Chapter 41- Animal Behavior Vocabulary: Ethology-An approach to the study of animal behavior that focuses on studying many

species in natural environment and addresses questions about the evolution of behavior Releasers- sensory stimulus that triggers performance of a stereotyped behavior pattern Imprinting- a rapid form of learning in which an animal learns, during a brief critical period, to make a particular response, which is maintained for life, to some object or other organism Distal- away from the point of attachment or other reference point. Culture- the collection of knowledge,tools,values, and rules that characterize a human society Behavioral Biology- understanding different behaviors to describe the interactions and differences between species Proximate Causes- the immediate genetic, physiological, neurological, and developmental mechanisms responsible for a behavior or morphology Ultimate causes- In ethology, the evolutionary processes that produced an animals capacity and tendency to behave in particular ways Cost-benefit analysis- is a systematic process for calculating and comparing benefits and costs of a project or decision. used extensively in the study of territorial behavior Altruistic behavior-instinctive behavior that is detrimental to the individual but favors the survival or spread of that individuals genes, as by benefitting its relatives Inclusive Fitness- the fitness derived from an individuals own reproductive success plus that derived through the reproductive success of its relatives Kin Selection- selection for behaviors that increase the reproductive success of relatives even when they come at a cost to the performer Hamiltons Rule- The principle that, for an apparent altruistic behavior to be adaptive, the fitness benefit of that act to the recipient times the degree of relatedness of the performer and the recipient must be greater than the cost to the performer Fixed action pattern- an instinctive behavioral sequence that is indivisible Classical conditioning- A learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired Innate Behavior- the inherent inclination of a living organism toward a particular behavior Circadian Rhythm- a daily cycle of activity observed in many living organisms Adaptive behavior- type of behavior that is used to adjust to another type of behavior or situation Instinctual Behavior- performed without being based upon prior experience Habituation- decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations Operant Behavior- network of factors and events involved in the behavior of human and nonhuman animals Insight Learning- an animal's ability to solve problems suddenly, without the benefit of prior experience Diurnal- Active in the daytime Nocturnal- Active in the nighttime Crepuscular- Appearing or active in twilight Superchiasmatic nuclei- a tiny region on the brain's midline, situated directly above the optic chiasm. It is responsible for controlling circadian rhythms Sexual Selection-selection by one sex of characteristics in individuals of the opposite sex Direct Fitness- a measure of the number of genes passed on to the next generation relative to

other genetic contributions Cooperative Behavior- behavior of two or more living things working towards one goal. Questions 1. A proximate cause can cause a short term change to behavior while an ultimate cause works towards a long term goal and can have more of a long term effect on behavior. 2. Dominance of parents, environment, and natural selection 3.They are triggered by a simple stimuli such as color, smell, or sound. For example in a certain specie of gulls, the adult has a red dot on the bill and the chicks know to peck at the red dot to tell the adult to regurgitate the food. 4.Innate behavior is instinctive and has not been taught whereas learned behavior is taught. 5. Imprinting is the relationship between a parent and its offspring. If the bond is not formed during the critical or sensitive period, then imprinting would not occur. 6. Operant behavior is looking at the factors that affected the behavior while classical conditioning is a process of training using two or more stimuli 7. Natural selection shapes the behavior of the animals to help the best version survive 8.Some reasons for living in a group is dividing the work between animals, i.e. workers and nurses bee, or protection, or even for food. Some problems with group living are territory/location, dominance, reproducing, food. 9. When biological rhythms are produced like the changes of the seasons, is causes animals to change behavior patterns to adapt for the coming changes. Example of this is a squirrel gathering nuts for the winter. 10. the behavior is carried out on a matter if the benefit is worth the cost. Territorial behavior is determined by the cost-benefit behavior 11.Animals use the tools and knowledge they gain from their culture to learn how to adapt to different changes or environment. Animals use their knowledge from their culture like characteristics of strong mate to keep up with natural selection. 12. Altruistic behavior often helps the offspring while often hurting the parent. This helps the future because the parent is passing on beneficial genes. Great inclusive success often takes great altruistic behavior. Chapter 42- Organisms in their Environment Vocabulary: Abiotic- Non-living components Biotic- Living components Ecological systems- One or more organisms plus the external environment with which they interact Ecology- The scientific study of the interaction of organisms with their living and nonliving environments Population- A group of individuals of the same species that live, interact, and interbreed in a particular geographic area at the same time Community- The assemblage of interacting populations of different species within a particular geographic area Landscape- Multiple communities

