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SOME FUNDAMENTAL RULES

RULE 1 The words each, every, everyone, someone, somebody, everybody, anybody, nobody, anyone, are always used in singular. In the following examples, the italicized words are incorrect & the words shown within the brackets are correct. 1. Everybody like to praise his own work. (likes) 2. Every student are to be given free medical aid in this college. (is) 3. Each of the six boys are taking interest in their work. (is) RULE 2 In the case of as well as, together with, along with, and not, in addition to, besides, etc the verb relates to the first subject instead of the second subject. 1. Hari along with his father are going to Ambala, for purchasing some books for his studies (is) 2. Captain along with his soldiers were killed in the Second World War. (was) 3. She besides her friends have decided to visit Delhi this time. (has) 4. Sonia as well as her sister are making their programme to see the film. (is) 5. He and not his friends are expected to qualify the test. (is) RULE 3 In the case of neither-nor, either-or, not only, but also etc the verb relates to the second subject i.e. the nearest word. 1. Not only he but also his brother are trying best to qualify the test (is) 2. Either her friends or she have made the loss good (has) 3. Neither the PM nor the members of the parliament is to do anything in this respect (are) 4. Neither the Principal nor the teachers is expected to attend the function (are) RULE 4 Some words: unless, till, until, refuse, deny, lest, forbid, are not followed by negative sentence. 1. He will not join the Army until he is not permitted by the parents (Delete not) 2. Wait here till I do not come back (Delete do not) 3. She will not be happy unless her friends does not help her (Delete does not) 4. He forbade me not to appear for the test (Delete not) 5. Walk fast lest you should not miss the train (Delete not) RULE 5 Double future should not be used in one sentence, in case the conditional word is found in the sentence (i.e. if, as & when, in case, when, provided, until, unless, till, before etc) 1. If she will go to Delhi, she will bring some gifts for you (goes) 2. It will be better for you if you will study carefully (Delete will) 3. He will not have a sigh of relief unless he will qualify the written test (qualifies) 4. Please ensure that you will not waste your time on one question in-case you will find it difficult (Delete will) 5. She will have left the college before you will reach there (Delete will)

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RULE 6 Neither can be used without Nor but Neither is used for two persons or two things whereas None is used for more than two persons or two things Neither and None are always used in singular on the basis of 3rd person, when there is no counting of persons or things, in that case, any of the two words (i.e. neither and none) can be used e.g. 1. None of the boys want to be arrested in the presence of their parents (wants) 2. None of the assets of the company have been re-valued so far (has been) 3. Neither of my seven friends helped me during my illness (None) 4. None of the two sisters loves each other due to some misunderstandings (neither) 5. Neither of them have anything to say on this point (has) RULE 7 Either is used for two persons or two things whereas Any is used for more than two, e.g. 1. 2. 3. Here are nine balls, you can choose either (any) Have you read either of the three novels written by Mr. Subhash Pathak? (any) Do you like any of the two methods suggested by the principal? (either)

RULE 8 Some words: insist, persist, abstain, refrain, fond, keen, succeed, prohibit & confident are used in Gerund along with prepositions. 1. She is confident to speak English even in the presence of her officers (of speaking) 2. Though he was advised not to drive heavy vehicle yet he insisted to do so (in doing) 3. I prohibited her to park her car near the police station (from parking) 4. Everybody in this country should abstain to speak ill of other (from speaking) 5. He acted upon my advice and succeeded to secure first division in Mathematics (in securing) RULE 9 In special cases, we use that in place of who which where the words --- all, any, none, only, nothing, the few, the little --- are found in the sentence e.g. 1. She spent the little money which she had in her pocket (that) 2. In the meeting there was none who did not praise his own work (that) 3. All which glitters is not gold (that) 4. She was the only student who could attempt all the problem figures in the exam (that) 5. Is there any who does not love her country? (that) RULE 10 For comparing correct things, we use that of and those of. That of is used to compare correct singulars and those of is used t compare correct plurals. 1. The goats of Tibet are more beautiful than that of Nepa1. (those of) 2. My teaching is better than Jawahar (than that of) 3. The climate of Kulu is better than Mandi (than that of) 4. The apples of Kashmir are better than Simla (than those of) RULE 11 The words last, yesterday, a few days ago, are used in past indefinite tense. 1. He has sold all his goods a few days ago (sold) 2. She has passed MA (Final) in 1986 (passed) 3. Her mother has come back from tour, yesterday (came) _________________________________________________________________________________________________ Page : 2

