopia, that fall into 5 distinct breed groups (77) (Table 1). Nearly half of these are in the group of Small East African Zebu, found widely distributed throughout the country, both in the high and low land areas. Three other breeds (the Ethiopian Boran, Murle and Arsi) are classified in the group of Large East African Zebu. The Sanga group of cattle comprises the Danakil and Raya Azebo from northern and northeastern Ethiopia and Anuak and Aliab Dinka in the far southwest lowlands of the country. Three other breeds (Horro, Fogera and Arado) from central highlands are classified under the group of Zenga (sanga-zebu interbreeds). There is only one representative of the Humpless Shorthorn group of cattle in Ethiopia the Sheko - in the midaltitude southwest of the country. In addition to these, the DAD-IS database and some reports mention the presence of four other cattle breed types (the Babbawa, Jiddu, Red Bororo and Tigray) in the country, but there is very little data either to help verify that these are indeed indigenous to Ethiopia, or even to fairly describe them in terms of their origin, distribution, specific features and performance, hence they are classified here as non-specific or uncertain breeds types (Table 2).
Table 1 presents summary of available breed characterisation information for the recognized indigenous cattle breed types of Ethiopia. Only six of the 23 breed types have a fair description of their physical appearance, indications of their levels of production, reproduction and genetic attributes. These breeds have been the subject of recent research and development interventions from research, academic and extension institutions in the country. The rest either have very little information in any of these categories of characterisation information, or nothing is known about them. A well established fact is that the Sheko breed is known to be endangered of extinction due to neglect and interbreeding with neighbouring cattle breed types, although it is widely believed to have economically important trypanotolerant and good dairy attributes for use in the trypanosomosis-endemic southwest of the country. Only seven of the recognised breed types have at least one estimate of their population sizes, and even these are either outdated or based on crude assessments. For instance, as the upcoming thesis of Graduate student Zewdu Wuletaw on indigenous cattle in North Gondar will show, the population estimate for Fogera cattle of 800 thousand by Alberro and Hailemariam (6) is inaccurate, and the current population of what are considered true Fogera cattle may rather be about a few tens of thousands. Preliminary results form this thesis research show that there is considerable phenotypic diversity in the cattle genetic resources in the area with fairly distinct typical features, adaptive attributes and utility values. Another graduate student from Alemaya University (Dereje Tadesse) is undertaking a survey of indigenous cattle breed types of North and South Wollo zones, and is expected to produce detailed phenotypic characterisation information for the breeds in that part of the country. Sheep genetic resources The indigenous sheep of Ethiopia are fat-tailed coarse hair type, with the exception of the fatrumped hair type sheep that inhabit most of the eastern, southeastern and southern rangelands of the country. Unlike others, the Afar sheep manifests a tail attribute somewhat intermediate between the true fat-tailed and fat-rumped types of sheep, which may be the result of interbreeding between these sheep populations. The increasing numbers of long-thin tailed sheep found in the northwest and west of the country on the border area with the Sudan are indigenous to the Sudan and have come from across the border. Overall, there are six recognized indigenous sheep breed types in the country. These fall into three breed groups: the fat-tailed hair sheep (3 breeds), the fat-tailed coarse wool sheep (2 breeds) and the Fat-rumped hair sheep (1 breed) (Table 3). The DAD-IS database mentions three other breed types (Akale Guzai, Barka and Bonga) that are not yet recognised at national level. The first two find their home habitat in the present-day Eritrea, but sizable populations of these are found in neighbouring areas across the border in Ethiopia (Table 4). The Bonga sheep type from the southwest of the country is sometimes associated with the Horro sheep, but an increasing body of opinion puts it as distinct breed type on its own, although documented research information is still lacking. Similarly, Sisay Lemas thesis (119) presents seven other breed types from the Amhara Regional State, one of which (Shewa/Legegora) is already known as a synonym for the Menz breed type (Table 4). None of the recognised breed types have population estimates, and their status as breeds is not known (Table 3). A good deal of trait-level (physical, production, reproduction, genetic) characterisation information is available in the published literature on the Horro, Menz and Blackhead Somali sheep mainly because of the research interest on these sheep by the previous Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR), ILRI and the previous Alemaya College of Agriculture.
Two upcoming theses will generate further breed level genetic information on Ethiopia indigenous sheep from central highlands. These are the MSc thesis of graduate student Dagnachew Worku and the PhD thesis of Markos Tibbo. Goat genetic resources Almost all indigenous goat types in Ethiopia fall under the general group of Short-eared Smallhorned goats found throughout eastern, central and southern Africa. They inhabit all agro-climatic zones and production systems in these areas. There is only one breed (the Barka) from another breed group, and it comes mainly from Eritrea. There are a total of 11 recognized indigenous goat breed types in Ethiopia under the group Short-eared Small-Horned and another one in the Lop-eared group (Table 5). In addition, Getnet Amehas thesis (120) describes five other breeds from the Asosa Regional State, and one of these (the Fellata) may be associated either with the Nubian gat from the Sudan or the Barka from Eritrea and adjacent parts of northern Ethiopia (Table 6). Because of the unprecedented nation-wide comprehensive survey of indigenous goat breed types in Ethiopia (and Eritrea) implemented in collaboration between FARM-Africa (a UK based NGO), Alemaya University and ILRI, much more balanced phenotypic characterization information has been documented on the 12 recognized breed types (24), than is the case for cattle or sheep (Table 5). However, little is known on other categories of trait-level information, particularly on genetic parameters. This survey has also come up with crude estimated of the breed population estimates, based on available breed distribution information and district-level goat population estimates. However, despite the large populations sizes, the breed status of all these breed types is critical mainly because of neglect and the extensive interbreeding between adjacent breed populations as human populations migrate for resettlement, move for marketing and struggle to restock their goat holdings after heavy drought-related goat losses. An upcoming PhD thesis by Tesfaye Alemu of Adami Tulu Agricultural Research Centre is expected to provide molecular genetic information on the recognized goat breed types. Other animal genetic resources The major livestock species that merit similar treatment here are chicken, horses, donkeys and camels, none of which have never been surveyed or documented at the national level. Some comprehensive characterisation information has recently been generated on indigenous chicken by Tadelle Dessie (121). This particular study surveyed the chicken resources by dividing the country into five major agro-ecological zones and ten market-sheds and identified five distinct indigenous chicken ecotypes (Tilili, Horro, Chefe, Jarso and Tepi). These ecotypes were then characterised in terms of physical, production, reproduction and molecular genetic attributes. The relevance of these and related studies are also reviewed by the article by Tadelle Dessie in these proceedings. More exploratory on-farm studies have been undertaken on camel than on the equines, and these mainly came from graduate studies and research programs of Alemaya University. The current level of research interest on equines is reviewed in these proceedings by Mengistu Alemayehu. However, there is no documented breed specific characterisation information either on camels or equines.
Table 1. Summary of documented breed characterization information for the recognized indigenous cattle breed types in Ethiopia
Distribution Physical 1 2 2 1 2 2 18 2 2 2 4 10 Not at risk Not at risk Not at risk 28 66 1 2 22 200 1 1 8 57 1 6 26 79 79 79 79 79 37,79 24,26,79 79 79 6,21 3, 16, 21, 41, 44, 51, 66,79 1896000 5,11, 17, 21, 36, 41, 43, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 73, 77, 79, 87, 88 NA Unknown 8 4 49,51, 79 10 51 79 Production Reprod. Genetic Central zone of the Tigray Region, Adwa Western Shoa (Ambo, Addis Alem, Holetta) Bale highlands Nouth Omo (Goffa, Sawla) Guraghe and Hadiya areas, close to the tsetse-infested valleys South Omo Zone Highlands of Eastern and Western Hararghe Highlands of JemJem, Sidamo and Bale Somali Region, Jijiga area South Omo Zone Somali Region, Ogaden area South Gondar zone (Gayint, Smada) and parts of North Wollo Gambella Region along the border with the Sudan Gambella Region and adjoining areas in south-western Ethiopia Northeastern Ethiopia (Tigrai, Wollo), and parts of Djibouti and Eritrea. Parts of Tigray and Wello east of Lake Ashenge Highlands of Arsi, Shewa, Bale, Sidamo and Hararghe In the southern rangelands with the Borana pastoralists Eastern Gambella, on the border with the Sudan 2012000 NA NA 548600 Not at risk Not at risk NA Unknown NA Unknown NA Unknown NA Unknown 100000 Not at risk 434000 Not at risk NA Unknown NA Unknown NA Unknown NA Unknown 738000 Unknown NA Unknown NA Unknown Population Estimate References Breed status Trait categories
Breed Group Name
Breed Name
Synonyms
Small East African Zebu
Adwa
NA
Ambo
NA
Bale
NA
Goffa
NA
Guraghe
NA
Hammer
NA
Harar
NA
Jem-Jem
Black Highland Cattle
Jijiga
NA
Mursi
NA
Ogaden Zebu
Lowland Zebu
Smada
Sanga
Aliab Dinka
NA
Anuak
Abigar
Danakil
Adal, Afar, Kereyu, Keriyu
Raya-Azebo
Galla-Azebo
Large East African Zebu
Arsi
Arusi
Ethiopian Boran
Borana
Murle
NA
10
Distribution Physical 16 13 1 Production Reprod. Genetic Northern Tigray (Shire, Adwa, Agame) and the highlands of Eritrea The Fogera plains around Lake Tana in South Gondar and adjoining areas of West Gojjam. 800000 Not at risk Highlands of western Ethiopia (East Wollega, West Shoa, Illubabor) Bench Zone in southwestern Ethiopia, originally with the Sheko people. 31000 Endangered 21 2 1 NA Not at risk 11 14 10 NA Not at risk 6, 21, 51, 77, 79 21, 77, 79 Population Estimate References Breed status Trait categories 6, 21, 51, 87 6, 79, 100
Table 1. Continued.
Breed Group Name
Breed Name
Synonyms
Zenga
Arado
NA
Fogera
NA
Horro
NA
Humpless Shorthorns
Sheko
Shewa-Ghimira, Goda, Mitzan
Table 2. Other cattle breed types described as indigenous to Ethiopia in the DAD-IS database Distribution North-western lowlands Rangelands of southern Ethiopia NA Tigray
Breed Name
Synonyms
Bambawa
Bambaua
Jiddu
Giddu, Macien, Sorco, Sucra, Surco, Surco Sanga, Surug, Suruq
Red Bororo
Brahaza, Fellata, Gabassae, Gadehe, Hanagamba, Kreda, Mbororo, Rahaza, Red Fulani
Tigray
Tigre
Table 3. Summary of documented breed characterization information for the recognized indigenous sheep breed types in Ethiopia
Distribution Physical 24 50 2 9 4, 29, 33, 98 Production Reproduction Genetic Sources Afar Region and parts of Dire Dawa and South Wollo with the Afar pastoralists NA Unknown NA Unknown 39 77 10 151 2, 9, 10, 22, 27, 28, 33, 38, 39, 91 Highlands of western Ethiopia (West Shoa, Wellega, Kaffa and Illubabor) Highlands of northern Ethiopia (parts of Tigray, Gondar and Wollo) NA Unknown 4 Highlands of eastern and south-central Ethiopia (Arsi, Bale, Hararghe, Sidamo and South Shoa) Highlands of northern and central Shoa and some parts of Wollo NA Unknown 86 161 76 Rangelands of eastern, south-eastern, southern and south-western Ethiopia NA Unknown 31 96 12 NA Unknown 2 8 1 74, 119 Population Estimate Breed status Trait categories
Breed Group Name
Breed Name
Synonyms
Fat-tailed Hair Sheep
Afar
Danakil, Adal
16, 45, 98 131 1,7, 8,9,10,13,22 ,27,28, 33, 39, 40, 42,46,47,48,49,53, 54,55, 56,57,58, 59,60,61,62, 63, 80, 89,90, 91,98 10 14, 15, 27, 34,76, 80, 86, 89, 98 Distribution Northern Tigray Northern Tigray, northeern Gondar Kaffa Province, South-western Ethiopia East and West Gojjam, Awi and part of South Gondar Southern Tigray and North Wollo (Wag Himera) East of South Gondar South-west Wello North Shoa Lowlands of north-western Ethiopia Western Ethiopian lowlands Source The DAD-IS database The DAD-IS database The DAD-IS database Sisay Lemmas Msc thesis Sisay Lemmas Msc thesis Sisay Lemmas Msc thesis Sisay Lemmas Msc thesis Sisay Lemmas Msc thesis Sisay Lemmas Msc thesis Sisay Lemmas Msc thesis
Horro
Abyssinian, Ethiopian, Bonga, Wollaga
Tukur
Lasta, Ethiopian Highland, Abyssinian
Fat-tailed Coarse Wool (wavy wooled) Sheep
Arsi-Bale
Ethiopian Highland, Abyssinian
Menz
Ethiopian Highland, Abyssinian, Legagora
Fat-rumped Hair Sheep
Blackhead Somali
Blackhead Ogaden, Murle, Turkana, Gabbra, Boran
Table 4. Other sheep breed types described as indigenous to Ethiopia
Breed Name
Synonyms
Akale Guzai
Shimenzana, Scimenzana
Barka
Begghie, Korboraca, Shukria
Bonga
Dangila/Washera/Agew
Sekota-Agew
Farta
Wello
Shewa/Legegora
Rutana
Gumez
11
12
Distribution Physical 20 1 24, 98 Production Reproduction Genetic Northern and north-western Ethiopia near the border with Eritrea and the Sudan 600000 Critical Rangelands of the southern Ogaden, Bale, Borana and southern Sidamo with the Somali and Borana pastoralists. 1500000 Critical 38 65 13 12 Northern and eastern parts of Ogaden, and around Dire Dawa Highlands of western Ethiopia (Gondar, Gojjam, Wollega and Shoa) 3000000 Critical 12 Lowlands of western Ethiopia (Metekel, Assosa and Gambella) North Omo, South Omo, Sidamo, Borana Southern Tigray, North Wollo and South Gonder Afar Region and parts of Eritrea and Djibouti with the Afar pastoralits 1000000 Critical Arsi, Bale, Sidamo and Western Hararghe zones Highlands of central Ethiopia from Tigray through Wollo, Gondar to Shoa 6000000 Highlands of Eastern and Western Hararghe Keffa and adjoining parts of Kembata and Hadiya 1000000 1000000 Critical 600000 Critical 32 300000 Critical 14 900000 Critical 13 29 400000 Critical 12 1 1500000 Critical 13 1 Population Estimate Sources Breed status Trait categories 12,19, 21, 24, 64,71,72, 81, 82, 83,84,85, 86,96,98 24 24 1 1 9 24 24 24, 34, 98 24,33,34,98 12 14 2 3 1 24 24,34 Critical Critical 13 12 1 1 24 24
Table 5. Summary of documented breed characterization information for the recognized indigenous goat breed types in Ethiopia
Breed Group Name
Breed Name
Synonyms
Lop-eared goats
Barka
Bellenay, Beni Amer
Short-eared Small-horned
Long-eared Somali
Digodi, Melebo, Boran Somali, Benadir, Gigwain
Short-eared Somali
Ogaden, Mudugh, Dighier, Abgal, IssaSomali, Bimal
Western Highland
Agew
Western Lowland
Shankila, Gumuz
Woyto-Guji
Woyto, Guji, Konso
Abergelle
NA
Short-eared Small-horned
Afar
Adal, Assaorta, Denakil,
Arsi-Bale
Arsi, Gishe, Sidama, Manta, Awarch
Central Highland
Brown Goat, Kaye
Hararghe Highland
Kotu-Oromo
Keffa
NA
Table 6. Other goat breed types identified as indigenous to Ethiopia in Getnet Amehas MSc Thesis (120)
Population estimate NA NA NA NA NA
Breed Name
Distribution
Fellata
North-western lowlands (Asosa), but also Metema.
Arab
North-western lowlands (Asosa).
Gumuz
North-western lowlands (Asosa, but also Metekel and Kamashi zones)
Agew
North-western highlands (Asosa, but also Metekel zone).
Oromo
North-western highlands (Asosa)
13
Conclusions
The current state of knowledge on characterisation of farm animal genetic resources in Ethiopia shows that there is inadequate breed level characterization information, although the country is widely known to possess a large population of livestock with enormous diversity in specific attributes. Based on the available published and grey literature as summarised in the DAGRIS database, there are at least 23 cattle, 6 sheep and 12 goat breed types in Ethiopia. The status of genetic diversity in chicken, horses, donkeys and camels is largely unknown. The breed status of most of the known breeds is either unknown, or believed to be alarming. Neglect and continual interbreeding are believed to cause the threat. Only the goat breed types are better characterized in terms of phenotypic, production and reproduction characteristics, and this wealth of information shows that, despite the large breed-type populations, the status of all the recognized goat breed types is critical. The status of sheep and cattle genetic resources is unknown. The available population estimates are out of date and unrealistic as is exemplified by the case for Fogera cattle. There is no national focal point to co-ordinate or monitor research and development interventions as these relate to the characterisation, documentation and conservation of farm animal genetic resources of this country. Although several national research and development institutions are known to be stakeholders in these fields, none of them are known to have the primary responsibility of at least co-ordinating the characterisation, documentation and conservation of these resources. To the extent that both inter-species and intra-species (between and within breeds) diversity provides better household livelihood security for the majority of rural and urban households, there is cause for concern on the low level of research and development interest on the characterisation and conservation of farm animal genetic resources in this country.
References
(To keep the summary tables compact, the references cited are related to cited information by serial numbers instead of the standard citation style of ESAP publications).
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100. Kemp, S.J. 1992. The potential contribution of biotechnology in breed characterisation. Rege, J.E.O. and Lipner, M.E. (eds). ILCA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). African animal genetic resources: their characterisation, conservation and utilisation. Proceedings of the research planning workshop. 19-21 February, 1992. ILCA, Addis Ababa. pp. 23-28. 101. Cunningham, E P 1992. Animal Genetic Resources - The perspective for developing countries. In: Animal Genetic Resources: their characterization, conservation and utilization. J O E Rege and M E Lipner (eds.). Research planning workshop, ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 19-21 February, 1992. ILCA, Addis Ababa 102. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations) 1984a. Animal Genetic Resources conservation by management, databanks and training. Food and Agriculture Organisation. Animal Production and Health Paper no. 44/1. FAO, Rome, Italy. 103. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations) 1984b. Animal genetic resources conservation by management, data banks and training, part 1 & 2. FAO, Rome (Italy). FAO Animal Production and Health Paper no. 44/2. 300pp. 104. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United nations) 1999. The Global Strategy for the Management of Animal Genetic Resources: Executive Brief. Food and Agriculture Organisation. Initiative for Domestic Animal Diversity. FAO, Rome, Italy.43p. 105. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations) 1986a. Animal Genetic Resource Data Banks. 1. Computer Systems study for Regional data banks. Animal Production and Health Paper No. 59/1. FAO, Rome. 106. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations) 1986b. Animal Genetic Resource Data Banks. 2. Descriptor Lists for Cattle, Buffalo, Pigs, Sheep and Goats. Animal Production and Health Paper No. 59/2. FAO, Rome. 107. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations) 1986c. Animal Genetic Resource Data Banks. 3. Descriptor Lists Poultry. Animal Production and Health Paper No. 59/3. FAO, Rome. 108. Mason, I.L. 1988. A World dictionary of livestock breed types and varieties. 348p. Wallingford, Oxon (UK): C.A.B. International. 109. Felius, M. 1995. Cattle breeds: an encyclopedia.. Doetinchen (Holland): Misset. 799p. 110. Kiwuwa, G.H.; Trail, J.C.M.; Yousef, M.K.; Worku, G.; Anderson, F.M.; Durkin, J.W. ILCA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia), Arsi Rural Development Unit, Assela (Ethiopia). 1983. Crossbred dairy cattle productivity in Arsi region, Ethiopia. ILCA Research Report. no. 11. 29p. 111. Ayalew, W., Rege, J. E. O., Getahun, E., Tibbo, M., and Mamo, Y. 2003. Delivering Systematic Information on Indigenous Animal Genetic Resources the development and prospects of DAGRIS. 20 11th ESAP-Proceedings
Proc. The Deutscher Tropentag 2003: Technological and Institutional Innovations for Sustainable Rural Development. 08-10 October 2003. Goettingen, Germany. (In Press). 112. DAD-IS. 2003. Domestic Animal Diversity Information System (DAD-IS). [http://www.fao.org/dad-is]. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United nationa (FAO). Rome, Italy (Visited on 30 October, 2003). 113. DAGRIS. 2003. Domestic Animal Genetic Resources Information System (DAGRIS). Version 1. (eds. J.E.O. Rege, W. Ayalew and E. Getahun). ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. [http://dagris.ilri.cgiar.org] 114. EAAP (European Association of Animal Production) Animal Genetic Databank, 2003. http://www.tihohannover.de/einricht/zucht/eaap/index.htm. Department of Animal Breeding and Genetics, School of Veterinary Medicine Hanover, Germany (visited on 30/11/ 2003). 115. Thornton, P.K., Kruska, R.L., Henninger, N., Kristjanson, P.M., Reid, R.S., Atieno, F., Odero, A.N., Ndegwa, T. ILRI, Nairobi (Kenya). 2002. Mapping poverty and livestock in the developing world. ILRI. Nairobi (Kenya). 124p. 116. Sisay Lemma, S. 2002. Phenotypic classification and description of indigenous sheep types in the Amhara National Regional State of Ethiopia. M.Sc. Thesis, University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg. 104 pp. 117. Getinet Ameha. 2001. On-farm characterisation of types and evaluation of productivity of goats in north-western part of Ethiopia. MSc Thesis. Alemaya University, Alemaya. 104pp. 118. Tadelle Dessie. 2003. Phenotypic and genetic characterization of local chicken ecotypes in Ethiopia. PhD Dissertation. Humboldt-Universitat, Berlin (Germany). 209pp.
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Operational Policy Instruments for Conservation and Sustainable Utilization of Animal Genetic Resources (AnGR) in Ethiopia
Kassahun Awgichew Institute of Biodiversity Conservation and Research (IBCR)
Introduction
Ethiopia has a huge and diverse Farm Animal Genetic Resources existing in the various agroecological zones. However, these genetic resources have not been fully and properly identified, classified, described and documented. The livelihood and in fact the survival of the Ethiopian rural population depends largely on the animal genetic resources they have and it will remain so for the foreseeable future as a functional part of the production system.
Farm Animal Diversity and food security

The challenge to achieve food security has become greater with increase in human population. According to the FAO (FAO 1999), at the current rate of population growth, the consumption of food and agriculture products during the second decade of the next century will be equivalent to that of the last 10,000 years. Many developing countries of which Ethiopia in not an exception, are exposed to chronic or frequent food shortages. Animal genetic resources have been contributing to food and agriculture for thousands of years providing meat, milk products, eggs, fiber, fertilizer for crops, manure for fuel and draught power. In addition to this, animal genetic resources also help to reduce farmers' exposure to risk and provide meaningful employment to society. The total diversity among animal genetic resources contributes in many ways to the survival and well being of humans. It is estimated that, domestic animals supply about 30% of total human requirements directly and indirectly for food and agriculture. The FAO has reported that the demand for livestock products in the developing world will double over the next 20 years, because of population growth, urbanization and rising incomes. To meet this growing demand, animal agriculture is intensifying and relies increasingly on a few breeds that are high yielder. Consequently, less productive but genetically valuable local breeds are threatened. According to the FAO (FAO 1999) currently an estimated 35% of mammalian breeds and 63% of avian breeds risk extinction- 60% of which are in developing countries. Of the local breeds left, few are being bred for higher productivity, a missed opportunity to help the developing world feed its people. It is known that domestic animal diversity is the result of the way in which communities of farmers and pastoralists managed their Animal Genetic Resources in their respective habitats, according to their own preferences and needs (Hagmann and Drews, 2001).
Status of Farm Animal Genetic Resources

Agro-biodiversity is being lost at an alarming and unacceptable rate as a result of human population growth and development pressure and the rapid transformation of traditional agricultural systems. However, traditional systems still account globally for 75% of production in the developing world (FAO 1999). Loss of animal genetic resources has been greatest in developed countries, where there has been a tendency to concentrate on a few high yielding breeds and this action has unfortunately lead to a complete displacement of locally adapted breeds. It is true that genetically uniform breeds are
highly productive in high-input, high-output production strategies in countries with favorable climates, and when high levels of inputs can be maintained. In developing countries like Ethiopia, however, animal genetic resources are being eroded through the rapid transformation of agricultural systems. This transformation mostly includes the indiscriminate use of exotic genetic resources, which have now become the primary sources contributing to the loss of livestock breeds in developing countries. The latest information available from the world watch list for Domestic Animal Diversity Published by FAO indicates that 30% of the world's domestic animal breeds are currently at risk of extinction (FAO, 1999). It is believed that interbreeding due to animal movement from one area to another, animal diseases, feed shortage due to drought and other calamities and the use of artificial insemination and other techniques that facilitate the easy transfer of genetic material from one geographical region to another have resulted in widespread crossbreeding and the replacement of local stocks and thereby contribute to the dilution or erosion of indigenous farm animal biodiversity. The genuine desire to improve livestock production in Ethiopia is complicated by three hard facts: 1. That livestock genetic improvement always has a rather long time frame (generation intervals); 2. Almost all improvement interventions are very expensive (management, genetic); and 3. The vital market incentive for genetic improvement is either lacking or not operating. These means that genetic improvement and conservation programs are bound to be very expensive and slow in progress at least in the beginning. Livestock development in the developed world has taken an entirely different course than what is being attempted now in developing countries like Ethiopia. Government resources and market opportunities have financed the genetic improvement of the most promising breeds. These have now spread widely all over the world. In the course of time, the less promising breeds have gradually disappeared (become extinct). Developing counties have now both the opportunity and the challenge of making use of the genetic gains attained so far with a very restricted set of genetic resources. As a result, countries like Ethiopia ended up dealing with new practical problems, including: 1. 2. 3. 4. Limited knowledge of the circumstances with the target farmers/production systems; Limited manpower to handle these professional challenges; Limited tested options for improvements, and Limited finances to support promotion of selected technologies.
In short the development opportunities have come with risks. Above all, most of the existing livestock genetic diversity is in the hands of smallholder farmers who are utilizing them in their own ways, as has been the case for generations and maintenance of the surviving genetic diversity is implicitly left to the smallholder farmers themselves. The question is do our smallholder farmers have the capacity to shoulder this responsibility?
Livestock Development Policy Issues

One of the most pressing legal challenges in the field of genetic resources is to define the conditions for the transfer and use of those resources. Advances in biological science have created an international market for genetic material as a 'resource' for research and development. 'Genetic Resources' (GR) therefore are subject to new values, uses and competing demands. Not surprisingly, this has led to tensions between stakeholders who disagree about when access to, and use of, both plant and animal genetic resources should be free and unfettered, and when they
should be subject to controls. In response, over the last ten years, there has been a surge of genetic resources policy-making activities at the local, national and international levels. There is currently a substantial body of evidence showing that policies or the lack of them have been a major determinant of progress in the agricultural sector. As there is no national policy in place on the sustainable use of the Farm Animal Biodiversity, there is an urgent need to survey the situation and build more constructive approaches to livestock breeding to ensure that the various local breeds/types are identified and preserved while following a guided approach to specialized breed substitution and crossbreeding programs. However, the overall policy environment is still far from being well defined, and a general atmosphere of uncertainty prevails. In the absence of certainty, an evolving climate of distrust and lack of cooperation is threatening to undermine the sharing of genetic resources. For example, there are now frequent reports of international genetic resource collecting efforts, even those explicitly limited to conservation by public sector agencies, being frustrated by government official who are reluctant to approve transfers of crop genetic resources. Indigenous and local peoples are declaring moratoria on collecting in their communities until their rights are more clearly defined and understood. Meanwhile, some formal sector institutions are appealing for a new climate of cooperation as their own research and development efforts are being threatened by vigilant enforcement of patent rights over required technologies. Efforts are required to both clear up uncertainty in the genetic resource policy environment and to encourage the maximum conservation, exchange and use of those resources. To date, industrialized countries have developed more comprehensive genetic resource policies than developing countries. This difference can be accounted for, in part, by the fact that developed countries have had a longer history of formal sector plant breeding and biotechnological research within their borders; they have had more time to work out domestic policies regulating activities and to define the rights of parties vis--vis biologic materials. That is not to say that all developed countries' domestic genetic resource policies are entirely successful or satisfactory to all stakeholders. Genetic resource policies and laws in developed countries are also subject to ongoing revisions in response to changing demands, emerging technologies and shifts in the market. Furthermore, despite, they are often poorly coordinated/synchronized between sectors. Nevertheless, despite whatever weaknesses may exist in developed countries genetic resource policy frameworks, developing countries have generally not had the same opportunities to take advantage of 'learning by doing' styles of domestic genetic resource policy development. This is particularly so where intellectual property policy issues are concerned. Developing countries can take advantage of developed countries' policy frameworks, learning from their strengths and weaknesses. However, it is not advisable to simply 'cut and paste' developed countries' policies into the very different and highly individualized contexts of developing countries. Effective domestic policy must be based on domestic conditions. Faced with this situation, the policy makers of many developing countries welcome support to strengthen their own capacity and associated research in the area of genetic resource policy. In Ethiopia, the lack of a clear policy on breed introduction has lead to the importation of exotic breeds of cattle, sheep, goats and poultry. This was probably done on a notion that local animals are low producers of milk, meat, fiber, etc. While this is true, the rich genetic diversity the indigenous animals have should not be undervalued. The future improvement and development of livestock for agriculture is dependent upon the availability of the genetic variation they posses. The uncontrolled use of AI and the widespread crossbreeding activities will definitely
lead to the replacement of local stocks through prolonged dilution. In most cases this is being done without initial characterization or proper evaluation of indigenous breeds and with no effort to conserve the local strains. At the end, the result will be the disappearance of a substantial number of local populations with the consequent loss of their inherent genetic adaptation to their local environments. Some of the exotic breeds of animals that have been introduced into the country are as follows: 1. Cattle: - Fresian, Jersey, Simmental, Aberden Augus, Aryshire Charolais, Hereford, Santa Gertrudis, Brahaman and Brown swiss. 2. Sheep: - Merino, Romney, Corriedale, Hampshire, Awassi, Dorper, Blue de Main. 3. Goats: - Saanen, Anglo Nubian and Alpine 4. Poultry: - White leghorn, Rohde Island Red, Fayomi and Bovans Brown Only very few of these or their crosses are seen either in rural or urban areas. Some were limited to research stations while others have been and are still being distributed to farmers. Most of the breed introduction activities were under taken by government institutions for either research or production purposes. Some NGOs have also introduced exotic animals in to the country. When breed importations are done controlling is done mostly from disease control aspects. This greatly underestimates the genetic erosion to be caused through the indiscriminate cross breeding activity. In 1992 the Ministry of Agriculture has attempted to draft a livestock development policy as part of the overall agricultural policy (MoA, 1992). However, to date even this has not been formally issued. Currently however, the Ministry is preparing overall agricultural and sectoral policies. In January 2001, the Ethiopian Agricultural Research organization has prepared draft-breeding policies for cattle, small ruminants and poultry (EARO, 2001a, b, c, d). However none of these has materialized. The Institute of Biodiversity Conservation and Research has included the development of Animal Breeding Policy in its strategic plan for the next three years (IBCR, 2003). All these show that there is no coordination among the concerned institutions. It is therefore timely that the Ministry of Agriculture, EARO, IBCR, Higher Learning Institutions and others come together and prepare breading policies for the livestock sector. This will undoubtedly save indigenous animals from extinction. Due to the lack of such policies, exotic genetic materials will continue coming and will be used without a proper advice and guidelines to the end users.
Gaps or Constraints
Up to now low attention is given to characterization and conservation of the domestic animal genetic resource base and the under evaluation of the animal genetic resources. According to Biruk Yemane and Beyene Kebede (ND) and IBCR (2000), this could be mainly attributed to: 1. Lack of national policy and strategies on the sustainable use of biodiversity in general and that of livestock in particular. 2. Absence of organization/institute responsible for characterization, and conservation of the domestic Animal Genetic Resources. 3. Lack of data or information on the classification, description and identification of local breeds/strains for each domestic animal species and the main production systems and environments under which they are maintained.
4. Lack of understanding, of the traditional domestic animal genetic resources husbandry practices in the context of indigenous knowledge. 5. Lack of information on the geographic distribution and structure of the genetic variation in the existing population to develop sound production and conservation strategies. 6. Lack of interest and economic motives to promote the use of indigenous breeds for production or conservation and under evaluation of the genetic diversity. 7. None existence of regulation and control on the introduction and export of domestic animal genetic materials. 8. Absence of monitoring and evaluation on indiscriminate use of genetic material in the form of Artificial Insemination and distribution of exotic live animals for crossbreeding purposes. 9. The availability of very little information on the responses of most local breeds to improved husbandry practices. 10. Lack of properly stratified species based, commodity oriented and production system directed domestic animal genetic resources utilization strategy and management plan. 11. The fact that conservation practices are generally expensive and ex-situ conservation practices require special facilities and skills. 12. The fact that the impact of conservation exercise is not observed in the short term and is not quantifiable makes it less attractive. 13. Lack or shortage of trained manpower in the area of animal genetics in general and in specialized areas of modern biotechnology in particular.
Recomendations
1. Establishment of a National Animal Genetic Resources Center and Genome Bank with the responsibility of import and export and quality assurance of animal genetic material and following up the implementation of the National Animal Breeding Policy. 2. Undertake National survey and census program to identify animal breeds 3. Organize AnGR support group at Federal and Regional level to assess national information on endangered breeds 4. Encourage and organize community based AnGR in-situ conservation programs 5. Establish Genome Bank for Cryo-preservation of animal genetic material
References
Biruk Yemane and Beyene Kebede. ND. Domestic Animal Genetic Resources Conservation. Addis Ababa. EARO, Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization. 2001a. Background paper on developing Animal Breeding Policy- Draft. 2001. Addis Ababa. EARO, Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization. 2001b. Livestock Breeding Policy- Draft. 2001. Addis Ababa. EARO, Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization. 2001c. Small Ruminant Breeding Policy- Draft. 2001. Addis Ababa. EARO, Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization. 2001d. Poultry Breeding Policy- Draft. 2001. Addis Ababa. FAO (1999), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1999. The Global Strategy for the Management of Farm Animal Genetic Resources- Executive Brief. FAO, Rome.
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IBCR, Institute of Biodiversity Conservation and Research. 2000. Animal Genetic Resources Conservation and Development Strategic and Action Plan In: Biodiversity Conservation and Development Strategic and Action Plan for Ethiopia. Volume II, pp 69-98, October 2000. Addis Ababa. IBCR, Institute of Biodiversity Conservation and Research. 2003. Animal Genetic Resources - Three years Strategic and Management Plan- Draft. 2003. Addis Ababa. Jrgen H. and Andreas D. 2001. Community-based management of Animal Genetic Resources- A tool for rural development and food security. International workshop hosted by the Department of Veterinary and Livestock Services, Swaziland. Held at Mountain Inn in Mbabane, Swaziland, May 7 to 11. 2001. Mbabane, Swaziland. MoA (1992), w` T>>e` (1984/85 .U.) ed Gw MT un K=c= e^}= ([mp)' =e uv::
28
Economics of AnGR Conservation and Sustainable Use: Theory, Practice and Implications
Adam G. Drucker ILRI, PO Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, a.drucker@cgiar.org
Abstract
Animal genetic resource (AnGR) diversity contributes in many ways to human survival and well-being. However, 32% of livestock breeds are threatened. Such an irreversible loss of genetic diversity reduces opportunities to improve food security, reduce poverty and shift towards sustainable agricultural practices. The large number of AnGR at risk in developing countries, together with the limited financial resources available for conservation, means that economic analysis can play an important role in ensuring an appropriate focus for conservation efforts. In this regard, important tasks include, inter alia: 1) determining the economic contribution that AnGR make to various societies; 2) supporting the assessment of priorities through the identification of cost-effective measures that might be taken to conserve domestic animal diversity; and 3) assist in the design of economic incentives and institutional arrangements for the promotion of AnGR conservation by individual livestock keepers or communities. Nevertheless, despite the importance of the economics of AnGR conservation and sustainable use, the subject has only recently begun to receive attention, despite the existence of a conceptual framework for the valuation of biodiversity in general. Having described the theoretical background and the difficulties involved in carrying out this type of economic analysis, this paper summarises the results of a range of economics of AnGR studies recently carried out in Africa, Latin America and Europe. These studies reveal that not only are there a range of methodologies that can be used to value livestock keeper breed/trait preferences, but that they can in fact be of use in designing policies that counter the present trend towards marginalisation of indigenous breeds. In particular, it becomes possible to, inter alia: recognise the importance livestock keepers place on adaptive traits and non-income functions, and the need to consider these in breeding programme design; identify those breeds that are a priority for participation in cost-efficient diversity-maximising conservation programmes; and contrast the costs involved with the large benefits non-livestock keepers place on breed conservation. The paper concludes by highlighting the lessons learned from these studies and how these lessons can contribute to the challenge of now applying further work of this type in contexts where the results can actively benefit livestock-keepers, and support national researchers and policy-makers.
Introduction
Livestock supply some 30% of the total human requirements for food and agriculture (FAO, 1999, p.5) and some 70% of the worlds rural poor depend on livestock as a component of their livelihoods (Livestock in Development, 1999). Animal genetic resource diversity thus contributes in many ways to human survival and well being, with differing animal characteristics and hence outputs being tailored to suit a variety of local community needs. However, an estimated 16% of these uniquely adapted breeds bred over thousands of years of domestication in a wide range of environments have been lost since the beginning of the 19th century (Hall and Ruane, 1993). A further 32% (22% of mammals and 48% of avian species) are at risk of becoming extinct and the rate of extinction, currently at two breeds per week, continues to accelerate (FAO, 2000).
The large number of AnGR at risk in developing countries, together with the limited financial resources available for conservation, means that economic analysis can play an important role in ensuring an appropriate focus for conservation efforts (UNEP, 1995).
Framework for an economic analysis

What can economics contribute? Economic arguments for the conservation and sustainable use of AnGR can be an effective means of garnering the necessary public and political support, including development of appropriate policies. In this regard, important tasks include, inter alia: 1) determining the economic contribution that AnGR make to various societies and specific groups within those societies; 2) supporting the assessment of priorities through the identification of cost-effective measures that might be taken to conserve domestic animal diversity; 3) assist in the design of economic incentives and institutional arrangements for the promotion of AnGR conservation by individual livestock keepers or communities; 4) ensuring that regional projects with direct or indirect implications for the livestock sector, include appropriate consideration of economic issues. The analytical framework Economic theory has shown that functioning markets can be a powerful ally in the efficient allocation of resources by reflecting the relative scarcity of a given resource, through the price mechanism, and thus providing the correct incentives for its use/conservation. However, Pearce and Moran (1994) argue that the activity of biodiversity [and genetic resources] conservation generates economic values (use and non-use) which may not be captured in the market place. The result of this "failure" is a distortion where the incentives are against genetic resources conservation and in favour of the economic activities that destroy such resources. Economic rationality suggests that the decisions such as the replacement of a native breed of cattle with an imported breed will be determined by the relative profitability, or rates of return, of the two options. Yet, if biodiversity has economic value, and many of the activities destructive to biodiversity have very low economic value why, then, does biodiversity loss take place? In the case of the livestock keeper replacing a local with an imported breed, the relevant rates of return are those that accrue to the livestock keeper rather than to society or the world as a whole. To the livestock keeper the loss of the local breed appears to be economically rational because returns may simply be higher than that from activities compatible with genetic resources conservation. This is because the latter may consist of non-market benefits that accrue to people other than the livestock keeper, as well as the fact that subsidised inputs and services (e.g. artificial insemination, veterinary treatment, etc.) may be available for the "improved" breed. An economic analysis can therefore help in understanding the financial incentives that poor livestock keepers face in making the choice between raising indigenous and/or improved breeds, as well as the interventions necessary in order to ensure that they will continue to raise indigenous breeds in the future.
Constraints to the economic analysis of AnGR conservation and sustainable use

Nevertheless, despite the importance of the economics of AnGR conservation, the subject has received only limited attention (for example, see FAO/ILRI, 1999 and Drucker et al., 2001), despite the existence of a conceptual framework for the valuation of biodiversity in general. There are a number of reasons for this.
30
Methodological constraints The first is methodological. Although some models developed for assessing the value of crop genetic resources may be potentially adaptable to AnGR, it remains necessary to test these methodologies across a range of livestock breeds, species and production environments in order to determine their usefulness and cost (see Drucker et al. for a review of the potential methodologies1). Limited data availability The second is related to data availability. In order to use these methodologies, it is necessary to, inter alia, realise the following activities: measure breed performance parameters; characterise actual and potential breeding systems; identify uses and livestock keeper trait preferences (including eliciting the values that livestock keepers place on specific traits and the trade-offs they are willing to make between them) for indigenous breeds under different production systems, as well as the forces influencing such factors and the uptake of alternative breeds; identify factors affecting livestock demand and prices, including the impact of policyinduced changes in agricultural commodity (e.g. forage/crop) prices and external (e.g. veterinary) input costs in the context of different breed use; analyse the potential impact of the uptake of alternative breeds on livelihoods, together with constraints to adoption and potential access/dissemination mechanisms; and consideration of the role of such factors as land tenure, agricultural potential, population density, market access and integration, licensing requirements, tax regimes, credit and extension programmes and education.
Non-market data requirements and survey techniques Thirdly, the important non-market contributions (e.g. drought and disease resistance, suitability for traction, cultural/social values, livestock as a means of finance and insurance, etc.) of livestock to livelihoods must be incorporated into economic models and analyses, as such information is critical to the identification of appropriate breeding programme goals and an assessment of the relative profitability of different breed use. However, despite a wealth of livestock production data at the national level, such information tends to be limited to a number of the principal breeds and largely ignores the important nonmarket contributions. Initiatives such as the FAO Domestic Animal Diversity Information System (DAD-IS) and the ILRI Domestic Animal Genetic Resource Information System (DAGRIS) have only recently begun to address this problem. Fourthly, the issue of data availability is also closely related to that of data "get-ability". This is because most of the benefits produced by indigenous livestock in marginal production systems are captured by producers, rather then consumers. As a consequence the genetic resources of these breeds have mostly been shaped by producers preferences. It is therefore to the identification and characterization of these preferences that research must turn to in order to identify the implicit value of genetically determined traits as a first approximation to the value of indigenous AnGRs. In marginal production systems the breeding pressure on livestock is
1
These methodologies were broadly categorised into 3 groups on the basis of the practical purpose for which they may be conducted. These are: i) determining the appropriateness of AnGR conservation programme costs (i.e. consider environmental values); ii) determining the actual economic importance of the breed at risk (i.e. consider breed values); and/or iii) priority setting in AnGR breeding programmes (i.e. consider trait values).
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directed to creating animals capable of performing satisfactorily on marginal resources. Livestock performance is valued by producers, but assessed mostly in non-market terms. It is therefore this category of economic agents and non-market functions that one needs to be able to study in order to derive economic values (Scarpa et al., 2003). The question then arises as to how this can best be done? Pearce and Moran (1994, p.94) in the context of the empirical results of biodiversity valuation studies and the difficulties confronted when applying the methodologies/surveys in rural areas/sectors remote from the market economy note that: One area of further research involves the possible modification of economic techniques for use in conjunction with an established body of participatory and rapid rural appraisal methods (PRA and RRA). Unfortunately, research of this type has also been extremely limited. With regard to AnGR, such methods are particularly important given that in-situ communitybased management of indigenous breeds is a key element in their conservation and sustainable use (Wollny, 2003 GTZ, 2001), and the method advocated by the Convention on Biological Diversity. Economic techniques can benefit from being used in conjunction with PRA as, compared to conventional survey techniques, it is a more extended process that involves not only the collection of information but also its eventual use by the community as it plans further activities The key is to match the type of methodology with the kind of information that is needed. In many cases, the best approach will involve combining several different PRA methods.
Case study findings

Notwithstanding the above constraints to the economic analysis of AnGR conservation and sustainable use, where suitable methodologies and approaches to attaining the required data have been identified, a number of interesting results have been obtained. Decision-support tool for identifying breed conservation priorities Recognising the large number of indigenous livestock breeds that are currently threatened and the fact that not all can be saved given limited conservation budgets, Simianer et al. (2003) develop a decision-support tool by elaborating a framework for the allocation of a given budget among a set of breeds such that the expected amount of between-breed diversity conserved is maximized. Drawing on Wietzman (1993) it is argued that the optimum criterion for a conservation scheme is to maximize the expected total utility of the set of breeds, which is an economically weighted sum of diversity, of breed characteristics represented in the set, and the value of the conserved breeds. The methodology is illustrated with an example of 23 African zebu and zenga cattle breeds. The results indicate that conservation funds should be spent on only three to nine (depending on the model considered) of the 23 breeds and that these are not necessarily the most endangered ones. In addition, the authors show that where the models are sufficiently specified and essential data on key parameters are available, the framework can be used for rational decision-making on a global scale. Stated preference (contingent valuation) techniques for non-market valuation Obtaining the data for use in such decision-support tools and elsewhere frequently requires the development of a number of techniques capable of attributing values to the many unpriced inputs and outputs of household production functions. This is because marginal and subsistence food production systems dominate the peasant economies where much of the world's surviving AnGR diversity can be found and in these analytical contexts unpriced inputs are pervasive obstacles in empirical studies. Tano et al. (2003), Scarpa et al. (2003a) and Scarpa et al. (2003b) use stated
preference choice experiments (CE) to value the phenotypic traits expressed in indigenous breeds of livestock. Adaptive traits and non-income functions are shown to form important components of the total value of the animals to livestock keepers. In W. Africa, for example, the most important traits for incorporation into breed improvement program goals were found to be disease resistance, fitness for traction and reproductive performance. Beef and milk production were less important. The studies also show that not only do these techniques (adapted from other areas of environmental economic analysis) function for AnGR research but can be used to investigate values of genetically-determined traits currently not widely recognised in livestock populations, but desirable candidates for breeding or conservation programs (e.g. disease resistance). Furthermore, the papers examine how household characteristics determine differences in breed preferences. This additional information can be of use in designing policies that counter the present trend towards marginalisation of indigenous breeds. For example, they can be used to target incentives for breed conservation. In the Mexican case, the CE reveals that since the net value that backyard producers place on the creole pig is very similar to that of the other breeds, minimal incentives and interventions would in fact be needed to ensure its continued sustainable use. Cicia et al. (2003)2, in a developed country case study, show that a dichotomous choice stated preference approach can be used to estimate the benefits of establishing a conservation program for the threatened Italian "Pentro" horse. A bio-economic model is used to estimate the costs associated with conservation and a cost-benefit analysis is subsequently realised. The results not only show a large positive net present value associated with the proposed conservation activity but also show that this approach is a useful decision-support tool for policy makers allocating scarce funds to a growing number of animal breeds facing extinction. Revealed preference techniques for market valuation By contrast to the above stated preference approaches, Jabbar and Diedhiou (2003) show that a revealed preference hedonic approach can also successfully be used to determine livestock keepers breeding practices and breed preferences. Analysing such factors in southwest Nigeria, they confirm a strong trend away from trypanotolerant breeds, especially Muturu, and identify the traits livestock keepers find least desirable in these breeds relative to other zebu breeds. The results suggest that the best hopes for implementing a conservation/sustainable use strategy for breeds at risk such as Muturu is likely to be in other areas of West Africa; for example in southeast Nigeria where trypanosomosis remains a constraint, where the Muturu is better suited to the farming systems and where a large market for this breed continues to exist. Aggregated productivity model for comparative (indigenous vs. crossbreed) performance evaluation The secondary importance of meat and milk production traits in many production systems leads Ayalew et al. (2003)3 to argue that conventional productivity evaluation criteria are inadequate to evaluate subsistence livestock production, because 1) they fail to capture non-marketable benefits of the livestock, and 2) the core concept of a single limiting input is inappropriate to subsistence production, as multiple limiting inputs (livestock, labour, land) are involved in the production process. As many of the livestock functions as possible (physical and socio-economic) should thus be aggregated into monetary values and related to the resources used, irrespective of whether these products are marketed, home-consumed or maintained for later use. A broad
2 This case study not in fact part of the above ILRI project but results reported here because of their relevance. 3 This case study not in fact part of the above ILRI project but results reported here because of their relevance. Dr. Ayalew is currently based
at ILRI.
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evaluation model involving three complementary flock-level productivity indices was developed and applied to evaluate subsistence goat production in the eastern Ethiopian highlands. The results show that indigenous goat flocks generated significantly higher net benefits under improved than under traditional management, which challenges the prevailing notion that indigenous livestock do not adequately respond to improvements in the level of management. Furthermore, it is shown that under the subsistence mode of production considered, the premise that crossbred goats are more productive and beneficial than the indigenous goats is wrong. The model thus provides a more realistic platform upon which to propose sound improvement interventions. Conservation costs Even where the value of indigenous breeds has been recognised and support mechanisms implemented, significant shortcomings can be identified. Signorello and Pappalardo (2003),4 in an examination of farm animal biodiversity conservation measures and their potential costs in the European Union (EU), report that many breeds at risk of extinction according the FAO World Watch List are not covered by support payments as they do not appear in countries' Rural Development Plans. Furthermore, where payments are made these do not take into account the different degrees of extinction risk that exist between breeds and payment levels are in any case inadequate, meaning that it can still remain unprofitable to rear indigenous breeds. EU AnGR conservation support measures thus urgently need to be reviewed if they are to meet their goals.
Implications and Conclusions

From the above findings we can conclude that that methodologies for the economic analysis of AnGR conservation and sustainable use do in fact exist and can reveal useful estimates of the values that are placed on market, non-market and potential breed attributes. It is also of particular interest to have access to methodologies that can attribute values to the unpriced inputs of the household production functions which are disclosed via the systematic investigation of preferences. Such information on livestock keeper knowledge about breed characteristics and management needs, and livestock keeper preferences for different traits, are critical inputs for designing breeding and conservation strategies. In addition, information regarding indigenous breed performance and potential under improved management, breed conservation priorities and the relative size of the costs and benefits resulting from conservation/sustainable use programmes can be obtained. The challenge is to now apply further work of this type in contexts where the results can be taken up so as to actively benefit livestock-keepers and support the work of national researchers and policy-makers.
Bibliography
Ayalew, W., King, J., Bruns, E. and Rischkowsky, B. 2003. 'Economic evaluation of smallholder subsistence livestock production: lessons from an Ethiopian goat development program'. Ecological Economics (in press, November 2003) Cicia, G., DErcole, E. and Marino, D. 2003. 'Valuing farm animal genetic resources by means of contingent valuation and a bio-economic model: the case of the Pentro horse'. Ecological Economics (in press, November 2003) Drucker, A, Gomez, V. and Anderson, S. (2001). The Economic Valuation of Farm Animal Genetic Resources: A Survey of Available Methods. Ecological Economics. Vol. 36(1) pp. 1-18
4 This case study not in fact part of the above ILRI project but results reported here because of their relevance.
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Evenson, R. 1991. Genetic resources: assessing economic value. In: Vincent, J, Crawford, E and Hoehn, J (Eds). Valuing Environmental Benefits in Developing Economies. Proceedings of a seminar series held February-May 1990 at Michigan State University, Special Report No. 29. FAO. 1999. The global strategy for the management of farm animal genetic resources. Rome. FAO. 2000. World watch list for domestic animal diversity. 3rd Edition. FAO, Rome. FAO/ILRI. 1999. Economic valuation of animal genetic resources: Proceedings of an FAO/ILRI workshop. Rome 15-17 March. GTZ. 2001. 'Community-Based Management of Animal Genetic Resources-A Tool for Rural Development and Food Security'. Workshop Proceedings, Mbabane, Swaziland, May 7-11. Hall, S.J.G. and J. Ruane. 1993. Livestock breeds and their conservation global review. Conservation Biology 7(4), 815-825. Jabbar, M and Diedhiou, M. 2003. 'Does breed matter to cattle farmers and buyers? Evidence from West Africa'. Ecological Economics (in press, November 2003) Livestock in Development (1999) Livestock in poverty-focused development. Livestock in Development. Crewkerne, UK. Pearce, D and Moran D. 1994. The economic value of biodiversity. Earthscan. London Scarpa, R., Drucker, A., Anderson, S., Ferraes-Ehuan, N., Gomez, V., Risopatron, C. and Rubio-Leonel, O. 2003a. 'Valuing animal genetic resources in peasant economies: the case of the Box Keken creole pig in Yucatan'. Ecological Economics (in press, November 2003) Scarpa, R., Kristjanson, P., Ruto, E., Radeny, M, Drucker, A. and Rege, J.E.O. 2003b. 'Valuing indigenous farm animal genetic resources in Africa: A comparison of stated and revealed preference estimates'. Ecological Economics (in press, November 2003) Signorello, G. and Pappalardo, G. 2003. 'Domestic animal biodiversity conservation: the case study of rural development plans in the European Union' . Ecological Economics (in press, November 2003) Simianer, H., Marti, S., Gibson, J., Hanotte, O. and Rege, J.E.O. 2003. 'An approach to the optimal allocation of conservation funds to minimize loss of genetic diversity between livestock breeds'. Ecological Economics (in press, November 2003) Tano, K., Faminow, M., Kamuanga, M and Swallow, B. 2003. 'Using conjoint analysis to estimate farmers preferences for cattle traits in West Africa'. Ecological Economics (in press, November 2003) Weitzman, M. 1993. What to preserve? An application of diversity theory to crane conservation. Quarterly Journal of Economics February pp. 157-183 Wollny, C. 2003. 'The need to conserve farm animal genetic resources through community-based management in Africa: Should policy makers be concerned?' Ecological Economics (in press, November 2003) UNEP. 1995. Global Biodiversity Assessment. Cambridge University Press, England.
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Reasons for the Loss of Animal Genetic Resources (AnGR) and the Importance of IK in AnGR Management
Nigatu Alemayehu*, Getachew Gebru and Adam G. Drucker International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), PO Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Abstract
Reasons for the accelerating loss of animal genetic resource (AnGR) diversity include indiscriminate crossbreeding, breed substitution, natural disasters and civil strife. The mechanisms through which these factors impact AnGR diversity are identified together with indigenous AnGR management practices that could be integrated into a scientifically based conservation strategy.
Introduction
The task of conserving animal genetic resources (AnGR) is complex. The classification of a certain group of homogenous animals as a breed, strain, type or sub type is not always straightforward; the total number of breeds/strains/types/subtypes is unknown; and existing diversity is distributed unevenly across agro-ecological zones, which are themselves prone to modification. Uncontrolled mating and the variety of ways farmers use their AnGR also contributes to the difficulties involved in establishing AnGR conservation programmes, as does the lack of public awareness regarding the significance of AnGR diversity loss. Given limited information about indigenous AnGR, the first step of any conservation programme must be to identify and document the existing AnGR. At the same time, it should be appreciated that livestock diversity in developing countries is embedded in traditional livestock rearing practices. Communities manage their livestock based on a wide range of indigenous knowledge (IK), which is in turn determined by socio-economic, cultural and environmental conditions. Consequently, AnGR management, conservation policies and strategies need to account for this variation in IK within and between communities, if they are to be successful. This requires taking the views and objectives of local people into account, thereby supporting the activation of the social processes involved in decision-making and the adoption of sustainable livestock management solutions (Raintree and Hoskins, 1990). Following a review of the basic mechanisms through which AnGR diversity is threatened, this paper identifies indigenous practices that could be integrated into a scientifically based conservation strategy.
Challenges to the Conservation of Indigenous AnGR

The overall change in the genetic diversity of indigenous livestock is the product of uncontrolled breeding, the introduction of new breeds, changes in management and the natural environment, as well as disasters - either due to war or natural calamities. For example, Zohhary et al. (1998), observed changes in the morphology, physiology and behavior of domesticated herds as a result of changes in land use, as well as feed and water supplies. Irrespective of whether the impacts of such changes on human welfare are positive or negative, they are nonetheless capable of changing AnGR diversity. Some of the mechanisms by which these changes impact breed identity and diversity are depicted in Figure 1.
* Corresponding author
Breeds and Breeding Breeds are an important basic unit of diversity. The concept of breed or equivalent concepts within species serves an important purpose in that it links products/functions to a group of animals that share a common genetic background (Rege, 2001, NRC, 1993). Briggs (1969) defined a breed "as a group of animals that as a result of breeding and selection have certain distinguished characteristics". In the context of livestock diversity, breeds are therefore any recognizable interbreeding populations within a livestock species. The concept of a breed, in which all members have a pedigree tracing their ancestry, was primarily developed in Western Europe during the Eighteenth Century. However, such breed designations cannot be accurately used in much of the developing world, where pedigree adherence to breed identity is not maintained, and uncontrolled mating is common. Consequently, distinct identifiable populations are likely to be the result of a combination of traditional breeding objectives, and the geographical and/or cultural separation of the communities which own them. For example, intra-species biodiversity in the Ethiopian Highlands is the outcome of many different communities managing livestock in many different habitats and ecological niches, and manipulating its genetic composition according to the specific requirements of the environment, production system and their own preferences (Mhlanga, 2002). Unfortunately, a number of factors have led to many such breeds or strains being classified as threatened in Africa. These factors are discussed in Figure 1.
Crossbreeding
In many African countries bilateral or multilateral financed development projects have provided subsidised technical advice and inputs leading to the replacement of existing indigenous populations with improved animals. Examples of the substitution or upgrading of indigenous breeds with high-input exotic breeds include Boran cows used for crossbreeding with Friesian cattle to produce F1 heifers for milk production at the Abernosa ranch, Ethiopia. Over the last 30 years, thousands of heifers from this ranch have been distributed to co-operatives and individual farms for use as dairy animals. Similarly, the Gobe ranch, Ethiopia, has been involved in the crossing and distribution of Arsi with Fresian cattle, together with different grades of exotic cattle such as Jersey and Simmental. In both cases, due to subsequent uncontrolled breeding at the community herd level, a wide array of blood groups and combinations of different genotypes are now prevalent. AI combined with poor recording at smallholder farms has also contributed to this situation. Similar problems have also appeared with sheep and goat (Workneh Ayalew, 2000). In both cases, crossing with exotics has however been mainly limited to the central highlands of Ethiopia, particularly within a radius of 200 km from the capital Addis Ababa. By contrast, genetic dilution in indigenous poultry has been faster and wider due to their shorter generation interval. Rhode Island Red poultry has been distributed within almost all the Woredas of the Oromia Regional State (Tollsa, 2003). Although crossbreeding was intended to raise productivity, most of the crossbreeding programs have failed to achieve their objectives at the farmer level because of the need for a high level of inputs. Given the high cost of such inputs, the result has been economic returns that are not as favourable as those associated with the local breeds (Workneh Ayalew, 2000).
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Controls/inputs Output/Products
Biological Components
Breeds and Breeding: Crossbreeding New Breed Selection Restocking Exchange Gifts Reproduction: Age at Puberty Fertility Litter size etc. Meat offtake Body size/age Birth weight Weaning weight Yearling weight Mature weight Physical/Chemi cal Color, tail, hair facial, horn, dewlap,hump etc pcv,wbc,rbc haemoglobin etc. Milk /egg offtake Carcass quality Composition Conformation Manure and other byproducts
Management/Envi ronment: Nutrition Housing Labour Weaning age Health control Climate Soil Geographic isolation(altitude etc)
Overall change of breed/genetic identity
Disasters: War Drought Earthquakes Cyclones or tornadoes Floods Milk Composition Volume Health Mortality Morbidity
Other genetic merits: Walking Ability Resistance to disease Thermoregulation Longevity Compensatory growth etc.
Figure1:Inputs capable of changing the biological characteristics of a breed and resultant effects on outputs and breed identity.
Introduction of New blood
The introduction of new breeds has an impact on genetic identity, particularly when male animals are used, as they can serve several females and speed up the dilution rate. The introduction of new breeds frequently occurs through market purchases, exchanges and gifts, and may involve breeds from different regions within the same country. A typical example is that of Boran cattle, whose suitability for draught, milk and meat production, has led to demand for these animals outside of their existing agro-ecological zone (Haile Mariam et al, 1998). The sale of large numbers of Boran animals may be positive in that it can reduce overgrazing in its existing zone. However, it may also have a negative effect on the frequency of desirable genes in the local population of the breeds in the areas into which the Boran is being introduced. Such impacts have yet to be assessed and documented with regard to the hundreds of Boran heifers that were introduced as part of a restocking programme in Afar following the 1993/94 drought
Selection
Most selection efforts at farm-level focus on male animals, which are usually chosen on the basis of their female relatives performance, their strength and vitality, as well as their phenotypic characteristics. Pastoralists like the Boran select animals for characteristics such as their ability to withstand periodic shortages of water and feed, their ability to digest low quality feed and their ability to walk long distances (Haile Mariam et al, 1998; Nigatu Alemayehu and Getachew Gebru, 2002). Hence, the role of the Boran people in the evolution and development of Boran cattle cannot be underestimated. For example, the impact of drought on animal size has caused a decline in the selection of larger animals, presumably as smaller animals have lower metabolic maintenance requirements which allows them to better survive such events. At the Did Tiyura government ranch (Ethiopia), larger animals died earlier during the 1999/2000 drought in the Borena zone (Nigatu Alemayehu and Getachew Gebru, 2002). It should therefore be appreciated that any new selection practices, be the natural or artificial, may erode some of the previously developed characteristics and can eventually lead to changes in breed identity.
Restocking
Exchange of animals between members of different communities in the form of livestock loans and for cultural reasons frequently serves to introduce fresh blood. For example, in the Borena zone, the Guji and Konso people practice stock exchange with the Boran community. Restocking programmes following drought periods also play an important role, as illustrated by the Boran pastoralists exchange of mature male animals for young female animals from the Highlands (Haile Mariam et al, 1998). A similar tendency, where larger lowland cattle are gradually replacing smaller, hardy highland cattle is also observed in the Highlands adjacent to the Boran Plateau. Belete Desalgne (1979) estimated the level of genetic introgression of highland zebu cattle in Afar cattle as 45% in the north of the region and 73% in the south. According to the Afar, this was largely a result of the restocking program following the 1972-74 drought. It can therefore be concluded that restocking programmes carried out by any party (government agency, non-governmental organisation, private enterprises) may have an impact on the genetic constitution of the native breed population, particularly when the restocking scheme fails to reinstate the original breed or when it disregards community preferences (Nigatu Alemayehu and Getachew Gebru, 2002).
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Changes in environmental conditions and management practices. Pagot (1993) notes that in spite of the differences in management systems at the smallholder level, geographic isolation and environmental conditions have been the major determinant factors in the evolution of livestock breeds and strains. In general, diverse agro-climatic conditions (i.e. covering a range of temperatures, humidity, wind conditions, soil types, variations in feed supply, diseases, parasites and other factors) have shaped genetic differences among animals with common ancestors and similar origins. Based on the study of indigenous goat types in Ethiopia and Eritrea (Nigatu Alemayehu, 1994), it was shown that the primary basis for the diversity of indigenous goat types was agro-climatic variation. Identified goat types could be accurately matched with the different agro-climates they have adapted to, mainly as a result of long-term natural selection. Changes to this environment may therefore lead to a change in the morphology and physiology of the animals, as well as their identity. Changes in the management of animals may also bring about change in their biological characteristics and outputs. For instance, the improved Boran in Kenya is characterised by welldeveloped hindquarters with carcasses that suit the export market. The weight of mature cows ranges between 400-550kg, while the adult bulls weigh between 550-750 kg. The weight for the Ethiopian Boran is 300-400kg for cows and 550-675 kg for bulls under ranch conditions. Under pastoral conditions the corresponding weights are 225 and 400 kg (Haile Mariam et al.1998). Age at first parturition is 35-42 months compared to 45-48 months, birth weight 25-40 kg compared to 23-25kg, and weaning weight at 210 days 180-200kg compared to 130-170kg, respectively (DAGRIS, 2003). Disaster and AnGR The consequences of war, civil strife or natural disasters -earthquakes, cyclones or tornadoes, floods and drought - are also important influences on AnGR diversity, particularly when agricultural production cycles are interrupted because of them (Kunderman, 2000). Ndikumana et al. (2000) reported that the 1995-97 drought as well as the 1997-98 EL Nino rains had significant adverse effects on livestock populations. During the drought, cattle mortality rates were highest in southern Ethiopia and northern Kenya, where they increased to 49% and 35%, respectively. Small ruminant drought mortality rates were also highest in southern Ethiopia and northern Kenya, increasing to 52% and 43% respectively. The detrimental impact of floods included an increased incidence of parasitic and epidemic diseases among humans and livestock (particularly small ruminants) and the destruction of infrastructure. Cattle mortality during the floods was highest in southern Ethiopia (37%) while small ruminant morality was highest in northern Kenya (52%). Under such high mortality rates, small populations are at risk if no measures are taken, as the rate of inbreeding increases due to decreases in the effective population size (Wollny, 2002). Livestock species composition can also be affected by disasters that induce modification of existing agricultural production systems. This can occur through direct losses in plant and animal genetic material, as well as changes in the species composition of forages, pastures and other ecosystem components. An example of such composition changes is the fact that camels and goats are increasingly becoming the dominant livestock species of the Boran pastoralists. During drought periods and when there is shortage of pasture, pastoralists move with their animals in search of feed and water. The direction of movement determines the type of admixtures that can occur. Cattle outside their natural habitat may mix with other populations, especially around watering points and during subsequent grazing.
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Drought may also impact traditional resources management. For example, Boran pastoralists use of systems of resident pasture and water (Warra), and satellite (forra) cattle herds serves to reduce grazing pressure near water points and encampments. This is achieved by sending away animals that are not contributing to immediate subsistence needs. However, rapid shifts of warra animals to forra early on during a drought, can increase the potential for crossbreeding among otherwise geographically isolated cattle populations (Coppock, 1994). Finally, conflict between clans and ethnic groups can also contribute to crossbreeding as a result of raiding, especially where animals obtained in this way are subsequently reared for breeding purposes (Nigatu Alemayehu and Getachew Gebru, 2002). Long periods of civil war, such as in Angola and Eritrea, may also influence breed evolution or erosion due to geographic isolation and high levels of inbreeding (Kunderman, 2000).
The importance of IK for community-based AnGR conservation

Having identified some of the mechanisms through which AnGR diversity is being threatened, we now turn to consideration of indigenous AnGR management knowledge and practices that could be harnessed to support AnGR conservation. There is an urgent need to integrate such IK into a scientifically based conservation strategy (Wollny, 2002), including, inter alia, the following: The need to have multipurpose breeding objectives Poor livestock keepers tend to have multipurpose breeding objectives rather than being focused exclusively on production parameters such as meat, milk and eggs, as is typical in more marketoriented production systems. For the former, parameters such as heat tolerance, resistance to ticks and tick borne diseases, long reproductive life, maternal ability, herd instinct, feed conversion efficiency and the ability to walk long distances also play an important role (Haile Mariam, 1998). Thus breeding objectives at the community level tend to be more oriented towards the ability of livestock to withstand natural calamities rather than achieving high productivity alone. Furthermore, cultural practices can also play a role in determining breeding objectives. For example, the Boran pastoralists prefer white coloured animals (Nigatu and Getachew, 2002), while religious healers (Shekas) in Afar use white or black goats for sacrificial slaughter (Alemayehu Reda, 1993). Breeding practices appropriate for harsh environmental conditions Closely related to the above, are the many breeding practices that are designed to enable livestock to cope with harsh environmental conditions. These include the following:
Culling
According to MacDonald and MacDonald (2000), the practice of maintaining maximum herd size by avoiding culling is in keeping with many modern African cattle herd management strategies, particularly those of pastoral populations. Such a practice is ideal for the accumulation of wealth on the hoof or to ensure the survival of herds under difficult climatic conditions, but is not necessarily an efficient model for meat production. Within the context of such practices, Somali and Boran pastoralists nevertheless report deliberately culling does giving birth to twins. Such obviously successful selections for single births enables good kid survival and milk off-take for human consumption (Ayalew, 1992). Similarly, Massai pastoralists cull unsuccessful bulls (Ryan, et al. 2000)
Seasonal breeding control practices
In some societies (e.g. the Bellen of Eritrea), aprons are used to control breeding in goats so that the young are born during favorable times of the year (Nigatu Alemayehu, 1994).
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Maintaining low sire/dam ratios
Male to female sire/dam ratios have an impact on fertility, conception and inbreeding rates, as well as on other aspects of reproductive performance. Such ratios in the traditional livestock production systems of Africa tend to be high: for cattle, ratios of 1:25 are common (Butterworth, 1985) and for small ruminants ratios of between 1:4 and 1:6 have been widely observed (Wilson, 1988). For Ethiopian and Eritrean goats, ratios of 1:19 in pastoral flocks and 1:3 in the Highland flocks were reported (Nigatu Alemayehi, 1994). Belete Desalegne (1979) estimated a ratio of 1:8 in Afar cattle and Martinez et al (1977) reported a ratio of 1:10 in Somali cattle at Jijiga. Note that such ratios tend to be lower among pastoral herds than among smallholder farmer herds, as pastoralists have a traditionally better developed IK related to livestock husbandry, particularly with regard to limiting uncontrolled crossbreeding. For example, goats under pastoral management had a ratio of 5:95 as compared to 30:70 for smallholder farm goats. The latter result in a higher coefficient of variation within flocks than among flocks. Large variations were observed for many phenotypic variables as well (Nigatu Alemayehu, 1994).
Selection for a range of traits
Livestock owners select males for breeding according to a range of criteria. For instance, some farmers in mixed production systems select males for size. Belete Desalegne (1979) reported that among Afar pastoralists, breeding bulls are primarily selected on the basis of aggressiveness, large size, coat color (red or white) and horn length. Rege (2001) noted that the majority of farmers interviewed in three districts of Kenya practice selection for both qualitative and quantitative traits, placing emphasis on milk production, body size, coat colour and horn shape.
Castration
Male Afar camels which are not selected for breeding are castrated at the age of five i.e. before reaching puberty (Belete Desalegne, 1979). Martinez et al (1977) reported a 12.38% castration rate among Somali herds in Jijiga, Ethiopia.
Migratory strategies to enhance performance
The migratory strategies adopted by pastoralists are the outcome of a multitude of considerations, including: the availability of pasture and water; disease risk; the presence of predatory animals; political security; market access; and labour requirements. The rationale behind migratory movements is to maintain the animals in the areas where they thrive best during different seasons. In this way they are able to conserve their identity. Studies in Western Sudan show a clear difference in the performance of herds under sedentary and migratory management (Haaland, 1979), as indicated below in Table 1:
Table 1: Performance of herds under sedentary and migratory management Calving rate (%) Sedentary Migratory 40 65 Calving before 4 years of age (%) 29 65 Calf mortality (%) 40 10
Summary and conclusions

Reasons for the accelerating loss of animal genetic resource (AnGR) diversity were identified and include indiscriminate crossbreeding, breed substitution, natural disasters and civil strife. The mechanisms through which these factors impact AnGR diversity are crossbreeding programmes, the introduction of new breeds (including through restocking programmes), changes in selection practices and changes in environmental conditions. Indigenous AnGR management practices urgently need to be integrated into a scientifically based conservation strategy if the accelerating loss of AnGR diversity is to be halted. Potential practices for incorporation into such strategies
include the ability to simultaneously focus on a range of breeding objectives, as well as utilising breeding practices that enhance the probability of livestock survival under harsh environmental conditions.
References
Alemayehu Reda. 1993. Characterization of indigenous goats and Goat Husbandry Practices in Eastern and South-eastern Ethiopia.M.Sc. Thesis, Alemaya University of Agriculture. Alemaya, Ethiopia Belete Desalegne. 1979. Livestock Production Monitoring In the North East Range lands of Ethiopia. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Brigs, H.M. 1969. Modern Breeds of Livestock. The Macmillan Company, New York. Butterworth, M.H. 1985. Beef cattle nutrition and tropical pastures. Longman Group Ltd. London (UK). 500 PP Coppock, D.L.1994. The Boran Plateau of Southern Ethiopia: Synthesis of Pastoral research, development and change, 1980-91.ILCA systems study.no.5. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.393 pp DAGRIS (Domestic Animal Genetic Resources Information System). 2003. http://dagris.ilri.cgiar.org/dagris/ Haaland G.1979. Pastoral systems of Production. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Haile Mariam, M., Mamfors, B., and Philipsson.J. 1998. Boran-indigenous African cattle with potential. Current No.17/18 Kunderman, B. 2000. Managing Agro biodiversity in Disaster situations. Determinants of animal and plant genetic resources loss and options for its mitigation. Eschborn/Germany, GTZ MacDonald, K.C. and MacDonald , R.H. 2000. The Orgins and development of domesticated animals in arid West Africa. In Roger Belench, Kevin Macdonald and contributors, edt.2000.UCL Press, 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE Martinez, A.O. and Ferde Gebre Yesus, 1979. Preliminary Results of Baseline Study of Animal Production in JIRDU. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Mhlanga, F.N. 2002. Community based management of AnGR: A participatory Approaches Framework. Department of Animal Science, university of Zimbabwe, Harare, GTZ. National Research Council (NRC). 1993. Managing global genetic resources. Livestock Committee. Agriculture Imperatives. Board on agriculture NRC. National Academic Press, Washington, D.C. 1993. Ndikumana, J., Stuth, J., Kamidi, R., Ossiya, S., Marambii, R. and Hamlett, P.2000. Coping mechanism and their efficacy in disaster-prone pastoral systems of the Greater Horn of Africa. Effects of the 1995-97 drought and the 1997-98 El Nino rains and the response of pastoralists and livestock. ILRI. Nairobi (Kenya). 124 pp Nigatu Alemayehu and Getachew Gebru.2002. Pastoralist perception on Genetic dissipation. Un published field report. Nigatu Alemayehu. 1994. Characterization of indigenous goat types of Eritrea, Northern and Western Ethiopia.M.Sc. Thesis, Alemaya University of Agriculture. Alemaya, Ethiopia. Pagot, J.1992. Animal Production in the Tropics and Sub tropics. The Macmillan Press. London.
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Raintree, J.B. and Hoskins, M.W.1990. Appropriate R and D support for forestry extension. ICRAF reprint No. 65, Reprinted from Planning Forestry Extension Programmes: Report of a regional expert consultation, FAO, Bangkok, 1988.48pp Rege, J.E.O 2001. Defining Livestock Breeds in the context of Management of Farm AnGR. CommunityBased of Animal Genetic Resoruces. A Tool for Rural Development and Food Security. International Workshop hosted by the Department of Veterinary and Livestock Services, Swaziland. Held at Mountain Inn in Mbabane, Swaziland, May 7 to 11, 2001. Rege, J.E.O, Kahi,A.,Okomo-Adhiambo,M.,Mwacharo,J.,Hanotte,O.2001. Zebu Cattle of Kenya:Uses, performance, farmers preferences, measures of genetic diversity and options for improved use. AnGR Research 1.ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute) Ryan, K., Munene,K., Kahinju, S.M. and Kunoni P.N.2000. ethnographic perspectives on cattle management in semi-arid environments: a case study from Maasailand. In Roger Belench, Kevin Macdonald and contributors edt, 2000.UCL Press, 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE Tolsa,A..2003. Personal Communication. Wilson, R.T.1988. Reproductive performances of African Indigenous Small Ruminants under research station and traditional management. World Animal Breeding Associations, Helsinki (Finland). 585 pp Workneh Ayalew. 2000. Do smallholder farmers benefit more from crossbred (Somali x Anglo-Nubian) than from indigenous goats? PhD Thesis. Georg-August University of Goettingen, Germany. Cuvillier Verlag, Goettingen, 155 pp. Workneh Ayalew. 1992. Preliminary survey of Indigenous Goat types and Husbandry practices in Southern Ethiopia. M.Sc. Thesis, Alemaya University of Agriculture. Alemaya, Ethiopia www/ilrinet/dagris. Zohary, D.; Tchernov, E.; Horwitz, L.K. 1998. The role of unconscious selection in the domestication of sheep and goats. Journal of Zoology. , v. 245(2), p. 129-135
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Economic Valuation of Unique Characteristics of Indigenous Cattle Breeds: A Conceptual Framework

Kerstin Zander* and Detlef Virchow Center for Development Research (ZEF), University of Bonn Walter-Flex-Str. 3, 53113 Bonn, Germany
Abstract
The conservation of different breeds is important if they have genetically unique characteristics but so far those unique qualities have not been evaluated for farm animals. This paper details a conceptual framework of the economical assessment of characteristics that are unique for indigenous African cattle. The value of those characteristics is thereby perceived from two different points of views. On the one hand the value is assessed for cattle holders in countries that have frequently imported tropical animals (or their semen) in the past for crossbreeding purposes. These are mainly developed countries, such as the USA, Australia, South Africa and Brazil. On the other hand the value for local people in the breeds countries of origin will be under investigation. In case of developed countries the economic assessment of certain cattle characteristics will be achieved by applying a hedonic pricing method. With regard to developing countries where the collection of data is more problematic, a choice experiment approach will be applied. Besides the analysis of the benefits of genetically unique characteristics, a cost analysis of onfarm conservation of indigenous breeds in east Africa completes this study.
Keywords: Animal genetic resources, African cattle, synthetic breeds, hedonic pricing, choice experiment
Introduction
16% of those breeds used for agricultural production have been lost since the turn of the last century and further 30% are currently at risk of becoming extinct and the rate of extinction continues to accelerate. Since 1995, the number of mammalian breeds at risk of extinction has risen from 23 to 35 percent. Domestic farm animals are crucial for food and agriculture, having a share of 30 to 40% of the agricultural sectors global economic value. Around 2 million people depend at least partly on farm animals for their livelihoods (FAO, 2000). Since traditional breeds contain the genetic potential for new breeds tolerant or resistant to biotic and abiotic stress factors, traditional breeds will remain one of the essential inputs for sustainable animal production and food security for the growing world population. A loss in animal genetic diversity may undermine the chances of future generations to respond adequately to increasing food demand, to potential environmental changes, to diseases and to other challenges we cannot foresee or predict. Animal genetic resources (AnGRs) have been appreciated and used for a long time; however, an assessment of the value of these resources is still open to wide speculation due to the difficulties in measuring genetic resources, the confusing market structure and the lack of or poorly defined property rights for genetic resources. As the genetically unique characteristics have not been evaluated for farm animals so far, this paper details a conceptual framework of the economical assessment of characteristics that are unique for indigenous African cattle, i.e. their genetic merit and the justification for their conservation. The value of those characteristics is thereby perceived from two different points of views:
1.
mapping a global genetic flow chart from two perspectives: from the South to the North
* Corresponding author: email: kzander@uni-bonn.de
2.
from the South to the South
valuing unique characteristics of tropical cattle breeds in developed countries by using a hedonic pricing method on synthetic breeds in the countries or regions of origin by applying choice experiment
The first part is a rather explanatory approach aiming to cast light on the global importance of tropical cattle breeds. The second step involves two different approaches of economic evaluation. Both approaches try to capture a monetary value (or price) of some important characteristics of indigenous cattle. The hedonic pricing method will be based on secondary data which will be obtained from breeding associations being responsible for the development of one synthetic breed. The choice experiment that was chosen as an appropriate tool for developing countries will include surveys in cattle markets. Both methods will be explained in more detail later on. From the results of the economic evaluation of some unique attributes one can infer the significance of conservation efforts for cattle breeds holding these valuable characteristics. The evaluation reveals values of tropical indigenous cattle which they currently provide to farmers. What is as important as the present value of indigenous traits is the value they might have in the future, one which has not yet been realised. Maintaining genetic variation is crucial for improving livestock and responding to changes in climate, disease or consumer preferences and existing AnGRs represents a massive past investment which, if managed appropriately, can provide insurance against unknown global future (Rege and Gibson, 2001, p.5). Hence, by assessing the economic value of some current interesting unique attributes, the option value for other attributes for future needs can be demonstrated.
Literature review
Compared to plant genetic resources less research has been done with respect to animals. Rege et al. (1999) emphasised the need to value the economic diversity of animal genetic resources (AnGRs) to justify their conservation. Primary motivation for valuing AnGRs is to assist policy makers in finding optimal conservation strategies and in determining what to conserve. The following list points out the main motivations for evaluating AnGRs:
1. 2. 3. 4.
Optimising breeding programmes which attributes are most important? Conserving also local breeds that are less economically attractive which funding or compensation is required? Allowing benefit sharing who bears the costs, who obtains the benefits? Determining alternative approaches to improve livestock how can exotic breeds and indigenous breeds best be used for mutual breeding programs?
According to OECD (2002) the available tools for evaluating prices of multi-attributed AnGRs can be roughly divided into two classes:
1.
Stated preference method - Using willingness to pay estimates derived from questionnaires: Contingent valuation and contingent ranking Choice experiment and choice modelling Conjoint analysis
2.
Revealed preference method - Using market prices where the prices occur in the market for the biodiverse asset and where prices are revealed in some other market: Travel cost models of recreational use Random utility models
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Hedonic pricing models
There has been some pioneer work where hedonic pricing (HP) method was used to evaluate environmental goods. The theoretical model underlying this paper was initially applied by Richards and Jeffrey (1995). They made use of the HP method with the objective to measure the genetic value of dairy cows in Canada. They took the market price of semen as bottom line for pricing various attributes in dairy cattle that are due to environmental conditions. A paper by Evenson and Gollin (1998) takes up the HP method as a tool for measuring the value of genetic resources of wild rice in India. A two-stage regression analysis was conducted. A first stage aimed to estimate the relative contribution of the overall varietal improvement to the productivity growth in rice. When this contribution was positive a second stage was justified and subsequently pursued where genetic content variables were incorporated into the analysis. Regarding choice experiment (CE), two papers were consulted for this study. One paper (Scarpa et al., 2001a) provides a practical approach where CE was employed in the case of Box Keken Creole pig in Mexico. Another paper by the same authors (Scarpa et al., 2001b) gives an outline of a theoretical framework of CE, its limitations and suitability for the valuation of animal genetic resources. CE was employed in a case-study on Maasai cattle in Kenya. The objective was to investigate the performance and the consistency of preferences. That was done by comparing the values estimated for cattle attributes using CE with data obtained from HP in the same markets, in the same time period and the same population of traders.
The creation of breeds

This section gives an overview of the history of indigenous cattle in Africa as well as of synthetic breeds. Generally, a breed is defined as a group of animals that has been selected by man to possess a uniform appearance that is inheritable and distinguishes it from other groups of animals within the same species. The selection brings out characteristics of animals that are not necessarily strategies for survival but are favoured by man for economic or cultural reasons (Clutton-Brock, 1981). There are two separate but interlinked concepts regarding the conservation of AnGRs. The first is the conservation of genes and the second, the conservation of breeds or populations (FAO, 1999). Hence, it must be clearly defined whether the proposed strategies aim to conserve genes or breeds. Conservation methods and strategies are different for the two objectives. This study is breed oriented, focusing on characteristics that make up the value of a breed. Furthermore, it will predominately deal with cattle because they provide the largest income source with respect to animal production and are furthermore prone to a large volume of biodiversity. Moreover, with a global total amount of almost 1300 million heads, cattle are the most numerous of domestic mammals. Over 70% of the worlds cattle are in developing countries, with a ratio of one bovine to every 4.7 people. In the developed world, housing 30% of the worlds cattle population the ratio amounts to one bovine to 3.3 people. Some 120 cattle breeds have been classified for Africa so far but still a lot of local subtypes remain unknown (Bradley and Cunningham, 1999).
Indigenous breeds of East Africa

Most cattle can be assigned to either the species Bos taurus or the species Bos indicus. Bos indicus cattle are also referred to as Zebus. The two species can be interbred freely, there is no reproductive barrier. Bos indicus cattle are originated from India and then began to migrate along the east coast of Africa and towards South East Asia. Bos taurus cattle are predominately
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found in northern areas of Asia and Europe but there were migration along western Africa and America (Buchanan and Dolezal, 1999). Some early crossing of Bos taurus and Bos indicus cattle in Africa (with the center of breeding and domestication in Ethiopia) resulted in a subgroup of the two species, the so called Sanga breed. Sanga breeds take advantage of the complementary characteristics of Bos taurus and Bos indicus strains. A further crossing of Sanga with Bos indicus resulted in the Zenga breeds (Rege et al., 2001). The exact origin of African cattle remains uncertain but it now became widely accepted that Africa has been a center of domestication (Bradley et al., 1996). In the past it was assumed that cattle were domesticated elsewhere and later introduced into Africa. In around 1500 BC, longhorned Zebu cattle were introduced into Africa. Those were mated with humpless longhorn cattle in Ethiopia and Somalia, resulting in Sanga cattle. The Sangas then spread from Ethiopia into central and southern Africa. In around 670 AD, short-horned Zebu cattle were introduced via Ethiopia and Somalia, largely replacing Sanga cattle from East Africa. Those Sanga were interbred with already existing Sanga, creating the Zenga type. The Zebu cattle spread further westwards and southwards and became the dominant cattle in this area. There are 75 Zebu breeds in Africa, some 61 of these breeds are found in East Africa and neighbouring countries, the rest are represented in West Africa (Rege et al., 2001)
Synthetic breeds
In this section some important synthetic breeds will be described, their history and their genetic makeup. Synthetic breeds result from an initial crossing of the indigenous breed with the exotic breed(s) using the latter as the sire breed, then selecting the resultant F1 individuals and interse mating them. Over generations, through selection, the population stabilises with intermediate genotype developed in which 50% of additive effects of either breed are retained, and 50% of the maximum heterosis effect maintained (Karugia et al., 2000). Table 1gives an overview of tropical cattle used for the creation of synthetic breeds. Santa Gertrudis, for instance, is composed of 3/8 Brahman and 5/8 Shorthorn. This make-up has proved to be ideal of Brahman influence to boost performance in crossbreeding programs in any area or environment. The Charbray cattle consist of animals bred approximately between the limits of three-quarter (75%) Brahman (Bos indicus) and one-quarter (25%) Charolais on the one hand, and three-quarter (75%) Charolais and one-quarter (25%) Brahman (Bos indicus) on the other hand, and any combination in between. The Bos indicus contribution to Charbrays causes their hardiness and tick resistance. One of their most desirable attributes is their foraging ability under drought conditions and their quick response to improved seasonal conditions. The genetic makeup of Bonsmara in South Africa consists of 5/8 Afrikaner and 3/8 Hereford or Shorthorn blood. Bonsmara calves now represent roughly 45% of all birth notifications of beef and dual purpose breeds in South Africa. The sustained use of Bonsmaras has led to constant improvements in weaning weights of cross-bred herds. There have also been studies showing good results for calving percentage, weights of heifers as well as feedlot adaptability. Interbreeding with Africaner and Shorthorn/ Hereford also took place in Australia and USA, resulting in a different synthetic trait name.
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Farm Animal biodiversity in Ethiopia: Status and prospects Table 1: Crossbreeding programs
Tropical breed Brahman Brahman Brahman Brahman Brahman Brahman Brahman Brahman Africaner Africaner Africaner Sahiwal/Red Sindhi Sahiwal Sahiwal Tuli Senepol * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Anglo-American breed Shorthorn Hereford Angus Hereford/Shorthorn Limousin Simmental Charolais Shorthorn Hereford/Shorthorn Shorthorn/Angus Hereford/Shorthorn/Angus Jersey Holstein-Friesian Jersey Angus Angus Location of breeding (Name of synthetic breed) North America (Santa Gertrudis) USA/Texas, Australia (Bratford) USA/Texas, Australia (Brangus) USA (Beefmaster) USA (Brahmousin) South Africa (Simbrah) Australia/USA (Charbray) Australia (Droughtmaster) South Africa (Bonsmara) Australia (Belmont Red) USA (Barzona) Australia, Malaysia (Australian Milking Zebu) Australia (Australian Friesian Sahiwal) Caribbean (Jamaica Hope) USA USA Purpose Beef Beef Dual Beef Beef Dual Beef Beef Beef Beef Beef Dairy Dairy Dairy Dual Dual
Brahman = Zebu with origin in India Sahiwal = Dairy strain of Zebu from Pakistan Tuli = Sanga breed from Zimbabwe Senepol = originated from St. Croix Africaner = originated from South Africa
Global flow of East African genetic material

This descriptive part of the study is mainly based on literature review and should clarify the importance of tropical breeds outside their countries of origin. It can be seen as a preliminary stage to the subsequent economical evaluation where those countries will be picked for investigation that most frequently made use of imported semen of tropical cattle. As already mentioned two directions of flow will be taken into account: from the South to the North and within the South. In the case of this research the South is limited to Africa and in particular to East Africa. Thus the main emphasis is put on the export of genetic cattle material from East Africa to other countries, either in the North or other African counties. It is important to reveal whether the motivation for importing tropical breeds is in both cases the same or whether it varies. If it does then it should be clarified which characteristics are important to importers of Western countries on the one hand and to importers of African countries on the other. However, there have been transfers of genetic material from the North (or Western countries) to the South whereby the South certainly profited as well but this direction of the flow will not be the subject in this research.
Some work has already been done, revealing that there have been no crossbreeding efforts with tropical breeds in European countries so far. Some breeder associations in Germany, Swiss and Austria were contacted and they all denied programs with tropical breeds. Reasons given for the non-utilisation of tropical strains were such as no need for heat tolerance or other disease resistances due to a relatively cold climate and favourable environment. This investigation is not yet completed and other European countries should get into investigation, too. Nevertheless, taking Europe into account seems not to be promising. According to the literature, in the southern United States and Australia (Queensland) crossings of African and European breeds are extremely common with the aim of taking advantage of the immense heterosis effect (see Table 1). The question is whether there are only a few tropical breeds that were used or whether a wide range of indigenous breeds were imported. In addition it has to be examined, whether it was a single crossing or a sporadic or even a regular crossingprogram. The results of the mapping can later be used in order to compare the flow of genetic material from the South to the North with the benefits that both parties receive from it. The mapping will also touch the issue of benefit sharing. Genetic material was imported from developed countries, successfully used for crossbreeding with high-yielding breeds and these crossbreeds have then continuously been improved and new synthetic traits emerged. Often the semen of that synthetic breed was again sold to countries which have similar climate conditions and where the introduction of this breed deemed promising.
Economic valuation of unique characteristics of tropical cattle breeds

Due to the problem of finding reliable data in developing countries one needs alternative to receive useful data nevertheless. The basic idea behind this study is to evaluate certain characteristics of indigenous breeds based on the price of synthetic breeds that were created in developed countries and that contain a share of Zebu blood (50% Zebu). Unfortunately, the characteristics of breeds that were priced on the market have no more present value for conservation aims. With the transmission of specific traits, being unique for tropical cattle, to crosses in other countries the value of that trait vanished. What might be beneficial is the forthcoming use of this trait, for instance, in case of climate change, catastrophes, loss of resistance due to changing environment, protection failures (Tsetse controlling) etc. Another possible benefit of the preserved breeds might be that they possess qualities that are not yet known but which could be of any use in the future. This paper details two approaches to capture value of traits. One approach deals with the market for cattle in developed countries whereas the second approach is about cattle in markets in developing countries. Both approaches vary according to the economical method upon which their theory is based. In case of developed countries, a HP method will be used and a CE with respect to markets in developing countries (East Africa). The HP reveals the use-values of tropical cattle whereas with CE one can also capture non-use value depending on the questionnaire design or choices that will be given to the respondents. Part 1: Value for developed countries In the previous chapter, different synthetic breeds were presented. The question now is why those tropical cattle (mostly Zebu) were imported and interbred with local high-yielding breeds. It is obvious that tropical cattle add value to one herd but the monetary value of the contribution has not yet been defined. The HP approach sheds light on the characteristics of a synthetic breed that
52
are due to the tropical trait and furthermore puts a monetary value on it. Marginal values of traits associated with indigenous breeds can be estimated when applying the HP method. Hypothesis: The hypotheses to be tested states that the unique features of Zebu increase the price of a breed (i.e. its market price for semen) and henceforth that a contribution of tropical genetic material to breeding programs cause an increase in value. The shape of the HP function is assumed to take on the following form.
Semen Price PS
PS (Z)
Expressed Zebu attributes (Z)
The magnitude and amount of Zebu attributes that one cattle holds depend on the share of Zebu blood relatively to the purebred. Due to the enormous heterosis effects one can assume that the unique Zebu characteristics are stronger expressed in a synthetic breed that contains three quarter of Zebu genes than in a breed that is half-bred. Method: The HP comprises two major steps, whereby the second one can be subdivided into two further aspects:
1. 2.
Collection of data of relevant information of synthetic breeds on the one hand and purebreds on the other hand, both in the same environmental situation Calculation of the value of attributes due to Zebu influence: Estimation of the price function of one breed based on its semen price Calculation of the implicit marginal price of the unique Zebu characteristics of each breed
Data: The approach of observing markets in developed countries with the aim of capturing valuable characteristics of indigenous cattle seems to be sort of peculiar but the big advantage lies in the availability of reliable data. This study uses cross-section data which will be obtained from breeding records of breeding associations. It is important to mention, that the productivity of some purebreds is significantly higher in areas with a favourable climate. Thus the breeds that have to be out weighted against each other must face the same environmental conditions. In order to identify the value of individual relevant traits a statistical analysis of market price data for semen will be carried out. The data needed to conduct a simple econometric model is as follows: Price of semen as bull prices Characteristics of each bull
The model:The monetary value stems from the demand for a synthetic breed and its market price. The demand again, can be considered as a function of a breeds characteristics. The price or value of a breed is usually reflected through its markets price of semen. The price is based on
the demand for various characteristics of a breed. The semen price depends on a bundle of characteristics and is represented by the HP function (Price of semen = the sum of the values for each of the genetic characteristics, see Equation 1). The characteristics can be broadly divided into 4 complexes: productivity (Q), reproduction (R), nutrition (N) and Zebu unique attributes (Z). The model must as well include other variables apart from the characteristics that have impact on the semen price. PS = f (Q1Qj , R1Rk , N1Nm , Z1Zn) for all straws of semen (1)
The HP function is converted into the double log in order to capture elasticities. Although the double log is often used, it is considered appropriate to test the suitability of alternatives such as Box-Cox transformations and other functional forms (Markandya et al., 2002). lnPS = a lnQj + b lnRk + c lnNm + d lnZn (2)
Fixing the level of all the other attributes of a breed, such as milk quantity and quality, for instance, it is possible to focus on the relationship between the price and some attributes under investigation, such as the unique ones of tropical cattle. The marginal value for one feature can be found by partially differentiating the HP function with respect to Z (Equation 3). The obtained function is called the implicit marginal price function of Z and it reflects the price paid by individuals for the last unit of the Zebu attribute, purchased by choosing a synthetic breed instead of a purebred, other attributes equal. Pimpl.Z = PS / Z (3)
For each single characteristic belonging to one of the classes (Q, R, N, Z) an implicit marginal price function can be simply calculated by differentiating the price with respect to the characteristic in question. The data will be best analysed by applying OLS because a percentage variation of the market price due to a variation in one of the characteristics is sought as a result. The results (=marginal value of each characteristic) can then be compared and characteristics can be even ranked with respect to their price. Limitations: HP is bound to some limitations and assumptions. Perfect information on all alternatives is assumed and individuals must be free to choose a cattle breed. In the case of the Australian and North American market this assumption can be hold, as the availability of breeds or their semen and the market price for semen is quite transparent. Another assumption states that the market for sires is in equilibrium, meaning that all individuals have made their utility-maximising choice. The main disadvantage of this method is that it only captures use values associated with the cattle breed under investigation and hence may underestimate its total economic value (OECD, 2002). Another limitation of this method is the requirement of a large volume of data, including characteristics of breeds in investigation. Moreover, the hedonic valuation is ex-post and does not say much about forthcoming potential use of genetic material of the old breeds but the identification of the actual economic importance of a breed can provide a strong argument for conservation (Drucker et al., 2001). Economic interpretation of results: The elasticities are interpreted as the percentage change in semen price from a one-unit change in the independent explanatory variables. In case of qualitative variables such as the occurrence of heat and disease tolerances it can be seen as a percentage or absolute change in the semen price from the shift to a breed holding that qualitative characteristics. The values obtained for the Zebu characteristics can be compared with the conservation costs for breeds holding the same characteristics or even other ones that in
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the future might provide similar benefits to developing as well as to developed countries. Based of the results that this study will provide, the question of benefit sharing also arises. Part 2: Value for developing countries Compared to the USA and Australia, where data can be received throughout breeding associations, this is not the case in developing countries. Hence in order to tackle this problem one has to deviate from an indirect valuation approach. Instead, a direct method, i.e. a choice experiment method will be employed. Furthermore, perfect information, one of the main assumptions of HP, can not be assumed in the case of markets for sires in developing countries. CE will be conducted in cattle markets within the Tanzania, Kenya cross border region. The aim of conducting CE is to value attributes of breeds due to the choices made by respondents. In general, respondents are presented with a series of alternatives (here cattle characteristics) and asked to choose their most preferred (OECD, 2002). A baseline alternative corresponding to the recent situation is usually included as one option in each choice set. Therefore, some information about the specific cattle situation of the region where the interviews will be carried out is required in the forefront or if available the data will be taken from ILRI. Method: Before the interview phase can start, hypothetical choice data has to be collected to estimate the preference of buyers towards one cattle breed or the other. The preferences towards exotic breeds over indigenous breeds are thereby of main interest. The methodology of CE comprises 5 steps (OECD, 2002):
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Identification of relevant attributes to include in the choice sets Assignment of levels to attributes including the price attribute Determining the factorial design set of matrices combining attributes and levels to be presented to respondents Determining an efficient subset of the matrices to present to a sample of respondents Administering the survey in y face-to-face format
Design of choice sets: Respondents (in cattle markets) will be asked to select the most preferred among a set of cattle that they are offered to buy. The set of different cattle options is referred to as choice set. One choice set consists of n options given to hypothetically choose from (for instance two or three animals). Each option again embraces k characteristics (like heat tolerance, disease resistance, good dietary intake etc.). Each characteristic can take on n levels. The levels can be dichotomous (yes, no: for qualitative features) when the characteristic is of qualitative nature. Otherwise, in terms of quantitative characteristics, they can take on any other discrete value. Hence, the total number of choice sets that can be theoretically given to respondents will be i * k * n. Due to the large number of possible choices one has to define which sets will be used, i.e. how to combine characteristic levels with characteristics and options. A common approach constitutes the orthogonal designs. For this research, a set of two options (animal A and animal B) will be given, whereby the interviewees can opt for none of these options as well. Animal B will represent a status-quo animal (an improved one) and it does not vary over all sets. That means, the number of possible choices for the whole set is reduced because option B stays constant. A choice set for animal A has to be defined. This set can take on k * n different compositions. The model: One assumption upon which this model relies is that respondents make choices that maximise their expected utility. A Multinomial Logit model will be used in order to identify the most preferred characteristics of cattle. Multinomial models are applied when there is a single
decision among two or more alternatives (Green, 2003). Multinomial models can be either ordered or unordered depending on the nature of the dependent variable. For the analysis of the CE an unordered model is considered to be appropriate. Unordered model can be motivated by a random utility model (RU). RU models the choices as a function of characteristics and characteristic levels. According to this model, an individual is assumed to opt for one cattle based on the characteristics of the alternatives with a certain degree of randomness. What is further important is the inference from the respondents preferences (ranking of alternatives) to the economic value of the preferred characteristics. This has to be done by using shadow price techniques (Scarpa et al., 2001a). If available this data will be taken from ILRI. Sample framework: The sample framework has to be determined in the run-up to the questionnaire design in order to capture specific aspects of the region where the survey will be conducted. A random sampling of markets is required and this is done based on data provided by ILRI, if available. The different breeds, numbers of cattle and cattle holders has to be known for the specific region.
The cost analysis of on-farm conservation of indigenous breeds in east Africa

The existing conservation activities demonstrate that there is an international and in some cases national process underway to address the threat of AnGRs erosion on the institutional as well as the practical level. Still, open questions remain, the answers to which will significantly determine the conservation efforts. In many countries the financial resources to enable a sustainable conservation of AnGRs are lacking, and thus increasing the risk of AnGRs loss. Due to the extreme competition for scarce financial resources for the general development towards reducing poverty and eradicating hunger, one further issue needing to be discussed is the question concerning at which level AnGRs should be conserved and whether this should be done at any cost. Therefore, marginal cost benefit analyses play a vital role. Conserving AnGRs is not a goal in itself, but a means to maintain the potential of drawing benefits from the conserved resources now and in the future. Therefore, to make a judgment as to the appropriate level of investment in conservation, the utility of AnGRs has to be valued and considered in light of the cost of its conservation. Policy discussions remain confused because this question has not been solved; it has hardly even been discussed on a comprehensive basis. In contrast to the research into the values and benefits of AnGRs, the costs of genetic resource conservation have received much less attention. Fewer efforts have been made to identify the costs connected to the conservation of AnGRs. The available information on the costs of AnGRs conservation is vague in many cases, or even non-existent in the majority of the countries. This holds true for the costs related to the ex situ conservation activities, but far more for those related to on-farm conservation of AnGRs.1 Besides the fundamental question of how to secure the financial means to conserve genetic resources, it has to be stressed that the amount of financial resources allocated to AnGRs conservation activities does not guarantee that they will be utilised in an efficient way. It has been shown for crop genetic resource conservation, for instance, that countries with the same expenditure structures have very different quality standards. Even more threatening is the fact that countries with high agrobiodiversity and low conservation investment have in general low conservation quality, indicating the danger of crop genetic resources loss in such countries (Virchow, 1999). This may hold true for the conservation of AnGRs as well.
1 On-farm (or in situ) conservation of AnGRs is defined as maintaining traditional breeds on farms.
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Hence, besides the benefit analysis, the cost aspects have to be considered when studying AnGRs conservation and utilisation. Quantitative analyses in this area are required, but are still very much in their infancy. Conservation costs include the direct cost of conservation (mainly for the ex situ conservation methods, such as cryopreservation) and the indirect cost of conservation, particularly the opportunity cost of in situ methods, such as the on-farm conservation. These opportunity costs reflect the foregone benefit for the farmer and for the country by maintaining the diversity of AnGRs on the farm. In addition, conservation costs are not limited to the initial capital and subsequent operating costs of the conservation activity in a narrow sense only. The costs of characterisation, evaluation, regeneration, multiplication and distribution must also be considered.
Concluding remarks
This approach of economic valuation of unique characteristics of tropical cattle breeds highlights the different perceptions from developed countries on the one hand and developing countries on the other. This paper only suggests the methodology and data has not yet been gathered but it will be done soon in the course of the whole research work conducted at ZEF. A follow-up activity including cost analysis of on-farm conservation of indigenous breeds in East Africa is another crucial point that completes this study.
References
Bradley D.G., MacHaugh D.E., Cunningham P. and Loftus R.T. 1996. Mitochondrial diversity and the origins of African and European cattle. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 93:51315135. Bradley, D.G. and Cunningham, E.P.1999. Genetic aspects of domestication. The genetics of cattle. CAB International. Eds. Fries and Ruvinsky Buchanan, D.S. and Dolezal, S.L. 1999. Breeds of Cattle. The Genetics of Cattle. CAB International. Eds. Fries and Ruvinsky Clutton-Brock, J. 1981. Domesticated Animals From Early Times. British Museum Press, London, UK Drucker A.G., Gomez V. and Anderson S. 2001. The economic valuation of farm animal genetic resources: A survey of available methods. Ecological Economics. 36:1-18 Evenson, R.E. and Gollin, D. 1998. Agricultural values of plant genetic resources. CABI Publishing, New York, USA FAO. 1999. Animal genetic Resources. Corporate Document Repository. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations; Rome; Italy. http://www.fao.org/documents (Status: Feb. 2003) FAO. 2000. One third of farm animal breeds face extinction. News 2000. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations; Rome; Italy. http://www.fao.org/ (Status: March 2003) Karugia, J.T., Mwai, O.A., Kaitho R.; Wollny, C., Drucker, A.G. and Rege, J.E.O. (2000). Economic Analysis of Crossbreeding Programmes in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Conceptual Framework and Kenyan Case study. Markandya, A. Harou, P. Bellu, L. and Cistulli, V. 2002. Environmental Economics for Sustainable Growth: A Handbook for Practitioners', Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, UK Green, W.H. 2003. Econometric analysis. 5Th Edition, Prentice Hall, New York, USA OECD. 2002. Handbook of diversity evaluation 11th ESAP-Proceedings 57
Rege, J.E.O. (ed.). 1999. Economic valuation of farm animal genetic resources. Proceedings of an FAP/ILRI workshop held at FAO headquarters, Rome, Italy, 15 17 March 1999, ILRI, Nairobi, Kenya Rege, J.E.O. and Gibson, J.P. 2001. Animal genetic resources and economic development: issues in relation to economic valuation. Article 2. Ecological Economics Special Issue on Animal Genetic Resources, ILRI, Nairobi, Kenya http://www.cgiar.org/ilri/ (Status: March 2003) Rege, J.E.O, Kahi, A., Okomo-Adhiambo M., Mwacharo J. and Hanotte, O. 2001. Zebu cattle of Kenya: Uses, performance, farmer preferences, measures of genetic diversity and options for improved use. Animal Genetic Resources Research 1. ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute), Nairobi, Kenya. 103 pp. Richards, T. and Jeffrey, S. 1995. Hedonic pricing of dairy bulls. Project Report 95-04, Alberta Agricultural Research Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada Scarpa, R., Drucker, A., Anderson, S., Ferraes-Ehuan, N., Gomez, V., Risopatron, C.R. and Rubio-Leonel, O. 2001a. Valuing animal genetic resources in peasant economies: The case of the Box Keken Creole pig in Yucatan. Article 7.1. Ecological Economics Special Issue on Animal Genetic Resources, ILRI, Nairobi, Kenya http://www.cgiar.org/ilri/ (Status: April 2003) Scarpa, R., Kristjanson, P., Ruto, E., Radeny, M., Drucker, A. and Rege, J.E.O. 2001b. Valuing indigenous farm animal genetic resources in Africa: a comparison of stated and revealed preference estimates. Article 7.2. Ecological Economics Special Issue on Animal Genetic Resources, ILRI, Nairobi, Kenya http://www.cgiar.org/ilri/ (Status: March 2003) Virchow, D. 1999. Spending on Conservation of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture: How much and how efficient? ZEF-Discussion Papers on Development Policy. Number 16. Bonn, 1999. Pp. 37.
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Lessons Learned from the Borana Cattle Improvement Programme at Adami Tulu and Abernossa Cattle Multiplication and Improvement Centre in Ethiopia
Azage Tegegne International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O. Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Abstract
This paper describes the establishment and development of the first indigenous cattle breed improvement endeavors in Ethiopia at the Adami Tulu and Abernossa Cattle Multiplication and Improvement Center, in the Rift Valley. It is intended to analyse and document the activities of the center and use the experiences of the center over the last three decades as a springboard for future livestock breed improvement efforts in the country. The Center commenced its activities in October 1960 with an establishment herd of 351 Borana cows and 12 Borana bulls purchased from Borana and Arrero Awrajas of the then Sidamo Administration Region in southern Ethiopia. The Adami Tulu part of the ranch was the first to be established on an area of 1534 ha. The Abernossa ranch, located about 12km south west of Adami Tulu ranch, was established in 1962 on an area of 4240 ha. The major objective of this activity was to improve the Borana cattle and also to introduce modern cattle breeding and production system in the country. Activities were expanded to include a crossbreeding programme with Holstein Friesian cattle to produce in-calf crossbred heifers for distribution to farmers interested in dairy development. Subsequently, the Borana selection and improvement programme was re-located at the Didi Tura ranch in Borana country and the center was restructured to focus on crossbred heifer production only. In its 35 years of existence, the centers activities have gone through a number expansion and contraction, and accordingly genetic progress and retrogress in the breed improvement efforts. A major destruction and damage occurred on the ranch in 1991 when there was a change in government. Infrastructure was destroyed, records were burnt and animals were either slaughtered or looted. Subsequently, about half of the land area was given back to the local community by popular demand and the ranch was confined to the eastern part with approximately 2,000 ha. New stock (heifers) was purchased from the Borana country and restocking and improvement activities recommenced. Currently, the ranch manages about 2,000 heads of breeder cows and still produces crossbred heifers. Over the years, the ranch had made significant genetic improvement on the Borana cattle through performance evaluation and selection. However, the attempt to undertake such farfetched and long-term programme has been repeatedly hampered by the local community demanding their land rights. A participatory genetic improvement programmes that benefit local communities and the nation coupled with appropriate education and awareness creation in the community should have been designed to ensure full participation and support by the community for such long-term genetic improvement programmes.
Historical background
The Adami Tulu ranch was the first such ranch to be established in Ethiopia on an area of 1534 ha. It commenced activities in October 1960 with an establishment herd of 351 Borana cows and 12 Borana bulls purchased from Borana and Arrero Awrajas of Sidamo Administration Region in southern Ethiopia. The objective was genetic improvement of Borana cattle under ranch management conditions. In 1975, the breeding programme was interrupted and all the ranchland and almost all its facilities were given to surrounding farmers. Half of the herd was distributed to farmers, while the other half was transferred to Abernossa ranch.
Abernossa ranch, located about 12km south west of the Adami Tulu ranch, was established in 1962 on an area of 4240 ha. The Abernossa ranch is located between latitude 7015N and longitude 38045 in the Rift Valley of Ethiopia. It is situated in Showa Administrative Region about 180 km south of Addis Ababa, the capital. The ranch has an elevation of 1650 m above sea level. The aim of the ranch was to improve Borana cattle and to demonstrate commercial ranching systems to farmers and interested government organizations. In 1972, a crossbreeding programme using exotic genotypes, mainly Holstein Friesian, was introduced. In 1975, the Adami Tulu and Abernossa ranches were amalgamated and named Adami Tulu and Abernossa Cattle Improvement and Multiplication Center. Detailed map of the property of the center is shown in Figure 1 (Azage Tegegne, 1989). The objectives of the multiplication center were redefined as follows: Conserve and improve Borana cattle through selection and controlled breeding; Provide foundation and replacement heifers to the Abernossa crossbreeding unit and to other interested organizations Produce and distribute Borana x Friesian in-calf heifers to farmers to improve dairy production; and Demonstrate the importance of improved livestock management and modern ranching systems under tropical conditions.
Natural vegetation
The natural vegetation of the ranch can be classified as bush grassland with dominating acacia trees (Figure 2). The bush cover is mainly composed of Acacia senegal, A.seyal, A.etbaica, A.persicifloa, Capparis towentosa, Opuntia, Euphorbia and Ficus species. The predominant grass species is Hyparrhena and particularly H.rufa, which is the major species used for dry season grazing. On higher lying and on more gravelly sites, the unpalatable H.hirta dominates the pasture. Other grass and shrub species are Andropogon, Arstida, Chlorius gayana, Cynodon dactylon, Digitaris, Eragrostis, Heteropogon contortus, Panicum, Pennisetum, Setaria, Sporobulus pyramidalis and Golanuw. Indigofera and Crotalaria spp are the major legumes present (Figures 3 and 4).
Figure 1. Map of the Property of the Adami Tulu and Abernossa Cattle Multiplication and Improvement Centre before 1991
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Figure 2. Natural vegetation in and around the ranch in the Rift Valley (note Lake Langano in the background)
Figure 3. Natural vegetation during the wet season with Boran and crosses grazing
Soils and Climate

The soils of the ranch are composed of brown forest, steppe and desert soils of the Rift Valley. The texture of the soil varies from gravelly, coarse, sandy loams to clay loams (Murphy, 1958). The soils contain medium to high levels of phosphorus and extremely high levels of potassium. However, available phosphorus is low (Makin, Kingham, Waddams, Birchall and Eavis, 1976). The soil pH values range from 6.4 to 7.4; organic matter content is between 1.8 and 6.9%, and nitrogen is about 0.98 to 322% (Nigussie, 1974).
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Figure 4. Natural vegetation with standing hay during early dry season at the ranch (note the lesser Kudu under an acacia tree)
The climate is characterized by a small rainy season from April to June followed by a big rainy season from July to September. Some 70% of the total annual rainfall is received during this latter period. The dry season extends from October to March while variable monthly rainfall has been recorded from February to June. The mean annual maximum and minimum temperatures are 26.9oC and 12.4oC, respectively.
Pasture management
The Adami Tulu section of the ranch is divided into 11 paddocks, while the Abernossa section is divided into 22 paddocks (Figure 1). The size of each paddock varies based on botanical composition of the pasture. Each paddock has one or two watering troughs and portable metal troughs for mineral supplementation. The whole area is plain, although slightly undulating areas are quite common due to several lake terraces and volcanic land formations. Regular bush clearing and rotational grazing is the major pasture improvement programme. Studies have been undertaken to determine adaptable grass, legume and shrub species for future incorporation in pasture improvement. The carrying capacity of the pastures is estimated at 2.5 ha per animal unit of 300 kg. In addition to the cattle herd, the ranchland supports substantial numbers of wildlife, which include antelopes, warthogs, hyenas, foxes, jackals and greater kudu.
Cattle breeds and breeding operation

The foundation breed is the Borana, a Bos indicus breed. The breed characteristics of these cattle have been described by Alberro and Haile-Mariam (1982). In general, it originated in the district of Borana in Sidamo Administrative Region, Southern Ethiopia. The Borana cattle at present are found in the Ogaden, Sidamo and Bale areas of Ethiopia and the adjoining regions of Somalia and Kenya. The breed is currently well spread in eastern and southern Africa. Borana cattle are reasonable large and have a good general body conformation (Figure 5). Their colour is mainly white, light gray, fawn or light brown with gray, black or dark brown shading on head, neck, shoulders and hindquarters. The horns are thick at the base, very short, erect
and pointing forward. The hump is well developed in the male, is of pyramidal shape and overhanging to the rear or to one side. The dewlap is well developed. In the male, the preputial sheath is pendulous while in the female, the udder is well developed. Average wither height is 118 to 124 cm in males and 116 to 120 cm in females. Body weight ranges from 318 to 680 kg in males and 225 to 454kg in females (Joshi et al., 1957; Payne, 1970; Alberro and Haile-Mariam, 1982). Figure 6 shows typical improved fawn Borana cow and a gray Borana bull. The cattle breed has been improved at Abernossa ranch through selection, controlled breeding and better management and has remained a closed herd since its establishment.
Figure 5. Borana cattle around Yabello area, Southern Ethiopia
Figure 6. Improved Borana cow and bull
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Figure 6. An improved Borana cow and an improved Borana bull
The general organizational network of the breeding operation at Abernossa is shown in Figure 7 (Azage Tegegne, 1989). The ranch operates two distinct breeding units. The Borana Breeding Unit (BBU) undertakes a selection and improvement operation on pure Borana cattle (Figure 8) while the Crossbreeding Unit (CBU) runs a crossbreeding operation using improved Borana cows inseminated with frozen semen from Friesian bulls. The BBU utilizes natural mating using superior Borana bulls and until 1982 this breeding operation had been on a year-round basis. Since 1983, the controlled breeding season has lasted for three to four months, between September and December. The BBU operates as a single sire mating system. Cows and heifers in the breeding herd are divided into breeding units composed of a maximum of 50 cows, and each breeding unit is kept in separate paddocks. In addition to the cow breeding units, there is one breeding bull herd, one pre-selection young bull herd and one pre-selection young heifer herd. Heifers from the pre-selection young herd are used either as replacements for the BBU or are transferred to the CBU as replacement stock for the production of F1 crossbreds (Figure 9). Borana heifers are defined as ready for breeding when they are 24 months of age and have attained a minimum body weight of 250 kg. Young bulls to be used for breeding purposes are selected at about 12 months of age based on their pedigree, birth and weaning weight data, breed characteristics and general body conformation. The crossbreeding unit uses frozen or fresh semen from Friesian bulls, supplied by the National Artificial Insemination Center in Addis Ababa, for the production of F1 crossbred heifers. Crossbred heifers are inseminated at oestrus when they attain a minimum body weight of 250 kg. Pregnancy is determined per rectum approximately 90 days after insemination. Pregnant F1 cross heifers, with a three quarter Friesian foetus in utero are then sold to individual farmers, farmer cooperatives and other organizations (Azage Tegegne, 1989).
Herd management and feeding