Biosphere- All the organisms and environments of the planet Ecosystem- The organisms of a particular habitat, such as a pond or forest, together with the physical environment in which they live Weather- The state of atmospheric conditions in a particular place at a particular time Climate- The long term average atmospheric conditions found in a region seasonality- An aspect of climate characterized by fluctuations in temperature over the course of the year Adiabatically- occurring without loss or gain of heat Hadley Cells- Patterns of vertical atmospheric circulation that influence surface winds and precipitation patterns according to latitude Current- Circulation patterns in the surface waters of oceans driven by the prevailing winds Climate diagram- A way of graphically summarizing the climate in a given location by superimposing graphs of average monthly temperature and average precipitation through the year Topography- The variations in the elevation of Earths surface that form Biome- A major division of the ecological communities of Earth, characterized primarily by distinctive vegetation Permafrost- soil at or below the freezing point of water Tundra- A vast, flat, treeless Arctic region of Europe, Asia, and North America in which the subsoil is permanently frozen Boreal Forest- a biome characterized by coniferous forests consisting mostly of pines, spruces and larches Temperate Rain forest- a rain forest in a temperate area Temperate Deciduous Forests- dominated by trees that lose their leaves each year Temperate Grassland- biome whose predominant vegetation consists of grasses and/or shrubs Chaparral- Vegetation consisting chiefly of tangled shrubs and thorny bushes Desert- A dry, barren area of land, especially one covered with sand Savanna- A grassy plain in tropical and subtropical regions, with few trees Tropical Rain Forest- an ecosystem type that occurs roughly within the latitudes 28 degrees north or south of the equator. This ecosystem experiences high average temperatures and a significant amount of rainfall Plankton- Free-floating small aquatic organisms Nekton- Aquatic animals that are able to swim and move independently of water currents. Benthos- The flora and fauna found on the bottom, or in the bottom sediments, of a sea, lake, or other body of water Phytoplankton- Minute, free-floating aquatic plants Zooplankton- Plankton consisting of small animals and the immature stages of larger animals Flowing-water Ecosystem- any type of water that has a constant flow over top of land Standing-water Ecosystem- any type of water that is stagnant (no water in or out) Littoral Zone- the nearshore region of a lake that is shallow and is affected by wave action and fluctuations in water level Limnetic Zone- the open-water region of a lake Profundal Zone- deep zone of a body of water, such as an ocean or a lake, located below the range of effective light penetration

Freshwater Wetlands- broad, flat piece of land covered with freshwater most of the time and containing freshwater grasses and plants Ecosystem Services- Processes by which ecosystems maintain resources that benefit human society Estuary- The tidal mouth of a river, where the tide meets the stream Salt Marshes- An area of coastal grassland that is regularly flooded by seawater Mangrove Forests- trees and shrubs that grow in saline coastal habitats in the tropics and subtropics Intertidal Zone- A nearshore region of oceans that is periodically exposed to the air as the tides rise and fall Benthic environment- The bottom of the ocean Seagrass- Seagrasses are flowering plants from one of four plant families, all in the order Alismatales, which grow in marine, fully saline environments Kelp- large seaweeds belonging to the brown algae in the order Laminariales Coral Reef- a reef consisting of coral consolidated into limestone Neritic Province- the shallow waters of the ocean from the littoral zone to the edge of the continental shelf Euphotic Zone- depth of the water in a lake or ocean that is exposed to sufficient sunlight for photosynthesis to occur Oceanic Province- all the open waters beyond the continental shelf Marine Snow- continuous shower of mostly organic detritus falling from the upper layers of the water column Eutrophic- Having waters rich in mineral and organic nutrients that promote a proliferation of plant life, especially algae, which reduces the dissolved oxygen content and often causes the extinction of other organisms Ecotone- A region of transition between two biological communities Questions 1. Biotic is living and abiotic is nonliving i.e. sponges are living whereas a rock is not living 2. Climate is the average weather for an area over a period of time. Weather is the instantaneous atmosphere 3. as the latitude gets closer to the equator, the closer the earth is to the sun. the weather stays more constant and the climate becomes more humid and the seasons change from 4 to 2 or even 1 season. 4.Atmospheric circulation is in direct relation to oceanic circulation. They both have seperate circulation for different parts of the atmosphere or ocean. The circulation moves the climate and spreads the weather. 5. Biome- A major division of the ecological communities of Earth, characterized primarily by distinctive vegetation. Tropical forest: Climate- High Temperature and High Rainfall Soil- highly weathered, reddish in colour, and contain large amounts of Aluminum and Iron. Rapid decomposition occurs, and nutrients are cycled quickly, stored mostly in the plant biomass. Plants and Animals- The tropical rain forest has the greatest diversity of species of all communities Savanna: Climate- dry tropics and subtropics in which grasses are conspicuous, with scattered

