IABSE 1999 - Foundation For Major Bridges

IABSE REPORTS-RAPPORTS AIPC-IVBH REPORTS
Volume 80
IABSE COLLOQUIUM
NEW DELHI 1999
Foundations for Major Bridges: Design and Construction
REPORT
RAPPORT
BERICHT
Organised
by
The Indian National Group of IABSE
00
Scientific Committee
S.S. Chakraborty (Chairman) N.K. Sinha (Co-Chairman)
C. R.
Alimchandani
India India India

UK
S
C.
H.
L.
Davis Falkner
Hepkema T. Kokusho V. Kumar RR Lagasse L. Maertens J. Mason CS. Sorensen T.N. Subba Rao
J.
I.
Germany Africa Japan

India USA
Belgium
Brazil
Denmark
India
Sun
Svensk C. Viggiani
China Sweden
Italy
Organising Committee
Prafulla Kumar, Chairman N.K. Sinha, Secretary S.M. Agarwal CR. Alimchandani V.K. Agnihotri K.N. Agarwal A. Chakrabarti
Ninan Koshi
B.
Majumdar
Narain Mordecai Nayak
Patil
A.D. R.J. B.U. M.V.

A.
Ramakrishna
S.RChakrabarti S.S. Chakraborty

B.S. Dhiman
M.
S.A. Reddi B.C. Roy

G.
Gopalakrishnan Krishan Kant

K.K. Kapila
K.P.
Sharan Singh K.B. Lal Singhai
M.CTandon
Vijay Kumar
(i)
Preface
Bridge Engineering has undergone fast-paced technological development in the decades gone by. Alongside, pressures have also been mounting on the existing road infrastructure due to heavy traffic volumes leading to urgency of increased large-scale transport infrastructure warranting our bridge engineers to intensify their efforts in design and Implementation of bridges with larger and larger spans.
Modern bridges demand compatible, durable, sustainable and cost-effective foundations that blend effectively with the type of superstructure and substructure; hence a thorough understanding of structural concepts, innovative construction methods and techniques, hydrology/hydraulics, geology/geo-technical, environmental and ecological parameters on the part of bridge engineers assume significance to keep pace with the advancements in the field world wide.
A
number of bridges are being built in different parts of the Indian Sub-continent and the foundation Systems being adopted, particularly with regard to bridges on alluvial deposits, are caissons with limited application of pile foundations.
The New Delhi Colloquium on "Foundations for Major Bridges" has been organised to know about and understand the current practices being followed and to benefit from the experience of engineering experts of eminence from world over.
The main theme of the Colloquium has been sub-divided into different sub-heads to address the critical aspects affecting the design/implementation of bridge foundations. Considering the overwhelming response of the experts, the sessions for the subject themes have been adjusted to accommodate presentations by as many authors as possible. In the seven sessions so organised, the papers on similar themes have been grouped together in sessions-specific for effective and exciting interaction and exchange of views amongst the participants.
On behalf of the Scientific Committee, take this opportunity to convey my sincere thanks to the authors for providing this unique opportunity to the participating delegates to share with and benefit from their expert knowledge and experience. would also like to record my feelings of extreme happiness and satisfaction for the dedicated efforts put in by the
I I
members of the Scientific Committee and Mr SP Chakraborty, Mr A Chakrabarti, Mr Krishan Kant, Mr BC Roy as also the Organising Committee, chaired by Mr Prafulla Kumar, to make this Colloquium a success, notwithstanding the commendable efforts of ING-IABSE members and other committees/associates who have worked relentlessly all through.
New Delhi February, 1999
SS
Chakraborty
Chairman, Scientific Committee
Table of Contents
Preface
Table of Contents
(iii)
1
Session
1:
Geo-technical and Geophysical Investigation
Klaus H. OSTENFELD Evolution of Bridge Foundations for Constructability, Economy, Substainability and Safety
HENRIK OLSEN, CARSTEN PLOUG Application of Geophysical Techniques for Major Bridge Projects in Denmark NICOLAS ZOTSENKO, YURIY VYNNYKOV Rapid Investigation Methods of Soil Properties and Interpretation of their Results for Bridge
13
Foundations Design
CS. S0RENSEN, OLE HEDEDAL Geotechnical Design Considerations for Store Baelt East and Oresund Bridge
19
25
AKIYUKI WATANABE, TETSUO SHIMAMINE, KOSEI SONODA Evaluation of Cracked Soft Rock on In-Situ Test Results
K.
31
ELANGOVAN, A. BALASUBRAMANIAN Computerised Resistivity Meter for Subsurface Investigations
37
KULKARNI, V. B. BORGE, Y G. PATWARDHANShortfalls in Subsurface Investigations and for Bridge Foundations A Few Case Studies alongwith review of Codal Provisions
S. R.
45
TOVE FELD,
S.
Establishment
of
JUEL PETERSEN Foundation Design Parameters for Limestone
51
Session
S. R
2:
Bed Erosion and Scour
57
Design Flood
CHAKRABARTI, N. K. SINHA, KRISHAN KANT An Overview of Indian Practice
59
B.U. NAYAK, V.K. APPUKUTTAN
Role of Hydraulic Model Studies
in
Bridge Design
67
JORGE E. PAGAN-ORTIZ Design and Evaluation of Bridges for Scour

U. C.
in
United States of America
75
KOTHYARI, K. G. RANGARAJU Mathematical Modelling for Scour Around Bridge Piers
83
GEORGE W. ANNADALE Application of the Erodibility Index Method
to
Estimate Scour at Bride Piers
91
J.L BRIAUD, F.C.K.TING, H.C.CHEN, S.R. GUDAVALLI, S.B. PERUGU, Maximum Scour Depth at Bridge Piers in Sand and Clay are Equal
V. K.
K.
KWAK
97
GHANEKAR, J. K. GOYAL, G. K. SAHU Monitoring of Lateral Earth Pressure on Well Foundations through Instrumentation
PETER
F.
109
LAGASSE, L.W. ZEVENBERGEN, E.V. RICHARDSON Development and Testing of Instrumentation for Monitoring Scour at Bridges
PETER F. LAGASSE, L.W. ZEVENBERGEN, E.V. RICHARDSON Current Practice Bridge Scour and Stream Instability Countermeasures In the United States
121
127
PETER F. LAGASSE, L.W. ZEVENBERGEN, E.V. RICHARDSON Scour and Stream Stability Problems at Highway Bridges in the United States
133
PETER F. LAGASSE, L.W. ZEVENBERGEN, E.V. RICHARDSON Case Studies and Lessons Learned from Recent Scour-Related Bridge Failures in the United States
LYLE W. ZEVENBERGEN, RR LAGASSE, E.V. RICHARDSON Hydraulic Modelling for Bridge Scour Analysis in Tidal Waterways
139
145
151
Session
3:
Loading, Load Factors and Design Techniques (Part -1)
T N. SUBBARAO
Pylon Foundations of Four Cable Stay Bridges
-The Indian Experience
153
LITAO,JINGREN
The Test and Research on Design Method of Diaphragm Wall Type Foundation of Bridge
OLE HEDEDAL, CS. S0RENSEN
169
Elasto-Plastic Foundation Analysis
of Ship
Collision to the 0resund High Bridge
175
MAHESH TANDON, ALOK BHOWMICK Design of Foundation for Multispan Arch Bridge over River Sungai Dinding
VADIM SELIVERSTOV Bridge Foundations Design Practice
181
- Codes
Development
in
Russia
191
XUCHU ZHU, ZHENGWU YANG Pylon Foundation Design of Wuhan Bai Sha Zhou Bridge, China
JOHN STEPHENSON.TIMWRIGHT, DAVEYAEGER Design of River Piers for the Second Peace Bridge Canada
197
203
Session
4:
Loading, Load Factors and Design Techniques
- (Part - 2)
209
LUC MAERTENS Swing Bridge Over Suez Canal at and Deformations
El
Ferdan, Soil Structure Interaction
211
BEN C. GERWICK, ROBERT BITTNER
Large Diameter Steel Tubulr Piles for Optimum Seismic Performance

A.
217
CHAKRABARTI, B. MAJUMDAR, B.C. ROY Lateral Load Capacity Estimation of Large Diameter Bored Piles and A Study its Implementation
221
XIZHU
Seismic Response for Cable-Stayed Bridge Pylon Foundation Considering Soil Structure Interaction
229
S.R.KANIRAJ
Safe Load from Deficient Pile Load Test Data
235
MONA K. GHALI Effect of Pile Cap Flexural Regidity on the Behaviour of Bridge Foundation
JOE M. BARR, ABDUL FAROOQ, STEVE GUEST Foundation of the Jamuna Bridge Design and Construction
241
247
263
Session
S.
5:
Construction (Part-1)
KASHIMA, M. KITAGAWAJ. MORITANI, K. YAMADA Design and Construction of Foundations for Akashi Kaikyo Bridges
265
ANATOLY LIKVERMAN, VADIM SELIVERSTOV Innovative Structural Solutions and Construction Techniques for Deep Foundations of Large Bridges over Rivers
K.K. KAPILA,S.R RASTOGI
NH
271
Special Method of Well Sinking Adopted at New Nizamuddin Bridge on 24 in New Delhi
277
S.A. REDDI
Unique Features
R.K. DHIMAN
of
Foundation Nos.
17 and 18 of
Jogighopa Bridge
285
Well Foundation Construction in Bouldery Bed Strata
- A Case
Study
291
NADER HALIMEH Construction of Anchored Caissons for
Motorway Viaduct
303 309
Session
6:
Construction (Part-2)
of Bridge
H.WENZEL Verifying Computer Models
Foundations
311
TONG LIPING Study on the Techniques of Spiral Pressure and Cementation for Underwater Concrete Piles
317
ARIMITSU, S. FURUYAMA, H. SATO, Y.TAKIUCHI Rapid Construction of Railway Bridge by Soil Cement and Steel Pile Method
323
BRUCE MELVILLE, STEPHEN COLEMAN Riprap Protection at Bridge Piers
329
STEPHEN COLEMAN, BRUCE MELVILLE New Zealand Case Studies of Scour at Bridge Foundations
S.
335
GHOSHAL Foundation Design and Construction Damodar near Mejia

MITRA,
A.
of
Rail-cum-Road Bridge Across River

341
VIJAY KUMAR
Foundation
of
Bridges on River Ganges
in
India
351
SESSION
7: Case
Studies
369
FLEMMING M. PEDERSON Design of Foundations for the Storebaelt East Bridge

M.
371
OISHI, M. OKAHARA, J. FUKUI, Y. KIMURA Present Situations and Problems in Design and Construction Foundations in Japan
of
Caisson
379
A.K. CHATTERJEE, V.M. DHARAP Problems of Construction of Caisson Foundations of the Second Hooghly River Bridge (Vidyasagar Setu) at Calcutta
R.L. MALIK, LALLOO SINGH
385
Difficult Foundations
of
Jogighopa Bridge
- Some
Design Aspects
391
INGMAR SVENSK, PER-OLA SVAHN Foundation of the Uddevalla Bridge

KLAUSE FABLE-HANSEN, JRGEN GIMSING, PAUL MORRISON Planning and Monitoring the Foundations for the Oresund Bridge
S.K.B. NARAYAN, ASHOK K. BASA Foundation Failure of Bridges in Orissa -Two Case Studies
401
407
415
CS. BALRAMAMURTHY AND SATISH KUMAR Construction and Maintenance of Kalia Bhomara Bridge Across River Brahamputra near Tejpur on NH-37 A
D.N. MISHRA
421
Innovative Bridge Foundation for Hilly Regions
427
M.VENKATESH Special Chemicals for Effective Restoration

GERARD SAUVAGEOT The Confederation Bridge, Canada
List of Authors
of
Distressed Bridge Foundations
435
441
447
Session -1
Geo-technical and
Geophysical Investigations
Evolution of Bridge Foundat
Economy, Sustaina
Klaus
H.
Ostenfeld
Executive Director, Transportation

COWI Consulting Engineers
&
Planners AS
Lyngby, Denmark
EVOLUTION OF BRIDGE FOUNDATIONS
INTRODUCTION
bridge
component, which has been subjected to significant development and innovation over the last 30 years, is bridge foundation. The foundations were traditionally the most complicated and difficult part to built of any major bridge structure. Unexpected difficulties caused delays, extra costs and sometimes required project changes caused by the need for altered positions. Loss of human lives was normal rather than the exception. The compressed air Chamber caissons for the Brooklyn Bridge claimed the lives of many workers at the end of the last Century because the unknown effects from compressed air, the bends, were believed to be some sort of a bacterial decease. This technique has also resulted in many accidents and difficulties several times later. It was regularly used, however, up to the mid 1960'es, when new techniques appeared.
A
2
NEW TECHNIQUES
Important progress within the offshore industry has bridges over the last 30 years.
led t
Two fundamentally different techniques, inherited from o
Offshore gravity base structure method (GBS). Large diameter steel pile foundations, driven to refu
piles.
The first technique was initially developed for offshore oil
KLAUS
H.
OS
.,_
Installation ofgirder
on the
West Bridge.
The caisson fabrication was carried slipforming of the walls and casting maximum and 31.1 m x 6.4 m. Only each line alternatively. A catamaran to their position in the bridge site.
Each bridge pier
is
out parallel in tw of the cover slabs

one siipform was
crane vessel lifted
resting on a stonebed which has be determined by detailed site investigations and subsequ of a lower, well-compacted about 1.1 m, 5-70 mm th screeding Iayer with a grain size of 70 mm. During con surface, and after placing the stones, substantial check met. As the caissons were constructed with a plane bas
All piers were installed within a few centimetres of acc within a few centimetres as predicted. Further, the m
work on the critical path offshore. The West bridge wa
10
EVOLUTION OF BRIDGE FOUNDATIONS
Each anchor block, which must be able to resist a cable force of 600 MN, has a 121.5 m x 54.5 m rectangular base which is divided into three parts: a front pd of 41.7 m, a middle part of 39.1 m, and a rear pd of 40.7 m. Only the front and the rear pads are in contact with the supporting soils. As a result of excavation, the top part of the clay tili was expected to be disturbed and to have a reduced sliding surface. This problem was compensated for by introducing a wedge shaped fill of compacted crushed stone below each of the two pads.
Settlements and movements after force transfer have predicted limits. The bridge was inaugurated in 1998.
5
THE 0RESUND BRIDGE
For the 8 km long Oresund Bridge between Denmark a the concept has been further refined and optimised. All foundations. All pier foundations have been completed year 2000.
The accidental load from ship collision is one of the foundations for the cable-stayed bridge with has a main area of 36m x 38m and are founded directly on Cope caissons are buried 2m into the limestone to obtain combination of base shear and passive resistance in fron
"
Th 60 fro
el
KLAUS
H.
Substituting huge caissons of concrete to very large diameter steel pile foundations, connected by a pile c per foundation unit costs considerably, whereby the proven pre-stressed concrete or steel girder techniques overall cost reduction of the bridge project by more tha m spans and approximately 3 m diameter steel pile offshore pile driving equipment.
At the same time this foundation type reduced the use of resources considerably and was beneficial to
environmental impact. The long piles cater for the risk of liquifaction of the uniformly grained, fine sand of the Jamuna River bed during earthquakes as well
as allowing
for the sand wave risk and very deep scour characteristic of the changing river bed of the Jamuna River bed.
THE GIBRALTAR STRAIT BRIDGE

1981,
the
Since
United
Nations
have
been
interested in investigating the feasibility of a fixed link across the Strait of Gibraltar. The strait is characterised by large water depths, at the narrowest crossing between 500-1000 m, and 250350 m at a slightly longer alignment along a subsea
sill.
The extrapolation of the Ekofisk GBS technique to the Troll Field in Norway with more than 300 m water depth has made it conceivable to build a bridge on fixed foundations across the Strait. Costs
of
12
EVOLUTION OF BRIDGE FOUNDATIONS F
THE RICHMOND-SAN RAFAEL BRIDGE
Another Held within foundation safety is retrofitting. As Raphael Bridge, a concept of using precast concrete jac been developed by Ben C. Gerwick Inc.
Unlike steel jackets, concrete jackets can be designed zone for the remaining 100-year life expedancy of the b
A
concrete mix with a low water-cement ratio, fly ash, been specified to allow the jackets to be construded reinforcement. In the splash and tidal zone, the concr impedes micro cracking and reduces the weight of the ja
The concrete jackets will be matchcast horizontally and and diaphragm wall in halves, conneded by transvers Segments vertically.
Two thirds of the precast concrete jackets will be sub precast jacket concept allows for a high degree of off-sit minimal use of divers.
The existing shafts are cleaned by high-pressure jets b placed on top of the existing shafts that allow two pre concrete substrudure above water. HS rods are used to
Application
of
geophysical techniq
Denm
Henrik OLSEN Geologist L&T-RAMBOLL Consulting Engineers Ltd
RAMB0LL, Bredevej
2,
%
-=.-,
DK-2830 Virum, Denmark
'fsfc' -
Carsten PLOUG Geophysicist
14
APPLICATION OF GEOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES FOR MAJOR BRIDGE PROJECTS
IN
DENMARK
INTRODUCTION
Geophysical techniques have been integrated in the feasibiiity studies for all major bridge construction projects in Denmark during the last two decades, including the Storebaelt Link in central Denmark, the 0resund Link between Denmark and Sweden and the planned Fehmarn Baelt Link between Denmark and Germany (Fig. 1).
A
rnge of geophysical metods have been applied to these studies and the experiences from the early projects have been used to further develop the soil investigation programs towards a multiple technique appoach.
is
The advantage of integrated geophysical investigations approaches applied to the different projects.
outlined as well
as the
Interpretation
vsy
vy
:s
l(*V
^XsWEDEN i
vDENMARK
*~"
+J
S*^J'tSTOREBjeL.T
^^ ^\^0RESi
,1
*Kr\
xMs& ^W^
V
(7
'
^"T/""^
^jRÊHMARNB^LTy^
/germanyj^V^
50 km
]
-^J
Fig.
1. The locations of the three major infrastructure projects in Denmark the Storebaelt Link, the 0resund Link and the Fehmarn Baelt
Link.
THE STOREB/ELT LINK

2.1
General km fixed link across the Storebaelt sound in central Denmark is composed of three main The components: 1) The West bridge, a 6.6 km low bridge for rail and road; 2) The East Bridge, a 6.8 km Suspension bridge for road; and 3) The East tunnel, a 7.4 km bored tunnel for rail. The construction was completed in June 1998.The geological succession is generally (from the top): Quaternary Post/Late-glacial fines, Quatemary glacial tili, Tertiary marl and Tertiary limestone.
18
Geophysical investigations geophysical methods applied in the feasibiiity studies were mainly restricted to analoque reflection seismic techniques. A total of more than 3,000 km seismic profiling was carried out by the Danish Geotechnical Institute /1/. At a very early stage, in 1962, reflection seismic investigations were carried out in the entire suggested alignment corridor. The method applied was Single Channel boomer seismic. In 19977-78 renewed boomer seismic investigations were carried out ig the entire corridor with improved technology.
2.2 The
The
boomer seismic data from the 60'es and 70'es formed the geophysiscal basis for the realization of the bridge projects commencing in 1986. In the tunnel alignment, however, additional Single Channel sparker seismic data were acquired in 1987 to obtain Information of deeper geological features. The investigations were carried out simultaneously with or subsequent to geotechnical drilling Operations.
H.OLSEN,
C.
PLOUG
15
The role of qeophvsics 2.3 The reflection seismic data formed
a very important input for the 3D geological/geotechnical data 121 Storebaelt base - Geomodel - established especially for the Storebaelt project. The early phase in which the seismic data were acquired made it possible to optimize the geotechnical drilling Programme for the bridge projects.
contrast, Optimum benefit from the seismic data was not obtained the seismic data were not available prior to the drilling Operations. were not used fbr identifying possible problem areas for subsequent of interpolating the major lithological boundaries between borehole understanding of the geology was, however, governing for the tunnel
In
3
the tunnel project because Accordingly, the seismic data direct sampling but as means data points /3/. The resulting alignment and profile.
in
THE 0RESUND LINK
3.1
General
The 15 km fixed link across the 0resund sound between Sweden and Denmark (Fig. 1) is currently under construction. The construc tion will consist of a 3.8 km immersed tunnel in the west, a 7 km Suspension bridge in the east and a 4 km low bridge across an artificial island in the central part ofvthe sound. The construction works for the 0resund Link commenced in 1995 and the fixed link iis expected to be completed in the year 2000. The general geological conditions in the 0resund alignment corridor is a Quaternary glacial tili succession on top of a Tertiary
limestone succession.
3.2 Geophysical investigations The feasibiiity studies for the 0resund Link included reflection seismic studies, refraction seismic studies, vertical seismic profiling and wireline/borehole logging.
Reflection seismic Reflection seismic investigations were carried out in 1993-1995 in the entire alignment corridor and in selected areas of special interest. The investigations were performed by DGI and comprised Single Channel boomer as well as six Channel water gun seismics /4/. In contrast to the Storebaelt investigations, the acquisition in 0resund were digital, providing basis for postprocessing. The seismic data were interpreted mainly in order to provide a structural geological model for the limestone succession.
3.2.1
Refraction seismic Refraction seismic investigations were carried out by Geomap in 1992-93 along the western part of the alignment /5/. The seismic data were interpreted in order to provide Information about the velocities of the geological layers and to define possible glacially disturbed limestone successions in the upper part of the limestone.
3.2.2
3.2.3 Vertical seismic profiling (VSP) VSP investigations were carried out by RAMB0LL in 1993-1994 along the entire alignment /6/. VSP was carried out in boreholes by use of a hydrophone streamer with 12 hydrophones. Vertical data point spacing was 0.5 m. The seismic data were interpreted in order to define the seismic velocities of the geological units.
Borehole logging Borehole logging was carried out in 1992-1994 by RAMB0LL in boreholes along the entire alignment and in boreholes situated in areas of special interest. The borehole logging Programme included a large suite of advanced logging techniques, including: natural gamma, induction conductivity, guard resistivity, neutron porosity, gamma density, sonic, fluid conductivity and fluid flow. The logs were interpreted in order to establish a detailed log stratigraphy and to provide Information of physical properties and ground water flow characteristics of the limestone /6, 71.
3.2.4
16
IN
DENMARK
100
mmS/m
500
100
mmS/m
500
100
mmS/m
500
100
mmS/m
500
'A
l
y y y
10 m
f:
y
y y
yy.
tV
f.
$.
y
:S
y y y y y y
-
y y
-y
f.
t
y
y
y y y
y
yy
100 m
y $
y y
y y
Fig. 2. Stratigraphic correlation of the limestone in four boreholes in the western part of 0resund using the Information from induction conductivity logs. Modified from
171.
3.3 The role of qeophvsics The combination of a multiplum of geophysical investigation techniques proved very useful for the 0resund Link project. Although the importance of the different methods was variable the suite of methods provided complementary Information, impossible to attain by means of only a Single
method.
Reflection seismic Prior to the seismic investigations depth variations in marker horizons in the limestone were ascribed to faulting. The seismic data revealed, however, that these depth variations could be explained by folding.
3.3.1
The boomer data proved very useful. The water gun data were expected to provide data from significantly gtreater depths thn the boomer data. The water gun data did not, however, provide significant improvement because only limited attenuation of the seabed multiple was possible /4/. The reason for this is believed to be inadequate move-out correction, mainly due to the limited number of hydrophone groups and limited length of hydrophone spread.
The collection of digital data also proved a success. In the construction phase reprocessing of the data could be performed providing additional details of great use for the project.
3.3.2 Refraction seismic The refraction seismic data were used for defining the extent of glacially disturbed limestone. The results were not, however, equivocal. For definition of deeper geological successions the method was inadequate, because an internal low velocity Iayer prohibited precise Information for deeper lying successions. 3.3.3
Vertical seismic profiling
The VSP data were very useful. The limestone succession was subdivided in successions with characteristic seismic velocities, indicating geotechnical bulk characteristics. The VSP data were also useful for depth conversion of the reflection seismic data so that correlation with borehole data was possible.
H.OLSEN,
C.
PLOUG
17
Borehole logging detailed metre scale stratigraphic subdivision of the limestone succession was defined on the basis of the borehole logs (Fig. 2). The log stratigraphy proved very useful in veryfying the structural geological model.
3.3.4
The logs also provided important Information conceming the ground water flow characteristics.
Distinct inflow horizons were observed act as hydraulic corridors.
in
certain stratigraphic successions indicating that fractures
Physical properties of the limestone rocks were accounted for on a decimetre scale, providing important information for the prediction of geotechnical properties. As a consequence, it was decided to use borehole logs also during the construction phase for detailed site investigations for all bridge piers.
4
THE FEHMARN B/ELT LINK
4.1
General Feasibiiity studies are currently being carried out for the planned 17 km Fehmarn Baelt Link between Fehmarn in Germany and and Lolland in Denmark (Fig. 1). At present the link has not been politically decided. The general geological succession in the Fehmarn Baelt include (from the top): Quaternary Late/Postglacial fines, Quaternary glacial tili, Tertiary clay and Cretaceous limestone.
4.2
In
Geophysical investigations
1995 geophysical investigations were carried out as part of a geological/geotechnical feasibiiity study /8/. The investigations included shallow reflection seismic surveys applying pinger and sparker, and deep reflection seismic applying air gun and a 24 Channel hydrophone array. VSP was obtained from the boreholes drilled during the feasibiiity study. A suite of borehole logs comparable to the 0resund Link investigations was also applied. The shallow reflection seismic investigations were carried out by DGI whereas RAMB0LL performed all other geophysical
investigations.
/germany
DENMARK
POST/LATE
GLACIAL
GLACIAL
TERTIARY
CLAY
Fig. 3. Geological model from Fehmarn Baelt based on reflection seismic data. High
LIMESTONE
resolution was obtained in the Quaternary Post/Late-glacial and glacial deposits by Single Channel shallow reflection seismic methods. The deeper lying Tertiary clay and Cretaceous limestone units were excellently outlined by the multiChannel seismic method. Modified from /8/.
18
IN
DENMARK
The role of geophvsics 4.3 The shallow reflection seismic provided detailed Information of the geological strata in the upper tens of metres. The experiences from the 0resund investigations were used to design a multiChannel seismic setup capable of suppressing the multiple reflection and enhancing the geological stratification in deeper levels. Accordingly, the multichannel seismic data made it possible to improve the structural geological model significantly. Significantly the deeper seismic data showed the existance of a domal shaped limestone surface, interpreted to be a result of salt upheaval in deeper levels. In addition the presence of structural deformations could be outlined on the basis of the deeper seismic data. The VSP was primarily used for depth conversion of the reflection seismic data. The borehole logging formed an important Supplement to the drill core data and an initial basis for log stratigraphic subdivision.
5
LESSONS LEARNED
The lessons leamed during the three major construction projects can be summarized as follows:
1)
The right method at the right time.
2)
3)
Geophysical investigations shall be performedat an early stage to form a guidance for drilling Operations so that the drilling sites and numbers can be optimized. Moreover, careful evaluation of the techniques shall be made as to the effectiveness of the technique for the particular geological conditions. Courage and visions of the owners resulted in introduction of new methods hitherto not used for this kind of projects. Using the experiences from previous projects By evaluating the experiences from previous bridge construction projects it was possible to enhance the profits of the geophysical techniques. The advantage of integral geophysical investigations By combining different geophysical methods it has been possible to obtain complementary data which greatly enhance the value of the individual techniques.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the permissions from A/S Storebaelt, 0resundkonsortiet and Trafikministeriet to publish this paper. The opinions expressed in the paper do not necessarily reflect the opinion of the three institutions.
7
REFERENCES
Hansen, H. K., Keynote lecture: The Storebaelt link - a geotechnical view. Proc. XI ECSMFE, 10.11-10.40, Copenhagen, 1995. Porsvig, M. & Christensen, F. M., The Geomodel: the geological and geotechnical Information System used in the Great Belt project. Proc. Instn. Civ. Engrs. Geotech. Engng., Vol. 107, 193-206, 1994. Hartwell, D., Kofoed, P. & Dyer, J., Storebaelt tunnel, engineering geological conditions encountered. Proc. XI ECSMFE, 5.53-5.62, Copenhagen, 1995. Nielsen, T. & Rasmussen, L. L., Mapping of geological units based on reflection seismic data. Proc. XI ECSMFE, 5.135-5.140, Copenhagen, 1995. Danish Geotechnical Institute. The 0resund Link Seismic investigations 1993, Report 1. 0resund Konsortiet. 1993. 0resund Link Consultants. Report: Digest of geophysical borehole logging in the Danian limestone. 0resund Konsortiet, 1995. Geological Survey of Denmark & RH&H Consult. The 0resund Link, Geophysical borehole logging in the Danian Limestone, Log stratigraphy in the western part of 0resund. 0resund Konsortiet, 1994. Fehmarn Link Consultants. Geological/geotechnical investigations, Phas 2 report. Trafikministerietand Bundesministerium fr Verkehr, 1996.
1.
Steenfelt,
J. S. &
2.
3. 4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Rapid Investigation Methods of So of their Results for Bridg
Nicolas
ZOTSENKO
Professor, Doctor hab. eng., Depart ment of Foundation
s^W
*w*
Engineering, State Technical Univer sity (STU), Poltava,
UKRAINE
;..:..:.:
jAI
Yuriy VYNNYKOV
Associated Profes
sor
Doctor-
20
RAPID INVESTIGATION METHODS OF SOIL PROPERTIES AND INTERPRETATION
INTRODUCTION
Main points in process of foundation designing are engineering geological survey, preparation of soil thickness parameters and evaluation of stressed-deformation condition (SDC) of basements and foundations. Speedy methods of soil properties investigation were tested for that purpose, results of which were interpreted for evaluation of SDC basements, foundations and pile bearing capacity with help of interconnection equations between physical and mechanical soil properties.
2
RAPID INVESTIGATION METHODS OF SOIL PROPERTIES
Static soil penetration with widened tip Static soil penetration with widened tip (fig.l,a) with 30 angle at the top and the diameter exceeding rod diameter 1.6 times and more comparing with traditional method of static penetration with the same rod and tip diameter allows to use static effort more effectively due to elimination of friction from the rod surface (because conditions for pressing soil into formed cavities between the well and stem walls appear), and the use of large size tips allows to increase accuracy of determination of poor bearing soils values for which this only method is very often available; The depth of such penetration exceeds 20 m. For creation of conditions for friction of soil Iayer by Iayer during pene tration the authors have investigated and patented several modifications of widened tip, namely: tip like a cone with cylindrical steps{l} (flg.l,b); tip like a cone with cylindrical Steps which are con nected telescopically{2} (fig.l,c); tip with spiral groove beyond the cone surface {3} (fig.l,d). The size of the tip can be changed in the process of penetration {4} (fig.l,e). It makes it possible to determine precisely soil strength characteristics which lay along the whole depth of penetration despite the difference of this characteristics. For combination penetration processes and selection of soil samples the tip {5} (fig.l,f) that has telescopic cylinders with lugs has been worked out.
2.1
4^
2/
1
'
zA
m,
il
1^
I!
jP
I,
1
1
y
10
30
Types of the widened tip: 1- cone; 2- tang; 3- bar; 4- stock; 5- cylindrical bcket; 6figure lug; 7- rod; 8-screw; 9- nut; 10- cylinder; 11- banked-up ring 2.2 Method of penetration Penetration method is based on slow submersion of tip cone into the depth h that mustn't exceed the cone height. For cohesive soils the investigation penetration characteristic is ratio of penetration effort P to Square of cone submersion depth and it is called the unit penetration resistance R, Pa
Fig.
1
P/h2.
is
(1)
For non-cohesive soils the
so
called penetration index U (H/sm3)
used
U^PIh1
(2)
N.
ZOTSENKO,
Y.
VYNNYKOV
21
Principle of the invariable of test penetration results provides possibility for objective control of precision and truth in definition penetration indices of mechanical soil properties. Results of penetration test present unique indices of resistance to soil shear. According to the results of penetration tests it is determined the angle of internal friction (p and unit cohesion c of non-cohesive soils. For investigation of soils with anisotropic properties it was also worked out a tip shaped like tetrahedron pyramid, opposite facets are symmetrical, side facets are angles at the top and concave and working ones are flat with 90 between working facets angle is 10 {6} (fig.2). Due to such form its interaction with soil occurs only beyond its working facets.
2.3
Fig. 2 Tip for penetration of soils with anisotropic properties: 1- tang; 2- working facets; 3- side facets
Method of rotary shear Method of rotary shear consists of slow pressing the tip with two perpendicular vanes into soil and measuring the rotary moment at vane turn A/max. At laboratories, usually, combination of soil in
vestigation by penetration and rotary shear are used. In a number of cases they help simply and exactly to determine the angle of internal friction q> and unit cohesion c of cohesive soils. The unit
resistance to rotary shear
T
is
determined by ratio
r=Mmax/KT,
where KT
is
a
(3)
constant of vane-shear tip which
is
received from formula

+ hcr)
Kr=0.5nd2cr{dcr/6
of internal friction
small
(4)
where dcr and hcr - diameter and height of the vane. For soft clayey soils and silt where the angle
is
it is
c.
INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS METHODS

3.1
OF SOIL RAPID
INVESTIGATION
Equations of interconnection between phvsical and mechanical soil properties Objective characteristics of above given methods are received due to traditional three-term formula
well confirmed by experimental investiga
of limited basement condition. At the same time, the peculiarities of characteristics for cohesive
soils and non-cohesive differ. Theoretical Statement
is
tions. For determination of soil characteristics in each point of soil massif according to data of rapid
methods of soil investigation the equations of interconnection between their physical and mechani
cal properties are used, for example:
humidity W, void ratio e, unit cone resistance R,,angle of
internal friction (p, unit cohesion c, modulus of deformation E etc. Practically, while determining
correlation between physical and mechanical properties in conditions of three - phase

ral structure soil it is necessary to determine its three
State
of natu
indications: free term and two angle coeffi-
cients of conditional linear equations. The general correlation equation in this case is:
\g(R/R0)
WR(l/e0)
(p /p^(l-Mw)/(l/e0)-WMw(\/e0)-(p /pd)(\-Mkp/)(l/e0),<5)
22
where
- unit cone resistance, MPa;0=l
MPa;Mw
=1
-(1/e0)/(l/e);
\/e0 and l/e
-angle
coefficients of linear equations for the case of total soil Saturation and in condition of constant humidity accordingly; WR - moisture content in complete Saturation with R0= 1.0 MPa. Multiple investigations showed that while determining correlation between the properties of clayey soils the indicative values of equation (5) are influenced by such properties as plasticity index, mineralogical composition of clayey ingredient, grain size distribution and mineralogy coarsegraded component of soil. The condition for determination of correlation between indices of physical State of soil (W,e) and indices of mechanical properties (R, <p, c, E is the accumulation of test results for determination of these soil characteristics with relatively constant plasticity index and uniform genetically. Thus, for definite soils we can set a number of dependencies:
AR-BRe-CRW; lg(E/E0) AE-BEe-CEW; lg(c/c0) Ac-Bce-CcW;

\g(R/R0)
h(tg<pltg(pQ)
where R0;E0;cQ;
tgcp0
(6) (7) (8)

(9)
A9
- B9e - C9W;
A,B,C-
are values that equal the

1
unity in the taken units;

WR
coefficients
are
functions of indicative soil features:
e0,
l/e,
According
to these
equations we have the following:
\g(EI E0)
AE-{BEI BR)AR-W[CE-(BEI
Ac
BR)CR]
(BEIBR)\g{RI
BR)lg(R/
+
R0);
(10)
\g(c/c0)
-(Bc
A9
BR)AR -W[CC
-(Bc
BR)CR]
+ (BC /
R0);
(11)
(12)
\g(tg<p/tg<p0)
~(BV/BR)AR -W[C, -(BJBR)CR]

is
(Bv/BR)\g'R/R0).
With the help of equations
(10-12), having indices of soil natural humidity W and unit cone resis
possible to determine mechanical soil characteristics. Equations
several dozens of sites during field and laboratory works. They
tance R in any point of footing it
(6-12) were determined for soils
at
give opportunity to determine mechanical characteristics of natural structure soil and within the
compaction zones while calculating and modeling work of bridge basements and foundations.
allows
to
It
quickly and objectively soil characteristics in each element of calculated field of bridge foundation basement with numerical Simulation or analytical methods of their calculation
set
3.2
Determination of pile bearing capacity due
to
results of soil static penetration
We should point out that technique of determination of bearing capacity of pile bridge foundations due to results of soil static penetration by widened tip was successfully conducted. 3.2.1 Bearing capacity of driven prismatic piles
Bearing capacity of driven prismatic piles

Fd
is:
n
n
0qs AQ +
OmnuY.qiÂ
/=1
uj^hi
i=\
(13)
where
6 -
coefficient that takes into account deformation character of pile base; qs\qs - resis
tance to soil cone in the plane of pile edge and of each Iayer along the whole length of pile, kPa; A transition coefficients from qs to calculated soil resistance; u pile cross section area, m2;
Aq;^-
perimeter of pile, m; hj - thickness of bearing Iayer within depth of pile submersion; bearing layers of soil along pile length.
- number of
N.
ZOTSENKO,
Y.
VYNNYKOV
23
diagrams of dependence coefficient X on value qs and soil type. Diagrams are based on results of parallel test of soil by penetration and static pile tests carried out in the central part of Ukraine.
In fig.3 there are
2.0
1.6 1.2
s
Jl
3
Fig.3
Dependence curves
f(qs):
1- loam and clays;
2-
loamy sands; 3- sands
0.8 0.4
0 2
10
12
qc
3.2.2 Bearing capacity of cast-in-situ piles in punched hole (CPPH) For determination of bearing capacity of CPPH according to results of static soil penetration the calculation scheme was accepted according to which soil resistance along the side surface of the shaft is taken into account only at a point h from its top tili the point of intersection of shaft with surface of conditional cone having the forming line tangential to the edge of widening at angle is average arithmetical value of internal soil friction angle laying <p (p I 4 to pile axis, where within limits of the given cone. We off er to determine bearing capacity of CPPH on the base of static penetration by formula
n n
?d
where
OqUcrÔmi7u^0siqiAihi+6u"Z0sihi
7
(14)
0= 1005/(4213
^)
+
(15)
(16)
05/=4328/(3850
qs
^)
\qs-
resistance of soil to cone on the level of bottom of widening and for each Iayer within
;
point h, kPa, correspondingly; Xq Aj - transition coefficients for each soil Iayer on level of wid
ening and within limits of h;
Iayer within point h, m.
u
is
perimeter cross section of shaft, m; hj - strength of each soil
3.2.3 Bearing capacity of tapered piles Bearing capacity of tapered piles equals
Fj
where k
is
kmqsA
(17)
coefficient of soil uniformity; m- scale coefficient m=0.5; qs- average value of soil
resistance under the tip; A - area of cross section of tapered pile on top section, m2.
4
NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF STRESSED-DEFORMATION CONDITION OF BRIDGE FOUNDDATION BASEMENTS
Numerical Simulation of stress-strain State of bridge foundation bedding is carried out with use of the programme of elastoplastic calculation of geotechniq struetures based on method of initial stress in combination with method of ultimate elements and theoretic - mathematical description of soil as continuous isotropic media modeled in aecordance with theory of plastic flow. 4.1 Hypotheses in Statement of elastoplastic task In Statement of elastoplastic task such hypotheses are used: l)evidence of non-linearness includes plastic deformation of form change in complicated stressed State and free deformation in tension; 2)in complicated stressed State (compression with shear) general deformations include linear and
24
,J%
plastic parts, plastic components of deformation appear after reach of strength limit according
Mises-Shleikher-Botkin:
ctfi+I$5-K=0
where
(18)
first (second) invariant of stress gauge (deviator); a and K- characteristics of soil strength in Space stressed State; 3)vectors of main plastic deformations (and their velocities) and main Stresses in complicated stressed State are taken as co-axial; 4)at the stage of plastic deforma tion was taken into account dilatancy was taken into account with correlation between speed of volume change and form change, which is expressed as the constant (non-associated law) in space
Ii(l2)is
stressed State:
a=
where
4.2
i\i6r2
(19)
I\ ,I\
are speeds of main Stresses.
Calculated sphere of foundations and piles Calculated sphere of axis Symmetrie task is cylinder, it is based on revolution of reetangular calculated zone around symmetry axis (fig.4). Symmetry axis eoineides with foundation axis. In calculations the continual Space elements of triangulr section which simulate foundation material and soil of bedding are used. Proper ties of bedding are defined by real soil characteristics: unit weight modulus of deformation E coefficient of side pressure V, an y
gle
ii in
1
x^l tll// 7/j Im/

^;:K
XX XX xy |
iffluin
zzl
W t/u/
fec^-^'
1
of internal friction
<p,
unit cohesion
c, parameter dilatancy.
O -^
Physical and mechanical soil characteristics within calculated zone are determined according to the results of penetration and revolving shear and with help of equation of interconnection (10-12).
0\p 3 %%KX
\ 4
^XX2
Sri
This is an example of the calculated sphere of castFig.4 in-situ piles in punched hole during of numerical modeling its work: 1- shaft; 2- hard widening; 3- compaction zone; 4- zones of plastic deformations
XliUPI KXXg^ 44Z /Z//^ /777 727/^ LLLLLLLL^
BMMffi
IHaXa^-^
^Kr^^^
jx
SUMMARY
Investigations of soil properties by static probing with the widened tip, penetration, rotary shear with following Interpretation of results for designing and bridge foundations considerably allow to speed up process of designing with great extent of reliability.
REFERENCE AUTHOR CERT. Xs476356 USSR. 2 AUTHOR CERT. X2582478 USSR.

1
4
5
E 02d IPC G 01N PATENT of Ukraine M20696. IPC E 02D 1/00. AUTHOR CERT. M>476355 USSR. IPC E 02d
IPC
1/00. Tip for soil penetration 3/42. Tip for soil penetration
AUTHOR CERT. X21744194 USSR. IPC E PATENT of Ukraine N217737. IPC E 02D 1/00. Tip for penetration of soils with anisotropic properties.
Tip for soil penetration 1/00. Tip for soil penetration 02D 1/00. Tip for soil penetration
25
Geotechnical design considerations for

Storebaelt East Bridge and Oresund Bridge
Carsten
S.
S0RENSEN
Chief Engineer, Geotechnics and
Foundation Engineering
&
Planners AS
Lyngby, Denmark
and
in involved has been Sorensen research, teaching and Consulting projects The work has for more than 20 years involved field and laboratory testing of soft and stiff soils as well as design of large bridges and offshore foundations Recently he has been in Charge of the foundation of the 0resund Bridge He is chairman of the committee responsible for the Danish Code of Practice for Foundation Engineering
Mr
Associated Professor
Geotechnical Engineering Group
Aalborg University, Denmark
Ole HEDEDAL Head of Geotechnical Analysis Group
Dr
&
Planners AS
Lyngby, Denmark
Hededal has extensive experience with numerical analysis using the finite element method In particular, Dr Hededal has been involved n development of several linear and non-hnear finite element codes for research and educational purposes He has recently been involved in the design of the the and in 0resund design Bridge evaluation of the Metro in Copenhagen
SUWMARY
The fixed links crossmg the 18 km Wide Storebaelt and the 15 km Wide 0resund are the first two of three that will eventually link Storebaelt Link, 0resund Link and Femern Baelt Link major infrastructure projects Denmark intemally and externally to its neighbours By their extent and complexity, these projects have been a great challenge to all engineering disciplines The paper descnbes the investigation strategies employed and the geotechnical design of the bridge foundations In both projects it was necessary to combine several theoretical modeis in order to meet the design requirements Some of the challenges offered by such large projects will be illustrated by two exampies 1) Investigations for and design of anchor blocks founded on gravel wedges and clay tili for the Storebaelt East Bridge and 2) Investigations for and design of heavily ship impact loaded piers founded on iimestone for the 0resund Bridge
26
GEOTECHNICAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR STOREB/ELT EAST BRIDGE AND 0RESUND BRIDGE
INTRODCTION
This paper presents the Storebaelt East Bridge and the 0resund Bridge from a geotechnical point of view For both projects comprehensive ground investigation programs were carried out in order to estabhsh the geotechnical basis The strategies for and analyses of the tests were different for the two projects even though very similar analysis methods were used The aim of this paper is primanly to demonstrate the interaction between the ground investigation program and the development of the analysis modeis Finally, the analysis modeis and the safety strategies for two of the cntical foundation problems are considered
The Storebaelt East Bridge
The East Bridge (established 1986-1997) is one of the major components of the fixed link across Storebaelt The 6 8 km long motorway Suspension bridge includes a main span of 1624 m with a navigational clearance of 65 m, see Fig
1
Approach Bridge
Sprogo
Suspension Bridge
Approach Bndge
Zealand
1556 m
i?535!
1624 m
535 m
2518 m
Fig
Longitudinal section of the Storebaelt East Bridge (exaggerated vertical scale)
The foundation conditions were good, consisting of firm clay tili on top of Kerteminde Marl and Danian Limestone A comprehensive geological descnption is given by e g Foged et al [4]
Based on the West Bridge experiences, it was decided that all piers, pylons and anchor blocks should rest on caissons placed on compacted gravel pads of crushed rock All caissons should be manufactured onshore with a skirt System designed for penetration into the gravel pd in order to establish an ambient space for grouting below the caisson base slab Special attention was given to the design of the pads beneath the anchor blocks, cf Section 2
1
The 0resund Bridge
The 0resund Bridge is part of the 0resund Link (established 1995-2000) linking Denmark and Sweden The fixed link will carry rail and road traffic It compnses a 3510 m long immersed tunnel, a 4055 m long artificial Island and a high bridge and approach bridges of a total length of 7810 m The cable stayed high bridge has a free span of 490 m with a navigational clearance of 57 m A section of the 0resund Bridge appears from
Fig
2
jmWhfflwL
-^^MflTFfTB
1740 m
TOFFRfflTffi^
Vtaduct
Western Approach Bridge
^High Bridge^
Eastern Approach Bridge
Fig
Longitudinal section of the 0resund Bridge (exaggerated vertical scale)
CARSTEN
S0RENSEN, OLE HEDEDAL
27
The foundation conditions
in 0resund are dominated by the Copenhagen Limestone, see e g [7] The limestone is generally a competent foundation base, but regions with unlithified limestone or fissures could give problems Furthermore, it is vital to consider the effects of a reduction of the limestone strength at large strains, [2] The ground investigations therefore aimed at identifying potential problem zones
Shallow direct foundation was found to be the most economical foundation due to the competent limestone 0resund It was decided that the 0resund Bridge piers should rest on a thin cement grout Iayer cast after the pier caisson foundations were installed To secure proper grouting conditions the caissons were temporanly placed on three small footings and a tentporary curtain was mounted on the sides of the footings
in
2
GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS
ground investigation programs were for both projects extensive With direct implication on the assessment of cntical foundations such as the anchor blocks at Storebaelt and the ship impact loaded piers and pylons at 0resund, the geotechnical investigation programs included large scale tests in test pits, [1], [2] These tests were designed specifically for cahbrating the strength modeis used in the assessment of the bearing capacities
The
A
significant difference in the two test strategies was that the East Bridge investigations were performed to obtain matenal parameters to already established calculation modeis At 0resund a test program was carried out by the bridge owner prior to the detailed design of the bridge The challenge for the geotechnical engineer was thus to define and calibrate a suitable constitutive model to be used in ship collision analyses
1
The East Bridge investigations
During the ground investigations for the West Bridge a thorough knowledge of the geotechnical conditions was obtained The ground investigation for the East Bridge, compnsing 100 geotechnical borings and 400 CPTs, thus served to give site specific Information and to enhance the geotechnical design basis Laboratory tests for Classification and determination of strength and deformation properties of the insitu soils were carried out Furthermore, the properties of the crushed rock used in the gravel pads were determined using large scale tnaxial and shearing tests These tests were used to defmed a strength model for the clay tili and the crushed rock used for the gravel pads, [1], [9]
interest was the foundation of the anchor blocks Using several different modeis it was found that the cntical section was the gravel pads on which the anchor blocks were founded Hence a calculation model for the Interfaces between concrete caissons, gravel Three pads and clay tili was established pnncipally different types of failure modes are possible for each foundation pd dependmg 3 The cntical on load inchnation, see Fig mode for a given case will depend upon geometry, soil strength, and the inchnation of the resultant force A more detailed discusston of the failure mode that involves sliding along the disturbed clay tili surface was presented by Mrtensen, [8]
Of special
Failure mode
Sliding or gravel Interface
Failure mode
Sliding in gravel/tili
*>d
dealt with issue were by performing large scale sliding plate tests onshore at Sjaelland on intact as well as remoulded clay tili The results from these tests were used to calibrate the analytical and numerical calculation modeis, [1], [11]
sliding
The
Failure mode Failure

in tili
Fig
Foundation pd failure modes
2 2
0resund
of
The geotechnical
characteristics
investigations on 0resund was concentrated on the determination of the location and the Copenhagen Limestone The ground investigations for the bridge comprised 55
28
and Particular borings geotechnical approximately 200 soundings. emphasis features that, if present, could present particular problems geological/geotechnical foundation design:
was
in
to given relation to the
Highly crushed orlissured limestone.
Extensive zones of unlithified limestone.

Voids or cavities due
Soft Sediments
to
Solution of limestone (karstic limestone).
in depressions between mounds of bryozoas, Copenhagen limestone and Bryozoan limestone.
especially
in
the
transition
between
The experience with foundations on the limestone was very sparse. Therefore extensive laboratory testing and medium scale shear plate tests were carried out, [2].
in the design of the foundations was the accidental ship impact. As part of the tests carried out advance of the design, several large scale shear plate tests were carried out on limestone onshore at Lernacken on the coast of 0resund. The vertical and horizontal plate loading tests were large enough to represent the rock 0,-03 Soil Model H2 (Tnaxial comprassion) t=mass properties of the limestone. Hence H2 (Triaxial axtenson) Failure Envelope for H2 the results from the tests would be a D ElasticYiaW Locus H2 45.8* indicator for the behaviour of the limestone c' 1400 Plastic YieM Locus H2 - 106 kN/m2 when subjected to large horizontal forces, Critical State Line 1200 as for example during ship collision. The rOOOkNAn - 30 & c' * 0 in limestone was further investigated triaxial and shear tests in the laboratory. The results of the investigations were Tension cut-off Plastic synthesised into a constitutive model, see Yield Fig. 4. This model served as basis for the Locus definition and calibration of a Computer
vital issue
in
<p'
<p'
model
used
to
in ABAQUS, [6]. Storebaelt investigations no supplementary tests were necessary in order* to calibrate the Computer modeis used for assessment of the foundation design.
model Hence,
ship
collision in contrast to the
kW
SenLE*'Z*2 w*"n
Se^(>=2000 kf*kn
1500
Elastic Yield Locus

2500
s
Or1
+ 0*,
2000
MIT Mean Eflecliva Sbass
(kN/m')
Fig. 4: Principle model for
Copenhagen Limestone,
[2]
GEOTECHNICAL DESIGN
The size and complexity of the projects were beyond normal experience and codes of practice. The safety strategies employed for the two projects were slightly different. At Storebaelt the safety level was determined in terms of the safety factor . The method giving the lowest possible safety factor was to be decisive for the design. The 0resund project was based on the Eurocode System (ENVs). Hence the design basis reflected the safety implied in this code System. For the ship collision case the verification of the material model used in the FE analyses demonstrated a significant conservatism in the design parameters when used with the
chosen material model, [6].

A
thorough evaluation of different calculation tools and their suitability during design. Three independent calculation methods were used:
Upper Bound Theory
Limit Equilibrium Analysis
in
design was carried out prior
to and
Finite Element Analysis

3.1
Storebaelt anchor blocks
As
part of the East Bridge Project all three methods were subjected to benchmark calculations. The governing load case for the anchor blocks was mainly due to the permanent load in Suspension cable, see Fig. 5. One of the benchmark problems was the Anchor Block Case with a geometry and soil parameters dose to those of the real anchor block.
CARSTEN
S.
S0RENSEN, OLE HEDEDAL
29
between and shape of the two foundation pads implied that their failure modes did not interfere. He/ice the bearing capacity could for both the Upper Bound Theory and the Limit Equilibrium Method be determined by combination of two Solutions to the basic failure modes shown fn Fig. 3. A elasto-plastic 2D finite element analysis of the anchor block confirmed the assumptions of the two theoretical Solutions. It gave almost the same bearing capacity and the plastic zones in the non-linear model coincidd with the theoretical failure lines, [10].
The distance
93 MN
455 MN
I905 MN
6m
64m
3ReoT_^
121.5 m
13.2 m
ront
From the benchmark tests it was concluded that all three methods could be applied to problems of combined sliding and vertical load. That is, of course, provided that the model parameters are
Gravel wedges
R
1860MN
Front
0=16.7
Rear
carefully calibrated.
3.2
Ship collision at 0resund
Fig. 5: Principle section and loading of the
anchor block.
Ship collision is the governing load case for the design of most of the piers, see Fig. 6. Due to the large horizontal load, the effective width of the footings will be only 3-4 m even with high mobilisation of the passive resistance on the sides of the caissons.
The three above-mentioned calculation methods were used for 0resund in spite of the conclusions drawn from the Storebalt investigations: " as long as the bearing capacity is govemed by the clay tili, the differences between the selected analysis methods will be small. For cases where the strength of the frictional material dominates the bearing capacity, care will be needed when deciding upon the analysis method to be used", Sorensen et al., [10]. This warning caused fundamental calculations as the bearing capacity for the footings was primarily dictated by the limestone's frictional strength parameters. The assessment of the bearing capacity tnerefore implied a reassessment of the applicability of the three methods in a case with friction material and strongly eccentric loading. The Upper Bound Theory was used to calculate the bearing capacity of the rupture mechanism for the foundations. Further, the theory was used to evaluate whether it was the peak or the residual strength Parameter that should be used to calculate the peak bearing capacity of the footing. It was concluded, [5], that the peak strength should be used and that the friction angles should be corrected for the influence of dilatancy not satisfying the associated flow role.
Also the Limit Equilibrium Analysis was used with the same purpose. Two limit equilibrium Computer programs were used. The first program, BEAST, is based upon the method of slices. The second program, WEDGE3, was developed as a part of the studies carried out. The results for both programs were comparable with the other methods. See also [3].
to
1
Deadload
Finite element analyses using ABAQUS were performed verify the capacity against accidental ship impact. The foundations should, according to the design basis for accidental ship impact, not only be able to withstand the maximum ship collision force,' but furthermore, the maximum permanent displacement was not to exceed a given limit value. FE analysis was a means to assess both requirements in a consistent way. The FE modeis comprised 2D plane strain eiements with a material behaviour, that was calibrated to match several large scale plate tests carried out at Lernacken, [2]. The calibration and application of the model to ship impact is
in a
Ship
Protection Works
TS
Fig. 6:
3
in
<L
*sjSand
the pier
Fl
Principle section
foundation
described
fellow-paper,
[6].
30
The finite element calculations confirmed the results from the Upper Bound Theory and the Limit Equilibrium Analysis Furthermore, the use of FEM made it possible to calculate the expected permanent displacements resulting from a ship collision
4
CONCLUSIONS
of the
most important considerations regarding the geotechnical design for the Storebaelt East Bridge and the 0resund Bridge have been presented The two projects clearly demonstrated two important issues in modern bridge design
Some
Careful design of the geotechnical investigations, test pits and laboratory tests is necessary in order to calibrate the design modeis for cntical elements The tests are important in order to minimise the costs while preserving the proper conservatism of a highly cntical infrastructure component, such as a bridge
The application of several independent tools in the assessment of the bearing capacities of anchor blocks and ship impact loaded piers has proven successful and necessary The mcreasing focus on a combmed design cntenon consistmg of both strength and displacement requirements makes the use of numerical methods such as finite element analysis an essential part of the designer's documentation First of all the FE model can give estimates on bearing capacity and the associated deformations Secondly, FE analysis may be used to assess the applicability of the simpler modeis, which are more
suitable for design
REFERENCES
1
DGI,
Digest of Field and Laboratory Information on Sliding Resistance Institute, DGI job No 18006510, Dated 1991-08-16
Danish
Geotechnical
Danish
DGI, Digest report on Strength and Deformation Properties of Copenhagen Limestone, Geotechnical Institute, Report No 2-9405-244, 1994
CLAUSEN, C J F A Companson of Bearing Capacities by Eurocode Computer Programs Report 9706-1 1997
and Two Limit Equilibrium
FOGED, N LARSEN B LARSEN, G and THOMSEN, E An overview on engineering geological conditions at Storebaelt Proc 11th European Conf Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Copenhagen Danish Geotechnical Society, Bulletin 11, Vol 5, 1995
HANSEN, B Bearing Capacity of Shallow Strip Footings in Limestone, and Geotechnical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 1996
Department
of
Geology
HEDEDAL, O and S0RENSEN C S Elasto-plastic foundation analysis of ship collision to the Oresund Unk High Bridge To be presented at IABSE Colloquium on "Foundations for Major Bridges Design and Construction", New Delhi, India, Feb 22-24, 1999
KNUDSEN, C JAKOBSEN, P R ANDERSEN, C LARSEN, B and FOGED, N Stratigraphy and engineering geology of Kobenhavn Limestone Proc 11th European Conf Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Copenhagen Danish Geotechnical Society, Bulletin 11, Vol 5, 1995
MORTENSEN, K Is limit State Design a Judgement Killer? The Sixth Launts Bjerrum Memorial Lecture Norwegian Geotechnical Institute Publication No 148, Oslo 1983
STEENFELT, J S Sliding resistance for foundation on clay tili Wroth Memorial Oxford Predictive soil mechanics Thomas Telford, London, pp 664-684,1993
Symposium,
10
C S CUUISEN, C J F and ANDERSEN, H Bearing Capacity Analyses for the East Belt Bridge Anchor Blocks Limit State design in geotechnical engineering, ISLSD 93, great Danish Geotechnical Society, Bulletin 10, Vol 1, pp 305-312, 1993 Copenhagen,
S0RENSEN,
11
the
C S STEENFELT, J S and MORTENSEN, J K Foundation for the East Bridge for Storebaelt Link Proc 11th European Conf Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Copenhagen Danish Geotechnical Society Bulletin 11, Vol 5, 1995
S0RENSEN,
Evaluation of Cracked Soft R
"-:
:.*...-,
:;:
Tetsuo Shimamine
Civil Engineer Deputy Manager of
Akiyuki Wat
Civil Engineer Assistant Manag
construction supervision sect

East Japan Railway Company
construction sup
East Japan Railw
Joshin-etsu Construction
Joshin-etsu Con
office Takasaki, Japan
office Takasaki,
The base rock expected to be used for the fou
32
EVALUATION OF CRACKED SOFT ROCK ON IN-SITU TEST RESULTS
1.
Estimations of the bedrock conditions based
on
geological surveys
We will nextgive an explanation of the strata composition in the vicinity of the foundation is characterized by surface deposits (fill, old surface soil) with an N-value of about 5 to a depth of GL-4m, and terraced deposits (sand and gravel mixed with cobblestone) at a depth of GL-7-9m with soft stone tuff-breccia with heavily-cracked auto-brecciated andesite intrusions) at depths greater than GL-9m (refer to Fig and Table 1) Table 1 Results of geological ofthe bedrock (2A) surveys fi _ bedrock of side 2 A is rock grade JL The of rock Andesite
Side 2A
1
"
Type
-1L
220
125 100
Wet density
Tnaxia! compression test (CD)
y^g/cm3)
Q (%)
CM-CL and has R Q D (Rock Quality
Water absorpon
Designation, percentage ofthe total

hole length made up of cores with a length of 10cm or more acquired by
cohesion strength c^N/cm2)

Angle of internal fnctonf
433 562 254

180
Unconfined connpression strength (N/cm2) Ultrasonic veloaty V^ (km/s)

Elaste wave veloaty
Ta
boring And we must estimate immediately after retrieval) of 10-25

2
VD
(km/s)
i
^ bad on extremely Deere's bedrock quality scale (refer to Table 2) In addition, the number of cracks per unit volume kW estimated from the RQD is 27-32 The rock is therefore fragile in quality and is conjectured to be composed of small blocks
i
H
mIt is moreover classified as
Table
Bedrock quality table according

0-25 25-50
to
ROD (Deere)
RQD indication
explanatory expression
extremelybad
bad
50-75 75-90
90-100
generally good
good
extremely good
2.
Evaluation of various evaluation methods for bedrock bearing capacity and shear constant
1
Method using past examples of design based on rock type According to data from nationwide surveys of material values used in the design of long bridges with soft rock as the bedrock, it is conjectured that cohesion strength c and angle of internal friction $ ofthe andesite at side 2A, which would be indicated with in the rnge in Table 3 These should probably be used strictly as reference values, however, since there are no classifications ofthe conditions of cracking, rock grade or other elements Table 3 Examples of c and $ employed in design by rock quality
2
Classification
Type of rock
(N/cm2)
Pyrodastic maten
K
40
andesite
0.5
2.2. Method according to the Japan Roadway Public Corporation Method using the cracking index There is a method that uses the cracking index that quantitatively indicates the effect of bedrock
r
cracking on strength constants The cracking index

Cr
1
is
shown in formula (1)
Where Cr Cracking index
- [Vp/Vpo]
2
(1)
Vp
Vpo
Natural ground horizontal elasc wave velocity Specimen ultrasoruc wave velocity
indicate data compiled by the Japan Roadway Public Corporation relating to the relationship between the cracking index and the reduetion index of cohesion strength and the angle of internal friction This data included the test data ofthe Railway Technical Research Institute ofthe National Railway It is possible to estimate the values of c and (j> by means of a curve that takes the lower limits of Variation indicated in Fig 2 & 3 In other words
In addition, Figs
&
(2) (3) *=k# X d>0 reduetion index of cohesion strength, k$ reduetion index ofthe angle of internal friction, cohesion strength, 0O specimen angle of internal fricon
where
0=^X0^
kc
Co
specimen
T.
SHIMAMINE,
A.
WATANABE,
K.
SONODA
33
Material values for the bedrock of side 2A determined from the above are shown in Table 4. According to this method, it is necessary to carry out a reduetion of about 80% for cohesion strength and about 40% for the angle of internal friction relative to the results of triaxial compression tests. However, it is possible that shear constants c and 0 are underestimated with this method, since there are various reasons, such as the fact that basically the minimum values are used for the reduetion index and the impossibility of differentiating quantitatively between open and closed cracks because ofthe use of
elastic waves.
1.0
0.80.6-
0.8
0.6 0.4
0.4-
k4x^c
0.1
0.2
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.S
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.S
0.6
0.7
0-8
0.9
1.0
Fig.
Relaonship ofCr
Table
4
and
kc
Fig.
by
Relationship ofCr and k
Shear Constant estimated

c
using the cracking index

c
Cohesive strength
Triaxial compression test
1.0 N/cm2
0
Cracking coeffident
0.50
Correction factor k
0.2
Corrected value
0.2 N/cm2
Angle of internal friction 0

Triaxial compression test
<t>
0
Cracking coeffident
0.50
Correction factor k
0.6
<,
Corrected value
<t>
43.3
26
Method ofthe Honshu-Shikoku Connecting Bridge Public Corporation In addition to rock Classification and triaxial compression tests, the Honshu-Shikoku Connecting Bridge Public Corporation also condueted numerous other tests. These were including RQD, unconfined compression strength and longitudinal elastic wave velocity tests as well as in-situ plate bearing tests, boring hole horizontal loading tests and block (or rock) shear tests and determined the various correlations between them. As a method for estimating shear constants c and 0, Guidelines for the Determination of Weathered Granite Bearing Characteristics (draft) were set up. Thereby, we were able to estimation at three levels of precision using (1) actual measurements of c and 0 as the result of block (or rock) shear tests in in-situ or similar base rock as the main estimates, (2) estimates consisting of measurements in boring holes and also making use of correlations to prior tests and (3) estimations carrying out rock Classification by macroscopic Observation and using the results of correlations to prior
2.3
tests
thought that using a method such as this would make it possible to grasp the material values ofthe base rock with a considerable degree of precision if various surveys and tests of similar base rock were condueted and correlations were determined. From the Standpoint of economy, however, it would be difficult to conduet the same surveys and tests on ordinary bridges as on a massive structure such as the Honshu-Shikoku Connecting Bridge. In addition, since the guidelines are limited to weathered granite, they could not be applied intact as a method for the evaluation ofthe base rock in the present
It was
case.
3.
Evaluation of shear constant by block shear tests

The bedrock of side 2A
"
of quality, was judged to be We therefore decided to focus first on the bedrock and conduet block shear tests in "extremely bad order to promote an improvement in the precision ofthe shear constant.
is
heavily-cracked intrusive rock
and, in terms
34
haar
2.0
0L4.
a
vtftlcai
f
1.5
v /
f
1
r^
^<^\
ai
fta
BL3
BL2
BL2/
1.0
\y
BLI
BLI
^z*
Time (minute)
2
0 5
&
)j/
/yf
zr*
Fig.
Relationship between time and shear/vertical displacement (average)

20
0.0
Displacement
(mm)
1.5
r
/
Fig.
y a4
Relationship between shear stress and the amount of shear displacement

2.0
2
1.0
to
es
12
I
o
0.5
'\^ \:A
y
1.0
,-3
00
0.5
<X
Displacement velocity
t/t(mm/min)
Fig.S Relationship between shear stress and displacement velocity
00
Shear/vertical displacement
(mm)
Table 5 Shear strength by base rock origin

(r
Rock type by origin
i
:
Fig. 10 Relationship between shear stress and
N/cm2,
tan
4>
shear/vertical displacement (average)

sr 60
f
Rock Classification
i
(C^
=2 8+<r tan50*
class
cm
c
0
f
r
CM
*
45 53 39 45
53
41
cL
f
t
lifltf
45
51
Paleozoic and Mesozoic deposls
Average
ceikng
20
31
50
57 44
12 15 10 12 14 12 12 13 12
11
19
10 13
07 13
10 12
29
10 14
^ 40
l
5.0
atan44#
(Q.c
^^'
-""t
x
Iowa imi
Average
12
08
10
13
05 06 08
33 45
49
07 10
12
24 39
1 1
50
55 50
51
30
BL2
=0. 7+crtan40
Regional
metamorphtc rock
ceilng low fml

