MECHANICAL WORKING OF

METALS
Hot Working
Cold Working BY:-
Abhay Thakur 07333
Recrystallization
Siddharth Mahajan07334
Recovery Adheesh Gupta
Alloys of Soldering 07335
and Brazing Neelam
Kumari07337
Ashish Singh
 INTRODUCTION
The Mechanical working of metal is defined
as the plastic defomation of
metals under action of externally
applied forces.The mechanical working of
metals is decribed as hot working and cold
working depending upon whether the metal
is worked above or below the recrystallization
temp .The metal is subjected to mechanical
working for the following purpose:-
q To reduce the original block or ingot into
desired shape.
q To refine grain size.
 Hot Working
The working of metals above the recrystallization
temperature is called hot working. Recrystallization
temperature is the temp. at which new grain are
formed in the metal. Hot working of the metals has
following advantages and disadvantages .
Advantages:-
q The porosity of metal is largely eliminated,thus
producing strong and uniform structure.
q The grain structure of the metal is refined.
q The impurities like slag are squeezed into fibres
and are uniformly distributed throughout the
metal.
q The deformation of metal is easy, with a small
 Disadvantage:-
1.It requires expensive tools.
2.lt produces poor surface finish, due to rapid
oxidation and scale formation on the metal
surface.
3.Due to the poor surface finish, close tolerances
cannot be maintained.
4.The correct temp. range for working is difficult to
maintain.

HOT WORKING PROCESSES ARE:-

1. Hot rolling 4. Hot Extrusion
2. Hot forging 5. Hot Drawing
Hot work tool steel

Hot work tool steel are of three types-:

q chromium base, type H11-
H16(serviceable up to 600 F)
q tungsten base , type H20-
H26(serviceable up to 1000 F)
q molybdenum base,type H41-H43

where H11-H43 are designation given

by AISI system.
Hot Rolling
The hot rolling is the most rapid method of
converting large sections into desired shapes.
The forming of bars, plates, sheets, rails,
angles, I-beams and other structural sections
are made by hot Rolling.
The operation consists of passing the hot ingot
through at least two rolls rotating in opposite
directions at the same speed.the roll squeeze
the passing ingot to reduce its cross-section
and increase its length. The first operation to
the ingot is carried out at blooming mill where
it is rolled to blooms. The blooms are cut up in
lengths for subsequent reducing process into
billets.
The commonly hot rolled are aluminium,
Hot Forging
In this process metal is heated to plastic
state and then pressure is applied to form it
into desired shapes and sizes. The pressure
may be applied by hand hammers, power
hammers or by forging machines. The
different forging process are-:
Die forging, press forging, upset forging,
roll forging and swaging.
 It consists of heating the metal to forging
temp and then forming it into desired
shape on a spinning lathe. The shaping is
done with a blunt tool which contacts the
surface of the rotating part and causes the
metal to flow to some desired form. This
method is generally used for thicker plates
and sheets.
Hot Extrusion
It consists of pressing metal inside a chamber
to force it out by high pressure through an
orifice which is shaped to provide the desired
form of the finished part. Most metals and their
alloys such as copper, aluminium and nickel are
directly extruded at elevated temperature. The
various methods of extrusion are:-
Direct Extrusion-In this method, the heated
round billet is placed into the die chamber and
the dummy block and ram is placed into
position.
Indirect Extrusion-It is similar to direct
Hot Drawing
It is mostly used for thick-walled
seamless cylinder. It is done in two stages.
The first stage consists of drawing a cup
out of a hot circular plates with the help of
a die and punch . In second stage
reheating the drawn cup and drawing it
further to the desired length having the
required wall thickness.
The second drawing operation is
performed through a number of dies,
which are arranged in desending order of
their diameters to get the gradual
Hot Piercing

This process is used for the manufacture

of seamless tubes. In this, the heated
cylindrical billet of steel are passed
between two conical shaped rolls operating
in the same direction. A mandrel is
provided between these rolls which assists
in the piercing and controls the size of the
hole as the billet is forced over it.
This process use piercing rolls, plug rolling
mill, reelers and sizing rolls.
 Cold working

