Flame Arresters and Flashback Preventers

A broad survey of present-day technology and devices for stopping the propagation of flames and gas decompositions.
Walter B. Howard, Process Safety Consultant, St. Louis, M o . 63131.
DEFINITIONS

The following definitions will pertain to terms used in this paper; they apply to the gas phase only. F k e and combustion will be used here to mean the burning of a fuel gas with an oxidant gas. In addition to heat release this is usually accompanied with evolution of some amount of light. Flammable mixture: a mixture of a fuel gas and an oxidant gas that is capable of burning. Decomposition: self-sustaining exothermic dissociation of gas molecules without aid of an oxidant gas. Deflagration: movement of flame or decomposition throught a gas at a speed below that of sound in the unreacted gas. Detonation: movement of flame or decomposition through a gas at a speed above that of sound in the unreacted gas. Normally this speed is of the order of five times that of sound or more. Explosion: the sudden, catastrophic tearing assunder of a vessel, pipe, or other process equipment. Flame arrester: a device to stop propagation of a flame in a flammable mixture. Decompositon arrester: a device to stop propagation of decomposition in a gas. Gas: a fuel gas or an oxidant gas, or a mixture of the two. Theterm fuel gas will, for the purposes of this paper, include vapors from flammable liquids. Such vapors are, after all, in the gaseous state and are therefore gases.
FLAME ARRESTERS
Types

The various devices make up assemblies contained in housings which not only support the channels but also provide the walls to contain the gas passing through. Such arresters can, in certain cases, be constructed to stop flame propagation from both downstream and upstream; some are used to stop flame progagation from one direction only. The Type 2 flame arrester, illustrated in Figure 2, employs a pool of liquid, in a container of suitable de: ign, to stop flame propagation. The liquid pools take various forms. The gas flow through this type of device is upward through the liquid phase. This gas flow must be in the form of discrete bubbles through the liquid. If a clear channel of gas forms in the liquid, flashback of the flame can occur. Obviously, the functioning capability of this type of arrester depends on maintenance of the liquid phase at a proper level. When properly designed, these arresters can stop flame propagation from both downstream and upstream. The Type 3 arrester, illustrated in Figure 3, uses a high velocity of the gas flow through orifices or holes of a particular size. This type is often called a velocity flame stopper. The holes used are larger than those of the small size needed to quench a flame in a flammable gas mixture. Instead, the velocity of the gas flow through the holes is maintained a t a value above t h e maximum deflagration flashback velocity through holes of that size. These arresters are used to stop flame propagation from the downstream direction only. Each of the above types of flame arresters has been used successfully to stop flame propagation in certain applications. Each one can fail to stop flame propagation when misapplied. Furthermore, flame arresters as such are not

The flame arresters in practical use are of three primary types. Type 1, illustrated in Figure 1, employs multiple small channels formed from multiple, contoured thin sheets of metal, from layers of small wire mesh, from reticulate metal foam, or from small metal particles sintered together.

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Figure 1. Metallic element flame arrester.

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Figure 2. Liquid seal flame arrester.

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Locations of Applications

Typical locations in which flame arresters are used are listed below in Table 2.
Discussion of Flame Arresters

FUR GRS IM
Figure 3. velocity fiome stopper.

always needed to stop flame propagation. Sometimes another device, which must be in a system for a different reason, can serve to stop flame propagation fully dependably. In such a case the installation of a flame arrester involves useless added expense in the form of both capital and maintenance costs. Furthermore, certain devices sometimes thought of as flame arresters are not true flame arresters.
Combustion Characteristics

In order to understand the applications of flame arresters it is necessary to have a bit of information about the various types of combustion, as listed below in Table 1. Ordinary combustion, such as is used in a gas stove at home, or in boiler fireboxes, is a deflagration. The flame from the burning of a pool of liquid is also a deflagration. Gas combustion inside atmospheric-pressure vessels of small length/diameter ratio, where the space inside the vessel is relatively free of internal construction items in the gas space, is usually deflagration. Gas combustion in pipelines can undergo a transition from deflagration to detonation. A long length of pipe, the so-called pre-detonation length, is not necessary for this transition. Anything which causes sufficient turbulence in the pipeline can bring about the transition. Examples are elbows, tees, globe valves, partially open gate or ball valves, etc. Detonation can develop quickly after flame passage through such turbulenceproducing items. Detonation has also been known to develop inside low length/diameter-ratio vessels having a substantial number of internal members in the gas space which cause turbulence generation.