Animals are grouped in paddocks according to their age, sex and herd units. All animals graze natural pastures and have ad lib access to water, and supplementary feeding is not generally practiced. However, supplementary feeding with concentrates such as grain bran and oil seed cake is provided to sick and weak lactating cows and to the whole herd in times of serious drought. Salt and bone meal are also provided occasionally. Calf rearing practices are similar in both the BBU and CBU. Information on calf birth weight, date of birth, dam and sire numbers is recorded at birth, and calves identified by numbered ear
tags. Calves are retained with their dams until weaning at approximately eight months of age in a batch weaning system. Age at weaning therefore ranges from about 225 to 255 days. Calves are separated from their dams and kept for three days in a yard before being transferred to grazing areas. Weaning age, body weight (Figure 10) and weaning date information is also recorded, and male and female calves join their respective pre-selection herds. Male animals not required for breeding purposes are sold between 8 and 16 months of age, depending upon market availability. Pregnancy diagnosis is performed in the BBU three to four months after the end of the breeding season, while heifers in the CBU are examined for pregnancy before sale.
Disease control
The herd health programme incorporates occasional acaricide treatment against external parasites, particularly ticks. A well-designed and efficient spray race is used for this purpose. The major tick species are Rhipicephalus evertsi, R. simus, Amblyomma variegatum, Hyalomma truncataum and Boophilus decoloratus. All animals are vaccinated against rinderpest, anthrax, blackleg, foot and mouth diseases, pasteurellosis, brucellosis and contagious bovine pluropneumonia in accordance with an established vaccination calendar of the ranch. Sick animals are identified, removed from the herd and kept in an isolation ward and are duly treated by a resident veterinarian. Animals are also tested for tuberculosis and brucellosis, and reactor animals are culled.
Wean Young Bull and Heifer Herd (8-12 mo)
Pure Borana Breeding Herd
Dam and Calf Herd (0-8 mo)
Heifer Herd (1-3 yrs)
Bull Herd
Borana Bull Calves (12-24 Mo)
Cull/Sale
Cull/ Sale
Bull Calves Herd (8-12 mo)
Wean
Dam and Calf Herd (0-8 Mo)
Crossbreeding Herd
Wean Pregnant Heifer Herd
Sale
PD
Cycling Heifer Herd (AI)
Heifer Calves Herd (8-18 mo)
Retained to produce crossbred bulls for breeding
Figure 7. Flow chart showing general herd organization at the Abernossa Ranch
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Figure 8. Improved Borana cows purchased from the ranch at the ILRI Debre Zeit Research Station
Figure 9. A group of Borana and Borana x Friesian F1 crossbred heifers at the ranch
Activities and achievements under different regimes

Emperors era: 1972-1975 The Ministry of Agriculture established both the Adami Tulu and Abernossa ranches during the Emperors era. The Emperor did the allocation of land for the operation as a ruling. Peripheral fencing and paddocking was done and the necessary support structures, such as offices, residential
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houses, animal handling facilities, water supply system, electric supply and ranch roads were developed. Animals were purchased from the Borana country and transported to the ranch. The first lot of animals arrived at the Adami Tulu ranch in 1960. Further development, integration of Adami Tulu and Abernossa ranches and strengthening activities continued. In 1972, a crossbreeding programme using exotic genotypes, mainly Holstein Friesian, was introduced.
Figure 10. Animal handling and weighing facility at the ranch
The Minister of Agriculture during the establishment was H.E. Dejazmach Germachew Telke Hawariat and the first manager of the ranch was Tesfaye Chichaibelu. Ato Ephreim Bekele took over in 1962 (EC) and managed the ranch until 1963. During this period there was an attempt to develop a total of 1,000 gasha (40,000 ha) for farmer based ranching system on western part of the ranch. In fact a 23 km area from Abjata to Amora Gedel on western part of the ranch was fenced, three streams developed and borehole water resources were developed. Due to the claim of the land by Emperor as a Bete Rist a conflict between the Ministry of Agriculture and Emperors officials the development never materialized. Subsequently, Ato Worku GebreMedhin took over the management of the ranch until the downfall of the Emperors era in 1966 (EC). Derg era: 1974-1991 A lot of destruction happened during the transition period until the Derg Regime consolidated power. Office building, residence houses, farm operations, fences and records were destroyed. Animals were looted or slaughtered, watering systems dismantled and other facilities stolen. The ranch was rehabilitated later-on. During this period, both the Borana improvement programme and the crossbreeding programme were operational. In 1975, the Adami Tulu and Abernossa ranches were amalgamated and named Adami Tulu and Abernossa Cattle Improvement and Multiplication Center, with a total of 2000 breeder Borana cows. Both natural mating (Borana improvement) and artificial insemination (crossbreeding programme) were performed. Natural mating was restricted to a period of three months, while AI was performed on a year round basis. President Fidel Castro, President of Cuba, donated a good number of Brahman cattle (about 200 cows) and about 10 horses with the necessary gear. The objective of introducing these animals was
not so clear. Some animals were crossed with Borana for meat production. The Brahman breed was eventually eliminated from the ranch over a period of time. The horses were so big and energetic that none of the herdsmen wanted to ride them. Eventually some of them turned wild and disappeared from the ranch. In 1987, the Borana improvement programme was moved to the Didi Tura ranch in the Borana Zone. Surprisingly, trucks in the middle of the dry season transported selected breeder Borana cows and breeding bulls. It was decided to pursue the crossbreeding program only at Abernossa ranch. The first manager of the ranch during this period was Hailu Kassa. Subsequently, Debebe Dessalegne took over the management followed by Kiskias Ketema and Desalegn Gebre-Medhin. Post-Derg era: 1991-todate A similar situation happened during the transitional period as it did in 1966 (EC). The ranch was totally dismantled and animals were slaughtered or looted during the current government take-over in 1991. Residential houses of the ranch Manager and employees were destroyed. The maintenance workshop was totally demolished. Vehicles and farm machinery were destroyed. All animal performance and financial and administrative documents were destroyed or burnt. The animal handling facility and the spray race were totally damaged. Peripheral fenced and paddock fences were looted. Water pipeline system was looted and watering points were destroyed. During the crisis, the International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA), now the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) was requested to assist in the re-habilitation of the ranch in 1992. A team composed of three people (Dr. Mukasa-Mugerwa, Dr. Azage Tegegne and Mr. Franco Leone) was sent down to the ranch and were first hand witness of the extent of the damage that had occurred to the infrastructure, breeder animals and various records collected for over three decades. Subsequently, the farming community around the ranch requested the government for all the land to be re-distributed to farmers. Eventually, a deal was made to re-distribute the eastern part of the ranch that is about 2,000 ha. Dr. Abraham Geleto, a Veterinarian from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Debre Zeit was assigned as a Manager of the ranch and served for a period of two years and resigned from his post. Subsequently, Dereje Jeba was appointed ranch manager and served for only a short time. Abebe Guyusso took over and managed the ranch for about four years. Ababu Dekeba worked at Abernosa as a manager for two years up to September 2000. The ranch manager since 2000 is Girma Telila. During the change in government, peripheral fences, watering points and paddocks were dismantled. As a result, there was difficulty in controlling intrusion of animals from the neighboring communities into the ranch property. This resulted in over-grazing of the ranch land and hence growth and expansion of undesirable grass species, extensive deforestation (for firewood and charcoal making), bull jumping and production of genetically unknown calves, diseases threats such as streptotricosis, tick infestation, bruising, etc. During the subsequent years, significant drop in productivity was observed. Million and Alemayehu (2000) reported that from 1994 to 1998 there were a herd of 442 Borana cows and 139 Borana x Friesian animals at the beginning of 1994 in the ranch and additional purchase of 500 local Borana heifers in 1996 and 1998 were made from Borana country. During this period, the average annual opening and closing breeding cow was 452 and 483, respectively. The average mating, conception and calving rate for Borana cows was 74% 51 % and 40% respectively. In Borana x Friesian heifers mating rate of 54 % and conception rate of 51% were estimated. Annual calf mortality rate for Borana x Friesian (F1) calves, bullocks, growing heifers and mature heifers was 17%, 4% 10% and 5%, respectively. The annual in-calf Boran x Friesian
heifer production was 24 (31% of matured heifers), of which 19 in-calf heifers (3 months pregnant) were distributed to the farmers annually. At the end of each year about 45 mature crossbred heifers were available at the ranch. This lower in-calf heifers out put was attributed to different factors related to technical (management level, feed supply, heath, etc.), environmental, socio-economic situation and their interactions. The cumulative effects of these factors resulted in poor reproduction performances of local cows and crossbred heifers unwanted births of local animals, abortion (due to brucellosis) culling (due to striptotriosis and brucellosis) which in turn contributed to the production of few crossbred animals of both sexes. Currently, the total land area is limited to about 2000 ha and manages a total of 2000 Borana cattle. The breeding programme has been revised to production of Borana x Friesian crossbred heifers using AI on a year round breeding activity.
Achievements in genetic improvement

The original foundation stock of Borana herd was purchased from the Borana pastoralists. Selection and improved management at the ranch has improved growth and reproductive performance of the breed substantially. Much of the selection was based on weaning weight and yearling weight. Potential breeding bulls are selected and dams with good mothering ability retained for subsequent breeding.
Support to the development of the dairy sector

One of the revised objectives of the ranch in 1972 was production of in-calf crossbred heifers for distribution to smallholder farmers interested in dairy production. Over the last three decades, the ranch has contributed significantly to the development of the dairy sector through provision of crossbred heifers to farmers at subsidized price. However, one can be sure of the efficiency of the ranch in the production of crossbred heifers. Assuming that the first batch of in-calf heifers were distributed in 1975, and activities were interrupted in 1975 and again in 1991/92, with an average production of 50 heifers per year, a total of about 1000 crossbred heifers have been distributed over a period of 22 years.
Training opportunities
The ranch provided training opportunities for various groups and individuals. These included visits by students, farmers, and use of facilities and records for undergraduate and post-graduate students. Some students who did their thesis research at the ranch include Hailu Kassa (PhD), Mark Nicholson (PhD), Azage Tegegne (PhD), Mekonnen Hailmariam (MSc, PhD), Sisay Asres (MSc), Ababu Dekeba (MSc) and a number of DVM students from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine of the Addis Ababa University.
Lessons learnt
Genetic improvement programme in livestock is a long-term operation and requires huge investment over the years. Success in livestock improvement programme should have a peoples focus rather that land and livestock focus. The Abernossa ranch has been a point of contention by the local community as probably, the best grazing land was taken from the community for the purpose. The local community around the ranch is dominantly Arsi people and has nothing to do with the Borana cattle. As a result, the operation is considered align and the ranch land has suffered from destruction on the natural resource base by forceful cutting of trees for charcoal making and fire wood for domestic consumption and for household income from sale, illegal harvesting of grass from the ranchland and illegal grazing of animals, and killing of wild life on the ranch.
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Improvement programme on the Borana cattle should have been placed in the Borana country, where the people can relate to the breed. Attempt to improve the Borana would have directly benefited the Borana people themselves. In the process of this attempt, due to its top down approach, it was neither the Borana nor the Arsi people who benefited. It was an academic and institutional concern with no people focus. As a result, cascades of destructions and interruptions to the operation have occurred over the years. This eventually led to the total collapse of the programme during the change in government, with little or no output from the 35 years of operations. In the future, any attempt to implement livestock breed improvement and conservation programmes should consider the following points for it to be successful in a sustainable manner. Espoused and lived: 1. A center for genetic improvement programme under ranch condition 2. A center for teaching and demonstration of modern ranching system 3. A research facility to scientists and graduate students 4. Created job opportunities for the local community Espoused and not lived: 1. Lacked participatory approach on animal genetic improvement program, was not a community based effort and as such there was no community participation in the decision making process 2. Intangible social and financial benefits to the surrounding community with limited job opportunity 3. Lack of education and awareness to the community about the purpose and objectives of the ranch 4. Right location, wrong production system which did not match with the interests of the local community who breed and raise Arsi cattle 5. Confined to ranch operations and no linkage with on-farm activities with no impact on the community in genetic improvement and market-orientation of the production system 6. Limited national commitment for long-term breed improvement and lack of awareness by authorities about genetic improvement programme. The animals were considered good meat producers by ordinary people do not eat or see genetics and as a result initial objectives of the ranch lost over time. 7. Budgetary constraints due to lack of commitment and misunderstanding of the objectives of the ranch 8. Lack of incentive to staff 9. Centrally controlled with little autonomy and limited linkage with other institutions 10. Invisible results and achievements. Poor communication and public awareness activities targeted to government officials, the general public and local farmers, in terms of accomplishments and achievements. 11. Poor recording and data archiving system 12. Poor marketing system of improved genetic material.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Ato Efreim Bekele, Ato Hizkias Ketema and Ato Girma Telila for providing information on the history of the Abernossa Ranch.
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References
Azage Tegegne, A. 1989. Reproductive Development and Function in Zebu and Crossbred Cattle in Ethiopia. PhD Thesis, Graduate School of Tropical Veterinary Science and Agriculture, James Cook University, Queensland, Australia, pp. 327. Alberro, M. and Hailmariam, S. 1982. The indigenous cattle of Ethiopia. Part II. Wld Anim. Rev. 42:27-42 Murphy, H.P. 1958. A report on the fertility status and other data on some soils in Ethiopia. Expt. Station Bulletin No. 44. College of Agriculture, Haile Selassie I Univertsity, Ethiopia. Makin, M.J., Kingham, J.J., Waddams, A.E., Birchall, C.J. and Eavis, B.W. 1976. 26 prospects for irrigation and development around Lake Zeway, Ethiopia. Land Resource Study. Land Division, Ministry of Overseas Development, Tolworth Tower Surbiton, Surry, England, KT67DY. Negussie, A. 1974. Analytical Results of Abernossa Soil Samples. Ministry of Agriculture, Soils Laboratory, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Joshi, N.R., McLaughlin, E.A. and Philips, R.W. 1957. Types and breeds of African cattle. FAO, Rome, Italy. Payne, W.J.A. 1970. Cattle Production in the Tropics. Vol. I. General Introduction to Breeds and Breeding. Longman, England.
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Status and Strategies for Genetic Improvement Programs on Sheep in Ethiopia

Solomon Abegaz and Gemeda Duguma Oromia Agricultural Research Institute, Bako Research Center, P.O.Box 3, West Shoa, Ethiopia
Abstract
Studies to date indicate there is sizeable sheep genetic diversity in Ethiopia. Breed names, which include Horro, Menz, Arsi, Wello, Adal, Blackhead Somali, Tikur, Semen, Washera/Dangille/Agew, Rutana and Bonga, have appeared in the literature. There is a need for comprehensive breed characterization work on these and other sheep breeds. On-station studies on a few breeds showed that growth and wool traits can be improved through crossbreeding under both supplemented and unsupplemented feeding regimens. However, limited on farm evaluation has indicated the result is not similar to what has been observed on station. Further studies may be required in developing the complete package and in the choice of appropriate exotic germ plasm. Within breed improvement (selection) is the best option to preserve the existing sheep genetic diversity. However, caution need to be exercised in identifying important traits, in selecting genetically superior animals and in determining the heritability of relevant traits and their relationships with other economically important traits. The small flock size and uncontrolled breeding under the smallholder farming system is an impediment in application of within breed selection on farm level. A central nucleus breeding scheme which involves farmers with relatively larger flock size may provide the basis for long-term genetic improvement of the indigenous sheep genetic resources. Molecular genetic and reproductive techniques may help in expediting progress through selection.
Introduction
With a large size of poultry and livestock population Ethiopias potential for supply of animal products is immense. However, production expressed in terms of egg production, growth rate and milk yield is low. Among factors contributing for the low production is low genetic potential of the animals for high yield with regard to these traits. This is particularly true when management is above sub-optimal level (animals are naturally selected for survival under sub-optimal environment). In most cases livestock are kept under smallholder subsistence production system where input is limited. In such system unless effective animal genetic improvement activity for meaningful breeding goals is introduced and sustained farmers will experience even greater difficulty in the future meeting their food and agriculture imperatives. Genetic improvement can play a role in raising the productivity of the livestock if accompanied with improved environment. Policy considerations with regard to breeding of livestock in Ethiopia have been dealt with by Sendros and Tesfaye (1997). In this presentation the objective is to make a cursory review of past sheep breeding work and to suggest future directions in sheep improvement. Though there are indications for the presence of sizeable genetic diversity in sheep so far no attempt was done to make a comprehensive breed characterization work on sheep in Ethiopia. Much more effort has been exerted in characterizing goats (Farm-Africa, 1996). More recently a relatively detailed and systematic attempt was made to characterize sheep of the Amhara and Oromia regions with some technical backstopping from ILRI. A number of breed names have appeared in the literature. These include Horro, Menz, Arsi, Wello, Adal, Blackhead Somali, Tikur, Semen, Washera/Dangille/Agew, Rutana and Bonga sheep. Since 1977 on-station characterization of sheep breeds namely Horro, Adal, and Blackhead Somali have been carried by the then Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR). Later similar breed evaluation and
improvement programs were carried on Menz sheep at Sheno and Debre Birhan research centers by IAR and ILRI (formerly ILCA), respectively. Though the objectives included, apart from evaluation of breed performance, application of selection for economically important traits, lack of qualified personnel hindered realizing the latter objective. Particularly identifying genetically superior animals was not done properly. Additionally the flock size kept at the different stations was small leading to small selection differential. Due to this the response to the phenotypic selection applied was so low as exemplified by the result of analysis on Horro sheep at Bako research center (Tables 1, 2 & Figure 1). Apart from breed evaluation crossbreeding has been applied on Menz sheep at Sheno and Debre Birhan and on a number of local sheep at ARDU in Arsi. The intent of the crossbreeding was combining the adaptability of the indigenous breeds to the environment with high wool yield and growth rate of the different exotic breeds. Some preliminary results of on-farm evaluation have shown performances in terms of daily gain and weaning weight of crossbred (37.5%) lambs were not superior to local animals (Hassen et al., 2002). There was superiority in birth weight, but this was not maintained at weaning implying the inability of the local dam to support higher growth rate in the lamb. On station studies have shown superiority of crosses (in terms of weight and wool yield) over local animals (Tables 3 & 4) both under supplementation and no supplementation. The superiority was very high under supplementation (Sisay et al., 1991) implying exotic animals require superior management. Similar result was obtained for carcass traits (Sendros et al., 1998). Other studies (Brnnng et al. 1987; Sisay et al., 1988, 1989) have also shown superior performance of crossbreds (Tables 6 & 7). The performance of the crossbreds with respect to reproductive traits was not consistent (Table 5 and 7). No information is known to the authors what the impact of crossbreeding work hitherto could be on hide quality. This information may help in the choice of exotic germ plasm. Future directions in sheep improvement: Due to the need to conserve indigenous genetic diversity it is advisable to base improvement work on indigenous breeds. Above all and prior to any improvement adequate knowledge of the existing diversity is necessary. However the marginal and sub-marginal returns from breeding systems based on indigenous animals could be an impediment to adoption of such systems in indigenous animals (Sendros and Tesfaye, 1997). Even when adopted a complete exclusion of exotic germ plasm may lead to lag in the pace at which increase in productivity could be achieved. Thus crossing to impart qualities which improve productivity into the indigenous breeds may need consideration. Needless to say care should be taken to protect the genetic diversity through systematic use of the exotic germ plasm. Developing stable breeds from crosses could be one of the ways to go forward and to sustain what is realized (avoid the need to keep or import the original exotic breeds). This is particularly true in the case of importing new traits such as wool quality and could be applicable at the smallholder and/or commercial production level. Within breed improvement: Any genetic improvement program should settle two issues at the out set. A clear definition of the target to be met and devising the means to achieve the set target are important. The first one entails the breeding objective and goal. This is related with the production system and careful consideration of farmers needs, market requirements and national development objectives (e.g. national food security, poverty reduction). The following steps could be helpful in breeding goal definition: - Define the development objective of the agricultural production in the country; - Characterize the animal production system for the animal species of interest;
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- Identify breeds to be (possibly) used and improved by selection; - Identify a list of breeding goal traits; and - derive goal values for each of the breeding goal traits. The most important objective of farmers who keep small stock in the highlands appears to get income mainly from the sale of lambs. In the lowlands food production (milk and meat) may have precedent over income generation. Thus growth and survival of lambs and reproductive performance of ewes could take the most important consideration in defining the breeding goal traits. The problem with regard to designing improvement programs is the small flock size kept by the majority of farmers. Average flock size is around five animals (Kassahun, 2000). Under this condition creating contemporary groups of a reasonable size is not possible. Additionally it is difficult to realize controlled breeding and to measure and record performance. With increase in altitude increase in flock size has been reported (Sisay et al.; 1998). Probably flocks in this area may be used to be part of a ram nucleus scheme where ram lambs with superior performance will be taken to a nucleus herd for evaluation with other similar lambs under the same station management. The other farmers with small flock size may benefit from a spillover by obtaining rams from the flocks involved in the improvement program (Figure 2). In all cases success partly depend on devising means for controlled breeding. The other problem is when the environment in which animals are to be selected is different from the environment their progenies are to produce. Unless the trait is verified for insensitivity to environmental change (absence of genotype by environment interaction) it would be inefficient to base selection decisions on lamb performance in intensive environmental conditions for extensive environments. In setting the selection objective traits to be considered should have sufficient variability in the population under consideration. The magnitude of heritability of the traits and their relationship with other economically important traits should also get consideration since this may decide whether exercising within breed improvement is worth investing. Identification of animals with higher genetic merit requires disentangling the environmental component of variance from the phenotypic variance. This is accomplished through prediction of breeding value using mixed model methodology. Despite the problems that might be encountered (small flock size, uncontrolled mating), the use of within breed genetic selection to improve production has the added advantage of conservation of the indigenous genetic diversity through utilization. Current and future breed characterization works should look into the presence of any endangered breeds. In such cases genetic improvement is not to be thought about (small genetic pool, inbreeding) and precedence should be given to saving the germ plasm. Crossbreeding or synthetic breed development: Experiences from dairy cattle and in other livestock production elsewhere show that fast progress in genetic improvement have been realized through introduction of exotic germ plasm for use either as purebred, as crosses or in developing synthetic (stable) breeds. The later has the advantage of sustainability once the breed is formed to an adequate population size. Great care in the choice of the exotic breeds ensures success of the improvement programs. Exotic breeds may have differential adaptability to the environment and this can be tested experimentally and be used as a guide in the choice of the exotic germ plasm. Additionally the impact of exotic germ plasm on traits other than the trait of major importance (e.g. reproduction, survival, wool and hide quality) should also be known.
To ensure success of genetic improvement programs the simultaneous improvement of the environment is required. According to Beilharz (2000) any genetic response without environmental improvement will be defeated by natural selection and returned to the equilibrium sustainable in the unimproved environment. Molecular and reproductive techniques: In addition to conventional breeding, use of molecular techniques, particularly the identification and use of markers (biochemical, morphological, gene) can expedite the progress that can be made in the future. This is particularly true for selection within a breed or a new synthetic breed and in areas where resistance to disease is the concern (e.g. resilience or resistance to gastrointestinal parasites). Application of reproductive techniques such as AI, MOET and in-vitro ova collection and maturation techniques (Wani et al., 2002) can also play important role in expediting progress. The latter techniques are particularly important in the case of use of both sexes as selected parents.
5
0
1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
-5
Weight (kg)
-10
-15 genotypic -20 phenotypic environmental -25
Year
Figure 1. Phenotypic, Genetic and Environmental trends in Yearling weight of Horro sheep at Bako Research Center (19781997)
Conclusion
Though indications exist for presence of sizeable genetic diversity in sheep of Ethiopia there is a need for exhaustive characterization of the existing genetic resource. Past within breed improvement appears to be impeded by failure in identifying genetically superior animals and due to lack of adequate flock size. On station studies, where few indigenous breeds were crossed with exotic breeds, have shown a promising improvement in productivity over the local breeds. However, on-farm observation seems contrary to what is realized on station. With choice of the exotic breeds for adaptability to condition at farm introduction of germ plasm for purposes ranging from crossing to synthetic breed development and to pure breed use could be considered for faster progress than could be realized under selection. This is particularly true in the introduction of new traits (e.g. wool quality). Despite slow genetic progress, within breed selection is worth considering in order to protect the existing genetic diversity and to sustain the improvement program. A nucleus breeding scheme where breeding rams are evaluated at a central station (after being initially selected from farmers flocks) can be applied for within breed selection which involve
farmers flock. Genotype by environment interaction should be looked into so that performance at the nucleus breeding station concurs with performance at farm level. Controlled breeding should be introduced for the success of the improvement program. Molecular genetic and reproductive techniques could help in expediting progress.
Table 1. Range of breeding values of animals born in the different years Year 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Number of Animals 96 184 218 286 267 207 162 116 203 170 253 273 367 122 147 118 98 103 134 173 Range of breeding value BW -0.330 to 0.294 -0.411 to 0.470 -0.353 to 0.556 -0.357 to 0.343 -0.308 to 0.678 -0.342 to 0.398 -0.493 to 0.830 -0.291 to 0.333 -0.320 to 0.518 -0.417 to 0.421 -0.393 to 0.569 -0.380 to 0.522 -0.378 to 0.697 -0.271 to 0.601 -0.355 to 0.518 -0.363 to 0.682 -0.294 to 0.529 -0.386 to 0.310 -0.495 to 0.438 -0.493 to 0.481 WW -1.783 to 1.568 -2.647 to 1.541 -2.685 to 1.853 -2.190 to 1.783 -1.301 to 1.889 -1.066 to 2.409 -1.315 to 2.347 -1.464 to 2.096 -1.569 to 2.658 -1.682 to 2.131 -1.972 to 2.306 -1.364 to 2.168 -1.659 to 3.072 -0.901 to 1.858 -1.381 to 1.931 -0.776 to 2.572 -1.093 to 1.991 -1.374 to 2.994 -1.345 to 2.277 -1.471 to 1.813 6MW -2.112 to 3.135 -3.101 to 2.455 -2.667 to 4.458 -2.555 to 2.631 -1.547 to 3.097 -1.472 to 3.130 -0.951 to 2.841 -1.856 to 2.584 -1.571 to 2.472 -1.885 to 2.915 -1.587 to 2.892 -0.860 to 2.985 -0.814 to 3.205 -0.806 to 2.445 -1.184 to 2.185 -1.640 to 4.419 -0.953 to 3.427 -1.743 to 3.791 -2.275 to 2.372 -1.955 to 2.210 YW -2.848 to 1.773 -3.224 to 2.948 -2.761 to 2.784 -2.214 to 3.501 -1.357 to 3.196 -2.265 to 4.837 -1.618 to 3.322 -1.229 to 3.539 -1.561 to 4.683 -2.002 to 6.816 -1.857 to 5.638 -1.471 to 6.00 -1.672 to 4.957 -0.669 to 3.181 -1.251 to 3.143 -1.538 to 4.933 -2.682 to 4.191 -1.936 to 3.489 -2.335 to 4.663 -2.884 to 3.550
Table 2. Regression coefficients of phenotypic, genetic, and environmental trends in birth, weaning, six-month and 12month weight (1978-1997) Component BW Phenotypic Genetic a) Environmental a)
a) a)
Trait WW -0.6300.0643 0.0440.0050 -0.6740.0667 6MW -0.8420.0971 0.0560.0067 -0.8980.1013 YW -1.1280.1380 0.0940.0106 -1.2230.1451 -0.0440.0060 0.0060.0007 -0.0500.0065
All values are significantly different from zero; Source: Solomon and Gemeda (2002).
Table 3. Mean body weights and daily gains for supplemented and unsupplemented ram progenies of Menz and crosses with Awassi and Corriedale breeds Variable Initial body weight Average daily gain (g) Final body weight Final weights of crossbreds related to purebreds
Source: Sisay et al. (1991).
Menz Unsupplemented Supplemented Unsupplemented Supplemented Unsupplemented Supplemented Unsupplemented Supplemented 13.3 12.6 21 68 17.5 25.8 100 100
Awassi crossbred 14.8 14.6 33 118 21.3 37.5 122 145
Correidale crossbred 13.4 13.0 37 113 20.5 34.9 117 135
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Ethiopian Society of Animal Production Table 4. Mean yearling greasy wool weights (kg) of supplemented and unsupplemented Menz, Awassi and Corriedale crossbreds Management Unsupplemented Supplemented Crossbred Production as % of purebreds
Genotype Menz 0.65 0.75 Unsupplemented Supplemented 100 100 Awassi crossbred 0.85 1.21 131 165 Corriedale crossbred 1.07 1.36 165 181
Table 5. Effects of genotype on ewe reproduction Genotype Overall means Menz 50% Awassi 75% Awassi
Lambs born per ewe joined 1982-1984 0.51 0.55 0.48 1985-1987 0.63 0.64 0.64 0.67
Table 6. Adjusted mean birth weights, 120-day (weaning) weights and wool production for different genotypes Adjusted means Birth weight Weaning weight Wool Production (kg/ewe)
Source: Sisay et al (1988).
Genotype Menz 2.4 15.6 0.60 50% Awassi 3.0 17.6 0.98 75% Awassi 3.8 21.5 1.33
Table 7. Summary of ewe production of local and different crossbreds Breed group Local 25% exotic F1 H/M, C F1 BDM 50% several 75% H/M, C 75% BDM 75% several 87.5 % several Non-pregnant ewes (%) 9.5 14.8 13.0 17.3 10.5 19.1 34.7 35.7 59.9 Lambs Weaned/ewe 0.98 0.85 0.83 0.91 0.91 0.81 0.82 0.66 0.43 Lamb weight Birth 2.8 3.1 3.3 3.6 4.4 4.1 4.2 4.0 4.3 120 days 13.5 15.7 16.6 16.1 20.1 20.7 19.0 19.0 21.1 120days/dam 13.2 16.8 15.9 16.5 17.9 19.7 16.6 15.3 10.9
H/M=Hampshire/Merino C=Corriedale BDM=Bleu de Maine Source: Brnnng et al. (1987).
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Performance testing Selection for 180 and 365 day weights
Selection base flocks Selection for weaning weight
Other flocks (Non-participating farms)

Figure 2. Outline Structure of a selection program based on an on-station nucleus flock
Reference
Brnnng, E., Mohammed Y. Kurtu and Demissie Ido. 1987. Preliminary report on performance of local and crossbred sheep at Assela research Station, 1972-1985. In: Proceedings of the first national livestock improvement conference, 11-13 February 1987, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. IAR, Addis Abeba. pp.81-85. Beilharz, R.G. 2000. Breeding strategies for resource-limited environments. Asian-Aust. J. Anim. Sci. 13:271274. Farm Africa. 1996. Goat types of Ethiopia and Eritrea. Physical description and management systems. Published jointly by Farm-Africa, London, UK, and ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute), Nairobi, Kenya.76 pp. Hassen, Y., Slkner, J., Gizaw, S. & Baumung, R. 2002. Performance of crossbred and indigenous sheep under village conditions in the cool highlands of central-northern Ethiopia: growth, birth and body weights. Small Rumin. Res. 43,195-202. Kassahun, A. 2000. Comparative performance evaluation of Horro and Menz Sheep of Ethiopia under grazing and intensive feeding conditions. PhD Dissertation, University of Humboldt, Berlin. 159 pp. Sendros Demeke and Tesfaye Kumsa. 1998. Factors to be considered in the formulation of livestock breeding policy. In: Proceedings of The Fifth National Conference of Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP), Addis Ababa. ESAP. pp: 13-27. Sendros Demeke, Beyene Kebede, and Sisay Lemma. 1998. Carcass characteristics of Menz sheep and their crosses with Awassi and Corriedale breeds reared under different feeding regimen. In: ESAP. 1998. Women and Animal Production; Proceedings of the Sixth Annual Conference of Ethiopian Society of Animal Production, 14-15 May 1998, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Ethiopian Society of Animal Production, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. pp. 208-216. Sisay Lemma , Kassahun Awgichew, Demissie Tiyo and Ian Fletcher. 1991. Body Weight and wool Production Responses to Supplementary Feeding in Menz Sheep and their Crosses with Awassi and Cooriedale. In: Proceedings of the fourth national livestock improvement conference, 13-15 November 1991, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. IAR, Addis Abeba. pp.119-126. Sisay Lemma, Kassahun Awgichew, Getachew Worku, Adugna Kitila and Ian Fletcher. 1988. Comparative evaluation of Menz and Awassi X Menz crossbred sheep; birth weight, weaning weight and wool production. In: Proceedings of the second national livestock improvement conference, 24-26 February 1988, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. IAR, Addis Abeba. pp. 82-86.
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Sisay Lemma, Kassahun Awgichew, Getachew Worku, Adugna Kitila and Ian Fletcher. 1989. Comparative evaluation of Menz and Awassi X Menz crossbred sheep; 2. Reproduction and mature body weight. In: Proceedings of the third national livestock improvement conference,24-26 May 1989, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. IAR, Addis Abeba. pp.78-81. Sisay Lemma, Solomon Gizaw, Assefa Deressa and Yimam Hassen. 1998. Sheep and goat research in the Amhara region. In: Beyene Seboka and Aberra Deressa (eds.) 1998. Agricultural Research and technology transfer attempts and achievements in Northern Ethiopia. Proceedings of the Fourth technology generation, transfer and gap analysis workshop. 18-21 March 1997, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia. pp.202-233. Solomon Abegaz and Gemeda Duguma. 2002. Genetic and environmental trends in growth performance in a flock of Horro sheep. EJAP 2: 49-58. Wani, N. A. 2002. In vitro maturation and in vitro fertilization of sheep oocytes (A review). Small Rumin. Res. 44: 89-95
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The Genetic Resources Perspective of Equines in Ethiopia and their Contribution to the Rural Livelihoods
Mengistu Alemayehu Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO), Holetta Agricultural Research Center, P.O.Box 2003, and Addis Ababa, E-mail: mengalemayehu@yahoo.com
Abstract
The horse was not domesticated during either the Paleolithic or Mesolithic periods and is probably one of the later species to be domesticated. The origin of the domestic horse has been suggested to be western and central Europe north of the Alps, Eastern Europe and Western Asia north of the mountains. The Nubian wild ass is sited in many textbooks as the progenitor of the donkey although other races may also have contributed to the gene pool. The ass was originally domesticated in the Nile Valley Civilization although the particular site is unspecified. Donkeys, horses and mules together represent 13.5% of the total live weight of domestic herbivores in Ethiopia. There is generally one equine for every four people of the agricultural sector and for every five persons of the total population in the country. In view of all these, equines are thus very important farm animals in Ethiopian agriculture and to the national economy. Besides, they are essential to the livelihoods of many households in rural and urban areas of Ethiopia, relieving families from repetitive and energy-consuming tasks. The use of equines for transportation continues for the years to come mainly in the rural areas of Ethiopia because of the rugged terrain and absence of a well-developed modern transport networks and the prevailing poor livelihoods among the community. It is, therefore, important to maximize the use of equines as long as they are maintained at farms but should be utilized in a humanly manner.
Introduction
The horse contributes to Ethiopians culture primarily by its draft power in transport, agriculture and perhaps with other activities such as racing and leisure sports. The horse is closer to man than the other domestic animals because it has been a participant in the history of mankind throughout war and peace. Today the importance of the horse in its global context has necessarily declined as western countries rely on oil driven machinery and developing countries follow their traditions of utilizing ruminants as working animals (Lindsay, 1991). Exceptionally, the horse is widely used in Ethiopia mainly for riding. Donkeys are not usually used as a source of meat, and their uses for transportation and traction do not fit within the stereotyped perspectives of livestock agencies (Blench, 1997). In line with this, Fielding (1986) also reported that donkeys have a generally low social status and this presumably arises from its perceived low productivity as a single purpose animal compared to cattle that may provide milk, power and meat as well as having a social and financial security function. Nonetheless, donkeys are essential to the livelihoods of many households in rural and urban areas of Ethiopia, relieving families from repetitive and energy-consuming tasks. Results of studies have shown that most of the transport activities of rural households take place with in the community and are related to subsistence tasks such as collection of fire wood, fetching water, transporting farm produce to homesteads and market places, and agricultural inputs to farms (Mekonen, 1989; Feseha, 1993). Moreover, they allow urban dwellers to have access to food produced in the rural areas. The use of equines to provide door-to-door transport service in urban areas has the potential to provide the users/operators with a steady income (Wilson, 1991; Agajie et al., 2000). The use of equines for transportation continues for the years to come mainly
in the rural areas of Ethiopia because of the rugged terrain and absence of a well-developed modern transport networks and the prevailing poor livelihoods among the community.
Origin of domestic equine

Fossil records suggest that the horse has evolved from a foxterrier animal (Eohippus) through animals (Equus giganteus) larger than todays draught horses during the Pleicetosene era (Howel, 1965). According to the paleontology of the horse (Zeuner, 1963), the evolution of a species and subsequent differentiation of sub-species is through geographical separation. Differentiation within these sub-species has continued and specific identifiable races are now recognized within sub-species. In the case of the true horse (Equus caballus L.), two wild races are known to have survived into modern times. These are Prezwalzkes horse, a herd of which maintained in zoo in Munich, West Germany and the Tarpan, which became extinct during the 19th century from hunting (Lindsay, 1991). The origin of the domestic horse has been suggested to be western and central Europe north of the Alps, Eastern Europe and Western Asia north of the mountains as far east as Russian Turkestan (Zeuner, 1963). It is important to distinguish between the Onager or half-ass (Equus hemionus) and the true ass (Equus asinus). The true ass originated in Africa and there were once four wild races viz, atlanticus, africanus, taeniopus and somaliensis that evolved through geographical separation within the continent of Africa (Lindsay, 1991). The original distribution of the wild ass was probably continuous from Somalia through the Libyan Desert to Morocco although they apparently occurred as Equus hydruntinus in Europe during the upper Pleistocene period (Zeuner, 1963). The different species of Equidae can all interbreed and produce viable foals, which are rarely fertile. The exceptions are the wild ass and domestic donkey; horse (chromosome number 64) and prezwalski horse (chromosome number 66) give fertile progeny despite the different chromosome numbers (Bodo, 1992). Unfortunately, all the wild species of equidae are in danger of extinction or already extinct and are listed in the IUCN Red Data Book. Their survival is also in the interest of the breeders of domestic horse.
Domestication of equine
The horse was not domesticated during either the Paleolithic or Mesolithic periods and is probably one of the later species to be domesticated (Lindsay, 1991). It is definitely known that the horse was domesticated by about 2000 BC because reference to horse drawn chariots are plentiful from that time onwards. The horse is known, from the evidence of artwork, to have been common in Egypt by about 1600 BC and, in common with the horse of Mesopotamia, was probably quite similar to the Arab breed of today. During more recent history, the many breeds of horses recognized today came into existence through the process of deliberate selection (Lindsay, 1991). Within the domesticated horse species, three main breed groups are usually distinguished. These include warm blood light horses, cold blood heavy draught horses and pony breeds (small horses). In the world, about some eighty different breeds of horses are recognized where the diversity of horse breeds is found in Europe (Table 1). Heavy draught horse breeds lost ground after the Second World War due to the mechanization of farm work and transport. Hence, they can serve as a genetic pool that may be useful in the future if working horses with some different characteristics are required. The breeding method known as the nucleus system, which is now being applied to domestic species was invented by horse breeders long ago when they used small nuclei (national studs) for the permanent improvement of breeds (Bodo, 1992).
The Nubian wild ass is sited in many textbooks as the progenitor of the donkey although other races may also have contributed to the gene pool (Epstein, 1984). The ass was originally domesticated in the Nile Valley Civilization although the particular site is unspecified (Lindsay, 1991). The main features differentiating races of wild ass are the amount and type of stripes and the shoulder crosses. However, their characterization may be somewhat blurred, since populations that survived into historical times have almost certainly crossed with feral donkeys leading to a merger of characteristics (Blench, 1997). It has been reported that there is some correspondence between local forms of the donkey and the phenotypes of the wild ass (Haltenorth and Diller, 1980). For instance, the Somali donkey is described as having zebra markings on the legs (Mason and Maule, 1960).
Table 1. Proportional share (%) of the world total population size and number of breeds of horse and ass Species Horse: Population Breed Ass: Population Breed 22.2 12.4 34.3 12.4 3.5 23.7 18.8 5.2 21.3 41.2 0.1 5.2 7.4 7.7 24.5 11.4 12.8 60.7 42.5 4.3 4.4 8.5 10.7 7.3 Africa Asia Europe Latin America Near East North America
Source: World Watch List for domestic animal diversity, 3rd edition, FAO, Rome, 2000.
General perspective of equine in Ethiopia

The horse probably came to Ethiopia from Arabia and Sudan, and the possible routes of diffusion to the country are the Blue Nile and the Red Sea Coast (Fesseha, 1993). Horses are said to be superior to other animals because they exhibit a higher degree of stamina than do other domestic stock that can be utilized for the same purposes. It has been reported that the horse type available at present are non-descript and of course little work has been done in this regard ensuing very scanty information to be available. Nevertheless, some attempts have been made to study and characterize the horses of the country (Fesseha, 1993). Based on this classification, two types of horses namely, Dongola and Oromo horses are recognized in Ethiopia. The Dongola horse type is recognized by its larger size where its average size is about 145 cm with a convex head profile. The Oromo horse type is distinguished by its elegant tail, middle-sized ears and concave head profile. The domestic donkey of Ethiopia traces its ancestors to the wild ass found in Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea, Djibouti, Somalia and Ethiopia. The wild ancestors found in Ethiopia are now getting extinct and few remnants of 75 wild asses are present in the Danakil Depression and Nogal Valley (Clark, 1974). As like the horse in Ethiopia, there was no comprehensive study carried out to investigate about the type of donkeys found in the country. The historical sources on the spread of donkeys in Ethiopia passed unnoticed in Ethiopian historical chronicles (Pankhurst, 1968). As a result, there is no adequate empirical data on donkeys to base on if in case breed improvement is required in the future. Despite the least effort made on donkey breed characterization in Ethiopia, few scholars have tried their best to broadly categorize the type of donkeys available in the country. According to Dreyfus (1976) as cited by Fesseha (1993), there are four types of donkeys in Ethiopia namely the Jimma donkey, Abyssinian donkey, Ogaden donkey and Sennar donkey. The distinguishing features were mainly based on phenotypic and physical characteristics. This characterization must further be substantiated with more reliable features so as to appropriately meet the different kind of works we require from donkeys.
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Present scope of equine use in Ethiopia

Ethiopia possesses roughly about half of Africas equine population and the figure reaches as high as 8.8 million equines although different sources have discrepancy on the number. The greatest numbers of equines (79%) are found in the highland parts of the country and are owned by smallholder farmers. Donkeys are distributed in almost all agro-ecological zones because of their peculiar physiological advantage to adapt to lowland areas. Horses are of course limited to the highland parts of Ethiopia dominating mainly in cooler areas while mules appeared to have wider zones of adaptation than horses. Equines are present in Ethiopia at a density of 6.1 heads per square kilometer (Wilson, 1991). Wilson also reported that there is generally one equine for every four people of the agricultural sector and for every five persons of the total population in Ethiopia. Donkeys, horses and mules together represent 13.5% of the total live weight of domestic herbivores in the country. In view of all these, equines are thus very important farm animals in Ethiopian agriculture and to the national economy.
The way forward

It is tremendously important to comprehensively characterize the genetic resources of equines in the country and also there is a need to establish a national stud at least for horse breed improvement. There must also be a strong feeling towards making effort to shift into equine-based cropland cultivation in all places where this could be feasible so that oxen can be freed solely for beef production in that scenario which eventually improves quality beef meat supply from the highland areas of the country benefiting smallholder farmers to obtain alternative cash income. It is also important to maximize the use of equines as long as they are maintained at farms but should be utilized in a humanly manner.
Conclusion
The contribution of equines in providing power for transportation is tremendous in Ethiopian circumstances with the rural transportation being characterized by low-road requirement, short trip distances and mostly on footpath networks. The present way of using equines for transportation probably has not changed from the time when its use had ever begun in the country because of neglect to the subject. Emphasis needs to be given in all aspects to optimize the utilization of equines in the country.
References
Agajie Tesfaye, Tamrat Degefa, Anne Pearson and Temesgen Tadesse 2000. Socio-economic circumstances of donkey use and management in the rural and urban areas of central parts of Ethiopia. Proceedings of a Workshop on Promoting Peri-urban Livelihoods through Better Donkey Welfare, October 2000, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia. Pp. 16-28. Blench, R. 1997. The history and spread of donkeys in Africa. Donkey power benefit, Reader vol.-1. ATNESA Workshop on Improving Donkey Utilization and Management, 5-9 May 1997, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia. Pp. 38-47. Bodo, I. 1992. A global review of the genetic resources of equidae. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 104. Proceedings of an FAO expert consultation. Rome, Italy, April 1992. Pp. 215-226. Clark, B. 1974. Draft proposal to include the African wild ass. Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organization, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Epstein, H. 1984. Ass, mule and onager. In: I.L. Masson (ed.). Evolution of domesticated animals. Longman, London. Pp. 174-184.
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Fesseha Gebreab 1993. Use of equines in Ethiopia. Proceedings of the Fourth National Livestock Improvement Conference held in Addis Ababa, 13-15 November 1991. NLIC Proceedings No. 4. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Pp. 51-58. Fielding, D. 1986. A preliminary survey of donkey and horse use in Africa. Mimeo, Edinburgh, School of Agriculture, Edinburgh. Hatenorth, T. and H. Diller 1980. A field guide to the mammals of Africa, including Madagascar, Collins, London. Howell, A. B. 1965. Speed in Animals. Hafner Publishing Co., New York, U.S.A. Lindsay, J.F. 1991. An introduction to working animals. MPW publication, Melbourne, Australia. Pp. 128137. Mason, I.L. and J.P. Maule 1960. The indigenous of livestock of eastern and southern Africa. Technical communication of the Common Wealth Bureau of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Edinburgh. Farnham Royal: Common Wealth Agricurtural Bureaux. No. 14. Mekonnen Tesfahunegn 1989. Rural transport systems in Ethiopia. Proceedings of a National Workshop on Food Strategies for Ethiopia held at Alemaya University of Agriculture, 8-12 December 1986, Alemaya, Ethiopia. Pankhurst, R. 1968. Economic history of Ethiopia in 1800-1935. Artistic Printing Press, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Wilson, R.T. 1991. Equines in Ethiopia. In: Fielding, D. and Pearson, R.A. (eds.). Donkeys, mules and horses in tropical agricultural development. Proceedings of Colloquium held 3-6 September 1990, Edinburgh, Scotland. Center for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh, UK. Pp. 33-47. Zeuner, F. E. 1963. A history of domestic animals. Harper and Row, U.S.A., New York.
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Indigenous Chicken in Ethiopia: Neglected but Worth the Cost of Conservation through Improved Utilisation
Tadelle Dessie* and K. J. Peters Humboldt University of Berlin, Animal Breeding for Tropics and sub-tropics, Philippstr. 13, Haus 9, 10115 Berlin
Abstract
In this paper, the chicken production systems and past attempts that have been made to improve the production and productivity of local birds in Ethiopia are assessed. Based on the information at hand the value added and merits of indigenous chcken genetic resources under village production systems are summerised. Finally, a brief outline of identification, characterisation and evaluation scheme is proposed for conservation through sustainable utilisation of indigenous chicken genetic resources.
Introduction
Village chicken production in Ethiopia represents a significant part of the national economy in general and the rural economy in particular and contributes about 90% and 92% of the national egg and poultry meat production, respectively. The low productivity of local birds coupled with the infancy of the commercial sector (only contribute less than 10% of the total poultry and poultry products) has resulted a low supply of poultry meat and eggs to the nation. Although indigenous birds have a number of adaptive traits and genes with special utility in the tropics (Horst, 1989), the real value of indigenous chicken breeds is often under-estimated mostly due to their poor appearance, relatively low productivity and alleged low "commercial" values. To this effect, they have been neglected and little attention has been given from researchers, development workers and policy makers to put them in the research and development agendas. As it is stated by Hodges (1990), developing countries in most cases opt for high performing commercial breeds from developed countries to increase animal productivity through crossbreeding, or, if conditions allow, for breed substitution without properly investigating the production potential of the indigenous birds. However, in resent years there is an understanding (Ser and Steinfeld, 1996) that introducing high-yielding breeds of animals and specialised modes of production can lead to loss in genetic diversity among indigenous animals. More over, in developing countries, the less intensive production systems are the mainstay of the existing genotypes and there exists a strong and close relationship between native breeds and non-intensive systems of production. It is, therefore, absolutely necessary to characterise the existing genetic resources from a standpoint of bio-diversity and matching available genotypes with the production environment, under which they are maintained before embarking any feasible conservation program through sustainable utilisation. Understanding the genetic differences amongst populations provide the basis for both genetic improvement and conservation of genetic diversity. Thus, the objectives of this paper are, to asses past attempts to increase chicken production and productivity in Ethiopia, to highlight the value added or the merits of indigenous chicken in the face of conservation through improved utilisation and to suggest study outline for a nation wide identification, characterisation and evaluation of the different chicken ecotypes.
Chicken production systems in Ethiopia

Chicken production systems in Ethiopia show a clear distinction between traditional, low input systems and modern production systems using relatively advanced technology (Alemu, 1995). There is also a third up coming "small scale" intensive system with small number of birds (from 50 to 500) in urban and peri-urban households aimed at generating additional income using exotic birds and relatively improved feeding, housing and health care (Alemu and Tadelle, 1997). The village chicken production system in the country is characterized by small flocks (7-10 mature birds), minimal inputs, low outputs and periodic devastation of the flocks by disease. According to Sonaiya (1990), the average flock size in Africa ranges from 5-10 birds. However, more than ninety five percent of the poultry population consists of local breed types under individual farm household management.
Research and development efforts

Commercial production system Research and development in poultry started in the early 1950's with the establishment of higher learning agricultural institutes. The activities of these institutions mainly focused on the introduction of exotic breeds to the country and the distribution of these genotypes to farmers with recommendation on appropriate feeding, housing, health care and other husbandry practices (Alemu and Tadelle, 1997). This was expected to have a considerable positive influence for the expansion of large scale commercial farms in the country. However, after 40 years of effort the contribution of exotic birds in terms of egg and meat production is less than 10%. A number of factors can be sited as causes for this low rate of adoption. First, one should recognise that exotic birds require highly quality feed (grain), which could also be used directly by humans. Thus, in grain deficient countries like Ethiopia, adopting intensive poultry industry will be frustrated by the severe shortage of grain. Unless the grain production in the country is improved considerably such a system cannot be economically sustainable and socially acceptable. Village production system "Upgrading" the blood level of local birds using exotic birds through distribution of cockerels to farmers was/is considered as the most important strategy to effect improvement by policy makers. The extension system of the Ministry of Agriculture has promoted schemes in which cockerels from selected breeds (mainly White Leghorn and Rhode Island Red) were reared up to 15 to 20 weeks of age and given out to subsistence farmers in order to "upgrade" the genetic potential of local birds. In addition, exotic pullets and fertile eggs were distributed to individual farm households in rural Ethiopia (Tadelle et al. 2000). This approach has been followed for the last 40 years (Alemu and Tadelle, 1997), although the impact of this strategy in the genetic structure of indigenous birds has not been assessed carefully. The empirical evidence suggests that these approaches were met with a limited success due to a high mortality rate of the exotic breeds. The mortality rate of exotic birds was high because the birds were not well suited to the poor management and disease conditions in the new environment. The low impact of exotic birds distributed to rural Ethiopia could be due to their inability to brood, their lack of alertness to predators, poor colour camouflage against predators, and their short legs, which are unsuitable for fast running. The study report by Tadelle (1996), in the central highlands of Ethiopia shows that there has been an introduction of exotic breeds to the three study villages at various times and in different forms, such as through the introduction of cockerels, pullets, and fertile eggs, but their impact in upgrading the village chicken has been minimal. This is because the programs were usually planned without the participation of the farmer and parallel improvement in feeding, housing and health care. Usually the farmers were given advice on improved feeding and housing and were asked to remove all
remaining local cockerels. But throughout the country, success has not been achieved, mainly because chances are very high that the exotic bird will die, leaving the farmer with no cockerel at all. From the population genetics point of view this minimal effect can be described as follows: one may picture the village poultry population as a pool of genes under pressure from many directions. Disease, predators, lack of feed, poor housing and poor drinking water are the main pressures. Throw a few "high egg number" genes into the pool and what happens? Their negative correlation with low broodiness will reject them when they try to multiply and establish themselves. Even before this happens, the association of high egg number with lack of alertness to predators, poor colour camouflage against predators, and short legs for fast running will likely cause their number to quickly reduce in the gene pool (Tadelle et al. 2000). We should not assume village farmers couldnt understand the concept that commercial poultry lay many eggs but make poor mothers. This is the result of a well-known negative genetic correlation between egg number and broodiness. Farmers quickly realise: that these "foreign laying machines" cannot look after themselves very well, but will produce many eggs only if fed and cared for properly. Farmers are usually well aware of the risks involved in losing mothering and survival ability to gain more egg numbers. Thus, the concern about loss of local genetic material is fully justified. It can be argued that loss in hatching ability in the flock could result in the breakdown of the self-sustaining system of production at village level. The traditional poultry production based on low input-output levels which represents a part of a balanced farming system, has a unique position in the rural household economy as supplier of high quality protein to the family food supply system, provides small cash income and plays a significant role in the religious and cultural life of the society in Ethiopia (Tadelle and Ogle, 2001). Comparatively little attention was given to indigenous chicken populations and in the past they were neglected in research and development activities. No attempt has been made to the conservation of chicken genetic resources in Ethiopia. According to FAO (2000), about 34% of all avian breeds in Africa are at risk of being lost. Even though the full picture in Ethiopia is not known there are reports about some strains, which are at risk. Tadelle et al, (2003a) reported that the number of naked neck chicken is declining in Southern Ethiopia mainly due to the fact that those birds fetch a lower price in the market as a meat bird even though farmers prefer to keep naked neck chicken for egg production. This assertion by local farmers is substantiated by earlier study report (Teketel, 1986) that the naked neck "Melata" ecotypes in Ethiopia were found to produce more eggs than the other strains.
Value added to indiginous chicken

Indigenous chickens are not always the best option under optimal conditions. However, under less-intensive production situations the unique characteristics and added advantages of local chicken breeds will guarantee its long-term stability and survival. According to Ramsay et al (2000), the long-term future of any breed of farm animal depends largely on its commercial valueand/or its ability to meet specific needs through unique traits. It is therefore important to capitalise on traits that will make local chicken breeds an economically viable alternative to more modern and productive breeds. Adding value to the local birds will ensure that it can compete. According to Rege (1999), the most rational strategy for conserving livestock breeds is to ensure that they remain a functioning part of the farm production system. The value is there, it just needs to be exploited effectively in their production environments. Based on the scant information at hand the value added to indignous chickens is summerised below with the belive that sofar they are neglected but they are worth the cost of conservation through improved utilisation.
Socio-religious functions Teketel, (1986); Tadelle (1996); Leulseged (1998) and Tadelle and Ogle (2001) reported, households in rural Ethiopia keep birds for purposes other than for reproduction, sale and consumption, in particular for their socio-religious functions at home. The plumage colour, sex, comb type, feather cover and age of the bird are very important for socio-religious functions, as was the commitment of an individual to a particular spiritual being or a cosmic force, season and traditional and/or religious festival. Farm households mentioned the socio-cultural role of birds and corresponding financial benefits as an important source of cash income. Special colour, comb type and down feather colour with corresponding sex and age in particular traditional and religious festivals fetch higher prices as compared to the prices of the bird with the same colour, comb type and/or down feather colour in normal market days. Average increases in prices during festival markets over normal market day were 89, 75 and 74% for mature male, mature female and growers, respectively (Tadelle et al. 2003b). Product quality The merites of having good product quality, especially flavour and tenderness, which are highly acclaimed by local consumers, is value added over the products from hybrids. The prices consumers pay for local birds of around 1.25 kg live weight, and small local eggs of around 40 g, were equal to those paid for commercial broiler chickens of more than 1.5 kg and larger eggs of around 60g from commercial layers. The premium price for local eggs and birds was attributed to better flavour, the deep yellow yolk and flesh colour, which are considered as having better nutritive value (Tadelle and Ogle, 2001). The product qualities of indignous chicken are the combined results of genetic merit and non-intensive systems of production. Producers are benefiting and will continue benefiting from a quality premium paid by consumers (Kitalyi, 1998; Tadelle et al. 2003a). Growth and feed utlization potentials Wherever evaluation schemes were implemented, it has been found that there are highly productive indigenous birds in the tropics (Mathur et al. 1989 and Nwosu 1979). Tadelle et al. (2002) reported of large variation in juvenile growth performance between the different ecotypes and a remarkable performance level in some (e.g. Tilili and Chefe) ecotypes and there exists a large variation in growth and feed utilisation potentials between individuals within ecotypes with higher coefficients of variations. According to Hammond (1999) large between bird variations for most traits is an important common feature of animal-level data from locally adapted family poultry genetic types. With coefficients of variation of 25-50% rather than the 5-15% found in the high input types and systems. It seems that this large variability exists for both intake and output traits. According Tadelle et al. (2003) five of the local chicken ecotypes tested have exhibited higher feed conversion efficiency over the reference breed used (Fayoumi). Egg and other related traits Study reports in Ethiopia and elsewhere in the tropics have shown that local stocks have better egg quality characteristics. According to Chand et al. (1972) and Valle Zarate et al. (1988) eggs from local stocks have high yolk percentage, low cholestrol and better egg shell quality. Teketel (1986), after testing five indigenous genotypes on-station, concluded, that indigenous birds had the capacity of sustained egg production at times of increased environmental temperatures and also in the second year of laying compared to the reference breed, White Leghorn. This agrees with the assertion made by Mathur (1995), that indigenous birds are very useful reservoir for genes of proven significance for the adaptability to stressful environments. One of the most important
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fitness traits in chicken is fertility. Teketel (1986) and Saleh et al. (1994) reported a higher fertility rate of eggs from local stocks (Ethiopia and Egypt) as compered to eggs from White Leghorns. Behavioural and other traits Although the local chicks are slow growing and poor layers of small sized eggs, they are, however, ideal mothers, good sitters (Tadelle and Ogle, 2001), excellent foragers and hardy (Teketel, 1986; Dorgham, 1989; Darwish et al. 1990) and posses natural immunity against common diseases (Mtambo, 2000). The ability to hatch their own eggs and rear chicks is an irreplaceable characteristic of local birds. These are important features since farmers have no means to buy and use incubators and electric brooders. Past approaches of improving the genetic potential of local birds through distribution of cockerel, pullet and fertile egg from birds of exotic origin has changed the composition of traits and reduced vital behavioural traits of the reproduction complex. Brnnang and Pearson (1990), testing crossbred hens (50 and 75% exotic) reported a significant increase in egg production but crosses had almost entirely lost their broodiness or started to brood but left the eggs a few days later. External parasite control The additional use and benefits of local chicken comprises the role played by the flock in ticks and other external parasite controls. According to Tadelle and Peters (2002), farmers from three of the study regions (Tepi, Tilili and Horro) recognised that village chicken to substantially reduce tick population both on the host and the ground. This in effect means that the role of scavenging chicken in the control of ticks contributes to combat against the direct (e.g. damage to skin and hides) and indirect (eg. disease transmission) deleterious effects; and economic losses due to ticks in rural farming conditions is unequivocally considerable. Efficient utilisation of available feed resources As in most other Sub-Saharan African countries (Sonaiya, 1998), village chicken keeping in Ethiopia is based on free range Scavenging Feed Resources (SFR); constituting of any thing edible from the immediate surrounding environment, by-products from harvesting and processing of grains, kitchen leftovers, and cultivated and wild vegetation, which are frequently supplemented by household wastes (Tegene, 1992; Tadelle, 1996; Tadelle and Ogle, 2000). The chemical composition of crop contents of scavenging local hens were on average 8.8% CP and 2864 kcal/kg, respectively. The protein contents fall even lower during the short rainy and dry seasons, while energy supply is more critical in the drier months (Tegene, 1992; Tadelle and Ogle, 2000). Assuming that the chemical analysis of crop contents accurately reflects the feeds consumed, the nutritional status of laying village hens in the highlands of Ethiopia would satisfy maintenance needs only and production of about 40 eggs/hen per year (Tadelle and Ogle, 2000). However, unlike intensively kept poultry the scavenging birds are not in competition with humans for the same food and every egg or quantity of meat produced represents a net food increment. The feed components of SFR have less alternative uses and would be wasted otherwise. In intensive systems over 240 eggs / bird can be produced, but the total cost of inputs represents 220 eggs /bird and the net production is 20 eggs / bird, whereas, in the scavenging system around 40 eggs / bird can be produced without any additional feed costs and net production would be approximately 40 eggs / bird (McArdle, 1972). Although the traditional system is still believed to be making effective use of locally available resources, research results indicate considerable opportunities for improvement (Solomon, 1992, Tadelle, 1996, and Negussie, 1999). According to Tadelle, (1996), it was possible to attain hen-day production of about 30% from local chickens by supplementing a combination of 15g maize and 15g Noug (Guizotia abyssinica) cake/bird/day increasing annual egg production of local hens by about 100%. On the other hand, non-supplemented local birds under a
similar environment produced only about 14% from scavenging only. The country has diverse agroclimatic conditions favoring production of many different kinds of crops, providing a wide range of ingredients and alternative feed stuffs suitable for poultry feeding. Making use of these resources to complement the scavenging resource base using local chicken promises a considerable potential for success. Unique alleles and genetic distance Petit et al. 1998 put forward a number of criteria related to the concept of genetic uniqueness or distinctiveness and the presence of distinct alleles in a population is among others. In a recent study by Tadelle (2003) on a limited number of markers tested alleles specific to different ecotypes were observed for five of the markers. Since the most general genetic criterion apart from genetic diversity (expected heterozygosity) is allelic diversity (Petit et al. 1998; Barker 2001), the presence of these unique alleles need to be further investigated as measures of the distinctiveness for the different populations. Conservation decisions need also to incorporate other information, such as data on particular traits of economic value, local or regional importance of a breed or ecotype, specific adaptive features, allelic richness and presence of unique genes or genotypes (Oldenbroek 1999; Barker 2001). Tadelle (2003) also found that there exists a considerable genetic distance between the different ecotypes from different regions and corresponding market sheds and high Heterozygosity values from all tested ecotypes (55 to 63%) showing a higher degree of genetic variation within each ecotype. Genes with proven utility The most important genes already proven for their special utility in the tropics (Table 1) are namely Na (naked neck), F (frizzle), dw (dwarf), h (silky), k (slow feathering), id (non-inhibitor), Fm (fibro-melanosis), p (peacomb) and O (blue shell) which are dominant or recessive or sex-linked traits of local chickens of the tropics (Horst, 1989). Native fowl in the tropics are a reservoir for Genomes and Major Genes with Direct and Indirect effect on the Adaptability and their potential need to be taped for Tropically oriented breeding plans. In addition, comparison of exotic and indigenous chicken breeds under the different criteria such as farm management, commercialization, ecological and cultural aspects is summarized in Table 2, which justifies the importance of understanding and conservation of local chicken ecotypes through utilization. These criteria's also may represent advantages and disadvantages of indigenous versus exotic birds.
Where to go from here?

Future perspective Studies thus far demonstrated the existence of phenotypic and genetic variation, which could be exploited by planning appropriate utilisation and conservation strategies (Teketel, 1986; Abebe, 1992; Tadelle et al. 2000; Tadelle et al, 2002; Tadelle et al. 20003). However, research work so far to characterise and value the local stock lacked national coverage and co-ordination (e.g. like goat characterisation in Ethiopia), depth, methodological uniformity and continuity supported by action to conserve and utilise the different local chicken ecotypes. However, any new characterisation (phenotypic and genetic) activity should be proceeded with an extensive review of published and grey literature available on chicken in Ethiopia and else where in the tropics. A systematic identification and description of the chicken ecotypes in relation to their production environment and management systems should be considered as prerequisite for planning the rational use of the national chicken genetic resources followed by breed characterisation,
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sustainable utilisation and conservation (FAO, 1992). Bruns (1992) suggests three level approaches in characterisation of animal genetic resources. Macro level studies: on-farm surveys to describe the population structure and make a detailed physical description of the breed. Meta levels studies: for phenotypic characterisation of breeds, a more detailed on-farm performance monitoring is needed. This should be designed to allow performance (productive and adaptive traits) comparisons between breeds. Micro level studies: compressive on-station characterisation studies for the estimation of genetic parameters. However, the further development of molecular techniques has opened additional and new doors for phenotypic, genetic, gnomic and gene level studies and it has become the additional and alternative for answering the various genetic, breeding and physiological questions in farm animals. The assessment of indigenous genetic resources should have the following inter-linked modules in order to establish the required information for understanding the genetic resource at hand, which will follow with developing sustainable utilisation and conservation strategy.
Module I: On-farm studies Once-off diagnostic Survey: Aimed at: o o assessing functions, importance, constraints and opportunities of poultry in small holder systems assessing the perspectives of the poultry sub system, its contribution to farm, regional and national economics, the economic valuation of performance traits, establishing a hen performance history and farmers perception about breeding objectives assessing the phenotypic and genetic diversity in each region and relationships among chicken populations from other parts of the country using phenotypic and other descriptors
Methodology:
A structured questionnaire integrated with Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) methods relevant to rural poultry production and morphological descriptors could be developed and used.
Repeated survey: Aimed at The Repeated Survey (RS) should be exercised over the period of one or more years.and should be aimed at generating information on: o the management systems (organisation, ownership, inputs, flock performance, use of outputs, prices, production management etc) o o o the flock dynamics (year or more round) the growth and laying performance of individual birds the behavioral and reproductive traits
o selection decision / production and breeding objectives of farmers The information obtained during the RS provides the basis for a quantitative characterisation of the poultry production systems, an on-farm performance of chicken ecotypes and understand the behavioral and reproductive traits of the different ecotypes included in the study. In addition the obtained data will allow: o a comparison between similar data from the Once of Diagnostic survey in order to estimate accuracy and validate information reliability, o subsequently, a comparison of On-Farm and On-Station information on laying, growth and other performance traits within and between ecotypes. Methodology Detailed and repeated case studies using structured questionnaire and case study fact sheets could be developed and used to collect data on the performance and other related issues
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Module II: On-station performance testing Aimed at: Validate On-Farm performance with On-Station performance of different chicken ecotypes Estimate population parameters The performance data collected during structured multiplication of the established population will provide the basis for: On Farm On Station comparisons with regard to different performance traits Assessment of between- and within-variation of test populations for different performance traits Estimation of population parameter for important performance traits Appraisal of selection schemes Module III: Measuring genetic distance Aimed at: Technique: asses the between and within genetic diversity of indigenous chicken ecotypes of Ethiopia using microsatllite loci. Microsatllite markers should be used for this study based on FAO's recommendation as outlined in MoDAD report, to use microsatellite markers as the core of a genetic biodiversity study. This approach will allow the evaluation of genetic diversity of the Ethiopian ecotypes in relation to the worldwide genetic resources in chicken. The development of molecular biology techniques has opened up new horizons for the study of genetics, breeding and physiological questions in farm animals. Characterising animal genetic resources, besides the evaluation of the performance traits, the use of molecular techniques has been recognised as a valuable tool to (1) characterise the genetic variability within and between the different local chicken populations, (2) to identify genetic resources and (3) to provide information for further structured breeding program. The genetic distance estimates should be used together with information on phenotypic characteristics (on-farm and on-station) in order to judge on the possible future usefulness of a population, since it is not yet clear to what extent variation found in microsatellites loci is related to genetic variation in traits of interest.
Note:
Collaborating institutions This national project should be executed in collaboration with the agricultural administration at regional, Zonal and Woreda level. Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organisation (EARO), Alemaya University (AU), South University Awassa College of agriculture (ACA), Jimma University (JU) College of Agriculture (JCA), Ambo College of Agriculture (ACA), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine (FVM), National Veterinary Institute (NVI), Mekele University College (MUC) and professionals in the poultry multiplication and distribution centres which are strategically located in the country will be the main collaborators of this project. The Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Centre (DZARC) plays a co-ordinator role.
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Farm Animal biodiversity in Ethiopia: Status and prospects Table 1. Major genes in local fowl populations with important effects on tropical oriented breeding Gene Dw: dwarf Mood of Inheritance o Recessive, o Sex-linked, o Multiple allele Incomplete dominant Direct effects Reduction of body size between 30 and 10 % from the normal size o Loss of neck feathers, o Reduction of pterylat width, o Reduction of secondary feathers o Curling of feathers, o Reduced feathering Indirect effects o Reduced metabolism o Improved fitness o Disease tolerance o Improved ability for convection -Reduced embryonic liveability (hatchability) o Improved adult fitness
Na: naked neck
F: frizzle
Incomplete dominant
o Decreased fitness under temperate conditions o Improved ability for convection o o o o Reduced protein requirement Reduced fat deposition during juvenile life Increased heat loss during early growth, Reduced adult viability (?)
K: slow feathering
o Dominant, o Sex linked o Multiple allelic
Delay of feathering
Id: non-inhibitor
o Recessive, o Sex linked, o Multiple allelic Dominant with Muli-factorial modifiers
Dermal melanin deposition o Skin o Shanks Melanin deposition o All over the body o Sheats of muscles and nerves o Blood vessel walls Change of skin structure o Compact camb size o Reduction of pterylae width o Development of breast ridges o Deposition of blue pigment into egg shell
Improved ability for radiation from shanks and skin
Fm: fibromelanosis
o Protection of skin against UV-radiation o Improved radiation from the skin, o Increased pack cell volume and plasma protein
P: peacomb
Dominant
o Decreased frequency of breastbllisters o Sex limited () o Improvement of late juvenile growth
O: blue shell
Dominate, Sexlimited ()
Improved eggshell stability
Source: Horst, 1989
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Ethiopian Society of Animal Production Table 2. Comparison of exotic and indigenous chicken breeds under the different criteria's such as farm management, commercialization, ecological and cultural aspects Exotic chicken breed Farm management criteria High production -high risk High production cost Mostly one product (e.g. Egg or Meat) Sensitive to diet, special feed demands Generally not hardy Highly vulnerable to disease High veterinary input (e.g. vaccination to infectious chicken diseases) Often not adopted to the farming system Extension of new techniques necessary (e.g. Some sorts of hatching facilities are a must) Needs mating partner of the same breed -to keep the breed in its pure form Commercialisation criteria Product corresponds to "modern" nutrition habits (e.g. Broiler meat -not accepted in local dish) High privet sector interest Internationally and nationally promoted and often subsidised (Aggressively promoted by the privet sector) Poor longevity (e.g. reduce egg production after one production year) Ecological criteria Highly sensitive to stress (low nutrition, disease, temperature, water etc) Low genetic variability No tropically important genes High input demanding Cultural criteria No cultural and religious importance to local people Usually one plumage colour and comb type With recognised names and breed standards Traditional role of women may be undermined
Source: Tadelle, 2003 (unpublished)
Indigenous chicken breed Low production -low risk Production cost -very low or non-existence Several products (e.g. egg, meat, hatching etc) Adapted to local feed supplies, moderate diet and feed demands Generally hardy Disease resistance and tolerance Low veterinary input Traditionally adopted and parts of the farming system Self sustained (e.g. The hen hatch her own eggs) Stock exchange and selection on community and household level Product corresponds to local nutrition habits (e.g. Aged chicken meat preferred for local dish) Low private sector interest Mostly neglected by the international and national research systems; and international donor community High longevity (e.g. Sustainable production even after one year egg production) and less costly to the system Locally adopted and fit to a range of stresses in their production environments High genetic variability Tropically important genes (e.g. nk: Necked neck gene) Low input demanding and efficient Often cultural and religious importance With different plumage colour and comb type Vernacular names for different phenotypes (may correspond to different geno- or eco-types) Traditional role of women promoted
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Barker JSF, 2001. Conservation and management of genetic diversity: A domestic animal perspective. Can J For Res, 31,588595. Brnnng, E. and Pearson, S., 1990. Ethiopian Animal husbandry, Uppsala, Sweden, 127 pp.
Bruns E., 1992. Synthesis of research methodology. In African animal genetic resources: Their characterisation, conservation and utilisation. Proceedings of the Research Planning Workshop held at ILCA, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia, 19-21 February 1992. ILCA (International Livestock Centre for Africa), Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. 125-134 Darwish, A.A., N. A. Hataba and S.M. Shalash, 1990. Effects of seasonal variation and dietary protein level on some performance of Fayoumi layers. Third International Symposium on feed and quality control, Egypt. Dorgham, S.A., 1989. Studies on fatty liver in Fayoumi chicken. PhD thesis, El-Azhar University, Egypt. FAO, 1992. Production year book. Vol. 45. Rome. Italy. FAO, 2000. World watch list for domestic animal diversity. 3ed edition. Rome, Italy. 727pp Hammond K. 1999. Research and Development Options for Family Poultry. Introductory paper to the First INFPD/FAO Electronic Conference on Family Poultry http://www.fao.org/ag/aga/agap/lpa/fampo1/com-intp.htm Hodges, J. (1990). "Conservation of animal genetic resource in developing countries." In: Alderson, L. (ed.). Genetic conservation of domestic livestock. C. A. B. International. pp: 128-145. Horst P., 1989. Native fowl as a reservoir for Genomes and Major Genes with Direct and Indirect effect on the Adaptability and their potential for Tropically oriented breeding plans. Arch. Geflgelk 53 ( 3), 93-101 Kitalyi, A. J. 1998. Village chicken production systems in rural Africa: Household food security and gender issues. FAO Animal Leulseged, Y., 1998. Study on production systems of indignous and iproved poultry in rural areas of North Wollo. MSc Thesis. Alemaya University of Agriculture.pp102. McArdle, A.A., 1972. Methods of poultry production in developing area. World Animal Review, 2: 28-32. Mathur P. K., 1995. Use of DNA markers for estimation of genetic distances. 2nd European Workshop on Advanced Biometrical Methods in Animal Breeding, Salzburg, Austria, June 12 to 20, 1995 Mathur, P.K., El Hammady, H., and Sharara, H., 1989. Specific use of high yielding strains carrying major genes for improving performance of local fowls in the tropics (Case Study: Upper Egypt). Proceedings DLG Symposium on Poultry Production in Developing Countries, Hameln, Germany, June 19-22 Mtambo, J.M.P. 2000. Improving the health and productivity of the rural chicken in Africa: report on phase 1 of an Enreca project. Negussie, D., 1999. Evaluation of the performance of local, Rhode Island Red and Fayuomi breeds of chicken under different management regimes in the highlands of Ethiopia. Msc. Thesis, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala. Nwosu, C.C., 1979. Proc. 1st National seminar in Poultry Production: Zaria. 187-210
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Oldenbroek JK., 1999. Gene banks and the Conservation of Farm Animal Genetic Resources. DLO Institute for Animal Sciences and Health, Lelystad, The Netherlands. Petit RJ, El Mousadik A, Pons O (1998) Identifying populations for conservation on the basis of genetic markers. Conserv Biol, 12, 844855. Ramsay, K., M. Amuts and H. C. Els, 2000. Adding value to South African landrace breeds: conservation through utilisation. AGRI, 9-15. Saleh, K, T.M. El-Sayed and Hattaba Z., 1994. Results of random sample test of twelve native strains of chickens. Proc. Of the second scientific conference on Poultry. 12-13 Sept. Kafr El-Sheikh, Egypt. Ser, C. and Steinfeld, H. (1996). "World livestock production systems. Current status, issues and trends." FAO Animal Production and Health Paper. 127: 1-48. Solomon, M., 1992. The effect of method of processing of oil seed cakes in Ethiopia on their nutritive value. PhD. Thesis, University of Bonn, Germany. Sonaiya, E. B., 1990. The context and prospects for development of smallholder rural poultry production in Africa. CTA-Seminar proceedings on smallholder rural poultry production 9-13 October 1990, Thessloniki, Greece, 1: pp 35-52. Sonaiya, E.B., 1998. The problems and prospects of family poultry development. Paper presented to the NDPRP poultry workshop at Kakamega, Kenya.pp 1-22. Sonaiya, E.B., Branckaert, R.D.S. and Guye, E.F., (1999). First INFPD/FAO Electronic Conference on Family Poultry: 7 December 1998 - 5 March 1999 Tadelle D., 1996. Studies on village poultry production systems in the central high lands of Ethiopia. M.Sc Thesis, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, pp 72 Tadelle D., Alemu.Y., and Peters K.J. 2000. Indigenous chicken in Ethiopia: genetic potential and attempts at improvement. World's Poultry Science Journal Vol. 56, 45-54. Tadelle D., and Ogle B. 2000. Nutritional status of village poultry in the central highlands of Ethiopia as assessed by analyses of crop contents. Eth. J. Agric. Sci. 17, 47-56. Tadelle D., and Ogle B., 2001. Village poultry production systems in the central highlands of Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production. 33(6), 521-537. Tadelle D., Peters K. J. and Zumbach B., 2002. Phenotypic diversity of indigenous chicken ecotypes of Ethiopia: juvenile growth characteristics. 7th WCABJ, August 17-23, 2002, Menpoller, France (Poster) Tadelle D. and Peters K. J., 2002. Assessments of functions, importance and constraints of village chicken production in different regions of Ethiopia. 11th Europian Poultry Conference, September, 6-10, Bremen, Germeny. (poster) Tadelle D., Million T., Alemu Y. and Peters K. J., 2003a. Village chicken production systems in Ethiopia: 1. Flock characteristics and performance. Livestock Research for Rural Development Vol. 15 (1). pp 65-74 Tadelle D., Million T., Alemu Y. and Peters K. J., 2003b. Village chicken production systems in Ethiopia: 2. Use patterns and performance valuation and chicken products and socio-economic functions of chicken. Livestock Research for Rural Development 15 (1) 2003. pp 75-83 Tadelle D., C. Kijora and Peters K. J. 2003. Indigenous Chicken Ecotypes in Ethiopia: Growth and Feed Utilization Potentials. International Journal of Poultry Science Vol. 2 (2): pp 144-152.
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Tegene, N., 1992. Dietary status of small holder local chicken in Leku, Southern Ethiopia. SINET: Ethiopian J.Sci, 15 (1):59-67. Teketel F., 1986. Studies on the meat production potential of some local strains of chicken in Ethiopia. Ph.D Thesis, J.L. Giessen University Valle Zarate, A., Horst, P., Haaren-K A.V. and Rahman A., 1988. Comparing performance of Egyptian local breeds and high yielding german medium-havy brown layers under controlled temperate and warm environmental conditions. Proc. XVIII World's Poultry Cong., Nagoya, Japan.
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PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
Survey on the Traditional Utilization of Beles or Prickly pear Cactus (Opuntia ficus indica) as Animal Feed in Southern and Eastern Zones of Tigray
Mengistu Woldehanna1 and Peter Udn2
1Alemaya 2 Swedish
University Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Animal Sciences, P. O. Box 138 Dire Dawa, Ethiopia University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Animal nutrition and management, P.O. Box 7024, 750 07, Uppsala, Sweden
Abstract
The agriculture of Tigray is dependent on rainfall, which is very much erratic in distribution and very low in amount and with recurring droughts taking place at intervals. This characteristic is more prevalent in the Eastern and Southern zones of the region. Such arid environment is a limiting factor for growing animal feeds and prickly pear cactus could be a strategic fodder crop because of its drought resistance characteristic and high water use efficiency. Prickly Pear is cultivated for fruit production in Tigray regional state located in the northern part of Ethiopia with the majority of the plantation concentrated on the Eastern and Southern zones of the region. Its utilization as a food and commercial crop is more practiced in the Eastern zone where as it is grown as wild in the southern zone where it is considered by farmers as curse during favorable climates versus a valuable plant during dry seasons and drought periods. Despite the vast coverage and value of cactus pear in Ethiopia, especially in Tigray, there is an extraordinary lack of information in the literature except one literature in the J Prof Assoc for Cactus Development by Brutsch, (1997). Even the recent dependable review on cactus pear by Barbara et al., (1995) did not mention any thing about its cultivation and uses in Tigray (Ethiopia). The study was carried at two selected sites Mekhoni in the Southern zone and Wukro in the eastern zone of Tigray regional state of Northern Ethiopia. Data on the traditional utilization of Opuntia, as animal feed was collected from informal discussion with individuals and groups of farmers. The data for time and labor requirements of processing Opuntia (cutting, burning and chopping) as animal feed was measured at the field when the farmers were processing it. The most commonly practiced method used when feeding spiny cactus to animals around Mekhoni was cutting off the cactus pads, and then burning the thorns off by holding them on a sharpened stick over an open fire. Singed pads were then chopped using knife or sickle and allow the animals to feed on the site. The method used to feed animals with pads from the spineless cactus around Wukro include cutting mainly the older cladodes that doesnt bear fruits, rubbing the pads with the blunt age of a knife or sickle to remove the glochids. Then the pads are chopped using a knife or sickle and fed. According to the knowledge of the farmers feeding cactus in excess and alone with out any dry fibrous feed cause diarrhea and feeding fresh cactus causes bloat. The average time requirement for processing spiny cactus to feed one cattle in Mekhoni were 2 minutes 29 seconds, 4 minutes 58 seconds and 2 minutes 27 seconds for cutting, burning and chopping, respectively. While the result for processing the spineless cactus measured at Wukro were 1 minute 17 seconds and 2 minutes 27 seconds for cutting and chopping respectively. Processing of cactus as animal feed, in both survey areas were done by children early in the morning before going to school and after returning from school, by shepherds (mostly children), and young boys. Injury by knife when chopping, the discomfort from the smoke during burning and the discomfort from the glochids attached to the skin were among the hardships that people experience during processing cactus.
Collecting crop residues during good harvest years was believed to be important. These feeds could then be used to feed the animals together with cactus so that scouring could be minimized. Hungry animals should be first filled with roughages before feeding them cactus, to minimize the incidence of bloating. If cattle were turned first time to cactus feeding during the dry periods, gradual introduction to the feed would also reduce the risk of bloat. Therefore supplying the farmer with gas (propane) or kerosene burner as used in Mexico by ranchers seemed to be necessary to decrease the discomfort from smoke and environmental degradation due to cutting of brush as fuel source for burning. To avoid the discomforts from the glochids farmers should wear gloves when processing cactus and appropriate gloves should be made available on the market.
Keywords: Spiny cactus, spineless cactus, Tigray, Mekhoni, Wukro, cattle, bloat and diarrhea.
Introduction
The agriculture of Tigray is dependent on rainfall, which is erratic in distribution and very low in amount and with recurring droughts taking place at intervals. This climatic condition characterizes the eastern and southern zones of the region. Such arid environment is a limiting factor to the production of crops and animal feeds. Therefore establishment of drought resistant fodder crops is necessary to overcome feed shortages during the dry season and drought years. Prickly pear cactus could be a strategic fodder crop in arid and semi arid areas that could fit with most of the requirements of drought resistant fodder crops mentioned by De Kock (1980). From a plant physiological point of view, using Opuntia as animal forage is interesting because of their four-to-five fold high water use efficiency when compared to even C4 plants (Russell and Felker, 1987). This high water use efficiency is attributed to the Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) in which the stomata are closed in the daytime and open at night when evaporation is minimum. Prickly Pear is cultivated for fruit production in Tigray regional state, which is located in northern part of Ethiopia. In this region there is a total of above 35,000 hectares of cactus plantation out of which about 49 percent is naturally grown and the rest are cultivated and seventy-seven percent of the plants are spiny and the rest spineless. Cactus is more or less growing in all zones of Tigray, however the majority of the plantations are concentrated on the Eastern and Southern zones of the region. Their utilization as food and commercial crops are more practiced in the Eastern zone (SAERT, 1994), where as in the southern zone around Mekhoni cactus are considered by farmers curse, as they tend to invade fertile lands but are at the same time considered as valuable during dry seasons and drought periods the cladodes are used as animal feed and the fruit are important especially to the poor as food (Brutsch, 1997). Despite the vast coverage and significant value of cactus pear in Ethiopia, especially in Tigray, there is an extraordinary lack of knowledge it in the literature on cactus pear except one literature by Brutsch, (1997). The recent dependable review about Opuntia ficus indica, by Barbara et al., (1995) did not mention any thing on its uses and cultivation in Tigray (Ethiopia). When there is shortage of feed during dry period farmers around Mekhoni feed their cattle with cactus by burning the spines to facilitate the consumption of the Juicy flesh by the animals. Farmers in Wukro grow cactus around homesteads, wastelands and marginal land that are less suitable for other crops and they supplement their cattle with the pads of cactus during dry seasons and drought periods. The aim of this study was to generate information on the traditional utilization of cactus as animal feed by farmers in eastern parts of Tigray (northern Ethiopia) a place where cactus is
Production Systems
cultivated & used as a fodder crop. And to generate information why cactus is not used intensively as animal feed and considered as weed and is encroaching agricultural lands in southern parts of Tigray (northern Ethiopia).
Materials and methods

Study area The study was carried at two selected sites (Mekhoni and Wukro) in the Tigray regional state Northern Ethiopia. Mekhoni, the woreda (district) town of Raya Azebo is situated about 160 km south of Mekelle and 20 km east of Maichew. Mekhoni is located at latitude 12048N and longitude 39039E, on a lowlying fertile plain with an altitude of 1800 meters and an annual average rainfall of 487 mm. According to the six years rainfall data (Figure 2) for Mekhoni, the rainfall is bimodal with the main rainy season occurring between mid-June and September, followed by a dry season that may be interrupted in February or March by a short rainy season. The survey was carried out in the dry season (April and May, 2000) around the town of Mekhoni in four Kushets (localities) of the Tsega-Wargwa Tabia (peasant association). Mekhoni woreda is one of the major cactus growing areas having six Tabias (peasant association) and vast tracts of fertile plains conducive for extensive cultivation with an average land holding of 1.5 hectares per capita. Most of the households are food self sufficient during non-drought years. How ever the area is prone to frequent droughts (Fitsum, 1997). Wukro is situated at latitude of 13047N and longitude of 39035E, which is about 40 km north of Mekelle. Wukro is a rugged mountain plateau distinguished by its slopes, gorges and cliffs. It has an altitude of 2000 metes and an average annual rainfall of 502 mm. According to a fourteen-year weather data, the rainfall is more unimodal (Figure 3) with the rainy season between middle of June to the beginning of September. The small rains between March-May are not sufficient to grow and harvest crops. The survey in Wukro woreda was carried out during the dry season in May 2000, around Wukro town in eight kushets (localities) of Adikisanded tabia (peasant association). Wukro one of the woredas of the eastern zone of Tigray having 15 tabias (Peasant associations) is poor in terms of agricultural resources manifested by scarcity of arable land, with average land holding of 0.727 hectares per house hold, (REST 2001). The dominant mode of cultivation in the zone is by ploughing using only animal traction. The number of oxen is low because of a critical feed shortage, particularly during the dry seasons. Farmers without oxen depend on others to plough their land. The lack of oxen results in farmers ploughing their land too late and infrequently which affects yield negatively Data collection Data on the traditional utilization of Opuntia, as animal feed was collected from informal discussion with individuals and groups of farmers. A total of 56 farmers (37 farmers from Mekhoni and 19 farmers from Wukro) were interviewed. The data for time and labor requirements of processing Opuntia (cutting, burning and chopping) as animal feed was measured at the field when the farmers were processing it. A total of 29 observations were made in both areas.
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Results and discussion

MeKhoni The production systems in the surveyed areas were mixed systems (livestock and crop production) with subsistence in nature. Livestock production is an integral component of the mixed farming systems of the southern Tigray. Livestock supplement the subsistence crop production; oxen, camels and donkeys are used as draught power, cattle and small ruminants as sources of food and cash income, livestock as store of wealth; and equines (mule) for transportation services.
Uses of cactus
The prickly pear named in Tigray, as Beles is growing wild in the low lying plain around Mekhoni. Most of the cacti in wild are the spiny, the wild spineless are found only in hills where it cannot be reached by cattle and wild herbivores. There were a number of different uses of spiny cactus around Mekhoni: The fruits were used as human food during shortage of grains, and the cactus fruits collected from wild were sold in local markets as a source of income for the poor people and school boys. To the poor farmer it is an important source of diet during food deficit (the lean months) June to September, where all the stored food is low or exhausted. The pads were used as animal feed for the dry period and it was also used as live fence around houses and for making open barns. Cactus flowers were used during the dry months (January to February) for maintaining the honeybee colonies and to some extent to the production of honey during the dry months.
Forage uses
Shortage of feed is the major constraint to livestock production in the southern zone. Though quantitative data are lacking to measure the extent of the problem during the survey, feed shortage and poor grazing lands have been considered as major constraints to livestock production mainly due to droughts. During the favourable years feed is not a problem in the area. The pads of spiny cactus are used as emergency feed for livestock in the dry season and during drought periods. According to the information from the survey, the practice of feeding animals with cactus started during the 1984/85 severe drought year. This period was the harshest of the droughts, which the country experienced, and due to the depletion of the grazing resources farmers around Mekhoni was forced to feed cactus to their cattle. Loss of cattle is a serious threat to the economy and could reduce the capacity to prepare land adequately as the farmers use draft oxen to plough the land. The belg (short rainy season) is very important in this area, for growing forage to bridge the gap between dry season and wet season (main rainy season) and is useful particularly for oxen, which are important in land preparation. The most commonly practiced method used when feeding cactus as animal feed were cutting off the cactus pads, placing them on the ground, and then burning the thorns off by holding them on a sharpened stick over an open fire. Brush materials were used as a fuel sources for the fire. Singed pads were then chopped using knife or sickle and allow the animals to feed on the site. Another method used was flaming the whole cactus in a standing position by piling dry brush at the base in order to eliminate the thorns and allow the animals to directly graze the plant. This was rarely practiced only when enough brush material was available in the vicinity. However, it has the disadvantage of causing severe damage to the plant making it difficult to recover. The farmers feed the singed Opuntia to cattle only; and very few people feed it to donkey. Camel can graze the plant directly, even when the thorns and glochids are present. According to the survey results, feeding Opuntia in large quantities causes diarrhea. If cattle are fed with fresh singed cactus they experience bloating and stock death due to bloat is common.
Production Systems
Farmers suggested feeding cactus together with straws to eliminate diarrhea. To avoid bloating the farmers cut and burn the cactus early in the morning and feed the animals late in the afternoon. They practiced this in order to wilt the pads and eliminate bloating. The farmers drench the animals with soap, malt and an alcoholic drink known as katikala, to alleviate the problems of bloat. The farmers also mentioned that diarrhea is more severe when the animals consume cactus for the first time and gradually decreases as the animals get used to the feed. According to observations of the survey, animals were allowed to graze during the day on dried matured grasses and turned to the singed chopped Opuntia late in the afternoon. When the survey was done there was an extended dry period, and the animals were not getting enough dry grass to eat. Cactus was fed to cattle during the dry months starting from November and until June, if the short (belg) rain failed. Other feeds available to the animals for the dry periods were cereal straws (wheat, barley and teff), sorghum and maize stover, stubble grazing and dry matured grasses. The farmers supplement the straw, only to selected cattle such as the draft oxen, as the collected amounts were not sufficient for all animals. During the wet season they grazed only grasses but before the grasses were well-established cattle fed in the young emerging cladodes (nopalitos), as the spins were not strong enough to cause harm on their mouth.
Spiny cactus a valuable plant versus a naturalized weed
The status of spiny cactus as a weed versus a valuable plant depends upon the good year or bad (drought) year and also depends according to the condition of the localities and the land it was grown on. The farmers consider spiny cactus as a nuisance in some areas when it grew in dense thickets on arable land, near houses and when it occupied grazing land. If it was grown on farmlands it occupies space, takes up moisture, and inhibits growth of other plants making crops and grasses difficult to establish. It also harbors wild herbivores (monkey baboons, rabbit, squirrel etc.) that feed on crops grown near the spiny cactus. When spiny cactus grows around houses, it also hides wild carnivorous animals, which preyed on domestic chicken lambs and goat kids, and also harbor animals like snakes and rodents. Its eradication is an extremely laborious process. The farmers participated in the survey discussion reported cases of people who abandoned their houses in some localities (Adi-Abrha goben, Adi-khoyaru, Chekon, Facha-gama, Kille and Raruha) around Mekhoni, due to the development of impenetrable thickets of spiny cacti. The colonization of useful rangelands by cactus is rapid, and many types of grasslands in the surrounding had been taken over by it. In addition to the invading of the grasslands it caused mechanical injuries to the skin, teats, and eyes of the animals by its spines. In some areas around Mekhoni spiny cactus was considered as naturalized weed, and clearing was underway by Raya valley development organization (NGO), employing people through the Food for work program. Observations during the survey revealed that farmers living in areas where the clearing of cactus was practiced had suffered livestock losses, as a result of extended dry period due to failure of short rains. The belg (short rainy season) was very important in this area, for growing forage to bridge the gap between dry season and wet season (main rainy season) and was useful particularly for oxen, which are important in land preparation. If the short rains dont fall on time there will be severe livestock losses and the danger of a poor cropping season. During such years cactus was considered as a valuable plant, which was the only source of green feed to the animals. The results of the survey suggested clearing spiny cactus must be done with care. Eradication should be done only on those plants that are grown in fertile lands and clearing must not be done to the
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wild cactus that are on marginal lands, which are less suitable for growing either grasses or crops. The wild spiny cactus around Mekhoni was used as a supplementary feed in the dry months, from the end of the growing season to the beginning of the next growing season (November to June), when the grazing lands were deficient in green forage. It was also used as a reserve feed for period of severe scarcity during the occurrence of extended drought. Because of the increasing incidence of droughts in the country, particularly around Mekhoni, farmers considered cactus as a valuable plant and to some extent a drought insurance for their livestock in the area. Wukro Wukro is one of the districts in the Eastern Zone of Tigray. The agriculture is characterized by small farm size, drought prone and low productivity. According to the visual observations during the survey average land holding per household was smaller than that of the Southern Zone of Tigray. Much of the Eastern zone of Tigray including Wukro faced what was termed as a structural deficit in terms of food production, and the area regularly produced far less than it needs to feed itself. A large quantity of relief food was regularly supplied to vulnerable households in the form of an employment generation scheme. Farmers in the district grew cactus around homesteads, wastelands and marginal land that were less suitable for other crops. The average sizes of cactus plantations from 19 households interviewed were about 1650 square meters. Fruits from the cultivated and wild growing beles, the prickly pear cactus, are an important source of food and cash during June to September (the lean months) before the harvest. Most spineless cactus around Wukro was privately owned. The spiny cactus was also used as live fencing around houses and surrounding the spineless cactus to protect them from being browsed by animals. When food was scarce, children would also eat the fruits of the spiny cactus that was not privately owned. The pads of the spineless cactus were also used as cattle feed and forage for honeybee colonies.
Forage uses
Livestock in the Zone were economically important, as source of food (meat and milk), income, draught power, transport, and energy from dung, manure to fertilize the land and for creating job opportunities. Though quantitative data are lacking to measure the extent of the problem during the survey, feed shortage and lack of grazing lands were considered as major constraint to livestock production. The main sources of feed for animals during the dry period in the sample area were cereal straws (teff, wheat and barley), followed by hay and green forages from the borders of the irrigated croplands. However as the area has an erratic nature of rainfall and very small land holdings, the amount of crop residues produced per households were very small and were not enough for all the animals. Furthermore, the natural grazing land was decreasing from year to year mainly due to the expansion of cropland. Because of high livestock populations overgrazing of pastureland had also become a serious problem. As the result of the feed shortage mentioned above, pads of the spineless cactus from the cultivated plantations were used as a supplement to cattle during the dry period. The methods used were: Cutting mainly the older cladodes that didnt bear fruits, rubbing the pads with the blunt age of a knife or sickle to remove the glochids which were normally present in the pads. Then the pads were chopped using a knife or sickle and feed to the animals. The pads were fed only to cattle and mainly to the draft oxen because cutting the pads decrease fruit yield. Though the main objective of the cactus plantation was for fruit production, farmers sacrificed the fruit
Production Systems
yield to feed their cattle. The farmers in the survey area concluded that feeding cactus pads in excess and alone without any dry roughage causes scouring, and feeding fresh pads causes bloat. To avoid these digestive disturbances, the farmers feed their animals first with straw and then wilted cactus. Some of the farmers cut pads in the morning and feed them in the afternoon, while others cut in the evening for morning feeding in order to avoid bloat. The animals were supplemented with cactus pads in the dry months, starting from the end of the growing season to the beginning of the next growing season (November to June). None of the participants of the survey mentioned the issue of uncontrollable spread of cactus as a weed around Wukro. Therefore cactus was not considered a weed in this area. The planted cactus was of the spineless varieties, which were not being invasive as they could be directly browsed by herbivores. The spiny varieties could not flourish to cause impenetrable dense tickets, as the area was stony and less fertile. Bloat and scouring Observations of feeding cactus to cattle on both survey sites showed that it was once per day. Animals did not get enough roughage to fill them up as the pasturelands were overgrazed during this time of the year. So hungry animals consumed the cactus voraciously and bloat occurred from time to time. It is believed that bloating is caused by the high content of mucilages on the form of pectin (163-g/kg DM (Mengistu and Udn, 2001a), which can ferment rapidly and produce huge volume of gas, which is then trapped in the rumen by foam. To minimize the incidence of bloating animals should first be fed with roughages before feeding them with cactus. If cattle have not been fed cactus before, a gradual introduction to the feed will reduces the risk of bloat. Because of the presence of high amount of oxalic acid in the cladodes (108.5-g/kg DM, Mengistu and Udn, 2001a) scouring may occur. Therefore collecting crop residues during good harvest years is indispensable. It could be used to feed the animals together with cactus and by feeding not more than 55 % cactus (Mengistu and Udn, 2001b) scouring could be minimized. Labor and time requirements for processing Opuntia The average time requirement for processing spiny cactus to feed one cattle was measured at Mekhoni, cutting 2 minutes 29 seconds, burning 4 minutes 58 seconds and chopping 2 minutes 27 seconds making a total of 10 minutes approximately. While the time requirements for processing the spineless cactus measured at Wukro were 1 minute 17 seconds and 2 minutes 27 seconds for cutting and chopping respectively, or a total of less than four minutes. The chopping time was similar for the spiny and spineless cactus; whereas the cutting time for the spiny cactus was almost double than time taken to cut the spineless cactus. This was because cutting the spiny cactus causes injury by its thorns, therefore handling needs special care in order to minimize the harm caused by its spines. The total time taken was almost 3 times higher for the spiny cactus than the spineless. The processing of cactus as animal feed in both survey areas were mostly done by school children early in the morning before and after returning from school, by shepherds (mostly children), and young boys. Injury by knife when chopping, the discomfort from the smoke during burning and the pain from the glochids, which are easily attached to the skin, were among the hardships experienced during processing cactus.
Conclusions
Collecting crop residues during good harvest years is indispensable that could be used to feed the animals together with cactus to minimize scouring. To minimize the incidence of bloating hungry animals should first be fed roughages before feeding them cactus. If cattle are turned first
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time to cactus feeding during the dry periods, they should be gradually introduced to the feed to reduce risk of bloat. Searching for brush material to be used for scorching the spines of cactus is time consuming and creates environmental degradation as a result of cutting trees and bushes. The discomfort from smoke during burning was among the hardships experienced when processing spiny cactus as animal feed. The glochids in the pads of both the spiny and spineless cactus are also a nuisance creating discomfort, as they easily attach to the skin. Therefore introducing gas (propane) or kerosene burners as used in Mexico by ranchers (Flores and Osorio, 1997) seems warranted to decrease the discomfort from smoke and environmental degradation. To avoid the discomforts from the glochids farmers must wear gloves when processing cactus and appropriate gloves should be made available on the market.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA) and Swedish Agency for Research Cooperation (SAREC) for the financial support for the survey I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Debessay Senbetto for his sincere support during the survey. My acknowledgement also goes to the farmers of MeKhoni and Wukro who participated in the discussion during the survey and the office of Ministry of Agriculture of the respective districts, development agencies for their un- reserved support and for Tigray regional state that helped me with various supports during the survey period.
Figure 1. The Southern and Eastern Zones of Tigray, Showing Mekhoni and Wukro
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Production Systems
M e k h o n i A ve ra g e M o n th ly R a in fa ll 6 ye a rs d a ta
140
1 2 1 .4 120
100 8 5 .6 Rainfall (mm) 80
60
5 5 .8
58
40
3 5 .5 2 7 .9 2 3 .4 2 0 .4 1 0 .3
3 5 .3
20 6 .4 0 J F M A M J M o n th s J A S O N D 6 .6
Figure 2. Mekhoni average monthly rainfall 6 years data

Wukro Average Monthely Rainfall (14 years data)
250
200
193.9
168.5
150
100
55.2 50
19.1 0.6 0 J F M A 3.9 8.5
20.1
18.8 3 7.3 3.4 D
Figure 3. Wukro average monthly rainfall (14 years data)
References
SAERT, 1994. UNDP/ECA/TDA/ and The Regional Government of Tigray,. Barbera, G., Inglese, P. and Pimienta-Barrios, E., (Eds.) 1995. Agro-ecology, cultivation and uses of cactus pear.132, FAO, Rome Italy. 216. BPED, 1998. Estimation of gross domestic product of Tigray national Regional Administration 1994/95-phase one Report, November 1977.1995/96). Mekelle Bureau of Planning and Economic Development (BPED) of Tigray Region Ethiopia.
111
Brutsch MO, 1997. The Beles or cactus pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) in Tigray, Ethiopia. J Prof Assoc for Cactus Dev't. 2, 130-141. De Kock, 1980. Drought resistant fodder shrub crops in South Africa. In: Le Houerou (Ed.), Browse in Africa the current state of knowledge.ILCA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 399-404. Fitsum, H., 1997. The role of prickly pear cactus in house hold food security under different farming systems of Tigray. In: Mintesinot B. and Firew T. (Eds.), Proceedings of the international work shop on "Opuntia in Ethiopia: state of knowledge in Opuntia research" February 23-27, 1997. Mekelle University College, Ethiopia. 130-140. Flores V, C.A. and Osorio, G.A., 1997. Opuntia-based ruminant feeding systems in Mexico. J Prof Assoc for Cactus Dev't. 2, 3-8. Mengistu, W. and Uden, P., 2001a. The voluntary intake of prickly pear cactus (Opuntia ficus indica) and urea treated wheat straw by black-headed Ogaden sheep. Msc thesis, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Animal Nutrition and Management, P.O. Box 7024, 750 07,. Swedish University, Uppsala, Mengistu, W. and Uden, P., 2001b. Digestibility of prickly pear cactus (Opuntia ficus indica) and urea treated wheat straw. Msc thesis, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Animal Nutrition and Management, P.O. Box 7024, 750 07, Swedish University, Uppsala, REST, 2001. Report of a Social and Agro-ecological Baseline Survey Study in the Southern And Eastern Zones of Tigray Region. Research and Policy unit Relief Society of Tigray, REST. Russell, C.E. and Felker, P., 1987. The prickly pears (Opuntia spp., Cactacea): a source of human and animal food in semiarid regions. Economic Botany. 41, 433-445.
112
Prediction of Physical Body Composition and Carcass Components from Live-weight and body Measurements in Ethiopian Highland Zebu (Bos indicus) Oxen
Tesfaye Wolde Michael1, Asfaw Yimegnuhal3*, P.O. Osuji2, and M.L. Diedhiou3
1 2 3
SNNP, Ethiopia Tonacabear Gdns., Valley View, Marocas, St. Jooseph, Trindad. International Livestock Research Institute, P. O. Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Abstract
Body measurements and slaughter weight of body component (carcass and edible non-carcass) of 63 zebu oxen were used in this trial. Out of these 9 of them were slaughtered at the initial stage of the experiment. The remaining 54 oxen were allocated to various levels of feeding or plane of nutrition. From this group 24 of them were subjected to work for 24 days. Empty body weight (EBW) was calculated by subtracting the weight of gut content from slaughter weight. The coefficient of correlation on slaughter with empty body weight and hot carcass weight were 0.98 and 0.96 respectively. The regression of body components (empty body weight, carcass weight, lean, fat, bone, hump, external and internal offal) on slaughter weight gave better relationship than the rest of the body parts. The weights of body composition of one livestock unit (LU=250 kg live weight) using derived equation from live weight indicated that empty body weight was 86% while hot carcass was 51% of body weight. It was observed that the coefficient correlation of slaughter weight, empty body weight, hot carcass weight, external offal and internal offal were well above 0.70. Body components were moderately correlated with measured wither height, height and width of hump and body sheath. Their relationship ranged from 0.62 to 0.70. Bone, fat and hump were poorly related with body length. Moreover, the equation Y (Mean weight) = 1.0223 0.6950*x (body length) + 0.0109x2 0.0056 had a coefficient of determination (R2) of 99.24% provided simple and better measuring device to estimate body weight of zebu cattle from body length. The relationship may assist to develop simple guideline to estimate live weight in places where there are no appropriate measuring devices.
Keywords: zebu, carcass, crop residue, and body measurement.
Introduction
Cattle play an important role in the economy of sub-Saharan Africa farmers by providing meat, milk and draught power (Jahnke, 1980). Indigenous cattle account for almost all the fresh meat consumed and there are a number of breeds that produce the bulk of beef in sub-Saharan Africa. Among these, Ethiopian Highland zebu cattle concentrated in the highlands of Ethiopia are the ones, which are used for draught purpose and meat production (Zewdu et al. 1988). Although there are some reports on nutrition and growth rates of this type of cattle (Gryseells and Anderson, 1983; Mukassa, 1983; Butterworth and Mosi, 1985; Abiye et al. 1986; Preston and Leng, 1986; Goe, 1987; Osuji and Capper, 1992); data on physical composition of body and carcass components and work on the estimation of body composition are meager. Carcass component from easily obtainable variables such as live weight and body measurements is inadequately addressed. Some body measurement devices if properly applied provide substantial indication of live weight with reasonable accuracy. At the moment estimating body condition using condition scoring
technique developed by ILCA/ILRI and the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) carried out during surveys and marketing of cattle encountered problems because of subjectivity in its approach. Therefore, technically and economically feasible, rapid and reliable methods of determining body weight and carcass composition are essential for a clear understanding of the responses of animals to changes in nutrition and to determine the economic value of the animal. In countries like Australia beef production is exported, and much of it from carcass weighing above 250 kg lives weight. For beef production and marketing efficiency it is important to be able to predict the commercial yield of both cattle and carcasses (Priyanto et al., 1993). Such prediction is currently based on subcutaneous fat thickness and carcass weight. However, the relationship between fat thickness measurement and carcass weight may be influenced by a number of factor such as sex (Mukhoty and Berg, 1971), genotype (Harrigton and Kempster, 1977) and nutrition (Zembayashi and Dake, 1978). From previous report it was indicated that there is a close relationship between body weight and chest measurement (heart girth) for cattle. This relationship is dependent on the conformation of the animal that in turn is affected by age, sex, breed characteristics, plane of nutrition and physical environment (Hafez et al., 1969; Taylor and Galal, 1980; CARDI/IDRC, 1985). Hence, developing simple equation that could have considerable contribution particularly in areas where it is difficult to weigh animals is inevitable. This study was focused with the development of prediction equation that would estimate body weight and carcass physical composition from live weight at slaughter and body measurements in Ethiopian Highland zebu oxen. Therefore, the purposes of this study were Determine the relationship between live weight at slaughter and different body components and measurements Examine important coefficient of correlation matrix between body components and body measurement and to select the best regression equation.
Materials and Methods

Animals and Management Sixty-three castrated oxen were used to investigate the effect of body condition of oxen before work on their capacity to work in this study. Nine oxen were in an initial slaughter group. Fiftyfour oxen (each 18) were allocated to three (low, medium and high) plane of nutrition for 145 days. Six oxen from each treatment group were slaughtered at the end of feeding trial. The remaining 36 oxen were then subjected to three graded levels of work for 24 days 6 h/day and finally slaughtered. Body measurements Body measurements of each slaughter group (initial, end of feeding, end of work) were taken 24 hours prior to slaughter. The measurements were taken by using plastic tape to the nearest centimeters by placing along and round the body of the animals, while standing with their all four legs squarely under the body and head up in normal position. The body measurements recorded were shown in (Fig.1). Height at withers, body length, height at hips, height and width of hump, height at fall and hind legs, body sheath height, height at the hooks, barrel circumference, width of face, length of face and tail circumference.
114
Production Systems
F E A
C G H1 B1 B
A= length of face, B= wither height, B1= wither height from base of hump, C= body length, D= height at hips, E= width of hump, F=height of hump, G= height of fall & hind leg, H= body sheath, H1= body sheath from the ground.
Figure 1. Body measurements on zebu oxen
Slaughter procedure Animals were deprived of feed and water for 24 hours before slaughter and weighed. This weight is subsequently referred to as the slaughter weight (SW). Animals were stunned and bled. The blood was collected into big plastic bucket, weighted and recorded. They were skinned, feet and head cut-off and weighed. The entire gastro-intestinal tract was removed with contents and weight recorded. Internal organs (lung, heart, liver, spleen and kidneys) and internal fat deposits (omental, mesenteric and channel fat) were removed and weighed. Hump was also separated from carcass and weighed. Each carcass was split into two halves and weighed to estimate hot carcass weight (HCW). The right half carcass was stored in a cold room (- 100 C to + 50 C) overnight and deboned. The bone, lean and fat was separated and weighed. The proportion of bone, lean and fat from the right carcasses was taken to estimate their total weight for the whole carcass for each animal. The offal removed from the dressed carcass was classified into: External offal (EO) - comprising head, feet and hide and Internal offal (IO) - comprising blood, gastro-intestinal tract, internal organs and internal fat deposits (mesenteric and omental fat).
Statistical analysis The data was analyzed using standard regression analysis (SAS, 1999) of body components (EBW, HCW, lean meat, fat, bone, hump, EO and IO) on SW and body components on each body measurements. Coefficients correlations were computed between each body components and measurements.
115
Result
The estimated regression equations of body components on slaughter weight in the Ethiopian Highland zebu oxen are shown in Table 1. The prediction equation for empty body weight (EBW) and hot carcass weight were highly correlated 0.96 and 0.93 respectively. The coefficient of variation (CV) of EBW and HCW were 3.2 and 4.2 % respectively on slaughter weight of zebu oxen. The relationship of carcass component that was physically separated to lean, fat and bone were 55%, 57 % and 21%. Internal offal that excludes, blood, gastro intestine tract (GIT), internal organs and internal fat deposits (mesenteric and omental fat) had regression equation of C.V 74%. The proportion of the total variability of empty body weights and hot carcass weight were 96% and 93% respectively. The comparison of predicted empty body weight on slaughter weight with the formula developed by National Research Council-NRC, (1988) showed similar trend while the predicted equation of ARC, (1980) estimate was exactly the same after 280 kg live weight of the cattle (figure 2). The weight of body composition of one livestock unit (LU=250 kg live weight) using derived equation in Table 1, indicated that empty body weight was 86% while the hot carcass was 51% of body weight. Carcass separated physically into lean, fat and bone were 31%, 10% and 8 % respectively. The sum of external and internal offal accounted for 31% (Table 2). In Table 3, it was observed that the coefficient of correlation of body composition of slaughter (fasted) weight, empty body weight, hot carcass weight, external offal and internal offal were well above 0.70. Poor coefficient of correlation was observed among hump fat, external offal and internal offal (less 45%) with physically separated bone. The correlation coefficient between body components and body measurements were shown in Table 4. Slaughter, empty body and carcass weights were reasonably correlated with body measurement such as wither height, height and width of hump and body sheath and the relationship ranged from 0.62 to 0.70. Height at hip and fall were negatively correlated with various body components. On the other hand, body length and height at the hook were poorly correlated and the value of r ranged from 1% to 55%. Body component of bone, fat and hump were poorly related with body length. However, the prediction equation calculated from body length (cm) gave a very good estimate of live weight in kg using polynomial equation. The equation derived by using body length to fit a second-degree polynomial to test the live-weight of draught oxen (Y) as dependent variable and body length (X) as independent variable is as follows: Live-weight (Y) = 1.0223 SE 0.6950*(body length) + 0.0109 SE 0.0056*(body length* body length) with a coefficient of determination r 99%. The relationship was tested with some draught oxen and 200 crossbred cattle and the result is shown in figure 3. The upper and lower limit confidence interval was also estimated to observe the variation. For slaughter weight greater than 280 kg empty body weight obtained from the NRC, 1980 was found exactly similar.
Discussion
The average coefficient of variation (CV) from the regression curve of EBW and HCW and internal offal on slaughter weight were 3.2, 4.7 and 8.4 respectively. The result is similar and favorably fit with the range of the average CV of 6.7 % and 9.4 % for Kenya range cattle Young, et al., (1972) and 9.4% for zebu and crossbred cattle in Ethiopian highland Taylor et al., (1980). The regression predicted value of slaughter live weight (weight at slaughter) made from EBW and hot carcass weight had a higher coefficient of correlation. This was similar to the result reported by Tayler and Galal (1980) from Heart girth measurement that was calculated using uniformly
Production Systems
managed cattle in the highland of Ethiopia. The error difference ranged from 22 to 29 kg for farm owned cattle. Several regression values were tried in the model to better estimate slaughter liveweight. However, most of the techniques used cannot estimate the live-weight of draught oxen with a difference of 5 to 10 % standard error. The equation estimated from body length has similar error range but the method was found more practical and simple to measure.
Table 1. The regression of body components (Empty body weight, carcass weight, lean, fat, bone, hump, external and internal offal) on Slaughter weight in Ethiopian highland zebu oxen Body Components (kg) (Y) EBW HCW LEAN FAT Bone Hump EO IO Equation (X = Slaughter Weight in kg) Y = 0.956( 0.0258) x-23.485 Y = 0.614(0.0223) x-31.414 Y = 0.291(0.0338) x+5.301 Y = 0.220(0.0244) x-37.266 Y = 0.032(0.0081) x+13.177 Y = 0.029(0.0045) x-4.715 Y = 0.073(0.0089) x+17.181 Y = 0.173(0.0131) x-1.169 R2 0.96 0.93 0.55 0.57 0.21 0.41 0.53 0.74 C.V. 3.2 4.7 11.7 29.6 11.1 37.8 7.1 8.4
Table 2. Estimated live-weight and percentage of empty body weight, hot carcass weight, lean, fat, bone, lump, external and internal offal of one livestock (250 kg lwt) using derived regression equation in Table 1 Body component Empty body weights Hot carcass weight Lean Fat Bone Hump External offal Internal offal Weight in kg 216 128 78 24 21 3 35 42 % 86 51 31 10 8 1 14 17
Table 3. Coefficients of correlation between SW, EBW, HCW, LEAN, FAT, BONE, HUMP, EO and IO in Ethiopian and zebu oxen EBW SW EBW HCW LEAN FAT BONE HUMP EO IO 0.98*** HCW 0.96*** 0.97 ***
LEAN 0.74*** 0.77 ***
FAT 0.76*** 0.74