individual trees. three seasons in these areas: cool and dry, hot and dry, and warm and wet Soil- low in nutrients. The soils are porous, having only a thin layer of nutrient rich matter called humus. Plants and Animals- Plant life is composed of low growing grasses with scattered deciduous trees and thorny shrubs, Acacias, Eucalypts and Baobab. Animals found here include large herbivores such as giraffes, zebras, antelopes, buffalo, kangaroos, wildebeests, and ostriches. There are also many burrowing animals found here. Animals in the savanna are most visible during the rainy season. During the dry season, many small animals are dormant, and larger mammals often migrate to other areas. Desert: Climate- the driest of all biomes. The evaporation exceeds rainfall, making it very dry, with less than 30cm of rain per year. Most deserts are very hot, but cold deserts also exist. SoilDry and infertile. Plants and Animals- plant life includes some grasses, shrubs, cacti, creosote, and rosette plants. Seed eating animals are common in deserts, such as ants, birds and rodents. The mammals are mostly nocturnal, or they may be active only during the cooler months of the year. Reptiles and snakes also live here, and are important predators of the seed eaters. Extreme Desert: composed solely of rock, sand or ice. They support very little, if any, plant or animal life. Extreme deserts are found in Rockies in western Canada, in Greenland, in Tibet, Mexico, Scandinavia, and in South-central Africa. Chaparral: Climate- mild rainy winters and long, hot, dry summers. Soil- low-nutrient soil, and frequent fires. Plants and Animals- The plants found in these regions are unrelated to each other, but due to their being subject to the same environmental conditions, have evolved to have similar form and function. Animals found here include deer, and fruit eating birds, which are browsers. There are also ants and rodents, which eat seeds, as well as lizards and snakes. Grassland: Climate-relatively cold winter temperatures. Soil- thin layer of porous soil. Not high in nutrients. Plants and Animals- Large vertebrate grazers are the most conspicuous, such as bison, antelopes and wild horses. However the most intense grazing of grasslands takes place below ground by invertebrates, who consume up to four times as much as all above ground herbivores. Deciduous Forest: Climate- 5-6 month growing season (150 to 200) days. About 30 to 60 inches of rainfall each year, and is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year. Soil- fertile, due to plenty of leaf litter. Plants and Animals- There is extensive plant diversity in this biome, dominated by broadleaf deciduous hardwood trees such as oak, hickory, maple, ash, beech and more. Animals found here are bears, deer, bobcats, raccoons, squirrels, as well as many birds and invertebrates. The greatest concentration of animals is on and just below the forest floor. Taiga: Climate- cool high elevations in the more temperate latitudes, for example, in much of the mountainous western region of North America. Long, cold winters, and short, occasionally warm, wet summers are typical of this region. Soil- thin, nutrient poor, and acidic. Plants and Animals- spruce, pine, or fir, and often there is little undergrowth present. There may also occasionally be deciduous species present, such as oak, birch, willow, or alder, in a particularly wet or disturbed area. Animal populations are mainly seed-eating squirrels and jays, herbivores such as leaf eating insects and larger browsing animals such as deer, moose, elk, snowshoe hare, and beavers. The typical predators for this area are grizzly bears, wolves, lynxes and wolverines. Many have thick coats of fur to insulate against the cold, and some hibernate. Tundra: Climate- low temperatures and short growing seasons. Soil- black mucky soil with a