End-of-line flame arresters. End-of-line flame arresters are the type installed on many atmospheric storage tanks and on vent lines from process equipment to atmosphere. They can be of any of the types listed as Type 1 & 3 above. In practice they are usually limited to the types using multiple thin sheets of metal or layers of small-mesh wire. As end-of-line arresters they should be installed within 5 pipe diameters of the ends of any pipe lines on which they may be installed. Normally they are installed at the very end of a pipeline, such as at the end of a process vent line, or on a vent nozzle mounted on a tank. In such installations they discharge directly to atmosphere. Planar sheet-metal flame arresters. The multiple thinmetal sheet arresters commonly used are of two somewhat different types. One uses thin, planar sheets of metal which have corrugations or protuberances. Thus, when the sheets are stacked together in a rectangular bundle, the sheets are slightly separated. The separations in turn provide narrow passages for gas flow. If these passages are narrow enough, a flame will be quenched when it reaches the bundle from the atmospheric side. The bundle of sheets is usually encased in a rectangular, light-metal housing which normally will not withstand high pressures. This kind of arrester is intended for use in preventing flames, from the atmospheric side, from entering a storage tank or a process system. Cylindrical sheet-metal flame arresters The second type of thin sheet-metal flame arrester uses a thin corrugated metal ribbon. These corrugations are much like those in the familiar corrugated cardboard shipping or packing boxes, though the corrugations of the metal ribbon may be smaller. This corrugated metal ribbon and a flat metal ribbon of the same width are wound together on a mandrel through many layers to form a cylindrical assembly of the desired diameter. The depth of the cylinder is equal to the width of the two ribbons. The spaces between the corrugations and the flat ribbon provide multiple small gas passages. If these are small enough, a flame will be quenched when it reaches the bundle from the atmospheric side. In practice this kind of arrester seems to be adaptable to making smaller passages than are the planar sheet-metal types. The cylindrical assembly is encased in a cylindrical housing. This is illustrated in Figure 1. The use of such a flame arrester is similar to that of the planar sheet-metal type. The corrugated sheet-metal type is also adaptable to other services, as described below. Wire-mesh flame arresters. Wire mesh was the material used earliest for flame arresters. It was used by Sir Humphry Davy, George Stephenson, and Dr. Reid Clanny in their early safety lamps developed for coal mines in the period 1815-1820. The modern wire-mesh flame arresters use
2. RPICAL FLAME ARRESTER LOCATIONS TABLE

1. RPES OF COMBUSTION OF FUEL GASES TABLE

Typical pressures generated in closed equipment (from initial atmospheric conditions when fuel gas burns in air), atm-abs. 8-11 20-100 +

Typical Location 1. End-of-line, to protect from outside atmospheric ignition only. Typically cannot withs t a n d significant i n t e r n a l pressure and cannot stop detonations. 2. In-line; must stop both deflagration and detonation from both directions; must withstand high pressures.

Combustion type Typical flame speeds, ft/sec f m I sec\ 1. Deflagration 10-200 (3-60) 2. Detonation 6000 (2,000)

Example On atmospheric storage tank vents discharging directly to atmosphere; dischar e must not impinge ffame on tank or appurtenances if vented gas ignites. Generally used on process lines which can contain flammable gas mixtures.