***
BONE 0.45*** 0.37

**
HUMP 0.64*** 0.67

***
EO 0.73*** 0.70
***
IO 0.86*** 0.87*** 0.79*** 0.69*** 0.60*** 0.33** 0.61*** 0.63*** -
0.77***
0.73*** 0.41*** -
0.37** 0.29* 0.35 **
0.62*** 0.42*** 0.61 ***
0.67*** 0.49*** 0.46 0.41 ***
0.25*
0.37**
***
* = P<0.05; ** = p<0.01; *** = p<0.001
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Ethiopian Society of Animal Production Table 4. Coefficient of correlation matrix between body components (SW, EBW, HCW, LEAN, FAT, BONE, HUMP, EO and IO) and body measurements height at withers (HW), body length (BL), height at hips (HHIP), hump height (HHUMP), hump width (WHUMP), height of fall (HF), body sheath height (BSH) and height at the hooks (HHOOK) HW SW EBW HCW LEAN FAT BONE HUMP EO IO 0.66
***
BLENGTH 0.38
**
HHIP -0.04
NS
HHUMP 0.59
***
WHUMP 0.64
***
HF -0.25
*
BSH 0.70
***
HHOOKS 0.48*** 0.52*** 0.44*** 0.55*** 0.45*** 0.22NS 0.40** 0.20NS 0.55***
0.66*** 0.69*** 0.52

***
0.40** 0.35** 0.40 0.13

**
-0.10NS -0.05NS -0.11 -0.15

NS
0.62*** 0.65*** 0.41 0.21

***
0.69*** 0.65*** 0.59 0.18

***
-0.32** -0.30* -0.51 -0.0

***
0.69*** 0.66*** 0.55 0.37

***
0.40** 0.39
**
0.08NS
NS
-0.20NS
NS
0.50***
NS
0.48***
NS
-0.15**
NS
0.44***
**
0.37** 0.48** 0.52

**
0.01NS 0.30* 0.36

**
-0.22NS 0.20NS -0.12

NS
0.57*** 0.27* 0.46

***
0.58*** 0.35** 0.62

***
-0.31** -0.04NS -0.27

*
0.44*** 0.58*** 0.65

***
Ns = P>0.05; * = P<0.05; ** = P<0.01; *** = P<0.001
350 330 310 290 270 250 230 210 190 170 150 195
Empty Body Weight (kg)
y = 0.9557x - 23.485 R2 = 0.9575
220
245
270
295
320
Slaughter Live-weight (kg)
Figure 2. Comparison of predicated empty body weight (EBW) on slaughter weight.
500
Actual Body Weight (kg)
400 300 200 100 0 110 y = 3.6902x - 172.21 2 R = 0.9995
120
130
Body Length (cm)
140
400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 150
Body Weight
PREDWT2
Linear (PREDWT2)
Figure 3. Estimated live-weight of cattle predicated from measurment of body length using ploynomial equation (1.0223 x BL+0.0103 x BL x BL)
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Predicated Body Weight (kg)
Production Systems
350 330 310 290 270 250 230 210 190 170 150 190
Empty Body weight (kg)
y = 0.9557x - 23.485 R2 = 0.9575
y = 0.9174x - 14 R2 = 1
y = 0.891x - 5E-12 R2 = 1
240
290
340
Slaughter (Fasted) Body weight (kg) EBW Linear (EBW) EBW_ARC Linear (EBW_NRC) EBW_NRC Linear (EBW_ARC)
Figure 4. Comparison of predicated empty body weight (EBW-ARC, NRC & Station ) on slaughter weight
Reference
Abiye, A., Reed, J.D. and Butterworth, M.H. 1986. Effect of diet restriction on work performance and weight loss of local zebu and Friesan x Boran crossbred oxen. ILCA Bulletein, No. 23,11-14. Addis Ababa. ARC 1980. The nutrient requirement of ruminal livestock. Agri. Research Council. Common Wealth Bureau. Butterworth, M.H. and Mosi, A. K. 1985. Practical evaluation of crop residue and agro-industrial by-product for ruminant in developing countries with emphasis on east Africa. In: CARDI/IDRC, 1985. Milk Production system (Guyana) Project. Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI) and International Development research Center (IDRC). Pp 33-40. Charles, B. W., John W. K., and Waldo, D. R. 1992. A computer model to predict empty body weight in cattle from diet and animal characteristics. J. Anim. Sci. 70:3215-3222. Goe, M.R. 1987. Animal traction on smallholder farms in the Ethiopian highlands, Phd dissertation. Development of animal Science, Cornnel University, Ithaca, New York. Gryseells, G. and Anderson, T.W. 1983. Research on farm and livestock productivity in the central Ethiopian highland initial results, 1977-1980. Research report 4, ILCA, Addis Ababa. Harrington , G., and Kempster, A. J. 1977. Beef carcass yields. Institute of meat Bulletin, no. 95, pp. 2-15. Jahnke, H. 1986. The analyses of development prospects within the livestock production systems of tropical Africa. Draft working paper, ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Mukasa M.E. 1983. Aspects of management and productivity of indigenous cattle sheep and quit in Ada District of Ethiopia, ILCA, Addis Ababa. Ethiopia. NRC. 1988. Nutrient requirement of Beef Cattle (8th Ed). National Academy Press. Washington DC. Osuji, P.O, and Capper, B. 1992. Effect of age on fattening and body condition of draught oxen fed teff straw (Eragrostis tef) based diet. trop. Anim. health. Prod., 24:100-108. 11th ESAP-Proceedings 119
Preston and Leng, 1986. Matching livestock production system to available resources. International Livestock Center for Africa. pp.261-275. Preston, T.R. Kossila, V.L., Godwin, J., and Reed, S.B. (ed.) Better utilization of crop residues and by-products for animal feeding research guidelines. 1. State of knowledge. Animal production and health paper No.50, 15-20. Rome. FAO. Priyanto, R., Johnson, E. R. and Taylor, D. G. 1993. Prediction of carcass composition in heavy weight grassfed and grain-fed beef cattle. Animal Production, 57:65-72. SAS Institute Inc., SAS/STAT Users Guide, Version8. Cary, NC :SAS Institute INC., 1999. pp3884 Taylor, M.S. and Galal, E.S.E. 1980. The relationship between live weight and heart girth for some Ethiopia zebu and Crossbred Cattle. J. of Agr.Sci. Vol. 11No.1pp39-49. Zembayashi, M. and Dake, H. 1978. Effect of nutritional planes on beef carcass composition and muscle-bone ratio. Japanese Journal of Zoothechnical Science 49:670-679. Zewdu, K., Sintayehu, G.M., Schildkemp, S. P. 1988. Towards o uniform grading system for commercial cattle. IAR proceedings. Second National Livestock Improvement, Conference held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia 24-25, IAR, and Addis Ababa.
120
Observation on the Effect of Levels of Salt and Stocking Periods on Putrefaction in Preserving Sheep skin at Three Altitudes in Ethiopia
Akloweg Nigatu1 and Workneh Ayalew2
1Livestock
Marketing Authority, P.O. Box 24492 code 1000, Addis Ababa Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O. Box 5689, Addis Ababa
2International
Abstract
A field experiment was conducted to determine the effect of different levels (20, 30, 40, 50 and 60%) and durations (30, 45 and 60 days) of salt preservation for controlling putrefaction on sheepskin at low (Metehara), mid (Debre Zeit) and high (Debre Birhan) altitudes of Ethiopia to determine technically acceptable levels of salting and stocking periods. A randomized complete block design was applied, in which site (altitude) and stocking (preservation) period in shed were taken as blocks over the five treatments. Each treatment group had ten replications across sites and treatments, to test the null hypothesis that there is no difference in putrefaction due to different levels of salt, stocking periods and altitude. Therefore, a total of 3x3x5x10, or 450 individual skins were used in the trial. The experimental skins were collected from the major central market in Addis Ababa, and were randomly allocated to the three sites. The proportion of skin area putrefied (%) was used as the response variable. The results of the aggregate analysis for the three sites showed that the proportion of skin area putrefied differed highly significantly (P<0.0001) between sites, salt levels and stocking periods. The largest overall least squares mean putrefaction proportion of 17.15% was observed in Metehara, followed by 5.05% for Debre Zeit and 0.39% for Debre Birhan. The interaction of site with salt levels was found to be very highly significant, which led to separate analysis of the data by site. The results showed that in Metehara up to 40% salt level is required to meaningfully arrest putrefaction in preserved sheepskin for stocking periods of up to 60 days. For Debre Zeit and similar agro-ecological areas, a salt level of 30% suffices to provide similar protection. For areas like Debre Birhan, and possibly those at higher altitudes, salt levels between 20 and 30% provide adequate preservative for up to 60 days.
Keywords: sheepskin, salt preservation, skin putrefaction, stocking period, altitude.
Introduction
Ethiopia's Sheep population is estimated at 24 million. The annual total number of skins supplied to tanneries is estimated to be 12 million, of which 7 million are sheepskins. The major supplier regions of sheepskins are Amhara, Oromiya and SNNP accounting for 34.5%, 32.9% and 16.6% of the total sheepskins respectively (LMA 2001). Skins and Hides are subject to rapid putrefaction under the conditions in which they were removed from the carcass, as many types of bacteria and moulds attack them. A freshly flayed skin or hide contains natural moisture of up to 60% of its weight (Leach, 1995). It follows, therefore, that if a hide or skin is left uncured, the combination of water and bacteria will cause putrefaction at a rate dependent upon the surrounding temperature. Preservation is the name given to a variety of procedures, which can be applied to skins and hides in order to reduce or stop spoilage. It is employed only to maintain quality of the raw material. Without preservation, the skins and hides would spoil before they reach tanneries (Leach, 1995).
If a fresh skin is sprinkled with dry, white and clean salt crystals, after a few minutes the salt becomes wet through absorbing moisture from the skin, consequently resulting in the desiccation of the skin. The traditional practice of preservation of the raw skins and hides had mainly been air-drying. After the advent of the system of curing these products with salt, 92% of sheep and 75% of goatskins in Ethiopia are currently treated with this system (Ahmed, 2000). However, the amount of salt applied and the duration of treatment are not precisely determined. Based on the needs of skins and hides traders, this experiment was initiated by the Livestock Marketing Authority (L.M.A). It was designed to explore optimum level of salt required for preservation of skin at three altitudes and three stocking periods.
Literature review
The agro-ecological characteristics of an area influence the type of skin curing system because they determines the type of putrefying bacteria and the rate they develop thereby causing putrefaction of the skins. According to the 1998 report of the Ministry of Agriculture, there are 18 major and 49 sub-Agro-ecological zones in Ethiopia. In areas where the atmosphere has a relative humidity of over 90%, it is not possible to dry skins effectively; as a result the rate of drying will be slow, and after a day or two, the damp warm skin would begin to putrefy. Even at the relative humidity of 80% putrefaction develops during the long period required to dry the skin. Moreover, even in the presence of a liberal supply of salt prolonged storage of skins at about 270c in the wet condition is risky, because putrefactive bacteria can become salt-tolerant (FAO, 1978). The total amount of sheepskins preserved by wet salting method throughout Ethiopia is estimated to be 92% of the marketed supply of about 6.44million pieces. If each skin requires half a kilogram as per the currently accepted practice, the total annual salt consumption for drying skins could be about 3220 metric tons; the current price of salt being Birr 1.40 per kg, the country expends about Birr4.5 million annually for this purpose alone. Hence, the amount of salt (NaCl) required, as a preservative is not yet precisely determined. There are different views regarding the adequate level of common salt for preservation of skins and hides. The traditional practice is to sprinkle a hand-full of salt on the flesh side of the skin, which is estimated to be half a kilogram. The required amount of salt that confers adequate protection is said to be not less than one third of the green weight (Fresh weight) (Elliot, 1985). Likewise, Devasy (1989) stated that the hide or skin is spread on the floor or wooden pallet and salt is uniformly applied on the flesh side from 30%to 40% on the green weight. According to Leach (1985), the amount of salt to be applied to skins and hides is generally reckoned to be about 33 to 50% of the weight of the skin or hide. For the skins of a calf, goat or sheep 40 to 50% of the weight of the skin is a reasonable estimate. For heavy hides an amount of about 30 to 40% of the weight of the hide is adequate (FAO 1978). Low-salt techniques for curing include using only 10% of salt on green weight together with 0.5 1.0% of antiseptic on the same basis (Elliot, 1985). But these techniques have not been tested for their efficacy in Ethiopia. Therefore, the present study was designed to test the hypothesis that control over putrefaction in sheepskins depends on the level of salt applied, stocking period and microclimate of the area.
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Study sites Three sites were selected to represent the low, mid and high altitude areas of the country based on their altitude as well as their climate in terms of ambient temperature and relative humidity. Ambient temperature and relative humidity are related to altitude and they combine to influence biological phenomena in the particular environment. Metehara is located in the mid Rift Valley of the country at 390 54 E longitudes and 80 52' N latitude, with an altitude of 930 m.a.s.l. It has annual average temperature of 230 c and an average relative humidity of 56%. However, during the experimental period the average maximum temperature was 32.5oc and the minimum average was 20.5 0c with an average relative humidity of 47.5%. Debre Zeit is situated at 38057' E longitude and 8044' N latitude with an altitude of 1900 m.a.s.l It has annual average temperature of 19.80 c and an average relative humidity of 60%. During the experimental period the average maximum and minimum temperatures of the area were 31.3 and 14.7oc respectively with a relative humidity of 46.9%. Debre Birhan is located at 39030' E longitude and 903' N latitude. Its altitude above sea level is 2750 meters with annual average temperature of 12.20c, and average relative humidity of 76%. During the experimental period, the average maximum and minimum temperatures of the area were 23.0 and 10.3oc respectively with a relative humidity of 38.2%. Study design The study was designed to compare the effects of five levels of salt quantity in the three altitude levels and three stocking periods on proportion of skin putrefied. The proportion of skin with apparent putrefaction as judged by the naked eye was used as a measure of the effect of all factors. Three reference salt levels (30, 40 and 50%) for the treatment were chosen based on the current salt level used by traders and on empirical results of different studies. Two more levels were also included, one on both ends of the range, in order to make the comparison more complete and robust and to get a clue on whether there is change in putrefaction outside the recommended salt levels. These salt levels were tested for the three stocking periods: 30, 45 and 60 days. A randomised complete block design was applied, in which site (altitude) and stocking (preservation) period in shed were taken as blocks over the five treatments. Each treatment group had ten replications across sites and treatments. This is to test the null hypothesis that there is no difference in putrefaction due to different levels of salt, stocking periods and altitudes. Therefore, a total of 3x3x5x10, or 450 individual skins were used in the trial. Each skin was given individual identification number at the start of the trial after randomisation to follow the individual skins through the treatment. Treatment procedure and data collection For uniformity of treatments, the experimental skins were collected from the major central market in Addis Ababa, and were randomly allocated to the three sites. To precisely reflect the actual preservation practices, existing skin drying sheds of collaborating private tanning industries and hide and skin traders were used to stock the skins during the treatment periods. The experiment was conducted between December 2002 and January 2003 in order to get the required amount of sheepskins in fresh state following the Ethiopian Christmas holiday. Each experimental group of skins included ten replications of individual skins. A skin group was then randomly assigned to the five levels of salt treatments (20, 30, 40, 50 and 60% of the fresh skin weight) and for the three altitude levels. The salt required for the treatment was obtained from the
respective tanneries. The salt thus obtained was subjected to a laboratory analysis prior to the experiment to determine the quality of the salt used. The test resulted showed that total insoluble matter in the salt was within acceptable limits for standard table salt, and such critical elements as lead, iron and copper were not detected in it, which means that the salt applied was of standard quality. The actual weight of salt for a particular skin was determined by the current fresh weight of each individual skin. Soon after salt application, the treated skins were allowed to drip for 24 hrs on available draining horse of the sheds. Then each of the skins was folded along five rectangular lines according to the standard procedure, and stored in piles of ten at the allocated placements in the sheds. Each of the pile was turned over once every week retaining the same piling sequences. At the end of each treatment period, each fold of skin was weighed as is (i.e. together with the salt) before brushing away the remnant salt granules on the skins, then each of these was again weighed after brushing away the salt to determine the weight of treated skin. After weighing and registration of all the skins, they were taken to tanneries: Those from Metehara and Debre Birhan were taken to Walia tannery and those from Debre Zeit were delivered to HAFEDE tannery. Each skin with its identification number was subjected to the formal procedure of tanning. The process of following up each skin was tedious as the tags could detach due to mechanical abrasion, especially at time of fleshing. The pickled pelts were let to drain after three days of processing from socking to pickling. The drained pelts were mounted on to a working table and the area of skin putrefied was determined by relating to known areas of different sizes of coarsepaper. The method employed to determine putrefaction proportion (pp) is: PP (%)= [(Area of skin putrefied in cm2)/(Total area of skin in cm2)] 100% Where PP= Putrefaction proportion The generalised least square means (GLM) procedure of Statistical Analysis System (SAS) (1999) was used to analyse the data using the model Yijk= + Ti + Sj + Ak + Hl + +Sij + TAk + ekl Where Yijk= proportion of skin putrefied for the ith salt level, jth stocking period, kth site and lth hairiness = Overall mean proportion of skin putrefied. Ti = Effect of the ith salt level (I=20, 30, 40, 50 or 60%). Sj = Effect of jth stocking period (j=30, 45 or 60 days). Ak =Effect of kth site (k= Metehara, Debre Zeit or Debre Birhan). Hl = Effect of hairiness (l=hairy, not-hairy). TAik = Effect of the interaction of salt level and site (altitude). ekl = Random residual error.

Overall results The results of the aggregate analysis for the three sites showed that the proportion of skin area putrefied differed highly significantly (p<0.0001) between sites, salt levels and stocking periods (Table 1). The least squares mean proportion of putrefaction of 17.15% observed in Metehara site was the largest compared to 5.05% for Debre Zeit and 0.39% for Debre Birhan. It was also found
Production Systems
that the putrefaction proportion observed on the skins across the three sites differed very highly significantly between the five salt levels (p<0.0001) and the three preservation periods (p<0.0001). The effect of hairiness was not significant. The interaction of site with salt levels was found to be very highly significant, which led to separate analysis of the data by site (Table 2).
Table 1. Least squares means (standard errors) of proportion of skin putrefied % by sites and salt levels. Categories Sites Metehara Debre Zeit Debre Birhan Salt levels (%) 20 30 40 50 60 Hairiness Hairy Not hairy Stocking days 30 (Days) 45(Days) 60(Days) Site X salt levels Table 2. Least squares means (standard errors) of proportion of skin putrefied by site Categories Salt levels (%) 20 30 40 50 60 Treatment Days 30 days 45 days 60 days Hairiness Hairy Not hairy Metehara P=0.0001 46.80(3.04) b 29.43(2.99) b 5.94(2.98) 1.55(3.01) P=0.0001 8.23(2.32) b 20.11(2.33) a 23.05(2.33) a P=0.6825 17.68(1.91)
a a
Mean putrefaction proportions 17.15 (0.89) 5.05 (0.90) 0.39 (0.90)
Pr > F 0.0001
0.0001 21.22 (1.16) 11.28 (1.16) 2.96 (1.15) 0.81 (1.16) 1.35 (1.18) 0.4674 7.91 (0.73) 7.14 (0.74) 0.0001 3.22 (0.90) 8.80 (0.90) 10.56 (0.90) 0.001
Debre Zeit P=0.0001 14.64(1.57) b 4.39(1.60) a 2.72(1.57) 0.56(1.0) a 2.24(1.59) P=0.0014 1.44(1.23) b 5.44(1.25) a 7.85(1.23) a P=0.3636 5.56(1.02)
a a a
Debre Birhan P=0.0324 1.70(0.44) b 0.05(0.44) a 0.11(0.44) a 0.01(0.05) a 0.02(0.47) a P=0.4516 0.02(0.35) a 0.64(0.35) a 0.47(0.35) a P=0.3087 0.55(0.27) a 0.20(0.30) a
1.92(2.99) a
a
16.57(1.88) a
4.26(0.99) a
Least square mean values within a column and category of variables with different superscripts are significantly different at P< 0.05.
The separate analysis of the data set for Metehara site showed that salt levels and treatment days have shown highly significant (p<0.0001) effect on the response variable. Accordingly, there was no significant difference in proportion putrefied between 40, 50 and 60% salt levels but those of 20 and 30% salt levels had very highly significantly greater proportion of skin putrefied. Hence, the proportion of skin putrefied decreased from 46.8% with 20% salt level to 1.5% with 60% salt level. There was no significant difference observed between the 40% 50% and 60% salt
levels, which meant that skin preservation was not improved by salt application beyond 40%. At this site, the proportion of putrefaction increased from 8.2% at 30 days stocking period to 20.1% at 45 days stocking and this was very highly significant but extension of this period to 60 days did not significantly reduce the proportion of putrefaction. This suggests that at the temperature and relative humidity of Metehara, putrefaction proportion increases significantly up to 45 days of stocking, beyond which putrefaction appears to be arrested. At Metehara, hairiness appears to be not important in influencing the putrefaction proportion. A similar separate analysis of the data set for Debre Zeit site showed that the salt levels and the treatment days had a highly significant (p<0.0001) effect, on the response variable (proportion of skin putrefied) but hairiness did not have significant effect (Table 2). The proportion of skin putrefied decreased from 14.6% with 20% salt level to 2.2% with 60% salt level. The result indicates that there was no improvement in skin preservation for salt applied beyond 30% salt level. Similarly, the length of preservation period had shown a significant contribution to percent proportion of skin putrefied, where the mean area of skins putrefied increased from 1.4 to 5.4 and 7.8% with 30, 45 and 60 days of preservation, respectively (Table 2). The least squares mean putrefaction difference between 30 and 45 days stocking was significant (p<0.05) while there was a highly significant (p<0.0001) difference between 30 days and 60 days of stocking and there was no significant difference found between 45 and 60 days of stocking periods. Hairiness did not significantly influence proportion putrefaction in Debre Zeit. In Debre Birhan when the individual salt levels are considered the least squares mean proportion of putrefaction obtained at 20% salt level differed significantly (p<0.001) from the other salt levels. This shows that a salt level beyond 30% is not worth applying for preservation. Only salt level significantly (p<0.05) influenced percent proportion while stocking period and hairiness did not contribute to explaining the variation. This suggests that at the relatively low temperature of this area, hairiness and stocking period are not important in skin preservation so long as early putrefaction is prevented by a mere 20% salt application, where higher levels of salt producing no significant improvement in skin preservation.
Conclusions and recommendations

Conclusions The experiment was designed and conducted to determine the effect of different levels (20, 30, 40, 50 and 60%) and durations (30, 45 and 60 days) of salt preservation for controlling putrefaction on sheepskin at three altitudes of Ethiopia, thereby to determine technically acceptable levels of salting and stocking periods in these altitudes. The study revealed that at site level the highest least squares mean proportion of putrefaction was observed at Metehara (17.5% of total skin area), with Debre Zeit and Debre Birhan showing highly significantly less putrefaction (5.05 and 0.39%, respectively, with the latter two also highly significantly different from each other). Similarly, the highest overall least squares mean proportion of skin putrefied was 21.2% for 20% salt application followed by 11.3% for 30%. Both of these values were significantly higher than similar means observed for higher salt levels (40, 50 and 60% of weight of fresh sheepskin). Stocking period of up to 60 days was also found to be a highly significant variable determining the level of putrefaction in sheepskin. Holding other controlled variables constant, the highest overall mean proportion of putrefaction was observed for 60 days stocking period, which was not
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significantly different from similar means of the 45 days stocking period, but very highly significantly different from that of 30 days of stocking period. Hairiness of the sheepskins, as judged by the cut off point of 2cm length of the hair coat, did not significantly affect level of putrefaction in this study. It was therefore concluded that putrefaction in sheepskin is significantly affected by location (specifically altitude and the microclimate associated with it), the length of stocking period, and the level of salt applied for the purpose of preservation. Owing to the highly significant interaction of site with salt levels, the data was separately analyzed for each of the sites to explore site-specific effects of the variables considered in this study. The results showed that the effect of salt levels also varies between sites presumably because of the interplay between temperature and salt levels in arresting bacterial growth in sheepskin. Recommendations 1. In areas with microclimates like Metehara, it is not worthwhile to increase the level of salt applied for preservation beyond 40%, if the stocking period has to be extended up to 60 days, because 40% salt level is adequate to meaningfully arrest putrefaction in preserved sheepskin. Therefore, as long as proper salt preservation procedures are followed, 40% salt level is a reasonable amount to protect sheepskins from putrefaction under the circumstances of Metehara. 2. For Debre Zeit and similar agro-ecological areas, a salt level of 30% suffices to protect sheepskins from putrefaction for a stocking period of up to 60 days. 3. For areas like Debre Birhan, and possibly those at higher altitudes, salt levels between 20 and 30% provide adequate preservative effect for sheepskins for up to 60 days.
Acknowledgment
The Livestock Marketing Authority (LMA) financed this study. The Walia and Hafede Tanneries provided the experimental salt used in this experiment. Three private sheepskin handlers in Metehara, Debre Zeit and Debre Birhan allowed use of their facilities for this experiment. The Walia Tannery processed the experimental skins treated in Metehara and Debre Birhan; those from Debre Zeit were delivered to HAFEDE Tannery.
References
Devasy T.J and Getachew Argaw, (1989) Hides and Skins Improvement handbook. Unpublished Manuscript Elliot R.G.H., 1985. Skins and hides improvement in developing countries FAO Agricultural service bulletin 67 Rome, Italy pp72-75, 79 FAO 1978. Flying and curing of skins and hides as a rural industries. Salt curing pp51-59 Leach I., 1995. Skins and hides for the tanning industry. FAO Agricultural Service bulletin pp55-77, 89. Livestock Marketing Authority (L.M.A) 2001. Brief baseline information on Ethiopian livestock resource. SAS Institute Inc., 1999. SAS/STAT user's guide, version 8, Cary, NC: SAS Institute Inc., 1999.3884 pp. USA.
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Smallholder Cattle Marketing in the Central Rift Valley of Oromiya, Ethiopia

Ebrahim Jemal, Abdissa Abelti, Tatek Woldu, Mengistu Nigussie and Berhanu Shelima Adami Tulu Research center, P .O. Box 214, Zeway, Ethiopia
Abstract
A survey was conducted on 238 sample farmers in six districts of mid rift valley of Ethiopia during December 2000 to August 2001 to assess smallholders cattle marketing and constraints. A multi stage sampling was employed and the data were analyzed using SPSS. Landholding per household decreased by 0.63 hectar over the last five years, cows are kept in larger number compared to other cattle. 2.46 oxen were owned per household. A positive correlation(r=0.367) was obtained between land use for crop and oxen holding. A decreasing trend of cattle number per household was also noted. Location, season, animal variability and infrastructures influenced the price of cattle in the study area. More than one criterion were used to bargain the prices of animal; and supply and consumption of beef showed seasonality. There was lack of standardized tax and commission rules, which discouraged farmers to use legal markets and abandon brokers when selling their cattle. Land shortage was found the single most important production constraint followed by feed shortage and animal diseases.
Introduction
Environmental changes and rapid increase in human population densities in the study area has made it increasingly difficult for smallholder farmers to plan effective resource management strategies. The need to meet the associated demand from declining land holding has led to an intensification of cropping and the reduction or complete absence of the traditional fallows (Smith, 2000). In addition, the search for additional terrain has also led to an expansion of cropping in to marginal areas such as steep hills and grazing areas. The combination of higher demands for livestock and livestock products, greater number of people and less space is resulting in the transformation of the livestock sector (Fangka et al, 2002). Although livestock production is a major activity in crop livestock mixed farming system, the potential for smallholder livestock development for alleviating poverty and food insecurity has received inadequate attention. Market oriented livestock production has many food security related benefits for rural population. On the other hand, lack of information on cattle marketing and production system is very demanding to design intervention. It was, therefore, in this light that a general beef production system study was designed. This study is part of this system survey with specific objectives: 1. Assess smallholder cattle marketing 2. Identify constraints in cattle production and marketing in the study area
Methodology
General Characteristics of the study area According to the 1994/95 national censuses, the total rural population of East Showa zone was 1.2million. 50.8 % and 49.2 % were male and female inhabitants, respectively. The Ethiopian rift valley extends 750 Km northeast to southwest and the width ranges from 3580 km. The climates of the rift valley are diversified and ranges from hot and arid to cool humid although the major climate are semi arid (400-700mm rainfall) and the sub humid (700-1000mm rainfall) zones. The soil is generally derived from young soils of organic origin. It is good in the
base status but the constraints for forage production are low phosphorus level and micronutrients imbalance. As far as the vegetation of the semi arid zone of the rift valley is concerned, it is characterized by presence of acacia as a dominant species of trees. There are vegetation types ranging from closed acacia woodland to scattered and open acacia bush land. The study covers six districts in East Shoa zone viz. Fantale, Boset, Adama, Lume, Adami Tulu and Arsi Negele. Sampling Technique A multistage sampling technique was followed. The first stage was to select districts using purposive sampling technique based on cattle population, accessibility and representation in terms of the varying climate conditions prevailing in the study area. In the second stage, Peasant associations (PAs) were randomly selected. At the last stage sample farmers were randomly selected using a systematic sampling procedure. A total of 238 sample farmers from six districts were interviewed for this study. Data Collection and Analysis Secondary data was collected from various published and unpublished materials. Informal survey was conducted using checklists to prepare the questionnaire. Trained enumerators did the data collection from December 2000 to August 2001. The data was cleaned and analyzed using SPSS 1999. Descriptive statistics, General Linear Model, non-parametric tests and Chi-square test were used to present the result of the study.
Results and Discussion

Socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents
Family size
On average, there were eight persons in each household in the study area. The range is from one member in Boset and Adama to 24 persons per household in Adami Tulu district. The largest household size observed in Adami Tulu and Arsi Negele is mainly attributed to mode of marriage exercised in the two districts. As well known most of the rural communities in the two mentioned districts are followers of Islamic religion. Therefore, polygamy type of marriage is common. Similarly, study by Agajie et.al (2002, in press) indicated that having many wives is one of wealth indicators and commonly practiced type of marriage. Moreover having many children is thought as an asset for supply of labor for farming activities and being large in number in a household has social prestige showing the strength of that family or clan. In the other districts where Christianity and others like Waaqqeffanna are dominant religion there observed lesser number of household members. Statistical analysis using GLM univariate indicates that there is significant difference (P<0.05) among districts in terms of average household size.
Table1. Family size of respondents District Boset Lume Adami Tulu Arsi Negele Adama Total N 36 39 32 38 29 174 Min. 1 3 3 3 1 1 Max. 11 14 24 20 12 24 Mean 6 8 9 11 5 8 (F=13.825)
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Land ownership and use
Respondents were also asked about the land use patterns mainly for three purposes; crop, cattle rearing (grazing), and land for homestead. The other land use types are under communal uses in some area. There is a significant different in mean land holding between districts. On average 2.14, 0.19, and 0.14 ha (86.6, 7.9 and 5.6% of their holding) is allocated for crop, grazing and homestead respectively per household. The average total land holding per household is 2.47 hectare for the study area (Table 2). The GLM univaraite analysis shows the presence of statistically significant differences (P<0.05) among districts land use for crop and grazing. A diagnostic study by Alelign et al (1990) indicated the average land holding for crop was 3.2 hectare per household for Meki and Zeway areas. Another survey by Ashenafi et al 1996 (unpublished) found that the total landing was 3.1 hectare on average per household for the same study area. It was 2.64 ha for crop only.
Table 2. Sample mean of land use patterns by district Land use Crop Grazing Homestead Total Fan. 1.24 0.11 0 1.35 (38) Boset 1.99 0.2 0.09 2.28 (37) Lume 3.26 0.19 0.12 3.57 (40) AT 2.33 0.37 0.19 2.87 (36) A.N 1.73 0.37 0.27 2.37 (40) Ad 1.87 0.09 0.16 2.12 (39) Total 2.14 0.19 0.14 2.47 (238)
Therefore, it is clearly shown that there is shrinkage of land holding by 1.06 ha for crop over eleven years and 0.63 ha for total land holding per household over the last five years. This can be attributed to the population increase over the last decades. Another study by Agajie et al (2001) found similar result where they blamed population increase for decline of land holding per household in the high lands of North and West Shewa zones. Traditionally, there is sharing of household lands among children whenever they initiate new families resulting in smaller and smaller farm size. Moreover, there has been no land redistribution after the major distribution in the mid-70s (Bezuayehu et al, 2002). Consequently, land has become a scarce resource. Many newly formed households are landless while others own excess land.
Cattle ownership
In the study area, cattle are used for milk and meat production and as a source of cash. It complements crop production by supplying draft power and manure in all of the districts. In the pastoral areas like Fantale cattle product, especially milk serves as a staple food for the household. More over cattle are given as a marriage gift for young married couples. Farmers also sell cattle to mitigate household problems like payment for fertilizer credit and medication of the household members. In all districts, cattle rank the first in population and importance as well, followed by goats, sheep and donkeys. These cattle are the major source of beef in the area including Addis Ababa (Table 3)
Table3. Cattle population across the study districts Distract A.Negele A. Tulu Modjo Adama Fantale Year 1994 1994 1993 1994 1994 Cattle 186493 175992 68325 70712 156633 Goat 41439 50406 16348 47265 119078 Sheep 34004 7292 10426 46985 97329 Donkey 14136 11093 15664 31531 8089 Horse 4489 626 423 1572 14 Mule 457 238 432 150 Camel 91482
Source: agricultural development offices of respective districts
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The average cattle holding per household in the area, as it is indicated in Table 4, are 12.21. The largest average holding is observed at Fantale district (22) and followed by in Adami Tulu (17.6). On the other hand the lowest holding (4.9) was reported in Adama district. The average number of cattle per household was 10 before five years (Ashenafi et al, 1996, personal communication) indicating non-significant change in the cattle holding with in last five years. This is probably due to the high value that farmers put on their cattle as cropping is a recent phenomenon in the area and inclusion of Fantale district which is more of pastoral system.
Table4. Sample mean cattle holding per household across districts Cattle Oxen Cow Bull calf Heifer Calf Total
() =N
Fantale 1.22 10.23 1.88 4.2 4.46 22 (40)
Boset 2.63 1.91 1.14 0.89 1.39 7.96 (35)
Lume 3.28 1.74 1.08 1.10 2.52 8.70 (40)
A. Tulu 3.21 6.50 2.47 2.51 2.95 17.6 (40)
A. N 2.13 3.82 1.23 2.03 1.79 11 (40)
Ad 2.34 1.06 0.43 0.58 0.56 4.9 (39)
Overall 2.46 4.31 1.38 1.19 2.15 12.21 (23)
F-test 5.619 12.717 7.235 13.450 10.965
Table 4 clearly shows that cows are kept in higher number (4.31) than the other cattle. This indicates the higher value farmers give to them since they are source of milk and provide replacement stock. Oxen are kept in smaller number (2.46) than cows because the primary aim of keeping them is not for market but rather for draft power and bull service. In the study area, beef is considered as a by-product. The major source of beef is from retired oxen after intensive period of ploughing followed by culled bulls and old cows. In traditional agriculture like ours, the availability of draft oxen is very crucial. The result of this study revealed that there is more than a pair of oxen per households and the presence of a positive correlation (r = 0.367) between cropped land and oxen holding. This implies lack of draft power is not serous problem of farmers in the area. However, in most cases oxen are under nourished and cannot perform tillage activities at the onset of rainy season. As a solution, some farmers started using donkeys to complement draft oxen.
Cattle holding trends
There is a decreasing trend in number of cattle per household from time to time. This is also supported by 75.4% of the respondents in which there is a declining trend in their cattle holding (Table 5) while only 18.6% of the respondents said their cattle holding showed slightly increasing trends.
Table 5. Cattle holding trends over the last ten years Trend Increasing Decreasing The same Total N 44 178 14 236 % of total respondent 18.7 75.4 5.9 100
There are different reasons for decline of cattle holding per household. Among the reasons, according to the perception of 57.0% of the respondents is feed and water shortage. Feed and water are critical elements in cattle production in areas where there is erratic climatic conditions like the semi-arid areas of the mid- rift valley.
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The recurrent droughts experienced over the last decade could also be a contributing factor for the scarcity of animal feeds and water in the area. The second important reason for declining of cattle production in the study area is disease epidemics according to 16.8% of the respondents followed by land shortage (12.8% of the respondents).
Table 6. Respondents perception about reasons for decreasing trends of cattle Reasons Feed and water shortage Disease Land shortage Household problems Others Total N 102 30 23 5 19 179 % of respondents 57.0 16.8 12.8 2.8 10.7 100
Decline in cattle population may be caused as an effect of rapid human population growth and the associated expansion of crop cultivation as it was the case for South East Asia (Crotty, 1980). This is presumably the root cause for all problems perceived by the respondents resulted in shortage of land, depletion and degradation of land and other natural resources.
Cattle Marketing
Marketing channels/Structure In any marketing, there is a chain of steps through which a given product passes starting from its original production until it reaches final consumers. Cattle marketing channel in central rift valley of Ethiopia involves different intermediaries like traders, fatteners, butchers, exporters and processing factory (Fig.1). Cattle as a product pass from producer through small traders, large or small-scale fatteners and butchers to reach final consumers in big towns like Adama, Bushoftu, Shahemane and the capital city Addis Ababa. Producers are mostly mixed farmers and some pastoralists around Fantale areas. They sell cattle to gain cash mostly when they face critical problems like food shortage and credit payment for fertilizer and other inputs. In most cases, animals they sell are old oxen and cows, and barren females. Small traders are petty traders who collect cattle from farmers at the farm gate and bring them to primary markets. They also buy cattle from remote and small markets and supply to those fatteners and other buyers in secondary markets. Fatteners are mostly urban and peri-urban dwellers. They buy cattle from nearby towns and feed them for three to five months depending on feeding system, age and body condition of the animal and supply to butchers and large traders at secondary markets. Small-scale fatteners mostly do this. However, large-scale fatteners further go a long distance as far as Borana and Bale areas to buy cattle for their fattening activities. They also directly collect from producers through their agents. Fatteners supply finished cattle to traders who in turn supply them to abattoirs and butchers in the capital Addis and big towns. The alternative channel, as indicated in Fig.1, is that producers and small traders from the nearby districts supply cattle to meat processing factories like Melgie Wondo and others. The factories add value to the product and supply to supermarkets and foreign markets. Direct supply of cattle by producers to consumers in which case there is no intermediate agents is also common.
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PRODUCERS (HERDERS)
Small traders
Processing factory
Fatteners Traders/ exporters Traders Super Markets
Butchers (Abattoirs)
CONSUMERS
Figure1. Cattle marketing channel in central rift valley
Cattle outlets
The respondents were asked about the outlets of their cattle. The study revealed that the common ways of cattle outlets were sale, slaughter, giving to relatives, theft and disease. Farmers were also asked to trace three years back and tell us number of cattle sold, slaughtered, given away and died or disposed of other reasons. The result indicates the most important outlets were found to be sale (mean=5.9) followed by disease (mean=3) and slaughter (mean=2.24)(Table 7).
Table 7. Outlets of cattle for the last three years Outlets Sold
a
No of respondents 217 225 176 220 195

a= Four years
Average number of cattle 5.9 3.0 2.24 1.781 0.36
F -test 12.652 3.99 11.051 12.713 5.225
Mortality Slaughtered Stolen Given away

P<0.05
This presumably implies farmers in the study area are not market oriented and sale less number of cattle, almost six cattle per household over the three years period. Cattle mortality
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was also found to be the second important outlet, which significantly affect productivity this sub sector. The other important cattle outlet was slaughter, which may be for celebration of holidays, religious and marriage ceremonies. The other reason could be disease or physical disability of the animals that urges slaughter. Theft of cattle was also one of the outlets of cattle, though less important. This could be due to less attention given to cattle management especially shelter in the area. In most places of the area cattle were made to spend the night in poorly constructed fences locally called Moonaa, which cannot prevent the entrance of thieves and predators. Therefore, the farmers should pay due attention to shelter their cattle properly.
Location and Cattle Prices
In this study, the respondents were asked about the price of different classes of cattle in their localities. They reported average price 1091.05 346.88 and 715.87 277.8 birr for fattened oxen and cow, respectively. The GLM univariate analysis indicates that there is statistically significant difference (p<0.05) among the districts for fattened ox and cow. The highest average price (1493.95 birr) was reported from Adama while the lowest average price (782.5 birr) was reported from Arsi Negele for fattened cattle. This could be attributed to the location of the area that gives farmers around Adama town to get opportunities for better prices of their cattle.
Table 8. Average prices of cattle during 2000/01 N Fattened ox Fattened cow Ox Cow Heifer Bull calf Calf
* Significant at P<0.05
Mean 1091.05 715.87 832.37 422.64 436.72 445.67 178.79
SD 346.88 277.80 385.04 132.87 127.41 183.76 58.97
F -test 37.938* 18.633* 26.057* 24.539* 35.108* 33.656* 16.671*
224 224 217 231 224 231 227
The existence of spatial markets for the same commodity arises primarily because of transportation costs and, to a lesser extent, communication costs. In a competitive market with free information flows, arbitrage will ensure that price at spatially related markets move in unison, with price differentials reflecting only the costs of transfer between different centers (Williams and Bewley, 1993). Least square means analysis shows there is no significant difference in price of fattened oxen between Fantale and Boset; and between Adami Tulu and Lume districts while there is a significant difference between the other districts. The same was also true for oxen, which indicated no significant differences between Lume, Fantale and Boset and between Adami Tulu and Arsi Negele. However, there is a significant difference when Lume, Fantale and Boset districts are compared with Adami Tulu and Arsi Negele. Relatively higher price was observed in Fantale than Adami Tulu and Arsi Negele because of the slight difference in the purpose of keeping animals in those areas. In Fantale district, the production system is more of pastoralism and herders attach greater value to their cattle. Hence, they do not sell them for lower price, and rarely do so if any. It is indicated that as one moves from Arsi Negele and Adami Tulu to the central areas like Adama and Addis Ababa the prices for cattle is observed to be increasing. This is because of location difference with different consumption and demand influencing the price of cattle. In
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these areas, there is high demand for beef due to presence of high population with relatively better purchasing power.
Seasonality of cattle marketing and prices
It is an established facts that price is influenced by time differences that determine price movement. The respondents were also asked whether price of cattle depends on season. According to the perception of 97.6% (Table9) of the respondents, there is a variation of cattle prices along with seasonal differences. The other 2.4% of respondents said there was no variation of price with season. Chi-Square test shows the presence of significant difference in the proportion of respondents (p < 0.05) across districts. Cattles marketing is seasonal activity because of both supply and demand factors (Jaffee and Morton, 1995). On the supply side, animals are in their best condition at the end of the rainy season. Pastoral migration and road conditions may make it easier to take them to market at another time of a year. On the other hand, demand may exhibit seasonality with maximum consumptions occurring at religious festivals and other holidays.
Table 9. Percentage of respondents about seasonal difference in price of cattle District Fantale Yes No Total 88.6 11.4 100.0 Boset 100 100.0 Lume 100 100.0 A.Tulu 100.0 100.0 A.N 97.1 2.9 100.0 Adama 100.0 100.0 Overall 97.6 2.4 100.0
Apart from the seasonality of prices, respondents were asked when they mostly sell their cattle. Irrespective of the price situation, 36.7% of the respondents sell their cattle during June through September, and 40.7 % said they sell their cattle as need arises (Table 10). The period JuneSeptember is when the majority of the respondents face critical household problems like food shortage that forced them to sell their cattle. This further indicates the advantage of cattle for mitigation of risks and that animals are live banks they turn to during downs in their lives. In Ethiopia in general and in surveyed area in particular cropping system is mainly rain fed. The period June to September is main rainy season (Kiremt) and transitional period between the old and new harvest in which farmers usually suffer peak hardship. But, as a matter of fact this is a time when farmers should get enough calories to perform their farming activities which is high at this period.
Table 10. Months when cattle mostly sold (% of respondents) Months Jun-Sept Dec-Jan March-Apr Sep-Oct May Depends Total Count % Districts Fant 11.8 2.9 5.9 47.1 5.9 26.5 34 100 Boset 50.0 2.6 5.3 42.1 38 100 Lume 15.4 5.1 5.1 74.4 39 100 A.Tulu 35.0 2.5 2.5 17.5 7.5 35.0 40 100 A.N 71.1 5.3 5.3 7.9 2.6 7.9 38 100 Adama 35.1 2.7 2.7 2.7 56.8 37 100 Overall 36.7 3.1 2.7 12.8 4.0 40.7 226 100
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Production Systems
Significant proportion (12.8%) of the respondents also said they sell their cattle during September to October. This is mostly the end of rainy season when there is abundant feed supply and the cattle are in good condition to fetch adequate price. Fattening of cattle is a widely practiced activity in the East Shoa zone especially around Adama, Mojo and Arsi Negele towns due to their proximity to urban center for both market and availability of concentrate and other supplemental feeds. Some farmers around these towns recently started this fattening practice in small scale. Hence they were asked when fattened cattle fetch good prices in the area. As it is depicted in Table 11, Equal proportion of the respondents 34.8% said there is good price during March to May and Sept to December. This is mainly due to festivals of Ethiopian Ester and X-mass, which fall in these periods in respective order. It is known fact that, Ethiopian beef consumption and marketing patterns are during specific holidays in the year.
Table 11. Percentage of respondents on months when Fattened cattle sold Months Mar-May Sept-Dec Jun-Sept Others Total Count % Districts Fant. 2.9 85.7 5.7 5.7 35 100 Boset 48.7 30.8 2.6 17.9 39 100 Lume 71.8 5.1 2.6 20.5 39 100 A.T 10.0 55.0 35.0 40 100 A.N 20.5 35.9 43.6 39 100 Ad 52.6 47.4 38 100 Overall 34.8 34.8 1.7 28.7 230 100
Consequently, fattening practices are also targeted to these holidays. Furthermore, farmers usually tie and feed their oxen after intensive farming since the main objective of keeping oxen is for supply of draft power. This could increase the supply of cattle to market particularly during September to December. On the other hand, availability of animal feeds is also a crucial for cattle fattening and marketing. Animal attributes as criteria for quoting price As it is depicted in Table 12, 18.8% respondents said combination of age, body condition and color of the animal is important in quoting prices for animals and 18.4% reported that the combination of breed, age, condition, and color are all considered during bargaining prices while 13.2% said age and condition are sufficient criteria to quote prices for an animal. This indicates that more than one criterion are mostly considered for bargaining price of cattle. Individual variability of the animals play great role in the marketing of cattle. Animals may vary individually by a number of criteria; all of them relevant to market value (Jaffee and Morton, 1995). These include animal breed, age, color, sex, and body condition; all are mostly used criteria for negotiating prices for the animals depending on preference and purpose of the buyer. Tax and commission One of the important aspects of marketing is the tax rule laved on the product transacted by governments. This also applies for cattle marketing. In this survey question was asked to see perception and knowledge of the respondent farmers. The report indicated that there was no standard and the same tax rule for cattle across the districts and hence tax rate varies from place to place. It also varies from time to time. According to the respondents, average tax rate for the
137
year 2000/01 was 3.30 Birr per cattle and it was 1.80 Birr before four years (Table 13). This shows that tax rate was almost doubled in four years period.
Table13. Tax, commission and time taken to arrive at the nearest market N 2000/01 tax rate Tax rate before 4 years Commission for broker Time elapsed to market
NS = the difference is not significant at P=0.05
Mean 3.30 1.80 7.21 2.04
SD 3.66 1.17 5.57 1.59
F -test 17.786 15.776 8.936 1.231NS*
236 208 146 229
Many intermediaries play different roles in the functioning of any market. Brokers are one of them. In principle, brokers are legal bodies allowed to help buyers and sellers. Nevertheless, it is observed that they are informal agents, mostly working on behave of buyers in the cattle market and in some cases buyers and sellers perform their transaction with out brokers. This is observed in rural area and informal markets.
Table 14. Use of brokers during sale of cattle (% of respondents) Districts Fantal Yes No Total 31.4 68.6 100 Boset 94.6 5.4 100 Lume 32.5 67.5 100 A.T 36.8 63.2 100 A.N 12.8 87.2 100 Adam 89.5 10.5 100 Overall 49.3 50.7 100
Respondents were asked whether they use brokers when they sell or buy cattle. Almost half (50.7%) of the respondents do not use brokers when selling animals. This indicates the importance of informal farmer-to-farmer marketing in the study area and absence of reliance on the so-called brokers from the farmers' side. Consequently, farmers abandon them and sell their animals themselves. Furthermore, this can probably imply marketing infrastructure is not available in most parts of the study area. On the other hand, this kind of marketing operations may have an implication on the revenue of the government and development of markets as well. The other 49.3% reported that they use brokers when selling their cattle. They were also asked about the rate of commission paid to the broker per animal in the market places. The average rate reported is 7.2 birr (Table 13). The minimum rate (zero birr) was reported in Fantale and Boset while the maximum (35 Birr) rate was found in Adami Tulu district. There is statistically significant difference between districts (p 0.05). Least mean square analysis indicates that Fantale (mean=2.9 birr per animal) is different from all others implying the importance of informal market in that area. There is again a difference between Adama and Adami Tulu in terms of commission paid to brokers. Availability of infrastructure is also important factor that affects cattle marketing. As stated by Jaffee and Morton (1995), scattered supply of animals to market is one of the constraints in the marketing of animals on hoof. In the current study, it was also found that on average each respondent has to travel 2.04 hours to arrive at the nearest market (Table 13). The maximum length of time (12hrs) consumed to arrive at market was reported in Boset and Fantale districts whereby a farmer has to travel 24 hours to market his cattle. This affects marketing of cattle by putting pressure on the animals and the owners as well. This clearly affects the price as it reduces the condition and weight of the animals.
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Production Systems
Summary
Cattle are the most important livestock species in terms of population and their contribution to food security in the mid rift valley of Ethiopia. They are source of milk, meat, draft power, cash and social value. Nonetheless, there has been a continuous decline in land and cattle holding over the last decade due to population pressure, which led to natural resource degradation and depletion. Land shortage is the single most important production constraint followed by feed shortage, animal disease and water shortage in the respective order. Smallholder farmers sell their cattle when they face problems and when there is abundant supply of feed irrespective of demand situation implying they are not benefiting from the sale of their cattle. There is a seasonal cattle fattening and beef consumption pattern. Cattle price is found to be influenced by location, season, animal variability and infrastructural conditions. There found lack of standardized tax per animals and luck of infrastructure that affect marketing of cattle leading to unnecessary wastage of time, energy and money for farmers and the government as well.
Recommendations
Improving the productivity of cattle by putting greater effort in awareness creation and dissemination of improved livestock management technologies and provision of sufficient veterinary service is crucial. Due attention has to be given to get foreign market for livestock commodities as it has significant effect on local market of cattle. Intervention in the area of changing the consumption pattern, development of saving culture among farmers, enhancing year round crop and feeds production using irrigation and different water harvesting technique; and diversification of income generating activities is very demanding business. Provision of infrastructures like market information, uniform tax and commission rules, land redistribution policy, are some of the areas have to be considered for intervention. Finally, it is very crucial to under take further research in the area of livestock marketing and analyze it in depth to generate specific policy recommendations.
References
Agajie T., Chilot.Y., Mengistu A., Elias Z. and Aster Y. 2001. Small holder livestock production system. In Livestock in food security: Roles and contributions proceeding of the ninth ESAP. August 30-31 2001. Agajie T., Ebrahim J., Sitotaw F., and David G. Smith 2002. Technology Transfer Pathways and Livelihood Impact Indicators in Central Ethiopia (inpress). Bezuayehu T., Gezahegn A., Yigazu A., M.A. Jabbar and Paulos D. 2002. Nature and causes of land degradation in the Oromiya region. A review Socio-economics and policy Research Working Paper 36 ILRI, Nairobi, Kenya Crotty R. 1980. Cattle Economics and Development. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau, London CSA. 1998. The 1994 Population and Housing Census of Ethiopian. Result for Oromiya Region Volume II. Analytical report Jeffee S. and John Morton (Eds). 1995. Marketing Africans High Value Food. KenDALL/Hunter publishing company, USA
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Smith J.W. 2000. Interaction of people, livestock and the environment: Challenges for research in: Pastoralist or Agro pastoralist which way forwarded? Proceedings of the eighth annual conference of ESAP, 24-26 August 2000 Tangka F. K, R .D Emerson and M. A Jabbar. 2002. Food security effects of intensified dairying: evidences from the Ethiopian high lands. socioeconomics and policy research working paper 44. ILRI, Nairobi, Kenya Williams C.H. and R.A Bewely.1993. Price Arbitrage between Queensland cattle Auctions, Australian journal of agricultural economics Yitaye A., Azage T. and Mohammed Y. 2000. Livestock Production System of three Peasant Associations in Awasa Woreda. In: Pastoralist or Agro pastoralist which way forwarded? Proceedings of the eighth annual conference of ESAP, 24-26 August 2000
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Survey on Traditional Livestock Production Ssystems in Manasibu District of West Wallaga, Ethiopia
Alganesh Tola, Mathewos Belissa and Gizaw Kebede Bako Agricultural Research Centre, P. o. Box 03, west Shoa, Ethiopia
Abstract
The traditional livestock production systems in three peasant associations of Manasibu district of west Wollega were studied. In this study the livestock production systems, constraints and the farmers copying strategies was seen in a demand driven and client oriented approach. Data was collected from different primary and secondary sources. Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) was used as a main tool in data collection and analysis. The study indicated that the farming system consists of mixed crop livestock with undulating topography. Different species of livestock were identified in the study area. The livestock production in the study area is constrained by different factors. These include feed shortage, diseases, absence of policy towards livestock movement in and around borders, poor genetic potential of the indigenous animals and wild life damage on small ruminants etc. Among these factors feed shortage was found to be the most threatening to livestock production and productivity. This factor was reported to be the major indirect cause for other problems. Termite damage on the natural vegetation and over grazing had aggravated the feed situation problem in the area. Farmers copying strategy to the feed and health related problems are varied. Therefore, there is scope for improvement and for scaling up the traditional management skills.
Introduction
Livestock play a vital role in the farming systems of Ethiopia. It provides the major traction power in agriculture, manure for fertilizer, milk, meat and cash income to the smallholder farmers. The total milk production is estimated to 650,000 tonnes/year, which corresponds to a yearly production per cow of 50-100 kg. The 14 million tonnes of manure are used primarily for heating. Animal power also plays a very important role in transporting goods to and from the many small market places in the country (Brannang and Persson, 1990). Despite the large livestock population in Ethiopia, livestock productivity is very low. In many cases animal nutrition and management including health care are at low level. The feed supplies fluctuate both in quality and quantity seasonally (Getnet and Ledin, 2001). Manasibu district is among the mixed crop livestock production systems that exist with different livestock production constraints. The main objectives of the survey were to direct the research activities demand driven and client oriented. Accordingly, the primary clients of agricultural research are smallholder farmers who provide almost all of agricultural out put. As a result starting with the study of farmers constraint is vital. Therefore, it was intended to carry out the survey based on agro-ecology. Therefore the objective of the survey was to study the livestock production systems, constraints and the farmers copying strategies.

The natural resources management and regulatory department of Ministry of Agriculture have developed agro-ecological zonation for the country. The categorization into agro-ecological zones was based on temperature, moisture regimes and elevation. Based on this the country is classified into 18 major agro-ecological zones, 49 sub agro-ecological zones based on climate, physiography, soils, land cover and farming systems. In western Wollega, the two sub agro ecologies identified are tepid to cool sub-humid mid highland (SH2). Areas in this zonation are characterized by mixed farming systems and undulating topography.
Description of the study area The study was conducted in Manasibu district during 1999/2000. Manasibu is located in the Northern part of the zone, at a distance of 150 kms from Gimbi town. It is bordered by Beneshangul-Gumuz Regional state in the east, west and north, Begi, Jarso and Nedjo districts in the southwest, west and southeast, respectively. The district has a total area of 2383 sq. kms and lies within the altitudinal range of 500-1740 meters above sea level. The agro climatic zone of the district is classified into low and mid altitude with altitudinal range of 500-1500 and 150-1740 meters above sea level, respectively (Planning Office, 1998). Three peasant associations of Manasibu district were studied. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) technique was employed in generating the primary qualitative data. Secondary data were collected from the western Wollega zone department of Agriculture, planning and Economic Development and Administration. Primary data collection Reconnaissance survey and site selection: Reconnaissance survey was conducted to have the notion of understanding about the study area and select representative sites before embarking on PRA. Experts from Manasibu district office of agriculture helped much in providing baseline information to develop different zones of the sub-agro ecology (SH2-1): Coffee, maize and tef-based, respectively depending on the microeconomic importance and land allocation schemes over different enterprises. Along with experts from district office of agriculture, the team made a drive through three accessible zones such as Qilxu-kaarra, Harawwee and Xanqi. The purpose of zonation was to cover the major sub-farming systems in participatory identification of agricultural constraints for the SH2-1 sub- agro ecology. Each of the zones constitutes about six peasant associations. One accessible and representative peasant association was selected from each of the three zones. The selected peasant associations include Qilxu kaarra, Harawwee and Xanqi, from coffee, maize and tef-based sub-farming systems, respectively. In phase I of the PRA, primary data was collected by participating farmers in groups. Different PRA tools were utilized and group discussions were made among the participant farmers. Problem ranking, feed, labour, resource mapping, field observations, food, price and disease calendars based on their requirement were the PRA tools used. Semi-structured interviews were also used. In phase II of the PRA process, key informants interviews, wealth ranking, gender analysis and stakeholders interview were conducted. Data analysis: Part of the initial data analysis was made each day following the end of the days field data collection. Phase II data analysis was done in the office. During the field study period, it was agreed to collect almost all relevant data. Subsequent analysis was done using qualitative assessments like problem ranking, stakeholders task analysis matrix and case studies.

Livestock production in the study area is totally based on the traditional system. The species comprises cattle, sheep, goats, donkey, mules and poultry. All groups of animals belong to the local breeds except the donkeys, which the farmers classified into two types namely the local, and the Arabs donkey. The farmers characterised the Arabs' donkey as having bigger body size, whitish colour, longer neck and stronger legs. It can travel longer distances in shorter time compared to the local type. The Arab types are used for human transportation. The farmers also suggested that there are two poultry types namely the oromee and Jermenee. However, further breed characterization work is required. According to the west Wollega agriculture office, the largest cattle population of western Wollega is found in Manasibu district. Thus, the name of the town Mendi was derived from a term called Mandiidaa having the meaning the area has large number
Production Systems
of cattle. Poultry are the second largest group of livestock in the area (Table 1). Another study conducted in the south Ethiopia indicated that the distribution and importance of the different livestock species vary depending mainly on the amount and distribution of rainfall. This study similarly evidenced that cattle and sheep population is relatively higher in high rainfall areas while goats and camels are mainly adapted in low rainfall areas (Yitaye et al., 2001). Rearing of Livestock Cattle: The different species of animals are reared for different purposes. Cattle are kept primarily for drought power. But milk, meat, manure, hides and skins, and sales of animals as source of cash income are among the secondary objectives. This is in agreement with a study conducted in western Wollega by ICRA (1998); Laval and Assegid (2002) also indicated that cattle are kept mainly for draught power, meat and milk production. A study by Negasso (2001) in west Wollega also indicated the multi purpose of cattle. Cattle are both the means of surplus, exchange and subsistence. Cattle have got biggest contribution in generating household income compared to the other groups of livestock. This may be attributed to the increased price that cattle fetches as compared to the other groups of livestock. Horro is the dominant cattle breed in the area. Their milk production as quantified by the farmers is low. According to the farmers, the decline in milk production has increased from time to time, mainly due to shortage of grazing land, high termite infestation and increasing human and livestock population. Feed shortage is critical from the dry season to early rainy season (Figure 1) and there is decline in production. Equines: Mules and donkeys are reared primarily for transportation. Mules are used for human transport while donkeys are used for material transport. Donkeys are rented and hence used as good sources of cash income. The fact that transportation is a critical problem in the area gives a chance for donkey owners to fetch good income from rentinting donkeys. According to information from development agent at Haraawwee, renting a donkey can fetch as much as 6,000 Eth. Birr during its lifetime. Calving interval for donkey is one year. Age at puberty for donkey is between 4-5 years (Table 2). Mules are bought from other areas to the system for the purpose of transportation. Horses are rarely found in the area because of the climatic characteristics in the area. Small ruminants: Sheep and goats are reared as a source of income and meat. Similar study conducted by Kassahun et al. (1989) revealed that in the country in general, sheep and goats represent an important component of the farming system providing about 12 % of the value of livestock products consumed at the farm level and 48 % of the cash income generated, but accounting for only 6.6 % of the capital invested in the livestock sector by farmers. Ewe and ram lambs reach age at puberty at eight months. This finding is in agreement with Ulfina et al. (2001) that revealed that average age at first service, which was considered as criterion for puberty was 6.9, 9.3 and 9.1 months for ewe lambs fed on adlib feed, 300 g/head/ day and 100 g/head/day of concentrate mixture, respectively. Goats reach age at puberty by six months. Both sheep and goats have an average lambing of twice/year. Multiple births are common for both species (Table 2). Ulfina et al. (2001) also confirmed that high twinning rates of 27.3 and 9.1 % were recorded for Horro ewes fed on adlib and moderate concentrate mixture levels, respectively. Sheep and goats are sold for immediate financial requirements. The price of both species various based on season and holidays. These animals are few in number per household and they usually graze/ browse around homesteads. Poultry: Poultry are mainly kept for the fulfilment of miscellaneous expenses of the family. Poultry are owned individually in a family. Unlike the case ruminant animals, there is decentralized decision-making power for sales of poultry whether owned individually or by the
family. There is no need to wait for the family head if it is found to sale poultry. This practice is common mostly for routine expenses like purchase of stationeries for students, food items and their household expenses. The two types of poultry, the Oromee and Jermanee have small body and egg size and big body and egg size, respectively. Jermanee are more preferred types. A hen can on average lay 8-12 eggs/ clutch irrespective of the type. There is 2-3 times of hatching /year. Poultry are not productive during rainy season due to high disease infestation. This finding goes in line with the report of Alemu and Taddle (1998) that showed that the traditional production system is characterized by small flocks, minimal inputs, low outputs and periodic devastation of the flocks by diseases. Reproductive and productive performances There is no technological intervention with regard to introduction of exotic breeds. The system of breeding is uncontrolled one. Mate selection is practised by castration of undesired males in cattle and sheep. Feed availability influences breeding especially in cattle, but there is no seasonality in breeding. According to feed resource availability of the area, cattle breed during June-December (Figure 1). Due to feed shortage age at puberty and other growth performances has increased. Heifers reach age at puberty between 4-5 years. Calving interval is between 2-3 years. Males start traction at age of 4-5 years and for breeding at age of 5-6 years (Table 2). Similar study on Horro cattle revealed that age at first calving, calving interval and lactation length was 60, 19.5, 7 and 55.3, 14.5, 7.5 months on farm and at Bako agricultural research centre, respectively (Gizaw et al. 1998). Similarly Yitaye et al. (2000) indicated that the average age at first calving and lactation length for indigenous animals in three peasant associations around Awassa was 4-5 years and 10 months, respectively. Feeds and Feeding Grazing on natural pasture is the most common practice for all species of animals. Natural pasture is communally owned. Leaves from trees were provided during the end of the dry season when the main feed resource base is scarce. Animal feed is the major constraint for livestock sector in the area and the shortage of feed began in mid-sixties. This period also witnesses the appearance of termite at Bafano Qorachee. This phenomenon triggered a way of life locally referred to as darabaa. Due to the increased termite infestation and the encroachment of cultivation, animals have to be trekked as far as Dabbus valley. This occurs from late December to the onset of rainy season. At the valley, concentration of animals favoured disease transmission especially Contagious Bovine Pleura Pneumonia (CBPP). The migration of livestock to Dabbus valley in search of feed had serious implications on the control of epidemic diseases (ICRA, 1998). People who take their animals to the area also suffer from malaria. According to the respondents, the major causes of feed shortage include high termite infestation, change of valley bottoms to agriculture using residual moisture (bonee) and over grazing. Due to termite and overgrazing, grasses, bushes and shrubs suitable for grazing have reached to a level of extinction. Less palatable herbs and weedy species are the dominant increasers in the pasturelands. A grass called coommoo is currently becoming the most important invader on lands where vegetation is removed by termite. The grass is relatively tolerant to termite and palatable by animals. Guzoita spp. is another important increaser species. The animals especially cattle do not consume Guzoita spp. under normal conditions. But due to scarcity animals are forced to feed on these species. Pasture species like muriyyii, heena, Ocimum hardiense and ashuffee are reported to reach to a level of extinction. The decreasers include Cynodon dactylon, Eleusine spp. and Berchemia discolour, clover, darguu, kalaala and Guzoita scabra.
Production Systems
Young rearing practices There is no special young rearing practice. But calves are allowed to fully suckle on their dams from birth up to a month. During this time, calves are provided by some lushy grasses to nibble on. Chickens are provided with coarsely ground grains and water at early stage of life. Kids and lambs are allowed to roam around homestead in addition to suckling. Previous on farm study by Berhanu (1998) revealed similar trend of young rearing methods around Jimma. Watering: All species of animals are watered from the nearby rivers and streams except young animals, which were mechanically assisted by shepherds. In Harawwee, the rivers used for cattle have poor drainage. Besides, the different rivers and streams are becoming inaccessible due to the devastating landslide caused by termite attack to natural vegetation. Herding: There is intensive herding in the livestock production system. There are three types of herding. These are rotational/communal herding where farmers in a village gather their cattle and herding is performed by rotation of herders from each household. The second one is individual herding in that every household herds his/her own cattle by any of the family member. The third is hiring a person: This is the case where a sort of hired man herds cattle of an individual family or a group of families. Herder is paid in the form of cash or kind at the end of the year. In the case when the herder is recruited for herding cattle of an individual family payment is in kind. In cases when a group of families are renting an individual herder by pulling their cattle, payment is in cash. Males are the probable herders in all cases. In rotational and individual herding, equines and small ruminants can be herded together with cattle but the length of hours each species stay on grazing differs. Housing: Calves are kept under homestead shades and in the living rooms with family. But, cattle are kept in kraal. Donkeys, mules and small ruminants are kept in a sort of huts besides the family house. Bedding materials like bark of Acacia Spp. is used for goats. Chickens are kept in a sort of basket. Older chickens are made to stay on a raised roof during the night in the family house. Animal health According to the informants, disease incidence has kept on increasing since the last 10-15 years. Before this time, the known diseases were anthrax, black leg and rinderpest. The farmers relate the current diseases devastation with the change of environmental conditions that is highly influenced by the role of termite. ICRA (1998) also revealed that before termite infestation the area was covered with savannah woodland. Currently, there are different livestock diseases in the area. These include Contagious Bovine Pleuro Pneumonia (CBPP), trypanosomiasis, anthrax, blackleg, pasteurollosis, foot and mouth disease, foot rot, new castle disease, coccidiosis, endo and extoparasites. Cattle mortality due to CBPP, trypanosomiasis and anthrax is high, respectively (Table 3). Though diseases like trypanosomiasis and CBPP are said to occur year round, their highest prevalence periods are January-June and April-May, respectively. Veterinary service is given both by government and private sectors. The animal health clinic of the government is sited at Mendi town. This clinic conducts examination, treatment and vaccination for various diseases. Similar study by Laval and Assegid (2002) in Boji, the neighbouring district revealed that only 7 % of antibiotics and 3 % of other treatments were provided by public services, while all other health cases were delivered either through private sectors or informal markets. Vaccination is given for the prevention of black leg, pasteurollosis, CBPP and anthrax. This is done when an outbreak is reported from elsewhere. If an outbreak is reported, farmers pay the transportation cost for the animal health staff to go to their site and
vaccinate the animals. In most cases for diseases with known symptoms, farmers themselves buy the drugs from private animal drug shops and give to the animals. The inhabitants strongly believe that CBPP is introduced to the region by the cattle of the Falata. According to farmers, Falata are tribes coming through Assosa regional state to Manasibu district in search of grazing for their cattle from neighbouring country. The major disease outbreaks are anthrax, foot and mouth disease and blackleg. Anthrax and blackleg are irregular in their frequency of occurrence. But foot and mouth disease usually occurs once a year. Health problems related to feed are very limited. The incidence of bloating due to grazing on clovers is common in cattle in September and October. Hypocalcaemia is observed in cattle after parturition. This commonly led to weaker animals with decreased production. Consumption of non-feed materials like fruits of Mangifera indica by cattle was reported as a case for swellings around the animals throat. The indigenous knowledge in assessing disease by roasting a known length of strip of meat appeared interesting. This method was practiced to save the villagers from consuming meat from diseased animal. In this method a strip of meat placed on simple wood is roasted over open fire. Finally, the length of the meat is measured and decided whether the animal slaughtered is diseased or not. If the meat increased in length, the animal is considered as sick. Opportunities and local strategies The opportunities to over come the major constraints include introduction of improved forages species and crossbred animals to reduce the number of local animals, feed conservation, strengthening veterinary services and other infrastructures and promotion of the copying strategies. Feed supplementation is not a usual practice for all animals. However, different feeding strategies are used for some groups of animals during peak feed shortage. Draught oxen and lactating cows are provided with tef and finger millet straw, pancake made of finger millet; and salt. Atela is a commonly used supplement but causes teeth damage due to the presence of Rhamnus priloides. The use of atela reaches a peak during the holidays and it complements the basal diet throughout the year. Mules and donkeys are supplemented with little amount of maize grains and barley short on return from distant journey. Currently, animals are observed consuming fruits of Mangifera indica and Galaanoo. Animals are provided with leaves of liiluu, gambeelloo, Sapium ellipticum, Coffee arabica, Maesa lanceolata and Vernonia spp during dry seasons. Some of the ways of treating animals is based on trial and error and others are learned from ancestors. Berhanu (1998) around Jimma similarly revealed that about 59 and 72 % of the farmers use traditional and modern medicaments, respectively. In trial and error methods for example, a mixture of local liquor, lemon and garlic are used in the treatment of various diseases. For the treatment of black leg, root of herb known as bordollo is chopped and mixed with atela and provided to the animal. Branding around necks and legs of animals, mixture of hot pepper, mixture of Millettia ferruginea and Acanthus spp. (sokokkee), flower of Croton macrostachyus are also used against the same disease. In the treatment of trypanosomiasis, blood and meat of wild pig, fruit of Aninperia adolffredebchi,, bark of Ficus sycomorus and fruit of Aningeria altissima are used. A participatory systems analysis of the termite situation in west Wollega showed that herbal treatment and use of other indigenous animal health management techniques are common practices in the area (ICRA, 1998).
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Production Systems
For the treatment against contagious echtyma (orf), ash solution is rubbed around sore mouths of animals; for small ruminants, fruits of Solanum nigrum and Cucurbita pepo are also used. Mixture of bordolloo and animal faeces is used against sores on animal skin. Poultry are treated with water solution of local liquor and lemon against coccidiosis and Newcastle diseases. Conclusion and Recommendations Based on the current survey study, the following key recommendations have been developed.
Species Cattle Poultry Sheep Goats Donkey Mules
Source: Manasibu district office of Agriculture
Introduction of termite tolerant forage crops and crossbred cattle. Reduction of the number of local animals to reduce over stocking. Feed conservation practices, pasture and grazing land management. Thorough investigation on the copying mechanisms in feeding and health care of animals Further investigation for clear understanding of the whole farming system and breed characterization of the existing livestock spices Efforts to develop and establish community based veterinary services and other infrastructural facilities. In and around borders livestock movements need to be addressed by the policy
Total population 211,144 153,825 18,678 17,262 15,261 1096
Table 1. Livestock population of Manasibu district
Table 2. Some productive and reproductive performances of cattle, small ruminants and donkeys Productive and reproductive performances Age at puberty (Heifers) Age at puberty (Bullocks) Calving interval (Cattle) Age for work (traction) Age at puberty (donkey) Calving interval (donkey) Age at puberty (Ewes and rams) Age at puberty (goats) Lambing or kidding/ year Multiple births
Source: Manasibu district office of Agriculture and the farmers
Age (months) 48-60 60-72 24-36 48-60 48-60 12 8 6 Twice Common
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Ethiopian Society of Animal Production Table 3. Major diseases, species & classes of animals affected by the diseases, season of prevalence and economic losses
Economic loss Diseases Species Class Season of occurrence Year round Year round Rainy season Sept.- Nov. May-July Rainy season May- Oct. June - Sept. Year round Year round Year round 25 10.00 33 5 5 Medication cost/treatment / animal (Eth. Bir) 45-50 45.00-50.00 Mortality (%) 80 90
Trypanosomiasis CBPP Internal parasites Anthrax Black leg Pasteurelloses FMD Foot rot Pneumonia New castle Ecto parasites
Cattle, donkey, small ruminants Cattle All species Cattle Cattle Cattle Cattle Small ruminants Small ruminant and donkey Chicken All animals
Adult, weak animals All age All age Adult animals Calves Adult Adult Adult Adult All classes All classes
Table 4. Priority setting of constraints of livestock production constraints during stakeholder workshop conducted at Manasibu by governmental and non-governmental organizations Constraints Feed shortage Criteria Root cause for other constraints, high livestock population, termite, lack of awareness, biases towards crop production and lack of improved forage seeds Problem of boundary, feed shortage, distance from veterinary services, poor husbandry, untimeliness of vaccination, lack of isolation of diseased animals Lack of awareness, high disease transmission, sale of diseased animals at local markets, transhumance Manpower shortage, poor infrastructure development Financial problems Poor productive and reproductive performances Poor management and lack of policy on wild life Overlap of activities during rainy season Rank 1
Diseases
Absence of policy towards livestock movement Inaccessibility to veterinary services High cost of medication Low genetic potential of the indigenous animals Predators Labour shortage (small ruminants)
5 4 3 6 7 8
Table 5. Priority setting of livestock production constraints on stakeholder workshop by the farmers Constraints Diseases High cost of medication Feed shortage Labour shortage Absence of policy towards livestock movement Poor genetic potential of indigenous animals Wild animals (predators) Inaccessibility to vet services Criteria Feed shortage, distance from veterinary services and transhumance Level of economy, policy Termite, change of valley bottoms to 'bonee'' production Overlap of activities Transhumance Low milk yield, long calving interval, short lactation length Absence of policy on wild life Absence of village level health groups Rank 2 3 1 5 6 7 8 4
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80
60
40
% Feed
20
0 Sep. Oct. Nov Dec Jan. Feb. Mar. Aprl May. Jun July Aug
MONTHS
Figure 1. Feed calendar of Manasibu district

Feed shortage Poor grazing land management Low productivity of Natural pasture Lack of awareness Inadequate extension Poor pasture composition Overgrazing High stocking rate High livestock population Farmland shortage Over-utilisation of land Termite Expansion of farmland Land degradation
Shrinkage of grazing land
Weak institutional Linkage
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the factors contributing to animal feed shortage in Manasibu district
References
Alemu Yami and Taddle Dessie. 1998. The status of poultry research and development in Ethioipia. Fifth Annual Conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production. 15-17 May 1997. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Pp. 40-60. Berhanu Belay. 1998. Traditional sheep management and production situation in the south western part of Ethiopia. Fifth Annual Conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production. 15-17 May 1997. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Pp.117-127. Brannang, E. and Persson, S. 1990. Agricultural land and number of livestock. Animal products and constraints. A handbook on Ethiopian Animal Husbandry. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. International Rural Development Centre. Getnet Assefa and Ledin, I. 2001. Available feed resources and the role of cultivated forage crops in the smallholder farming systems in the central highlands of Ethiopia. Pastoralism and agropastoralism:
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Which way foreword? Proceedings of the eighth annual conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP) held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.24-26 August 2000. P. 265-278. Gizaw Kebede, Mulugeta Kebede and GebreEgziabher GebreYohannes. 1998. Dairy and beef technology development and achievements at Bako. Beyene Soboka And Aberra Deressa (eds). Agricultural Research and technology transfer attempts and achievements in western Ethiopia. Proceedings of the third technology generation transfer and gap analysis workshop. 12-14 November 1996. Nekemte, Ethiopia. ICRA (International Centre for Development Oriented Research in Agriculture). 1998. A participatory Systems Analysis of the Termite Situation in west Wollega, Oromia Region, Ethiopia. A joint publication by International Centre for Development Oriented Research in Agriculture, Ethiopian agricultural research Organization and Oromia Agricultural Development Bureau. Bako Research Centre. Working Document Series 68, Ethiopia. Kasshun, A., Getachew, G., Zelalem, A., Nigussie, A., and Feltcher, I. 1989. Small ruminant production in Ethiopia: Constraints and future prospects in Ethiopia. In: Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR) Proceedings third National Livestock Improvement conference, 24-26 May 1989. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Pp. 78-81. Laval, G. and Assegid Workalemahu. 2002. Traditional Horro cattle production in Boji district, west Wollega, Ethiopia. Ethiopian Journal of Animal Production. An Official Journal of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production. Vol. 2, 2: 97-114. Negasso Gidada. 2001. History of the Sayyo Oromoo of South eastern Wollega, Ethiopia from about 17301886. Ph.D. Thesis (1984). Frankfurt. P. 134. Ulfina Galmessa, Fikru Terefe, Solomon Abegaz, Gemeda Duguma and Solomon Gizaw. 2001. Determination of the minimum body weight and its feeding requirement for early breeding in Horro ewe lambs. Pastoralism and agropastoralism: Which way foreword? Proceedings of the eighth annual conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP) held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 24-26 August 2000. P. 180-184. Yitaye Alemayehu, Azage Tegegne and Mohamed Yesuf Kurtu. 2000. The livestock production systems in three peasant associations of the Awassa Woreda. Pastoralism and agropastoralism: Which way foreword? Proceedings of the eighth annual conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP) held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.24-26 August 2000. P. 155-167.
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Honey Production and Utilization in Manasibu District; West Wallaga, Ethiopia

Mathewos Belissa, Alganesh Tola and Gizaw Kebede Bako Agricultural Research Centre, P. O. Box 03, Bako, Ethiopia
Abstract
The study was conducted during 1999/ 2000 in Manasibu district, Wallaga. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) has been the prime data collection technique employed. Reconnaissance survey was conducted to have a notion of understanding about the study area and select potential honey production sites. The honey production exercised in the area is solely of the forest type. No improved practices or management strategies is common. Various honey bee plants were reported to exist before decades, but due to population pressure through enlargement of farmland and termite invasion to the area the potential bee flora have been decreasing in number over years. Currently, bees collect nectars from plant species such as maize, coffee, Guizotia absinica, Guizotia scabra, Mangifera indica, Croton macrostachyus, Vernonia amygdalina, Syzygrum guineense, Carossa abyssinica, Acacia spp., Hypericum lanceolatum, Albezia gummifra, Flacourtia indica, Fecus sycamorus and Aningeria adolfifredebchi. Two major harvesting periods were identified vis, the month of November and that of February to April, and one more period for minor harvest were reported. It was found that from the available bee colony with in the existing potential of bee flora, one can collect on average 3-4 kg and 2 kg per harvest per colony during the major and minor periods respectively. This accounts to an average total yield of 8-10 kg of honey per colony per year. Black honey bees and brown types were identified in the area out of which the black ones dominate the colony. Absconding of bee colony is rare but commonly observed is swarming of the bees due to feed shortage. Black honey characterized to be most quality and white honey (fereree) know to be low in quality were the two types of honey observed. The market demand for the two differs accordingly. The contribution of honeybees was found to be limited by various factors that result in partial or complete loss of the seasonal product. Towards this, some local strategies were adopted to prevent the adversaries against the life and potential of the bee colonies. Using thorn/ sheet metals, sprinkling ashes, and cleaning areas under the trees were some of the strategies. For the improvement of the honey production in the area, the study strongly recommends the intervention of extension for technology transfer on the use of improved beehives and better beekeeping management. Furthermore, forest resource management, tree plantations with importance for bees are most required together with efficient land use systems. This will enable for efficient use of honey production potentials of the area.
Introduction
Ethiopia is endowed with various climatic conditions, topography and wide range of altitude favouring the presence of different natural vegetation that includes dense forests, bushes herbs, weeds and under growths. The different natural vegetation has made the country best home for honey bees. In the areas where there are various kinds of honey plants, better honey yield is certain than the area with poor natural vegetation (Amsualu, 1998). Moreover, today 6000-7000 plant species have been identified to exist in the country out of which some are endemic. The plant species are able to support large number of honey bee population. Some of these plant species are found predominantly in south and south western parts of the country. In these areas bee keepers can obtain better yield of honey, bees wax and other hive products (Adimasu, 1997). Manasibu district is among the potential areas found in the south western part of the country. On the other hand, the traditional honey production system is being threatened with different constraints. Hence, the country in general and the study area in particular did not benefit from the existing
potentials for honey production. The intention of this survey was to investigate the honey production systems and management practices which are believed to direct the research activities towards the improvement of the local knowledge based production systems for its better contribution to the micro economy of the nation. The study targets to the specific objective of investigating the traditional honey production, honey bee resources, constraints and the farmers indigenous knowledge in beekeeping.
Research Methodology
Description of the study area The study was conducted in Manasibu district of west Wallaga zone during the year 1999/2000. The district is located in the Northern part of the zone, at a distance of 150 km from Gimbi town. It is bordered by Beneshangul-Gumuz Regional state in the east, west and north, Begi, Jarso and Nedjo districts in the southwest, west and southeast, respectively. It generally lies with in the altitudinal range of 500-1740 meters above sea level manifesting the characteristics of both low and mid altitude climates. Saccii, Daabbus, Hennaa, Qorachee, Agamsaa, Kasalaa, Daalee, Sarpha, Hadha-boyyee are some of the major rivers and springs in the district. The major types of natural vegetation found in the area are shrub and bush land, wood land and high forest. This was estimated to cover about 9251 hectares of land. There is also about eleven hectares of dense manmade forest in the district (Planning Office, 1998). Data collection and Analysis Relevant secondary data were collected both through interviews with expertise from department of agriculture, planning and Economic development offices of the zone and district level. For primary data collection, reconnaissance survey was conducted to have the notion of understanding about the study area and select representative sites before embarking on PRA. From the information, three sub farming enterprises were identified. These were coffee based farming; maize based farming and tef-based farming zones. Three such accessible sub-zones as Qilxu-kaarra, Harawwee and Xanqi were selected for the study. A pre-tested checklist was used so as to effectively employ the PRA tools in addressing important information regarding the study. As the protocol of PRA, all willing participant farmers were exploited in the form of discussion as per the procedure of PRA. Hence, they were called informants of the study. Different PRA tools were utilized to collect data of qualitative nature. This was done through keen participation of farmers in group discussions. This participatory data gathering was meant to identify honey production potentials and constraints. Gender analysis tools such as routine activities; access and control profiles over resources were used by farmer groups to summarize data on gender differences. As a protocol of survey and the potential of the PRA technique, most of the information were analysed on the spot after rectification. Pair wise ranking of problems is among the tools in the analysis. The ranking of problems and constraints was based on their importance as perceived by the informants.
Result and Discussion

Honeybee resources Forest bee keeping is the sole beekeeping practice in the area. This involves putting hives on trees and tree trunks. There are no additional honeybee management practices in this type of beekeeping. Besides the bee hives put by beekeepers, honey bees also use subterranean holes as a place of honey production. Even though the beekeeping practice remained to be traditional, there observed potentional resources for honey production. The diversified species of plants and the potential bee colonies are most notable.
Production Systems
Honey production and bee flora The study found that various types of honeybee plants existed about two decades before. But very recently, the enlargement of farm land and deforestation has resulted in the desolation of most important plant and forest species. Nevertheless, for the sake of survival, bees are feeding on the nectars of some plants. This study took advantage of the informants when they listed out the potential plant species from which bees currently collect nectars for making honey. Among the plant species mentioned are; maize, coffee, Guizota absinica, Mangifera indica, Croton macrostachyus, Vernonia amygdalina, Syzygium guineense Carossa abyssinica, Acacia spp. Guizotia scabra, Hypericum lanceolatum, Albezia gummifra, Flacourtia indica, Fecus sycamorus and Aningeria adolfifredebchi. Similar plant materials were identified as a major pollen sources for honeybees around Holleta research centre (Amsalu, 2000). These plants are periodically available. Crops, weeds and shrubs are available during September to December; and coffee and tree flowers around February to March. A period of mid summer (April to August) is reported to be period of scarcity. Based on the periodicity of the nectars three honey harvesting periods were identified in a year. Two of the major harvesting periods are in November and February to April. Less is harvested also during the months of June/ July. The periods from April to August show deficiency of the nectars. The informants pointed out that from the available bee colony with in the existing potential of plant species, one can, on average 3-4 kg and 2 kg per harvest per colony during the major and minor harvests respectively. This makes a total yield of 8-10 kg honey per colony per year. Honeybees of the area were characterised by the informants as black honeybees and brown type. The black bees were found dominating the bee colonies. The bees are of different races, but that is not due to the varying altitude of the area. Further, they maintain their groups and not mixed to one another. The black bees are characterized to be very gentle and never try to attack other animals. But during harvest, they express defensive behaviour as a mechanism to protect their honey from external interference. Most of the time swarming is commonly observed because of feed shortage, especially during the dearth period (April-August). During these periods they swarm to the Dabbus area, the valley covered with dens forests. As to the over years observation of informants, the population of bee colonies is in a state of decreasing mainly due to many factors and constraints. Honeybee products storage and utilization Honey products differ in quality, which according to the beekeepers, depends on the type of plants from which the bees collect nectars. This, in turn determines its market prices. Accordingly, two types of honey were identified. These are the black and white honeys. The Black honey is made from nectars of plants like Syzygium guineense, goosuu, Syzygium spp., Vernonia amygdalina, and Gizotia spp. The honey is thicker and have good market demand. The White honey type (Fereree) is made of nectars collected from trees like Croton macrostachyus, Deinbollo kilimandshorica, coffee and cereal crops. It is very thin and poor in quality as judged by the beekeepers. This type of honey has relatively less demand. The other type, still named by the people as honey, is collected from subterranean holes and it is made by the sting less bees. For this type there is no quantified figure as of its yield per harvest and no information for its period of collection. However, it is said to be used for medical purpose for which it is highly demanded.
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Family does not usually consume honey because of its commercial values. Even then, pregnant and nursing women have the priority to get the honey for consumption. As far as utilization is concerned, some cultural taboos are attached to the use of honey at household level. For the same reason farmers are not accustomed to give honey to children who did not start wording. This is because of the belief that children will delay speaking if they fed on honey at infancy. Basically, honey is used for three main purposes ranked as beverage (making tej, local liquor), as diet and medicaments for cough and Asthma. After harvesting honey is stored in local storage materials like bottle gourd the opening of which is smeared using the cow dung. Similarly, Nuru (1993) revealed that a container without tight lid, air humidity and poor handling increases honey moisture and reduces the quality of the honey. Honey is hygroscopic and if the keeping quality is affected it encourages the growth of some sugar tolerant yeasts and hence accelerates fermentation reducing its shelf life. In the household, the male house head have full control over the commodity and its sales. The control of women on the sales and utilizations of the commodity is observed to be nil. Honeybee health and production constraints The major honeybee disease reported by the farmers is malaria. It is surprising enough to see malaria becoming serious disease of bees. It was clearly reported that during the out break of mosquitoes, the hives will remain empty. The other principal enemies of honeybee include ants, ape, spider, and honey badger. The damage caused by apes and ants can reach to a total lose of the yield. Spiders as biotic and fire as abiotic factors can also cause up to total loss of a colony. Chemical sprays on crops like tef that flowers during October and sorghum in June, were reported to be serious reasons for mortality of honeybees and reduction of bee population. Even so the case of chemical poisoning happens rarely; no measures were taken to minimize the effect. Apart from these, some toxic plants such as oat, Hiddafiti, Begii and Qawwisa were also reported to be poisonous to the honeybees. The bees will automatically die as they visit such plants. The major constraints in beekeeping according to the informants are absence of extension intervention for improved technological transfer, deforestation, wild life, fire hazard, and chemicals sprays. Despite the availability of different trees, shrubs, and food crops, there is no extension intervention attempting to improve the traditional honey production practices. As a result, the yield of honey is squat limited to the traditional practices. Due to the expansion of crop cultivation and use of timber for different purposes, forest cover is shrinking over years. Thus, there is increased risk of frequent absconding and swarming of the colonies. This resulted in the loss of bee colonies in the area and subsequently lower honey yield. Opportunities and local strategies in beekeeping For protecting from wild life, thorns/ sheet metals are used around the trees holding the hive, and against the attack of ants, ashes are sprinkled around the trees. For spiders the surrounding area should be cleaned. This study, thus gives a flash for future attempt to effective control and prevention of bee disease and its wild attack to help increase the potential contribution of bee colonies and vegetations of the Manasibu district.
Conclusion and Recommendations

It was found that Manasibu district could give its most potential for honey production if not limited by the various factors. These factors, which were identified to be biotic and abiotic had significant hindrance to the best contribution of honey production sector to the national economy. To take advantage of the contribution of honey to the macro economy of the country in general and increase the income generating power of the commodity to the region in particular, improving the
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honey beekeeping and management is found to be the sole option. To this end, extension intervention should take the greatest share of responsibility in introducing improved beehives, teaching people on effective land use systems and management of forest resources. Further recommendation from this study expels the importance of research for characterization of the bee colonies and honeybee flora ever identified during the survey. Furthermore, introduction of termite tolerant honeybee flora would yield a double advantage of soil conservation, and preparation of nectar for honey production. The suggestion on the introduction of termite related plant species is what the informants seriously raised, because the invasion of termites has disturbed the whole system in the area. Also important in this case is the management of reserved forests and plantation of trees having importance for bees. This is to create and maintain safe places for the sustainable existence of honeybees. Effective land use system is believed to minimize the human interventions and wild life attacks.
Table 1. Beekeeping constraints priority setting according to farmers of Qilxuu Kaaraa Harawwee, and Xanqii Constraints Wild animals Poisonous plants Fire hazards/ Deforestation Ants and spiders Chemicals Lack of extension Criteria Frequency Killing effects Severity Severity Severity Lack of improved hives, shortage feed (flora) Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6
Acknowledgements:
We, the authors are grateful and appreciative to the anonymous commenter for his valuable suggestions and constructive comments.
References
Admasu Adi. 1997. Preliminary investigation on taxonomy of Ethiopian honeybee flora. fourth Annual Conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production. 18-19 April 1996. Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Pp. 181-186. Amsalu Bazabeh. 1998. Preliminary study on honey plants around Holleta. Fifth Annual Conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production. 15-17 May 1997. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Pp. 186-193. Amsalu Bazabeh. 2000. Identification of major pollen sources of honey plants around Holleta bee research centre. Livestock Production and The Environment- Implications for sustainable Livelihoods. Proceedings of the seventh annual Confernce of the Ethiopia Society of Animal Production (ESAP) held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 26-27 May 1999. PP. 169-178. Nuru Adgaba. 1993. Effect of storing honey in local containers In: Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR). Proceedings of the fourth National Livestock Improvement Conference. 13-15 November 1991, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Pp. 109-112. Planning office. 1998. Annual Activity Report, Gimbi, West Wallaga zone.
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Growth Pattern of the One Humped Camel (Camelus dromedarius)

Yesihak Yusuf and Bekele Tafesse Department of Animal Science, Alemaya University, P.O.Box 138, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia
Abstract
This paper is targeted to bring about together information and data available on camel growth together based on the literature citation. Herd growth of camel varies from 0.3% to 18.6% as reported in different part of the world. In eastern part of Africa that is in Kenya, Somalia, and Ethiopia the reported herd growth of camels were 2.8-18.6, 4.9 and 10.66%, respectively. Camel is believed to have very slow growth rate when compared with other domestic livestock. Growth rate up to 12 months of age depend mainly on good maternal milk supply and absence of recognizable diseases. There is more growth (daily weight gain) from 1-12 months followed by age between 1 and 3, than 3-4. A slow down in growth is seen about 4-5 years of age, which is normal occurrence to all livestock as they approach mature size. Under traditional system maturity weight is attained in late age between 8 and 18. From this time on ward drop in weight gain is observed. Faster growth for male calves up to 12 months of age is attained than female of same age. From one to four years immature females gain weight faster than that of male of same age. Other husbandry management (nutrition and health) plays significant in daily weight gain.
Introduction
Almost more than one-third of the surface of the earth is hot and semi- arid climate with sparse vegetation and scarce water resource and expanding its territory in an alarming rate from time to time, and making the survival of human beings and domestic livestock very difficult. This situation is more prominent in Africa, as many as 70 million people were on the brick of starvation and 4-6 millions died due to starvation and malnutrition which caused as a result of aridity and desertification (Glynn and Jensen, 1983). In Ethiopia too, almost more than half of the total area is arid and semi-arid climate with marginal land (Coppok, 1993). Nature has provided the camels (Camelus dromedarius), unique functional, structural and behavioral adaptive features, that will adapted to hot arid and semi-arid areas of the world, that enabled the camel to withstand excessive heat load from the environment, shortage and salinity of drinking water and scarcity of feed. Having endowed with these special features, the camel has been known since the time immemorial in providing almost all-basic necessities of pastoralists. This ability of the camel to survive in the harsh area, its endurance in prolonged drought and its high potential to convert the scanty resources of arid and semi-arid land in to milk, meat and power makes it more important to nomadic pastoralist than any other livestock (Brown et al., 1997). It is not surprising; therefore, in the dry land of Africa, where the rainfall seems less reliable year by year, that camel has replaced cattle, which is highly preferred by herdsmen (Wilson, 1998). Of more than 16 million camels found in the world, almost all are found in under developed and developing countries (Wilson, 1998). The African continent contains about 75% of the world camel population (FAO, 1989), of which Somalia, Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya, Eritrea and Djibouti together have 80% of the African camel population. The share of Ethiopia is substantially high, 1.06 million (FAO, 1993), which rank the country third in Africa and fourth in the world.
In Ethiopia camel is found mainly in the lowland of Afar, Somali and Southern oromia region, the eastern and south eastern third of the country where the majority of people (an estimate of 7 million) are nomadic pastoralist of various ethnic origin and where the ecology is arid and semiarid (Brown et al, 1997). However, despite its significant contribution to the livelihood of the pastoralist society who does not have any alternative mode of production system, up until recently the camel is one of the neglected domestic livestock by scientific community in Ethiopia. The objective of this paper is to summarize and avail the scientific information ahead on the growth pattern of the dromedary camel and factor affecting the pattern.
Growth pattern in camel

Herd growth Camel herds are known to have slow growth rate compared to other domestic animals mainly due to slow reproductive rate (Schwartz and Walsh, 1992). Estimate of numerical increase of the world camel population have averaged about 1.16 per year over 15 years period from the late 1970s to the mid 1990s (Wilson, 1998). Other sources quoted an annual increase of 0.3% to 2.0% in various part of the world (Bremaud, 1969 and Swift, 1979). For instance, herd growth rate of Kenyan camel was reported to be 2.8 18.6% Bremaud (1969) and 3.2% by Sato, where as in Somalia it was 4.9% (Hjort and Hussein, 1986). Contrary to this, Bekele and Zeleke (2001) reported 10.66% growth rate in Errer Valley, Ethiopia (Table 1). This discrepancy may be explained by slight difference in geographical location and prevailing climatic condition that influence many factors like nutrition, diseases prevalence, production goal etc., which favor or hamper growth rate of camel. Further the relative higher growth rate observed in the study may indicate suitability of the area for camel production and\or the interest of pastoralists to posses many camels. In general, the growth rate of camel herd in tropical Africa is estimated to be higher than 2% (FAO, 1989). Estimation of annual Population growth derived from various simulation models by Wilson (1984) lies between 1.5 and 8% provided that there is no drought, disease out break or any other calamity. He suggests that an annual growth rate of 1.4 % would appear to be reasonable estimate.
Table 1. Herd growth of camels in Errer valley, Ethiopia Herd dynamics No. at the beginning Birth Purchase Sales Deaths No.at the end Net change Percent increase Average herd growth
Source: Bekele and Zeleke, 2001
1998 107 19 6 11 4 117 10 +9.35 +10.66
1999 117 30 7 13 10 131 14 +11.97
Camels are large, slow maturing and long-lived animal. Thus population growth rate tends to be slower than other domestic species (Fig. 1). Low rainfall and draught affect the size of population (Andrson, 1993).
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250
200 Numbers of Animals
150
Goat Sheep Cattle Camel
100
50
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Years
Figure 1 Projected increase in population number of domestic species (Based on reproductive and mortality data in Table 2)
Mortality Of these factors affecting herd growth and productivity, mortality is the most important one (Bekele and Zeleke, 2001). Camel mortality is high during post-natal and pre-weaning stages, about 50% as shown by Wilson 1994 (Table 2) fall to minimum (2-8 %) during four to twelve years old (Simpkin, 1985), increasing again with higher age reaching 100% at approximately 25 to 28 years of age (Schwartz and walsh, 1992). In Africa, particularly in east Africa, mortality (both prenatal and post natal) was reported to be high, calf mortalities of 58-90% has also been reported by Watson (1972) and Schwartz et al (1982). The critical period is between 2-6 months of age when the calves start to growths. The main causes of mortality in African camels are supposed to be malnutrition because of competition between calf and naturalists for milk (Bremand, 1969; Sato, 1976; Field, 1979; Wilson, 1983; Rutagwenda, 1985 and Schwartz and Dioli, 1992). Moreover, death due to different diseases contributes more for high incidence of mortality, as malnutrition calves do not resist disease as well fed calves. In this respect it has been noticed that the colostrums, which is known to be rich in antibodies, is often considered bad by the unwitting pastoralist and may only permitted in small quantities (Field, 1979). Age and sex related factors The age and sex composition of the herd influence in part the rate at which a population increase. Andrson (1993) compared the average age population of Kenyan camels and Somalia camels and found that Kenyan population was appreciably older with higher proportion of older age group camel. Absolute fertility indices for three Kenyan camel populations were found to be
0.9, 0.24 and 0.28 assuming calving start in 6 years old animal. For Somali population fertility index is 0.78. This shows Somali population is younger and more productive, and probably rapidly expanding. In east Africa dairy herds most animals are breeding females that also produce milk (Wilson, 1998). In other herds where transport is still important there is greater percentage of males but females usually still predominate. According to Wilson (1994) reproduction parameters affecting herd structure and population growth in domestic species under dry land condition are age at first parturition, number of young per parturition, interval between parturition, number of young per female per year, mortality rate to 12 months of age and mortality rate after 12 months of age, the above parameters the dry land where camel is dominant animal presented in (Table 2).
Table 2 Production parameter affecting herd structure and population growth in domestic species under dry land conditions. Parameter Age at first parturition (months) Number of young per parturition Interval between parturition (months) Number of young per female per year Mortality rate to 12 months (%) Mortality rate after 12 months (%)
Source: Wilson, 1984
Animal species Goat 15 1.4 9 1.8 35 10 Sheep 15 1.05 10 1.4 35 10 Cattle 48 1.0 20 0.7 30 7 Camel 60 1.0 24 0.5 50 5
As it can be clearly seen from the table in comparison with other domestic ruminant, the age at first calving, interval between parturition and mortality on camels less than one year is very high; this may affect the herd structure of camel.
Individual growth
Birth weight There are several factors affecting birth weight of camels: such as nutrition and health status of the dam, in some area gestation length and haritability, which is higher in camel than other species (Wilson, 1998). The birth weight of camel range from 26-45 Kg (Wilson, 1998). Similarly, Payen (1990) repoted average birth weight of 30Kg. It is probable that birth weight differ significantly among breed of the same area. Wilson (1998) cited NRCC (1990) and reported average birth weight for Bikaneri, Kutchi and Jaisalmeri camels of India are 38.8 kg, 31.8kg and 31.0kg respectively. Field (1979) reported 30.9 4.3 kg for Randille and Gabbra camel of Kenya. Birth weights of 35-40 kg have also reported for Soviet camel as Aueljbekoy (1967) cited by field (1979). Weight gain and influencing factors Breed, age, sex and amount of milk taken at calf stage, availability of feed and water, occurrence of diseases, and other management aspects influence weight gain.
Breed
Now days in Somalia some breeds of camel are used in the breed description list because of their established rapid weight gain and ease of milking (Andrson, 1993). This shows the greater influence of breed on weight gain for camel. Breeds with lighter birth weight gain weight more rapidly than breeds of heavier weight and they may become physically matured at an earlier age (Table 3) NRCC (1990),
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Production Systems Table 3 Birth and mature weights and average weight gains of three Indian camel breeds Parameter Birth weight (kg) Average gain (g/d) 0-3 months 3-6 months 6-12 months 1-2 years Maturity weight (Kg)
Source: NRCC, 1990
Breed Bikaneri 38.8 642 134 189 669.4 Kutchi 31.8 786 540 290 186 506 Jaisalmeri 31.0 752 458 227 208 580
Age
Fastest rate of weight gain is attained in the early ages of camel and slow down as the age advances to 4-5 years of age, Wilson (1998) (Figure 2). Based on the hypothetical curve developed by Field (1979) maximum weight for female is attained between 12 and 15 years (Fig.3). There after the animal start losing weight. This can be reasoned out, like any other livestock, camel may decrease in efficiency of feed conversion in to product when they advance in age. Furthermore, the mean daily weight gain of camels of 1-3 years of age was significantly higher than mean daily weight gain of camels of 3-4 years of age Bekele and Zeleke (2001) (Table 4). Simpkin (1985) reported similar research result for Kenyan camels. This phenomenon of faster growth of young animals of 1-3 years old of same breed under same management indicate that period of active growth of these animal is in their early days of their life which this activity slow down as the animal advance in age.
Sex
Immature female camels gained significantly higher weight gain than male camel of almost the same age group (Bekele and Zeleke, 2001). This finding is in agreement with the finding of Simpkin (1985) for Kenyan Camels in that female immature camels gain higher daily body weight than male immature camels though male calves grow faster than females until the age of one year. The reason for this could be due to the intrinsic factors that female are early maturing animal than male, and they reach puberty relatively at earlier ages than males. Many physiological changes, which favor development of mammary glands and other reproductive systems, may fasten growth rate of female prior to commencement of puberty stage. In addition to this pastoralists give preferential care for female animals than males, as the production goal of camels under pastoral condition is mainly milk (Field, 1979).
Season
Season is one of the factors, which affect the growth rate in camel like any other livestock. There is greater weight gain in wet season than during dry season. Bekele and Zeleke (2001) reported 50.68- 0.5 gm weight gain per day in wet season where as 41.96 . 58 gm weight gain per day was observed in dry season on immature camel (1-4 years) (Table 4). Greater gain in body weight during wet season may be due to the availability of feed and water, which is relatively scarce during the dry months of the year.
Access to water
Weight gain of restricted access to water has not been well studied. Based on research conducted in India on daily watering over six months a gain of 430 g/day was recorded but camels watered on weekly bases gained 280 g/d (Wilson 1998).
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Ethiopian Society of Animal Production Table 4 Mean Daily weight gain of camels as influenced by sex, age and season in Error Valley, Eastern Ethiopia Factor affecting Sex: Male Female Average Age: I (1-3 Years) II (3-4 years) Average Season: Wet Dry Average
Source: Bekele and Zeleke, 2001
No 13 16
Mean + se 33.24+0.5 +0.6 46.32
19 10
63.12+ 0.45 +0.54 46.32
29 29
+0.54 41.96+ 0.54 46.32
800 700 600 Live weight (Kg) 500 400 300 200
B ik a n e ri J a is a lm e ri
100 0
3. 5 4. 5 5. 5 6. 5 7. 5 8. 5
K u tc h i
9. 5
0. 5
1. 5
2. 5
Ag e
A g e (y e a rs )
Figure 2. Growth curves, based on weight for age, of Camels India showing breed difference (Wilson, 1998)
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>1 0
Production Systems
Management and Nutrition
The growth of indigenous managed camel in northern Kenya was 222 gm/day, while that of camel in an experimentally managed herd was 655 gm/day (Field, 1979). This indicates that if camels are kept under better management condition i.e. good nutrition, proper health and preferential care the animals may be in better body condition. A growth rate of 300-400 gm/day in well-managed indigenous herds would appear to be reasonable working estimate (Payen, 1990). The data available on amount of feed taken by camels (especially, under free range condition) showed difference in intake and weight gain. For instance growing camel of one year old in Tunisia with an intake of 1.6 kg DM/100 kg body weight had resulted in weight gain of 326-526 gm/day. Studies in Egypt have indicated an intake of about 4kg DM per head/day resulting in 214-234 gm /day weight gain (Wilson, 1998)
Health condition
Even though the dromedary camel is known to be hardy, very well adapted to the harsh environment, disease is number one problem which confront pastoralist and affect productivity of camel (Payen, 1990; Brown et al, 1997). Like any other livestock, the effect of this factor is well observed in the early age of the animal. This is due to the competition between calves and pastoralists for milk and the bad habit developed by some pastorals on feeding colostrums for their calves (Field, 1979). The hostile environment in which camel lives is also unfavorable to certain extent to diseases causing organism. In spite of this general reputation for hardiness and resistance (which appear to be true for adult camel) very young camels are susceptible to several problems, and morbidity and mortality can be high. Before weaning age that is 9-12 months of age, mortality rate is very high which is as much as 40% (Wilson 1998). Older camels usually have low death rates about 5 %per year, in comparison with cattle and sheep and even goats (Table 2).
Maturity weight
Breed is one of the factors, which influence maturity weight. Maturity weight ranges between 400 and 800 kg, the smallest breed being the Afar breed and the largest one is Benadir breed, which is restricted to Somalia (Wilson, 1998). On the other hand, Payen (year) report the lightest weight for Afar breed, which is 350 kg, 450-500 kg for most breeds and up to 650 kg in heavy Indian breeds. This can show the effect of breed or type of camels on maturity weight. The effect of management, nutrition and veterinary care can, however, influence the time at which the final weight is reached. This amply shown by Field (1979) in Kenya where Randille-Gabbra camels in traditional pastoralist system do not reach 400-500 kg maturity weight before nine years but they achieve this range at four year under ranch conditions. Male Ogaden camels in south-east Ethiopia weigh about 685 kg at maturity in the traditional system where as female weigh about 525 kg (Payen, 1990).
Reference
Andrson Hjort A.O. (1993) The Multipurpose Camel: Interdisciplinary Studies on Pastoral Production in Somalia, Uppsala, Sweden. Bekele, T. and Zeleke, M. (2001) Growth of the one-humped camel in semi-nomadic households in Errer Valley, eastern Ethiopia, Tropical Agriculture, 78 (3) 206-210 Bremaud, O. (1969) Notes on camel Production in the northern district of the Republic of Kenya.
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Brown, N., Debebe D. and Haphura, R. (1997) A preliminary assessment Of camel production in pastoral region of Ethiopia. A report of collaboration between the MOA, Ethiopia and wild life information Network. The Royal Veterinary College, London, UK, Pp. 6-7 Coppock, D.L. (1993) The Boran Plateau of the Southern Ethiopia: Synthesis of Pastoral Research Development and change, 1980-91, International Livestock Center for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Field, C.R. (1979) Camel growth and Milk production in Mersabite district, Northern Kenya, preliminary report. Pp 217-230 Glynn, L. and Jenen, H. (1983) Time table for Catastrophe: Famine in Africa: News Week, No.10, PP. 140-41 Hjort, Al and Hussein, M.A. (1986) Camel herd dynamics in southern Somalia: Long term development and milk production implications, Camel Forum, Working Paper No. 13, P22 FAO (1989) Production Year Book, Rome, Italy. FAO (1993) Animal Health year book, Rome, Italy, pp.122 NRCC (1990) Annual report, National Research Center on Camel: Bikaner, India.
Payen, W.J.A. (1990) An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics, Tropical Agriculture Series, New York, USA Rutagwenda, T. (1985) The control of important camel disease in the integrated Project of Arid Lands study area. Camel disease and productivity in the arid lands of Northern Kenya. Integrated Project in the Arid lands (IPAL). Technical Report No. 7. Germany. PP.9-70 Sato, S. (1976) Preliminary report of camel ecology among the Rendillein northern Kenya, Mimo, Kyoto University, Japan (Abs) Schwartz, H.J. and Walsh, M.G.H. (1992) The productive potential of camel: The one humped camel in Eastern Africa. A pictorial Guide to disease, Health care and management. Verlag Josef Margraf, Germany. PP.30-60 Schwartz, H.J.; Wilson, A.J.; Dolan, R.; Evans, J.O. and Fairhall, J. (1982) Productivities of camels (Camelus dromedaries) in selected areas of Kenya. Der Praktische Tierarzt. Sonderdruck. (11th edn). pp.63: 964 Simpkin, S.P (1985) The importance of camels to subsistence pastoralist In Kenya. Camel disease and productivity in the arid lands of Northern Kenya. Integrated projects in Arid lands (IPAL) Technical report Number E-7, Germany, pp 163-192 Swift, J. (1979) The development of livestock in a nomad pastoral economy: The Somali case. Proceedings of an International Meeting on Nomadic Pastoralism, Paris, 1976, (Abst.) Watson, R.M. 1972. Results of aerial livestock surveys of Kaputei division, Samburu District and N-E province, Ministry of Finance and Planning, Nairobi, Kenya Wilson, R.T. (1983) Studies on the livestock of southern Daarfur, Sudan: A comparison of productivity indices for goats and sheep. Trop. Animal Health Prod. 15:63-68
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Wilson, R.T. (1984) The camel, Longman, London, pp 153 154 Wilson R.T 1998, camels, Basingstoke, London, pp 108-115
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Exotic Dairy Breed Turns into Exhausted Dairy Breed When Forced to Reproduce, Lactate and Perform Work at the Same Time: On-Farm Testing of Multipurpose Breed, Experience from Holetta Area.
C.E.S. Larsen1, T. Kumsa2 and Azage Tegegne3
1Royal
Veterinary and Agricultural University (KVL), 2 Groennegaardsvej, DK-1870 Frederiksberg Denmark Agricultural Research Organisation (EARO), P.O. Box 2003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O. Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
2Ethiopian
3International
Abstract
Farming systems based on ox-cultivation is a millennium old tradition in Ethiopia. However, this farming system with its in high demand for grazing land, has come under increased pressure during the last century. Means of intensifying the mixed crop and livestock farming systems, which is predominant in the highlands, has to be found if Ethiopia shall escape the downward spiral of overexploitation, soil erosion and famine. A possible way could be to increase the livestock biodiversity by substituting the local Zebu oxen with more appropriated breeds of cows both capable of performing work, reproduce and give milk. In 1988 EARO and ILRI sat up a joint venture research programme at Holetta Research Station to test this idea. F1 crosses of Boran x Simmental and Boran x Frisian were used in the experiment. On-station research conducted from 1988 1995 showed that using these breeds of crossbred dairy cows for both milk production and draught work was a feasible technology as long as the increased energy requirement was met by adequate feeding. On-farm research conducted from 1995 1998 with only Boran x Frisian crosses included 50 farmers stratified in three different resource endowment groups showed that short-term uptake of the dairy-draught technology was low. During the trial only 10% of all trial land were tillage by crossbred cows and the use of crossbred cows for work halted completely shortly after the end of the trial. In terms of on-farm milk production the introduction of crossbred cows had a significant impact, increasing revenue from milk sale increased up to ten times, compared to the traditional system with only zebu cows. Milk yields differed significantly among resource endowment groups with cows from rich farmers performing best followed by cows from medium and poor farmers, respectively. Days to first post partum oestrus and calving interval were similar for the groups, but tended to increase over time. The reasons for low uptake of draught part of the technology were numerous, the most important being: Unwillingness to use the cows for ploughing, inadequate feeding, no alternative investment opportunities, land scarcity not perceived as a prevailing problem in the area and the chosen research approach. The question also remains if heavy Boran x Frisian crosses is the right breed for small-scale farmers.
Keywords: dairy draught, breeds, on-farm, uptake indicators, Ethiopia
Introduction
For millenniums draught oxen have been used for ploughing and threshing in the Ethiopian Highlands. Smallholder mixed farming is still the dominant mode of production. Today, an estimated eight to nine million oxen cultivate around 90% of the arable land in the Ethiopian Highlands (Astatke, 1993). The drawback of this system, seen from an efficiency perspective, is that draught oxen only work for approximately 60 - 70 days a year according to Gryseels & Anderson (1987) and Agyemang, et al. (1991), while they must be fed year-round, competing with other livestock for scarce feed resources (Astatke, 1985). At the same time with the increase in human and livestock population the traditional draught ox dependent mixed crop and livestock farming systems have come under increased pressure (Larsen, et al., 2000; Larsen, 2002).
Several authors suggested in the 1980s that the use of crossbred dairy cows for traction as a supplement or substitute to oxen could benefit total farm output and income (Gryseels & Goe, 1984; ILCA, 1986; Gryseels & Anderson, 1987; Matthewman, 1987). Substantial research in the 1990s has broadened the knowledge on crossbred cows' physiological response to work. Zerbini, et al (1993b) found that crossbred cows, which were not fed adequately but still forced to work almost completely seized to cycle and became open non productive cows. However, if cows were fed adequately Zerbini, et al (1993b) found that the effect of work on milk production was insignificant while there was a delay in occurrence of first visual oestrous. This was mainly due to silent oestrus rather than anestrus. Research done by Abate (1994); Chimonyo, et al. (2000a); Chimonyo, et al. (2000b) support these findings. According to Gemeda, et al. (1995); Zerbini, et al. (1996) and Zerbini & Gebrewold (1999) work had no effect on a pregnancy once established. Work, however, did delay conception with approximately one day per working day (Zerbini, et al., 1993a) for well fed cows. Lawrence & Pearson (2002) suggested as a 'rule of thumb' that the energy expenditure of one day of work is the equivalent to one kilo of live weight gain or the production of four to five litre of milk. Most of this research had been done with Boran x Frisian crosses, and focus seems to have been on testing the ability of cows to work. There has so far not been any testing of different breeds in order to find the one most suitable for performing multiple on-farm tasks. ILRI and EARO initiated in 1988 a joint research programme on dairy-draught technology. Surveys made in the central highlands of Ethiopia in the 1980's revealed that approximately half the farmers had insufficient draught power (Gryseels, 1988; Belete, et al., 1993). It is argued by Whalley & Astatke (1980) and Agyemang, et al. (1991) that in order to maintain a pair of working oxen operational at all times, the farmer needs to keep a follower herd of breeding cows and replacement animals of some 8 - 16 heads of cattle. However, in the research area the ratio was closer to 4 - 5 support animals per pair of oxen (Larsen, 2002). The idea of the introduction of dairy-draught animals in the form of crossbred Boran x Frisian cows was to offer farmers a 'win win' situation. Through the use of the technology farmers would be able to improve their income and livelihood by selling milk plus increase home consumption and at the same time be able to do timely planting by using the crossbred cows as additional source of draught power. The long-term objective was that farmers would use the cows to an extent that would make the use of oxen obsolete, and that farmers thereby would reduce the stocking number per farm and thus ease the pressure on the natural resources (ILCA, et al., 1993). The reason for choosing Boran x Frisian crosses was mainly a matter of availability rather than a conscious choice. The bulk of the animals had to be purchased in neighbouring Kenya duo to lack of efficient breeding programmes in Ethiopia.