frozen subsoil. Plants and Animals- barely any vegetation in the tundra, only about 1,700 different species. mostly shrubs, sedges, mosses, lichens and grasses. There are about 400 varieties of flowers. The growing season is only about 50 to 60 days long. There are no trees, except for some birches in the lower latitudes. 48 species of land mammals are found on the tundra, there are a lot of each species. These consist of slightly modified shrews, hares, rodents, wolves, foxes, bears and deer. There are huge herds of caribou in North America. 6. Tundra: Humans hunt in the tundra throwing off the balance of the populations. Taiga: Deforestation is caused by humans and is harming the Taiga hugely. Deciduous Forest: Humans have logged most of the deciduous forest and only a fraction of the original remain. Grassland: Human expansion threatens the areas of grassland. Chaparral: Humans causes forest fires. Destroy vegetation and creates infertile soil. Extreme Desert and Desert: Greenhouse gasses create for more extreme temperatures and harms the plant and animal life. Savanna: Fires from human activity. Tropical forest: Logging trees is taking away the forest. 7. Tropical forest: Climate- High Temperature and High Rainfall Soil- highly weathered, reddish in colour, and contain large amounts of Aluminum and Iron. Rapid decomposition occurs, and nutrients are cycled quickly, stored mostly in the plant biomass. Plants and Animals- The tropical rain forest has the greatest diversity of species of all communities Savanna: Climate- dry tropics and subtropics in which grasses are conspicuous, with scattered individual trees. three seasons in these areas: cool and dry, hot and dry, and warm and wet Soil- low in nutrients. The soils are porous, having only a thin layer of nutrient rich matter called humus. Plants and Animals- Plant life is composed of low growing grasses with scattered deciduous trees and thorny shrubs, Acacias, Eucalypts and Baobab. Animals found here include large herbivores such as giraffes, zebras, antelopes, buffalo, kangaroos, wildebeests, and ostriches. There are also many burrowing animals found here. Animals in the savanna are most visible during the rainy season. During the dry season, many small animals are dormant, and larger mammals often migrate to other areas. Desert: Climate- the driest of all biomes. The evaporation exceeds rainfall, making it very dry, with less than 30cm of rain per year. Most deserts are very hot, but cold deserts also exist. SoilDry and infertile. Plants and Animals- plant life includes some grasses, shrubs, cacti, creosote, and rosette plants. Seed eating animals are common in deserts, such as ants, birds and rodents. The mammals are mostly nocturnal, or they may be active only during the cooler months of the year. Reptiles and snakes also live here, and are important predators of the seed eaters. Extreme Desert: composed solely of rock, sand or ice. They support very little, if any, plant or animal life. Extreme deserts are found in Rockies in western Canada, in Greenland, in Tibet, Mexico, Scandinavia, and in South-central Africa. Chaparral: Climate- mild rainy winters and long, hot, dry summers. Soil- low-nutrient soil, and frequent fires. Plants and Animals- The plants found in these regions are unrelated to each other, but due to their being subject to the same environmental conditions, have evolved to have similar form and function. Animals found here include deer, and fruit eating birds, which are browsers. There are also ants and rodents, which eat seeds, as well as lizards and snakes. Grassland: Climate-relatively cold winter temperatures. Soil- thin layer of porous soil. Not high in nutrients. Plants and Animals- Large vertebrate grazers are the most conspicuous, such as

bison, antelopes and wild horses. However the most intense grazing of grasslands takes place below ground by invertebrates, who consume up to four times as much as all above ground herbivores. Deciduous Forest: Climate- 5-6 month growing season (150 to 200) days. About 30 to 60 inches of rainfall each year, and is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year. Soil- fertile, due to plenty of leaf litter. Plants and Animals- There is extensive plant diversity in this biome, dominated by broadleaf deciduous hardwood trees such as oak, hickory, maple, ash, beech and more. Animals found here are bears, deer, bobcats, raccoons, squirrels, as well as many birds and invertebrates. The greatest concentration of animals is on and just below the forest floor. Taiga: Climate- cool high elevations in the more temperate latitudes, for example, in much of the mountainous western region of North America. Long, cold winters, and short, occasionally warm, wet summers are typical of this region. Soil- thin, nutrient poor, and acidic. Plants and Animals- spruce, pine, or fir, and often there is little undergrowth present. There may also occasionally be deciduous species present, such as oak, birch, willow, or alder, in a particularly wet or disturbed area. Animal populations are mainly seed-eating squirrels and jays, herbivores such as leaf eating insects and larger browsing animals such as deer, moose, elk, snowshoe hare, and beavers. The typical predators for this area are grizzly bears, wolves, lynxes and wolverines. Many have thick coats of fur to insulate against the cold, and some hibernate. Tundra: Climate- low temperatures and short growing seasons. Soil- black mucky soil with a frozen subsoil. Plants and Animals- barely any vegetation in the tundra, only about 1,700 different species. mostly shrubs, sedges, mosses, lichens and grasses. There are about 400 varieties of flowers. The growing season is only about 50 to 60 days long. There are no trees, except for some birches in the lower latitudes. 48 species of land mammals are found on the tundra, there are a lot of each species. These consist of slightly modified shrews, hares, rodents, wolves, foxes, bears and deer. There are huge herds of caribou in North America. 8. Debris from the ecosystems, humans and other animals can pollute or harm the ecosystems in the ocean. humans and other animals can also remove vital parts of the oceanic ecosystems and destroy ocean life. Internet Exercise 1 The oxygen levels began to drop because unwanted communities of bugs had come into the pod from the outside. The outside is all dirt since the pod is placed underground. The species were attracted to the food and wood in the crates. With more living things to take in oxygen and not enough plants to convert all the CO2 back, the CO2 levels started to rise and he oxygen started to drop. If there was not a fail safe in place, the CO2 would started to suffocate the living things on the pod. First breathing would become harder, then the living forms would fall unconscience and then die. The pod can relate to earth by if we destroy enough plants and we become overpopulated, the ratios of oxygen and CO2 could become slowly unbalanced but for Earth, there is no safety hatch that would open. Internet Exercise 2: Ocean in Motion 1. wind, tides, and gravity, currents keep our oceans in constant motion 2. Gyres are currents that flow in large rotating loops. Northern Hemisphere gyres spin in a clockwise direction whereas the Southern Hemisphere gyres spin in a counterclockwise