Average
25 08 30
09
1 1
04
22
40 45 45 45
40
08 10 10
1.0
|2.0
I
1
=0 3+<rtan35*
it)
Igneous rock, abyssal rock
44 82 20 27
35 15
47
Ceiing
low
er
52
50
68
14 19 26 13 29
50 45
45
12 10
10
im!
40 08
07
11
'"
BLI
Bp
10
igneous rock volcanic rock
Average
47 53 45
51
08 10
2 0
ceiing
lower
13 10 12 15 12
50 44
51
12 10 12 14
12
44 35
3.0
imi
03
07
strength properties results ofthe tests that we condueted. following summary ofthe (1) Base rock conditions ofthe test surface and failure surface Observation ofthe conditions ofthe shear plane indicated that the failure of blocks BLI-3 was deeper than in block BL4 and there was also a tendency in all ofthe blocks to form a slope inclining generally toward the front. In regard to the shear plane conditions, blocks BLI-3 sheared in the direction ofthe Joint ofthe breccia contained in the auto-brecciated andesite. However, block BL4 sheared with a number of cracks appearing in the base rock itself in the direction ofthe shear and in the perpendicular direction as shear loading was applied.
ceikng lower imi
volcanic eposts {Tertiary and Ist er)
Average
35 48
22
55 50
28
11
55 50
vertical stress o (N/cm?) Fig. 11 Test results and volcanic rock shear
The
is a
(2) Shear loading strength properties
Relationship between time and shear/vertical displacement (average) Failure took 2-3 times longer with BL4 than with BLI-3 * Relationship between shear stress and displacement velocity The displacement velocity of BL4 was about 1/2 that of BLI-3 and the progress ofthe displacement was slow. * Relationship between shear stress and amount of shear displacement (average
T.
SHIMAMINE,
A.
WATANABE,
K.
SONODA
35
1.
Test apparatus and method
Deep foundation holes with
diameter of
were excavated in the vicinity ofthe foundation on
side 2A and the tests were condueted using 2 blocks each at a depth of 8 5m (block numbers BL 1 & 2) and a depth of 10 0m (block numbers BL 3 & 4) from G L A plane view ofthe test conditions is shown
in Fig 4 and an
shown in Fig 5 The shear plane was 60cm X 60cm in size and, since load strength was conjectured to be in the rnge of 0 4N/cm2 under normal loading conditions at the bottom ofthe foundation, vertical loading was carried out in the stages of 0 1, 0 2, 0 3 and 0 5N/cm2 The loading velocity was set at 2 5 X 102 N/cm2/min with a stationary period of 5 minutes at each stage In addition, horizontal shear loading was carried out at a velocity of 5 0 X 102N/cm2/min with a stationary period of 5 minutes after each 0 2N/cm2
is
inclined view
loading and the load was increased until shear failure oecurred would shear in the direction ofthe river
(depth of
10
The blocks were set up

Reactive beanng beam (H25QX2)
so
that they
0m)
JN
-y
BLI (BL3)
\ /
Block Nomber
Vertical
loading
(N/cm2)
0.1
Attachment Reactive plate
BLI
Block
OD
BL2(BL4)
BL2 BL3 BL4
02
0.3
>a<*
05
Reactive beanng wall Reactive beanng beam
Fig. 4 Plane view ofthe conditions of block shear tests [depth of 8.5m]
3
Fig.
Side view
ofthe conditions ofbock
shear tests
Results The base rock at the bottom ofthe deep foundation holes was not uniform and there were portions of hard material here and there It was necessary to carry out the shear plane of each block with the same quality and grade of rock and conduet the tests in base rock that was typical of the rock quality in the deep foundation holes Therefore, we decided to conduet the tests with CL
2.
grade base rock The conditions of failure ofthe shear plane ofthe blocks are indicated in Fig
The
relationship between time and shear/vertical displacement (average) is indicated in Fig 7 The relationship between shear stress and displacement velocity is indicated in Fig 8 The relationship between shear stress and the amount of shear displacement is indicated in Fig 9 And the relationship between shear stress and shear/vertical displacement (average) is indicated in Fig 10
block bottom surface(plane)
shear direction
Sil
|r.n.a
block bottom surface(section)
prior
to
testlng
after testlng
base rock failure area
mortar failure area
BL2
BL3
L^~Fig.
6
Conditions of failure ofthe shear plane ofthe block
36
and
contmuation time
The amount of shear displacement was about 1/2 that of BLI-3 for both stress increase time This would indicate that the base rock of BL4 is hard and that fractures are
closed
that
The above points out difTerences between BL4 and BLI-3 in dynamic properties and we feel necessary to treat them differently in the compilation of test results n addition, based on our observations ofthe base rock, we conjectured that cracks in the base rock were closed and that there was also httle polanty in the cracking
it is
3.3. Material evaluation
Table 5 shows values for general shear strength by type of rock obtained from in-situ shear tests condueted at a dam site The andesite in these tests is classified as volcanic or igneous rock and we propose that the shear strength t0(= c) of rock grade CL is 0 3-1 lN/cm2 and that the angle of internal friction is 35-45 In addition, lf we plot the values obtained in the tests in the shear strength properties ofthe volcanic rock shown in Fig 11, we could see that the test values for BLI-3 would be average values for CL grade rock and that the test values of BL4 would be at the upper limit for CL grade rock Based on this, we can State that appropnate values were obtained in the tests corresponding to the rock type and grade lf we therefore consider the data for BLI-3 to be typical ofthe shear strength ofthe andesite 0 40) for the igneous and volcanic in the tests and use the average angle of internal friction rock of Table 5, it would be possible to formulate the following relational expression 0 7 + a tan 40 Where, x shear strength (N/cm2), o normal stress (N/cm2) i However, taking into consideration the risk of creep deformation due to sustained loading, residual displacement in the wake of massive earthquakes and other detenoration as well as the scale effect, cohesive strength c was reduced to about 1/3 as an engineering judgment Based on these, we decided to use the following as the shear constant for the bedrock on side 2A in the design of this bridge 0 2N/cm2 40 Cohesive strength c Angle of internal friction 0
4.
Conclusion
It
is
thought necessary to take the following into account when applying these to base rock material evaluation and design (1) Although there is a vanety of methods for evaluating base rock bearing capacity and shear constant, there are no established methods Therefore, instead of adhenng to one Single method, it is necessary to conduet wide-ranging exanunations of rock type, rock grade, cracking direction, converted N-value, design examples and other elements (2) When using the method for evaluating the shear constant of base rock by means ofthe cracking index, shear constants c and 0 may possibly be underestimated (3) In-situ tests are effective in the evaluation of base rock shear constant and, especially in the case of base rock with httle prior experience, block (or rock) shear tests, which can grasp the shear constant to a certain degree by mass, are effective However, since costs will increase as more tests are condueted, it is desirable to conduet evaluations while refernng to shear strength by base rock origin for which data from prior in-situ shear tests is available
Postscript
a
is an account of our Implementation of block shear tests to an unusual base rock as There are no established methods and the apphcation ofthe results to design foundation bridge for the evaluation of base rock bearing capacity and we feel that it will be necessary hereafter to aecumulate in-situ test data and conduet research into beanng capacity theory with the addition of the influence of cracking
The above
K.
ELANQOVAN,
A.
COMPUTERISED RESISTIVITY METER F

Elangovan,K Dept. of Civil Engineering
PSG College of
Technology
004.
Coimbatore-641
Balasubramanian,
Dept. of Studies in Geology
University of Mysore Manasagangotri

Mysore - 570 006.
ABSTRACT:
Geophysical investigations are useful for the
38
COMPUTERISED RESISTIVITY METER FOR SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATIONS
1.1NTRODUCTION:
Before undertaking any design work for a project, a civil engineer must have fll Information about the earth material on which the structure is to be founded, constructed with or in which the construction is to be carried out. This will necessiate a preliminary examination of the work site before detailed designs are prepared. Otherwise disastrous may result and almost always with consequent monetary loss. Many such losses for bridges, dams and tunnels have been reported in the past due to improper investigations {4}.For subsurface exploration exploratory drillings and borings are carried out normally. This involves high cost and labour. Geophysical surveys are very useful for subsurface exploration because of its lcsser cost, easy Operation and the principle suitable for many problems. The suitability of geoelectrical surveys for various geologic problems have been reported by many earlier workers {!}.
Geophysical methods are of four types viz., 1. Electrical methods, 2. Seismic methods, 3. Magnetic methods and 4. Gravity methods. But electrical methods are widely used for many civil engineering and geologic problems, because of high contrast of electrical resistivity exists between the subsurface formations. Many electrical resistivity instruments are available in the market. But Aquameter CRM 20 is the only available computerised resistivity meter in India for subsurface investigation.
2.
INSTRUMENTATION
earth computerised microprocessors. In
Aquameter CRM 20 (Computerised Resistivity Meter) is a which make use of advanced technology of resistivity meter, conventional resistivity meters, the transmitter and amplifier are enclosures because of interference and electromagnetic coupling. The single casing-possible because of incorporation of modern electronic CRM 20 is shown in plate 1.
housed
CRM
is
seperate housed in a
in
principle. Aquameter
The generator circuit in Aquameter CRM 20 is so designed to maintain the current flowing through the ground at preset level, irrespective of variations in the soil and contact condition. The current passes through the C, C2 electrodes in the ground and the potential generatcd across V, V2 clectrodc is scnsed by the inslrumcnt. The instrumcnt is capablc of
detecting even a very low signal riding on a noisy background. The noise elimination takes place at various stages of amplification and the filtered signal is then processed to derive the resistance information. For excessively noisy condition the averaging mode is provided externaliy in addition to the internal built-in averaging. This facilitates geophysical prospecting even in difficult terrain {3}.
microprocessor based circuit always ensure the proper functioning of the instrument. Any malfunction such as low battery voltage, a poor contact at the current setting etc, is immediately detected and conveyed to the Operator through LCD display. This eliminates the possibility of any erraneous readings.
The
seven position switch is provided to select the appropriate current. The current rangcs are 0.2, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 5.0, 10 and 20 mA. Accuracy ofthe result will be higher, the higher the value of current. The Aquameter is provided by a rechargeable high power battery
A
of 12V. The generator circuit inside the Aquameter coverts the 12V DC into a high voltage supply of 150 V DC which is made to alternate at regulr intervals. This constant current genetator cireuits sends out the current through the C,C2 electrodes and maintain it at the preset value throughout the measurement.
K.
ELANGOVAN,
A.
BALASUBRAMANIAN
39
By selecting the number of cycles depending on the ground noise, one can get noise free readings. The available cycles are 1,4, 16 and 64. Using the rnge switch it is possible to M Ohm depending on soil select the resistance rnge 10 Olim, 100 Ohm, 10 K Ohm or
1
resistivity. Normally the lowest rnge is very suitable for accurate readings. Seif potential(SP) cancellation is done automatically by the instrument itself. There is no need of using non-polarising electrodes. But when SP values are required they can be measured in the voltage mode through the use of non polarising electrodes. There are only 5 controls of the instrument. They are (i) On/Off switch, (ii) 7 position generator current selection switch, (iii) 6 position rnge sclcctor switch, (iv) 4 position cycle switch and (v) measure start/push
button.
3.
PRINCIPLES OF REISTIVITY
The pattern of electric current flows in the ground is dependent on the sub-surface Variation in conductivity. The electric potential distribution in the surface is thus related to the
subsurface geology. The electrical resistivity of different materials beng different from each other, it is possible to distinguish them by their resistivity.
The matrix minerals in rocks are insulators. In rocks containing fluids, current is condueted electrolytically by the interstitial fluids and resistivity is controlled by porosity, water content as well as quantity of dissolved salts. Clay minerals are capable of storing electrical charges and current conduetion in clay minerals is electronic and electrolytic {10}.
Resistivity is a physical property of a substance. It is defined as the resistance offered for the flow of electric current by unit cube of the substance when voltage is applied across the opposite faces. The resistivity is expressed in Ohm-meters. The inverse of resistivty is termed as the conductivity .The resistance for a substance is a funetion ofthe resistivity, size and shape. The resistance (R) offered by the substance with regulr shapes such as cylinders, cubes etc can be determined with the formula
PL
R=
A
Where
p
is the
resistivity of the substance,
L is the
A is
length of the substance and the area of cross section of the substance
4.
RESISTIVITY SOUNDING VERSUS RESITIVITY PROFILING
Two basic types of field procedures are in common use, resistivity sounding and resistivity profiling. In resistivity sounding, the electrode spacing interval is changed while maintaining a final location for the center ofthe electrode spread. Since depth of investigation increases in a general way with increasing electrode spacing, resistivity sounding will be preferred if the aim is to determine the vertical Variation of formations (like thickness of rock layers and depth to basement). In resistivity profiling, the location of the spread is changed while maintaning a fixed electrode spacing interval, for example to locate the boundary of a gravel deposit.
40
Mcasurcmcnt of resistivity
electrodes formations. A current of called current electrodes measured with the help
Four
required for measuring the resistivities of the subsurface electrical intensity " I " is introduced between one pair of electrodes, C,C2. The potential difference produced as a result of current flow is of another pair of electrodes called potential electrodes P,P2. Fig
are
1
shows the electrical resistivity method of subsurface investigation. Let
"
V "represents the
potential difference, the apparent resistivity measure (pa)
is
Av
K
x
I
comprehensive of 25 electrode arrangements are available for various geological investigations {8}, of which Wenner and Schlumberger arrangements are being widely adopted for civil engeineering and groundwater problems.
A
Wenner array has four collinear equi-spaced point electrodes as shown in Fig 2a. The four electrodes C,,C2,Pi and P2 are placed at the surface ofthe ground along a straight line " " a P2C 2= a, where P,P2 can be called symmetrically about a central point, so that C,P, as interelectrode Separation. The configuration factor 'K'(also called as geometric factor) for
this array
is 271 a
and therefore the apparent resistivty
(pa) for this array becomes
pa
71
(^r)
Schlumberger Array is shown in Fig 2b. This array also uses four collinear point electrodes, but measures the potential gradient at the mid-point by keeping the measuring electrodes close to each other. The configuration factor for Schlumberger array is
K>7t MN
5.
(JL
\MN
RESISTIVITY SOUNDING INTERPRETATION
The reading obtained from Aquameter is the resistance and apparent resistivity is obtained by multiplying resistance with geometric factor. After the apparent resistivity is calculated it is important to findout the true resistivity. Many theoretical curves {5,9} and Computer inversion programs {2,6} are available to calculate the true resistivity with Iayer details.
Types of sounding curves:

form of the curves obtained by sounding over a horizontally stratified medium is a funetion of resistivities and thickness ofthe layers as well as ofthe electrode configuration. lf the ground is composed of a single homogencous and isotropic Iayer of infinite thickness and finite resistivity then, irrespective of the electrode array used, the apparent resistivity curve will be a horizontal line.
1
he
K.
ELANGOVAN,
A.
BALASUBRAMANIAN
41
lf
the ground is composed of three layers of resistivities

h3
p2 and
p3
and thickness
h2
and
co5
the geoelectric section is
described according to the relation between the
values of p,, p2 and p3 There are four possible combination between the values of p,, p2
and p3. They are
p>
>p2<p3
< P 2<
<
H type sections
p.
P3
A type sections
K type sections
Q
pl
P2>P3
p. >P2>P3
Fig
3
type sections.
shows the model master curves of H,A,K and Q type sections for Schlumberger sounding data. Electrode spacings (AB/2) are plotted in abcissa and apparent resistivity
pa)
is
plotted in Ordinate. True resistivities for first, second and third Iayer are given in
the figure for the
H,A,Q and K type curves as pi, p2 and p3 respectively. "H" type curves are found in place where top soil of high resistivity with water saturated or clay Iayer as the second Iayer and underlain by con act hard rock. "A" type curve results if the formations are Hh. "K" type occur if the cental Iayer has low resistivity resistive continuously towards the if the resistivity is then the overlying and underlying trata. " Q " type curve results
decreasing towards depth.
If
the ground is composed of more than three
horizontal layers
to
resistivities
Pi,p2,
oo, the geoelectric section is described in terms of p3....pn and thicknesses h,, h2, h3....hn relationship between the resistivities of the Iayer, and the letters H,A,K and Q are used in combination, to indicate the Variation of resistivity with depth. In four Iayer geoelectric
sections, there are eight possible relation between Pi,p2,p
and p4
pl l> P
p.
>
< < <
P3
<
> < >
P4 P4
P<
HA type sections
P2 P2
p3
P3 P3
HK type sections
pl
p.
p.
Pl
< <
< <
AA type sections
P2 <
P2
P4 P4
P4
AK type sections
KH type sections
KQ type sections
QH type sections
QQ type sections
>
> >
>
p3
<
>
P2
P2
p3
pl
pl
I
>
>
P3 <
P3
P4 P4
P2
>
16
For five Iayer sections there are
possible relationships between pi,p2,p3,p4 and p
Interpretation
by curve
matching:
is
widely used for the assessment of layers thickness and values are plotted in Ordinate and "electrode spacings are layers resistivity. Apparent resistivity plotted in abcissa in a tracing paper superimposed on double log sheet. A smooth curve should be drawn to connect all the points. This is the field curve which may be two, three or four Iayer case. If the field curve matches a three Iayer theoretical master curve, then that three Iayer curves should be used for interpretation.
Curve matching technique
42
Three Iayer master curve should be selected and the field curve should be superimposed on the master curve. Move the transparent sheet (field curve) horizontally or vertically over the master curves keeping the corresponding axes parallel, tili the field curve matches with one of the master curves. Trace the master curves origin on transparent sheet
and note down the
h2/hl,
the
p2/pi
and
p3/pi
values corresponding to the master curve
which malchcd with
field curve. Origin traccd on the field curve will yield
pi
and
hl.
Then the other parameters
p2, p3 and
h2 can be deduced
automatically.
Computer Inversion Techniques:

Some errors may occur in manual curve matching methods. Computer inversion Programme RESIST87 is available for accurate Interpretation {6}. The results obtained from curve matching method can be given in this programme as input for getting effective result.
Otherwise some arbitrary values for the field curve can be given by experience and by iteration method the true resistivity and Iayer thickness can be obtained form this program.
Limitation
of this method:
From these methods only we can get
geoelectric section. This
is because the
resistivity method is governed only by the resistivity contrast between various subsurface layers which need not always correspond to the geological boundaries. Geoelectric and is eoineide boundaries when there a geological only pronounced contrast between geologic layers. But if the resistivity values and Iayer thicknesses are correlated with the existing neigbhour borewell or electric logs or with the old data, one can get effective result and this will save much cost.
6.
CONCLUSION
Subsurface prediction from geophysical survey is indirect and such prediction must be checked by actual penetration of subsurface, either by exploratory boring and sampling of the soil or by excavation of small shaft or adits, which will also yield samples of materials for later testing in laboratories. Geologic struetures like fold and fault may be undetected by exploratory boring and other direct methods because ofthe random sampling ,but they can be easily detected by geoelectrical survey. Caerful examination of geoelectrical sounding curves with actual exploratory boring will be very useful for larger areas where it is not possible to go for exploratory boring densely. The exploratory boring will be carried out frequently for shallow depths. But geoelectrical survey can be carried out for 500 m depth with high aecuraey. This survey can also be carried out rapidly for many locations and if anamolies in subsurface is found then one can go for exploratory boring. This reduces the cost and time of exploratory boring.
7.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:
First author thank Dr.P.Radhakrishnan, Principal and Prof.S.Rajasekaran, Head ofthe Civil engineering department, PSG College of Technology Coimbatore for their constant encouragement.
K.
ELANGOVAN,
A.
BALASUBRAMANIAN
43
8.REFERENCES.
Balasubramanian,A., 1986, Hydrogeological investigation of Tambraparni rivr basin, Tamil Nadu, Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, University of Mysore, Mysore, 349 p.
1.
2.
Davis,P.A., 1979, Interpretation of resistivity sounding data: Comuter program for Solution to the forward and inverse problem: Information circular 17. Minnesota geological survey, 1633, Eustin street, St. paul, Mn 55108.
3.
Elangovan,K., 1997, Hydrogeochemistry of groundwater forming heavy scales in water supply Systems of Salem district, Tamil Nadu, Ph.D Thesis submitted to University of Mysore, Mysore, 334 p.
Legget,R.E. and Hatheway,A.W.,1988, Geology and engineering, Company, New York, 613 p.
4.
McGraw Hill Book
5.
Orellana,E. and Mooney,H.M., 1966, Master tables and curves for vertical soundings over layered struetures, interciencia, Madrid, 150 p.
electrical
6.
Van der VelpanJB.P.A., 1988, Forward resistivity model, M.Sc research project, ITC, Knnel weg, 32628, Delft, The Netherlands.
7.
Von Nostrand,R.C. and Cook,K.L.,
1966, Interpretation of
resistivity data, USGS prof.
paper No.499.
8.
Whitcley,R., 1973, Electrical arrays in resistivity and induced Polarisation prospecting; review, Bulletin of Australian Society of exploration geophysicist, V.4, pp. 1-29.
9.
its
Zohdy,A.A.R., 1965, The auxillary point method of electrical sounding interpretation relationships to the Dar Zarrouk parameters, Geophysics, V.30, pp.644-660.
and
Zohdy,A.A.R., Eaton,G.P. and Maybey, D.R., 1974, Application of surface geophysics groundwater investigation, Tech Inves. USGS, Book 2, 116 p.
10.
to
SHORT-FALLS IN SUB-SURFACE INVES FOUNDATIONS - A FEW CASE STUDIES CODAL PROVIS

Dr.S.
R.
Kulkarni
Dr. Kulka
in
Engineering
Geologist, Frofessor of Geology, Bharati Vidyapeeth, College of
rfl
1966 Worked i 1966 to
of Engine
Engineering Pune.
V. B. Borge
various projects a substructu
Chief Engineer,
Borge, b degree at
of
Mumbai F.W. Region, Mumbai.
Maha Chief En planning governme
consists o
Y. G.
Patwardhan
Patwardh
Managing Director,
Ameya Developers Pvt. Ltd., Pune.
s
degree an at Pune U
in
1973,
Superinte Sector m
46
SHORT-FALLS
IN
SUB-SURFACE INVESTIGATIONS FOR BRIDGE FOUNDATIONS
J%>
In view of authors' experience in that area, the paper deals with provisions more applicable to Deccan trap area which covers Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarath, Saurashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. The paper also suggests some modifications to the codal provisions. Case studies are given which include some success stories of proper investigations and some failure stories.
DECCAN TRAP BASALTS
A Few
Special Features
:
Volcanic breccias is another atmosphere, disintegrate into powdery material. common variety and needs careful consideration. Dykes are also very common in Deccan Traps. These dykes in Deccan Traps are usually harder than surrounding but are very closely jointed. Resting foundations partly on dykes and partly outside is risky (central pier of CBD arm of Konkan Bhavan flyover). Vertical or steeply has fractures taken which inclined no movement place are common in some along of the of them are quite tight. Water seeping along Deccan Trap area. Many parts the crack brings about decomposition of the basalts producing a zone of vertical sheet jointing varying in width from a few centimeters to a meter or more. A number of fractures were met with on Kharpada bridge and were required to be dealt with indivisually.
In the Deccan Trap two main types of basalts occur the compact or non~vesicular The common cavity fillings are zeolites basalts and the amygdaloidal basalts. The white difference between them is that the compact spdfcs. important producing the basalts basalts are well jointed while are unjointed. Jointing in amygdaloidal rocks plays a very important role in foundations. Chlorophaeitic basalts (amygaloidal or compact), are also common. Many chlorophaeitic basalts are prone to rapid deterioration on exposure to atmosphere. Hydrothermally altered basalts are often in poor condition. The black and red tachylytic basalts, on exposure to
3.
Core
OBSERVATION AND PRECAUTIONS DURING DRILLING drilling is done by two methods diamond drilling and calyx drilling. Of these diamond drilling is the most efficient process.
:
3.1
Minimum depth of drilling There is no uniform practice about depth upto which core drilling is carried out. Practice followed is to drill about 3m in hard rock and 5m in soft rocks. Specifying depth of drilling based on hard rock and soft rock alone is
unscientific.
In amygaloidal baslats three types of weaknesses may occur. One is cavities which occur due to escape of gases. These may be varying in size from minute to huge in which even a person can stand (Pune). In second, weathering takes This weathering results in insitu boulders. place along various sets of joints. The thickness of clayey weathered zone in between two insitu boulders may be a couple of meters also (Nagni bridge on Godavari). Third is pot holes which in the formed due to Deccan Trap rivers, are rejuvenation. These pot holes be of in diameter (Mula at Mandave). It is necessary that meters couple may the drill hole as well as the foundation must go beyond these weaknesses.
Dr. S.R.
KULKARNI, V.B. BORGE, Y.G. PATWARDHAN
47
3.2
Location of Bore Holes holes as far as practicable, shall be located at the exact foundation location of every foundation. It is Authors7 experience that Variation of even two meters changes the subsurface geology. At Kharpada bridge on NH-17, drill hole for Pier No. 12 was 4.5 m away from the actual foundation of the Pier. The rock met within the pit was totally different than that met with in the bore. In case of Konkan Bhavan flyover, drill hole for one pier happened to be at correct position where dyke existed. If it was taken 2 - 3 m towards south, picture would have been totally misleading.
Bore
3.3
Care
are
During Drilling
not
lost,
To ensure
that drilling data are not misinterpreted and also that valuable data certain precautions have to be taken during drilling and observations carefully recorded as described in PWD Handbook of Maharashtra. All the water that is fed into the drill comes back to the surface if, the rocks being drilled through, are water tight. If, however, the drill is passing through pervious rocks the water will leak into them and will not This drill water loss may be complete or partial return to the surface. the nature of the rocks. As drill water loss indicates a leaky depending on zone all drill water losses must be carefully recorded during drilling. Observing carefully the colour of drill water is important. Rate of drilling of each run gives in~valuable information. Experience shows that these It is always important to know important requirement are usually neglected. But, routine exactly where weak zones occur and what their nature is. drilling procedures will not provide adequate information on this vital point. In such cases another hole close to previous one is to be drilled in short runs in weak zone. Another alternative is to carry out nearly dry drilling at a very slow rate. Both these methods were adopted on Kharpada bridge on NH~17.
Length & Number of Pieces of Core In hard but jointed rock the core recovery may be very good, and consideration of the core recovery alone will lead to the conclusion that the rock is good. This, however, may be wrong, as because of its fragmented condition, the rock will not be good from the engineering point of view.
34
3.5
tachylytic basalts (GERU), Volcanic breccias with tachylytic basaltic lava matrix, chlorophaeitic basalts, shales will disintegrate. Therefore, the cores of such rocks must immediately be coated with wax. This was done and was found very useful on Konkan Bhavan flyover and Kharpada bridge.
3.6
Preservation of Core Pieces The cores of some rocks such as
Mechanical Fractures Core would normally break along preexisting divisional planes only. However, due to vibrations during drilling, particularly with a defective machine or defective Operation, core may also break even at places where joints do not exists. It is necessary to distinguish between fractures due to jointing and mechanical fractures, which can be done by examining the fracture surfaces.
48
SHORT-FALLS
IN
3.7
Corelogs & Lithologs All the information gathered during drilling is to be recorded in corelog form. The core log serves as the basic record. A litholog is prepared from the core log to present the information contained in the core log, in a readily intelligible form. Core logging and preparation of lithologs and graphic logs require not only geological expertise of a high order, but also skill in interpreting geological data for engineering purposes and hence these should not be attempted by anyone except an experienced engineering geologist or an Engineer trained in this respect.
3.8
Interpretation
Usually probable founding Stratum and its level is not known before drilling. Decision about founding level, SBC and buyoncy can be taken only after proper interpretation of the core log which is usually done later when drilling is terminated. At such time number of alternative types of foundations or alternative levels with different SBCs can be specified and most suited one can be chosen. This was done for 6 to 7 foundation of each of Konkan Bhavan and Suitability or Chhedanagar flyovers and Kharpada bridge on NH-17. otherwise of a particular type of foundation such as open, well or pile can be In case of two foundations of decided after interpretation of core log. instead of piles and for recommanded Kharpada bridge open foundation was of of need foundation not depend on rock three, piles instead open. Type levels only. More precautions are needed for well foundations. Sinking wells through rock is a very costly and time consuming process. It is also risky. Sinking wells through any rock is, therefore, resorted to only when it is unavoidable. In case of pile foundations, further more precautions are In closely jointed rocks conclusions from normal drilling ma\, necessary. indicate need to go down in rock. Very heavy chiselling will be required for Where reaching such levels which is costly, time consuming and risky. and level refuse certain a to below liners are provided, they go permenent while doing chiselling below the bottom of liner, collapses may occur making piling more and more difficult and complicated and more vulnerable for failure (Kharpada).
Codes need to give better and scientific guide lines upto where drill hole It is feit that the drilling shall be continued at least six meters in rocks giving consistant recovery. Little extra expenditure on extra depth of drilling may result in ease and economy during actual execution.
should go.
4.
4.1
COMMENTS ON SOME CODAL PROVISIONS Type of Drilling Equipment IRC-78/1983 or any other code does not specify type of equipment to be adopted. Three types of equipment are currently available; single tube, double
tube and triple tube. Single tube unit is mostly used which needs to be the of Most NITS, these days, provide for double tube boring but prohibited. in practice it is not implemented. Even for very large projects costing crores of Rupees single tube drilling is being adopted. In some regions, triple tube drilling may be needed where weak rocks such as tuff, shale etc. occur. Code needs to specify the type of equipment to be used.
Dr. S.R.
KULKARNI, V.B. BORGE, Y.G. PATWARDHAN
49
4.2
weathered or otherwise weak zone, well into the rock." Firstly transported As discussed boulders need to be distinguished from insitu boulders. hereinabove, in case of latter, location and thickness of weathered zone will be Secondly, for identifying a boulder, depth need not be a more important. criteria. While saying that a certain depth in sound rock shall be drilled, question is what is a "Sound rock" and who shall decide. At present such decisions are usually left to the driller. Decision where to stop needs to be taken by a trained Engineer or an Engineering Geologist.
4.3
78/1983 (Cl.704.5.3) provides that "exploratory drill holes may be drilled into the rock to a depth of about 3 meters to distinguish a boulder from A minimum depth of 3 meters in sound rock is a continuous rock formation. recommended. Normally the drill hole shall pass through the upper
IRC
Depth of Drilling in Rocks
Characteristic Strength of Rock Mass Cl.704.5.1 of IRC-78 recommends that for arriving at the characteristic strength of the rock mass, reliance be placed more on insitu tests in comparison to laboratory tests. Actually, no insitu test which can give real picture of Stratum below is available. Permeability tests will indicate to some extent, nature and material available in joints. Compressive strength, specific gravity and water absorption are the laboratory tests which can be well relied upon if done and interpreted properly.
states that an Engineering Geologist be associated in the exploration program. In practice it is observed that this is very rarely done. One reason could be ignorance of importance of this requirement. Secondly, probably, such Services are not available. It is therefore necessary that all engineers concerned need to be specifically trained in this respect. Such courses need to be designed and implemented on war footing.
The clause
further
4.4
RQD (Rock Quality Designations) Table-5 of Appendix-1 of IRC-78/ 1983. Firstly the definition needs correction. The correct definition shall be RQD in % length of the core between joints which are 100 mm and longer devided by length of run. Mechanical fracture of core needs to be properly differentiated from joints. Secondly the concept needs modification. Taking an extreme example of 100% recovery, RQD will be zero if there are 11 No. of pieces between joints of 9.1 cm length whereas it will be 100% if there are 10 number of pieces between joints of 10 cm length. This is ridiculous. It is feit that concept of modified RQD needs to be introduced which can be defined as percentage recovery divided by number of joints rounded to nearest integer and shall be designated as a number. Thus in the former case as above RQD will be 9 and in the latter it will be 10 and will give a more realistic picture.
4.5
Weathering and hardness 2 and 3 of appendix of IRC 78 give guidelines to decide extent of and hardness. weathering Although extent of weathering and hardness can be decided from these tables, it is difficult for the field Engineer to decide what to do with it. Recommended rnge of SBCs need to be given in such cases as
Tables
1
has been done in
table-1.
50
SHORT-FALLS
IN
4.6
Pressures on foundations Clause 706.2.1 Recommends FOS for rocks It is feit that the FOS (Factor of Safety) recommended for rocks, particularly for Deccan Traps, can be reduced when investigations and interpretations are properly carried out. While specifying FOS for pressures on foundations, differentiation needs to be made for short and long spans and also for simply supported or continuos spans.
:
4.7
Scour
No specific Provision is made in codes (nor such is possible) for scour in rocks. This is true for both the conditions either when rock is exposed or it is above the calculated scour level considering actual bed material. A provision is always made in NITS that scour shall be considered upto rock This is very dangerous. The nature and structure of rock so met with needs to be carefully studied and possibility of scour in it is estimated. Foundations levels will then have to be decided based on such estimation. Some guidelines need to be
given by codes.
4.8
Depth of Embedment in open foundation Provision made in cl.705.3.1 of IRC-78/ 1983 is more logical then before since now it defines Hard rock and Soft rock. Still, some more clarification is needed. If foundation has to rest on hard rock and if there is soft rock over it question is whether equivalence of soft rock can be taken while deciding embedment and if so how much. Secondly, minimum depth of rock of required capacity needs to be spccified. There are cases where hard rock is overlain by soft rock and in an attempt to provide required embedment, cover of good rock available over soft rock is reduced and the foundation becomes unsafe (Bridges on down stream of Ghod and Chaskaman Dams in
Maharashtra).
5.
CONCLUSIONS
1)
and
Importance of proper subsurface investigations need to be repeatedly explained insisted upon all Engineers^ from clients, from Consultants or Project Management Consultants and Contractors.
doing
so
a
2)
Codal provisions need a review and while Geologist need to be associated with.
A
proper Engineering
that
3)
special training needs to be imparted to all Engineers concerned interpretation of investigations is properly done.
so
6.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
authors are thankful to all the Chief Engineers of PWD department for allowing reference to various cases referred herein.
The
and
Irregation
7.
REFERENCES i) IRC-78/ 1983. ii) Maharashtra PWD Handbook of 1980 chapter VI. Engineering Geology.
Preparation of Projects and
Establishment of Foundation Design
Tove Feld Project Engineer
L&T-RAMBOLL Consulting
Engineering Ltd. Denmark
S.
Juel Petersen Head of Department
AM-
L&T-RAMBOLL Consulting
Engineering Ltd. Denmark
52
ESTABLISHMENT OF FOUNDATION DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR LIMESTONE
Establishment of Foundation Design Parameters for Limestone

Tove Feld and
S.
Juel Petersen
L&T-
RA MB OLL
Consulting Engineering Ltd. Denmark
UlfBergdahl
Swedish Geotechnical Institute. Sweden
THE 0RESUND LINK PROJECT
The design and construction of the fixed link across the 0resund between Denmark and Sweden was initiated in 1993. A Joint venture between RAMB0LL, Scandiaconsult, Tunnel Engineering Consultants and Sir William Halcrow named the 0resund Link Consultants were nominated house Consultant for the dient, Oresundskonsortiet, a Joint Danish-Swedish Company. The fixed link comprises
a
3510 m long immersed tunnel,
4055 m long artificial island and
high bridge and approach bridges of a total length of 7845 m. The combined road and rail link is scheduled to open for traffic in the year 2000.
r\
\\ \\ \\ \\
\*\
n
SALTHOLM
/ /
/
/
///
$
DENMARK
in
/
/
PEBERHOLM
/ /
SWEDEN
\
Kms
\\
\\ \\
I
I
I
I
Fig.
Alignment for
the 0resund
Link between Denmark and Sweden

OF
METHODOLOGY FOR ESTABLISHMENT
GEOLOGY AND PARAMETERS
Based upon existing knowledge about the geology and the stratigraphy of the Link Area, an Ex isting Model, ref. Fig.2, for the geology was established. Via this Existing Model additional geo logical and stratigraphical investigations were planned and executed. These investigations constituted reflection seismic and refraction seismic surveys and borehole logging for assessment ofthe stratigraphy, Performance of core drillings for collection of samples for geological and rock me^ chanical description and Performance of coccolith analysis, and Performance of test pits inland on the Danish side, in the Sound and inland on the Swedish side, and investigations of a limestone quarry on the Swedish side. The test pits were performed to extrapolate the detailed investigations in the Sound. These investigations resulted in an Updated Model, ref. Fig.2, for the geology and the stratigraphy. To further assess the rock mechanical parameters and the foundation design pa rameters for the Copenhagen Limestone large size plate load tests, 0.5 m size laboratory tests and thin sections analysis ofthe limestone were performed. This finally led to the Updated Model and the Design Parameters for the Copenhagen Limestone. The process and the various activities within the process is presented schematically in Fig. 2., and described in further details below.
T.FELD,
S.J.PETERSEN
53
Geological and Stratigraphical
Geological Investigations
and Rock Mechanical Testing
Investigations
Seismic Survey
Plate Load
Tests
Existing Model
Conng
Updated Model
Laboratory
Tests
Updated Model
and
Design Parameters
Test Pits and
Quarry
Thin Sections
Fig.
Methodology for Establishment of Geology
and Parameters
UPDATED MODEL
Seismic Survey
3.1
inter preted to represent Quaternary glacial deposits, prequaternary, Danian Copenhagen Limestone and Bryozoan limestone. The interpretation changed the structural model in the area from dominantly faulted to dominantly folded, and contributed hereby significantly to a consiStent geological model for the Link area.
3.2
In 1993 high resolution seismic surveys were performed in the Link area. The interpretation surveys led to mapping of three seismic units separated by two boundaries. The units were
ofthe
Coring
The boring campaign for the Oresund Link comprises an extensive number of borings (core drill ing, vibrocores etc.) performed prior to the first tenders for major contracts, forming part of the background information for the geotechnical basis.
Geophysical borehole logging was implemented to the engineering geological and hydrogeological investigations ofthe Danian limestone. Since the commencement ofthe offshore investigations in 1992, a large number of geophysical logging types were applied to the exploration ofthe bore holes. The logging methods respond to the Variation in conditions and parameters of the limestone, such as: sediment composition, bulk density, porosity, permeability, seismic velocity and salinity. Based on the characteristic frequency ofthe strongly indurated high density beds, the observations made it possible to create a stratigraphical sequence for the Copenhagen Limestone [2].
3.3
Test Pits and Quarry
Test pits were performed inland on either sides of the Sound and in the west part of the Sound. The test pit on the Swedish side was located at the site for the Performance of the large scale plate bear-ing tests. The test pits enabled a thorough geological, stratigraphical and rock mechanical descrip-tion of the limestone, which, in conjunction with the 60 m deep pit for the quarry at Lim-
hamn in Sweden, gave the opportunity of a correlation across the Sound, ofthe encountered lime stone strata. Later this correlation was extended and refined by the results from the offshore core
drill-ings and
the
geophysical investigations.
54
ji
UPDATED MODEL AND DESIGN PARAMETERS

Plate Load Test
4.1
As part of the site investigations an extensive series of plate load tests were performed at Lernacken close to the landing area on the Swedish side of the Sound. A total of 17 plate load tests were condueted with plate sizes varying from 1.0 to 3.0 m2. The tests were performed in three different ways, namely as vertical active tests, horizontal passive tests and horizontal shear tests.
The tests, including both static, dynamic and cyclic loading giving both drained
and
undrained behavior and strengthdeformation relations, are described in detail in [2] and [4]. The principle ofthe different bearing capacity tests are illustrated in Fig. 3.
Fig.
Definition of active, passive
and sliding cases
The different load situations were covered by different test types and different ways of applying the load, elueidating the influence ofthe anistropic behavior ofthe horizontally layered limestone, the effect of fissures and other anomalies in the limestone, the effect of cyclic loading and un-
loading, the effect of strain and strain rate, the effect of unloading and the degradation ofthe lime stone. The tests were performed on slightly indurated and harder limestone
4.2
Laboratory Test
To study the behavior of the limestone at variable stress conditions and to Supplement the plate load tests a series of triaxial tests on 0.5 m diameter and 0.5 m high samples were performed as
well as direct simple shear tests on 0.5 m diameter samples, ref.[4]. The triaxial testing program included both active and passive shear tests performed on anisotropically Consolidated samples. The shearing was performed under both drained and undrained conditions, and both with - and without an initial cyclic loading phase. The direct simple shear testing program included both undrained and drained shearing tests and dynamic failure tests. As it was assumed that the slightly indurated limestone would have a major impact on the bearing capacity ofthe limestone, all tests were performed on this type of material. The results from the plate load tests and the laboratory tests showed, in spite of the influence from the differences in induration of the limestone, that the strength parameters obtained in the laboratory tests are lower than the parameters obtained in the plate load tests. It was, however, assessed that the parameters from the laboratory tests would be representative for the limestone.
4.3
Thin Sections
Force direction
To study the physics of the limestone at failure, both undisturbed reference samples and samples
subjected to shearing at the plate bearing tests were extracted, ref [3] and [5]. Both the reference samples and the sheared samples were impregnated under vaeuum by epoxy, to stabilize the samples and to enable a microscopic study of thin sections under UV-light. In the mi
of material
=>
croscopic study the following subjeets were analyzed: changes of the porosity, fissures and patterns of fissures, fissuring and movements of
Fig.
Principal Sketch of Limestone Sample.
T.
FELD,
S.J. PETERSEN
55
shells and more indurated limestone parts, ductile flow and the directions of deformations of the material within the samples, as depicted in Fig. 4. In the analysis comparisons were made, both between the reference samples and the sheared samples, and within each individual sheared sam
provided the information that for slightly indurated limestone without any content of hard nodules, the limestone will experience a reduetion of the porosity leading to a stronger material which eventually will endure a higher failure load than limestone with some content of hard nodules. The explanation is that the nodules will prevent the compaction of the limestone during shearing, leading to unchanged strength parameters for the slightly indurated material, and to movement of the nodules which will further cause fissures to open and to destabilize the mate rial. This leads to a comparatively lesser bearing capacity ofthe material with the content of nod
ple. This study
ules
DETAILED GEOLOGY AND FAILURE MECHANISMS

Stratigraphy
5.1
In the
Oresund area, the Danian limestone series consist of an Upper unit of Copenhagen Lime stone up to 40 m thick, overlying Bryozoan limestone.
The Copenhagen Limestone can be subdivided into three stratigraphical subunits, named Upper, Middle and Lower Copenhagen Limestone, the Variation and location ofthe subunits are shown in
Fig.
5.
The subunits were
geological description of core samples and samples from test pits, supplemented by geophysical logs and re flection seismic [2].
identified and mapped through stratigraphical studies based
on the
The degrees of induration varies from unlithified to very strongly indurated, due to varying degree of calcite cementation and silicification. The strongly indurated limestone typically oecurs as 0.20.4 m thick layers intersected by less indurated rock, however benches up to 1.5 m have been found, as have flint layers typically of a 0.5 m thickness. At some locations, the upper part ofthe
limestone series, has been disturbed by glacial processes.
BRIDGE
MCL
*r
_ -^
V
-vT"; s
Quaternary/UCL
5
Upper Copenhagen Limestone/MCL= Middle Copenhagen Limestone/LCL=Lower Copenhagen Limestone/BL=Bryozoan
Fig.
5.2
Longitudial Profile ofthe Geological Section ofthe 0resund Link Alignment.
Anisotropic Behavior
The Copenhagen Limestone has a cemented structure, but is at the same time anisotropic due to layering and fissuring. The behavior of the limestone can be compared to "an old brick wall". Vertically the brick wall has a high bearing capacity, but against horizontal loading or sliding, the
mortar will be the weak element. Correspondingly the unlithified and weaker Iayer in the Copen hagen Limestone is the fragile area. High Stresses or large strains will lead to degradation ofthe material and the limestone will change into a silty cohesionless material.
56
The test results from the active, passive and shear failure tests confirmed the anisotropic strength conditions for the limestone and the struetures. In any major oecurrence of unlithified limestone, excess pore pressures may develop during shearing as a consequence of contraetancy.
5.3
Failure Mode
The investigations resulted in
a physical understanding of the failure mechanisms and a possible of the deriving design parameters considering the anisotropic behavior of the Copenhagen way Limestone, by distinguishing between active, shear and passive failure conditions.
From the insitu plate load tests performed at Lernacken [4] mechanism of the limestone could be divided into active, shear and passive failure conditions, as illustrated in Fig. 3.
it
became evident that the failure
prineipal failure conditions in the mechanism are depicted. This failure surface has previously been introduced [1].
In
Fig.
the
ACTIVE
SHEAR
PASSIVE
The shear strength at any part ofthe failure surface

can be
7*
Fig.
6
given by
zF
c'+a'tan^'.
Principal Failure Conditions
CONCLUSION
conclusion, the applied methodology, by firstly establishing a geological model, secondly obtaining a physical understanding ofthe behavior and failure mechanisms ofthe limestone, and finally assessing the strength and deformation parameters through an interpretation ofthe performed tests based on this physical understanding has sueeeeded. The use of the methodology has led to design parameters which, to a far extent, represents the true nature ofthe Copenhagen Limestone.
In
7
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to the Client, Oresundskonsordiet, for permission to publish this paper. Furthermore we wish to thank our Joint venture partners. The options expressed in this paper are
exclusively the Authors.

8
REFERENCES
Andersen, K.H. and Lauritzsen,R., Bearing capacity for foundations with cyclic loads.
tech. Engrg. ASCE, 114(5)., 1988, pp. 517-539.
Proc. ofthe XI ECSMFE
in
J.
1.
Geo-
2. 3.
Cph 1995, Volume
Dealing with Great Belt
and
0resund,1995
RAMB0LL, Petrograpical Investigation

Site, 1993.
and Test Samples from the Lernacken Limestone Test
4.
SGI/DGI,
stone, 1994.
Digest
report
on
Strength
and
Deformation
Properties
of Copenhagen
Lime
5.
0LC, Petrographical Investigation ofthe Sheared Test Sampeis from

Test Field, 1994.
the Lernacken Limestone
Design Flood
An
Overview of Indian Pract
S.P.
CHAKRABRTI
Consultant SPAN Consultants New Delhi
N.K. SINHA Chief Engineer
Ministry of Surface Transport

New Dell
'
:;
Krishan KANT
60
DESIGN FLOOD
- AN
OVERVIEW OF INDIAN PRACTICE
INTRODUCTION
Indian River System *s large and so also is the number of crossings by roads and railwavs Rrvers unlimited carry an annual flow of about 1700 bilhon m3 [1] They all swell in summer with high monsoon precipitaon in their catchments In Himalayan nv ers, snowmelt may add to it In the alluvial plains, many overflow the banks and flood the land around, often ravaging it
Flood
is
the most
familir
vear. with varying fury migation in a big way the se\ erest floods
and frequent natural disaster in India It afiElicts one rrver basin or the other almost every Protection of vital communication links of roads and railwavs during floods aids disaster This lends added socio-economic significance to designing bridge foundations safe agamst
Flood
h\
extreme natural event with many faces The pnncipal characteristics, usually represented in flood drograph, are i) Peak Discharge u)Water Level in)Volume iv) Flood Duration Peak Discharge alone may be the pnme concern in bndge hvdrology It will be deemed here as synonymous with flood The current design practice of estimating design flood is revievved here with particular reference to road bridges
is
an
CODE SPECIFICATION AND PAST PRACTICE
The first Section of the national Bndge Code, ERC-5 1985 (referred as Code), lays down specifications relevant to design flood, currently vahd for all road bndges[2] However, codes tend to be staue Design practice, often, progresses much beyond the bounds of codes For Indian bridges also, current code specificaon only defmes past
practice
2
1
Dements of Code specifications, which eventually made them invalid for current use,
are discussed below
Historie Flood
is simph defined in Code as the maximum observed flood or histonc flood, for a mandatory of record of 50 years[3] This earhest method of selecting design flood has grown rather dated Its period minimum dements are well known The probable frequency of the selected flood remained unknown The design flood at the same Site could increase as penod of record mereased Insufficiency of flood records more as a rule than exception, was of course. its biggest flaw Accepting it in its stnde. Code offers a long list of alternatne methods, obviously intended to find an equi\alent Two of them discussed below are of pnme interest These methods used in combination essentially defined past design practice. in conformitv with Code
The design flood
Area Yelocicv
Methode
This
is realh an extension of the method of Histonc Flood Instead of records for histonc flood the maximum water le\ el reached in histonc flood is sought to be estimated on the e\ idence of local witnesses These may mclude flood marks on banks and struetures close to project site or even fading memones of how high the highest flood rose on the
ancient tree or building The vanabihtv of bed profile and flood slope from those measured before/after flood is ignored Computation of stream velocirs rehes on subjeetive selection of an empincal coefficient The return penod of the design flood is left to uncertainry
2
3
Empincal Formula
family of empincal formulae for quick and ready estimation of design flood was developed
A large
in India These ha\e spilled from the past Century into the present The first one that made its debut in 1885 is Dickens formula[3] It C*A where Q is also happened to be the one most frequentlv used in bndge design. until recenth It read as-Q C a and constant design flood (ft3/s), A catchment area (mile2)
s
The fonnula was surely de\ eloped for small catchments, with limited data available and for a small region These obuous hmitations have been largeh ignored Its vahdity has been extended from regional into near national without manv qualms Although meant for small catchments, it has been used for catchments exceeding a few hundred
thousand km2
Imalid extrapolation
was
left to the
used the simple expedient of subjeetive judgment of designer,

the design
vaiying constant
who had httle
C as
wide
as
200 to 2000
bv
The cntical choice of
clues to go
except
as
uncertamty around the frequency of

2 4
flood resulting from the formula remained
personal preference the common malad}
The
Multiple Methods
in
Combination
Code preferred to rely on multiple methods to improve rehability, which could be elusive It all boiled down to Computing values tvvice over (or more). once by area velocitv method and then again bv Dickens formula (and/or equnalent) The values were compared and the largest only qualified for selection as the design \alue The inherent
S.R CHAKRABARTI, N.K. SINHA, KRISHAN KANT
61
fallacy should be obvious. If both methods were unreliable, comparison and combination may, in all probability, Compound the errors. Overestimation by Dickens formula could easily negate the efforts of a more rational hydrologic analysis. The same fallacy recurred when design discharge adopted for bridges in vicinity was called in for comparison. If the reference values themselves were estimated by unreliable methods, any comparison could have little relevance to a rational estimation.
PRESENT PRACTICE AND THE CHANGE IN APPROACH

use
practical
no longer rules the scene[4]. As disenchantment with it grew, search for rational methods for began as far back as the fifties. Dickens formula is now invalid even for minor bridges. A simple rational Substitute method of regional analysis was put to practice in 1973 [5]. Further development through two decades has followed and brought in its wake a complete change in approach.
3.1
Teriod of Empiricism'
Report of Committee of Engineers and Follow-up
a high powered Committee of Engineers on bridges appointed by Government of India (referred as Committee) was published in 1959[6]. It identified design flood and its rational evaluation as critically important. Following its recommendations, 'sustained and systematic collection of hydro-meterological data' was undertaken for the entire country on a shon and long term plan[6].
The report of
short term plan was completed in 1973. A regional Synthetic Unitgraph (SUG) method was evolved for estimation of design floods of bridges with catchments of 25 to 5000 km2[5]. The long term plan has continued since with Joint efforts of hydrologists. meteorologists and bridge engineers of roads and railways. The national cooperative study (referred as Study) was a landmark event in flood hydrology of Indian bridges. A brief description of the Study and the method of estimation of design flood evolved follows.
3.2
The
Basic Approach for the Study
The approach has to be tailored to availability of data and project size. Large investment intensive bridge projects should, of course, go in for detailed hydrologic analysis supported by project specific hydro-meterological investigation, if needed. For many large projects, gauging stations with adequate period of record may be available at
""
fj
J.
nr
r-*
>v
Cv.
/C
s^J
H>drometeroiogicalh Homogeneous Regions
- 26
Subzones and Major
Rners
62
DESIGN FLOOD
- AN OVERVIEW OF
INDIAN PRACTICE
Site or in
vicinitv
Flood frequencv analysis could be feasible and preferred
An example has been discussed later

2
The thrust area identified for the Study, therefore, related to bndges with catchments upto 5000 km the hon's share of total national Investment in bndges Most of their catchments were ungauged investigation was not feasible and Regional Analysis was the obvious Option open
These claimed
Project specific
Two candidate approaches considered for regional flood estimation were 1) flood frequencv u) hydro-meterological The latter was adopted for better availabihty of data and m conformity with the recommendaons of the Committee
Regional flood estimation studies were taken up for hydro-meterologically homogeneous regions For this purpose. the The salient country was div ided into 26 such regions (called subzones, pnncipal zones number 7) as shown in Fig features of these subzones varv widely in dramage basin area, topographv, rainfall, land use, etc Results were reported separate for each subzone
1
The Study has been jointlv undertaken by four apex bodies of Government of India - Central Water Commission (CWC), Research and Standards Orgamsation (RDSO) of Ministry of Railwavs. India Meteorological Department (IMD) of Minisy of Science and Technology and Ministry of Surface Transport (MOST)
3 3
Study Methodology
1
f71
Flood Flow Data (RDSO/MOST)

at selected representative railwav bndge catchments (RDSO) numbenng Penod of observations in phases vaned from 5 to 10 >ears begmmng from 1965 observations at total number of 45 road bndge Sites (MOST), beginning 1979
Rainfall and flood flow data were collected

about
10 to 30
for each subzone

b>
These were supplemented
332
Storni Analysis (IMD)
Long term rainfall data for object subzone for a large number of raingauge stations both ordinr}' and seif recording, were collected b\ IMD from its National Data Centre These were combined with rainfall data mentioned in 3 3 IMD made rainfall depth-duration-frequencv analysis of data for each subzone and furnished the following
1
components of design storm- i) Isopluvial maps of 24 h point rainfall of 25.50 and 100 vear return penod (T) n) Ratios of Short Duration to 24 h Rainfall m) Time Distnbution Curves of Storms of vanous duration iv) Raos of Areal to Point Rainfall Hourh design storm rainfall increments could be redilv estimated with the aid of maps tables and Charts given bv IMD
3
Hydrologic Anal}
sis
(CWC)
CWC collated coneurrent rainfall and flood data furnished for gauged catchments in a subzone After due scrutiny and finahsation of gauge and discharge rating. several storm/flood events were selected for study One hour unit hydrographs (UG) were demed by usual methods A few charactenstics of UG curve were identified and measured for the several UG curves in uew These were correlated to physiographic charactenstics of catchment bv regression anahsis A simple relation of the form y k*\ n where k, n are constants. did suffice to define the SUG for ungauged
catchments
in
subzone Fig
0
shows
typical SUG developed including the constants defimng

River
it
90 80
Subzone
0
Karmanasha Sone 1(d)

A
L
Catchment Area
Length of Stream Equivalent Slope
*p
2000 km2
180km
1
70 60
0
0
m/km
0,2
Q3im/S0>)'
1
50
0
75Q
WR
1
Qp
664/(t)09M
534/(qp)0*7
1
0385
w2
W,
57
50 0
478/(qp)0M
091/(qp)075
24
13
7
40 0 30 0 20 0
5QP
w
W1R
0 5
672/(qp)om
526(tp)086*
TB
Tm
Qp
162
50 77
VV2
qpxA
1
100
0 0
Design Storm Duration Design LossRate Base Flow
1*tp =54
=0 25 cm/h =0 045*A
00
50
100
150
200
Timen
Fig
S}nthetic Unit H}drograph-An example
S P
CHAKRABARTI,
N K
SINHA, KRISHAN KANT
63
Average constant Infiltration loss(4>-index) rate per hour, base flow per km2 to be used m design estimation and design storm duration were also denved bv CWC on a general basis, from analysis of a number of flood events
3
Studv Report and Method of Flood
Estimation(CWC)
T71
Results ofthe stud} for each subzone have been reviewed by a co-ordmation committee and published successively by CWC separate for each subzone The reports la} down a method of estimation of design flood with return penod of T 25 50 100 \ears by SUG It is based on the basic assumption that design stonn of T vears return penod causes a flood of T \ ears return penod No significant interception is presumed
Deign flood with desired return penod is computed m three simple steps- i) draw the SUG curve, tabulate its hourly ordmates ii)esmate the hourlv rainfall increments (deduct losses) m) Compute direct runoff, add base flow Method 25 50 100 years is lucidly set out with tables, Charts, maps and worked out examples to of estimation of flood of T aid easv and unfettered use Hv drographs can also be prepared
The utihtv of these reports extends much beyond its prescnption of a rational method of flood estimation for minor bndges Each seif complete subzone report contains detailed documentation of data collected, methods of anaiv sis and
results along with some general topographic climac meteorological data 21 separate reports, covenng all but 2 subzones and 91% of the countiy have been published by CWC to date[8] A large national hv drometeorologic database has been compiled and desen es to be extended in future
3
Design Flood Defined- Anomahes Abandoned

1
Anomahes in Definition
Estimation of Design Flood can onh as good as Design Flood is defined Anomahes in definition may undo all the rationale of evaluation Some did creep into Committee recommendaons quoted below [6]
Committee feit that design discharge should be maximum flood on record for a penod of not less than 50 vears Where adequate records are available extending over not much less than 50 years, design flood should be 50 vear flood determined from probabihtv curve on the basis of recorded floods dunng the penod
Committee thus defined Design Flood as Maximum Observed Flood (definition l)and NOT as Flood with Return d0 Year or anv other T fixed a pnon (definition 2) Code definition is identical and the lack of logic has Penod T
been discussed in
2
1[2]
1
is unambiguous Definitions do not alter as a function of penod of flood record Option of Committee for definition It would be highlv anomalous to presume that definition could be substituted b} definition 2 if penod of record just feil short ofthe threshold value of 50 vears Nor could flood frequency anal}sis be invalid for 50 vears' record When this context is ignored anomahes anse These are best lllustrated b} Table
1 1
Table
Case Studv for Yamuna at
Maximum Observed Floods and Return Penods Tajewala- Annual Flood Peak Senes 1913-78
Ma\m Observed Histonc Floods

Year
1924 Sept 1947 Sept
Flood m3/s
Year
105
35
13
Floods of T vear Rerurn Penod (Probabihtv Curve) T Year Flood m3/s

50
2M10
18390 13234
20320
25020 30240
100
19-o Oct
1978 Sept
200
26410
130
1000
47550
the annual peak senes>50}ears (1913-78)into account a flood with T as high as 130 years should be selected design flood Given a hvpotheticallv truncated senes of 50 vears- (1925-75), a flood with T as low as 35 vears would be selected as design fluodas defined b} Committee The real dilemma more commonplace should anse when a hvpotheticallv truncated senes over 1938-78 (40 years) is considered Maximum observed flood with T=130 vears oecurs in this series and selecng anvthmg lower as design flood would amount to a gross violation of the basic definition At best the intent of Committee could be interpreted (for insufficient flood record) to find a probable flood in 50 vears with probabihtv of exceedance left anomalously undefined
Taking
as
Foundation Design Flood [6]
[2]
The foriner claiming

1
Committee also recommended two kinds of design floods for bndges-1) foundation design flood 2) deck design flood a higher safetv level is obtained b} incrementing design flood bv a Factor of Safetv varving (from The 3) inversch as the catchment area The latter with a lower safetv demand is assigned factor of safety of to
1 1
64
DESIGN FLOOD
AN OVERVIEW OF INDIAN PRACTICE
length of deck or waterwav should higher safety levels
be
determined by design flood A higher value only apphes
to
foundations with the
Safetv factors may not have much relevance m bndge hydrology
increase non-hnearl} following as high as 1 5 for large projects
Desire for higher safetv and higher safety factors can flood event There are instances of Factor of safety for foundation design flood nsing
Distmction between safetv levels for waterway(deck) and foundation is quite lmpracticable Scour around foundation a function of Q/W where Q is the design discharge, W length of watenvav So a lower watenvay enhances the nsk of foundation failure
is
3
5 3
Rational Definition
Rational methods of estimation of design flood for road bndges in current practice could not but abandon the anomahes discussed above No distmction is made between foundation design flood and other design flood Nor is 50 year return penod flood incremented bv a factor of safety (1 3 or more) considered relevant Rational definition of design flood in terms of T year return penod fixed a pnon is oi\ adopted in present practice It apphes umforml} to all bndges minor medium and major alike The probabihtv of exceedance of a design flood with a given return penod dunng design Service life is shown in Fig 3[10] The design Service life of road bndges m India can be notionally defined as 50 years Fixmg a return penod of 50 years for design flood would yield a probability of
exceedance of 65% which mav 39% and 5% respectiveh
be
deemed too high Higher return penods of 100 and 1000 vear will reduce the nsk to
The optimal choice of a return penod of 100 vears defines present practice The Studv report includes estimation of 100 vears The same return period apphes to inflow design flood of small dams according to IS floods with T It 1J is interesting to recall that the very first version of Bridge Code draft dating back to 1946 opted for Guidehnes[l a 100 vear design flood [12]
So the
present definition of design flood
as one
with T=100 }ear abandons all anomahes of past practice
Choice of
StRvice
FLOOO
EXEED*KE
AW rE
CO
N-ROO
NftAPS
E*CECMNCE
NUN -EXCEEQNCE
-RSK-Of EXCEEONCE [XRINO
FLOOD FREOUENCV EQUAL
^TOSESVICELIFE
40
50
60
80
90
Risk of Flood Exceedance (R)
Fig
Flood Frequencv and Risk of Exceedance

a
Design Flood is a nsk based decision aimed at socio-economic optimisation ulity of afford the luxury of designing bndges for 1000 year flood
3
structure
India can hardly
Regional Flood Frequencv Anaiv
sis
Regional Flood Frequencv Anaiv sis has not been developed in the Study reports Inadequacv of flood flow data is the obvious reason However the Regional Flood Frequency Model was developed with limited data for one 2 Subzone(Sone)[13] Data of 11 catchments spread over the subzone with areas varvmg from 30 to 500 km were used Annual flood peak senes of 11 to 25 }ears was available Gumbel EV-1 distnbuon was used Values of floods (QT) 2 33(mean annual flood Qm),25(Q25), 50(Q-,0) iOO(Qioo) êre obtained by fitting a for vanous retum penods T straight line through plotted positions The following ratios of QvQm have been denved - Q:^/ Qm=2 83 Qs0/ Qm=3 38 Qioo/ Qm=3 82 The regional formula for mean annual flood is related to phvsiograpic charactenstics of
S.P.
CHAKRABARTI, N.K. SINHA, KRISHAN KANT
65
catchment derived by least Squares method read as, Qm=2.33*A0795*S0567*F<)520) where area in km2, S equivalent storm slope in m/km, F form factorA/L2 L being basin length.
3.6.1
Qm is in m3/s
,A catchment
Mean Annual Flood
Results yielded by the method were acceptable and proved the potentials of future use. Incidentally, estimation of Qm is key step in flood frequency analysis and it is equally so in foundation design. Accidental load combination like earthquake or brge impact often determines foundation design [14]. Code specifications lay down that Mean Annual,
Flood. and NOT Design Flood should be combined with earthquake. As such estimation of the former gets equal importance in current rational practice. Arbitrary coefficients promoted by cursory code prescriptions are worth ignoring[14]. Flood level corresponding to Qm is also to be evaluated, as depth of scour is to be measured from it only.
3.7
Flood Frequencv Analvsis for Large Catchments
Large bridges need project specific investigation and analysis for rational flood estimation. Application of the regional analysis is limited to about 5000 km2. Choice of methods is left to designer. This, of course. precludes any return to
empiricism.
Single unit hydrograph cannot be applied to large catchments. The total drainage area has to be divided into a number of subbasins .Separate flood hydrographs may be derived for each sub-basin from analysis of different storms. These hydrographs are routed down river to site. Appropriate flood routing methods are used[l]. Calibration of flood hydrographs and flood routing parameters is essential.
However, a flood frequency analysis is the preferred method in practice. With the large netvvork of gauge and discharge stations of CWC in major river basins, it is feasible to find one not far from the site. An example of a simple application of rational flood estimation procedure is given below [15].
The catchment area was as large as 368302 km2. In large drainage basins(A> 10000 km2) floods in tributary basins occur at different times at random. Combination of these make the flood event in the main river. As the number of
tributaries increases, frequency distribution curve should tend to the normal distribution[16]. Flood gauge data were available at CWC Station close to site for 1971-95. A rating curve was developed for determining discharges conesponding to the gauze records. The annual peak series was then analysed using normal distribution curve to yield the following flood values in m3/s- Qm=25000,Q50=35800, Q10o=37.200. The corresponding flood levels(m) were given as 83.750, 87.540, 88.000 m. It was interesting to note that maximum observed flood (1978) was identical to Qioo- Dickens formula yielded a discharge 42155 m3/s which exceeds 1000 year flood.
4.
CONCLSION
The method of estimation of design flood has been weaned away from the past practice of empiricism and irrational definition of design flood. Regional synthetic unitgraph (SUG) method is used instead. Parameters have been derived
for the entire country divided into 26 regions. Design Flood is simply defined by a Return Period of 100 years. Maximum observed flood or Factors of safety for foundation design flood are no longer relevant. For large bridges and catchments regional analysis is precluded. Flood frequency analysis is usually adopted using nearest gauging Station
records.
little room for ambiguity in the present practice of flood estimation, given above. Yet the boundaries between past practice and present may not be as clearly delimited as presumed in the paper. Traditions die hard and so do defunct Code prescriptions. These aberrations are better ignored without much ado.
There
is
REFERENCE
1.
CENTRAL BOARD of IRRIGATION and POWER, River Behavior Management and Training, Publication
Nr. 204, Volume -1, New Delhi, 1989.
2.
IRC:5 - 1985 - Standard Specifications and code of practice for Road Bridges, Section-I, General Features of Design 6th Revesion. 1985, Indian Road Congress.
3.
CENTRAL WATER COMMISSION, Estimation of Design Flood- Recommended Procedures, New Delhi,
1972.
4. 5.
CHOW, V.T., Handbook of Applied Hydrology, McGrawHill, New York, 1964.
CENTRAL WATER COMMISSION, Estimation of Design Hydrograph Principle, Report Nr 1/73, New Delhi, 1973.
Flood
Peak,
Method
based
on
Unit
6.
7.
GOVERNMENT of INDIA. Ministry of Railways. Report of the Khosla Committee of Engineers, 1959. CENTRAL WATER COMMISSION, Directorate of Hydrology (Regional Studies), Flood Estimation Report
66
DESIGN FLOOD
- AN
OVERVIEW OF INDIAN PRACTICE
for all Subzones, New Delhi, 1973-97.

8.
for Mahanadi Subzone

9.
CENTRAL WATER COMMISSION, Directorate of Hydrology (Regional Studies), Flood Estimation Report - 3-(d) (Revised), New Delhi, 1997.
P. R et ai.
RAO
Flood Forecasting on the Yamuna in 1978, Central Water Commjssion Report.
10.
AASHTO, Highwa} Drainage Guidelines, Washington, 1992.
11. 12.
MOSONYI, E., Selection of Design Flood. ICID Bulletin, January 1977 INDIAN STANDARD - Guidelines for fixing spillway capacity of Dams, IS:11223 -1985.
THE BRIDGES COMMITTEE, IRC, General Features of Design, Paper nr 109, Journal of Indian Roads Congress, 1946.
13.
CENTRAL WATER COlyiMISSION, Directorate of Hydrology (Regional Studies), Flood Estimation Report
for Sone Subzone - l(d), New Delhi, 1987.
14.
IRC.78
RAO
and Substnicture. 1983, Indian Road Congress.