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RULE 12 Some words: stop, help, remember, avoid, reach, resemble, dislike, enjoys (if followed by first form of Verb) are used in Gerund but are not followed by any preposition, e.g. 1. Many girls avoid to see the picture with their parents (seeing) 2. He enjoys to play football in the evening daily (playing) 3. Nobody should dislike to buy the old books from her friends (buying) 4. Stop to count the money as the time is over (counting) 5. Special Book will help to increase your day-to-day knowledge (increasing) RULE 13 Junior, senior, elder, inferior, superior, prior, interior, prefer are followed by to. But my senior officer, my junior officer, his prior approval etc are used without to. 1. Character is preferable than wealth (to) 2. He is more senior than me not only in service but also in age (senior to) 3. Ashok is junior from me by four years in service (to) 4. My senior officer is proposing to proceed on leave next week (no error) 5. Ram is poorer than Mahesh (no error) 6. He is more careful than his brother (no error) 7. I prefer tea than coffee.( to) Note: Comparative degree is always followed by than. Superlative: 1. 2. 3. Vikas is the best boy in the class (no error) Vivekanand was one of the most popular saints in India (no error) India is one of the greatest countries (no error)

RULE 14 The words need not, dare, better, rather are not followed by to. 1. Nobody can dare to challenge my authority (Delete to) 2. You need not to worry about your health (Delete to) 3. Something is better than nothing (no error) RULE 15 If the principal clause (sentence on the left hand) is given in the past tense, then the subordinate clause must be in the past tense. 1. The doctor asked the patient if he can walk on feet (could) 2. He worked hard so that he may qualify the test with distinction (must) 3. It was decided by the Bank that the company will be granted Cash Credit limit of Rs. 50 lakhs (would be) 4. In the meeting, it was discussed that the poor children are to be given free medical aid (were) RULE 16 Use that in place of who and which after superlative degree (means word followed by est or most). 1. Ashoka was the greatest king who ruled over many countries (that) 2. Rahul is one of the best players who have been awarded certificates (that) 3. He is the most intelligent student who has got first division in Mathematics (that) 4. Geeta is regarded as one of the best movies which have been produced so far by the film industry (that) _________________________________________________________________________________________________ Page : 3

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RULE 17 The word that is not used with the words: How, who, whether, what, where, when, whom, whose, which, why, etc. for example. 1. She could not explain that why she did not take interest in the studies (delete that) 2. He does not know that how to speak Hindi with his friends (delete that) 3. It is difficult to say that whether she will get the job without experience (delete that) 4. Nothing can be said that when he is expected to return from his tour (delete that) 5. He asked me that why I should go there (delete that) RULE 18 The words one of is followed by the plural word but is used in singular: 1. One of the proposal made by the students is still to be viewed (proposals) 2. One of the schemes made by the bank are to be launched shortly (is) 3. One of the friends have made up his mind to start his private business (has) 4. Balbir who have qualified the written test is one of my friends (has) 5. Shekhar is one of those who is ready to die for country (are) Note: Above sentence No. 5 one of is not subject. Therefore, it has not been used in singular. RULE 19 The words scenery, machinery, work, business, poor, rich, knowledge, furniture, equipment, news, luggage, bread, hair, poetry, fruit & fleet are used in singular only. 1. The owner of the shop is going to sell all his furniture (furniture) 2. Many manufacturers use imported machineries just to increase the quality, of their products (machinery) 3. The informations were broadcast from Television (information was) 4. The sceneries of Simla are very charming (scenery is) 5. Sarla has no issues (issue) 6. She had gone to buy fruits (fruit) 7. Her hairs are jet black (hair is) 8. The mother feeds the poors (poor) 9. I told these news to my father (this) 10. The fleet were destroyed by the enemy (was) RULE 20 The words advice, mischief, abuse, alphabet etc are used in singular only. 1. The teacher gave us many advices (wrong) (a) The teacher gave us advice OR a piece of advice (right) 2. My younger brother did many mischiefs (wrong) (a) My younger brother did many acts of mischief (right) 3. The boys were shouting abuses (wrong) (a) The boys were shouting words of abuse (right) 4. I have learnt the alphabets (wrong) (a) I have learnt the letters of alphabet (right)

