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Parallax: apparent shift in the position of an object when it is viewed from different angles
Quadratic: y=ax2+bx+c
Inverse: y=a/x
Equations of motion
Velocity with constant acceleration v1=v0+at
Final position with constant acceleration d=do+1/2(v0+v1)t; d=do+vot+1/2at2
Final velocity with constant acceleration v12=v02+2a(d1-d0)
Projectile motion
Ignoring air resistance, horizontal velocity of a projectile is constant
vx=∆d/t=constant
Initial vertical velocity of a projectile launched horizontally is zero
voy=0
Final velocity found using
vfy=-gt
Weight is the force of gravity acting on a body. Weight is the product of the mass of an object and the acceleration due to gravity
that is acting on an object w=mg. Mass is a constant that does not change with location. Weight is not a constant and does change
depending on the location of the object
Friction
Kinetic Friction: The friction between two surfaces when one surface is moving relative to the other
fK: force of kinetic friction
Static Friction: The friction between two surfaces when the surfaces are not moving relative to each other
fs: force of static friction
Impulse
The product of the average net force exerted on an object and the time interval over which the force acts.
Impulse = F∆T
F: average force in Newtons
t: time that the force is applied.
Elastic Forces
Hooke’s Law
The force needed to compress or stretch a string is directly proportional to the product of the spring constant, k, and the amount the
spring has been stretched or compressed.
F=k∆x
F: applied (or restoring) force in Newtons
k: spring constant in N/m
∆x: distortion of the spring in m
Power
Power is the rate of doing work or the rate at which energy is transferred; measured in watts; 1 W = 1 J/s
Power = work/time
P = Fcosθd/t
Energy: property of an object that allows it to produce change in the environment or in itself. The work-energy theorem states that
the change in energy of an object is exactly equal to the work done on it. W=∆E
Kinetic Energy = KE = ½(mv2)
Gravitational Potential Energy = PE = mgh
where m is the mass, g the acceleration due to gravity, h is the height the object is above a reference plane.
Gravitational Potential Energy (PE or Ug): PE is the stored energy in a system resulting from the gravitational
interaction between masses. When we state an object’s PE we must say which plane we are using as the
reference plane.PE=mgh
Elastic Collisions
• No deformation
• Kinetic energy is conserved
mava+mbvb=mava’+mbvb’
½mava2+½mbvb2=½mava’2+½mbvb’2
Explosions
• Object is at rest or moving at a constant velocity
• It breaks into 2 or more pieces
• The kinetic energy of the system increases
Thermal Energy: The overall energy of motion of the particles that make up an object
Conduction: heat energy is transferred to the lower temperature; when the two are at the same temperature, thermal equilibrium is
reached.
Radiation: transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves; does not require presence of matter.
Specific heat
Amount of energy that must be added to a material to raise its temperature 1.0 K (1.0 oC)
Q=mC∆T where m is the mass, C is the specific heat and ∆T is the change in temperature.
Change of state
Melting Point: temperature at which a substance changes from a solid to a liquid
Boiling Point: temperature at which a substance changes from a liquid to a gas
All of the energy added goes to overcoming the forces that hold the molecules together.
The temperature does not change.
Calorimetry
Calorimeter is a carefully insulated container that does not allow heat to leave or enter
Heat engine: device that can convert thermal energy into mechanical energy
heat reservoir
QH
heat engine work
QL QH = W + QL
cold reservoir
Heat pump
heat reservoir
QH
heat engine work
QL QH = W + QL
cold reservoir
Wave properties
Wave: rhythmic disturbance that carries energy through matter or space
λ wavelength
Below the surface, ocean waves are transverse waves. At the surface they have characteristics of both transverse and longitudinal
waves.
The period of a wave is the time for one complete cycle and it is equal to T=1/f
Waves at boundaries
When a wave hits a boundary some of the energy is transmitted through the boundary and some is reflected back. The incident
wave is the wave that hits the boundary; the reflected wave is the wave that comes back. If the incident wave hits a more dense
medium (one in which the wave travels faster), the reflected wave will be inverted.
Superposition of waves
The principle of superposition states that the displacement of a medium caused by two or more waves is equal to the algebraic sum
of the two individual waves
When the displacement of the waves is in the same direction, they produce constructive interference
When the displacement of the waves is in the opposite direction, they cause destructive interference
If waves travel through a medium at just the right speed they appear to be stationary. These are called standing waves. The part of
the medium that does not move is called the node. The part that has the maximum deflection is called the antinode.