direction. 3. Ride tides happen when Longshore currents, which move parallel to the beach, bounce seaward because of a change in the bottom's structure. Swimmers caught in this current should swim parallel to the shore until they are out of the rip current. Then, they can swim safely to shore. 4. An upwelling is a vertical current. Upwellings benefit coastal ecosystems because winds blowing offshore (or toward the ocean) push water away from the shore. Deep, colder water rises to replace the water that has been blown out into the ocean. This cold water from deep off the ocean floor brings many nutrients to the surface. Habitat Location Characteristics Life Issues stemming from Human involvement

Beaches

sandy shores areas of loose where land meets sediment (sand, bodies of water gravel, cobbles) controlled by ocean processes.

diatoms, bacteria Erosion-surfing, and other fishing and playing microscopic on the beaches. creatures. Some People are trying turtles and fish to keep beaches return. Many kinds permanent when of birds. Aquatic they should be mammals. Crabs, changing. Pollution clams, periwinkles, also takes place shrimp, corals, with oil spills. starfish and sea urchins are common on nearly all beaches. large numbers of Pollution causes fish, crabs, shrimp, great damage to sponges and coral reefs and it seagrasses make takes a long time their home in coral to rebuild the reefs communities. Tourism damages the reefs as humans take pieces of coral and scuba dive through the reefs and take fish. variety of plants and animals and important in the lifecycles of many more. Crabs and clams of many Trash and sediment that humans deposit in the rivers, end up in estuaries.

Coral Reefs

found almost always in the seas and oceans between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Tropic of Cancer.

collection of many different plants and animal communities including many polyp species.

Estuaries

where salt water partially enclosed meets fresh water. bodies of water Bays and deltas where freshwater meets salty ocean water.

species call these fresh and saltwater mixing zones home. Hydrothermal Vents where two oceanic extremely hot, plates pull apart mineral-rich fluid and erupting lava flows out from replaces the sea underneath the floor ocean floor's surface. The hot fluid flows into very cold water, usually 2C, and cools down quickly. The cooled minerals in the fluid settle around the vent opening creating chimney-like formations. along rocky coastlines in depths of 18 to 90 feet chemosynthetic bacteria and smaller crustaceans Vents are far from human activity and have only been discovered since 1977 so no damage has happened so far.

Kelp Forests

types of brown many fish and algae, which hold other sea on to the rocky creatures bottom with rootlike structures called holdfasts. From these holdfasts, long streamers of kelp grow up toward the surface, with gas bladders at each leaf to keep the plant upright.

kelp is harvested by humans for food

Sea Grass Beds

grow on the descend from shallow bottoms of terrestrial plants, healthy bays and which adapt to estuaries. shallow non-rocky coastal waters

scallops, People are actually horseshoe crabs, helping to replant snails and many grass beds since fishes. Many of the they help clean the creatures living in water the green, swaying grass are very tiny and live directly on the long blades.