Location The research was carried out from March 1995 to June 1999 in the vicinity of the Holetta Agricultural Research Centre of the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organisation (EARO). It is situated at an altitude of 2400 m and receives an annual rainfall of 1060 mm. About 70% fall in the main rainy season, between June and September, and the remaining 30% are distributed from February to March. The mean minimum and maximum temperatures are 6 and 220C, respectively and frost occurs occasionally.
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Production Systems
Farmers Analysis is based on data from fifty farms. All participating farmers were stratified into three resource endowment groups: relatively Rich, Medium and Poor farmers. The selection and stratification criteria included; land and livestock holdings, livestock type, family size/labour availability, total farm assets and location. Animals Hundred and twenty F1 in calf crossbred heifers (Friesian x Boran) were used for the trial. The heifers were paired and allocated to farmers (one pair each) in the three resource endowment groups using a stratified random sampling procedure with pregnancy stage, body size and body condition score as blocking variables. Different surveys made by International Livestock Centre Africa (ILCA) in the1980s in Ethiopia showed great variation in herd composition between localities. Looking at the Holetta area herd composition, this has a substantial higher number of farmers with two or more oxen than the national average. Very few small-scale farmers in the Holetta area have any crossbred animals and if so it is almost entirely with Friesian blood. Measurements Data collection started in March 1995 and continued until the end of 1998. Trained enumerators were posted out in the trial area among the farmers. They stayed in the trial area for six days a week. The following measurements were taken on recording days: Draught work: Area covered, type of pass and time for both crossbred cows and local oxen. Milk yield: With measure cup twice daily. Milk suckled by calf was not measured.
Feed: Feed type amount of feed offered and refused for each cows was registered. Number of pasture hours was also recorded. Monthly records were made on: Reproduction: Enumerators recorded reproductive parameters such as heat and calving. Weight: Monthly using a battery driven Barlo Scale (model BS-410).
BCS: Monthly body condition scores according to Nicholson & Butterworth (1986) 1-9 BCS system (1-3 lean, 4-6 medium and 7-9 fat). Statistical design and analysis The indicators for uptake of the draught part of the dairy-draught technology are mainly based on the work performance of the crossbred cows and milk yield. Differences in milk yield, lactation length, calving interval, post partum anestrus period, days open and working days were analysed using the General Linear Model PROC GLM procedure (SAS, 2000). Parity was treated as an independent variable since complete data existed for the first two parities only. Milk yield, lactation length, calving interval, post partum anestrus period, days open and working days were analysed as main effects and only significant interactions were included. The farmers location has been treated as a random effect, since the trial framers were spread over a relatively large area representing different conditions for production and access to markets.
Additional services in the trial area
It was clear from the onset of the trial that keeping the large framed Boran x Friesian crossbred dairy cows was in it self a major change in the farming system. To ease this part of the technology uptake which was a prerequisite for testing the use of crossbred cows for draught work a number of services were offered to the farmers: Secured market outlet for fresh milk; Extra
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veterinary services with subsidised prices on drugs; Concentrate feed supply at subsidised prices; Free supply of improved seeds for forage production; Improved access to artificial insemination (AI); Frequent field visits and training sessions by research staff. It is impossible to estimate the effect of these support services, but they should be taken into account when evaluating the potential cost/benefit ratio of the technology. The fact that the level of support gradually decreased during the trial period was most likely a contributing factor to the observed decline in productivity over time. As the trial progressed it became evident that even with the above-mentioned support, farmers were unable to meet the basic feed requirements of crossbred cows. Additional interventions in the farming system were therefore initiated in the form of: Free supply of concentrate and minerals in periods with severe feed shortages (amount not measured but around 50 kg per farmer during the trial) and hormone treatment on non-cycling crossbred cows (33% of all crossbred cows in 1996). Again it is difficult to estimate the impact of these interventions, but they must be taken into account when interpreting the data. The feed support was relatively limited and would probably have minor effect while the hormone treatment was a drastic intervention.
Results
Work as an indicator of uptake of draft technology During the trial crossbred cows rarely contributed more than 10% of the total work requirement for land tillage. On average, it only amounted to 7.3 % of the total workload for ploughing during the three cropping seasons in the trial period (Table 1). The second cropping season in the trial period was the year when all farmers regardless of resource endowments used their crossbred cows most for work. However, a trend of increasing utilisation of draught animals was never established. On the contrary, all farmers used their cows less in the third cropping season, probably partly due to a dry spell caused by the nearly complete absence of the short rains in 1997. As shown in figure 1 the total area ploughed in the third cropping season was only half of that ploughed in the previous two cropping seasons. Two cropping seasons after the termination of the trial the use of crossbred cows for work had stopped.
Table 1. Use of cow traction throughout the trial period according to resource endowment groups, measured as total area ploughed in m2 by pairs of crossbred cows and pairs of oxen by resource endowment group and cropping season. The figures here do not correspond with land holding sizes since fields were ploughed three to five times before seeding. Cropping season Cropping year Group 1. Rich 2. Medium 3. Poor Avg. all Cows 5601 2513 1356 3192 1 1995/96 Oxen 89231 64773 38121 64042 By cows 6% 4% 4% 5% Cows 6567 7186 2890 5600 2 1996/97 Oxen 73304 46617 30693 50205 By cows 8% 13% 9% 10% Cows 1315 3462 401 1752 3 1997/98 Oxen 45463 27740 15963 29722 By cows 3% 11% 3% 6% 13438 13161 4647 51%* Total area m2 ploughed by cows
*=Amount of work done in the drought year 1997/98 compared to the average for the two pervious years
The share of ploughing conducted by the crossbred cows was almost the same for the rich and the poor farmers throughout the trial period. Whereas, the amount of work in m2 ploughed were significantly higher (P<0.05) for the rich than for the poor farmers (table 1) and for medium farmers compared to the poor (P<0.1). While the amount of work accomplished was the same for
Production Systems
the rich and medium farmers, however, the medium group had a substantially higher proportion of the land ploughed by crossbred cows in the second and third cropping seasons compared to the rich and poor farmers. The biggest difference was in the third cropping season with a four times larger share of work conducted by cows owned by medium farmers. In the third cropping season poor farmers hardly used their cows for any heavy fieldwork.
16000 14000 12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0 1 9 9 5 /9 6 1 9 9 6 /9 7 1 9 9 7 /9 8 T o ta l
1 . R ic h 2 . M e d iu m 3. Poor
Figure 1. Total area ploughed annually in square meters by pairs of crossbred cows by resource endowment groups and cropping season.
Almost one quarter or 22 % of the farmers did not use crossbred cows for any work (Figure 2). Two post trial surveys showed a rapid decline in the number of farmers using crossbred cows for ploughing. Three years after the termination of the trial the number had seized to zero (Kumsa, 2002).
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1995/96 1996/97 1997/98 1998/99* 2000/01** Never used
1. Rich 2. Medium 3. Poor
Figure 2. Percentage of farmers using their cows for working by resource endowment groups and cropping season. * = Source (Shapiro & Misgina, 1998), ** = Source (Kumsa, 2002).
Milk yield as indicators of uptake of technology The total milk yield during the four years trial period for the three resource endowment groups was calculated (Table 2). The overall average was 3261 kg milk within the four years, ranging from 575 to 9176 litres. Cows owned by rich farmers had significantly higher yields than cows owned by poor (P<0.0001) and medium farmers (P<0.05). Cows owned by medium farmers tended to have higher milk yield than those owned by the poor farmers though the difference did not reach significance. The variation in milk yield was much higher among cows owned by rich and medium farmers than those owned by the poor farmers.
171
Ethiopian Society of Animal Production Table 2. Total milk yield for crossbred cows in the four years trial period by resource endowment (cows that died in the trial period has been excluded). Milk yield 1. Rich 2. Medium 3. Poor 3915 2969 2328 (N=) (35) (34) (30) P 0.0154 0.1110 0.0001 CV 0.408 0.370 0.521 Group comparison 1:2 2:3 3:1 Range in milk yield 893 - 9176 575 - 7362 891 4364
Reproduction as indicators of uptake of technology Table 3 shows the problems that trial farmers had in getting crossbred cows pregnant and subsequently into milk production. On average, crossbred cows had more than 200 days to first detected post partum oestrus. During the four years trial period farmers managed only to get six percent of the crossbred cows into fourth lactation. None of the crossbred cows owned by rich farmers, medium or poor farmers attained fourth lactation. The poor farmers managed to get less than two-thirds of the crossbred cows pregnant again, after first lactation and only 10 % of their crossbred cows reached third lactation.
Table 3. Percentages of crossbred cows reaching different lactation stages during the four years trial period by resource endowment group. Lac. 2 1. Rich 2. Medium 3. Poor 89 % 71 % 65 % Lac. 3 31 % 26 % 10 % Lac. 4 6%
Ability to maintain body weight as an indicator of uptake of technology Looking at body condition scores (BCS) for crossbred cows during the trial period the score at first calving was significantly higher (P<0.01) than at second calving (4.0 and 3.1, respectively). As shown in Figure 3 crossbred cows did not start to gain substantial body weight before late 1997 to early 1998, after the drought in early to mid 1997. Despite the fact that cows were provided as first calvers, they did not gain any weight for the first three years living at farm condition. ' Crossbred cows owned by poor farmers had consistently lower body weight throughout the trial period than those owned by medium and rich farmers. However, the differences did not reach significance.
380 370 360 350 340 330 320 310 300 290
C R -9 7 D P97 D ro ug ht -9 7 G P97 C R -9 6 D P96 W LP -9 6 G P96 95 P95 C R -9 8 D P98 W LP -9 8 LP G
Rich Medium Poor
Figure 3. Weight changes during the four years trial period by resource endowment groups. CR = Crop residues, DR =
Dry pastures, WLP = Water-locked pastures, GP = Good pastures,
172
Production Systems
Ability to follow feeding recommendation as an indicator of uptake of technology With regard to feeding regime, farmers had contractually agreed to plant 0.5 ha with a mixture of oat and vetch, which should be harvested at early maturity for improved hay production. Farmers also agreed to plant various fodder plants in their backyards. These were Napier grass, fodder beets, and multipurpose trees like Sesbania and Tagasaste. On top of this, farmers were recommended to use purchased concentrate feeds, at a rate of two kg per day during lactation and one kilo per day during the late dry and early wet season. All of this was aimed at boosting milk production and secure that the crossbred cows were kept in a healthy body condition so they could perform work without negative effect on the other production traits. Figure 4 showing the use of purchased concentrate can be taken as an example of the trend in feeding of crossbred cows during the trial period. In the first trial year farmers more or less followed the recommendation. However, already in the second year the amount decreased significantly (P<0.05) and continued to decrease. The only exception was the rich farmers in the last year. In figure 5 all the different feed sources are put together. It clearly shows that there is a differentiation over time between resource endowment groups. After giving more or less the same amount of feed in terms of DM to the crossbred cows in the first two years, poor farmers gave significantly less during the drought year 1997 (P<0.01). The difference became even more significant in 1998 where rich farmers partially managed to recover feeding regime, the medium farmers' recovered insignificantly, while the poor farmers remained on a very low level of supplementation.
2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 Rich Medium Poor
Figure 4. Feeding with purchased feed in kilo DM per day per crossbred cow, by resource endowment groups.
8.5 7.5 6.5 5.5 4.5 3.5 1995 1996 1997 1998 Rich Medium Poor
Figure 5. Total supplementation in kilo DM per day per crossbred cow, by resource endowment groups.
173
Discussion
The idea of substituting draught oxen with crossbred cows fulfilling multiple tasks including ploughing and other farm work in a smallholder mixed crop and livestock farming system in the central Highlands of Ethiopia did not show promising results within a five-year time span. The large body framed Boran x Friesian crosses, with a high maintenance requirement, were not adequately fed to ensure energy and protein to the many different tasks they were expected to fulfil. The resulting poor nutritional status had negative consequences on reproduction with delayed cycling after calving resulting in long calving intervals. The long calving intervals and the many days open had a negative effect on overall milk production in the four years trial period, and reduced the lifetime milk production from the high potential crossbred dairy cows. Having said that the milk output from these cows were still almost ten times higher than what is found in local cows. The higher milk production meant a significant increase in revenue from milk production and improvement of the nutritional status of the family (Shapiro, et al., 1998). In terms of the dairy part of the technology the project was quite successful seen from the farmers perspective. From the perspective of research it is not really cutting edge science to prove that the introduction of superior crossbred dairy cows in areas with a secured milk outlet will improve farmer income. This has already been firmly established. However, the huge variation in the ability to utilise the production potential of the crossbred cows, especially among resource rich farmers does indicate that there is a potential for a very intensive dairy production under smallholder production conditions. This potential seems not to be fully utilised at present. With regard to the main objective of the on-farm trial Testing farmers attitude to use cows for fieldwork like ploughing, harrowing and seedbed preparation, the results seem less promising. According to Pankhurst (1993) the anthropological survey conducted prior to the on-farm testing reviled that 80% of the farmers did not believe that cows could work and at the same time perform all its other tasks. However, the remaining 20% of the interviewed farmers were willing to test the idea. In 1993 to 1995 a pilot trial was set up and a group of farmers volunteered to test the technology, 14 of these were selected for the trial (seven for dairy-draught and seven for dairy only). At a later stage it was discovered that all the farmers in the trial belonged to the more resource rich farmers in the community therefore the trial was accordingly biased. In 1995 the on-farm testing trial was set up looking for 60 farmers to participate within all resource endowment groups. At this time it was not difficult to find farmers interested in participating in the trial, regardless of resource endowments. According to Pankhurst (1996) the reason was not so much being interest in cow traction but interest in obtaining a pair of crossbred Boran x Friesian cows at subsidised price, plus having the possibility of all the other benefits the project was offering the participating farmers. The condition that cows had to be used for traction during the trial years (1995 1998) was according to Pankhurst (1996) more seen as a constraining conditionality than a window of opportunity by the farmers. Having said that, it was clear that many of the farmers who actually used the cows for traction did recognised the potential of the crossbred cows as traction animals. Especially some of the poor and medium farmers could avoid some of the high cost of hiring oxen to prepare the land. Other farmers either used the cows for fieldwork very sporadically or not at all. The dry spell in 1997 negatively affected the condition of the cows and farmers did not want to put additional pressure on the animals. In the subsequent cropping season farmers were no longer forced to use the cows for ploughing and as a consequence only 20% of the farmers were using their cows in the field (Shapiro and Misgina, 1998). Three years after the termination of the project all farmers had stoped the practice of using the cows for fieldwork (Kumsa, 2002).
Production Systems
The original hypothesis that farmers gradually would substitute their oxen with crossbred cows was not proved during the relatively short trial period. On the contrary, some poor and medium farmers with one or no ox at the onset of the trial used the revenue generated by crossbred cows (milk sale and offspring) to purchase draught oxen prior to the ploughing season. These draught oxen were often sold again shortly after. The likelihood of adoption in the medium to long-term among the participating farmers seems not likely. Especially as many of the involved farmers had sold or lost their crossbred cows at the time of the post-trial survey (Shapiro and Misgina, 1998). A wider dissemination of the technology seems more or less impossible in present day Ethiopia, as very few farmers have access to crossbred cows let alone a stable market for fresh milk. The situation is, of course, slightly better in the peri-urban areas like Holetta. But the cost of crossbred cows is often beyond the scope of most small-scale farmers (Gryseels, 1988; Abate, 1994). The coping strategy of the farmers seems to be, that if they can afford crossbred cows they will rather use them solely for milk production and then use the revenue for hiring draught power in the form of oxen. One of the reasons for this coping strategy seemed to be that the use of crossbred cows for ploughing was not widely accepted in the community. Cows could not be used in the traditional exchange of ploughing among families and friends and some of the farmers using cows for work have been reported to be socially isolated, others rejected from membership of traditional saving arrangements. Despite several anthropological surveys in connection with the on-farm trial the social and cultural concerns of the farmers did not seem to have been accordingly incorporated in the research design. In an attempt to understand the farmers more technical hesitation towards using crossbred cow for ploughing it might be relevant to look into some of the underlying factors. The relatively low milk yield, the prolonged calving intervals, low body condition and high mortality rate are clear indications that farmers faced difficulty in managing the crossbred cows. The amount of metabolisable energy and crude protein provided through traditional feed sources like crop residues and pasture can at the best, maintain the heavy Boran x Friesian crossbred cows. The supplementation with homegrown and purchased concentrate decreased throughout the trial with decreasing milk yields and prolonged anoestrus periods as a result. Previous on-station research had clearly shown that non-supplemented crossbred cows can not perform work without severe negative impact on especially reproduction, but also on daily milk production (Zerbini, et al., 1993a). These results have been confirmed by on-farm research in Ethiopia (Alemayehu, et al., 1998) and Zimbabwe (Chimonyo, et al., 2000b). The ability of smallholder farmers to feed crossbred cows adequately was a crucial pre-assumption for a successful adoption of dairy-draught technology (ILCA, et al., 1993). Therefore, different feeding packages were included in the test of the technology. The main focus was on home-grown forages but farmers were reluctant to integrate forage production in their cropping system. Allocation of 10 - 20 percent of the arable land to non-food production was completely new to the farmers. At the same time it represented a higher degree of risk for a small-scale farmer family living on or below the poverty line. The backyard production never reached a level where it had any detectable impact on production. Feeding with concentrate was also a difficult enterprise. Availability, variation in quality, prices fluctuation and transport cost of concentrate were big constraints for the farmers. Thus on top of the social and cultural constraints the amount of technical requirements for farmers trying to adopt the use of Boran x Friesian crossbred cows just for reproduction and milk production were so overwhelming that using the cows for work was beyond the ability of both the cows and the farmers.
References
Abate, E. 1994. Effect of work and energy supplementation on the oestrous cycle length and ovarian activity in crossbred cows used for draught. M.Sc. Thesis, Alemaya University of Agriculture. Diri Dawa Ethiopia. 114 pp. Agyemang, K, A Astatke, FM Anderson, and WW Mariam. 1991. Effects of work on reproductive and productive performance of crossbred dairy cows in the Ethiopian highlands. Tropical Animal Health and Production 23:(4) 241-249. Alemayehu, M, A Gebrewold, A Tegegne, E Zerbini, and CES Larsen. 1998. Dairy-draught on-farm performance of crossbred cows in Holetta area. In: Proceedings of 'The 6th ESAP conference - women and animal production'. 14-15 May 1998, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Ethiopian Society of Animal Production. p. 232-240. Astatke, A. 1985. Animal Traction Research in Ethiopia. In: Proceedings of 'Workshop for Review of the Status of Livestock, Pasture and Forage Research in Ethiopia'. 8-10 January 1985, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. ILCA. From microfiche. Astatke, A. 1993. Research on the draught animal power systems in Ethiopia. In: Proceedings of 'Research for development of animal traction in West Africa. Proceedings of the fourth workshop of the West Africa Animal Traction Network.'. Lawrence PR, Lawrence K, Dijkman JT, and Starkey PH (Eds.). 9 - 13 July 1990, Kano, Nigeria. ILCA. 199-204. Chimonyo, M, N Kusina, H Hamudikuwanda, Y Nyoni, and I Ncube. 2000a. Effect of dietary supplementation and work stress on ovarian activity in non-lactating Mashona cows in small-holding farming area in Zimbabwe. Animal Science 70: 317-323. Chimonyo, M, NT Kusina, H Hamudikuwanda, and O Nyoni. 2000b. Reproductive Performance and body weight changes in draught cows in a smallholder semi-arid farming area of Zimbabwe. Tropical Animal Health and Production 32: 405-415. Gemeda, T, E Zerbini, A Gebrewold, and D Demissie. 1995. Effect of work and diet on body weight change, body condition and lactation performance of F1 crossbred cows used for draught. In: Proceedings of 'Third National Conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production'. 27 - 29 Apr. 1995, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Ethiopian Society of Animal Production. p. 123-134. Gryseels, G. 1988. Role of livestock on mixed smallholder farms in the Ethiopian Highlands. Ph.D. Thesis, Wageningen University. The Netherlands. 245 pp. Gryseels, G, and FM Anderson. 1987. Use of crossbred dairy cows as draught animals: experiences from the Ethiopian highlands . In: Proceedings of 'Research methodology for livestock on farm trials'. TL Nordblom, AEJH Ahmed, and GR Potts (Eds.). 1985, Aleppo, Syria. International Development Research Centre. 237-58. Gryseels, G, and MR Goe. 1984. Energy flows on smallholder farms in the Ethiopian highlands. ILCA Bulletin 17: 2-9. ILCA. 1986. 1985/86: Annual report. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: ILCA. 79 pp. ILCA, IAR, and MoA. 1993. The use of crossbred cows for milk production and draught power in smallholder mixed farming systems in the Ethiopian Highlands. Ethiopia: ILCA. 56 pp. Kumsa, T. 2002. On-farm use of multi-purpose F1 crossbred cows in the crop/livestock mixed highlands production system of Ethiopia. Ph.D. Thesis, Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University (KVL). Copenhagen, Denmark. 215 pp.
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Larsen, CES. 2002. Adoption of crossbred cows used for dairy-draught technology in Ethiopia. Ph.D. Thesis, KVL. Copenhagen, Denmark. 137 pp. Larsen, CES, E Zerbini, A Tegegne, A Gebrewold, T Kumsa, and M Alemayehu. 2000. Crossbred dairy cows use for traction - Experience from the Ethiopian highlands a mixed crop-livestock farming system. In: Proceedings of 'Integrated Livestock - Crop Production Systems in the Smallholder Farming System in Zimbabwe'. Sibanda S, and Kusina NT (Eds.). 10-13 January 2000, Harare, Zimbabwe. University of Zimbabwe. 235-246. Lawrence, PR, and RA Pearson. 2002. Use of draught animal power on small mixed farms in Asia. Agricultural Systems 71: 99-110. Matthewman, RW. 1987. Role and potential of draught cows in tropical farming systems: A review. Tropical Animal Health and Production 19:(4) 215-22. Pankhurst, A. 1993. Anthropological survey. Crossbred cows for dairy production and traction. A report based on case studies of 52 farmers and their attitudes to the Holetta project. Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). ILCA. 1993. 162 P. Pankhurst, A. 1996. Anthropological survey. For dairy production and traction. A report based on case studies of 131 farmers and their attitudes to the Holetta project. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: ILRI. 95 pp. SAS. 2000. The SAS system version 8e. SAS Institute Inc. NC. USA. Shapiro, BI, and A Misgina. 1998. Preliminary results of dairy-draught use in on-farm trials and adoption. ILRI, Ethiopia.12 pp. Unpublished. Whalley, J, and A Astatke. 1980. Animal Traction in Ethiopia and ILCA's Research Programme in Animal Traction. 7pp. Zerbini, E, and A Gebrewold. 1999. Effect of work applied at different stages of lactation on milk production, reproduction and live-weight change of F1 crossbred dairy cows used for draught. Animal Science 69:(3) 473-480. Zerbini, E, A Gebrewold, and T Gemeda. 1996. Effect of dietary repletion on reproductive activity in cows after a long anoestrous period. Animal Science 62:(2) 217-223. Zerbini, E, T Gemeda, R Franceschini, J Sherington, and A Gebrewold. 1993a. Reproductive performance of F1 crossbred dairy cows used for draught: effect of work and diet supplementation. Animal Production 57:(3) 361-368. Zerbini, E, T Gemeda, A Tegegne, A Gebrewold, and R Franceschini. 1993b. Effects of work and diet on progesterone secretion, short luteal phases and ovulations without estrus in postpartum F1 crossbred dairy cows. Theriogenology 40:(3) 571-584.
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ANIMAL BREEDING/REPRODUCTION
Community-Based Animal Genetic Resources Conservation: Lessons and Practical Applications

Nigatu Alemayehu*, Getachew Gebru and Adam G. Drucker International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), PO Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Abstract
This paper describes the importance of the community-based management of animal genetic resources and, based on existing participatory community-level projects, identifies crucial elements for the successful implementation of such programmes. These include: increased public awareness, promoting the use of participatory skills, improved natural resource management, increased consideration of gender issues, improved indigenous breed commercialisation and marketing, and an appropriate enabling environment (i.e. policies and institutions). A methodology for implementing such programmes in Ethiopia is then presented together with some of the difficulties that need to be overcome in the establishment of participatory programmes, as well as the specific interventions that are required at a number of different levels.
Introduction
Domestic animal diversity is the result of the way in which communities of farmers and pastoralists manage their animal genetic resources (AnGR) in their respective habitats, according to their own preferences and needs. Breeds have thus developed over time in traditional societies without herd books and scientific interventions (Khler-Rollefson, 2001) An effective participatory approach in the community-based management (CBM) of AnGR facilitates the participation of all stakeholders in order to build consensus on AnGR management priorities that need to be addressed, with a view to alleviating poverty and improving food security within the community. Achieving such goals through the conservation/sustainable use of AnGR depends on the ability of communities to decide on and implement appropriate breeding strategies. Such participatory or CBM of AnGR is especially important as, in addition to the fact that CBM plays an important role in other aspects of natural resource management, such communities: a) have a vested interest in AnGR conservation given the importance of livestock diversity in maintaining their livelihoods; b) are best-placed to manage these resources as they own them; c) have developed a deep understanding of what it takes to sustainably utilize them; d) have the most to lose in the event of loss of their AnGR; and e) consequently have a commitment to the effective management of these resources so long as the proper support and incentives are made available to them (Hagman and Drews, 2001). The objective of this paper is to describe a number of participatory AnGR management experiences in order to identify the lessons learned for the practical application of CBM of AnGR on a wider scale, including in Ethiopia.
Existing experiences with the CBM of AnGR and Lessons Learned

Although there is considerable experience with regard to the community-based conservation of natural resources in general, only a few examples of such programmes focussing on AnGR exist. These include: a community-based conservation programme for Hu sheep in China. Following a government
declaration prohibiting the breeding of any type of sheep other than the Hu sheep in its main habitat, farmers in the region were encouraged to apply indigenous knowledge related to Hu sheep management, keep good records on pedigree and performance, as well as replace culled animals with purebred young stock. Farmers benefit from the sale of meat, hides and wool, as well as through the traditional application of sheep manure to fruit trees (Ruine, 1990). in the Chakranagar region of Uttar Pradesh, India, a community-based approach was also encouraged by the government in order to conserve the near extinct Jamunapari goat. Farmers were encouraged to breed these local goats, assist with milk recording and monitor the performance of other breeds in exchange for veterinary and management advice with respect to animal housing, parasite and disease control. This was to be combined with future progeny testing and breed improvement using the village flocks (Bhattacharyya, 1990). in Vietnam, endangered purebred indigenous I-pigs have been distributed to farmers. The goal of the project is to evaluate farmers perceptions, their acceptance of the programme and assess the comparative economic benefits of keeping local breeds of pigs. Results will be used to assess the possibility of extending the approach to other breeds, such as the Mong Cai and Meo (Kohler-Rollefson, 2000). a number of African programmes designed to conserve and improve disease resistant strains, particularly with regard to trypanotolerant NDama cattle in the Republic of Guinea. work with heart water resistant Tswana sheep, goats and cattle in Botswana (Henson, 1992).
In seeking to establish CBM of AnGR projects in Ethiopia, a number of critical elements for success can be identified from the above projects. Public awareness Public support for AnGR conservation activities is important and can be achieved through awareness-raising activities, including through the use of mass media and, more formally, curriculum development. Community participation The Convention on Biological Diversity advocates an in-situ approach to conservation and sustainable use, and putting this into practice requires interventions at the community-level, as has been recognised by GTZ, ILRI and partners (Hagman and Drews, 2001). In turn, this requires the empowerment of local communities, through an improvement of their analytical, technical, managerial and organisational skills to sustainably manage AnGR. Consideration of gender issues Small ruminants and chickens in smallholder systems are usually raised by women. Therefore, women in rural areas are important both as participants and beneficiaries of AnGR conservation activities. For example, breeding centres for local livestock and poultry were established and managed by women in the Marathwada region of Paithan Taluka, India (Henson, 1992). Natural resource management AnGR conservation depends on the sustainable management of feed sources (including pastures) and other ecosystem resources critical for the maintenance of specific breeds (Gupta, 1996). Potential activities include enhancing the production and development of forage pasture and watering points. Commercialisation and marketing Markets can provide powerful incentives for the conservation of specific breeds of livestock, particularly where they lead to the improved commercialisation of indigenous breed livestock and
Animal Breeding/Reproduction
their products. Examples of niche markets that could be developed for certain products in Ethiopia include: the meat and eggs of local chicken, which are rated highly by Ethiopian consumers; and Bati Genuine goat and sheepskin from breeds in Northeast Ethiopia traditionally used for the preparation of Birana religious manuscripts. Policy and Institutional Environment The conservation and sustainable use of indigenous breeds requires an adequate enabling environment. In many countries this requires infrastructure development and institutional strengthening (e.g. Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Environment, etc.). In this context, reorientation of associated extension workers and Artificial Insemination Centres away from inappropriate crossbreeding towards developing local livestock breeds within the context of ecological constraints is also important. Additional components of an enabling environment include the promotion of marketing facilities and farmer organizations, and the establishment of revolving funds for group breeding schemes, open nucleus or adequate grading systems (Wollny, 2002). Furthermore, the establishment of livestock breed societies and breed shows can play a role in creating incentives for conservation. Finally, governments need to provide secure land rights, particularly with regard to the right of access and movement of pastoral communities across political boundaries. Taking these critical elements into account, the following methodological approach may be adopted
A methodological approach to establishing the CBM of AnGR

The need to involve the community necessitates a conceptual framework for the participatory management of AnGR (Mhlanga, 2002) such as that shown in Figure 1. During the macro and meta phases diagnostic surveys are carried out regarding the communitys AnGR and their indigenous knowledge (IK) on livestock management. This is followed by a planning and implementation phase. Finally, phases related to evaluation and recommendations for scaling-up take place. Macro Level The macro phase requires the participation of a wide range of stakeholders in the realisation of on-farm surveys that cover breed physical description, population dynamics and management (Baker, 1992). During this stage problems affecting particular breeds are also be identified. Examples of macro level diagnoses are the goat breed survey of Ethiopia and Eritrea (FARM Africa, 1996) and the Oromia Livestock Genetic Resources survey (ILRI, 2003). Meta level Detailed and periodic on-farm monitoring of identified breeds takes place under the meta phase and is designed to allow comparisons of the breed's mean and variance for physical traits, performance, health, adaptation, etc. (Baker, 1992). A typical example of this type of survey is the work done on Menz and Horo sheep by Mukasa-Mugerwa et al. (2002), Asmamaw (2001), Mekoya et al (2000), Negussie et al (2000) Ermias et al (1998) and Torto, (1996). However, most of these studies have been carried out on-station rather than at the farm level.
183
Macro-Phase: Rapid survey of AnGR and indigenous knowledge
Diagnosis
Meta Phase: Continuous survey on AnGR and management
Planning Stage: Design strategies for AnGR conservation
Micro Phase: Community and on- station characterization and conservation, including establishment of breed societies
Evaluation: Assessment of economic, genetic, social and cultural merits.
Recommendations for scaling up: Successful AnGR management conservation technologies identified for dissemination to other communities
Figure 1: A conceptual framework for the CBM of AnGR
184
Planning level Stakeholders must be involved in the design of AnGR management strategies at the community level. Tasks that need to be carried out include the following (Mhlanga, 2002):
1.
2. 3.
Elaboration of a plan of action based on the needs and interests of the community members, and compatible with their capacities and the existing policy/institutional environment. Identification of priority activities. Selection of priority areas.
Micro level Based upon the information gathered at the macro, meta and planning phases, group/nucleus breeding schemes for various livestock species can be established through the active participation of stakeholders. Initial capital investment is required and the breeding schemes must be set up in close collaboration with local administrators, extension officers, researchers and community members. Criteria for the selection of animals into the nucleus herd/flock in terms of growth, reproduction, production, adaptive traits, etc. must be agreed upon. It will also be necessary to keep up-to-date records of herds/flocks, correctly identify individual animals, provide supplementary feed to the animals in time of scarcity and keep the animals in good health. The breeding scheme might work as follows. The animals that constitute the nucleus will be used for mating. To ensure that the nucleus does not diminish, farmers need to be provided with incentives to continuously provide animals for evaluation. Collaborating researchers will require detailed information allowing them to estimate genetic parameters. The most promising livestock breeds can then be evaluated on station in order to establish their production potential. On the basis of information obtained from such studies, selection programmes can be designed to exploit valuable traits. Once a standardized breed has been formed, the next step will be the establishment of a breeding association. An example is that of South African Nguni cattle (Ramasy, 2001) which for many years were perceived to be inferior largely because of their smaller size and varied colour patterns. Following research into the potential of the breed and the establishment of a breed society, such perceptions have now changed. Similarly, in Brazil, one of the most important creole breeds of cattle, the Caracu, owes much of its current revival to the formation of an active breed association (Alba, 1986). Figure 2 provides a schematic representation of breeding scheme implementation strategies and relationships.
Nucleus herd formation
An example of the formation of a community-based nucleus herd of 100 cows and 5 bulls is presented in Figure 3. Participating farmers/pastoralists contribute selected animals to a community nucleus herd, animals are identified by tags and managed communally through the interventions of government and non-government organizations. Selection is based upon criteria agreed upon with stakeholders and benefits accrue to individual farmers based on the return obtained from the animal that was contributed. Nucleus herds such as that of 1,000 trypanotolerant NDama cattle as proposed for the Republic of Guinea (Devillard, 1983) tend to be based on such approaches. The objective in this particular case was to accelerate genetic improvement and produce superior males and females for collabortaing farmers, as well as surplus stock for sale to other farmers within Guinea or for export to neighbouring countries. Devillard (1983) estimated that genetic gains that could be achieved within 25-30 years in traditional herds, would take only 10 years at the station level.
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All stakeholders: farmers, investors, researchers, extension workers, government and nongovernment agencies (for financial, material and knowhow supply)
On station /ranch characterization, selection and multiplication (exsitu conservation) Breeding society
Farmers
Community animals Superior animals (for AI and natural)
Breeding goal
Nucleus herd (Recording and evaluation)
Selection of Sires/dams
Culling
Market
Figure 2: Group breeding scheme for conservation and sustainable use of AnGR
186
Community herd
Ex-situ conservation Selection of sire/ dams Exchange heifers
Nucleus herd 1,000 cows x 5 bulls
1 culled bull
75 calves
6 culled cows and 3 dead cows (3% per year)
29 heifers selected and 9 culled
29 bull calves selected and 9 culled
29 heifers
29 bull calves
1 best bull
9 best quality heifers
16 heifers for sale or export
4 culled heifers
4 culled bulls
AI 25 bulls 2 second best bulls
10 bulls
Pa ra s to ts lis
12 bulls
community farmers
5 pairs oxen
12/22 bulls for sale or export
Figure 3: Example of the formation of a community-based nucleus herd
Evaluation and Recommendations Assessment involves the full range of stakeholders and includes all socio-economic benefits resulting from improved management and genetic gains. Recommendations can then be made with regard to scaling-up existing activities, including with regard to the role of development and research agents at regional, national and international level.
Potential difficulties with the CBM of AnGR

Despite the potential benefits of a CBM of AnGR programme, a range of potential difficulties in implementing such programmes needs to be acknowledged and addressed. These include: Lack of planning and participatory skills Even where the desirability of maintaining indigenous breeds is acknowledged and has become part of official policy, there is only very limited expertise among representatives of government and
non-government agencies in supporting the design and implementation of participatory programmes at the community level (Kohler-Rollefson, 2000). Difficulties in implementing participatory approaches As identified by FARM Africas community-based Goat Improvement Project in Meru, Kenya (Ahuya et al 2001), as well as Pretty et al, (1994), difficulties may include the following: Lack of transparency and accountability by some members. Domination of process and capture of benefits by better-off segments of the community Dependency syndrome shown by some members. Lack of information flow from community to region and vice-versa. Unrealistic raising of expectations, especially given the fact that genetic gains may require extended periods to manifest themselves. Lack of interest (incentives) to contribute animals to the community herd Influence of politics
Summary and conclusions

This paper has described the importance of the community-based management of animal genetic resources and identified crucial elements for the successful implementation of such programmes. Specific interventions required for successful implementation can be identified at a number of levels. These are as follows: Local level Encouraging the use of indigenous knowledge in the conservation of livestock diversity. Capacity building for the CBM of AnGR. Development of recording techniques and teaching/extension materials suitable for illiterate people. Evaluation of the economic benefits of local breeds in the context of local livelihoods. Enhancing forage and water development programs. Developing markets for, and improving the commercialisation of, indigenous breeds. Establishing breed associations and support for local and regional livestock shows, as an incentive to maintain indigenous breeds. Awareness-raising among local politicians, administrators and public organizations regarding the importance and urgency of AnGR conservation.
National level Establishment of a national breeding policy that promotes, or is at least not threatening to, AnGR diversity Capacity strengthening of the Institute of Biodiversity in the field of livestock genetic resources conservation. Training of personnel in livestock-related agencies (e.g. veterinary and animal husbandry departments, extension services, etc.) in the use of participatory approaches. Reorientation of these agencies from crossbreeding with exotics towards developing local livestock breeds within the context of ecological constraints. Integration of existing local livestock breeds into regional and land use planning.

188
Securing of land rights and access, particularly for pastoral communities. Complementary ex-situ conservation of indigenous breed semen, ova and embryos, where necessary.
International level Extend intellectual property rights to cover traditional animal breeding communities. Improve collection and availability of information on AnGR e.g. through the further development of such information systems as ILRIs DAGRIS and FAOs DAD-IS.
References
Ahuya, C.O; Okeyo, A. M and Hendy, C. 2001. Community-Based Livestock Improvement- A case study of FARM-Africas Goat Improvement Project in Meru, Kenya. FARM Africa, Kenya. Asmamaw, B.R. 2001. Comparison of reproductive performance, mortality rate and productivity of Menz and Horro sheep breeds of Ethiopia. Wageningen University. Wageningen (The Netherlands). 49p. Baker R.L 1992. Breed Characterization: The IEMVT/CIRAD experience: In: Rege, J.E.O. and Lipper, M.E. (eds). African Animal Genetic Resources: Their Characterization, conservation and utilization. Proceeding of the research-planning workshop held at ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, and 19-21 Feb. 1992. August 1992, ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Bhattacharyya, N.K. 1990. Annual Report-Central Institute for Research on Goats. Makhdoom, Po Farah281122, Mathura, (UP) India. Coppock, D.L.1994. The Boran Plateau of Southern Ethiopia: Synthesis of Pastoral research, development and change, 1980-91.ILCA systems study.no.5. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.393 pp Devillard, J.M. 1983. An example of national Project on animal genetic resources (NDama cattle breed). FAO Animal Production and Health Paper 44/1, pp48-54 Ermias, E., Rege, J.E.O., Anindo, D.O., Amare, H. and Yami, A. 1998. Carcass and edible non-carcass component yields in Menz and Horro ram lambs. ESAP Proceedings. ESAP. Ethiopian Society of Animal Production, Addis Ababa. Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). p. 217-222. ILRIP FAO (Food and Agricultural organization of the United Nations). 1992. The Management of Global Animal Genetic Resources. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 104. FAO, Rome, Italy. FARM Africa, 1996. Goat types of Ethiopia and Eritrea. Physical description and Management systems. FARM Africa. London (UK) Gilbert, E.H., Norman, D.W. and Winch, F.E. 1980. Farming systems research. A critical appraisal. MSU Rural Development Papers 6, Department of Agricultural Economics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, Usa.135pp. Gupta, A.K, 1996. Paper prepared for FAO, expert group on animal germplasm, 1996. Gurra, S. and Muller, A. 2001. Conservation and use of plant and Animal Biodiversity in Agriculture: Bottlenecks and Challenges. Part 1: Managing Agrobiodiveristy in Rural Areas. Gtz, Germany. Henson, E.L, 1992. In Situ Conservation of livestock and poultry. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper, No.99. FAO, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 1992. ILRI.2003. Oromia Animal Genetic Resources Survey. ILRI, Addis Ababa.
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Khler-Rollefson, I. 2000. Management of Animal Genetic Diversity at Community level. Eschborn, Germany, GTZ. Mekoya, A., Yami, A. and, Hedge, P.B. 2000. Growth performance and mortality of Menz sheep in the traditional sector of Lallo Mama Mider woreda, north Shewa. ESAP Proceedings (Ethiopia). ESAP. Ethiopian Society of Animal Production, Addis Ababa. Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). p. 211-219. Mhlanga, F.N. 2002. Community-based management of Animal Genetic Resources: A participatory Approaches Framework. Department of Animal Science, university of Zimbabwe, Harare, GTZ. Mukasa-Mugerwa, E., Anindo, D., Sovani, S., Lahlou-Kassi, A., Tembely, S., Rege, J.E.O., and Baker, R.L. 2002. Reproductive performance and productivity of Menz and Horro sheep lambing in the wet and dry seasons in the highlands of Ethiopia. Small Ruminant Research (The Netherlands). v. 45. p. Negussie, E., Rottmann, O.J., Pirchner, F., and Rege, J.E.O. 2000. Allometric growth coefficients and partitioning of fat depots in indigenous Ethiopian Menz and Horro sheep breeds. ALOUCD. Association Liaison Office for University Cooperation in Development, Washington, D.C. (USA) United States Agency for International Development, Washington, D.C. Langston Univ., OK (USA). E (Kika) de la Garza Inst. for Goat Research Debub Univ., Awassa (Ethiopia). Coll. of Agriculture. Washington, D.C. (USA). p. 151-163. Pretty, J., Guijt, I., Thompson, J., and Sconnes, I. 1994. A trainers guide for participating approaches. London:IIED. Ramasy, K.A. 2001. Mobilizing rural communities in South Africa to conserve farm animal genetic resources through sustainable use. Proceedings of an IUCN workshop on conserving Agrobodiversity in South Africa (in press) Rege, J.E.O and Gibson, J.P. 2003. Animal Genetic resources and economic development: Issues in relation to economic valuation. Draft. In Press. Ruine, Chen. 1990. Creation of conservation areas for Hu sheep in Jiangsu Province. FAO Animal Genetics Resources, Bulletin 7. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. Torto, R 1996. Lamb survival in Horro and Menz sheep of the Ethiopian highlands. Post-doctoral final report. October 1994 - October 1996. ILRI. Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 51p.
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Understanding the Purposes for Keeping Cattle and their Perceived Traits by Farmers in Oromiya Regional State, Ethiopia
H.A. van Dorland1, Workneh Ayalew1, Asfaw Tolessa2, G.J. Rowlands3 and J.E.O Rege3
1International 2Oromiya
Livestock Research Institute, P.O. Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Livestock Research Institute, P.O. Box 30709, Nairobi, Kenya
Agricultural Development Bureau, P.O. Box 8770, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
3International
Summary
The genetic diversity within indigenous livestock breeds of countries like Ethiopia results from the diverse ways in which these resources have been used to support human livelihoods and their ability to cop with the specific environments in which they have been kept. The genes and gene combinations that indigenous breeds carry may be useful in future. However, little documented empirical evidence is available in Ethiopia on the comparative merits of different indigenous genetic resources, information that is needed to rationalise the best ways to sustain their utilisation. Data have been collected in a livestock breed characterisation survey carried out in Oromiya Regional State from July to December 2001 (sample size of 5,587 households). Analysis of data collected on cattle are reported on the reasons given by farmers for keeping cattle, by agro-ecological zone and production system, and on their perceived assessments of the different attributes possessed by their cattle in terms of productivity and adaptability to the environment. The results showed that cattle are kept for multiple purposes, both across agro-ecological zones and production systems. However, purposes vary with production system. Traction (males) ranked highest, followed by milk (females) and reproduction/breeding (males and females) in both crop-livestock and agro-pastoral systems. Manure production was also considered important by most crop/livestock and agro-pastoralist farmers, but as a secondary rather than a primary purpose. In contrast, reproduction/breeding requirements received higher ranks in pastoralist systems and, for female, requirements for breeding outranked the importance of milk production. On average a fifth of farmers listed traction among the uses for female cattle. Farmers perceptions of the quality of their cattle in terms of adaptation and productivity also varied across production systems. Productivity traits were generally rated higher than adaptability traits, especially by agro-pastoralists and pastoralists. Approximately three quarters of farmers across all production systems and agro-ecological zones rated the work output of their cattle to be good. In contrast, less than half of the farmers, in particular those managing crop/livestock systems, rated adaptability traits as good, with the proportion of farmers rating disease and drought tolerance to be good being particularly low. Pastoralists showed the highest satisfaction levels in terms of cattle productivity but were less satisfied than agropastoralists in terms of adaptability of their cattle to the environment.
Keywords: cattle, purposes of keeping cattle, breed survey, Oromiya, Ethiopia.
Introduction
The large genetic diversity within indigenous livestock breeds of countries like Ethiopia, and the genes and gene combinations they carry, may be useful for the future in response to changing market conditions, societal needs, new knowledge of human nutritional requirements, new animal health threats, and environmental changes in general (FAO, 1998). In addition to their specific adaptive attributes, the genetic worth of indigenous livestock is derived from the diversity of ways in which these resources support human livelihoods (e.g. consumption and marketable products, input services, socio-economic uses) and their local availability (Rege and Bester, 1998). Concerns for sustainable utilisation of livestock genetic resources relate to a broad range of issues including the number, distribution and density of the animals over the available land and
production systems, the levels of feeding and management of these animals, and the ability of these animals to cope with the specific environmental constraints (Kanis, 1993). In most tropical Africa the management of indigenous livestock is characterised by its low-external input; livestock production depends more on the ability of these indigenous livestock to adapt to their immediate environment, specifically their adaptive attributes in disease resistance, heat tolerance, utilisation of low quality feeds, good fertility and good longevity (FAO, 1998). Agricultural practices in traditional subsistence communities are often driven more by their immediate and short-term subsistence needs and less by the needs of future generations. Mainly because of overwhelming difficulties of securing livelihoods from available limited resources and lack of awareness, subsistence communities may not share a global concern for conservation of livestock biodiversity. The challenge today is how to rationalise current utility of these resources whilst not compromising their potential to meet longer-term needs (Rege, 1998). Therefore, sustainable utilisation of indigenous livestock in developing countries like Ethiopia, where most of the livestock populations are maintained under traditional husbandry practices, depends on a thorough understanding of owners reasons for keeping the livestock. However, little documented empirical evidence is available in Ethiopia on the comparative use values of indigenous cattle genetic resources. Recently, the Oromiya Agricultural Development Bureau, Ethiopia, (OADB) and the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) undertook a collaborative research project to explore the indigenous livestock genetic resources of the Oromiya Regional State, Ethiopia (Workneh and Rowlands, 2004). This livestock characterisation study focused on the identification of locally recognised breed types, and documentation of their relative distribution as well as utility. Data were collected on the farmers purposes for keeping cattle and their priority, as well as their assessments of their animals overall productivity and their adaptability to the local environment. This article provides analysis of these data and examines their relevance to sustainable utilisation of the cattle genetic resources in the Oromiya Regional State.

Field data collection was carried out in the form of a survey, which was conducted in Oromiya Regional State from July to December 2001. The sampling frame employed to implement the survey was based upon the administrative structure of the Region, using zones (the largest unit), woredas, and peasant associations (the smallest units) as separate layers of the structure. At the time of the survey the Oromiya Regional State comprised 12 administrative zones, 180 woredas, 5,386 peasant associations (PAs), and some 3.5 million households (Physical Planning Department, 2000). The survey covered all zones of the Region. The other two administratative layers were firstly stratified by livestock density and agro-climatic zone after which the method of random sampling was used to select the woredas and PAs from the different strata. Purposive sampling was occasionally used to include pockets of unique livestock populations that would otherwise have been left out. Households were selected randomly as well, making sure that the particular primary species (cattle, sheep, goats) under investigation were included in the sample from a range of household sizes. The sampling resulted in about 30% of all woredas (55), about 17% of all PAs (185), and 30 households per PA. The total number of households surveyed was 5587 (about 0.2% of the rural households of the Region) (Table 1).
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Animal Breeding/Reproduction Table 1. Frequency distribution of sample households (cattle herds) by production system and agro-ecological zone (per cent) Production system No. of householdsb Crop/livestock Agro-pastoral Pastoral Overall
a b
Number of households
Agro-ecological zonea (%) Dega 1153 98 2 <1 21 Weina Dega 2728 94 6 <1 49 Kolla 1661 73 15 12 30
Overall 5542C 88 8 4 100
4899 443 200 5542c
Dega=Highland, Weina Dega=Midland, and Kolla=Lowland. Numbers of households are presented in Italics to distinguish them from the percentage figures. c These are fewer than the total number of households sampled, because of non-response for production system by 45 households
The relatively higher proportion of households selected in weina dega zones may be explained by the fact that most of Oromiyas land surface has a weina dega agro-ecology. Due to this and due to the fact that production system was not included as stratification criterian, by far greater number of sampled households (herds) were selected from the crop-livestock system, especially in the weinadega or dega zones, and fewer households were sampled from the other production systems (agro-pastoral and pastoral systems). The survey was conducted in four phases in order to catch suitable periods outside main rainy seasons for the field operations. Local staff of the agricultural extension services was employed to collect the data. Development Agents (DAs) were employed as enumerators, who were supervised in the field by woreda and then zonal livestock extension staff. All of those involved attended a three-day zonal level training on the content and use of the data collection instruments just prior to the commencement of the survey. The field administration of the questionnaires took, on the average, ten days for each zone. A comprehensive set of questionnaires was developed to collect data on cattle, sheep, goats, chickens, donkeys, mules, horses and camels. Data collected on cattle are used for the present analysis. The data include descriptions of utility of cattle, as well as farmers views on levels of productivity of their cattle and their adaptation to the environments. Farmers were asked, in an open-question format, to list purposes for keeping cattle. On completion of the list they were asked to rank the top three. They were also asked questions on the quality of different traits possessed by their cattle. In this case a prepared list of traits was put to the farmers in turn and they were asked to say whether the trait was important, and if so, whether they considered it to be a poor, average or good attribute of their animals or they had no opinion. Data from completed questionnaires were coded, and entered into a data-capture system developed in
Microsoft Access 2000 (based on the Breedsurv system developed by ILRI (Rowlands et al., 2003)). The SAS software (SAS, 2001) was used to analyse the data. Results
Purposes for keeping cattle Table 2 summarises the percentages of times different items were included by farmers in their lists of purposes for keeping cattle. Their reported purposes, in their overall order of frequency at the Region level, were traction (males), reproduction, milk production (females), income generation, manure, meat production, savings, production of hides, wealth status, socio-cultural value (dowry, ceremonies) and, to a somewhat lesser extent, blood. The ranking of these frequencies (except for manure) was generally similar across agro-ecological zones but was more variable when comparing different production systems (Table 2). Most importantly, cattle were
consistently reported to have multiple uses, including food production, input functions, income generation and socio-cultural use. Figure 1 presents a further summary of the relative frequencies by sex and agro-ecological zone. In this case the relative proportions of ranks 1, 2, 3, (or 4 - not ranked) is shown within the bar chart. Traction was most often ranked first for males and milk production for females. Breeding was more often than not ranked first or second, especially for females. Manure was generally ticked (rank 4) and not ranked amongst the top 3 purposes, demonstrating the importance of manure as a secondary rather than a primary purpose for keeping cattle. Similar patterns were observed for meat and hides. Socio-cultural uses of cattle also tended to be ticked and were not seen as a main priority. Female cattle were also considered important for traction purposes in about one fifth of households (Table 2) but again ranked low (Figure 1). This might challenge the general assumption that cows are not used for work and draft. The utility of blood (for food) was rated markedly higher in kola (pastoral) than in the dega and woinadega (crop/livestock) zones. These broad and multiple uses of cattle genetic resources are widely recognised (Rege and Bester, 1998). The relative importance of each of these uses is relevant for research and development on cattle genetic resources of a country, because they provide the basis for setting the current and future objectives of sustainable use and genetic improvement of cattle genetic resources.
Table 2. Percentages of occurrences of reported purposes for keeping female and male cattle by agro-ecological zone and production system (per cent) Reasons Sex of animal No. of households Traction Milk Reproduction/breeding Income Manure Meat Savings Hides Wealth status Ceremony Dowry Blood
b
Agro-ecological zonea Dega 372 98 88 73 74 66 56 41 36 44 34 6 372 25 96 99 68 71 52 52 40 34 38 34 5 Weina Dega 833 92 88 88 88 65 56 35 31 28 27 4 836 19 98 98 84 84 52 52 33 30 24 29 4 567 86 89 79 59 70 52 37 39 33 38 18 Kolla 571 14 97 96 72 54 53 45 35 35 28 37 15 1772 92 88 82 76 67 55 37 34 33 32 9
Overall 1779 19 97 97 77 71 53 50 35 33 28 33 8
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Animal Breeding/Reproduction Table 2. Continued Reasons Sex of animal No. of households Traction Milk Reproduction/breeding Income Manure Meat Savings Hides Wealth status Ceremony Dowry Blood
b
Production system Crop-livestock 1632 94 86 85 84 63 52 34 31 31 26 5 1637 19 97 97 80 78 49 47 32 29 25 27 5 Agro-pastoral 157 93 98 64 38 89 72 55 54 52 68 18 158 13 98 94 61 37 67 67 53 51 46 64 14 Pastoral 70 37 97 57 3 99 46 47 76 50 59 67 70 5 99 97 47 4 81 31 40 67 40 57 46 1859 92 87 82 77 67 54 36 35 33 31 9
Overall 1865 18 97 97 78 72 52 49 34 33 28 31 8
a Dega=Highland, Weina Dega=Midland, and Kolla=Lowland. b Numbers of households are presented in Italics to distinguish them from the percentages
195
a. Dega - male cattle

% of households
d. Dega - female cattle

120 100 80 60 40 20 0 % of households
120 100 80 60 40 20 0
Tr ac t io n Br ee di ng M an ur e In co m e M ea Sa t W v e a ing s lth st at us H ide s Do wr Ce y re m on y Bl oo d
Purpose for keeping male cattle b. Weina Dega - male cattle Rank 4 Rank 3 Rank 2 Rank 1
% of households
% of households
120 100 80 60 40 20 0
120 100 80 60 40 20 0
M ea Sa t W vin ea gs lth st at us Hi de s D ow C ry er em on y Bl oo d
Purpose for keeping male cattle Rank 4 Rank 3 Rank 2 Rank 1
c. Kolla - male cattle

% of households
60 40 20 0
% of households
120 100 80
120 100 80 60 40 20 0
Tr ac tio n Br ee din g M an ur e In co m e M ea Sa t W v e a ing s lth st at us Hi de s Do wr Ce y re m on y Bl oo d
Purpose for keeping male cattle Rank 4 Rank 3 Rank 2 Rank 1
Figure 1. Frequency distribution of reported cattle uses and their ranks by agro-ecological zone and sex (Dega=Highland,
Weina Dega=Midland, and Kolla=Lowland)
In a similar way Figure 2 presents the relative frequencies of purposes of keeping cattle by production system. The figure highlights the importance of traction in the crop-livestock and agro-pastoral systems relative to that in the pastoral system. A similar observation can be made for the use of manure, particularly in the crop-livestock systems. Use of manure was rated by fewer than 5% of pastoral households (Table 2). In contrast, reproductive/breeding requirements for cattle received higher ranks in pastoralist than crop-livestock and agro-pastoralist systems, and, for females, outranked milk production (Figure 2). Additionally, the habitual use of cattle blood in the diets of pastoral communities resulted in the use of blood being considered important in up to two thirds of households (especially blood from male cattle) (Table 2) although of secondary importance to other requirements.
196
M ilk Br ee din In g co m e M an ur e M ea Sa t vin gs H W e a ide s lth st at us Do Ce wr y re m on y Tr ac t io n Bl oo d
M Br ilk ee di ng In co m M e an ur e M ea Sa t vi ng s W Hi ea de s lth st at us D ow Ce r re y m on Tr y ac tio n Bl oo d
Tr ac ti o n Br ee din g M an ur e In co m e
M ilk Br ee din In g co m e M an ur e M ea Sa t v in gs W Hi ea de lth s st at us Do Ce wry re m on Tr y ac t io n Bl oo d
Purpose for keeping female cattle e. Weina Dega - female cattle Rank 4 Rank 3 Rank 2 Rank 1
Purpose for keeping female cattle Rank 4 Rank 3 Rank 2 Rank 1
f. Kolla - female cattle
a. Crop/livestock system for male cattle 120 100 80 60 40 20 0

% of households
% of households 120 100 80 60 40 20 0
d. Crop/livestock system for female cattle
Purpose for keeping male cattle

Rank 4 Rank 3 Rank 2 Rank 1
b. Agro-pastoral systems for male cattle
120 100 80 60 40 20 0
% of households
120 100 80 60 40 20 0
% of households

c. Pastoral systems for male cattle
% of households
% of households
120 100 80 60 40 20 0
120 100 80 60 40 20 0
M ea t av in gs H W id es ea lth st at us C er em on y

Figure 2 Frequency distribution of reported cattle uses and their ranks by production system and sex of the cattle
Farmers assessment of the productivity of their cattle and their adaptation to their environment Farmers reported appreciations for particular adaptive and/or productive cattle traits were used for this assessment. Traits of heat and cold tolerance, ability to walk long distances, longevity, disease tolerance/resistance, drought tolerance, work rate/draft power, milk yield, meat yield, growth rate and fertility were assessed through the questionnaire. Farmers were asked to grade the quality of each of the above mentioned traits. Table 3 shows for each trait type the proportion of answers given as quality = good as a percentage of all answers given (not important, poor, average, good). The qualities of productivity traits were generally rated higher than adaptability traits, especially by pastoralists and agro-pastoralists (Table 3). Approximately three quarters of farmers across all agro-ecological zones and production systems rated work output to be good. In contrast less than half of farmers on average rated adaptability traits as good; the proportion of farmers that rated drought tolerance as good was particularly low. The one exception was for longevity for which two thirds of agro-pastoralits and pastoralists graded their cattle as having good survival characteristics.
M Br i lk ee di ng In co m M e an ur e M ea Sa t vin gs H W ea ide lt h s st at us D ow C er ry em on Tr y ac tio n Bl oo d

Tr ac tio n B re ed in g In co m e M an ur e
D ow ry
Bl oo
M Br ilk ee di ng In co m M e an ur e M ea t S av in gs H W ea ide lth s st at us D ow Ce r re y m on y Tr ac tio n Bl oo d

f. Pastoral system for female cattle
M ea t Sa vin gs H id W es ea lt h st at us C er em on y D ow ry B lo od
Tr ac ti o n Br ee di ng In co m e M an ur e
M Br ilk ee din g In co m M e an ur e M ea Sa t vin gs Hi W de ea s lt h st at us Do C w ry er em on y Tr ac ti o n Bl oo d
Tr ac ti o n Br ee din g In co m e M an ur e M ea Sa t vin gs Hi W de ea lth s st a Ce tus re m on y Do wr y Bl oo d
e. Agro-pastoral system for female cattle
197
Ethiopian Society of Animal Production Table 3. Percentage of households considering a trait possessed by their cattle as good by agro-ecological zone and production system Percentages of traits graded good as percentage of those graded not important, poor, average, and good Agro-ecological zone Trait Number of householdsa,b,c Adaptability traits Heat tolerance Cold tolerance Walkability Longevity Disease tolerance Drought tolerance Productivity traits Work output Milk yield Meat quality Growth rate Fertility
a b
Production system Overall Croplivestock 4114-4852 Agropastoral 399-446 Pastoral 155-200 Overall
Dega 1042-1209
Weina Dega 2201-2682
Kolla 1461-1563
44.8d 55.2 59.3 50.1 31.3 26.8 76.9 35.4 63.2 46.7 42.7
38.7 37.3 51.5 44.0 22.5 28.5 72.3 32.2 56.8 39.3 37.6
54.9 37.7 68.6 52.9 31.5 44.1 73.5 44.4 63.7 56.2 51.8
45.1 41.4 58.5 48.0 27.3 33.2 73.7 36.6 60.3 45.9 43.0
42.8 40.8 54.6 45.8 26.3 29.5 72.9 33.2 56.4 43.6 40.3
65.2 48.9 81.8 65.2 37.8 60.8 85.6 53.1 82.4 56.2 54.2
50.0 36.4 87.6 60.6 22.3 47.0 65.8 77.5 91.4 79.9 78.9
45.0 41.4 58.4 47.9 27.2 33.2 73.7 36.5 60.2 45.9 42.9
Range in numbers of households grading different traits not important, poor, average, and good. Numbers of households are presented in Italics to distinguish them from the percentages c Size of data-set differed between agro-ecological zone and production system. This was due to the design of the questionnaire. d Numbers in this table represent numbers of households reporting trait as good as a percentage of (not important+poor+average+good).
In order to further evaluate the overall adaptability and productivity of cattle across agroecological zones and production systems, the adaptability traits such as heat and cold tolerance, ability to walk long distances, longevity, disease tolerance/resistance and drought tolerance were combined into the category of adaptability traits, and productivity traits such as work rate/draft power, milk yield, meat yield, growth rate and fertility were combined into the category of productivity traits. The percentage frequency of good grades was divided by the frequency of all grades (not important, poor, average, good) for each agro-ecological zone, and deviations from the average derived as shown in Figure 3. The same was done for production systems (Figure 4).
198
20
% deviating from the average
15 10 5 0 -5
o Pr
a Ad
-10 -15 -20
ct du
pt io at
Trait types Dega Weina Dega Kolla
n io
Figure 3. Farmer assessment of cattle trait preferences by agro-ecological zone
Figure 3 shows that farmers in weina dega zones generally considered their cattle to be more poorly adapted and less productive than did farmers in kolla zones. Farmers in dega zones tended to fall in between.
20 % deviating from the average 15 10 5 0 -5
a Ad pt
o Pr ct du
-10 -15 -20
Crop/livestock system
Figure 4. Farmer assessment of cattle trait preferences by production system
Larger differences were found across production systems both in the abilities of cattle to adapt to the environment in which they were kept and in their production performance (Figure 4). Crop/livestock system farmers reported their cattle more often than not to be poorly adapted to the environment in which they are kept and generally not good in terms of productivity either
io at n
Trait types Agro-pastoral
Pastoral
n io
(Table 3). Compared with crop/livestock farmers, agro-pastoralist farmers found their cattle to be better adapted to the environment and also more productive. Pastoralist farmers showed the highest satisfaction levels in terms of cattle productivity but were less satisfied than agropastoralists in terms of their adaptability to the environment. Differences in perception of adaptation and productivity qualities varied more across production systems than across agroecological zones, suggesting that the major area of potential for improving cattle production is through attention to the breeds most suitable for the different farming systems. Data on both breed types and phenotypic characterisation were also collected during the survey. Farmers knowledge of the regional names ascribed to the breed types they possessed was, however, a little sketchy. Cluster analysis is now being applied to the phenotypic data in attempt to group cattle into different breed categories. Once this is achieved the analysis of results presented in this paper will be repeated by breed type in order to investigate those breed types that perform better in the different production systems.
Conclusion and discussion

The study has shown that cattle, both males and females, are kept for multiple purposes in different agro-ecological zones and production systems. Their adaptability to the environment in which they are kept, as perceived by farmers, has been shown to differ across production system, which indicates the importance of considering the type of production system in which a breed is used for the sustainable utilisation of cattle genetic resources in the Oromiya Regional State of Ethiopia. This relates not only to the different purposes made of cattle within the different production systems, but also in the way the cattle are kept, their management by their owners, the farmers. Differences in perceived productivity and to a lesser extent adaptability, also varied across production systems again indicating the importance of taking system of production into account when developing genetic resources with high production potential to meet the subsistence needs of farmers in the Oromiya Regional State of Ethiopia.
Acknowledgements
Our appreciation goes to the farmers of Oromiya Regional State, who provided us with information on their livestock, and all the zonal, and woreda livestock experts, and development agents from the Agricultural Offices, who conducted the survey. We also acknowledge the excellent work of Enyew Negussie, who led the first phases of the project. The Breed Survey in Oromiya Regional State was funded by the Oromiya Agricultural Development Bureau (OADB) from funds provided by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI).
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OADB (Oromiya Agricultural Development Bureau), 1998. Brief Highlights in Agricultural Investment Potentials of Oromiya. March 1998. Physical Planning Department, 2000. Physical and socio-economic profiles of 180 districts of Oromiya Region. Council of the Regional State of Oromiya Bureau of Planning & Economic Development. Addis Ababa, March 2000. Rege, J.E.O., 1998. Biological diversity and animal agriculture. Proceedings of the eight world conference on animal production. Special symposium and plenary sessions. Seoul National University (Korea). 8. World Animal Production Conference, Seoul (Korea), 28 Jun-4 Jul 1998, pp 523-535. Rege, J.E.O., Bester, J. 1998. Livestock resources and sustainable development in Africa. ICWCGALP. International Committee for World Congresses on Genetics Applied to Livestock Production, Armidale, NSW (Australia). Armidale (Australia). p. 19-26. Rowlands J., Nagda S., Rege E., Mhlanga F., Dzama K., Gandiya F., Hamudikwanda H., Makuza S., Moyo S. Matika O., Nangomasha E. and Sikosana J. 2003. The design, execution and analysis of livestock breed surveys- A case study in Zimbabwe. A report to FAO. ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute), Nairobi, Kenya. 211pp. SAS Institute Inc. 2001. SAS/STAT User's guide. Release 8.2. Cary, NC, SAS Institute Inc. Workneh Ayalew and Rowlands J. (eds). 2004. Design , execution and analysis of the livestock breed survey in Orimiya Regional State, Ethiopia. OADB (Oromiya Agricultural Development Bureau), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, and ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute), Nairobi Kenya. 260pp.
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Preliminary Report on the Distribution of Fogera Cattle around Lake Tana, Ethiopia
Gebeyehu Goshu1, Azage Tegegne2, Tezera Mulugeta1 and Aklilu Agdie3
1Andasa
Livestock Research Center, P. O. Box, 27, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia Livestock Research Institute, P. O. Box, 5689, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia
2International 3Adet
Agricultural Research Center, P. O. Box, 8, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
Abstract
A rapid survey was conducted around Lake Tana to generate information on the distribution of Fogera cattle. Secondary data review, individual and group discussions and transect walk were the methods used in the study. The breed in Fogera wereda is found within the plain in Shaga, Shina, Avoana Kokit, Nabega, Wagetera and Kidist Hana PAs. The level of admixture decreases as one goes from Shina to Wagetera and from Avoana Kokit through Nabega to Wagetera in Fogera wereda. In Dera wereda the breed is found in Zara Gigna, Korat Fisa and Mitseli PAs. The cattle as a herd is found at Sindye and Wushit villages of Fogera Wereda and at Eyarico and Gemar villages of Dera wereda. The population at other places was highly mixed. About 15000 cattle in Dera and Fogera wereda were identified to be Fogera cattle of which about 7500 heads were found in pure form. The breed as a herd is found on about 0.9% of the total area of Dera and Fogera weredas. This area is found between 1151 to 1154N latitude and 3731 to 3734 E longitude. The Fogera cattle population is decreasing due to feed shortage, interbreeding, exchange and disease problems. To improve the declining trend of the population, pure breeding strategy, expansion of the nucleus herd at the ranch and feed development strategy are recommended.
Keywords: Fogera, grazing land, level of admixture, indigenous cattle, Ethiopia.
Introduction
There are over nine distinguishable main cattle types in Ethiopia (Albero and Haile Mariam, 1982). The Fogera cattle are one of them and found in the Northwestern Ethiopia. The breed has been maintained at Andasa and Metekel ranches and some of the growth and reproductive characteristics were studied (Asheber, 1991; Addisu, 1999; Gidey, 2001). However, information on their productivity under the traditional management was not available. Breed mapping and population structure estimate at macro level are some of the steps required for characterization. Moreover, knowledge of the dynamics of the traditional livestock system is essential for developing plans for breeding objectives. Therefore, the purpose of the study was to identify the distribution and population size of the Fogrea cattle.

Rapid survey (exploratory survey) was made in Dera and Fogera Weredas in November 2002. Both weredas are found in South Gondar administrative zone some 60 and 20 kms north of Bahir Dar, with a total area of about 117414 and 159 214 ha, respectively. The average elevation is about 1820 m.a.s.l. for Fogera and 2050 m.a.s.l. for Dera wereda. About 76% of the area in Fogera wereda are flat as compared to 35% in Dera werda. Rainfall is monomodal in both weredas and lasts from June to September. According to the traditional classification of the agricultural offices, Fogera is put under Weina Dega while Dera wereda is divided in to Kolla (35%), Weina Dega (54%) and Dega (11%) agro-ecologies (DoPED, 2001). Major crops grown in Dera and Fogera weredas include millet, rice, teff and maize. Rice was introduced in the farming system recently but it has shown a dramatic change in the area coverage. In Fogera wereda land under rice was increased
from 8 ha to 3037 ha (380 folds) within the period of 1985 to 1994 while it increased from 15 ha to 980 ha between 1988 and 1994 E.C. in Dera wereda (DoPED, 2001). The study was focused in Shina, Shaga, Avoana Kokit, Kidist Hana, and Wagetera peasant associations (PAs) of Fogera wereda and Zara Gigna, Korata and Fisa and Mitseli PAs of Dera wereda. Three types of procedure were employed to collect the required qualitative data. Secondary data were reviewed on livestock population and crop production from annual reports. Informal discussion from the prepared checklists was made with individuals on breed identification, rearing, animal health and socio-economic aspects. Wereda husbandry experts, supervisors and development agents were considered as key respondent. Such points as trend of crop production, grazing condition, parasite and disease distribution were discussed. About 10 to 15 elders were selected with development agents for group discussion at Gigna, Kidist Hana, and Chiristos Samra. The discussion was concentrated on physical features, current distribution, events that changed the population and the relative fitness of the Fogera cattle. Each discussion session lasts about one hour. Transects were made at most villages to observe differences in altitude, soil type, livestock species, topography, crop types and vegetation types on the grazing lands. Topographic Map (1:50000) of Fogera and Dera weredas was used for area estimation and location determination. Farmers views were taken as the basis for breed identification. Quick observation was made on the level of admixture of Fogera cattle by estimating their number in the grazing field.

Origin and distribution Cattle are kept in every PA of both weredas. Farmers classify cattle based on conformation into Tiliq, Werie, Agew and Semada. Tiliq is the widely used name for the Fogera breed. Ye zelan zer kebt is the other name given to the breed. The farmers keeping these types of cattle are called kebit ader or kebit adeg. Table 1 shows the livestock population in the study area and the total of each species for the respective wereda. Small ruminants and equines, except donkey, are regarded as ancillary livestock in the study area.
Table 1 Livestock population at specific PAs of Fogrea and Dera weredas Peasant Associations Kidist Hana Wagetera Shina Nabega Shaga Avoana Kokit Total of Fogrea wereda Zara Gigna Korata and Fisa Mitseli Total of Dera wereda Cattle 4367 4506 9724 4807 2355 2741 90041 8540 2902 5973 184878 Goat 47 170 6 42329 274 409 22034 Sheep 7 150 34 139 70 95 6707 70 24 37 25525 Donkey 269 354 940 253 142 129 11949 600 120 210 10075 Mule 6 6 28 3 2 423 6 407 Horse 2 717 Poultry 5219 4876 3248 5217 5303 475 192668 17000 1025 2972 80449
Source: Fogera and Dera wereda Agricultural Offices Report, 2001.
The name Fogera was primarily used for market place. During the period known as Zemene Mesafint (1761-1847 E.C.), Yifag was the main market center. Two businessmen named by Fego and Dera who came from Wollo changed Yifag and established other market places. Accordingly,
the market established by Fego named as Fogera while the other established by Dera called Wegedeme Anbesame. However, the Fogera market place was frequently attacked by flood and shifted to the Hode Gebeya. The topography where the Fogera cattle are found is plain and within the range of 1800 to 1850 m.a.s.l. According to the Atlas of the region, the soil type around the plain are chromic luvisol and vertisol (BoPED, 1996). The breed in Fogera wereda is found within the plain (about 20 000 ha) demarcated by the road, Lake Tana, and the rivers Gumara and Rib. The level of admixture decreases as on goes from Shina to Wagetera and from Avoana Kokit to Nabega in Fogera wereda. Pure Fogera cattle are found in Wagetera PA specifically at Sindye and Wushit Villages. In Dera wereda, the breed in pure form is at Eyarico and Gemar villages of Mitseli PA. The cattle population observed in the rest part of Dera wereda (Zara Gigna and Korata Fisa) was highly mixed. From the discussions held with farmers at Zara Gigna, Hode Gebeya and Chiristos Samra and the type of cattle observed in the grazing field, it can be concluded that Sindye is center of distribution of the breed. Farmers traditional saying to admire the beauty of a girl is another evidence to the postulate. When someone sees a beautiful girl he says that she is as beautiful as the Sindye heifer. The population at Sindye, Wushit Gemar and Eyarico were identified as pure Fogera cattle and from the wereda report the size in these villages is estimated to be 6500 to 7500 heads. About half of the cattle population of Kidist Hana and Nabega (Tgrie Sefer); a third of Shina, Shaga, the rest parts of Nabega; and a fifth of Mitseli, Korata and Gigna cattle population were identified to be Fogera cattle. This makes about 12000 to 15000 heads. Better population estimate, however, will be made in the second phase (formal survey). This observation disagrees from the reports of Alberro and Solomon (1982) which estimates the population about 800 000 heads around the boundaries of Lake Tana. The basis for this estimate appeared to be the assumption that the whole cattle population in this area belongs to the Fogera cattle. The report might have included all types of cattle (Tiliq, Werie, Agew, Semada) inhabited the area. The estimated area in both weredas where the pure Fogera cattle exist is about 2600 hectare. This area is found between 1151 to 1154N latitude and 3731 to 3734 E longitude. The pure breed area in Fogera wereda is about 1700 hectare and this is 8.4% of the Fogera plain. Taking the area of Fogera and Dera wereda 117414 and 159214 ha, respectively (DoPED, 2001), the breed as a herd is found on about 0.9% of the total area of the two weredas. From the discussions made with farmers, besides the dairy capacity, the purity of the breed in this area have been kept for long time because they need animals which adapt to the marshy lands, the heavy fly burden and the traction capacity on those heavy soils. Physical characteristics Albero and Solomon (1982) reported most of the physical description of the breed. Welldeveloped naval flap and preputal sheath, long legs, small humps and narrow body shapes are characteristics of the breed. The farmers during individual and group discussions gave similar description. Farmers further describe the Fogera cattle based on conformation and coat color. The coat color of Fogera cattle is contrasting and attractive. The colors are white, black and red or their combinations. Farmers classify the coat color in to mebus (white background with black spots), sora (white background with red spot), mendil (black background with white spot) and dirum (red background with white spot). Mebus is the most preferred coat color while black is the least. They
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also say that the hairs are soft and the skin is thick. Probably that might be the reason why these cattle are tolerant to fly burden. Discussion with farmers and field observation confirmed that the size of the horn is about equal to the size of the ear. Big horns rarely occur. If that happened, it is usually hanged downward the tip being pointing to the nose. This type of horn is loose and called dafla by the farmers. They also classify this type animal as good milking type. Typical Fogera animals are presented in Figures 1a to 1c. Husbandry At earlier time, communal grazing lands were called after the name of the chief (ye zelan aleqa) e.g. Aderit. Animals graze in morning and the late afternoon. Asendabo (Phalaris paradoxa), guangureda (Dinebra retroflexa) and ketet (Rottoboellia cochichinsesi) are grass species found in most marshy grazing areas. Farmers reported that the Fogera cattle better utilizes grasses grown in marshy areas than highland cattle types. Other species like serdo (Cynodon), gaja (Andropogon) and tucha (pennisetum) are also found in various proportions. Most of the lands are infested with spiny perennial weed (Amekella) and this reduced the actual grazing area. Previously, the Fogera cattle were trekked to the uplands of Dera (Merafit, Chikame, and Jelda) for wet season grazing known as ye guzo marefia. This, however, was abandoned after 1983 E.C. in the transition period. As a result, farmers were forced to keep cattle in marshy areas throughout the year. This in turn affected the plant growth in the plain for dry period grazing. Common feeds of crop residue are rice, millet and teff straws. Some maize stalk was also offered at Wagetera PA. Farmers reported that animals fed rice straw gave less milk. Bulls and cows graze in the same field and, therefore, mating was uncontrolled. In fact when choice mating is opted for there is a practice of selecting bulls. The criteria of selection are reported the milk productivity of the dam and pulling capacity of the sire of the bull. Physical conformation of the bull itself is also considered. The Fogera cattle are preferred by the owners because of their lower age at first calving, higher milk yield, more meat production, and ability to survive in and plough the marshy area. Farmers rate the Fogera cattle as giving the first calf at the age of three years. However, under ranch conditions, age at first calving and calving interval are longer. Asheber (1991), Addisu (1999) and Gidey (2001) reported 48.9, 47.6 and 54.6 months, respectively. Mekonnen and Goshu (1987) reported 38.8 months, closer to the farmers observation. Exchange of cattle for dowry and other social purposes are common. The Fogera cattle are expensive and each exchanged for 3-5 other type of cattle. Figure 2 a and 2 b show Fogera cattle and the agro-ecology it inhabits. From the discussions held with farmers at various villages, it was learnt that the population of the Fogera cattle is decreasing. Factors contributing to the diminishing population were as follows: Feed shortage. The Fogera are relatively large demanding animals for more feed and water. The grazing land is shrinking from time to time. A good proportion of the land has been taken for crop production especially for rice cultivation. Moreover, the grazing fields are infested with weeds and not productive as at earlier time. As a result, farmers are interested to keep more of other cattle types and species of animal. Immigration. Repeated trekking in search of feed were made in to the plain from Dera, Amed Ber and Wollo. The situation increases the rate of interbreeding of the Fogera with other cattle types. Exchange with other type of cattle further contributed to the dilution of the breed.
Disease and parasite. Trypanosomiasis (gundy) is the most important disease that causes death every year, particularily from November to May. Fasciola is another health hazard in the area.
Conclusion and Recommendation

The Fogera breed is very localized now a day and found only at Sindye, Wushit, Gemar and Eyarico villages in pure form with various level of admixture at other adjoining places of the study area. The population is decreasing due to feed shortage, interbreeding, exchange and disease problems. Within the limit of our observation and from discussions held with farmers, the following are recommended for better conservation and utilization of the breed:
1. 2. 3.
Use of the breed for crossbreeding with the objective of increasing milk yield is not appropriate, at least now, since the breed is preferred for the trait by the farmers. Conservation at Andasa ranch need to focus on expanding the nucleus herd and link this to the villages so that village level exchange will be possible in the future. Feed shortage is critical problem. Research towards better utilization of crop residue (particularly rice straw) with appropriate introduction of forage species in the farming system should be a priority intervention.
Acknowledgments
The authors are highly indebted to members of the Wereda Agricultural Offices for their sincere cooperation. We also would like to thank Dr. Workneh Ayalew for his valuable comments on the methods of the study and provisions of some of the pictures.
References
Addisu Bitew. 1999. Evaluation of reproductive and growth performance of Fogera cattle and their F1 Friesian crosses at Metekel Ranch, Ethiopia. M. Sc. Thesis, Alemaya University of Agriculture, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia Albero and Solomon Haile Mariam. 1982. The indigenous cattle of Ethiopia. Part I. World Anim. Rev. 37: 247252 Asheber Sewalem. 1991. Evaluation of the reproductive and preweaning growth performance of Fogera cattle and their F1 Friesian crosses at Andasa cattle breeding station, Ethiopia. M. Sc. Thesis, Alemaya University of Agriculture, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia BoPED. 1996. (Bureau of Planning and Economic Development). Atlas of the Amhara National Regional State, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia DoPED. 2001. (Department of Planning and Economic Development). Annual Statistical Abstract 1999/2000. Debre Tabor, Ethiopia. Gidey Yifter. 2001. Assessment of calf crop productivity and total herd life of Fogera cows at Andassa ranch in North Western Ethiopia. M. Sc. Thesis, Alemaya University of Agriculture, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia Mekonnen Haile-Mariam and Goshu Mekonnen. 1987. Reproductive performance of Fogera cattle and their Friesian crosses. Ethiop. J. Agric. Sci. 9(2): 95-118
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Observations on the Performance of Crossbred Dairy Cattle in Smallholder Herds in Degem District, Ethiopia
Ababu Dekeba1, Workneh Ayalew2 and B P Hegde3
1Orimia
Agricultural Development Bureau, P O Box 8770, Addis Ababa Livestock Research Institute, P O Box 5689, Addis Ababa University, P O Box 138, Alemaya
2International 3Alemaya
Abstract
Overall performance of smallholder crossbred dairy herds was assessed by administering semistructured questionnaires on 20 sample herds with crossbred and indigenous cattle in Degem. Reported average lactations yields of crossbreds were at least five times greater than that for indigenous cows; however, the data collected did not show the level of inputs used by the farmers, although it was generally expressed that crossbred cows were provided with greater amounts of supplementary feeds and veterinary inputs. Apart from the higher volume of milk production, crossbred cows by far greater estimated market prices, indicating higher inherent values attached to crossbred than indigenous cows. However, there is lack of a reliable supply of breeding stock to sustain production of crossbreds on-farm; services of bull stations and AI services are declining; unintended and unknown genotype calves are produced. Trends in genetic change are not being monitored. Under these circumstances, the advantages with crossbred cows cannot be sustained. It was therefore concluded that the introduction of potentially more productive crossbred cattle in smallholder herds does not necessarily lead to genetic improvement.
Keywords: Crossbreeding, cattle, smallholder farmers, Ethiopia.
Introduction
Although integrated selection programmes in the pure indigenous breeds is an essential activity for, and component of, any crossbreeding programme (Pagot, 1992), genetic improvement of livestock, and particularly cattle, in Ethiopia has largely been limited to crossing of indigenous zebu with selected improver temperate breeds for dairy production (Kiwuwa et al., 1983; Beyene, 1992). Although the F1 crossbred are generally expected to perform better than the indigenous cows under good level of care (Cunningham and Syrstad, 1987), it is still not known whether the crossbreeding program is economically worthwhile and whether the crossbred animals in farmers hands perform any better than the indigenous cows without the substantial government subsidies in breeding and health care. The maintenance and production of replacement breeding cows and bulls has been handled by the government extension services. Animal health services have also been delivered mainly by the agricultural extension services under the support of specific dairy development projects. These subsidies are being gradually withdrawn, and farmers are now learning to manage the crossbreds without the subsidies. This paper examines the relative performance of crossbred and indigenous cows under farmers management and the level of control on the breeding process after the dairy promotion projects have phased out, taking the case of Degem district where crossbred dairy cattle had been promoted for several years.
Background
Crossbred heifers have been distributed to smallholder farmers on credit basis first by the former Selale Peasant Dairy Development Pilot Project (SPDDPP) from 1987 to 1990, and later by the Smallholder Dairy Development Project (SDDP) from 1994 to 2001. During this period, at least 109 crossbred heifers and ten pure Holstein-Friesian bulls (to set up bull stations) were distributed in the district. According to the report of the Degem district office of agricultural
development, up to end of 2001 a total of 1546 crossbred calves were born to the distributed crossbred cows as well as the bull stations. Other sources of crossbred cows and bulls are the homebred crossbreds produced through the AI services, reproduction from established HolsteinFriesian bull stations as well as local markets. The reproduction of the crossbreds was, during the project promotion years, closely supervised and technically supported for better performance. Whether some level of supervision and technical support can be sustained after the projects had phased needs to be investigated. This study looked into this issue as part of a larger study (Ababu, 2002).

The field observation was made on smallholder dairy farms with crossbred cows in Degem district about 125 km northwest of Addis Ababa along the main road to Gojjam. The area has altitude range of 1500 to 3541m and annual rainfall of about 900 mm to 1400 mm. A total of 20 households, who maintain a mix of crossbred and indigenous cows, in three villages were randomly selected for the assessment. A semi-structured questionnaire was administered either to the head of the household (n=17) or the housewife (n=3). Respondents were asked to recall selected indicators of dairy and reproductive performance with the view of comparing overall performance of the crossbreds with those of the indigenous cows, as these constitute the major focus of improvement through the crossbreeding program. The breeding histories of 20 crossbred and 19 indigenous cows from these herds were reconstructed by interviewing their owners. Descriptive statistics was applied to analyse the data and reconstruct estimated performance levels from recalled indicators.
Results
Maintaining Exotic Blood Level The 20 sample herds had an average herd size of 11(SD=2.9) heads, of which 7.2 (65.6%) were crossbreds with various levels of exotic blood and the rest 3.8 (34.4%) heads were indigenous (Table 1). The range of herd sizes was 6 to 16, which is generally taken to be characteristic of this mixed crop-livestock farming system in the area. As indicated in the table, the reported levels of Holstein-Friesian blood in the crossbred ranged from a low of 12.5% to a high of 87.5%, with 14 % of the herd classified as genetically non-specified (unknown). Only 49.0% of the crossbreds had the officially declared desirable levels of exotic blood of 50 to 75%, leaving the rest as unintended outcomes of the crossbreeding program.
Table 1: Genotype and age composition of the 20 sample herds (households) Genotype Indigenous Unknown 12.5% HF 25% HF 50% HF 62.5% HF 75% HF 87.5% HF Total Composition Average numbers 3.8 1.6 0.3 0.9 1.5 0.1 2.0 0.9 11 Per cent 34.4 14.1 2.7 8.1 13.2 0.9 18.1 8.1 100 Dams 20 5 0 1 19 0 8 1 54 Numbers of animals in the herds Calves 33 21 6 17 11 1 32 17 138 Others 23 5 1 0 0 0 0 0 29 Total 76 31 7 18 30 1 40 18 221
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The original operational objective of shifting the breeding bulls from one station/village to another was not practiced, and aged and castrated bulls are not being replaced. A major reason for using available exotic bulls was reported to be mere proximity to the bull stations. In fact, about 13% of the calves were born to 75% exotic cross cows mated to their sires and grandsires for lack of other alternatives. As data in Table 2 show, there has been continual upgrading of the crossbred and indigenous cows; all the credit F1 heifers came with 75% exotic in-calf; most of the home-born F1 and quarter-bred cows were mated to pure exotic bulls. However, there is lack of a sustainable supply system for the exotic bulls. Moreover, handlers of the exotic bull stations complain that feeding the bulls is not economical compared to the opportunity with maintaining breeding females on the same feed.
Table 2: Breed composition of calves born to reference cows (n = 39) Dam genotype Indigenous Calf genotype Indigenous N % 12.5%HF N % 25%HF N % 50%HF N % F1-Credit 75%HF N % F1-Homebred 12.5%HF N % 25%HF N % 75%HF N % 75% 62%HF N % 87.5%HF N % 87.50% Unknown N % 2 3 14 2 6 15 40 2 66.7 3 21.4 0 0 1 16.7 6 1 16.7 2 13.3 0 1 7.1 0 0 28 Numbers of calves Born 60 6 5 6 20 1 16.7 13 46.4 0 Died 15 25 1 16.7 1 1 16.7 3 10.7 0 Sold 16 26.7 1 16.7 0 80 4 66.7 12 42.9 2 100 4 16.7 7 46.7 1 33.3 10 71.4 2 100 Present 29 48.3 4 66.7 4 Abortion 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 1 0 1 0 -
Performance of Crossbred and Indigenous Cows Both crossbred and indigenous cattle are kept principally for milk and draught power, but the crossbreds are mainly meant for dairy purposes and indigenous cattle are preferred for traction. Reconstructed comparative performance levels for 19 indigenous and 20 crossbred cows for dairy and reproduction traits are summarized in Table 3. Overall the reported average dairy performance values (lactation length and yield) for crossbreds are much higher than those of the indigenous cows are. Average reported lactation yields for crossbreds are over five times greater than those reported for indigenous cows. But the data collected does not show the level of inputs
that went into the production of these outputs, although it was generally inferred (Table 4) that much more supplementary feeds and veterinary care went into crossbred cows. The crossbreds were all bigger than the indigenous cows. The better inherent value of crossbred cows was also demonstrated by the much higher estimated current market prices of the cows. The reported calf mortality figures appear higher for crossbreds than for indigenous cows.
Table 3: Dairy and reproductive performance of selected reference (n = 39) cows by genotype as recalled by owners Variables Age at first calving (years) Current average age of cow (years) Calculated average calving interval (days) Average number of lactations (no.) Average length of lactations (days) Average total milk yield (litres) Estimate of current market price of cow (Birr) Average number of live births per cow Total calves born to all the cows Calves died (%) Calves sold (%) Calves present (%) Local (N=19) 4.0 9.4 563 4.1 183 399.5 376 4.1 77 18 (23.4%) 18 (23.4%) 41 (53.2%) F1-Credit (N=6) 3.0 7.8 391 4.7 280 1650 1050 4.7 28 13 (46.4%) 3 (10.7%) 12 (42.9%) F1-Homebred (N=8) 3.1 8.5 611 2.9 281 1410 1350 2.9 23 7 (30.4%) 3 (13.0%) 13 (56.5%) 75% HF (N=5) 3.5 8.5 540 3.4 228 1632 2440 3.6 17 5 (29.4) 1 (5.9%) 11 (64.7) 2 (100%) 87.5% HF (N=1) 3.5 6.0 438 2 210 2280 2000 2.0 2 -
Table 4: Reported use of concentrate feeds and veterinary services for reference cows Breed group Crossbred (n=20) Indigenous (n=19) Use of concentrate feeds (%) 85 36.8 Use of veterinary services (%) 85 47.4
As indicated in Table 5, the crossbred cows were reported to be more frequent repeat breeders than do the indigenous cows, although the reported indicators of calving intervals do not quite agree with this general assessment. However, it must be noted that the problem of repeat breeding is detected only when attempts are made to control mating; otherwise, cows are mated to available bulls as they show outward signs of heat. The F1 cows produced on-station and distributed on credit were observed to have a shorter average calving interval than either the indigenous or the other crosses (Table 3), but this has to be related to the apparently better management environment during early growth of these animals, compared to those of the homeborn F1 or quarter-bred cows.
Table 5: Repeat breeding on last pregnancy of selected reference cow. Breed group of cows Crossbred (n=20) Indigenous (n=19) Per cent repeat breeding 2 times 25 52.6 3-4 times 30 10.5 >4 times 20 5.3 Non-return 25 31.6
AI services The National Artificial Insemination Centre (NAIC) is responsible for the production and distribution of semen in the country. The identification numbers of 20 sires used for services at the
Abernosa Ranch (source of crossbred heifers for smallholder) were crosschecked with the ID numbers registered at the NAIC, and only 13 of these (65%) could match, with the rest being unaccounted for (Table 6). The national artificial insemination centre did not have scheduled semen distribution schemes until the year 2000. Even then, the Ranch does not choose sires for AI and receives what is delivered to it from NAIC in batches irrespective of sire identities. The same set of sires has been used in both the ranch as well as the smallholder herds. In the same manner, the ranch did not distinguish sire groups for use on crossbreeding (with Boran cows) or backcrossing (with F1 heifers). These managerial drawbacks brought about major risks for the build up of inbreeding. Furthermore, the records show that seven of these sires are associated with at least 4 cases of abortion, and there is no system in place to report back known cases of abortion to the NAIC for careful examination of the sires for Brucellosis.
Table 6: Origin and performance of Holstein-Friesian bulls used for AI services in ranches as well as smallholder herds. Bull ID 10-010 10-011 10-022 10-024 10-025 10-027 10-034 10-037 10-038 10-040 10-045 10-046 10-056 10-017 Birth DT 2.6.1993 13.8.1993 13.5.1993 7.3.1993 4.11.1993 26.10.1993 23.10.1994 8.4.1994 7.5.1994 18.10.1994 22.11.1994 24.11.1994 26.9.1995 25.1.1993 Origin Israel Israel Selale farm Selale farm Selale farm Selale farm Holetta farm Holetta farm Holetta farm Individual farm Individual farm Individual farm Individual farm Selale farm Noumber of births and abortion on ranch Birth 4 9 37 10 113 33 137 133 31 117 4 47 1 21 Abortion 0 1 3 0 9 4 11 9 7 5 0 8 0 1
Source: National Artificial Insemination Centre (NAIC) and own survey.
Genetic improvement in farmers' herd Because of the unscheduled semen distribution scheme from the semen production centre (NAIC) there is likelihood that crossbred heifers and cows could be mated to their sire or grand sire. It has been practically difficult to monitor the genetic change at the population level. Animals of unknown genotypes resulted from uncontrolled mating of the cows with non-specific bulls encountered during grazing. It was also observed that the services of established bull stations and AI are declining for various reasons, including lack of replacements for aging/castrated exotic bulls and weak and inconsistent AI services. In the case of the latter, farmers have no control over the genotype of the AI bull, and accept whatever is offered from AI technicians. It is not known whether the AI technicians or their supervisors would use designated bulls for their clients. This means that there is no room for controlling the build up of inbreeding, or for monitoring genetic change at the population level. There were instances when crossbred cows were backcrossed with non-descript local bulls. No breeding bulls were observed in the sample herds. This can be explained by the lack of grazing and feed resources to maintain breeding males, in which case farmers give priorities to breeding females and replacement heifers and castrated oxen for traction. Overall there was little control of the breeding process
with very limited options for designated matings. There is no supervision of the progress with the crossbreeding programme. This has resulted in the present day population of mosaic crossbreds in the smallholdings. In general the major operational problems of crossbreeding in the villages are poor control of the breeding process, shortage and non-replacement of exotic bulls, inconsistent and non-designated AI services and lack of supervision of the intended genetic progress. Therefore, the goal of stabilizing exotic blood levels in the crossbreds between 50 and 75% has not been achieved. This is counter to the overall objective of the whole crossbreeding program, which is the genetic improvement of the dairy cattle in the target population. Although it is known that heterosis from crossbreeding in such poor tropical environments is higher than in more conducive environments, experiences in the tropics show that cattle crossbreeding programmes are generally constrained by both physical and social environments, lack of records of performance, ill defined breeding objectives and small population sizes (Bondoc et al., 1989). The same observation was made on other species of livestock, as in the case of a goat crossbreeding program in Ethiopia where it was reported that the major operational limitation of crossbreeding was lack of effective control of the breeding process and the difficulty of stabilising the exotic blood level in the crossbreds (Workneh et al., 2002a). Therefore, the introduction of supposedly more productive exotic breeds for purposes of crossbreeding does not necessarily lead to genetic improvement of the subsistent mode of smallholder production unless the requirements for controlled matings and performance monitoring are met (Workneh et al., 2002b).
References
Ababu Dekeba. 2002. Evaluation of Performance of Boran Cows in the Production of Crossbreed Dairy Heifers at Abernosa Ranch, Ethiopia. M.Sc. Thesis, Alemaya University. Beyene Kebede. 1992. Estimation of additive and non-additive genetic effects for growth, milk yield and reproduction traits of crossbred (Bos taurus x Bos indicus) cattle in the wet and dry environment in Ethiopia. Ph.D. Thesis, Cornell University. Ithaca, NY. Pp. 235. Bondoc, O. L., Smith, C. and Gibson, J. P. 1989. A review of breeding strategies for genetic improvement of dairy cattle in developing countries. Anim. Breed. Abs. 57(10): 819-829. Cunningham, E. P. and Syrstad, O. 1987. Crossbreeding Bos indicus and Bos taurs for milk production in the tropics. FAO Animal Production and Health paper No.68, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Kiwuwa, G.H., Trail, J.C.M., Kurtu, M.Y., Getachew Worku, J., Anderson, M.F. and Durkin, J. 1983. Crossbred dairy cattle productivity in Arsi region, Ethiopia. ILCA research reports No-11. Addis Ababa. Pagot, J. 1992. Animal Production in the Tropics. Macmillan presses. Workneh Ayalew, J. M., King, E. W., Bruns and B. Rischkowsky 2002a. Practicalities of sustaining a goat crossbreeding programme in eastern Ethiopia. Eth. J. Anim. Prod. 2(1): 71-85. Workneh Ayalew, B. Rischkowsky J.M. King, E. Bruns 2003 Crossbreds did not generate more net benefits than indigenous goats on Ethiopian smallholdings. Agricultural Systems Vol.76 (3). pp 1137-1156.
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Application of Artificial Insemination on Poultry in Ethiopia

Getnet Zelleke1 and Workneh Ayalew2
1 Andassa
Livestock Research Center, Amhara Region Agricultural Research Institute (ARARI), P.O.Box 27 Bahir Dar, Ethiopia Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O. Box 5689, Addis Ababa Ethiopia
2 International
Abstract
This paper reviews the current status of application of artificial insemination (AI) in poultry in Ethiopia. The technique was not practiced in the country before 2002. The application of AI in chicken in Ethiopia has been tested by comparing natural mating (NM), natural mating plus artificial insemination (NM+AI) and AI alone with the semen from selected Rhode Island Red (RIR) cocks. Higher fertility and hatchability were recorded in NM+AI (93.33% and 80.18%) groups as compared to NM (81.18% and 72.27%) or AI (83.86% and 78.85%) groups, respectively. Observations from this result provide satisfactory evidence that AI can be applied in poultry production sector. Further, AI can efficiently be exploited to maximize the utilization of cocks of high fertility and hatchability, thereby reducing the need for acquiring new batches of male breeding stock.
Keywords: AI, poultry, Ethiopia, Rhode Island Red.
Introduction
Within the hierarchy of commercial poultry industry in the developed and developing countries, artificial insemination (AI) has found sporadic application. It is the method of choice for the geneticists maintaining pedigreed matings. In the production of laying stocks, all subsequent generations are derived by natural mating because the rate of fertilization cannot be surpassed using AI (Etches, 1996). However, AI can be effectively used in the careful process of producing grade-breeding stock. It can be more economical to apply in the broiler industry where large size of broiler breeder stock has compromised fertility and mating ability, and where it is predicted that fertility in such stock will continue to decline as body size of broilers continues to increase. Artificial insemination could be, and in some instances has been, part of the highly sophisticated and effective management systems to optimize reproductive efficiency in broiler breeders. The level of technical sophistication that is required to conduct an effective artificial insemination programme and its attendant cost, however, has inhibited wide scale application of the technology. Historically, application of the technology has also been inhibited by the rapid deterioration of the fertilizing ability of semen stored in either liquid or frozen status. Recent advances in semen technology, however, have provided adequate methods for holding semen for 24 hour without a loss in fertility. Extensive use of artificial insemination would reduce the number of males required at each stage in the hierarchy, and consequently, a higher proportion of genetically superior males could be used in each generation. However, the primary breeding originations would have greater control over the distribution of their stocks. If the appropriate industry structure and economic benefit evolves, it seems likely that artificial insemination will be used more widely in the broiler industry in the future (Etches, 1996). In other species of domestic birds, artificial insemination has been used widely to circumvent the peculiarities of their mating behavior. For example, the male to female ratio in guinea fowl is lower than in other species of domestic birds because the male has a small harem of typically only two or three females. This characteristic of mating behavior has prompted the widespread use of artificial insemination when guinea fowl are produced for commercial markets, in order to minimize the size of the male flock and hence the cost of production.
AI in poultry has not been practiced in Ethiopia so far. In 2002, the application of AI in poultry was tested in a graduate study at Alemaya University (Getnet, 2003) under the guidance of Prof. R.P. Moudgal. This paper reviews current status of knowledge on the application of AI in poultry production and present results of a comparative fertility study between AI and natural mating (NM) at Andassa Poultry Breeding and Multiplication Center by the author.
Review of literature
Semen collection The collection of semen from male domestic birds is accomplished most effectively by abdominal massage in gallinaceous birds such as chickens, turkeys, guineas, pheasants and quail, and by intercepting the flow of semen during natural copulation in ducks and geese. The reasons that simple abdominal massage stimulates ejaculation of semen by roosters and turkey toms are not evident, since the technique does not resemble natural mating. The male is held with his feet at approximately right angles to his body while his belly and back are stroked posteriorly in two or more firm movements. In a well-trained male, this stimulation will cause tumescence of the phallic folds and, in some cases, is sufficient to initiate the flow of semen. The hand massaging the back is then transferred to the cloacal area so that the thumb and index figure are located on the lateral aspects of the cloaca and slightly anterior to the vent. Gentle pressure is applied to expel semen from the ductus deferens without forcing transparent fluid through the phallic folds. Usually, three or four training sessions during 7-10 days are required to ensure optimum production of clean semen that is free of urates and faeces (Etches, 1996). Preferably, the flow of semen is collected by aspiration into an ampoule containing semen diluents at 15OC (such as sodium citrate, sodium glutamate, skimmed milk, egg albumen, sodium acetate, sodium chloride, etc.). The advantages of collecting semen into diluents are threefold. 1. Dilution into a fluid at a constant temperature prevents contact of semen with cold surfaces of the vial, which would cause an immediate drop in the temperature of sperm cells. 2. Diluents are designed to buffer the acidic products of metabolism of the spermatozoa. Since avian sperm are metabolically very active, and acidic environments are toxic to the cells, their viability is enhanced if diluted in an appropriate buffer immediately. The beneficial effect on fertility of diluting semen is apparent after a period of storage as brief as 30 minutes. 3. The volume of semen that can be collected from domestic birds is small, and consequently, the volume of undiluted semen that is required to maintain maximum fertility is too small to be handled conveniently. Dilution of semen, therefore, provides a volume that can be loaded into an inseminator pipette (Etches, 1996). A major impediment to the large-scale application of artificial insemination has been the high requirement for labour to collect, process and inseminate flocks of domestic birds. Several specialized equipment have been developed to minimize the labour requirements. Semen evaluation Semen evaluation is required for two reasons. Firstly, information about the quality of semen from each male is needed as the males become sexually mature. Secondly, it is necessary to gauge the concentration of spermatozoa and the volume of semen in order to determine the appropriate
dilution to obtain 100 million cells per insemination; the volume of one insemination is usually 50l. The most obvious evaluation of semen quality is color. Semen should be pearly white and the appearance of any other color is indicative of the presence of a contaminant. Yellowish and white deposits in the semen usually indicate faecal contamination. Brownish red pigments in the semen usually indicate the presence of erythrocytes. Sperm motility is the most common form of semen evaluation conducted by microscope. In general, semen with poor motility is unlikely to possess good fertilizing ability, although semen with good motility does not necessarily possess good fertilizing capacity. More sophisticated methodology that measures the rate of motility and the speed of forward progression of the sperm is available, although the accuracy with which the more precise information predicts fertilization is not better than that obtained by visual examination (Etches, 1996). Semen is usually diluted 1: 3 to 1: 4 in a diluent to estimate the motility of individual cells, although the motility of undiluted semen can also be used to estimate semen quality. Good motility of undiluted semen is evident if a swirling mass of cells sweeps across the microscope. Semen quality can be assessed based on the following criteria: 1. Appearance: The ejaculated semen can be assessed for its colour, contamination and density. Semen with pearly white or white with some liquid is utilised for AI purpose, whereas, semen samples with watery (more liquid) or yellowish white with foreign materials are discarded. 2. Semen volume: The volume can be determined by sucking the semen from the collection funnel using a 1 ml tuberculin syringe. 3. Mass motility: Mass motility of sperm cells (movement in a forward motion) can be estimated by the method of (Sexton, 1976; as cited by Al-Daraji, 2001) within 15 minutes of semen collection. One drop of semen is placed on a previously warmed slide (at a body temperature) and examined immediately by a microscope under low and high magnification (x40). Mass motility is expressed as shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Descriptive and numerical scales for evaluation mass motility of sperm cell Descriptive scale Very poor Poor Fair Good Very good
Source: (Zemjanis, 1962)
Numerical value 0 1 2 3 4
Wave appearance Waves not present; sperm cell immotile Waves not present; motile sperm cells Barley distinguishable waves in motion Waves apparent; moderate motion Dark, distinct wave in a rapid motion
4. Individual motility: Individual motility is evaluated as follows. A small drop of fresh semen, which is diluted with 0.9% saline solution (1:200 by the help of haemocytometer pipette), is placed on a previously warmed slide, covered with cover slip and examined under high magnification (x40). Semen samples are given individual motility rating scores based on both motility and vigour of sperm as shown in Table 2.
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Ethiopian Society of Animal Production Table 2. Progressive or initial motility (1-5 subjective scale) Motile cells (%) 80-100 60-80 40-60 20-40 0-20
Source: (Zemjanis, 1962)
Descriptive value Very good Good Fair Poor Very poor
Numerical value 5 4 3 2 1
5. Live and dead count: The determination of the number of dead spermatozoa can be performed by using eosin-negrosin preparation (Ernst and Ogasawara, 1970; as cited by Al-Daraji, 2001). One drop of semen is gently mixed with 12 drops of eosin-negrosin stain and allowed to be incubated for one minute at room temperature. One large drop of the mixture is placed on the far end of an oil free microscope slide and a smear is prepared. 200 sperm cells are examined at random, and those spermatozoa showing red or pink coloration are assumed to be dead and unstained considered as live. On this basis, the observations can be estimated in percent. 6. Abnormalities: 200 sperm cells (alive or dead) are examined and characterized as normal or as having one or more of the following morphological abnormalities: malformation of the sperm head (coiled, hooked, ruptured, and others including, small blunt, balloon and filiform mid piece) or deformities of the tail (coiled, broken or absent) (Al-Daraji, 2001). 7. Spermatozoa count: A standard haemocytometer procedure can be used (Hafez, 1993). Semen is sucked through the haemocytometer pipette up to 0.05 marks and diluted with saline solution up to the mark followed in red blood cells (RBC) count. However, a slight modification can be made by adding one drop of concentrated hydrochloric acid (HCl) into saline solution in order to immobilize the sperm cells in the haemocytometer field. The pipette is shacked well to mix up the spermatozoa in the diluents uniformly. The big squares of four squares in the corners and one square in the middle of the counting chamber are used to count spermatozoa. A total count of spermatozoa in the five squares are summed up and multiplied by a constant factor 50000xnxd (where n=number of spermatozoa from each field, and d=dilution factor). Holding and diluting of semen before insemination As soon as semen is ejaculated, a proportion of the spermatozoa naturally begin to lose their integrity and the process continues during storage in vitro with a resultant decline in fertility. It is difficult to produce an ideal in vitro environment for prolonging the survival of spermatozoa. In general, if storage is to last beyond an hour, spermatozoa must be suspended in a synthetic diluents, careful handling being essential before and during the process of dilution to minimize the reduction of viable spermatozoa. Deposition of semen and timing of insemination Deposition of semen into the female reproductive tract (3-4cm depth of vagina) is accomplished by everting the cloaca of the hen to expose the entry of vagina by inserting the insemination pipette (tuberculin syringe). The work can be performed by two or three persons (attendant and inseminator). The attendant gently places the hen on her breast and while firmly holding the hens legs together with his hand, the inseminator positions his thumb and forefinger of one hand around the cloaca, while pulling back the tail feathers with the palm of the same hand. Just beneath the left pubic bone, the inner and backward pressure within abdominal cavity is applied to insure the everting of cloaca and the appearance of mouth of the vagina. The cloacal area is
cleaned with a tissue paper in order not to contaminate the inseminating syringe with the faecal material (Getnet, 2003). The insemination tube (syringe with semen) can be placed gently into the vagina 3 cm deep until a slight resistance is felt then hand pressure around the cloaca is released and 0.05 ml semen containing around 100 million spermatozoa can be deposited into the vagina (mid part) then the pipette is gently withdrawn (Etches, 1996). The interval depends upon the type of birds, but is generally about one week under farm conditions. It has been reported by different researchers that the insemination of 0.025 to 0.05 ml semen twice weekly or every four or five days is preferable for maintaining constant high fertility (McCarthey, 1976; Fieser and Chambers, 1981, as cited by Lake, 1983). General limit of holding semen in practical AI sessions is about half to one hour. Rough treatment of hens must be avoided during capture before insemination and each female must be released gently after insemination otherwise semen may be regurgitated from the vagina. Macpherson et al. (1977, as cited by Lake, 1983) showed a lowered fertility in hens, which were thrown down on to litter after insemination. Mayer et al. (1980, as cited by Lake, 1983) also suggested that turkey females might be disturbed by handling too frequently, especially towards the end of the breeding period. They found that handling weekly for AI caused a drop in production compared with bi-weekly insemination. It is possible that stress of any kind will interfere with the transport of spermatozoa in the oviduct with a consequent effect on fertilization rate. Number of spermatozoa inseminated into the oviduct To maintain a constant high level of fertility throughout a breeding season, a minimal number of good quality spermatozoa must be inseminated at regular intervals. It is generally recognized by Lake (1983), that about 80 to 100 million spermatozoa per insemination are necessary to maintain high fertility. No advantage is gained by inseminating more than 100 million fresh, good quality spermatozoa into a female reproductive tract at any one time. Sperm storage in vivo The reproductive tract of the hen contains specialized glands known as sperm host glands or sperm storage tubules (SST) in which spermatozoa are stored and their fertilizing capacity is retained. In chicken and turkey hens, the fertilizing of sperm may be retained for up to 3 and 10 weeks respectively, following a single insemination although the percentage of fertile eggs begins to decline after 5-7 days in the chicken and 14-21 days in the turkey, (Etches, 1993). According to Pierson, et al. (1988), the duration of domestic hen fertility is highly variable and ranges from seven to 34 days after insemination. Although the physiological limit of spermatozoa fertility is unknown, intact spermatozoa have been observed from the mucosal secreting of hens oviducts 10 weeks after their separation from males. Semen is deposited on the everted cloaca of the hen following natural mating and in the vagina using artificial insemination. The sperm cells move from the site of deposition to the sperm host glands located in a series of folds that form the uterovaginal junction, presumably moving by their own motility. The precise mechanism, which attracts sperm cells into the host gland, has not been identified. Usually, 50-200 sperm cells enter a host gland and orient themselves in bundles with their long axis parallel to the length of the gland (Etches, 1993). The mechanism causing the release of sperm from the sperm host glands is not well understood. All of the sperm contained within a gland appear to be discharged simultaneously but the factors causing the emptying of one gland while an adjacent gland retains its spermatozoa are unknown. The release appears to be a continuous process since a few sperm can always be found
in the reproductive tract. The existence of sperm host glands in both the infundibulum and the uterovaginal junction is also mysterious. Sperm can always be found in the uterovaginal glands in fertile hens. When the infundibular glands are filled with spermatozoa using experimental techniques such as surgical insemination; the resulting duration of fertility is approximately twice as long as that obtained using natural mating or intravaginal insemination. Since fertilization occurs in the region of infundibular sperm host glands, their superior ability to conserve the fertilizing capacity of spermatozoa tempts speculation that they play a role in coordinating the availability of metabolically active sperm cells with the arrival of the ovum (Etches, 1993). Observations on fertility and hatchability of Rhode Island Red chicken eggs A comparative study on fertility and hatchability of eggs produced through natural mating, natural mating in combination with artificial insemination and artificial insemination alone was conducted by Getnet (2003) using Rhode Island Red (RIR) chickens at Andassa Poultry Breeding and Multiplication Center. RIR cocks were selected depending on the semen quality they ejaculated and were used in the experiment. The fertility of semen from available RIR cocks ranged from 70 to 89%. All cocks and hens used in the experiment were homogeneous (in terms of breed, batch, age, and reproductive history). The experiments were divided into three groups: Group one for natural mating (NM), in which the hens were mated with selected cocks for three weeks; Group two for natural mating plus artificial insemination (NM+AI), in which the hens were inseminated with 0.05 ml of diluted semen once every week for three weeks, and cocks were allotted to run with the females during experimental periods, and Group three artificial (AI) alone, in which the hens were inseminated weekly with 0.05 ml of diluted semen for three weeks.
Eggs were collected from each experimental group, stored at 12-14OC in a cooler room for seven days and were incubated using the standard procedures in VICTORIA incubator. Fertility of the eggs was checked by candling (opaque/clear) on the 7th and 18th day of incubation. Fertility was then calculated as the proportion of eggs set with live growing embryos in them. Similarly hatchability of the eggs was determined as the proportion of chicks hatched from the eggs set or eggs identified as fertile. Chi square test was applied to test for statistical significance of differences between the proportions. Semen collected from four selected cocks was pooled and diluted in 0.9% saline solution and inseminated within 30 minutes. The experimental semen was inseminated to AI groups with similar number of spermatozoa (125x106 cells per insemination). All experimental hens were maintained under uniform management in six separate pens. The results are presented in Table 3. Natural mating combined with AI (NM+AI) resulted in significantly (P<0.05) higher fertility and hatchability than those under natural mating (NM) or under AI alone. This superiority was explained by the differences in the ability of greater number of spermatozoa deposition in sperm storage tubules (SST) of the female reproductive tract through additional weekly insemination. These results are in consistent with the findings of Van Wambeke (1984) who reported that inseminating more semen improved fertility levels. Similarly Van Krey et al., (1966); Lorenz and Ogasawara, (1968; as cited by Van Krey and Siegal, 1975) found out that greater numbers of spermatozoa were inseminated; there was also an increased level of fertility during a week period. In the present study the additional weekly insemination in the NM+AI group is believed to have contributed to the improved fertility and hatchability levels.
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Animal Breeding/Reproduction Table 3. Effect of mating type on mean percentage (SE) fertility and hatchability in RIR chicken Mating type Natural mating Natural mating and AI Artificial insemination alone Fertility (%) 81.18 3.02b 93.33 1.14
a
Hatchability of fertile eggs (%) 72.27 0.84b 80.18 0.82

a
Hatchability of eggs set (%) 54.84 1.59b 73.57 1.31a 63.32 2.66ab
83.86 1.49b
78.85 2.16ab
Means within a column followed by different superscripts are significantly (P<0.05) different.
During the same period, the observed overall fertility rate of the RIR stock using natural mating at the Andassa Poultry Breeding and Multiplication Center was 78%; the average hatchability from the fertile eggs was 73%, whereas hatchability from total eggs set was only 57.5%. These values are all lower than the observed average values in the present experiment.
Conclusion
There is no documented experience on the application of AI in poultry in Ethiopia. Observations in this experiment provide sufficient proof that AI can be applied in large chicken farms. In fact, provided adequate quality chicks on semen are put in place average fertility and hatchability values can be improved through proper application of AI. With the prospect that large commercial poultry farms will expand in the country in response to growing urbanization and associated increases in the demand for foods of animal origin, it is essential to further evaluate and refine the technical procedures involved in semen collection, evaluation, dilution and use in AI. Furthermore, AI can effectively be exploited to maximize the use of cocks of high fertility and hatchability, thereby reducing the need by acquiring new batches of male breeding stock. The frequency observed poor hatchability of exotic breeding stock could therefore be partly alleviated through application of AI.
References
Al-Daraji, H.J. 2001. Semen-egg penetration in laying breeder flocks: a technique for prediction of fertility. British Poultry Science Journal, 57: 243-250. Etches, R.J. 1993. Reproduction in Poultry. In: World Animal Science B9 Elsevir Publisher, King, G.J. (ed.). Reproduction in Domesticated Animals, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada. Etchs, R.J. 1996. Reproduction in poultry. CAB International, Cambridge University, UK. Getnet, Z. 2003. Investigation on Artificial Insemination (AI) Based technologies to Improve Fertility and Hatchability in Rhode Island Red (RIR) Breed of Chicken. M.Sc. Thesis, School of Graduate Studies, Alemaya University, Ethiopia. Hafez, E.S.E. 1993. Reproduction in Farm Animals, 6th (ed.) Lea and Febiger 200 Chaster Field Park Way, Malven, PA 1935, USA. Lake, P.E. 1983. Factors affecting the fertility level in poultry, with special reference to artificial insemination. Worlds Poultry Science Journal, 39: 106-117. Pierson, E.E.M., McDaniel, G.R. and Krista, L.M., 1988. Relationship between fertility duration and in vivo sperm storage in broiler breeder hens. British poultry Science, 29: 199-203. Van Key, H.P. and Siegal P.B., 1975. A revised artificial insemination schedule for broiler breeder hens. Poultry Science, 55: 725-728. Van Wambeke, F. 1984. The effect of semen time and number of spermatozoa inseminated on the fertility and hatchability of eggs from dwarf broiler breeder hens. British Poultry Science, 25: 583-587.
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Zemjanis, R. 1962. Diagnostic and Therapeutic Techniques in Animal Reproduction. The Williams and Wilkins Company, USA.
222
Genetic Studies of Age at First Calving for Holstein-Friesians

Melaku Negash Institute of Pathobiology, Addis Ababa Unversity, P.O.Box 1176
ABSTRACT
Twenty-seven sire-progeny groups were utilized for genetic analyses. Analyses of variance showed that sire variation failed to reach significance when including birth periods (birth year and season) in the model. It was, however, a very highly (P<0.001) source of variation while including calving periods in the model. Heritability of age at first calving was lower (0.150.24) from mixed model analysis of the model containing birth periods than calving periods (0.760.20). Among other factors tested year of calving was a very highly significant (P<0.001) source of variation and birth year significant at 5% probability level. Seasonal variations, however, were not statistically important.
Key Words: Age at First Calving, confounding, heritability, Holstein-Friesian, Ethiopia
Introduction
Depending of factors included in models heritability values ranging between 0.05 and 1.0 are reported in the literature (Allaire and Lin, 1980; Ribas and Perez, 1987 and Seykora and McDaneil, 1986). In addition sire variations may as well show differences (Seykora and McDaniel, 1986). The present study was set out to analyse the influence of different factors as possible sources of variation in age at first calving and to see whether these could provoke differences in heritability estimates of the trait.