The working of metals below their recrystallization

temperature
is known as cold working . Most of cold working
process are
performed at room temperature . The cold working
distorts
the grain structure and does not provide an appreciable
reduction in size. The extent to which a metal can be
cold
worked depends upon its ductility . The higher the
ductility of
the metal , the more it can be cold worked . During
cold
 Effects of cold working

q The stresses are set up in the metal which

remain in the metal, unless they are
removed by subsequent heat treatment .
q A distortion of the grain structure is
created.
q The strength and hardness of the metal are
increased with a corresponding loss in
ductility .
q The recrystalline temperature for steel is
increased .
Cold working process
1. Cold rolling
2. Cold forging
3. Cold spinning
4. Cold extrusion
5. Cold drawing
6. Cold bending
Cold Rolling
It is generally employed for bars of all
shapes , rods, sheets and strips, in order to
provide a smooth and bright surface finish. It
is also used to finish the hot rolled
components to close tolerences and improve
their toughness and improve their toughness
and hardness. The hot rolled articles are first
immersed in a weak solution of sulphuric acid
to remove the scale and washed in water,
and dried . This process of cleaning the
articles is known as pickling.
 Cold Forging

 The cold forging is also called swaging.

During
this method , the metal is allowed to flow
in some pre-determined shape according
to design of dies , by a compressive force
or impact. It is widely used in forming
ductile metals. Following are three,
commonly used , cold process:-
Contd…..

1. Sizing:-It is the simplest form of forging . It

is the operation of slightly compressing a
forging , casting or steel assembly to obtain
close tolerance and a flat surface . The
metal is confined only in a vertical direction.
2. Cold Heading:- This process is extensively
used for making bolts , rivets and other
similar headed parts. This is usually done on
a cold header machine.
3. Rotary Swaging:- This method is used for
reducing the diameters of round bars and
tubes by rotating dies which open and close
rapidly on the work. The end of the rod is
tapered or reduced in size by a combination
of pressure
 Cold Spinning
 Metal spinning, also known as spin
forming or spinning, is a metal working
process by which a disc or tube of metal
is rotated at high speed and formed into
an axially symmetric part. Spinning can
be performed by automated lathe such as
CNC lathe.
 It is done at room temperature.
 It is applicable to soft metals like
aluminium ,
brass , copper , magnesium and their
 COLD EXTRUSION
 Extrusion is the process by which long
straight metal parts can be produced.
Extrusion is done by squeezing metal in a
closed cavity through a tool, known as a die
using either a mechanical or hydraulic press.

 Cold extrusion is the extrusion process done

at room temperature . This process can be
used for materials that can withstand the
stresses created by extrusion. Examples of
the metals that can be extruded are lead,
tin, aluminum alloys, copper, titanium,
TUNGSTEN CARBIDE COLD
EXTRUSION DIE
 COLD DRAWING
 It is employed for rods , bars , wires , tubes.
 Various cold drawing processes are:
1]Bar drawing :Bars or rods that are drawn
cannot be coiled therefore straight-pull draw
benches are used. Chain drives are used to
draw work pieces up to 30 m (98 ft).
Hydraulic cylinders are used for shorter
length work pieces .
 CONTINUED….
2] Wire drawing:
This technique has long been used to produce
flexible metal wire by drawing the material
through a series of dies of decreasing size.
These dies are manufactured from a number
of materials, the most common being
tungsten carbide and diamond. Wire drawing
process are of two types:
a]single draft process
b]continuous process
 CONTINUED….
3]Tube drawing :
Tube drawing is very similar to bar
drawing, except the beginning stock is
a tube. It is used to decrease the
diameter, improve surface finish and
improve dimensional accuracy.
 COLD BENDING
§ In this process bars , rods , wires , tubes
and metal sheets are bent in cold
conditions generally at ambient
temperature.
§ Materials commonly employed for cold
bending are copper , carbon steel ,
bronze,
stainless steel , brass , zinc and
aluminium.
§ Roll bending: metal plates and strips are
 PLATE BENDING
MACHINE
Recrystallization :
q The term recrystallization may be defined as the
process of forming strain free new grains, in metal, by
heating it to a temperature known as recrystallization
temperature.