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RULE 21 The words rupee, dozen, mile, year, foot are used in singular when used after numerical and followed by their noun. 1. I have a five rupees note. (rupee) 2. We bought two dozens pencils. (dozen) 3. He ran in a two miles race. (mile) 4. Abida is a ten years old girl. (year) 5. The distance is 2 miles/km. (no error) 6. A five years plan is going to be started. (year) RULE 22 The words vegetables, spectacles, trousers, Himalayas, people, orders (Noun), repairs, scissorsare always used in plural. 1. I had gone to buy vegetable. (vegetables) 2. The road is closed for repair. (repairs) 3. The judge passed order for his release. (orders) 4. Very few peoples are hard working. (people) 5. His spectacle is very expensive. (s) (are) 6. The scissor is blunt. (s) are) 7. Your trouser is not loose. (s) (are) 8. The Himalaya is the highest mountain. (s) (are) RULE 23 The words fish, deer, sheep, cattleare used always in singular for singular and plural purposes. 1. The fisherman catches many fishes in the pond. (fish) 2. I saw many sheeps and deers in the forest. (sheep, deer) 3. The cattle are returning to the village. (cattle is) RULE 24 When two persons or two things are compared use comparative degree : 1. She is braver than her sister. (no error) 2. He is taller than me by 3 inches. (no error) 3. Anup is _____________ intelligent than Amrik at least in English. (more) Note: In comparative degree, object will be in subjective case i.e. I for me, He for him, She for her etc. RULE 25 When two qualities of the same person are compared (instead of comparison of two persons or two things), use the word more in place of comparative word. 1. She is wiser than honest (more wise) 2. He who is an officer of Railway is honest than wise. (more honest) RULE 26 Generally the relative words who & which are placed after the word for which these are used: 1. The woman/died of cholera/who lived in this cottage. (1+3+2) 2. None of the students/could qualify the test/who was intelligent. (1+3+2) 3. It is I who is responsible for your bright career. (am) _________________________________________________________________________________________________ Page : 5

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RULE 27 The word Call at is used for place whereas Call upon or Call on is used for persons. 1. All of us called upon her office. (called at) 2. They called at us yesterday to discuss the Cash Credit Account. (called upon) 3. I found them playing hockey when I called on his house. (at) 4. When I called on Subhashs residence, he had left his house. (at) RULE 28 Each other is used for two persons & things whereas One another is used for more-than two. 1. All the five brothers were quarreling with each other over their fathers property. (one another) 2. They were discussing the point with each other. (no error) 3. Ambika & Sonia are fast friends they love one another very much. (each other) RULE 29 The word who is used for subject, whereas whom is used for object. 1. Whom do you think, will be our teacher? (who) 2. Please provide us efficient worker who you think honest. (whom) RULE 30 We used the word The before the names of oceans, rivers, mountains, sacred books, newspapers, magazines, ships, buildings provinces, nations and communities and with the superlative degree e.g. 1. Jawaharlal was greatest leader of the world of his time. (the greatest) 2. Tribune gives us day-to-day knowledge. (The Tribune) Note: We do not use the word The before the names of disease, persons, country and metal. 1. 2. 3. The Gold is a precious metal. (Gold) He with his friend lives in the Russia. (Russia) The small-pox has broken out in the village. (Small-pox)