15.
P.
1983, Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Road Bridges", Section - VII, Foundations
R,
Specialist
Report
on
Hydrology,
H}draulics
and
Scour
for
Bridge
Project
Private
Communication. 1996.
16.
Flood Frequency Analysis - Assumptions and Limitations, National Seminar on Hydrology on Himalyan Catchments, Roorkee, 1986
RAO P.R
et al.
ROLE OF HYDRAULIC MODEL ST
B.U.
NAYAK
Director
(Mrs) Ch
Central Water and Power PO Khadakwasla Research Stat
B.U.
NAYAK
Director Central Water

Power Research Station
and
:>
(CWPRS) Pune, India.
68
ROLE OF HYDRAULIC MODEL STUDIES IN BRIDGE DESIGN
1.
INTRQDUCTION
River Characteristics
1.1
Indian rivers in flood plains are shallow and flow in a wide alluvial belt with meandering braiding characteristics. The river Brahmaputra is intensely braided about 30 km upstream of Guwahati with a width of about 10 km. Thereafter it naturally constricts to 1.5 km at Saraighat bridge and again widens to 18 km at about 30 km downstream of this bridge. In 1980, construction of a 17 span road bridge at Tezpur was started on the river Brahmaputra from the hill located at the right bank. By the time construction progressed the deep Channel shifted considerably towards the left and the bridge had to be compieted with additional 7 spans on the left side to accommodate the lateral shift in the river regime. Before formulating any hydraulic project, it is therefore essential to understand the behaviour of the river in the vicinity of the project area including upstream and downstream Stretch ofthe river regime.
and
Bridge construction requires careful planning and in-depth study as no undue risk should taken in its design and construction. Study made by Smith on the failures of 143 bridges constructed between 1847 and 1975 indicated that majority of the bridges have failed due to scour around the piers and abutments. Other causes were defective design, overloading, adoption of inadequate or unsuitable erection techniques, earthquake forces and use of material or type without taking into account, certain salient aspects which are critical or not known to be critical at the time of design and construction.
be
2.0
HYDRAULIC ASPECTS
Hydraulic aspects of bridge design consists of selection of site, Optimum orientation and waterway, location of abutments, design of guide banks, approach embankments and design of bridge piers. As far as possible bridges are to be located on straight reaches and with alignment normal to the flow. Nodal points are ideal for locating bridges. High cost of bank to bank bridges and bank protection required on the upstream and downstream Stretches of the river made the and approach embankments. banks to look for constricted bridges with guide engineers the of design discharge, type river, whether aggrading or Waterway design depends upon The empirical relation degrading, and nature of river such as braiding or meandering, etc. evolved by Lacey for stable width in alluvial rivers is widely used to determine the waterway for bridges. Inadequate waterway can result in excessive velocities across the bridge causing deep scour at the piers and the guide banks in addition to an undesirably high afflux on the upstream side. Excess waterway causes slackness in the flow thereby causing aggradation, promoting the formation of shoals resulting in non-uniform flow distribution and oblique approach of the flow to the bridge. Deviation from Lacey waterway becomes imperative in some cases to take care of site conditions. special
bridges, the abutments are provided with guide bunds (also called guide banks) and approach embankments. The guide bunds which ensure smooth passage of the river flow through the bridge, are so designed that, a safe marginal distance is available between extreme swing of deep Channel with possible worst loop.
In constricted
Bridge piers are founded on wells or in some cases on piles. When rocky strata is not available at a considerable depth and river bed is highly erodible, well foundations are suitable. When rocky strata is available at 6-20 m below bed level, pile foundation is preferred. In Karnataka
B.U. NAYAK, (Mrs.) V.K. APPUKUTTAN
69
ofthe bridges of Konkan Railway are located in the reaches of rivers affected by ddal variations (estuarine conditions) and strata comprises of marine silt or clay followed by dense Pile foundations were considered suitable for these bridges. sand, sandy clay, soft rock, etc.
and Goa, most
Speed
tilting,
of construction, economical and accurate construction and elimination of problems shifting, etc. are the advantages of pile foundations over the well foundations.
of
Undermining of the piers by scour is a potential cause of failure of bridge foundations. Local scour that is scour which occurs due to the presence of an obstruction to the flow causes a decrease in the bed elevation only in the area surrounding the obstruction. The feature of the flow around a dominant pier bridge essentially comprises the The most important of vortices. System of these are the horse-shoe vortex and wake vortex System (Fig.l). As the flow approaches the pier a Stagnation plane is formed. Because of the vertical velocity profile a pressure gradient is formed
HORMSHOC
VORTfx
along the Stagnation plane on the pier. This gradient produces a downflow in front of the pier, which acts like a
vertical jet in eroding the bed material. and The indentations downflow ^ FLOW PATTMH hole at the to excavate a combine leading edge ofthe pier. The incoming flow separates at the edge of the scour hole, creating a circulation or roller within the scour hole. The downflow divides at the bottom of the scour hole and spirals downstream vortex. It is very past the pier. This together with the ground roller forms a horse-shoe efficient in transporting dislodged Sediment particles away from the pier. Wake vortices form at the downstream side of piers and are the result of flow Separation at the sides of the pier. The wake vortices dissipate as they move downstream. The frequency of periodical vortex shedding downstream is directly proportional to the approach velocity and inversely proportional to the pier diameter.
FIG
AT
CISCULA
PICO
Depth of scour depends on a number of variables such as depth, velocity and angle of attack of flow, width of obstruction, soil strata and sediment size. In the case of non cohesive the materials characteristics of bed material which affect scour include sediment density, median size and Standard deviation. Since lighter sediment will move at lower mean velocity or shear, greater scour can be expected. When the Channel is not transporting sediment, the bed around the pier will continue to lower until the shear in the scour hole is critical.
transported by water and after flocculation get deposited in main river Channel on flood plains and in lakes and estuaries. When sandy material is mixed with silts and exhibits a certain amount of cohesion. clays in different percentages, the material, is to determine information not available scour depth around bridge piers in Adequate cohesive soils. Kand suggested that Lacey's silt factor be increased in the case of cohesive F (1+C05) where fc is Lacey silt factor for cohesive soils by using the relation. fc soils, C is cohesion in Kg/cm2 and F is a coefficient based on angle of internal friction 0. 5 or less. If 0 is greater than 16 11 to 15 and F =2.0 for 0 F= 1.5 for 0 and C> 0.2 kg/cm2, it is sandy soil with clay binding, and can be treated as sandy.
Clays are
70
ROLE OF HYDRAULIC MODEL STUDIES
IN
BRIDGE DESIGN
Very limited data are available on scour around bridge piers in gravel bed rivers. The bed material of these rivers is usually characterised by relatively large mean size. It is during relatively large flood that all the particles in the bed material move, as the discharge reduces the coarser particles which cannot be moved, accumulate on the bed surface and form a Iayer of non-movable particles on the bed. This is known as protective armour Iayer or paving. When a bridge pier is constructed in a gravel - bed river as the scour progresses during the flood, coarser particles will accumulate in the scour hole and armouring effect will be increased. As a result, the scour depth will be much smaller than that in an alluvial river with relatively finer and uniform materials.
of maximum scour can be grouped under three components viz., (a) general scour due to design flood, (b) scour due to constriction and (c) local scour due to pier obstruction. Laboratory studies are useful in predicting more accurately the third part i.e., local scour due to pier obstruction. Lacey-Inglis method of estimating scour around is bridge piers commonly used in India for piers placed in alluvial rivers and is Road recommended by the Indian Indian Railwavs Inglis advocated Congress and 2 DL where DL is the maximum scour depth Ds below HFL, around a bridge pier as Ds maximum general scour depth below HFL suggested by Lacey as 1.34 (q2/f)1/3 where q is m05, in f and is cum/s/m 1.76 silt factor the mean diameter where 'm' discharge intensity ofthe bed material in mm. This method is meant for sandy rivers of meandering type.
In an estuary or a tidal river where flow is subjected to periodical change in direction, the scour of the river bed occurs mostly during ebb tide (seaward flow). During flood the scour of the tidal river bed is supposed to be nominal because the increase in discharge is being
Estimation
accommodated mostly by rise in water level rather than by lowering of the bed levels by scouring. The phenomena of the scour depend considerably upon the order of velocity which persists for a prolonged period in the tidal cycle which occurs generally at the mean tide level (MTL). Therefore, for computations of regime depth D in the tidal river, the normal depth of water should be measured from MTL and not from high flood level (HFL). Also the computations of discharge intensities and mean velocity should be undertaken at the mean tide level. The regime depth is thus obtained using Lacey's empirical regime formula which is applicable to alluvial river. In tidal river of this kind, the maximum natural depth of scour is obtained by using a multiplying factor of 1.25 to 2.7 to the regime depth.
criteria for scour protection and the level of foundation are different for the deep and shallow types. For deep foundations, usually no scour protection is provided. But there are many cases where a shallow type pier foundation has to be selected. This type of foundation is greatly subjected to scour risk and therefore adequate design allowance and scour protection are required. ^- bridge pier
The
for scour protection laid over Alters which help the leaching of finer base river sediment through
Stones
due
(Fig.2) are in arresting material or

the
RIP-RAP
RIVER
BED
rip-rap to hydraulic upward primarily gradient and turbulence within the rip-rap Iayer. The filter should be fme enough to prevent the base material from entering
/
C0A*SE
AS
GEOFABRIC
SAND
EILTET?
RIVER
BED
MATERIAL
CUSHION
FIGX.
SCOUR
PROTECTION
FOR
A BRIDGE
PIER
71
and it should be much more
permeable
to
water
than
the
base
material.
Using geofabric
relatively new and modern development and is advantageous both in terms of economy and ease of construction as compared to the graded filter. In order to prevent damage to the geofabric filter while placing the stones, a 15 cm thick Iayer of coarse sand should be provided over the filter as a cushion.
is
a
filter
3.
NEED
In
FOR
MODEL
STUDIES
parameters in the
availability of many empirical formulae associated with analysis of certain river vicinity of the bridge, it has been found that model studies either physical or mathematical would be valuable in optimising the design parameters to suit the specific site conditions, thereby reducing the risk of bridge failures. Morphological studies of the river
and
spite of
would help to understand the river behaviour, changes in the river and development of shoals, bars, islands, bank erosion, etc. Information analysed under pre-bridge conditions would help the to estimate likely morphological changes in the river under post-bridge conditions. CWPRS has condueted physical, mathematical and morphological studies for various bridges to derive Optimum design parameters or to solve certain problems faced by the engineers.
upstream
downstream
Channel alignment, formation
CASE
4.1
STUDIES
The Toka Bridge

The
Toka bridge is situated across the Godavari river on Pune-Aurangabad sector of State Highway No.27. The construction ofthe bridge was completed in the year 1961. Safety of the in be the to ascertained of view of dam construction a downstream of bridge was required 9 years, the permissible scour the bridge at Paithan. On the basis of the analysis of data for level to achieve the required grip length was worked out which was more or less equal to the existing average river bed level. It was, therefore, necessary to provide proper protection at the existing river bed level for preventing local scour thereby maintaining the design grip length. It was therefore suggested to provide 0.6 m X 0.6 m X 0.45 m cement concrete blocks over a the m width around the piers with granulr filter in 6.40 top of protection flush with the river bed level (Fig.3). Since CC 1:2 4 -06X0 6X0 45 7o.i l_p,er_j BLOCKS WITH 0.075m GAP INlaying of the granulr filter under ^RL 452.40 m r~30"n BETWEEN w: rn M11H1 m flowing water was difficult, project
m
cement concrete engineers laid blocks in two layers with staggered joints to minimise loss of bed
>
**m
\\w\
WELL
*'<.W\VS
GOBBLES
GRAVEL
through the gaps. After the construction of protection works, the heavy flood oecurred and Performance was reported to be satisfactory except that a few blocks at the edges of the protection were disturbed.
sand
9
#
ttAQ
3^s
ibcntt
ScTriV
******
DETAILS
*:
GRAVEL ^BED SAND
CC. BLOCKS rCOBBLES
T-X
PROTECTION
AT
FIG5.TYPICAL
PIER
TOKA
BRIDGE
72
IN
BRIDGE DESIGN
4.2
The Alamnru
Bridge
The Alamuru bridge is situated across the Godavari river downstream of the Dowlaiswaram anicut on the Stretch of National Highway between Vijaywada and Visakhapatnam. The width of the river at this location is 2441 m. On the basis of model studies condueted at CWPRS for the design discharge of 56,600 cum/s, a bridge with waterway of 1454 m with suitable guide bunds was suggested to achieve uniform distribution of flow in various spans. However, in the year 1967, a bridge with total waterway of 2341 m was constructed.
During the year 1978, deep scour developed at the second pier from the left abutment resulting in its tilting. At that time the discharge was only 13,000 cum/s which was much less than the design discharge of 56,600 cum/s. However, excessive waterway had resulted in the formation of islands which led to the concentration of flow with an oblique approach. Based on some measurements at site, the discharge intensity at the affected pier was estimated to be about 71 cum/s/m with an obliquity of 25 to 30 and the observed scour level was (-) 16.15 m. The bottom level of wells was at RL (-) 25.0 m.
The general scour level corresponding the discharge to intensity of 71
cum/s/m worked out to be RL (-) 0.6 m. after the However, analysis of data floods indicated that the deepest bed level had shifted from pier No.2 to 4 and was at RL (-)2.0 m. It was difficult to do the excavation of 4 m in the water and therefore protection at RL (-) 2.0 m over a width of 11.5 m around the pier suggested (Fig. 4). At othef was locations, the bed level was higher where the protection was not needed
SIZE
OF
BLOCK
CONCRETE 1mx1mx1m
imi murr k-11Srr
~\
m -jj
'
RL
35m
L- 200m
JDCCQSE3
115
m-4T\ STANDARD
FILTER
!jj
FIG
^..DETAILS 0F PROTECTION PIER NO
AT
ALAMURU
BRIDGE
immediately.
4.3
The
Delhi-NOIDA Bridge
of river Yamuna traverses through the National Capital Territory of Delhi. In the urban 25 km three barrages and four bridges exist, most of which have area of Delhi, i.e., within been constructed based on the model studies and recommendations of the CWPRS. During the last 10 years, proposals for four more bridges were studied ^?\ vr^tTlJ^^^^X^
50
km
^^^
^V^
-W-
in
the
the CWPRS.
NOIDA
is
on
of the river. In order to connect NOIDA with Delhi, a road bridge (Fig. 5) in between was proposed
left
bank
_J^
Nizamuddin Okhla weir.
road
bridge
and
7a
Model
studies were carried out to
and to study the scouring pattern the the around scour compare group of piles with that around the
foundation of the bridge pier for similar flow condition (Fig. 6). Studies were carried out in a flume the and scour development in and both the cases were studied It that found was depth compared. of scour was more for the well foundation as compared to that for the foundation with group of piles. Studies condueted with normal flow and obliquity of flow indicated more depth of scour with oblique flow compared to that with normal flow.
well
4.4
|Miofif irr
nun
^-PILE
30
=>L
W
E
LEVATION
CAP
cr"c?
o
o
10
2 2
OjTo
i-
o
o
oji
A
\
E
0\
'
il
WELL
FOUNOA
ALL
FOUNDAsTION
DIMENSIONS ARE
FIG
S.DETA
LS
OF
PIER
FOUNDATION
The
Gouranga Bridge Near Nabadwip
The Gouranga bridge is situated on the river Hooghly about 160 km upstream of Calcutta (Fig.7). The left bank of the river upstream of the bridge had been eroding for the last few years and there seemed to be a possibility of the bridge being outflanked. Due to concentration of flow the second
pier from the left abutment was experiencing deep scour. In order to avoid further deterioration of the Situation and limited time available before the onset of the next monsoon, short term measures were suggested on the basis of site inspection and available data. To avoid the danger of the bridge being outflanked, protection was recommended in the upstream embayment for a length of 160 m. In addition, porcupines were suggested atthe toe in the further upstream reach of about 100 m. For control of scour at the endangered pier, provision of two layers of 50 kg stones in a all 60 m width around the pier at the existing river bed over geo-jute/nylon bags
was
For suggested. studies measures,
long term subsequently condueted on a physical mobile bed model scale of to a constructed horizontal 1:50 and vertical scale of 1:300 river reach from 3.50 km reproducing a 2 km downstream of the to upstream the studies These revealed bridge. continuous of necessity providing protection from 100 m downstream of the the 100 m of bridge to upstream the left bank with embayment along
evolving
were
BRIDGE
;|
weighing 40 kg or more in two For the layers over a synthetic filter. protection of the toe of the left bank, 15 m wide apron consisting of two layers filter was of 40 kg stones over a synthetic
stones
'ION
OF
GOUftANGA
BRIDGE
ANO
THE
CUT-OFF DEVELOPED
recommended.
74
IN
BRIDGE DESIGN
5.
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE STUDIES

river is degrading, bridge scour should be monitored necessary, protection by way of garlanding should be provided.
When the
for
scour
and when
River plan form changes can be monitored with the help of Remote Sensing data. This analysis would help to estimate change in discharge intensities across a bridge which in turn help in estimating the maximum scour.
Adoption of pile foundation for bridge pier can reduce local scour and this may therefore
adopted when feasible.
be
Understanding of soil-structure interaction, scour and fill process in a river with a boulderbed are some of the grey areas where considerable research including field monitoring, need to be taken up. In India scour observations at hydraulic struetures during floods are very rarely taken due to non-availability of suitable instruments. Sometimes observations The are taken when the flood recedes and scour pockets get filled up by bed material. taken by sounding from bridge decking which are affected by scour observations are For scour observations during floods, it is very much drifting due to high velocities. essential to install automatic recording type instrument. Such instrument should be compatible for installing at the bridge pier. It should give a clear indication ofthe depth of The System should record the onset of scour, maximum scour under all flow conditions. depth of scour and Alling of scour holes following high flow events.
REFERENCES
1.
D.W., Why do Bridges Engineers, November 1977.
SMITH
fail?,
Civil
Engineering,
American Society of Civil
2.
KAND
1992-93.
C.V.,
Scour-Sand,
Clay
and
Boulders,
Bridge
Engineering India, Vol.IX & X,
3.
LACEY
G., Stable Channels in
Alluvium, Proc. Institution
of
Civil Engineering, London,
Vol. 227/229,
4.
1930.
INGLIS C.C., Maximum Depth of Scour at Heads of Guide Banks and Groynes, Pier Noses Annual Report and Downstream of Bridges, (Technical) of the Indian Waterways Experimental Station, Poona, 1944.
JORGE
E.
PAGN-ORTIZ
75
Design and Evaluation of Bridges for Scour in the
United States of North America
Jorge E. Pagn-Ortiz Hydraulics Engineer, Group Leader Federal Highway Adminsitration Washington, D.C.
Jorge E. Pagn-Ortiz obtained his engineering degrees from the University Rico, School of Engineering at Mayagez (BS), and the George Washington (MS). He has been with the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). an the U.S. Department of Transportation for 15 years. He manages the scour
of Puerto
University
agency of
evaluation
program on a national basis and has been involved for the last 10 years in ri\er mechanics, including stream stabilin. scour at bridges and countermeasures to mitigate scour around bridge foundations and stream instability at Channels.
Summary
The catastrophic failures of several bridges in the United States of North America has focused national attention towards the need to develop technology for designing new
bridges and for evaluating existing bridges over waterways for the effect of total scour around the bridge foundations. The FHWA, an agency ofthe United States Department of Transportation, has taken the lead in developing and disseminating technology and guidance on stream stability. scour, and scour countermeasures for highway bridges over The FHWA has disseminated state-of-the-art technology through its waterwa\s. Hvdraulics Engineering Circular (HEC) -18, ''Evaluating Scour at Bridges." HEC-20.
"Stream Stability
Highway Struetures," and HEC-23, "Scour and Stream Instabilit} Couiuermeasures." This paper will discuss how the technology presented in these HEC's is used in the United States of North America for designing new bridge foundations and for evaluating the stability ofthe foundation of existing bridges over waterways for the safety ofthe public users.
at
76
DESIGN AND EVALUATION OF BRIDGES FOR SCOUR
IN
USA
1.
Introduction
FHWA
has
proactive in disseminating state-of-the-art technology and guidance for the design of new bridges and the evaluation of bridges susceptible to scour since 10 people lost their lives during the failure ofthe New York Thruway bridge over the Schoharie Creek in New York in 1987. Other failures include: the 1-29 crossing of the Big Sioux River in South Dakota in 1962; the 1-80 crossing ofthe John Day River
The
been
in
bridges destroyed by flooding in Pennsylvania, Virginia and Virginia in 1985; 17 bridges in New York and New England states in the spring of the US 51 bridge over the Hatchie River in Tennessee in 1989 (eight people killed); the 1-5 bridges over Arroyo Pasajero in California in 1995 (seven people killed): and the bridge over the Wantagh Parkway in New York in 1998.
Oregon in 1964;
73
West
1987;
were were
The scour evaluation of bridges over waterways were established by the FHWA in 1991 State departments of transportation (DOTs) have been reporting progress towards
biannual basis. The current Status is presented later on in this paper. In addition, the FHWA recommends that new bridges be designed for scour from floods equal to or less than the 100-year flood. The current editions of third and second edition. respectively, contain updated HEC-18 and HEC-20,
in
a
completing their scour evaluations
technology for calculating total scour and for assessing stream instability of Channels. In addition. FHWA has published HEC-23 to provide DOTs with state-of-the-art guidance for the selection and design of bridge scour and stream instabilit) countermeasures.
2.
The National Approach
The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) maintains an inventory of bridges through its National Bridge Inventory. The bridge inventory contains a database of over 575,000 bridges as reported by DOTs. About 84% of these bridges, or 484.060. are over waterways. The Technical Advisory (TA) 5140.20, "Scour at Bridges," released by
FHWA in 1988, contained guidance for designing new bridges for scour and for condueting scour evaluations on existing bridges over waterways. Techniques for estimating scour were presented in an attachment to the TA, the FHWA's Interim
Procedures for Estimating Scour at Bridges. The guidance contained in this TA and its attachment has been followed by DOTs for designing new bridges and for evaluating the condition of existing bridges from scour. TA 5140.20 was superseded in 1^91 by TA 5140.23, 'Evaluating Scour at Bridges," which introduced the FHWA's Hydraulic
Circular No. 18 (HEC-18), which superseded the FHWA Interim Procedures. The TA 5140.23 is very comprehensive and focuses on the development and implementation of a scour evaluation program for designing new bridges to resist damage from scour, evaluating existing bridges for vulnerability to scour, using scour countermeasures, and improving the state-of-practice for estimating scour at bridges.
Engineering
JORGE
E.
PAGN-ORTIZ
77
2.1
Recommended Five Step Process

a
The guidance from the TA gives

1.
fivc step procedure to follow:
An interdisciplinary team of hydraulic, geotechnical and structural engineers should
2.
3.
4.
conduet scour evaluations. New bridges should be designed to be scour safe for a superflood on the order of magnitude of a 500-year flood. All existing bridges over waterways with scourable beds should be evaluated for the risk of scour failures for such a superflood. A plan of action should be develop for all bridges that are determined to be scour
5.
critical. All bridges should inspection cycle.
be
inspected for scour during the regulr two year bridge
FHWA also has three technical publications that provide technical guidance: HEC-18 provides guidance for developing a scour evaluation program and analyzing bridges for scour. HEC-20provides guidance for analyzing the effect of stream instabilin on bridges. and HEC-23provides guidance for the selection of suitable countermeasures to mitigate potential damage to bridges and highways at stream crossings.
2.1.1
In
Interdisciplinary Team
designing new and e\aluating the existing condition of bridges for scour, a careful evaluation ofthe hydraulic. geotechnical and structural aspects ofthe bridge foundations is required. An interdisciplinary team of experienced engineers is needed to make engineering judgements resulting from the complex nature of streams, flow patterns, oil In addition, the team should establish priorities for scour and structure design. evaluations, determine if the bridge is scour critical and recommend countermeasures and monitoring schedules to mitigate the potential effect of scour on the stability of bridge foundations.
2.1.2
Guidance for Designing New Bridges for Scour
New bridges over waterwa\s on scourable streambeds should be designed foi scoui from floods equai to or less than ihe 100-year flood and checked for the puleniiai scour resulting from the magnitude of a superflood (i.e., a 500-year event or 1.7 times the
magnitude ofthe 100-year event). The geotechnical analysis should assume that the streambed material within the scour prism (total scour) is not available for bearing or For the superflood condition, the geotechnical analysis for the lateral support. superflood should incorporate a factor of safety of 1.0.
78
IN
USA
Prior to estimating total scour it is necessary to identify any potential for streambed aggradation or degradation as well as any potential for lateral streambed migration. With this information available and knowing the streambed characteristics then one can estimate total scour for a new bridge following these Steps, as recommended in HEC-18:
Step
1.
The designer should select

the worst scour
flood event or events that are expected to produce
condition.
Step
2.
W'ater surface profiles for the flood flows should be developed. Hydraulics variables such as velocity and depth of water should be calculated.
Step
3.
Estimate total scour. Check for geotechnical safety factors commonly accepted by the department of transportations.
Plot total scour depths.
Step 4. Step Step Step

5.
Evaluate the results and apply engineering judgement.

Evaluate bridge type, size and location based on results.
6.
7.
Perform a foundation analysis on the basis that all streambed material in the total scour prism has been removed and is not available for bearing or lateral support ofthe bridge foundation.
Repeat Steps 2 through 7 for a superflood condition. Check that the foundation have a minimum factor of safety of 1.0 (ultimate load) under this condition.
Step
8.
2.1.3 Guidance for
Evaluating Existing Bridges for Scour
Existing bridges over riverine or tidal waterways should be evaluated to assess their vulnerability to floods and to determine if they are scour critical (foundations are unstable) or low risk to scour. The FHWA recommended that these evaluations should be condueted by the interdisciplinary team. In addition, the FHWA recommends that the evaluations should be made for the magnitude of a superflood condition (i.e.. 500through 7 presented for designing new bridges could be followed year flood). Steps for the scour evaluation of a bridge for the superflood condition.
1
If a bridge is found to be scour critical, the bridge owner should have an action plan with specific procedures to follow to make the bridge less vulnerable to scour for the safety ofthe public users. The procedures may include among others specific instruetions to close the bridge during floods and the timely installation of scour countermeasures. The equations presented in HEC-18 are recommended by the FHWA for evaluating scour
at
bridges.
JORGE
E.
PAGN-ORTIZ
79
2.1.4
Step
Evaluation Procedure
1.
Bridges over waterways should be scrccncd by an interdisciplinary team into live categories: 1) low-risk; 2) scour susceptible; 3) unknown foundations; 4) tidal waterways; 5) scour critical
Bridges identified as scour susceptible bridges, unknown foundations and over tidal waterways should be prioritized for evaluation by conducting a preliminary office and field review using factors identified by the interdisciplinary team.
Conduet office and field scour evaluations ofthe bridges which were prioritized under step 2. Steps through 7 presented under "Guidance for Designing New Bridges for Scour" should be followed. The 500-year flood condition should be used during the evaluation.
1
Step 2.
Step
3.
Step 4.
Bridges identified the scour problem.
as
scour critical should have
plan of action for correcting
Step
5.
Remaining bridges (low-risk) should be evaluated giving priority Status functional Classification ofthe highway and bridges that are vital links transportation network of a city or region.
to the
in the
2.1.5 Plan of Action

A
plan
of action
for
interdisciplinary team.
scour critical bridge should The plan of action should include:

each
be
developed
bv
the
instruetions for the type and frequency of inspections to be made at the bridge site; monitoring the bridge scour Performance with contingency to closure; and/or scheduling timely design and construction of scour countermeasures.
3.
Hydraulics Engineering Circular
No. 18
HEC-18 contains the stat-of-the-art methodology for designing new bridges o\er waterways to resist the effect of scour around its foundations and for estimating scour at existing bridges ovei waterways. The third edition of HEC-18 presents the latest advances in technology including: conversion to the metric System of units; the addition of a gradation correction factor for the pier scour equation; and equation for estimating the correction factor for the flow angle of attack with respect to a pier: an interim procedure for estimating pier scour considering the effect of debris; and updated infomiation on scour detection equipment. In addition, clarification has bed added for: estimating pier scour for exposed footings; pile caps located at different elevations in the flow; the effect of multiple columns skewed to the flow; preliminary information on scour resulting from pressure flow: and criteria for designing the foundation depth of a bridge abutment. Furthermore. HEC-18 presents basic coneepts and defmitions of
80
IN
USA
scour; guidelines for designing bridges to resist scour, guidelines for estimating scour at existing bridges; guidelines for inspecting bridges for scour; and guidelines for establishing a plan of action for mstalling scour countermeasures.
4.
No. 20
?HEC-20 contains guidelines for identifying stream instability problems that may control Factors which affect stream stability are classified as tne location of a bridge geomorphic, hydraulic, location and design factors. A qualitative assessment process leading to a quantitative analysis is given. A three-level approach is suggested in analyzing stream stability. In addition, HEC-20 presents guidelines for the selection of countermeasures for stream instability.
5.
No. 23
HEC-23 provides guidelines for the selection and design of stream stability and scour countermeasures which have been successfully used by DOTs. A matrix ofthe different countermeasures giving appropriate use of each is presented in HEC-23. This matrix presents the countermeasures by groups: hydraulics. structural and monitoring. It provides a fast way of identifying which countermeasure is appropriate foi specific condition. In addition, it rates each countermeasure on its functional apphcation. suitable river environment. degree of maintenance needed, and installation experience
6.
Status ofthe Scour Evaluation Program in the United States
The FHWA initiated semiannual Status reports on bridge scour on February 5. 1990. Several years have passed since the FHWA initiated the requirement that DOTs submit The current Status, as of April 15. 1998. reported by DOTs is a biannual Status report.
presented in the following table:

Table
1
EVALL VTIO^S TOTALS
EVALUATIONS CATEGORIES
Evaluations Compieted
Low Risk
NBI Item 113
PFRCFN
NUMBl
4,5,7-9
0-3
312 294
Scour Cntical
18,090
7%
Evaluations Needed Scour Susceptible

Not Screened
6 6
58,027
315
14
0
9%
1%
TOTAL EVALUATIONS
Evaluation Deferred
6
388,726
95
100%
334
JORGE
E.
PAGN-ORTIZ
The
continued its proactive approach towards completing the scour by encouraging its field offices to continue to work in partnership with DOTs management officials to encourage them to develop an action plan that is responsive towards completion of their scour evaluations. FHWA has also provided DOTs that have not made substantial progress towards completing their scour evaluations with example action plans to assist them in developing a revised action plan for the completion of their scour evaluations.
FHWA evaluations
has
Since technology for the evaluation of bridges with unknown foundations and bridges subject to the influence of tides was not available at the time of initiating the bridge scour evaluations, FHWA exempted these bridges. To date. 95,334 bridges under these as categories are pending an evaluation. These categories are represented in Table "Evaluations Deferred." Since technology needed to evaluate these bridges is now being phased into practice, FHWA has requested that DOTs begin their evaluations of these bridges, as applicable. Guidelines for evaluating bridges over tidal waterways is currently available thanks to the 12 State Pooled-Fund project, led by South Carolina DOT, which produced a users manual titled "Tidal Hydraulic Modeling for Bridges" dated December 1997. Non-destructive tests for identifying unknown foundations have been evaluated and field tested under the National Cooperative Highway Research Project 21-5 titled "Nondestructive Testing for Unknown Subsurface Bridge
1
Foundations.*'
7.
Conclusion
will continue being proactive towards the scour evaluations and design of bridges over waterways. FHWA is currently working on Updates to its three major publications. HEC's -18, -20, and -23 to continue to provide DOTs with the state-of theart technology on scour, stream stability and countermeasures. Furthermore, FHWA, in partnership with AASHTO and NCHRP will participate on a scanning tour with the technology on scour purpose of visiting other countries to investigate their countermeasures for potential application in the United States.
The FHWA
8.
References
Federal Highway Administration memorandum dated February 26. 1998. Federal Highway Administration memorandum dated March 16, 1998. Richardson. E.V.. and Davis. S. R., Hydraulic Engineering Circular Nc. 18, "Evaluating Scour at Bridges" third edition, November 1995. Hydraulics Engineering Circular No. 20, "Stream Stability at Highway Struetures," second edition, November 1995. Hydraulics Engineering Circular No. 23, "Bridge Scour and Stream Stability Countermeasures," July 1997. Zevenbergen. Lyle, et. al., "Tidal Hydraulic Modeling Users Manual" December
1997.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Federal Highway Administration. "Recording and Coding Guide for the Structure Inventory and Appraisal of the Nation 's Bridges" December 1995.
82
IN
USA
National Cooperative Highway Research Project No. 21-5, "Nondestructive Testing for Unknown Subsurface Bridge Foundations " August 1995. Morris, J. L. and Pagn-Ortiz, Jorge E.. "Bridge Scour Evaluation Program in the United States. " A&CE Water Resources Engineering Conference, San Francisco, CA, August 1997.
Mathematical Modelling for Sc
DR. U.C. KOTHYARI Asstt. Professor Deptt. of Civil Engg.
*
&:-
-..,.
'%....
University of Roorkee Roorkee- 247 667
Dr. K.G.
RANGA RAJU
Professor & Head Deptt. of Civil Engg. University of Roorkee
Roorkee- 247 667
84
MATHEMATICAL MODELLING FOR SCOUR AROUND BRIDGE PIERS
INTRODUCTION
Local scour around bndge piers and abutments is a problem of continumg interest Huber (1991) has reported that since that year 1950, over 500 bndges have faed in the USA and a majonty of them were the result of hydraulic conditions and pnmanly the scour of foundation matenal Such data are not available for bndges of other countnes including India However, this has remained a matter of concem for all and the realisc estimation of scour depth around bndge piers is thus very important It is now well known that for given flow conditions scour at bndge abutments is smaller than that at bndge piers of same dimensions Several design relationships for estimation of scour are available as a result of studies carned our so far by numerous mvesgators These methods are useful in determination of the design scour depth at a bndge pier for steady flow conditions However, the flow in a nver during a flood is unsteady and discharge changes in it are quite rapid Therefore, scour modelling in unsteady or flood flows is required for realisc estimation ofthe scour depth In the present paper, first a mathematical model for the estimation of temporal Variation of scour depth in steady and unsteady flows is discussed Use of this model for scour estimation under flood flow situations is demonstrated Next, some available methods for estimation of design scour depth are reviewed The processes of scour in cohesive and boulder bed nvers are also discussed
TEMPORAL VARIATION OF SCOUR DEPTH

The time required by the design discharge to scour to its fll potential is generally much larger than the time for which it occurs Therefore, computations on temporal vanation of scour depth are important for design purposes The horse-shoe vortex and associated downflow are considered to be the main agents
causing scour at bndge piers Based on the charactenstics of horse-shoe vortex (see Fig 1) a scheme is proposed by Kothyan et al (1992,a & b) for computation of temporal vanation of scour depth Vanous steps involved in computations through this scheme for uniform size bed matenal are depicted in Fig 2 The results produced through this scheme have been venfied using expenmental data of vanous investigators However, nver bed matenal invanably consists of Sediments of varying size fractions l e it is non-umform The scheme depicted in Fig 2 can also be used for computation of temporal vanation in non-umform Sediments For this the effective size d is defined as the size of uniform sediment that gets scoured at the same rate as the non-umform matenal under the given flow and pier conditions Kothyan et at (1992, a)
gave the following equation for d*,
0.925 o0'7
dso
(1)
Here d50 is the sediment size of non-umform matenal such that 50 percent matenal is finer than this by weight and cg is the geometnc Standard deviation ofthe matenal Use of 4 as given by Eq (1) in place of d in Fig 2 will give the temporal vanation of scour depth in non-umform Sediments
For computation of temporal vanation of scour due to unsteady flows, the hydrograph causing unsteadiness can be discretised into steady segments as shown in Fig 3 The scour depth is computed as per Fig 2 in each segment of flow Scour depth at the end of preceding segment becomes equal to the scour depth in the beginning of the next segment Comparison of results obtained with the expenmentaUy observed data is also given in Fig 3
EQUATIONS FOR PREDICTION

time
It is,
OF
EQUILIBRIUM SCOUR-DEPTH
as
The equilibnum scour depth can be obtained from the temporal vanation
the scour at
large
however, desirable
from pracucal considerations to ha\e
simple relationship for equilibnum
Dr. U.C.
KOTHYARI, Dr. K.G. RANGARAJU
85
scour depth. Available equations for equilibrium scour depth are expected to provide conservative estimates ofthe scour depth in unsteady flows. A brief description of important equations is given below
:
Lacev -Inglis Equation

Lacey -Inglis approach for scour estimation is used by Indian Railways and other govemment organizations. During the early part of the present Century, Lacey (1929) analyzed the data of stable Irrigation canals flowing through loose noncohesive sandy materials in Indo-Gangetic plains and obtained the following equation for flow depth (or hydraulic radius) Dlq
Dlq
0.47 (Q/f)033
is the
(2)
Here Q is the discharge in m3/s, Dlq median size ofthe bed material d as below.
depth in m and f
is
Lacey's silt factor which
is
related to
1.76
Vd
(3)
Here d is in mm. On the basis of analysis of scour data on 17 bridges in alluvial rivers in North India, Inglis (1949) found that the maximum scour below the water level Die is related to computed value of Dlq as
D.e
KL\q
(4)
from 1.76 to 2.59 with an average value of about 2.0 When bridge pier designed, this equation will be used for a flood discharge of retum period 50 to 100 years, even through Eq. (4) is at best valid for bankful discharge. Also value of coefficient K is Eq. (4) should depend upon pier shape and size, sediment gradation, obliquity of flow etc. Since these factors are not explicitly taken into account, Lacey-Inglis method should not be used outside the rnge of data on which it is based.
where K varies
are to be
foundations
Laursen-Toch Equation
The equation proposed by Laursen and Toch (1956) for below river bed level d,e is give as below.
prediction of equilibrium scour depth
oVD
Here D is flow depth and
b is
1.35
(b/D)070
(5)
pier diameter.
Melville and Sutherland Equation

Melville and sutherland (1988) assumed that the langest possible scour depth around bridge piers below:
dse
is
given
as
2.4 b
(6)
This scour depth is reduced by multiplying factors which depend upon whether clear-water or live-bed conditions exist, flow depth is shallow and sediment is graded. The multiplying factors are determined from
the analysis of
experimental data covering
wide rnge of pertinent variables.
86
Kothvari -Garde - Ranga Raiu's Method

Based on the analysis of extensive laboratory data collected using uniform, non-uniform and have proposed the stratified Sediments and steady and unsteady flows, Kothyari et at. (1992, a & b following equations for scour estimation
Clear- water condition:
\0.4
'-\-0.2S
/t^\016
u2
u2
.-0.30
(7)
where the average critical velocity

U2
-011
Uc
is
given by
016
^Ld
* S
as
(8)
and opening ratio a is given
(B-b)
Here U is flow velocity,

and water respectively,
ot
p is
is
mass density of water, Ay, y, - y& y, and y6 are specific weights of sediment is B to and ratio center center spacing of piers. opening
Live-bed Condition:
^
b
0.88
[Vd
-0.33
Bf d)
(9)
It may be seen that in sediment
sediment is being given by Eq. (1).
transporting flows, the scour depth is not dependent on velocity. When the non-uniform, effective sediment size 0% can be used in Eq. (7) and (9) instead of d, the former
Grade and Kothyari (1997) have tested the above methods for scour estimation by using field data from 17 bridges in India, 55 bridges in USA, 6 bridges in New Zealand and 5 bridges in Canada. Results obtained through these are summarized in Table -1.
TABLE
Methods
Methods
1:
Comparison
of Accuracy of Prediction
%
of Scour Depth by Different
of Data points falling within given error band
3(
50
85
90
100
Lacey-Inglis
59
Laursen- Toch
MelviUe-Sutherland
38
65
98
79
95
100
Kothyari - Garde- Ranga

Raju
86
96
100
Dr. U.C.
87
thus be seen that among the methods tested, the methods by Melville-Sutherland and give results of better accuracy. These methods indeed take into accurant the effects of flow Kothyari depth, velocity, pier shape and size and the size distribution of river bed material.
It can
et al.
SCOUR IN COHESIVE SOILS

When the river bed consists of clayey material, forces also act between soil particles imparting cohesion into it which resists the dislodgment of particles by the flow. Therefore, scour in cohesive materials is more complex and less understood than the scour in noncohesive sandy material. The rate and amount at which clayey material gets eroded due to flow depends upon type and percentage of clay, antecedent moisture conditions in clayey beds, quality of water etc. Some investigators have tried to relate the scour in cohesive soils to plasticity index, vane shear strength and other such properties, but these attempts are not very successful. Some basic work on scour in cohesive soils has been undertaken by the writers. Preliminary results reveal that for the given pier, scour in cohesive soils can even be more than that in cohesionless soils depending upon moisture State of the soil prior, to the start of scouring, See Fig. 4 (Sarfaraz,1998).
SCOUR IN GRAVEL-BED RIVERS

Gravel-bed rivers are characterised by relatively large median size and large Standard deviation. When a bridge pier is constructed in such strata, the coarser particles would accumulate in the scour hole thus forming an armor Iayer and partly inhibiting further development of scour. Hence scour depth obtained would be smaller than that in uniform material having the same d50 size.
The IRC-78 (1979) code recommends that scour depth in gravel-bed rivers be taken as a multiple of flow depth estimated by using Lacey-Inglis approach involving discharge intensity q (i.e. river discharge per unit width), as below:
'
2\l/3
(12)
D^
and
a
133
|^|
silt factor of 24. In this connection, it may be stated that basically, Inglis-Lacey relation for flow depth derived for sandy bed rivers, and gravel bed rivers are not expected to follow the same. Published data was of gravel bed rivers indicate the depth of flow relationship as below (Hey and Heritage, (1993)
*0
Q*
<
OD
Here, the coefficient at is found to vary between 0.33 and 0.49 and a2 between -0.03 and -0.12. This is thus different from Lacey's relation i.e. Eq. (11). Also bed material size of gravel bed rivers varies over a wide rnge and an armor Iayer may be formed during scour. Hence use of a constant silt factor of 24 in Eq. (11) is thus questionable. Also Lacey's method does not take into account the effect of
pier shape and size on scour.

the effect of pier size, shape, sediment
need to
Kothyari -Garde- Ranga Raju and Melville-Sutherland, however take into account non-uniformity and hence armoring effects. Nevertheless, there is a collect scour data from gravel-bed rivers for studying the relative accuracy of available methods.
The methods of
CONCLUSIONS
Available methods for computation of design scour depth around bridge piers are reviewed. It is the computation of temporal Variation of scour depth is required for realistic estimation of design that seen scour depth. Enough information is not found to exist on scour around bridge piers in clayey and boulder bed rivers. It is concluded that Lacey-Inglis method should be used for sand bed rivers only precisely within
88
the rnge for it beds
was developed
This should be used with caution, if at all,
in nvers with clayey or gravel
REFERENCES
GARDE RJ. and KOTHYARI, U.C. State of Art Report on Scour Around Bridge Piers. Indian Institution of Bridge Engineering, Bombay, 1996. HEY, R.D. and HERITAGE, G.L. River regime Dimensional and Dimensionless Regime Equations for Gravel-Bed Rivers. Vol. 9 and 10, Bridge Engineering
:
(India), 1993. HUBER, F. Update Bridge Scour. Proc. Nat. Conference of Civil Engineers, ASCE. New York, USA, 1991. THE INDIAN ROAD CONGRESS, IRC 78-1979 Standard Specifications and Code of Practice fro Road Bridges, Section VH, Foundations and Substructure, Part I: General Features of Design, New Delhi, 1980. INGLIS, C.C. Behaviour and Control of Rivers and Canals, Res. Pub. 13 Pt. 2, Central Power & Irrigation & Navigation Research Stn. Pune, India 1949. KOTHYARI, U.C, GARDE. R.J. and RANGA RAJU, K.G. Temporal Variation of Scour Around Bridge Piers, Jr. of Hyd. Engg., Proc. ASCE, Vol. 118(8). 1992. KOTHYARI, U.C, GARDE, RJ. and RANGA RAJU, K.G., live-bed Scour Around Cylindrical Bridge Piers. Jr. of Hyd. Res., Proc. IAHR, Vol. 30 (5), 1992. LACEY, G. Stable Channels in Alluvium, Jr. Institution of Civil Engineers, Paper No. 4736, Vol. 229, 1929. LAURSEN, E.M. and TOCH, A. Scour Around Bridge Piers and Abutments Bulletin No. 4. Iowa Highway Research Board, U.S. A., 1956. MELVILLE, B.W. and SUTHERLAND, A.J. Design Methods for Local Scour at Bridge Piers, Jr. of Hyd. Engg., Proc. ASCE, Vol. 14 (10) 1988. SARFARAZ, A. Influence of Cohesion on Local Scour, Ph.D. Thesis, Dept. of Civil Engg., Univ.of Roorkee, Roorke, India, Under Submission-1998.
:
K-b
7
N0TAT10NS
Dv
DIAMETER OF HORSE-SHOE VORTEX
FLOW
ds
b
SCOUR
DEPTH
PIER
DIA.
0i>
7777
Fig.l
7777:
Definition
diagram
of
horse-shoe
vortex
Dr. U.C.
89
TIME
10
min)
20
25 30
J
TIME(min)
0
15
200
>
400 600
r
o ur 5 0-01
0-04
u
0-02hn
,_
0-08
120
00
80
b
"
:
o,x.
80
OBSERVED COMPUTED
60 mm
60
CL
:4.02
mm
60
40
20
0
40 20
Q
er
o u
10
20
30
40
50
60
200 400 600
TJME
min)
Variation
of
TlME(min)
scour
depth
in
Fig.
Temporal flows
unsteady
0,18
-
NOTATIONS
*
SAND
0.15
d50
0-27mm
30 /o
CLAY
>
SAND
70 /o
A
AAA
A
=1.35
DIA
hQ_
0-10
-
PIER
W
0-1125m
CONTENT
LIMIT
*
*
A
rWATER
*
A
**
Q
~
W*
LlQUID
er
o u
0-05
*
1
1 1
*
o
O
1 1
L.J_1
lll
102
111
.1.1
1..I
i_
10^
101
10'
10f
TIME
(minutes)
of
Fig.
Temporal
Variation
scour
depth
in
cohesive soils
90
START
READ
'b
-rr*o-28(~)
"fr
Dv
P*65
Ao="4-Dv
R
n2
(B*D)/(B
+ 2D)
ru
# *
At
A0
f-
Ds2
XPlt
tanfl
0-57
4*-Cu*(A0/At)
I
Pot=0-45rj#p1
0.050 d P0,t #u *t
3-45
t*
*I
NO
tI-1
+t*
+d-Dp
COMPUTE Dp USING APPROPRIATE SEDIMENT TRANSPORT LAW
1=1+1
nat(I) at(l-1)
=DS
YES
APRINT
VS
Ds
/<enLQ
of
Fig.2
Algorithm for calculation of scour depth
temporal
Variation
Application
of the
Erodib
to
at
Estimate Scour
George W. ANN ANDALE Civil Engineer Golder Associates Inc. 44 Union Blvd, Suite 300 Lakewood, CO 80228
;::
;:
United States of America e-mail:
gannandale@golder.com
92
APPLICATION OFTHE ERODIBILITY INDEX METHOD TO ESTIMATE SCOUR
AT
BRIDGE PIERS
INTRODUCTION
Conventional bridge pier and abutment scour equations were developed in laboratory flumes Such equations do not account for using cohesionless granulr soil (see e.g. [3] and [4]). resistance to scour offered by more compiex earth materials, such as rock or clay. A generalized erosion threshold that is defined by Annandale's Erodibility Index Method [2] can be used to quantify the relative ability of any earth material (ranging from silt, through sand, gravel, clay and rock) to resist erosion. This paper outlines the application of this method to calculate ultimate scour depth at bridge piers.
2
CONCEPTUAL APPROACH
comparison between scour depths calculated with conventional pier scour equations (e.g. [3]) and with the method proposed in this paper is conceptually shown in Figure 1. The scour depth calculated with a conventional pier scour equation is considered to be the maximum possible scour depth. Such estimates do not take account of resistance to scour offered by foundation material. Conceptually, the ultimate scour depth estimate that takes account of foundation material properties will be equal to or less than the maximum possible value.
A
Original River Bed
^^^
Bridge Pier
^^m^
^^^^kr
Maximum/"^
possible scour depth estimate
V.
^^s
Ultimate scour depth
Figure 1. Relationship between the maximum possible scour depth estimated with conventional pier scour equations and the ultimate scour depth estimated with the method proposed in this
paper.
used to estimate ultimate scour depth by taking account of in material properties, Figure 2. This figure shows a relationship between the explained erosive power of water and elevation below the original river bed. The two curves on the figure represent the available erosive power at the base of the pier as the scour hole increases in depth,
is is
The basis of the approach that
and the erosive power that is required to cause scour at different elevations below the original river bed. The available erosive power at the base of a pier is a function of scour hole depth. The erosive power that is required to cause scour of the earth material is determined from the Erodibility Index Method. Normally the strength of earth material, especially rock, increases as a function of elevation below the original river bed. In such cases the erosive power that is required to scour the earth material also increases as a function of elevation below the original river bed. Research (see e.g. [6]) has shown that the erosive power of water at the base of a The maximum scour depth will occur bridge pier decreases as the scour hole increases in depth the where available erosive power is equal to the power that is at the cross-over elevation
G.W. ANNANDALE
_33
required
tests
to cause
scour.
This approach has been successfully confirmed with prototype scale
([l]and[7]).
Original river bed elevation
Required erosive
Available
erosive
r
i
power
power
Ultimate scour
depth
v^
53
Erosive Power
Figure
at
Calculation of ultimate scour depth by comparing the available erosive power the base of a bridge pier and the erosive power that is required to scour earth material
2.
RESISTANCE TO SCOUR
erosion threshold shown in Figure 3 relates a geo-mechanical index (known as the Erodibility Index) and the erosive power of water [2], This relationship holds for a wide variety of flow conditions and earth materials. The relative ability of earth material to resist erosion can be quantified by making use of the erosion threshold line in Figure 3.
The The stream power required to scour earth material is determined by first indexing the earth material by means of the Erodibility Index. The Erodibility Index is a function of mass strength, block / particle size, shear strength, relative orientation and shape. Tables that can be used to quantify the Erodibility Index are presented in [2]. Once the earth material has been indexed a
line is drawn vertically from the abscissa at the associated value on Figure 3 to meet the dotted erosion threshold line. From this location it is then drawn parallel to the abscissa to determine the required stream power value on the Ordinate. This procedure is repeated for various elevations below the river bed. These pairs of values (elevation and required stream power) are plotted on a graph similar to Figure 2.
94
APPLICATION OF THE ERODIBILITY INDEX METHOD TO ESTIMATE SCOUR
AT
BRIDGE PIERS
Ml
Scour SCS
a
No Scour-SCS
Threshold
Q.* a
9-D
D D
t
I
3
a a
a a
**.
?r
'an
a a
a a
a
D
00E-01
OOE+00
OOE+01
Erodibility Index
Figure
3.
Erosion Threshold for
Variety of Earth Materials
EROSIVE POWER OF WATER
The change in the erosive power of water around a bridge pier as a function of ele ation is determined by making use of graphs that were developed for this purpose (see e.g. [6]). These graphs relate dimensionless stream power at the base of a pier and dimensionless scour depth, following the general shape of the curve in Figure 4. The variable on the ordinate of this graph of the scour hole (Pp) represents the ratio between the magnitude of the stream power at the base The variable on the and the stream power in the river section upstream of the bridge (Pr). abscissa represents the ratio between variable scour depth (YJ and maximum scour depth When the latter variable is zero, it indicates the elevation of the original river bed (Ymax).
before commencement of scour. When the same has a value of one, it represents the maximum scour depth. Values in between zero and one represent potential ultimate depths of scour.
The stream power
quantified by multiplying the various values of the ratio on the ordinate in Figure 4 with the stream power in the river upstream of the pier. The latter is quantified as the m3/s/m) and energy slope (s), product ofthe unit weight of water (y - kN/m3), unit discharge (q
is
i.e.
Power in river upstream of pier
y.
(Equation
1)
The scour depth on the abscissa is quantified by multiplying the various values of the ratio on the abscissa with the maximum scour depth estimate calculated with conventional pier scour equations (e.g. the equations in [3]). Once both the stream power and the potential scour depths in Figure 4 are quantified, the information is transferred to Figure 2. The latter curve represents
the
available stream power.
G.W. ANNANDALE
_fl5
ULTIMATE SCOUR DEPTH

as a
The ultimate scour depth is determined by plotting the required and available stream power function of elevation (Figure 2). The ultimate depth is located at the elevation where available stream power is equal to the required stream power.
the
?\
E
<
"^v^^
*****4
=-4.0714Ln(x)
R2
1.3186
0.9002
.30
0.40
0 50
0.60
0.7
Relative Scour
(maximum scour
equilibrium scour)
Figure 4. Stream power amplification scour depth [6].
at
Square bridge piers as
function of relative
SUMMARY
material available erosive power and the erosive power that is required to scour a particular earth material. The relative magnitude of the erosive power of water around a bridge pier is determined by making The power that is use of dimensionless relationships that were developed for this purpose. is the original river the at below various earth estimated to elevations material scour required is bed by making use of the Erodibility Index Method. The power that available to cause scour is then compared to the is the under consideration. earth that material to scour required power is done at various assumed scour depths. The scour depth where the available This comparison erosive power is less than the power that is required to scour the earth material is considered to be the ultimate scour depth.
A method that can be used to calculate ultimate scour depth by taking account of bed properties is outlined in the paper. The method is based oh comparison between the
96
APPLICATION OF THE ERODIBILITY INDEX METHOD TO ESTIMATE SCOUR
AT
BRIDGE PIERS
REFERENCES
G. W., Wittler, R. J., Ruff, J. F. & Lewis, T. L., Prototype Validation of for Scour in Fractured Rock Media, Proc. International Water Index Erodibility Resources Engineering Conference, Memphis, Tennessee, August, 1998.
Annandale,
Annandale,
494, 1995.
G. W.,
Erodibility, Journal of Hydraulic Research, Vol.
33, No. 4, pp. 471
Federal Highway Administration
HEC-18, Evaluating Scour
at
Bridges, Edition
2,
FHWA# IP-90-016., Washington D.C.. 1993.

4
Melville, B.W., Pier
and
Abutment Scour: Integrated Approach, Journal of Hydraulic

123, No. 2, 1997.
Engineering, ASCE, Vol

5
National Engineering Handbook, United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resource Conservation Service, Part 628, Chapter 52, Field Procedures Guide for the Headcut Erodibility Index.
Smith, S. P., Annandale, G. W., Johnson, P. A., Jones, J. S. and Umbrell, E. R., Pier Scour in Resistant Material: Current Research on Erosive Power, in Proc. Managing Water: Coping with Scarcity and Abundance, 27^ Congress of the International Association of Hydraulic Research, San Francisco, California, pp. 160-165, 1997.
Wittler, R. J., Annandaie, G. W., Ruff, J. F. &. Kuroiwa, J. M., Prototype Validation of Erodibility Index for Scour in Granulr Media, Proc. International Water Resources Engineering Conference, Memphis, Tennessee, August, 1998.
97
MAXIMUM SCOUR DEPTHS AROUND

IN SAND AND IN
A BRIDGE PIER CLAY ARE EQUAL?
by
Briaud J. L., Ting2F.C.U., Chen3H. C, Gudavalli S. R., Perugu SB., Kwak K.

4 5 5
SUMMARY
The maximum scour depth around bridge piers in sand is calculated using well established formulas based on experimenlal model calibrations. There are no such formulas for the maximum scour depth around bridge piers in clay In practice and by conservatism the maximum scour depth in clay is taken to be equal to the maximum scour depth in sand. However no such evidence exists and common sense teils us that clays scour much more slowly than sand. The piers are cylinders with This paper presents flume test results of pier scour in clay. The soils were a low plasticity porcelain clay, a diameters varying from 25 mm to 220 mm. The medium plasticity armsfrone clay, a high plasticity bentonite clay and two uniform sands. is in in the same the sands and the clays. However results show that the maximum depth of scour the rate of scour is drastically different. This shows that in clays a site specific scour rate analysis is
necessary while
it
is
not necessary in sands.
TX, 77842Spencer J Buehanan Professor Dept ol Civil Engineering. Texas A&M Um\ersil\. College Station 3136. USA Associale Professor. Dept of Civil and Environmental Engineering. SouiJi Dakota State imersit}. Brookings. SD,
3.
4.
5.
57007-fU<^ USA Associale Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Statjpn. TX 77843-3136, USA ATSER, LLC, 8520 Sweelwater, Suite F57, Houston. Texas 77037, USA Graduate Students, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station. TX 77843-3136, USA
98
MAXIMUM SCOUR DEPTH OF BRIDGE PIERS
IN
SAND AND CLAY
INTRODUCTION
the
practice the maximum scour depth around HEC 18" formula (Richardson and Davis, 1995)
In US
/
bridge pier
in sand is
calculated by using
x0
65
'
where
zma\ is the
2zKtK2K3K<
F-
43
(1)
maximum scour depth around the bridge pier Zo the depth of flow, Kj, K2, K3, K3 coefficients to take into account the shape of the pier, the angle between the direction of the flow and the direction ofthe pier, the stream bed topography. and the armoring effect, D is the pier diameter, and Fc is the froude number defined as v/(gZo)05 where v is the mean flow velocity and g the acceleration due to gravtty
are
is used for clays For clays there is no such formula and by conservatton equation Yet it is well recognized that clays scour much more slowly than sands In order to investigate if ztnax is the same in sand and in clay, a series of flume expeiiments were condueted at Texas A&M University
1
THE
FLUMES AND THE SOILS
Two fiumes were used The first flume was 457mm wide and the second 1525 mm wide The diameter ofthe cylindrical piers vaned from 25 mm to 76 mm for the smaller flume and from A false bottom was constructed to allow Space for placing 76 mm to 229 mm for the larger flume the the soil and then push hollow pier in the soil The water depth in the fiumes varied from 0 16 m to 0 4 m and the water velocity from 0 2 m/s to 0 83 m/s
The soils used were three clays and two sands The first clay was a low plasticity clay used The second clay was a medium plasticity clay called armstone also make porcelain craftware The third clay was a high plasticity clay with a 30% content of bentonite used for pottery The first sand was a medium uniform silica sand with a particle diameter D so equal to 0 6mm and 5% passing sieve no 200 (0 076mm) The second sand was a fine uniform silica sand with a particle diameter equal to 0 14 mm and 0% passing sieve no 200 (0 076 mm) The properties ofthe soils and the grain size curves are in Figure tested are summarized in Table
1
1
to
THE FLUME TESTS

A total of 43 tests were perforiucu 6 in the larger flume with porcelain clay and 37 in the smaller flume Ofthose 37, 4 were performed with the medium sand, 3 with the fine sand, 2 with the bentonite clay, 4 with the armstone clay, and 24 with the porcelain clay The clay was prepared The clay blocks were placed side by side, compacted with in blocks 0 3m x 0 15m x 0 15m in size
J.L. BRIAUD, F.C.K.TING, H.C. CHEN, S.R. GUDAVALL1, S.B. PERUGU,
K.
KWAK
99
metal plate to remove air voids and smoothed out with a hand trowel to obtain a smooth surface The sand was dumped in a loose State into the soil area around the pier The watei flow was initiated and measurements were made to record the velocity and the depth of scour The velocity profile was recorded with an acoustic doppler velocimetcr (ADV) and the depth of scoui with a point gage mounted on an instrument carriage
RESULTS OF THE TESTS

The detailed results are described in Gudavalli (1997) The first Observation is that the scour hole originated on the front side of the piers at a 45 degree angle and that the scour hole developed on the side and mostly behind the pier with very little scour if any in front ofthe pier Therefore, in it in be wise front devices to ofthe not pier place monitoring clays, may The result of a test consists ofthe scour depth vs time curve for a given velocity, water depth, pier size and soil type (Figures 2, 3, and 4) As can be seen on Figure 4, even after 200 hours In order to obtain the maximum depth of (8 33 days) of flow the scour depth was still increasing data the a with fitted was hyperbola expenmental scour
(2)
wheie
zt
is
the initial rate of scour and

zt
zmav ts
the
maximum depth of scour
In the case
of Figure
(experiment #41)
very well Table 2
was
67mm/hour
z max
For all the experiments
Note that the hyperbola fits the data was calculated in such a way, the z,raN values are shown in
and zmax was 208 mm
Figure 5 shows the comparison between a fine sand (experiment #32) and a low plasticity clay (experiment #22) for very similar conditions of pier diameter, water depth and water velocity For the fine sand zmav is 41 mm compared to 48 7 mm for the clay; however the initial rate of scour
z
is
840 mm/hr for the sand compared to only

be the same
0 95
mm/hr for the clay
This shows that while the
maximum depih of scoui may

times less than in sand
for sand and clay the rate of scour in clay may be 1000
Figure
the
is
plot of
zmav \s the
pier
Reynold's number
R^
defined
as
/\t
u
where
is
kinematic viscosity ofthe waiei (10 "m^ isj On Figure 6 some ofthe early experiments where The figure indicates that the problems oecurred are omitted (experiments #5, 10, and 14) is the same for clay and for sand and the regression line gives' maximum depth of scour
100
IN
SAND AND CLAY
zmJmm)^0\%Rt06"
Note that the HEC-18 equation also fhs
the data quiet
(3)
well (Table 2)
CONCLUSIONS
The 43 flume tests performed in this study tend to show that the maximum depth of scour in clay occurs behind the pier, not in front of it, and that the maximum depth of scour is the same in sand and in clay However the rate of scour is drastically different Therefore in clay it is necessary to have a method which gives the progression ofthe scour depth as a function of time because. at a very slow scour rate, the maximum depth of scour may not be reached during the design-4ife ofthe bridge Such a method has been developed at Texas A&M University for a given hydrograph
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This project was sponsored by the Texas Department of Transportation where the following people were very helpful Ms Kim Culp, Ms Melinda Luna, Mr Tony Schnieder, Mi Peter Smith, Mr Jay Vose
REFERENCES
Richardson E V Davis S R 1995, "Evaluating Scour at Briges," Federal Highway Administration Report no FHVVA-IP - 90-017 (HEC 18), Washington, DC, pp 204
1997, "Prediction Model for Scour Rate Around Bridge Piers in Cohesive Soil on the Basis of Flume Tests," PhD Dissertation, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, pp
Gudavalli,
218
J.L BRIAUD, F.C.K.TING, H.C. CHEN, S.R. GUDAVALLI, S.B. PERUGU,
K.
KWAK
101
Table
- Soil Properties
Medium
No
1
Fine
Sand
Properly
Porcelain
34.40 20.25
Armstone
44.20
18.39
25.81
Bentonite
67.00 27.22
39.78
2.55
Sand
Liquid Limit,
2
3
Plastic Limit, %
Plasticity Index,
Specific Gravity
14.15
2.61
4
5
2.59
Water Content, %
Mean Diameter D5, mm
Sand Content, %
28.51
26.18
39.28
6 7
8
0.0062
0.00
0.0032
25.00
30.00
0.0006?
0.00
0.60
0.14
95.00
5.00
0
100.00
0
Silt Content, %
75.00
35.00
Clay Content, %
Shear Strength, kPa
25.00
12.51
45.00
16.57
65.00 39.56
10
(lab. vane)
11
CEC, (meq/lOOg)
SAR
PH
8.30
10.00
16.10
12
13
5.00 6.00
1.20
2.00 5.20
1.10
21.00
8.50
1.10
14
Electrical Conductivity, (mmhos/cm)

Unit Weight, (kN/m3)
15
18.0
17.89
17.45
\6
Relative Density
loose
loose
102
IN
SAND AND CLAY
Table
- Flume Test Results
Expt
No.
1
Flume
Size*
S
Soil
Z0
ZmiuX
(mm)
HEC-18
71.1
Type"
(m)
0.4
(mm)
25 25 25 25
(m/s)
0.47 0.40
Re
Fr
0.24
ZJD
16
16 16
(hrs)
95
(mm)
75
HYPER
98
11750 10000 15200

7925 5100
0.4 0.4 0.4
0.20
0.31
72.3
50 77 40
8
63.5
122
55
11
66.3 79.4
60
0.608
46.9
57.4
37
0.317 0.204
0.4
0.16
0.1
16
16
16
0.4 0.4
0.4 0.4
25
25 25
75
49.6
66.3
6
7
10000
0.2
92.25
16.17
53
65.5
109
170
0.83
20750 45600
23925
15300
0.42
0.31
16
44.8
104
58
90.8
162.2 122.9 101.4
135.4
146.5
134 122
7
s
S
0.608 0.319
5.33
5
68.92
43.4
37
0.4 0.4
0.4 0.4
0.4
75
0.16
0.1
33
76.9
31.5
142.8
147
10
11
75
75 75 75 75 75 75
0.204
0.4
5.33
22
78
30000 36000 29250 23850 36000
0.2
5.33
5.33
60.25
63
131
12
13
0.48
0.24
0.2
99
95 39
s
S
0.39
5.33
5
161.3
49.1
14 15
0.4
0.4
0.318
0.48
0.83
0.16
33
73
0.24 0.42
0.21 0.21
5.33 5.33
6.4
142.5
116
58
1786
180
146.5
16
17
s s
S
0.4
62250
6650
19950
16.17
99
185.4 46.2
94.3 54.3
0.16 0.16 0.16

0.16
0.4 0.4
* *
25
75 25
75
0.266
27 44
53
51.5
79
7
18 19
0.266
0.348
2.13
6.4
99
152
8700
0.28
67.3
103
20
21
0.348
0.47
26100
11750
7875
0.28
0.24
2.13
16
16
152
74 60 26
110.9
s s
s
25 25
25 25
54.8
48
7
59.8
22
23
0.315
0.41
0.16
62.24 93.25
04
u-'
10250 10250
021
0.21
16 16
48.06
48.2
81.8
107
67.0
24
0.41
\\&
67.0
*S
Small Flume (0.46

Large Flume (1.52
wide)
wide)
"1
2
3
=-
Low Plasticity Porcelain Clay
Medium Plasticity Armstone Clay