q As the upper temperature

: of the recovery range is
reached, minute new crystals appear in the
microstructure These new crystals have the same
composition and lattice structure as the original under
formed grains and are not elongated but approximately
uniform in the dimensions. The new crystals generally
appear at the most drastically deformed portions of the
grain, usually the grain boundaries and slip planes. The
cluster of the atoms from which the new grain
boundaries are formed is called a nucleus.
Recrystallization takes place by the combination of
nucleation of strain free grains and the growth of these
nuclei to absorb the entire cold-worked material.
 Initially, there is an incubation period in which energy
is developed in order to start the process going. Here,
the incubation period is to allow the strain-free nuclei to
reach a visible microscopic size. It is important to
realize that the growth of recrystallized embryos is
irreversible. During the
crystallization, solidification from the liquid would start
when a group of atoms had reached a critical size to
form a stable cluster. Embryos i.e. the cluster of less
than critical size , would redissolve or disappear.
However, since there is no simple way to recreate the
distorted, dislocation filled structure, the
recrystallization embryo cannot redissolve. Therefore,
these embryos merely wait for additional energy to
attract the more atoms into their lattice structure.
Eventually the critical size exceeded, and visible
recrystallization begins. The incubation period
corresponds to the irreversible growth of the embryos.
 Recrystallization may be obtained by
examining it in terms of the lattice. During plastic
deformation, slip planes and the grain
boundaries are localized points of high internal
energy as the result of the pile up of the
dislocations. Because of the nature of strain
hardening, it is not possible for the dislocations
or the atoms to move back to form a strain free
lattice from the distorted lattice. In a simplified
analogy, considering some atoms, at the grain
boundaries or slip planes, have been pushed
upon energy hill to a value of E1 equal to the
internal energy due to deformation above the
internal energy of undeformed lattice. The
 The atoms cannot reach the energy of the
strain free crystal. The energy difference is
supplied by heat. When the temperature is
reached at which these localized areas have
energy equal to E2, they give up the part of
energy as heat of recrysatllisation and form
nuclei of new strain free grains. Part of this heat
of recrystallization is absorbed by surrounding
atoms so that they have sufficient energy to
overcome the rigidity of the distorted lattice and
be attracted into the lattice structure of the
strain free grains, initiating grain growth. The
number and energy content of these high energy
points depend to a large extent on the amount of
Recrystallization temperature
q The recrystallization temperature does not refer to a definite
temperature below which recrystallization will not occur but
refers to the approximate temperature at which a highly cold
worked material completely recrystallizes in 1 hr. very pure
metals seems to have low crystallization temperature as
compared with impure metal and alloys. Increasing the
annealing time, decreases the time of recrystallization
temperature.
q The recrystalline temperature is far more sensitive to
changes in temperature than to variation in time at constant
temperature.
q Recrystallization is indicated by the sharp drop in tensile
strength.
q For equal amounts of the cold working, more strain hardening
is introduced into initially fine grained metal than coarse
grained metal. Therefore, the finer the initial grain sizes the
Recovery, recrystalline and grain growth and
variation in chief mechanical properties
RECOVERY:
The term ‘recovery’ may be defined as
the process of removing internal stresses
due to cold working, in the metal, by
heating it to a relatively low temperature.
The property changes produced do not
cause appreciable change in the
microstructure. At a given temperature,
the rate of decrease in residual strain
hardening is the fastest at the beginning
and drops off at longer times. Also, the
amount of reduction in residual stress that
occurs in a practical time increases with
 When the load which has caused plastic
deformation in a polycrystalline material
is released, all the elastic deformation
does not disappear. This is due to the
different orientation of the crystals, which
will not allow some of them to move back
when the load is released. As the
temperature is increased, there is some
spring back of these elastically displaced
atoms which relieves most of the internal
stress. In some cases there may be slight
amount of plastic flow, which may result
in hardness and strength. Electrical
 Since the mechanical properties of the
metal are essentially unchanged, the
principal application of heating in the
recovery range is in stress relieving cold
worked alloys to prevent stress-corrosion
cracking or to minimize the distortion
produced by residual stresses.
Commercially, this low temperature
treatment in the recovery range is known
SOLDERING ALLOYS
 DEFINITION OF SOLDERING
Solderingis a process in which two or more
metals are joined by means of another metal
that has a melting point below 10000F (5400C)
but lower than that of the metal to be joined.
In a soldering process, heat is applied to the
parts to be joined, causing the solder to melt
and be drawn into the joint by capillary action
and to bond to the materials to be joined by
 SOLDERING ALLOYS
Ø Soldering alloys are mainly consist of lead and tin
Ø They have melting point below 1000 0F (540 0C)
Ø These alloys are usually known as soft alloys.
Ø High –tin alloys possess high tensile and shear
strength and less ductility as compared to high-
lead alloys.
Ø There are some soldering alloys which neither
contain lead nor tin. Such solders are used for high
temperature conditions.
SOFT SOLDERING ALLOYS
Tin-Lead constitutional
diagram
Continuous maximum safe load on Single
Lap Joint for two solders at 70 0F
Flux
qFlux is a chemical agent used during soldering for cleansing
action. Flux is a substance which is nearly inert at room
temperature, but which becomes strongly reducing at elevated
temperatures, preventing the formation of metal oxides.