5. Green Sea Turtles: Characteristics- reptiles whose ancestors evolved on land and returned to the sea to live. - bony outer shell to protect them from predators

- green flesh from algae - weighs 200-350 pounds with a carapace length of 2.5 feet -can live up to 80 years of age Adaptations- shells are lighter and more streamlined than land turtles. Front and rear limbs have evolved into flippers. These flippers make sea turtles efficient and graceful swimmers, capable of swimming long distances in a short time. 6. The average ocean salinity is 35 ppt. Animals use osmosis to adapt between salinities. 7. every 33 feet down we travel, one more atmosphere pushes down on us. 8. Surface mixed zone: least amount of denseness. Temperature and salinity change often and easily since it is the top layer pycnocline: Barrier between the top zone and the bottom layer. Salinity and temperature tend to remain constant deep zone: Water remains dense and cold As the water gets denser and more towards the bottom, fish need less and less of their sight and more ability to live in dense water. Deeper fish also need to be able to remain in cold water. 9. Pollution: ocean communities take decades to recover from pollution like oil spills. Harvesting: coral reefs are depleting because people want coral for decoration or recreational use Tourism: Tourism brings destruction and removal of fish and disruption of food chains.

10. Chapter 43 Population density- the number of individuals per unit of area Geographic range- the region within which a species occurs

Habitat- an environment in which a species may be restricted to Mortality- the fraction of individuals that survive to a given age Fecundity- the average number of offspring that each individual produces at a certain age if they do survive Intrinsic rate of increase- A measure of the rate of growth of a population. This is the instantaneous rate of change Exponential population growth- population growth in which a constant multiple of the population size is added to the population during successive time intervals Carrying Capacity (K)- the number of individuals in a population that the resources of its environment can support Logistic population growth- growth in the number of organisms in a population that slows steadily as the entity approaches its maximum size Metapopulation- a population divided into subpopulations among which there are occasional exchanges of individuals Dispersion- movement of organisms away from an existing population Emigration- the deliberate and usually oriented departure of an organism from the habitat in which it has been living Density-dependent factors- a factor with an effect on population size in proportion with population density Density-independent factors- a factor with an effect on population size that acts independently of population density Wildlife corridor- an area of habitat connecting wildlife populations separated by human activities Unit Questions 1. Population density is the number of individuals per unit of area. Dispersion is the movement of organisms away from an existing population. 2. The factors that produce changes in population size are births and deaths. The equation can be expressed as; the future= the number now+ the number that are born- the number that die or it can be expressed as; Nt+1= Nt+ B- D 3. The principle of allocation means that an organism must divide the resources that it is able to obtain among competing functions. 4. Intrinsic rate of increase is a measure of the rate of growth of a population. This is the instantaneous rate of change. Carrying Capacity (K) is the number of individuals in a population that the resources of its environment can support. J shaped growth curves grow exponentially while S shaped growth curves level off at the carrying capacity. 5. Density dependent factors correspond with the population while density independent factors act without the population. An example of density dependent factors is the growth in relation to carrying capacity. 6. Carrying Capacity (K) is the number of individuals in a population that the resources of its environment can support. It is determined by the choices of the species and natural constraints. Carrying capacity regulates population because if there is too much population for the carrying capacity then the death rate goes up but if population goes below the carrying capacity then the birth rate goes up.

7. Wildlife corridors have helped man reduce extinction risk among species. Internet Exercises 1. A bellwether is an indicator or predictor of something. A bellwether species is a species that is an early warning sign for environmental damage or ecosystem change. 2. An area or ridge of land that stops waters flowing to different rivers, basins, or seas. 3. Flood is a type of change that can displace birds homes and force creatures to move downstream forcing the birds to move. Drought is another change and it kills the vegetation and can destroy the birds food. Fire is a third change and it forces the birds to fly to find a new home and try to find the same nutrients. 4. An invasive species is a species that is exotic, it reproduces rapidly, and it has negative effects on the native species of the region to which it has been introduced. Invasive species can affect the ecology of a watershed because they can take up the resources that the native species need but cannot get because the invasive species. 5. The use of pesticides can get into watersheds because when it rains the pesticides get washed away and then they can flow into the area of the watershed and be detrimental to the health of the organisms in it. Even overseas pesticides can be harmful in the US because the pesticides kill the birds in other countries. Birds are being used to judge the health of watersheds because they live in many different areas and since they are bellwethers they will indicate if they sense that something unhealthy is happening or is going to happen. 6. All of this matters because the health of the habitats in certain areas also affects other areas. 7. The health of a watershed affects my health because if a watershed is unhealthy it may also make the area I live in unhealthy damaging my own health.