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multiple layers of wire mesh held in frames within suitable housings. Since the wire mesh may be made of rather fine wires, it may have a facing of coarser, stronger mesh on both sides. The spaces between the wires of the mesh provide multiple small gas passages. I t is very important that the wire mesh have a high degree of uniformity. If the mesh openings are small enough, a flame will be quenched when it reaches the mesh from the atmospheric side. The wiremesh flame arrester is also adaptable to other services as described below in a later section. incorporation in conservation vents. Each of the three arresters described above can be incorporated as integral parts of conservation vents (sometimes called PV valves) of the types often installed on atmospheric storage tanks containing flammable liquids. I t should be noted, however, that flame arresters are not always necessary as parts of conservation vents. As stated in AP12000 [4], a conservation vent alone, without a flame arrester, can itself provide the flame-arresting function in many cases. The gases produced by vaporization of many flammable liquids have similar flame speeds when mixed with air. Typical of these are gasoline, jet fuel, benzene, plastics monomers, and organic solvents. Often the pressure drop across the vent valve of a conservation vent is 314 inch (17 mm) of water or more. l n this case the velocity of the gas flow through the vent-valve opening will be higher than the speed at which the flame can propagate upstream through the opening. Such a means of protection might at first glance appear inapplicable for the case when a vacuum is formed inside a storage tank and the vacuum relief valve of the conservation vent opened. However, the usual flame exposure to a storage-tank conservation vent involves an external fire. The heat transferred from such a fire would warm the gas space inside the tank and cause the gas to expand. Thus, at times of fire exposure to a conservation vent the gas flow through a conservation vent would be expected to be outward to the atmosphere. Flame propagation backward through the conservation vent is thereby prevented. Explosions in spite of flame arresters. The flame of burning gas discharged from a conservation vent or a flame arrester must not impinge on any equipment or structure. Flame impingement on a structure can cause weakening and collapse. Flame impingement on the roof of a storage tank can result in heating of the inside surface of the roof metal to a temperature above the auto-ignition temperature of the flammable gas in the tank space above the liquid level. This can, in turn, cause ignition of the gas if its concentration is in the flammable range, with resulting explosion of the tank. Similarly, the impingement of a pool fire against the wall of a storage tank can result in a tank explosion in spite of the presence of a flame arrester or conservation vent. The flame from a pool fi,e can heat the portion of the tank wall encompassing the gas space to a temperature above the autoignition temperature of the gas. If the liquid is above its flash-point temperature and the gas concentration is therefore in the flammable range, the gas will ignite and cause the tank to explode or the weak-seam roof to blow open. The temperature of a liquid in a storage tank may normally be well below the flash-point temperature of that liquid. However, if that tank is exposed to a pool fire outside the tank, the liquid in the tank can be heated to an elevated temperature at which it has a higher vapor pressure. This may then produce a flammable gas mixture with air in the gas space of the tank. The flammable mixture can be ignited by tank walls heated by the external fire to a temperature above the auto-ignition temperature of the mixture. This can cause the tank to explode or the weak-seam roof to blow open. Furthermore, if a flame arrester is excessively heated, e.g., by an external fire, it will no longer function to stop the course of a flame from the outside atmosphere to the protected interior of a vessel. The flame can then propa-

gate from the outside atmosphere into the vessels interior and thus result in an explosion. The overall result is that a flame arrester or a conservation vent cannot be relied upon blindly to protect against flames in, and explosions of, vessels. Reticulate metal-foam flame arresters. In recent years technology has been developed for producing reticulate metal foam. In Europe some forms of electrical equipment employ this foam as a flame arrester in order to achieve certain electrical classification ratings. Conventional flame arresters are also made with metal foam as the flamearresting element. Velocity fZame stoppers. The velocity flame stopper, described above as Type 3, is used as an end-of-line flame arrester. It is illustrated in Figure 3. The hole size used is larger than that necessary to quench a flame in a stagnant flammable gas mixture, i.e., larger than the quench diameter. The necessary velocity to prevent flashback through holes larger than the quench diameter is calculated by Equation 1 [I]:

( U F ) T = O .(gL) ~ ~ (D) ~ where ( U F ) T = T urbul ent flash-back velocity, ft/se c (m Isec) gL= laminar velocity gradient at a tube wall below which flashback can occur, l/sec [2] D = inside diameter of tube or hole, ft (m)
Note that g L is also called the critical boundary-velocity gradient. Values of gL vary with the identity of the fuel gas and with the composition of the flammable mixture. The value to use for design of a velocity flame stopper for a given fuel gas is t h e maximum t hat can occur as th e flammable mixture composition is varied. This usually OCcurs at a fuel gas concentration a little higher than stoichiometric. Some examples from [2], for selected gases mixed with air and at ambient temperature are given in Table 3. As the initial temperature of the gas mixture, before combustion, increases, the value of g L also increases [2,3]. Thus, for a given hole size, the turbulent flashback velocity will similarly increase as the gas temperature increases. Velocity flame stoppers will function to stop flames only when the flames arrive at the flame-stopper face from the downstream side with respect to the direction of gas flow through the holes. They will stop only deflagrations, not detonations. Hence they cannot be used as in-line arresters. For the normal use of such devices it is recommended that the minimum velocity through the holes be at least four times that calculated by Equation 1. Obviously, this velocity must be maintained at all times for the flame stopper to function dependably. If the normally flowing gas stream can be subject to low flows during normal or upset operating conditions, a highly dependable, auxiliary gas flow must be provided. The importance of this cannot be overemphasized; dependability may be difficult to achieve. Fluctuating downstream pressures must also be taken into account. Velocity flame stoppers have been used for feeding waste fuel gas to furnace burners in cases where the gas can become contaminated with air and pass into a flammable

TABLE 3. TYPICAL VALUES OF gL

Maximum gL, Usec
400

Fuel-gas identity Methane Ethane Propane Ethylene Propylene Hydrogen

650
600 1,500

700 10,000

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range. They have also been used for feeding waste or depleted air streams to furnaces in cases where the air streams can become contaminated with flammable gases. In many cases conventional flame arresters can be used to better advantage than velocity flame stoppers. From the standpoint of stopping flames, there is no limit to how small the holes can be made. How large the holes can be made for a fully functional velocity flame stopper is not known. Holes as large as 2-in. (50-mm) diameter have been used in commercial installations. These have functioned properly under known upset conditions. There is at least at upper limit where Equation 1 attains a discontinuity, This is when the flashback velocity calculates to be sonic velocity in the unburned gas. In actual practice the maximum diameter to be used is recommended not to exceed a very few inches. The design shown in Figure 3 is a schematic of one which was used for multiple fuel-gas burners in a furnace. In this case a conceivable upset could result in major entry of air into the fuel gas stream. Velocity flame stoppers can be very useful where conventional flame arresters can, for some reason, not be employed. It must always be remembered, however, that they are not as intrinsically safe as a properly designed, installed, and maintained flame arrester of the conventional types described above. Conventional arresters will stop flames in a static system whereas velocity flame stoppers will not. A conservation vent without flame arrester, used as a flame arrester, is basically a velocity flame stopper. The pressure necessary to lift the conservation vent valve automatically produces a certain discharge gas velocity through the valve opening. I t is this gas velocity which prevents flame propagation from the outside back into the protected tank. In-line flame arresters. Introduction. Sometimes it is desirable to install flame arresters in the middle of a long pipeline, at appreciable distances from the ends of the pipeline. As stated above, combustion in a pipeline can readily make the transition from deflagration to detonation. Therefore, an in-line flame arrester must be able to withstand both detonation and deflagration. Surprisingly it is not necessarily easier to stop deflagration than detonation; in the case of some designs a detonation can be stopped whereas a deflagration may pass through. An in-line arrester must be tested for both types of combustion of the fuel gas of concern. An inline arrester must stop both types of combustion from both directions in a pipeline. Since the pressures developed in the combustion can be high (see Table l ) , the in-line arrester and pipeline must be properly designed and constructed. The flame-arrester element itself must be capable of withstanding substantial pressure differentials in both directions as a result of both deflagration and detonation. The importance of the need for proper testing cannot be overemphasized. Various methods for testing in-line arresters have been described [3,5,6, and 71. Care in testing in-line arresters is extremely important. Only some metal (Type 1) flame arresters are suitable for in-line flame arresters. Some liquid seal (Type 2) types have been shown to be suitable. Velocity flame stoppers (Type 3) are not suitable for use as in-line flame arresters. Planar sheet-metal flame arresters. In principle, planar sheet-metal units could serve as in-line arresters. However, they would have to have much stronger arrester elements than those conventionally built for end-of-line service. The housings would also have to be quite strong. Again, the importance of proper in-line testing, for both deflagration and detonation, with the fuel gas of concern, cannot be overemphasized. Cylindrical sheet-metal flame arresters. These have been shown to give dependable in-line arrester service [ 7 and 81. The corrugations of the crimped metal ribbon must be sufficiently small for the fuel gas involved. Cubbage [ 71 showed