q It must be of such a character that the residue is non –

corrosive , non hygroscopic , non conducting for electrical work.
qIt should not volatilize, decompose or carbonize during
soldering.

Common fluxes are:

§ Rosin for soldering electrical connections.
§ Salt or acid type fluxes composed of chlorides of ammonia ,
zinc , aluminum etc. are good fluxes as they do not
carbonize.
§ Some fluxes containing organic acids such as stearic ,oleic ,
benzoic are also used but these are corrosive .
Functions of Flux
 To clean the surface
 To prevent oxidation of the surface when
hot
 To promote alloying of metal surface with
the solder
 To promote wetting of the surface by the
molten solder
BRAZING ALLOYS
Definition Of Brazing

Brazing is a process in which two or more

metals are joined by means of another metal
that has a melting point above 10000F (5400C)
but lower than that of the metal to be joined.

Common brazements are about 1⁄3 as strong as

the parent material, to create high-strength
brazes, a brazement can be annealed to
homogenize the grain structure and composition
 TYPES OF BRAZING
ALLOYS

q Copper and Copper base alloys

q Silver Brazing Alloys
q Aluminum Alloys
 Copper and Copper base
alloys
 Pure copper is used for brazing of Ferrous
parts at a temperature of about 2150 F
 Copper – zinc alloys constitute the largest
portion of copper base brazing alloys with
melting range from 1400F- 1700F
Copper base Brazing Alloys
 Aluminum Brazing Alloys
 Aluminum brazing alloys consist
principally of aluminum to which other
elements are added to decrease the
melting point range substantially below
the melting point of aluminium.
Silver base Brazing Alloys

 Generally known as "hard solders“ or

“silver solders”
 The silver solders are developed from
copper- zinc alloys to which silver and
other elements like cadmium, phosphorus
and tin are added to lower the melting
point.
 Their melting point ranges from 1100F-
1600F.
 These alloys permits brazing at low
temperature which is necessary to prevent
damage to base metal due to structural
Silver base Brazing Alloys
Brazing Techniques
Torch Brazing
 In this type of brazing oxyfuel gas is used as heat source . In this
joint is 1st heated with the torch & then depositing the filler metal.
 Part thickness ranges from 0.25-6 mm

Furnace Brazing
 In the furnace brazing, as name suggest furnace is used as the heat
source. The joining parts are cleaned & loaded with filler metal and
then put in the furnace.
 In furnace part thickness is high.

Induction Brazing
 in this type high frequency a.c. current is used as heat source. Parts
to be joined are loaded with filler metal & placed near induction
coils for rapid heating.
 Part thickness is less than 3 mm.
Brazing Techniques……..

Resistance Brazing
 In this type source of heat is through the electric resistance of the
components to be brazed. In this parts are either preloaded or filler metal
supplied during brazing.
 Part thickness in this case is of order 0.1-12 mm.

Dip Brazing
• This is carried out by dipping the assemblies to be brazed in the molten
solution of filler metal , which serves as heat source. Thus all the parts are
coated with filler metal.
• Part thickness is less than 5 mm.

High Energy Beams

• In this type of electron beams & laser beams are used as heat source for
heating the assemblies.
• This is used for the high precision applications .
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