This study was carried out with a data of 27 sire-progeny groups. The data belongs to the Holeta Holstein-Friesian dairy cattle herd. Holeta is with cool sub-tropical climate and the herd's management is semi-intensive. Least square methods according to Harvey (1990) were used for the statistical analyses and estimation of heritabilities was carried out by the paternal half-sib method. The following mixed model was used for the analyses: Yijkl = + ai + rj + sk + eijkl where, Yijkl = observations of age at first calving = overall mean ai = effect of sire on age at first calving - NID ~ (0, s2) rj = effect of year of birth or calving sk = effect of season of birth or calving eijkl = error or residual term - NID ~ (0, e2)

Analyses of variance are presented under Table 1 and 2. As can be seen from Table 1, sire variation didn't reach significance (P>0.05) upon inclusion of birth periods (birth year and season)
in mixed model analysis. But, it was a very highly significant source of variation (P<0.001) from mixed model analysis of the model containing calving periods. This finding is similar to that reported by Ribas and Perez (1987) for Holstein cattle from Cuba.
Table 1. Analysis of variance of age at first calving (birth periods in the model). Source of variance Sire Year of birth Season of birth Remainder
* = P<0.05 ns = not significant, P>0.05
df 26 17 2 235
Mean square 45924.8 ns 70427.8 * 16892.2 ns 36584.3
The heritability estimate found was far higher (0.760.2) from mixed model analysis of the model containing calving periods than from the analysis of the model containing birth periods (0.15 0.24). Similar findings are also reported by several authors (Allaire and Lin, 1980; Ribas and Perez, 1987 and Seykora and McDaniel, 1986). These authors have reported low heritabilities when analysing models containing birth periods and high values when analysing models containing calving periods.
Table 2. Analysis of variance of age at first calving (calving periods in the model) Source of variance Sire Year of calving Season of calving Remainder
*** = P<0.001 ns = not significant, P>0.05
df 26 17 2 235
Mean square 80124.9 *** 140697.2 *** 3062.3 ns 30563.6
Based on the results obtained it might be argued that there ought to exist appreciable confounding differences between sire with birth periods in model on one hand and sire with calving periods in the model on the other hand However levels of confounding were both comparable but high. Confounding between sire and birth year was 37.9 and between that of sire and calving year was 42.1%. Normally confounding levels, between genotype and environment, ought to be low (in the order of 10%) so that heritability estimates shall be more reliable. However, heritability esimates of age at first calving, where the data was divided into two groups to avoid confounding, were 0.45 0.4 and 0.47 0.26, respectively (Melaku, 1994). It is therefore plausible that actual heritability estimate for age at first calving must be closer to the higher figure found in this study when calving year and season were in the model i.e. 0.76 0.20. It is therefore suggested that calving periods should be considered in mixed model analyses in similar herds in the future to make estimates of genetic parameters such as heritability. Genotypic variation of age at first calving seems to express itself better and more so when calving periods are considered in the mixed model opposed to birth periods. This study also revealed that genetic improvement of age at first calving is possible as heritability (additive genetic component) is high.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to my teachers from the Alemaya University of Agriculture (Ethiopia) and from the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (Sweden). Also my gratitude goes to the Dairy Development Enterprice of Ethiopia for the supply of the data material.
References
Allaire, F.R. and Lin, C.Y. (1980). Heritability of age at first calving. J. Dai. Sci. 63: 171-5. Harvey, W.R. (1990). Mixed models least squares and maximum likelyhood computer program. Melaku Negash (1994). Reproductive performance of a Holstein-Friesian dairy cattle herd kept at Holtta, Shoa, Ethiopia. MSc thesis, Alemaya University of Agriculture, Ethiopia. Ribas, M. and Perez, B. (1987). Genetic analyses of age and weight at first calving of Holstein breed in a district of the province of Havana. First indicators. Cuban J. Agric. Sci. 21: 119-126. Seykora, A.J. and McDaniel, B.T. (1986). Heritabilities and correlations of lactation yield and fertility for Holstein. J. Dai. Sci. 66: 1486-1491.
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Influence of Dam Genotype, Age of Dam and Parity on Age at First Calving, Calving Interval and Birth Weight in Indigenous and Crossbred Cattle at Adami Tulu
Hailu Dadi and Tadele Mirkena Adami Tulu Agricultural Research Center, P. O. Box 35, Ziway, Ethiopia.
Abstract
A study was conducted to evaluate the effect of dam genotype, age of dam and parity on age at first calving (AFC), calving interval (CI) and birth weight (BW) of calves. Pure Borana (B) and Barka (K) cattle and Friesian (F), Jersey (J) and Simmental (S) sire breeds crossed with Borana and Barka dams were considered in this investigation. The analyses of variance showed that dam genotype, age of dam and parity had significant (P<0.05) influence on CI and BW. Dam genotype and year had also significant (P<0.05) influence on AFC. It was found that few breed dam genotypes showed variation (P<0.05) in performance for AFC and CI. Calving interval increased with increasing age of dam. Birth weight increased and reached maximum at 6.4 years of age and declined then after. Dams in the 5th and 6th parity had significant (P<0.05) shorter CI than the remaining parities. Removing old dams from the herd and retaining productive age groups is suggested for better herd reproductive efficiency. Further investigation focused on other traits of economic importance such as longevity and days open should also be considered in future studies.
Keywords: crossbred, age at first calving, calving interval, birth weight
Introduction
Crossbreeding is an accepted procedure for profitable livestock production. It is widely used in the world in order to enhance production of milk and meat, particularly under commercial farms. Significant heterosis values are usually obtained under optimum conditions by combining indigenous and exotic breeds. There is little heterosis for carcass traits that are highly heritable; but it is estimated to be 2-5% for growth and production traits and 5-10% for survival and reproductive traits that are low heritable (Smith, 1998). Low heritability traits are highly influenced by non-genetic factors. As a result genetic improvement through selection for such traits is less desirable because the expected rate of genetic gain can be very low. Crossbreeding is an alternative genetic improvement approach to improve traits with such low heritabilities. High reproductive rate is essential for adequate efficiency of cattle production (Harwin, 1989). Calving interval, calving rate, number of services per conception and age at first calving are some of the criteria by which reproductive performance of breeds and breed combinations can be evaluated. The lifetime performance of a dam is highly determined by these factors. Little information regarding the reproductive capabilities of crossbred animals is available in different environments and production systems in our country, while relatively these performance characteristics are well researched in Borana, Arsi and Horo cattle (MukasaMugerwa, 1989). The aim of this study was to assess the influence of dam breed genetic group, dam age and parity on calving interval, age at first calving and birth weight in indigenous and crossbred herd maintained at Adami Tulu.

This research was conducted at Adami Tulu Agricultural research center, on data collected during the year 1977 to 1988 from the crossbred cattle herd. The aim of this crossbreeding program was to produce various combinations of two breed crosses of animals in order to find superior genotypes for milk and meat production under semi-arid conditions. Three exotic [Friesian (F), Jersey (J), Simmental (S)] sire breeds were combined with two local cattle breeds [Borana (B) and Barka (K)]. Crossbreds (F1) and pure Borana and Barka dams born and raised under Adami Tulu condition were considered in this investigation. The herd was grazed on natural pastures, dominated by pennesitum and cenchrus grass species with scattered acacia trees and supplemented with silage, bone meal, concentrate and salt when required. Dams calved almost throughout the year; about 36.1, 33.3 and 30.6% gave birth during the wet (July to October), dry (November to February) and short rains (March to June) seasons, respectively. The raw data is summarized in Table 1.
Table 1. Summary of birth weight, age at first calving and calving interval records Traits Birth weight (kg) Age at first calving (month) Calving interval (days) Number of calves born per cow N 516 124 340 Mean 26.90 41.78 480.73 4.16 Minimum 17.00 27.00 320 2 Maximum 40.00 59.00 1120 6
Statistical analysis
Records of animals that were with suspect breed/genotype were excluded from the analysis. Data were analyzed using the General Linear Model (GLM) procedures of Statistical Analysis System (SAS) (1999). Interactions (two and three way) that had no (P>0.05) influence on calving interval (CI), age at first calving (AFC) and birth weight (BW) were deleted from the final analysis using a step down procedure. The model fitted for BW included the effects of dam genetic group, sex of calf, year of birth, season of birth, dam age and parity. For CI sex was not fitted while sex and parity were excluded for AFC. Yklmno = +Dj+Sk+Yl+Nm+An+Po+ ejklmno, Where Yjklmno =The value of appropriate trait considered = Population mean for the appropriate trait Dj = Effect of the jth dam genotype (n = 8) Sk = Effect of the kth sex of calf (n = 2) Yl = Effect of the lth year of birth (n = 12) Nm= Effect of the mth season of birth (n= 3) An = Effect of the nth age of dam (n = 9) Po = Effect of the oth parity (n = 6) eijklmno = residual effects.
Results and discussions

The analyses of variance indicated that year and dam genotype had significant (P<0.001 and P<0.05, respectively) effects on AFC. The highly significant influence of year on AFC of heifers observed in this study is consistent with the reports of Galina and Arthur (1989) and Eneyew et al. (2000). Dam age and parity had a highly significant (P<0.001) effect on CI. Year and dam genotype also influenced CI significantly (P<0.05).
Except season and year of birth, other effects had significant influence on birth weight of calves. In other investigations of large data set analyses season and year of birth had important influence on BW of calves (Skrypzeck et al., 2000; Hailu et al., 2002). Estimated coefficient of determinations (R2) for this study were 42, 29 and 45% for AFC, CI and BW, respectively. Dam genotype: The influence of dam genotype on BW was reported previously (Hailu, 2002). Least squares means for AFC and CI by dam genotype are given in Table 2. Significant (P<0.05) mean differences in AFC attributed to dam genetic group have been observed in this study. Heifers of 1/2J1/2B had the shortest (P<0.05) AFC while Borana heifers had the longest AFC. Similarly, 1/2S1/2B dams had the longest CI and 1/2F1/2B dams had the shortest CI, and the differences between these two were statistically significant (P<0.05). There is little pattern in the differences between the dam genotypes for both the traits. However, some general tendency in AFC related to breed genotype of dam can be deduced. The estimated least squares means presented in Table 2 indicates that, crossbred dams appear to have shorter AFC than the indigenous Borana and Barka dams. The value 41.78 months obtained for AFC in this study is slightly higher than 38.8 months reported by Enyew et al. (2000) for crosses among Friesian, Jersey, Arsi and Zebu. In other reports, the estimates for AFC were shorter ranging from 29 to 42 months (Galal et al., 1981; Alberro 1983) for crossbreds while the present estimate vary from 38.7 to 47.0 months. For Zebu cattle in Ethiopia, AFC values from 35.1 to 53 months were reported by Alberro (1983) and Mukasa-Mugerwa (1989). Age at first calving is a very important indicator of cow reproduction in any production system, because it marks the beginning of dams productivity. Despite the genetic variation in AFC, environmental factors such as feed influence pre-pubertal growth rate, development of reproductive organ and onset of puberty, and these directly influence AFC. Age at first calving is intimately related to generation interval. Rate of genetic change or response to selection is inversely proportional to generation interval (Bourdon, 2000). This imply that the longer the generation interval in any herd, the slower the rate of genetic change if genetic improvement through selection is desired. The overall least squares mean of CI was found to be 480.7 days with little significant differences between the dam genotypes. This can be explained by the small sample size and those all of the crossbreds are F1 crosses. In addition, CI is a composite trait made up of three distinct periods, each likely affected by a different set of factors. Calving interval is composed of postpartum anoestous interval (calving to first oestrus), service period (first postpartum oestrus to conception) and gestation length (Mukasa-Mugerwa, 1989). In crossbreeding studies, Van Zyl et al. (1992) also reported few significant differences due to dam genotype for CI ranging from 351 to 426 in the Republic of South Africa. In Ethiopia, the mean estimate of CI for pure breed Jersey dams at Ada Barga State Dairy Farm was 414 days (Yimam et al., 1997), which is less than the estimate obtained in this study for 1/2J1/2B and 1/2J1/2K crossbred dams. This variation may be attributed to non-genetic factors and the inherent genetic contribution (long calving interval) of indigenous Barka and Borana dams in the combination. Calving interval is perhaps the most important indicator of overall reproductive efficiency. It is, therefore, necessary to plan and evaluate interventions for stimulating oestrus and their effects on conception with the view to improve calving interval of this herd.
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Ethiopian Society of Animal Production Table 2 Least squares means and standard errors for age at first calving (AFC) and calving interval (CI) by breed dam genotype. Effect Dam genotype Overall mean B K 1/2J1/2K 1/2S1/2K 1/2F1/2B 1/2S1/2B 1/2F1/2K 1/2J1/2B 124 9 7 23 11 18 19 20 17 n AFC (Mon.) se * 41.782.09 47.042.60a 43.952.94ade 43.741.62ae 39.842.35bcde 40.571.83ac 40.841.78ade 39.641.74bde 38.681.89bcd 340 14 10 55 34 49 58 70 50 n CI (days) se * 480.7328.01 477.2141.85ab 464.8549.52ab 500.7221.11ab 487.2726.85ab 442.0323.37a 511.7820.56b 471.1118.71ab 490.8922.14ab
Means followed by the same superscript do not differ significantly at P>0.05
Dam age: The regression of least squares mean of BW and CI on dam age are presented in Figure 1 (a) and (b), respectively. Birth weight of calves increased with increasing dam age and reached maximum level at 6.4 years of age and declined thereafter (Figure 1 (a)). According to Thrift et al (1978) this trait increased as age of dam increased from 2 to 5 years of age and remained constant for the remaining four (6, 7, 8 and 9) age of dam classification. In another investigation (Dillard et al., 1980) BW increased by 2.7kg as age of dam increased from 2 to 4 years. The regression of (Y = 51.429x +154.71) CI on age of dam Figure 1 (b) revealed that CI is positively associated (b= 51.4) with dam age. Although, the numbers of sample size are low, the result of this study indicated that old dams had longer CI than younger ones. A regression of least squares mean CI on year of calving reported by Eneyew et al. (2000) indicated that there was an increase of 29 days in CI per year. In indigenous cattle, CI is longer in first calf heifers and older cows, and shortest in the intermediate age (6-9 years) (Mukasa-Mugerwa, 1989). When the average age of dams is larger in a herd, the herd is expected to be less productive due to long calving interval. It is, therefore, important to cull old cows from the herd to maintain sufficiently high overall reproductive efficiency.
(a)
29 28 27 26 25 24 2 3
650 CI (da ys ) 550 450 350
(b)
y = 51.429x + 154.71 R2 = 0.9622
BW(kg)
y = -0.1364x2 + 1.7825x + 22.126 R = 0.7014 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2
250 3 4 5 6 7 8 Dam age (year) 9 10 11
Dam age (year)
Figure 1 Regression of least squares means of birth weight (a) and calving interval (b) on dam age.
Season and parity: Least squares means of CI and BW by season and parity are given in Table 3. Season in general had no important influence on both reproductive traits considered; however, variation in performance during the different seasons was noticed. A similar trend was observed for AFC and CI in the reports of Enyew et al. (2000) and is in agreement with the present result.
Season also had no significant influence on BW of calves. Calves born during the wet season showed slightly larger BW, and this might be associated with the availability of improved nutrition for dams during the subsequent short rain and wet seasons.
Table 3 Least squares means and standard error for calving interval (CI) and birth weight (BW) by season of birth and parity. Effect Season of birth Wet season Short rains Dry season Parity Overall mean 1 2 3 4 5 6 340 108 94 70 38 30 n NS 133 97 110 471.44 13.57 466.1215.90 505.6414.93 *** 480.9020.78 588.7815.06a 519.9116.15b 485.1618.71b 409.5325.40c 401.1328.59c 516 124 120 108 85 43 33 CI se N NS 185 157 171 27.44 0.33 26.540.35 27.020.34 * 26.900.53 24.800.40a 27.690.41b 26.950.43b 26.700.48b 27.450.68b 27.820.78b BW se
Means followed by the same superscript do not differ significantly at P>0.05.
Calves born in the first parity had significant (p<0.05) lowest BW than those of other parities. Cows in the 5th and 6th party had significant (P<0.05) shortest CI than the rest parities while the 3rd and 4th parities had also shorter CI than the second parity. Calving interval was decreased from 588.7 in the second parity to 401.1 days in the 6th parity. A declined trend in days of CI (2nd parity to 6th parity) observed in this study is in agreement with report of Enyew et al. (2000). The causes of this parity-associated difference in CI may be related to delay of resumption of ovarian activity after calving. From theoretical point of view, young animals need longer resting period after calving to recover from stress exerted by parturition. In another words, delay in resumption of ovarian activity in the first calf heifers may be a physiological mechanism by which the young animals confront the adverse environmental factors.
Conclusion
Although use of promising crossbred genotypes is desirable in Ethiopia to meet the everincreasing demand for animal products, due focus should also be given to improve the AFC and CI of indigenous breeds for smallholder farmers and pastoralists where the application of crossbreeding may be difficult. The relatively low performances in AFC and CI of the crossbred dams in this study vis--vis similar investigations is may be associated with the low level of management provided to the animals at the center. Improvement methods to reduce the long CI and high AFC should be the priority area for future research.
References
Alberro, M., 1983. Comparative performance of F1 Friesian x Zebu heifers in Ethiopia. Anim.Prod. 37, 247252. Bourdon, R. M., 2000. Understanding animal breeding. 2nded. Prentice Hall. New Jersey. Burfening, P. J., Kress, D. D., Friedrich, R. L. and Vaniman, D. D., 1978. Phenotypic and genetic relationships between calving ease, gestation length, birth weight and preweaning growth. J. Anim. Sci. 47, 595.
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Dillard, E. U., Rodriquez, O. and Robison, O. W., 1980. Estimation of additive and nonadditive direct and maternal genetic effects from crossbreeding beef cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 50, 653. Enyew Negussie, Brnnng, E. and Rottmann, O. J., 2000. Reproductive performance and herd life of crossbred dairy cattle with different levels of European inheritance in Ethiopia. ESAP (Ethiopian Society of Animal Production). 2000. Livestock production and the environment-implications for sustainable livelihoods. Proceedings of 7th annual Conference of Ethiopian Society of Animal Production, held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 26-27 May 1999. ESAP, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. pp 65 Galal, E. S. E., Beyene Kebede and Azage Tegegne., 1981. A study on the reproduction of local Zebu and F1 crossbred cows. II. Age at first calving and calf production. E. J. Anim. Sci. 3, 87-95 Galina, C. S., and Arthur, G. H., 1989. Review of cattle reproduction in the tropics. Part I. Puberty and age at first calving. Animal Breeding Abstract. 57, 583-590. Hailu Dadi. 2002. Effects of sire and dam breed genotypes on preweaning traits of calves in indigenous (Borana and Barka) and indigenous x Bos Taurus crossbred cattle. ESAP (Ethiopian Society of Animal Production). 2002. Challenges and Opportunities of Livestock Marketing in Ethiopia. Proceedings of 10th annual Conference of Ethiopian Society of Animal Production, held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 22 - 24 August 2002. ESAP, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Hailu Dadi, Jordan, J. F., Schoeman, S. J. and Westhuizen van der, J., 2002. The influence of Charolais and Angus breeding levels on preweaning growth performance traits in crossbred calves. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci. 32, 201-207. Harwin, G. O., 1989. Strategies for beef production in South Africa. A selection of lectures. Stock Owners Cooperative limited, South Africa. Mukasa-Mugerwa., 1989. A review of reproductive performance of female Bos indicus (Zebu) cattle. ILCA Monograph no 6. Paterson, A. G., Venter, H. A. W. and Harwin, G. O., 1980. Preweaning growth of British, Bos indicus, Charolais and dual-purpose type cattle under intensive pasture condition. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci. 10, 125. SAS (Statistical Analysis system) 1999, by SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA. Schoeman, S. J., Van Zyl, J. G. E. and Wet de Rensia., 1993. Direct and maternal additive and heterotic effects in crossbreeding Hereford, Simmentaler and Afrikaner cattle. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci. 23, 61-66. Skrypzeck, H., Schoeman, S. J., Jordaan, G. F. and Neser, F. W. C., 2000. Estimates of crossbreeding parameters in a multibreed beef cattle crossbreeding project. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci. 30, 193. Smith, C.1998., Introduction: Current Animal Breeding. Animal breeding: Technology for the 21st century. Harwood Academic publisher. Australia. Thrift, F. A., Gallion, S. R. and Absher, C. W., 1978. Breed sire and dam comparison for preweaning traits under commercial beef cattle condition. J. Anim. Sci. 46, 977. Van Zyl, J. G. E., Schoeman, S. J. and Coertze, R. J., 1992. Sire breed and breed genotype of dam effect in crossbreeding beef cattle in the subtropics. Calving interval and cow productivity. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci. 22, 166. Yimam Hassen, Brannang, E. and Beyene Kebede., 1997. Evaluation of the performance of Danish Jersey cattle at Ada Berga State Farm, Ethiopia. Days open, Calving interval, mortality and calving performance. Ethiop. J. Agric. Sci. 16, 25.
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Growth Performance of Boran Cattle and Their Simmental Crosses in Ethiopia

Amsalu Sisay Adami Tulu Research Center P. O. Box 35, Ziway, Ethiopia
Abstract
Calf records on 188 Boran and 5 grades of Simmental X Boran crossbreds were analyzed for the effect of Simmental (S) breeding and other factors on pre-and post-weaning growth traits. Crossbred calves were significantly (P < 0.05) heavier at birth than purebred Boran and birth weights increased with increasing level of Simmental blood. Crossbred calves with 50% Simmental blood (S50) had the heaviest (P < 0.05) weight at all ages after birth. Crossing Boran cattle with Simmental breeds improved growth performances of calves with 50% Simmental blood and further upgrading to 75% of Simmental blood did not improve growth performance under tropical condition. Male calves were significantly heavier at birth (P < 0.01) and at all other ages (P < 0.05) than female calves, and they grew 6.2% and 10% faster than females during pre and post weaning periods, respectively. Calves born in the wet season were heavier (P < 0.05) than dry season calves at weaning age. Age of dam significantly (P < 0.05) affected pre-weaning growth rate and weaning weights of calves in a quadratic fashion. The pattern of the effect of age of dam on pre-weaning ADG and weaning weights showed that 6-and 7-year old dams have the maximum positive maternal influence. Pre-weaning average daily gain (ADG) and 6-month weaning weight of calves were positively and significantly (P < 0.01) correlated with total annual rain fall of the year of birth, in a linear fashion.
Keywords: Age of dam, Boran cattle, Ethiopia, Growth performance, Post-weaning, Pre-weaning, Season of birth, Simmental crosses
Introduction
Indigenous cattle in Africa are often described as having limited potential for both beef and milk production. The approaches to improvement of the productivity of African cattle have been varied, but for dairy cattle two main alternatives have been pursued. Exotic dairy cattle have been improved on a large scale to establish dairy industries (Ahunu et al., 1993), in which case the strategy has been to provide them with an environment similar to that of the country of origin to achieve optimal productivity. Systematic crossing and upgrading schemes have been utilized (Meyn and Mbogo, 1976), in which the strategy has been to breed cattle with relatively high productivity and yet possessing some degree of adaptation to the local environment. The merits and demerits of these two approaches to livestock improvement in Africa South of Sahara have been fully discussed by Trail (1981). However, the optimal level to which exotic blood should be introduced in indigenous cattle for effective adaptation and productivity is not clearly determined. A long term crossbreeding study with the objective of improving dairy traits was conducted in Ethiopia starting from 1974 to 1984 (Beyene and Galal, 1982). Since 1977, a modified crossbreeding program with the objective of improving Boran cattle for dual (meat and milk) purposes has been carried out at Adami Tulu Research Center (ATRC), Ethiopia, and a large volume of data on calf weights has been accumulated. Birth weight, weaning weight, pre-and post-weaning average daily gain (ADG) are important traits used to determine economic performance of beef cattle. The present investigation was undertaken to evaluate the effect of level of Simmental blood (genotype of calf), sex of calf,
season of birth, age of dam and year of birth on growth performance of different blood levels of Simmental X Boran crossbreds.

The data used for this study were taken from monthly growth records of Boran and different levels of Boran X Simmental crossbred calves born from 1979 to 1994 at Adami Tulu Research Center. The center is located in the central part of Ethiopian Rift Valley. It has a semi arid climate with an erratic average annual rainfall of 650 mm. The minimum and maximum temperatures are 120C and 260C respectively. The different blood levels of Simmental (S) were formed by the two way rotational crossing via artificial insemination and natural mating. Calves used in this study were one of the following 6 genotypes:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Purebred Boran (B) 25% Simmental, 75% Boran (S25) 37.5% Simmental, 62.5% Boran (S37.5) 50% Simmental, 50% Boran (S50) 62.5% Simmental, 37.5% Boran (S62.5) 75% Simmental, 25% Boran (S75)
From birth till weaning all calves were allowed to suckle their dams during the day time and separately penned during night (partial cow-calf management). In addition, they were offered hay ad-libitum and up to a maximum of 1 kg of wheat bran per head per day. All dams were milked once daily in the morning and they were allowed to graze for 8 hrs daily on a natural pasture. At critical times such as during late pregnancy and lactation, the dams were supplemented with 3 kg of wheat bran per head per day. The pasture is dominated by Pennisetum stramineum, Cenchrus cilliaris, Dactyloctenium aegypticum and Chloris pycnothrix. Due to the lack of a clear demarcation between minor and major rainy seasons, the data were classified into two seasons: wet (April to September) and dry (October to March). Statistical analysis The data were subjected to least squares analysis using the GLM procedures of SAS (1999) on the following fixed model: Yijklm = + Gi + Xj + Sk +Al + Zm + GXij + GSik + XAjl + XSjk + ASlk + en(ijklm) Where: Yijklm = trait being considered; = the overall mean; Gi = the effect of the ith genotype of calf, i = 6; Xj = the effect of the jth sex of calf, j = 2; Sk = the effect of kth season of birth k = 2; Al = the effect of lth age of dam 1 = 9; Zm = the effect of mth year of birth, m = 13. GXij, GSik, XAjl, XSjk, and ASlk are the corresponding two-way interactions and en(ijklm) is the random error term. Due to empty cells or cells with very few observations, other two way interactions could not be included in the model. Three-way and higher level interactions were not considered important. Differences among means of significant effects were tested using Duncan's Multiple Range Test. Orthogonal polynomials were fitted to the age of dam effect for each trait to determine the nature of the response (linear, quadratic and /or cubic). Relationship between annual rainfall and each of the different growth traits were determined by the linear regression analysis.
234
Results and discussions

Genotype of calf Significant (P < 0.05) genotype differences existed at birth. All crossbred calves were heavier (P < 0.05) than Boran and S75 calves were the heaviest (P < 0.05) of all the genotypes at birth (Table 1). The increment of birth weight with increasing level of exotic blood agreed with the report of Ahunu et al. (1993) from Ghana, which revealed that birth weights of calves gradually increased with increasing level of Jersey blood in crossbreeds. Calves with 50% Simmental blood (S50) had the heaviest (P < 0.05) weights at all ages starting from three months of age and they were the fastest (P< 0.05) in their pre and post weaning ADG. Weight of calves with higher exotic blood (S62.5 and S75) were similar (P > 0.05) to that of Boran and S25 calves at all ages after birth. In both pre and post weaning growth periods genotypes with higher exotic blood levels (S62.5 and S75) did not grow faster (P > 0.05) than Boran, S25 and S37.5 calves. The decline in all growth traits with increasing levels of Simmental blood above 50% could be the result of poor adaptation of the higher level of Simmental blood. Similarly, Ahunu et al.(1993) observed a gradual decline in ADG from West Africa Short horn to 75% of Jersey for increasing level of Jersey blood. Sex of calf Male calves were significantly heavier at birth (P < 0.01) and at all other ages (P < 0.05) than female calves (Table 1). Male caves were 8% and 7% heavier at birth and at weaning than females and they grew 6.2% and 10% faster during pre and post weaning periods, respectively. Ahunu et al. (1993) observed that male calves at birth and weaning were heavier (P < 0.05) than females. The level of superiority of birth weight in this study (8%) was lower compared to 11.5% reported by Winks et al. (1978) for Australian Short Horn X Brahman and higher compared to 3% reported by Ahunu et al. (1993). However, it was comparable to observation by Pabst et al (1977) who recorded nearly similar weight advantage of bull calves of 6%. The superiority of male calves in pre-weaning ADG in this study (6.3%) was comparable to observation by Brinks et al. (1961), who reported that bull calves grew 6.2% faster than heifer calves. Season of birth Birth weight was not affected significantly (P > 0.05) by season of birth (Table 1). Calves born in wet season were heavier (P < 0.05) than dry season calves at weaning ages. Average daily gain (ADG) of calves born in wet season was higher than that of dry season calves. The effect of season on calves weight is known to be mediated through the quantity and quality of forage available to calves and their dams (Mwandotto et al., 1988). These effects are, therefore, more marked in the tropics, where animals are mostly dependent on natural pasture for their feed. Hence, the possible reason for the significant effect of season on ADG and weaning weight of calves in this study could be that dams were forced to obtain their major diet from natural pasture and calves also were dependent on their dams milk by suckling.
235
Ethiopian Society of Animal Production Table 1: Least squares means and standard errors for calves mean weight (kg) at various ages and pre and post-weaning growth rate (g/d) by genotype, sex, season of birth and age of dam
Age of calves in months Ave. growth rate (g/d) Preweaning (birth-6 months) 380(160) Postweaning (6-12 months) 213(143)
Variable
Birth
12
Over all
27(188)
62(164)
97(160)
115(155)
135(143)
Genotype (% S)* Boran 25 37.5 50 62.5 75 Sex Female Male 26.20.6(93) b 28.40.6(95) a 61.31.8(86) b 65.61.9(78) a 95.63.0(84) b 102.43.2(76) a 112.53.3(84) b 123.63.5(71) a 134.93.7(81) b 145.54.2(62) a 38116(84) 40517(76) 21312(81) 23513(62) 23.70.7(54)d 26.71.0(22)bc 29.21.5(11)b 27.90.9(27)bc 26.60.8(36)c 32.40.7(38)a 60.5 2.2(47) b 60.2 3.4(21)b 94.2 3.9(46) b 90.1 5.9(21)b 110.14.2(45) bc 105.1 6.2(21)c 130.14.9(42) bc 127.9 7.3(19)c 39021(46) b 34531(21) b 38745(10) b 53929(23)a 32426(29) b 37525(31) b 19916(42) bc 18524(19) c 25433(10)ab 29123(20) a 18520(26) c 22820(26) abc
62.8 4.9(10) b 76.2 3.2(23) a
98.9 8.6(10) b 124.9 5.6(23) a
121.1 9.0(10) b 149.2 5.9(23) a
144.7 10(10) b 175.5 7.0(20) a
56.7 2.8(30) b 64.3 2.7(33) b
86.1 4.9(29) b 99.8 4.8(31) b
102.5 5.2(29) c 120.2 5(27) bc
122.3 6.2(26) c 140.8 6(26) bc
Season of birth Dry Wet Age of dam < 4 years 4 years 5 years 6 years 7 years 8 years 9 years 10 years >10 years 26.01.4(10) 27.01.1(25) 28.11.3(24) 30.21.8(26) 29.91.2(20) 25.51.2(22) 28.71.6(13) 27.41.2(16) 26.61.3(19) 61.74.1(9) 64.73.69(21) 60.54.0(22) 63.95.5(21) 73.53.6(17) 61.13.5(19) 59.94.8(12) 57.63.8(16) 61.73.9(18) 100.07.2(9) ab 91.36.3(21) b 93.47.2(21) b 115.79.6(21) a 114.36.3(16) a 100.06.3(18) ab 93.48.7(11) b 91.96.8(16) b 91.16.8(18) b 113.08.0(9) 110.77.0(20) 112.48.5(21) 138.410(21) 133.17.1(14) 117.67.0(17) 114.79.6(11) 110.27.7(16) 105.47.5(18) 136.79.2(8) 133.87.8(16) 125.29.5(19) 155.612(21) 155.08.9(14) 140.58.2(16) 141.411(10) 133.38.9(15) 124.48.6(17) 41040(9) b 34730(21) b 35940(21) b 47450(21) a 46930(16) a 40730(18) b 35350(11) b 35140(16) b 34940(18) b 18127(8) 23922(16) 17127(19) 26037(21) 25726(14) 21824(16) 23833(10) 22726(15) 17625(17) 27.10.5(102) 27.60.6(86) 59.41.8(92) b 67.51.9(72) a 94.63.0(88) b 103.43.2(72) a 115.83.4 (84) 120.43.4(71) 134.63.9(79) b 145.84.0(64) a 37217(88) 41517(72) 21713(79) 23113(64)
(%S )* = percentage of Simmental (exotic) blood abc = means within the same column with different superscripts are different (P < 0.05) (?) = Number of observations
Age of dam The effect of age of dam on birth weight and post-weaning traits of calves was not significant (P > 0.05). However, pre-weaning ADG and 6-month weaning weight were significantly (P < 0.05) affected by age of dam (Table 1). The orthogonal polynomial contrast (linear, quadratic and cubic) performed on the least squares means for age of dam effect on 6-month weight and pre-weaning ADG indicated significant (P < 0.05) quadratic effects. This means that from first calving (less than 4 years), 6-month weights and pre- weaning ADG of calves increased with increasing age of dams up to the age of 6-or 7-years when the heaviest weight and fastest ADG were attained. Thereafter, there were steady decline in weight and ADG up to the age of nine (Fig. 1 a & b). The pattern of the effect of age of dam on pre-weaning ADG and weaning weights showed that 6-and 7year old dams have the maximum positive maternal influence.
236
The effect of age of dam on weaning weight followed the trend of the results of many previous workers (Brown, 1960; Meade et al. 1963; Sacker et al., 1971; Martojo, 1973 and Mwandotto et al., 1988). Ahunu et al. (1993) reported a significant (P < 0.01) quadratic effect of age of dam on pre-weaning ADG and weaning weight of calves. In Ahunu's report, age of dam effect on calves weaning weights peaked in 7-years old dams. In this study age of dam effect on calves weaning weight peaked in 6-years old dams, which was in line with the conventional peak in 5 to 6-years old dams.
120
110 6-month weight of calves (kg)
100 6-month weight (kg)
90
80 <4 4 5 6 7 Age of dams (Years) 8 9 10 >10
Figure 1a. Relatonship between 6-month weight of calves and age of dams
500
480
460 pre-weaning weight gain of calves (g/d/h)
440
420
400
380
pre-weaning gain (g/d/h)
360
340
320
300 <4 4 5 6 7 Age of dams (Years) 8 9 10 >10
Figure 1b. Relationship between pre-weaning weight gain of calves and age of dams
237
Year of birth Year of birth had significant (P < 0.05) effect on all growth traits (Table 2). Differences in growth due to year of birth can be brought about by deliberate as well as uncontrollable change in various factors of management and environment. One of the most significant environmental influences on calf growth has been reported to be differences in total rainfall from year to year (Mwandotto et al., 1988). In the study of Mwandotto et al. (1988), year effects on weaning and 18 month weight followed the annual rainfall levels acting through the effects of forage supply. In this study pre-weaning ADG and 6-month weaning weight of calves were positively and significantly (P < 0.01) correlated with total annual rainfall in a linear fashion with correlation coefficients of 0.79 and 0.76, respectively. However, such a relationship was not observed in the post-weaning growth traits.
Table 2 Least square means and standard errors for the effects of year of birth and simple correlation coefficient between annual rainfall and each growth traits Year birth of Total rainfall (mm) 12 weight No
a
Birth weight No. Kg 29.41.7

abc
6 months weight No. 9 18 16 15 4 4 7 8 26 21 8 13 8 Kg 141.07.6 117.05.4 b 85.35.7 dc 91.95.9 cd 95.311.4 cd 72.811.4 efg 82.98.6 def 70.38.0 fg 117.24.4
b
months
Growth rate (g/d) Pre-weaning (0-6months) No. g/d 62140

a
Post-weaning (6-12 months) No 5 16 16 11 4 4 6 7 26 19 8 13 7 g/d 26445 a 26325 a 23125 ab 16330 cd 26350 a 20950
abc
Kg 181.613
b a
1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1987 1988 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 R
877.8 982.6 918.3 566.1 652 557 873.9 828.8 816.5 1023 657.5
10 20 17 17 7 8 9 11 26 29 9 13 8
5 16 16 11 4 4 6 7 26 19 8 13 7
9 18 16 15 4 4 7 8 26 21 8 13 8
26.11.2 cd 26.31.3 cd 28.81.3 abcd 28.92.0 abcd 31.81.9 a 28.81.8 abcd 27.71.6 bcd 29.81.0
ab
162.37.5 127.17.5
cd
50330 b 31930 d 34530

cd
119.29.1
d
142.815 c 110.515
de
35860
cd
23060 f 29950
de
127.012
cd
21941
abc
116.611 d 162.15.9
b
22540 f 48220 35230

cd b
24038 a 24819 a 17723

bcd
25.81.0 d 21.71.8
e
91.35.0 cd 83.98.0
cd
125.86.9
cd
126.810
cd
33540
cd
23735 ab 16028 cd 12338 d 0.07
25.91.5 cd 26.01.9 cd 0.24
100.36.3 c 69.38.0 g 0.76*
128.38.3
cd
40730 c 23640
ef
95.311 e 0.50
0.79*
No = Number of animals abc = Means within the same column with different superscripts are different (P < 0.05) r = Correlation coefficients between the particular trait and total annual rainfall * = Correlation coefficients were significant (P < 0.01)
Conclusion
From this study it can be concluded that growth traits, specially pre-weaning growth of calves under tropical condition are affected by the genotype of the calf (level of Simmental blood). Crossbreeding Boran cattle with Simmental breeds significantly improved growth performance of
238
calves with 50% of Simmental blood and further upgrading to 75% of Simmental blood levels under tropical feeding and management condition did not improve growth performance of calves. The study also showed that in tropics, season of birth significantly (P < 0.05) affected growth performance of calves, age of dam significantly (P < 0.05) affected pre-weaning ADG and weaning weight of calves in a quadratic fashion and pre-weaning ADG and weaning weight of calves were significantly affected by the annual rainfall of the year of birth in a positive and linear fashion.
References
Ahunu, B. K., Arthur, P F., Danbaro, G. and Aboagye, G. S. (1993). Pre-weaning growth performance of West African Shorthorn Cattle and their Jersey crossbreds in Ghana. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 25: 33-40 Beyene Kebede and Galal E. S E. (1982). A study of body weight from birth to one year of age in EuropeanZebu crossbred cattle in Ethiopia. Animal Production, 34: 85-93 Brinks, J. S., Clark, R. T., Rice, F. J. and Keiffer, N. M. (1961). Canadian Journal of Animal Science, 66: 381388. Brown, C. J. (1960). Influence of year and season of birth, sex, sire and age of dam on weights of calves of 60, 120, 180 and 240 days of age, J. Anim. Sci. 19: 1062-1070 Martojo, H. (1973). Genetic and environmental factors affecting weaning weights and weaning type score in beef cattle, Diss. Int. Abstr. 34: 3-B Meade, J. H., Kidder, R. W., Koger, M. and Crockett, J. R. (1963) Environmental factors affecting weaning weights of beef cattle in the Everglades, Agric. Exp. Sta. Univ. Florida Tech. Bull. No. 663 Meyn, K. and Mbogo, D. E. (1976). Beef production in developing countries. (ED. A. J. Smith) CTVM. Edinburgh. Pp 347-357. Mwadotto, B. A. J., Carles, A. B. and Cartwright, T. C. (1988). Weaning and 18-month weights of Boran, East African Shorthorn Zebue and Sahiwal breeds or crosses in Kenya. Tropical Agriculture (Trinidad) Vol. 65 No. 3. 257-264. Pabst, W., Kilkeney, J. B. and Langholz, H. J. (1977). Animal Production, 24: 29-39 Sacker, G. D., Trail, J. C. M. and Fisher, I. L. (1971). Crossbreeding beef cattle in western Uganda. 2. Environmental influences on body weights, Anim. Prod. 13: 143-152 Trail, J. C. M. (1981). Intensive animal production in developing counties. (ED. A. J. Smith and R. G. Gunn) Occasional publication No. 4 British Society of Animal Production. Pp. 191-231 Winks, L., ORouke, P. K., Venamore, P. C. and Tyler, R. (1978). Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture and Animal Husbandry, 18: 494-499.
239
Effect of Semen Quality and Artificial Insemination (AI) on Fertility and Hatchability of Rhode Island Red (RIR) Breed of Chicken
Getnet Zelleke1, R.P. Moudgal2, and Asefa Asmare2
1 Andasa
Livestock Research Center, ARARI, P.O. Box 27, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia, Tel. 08-20 52 84 (Res) (09)-19 02 33 (office)
2 Alemaya 2
University P.O.B 246, Tel. Res. 05-66 62 44, (Off) (05) 11 13 99 ext.166, E-mail alemaya.univ @ telecom.net.et
Alemaya University P. O. Box 138,128, Tel. (05) 11 79 00. E-mail asfa_a@hotmail.com
Abstract
Two experiments were executed to improve poor fertility and hatchability performances of Rhode Island Red chickens by employing cock selection based on semen quality and artificial insemination. Experiment I was carried out on 3 groups of RIR females (n=30) with 3 cocks allotted for each group having good or poor quality semen or randomly picked up cocks, respectively. In this experiment natural mating was practiced. Using four replicates of hatch, fertility was found significantly better in good quality semen producing cocks than those ejaculating poor semen. In experiment II, another three groups of RIR females (n=30) were utilized for natural mating (NM), natural mating with artificial insemination (NM+AI), and AI alone. Each group was inseminated with equal number of spermatozoa (125x106) on weekly basis. Fertility and hatchability was obtained significantly better (93.331.14 and 80.180.82, respectively) in NM+AI group as compared to NM (81.183.02 and 72.270.84, respectively) but no difference was recorded between AI and NM groups. It can therefore be concluded that selection of breeding cock on semen quality basis improved fertility and hatchability of RIR chickens and natural mating can be replaced or supplemented with AI as per need.
Keywords: semen quality, artificial insemination, fertility, hatchability, and Rhode Island Red.
Introduction
In Ethiopia poultry production has a paramount importance as a source of animal protein. However, the contribution of poultry production to the countries economy is still very low (2-3 %) (Negussie, 1999). The annual growth rates in egg and meat output were estimated as 1.0 and 2.6 % as compared to other Sub-Saharan African countries (5.7 and 6.8 %) (Negussie, 1999). The national per capita income of egg is 57 eggs or 2.29 Kg and that of chicken meat is 1.87 Kg (AACM, 1984). This scenario can be aver feet among others by introducing new technologies to develop high producing poultry stock, AI has been considered as one of the most valuable technologies. The transition from natural mating of floor pen breeders to AI of caged breeders will entail both a significant time and financial investment yet, the economic benefits realised through implementation of an AI program include: increased feed saving, (from 14-17% per hatched eggs; greater selection pressure on males on economically desirable traits; the need for fewer breeder males (male: female ratio with a well managed AI program is 1: 25 in contrast to 1: 10 with natural mating); more settable eggs; higher and longer duration of fertility; and opportunity to separately optimise nutritional and environmental management programmes for each sex (Howarth, 1995). One of the greatest advantages of the use of AI in poultry is the reduced number of males that would be required and inturn leave faster scope of improvement through selection pressure to be applied to the parent males for body size, conformation, and reproductive performance. To take Ethiopia, ahead at this point, we have to optimise and implement such technologies.
While the desire to use genetically superior males for breeding has long been rational for the use of AI in poultry, AI is not widely practiced in the broiler in spite of the available technology (Lake and Stewart, 1978; Lake, 1983; Sexton, 1983, 1984; Brillard, 1985 a, b; Brillard and DeRevier, 1989; as cited by Bakst and Brillard, 1995). Artificial insemination is a three-step procedure involving semen collection, semen dilution, and insemination. The second step may be omitted if neat semen to be used for inseminations within 30 minutes of collection. Semen held longer should be diluted with semen diluent (also referred to as a semen extender). Semen diluents are buffered salt solutions, much like cell culture media, designed specifically to maintain sperm fecundity as well as to dilute, the semen so that a greater number of hens can be inseminated on a per male basis. (Bakst and Brillard, 1995). The relative advantages of reproductive strategies based on artificial insemination (AI) compared with natural mating to produce chicks has been the subject of several review papers (Reddy, 1994; Sarail and Wishart, 1995; as cited by Brillard, 2001). The review points favouring AI programs indicates a generally increased number of settable eggs, better over all fertility and hatchability (resulting input from the pre-selection of males on the basis of semen quality and quantity), higher growth rate and reproductive efficiency of the progeny due to higher selection pressure on the males and lower feed cost per chick hatched. By contrast, producing day old chicks by natural mating is less costly in housing, equipment and labour requirements. Both of these methodologies have their own merits and demerits in view of final goal and prevailing economic climate. The number of fertile eggs and the level of hatchability are two of the parameters used to determine the economic value of hatcheries. Poor fertility and hatchability result in reduced supplies of chicks and a loss of materials, money and time to breeding centres and hatcheries. For hatcheries to be successful there is a need for adequate supply of good quality fertile eggs. Indeed in present scenario, the labour costs, the breed and environmental conditions and feed cost may serve as determining factors in the selection of either of the natural mating or AI. In the countries with the low labour cost and high feed costs, subjected to high temperature (India, Asia, part of Africa and other equatorial and tropical regions), AI is more favourable in view of economic conditions. In contrast, countries with standards of living and mild climates that produce foodstuffs at low cost (North America and Western Europe), will probably support natural mating. Another intermediate possibility also exists i.e. to perform AI routinely in floor operations. The final strategy may find the support of international regulations. AI in poultry in Ethiopia so far is not practiced yet. In view of foregoing facts, it has sound basis to go ahead to test the application of this technique. Relatively, more serious problems with respect to fertility and hatchability in RIR breeds of chicken imported to our country has been revealed in poultry breeding and multiplication centres in Ethiopia. The five years average fertility and hatchability of RIR chickens from poultry breeding and multiplication centres shows that at, Nazareth PBMC 88 % and 69 %, at Kombolcha 86.6 % and 54.4 %, and at Andassa 82.89 %, and 62.36 % respectively (personal communication with centre managers, 2002) The information from Amhara Regional State bureau of agriculture (BOA) associated with RIR raising by and large encountered with poor fertility and hatchability levels (Lakew Belay, personal communication 2002). Where as the reproductive performance of some birds of commercial layers indicate that fertility and hatchability are to be 97 % and 90 % respectively, and that of broiler 92 % and 90 %, respectively (Bakst and Bahr, 1993). With this background, the present study was executed with the following objectives.
1. To study the improvement in fertility and hatchability on selection response of the breeding cock based upon semen quality tests in RIR chicken. 2. To study the comparative efficacy of natural mating, natural mating plus artificial insemination (AI) and AI alone in terms of fertility and hatchability.

Description of the study area The experiment was conducted at Andassa Livestock Research Centre, found in Amhara Regional State, North Western Ethiopia. The centre is located at 588 km far from Addis Ababa, on the way to Blue Nile (Tis Isat) fall. The centre was established with the objectives of rearing high yielding dual-purpose exotic chickens under Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) and distribution of settable fertile eggs, and three month old pullets and cockerels to the rural farmers. Currently Rhode Island Red chickens are reared at the centre. Recently the centre is changed to Regional Livestock Research Centre under Amhara Regional Agricultural Institute (ARARI). Animal management and experimental procedures. For the experimental purpose, 200 Rhode Island Red (RIR), 180 pullets and 20 cockerels of the same age were utilised from the centre. A total of 7 experimental pens, which were containing different treatments, 6 pens were utilized for rearing the experimental hens as per experimental details given and 1 pen was occupied separately by RIR cocks for AI purpose in individual cages. The size of each pen was 9 m2. Pens were separated by chicken mesh wire. Feeders, watering troughs, and laying nests were arranged properly in each pen. The floor of the house was concrete, and bedded with grass hay 10-15 cm deep. The house was well cleaned and disinfected with the Quinicide, Savelon, and 10 % formaline disinfectants ahead of the commencement of the experiment. 180 RIR hens were randomly allotted equally to 6 pens (n=30). Cocks for AI purpose were caged individually. All the experimental birds were vaccinated against Newcastle disease (NCD). Routine bio-security measures were taken throughout the experimental period. All birds were given breeders commercial ration purchased from Kality Feed Enterprise, (Addis Ababa, Ethiopia). Water was given ad-libitum to all birds. Additional artificial lighting was given as per standard (10 hour day and 4 hour night). Mineral-Vitamin premix (Bremer Pharma GMBH, Bremer Haven, Germany) was given as a supplement every 30 days through drinking water for 5-7 days. Management of the cocks Cocks were isolated from the flock at the age of 18 weeks and were caged individually in small wire cages of 54 by 54 cm. They were fed with 125 gram of breeders commercial ration per day. Water was given ad-libitum. They were made adapted to handling with the same attendants to minimize frustration of the cocks for milking of semen using abdominal massage method (Burrows and Quinn 1934). Three to four training sessions were employed to ensure optimum production of clean semen not contaminated with urates and faeces. During training session, some cocks were culled due to production of more liquid and faecal material instead of pure semen. Twenty RIR cocks were selected for natural mating (NM) and artificial insemination (AI). Semen collection Semen was collected from individually caged cocks by abdominal massage method (Burrows and Quin, 1934). Two workers were involved in the semen collection. One attendant holds the bird while the other person concentrates on stimulating the flow of semen and catching it in a funnel. Male cock was held with its feet at approximately right angles to the body while its belly and back were stroked positional in two or more firm movements as described by Etches (1996). The hand
massaging at the back was transferred to the cloaca so that the thumb and index finger were placed on the lateral aspects of cloaca and slightly anterior to the vent. Sometimes, more continues massaging particularly at training or initial levels were required until the male responds by protruding the papillae from the cloaca. Once the papillae were fully protruded, gentle pressure was applied to milk or squeeze out semen. Pressure was ensured to expel semen from the ductus deference with out forcing transparent fluid through the phallic folds. The flow of semen (milked semen) was collected by aspiration into a collecting funnel. Semen evaluation Semen quality was assessed from each breed/group based on the criteria as described by Getnet Zelleke and Workneh Ayalew, 2004; pages 216-218 of this proceeding. Grading of good or poor semen producing cocks Cocks with semen characteristics above 60 % mass motility, individual motility greater or equal to 60 %, dead spermatozoa less than 30 %, abnormal spermatozoa less than 30 % and semen concentration above one billion cells per ml of ejaculate, were rated as cocks with good semen quality, whereas cocks with lower characteristics were marked as poor quality semen yielder. The good quality semen producing cocks were utilised for experiment I (group I), and experiment II. Three, each of good and poor semen producing and randomly picked breeding cocks of RIR breeds of the same age were utilized for experiment I. Experimental grouping
Experiment I, Natural mating
The purpose of this experiment was to test the effect of breeding cock selection for semen quality on fertility and hatchability of eggs from RIR chicken. Before commencement of the experiment cocks were evaluated up on semen production and semen quality. Group I: 30 RIR layers (greater than 25 weeks of age) and 3 RIR cocks with good quality semen (in one pen). Group II: 30 RIR layers (greater than 25 weeks of age) and 3 RIR cocks with poor semen quality (in one pen). Group III: 30 RIR layers (greater than 25 weeks) with 3 RIR cocks picked up randomly from breeder flocks (in one pen). Replications: four hatches based on weekly egg collection.
Experiment II, Natural mating (NM) and artificial insemination (AI)
The purpose of this experiment was to study the comparative effect of artificial insemination (AI) and natural mating (NM) together or separately on fertility and hatchability in RIR chickens. Group I: Natural mating alone (30 RIR females and 3 RIR cocks in one pen). Group II: Natural mating and AI (30 RIR females and 3 cocks for natural mating in one pen and weekly good quality semen was inseminated with125x106 sperm cells per insemination from other RIR cocks). Group III: Artificial insemination (AI) alone, (30 RIR layers inseminated weekly with good quality semen, 125x106 sperm cells per insemination from RIR cocks). Replications: four hatches from each group on weekly egg collection basis.
244
Artificial insemination (AI) technique
Semen was diluted with 0.9 % (NaCl) saline solution and 40 % w/v (0.2 %) glucose which was sterile and non pyrogenic, (PSI, Company, Jeddah kingdom of Saudi Arabia) in proportion of 1: 3 before insemination. In 100 ml of saline solution, 0.5 ml of 40 % glucose was diluted. Glucose was added to provide an energy substrate for promoting sperm motility or it might be used to maintain the osmotic pressure of the diluent. The diluted semen that was in sterile vial was inseminated within 30 minutes after collection. Placement of semen into the female reproductive tract (3-4 cm depth of vagina) was accomplished by everting the cloaca of the hen to expose the entry of vagina by inserting the insemination pipette (tuberculin syringe). The work was performed by two persons (attendant and inseminator. The attendant gently places the hen on her breast and while firmly holding the hens legs together with his hand, the inseminator positions his thumb and forefinger of one hand around the cloaca, while pulling back the tail feathers with the palm of the same hand. Just beneath the left pubic bone, the inward and backward pressure within abdominal cavity is applied to insure the everting of cloaca and the appearance of mouth of the vagina. The cloacal area was cleaned with a tissue paper if required in order not to contaminate the inseminating syringe with the faecal material. The insemination tube (syringe with semen) was placed gently into the vagina 3 cm deep until a slit resistance was felt then hand pressure around the cloaca was released and 0.05 ml semen containing around 125x106 spermatozoa was deposited into the vagina (mid part) then the pipette was gently withdrawn (Etches, 1996).
Egg collection and storage
After males have stayed for 4 days with females, the fertile eggs were collected and marked in their respective groups in separate egg trays. Egg collection was performed two times a day and eggs were transferred to cooler room under standard conditions after screening out dusty, dirty, cracked, very small and jumbo eggs (since these eggs were not used for hatching purpose but rather they were kept as table eggs). All eggs from each experimental group with uniform and smooth shell surfaces were stored for seven days and utilized for incubation purpose. On average daily 12 to 13 eggs from each experimental group were selected for incubation purpose and stored in a cooler room. In all experimental groups, egg collection, screening and storage were similar as indicated above.
Fertile egg incubation and hatching
Eggs that were stored for seven days in storage room (in all four batches) were incubated (n=90 in each batch) in VICTORIA (Victoria Incubator Company, Parma, Italy). Eggs were transferred into hatchery unit after 18 days of incubation. The incubator was fumigated with potassium permanganate and formaldehyde solution before setting for 20 minutes (without eggs). Upon setting, eggs were fumigated for 15 minutes. For each 1 m3 volume of incubator area (without eggs), 4.5 gram potassium permanganate and 3 gram formaline is used, and when incubator is with eggs, for the same amount of space area 1.5 gram potassium permanganate and 1 gram formaline was utilized for fumigation purpose. The temperature of the setter was set to operate between 99.5 and 100 F (37.6 to 37.7 C) and in the hatchery unit the temperature was kept between 1 C lower than the setter. The relative humidity was set from 50-60 for the first 18 days in the setter, and 70-75 % then after in the hatchery unit. In the setter, eggs were trayed with small end down and turned tilting the trays at 45 and thereby turning the eggs 45 in two directions from the perpendicular or a total of 90 by automatically operating turner of the incubator at hourly interval. Eggs were candled for their fertility after 7 days of incubation for the
first time from each experimental group by maintaining their corresponding experimental group records. A bright light source were placed under the eggs and on viewing from above those eggs that were fertile appears relatively opaque due to the opacity of the developing embryo, while the non-fertile once appeared clear. The second candling procedure was also carried out at 18th day of incubation. Chicks were hatched out from all experimental groups by maintaining group records after 21st day of incubation. Fertility and hatchability of all experimental groups were calculated based on the following formulas by maintaining the experimental and group records. Percent fertility =
Total fertile eggs Total eggs set 100
Percent hatchability was calculated from two points of views: i. Percent hatchability on fertile egg basis =
Number of chicks hatched Total fertile eggs 100
ii.
Percent hatchability on the total eggs set basis =
Number of chiks hatched Total eggs set
100
Data analysis Results of all experiments were examined using the General Linear Model (GLM) procedure, followed for Least Square Mean analysis of variance in Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 10.0. The mean differences between groups were separated by using Least Significant Difference (LSD) for variables which were significant. All percentage data were transformed by using arcsine transformation techniques before analysis (Gomez and Gomez, 1984). Models: Yij = + Gi + Bj + eij Where; Yij = Out put (the ijth observation)
= Overall mean
Gi = ith group (breed) effect Bj= jth batch effect and eij = the random error effect.

Experiment I; Selection response of breeding cock on traits of fertility and hatchability The detailed results on the effect of semen quality on percent fertility and hatchability are presented in Table 3. Significant difference (P<0.05) due to semen qualities in fertilizing ability of RIR chickens was observed. Good quality semen producing cocks were better in fertilizing ability (89 %), as compared to poor semen producing cocks (70 %). However, no significant variation was noted in random group from either of good or poor semen quality producing cock.
246
Animal Breeding/Reproduction Table 4 Effect of selection of breeding cocks based on semen quality on percent fertility and hatchability Parameter Breeding cock Good quality semen Poor quality semen Randomly selected Fertility (%) 88.54 2.47a 70.39 2.66b 81.95 1.61ab Hatchability of fertile eggs (%) Hatchability of eggs set (%) 71.49 1.09a 75.93 1.32a 77.10 2.26a 63.29 1.43a 53.33 1.71a 63.05 2.17a
Mean values across column followed by different superscripts are significantly (P<0.05) different.
The present results find support in the work reported by Ansah et al., (1980), who suggested that males yielding higher semen volumes and producing more vigorous spermatozoa in higher concentrations have better fertilizing ability. It can be suggested that the selection of cocks based on semen quality even under natural breeding may improve the level of fertility. However, as expected the fertility could not be obtained significantly (p<0.05) more but only numerically, in good semen producing cock as compared to random group. It is a chance factor, but safely it can be suggested based upon present results that selection of breeding male based on semen quality is most likely to provide more fertile eggs. Besides, Al-Daraji (2001) also revealed that, poor semen characteristics resulted in low fertility, and hatchability, and high embryonic mortality. Table 3 shows that there was no significant difference in hatchability of fertile eggs between three (good, poor, and random) semen groups. Hatchability of total eggs set was also not significantly (P>0.05) different between each group and a batch unlike it was referred by AlDaraji. (2001). It was found that selection of cocks for semen quality in this experiment was not improving hatchability of eggs in RIR chickens. It seems that the poor quality spermatozoa are rejected right in fertilization event. Once fertilization takes place successfully, the role of sperm quality on further development appears to be very limited as except the genetic contribution from male side, the egg itself affords other nutritional and supporting environment. Otherwise as well, the role of male is very less pronounced in hatchability in relation to female or other possibility may be that the sperm from poor quality group might have lead to very early mortality resulting into counting towards infertility. Experiment II; Influence of natural mating (NM), natural mating plus artificial insemination and AI alone on fertility and hatchability The detailed results showing the effect of natural mating, natural mating with artificial insemination, and artificial insemination alone on fertility and hatchability are given in Table 4. Within type of mating (NM, NM+AI, and AI alone), there was significant (P<0.05) difference for fertility and hatchability based on both fertile and total eggs set basis. Fertility and hatchability of fertile eggs and total eggs set basis were significantly (P<0.05) different between treatments. The mean comparisons also showed that NM+AI has better fertility levels as compared to either NM or AI. Hens in both NM+AI and AI alone group were inseminated with the same number of pooled and diluted spermatozoa (125 x 106 sperm cells per insemination). In second group, (NM+AI), higher fertility levels were observed (93.331.14%), this result when compared to the natural mating and AI alone, there was 12 % and 9 % fertility improvement, respectively. This might probably be related to the ability of spermatozoa deposition in the female reproductive tract that hens of this group were able to deposit more number of spermatozoa in sperm host tubules (SST) through weekly insemination. This result was more or less similar to studies by Van Wambeke (1984), in that; by inseminating a large amount of semen has improved fertility levels satisfactorily. The work of Van Krey et al., (1966); Lorenz and Ogasawara, (1968); as cited by Van Krey and Siegal, 1975, indicated that when a greater numbers of spermatozoa were
inseminated, there was also an increased level of fertility during a week period. Further more, in several studies in which the resident numbers of infundibular spermatozoa were increased, prolonged high levels of fertility were observed. In this work the higher levels of fertility was more or less agreeable with the above suggestions given by researchers. Additional insemination on weekly basis in NM+AI group has brought the difference in the fertility levels, suggesting that an increased number of spermatozoa inseminated per week have supported in maintaining an increased levels of fertility in RIR chickens in this experiment.
Table 5 Mean percent fertility, hatchability of fertile and total eggs set as affected by mating type from RIR chickens (original data). Mating type Natural mating Natural mating and AI Artificial insemination (AI) Fertility (%) 81.18 3.02
b
Hatchability of fertile eggs (%) 72.27 0.84

b
Hatchability of eggs set (%) 54.84 1.59b 73.57 1.31a 63.32 2.66ab
93.33 1.14a 83.86 1.49b
80.18 0.82a 78.85 2.16ab
Means across the column followed with different superscripts are significantly (P<0.05) different.
Hatchability in NM+AI group was significantly (P<0.05) different from natural mating group. Hatchability from fertile and total eggs basis between NM+AI and AI group was not significantly (P>0.05) different. It is a general observation that egg production, fertility and hatchability under normal conditions are positively related traits, hence with the improvement in fertility might have left accompanied favourable effect on hatchability as well. In nut shell, selection of cock based upon semen quality and supplementation of AI with natural mating should be adapted to get sufficient number viable chicks.
Summery and Conclusions

The study was mainly aimed to improve poor fertility and hatchability results in RIR breed of chicken by selection of breeding cocks depending on the semen quality they produce and further to make comparative evaluation of natural mating, natural mating with artificial insemination, and artificial insemination system alone as there was no report on these aspects in Ethiopia. To achieve these objectives, two experiments were conducted. In experiment I, 90 RIR females (>25 weeks of age) were distributed randomly to 3 pens (n=30 per pen) and RIR cocks producing good, poor, and randomly picked up (n=3) were allotted to each pen. The fertility and hatchability were examined on 4 replicates. Fertility was significantly (P<0.05) high with good semen quality producing cocks as compared to poor ones. However, there was no significant difference on hatchability. In experiment II, three groups of RIR females (n=30) were utilized for natural mating (NM), natural mating with artificial insemination (NM+AI), and AI alone. Each group were inseminated with equal number of spermatozoa (125x106) on weekly basis. Fertility and hatchability were tested using 4 replicates of hatch. Both were obtained significantly better in NM+AI group as compared to the rest groups but no difference was recorded between AI and NM groups. It can therefore be concluded that selection of breeding cock on semen quality basis improves fertility and hatchability of RIR chickens and natural mating can be replaced or supplemented with AI as per need.
References
AACMC, Australian Agricultural Consulting and Management Company, Livestock AACMC 1984Sub-sector Review, Vol 1, and Annex3. 248 11th ESAP-Proceedings
Al-Daraji, H.J. 2001. Semen-egg penetration in laying breeder flocks: a technique for prediction of fertility. British Poultry Science Journal, 57: 243-250. Ansah, G.A., R.B. Buckland, D.C. Crober , and A.E. Sefton. 1980. Artificial insemination of individually caged broiler breeders. II. The relationships juvenile male traits with subsequent reproductive traits. Poultry Science, 59: 1912-1917. Baks, M.R. and J.M. Bahr, 1993. Reproductive Cycles of Poultry In: Reproduction in Farm Animals, 6th ed. Lea and Febiger (ed.), Philadelphia, USA. Bakst, M.R., and J.P. Brillard, 1995. Mating and Fertility. In: Hunton, P. (ed). World Animal Science C9, Poultry Productio, the Ontario Egg Producers Marketing Board, Mississaga, Ontario, Canada. Brillard, J.P. 2001. Future strategies for broiler breeders; as International perspective. World's Poultry Science Journal, 57: 243 - 250. Burrows, W.H. & Quinn, J.P. 1934. The collection of spermatozoa from the domestic fowl and turkey. Poultry Science, 16: 19-24. Etches, R.J. 1996. Reproduction in Poultry. CAB International, Cambridge University, UK. Gomez, K., A. and., Gomez, A, A. 1984. Statistical Procedures for Agricultural Research, Los Banos, Philippines. Hafez, E.S.E. 1993. Reproduction in Farm Animals, 6th (ed.), Lea & Febiger 200 Chester Field Park Way, Malven, PA 1935, USA. Howarth, B. 1995. Physiology of Reproduction. The Male. In: Hunton, P. (ed.). World Animal Science, C9, Poultry Production. The Ontario Egg Producers Marketing Board, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada. Negussie D. 1999. Evaluation of the performance of local, Rhode Island Red (RIR) and Fayoumi breeds of chicken under different management regimes in the highlands Sexton, T.J. 1976. Studies on the dilution of turkey semen. British Poultry Science, 17: 179-186. Van Krey, H.P., and Siegal P.B, 1975. a revised artificial insemination schedule for broiler breeder hens. Poultry Science, 55: 725-728. Van Wambeke, F. 1984. The effect of semen storage time and number of spermatozoa inseminated on the fertility and hatchability of eggs from dwarf broiler breeder hens. British Poultry Science, 25: 583-587. Zemjanis, R. 1962. Diagnostic and Therapeutic Techniques in Animal Reproduction. The Williams and Wilkins Company, USA.
249
FEED PRODUCTION AND USE
Effect of Tree Age, Row Spacing and Harvesting Interval on Edible Foliage Dry Matter Yield of Leucaena pallida
Diriba Geleti Bako Agricultural Research Center, P.O.Box 3, West Shoa, Ethiopia
Abstract
The study was conducted at Bako Research Center to determine suitable agronomic management options for L. Pallida for achieving superior forage biomass in Western Ethiopia. Four combinations of inter - and intra - row spacings (1 0.5, 11m, 1.5 0.5m and 1.5 1m) and three levels of cutting intervals (6, 8 and 10 weeks) were evaluated in split - plot design with the former as main plot and the latter as sub-plot factors for three consecutive years (1997 - 1999). The result revealed significant year (P< 0.01), row spacing (P< 0.01), cutting interval (P< 0.05), the interaction of year and plant spacing (P< 0.01) and that of spacing and cutting interval (P< 0.01); whereas the effect of the interaction of year and cutting interval was non-significant (P> 0.05). On the other hand, the three way interaction of year, plant spacing and cutting interval was observed to be significant (P< 0.01). Within each year, significantly higher leaf DM yield was recorded for narrow spacing (10.5m) treatments. When averaged over the levels of cutting interval, Superior biomass yields were achieved during the second year of stand establishment. When pooled over years, significantly higher (P< 0.01) leaf DM yields were recorded for 6 and 8 weekly cuts; the mean values being 3.8 and 3.7 t ha-1, respectively. High Density plantings (1 0.5m and 1 1m) combined with shorter cutting intervals (6 and 8 weeks) gave superior foliage biomass DM when averaged over years and hence recommended for achieving maximum leaf biomass yield.
Introduction
The utilization of tree legumes in ruminant feeding systems has been recognized as having great potential for increasing animal production in tropical and subtropical regions (Gray, 1970; Jones, 1979; Blom, 1980). This is the rationale behind evaluation activities of multipurpose tree species and their integration into the mixed crop and livestock farming systems. Quantitative data on productivity of promissing tree legumes under different management regimes are meagre in Ethiopia although some information gathering has been going on. In order to produce sufficient edible biomass for sizeable impact, alternative management options must be sought. Previous field observations at Bako Research Center showed that factors like tree age, spacing and cutting interval are very important in assessing tree productivity. This study aimed to determine suitable agronomic management options for maximizing dry mater (DM) production and effect of age of the tree on productivity of L. pallida.

The study was conducted at Bako Agricultural Research Center (BARC) from 1997-1999. The center is located at 260 Km west of Addis Ababa. The altitude is 1650 masl. Bako area is hot and receives a mean annual rainfall of 1280mm. It experiences one main rainy season extending from March to October, but the effective rain is from May to September. The mean annual rainfall is about 1280 mm with a peak in July. Mean annual temperature is 20 oc with a mean minimum temperature of 13 oc and maximum of 27 oc. The soil of the area is dominantly reddish brown Nitosols. They are generally clay dominated and characterized by a low available phosphorous with a pH value ranging from 5.3 to 6 in surface soils. The area is characterized by a mixed crop-livestock farming system. Crop production is expanding into the grazing lands due to the increasing human population. Livestock are an integral component of the farming system. Farmers keep livestock species
particularly cattle and small ruminants. There are several constraints affecting agricultural production in the area. Among these, shortage of animal feed resources and low soil fertility are the most important ones identified by the farming systems research studies (Legesse et. al, 1987). The experiment had a split plot design with four plant densities as main plot and three cutting frequencies as subplots. The area of each plot was 22.5 m2. Information on inter- and intra- row spacing is given in Table 1. The experimental site was cultivated with a disc and harrowed before transplanting the seedlings.
Table 1. Inter and intra - row spacing (m), number of trees per row, number of rows per plot and number of trees per plot of the tree species used in the experiment Inter- row spacing 1 1 1.5 1.5 Intra- row spacing 0.5 1 0.5 1 Trees per row 10 5 10 5 Rows per plot 4 4 3 3 Trees per plot 40 20 30 15
L. pallida selected from the earlier screening trials made at the Animal Feeds and Nutrition Research Division of Bako Agricultural Research Center was used for this study. This accession was observed to be superior in DM yield among the tested species. Nursery raised seedlings of the tree were field transplanted in 1996. At planting 200 kgha-1 of diammonium phosphate (DAP) was applied and every year an annual application of 100 kg ha-1 of the same type of fertilizer was being applied for maintenance. During the establishment year, no harvest was taken to ensure vigorous growth of the seedlings and to avoid early death of the transplanted seedlings. At the onset of rain just after the establishment year, uniformity cut was made. When the re-growth of either of the treatments reached the harvesting stages fixed in the experimental protocol, the re-growth from the middle two rows were harvested manually using sickles. The harvested biomass was then partitioned into leaf and stem components. Sub-samples from the two components were dried at 60 oc for 72 hours to obtain the dry matter percentage. This dry matter percentage was utilized to calculate the DM yield per hectare. Leaf DM yield data collected over three years were subjected to the analysis of variance using MSTATC computer software and significant mean differences were separated using the LSD procedure.
Results
Table 2. Mean squares (MS), variance ratios (F-value) and levels of probability from the analysis of variance for leaf DM yield of L.pallida Source Age (A) Spacing (B) AxB Cutting interval (c) AC BC AxBxC DF 2 3 6 2 4 6 12 MS 129.04 75.07 6.81 1.85 0.80 3.10 3.80 F -Value 133.86 89.43 8.11 3.44 1.49 5.78 7.08 Probability P< 0.01 P< 0.01 P< 0.01 P< 0.05 NS P< 0.01 P< 0.01
The statistical effects of the different factors on leaf DM yield of L.pallida are presented in Table 2. The results from the analysis of variance revealed highly significant effect of age (P<0.01), row spacing (P<0.01) and the interaction of age and row spacing (P<0.01). The effect of cutting interval was also significant (P<0.05) but its interaction with age of the tree was not (P>0.05).
Feed Production and Use
The interaction effect of spacing and cutting interval and that of age, spacing and cutting interval was observed to be highly significant (P<0.01). Based on the relative importance of the different factors and their interaction terms, the following decisions were made on pair comparision of means of the different factors and factor interactions. Pair comparision between age means averaged over cutting interval but at the same level of plant spacing and vice versa as age by spacing have interacted significantly (Table 3) Pair comparision between harvesting interval means averaged over years and plant spacing in age by cutting interval two way table i.e main effect of cutting intervel as harvesting interval did not interact significantly with tree age (Table 4). Pair comparision between harvesting interval means averaged over years but at the same level of spacing and comparision between spacing means averaged over years but at the same level of harvesting interval as both factors interacted significantly (Table 5).
Spacing (m) 1*0.5 5.25
a2
Table 3. Effect of age and plant spacing on leaf biomass DM yield of L. pallida Year 1997(1) 1998(2) 1999(3)
1*1 2.87
b2
1.5*0.5 1.51
c2
1.5*1 1.37c2 3.67c1 2.12b2
7.87a1 3.54a3
6.40b1 2.76ab2
4.27c1 2.30b2
Within row means followed by different letters vary significantly (P< 0.01) and means within columns followed by different numbers vary significantly (P< 0.01); SE to compare age means at the same level of row spacing = 0.264; SE to compare spacing means in the same year = 0.264
The effect of age and row spacing on leaf yield of L. pallida is given in Table 3. Within year, the highest leaf yield was obtained when a respective inter-and intra-row spacing of 1 and 0.5m was used during 1997. The leaf DM yield values varied from 5.246 tha -1 for 1* 0.5m spacing to 1.368 tha-1 for 1.5 * 1m spacing. The pattern remained similar during the 1998 and 1999. As for the first year, highest leaf yield (7.878 tha-1) during 1998 was recorded for the 1* 0.5m spacing treatment. During the 1999, mean values varied from 3.536 tha -1 in 1m * 0.5m spacing to 2.119 tha-1 in the 1.5m * 1m spacing. For all spacing treatments, the tree gave superior leaf yield during the second year and then declined during the third year; the general pattern being first year < second year > third year. The effect of harvesting interval on leaf yield is given in Table 4. The interaction of tree age with interval between harvests was observed to be non-significant (P>0.05) indicating the independence of the two factors in their effect on leaf yield. When averaged over years and levels of row spacing, highest leaf yield (3.803 tha -1) was observed for 6 weekly harvest followed by that of 8 week. With increasing interval between harvests from 6 to 10 weeks, a declining trend on foliage DM was observed. This could be associated with leaf shattering loss as the interval between cuts is elongated. Leaf yield values for row spacing and interval between harvests is given in Table 5. For all levels of cutting interval, significantly highest leaf yield was harvested for row spacings of 1 * 0.5m followed by that of 1m * 1m. When a spacing of 1* 0.5m was used, the mean values for interval between harvests varied from 5.343 tha-1 for 10 weekly harvest to 5.788 tha-1 for 8 weekly harvest. For 1m * 1m spacing, highest yield was recorded for 6 weekly harvest followed by that of 8 week. At all levels of cutting interval, low DM yield values were recorded for row spacings of 1.5 * 0.5m and 1.5 * 1m spacing treatments.
255
Ethiopian Society of Animal Production Table 4. Effect of age and cutting interval on leaf DM yield of L. pallida. Year 1997(1) 1998(2) 1998(3) Mean Cutting interval (weeks) 6 2.87 5.83 2.71 3.80
a
8 3.06 5.49 2.67 3.74

a
10 2.32 5.40 2.66 3.44

b
Mean 2.75 b 5.55 a 2.68 b
Overall cutting interval and year means followed by different letters vary significantly (cutting interval, P<0.01 and year means, p<0.0); SE to compare interval means - 0.1057; SE to compare age means - 0.1417
Table 5. Effect of spacing and cutting interval on leaf yield of L. pallida Cutting interval (weeks) 6 8 10 Spacing (m) 1x0.5 5.52 5.34
a1
1x1 4.87 3.56

a1
1.5x0.5 2.53 2.93

a2
1.5x1 2.29ab2 2.96a23 1.91b4
5.79a1
a1
3.69b2
b2
2.61a3
a23
Within row means followed by different numbers vary significantly (P<0.01) and means with in column followed by different letters vary significantly (P<0.01)and SE for spacing means within cutting frequency and cutting in terval mean within each row spacing is 0.2114.
Discussion
In the present study, leaf yield of L. Pallida was observed to vary irregularly with tree age; the highest yield was observed during the second year. The significant reduction in foliage biomass observed during the third year in the present study could be associated with age and inter and intra-annual dynamics of weather variables affecting tree crop productivity. Denton and Nickell (1985) have indicated that rainfall is responsible for fluctuations in growth rates of Leucaena leucocephala. Similarly, Evensen (1985) has reported high correlations between leaf yield and weather variables like solar radiation and average temperature. All these factors were reported to affect the growth of plants (Karim et al, 1991). In Bako area of western Ethiopia, temperature does not seem to limit crop growth but annual patterns of rainfall could play a role. Diriba et al (2001) reported a similar trend for Calliandra callothyrsus in the same environment where yield of the tree showed a declining trend with age; being better during the first year as compared to the second year. The present study also revealed that the effects of tree age and spacing (plant- to- plant with in row and between row) on foliage DM are dependent on each other. At all levels of age factor, highest yields were recorded for the narrow spacings. This observation is in agreement with that of Calliandra calothyrsus in western Ethiopia (Diriba et al, 2001). Ella et al (1989) have also reported that densest planting of L.leucocephala, C. calothyrsus and G.sepium results in both higher leaf and wood DM production. L. leucocephala was also observed to give higher yields when high density planting is used (Castillo et al, 1979, Savory and Breen, 1979). The present study also revealed shorter cutting interval to favour leaf yield. This contrasts with the reports of Ella (1989) for C.callothyrsus and G.sepium; and Guevarra et al (1978), Ferraris (1979) and Krisha and Gowda (1982) for L.leucocephala. On the other hand, results that are in agreement with the findings in the present study have been reported by Pathak et al (1980) and Perez and Melendez (1980), who indicated that leaf yield of L.leucocephala could be maximized by shorter cutting intervals. Using a single row of six trees with plant- to- plant distance of 1m and inter-row spacing of 4 or 5m, Ella et al (1991) reported that the DM yield resulting from frequent cutting, 4 weeks in his
case, was significantly lower than those from longer intervals (12 weeks) and this was hypothesized to be associated with increased number of recovery phases during which the rate of DM production was low. Similar observations have also been reported by Osman (1981), Hill (1970) and Guevarra et al (1978), which are generally in disagreement with the present study for L. pallida. This could be attributed to the fast growth rate of the tree and its ability to accumulate higher DM under frequent cutting management. Contrary to the present study, Guevarra et al (1971) have also suggested that the rate of recovery after cutting of L. leucocephala may be slow because vegetative buds are not produced at the base before cutting. The increased number of recovery phases made necessary by more frequent cutting also results in a very low rate of DM production but this seems not to be the case for L. pallida as the DM accumulation of the tree under frequent cutting was rather better for the long interval. On the other hand, Horne et al (1986) reviewed cutting management of L. leucocephala and concluded that, in general, total yield (leaf and stem) increases with longer cutting intervals, and this was associated with a decrease in leaf to stem ratio. This is certainly the case in the present study particularly when narrower spacing was used during the first year harvest (data on wood and total biomass not shown). But for the rest spacing treatments and the second and third years of the study period, no consistent trend was observed. This feature could clearly be demonstrated when the age factor is omitted from the analytical model and the data set is analyzed independently for each year (see for example Diriba et al, 2001). These contrasting results reported by different workers on differential response of multipurpose tree species to management practices imposed could generally be associated with genetic factors, location, weather parameters and edaphic climate.
Conclusion
The information presented in the current study revealed that foliage biomass yield of L. pallida can be manipulated by tree density and cutting intervals. Narrower inter and intra - row spacing resulted in higher leaf biomass particularly during the early age of the tree stand. For each combination of inter and intra - row spacings, higher biomass yield was recorded during the second year. Similar trend was observed for the main effect of tree age when pooled over cutting interval treatments. When averaged over all years, cutting intervals of 6 and 8 weeks significantly resulted in superior leaf DM yields. Narrower spacings, 10.5m, combined with a cutting interval of 6 or 8 weeks significantly resulted in superior forage yield and hence recommended for achieving higher edible biomass from L.pallida.
References
Blom, P.S. 1980. Leucaena - a promising versatile leguminous tree for the tropics, Abst. Trop. 6: 9 -17. Castillo, A.C., Moog, F.A. and Avante, D.C. 1979. Effect of row arrangement and plant density on herbage production and growth of Ipil -Ipil. Paper presented at the 16th Annual conference of the Philippine Society of Animal Science, Manila. Denton, F.H. and Nickell T. 1985. Rainfall and growth of Giant Leucaena. Leucaena Research Reports: 6: 84 85. Diriba Geleti, Temesgen Diriba, Lemma Gizachew and Adane Hirpha. 2001. Planting density and cutting interval effects on productivity of Calliandira Calothyrous (L.) Meissen. Ethiopian Journal of Animal Production 1: 25 - 31. Ella, A., Jacobsen, C., Stur, W.W. and Graeme B. 1989. Effects of plant density and cutting frequency on the productivity of four tree legumes. Tropical Grasslands vol. 23 : No. 1. 11th ESAP-Proceedings 257
Evensen, C.L.I. 1985. Effects of season and forage yield variation of Leucaena. Leucaena Research Reports 6: 88 -905. Ferraris R. 1979. Productivity of Leucaena leucocephala in wet tropics of North Queens land. Tropical grasslands, 13(1): 20 - 27. Gray, S.G. 1970. The place of trees and shrubs as sources of forage in tropical and sub-tropical pastures.Tropical Grasslands 4: 57 -62. Guevarra, A.B. , Whitney, A.S. and Thompson, J.R. 1978. Influence of intra-row spacing and cutting regimes on the growth and yield of Leucaena. Agronomy Journal 70: 1033 - 1037. Hill, G.D. 1970. Studies on the growth of Leucaena leucocephala.1. Effect of clean weeding and nitrogen fertilizer on early establishment. Papua and New Guinea Agricultural Journal, 22(1): 29 - 30. Horne, P..M. , Catchpoole, D.W. and Ella, A. 1986. Cutting management of tree nad shrub legumes. In: Forages in Southeast Asian and South Pacific Agriculture, ACIAR Proceedings, No. 12. P. 164 - 169. Jones, R.J. 1979. The value of Leucanea leucocephala as a feed for ruminants in the tropics. World Anim. Rev. 31: 13 - 23. Karim, A.B., Rhodes, E.R. and Savill, P.S. 1991. Effects of cutting height and cutting interval on dry matter yield of Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) De Wit. Agroforestry Systems 16: 129 - 137. Krishna, M.K. and Mune Gowda. K. 1982. Effects of cutting regimes on the herbage yield of Leucaena. Leucaena Research Reports, 3: 31 -32. Osman, A. M. 1981a. Effects of cutting intervals on the relative dry matter production of four cultivars of Leucaena. Leucaena Research Reports, 2: 35 - 36. Pathak, P.S. , Rai, P. And Roy, R.D.1980. Forage production from Koo-babool (Leucaena leucaena (Lam) De Wit). 1. Effect of plant density, cutting intensity and interval. Forage Research, 6: 83 - 90. Perez, P. And Melendez, P.1980. The effect of light and frequency of defoliation on formation of buds of L. Leucocephala in the state of Tabasco, Mexico, Mexico. Tropical Animal production, 5: 280. Savory, R. And Breen, J. 1979. The production of Leuceana leucocephala in Malawi (iii). Plant population studies. UNDP/FAO project MLW/75/020. Working paper 17, Lilongwa, Malawi, 33p.
258
Inter-annual Yield Dynamics and Trends of Botanical Composition of Component Species in Panicum-Stylosanthes Binary Mixture in Subhumid Climate of Western Ethiopia
Diriba Geleti Bako Agricultural Research Center, P.O.Box 3, West Shoa, Ethiopia
Abstract
The study was conducted at Bako Research Center during the 1999-2001 season with the objective of determining yield and quality of the component species in Panicum coloratum (PC) and Stylosanthes guianensis (SG) mixed pasture as influenced by seed proportion and year. The two species were mixed at proportions of 75%PC + 25%SG, 50% PC + 50% SG, and 25%PC + 75%SG along with the sole stands of each species. The base seed rate used was 10 kgha-1 for PC and 14 kgha-1 for SG. Results of the analysis of variance indicated significant effects of year (P<0.01) and seed proportion (P<0.01) for yield and percentage composition of PC. The interaction of year and seed proportion was not significant (P>0.05). The DM yield and percentage composition of SG was significantly affected by year (P<0.01), seed proportion (P<0.01) and their interaction (P<0.01). Highest grass DM (11.837tha-1) was obtained when it was grown sole followed by that of 50 % PC and 50 % SG mixture (9.51tha-1). When pooled over seed proportion treatments, the highest mean yield for PC was recorded during the second year (12.46tha-1). With increasing stand age and seed proportion, an increasing yield trend was observed for stylosanthes. Overall mean annual DM yield was highest for the sole legume, 7.22tha-1, followed by the proportion of 75SG: 25PC and 50SG: 50PC. When averaged over years, higher relative yield total (RYT) values were obtained from the 50SG: 50 PC proportion followed by 25 PC: 75SG. The crude protein content was significantly lower (8.28%) for pure grass and higher for pure legume (19.94%). On the other hand NDF concentration was higher for the pure grass and lower for the sole legume. Similar trends were obtained for DM digestibility, values being 63.68% and 57.4% for pure legume and grass, respectively. Generally, the grass was observed to be aggressive across all the study years and this apparently resulted in lower contribution of the legume to total DM accumulated by the mixed stand. Mixed cultures of grass and legume were superior in quality parameters as compared to the sole grass though the yield of the legume was not bulky as such. Complementarity between the two species and higher biological yield advantages as revealed by the relative yield totals were observed to exist when the two species were mixed at 50PC: 50 SG and 25 PC: 75SG proportions. In the future, alternative agronomic management practices should be evaluated to enhance the contribution of the legume to total DM yield and develop a balanced mixed pasture.
Introduction
The quantity of grassland biomass varies seasonally and patterns of rainfall are an imporatant factor accountable to these changes (Boutton et al, 1988). This yield dynamics was reported to determine feeding habits (Jarman and Sinclair, 1979), movement patterns (Maddock, 1979) and grazing resource utilization (Lamprey, 1963) by animals. Concomitant with these changes in plant biomass are equally large and important changes in nutrient content and digestibility. Generally, grasses have relatively high digestibility (Minson, 1971) and superior concentrations of N, P and other nutrients (Bredon and Wilson, 1963; Taerum, 1970; Sinclair, 1975) soon after growth resumes at the onset of the rainy season. As the stand ages, its nutritional quality declines as a result of increases in structural carbohydrates, so that both nutrient concentration and digestibility decrease (Minson, 1971; Kilcher, 1981).
As opposed to grasses, herbaceous legumes have deeper root systems which exploit a less ephemeral moisture supply and the quality of their foliage does not fluctuate greatly in nutrient contents as do grasses (Owen and Novellie, 1982; Boutton, et al., 1988). Integration of legumes with grasses was reported to consistently increase forage yield and quality compared to unfertilized grasses (Posler et al., 1993). Rumbaugh et al., (1982) reported that interplanting alfalfa into a stand of crested wheat grass significantly increased forage yield, as well as protein concentration and yield of the grass. Broadcast - seeding of biennial sweet clover into native range increased yield and protein concentration of western wheatgrass (Nichols and Johnson, 1969). Tarawali et al., (1999) also indicated that the quality of tropical grasses can be further improved by the inclusion of forage legumes which, although not always so bulky, retain higher quality throughout the year. Stylosanthes guianensis and Centrosema pubescens have both been recommended for use in mixture with grasses (Ademosun, 1973; Mislevy, 1985) and have been shown to improve animal performance (Adegbola and Onayinka, 1968). At Bako, Western Ethiopia, several grass species, most of them collected from other parts of Africa were identified and observed to have better productivity and nutrient characteristics as compared to the local ones. One of the species showing promise is Panicum coloratum cv coloratum. Among the legume species, Stylosanthes guianensis cv. Cook was also observed to be a highly productive and persistent legume under Bakos site condition. Information on yield dynamics and productivity of the mixture of these forage species across years is meagre in the country in general and the subhumid areas of Western Ethiopia in particular. The present study was undertaken to determine the effect of stand age and seed rate proportion on yield and quality of the component species in Panicum and Stylosanthes mixed pasture.

Location The study was conducted at Bako Agricultural Research Center located about 260 km West of Addis Abeba at an altitude of 1650 m asl. The area has a hot and humid climate and receives a mean annual rainfall of about 1220 mm, of which more than 80 percent falls in the months of May to September. Mean monthly minimum and maximum temperatures at Bako are about 14 oc and 28 oc, respectively, with an average monthly temperature of 21 oc. Treatments Seeds of the grass and legume studied were mixed at varying relative seed proportions (100% PC + 0% SG, 75%PC +25%SG, 50% PC +50% SG, 25% PC + 75% SG and 0% PC + 100% SG). During the first weeks of June 1999, these treatments were row planted in plots of 12 m2 area at 30 cm inter-row spacing in a randomized complete block design with four replications. The base seed rates used were 10 kgha-1 for PC and 14 kgha-1 for SG. The legume seed was scarified using a sand paper. The experimental plots were uniformly fertilized with DAP at a rate of 100 kgha-1 during the year of establishment and the same rate of fertilizer was used during the later years of the experimental period for herbage maintenance. Sampling For herbage yield determination, two randomly selected middle rows were harvested and the fresh weight of each plot was recorded in the field just after mowing using a field balance. Sub sample of each treatment was dried in the oven at 60 oc for 72 hrs to determine the DM yield. Composite samples of each treatment of the dried forage material were saved for laboratory analysis after grinding to pass through 1mm sieve in a Willey mill.
Feed Production and Use Table 1. Information on number of harvests and date of harvest for biomass DM yield determination in Panicum coloratum and Stylosanthes guianensis mixture for 1999 -2001 Year 1999 2000 Harvest cycle 1 1
st
Date of harvest 21.08.1999 16.10.1999 02.02.2000 23.06.2000 24.08.2000 02.11.2000 23.06.2001 30.08.2001 20.10.2001 15.12.2001
2nd
st
2nd 3rd 4 2001

th
1st 2nd 3
rd
4th
Harvesting was made when the grass component reached 50 percent flowering stage. Percentage contribution to total DM yield of the sown grass and legume were determined by dividing the DM yield of each of the components by the total DM yield obtained for each treatment. Information on the number of cuts per year and date of harvest of each cut during the study period is given in Table 1. Chemical analysis of the feed samples The chemical analysis of the feed samples was done using the standard methods (AOAC, 1980). Nitrogen was analyzed using the Kjeldhal procedure and crude protein was determined by multiplying percent N by the factor 6.25. The neutral detergent fiber (NDF) was determined by the procedures described by Goering and Van Soest (1970). In vitro dry matter digestibility (DMD) was determined using Tilley and Terry in vitro technique. Ca was determined using the atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Perkin, 1982) and P according to Chemlab (1978). Ca to P ratio was determined by taking the ratio of Ca and P of the feed samples (Chemlab, 1978). The concentration of nutrients was determined for the two species separately and the average of the two component species was taken to determine the value of each of the tissue nutrient concentration for the mixed stand of varying proportions. Competition indices The competitive interaction between the two component species was determined using the relative yields and relative yield totals. In this procedure, DM yield of PC grown in association with SG (DMPs) and SG grown with PC (DMSp) in those mixture treatments where the species were mixed in a substitutive manner (75PC+ 25 SG, 50 PC +50 SG, and 25 PC +75 SG) were compared to those in their respective monoculture, sole grown Panicum (DMPP) and sole grown Stylosanthes (DMSS) by calculating the relative yields (RY) of PC and SG (De Wit, 1960) as follows: RY( P) = (DMPs) (DMPP) RY(S) = (DMSp) (DMSS) The relative yield total (RYT) was then calculated according to the formula given below. RYT = RY(P) + RY(S)
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Statistical analysis Analysis of variance was done using MSTATC computer software. The total variance was partitioned into the effects of stand age, seed rate proportion and the interaction of the two. The different mixture treatments were evaluated for three consecutive years (1999, 2000 and 2001). The data was arranged in a split plot in time model considering year as main plot factor and the seed proportion treatments as sub plot factor. Then, combined analysis of variance was undertaken to determine the average treatment responses over all years and whether the dynamics of yield responses are consistent from year to year. The trends of dry matter (DM) yield responses of the two component species to the different model parametres considered was assessed using the two way interaction table or based on the average effect of each year depending on the presence or abscence of interaction between the two factors. Due to financial reasons, all the samples retained for laboratory analysis were not analyzed. Only the two cuts taken during the 1999 cropping season were analyzed for nutritional quality. For the analysis of the quality data, only the seed proportion treatment and effects of the cutting cycle within that year was included in the model. Significant mean differences were separated using least significant difference (LSD) procedure (Snedecor and Cochran, 1980).
Results
Results of the analysis of variance for DM yield of Panicum coloratum and Stylosanthes guianensis and their percentage contribution to total forage yield is given in Table 2. The effect of year was significant for DM yield of PC (P < 0.01) and its percentage (P< 0.01) in total forage. Seed rate proportion also significantly (P < 0.05) affected DM yield of the grass and its percentage composition (P < 0.01). The interaction effect of year and seed proportion was not significant (P > 0.05) for both traits. The DM yield of Stylosanthes was also influenced significantly (P < 0.01) by year, seed rate proportion and the interaction of the two (P < 0.01). The percentage contribution to total forage yield of stylosanthes varied significantly due to year (P < 0.01), seed proportion (P < 0.01) and their interaction (P < 0.01) . The non-significant interaction effect of the two factors for Panicum DM and its percentage composition implies that the two factors are independent and the simple effects associated with them is homogenous. Thus the average effect of the two factors is more important to summarize the data than the interaction in the two-way table. Thus comparision of means of the average effects are considered than their interaction. The significant interaction effect of the year by seed proportion treatment for Stylo DM and its percentage composition shows that the simple effects of the two factors varied with the level of the other factor. This indicates that the effect of seed proportion on the DM yield of Stylo varied with varying stand age (years) or the age effect is variable with levels of the proportion of the component species in total seed mass. Therefore, year means within levels of seed proportion or seed proportion means within year by seed proportion two way tables were compared to see the dynamics of change of the traits as the interaction effect makes summarization of the data based on the main effect of the factors rather meaningless. The effect of seed proportion and stand age on DM yield of Panicum and its contribution to total forage is given in Table 3. Seed proportion treatment means averaged over years varied significantly (P <0.01). Highest grass DM (11.84 t ha-1) was obtained when it was grown sole followed by the mixture treatment, 50 PC +50 SG, which gave 9.51 t ha-1. When pooled over the seed proportion treatments, the highest mean yield was harvested during the second year (12.46 t ha-1). Overall year mean for percent PC ranged from 72.86 percent for 50 PC and 50 SG mixture to 100 percent for the sole Panicum stand. Intermediate percentage values were
recorded for 25 PC + 75 SG proportion and 75 PC and 25 SG, the mean values being 74.84 and 81.00, respectively. Percentage Panicum showed a trend of increment from the first to the second year but was observed to decline during the third year. The highest percentage, 86.56 percent, contribution of Panicum to total herbage DM observed during the second year reflects the improved performance of the total stand during the second year as compared to the establishment and the third year. The effect of stand age and seed proportion on DM yield of Stylosanthes and its percentage contribution to total forage yield is indicated in Table 4. Within year, the effect of seed proportion varied with stand age. For the 25 SG and 75 PC, highest DM yield for the legume was recorded during the third year, 2.93 t ha-1. The same trend was observed for the 50 SG and 50 PC and 75 SG and 25 PC proportions. Generally, with increasing age and seed proportion of the legume component, an increasing trend in DM yield was observed. Overall mean annual DM yield was highest for the sole legume, 7.22 t ha-1, followed by the proportion where the legume at 75 percent was mixed with 25 percent Panicum. When averaged over seed proportion treatments, highest legume DM yield was recorded during the second year. Similarly, within each seed rate proportion, the percentage legume varied significantly as the age of the stand varied. At all levels of seed proportion, the percentage contribution of the legume significantly varied between years and the trend of change was in upward direction. For all seed proportion treatments, the legume significantly contributed to the highest extent during the third year of the stand. Within year, the percentage contribution of the legume showed an increasing trend with increasing levels of the seed proportion of the legume except during the third year where higher percentage contribution was observed for 50 percent SG and 50 percent PC mixture than the 75 SG and 25 PC mixture. The relative yields of the two species and the relative yield totals are given in Table 5 for the mixture treatements of the two species. Year, seed proportion and the interaction of year and seed proportion did not significantly affect (P> 0.05) both RYP, RYS and the relative yield totals (RYT). In a replacement series mixture, relative yields describe the response of a particular species in a mixed stand. The sum of the relative yields of two species in a mixture has been defined by DeWit and Vander Bergh (1965) as a relative yield total (RYT). The RYT describes the resource complementarity between species in a binary mixture. The value assumed by this index indicates whether the species are performing better in a mixture than in monoculture. If RYT = 1, it means that there is no biological yield advantage, RYT > 1, indicates the existence of complementarity between the two species in the mixture, and RYT <1 implies that one of the two species in the mixture is aggressive and thus hinders the performance of the less competitive component markedly to the extent that it is poisoned. In the present study, the RY of Panicum across all seed rate proportions and years was observed to be high indicating that the yield gap between the sole plot yield and the yield from the mixed stand at any rate is not wide. This could actually be attributed to the ability of the grass to form productive tillers that diluted the yield gap that could have occured due to the seed mass in the total mixture. For Stylosanthes, lower values for relative yields of the legume component was observed indicating a higher yield gap between systems of the seed proportion and the sole stand plots. By definition, the RYT greater than one indicates that there is complementarity between the components in the mixed stand. The result also reflects the presence of complementarity between the two species and the existence of biological yield advantage that could be achieved by
mixed cropping. When averaged over years, a slightly higher RYT values were obtained from the 50 SG: 50 PC mixture followed by 25 PC: 75 SG mixture. When pooled over the level of seed rate proportions, the highes RYT values were recorded during the third year (1.42) as compared to the first and the second year. A RYT value less than one was observed during the second year as compared to the first and the third years indicating that complementarity between species in binary mixture could vary with stand age and seasonal variations. This could be due to the higher percentage contribution and hence competition of the grass component during the second year as compared to the first and the third years (Table 3) Chemical composition and in vitro DMD The chemical composition and in vitro DMD of the feed samples as influenced by harvesting time within year and seed proportion is given in Table 6 for the 1999. Seasonal variations within year (August vs October harvest) were observed to be non-significant for all traits analyzed. A slightly higher crude protein concentration was observed for the late August harvest (14.017%) as compared to that of mid October (13.14%). The NDF concentration was also higher for the late August samples as compared to that of mid-October. The in vitro DMD was 59.74 and 60.39, for August and October harvests, respectively. Similar Ca and P values were obtained for both periods. The values for Ca: P ratios were 5.75 and 6.40 for the August and October harvests, respectively. All traits but P were significantly affected by seed proportion treatment combination of the component species. The crude protein concentration was significantly (P<0.01) lower (8.28%) for pure grass (Table 6) and higher for pure legume (19.94%) plots. Intermediate values were observed for the rest of the treatments. The NDF concentration was higher for sole grass sample (72.96%) and significantly lower for pure legume (52.82%). Similarly, higher DMD was recorded for pure Stylosanthes (63.68%) and lower for pure grass (57.48%). Ca values ranged from 0.57% for grass samples in pure stand to 1.82% for pure legume. The concentration of P ranged from 0.19 to 0.25, for pure grass and legume, respectively. The Ca:P ratio was significantly lower (3.10) for pure grass and higher for pure legume sample (7.69).
Discussion
Most of the tropical grass and legume species identified for sub-humid climate of Western Ethopia have been selected for high biomass DM yield and vigour in pure stands. The main interest of grass-legume mixture evaluation in these areas is to monitor dynamics in composition of the component species while producing the maximum out put of forage of adequate quality. Maintaining the legume component at an adequate proportion is important in meeting these requirements. The challenge frequently observed so far was that the grass component is highly competitive and the growth rate and contribution to total DM of the legume is very low specially at early age of the stand ( Diriba, 2000). The current study also revealed that the grass component was aggressive at any of its seed rate proportion and its contribution to total biomass was large through out the study period. The significant year effect observed in the present study could be associated with inter -annual variations in weather variables and age of the stand. Whiteman (1980) has also stated that the botanical composition of a mixed pasture could vary widely with time depending upon edaphic, environmental, competition and management factors. The higher DM yield of the grass component during the second year of stand establishement as compared to the first and the third years could be attributed among other factors, to well established root system that enabled the grass to extract growth resources from the soil. A study conducted by Tessema Zewudu (1996) in
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North Western Ethiopia also indicated that Panicum when grown with alfalfa and Desmodium, remained persistently aggressive for three years which is also in agreement with the observations in the present study. The higher percentage contribution of the grass component at a seed rate proportion of 75 percent among those treatment combinations arranged in a replacement series could be attributed to higher plant population per unit area as a result of higher seed rate. In fact, the trend in percent composition was not consistent when averaged over years. The higher percentage botanical composition of the grass in 25 PC and 75 SG as compared to 50 PC and 50 SG mixture could possibly be attributed to the nitrogen transfer from the legume component to the grass or the improvement in soil nitrogen budget due to nitrogen fixation that was in turn taken up by the grass component. Within each seed rate proportion of the legume component, there was a trend of increment in the yield and botanical composition of Stylosanthes with increasing stand age. This could possibly be associated with the ability of the legume species to withstand stresses imposed by competition and within year defoliation practices for herbage yield determination. According to Shaeffer (1989), defoliation practices could interact with plant growth and modify species compatibility in mixed cultures. In monoculture Stylosanthes plots, significantly higher yield was observed during the second year and was lower during the first year. As was observed during the early phases of the experimental period, Stylosanthes seedlings were not observed to have fast growth rate and accumulated DM and regeneration after the first cut was poor. This could be associated with lower residual photosynthetic area as cutting was imposed early. It was also reported that rate of herbage regrowth and carbohydrate production could be affected by residual photosynthetic area (Smith and Nelson, 1969; Coutts et al., 1984). Age and cutting management induced stand death was also observed to be the most important factor accountable for yield reduction during the third year. A generally lower DM accumulation of Stylo in mixed culture across all seed rate proportions could also be associated with planting pattern of the component species. At planting, the mixed seeds of grass and legume were drilled within row and this was observed to result in weak plants having thin stems which after herbage removal did not bear any growing point that contributes to subsequent herbage mass. Mixed planting in a row pattern was reported to result in declined productivity particularly of the legume component than when alternative row or cross - row pattern was used. The within row planting pattern was observed to aggravate both above and below ground interspecific competetion. Competetion for light particularly in the sward canopy is perhaps a major factor in grass - legume interspecific competition (Kendall and Stringer, 1985) and is determined, among other factors, by canopy height (Haynes, 1980). The higher number of tiller production in the grass which resulted in higher number of stand counts at harvest (data not shown) could also be a source of aggresivity for the grass as reported by Kays and Harper (1974). Low tiller number and canopy height of companion grasses was reported to improve compatibility in grass - legume mixed culture (Short and Carlson, 1989). In this particular study, canopy height of the grass was much higher than that of the legume. Morphologically, growth responses of the legume to this scenario were through reduction in the number of lateral branches and increased plant height with thin stems. This aspect was reported by Diriba (2000) during the establishment year of the same stand and is in accordance with what was reported elsewhere for Trifolium repens (Dennis and Woledge, 1987; Devis and Evans, 1990). Remarkable reduction of the number of lateral branches was reported to be associated with radiation-induced changes in partitioning pattern of photosynthates within
plant tissue (Soussana et al, 1995; Thompson, 1993; 1995). Stem elongation of the weaker component in mixed culture was reported to be a morphological reaction induced by reduction in photosynthetically active radiation that reaches the legume component (Woledge, 1988). Chemical composition and in vitro DMD In order to maintain body weight, the feed of ruminants must consist of 5% crude protein (ARC, 1965). When protein levels in feeds fall below this minimum, feed intake decreases and rumen microbes are sufficiently inhibited that nitrogen excretion exceeds nitrogen intake (McDonald et al., 1973). On the other hand, for optimum rumen function, the minimum level of crude protein required was reported to be 7.59% (Adugna and Said, 1994; Milford and Haydock, 1965). In both seasons of harvest and for both pure grass and legume samples and the mixture of the two at different seed proportions, the levels of crude protein did not fall below that required for optimum rumen function and posetive N balance. The higher average crude protein concentration in Panicum- Stylosanthes mixture as compared to the sole grass sample is clearly due to higher crude protein concentration of the associated legume. According to Norton (1982), a critical crude protein level required to support lactation and growth is 15 percent. Except the samples taken from the pure Stylosanthes plots (19.94%) and those samples taken during the period of high rainfall (late August), the others do not sufficiently fulfill the indicated value suggesting the need for additional supplementation of other protein sources for dairy animals if satisfactory milk production is to be achieved. Except for pure Stylosanthes samples (52.82%), values of NDF greater than 60 percent was obseved. Total cell wall concentration (NDF) exceeding 60 percent was reported to be associated with lower voluntary feed intake, longer rumination period and decreased efficiency of energy utilization (Adunga, and Said, 1994). All values of in vitro DMD observed in this study did not exceed the level reported to be adequate for optimal feed intake (65%). Perhaps the value recorded for sole grass is comparatively inferior to others.
Table 2. Mean squares and levels of significance from the analysis of variance for the component species in Panicum/Stylosanthes mixture
Source Age (A) Proportion (B) AB DF 2 3 6 Panicum DMY MS 78.02 18.71 3.44 P level 0.0027 0.0364 NS Percent Panicum MS 710.74 1838.62 114.07 P level 0.0004 0.000 NS Stylosanthes DMY MS 50.32 75.75 12.62 P level 0.0001 0.000 0.0001 Percent Stylosanthes MS 1765.34 19924.47 212.56 P level 0.0005 0.000 0.0009
DF- Degrees of freedom; DM= dry matter; MS= mean square
Table 3. Effect of seed proportion and stand age on DM yield and percentage composition of Panicum in Panicum/Stylosanthes mixture
Seed proportion mixture In DM yield of PC Years 1999 100PC + 0SG 75PC + 25SG 50 PC+50SG 25PC + 75SG Mean 10.20 8.38 8.83 9.70 9.28 2000 15.36 11.82 11.64 11.02 12.46 2001 9.95 8.21 8.06 6.63 8.21 Mean 11.84 9.47 9.51 9.12 Percent Panicum Years 1999 100 80.99 78.08 82.80 85.46 2000 100 89.80 78.50 77.95 86.56 2001 100 72.25 62.00 63.78 74.51 Mean 100 81.00 72.86 74.84
SE to compare overall year mean of PC DM yield= 0.5135; SE to compare overall Dm yield of PC for each seed rate proportion=0.6903; SE to compare percentage composition of Stylosanthes averaged over seed proportion= 1.0977; SE to compare percentage composition of Panicum averaged over years for each seed rate proportion= 2.4017
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The concentration of Ca in all samples was much higher than the suggested critical requirement for cattle (0.3%) (ARC, 1980) and thus for animals persisting on feed material studied in the present study, Ca defficiency is not likely to occur. On the other hand, P level of all samples was observed to be sufficient for mature bulls given the critical dietary requirement of 0.19% (ARC, 1980) but defficient for dairy cattle and growing heifers and bulls whose critical dietary requirement was reported to be 0.28 and 0.3%, respectively. Since Ca and P are closely interrelated in metabolism, it is difficult to evaluate requirements and functions of one without the other (Mc Dowell, 1985). The Ca: P ratio in the present study was in the range of 3.10 to 7.69. A ratio of 2 is generally considered optimal for herbivores, although there is evidence that a Ca: P ratio is not critical for ruminants provided that there is a sufficient quantity of both in the diet (McDonald et al, 1973; Stoddart et al, 1975). Although a ratio of 2 is recommended, it was reported that ruminants seem to be able to tolerate wider ratios than non-ruminants (McDowell, 1985). A ratio of 4 has proven suitable for cattle provided that the phosphorus intake meets minimum requirements. There is also some evidence that grazing cattle can tolerate ratios up to 12 but those below one retard growth (McDowell, 1985). For some classes of animals (dairy cattle and growing heifers and bulls), the P level in the feed samples of the present study is defficient where as Ca is sufficiently enough, implying that the problem may be ralated to an inbalance between the two mineral elements.
Table 4. Effect of stand age and seed proportion on DM yield of Stylosanthes and in its percentage composition in total forage yield of the mixture.
Seed proportion 25 SG+75 PC 50 SG + 50PC 75 SG +25 PC 100SG + 0PC Mean DM yield 1999 0.249 0.588 1.122 4.119 1.520 2000 1.280 3.052 3.155 11.327 4.703 2001 2.929 4.667 4.053 6.214 4.466 Mean 1.486 2.769 2.777 7.220 1999 3.15 5.50 9.95 100 29.650 Percent proportion 2000 10.20 17.25 22.05 100 37.375 2001 27.50 38.00 36.225 100 50.431 Mean 13.617 20.250 22.742 100
Table 5. Trends of relative yields (RYP and RYS) and relative yield totals (RYT) of the two component species in Panicum and Stylosanthes mixture with varying age and seed proportion treatments arranged in a substitutive mixture.
RYP Seed proportion 1999 75 PC +25 SG 50 PC +50 SG 25 PC +75 SG Mean 0.932 0.967 1.015 0.972 Years 2000 0.795 0.768 0.720 0.761 2001 0.805 0.822 0.672 0.767 Mean 0.844 0.853 0.802 1999 0.643 0.145 0.277 0.355 RYS Years 2000 0.11 0.268 0.302 0.227 2001 0.422 0.678 0.563 0.554 Mean 0.392 0.363 0.381 1999 1.170 1.113 1.043 1.108 RYT Years 2000 0.905 1.035 1.023 0.988 2001 1.292 1.500 1.472 1.422 Mean 1.123 1.216 1.179
Conclusion
In the present study, Panicum - Stylosanthes mixed culture was observed to offer yield advantages relative to sole cropping of the two components, either through yield stability or improved quality of the total stand. Yield advantages observed in the present study could be attributable among other factors to better use of growth resources. On the contrary, measured yield reductions were the result of adverse competitive effects of the dominant component in the mixed system resulting in unbalanced mixed stand. In the present study, across all the study years aggressivity of Panicum apparently resulted in yield reductions of the legume and the amount of legume harvested was not so bulky in total stand biomass DM. In the future,
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alternative agronomic practices like planting pattern and harvesting systems should be evaluated to improve the percentage share of the legume in the total mixture.
Table 6. Within year variations and Seed proportion treatment effects on crude protein, total cell wall (NDF), in vitro DMD, Ca and P for Panicum - Stylosanthes mixture, 1999 cropping season.
Season of harvest with in year August 28, 1999(cycle-1) October 16, 1999(cycle-2) P level SE 100PC: 0 SG 75PC: 25 SG 50PC : 50SG 25PC : 75SG 0 PC : 100SG P level SE CP 14.017 13.141 NS 0.37 8.280 13.186 12.186 13.623 19.935 0.001 0.5779 NDF 64.870 62.56 NS 0.70 72.96 64.218 64.177 64.400 52.815 0.0017 1.12 DMD 59.740 60.390 NS 0.59 57.475 59.288 60.067 59.830 63.675 0.05 0.9256 Ca 1.24 1.23 NS 0.02 0.570 1.262 1.262 1.243 1.820 0.000 0.0275 P 0.21 0.19 NS 0.01 0.185 0.190 0.197 0.190 0.245 NS 0.0220 Ca : P 5.75 6.40 NS 0.41 3.10 6.655 6.393 6.550 7.690 0.04 0.64
CP = crude protein; NDF= Neutral detergent fibre; DMD= dry matter digestibility; Ca= Calcium; P= Phosphorus
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Owen-smith, N. and Novellie P. 1982. What should a clever ungulate eat? Am. Nat. 119 : 151-178. Perkin, E. 1982. Analytical methods for atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Perkin E. Corporation, Norwalk, Connecticut, USA. Posler, G.L., A. Lenssen W. and G. Fine L. 1993. Forage yield, quality, compatibility and persistence of warm season grasslegume mixtures. Agron. J. 85 :554-560. Rumbaugh, M.D. , Johnson D.A. , and Van Epps G. A. . 1982. Forage yield and quality in a Great Basin Shrub, grass, and legume pasture experiment. J. Range manage. 35 :604 -609. Shaeffer, C.C. 1989. Effect of compitetion on legume persistence.In : G.C. Marten et al (ed). Persistence of forage legumes. ASA, CSSA, and SSSA, Madison, WI. : 327 -333. Short, K.E. and I. Carlson T. 1989. Bidirectional selection for birdsfoot trefoil compatibility traits in Orchardgrass. Crop science. 29 : 1131 -1136. Sinclair, A. R. E. 1975. The resource limitation of trophic levels in tropical grassland ecosystems. J. Anim. Ecol. 44 : 497-521. Smith, D. And Nelson C. J. 1969. Growth of birdsfoot trefoil and alfalfa. I . Response to height and frequency of cutting. Crop science. 7 : 130 -133. Snedecor, G.W. and Cochran, W.G. 1980. Statistical Methods, Seventh Edition. The Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, USA. Soussana, J.F., Vertes, F. and Arregui, M.C. 1995. The regulation of clover shoot growing point density and morphology during short term clover decline in mixed swards. European Journal of Agriculture. 4: 205215. Stoddart, L.A., Smith, A.D. and Box, T.W. 1975. Range Management. Mc Graw-Hill, New York. Taerum, R. (1970). A note on the chemical content of some East African grasses. East Afr. Agric. For J. 36, 171-176. Tarawali, S.A. , Peters M. and Schultze - Kraft R. 1999. Forage legumes for sustainable Agriculture and Livestock production in sub-humid West africa. ILRI Project Report.ILRI ( International Livestock Research Institute), Nairobi, Kenya. 132pp. Tesema Zewdu. 1996. Forage yield performance of different perennial grass/legume mixtures in North Western Ethiopia. ESAP (Ethiopian Society of Animal Production , 4th Conference), 18 -19 April, 1996, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Thompson, L. 1993. The influence of the radiation environment around the node on morphogenesis and growth of white clover (Trifolium repens). Grass and Forage Science. 48: 271-278. Thompson, L. 1995. Sites of Photoreception in white clover. Grass and Forage Science. 50: 259-262. Whiteman 1980. Tropical Pasture Science. Oxford University Press, Walton Street, Oxford, London. Whiteman, P.C. 1980. Tropical Pasture Science. Oxford University Press, USA, New York. Woledge, J. 1988. Competetion between grass and clover in spring as affected by nitrogen fertilizer. Annuals of Applied Biology. 112: 175-185.
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Chemical Constituents, in vitro Digestibility and Ruminal Degradation of NapierGgrass (Pennisetum purpureum (L.) Schumach.) Mixed with Different Levels of Sesbania sesban ((L.) Merr.)
Tessema Zewdu Department of Animal Sciences, Alemaya University, PO Box 188, Alemaya Campus, Ethiopia
Abstract
The chemical composition, in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD), in sacco rumen dry matter degradability (DMD), organic matter degradability (OMD) and nitrogen degradability (ND) were assessed for different mixtures of Napier grass and Sesbania leaves. There were four Napier-Sesbania mixtures (10, 15, 20 and 25% of Sesbania) and Napier grass only (control) in a randomised complete block design with three replications. The different mixtures showed significant (P<0.05) effects on rumen DMD, OMD and ND for all incubation times as well as for their derived degradability characteristics. The DMD, OMD, ND, their degradability characteristics and IVDMD increased as the proportion of Sesbania leaves increased. Similarly, as the proportion of Sesbania increased, there were increases in organic matter, crude protein (CP), calcium (Ca) and metabolisable energy, and a reduction in ash, phosphorus, NDF, ADF, ADF-ash, cellulose and hemicellulose contents. No significant difference was observed for ADL. There were high positive linear correlations between IVDMD versus DMD, OMD and ND at 48, 72 and 96 h of incubation. IVDMD was positively correlated with CP and Ca, and negatively with NDF, ADF, ADL and ADF-ash. CP, NDF, ADF and ADL were the best predictors of IVDMD values as explained by regression equations. The results of the present study suggest that the quality and digestibility of Napier grass mixed with 20% Sesbania was high enough to contribute to moderate to high milk production and should therefore be promoted under smallholder farmers.
Keywords: Chemical composition; Forage; Incubation time; In sacco degradation; Nutrition
Introduction
The existing feedstuffs in Ethiopia provide inadequate energy, protein, minerals and vitamins. Animals thrive predominantly on high-fibre feeds that are deficient in nutrients essential for microbial fermentation (Osuji et al., 1993). Increased livestock production should therefore be achieved through the cultivation of high quality forages adapted to local conditions and with a high yielding ability. Amongst the improved forage crops promoted in Ethiopia, Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum (L.) Schumach.) and Sesbania sesban ((L.) Merr.) could play an important role in providing a significant amount of high quality forage (Tessema and Halima, 1998). They are high yielding and recommended for utilisation by smallholder farmers in Ethiopia. Farmers have recognised the importance of these forages for their crossbred dairy cows. Particularly forage legumes as a protein-rich supplement to a basal diet of either grass or poor quality roughage have become increasingly important in Ethiopia. For smallholder milk production in particular, legumes are needed to provide a balanced diet to sustain lactation yields. However, the exact levels of Sesbania inclusion required in Napier grass based diets need to be assessed. One of the parameters for determining the nutritive value of feedstuffs is digestibility, either in vitro or in vivo (Minson, 1990). Accurate data on the digestibility of forages would greatly assist in diet formulation and economic valuation of different forages (Weiss, 1994). In vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) is one of the best methods currently available for estimating digestibility (Van Soest and Robertson, 1980; Van Soest, 1982; Weiss, 1994). Laboratory in vitro methods digest feedstuffs by preparation of micro-organisms or enzymes
which are similar in function to those present in the digestive tract of ruminants and sensitive to undetermined factors that influence the rate and extent of digestion (Van Soest, 1982). For a supplement to improve or maintain an active rumen fermentation, it is very important to know the proportion of the total dry matter or protein that is degraded in the rumen within certain residence times (Topps, 1996). The nylon bag degradability is the best currently available method for estimating digestibility similar to in vitro disappearance in terms of accuracy, and is easier to perform than the in vitro method (Weiss, 1994). In sacco digestion of feed samples in the actual rumen environment is probably one of the most accurate non in vivo procedures (Kitessa et al., 1999). This study assessed the effect of different proportions of Sesbania leaves mixed with Napier grass on chemical composition, IVDMD, in sacco rumen dry matter degradability (DMD), organic matter degradability (OMD) and nitrogen degradability (ND).