Doppler Effect
When objects travel towards you the sounds they make seem to have a higher pitch & when objects travel away from you the
sounds they make seem to have a lower pitch
The frequency of the sound produced by an object moving toward an observer appears to be fo = fs[1-(vs/v)] where fs is the
frequency of the source, vs is the velocity of the source, and v is the velocity of sound
If the object is moving away from the observer the frequency appears to be fo = fs[1+(vs/v)]
Light fundamentals
Light is the range of frequencies of electromagnetic waves that stimulate the retina of the eye. They range from about 4.00x10-7m
to 7.00x10-7m. Shortest is violet, longest is red. Light travels in a vacuum at 3.00x108m/s and is represented by c.
Sources of light: An object that emits light is called luminous; an object that reflects light is illuminated
Luminous Flux (P): rate at which visible light is emitted from a source. Unit: lumen (lm)
Illuminance (E): amount of light falling on a surface; measured in lux (lx): lm/m2 E=P/4πd2
Luminous intensity: Some light sources are specified in candela (cd), or candle power. A candela is not a measure of luminous
flux, but of luminous intensity. The luminous intensity of a point source is the luminous flux that falls on 1.0m2 of a sphere of one
meter radius. Thus, luminus intensity is luminous flux divided by 4π; P/4π
Colours by Subtraction
Dye: a molecule that absorbs certain wavelengths of light & transmits or reflects others; form solution
Pigment: a coloured particle that absorbs certain colours & transmits or reflects others; form suspension
• Primary Pigment: a pigment that absorbs only 1 primary colour from white light
o Yellow, cyan, & magenta are primary colours of pigments
• Secondary Pigment: absorbs 2 primary colours & reflects 1
o Red, green, blue
Index of refraction is the rate of the speed of light in a vacuum to its speed in a material
nsubstance = c/vsubstance
Snell’s Law
States that the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of reflection is a constant
n = sinθi/sinθr
nisinθi = nrsinθr
Total internal reflection occurs when light passes from a more optically dense medium to a less optically dense medium, at an
angle so great that there is no refracted ray
The critical angle is the angle at which the refracted ray lies along the boundary of the 2 materials
Mirage
When light rays pass through at different temperatures the light is bent away from the normal. When the air temperature at the
surface of the Earth is much hotter than the air temperature in the sky, light coming from the sky is bent.
Image Virtual or
Mirror Shape Object Size
Orientation Real
Plane any upright virtual same as object
more than 2 focal lengths
upside-down real smaller than object
away from mirror
Concave b/w 1 and 2 focal lengths upside-down real larger than object
at the focal point none none none
b/w mirror and focal point upright virtual larger than object
convex any upright virtual smaller than object
Lens/mirror equation
1/f = 1/di + 1/do
Magnification
m = hi/ho = di/do
Lenses
• 2 focal points
• f is pos. for convex & neg. for concave lenses
• di is pos. on the image side of the lens where images are real
• do is pos. on the object side of the lens
• concave lens: image on the same side as the object
Special Relativity
Einstein’s Theory of Special Relativity describes motion of particles moving at close to the speed of light
2 postulates
1. the speed of light is the same for all observers, no matter what their relative speeds
2. laws of physics are the same in any inertial (non-accelerated) frame of reference; this means the laws of physics observed
by a hypothetical observer travelling with a relativistic particle must be the same as those observed by an observer who is
stationary
Time Dilation
∆t = ∆to / √ [1-(v2/c2)]
∆to dilated time measured by an observer who is at rest with respect to the event
v relative speed between the 2 observers
c speed of light
Length Contraction
Lengths in the direction of relative motion are shorter for the observer who is moving the amount of length
L = Lo √ [1-(v2/c2)]
Relativistic Momentum
P = mv / √ [1-(v2/c2)]
U = (v + U ’) / [1+(v2/c2)]
U is the speed of the missile relative to the observer who is in motion relative to the rocket
v is the velocity of the rocket relative to the moving observer
U ’ is the velocity of the missile relative to the rocket
E = mc2 / √ [1-(v2/c2)]
Eo = mc2
(not in motion)
m = Eo/c2
Radioactivity: the remission of energy or particles from an unstable nucleus; can omit:
1. alpha particles ά
helium nuclei 24He
2. beta particles β
high speed electrons -10e-
3. gamma rays γ
electromagnetic radiation; highest frequency
Nuclear Fission/Fusion
When nuclear fission occurs, a nucleus splits into smaller nuclei; a chain reaction can occur. Nuclear fusion occurs when light
nuclei collide at high temperature & form heavier nuclei, releasing a high amount of energy