RULE 31 Both and As well as cannot be used together in a sentence. If Both is to be used, verb will be used in plural. If as well as is to be used, verb will be according to the 1st Subject. Both is followed by And. 1. 2. 3. Both Sanjay as well as his friends is proposing to launch a new scheme for his country. (Delete both) Both Ravi or Shankar are going to see off their uncle. (and) Both she as well as her sister are going to see the picture. (and)

RULE 32 One of the two words In my opinion and I think is used. 1. (In my opinion) (I think) he might have qualified the test. (use any one) RULE 33 Different and Separation are followed by From instead of other words. 1. Under these circumstances, I cannot bear my sister separation. (separation from my sister) 2. It is quite different to this. (from)

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RULE 34 The words Worth and For cannot be used together. 1. He has sold his scooter for worth seven thousand rupees. (for OR worth) RULE 35 The words Exceed and More than are not used together one of the two is used. 1. In the examination, your essay should not exceed more than fifteen lines. (exceed OR more than) RULE 36 It is used for lifeless things and He is used for living things. 1. Being a blind, I told him the way to his house. (He, being) 2. Being a cloudy day, we did not go out for a walk. (It, being) 3. It, being weak in Math, I told him this sum. (He) RULE 37 Let and between are followed by objective clause. 1. Do not disclose the secret as this is between you and I. (me) 2. Let she study for the test which is to be held shortly. (her) RULE 38 Enjoy, apply, resign, acquit, drive, exert, avail, pride, absent, etc., When used as verbs, always take a reflexive pronoun after them. When self is added to my, your, him, her and it, and selves to our and them they are known as reflexive pronouns. 1. He absented from the class. (Incorrect) 2. He absented himself from the class. (Correct) RULE 39 Use of elder, older. Older refers to persons as well as things and is followed by than. 1. Ram is elder than all other boys of this area. 2. Ram is older than all others boys of this area. RULE 40 Many a is always followed by the singular verb. 1. Many a man were drowned in the sea. 2. Many a man was drowned in the sea. RULE 41 Since indicates a point of time and for stands for the length of time. 1. He has been reading the book since two hours. 2. He has been reading the book for two hours. RULE 42 Use of when and while: Proper attention must be paid to these words. When indicates a general sense and while implies a time during the process of doing a work. 1. When learning to swim, one of the most important things is to relax. (Incorrect) 2. While learning to swim, one of the most important things is to relax. (Correct) (Incorrect) (Correct) (Incorrect) (Correct)

(Incorrect) (Correct)

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RULE 43 It is a common practice in conversation to make a statement and ask for confirmation; as, Its very hot, isnt it? Two points are to be kept in mind. If the statement is positive, the pattern will be Auxiliary + nt + subject. If the statement is negative, the pattern will be Auxiliary + Subject 1. It is raining, is it? (Incorrect) 2. It is raining, isnt it? (Correct) 3. You are not busy, arent you? (Incorrect) 4. You are not busy, are you? (Correct) The point to note here is that the question tag will always have the same verb form which we have in the main statement: 5. I have finished my work, didnt I? (Incorrect) 6. I have finished my work, havent I? (Correct) RULE 44 There are certain common errors which should be avoided. (a) The two first is a meaningless expression for it implies that two things may be first. We should say the first two. 1. The two first chapters of the novel are dull. (Incorrect) 2. The first two chapters of the novel are dull. (Correct) (b) Only should be placed immediately before the word is qualifies. 1. He only lost his ticket in the stampede. (Incorrect) 2. Only he lost his ticket in the stampede. (Correct) 1. I request you to kindly help me. (Incorrect) 2. I request you kindly to help me. (Correct) (c) Care should be taken in the use of verbs. 1. The doctor saw the pulse of the patient. (Incorrect) 2. The doctor felt the pulse of the patient. (Correct) 3. He told the truth. (Incorrect) 4. He spoke the truth. (Correct) 5. Do not speak a lie. (Incorrect) 6. Do not tell a lie. (Correct) 7. Our team made a goal. (Incorrect) 8. Our team scored a goal. (Correct) 9. He is taking a bath. (Incorrect) 10. He is having a bath. (Correct) 11. I tell my prayers in the morning. (Incorrect) 12. I say my prayers in the morning. (Correct) RULE 45 The majority --when used as subject of a sentence (an organized unit)is treated as one group. A majority as the subject of a sentence is treated as plural. 1. A majority of the students agrees with the teacher on this point. (agree) "A number" as the subject of a sentence always takes plural verbs. 2. A number of tenants is in the building. (are) 3. A number of students has got through the written test. (have) The number--when used as subject of a sentence (an organized unit)takes a singular verb. 4. The number of tenants without heat are increasing. (is)