Experimental site Experiments were conducted in the 2001 crop season at Adet Agricultural Research Centre, northwestern Ethiopia, 445 km from Addis Ababa. The centre is located between 11o 17 N latitude and 37o 43 E longitude at an altitude of 2240 m above sea level. The area is characterised by alluvial soil and to some extent by red and black soils. The forages reported here were cultivated on red soil representing the typical soil type of the region. The mean annual rainfall of the area is 1285 mm with a range from 860 to 1771 mm and 109 rainy days per year (average of 16 years, 1986-2001). There is one main rainy season extending from June to September. The average annual minimum and maximum air temperatures are 8.8 and 25.4 oC, respectively Management and experimental design of Napier and Sesbania One high yielding Napier grass accession (ILRI accession no. 16798) and Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr.) were selected and propagated, using root splits and seedlings, respectively, on a well prepared field under rain fed conditions in June 2001 when the soil was moist. Diammonium phosphate fertiliser was applied at planting at a rate of 100 kg ha-1 for establishment of both forages according to the recommendation. When the heights of Napier grass and Sesbania sesban reached 1 m, the whole plants of Napier grass at about 10-15 cm above the ground and Sesbania were harvested. The leaves of Sesbania were separated from the stem and branches and properly air-dried. The treatments were four Napier grass and Sesbania leaves mixtures (10, 15, 20 and 25% of Sesbania and Napier grass only (control). The experiment was carried out in a randomised complete block design with three replications. Sample preparation and precision Representative samples from all Napier-Sesbania mixtures were properly oven dried. The dried samples were ground to pass through a 1-mm sieve for chemical analyses and IVDMD, and a 2mm sieve for the in sacco rumen degradability study. The ground samples were then stored individually in airtight containers until analysis. Duplicate samples of each treatment were analysed and the average was taken as the final result. Analytical procedures Ash was determined by igniting the samples in a muffle furnace at 550 oC overnight. Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) contents were determined by auto-analyser (Chemlab 1978 and 1984) and crude protein (CP) was calculated as N x 6.25. Neutral detergent fibre (NDF), acid detergent fibre
(ADF) and acid detergent lignin (ADL) were determined according to Goering and Van Soest (1970). Hemicellulose and cellulose were calculated as NDF minus ADF and ADF minus ADL plus ADF-ash, respectively. Calcium (Ca) was determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Perkin Elmer, 1982). In vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) was determined by the modified Tilley and Terry system (Van Soest and Robertson, 1985). Metabolisable energy (ME) was estimated using the equation for tropical forages: ME (MJ.kg-1 DM) = DOM (g.kg-1 DM) x 18.5 x 0.81, where digestible organic matter (DOM) was calculated as 0.95 IVDMD% - 2 (AAC, 1990). All the chemical analyses and IVDMD were conducted at the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Ethiopia. DMD, OMD and ND were determined by incubating 2.4-2.5 g of dry samples in a nylon bag (41 m pore size and 6.5 x 14 cm dimension) in two 6-year old rumen fistulated Boran x Holstein Friesian steers at the ILRI research station. The steers were fed ad libitum grass hay, mineral block and 2 kg cotton seed cake once per day. The steers were kept indoors and water was offered ad libitum. The bags were incubated one hour after the steers were offered feed and withdrawn sequentially after 6, 12, 24, 48, 72 and 96 h, washed 5 times for 6 minutes in a washing machine and dried for 48 h at 60 oC. Washing losses were determined by soaking three bags per sample in warm tap water at 60 oC for 48 h followed by washing and drying. The DMD, OMD and ND or disappearance data for each incubation time were calculated as follows (Kabuga and Darko, 1993 and Osuji et al., 1993): DMD % = (DM in forage DM in residue/DM in forage) x 100 OMD % = (OM in forage OM in residue/OM in forage) x 100 ND % = (N in forage N in residue/N in forage) x 100 The DMD, OMD and ND data were fitted to the exponential equation Y= a + b (1ect) (rskov and McDonald, 1979) where Y is DMD, OMD and ND (%) at time t. Since washing losses (A) were higher than the estimated rapidly soluble fraction (a), the lag time was estimated according to McDonald (1981) by fitting the model Y = A for t < to, Y = a + b (1 - e-ct) for t > to and the degradation characteristics were defined as A is equal to washing loss (readily soluble fraction); B = (a + b) A, representing the insoluble but fermentable material; c = the rate of degradation of B per hour and the lag phase (L) = (1/c) loge [b / (a + b A)]. The effective degradability (ED) was calculated using the formula ED = A + [Bc / (c + k)] (Dhanoa, 1988) where A, B and c are as described above and k is rumen outflow rate which was assumed to be 0.03 h-1 (rskov et al., 1988). The potential degradability (%) was calculated as A + B. Statistical analyses Analyses of variance (ANOVA) were done using SAS (1998) for chemical composition, IVDMD, in sacco rumen DMD, OMD and ND by the General Linear Model procedure. The model included levels of Sesbania and replications. Before subjecting the degradability data to ANOVA, the data were tested by multiple curve analysis. Mean separation was tested using the least significance difference (LSD). The relationships between chemical constituents and IVDMD as well as IVDMD and in sacco rumen DMD, OMD and ND were determined by correlation analysis. Simple and multiple linear regression analyses were done between IVDMD and highly correlated chemical components. Rumen degradability percentages and degradability characteristics for DM, organic matter and N were also calculated. Differences were considered significant when P<0.05.
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Chemical compositions and in vitro dry matter digestibility There was a highly significant difference in cellulose, hemicellulose, Ca, P, IVDMD and significant difference was observed for ADL. there were increases in CP, Ca, IVDMD and cellulose, hemicellulose values. organic matter, Ash, CP, NDF, ADF, ADF-ash, ME of Napier-Sesbania mixtures (Table 1). No As the proportion of Sesbania leaves increased, ME, and reductions in P, NDF, ADF, ADF-ash,
The 75:25 Napier-Sesbania mixture contained 70.95% IVDMD, which represents a high quality feed, which is a feed containing greater than 70% digestibility (Meissner et al. 2000). The CP percentage of all the Napier-Sesbania mixtures (range 10.7 to 15.1%) were well above the minimum CP level of 7.5% required for rumen function (Van Soest, 1982). A minimum of 15% CP is required for lactation and growth of cattle (Norton, 1981), which was obtained in the 75:25 Napier-Sesbania mixture. The NDF percentages recorded in all Napier-Sesbania mixtures (range 45.2 to 53.3%) were below the average value of 66.2 % for tropical grasses (Barton et al. 1976). The threshold level of NDF in tropical grass beyond which DM intake of cattle is affected is 60.0% (Meissner et al., 1991). In the present study the cellulose (range 12.8 to 15.5%) and hemicellulose (range 20.8 to 25.8%) contents of the mixtures were very low compared to those of most tropical grasses (31.9 and 35.4%, respectively) (Moore and Hatfield, 1994). The ADL contents were very low, and ranged from 3.55 to 3.79%. All the Napier-Sesbania mixtures were categorised as high quality feed, defined as a diet containing less than 5% ADL (Meissner et al., 2000). The Ca contents (range 0.9 to 1.3%) were very high compared to the recommended requirement of 0.43% in DM for cattle, whereas the P contents were almost equal or slightly above the minimum requirement of 0.17% in DM for grazing ruminants (McDowell, 1985). In sacco rumen dry matter and organic matter degradability studies The proportion of Sesbania leaves mixed with Napier grass had a highly significant effect on rumen DMD and OMD percentages (Figures 1 and 2) and their degradability characteristics for each incubation time (Tables 2 and 3). The maximum DMD and OMD of the Napier-Sesbania mixtures were obtained at 72 and 96 h of incubations. There was an increase in OMD and DMD and their degradability characteristics as the proportion of Sesbania in the mixture increased. This could be due to the fact that an increase in the proportion of Sesbania might decrease the proportions of fibre content, which contributes to an increase in digestibility of cell wall constituents. There were no significant differences in the insoluble but gradually degradable fractions (B) and the lag phase (L) among the different Napier-Sesbania mixtures for DMD. However, the different Napier-Sesbania mixtures significantly affected all the OMD characteristics. Potential degradability (PD) at 0.03 h-1 rumen outflow rate were highest for the 75:25 Napier-Sesbania mixture with 81.5% and 85.6% in DMD and OMD, respectively. The effective degradability (ED) was also highest for the 75:25 Napier-Sesbania mixture with 63.8 and 65.9% in DMD and OMD, respectively. This might be due to the higher legume proportion. Higher values were also reflected in the CP and IVDMD contents for the 75:25 Napier-Sesbania mixture. The DMD and OMD percentages and their degradability characteristics in the present study were higher than the DMD of Napier grass harvested at different plant heights (Tessema et al., 2002a). The DMD and OMD results observed for the different Napier-Sesbania mixtures depend on the fibre fractions of the feed, as reported for in vitro and in vivo of forages (Minson, 1990; Topps, 1997; Vieira et al., 1997). Minson (1990) indicated that the OMD varies with the proportion of
cell contents and cell wall constituents. The cell contents are digestible, while cell wall digestion depends on the degree of lignification, the activity of rumen microbes and the time retained in the rumen. The potential degradable and undegradable fractions as well as the duration of the lag time of grasses are affected by the proportion of fibre fractions in the diet (Vieira et al., 1997). In sacco rumen nitrogen degradability Nitrogen degradability (%) in all incubation times and ND characteristics were significantly affected by the different Napier-Sesbania mixtures (Figure 3 and Table 4). The maximum ND was obtained at 72 and 96 h incubation for the 75:25 Napier-Sesbania mixture similar to that of DMD and OMD. These results correspond to the ND of Napier grass harvested at 0.5m height (Tessema et al., 2002a). There was a reduction in ND and ND characteristics as the proportion of Sesbania reduced in the mixture. The reason for a reduction in ND with a lower proportion of Sesbania might be due to the high fibre content that could contribute to the low ND of Napier grass as explained by their NDF and ADF contents in the present study (Table 1). There were no significant differences in the insoluble but gradually degradable fractions (B) and the lag phase (L) among the different Napier-Sesbania mixtures in ND, similar to DMD. The lag time of ND ranged from 4.6 to 6.3 h, which is quite low compared to other studies. A lag time greater than 7 h in maize DMD studies at different stages of maturity (Adugna et al., 1999) and in Napier grass ND study harvested at different heights (Tessema et al., 2002a) were observed in Ethiopia. A large fraction of the protein may be bound within the cell wall or to compounds such as condensed tannins, which give insoluble complexes. This fraction tends to be inaccessible to proteolytic enzymes, which are either produced by the rumen micro-organisms or secreted into the small intestine. The presence of such factors is likely to interfere with the digestion and utilisation of the forages, especially the protein they contain (Topps, 1996). rskov (1991) explained that the lag time in the degradation of fibrous feeds is caused by the time taken for adherence of cellulolytic micro-organisms to the substrate. Van Soest (1988) also mentioned a long lag time as one of the factors limiting intake and utilisation of fibrous feeds. The increase in ND and ND characteristics observed in the present study with an increased proportion of Sesbania leaves might be explained by the relatively low content of structural components (cell wall). The three fibre fractions (NDF, ADF and ADL), which are measured by subsequently extraction processes, give some indications of the fibrosity of the forages and the extent to which the fibre can be degraded by micro-organisms (Topps, 1996). Correlation and regression analyses For IVDMD, positive relationships were observed with CP, hemicellulose and Ca, and a negative correlation with NDF, ADF, ADF-ash, ADL and cellulose (Table 5). ADL was negatively correlated with NDF and ADF contents. This relationship might have happened due to the low ADL values of the present study. The results of the present study agree with earlier studies (Hassan and Osman, 1984; Fernandes et al., 1986; Tessema et al., 2002b). Significant but negative correlations were found between IVDMD and cell wall components, and IVDMD and CP were significantly and positively correlated (Fernandes et al., 1986). ADF showed positive correlations with ADL, Cellulose and crude fibre and negative correlations with cell wall components and hemicellulose (Hassan and Osman, 1984). CP, hemicellulose, Ca and P showed high positive correlations with IVDMD whereas DM, NDF, ADF, ADL and cellulose showed negative correlations with IVDMD in Napier grass harvested at different heights (Tessema et al., 2002b). A negative correlation usually exists between forage lignin and forage digestibility (Barton et al.,
275
1976). As lignins are closely linked to the carbohydrates in the cell wall of plants, they exert a major effect on the digestibility of feeds, principally hemicellulose and cellulose (Van Soest, 1982). Relationships were higher between IVDMD versus DMD, OMD and ND at 48, 72 and 96 h incubation (Table 6). Lower correlations were recorded at 6, 12 and 24 h incubation. The difference in the magnitude of the correlation coefficient before and after 48 h is likely the result of the duration of fermentation of feed samples in the rumen. When estimates of maximal digestibility are desired, longer incubations are usually required. Longer incubations are associated with reduced variation between duplicate samples. The particle size difference between the in sacco and in vitro samples might also explain the difference. Increasing particle size may increase lag time and decrease the extent of disappearance for short term incubations (Nocek and Kohn, 1988). Parameters having high correlations with IVDMD (CP, NDF, ADF and ADL) were treated by simple and multiple linear regression analyses. Their coefficients of determination value (R2) were 0.68 (Table 7). They were the best predictors of IVDMD of Napier-Sesbania mixtures in the present study.
Conclusions
The Napier-Sesbania mixtures showed a significant effect on chemical constituents, IVDMD and in sacco rumen DMD, OMD and ND (%) and their degradability characteristics. There was an increase in CP, IVDMD, in sacco rumen DMD, OMD and ND, and their degradability characteristics and a reduction in fibre fractions of Napier grass as the proportion of Sesbania increased in the mixture. Relationships between IVDMD versus DMD, OMD and ND were higher at 48, 72 and 96 h incubations and these seem to reflect the potential digestibility of NapierSesbania mixtures. All the Napier-Sesbania mixtures could adequately supply CP, ME and Ca above the production requirements of a lactating cow weighing 500 kg and the nutrient supply eventually increases as the levels of Sesbania in the Napier-Sesbania mixture increases (Table 8). The results of the present study suggest that the quality and digestibility of Napier grass mixed with 20% Sesbania was high enough to contribute to moderate to high milk production and should therefore be promoted under smallholder farmers.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the Amhara National Regional Council and the Adet Agricultural Research Centre (AARC), Ethiopia, for financing the research. All staff of the Animal Feeds and Nutrition Research Division of AARC are highly acknowledged for their assistance during the execution of the research.
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Feed Production and Use Table 1. Chemical composition and in vitro dry matter digestibility (% DM) of different Napier-Sesbania mixtures Parameters Organic matter Ash Crude protein (CP) Neutral detergent fibre (NDF) Acid detergent fibre (ADF) Acid detergent lignin (ADL) ADF-ash Cellulose Hemicellulose Calcium (Ca) Phosphorus (P) IVDMD ME (MJ Kg DM)
-1 abcde
Proportion of Sesbania in the mixture (%) Control 81.55b 18.21b 7.16

e
10 80.12c 20.06a 10.57

d
15 83.37a 16.63c 12.85

c
20 83.33a 16.67c 13.85

b
25 83.32a 16.68c 15.10

a
SE 0.15 0.29 0.18 0.31 0.08 0.07 0.09 0.04 0.26 0.008
d
61.61a 32.61a 3.55 9.33b 19.83a 28.90a 0.47e 0.190 66.78c 8.61
c a
53.25b 27.49b 3.69 10.97a 12.83e 25.76b 0.88d 0.175 68.61b 9.04
bc c
51.60c 26.86c 3.60 7.78c 15.48b 24.74c 1.02c 0.180 68.14b 9.21
abc b
46.42d 25.67d 3.79 7.48c 14.40c 21.25d 1.30b 0.175 69.02b 9.73
a c
45.20d 24.34e 3.67 7.63c 13.11d 20.79e 1.33a 0.170 70.95a 9.77
a
0.003 0.37 0.23
Means within rows with different superscript are significantly different, P=0.05
90 80 Dry matter degradabiity (%) 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 6 12 24 48 Incubation time 72 96
Napier grass alone (control) Napier + 10% Sesbania Napier + 15% Sesbania Napier + 20% Sesbania Napier + 25% Sesbania
Figure 1. Dry matter degradability (%) of different Napier-Sesbania mixtures Table 2. In sacco rumen dry matter degradability (DMD) characteristics of different Napier-Sesbania mixtures Rumen DMD characteristics Washing loss/readily fermentable fraction (A), % The insoluble but fermentable fractions (B), % Potential degradability (A+B), % The rate of degradation of B (c), /h The lag phase (L), h Effective degradability (ED), %
abcde
Proportion of Sesbania in the mixture (%) Control 19.09 55.86 74.95c 0.043 5.63 51.0
e d c
10 18.64
c
15 20.57
bc
20 27.28
ab
25 33.82
a
SE 3.03 2.39 0.83

a
58.56 77.21b 0.045 4.26 53.19

d d
59.33 79.90a 0.052 4.53 57.82

c c
52.67 79.95a 0.065 4.95 60.24

b b
47.67 81.48a 0.073 6.11 63.79

a
0.002 0.84 0.69
277
90
80
70
Organic matter degradability (%)
60
50
40
Napier alone (control) Napier + 10% Sesbania Napier + 15% Sesbania Napier + 20% Sesbania Napier + 25% Sesbania
30
20
10
0 6 12 24 48 72 96
Incubation time
Figure 2. Organic matter degradability (%) of different Napier-Sesbania mixtures

100 90 80 70 60 Napie r alone (control) 50 40 30 20 10 0 6 12 24 48 72 96 Napie r + 10% Sesbania Napie r + 15% Sesbania Napie r + 20% Sesbania Napie r + 25% Sesbania
Nitrogen degradability (%)
Incubation time
Figure 3. Nitrogen degradability (%) of Napier grass of different Napier-Sesbania mixtures Table 3. In sacco rumen organic matter degradability (OMD) characteristics of different Napier-Sesbania mixtures Rumen OMD characteristics Washing loss/readily fermentable fraction (A), % The insoluble but fermentable fractions (B), % Potential degradability (A+B), % The rate of degradation of B (c), /h The lag phase (L), h Effective degradability (ED), %
abcde
Proportion of Sesbania in the mixture (%) Control 14.92 81.0

e
10 17.79
d
15 24.16
c
20 32.73 83.80
b
25 36.23 85.55
a
SE 1.21 1.30 0.87 0.003 0.51 0.66
65.98a
c
64.18a 81.97
bc
59.33b 83.50
b
51.07c
ab
59.33b
a
0.042e 4.77c 53.21

d
0.044d 5.57bc 54.11

d
0.052c 6.17b 59.23

c
0.063b 7.90a 61.9

b
0.071a 4.59c 65.90

a
278
Feed Production and Use Table 4. In sacco rumen nitrogen degradability (ND) characteristics of different Napier-Sesbania mixtures Rumen ND characteristics Washing loss/readily fermentable fraction (A), % The insoluble but fermentable fractions (B), % Potential degradability (A+B), % The rate of degradation of B (c), /h The lag phase (L), h Effective degradability (ED), % Proportion of Sesbania in the mixture (%) Control 17.52c 67.77 85.29e 0.049c 6.32 57.44c 10 21.36b 57.67 90.58d 0.059c 5.68 67.49b 15 21.37b 57.67 91.37c 0.094b 5.99 75.80a 20 32.92ab 71.00 92.36b 0.105ab 4.56 75.90a 25 33.70a 72.67 94.03a 0.110a 5.71 75.63a SE 7.63 7.75 0.23 0.01 1.61 1.08
abcde Means within rows with different superscript are significantly different, P=0.05
Table 5. Correlation coefficients (r) between chemical constituents and in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) of different Napier-Sesbania mixtures NDF ADF ADL ADF-ash CP Ca P Cellulose Hmicel IVDMD 0.966a -0.359 0.577a -0.963a -0.981
a
ADF -0.199 0.492c -0.965a -0.967

a
ADL
ADF-ash
CP
Ca
Cellulose
Hemicel
0.010 0.158 0.202 -0.619a 0.83a 0.68b

a
-0.677a -0.640a 0.153 0.87a 0.49

c
0.981a -0.563b -0.70a 0.91a 0.645

a
0.648a 0.94a 0.91a -0.545

b
0.589a 0.90a -0.80a -0.650
-0.566a -0.93a 0.67b 0.633

a
-0.74a 0.29 -0.004 -0.54c -0.83a 0.74b
-0.456
-0.326
N = 30; a = P < 0.001; b = P < 0.01; c = P < 0.05
Table 6. Relationships between IVDMD versus DMD, OMD and ND at different incubation times Parameters 6 DMD (%) Coefficient of correlation Residual SD Probability OMD (%) Coefficient of correlation Residual SD Probability ND (%) Coefficient of correlation Residual SD Probability 0.622 0.371 0.022 0.803 0.655 0.103 0.952 0.621 0.078 0.968 0.437 0.075 0.999 0.245 0.008 0.956 0.187 0.053 0.387 0.716 0.039 0.767 1.501 0.062 0.874 0.056 0.008 0.919 0.852 0.003 0.936 0.180 0.026 0.969 0.091 0.004 0.669 0.281 0.045 0.792 0.496 0.017 0.833 0.427 0.014 0.995 0.282 0.013 0.909 0.279 0.007 0.984 0.203 0.028 12 Incubation times (h) 24 48 72 96
279
Ethiopian Society of Animal Production Table 7. Equations to estimate in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD), coefficients of determination (R2) and standard errors (SE) obtained from simple and multiple linear regression analyses Equation IVDMD = 63.12 + 0.883CP IVDMD = 78.51 0.464NDF IVDMD = 81.55 + 0.809ADF IVDMD = 84.79 - 6.729ADL IVDMD = 141.63 0.190 NDF + 0.468CP IVDMD = 144.67 0.469ADF + 0.371CP IVDMD = 147.91 - 4.402ADL + 0.569CP
* P < 0.001 for all equations
R2 0.74
*
SE 0.76 0.47 0.67 2.78 0.30 1.93 0.66
0.74 0.81 0.68 0.83 0.78 0.91
Table 8. Potential of Napier-Sesbania mixtures to support livestock productions based on nutrient requirements Weight and production status of animal Cows-first 12 weeks of lactation 500 kg Levels of Sesbania mixed Napier grass Napier grass (control) 10% 15% 20% 25% 69 74 76 78 81 10.5 10.5 10.5 10.5 10.5 751.8 1109.9 1349.3 1454.5 1585.5 90.4 94.9 96.7 102.2 102.6 49.4 92.4 107.1 136.5 139.7 20.0 18.4 18.9 18.4 17.9 P P P P P DOM (%) 55 DMI (kg) 10.5 CP (g) 821 ME (MJ) 85.5 Ca (g) 28 P (g) 27 Remark Ra
a = adapted from Kearl (1982); R = requirement; P = potentials of the treatments to supply the required nutrients; DMI = dry matter intake; DOM = digestibility of dry matter; ME = metabolisable energy.
References
AAC, 1990. Feeding standard: Australian Livestock, Ruminants Sub-committee. Australian Agricultural Council, CSIRO, Australia. Adugna, T., Berg, T., Sundstol, F., 1999. The effect of variety on maize grain and crop residue yield and nutritive value of the stover. Anim. Feed Sci. Techn., 79: 165-177. Barton II, F.E., Amos, H.E., Burdick, D. and Wilson, R.L. 1976. Relationship of chemical analysis to in vitro digestibility for selected tropical and temperate grasses. J. Anim. Sci., 43: 504-512. Chemlab, 1978. Continuous flow analysis. Method Sheet No. W2-075-01. Determination of orthophosphate in water and waste water. Chemlab Instruments Ltd. Horn church, Essex, UK. Chemlab 1984. Continuous flow analysis system 40. Method Sheet No. CW2-008-17 (Ammonia (0-1 and 0-50 PPM. N). Chemlab Instruments Ltd. Horn church, Essex, UK. Dhanoa, M.S., 1988. On the analysis of dacron bag for low degradability feeds. Grass Forage Sci., 43: 441-444. Goering, H.K. and Van Soest, P.J. 1970. Forage Fibre Analysis (Apparatus, Reagents and some Applications). Agricultural Handbook No. 379. Agricultural Services. Hassan, N.L. and Osman, A.F. 1984. Relations among agronomic characters, chemical composition and in vitro digestibility in 23 varieties of Napier grass. World review of Anim. Prod., 20: 45-50. Kabuga, J.D., Darko, C.A., 1993. In sacco degradation of dry matter and nitrogen in oven dried and fresh tropical grasses and some relationships to in vitro dry matter digestibility. Anim. Feed Sci. Techn., 40: 191-205. 280 11th ESAP-Proceedings
Kearl, L.C., 1982. Nutrient requirements of ruminants in developing countries. International feedstuffs Institute, Utah State University, Logan. Kitessa, S., Flinn, P.C. and Irish, G.G., 1999. Comparison of methods used to predict the in vivo digestibility of feeds in ruminants. Australian J. Agric. Research, 50: 825-841. McDonald, I., 1981. A revised model for the estimation of protein degradability in the rumen. J. Agric. Sci., 96: 251-257. McDowell, L.R. 1985. Nutrition of grazing ruminants in warm climates. Animal Feeding and Nutrition (Monograph). Academic Press, Inc., London, UK. Meissner, H.H., Koster, H.H., Nieuwoudt, S.H. and Coetze, R.J. 1991. Effects of energy supplementation on intake and digestion of early and mid-season ryegrass and Panicum/Smuts finger hay, and on in sacco disappearance of various forage species. South African J. Anim. Sci., 21: 33-42. Meissner, H.H., Zacharias, P.J.K. and Reagain, P.J. 2000. Forage quality (feed value). In: N.M. Tainton (eds). Pasture management in South Africa. University of Natal press, Pietermaritzburg. Pp: 66-88. Minson., D.J., 1990. Forage in Ruminant Nutrition. Academic Press, London. Moore, K.J. and Hatfield, R.D. 1994. Carbohydrates and forage quality. In: George, C., Fahey, Jr., Michael Collins, David R. Mertens, and E. Moser (eds). Forage quality, evaluation and utilization. Madison: American society of Agronomy Inc., Crop Science of America Inc and Soil Science Society of America Inc. Pp: 229-280. Nocek, J.E., and Kohn, R.A., 1988. In situ particle size reduction of alfalfa and timothy hay as influenced by form and particle size. J. Dairy Sci., 71: 932-945. Norton, B.W. 1981. Differences between species in forage quality. In: Proceedings of an international symposium held at St. Luica, Queensland, Australia. 24-28 Sep. 1981. Nutritional limits to animal production from pastures. Pp. 89-110. Perkin Elmer 1982. Analytical methods for atomic absorption spectrophotometery. Perkin Elmer Cocorporation, Norwalk, Connecticut, USA. rskov, E.R., 1991. Manipulation of fibre digestion in the rumen. Proc. Nutr. Soc., 50: 187-196. rskov, E.R, McDonald, I., 1979. The estimation of protein degradability in the rumen form incubation measurements weighted according to the rate of passage. J. Agric. Sci. Camb., 92: 499503. rskov, E.R., Oiwang, I., Reid, G.W., 1988. A study on consistency of differences between cows in rumen outflow rate of fibrous particles and other substrates and consequences for digestibility and intake of roughages. Anim. Prod.. 47: 45-51. Osuji, P.O., Nsahlai, I.V., Khalili, H., 1993. Feed Evaluation. ILCA Manual 5. International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 40 pp. SAS, 1998. SAS/STAT Guide to Personal Computers, Version 7. Statistical Analysis System Institute Inc., NC. USA. Tessema, Z., Halima, H., 1998. Forage and pasture research achievements in north-western Ethiopia. In: Beyene Seboka, Aberra Deressa (Eds.), Agricultural Research and Technology Transfer, Attempts and Achievements in Northern Ethiopia. Proceedings of the Fourth Technology Generation, Transfer and Gap Analysis Workshop, 18-21 March 1997, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia.
281
Tessema, Z., Baars, R., Alemu, Y., Dawit, N., 2002a. In sacco dry matter and nitrogen degradability and their relationship with in vitro dry matter digestibility of Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum (L.) Schumach.) as influenced by plant height at cutting. Australian J. Agric. Research, 53: 7-12. Tessema, Z., Baars, R.M.T., Alemu, Y. 2002b. Effect of plant height at cutting, source and level of fertiliser on yield and nutritional quality of Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum (L.) Schumach.). African J. Range and Forage Sci., 19, 123-128. Topps, J.H., 1996. Assessment of forage legumes as protein-rich supplement in ruminant production systems in Zimbabwe. Ndikumana, J. and de Leeuw P. 1996. Sustainable feed production and utilisation for smallholder livestock enterprises in Sub-Saharan Africa. Proceedings of the second African Feed Resources Network (AFRNET). Harare, Zimbabwe, 6-10 December 1996. AFRNET (African Feed Resources Network), Nairobi, Kenya. 201 pp. Van Soest, P.J., 1982. Nutritional Ecology of Ruminants. O & B Books, Inc., Corvallis, USA. Van Soest, P.J., 1988. Effect of environment and quality of fibre on the nutritive value of crop residues. In: Reed, J.D., Capper, B.S., Neate, P.J.H. (Eds.), Plant Breeding and the Nutritive Value of Crop Residues. Proceedings of the Workshop held at ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 7-10 December 1987, ILCA, Addis Ababa, pp. 71-96. Van Soest, P.J., Robertson, J.B., 1980. Systems of analysis for evaluating fibrous feeds. In: Pidgen, W.J., Balch, C.C., Graham, M. (Eds.), Standardization of analytical methodology for feeds. Proceedings of a Workshop at International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Canada, 12-14 March 1979, IDRC, Ottawa, pp. 49-60. Van Soest, P.J., Robertson, J.B., 1985. Analysis of Forages and Fibrous Foods. A Laboratory Manual for Animal Science 613, Cornell University, USA. Vieira, R.A.M., Pereira, J.C., Malafaia, P.A.M., Queriroz, A.C., 1997. The influence of elephant-grass (Pennisetum purpureum Schum., Minereiro variety) growth on the nutrient kinetics in the rumen. Anim. Feed Sci. Tech., 67: 151-161. Weiss, P.W., 1994. Estimation of digestibility of forages by laboratory methods. In: Fahey, G.C., Collins, M., Mertens, D.R., Moser, E., (Eds.), Forage Quality, Evaluation and Utilization. Madison, American Society of Agronomy Inc., Crop Science of America Inc. and Soil Science Society of America Inc., pp. 644-682.
282
Effect of Height and Stage of Harvest on Forage Yield and Quality of Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) at Adami Tulu
Ashenafi Mengistu, Belete Shenkute and Hailu Dadi Adami Tulu Research Center, P.O. Box 35, Ziway, Ethiopia
Abstract
A 4x3 factorial experiment in RCBD with three replications was conducted at Adami Tulu for two successive years involving four stages and three heights of cutting with the objective of studying effect of stage and height at cutting on forage yield and quality of alfalfa. The four stages of cutting considered were mid bud, 10% bloom, 50% bloom and appearance of new basal shoots, and the three cutting heights were 2", 4" and 6" above soil surface. There were no significant (p>0.05) interactions between stage of cutting and height of cutting in affecting DM yield and quality. Stage of cutting as well as height of cutting significantly (p<0.05) affected dry matter yield and quality (leaf/stem ratio) of alfalfa. Cutting alfalfa at 10% bloom and at 4" height was found optimum.
Introduction
The ultimate objective of any process of forage production is to harvest high dry matter of good forage quality. However, because dry matter yield and quality are negatively correlated in most forage species, devising an appropriate cutting system is essential in order to optimize the yield and quality of a given forage harvest. The development of appropriate system of harvest for perennial forage species depends on ecological characteristics of the growing area. Environmental factors, along with various methods of harvesting, have a great influence on the nutritive value of a forage (Miller, 1984). Stage of development and height at cutting are the most important considerations in developing a cutting system for a given area. Description of stage of growth in terms of plant development is a common means of describing forage quality. Leaves of alfalfa, which have little structural function, don't decline in quality due to aging. Therefore, the proportion of the leaf to stem (structural organ) properly describes the quality of a forage harvest from alfalfa (Van Soest, 1982). This study examined effects of stage and height of cutting on forage yield and quality (in terms of leaf/stem ratio) of alfalfa at Adami Tulu.

A 4x3 factorial alfalfa experiment in RCBD with three replications was conducted at Adami Tulu for two successive years involving four stages and three heights of cutting. The four stages of cutting considered were mid bud (MB), 10% bloom (10B), 50% bloom (50B) and appearance of new basal shoots (ANBS), and the three cutting heights were 2", 4" and 6" above soil surface. The study area receives an average (16 years) rainfall of 760mm per annum. The mean minimum and maximum temperatures are 12.70C and 27.20C respectively. The dominant soil type is sandy loam (Abule etal., 1998). Alfalfa seeds were planted in rows at a rate of 10kg/ha on 2mx3m plots with 20cm and 1m spacing between rows and between plots respectively. Fertilizer was applied at a rate of 100kg DAP/ha. Planting was done in early July and late June in Year I and Year II respectively. Mean daily temperature and monthly rainfall recorded during the growing season are indicated in Table 1.
Results and Discussion Cutting Stage

There were no significant (p>0.05) interactions between stage of cutting and height of cutting in affecting (DM) yield and quality. There was no significant (p>0.05) effect of cutting stage on dry matter yield of alfalfa in Year I (Table 2). But there was a linear increase in DM yield as the plant went aging. Lloveras et al., (1998) reported an 18% yield increment when cut at full bloom stage compared with cutting at the late bud stage. Similar increment (~16%) was apparent in the current study when alfalfa was cut at the ANBS stage compared with cutting at the MB stage. Unlike the result in year I, cutting stage significantly (p<0.05) affected DM yield in Year II. The increment in DM yield when cut at the ANBS stage as compared to that cut at the MB stage in Year II was remarkably larger than that obtained in Year I. This was associated with the rainfall and temperature differences between the two years. High rainfall accompanied by high temperature increases the metabolic and maturation processes reflected by greater accumulation of dry matter in the plant (Van Soest, 1982; Miller, 1984). Leaf/stem ratio was significantly (p<0.05) influenced by cutting stage during both years. However, the influence was more magnified in Year II. The decrease in the leaf to stem proportion when alfalfa was cut at the MB stage compared with that cut at the 10B was more pronounced in Year II. This was again attributed to the faster rate of DM accumulation in the structural organ of alfalfa as a result of higher rainfall higher temperature season of growth.
Table 1 Mean daily temperature and monthly rainfall during the growing seasons. Rainfall (mm) Year I June July August September Mean 87.2 184.9 149.3 44.5 116.48 Year II 209.2 111.1 139.5 118.1 144.48 Temperature (0C) Year I 20.05 19.75 19.75 19.75 19.82 Year II 20.05 22.00 19.60 19.45 20.28
Table 2 Effect of growth stage at cutting on forage yield and quality of alfalfa (Medicago sativa) at Adami Tulu Cutting stage MB 10B 50B ANBS SE Dry Matter yield (t/ha) Year I 3.166 3.280 3.734 3.669 0.4383 Year II 2.133B 6.576A 7.217A 7.992A 0.9159 Leaf/stem Ratio Year I 4.277A 2.931AB 2.824B 2.604B 0.4684 Year II 7.379A 2.549B 1.888B 1.947B 0.2330
AB = Means in a column followed by different letters differ (p<0.05). MB = Mid Bud stage, 10B=10% bloom stage, 50B=50% Bloom stage, ANBS =Appearance of New Basal Shoots stage.
Cutting height Cutting height significantly (p<0.05) affected DM yield as well as leaf/stem ratio during both years (Table 3). Harvesting at 2" height gave highest DM yield but least leaf/stem ratio. Reduction in DM yield as cutting height increased from 2" to 4" was significant (p<0.05) in Year I only whereas the reduction in leaf/stem ratio was significant in Year II only. As the cutting height went from 4" to 6" reductions in DM yield were non-significant (p>0.05) during both years while the improvement in leaf/stem ratio was significant (p<0.05) in Year II only. However, the reduction in
DM yield was not as big as what was reported by Belesky and Fedders (1997). Their report indicated a 38% reduction in DM yield when alfalfa was cut at 10cm height as compared with shorter cutting heights. The reductions in the current study were 32% and 29% in Year I and Year II respectively.
Table 3 Effect of height of cutting on forage yield and quality of alfalfa (Medicago sativa) at Adami Tulu Cutting height 2" 4" 6" SE Dry Matter yield (t/ha) Year I 4.497A 3.022B 2.868B 0.3796 Year II 7.738A 5.495AB 4.705B 0.7932 Leaf/stem Ratio Year I 2.426B 3.151AB 3.901A 0.4056 Year II 2.252C 3.786B 4.509A 0.2018
ABC = Means in a column followed by different letters differ (p<0.05).
Conclusion
In wet areas, harvesting alfalfa at 10% bloom stage and at 6" height results in more quality alfalfa forage without affecting DM yield leaving enough stubble height for efficient regrowth as compared to shorter cutting heights. But in moisture stressed areas like Adami Tulu, alfalfa should be harvested at 10% bloom and at a height of 4". If cutting height of alfalfa in moisture stressed areas goes higher than 4", plant loss would be accelerated accompanied by reduction in yield from regrowth.
References
Abule, E., Geremew E. and Aliye Hussien. 1998. Adami Tulu Agricultural Research Center, Bulletin No 1, Oromiya Agricultural Development Bureau, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Belesky, D. P. and Fedders, J. M. 1997. Residue height influences stand dynamics of alfalfa grown on a shallow soil. Agronomy Journal, 89(6): 975-980. Lloveras, J., Ferran, J., Alvarez, A. and Torres, L. 1998. Harvest management effects on alfalfa (Medicago sativa) production and quality in Mediterranean areas. Grass and Forage Science, 53:88-92. Miller, D. A. 1984. Forage Crops. McGraw-Hill Inc. New York. Van Soest, P.J. 1982. Nutritional Ecology of the Ruminant. Comstock Publishing Associates, Ithaca and London.
285
Fodder and wood production of Calliandra calothyrsus planted in hedgerows as influenced by intra-row spacing and cutting height
Abebe Yadessa, Diriba Bekere, Teshome Takele and Nega Emiru Bako Agricultural Research Center, Agroforestry Research Division P.O. Box 3, Bako, Oromia, Ethiopia E-mail: abebeyadessa@hotmail.com
Abstract
Calliandra calothyrsus Meissn. is a promising tropical legume browse species, but factors which control production under intensive management have not been well defined. Thus, a field experiment on this species grown as hedgerows was carried out at Bako Agricultural Research Center, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia. The objective of the study was to assess the effect of intra-row spacing and cutting height on the fodder and wood yield of C. calothyrsus in alley cropping system. Three intra-row spacings (25, 50, and 75 cm) and four cutting heights (25, 50, 75 and 100 cm) were considered, and they were arranged in 3*4 factorial experiment in RCBD with three replications. Results showed that cutting height significantly affected fodder (p=0.000) and wood (p=0.009) yields. But the interaction between intra-row spacing and cutting height was only significant (p=0.006) for the fodder fraction, not for wood. For the 25 cm intra-row spacing, the 75 cm cutting height was the best combination for fodder production; whereas for both the 50 and 75 cm intra-row spacings, the 100cm cutting height was the best followed by the 75 cm cutting height. Generally, for closely spaced plants relatively shorter cutting heights are better, but for widely spaced ones taller cutting heights are recommended. Though it was not significant for wood, the fodder yield was significantly higher for the closely spaced hedgerows (25cm) than for the 50 or 75 cm, which could be due to higher number of stems per hedgerow for the closely spaced ones. The interaction between cutting height and age of Calliandra hedge was significant for fodder (p=0.025), wood (p=0.000) and fodder: wood ratio (p=0.004). This means during the early stage of hedge establishment, the proportion of fodder in relation to wood was higher when it was cut at higher cutting heights, but at the later age the lower cutting heights gave higher percent fodder yield as compared to higher cutting heights. The initial increase in fodder fraction with increase in cutting height could be attributed to greater surface area from which regrowth can occur.
Keywords: Cutting height, Calliandra, fodder, intra-row spacing, and wood.
Introduction
Calliandra calothyrsus Meissn. is a small often multi-stemmed tree or shrub species. Under optimum conditions it can attain a height of 12 m and a trunk diameter of 30 cm, but its average height is 5-6 m and diameter 20 cm (ICRAF, 1998). It is a leguminous tree species that biologically fixes free atmospheric nitrogen and hence provides nitrogenous fertilizer for the companion food crop such as maize. It is a promising agroforestry species because of its multiple advantages (biological fixation of atmospheric nitrogen, good coppicing ability, rapid growth, dense foliage and deep root system), and hence particularly suitable for erosion control and for rejuvenating degraded soils (Tomaneng, 1990). The species has exhibted an impressive growth performance both in the nursery (Abebe et al, 2002) and in the field (Abebe et al, 2000) conditions of Bako area. Kahsay et al (2001) also reported that western Ethiopia is generally suitable for growing C. calothyrsus, especially in areas with low to mid-altitudes and high rainfall. Although Calliandra is adaptable to the area and is widely accepted as a potentially productive source of good quality fodder, research on the agronomic management of the species is still quite limited. In order to more fully exploit its
potential, a better understanding is needed of the interactions between management and plant performance. This calls for the need to investigate the different intra-row spacings and the different pruning heights for this tree species at this area to determine the optimum intra-row spacing and the optimum pruning height that could improve the productivity of the tree species and the food crop. The objective of this study was therefore to assess the effect of intra-row spacing and cutting height on fodder and wood yield of C. calothyrsus under Bako site conditions.

Study area The Calliandra hedgerows were established at the Agroforestry Research site of Bako Agricultural Research Center, Oromia Regional State, located at about 9o07' N latitude and 37o05' E longitude. The area has sub-humid tropical climate with unimodal rainfall pattern experiencing an average annual rainfall of 1280 mm and an average annual temperature of 20oC, with the maximum and minimum values of 27oC and 13oC, respectively (Abebe, 1998). The topography of the area ranges from gently undulating to dissected hills, and the geology is characterized by Tertiary and Quaternary age rhyolite and basalt volcanics (MoWR, 1996). Soils are dominantly reddish brown Nitosols and generally clay dominated and characterized by low available phosphorus, with a pH of 5-6 in surface soils (Legesse et al, 1987; Abebe, 1998). Experimental design and data analysis The treatments were intra-row spacing (spacing between plants) and cutting height. The intrarow spacing had three levels (25, 50 and 75 cm) and pruning height had four levels (25, 50, 75 and 100 cm), and they were arranged in 3*4 factorial set of treatments in randomized complete block design (RCBD) with 3 replications. The plot size was 12m*7m (gross) and 12m*6m (net); that is, two hedgerows per plot. The hedge width is 6 m, and the varying spacing between plants within a 6 m long hedge leads to varying number of trees per plot (56, 30 and 16 trees for the 25, 50 and 75 cm intra-row spacings, respectively). The hedgerows were cut over a period of 3.5 to 9 months and these data were converted to a 12-months (year) basis as indicated in Table 1 below.
Table 6. Details of the practices during the experimental period. Year 1997 1998 1999 Cutting Cut 1 Cut 2 Cut 3 Cut 4 Cut 5 2000 Cut 6 Date of cutting March 20, 1998 July 16, 1998 January 27, 1999 June 4, 1999 September 22, 1999 June 29, 2000 No. days between consecutive harvests No harvest 116 days after first cutting 191 days after second cutting 127 days after third cutting 108 days after fourth cutting 277 days after fifth cutting December 13, 2000 November 30, 1999 Date of maize harvesting December 2, 1997 November 27, 1998
The biomass was separated into fodder and stem fractions at each harvest. The fodder fraction consisted of the leaves and twigs. In the 1997 cropping season, the hedgerow was not harvested, as it did not attain the required size for cutting. But in 1998 and 1999, cutting was practiced twice and thrice, respectively. These were pooled together on a yearly basis, and these yearbased data were used for calculations. The collected data were subjected to the general linear model analysis of variance using SPSS computer software programs. All comparisons of treatment means were made at P<0.05 level of significance using Duncan's Multiple Range Test (DMRT).
288

Table 7. Observed significance level of F for some selected traits Source of variation Intra-row spacing (S) Cutting height (H) Year (Y) S*H S*Y H*Y S*C*Y Fodder 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.006 0.000 0.025 NS Wood NS 0.009 0.000 NS NS 0.000 NS Total DM 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.058 0.012 0.000 NS F/W ratio NS NS 0.025 NS NS 0.004 NS F/Total DM NS NS NS NS NS 0.012 NS
NS =Denotes not significant (p values >5%) DM= Dry matter yield
Year refers to the age of the hedgerow F = Fodder W= Wood
Table 8. Average dry matter yields of fodder and wood of C. calothyrsus as influenced by intra-row spacing and cutting height. Source of variation Intra-row spacing 25 cm 50 cm 75 cm Cutting height 25 cm 50 cm 75 cm 100 cm 1.401 1.917 2.181 2.172 0.978 b 1.835 ab 2.006 a 1.711 ab 2.30 b 3.750 ab 4.23 a 3.992 ab 2.019 ab 1.665 b 2.066 ab 2.345 a 63.72 58.70 61.08 63.83 2.294 a 1.524
b
Fodder (t/ha)
Wood (t/ha) 1.891 1.453 1.548
Total DM (t/ha) 4.275 a 3.072

b
F/W ratio 1.983 2.052 2.020
F/Total DM (%) 60.27 62.97 62.16
1.824 b
3.302 b
Means in the same column followed by different letters are significantly different at 5% level of significance using Duncan's Multiple Range Test.
Fodder yield Results showed that fodder yield was significantly affected by both cutting height and intra-row spacing. The interaction between intra-row spacing and cutting height was also significant for foliar biomass production. This means that for the 25 cm intra-row spacing, the 75 cm cutting height was the best alternative that led to highest foliar biomass production; whereas for both the 50 and 75 cm intra-row spacings, the 100cm cutting height was the best yield for fodder production followed by the 75 cm cutting height (Figure 1). Generally, for closely spaced plants relatively shorter cutting heights are better, but for widely spaced ones taller cutting heights are recommended. For the closely spaced plants, the 75cm was much better than the 100cm, which may be due to more competition for growth resources (nutrients and water) reach to the growing points as required. Therefore, intra-row spacing and cutting height are equally important management factors for better fodder production in alley cropping system under Bako site conditions. There was differential response of the different cutting heights across years in fodder yield. In 1998, there was no considerable difference in fodder yield due to the difference in hedgerow cutting height. But in 1999, fodder productivity of Calliandra hedge was apparently lowered when cut at lower height and vice versa. In the year 2000, the difference in fodder yield between lower and higher cutting heights was only numerical (Figure 2). The different intra-row spacings also responded differently at different time (Table 2 and Figure 3). As the hedge gets older, the
289
closely planted hedgerows gave higher fodder yield than those widely spaced ones, which might be due to more number of stems per hedgerow.
3.0
2.5
Mean forage yield, t/ha
2.0
1.5
Cutting height
25 cm
1.0
50 cm 75 cm
.5 25 cm 50 cm 75 cm
100 cm
Intra-row spacing
Figure 2. Fodder yield of Calliandra calothyrsus as influenced by intra-row spacing and cutting height
8.0 7.5 7.0 6.5 6.0 5.5
Fodder yield, t/ha
5.0 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 .5 0.0 1998 1999 2000 50 cm 75 cm 100 cm
Cutting height
25 cm
Figure 3. Fodder yield of Calliandra hedge as influenced by cutting height and age of the hedge
290
8.0 7.5 7.0 6.5 6.0 5.5
Fodder yield, t/ha
5.0 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 .5 0.0 1998 1999 2000 25 cm 50 cm 75 cm
Intra-row spacing
Figure 4. Fodder yield of Calliandra hedge as influenced by intra-row spacing and age of the hedge.
Wood yield Wood productivity of Calliandra hedge was significantly influenced by its cutting height. But unlike the fodder yield, it was not considerably affected by variation in intra-spacings. The interaction between intra-row spacing and cutting height was also not significant. The probable reason for the non-significant effect of intra-row spacing on woody biomass could be due to the multi-stemmed nature of C. calothyrsus (ICRAF, 1998) which might lead to higher number of stems per tree for widely spaced hedgerows. Therefore, intra-row spacing of C. calothyrsus may be less important hedge management factor than the cutting height if wood is more important than fodder in the system, and vice versa. Wood production was also significantly affected by cutting height (Figure 4), and the interaction between hedge cutting height and its age (Figure 5). Although, there was some difference across years, the 75 cm cutting height was better than the others (25, 50 or 100 cm) for wood production.
291
2.5
2.0
Wood yield, t/ha
1.5
1.0
.5
0.0 25 cm 50 cm 75 cm 100 cm
Cutting height
Figure 5. Wood production of Calliandra hedge as influenced by cutting height
7.0 6.5 6.0 5.5 5.0
Wood yield, t/ha
4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 75 cm .5 0.0 1998 1999 2000 100 cm
Cutting height
25 cm 50 cm
Figure 6. Wood productivity of Calliandra hedge as influenced by cutting height and age of the hedge.
Fodder versus wood The relative yields of fodder and wood apparently varied across the different harvests. At the fourth cutting, the fodder yield was almost three times that of wood. But during the third cutting the fodder fraction was less than that of wood (Figure 6). The fodder yield was higher when the
interval between consecutive cuttings was shorter, and vice versa (Tables 1and 2; Figure 6). This means that when the interval between the consecutive cuttings is shorter, the time may not suffice for the formation of considerable woody materials and the proportion of fodder may be higher as compared to that of wood, and vice versa.
3.5
3.0
2.5
Fodder-to-wood ratio
2.0
1.5
1.0
.5
0.0 Cut 1 Cut 2 Cut 3 Cut 4 Cut 5 Cut 6
Figure 7. The proportion of fodder to wood as influenced by cutting interval.
As clearly indicated in Figure 8, as the age of the hedgerow increased the wood: fodder ratio increased, but the fodder: wood ratio significantly decreased. The interaction between cutting height and year was significant (Table 2); that, in 1998, fodder: wood ratio was lower when the hedge was cut at lower heights (25cm or 50 cm) than at higher heights (75 cm or 100cm). But there was no considerable difference in fodder: wood ratio between the different heights in 1999. In the year 2000, fodder: wood ratio was significantly higher when it was cut at 25 cm than when cut at other heights (Figure 7). This may be related to the age of the hedge and length of cutting intervals. In 1998, increasing the cutting height from 25 cm to 100 cm increased the percent fodder fraction from 54% to 72 %; in 1999 it showed no apparent variation; but in the year 2000 the shortest cutting height (25 cm) gave the highest percent of fodder yield (73%). The initial increase in percent fodder fraction with increase in cutting height (72%, as compared to 53% in other cases) could be attributed to greater surface area from which regrowth can occur. But as the hedge ages and the cutting interval becomes longer, the lower height may have better chance of getting more water and nutrients to the growing points due to the reduced distance, especially during the dry season. Findings of Gueverra et al (1978) also agrees with the results of this findings.
293
100 90 80
Percent of fodder fraction (%)
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1998 1999 2000
Cutting height
25 cm 50 cm 75 cm 100 cm
Figure 8. Percent of fodder fraction as influenced by cutting height and cropping season
2.4 2.2 2.0
1.00 .95 .90
1.8
Fodder-to-wood ratio
1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 .8 .6 .4 .2 0.0 1998 1999 2000
wood-to-fodder ratio
.85 .80 .75 .70 .65 .60 .55 .50 1998 1999 2000
Figure 9. The relative proportions of wood and fodder as influenced by cropping season
Concluding Remarks
The present finding suggests that planting Calliandra seedlings at 25 cm intra-row spacing and cutting at the 75 cm cutting height was the best for fodder production; whereas for both the 50 and 75 cm intra-row spacings, the 100cm cutting height was the best. But intra-row spacing not as important as cutting height for wood production. Generally, for closely spaced hedges relatively shorter cutting heights are better, but for widely spaced ones taller cutting heights are recommended to maximize fodder yield, the interaction between intra-row spacing and cutting height not apparent for wood yield. Cutting height is more important for wood production than
intra-row spacing, but both are equally important for fodder production. Thus, if wood (fuel wood) is more important than fodder more focus should be given to cutting height than for intrarow spacing.
References
Abebe Yadessa, Diriba Bekere and Alemayehu Adugna. 2002. Influence of pot size and potting mixture on growth performance of Calliandra calothyrsus seedlings at Bako tree nursery, pp. 107-113. In: Forestry and Environment: Proc. of the Fourth Annual Conference of Forestry Society of Ethiopia, 14-15 January 2002, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Forestry Society of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Abebe Yadessa, Diriba Bekere and Taye Bekele. 2000. Growth Performance of Different Multipurpose Tree and Shrub Species at Bako, Western Oromia. In: Nutrient Management for Improving Soil /Crop Productivity in Ethiopian Agriculture. Proceedings of the Fifth Biennial Conference of Ethiopian Society of Soil Science (ESSS), March 30-31, 2000, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Abebe Yadessa. 1998. Evaluation of the contribution of scattered Cordia africana Lam. trees to soil properties of cropland and rangeland ecosystems in western Oromia, Ethiopia. M.Sc. Thesis from Swedish University of Agricultural sciences, Sweden. CTA (Technical Center for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation). 1994. Spore: Bi-monthly bulletin of the CTA, No. 53. Wageningen, the Netherlands. ICRAF (International Center for Research in Agroforestry). 1998. Agroforestree Database: A tree species reference and selection guide. Version 1.00. ICRAF, Nairobi, Kenya. Kahsay Berhe, Giulia Conchedda and Mohammed A. Jabbar. 2001. Areas suitable for five leguminous trees and shrubs in Ethiopia: a digital data-based analysis, Ethiopian Journal of Natural Resources, 3(1): 7797. Legesse Dadi, Gemechu Gedeno, Tesfaye Kumsa and Getahun Degu. 1987. Bako mixed farming zone, Wellega and Shewa regions. Diagnostic survey report No. 1. Institute of Agricultural Research, Department of Agricultural Economics and Farming Systems Research, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Macqueen, D.J. 1991. Exploration and collection of Calliandra calothyrsus as a foundation for future genetic improvement. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports 9: 96-98. MoWR (Ministry of Water Resources). 1996. Omo-Gibe River Basin Integrated Development Master Plan Study. Final Report, Vol. VII Land Resource Surveys. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Ministry of Water Resources, Richard Woodroofe & Associates with marcott, UK. Tomaneng, A.A. 1990. Calliandra calothyrsus: observations on coppicing characteristics. Agroforestry Today 2(2): 15.
295
Effect of Methods and Dates of Clearing Regrowths of Rhodes (Chloris gayana) and Colored Guinea Grasses (Panicum coloratum) on Seed Productivity
Getnet Assefa, Abreham Gebeyehu, Fekede Feyissa and Tadesse Tekletsadik Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO), Holetta Research Center, Forage and Pasture Crops Research Program, P.O.Box 2003, Addis Ababa
Abstract
Effect of methods and dates of clearing regrowths of perennial grasses, Rhodes (Chloris gayana) and Colored Guinea (Panicum coloratum) grasses on seed yield and quality were evaluated at Holetta in the highlands for four years. The methods of clearing were cutting and burning, while six clearing dates were made starting from mid April at 10 days interval. In the first year both the grass species did not produced seed, despite that, dry matter herbage yield of 12.0 and 11.6 t ha-1 of Rhodes and Colored Guinea grasses were harvested respectively. The respective average seed yield over the three years after establishment was 216 and 131 kg ha-1 annually. Seed yield productivity of both the grasses was continuously declined, as the grasses got older. Generally both the grasses produced higher seed yields when stubbles cleared by burning compared to cutting. Clearing dates were found best when regrowths harvested during late April to mid June. However, the amount and distribution of rainfall during the short rains had an impact on the overall seed productivity, which needs management of clearing methods and dates. Hence weather conditions should be taken into account while fixing the methods and dates of clearing. When there are normal short rains available clearing should be done late, early to late June, while if there is no short rains or very little, the effect of harvesting dates will usually be low.
Introduction
Livestock productivity in most production systems is mainly constrained by feed inadequacy in terms of quantity and quality. Improving animal nutrition using sown forage species is an important step in supporting and improving livestock productivity especially in intensive and modern production systems. Sowing a new pasture or renovating an existing natural pasture requires a reliable source of seed or vegetative material of forage species recommended and adapted for a particular area (EARO, 2001). Most pasture crops are cultivated for herbage production and not for seed, and hence forage seeds have high demand and price at market. Despite its higher demand in different parts of the world forage seeds are not widely produced. Many factors contribute for this situation; among others the most prominent reasons are its low productivity per unit area and the very intensive management requirement from planting until cleaning and packing. Relative to other forage crops perennial grass seed production is more difficult. Seeds of these grasses are very small in size and usually covered with caryopsis, which is often difficult to remove. Inflorescence maturity is also not uniform (Boonman, 1993). In the tropics, seed production of perennial grasses meets with considerable difficulties. Seed is often poorly formed and a large proportion of spikelets can be empty; ripening seeds shed easily and early, often before maturation; birds eat welldeveloped seeds; the spikelets can be infested with smut or bunt. Moreover, fertile shoots appear gradually, and while some shoots have ripe seed the others only begin to appear and flower. All these factors can reduce high yields of their potential (Bogdan, 1977). Rhodes, Colored Guinea and Phalaris grasses are well adapted to the highlands of Ethiopia and have high dry matter (DM) productivity. Information on seed production technology and productivity is, however, very limited in the highlands. Preliminary
results indicated that they gave a respective seed yield of 149, 85 and 75 kg/ha in the highlands at Holetta (Getnet and Tadesse, 1996). Experiences in the highlands and else where showed that defoliating or grazing conditions of the pasture determines the productivity of the pasture. This also affects to acquire re-growth grass tillers with similar age, plant population suitable for higher productivity and most importantly ready to flower under weather conditions most appropriate for the development of a good seed crop (Hazra and Sinha, 1996). This indicates that production of higher and good quality pasture and forage crops seed require a clearly established basic seed production management practice. As perennial crops grow continuously through out the year, they usually are harvested more than once per year. Hence the grasses should be harvested and managed in such a way that high and quality seed will be harvested at appropriate season of the year. The objective of this study therefore was to investigate the best method and date of defoliation (regrowths management), for higher seed yield of acceptable quality of Rhodes and Colored Guinea grasses at Holetta in the highlands of Ethiopia.

The experiment was conducted at Holetta Research Center on a well-drained Nitosol. The average annual rainfall for the area during the experimental period was 1011 mm and the average minimum and maximum air temperature were 5.5 and 22.6 oC, respectively. About 30% of the total annual rainfall is usually falls during the short rains between February and May. The main rainy season begins in mid June and extends to late September. Even though the long term average total amount of rainfall during the short rains is high, because of its unreliability and very irregular distribution around Holetta, it is not suitable for cultivation of common annual crops like barley. However, it is suitable for rejuvenation of natural and cultivated perennial pastures. Two well adapted and recommended forage grass species namely, Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana) and Colored Guinea grass (Panicum coloratum) were tested in this experiment. The trial was laid out separately for each grass species in a split plot design in three replications. The main plots were management practices, in which the forages were cleared by burning and cutting and the sub plots were six clearing dates at an interval of 10 days starting from 15th April until late June. The experiment was sown twice in 1997 and 1998 and data were collected for the following four years until 2002. The grasses were sown at the rate of 15 kg ha-1 on a moldboard ploughed and harrowed seedbed. Fertilizer at the rate of 18/46 N/P2O5 kg ha-1 was applied at planting and 34 kg N kg ha-1 annually in the following years. Hand weeding was made once during the establishment year and all vegetative regrowths were cleared according to the treatments in the following years. Heads (matured panicles) of grasses were harvested at maturity for seed in October. After harvesting the heads the left over forage (stubble) were also estimated. The panicles were allowed for sun dried, threshed and cleaned manually for seed yield estimation. Forage samples were dried using a forced draft oven to constant weight for DM determination. The plots then maintained and all the regrowths during the dry season and short rains were managed according to the treatments. Quality of seed was assessed using germination tests in agar media under room temperature conditions.
298
Measured data of the treatments were compared using analysis of variance procedure of SAS statistical package (SAS, 2001). Combined and separate analyses were made for data measured over the planting years and grass species.

Clearing dates Rhodes grass:- Average seed yield of Rhodes grass obtained in this experiment was similar to the average seed yield reported by Getnet and Tadesse (1996). The effects of clearing dates were significantly different when it was cleared by burning but not when it was cleared by cutting (Table 1). Clearing Rhodes during late April, mid May, and late June gave higher seed yields. This experiment showed that clearing date had effect on the seed productivity of Rhodes grass. However, the amount and distribution of rainfall during the clearing dates (short rains) might contribute a lot to the overall productivity than the clearing date effect per se. The germination percentage had also showed similar trend with the seed yield and have a positive relationship (Table 1), where high percent germination correspond to those clearing date treatments producing higher average seed yield. Stubble DM forage yield (forage after seed harvest) also tends to follow similar trend. However, the quality is expected to be low as compared to hay made at the recommended optimum forage harvesting stage, around 50% flowering. The average seed germination percentage was about 41%, which is lower than other countries acceptable standards such as Queens Land (60%), (FAO and ILRI, 1999). The procedures used in the germination test might contribute to some extent to its lower germination percentage. Colored Guinea grass:- The average seed yield of Colored Guinea grass obtained was lower than Rhodes grass, which was also reported by Getnet and Tadesse (1996). Unlike Rhodes grass the average seed yield produced in the different treatments of clearing date showed a clear trend of increment as the clearing date delayed under both the clearing methods. However, the variation was not statistically significant (Table 2). Similarly seed germination percentage was lower for Colored Guinea compared to Rhodes grass. The germination percentage for the clearing date treatments did not show clear trend as that of the seed yield. The average germination percentage was 26% that is lower compared to Rhodes grass. Clearing methods The two clearing methods, burning and cutting showed a significant variation on average seed yield in both Rhodes and Colored Guinea grasses. The average seed yield obtained by burning was higher by 11.5% and 24.1% compared to cutting for Rhodes and Colored Guinea grasses, respectively (Table 3). However, the effect of clearing method on seed quality and stubble DM yield was not statistically significant. In this experiment it was observed that in years when the short rain are very high and grass growth is vigorous burning to clear the forage was difficult. It suggests that clearing by burning is important when short rains are minimal. Therefore, if there is juvenile regrowths of grasses are available during the short rains, cutting is preferred to burning, and the clearing date should also be late, mid to late June. The methods and related situations during clearing perennial grasses highly affected the subsequent regrowth. Boonman (1993) compared a complete removal of crop residue by close clipping and sweeping with less complete mechanical removal and with burned treatments. The seed yields in the close clipped and the burning treatments were significantly greater supporting the hypothesis that the elimination of older, non-reproductive tillers and removal of residue allowing for new tiller development at the soil surface. This is coupled with a more favorable
microenvironment resulting from exposure of the soil surface, which enhances tillering and floral induction. This experiment clearly indicated that both Rhodes and Colored Guinea grasses require to clear the stubble or the regrowth forage, before the beginning of the main rains to produce higher and good quality seed. Early clearing of the forage in April allow the grasses to set seed early (in August September) which were difficult to harvest and thresh, while late clearing made the grasses to head late which will be threatened by frost and moisture stress. Hence clearing dates should be keenly adjusted to this situation so that the grasses grows very well and set mature seeds at appropriate time for harvest and threshing. In seasons when short rains are good in amount and distribution, delayed clearing around mid to late June is advantageous. When early on set and uniform distribution of short rains allow good herbage regrowth, it is clearing by cutting that is more preferred and applicable to burning. On the other hand good quality forage could also be obtained as feed for livestock. Plant age at seed harvest This experiment clearly indicated that in both planting years seed could not be produced during the first year. However, higher amount of good quality forage could be produced. Seed yield of both the grasses was harvested starting from the second year. Highest average seed yield was obtained in the first harvest and contentiously decreased in the second and third harvests for both the grasses (Tables 4 and 5). Experience in the highlands around Holetta, Sinnina, Adet and Kulumsa, showed that Rhodes and Colored Guinea grasses usually do not produce seed in the first year, except in some years where establishment and weather conditions are favorable for growth. In this cool highlands establishment is poor, seedling growth is stunted due to low soil and air temperatures, and wet conditions. The fast growth is usually occurred towards the beginning of the dry season. During this time moisture stress and some times frost will occur and hence flowers will abort or not developed to mature seeds. However, in warmer areas such as Bako and Awassa (Ethiopia) and Kitale (Kenya) this grasses produce high amount of seed both in the first and second years (Boonman, 1993; Alemu, 1998; MOA, unpublished) Effect of establishment season In this experiment it is clearly observed that the average seed yield of Rhodes grass was very good on 1997 established plots, while for Colored Guinea grass average seed yield was higher on the 1998 established plots under both clearing methods (Table 6). This result indicates that the two species did not show similar response to weather conditions. Generally experiences around Holetta showed that, in years with high rainfall, shorter sunshine hours and low temperature, the establishment of tropical grasses like Rhodes and Colored Guinea is highly retarded. Regardless of other factors seasonal variation affect condition of establishment. Observations in the highlands also indicated that the over all productivity of perennial grasses like Rhodes and Colored Guinea highly determined by the conditions of establishment. Generally well-established pasture continues to perform good in the following production seasons (years) and poorly established pasture continues to perform poor.
Conclusions
From this experiment it is concluded that Rhodes and Colored Guinea grasses in most cases do not set seed in the first year in the highlands like Holetta. Among other management practices this study also revealed that clearing management of regrowths and stubbles of these grasses is highly required especially in areas where there are short rains. Though burning by itself has its
own merits and demerits in pasture management practices, clearing by controlled burning could result in better regrowth and seed yield than cutting. Clearing of regrowths after early June generally resulted in higher yield of good quality seed than early clearing especially when short rains are normal amount and distribution (about 250mm). The study also showed that wellestablished grass would continue to perform also well in the subsequent production seasons or years. Peak seed yields were obtained during the second year of establishment and declined then after as the age of the grass get older.
Table 1. Effect of regrowth clearing method and date on average (three years) seed and stubble productivity of Rhodes grass Clearing method Clearing dates Mid April Late April Mid may Late May Early June Late June Mean LSD (%) Stubble (DM t ha-1) Burning 7.80ab 8.89
ab
Seed (kg ha-1) Burning 187.2b 243.4

a
Seed Germination (%) Burning 35.3 44.3 45.3 39.6 38.2 46.6 41.6 14.6 Cutting 32.5cb 51.7a 43.0a 27.7c 47.0a 41.8ab 40.6 13.0
Cutting 9.18a 8.68

ab
Cutting 202.8 213.7 215.3 181.7 210.8 200.3 204.1 37.7
9.04a 8.14ab 7.59

ab
8.77ab 7.31c 7.71

cb
234.7a 232.0ab 225.8

ab
8.22ab 8.28 1.38
7.57c 8.20 1.10
242.2a 227.6 45.2
Table 2 . Effect of regrowth clearing method and date on seed and stubble productivity of Colored Guinea grass Clearing method Clearing dates Mid April Late April Mid may Late May Early June Late June Mean LSD (5%) Stubble (DM t ha )
-1
Seed (kg ha-1) Burning 127.5 132.4 124.6 148.1 156.3 182.0 145.2 70.21 Cutting 99.4 103.7 120.1 111.9 132.3 134.4 117.0 51.88
Seed Germination (%) Burning 18.6 17.6 25.0 37.3 34.1 27.9 26.7 21.3 Cutting 18.4 29.1 21.6 23.9 33.0 23.9 25.0 20.6
Burning 8.59
a b
Cutting 9.31 7.91 7.20

a b
7.33 7.03
7.80ab
b
7.77b
bc
7.28b 7.71ab 7.62 0.93
8.03b 6.49c 7.79 1.11
Table 3. Effect of regrowth clearing method on seed and stubble productivity of Rhodes and Colored Guinea grasses Clearing method Method of clearing Burning Cutting Mean LSD (5%) Stubble (DM t ha-1) Rhodes 8.28 8.20 8.24 0.45 Colored Guinea 7.79 7.62 7.71 0.46 Rhodes 227.56
a
Seed (kg ha-1) Colored Guinea 145.15a 116.97b 131.06 23.82
204.10b 215.83 16.37
301
Ethiopian Society of Animal Production Table 4. Effect of age at harvest on seed and stubble productivity of Rhodes grass Clearing method Age at harvest First year Second year Third year Fourth year Mean LSD (5%)
* Did not set seed in the first year
Stubble (DM t ha )
-1
Seed (kg ha-1) Burning * 196.13a 166.75c 219.75 194.21 31.94

b
Burning 11.73
a
Cutting 12.33
a
Cutting * 290.14a 161.90b 160.24b 204.09 26.65
7.99b 7.94b 5.45 8.28 1.13

c
7.89b 7.46b 5.13 8.20 0.90

c
Table 5 Effect of age at harvest on seed and stubble productivity of Colored Guinea grass Clearing method Age at harvest First year Second year Third year Fourth year Mean LSD (5%)
* Did not set seed in the first year
Stubble (DM t ha-1) Burning 11.69

a
Seed (kg ha-1) Burning * 197.32a 133.65b 104.49 145.15 49.64

b
Cutting 11.54
a
Cutting * 157.39 113.28 80.23 116.97 36.68
7.61b 7.32b 3.87 7.62 0.76

c
7.84b 7.01b 4.76 7.79 0.90

c
Table 6. Effect of planting year on seed and stubble productivity of Rhodes and Colored Guinea grasses Clearing method Establishment year Rhodes 1997 1998 Mean LSD (5%) Colored Guinea 1997 1998 Mean LSD (5%) 7.40 7.84 7.62 1.07 8.00 7.58 7.79 1.06 122.44b 167.87 145.16 40.01
a
Stubble (DM t ha-1) Burning 7.21b 9.35 8.28 1.01

a
Seed (Kg ha-1) Burning 237.53 217.58 227.56 32.75 Cutting 222.02a 186.17b 204.10 31.12 105.40 128.53 116.97 30.58
Cutting 7.80 8.61 8.21 1.07
References
Bogdan A.V. 1977. Tropical pastures and fodder plants. Longman Boonman J.G. 1993. East African grasses and fodders: Their ecology and husbandry. Kluwer Academic Publisher. The Netherlands. Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO). 2001. National forage and pasture crops seed research and production strategy. EARO. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
302
FAO and ILRI CD-ROM. 1999. Farmers, their animals and the environment. Tropical grasses and legumes database, Rhodes grass and Colored Guinea grass, International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Getnet Assefa and Tadesse Tekletsadik. 1996. Effect of harvesting stage on yield and quality of perennial grass seeds in the highlands. Proceedings of the fourth ESAP conference. (Ethiopian society of animal production, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Getnet Assefa, Abreham Gebeyehu, Fekede Feyissa and Tadesse Tekletsadik. 2002. On-farm performance of forage crops and assessment of natural pasture productivity in west Shewa zone. Proceedings of a workshop on client oriented research (Oct 16-8, 2001), Holetta Research Center, Ethiopia Hazra C.R. and N.C. Sinha. 1996. Forage seed production; a technological development. South Asian Publishing Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR). 1984 - 1987. Feeds and nutrition progress report for Holetta Research Centre. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR). 1991 - 1994. Feeds and nutrition progress report for Holetta research centre. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Ministry of Agriculture (MOA). Unpublished. Workshop on forage development and seed production held from March 25-27, 2002 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. National Livestock Development Project (NLDP) SAS Institute Inc. 2001. SAS/STAT Users Guide, Release 8.1 Statistical Analysis Systems Institute Inc. Cary, NC, USA
303
Characterization of Selected Oats Varieties for Their Important Production Traits in the Highlands of Ethiopia
Getnet Assefa, Fekede Feyissa, Abreham Gebeyehu and Muluneh Minta Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO), Holetta Research Center, Forage and pasture crops research program, P.O.Box 2003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Abstract
Oats varieties advanced from screening trials and recommended for forage production in the highlands of Ethiopia were evaluated for their major production traits. The experiment was conducted at Holetta Research Center for three years from 2000 to 2002 with (18/46 N/P2O5 kg ha-1) and with out application of fertilizer in a randomized complete block design. The over all performance of oats varieties tested were significantly affected by season. Variety and year have significantly affected almost all the parameters including forage and grain yield, height at harvest, number of days to forage harvesting, stem, leaf and panicle proportions, thousand kernel weights and hectoliter weights. The fertilizer used was the blanket recommendation for all forage crops. It significantly increased biomass forage yield and leaf proportion and didnt affect all the other measured parameters. In this study oats varieties were characterized for the major production traits to suggest for their best use to the targeted production conditions. The tested varieties had significant difference in all the traits studied. Moreover, linear correlations of these traits were described. This study indicated distinct variations among oats varieties. Hence varieties should not only be selected for their dry matter herbage yield but also for other specified traits for a particular purpose of production that can also compromise other relevant traits. In addition to describing each variety for major production traits, the 21 oats varieties were clustered to groups based on the over all observed traits. This grouping with the supplementary detailed data would assist users to select a variety appropriate for a particular target of production and utilization.
Introduction
Among other cultivated forage crops Oats (Avena sativa) is widely utilized in the highland farming system of Ethiopia. Though there is no much information on the genetic diversity of cultivated and wild oats in Ethiopia, it is indicated that of the 5000 accessions of wild oats collected and maintained by United States department of agriculture and Canada department of agriculture 530 accessions were collected from Ethiopia (Baum, 1977). Research on forage productivity and other relevant aspects of oats was started more than three decades in the highlands of Ethiopia. As there was no any formal releasing mechanisms like that of other food crops, oats was demonstrated and seeds were distributed informally to farmers around Arsi, and the central highlands in the outer reaches of Addis Ababa (Sheno, Sululeta, Debreberhan, Sellale, and Holetta) and some other areas for forage production. Over time farmers popularize oats for various purposes mainly for food grain in addition to forage production. It is widely known that oats varieties are relatively at their best in cool and moist climates, soil requirements are low and oats will tolerate a very wide pH range and soils of poor drainage, fertility and texture (Boonman, 1993). Lulseged (1981) and IAR (1987) have also reported that experiments done in the different testing sites in the highlands showed adaptations to water logging, resistant to diseases except rust, performs better on poor soils and its utilization as forage becomes widely practiced. From various reports and documents researchers knew oats varieties tested and distributed to farmers in areas such as Sellale, Sheno and Arsi. However, survey reports in the central highlands indicated that farmers do not distinguish these varieties of oats, they just recognized
all the varieties as one (Getnet, 1999). Locally farmers call oats as Sinar, Shalo and Shemame on various localities in the central highlands. Testing oats varieties at Holetta and probably in Ethiopia was started towards the end of 1960s. Germplasms of oats were introduced from European countries including Holland, Sweden, Russia and various states of USA. Nineteen varieties were initially introduced from USA in1969 (IAR, 1970) and then in 1973 many accessions of world collections were introduced and about 650 accessions advanced and maintained for further evaluation (IAR, 1975). Based on farmers request grain and dual purpose (forage and grain) oats varieties were also introduced from CIMMYT in the 1980s. These varieties are maintained at Holetta and utilized until now as a germplasm source for various research purposes and there are no any recognizable new introductions at Holetta during the last 20 years. As the introduced varieties of oats are mixed up and conceived as one variety by farmers, they do not utilize different oats varieties for various purposes or farming practice, such as different varieties for different soil types, early or late maturing varieties, seed sizes and colors etc. Oats owe their reputation to their versatility in the highlands of Ethiopia as they grow well from 1750 to 3000m as green feed, direct grazing, hay, silage, and grain. Moreover it has also different cultivation practice including it can be grown in pure stands, in mixtures, it could be cultivated on residual moisture or as a precursor to other crops. Oats varieties have different characteristics which best fits to these indicated traits. Preliminary screening of oats accessions collected from different area and available at Holetta was done on their adaptation and forage productivity (IAR, 1987; Astatkie Haile, 1979; IAR, 1975, 1970, 1969, and 1968). The farming systems of the highlands now a days have a lot of agricultural production constraints. Population pressures led farmers to cultivate grazing and other marginal lands. Feed shortage becomes very critical in most of the areas, this orients farmers to maximize productivity per unit area labor and input. This indicates that it is high time to look technologies that best fit to the farming system. Intensification requires technologies that are precise and reliable such as varieties with best descriptions of its morphological, phonological features and production potential. For example in terms of its grain or forage yield, height, days to maturity etc. that best fits to the particular production condition. Therefore, the objective of this study is to characterize adaptable oats varieties for their major traits and suggest appropriate varieties for the different purposes and farming practices in the highlands of Ethiopia.

The experiment was conducted at Holetta Research Center on a red soil (Nitosols) for three consecutive years, 2000, 2001 and 2002. During the experimental period the average annual rainfall was 923.9, 1065.7,and 932.5mm, respectively. The three years average minimum and maximum air temperature were, also 5.5 and 23.0 oC, respectively. In these experiment 21 oats varieties were included. The varieties were selected from a screening trial of 835 accessions lines at Holetta in 1997 and 1998. The initial screening was mainly targeted to high biomass yield and disease resistance especially for leaf and stem rust. Most of the varieties were also screened and advanced at different levels and recommended for forage production (IAR, 1987). However, evaluations were done for major important traits such as forage yield.
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The varieties were planted in a randomized complete block (RCB) arrangements in three replications with and without application of fertilizer (18/46 N/P2O5 kg ha-1) at planting. Seeds were sown in rows of 20 cm spacing on a plot size of 2mx3m. Sowing was done at the onset of the main rains around late June. Hand weeding was done once about 40 days after planting. Data on stand count; stages of different phonological stages and disease scores were recorded. Dry matter forage yield was estimated by harvesting 8 rows of oats from each plot at the stage of anthesis (milk stage of grain). Plant height was also measured when oats was harvested for forage. At the stage of forage harvesting samples were taken and fractionated into leaf, stem and panicle. All the forage samples were dried at 65oC using a forced draft oven to constant weight to estimate dry matter percentages of forage samples and botanical fractions. Disease, leaf and stem rust were scored The grain yield was estimated from the remaining 7 rows. After threshing and cleaning the seed, total grain weights, thousand kernel weights and hectoliter weights were measured. Analysis of variance, correlations of studied parameters and clustered analysis of varieties were made for the collected data using SAS statistical package (SAS, 2001). Analysis was made separately and combined over years and fertilizer levels.

In this experiment the over all performance of oats varieties were significantly affected by season. Table 1 shows results of the statistical analysis on the effect of independent variables; year, variety and fertilizer on the measured parameters. Variety and year showed significant differences (P<0.05) in the results of all the traits studied. The fertilizer treatment used was the blanket recommendation for all forage crops, based on the socio economic situation of farmers in Ethiopia. This is below the economical and biological optimum for oats. However, in this experiment fertilizer has significantly increased biomass forage yield and leaf proportion and didnt affect all the other measured parameters significantly. Forage yield The average forage yield of oats varieties is shown in Table 2. The forage yields of the varieties were significantly different and varied in the range of 10.1 to 15.4 t ha-1. The most widely adapted and popularized varieties such as CI-8237, CI-8235 and lampton produced 12-13 t ha-1 dry matter, while recently introduced varieties such as 112-CI/PI 338517 and 579-D-27 produced more than 15 t ha-1. Besides varietal differences, forage yield was also significantly affected by seasonal variation and application of fertilizer. During 2000 and 2002 forage yields were higher by about 11 % compared to 2001. This might be due to higher rainfall during 2001 compared to the other two years, where the amount and distribution of the rainfall depressed plant growth. On the other hand, application of fertilizer at the rate of 18/46 N/P2O5 kg ha-1 had increased forage yield by 12%. Other reports showed that application of fertilizer more than this rate increased forage yield. Moreover the type and fertility status of the soil highly determines yield response of oats to application of fertilizer (Stirling and Ivory, 1981) The major disease that affects oats productivity is leaf and stem rust. In this experiment scores were made for rust resistance (Table 2). Generally the occurrence and severity of the disease were variable. In 2001 rust was very sever while during 2000 and 2002 it was very light. According to the score most of the varieties were found resistant and moderately resistant. Despite that high herbage producing varieties, especially those newly introduced once were found susceptible.
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Height at harvest for forage The tested varieties showed a highly significant variation in height at harvest (Table 1). In addition to genetic variability, soil fertility and environmental conditions could also affect oats height at harvest. The average height of the tested oats varieties at forage harvesting was ranged between 120 and 169cm. Season and fertilizer application had also affected oats height. In cultivating oats, particularly in integration with other legumes, height of oats has an impact in its compatibility. When oats is cultivated for forage it is usually recommended to sow it in mixture with legumes to improve nutritive value and maintenance of soil fertility. Among other factors that affect compatibility when oats is cultivated in mixture with vetch is height of oats at harvest. Studies at Holetta showed that shorter varieties were grown more compatible with vetch than taller varieties regardless of other features such as soil fertility status and fertilizer application (Getnet, 1999). Observation has also shown that taller varieties are usually susceptible for lodging specially when they are planted on fertile soils and in areas where rainstorms are common compared to shorter varieties. Hence when one plans to cultivate oats under various production practices, plant height should be considered as one of the important parameters. Days to harvesting stage for forage The tested oats varieties showed a significant variation on the number of days required to reach for forage harvesting stage, which is usually recommended at the stage where the grains reach to milk stage. About three varieties were very early and required only about 118 days while other two varieties namely Grayalgeris and 112-CI/PI-338517 were very late varieties and took about 159 days (Table 2). Growing season and fertilizer level had showed an effect on the dates to forage harvesting. Higher rainfall encouraged vegetative growth and delayed harvesting stage. Even though it was not significant application of fertilizer showed a tendency of shortening days to forage harvesting stage. The days to maturity had an advantage of selecting companion or mixture crops that best synchronizes to the days to maturity for better compatibility and forage yield. When late maturing oats varieties were sown in mixture with late maturing vetch species, like Vicia villosa, compatibility was good compared with early maturing oats variety (Getnet, 1999). In addition late oats varieties could be utilized in areas where there is extended rainfall season. In this areas late maturing varieties allows farmers to practice cut and carry feeding systems, as they stay green for longer time. On the other hand early maturing varieties could be utilized during the short rains and using residual moistures where in both cases moisture is usually not reliable to cultivate other food crops for grain. Leaf Stem and panicle proportions The leaf to stem ratio of oats is generally highly determined by the stage of growth. Younger plants usually have higher proportion of leaf and as the plant matures the leaf proportion decreases while the stem is increasing (Cherney et al, 1990). In this study proportion of leaf, stem and panicle were assessed at the stage of forage harvesting (Table 3). The average proportion of leaf, stem and panicle was significantly different among the varieties. Leaf stem and panicle proportion were in the range of 18.433.7, 44.9-64.0 and 15.3-35.6 percents in dry matter basis, respectively. Experience at Holetta showed that stemmy varieties had better resistance for lodging. Moreover, leafy varieties usually have high total digestible nutrient, crude protein and intake by animals (McDonald et al, 1995) and hence varieties with high proportion of leaf are more nutritious than varieties with high proportion of stem. On-farm experiments of small holder dairy animals
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indicated that higher stem proportion of oats hay were refused by animals due to partly the nature of the variety and late harvesting of oats (CI-8237) for hay (Getnet et al, 2002). Generally, oats could be utilized in different ways as feed for livestock. Stemmy varieties could be best utilized for cut and carry and silage making while leafy varieties for haymaking. The panicle proportion of oats had a little more crude protein content and dry matter digestibility compared to leaf (Getnet, 1999). Varieties with high proportion of panicle generally gave lower biomass yields. Although panicle had higher nutritive value, varieties with high biomass yields will give higher actual leaf yield. Grain yield, thousand kernel weight and hectoliter weight Table 4 shows the average grain yield, 1000 kernel weight and hectoliter weight of the tested oats varieties. The tested varieties showed a highly significant variation in grain yield. Unlike the forage yield the variation in grain yield was very wide ranging between 1.62 to 4.51 t ha-1. Similar to the forage yield average lower grain yield was obtained during 2001 while it was higher during 2000. Moreover, unlike the forage yield fertilizer did not show any significant effect on the average grain yield. Varietal differences in grain yield suggest that when one wants to cultivate for grain a critical selection of varieties is necessary. Oats grain could be cultivated for various purposes. It could be used for human food, for livestock feed as a concentrate or as dual purpose. It is common to see farmers around Sheno, Sellalie, and many other areas cultivating oats for the indicated purposes. Around Sellalie farmers cultivate oats for green feed (cut and carry) and sell green forage in the market during late July to early September. After early September if there is any oats crop left in the field it will be allowed to mature for grain production. Besides that oats is valued for its flexibility and has importance as a strategic crop. A field destined for grain production can be diverted to grazing if rain is inadequate. Based on the survey result in the central high lands of Ethiopia, farmers were looking for grain types of oats. Grain type varieties were brought from CIMMYT and tested at different research sites of the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO), however, the demonstration and popularization of these varieties is not widely spread. The 1000 kernel weights of the varieties were significantly different with a range of 25.2 35.3 g and an average of 28.4g. This figures were lower compared to cultivated barley varieties, which ranged between 36 54 g for food barley and 28 and 36 g for malting barley (Hailu Gebre and Joop van Leur, 1996). Most of the varieties with high grain yield showed higher 1000 kernel weight. The hectoliter weights were less in variability among the varieties ranged between 48.151.7 with an average weight of 50.2 kg hl-1, which is also lower than malting barley, 64-71.4 (Hailu Gebre and Joop van Leur, 1996). Linear correlation of observed traits When one selects oats varieties for a certain desired trait for example earliness the biomass forage yield is normally low. In situations like this there is a need to consider the relationships between various production traits of oats to select varieties with most of the traits compromised. The linear correlation coefficients of the observed traits are shown in Table 5. Dry matter forage yield showed a significant positive correlation with stem proportion and a negative correlation with panicle proportion. While grain yield had a reverse relationship to the forage yield, stem and panicle proportions. Moreover, correlation analysis showed that taller and late maturing varieties had higher forage yield but lower grain yield. The stem proportions of oats had significant negative relationships to the leaf and panicle proportion. Moreover, leafiness had a negative effect on the panicle proportion and grain yield. This general relationships help to identify oats varieties that
best fits to a specific purpose, with a reasonable forage yield, better quality and overall efficiency utilization.
Table 1. Significance levels of measured parameters in the tested oats varieties Parameter Forage dry matter yield Plant height at harvest for forage Number of days to forage harvesting Proportions of oats fractions Leaf Stem Panicle Grain yield Thousand kernel weight Hectoliter weight
*** - significant at P<0.05, NS Not significant
Year *** *** *** *** *** *** *** NS NS
Fertilizer *** *** NS *** NS NS NS NS NS
Variety *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** NS
Table 2. Three years average plant height at harvest, number of days to forage harvesting, leaf and stem rust resistance and dry matter forage yield of oats varieties at Holetta. Treatment Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Plant Height at Harvest (cm) 120.0 123.7 151.4 150.2 132.1 143.7 154.8 169.2 151.5 133.5 158.0 164.6 144.3 144.1 157.7 138.6 150.3 161.2 167.9 164.8 164.1 149.8 8.0 Number of days at harvesting (for forage) 121.8 122.6 118.7 118.7 119.0 122.5 118.8 125.1 122.2 120.8 125.2 135.9 125.1 118.9 132.5 159.3 159.0 132.7 135.6 146.0 125.7 128.8 3.4 Leaf and stem rust resistance* MR R MR MR MR MR R R R MS TR MR TR TR R TR MS S S MS S Forage yield (DM t ha-1) 10.68 10.58 12.74 11.26 10.76 11.43 11.09 12.93 10.13 11.40 11.95 12.68 10.44 11.71 12.28 13.38 15.39 13.05 14.49 15.13 13.57 12.24 1.58
Variety Ky to 78394 Canada 79Ab 382(TX) (80SA94) 79Ab 382(TX) (80SA95) 79CP 84 (Coker SR.res) 80SA130 C7122/SRCP X 80Ab 2767 SRCP X 80Ab 2764 SRCP X 80Ab 2806 Lampton Potage/Clintland 60MN 16016 C7512/SRCP X 80Ab 2252 CI-8237 CI-8251 Jassari CO x SRCP X 80Ab 2291 CI-8235 Grayalgeris 112-CI/PI-338517 413-CI/PI-244475 314-CI/PI-5800 579-D-27 682-CI/PI 244480 Mean LSD (P<0.05)
* R=resistance, MR=moderately resistant, TR=trace resistant, MS=moderately susceptible, S=susceptible
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Based on the over all observed traits the 21 oats varieties were clustered to groups that form more related varieties. Figure 1 shows the grouping of the varieties according to the observed traits. Hence varieties in each cluster had more or less similar forage and grain yield, days to forage harvesting, plant height at harvest, botanical fractions and grain quality. Hence using the clusters and the detailed data one can select a variety from each cluster (group) for a desired type of oats variety for a specific target of production.
Conclusions
The over all objective of this study is not only characterizing the varieties but also to suggest their best use to the targeted production conditions. This study indicated distinct variations among oats varieties. Hence varieties should not only be selected for their dry matter herbage yield but also for other specified traits for a particular purpose of production that can also compromise other relevant traits. In addition to describing each variety for major production traits, the 21 oats varieties were clustered to groups based on the over all observed parameters. This grouping with the supplementary detailed data would assist users to select a variety appropriate for a particular target of production and utilization so that it best fits to the farming system, feed conservation practice, feeding system and other complementary advantages.
Table 3. Average dry matter proportions of leaf, stem and panicle fractions at forage harvesting stage of the tested oats varieties. Treatment number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Variety Ky to 78394 Canada 79Ab 382(TX) (80SA94) 79Ab 382(TX) (80SA95) 79CP 84 (Coker SR.res) 80SA130 C7122/SRCP X 80Ab 2767 SRCP X 80Ab 2764 SRCP X 80Ab 2806 Lampton Potage/Clintland 60MN 16016 C7512/SRCP X 80Ab 2252 CI-8237 CI-8251 Jassari CO x SRCP X 80Ab 2291 CI-8235 Grayalgeris 112-CI/PI-338517 413-CI/PI-244475 314-CI/PI-5800 579-D-27 682-CI/PI 244480 Mean LSD (P<0.05) Leaf (%) 22.77 18.90 21.14 20.55 20.65 20.92 18.44 21.81 20.28 21.07 22.04 31.30 25.34 22.24 24.69 33.72 27.46 27.27 23.80 26.91 20.77 23.45 4.18 Stem (%) 46.14 45.54 49.80 47.75 45.19 46.93 47.78 49.54 53.19 49.30 49.69 51.81 45.32 45.82 52.50 44.86 48.65 50.86 53.92 49.44 63.95 49.43 3.21 Panicle (%) 31.09 35.56 29.07 31.71 34.14 32.16 33.78 28.64 26.53 29.63 28.28 16.90 29.34 31.92 22.79 21.43 23.89 21.86 22.28 23.65 15.29 27.14 3.94
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Ethiopian Society of Animal Production Table 4. Three years average grain yield, 1000-kernel weight and hectoliter weight (kg per 100 liters volume) of oats varieties at Holetta Treatment number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Variety Ky to 78394 Canada 79Ab 382(TX) (80SA94) 79Ab 382(TX) (80SA95) 79CP 84 (Coker SR.res) 80SA130 C7122/SRCP X 80Ab 2767 SRCP X 80Ab 2764 SRCP X 80Ab 2806 Lampton Potage/Clintland 60MN 16016 C7512/SRCP X 80Ab 2252 CI-8237 CI-8251 Jassari CO x SRCP X 80Ab 2291 CI-8235 Grayalgeris 112-CI/PI-338517 413-CI/PI-244475 314-CI/PI-5800 579-D-27 682-CI/PI 244480 Mean LSD (P<0.05) Grain yield (t ha-1) 4.36 4.36 4.16 4.22 4.42 4.51 4.21 2.89 3.31 4.23 2.79 1.74 3.50 4.36 3.16 1.97 2.37 3.08 2.47 1.89 1.62 3.32 0.43 1000 kernel weight (gm) 28.6 27.0 32.0 35.3 30.7 30.9 32.9 28.6 25.1 33.8 29.8 23.5 31.7 30.6 27.6 25.0 27.2 25.2 25.5 24.3 21.3 28.4 6.6 Hectoliter weight (kg/hectol) 49.7 50.9 50.6 51.6 50.1 48.9 51.2 50.5 50.0 50.6 50.6 49.0 48.2 50.1 50.3 49.6 49.4 51.4 49.6 51.2 51.7 50.2 NS
Table 5. Linear correlation coefficients among traits observed in 21 oats varieties grown at Holetta for three years Plant Height at forage harvesting Dry matter Grain forage yield yield Days to Hectoliter Stem Leaf Panicle forage Weight proportion proportion proportion harvesting
Observed traits
Dry matter forage yield 0.401** Grain yield Stem proportion Leaf proportion Panicle proportion Days to harvesting forage -0.446** 0.458** 0.035 -0.434** 0.220** -0.025 -0.263** -0.056 0.470** -0.094 -0.211** -0.398** -0.326** -0.563** -0.089 0.091 -0.177** -0.579** 0.439** -0.021 -0.334** -0.310** -0.061 0.418** -0.118 -0.458** 0.028
-0.312** 0.524** 0.198** -0.004 -0.067 -0.467** -0.001 0.646**
Hectoliter Weight Thousand weight kernel
* * - Significant at P<0.01
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1.50 1.25 1.00
0.75 0.50
0.25
0.00
1 2 5 10 3 4 7 6 14 13 8 15 18 19 9 11 12 20 21 16 17 Oats varieties
Figure 1. Dendnogram showing the groupings of oats varieties based on the studied traits on the average linkage alogarithm using standard values. Height of the clusters indicates the normalized root mean square (RMS) distance between the joined varieties.
References
Astatkie Haile, 1979. Forage crops and pasture management in the highlands of Ethiopia. IAR, Forage and range bulletin (Ethiopia). No. 2, Institute of Agricultural Research, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 76pp. Baum Bernard R. 1977. Oats: wild and cultivated, a monograph of the genus Avena L. (Poaceal). Biosystematics Research Institute. Canada Department of Agriculture. Research Branch. Monograph No. 14. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. Boonman J.G. 1993. East African grasses and fodders: Their ecology and husbandry. Kluwer Academic Publisher. The Netherlands. Cherney D.J.R, Mertens D.R and Moore, J.E. 1990. Intake and digestibility by wethers as influenced by forage morphology at three levels of forage offering. J, Anim. Sci. 68:4387-4399. Getnet Assefa . 1999. Feed resources assessment and evaluation of forage yield, quality and intake of oats and vetches grown in pure stands and in mixtures in the highlands of Ethiopia. MSc. Thesis, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala Getnet Assefa, Abreham Gebeyehu, Fekede Feyissa and Tadesse Tekletsadik. 2002 . On-farm Performance of Forage Crops and Assessment of Natural Pasture Productivity in West Shewa Zone. In proceedings of Client Oriented Research Review Workshop: Towards farmers participatory research, attempts and achievements in the central highlands of Ethiopia, Oct 16-18, 2001, Holetta Research Center, Ethiopia Hailu Gebre and Joop van Leur (eds). 1996. Barley research in Ethiopia: Past work and Future prospects. Proceedings of the first barley research review workshop 16-19 october.1993. Addis Ababa. IAR/ICARDA. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 11th ESAP-Proceedings 313
HRC, Holetta Research Center. 1998. Feeds and nutrition division progress report. Holetta Research Center, Ethiopia. Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR). 1968. Progress report for the period Feb. 1966 March 1968. IAR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR). 1969. Progress report for the period Feb. 1968 March 1969. IAR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR). 1970. Progress report for the period April 1969 March 1970. IAR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR). 1975. Holetta Genet Research Centre Progress report for the period April 1974 March 1975. IAR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR). 1987. Holetta Research Centre, Feeds and Nutrition Research Division Progress Report for the period April 1986 March 1987. IAR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Lulseged Gebrehiwot. 1981. Summary of oats research undertaken by IAR. IAR pasture and forage bulletin (Ethiopia) No.2, Institute of Agricultural Research, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 11pp. Mcdonald P., Edwards R.A., Greenhalgh J.F.D. and Morgan C.A.,1995. Animal Nutrition (5th edition) Longman Scientific and technical, John Wiley and Sons. Inc., New York Stirling, G. D. and Ivory, D.A., 1981. Nitrogen and phosphorous fertilization of forage oats in the Maranoa region of southern Queens Land. Queens Land Journal of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Australia, 38 (2): 143-153. SAS Institute Inc. 2001. SAS/STAT Users Guide, Release 8.1, Statistical Analysis Systems Institute Inc. Cary, NC, USA
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Dependence of Standing Crop on Different Range Condition Rating Methods in the Mid Rift Valley, Ethiopia
Amsalu Sisay Adam Tultu Research Center, P. O. Box 35, Ziway, Ethiopia
Abstract
Five methods (Method 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5) of range condition rating were evaluated for their ability to estimate standing crop components (total standing crop, total grass and palatable grass) from range condition rating in Mid Rift Valley of Ethiopia. Regression analysis of 57 sample values was used to determine the dependence of components of standing crop on condition rating under each method. There was no linear relationship between components of standing crop and range condition rating in method 1. This indicated that the use of species composition alone for range condition rating (Method 1) is not reliable to determine standing crop. The relationship was positive, linear and significant (P < 0.05) with low R-square value in method 2. Highly significant (P < 0.01) positive linear relationship with highest Rsquare values were observed in method 3, when species composition, litter cover, age distribution and soil erosion are used as criteria to range condition rating. The relatively lower R-square values in methods 4 and 5 showed that basal cover and soil compaction are poor indicators of range condition. Of the five methods, method 3 was found to be the best, to estimate standing crop from range condition rating in this study. Though it is the best in its time and space, this method should be tested across different agro-ecology and further improved, to be used as a linear model to predict standing crop from range condition rating.
Introduction
The assessment of range condition remains a source of controversy, despite years of practical experience and discussion (Fiedel, 1991). What atributes are measured and how they are measured and how the measurements are interpreted, are the subject of continuing debates. Different researchers at different time and space used different approach to assess range condition. One of the approaches to range condition assessment is the ecological or climax approach, developed by Dyksterhuis (1949). With the Dyksterhuis method, rangelands in early stages of secondary succession are classified poor while those in climax stages are excellent. The procedure is based on estimating the percentage of the present plant species composition by weight that is considered to be part of the climax stage of succession for the site. The other approach to assess range condition is the one, which was developed by U. S. Forest Service (1969). In this method, in addition to species composition, factors like basal cover and soil erosion are evaluated. Pratt and Gwynne (1977) considered species composition, litter cover and soil erosion to assess range condition. Tainton (1981) used species composition, litter cover, age distribution of plants and soil erosion to assess the veld and pasture condition in South Africa. Baars et al (1997) adapted and modified the factors and criteria of Tainton to fit semi-arid and sub-humid environments. Amsalu (2000) used three plant factors (species composition, basal cover and age distribution) and three soil factors (litter cover, soil erosion and soil compaction) to assess range condition in the Rift Valley of Ethiopia. Regardless of the different approaches used to range condition assessment, range condition classification has been the basis for adjusting stocking rates and revising management plans. Many range managers recommend or set lower stocking rates on poor condition ranges relative
to good condition ranges based up on the assumption that forage production is lower in lower condition classes (Dyksterhuis, 1949; USDA, 1976). This assumption was supported by Goeble and Cook (1960). They found that poor condition range had lower forage production with lees palatable forage than good condition range. Other studies conflict with this assumption. Cook et al. (1965) found slightly more total forage produced on range in poor condition class than range in good condition class. Tiedeman et al., (1991) found that estimated standing crop could not be accurately predicted from range condition rating. Dependable methods of condition rating need to be developed in assessing range condition. In this study five methods of range condition rating were developed and evaluated for their accuracy to estimate the herbage standing crop from range condition rating. The objectives of this study were to: Determine the relationship of herbage standing crop and range condition rating under different approaches of assessing range condition. Determine the best approach of assessing range condition. Determine how estimated herbage standing crop can accurately be predicted from range condition rating using a simple linear model.