8.

The watershed does appear healthy because it is green and because algae is growing and algae grows water that is vital. Negative- There is garbage in one the pictures depicting human activity and a possibility of the environment being polluted. Positive- human life has helped to sustain plant and animal life and algae is present. To promote the health of this environment, the amount of human activity can be decreased. This would cause for less littering and would not harm the environment as much. Besides decreasing human activity, the forest preserve could enforce better food and drink rules on the preserve to keep the environment clean and pure. Chapter 44 Interspecific interaction- interactions between members of different species Intraspecific competition-competition among members of the same species Interspecific competition-competition between two or more species Limiting resource-a factor that controls a process, such as organism growth or species population Resource partitioning- a situation in which selection pressures resulting from interspecific competition cause changes in the ways in which the competing species use the limiting resource, thereby allowing them to coexist Symbiosis-the living together of two or more species in a prolonged and intimate relationship Mutualism-a type of interaction between species in which both species benefit Commensalism-a type of interaction between species in which one participant benefits while the other is unaffected Parasitism-the relation between two different kinds of organisms in which one receives benefits from the other by causing damage to it Amensalism-interaction in which one animal is harmed and the other is unaffected Extinction-the termination of a lineage of organisms Invasive species-an exotic species that reproduces rapidly, spreads widely, and has negative effects on the native species of the region to which it has been introduced Unit Questions 1. Symbiosis is the living together of two or more species in a prolonged and intimate

relationship. Mutualism is a type of interaction between species in which both species benefit. Commensalism is a type of interaction between species in which one participant benefits while the other is unaffected. Parasitism is the relation between two different kinds of organisms in which one receives benefits from the other by causing damage to it. Amensalism is interaction in which one animal is harmed and the other is unaffected 2. Competition is striving to win or gain something by defeating another. Intraspecific is within one group while interspecific is between two or more groups. 3. Limiting resource is a factor that controls a process, such as organism growth or species population. Resource partitioning changes the way that a species uses a limiting resource which allows competing species to coexist. 4. Predation is when an organism of one species kills and consumes an organism of another species. Natural selection affects the predator-prey relationship because it can cause an evolutionary arms race. 5. Mutualism is a type of interaction between species in which both species benefit. An example of mutualism is leaf cutter ants feeding, cultivating, and dispersing fungi. In turn the fungi turns inedible plant material into food the ants can eat. Commensalism is a type of interaction between species in which one participant benefits while the other is unaffected. An example of this would be the brown-headed cowbird following herds of cattle that stir up bugs from the grass that they trample and feeding off of those bugs. Parasitism is the relation between two different kinds of organisms in which one receives benefits from the other by causing damage to it. One example of this would be a tick feeding off of a human because the human gets affected negatively while the tick gets all the benefits. Amensalism is interaction in which one animal is harmed and the other is unaffected. An example of amensalism is a herd of bison grazing the plains because they step on and kill insects and plants while they are unaffected. 6. Kangaroo rats may have either a positive or a negative effect on the abundance of grass. The kangaroo rats gather as many seeds as they can so that they can feed themselves. They then bury these seeds and if they have an excess of seeds then they just helped plant and grow grass. 7. Competition and resource partitioning change population dispersion and density because if two species are competing it will eventually cause one of the species to disperse to another area. But if the two species are go by resource partitioning then the area will become denser in population. 8. Competition increases fitness and leads to adaptation because one species needs to try and beat another species for the limiting resources in the area. 9. Mimicry increases fitness by turning off plant genes that control the production of defensive chemicals. 10. Qualities that make a species invasive are that it is an exotic species that reproduces rapidly, spreads widely, and has negative effects on the native species of the region to which it has been introduced. An example of an invasive species is the sac fungus that drove the American chestnut to extinction.