by repeated tests that a corrugation of 0.017 in. (0.43mm) and of a suitable depth, will dependably stop deflagrations and detonations of British town gas mixed with air. This gas contains hydrogen in varying concentrations ranging from 50 to somewhat over 60 mol% . Thus, it will similarly stop deflagrations and detonations in gases having slower flame speeds, e. g., methane, propane, gasoline, and ethylene, but possibly not acetylene. Such arresters have proved to be satisfactory in very wide service. Wire-mesh flame arresters. Flame arresters made of many layers of fine wire mesh can serve satisfactorily as inline arresters for deflagrations of certain, fuel gases having flame velocities below that of hydrogen under the same conditions [ I O ] . Whether such arresters can be depended upon to stop both deflagration and detonation of a particular fuel in a given system can be determined only by proper testing. Reticulate-metal foam flame arresters. In principle it would seem that such flame arrester elements should function for in-line service. In reported in-line tests [8] however, it was found that a metal-foam arrester deteriorated under the severity of the test conditions.
Sintered-metal flame arresters

Sintered-metal flame arresters can be fabricated with extremely small gas passages yet with reasonable permeabilities. Such arresters can be very dependable for in-line service, They have found use in gas lines to cutting and welding torches for both hydrogen and acetylene service. Mounting of such arresters is very critical, for the clearance distances between arrester and housing must be less than the arrester passage dimensions. Relatively high pressure drop normally precludes the use of sintered-metal units for large flame arresters for commercial scale pipelines. Liquid-seal flame arresters. Liquid-seal flame arresters are described above as Type 2. They are normally not used for end-of-line service because simpler devices can usually serve the purpose. Both successes [ 8 ] and failures [ 3 ] have been reported with liquid-seal flame arresters for in-line service. In some designs the gas is brought down into the seal liquid through a dip-pipe that passes vertically downward through the gas space. If a flame is stopped by the liquid from proceeding backward through the arrester but continues burning in the gas space due to continuing gas flow, the dip-pipe can be heated quite hot by the flame. If the pipe is heated above the auto-ignition temperature of the gas, the gas can ignite. The likelihood of such ignition could increase when the gas flow is stopped. This may have been the cause of the liquidseal arrester failures reported in [ 3 ] . Reference [S] points to fully satisfactory service with a dip-tube type liquid seal. Five gasoline-air detonation tests were made with upstream ignition, five downstream. It is not clear how long the gas flow continued after flame flashback into the arrester, nor is it known whether the flame continued to burn after the flashback. The same Reference [8] also reports complete success with a Linde hydraulic valve (Figure 4) tested as a flame arrester. Five gasoline-air detonation tests were made with upstream ignition, five downstream. Again it is not clear how long gas flow continued after flame flashback into the unit. No tests with deflagration were reported. The Linde hydraulic valve was developed for stopping acetylene decompositions and is described in a later section. Reference [ 8 ] reports the only known tests on this unit as a flame arrester. No commercial use of this unit as a flame arrester is known. It is widely used for stopping acetylene decompositions. The liquid seals used at the bottoms of flare stacks can be considered to fall into the class of in-line flame arresters. Packed-bed flame arresters. Reference 8 reports flame arresters tests with packed beds of l-in. (25-mm) pall rings. This type arrester stopped gasoline-air detonations in over
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Figure 4. Linda hydraulic volve.

three dozen tests. Larger size pall rings did not stop detonations. It was also found that the packed-bed height was a critical factor in stopping detonations. Flessner later made tests of the packed-bed unit with deflagrations [9]. The packed bed failed to stop the deflagrations. Tests by Monsanto confirmed this. I n a given industrial case of accidental combustion in a pipeline it is usually impossible to predict whether that combustion will be deflagration or detonation. No commercial installation using packed beds of this type as flame arresters is known.
FLASHBACK PREVENTERS Exothermic decomposition of