Study area Field sampling was conducted from mid August to mid September 1999, in the Mid Rift Valley of Ethiopia. The valley lies in the central part of Ethiopian Rift Valley, extending from 70 05 N to 80 00 N and from 380 20 E to 380 50 E. It has a total length of 102 km and an average width of 55 km. The climate is semi arid with the mean annual precipitation of 750 mm. The mean minimum and maximum temperature are 12 0C and 26 0C, respectively (Amsalu and Baars, 2002). In the valley 49% of the land is used for crop production, 43% for grazing and 8% for other purposes. Important grazing lands are communal grazing lands (80% of the total grazing land), seasonally grazed areas (15%), and parks or government ranches (enclosures) (5%) (Amsalu and Baars, 2002). Sampling procedure Fifty-seven range sites were sampled in the study area using one meter-square quadrat. Twenty-two, 18, and 17 range sites were randomly located in communal grazing lands with a high grazing pressure, seasonally grazed lands with an intermediate grazing pressure and enclosures with a light grazing pressure, respectively. Standing crop dry weight of each species in a quadrat was determined after drying in a drying oven at a temperature of 60 0C for 72 hours. Standing crop was the total amount of herbage dry matter in above ground part expressed per unit area basis at a given point in time. The percent composition of each species was determined on dry matter weight basis. Range condition rating The condition of each site was determined in five different approaches using five methods of range condition rating. Range condition in each method was classified into five condition classes (very poor, poor, fair, good and excellent). The five methods differ from each other in their criteria used to assess range condition. Method 1: This method was developed based on the Dyksterhuis (1949) method of range condition scoring. The procedure is based on estimating the percentage of the plant species
composition by weight. In this method grasses were divided into desirable species likely to decrease with heavy grazing pressures (decreasers), intermediate species likely to increase with heavy grazing (increasers), and undesirable species likely to invade with heavy grazing (pioneers). Score points ranging from 1 to 10 were given to each range site based on its species composition. The range condition was interpreted as excellent (9 to 10 points), good (7 to 8), fair (5 to 6), poor (3 to 4), or very poor (1 to 2). The maximum score of 10 points was given if the contribution of decreasers was 91- 100%, 9 points if the decreasers contributed 81 90%, etc. Scores of 3 and 4 points were given if decreasers made up 10 40% as well as < 30% and equal or > 30% increasers, respectively. Scores of 1 and 2 points were given if decreasers were less than 10%, as well as < 50 and equal or >50% increasers, respectively. Method 2: The U. S. Forest Service (1969) method of range condition scoring was the base to develop this method. In this method, in addition to plant species composition, the degree of soil erosion and basal cover were considered as additional factors to be evaluated. The maximum possible score in this method was 25 points. Each factor was weighted according to its degree of response to heavy grazing. The range condition was interpreted as excellent (21 25 points), good (16 20), fair (11 15), poor (6 10) or very poor (0 5). The criteria used and the corresponding score points given to species composition were the same to that of method 1. For soil erosion assessment a range of score points 0 5 was given. Scoring of soil erosion was based on the presence of pedestals (higher parts of soil held together by plant roots, with eroded soil around the tuft), and in severs case pavements (terraces of flat soil, normally without basal cover, with a line of tufts between pavements). The highest score (5 points) was given for no sign of erosion, (4 points = slight sand mulch, 3 = weak pedestals, 2 = steep sided pedestals, 1 = pavements, 0 = gullies) For basal cover 0 to 10 points were considered. A representative sample area of one square meter was selected for detailed assessments. The surface of basal cover of tufted grasses and their distribution was assessed as follows. The square meter was divided into eight equal parts. All basal covers of plants in the selected square meter were transferred (drawn) to one of the eighths in order to facilitate visual estimations. Only basal cover of living parts was considered. The highest score (10 points) was given for the basal cover of tufted species if the eighth was completely filled (corresponding to 12% basal cover of the original square meter). Accordingly classes of < 3%, 3 6%, 6 9 %, 9 12% were distinguished. Lower scores (0, 1 and 2 points) were given for basal cover < 3%. The maximum score was given to creeping grasses such as Cynodon dactylon. Method 3: This method was a derivation of Tainton (1981) approaches to condition rating. Species composition, soil erosion, litter cover, and age distribution of grasses were the factors considered evaluating range condition in this method. The maximum possible score was 30 points. The rating was interpreted as excellent (25 30 points), good (19 24), fair (13 18), poor (7 12), or very poor (1 6). The criteria and corresponding scores given to species composition and soil erosion were similar to method 2. Here, litter cover was evaluated with the same procedure used to evaluate basal cover in method 2. For age distribution 1 to 5 points were considered. When all age categories, young, medium aged, and old plants of the dominant species were present, the maximum score of 5 points was given. Young and medium-aged plants were defined as having approximately 20% and 50%, respectively, of the biomass of old plant of the dominant species. When there were only old, medium-aged or young plants, the scores were 3, 2, or 1 points, respectively.
Method 4: This method was the modified form of the Baars et al., (1997) method of range condition scoring. Three plant factors (species composition, basal cover, age distribution of grasses) and three soil factors (litter cover, soil erosion, soil compaction) were considered in this method. The maximum possible score here, was 45 points. The rating was interpreted as excellent (37 45 points), good (28 36), fair (19 27), poor (10 18), or very poor (1 9). In this method soil compaction was evaluated based on the level of capping or crust formation of the surface soil. The scores given to soil compaction ranged from 1 5 points. The highest score (5 points) was given for a soil surface with no capping, 4 points = isolated capping, 3 = greater than 50% capping, 2 = greater than 75% capping and 1 = almost 100% capping. The criteria and corresponding scores given to other factors followed the same procedures of the previous methods. Method 5: This is the method which Amsalu and Baars (2002) used for range condition scoring. In this method the same factors, criteria and procedure of scoring used in method 4 were used. The only difference is that in this method basal cover was not used as a factor to evaluate range condition. The maximum possible score here was 35 points. The rating was interpreted as excellent (29 35 points), good (22 28), fair (15 21), poor (8 14), or very poor (1 7). Statistical analysis A square root transformation of the data had been performed on data set of scores in each method before analysis. Regression analysis on transformed data of 57 sample values was used to determine the dependence of various components of standing crop (y) on range condition rating (x) under each of the 5 mentioned range condition rating methods. Not only total standing crop but also components of total standing crop were evaluated because some plant species are not useful as forage for livestock in this study area (Amsalu and Baars, 2002), which directly impacts carrying capacity. The relationship of range condition rating and carrying capacity was evaluated by comparing range condition rating to (a) total standing crop, (b) total grass, and (c) palatable grasses. Simple linear and quadratic regression models were used to test these relationships in each method of condition rating.
Results
The dependence of total standing crop and its components on range condition rating were very poor, when they were determined using method 1. No linear relationship was observed between any one of the components of the standing crop and condition rating in method 1 (Table 1). Relationships of total standing crop, total grass and palatable grasses to condition rating were quadratic and significant (P < 0.05) with 0.22, 0.23, and 0.28 R-square values, respectively (Fig. 1). Although significant, the R-square values were very low showing that total standing crop and its components have no quadratic dependence on condition rating. Positive and significant (P < 0.05) linear relationships were found between the components of standing crop and range condition rating, when method 2 was used to evaluate the range condition (Table 1 and Fig. 2). Although the regressions of total standing crop, total grass, and palatable grasses have significant relationships to condition rating, the respective R-square values (0.35, 0.36 and 0.44) were low for the linear model, only explaining up to 44% of the total variation.
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Feed Production and Use Table 1 Summary of the regression analysis of components of standing crop on condition rating under different scoring methods Components of standing crop Total standing crop b SE Method 1 2 3 4 5
* = P<0.05, ** = P<0.01
Total grass b SE 46.4 13 51.3 9* 40.5 3 33.7 3

** **
Palatable grass R2 b SE 49.4 12 54.3 8 ** 40.5 3 33.9 2

** **
R2 0.19 0.35 0.65 0.61 0.62
R2 0.22 0.44 0.74 0.71 0.72
50.4 14 54.3 9 * 42.0 4 34.9 3

** **
0.18 0.36 0.68 0.64 0.65
37.2 3 **
35.9 3 **
35.9 3 **
300
Total standing crop Total grass Palatable grass
250
200 Standing crop (g/m2)
y = 64.846x - 424.12x + 929.04x - 602.11 R 2 = 0.2207 y = 74.416x3 - 486.83x2 + 1055.2x - 687.25 R 2 = 0.2283
150
100
y = 83.566x - 556.63x + 1226.1x - 824.92 R 2 = 0.2872
50
0 1 2 Condition rating 3 4
Figure 1. The reletionship of components of standing crop to range condition rating, in method 1.
Highly significant (P < 0.01) positive linear relationships were found between the components of standing crop and range condition rating in methods 3, 4 and 5 (Table 1 and Fig. 3, 4 and 5). The R-square values for total standing crop, total grass and palatable grasses were: 0.65, 0.68 and 0.74 in method 3; 0.61, 0.65 and 0.71 in method 4; and 0.62, 0.65 and 0.72 in method 5. In all the three methods, the dependence of standing crop on condition rating was relatively high, with Rsquare values explaining 61 65% of the total variations. The dependence of palatable grasses on condition rating was very high when methods 3, 4, and 5 were used with R-square values explaining 71 74% of the total variations. Highest relationships between components of standing crop and condition rating were observed in method 3, in which, highest R-square values (0.65, 0.68 and 0.74) were obtained.
319
300 Total standing crop Total grass Palatable grass
250
Standing crop (g/m2)
200
y = 54.3x - 301.3 R2 = 0.3545 y = 51.295x - 287.97 R2 = 0.3562
150
y = 54.275x - 314.49 R2 = 0.436
100
50
0 5 6 7 Condition rating 8 9 10
Figure 2. The reletionship of components of standin crop to range condition rating, in method 2.
300 Total standing crop Total grass Palatable grass
250
y = 42.029x - 212.33 R2 = 0.6484 y = 40.452x - 209 R2 = 0.6764
Standing crop (g/m2)
200
y = 40.503x - 215.32 R2 = 0.7412
150
100
50
0 4 5 6 7 8 Condition rating 9 10 11 12
Figure 3. The reletionship of components of standing crop to range condition rating, in method 3.
320
300
250
y = 34.92x - 336.58 R2 = 0.6121 y = 33.74x - 330.12 R2 = 0.6435
200 Standing crop y = 33.939x - 338.43 R2 = 0.7117 150
100
50
0 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Condition rating
Figure 4. The relationship of components of standing crop to range condition rating, in method 4.
300
250
y = 37.185x - 249.38 R2 = 0.6218 y = 35.949x - 246.05 R2 = 0.6544
200 Standing crop (g/m2)
y = 35.942x - 251.96 R2 = 0.7151
150
100
50
0 6 7 8 9 10 Condition rating 11 12 13 14
Figure 5. The relationship of components of standing crop to range condition rating, in
method 5
Discussion
The lack of linear relationship between components of standing crop and range condition rating, and the poor dependence of standing crop on condition rating in method 1 indicated the limitation of using this method as a range condition rating tool. Similarly, Anderson (1985), Tiedeman et al., (1991) and Amsalu (2000) reported that the method of rating range condition by species composition as most commonly used appears not reliable for assessing range condition and quantifying carrying capacity.
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Considering basal cover and soil erosion as additional factors for range condition scoring in method 2, improved the relationships from non linear to positive linear. This shows that the dependence of standing crop on range condition rating can better be reflected, when more plant and soil factors are considered in assessing range condition. A number of workers (Osborn, 1956; U.S.-Forest Service, 1969; Pratt and Gwynne, 1977 and ILCA, 1990) have used basal cover and soil erosion as important factors in addition to species composition for better assessment of range condition. However, the low R-square values (0.40, 0.41 and 0.44) observed in method 2 of this study indicated that the method has still some limitations, to be used as a range conditionrating tool. The highest R-square values (0.65, 0.68 and 0.74) observed in method 3 showed that the use of species composition, litter cover, age distribution and soil erosion as criteria to range condition rating best describes the linear dependence of components of standing crop on range condition rating. Pratt and Gwynne (1977) have mentioned these factors as criteria in assessing range condition and similarly Tainton (1981) used these criteria to assess the veld and pasture condition in South Africa. ILCA (1990) in its working paper 1 listed these factors as the most commonly used criteria to assess range condition and trend. The use of basal cover and soil compaction as condition rating criteria in addition to the criteria used in method 3, resulted in relatively lower R-square values (0.61, 0.64 and 0.71). This could probably be due to the fact that basal cover and soil compaction are poor indicators of range condition. Often, percent of basal cover increases as the condition of the range declines due to the replacement of tall, erect species with low-growing, spreading species (Hanson, 1951; Stoddart, 1975, and Amsalu and Baars, 2002). The degree of soil compaction, especially in soils which are rich in calcium, could be the result of confounding effects of hoof pressure and the binding nature of calcium in the soil (Amsalu and Baars, 2002). The exclusion of basal cover from method 4 did not significantly improve (P > 0.05) the R-square values in method 5. In other words, method 4 and 5 are statistically similar in estimating standing crop from range condition rating. In this study the relationship between components of standing crop and condition rating were significant (P < 0.05), positive and linear in all methods except method 1. The highly significant (P < 0.01), positive and linear dependence of palatable grasses on condition rating, in all methods except method 1 agrees with the result of Tiedeman et al., (1991). They found a positive linear relationship for range condition rating and palatable grasses, and a negative linear relation for range condition and total standing crop.
Conclusion
The result of this study showed that methods 2, 3, 4, and 5 are in agreement with the range managers goal to improve range condition. A manager could justify low stocking rates on poor condition range on the assumption that low rates are necessary to improve range condition. In addition to this, results obtained in method 3 supported the practice of quantifying the difference in total forage production between range condition classes. The amount of forage production from poor condition range at this site was sufficiently low to justify recommending lower stocking rates. Of the five methods tested in this study, method 3 found to be the best, for estimating total forage production from range condition rating. The highest, linear and positive dependence of standing crop on condition rating in method 3 indicated that the method could be used to quantify carrying capacity. Though, the method is said to be the best estimator of above ground bio-mass in this study, it needs further improvement to be used as a best linear model to predict forage production from the range condition classes.
References
Amsalu Sisay and R M T Baars (2002). Grass composition and range condition of the major grazing areas in the Mid Rift Valley, Ethiopia. African Journal of Range and Forage Science 19: 161-166. Amsalu Sisay (2000). Herbaceous species composition, dry matter production and condition of the major grazing areas in the Mid Rift valley of Ethiopia. M Sc thesis, Alemaya University, Ethiopia. Anderson E W (1985). Percent composition versus absolute unite of measure, A view point. Range lands 7: 247-248. Baars R M T, Chileshe E C and Kalokoni D M (1997). Range condition in high cattle density areas in the Western province of Zambia. Tropical grass land 31: 569-573. Cook C W, M Kothmann and L E Harris (1965). Effect of range condition and utilization on nutritive intake of sheep on summer ranges. Journal of Range management 18: 69-73. Dyksterhuis E J (1949). Condition and management of rangeland based on quantitative ecology. Journal of Range Management 14: 422-426. Friedel M H (1991). Range condition assessment and the concept of thresholds: A view Point. Journal of Range Management 14: 422-426 Goeble C J and C W Cook (1960). Effect on range condition on plant vigor, production and nutritive value of forage. Journal of Range Management 13: 307-313. International Livestock Center for Africa (1990). Livestock system research manual. Working paper 1, Vol. 1. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Osborn B (1956). Cover requirements for the protection of range site and biota. Journal of Range Management 9: 75-80. Pratt and Gwynne M D (eds). (1977). Range management and ecology in East Africa. Hodder and Stoughton, London, UK. 310 pp. Stoddart L A Smith A D and Box T W (1975). Range Management (3rd ed) McGraw-Hill, New York. Tainton N M (1981). The ecology of the main grazing lands of South Africa. In: N M Tainton (ed) Veld and pasture management in South Africa. Shuter and Shooter, pietermaritzburg, South Africa. Tiedeman J A, Bec R and Vanhorn Ecret R (1991). Dependence of standing crop on range condition rating in New Mexico. Journal of Range Management 44:602-605. United States Department of Agriculture, Forest service (1969). Range environmental analysis handbook, intermountain region. United States Department of Agriculture (1976). National range handbook. Soil conservation serv. Washington D.C.
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Factors Influencing Adoption of Crossbred Dairy Goats: The Case of Three Districts in Eastern Ethiopia*
Teressa Adugna Alemaya University
Abstract
The objective of this paper is to identify factors influencing farm households adoption of crossbred dairy goats in eastern Ethiopia. Primary data required for the purpose were collected from sampled farm households selected through stratified random sampling procedure. Thirty-two farm households were found to be adopters of crossbred dairy goats, while the remaining 138 farm households were non-adopters. The rate of adoption is, thus, estimated to be about 20%. Descriptive analysis has revealed that adopter and non-adopters of crossbred dairy goats were significantly different with respect to the number of children below 11 years of age, total number of small ruminants and the numbers of local goats and oxen and bulls owned as well as their overall livestock holdings. Estimation of logistic regression model for the adoption of crossbred dairy goats by the sample farm households has revealed that three variables, namely the number of children below 11 years of age, the number of local goats and the number of oxen and/or bulls owned per farm household have positively influenced the adoption of the technology. Access to formal credit had a significant negative effect on the farm households adoption of crossbred dairy goats. These empirical evidences testify that the technology that was originally designed and promoted to improve the socioeconomic conditions of poor farm households has found its way into the hands of better off farm households that could assume the risks associated with cross mating (breeding) practice. This confirms the usual argument that the benefits of improved technologies do not accrue to poorer farm households. This in turn suggests the need for appropriate measures that would enhance the use of the technology by this group of farmers. Some of such measures may include improving their wealth status, for instance by helping them to acquire local goats, which would enable them to assume risk in trying up the technology. Provision of relevant credit and extension services need to also receive adequate attention.
Introduction
Ethiopia is one of the poorest countries in the world with a per capita income of 130 US Dollars (World Bank, 1996). As in many developing countries, agriculture is the main stay of the countrys economy for about 85% of her population is engaged in agriculture (World Bank, 1995). The contributions of the sector to countrys GDP and exports averaged 50% and 90%, respectively. Despite its considerable role, the Ethiopian agriculture has been characterized with low level of production and productivity and consequently a very low growth rate especially as compared to the growth rate of her population. The country has, thus, been suffering from severe food shortages and food insecurity. FAO's estimates revealed that between 23 and 26 million people of the country are subject to food insecurity (FAO, 1993) and 60% of the population is living below the poverty line (World Bank, 1996). These conditions have led to the country's dependence on food aid and commercial food imports to increase the total per capita caloric intake. However, food imports could not offer an adequate and long lasting solution to the
* A paper prepared for the 2003 Annual Conference of the Animal Production Society of Ethiopia
massive problems of food insecurity and poverty. Rather the problems require tremendous efforts to increase domestic food and agricultural production, besides expanding employment and income. Though Ethiopia has been said to have a relatively high potential both in crop and livestock production, the chance of increasing food and agricultural production through horizontal expansion is severely limited. Increase in output has to, thus, mainly come from vertical expansion (that is, intensification) through the use of agricultural innovations, such as improved seeds, breeds, and other modern inputs. It has already been noted since long ago that the spread of improved technologies is the key ingredient in any rural development programme of the country (Aregay, 1979). Cognizance of the above, many efforts have been made through various programmes and projects to promote the use of improved technologies and modern farm inputs. In line with this, several organizations, including international and national agricultural research centers and Ministry of Agriculture, have developed and promoted the use of improved dairy technologies, including crossbred dairy cows and goats, to increase smallholders' farm productivity and income (Freeman et al., 1998). One of these efforts has been the one made by FARM-Africa that has been undertaking Dairy Goat Development Project in Ethiopia as one component of Dairy Goat Programme being implemented by the FARM in East African countries (Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania). In Ethiopia, the project has, thus far, been operational in two sites, namely, in eastern and southern parts. In the former, the FARM has worked in collaboration with Alemaya University and Ministry of Agriculture, eastern Hararghe Branch Office, to produce and disseminate crossbred dairy goats among farm households (Gebremeskel, 2000). In addition, bucks were placed with some farmers for use by all interested farm households for mating their goats. The overall purpose of the efforts have been directed at the promotion of the use of crossbred dairy goats and thereby to enhance farm households nutrition and food security, raise their cash income and reduce natural resource (soil) degradation, where land holdings are becoming smaller and are increasingly less able to support cattle. Some preliminary analyses of the socioeconomic impact of dairy goats on the recipient families have revealed that the project has been successful (Habtemariam and Wegayehu, 1994). FARMAfrica itself states: "The dairy goat programme has made a significant contribution to thousands of families in Eastern Africa..." (Campbell, 1998/99:4). On these accounts, it has been suggested that the project should expand its scale of operation to reach more needy farmers with crossbred goats (Habtemariam and Wegayehu, 1994). In line with this argument, Alemaya University has taken over the project since June 1997, when the Farm withdrew from eastern Ethiopia, and continued with its implementation, with some financial support from FARM-Africa itself, to spread the benefits of crossbred dairy goats to more farm families. In the mean time, FARMAfrica has started another new goat project in other parts of Ethiopia with four new regional project sites. This project was planned to address 2000 desperately poor farmers in 16 districts and it was expected to be fully operational in all four regions in 1999/2000 (Campbell, 1998/99). However, past experiences reveal that subsistence farmers are not able to benefit fully or partly from the fruits of technological innovations for their adoption among these farmers is deterred by different factors. In this regard, theoretical and empirical adoption studies put forward a range factors that potentially influence the adoption of agricultural innovations among farm households (Yohannes et al., 1990; Adugna and Heidhues, 1996; Asfaw et al., 1997; Feder et al.,
1985; Shakya and Flim, 1985; Mann, 1989; Green and Ng'ong'ola, 1993; Nkonya et al., 1997) and more specifically the adoption of crossbred goats (Luveraji and Gore, 1987). It is also evident that the effects of these factors are not uniform as adoption behavior differs across socioeconomic groups, over time and geographical location (Feder et. al., 1985). After the implementation of the project, it is, thus, vital to know whether or not the technology has been adopted by the farm households together with the reasons. At this juncture, the key question that come to one's mind is: which of the above factors most influence the adoption of crossbred dairy goats among individual farm households in eastern Ethiopia? Have poor farm households used the technology as it was originally envisaged? Are farm households that have been using the technology significantly different from those that have not using the technology? How is the former group of farmers characterized in terms of socioeconomic factors? Although answers to these questions could provide useful lessons, they have not been addressed so far as there has not been empirical study on the adoption of crossbred dairy goats in the study area. The desire to contribute towards bringing this information gap led this investigation.
Objectives of the article

The general purpose of the paper is to examine factors affecting the adoption of crossbred dairy goats by farmers in eastern Ethiopia. The specific objectives are: o o to identify factors influencing the adoption of crossbred dairy goats and to assess marginal effects of key factors on the adoption of the technology.
Methodology
Description of the study area and the data set The analysis of this paper deals with three purposively selected districts, namely Deder, Kombolcha and Gursum, in eastern Ethiopia. These districts have been areas where dairy goat development project has been operational in order to popularize and disseminate crossbred dairy goats through direct distribution of the crosses and/or through using the buck mating service. Agriculture is a dominant economic activity in the districts as the majority of their populations are engaged in agriculture for their livelihood. Mixed farming characterizes the farming system of the study districts as both crop and livestock production activities are undertaken. The major agricultural products in the districts were crops (sorghum, maize, tchat, etc.) and livestock (cattle, goat, sheep, and poultry). The data used in the analysis of the paper were collected from sample farm households during the 2001/02 cropping season. A stratified three-stage random sampling method was employed to draw sample peasant associations, sample villages and then a total of 174 farm households. The distribution of the sample farmers among the three districts was as follows: Deder 70 (41.2%), Kombolcha 19 (11.2%) and Gursum 81 (47.6%). The required data were collected through personal interviews of farm household heads on the basis of structured and pre-tested questionnaire using well-trained enumerators speaking the local language and well aware of the study districts. The collected data included: farmer and farm characteristics, household characteristics, input use data, and crop and livestock production data, extension and other institutional services, farmers perceptions (opinions and views) on crossbred dairy goats. Methods of data analysis The survey data were analyzed using both descriptive analysis and econometric model with the help of SPSS for window. T-test was conducted for a number of continuous variables to check for
the mean differences between adopters and non-adopters of crossbred dairy cows. Chi-square test was also used to examine the significant differences between adopters and non-adopters of crossbred dairy cows for different dummy variables. Logistic regression model was used to identify factors that influence the adoption of crossbred dairy goats and to examine their relative importance in terms of their impact on the probability of adoption of the technology. For this purpose, a logistic regression model (Gujarati, 1988; Hosmer and Lemenshow, 1989) that is characterized with a logistic distribution function was specified as: Pi = 1/(1+ e-Zi) Where: Pi is the probability that the ith farmer adopts crossbred dairy goat and ranges from 0 to 1 and Zi is the function of the explanatory variables in the model and expressed as: i = + iXi + i Where: is the intercept, i is a vector of the slope parameters, Xi is a vector of explanatory variables in the model and i is the disturbance term.
Significance of the study

The analysis has generated information on factors that influenced the adoption of crossbred dairy goats among farm households in the study districts. This information would help in the design of appropriate policy and services directed at fostering the adoption of the technology by farm families. The same information would also significantly contribute to efforts being made to introduce crossbred dairy goats in wider areas. Such information would provide insights and guidance in the planning and operation of similar projects.
Empirical Results
Results of Descriptive Analysis The survey result has revealed that thirty-two farm households were found to be adopters of crossbred dairy goats, while the remaining 138 farm households were non-adopters. About 20% of the sample farmers adopted the technology in the study period. Descriptive statistics was used to understand the socioeconomic situations of the sample farmers (Table 1). The average age of the sample farmers was about 41 years with a standard deviation of 12.82 and the ranged between 16 and 90. Average ages of adopters and non-adopters were found to be 40.81 and 41.0, respectively. The t-test for mean difference was insignificant suggesting that there was no significant difference in age between adopters and non-adopters of CBDGs. One hundred fifty-two farm households (89.4%) were headed by male and 18 farm households (10.6%) were headed by female farmers. Out of 170 household heads, 15 sample farmers (8.8%) were able to read and write. One hundred and fifty-five (91.2%) were illiterate suggesting that the educational background of farm households in the study districts was weak. The average family size was 6.69 for sample farmers and ranged between 2 to 15 persons with a standard deviation of 2.21. This is slightly higher than the countrys and Oromia regional states averages of 5.13 and 5.44 (CSA, 1996). The average family sizes for adopters and non-adopters of CBDGs were 7.47 and 6.51, respectively. The mean difference test was significant at less than 5% indicating that adopters had larger family size than the non-adopters. Likewise, adopters of the technology had significantly more number of children below 11 (as well as 15) years of age than the non-adopters. However, they were not statistically different with respect to the number of household members within the aged brackets of 11 and 60 (or 15 and 60) years. Seventy-nine
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farm households (46.5%) had at least one seriously sick person and 32 sample respondents (about 20%) had some off-farm income. However, there was no significant difference between the two groups with respect to these variables. The overall average land holding was 1.43 hectares, while it was 1.44 hectares for adopters and 1.37 hectares for non-adopters. The average cultivated land in the study districts was 1.15 hectares, while it was 1.14 hectares for adopters and 1.15 hectares for the non-adopters. With respect to livestock holding, about 154 of the sample respondents (90.6%) had some livestock holdings. The average livestock holding was 2.75 TLU for adopters and 2.04 TLU for nonadopters and the average for the whole sample was 2.18 TLU. One hundred and three farm households (60.6%) had at least one cow. There was on the average 0.72 cow per household for all observations. The corresponding figures for adopters and non-adopters of CBDGs were 0.81 and 0.70, respectively. Seventy-seven (45.3%) of the respondents had at least one ox/bull and 43 farmers (about 25%), had at least one sheep. One hundred-nine farmers (64.1%) had at least one small ruminant (sheep and/or goat).
Table 1: Socioeconomic Characteristics of Sample Farm Households Variable AGE SEX EDUCHD SICKD MF010 MF1165 FAMILYS SHEEPN GOATSLBN SMALLRUMN COWN OXBULLN TLU LANDH LANDC EXTEND OFFFID ACFORMAL ACINFORMAL ACTCREDIT Mean 40.95 0.89 0.09 0.46 2.72 3.87 6.69 0.58 1.19 2.14 0.72 0.62 2.18 1.43 1.15 0.24 0.19 0.34 0.45 0.62 SD 12.82 0.31 0.28 0.50 1.50 1.95 2.21 1.20 1.55 2.42 0.69 0.81 1.79 0.83 0.61 0.43 0.39 0.48 0.50 0.49 min 16.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.00 2.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 max 90.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 8.00 14.00 15.00 6.00 8.00 13.00 4.00 5.00 13.67 5.50 3.75 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 -2.11** -2.46** -2.99** -5.19*** -2.35** -2.33** N t-value@
@t-values for the mean differences between non-adopters and adopters of crossbred dairy goats; *** and ** refer to 1% and 5% significance levels, respectively.
The mean difference test between adopters and non-adopters in terms of livestock holding was significant at less than 1% probability level. The numbers of oxen/bull and small ruminants particularly local goats kept by adopters of CBDGs were significantly higher than the nonadopters at less than 5% probability level. This leads to the conclusion that adopters of CBDGs were in a better position with respect livestock holding than non-adopters. With reference to agricultural extension service, most of the dissemination and promotion of the technology was done by Farm Africa itself than through the regular extension services. Chi11th ESAP-Proceedings 329
square test has revealed that there was no significant difference in extension contacts between adopters and nonadopters of CBDGs. The survey results have suggested that 62.4% of the sample respondents have received credit service both from formal and informal sources. It was only 34.1% of the sample farmers (58) who had access to formal credit offered for the purchase agricultural inputs, mainly fertilizer and seeds, during the cropping season under consideration. Seventy-seven sample farmers (45.3%) took informal credit. The aggregate figures reveal that 106 (62.4%) of the sample farmers had access to credit. Of the sample farmers who used credit, 33% were adopters of CBDGs. With regard to farmers perception of the technology, almost all sample farmers believed that crossbred dairy goats are characterized by faster growth, higher milk yield and rate of reproduction. At the same time, the respondents have expressed that higher feed requirements and disease problem are the key constraints of the technology. Crossbred dairy goats do indeed yield more milk than local goats (Habtemariam and Wegayehu, 1994). About 61 respondents (85%) have expressed their interest to adopt CBDGs, while only 11 farm households (15.28%) were not at all interested to adopt the technology. These suggest that unavailability of crossbred dairy goats seems to be the major constraint to their adoption among farm households. Econometric Results An attempt has been made to use an econometric model in order to identify factors influencing the adoption of CBDGs.
Full Logistic Regression Model
A logistic regression model was estimated using a maximum likelihood estimation procedure for farmers adoption decision of CBDGs. Table 2 presents the maximum likelihood parameter estimates. The likelihood ratio test of the null hypothesis that all slope coefficients are zero rejects the hypothesis in that some of the estimated coefficients are significantly different from zero. The estimated model has correctly predicted adopters and non-adopters in about 83.53% of the observations. The review of individual explanatory variables reveals that the number of children (MF010) took a positive coefficient that is significant at 5% level. This supports the hypothesis that higher number of children (in here below 11 years of age) favours farm households adoption decision of crossbred dairy goats. Likewise, the number of local goats owned by farm households assumed a positive coefficient that is significant at 1% level suggesting that the variable has favourable influence on the adoption of the technology. The number of oxen/bulls (OXBUL) assumed positive coefficient, but significant at only 15% level. This gives some clue that higher level of farm wealth is likely to encourage the adoption of the technology. The results in Table 1 reveal that farmer characteristics, namely age (AGE), gender (GEND), literacy (EDUHHD), and the other farm households characteristics and resources had no statistically significant effect on the farmers adoption decision of crossbred dairy goats.
Reduced Logistic Regression Model
Re-estimation of the logistic regression model by excluding explanatory variables with insignificant coefficients has generated results presented in Table 3. Evidently, both variables that were significant in the full model were also significant (at less than 10% level) in the reduced model estimate and assumed the same signs. These suggest that the influences of the two explanatory variables on farm households adoption decision of the technology are reasonably robust to changes in the model specification, that is, as regards to the number of explanatory
variables. In addition, two more variables appeared in this model estimate, namely the number of oxen/bulls owned per farm households and access to formal credit (ACFORMAL) assuming statistically significant positive and negative coefficients. However, the correctly predicated adopters have become lower, while the overall cases correctly predicted was 81.76%.
Table 2: Full Logit Regression Model for Adoption of Crossbred Dairy Goats in Three Districts, Eastern Ethiopia@ Variable Constant AGE SEX EDUHD MF010 MF1165 SICKD LANDH COWN OXBULN SHEEPN GOATLBN OFFFID EXTEND ACFORMAL ACINFORMAL B -1.4886 -0.0243 -0.6262 -0.0663 0.3546** 0.1853 -0.2573 -0.2446 -0.0689 0.4880$ -0.1741 0.3929*** -0.0613 -0.4236 -0.6767 -0.4812 S.E. 1.2493 0.0223 0.7150 0.8686 0.1673 0.1521 0.4712 0.3835 0.3283 0.3126 0.2299 0.1401 0.5714 0.5743 0.5679 0.4860 Wald 1.4198 1.1873 0.7670 0.0058 4.4934 1.4845 0.2983 0.4068 0.0440 2.4380 0.5733 7.8614 0.0115 0.5441 1.4199 0.9804 0.9760 0.5346 0.9359 1.4256 1.2036 0.7731 0.7830 0.9334 1.6291 0.8402 1.4813 0.9405 0.6547 0.5083 0.6180 Exp(B)
@***, ** and $ refer to significant levels of 1%, 5% and 15%, respectively. -2 Log Likelihood 136.864 Model Chi-Square (15,154) 27.579** Overall cases correctly predicted 83.53% Cases correctly predicted for nonadopters 96.38% Cases correctly predicted for adopters 28.13%
Table 3: Reduced form of Logit Regression Model for Adoption of Crossbred Dairy Goats in Three Districts, Eastern Ethiopia@ Variable Constant MF010 OXBUL GOATLBN ACFORMAL B -2.8518*** 0.2697* 0.4659* 0.3814*** -0.9603* S.E. 0.5388 0.1424 0.2592 0.1244 0.5227 Wald 28.0161 3.5880 3.2299 9.3999 3.3757 1.3096 1.5934 1.4643 0.3828
22.178***
Exp(B)
@*** and * refer to significant levels of 1% and 10%, respectively. -2 Log Likelihood Overall cases correctly predicted 81.76% Cases correctly predicted for nonadopters 97.10% Cases correctly predicted for adpoters 15.63%
142.265 Model Chi-Square (4,165)
Probabilities of adoption of crossbred dairy goats were estimated using the reduced logistic model. The probability that the average farmer adopts the technology is estimated to be 15.4%. An increase in the number of children by 1 over the average, holding the other variables constant at their mean values, would increase the probability of adoption of the technology to 19.3%. The adoption probability of a farm household with an increase in oxen/bulls by one was estimated at 22.51%. Likewise, an increase in the number of local goats owned by the average farmer by one will increase the probability of adoption to 22%. An increase in the number of
331
children, oxen/bulls and local goats of the average farmer by one unit each would enhance the probability of adoption to 36%.
Conclusions and Policy Implications

The objective of this paper was to identify factors influencing the adoption of crossbred dairy goats by farm households in three districts in eastern Ethiopia. The proportion of adopters of the technology to the whole sample was estimated to be 20% reflecting low adoption rate of the technology. Given huge farmers interest to use the technology, its current low rate of adoption could be associated with unavailability of adequate supply of crossbred goats. Comparison of adopters and non-adopters of the technology has revealed that the former group had significantly more number of children below 11 years of age, small ruminants and in particular local goats and oxen/bulls as well as larger overall livestock holdings. Estimation of logistic regression model has revealed that three variables, namely the number of children below 11 years of age, the number of local goats and the number of oxen/bulls owned by farm households have positive influence on their adoption of crossbred dairy goats. The positive and significant influence of the number of oxen/bulls owned on farmers adoption decision of the technology reveals that farmers with relatively better wealth status are more likely to adopt crossbred dairy goats. This implies that improving the wealth status of farmers would enhance the adoption of crossbred dairy goats. The study has revealed that extension contact has no significant effect on the adoption of crossbred dairy goats. This might be due to the fact that the regular extension service had no role in the dissemination of the technology mainly due to the fact that Farm Africa used its own staff for the purpose. It is essential to facilitate the dissemination information about the technology through the regular extension service that is tailored to the specific needs of the technology. The empirical result of this paper suggests that access to formal credit has significant negative influence on the adoption of crossbred dairy goats. This could be explained by the fact that the existing agricultural credit system focuses on short-term credit given mainly for fertilizer and seed. Strong credit service specifically tailored to the promotion of crossbred dairy goats would, therefore, be a vital step to foster the adoption of the technology by farm households. The above empirical evidences testify that the technology that was originally designed and promoted to improve the socioeconomic conditions of poor farm households has found its way into the hands of better off farm households that could assume the risks associated with cross mating (breeding) practice. This confirms the usual argument that the benefits of improved technologies do not accrue to poorer farm households. This in turn suggests the need for appropriate measures that would enhance the use of the technology by this group of farmers. Some of such measures may include improving their wealth status, for instance by helping them to acquire local goats, which would enable them to assume risk in trying up the technology. There is a serious need to focus more attention on finding ways and means of improving the capacity of poor farm households to accept risks associated with adoption of the technology.
References
Adugna, Adugna, and Heidhues, F. 1996. "A Simultaneous Equation Approach to the Analysis of Factors Affecting the Adoption of Innovations: The Case of Inorganic Fertilizer in Lume Districts, Central Ethiopia". In: (eds.). Food Security and Innovations: Successes and Lessons Learned. International Symposium, Hohenheim, PP. 199-212.
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Aregay Woktola. 1979. Assessment of the Diffusion and Adoption of Agricultural Technologies in Chilalo. Ethiopian Journal of Agricultural Science Vol. 1, No. 3, pp, 51-66. Asfaw Negassa, Gunjal, K, Mwangi, W. And Beyene, Soboka. 1997. Factors Affecting the Adoption of Maize Production Technologies in Ethiopia, Journal of Agricultural Economics. Vol. 2 No. 2: pp. 52-69. Feder, G, Just, R.E. and Ziberman, D. 1985 Adoption of Agricultural Innovations in Developing Countries. A survey Word Bank Staff Working Papers, No. 542. The World Bank, Washington DC. USA. Freeman H.A. Simeon, K. Ehui, M. and Jabbar, A. 1998. Credit Constraints and smallholder Dairy Production in the East African Highlands: Application of a Switchign Regression Model. Agricultural Economics. 19: 02. 33-44. FAO, 1993. The State of Agriculture 1993, FAO Rome Gujarati, D.N. 1988. Basic Econometrics. Second Edition, McGraw Hill, Inc. New York Habtemariam Kassa and Wegayehu Bekele, (1994) Assessment of the Socioeconomic Impact of the Dairy Goat Development Project in Eastern Hararghe, Ethiopia, Alemaya University of Agriculture, Alemaya. Hosmer, D. W. And Lemeshow, S. 1989. Applied Logistic Regression. A Wiley-Interscience Publication New York. Luveraji, U.A. and Gore, A. P.1987. Crossbred Goat Adoption in a Rural Community: Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics: 42: 587-594. Mann, S. P. 1989. Green Revolution Revised: The adoption of high yielding variety Wheat seeds in India. The Journal of Development studies. 26: 131-144. Nkonya, E, T. Schroeder and D. Norman, Factors affecting adoption of improved maize seed and fertiliser in northern Tanzania, Journal-of-Agricultural-Economics, 48:1, 1997, 1-12. Shakya, P.B. and Flinn, J.C. 1985. Adoption of Modern Varieties and Fertilizer Use on Rice in Eastern Trial of Nepal. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 36, No. 1-3: PP. 409-419. WORLD BANK. 1996. World Development Report 1995, New York WORLD BANK. 1995. World Development Report 1994, New York Yohannes Kebede, Gonjal, K and Coffin, G. 1990, Adoption of New Technologies in Ethiopia: The case of Tegulet Bulga District, Showa Province, Journal of Agricultural Economics. 4: 22-31.
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Rangeland Evaluation in the Middle Awash Valley of Ethiopia: Woody Vegetation

E Abule1, H.A. Snyman2 and G.N. Smit2
1 2
Adami Tulu Research Center, PO BOX 35, Zeway, Ethiopia Department of Animal, Wildlife and Grassland Sciences, University of the Free State, P.O. Box 339, Bloemfontein 9300, South Africa
Abstract
The woody vegetation composition, density, evapotranspiration tree equivalent (ETTE), browse production and bush encroachment were studied in part of the Middle Awash Valley of Ethiopia with an objective of determining the condition and contribution of woody vegetation as a source of feed to animals. Accordingly, seven and eight rangeland sites were identified in Kereyu-Fantale and AwashFantale districts, respectively. The data collected was analyzed using Biomass Estimate from Canopy Volume (BECVOL) model. The dominant woody plants in the study districts are species of Acacia (Acacia senegal and A. nubica) and the study districts are bush encroached with A. senegal, A. nubica and Prosopis juliflora (Awash-Fantale district only). In both districts, the browse production ranged from 194 kg ha-1 to 3 311 kg ha-1, with most of the leaf dry mass found above the height of 1.5 m.
Introduction
The crucial role of woody plants as a source of feed for both domestic and game animals, firewood, implements, source of medicine, mulch and soil conservation in semi-arid regions has long been recognized (Breman & Kessler 1995; Smit 2002) indicating that they have multiple roles in the farming systems. Due to the highly irregular nature of rainfall in the drylands and virtual disappearance of nutritious grasses during the dry seasons, trees and shrubs are an essential part of the pastoral environment (Le Houerou 1980). Despite the significant contribution of woody vegetation both as a source of feed for animals (domestic and wild) and their general role in ecosystem stability there is no detailed assessment regarding woody vegetation in the study districts. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to assess the woody vegetation in terms of density and ETTE by species. It was also intended to look into aspects of bush encroachment and a preliminary investigation on browse (leaf) production.

The study was conducted in two neighboring districts inhabited by pastoralists of different ethnic groups (Oromo and Afar) living in part of the Middle Awash Valley of Ethiopia. The main rainy season is from July to September and the mean annual rainfall is 550.9 mm. The mean minimum and maximum temperatures are 17.4C and 32.7C, respectively. Eight rangeland sites in Awash-Fantale district and 7 rangeland sites in Kereyu-Fantale district were identified for the woody vegetation study. The rangeland sites were identified based upon the importance of each of the rangeland sites to the pastoralists animal, which was obtained through a household survey. Both pastoral groups use two of the rangeland sites (Fantale and Bulga riverside). However, Fantale area commonly grazed by the animals of Oromo pastoralists and Bulga riverside commonly grazed by the animals of the Afar pastoralists were studied. In each of the rangeland sites, a sampling block of land, 3 km by 1 km (300 ha), representative of the vegetation under consideration, was demarcated. The demarcated area was further subdivided into three equal plots for the purpose of stratification (1 km x 1 km). In each of the subdivided plots, a belt transect of 50 x 4 m was laid out randomly. All rooted live woody plants in
each of the 50 x 4 m (200 m2) belt transects, regardless of being single-stemmed or multistemmed, were counted and used for an estimate of woody vegetation density per hectare. Furthermore, the spatial canopy volume of all rooted live woody plants encountered in the belt transects were measured at peak biomass. The measurement consisted of the following: (i) maximum height, (ii) height where the maximum canopy diameter occurs, (iii) height of first leaves or potential leaf-bearing stems, (iv) maximum canopy diameter, and (v) base diameter of the foliage at the height of the first leaves. In order to measure the heights and diameters of the woody plants, two calibrated aluminium poles of 2 and 4 m were used. Dimensions of those woody plants too tall to measure with poles were taken using a dimension meter (Smit 1989 c). Furthermore, each woody plant was allocated a leaf carriage score, in order to determine leaf phenology: where, 0= no leaves, 1= 110% of the full leaf carriage, 2= 11-40 % of the full leaf carriage, 3= 41-70% of the full leaf carriage, 4 = 71-100% of the full leaf carriage (Smit 1994). The leaf phenological scoring was undertaken at peak biomass and once in the dry season. For the purpose of leaf phenological observations during the dry season, 12 representative plants per species were randomly selected in each plot but in the case of less abundant species, the available individuals were selected. The selection procedure for the woody vegetation was based on a proportional sampling of all representative sizes of the woody vegetation in each plot. Leaf dry mass and leaf volume estimates were calculated using a modified version of the quantative description technique of Smit (1989a) and Smit (1989b) as described by Smit 1994. This technique provides estimates of the leaf dry mass and leaf volume at peak biomass, based on the relationship between the tree`s spatial canopy volume and its leaf dry mass and leaf volume. It was compiled into the BECVOL model. The BECVOL model uses different regression equations, obtained from harvested trees, to estimate leaf DM for microphyllous and broadleaved woody species (Smit 1994). The spatial tree canopy volume (x) was transformed to its normal logarithmic value, while y represents the estimated leaf dry mass (g). The number of ETTE ha-1 was subsequently calculated from the leaf volume estimates (1 ETTE = mean leaf volume of a single-stemmed tree with a height of 1.5 m = 500 cm3 leaf volume) (Smit 1989a). In addition to the total leaf DM ha-1, stratified estimates of the leaf DM ha-1 below 1.5 m, 2.0 m and 5.0 m respectively, were also calculated, using the BECVOL- model (Smit 1994). The estimated leaf phenology for the various plant groups can theoretically vary from 100% (p= 1) in the case of evergreen to 0% (p =0.0) during winter for the early deciduous group. However, there are indications that browsers may utilize the tips of shoots and twigs even if no leaves are present. Accordingly, the allocated leaf phenological values ranged from 0.2 (lowest leaf yield) to 1 (maximum leaf yield).
Results
Woody vegetation composition, density and evapotranspiration tree equivalent A total of 25 (Awash-Fantale district) and 34 (Kereyu-Fantale district) woody species were identified in the transects laid out for the study (Figures 1 and 2). Based upon abundance (%), the dominant woody plants in the districts were species of Acacia (A. senegal and A. nubica). In Awash-Fantale district, this was followed by species of Acalypha (Acalypha fruticosa and A. indica), species of solanum (Solanum marginatum and S.incanum) and Vernonia cinerascens. The Acacia species (A. senegal, A. robusta, A. mellifera, A. nubica, A. tortilis, A. nilotica and A. seyal) generally comprised 43% of the total woody vegetation density. In Kereyu-Fantale district, the acacia species were followed by V. cinerascens, Acalypha species, Grewia villosa, G. bicolor and G.
tenax. In both districts, important tree species such as A. nilotica, Balanites aegyptica and A. tortilis were less abundant (Figures 1 and 2). In Awash-Fantale district, when the woody vegetation data is expressed in terms of ETTE (%), three woody species were dominant, namely, A. senegal, A. nubica and P. juliflora (Figure 3), which were followed by A. nilotica, Cadaba rotundfolia, Acalypha species and A. mellifer. The woody vegetation density was highest at Top of bud (3 733 plants ha-1) and lowest in rangeland dominated by P. juliflora (467 plants ha-1). However, when the woody vegetation density data was expressed in terms of ETTE ha-1, the values were higher in rangeland sites dominated by P. juliflora (10 722 ETTE ha-1) than at top of the bud (10 130 ETTE ha-1). This result indicated that description of woody vegetation in terms of density alone might not be a good indicator of the competitive behavior of woody plants on the herbaceous layer. In Kereyu-Fantale district, based upon ETTE (%), six woody plants were most important. These in a decreasing order are A. senegal, A. nubica, A. tortilis, G. bicolor, G. villosa and A. mellifera (Figure 4). The study districts in general are bush encroached notably with A. senegal, A. nubica and P. juliflora.
25 .00 Abun dance (%) 20 .00 15 .00 10 .00 5 .00 0 .00 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Spe cie s number
Figure 1. Abundance (%) of woody vegetation in Awash-Fantale district (based upon woody plants ha1).
Awash -Fantale
Key to the
species: 1 = Acacia senegal; 2= Grewia bicolor; 3 = Vernonia cinerascens; 4= Grewia tenax; 5= Acacia robusta; 6= Grewia villosa; 7= Balanites aegyptica; 8= Rytigynia neglecta; 9= Acacia fruticosa & Acacia indica; 10= Acacia mellifera; 11= Solanum marginatum & Solanum incanum;12= Acacia nubica; 13= Acacia tortilis; 14= Cordia sinensis; 15= Withania somnifera; 16= Cadaba rotundfolia; 17= Salvadora persica; 18= Causerina equisetifolia; 19= Capparis fascicularis; 20 = Ficus gnaphalocarpa; 21= Acacia nilotica; 22= Prosopis julifloria; 23= Cryptostegia grandiflora; 24= Erythrina abyssinica; 25= Acacia seyal.
20 Abundance (% ) 15 10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 Spe c i es
Figure 2. The density of woody plants expressed in abundance (%) in Kereyu-Fantale district. Key to the species: 1= R. neglecta; 2= A. mellifera; 3= G. tenax; 4= G. villosa; 5= Solanum species; 6= A. nilotica; 7= B. aegyptica; 8= A. senegal; 9= V. cinerasens; 10= C. sinensis; 11= C. fascicularis; 12= S. perisca; 13= A. fruticosa; 14= D. cinerea; 15= L. trifolia; 16= A. tortilis; 17= G. bicolor; 18= A. nubica; 19= C. ovalis; 20= P .oranatus; 21= F.gnaphalocarpa; 22= C. rotundfolia; 23= B. aethiopum; 24= A. robusta; 25= R. natalensis; 26= B. oleoides; 27= R. commaanis; 28= P. africanum; 29= D. afromontana; 30= T. brownii; 31= C. africana; 32= A. seyal; 33= O. rochetina; 34= A. xanthophloea.
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35.0 30.0 ETTE (%) 25.0 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Species
Figure 3. Species composition of woody vegetation based on ETTE (%) in Awash-Fantale district. Key to the species: 1 = A. senegal; 2= G. bicolor; 3 = V. cinerascens; 4= G. tenax; 5= A. robusta; 6= G. villosa; 7= B. aegyptica; 8= R. neglecta; 9= A. fruticosa & A. indica; 10= A. mellifera; 11= S. marginatum & S. incanum;12= A. nubica; 13= A. tortilis; 14= C. sinensis; 15= W. somnifera; 16= C. rotundfolia; 17= S. persica; 18= C. equisetfolia; 19= C. facscicularis; 20 = F. gnaphalocarpa; 21= A. nilotica; 22= P. juliflora; 23= C. grandiflora ; 24= E. abyssinica; 25= A. seyal
35 30 25
ETTE (%
20 15 10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34
Species
Figure 4. Woody vegetation expressed in terms of % ETTE in Kereyu-Fantale district. 1= R. neglecta; 2= A. mellifera; 3= G. tenax; 4= G. villosa; 5= Solanum species; 6= A. nilotica; 7= B. aegyptica; 8= A. senegal; 9= V. cinerasens; 10= C. sinensis; 11= C. fascicularis; 12= S. persica; 13= A. fruticosa; 14= D. cinerea; 15= L. trifolia; 16= A. tortilis; 17= G. bicolor; 18= A. nubica; 19= C. ovalis; 20= P. oranatus; 21= F. gnaphalocarpa; 22= C. rotundfolia; 23= B. aethiopium; 24= A. robusta; 25= R. natalensis; 26= B. oleoides; 27= R. commaanis; 28= P. africanum; 29= D. afromontana; 30= T. brownii; 31= C. africana; 32= A. seyal; 33= O. rochetina; 34= A. xanthophloea
Browse production
Awash-Fantale district
Of the total leaf DM, 4 772 (31.14%), 9 245 (60.34%) and 1 305 (8.52%) kg ha -1 was found below the height of 1.5, greater than 1.5 up to the height of 5 and greater than 5 m, respectively. Of the amount that was beyond 5 m, the woody plants along the Bulga riverside, mainly, A. nilotica and A. tortilis that can only be used by breaking the branches contributed 85.6%. The highest leaf DM was produced at Awash-Fantale-Dulcha Junction site while the lowest at Degage (Figure 5). A. senegal, A. robusta, A. nubica, A. nilotica and P. juliflora made the highest contribution to the leaf DM production (Figure 6). The total leaf DM in kg ha-1 in each of the rangeland sites during the dry season was estimated to be 234.72 (Degage), 498.68 (Madala 1), 866.91 (Samayu), 369.60 (Lahlai), 780.12 (Top of bud1), 1685.40 (Bulga river side), 626.24 (Dellakara) and 2634.69 (AwashDulcha junction). All most all of the woody plants had a leaf phenological score of 1 (maximium leaf expression) during the wet season and variable phenological value in the dry season. However,
some of the woody species like Cadaba rotundfolia, Salvadora persica, C. equistifolia, Cryptostegia grandiflora and P. juliflora retained their leaves throughout the year.
0.0-1.5 m 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 Lahlai Degage Madala1 Top of bud1 Samayu Della kara AwashDulcha BRS Leaf DM (kg ha )
-1
>1.5-5.0 m
>5.0 m
Rangeland sites
Figure 5. Browse production stratified into height strata across the rangland sites in Awash-Fantale district.
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1 000 Le a f D M ( k g ha-1 ) 800 600 400 200 0 As Gv Ba Spe cie s Rn Gt L a hlai L eaf DM ( kg h a-1 )
500 400 300 200 100 0 As Gb Vc spe cie s 2000 1500 1000 500 0 Am As Anu Gt As S ol Gt Specie s 1 2 00 1 0 00 8 00 6 00 4 00 2 00 0 An u Aif Spec ies T op of bud1 >1 .5 - 5 m 0. 0-1 . 5 m Gt Ar >1. 5 -5 m 0. 0-1 . 5 m D egag e
>1.5- 5 m 0.0 -1. 5 m
L e af DM ( kg ha-1 )
20 00 15 00 10 00 5 00 0 Ma da la1 >5m > 1.5 - 5 m 0. 0 -1. 5 m L eaf DM ( kg h a-1 ) Sam ayu 1 500 1 000 500 0 As An Cs Spe cies 1 20 0 Ws Am >5 m >1 . 5 -5 m 0.0 -1. 5 m Le af D M (k g h a-1)
L ea f D M ( kg h a - 1)
2 000
Bulga
>5 m >1.5 -5 m 0. 0-1 .5 m
Ea Cr Aif Sp An i Ce Cf As Cg Spec ie s 30 0 0
1 Leaf D M (k g h a)
1 L eaf D M (k g h a )
1 00 0 80 0 60 0 40 0 20 0 0
Dell a kar a > 1. 5- 5 m 0. 0- 1. 5 m
25 0 0 20 0 0 15 0 0 10 0 0 500 0
>5m >1 .5 -5 m 0 .0 -1 .5 m
J unc tio n
As At Gv An Cs Am Vc Cr Sp e cie s
Ani
Pj Sp ecie s
Cg
Figure 6. stimates of the leaf dry mass (kg ha-1 ) at peak biomass, with subdivision into height strata, of woody plants in Awash-Fantale district. Key to the species: As= senegal; Gv= G. villosa; Ba= B. aegyptica; Rn= R. neglecta; Gt= G. tenax; Ar= A. robusta; Am= A. mellifera; Anu (An) = A. nubica; Sol= Solanum; Cs= C. sinensis; Ws= W. somnifera; Ea= E. abyssinica; Cr= C. rotundfolia; Aif= A. fruticosa and A. indica; Sp= S. persica; Ani= A. nilotica; Ce= C. equisetfolia; Cf= C. fascicularis; Cg= C. grandiflora; At= A. tortilis; Vc= V. cinerascens; Pj= P. juliflora.
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Kereyu-Fantale district
The total leaf DM was the highest (3 311 kg ha-1) at Mogassa and lowest at Tulu dimitu (194 kg (Figure 7). Of the total leaf DM produced across the rangeland sites, 39.9, 56.9 and 3.2 % is found below 1.5m, above 1.5 up to 5 m and above 5 m, respectively. A. senegal, A. nubica, Olinia rochetina, A. tortilis, and G. bicolor made the highest contribution to browse production (Figure 8). ha-1)
0.0-1.5 m
3500
>1.5-5.0 m
>5.0 m
Leaf DM (kg ha )
-1
3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0

K ol ba yu Ch op i M og Fa nt di m itu Tu lu a ar ol e1 H al e K ar a as s
Rangeland sites
Figure 7. Total and stratified leaf DM (kg ha-1) of the rangeland sites in Kereyu- Fantale district.
The estimated leaf DM produced in each of the rangeland sites in the dry season was Chopi (957 kg ha-1), Harole1 (880 kg ha-1), Fantale (401 kg ha-1), Kolbayu (265 kg ha-1), Mogassa (1214.0 kg ha1), Tulu dimitu (92 kg ha-1) and Kara (256 kg ha-1). The leaf phenology for all species during the wet season was 1 (maximium leaf expression) while it was variable during the dry season. Woody species in mount Fantale had a better leaf phenological value than species in the other rangeland sites.
341
Leaf DM (k g ha- 1)
2000 1500 1000 500 0 As Gv Fg Gt Spe cies Am Gb Chopi LeafDM (kg ha -1 ) >1.5- 5 m 0 .0- 1.5 m
2000 1500 1000 500 0 An Cs Ba Gv Species Cr Harole1 >1.5-5 m 0.0-1.5 m
200 L ea fDM (k g ha-1 ) L ea fD M(kg ha-1 ) 150 100 50 0 Az Rn Or Bo Pa Dc T b Ca Ase Da Species 2000 Le af D M( kg ha- 1) Leaf DM (kg ha-1) 1500 1000 500 0 V c A if Gt Anu G v Spe ci es G b At A s > 5m > 1.5 m - 5m < 1 .5m 80 > 5.0 m >1.5- 5.0 m 0.0- 1.5 m Fantale
250 200 150 100 50 0 As lt At Gb Gv Gt Aif An Ba P o Species Kolb ayu >1.5-5 .0 m 0.0-1 .5 m
Tulu dimitu 60 40 20 0 As At Dc Gb Species
>1.5- 5.0 m 0.0- 1.5 m
Ba
Aif
200 L ea f DM (k g ha-1 ) Ka ra 150 100 50 0 Ani Ba As Vc Cs Cf Ce Af Dc lt At Gb Spec ies

Figure 8. Estimates of the leaf DM (kg ha-1) at peak biomass, with the subdivision into height strata, of woody plants contributing more than one percent to the total leaf DM in each of the rangeland sites. Key to the species: As= A. senegal; Gv= G. villosa; Fg= F. gnaphalocarpa; Gt= G. tenax; Am= A. mellifera; Gb= G. bicolor; Anu= A.nubica; Cs= C. sinensis; Cr= C. rotundfolia; Ba= B. aegyptica; rn= R. neglecta; It= L. trifolia; Ax= A. xanthophloea; Rn= R. neglecta; Or= O. rochetina; Bo= B. oleoides; Pa= P. africanum; Dc= D. cinerea; Tb= T. brownii; Ca= C. africana; Ase= A. seyal; Da= D. afromontana; At= A. tortilis; Aif= A. indica and A. fruticosa; Po= P. oranatus; Vc= V. cinerascens; Ani= A. nilotica; Cf= C. fascicularis; Ce= C. equistefolia; Af= A. fruticosa;
>1.5- 5 m 0.0- 1.5 m
Discussion
Woody vegetation composition and browse production The woody plants identified in this study were more or less similar to those reported by Schloeder & Jacobs (1993) from their study in the Awash National park. The low density of some
of the woody species such as A. nilotica, A. tortilis and B. aegyptica could be associated with the usage of these woody plants for firewood and charcoal. There are limited published results of browse production to make comparison of the results of this study with others. Walker (1980) reported a yield of 594 kg ha-1 to 2 121 kg ha-1 from a C. mopane arid shrub and tree savanna in Zimbabwe, while Dekker & Smit (1996) reported a yield of 1 224 kg ha-1 to 2 672 kg ha-1 for C. mopane. Therefore, in light of the existing knowledge, the total leaf DM at peak biomass produced across the rangeland sites can be considered to be within acceptable ranges. Leaves retained on the trees in a younger phenological state followed by the early emergence of new season`s leaves are likely to be of greater value to browsers than where the trees are leafless for some time with only dry leaves available on the ground. The preliminary investigation undertaken revealed, except along the Bulga riverside, Awash-Fantale Dulcha junction and Fantale, most woody plants shed their leaves during the dry season, as the study districts were also dominated by deciduous species of Acacia. In Awash-Fantale district, E. abyssinica, C. grandiflora, C. rotundfolia, S. perisca and P. juliflora showed a higher phenological value during the dry season as well. This might be attributed to their access to water along rivers where they can get water through their deep taproots. Accordingly, the pastoralists depend on these areas as a source of browse to their stock during the dry season. Some species (O. rochetina, P. africanum, B. oleiodes, R. commaanis and D. afromontana) along Mount Fantale also displayed higher phenological values. Nevertheless, these woody plants were rated as unpalatable by the Oromo pastoralists and hence their use as a source of browse is very limited, which concurs with the report of Grunow (1980) who indicated that browsers select among plant species as markedly as grazers do.
Bush encroachment
The causal factors for bush enroachment are not absolutely clear, rather; they are diverse and complex (Smit 2002). Nevertheless Smit (2002), reported that an increase of woody plant abundance is primarily a function of two processes. The first is by an increase in the biomass of already established plants (vegetative growth) and the second is by an increase in tree density, mainly from the establishment of seedlings (reproduction). The encroachment by species of Acacia has been reported from different countries e.g., Ben- Shahar (1991) in South Africa and Arntzen & Veenendaal (1986) in Botswana. In the Afar region, P. juliflora is known as undesirable noxious plant (alien species) and this plant is becoming a major problem. In Awash-Fantale district, this plant is found localized near the town of Awash and at the border areas neighbouring Awash-Fantale district and is spreading into the grazing land of the pastoralists living in Awash-Fantale. It was indicated in the study report of Gebru (2001) that a British consulting firm first introduced this plant to the Afar region either from the neighboring Sudan or Ethiopian workers during the period between 1971-1974 around the state farms in the middle Awash valley of Ethiopia. Reynolds & Glendening (1949) indicated that between 12 to 45% of the hard P. juliflora seeds pass undamaged through livestock. Furthermore, Glendening & Paulsen (1950) reported that 27% of the total seeds fed to sheep germinated after ingestion. In conclusion, selective protection and management of naturally occurring trees and shrubs, which are of high importance for animal feeding and other functions such as A. tortilis, A. nilotica, Balanites aegyptica and others must be undertaken. To this effect, the use of the indigenous technical knowledge of the communities augmented by scientific methods is crucial in the protection and rational use of woody and other plants. Control of bush encroachment
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should start with key areas where young tree populations have invaded and should not be indiscriminate but selective.
References
Arntzen JW & Veenendaal EM 1986. A profile of environment and development in Botswana: Gaborone: National Institute of Development Research and Documentation (NIR), University of Botswana. Ben-Sharar R 1991. Successional patterns of woody plants in catchment areas in a semi-arid region. Vegetatio 93: 19-27. Breman H & Kessler J 1995. Woody plants in Agro-ecosystems of semi-arid Regions: with an emphasis on the Sahelian countries. Springer-Verlag. Berlin. Dekker B & Smit GN 1996. Browse production and leaf phenology of some trees and shrubs in different Colophospermum mopane savanna communities. African Journal of Range and Forage Science 13(1): 1523. Gebru B 2001. Vegetation survey for the proposed Regional land use plan. MOA, 2001, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Glendening GE and Paulsen HA 1950. Recovery and viability of mesquite seeds fed to sheep receiving 2,4-D in drinking water. Botanical. Gazette. 103: 486-491. Grunow JO 1980. Feed and habitat preferences among some large herbivores on African veld. Proceedings of the Grassland Society of Southern Africa 15: 141-146. Le Houerou HN 1980. The role of browse in the Sahelian zones. In: Le Houerou HN (ed) Browse in Africa. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Reynolds HG & Glendening GE 1949. Merriam kangaroo rat a factor in mesquite propagation on southern Arizona range lands. Journal of Range Management 2: 193-197. Schloeder CA & Jacobs MJM. 1993. The Awash National Park Management Plan 1993-1997. NYZS and EWCO, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 288 pp. Smit GN 1989a. Quantative descripition of woody plant communities: Part 1. An approach. Journal of the Grassland Society of Southern Africa 6: 189-191. Smit GN 1989b. Quantative descripition of woody plant communities: Part 2. Coumpterized calculation procedures. Journal of the Grassland Society of Southern Africa 6: 192-194. Smit GN 1989c. A simple, inexpensive method for estimating linear tree dimensions. Journal of the Grassland Society of Southern Africa 6: 104-105. Smit GN 1994. The influence of intensity of tree thinning on Mopani Veld. PhD thesis, University of Pretoria, South Africa. Smit GN 2002. The importance of ecosystem dynamics in managing the bush encroachment problem in Southern Africa. Inaugural lecture-May, 2002. University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa. Walker PH 1980. A review of browse and its role in livestock production in Southern Africa. In: Browse in Africa, the current state of knowledge. Houerou H N Le (ed), ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
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ANIMAL NUTRITION
Associations Between Forage Quality Traits and Determination of Regression Models for in vitro Dry Matter Digestibility Estimation : a case for Panicum coloratum
Diriba Geleti Bako Agricultural Research Center, P.O.Box 3, Western Shewa, Ethiopia
Abstract
The study is based on data generated from 25 samples of Panicum coloratum cv. coloratum pasture grown at Bako Research Center during the 1999 cropping season. The objective was to determine matrix of correlation coefficient between entities and build regression models of varying sizes to estimate in vitro DM digestibility using alternative combinations of crude protein and components of cell wall as independent factors. Generally, except for ADF with lignin and cellulose (r = -0.789), in most of the cases a correlation coefficient value not exceeding 0.5 was observed. From the regression analysis, all models except the one in which lignin and hemicellulose were used as model elements, were highly significant statistically (P= 0.00) explaining 40 percent to 64 percent of the variability in DM digestibility. However, the parameter estimates revealed that some of the traits contributed little to the explanatory power of the models and, that their coefficients did not differ significantly from zero (P<0.05). In the present study, the maximum adjusted R2 was found to be 64 percent which was observed when cellulose and hemicellulose were used among the two trait models; and protein, cellulose and hemicellulose were used among the three variable models. The two models had an equal predictive power which could perhaps be attributed to the lower adjusted R2 increment associated uniquely with protein (R2 = 0.005). Variance inflation factors (VIF) varied from 2.04 for hemicellulose to 7.94 for cellulose. Values for protein and lignin were 3.76 and 3.65, respectively. The values of VIF imply the amount that the variance of the ith regression coefficient is inflated due to collinearity. These values were observed not to exceed threshold level for the selected traits indicating that collinearity is not a problem in the data set used.
Introduction
The correlation coefficient is a measure of linear relationship between two variables (Snedecor and Cochran, 1980). Regression on the other hand is a technique for fitting a line to a set of points such that the squared vertical distances between the independent and dependent variables and the plane are minimized (Hoshmand, 1988). Multiple regression type models are used to predict the values of dependent traits using two or more predictor variables. These type of models have been used to predict crop yield from weather variables (Feyerherm and Pausen, 1981; Reddy et al, 1998) or from quantitative crop management factors like rates of fertilizer and other chemicals, and density of standing crop. The computation of multiple regression models are generally used to evaluate the effects of the independent variables. The idea is to use estimated regression coefficients to determine which variables are important and which have no effect and therefore should be removed from the model. In the abscence of laboratory facilities for the determination of in vitro digestibility of the dry matter (DM) of feed resources, multiple regression models could be used in estimating digestibility values of feeds from chemical entities. This is specially important in situations where research investment for development of analytical services is very low and thus data base on nutrient profiles for the different feed resources is scanty. Recent report by Seyoum Bediye et al. (1996) has indicated the possibility of using multiple regression equations to predict effective degradability of a feed based on neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and crude protein (CP) concentrations as model elements in the abscence of nylon bag data. The relationship between
chemical composition of feeds and parameters of degradability has also been reported to vary with the type of feed (Seyoum Bediye et al, 1996). A multiple regression model based on chemical composition of feeds as independent variables for estimating DM digestibility might not produce a model of higher explanatory power. This is apparently due to the fact that they are highly collinear as some variables represent different methods of measuring the same underlying trait or some of the cell wall fractions are the function of other components of cell wall. Therefore, a brute force approach of testing a single large regression model with several nutrient profiles as model component is almost certain to fail. Thus, alternatives on different sets of predictors should be sought, and then parameters be estimated in different ways instead. In this study, the matrix of correlation coefficient between chemical entities in Panicum was determined. Regression models of varying sizes to estimate in vitro DM digestibility were also developed using alternative combinations of CP and components of forage cell wall (cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin) as independent factors. Multicollinearity problems associated with predictive model development for DM digestibility based on protein and cell wall fractions was also considered.

Location The study was conducted at Bako Agricultural Research Center located about 250 km west of Addis Abeba at an altitude of 1650 m asl. The Bako area has a hot and humid climate and receives a mean annual rainfall of about 1220 mm of which more than 80 percent falls in the month of May to September. Mean monthly minimum and maximum temperatures at Bako are about 14 oC and 28 oC, respectively, with an average monthly temperature of 21 oC. The Feed Material The study is based on data generated from 25 samples of Panicum coloratum grown at Bako Agricultural Research Center during the 1999 cropping season. Fresh samples of the grass were harvested at about 10 cm above the ground level and dried at 60 0c in a forced draft oven for 72 hours. Dried samples were ground using 1 mm screen for chemical analysis and in vitro DM digestibility. Chemical Analysis Dry matter, ash and CP were determined using the procedures described by the association of official analytical chemists (AOAC, 1980). Percent CP was determined by multiplying percent N by the factor 6.25. Analysis of the fibre fractions (NDF, ADF and lignin) was done following the procedures described by Goering and Van Soest (1970). Hemicellulose was determined by subtracting ADF from NDF and cellulose by subtracting lignin from ADF. The two stages in vitro technique of Tilley and Terry (1963) were used to determine in vitro DM digestibility. The chemical analysis of the feed samples was done at the International Livestock Research Institute in Addis Abeba. Statistical Analysis and Calculations Correlation matrix between forage quality traits was determined following the MULTIREG procedure of MSTATC statistical software. Independent variables used as predictors were selected based on the strength of the correlation values of the relationship between the traits and after testing for multicollinearity among them. To this effect variance inflation factor (VIF) suggested by Chattergee and Price (1991) was calculated as VIF = 1/(1-Ri2), where Ri2 is the coefficient of determination of the regression where the ith independent variable is regressed against all other
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Animal Nutrition
independent variables to assess the magnitude by which the variance of the regression coefficient is inflated due to collinearity. To assess the importance of a given independent factor in explaining the dependent variable, R2 for the complete model was compared to R2 for the model with all except the factor of interest. The difference is the increment in R2 associated uniquely with that single factor. For example, to assess the importance of CP, R2 for the complete model containing all independent traits was compared to R2 for the model with all except the one that contains CP. The difference between the two values was interpreted as the increment in R2 associated with CP. Based on these calculations, only four traits were identified as appropriate for regression model development for DM digestibility. These traits were CP, cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. After identifying the appropriate traits, all possible combinations of the predictor variables were used to form regression models of varying sizes to identify a model with better power of prediction. In this particular procedure, a subset of 2n - 1, regression models were possible including the simple regression equations; n being the number of the independent variables.

The mean and range of the chemical entities analyzed are given in Table 1. Ash concentration of the samples was within the range of 6.99 to 9.64, the mean being 8.38 percent. The average CP concentration was found to be 7.95 ranging between 5.25 and 9.56. The NDF values varied from 71.42 to 79.83 and the mean was 74.98. The ADF concentration ranged from 42.80 to 52.50. The concentration for lignin, ADF-ash, cellulose and hemicellulose were 6.12, 1.92, 40.42 and 28.44, respectively. The overall mean of the in vitro DM digestibility was 53.99 with values ranging from 45.21 to 60.00 percent. Discussions and important implications of the data set for the various quality traits used in this study were given from the perspectives of animal nutrition previously (Diriba Geleti, 2000). The linear correlation matrix between the forage quality traits is given in Table 2. Associations between ash and other traits were observed to be poor. Crude protein, NDF and ADF were posetively correlated with ash. Lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose were poorly and negatively associated with ash. The correlation coefficient values of CP with NDF and ADF was observed to be negative and the magnitude is very low (Table 2). ADF - ash was posetively (r = 0.506) correlated with CP. NDF is negatively correlated with all the traits included in the study and correlation values of NDF with hemicellulose was found to be perfectly negative (r =-1). Similarly, lignin was perfectly and posetively (r = +1) correlated with cellulose. Generally, except for ADF with lignin and cellulose (r=-0.789), in most of the cases a correlation coefficent value not exceeding 0.5 was observed. Similar features were reported for quality traits of local protein sources by Seyoum Bediye et al. (1996). Multiple regression models based on all possible combinations of predictor variables are given in Table 3. From the regression analysis, all models except model 1 (P>0.05) are highly significant (P< 0.001) explaining 40 percent (model 5) to 64 percent (model 3 and model 10) of the variability in DM digestibility. However, the parameter estimates indicate that some of the traits are contributing little to the explanatory power of the models and, that their coefficients does not differ significantly from zero (P<0.05). The parameter estimate of cellulose was observed to be negative across all the models in which it was used as independent variable and its coefficients did vary significantly from zero (P<0.05 - 0.001). Similarly, CP was observed to have a positive regression coefficient in the models where it was included as independent factor.
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The present study generally indicated that the adjusted coefficient of multiple determination (adjusted R2) did not exceed 64 percent and thus most of the models are not guaranted to be best for estimating in vitro DM digestibility. The maximum adjusted R2 was 64 percent which was obtained when cellulose and hemicellulose were used in the case of the two trait models and protein, cellulose and hemicellulose were used in the three variable models. These two models had an equal predictive power which indeed is due to the lower adjusted R2 increment associated uniquely with protein (R2 = 0.005) (Table 4). Variance inflation factors and increment in adjusted R2 associated with the independent traits are also given in Table 4. Variance inflation factors varied from 2.04 for hemicellulose to 7.94 for cellulose. Values for CP and lignin were 3.76 and 3.65, respectively. The increment in adjusted R2 associated uniquely with CP, lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose were 0.005, 0.00, 0.08 and 0.03, respectively. Values of variance inflation factors imply the amount that the variance of the ith regression coefficient is inflated due to collinearity. As indicated in Table 4, this value was observed to be higher for cellulose (7.94) and lower for hemicellulose (2.04) (Table 4). According to Thomas (1993), there is no hard and fast rule for how big a value is considered to be too big, but Chatterjee and Price (1991) suggest that values of VIF greater than ten are often taken as a signal that the data have collinearity problems. Infact, in the present study the values of variance inflation factors for the selected traits were not greater than ten indicating that collinearity is not a problem either. In the case of the simple linear regression models (Table 5), cellulose alone accounted for 60 percent of the variation in DM digestibility. Lower r2 values were observed for hemicellulose (3 %), lignin (20 %) and CP (39 %). In all models, cellulose was observed to have a negative rate of change implying its negative effect on the digestibility of forages. This is in line with the widely held view that cellulose is accouted for poor digestibility of forages.
Table 1. Mean and range of the quality traits of Panicum coloratum used in this study Parameters Ash Crude protein NDF ADF Lignin ADF- ash Cellulose Hemicellulose In vitro DMD N 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 Mean 8.308 7.947 74.982 46.542 6.144 1.920 40.420 28.440 53.998 Range 6.99-9.64 5.25-9.56 71.42-79.83 42.77-52.50 4.71-9.03 1.49-2.31 37.56-43.47 25.69-32.00 45.21-60.00
Table 2. Simple linear correlation matrix between the different forage quality traits of Panicum coloratum Traits Ash CP NDF ADF Lignin ADF-ash Cellulose HC Ash 1.00 0.068 0.254 0.031 -0.188 -0.300 -0.188 -0.254 1.00 -0.306 -0.102 0.286 0.506 0.286 0.306 1.00 -0.210 -0.434 -0.191 -0.434 -1.00 1.00 -0.789 -0.181 -0.789 0.210 1.00 0.287 1.00 0.434 1.00 0.287 0.191 1.00 0.434 1.00 CP NDF ADF Lignin ADF-ash Cellulose HC
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Animal Nutrition
Conclusion
In conclusion, the present study revealed that values of correlation coefficient between different quality traits in Panicum were generally observed to be low except for ADF with lignin and cellulose (r = -0.789). The maximum adjusted R2 was 64 percent which was obtained when cellulose and hemicellulose were used among the two trait models (IVDMD = 182.53 - 2.3817Cellulose1.1345Hemicellulose; R2 = 64; P = 0.00); and CP, cellulose and hemicellulose were used among the three trait models (IVDMD = 156.55 + 0.6219 CP - 0.0601Cellulose - 0.8517 Hemicellulose; R2 = 0.64; P = 0.00). An equal predictive power of the two models is associated with the lower adjusted R2 increment associated uniquely with CP (R2 = 0.005). Values of variance inflation factors were observed to be higher for cellulose (7.94) and lower for hemicellulose (2.04). In fact, the selected traits for multiple regression model building in this study had values less than the reported threshold which is a suggestive of the fact that collinearity is not a problem either.
Table 3. Parameter estimates, standard error of the estimate, R2 and adjusted R2 for the different models developed using combinations of the independent variables Model 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Traits in the model Lignin Hemicellulose Lignin Cellulose Cellulose Hemicellulose Protein Lignin Protein Hemicellulose Protein Cellulose Protein Lgnin Cellulose 8 Lignin Cellulose Hemicellulose 9 Protein Lignin Hemicellulose 10 Protein Cellulose Hemicellulose 11 Protein Lignin Cellulose Hemcelllose 157.95 156.55 45.48 184.45 101.07 108.15 9.16 46.18 182.53 141.79 Constant 74.39 Parameter estimate - 2.2597 - 0.2304 - 0.8338 - 2.2984 - 2.3817 - 1.1345 2.5903 - 2.0860 2.6828 0.8269 1.1546 - 1.5668 1.3294 - 0.3354 - 1.3752 0.5046 - 2.5527 - 1.0675 2.5923 - 2.0729 - 0.0213 0.6219 - 0.0601 - 0.8517 0.5927 0.0477 - 2.0914 - 0.8587 Standard error of estimate 1.0081 0.7986 0.8649 0.4745 0.3647 0.5267 0.5562 0.6261 0.6551 0.5842 0.6335 0.3913 0.8793 1.1423 0.7652 0.8314 0.4652 0.5457 0.5718 0.7335 0.5837 0.7349 0.5283 0.62665 1.0362 1.1628 0.9349 0.6640 T for HO: Parameter = 0 -2.242 -0.289 0.964 -4.844 -6.530 -2.154 4.658 -3.332 4.096 1.415 1.822 -4.005 1.512 -0.294 -1.797 0.607 -5.487 -1.956 4.533 -2.822 0.036 0.843 -3.899 -1.359 0.572 0.041 -2.237 -1.293 Prob.>|T| 0.0350* 0.775NS 0.345NS 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.041* 0.000*** 0.003*** 0.000*** 0.170NS 0.081NS 0.001** 0.144NS 0.772NS 0.085NS 0.550NS 0.000*** 0.062NS 0.000*** 0.009** 0.971NS 0.406NS 0.001** 0.187NS 0.573NS 0.968NS 0.035* 0.208NS 0.681 0.62 0.00 0.681 0.64 0.00 0.601 0.54 0.00 0.676 0.63 0.00 0.654 0.61 0.00 0.653 0.62 0.00 0.450 0.40 0.001 0.601 0.57 0.00 0.670 0.64 0.00 0.617 0.58 0.00 R2 0.211 adj. R2 0.14 FTest 0.074
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Ethiopian Society of Animal Production Table 4. Variance inflation factors and adjusted R2 increment associated with each independent factor used for model building Traits Protein Lignin Cellulose Hemiulluse Ri2* 0.734 0.726 0.874 0.509 Variance inflation factors (VIF) 3.76 3.65 7.94 2.04 Adjusted R2 increment associated to each trait 0.005 0.000 0.08 0.027
This stands for Ri2 value when each independent variable is regressed over the other independent variables and the values were used to calculate variance inflation factors for each trait
Table 5. Simple regression coefficients of the different traits used to predict in vitro DM digestibility Traits Protein Lignin Cellulose Hemicellulose Constant - 0.32 11.41 56.32 25.89 Parameter estimate 0.153 - 0.098 - 0.304 0.047 SE 0.039 0.040 0.052 0.056 r2 0.399** 0.210* 0.600*** 0.030NS
References
A.O.A.C (Analysis of official analyitical chemists). 1980. Official Methods of Analysis, Arlington, V.A, U.S.A. Chatterjee, S. and Price, B. 1991. Regression Analysis by Example. 2nd ed. Wiley, New York. Diriba Geleti. 2000. Productivity of Panicum coloratum under varying stages of harvest, low levles of N fertilizer and in combination with Stylosanthe guianensis during estabishement year. A thesis submitted to the school of graduate School of Alemaya University in partial fullfillment of the requirements for the Degree Master of Science in Agriculture (Animal production), Alemaya, Ethiopia. Feyerherm, A.M. and Paulsen, G.M. 1981. Development of Wheat Yield Prediction Model. Agron. J. 73: 277 282. Goering, J.M.A and Van Soest, P.J. 1970. Forage fiber analysis. Agricultural Hand Book No. 379. Agricultural Research Services, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington D.C., USA. Hoshmand, R.A. 1988. Statistical Methods For Agricultural Sciences. California State Polytechnic University, Pomona. Timber press, Portland, Oregon. Reddy, R.M.G., Rao, M.M., and Murthy, S.K.K. 1988. A multiple regression model for predicting groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) yields in arid zones using weather parameters. Trop. Agric. (Trinidad), 75:4. Seyoum Bediye, Ummuna,V.I. Nsahlia, I. V., Zinash Sileshi and Alemu Yami .1996. Inter-relationships of chemical properties, in vitro digestibility and ruminal degradability characteristics of protein sources. In: Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Conference Ethiopian Society of Animal Production, 18 -19 April,1996, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Snedecor, G.W. and Cochran, W.G. 1980. Statistical Methods, Seventh Edition. The Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, USA.
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Thomas, E. P. 1993. Multiple Regression: Herbivory In: Samuel M. Scheiner and Jessica Gurevitch (eds.). Design and Analysis of Ecological Experiments. Chapman and Hall, An International Thomson Publishing Company, USA, New York. Tilley, J. M.A. and Terry, R.A. 1963. A Two-stage Technique for in vitro Digestion of Forage Crops. J. Br. Grassl. Soc. 18: 104 - 111.
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Growth Performance of Weaned Horro Lambs Fed a Basal Diet of Barley (Mosnoo) Straw and Supplemented with Different Levels of Concentrate
Gemeda Duguma , Takele Kumsa, Ulfina Galmessa and Solomon Abegaz Oromia Agricultural Research Institute, Bako Agricultural Research Center, P. O. Box 03, West Shoa, Oromia, Ethiopia
*
Abstract
A feeding trial based on Barley (Mosnoo) straw based diet was carried out for three months in 1999 to assess the potential of the straw and to determine the optimum level of concentrate for maximum intake of the straw and increased weight gain of the animals. Seventy purchased Horro ram lambs were stratified on the basis of body weight and body condition score and randomly assigned to five treatments. The treatments were 1) grazing only, 2) mosnoo straw only, 3) grazing + mosnoo straw + 100 g/head/day concentrate, 4) grazing + mosnoo straw + 200g/head/day concentrate, and 5) grazing + mosnoo straw + 300g/head/day concentrate. The composition of the concentrate mixture were 49% ground maize, 49% Noug cake (Guizotia abyssinica), 1% common salt and 1% blood and bone meal. The straw has an invitro digestibility of 39.8% and crude protein content of 3.25%. Significant difference was observed in the effect of level of supplements both on feed intake and weight gain of the animals (p< 0.01). All animals assigned to feed on mosnoo straw alone died before the end of the trial. The study revealed that there is improvement of animal performances by supplementing the straw with concentrate levels above 200g/head/day. The sole diet of the straw is, however, far even below sub-maintenance level at Bako condition.
Key words: Basal diet; growth performance; Horro lambs; mosnoo straw
Introduction
As in other livestock systems, small ruminant production suffers from feed shortages at all levels. In mixed agricultural systems, sheep and goats production relies on communal grazing and crop residues (Kassahun et al., 1989; Lulseged and Mohammed, 1989). The very high growth rate of human population increases (Alemu et al., 1989; Goshu et al., 1989; Shapiro et al., 1994) the pressure on the land for crop- production, resulting in less and less land available for grazing and leading to an increased utilization of crop residues as animal feed, and (Owen et al., 1989) creating a need for stall feeding for goats and sheep based on crop residues, especially on small farms. At least one kilogram of residue is produced in the field for each kilogram of grain produced (Klopfeinston, 1978; Kossila, 1987) and it is available during the part of the year (dry season) when feed from natural pasture is limited. Alemu et al. (1989) also added that many farmers in the region regularly conserve crop residues for use during the dry season as the sole feedstuff for animals, and the common practice is to feed them untreated in the long-dry form. Under smallholder mixed farming system hay making from shrinking and overgrazed natural pasture seems impractical. At this time, feeds such as mosnoo straw can play a role in mitigating problems of feed shortages. Mosnoo is a local name of the off-season barley grown after the harvest of the main season barley (Samareta) and/or on potato land, or a piece of land left uncultivated during the main season because of oxen or seed shortage. Under farm condition it is observed that the straw has no palatability problem. Nevertheless, there is lack of knowledge of the effect of these feedstuffs on the performance of animals when used in practical situations. That means it has not been
*
Corresponding author
fully exploited as feed for ruminants due to little or no knowledge of processing or level of incorporation in concentrate supplements. This study was, therefore, carried out to investigate the potential of mosnoo straw and effects of different levels of concentrate supplementation on growth performance of weaned Horro ram lambs.

The study was conducted at Bako Research Center which is located at 9o 07`North and 37o 05`East and about 258 km West of Addis Ababa on the main road to Nekemte. The elevation of the centre is 1650 meters above sea level. The rainfall is a uni-modal in pattern amounting to 1194mm 80% of which fall from May to September, and a mean relative humidity of 59%. The mean annual temperature is 21oc with a minimum and maximum temperature of 14oc and 28oc, respectively. Seventy milk teeth Horro ram lambs were bought from the highlands of Horro Guduru, and stratified on the basis of body weight and body condition score and randomly assigned to the following five treatments having 14 animals each. The treatments were: 1. Grazing only (control) 2. Mosnoo straw alone (kept indoor for the whole period) 3. Grazing + Mosnoo straw + 100g/head/day concentrate 4. Grazing + Mosnoo straw + 200g/head/day concentrate 5. Grazing + Mosnoo straw + 300g/head/day concentrate The straw was collected from two different sites, from the highlands of Horro Guduru and Jimma Arjoo, of East Wollegga Zone. To avoid any possible effect of differences in nutritional values of different cultivars, straw from both sources was thoroughly mixed up at the centre. Before the commencement of the actual experiment preliminary observation on palatability and intake of the straw was carried out for a month and estimation of amount of straw to be offered for ad libitum feeding was obtained. The lambs were drenched and sprayed against internal and external parasites and conditioned to straw feeding for a period of 2 weeks before the commencement of the actual experimental period of 90 days. Except for the group fed on the mosnoo straw alone, all lambs were allowed to graze during the day (9:00 am to 5:00 pm) on natural pasture and received their respective supplements in individual feeding pen upon return from grazing. Water was available twice a day. Mosnoo straw was available ad libitum for all treatment groups except for treatment 1. The composition of the concentrate mixture was 49% ground maize, 49% noug cake, 1% blood and bone meal and 1% common salt. Feed offered and refused was taken daily. Body weight and condition score were taken both at the start and fortnightly through out the course of the trial. Data analyses were performed using the General Linear Models Procedure of the SAS statistical package (SAS, 1996).

Analysis of variance for body weight and body condition scores are presented in Tables 1 and 2, while least-squares means for the same traits are shown in Table 3. The analyses of variance showed that the fixed effect model accounted, on average, for 73.4 % and 60.1 % of the variances for body weight and body condition scores taken at different ages, respectively. In the current study, level of supplements had a significant effect on mosnoo straw intake of the animals (p<0.001) was observed in the effect of level of supplements on mosnoo straw intake of the animals. The average per head per day straw intake was 374.7 16.32g, 248.3 16.33g, 216.2 16.32g and
Animal Nutrition
289.7 17.04g for treatments 2 to 5, respectively. Mosnoo straw intake was higher in-group, which assigned to feed on mosnoo straw alone followed by group of animals, which received higher level of concentrate supplementation. As opposed to our findings, Solomon and Solomon (1995) reported that roughage intake was reduced as the proportion of concentrate in the diet increased.
Table 1. Analysis of variance and level of significance of body weight as affected by treatment and initial body weight Mean squares and significance levels for body weight taken at: Month 1 Treatment Initial weight R (%) C.V. (%) EMS 4 1 45.61** 92.24*** 64.79 10.66 145.01 Month 2 118.95*** 86.93*** 75.80 9.83 124.41 Month 3 156.64*** 49.77*** 79.51 9.58 100.65 179.38*** 12.50 61.68 94.47 119.83 0.015*** 0.001 44.21 113.13 0.021
Source
df
Total gain
ADG
EMS=error mean squares; **= p<0.01; ***=p<0.001; ADG=average daily gain
Table 2. Analysis of variance and level of significance of condition score as affected by treatment and initial condition score Source Treatment Initial condition R (%) C.V. (%) EMS
EMS=error mean squares; *=p<0.05; ***=p<0.001
df 4 1
Mean squares and significance evels for condition scores taken at: Month 1 1.651* 0.173 40.75 18.27 5.73 Month 2 2.641*** 0.011 58.62 15.01 3.86 Month 3 4.318*** 0.001 81.04 11.31 1.73
Treatment had significant effect (at least at p<0.05) both on body weight and body condition scores taken at different ages and total weight gain and average daily gain. Sheep that were allowed to graze (grazing only) and those allowed grazing, offered Mosnoo straw and supplemented with 100g/head/day concentrate maintained weight, while those that were offered Mosnoo straw and supplemented with 200g to 300g/head/day concentrate gained weight. Nevertheless, sheep that were fed Mosnoo straw as the sole diet were all died before the end of the trial. This could confirm an earlier suggestion by Alemu et al. (1989) and Sahoo et al. (2002). Though, ruminants in the majority of developing countries are reared on poor quality roughages, particularly cereal straws which are used as mainstay for the nutrition of the animals, the availability of nutrients from the poor quality roughage is inadequate for the maintenance of the animals (Sahoo et al., 2002). Alemu et al. (1989) also indicated that crop residues when fed alone could only fulfill sub-maintenance requirements for the ruminants. According to Alemu et al. (1989), who referred the work of Hespell (1979), in the absence of fermentable energy substratum and other exogenous nutrients, about 60% of the ruminal bacterial population and 30% of lysis die within 2h because of starvation. Chemical composition and in vitro digestibility of Mosnoo straw and Rhodes hay are presented in Table 4. Cereal straws of teff, barley, wheat and pulse crop residues are staked after threshing and fed to selected group of animals during dry season (Lulseged and Mohammed, 1989). In the argument of these authors, crop residues have long been important as a maintenance feed for ruminants, in this study the sole diet of the mosnoo straw is, however, far even below sub-maintenance level at Bako condition, in which all the animals from the sole diet group lost before the termination of the study. This might be due to its very low feeding value resulting from low digestibility and low protein content (Table 4). It can be seen that the protein
requirement of the animals couldnt be satisfied since the CP content of the mosnoo straw used was very low. The CP content of Mosnoo straw obtained in the current study was lower than that of Rhodes hay, but within the range of those reported for different barley cultivars by Seyoum et al. (1998). The low CP and high NDF and ADF of these feedstuffs could be owing to the advancing stage of maturity and it is consistent with the expected characteristics of tropical feeds (Seyoum and Zinash, 1995).
Table 3. Least squares means (SE) of body weight and condition score as affected by different feeding treatments Effect BWT at month 1 BWT at month 2 BWT at month 3 Total gain ADG* BC at month 1 BC at month 2 BC at month 3 Overall mean 16.84 17.95 19.13 1.987 0.022 2.0 2.1 2.1 Treatment 1 15.70.56 15.90.97
a
Treatment 2 15.70.81
a
a
a
Treatment 5 18.70.59b 21.00.58c 22.70.63c 5.60.62c
16.90.59ab
a
16.20.51a 17.30.59
ab
17.80.51b 18.70.55
b
-1.20.82a -0.0050.01 1.90.14ab 1.60.13a 1.40.15a

a
0.200.57a 0.0040.01 1.50.18ab 1.90.10ab 2.10.09a 1.90.08b

ab
1.90.57b 0.0210.01 2.00.11a 2.00.09b 2.00.07b

b
0.0550.0c 2.30.13c 2.60.11c 2.80.09c
ADG*=Average Daily Gain, BWT=Body weight, BC=Body condition score; different superscripts in rows denote significant differences within effects
Tropical feed resources are mainly native pastures and agricultural by-products that are mostly deficient in protein content and animal cannot maintain a positive N balance (Seyoum et al., 1996). According to these authors, among other nutrients protein deficiency is a constraint of practical significance in limiting livestock productivity. Dirriba (2000) who referred the works of Milford and Haydock (1965), Van Soest (1982) and Adugna and Said (1994) indicated that CP values less than 7.5% inhibits intake, digestibility and proper utilization of the DM of feeds. The in vitro digestibility of Mosnoo straw obtained in the present study was lower than those reported for different barley cultivars in the literature (Seyoum et al., 1998). Both the NDF and ADF contents obtained were within the range reported for dry forages and roughages, but higher than those reported for green forages and roughages. They were also within the range reported by Alemu et al. (1989) for different crop residues. These authors indicated that cell wall estimated as NDF accounts for as much as 80% of the dry matter in cereal crop residues and represents a large source of energy for ruminants. However, the ability of rumen microorganisms to digest cell wall polysaccharides (cellulose and hemicellulose) is limited by the presence of phenolic and other aromatic compounds, generally referred to as lignin. Lignin contents of both feed staffs evaluated in the current study were lower than 10% and are within the range of the literature reports for different feed classes, but slightly higher than the 5.4% reported for barley (Seyoum and Zinash, 1995). Fall et al. (1989) indicated that cereal straws if offered alone couldnt meet the maintenance requirement of cattle, sheep or goat. Thus, they need to be supplemented with concentrates in order to support reasonable milk or meat production. Sahoo et al. (2002) also indicated that optimization of animal productivity using roughages as sole diet can be achieved either by supplementation or pre-treatments with alkali materials such as urea, ammonia, sodium hydroxide, hydrogen peroxide, ozone etc. Alemu et al. (1989) also advised the supplementation of crop residues with readily fermentable carbohydrates such as molasses or concentrates (Alemu et al., 1989).
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Animal Nutrition Table 4. Chemical composition and in vitro digestibility of Mosnoo straw and Rhodes hay Nutrients In vitro digestibility (%) DM (%) Ash (%) OM (%) N (%) CP (N*6.25) (%) NDF (%) ADF (%) ADF-Ash Lignin (%) Cellulose (%) Hemicellulose (%) Na (PPM) K (%) Ca (%) G.E. (J/gDM) Feed type Mosnoo straw (fresh) 39.85 92.96 5.38 94.62 0.52 3.25 77.90 49.80 1.72 8.10 41.70 28.10 215.17 1.78 0.23 18944.00 Rhodes hay 45.78 95.55 7.33 92.67 1.23 7.69 77.35 48.46 2.27 8.03 40.43 28.89 29.45 2.31 0.43 18221.00
Conclusion
Results of the current study indicated that Mosnoo straw if offered alone couldnt meet the maintenance requirement of growing sheep. This could be due to the very low CP and high NDF and ADF content of the Mosnoo straw used. Thus, in this region of the country, optimization of sheep productivity using Mosnoo straw as sole diet could be achieved either by supplementation with concentrate levels above 200g/head/day or pre-treatments of Mosnoo straw with alkali materials or with readily fermentable carbohydrates such as molasses. These alternatives, based on the results of the current study and the established facts concerning the utilization of cereal straws, are crucial in the improvement of feeding value of the studied diet and animal performances essentially by improving microbial activity in the rumen.
Acknowledgement
Our heart felt gratitude is to Mr. Dawit Negassa for chemical analysis and ILRI for kind permission to use the Lab. Our acknowledgment is also to Mr. Berhanu Soboqa and Berhan Feleke for the management of the experimental animals and data collection. Mr. Yohannes Kejela, Livestock Farm Manager, is also acknowledged for his valuable support in flock management.
References
Alemu Yami, Zinash Sileshi and Seyoum Bediye. 1989. The potential of crop residues and agro-industrial byproducts as animal feed. In: Proceedings of 3rd National Livestock Improvement Conference. 24-26 may 1989. IAR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. P. 57-64. Dirriba Geleti. 2000. Productivity of Panicum coloratum under varying stages of harvest, low levels of nitrogen fertilizer and in combination with Stylosanthes guianensis during establishment year. MSc Thesis, Alemaya University, Dirre Dawa, Ethiopia.
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Fall, S., Guerin, H., Sall, C. and Mbaye, N.D. 1989. Cereal straws in the feeding system of ruminants in Senegal. Overcoming constraints to the efficient utilization of agricultural by-products as animal feed. In proceedings of the fourth annual workshop held at the institute of animal research, Mankon station, Amenda, Cameroon. 20-27 October 1987. African Research Network for agricultural by products (ARNAB) ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. P. 173-189. Goshu Mekonnen, Teketel Forsido, Alemu G/Wold, Zeleke Dagnachew and Addis Anteneh. 1989. In: Proceedings of 3rd National Livestock Improvement Conference. 24-26 may 1989. IAR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. P. 9-19. Kassahun Awgichew, Getachew Gebru, Zelalem Alemayehu, Negussei Akalework and Ian Fletcher. 1989. Small Ruminant Production in Ethiopia: Constraints and future Prospects. In: Proceedings of the 3rd National Livestock Conference, Addis Ababa, 24-26 may 1989. IAR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. P. 37-48. Klopfenstein, T. 1978. Chemical treatment of crop residues. J. Anim. Sci. 46: 841-848. Kossila, V. 1987. The availability of crop residues in developing countries in relation to livestock population. P. 29-39. In: D. J. Reed B.S. Capper and P.J.H. Neate (eds). Plant breeding and the nutritive value of crop residues. Proceedings of the workshop held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 7-10, December 1987. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Lulseged Gebrehiwot and Jamal Mohammed. 1989. The potential of crop residues, particularly wheat straw, as livestock feed in Ethiopia. Overcoming constraints to the efficient utilization of agricultural by products as animal feed. In proceedings of the 4th Annual Workshop held at the institute of animal research, Mankon station, Amenda, Cameroon. 20-27 October 1987. African Research Network for Agricultural by products (ARNAB) ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. P. 142-154. Owen, E., Wahed, R.A., Alimon, R. and El-Naiem, W. 1989. Strategies for feeding straw to small ruminants: Up grading or generous feeding to allow selective feeding. Overcoming constraints to the efficient utilization of agricultural by products as animal feed. In proceedings of the fourth annual workshop held at the institute of animal research, Mankon station, Amenda, Cameroon. 20-27 October 1987. African Research Network for Agricultural by products (ARNAB) ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. P. 1-21. Sahoo, B., Saraswat, M. L., Haque, N. and Khan, M. Y. 2002. Chemical treatment of wheat straw on intake and nutrient utilization in sheep. Indian J. Anim. Sci. 72: 1162-1165. SAS, 1996. SAS Users Guide: Statistics, Statistical Analysis Systems Institute, Inc., Cary, NC. Seyoum Bediye and Zinash Sileshi. 1995. Chemical composition, in vitro digestibility and energy values of Ethiopian feedstuffs. In: Proceedings of the third Conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP), 27-29 April 1995. IAR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. P.307-311. Seyoum Bediye, Ummuna, V. I., Nsahlia, I. V., Zinash Sileshi and Alemu Yami. 1996. Interrelationships of chemical properties, in vitro digestibility and ruminal degradability characteristics of protein sources. In: Proceedings of the fourth Annual Conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production, 18-19 April 1996, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. P. 129-138. Seyoum Bediye, Zinash Sileshi, Getinet Asefa and Hailu Gebre. 1998. Effect of cultivars and fertilizer application on yield and quality of barley straw. In: Proceedings of the sixth Annual Conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production, 14-15 May 1998, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. p. 279-285. Shapiro, B.I., Mohamed-Saleem, M.A. and Reynolds, L. 1994. Socio economic constraints to strategic sheep fattening: Evidence from the Ethiopian highlands. Small Ruminant Research and Development in Africa. In: Proceedings of the Second Biennial Conference of the African Small Ruminant Research Network. AICC, Arusha, Tanzania. 7-11 December 1992. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
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Solomon Abegaz and Solomon Gizaw. 1995. Hay intake and growth performance of lambs fed maize and noug cake supplements in different forms. In: Proceedings of the third Annual Conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production, 27-29 April 1995, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. p. 261-265.
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Effect of Fungal Treatment on Chemical Composition, in vitro Digestibility and Tannin Degradation of Babul Pods (Acacia nilotica)
Aemiro Kehaliew1, S.N.Rai2 and A.K. PunIya2
1.Ethiopian 2.National
Agricultural Research Organization, Holetta, P.o.Box 2003,Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana 132 001, India
Abstract
Treatment of Babul pod (Acacia nilotica) with the fungus Pleorotus ostreatus was carried out to access the possibility of using this fungus for upgrading the nutritional quality of tanniniferous feeds. The fungus was allowed to grow with varying moisture content (50, 55, 60 & 65% of the DM) and different incubation period (3, 6, 9, 12 & 15 days). By visual grading excellent cottony growth was considered optimum level of moisture for further study in the experiment. The treated material (Babul pod) was evaluated for chemical composition, dry matter loss, in vitro digestibility, partitioning of tannin and its degradation. CP content increased significantly (P<0.01) from 12.96 to 21.8 percent as the incubation period increased from 3 to 9 days. Similarly tannin degradation increased significantly from 13.0 to 75.1 percent as the incubation period increased from 3 to 9 days. On the other hand dry matter loss increased significantly as the incubation period prolonged form 3 to 15 days and it reached to the extent of 34.1 percent. In general the result revealed that 60% moisture content and 9 days of incubation period are the optimum treatment condition to enhance the quality of the material.
Introduction
Several tropical agro-industrial products and forage legumes contain secondary plant compounds, which may diminish their potential value of high quality feeds. Tannin, being secondary plant compound, causes such diminishing effect on feed quality. Acacia nilotica is browse tree with pods and leaves that are excellent fodder and are available when there is no grass. Pods are collected as a supplement for dairy cattle. The pods are reported to contain tannic acid and must be ground before feeding to cattle as otherwise the seeds pass undigested with faces. Large quantities of extracted (degummed) Babul seeds are available for feeding livestock. Approximately 60,000 metric tones of Babul seeds are annually available. Of these at least 15-20 thousand metric tones are annually collected for use by the Compounded Feed Industry. The Babul seeds (extracted) can be used up to 15% level in the concentrate mixtures of lactating cows (daily milk yield 8 kg.). These can also be included at 39% level in the concentrate mixtures of crossbred calves (daily gains 645 g). The seeds are moderate source of energy (TDN 59%) and a fairly good source of protein (DCP 13.8%). The extracted seeds also contain about 5 percent tannins. The utilization of various agro-industrial by-products in cattle feed formulation are restricted due to the presence of one or the other antinutritional factors, which are natural constituents of the material. Tannins are also considered as an anti-nutritional factor, which contribute a significant degree in many of the feed materials. It was, therefore, of utmost important to understand the complexity of tannins and its constituents to explore the possibilities of incorporation at higher levels of tanniniferous feeds in various feed formulations by providing some antidote to nullify the toxic effects of tannins. This will help in minimizing the feed cost on one hand and enhance the animal productivity on the other hand. In order to eliminate antinutrient action of tannins, various physical, chemical and biological treatments are employed.
Therefore the present study was conducted to ameliorate antinutrient actions of tannins by fungal treatment at different level of moisture and incubation period of non-conventional agroindustrial by products like Babul pods Materials and Methods
Experimental material
Acacia pod (Acacia nilotica) were selected largely due to plenty availability and the presence of high content of tannins. Acacia pod, containing seed and seed cover were purchased from local market and dried at 65C in hot air oven overnight and then ground at 1 mm screen size and stored in a container till further analysis. The fungus used was Pleurotus ostreatus and it was made available from the Dairy Microbiology Division of NDRI, (Karnal, India). It was maintained on sorghum grain, stored at 4C and subcultured every alternate month.
Analytical Procedures
Moisture content was determined by oven drying to a constant mass at 105 oc. The CP and ash content were determined in accordance with the standard methods of AOAC (1990). The neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid detergent fiber (ADF) were determined according to Van soest et al. (1991). In vitro digestibility of dry matter and organic matter were determined according to Tilley and Terry (1963). Total phenols, non-tannin phenols and condensed tannins were determined by colorimetric method described by Makkar et al. (1993). Total phenols were quantified by Folin-Ciocalteu reagent and tannins as the difference in phenolics before and after removal of tannins from the extract using insoluble polyvinyl pyrolidone. Condensed tannins were determined by butanolHCl-Fe3+ reagent (Porter et al., 1986). Total phenols and tannins were expressed as tannic acid equivalent and condensed tannins as leucocyanidin equivalent.
Fungal Culture
Pleurotus ostreatus was used as an inoculum grown on sorghum seeds at 30C. Sorghum seeds were placed in boiling water for 15 min and decanted. Excess moisture from the seeds were removed by spreading them evenly on ordinary paper and then placed in 250 ml flask and autoclaved at 121C for 30 min. The flasks were cooled and few sorghum grains of 10 days old Pleurotus ostreatus culture was added and incubated at 30C for a week. This inoculants preparation was used as a starter culture for Babul pods under solid substrate fermentation process.
Moisture Optimization
Twenty five grams of ground (1 mm mesh) Acacia pod at 50, 55, 60, and 65% moisture level was taken in 500 ml flask and closed with cotton plug for aeration and then autoclaved at 121C for 30 min. The flasks were inoculated with five grains of sorghum-based inoculums of P.ostreatus and incubated at 30C for seven days. Based on visual observation and dry matter losses, fungal growth was best observed at 60% moisture level in acacia pod.
Optimization of incubation period
Based on the result of moisture optimization, further study was conducted in order to find out the duration at which fungal growth was performed best with optimum dry matter loss. In this case, 25 g of ground samples was taken in 500 ml flask and closed with cotton plug and autoclaved at 121C for 30 min. The flasks were inoculated with 5 grains of sorghum-based innoculum of P.
Animal Nutrition
ostreatus and incubated at 60% moisture for different incubation periods of (3, 6, 9, 12 and 15 days). After completion of the different periods of incubation, samples were dried in hot air oven at 65C for 96 hours and analyzed for their tannin, in vitro dry matter digestibility, in vitro organic matter digestibility, in vitro crude protein digestibility, proximate analysis, dry matter loss and for their fiber partitioning (NDF, ADF and Hemi cellulose).
Statistical analysis
The data was subjected to statistical analysis (descriptive statistics) as per the standard procedure of Snedecore and Cochran (1986)
Result and discussion

The result revealed that 9 days of incubation period was found most appropriate with regard to chemical composition, in vitro digestibility and tannin degradation. The crude protein content of Acacia pod increased considerably from 14.7 to 21.8 per cent at 9 days of incubation period. On the other hand, the NDF as well as HC values showed a decreasing trend with increase in incubation period from the untreated to fungal treated material. Tannin degradation was 75 per cent at 9 days of incubation period in Acacia pod. Nguz et al. (1994) achieved 20 to 30% decrease in condensed tannins of Sorghum grain in 48 hours of fermentation with Penicillium species strain. The present finding shown that tannin degradation by fungal treatment with P. ostreatus was to the extent of 83 per cent over a period of 15 days. Similar degradation of tannin by the fungus P. sajor kaju, a white rot fungus has been shown to degrade up to 87 per cent of the condensed tannins in spent coffee in 32 days (Wong and Wang, 1991). The results revealed that tannin degradation is not positively correlated to IVOMD figures. The possible reason for this may be that the different components of tannin might be hampering microbial action from utilizing the feed. Dry mater loss increased from 2.68 to 34.10 percent as the incubation period increased from 3 to 15 days at 60 percent moisture level. Rakesh et al. (2000) also reported a dry matter loss of 19 to 24 per cent, which was significantly higher in Aspergillus niger treated Black locus (Robinea seudoaccacia) than in the untreated leaves. Similarly, ISDMD of the fermented leaves was also significantly lower than unfermented leaves at different days of fermentation as evident in the present investigation using Pleurotus ostreatus on Babul pod. It appears from the present finding that the fungus selectively attack the organic matter components specially cellulose and hemi cellulose moiety and concomitant increase in the ADF. The increase in CP fraction was probably contributed by increase in fungal biomass. Pleurotus ostreatus treated Babul pods with 60 per cent moisture for 9 days incubation period resulted in optimum tannin degradation (75%) but could not reduce the dry matter loss.
Conclusion
The moisture level for fungal (Pleurotus ostreatus) treatment of acacia pod was considered optimum at 60% based on fungal growth, dry matter loss and cp content after treatment. Pleurotus ostreatus treated Acacia pod with 60% moisture and 9 days incubation period resulted in higher tannin degradation (75%) and CP value (21.8 Vs 14.8%).
365
Ethiopian Society of Animal Production Table 1. Effect of moisture content on chemical composition (%DM) and in vitro digestibility (%DM) of treated Babul pod with Pleurotus ostreatus
Levels of moisture (%) Control 50 55 60 65 Mean SE CD CP 14.75a 14.88b 15.75d 15.82e 15.05c 15.250.03 0.06* NOF 38.99d 37.30c 34.00b 33.47a 33.60a 35.270.1 0.23** ADF 17.74a 25.10b 25.41b 26.01c 26.97d 24.250.19 0.42** HC 21.22e 12.22d 8.45c 7.58b 5.39a 10.970.08 0.21** ASH 5.82c 5.90c 5.69b 5.40a 5.49a 5.660.1 0.17* DM LOSS -3.89b 6.18c 7.64d 3.68a 4.300.11 0.23** IVDMD 61.79a 70.26bc 69.00b 71.75c 69.60b 68.270.78 1.71* IVOMD 65.3a 71.86b 71.22b 72.99b 71.45b 71.081.5 3.21*
*Means in the columns with different superscripts (a, b, c, d) differ significantly *: (P < 0.05); **: (P < 0.01)
Table 2. Effect of moisture content on partitioning and degradation of tannins (%) of Babul pod treated with leurotus ostreatus. Levels of moisture (%) Control 50 55 60 65 Mean SE CD TP 23.21e 16.36d 15.43c 11.27a 12.04b 15.660.15 0.34** NTP 3.47d 3.27c 3.28c 1.98a 2.79b 2.950.084 0.19** CT 1.16c 1.14c 1.08c 0.85b 0.6a 0.970.49 0.11** HT 18.58d 11.95b 11.07b 8.44a 8.65a 11.740.13 0.29** TT 19.74d 13.09c 12.15b 9.29a 9.25a 12.710.13 0.28** TD -33.59a 38.45b 57.94d 54.49c 35.610.57 1.26*
*Means in the columns with different superscripts (a, b, c, d) differ significantly * : (P < 0.05); ** : (P < 0.01)
Table:3. Effect of different incubation periods on chemical composition (% DM) and in vitro digestibility (% DM) of treated Babul pod with Pleurotus ostreatus
Incubation period (days) Control 3 6 9 12 15 Mean SE CD CP 14.75a0.02 17.50b0.1 19.25c0.05 21.80d0.01 21.80d0.2 21.75d0.25 19.470.14 0.32** NDF 38.99d0.02 34.96c0.02 32.24a0.04 32.31a0.06 32.77b0.06 32.74b0.04 34.000.09 0.21** ADF 17.62a0.24 20.01b0.09 25.38c0.19 27.38e0.07 27.12d0.06 28.03f0.03 24.280.12 0.20** HC 21.37f0.03 14.95e0.05 6.86d0.09 4.93b0.02 5.65c0.0 3.71a0.01 9.530.04 0.11** Total ASH 5.82b0.1 5.13a0.1 5.97bc0.05 5.98bc0.06 5.92b0.14 6.16c0.05 5.830.1 0.20** DM LOSS -2.68a0.1 9.94b0.2 26.40c0.1 29.55d0.05 34.10e2.0 17.111.1 2.53** IVDMD 61.79d0.0 58.57d0.4 59.55d0.8 62.15c0.4 51.55b0.8 45.81a1.0 55.280.76 1.67** IVOMD 65.300 61.62c1.47 63.70d0.57 66.05e0.58 55.50a0.1 58.90b0.0 59.980.05 1.83**
366
Animal Nutrition Table 4 Effect of different incubation periods on partitioning and degradation of tannin of treated Babul pod with Pleurotus ostreatus Incubation period (days) 0 3 6 9 12 15 Mean SE CD Total Phenol 23.21e 20.63d 15.32c 7.69 4.76
b
Non Tannin Phenol 3.47c 3.45c 3.27c 2.77 1.44

b
Condensed Tannin 1.16b 0.81ab 0.71ab 0.66 0.32 NS

ab
Hydrolysable Tannin 18.56e 15.96d 11.34c 4.26

b
Total Tannin 19.74e 17.18d 12.05c 4.92 3.35

b
Tannin Degradation -12.96a 38.96b 75.08c 74.82c 83.03d 47.480.77 1.70**
7.69b
a
2.72b
a
0.59ab
a
4.38b 3.03
a
4.97b
a
13.220.11 0.27*
2.850.11 0.23**
0.71ab0.37
9.590.44 0.98**
10.370.15 0.32**
*Means in the columns with different superscripts (a, b, c, d) differ significantly (P < 0.05) NS : Non-Significant ; * : (P < 0.05); ** : (P < 0.01)
References
AOAC, 1990. Official Analytical Methods. 15th ed. Association of Official Analytical Chemist. Washington, D.C. Snedecor, G.W. and Cochran, W.G. 1986. Statistical Methods. Oxford & IBH Pub. Co., Calcutta, India. Tilley, J.M.A. and Terry, R.A. 1963. A two-stage technique for the in vitro digestion of forage crops. J. Brit. Graaland Soc. 18: 104-111. Makkar, H.P.S., Singh, B. and Kamra, D.N. 1994. Biodegradation of tannins in oak (Quercus incana) leaves by Sporotrichum pulverulentum. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 18 : 42-44. Nguz, K, Mey, L. De and Huyghebaert. 1994. Evaluation of the degradation of Sorghum condensed tannins by Penicillium sp. By determination of proanthocyanidins and flavon-3-ols. Sci. Aliments., 14 : 51-59. Rai, S.N., Walli, T.K. and Gupta B.N., 1989. The chemical composition and nutritive value of rice straw after treatment with urea or coprinus fimetarius in a solid-state fermentation system. Anim. Feed Sci. and Tech., 26 : 81-92. Rakesh, D.D, Bhat, T.K. and Singh, B. 2000. Effect of fungal treatment on composition, tannins levels and digestibility of black locus (Robinia pseudoacacia) leaves, J. Gen. Appl. Microbiol. 46 : 99-103. Wong, Y.S. and Wang, X. 1991. Degradation of tannins in spent coffee grounds by pleurotus sajor-caju. World journal of microbiology and biotechnology 7, 573-571.
367
Effect of Different Levels of Chemical, Moisture and Reaction Periods on Chemical Composition, in vitro Digestibility and Tannin Degradation of Mango seed Kernel (Maningifera indica)
Aemiro Kehaliew1 and S.N.Rai2
1Ethiopian 2National
Agricultural Research Organization, Holleta, P.o.Box 2003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana 132 001, INDIA
Abstract
Undecorticated Mango seed kernel (1mm sieve size) was treated with different levels of calcium hydroxide (3,4 and 5% w/w), moisture (40 and 60%) and reaction period (1 and 3 days) at about 20 oC in 3*2*2 factorial arrangement to study the effect of various treatment conditions on chemical composition, in vitro digestibility and tannin degradation. There was significance difference in CP content between treated and untreated Mango seed kernel (10.6 Vs 8.75%) at 60% moisture. Tannin degradation increased significantly (p<0.01) from 72.21 to 99.79% as the level of calcium hydroxide increased from 3 to 5%. The in vitro dry matter and organic matter digestibility also increased significantly due to calcium hydroxide treatments. IVOMD increased from 57.5% (un treated Mango seed kernel) to 70.83% in treated Mango seed kernel. The moisture level at 60% has shown better response than 40% during the treatment process. The overall effect of calcium hydroxide concentration, moisture contents and reaction periods had significant influence on enhancement of cell wall constituents. 4 % Calcium hydroxide with 60% moisture and one-day reaction period was the optimum treatment condition for maximum response of the treatment process under laboratory condition. This study was under taken to optimize the level of calcium hydroxide, moisture content and reaction periods using dry method of calcium hydroxide treatment.
Introduction
A chronic problem in most tropical countries is lack of both quality and quantity feeds to support higher animal productivity. Poor nutrition of the animals is the result of the low quality crop residues fed to animals. However, this can be improved by using various agro-industrial byproducts as well as perennial legume fodders, particularly those with multipurpose functions that are more attractive to the resource poor farmers in most developing countries. The uses of such feeds in the feeding practices are limited owing to the inherent property of containing one or the other anti nutritional factors (ANF). A common ANF available in fodder trees, shrubs, agro-industrial byproducts and various unconventional feed resources is Tannins. Tannins are defined as naturally occurring water soluble polyphenols of varying molecular weight, which differ from most other natural phenolic compounds in their ability to precipitate proteins from solutions (Spencer et al., 1988). They are widespread in the plant kingdom (Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms), are found in leaves, fruits, bark, wood and can accumulate in large amounts in particular organs or tissue of the plant (Haslam, 1989). The presence of a large number of phenolic hydroxyl groups enables them to form large complexes, mainly with protein, and to a lesser extent with other macromolecules like cellulose and pectin (Mueller-Harvey and McAllan, 1992). Action of tannins on proteins precipitation is found harmful to the animals in various ways. Extracts from Lespedeza servicea contains condensed tannins, which have been reported to inhibit the enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose (MuellerHarvey and McAllan, 1992). Reduction of cellulase activity has been found proportional to the concentration of tannins in the extract.
Most of the physiological effects of tannins studied in non-ruminants may be equally applied to ruminants (McLeod, 1974). The reactivity of tannins catering the digestive tract is reduced if the tannin reacts with the mucoproteins. Any tannin that escapes the degradation in the rumen might react with the protein of the gut wall and might reduce the diffusion of nutrients (McLeod, 1974). Tannins have been reported to affect the digestibility of protein and depress growth in rats, rabbits, poultry and ruminants (McLeod, 1974). It might be possible that tannins, if in excess from a particular ingredient might bind the protein from the other ingredients, reducing further overall protein digestibility. Based on their structure and reactivity, tannins are classified into two groups hydrolysable and condensed tannins. Hydrolysable tannins are composed of esters of gallic acid (gallo tannins) or ellagic acid (ellagitannins) with a sugar core that is usually glucose, and are readily hydrolyzed by acids or enzymes into monomeric products. Condensed tannins are known as polymeric proanthocyanidins, are composed of flavonoid units and are usually more abundant in tree barks and woods than hydrolysable counterparts. Both hydrolysable and condensed tannins are absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract. Feeding large quantities of tannins might give rise to gastritis and enteritis. If the detoxification mechanisms are inadequate to handle the absorbed phenolic compounds, the latter may harm liver and kidney organs. Tannins inhibit the growth of a number of microorganisms, resist microbial attack and are recalcitrant to biodegradation (Field and Lettinga, 1992). In India several unconventional feeds are available such as tree leaves, oak kernel, sal seed meal, mango seed kernel (MSK) and Babul pod (BP) etc. that have limited feed value largely due to presence of high level of tannins. Mango seed kernel is a by-product available after extraction of the pulp/juices from mangoes. The availability of this byproduct can be grossly estimated to be more than 1 million tones per year. It contains about 8 percent protein, very rich in NFE (75 to 80%) and low in fiber (3%). It has 6 percent DCP and 70 per cent TDN. This can be used as one of the ingredients of concentrate mixture up to a level of 40 percent in bullocks, 20 per cent level for growing cattle and 10 per cent level to cows without affecting growth, milk production and fat content. Several approaches have been used in the past to alleviate anti-nutritional property of tannins by chemical means such as alkali, acid, formaldehyde, urea, etc. But many of them remained ineffective in reducing the ill effect of tannins and also did not find practically feasible at large scale. Under present investigation, a novel approach has been explored to alleviate antinutritional property of tannins by way of treating unconventional feed resources containing tannins with chemicals processes. The basic approach would be to bind the target core groups of polyphenols so as to make them inactive or degrade them by means of chemical treatment.
Materials an Methods
Experimental feed used Mango seed kernel (undecorticated) was selected largely due to its plenty availability and the presence of high content of tannins. Mango seed kernel (Maningifera indica) is a by-product available after extraction of the pulp from mangoes. It was purchased from local market and dried at 65C in hot air oven overnight and then ground at 1 mm screen size and stored in a container till further analysis.
370
Animal Nutrition
Treatment methodology Fifty grams of ground sample of undecorticated Mango seed kernel was treated with calcium hydroxide at three different levels (3, 4 and 5%, w/w) along with 40 and 50% moisture levels and stored in sealed polythene bags for 1and 3days for reaction. After completion of their specific reaction time, bags were opened, dried and ground in a hammer mill to pass through 1 mm sieve size and then stored till further analysis. Analytical Method Moisture content was determined by oven drying to a constant mass at 105 0c.The CP and ash content were determined in accordance with the standard methods of AOAC (1990). The neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and acid detergent fiber (ADF) were determined according to Van soest et al. (1991). In vitro digestibility of dry matter, organic matter and CP were determined according to Tilley and Terry (1963). Total phenols, tannins and condensed tannin were determined by colorimetric method described by Makkar et al. (1993). Total phenols were quantified by Folin-Ciocalteu reagent and tannins as the difference in phenolics before and after removal of tannins from the extract using insoluble polyvinylpyrolidone. Condensed tannins were determined by butanol-HCl-Fe3+ reagent (Porter et al., 1986). Total phenols and tannins were expressed as tannic acid equivalent and condensed tannins as leucocyanidin equivalent. Statistical Analysis The data was subjected to statistical analysis of variance using 3*2*2 factorial arrangement (Snedecore and Cochran 1986)
Result and Discussion

The present result clearly shows that calcium hydroxide is an appropriate chemical for improving the nutritional value of tanniniferous feeds like Mango seed kernel. Thus, the most appropriate level for the treatment of Mango seed kernel has been obtained by treating with 4 per cent calcium hydroxide and 60 percent moisture in one-day reaction period. As shown in table1, IVOMD value was significantly (P < 0.01) higher at 4 per cent Ca (OH) with 60 percent moisture compared to the control (70.83 vs. 57.52%). There was significant (p< 0.01) difference in CP content between the treated and untreated Mango seed kernel (10.5 Vs 8.75%) at 60 % moisture. Being an alkali, calcium hydroxide treatment is known to solubilize the phenolic compounds as well as structural carbohydrates (NDF and ADF). Hence, the resultant products like reduction in fibrous components as well as increase in IVDMD and IVOMD have been found beneficial to improve the nutritive value of tanniniferous feeds. The action of calcium hydroxide has been reported by other workers, (Sirohi and Rai, 1997). These findings also corroborate with the phenolic compounds like total phenol, non-tannin phenol, condensed tannin, hydrolysable tannin and total tannin. It was interesting to note that due to calcium hydroxide treatment tannin degradation goes as high as 99 per cent in Mango seed kernel (Table 3). The active group of tannins is hydroxide groups that dissolve readily in dilute sodium hydroxide solution and form sodium phonates (Brewster and McEwen, 1971). Similarly, calcium hydroxide used in the present study being a source of alkali may dissolve the hydroxyl group with the help of calcium hydroxide solution and form calcium phonate similar to sodium phonate. Netke and Kaduskar (1978) also reported tannin degradation varying from 64 to 76 per cent from sal seed meal by soaking in 0.1 N caustic soda for 24 hours. Sinha and Nath (1982) also found 100 per
371
cent tannin removal by using 5 per cent lime suspension from the sal seed meal while 99 per cent tannin degradation takes place under the present investigation as shown in table 3. Sharma et al. (1977) also used calcium hydroxide treatment process and the treated sal seed meal was fed to goats ranging from 5 to 30 per cent in the diet and improved the feed efficiency in growing kids. Under the present investigation as shown in table 1and 2, the moisture level was restricted to 60 per cent of dry matter and it was considered better than 40 per cent moisture. In any scheme of inactivation, calcium hydroxide must be allowed to react with tannins sufficiently and in the presence of water; the value of adequate time for reaction period with calcium hydroxide is variable from one substrate to another as evident in the present investigation for Mango seed kernel. Similarly, the 24 hours of reaction period has also been considered optimum by Sinha and Nath (1983).
Conclusion
Under the present investigation it can be concluded that the optimization of treatment conditions for Mango seed kernel (IVOMD 57.5 Vs. 70.83% with 85% tannin degradation) was considered most appropriate at 4 per cent calcium hydroxide (w/w) with 60 per cent moisture in 1day reaction period. Similarly the IVOMD of Mango seed kernel has shown better response in 1day reaction period than 3 days, although the maximum tannin degradation was at 3 days of reaction period.
Table 1. Effect of different levels of calcium hydroxide, moisture levels and reaction period on chemical composition (%DM) of treated Mango seed kernel
Level of Ca(OH)2 (%) Control 3 4 5 Mean SE 3 4 5 Mean SE Overall Mean SE 60 60 60 1 1 1 40 40 40 1 1 1 Level of moisture (%) Reaction period (days) CP 8.75 9.00 9.25 9.500.0 9.250.43 9.750.05 10.500.05 10.250.05 10.170.66 9.710.56 NDF 41.20 43.15c 42.20b 40.66a0.01 42.002.18 41.62c0.02 40.79b0.00 39.15a0.00 40.522.18 41.260.57 ADF 19.23 22.90b 19.06a 24.75c0.12 22.245.03 19.36a0.11 26.14c0.11 25.42b0.14 23.646.45 22.941.26 IVDMD 57.43 59.67a 59.67a 61.43b0.56 60.261.76 61.231.59 62.150.19 61.220.07 61.530.93 60.902.06 IVOMD 61.52 64.43a 67.26b 68.99b1.41 66.893.99 67.00a0.18 70.83b0.32 68.10a0.30 68.643.42 67.772.35
*Means in the columns with different superscripts (a, b, c, d) differ significantly *: (P < 0.05); ** : (P < 0.01)
372
Animal Nutrition Table 2. Effect of different levels of calcium hydroxide, moisture levels and reaction period on chemical composition (%DM) of treated Mango seed kernel
Level of Ca(OH)2 (%) Control 3 4 5 Mean SE 3 4 5 Mean SE Overall mean SE CD 60 60 60 3 3 3 40 40 40 3 3 3 Level of moisture (%) Reactio n period (days)
CP 8.75 10.50ab0.05 11.20b0.05 9.28a0.08 10.330.68 10.68ab0.03 11.38b0.06 9.63a0.03 10.561.53 10.451.30 1.43*
NDF 41.20 43.36c0.04 41.73b0.00 40.98a0.02 42.022.11 40.64b0.04 40.65b0.02 40.12a0.02 40.470.53 41.255.68 0.01**
ADF 19.23 22.01a0.10 22.34b0.09 23.61c0.06 22.651.46 23.05b0.07 22.29a0.12 23.12b0.14 22.820.80 22.743.08 0.16**
IVDMD 57.43 57.01b0.51 57.48b0.09 54.78a0.00 56.429.41 56.150.31 58.150.0 50.94a0.04 55.417.92 55.926.44 1.62**
IVOMD 61.52 60.00a0.33 64.38b0.23 59.65a0.50 61.3412.69 61.93b1.48 62.07b005 57.60a0.15 60.867.92 61.106.78 1.75**
Table 3. Effect of different levels of calcium hydroxide, moisture levels and reaction periods on partitioning and degradation of tannins (%DM) of treated Mango seed kernel
Level of Ca(OH)2 (%) Control 3 4 5 Mean SE 3 4 5 Mean SE Overall Mean SE CD 60 60 60 1 1 1 40 40 40 1 1 1 Level is of moisture (%) Reactio n periods (days) Total phenol 6.73 1.71c0.06 1.08b0.08 0.64a0.03 1.140.93 0.92b0.07 0.92b0.08 0.11a0.01 0.650.81 0.900.185 Non tannin phenol 1.98 0.39b0.01 0.23a0.03 0.19a0.05 0.270.18 0.38c0.02 0.21b0.02 0.1a0.01 0.230.24 0.250.041 Condensed tannins 0.113 0.0040.00 0.0020.00 0.0010.00 0.0020.00 0.0030.00 0.0030.00 0.0020.0 0.0030.00 0.0020.000 Hydrolysabl e tannins 4.64 1.32c0.07 0.85b0.05 0.45a0.02 0.870.75 0.77b0.12 0.71b0.06 0.01a0.002 0.470.70 0.670.152 Total tannins 4.75 1.32c0.07 0.85b0.05 0.45a0.02 0.870.75 0.773b0.12 0.713b0.06 0.012a0.0 0.480.70 0.680.153 Tannin degradation -72.21a1.77 82.11b1.24 90.53c0.32 81.6115.88 83.80a2.69 85.05a1.42 99.79b0.00 89.9614.74 85.7910.507
0.16**
0.07**
0.003**
0.17**
0.17**
3.65**
373
Ethiopian Society of Animal Production Table 4. Effect of different levels of calcium hydroxide, moisture levels and reaction periods on partitioning and degradation of tannins (%DM) of treated Mango seed kernel
Level of Ca(OH)2 (%) Control 3 4 5 Mean SE 3 4 5 Mean SE Overall Mean SE CD 60 60 60 3 3 3 40 40 40 3 3 3 Level is of moisture (%) Reaction periods (days) Total phenol 6.73 1.95c0.10 1.32b0.02 0.68a0.08 1.321.10 1.59c0.10 0.97b0.09 0.39a0.01 0.981.04 1.150.24 0.16** Non tannin phenol 1.98 0.28b0.03 0.19a0.01 0.12a0.01 0.200.04 0.2b0.03 0.14ab0.01 0.07a0.02 0.140.11 0.170.03 0.07** Condensed tannins 0.113 0.048b0.001 0.01a0.00 0.008a0.0001 0,020.04 0.031b0.002 0.009a0.00 0.07a0.001 0.020.02 0.020.01 0.003** Hydrolysable tannins 4.64 1.622c0.07 1.12b0.05 0.662a0.18 1.130.83 1.359c0.07 0.821b0.10 0.008a0.50 0.850.86 0.990.21 0.17** Total tannins 4.75 1.67c0.07 1.13b0.01 0.67a0.18 1.160.87 1.39c0.07 0.83b0.10 0.38a0.05 0.870.88 1.010.21 0.17** Tannin degradation -64.84a1.85 76.210.46 85.89c3.94 75.6518.25 70.74a1.78 82.53b2.29 92.00c1.13 81.7518.45 78.704.47 3.65**
*Means in the columns with different superscripts (a, b, c, d) differ significantly (P < 0.05) *: (P < 0.05); **: (P < 0.01)
References
AOAC, 1990. Official Analytical Methods. 15th ed. Association of Official Analytical Chemist. Washington, D.C. Brewster, R. and McEwen, W. 1971. Organic Chemistry. 3rd edn. Prentice Hall of India Ltd. New Delhi. pp. 601. Makkar, H.P.S., Blummel, M., Borowy. N.K., Becker, K., 1993. Gravimetric determination of tannins and their correlation with chemical and protein precipitation methods. J. Sci. food Agric. 61,161-165. Netke, S.P. and Kaduskar, M.R. 1978. Use of salseed meal in animal ration. Newsletter, March compound livestock feed manufacturers association of India, Bombay. pp. 2. 1978. The
Sharma, K., Wah, C.S. and Jackson M.G. 1977. A comparison of calcium hydroxide spray treated and untreated sal-seed meal as Ingredients in goat and chick diets. India J. Anim. Sci. 47(8) : 473-478 Sinha , R. P.; Nath, K. Indian J. Anim. Sci. 1982. 52,1087. Sirohi, S.K. and Rai, S.N. 1997. Effect of different levels of lime, moisture and reaction periods on in sacco digestibility and in vitro gas production of paddy straw. Indian J. Dairy Sci., 50 : 367-371. Snedecor, G.W. and Cochran, W.G. 1986. Statistical Methods. Oxford & IBH Pub. Co., Calcutta, India. Tilley, J.M.A. and Terry, R.A. 1963. A two stage technique for the in vitro digestion of forage crops. J. Brit. Graaland Soc. 18 : 104-111. Van Soest, P.J.,Robertson, J.B., Lewis, B.A., 1991. Method for dietary fibre, neutral fibre and non- starch polysaccharides in relation to animal nutrition. J.Dairy Sci. 74, 3583-3597. Singh, A.K. and Sinha, A.K. 1984. Intermediate chemistry.13th edn. Bharti Bhavan, Patna 4.
374
Feeding Noug 'Guizotia abyssinca' Cake as Protein Source to Lactating Boran x Jersey Crossbred Cows: Performances in Milk Yield, Reproduction, and Feed Efficiency.
Tadesse Bekele and Zelalem Yilma Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization, Holetta Research Center, P. O. Box 2003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Fax: 251-1-370377, e-mail: sophiezele@yahoo.com, Tadesselutta@yahoo.com
Abstract
A feeding experiment was conducted using 27 lactating Boran x Jersey cows to evaluate the effects of Noug (Guizotia abyssinica) cake supplementation as protein source on milk yield, reproduction, dry matter intake and feed efficiency for milk yield. Experimental cows were stratified based on type of cross and parity and grouped into 3 Noug Cake (NC) supplement levels of Low, Medium and High for daily allowances of 2, 3 and 4kg/head/day, respectively. Overall mean lactation milk yield was 832.4 litres. Total milk yield declined with advanced parity. Mean lactation milk yield and PPI for cows supplemented 2, 3 and 4Kg/head/day was 680, 808 and 1009 litres, and 259,164 and 100 days respectively. Services per conception were not affected (p>0.05) by NC supplement level, type of cross and parity. Daily TDMI was 6.04, 6.88 and 7.83kg respectively for cows under low, medium and high NC supplement groups. Overall mean values obtained for Dry Matter Intake per Metabolic Body Weight (DMI/MBW) and per unit of Milk Yield (DMI/MY) were 16.8 and 1.6kg, respectively. DMI/MBW tended to increase with increasing NC supplement levels. DMI/MY was lowest for cows under high NC supplement level and in early parity group (1.43 and 1.3kg, respectively). DMI/MY was 1.6, 1.8 and 1.5kg respectively for F1, F2 and cows. Supplementation of NC at the rate of 4kg/head/day is recommended for improved milk yield, reproduction and feed efficiency. Further study is needed to investigate economic return of supplementing noug cake.
Keywords: Crossbred, cows, Noug cake, Guizotia abyssinica, milk yield, reproduction, post partum interval, services per conception, feed intake, feed efficiency, dry matter intake
Introduction
In order to maintain peak milk production, maximum Dry Matter Intake (DMI) should be achieved as early in lactation as possible. This will minimize the negative nutrient balance experienced in early lactation and shift cows from negative to positive energy balance earlier. Maximum DMI will likely reach 3.5% to 4% of their body weight for most cows but can vary with production and individual cow appetites. DMI is usually higher for high producing cows, and some cows may consume more than 5% of their body weight (Schingoethe, 1998). Requirement for protein increases even more dramatically at the onset of lactation than the increase in energy requirement, because about 27% of the milk solids at this stage makes the protein component (Block, 1994). Much of the available research suggests that milk yield is improved by increasing Crude Protein (CP) intake (Chalupa, 1964; Cressman et al., 1980; Van Horn et al., 1979). Milk yield response may also be affected by parity (Claypool et al., 1980). Protein also plays a significant role in cattle reproduction. However, there are arguments that protein is less important for reproduction than energy. Similarly, it has been indicated that conception rates are greater for cows in positive energy balance than for cows in negative energy balance. When energy is limiting, supplemental protein will be used for energy until the energy needs are met, and the remaining protein will be used to meet the protein needs (Clanton and Zimmerman, 1970).
Supplementary protein diet will improve voluntary feed intake. Provision of urea by spraying on standing forage or including in a molasses leak improved DMI (Hungate, 1966). Similarly, cattle fed barley straw increased their intake when provided with soybean meal (Loosli and McDonald, 1968). Protein supplement leads to further rate of break down of straws in the rumen (Bealieu et al., 1990 and Butterworths and Mosi, 1986). Addition of noug seed meal increased DM intake of sheep when it constituted 45% of the diet based on oat straw (Bryant, 1973). Feeding of concentrates may not be practical in many parts of Ethiopia due to a number of factors, of which high prices, transportation costs, milk markets etc. Significant quantities of agro-industrial by-products are, however, available to supplement poor quality grass or crop residues (Little et al., 1987). NC is one among such by-products, which is widely available (AACM, 1984) and is a high protein meal with a CP value of 29.5% as reported earlier (SDDP, 1999). Noug (Guizotia abyssinica) is an oil crop cultivated in the mid altitude areas of Ethiopia. Earlier works indicated that Noug Cake (NC) and Urea Molasses Blocks (UMB) can be used along with poor quality hay and teff (Eragrostis teff) straw for milk production (Little et al, 1987) and fattening sheep (Solomon et al., 1992; Lemma, 1992) as protein supplement. However, information is lacking in using NC as sole source of protein with oat straw for improving milk yield, reproduction, DMI and its efficiency for milk production for crossbred cows. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of NC supplementation as protein source on milk yield, reproduction, DMI and feed efficiency for milk yield of Boran x Jersey cows.