High Plasticity Bentonite Clay
4
5
Medium Uniform Sand

Fine Uniform Sand
J.L BRIAUD, F.C.K.TING, H.C. CHEN, S.R. GUDAVALLI, S.B. PERUGU,
K.
KWAK
103
Table
D
- Flume Test Results (Continued)

V
Expt
No.
25
Flume
Size*
S
Soil
^max
Zw (mm)
HYPER
64.5 59.3
Type"
3
(m)
0.4 0.4
(mm)
25 25 50 50 50 50 25 25 75 25 75 25
75 75
(m/s)
0.32 0.39
Re
Fr
0.16
0.2
ZJD
16 16
(hrs)
75
(mm)
55
HFC-18
60
8000
26 27
9750
12150 12250 17400
37.66
-
50
65.5 74.8
75.1 95.1
4
4
4
4
0.17
0.17
0.243
0.19 0.19
0.2
3.4
61 48
85
35.8
28 29
30
31
0.245 0.348 0.448

0.242
3.4
6.4
9.23
s
S
0.32
0.33
0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4
0.4 0.3
22400
6050 7050
15900
0.25
6.6
16
16
115
35
41
106.4
53.4
57.1
0.12
32
33
0.282 0.212
0.3 0.3
0.14
0.11
4.87
6
28
s s
5.33
16
70
103.1
34
35
7500
0.15 0.15
0.2 0.2
114.42
114.42
117.4 117.4
20
54
59.4
121.4
s
s
22250
10000
5.33
16
106
36 37 38 39 40
41
0.4
0.4
57 95
84
73.5
133
66.3
135.4
30000 27750 45000

58500
5.33 5.33
T
L
L
0.37
0.3
0.19 0.17 0.25 0.18 0.24 0.18
154.25
182.5
175.5
156
130.9
150 150
128
75
250
190
202.2
176.3
L L
0.25
0.3 0.3 0.3
0.39
1.67 1.43 1.43 1.43
210 210 210
0.316 0.404
0.317
66360 84850
66570
210.66
104.33
130
96
111
208
->ic
230.5 255.5
42
43
146.67
187.5
229.6
*S
L
--
Small Flume (0.46

Large Flume (1.52
m
m
wide)
wide)
'l
2
3
Low Plasticity
Porcelain Clav
M-jdium Plasticity Armstone Ciay
High Piasticity Bentonite Clay
4
5
Medium Uniform Sand

Fine Uniform Sand
104
IN
SAND AND CLAY
Porcelain Clay Armstone Clay
Medium Sand
o
Fine Sand
Bentonite Clay
100
T*
I
1,-|,rT
or
LLI
so
JM
60
Iz
LU
o
DC
40
I
LU
Q-
20
T
L
Lh^,
0
.^JL
10
0001
001
0 01
100
CLAY SIZE
SILT SIZE
SAND SIZE
GRAVEL
SIZE
PARTICLE SIZE, mm
Particle Size Distnbutions
Ttg
J L
BRIAUD, FC
TING,
H C
CHEN,
S R
GUDAVALLI,
S B
PERUGU,
KWAK
105
100
80
-o
Expt #17 Expt #18
Expt Expt
#19 #20
hQ_ LU
60
Q
CC
40
ZD
o
CO
y
20
50
100
150
200
TIME, hrs
r
ig
Scour Depth
vs
Time
in
Cla>
Expt
#31
Expt #32
Expt
#33
100
80
I_ LU
60
Q
{.
40
Z)
O
CO
20
TIME, hrs
F
ig
Sour Depth vs Time in
S^nd
106
IN
SAND AND CLAY
EXPERIMENT HYPERBOLA
250
' '
z,
67 mm/hr
'
T-
'
,[...-,
zmax
208mm
|
I~
200
/
I \
hCL LU
150
/
z,
m
to-*^"
\Z
100
/
W
y^^ / S^
max
Z)
if)
n
*
i
50
"
100
200
300
400
500
TIME, hrs
Fig
4
Hyperbolic Extrapolation for Experiment
#41
SAND
60
E E
'
Expt
#32
!'''
r
CLAY
Expt #22
'
.SAND
40
X
Q_ LLI
ff
T
V
&-
Q-
-i
l
PIJ
'
Q
QU
^^.5^
^CLAY
20
Z)
o
CO
J
n
r
1
1
'
50
100
150
200
TIME, hrs
Fig
5
Comparison Between Exp #32
in Sand and
Exp
22 in
Clav
J L.
BRIAUD, FC K.TING, H.C. CHEN, S.R GUDAVALLI, S.B. PERUGU,
KWAK
107
Porcelain Clay Armstone Clay

Bentonite Clay
2
Medium Sand
o
Fine Sand
75
50 25 00 75
50
>
CD
25
3 4
3.8
4 2
4 6
50
54
Log10(Re)
Fig
Maximum Scour Depth
vs
Reynolds Number for two Sands and three Clays
EA OF LATERAL MONITORING FOUNDATIONS THROUGH INSTRUM
Ghanekar V. K. Acting Director,

Structural Engineering
Research Centre, Ghaziabad (UP)- INDIA.
Goyal J. K. Scientist Structural Engineering

Research Centre, Ghaziabad (UP)- INDIA.
110
MONITORING OF LATERAL EARTH PRESSURES ON WELL FOUNDATIONS
jy^L
1.0
INTRODUCTION
In the context of the currently acute need for scientific of major bridges and for creating a reliable data base
health
monitoring of the for their efficient
management, the construction of the Ganga Bridge at Varanasi presented a unique opportunity to comprehensively instrument both its superstructure and substructure and monitor its Performance,from inception. This opportunity was utilised to plan and execute a major project aimed at long-term Performance monitoring of the bridge
through instrumentation. The project involved, interalia, extensive instrumentation of the major components of the bridge viz. the superstructure, the pier, the pier head and the weil foundation. A large number of structural parameters such as strains, deflections, slopes, tilts, thermal gradients, earth pressures etc. were continuously monitored during the construction of the bridge and would continue to be monitored for a few is expected to shed light on its shortyears during its service life. The data so obtained term and long-term behaviour. Of particular interest in this project was the instrumentation of one of the foundation wells of the bridge, since field data relating to the design parameters of such large well foundations is solely lacking. The instrumentation scheme for foundation wells including the parameters to be monitored and the corresponding instrumentation techniques used were described in earlier papers [1,2,3]. The details of installation of the sensors, the devices used for protecting the sensors and their cables during concreting and sinking Operations and the data obtained during certain intermediate stages of construction were also described therein. The present. naper, while touching briefly upon some of these aspects, presents an analysis of the data relating to the earth pressures on the well recorded since the well was sunk to its
founding level.
2.0
SCOPE OF THE PROJECT
The general arrangement ofthe bridge is shown in Fig.l. The bridge deck is a twin-cell box girder with a deck slab supporting a 19.6m wide, 4-lane carriageway. The box girder cantilevers to 65.75m on either side ofthe pier in the main spans. The foundations for the piers of the main spans are 65m deep reinforced concrete wells with inside and outside diameters of 8m and 13m respectively. The region of the
bridge marked for instrumentation

3.0
at
Pier P7 is also highlighted
in Fig.
1.
INSTRUMENTATION
OF THE
FOUNDATION WELL
P7
The most important parameters which are critical to the structural design and stability of foundation wells and which are amenable to direct measurements are the lateral earth pressures at the soil-well interface, the tilt and shift of the well and the
actual
of the well. Current design procedures for well foundations are predicated upon a number of assumptions relating to these parameters, particularly for large and deep wells as in the present case. A knowledge of the actual values of these parameters would throw considerable light on the validity of the
strains
within
the
body
V.K. GHANEKAR, J.K. GOYAL, G.K. SAHU
111
design assumptions and on the true structural behaviour of the well and the level of safety inherent in the current design procedures. The design and Performance parameters of foundation wells which thus call and monitoring, together with their corresponding for in-situ measurement instrumentation techniques are summarised in Table 1. These techniques imply that a well would have to be instrumented at several levels throughout its height. These ideas formed the basis ofthe instrumentation of well P7.
TABLE
1.
Parameters Monitored and Corresponding Instrumentation Techniques used in the Well P7

Parameter Technique
- Soil Pressure on the well - Strain in concrete/reinforcement - Inchnation ofthe well
Vibrating Wire [VW] Earth Pressure Cell VW Rebar Load Gauge [RLG] Inclinometer System
Fig.2 shows the three levels at which the instruments and sensors were installed in the well while Fig.3 shows schematically the typical layout of the instruments at a level. A summary ofthe final Status of instrumentation ofthe well P7 is provided in Table 2. The instrument readings were recorded at several stages during the construction and sinking of the well. Evidently, at each stage a different set of conditions obtained with respect to the height of the well constructed, the extent of sinking, the position of the instruments vis-a-vis the water and bed levels. These data for some of the intermediate positions of the well were obtained while the well was still under construction and were presented earlier [3]. The data obtained after the well reached its founding level are presented and analysed in this paper.
TABLE
2.
Final Positions of Instruments

RL
[m]
19.15
in
Well P7
Type and Number of
Instrument Level [ IL]
Height above cutting edge [m]

24.15
Depth below bed level [m]

30.15
instruments installed
- Inclinometer Casings [ 2 Nos. ] - Earth Pressure Cells
[
l.IL-1
2. 3.
12
Nos.] mm Rebar Load

6
IL-2 IL-3
29.15 39.15
34.15
20.15
10.15
44.15
Gauges [ Same Same
Nos.
as
IL-1
as
IL-1
112

4.0
MEASUREMENT
OF
EARTH PRESSURE ON THE WELL
From Fig.3, it is evident that the lateral earth pressure on the well is being measured with the help of VW pressure cells installed along the extemal face of the well as shown in the figure. At each of the three instrumented levels in the well, six pressure cells were installed symmetrically, at intervals of 60 degrees, starting from to the longitudinal bridge axis. These positions from 0 to 300 degrees are termed IP from IP 6, respectively. The earth pressures were recorded on different dates, starting the day on which the well was finally sunk to its founding level, viz. from 7 January 1994. Fig.4 shows the distribution of lateral eath pressure around the well at the lowermost instrument level viz. IL 1. Fig. 5 shows the lateral earth pressure history at IL 1. Fig.6 shows the progressive Variation in lateral earth pressure distribution along the height of the well at three instrument positions viz. IP 1, IP3 and IP5 for the same dates as in Fig. 4. Figs. 4, 5 and 6 are typical for all the three levels of instrumentation
1
and instrument positions.

5.0
INFERENCES DERIVED FhOM FIELD DATA
A massive amount of data has been obtained from the instruments installed in the well P7. This data is currently being analysed and would be eventually compared with the corresponding analytical results. However, the broad inferences that can be
derived from the field data with reference

(i)
In general, at all
the
to
Figs. 4,5 and
are
given below
levels, the pressures around the well obtained shortly after the well reached its founding level have shown a continuous decrease over a six month period, the maximum decrease of pressure at any one instrument position during the six month period being about
three instrument
8to 10%
(ii)
The pressure distribution around the well is quite uniform at the lowermost IL 2 instrument level IL 1. (Fig.4). The pressure distributions at levels marked deviation from uniformity, with a a and IL 3 however, show sharp increase of pressure values at one or two instrument positions. The is IP 1 and instrument deviation is particularly sharp at position
The increased IL 3 could possibly be attributed to the surcharge pressure exerted pressures at IP from the few a metres by the land mass which rises sharply away the edge of the water, along the river bank adjoining the well P7. (iii) Fig. 5 indicates the Variation in earth pressure right from the time of installation of the pressure cells, through a three year period after the well levels was constructed. The pressure history of Fig. 5 is typical of all the the the it time reached its well from and indicates that the earth pressure on founding level has been almost uniform and h$s stabilised over the years. (iv) The earth pressure distribution along the height at all the six instrument positions, remained virutally unchanged throughout the period of construction ofthe pier. six of the (v) The pressure distribution along the height of the well at each instrument positions viz. IP-1 to IP-6, on the same dates as in Fig.4 shows almost linear Variation of pressure along the height, except at IP-1 and an
much
greater
at
level
IL
than
at
level
IP-6. (Fig.6.)
V.K.
mm,
i
GHANEKAR, J.K. GOYAL, G.K. SAHU

i
113
>..
-i
-in
ii
6.0
CONCLUSIONS
For
the
foundation well of a major bridge has been instrumented and its structural parameters monitored from the construction stage onwards. The work involved was indeed \pluminous, with a very large number of activities to be performed to a strict time schedule e.g. planning of the scheme, procurement of equipment, installation of instruments at site etc. In spite of the arduous and hazardous site work involved it was gratifying to be able to implement the programme of instrumenting one of the largest well foundation for a bridge. The site data together with the collateral analytical work are expected to provide a basis for a more realistic assesment ofthe design parameters for such foundation wells.
first
time,
a
large
7.0
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The project would not have seen the light ofthe day without the sponsorship and fmancial assisstance of the Roads Wing of the Ministry of Surface Transport
[MOST], Govt. of India, New Delhi. The valuable input and guidance in planning and implementation of the scheme received from MOST is also gratefully acknowledged. The authors would like to acknowledge the Cooperation and assistance provided by the U.P.P.W.D. as well as by the contractors viz. M/S Hindustan Construction Company. The authors would also like to gratefully acknowledge other scientific & technical staff of SERC[G] for their untiring efforts in the execution of this instrumentation project.
8.0
REFERENCES
Ghanekar,
Tamhankar, M.G., Prem Chand and Sharma, S.P., "Instrumentation of Bridges for Performance Monitoring" Indian Highways, Vol. 19, No.12, December, 1991, pp. 73-80
1.
V.K.,
2.
Sharma, S.P., Tamhankar, M.G., Ghanekar, V.K., Prem Chand and Chakrabarti, S.P., "Long-Term Performance Monitoring of Bridges - Major Case Studies", IABSE, 14th World Congress, New Delhi, March 1992, pp. 619-624.
3.
Tamhankar, M.G., Prem Chand, Ghanekar, V.K. and Trikha, D.N., "Response Monitoring of Bridges during Construction through Built-in Sensors", Journal of Indian Roads Congress, Vol. 54-2, September, 1993, pp. 313-356.
114
odI
w
N
K
S
OV
^^S
<
W
73
<:
+
o
Ui
I
<!
>
<
w
Q
m
<c
Aon
mr
r
co
<
J
CM
I
C5
ijj
SHi?
y^
H<
V.K.
GHANEKAR, J.K. GOYAL, G.K. SAHU
115
PIER
1.2
FOR
M
P7
DIA
HOLE
INSPECTION
LA
R.L.
60.5
-r-K
RIVER
BED
RL.
mMTMT
49.3
(IL
3)
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FIG.2 INSTRUMENTATION
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11
12
INCLINOMETER
FIG.3
TYPICAL
AT
A
INSTRUMENTATION LEVEL IN WELL P7
SCHEME
15.15
(IL1) 19.15
s
29.15 (IL2)
(IL3) 39.15
INSTRUMENT
0
EARTH
45.9,46.4,46.7,48.6 44.8,45.0,45.5
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PRESSURE
20
(a)
FIG.6
40 POSITION
(MPa
60
PRESSURE PROGRESSIVE
0
100)
14-8-95 24-4-96
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DISTRIBUTION INSTRUMENT
VARIATION
15'150
EARTH
19.15 (IL1)
29.15 (IL2)
39.15 (IL3)
^
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PRESSURE 20
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(b)
POSITION
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IN ALONG
LATERAL
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(MPa
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1
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HISTORY
II
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DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING MONITORING SCOU
Peter F. LAGASSE Senior Vice President Ayres Associates, Inc. FortCollins, CO USA
122
DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF INSTRUMENTATION FOR MONITORING SCOUR
AT
BRIDGES
rm
Jk
1.
INTRODUCTION
There are many scour susceptible bridges on spread footings or shallow piles in the United States and a large number of bridges with unknown foundation conditions [1]. With limited funds available, these bridges cannot all be replaced or repaired. Therefore, they must be monitored and inspected following high flows. During a flood, scour is generally not visible and during the falling stage of a flood, scour holes generally fill in. Visual monitoring during a flood and inspection after a flood cannot fully determine that a bridge is safe. A reliable device to measure or monitor maximum scour would resolve this uncertainty.
Recognizing this need, the Transportation Research Board (TRB) under the National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) initiated NCHRP Project 21-3 "Instrumentation for Measuring Scour at Bridge Piers and Abutments" in 1989. The basic objective of this research was to develop, test, and evaluate fixed instrumentation that wouid be both technically and economically feasible for use in measuring or monitoring maximum scour depth at bridge piers and abutments [2]. The scour measuring or monitoring device(s) must meet the following mandatory criteria:
Mandatory Criteria
Capability for installation on or near a bridge pier or abutment Ability to measure maximum scour depth within an accuracy of 0.3 m Ability to obtain scour depth readings from above the water or from a remote site Operable during storm and flood conditions Since the mandatory criteria required that the instruments be capable of installation near a bridge pier or abutment, the research was limited to fixed instruments only. paper summarizes the results of this research.
An
on or
This
initial literature search on scour instrumentation in 1990 revealed, and a resurvey of technology in 1994 confirmed, that fixed scour-measuring and -monitoring instruments can be grouped into four broad categories:
Sounding rods - manual or mechanical device (rod) to probe streambed Buried or driven rods - device with sensors on a vertical support, placed streambed Fathometers - commercially available sonic depth finder Other Buried Devices - active or inert buried sensor (e.g., buried transmitter)
As
a
or driven into
result of the literature review a laboratory testing program was designed to test at least one device from each category and to select devices for field testing that would have the greatest potential for meeting mandatory and desirable criteria.
2.
FIELD TESTING OF INSTRUMENTS
The primary objectives of field testing of scour instrumentation were to test the adaptability of promising instruments to a wide rnge of bridge pier and abutment geometries and subject the instruments to a variety of geomorphic and environmental conditions. An additional significant objective was to gain experience in working with local State Highway Agency personnel who would ultimately be responsible for installation, maintenance, and collection of data from scour-monitoring devices.
2.1.
Magnetic Sliding Collar Devices
Both simple (manually read) and automated readout magnetic sliding collar devices were installed and tested in a variety of locations in the field. Testing included pier installations
PETER
F.
LAGASSE,
Dr.
LW. ZEVENBERGEN,
Dr.
E.V.
RICHARDSON
123
of
simple sliding collar instruments and pier and sloping abutment automated magnetic sliding collar devices at riverine and tidal bridges.
installations
of
Laboratory testing of a driven rod with an open architecture sliding collar with attached 152 magnets (see Figure 1) indicated that the sliding collar accurately tracked the progression of scour. Using this concept, a field prototype of a magnetic sliding collar was designed and fabricated. This instrument consisted of a 51-mm diameter stainless steel support pipe in 1.5-m sections. A magnetic collar, similar in design to the original collar used for laboratory testing, was fabricated to slide on the support pipe; however, the extemally mounted magnetic Switches tested in the laboratory were replaced by a much simpler approach to measuring scour. To determine the position of the collar, a sensor (probe) consisting of a magnetic switch attached to a battery and buzzer on a long graduated cable was fabricated. In Operation, the probe is lowered through the annulus of the support pipe and the buzzer activates when the sensor reaches the magnetic collar. Collar position is determined by using the graduated cable to determine the distance from an established datum near the top of the support pipe to the magnetic collar.
mm
Following field testing of manual readout magnetic sliding collar devices at the Colorado and New Mexico test sites, it was apparent that the support pipe or extension conduit, which is normally fastened to the upstream face of a bridge pier, can be vulnerable to ice or debris
this vulnerability to debris and ice impact
automated readout magnetic sliding collar device could reduce if only the head of the device protrudes from the streambed in front of a pier or adjacent to an abutment (Figure 1). A flexible conduit with the wiring for the automated readout could carry the signal by a less vulnerable route, such as along a pile cap or pier footer and up the downstream face of a pier to a datalogger.
impact.
Development
of an
order to automate the Operation of the magnetic sliding collar, a laboratory prototype The insert consists of string of magnetically electronic insert (probe) was developed. at actuated reed switches located 152-mm intervals along the length of a stainless steel support structure. Magnets on the sliding collar actuate the reed switch at a given position as it comes in proximity. A datalogger provides excitation voltage for a brief sampling period. is The probe encased with waterproof flexible tubing, and is then inserted into the stainless steel pipe section(s) that comprise the support rod for the instrument. Sensors at different levels are activated as the magnet on the sliding collar slides down the stainless steel pipe as scour develops.
In
2.2.
Low-Cost Fathometer Instrument Systems
Field testing of sonic depth finders (fathometers) included pier installations at riverine and tidal bridges. A low-cost fathometer was also configured and installed on a sloping
abutment.
Standard practice for installation of fathometers to monitor bridge scour has been to mount the sonic transducers into a small durable steel encasement which was then bolted to the pier of the bridge below water level. The NCHRP project developed an alternative which permits mounting the transducer so that it can be serviced from the bridge deck or above water. Either steel or PVC conduit is bracketed to the bridge substructure to "aim" the sonic transducer at the most likely location for scour. The transducer was encased in a PVC
"probe," which was pushed down through a larger diameter steel or PVC conduit (Figure 2). The probe snapped into position so that it protruded through a fitting located below water at the bottom of the conduit. With this arrangement the transducer is serviceable from above
water.
124
AT
BRIDGES
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PETER
F.
LAGASSE,
Dr. L.W.
ZEVENBERGEN,
Dr. E.V.
RICHARDSON
125
2.3.
In
Other Buried Devices
late 1997 following completion of the NCHRP project, a buried transmitter "float out" device was developed for application on bridge piers over ephemeral stream Systems. This device consists of a radio transmitter buried in the Channel bed at a pre-determined depth. When the scour reaches that depth, the float-out device rises to the surface and begins transmitting a radio signal that Is detected by a receiver in an instrument shelter bn the bridge. Installation requires using a conventional drill rig with a hollow stem auger. After the auger reaches the desired depth, the float out transmitter is dropped down the center of the auger. Substrate material refills the hole as the auger is withdrawn.
The float out device can be monitored by the same type of instrument shelter/data logger currently being used to telemeter low-cost fathometer or automated sliding collar data. The instrument shelter contains the data logger, cell-phone telemetry, and a solar panel/gell-cell battery for power. The data logger monitors the sliding collar and sonar scour instruments, taking readings every hour and transmitting the data once per day to a Computer at a central location (e.g., DOT District). A threshold elevation is defined that, when reached, initiates a The bridge number is transmitted as a numeric page, phone call to a pager network. of the identification bridge where scour has occurred. The float out devices are allowing monitored continuously, and if one of these devices floats to the surface, a similar call is automatically made to the pager network.
2.4.
Instrument Costs
The "low-cost" sonic System as testet under NCHRP Proj#ct 21-3 will cost approximately $4,000 (U.S.). The cost of * magnetic sliding cdlar device will rnge from $2,500 for a Instrument system simple manual-readout device to $4,000 for an automated System. costs include the basic instrument and mounting hardware, a$ well as power supply, data logger, and instrument shelter/enclosure, where applicable. A cell-phone telemetry link will add approximately $3,000 to the system cost. A float-out buried transmitter can be fabricated for approximately $500, and monitored by the same data logger/cell-phone system installed for either a sonic system or automated sliding collar. The installation costs for sliding collar and sonic devices can vary dramatically depending For large rivers where the installation must be on the complexity of the installation. condueted from the bridge deck, the level of effort required for installation of an instrument system can be 4-6 person days, plus the necessary equipment for installation.
3.
RESEARCH FINDINGS
The two instruments developed under NCHRP Project 21-3, a low-cost sonic system and either a manual-readout or automated magnetic sliding collar device, have been tested extensively and are fully field-deployable. Both instrument Systems met all of the mandatory criteria and most of the desirable criteria established for this project. Use of these instruments as scour monitoring countermeasures will provide State Highway Agencies with an essential element of their plans of action for many scour-critical, scour-
susceptible, or unknown foundation bridges.

No Single methodology or instrument can be utilized to solve the scour monitoring problems for al| situations encountered in the field. Considering the wide rnge of operating conditions necessary, environmental hazards such as debris and ice, and the variety of stream types and bridge geometry's encountered in the field, it is obvious that several Instrument Systems
using different approaches to detecting scour will be required.
126
AT
BRIDGES
'^
The Installation, Operation, Fabrication Manuals for the low-cost sonic system and magnetic sliding collar devices [3] and [4] provide complete instrument documentation, including That information, together with the findings, specifications and assembiy drawings. of the final report [2], provide a potential user of a appraisal, and applications information device Operation, installation, selection, complete guidance on scour monitoring maintenance, and if desired, fabrication of two effective Systems, one of which could meet the need for a fixed scour instrument at most sites in the field. In addition, a third instrument system consisting of float-out buried transmitters has been installed at several bridge sites on ephemeral streams, and at one site detected scour at 3.6 m below the streambed.
devices tested extensively in the field, the low-cost sonic system and the manualreadout sliding collar device are both vulnerable to ice and debris; however, both proved to be surprisingly resistant to damage from debris or ice impact at field test sites. The sonic system can be rendered inoperative by the accumulation of debris, and presumably ice, between the transducer face and streambed. The manual-readout sliding collar requires an extension conduit, generally up the front face of a pier, which can be susceptible to debris or ice impact damage unless the extension can be firmly anchored to a substructure element. From this perspective, the automated sliding collar device has the distinct advantage of having a configuration which places most of the device below the streambed, and therefore, less vulnerable to ice or debris. The connecting cable from the device to a datalogger on the bridge deck can be routed through a buried conduit and up the downstream face of a bridge pier or abutment where it is much less vulnerable to damage.
Of the
REFERENCES
1.
LAGASSE, P.F., THOMPSON, P.L., AND SABOL, S.A., 1995. "Guarding Against Scour," Civil Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, June, pp. 56-59.
1997. PRICE, G.R., E.V., J.D., SCHALL, P.F., RICHARDSON, LAGASSE, "Instrumentation for Measuring Scour at Bridge Piers and Abutments," NCHRP Report 396, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
2.
3.
SCHALL, J.D., PRICE, G.R. FISHER, G.A., LAGASSE, P.F., AND RICHARDSON, E.V. 1997a. "Magnetic Sliding Collar Scour Monitor-Installation, Operation, and Fabrication Manual," NCHRP Report 397B, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
4.
SCHALL, J.D., PRICE, G.R. FISHER, G.A. LAGASSE, P.F., AND RICHARDSON, E.V., 1997b. "Sonar Scour Monitor-Installation, Operation, and Fabrication Manual," NCHRP Report 397A, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
BRIDGE SCOUR AND STREAM INSTA CURRENT PRACTICE IN T
Peter F. LAGASSE Senior Vice President Ayres Associates, Inc. Fort Collins, CO USA
wti
>
Hl
'"
128
BRIDGE SCOUR AND STREAM INSTABILITY COUNTER MEASURES
INTRODUCTION AND MAGNITUDE OF THE PROBLEM

March
10,
On
about 9 00 pm, the southbound and northbound bridges o^ Interstate over Arroyo Pasajero in California collapsed during a large flood Four vehicles The two bridges were built in 1967 plunged into the creek, resulting in seven deaths Each bridge was approximately 32 meters (m) long and consisted of four concrete-slab After a period of spans supported by 3 bents with 6 drilled shafts (0 41 m in diameter) degradation, the piles were reinforced with a 3 66 m high web wall Long-term 10 and the iocal from flood March contraction scour degradation, exposed the piles scour, 7 6m below the original streambed This scour depth was 24m below the approximately pile steel reinforcement and they collapsed due to the force of water and debris on the piles and web wall
1995,
at
5
The Arroyo Pasajero tragedy is only the latest in a series of bndge failures in the U S that have highlighted the national problem of bridge scour The catastrophic failure of the Schohane Creek bndge on the New York Thruway in April 1987, which cost ten lives, focused attention in the U S on the bridge scour problem, and the subsequent failure of tne u S 51 bridge over the Hatchie River in April 1989, which cost eignt lives, Droadened the concern to stream stability problems, as well The damages and economic costs of the Mississippi River floods in 1993 and floods in Georgia in 1994 underscored the vulnerability of the nation's transportation system to bridge scour and stream instability
There are more then 575,000 bridges in the U S National Bridge Inventory Approximately 84 percent of these bridges are over water Highway bridge failures cost millions of dollars each year as a result of both direct costs necessary to replace and restore bridges, and indirect costs related to disruption of transportation facilities In the U S stream instability, long-term streambed aggradation or degradation, contraction scour, local scour, and lateral scour or erosion cause 60 percent of these failures
Following the failure of the Schohane Creek bridge in April 1987, the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) issued a Technical Advisory (TA) that established a national scour To evaluation program as an integral part of the National Bndge Inspection Program of of for this the the a FHWA contracted Implementation development support program, training course on Stream Stability and Scour at Highway Bridges This course is based on FHWA's Hydraulic Engineering Circular (HEC) No 18, entitled, "Evaluating Scour at These two Bridges" [1] and HEC-20, "Stream Stability at Highway Struetures* [2] of the this paper, establish the current state-of-the-art for authors documents, prepared by the analysis of bridge scour and stream stability problems in the U S The training course, based on these documents, is the principal vehicle for technology transfer to State highway and transportation departments for initial scour Screening, follow-on scour evaluation, and design of foundations for new and replacement bridges
SCOUR PROCESSES
Scour is the result of the erosive action of fSowing water, excavating and carrying away material from the bed and banks of streams Different materials scour at different rates Loose granulr soils are rapidly eroded by flowing water, while cohesive or cemented soils are more scour resistant However, ultimate scour in cohesive or cemented soils can be as deep as scour in sand-bed streams Scour depths of up to 36 m have been measured at bridge piers, while depths of 5 to 12 m are common
highway crossing consists of three components (1) long-term aggradation or degradation, (2) contraction scour, and (3) local scour Generally, total scour is the of the HEC-18 [1] sum components presents procedures, equations, and algebraic
a
Total scour at
PETER
F.
LAGASSE,
Dr. L.W.
ZEVENBERGEN,
Dr. E.V.
RICHARDSON
129
methods to analyze these scour components in both riverine and coastal areas. The equations for estimating contraction and local scour are based on laboratory experiments with limited field verification, and those recommended in HEC-18 are considered to be the best available for estimating scour depths.
Aggradation and degradation are long-term streambed elevation changes due to natural or man-induced causes which can affect long reaches of a river. Aggradation involves the deposition of material eroded from the Channel or watershed upstream of the bridge; whereas, degradation involves the lowering or scouring of the bed of a stream due to a deficit in sediment supply from upstream.
of the
Contraction scour in a river involves the removal of materia! from the bed across all or most Channel width in the bridge reach as the result of increased velocities and shear Contraction scour often occurs when the bridge approach stress on the bed. embankments encroach onto the floodplain or into the main Channel.
Local scour involves removal of material from around piers, abutments, spurs, and embankments. It is caused by an acceleration of flow and resulting vortices induced by the flow obstructions. Determining the magnitude of both contraction scour and local scour is complicated by the cyclic nature of scour. Both types of scour can be deepest near the peak of a flood, but hardly visible as floodwaters recede and scour holes refill with sediment. This fact contributed to the Schoharie Creek bridge failure.
addition to the types of scour mentioned above, naturally occurring lateral migration of the main Channel of a stream within a floodplain may increase pier scour, erode abutments or the approach roadway, or change the total scour by changing the flow angle of attack at piers. As described in HEC-20 [2], factors that affect lateral stream movement are the geomorphology of the stream, location of the crossing on the stream, flood characteristics, and the characteristics of the bed and bank materials. Lateral instability was the primary cause of the Hatchie River bridge failure.
In
3.
THE NATIONAL RESPONSE
Following the catastrophic failure of the Schoharie Creek bridge, the FHWA established a national scour evaluation program. The 1988 revision of the National Bridge Inspection Standards (NBIS) requires an inspection program that includes procedures for underwater inspection. Specifically, each of the more than 575,000 bridges in the U.S. are to be at inspected regulr intervals not to exceed two years (longer intervals can be used when justified and approved). Bridges with underwater members that cannot be evaluated visually for scour and structural integrity must be inspected by divers at least every five years.
Results of each bridge inspection are documented according to the guidelines provided in the "Recording and Coding Guide for Structure Inventory and Appraisal of the Nation's The Coding Guide Bridges" [3], more commonly referred to as the "Coding Guide." Relevant to stream requires coding more than 100 separate items at each inspection. stability and bridge scour are items 60 (Substructure), 61 (Channel and Channel Stability), 71 (Waterway Adequacy), 92 and 93 (Underwater Critical Feature Inspection), and 113 (Scour-Critical Bridges). The two-year cycle bridge inspections are the basis for coding items 60, 61, 71, 92, and 93. Item 113 coding is based on scour evaluations in accordance with the FHWA T 5140.23.
T 5140.23 [4], provides guidance on the development and implementation of procedures for evaluating bridge scour. The TA indicates that every bridge over a waterway, whether
130
existing or under design, should be evaluated for scour in order to determine prudent measures to be taken for its protection. The evaluations are to be condueted by an interdisciplinary team of hydraulic, geotechnical, and structural engineers.
The TA speeifies that new bridges must be designed assuming that all streambed material in the computed scour prism has been removed and is not available for bearing or lateral support. Existing bridges found to be scour-critical, either from field observations or from results of the analytical scour evaluation, require development of a Plan of Action. The Plan of Action should include Instructions regarding the type and frequency of inspections, particularly as it may relate to the need to dose a bridge, if necessary, and a schedule for the timely design and construction of scour countermeasures. Initial scour suseeptibility Screening was completed for the most part by October 1992. FHWA established January 1997 as the target date for compieting scour evaluations of all bridges identified as scoursusceptible. The results of this national bridge scour Screening program, as of January 1998, are shown in Table 1.
The number
bridges with "unknown" foundations points to a significant shortcoming of An unknown record-keeping in the U.S. in relation to bridge construction programs. it foundation rating means that after office and field reviews, was uncertain what the structural foundation condition was or what pile lengths were for pile-supported foundations. Thus, for 20 percent of the bridges over water in the U.S., an in-depth scour evaluation cannot be completed. Except for Interstate bridges, unknown foundation bridges are to be monitored until such time as technology becomes available to determine foundation conditions in-situ.
of
Table
1.
National Bridge Scour Screening Program Results.
Categories
Low risk bridqes
Number
of
Bridges
Percentage
EVALUATION COMPLETE
301,658
17,030
62.2
3.5
Scour critical
EVALUATION NEEDED
Scour susceptible
Not screened
66,523
2,580
13.7
0.5
EVALUATION DEFERRED
Unknown foundations
97,599
20.1
4.
TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER TO SUPPORT THE NBIS
support the implementation of bridge scour evaluations for the NBIS, the FHWA, through the National Highway Institute (NHI) contracted for development of a training course on Stream Stability and Scour at Highway Bridges. The FHWA scour evaluation program speeifieally requires analytical evaluation of scour and appropriate training of inspectors. The procedures described in HEC-18 [1] and HEC-20 [2] are not typically taught in undergraduate engineering programs, and for the most part were not historically incorporated in the bridge design process. Thus, much of this technology is new to engineers and designers charged with completing scour evaluations and/or designing or
To
PETER
F.
LAGASSE,
Dr. L.W.
ZEVENBERGEN,
Dr. E.V.
RICHARDSON
131
approving new bridges. Therefore, a training course was needed to facilitate technology In addition, bridge transfer from HEC-18 and HEC-20 to bridge design Professionals. in inspectors, who are well versed pavement and steel bridge inspection procedures, need an understanding of scour and stream instability and specific Instruction in the factors important to scour-critical bridges in order to provide follow-on scour inspections.
Given this background, the training course, "Stream Stability and Scour at Highway Bridges" was developed during 1988-1990 by the authors of this paper. Course objectives included:
Identify stream stability and scour problems at bridges Understand problems caused by stream instability and scour Estimate magnitude of scour at bridge piers and abutments and in the bridge reach Propose potential countermeasures for stream instability and scour problems
the understanding and The effects of stream prevention of hydraulic-related failures of highway bridges. instability, scour, and stream aggradation and degradation are covered. Countermeasures to these problems are also provided. HEC-20 provides a multi-level step-wise approach to the problem, including reconnaissance-level geomorphic analyses and basic engineering analysis techniques such as the application of the Standard Computer modeis to develop HEC-18 provides specific computational hydraulic variables for scour evaluation. procedures for the various scour components under riverine and tidal flow conditions. A revised metric version of the course (and supporting documents) as well as an abbreviated version of the course designed to meet the specific needs of bridge inspectors were introduced in January 1996. To date, these courses have been presented more than 100 times to State Highway Agencies, federal agency personnel, and Consultants.
The course was designed to provide comprehensive training
in
July of 1997, the FHWA National Highway Institute issued Hydraulic Engineering (HEC) This document 23, "Bridge Scour and Stream Instability Countermeasures." [5] of for and wide a selection countermeasures and specific provides experience rnge design guidelines for several countermeasures frequently used by State Highway
In
No.
Agencies.
5.
SUMMARY
Recent catastrophic bridge failures in the United States and a nation-wide Screening of bridges over water for scour vulnerability have focused national attention on the bridge scour problem. In the last ten years, the U.S. has made a substantial investment in field data gathering, research, and development of analytical techniques to determine the scope of the problem, plan remedial actions for existing bridges, and design new bridges to be safe from the effects of scour and stream instability. Training courses on scour and stream stability problems at bridges are available from the Federal Highway Administration National Highway Institute, and Hydraulic Engineering Circulars 18, 20, and 23 issued by the Federal Highway Administration provide technical guidelines for analyzing and evaluating the bridge scour problem in the United States
REFERENCES
1.
RICHARDSON, E.V. AND S.R. DAVIS, "Evaluating Scour at Bridges.", Federal Highway Administration Report No. FHWA-HI-96-031, Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 18, Third Edition, Washington, D.C, November 1995.
132
2.
LAGASSE, P.F., J.D. SCHALL, F. JOHNSON, E.V. RICHARDSON, AND F. CHANG, "Stream Stability at Highway Struetures." Federal Highway Administration Report No. FHWA-HI-96-032, Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 20, Second Edition, Washington, D.C, November 1995.
3.
DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION, FEDERAL HIGHWAY ADMINISTRATION, "Recording and Coding Guide for Structure Inventory and Appraisal of the Nation's Bridges." Report No. FHWA-PD-96-001, Office of Engineering, Bridge Division, Washington, D.C, December 1995.
FEDERAL HIGHWAY ADMINISTRATION, "Evaluating Scour at Bridges." Advisory 5140.23, Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C, 1991.
Technical
4.
5.
and
LAGASSE, P.F., BYARS, M.S., ZEVENBERGEN, L.W., CLOPPER, P.E., "Bridge Scour Stream Instability Countermeasures - Experience, Selection, and Design Guidance," Federal Highway Administration Report No. FHWA-HI-97-030. Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 23, National Highway Institute, Arlington, VA, July 1997.
SCOUR AND STREAM S AT HIGHWAY BRIDGES
134
SCOUR AND STREAM STABILITY PROBLEMS
AT
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
IN
THE UNITED STATES
J/t^L
INTRODUCTION
of
As
February 1998, results of a national Screening of bridges over water by State Highway Agencies indicate that approximately 66,000 bridges are scour susceptible and Of the scour susceptible bridges that have another 97,000 have unknown foundations been evaluated, about 17,000 have been identified as scour cntical These bridges will require monitoring, repair, or scour protection through the installation of bridge scour and stream instability countermeasures
Countermeasures for bridge scour and stream instability problems are defined as measures incorporated into a highway-stream crossing system to monitor, control, mhibit, change, delay, or minimize stream instability and bridge scour problems An action plan for monitoring struetures during and/or after flood events can also be considered a countermeasure Countermeasures also include river stabilizing works over a reach of the Countermeasures may be installed at the time river up- and downstream of the crossing of highway construction or be retrofitted to resolve stability problems as they develop at existing crossings
While considerable research has been dedicated to design of countermeasures for scour and stream instability, many countermeasures have evolved through a trial and error process In addition, some countermeasures have been applied successfully in one locale, State or region, but have failed when installations were attempted under different geomorphic or hydraulic conditions In many cases, a countermeasure that has been used with success in one State or region is virtually unknown to highway design and maintenance personnel in another State or region Thus, there is a significant need for Information transfer regarding bridge scour and stream instability countermeasure design, installation, and maintenance
This need resulted in the publication [1] of Hydraulic Engineering Circular Number 23 (HEC-23) in July 1997 HEC-23 "Bridge Scour and Stream Instability Countermeasures Experience, Selection, and Design Guidance," represents an initial Step toward sharing countermeasure experience, selection, and design guidelines among Federal, State, and local highway agency personnel This Information is intended to facilitate the selection and design of countermeasures as State Highway Agencies develop Plans of Action for bridges identified as scour critical
THE COUNTERMEASURES MATRIX
wide variety of countermeasures have been used to control scour and stream instability The countermeasure matrix presented in HEC-23 is organized to highway bridges highlight the various groups of countermeasures and to identify their individual The matrix identifies most countermeasures used by State Highway charactenstics and lists Information on their functional apphcabihty to a particular problem, their Agencies suitability to specific nver environments, the general level of maintenance resources required and which states have experience with specific countermeasures Finally, a reference source for design guidance is noted, where available
at
limitations and format restnctions preclude presenting the HEC-23 shows the Functional Applications section of countermeasures matrix in this paper, Table In Table the matrix countermeasures were organized into groups based on their The three main functionality with respect to scour and stream instability groups of countermeasures are hydraulic countermeasures structural counter-measures and
page
1
While
monitoring
PETER
F.
LAGASSE,
Dr.
LW. ZEVENBERGEN,
Dr. E.V.
RICHARDSON
135
Table
1.
Bridge Scour and Stream Instability Countermeasures Matrix Functional Applications

FUNCTIONAL APPLICATIONS
Countermeasure Group
Local scour
Contraction Scour
Floodplain and Channel
Stream Instability
Abutments
Piers
Vertical
Lateral
GROUP
1.
HYDRAULIC COUNTERMEASURES
RIVER TRAINING STRUCTURES
1 1
GROUP LA. TRANSVERSE STRUCTURES

Impermeable spurs (jetties, groms, wing dams) Permeable spurs (fences, netting) Transverse dikes
Bendway weirs/Stream barbs
O O O
O
O O
O O
Hardpoints Drop struetures (check dams, grade control)
>
O O O
Embankment Spurs
o
o o o
1
LONGITUDINAL STRUCTURES
Longitudinal dikes (cnb/rock toe/embankments)
Retards
O
Bulkheads
Guide banks
o o
o o o o
1
AREAL STRUCTURES/TREATMENTS
Jacks/tetrahedron jetty fields
Vanes
O O
1
o
1 1 1
Channelization
Flow rehef (overflow, relief bridge)
o o o
o
o o o o
Sediment detention basm
o GROUP 1.B. ARMORING COUNTERMEASURES REVETMENTS AND BED ARMOR

o o
Rigid
>
Soil cement
Concrete pavement Rigid grout filled mattress/concrete fabric mat

Grouted nprap
1
1
>
o
1
Flexible/articulating
Riprap
Seif launching nprap (windrow)
o
>
O
O
1
Riprap fill-trench
o
1
o o
1
Gabions/gabion mattress
Wire enclosed riprap mattress (rail bank/sausage)
O
1 1
o
1
>
O
1
Articulated blocks (interlocking and/or cable tied) Articulating concrete/grout mattress (fabric-formed)
LOCAL SCOUR ARMORING

Riprap (fill/apron)
1
Grouted nprap Concrete armor units (Toskanes, tetrapods, etc Grout filled bags/sand cement bags
1
1
O
1
1
Gabions
1
1
Articulated blocks (interlocking and/or cable tied)

Sheet pile/cofferdam
1
N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
N/A
136
SCOUR AND STREAM STABILITY PROBLEMS AT HIGHWAY BRIDGES
IN
THE UNITED STATES
Table
1.
(Cont'd) Bridge Scour and Stream Instability Countermeasures Matrix Functional Applications
FUNCTIONAL APPLICATIONS
Countermeasure Group
Local scour
Contraction Scour
Stream Instability
Abutments
Piers
Floodplain and Channel
Vertical
Lateral
GROUP
Crutch bents/Underpinnmg
2.
STRUCTURAL COUNTERMEASURES
O
FOUNDATION STRENGTHENING
Cross bracing
O
O
O
1 1
Continuous spans Pumped concrete/grout under footing Lower foundation
o #
PIER GEOMETRY MODIFICATION

Extended footings
Pier shape modifications
N/A
N/A N/A
N/A N/A N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A N/A
N/A
Debris deflectors
N/A
N/A
Sacnficial piles/dolphins
N/A
N/A
GROUP
FIXED INSTRUMENTATION
Sonar scour monitor
3.
MONITORING
1
Magnetic sliding collar
Sounding rods
PORTABLE INSTRUMENTATION
Physical probes
Sonar probes
VISUAL MONITORING
Periodic Inspection
Flood waten
well
suited/primary use - the countermeasure is well suited for the application, the countermeasure has a good record of success for the application, the countermeasure was implemented primanly for this application
possible application/secondary use - the countermeasure can be used for the application, the countermeasure has been used with limited success for the application, the countermeasure was implemented primanly for another application but also can be designed to function for this application
In
addition, this symbol can identify an application for which the countermeasure has performed successfully and was implemented primanly for that application, but there is only a limited amount of data on its Performance and therefore the application cannot be rated as well suited
unsuitable/rarely used - the countermeasure is not well suited for the application, the countermeasure has a poor record of success for the application, the countermeasure was not intended for this application
not applicable - the countermeasure
is
N/A
not
applicable
to this
functional application
PETER
F.
LAGASSE,
Dr. L.W.
ZEVENBERGEN,
Dr. E.V.
RICHARDSON
137
Hydraulic Countermeasures are those which are primarily designed either to modify the flow (river training) or resist erosive forces caused by the flow (armoring). Structural Countermeasures involve modification of the bridge structure (foundation) to prevent failure from scour. Monitoring describes activities used to facilitate early identification of potential scour problems. Monitoring allows for action to be taken before the safety of the public is threatened by the potential failure of a bridge. Monitoring can be accomplished with fixed or portable instrumentation or Visual inspection.
3.
COUNTERMEASURE CHARACTERISTICS
The countermeasure matrix was developed to identify distinctive characteristics for each type of countermeasure. Five categories of countermeasure characteristics were defined to aid in the selection and Implementation of countermeasures:
Functional Applications Suitable River Environment Maintenance Installation/Experience by State Design Guidelines Reference
These categories were used to answer the following questions: For what type of problem is For what type of river environment is the the countermeasure applicable? countermeasure best suited or, are there river environments where the countermeasure will not perform well? What level of resources will need to be allocated for maintenance of the countermeasure? What states or regions in the United States have experience with this countermeasure? Where do obtain design guidance reference material? Only one is shown in Table to illustrate the Organization of the category (Functional Applications) matrix.
I
4.
DESIGN GUIDELINES
the
countermeasures matrix, design guidelines are provided for several countermeasures which have been applied successfully on a State or regional basis, but for which only limited design references are available in published handbooks, manuals, or
Following
include in HEC-23 design guidelines for all the the matrix. There are, however, references in the matrix to countermeasures listed publications that contain at least a sketch or photograph of a particular countermeasure, and in many cases contain more detailed design guidelines.
reports.
No
attempt has been made

in
to
FHWA currently has four publications dealing with stream
instability and bridge scour
countermeasures:
HEC-18 "Evaluating Scour at Bridges [2] HEC-20 "Stream Stability at Highway Struetures HIRE "Highways in the River Environment" [4] HEC-11 "Design of Riprap Revetment [5]
[3]
These documents contain detailed design procedures for many Standard countermeasures such as impermeable and permeable spurs, guidebanks, and riprap for abutments, piers,
and
revetment.
138
SCOUR AND STREAM STABILITY PROBLEMS AT HIGHWAY BRIDGES
IN
THE UNITED STATES
number of highway agencies provided specifications, procedures, or design guideiines for bridge scour and stream instability countermeasures that have been used successfully locally, but for which only limited design guidance is available outside the agency. Several of these are presented in HEC-23 following the matrix for the consideration of and possible adaptation to the needs of other highway agencies. Design guidelines for the following seven countermeasures are provided based on information obtained from State Highway Agencies: bendway weirs/ stream barbs, soil cement, wire enclosed riprap, articulated concrete block Systems, articulating grout filled mattresses, Toskanes (artificial riprap), and grout filled bags. Design Guideline 8 presents guidance for pier and abutment riprap protection from HEC-18 [2].
A
5.
CONCLUSIONS
The countermeasures matrix and design guidelines presented in HEC-23 provide a wealth of information on experience, selection, and design for bridge scour and stream instability countermeasures. This information is not readily available in any other Single source document, and should prove usefui to State Highway Agencies as they prepare and implement Plans of Action for scour critical bridges. The first edition
HEC-23 represents an initial step toward sharing countermeasure experience, selection, and design guidelines among Federal, State, and local highway agencies. It is expected that revisions and additions to the Circular will be made as additional technology and techniques become available and are tested in the field.
of
REFERENCES
1.
LAGASSE, P.F., M.S. BYARS, L.W. ZEVENBERGEN, P.E. CLOPPER, 1997. "Bridge Scour and Stream Instability Countermeasures - Experience, Selection, ano Design Guidance," Hydraulic Engineering Circular 23, FHWA HI-97-030. Washington, D.C.
2.
RICHARDSON,- E.V., S.R. DAVIS, 1995. "Evaluating Scour at Bridges," Hydraulic 18, Third Engineering Circular Edition, FHWA HI-96-031, Washington, D.C.
LAGASSE, P.F., J.D. SCHALL, F. JOHNSON, E.V. RICHARDSON, F. CHANG, 1995. "Stream Stability at Highway Struetures," Hydraulic Engineering Circular 20, Second Edition, FHWA HI-96-032, Washington, D.C.
3.
4.
RICHARDSON, E.V., D.B. Environment," Participant Washington, D.C.
SIMONS, P.Y. JULIEN, 1990. "Highways in the River NHI Course Notebook, 13010, FHWA-HI-90-016,
Hydraulic
5.
BROWN, S.A., E.S. CLYDE, 1989. "Design of Riprap Revetment," Engineering Circular No. 11, FHWA-IP-89-016, Washington, D.C.
CASE STUDIES AND LESSON SCOUR-RELATED BRIDGE FAIL
ffl
140
LESSONS LEARNED FROM SCOUR FAILURES
1.
INTRODUCTION
There are 575,000 bridges in the Unites States National Bridge Inventory. Eighty four of the bridges are over water. Stream instability and scour cause 60 percent of the percent bridge failures in the United States. Nationally, the annual cost for scour related bridge failures is about $30 million and flood damage repair costs for Federal-aid highways are about $50 million. Three bridge failures from scour in (1) Upstate New York, (2) Western Tennessee and (3) Central Valley California in the past 10 years with the cost of 25 lives, millions of dollars in replacement costs and many more millions of dollars in the indirect cost of detours, lost commerce and litigation illustrate the societal and financial costs of bridge failures. As the result of the investigation into the Schoharie Creek bridge failure all States are required to evaluate the scour susceptibility of all their bridges over water. This paper will briefly describe these three failures and some of the lessons leamed from the failures and the States' evaluation program in the past 10 years (1988 to 1998).
2.
SCHOHARIE CREEK, NEW YORK (1987) BRIDGE FAILURE
At
approximately 10:45 a.m. April 5, 1987, the center span and east center span of the 540-foot-long bridge on the New York State Thruway over Schoharie Creek in Montgomery County, New York, collapsed during a near-record flood (about 1,756 m3/s). About an hour and a half later, the west center span feil into the water (see Figure 1). One tractor semitrailer and four automobiles feil nearly 25 m into the river after the first span collapsed, resulting in 10 fatalities.
O
ioo'-o*
|
noô1*
I
G>
ho'-q" ioo'-q"
izo'-o"
s^s=
&:<&
PIER
I
P'ERJL-d^S
Eo<t
'
"Vawaor
SU3|3!1
\wm\mamW-^
,g)
CtPtMfc rryTA ooCTtrnom
Bwlrock
9
g
<t>
SUt
TaorW
"I em
(g>
eUr
Figure
1.
South elevation of Schoharie Creek bridge showing key structural features and schematic geological section.
The substructure consisted of four piers and two abutments. Each pier was a rigid frame (columns and tie beam) supported on a lightly reinforced concrete plinth (pedestal) and The abutments were spread footing bearing on glacial tili just below the streambed. fill into the underlying glacial tili. The founded on piles driven through the embankment
PETER
F.
LAGASSE,
Dr.
LW. ZEVENBERGEN,
Dr. E.V.
RICHARDSON
141
piers were founded on spread footings 1.5 m deep by 5.5 m wide by 25 m long with no piles. The bridge designers assumed that the glacial tili Substrate was "nonerodible."
After an extensive investigation and detailed analyses, which included hydraulic Computer and physical modeling [1], the U.S. National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) [2] determined that the probable cause of the collapse of the Schoharie Creek bridge was the failure of the Thruway Authority to maintain adequate riprap around the bridge piers, which led to severe erosion (scour) in the soil beneath the spread footings. It was concluded that the 1987 flood alone probably did not cause failure of the Thruway bridge. Rather, the cumulative effect of local scour around pier 3, particularly in the last 10 years, was the most significant hydraulic factor contributing to the failure.
Using the Schoharie Creek bridge and others damaged during the 1987 flooding in New York as examples, an economic study [3] estimated that the indirect costs suffered by the general public, business, and industry because of long detours and lost production time as a result of a bridge failure exceed the direct cost of bridge repair by a factor of five.
3.
HATCHIE RIVER, TENNESSEE (1989) BRIDGE FAILURE

1,
On April
1989, at about 8:15 p.m., a section (Bents U.S. Route 51 over the Hatchie River in Tennessee (about 224 m3/s). The accident report revealed that period of about one hour. Four passenger cars and the river, resulting in 8 deaths.
70-71) ofthe 1,280m-long bridge on collapsed during a moderate flood the collapse occurred slowly over a one tractor semi-trailer plunged into
The bridge substructure consisted of main Channel piers and floodplain bents supported on piles about 6.1 m long (Figure 2). There was about a 4-meter difference in elevation between the pile cap for the main Channel piers and the pile cap of the shallower floodplain bents. A post-failure investigation revealed the following rates of Channel migration into the north bank of the river at the bridge: 1931 to 1975 - 0.24 m/yr; 1975 to 1989 - 1.37 m/yr; and 1981 to 1989 - 0.58 m/yr [4].
The NTSB determined that the probable cause of the collapse of the northbound U.S. Route 51 bridge spans was the northward migration of the main river Channel, which the Tennessee Department of Transportation failed to evaluate and correct. As with the Schoharie Creek failure, the lack of structural redundancy in the design of the bridge spans contributed to the severity of the accident [4].
Pier
Bent
zs
/\
S\
1934
1971
1979
5^
1985
Q-
2o
S
1987
Figure
2.
Channel cross section change
at the
Hatchie River bridge, Tennessee.
142
LESSONS LEARNED FROM SCOUR FAILURES
4.
ARROYO PASAJERO, CALIFORNIA (1995) BRIDGE FAILURE
On March 10, 1995 the I-5 bridges over Arroyo Pasajero near Coalinga, California failed with the loss of 7 lives. The flow was 773 cms with about a 75-year return period. The bridge was constructed in 1967. The foundation of the bridge was 3 bents, each consisting of six 406 mm cast-in-place columns spaced approximately 2.3 m on centers. The abutments were vertical wall with wing walls. The columns were embedded 12.5 m; but the columns only had steel reinforcement for 5.2 m below the original ground. The bents were at an angle to the flow, that in 1995 was estimated to be from 15 to 26 degrees.
A
flood in 1969 lowered the stream bed 1.83 m and damaged one column. In repairing the damage a web wall 2.44 or 3.66 m high, 11.6 m long and 0.6 m wide was constructed around the columns to reinforce them. The elevation of the bottom of the web wall was not of of 15 to 26 degrees was not a factor in locai pier scour The attack established. angle of when the bents were composed columns but the web wall changed that.
investigation [5] determined that long-term degradation was 3 m and contraction scour was calculated as 2.6m. Local pier scour, as determined from a model study, ranged from 2 to 2.7 m. The 2.0 m of scour occurred in the model study when the web wal! was above the bed and 2.7 m of scour occurred with the web wall at the bed. A minimum potential total scour depth of 7.6 m would result in the column bents having 4.9 m of remaining embedment, but would have exposed 2.4 m of the columns without steel reinforcement. The force of water and debris on the exposed column sections without steel reinforcement caused them to fail.
An
5.
LESSONS LEARNED
These bridge failures, as well as the scour evaluation program and research proiects that were initiated after the Schoharie Creek bridge failure resulted in the followin^ lessons leamed in the past ten years (1988 to 1998):
Bridge failures are expensive. In most cases the indirect costs are many times larger than the direct costs of bridge replacement.
It is dangerous to consider stream bed material as "non erodible." Sedimentary rock may be erodible in high velocity turbulent flow. Even bed rock may be eroded over time.
Stream instability is an important consideration in bridge evaluation and design, and many cases stream instability can significantly increase scour potential at a bridge.
in
The evaluation of the vulnerability of bridges to scour, design of scour countermeasures and the design of new bridges should be condueted by an interdisciplinary team of hydraulic, geotechnical, structural and bridge engineers.
Bridges should be evaluated and designed to be safe from the 100-year flood or a smaller overtopping flood if it puts more stress on the bridge. The appropriate geotechnical safety factor should be used in the design for this flood event. The foundation design should be The checked for safety from a super flood with a geotechnical safety factor of 1. magnitude of the 500 year flood is suggested for the super flood.
Inspection is an important factor in bridge safety and inspectors must trained to recognize potential stream instability and scour problems.
be
adequately
Communication between bridge inspectors and decision makers in Highway Agencies is a critical aspect of bridge safety. As noted by the NTSB, "Unfortunately, in the bridge inspection program, itself, there is a lot of paper work being filled out but not, in many cases, adequate follow through to correct the problems being identified."
PETER
LAGASSE, Dr
ZEVENBERGEN,
Dr
E V
RICHARDSON
143
The HEC-18 [6] equation for determining local scour at bridges However it appears to give excessive scour depths for wide piers
is
the
best available
Pressure flow scour at bridge piers can increase scour depths by a factor of two to three Pressure flow occurs when the lower bridge chord and deck become submerged Preliminary methods for estimating pressure flow scour are given in HEC-18 [6]
Flume studies and field experience show that the scour on an abutment caused by the upstream horseshoe vortex is twice as deep for vertical wall abutments than for spill through abutments
Although some of the flow conditions are different, scour at bridges over tidal waterways can be analyzed using the same equations and methods for non-tidal (nvenne) bridges
It can be used to protect permanent countermeasure for pier scour bridge foundations from scour in conjunction with a scour monitoring or New or replacement bridges must be constructed with foundations inspection program that are stable considering the total scour pnsm without the use of riprap
Riprap existing
is
not
Instruments were developed for the real time measurement and monitoring of scour Monitoring of scour depths at piers and abutments by NCHRP Project No 21-3 [9] depths can be used to determine when scour at a bridge foundation becomes cntical enough to dose the bridge
REFERENCES
1
of the
RESOURCE CONSULTANTS, INC "Hydraulic Erosion and Channel Stability Analysis Schoharie Creek Bridge Failure, New York Prepared by RCI and Colorado State University for the National Transportation Safety Board, Washington, D C and New York State Thruway Authonty, Albany, NY, December 1987
"
NATIONAL TRANSPORTATION SAFETY BOARD, "Highway Accident Report Collapse of the New York Thruway (I-90) Bridge over the Schoharie Creek near New York, April 5, 1987" Report No Amsterdam NTSB/HAR-88/02, National D C 1988 April Transportation Safety Board, Washington,
" RHODES, J AND R E TRENT, "Economics of Floods, Scour, and Bridge Failures Proceedings of the 1993 National Conference of Hydraulic Engineering, San Francisco, CA, American Society of Civil Engineers, July 1993, pp 928-933
NATIONAL TRANSPORTATION SAFETY BOARD, "Highway Accident Report Collapse of the Northbound U S Route 51 Bridge Spans Over the Hatchie River near NTSB/HAR-90/01, National Report No April 1, 1989" Covington, Tennessee, Transportation Safety Board, Washington, D C June 1990
E V J S JONES AND J C BLODGETT, "Findings of the I-5 Bridge ASCE Failure," Proceedings ofthe XXVII IAHR Congress, ASCE, Reston, VA, 1997
RICHARDSON,
RICHARDSON, E V AND S R DAVIS, "Evaluating Scour at Bridges," Hydraulic Engineering Circular No 18, Federal Highway Administration Report No FHWA-HI-96031, Washington, D C 1995
J D G A E V AND PF PRICE, LAGASSE, SCHALL, RICHARDSON, "Instrumentation for Measuring Scour at Bridge Piers and Abutments," NCHRP Report 396 Transportation Research Board National Research Council, National Academy Press, Washington D C December 1997
HYDRAULIC MODELING FOR BRID IN TIDAL WATER
Lyle W. ZEVENBERGEN Senior Hydraulic Engineer Ayres Associates, Inc.
FortCollins, CO USA
146
HYDRAULIC MODELLING FOR BRIDGE SCOUR ANALYSIS
IN
TIDAL WATERWAYS
1.
INTRODUCTION
Tidal waters are subjected to dynamic flow conditions caused by daily (astronomical) tides, ocean currents/ storm surges, and upland runoff. Highway encroachments are subjected to stream instability and foundation scour resulting from these dynamic flow conditions. Although simplified methods for determining tidal hydraulic conditions often provide useful and reasonable results, complex hydraulic conditions may require unsteady flow Computer modeling. Computer modeling is the most accurate method for determining the hydraulic conditions for extreme hurricanes that cause scour at many tidally affected bridge
crossings.
in the United States initiated a study to to modeis coastal analyze develop Computer waterway hydraulic conditions at highway struetures [1]. Phase focused on three tasks: (1) compile a database of literature on tidal processes and Computer modeis, (2) evaluate sources and methodologies for determining ocean tide and storm surge hydrographs, and (3) evaluate which Computer modeis are best suited for use by bridge engineers for tidal hydrodynamic and scour investigations. Task 2 included determining the storm tide hydrograph, which consists of the storm surge height, the duration of the rise and fall, and superimposing the storm surge hydrograph on daily tides. Task 3 included accurate representation of bridge, eulvert, and embankment overtopping hydraulics.
In
1993, 12 east coast State Highway Agencies

I
Phase II of this study [2] focused on three tasks: (1) developing storm surge hydrographs for the east and gulf coasts of the U.S., (2) developing case studies and testing selected modeis, and (3) developing a users manual and providing training. This paper summarizes model selection criteria and boundary condition generation methodologies developed during this study, and provides references to resources available for bridge scour analyses in tidal waterways.
2.
MODEL SELECTION
modeling approach should be selected based on the geomorphic and hydraulic characteristics of the tidal waterway [3]. Depending on the application, a simple tidal prism These approaches are presented in HEC-18 [4]. At or orifice approach could be used. times, a steady-state hydraulic model, based on the worst-case conditions determined from a simplified procedure, can be used to obtain conservative hydraulic parameters for scour analysis.
The
When the use of more so'phisticated approaches is necessary, the model and approach will also vary depending on the site geomorphic conditions and hydraulic complexity. In of this study, 21 modeis were reviewed to determine their applicability to tidal Phase It was bridge hydraulic and scour studies. antieipated that several modeis would be needed to efficiently model the rnge of conditions which are encountered in tidal waterways. One-, two- and three-dimensional modeis were evaluated.
I
original modeis, four were subjected to detailed evaluation. These included two 1-dimensional and two 2-dimensional modeis. The 1-dimensional modeis were DYNLET1 [5] and UNET [6]. The 2-dimensional modeis were FESWMS [7] and RMA-2V [8]. Each of the four modeis performed well for tidal hydraulic modeling. The modeis replicated within 0.12 m. The 1-dimensional modeis were observed tide gage readings well, generally easier to set up and ran much faster than the 2-dimensional modeis. Calibrated Manning The 1n values for the inlet and bay areas were similar for all the tested modeis. the to results similar modeis 2-dimensional modeis, although it was dimensional produced antieipated that many complex hydraulic situations would require 2-dimensional modeling.
Of the 21
Jjf^
LYLE W. ZEVENBERGEN, Dr.
P.F.
LAGASSE,
Dr. E.V.
RICHARDSON
t47
Because analyzing the hydraulics and scour potential at highway struetures was the focus of the study, tests were performed of flow through eulverts and bridges and over embankments. RMA-2V contained limited structure hydraulic analysis capabilities which consist of specifying various types of rating curves at structure locations. Since the specific geometric characteristics of a structure are not included directly as input, RMA-2V was not included in the structure hydraulic tests. The other modeis use various methods for and their Performance varied significantly. UNET provided Computing structure hydraulics, the best structure hydraulic computations. FESWMS performed well for embankment overtopping flows and some eulvert conditions, but did not give reasonable results for bridge pressure flow. Of the three modeis tested for structure hydraulics, DYNLET1 gave the least acceptable structure hydraulic analysis.
on the results of the hydraulic tests, UNET (1-D) and FESWMS (2-D) were recommended for use in tidal hydraulic modeling of bridges. UNET was selected because it accurately simulates tidal and structure hydraulics. In comparison to the other modeis, UNET is most capable of modeling very long river reaches, including branched and looped Channel networks. DYNLET1 performed well on tidal hydraulics, but was not as powerful as UNET, did not simulate structure hydraulics as well, and ran much slower than UNET. FESWMS was selected because it accurately simulates tidal hydraulics, adequately simulates many structure hydraulic conditions, and is well suited for simulating complex flow conditions. FESWMS has enhanced pre- and post-processing Software [9]. RMA-2V is also well suited for tidal hydraulic modeling, and also has advanced pre- and postprocessing Systems. RMA-2V is currently being enhanced to include structure hydraulics. Once these enhancements are complete, FESWMS and RMA-2V will have comparable capabilities, and model selection will depend on site specific conditions of the waterway to be analyzed.
Based
For tidal hydraulic modeling, the selection of the model and approach should be directed toward obtaining accurate results for the specific site conditions. Simplified methods have provided reasonable results for many locations with relatively little effort. More complex methods should be used when the limitations of the simplified approaches produce overly conservative, and often costly, results. UNET, DYNLET, FESWMS and RMA-2V have all been successfully applied to many complex tidal applications.
3.
BOUNDARY CONDITION DEVELOPMENT
Tidal hydraulic studies require estimates of tide and storm surge stage hydrographs as boundary conditions. Upstream flood hydrographs may also need to be included, as well as wind Stresses for some applications.
The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) publish peak storm surge elevations related to the
Because FEMA's focus is on flooding frequency of oecurrence or hurricane severity. potential, maximum surge elevations are reported, but the storm tide hydrographs are not available. NOAA reports peak surge elevations for each class of hurricane for use by emergency ms^nagers. Although the NOAA data provide an alternative to the elevations reported by FEMA, storm tide hydrographs are also not available from NOAA.
To address the fact that NOAA and FEMA provide peak surge height only and not the fll hydrograph, Cialone et al. [10] reported a procedure for developing surge hydrographs
from available information.
The storm tide (storm surge combined with the daily tide)
is
computed as
148
HYDRAULIC MODELLING FOR BRIDGE SCOUR ANALYSIS
IN
TIDAL WATERWAYS
Stot(t)
_ Sp
V
T-t
Ht(t)
0)
where Sp is the peak surge height, D is the storm duration (defined as the radius of maximum winds divided by the storm forward speed), T is the time of the peak surge, t is time, and Ht(t) is the daily tide component. Excluding daily tides results in a storm surge hydrograph symmetrical about time T. Depending on when the surge is assumed to occur during the daily tide, Sp is adjusted to produce a selected extreme condition, Stot(t), from NOAA or FEMA data.
was tested to see if it adequately predicted the shape of storm surge Equation The ADCIRC [11] 3-dirnensionai modei has been used to simulate hydrographs. is a numerous hurricanes along the east and gulf coasts. In the ADCIRC model, the surge is a reasonable test result, not an input, so comparing the ADCIRC results with equation the twelve largest storm surges predicted by ADCIRC for shows of the equation. Figure Also shown is the 100a 104 year historic record at Sapelo Sound on the Georgia Coast. is excludod from all of the year surge predicted using equation 1. The daily tide in for developing surge boundary use The equation appears adequate hydrographs. is that negative surge elevations, due to conditions. The primary drawback of equation offshore wind, are not predicted.
1 1 1 1
Judgment and experience are needed to determine whether extreme upland runoff should Where the timing of upland fiooding is be included in a storm surge Simulation. independent of the timing of the hurricane storm surge, average daily flow should be used Where extreme upland runoff is generated by the as an upstream inflow condition. hurricane conditions and the runoff can reach the tidal waterway during the surge, a more extreme upland flow could be included.
100 vear
V
2
0?!
Time - hours
Figure
1.
Comparison
of
design hydrograph with computed historic hydrographs.
Jym,
4
LYLEW ZEVENBERGEN
Dr
PF LAGASSE
Dr
E V
RICHARDSON
149
RESOURCES AVAILABLE
IN
THE UNITED STATES
The primary product of the east and gulf coast study was a Users Manual for tidal hydraulic The manual includes guidance on model selection, model modeling of bridges [12] data hurricane on charactenstics, and case studies illustrating boundary development, the Also developed as part of this and condition development use of UNET and FESWMS study is a CD-ROM which contains the selected modeis, electronic versions of the manuals the case study input files, data and Utility programs for model development and scour calculations
REFERENCES
1
AYRES ASSOCIATES, "Development of Hydraulic Computer Models to Analyze Tidal and Coastal Stream Hydraulic Conditions at Highway Struetures," Final Report, Phase HPR552 South Carolina Department of Transportation, 1994
AYRES ASSOCIATES, "Development of Hydraulic Computer Models to Analyze Tidal and Coastal Stream Hydraulic Conditions at Highway Struetures," Final Report, Phase II SPR-3(22) South Carolina Department of Transportation, 1997
ZEVENBERGEN, L W SCHALL, Hydraulic Modeling," Proceedings for Hydraulic Research, 1997
and HUNT,
of the 27th
Congress
of the
"Geomorphic Factors for Tidal International Association
RICHARDSON, EV AND DAVIS, SR, "Evaluating Scour at Bridges," Federal Highway Administration Report No FHWA-HI-96-031, Hydraulic Engineering Circular No 18, Third Edition, FHWA, 204 pp, November 1995
"DYNLET1 Model Formulation and User's Guide," CIALONE, M A AND AMEIN, M S U CERC-93-3, Army Corps of Engineers, CERC, Vicksburg, MS, 62 pp, 1993
BARKAU, R L "UNET - One-Dimensional Jnsteady Flow Through a Fll Network of Open Channels," Report CPD-66 Version 3 2, US Army Corps of Engineers, 1997 CA, CentDavis, Hydrologic Engineering
Flow
FROEHLICH, D C "Finite Element Surface-Water Modeling System Two-Dimensional in a Horizontal Plane Version 2," Users Manual, 1996
THOMAS, W A AND MCANALLY, W H "User's Manual for the Generalized Computer Open Channel Flow and Sedimentation, TABS-2," U S Program System Army 671 1985 MS, Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, pp,
BYU, "SMS Surface Water Modeling System," Reference Manual, Version Young University, ECGL, Provo, UT, 1997
5 0,
Brigham
10
CIALONE, MA, BUTLER, L, AND AMEIN, M, "DYNLET1 Application to Federal Highway Administration Projects," CERC-93-6, U S Army Corps of Engineers, CERC, Vicksburg, MS, 93 pp, 1993
11
SCHEFFNER, NW, MARK, DJ, BALIN, CA, WESTERINK JJ, AND LUETTICH, "A Tropical Storm Data Base for the East and Gulf of New Mexico Coasts of JR the United States," U S Army Corps of Engineers, CERC, 1994
R A
12
ZEVENBERGEN, L W HUNT, J H BYARS, M S EDGE, B L RICHARDSON, E V LAGASSE, P F, "Tidal Hydraulic Modeling for Bndges Users Manual," Ayres Associates, Fort Collins, CO, 1997
'PYLON FOUNDATIONS
OF
THE INDIAN
m*
TIPPUR NAKAYANARAO
SUBIJA RAO Cbainnan
np
Construma Consultancy Pvt.