Chapter 45 Community-any ecologically integrated groups of species of microorganisms, plants, and animals inhabiting a given area Species composition or diversity- the particular mix of species a community contains and the abundance of those species Succession- the gradual, sequential series of changes in the species composition of a community following a disturbance Primary succession-one of two types of biological and ecological succession of plant life, occurring in an environment Secondary succession- one of the two types of ecological succession of plant life. As opposed to the first Energy flow-the flow of energy through a food chain Trophic level- a group of organisms united by obtaining their energy from the same part of the food web of a biological community Producers- an autotrophic organism that is capable of producing complex organic materials from simple inorganic materials either through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis Autotroph-an organism that is capable of living exclusively on inorganic materials, water, and some energy source such as sunlight or chemically reduced matter Heterotroph- an organism that requires preformed organic molecules as food Primary producer- a photosynthetic or chemosynthetic organism that synthesizes complex organic molecules from simple inorganic ones Primary consumer-an organism that eats plant tissues (herbivore) Tertiary consumer-a carnivore at the topmost level in a food chain that feeds on other carnivores; an animal that feeds only on secondary consumers Keystone species-a species that has a disproportionate effect on its environment relative to its biomass Food webs- the complete set of food links between species in a community; a diagram shows which ones are the eaters and which ones are the eaten Carnivores- organisms that eat animal tissues Omnivores- an organism that eats both plant and animal material Decomposers/ detrivores- an organism that metabolizes organic compounds in debris and dead organisms, releasing inorganic material found among the bacteria, protists, and fungi Ecological efficiency (10% rule)- the overall transfer of energy from the trophic level to the next, expressed as the ratio of consumer production to producer production Gross primary productivity (GPP)- the rate at which the primary producers in a community turn solar energy into stored chmical energy via photosynthesis Net primary productivity (NPP)- the rate at which energy captured by photosynthesis is incorporated into the bodies of primary producers through growth and reproduction Species richness-the total number of species living in a region Species evenness- a measure of species diversity that reflects the distribution of the species abundances in the community Diversity- a range of different things

Ecosystem services- processes by which ecosystems maintain resources that benefit human society Unit Questions 1. The status of an organism within its environment and community affecting its survival as a species. A fundamental niche is the potential area and resources an organism is capable of using. A realized niche is the organism tends to occupy and play an ecological role where it is mostly highly adapted. Some limiting resources that would affect an organisms ecological niche are competing species and food. 2. The gradual and orderly process of change in an ecosystem brought about by the progressive replacement of one community by another until a stable climax is established. Primary succession is the first change and secondary succession proceeds the primary. 3. The energy flow through the food web goes from the bottom to the top. An example would be an herbivore eating a plant and then that herbivore being eaten by a carnivore 4. Biomass energy is related to species richness because the more energy in an area allows for more species to occupy an area. 5. 6. the niche relations, habitat diversity, mass effects, and ecological equivalency are the main determinants of species richness. 7. A trophic cascade is when predators in a food web suppress the abundance or alter the traits of their prey thereby releasing the next lower trophic level from predation. Taking the wolves from Yellowstone caused a trophic cascade because it removed one of the top predators from the food web. This let the elk population grow rapidly. 8. Islands are interesting to study trophic interactions because they do not all have the same species so a species can be higher up on one food web of an island and lower on the food chain on a different island. 9. Top down is when a top predator is removed from the food chain, but bottom up is when a prey or lower organism on the food chain is removed. These can create diversity inside of an ecosystem because if on species is removed another may move in and take its place.

Chapter 46 Biogeochemical cycles- movement of inorganic elements such a nitrogen, phosphorous, and carbon through living organisms and the physical environment Eutrophication- the addition of nutrient materials to a body of water, resulting in changes in ecological processes and species composition therein Dead zones- regions in aquatic ecosystems that are devoid of aquatic life because of eutrophiction has resulted in severe oxygen depletion Greenhouse effect- the warming of earth that result from retention of heat in its atmosphere caused by the presence of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere Greenhouse gases- gases in the atmosphere such as carbon dioxide and methane that are transparent to sunlight but trap heat radiating from earths surface causing heat to build up at earths surface Enhanced greenhouse effect-The increase in the natural greenhouse effect resulting from increases in atmospheric concentrations of GHGs due to emissions 1. 2. Nitrogen is a limiting resource because it depends on where it occurs and what other element is attached to it. 3. Dead zones are created by lack of oxygen that goes below the tolerance of many aquatic species which leads to an area that is devoid of aquatic life. Dead zones decrease the species diversity. 4. CO2 and CH4 are greenhouse gases. The greenhouse effect is created by the retention of heat in the atmosphere. 5. This last rise in temperature is so alarming and detrimental to living species because it is outside of the normal rise in the temperature cycle.