Animals. Twenty-seven lactating Boran x Jersey (F1, F2 and ) cows from Holetta Research Center were used in this study. Cows were not selected for uniform milk yield, BW, and MBW, age and lactation length. However, they were blocked to increase uniformity within a block by type of cross and parity. Cows were stratified by type of cross and parity and assigned to each of the NC supplement group. Parity was clustered into three groups: 1st- 3rd, 4th- 6th and 7th-9th as early, mid and advanced, respectively for statistical analysis (Table 1).
Table 1. Stratification of cows Type of cross F1 Parity Early Mid Advanced F2 Early Mid Advanced Early Mid Advanced Total Noug cake supplement level Low 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 9 Medium 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 9 High 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 9 Total 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 27
Treatments. Three NC supplement levels: low (2kg/head/day), medium (3kg/head/day) and high (4kg/head/day) were used for this study. These supplement levels were selected based on earlier work reported by Little et al, (1987) who recommended that supplementation of NC at a rate of more than 1kg/head/day with Urea Molasses Block (UMB) didnt improve milk yield. Our assumption was to replace UMB by increasing NC level above 1 Kg/head/day. For the present study three higher levels were used excluding UMB, which is less available in the study area.
Animal Nutrition
Oat straw was provided ad lib for all cows in each supplement group. There was two weeks preliminary feeding period before the commencement of the trial for feed adaptation starting two weeks after calving. The amount of NC supplemented during preliminary period was 2kg/head/day for all cows, with oat straw ad lib. The experimental feeding period was started 4 weeks after calving and lasted for 180 days of lactation thereafter and considered as total milk yield in this study. The cows were fed NC during morning and evening milkings. They were fed oat straw during daytime and evenings. Daily feed allowances and refusals were measured and recorded to determine daily intake. Dry matter and nutritive values of the experimental feeds are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Dry matter (DM), metabolizable energy (ME), crude protein (CP), Calcium (Ca), and phosphorus (P) contents of the experimental feeds Feed Oats Noug cake
Source: SDDP (1999)
DM % 93 93
ME (MJ/kg DM) 6 9.9
CP (g/kg DM) 44 295
Ca (g/kg DM) 2.4 7.4
P (g/kg DM) 0.9 7.8
Data collection. Feed offers and refusals were measured and recorded daily. Feed intake was computed as feed offered minus refusals. Cows were weighed monthly and milked twice daily. Monthly body weights and daily milk yields were measured and recorded. Post-Partum Interval (PPI) and Number of Service Per Conception (NSPC) for next calving were recorded. Computation of parameters. DM values were based on previous reports (SDDP, 1999). Metabolic body weights were computed as W0.75, where W is live weight. Feed efficiency for milk production was computed as Dry Matter Intake /Milk Yield (DMI/MY) (kg). Statistical analysis. Data collected on the dependent variables were analyzed using the General Linear Model (GLM) of the Statistical Analysis System (SAS) (SAS, 1988). Least Significant Deference (LSD) test was used for mean separation.
Results
Milk yield was improved (P<0.05) when cows were supplemented 4kgNC/head/day than 2 and 3kgNC/head/day (Table 3). These cows produced 48.02% more total milk than those cows supplemented the lowest level (P<0.05). F1 cows produced 281.4kg and 1.5kg more milk during the experimental period and daily, respectively, than F2 cows (P<0.05). While, the value recorded for cows was between that of F1 and F2 crosses and the difference was not apparent from either of the two. Total milk yield tended to decline with the advancement of parity groups. The difference, however, was marked only between cows in early and advanced parities where cows in the former parity group produced about 46% more total milk than those in the latter parity group. NC supplement level and parity significantly (P<0.05) affected total milk yield and MY/MBW. Cows under high NC supplement level produced 3.9kg more milk per metabolic body weight than those under low NC supplement level. Effect of type of cross was apparent (P<0.05) on MY/MBW where F1 crosses produced 33.3% more MY/MBW than F2 crosses. Cows in early parity group had the highest MY/MBW (P<0.05) relative to those in advanced parity group. However, the difference was not marked between cows in early and mid parity groups (P>0.05) (Table 3).
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Ethiopian Society of Animal Production Table 3. Milk yield of cows in the experiment Variable Overall mean NC Supp. level Low Medium High Type of cross F1 F2 Parity6 Early Mid Advanced CV% R2 LSD 9 9 9 9 9 9
5
Number 27 9 9 9
My1801 kg 832.4 * 680.864.04a 807.964.04a 1008.562.84 * 960.463.84b 679.071.33a 857.768.25ab * 964.573.76b 870.978.11ab 661.768.80 22.64 0.69 188.4
a b
MY/MBW2 kg 11.3 * 9.50.87a 10.90.87ab 13.40.86b * 12.40.87b 9.30.97a 12.20.93ab * 13.91.01b 12.01.07b 8.10.94a 22.84 0.72 2.58
Means with different superscript within a column in the same variable are significantly different (P<0.05) 1 180 days milk yield, 2 Milk yield per metabolic body weight, (Low = 2kgNC/h/d, Medium = 3kgNC/h/d, High = 4kgNC/h/d), Parity (Early = 1-3rd, Mid = 46th, Advanced = 7-9th), * P<0.05
Reproductive performances of cows in the experiment are presented in Table 4. Through increasing the NC supplement level, PPI was significantly (P<0.05) shortened. Cows under high NC supplement level conceived about 159 days earlier than those under low NC supplement level (P<0.05). Although the differences didn't have statistical significance PPI tended to be longer for higher exotic blood levels, while it tended to be shorter as parity advanced. NSPC was low and didnt show marked variation (p>0.05) due to NC supplement level, type of cross and parity. However, cows under low NC supplement group required slightly higher NSPC than those under medium and high NC supplement groups. Similarly, F1 crosses required slightly more NSPC than F2 and crosses. Cows in advanced parity group required slightly more NSPC than cows in the other two parity groups. NC supplement level and parity did not affect daily Roughage Dry Matter Intake (RDMI), while the effect of type of cross was marked (P<0.05) (Table 5). F1 crosses consumed the highest amount of RDM daily (P<0.05), while F2 crosses consumed the lowest. However, crosses had similar RDMI (P>0.05) with the other groups. Daily NCDMI was increased with increasing supplement level (P<0.5). NC supplements levels and type of crosses affected TDMI. Cows supplemented 4kg/head/day had 0.95 and 1.79kg higher daily TDMI than cows supplemented 3 and 2kg/head/day (P<0.05), respectively. F1 cows consumed higher TDM than F2 cows (P<0.05). However, the difference between F1 and cows was not marked (P>0.05). Parity didnt have marked impact on DMI (P>0.05).
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Animal Nutrition Table 4. Post-Partum Interval (PPI) and number of services per conception (NSPC) of cows in the experiment Variables Overall mean NC supp. level Low Medium High Type of cross F1 F2 Parity
4 3
Number 27 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
PPI1days 174.6 259.07 18.31a 164.3718.31 100.2217.96 152.3818.25 182.2420.39 189.0519.51 183.5921.04 180.8622.33 159.2119.67 30.87 0.82 53.9
b c
NSPC2 1.55 1.960.44 1.590.44 1.110.43 1.760.43 1.290.49 1.600.46 1.590.50 1.360.53 1.710.47 82.45 0.24 1.28
Early Mid Advanced CV% R2 LSD
Means with different superscript within a column in the same variable are significantly different (P<0.05) 1 Post-partum interval, 2 Number of services per conception, 3 (Low = 2kgNC/h/d, Medium = 3kgNC/h/d, High = 4kgNC/h/d), 4 (Early = 1-3rd, Mid = 4-6th, Advanced = 7-9th)
Cows supplemented 2kgNC/head/day had the lowest DMI/MBW (P<0.05) as compared to those supplemented 3 and 4kg/head/day (Table 6). DMI per MBW weight was 26.7%, higher for cows under high NC supplement group than those under low supplement group (P<0.05). F1 crosses used DMI more efficiently than crosses (P<0.05) per MBW for milk production (efficiency is the ratio of feed consumed to milk produced). DMI/MBW was the least for F1 crosses and the highest for crosses (P<0.05). However, F2 crosses didnt show significant difference from both F1 and crosses. Cows in advanced parity group consumed the least DM per unit of MBW. The difference between cows in early and mid parity groups was however not significant (P>0.05). Feed efficiency for milk yield (DMI/MY) was only markedly affected (P<0.05) by parity where cows in early parity group consumed 0.7kg (35%) less feed per unit of milk produced than cows in advanced parity group. Cows in early and mid parity groups had however similar feed efficiency for milk production. Higher NC supplementation resulted in reduced DMI per unit of milk produced. Three-fourth crosses had slightly lower DMI per kg of milk produced, followed by F1 crosses. F2 crosses needed 18.2% and 15.9% more DM per unit of milk produced than and F1 crosses, respectively.
379
Ethiopian Society of Animal Production Table 5. Feed intake of cows in the experiment. Variables Overall mean NC level Low Medium High Type of cross F1 F2 Parity Early Mid Advanced CV.% R2 LSD 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 No. 27 RDMI1 Kg 4.1 NS 4.180.14 4.110.14 4.120.14 NS 4.30.14 3.90.16 4.20.15 NS 4.10.17 4.20.18 4.10.16 10.29 0.44 0.42 NCDMI2 kg 2.8 * 1.90c 2.80b 3.70a NS 2.80 2.80 2.80 NS 2.80 2.80 2.80 0.0 1.0 0.0 6.9 * 6.040.13c 6.880.13b 7.830.13a * 7.090.13a 6.650.15b 7.010.14ab NS 6.870.15 6.970.16 6.910.14 5.69 0.87 0.40 TDMI3 kg
Means with different superscript within columns in the same variable are significantly different (P<0.05) 1 RDMI= Roughage Dry Matter Intake, 2 NCDMI = Noug cake Dry Matter Intake, 3 TDMI= Total Dry Matter Intake, * P<0.05
Table 6. Feed efficiency of cows in the experiment. Variables Overall mean NC level1 Low Medium High Type of cross F1 F2 Parity
3 2
No. 27 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
DMI/MBW11 16.8 * 15.00.53b 16.60.53ab 19.00.52a * 16.10.53b 16.60.58ab 17.80.56a * 17.70.61a 17.50.64a 15.30.57b 9.23 0.77 1.55
DMI/MY2 1.6 * 1.80.16a 1.70.16a 1.40.15b NS 1.60.16 1.80.17 1.50.17 * 1.30.18b 1.60.19ab 2.00.17a 27.99 0.57 0.46
Early Mid Advanced C.V.% R2 LSD
Means with different superscript within columns in the same variable are significantly different (P<0.05) 1 Low = 2kg/h/d, 2 Medium = 3kg/h/d, 3 High = 4kg/h/d, 1DMI/MBW = Dry Matter Intake per Metabolic Body Weight, 2 DMI/MY = Dry Matter Feed Intake per Milk Yield, * P<0.05
Discussion
The improved milk yield as NC supplement level was raised indicates NC is a good protein source for lactating cows. Because NC has been reported to contain 29.5% CP (SDDP, 1999). This value is close to that of cakes of other oil crops (Beyene, 1976). It can also be used as energy source when energy is limiting in the diet. Earlier reports (Little et al., 1987), indicated that daily milk
Animal Nutrition
yield of 2.86, 3.87 and 3.96kg was produced by crossbred cows in response to 0, 1 and 2kg NC/head/day supplementation with poor quality hay and molasses. This finding is in agreement with the present report. Higher levels of NC alone were, however, used for this study. Most of the available research reports also indicate that milk yield could be improved by increasing CP intake (Van Horn et al., 1979; Cressman et al., 1980; Chalupa, 1984). Certain workers have on the contrary reported no response (Claypool et al., 1980). Others have shown that decreasing dietary forage: concentrate ratio increased both protein content and yield of milk (Bartsh et al., 1979 and DePeters et al., 1989) . Variation of milk yield in this experiment due to type of cross might be accounted to genetic potential inherited. Such differences have also been reported earlier (Sendros et al., 1987). Effect of parity on milk yield were not investigated for each lactation due to clustering of parities into groups to obtain sufficient number of cows in each group for data analysis. This might have overshadowed possible variations of milk yield among particular parties within each parity group. In the presented study increased milk yield was observed for early parity group and continued to decline thereafter with the advancement of parity. Earlier reports also indicated parity to affect milk yield (Khattab and Atil, 1999). In another study (Nega and Sendros, 2000) age and parity were reported to affect lactation and daily milk yield significantly. Therefore, the declining of milk yield with the advancement of parity may be due to age as suggested earlier (Nega and Sendros, 2000; Moges and Baars, 1998). The increased milk yield per metabolic body weight due to high NC supplementation suggests that higher supplementation encouraged increased partition of feed consumed for milk synthesis per given metabolic body weight. The higher MY/MBW obtained for F1 crosses and cows in early and mid parity groups might be attributed to a combined effect of genetic factor and age, which in turn could have effect on body weight as suggested earlier by Sendros et al. (1987) and Kiwuwa et al. (1983). Jersey crosses for instance were reported to produce more milk per metabolic body weight than Friesian crosses (Sendros et al., 1987). The improved reproductive performance of cows supplemented higher level of NC shows that importance of protein diet for reproduction. It has been similarly reported that level of feeding after calving has a greater effect on subsequent pregnancy than level of feeding before calving (Joubert, 1954). Extended postpartum anoestrus and calving interval were evidenced due to postpartum weight loss (Entwistle, 1983), as a result of under nutrition. Variation of PPI due to type of cross might be of genetic origin, as suggested earlier (Borsotti et al., 1976). Reason for absence of difference between NC levels on NSPC in this study is not clearly known. However, in earlier reports (Wiltbank et al., 1962; Dunn et al., 1969; Hill et al., 1970) cows fed high-energy diet after calving conceive sooner than those fed low energy diet. It has also been suggested that protein is generally regarded as less important than energy for reproduction. However, low protein intake is reported to cause infertility (Mukassa-Mugerwa, 1989). NSPC failed to be varied significantly among type of crosses due to the fact that heritability of NSPC is small (Mukassa-Mugerwa, 1989). NSPC didn't differ due to parity. An earlier report (Sharma and Bhatanagar, 1975), however, indicated that NSPC was highest at 4th parity for Sahiwal, Red Sindhi and Tharparkar cattle. In the present study, cows in advanced parity group had numerically higher NSPC than those in early parities. Although, TDMI for cows supplemented 4kgNC/head/day was higher (p<0.05) than the other groups, roughage intake was not improved by any of the supplement levels (P>0.05). The higher intake of TDM was attributed to higher allowance of NC. Similarly, increased NC intake failed
to increase roughage intake, but had increased TDMI (Venkatesh, 1998). It has been also reported that daily hay DMI was not improved through raising NC supplement from 0 to 2Kg/head/day (Little et al., 1987). In another study Lemma (1992) indicated that there was even depressed teff (Eragrostis teff) straw intake when supplemented with NC as compared to supplementation with urea, leucaenia, siratro or dolicos forages for Horro sheep. The primary difference in the intake response appears to be associated with the protein content of the forage. If the forage is low in protein, forage intake will increase when a small amount of a high protein is fed. When more than 1 Kg of supplement is fed, forage intake could be reduced by displacement (NRC, 1984). Absence of significant difference in DMI due to type of cross could be related to animal size, which also didnt vary significantly (P>0.05). Similarly, earlier reports indicated that intake was limited by rumen capacity, which has direct relationship with animal size (Conrad et al., 1964). Cows supplemented lower level of NC (2kg/head/day), were less efficient for milk production, which is indicative of the fact that cows body nutrient reserve mobilization to meet lactation demand was low and these cows must be supplemented more as suggested in earlier reports (Schingoethe, 1998). Efficiency of supplement utilization variations of NC supplement encountered due to variation in type of cross and parity groups could be attributed to body weight, since cows with smaller size are more nutrient efficient. This might be due to extra nutrient demand to maintain larger mass of body tissue and functions of larger sized cows than low mass of tissue and function of the smaller ones. Since metabolic body weight is directly related to body weight, efficiency of feed utilization per MBW in this study is related to cow body size. Cows with low MBW were more efficient than cows with high MBW, which is in agreement with earlier reports (Sendros et al., 1987). Cows in advanced parity group used more feed to produce a unit of milk than those cows in early parity group. This could be due to more body nutrient requirement for maintenance and low level of body nutrient reserve of the former ones for milk production as suggested by Mukassa-Mugerwa, (1989).
Conclusion
Milk yield was improved up to 2 litres per day by raising NC supplement level up to 4 kg/head/day. It is better to supplement younger cows than older ones since milk yield generally decreased with the advancement of parity. Supplementation of 4 kg NC/head/day with oat straw reduced postpartum interval by about 159 days as compared to supplementation of 2kgNC/head/day. This implies that calf-crop and lifetime milk production of cows is improved. Increased level of NC supplementation had improved TDMI and DMI/MBW. However, RDMI remained unchanged as level of NC supplementation increased. Although higher DMI/MBW was obtained for cows supplemented high level of NC, it resulted in increased feed efficiency for milk production. Feed efficiency for milk yield and DMI/MBW on the other hand, decreased with the advancement of parity. Supplementation of NC at the rate of 4kg/head/day is recommended for improved milk yield, reproduction and feed efficiency. Further study is needed to investigate economic return of supplementing noug cake and its effect on intake of other roughages.
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Animal Nutrition
References
AACM (Australian Agricultural Consultation and Management Company). 1984. sectors Review. Ministry of agriculture (MOA), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Ethiopian Livestock Sub
Bartsch, B. D., E.R.B. Graham and D. M. McLean. 1979. Protein and fat composition and some manufacturing properties of milk from dairy cows fed on hay and concentrate in various ratios. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 30:191. Beaulieu, A. D., A.J. Olubobokun and D. A. Christeinsen. 1990. The utilization of canola and its constituents by lactating dairy cows. Anim. Feed Sci. Tech. 30:289-300. Beyene Chichaibelu.1976. Evaluation of some Ethiopian feed stuffs. Ph.D. Thesis. Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. Block, E. 1994. Manipulation of Dietary Cation-Anion difference on nutritionally related production, diseases, productivity and metabolic response of dairy cows. J. Dairy Sci. 77: 1437-1450. Borsotti, N. P., O. Verde and D. Plasse. 1976. Repeatability of calving interval in Brahman cows. Animal Breeding (abstr.). 46:1259 Bryant, M.P. 1973. Nutritional requirements of the predominant rumen cellulytic bacteria. Fedn. Am. Soc. Exp. Biol. 32: 1809-1813. Butterworths, M.M. and A. Mossi. 1986. The intake and digestibility by sheep of oat straw and maize stover offered with different level of noug (Guizotia abyssinca). Anim. Feed Sci. and Tech. 16: 99-107. Chalupa, W. 1984. Discussion of protein symposium. J. Dairy Sci. 67:1134. Clanton, D.C. and D.R. Zimmerman. 1970. Symposium on pasture methods for maximum production in beef cattle: Protein and energy requirements for female beef cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 30:122. Claypool, D.W., M.C. Pangborn and H. P. Adams. 1980. Effect of dietary protein in high producing dairy cows in early lactation. J. Dairy Sci. 63:833. Conrad, H.R., A. D. Flatt and J.W. Hibbs. 1964. Regulation of feed intake in dairy cows. I. Change in importance of physical and physiological factors with increasing digestibility. J. Dairy Sci. 47:54. Cressman, S.G., D. G. Grieve, G.K. McLeod, E. E. Wheeler and L.G.Young. 1980. Influence of dietary protein concentration on milk production by dairy cattle in early lactation. J. Dairy Sci.63: 1839. DePeters, E.J., S. J.Tailor and R.L. Baldwin. 1989. Effect of dietary fat in isocaloric rations on the nitrogen content of milk from Holstein cows. J. Dairy Sci. 72:2949. Dunn, T.G., J. E. Ingalls, D. R. Zimmerman and J.N. Wiltbank. 1969. Reproductive performance of 2-year-old Hereford and Angus heifers as influenced by pre- and post- calving energy intake. J. Anim. Sci. 29:719726. Entwistle, K.W. 1983. Factors influencing reproduction in beef cattle in Australia. Australian Meat Research Committee (AMRC). Rev. No. 43, Sydney, Australia. Hill, J. R., D. R. Lamond, D. M. Henricks, J.F. Dickey and G.D. Niswender. 1970. The effect of under nutrition on ovarian function and fertility in beef heifers. Biol. of Rep. 2(1): 78-84. Hungate, R. E. 1966. The rumen and its microbes. Academic Press. New York.
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Joubert, D.M.1954. The influence of high and low protein nutritional planes on the estrous cycle and conception rate of heifers. J. of Agric. Sci. 45:164-172. Khattab, A. S. and H. Atil. 1999. Genetic study of fertility traits and production in a local born Friesian cattle in Egypt. Pakistan J. of Biol. Sci. 2(4): 1178-1183. Kiwuwa, G.H., J.C.M. Trail, Mohamed Yosuf Kurtu, Getachew Worku, F. M. Anderson and J.W. Durkin. 1983. Crossbred dairy cattle productivity in Arsi region, Ethiopia. ILCA Research Report No11. Lemma Gizachew. 1992. Comparison of legumes hay, urea and Noug cake as protein supplements to Horro sheep fed on teff straw. In: Proc. of the 4th National Livestock Improvement Conference (NLIC). 13-15 November, 1991. Page 211-215. IAR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Little, D.A., F.M. Anderson and J.W. Durkin. 1987. A note on the effect of supplementation with Noug (Guizotia abyssinca) cake on milk production of crossbred cows. In: Proc. of the Utilization of agricultural by-products as livestock feeds in Africa. page 137-141. September 1986. Blantyre, Malawi. Loosli, J.K. and McDonald, I.W. 1968. None protein nitrogen in the nutrition of ruminants. Agric. Stud. No. 75, E.A.D. Moges Dereje and R. Baars. 1998. Long term evaluation of milk production and reproductive performance of dairy cattle at Alemaya. In: Proc. of the 6th conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP). Page 176-183. 14-15 May Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Mukassa-Mugerwa, E. 1989. A review of reproductive performance of female Bos indicus (Zebu) cattle. ILCA. Monograph No. 6. ILCA. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Nega Tola and Sendros Demeke. 2000. Effect of calving years, season, age and parity classes on productive and reproductive performance of Holstein Friesian cows at Holetta state dairy farm In: Proc. of the 8th Conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP). Page 345-350. 24-26 Aug. 1999. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. N.R.C. (National Research Council). 1984. Nutrient Requirement of Beef Cattle.6th ed. National Academic Press. Washington, D.C. SAS (Statistical Analysis System). 1988. Users Guide: Statistics, Version 6. SAS Institute INC. Cary, NC. Schingoethe, D. J. 1998. Feeding dairy cows. In: Livestock Feeds and Feeding. Richard O.Kellemes and D.C. Church (editors). Printice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. SDDP. (Small holder Dairy Development Project). 1999. Feeding of a crossbred dairy cow. SDDP Extension Manual No. 4., Ministry of Agriculture, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 32 p. Sendros Demeke, Beyene Kebede, Tesfaye Kumsa, Taye Bekure and Hailu Gebre Mariam. 1987. Preliminary results of cattle crossbreeding (European cross Zebu) study I. Milk production performance of F1 cows In: Proc. of the 1st National Livestock Improvement Conference (NLIC). Page 61-65. 11-13 Feb. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Sharma, R.C. and D.S. Bhatanagar. 1975. Influence of sex of the calf and order of lactation on the reproductive efficiency in dairy animals. Ind. Vet. J.52: 813-822. Solomon Gizaw, Solomon Abegaz, and Asfaw Negassa. 1992. Growth response of Horro sheep to different levels of maize and Noug cake supplements. In: Proc. of the 4th National Livestock Improvement Conference (NLIC). Page 113-118. 13-15 November 1991. IAR., Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Van Horn, H.H., C.A. Zometa, C.J. Wilcox, S.P. Marshal and B.Harris.1979. Complete rations for dairy cattle. VIII. Effect of percent and source of protein on milk yield and ration digestibility. J. Dairy Sci.62: 108. 384 11th ESAP-Proceedings
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Venkatesh, M., U. Krishnamoorthy, Farooq Mohammed, and B.P. Hegde. 1998. Effect of feeding protein according to ARC and NRC recommendations on dry matter intake, digestibility and production performance in crossbred cows in late lactation. Anim. Feed Sci. and Tech. 73: 271-279. Wiltbank, J.N., W.W. Rowden, J.E. Ingalls, K.E. Gregory and R.M. Koch.1962. Effect of energy level on reproduction phenomena of mature Hereford cows. Anim. Sci. 21: 219-225.
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The Effect of Different Calf Starter Rations on Growth Rate of Crossbred Dairy Calves Weaned at Different Ages
Tadesse Bekele1 and Yohannes Gojam2
1 2
Assoc. Researcher, and corresponding author, EARO, HRC, P. O. Box 2003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Project leader EARO, HRC, P. O. Box 2003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Abstract
One of the important aspects of dairying is calf rearing. Calf rearing activities should be economical as well as producing viable calves for dairy herd replacements or for sale. However, there are limitations in calf rearing. These include calf rearing costs and calf mortality associated with rearing. A calf rearing experiment using 156 crossbred calves was launched to test three farm formulated calf starter rations under early and late weaning management system. Three calf starter diets based on Cotton Seed Cake (CSC), Noug Seed Cake (NSC) and Meat Meal (MM) were used as Treatments 1,2, and 3 respectively. Calves were stratified by breed (Friesian, Jersey and Three way crosses) and sex, and were assigned to each treatment. Calf growth rates at 14 weeks and 6 months of age were similar between calf starter groups (p>0.05). However, calves fed the MM based diet had numerically better growth rate. Friesian cross calves had higher pre weaning and post weaning growth rates than Jersey and three way crossbred calves (p<0.05). Male calves had higher post weaning growth rate than female calves (p<0.05). Under this feeding system, calves weaned at 7 and 8 weeks had lower pre weaning growth rate than calves weaned at higher ages. Under these high energy and protein rations crossbred calves can be successfully weaned at 9 weeks of age, without check in growth rate.
Keywords: - calves, starter ration, weaning age, crossbreeds, cotton seed cake, noug seed cake, meat meal, bypass protein, growth.
Introduction
Feeding high quality calf starter diet during early lives of calves enhances growth and survival rates. It is also critical to successful early weaning of calves. Calf starters with higher nutrient content offset lower starter intakes of early-weaned calves and reduce stress of early weaning. Palatability is the first essential quality of calf starter rations fed to calves. This is specially important in the use of artificially reared dairy calves which must be encouraged to consume concentrates in quantity at an early age when they convert feed most efficiently (Roy, 1980). In most developed countries, during the first week of life a pelleted all milk pre-starter diet is fed along with whole milk, colostrum or high fat (20%) milk replacer. Pre-starter is discontinued at eight weeks of age, and conventional starter is fed ad libitum. The rationale behind this program is to offer the calf a highly palatable and digestible dry feed at an early age to stimulate intake of dry feeds (Etgen, 1987,). The calf reared on dry feed from an early age has to ingest more energy than a similar animal reared on milk, if the same weight gains are to be achieved (Roy, 1980). Under Ethiopian conditions, earlier recommendation for crossbred calf rearing was feeding colostrum for the first 4 days and 212 kg whole milk until they are weaned at 80 days of age (Alemu, 1983). On pastoral dairy production systems in Ethiopia, there is no clear calf rearing strategy and calves are reared using restricted suckling (Azage et al, 1994). Under present conditions there is no common farm made or commercial calf starters in Ethiopia. There is no uniform calf starter feeding system as well. Whether small holder farmers use calf starter diets is not documented.
The objective of this study is to compare the effect of different calf starter diets and weaning ages on calf growth rate.

Calves. A total of 156 calves from breeding and selection program study at Holetta research center were used in this study. Calves to be used in the study were, stratified by breed and sex (Table1) calves.
Table 1. Experimental plan and number of calves used in the experiment Variables Weaning ages 7 weeks 8 weeks 9 weeks 10 weeks 11 weeks 12 weeks 13 weeks 14 weeks Calf sex Males Females Calf breed Friesian cr. Jersey cr. Three way 32 7 16 33 8 10 29 9 12 27 28 27 24 29 21 9 6 7 7 7 6 7 6 7 7 6 7 5 5 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 5 6 6 Treatments 1 2 3
Milk feeding schedule. Calves were reared using bucket feeding in separate calf pen, whereby they were separated from their dams right at calving before suckling their dams. All calves were offered colostrum (as much as possible) for the first four consecutive days and shifted to milk feeding thereafter. All calves were offered milk during morning and afternoon through dividing daily allowances in equal halves. All calves in each calf starter diet group were abruptly weaned at 7,8,9,10,11,12,13, and 14 weeks of age. These calves consumed 162,183,204,218,232,246,253 and 260 liters of milk per head per day for each weaning age respectively. Calf starter ration and hay feeding schedule. Three calf starter rations (Table 2) were formulated and used along with good quality hay. Calf starter rations were Noug Seed Cake (NSC), Cotton Seed Cake (CSC) and Meat Meal (MM) based diets as Treatment 1,2, and 3, respectively. Calves were trained to feed on starter ration and hay starting at one week of age. On the end of second week calves were fed concentrate and hay at 60:40 ratio, respectively. Daily allowance of feed was at 3% body weight as fed basis. The Concentrate: hay ratio was reduced to 30:70 for all calves at 120 days of age. All calves were also shifted to the MM based calf starter ration. Once daily morning feeding was used in 24 hours. Feed adjustments were made every week based on calf body weights. Feeds offered and refusals were measured every morning before next feeding. Calves were watered ad lib in buckets twice per day. The experiment lasted up to 6 months of age.
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Animal Nutrition Table 2. Starter ration used in the experiment and its composition Variables Ingredients Rolled barley % Wheat bran % Wheat midlings % Cotton seed cake % Noug seed cake % Molasses % Salt % Bone meal % Meat meal % Chemical composition DM % Ash % CP % NDF % IVOMD Economic value Price Birr/Kg 0.91 0.96 0.69 89.1 7.5 16.3 29.98 84.25 89.8 9.8 18.4 26.73 86.1 91.3 10.3 16.1 34.03 81.82 40 ---15 25 ---18 1 1 ---40 ---15 ---25 18 1 1 ------30 33 ---30 ---1 3 3 Treatments Ration1 Ration 2 Ration 3
Body weight measurement. All calves were weighed every week before feeding, and at weaning dates, and final dates of the trial. Calves that showed body weight difference of 5 Kg from last weeks weighing were re-weighed to be accurate. Calf management and housing. Calves were housed in well-ventilated calf pen with slanted concrete floor, and ample liquid waste drainage system. The calf boxes were made up of wooden lumber and used for individual calf. The calf room was cleaned once per day and washed twice per month. Calves were allowed to exercise for an hour out door in calf exercise area once daily. Laboratory analysis. Ration samples were collected daily and bulked weekly for sub sampling. Samples were mixed, dried and ground by whilley mill (1 mm sieve size). The dried sample was analyzed for DM, Nitrogen and Ash using standard procedure (AOC, 1980). Neutral Detergent Fiber was determined as described by Goering and Van Soest (1970). In vitro ODM was determined by two stages Tilley and Terry (1963) as modified by Minson and McLeod (1972). Statistical analysis. The experiment was conducted using 3 X 7 Factorial arrangement in RCBD i.e.3 diets against 7 weaning ages. Data were analyzed using GLM procedures of SAS (SAS, 1988).
Results
Overall mean daily body weight gains for all variables were 355.01, 326.18 and 341.86 grams during early ages, post weaning and overall growth periods, respectively (Table 3). Calf starter ration, sex and breed (p>0.05) did not affect early age calf growth rate. All types of calf starter diets resulted in similar (P>0.05) body weights attained at 14 and 24 weeks of age (Table 3). Calf growth rates during early age were not affected by calf starter types used (p>0.05). However, growth pattern of calves was slightly higher for MM based calf starter diets from 7-14 weeks of age (Fig 1). Calf weaning age was more important in affecting early age growth rate. Calves weaned at 7 and 8 weeks of age had lower growth rate (p<0.05) than those weaned at 9,10,12,13 and 14 weeks of age. Friesian crossbred calves had faster growth performance than their Jersey and three ways
crossbred calves (p<0.05). There was no marked difference between Jersey and three way crosses in early age growth rate (p>0.05). Male calves had slightly higher early age growth rate than female calves, however their difference was insignificant (P>0.05). Calf starter ration, calf sex and breed did not affect post weaning growth rate. However, postweaning growth was markedly affected by weaning ages. Calves weaned at eight weeks of age had the least post weaning growth rate while calves weaned at 9 and 14 weeks had the highest post weaning growth rate. All other weaning ages were intermediate. Calf weaning age and breed (p <0.05) affected over all growth rate from birth to 24 weeks of age. Overall growth rate was low for calves weaned at 7 and 8 weeks of age, and highest for calves weaned at 9, 10,13 and 14 weeks of age. Calves weaned at 11 and 12 weeks of age had similar (p>0.05) growth rate with calves weaned at 7 and 8 weeks of age. Calf sex and starter ration used didnt affect calf growth rate during this age. Friesian crosses had scored the highest (p<0.05) overall growth rate, followed by Three way crosses. Overall mean birth, 14 weeks and 24 weeks of age body weights for all variables were 25.96, 60.94 and 87.48 Kg, respectively (Table 4). Calves in all starter rations had similar birth weights, however, calves fed NC and MM based diets had numerically higher calf birth weights. Male calves had markedly (p<0.05) higher calf birth weights than female calves. Calf birth weights were similar for all except for calves weaned at 10 and 14 weeks of age, which were higher than other weaning age groups. Friesian crossbred calves had marked difference (p<0.05) in birth weight from Jersey and Three-way crosses. However, Jersey and Three-way crosses had similar (p>0.05) birth weights. Body weights attained at 14 weeks of age was markedly affected by weaning age (p<0.05). There was no marked difference between diets used in body weights at 14 weeks of age (p>0.05). Body weight attained at 14 weeks of age was significantly (p<0.05) higher for all calves weaned at 9 weeks and above (except those weaned at 11 weeks of age) than calves weaned at 7 and 8 weeks of age. Calves weaned at 10 weeks of age had the fastest growth ate from 7-14 weeks of age (Fig 2). At this age male calves had slightly higher (p>0.05) body weights than females (Fig 3). There was no breed difference in body weight at 14 weeks of age. However, Friesian crosses calves had higher growth pattern followed by Three- way crosses from 7-14 weeks of age (Fig 4). At 6 months of age, all calves in three diet groups attained similar body weights (p>0.05), however, calves fed MM diet based ration had slightly higher body weight followed by groups fed noug cake based diet. Calves weaned at 9 and above (except calves weaned at 11 weeks of age) weeks of age had significantly (p<0.05) higher body weight than calves weaned at lower ages. Calves weaned at 7 and 8 weeks of age had similar body weights (p>0.05), but markedly lower (p>0.05) body weights (except calves weaned at 11 weeks of age) than the rest weaning age groups. Friesian cross calves had higher body weights (p<0.05) than both Jersey and Three way crosses at 6 months of age. Jersey and Three way crosses had similar body weights at 6 months of age. Male calves had higher (p<0.05) body weights than female calves at this age.
Discussion
Calf starter rations used in this study had CP content of 16.1%, 18.4% and 16.3% for Treatments 1, 2 and 3, respectively. Absence of difference in growth response at different ages, to different calf starter diet may be due to CP% of each diet that was nearly equal. However, the MM based starter ration showed better growth pattern (Fig 1.) most probably due to its high bypass (60%) protein content as compared to cotton seed cake (40% by pass) and other oil seed cakes as classified earlier (Chalupa, 1975, Satter et al, 1977, ARC, 1980).
Animal Nutrition
Calves weaned at 7 and 8 weeks of age had lower early age growth rate than calves weaned later (except calves weaned at 11 weeks). This finding is in agreement with Owen and Larson (1982), who observed that calves that were weaned at earlier age had lower body weight at 8 weeks than calves weaned later. Absence of difference in post weaning growth rate between calves weaned at 7 and 8 weeks of age indicates that the amount of milk consumed didn't bring about growth difference. Because, it has been reported that feeding higher quantities of milk during pre-weaning resulted in better growth performance (Mukassa et al, 1991, Kurtu et al, 1993, Azage et el, 1994). Failure of calves weaned at 11 weeks of age to exceed those weaned at lower ages can not be explained in this study. All calve weaned at and above (except calves weaned at 11 weeks) 9 weeks of age showed marked early age and overall growth difference between calves weaned at 7 and 8 weeks of age. This finding is in agreement with earlier suggestions that, provision of high amount of milk during pre weaning has advantages on subsequent growth of calves (Richardson et al, 1978,Tegegne et al, 1994). Final body weight attained by calves weaned 7 and 8 weeks of age also indicates their growth rate was reduced due to early weaning which reduced their milk intake. Similar studies revealed that a drop in growth rate after early weaning (Preston, 1956, Morril, 1984, Winter, 1985). However, it has been suggested that the drop in growth rate immediately after early weaning can be compensated at later age (Roy, 1980).
Table 3. Least square mean and s.e. weight gains of calves in the experiment. Variables Overall mean Starter ration Diet 1 Diet 2 Diet 3 Weaning ages 7 weeks 8 weeks 9 weeks 10 weeks 11 weeks 12 weeks 13 weeks 14 weeks Calf sex Males Females Calf breeds Friesian cr. Jersey cr. Three way cr. CV % R
2
Number 156 55 51 50 23 20 20 20 18 16 20 19 84 72 94 24 38
Pre-weaning (g) 373.33 364.7112.84 365.1013.44 365.3213.25 335.3219.30a 309.1120.25a 378.6720.55b 369.2520.49b 359.8821.92ab 389.6422.74b 385.5020.42b 392.9920.83b 373.6210.90 356.4711.28 386.399.30 350.7218.40 358.0214.79 23.90 0.1323
Post-weaning (g) 333.28 310.2713.63 324.7314.26 336.9514.06 319.0620.48b 284.5421.48a 367.3421.80c 344.0121.75bc 300.1323.26ab 288.7824.13ab 304.6921.67ab 385.3522.10c 321.6311.52 326.3411.97 345.479.86 307.7119.52 318.7915.69 28.40 0.1558
Over all (g) 355.06 339.9210.21 346.7010.68 352.3610.53 327.8715.35a 297.9916.10a 373.4216.34c 357.7516.29bc 332.5317.43ab 343.7218.08ab 348.7416.24bc 388.6216.56c 349.928.63 342.748.97 367.637.38c 331.1614.62ab 340.1011.75ab 19.98 0.1777
Means with different superscripts are significantly different (p<0.05).
391
Crossbred calves used in this study had overall mean weight of 25.96 kg at birth. This result is in agreement with other studies (Beyene and Galal, 1982, Gryseels, 1988, Little et al, 1991, and Khalili, 1992). Friesian crosses were found superior in growth rate over Jersey crosses. This variation is attributed to genotype difference as suggested by Ahunu et al (1993). Similar result has been found earlier (Osuji et al, 2001). This faster growth rate is due to genetic inheritance. Weaning weights of F1 crosses was reported to be higher than 75% crosses (Osuji et al, 2001). Calf sex has only affected post weaning growth rate. Similar result was reported where male calves were heavier than females at weaning for Simmental cross Boran calves at Adami Tulu (Amsalu and Abule, 1998). All male and female calves had similar (p>0.05) growth rates during early life. Variation in growth rate due to sex during post weaning period is associated with sex hormone development that favours male calves.
Conclusion
Calf starter diets used in this study didn't cause marked variation in calf growth rate. However, the MM based diet had better growth response than other diets. Weaning calves at early age affects pre-weaning growth rate. Under this feeding system, calves weaned at 7 and 8 weeks had lower growth rate than calves weaned at 9 and more ages. Calves can be weaned at 9 weeks of age without incurring stunted growth during early age. Male calves had similar growth rate with females during early life, however, males had faster growth rate at 6 months of age. Friesian cross calves had faster growth rate than both Jersey and three way crosses.
Table 4. Least square mean and s. e. weight attained at different ages. Variables Overall mean Starter ration Diet 1 Diet 2 Diet 3 Weaning ages 7 weeks 8 weeks 9 weeks 10 weeks 11 weeks 12 weeks 13 weeks 14 weeks Calf sex Males Females Calf breeds Friesian cr. Jersey cr. Three w. cr. CV % R
2
Number 156 55 51 50 23 20 20 20 18 16 20 19 84 72 94 24 38
Birth weight (Kg) 25.96 24.760.76 25.390.80 25.020.78 24.891.14a 24.741.20a 24.191.22a 28.181.21b 24.111.30a 24.991.35ab 25.931.21ab 23.411.23a 26.120.64 b 23.990.67
a
W 14 weight (Kg) 60.94 60.521.30 61.261.36 60.811.34 57.791.95b 55.212.05a 61.352.08c 64.332.07c 59.352.22abc 63.202.30c 63.772.07c 61.922.11c 62.761.10 b 58.971.14 a 65.190.94 c 58.151.86 59.251.50 14.39 0.2435
ab ab
180 days weight (Kg) 89.98 85.941.82 87.801.90 88.451.88 83.922.73ab 78.382.87a 91.412.91c 92.592.90c 83.973.10ab 86.863.22c 88.702.89c 93.372.95c 89.111.54 85.691.60 93.491.31c 83.382.09ab 85.322.09ab 14.04 0.2521
27.300.55 c 23.781.09 24.090.88 20.27 0.1945

ab ab
Means with different superscripts are significantly different (p<0.05).
392
Animal Nutrition
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Holetta Research Centre Nutrition Laboratory for feed sample analysis. Our thanks also go to Ato Getu Kitaw and Ato Dereje Fekadu for analysing the samples. We appreciate EARO, for financing the project.
70
60
50
Body wt.(Kg)
40
CSC NSC MM
30
20
10
0 0 7 8 9 10 Age(weeks) 11 12 13 14
Fig 1. Calf growth by starter diet
70 60 50
Body wt. (Kg)
40
7 w eeks 8 w eeks 9 w eeks 10 w eeks 11 w eeks 12 w eeks 13 w eeks 14 w eeks
30 20 10 0
10
11
12
13
14
Age (w eeks) Fig 2. Calf grow th rate by w eaning age
393
70
60
50 Body wt. (Kg)
40 Males 30 Females
20
10
0 0 7 10 11 Age (w eeks) Fig 3. Calf grow th rate by sex group 8 9 12 13 14
70
60
50 Body wt. (Kg)
40
30 F crosses 20 J crosses Three W. Crosses 10
0 0 7 8 9 10 Age (w eeks) 11 12 13 14
Fig 4. Calf grow th rate by breed group
394
Animal Nutrition
References
Agricultural Research Council. 1980. The Nutrient Requirements of Ruminant Livestock. Common Wealth Agricultural Breaux. Surrey, The Gresham Press. Ahunu, B.K., P.F. Arthur, G. Danbaro and G.S. Aboagye. 1993. Pre-weaning growth Performance of West African Short horn cattle and their Jersey crosses in Ghana. J. Trop. Anim. Hlth. 25:33-40. Amsalu Sisay and Abule Ebro. 1998. Growth performance of Boran and their Simmental crossbred calves. In: Proc. 6th ESAP. Page.157-161. 14-15 May, 1998. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. AOAC. (Association of Official Analytical Chemists). 1980. Official Method of Analysis. 1st ed., AOAC. Washington, D.C. Azage Tegegne, P.O.Osuji, A, A. Lahlou-kassi, and Mukassa-Mugerwa. 1994. Effect of dam nutrition and suckling on lactation in Borana, cows and growth in their Borana X Friesian crossbred calves in an early weaning system in Ethiopia. Anim. Prodn. 58: 19-24. Alemu, M. (1983). Care of young animals. Ethiopian Ministry of Agriculture, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Animal Breeding and Improvement Div. Training Manual. Beyene Kebede and E.S.E Galal. 1982. A study of body weight from birth to 1 year of age in European zebu crossbred cattle in Ethiopia. Anim. Produn. 34: 85-93. Chalupa, W. 1975. Rumen by pass and protection of proteins and amino acids. J. Dairy Sci.58:1196. Etgen, W.M., James and P.M. Reaves. 1987. Dairy cattle feeding and management. 7th Ed. John Wiley & Sons. New York. Chi Chester. Brisbane. Toronto. Singapore. Goering, H. K. and P.J. Van Soest. 1970. Forage fibre analysis (apparatus, reagents, procedures and some applications) USDA IARS Agric. Hand book No. 379. USDA, Washington, D.C. Gryseels, G. 1988. Role of livestock on mixed smallholder farms in the Ethiopian Highlands. PhD. Diss. Wageningen. Agricultural University The Netherlands. Khalili, H., S. Crosse, T.Varviko. (1992). The performance of crossbred dairy calves given different levels of whole milk and weaned at different ages. An. Prdn. 54: 191 195. Kurtu, M.Y., W.N.M. Mwenya, and P. Chigaru. 1993. Feeding crossbred dairy calves in Arsi region, Ethiopia: Growth performance of calves fed different levels of whole milk and weaned at different ages. African J. of Agric. Sci. Vol. 20(29): 151-165. Leaver, J.D. and N.H.Yarrow, 1972. Rearing of dairy cattle. 2. Weaning calves according to their concentrate intake, weight gain, faeces score, and season. J. of Dairy Sci. 67: 2964 2969. Little, D.A, F. M. Anderson, and J.W. Durkin. (1991). Influence of partial suckling of crossbred dairy cows on milk off take and calf growth in the Ethiopian highlands. Trop. Animal Health and Production. 23: 108 114. Minson, D. J., and M. V. McLeod. 1972. The in vitro technique, its modification for estimating digestibility of large number of tropical pasture samples. Technical paper, Division of Tropical Pasture. CSIRO. No. 8. Morrill, J.L. 1984. Research in Dairy cattle nutrition. In: Cornell Nutr. Conf. Feed Manuf. Page 46. Syracuse, NY.
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Mukassa-Mugerwa, E. 1991. Reproduction performances in Ethiopian Zebu (Bos indicus) cattle. Constraints and impact on production. 4th Nat. Liv. Improv. Conf. 13-15 Nov, 1991. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Osuji, P.O., Asfaw Yimegnuhal, N.N. Umunna, and Azage Tegegne. 2201. Calf feeding and management: the effect of genotype (Bos taurus X Bos indicus), level of milk feeding and type of housing on the post weaning growth performance of crossbred calves up to one year of age. Owen, F.G. and L. L. Larson. 1982. A simplified liquid feeding program for calves. J. Dairy Sci. 65: 1350. Preston, T.R. 1956. Studies on the rearing of calves weaned from milk between two and four weeks of age. Br. Soc. Anim. Prod. 12:67. Richardson, F. D., F. Oliver, and G.P.Y. Clarke. 1978. The pre-weaning and post weaning growth of beef calves in relation to the amount of milk and solid food consumed during the suckling period. Rhodesia. J. Agric. Res. 16:97. Roy, J.H.B. 1980. The calf .4th ed. Butterworths, London. SAS. 1988. Users guide for statistical analysis. Version 6, SAS Institute, Inc., Cary, NC. U.S.A. Satter, L.D. L.W. Whitlow, and G. L. Beardsley 1977. Resistance of protein to rumen degradation and its significance to the dairy cow. Distillers Feed Res. Counc. Proc. 32:63 Des Moines, Iowa. Tilley, J.M.A. and R.A. Terry. 1963. A two stage technique for in vitro digestion of forage crops. J. Brit. Grassland Soc. 18: 104-101. Winter, K.A. 1985. Comparative performance and digestibility in dairy calves weaned at three, five and seven weeks of age. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 65:445.
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Major Milk Chemical Composition and Feed Dry Matter Intake of Multiparous Boran Cows as Affected by Level of Milk Production under Bucket Feeding and Partial Suckling Calf-Rearing Methods
Zelalem Yilma, Yohannes Gojjam, Gizachew Bekele, Alemu Gebre Wold and Sendros Demeke Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization, Holetta Agricultural Research Center, P.O. Box 2003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Abstract
The effects of level of milk production and suckling methods were studied for Boran cows previously recorded to produce high and low milk yield under hand milking condition on feed dry matter intake and major milk chemical composition. A total of 39 Boran cows in their 2nd to 3rd parities were used for the study in a 2 x 2 factorial arrangement: suckling group (partial suckling and non-suckling) and milk yield group (low and high yielders). Parity and, calving year and season were also considered as independent variables. The overall means monthly milk yield, % fat, % protein and % total solids were 66.5kg, 5.43%, 3.17% and 13.77%, respectively. Non-suckling cows, high yielders, cows in their 2nd parity, cows calved in year 2000 and during the dry season produced 52kg (152%), 31kg (69%), 17.3kg (34%) and 12.4kg (23%) more monthly milk yield than their counter parts, respectively (P<0.05). Percent of fat in milk was 0.3, 0.6 and 0.6% higher for non-suckling cows, low yielders and dry season calved cows than suckling cows, high yielders and wet season calved cows. Percent protein in milk was 0.2% higher for wet season calved cows and % total solids were 0.3% and 0.9% higher for non-suckling and low yielding cows than dry season calved, suckling and high yielding cows, respectively (P<0.05). Suckling cows consumed 1kg (43%), and 1.4kg (18%) more concentrate and total feed DM daily than non-suckling cows. High yielding Boran cows on the other hand consumed 0.6kg (24%) and 0.8kg (10%) more concentrate and total feed DM daily than low yielding cows. Daily concentrate, hay and total feed DM intakes were 1.6kg (84%), 0.7kg (13%) and 2.3kg (31%) higher for suckling-high yielding cows than non-suckling-low yielding cows. Partial suckling resulted in reduced % fat in milk obtained through hand milking. But this could be compensated by the increased total milk yield obtained through the same system. The results of this study suggests that dairy enterprises in Ethiopia that are based on local cows need to take into consideration the importance of suckling for increased productivity of the farm. However, as suckling results in increased milk yield, this should be accompanied by improved management particularly improved feeding. Further study is needed in this line to address the economic implications of such practice.
Introduction
Preliminary results of Boran cows performance evaluation at Holetta showed significant variation both in milk yield and lactation length among cows, ranging from 1 to more than 1800 kg and 3 to over 300 days, respectively under hand milking condition. Based on this preliminary result, an experiment was conducted to measure and compare the milk production of these cows under partial suckling and non-suckling systems. The hypothesis was that low milk yields and short lactation length that were observed under hand milking condition might not reflect the true genetic potential of the animal. This is evident through the low yield reported under this study is not sufficient to successfully grow a calf to weaning age, while the cows normally support their calves to this age under natural or suckling condition. The low yield might therefore be attributed to the milk let down character of indigenous cows when milked in the absence of their calf. Accordingly it was found that suckling significantly increased milk yield and therefore milk
production potentials of indigenous cows could be expressed more through natural or suckling system (Yohannes et al., 2001). Previous works in this line have shown that indigenous cows produce significantly more milk for human consumption and calf feeding when partial suckling and milking system is used (Azage et al. 1994; Little et al. 1989). This system on the other hand is reported to prolong postpartum days to conception (Azage et al. 1994). Partial suckling in view of its increasing milk yield and its influence on lactation length has also been done on Horro cows and their crosses (Tesfaye and G/Egziabher, 1995). On the other hand, the solid components of milk mainly fat and protein make milk an economically and nutritionally important asset. The composition of milk varies with a number of non-nutritional factors. The factors responsible for variations in milk composition include breed, strain, individuality, age of cow, feed, disease and stage of lactation (McDonald et al., 1995). Milking technique may have a profound effect on fat content and thus on total solids content since incomplete milking may leave a considerable volume of fat-rich milk in the udder. Unequal intervals between milkings may reduce yield and fat content when a single interval exceeds 16 hours and especially with high yielding cows (McDonald et al., 1995). However, there is no or very limited information available on milk chemical composition and feed dry matter (DM) intake of local cows in general and Boran cows in particular under different production levels and suckling conditions. This report therefore briefly discusses feed DM intake and major milk chemical composition of multiparous Boran cows under different milk production levels and suckling conditions.

Animals and treatments: A total of 39 Boran cows from the Holetta Research Center Dairy Cattle Research Program, in their second to third parities were used in this study. Based on their previous milk production, the cows were grouped into two: low yielders cows producing milk lower than the average and high yielders cows producing milk higher than the average of the Boran herd at the center. The experiment was carried out in a 2 x 2 factorial arrangement, suckling group (partial suckling and non-suckling) and milk yield group (low yielders and high yielders) (Table 1). All cows were drenched against internal parasites before the commencement of the experiment. The cows were stall fed with hay ad lib. An additional concentrate allowance was given at the rate of 0.5 kg for every 1 kg of milk produced. The composition of the concentrate mixture used for the study is indicated under Table 2. One kg of concentrate in excess of their requirement for milk yield was given to all cows for anticipated increase in milk yield. The cows had full access to clean water.
Table 1. Allocation of cows under different treatments Suckling group I. Suckling Sub-total II. Non-suckling Sub-total Total Low yielders High yielders Milk yield group Low yielders High yielders Number of cows 10 10 20 9 10 19 39
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Animal Nutrition Table 2. Composition of concentrate mixture used Constituents Wheat middling Wheat bran Noug (Guizocia abyssinica) cake Bone meal Salt Total Proportion, % 32 32 34 1 1 100
Milk sampling: A total of 541 fresh milk samples were collected fortnightly from all experimental cows from morning and evening milkings. Composite morning and evening milk samples were kept overnight in a refrigerator maintained below 4 oC before undertaking the required test for chemical composition. Milk chemical analysis: Milk fat analysis was run using the Gerber method (BSI, 1989). Protein content was determined using the formaldehyde titration method according to the technique described by Pyne (1932). Total solids (TS) or dry matter (DM) was determined by oven drying 5gm of milk (Marth, 1978). Data collection and statistical analysis: Data collected on feed DM intake and the major milk chemical compositions (fat, protein and total solids) were subjected to statistical analysis using the General Linear Model (GLM) procedure of the Statistical Analysis System (SAS) (SAS, 1987). The independent variables considered for this study include: suckling group, milk yield group, parity, calving year and calving season.

The overall mean monthly milk yield, % fat, % protein and % total solids was 66.5kg, 5.43%, 3.17% and 13.77%, respectively (Table 3). Except calving year all the independent factors markedly (P<0.05) affected monthly milk yield. The effect of suckling group and milk yield group on % fat and % total solids was also important (P<0.05). Calving season significantly (P<0.05) affected % fat and % protein. Non-suckling cows, high yielders, cows in their 2nd parity, cows calved in year 2000 and during the dry season produced 52kg (152%), 31kg (69%), 17.3kg (34%) and 12.4kg (23%) more monthly milk yield than their counter parts, respectively. Percent of fat in milk was 0.3, 0.6 and 0.6% higher for non-suckling cows, low yielders and dry season calved cows than suckling cows, high yielders and wet season calved cows. Percent protein in milk was 0.2% higher for wet season calved cows and % total solids were 0.3% and 0.9% higher for non-suckling and low yielding cows than dry season calved, suckling and high yielding cows, respectively (Table 3). The monthly milk yield considered in this study in only that obtained through hand milking. Suckled milk is not considered and this explains the markedly higher milk yield of non-suckling cows than suckling cows. The significantly higher percent milk fat of non-suckled cows might be due to the suckling effect whereby cows suckled their calves before and after hand milking. This result agrees with OConnor (1994) who indicated that the first milk drawn from the udder contains about 1.4% fat while last milk or stripping contains about 8.7% fat. Due to incomplete milking if fat is left in the udder at the end of a milking; it is usually picked up during subsequent milkings. Much of the fat therefore might have picked up by the calves in the suckling group resulting in low fat content of the hand milked milk samples than that of the non-suckling group. The apparently higher % milk fat in low yielders might be accounted to the
inverse relationships between milk yield and % fat in the milk (Chamberlain, 1993). The 0.3% and 0.9% higher total solids for non-suckling group and low yielding group might be partly attributed to the higher % fat in the same group. The marked difference in monthly milk yield, % fat and % protein in milk between calving seasons could be speculated to the environmental variation incurred due to seasonal changes.
Table 3. Least squares means s.e. for monthly milk yield (MTHMY), % fat, % protein and % total solids (%TS) Variable Overall mean Suckling group Suckling Non-suckling Milk yield group Low yielders High yielders Parity 2nd 3
rd
Obs. 541 276 265 251 290 313 228 195 346 439 102
MTHMY 66.5 ** 34.1 2.58 86.1 2.95 ** 44.6 2.67 75.6 3.03 ** 68.7 2.54 51.4 3.11 NS 58.0 3.40 62.2 2.18 * 66.3 1.8 53.9 4.1 53.9
% Fat 5.43 ** 5.2 0.08 5.5 0.09 ** 5.6 0.08 5.0 0.09 NS 5.2 0.07 5.4 0.09 NS 5.4 0.10 5.2 0.06 ** 5.6 0.05 5.0 0.12 19.6
% Protein 3.17 NS 3.2 0.03 3.2 0.03 NS 3.2 0.03 3.2 0.04 NS 3.2 0.03 3.2 0.04 NS 3.2 0.04 3.2 0.02 ** 3.1 0.02 3.3 0.05 13.4
% TS 13.77 * 13.6 0.11 13.9 0.12 ** 14.2 0.11 13.3 0.12 NS 13.9 0.11 13.6 0.13 NS 13.9 0.14 13.7 0.09 NS 13.8 0.07 13.7 0.17 10.8
Calving year 1999 2000 Calving season Dry Wet C.V. %
NS = Non significant, * = significant (P< 0.05), ** = significant (P< 0.01), C.V. = Coefficient of variation
Suckling group and milk yield group markedly (P<0.05) affected daily concentrate and total feed DM intake, while their effect on daily hay DM intake was not important (Tale 4). Suckling group milk yield group interaction significantly (P<0.05) affected daily concentrate, hay and total feed DM intakes. Suckling cows consumed 1kg (43%), and 1.4kg (18%) more concentrate and total feed DM daily than non-suckling cows. High yielding Boran cows on the other hand consumed 0.6kg (24%) and 0.8kg (10%) more concentrate and total feed DM daily than low yielding cows. Daily concentrate, hay and total feed DM intakes were 1.6kg (84%), 0.7kg (13%) and 2.3kg (31%) higher for suckling high yielding cows than non-suckling low yielding cows. The 1kg (43%) and 1.4kg (18%) more concentrate and total feed dry matter intakes by suckling cows than non-suckling cows might be accounted to the higher milk production of the suckling group taking into account suckled milk. This result supports that of Chamberlain (1993) who indicated increased feed intake is associated with high milk yield. Yohannes et al. (2001) in their study using the same animals on the other hand reported that suckling significantly increased milk yield.
Conclusion and recommendation

The effect of suckling on daily feed dry matter intake, milk yield and major milk chemical compositions of Boran cows was found to be important. Partial suckling resulted in reduced % fat in milk obtained through hand milking. But this could be compensated by the increased total milk yield obtained through the same system. The results of this study indicates that dairy enterprises in the tropics in general and in Ethiopia in particular that are based on local cows need to take
Animal Nutrition
into consideration the importance of suckling for increased productivity of the farm in terms of increased milk yield to support the growth of the calf and additional milk for household consumption and/or sale. However, as suckling results in increased milk yield, this should be accompanied by improved management particularly improved feeding. Further study is needed in this line to address the economic implications of such practice.
Table 4. Least squares means s.e. of daily concentrate, hay and total feed intake in dry matter basis for suckling group, milk yield group and their interaction Variable Overall mean Suckling group (SG) Suckling Non-suckling LSD Milk yield group (MYG) Low yielders High yielders LSD SG*MYG Interaction SLY SHY NSLY NSHY C.V. % 10 10 9 10 3.1 0.15bc 3.5 0.15c 1.9 0.16a 2.8 0.15 17.0
b
Obs. 39 20 19
DCI, kg 2.83 ** 3.3 0.11 2.3 0.11 0.31 **
DHI, kg 5.8 NS 6.0 0.15 5.6 0.16 0.44 NS 5.7 0.16 5.9 0.15 0.44 5.9 0.22ab 6.1 0.22b 5.4 0.23a 5.7 0.22 11.8
ab
TDFI, kg 8.6 ** 9.3 0.19 7.9 0.20 0.55 ** 8.2 0.20 9.0 0.20 0.55 9.0 0.27bc 9.6 0.27c 7.3 0.28a 8.5 0.27b 9.9
19 20
2.5 0.11 3.1 0.11 0.31
NS = Non significant, * = significant (P< 0.05), ** = significant (P< 0.01), C.V. = Coefficient of variation
References
BSI, 1989. Determination of fat content of milk and milk products (Gerber method). British Standard Institution (BSI). British Standard, BS 696. Part II. Chamberlain, A. 1993. Milk production in the tropics. Intermediate Tropical Agricultural Series, Longman Scientific and Technical, England, UK. Little, D.A., Anderson, F.M., and Durkin, J.W. 1989. Partial suckling of crossbred dairy cows: Initial results on effects of milk off-take and calf growth at Debre Birhan. In proc. of the 2nd National Livestock Improvement Conference. 24-26 Feb. 1988. Addis Ababa. Ethiopia. pp. 92-98 Marth, H. 1978. Standard methods for the examination of dairy products (14th ed.). American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C. McDonald, P., R.A. Edwards, J.F.D. Greenhalgh and C.A. Morgan. 1995. Animal Nutrition. 5th edition. Longman Scientific and Technical. Co-published in the United States with John wiley and Sons, Inc., New York. 607 pp. OConnor, C.B., 1994. Rural dairy technology. ILRI training manual No.1. International livestock Center for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 133 pp. Pyne, G.T., 1932. The determination of milk proteins by formaldehyde titration. Biochem. Jour. 26: 10061014. SAS, 1987. User's guide: Statistics, version 5, SAS Institute. Statistical Analysis System (SAS). Inc. Cary, NC.
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Tegegne, A., Geleto, A., Osuji, P.O., Kassa, T., and Franceschini, R. 1994. Influence of dietary supplementation and partial suckling on body weight and on lactation and reproductive performance of primiparous Borana (Bos indicus) cows in Ethiopia. Journal of Agricultural Science. Cambridge. 123. 267-273. Yohannes Gojjam, Zelalem Yilma, Gizachew Bekele, Alemu Gebre Wold and Sendros Demeke. 2001. Milk yield and reproductive performance of Boran cows and growth rate of their calves under partial suckling method. In Proc. of the 9th ESAP (Ethiopian Society of Animal Production) conference, Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
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Effect of Undersowing Annual Forage Legumes on Grain and Dry Matter Stalk Yield of Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor l.) and Dry Matter Forage Yield in the Eastern Amhara region
Samuel Menbere and Mesfin Dejene Sirinka Agricultural Research Center, P.O. Box 74, Woldia, Ethiopia
Abstract
Three annual forage legumes (Lablab purpureus, Vigna unguiculata and Vicia dasycarpa) were undersown at three different dates (10, 25 and 40 days after emergence of sorghum) on two spacing (every and every two rows of sorghum) to evaluate the effect of forage legumes, undersowing dates and row spacing on sorghum grain, DM stalk and DM forage yield. The trial was conducted at Sirinka and Chefa trial sites of northeastern Amhara region for two consecutive years (1999 and 2000). Among tested forage legumes, undersowing Vigna unguiculata and Vicia dasycarpa respectively, gave significantly (P<0.01) highest grain yield of 29.2 and 61.8q/ha, which were higher than sole sorghum grain yield by 13.6 and 4.5% at Sirinka and Chefa. Also significantly (P<0.01) higher DM stalk yield of 8.1 and 7.3t/ha were obtained from Vicia dasycarpa and Vigna unguiculata at Chefa respectively, which were lower by 0.8 and 10.5% than sole sorghum DM stalk yield. However, Lablab purpureus that gave significantly (P<0.01) lower grain yield (23.7 and 53.6q/ha) at Sirinka and Chefa respectively gave significantly (P<0.01) higher DM forage yield of 3.0 and 1.2t/ha. The interaction effect of forage legumes and date of undersowing had only shown significant (P<0.01) effect on DM forage yield of each locations. As a result indicated, undersowing Lablab purpureus at 10 days after emergence of sorghum gave highest DM forage yield of 3.9 and 2.3t/ha at Sirinka and Chefa respectively. Therefore, based on the result obtained from this study, undersowing Vicia dasycarpa at 40 DAES at Sirinka, and Vigna unguiculata at 10 DAES at Chefa on every rows of sorghum were found to be the best for its higher grain and DM stalk, and optimum DM forage yield. Further study is required to evaluate the impact of these forage legumes on the N economy of companion and subsequent main crop.
Keywords: date of undersowing, row spacing, annual forage legumes, grain yield, dry matter stalk yield, dry matter forage yield, days after emergence
Introduction
Livestock productivity is poor in Ethiopia and this is worst in the drier regions like the Amhara region due to low quality and quantity of feeds. The main source of livestock feed in Ethiopia comes from natural pasture which are low in quality and quantity. Moreover, these areas are also diminishing in size due to conversion into farm land because of high human population growth. Rugged topography and high population pressure of the area results critical farm land shortage. Due to this critical problem, growing forage crops as sole crop for animal feed is difficult. Using intensive production system on the available pieces of land for food and forage crop production is the only possibility. Growing of forage legumes which has less impact on the grain production of the main crop through undersowing/intercropping is useful for the introduction of these forage crops and to use the available small farm land for both crop and feed production. The system offers a potential for increasing fodder without appreciable reduction of grain production. One of the conspicuous advantages of undersowing is to get a variety of returns from land and labor to increase efficiency of resource use and to reduce risks which may be caused by bad weather, disease and pests (Tessema Zewdu et al., 1995).
Intercropping annual forage legumes with row crops has been proposed as a strategy to control erosion, suppress weeds, and contribute biological N to companion or subsequent crops (Jeranyman et al 1998). There by, the production of the companion crop will increase and the quality of crop residue will improve. Moreover, biologically fixed N is transferred in to leguminous protein and this may be consumed directly by animals to meet their protein requirements and the excess returned to the soil via animal wastes. As different studies indicate, very high yielding leguminous crop can add up to 500kg of N to the soil per ha/year. The biologically fixed N by these legumes are critical to maintain the N balance in the nature (Gutteridge and Shelton 1994). In similar studies, the decomposition of leguminous roots may contribute between 5 and 15kg N/ha to the soil N (Tekalign et al. 1993, Nnadi et al. 1988) and the return of nutrients in the aerial part of the forage after grazing would increase this considerably. Moreover, the undersown forage legumes can also help in suppressing weed growth (Tessema Zewdu et al. 1995) and control the rate of available moisture evaporation on the cropland by their canopying effect. In the past few years screening and adaptation trial of different forage legumes were carried out to identify promising forage species for further use. Among tested forage legumes Lablab purpureus (lablab), Vigna unguiculata (cowpea) and Vicia dasycarpa (vetch) were identified for their adaptability and good DM forage yield (SARC 1999). Therefore, this study was conducted to evaluate the feasibility of producing forage legumes and to identify suitable forage legumes with its best undersowingdate and spacing, which could successfully establish when undersown in sorghum with out greatly affecting the grain and DM stalk yield.

The study was conducted for two years (1999 and 2000) in northeastern part of Amhara region at two trial sites of Sirinka Research Center (Sirinka and Chefa). Sirinka represent the midland with an altitude of 1850m.a.s.l and Chefa represent lowland with an altitude of 1450m.a.s.l. Details about rainfall, temperature and soil type of the testing sites is presented in table 1. Sorghum was sown on tie ridge with a spacing of 75cm between rows and 20cm between plants on a plot size of 6 X 4m. Each plot consisted of 8 rows of sorghum.
Table 1: Mean rainfall (mm), maximum and minimum temperature (OC), and soil type of Sirinka and Chefa trial Sites. Parameters Soil type Mean annual RF Maximum temperature Minimum temperature
N.B: NA is data not available
Sirinka Eutric vertisole 950 26.34 13.43
Chefa Vertisole NA NA NA
Three species of forage legumes (lablab, cowpea and vetch) were sown at three different undersowing dates (10 days after emergence of sorghum (DAES), 25DAES and 40DAES) on two types of row spacing (on every and every two rows of sorghum). Recommended rate of fertilizer 100 and 50kg/ha DAP and Urea were applied at planting and at knee height of main crop respectively. Seeding rate of 12kg/ha for lablab and 6kg/ha each for cowpea and vetch were used. The design was 3 by 3 by 2 factorial combinations in RCB with three replications. Including the control (sole sorghum), the trial consists 19 treatments. All plots were assigned for the respective treatments, and the forage legumes were undersown according to their undersowing dates and spacing. Prior to crop harvest soil sample was taken at
Animal Nutrition
20 and 40cm depth starting from 10 days after the crop emergence with an interval of 15 days for soil moisture availability determination. Weeding was done by hand pulling and weed biomass was measured fresh for determination of weed controlling potential of undersown forage legumes. Sorghum was harvested at physiological maturity. The middle rows were harvested for grain and stalk yield estimation. Moreover, the middle rows of undersown forage legumes were harvested when they reach 50% flowering. Fresh sub sample were taken from stalk, forage and soil sample and put in drought oven at 105OC for 24 hours to determine forage and stalk dry matter and moisture content in the soil. And finally, the collected data were analyzed using ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) by Genstat statistical software (Genstat, 1993).
Results and Discussions

Grain yield The mean grain yield of undersown and control (sole sorghum) treatment of each location is presented in table 2. As the obtained result indicates, difference among treatments in combined mean grain yield of the two locations was significant (P<0.01). Accordingly, the highest mean grain yield of 47.8 and 45.1q/ha were harvested from treatments on which cowpea and vetch were undersown on every two rows at 40 and 10DAES respectively. These two treatments gave 9.4 and 3.3% higher mean grain yield compared with control (sole sorghum) treatment, which gave a mean grain yield of 43.7q/ha (table 2). Moreover, as the result in table 2 indicates significant (P<0.05) mean grain yield difference was obtained at Chefa among the control and undersown treatments. Treatment on which vetch was undersown on every rows at 20DAES of sorghum gave highest mean grain yield of 64.8q/ha, followed by mean grain yield (64.3q/ha) obtained from cowpea undersown on every two rows at 40DAES of sorghum. As a result, the mean grain yield harvested from control treatment was less by 8.4 and 7.6% respectively, compared with the first and second treatments that gave highest mean grain yield in the location (table 2). However, the differences among treatments were not significant at Sirinka. Type of undersown forage species had also shown significant (P<0.01) effect on the combined mean grain yield of the two locations. The highest mean grain yield of 44.6q/ha was harvested from treatments on which vetch was undersown, followed by cowpea with a mean grain yield of 43.7q/ha (table 3). The mean grain yield obtained from vetch and cowpea was higher by 5.7 and 3.6% respectively than sole sorghum (43.7q/ha) mean grain yield (table 4). Similarly, the effect of forage species was also significant (P<0.01) on each location mean grain yield. Accordingly, vetch and cowpea gave the highest mean grain yield of 29.2 and 61.8q/ha at Sirinka and Chefa respectively (table 3). The mean grain yield obtained from these forage species (vetch and cowpea) were higher than sole sorghum by 13.6 and 4.5% with a mean grain yield of 27.7 and 59.8q/ha at Sirinka and Chefa respectively. Unlike these species, undersowing lablab decrease the mean grain yield by 9.0 and 9.6% compared with control treatment at Sirinka and Chefa respectively. Moreover, lablab decreases the mean grain yield by 9.3% than control treatment of both locations (table 4).
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Ethiopian Society of Animal Production Table 2: Mean grain (q/ha), DM stalk (t/ha) and average weed biomass (t/ha) of undersown and Control (sole sorghum) treatments at Sirinka and Chefa, 1999 and 2000.
Sirinka Treat. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Mean LSD N.B: Forage Species Row Spacing Sowing Date Grain yield 27.7 10DAES 25DAES 40DAES 10DAES 25DAES 40DAES 10DAES 25DAES 40DAES 10DAES 25DAES 40DAES 10DAES 25DAES 40DAES 10DAES 25DAES 40DAES 26.9 25.2 29.1 29.6 23.8 30.0 21.2 23.6 22.7 20.3 29.0 25.2 29.4 24.8 30.9 32.7 26.2 31.3 26.8 NS DM stalk yield 6.4 7.0 8.1 7.6 8.1 7.6 6.6 5.8 6.1 8.1 6.7 5.4 5.9 7.9 6.5 7.0 8.3 6.9 7.2 7.0 NS Weed biomass 7.1 6.1 7.1 7.7 6.4 6.9 6.4 5.6 6.4 6.1 6.6 7.8 6.8 5.9 6.8 5.6 6.2 7.1 6.5 6.6 NS Grain yield 59.8ABC 61.1AB 64.8A 60.8AB 60.6ABC 63.0A 60.1ABC 42.6D 57.9ABC 52.2BCD 50.3CD 59.3ABC 59.1ABC 55.2ABC 60.3ABC 56.1ABC 55.6ABC 57.3ABC 64.3A 57.9 0.05 Chefa DM stalk yield 8.1 7.5 7.9 8.2 8.5 8.3 8.3 7.0 7.0 7.6 6.8 7.4 7.5 6.7 7.0 8.5 7.5 7.0 7.0 7.6 NS Weed biomass 8.6 10.1 9.7 8.2 7.0 7.5 8.4 6.2 9.9 8.1 6.6 8.3 8.8 8.4 7.4 6.2 8.5 8.5 9.2 8.2 NS Location mean DM Grain Weed stalk yield biomass yield 43.7ABC 7.3 44.0 AB 7.3 45.0AB 45.0AB 45.1AB 8.0 7.9 8.2 7.9 8.1 8.4 8.0 6.7 7.2 7.4 5.9 8.2 7.1 6.6 8.1 7.8 7.1 7.1 5.9 7.3 7.8 7.9 7.4 NS
Control (sole sorghum) Vetch Vetch Vetch Vetch Vetch Vetch Lablab Lablab Lablab Lablab Lablab Lablab Cowpea Cowpea Cowpea Cowpea Cowpea Cowpea ER ER ER ETR ETR ETR ER ER ER ETR ETR ETR ER ER ER ETR ETR ETR
43.4ABC 8.0 45.0AB 31.9D 7.5 6.4
40.8ABC 6.5 37.5BCD 35.3CD 44.1AB 7.8 6.8 6.4
42.2ABC 6.7 42.3ABC 7.3 42.5ABC 6.8 43.5ABC 7.8 44.1AB 7.9
41.8ABC 7.0 47.8A 42.4 0.01 7.1 7.3 NS
ER (Every rows), ETR (Every two rows), DAES (Days after emergence of sorghum), Means in the column followed by different letters are significantly (P<0.05 and 0.01) different
The interaction effect of forage species and date of undersowing has also shown significant (P<0.05) effect on the mean grain yield of the two locations. Among the tested forage species and date of undersowing combinations, highest mean grain yield of 45.7q/ha was obtained from cowpea undersown at 40DAES. Moreover, vetch undersown at 40 and 10DAES gave the next highest mean grain yield of 45.0 and 44.6q/ha respectively (table 3). In the above forage species and date of undersowing cases, cowpea undersown at 40DAES and vetch undersown at 40 and 10DAES increases the mean grain yield by 9.8, 6.2 and 3.2% than control treatment respectively (table 4). Stalk yield As the mean DM stalk yield in table 2 indicates, differences among sole sorghum and undersown treatments were not significant for mean DM stalk yield obtained at each location and combined mean yield of these locations.
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Like the mean grain yield, the mean DM stalk yield obtained were significantly (P<0.01) affected by type of forage species in the combined mean yield of the two locations. As a result, the mean DM stalk yield obtained from treatments undersown by lablab was lowest (6.8t/ha). However, vetch gave the highest mean DM stalk yield of 7.8t/ha, followed by cowpea with mean DM stalk yield of 7.3t/ha (table 3). As compared with control mean DM stalk yield (7.3t/ha) undersowing vetch and cowpea increases the DM stalk yield by 15.6 and 10.4% (table 4).
Table 3: Effect of undersowing date and forage species mean grain (q/ha), DM stalk (t/ha) and DM forage (t/ha) yield at Sirinka and Chefa, 1999 and 2000.
Sirinka Forage species Sowing date Grain yield
31.0 25.5 31.1 29.2 A
Chefa DM forage yield

0.8 D 1.0 D 1.1 D 1.0 B 3.9 A 3.1 B 2.0 C 3.0 A 0.8 D 1.2 D 1.3 CD 1.1 B 0.01 0.01 -
Location mean DM forage yield

1.3 B 0.6 CD 0.2 D 0.7 B 2.3 A 0.9 BC 0.4 D 1.2 A 0.3 D 0.2 D 0.2 D 0.2 C 0.01 NS -
DM stalk yield
8.1 6.7 7.1 7.3 6.3 5.8 7.0 6.3 7.5 7.9 7.1 7.5 NS NS 6.4
Grain yield
55.4 58.8 60.2 58.1 AB 46.5 58.6 55.7 53.6 B 60.9 63.9 60.5 61.8 A 0.01 NS 59.8
DM stalk yield
7.1 7.0 7.8 7.3 B 6.9 7.2 7.6 7.2 B 8.0 8.1 8.3 8.1 A 0.01 NS 8.1
Grain yield
43.2 AB 42.1 AB 45.7 A 43.7 A 33.6 C 42.5 AB 39.8 B 38.6 B 44.6 A 44.2 AB 45.0 A 44.6 A 0.01 0.05 43.7
DM stalk yield
7.6 6.9 7.4 7.3 AB 6.6 6.5 7.3 6.8 B 7.7 8.0 7.7 7.8 A 0.01 NS 7.3
DM forage yield
1.1 CD 0.6 EF 0.2 F 0.8 B 3.1 A 2.0 B 1.2 C 2.1 A 0.5 EF 0.7 DE 0.7 DE 0.7 B 0.01 0.01 -
Vigna unguiculata (Cowpea)
10DAES 25DAES 40DAES
Forage mean Lablab purpureus (Lablab) 10DAES 25DAES 40DAES Forage mean Vicia dasycarpa (Vetch) 10DAES 25DAES 40DAES Forage mean Forage LSD Forage * Sowing date LSD Control mean N.B.
20.7 26.3 23.9 23.7 B 28.3 24.5 29.5 27.4 AB 0.01 NS 27.7
Means in the column followed by different letters are significantly (P<0.05 and 0.01) different
Moreover, mean DM stalk yield differences obtained among tested forage species were only significant (P<0.01) at Chefa. Accordingly, the highest mean DM stalk yield of 8.1 and 7.3t/ha were harvested from vetch and cowpea respectively (table 3). However, vetch and cowpea decreases the mean DM stalk yield by 0.8 and 10.5% compared with mean DM stalk yield (8.1t/ha) of control treatment (table 4). Forage yield. Dry matter (DM) forage yield differences among undersown treatments were not significant at each location and in combined mean. However, the mean DM forage yield obtained among tested forage species were significant (P<0.01) for both locations. Unlike the mean grain yield, the highest mean DM forage yield of 2.1t/ha was harvested from lablab, followed by cowpea with mean DM forage yield of 0.8t/ha (table 3). As the mean DM forage yield of each location indicates in table 3, the DM forage yield differences among tested forage species were also significant (P<0.01) at each location. Accordingly, lablab gave the highest mean DM forage yield of 3.0 and 1.2t/ha at Sirinka and Chefa respectively. However, vetch and cowpea respectively gave the second highest mean DM forage yield of 1.1 and 0.7t/ha at Sirinka and Chefa (table 3).
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Like the mean grain yield difference, the interaction effect of forage species and date of undersowing had shown significant (P<0.01) effect on the mean DM forage yield obtained at each location and in the combined mean of both locations. As a result of the combined mean of the two locations in table 3 indicates, among the tested combinations of forage species and date of undersowing, lablab gave the highest mean DM forage yield of 3.1, 2.0 and 1.2t/ha when it was undersown at 10, 25 and 40DAES of sorghum respectively. Also the highest mean DM forage yield of 3.9 and 2.3t/ha were harvested from lablab that was undersown at 10DAES at Sirinka and Chefa respectively (table 3). Similar to the combined result of the two locations, the second highest mean DM forage yield (3.1 and 2.0t/ha) at Sirinka were obtained from lablab when it was undersown at 25 and 40DAES respectively. Unlike to Sirinka, the second highest mean DM forage yield of 1.3t/ha at Chefa was obtained from cowpea undersown at 10DAES (table 3). In general, this result indicates that as the date of undersowing delays the mean DM forage yield would decreases significantly. Stute and Posner (1993) also support this condition from similar study
Table 4: Comparison for the effect of undersowing date and forage species on mean sorghum grain and DM stalk yield with mean grain and DM stalk yield of control (sole sorghum) (%) at Sirinka and Chefa, 1999 and 2000.
Sirinka Forage species Sowing date Grain yield
20.0 2.5 18.4 13.6 A 10DAES 25DAES 40DAES (22.6) (0.4) (3.9) (9.0) B 10DAES 25DAES 40DAES 3.6 (5.0) 9.2 2.6 AB 0.01 NS
Chefa Grain yield

(7.4) (0.3) 1.1 (2.2) AB (22.9) (0.4) (5.6) (9.6) B 2.7 7.7 3.1 4.5 A 0.01 NS
Location effect Grain yield

6.3 AB 1.1 AB 9.8 A 5.7 A (22.7) C (0.4) AB (4.8) B (9.3) B 3.2 AB 1.4 AB 6.2 AB 3.6 A 0.01 0.05
DM stalk yield
42.7 18.5 32.6 31.3 8.3 3.2 31.1 14.2 33.0 36.4 26.5 32.0 NS NS
DM stalk yield
(15.0) (11.8) (4.7) (10.5) B (17.0) (12.2) (6.7) (12.0) B (2.7 (0.4) 0.6 (0.8) A 0.01 NS
DM stalk yield
13.8 3.3 14.0 10.4 AB (4.4) (4.5) 12.2 1.1 B 15.1 18.0 13.6 15.6 A 0.05 NS
Cowpea
Forage mean Lablab
Forage mean Vetch
Forage mean Forage LSD Forage * Sowing date LSD Note:
Numbers that are found in the parenthesis are negative values
Soil Moisture Content Undersowing forage legumes had a great role for increasing soil moisture availability. The canopying effect of those forage legumes protect the solar radiation to not increase the rate of evaporation from the ground. In related with this fact, the role of undersown forage legumes for the control of soil moisture availability for the main crop could be affected by the type of forage species (leaf area and growth habit), plant density and stage of growth. Especially, the type of
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Animal Nutrition
forage species in related with its canopy effect, and growth stage of the forage at which the solar radiation become intensive plays a significant effect towards soil moisture availability. In spite of this fact, the result obtained from this study support this condition. As a result indicates, the interaction effect of forage species type and date of undersowing had shown significant (P<0.01) effect for soil moisture availability of both locations. Accordingly, a treatment that was undersown by cowpea and vetch at 40 and 10DAES has the same highest moisture content of 26.4% (table 4). These forage species had erect growth habit and they tend to cover more ground surface than lablab with a climbing growth nature.
Table 4: Effect of forage legume and date of undersowing on fresh weed biomass (kg/ha) and soil moisture content (%) at Sirinka and Chefa, 1999 and 2000.
Sirinka Forage species Sowing date
Chefa Av. Weed biomass

8.4 8.0 7.7 8.0 6.4 9.1 8.4 8.0 8. 6 8.6 8.3 8.5 NS NS 8.6
Location mean Av. Weed biomass

7.2 7.5 6.9 7.2 6.3 8.1 7.4 7.3 7.4 7.8 7.7 7.6 NS NS 7.9
Av. Weed biomass

6.0 7.0 6.0 6.4
Moisture content
21.8 21.0 22.2 21.7 22.4 21.7 22.1 22.0 22.8 21.3 21.4 21.9 NS NS 22.3
Moisture content
29.1 B 29.5 AB 30.6 A 29.7 29.6 AB 30.2 AB 30.1 AB 30.0 30.0 AB 30.2 AB 29.5 AB 29.9 NS 0.01 28.9
Moisture content
25.5 AB 25.3 B 26.4 A 25.7 26.0 AB 25.9 AB 26.1 AB 26.0 26.4 A 25.8 AB 25.5 AB 25.9 NS 0.01 25.6
Cowpea
Forage mean Lablab

6.1 7.1 6.5 6.6
Forage mean Vetch

6.3 7.0 6.6 5.8 NS NS 7.1
Forage mean Forage LSD Forage * Sowing date LSD Control mean N.B.
Means in the column followed by different letters are significantly (P<0.01) different
On the other hand, the interaction effect of undersowing date and forage species resulted significant (P<0.01) effect for soil moisture availability at Chefa. Among the tested undersowing date and forage species combinations, undersowing those forage species (cowpea and vetch) at 40 and 25DAES shown highest moisture availability of 30.6 and 30.2% respectively at Chefa (table 4). Weed Biomass Undersowing forage legumes with food crop play a great role for suppressing weed growth. Tessema Zewdu et al (1995) also indicate that the use of undersown forage legumes for the control of weed infestation. Even if the weed biomass difference of undersown and control (sole sorghum) treatments were not significant, the result obtained from this study indicated that the average fresh weed biomass of most undersown treatments were less than the mean average weed biomass obtained from control (sole sorghum) treatment at each locations (table 2).
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Conclusions and Recommendations

Undersowing forage legumes with cereals offers a potential for increase forage production through effective use of available resource such as labor, land and time. However, in such system the yield depression of cereal grain yield should be minimal, possibly not more than 15%, for it to be acceptable to the farmers. The time of sowing of cereal and forage legume is critical for the yield of each crop (Nnadil and Haque, 1986). Lulseged Gebrehiwot et al. (1987) also showed that the right choice of both food and forage crop and the right time of planting also important factors. In spite of this fact, from our study the maximum reduction for grain yield at Sirinka and Chefa was 22.6 and 22.9% respectively, and for DM stalk maximum yield reduction of 17.0% was obtained at Chefa as compared with sole sorghum mean grain and DM stalk yield. However, at Sirinka no DM stalk yield reduction was observed in all possible forage species and undersowing date combinations. These maximum grain and DM stalk yield reduction was obtained from treatments on which lablab was undersown at 10DAES. Unlike lablab, undersowing vetch and cowpea at 25 and 10DAES at Sirinka and Chefa respectively maximize the obtained grain yield by 20.0 and 7.7% than sole sorghum mean grain yield. Finally from our study we recommend that undersowing vetch at 40DAES and cowpea at 10DAES on every rows of sorghum would give better DM forage yield without affecting sorghum grain and DM stalk yield at Sirinka and Chefa respectively. However, additional study is required to identify the economic feasibility of undersowing these forage legumes as compared with growing sole sorghum in terms of efficient use of resource and contribution of these forage legumes to soil N for the companion and subsequent food crop.
Acknoledgment
We would like to extend our thanks to Ato Mesfin Lakew, Ato Yohannes Alemu, Ato Ayalew Wudu and Ato Belay Tadesse for their assistance and collaboration in data collection during the execution of the experiment. We would like also to thanks all staffs of Forage Genetic Resource Department (ILRI) especially Ato Abate Tedla for their great collaboration in providing us the required planting materials for the success of the experiment as per the schedule. Finally, our great thanks reach Ato Getenet Assefa (Holetta Research Center) and other individuals at different research centers, who help us technically for proper implementation of the trial.
References
Genstat 5, Committee of the statistics department, 1993. Roth Amsted Experimental Station. Lawes Agricultural Trust. Oxford Science Publications, CLAENDON press Oxford. Gutteridge R.C. and H.M. Shelton, 1994. The Role of Forage Tree Legumes in Cropping and Grazing System. Forage Tree Legumes in Tropical Agriculture. CAB International, Oxford, UK. Pp 3-11. Jernanyama P., Hesterman O.B. and Sheaffer C., 1998. Medics Planting Date Effect on Dry Matter and Nitrogen Accumulation when Clear seeded or intercropped with Corn. Agronomy Journal. 90 (5): pp 616622. Lulseged Gebre Hiwot, Gebre Medhin Hagos and Tadesse Tekle Tsadik, 1987. Undersowing Of Forage Crops in Cereals: Some Achievements. Proceeding of 1st National Livestock Improvement Conference. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Pp 151-154. Nnadi, L. A. and Haque I., 1988. Forage Legumes in African Crop-Livestock Production System. ILCA Bulletin. No 30. pp 10-19. SARC, (Sirinka Agricultural Research Center), 1999. Annual Research Progress Report. Sirinka, Ethiopia. 410 11th ESAP-Proceedings
Animal Nutrition
Stute J. K. and Posner J.L., 1993. Legume Cover Crop Options for Grain Rotations in Wisconsin. Agronomy Journal, 83 (6). Pp 1128-1132 (CAB Inter.) Tekleyohannes Berhanu and Worku Jima, 1999. The Effect of Undersowing Barley with Forage Legumes on grain and straw yield of Barley and herbage yield of forage legumes in the Highlands of Bale. Proceeding of 7th Annual Conference of Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP) held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, pp 245-249. Tessema Zewdu, Getenet Assefa and Yohanes Tereffe, 1995. Effect of Undersowing of Annual Forage Legumes and fertilization on Wheat grain, straw and forage production at Adet. Proceeding of 3rd Conference of Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP), pp 245-249. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
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List of Participants
No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 Name Abdi Kedir Abdissa Abalti Abebe Fanta Abebe Feleke Abebe Jiru Abebe Yadessa Abera Degebasa Abreham Getachew Abule Ebro Adane Hirpa Addisu Abera Adugna Amsalu Adugna Tolera Aemiro Kehalew Ahmed Mohammed Ajebu Nurfeta Alemayehu G/Tsadik Alemayehu Kidane Alemu Regassa Alemu Yami Alganesh Tola Almaz Kahsay Amare Feleke Ameha Sebsibie Amsalu Asfaw Amsalu Sisay Antenalu Desta Aschalew Lakew Aschalew Tsegahun Aseffa Deressa Aseffa H/Selassie Asfaw Yimegnuhal Asheber Tegegn Asnake Negussie Asseged Bogale Aster Abebe Ayana Etana Azage Tegegne Bayissa Mossisa Bedane Tullu Befakadu Solomon Address Addis Ababa Adami Tulu Alemaya Addis Ababa Bale Bako Zeway Werer Adami Tulu Adami Tulu Addis Ababa Werer Awassa Holleta Adami Tulu Awassa Gambella Awassa Addis Ababa Debre Zeit Bako Addis Ababa Debre Zeit Sheno Kombolcha Adami Tulu Werer NFLARR Sheno Sheno Adami Tulu Debre Zeit Nazereth Holleta Debre Zeit Awassa Adami Tulu Addis Ababa Addis Ababa Holleta Addis Ababa Institution Parliament ATRC Alemaya University LMA ' BARC ZFRCC WARC ATRC ATRC Livestock Marketing WARC Debub University HARC ATRC Debub University RAO Debub University IBCR DZARC BARC QSAE ILRI ARARI KARC ATRC WARC Sebeta ARAI SARC ATRC ILRI MARC HARC FVM/AAU Debub University ATRC ILRI LMA HARC MoA 32 3 2310 5689 112 72 35 2003 64 112 112 35 5689 456 2003 34 5 35 5689 24492 31 62124 504844 370300 525012 860001 515051 (06) 41 58 23 114840 380023 860221 370471 (06) 415823 339566 (02) 112186 370300 338314 (06) 206697 (06) 415823 338555 (06) 611771 460683 2003 5 2003 229 5 104 5 P.O.Box 81721 257 138 11031 70224 3 229 2003 35 35 Telephone 290145 (06) 415823 (05) 11 40 07 502871 189110 611771 (06) 412030 57 16 24 (06) 412543 (06) 415823 504844 114840 (06) 200221 370300 (06) 412230 (06) 200313 511304 (06) 20 66 97
Ethiopian Society of Animal Production No. 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 Name Bekele Mechalu Bekele Sisay Bekele Teklu Belachew Hurissa Berhanu Admassu Berhanu Damte Berhanu Seboka Berhanu Shelime Berhanu Yalew Betre Yaekob Beyene Kebede Bhryau Kiros Binyam Kassa Bizunesh Mideksa Bogalech Seyoum Chala Merera Dadi Gelashe Dagne Tussa Daniel Nikodimos Dawud Ibrahim Demeke F/Mariam Dereje Fekadu Desalegn G/Medhin Diriba Geleti Efrem G/Hawariat Embet Moreda Emiru Zewdie Esayas Assefa Eshetu G/Mariam Esubalew Abate Fanta Regassa Fasil Bekele Fasil Getachew Fayo Dubiso Fedlu Hassen Fekadu Tefera Fekede Feyissa Ferid Shoarega Fesseha Meketa Fikru Regassa Firew Kassa Fisseha Moges Address Sinana Addis Ababa Addis Ababa Addis Ababa Addis Ababa Addis Ababa Bako Adami Tulu Addis Ababa Addis Ababa Addis Ababa Addis Ababa Metekel Bako Addis Ababa Bako Adami Tulu Zeway Harari Gambella kaliti Holleta kaliti Bako Debre Zeit Holleta kaliti Adami Tulu Addis Ababa Addis Ababa Adami Tulu Awassa Sirinka Bako Debre Zeit NFLARR Holleta Werer Addis Ababa Bako Holleta Bahir Dar BARC ATRC ZFRRC MFM-ATTC GARC NAIC HARC NAIC BARC ILRI HARC NAIC ATRC MoA MoA ATRC Debub University ARARI BARC DZARC Sebeta HARC WARC Save the Children USA BARC HARC ARARI 62347 35 5 74 3 32 64 31 2003 387 3 31 27 322 6 22692 31 29493 3 5689 2003 102099 35 Pawe ARC BARC LMA LMA CAPE/EVA ELFORA Poultry BARC ATRC NAIC EARO EARO Institution SARC P.O.Box 208 661 24492 25405 1078 2449 3 35 9331 2003 2003 10080 25 3 62124 3 35 457744 294757 (08) 202525 (07) 611771 525010 (07) 61 17 71 (06) 415823 (06) 412030 664577 (07) 510014 343232 370300 343232 (07) 61 17 71 339566 37 03 00 343232 (06) 413444 567420 187006 (06) 415823 (06) 206697 311179 (07) 61 17 71 338555 380023 370300 114840 655409 (07) 611771 370300 (09) 190233 504839 63 20 12 461075 (07) 61 17 71 (06) 412760 451611 Telephone (06) 61 02 71 201831
414
Ethiopian Society of Animal Production No. 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 Name G/Medhin Hagos G/Michael Meles Gashaw Tesfaye Gebregziabher G/Yohannes Gemeda Duguma Getachew Haile Getahun Kebede Getahun Legesse Getenet Ameha Getenet Assefa Getenet Zeleke Getu Kitaw Giabar Tefera Gifawosen Tessema Girma Berhane Hirpa Legesse Jemal Dekebo Jiregna Desalegn Karta Kaske Kassahun Assaminew Kassahun Awgichew Kassahun Melese Kefena Effa Kenea Feyissa Kerstin Zauder Lemma Abera Likawent Yeheyis Liyusew Ayalew Markos Tibbo Mathewos Belissa Melaku Negash Melaku Tefera Menfese Abebe Mengistu Alemayehu Mengistu Woldehana Merga Baysso Merga Wakjira Mesfin Mengesha Million Tadesse Moges Dereje Mohammed Beyan Mohammed Haji Debre Zeit Sheno Holleta Addis Ababa Bako Addis Ababa Mekele Addis Ababa Holleta Alemaya Awassa Adami Tulu Debre Zeit Debre Zeit Alemaya Awassa Addis Ababa Address Holleta kaliti Sebeta Bako Bako Adami Tulu Debre Zeit Awassa Addis Ababa Holleta Bahir Dar Holleta Debre Zeit Addis Ababa Holleta Melka Werer Bako Bako Kulumsa NFLARR Addis Ababa Debre Zeit Holleta Holleta Institution HARC NAIC NFLARR BARC BARC ATRC DZARC Debub University DPPC HARC ARARI HARC FVM/AAU MoA HARC WARC BARC BARC KARC Sebeta IBCR DZARC HARC HARC ZEF Private SARC HARC ILRI BARC IPB/AAU Mekele University MoA HARC Alemaya University Debub University ATRC DZARC DZARC Alemaya University Debub University LMA 2003 111 5 35 32 32 138 5 7461 1074 112 2003 5689 3 1176 231 (04) 409014 155281 370300 (05) 111399 (06) 200221 (06) 415823 33 85 55 338555 (05) 111399 (06) 200221 502871 334358 860221 370474 455706 (07) 61 17 71 64 3 3 35 32 5 8792 2003 27 2003 34 5608 2003 2003 3 3 148 64 9998 32 31 2003 P.O.Box 2003 Telephone 370300 34 32 32 380023 611771 611771 (06) 415823 338555 (06) 20 66 97 158236 370300 20 52 84 370300 338314 510000 370300 114840 (07) 61 17 71 (07) 61 17 71 311422 380023 452552 33 85 55 370300 370300
415
Ethiopian Society of Animal Production No. 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 Name Molla Shumye Moti Cheru Muhammed Seid Mulugeta Getu Muluneh Minta Negassi Ameha Negussie Dana Nejiba Ibraim Numery Abdulhamid R.M. SWOBODA Samuel Menbere Samuel Shimelis Samuel Tuffa Sebsibie Zuber Shiferaw Garoma Shito Mamo Sintayehu Mesele Sisay Amare Solomon Abegaz Solomon Abegaz Solomon Abreha Solomon Bogale Solomon Demeke Solomon Markos Sora Adi Taddese Bekele Tadele Mirkena Tadesse Daba Takele Kumsa Tamrat Degefa Tatek Woldu Taye Tessema Teffera Abreha Teffera G/Meskel Tekele Abebe Tekle Tafesse Teressa Adugna Tesema Zewdu Tesfaw Ayele Tesfaye Desta Tesfaye Hailu Tesfaye Kumsa Address Holleta Addis Ababa Addis Ababa Addis Ababa Holleta Debre Zeit Debre Zeit Addis Ababa Adami Tulu Borana Kombolcha Bahir Dar Yabello Holleta Adami Tulu Addis Ababa Yabello Gonder Bahir Dar Bako Sirinka Sinana/Bale Jimma Melka Werer Addis Ababa Holleta Adami Tulu Holleta Bako Debre Zeit Adami Tulu Addis Ababa Addis Ababa Addis Ababa Adami Tulu Debre Zeit Alemaya Alemaya Ambo Addis Ababa Holleta Holetta ATRC BLPDP/GTZ ARARI ARARI OARI HARC ATRC Parliament OARI MoA ARARI BARC SARC SARC Jimma A.R.C. WARC BLPDP/GTZ HARC ATRC HARC BARC DZARC ATRC Private MoA AfriTech ATRC DZARC Alemaya University Alemaya University Ambo College of Agri. LMA NAIC EARO 5453 35 32 138 138 19 24492 28 2003 573 27 3 74 Robe 307 2003 110 149 35 31 3 32 35 113557 (09) 190223 (07) 611771 (03) 31 11 88 660271 11 15 47 114840 52 22 16 370304 (06) 41 20 99 370300 (07) 61 17 71 33 85 55 (06) 415823 461040 525012 635215 (06) 415823 33 85 55 (05) 111399 (05) 111399 363037 502875 370475 370300 22 253 370439 (06) 415823 35 110 74 27 Institution HARC OPDC Parliament LMA HARC DZARC DZARC P.O.Box 2003 120813 80001 62860 2003 32 32 Telephone 370300 525723 555125 795564 370300 338555 338555 728760 (06) 415823 (06) 45 01 16 311188 (09) 190233
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Ethiopian Society of Animal Production No. 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 Name Tesfaye Tsegaye Tezera Mulugeta Tilahun Alemu W/Gebriel T/Mariam Wakgari Alemu Wakshum Shiferaw Wegayehu Mazengia Wondimeneh Esatu Wondimu Tesfaye Workneh Ayalew Yalemshet W/Amanuel Yared Yigezu Yeshi Chiche Yeshitla Asamnew Yesihak Yusuf Yitaye Alemayehu Zegaye Yegezu Zeleke Asaye Zemelak Sahle Zerihun Taddese Zewdie Wondatir Zewdu Eden Zewdu Wuletaw Zinash Seleshi Address Sheno Bahir Dar Adami Tulu Werer Addis Ababa Adami Tulu Addis Ababa Debre Zeit Adami Tulu Addis Ababa Debre Zeit NFLARR Addis Ababa Addis Ababa Alemaya Bahir Dar Addis Ababa Adami Tulu Debre Zeit Addis Ababa Holleta Yabello Gonder Addis Ababa ATRC DZARC ILRI HARC OARI MoA EARO 573 2003 113557 454432 35 32 5689 2003 Institution SARC ARARI ATRC WARC Save the Children USA ATRC MoA DZARC ATRC ILRI DZARC Sebeta EARO MoA Alemaya University ARARI 138 30 P.O.Box 112 27 35 2003 387 35 18510 32 35 80442 32 64 2003 155281 (05) 111399 (08) 250001 116542 (06) 413261 338555 46 32 15 37 03 00 Telephone 860221 (09) 190233 (06) 415823 114840 728455 (06) 415823 728757 338555 (06) 415823 (09) 227840 338555 380023
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Farm Animal Biodiversity in Ethiopia: Status and Prospects

Farm Animal Biodiversity in Ethiopia: Status and Prospects

Members of the Executive Committee of ESAP:

ESAP Office Secretary:

Sponsors of the Conference:

FARM ANIMAL BIODIVERSITY IN ETHIOPIA: STATUS AND PROSPECTS

Ethiopian Society of Animal Production

Ethiopian Society of Animal Production

FEED PRODUCTION AND USE

Ethiopian Society of Animal Production

Ethiopian Society of Animal Production

Ethiopian Society of Animal Production

Ethiopian Society of Animal Production

Ethiopian Society of Animal Production

Ethiopian Society of Animal Production

Farm Animal Biodiversity in Ethiopia: Status and Prospects

Ethiopian Society of Animal Production

Ethiopian Society of Animal Production

Ethiopian Society of Animal Production

Ethiopian Society of Animal Production

FARM ANIMAL BIODIVERSITY IN ETHIOPIA: STATUS AND PROSPECTS

Current State of Knowledge on Characterisation of Farm Animal Genetic Resources in Ethiopia

standard citation style of ESAP publications

Ethiopian Society of Animal Production

What is meant by characterisation of AnGR?

Farm Animal biodiversity in Ethiopia: Status and prospects

Ethiopian Society of Animal Production

Farm Animal biodiversity in Ethiopia: Status and prospects

Ethiopian Society of Animal Production

What is known and documented in characterisation of AnGR in Ethiopia?

Farm Animal biodiversity in Ethiopia: Status and prospects

Ethiopian Society of Animal Production

Breed Group Name

Small East African Zebu

Black Highland Cattle

Adal, Afar, Kereyu, Keriyu

Large East African Zebu

Farm Animal biodiversity in Ethiopia: Status and prospects

Breed Group Name

Ethiopian Society of Animal Production

Shewa-Ghimira, Goda, Mitzan

Giddu, Macien, Sorco, Sucra, Surco, Surco Sanga, Surug, Suruq

Breed Group Name

Fat-tailed Hair Sheep

Abyssinian, Ethiopian, Bonga, Wollaga

Lasta, Ethiopian Highland, Abyssinian

Fat-tailed Coarse Wool (wavy wooled) Sheep

Ethiopian Highland, Abyssinian

Ethiopian Highland, Abyssinian, Legagora

Fat-rumped Hair Sheep

Blackhead Ogaden, Murle, Turkana, Gabbra, Boran

Table 4. Other sheep breed types described as indigenous to Ethiopia

Begghie, Korboraca, Shukria

Farm Animal biodiversity in Ethiopia: Status and prospects

Breed Group Name

Bellenay, Beni Amer

Digodi, Melebo, Boran Somali, Benadir, Gigwain

Ethiopian Society of Animal Production

Ogaden, Mudugh, Dighier, Abgal, IssaSomali, Bimal

Woyto, Guji, Konso

Adal, Assaorta, Denakil,

Arsi, Gishe, Sidama, Manta, Awarch

Brown Goat, Kaye

North-western lowlands (Asosa), but also Metema.