Ltd.
Bombay India
Summary
The Paper deals with
the
piers and foundation
significantly different
in concept and
execution.
been executed with the described concept but for
154
PLYON FOUNDATIONS OF FOUR CABLESTAY BRIDGES
-THE INDIAN EXPERIENCE
extent
The desired, either through the pylons or through the end piers, as convenient. and the the loads of foundations through the structure are by gravitational large transferred to pylons and this constitutes a large percentage of the total force on the pylon foundations.
1.0
1.1
SECOND HOOGLY BRIDGE

General Features
:
The foundations and the piers of the Second Hooghly Bridge in India with a main span of 457 M and side spans of 182 M are most unusual and envelope conceptualisation of several types of complex foundations met with in practice. The (Figs.l&2) illustrate the
general layout of the bridge and of the piers and foundations in some detail.
The structural system of the deck consists of portal type pylons with Provision of restraint bearings in the longitudinal direction over pier
bearings
the
pier 4. The composite deck provision of lateral bearings.

at
is
through deck, with movement transversely supported over these piers through
a
1
and free
The bridge is close to the sea and apart from the substantial rnge between low and high water levels, the Standing wave from the tidal bores sweeping up the Hooghly quite often measure upto 2.5 M in height and need careful reckoning.
The bridge is located in
seismic area and
is
designed for
seismic intensity of G/15
The area being prone to cyclonic storms, wind force corresponding to wind speeds of about 200 Km per hour are to be expected. The main pylon foundations 2 & 3 are also designed for the impact of floating vessels of 10,000 tons displacement with an approach velocity of 1.5 Knots per hour.
1.2
Choice of Caisson Geometrv and Sinking
Considering these factors and the Gangetic terrain conditions of the soil, the type of foundations chosen under the pylons consisted of two circular caissons each having 9 compartments, interconnected by a very rigid pier, to provide an effective transverse portal system. The top of the caisson is kept just above the lowest water level but piers
extend nearly 12.4 M above this level.
The cellular caisson layout is dictated by that of the pier, which is also cellular. The forces from the pier are transferred directly into the inner walls of the caisson parallel to the pier, and the forces thus transmitted, are carried through these walls over the entire plan area of the caisson, almost immediately below the base of the pier. The internal layout of the caisson walls give the caisson a very rigid structural System; the force transfer path to the soil is shortest as also concentric to the caisson. The transverse portal action is complete and effective and provides in that direction a high level of security against the action of transverse forces, impact from floating vessels, forces generated due to presumed differential settlement of the twin caissons below each pier and the like.
The caissons have been designed to be empty throughout their working life in order to reduce pressures on the soil. The Gangetic soil has clay bands interspersed with coarse and fine sand layers and thus invites settlement threat over the years. Since the strata is
sedimented uniformly and characteristic over
wide
flood piain,
the
likelihood of
TN.SUBBARAO
155
differential settlement between the caissons is remote manifest itself, the transverse monolithic behaviour of counter it by seeking a new equilibrium Status.
In the
and should any such phenomenon the caisson plus pier system would
from the pylon act on the total pier caisson system as a free cantilever, with the force on each base under the twin legs of the pylon being somewhat different, especially under seismic and wind load conditions. The stability of the system is checked as a rigid mass founded on an elastic soil.
longitudinal direction,
the forces transferred
The settlement of the caisson pair is evaluated taking the specific alternative bands of sand and clay layers into account. The settlement of both the pylon piers 2 and 3 are not
expected
substantially different and therefore the structure is unlikely to be geometrically disoriented. The section of the caisson in plan, is checked for the non uniform soil pressure distribution around it under various resultant loading conditions, and has been accordingly reinforced.
to
be
twin caissons 2 being located alongside the bank, are sunk from a dry platform formed with the help of steel sheet piles, whereas the pair of caissons 3 has a double walled steel Shell prefabricated in a dry dock. The Shell 3 was slipped at high tide into the river, brought to location, filled with tremmie concrete to settle on a pre-formed flat river bed, and progressively sunk through the soil by open grabbing inside the cellular Spaces in A very close watch was maintained to account for the a systematic pre-ordained manner. the Shell occuring as a result of tidal and river current of sudden below scour possibility forces. The caissons were floated one after the other and the downstream one was placed in position after the upstream one had gone sufficiently deep, so that the possibility of suction of the soil from one caisson to the other was minimised. Once both the caissons were placed in position, they were taken down systematically with a level difference not exceeding 4 to 5 M, until they reached their final depth,
The
1.3
Caisson Plug and Cover Slab
final level, the twin caissons 2 were plugged with prepacked concrete and caissons were plugged with tremmie concrete, as a first stage Operation. The difference in the plugging method adopted was essentially to check the Performance of the two methods. Both proved effective.
the
3
After reaching
To avoid the
conical interface of the plug and the caisson shell, the caissons were dewatered after plugging and pier construction, and a reinforced concrete slab notched into the caisson walls, scaled each cell of the caissons. At the same time, the first stage plug was checked, qualitywise and water tightnesswise. The safety against buoyancy under this equilibrium State was 1.25. The plug in each caisson is checked for the reactive forces Coming from the soil for the buoyant weight of the caisson including partial pier weight, before the reinforced concrete slab is concreted over it to form an integral part of this plug. Under service load conditions, on completion of the bridge, the integrated plug is checked for the highest reactive forces from the soil caused by the most severe loading combinations. These forces are transmitted by the plug to the inner and outer walls of the caisson and the bottom-most section of the peripheral wall has A finite element been reinforced for the bursting and bending forces Coming on it. analysis for both the first stage plug and the integrated plug generally indicated good dorne action and effective transfer of forces from the caisson to the soil. The plugging being a very critical activity, had to be performed with much care and pre-planning, so
possibility of seepage of water from
the
156
PLYON FOUNDATIONS OF FOUR CABLESTAY
BRIDGES-THE INDIAN EXPERIENCE
that the plug and the caisson behaved as if they were an integrated structural unit, capable of withstanding and transmitting to the soil in the most appropriate manner, the very large forces imposed by the structural system. The cells in the pier are interconnected by an
opening above the plug level,
to
facilitate access and inspection.
st water level is rigid enough to energise the The slab capping the caissons at near lo^ the caisson almost immeiately below the soffit level. For concreting the entire section of cap and pier, caissons 2 were garlanded by a sheet pile cofferdam on the river side and posed no problem. However, for concreting the cap, the caissons 3 located midstream were provided with a circular steel cofferdam reaching above high water level and 7.5 M high. It incorporates a gate mechanism along the transverse axis, (Fig, 2 as an expedient
for pier construction..

1.4
Some Factors Affecting Caisson Sinking
Great care had to be taken during the sinking of caissons to see that they are sunk almost vertically in their true position. This is to avoid eccentricity of the pier over the cellular walls of the caisson beyond accepted limits, and also to ensure that the pylon is located directly over the central pocket of the caissons.
shift of Wfo (2.25m) of the central span inbetween the caisson pair 2 and 3, with However, careful corresponding span Variation was acceptable and designed for. sequential sinking and precautionary measures like maintaihing the water level inside the caissons higher than the river level with a view to prevent sand blows during sinking and others, helped in reaching a main span Variation of less than 1 M and transverse axis Variation of less than 0.7% of the caisson diameter. The latter control ensurea that the pier walls rested directly on the corresponding cellular walls of the caissons to enable the flow of forces effectively from the pier to the caissons.
A
To meet any accidental sand blow conditions during sinking, the caisson was designed for external earth pressure acting on half the diameter on the caisson, with consequent The vertical steel was also checked for a sudden bending effect on the caisson in plan. that de-pressurised condition may develop upto half diameter above the cutting edge of
the caisson during the final sinking process. (fig.
1)
The caisson being massive, exhibited least sensitivity to movement and so long as the grabbing inside was systematically executed, sunk slowly without causing much anxiety.
In view of the depth at which the caissons are founded below high water level, the need for pneumatic sinking, should the sinking be obstructed by sunken boats or logs or other material in its path, was antieipated. The steel in the caisson is catered for this emergency so long as it occurred within a depth of 35 M. However, if such a case arose beyond this the Solution lay only by sending divers to cut the material underwater and remove it, which would have been a slow process but nevertheless imperative. Luckily, except for a 5 ton anchor left behind by ships, which came up during the grabbing Operations, no other
limit,
problem was faced.

in the design.
This contingency should nevertheless be antieipated and provided for
A garland of fenders for absorbing the impact of floating vessels is fixed on pier 3 only since the draft at pier 2 will not normally allow vessels to come close to it. Nevertheless, Provision is made to fix fenders at this pier as well should a chrnge in river behaviour
T.N.SUBBARAO
157
necessitate this. This has enabled the real for:e manageable level.
1.5
on
the
pier itself to be brought to
Piers
and
3:
The execution of the piers, starting below the water level and above the concreted cap required as a pre-requisite, definition of the exact location of the caissons in relation to their designed position and thereafter adjustment of the transverse axis of the pier in the direction of the span, so that the continuity between the transverse walls of the caisson pair and of the piers was realised within prescribed tolerance limits. Because of the presence of the aforestated sheet pile cofferdam, executing pier 2 posed no problem.
However, pier 3 required a very different treatment as no such cofferdam was feasible. The work on this pier starting below the water level, required it to be split into two parts. As first part, the pier and caisson cap portion within the cofferdam was constructed upto 9.0 M height (+ 7.0 M) of a total 14.0 M including the cap depth; This level was above high tide level experienced during the season. Provisions was made in the cap and pier to The integrate balance portion of the pier between the caisson pair at a later date. transverse reinforcement in this section is necessarily very heavy, due to portal action of the caissons plus pier, and demanded very meticulous layout and positioning.
.ection of the pier was cast at 7.2 m level over a supporting platform suspended from a steel truss spanning between the piers already cast within the caissons. (Fig. 2) The lowering system was very carefully detailed so that control of any one of the 4 points of Suspension was possible independently of each other. At either end of this intermediate section of the pier, a sealing arrangement was incorporated to prevent ingress of water from the soffit, when the section was lowered to its final position below water The lowering activity presented no problems since all contingencies were level. antieipated and provided for. Especially important was the exact positioning of the reinforcement along the pier axis, so that when lowered in position, it matched perfectly with the steel provided in the portion of the pier partly concreted over the caissons. This entire Performance required design, detailing and construction management skills of the highest order.
The intermediate
Before lowering this precast pier section, the afore mentioned gates in the cofferdam were removed and this allowed water to food inside the cofferdam over the well cap. After the section was lowered, gates were inserted spanning the gap between the two halves of the piers on either side and this enabled dewatering the pier section between the gates. Much care was taken in detailing the junetion between the gates and the soffit seal; It was a very vulnerable Joint. The small leakage witnessed was sealed by divers with quick setting micro concrete during low tide. Following cleaning of the projeeting reinforcement, the balance portion of the caisson cap and the piers upto + 7.0 m were concreted in the dry and thus the entire pier became integrated as one unit. The remaining portion of pier
above
7.0 m was gradually raised upto its fll height thereafter, entire plan area of the pier.
in
two meter lifts covering the
Of particular relevance is the concreting of the pier portion where the anchors for the base plate of the pylons are located. This required accurate positioning of the anchors with the
158

in
Jw^L
help
of
template.
The
reinforcement
the
anchor
block was
so
distributed the forces to the walls of the pier effectively through shear. caused on the pierhead by the 3.5 degree transverse inchnation of the
by prestressing.
detailed that it The tension forces

is
pylon
countered
The meticulous planning and execution of the pier in two parts and integrating the central unit below water level, the positioning of the anchor plates and several other activities, required most careful attention to detailing to facilitate reinforcement placement, avoid
and other factors consistent to obtain
1-6
unacceptable crack widths, ensure sufficient cover and concrete compaction for durability a totally integrated pier and caisson system.
General Issues Concerning the Caissons
The caissons were filled with water soon after the plug cap was laid and prior to the Integration of the pier section, to enable major settlement of the foundation to take place. Following pier Integration, the caissons were dewatered completely, the silt which had collected over the concrete plug was removed, the laitence though hard chipped out, the surface cleaned efficiently and the concrete slab referred to earlier laid over it. Thereafter, they were checked for any leakage of water and where it occurred though to a very small
extent, was plugged by injeeting cement or epoxy grout.
filled with water, and progressively dewatered with superstructure load buildup and are designed to be kept empty throughout life. Undei this condition as the caisson walls have to withstand large horizontal forces form the soil, a plane frame analysis of the caisson geometry in plan was carried out and the stress
The caissons
2
and
were again
levels checked.
maintained as regards progressive settlement of the caissons and the scour around them. A SAP IV programme carried out for the main pier cum foundation severest lateral and vertical forces, indicated that the system system 2 and 3 for the behaved as a single bay portal frame with a hinged base and the effect of differential settlement of the order expected between the pair of caissons supporting each pier would be small. A gross settlement of 200 mm and relative settlement of 25 mm between the pair of caissons was part of this investigation.
A
periodic check
is
1.7
Special Design and Conceptual Issues
Briefly, they
are
The assessment of risk factors arising out of the choice of soil parameters and the force levels due to seismic, wind and river current.
The structural system best suited for absorbing both the very large longitudinal and transverse forces, inherent with large spans.
The
type of foundations to be adopted for the pylons, so that they suffered to a minimum extent due to settlement, without sacrificing integrity of their behaviour and
Performance.
The need to keep the caissons dry to reduce foundation pressure and consequently stipulation of a crack free design for the outer walls of the caisson,
T.N.SUBBARAO
159
The methodology for integraing bottom section of pier risks and durability factors in mind,
below
water level
keeping
The possibility of scour occurring during construction and causing the caissons to be shifted from their true positions.
These issues highlight the innovative approach and the close interaction required between the design and construction teams responsible for the execution of the 'foundations.
2.
AKKAR BRIDGE
The bridge over River Rangeet at Akkar in India has a central pylon with a span of 79 M on either side. The pylon and the deck are all constructed in concrete. (Fig. 3). The pylon is located on a Single circular caisson sunk through rock by using controlled blasting techniques. The caisson is shielded against blasting shocks with steel upto a height of 4.15 M on the outside and 7.70 M inside the dredge hole. The concrete pylon rests on wedge shaped hollow pier just above the high flood level. The nosing of the pier on the upstream side is shielded by armour-plates to protect it from the impact of huge boulders rolling down the fast flowing river during high floods. The pier is founded on a thin slab capping the caisson. (Fig. 3
The wedge shape of the pier causes the load from the pylon legs to cause a Splitting action at cap level. This is accounted for by closely spaced small dia. reinforcement. No prestressing is applied. As the well cap is too thin to help even redistribution of load from the pier over the caisson ring, heavy hoop reinforcement is provided in the caisson just below the cap, to counter the Splitting action caused by the pier, as also to help gradual dispersion of the load into the steining; It is as if the pier sprouts from the steining as an integral part of the pier caisson system.
The
deck
is
freely
suspended
from
the
pylon.
Unlike
the
Hoogly
Bridge
both
the
transverse and longitudinal forces caused by wind and seismic action (G/10), temperature and braking effects are taken equally at both ends of the bridge, by an abutment block,
multiple neoprene bearing arrangement. The vertical forces are carried by horizontally placed neoprene bearings and the abutment block itself provides counterweight in an emergency. The abutment is keyed into the foundation rock through
a
interfaced by
shear keys.
The bridge site with steep banks and good foundation rock on either side is excellently suited for absorbing the deck forces in-plane and the abutments were designed to suit. The positioning of the neoprene bearings to absorb longitudinal forces, transverse forces, and downward loads together with provision for their inspection and replacement, constituted an important criteria while defining the layout and geometry of the abutment. Again, the geometry of the deck penetrating into the abutment was such as to provide access to the back-stay cables, which may require restressing in future.
3.
JOGIGHOPA BRIDGE
This proposed (but not implemented) double deck rail-cum-road bridge for dual line broad gauge track across the Brahmaputra river in India has a cable stay span for a part of its
160
- THE
INDIAN EXPERIENCE
'A
of steel
length, with spans of 138-348-138 M. construction. (Fig. 4)
The
superstructure
is
designed
to
be
The Solution for the caisson foundations of this cable stay module presented different problems because of the presence of slopping rock strata. As a result, one pylon and one anchor pier caisson foundation are founded in sand, approx. 65 M to 70 M below the bed, and do not pose difficult problems for sinking and plugging. The other pylon and anchor pier caisson foundation close to the ban^c have problems in founding, although not with regard to their initial sinking in the sandy river bed. The anchor pier also absorbs the longitudinal forces and it is located and anchored into rock 35 M below the lowest water level. The anchoring of this foundatiori into rock under pneumatic conditions, although hazardous at that level, can nevertheless bc accomplished by a planned and systemalic excavation of the rock. However, th6 same Solution cannot be applied to the pylon foundation, which encounters the slopping rock approx. 45 M below the low water level and is thus beyond safe pneumatic sinking limits. Since the scour in the river extends up o this level, the need for effectively anchoring this foundation in rock is a vital necessity. The layout for all the foundations consists of a Double D caisson. The piers are founded at water level on a stiff cap, which redistributes the forces to the caissons most effectively.
The caisson of 28 M dia. and with a twin dredge hole has pre-formed circular openings of 1.5 M diameter at 5 M centres within the steining of the caisson. These openings are and sand the the caisson with touches the rock level, the filled once during sinking proceS sand is washed out. To avoid tilt of the caisson during its final sinking process close to the rock strata, as also to prevent this occurring by the cutting edge touching the rock accidentally by sudden sinking in the last few meters of sinking left, the caisson is stopped short of the rock level. Divers are then sent to stabilise the caisson by providing chairs from below to support it. The soil at the founding level is thereafter cemented by injecting cement grout both inside the dredge hole and outside. Holes of 3" dia kept at 2m intervals in the steining close to the outerperiferi, with exit holes in the curb close to the cutting edge, effectively carryout this grouting Operation. The compacted soil at the base further stabilises the caisson. This soil and the rock strata is then bored upto 3 m. through the 1.5 m dia openings and concreted upto the top to establish a good anchorage for the caisson. The stub piles are stressed vertically into the rock mass to establish a positive anchorage and help accept both over turning and shear at the rock level.
The next stage activity covers the cleaning of the dredge hole in the caisson, assisted by divers, followed by plugging with concrete under water upto three quarter the height of the final plug thickness. A central circular opening in the plug is maintained upto rock level during this first stage plugging Operation. The caisson is dewatered after plugging, the referred opening is cleared of all silt, and the portion excavated and concreted upto a minimum depth of Im in rock. This provides a good shear key to the system against sliding on the slopping rock and relieves the shear being feit by the piles. This central
concrete fill is carried above the plug integrated with it with dowel bars.
to
the
fll designed height of
the
plug and
The final outcome of this construction system is that the piles take vertical forces, the central key takes the shear and the vertical prestress aids the anchoring system. Some
TN.SUBBARAO
161
variations
means
to
this system by way of providing a pier cap over the plug, or adopting other grout the soil at the founding level, etc. are indicated.
to
This concept has beensuccessfully tried out on the circular caissons, supporting 120 structural steel spans, finally adopted for this bridge.
4.
BAGCHHAL BRIDGE:
This bridge designed to span across the river Sutlej in the back waters of Govindsagar Lake in Himachal Pradesh, has perforce to be designed as a cable stay bridge with an imperative main span of 184 m and side spans of 75.45 m, thus providing a total length of 234.9 m between abutments (Fig. 5).
The pylon is in concrete and is founded on open foundations in rock strata. The shape of pylon appears elegant and is designed to reflect the hand clasped 'Namaskar' concept cradling the concrete deck in between. The deck is 12m wide, carries a 7.5m dual lane carriageway for Class AA & 70R loading, flanked by 1.5m wide footpaths, with railing
the
and crash
barrier protection.
The cablestays supporting the deck are anchored in a pylon head above 32 m ht. along the central axis of the bridge. The A frame and the lower V frame in reverse are anchored to to allow ingress of water and prevent one sided water a cellular pier, having openings pressure. The reason for choosing the cellular pier lies in the fact that the transverse contour of the hill on either approach, has a steep fall and a A frame Solution, though simplier, would have necessitated unequal legs of substantial height. The pier is founded on a footing which in turn rests on a 1:3:6 concrete foundation. (Fig. 6)
bridge has a rise of 1.80 m across the main span and the curve is tangential at the pylon point with a straight approach to the abutments. The deck is integral with the pylon and the temperature effects are substantially absorbed by the arch effect and low stiffness of the deck in the main span. The expansion of the 75.45m length is accommodated at the abutment end. Since the pier and deck are integral, the design is complex but greatly improves the global behaviour and stability of the pylon. The pylon and deck are checked for accidental failure of one cable with designed load traffic and also for controlled one lane traffic during replacement of one cable. The pylons are designed to cater for the entire wind/seismic effects on the deck plus its own system behaviour. However, as a measure of caution, transverse and longitudinal forces are also designed to be absorbed to the extent of 35% at the abutments. The deflection of the pylon along the Longitudinal is also accounted for in the design of the expansion joints at the abutments. axis
The
Work
on this
project
is
slated to commence this year.
162
bridges causes the decision much more risk oriented. The very size of the foundations to carry all the loads of such large spans, again demafids a much more detailed assessment of the forces Coming on them and calls for Computer aided finite element or simialr techniques, to assess the Stresses Coming on the critical components of the foundations. Careful detailing without sacrificing Integration of the different components, consistent This seeks prewith the construction sequence adopted, is a cardinal requisite. determination of the exact construction methods to be programmed, as well as a very close interaction for realising the scheme, right from concept to practical reality, among all concerned.
Credits
Credits are due to Hooghly River Bridge Commissioners; M/s. Schlaich Bergermann und Partner, Germany; M/s. Freeman Fox Limited, U.K.; erstwhile colleagues at Gammon India Ltd., and Associates at Construma Consultancy Pvt. Ltd.
5.0
CONCLUSION
The problems of foundaitons of cable stayed bridges are not unlike those met with in the design of other types of bridges. The cited foundation for Jogighopa bridge resting on sloping rock and beyond acceptable pneumatic sinking limits, would be the same were the bridge cable stayed or otherwise. However, the very large spans adopted for cable stayed
TN. SUBBA RAO
163
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TN SUBBARAO
167
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Fig. 6
The Test and Research on De
Wall-type Found
LiTaoi
Senior engineer
Chief engineer
Xiamen Branch The First Survey & Design Institute Ministry of Railway Xiamen, China
t
Li
Jing Ren Senior engineer
vice-Chief engineer
170
1.
THE TEST AND RESEARCH ON DESIGN METHOD OF DIAPHRAGM
Introduction
At present the^ Underground Diaphragm Wall-type Foundation(DWF), which is a kind of rapidly developed foundation form, has been widely used to bridge structure in Japan. In comparison with the Solid Foundation(SF), D WF has better bearing capacity and stability because of its owing more base and outside surface area. In Japan, "The Guide of the Design and the Construction in Underground Diaphragm Wall Foundation" [1] pointed out that one portion of vertical friction force of internal soil body can be taken into account while designing. The Baoji-zhongwei Railway, which was built in the Northwestern areas of China in the early nineties, was located in loess area. The Underground DWF was put to use in design, and a model test research was carried out to serve the design.
2.
2.1
Model Test
The General Information of Model Test Two circular foundation modeis whose diameter is 2.5m, depth is 5m (the model scale is 1:2 with a practical bridge) are adopted. Concrete was poured into it after the foundation had been dug successfully on the spot. The steel earth-pressure Celles which had been calibrated in advance were fully arranged on bottom of the model. Along with the height of the side wall, 4> 150mm steel earth-pressure Celles were disposed every 0.6m(Fig.l). Tiltmeter and displacement transducer were installed on the top of the foundation so that the parameters such as displacement and rotation can be measured. The test spot was in Q3 collapse loess area and its physics-mechanics propert,v is listed in table 1.
Table
natural
1.
The
Main Properties of Physics-mechanics in Q3 Loess

natural voidratio
natural water
plastic
Density
P(g/cm3)
pressure
content
W(%)
limit
Wp(%)
liquid limit
triaxial
test
shear
compression coefficient
<t>(
coefficient of
collapsibility
(under the
Wl(%)
QKpa)
a(Mpa')
Of
0.3Mpa)
1.48-1.50 0.104
15.5-18.0
1.101-1.142
17.6-19.5
27.9-30.1
16-56
17.7-20.5
0.435-0.725
0.064-
,~<fy
h-AM
'
~*t|N
vertical earthpressure cells
horizontal earthpressure cells
y
1
1
horizontal earthpressure cells

1
/,
[1
1
"Il
250
Virg
-i
50
i
_.
150
_250_
-T
ISO
'Jr
a)
SF
b)
DWF
Fig.
Test model sketch
(unit: cm)
LI
TAO, JING REN
171
Loading equipment is composed of loading beam, anchor stake and two jacks of 3.0MN. First, vertical eccentric loading of the model is made (the distance of eccentricity is one fourth of base diameter) and the horizontal loading (from grade 10 of zero to 780KN.) are carried out after unloading.
2.2
Main Results of the Test 2.2.1 The Vertical Eccentric and Central Loading (1) The limit load-bearing of SF is obviously greater than that of DWF as shown in table 2. Drawn from the N (load)-S (sinking displacement) curve, the displacement of DWF is greater than
that of SF when the loads are same (see Fig. 2 and Fig. 3). (2) The resistance force at the foundation bottom increases when the load increasing. When the damage reached, the total resistance force for DWF in about 35% ofthe total loads and 42% for SF.
Table
2.
The
Limit Load-bearing ofTwo Foundations

vertical eccentric loading (MN)
1.6
type of foundation
vertical central loading (MN)

2.0 2.8
DWF
SF
2.4
.s/mm
Vmmj
15x.
10-
U.
^L-^
Fig.
(3)
2
/
N/MN
N/MN
N-S curve
for vertical eccentric loading
Fig.
N-S curve for vertical central loading
The bearing resistance of contact surface (area x,y,z,w) between the bottom ofthe top deck of the diaphragm wall and the top of soil column is small, which is only about 4% ofthe total ground resistance, while the vertical friction force of the two foundations is almost equal under the same
loading condition.
(4)
The pressure stress distributions ofthe two foundation bottoms are slant straight line when the load is small and it matches well with the theory of elasticity. When the load increases and the plastic behavior ofthe earth is obvious, the stress distribution occurs and shows "<"" curve. (fig.4).
A
kPa
6/<mr\
6-100-
4/
4240 360 540

780
KN KN KN KN
240 360
540 100
KN
KN
KN
2-
7
y%
^^1
-^
200
nr1 1
1
400
600
800
p/kN
a)
SF
b)
DWF
fig.
The
distribution ofbase stress under vertical eccentric loading
fig.
P-
curve when horizontal
loading
172
2.2.2
(1)
Horizontal Loading From the P (load)- 6 (horizontal displacement) curve (fig
5), we can see that the
horizontal anti-
push stiffhess of DWF is similar to that of SF, which is different to some degree from the test results of diaphragm wall-type sinking well by the Japanese W$L. In this field test of the viaduct, the horizontal displacement of ordinary sinking well is four times as much as that of DWF. [2]
The stress of the two foundations is pulling stress (Fig 6) and the foundation bottom turns around the front end of the bottom and tends to be up. The distribution and its value of horizontal earth pressure at the external wall ofthe two foundations is almost same(fig 7); but there is almost
(2)
no earth pressure in the internal side wall of DWF.

S
R
g P=420 Kpa
0 8
Vkp
MN
100-
16MN
I6MN
200"
200-
S\
Z4MN
300-
kPa
kPa
'
H Kpa
a)
SF
y
DWF
b)
DWF
Fig.
distribution ofthe foundation bottom when horizontal loading

stress
Fig.
distribution of horizontal earth pressure ofside wall

the
3.
finite element program of calculation, the stress and deformation ofthe earth-foundation is 420KN. In calculating, 400 are calculated when the vertical load is 1.6MN and horizontal load modules E ofthe foundation elastic The divided. surfaces six with are units solid three dimensional Es ofthe soil is 17 Mpa. is the modules elastic X103 ratio the 0.17; v is 27 passion Mpa; concrete 8. is is shown model Fig The calculation
By using
a
Finite Element Analysis
40
35
:_
tT
-&&
100175 175
|
a.
&AAAA
3
A
1501
II
751 75 1.100
|50|
"4ti
|<q.
35
50
250
Fig.
finite element sketchfunit: cm)
LI
TAO, JING REN
173
Main Results of Calculation 3.1.1 Vertical Central Loading Under the same loading, the pressure stress at the bottom of DWF is about 26% larger than that of the SF; the friction force of the external side-wall are almost equal, the earth pressure at the top of soil column of DWF is one fifth of that of SF, the vertical friction force of internal side-wall is almost zero. All these results match with the test(Table 4).
3.1
3.1.2
Horizontal Loading
Under the same loading, the average stress of DWF and SF is almost zero, which shows that the areas of its pulling part and its pressing part are equal. The earth's horizontal resistance of external side-wall is about one second of that of the actual measured data, which is different from the test results to some extent (table 5). The main reason is that the actual anti-pulling capacity of soil is very small and the finite element calculation cannot simulate this feature.
Table
4
Comparison of Results under Vertical Loading ofl. 6MN DWF type

test
SF
FEM
90.0
18.0
^0.8
test
FEM
71.5
18.9
/
(Kpa) external side-wall fractional force (Kpa) internal side-wall fractional force (Kpa)
base stress on earth
base pressure stress
101.8
63.7
37.1
/
35.7
/
column top (Kpa) vertical displacement (mm)
10.1
22.6
0.72
50.7
0.21
45.2
0.67
0.28
Table
Comparison of Results under Horizontal Loading of420KN DWF type

test
SF
FEM
3.3
test
36.1
FEM
0.8 16.9
average pulling stress force at the base (Kpa)
37.2 22.3
horizontal resistance force of external side

earth at 1/2
12.0
22.4 2.74
height (Kpa) horizontal displacement (mm)
2.66
2.63
4.26
4.
Discussion on Load-bearing Capacity of DWF
Hai (MSf^kpfc) [3] consider that internal side earth has certain vertical and horizontal stiffhess when they analyze the load-bearing capacity of DWF. When analyzing by the finite element theory, Yan(^ffliWf) assumed that the friction force between the surface of internal side wall and the
earth body is one half that of the external wall and is not beyond the the bottom opening ofthe base.
limit load-bearing capacity of
The test results and the finite element analysis of this paper show as follows: To Q3 loess area, because the soil of earth column top within the diaphragm wall is not suppressed by the surrounding earth body, the earth column density is low, the deformation is high and the stifrhess is small, the
vertical and horizontal loading capacity ofthe earth column is small and its influence on the loading capacity of the whole foundation is very slim. Besides, by analyzing the Chinese test document about sinking of well, it can be obviously seen that the surrounding earth body also sinks when the
174
JP^L
sink well sinks and the scope of its influence is at least bigger than the diameter of sinking wells [4]. But in this test, the diameter of the soil column within diaphragm wall is only 2/3 of the outside diameter of the foundation and its sinking along with the external side soil body is inevitable. For these reasons, the author of this paper believer that when the foundation is loaded, the whole earth body sinks along with the sinking of the whole foundation and the vertical frictional force can not be formed. Therefore, when designing this kind of foundation, the influence of the internal lateral soil column will not be taken into account. It is reasonable and safety to consider DWF as hollow foundation whose support reaction provided by the ring base as well as friction provided by the external force.
5,
Engineering Example
A bridge located at 169 Km railway between Baoji and Zhongwei in northwest of China was chosen as the test spot. The bridge, which was completed in 1995, is a simple-supported girder bridge whose span is 4X 32m+24m. The height of its NO.3 pier is 26.5m and its foundation is DWF. The
height ofthe well (H) is 7.5m; the outside diameter (D) is 7m; the thickness ofthe wall is 1.5m and 15# concrete is used. While designing, the function ofthe internal earth body was not considered. The designed maximum pressure stress on base ground is 725 Kpa, the allowed load-bearing capacity is 728 Kpa. Compared with the scheme of SF, 10% of constructing volume was saved by using DWF and the constructing period was also shortened under the same condition.
6.
(1)
Conclusions
The horizontal load-bearing capacity of DWF is almost the same as that of SF under the same external dimensions and the vertical load-bearing capacity ofthe former is less than that ofthe
latter.
(2)
The influence of internal earth column on the load-bearing capacity of the whole foundation is very small so that the function of the internal earth column is not considered in design and the calculation model can be based on the hollow foundation.
(3)
engineering example shows that DWF designed according obviously save the engineering cost compared with SF.
The
to
the
above
theory can
Reference
The Guide ofthe Design and the Construction in Underground Diaphragm Wall Foundation. The Same as the Explanation. The Railway Committee of Japan. 2.Yan (ÊBSfcfel), Underground Diaphragm Wall Foundation ofthe Street Bridging Bridge in Fan
1.
Wt
3.Hai and
Nov. in 1979 p33~46. Japan
4.
Designing Method and Horizontal Loading Test of Underground Diaphragm Well, 1982, Volume 36, Number 5 ofthe Civil Engineering Technology. p48~57. Japan Lu Shishen and alike. The Foundation Test ofthe Bridge Base, Railway Publishing House, 1984,
The
DaOIFI^, Î3)
pl31. China
175
of
Elastoplastic foundation analysis ship collision to the Oresund High Bridge
le HEDEDAL
Head
of
Geotechnical Analysis Group

&
Planners AS
Lyngby, Denmark
Dr. Hededal has extensive experience with numerical analysis using the finite element method. In particular, Dr. Hededal has been involved in development of several linear and non-linear finite element codes for research and educational purposes. He has recently been involved in the design of the in the and 0resund Bridge design evaluation of the Metro in Copenhagen.
Carsten
S.
S0RENSEN
Chief Engineer, Geotechnics and
Foundation Engineering
&
Planners AS
Lyngby, Denmark
and
Mr. Sorensen has been involved in research, teaching and Consulting projects for more than 20 years. The work has involved field and laboratory testing on soft and stiff soils as well as design of large bridges and offshore foundations. Recently he has been in Charge of the foundation of the Oresund Bridge. He is chairman of the committee responsible for the Danish Code of Practice for Foundation Engineering.
Associate Professor
Geotechnical Engineering Group

Aalborg University, Denmark
SUMMA RY
One of the governing loads on the foundation of the Oresund Link High Bridge is ship collision. In order to assess the the foundation design it was necessary to employ numerical analysis using a 2D finite element model with an elasto-plastic model for behaviour of the soil. This paper shortly presents the limestone material on which the pylons are founded and the constitutive model assumed for the limestone. The applicability and conservatism of the chosen material model was assessed by calibration to medium scale shear plate test. Finally, 2D finite element modeis were defined to calculate the foundation bearing capacities of pylons subjected to ship collision.
176
ELASTO-PLASTIC FOUNDATION ANALYSIS OF SHIP
INTRODUCTION
The 0resund Bridge is one of the major components in fixed link will carry railway and road traffic. It comprises and a 7.9 km bridge consisting of approach bridges and composite steel-concrete truss girders. The upper dec carries a dual-track railway. The 1.1 km long cable-st
navigational clearance
1.1
of 57 m.
The pylon foundation

two
bridge pylons each consist of a cellular concrete caisson of 35 x 37 m2 and two legs extending to level +155 m (above sea level). The on caissons are founded directly Copenhagen Limestone at level -17 m and -18 m. In order to reach the dimensions of the caisson base a simple model was established on basis of results obtained by use of the finite difference code FLAC, [4]. The model combined vertical bearing capacity of a foundation with a partial mobilisation of the passive pressure in front of the caisson. The preliminary design was then assessed to be in accordance with Eurocode 7, [1], for the ultimate limit State load cases. The accidental
The
high
OLE HEDEDAL, CS. S0RENSEN

2
177
COPENHAGEN LIMESTONE
The
bridge is founded directly on The Limestone. Copenhagen with these foundation experience conditions was sparse and several series of tests (in the laboratory and in test pits) were carried out in order to obtain a better understanding of the limestone behaviour, see e.g. [3]. The test data were synthesised into a principle soil model for the limestone.
The
180016001400-
0^-03
H2
Soll Model
(Tnax;al compression)
Failure Envelope for H2

(p'
H2
(Tnaxial extension)
- 45.8 - 106 kN/m2

<p*
Elastic Yield Locus H2
Plaste Yield Locus H2
1200t
Critical State Line

=1000 kN/m
30
& c*
Copenhagen Limestone is a Tension cut-off Plastic with deposit layered horizontally 2 600 Yield fissures and layers of flint. Even Locus is the limestone highly though 26 oJ. + oJ Elastic anisotropic, it was chosen to apply an 200Yield to the model isostropic elasto-plastic Locus 2000 kN/m limestone. The Owner acknowledged >500 2000 2500 3000 the the that fact available MIT Mean Ettecve Stress, (klM/rn*) computational modeis are essentially isotropic. Consequently, he proposed a Fig. 2: Principle soil model for Copenhagen Limestone, after [3] principle model for the behaviour of the limestone which assumed isotropy. The principle model basically consists of 3 parts: a failure envelope, a maximum shear strength and a critical State line, which marks the transition from compacting to dilating behaviour and defines a friction angle for large deformations, i.e. the residual strength.
t
ZA
The constitutive mode
The most important features of the limestone can be captured by the Drucker-Prager model with cap as defined by ABAQUS, [2], see Fig. 3. The Drucker-Prager yield surface represents the frictional behaviour. The cap ensures that the shear Stresses can not exceed the maximum shear strength. The cap was stretched to fit the plastic yield locus shown in Fig. 2. The critical State line corresponds to a reduetion of
friction effective angle from a maximum to value a residual value. At the CSL the limit the shear on Stresses will in principle disappear. This feature is not captured by the DP model. Still, it was the observed during soil the that analyses did the not reach residual State, so it was not important to model this feature.
the
2.2
A
_..-"'
yd
}d
\m
.*
d+p. an
'
p.
IP
S,
nX.
R<d+p.tan)
Fig. 3:
Drucker-Prager model with cap
as
defined
in
ABAQUS,
[2]
Representation of triaxial stress states characteristic of the limestone - like most soils - is that the triaxial compression strength is higher than the triaxial tension strength. In an isotropic elasto-plastic model this is reflected by a triangulr shape of the deviatoric contours of the yield surface. In ABAQUS a shape correction factor is multiplied to the circular contour, see Fig. 3. For the present problem this formulation was not numerically stable, so it was decided only to use the circular contour.
This decision made it vital to calibrate the Drucker-Prager surface to match the dominating failure mode. For the horizontal ship collision, shear failure was assumed to be the governing case. Calibrating to direct shear failure lead to the following relations between Mohr-Coulomb parameters (c',</>) and Drucker-Prager
parameters (d,):
178
ELASTO-PLASTIC FOUNDATION ANALYSIS OF SHIP COLLISION TO THE 0RESUND HIGH BRIDGE
JiF^
d/c'
V3cos0'
and
tan
V3 sin fi
These relations yields highly conservative results for triaxial extension zones, whereas it is only slightly unconservative for triaxial compression, as might be experienced during passive shear failure mode.
3
ASSESSMENT AND CALIBRATION OF THE MATERIAL MODEL
Three types of medium scale tests were carried out in a test pit at Lernacken, Sweden, [3]. The test Set ups were modelled with finite elements. The three tests represented direct shear, passive shear and active shear. Thus, if the model could capture these 3 modes sufficiently well, the model could with confidence be applied to the large scale problem of ship collision to a bridge pylon.
The calibration strategy was as follows:
Calibrate
to
direct shear test

is
Verify that the calibration
conservative with respect to other load conditions
Determine the corresponding Mohr-Coulomb strength parameters

The result of the calibration Fig. 4. It is seen that the
is
shown in model can
0./0
0.60
preloadings represent the thus capturing correctly, dependency of a geotechnical material on in-situ Stresses.
different
V=1.0MN
5*
0.50
V=0.5 MN
w 0.40 The calibrated model was then applied and shear to tests representing passive 0.30 active shear. The passive failure mode is governed by failure in the weakest 0.20 -horizontal layers of the limestone. Finite Element Calcujation Therefore, it was assumed that the 0.10 Test No. 4-5A: Shear Test would calibration appropriate yield results for the passive failure mode. 0.04 0.03 0.02 The assumption was confirmed by the Horizontal displacement [m] calculation. The active shear failure is more dominated by the crossing of the R y 4 Ca,jbratj0n to medium scale shear plate test, [3] layers, i.e. the strength of both the weaker and the stronger layers. Therefore an isotropic model should give much lower failure loads than measured in the test. The finite element model actually gave a failure load of only 20% of the measured value.
The final part of the calibration process consisted of showing that the model would yield conservative results, if the prescribed Mohr-Coulomb values were to be applied. The calibrated Drucker-Prager parameters were transformed into Mohr-Coulomb friction angle and cohesion. It appeared that the strength values prescribed in the Design Basis were about 20% lower than the results obtained by direct calibration.
The conclusions of the calibration process are:
The Drucker-Prager soil model with cap can describe the behaviour of the limestone for load conditions dominated by horizontal shear
Applying the Design Basis strength parameters estimates of the ultimate capacity.
4
to
the
computational
model will yield conservative
SHIP COLLISION ANALYSIS
The calibrated model was employed for a quasi-static push-over analysis of the ship collision problem. A 2D plane strain finite element model was defined. The soil behaviour was modelled using elasto-plastic modeis. The limestone was defined in terms of the Drucker-Prager with cap, when the calibration had the design values of Mohr-Coulomb friction proven that the results would be conservative when using modelled by a traditional Drucker-Prager yield the were and sand The deposits glacial parameters. of the caisson was reduced to account The stiffness elastic. linear defined as The concrete was condition. for the cellular structure of the caisson. Still, the stiffness of the caisson was much larger than that of the
OLE HEDEDAL,
subsoils, so exact determination of the caisson stiffnes in the analyses are summarized in
Table
1.
Table
1:
Material properties used

E
in
FE-analysis.
V
Material
[MPa]
6000
50 50
y'
[kN/m3]
Concrete
Glacial deposits
Sand
0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
12.5 12.5
12.0 12.0
Limestone Limestone Limestone zones.

II
400 400
is
II
used for the direct shear zone immediat
The resulting ship collision force acts at a level some 2-6 m above sea level. of is the The resultant position determined by a dynamic analysis of the entire bridge. Thereby it was possible to the into take account dynamic amplification of the maximum static load. The position of the resultant was to with the adjusted correspond
800 700 -
o 3
600 [
500 400 -
| 300-
80
ELASTO-PLASTIC FOUNDATION ANALYSIS OF SHIP C
CONCLUSIONS
Ship collision to the High Bridge pylons of the has 0resund been Bridge analysed by means of elasto-plastic finite element modeis.
The results were presented
terms of non-linear load-displacement curves. They showed that the bearing capacities exceeded the maximum ship collision forces for both pylons.
in
The application of finite element modeis to geotechnical problems give a number of advantages. Firstly, it is possible to load both and determine capacity
capacity in a consistent way - a feature that has become an Fig. 7: Ship of essential part modern design practise for large bridges. Secondly, careful calibration of the soil model and demonstration of an design closer to the limit, thus to obtain more economic
displacement
The use of constitutive modelling for soils must howev to the practicing engineer will generally be able to mo deformation properties are unfortunately not as we determine the displacements associated with e.g. ship there is still much work to be done on the modelling of
Studying the dynamic problem
of
ship impact using
DESIGN OF FOUNDATION FOR MIII/nSPAN AR
MAHESH TANDON Managing Director,

Tandon Consultants Pvt Ltd.
Mr Mahesh Tandon
international recognition.His intimate knowledge and imolvement in bndges from conception to completion, form Ins special area of expertise.
international expert and a the most distinguished Structural Engineer. Many of and struetures designed by him and his firm, in India received national and have other cowitnes,
is an
82
DESIGN OF FOUNDATION FOR MULTISPAN ARCH BRIDGE OVER RIVER SUNGAI DINDING
Mf^k.
1.0
INTRODCTION
three bridges of the contract The new Sungai Dinding Bridge under construction is the longest of the 1. river main The portion of the bndge is with a total length of 1246 m between abutments, Fig from 45 m to 90 m. The with arches varying spans designed as reinforced concrete multispan spandrel towards the shore the river of middle from multispan arched deck with reducing span lengths form. The architectural rfl^sents a visuay arresting of the
deckmg combined with vertical curvature arch are provided with 4-span continuous reinforced concrete the of side either spans on approaches box girders with intermediate spans of 45 m and end spans of 38 m.
pes, 40-65 The bridge is supported on 600 mm and 800 mm dia hollow pretensioned concrete spun meters deep passing through poor sub-strata.
for transport. The The owner for the bridge is JKR. the Malaysian Government department responsible Consultants are Robert turnkey contractor for the project is Panzana Lankhorst J/V. Engineering
Proof Consultancy mvolving Benaim & Associates in association with HMS Perunding (Malaysia). Sdn Bhd (Malaysia). HSS Integrated done is by and being design completely independent analysis structural analysis and design Tandon Consultants Pvt Ltd is providing specialist technical support for ofthe project to HSS Integrated Sdn Bhd (Malaysia).
2.0
SUB-SOIL CHARACTERISTICS
decomposed The site investigation indicates that the geology ofthe area is characterised by completely described as soil residual dense is dense to a The CDG level. very granite (CDG) some 60m below bed dense medium silty sands the CDG comprises soil above "Silty sand with some gravel". The alluvium of soft with and alt layers sand loose of consists of approximately 40 m depth. The upper-most strata the bridge. clay. Fig 1 depicts a compiled sub-strata profile along
The chemical tests condueted on soil in some'Stretches.
/
water samples at various depths indicate that the same are aeidie
3.0
3.1
SPAN
Span
ARRANGEMENT
Arrangement
& SALEENT
STRUCTURAL DETAILS
The span arrangement for the main bridge over river comprises
is
13 reinforced concrete arches. The the central 3 spans, Fig 1. The to restricted navigational width requiring maintenance dredging the requirement of 18m high and 40m wide geometrv of the central 90m span was derived from The bridge is on a vertical curvature with 4:1. navigational clearance. The arch has a span/rise ratio of of the hollow box arch section is the maximum gradient of 4% at the approaches. The overall depth 1.6m at the end arch, Fig 2. The to reduced is gradually kept constant at 2.25m for the central arch and at 3.0m, Fig 3. The overall width constant depth of the approach span box girders has been maintained either side. of 13.88m incorporates a 12.0m clear carriageway and 600mm walkway on
The
and arrangements have been optimized from structural in service conditions. arrangements made for facilitating inspection
span
A
1
aesthetic
considerations
and
the arch box section. The bearings and 0m wide opening in the top slab is provided for access into The interior of the approach span soffit of the composite deck are accessed from the top of the arches. box girders are accessed from the abutments.
3.2
Bearing Arrangement
detaed so that they can be easily Pot Bearings are proposed to be used for the bridge. Bearings are 10 mm vertical chfferential movement of the deck at individual replaceable by jacking up the bridge. A SLS conditions. position is allowed for in the design under
pier
M.
TANDON,
A.
BHOWMICK
183
3.3
Foundation Arrangement
Precast pre-tensioned spun concrete piles have been provided for the foundations. The choice of this type of pile was quite obvious, taking into account the long term durability, ground conditions, topography, loading & general vailability. Several Malaysian companies manufacture precast spun piles and therefore their utilisation works out fairly economical.
The arch spans are supported on 800mm dia piles while the approach spans are supported on 600 mm dia piles. The larger diameter piles are provided for river foundations where vertical loads are high in addition to brge impact loads and out-of-balance forces associated with the arch form 600mm diameter piles are provided for the less heavily loaded approach spans, which are also not subjected to such large lateral loads. Raker pes are required to resist forces and movements caused due to out-of-balance arch
action. brge impact traction. braking, and the forces due to progressive collapse condition. A combination of raker and vertical piles have therefore been used for this project. A maximum rake of 1 in 4 has been used. Rake is provided in different direction to cater for the forces due to brge impact. For foundations of approach spans. rake is provided only along the direction of traffic.
3.4
Construction Methodology for the Bridge

For approach spans. piling will be carried out using conventional methods. Temporary sheet piling wiU necessary to keep the ping rig & the working platform in dry condition. For river spans, the piles are driven by using hydraulic hammer mounted on a piling frame. In river, ping is being carried out from barges.
be
For ofT-shore pe caps. upon completion of the pe installation, sheet pes are driven around the installed pes to form a cofferdam. The purpose of sheet pe cofferdam is to enable casting of concrete pile cap in dry conditions. On-shore elevated pile caps soffit formwork is supported either using temporary scaffolding from ground or using steel clamps.
The reinforced concrete box arches are constructed by using stayed cast-in-situ cantilever construction technique using travelling formwork. The travelling formwork is designed for casting upto 5m segment lengths. The steel frame structure with attached forms, platforms and safety railings weighs about 50 tonnes. Fig. 5 & 6 shows the construction stages for the arched deck which is seif explanatory.
The spandrels are cast-in-situ over arch using steel moulds with push-puU props for stability. The steel I-beams for composite deck wl be fabricated off-site and delivered by traer to the job-site. The concrete decking wiU be formed with proprietary formwork system specially suited for this type of
construction
4.0
4.1
DESIGN CRITERIA FOR FOUNDATION

Design Loads (Table
a) 1)
Dead Loads and Superimposed Dead Loads Unit Wt. for concrete is taken as 24.5 kN/m3. Surfacing load of 1.2 kN/m2, Verge loading of 2.4 kN/m at each edge and Parapet load of 7.5 kN/m at each edge has been connsidered.
b)
Highway and Pedestrian Live Loads The British code loading of fll HA and 45 units of HB loading in combinations described in BD 37/88 for four 3.0m lanes has been considered for the 12.0m carriageway. For the 600mm wide raised verges 5.0 kN/m2 pedestrian loading has been accounted for.
184
c)
Loading from Brge Impact forces on Barges of 5000 (DWT) travelling at 5.0 knots have been considered for evaluating those of 50% applicable foundations in navigation portion In the remaining foundations, loads of
to the
navigation Channel, have been considered Reference nay
be made to Fig 7 for detas.
d)
River Flow
Maximum current velocity considered
is
1.0m/s (2.0 knots) for the fll water depth for SLS check
increased by 50% under ULS conditions.

e)
Floating Debris Loading

For all river piers, a nominal force of 100 kN at SLS increased by 50% under ULS, representing debris loading, is applied in any direction at pile cap level and combined with the force due to river
flow.
f)
Seismic Loading
Records show no significant seismic activity in the immediate area of the project. However, nominal horizontal load equivalent to 0.03g as a ULS load case has also been considered
a
g)
Wind Loading
Forces due to wind are determined in accordance with BD 37/88 with an assumed mean hourly wind speed of 30 m/s.
h)
Differential Settlement
The structure has been designed for
a
long term differential settlement of
10
mm between adjacent
foundations.
i)
Construction Stage Loading

Construction sequence of
4
and
5.
typical arch and that of the river spans from one end are shown in Figs These are duly accounted for in the design.
a
j)
Temperature Loading
Forces and movements due to temperature are determined from the 20Co-40C Temperature Range
foowing:-
Mean Temperature
30
Forces and Stresses arising from differential temperature are determined in accordance with BD 37/88.
k)
Accidental Loading
due to Progressive Collapse,
The detailed design for the superstructure of the river spans includes a check against progressive For foundation collapse in the event of a foundation or arch being removed by brge impact. removal it is assumed that the two connecting spans will be demolished and that the adjacent spans suffer damage requiring extensive repair. For the removal of an arch it is assumed that extensive remedial works will be required on the adjacent foundations and adjacent spans.
4.2
Load Factors & Load Combinations

For loads which are covered in BS codes. the load combinations are as per BD 37/88 and therefore not and seismic. which reproduced. However load combinations under brge impact progressive collapse, the factors load considered. Table 37/88. gives are not covered in BD
1
JM
TANDON
BHOWMICK
-j
85
4.3
Design Criteria, Assumptions for Pile Foundation

The factors of safety considered for Ultimate Skm Fnction (SF) and for Ultimate End Beanng (EB) m
the design are
a)
Normal Service Conditions
Vertical Load carrying capacity under compression at SLS Vertical Load carrying capacity under compression at ULS
Tension Tension
at SLS at
(SF/2
0 +
EB/3 0) or
5
(SF+EB)/2
(SF+EB)/1
whichever
is
smaer
(SF)/3
0 0
ULS
(SF)/2
b)
Brge Impact & Progressive Collapse
Tension Tension
at at
ULS ULS
(SF+EB)/1
(SF)/1
2
For establishing the load carrying capacities tnal pes were lnstaUed and tested at selected locations Due to the high load carrying capacities of pes and the practical difficulties of testing inclined piles the tnal piles were kept vertical Also due to presence of large numbers of raker pes, it was found difficult to carry out load test on working piles In view of this the factors of safety given above were increased bv 10% to ensure that sufficient capacities ofthe working piles are attained
Based on load testing of tnal piles
the
foowing capacities were amved
at
For 800mm dia Spun pes > Nominal Working Load > Maximum Accidental Load For 600mm dia Spun pes > Nominal Working Load > Maximum Accidental Load
4.4
300 tonnes, compression 550 tonnes compression

265 tonnes
Tension
200 tonnes 500 tonnes
compression compression
Pile Parnculars
The pes were manufacrured bv the Mala\sian Company ICP For pre-tensioned pes due to the use of spun technology in concreting, very high strength can be achierved with low w/c ratio Concrete grade used & the particulars ofthe mix used are as follows
Charactenstic Strength Water / Cement Ratio Workabirv (Slump) Cement Tvpe Mix Proportions Cement Content Water Content
Fine Aggregate Content Coarse Aggregate Content
78
MPa
0 32
40 mm OPC
500 Kg
160
htres
650 Kg
1100 Kg
Admixture Mightv
150
Designed Densitv of concrete
2417
70Kg Kg/m'
186
Jgf^L
5.0
DESIGN AND DETAILING OF FOUNDATION

The foundation is designed for loads and moments as per the loading cntena discussed earher For the 13 arches, from expansion purpose of load assessment on pe group, the entire structure consisting of joint to expansion joint. is modelled as a 3D-space frame The pe group support is modelled as each Springs with stifiiesses in all the six directions The pile group sufi&iess is calculated by analysmg the the In simulate m ground order variations to model frame a 3D-space pe group separately using profile. two extreme conditions has been considered whe fixing the depth of fixity of pe Free length of pe is maximum when maximum dredgmg & maximum scour is considered simultaneously Free
length of pe conditions
is
mirnmum when
no dredgmg and no scour is
considered
Fig
indicates the two
The capacit> of each pe is checked for the combined axial load and bending forces resulting from the load cases being considered including necessary aowances due to slenderness
For the design of pe, there are three cntical sections. namely
a)
b)
c)
Pile section m running length Joints of pes to make up the required length .Functions of pe-pe cap Interface
For evaluating (a). the normal SLS and ULS checks are performed For evaluating (b), the spun piles are joined by fll penetration weld of size 12mm and 14mm for 600mm and 800mm piles respectively For the purpose of capacity calculation, 5mm corrosion of weld has been assumed For evaluating (c), the two alternative types of detas indicated m Fig 8 are considered
6.0
CONCLUSION
Poor sub-so for a large depth coupled with large lateral loads due to arched deck and forces of possible brge impact posed a chaenge for the foundation designers Prestressed concrete spun pes proved to be an effective Solution for the foundations of this bndge Use of spun technology in concretmg at factory environment ensured that very high strength could be achieved with low w/c ratio
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(DEPTH
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a.
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-INSPECTION OPENING 1Dm WIDE NEAR
FOUNDATION
RCC
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ra
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fl
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(DEPTH
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BOX ARCH (DEPTH 1.6m
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TYPICAL
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THROUGH
RIVER
SPANS
APPROACH
SPANS
zifc
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77.0m
69.0m
59.0m
45.0m
Hr-~
STAGE
STAGE
STAGE
IV
aw
STAGE
STAGE
VI
TYPICAL CANTILEVER Fig.4 CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE

:
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STAGES
FOR
BRIDGE
FOR
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STAY
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FOR
RAKE
PILES 1:4
84 No. (DIRECTION
SHOWN)
Fig.7
TYPICAL PILE SETTJNG
LAYOUT
NAVIGATION
PORTION
Load factors and load combinations for highway loading shall be in accordance with BS 5400: Part 2 as implemented by BD 37/88. Additional load factors and load combinations shall be as described below
:
loading
seif
wt.
OL
loadcases
SLS
ULS
* *
* *
ULS
ULS
ULS
1.0 1.0 1.0
1.0
1.0 1.0
1.0
1.0
superimposed
carriageway surfacing
LL-HA LL-HB
1.0
0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

1.0
0.33
0.0
0.0
* *
+
0.0 0.0 0.0

0.0
LLpedestrian
temperature
shrinkage
bearings
0.0 0.0
0.0
1.0
* *
0.0
1.0 1.0
stream flow
ship
1.0
1.5
impact
collapse
0.0
0.0
0.0 0.0
1.5
0.0
1.0
0.0 0.0
progressive
seismic
river
debris
0.0
0.0
1.0
0.0
0.0 0.0
in
0.0 0.0
1
1.25
1.0
loadcases
A
B
1-5
ship
as
combinations
Table
BD
37/88
loadcase loadcase loadcase
impact progressive collapse seismic
Table
1:
LOAD
FACTORS
&
LOAD
COMBINATIONS
Bridge Foundations Design Practice
Vadim SELIVERSTOV Civil Engineer, P.E. Giprotransmost J.S.Co

Moscow, Russia
rrf
'
SUMMARY
This paper presents an overview of bridge foundation desig
192
1.
BRIDGE FOUNDATIONS DESIGN PRACTICE
- CODES
DEVELOPMENT
IN
RUSSIA
INTRODUCTION
The reliability of any bridge and its economic viability is not based solely on the choice of superstructure type. The proper selection of the substructure system including the details of the elements for that system plays an important role also. The cost of bridge foundations is normally about 30% of the cost of the bridges. Along with this construction time and labour intensity related to bridge foundations give about 40% of the time and labour intensity required for the whole bridge. In complicated geological conditions and where foundations are needed to be constructed at a large water depth, the cost of substructures may reach up to 60% of the total bridge cost. Therefore selection and design of the effective foundation for bridge piers is an important consideration and de pend upon many aspects. These are loading conditions, bridge pier geometry, geotechnical and hydrologic con ditions at the site.
2.
MAIN PROVISIONS OF FOUNDATIONS DESIGN
2.1
Methods and design codes
Considering the required high reliability of foundations, in some countries the design is based on permissible stress procedures. In the Russian practice the limit State principles were adopted for design of bridges since 1962. The code requirements are specified for two groups of limit states. The design of bridge foundations is based on the requirements of codes: CHun 2.05.03-84* Bridges and culverts {1}, CHull 2.02.01-83 Founda tions of buildings and struetures {2}, CHun 2.02.03-85 Pile foundations {3}. The workmanship levels are specified by the other code.
The Bridge code CHun 2.05.03-84* {1} has single volume and Covers design of new and rehabilitation of exist ing highway, railway, pedestrian and combined (highway - railway) bridges and culverts in Russia. Bridge foun dations are designed to withstand loads stipulated by the Bridge code Also this code provides the requirements for structural detailing of bridge foundations. The current Bridge code does not specify qualitative and quantita tive criteria of limit states for particular structure types, but contains them in general form only. Generally in connection to bridge foundations the first limit State relates to a loss of bearing capacity of soils, stability of founda tion due to overturning or sliding, strength and stability of structure and its structural elements. The se ;ond limit State Covers deformation of bearing soils below the foundation (Settlements, tilting, horizontal displacement), crack resistance of reinforced concrete foundation struetures.
The following Table summarises the types of calculations to the 1* and 2nd limit states. The objective of calcuis the abovegiven limit states should not occur within the expected lifespan of the struc the that code to lations ture. This is ensured by the use of a system of coefficients applied to nominal loads and strength characteristics
1
of
materials.
Types of calculations
Shallow foundations of abutments piers

and piers at bank slopes
Deep foundations of Piers Abutments and piers at bank slopes