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RULE 46 When one noun denotes to a person and other denotes to an animal, we use That in place of Who or Which. 1. He and his sheep which feel into the well, were injured. (that) 2. She and her dog which I saw on the road, meet with an accident. (that) Note: Who is used for living person (s) and which is used for animals, birds & lifeless things. RULE 47 We do not use double comparative degree in a sentence 1. In hockey, he is more better than I (delete more) 2. She is more cleverer than her brother (delete more) RULE 48 Between is followed by and whereas from is followed by to e.g. 1. The company will be granted cash credit limit between Rs. 3 lacs to Rs. 5 lacs. (and) 2. We are proposing to hold a meeting today from 4.20 PM by 6.30 PM (to) RULE 49 In one sentence double negative should not be used: 1. He has not done nothing wrong in this case (anything) 2. Ramesh did not like to help nobody (anybody) RULE 50 The following conjunctions are used in pairs: Though yet Hardly When Scarcely before or when Such as Neither Nor Either or Not only but also One ones Whether or No sooner than Lest should 1. Though Ram played well still he lost the match (yet) 2. Hardly had he gone out than it started raining (when) 3. No sooner did he reach the station then rain whistled off (than) 4. Walk fast lest you should miss the train (no error)

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SOME RULES OF PREPOSITION

Prepositions link nouns, pronouns and phrases to other words in a sentence. In other words, they indicate the relationship between these elements in a sentence. Here are some commonly used prepositions: at in about along above under over since below toward on by up into within before after upon from without until between off like onto of to near except across through during beside among around for with beneath behind inside

In English grammar Prepositions are usually placed before the Noun or Pronoun they govern (pre + position). Examples: 1. The cat is under the table. 2. She read the chapter during the class. In these sentences, the prepositions under and during specify some details regarding place (in case of table) and time (in case of class) respectively. Had these prepositions not been used, the sentences would not have made sense. Here are some more examples: 1. The book is beside the table. 2. He is sitting in his office. 3. I have been here since May. 4. She is hiding behind the wall. Some common errors in the usage of prepositions There are some verbs which do not take any preposition, and those are: Emphasize, stress, lack, concern, request, discuss, propose, express and demand. Example: The teacher stressed on the importance of accurate grammar. (Incorrect) In this example, the use of the preposition on after stressed is not required. Instead, it should be: The teacher stressed the importance of accurate grammar. (Correct) The following examples may help you learn more about the verbs which do not take prepositions: 1. They discussed about the possibility of going to London. (Incorrect) They discussed the possibility of going to London. (Correct) She requested for a second opinion. (Incorrect) She requested a second opinion. (Correct)

2.

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Some confusing prepositions: 1. On Fixity (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) At Upon Over Above

2.

Motion No touch Superior/ A little upward Place these books upon the table. The cat is jumping upon/over the table. The sky is above us. He is above me in knowledge. Read the above passage and answer the questions given below. In

3.