goses

Flashback preventers are used to stop the self-sustaining exothermic decompositions of endothermic gases such as acetylene and ethylene. Certain other gases can dissociate similarly. Such gases decompose with the evolution of heat in the total absence of an oxidant gas such as air. The evolved heat causes the decomposition to propagate. Light can be evolved in such decompositions even though there is no combustion with an oxidant. Acetylene decomposition can proceed as a deflagration or a detonation, as can certain other gases. If exothermic gas decomposition propagates throughout a process system, significant damage can result. This has happened in numerous industrial accidents. I t is therefore important to install flashback preventers to limit the propagation of such gas decompositions. The flashback preventers in commercial use are of two types. One uses metal surfaces to quench the decomposition; the other uses a liquid seal. Metal flashback preventers. Packed-tower flash arresters. A typical flashback preventer employing a liquid-wetted, packed tower of metal rings is shown in Figure 5 [Ill. This was developed for service in

acetylene equipment operating at 1 atm ga (1bar ga). The recommended packing is 1 in. (25 mm) metal Raschig rings, and the recommended packed height is 4 ft. Arresters of this type have served satisfactorily in various parts of the world for a number of years. For several reasons, it would be preferable to operate the packed column dry. However, the absence of a liquid coating over the Raschig rings decreases the ability of the rings to stop the acetylene decomposition. This can be compensated for by using greater heights of packed beds and smaller rings. The original work on packed-bed arresters was done by Schmidt and Haberl [IZ].Their tests were done only at essentially atmospheric pressure. They recommended a packed height of 6.6 ft (2 m) for a liquid-wetted arrester. For a dry packed column they recommended double the packed height. Schulz [I31 found that, at an acetylene initial pressure of 1 atm ga, decompositions propagated through a dry packed bed of 1-in. (25-mm) rings about 23 feet (7 m) high. When he used %-in. (lo-mm) rings the decomposition was stopped. Kogarko et al. [I41similarly found that small rings were necessary to stop the decomposition from an initial elevated pressure of 1 atm ga (1 bar ga). They found that @ & n i. (15mm) rings packed to a height of 6.6 ft. (2 m) woulddependably stop the decomposition in the case of dry packing. The packing requirements for packed-bed arresters in atmospheric pressure systems are not so stringent as those for acetylene at elevated pressure. The packed heights recommended by Schmidt and Haberl [12] will dependably stop acetylene decompositions from both deflagration and detonation. The packed-bed arresters have the appeal that they can be "home-made'' much like the conventional packed columns used in certain fractionation operations. However, great care must be taken in their design and construction. The packing must be checked at intervals and occasionally replaced. The wetted-bed type requires continuous liquid circulation. Ethylene flash arrester. At elevated pressures ethylene will undergo a self-sustaining exothermic decomposition. Several industrial accidents caused by such decomposition have occurred in ethylene systems operating in the range of 1200-1500 psi (80-100 bar). It is therefore desirable in

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some cases to install ethylene-flashback arresters. Worrell 1151 mentions development of a proprietary ethylenedecomposition arrester. Exact details of the testing to assure dependability have not been published in the open literature. Liquid-seal flash arresters. Liquid-seal flash arresters have been developed to stop acetylene decompositions. One design, the Linde hydraulic arrester, is shown in Figure 4 [ I I ] . This arrester will function dependably at system pressures of 1 atm ga (1 bar ga) and below. It will stop deflagrations and detonations arriving from either upstream or downstream. Such arresters have been widely and successfully used.
CAUTIONS

A final word of caution about flame arresters and flashback preventers:

BE CAREFUL IN THE SELECTION A N D USE OF FLAME ARRESTERS AND FLASHBACK PREVENTERS LITERATURE CITED

Flame arresters and flashback preventers are usually installed with the feeling that they will function without fail. Yet process equipment in which these devices are installed will generally operate normally without the units themselves. Most often, also, flame arresters and flashback preventers are located out in the boondocks. The overall result is that the devices frequently receive very poor attention. They may even be installed improperly. It is difficult to assure inspection and maintenance at desirable frequencies. In the case of metallic, end-of-line flame arresters it is not at all unusual to find the arrester elements plugged, or corroded badly, sometimes with large holes through them, or totally missing. The same is true of in-line devices. In the case of liquid-seal devices it is difficult to assure proper levels of sealing liquid. The overall result is that installation of flame arresters and flashback preventers frequently leads to a false sense of security. Many industrial accidents have happened because of lack of attention to units which would have prevented the accidents if they had had the proper attention. In view of the characteristics of human nature, it is doubtful that the situation will change markedly in the future. Flame arresters and flashback preventers are often installed without necessary protective instrumentation. Even when that instrumentation is installed, it may not receive proper checking because it is not essential to operation of a process. When an arrester or flashback preventer functions, the continuing flow of gases through the device can cause continuing release of high-temperature energy in the device. This can result in destruction of the arresting qualities of the device with resulting flashback of the flame or decomposition. Especially in the case of in-line arresters, instrumentation should be provided and kept functional to stop flows in order to prevent continuing energy release. Sometimes devices which have been proved suitable for one gas have been installed for another gas without testing. For example, an end-of-line flame arrester, tested and proved suitable for gasoline vapor, may not stop an ethylene flame. Before installing any flame arrester or flashback preventer it is most important to know that it has been properly tested with a gas sufficiently representative of the gas for which it is intended. Proper testing is not something to be done lightly; it requires highly knowledgeable and experienced experts. Devices such as molecular seals installed in flare stacks are sometimes thought of as flame arresters. They are not.

1. Hajek, J. D. and E. E. Ludwig, Petroleum Engineer, 32, No. 6, C-31-C-38 (June, 1960). 2. Grumer, J., M. E. Harris, and V. R. Rowe, U.S. Bureau of Mines Report of Investigations 5225 (July, 1956). 3. Howard, W. B., C. W. Rodehorst, and G. E. Small, Loss Prevention, CEP Technical Manual, Vol. 9, 46-53 (1975). 4. API Standard 2000, Venting Atmospheric and Low Pressure Storage Tanks, available from American Petroleum Institute, Div. of Refining, 1801 K St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20006. 5. Rogowski, Z. W., Manual for Testing Flame Arresters, Department of the Environment, Building Research E st abl i shm ent , F i r e Research St a tio n , Borehamwood, Herts. WD6 2BL, England (1978). 6. Palmer, K . N. and P. S. Tonkin, Proc. of 2nd Symp. on Chemical Process Hazards, 15-20; 67; 69; 90, Instu. Chem. Eng. (1963). 7. Cubbage, P. A., Proc. of 2nd Symp. on Chemical Process Hazards, 29-34; 67; 69; 70, Instu. Chem. Eng. (1963). 8. Flessner, M. E and R. A. Bjorklund, Loss Prevention, CE P Technical Manual, AIChE, Vol. 14, 113-126 (1981). 9. Bjorklund, R. A. and R. 0. Kushida, Final Report CGD-20-81 by Jet Propulsion Lab for U.S. Coast Guard (March, 1981). 10. Wilkerson, E. C., Report No. TM-1000, Flame Arrester Tests, published by Experiment Inc., Richmond, Va. (Jan. 22, 1958). 11. Acetylene Transmission for Chemical Synthesis, Pamphlet G-13, Compressed Gas Association, Inc., 500 Fifth Ave., New York, N.Y. 10036. 12. Schmidt, H. and K. Haberl, Technische oberwachung, Zeitschrift des TUV, No. 12, 425-29 (1955). 13. Schultz, F., Bundesanstalt fur Materialprtifung, Berlin, Private communication (1966). 14. Kogarko, S. M., A. G. Lyamin, and V. A. Mikhailov, Khimicheskaya Promyschlennost (Moscow), No. 4, 275-282 (1964). 15. Worrell, G. R., Hydrocarbon Processing, 255, 256, 258 (April, 1979).
Walter B. Howard is a process safety consultant specializing in process hazard analysis, accident prevention, and accident investigation. He has a Ph.D. degree from The University of Texas. After a number of years on the staff of U.T. he joined Monsanto Co., in 1952. For 16 years he was corporate manager, process safety, for Monsanto until retirement in February, 1981. He is a Fellow member of IChemE and of AIChE, was a member of AIChE Council 1969-71. and waq chairman of the AIChE National Program Committee. He is a chartered engineer in England and a licensed professionai engineer in TX.

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