+
+
Limit State
Bearing Stability Stability Stability Strength

Limit State
capacity of soil (rock) of foundation against overturning of foundation against sliding of foundation against deep shear and stability of foundation structural members
II
+ + + + +
+ +
+ +
+
Deformation of bearing soils (Settlements, tilting, horizontal displacement) Crack resistance of reinforced concrete foundations Crack resistance of concrete foundations Table 1. Types of calculations to limit states
+ +
+ +
+ + +
+ + +
Geotechnical design parameters to be used for the analysis of capacity of bearing material are determined in accordance with the requirements of the other code - CHun 2.02.01-83 Foundations of buildings and strue tures. For the cases not covered by this code the geotechnical design parameters are determined in accor dance with the approach established in the Bridge code. Pile foundations are analysed to the methods stipulated in CHun 2.02.03-85 Pile foundations.
ilik
2.2
VADIM SELIVERSTOV
193
Analyses of foundations
2.2.1 General considerations
When Computing foundations (e.g. determination of load effects acting in a cross section of members, pressure on soil, horizontal and angle displacements) the surrounding foundation soil is allowed to be considered as linearly-deformable system {1}. This linear-deformable system is characterised by coefficient of deformation, increasing proportionally with depth.
Computation of structural strength is made {1} using reliability coefficients of dead loads y1 > 1, in case these loads increase a design action (e.g. selfweight of substructure when calculating section strength or resistance of 0.9 bearing material). In case dead loads reduce the design action, the reliability coefficients are taken as yf (e.g. selfweight of substructure when calculating pier to stability against overturning).
In the Russian and other countries practices to optimise foundations of various types, load tests of rock or soil and individual struetures are normally condueted. The most widespread are plate bearing tests, pile tests (trial piles or test piles). These tests are performed to assess the bearing capacity and modulus of the ground, to investigate Performance, to check quality of construction.
2.2.2 Bearing capacity of founding material
Design resistance of founding soil (axial capacity) below shallow foundation or caisson
the equation
R
In
=*
is
determined {1} from
L7{i?0[l
*,(*
2)]
k2y(d
- 3)}
(1)
the above equation R is the design resistance of founding soil, kPa; R0 is the conventional resistance of soil the recommended values are given in the Bridge code), kPa; b is the width (the lesser side or diameter) of foundation, m (when the width of foundation exceed 6 m, b is taken as 6.0 m); d is the depth of foundation
founding,
m; k1f k2 are the
coefficients depending
(y
on the soil type, m _1; y is the design
specific gravity of soil
layered above the bottom of foundation
may be taken as 19.62 kN/m3).
According to the AASHTO specifications for ihighway bridges the ultimate bearing capacity of soil is recom mended to be estimated using the following formulae (2) qutt=cNc+0.5YBNY + qNq The allowable bearing capacity is determined as (3) qa,.= qu.t/FS soil cohesion, Nc, NY and Nq where c bearing capacity factors based on the value of internal friction of soil, width of footing, q effective overburden pressure at base of footing.
Design resistance of non-weathered rock (axial capacity)
R is
determined {1} from the equation

(4)
RC/Yq where R
yq
strength of rock samples under uniaxial compression, kPa; reliability coefficient of rock material, normally taken as 1.4.
Rc
is
design resistance of rock, kPa;
According to the AASHTO recommendations the ultimate bearing capacity of footings on rock
qu.t
estimated as
C0
NmsC0
(5)
where Nms coefficient factor which depends on rock mass quality and is given in AASHTO in the table form, compression index, which is normally determined from the results of laboratory testing of rock core. According to the AASHTO recommendations a minimum factor of safety is taken as 3.
Compared to the Russian practice the AASHTO Standard Specifications for highway bridges stipulates a more differential approach to determine an allowable contact stress for foundations on rock. E.g. the allowable contact stress below foundation on rock is determined from the results of laboratory testing of rock and the RQD (rock quality designation) values or other rating system. A direct comparison of these two approaches is rather com plicated but conventionally based on a review of reliability factors, the allowable bearing pressures (design re sistance in the Russian terminology) on soils and rocks obtained using the Russian code approach are larger in some cases by up to 30%.
194
- CODES
DEVELOPMENT
IN
RUSSIA
2.2.3 Other aspects of foundation design
Normally the foundation members are designed with non-prestressed reinforced concrete. These members are analysed to specified in the Bridge code crack resistance category. The maximum specified by the Bridge code {1} crack opening is 0.30 mm. A more precise ultimate value of crack opening is taken depending on condition of the member behaviour in a foundation structure. E.g. in the zone of ice drift, the crack opening is limited to 0.15 mm. And for structural members within the water reservoirs (formed by dams), if a number of freezing / thawing cycles exceeds 50, the value of crack opening should not exceed 0.10 mm. In the BS 5400 the maximum design crack width is limited by 0.25 mm and depends on the environment regarding 4 categories. A comparison has shown that in {1} a more detailed consideration for various conditions has been provided.
One of the controversial questions
in
foundation design practice
is
the differential settlement criteria. The opinion
on an acceptable value of differential settlement differs between design Offices, and particularly for foundations of continuous bridges. According to the American practice {4} it is recommended at a stage of preliminary design
assume differential Settlements equai to a fraction of the average of adjacent span /lengths for pile foundations 1/500, for spread footings on soil -1/1000, for spread footings on rock -1/2000. However the values to be used for the final design are not specified, they are recommended to be determined from the project soils report or by consultation with the geotechnical engineer. The AASHTO Standard Specifications for highway bridges require to consider differential settlement in the analyses and that its value should not exceed the tolerable movement of the structure. The same approach is stipulated by BS 5400 (part 2). In the Russian bridge code {1} the differential settlement is limited by a bend angle between adjacent spans caused by pier Settlements, being
to
0.2 %.
The deck designed to accommodate large differential Settlements is likely to be more expensive since the differ ential settlement may govern the design. On the other hand this cost can be negligible compared to Provision of very stiff foundation designed for a small amount of differential settlement. Therefore the final choice of founda tion have to be based on a review of alternative Solutions supported by technical and cost comparison.
3. 3.1
ASSESSMENT OF SCOUR
General
One of the most important aspects \n bridge foundation design is an assessment of scour. The types of scour at bridges is normally divided into three main categories: natural, contraction and local. Natural scour relates to fluviomorphological process in rivers and occurs irrespective of whether the bridge is there or not. Contraction scour occurs because of the contraction of the waterway by the bridge. Local scour is caused by the interference of the piers and abutments with the flow.
The local scour effects at piers, abutments, training works and temporary works for bridges over rivers have attracted the interest of many engineers and researchers. However the local scour problem resulting in bridge pier failure and inadequate foundations still exists and is actual for the current practice. The present discussion will concentrate on methods of assessing local scour.
In the recent years the engineers have used various methods for local scour prediction which may lead to essential variability in resulting values. Based on the results of researches, generalisation of theoretical, experimental and field data a new code of practice for local scour assessment has been recently developed in Russia. This code of practice cn 32-102-95 "Methods of local scour calculation" {5} have regulated the principal ap proaches and methods of local scour calculation taking into account type of bridge struetures, their structural features and various geological conditions.
The code {5} Covers assessment of local scour depth for the following elements of bridge crossing: piers; abut ments; approach fills at floodplains; guide banks and groynes. The given in the code methods allow to estimate scour effects in cohesionless and cohesive materials. For cohesionless material scour analysis is stipulated for two cases: Sediments transporting condition and clear water condition. Also a special consideration is given to pier foundations on piles, where analysis of scour depth is dependant on location of pile cap relatively river bed after occurred contraction scour.
3.2
Estimating Local Scour
in
Cohesionless Soils
VADIM SELIVERSTOV
195
To predict the depth of scour in cohesionless soils adjacent to a pier (in a form of Single pile etc), having perma nent width of section within water depth, two cases are considered in {5}: Sediments transporting condition and
clear water condition. The following equation

Vi
is
recommended for Sediments transporting condition

(7)
0.77H0Ab
MK
In the above equation h is the depth of scour measured below river bed level after contraction scour, m; H is the depth upstream of pier, m; b is the width of pier, m; V is the approach flow velocity, m/s; VB is the turbid (characterising suspended sediment presence) velocity for the soils under consideration, m/s; M,Kare the coeffi cients of shape and angularity.
The established methods allow to analyse the local scour effect at piers of any configuration. E.g. the pier, hav ing a variable section within the stream depth, is divided into elements of constant width and the input of each element into formation of the local scour depth is determined. In this case for Sediments transporting condition the following equation is recommended:
V\V2
A-0.77/T
where F(b)
(8)
Y b^M^J, -V
(9)
In the above equation F(b) is the parameter, taking into account pier geometry, m b, is the width of each pier section composed of n variable structural elements, m; M K, are the coefficients of shape and angularity of each variable pier element; f, is the conditional volume coefficient.
;
From the European practice it is known {6} that estimation of local scour at piers (non-cylindrical shape) may be obtained e.g from formulae: ds f2 f3 scour depth where ds is the scour depth at cylindrical pier, f2 is the factor to account for pier shape, f3 is the factor to account for oblique flow.
To calculate the scour depth at the cylindrical pier, a number of empirical formulas for various conditions is sug gested {6}. But in general all of them account for the two parameters: stream velocity and pier width. Further more it may be concluded that the methods stipulated in the Russian code of practice {5} consider more than two parameters. In this light it also should be noted that some engineers consider a practice to account for many variable parameters, when assessing the local scour effect, in reality has not proved to be more reliable.
3.3
Influence
of
Scour on Temporary Struetures
Typically the construction of foundations requires initial placement of sheet piling. When designing temporary struetures within the river, it is important to take adequate account of the effect of scour. In some cases the depth of scour at sheet piling may exceed the predicted value of scour at the permanent pier. Therefore special measures is needed to be adopted before sheet piling are removed.
Based on the recent model studies the most rational sequence of sheet piling construction may be determined {7}. To control the minimum scour depth, the construction have to be commenced at longituotnal axis of sheet piling from downstream. Parameters and sequence for the outlined rational placement of sheet piling of cylindri cal shape are given in Table 2.
Sequence
Cross section
-M
j--p
1.70 0.80
.d\-
<
-4)
<
K
-<fe
<
Table
2.
1.02 1.12 1.00 0.63 Parameters of effective construction sequence. Note: for notations M and
K
1.00 1.00 see sub-chapter 3.2
SimPar investigations were condueted for sheet piling of non-cylindrical shape. Based on the results of model
196
- CODES
DEVELOPMENT
IN
RUSSIA
be
study, the most rational scheme of construction have also been outlined The placement of sheet piling have to commenced at one side only and be proceeded in the upstream direction
4.
RENEWAL OF CODES
normative documents for construction was put in power in 1995 in Russia This new system Federal codes and Standards (Building norms and regulaestablishes three levels of normative documents 1 tions, State Standards, Codes of practices), 2 Regional codes, 3 - Standards of branches of mdustry (Standard of enterpnse, etc)
A new system of
Based on the previous experience, the codes for bndge construction sector have to be reworked normally every 7-10 year period However in the current practice a number of relevant design and construction codes have become obsolete E g the Bridge code was issued in 1984 Due to that fact a fundamental revaluation is required, including researches and generalisation of national and foreign experience Some of this work have commenced and further is currently under planning
One of the first Steps towards the renewal of bridge codes was the development of Regional Standard TCH 32 {8} This new regional Standard was drafted m 1997 The main objective of this new Standard is to reflect the specifics of bridge design in Moscow and to improve reliability and durabihty of bridge struetures Section related to foundations contains more hard terms (compared to the Bridge code) to concrete class, its frost resistance and watertightness The draft TCH 32 was being studied and reviewed by the appropriate authonties and is ex pected to be revised during 1998 to take account of the comments
In
the light of codes renewal some general notes to improve the existing design procedure are introduced below
For the design to limit states principles a system of coefficients have been established These coefficients con sider reliability on the basis of struetures importance Classification and working conditions However the bridge comprises various structural elements which act a different role in the whole structure When the ultimate State is reached by one of the elements, their failure may have different consequences Therefore the reliability of elements have to be differentiated in the whole structure
The recent study {9} of design requirements currently in use for determination of loads, havmg hydrologic and meteorological nature, has shown inadequaey of existing codes This study have concentrated on the aspects related to temporary struetures, however the main results are also applicable to permanent struetures E g the reliable functioning of temporary struetures within the rivers demand hydrologic (hydraulic) justification The worked out recommendations suggested to widen the existing rnge of the design flood return period in the directions of lower and higher probabilities of exceedance Thus the design have to be elaborated in the rnge from a 100-year to 2 year return period The choice of an Optimum rnge of probability of exceedance have to consider importance Classification of permanent struetures and probability distribution of hydrologic charactens
tic
REFERENCE
CHun 2 05 03-84* (Building Norms and Regulations) Bridges and Culverts Minstroy of Russia, 1996 (in russian) 2 CHun 2 02 01-83 (Building Norms and Regulations) Foundations of buildings and struetures Gosstroyof USSR, 1985 (in russian) 3 CHun 2 02 03-85 (Building Norms and Regulations) Pile Foundations Gosstroy of USSR, 1986 (in russian) 4 Analysis and Design of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Struetures ACI 343R-88 American Concrete Institute,
1
1988
Cn 32-102-95 (Code of practice) Struetures of bridge crossmgs and approach fills Methods of local scour calculation Corporation Transstroy', 1996 (in russian) 6 Farrraday R V Charlton F G Hydraulic factors in bridge design Hydraulics Research, Wallingford, Oxford5
V Hydraulic calculation of sheet piling for construction of bridge piers Timr Journal, NovemberDecember 1996 (in russian) 8 TCH 32, Regional building norms for design of town bridge struetures in Moscow, Draft, Giprotransmost,Corporation Transstroy, Moscow, 1997 (in russian) 9 SELIVERSTOV V Specified requirements and recommendations to determine forces resulted from hydro logic and meteorologic action for design of temporary struetures, Informavtodor, 8, Moscow, 1997 (in russian)
7
shire, 1983 TSYPIN
Pylon Foundation Design of W
Xuchu Zhu
'
^w
Deputy General Engineer
Major Bridge
R & D
Institute
Wuhan, China
Zhengwu Yang
Senior Engineer
& D Institute
Major Bridge
Wuhan, China
198
PYLON FOUNDATION DESIGN OF WUHAN BAI SHA ZHOU BRIDGE
FOUNDATION DATA
&
ENVIRONMENT
The two pylon piers of the Wuhan Bai Sha Zhou Bridge are located in the deep water of the
Yangtze River's main flow. The main span between the two pylons and the north side span are
within
become
the
a
navigational domain of
the
current river Channel, while the south side span might

at the
as
downstream navigational Channel in some dry seasons under present river conditions and
a
fully navigational Channel after realignment of the waterways. The water depth two piers changes along with the alteration of the flood seasons and the dry seasons as well
Variation in scour and deposition .According to Statistical data, water depth
from 12m
to
at the
will become
the
two piers ranges
25m and flow velocity from 2.0m/s to 3.0m/s.
As
result of geological survey, the thickness and depth of overlays
at the
is
two piers are roughly the
same, all bedrock is soft rock. The overlay ofthe second pier in boring
10.9~14. 8m deep,
at the
top of which are loose~denser fine sand, gravel sand and round gravel, at the bottom are hard
plastic or medium hard clay, and dense round gravel. The rock surface
gravel rock, which have low strength. The depth of each rock Iayer
is
even, which
is
mainly
composed of soft sandy mudrock, sandy mudrock, loose argillaceous sand rock, sand stone and
is
stable with low fluctuation.

in
Influenced by tectonic movement, local joints are well developed
bedrock
at
pier position.
Relatively hard sand stone
is
deeper than usual one.
The overlay of the third pier in boring
is
20.6"21.8m thick whose depth, stratification

made up of soft rock,
is
and textual
composition
are
similar
to those of the second pier except

is
slight difference in thickness. Formation

the same as that
of the bedrock
at the
third pier, which
ofthe second pier

is
with little discrepancy in depth, stratification and textual composition. The bedrock
soft rock. The depth of the sand stone
is
made up of
approximately the same
as
that of the second pier.
The
geological conditions of the second and the third pier are almost identical.
is
If the same
foundation type
two piers
is
used for the two piers in hydrological calculations, the local scouring level ofthe
very
approximate,
and
both
of the
bedrock strength changes from 0.5MPa
to
2.5MPa
that is the premise why the same type foundation is applied for the two piers.
FOUNDATION TYPES OF THE PYLON PIERS

to the
According
above-mentioned geological conditions,
caisson foundation and
cast-in-situ
bored pile foundation are selected for comparison.
XUCHU ZHU, ZHENGWU YANG
199
2.1
Floated steel caisson foundation
The floated steel caisson foundation
is
one of
widely
used and safe
foundation types
in China.
as
There are thick dense gravel layers along the

layers
in
dedrock of the bridge piers which can act

of which
is
bearing
The
caisson
foundation,
on
the
basis
design
calculations are condueted.
calculated results show that the caisson foundation

capacity during its fabrication,
the only obstacle of the
reliable in terms of safety and bearing

A
flotation
and
Operation.
Iayer of 6~8m deep hard plastic

go
medium hard clay over supporting layers which the caisson shall
through during
its
sinking
is
application.
22
Cast-in-situ bored pile foundation

another foundation type with many successful examples in
is
The cast-in-situ bored pile foundation
is
deep water which has been used in China extensively. It
classified in conformity with different

bridge,
the
alignment and watertight methods.

compared for the two pylon piers.
In
the
design
for the
a
cast-in-situ bored
pile
foundation with double-walled steel cofferdam and
suspended box cofferdam respectively are
COMPREHENSIVE COMPARISON OF FOUNDATION TYPES

3.1
3
Comparison of structural formtion

Floated steel caisson foundation
SZPftbdtt
7000/2 7000/2
1.1
While using
caisson
caisson
by
foundation,
air
tfcptfpjlmb*)
sinking
is
curtain
technique
because
not
very
effective
shall
go
DHIMWmi
the
caisson
m.
through the thicker hard clay Iayer.

In doing so, the
seif-weight of the
is
caisson foundation
be
required to
time.
1.
very heavy and other measures

same
in
shall be taken at the

The size
is
illustrated
Figure
rflK"
28600/2
7600
r*t
3.1.2 Cast-in-situ bored pile foundation with double- walled cofferdam

The success of cast-in-situ
bored pile foundation with double-walled cofferdam depends on the
200
stability ofthe cofferdam while landing
on the
riverbed. According to the geological conditions, the

So the
double-walled steel cofferdam shall insert into certain depth ofthe hard clay Iayer.
is
cofferdam
rather high. Except large steel amount consumption, the seif weight of the foundation and the
will
be
is
watertight sealed concrete

cost-effective
rock
in
added to the piles

not
r-n
as
permanent exceptional loads.
Therefore, this foundation type

the
Situation
of soft
bearing
7000/2 7000/2
6500
JP
with
as
relatively
lower
capacity
can only
for this bridge. The scheme
ri
g
be
realized by separating the
cofferdam and the sealed concrete from

the pile groups. It is very hard to ensure
the
efficiency of the above-mentioned

Once
they
are
measures
failed
unexpected loss will occur. Furthermore,

the
cofferdam shall insert into certain

in
depth of the hard clay iayer
order to
maintain stability
is
in
construction
which
not efficient in terms of constructional

is
period. It
is
not adopted. The structure

in
Ffc2taHb-*ib*pfctMfatfk
demonstrated
Figure
2.
3.1.3 Cast-in-situ bored pile foundation with suspended box cofferdam

32400/2
r
ssea
7000/2
|
cast-in-situ
bored
pile
foundation
2500
7000/2
with suspended box cofferdam also acts

as as
water resistant facility. It

long
as
is
feasible
the
=83 P$
szj
its
height
can
meet
structural requirements. Its watertight

sealed concrete is relatively thinner and
therefore the exceptional loads added

the
to
tLfi?
SM
pile
is
foundation
is
much
lighter,
3.
which
rather beneficial for the soft

is
bedrock. It
shown in Figure
\7PUMm
3X4000
4)00/2 4000
3.2
Comparison ot constructional methoas
w*^**^**^*****
of
3.2.1 Construction of floated steel caisson foundation
Floated
steel
caisson
in
deep
water
consists
well-developed constructional techniques

and other
as
fabrication, flotation, connection sinking, ejection sinking
auxiliary measures, among
XUCHU ZHU, ZHENGWU YANG
201
which the most significant

experience,
it
is
how to go through the tjiicker hard clay layers. According to previous
might
be
be
possible to go through the hard clay layers with high pressure jetting, local
it is hard to
explosion and other assisted methods. But

Since
it
maintain the time requirements of the project.
shall
prepred after flood season arid commenced in dry season.

be even
Otherwise, the
project during
construction period will

flood season.
longer and
it is
difficult
to assure the safety of the
3.2.2 Construction of cast-in situ bored piles with double-walled cofferdam
Construction of cast-in situ bored piles with double-walled cofferdam also requires fabrication,
floatation, connection and ejection sinking
whose constructional time
is is
But, the cofferdam
is
only needed to insert certain
depth of the hard clay layers. It still must be prepred after flood season and commenced in dry
season,
restrained.
Moreover,
since the bearing
capacity of the
bedding ground
not strong enough, more exceptional loads and more piles are required, which
is
will also lengthen the constructional time. This method
not
economical, too.
3.2.3 Construction of cast-in situ bored piles with suspended box cofferdam
Regarding the actual hydrological and geological conditions

piles with suspended box cofferdam
is
at
the two piers, the cast-in situ bored
very appropriate. Since average annual water level ranges

to the
from 14.0m
the pile
{o
18.0m,. And according

is
structural calculations, the elevation of the bottom of

be
platform
is
6.0m if the sealed concrete can
cast
is
in dry
seasons,
the
water head
difference
therefore 8.0irT12.0m. Hence, the Solution
feasible. Geologically speaking, the
steel casing need only to be inserted into certain depth
ofthe hard clay Iayer. With relatively higher

be
anti-scouring capability of this Iayer, the local scour can

used
eliminated if
an
elevated platform
is
is
with
suspended box cofferdam.
The
local scour elevation under the
about -10.0m
according
to the
calculations,
so
the assumption of an elevated
platform
is
acceptable.
The cast-in situ bored piles with suspended box cofferdam can be constructed in three ways in
compliance with different construction schedule requirements. In the following three methods, the
construction platform shall only
be
higher than the maximum flood elevation in order to

is
proceed
construction during flood seasons, which

The first method
is
obviously beneficial
to the
time schedule.
that the steel casing used for the protection of the pile boring also behaves
at
as
support ofthe construction platform, which shall be commenced

to six
early dry seasons to finish four
piles before the arrival ofthe spring flood to assure stability and safety. In this method, fixing
piles are avoided to save unnecessary cost.
In the second
method, the steel casing also behaves
as
support of the construction platform, but

a
construction shall begin during dry season. After the first 4~6 casings have been finished,
small
202
temporary construction platform

are completed, the
is
assembled immediately. As soon
as
the
corresponding 4~6 piles
temporary platform is dismantled. The construction of the rest steel casings is construction of bored piles. The advanced, followed by assembly of construction platfOrmond
whole process shall be well arranged it is still very economical.
to
guarantee each step
is
finished
at
time. In spite of its risk,
The third method can be applied
at
any time
theoretically. But
are
it
must be undertaken
carefully
is is
in
flood season
to
eliminate risk. Fixing piles
driven firstly
to
support the construction platform

assembled
safe and
which shall meet the flood protection requirements. Then the construction platform
and the steel casings are inserted to construct cast-in-situ bored piles.
The method
reliable and
less
restrained by flood. It
is
more expensive due to the introduction of fixing piles.
As
result of the above mentioned comparison,

is
cast-in-situ bored pile foundation with suspended
box cofferdam
selected. As to suitable method in construction, it must be chosen in accordance
with the construction schedule and building machinery and etc.
SELECTED FOUNDATION TYPE

the
Finally,
cast-in-situ bored pile foundation with suspended box cofferdam

are arranged in
is
used for this project.

and eight
01.55m which columns. The pile platform is 32.4X20.4m

Each has 40 bored piles of
matrix shape of five rows
in area and
5.0m in thickness. Bored piles are 79.0m
long below the 2.0m thick sealed concrete. The plan size and water elevation ofthe water resistant
cofferdam (Figure 3)
is
designed by constructional companies.
CONSTRUCTION
ofthe foundations of
this bridge began in March,
The construction
1997, in which fixing piles are
inserted to support the construction platform By the early September, 1997, both ofthe forty cast-
in-situ bored piles have been finished, which
is
followed by cofferdam installation, dredging, concrete
casting and other sequence according to the construction schedule.

At present, the two pylons are under construction.
Design of River Piers for t

John STEPHENSON
Structural Engineer Delcan Corporation Toronto. ON CANADA
^S
Tim WRIGHT Manager - Struetures
Delcan Corporation Toronto. ON CANADA
Dave YAEGER
Hydrotechnical Engineer Delcan Corporation Toronto. ON
JPIft
CANADA
204
1.
DESIGN OF RIVER PIERS FOR THE SECOND PEACE BRIDGE
INTRODUCTION
Second Peace Bridge, to be completed in 2002, will double the capacity of the existing international Canada/U.S. crossing of the Niagara River, between Fort Erie, Ontario, and Buffalo, New York. The existing bridge, completed in 1927, consists of five steel arch spans crossing the river plus one truss span over the navigable Black Rock Canal on the U.S. side. The new bridge similarly consists of five steel arch spans of matching lengths, plus one large arch span over the
The canal.
A general arrangement is shown in Figure
1.
Design of the new Peace Bridge was awarded to an international design consortium consisting of DeLeuw, Cather & Company (Buffalo, NY), Delcan Corporation (Toronto, ON), McCormick Rankin Corporation (Mississauga, ON) and Bettigole Andrews Clark & Killam (Buffalo, NY). One of Delcan's major responsibilities on this project was the design ofthe five reinforced concrete river piers (Piers 5,6,7,8, and 9).
FORT ERIE,] X |A ONTARIO a CANADA
>
1
l
I
^r-p-.
kfirir
Uf
"*
W~
<
O0SVHC
i
\
\
\
I.
J
PC/CE
9
W
"fer
t">
tf
-1in\
BROGt
\BUFFAL0,
t27)
-NEW YORK, USA
in
116
yfrtmK^
362
Figure
General Arrangement Showing Existing and New (Second) Peace Bridge
2.
INNOVATIVE PIER GEOMETRY

at
The piers are to be of mass concrete and, like the existing piers, will rest directly on the bedrock the bottom ofthe river, with no anchorage into bedrock except for some form of shear keys.
The general layout ofthe piers was essentially constrained by two factors: (1) the general shape of the piers should be architecturally similar to those of the existing structure; (2) requirements by permitting authorities that the new structure not cause any increase in water elevation levels immediately upstream ofthe bridge, or hence, in Lake Erie.
Preliminary drawings ofthe piers called for them to be of equal width (in the longitudinal direction ofthe bridge) to the piers ofthe existing bridge. It was recognized, however, that the piers could be made thinner given that the pin Separation (between adjacent arches) of 4.0 m was substantially less than the 7.01 to 9.45 m Separation on the existing bridge. At the same time, detailed hydraulic Computer modeis prepred by Delcan's hydrotechnical engineers indicated that this preliminary configuration would lead to an unacceptable increase in the backwater effect. Thus, it was decided to reduce the width of the piers to mitigate the backwater effect. This was found to have some beneficial effect on the hydraulic profile, but not enough to satisfy the strict regulations.
The hydraulic modeling indicated that the backwater effects were largely the result of eddy effects between the proposed and existing piers. Delcan proposed an innovative scheme in which the new and existing piers would be linked to provide a single, continuous object around which the river
J.
STEPHENSON,
T.
WRIGHT,
D.
YAEGER
205
would flow.
teardrop shaped tail was added to the rear of the existing Revised hydraulic modeis proved the piers, much like the trailing edge of an aircraft wing validity ofthe proposed link and tail as backwater effects were reduced to near-zero. A typical river pier, including link and tail, is shown in Figure 2.
As
a a
further refinement,
NIAGARA RIVER
NEW
TAIL
NEW
LINK
LJi
Figure
Typical River Pier, Including Link
to
Existing Pier and New Tail on Existing Pier
3.
ESTABLISHMENT
OF
PERFORMANCE CRITERIA
The
AASHTO LRFD Code provides the engineer with a degree of latitude in the design of piers. The only explicit instruction, given by Clause 11.7 is that "[p]iers shall be designed to transmit the loads on the superstructure, and the loads acting on the pier itself, onto the foundation." For the mass concrete piers under consideration, this essentially implies that the piers shall be able to resist sliding and overturning under all relevant combinations of vertical and horizontal loads.
3.1
Sliding
For the pier buoyant seif-weight and applied arch forces shown in Figure 3(a), the available sliding friction resistance, FR F^ H \i (Fw v + FF v + Wb) must exceed the unbalanced lateral force, FL
Fr |,, shown in Figure 3(b)
(D/C) ratio, D/C

3.2
FR,
Performance under sliding may be expressed as a demand with values less than 1.0 indicating that sliding does not occur.
the
capacity
Overturning Similarly, overturning about some arbitrary point, O, will not occur if moment exceeds the applied overturning moments, as shown in Figure 3(c). Fw v + FE v + MR Rv x d, is the product of the vertical reaction, Rv w/2 - b/2, ofthe reaction from the centreline ofthe maximum deviation, d width of the compression block which will just sustain the reaction force
available resisting The resisting moment
multiplied by the pier; b is the minimum without exceeding the

Wb,
as
compressive strength of the concrete or bedrock. Again, Performance may be expressed M0 / MR, with values less than 1.0 indicating that there is sufficient overturning resistance.
33
D/C
Other Criteria
While the sliding and overturning criteria ensure stability of the piers at the ultimate limit State (ULS), it is also desirable to ensure satisfactory day-to-day Performance at the Service limit State (SLS). After some discussion, it was decided that in order to preserve the integrity of the pier foundation / bedrock interface, the entire interface should remain in compression for all SLS loads. Assuming elastic behaviour at SLS, the net compression stress, anet, at the extreme edge of the
206
P / A, and foundation is equal to aaxial - amoment, where aaxial M amoment indicate As of additional an confidence, unacceptable uplift. measure anet 0.25 aa established. value of anet was Ja\iai
S.
a
Negative values of minimum acceptable
While the foundation was to be in compression, it was recognized that at other sections (the foundation / body interface, particularly) there may be a light tension field under certain loading conditions. This was deemed to be acceptable. provided that such tensions were well below the concrete cracking strength and would not require special reinforcing treatment.
WEST
EAST
ut
w/2
'0
f
(q)
forces acting
3
on
pier
(b)
sliding
of pier
a
(c)
overturning
of pier
Figure
Sliding and Overturning Forces Acting on
Typical Pier
4.
RELEVANT LRFD LOAD CASES AND COMBINATIONS
Load cases, factors and combinations were determined. in general. as set out in AASHTO LRFD. Clause 3.4. For each design element under consideration. it was necessar> to determine the load combination(s) Controlling the design ofthat element. Of particular interest for the pier design, was the fact that loads are imposed on the pier by arch ribs from adjacent arch spans which are structurally independent of one another. While this presented the possibility that different load factors and combinations could be used for adjacent spans. to produce the most se\ere loads on the piers, Delcan recognized the need to use sound engineering judgement and to consider the intent of the LRFD provisions, to determine conservative. but realistic loads.
First, it was recognized that LRFD ULS combinations typically represent a particular loading e\ent. so its not realistic to use different ULS combinations on adjacent spans (e.g. ULS-III. which represents the instance of very high winds. but no \ehicles; this is not compatible with load combinations where live loads are present). Second, whereas load factors for permanent loads. defined in LRFD Table 3.4.1.2, may have high or low values (e.g. 1.25 or 0.90 for dead load). it is not likely that actual permanent loads would be less than their nominal values in one span and Indeed, this is recognized explicitly in the LRFD greater than nominal in the adjacent span. Commentary C3.4.1. Permanent load factors were thus kept constant within a given combination.
was of particular importance given the structural independence ofthe arch spans. That is, the presence of traffic on one span, but not on the adjacent span produces an extreme case of unbalanced thrust on the pier between these spans. While the probability of such an event
Distribution of live loads
was believed to be very small, specific situations where this might occur are conceivable (e.g. reopeningjhe bridge to traffic after a closure) and the decision was made to include this distribution in the applicable SLS and ULS combinations.
STEPHENSON,
WRIGHT,
YAEGER
207
6.
DETAILED DESIGN
Detailed design of pier reinforcement proceeded in accordance with LRFD Section 5. As with general pier design considerations, LRFD is rather vague regarding reinforcing details for large concrete piers. It is of some interest to note that the piers of the existing bridge are unreinforced below the pier caps, and only lightly reinforced above.
6.1
Pier Foundations Foundations were found to be primarily in compression and were thus treated as structural mass concrete elements. Nominal shrinkage and temperature steel consisting of 20M bars at 300 x 300 mm spacing was provided in accordance with LRFD Clause 5.10.8.3.
6.2
compression elements. Strict adherence to LRFD Clause 5.7.3.3.2 requirements for minimum compression reinforcing, however, would have resulted in extreme and unnecessary quantities of vertical steel. Careful consideration ofthe problem indicated that the typical compression stresses were very low (in the rnge of 0.4 MPa), and thus, the pier body could best be regarded as a bending element, where light precompression is beneficial Further analysis showed the maximum tensile stress in the concrete (caused by bending moments) to be in the rnge of 0.5 MPa, well below the concrete modulus of rupture, about 3.5 MPa. Thus, it was not necessary to provide any more steel than the nominal face steel required for mass concrete.
as
Pier Bodies and Pier Caps Pier bodies were initially regarded
6.3
Pier Thrust Blocks Pier thrust blocks were idealized as compact compression elements between the arch bearings. Reinforcing was provided in accordance with LRFD Clauses 5.7.3.3.2, and 5.7.4.6 pertaining to minimum requirements for longitudinal and transverse confining steel. Additional end-hooked vertical bars were supplied to provide complete confinement of the block in three orthogonal directions. These vertical bars also serve to enhance shear transfer from the thrust block to the pier
cap, as required under is shown in Figure 4.
conditions of unbalanced arch thrust loads.
Reinforcement for
typical pier
&s:
pcrV^
FACE
PCR
STARTER BARS 20M C 300 TYP
STEEL
x
20M
260
300
-v
JOM
260
260 VERT SPACNC (TYP) 300

MAX
20M
300
300
,vj
30M 260
30M
FANNED
SPACING
MAX
(TYP)
A,
FACE
S *"
300
260
ENOS
SPACING
(TYP)
AROUNO
"STEEL
130
H00KED
30M
130
VERT/HORIZ BARS
TYP
(a)
Foundation
(b)
Body
(c) Thrust Block
Figure
Typical Pier Reinforcement
208
MW^k.
7.
CONSTRUCTABILITY ISSUES
Construction of the piers for the existing structure was performed using pre-fabricated braced timber cofferdams, sheathed in sheet piling and sealed using bag concrete placed by divers. By all accounts placement of the cofferdams was very difficult in the fast-flowing Niagara River. It is antieipated that a refined cofferdam scheme will be used for the construction of the new piers. Delcan's design for construetability addressed a number of issues including the following:
or Alternative Construction Methods - the simple layout of and pier body, facilitates the use of braced cofferdams foundation reinforcement, particularly as the design is not particularly sensitive to gaps in the reinforcement required to allow bracing members to pass. Further, should proponent contractors wish to explore alternatives such as "drydock" fabrication, necessary modifications to the general design concept may be easily achieved.
Compatibility
With
Cofferdam
in the
geometry of the thrustblocks is irregulr and changes from pier to pier, it is not necessary to employ complex reinforcement layouts to achieve the desired Performance. Reinforcement has been laid out in simple grid pattems to facilitate its placement and to make allowance for the placement of anchor bolts to fasten the pin bearing plates.
Simplicity of Reinforcement Placement - whereas
the
8.
CONCLUSIONS
The Design of such unique pier struetures requires careful consideration, and it is necessary that the engineer have a fundamental understanding of the intent of the applicable design code clauses. With this in mind, Delcan's engineers have produced an efficient design which meets all structural,
aesthetic, environmental, and construetability criteria.

The authors look forward to presenting a companion paper on the construction of the piers and bridge after the project goes to construction in the Spring of 1999.
9.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the contributions ofthe following persons: Stephen Mayer, Cliff Elwood (Buffalo and Fort Erie Public Bridge Authority); Keith Harlock, John Baker (DeLeuw,
Cather); James Sherlock (McCormick Rankin); Vic Anderson, Hugh Hawk, Ken Herbert (Delcan).
REFERENCES
1.
AASHTO, LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Revised April 1997.

CADY. R.W.. Buffalo-Fort Erie Bridge Piers Built News-Record. Vol.98, No.16, April 21, 1927).
in
2.
Swift Current (from Engineering
3.
HAWK.
H., personal Communications, July 1998.
4.
LINDSEY, W.F., Typical Drag Coefficients for Various Cylinders in Two Dimensional Flow. NACA Technical Report 619, 1938.
SWING BRIDGE OVER SUEZ SOIL - STRUCTURE INTERACTI

Luc Maertens
Civil Engineer
r
BESIX, Brssels, Belgium K.U.L., Louvain, Belgium
SUMMARY
150m
340m
+68m
+8m
&7K
212
SWING BRIDGE OVER SUEZ C
SHIP COLLISION
the
a specifications, has to be constructed on both sides of the canal in order to protect the bridge in parked position against impacts of vessels. Vessels with a water displacement up to 300,000 ton and a sailing speed of 8 km/h have to be considered. For the evaluation of the impact of a vessel against the pier, we considered the same several conditions.
According to protection jetty
Vessels normally sail in the direction ofthe axis o deviate from this direction. In that case, the vessel As long as the collision angle is less than 45 for t (sharp bow), the vessel will slide off the slope. A and if the slope is steep dig into the canal slope. On figure 1.1 one can see that such large vessels ca to the canal axis However, this extreme case was
pier.
In figure 1.2 one can see the calculation metho
LUC MAERTENS
213
With:
Vo
d
distance to the pier the vessel stops (m) speed ofthe vessel at the moment that the vessel touches the slope (m/sec) draght ofthe vessel (m)
a
In figure 1.3 one can see that only vessels with
draught smaller than 3m can reach the pier.
s
1
I
l
.^ s^ *2>
1 1 1 1
^t
1 1
10
15
DRAUGHT
-?- 14 KM/H -A- 7KM/H *r 3,5KiWH
Fig. 1.3
On
figure
1.4 and 1.5
(ref
2) one can see that the impact load is 15
MN (for
speed of 14 km/h
3,9 m/sec).
Borg
rnpocl
Foce (UM)
Impact Force (MNJ

55
TCW LCf
0lh
20
2C
Disp
15
laceme
it
6 30C
tonnes
IC
y^ ^*
^
10
5 6
/ Is
<
/
Dlsf
tacerr*
rrt
430( tonnes
1
Os
*xem(
nt
90
Jtomes
12
Impact speed (nVsec;

0
C
1
20
Water Depth (m)
Fig. 1.4
Fig. 1.5
214
SWING BRIDGE OVER SUEZ C
TRANSFER OF HORIZONTAL LOADS FR
35
Fig. 2
Vertical loads are transferred from the superstructure to the pier cap by mean of a swing gear which consist of a circular structure supported by two layers of
conical rolls. In the centre of the swing gear there is a pin to transfer the horizontal loads to the pile cap (Fig The pin itself is a steel cylinder 2.1) with a diameter of 1,3 m and a wall thickness of 10 cm. The length is 3,5 m and is embedded in the concrete over
Two
For
of 0 resis conc
To
can
horiz
horizontal load to be transferred is 9140 KN under wind load and 16.955 KN under seismic load.
2,53
m.
The
the c and
betwe betwe calcu
LUC MAERTENS
215
EARTHQUAKE BEHAVIOUR
OF THE PILE
FOUNDATION
Earthquake calculations were performed according to different methods: 5.1 By the Consortium 5.1.1 For the superstructure using Response Model Analyse in SAPN based on the Acceleration Response Spectrum calculated by Dr. 0( Ramadan. 5.1.2 For the substructure using DYNAIV (Novak) which is a 3-D Dynamic elasto-plastic model.
Consultant The Consultant performed own calculation. It is interesting to evaluate the dynamic calculations by comparing the "earthquake coefficient" this is the factor you have to apply to the vertical loads to find the horizontal loads for pseudo dynamic calculations (for a ground acceleration of 150 cm/sec2).
5.2 By the
Location
Horizontal load (KN) Vertical load (KN) H/V
Superstructure Consortium Consultant

16.128
11.868
Pile Foundation
Consortium
16.995
Consultant
21.600 129.147
0,17
75.890
0,20
72.667
0,16
129.147
0,13
SOIL-STRUCTURE INTERACTION
For a major bridge more particularly when deformations are very important, one cannot assume that the superstructure, the pile cap and the piles behave independently i.e. that the stiffness of this structural elements together with the stiffness ofthe soil do not influence each other. More advanced Computer programs allow modelling the pile cap and piles as elastic elements
together with the soil as elastic-plastic elements linked together by interface elements. For the El Ferdan Bridge, various calculation methods were applied to evaluate the deformations of the foundations and the bending moments in the piles. Intensive soil investigations including borings, SPT, triaxial tests, oedometer tests and PMT were carried out. The selection ofthe soil parameters for the calculations is very important and the input of experts is required for major struetures.
{IZ,^^^^^^^^
\ \
^~^_ ^--^ ~^~^-~_
^\^_
^x/X/X M\i\r\\\
Deformed mesh sealed up (down) 2 Extreme displacement 24E-02 m
EL
^^^
^-î^^^r^ ^^^^^T^^^ZJ^^-^
PLAXIS
PIERil
Step
17
FERQAN
PIER
6-10-97
Fig. 4.1 Open Bridge Hmax
- Deformations
216
SWING BRIDGE OVER SUEZ CANAL AT EL FERDAN SOIL
32 and G 20.000 + 800 z (KN/m2), with z For the dense sand layers (Dr > 80%), we assume oc 25 KN/m2 and 50, Cu= 250 KPa) we assume cp= 25 C depth in meter. For the clay layers, (Ip G 12.000 KN/m2. The G-values are G50 values for long term behaviour. The interaction factor tan a piie / tan cp SOii) is 0,7 for sand layers and 0,6 for clay layers. The history of the stresses in the soil is repeated in the different Steps of the Plaxis FEM calculations. Starting from the initial Situation (before dredging of the canal), initial stresses are generated. Then following steps are analysed: Dredging of canal, installation of piles, pouring of The results concerning the pilecap, erection of bridge, and other loadcases (see Fig. 4.1). deformations are given hereafter:
Case
1.
Horizontal
displacements (mm)
1,45
Vertica! displacements (mm)

15,61
Rotation
(rad x1000)
-0,53 -0,24
0,39 -0,34 0,07
0,15
Dead load bridges
2. 3.
4 5.
Vmax
M max
H max (closed bridge) H max + V max (closed bridge) H max (open bridge)
5,94
7,64 4,75 6,95 8,33
21,77 20,95
15,53
21,01
16,67 15,80
6.
7.
Earthquake
17,27
0,68
COMPARISON OF CALCULATION MODELS
Design is not only compute, it is also evaluate and decide. As an example, the values of Maximal Bending Moments in the piles are given according to different calculation modeis:
MAXIMAL BENDING MOMENT IN PILES

Horizontal load
Wind Wind Wind Wind Earthquake Earthquake Earthquake Earthquake
(Serviceability State) Type of calculation

Handcalculations according Franke Simplified model Plaxis calculations M-Pile calculations Handcalculations according French Standard Plaxis calculations (pseudo-dynamic) DYNAIV (fll 3 D dynamic) M-Pile (pseudo-dynamic)
Maximal moment (KNm)

H (V 0) 607
H + V
2.114
705
3.318
4.363
5.874
3.354 3.516
State.
7.140
Finally
bending moment of 8707 KNm was considered for ultimate design
REFERENCES
V.
with Bridges and Offshore Struetures. IABSE, Switzerland 1983 The interaction between Vessel Traffic and O. LARSEN, "Ship Collision with bridges. 1993. Switzerland Bridge Struetures". IABSE, Die Bautechnik A. BR, "Die Einspannung von I-Stahlprofilen in Stahlbetonbauteilen".
MINORSKY, "Evaluation of Ship-Bridge Pier Impact and of Islands Band 41 IABSE Colloquium, Copenhagen 1983 - IABSE Reports Volume
as
Ship
Protection" Collision
N3/1980.
Large Diameter Steel Tubulr Pil
Summary

..':-.
Large diam rake, offer many in regions of hig
Ben C.
Gerwick, Jr. Professor Emeritus of Civil Engineering University of California, Berkeley Chairman, Ben C. Gerwick, Inc. Consulting Engineers for Marine Struetures and Foundations, San Francisco, USA. Ben C. Gerwick, Jr. has also served as Consultant on the foundation of major overwater bridges worldwide.
thickness, an Op achieved. Unde

as to
reduce the
still limiting dri A major a block is signific design ofthe fo shears and mon
Where the
kinematic intera Moments will b portion ofthe p duetile behavior
218
LARGE DIAMETER STEEL TUBULR PILES FOR OPTIMUM SEISMIC PERFORMANCE

the shear under earthquake is usually the mass ofthe
Jrm
even greater diameter, 2.5 to 4.0 meters, have the ability to
1.2 Design of these piles for lateral forces such as those of
provide lateral stiffness to the pier along with ductility for overload events such as
earthquakes,
sea ice, and ship
earthquake, requires a fll analysis ofthe soil-structure
collision. (Fig.l)Combined with an efficiently designed footing block that develops both moment and shear, they can be optimized for drift (lateral deflection), and strength.
These piles are typically thick-walled so as to enable effective driving to deep
interaction. The free-field motions are modified by the kinematic interaction ofthe pile with the soil due to the pile's stiffhess. In layered Sediments, the load-deflection Performance can be determined by the finite element method with soil Springs input along the pile
length. Group effects due to "shadowing" must be considered. For extreme deflections, the moments and
footing block. Piles are usually designed for essentially elastic behavior under the design earthquake, with ductility employed for possible overload during a few
cycles. 1.5 Large diameter steel tubulr piles were utilized for the recently completed Jamuna River Multipurpose
penetrations, as well as to provide moment resistance and stiffhess. The wall thickness can be varied along the length to suit the demands of both driveability and in-service stresses. Where piles are driven into deep Sediments, the highest bending moment XA occurs in the to diameters just below the footing block. Fillingthe upper part ofthe pile with concrete, locked to the steel pile by means of shear rings, will give the pile increased stiffhess and ductility. Stable hysteresis responses have been obtained in laboratory tests up to a ductility factor of 4. As a result ofthe failure of many raked piles in wharves during earthquakes, the current trend has been to use only vertical piles in seismic zones. Vertical piles respond weil to excitation from all directions. However, it has been recently realized that in soft sedimentary soils or deep water, a slight rake can be utilized and still not result in excessive moment, shear or axial forces during earthquake. The benefits are greater lateral stiffhess under serviceability environmental loadings, reduced drift during the seismic event and especially reduced residual displacement.
1
1
Bridge in Bangladesh, where very deep and unstable Sediments, combined with variable
deformations resulting from eccentric loading may be important. 1.3 Installation of these large piles requires the use of very large crane barges and very heavy pile hammers. Templates are usually employed to position the piles accurately, especially when the piles are battered (raked). See
Fig. 2.
a
river depths due to shifting Channels as well as high Monsoon floods, demanded an unique Solution. The
piles varied from 2.5 to 3.15m in diameter. They were 80m in length, with wall thicknesses up to 65mm. They were driven in three sections, using a Menck hydraulic hammer developing 1800 KN-m of
only footing, each will be highly loaded e.g. to several thousand tons. Tolerances in pile head location are very critical. 1.4 Design of the footing blocks requires consideration of the demands for moment, shear and axial force transfer and also the practicality of construction. Precast concrete shells are often employed, temporariiy supported on the piles. Both circumferential and axial shear keys are employed. Because of the high forces in moment and shear, post-tensioning may also be required. It should be noted that if the piles are slightly battered, the footing block can be reduced in size, thus reducing the mass which is subject to high accelerations under earthquake. It has been found
that the largest contributor to
Because there will be few such piles in a
energy per blow. The piles were driven through medium dense to very dense
sand, and founded in
a
gravel Stratum at a depth of 80m below normal water level. Upto 12,000 blows per pile were required. Splicing of three sections
was by full-penetration weiding.
The 300 ton pile hammer and the pile sections were handled by a large offshoretype crane brge. Piles were installed at a rate up to 5 per week and the work
was completed on schedule. 1.6 Tubulr piles are also
an
excellent Solution for overwater bridge piers founded in rock or hardpan. In this case, vertical piles will usually prove best.
They are cleaned out and a socket drilled into the rock.
BEN GERW
Past practice has then been to install a reinforcing steel cage
this critical region. space is then grout
and to fill the pile with
concrete. However, if there is inadequate overburden, the pile may develop high moments at or just below the rock line. In such cases, an oversize socket is drilled and the tubulr pile lowered or driven into it, assuring that fll
pile filled with con This concept adopted for the se
ofthe several majo
across San Francis
moment capacity
is
provided
at
order to develop g stiffness and thus deflection to accep Steel tubulr piles, into rock, have bee
LATERAL LOAD CAPACITY ESTIMA BORED PILES AND ITS IMPLEM

A
Chakrabarti
:%:
V:
Chief Engineer, Central PWD Presently in Charge of Mass Rapid Transit System Cell Ministry of Urban Affairs & Employment, Govt. of India, Delhi, INDIA
HSU
Majumdar
Chief Engineer
DT&TDC
mF
BCRoy
Executive Director Consulting Engineering Services (India) Limited
222
LATERAL LOAD CAPACITY ESTIMATION OF LARGE DIAMETER BORED PILES
Further, the lateral load capacity of a group of piles depends on the permissible lateral movement of the pile at the pile cap level satisfying the serviceability requirements and design tolerances for the proposed structure. The embedded length of pile vis--vis its sectional properties plays a major role in deciding the behavioural pattern under lateral load. Long term behaviour of pile material and soil, the loading patterns on structure, scour of river, etc. also play important role in the lateral load carrying capacity of a pile. This paper
discusses all these aspects.
difficult.
Often lateral load capacity of a pile is decided based on the load test condueted on individual piles. The authors feel that deciding lateral load capacity for the design of a pile foundation, only on the basis of load tests, which indicates the capacity at the time of testing and very often do not depict the actual long term Situation, is not desirable. A single pile which moves laterally during load testing does not provide a direct answer to the various other aspects controlling/affecting the lateral resistance both for single pile or a pile group.
The paper discusses the authors' approach to determine lateral load capacity in compatible with the provision of Indian Standards and applied in their recent projects in India.
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Use of bridge foundations with large diameter piles, whether in land or in rivers with low scour has become quite common in India. Bridge structure is subjected to reversible longitudinal & transverse horizontal forces, and, raker piles, commonly used tili eighties, were adopted to take care of these lateral forces. Gradual change from use of smaller
diameter driven piles to high capacity large diameter bored cast-in-situ piles, which are more environmental friendly during installation, and faster in implementation has onset a trend to provide vertical piles for resisting, both, vertical & horizontal loads. Accordingly the assessment of horizontal load capacity of pile in addition to vertical capacity has become an important issue in the design.
The ultimate resistance of a vertical pile to lateral load and the deflection of the pile as the load builds up to its ultimate value are complex matters involving the interaction between a structural element and the soil in which it is embedded. The structural elements as well as the soil deform partially elastically and partially plastically. Elastic behaviour of the soil is only an idealised assumption. The deflection pattern of a pile depends on its boundary condition particularly at top where it may be free to rotate or rigidly fixed to a pile cap or is free to rotate at top of soil level but is fixed at much higher level in a pile cap such as foundation in a scoured river.
In
non-socketed. The lateral a larger extent on the properties of soil. Piles with tips socketed in rock however, have a different approach wherein the socketed area and/or structural capacity ofthe pile governs the lateral capacity.
are embedded in soil and are
majority of cases in India, piles capacity of these piles depends to
Till recent years, due to the very complexity involved in the determination of lateral load carrying capacity, the capacity of piles were being assumed as an adhoc percentage of the vertical load carrying capacity of piles without going in for any analytical estimate. Raker piles were extensively used to cater for high lateral loads. As explained by Chakrabarti A. design of foundation with raker piles in combination with vertical pile could be Solution, when a major portion of the horizontal load acts in reversible manner if the lateral load
A.
CHAKRABARTI,
B.
MAJUMDAR, B.C. ROY
223
capacity
of a pile is considered as an adhoc percentage of its vertical load. Further, installation of bored piles in a rake, calls for se of liner for the fll length making it more difficult to implement.
2.0
FAILURE MECHANISM
2.1 Soil Behaviour : The soil closer to the top surface initially resists the lateral load on a vertical pile. At comparatively lower loads, the soil behaves elastically and also transfers pressure from the top to the deeper Stratum. With increase in load the topsoil tends to become plastic and transfer more load to the lower depths. The behaviour of soil reaction again depends on the width to depth ratio ofthe pile and its restraint conditions at the top level.
A short rigid pile, unrestrained at the top with Pile Movement/Rotation : tends to rotate about a point slightly above the bottom length/diameter ratio upto around 12, tip and passive resistance develops in the portion below the point of rotation whereas the top is subjected to active pressure. However, the same pile with a rigid pilecap tends to deflect/shift laterally en mass and active resistance develops for the entire length.
2.2
pile with longer length of embedment is differenent. The passive resistance ofthe lower part ofthe pile is infinite, thus rotation ofthe pile is difficult occur and it remains vertical. Only the top deflects either with uni-directional rotation like a cantilever for a free pile head and like a propped cantilever or both end fixed condition compatible with level of fixity.
The failure mechanism of
a
2.3 Failure Criteria/Serviceability Criteria: The ultimate failure for a long pile occurs when the moment on the pile induces a plastic hinge. But this phenomenon occurs after a large lateral displacement as well as rotation (for free piles heads) have taken place. But in most of the cases such large movements of the foundation system creates serviceability problems for the bearing system as well as the superstructure. Thus the lateral load capacity of long piles are decided on the basis of limiting lateral deflection at the pile top.
3.0
3.1
LATERAL LOAD CAPACITY CALCULATION
Criterion : As stated earlier the criteria for deciding the lateral load capacity of a long pile under different soil condition, pile rigidity and fixed end conditions ofthe pile is the limit upto which lateral deflection of the pile at the ground surface/pilecap level (as the case may be) can be permitted. It is not to be the ultimate lateral load resistance ofthe pile, considering a total soil structure interaction between a semi rigid structure and non-homogenous, often non-elastic soil mass, before the pile is subjected to its ultimate moment capacity causing formation of a hinge in pile structure in the embedded portion.
3.2
Approaches of Analysis : Two approaches that have been professed authorities, although both of them have limitations, are
:
by
various
a)
b)
The elastic approach, where the soil is assumed as an ideal elastic continum. The sub-grade reaction (winkler model) approach where the continuous nature of the soil medium is ignored and the pile reaction at a point is simply related to the corresponding
deflection ofthe pile
at
that point.
224
The very important and fundamental aspect ofthe approach is that under Elastic Approach pure elastic condition the horizontal displacement of soil (be it in the direction of applied load
:
or in the opposite face) and the pile are equal. The elastic analysis thus assumes that the soil behind the pile adheres to the pile at all times which is basically not correct. The elastic
approach also makes
definite distinction between socketed pile and non-socketed pile.
To consider soil as an elastic continum is more satisfactory assumption as it accounts for the continuous nature of the soil. Perhaps this may be a more appropriate approach for mathematical representation when group action of piles are taken into account. But the near impossible and daunting task is to determine the elastic soil modulus, even for single Iayer. Whereas for long piles the soil affected is mostly layered. Thus this is not a common approach, though several authors have deliberated on this approach.
concept which was even conceived by series of unconnected linearly elastic Springs, so deformation occurs where only loading exist and interalia soil resistance is mobilised when deformation takes place. The obvious disadvantage of the approach is the basic assumption of lack of continuity in all direction whereas in real Situation the soil is some what continuous. The elastic spring constant, commonly known as modulus of subgrade reaction, is dependent on the width of pile and often on the depth ofthe particular loaded area
Subgrade Reaction Modulus Approach
Terzaghi.
This is The approach characterizes the soil as

:
ofthe soil.
The exact Solution to the problem of a laterally loaded The Most Accepted Approach flexible or semi rigid pile in an elastoplastic soil mass is a complicated and difficult one in a multi dimensional continum mechanism. As such it Warrants the designer to adopt certain measures and assumption, which may tend to a trifle adhocism. However considering all factors the method of subgrade modulus reaction is the most acceptable practice as it provides a relatively simple means of analysis and enables factors such as non liniearty, Variation of soil stiffness with depth, layering of soil profile etc. to be taken into consideration.
:
Comparison of displacement and rotation factors for long piles by adopting the elastic method and those determined by subgrade modulus method have shown higher values by the later method. As such it is feit that adopting the subgrade modulus method, even if it gives conservative values, the pile lateral load capacity calculation is on the safer side for the structure.
4.0
4.1
CALCULATING RESISTANCE TO LATERAL LOAD

:
Uncertain factors Although the modulus of subgrade reaction approach has been extensively studied but the research has not yielded any simple design method which can easily and universally adopted to any soil or type of pile. There are many inter-related factors and a few dominant factors include
The pile length and its stiffness alongwith the soil parameters decides the failure a) mechanism i.e. whether the entire pile will rotate for deflection or the major part of the embedded length will remain vertical. b) The type of loading, whether sustained or alternating or pulsating or accidental and their influences & the degree of yielding ofthe soil. c) Scouring of soil mass around the pile of the pile group, particularly for river bridges in alluvium deposits.
A.
CHAKRABARTI,
B.
MAJUMDAR, B.C. ROY
225
d)
Seasonal shrinkage of clayey soil away from the upper part
ofthe pile shaft
etc.
4.2 Need for Simplification : v4fter detailed deliberations most of the researchers/authors have suggested only simplified procedures as elaborate calculation processes are not justified, because of the non-homogeneity of the natural soil deposits and the disturbance to the soil caused by pile installation. None of these factors, though very significant, can be reproduced
calculation method. Various simplifications have been necessary in order to provide Solutions to this complex problem of soil structure interaction. The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has, after reasonable studies, suggested certain simplified methods as detailed later. The authors have used these simplified methods and guidelines of BIS for load testing and its acceptance criteria to decide the theoretical safe lateral load capacity of vertical piles for permissible deflection.
in the
4.3 Assessment
a)
of Modulus ofSub-grade Reaction

a
The modulus can be determined by
Fll scale lateral load test on
pile
b) Plate load test
c)
Empiric&l correlation with other soil properties
The method at (a) has been used by several researches e.g. Matlock & Ripperberge, Reese & Cox etc. but they are time consuming, requires care and are very expensive. The method is also prone to give wrong values due to inadequacy in instrumentation. The pioneers in the field like Terzaglu, Broms etc. have discussed method (b) in detail but ultimately attempts have been made by them to co-relate these results with the other elastic parameter and properties ofthe soil.
Ultimately most of the researcher in this field has tried to co-relate the basic nature and property ofthe soil to an empirical value of the subgrade reaction. BIS has specified certain values to be adopted which have been discussed later.
4.4
It has been often emphasized that for vertical Group Effect & Repeated Loading capacity of a pile group, the group action plays a major part. The authors while working on the lateral load capacity of a pile foundation system based on the capacity of a single pile have been often advised that the method adopted is quite conservative as pile in a group will have larger capacity. However Davisson (1970) sates that the spacing of piles in the direction of the load is of high importance. No positive decision in this respect can be taken to have rectangular grids in Indian condition mainly, due to seismic load (which constitutes major part of lateral load) and can act in any direction. There are various theories on the group effect of piles based on loading but the ideal spacing of 8d in the direction of the load as suggested by a few researchers is highly impractical.
:
Similarly, repetition of loading has its effect on the soil structure interaction and on the lateral load carrying capacity but again for bridge struetures the lateral loads, which are the major contributors are neither pulsating nor very frequent.
4.5
Effect of Consolidation and Creep : As a result of consolidation and creep of the soil surrounding a laterally loaded pile, considering the elasto plastic nature of soil, an increase in lateral deflection and a re-distribution of soil reaction will occur each time. Though for fully
226
granulr and non-cohesive soil the value effective subgrade modulus (k) equals to the test results but with cohesive soil the relation ofthe former to later is always less than unity.
Due to long term effect of repetitive loading, consolidation and creep, it is desirable not to These results may only be used as a design a pile foundation on the basis of load test only. in design. safe the data theoretical to as adopted capacity, confirmatory
: For the design of pile foundation of a is it the that of depth structure design scour level (2d for piers and 1.27 d for bridge necessary and the scoured condition is assessed for determination of the abutments) are determined capacity ofthe pile. It is almost impossible to simulate a deep scour condition for a pile load test with facilities for adequate deflection and rotation of a free Standing pile upto its top.
4.6
Effect of Scour and Future Construction
Further for flyovers in land where there are possibility to construct an underpass/subway adjacent to foundations in the near future, the pile capacity should take into account such provisions.
5.0
5.1
METHOD ADOPTED BY THE AUTHORS

Provisions in BIS Code to Determine the Lateral Deflection: The BIS Code stipulates followings for determination of lateral deflection at the pile head and the depth of fixity.
is
the
The long flexible pile, fully or partially embedded, the ground level (see Fig. 1) below depth
5.1.1
treated
as a
cantilever fixed
at
HEAOPU
HEADPU
_ ~
7!0},
Li
r^
W/Mw,
Y//S/A
<
8
lf
u
DV
R* PtS
SANDS AND
NORMALLY OADED CLAYS
FOR
PILES W
PHOQADED CLAYS
234$ft7t0
4/fc
ORLiA
FIG.
DETERMINATION OF DEPTH FIXITY

ofthe cantilever
determined
5.1.2 The depth of fixity and hence the equivalent length using the plots given in Fig. 1
are
A.
CHAKRABARTI,
R
4
B.
MAJUMDAR, B.C. ROY
227
Where
VEI/Kl
and
>fel/K2
and K2 are constants given in Table 1 and 2 below. E is the Young's modulus ofthe pile material in kg/cm2 and
(Kl
I is
the moment of inertia
ofthe
pile cross-section in cm4)
TABLE 1: VALUES OF CONSTANT Kl (kg/cm3)
TABLE
2 :
VALUES OF CONSTANT K2 (kg/cm3)
TYPEOFSOBL
Dry
Loose Sand
VALUE
Submerged
0.146 0.525 1.245 0.040 0.260 0.775 2.075
UNCONFTNED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH IN kg/cm2

0.2 to 0.4
'
VALUE
Medium Sand
Dense Sand Very loose sand under
7.75
lto2
2to4
More than
4
48.80
97.75
195.50
Repeated loading or Normally loading clays
5.1.3 Knowing the length ofthe equivalent cantilever the pile head deflection (Y) shall be computed using the following equations:
Q(L!+LF)3
Y
3
Q(L!
for free head pile
12
+ LF)3
for fixed head pile

EI
EI
where
Q is the
lateral load
5.2 Admissible Deflection to Decide the Safe Lateral Load as per BIS : The BIS Code for lateral load testing on piles specifies that safe lateral load on the pile shall be taken as the least ofthe followings displacements to be considered at the cut-off level ofthe pile
:
a)
b)
c)
Fifty percent ofthe final load at which the total displacement increases to 12 mm Final load at which the total displacement corresponds to 5 mm and Load corresponding to any other specified displacement as per Performance criteria.
It
the
stipulations ofthe code based on empirical method specifies that lateral load capacity of a pile foundation should determine on the basis of a deflection of 5 mm at the cut off level ofthe pile for an individual pile.
will thus
safe
be seen that the
5.3 The Safe Lateral Capacity Determination : The authors, as such based on the soil bore data and Classification as well as the physical properties ofthe pile has worked out values of Lf and K1/K2 as per para 5.1.2 above. The effects of layered soil have been considered by repeated trial i.e. at the first instance only the value of K1/K2 for the top soil has been taken and when Lf exceeds the depth ofthe top Iayer weighted average of K1/K2 has been taken
based on the depth
of the layers between Lf. After a few trials the Lf considering the the calculated value. Once the Li and Lf are K2 of value of Kl equals or weighted average known the safe lateral load for individual pile has been determined as equal to Q which produces a deflection (Y) of 5 mm at the pile head level.
228
Effect of group action has not been considered due to the complexities involved but the spacings ofthe piles have been kept at least 3 times the diameter ofthe pile.
5.4
Analysis of Load Test Results : The lateral load capacity of individual piles have been calculated by the authors using the above method for some of the projects. Subsequently the pile have been load tested for lateral load after their installations. The sites constituted mainly of non-cohesive soil though top Iayer has been silty sand or silty clay, with predomination of
silt.
deflection curve changes its slope drastically near or just beyond the theoretical safe lateral load as calculated above. Lateral deflection observed at the top of the pile at this load hardly reaches 1 mm but after crossing this load the rates of deflection per unit lateral load increases substantially. These results often indicated that a But very conservative value of safe lateral load is being considered for the design. due in the load the lateral effects that to the various factors term long capacity considering in deciding the lateral repeated loading, group effect, creep of soil etc. the method adopted load capacity ofthe piles for the design appears rational.
It has been observed that the load
6.0
CONCLUSIONS
From the above, it can be concluded that determination of lateral load capacity of pile foundation system is reasonably complex and simplified approach adopting empirical values of soil properties and empirical methods needs to be considered.
desirable to decide the vertical design capacity of pile judiciously, even for the layered soil considering the codal provisions ofthe country.
It
be
will however,
It is very
of pile group subject to lateral load when these also subjected to vertical load. Load testing of piles concurrently with vertical and lateral load is not possible although in actual, the soil surrounding the piles is subjected to both lateral and vertical strains/stresses be it in elastic conditions or plastic condition As such a Httle conservative approach in the safe design for lateral capacity of piles is worth.
to make an elastic analysis
difficult
It is also suggested that the pile test shall be condueted adjacent to the boring area in order to study the test data in conjunetion with boring data. The use of pile foundation for bridges
with deep scours and without any possibility of socketing examination and perhaps more research before adopting.
7.0
1.
at
the
bottom needs serious
REFERENCES
Foundation Systems for Continuous Curved Flyovers Chakrabarti, A. Structural Engineering ING/IABSE June '91.
2.
- The
for
Bridge &
BIS
2911
(Part
I/Sec.
2)
Construction of Pile Foundation

3
Code of Practice Four reprint 1997 Bored cast-in-situ Concrete Piles
Design
and
BIS 2911 Part 4 1985 Load Test on Piles.
- Code
of Practice for Design and Construction of Pile Foundation
Seismic Response for Cable-Sta Considering Soil-Str
Xi
ZHU
Professor Northern Jiaotong University Beijing 100044 P.R.China

e-mail: xzhu@center.njtu.edu.cn
v-s
230
SEISMIC RESPONSE FOR CABLE-STAYED BRIDGE PYLON FOUNDATION
,-f4
INTRODUCTION
The
long-span (180m+312m+180m) cable-stayed bridge (Fig 1) is building at Wuhu City to cross Yangtze River The pile foundation is adopted in this major bridge The geological condition of the bridge is very complicated and every pylon's grounds are vanant remarkably The covenng soil of the long pylon is 27m depth which is from -43m to -16m in altitude, while that of the Short one is only 9 2m depth which is from -33 8m to -24m It is obvious that the soil-pile-pylon interaction of each pylon is different In order to calculate the seismic responses and dynamic behaviors of each pylon considering the interaction of soil-pile-pylon respectively, the simpler model called Single Pylon Model (SPM) is used In order to attest the rationality of SPM, more elaborate model called Whole Bridge Model (WBM)
is
used also
84 0m
49 63m
36 13m 30 8m
9
0m
Long pylon
Short pylon
at top of cap slab
]
elastic constramt
180m
1
-16 0m -28 0m
312m
Fig
1
180m
model of whole bridge
ANALYSIS
METHOD
The analysis of soil-pile-pylon interaction
The first is free field in SPM mainly consists of two Steps analysis of earthquake response and the second is the soil-pile-pylon interaction analysis in which the pile foundation elasticity-confined to the field is considered The boundary conditions of the second are provided by the first
1
Seismic response analysis of the free field
08
0 6 0 4
The assumptions about the soil are The surface is horizontal, The soil in one Iayer is homogeneous, The soil is boundless One-dimension soil column model is adapted to simulate the free field The kinetics equation ofthe free field is
02
02
0 4 0 6
0 8
MGUG+CGUG+KGUG
in
-Mru0
3-dimensional
base
rock,
Mv
G
hr
which
V"
ug
vector
with
>
of
seismic
of
response,
mass
m\
acceleration
the
the
04
0 3
matrix
diagonal
stiffness
elements
matrix with
K %{P + Pi+\fy+\) verticalital and horizontal