For a small/local place For a big place/large area (a) He lives at Karol Bagh in New Delhi. (b) He lives in U.P. in India. (Here both the places are equally big) By With A person The help of something (a) The letter was written by him with a pen. (b) The tiger was shot by him with a gun. In Into Fixity (a) He is in his house. (b) He ran into his house. (c) He fell into the well. Motion

4.

5.

Between For two

Among For more than two

Amongst

6.

(a) (b) (c) Of

For more than two but before a vowel sound. Distribute these sweets between the two brothers. Distribute these sweets among the three brothers. Distribute these sweets amongst us. Off

7.

Possession Separation (a) This is the book of Ram. (b) He fell off the horseback. (c) The leaves fall off the branches of the trees. In Within (At the end of a given time) (Before the end of a given time) (a) He, on Sunday, said that he would return by Thursday. So he would return within a week. (b) He, on Sunday, said that he would return by Saturday. So, he would return in a week. After Behind Time Place I met her behind the college building after 1 p.m. Exception (a) After (place): Meerut comes after Ghaziabad. (b) Behind (time): The train is running behind the schedule.

8.

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9.

Beside Near (a) (b) (c) (d)

Besides

10.

In addition to The children were playing beside the river. Besides giving him advice, I gave him money also. He stood beside me. (He stood by my side.) He plays tennis besides badminton and swimming. (He plays tennis in addition to badminton and swimming.) In (Future) After (Past) At the end of a given time Later on (a) He will return in an hour. (b) He returned after an hour. Under (No touch) Below (Inferior) Antonym of over Antonym of above (a) My books are lying under the table. (b) It is below my dignity to talk to him.

11.

12.

Till

Until

Up to

Unto

By

Simple time Conditional Space and Death Future limit limit reference time limit (a) Please, wait for me till 4 Oclock. (b) You cannot move an inch from here until my arrival. (c) He has decided to go on fast unto death. (d) (i) I went with him up to the bus-stand. (ii) You can pay the installment by the 30th of this month. (e) He will return by Monday next. 13. At On In

(For specific time) (Days and Dates) (For period of time) (a) (b) (c) 14. In He met me yesterday at 4:30 pm. He met me on Sunday last, 30th December 1995. He met me in July 1995. On To

(Inside the border) (On the border) (Outside the border) (a) Chennai is in the South of India. (b) Sri Lanka is to the South of India. (c) The Himalayas lie on the North of India. 15. SINCE (point of time) FOR (period of time) FROM (unspecified time)

Examples: 1. I have known him since my childhood. 2. I have known him for ten years. 3. I know him from past.

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Since is used to refer to the starting point of an action. It expresses a particular point of time in the past and is often used with perfect tense. Examples: 1. I have known him since my childhood. 2. I have worked here since 2004. For is used to talk about duration and refers to a period of time. Examples: 1. I have known him for ten years. 2. My parents have been living in Australia for 5 years. From does not refer to passage of time. However, it is sometimes mistaken for since and for. Example: 1. Oh yes! I know him from past. In this example from is used but not to imply any passage of time.

Here are some more examples in this context: 1. 2. I remember you from past. (Correct) I remember you since past. (Incorrect) It has been two years since I saw you. (Correct) It has been two years from I saw you. (Incorrect) I have been living here for three months. (Correct) I have been living here from three months. (Incorrect) She has been studying for two hours. (Correct) She has been studying since two hours. (Incorrect) THEN THAN (adverb of time) (comparative) At times it is found that then and than are used incorrectly,

3.

4.

16.

though they are quite different.

Then is an adverb of time which refers to a particular time in past or future. It is usually used in series of actions or to show the logical result of a particular statement and so on. Examples: 1. Go through the questions first and then read the text. 2. Party starts at 8 pm. So I will meet you then. Than is not related with time. It is used to make comparisons. Examples: 1. 2. This approach is more practical than the previous one. Sam is more intelligent than her brother.

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