K\'
:
02
0
1
elements
respectively
C^
2G,
h,
l-r,)
\\-2y,)
In
and
kg
2l,
ht
Rayleigh
ht,
0 2
damping matrix
yl
are
preceding formula
pt,
G,,
0 3 0 4 0
5
ver
20
per meter, height, shear Poisson ratio of the rth Iayer respectively
mass
modulus,
Fig
acc
input history
The
non-lineanty of soil is dealt with equivalent lineanty method in which the equivalent stiffness and equivalent damping ratio were calculated by
XI
ZHU
231
iterational
Special program
is
compiled for the purpose
The seismic input motions of bed rock are provided by the Seismic Bureau of Anhui province, in which province the bridge is building The probability of exceedence in 100 years is 10% As the results of seismic nsk analysis at bridge Site, there are 12 inputs provided, which include 6 in horizontal and 6 in vertical respectively One of six inputs in each direction is shown in Fig 2 Its maximum acceleration is 0 952m/s*s in horizontal and 0 436m/s*s in vertical respectively
2 2
Analytical model
27.
upside
The group piles are simulated by
a fictitious pile The at the bottom of cap stiffness equivalent spnng's slab caused by pile's support are computed Q the total which in according v _
2
7
1
pillar
26
28
27 25
23
21 19
"
number of piles,
kpi
the axial stiffness ofthe /th pile
top beam
13
Sato assumption, xt the coordinate of the The SPM is shown in Fig 3 The pile characters of cross sections of the pylons are shown The stiffness matrix is assembled by in table beam elements, and the mass matrix by lumped mass In order to reduce the freedom for consider soil-pile-pylon interaction, the mass of main truss and other auxiliary is allocated reasonably with In order to ensure the lumped mass in SPM of the method comparability, calculating the data in SPM is conformed with those in WBM
according
/th
to
iddl
15
pilla
16\
13
14
l
f
17
15
10
f-^vVWvVH
bottom co!lmn
10
9
cofferdam
6
M/VWVH M/VWVH
u
i
L,
OM/VWVH
M/VWVH
i
MM/WH
piles
4
2
i
.AAAAAAI
mrm-i
MM/WH
1
VE -erticahty
M/VWVH
Using those foundation spring stiffness proffered by SPM, the WBM is shown in Fig 1, in which the pylon is simulated by beam elements as well as main truss
and auxiliary
AL--along
Fig
3
TR--transverse bridge the axle of bridge X
long pylon
short pylon Single pylon model
section area
Single pile
long pylon fictitious pile short pylon fictitious pile cap slab
cofferdam
long pylon
m**2 7 069 134 303 120 166 730 617 127 988 144 7
300
7
polar inertia moment m**4

7
952
151 091
135 183
inertia moment m**4 m**4 3 976 3 976 75 545 75 545 67 593 67 593
linear density
t/m
18 732
355 903
bottom column short pylon bottom column bottom beam middle pillar top beam
upside pillar
note
135 240
284 020 68 340

34 700
16 900
84957 27158 6060 11652 5517 10003
0 2
42478 13579
7311
51
1
9 0 0 0
550 360
212 610 78 740

174 760
30 900 25 200
116310
in
11982 0 6972 8 11455 0 738 824 92 510 67 826 212 490 53 450
42478 5 13579 2889 4 4756 7 2562 0 3945 0

1
318 1936 339 383 796 358 752

181
s1
440
134
169
46
96
545
653
101
205 02 445 370

48 348 96 760
^55
885
44 785
81
202 680
66 780
pylon elements E=0 35e11 pa, G=0 129e11 pa, pile elements E=0 31e11 pa ,G=0 122e11 pa
1
Table
The character of cross section
SPM
232
Jrm
VE
AL
long pylon VE
short pylon
TR
AL
6
TR
joint of pylon and truss top of pylon

Table
2 3 2
1771
6833
7
3574
3
3330
168
382
5597 4916 0
in
7565
168 33
10179
548 57
The allocated mass of main truss and other auxiliary
SPM
(t)
Equation of Soil-Pile Interaction
The equations of motion considering the soil-pile-pylon interaction are

im,p
in
+
mf
ux
J] cfjUj
cfu,
kFjuj
kfu,
-mfug
|Mj
J
mfu^
cfu?
kfu?
which the relative displacements ofthe pile and pylon

\
(\
the relative displacement ofthe soil
\uG
iuG
U*
*,
Other parameters are shown

of
in
reference [1]
2 4
Equivalent Parameter
Soil-Pile Interaction
The equivalent horizontal stiffness between soil and the fictitious pile are calculated by Mmdlin formula and Elasto Winkler assumption[1] The equivalent vertical stiffness between soil and the fictitious pile are calculated according Sato assumption The equivalent masses ofthe soil-pile interaction were calculated by the energy equivalent theory At last the stiffness matrix and mass matrix of soil's equivalent effect are assembled according degree of freedom Certamly the data of equivalent effect relevant to the pylon element is zero
%
2 5
Seismic response spectra
The response spectra analysis method is used to calculate the seismic response in WBM Using those 12 seismic input motions of bed rock, 18 acceleration histones-six respective in each of AL.VE TR directions-at top of cap slab are analyzed by SPM to get the response spectra at the same location Six response spectra are obtained in each direction by Duhamel integral The envelope curve of the six response spectra is used as the input after studying the conformity ofthe six in each direction
3
NATURAL
PERIOD
The
The dynamic behaviors of the bridge are calculated by the two proposed modeis respectively natural penods are shown in the table 3 The SPM results are agreement with those of WBM
WBM
1
character of WBM
long pylon Short pylon

2
character of SPM
2 2
2 3
2
1
4
5 6 7 8 9
10
6843 4420 2460 7088 5718 3606 3446 2982 1666 1624
1484
3
truss,TR.symmetrical bending
two pylon, AL, floating truss and pylon.VE.symmetrical bending long pylon and relevant beam,TR short pylon and relevant beam,TR short pylon and relevant beam,TR,torsion
4369
55240
two pylon, AL
73718
1
68529
Long pylon TR Short pylon TR
long pylon and relevant beam,TR,torsion short pylon ,TR

long pylon ,TR truss and pylon,VE,anti-symmetncal
1
32631
23953
Short pylon's limb TR Long pylon's limb TR
bending
11
1
truss torsion
in
Table
Period of bridge
WBM and SPM (s)
XI
ZHU
233
ANALYSIS
RESULT
4.1
Stiffness Coefficient of Cap Slab of Pile Foundation
The foundation spring stiffness' of translation, torsion and coupling each other term that are calculated by SPM are shown in table 4.
(a)AL
These Springs' coefficients are the constraint conditions at the cap slab to alternate the pile foundations in the WBM.
long pylon
Short pylon
20
17
along the axes ofthe bridge
penod
(s)
length of piles number of piles
30
19
diameter of piles VE translation ky

TR
3.0
3.0
(b)VE
verticality.
kN/m
1.683E8
4.085E8
0.439E9
translation
kz
kN/m
0.116E9
TR coupling kZ(p TR rotation k^

AL translation kx AL coupling kX(p^
kN/rad
-1.730E9
34.72E9
-7.503E9
151.47E9 0.439E9
(c)TR
period (s)
kN*m/rad
kN/m
0.115E9
1.718E9
transverse the
axes ofthe bridge
kN/rad
7.503E9
151.47E9
|
AL rotation ~
kN*m/rad
n
34.86E9
at cap sla bs
table
4.2
The constra
coefficient s
Re
penod (s)
Envelop Cu rve of the
jsponse Sp ectra
at the top of
Fig.4 Envelope curves (response spectra at the top of cap
slab
in
long pylon
The envelope curves of the response spectrum cap slabs which are shown in Fig.4 and table.5 are calculated by SPM.
Those spectra are the input spectrum
in
the WBM.
/'max
Pmax Xmax
displacement
mm
AL
long
VE TR
max
max
at
period
A, start period
s
Pmnx<3rrax
pylon
AL
short
pylon
Note
:
VE
1.
TR The probability
3.717 2.785 3.240 1.073 0.389 '1.180

of
m/(s*s) 1.4476 1.0735

1.2041
0.4034 0.2784 0.4103

in
iS
5.01996 4.29193 4.55865 4.22372 4.02578 5.02317
m/(s*s) 7.26689 4.60738 5.4888 1.7038 1.1208 2.0610
0.20 0.20 0.12 0.28 0.08 0.28
0.46 0.45 0.52 0.56 0.44 0.60

in
m/(s*s) 0.4343 0.3221 0.3612 0.1210 0.0835 0.1231
exceedence
100 years
Aseismic Design Code amplification factor
/dkr-30,tnat
0.30
is 10%, damp ratio is 0.05; 2. Refer to wnen tn natural period is greater than the data
Highway Engineering
the last row of the table,
is
Table
4.3
envelope curves of response spectrum

Seismic responses
at the top of cap
slabs
The
section forces and displacement of the bridge are calculated by the two proposed modeis respectively. The results were shown in the table 6. Clearly the SPM results are agreement with those of
WBM
234
WBM modes 54 modes modes of each pylon the displacements of middle joint of the main truss and top joint 9.8022 9.8016 9.7957 main truss TR cm 7.9027 7.8946 7.8944 AL main truss cm 3.2632 3.2597 3.1576 main truss VE cm 5.67 4.1599 4.1438 4.1317 cm .6203 long pylon TR 7.9743 9.46 7.9677 7.9649 9.4638 AL cm long pylon 5.71 3.7729 3.7656 3.7510 short pylon TR cm 5.6542 9.82 8.3655 8.3639 8.3616 cm 9.8567 short pylon AL the section forces of bottom Joint of each pylon: M is moment, Q is shear force, N is axial force 5.92% 47827 46346 50838 3.31% 44864 t-m 43428 long pylon TR M t 9.25% 1776.9 1957.2 12.24% 721.64 617.42 550.05 long pylon TR Q 79692 6.22% M 84981 4.27% 79376 78402 AL t-m 81747 long pylon t 1208.5 1268.0 4.73% 1085.6 10.1% 989.53 898.73 long pylon AL Q t 371.75 282.14 650.89 114.55 .06513 long pylon N 8.83% 45722 50150 6.12% 40500 43087 t-m 43140 Short pylon TR M t 3.77% 880.95 915.49 0.037% 774.44 618.52 620.80 short pylon TR Q 93852 3.48% 3.63% 91411 91495 90578 t-m 88091 short pylon AL M t 1504.8 15.49% 1387.2 14.97% 1279.5 1303.5 1101.7 short pylon AL Q t 272.24 334.02 481.12 .06691 121.73 short pylon N
SPM
4
WBM modes 10 modes
WBM
30
SPM
WBM
70
modes
9.8022 7.9033 3.2711 4.16 7.9742 3.773 8.4059

47826 1777.6 79685
1263.1
621.06 45723 880.95 103510 2851.1 471.00
Table.
5
section forces and displacements of seismic response
in
WBM and SPM
CONCLUSIONS
be made:
Considering this study, the following conclusion can
1. Because the bridge is so major and the geological conditions of each pylon are so complex, the effects of dynamic soil-pile-pylon interaction should be considered. It is possible and expedient to make these considerations into reality in SPM. The elastic constraints at the top of cap slab are calculated by SPM for replacing pile foundation in WBM.
2.
It is convenient to calculate the response spectra at the top of cap slab by SPM. The envelope curves ofthose spectra are used as the input spectra in WBM to evaluate the seismic responses.
forces and displacements of seismic response are evaluated by SPM and WBM respectively. Those results by SPM are coincided favorably with those identical items by WBM. It is demonstrated the SPM method for seismic response analysis considering soil-pile-pylon interaction is worthy of continued study.
3.
The section
Note:
In
bridge, TR
the whole paper direction symbol (which has been shown in transverse the axes ofthe bridge; VE verticality.
Fig.3): AL
along the axes of the
REFERENCE WIEGEL,R.L.(et. al) Earthquake Engineering(chapter 14), 1970.Prentice-Hall. 2 TRANSPORTATION MINISTRY of P.R.China. Highway Engineering Aseismic Design Code, 1990.
1
SAFE LOAD FROM DEFICIENT
S.R.
KANIRAJ
Dept. of Civil Engg IIT, New Delhi, India
pW^#iW
*
j2dt~W
w
V
236
SAFE LOAD FROM DEFICIENT PILE LOAD TEST DATA
INTRODUCTION
The Indian Standard Code of Practice IS:2911 (Part 4)-1985 {1} specifies the criteria for the safe load of piles tested in compressive, tensile, and lateral loading. According to the Indian Standard, the safe load of a pile in compression is the smaller ofthe following two values:
which the total displacement attains a value of 12 mm unless otherwise required in a given case on the basis of the nature and the type of the structure in which case, the safe load should be corresponding to the stated total displacement permissible.
Criterion
1:
Two-thirds ofthe final load
at
50% of the final load at which the total displacement is equal to 10% of the pile diameter in case of uniform diameter piles and 7.5% of bulb diameter in case of under-reamed piles.
Criterion
2:
For several reasons, often even in the initial load tests, the pile is not subjected to loads that would cause a settlement of 10% ofthe pile diameter. If the settlement ofthe pile is more than 12 mm, then the safe load can be estimated by using only the first criterion. When the load-settlement data is deficient, it is desirable to make a reasonably good estimate of the loads corresponding to each criterion by a proper interpretation of the available data. The paper explains analytical procedures which can be used for this purpose. The Australian Standard AS 2159-1995 {2} specifies the acceptance criteria in terms of gross settlement and net settlement. The analytical procedures were
used for the Australian Standard criteria also. The paper explains the salient details ofthe study with respect to the Indian Standard only. For more information, reference can be made to another paper ofthe author cited at the end {3}.
2
ANALYSIS OF PILE LOAD TEST DATA
To develop analytical procedures, the load-settlement data and other details of pile load tests, in which the settlement exceeded 10% ofthe pile diameter, were collected from twnty four pile load tests on straight shaft piles. In one test, the pile diameter was 1070 mm, and in other tests it varied
from 400 to 800 mm. The pile length varied from 13 to 27 m. Seven of the pile load tests were on driven cast-in-situ piles in cohesive soils, nine were on driven cast-in-situ piles in noncohesive soils, and six were on bored cast-in-situ piles in noncohesive soils. All tests were slow maintained load tests and eight of them were cyclic tests.
Each pile load test data was first scrutinized for consistency and errors. The load-settlement curve is generally a nonlinear curve with the slope - the ratio of incremental settlement to incremental load increasing continuously with load. A seating error is indicated if at the beginning ofthe curve there is a decrease in the slope. The initial rnge of the data was examined. If there was a seating error, the correction in settlement required to make the slope more or less linear in this rnge was identified. The correction was applied to the raw data. The load-settlement curve was drawn using the corrected data. From this, the loads corresponding to the two criteria of the Indian Standard Code were determined. The loads corresponding to the first and second criteria were designated as Qi-is and Q21S, respectively. In nineteen pile load tests, including the 1070 mm diameter pile, the safe load was governed by the second criterion, that is Qi.is > Q2-is- This indicates that the safe load estimated from the first criterion alone can be unconservative. The value of the ratio Qi-is/Q2-is varied from 0.823 to 1.243 with an average of 1.093. The Standard deviation and 95% confidence interval ofthe ratio were 0.111 and 0.044, respectively.
Different relationships between load and settlement were considered. For each relationship, the expressions for the load corresponding to each criterion were obtained. The data were artificially made deficient by choosing the data only up to a particular value of settlement. From a regression analysis of this data, the parameters of the expressions were obtained. The rigor of the regression analysis was tested from the correlation coefficient, the F-test, and the Mest. The loads corresponding to the two criteria of the Indian Standard were estimated using the corresponding
S.R. KANIRAJ
237
expressions. The load-settlement curve was also predicted. The analysis was repeated for different
ranges ofthe load-settlement data.
An assumed relationship was considered to be satisfactory if the following conditions were satisfied:
a) the b) the
c) the
load estimated for each criterion compared well with the respective actual load,
estimated values ofthe safe loads compared well with the actual values,
criteria for the estimated safe loads matched with the criteria that gave the actual safe loads,
predicted and actual load-settlement curves matched well, and
d) the
e)
the relevant Statistical tests were satisfied.
Only the hyperbolic method and the modified hyperbolic method satisfied all these conditions. Therefore, the results of only these two methods are presented in the paper.
3
HYPERBOLIC METHOD
The expressions for the loads corresponding to the Indian Standard criteria are
Qhx-is
b +
kN
]2m
O.lmD
(1)'
-^,"'^
b +
(2)
Qhi-is and Qh2-is are the loads given by the hyperbolic method corresponding to the first and second criteria of the Indian Standard, respectively. b and m are constants obtained from linear regression analysis ofthe data in the (s, s/Q) coordinates system. s is the settlement of pile at pile load Q. The units of s and Q are mm and kN, respectively. D is the pile diameter in mm.
4
MODIFIED HYPERBOLIC METHOD
Rollberg {4} suggested that the load-settlement curve is a hyperbola up to a settlement s0, beyond which it is a straight line as shown in Fig. 1. s0 is given by an empirical relationship and constants that are dependent on the type of soil and the method of pile installation.
The expressions for the loads corresponding to the Indian Standard criteria are
g
Qm]-/S
b +
kN
12m
So>
12
mm
(3a)
Qmi-is
~(c+l2i)
kN
So<
12
mm
(3b)
2-/5
'b +
kN
OAmD
5o>0.1Dmm
(4a)
Qm2,s
-{c+0.MD)
kN
So<
O.lDmm
(4b)
238
So
s,
mm
Fig.
Modified Hyperbola
Qmi-is and Qm2-is are the loads given by the
modified hyperbolic method corresponding to the first and second criteria of the Indian Standard, respectively. / is the slope of the straight line portion of the load-settlement curve beyond s0 and c is its intercept with the load axis.
RESULTS
Comparison ofthe Estimated and Actual Loads
5.1
The loads estimated by using the hyperbolic method and the modified hyperbolic method were compared with their respective actual loads by Computing the ratio of the estimated load to the actual load. The closer the value of this ratio is to unity, better will be the theoretical estimate ofthe load. The trend of Variation of the different ratios with s/D was studied and the Upper and lower limits ofthe Variation were determined. Table 1 gives the expressions for the upper and lower limits for the different ratios. The respective ranges of s/D in which the error in the different estimated loads is less than 10% and 5%, and the mean, Standard deviation, and 95% confidence interval ofthe ratios over these ranges of s/D were determined. These results are presented in Table 2. For the same data, the results from the modified hyperbolic method were slightly better than those from the
hyperbolic method.
5.2
Load-Settlement Curves
The load-settlement curves predicted from different ranges of deficient data were compared with the actual load-settlement curves. The minimum value of s/D required to predict the load-settlement curve reasonably well ranged from as low as 0.82% to as high as 10%. Still, in majority of piles the required s/D value was very low. In fourteen piles it ranged between 0.82% and 3%, in five piles between 3% and 5%, and in four piles above 5%. The average, Standard deviation, and 95% confidence interval ofthe minimum required s/D value were 3.43%, 2.43%, and 0.97%, respectively. In modified hyperbolic method, it was observed that for bored piles the constants recommended by Rollberg for driven piles instead of bored piles should be used in the analysis.
S.R. KANIRAJ
239
Table
Lower and upper limits for load ratios from the hyperbolic and modified hyperbolic methods Limit Expression Ratio, y Lower Qhl-Is/Ql-IS -64 Ax2 + 9.1086* + 0.7204 y
1:
Upper
-485494*5
181705*4
Qh2-Is/Q2-IS
Lower
Upper
58.472* +1.7566 --307.05*4 468.83*3

+
- 26212*3
+
1808*2
0.64
- 109.9*2
9.985Ijc
21281x4 -7205.8*3
889.62*2 -47.092*
Qml-Is/Ql-lS
Lower
+1.8906 -9384.7Jt4
+
3115.8*3
- 367.33*2
+
17.555*+ 0.7062
+
Upper
j;
=-688985*5
245552*4 -33567*3
2184.9*2
Qm2-ls/Q2-lS
Lower
Upper
y
y
66.395* +1.7867 -1.2687*1081

154336*5 -18178*4 -4001.3*3 +827.58*2
-49.905*+
y
1.9933
x
ratio ofthe estimated load to the actual load;
s/D (not in per cent)
Table 2: Statistical values for the load ratios from the hyperbolic and modified methods
Quantity
Qhl-Is/Ql-IS
Qh2-ls/Q2-lS
Qml-Is/Ql-lS
Qm2-ls/Q2-lS
Over the rnge of s/D in which the error in the estimated load is within >2.5 >3.5 >1.7 Range of s/D% 1.017 1.002 0.969 Average 0.0511 Standard Deviation 0.0386 0.0482 95% Conf. Interval 0.012 0.014 0.0095 Over the rnge of s/D in which t he error in the estimated load is within
Range
10%
>2.6
0.980 0.0887 0.0262
5%
ofs/D%
2.5
5.5
10
0.992 0.0106 0.0041
2.2-6
1.011
10
1.006
Average Standard Deviation 95% Conf. Interval
1.013
0.0254 0.0085
0.020 0.0076
0.0156 0.0074
5.3
Effect of Irregularities and Seating Error
in the
Actual Load-Settlement Curve
The results obtained from the hyperbolic and modified hyperbolic methods were not sensitive to the irregularities in the actual load-settlement curve. However, the effect of the correction for seating
error on the results was significant. Even a small correction, not only improved the predictions significantly but also reduced the amount of data required to do that. The initial rnge of the observed load-settlement data should therefore be scrutinized carefully to determine the need for any correction to be done in the data.
5.4
Components of Load Transfer
The analysis for the nature of load transfer showed that except for one pile in all the other piles the skin friction was the predominant component. In many piles the skin friction was more than twothirds ofthe load acting on the pile.
240
5.5
Illustrative Example
At Numaligargh, Assam, India, a 500 mm diameter bored cast-in-situ pile of length 19.175 m was 4.32%). subjected to a maximum load of 1207 kN at which the pile settlement was 21.61 mm (s/D the modified 2 that and by the actual hyperbolic load-settlement shows predicted curve Figure method. The best estimate for the safe load of the pile is obtained by the modified hyperbolic method. According to this method, the safe load is governed by the second criterion and is in the
rnge of 639-665 kN.
1200 800
actual
400
predicted
10
20
s, mm
30
40
50
Fig.
Actual and predicted load-settlement curves for Numaligargh pile
CONCLUSIONS
The loads corresponding to the two criteria of the Indian Standard and the load-settlement curve of piles that transmit more than 65% of their load through skin friction could be predicted reasonably well by the hyperbolic and the modified hyperbolic methods, if the load-settlement data is available up to a minimum settlement of 5% of the pile diameter. For the same data, the modified hyperbolic method gives slightly better results than the hyperbolic method. The results are not sensitive to the irregularities in the actual load-settlement curve but to the correction made for seating error.
7
REFERENCES
(Part 4) foundations, Part
IS: 2911
1.
Indian Standard code of practice for design and construction of pile Load test on piles (1985). Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
Standards
2.
Australian Standard : Piling - design and installation AS 2159-1995, (1995). Association of Australia, Homebush, NSW, Austratet.
3.
Kaniraj, S.R. (1998). Interpretation of pile acceptance criteria from deficient data, Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, 124, 10, 1035-1040.
4.
Rollberg, D. (1977). Determination ofthe bearing capacity and pile driving resistance of piles and using soundings. Institute for Foundation Engineering, Soil Mechanics, Rock Mechanics, Water Ways Construction, RWTH (University) Aachen, Germany, 3, 43-227.
EFFECT OF PILE CAP FLEXU BEHAVIOR OF BRIDGE
MONA
K. GHALI Assistant Professor Faculty of Engineering Zagazig University

Banha Branch
Cairo - Egypt
242
EFFECT OF PILE CAP FLEXURAL RIGIDITY ON THE BEHAVIOR OF BRIDGE FOUNDATIONS
,1%
INTRODUCTION
common design of reinforced concrete bridge foundations, the pile caps are assumed to be rigid in the determination of the pile loads. Also, the piles are considered to act as rigid supports This research work studies the effects of the pile cap rigidity and the axial stiffness of the piles on distributing the column loads on the piles; and consequently the design of the pile cap itself These effects are more significant in the cases of pile caps which are subjected to high loads and moments, such as those of multi-span bridge foundations, especially in the seismic load cases
In the
A typical pier foundation for a multi-span highway bridge, about 400m long, has been chosen to study the effect of the pile cap flexural rigidity, and the axial stiffness of the piles on the overall
behavior ofthe bridge foundation. The intermediate spans ofthe bridge are spans are 25m. The width ofthe bridge is 17.0m, including four highway lanes.
35 m,
while the end
The typical cross section of the bridge consists of a double vent prestressesd box girder, (Fig 1) The bridge deck is supported on central piers. In the longitudinal direction of the bridge, the three intermediate piers are monolithic with the deck; while the rest of the piers have guided bearings to
allow for the longitudinal deck movement due to temperature Variation, creep and shrinkage piers have different heights varying between 5m and 12m.
The
A detailed finite element model was prepred for the bridge considering the highway moving loads according to the AASHTO specifications {1}, in addition to the prestressing loads, the
temperature effects, and the seismic loads obtained from the dynamic analysis. Another finite element model was prepred for the typical pile cap ofthe monolithic piers; which resists the most critical loads from the temperature movements and the seismic forces, (Fig 2)
50.0
7500
mm
(00Q
7500
mm
5'
ff
12000
mm
ido 10(00
2500
2500
2500
2500
IC
00
4-iA_
TPI
7^2 _4_r.l_
I3X" _^{a.
|0
|
19
PILE
0l2JQOmm
r
C
Fig
1
BRIDGE
^k4
m
-K5
C.L
CU
LU
LU
LU
Fig
2
Typical bridge cross section
Typical pile cap plan
DESCRIPTION OF THE PILE CAP AND THE ACTING LOADS

is
1
The studied pe cap size 24m and its diameter is
12 x
12m and is supported on thirteen piles

a
2m with
vertical capacity of 3000 KN
The length of each pile is This capacity can be increased
The box girder bridge is loaded as per AASHTO code {1} The dead load carried by the typical pier is 12750 KN The maximum reaction on the pier due to the live loads (4 lanes) is about 4000 KN; while that due to the eccentric live loads is about 2600 KN, in addition to a transverse moment of about 12000 KN m
by 33% in the seismic load cases
MONA
K.
GHALI
243
AASHTO specifications for seismic design {2}, and was seismic Performance category "B". Thus, the acceleration coefficient was considered as 0.19g and the elastic moments due to the earthquake forces were determined independently along both the longitudinal and transverse directions of the bridge using the SAP2000 program {3}. The seismic moments for the critical pier were found to be 50000 KN.m and 60000 KN.m in
classified
as
The bridge was designed according to the
the
longitudinal and transverse directions, respectively. However, it was found that the moment obtained in the longitudinal direction exceeded the elastic moment capacity of the pier. Accordingly, the elastic moment in this direction was divided by the appropriate response modification factor for the footings; and a plastic hinge design was considered.
The critical case of loading for the studied pile cap was found to be the case of earthquake in the transverse direction. Thus, 100% ofthe obtained transverse moment was considered, in addition to 30% of the obtained modified moment in the longitudinal direction. This load combination was
taken according to AASHTO load combinations to account for the directional Tincertainty of earthquake motions and the simultaneous occurrences of earthquake in the two principal directions
FINITE ELEMENT MODELING AND PARAMETRIC STUDY
The pile cap was analysed using a three dimensional finite element model by the SAP90 program {4}. The model consisted of 625 nodes and 576 elements. In this analysis, the reinforced concrete pile cap was assumed to be a linearly-elastic material with a modulus of elasticity of 2.1E7 KN/m2
and a Poisson's ratio of 0.2. To consider the effects of concrete cracks on the pile cap stiffness, the modulus of elasticity was reduced by 25%. Since the flexural stiffness of a pile cap is a function of its dimensions (depth to width ratio); the pile cap was analyzed using different depths (1.0, 175, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0 and 5.0 m). All of the thirteen piles were modeled as elastic spring supports considering their axial stiffness. The elastic spring constants were taken as 742200 KN/m for the compression piles, and 371000 KN/m for the tension piles. This reduced value for the tension piles was due to the fact that the pile displacement associated with tension was larger than that in compression under the same amount of axial load.
RESULTS OF THE PARAMETRIC STUDY
Pile Cap Deflections comparison is made between the deformed shapes ofthe studied pile cap under the applied loads for Im and 3m thickness in (Fig. 3 and 4), respectively. It is clear that for the pile cap with Im thickness, a flexible behavior is obtained with a maximum deflection value of about 1.0 cm. Thus, the assumption of a rigid footing becomes erratic for this thickness. On the other hand, the model with 3m pile cap thickness shows a rigid behavior; with a maximum deflection of about 0.43 cm. The same deflection value was obtained for the 5m thickness model. This considerable difference in the deformed modes and the obtained deflection values strongly affect the distribution of the applied loads on the supporting piles.
4.1
A
4.2
and M22 ofthe studied pile cap in the two principal directions for Im and 3m thickness are illustrated in (Fig. 5 to 8), respectively. From these figures, it can be concluded that: The negative moment variations between the Im and 3m thickness pile caps can attain 28%, while positive moment variations can attain 19%.
The values and patterns
Moments Acting on Pile Caps ofthe bending moments Mn
244
The maximum moments obtained from the model with Im thickness are less than those obtained from the 3 m thickness model This proves that, the flexible pile cap reduces the loads on the edge and corner piles and consequently increases the loads on the intenor ones This may lead to cntical cases for the loading capacities ofthe intenor piles The values of moments obtained from the Computer modeis are much higher than those calculated by the rigid analysis Also, in the Computer modeis, the moments are concentrated near the column, while in the rigid analysis the moments are distnbuted along the width of the pile cap This may cause a cntical Situation for the safety of the pile cap design, as obtained from modeis having small thickness between m and 2m*
1
4.3
Pile Reactions
analysis to those obtained from the the pile cap thickness, are shown in edge, and intenor piles, respectively fill have been excluded in order to emphasize the effect of the studied parameters on distnbuting the pier loads on the supporting piles Table (1) shows the values ofthe pile loads both for a rigid footing analysis as well as for the results ofthe present finite element analysis The negative load values indicate tension forces on the piles From these figures and table, the following can be summanzed For corner piles, the ratio between the pile reaction obtained from the finite element analysis and that obtained from the rigid analysis can reach 9%, 72%, 90% and 98% for the modeis with Im, 2m, 3m and 5m thickness, respectively This large Variation in tr?e obtained reactions emphasizes the effect of the pile cap thickness and rigidity on distnbuting the applied loads For edge piles, the ratio between the pile reaction obtained from the finite element analysis and that obtained from the rigid analysis can reach 1%, 85%, 95% and 99% for the modeis
The ratio of the pile loads obtained from the finite element analysis of the pile cap as a rigid footing (PF E/PRigid) versus (Fig 9 to 11) for the different locations ofthe piles corner, In these curves, the pile cap own weight and weight of
with Im, 2m, 3m and 5m, respectively For pile No "2", the pile reaction obtained from the rigid analysis is (-734 KN), while that obtained from the model with Im thickness is (-1730 KN) Upon the addition ofthe pile cap own weight and weight of fill, the aforementioned values reach (-257 KN) and (-980 KN), respectively This tensile force (-980 KN) exceeds the own weight ofthe pile (680 KN) and represents a cntical case for the pile For intenor piles, the ratio between the pile reaction obtained from the rigid analysis and that obtained from the finite element analysis can reach 11%, 58%, 90% and 99% for the modeis with Im, 2m, 3m and 5m thickness, respectively For pile No "10", the pile reaction obtained from the rigid analysis is (2052 KN), while that obtained from the model with Im thickness is (4634 KN) and reaches (5158 KN) when taking into account the pile cap own weight and weight of fill This value exceeds the pile capacity in seismic cases (4000 KN)
Min Deflection
Max Deflection
im
cm
0 3
Max
Min Deflection Deflection
0 0
43 cm 22
cm
Fig
Deformed shape of Im thick model
Fig
Deformed shape of 3m thick model
MONA
Ml.
riu'Rr
I
]?:[-8<
JQIHl
"37
HAT
IS
S-lEt-tH
Itllf.
Fig.
Mn of Im thickness model
..:
':
JA
246

10
0
9.0 8.0
Pile
Im
2m
3m
5m
Rigjd
No
1
Pfe
-1180 -1370 -750
-835
Pfe*
-692
Pfe
-1273
Pfe*
-562
-208
170
Pfe
-1213 -807 -396
-101
370
Pfe*
-204
227
613
Pfe
-1175
-750
Pfe* Analysis
402 837
1250
1496 1934
7.0 6.0
5 0
-982
-323
VPile
-970 -540
-158
410 468
1690
1435
-1162 -734
-305
-91
-327
-92
346 547
1035 1412
|
oT
-482
418
523
618
1187 1230
940
1412
1561
5
'
-186
-4
338
552
981
4.0 3.0
527
1223
2132 2627
2998 3245 3683 3793 4305
4641
^
o!T
^ \
i^J"*
'
7
8
3579
1315
4199
1786
2487 2179 2834

3402
2345 3763
2274
1420 1770
2456
2811
1410 1624
20
1.0
3348 4634
200
3890
5158
579
2058
1657
-'
10
11
2626
1634
2240 2047 2800

2864
3283
2094
2216 2719 3064
2052
3057
3835
2266 2695 3123
0.0
12
13
3514
483
4004
862
3002
-1.0
1. 0
2366
3077
3874
2 0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
Pfe* includes own weight of pile
cap and weight of fill
Pilecap Thickness (m)
Fig
11
(Pf E/PRigid) ratio for interior piles
Table
Pile Reactions for different pile cap thick
CONCLUSIONS
The design of the pile cap as a rigid footing is acceptable when the ratio (L/T) does not exceed (2 4); where (L) is the distance between the pier centerline and the center of the
furthermost corner pile and (T) is the thickness ofthe pile cap If the ratio (L/T) exceeds (2 4), a flexible behavior is expected and a detailed finite element analysis is required for the design ofthe pile cap Flexible pile caps reduce the pile reactions on corner and edge piles and increase the loads on the interior ones. This may cause tensile forces on the outer piles, and may over-load the interior piles beyond their load carrying capacities The flexural rigidity of the pile cap strongly affects the obtained deformed shapes of the footing and consequently affects the distribution ofthe pile loads The rigidity ofthe pile cap considerably affects the obtained straining actions ofthe pile cap
NOTATIONS
M22
Mn,
Pf
T
e
PRigid
The distance between the pier centerline and the center ofthe corner pile Pile cap moments in the longitudinal and transverse directions, respectively Pile load obtained from the finite element analysis Pile load obtained from^the analysis ofthe pile cap as a rigid foundation Pile cap thickness
REFERENCES
1
AASHTO, Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, American Association of State Highway and Transportation OfFicials, Interim Specifications 1994 AASHTO, Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges - Seismic Design, American Association of State Highway and Transportation OfFicials, Interim Specifications 1994 SAP2000, Integrated Finite Element Analysis and Design of Struetures, Computers and Struetures Incorporation - Berkeley, California, USA SAP90, Computer Software for Structural and Earthquake Engineering, Computers and Struetures Incorporation - Berkeley, California, USA
Foundations of the Jamuna Bridg
Joe M
BARR
MSc, DIC, CEng, MICE, MASCE
Technical Director Head of Concrete Bridge Engineering,
ML
High-Poinl Rendel
London, UK
ak
Abdul FAROOQ
B.Sc(Eng), CEng, MICE, ACIArb
Technical Director Head of Project and Technical Audit High-Point Rendel London, UK
248
FOUNDATIONS OF THE JAMUNA BRIDGE
- DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
\.
SUMMARY
This paper briefly outiines the background to the achievement of building a 5km bridge, major river training works and 25km of approach roads to provide the first fixed crossing of the Jamuna River in Bangladesh. A more comprehensive description ofthe total project can be found in [1]. It then goes on to focus on the design and construction of the foundations. Offshore piling technology was adapted to meet the challenge of constructing piers which could be Standing in more than 50m of flowing water. Apart from having to withstand high current forces, they also had to be able to resist boat or brge impact, strong earthquake effects, including 15m of liquefaction ofthe weak bed material.
Foundations ofthe Jamuna Bridge
- Design
and
Construction
Background
to the
Project
Until recently the Jamuna River split Bangladesh in two, separating the agricultural western part of the comitry from the commercial, industrial and political power bases ofthe eastern zone; isolating the western zone from potential markets and thereby imposing a developmental stranglehold. However, on 23 June 1998 the first fixed crossing of this mighty river within Bangladesh was opened to road and rail traffic by the Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina, and named the Bangabandhu Bridge in honour of her late father, the founding leader of Bangladesh.
In the flat terrain of Bangladesh the Jamuna's braided Channels constantly shift, Splitting then reuniting around large sand islands. These sand islands may remain stationary for many years, and become home to many people; then in one flood season they can disappear or move downstream. Below the water, on the bed ofthe river, sand waves move gradually downstream towards the Bay of Bengal, like desert sand dunes in the wind. Operating ferries on such a capricious river has been difficult, expensive and at times perilous.
Rendel Palmer and Tritton (now High-Point Rendel), together with Nedeco and Bangladesh Consultants Ltd, were initially appointed by the World Bank to carry out studies covering: selection of the preferred crossing site; forecasts of traffic and power demand; alternative forms and configurations of bridges; costs of bridges with and without rail and power, stand-alone power interconnectors, and base case improved ferry Services; and through incremental cost/benefit analyses the determination of the best multi-purpose crossing at the Optimum location. Additional studies included institutional, environmental impact, resettlement and the planning of townships on flood-free areas created at the ends ofthe bridge.
The new bridge was required to be 18.5m wide and had to carry a 4-lane roadway, a metre gauge railway, a 230kV electrical power transmission line and a 760mm diameter gas pipeline. It was to bq protected from outflanking by major river training works which guide the river under the bridge.
The site chosen for the crossing is some 9 kilometres south ofthe western bank town of Sirajganj. Here the river is 14km wide in flood, but at low water it can shrink to less than 5km, with changes in river level of 8m. Close to the guide bunds the design scour depth was 47m, and with local scour this increases to moree than 50m.
contract documents showed due respect to the power and mobility of the river by requiring an unusually flexible approach by would-be contractors. When the contract was signed in May 1994, neither the precise location nor length ofthe bridge was known with certainty. The position ofthe eastern end was fixed in October 1994, and ofthe western end in October 1995.
The
JOE M. BARR, ABDUL FAROOQ, STEVE GUEST
249
Due to the variety in contractors' equipment and experience, it was decided to give tenderers the Option of
bidding
on eithei a design-and-build or a conventional form of contract. Designs for both prestressed concrete and steel/concrete composite decks were prepred, each based on spans of 100m which were found to be reasonably optimal. Additionally, a detailed design specification was included in the tender documents to enable contractors to develop alternative designs.x
x
Tenders were invited in 1993 and the successful tenderer for the main bridge and approach viaducts wa Hyundai Engineering & Construction Joint Venture with a bid of US$247million for a prestressed concret scheme designed by T Y Lin International. The winning tender for the river training works wa US$276million, and the combined approach roads tender was US$56million. A typical bridge module i shown in Figure 1.
jointly financed by the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, the Japanese OECF and Government of Bangladesh. The governmenfs contribution came from a fund built up by a special Jamuna Bridge tax levied over nine years prior to start of construction on items such as telephone bills; rail tickets and bank accounts.
The project was
the
The Foundation Challenge

The bed of the Jamuna comprises silty micaceous sands extending to depths of several .presence of mica reduces the stiffness and capacity of laterally loaded foundations.
kilometres. The
The traditional foundation used throughout the sub-continent has been the open-well caisson. This technique was extended to new limits by Rendel Palmer and Tritton (now High-Point Rendel) between 1979 and 1982 for the first electrical interconnector crossing of the Jamuna River, near Aricha some 60km to the south ofthe new bridge crossing site.
While this structural form can readily be made strong enough, the loose micaceous soils near the surface allow whole body rotation of the caisson so that it is relatively flexible under horizontal loading. Also, the large diameter causes deep local scour, which adds to the penetration required to ensure stability. For example, the caissons for the first electrical interconnector referred to above were more than 12m in diameter, and allowance for local scour below regime scour was some 24m. These caissons were sunk with the help of a bentonite annulus to more than 100m into the bed of the river; but even then under maximum scour a lateral displacement of 1.2m was estimated as the maximum at the top of the caisson. Fortunately, power lines are relatively insensitive to lateral displacements. Early in the bridge study analyses were carried out on single and multiple groups of vertical founding elements and in every case predicted deflections were found to be excessive.
addition to the inadequate lateral stiffness, two other concerns confirmed the study team in the opinion that caissons would not provide suitable foundations for the Jamuna Bridge. Firstly, there were doubts surrounding the feasibiiity of constructing a scheme with caisson foundations within the timescale required, even if all work progressed without incident. Secondly, there was the question of the risk associated with their installation. Of the 11 caissons for the first electrical interconnector there were serious problems with two of them.
In
Foundation Design
Design
is
inextricably linked with
the
construction method for major bridges, and never more
so
than in the case ofthe Jamuna Bridge. Having questioned the viability of caissons a new approach was required. In the 10 years or so prior to our Jamuna work there had been dramatic developments
in
over-water piling capability in response
to the oil
industry's need
to
install offshore platforms in
250
FOUNDATIONS OFTHE JAMUNA BRIDGE
- DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
deeper and deeper water. The large floating plant and piling hammers have proved their reliability driving large diameter steel piles in both fiercely hostile ocean* environments and in the calmer environment of rivers or estuaries. When the project was being planned the offshore construction industry was somewhat depressed, and it seemed that there was an opportunity to take advantage of this foundation installation technique which was both reliable and fast.
So it was that we turned to large diameter raking steel piles. By resisting horizontal loading through axial load, a raking pile system is stiffer than caissons or vertical piles. Resistance is provided by skin friction and end bearing at depth, in soil which is strengthened simply by the weight of surcharge. To give some idea ofthe difference in lateral stiffness, a 100m deep caisson of 7.5m diameter was found to be more than six times as flexible as a raking pile foundation with pile toe levels some 20m higher than the caisson founding level.
Hence a raking pile foundation was found to be a more efficient structural system, and has the added virtue of being more transparent to the river flow. However, given the 50m design height from bed and a river flowing at more than 4m/sec, vibrations induced by vortex shedding in the stream flow could cause potentially disastrous oscillations in the piled structure or in individual piles. Calculations indicated that the piles would need to be at least 2.5m in diameter to avoid this
problem.
High-Point Rendel prepred alternative reference designs with both encourage competition, but both schemes were supported on raking precast concrete cylinder piles were considered hon-competitive due to Groups of 2 and 4No 2.5m diameter piles of maximum wall thickness
steel and concrete decks to steel cylinder piles. Raking the difficulty of installation.
50mm worked well with our steel/concrete composite superstructure, and groups of 4No 2.5m diameter of similar wall thickness were used for the concrete scheme. Hyundai's concrete scheme was supported on groups of 3No 2.5m diameter and 2No 3.15m diameter piles, with wall thicknesses that varied between 40mm and 60mm. The arrangement of these piers is shown in Figure 2.
Geotechnical Investigations
Pre-Contract Investigations
The site lies in the Bengal geosyncline which is continually subsiding, leading to the deposition of Sediments brought down from the upper reaches. At Sirajganj the depth to basement rock is as much as 6km.
Soil investigations undertaken between 1986 and 1988 during Phases I and II ofthe Feasibiiity Studies approximately km from the final alignment showed recent alluvial silty sands, loose at the surface becoming medium dense with gravelly layers below a depth of about 50m extending to about 100m where hard silty clay overlies a dense mica silt.
1
The investigations by the Japanese International Cooperation Agency in the 1970's a few kilometres to the south ofthe 1986 and 1987 tests undertaken during our study indicated a similar sequence but with gravel encountered at about 80m overlying Pleistocene sands and gravels.
For foundation engineering design the soil characteristics of importance were the density, the angle of shearing resistance and compressibility. Given the nature of the soil it was decided that these could best be determined by means of established relationships with the results of static cone penetration tests.
251
The data obtained from the CPT tests were correlated by visual examination with soil samples obtained from boreholes, and with the results of laboratory Classification. Values of cone resistance and sleeve friction did not vary widely from one location to another across the river. This made it possible to establish what were believed to be representative relationships for the whole crossing between average and lower bound cone resistance with depth below bank or mid-river char level.
influence on soil properties of deep scour and subsequent of the soil under earthquake shaking. The unloading behaviour redeposition, likely effects due to scour were analysed by relating the observed qc/depth records to the reduetion in horizontal stress caused by scour. Through granulr interlock the soil mass retains some proportion of the horizontal stresses from previous loadings. A theoretical relationship was established to determine this remaining horizontal stress as a function of the degree of unloading. Curves were thus established to provide an adjustment factor to be applied for various bed levels, enabling the design cone resistance vs depth relationship to be calculated. An overwater CPT test was carried out in the deepest nearby Channel for comparison with predicted values from this scour unloading
It
was
necessary
to
predict
the
and also the
theory.
The
deposits were found to be considerably more compressible than typical Consolidated quartz sands, partly perhaps as a result of their significant mica content.
sandy
normally
Investigations during Construction

comprehensive soil investigation (including piezocone, seismic cone, cone pressuremeter, boreholes and Standard penetration tests) was carried out as part of the main contract prior to construction, and instrumented reduced scale pile tests on three 760mm diameter steel piles were performed to determine the actual skin friction. Whereas the driving resistance was as antieipated, the results of these reduced scale tests indicated that previous assumptions regarding skin friction were over-optimistic. However, a pull-out test carried out 9 months later on the same reduced scale pile showed that shaft friction had increased by a factor of 2.7. Cone penetration tests at each pier location confirmed the ground conditions assumed in design, and dynamic pile testing at selected
A
piers (see below) verified the pile capacity predicted by geotechnical theory.
resistance constituted the major component of resistance of pile capacity for deep scour conditions, with or without earthquake liquefaction. The overall pile length required little adjustment because the presence of a sandy gravel Iayer at around -70mPWD compensated for the apparently low skin friction.
Base
Site-Specific Seismicity Study

of significant seismic activity. Reports of an earthquake in 1885 suggested a magnitude of about with its epicentre approximately 50km from the site. It is probable that this event emanated from the Bogra fault system which lies some 25-50km to the NW. The site is also subjeet to more moderate shaking from more distant seismic zones in the foothills ofthe Himalayas, to the N and NE. However, the most important effects stem from the near-field events in the Bogra fault system.
The site
is
within
an area
7
site specific seismology study was carried out which recommended a design stiff soil peak acceleration of 25%g corresponding to l-in-100year ground motions generated at a source distance of 25km by a magnitude 7 earthquake. Shear wave velocity tests at site using a seismic cone indicated a depth to "engineering stiff soil" of between 300 and 500m. The stiff soil peak acceleration was translated to a peak acceleration close to the surface of 20%g. Imperial College
252
FOUNDATIONS OF THE JAMUNA BRIDGE
- DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
supplied six representative earthquake records from their strong motion data bank, and these were used as input for the detailed soil/pile/structure interaction analysis.
Correlation ofthe field and laboratory tests with published information indicated that the soils were potentially liquefiable to a depth of 15m below river bed level under earthquake shaking. Computer analyscs using representative time histories on a model simulating pore pressure generation and dissipation confirmed 15m of liquefaction was a suitable design value. The relationship between pore pressure and depth below the liquefied zone was also established, and the soil resistance in this transitional zone was adjusted accordingly in the earthquake load case.
Damage to the foundations as a result of a severe earthquake would be difficult to repair. Limited local seismic data, an infmitely variable bed profile. and liquefiable soil reduced the reliability of response prediction. Also, it was difficult to generate consistent ductility in the pier stems, which varied from more than 12m high at the middle ofthe bridge to less than 3m high at the ends, to safeguard the foundations from excessive load in an extreme seismic event. Protection was therefore provided by elasto-plastic load limiting devices between the deck and piers at bearing level.
Foundation Construction
The bridge site lies some 300km upriver from the Bay of Bengal. At the site, before constriction of the ri\er by the training bunds, at low water only about half the 4.8km bridge length was over water and the rest was over flood piain and sand islands. To work with floating plant a contractor would have to dredge and maintain a Channel along the line ofthe bridge to provide the 4.5 to 5m draught
needed for the piling brge. The High-Point Rendel construction planning study in 1988 indicated that the piles for the whole bridge could be installed within a single season. and the piling brge could get to and from the site without extensive dredging during the flood season. This was important because to have the expensive brge and hammer sitting idle during the monsoon season, or unable to demobilise from site would incur high additional costs.
The contractor fabricated the piles at Ulsan in South Korea from plate purchased mainly from Japan. First, 4m "cans" were rolled and seam welded, then these were welded together to make up the lengths for shipment and installation. The majority of the piles were to be installed in two lengths, wilh the top section being fully butt welded after driving the first. The longer piles near the guide bunds were installed in three sections. The HD-1000 pile driving brge with the new Menck MHU site in September 1995. Its first task was to drive two fll size eastern end of the bridge. These piles were to demonstrate driving, welding, clean out to within 3 diameters of the toe,
base of concrete.
1700T hydraulic hammer arrived on (3.15m diameter) trial piles near the the installation methods, including
concreting, and pressure grouting
at
On 15th October 1995 the position ofthe west guide bund and, therefore, the west end ofthe bridge was determined. This allowed the bridge alignment and the location of each ofthe piers to be fixed. The sequence of pier construction was (see Figure 3):
r
r-
Position piling template (or "jig jacket") on river bed and fix with temporary piles; Lift first pile length into jig and lower to soil; Drive first pile length, and cut off top section of pile with lifting holes and possible hammer damage;
JOE
BARR, ABDUL FAROOQ, STEVE GUEST
253
[Cutting was done by a camage-mounted acetylene/ox>gen flame torch guided by a strap fixed around the pile circumference The torch was angled to produce a bevel of 15 and the cut surface bevel was ground smooth ready to receive the next length of pile which had been prepred to a 30 Shims welded to the face ofthe lower pile ensured constant root gap along the weld] Pitch upper pile section and butt weld the two lengths using a manual submerged are process,
dnve
to required toe level, and cut off top section (see Figure 4), [The weld and adjoining pile wall was ultrasonicall> tested During the driving process, a proportion of piles were monitored by dynamic pile testing, and analysed using the CAPWAP method]
r
y
Drive other piles in pier, Clean out piles down to two diameters above toe level using an airhft (see Figure 5), [Air under pressure was pumped down to provide the cutting and liftmg action* A head of water between 0 and 5m above nver level was maintained with submersible pumps] Install grout pipe cages and pour infill tremie concrete in pier piles (see Figures 6 and 7), [The grouting system compnsed tubes-a-manchettes The piles were filled with concrete to provide rehable end beanng and ductility When the pile infill concrete had begun to set, but before it had hardened, water was pumped under pressure to crack the concrete surrounding the manchettes The piles were subsequently grouted to pressures of 60 and 50 bars for the 2 5m diameter and 3 15 m respectively The pressures were selected to restore the stress in the disturbed soil at the pile toe level, without nsking pile uphft during grouting] Pressure grout at base of concrete infill, [When the concrete had hardened sufficiently, grout was pumped to the soil/concrete interface under 40 bar pressure The purpose of base grouting was to remstate the stiffness ofthe soil loosened by pile clean-out CPTs through the concrete plug ofthe tnal piles showed that only about 0 7m depth was loosened Below that, the soil plug remained denser than the undisturbed soil Base grouting was an insurance pohev against gross loosening It was seen as a way to keep absolute and differential Settlements to a consistent minimum Measured Settlements to date have been roughly in aecord with predictions] Install precast concrete pilecap shell, [The precast concrete shells weighing up to 300 tonnes vvere loaded out and hfted into position using The shell was temporanly supported from the piles whilst the concrete plug a brge mounted crane shell was then de-watered, reinforcement was fixed and the structural The under cast water was shows a typical pile cap shell being lowered over the piles] concrete cap was poured Photograph Cast variable height pier stems to bearing level
Conclusion
Innovative application of offshore piling technology made possible this crossing 300km upnver from the Bay of Bengal The two full-size tnal piles and all the 121 permanent works piles were successfully driven between October 1995 and June 1996, and the brge was sailed back down nver with two months to spare before shallow water would have stranded it until the following flood
season
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Dr A K Abdul Mubin, of the Jamuna Bridge Division of the Bangladesh Ministry of Communications for his kind permission to pubhsh this paper Thanks are also due to Hyundai Engineering and Construction JV for making photographs available, and last
but not least to Mr Michael
Tomlmson who was
an
mspirational member ofthe team
Reference
1
Jappin R G R, van Duivendijk J, Haque M, Jhe Design and Construction of lamuna Bridge, Bangladesh Proceedings ofthe Institution of Civil Engineers, November 1998
254
- DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
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High-Point
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255
In-situ concrete
Max.
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+15m
pier system
Min,
water
level
+6m
Precast concrete in-situ filled pile cap
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piles
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Q_
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-32m
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toe
level
72m
Figure
Bridge Section showing Piled Foundations
High-Point
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capital management
vt/j/i/iwji/f
256
- DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
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3b)
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SECTION
DRIVING
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Pile
Installation Sequence
High-Point
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257
4a)
UPPER
ABOVE
SECTION
LOWER
POSITIONED
4b)
UPPER
INTO
SECTION
LOWERED
SECTION
LOWER
SECTION
4c)
WELDING
Figure
Positioning and Welding Pile Splices
High-Point
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High-Point Rendel
capital management
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258
- DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
^
AIR
*IR
Atv0
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(8.7
BAR)
WATER
r
RIVER
LEVEL
RIVER
LEVEL
SUBMERSIBLE PUMPS
RIVER
BED
RIVER
BED
^x
v
FLOW
^V,
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'N'X\'^
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Figure
Removing Soil from Pile Using
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capital management
JOE
259
LIFTING
CABLE'
100mm
DIA
PUMP
LINE
400mm
DIA
TREMIE
PIPE
rm
WORKING
PLATFORM
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SKID
RIVER
WATER
LEVEL
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FLANCE
JOINT
RIVER
BED
^~7
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SKID
TREMIE
PIPE
START
LEVEL
EXCAVATED
SOIL
PROFILE
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Tremie Pipe Setting and Use
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FOUNDATIONS OF THE JAMUNA BRI
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261
CUT-OFF
LEVEL
u.a.
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PIPE FEEDER
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Pressure Grouting using Tube-a-Manchette Technique
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//////////////////
265
Design and Construction of Foundations for Akashi Kaikyo Bridge
Satoshi
KASHIMA
Makoto KITAGAWA
Dir. Design Dept.
Executive Director
Honshu-Shikoku Bridge Authority

Kobe, Japan

Kobe, Japan
Born 1944, received his M.S.C.E.

degree from Tokyo Metropolitan
Born 1946, received his M.S.C.E.

degree from Tokyo University in 1972
and from
University
in 1968 and Ph.D. in 1973.
from
California University
in 1981
University of Texas
Toshimi MORITANI Mgr. Third Design Div.

Kobe, Japan
Kazuhiko YAMADA
Deputy Mgr. Third Design Div.
Honshu-Shikoku Bridge Authority.

Kobe, Japan
Born 1950, received his Civil Eng.

degree from Gifu University in 1973.
Born 1959, received his MS.
C E
degree from Kobe University in 1984
ABSTRUCT
The Akashi
Kaikyo Bridge, the longest Suspension bridge as ever, is just completed in 1998 as part ofthe Honshu-Shikoku Bridge project. This bridge has a main span length of 1991m and a total
m, and crosses
length of 3991
over the Akashi Strait which is 4km in width and 110m in maximum
is as
depth on the bridging route. The maximum tidal current in the strait
high
as
4m/sec.
This paper describes outline of Honshu-Shikoku Bridge Project and some technical features of
Akashi Kaikyo Bridge's foundation

-
as
follows.
a
All foundations were designed against severe earthquake with

design method.
newly established seismic
Big and deep foundations for the anchorages were constructed with various new technologies.
The main piers were constructed
the
as
spread foundations by
Laying-down caisson method under
condition of deep
sea and rapid
tidal current.
Newly developed low heat type cement and concrete of various mixtures were used.
266
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF FOUNDATIONS FOR AKASHI KAIKYO BRIDGE
/r
INTRODUCTION
The purpose ofthe ongoing Honshu-Shikoku Bridge (HSB) Project is to link the island of Honshu and Shikoku via three routes, and thereby promote balanced regional development in Japan The Honshu-
Shikoku Bridge Authority was then founded

Fig
-1
in 1970 based on
law
as an
execution body ofthe project
shows
concept and bridges ofthe project
The Kobe-Naruto Route, the eastern route ofthe HSB Links, provides an 89 km, 6-lane (partially 4-lane) highway with a design speed of lOOkm/hr, and is just completed in 1998 This route contains two long
Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge and the Ohnaruto Bridge The Kojima-Sakaide Route, the central route ofthe HSB Links, features a 37km, 4-lane highway with design speed of OOkm/hr and a 2-track railway for ordinary trains This route was opened to traffic in
span Suspension bridges
the
1988
9
as the
first direct link between Honshu and Shikoku

as the
It contains six long span bridges over the
4km strait, which are collectively known
Seto-Ohashi Bridges
The Onomichi-Imabari Route, which includes ten long span bridges linking nine relatively large islands, is a 60km Construction work on this route will be completed in the spring of 1999 The foundations for Honshu-Shikoku Bridges are mainly located on the shore and the rest in underwater
and generally bedded on granite or Izumi Formation Iayer, which is hard and old rock before the
Oligocene or Cretaceous
k^Jh^L
e
Akash.KakvoBr
Kobe-Naruto Route
Naruio
***
Okayama
Uno
|
Awajishima Island
/^
<jf^
Jakamatsu
Minami Bisan Seto Bf
\
KOJIITia-Sakaide RoUte
Seto
j|Seto-Qhasrii Bridge)
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Hitsuishijima
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Iwakurojima
Br
Kita Bisan Seto Bf
I
\sakaide \sakaidellL.
-^
#K#-4ft
Bisan Straits
^
Qul
Onomichi
Onomichi-imaban Route
Innoshima
B
Onomich
Ohrrish
Hokatajima island
o
3
Hakata Ohshima
>^
Seto Inland Sea
Kurushima
m^
Matsuyama
*C
Ist
Kjrushima Straits
Fig. -1
Bird
's
Eye View of Honshu-Shikoku Bndges
AKASHI KAIKYO BRIDGE

is a
2XX>utline ofthe bridge

The Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, crossing over 4km wide A cashi Strait,
strengthened steel truss
Suspension structure with
spans and
hinges
at 2
ma-n piers
A total length
ofthe bridge
is 391
Im and
S.
KASHIMA,
M.
KITAGAWA.T MORITANI, K.YAMADA
267
length between the
main piers
is
is
1991m and fraction

2
in each
length
is
due to the
2
Hyogo-ken Nanbu
Earthquake
The bridge
as
supported by
anchorages (1A and 4A) and
piers (2P and 3P) on direct
foundations,
As the
shown in Fig-2
it
The foundations of Honshu-Shikoku Bridge are generally bedded on hard rock Iayer mentioned above
foundations of Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge except forthat of 4A, however, the granite bed is so deep, was impractical to form on granite bed, eventually had to construct on relatively soft and young rock
3911 1m
960m
1990 8m
960.3m
P
1A
2P
3P
4A
84.5
\/7\/
Dilovium
Akashi Stratum Kobe Stratum
-73
0
Top slab concrete

2.5
M/_
--10.5
Foundation
Underwater concrete
60^
61
0
/
Akashi Stratum
080
085
Slurry trench wall
Inner concrete (RCC)
Fig. -2
Design condition
1
Profile of Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge
2 2 2 2
The Akashi Strait

a
The Akashi Strait is designed as

ships pass daily
statutory waterway with width of 1500m where approximately 1400
The maximum water depth in the central part ofthe strait reaches approximately 110m
The maximum current speed is approximately
3
5m/sec at 2P and 4m/sec
at 3P
is
An Observation near the
site showed that mean wave height is 51 4cm and the

a
maximum wave height
approximately 6m during
typhoon
Tidal level change
is
observed to be approximately Im
2 2 2
Geological condition The seabed consists of recent and upper Pleistocene deposits, Akashi Formation ofthe Pleistocene to Pliocene, Kobe Formation ofthe Miocene and granite as shown in Fig-3 The Akashi Formation is composed of semi-cemented gravel and sand, and contains a lot of decayed gravel The Kobe Formation
is
made of weakly cemented soft rock with complicated alteration of thin sandstone and mud-stone layers
2P is put on the
Namely, 1A and 3P are founded on the Kobe Formation, and

other hand, 4A
is
Akashi Formation
On the
designed to
be rested on
weathered granite
268
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF FOUNDATIONS FOR AKASHI KAIKYO BRIDGE
DESIGN OF FOUNDATIONS FOR AKASHI KAIKYO BRIDGE

Soil investigation
31
In order to obtain the engineering properties ofthe subsoil for the foundation design, geotechnical
investigations were carried out in several phases They included geophysical survey, exploratory drilling, laboratory soil and rock tests, seismic activity investigation, etc Immediately before the construction
started,
a
detailed investigation was carried out to fmalize the foundation design
The detailed investigation had the following features
Large-size seif elevated platforms (SEP) were used to conduet exploratory drilling in deep water with
rapid current
Undisturbed samples were collected continuously from various types of rock including 300mm diameter continuous sampling from semi-cemented gravelly sand Iayer of Akashi Formation Engineering properties of rocks were determined using various types of in-situ tests such as
geophysical logging, pressure-meter tests and permeabity tests
Maiko
TP +50m
2P
3P
4A
Matsuho
+50m
0m
50m
0m
W^
*\4:
50m
100m
Îfî^l
-100m
200m
-200m
Alluvium
Upper diluvium
Akashi Iayer
&
Kobe Iayer
Granite
Fig- 3
3,2
Geological Section ofthe Akashi Strait
Seismic Design
Conventional seismic design Standard for Honshu-Shikoku Bridges is mainly applicable to the foundations supported with hard and old rock layers However, Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge in which huge
constructed upon softer and younger layers, a new seismic design Standard had to be formed, because non-linearity ofthe bearing iayer as well as dynamic interaction between the ground
foundations was
to be
and foundation were judged to be not negligible
The coneepts ofthe new seismic design Standard for the Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge's foundations are
as
follows
obtained through the response spectrum method with corresponding 2-degree of freedom system, which modeis both rigid foundation and ground Springs to express the oscillation in rocking mode as well as swaying mode
The response ofthe foundations
is to be
The modes should be established with consideration of dynamic interaction between the foundation
and the ground (see Fig -4)
In order to evaluate the dynamic interaction, local ground
condition around the foundations should
be
prectsely taken into account
S.
KASHIMA,
M.
KITAGAWA,
T.
MORITANI, K.YAMADA
269
MJg
K,.
Ki
1
H^>
\/////////777
K,
Dynamic stiffness
Effective seismic motion
Fig-4
4
Dynamic response analysis model
CONSTRUCTION
OF
FOUNDATIONS FOR AKASHI KAIKYO BRIDGE
4.1
Deep-water Underground slurry wall The bedrock which could serve as the supporting ground for the 1A anchorage is approximately 60m below sea level. After repeated consideration, a method that may be called "deep-water Underground slurry wall method" was employed. In this method, retaining walls arranged in circular form were
installed first, and the soil inside these retaining walls was excavated in the open-air while the ground water inside was pumped out. A continuous Underground wall with 92 sections ofthe same length was
constructed using an excavator for continuous wall construction that was one ofthe largest in Japan.
Using this
started
at
retaining wall, the 84m diameter inside ground was excavated. The excavation work was 2.5m above sea level and reached about 61m below, taking about 11 months in total to
as a
complete, during which approximately 330,000m3 of soil was excavated. After the excavation, RCC (Roller Compacted Concrete) was applied to make a foundation Consolidated with the retaining wall.
4.2
Laying-down caisson method Construction method for the foundation ofthe two main piers (2P and 3P) has been named "Layingdown caisson method" and used in many bridges in the Honshu-Shikoku Bridges including Seto-Ohashi
Although it is called "caisson", a foundation constructed by this method is not, in fact, a caisson rigid foundation which has an effective embedment), but a spread foundation rested on the pre-
Bridges.
(a
excavated bearing Iayer without any embedment. The main characteristics of this method are as follows.
Excavation up to the sufficient bearing Iayer and the building a caisson (a steel form for underwater concrete) are split into separate procedure As a result of this Separation, the method of excavation and machinery for it are not restricted from
the inner size
ofthe caisson. It
is
thus possible to shorten

is
time for excavation

as
After completion ofthe excavation, the caisson
towed to the site
shown in Photo-1, sunk with
high accuracy to the position specified in the design, whereupon underwater concrete is cast into the bulk ofthe foundation as rapidly as possible, and ordinary reinforced concrete is applied to the top
part so as to complete the entire main
pier
270
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF FOUNDATIO
\
i
;::
Photo-1
4.3
Laying-down Caisson Metho
Concrete material
4.3.1
Low-heat cement
The cement previously used for mass concrete in the Ho
furnace slag cement or low heat type blast furnace slag c
However, occurrence of thermal cracking could not

concrete was measured to be about 45C
It was thus
be
because the concrete was rather rieh mix with 280kgf/m3
decided to develop
low heat cement for the
Innovative Structural Solutions and Constru Large Bridges
Anatoly LIKVERMAN
Civil Engineer
Giprotransmost J.S.Cc
Moscow, Russia
ffi
Anatoly Likverman got his civil engineering degree in 1956 at Automobile and Road Technical University of Moscow. He has more than 42 years professional experience in design of large bridge crossings. Ana toly Likverman is now with a Consulting firm and is involved in design and construction supervision of large bridge crossings.
M e
is
272
INNOVATIVE STRUCTURAL SOLUTIONS AND CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
#%
1.
INTRODUCTION
The design and construction of large bridge crossings over the rivers and reservoirs in the basin of the Volga river have their own specifies. Specific geological and hydrological conditions are characterized by low air tem perature, reaching minus 35C; intensive action of ice drift, having a thickness of up to 1 m; water depths of up to 30 m; a significant variability in water levels, a river bottom composed of sands susceptible to scours, and underlying by clays of low bearing capacity. By experience the construction of piers in such complicated condi tions takes about 70% of labor intensity and time compared to that of the whole bridge and typically 60% of overall bridge cost. To improve this Situation a new structural Solution and construction techniques have been
developed.
2. 2.1
NEW STRUCTURAL SOLUTION AND CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
Structural Solution details
This resulted
Compared to the traditional Single pilework Option, a new structural Solution comprises two separate pilecaps. in a reduetion of ice effect on foundation. Raising a base of pile cap above working water level and of ice adoption protective shell allowed to avoid construction of sheet piling and subaqueous concreting.
i
HWL
At the same time the pile cap is located within the water level of possible ice floating and therefore the
IDL
IFPL
rhombus, streamlined shape is given to the cap. The protective shell repeats a form of pile cap. The purpose of this structural detail is to eliminate some concrete volume (to reduce the pier weight) and to Protect against floating of ice. Special structural ar rangements in the foundation with Shell do not allow formation of ice inside of it. Positive temperatures inside the shell are maintained for a long period of time. Therefore a number of freezing/thawing cycles for concrete of piles is reduced. Another additional purpose of this cover is for aesthetic appearance of pier at low water levels.
ice
Typical pier foundations comprise reinforced concrete bored piles of 1.5m in dia penetrated to a depth of up to 50 m protected by a steel casing of 2.0 m in dia within the probable depth of scour, and 1.7 m in dia at a lower part between the scour level and the level of bearing Stratum. To increase the bearing capacity and reduce a number of piles in foundation, the enlarged up to 3.5 m pile base is normally adopted. In the recent bridge projects, where bridges were de signed with spans of up to 160 m, normally four bored piles of large diameter (2m dia typical) were adopted for each pilework. A general arrangement of pier foundation adopted for the bridge over the Volga river near Saratov is shown in Fig. 1. To reduce a magnitude of pier top displacement due to the ice loads, a General arrangement of foundation: pile Fig. ice protective shell; 3 strut between pilecaps have been designed. This steel encasement; 4 cap, 2 5 IDL element provides for load distribution between upbored pile; high water level; strut; HWL ice first push level (min) stream and downstream pilecaps. ice drift level; IFPL Another design aspect is that steel pipes (casings) is designed as contributing to the resistance of bored piles. Thus bored piles act as a combined section. This approach increased design characteristics of piles and al lowed to reduce a quantity of reinforcement within the casing length, and provided an improved quality for con crete laying.
&kd&
cjô
e
CD
r
1
2.2 Construction techniques
Construction
of deep foundations is based on the use of floating piatforms PMK and techniques of installation of bored piles with casings and enlarged to a 3.5m base. The floating piatforms are formed of pontoons and have a
ANATOLY LIKVERMAN,
stiff bearing on river or reservoir bottom by means of lowere forms (Fig. 2). Placement of bored piles is condueted from ered to a river bottom and driven in soil using a vibrator to steel casings (typically of 2.02 m in diameter) is implemente the platform. To construet bored piles with enlarged bases over the platform.
:.
%*
Fig.
Typical floating platform
274
INNOVATIVE STRUCTURAL SOLUTIONS AN
To lower the ice
protective Shell, typically having a mass have been adopted. This builder's lift consists of bearing the column of floating platform (Fig. 4). Columns are emb When the shell is lowered to a final elevation by means o
Vi
'
ANATOLY LIKVERMAN, VADIM SELIVERSTOV
275
values of concrete strength at one of the bored piles near Volgograd, is given in Fig. 7.
at pier # 18 for the
bridge crossing over the Volga river
Fig.
Graph showing dimensions and shape of borehole enlargement
Distance from top

to point of meas
at base
urement,
29
Device readings adjusted of 1.29 m to base

of 1.0 m
Standard strength B 30
(240
0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5
328 326 315 312 324 325 325 320 342 336 318
7
254 253 244 242

251
11.5 12.5 13.5 14.5
252 252 248 265 260 247
25.5 26.5 27.5

Fig. 6 Scheme of Channels for determination of bored pile, concrete strength in bored pile: 2 Channels (coreholes exaggerated)
1
Fig.
Table-graph resulted from ultrasonic control of bored
pile
6.
CONCLUSION
The abovediscussed innovative structural Solutions and construction techniques have been implemented for a number of bridge foundations and proved their efficiency in practice. Bridge projects currently under construc tion are as follows. The bndge over the Volga near Saratov has a length of about 2.2 km (main span of 157.5 m) and allows traffic of two lanes in each direction. The bridge over the Volga river in Volgograd has a length of about 1.2 km (main span of 155 m) and allows traffic of three lanes in each direction. The bridge over the Kama
276
INNOVATIVE STRUCTURAL SOLUTIONS AND
river is of about 1.6 km direction.
in
length, having
main span of 15
Thirty pier foundations for the bridge over the Volga river n ration of piers constructed for this bridge is shown in Fig. 8 over the Volga river near Volgograd and over the Kama riv
Special Method of Well Sinking Ad

on
National Highwa
K.K.Kapila
Managing Director, Intercontinental Consultants and Technocrats Pvt. Ltd. (ICT) New Delhi, India
S.P. Rastogi
General Manager (Bridges), Consultants and
278
SPECIAL METHOD OF WELL SINKING ADOPTED AT NEW NIZAMUDDIN BRIDGE
1.
INTRODUCTION
The New Nizamuddin bridge along with its short links on National Highway-24 over river Yamuna in New Delhi, the capital of India has been constructed under Japan Grant Aid scheme of the Government of Japan through Japan International Co-operation Agency (JICA). Detailed engineering of the project was carried out by M/s Nippon Koei Co., Ltd in association with Katahira Engineering International, Japan. They were also the supervision Consultants of the project, Employer of the Project was Ministry of Surface Transport, Government of India. The work was supervised by Public Works Department, Government of Delhi on behalf of Ministry of Surface Transport. M/s ICT (Pvt.) Ltd. were the domestic supervision Consultants with M/s Nippon Koei. The Project was executed by M/s Obayashi Corporation of Japan with M/s Engineering Construction Company (ECC) of M/s Larson & Tubro Group as their sub-contractors.
The bridge is 551.20 m long with 13 spans of 42.4 m (average) each c/c of bearings with short link approaches of 359.8 m on Delhi side and 419.2 m on Noida side. The width of the bridge is 22.6 m (end to end) consisting of 4 lane carriageway of 15 m with 3 m wide cycle track on either side. The superstructure is prestressed concrete precast multiple I girders (10 Nos per span) with RCC deck, having one unit of 169.52m of 4 spans with connection girder, one unit of 126.88 m and two units of 127.4 m of 3 spans each with connection girder. There are 12 Nos of wall type piers, 7.4 m to 8.3 m in height supported on RCC caissons. The abutments are 8 m diameter and m high RCC wall type. The abutment foundations rest on cast-in place RC piles (18 numbers, 24 m deep). A general profiie, and details of the proposed bridge (typical cross section) are shown in Fig. 1. The work was started in February 1996 and completed in Feb. 1998.
1
BRIDGE LENGTH 551.200

EJ^
169.520
(4
SPAN)
DELHISIDE
127.400 (3 SPAN)
^
i
126.880
b
(3
SPAN)
**m
127.400
(3
SPAN)
*j
h-s-H
NOIDA SIDE]
TTTSi.
EJ
FIX
a
- FIXEO
42640
EXPANSION JOINT SHOE
ABUTMENT FOUNDATION CAST IN PLACE PILES
-42120
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
P8
P9
P10
P11
P12
PIER FOUNDATION OPEN CAISSON
GENERAL PROFILE
3000
7500 7500
3000
-S*L-
-j&fl
000
^jua.
LO
j/Z
12600
l
_3
2.5%
n
4%
SfiQO
n
2500
H
EL1
\7H.F.L.R.L. 205.68M
S7
L.F.L. R.L.
202.40M
(VARIABLE)
R.L.*202.40M
1122
Ja
TYPICAL CROSS SECTION
1250
5800
J00
Fig.l DETAILS OF THE BRIDGE
r~4S
R.L..166.40M
S
1.111:
ZSSLiuJLSO 1250
l
6300
p,
4000
^
,3J550t,
jioo
K.K. KAPILA,
SOEL ST SIZE AND SHAPE OF CAISSON AND SUB
Oval shaped
ove double D type caisson foundations with IminTand a central d.aphagrm of m width in M-30 con beZfop of we aP Well curb is 3 m high with 75 mm pr CuLg edge prov.de of 59 22' 12".
1
STbSSS*
2.
shown in Fig.
Photo
shows cutting edge in position and
ANCHOR
:
RE
BAR
600@300
(T)
1
100
//
'/
// ' '
''
500
100
10
100
10mm
100
PLATE
J^
200
237
Details of cutting edge
280
SPECIAL METHOD OF WELL SINKING ADOPTED
AT NEW
NIZAMUDDIN BRIDGE
increase or decrease the area and extent of air jetting to suit the site requirements. In this method, PVC pipes were left on penphery of steining just touching the surface of formwork in first four lifts of steining after casting of curb. Rubber flaps were fixed on the pipes at 1 metre interval all along its length. After concreting and removal of formwork, 4 mm dia holes were made in PVC pipes and rubber flaps were fixed which were normally visible at the concrete surface. These holes act as nozzles during air- jetting whereas the rubber flaps protected the choking of these pipes. The pipes of each row were carried right up to the top in subsequent lifts of the steining.
When compressed, air is blown from compressors through these pipes, air penetrates in between the soil mass and the concrete surface and reduces the frictional resistance on the surface all along the periphery. Intensity and extent of air jetting can be controlled by operating one or more rows of pipes at a time or even on one side of the caisson. Normally, four horizontal rows in the lower portion of caisson are sufficient to loosen the soil around and above the curb portion which offers maximum soil resistance
during sinking.
Air jet method works very well in cohesive soils. Pressure of air at any stage of sinking is kept 50% more than the water pressure at the bottom of caisson. Maximum air pressure is normally kept within 7 kg/cm2. One or more compressors of 200 to 300 Cfm capacity are required for air jetting preferably with an air tank of 5 to 10 cu.m. capacity depending upon the site condition. Air tank should be capable to withstand a pressure of at least 8 kg/cm2. Air Jetting alone Was quite effective in early stages of sinking but was generally used in combination with jack-down method at deeper depths. It has been observed that by air jetting, frictional force on the outside surface of steining is reduced up to 20% of the antieipated load required for sinking the caisson. These pipes were later used for cement grouting of soil mass around the caisson after bottom plug to restore the soil friction around the caisson in the bottom portion below scour level.
3.1.2. Water jet method
The water jet method is used for cutting hard sdil from inside the caisson and to remove soil below and around the curb and cutting edge portion. During dredging Operation, the soil below and around the cutting edge and curb does not get removed specially in case of cohesive soils and hard strata. This soil is cut by high pressure water jet at a pressure of 100 to 150 kg/cm2. It makes cutting edge free and allows the caisson to sink. This method is very effective in clay or hard strata, either alone or in combination with air jetting and Jack-down method.
3.1.3. Jack-down method

The basic concept of Jack-down method is to push down the caisson into the ground by applying load from top of the steining through jacks which take reaction from soil anchors. Soil anchors are first made at the predetermined locations in the bed as per requirement along periphery of the wall and load is
applied by jacks through fabricated steel girders which are placed on top of steining. The load to be applied by jacks depends upon the size, shape and depth of caisson and the subsoil strata. The jacks are operated individually or collectively and load on each jack can also be varied to control the tilts of caisson during sinking. The soil anchors are basically friction piles and are designed to take reaction of jacks. However, friction is considered only in the length of anchors below final founding level of caisson. Soil friction arund caisson is reduced by air jetting and soil below cutting edge and curb is excavated by water jetting as and when required. System is very clean, fast and effective and sinks the caisson in true vertical position with controlled tilts, shifts and rotation. Arrangement of Jack-down method as adopted at site is shown in Fig. 3.
JACKS CONNECTED
HYDRAULIC JACK JOY 250

STEEL SUPPORT,
TO SOIL ANCHORS
FABRICATED STEEL BEAM (PRESSURIZING GIRDER)

50-ton CRAWLER CRANE LIFTING CAPACITY
THROUGH GRIPPER ROD ADJUSTMENTS COUPLER AND ANCHOR COUPLER
15100
Fig.
Arrangement of jack down method
K.K. KAPILA, S.P. RASTOGI
281
The pressure on caissons were applied by six jacks of 250 Tonnes capacity up to 1200 Tonnes. The pressurization mechanism is shown in Fig.4.
maximum load of
STEP
STEP
STEP
1
Gripper rod Upper gipper engaged to

lot
2
Extended jack
Jack stroke lowered

to grab neck of next gripper rod lot 3
Jack stroke
Central hole jack

S Lower gripper engaged to lot
5
Jack body moving down with caisson
U\
au
Repeat Steps proceed with
to
and
pressurization
Lower gripper engaged to lot
6
it
_ZJlJo soil anchor
I
Lower gripper moved to lot 6 and gets locked
Top of girder
Fig.
4.
Pressurizing mechanism
to
jack down the caisson

shown in Fig. 5.
Jack down method consists mainly of the components
as
SWIVELHOOK
UPPER GRIPPER
HYDRAULIC JACK
3T W^r
LOWER GRIPPER PRESSURE PLATE
PRESSURIZING BEAM
SUPPORT
GRIPPER ROD
ADJUSTMENT ROD
CAISSON
ADJUSTMENT COUPLER
ANCHOR DEVICE ANCHOR COUPLER
H.T.STRAND
SOIL ANCHOR
Fig.5. Components of jack down method

The
x
sinking of 4.8 m lift of steining by Jack-down method for oval D-shaped caisson of 15.1 m 7.10 m size has taken about 8 days, with an average rate of sinking of the order of 60 to 70 cm/day.
282
SPECIAL METHOD OF WELL SINKING ADOPTED
AT
NEW NIZAMUDDIN BRIDGE
A typical flow chart of activities involved in construction and sinking of caisson by Jack-down method is lllustrated in the following chart.
Flow chart for construction of caisson by Jack-down method

Cleaning, Levelhng, Placing of Cutting edge, Curb Concreting and Partial Sinking of Curb by Conventional Methods
Construction of Soil Anchors
T
Driving of Casing Pipes
Flushing and Cleaning
j
Injection of Mortar
lst
Insertion of HT Strand
Removal of
Casing Pipes
Casting of
Lift of Steining of
4 8
height in Stages
Installation of Jack-down Equipment
Sinking by Jackmg Down Operations
Dredging
Pressurization
Accelerated Methods of sinking
Repeat for 2 and further hfts of steining tili fll caisson is cast and sunk
Air Jet Method ]

Repeat smkmg by dredging and pressunzmg with accelerated method of sinking tili fll steining lift is sunk
Water Jet Method
Removal of Jack down Equipment
4.
SAVING IN TIME AND COST BY ADOPTING JACK DOWN METHOD
Nizamudding bndge which was started in Feb. 1996 and was scheduled to be completed by March 1998, was completed in Feb. 1998 ltself. Thus time and cost overruns which are generally expenenced m most of the construction projects in our country were avoided Early completion of the project was due to mechanization of site activities, specially the well sinking by jack down method. The smkmg of 15.1 m x 7.1 m size oval shaped caisson within permissible limits of tilts and shifts by conventional methods of smkmg is a very difficult and time consuming process Therefore, it is the normal practice to adopt two circular wells of 6 to 8 m dia m place of Single double D well of large size. The normal construction time of two Single circular wells of 6 to 8 m 0 dia upto well cap level with 36 m depth below LWL by normal method is about 240 days, while this large oval shaped caisson was completed in 130 to 135 days. Thus, the time required for completion of foundations of Nizamuddin Bndge by Jack down method was considerably less than that required by conventional method. For smkmg of wells by conventional methods, the thickness of steining should be sufficient to sink the well under its own weight with httle kentledge. By adopting jack down method, thickness of steining can be reduced as per actual design requirements due to its controlled Operations. On Nizamuddin Bndge, RCC steining of 125 cm thickness has been provided while as per codal requirements, minimum thickness works out to 175 cm. Therefore, there was also substantial savmg in concrete m well steining by adoptmg Jack down method.
5.
CONCLUSIONS
special method of smkmg adopted on Nizamuddin bndge is one of the important factors for fast construction of the project. Fast construction and smkmg of oval D-shaped 15.1 m x 7.10 m size caissons with permissible tilts and shifts could be possible only by Jack-down method of sinking supported by air and water jetting. The following conclusions can be drawn from the execution of this project:
The
Jack-down method is simple mechanization of sinking process and can be adopted with higher depths of foundations and large size of caisson m all types of strata.
on
projects specially
K K
KAPILA,
S P
RASTOGI
283
With mechanized system and controlled Operations of smkmg, speed of construction and tilts and shifts of caisson are effectively controlled which are the two major factors m construction of caisson foundations.
Provisions in Indian codes for steining thickness are mainly based on the assumption that thickness of steining should be sufficient for seif smking of caisson to reduce sinking efforts and to avoid excessive loading dunng sinkmg. Therefore, considerable savmg in concrete and thereby in cost can be made by reducing thickness of steining with Jack-down method of smkmg.
The faster completion of the project due considerably affect the benefit-cost ratio.
to fast progress of
smkmg and construction of foundation shall
Economics of Jack-down method is of course a point for study but it is only the initial Investment in prcurement of Jack-down equipment while the operational cost is very nominal. Though the soil anchors are non-recoverable, even then overall impact on the total cost of the project by adopting these mechanized methods after economizing the designs and with faster speed of construction shall be very nominal.
Jack-down method is more effective in Controlling the tilts and shifts tned on important projects.
m
sinking of caissons and could
be
as adopted on this project is also a systematic and effective approach for reducing the soil the caisson. This method can be used on all Sites without any difficulty and with a httle cost and efforts as it does not mvolve any special measures.
Air jet method friction around
S.A. R
UNIQUE FEATURES OF FOUNDATION

S.A. Reddi Dy. Managing
Director Gammon India Limited

Mumbai, India
SUMMARY
The
river Brahmaputra is one of the Bridging the river has always been a from variable river course with frequen
286
UNIQUE FEATURES OF FOUNDATION NOS. 17
& 18
- JOGIGHOPA
BRIDGE
JA
The
CHOICE OF SOLUTION
At locations
17
and
18,
following pile options cofferdam, (b) piles with diaphragm wall, (c) caissons with rock anchors, (d) caissons with piles and (e) caissons protected by boulder apron. A high level technical advisory group, after deliberations advised Option(d). The 18m diameter caissons were anchored into the rock with 12 Nos. of 1500mm dia RC piles through the steining (Fig.l). At the base, the critical load combination 214381 223183 tm., consists of (a) Vertical loads (b) Base moment 4865 t. About 76% of the base area is under and (c) Horizontal base shear tension. The maximum pile capacity under tension is about 1450 tonnes.
: :
the rock at founding level was steeply inclined. (a) piles enclosed in sheet were considered
Prefabricated annular steel caisson fabricated on shore was floated to the location and grounded by concrete Alling. The steining was progressively built in 2.5m lifts, A 60 cu.m. capacity floating batching plant in conjunction with concrete pump and placer boom was used for concreting. The sinking was done by open grabbing with a 75 t floating crane.
CONSTRUCTION OF ANCHOR PILES (Fig.
2)
Casings - For anchor piles, 1.65m dia. holes were provided in the steining during construction. (Fig. 3). Sets of 10mm thick casings were fabricated in the yard and assembled in 10m long modules. The first module was lowered in the pile opening using a crane and temporarily supported at the top. Successive modules were erected, joints welded and lowered progressively tili entire length of 50m weighing about 25t. was assembled. Thereafter, it was driven close to the rock surface by use of swing head oscillator and air
lift.
Drilling - Wirth Reverse Circulation Rig was used to drill through the rock below the base of the caisson (Fig.4). The drill string consisting of a 13m long bottom stiff assembly weighing 15t was lowered and thereafter 3m long drill pipes were lowered alongwith stabilizers at 9m intervals through the clamping and lowering/lifting arrangements in the rig. The average rate of drilling was about 50 cm/hr in weathered rock and 20 cm in hard rock. A positive head of 2m - 3m was maintained in the borehole during drilling to preclude any possibility of sand ingress from outside.
Rock is cut by rotary motion of the drill under the down-crowd varying from 50-120 bars. The rig is fitted with a low speed high torque hydraulic motor (Fig.5), and Tungsten carbide button cutters. The pulversied rock is airlifted through the 200mm drill pipe and a hydraulic power pack. Compressed air is fed to the bottom of the drill assembly through twin 40mm ID steel pipes fitted on opposite sides ofthe main drill pipe.
Reinforcement and Concreting - The 60m reinforcement cage was lowered in 7 modules total weight 25t) and anchored into the well cap at top. The second cage segment was wrapped by 5mm thick liner as permanent form-
S.A. REDDI
287
work from rock level to the bottom of steining. A flapper arrangement was provided at the top of the liner, which opens out under the pressure of fresh concrete and close the annular gap between the reinforcement cage and the parent 1650mm diameter casing to prevent leakage of concrete through the gap. The temporary casing was then retracted with the help of hydraulic jacks and cranes. 125 cu.m. of 30 MPa grade concrete per pile with 40mm rounded aggregates and 180mm slump was pumped through 200mm dia. tremie.
JET GROUTING - SOILCRETE
The Process - Due to steep rock profile, the caisson could not be advanced to the rock level and seated evenly on rock. Attempts to excavate the caisson to fll depth and to clean the rock surface failed because of the inflow of sand through the gap between the cutting edge and the rock. This was closed by installing soilcrete columns by jet grouting. The soil is eroded by a high energy jet. The eroded soil and the injected cement water grout is mixed insitu to form solid mass columns, 1.3m dia., spaced at one metre centre, into a secant profile. There are 121 columns consisting of two rings, installed from rock level to approx. 2m above the cutting edge.
Bore holes for jet grouting were drilled from working piatforms on steining top. A high pressure pump was used to flush during drilling with a cement water grout (W/C 1.0). On reaching the rock level, the drill bit is shifted to jetting mode and the soilcrete process is started. The drill rods rotate at a constant speed which is determined by nature of the soil. The rods are gradually withdrawn at a steady rate. The rotating grout jet erodes a Surplus material cylindrical soil mass which is mixed with the grout itself. is the river. into and the surface rises along the drill rods to discharged
on the Qualitv Control - Prior to the actual jet grouting Operations trials river bank were undertaken by constructing soilcrete columns in shallow The trials depths to freeze operational and quality control parameters. be 1.5 1.2 and the achieved could of m that column diameters indicated following operational parameters were fixed (Table 1)
:
TABLE
Parameter
Drilling
8-20 bars 2.5 - 4.5 bars
50
Jetting
6
Benotonite pumping pressure Air pressure Grout pressure Drill rod rotation Retraction
hours
360 - 380 bars
rpm
12
25
cm/min.
rpm
288
UNIQUE FEATURES OF FOUNDATION NOS
17 & 18
JOGIGHOPA BRIDGE
The
following data
was observed and recorded
during actual construction
rotation and withdrawal speeds of drilling rods during jetting final penetration depth and top elevation of column specific gravity of grout/mortar when returned from borehole. value gives an indication ofthe column diameter.
grout and air pressure during jetting grout consumption during drilling and jetting
This
Due to the large depth, drilling accuracy was a crucial parameter. Drilling rig was carefully set up over the location determined by accurate survey, taking into account the actual tilt of the caisson. Drilling was done in a controlled manner. On reaching the final depth, the exact location was surveyed using a special inclinometer. At few locations, where deviation was excessive, the boreholes were abandoned and redrilling was done. After the survey, the jetting was taken up. The drilling and survey Operations required about one hour, before starting jet grouting. This was too long a period to keep drill rods in cement slurry and as such bentonite slurry was preferred.
BOTTOM PLUGGING
(a) (b) (c)
Sink the caisson upto Im above rock.
(d)
Stabilize the soil around well kerb by soilcrete columns. Remove the sand in the dredge hole by grabbing and air lifting and clean the entire area below the well kerb. Construct the bottom plug, and lay a RC slab on top of the plug after complete dewatering ofthe dredge hole.
EXTERNALANCHOR PILES
In the original design, it was assumed that the bottom plug of the caisson will have 100% contact with the rock. Any local cavity was to be grouted from the top. During the bottom plugging at location 17, it was observed that either due to high flood level or some crevices in the rock, fine silt was deposited at the rock - plug interface just before or during the concreting. It was decided to construct 8 Nos. of 1.5 m diameter external piles integrated with the well cap at top. These external piles were taken up as parallel activity during erection of deck and anchored into hard rock for 5m.
The well cap was constructed in two stages. During the first stage part of the cap having the same diameter of the well was constructed with the reinforce ment projecting out. The extended cantilever well cap/pile cap was constructed in the second stage keeping 1.8m dia, hole for the pile.
above the rock level, boring was done by using oscillatory hydraulic piling rig (Casagrande) with custom built 7.5m long casings. As the casings were progressively lowered, additional casings were installed and the joints welded. Thereafter the Wirth piling rig with drill bit, 1300mm dia meter was used for boring 5m in rock. Reinforcement cage of total length
In
the
soil
S.A.
of
was lowered progressively in concreting was done by using automa

48
the top of pile/well cap by a suitable an a tie beam was provided at low water le
concrete pump placed
on
floating pon
CONCLUSION AND CREDITS
Completion of wells 17 and 18 required for overcoming complex problems enco The use of jet groutin conditions. problems was successfully attempted probably for the first time in the worl Railways and constructed by Gammon
in May 1998.
290
UNIQUE FEATURES OF FOUNDATION NOS
17 & 18
- JOGIGHOPA
BRIDGE
o
rb 53
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o
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Well Foundation Construction in Bouldery
R K
Dhiman Executive Engineer (C) 1441 BCC (GREF) C/o 99 APO
;H:
SUMMARY
Bridge construction in boulderly bed poses difficulties in finalization of design depth of fou present literature, secondly during construction foundation even with the use of pneumatic te heterogeneous character. Construction proble foundation due to mismatch of soil strata ant at site. Open grabbing, diving and pneumatic sink the well to desired level. A case study o bed has been discussed in this paper.
292
WELL FOUNDATION CONSTRUCTION
IN
BOULDERY BED STRATA
Introduction
1.
Bridge Construction
for two basic reasons
(a) (b)
in
:
bouldery bed strata poses
challenge for the engineers
Due to non-availability of a proper formulae to calculate the scour depth. Due to difficulties in construction while executing the work.
Most of the long span bridges are on well foundation specially, where there is a transition of the river from the hill area to the plains. Sinking of a well in such strata impedes the progress of execution due to the heterogeneous character of the soil and also due to the presence of large size boulders and wooden logs in the soil strata. A case study of well foundation construction in bouldery bed strata has been discussed in this paper.
2.
Well Foundation
- An
Overview
3. The speed of construction of a well foundation depends upon the shape of the well the soil strata available and the equipment/plant deployed for construction of a particular type of foundation. The depth of a well foundation is finalised based on the scour and structural criteria and the higher of either ofthe two is adopted.
Essence of Design Parameters

4.
The design parameters to be considered for a well foundation are hydraulics and soil parameters. The stratification of the soil below the proposed well foundation plays a major role while finalising the design and expediting the construction of the foundation. The hydraulic parameters considered are the silt factor, the bulk density, the angle of internal friction, the angle of wall friction and the cohesiveness of the soil. These are assessed based on the geological conditions of the strata. On assessing this data, the foundation levels are finalised. The correct assessment of the scour in soil is also very important. This is finalised based on available formulae and model studies as deemed fit and a judicious judgement of the Engineer, based on his past experience or similar
struetures.
Scour Depth
5.
in
Bouldery Bed Strata
A sample cross section of a river, as available at various locations near proposed bridge site in bouldery bed strata is indicated at Fig (1). Due to the heterogeneous character of the bed material, it is difficult to apply any formula to obtain the actual likely scour. The IRC code has also clarified, that in such situations, a judicious choice ofthe Engineer based on his experience on similar struetures at such locations may be applied. Based on the ground conditions and the application of the formula as contained at clause 703.2.2.1 IRC-78, the following results are generally obtained for a particular bridge scour.
Depth of Water From HFL to LBL

H1
Scour
HFL DSM1
depth
from
Inference
(i)
(ii) (iii)
DSM DSM DSM
1 1 1
< H1
} } }
Not
OK
Practical
H1
>
case
H1
DSM
- Mean
Scour Depth
R.K. DHJMAN
293
6.
and a silt factor have been further clarified that the results of DSM indicated at Fig (2). Indicates that, after a silt factor '8', there is hardly any affect on DSM 1. The scour depth remains almost uniform even after an increase of the silt factor.
It
is
Method of Well Sinking

7.
Well sinking in bouldery bed strata requires detailed planning which will vary from site to site. The soil strata obtained by the bore log must be examined. Basically, it is a guiding factor for the actual construction. A requirement for divers and pneumatic sinking can also be considered and necessary arrangements must be made to avoid any delay in the overall progress of the work.
Conventional Sinking
8.
The material
is used for open wells. This is also known as grabbing. taken out with the help of a grab. Progress in execution is expedited with kentledge if required and also with divers using jetting. Divers normally inspect the cutting edge and guide the crane Operator Chiseling is also suggested if required. Explosives are also used in this technique, which results in shaking of the well and enhancing the rates of sinking. If the progress of sinking is very slow by this method, pneumatic sinking is restored to, to suit the site conditions and other related is
Conventional sinking
parameters.
Pneumatic Sinking
resorted to in a Situation, where dredging from an open well would cause ground around the caisson or the soil underneath is fll of boulders or the presence of clayey soil which poses problems for sinking the well. This technique is used for all types of soil, in case of bridges, where the progress of sinking by the conventional method is very very slow. This method is costlier but gives an Output at a faster rate as compared to conventional sinking. Normally, on seeing the bore log details, the requirement of this technique is examined in advance and accordingly the design of the diaphragm or corbel slab and other necessary equipment for this technique are kept in readiness.
9.
Pneumatic Sinking
is
loss of
10.
Penumatic sinking has the following advantages over the conventional method
(a)
The work
is is
foundation
(b)
done in dry conditions and therefore control over the work on the better.
is
Plumbness of the caission caission method.
easy to
control
as
compared
to
the
open
(c)
Obstructions like boulders and logs can may be done, if necessary.

Bottom plugging can be effectively done
be
removed. Excavation by blasting
(d)
in
pneumatic conditions.
294
IN
BOULDERY BED STRATA
fm,
Case Study
study of well foundation execution of a major permanent bridge over a perennial river on bouldery bed strata is now discussed. The foundation depth of this bridge was more and overall perspective of well sinking in this case was a difficult one. The subsoil consisted of large boulders of 2 to 3 mtrs in diameter in the upper strata, to a depth of about 25 mtrs and below that, the soil was of silt sand aggregate matrix. In the initial stage, open grabbing with a crane-grab was resorted to for a depth of about 12 mtrs and subsequently, the rate of sinking was 10 to 20 mm per day. To expedite the progress pneumatic sinking was adopted, which led to increase in the progress to 150-900 mm. Pneumatic sinking can only be used up to a pressure of 3.50 kg/cm2. It is difficult for a human being to work beyond this pressure as per codal provisions.
A case
11.
Important Features of the Bridge

12. The
important factors of the bridge were as follows

Length of the bridge
Type of Bridge
704 Mtrs
(a) (b)
of balanced
(c)
(i)
F<
Prestressed concrete Single cell box girder cantilever construction.
>undation:
Type Outer diameter Inside diameter Steining thickness Well crub height Angle of cutting edge Grade for Steining Concrete
- Circular well -11.70 Mtrs - 6.64 Mtrs - 2.53 Mtrs - 4.5 Mtrs
()
(iii) (iv) (v) (vi)
- 33
- M25
degrees
(Vii)
Set up of Equipment and Plant

The layout ensured minimum movement of material, equipment and personnel as well as proper drainage of the area. Wind conditions were taken into consideration in Operation of some equipment, for example, the Operation of the tower crane which was not possible in heavy winds. Supporting facilities such as generators, office Stores etc. were located away from the path of the dusflow. Adequate space was provided for handling and storage of raw material as well as for finished products. Wherever practicable, a separte service road was provided for incoming material and outging
13.
products.
Bore Log Details

14. Before starting the work at this location, bore log details of the location were examined and accordingly, the strategy for sinking the well foundaiton was planned. From the bore log details, it was obvious that sinking a well in the prevalent soil strata with open grabbing may not be possible due to packed bouldery strata as shown in the
R.K. DHIMAN
295
Figs
Keeping pneumatic pressure also.

(3)
&
(4).
in
view,
the
likely
strata,
the
bed
well
was
designed
for
Conventional Sinking
The construction of the well foundation at location was started in Jan 1980 with the placing of the cutting edge at a ground RL of 160.735. Conventional sinking was adopted with the use of Tata Crane having a grab of 1.2 cum capacity and divers were also deployed, after reaching considerable depth, to expedite the rate of sinking. Whenever a sizeable sump was made and the cutting was cleared by divers, blasting was resorted to, which shook the well and finally led to sinking the well (Fig. 5). This work was continued tili June 90 and an average rate of sinking observed during the period was approximately 7 cms per day. But the rate of sinking during the last month before suspending conventional sinking was 1 cm. It was feit that the further rate of sinking would be extremely slow and it was decided to Start with pneumatic sinking.
15.
Pneumatic Sinking
Pneumatic sinking was attempted wef 4th Jul 90 at am RL of 145.360 mtrs. The steel diaphragm was placed at a gauge height of 14 mtrs. This technique was continued upto a design foundation level of 125 mtrs (Fig 6). During the course of sinking, boulders upto 2 mtrs size were encountered, which slowed down the rate of sinking, as boulders more than 50 cms size could not be taken out because of the limitation of the muck bcket. There was also a Variation in the water level of the river from 153.500 mtrs to 163.00 mtrs during the year. It was obvious that the deeper the digging, grater was the pressure and progress reduced considerably which further led to increase in compression and decompression time. However, limited progress was assured in the technique. Out of a total sinking of 35.895 mtrs, 15.350 mtrs was executed through conventional means and the remaining 20.300 mtrs to 163.00 mtrs during the year. It was obvious that the deeper the digging, grater was the pressure and progress reduced considerably which further led to increase in compression and decompression time. However, limited progress was assured in this technique. Out of a tital sinking of 35.895 mtrs, 15.350 mtrs was executed through conventional means and the remaining 20.300 mtrs was by pneumatic sinking. The output of sinking depends upon various factors which include the size of the bcket, the depth of the well, the type of strata, the water head, the size of the shaft and the airlock. The team of personnel inside the working champer comprised of one Engineer, two Supervisors and twenty labourers. One mtr of sinking resulted in required 110 m3 of material to be evacuated, which in turn required 440 buckets for dredging out the material, as the capacity of one bcket was 0.25 m3. The progress of work reduced with the depth of sinking. However, a percentage of acceptable progress was achieved within a specified time. The rate of sinking reduced with progressive sinking, as at an increased pressure, the progress of sinking reduced
16.
SLNO.
1.
2.
Total Sinking achieved (Mtrs) Conventional Sinking 15,350 mtrs 20.455 mtrs Pneumatic Sinking Total Sinking 35.805 mtrs
: : :
Average rate of sinking per day

7
Cms Cms
296
IN
BOULDERY BED STRATA
Bottom Plug
17.
The total sinking of 35.805 mtrs was completed and the position of the well was
as
under:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Total steining from ground level Total steining cast Well crub height Gauge height of well
35.805 27.000 4.500 31/430
mtrs mtrs mtrs mtrs
The last leg of sinking was completed in pneumatic sinking and it was planned to plug the well in the present condition only, as this would be helpful to remove the steel diaphragm placed inside over working Chamber.
18.
The concrete was transported to the airlock and subsequently to the working Chamber, where it formed a part of the bottom plug. This process was repeated a number of times, as in one Operation only one cubic mtr of concrete was possible. Out of total height of 5 mtrs., 2 mtrs was completed in pneumatic condition and the remaining was executed in open condition after removing the diaphragm.
19.
Sand Filling
20. Sand was taken from the river and cleaned before transportation. This was finally lowered through a chute placed on the top of the steining and subsequently the top plug and the well cap were cast.
Construction Problems
21. The following problems were
encountered during the construction ofthe bridge
(a) The sinking of the well became very boulders in the strata. This led to progress of the bridge.
(b)
difficult due to the presence of large size of a considerable slow down in the overall
Basically, there were difficulties in finally deciding the foundation level on such strata. This put the decision making body into a considerable dilemma and led to delay in progress.
heavy rainfall in the area, a considerably reduced working period was in the region, which led to delay in overall completion of activities.
(c) Due to
available
Conclusion
22.
Construction of a well foundation in bouldery bed strata calls for a dedicated effort on the part of the executives. The data of the soil strata encountered at the site must be kept in detail for each meter and if required a review of the foundation must be carried out, based on actual soil parameters obtained during sinking.
R K
DHIMAN
297
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A.
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CROSS
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AVAILABLE
IM
BOULD^Jg
298
IN
BOULDERY BED STRATA
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R.K. DHIMAN
301
FIG
PRESSURE
0
TO
100
GAUGE PS
COMPRESSCR
MOISTURE
AIR
80
CFM
SEPARA
TOR
TANK
SAFETY
VALVE
DRAIN POINT
DRAIN Pt.&
^-CONTROLLING
VALVE
u
4.
r
I
JETTY
PIPE LINE
i-
W.
t
f-i
'
'n
$=s
PUMP
DIVER(HAVING HELMETj
DIViNG ACTIVITIES
302
IN
BOULDERY BED STRATA
FIG
-PRESSURE GAUGE
AIR
MUCK
LOCK
CHAMBER
SHAFT
16200
/
i
X
z
WELL
STtiiNmo
WITH
^
T
1400
SOIL
MIXED BOULDERS
E
i
DfAPHRAGM
CUTTING
EDGE
M
//
RL 12500
FOUNDATION
RL
REACHED
WITH
PNEUMATIC
SINKING
CONSTRUCTION OF ANCHORED CAISS
Nader HALIMEH Viaduct Engineer

Dar AI Handasah Consultants
Adana, Turkey
%
304
CONSTRUCTION OF ANCHORED CAISSONS FOR
MOTORWAY VIADUCT
INTRODUCTION
Viaduct V5
East. This section
of the major viaducts presently under construction for a motorway in the Middle ofthe motorway is 258 km long with three lanes in each direction, and involves a number of large struetures including fourteen viaducts.
is one
long, comprising nine spans, with a maximum span of 110 m in each below. The entire design and concept is governed by geological factors, as see Figure the use of caisson struetures to form the deep foundations for necessitated which described below, all piers and abutments. Part of the viaduct super-strueture is constructed of pre-cast beams, the remainder of structural steel box girders; accordingly, two different types of pier columns and
Viaduct V5 carriageway,
is
500
foundations were required. Two types of caissons were designed, one circular, 6 m in diameter, and the other elliptical, 12 m by 8.5 m; the elliptical shape was chosen to reduce the obstrueting effect that might occur in the event of a landslide. The caisson depth varies between 10 m and 31 m.
35
431
CD
35
346
(*)
35
255
<l>
35
119
G)
35
167
(>
36
206
Q
STEEL
STRUCTURE
3
PRONE
TO
ir=^t
LU
PRE
tASTBEMS
LANDSLIP
PRONE
TO
LANDSLIP
C
CIRCULAR CAISSONS
ELLIPTICAL CAISSONS
Figure
1:
Longitudinal section of Viaduct V5.
GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS
an area
subjeet to earthquakes, the viaduct runs roughly from West to East sidelong across a steep slope which falls towards the viaduct from the South, and parts of the thick Iayer of unstable slope debris that makes up this slope have slid towards the viaduct in geologically very recent times; the viaduct spans over these landslide areas. The bed rock in the region is disturbed by faults, folding and dykes. The influence of fault- and dyke-related movements was minimised by shifting the alignment towards the North. However, the extension of the major faults which prompted the slide cross the viaduct alignment between Pier 6 and Pier 7 and between Pier 8 and Abutment B. These fault zones are associated with clayey fault gouges and completely decomposed The caisson dyke material. The slope debris comprises sand and gravel in an open matrix of clay foundations went through this and down to sound strata consisting of alternate strata of thicklybedded sandstone and thinly-bedded siltstone - sandstone. In general, this bed rock is slightly
Situated in
weathered and slightly to highly fractured.
NADER HALIMEH
305
EXCAVATION AND GROUND

SYSTEM
Preparatory Excavation
SUPPORT
3.1
DRANIAGE
DITCH
(/
ENCAPSULATED ANCHORS
SLOPE
DEBRIS
Prepafatory
excavations were made in the slope debris in order to obtain a level working platform for construction of the caisson Z.B2 proper. These excavations were carried down step by step, each step being supported by d^ shotcrete reinforced with wire mesh and retained by encapsulated (passive) anchors Figure 2: Slope formation. bars diameter of mm comprising 26.5 835/1030 U.T.S. steel inserted into a 130 mm diameter hole. The anchors were embedded three metres into the bed rock, as shown in Figure 2. Two inclinometers were installed to monitor any movement during excavation.
3.2
Caisson Excavation
Excavation was carried out, using a hydraulic excavator, the use of explosives was rejected both from fear of precipitating further landslips, and to prevent loosening of anchors already installed for previous stages. The ground was removed down to the level of the next support stage; wire mesh was applied to the exposed ground that formed the wall of the excavation, and then shotcrete was applied as shown in Figure 3 on the next page. In the circular caissons, shotcrete 150 mm thick was sprayed onto the exposed ground, increased to 200 mm thick when more than 10 m below the top of the caisson. In the elliptical caissons, in addition to 200mm of shotcrete, a reinforced concrete ring beam was cast at the bottom of each excavation stage, through which pre-stressed cable anchors (active) were installed as described in Paragraph 3.3 below. These beams and anchors were only required through the slope debris; in rock, ring beams were formed in shotcrete. Drainage pipes as shown in Figure 4, were installed through the shotcrete of alternate vertical panels, of each caisson, to prevent accumulation of ground water pressure behind the shotcrete.
The bigger the diameter of a caisson, the easier it is to excavate, but heavier support will be required. The deeper the caisson, the more difficult it is to construct - a heavy crane is required for lowering the excavator. A deeper caisson is also more likely to suffer more from water inflltration. A deep
caisson
of small diameter may also generate congested working space.

EXCAVATED
SURFACE
Ventilation problem,
as
well
as
suffering from
t-o-*2/
mm
The accumulation of ground water draining into

SHOTCRETE (TWO LAYERS)
WIRE MESH
50
mm
150x150
616
the
DIA SLOTTED
PIPE
excavation was a cause of delay in construction of the deepest caissons; a system of four well-points outside and on the axes each
2_l_NLENGTfi
caisson had been intended at the design stage, using 150 - 200 mm diameter pipes with submersible pumps, but this could not be
Figure
4:
Drainage behind shotcrete lining
adopted, because such pumps were not available. Although the Contractor used a sump at each level of the excavation, this proved to be
306
MOTORWAY VIADUCT
J%
CDNCRETE
RING
WALL
2.50 CAISSON
CAPPING
CAISSDN
TOP
EXCAVATION
LEVEL
W///ZV/A
CABLE
ANCHDR
6.00
6.00 0.20
2.00
ABLE
6.00
6.00
ANCHOR
2.00
SHOTCRETE
>1
0.40
2.00
DRAIN
2.00
0.10
1
RJC
RING
BEAM
2.00
DRAIN
2.00
130
2.00
2.00
jAf j-0.70
0.20
2 00
M
\
oL
i
CAISSON
CAISSON STRUCTURE
12.20
EXCAVATION
LEVEL
BOTTOM
CABLE
ANCHOR
-0.20
-0.40,
4
75
tO.10
TOLERANCE
DRAIN
/ ft\
A
<m
6.50-
DRAIN
SHOTCRETE
R.C.
RING
BFAM
/
6
/
SECTIDN
A-A
NOTE
ALL
DIMENSIONS
ARE
IN
METRES
Fig.
3.
Plan and section of an elliptical caisson showing excavation stages and the peripheral supporting system.
NADER HALIMEH
307
<&
hr head
insufficient to prevent work from being stopped during the rainy season.
3.3
GREASED
STRAND TUBE
Pre-stressed Cable Anchors
STRAND
Eight cable anchors were used at each stage of excavation ofthe elliptical caissons., as shown in Figure 3, each anchor had two Strands 15.24 mm Figure 5: Pre-stressed cable anchor details. in diameter as shown in Figure 5. The drilling of the 130 mm diameter holes was performed by a SoilMech SM 305 drilling rig, lowered down to the current floor of the excavation. The cable anchors were assembled on site, and inserted into the holes, after which grout was pumped in to form an anchorage, from a grouting plant located on the surface nearby. After the ring beam had gained sufficient strength, the anchors were stressed. The imposed stressing force was 150 kN for the top row, and 250 kN for the remainder; however, for some anchors at the second level this could not be achieved, even after the bond length was increased from six to ten metres, probably due to excessive ground water. This was overcome by accepting 150 kN for these anchors as well, and post-grouting them. One anchor at each level was tested in accordance with the relevant AASHTO specification.
15.24mm Dia)
iV
flp3
\ROUT
BORE
HOLE
CONCRETE
The entire cross-section ofthe caisson was filled with 22.5 N/mm2 concrete, i.e. no internal shutter was used The Contractor originally proposed to cast each caisson in one continuous Operation, but this was rejected, and the concrete was cast in lifts of 2.05 metres in order to prevent a b>uild-up of heat. The Controlling factor was to ensure that the temperature differential between successive lifts
did not exceed 20C; however, this proved to be very slow, and as limestone aggregate was being used, the differential was increased to 40C, as recommended by Neville & Brooks. Five rows of 32mm diameter bars were used as the main vertical reinforcement for the fll height ofthe caisson,
tied to
16
mm diameter spiral reinforcement.
DISCUSSION
"Because of the very great complexity of all ground problems, it is very dangerous to carry out a design prior to construction and never modify it" (Hanna, 1982). The designed depths of four ofthe caissons of Viaduct No. 5 were modified following close examination ofthe rock surface exposed as the excavation progressed. This was also the case with other viaducts in the Contract, and in some
cases it was found necessary to carry out further site investigation, including the drilling of extra boreholes, for foundations where these were to rest on bored piles. In general, tie-back walls are constructed in soft ground such as clay, sand, gravel and shales.
The caissons for the piers adjacent to Abutment A of Viaduct No. 5 were six metre diameter circular caissons, as shown in Figure 1. When the Contractor came to create Abutment A itself, for each carriageway it have been logical to have two similar caissons, but he elected instead to have one
8.5m elliptical caisson with anchor-supported walls because the excavation ofthe smaller circular caissons at the adjacent piers had proved to be slow. Hanna points out that for any specific problem, and the above is a good example, a large number of possible Solutions is often available, and selection is usually controlled by factors other than technical.
larger
12 x
308
MOTORWAY VIADUCT
SUGGESTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

1
The force obtainable in the anchors in the top four metres of an anchor-supported caisson will be less than for anchors further down
For cable anchors in wet slope debris, it may be necessary to take extra measures to obtain the required loading, in which case a post-grouting System will give better results than increasing the bonded length Since the estimation of bond magnitude is uncertain, field anchor tests should always be carried out in order to confirm the bond values used in the design For caissons constructed by similar methods, eight metres is considered to be the smallest diameter that will avoid construction problems caused by limited working space and poor
Ventilation
5
The shape of the elliptical caissons and the use of pre-stressed anchors for this viaduct were enforced by the existence of landslides, otherwise the use of controlled blasting and soil nails would have been more economical
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Robin Clay, Chief Tunnel Supervisor, for his
The Author would like to thank his colleague, Mr assistance during the preparation of this Paper
REFERENCES
1
GEOCONSULT - MAYREDER CONSULT,

(Unpublished)
A M
Geological Geotechnical Report for
V5, 1995
NEVILLE
H
&
BROOKS, Concrete Technology, Longman Scientific & Technical, UK,

in Tension
1990
3
THOMAS
HANNA, Foundations
- Ground Anchors, Trans
Tech Publications -
Series on Rock and Soil Mechanics, Vol 6, McGraw Hill, 1982
371
Design of Foundations for the Storebaelt East Bridge
Flemming
M.
Pedersen
Senior Project Engineer

&
Planners AS
Lyngby, Denmark
Pedersen has been involved in design major bndges and offshore concrete struetures for more than 20 years He has specialised in design of large pylon and anchor block struetures in high quality concrete for cable stayed and Suspension bndges utihsing advanced finite element design modeis Mr Pedersen has been in Charge of the concept development, tender design and detailed design for the main bridge substruetures of the Storebaelt East
Mr
of
Bridge
SUMMARY
The fixed link across the 18 km wide Storebaelt Strait in Denmark consists of three major projects, an 8 km bored railway tunnel and a 6 8 km high level motorway bridge across the eastern Channel of the Strait and a 6 6 km low level bridge for combined railway and motorway traffic across the western Channel Navigational considerations have been very much influential in the design of the East Bridge as the main navigation route between the North Sea and the Baltic Sea passes the Eastern Channel of Storebaelt Other important design considerations have been environmental aspects like maintaining unrestneted flow of water to the Baltic Sea and not least the aim to establish an elegant bridge perfectly incorporated in the landscape The paper desenbes the concept development and final design of \he mapr structural components of the East Bridge substruetures in view of these considerations In particular, the design of the huge pre-fabneated foundation caissons placed on stone beds compacted under water is addressed The structural calculations compnsed advanced modeis for determination of effects from ship impacts as well as finite element modeis capable of handling built-in stresses in the struetures during all construction phases
372
DESIGN OF FOUNDATIONS FOR THE STOREB/ELT EAST BRIDGE
INTRODUCTION
The Storebaelt East Bridge comprises a major Suspension bridge with a free span of 1624 m, the second longest in the world, and approach bridges with spans of 193 m. The total length of the bridge is 6790 m and the navigational clearance in the main span is 65 m, see Fig. 1. The East Bridge substruetures consists of three major structural components
the pylons, the anchor blocks and
the approach bridge piers.
Approach Bridge
Sprogo
Suspension Bndge
Approach Bridge
1556 m
535
1624 m
535 m
2518 m
Fig.
1:
Longitudinal section of the Storebaelt East Bridge (exaggerated vertical scale)
The water depth

is
in the deep part of the Channel reaches more than 50 m, but at the positions of the pylons it reduced considerably to about 2t m. At the anchor blocks and the approach span piers the maximum water depth is less than 12 m.
Generally, the geology in the bridge alignment consists of clay tili on top of a marl Iayer and below that limestone. The clay tili has a thickness of 20 to 30 m except at the pylons, where it is reduced to 8-10m In the deep Channel the tili formation is missing.
Throughout the initial project phases, it was antieipated that the struetures would be founded directly on this upper pre-consolidated clay tili strata after excavating a thin top Iayer of unsuitable late or post glacial deposits.
2
PYLON FOUNDATIONS
As in situ casting of the pylon foundations within de-watered construction pits would obviously not be feasible due to the large water depth and the nearby navigation Channel, a construction method was coneeived based on placing pre-fabricated concrete caissons on compacted crushed stone beds. Initially these stone beds were assumed to be 1.5 m thick, but as the detailed soil investigations showed considerably lower and more variable strength and deformation parameters of the 8-10 m Iayer of clay tili than expected, it was decided to excavate the clay tili and place 5m thick stone beds on top of the stronger and more uniform marl strata.
2.1
Foundation Stone Beds
stone material used is well-graded 5-90 mm crushed hyperite quarried from Kragero, Norway. Compaction of the stone beds to the specified 96% of the maximum dry density was performed in two layers of approximately 2m thickness each, leaving a top Iayer of about 0.4 m which was loosely placed and screeded to provide a levelled surface for placing the caissons. The vibrator plates used for the compaction measured 25 m2 weighing 75 tonnes. As it was not possible to device proper methods for in situ compaction control, a prescription system was adopted verified by full-scale underwater compaction trials in a test pit established onshore. Large scale triaxial tests on material excavated from the test pit after compaction showed very high values of the triaxial secant angle of friction phi>50. In all the tests the material dilated at failure, but the rate of dilatancy was lower than expected. For further information see Steenfelt and Foged
The
[1].
FLEMMING
M.
PEDERSEN
373
2.2
Foundation Caissons
The foundation caissons, each covering an area of 2,770 m2 are 78 m long and 35 m wide, see Fig. 2. However, the corners and the edges are rounded in order to reduce the water blocking effect and to limit damage to possible colliding ships by avoiding sharp corners and edges. They are divided into 60 cells by internal walls and are 20 m high, including a 3 m thick plinth cast in situ on top of the cellular caissons within a temporary steel cofferdam. This was required because the top of the caisson is kept 3.5 m below water level in order to avoid the undesirable Visual effect of the slender pylon legs and the voluminous caisson standing one on top of the other. The bottom slab of the caissons has a variable thickness between 0.95 m and 1.1m, creating a roof-shaped underside to the slab. Around the periphery of the slab and below some of the internal walls 0.5 m deep skirts are provided, designed to penetrate about 0.3 m into the uncompacted screeded top Iayer of the stone beds, see Fngure 2. The voids thus formed between the roof-shaped underside of the slab and the stone bed were subsequently filled with sand/cement grout through pre-installed pipes, the skirts serving to confine the grout. For eacrv of the caissons the quantity of grout was some 725 m3, placed in about 40 hours
- bridge
c
1
11
_
1 1
l
L
H 1
~1J
i
l_.
^|f4?f4^4^f"'
'J <P*p jO,^ <j^jj
<J<>
<; <*p*} <2rv '>^>
**
Grout
25J
Plan. Caisson
Stone bed
applying
Fig.
2:
pressure of
bar at the inlet pipes.
Plan and Detail of Foundation Caisson
2.3
Design for Ship Collision
Due to the large water depth at the pylon locations, it was not feasible to arrange protective artificial islands around the foundation caissons as this would restrict the free opening for the navigation route too much. Therefore, the pylon foundation had to be designed to resist the impact from a fully loaded 250,000 DWT tanker travelling at a speed of 10 knots (5.1 m/s). This design vessel was selected being the maximum size which can pass the bridge considering the draft limitation of 17.5 m for the navigation route from the Baltic
Sea.
The load-time curve for the impact against the non-moving pier was established based on of the considerations theoretical energy the contributions during dissipated by adding up plastic deformation of all basic structural elements of the ships hll. The procedure developed for bow crushing analysis is based on an upper-bound plasticity theory which can also handle rigid body motions of crushed and non-crushed parts of the structure. Validation of the numerically predicted crushing loads has been done by comparison with experimental crushing results of small scale bow modeis.
Force
MN)
^0000
250.000 DWT
eoo600-
400300200100-
000 ^^^^^^^^"80 000 DWT

60
DWT
05
t5
20
25
30 Thnefsec
Fig. 3: Idealised load-time curves for ship impacts
order to resist an impact load of 673 MN without permanent movement a very large effective vertical load on the foundation area of around 2,000 MN is required. This has been achieved partly by filling each caisson with 37,500 m3 of hydraulically pumped sand being the cheapest weight material available. In this
In
374
respect the inherently large dead weight of the concrete pylon itself -around 950 MN- is an advantage compared to a steel pylon Solution, the lower weight of which would have had to be compensated by a considerably larger caisson with increased ballast material weight
3
ANCHOR BLOCKS
Most existing major Suspension bridges have their anchorages on land in rock formations, which makes the design fairly easy However, for the East Bridge the challenge for the designers was much greater because the anchorages -subjected to a horizontal force of about 600 MN- had to be constructed on clay more than 2 km from the coast at water depths of approximately 12 m
It was clear from the beginning that gravity-type anchorage struetures would have to be adopted, constructed either by placing pre-fabneated caissons on stone beds or by casting the struetures in situ within huge de-watered construction pits Both coneepts were developed for tendermg and closely equally pneed by the contractors at tendermg However, the pre-fabneated caisson Solution was selected
31
Foundation Stone Beds
The soil conditions at the anchor block locations consist of 20 m of clay tili on top of a 40 m thick Iayer of marl Excavating the clay tili under water would disturb its surface and the anchor block could slide along this thin disturbed zone Comprehensive large-scale field tests and studies to overcome this problem were carried out in the initial project phases Different Solutions for penetrating the disturbed zone by short steel sheet pile walls or large diameter steel piles were proposed as well as several configurations of wedge shaped stone beds Based on these studies a Solution with two individual wedge shaped stone beds without support of the middle section of the caisson was selected for tendermg, see Fig 4 This Option was considered to give more well defined contact pressures at the two separate wedges as compared to Solutions with contact over the entire base area For further discussion of this aspect, see Mortensen [ 2 ] In addition a Solution with large diameter steel dowels was included as a variant in the tendermg, but this was pneed considerable higher than the basic stone bed Solution The stone materials used as well as method for compaction, underbase grouting etc are the same as described for the pylon foundations
3 2
Foundation Caissons
The
foundation caissons, each covenng an area of 6,100 m2, are
121 5 m long and 54 5 m Wide and divided in three parts Only the front and rear parts are in contact with the supporting stone wedges as explamed above The height of the pre-fabneated part of the caissons is 15 m having a weight of 50,000 tonnes when towed to the bridge Site whereas the remaining parts of the anchor blocks above level +3 0 m were cast in-situ
Top of caisson level during tow out
30
mwl
m
1215 m
40
7
^s^7777s
Y77a77t^_
^-120
391m
417 m
part of the caissons contains the anchorage massifs compnsing 18,000 m3 of concrete which was cast in-situ partly inside some of the cells in the Other pre-fabneated caisson cells the in part were rear ballasted with olivine (heavy sand) iron ore
rear
The
Concrete massifs
Olivine
fl^RMJHE
Iron ore
infioi I
of
-^
Sand fill
Fig
Elevation and Plan
Anchor Block Caisson
and
The middle part of the caisson, which has no contact with the underlymg ground, is partly sand-filled, the longitudinal walls are post-tensioned with vertical bars, and the bottom slab is heavily post-tensioned
FLEMMINGM PEDERSEN
375
longitudinally with
sand
total force of 363 MN
The front part of the caisson
is
filled with hydrauhcally pumped
The anchor block caissons are protected against ship impacts by artificial Islands constructed from soil materials dredged nearby This dredging -known as compensation dredging- was done in order to open up for increased water flow to compensate for the blocking effect of the bridge substruetures The protection Islands are elliptical shaped with the long axis in the direction of the predommant water flow in order to reduce the blocking effect
3 3
Structural Analyses The structural calculations for the anchor blocks were mainly based on a linear elastic finite element model using the IBDAS Programme, whilst the geotechnical calculations and the determination of soil pressure distnbutions were carried out by separate analyses modeis compnsing use of the non-lmear finite element program ABAQUS For further Information see [ 3 ] The soil pressure distnbutions were then applied on the IBDAS model
Due to the unique concept of the anchor blocks mvolving application of heavy post-tensioning and ballast matenal in various construction phases as well as the construction of the inchned upper elements by free cantilevenng from the caisson deck, it was necessary to analyse a substantial number of construction phases and keep track of the built-m stresses and their re-distribution due to creep and shnnkage in subsequent phases up to the final condition The main construction phases included
bars
Construction of the caisson in the dry dock including tensioning in the longitudinal walls of the mid-part
of
of
tendons
in
the bottom slab and vertical
Tow-out and installation of the caisson including effects

Ballasting of the caisson elements
with
ballasting for tnmming and wave loads

of
olivme/iron ore and sand before construction
the
upper inchned
Construction
of the upper mclmed
elements by free cantilevenng
Final condition after connection of the inchned elements by the top cross beam
The calculations showed that the stresses built-m during the construction phases were very important and required substantial strengthenmg in particular for the lower part of the caisson structure However, the model was very useful for optimisation of the entire construction process including adjustment of posttensionmg levels and ballasting procedures at various stages
4
APPROACH BRIDGE PIERS
decisive criterion for the design of the approach bridge piers is ship impact loads, which was established based on a comprehensive collision risk model The model estimates the nsk of collapse as the sum of four nsk scenanos, each representmg a certain ship track pattern categonsed as follows
The
Ships following the ordmary, direct route at normal speed Accidents mainly due unexpected problems with propulsion/steermg system when approach mg the bridge
to
human error or
Ships faihng to change course at the turning pomts of the navigation route
Ships taking evasive action for other vessels when approaching the bridge
All other track
pattems,
e g
off-course ships and dnftmg ships
Based on the collision nsk model the design basis for the ship impact loads was established, see Fig 5
376
Sprogo
Pier No
15
14
Limited Pier Displacements
26
25
MMHSS
N
lMOOQOQOOQO ooooooooo<
1
Sprogo
Pipr No
26 25
19 18
15
ooooooooo<
14
InsigniBcant Permanent Pier Displacements
16
+HB&
OOOOOO ooooooo
Fig
In
5
IT
Design vessels
to to
(in
DWT) for Head on Bow Colhsions with Approach Bridge Piers
achieve the same overall base dimensions, 23 m x 19 m, of all the approach bndge piers, it was construct artificial protection Islands around some of the piers close to the navigation Channel, see Fig 5 The remaining piers were designed to resist an impact load of 69 MN from a 4,000 DWT ship allowing limited displacements at the pier top of 200 mm and 500 mm in the transverse and longitudinal directions respectively These displacements will require repairs, however, without closing the bndge for more than about one month In addition, the piers shall be able to resist an impact load of 46 MN from a 2,000 DWT ship without insignificant permanent displacements which will not require closing for traffic
order decided
simplified but still advanced Computer model was developed for the ship impact analyses, see Fig 6 The model comprises a non-lmear elasto-plastic model of the soil-structure interaction, a stiff foundation caisson, elastic beam elements for the pier shaft and a concentrated mass and spring at the pier top representing the bridge girder To verify the simplified model, mdependent 2D finite element were analyses carried out using two different programs ABAQUS and FENRIS In addition the effects of eccentric vi impacts were studied by 3D refined modeis with a more modelling of the soil, including local week areas etc of the Ship Collision
A
force
indentation
forc
displacemenf
\r
in
FENRIS
ililllil
Fig
6
Idealised model
The comparison of results from the agreement with differences in ultimate modeis give a better descnption of overturning and twisting moments For
simplified model and the finite element analyses showed a good bearing capacity being some 10% only However, the finite element the behaviour of the soil especially when failure is dominated by further Information, see Feld and Gravgaard, [ 4 ]
REFERENCES
Dilational Behaviour of Crushed Stone STEENFELT, J S Association of Engineering Geology, sbon, Vol V, 1994
Proc
7th
Congress
of
the
Int
MORTENSEN, K Is limit State Design a Judgement Killer? The Sixth Launts Bjerrum Memorial Lecture Norwegian Geotechnical Institute Pubhcation No 148, Oslo 1983
S0RENSEN,
C S
STEENFELT,
Proc
11th
the Storebaelt Unk
and MORTENSEN, J K Foundation for the East Bndge for European Conf Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering,
J S
FLEMMING
PEDERSEN
377
Copenhagen
Soil
Danish Geotechnical Society, Bulletin
11,
Vol
5,
1995
FELD, T And GRAVGAARD J H Analysis ofan Eccentric Ship Impact Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, New Delhi, Vol 4, 1994
Proc
Ofthe
XIII Int
Conf
STEENFELT, J S Sliding resistance for foundation on clay tili Wroth Memorial Oxford Predictive soil mechanics Thomas Telford, London, pp 664-684,1993
Symposium,
the
and MORTENSEN, J K Foundation for the East Bndge for Storebaelt Link Proc 11th European Conf Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Copenhagen Danish Geotechnical Society, Bulletin 11, Vol 5, 1995
C S
J
S0RENSEN,
STEENFELT,
S0RENSEN,
Bridge
Proc
C S
Int
and FELD, T, Structure-Foundation Interaction on the Storebaelt Link East Conf For Bridge and Structure, Copenhagen, 1996
HAAHR, F, JENSEN J E. Shear Transfer Trough Stone Wedge to Clay STEENFELT, J S Interface Proc XIII Int Conf Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, New Delhi, Vol 2, 1994
jp^k
379
Present situations and problems in design and construction of caisson foundations in Japan
Michio Okahara: Director, Structure
Tsukuba, Japan
&
Bridge Dept., Public Works Research Institute, Ministry of Construction,
Jiro Fukui: Head, Foundation Eng. Div., ditto Yoshitomi Kimura: ChiefResearcher, Foundation Eng. Div., ditto Masahiko Oishi: Deputy Section Manager, Technology Development Division, Shiraishi Corporation, Tokyo, Japan
Summary: The caisson foundation is a one ofthe typical foundation type in Japan and mainly used for larger-scale bridge foundation because its big bearing capacity However recently, the share of caisson foundation has been decreased The caisson of this Situation can be considered that the difficulties of construction Therefore, various technical development has been carried out and some of them are used m-site for example, the unmanned excavation system aided by remote-controlled excavation machines and so
on
The seismic design of bridge foundation including caisson foundation in Japan revised several times based on the lesson from large earthquake for example Nngata Earthquake (1969) Hyougoken-nanbu Earthquake (1995) Present seismic design method has been systematized with the analysis of a seismic response This paper shows the present situations and problems in design and construction of caisson foundation under such circumstanee in Japan
1.
Introduction
This report describes the pneumatic caisson method and the open caisson method as a deep foundation The former method is performed using a caisson including a worker Chamber made up of external walls and a ceikng slab at its bottom formmg to be open to the ground that is excavated beneath it As compressed air is pumped into this working Chamber to keep it free from water and workers and machines can excavate and remove soil from beneath it the caisson body is lowered until the excavation has been completed down to the design bearing Stratum
Its features are
[1] Etecause the excavation work ran be done in an atmosphere identical to that at the ground surface it is able to excavate all kmds of soil from clay to rock [2] This means that it is possible to count on the excavation work bemg completed satisfactorily and to execute the work according to the construction project plan
Shortcommgs are
[1] It is [2] The
difficult
to
construct extremely deep foundations

is
excavation facility
large scale
The latter method is a performed by lowering a caisson body to the design bearing Stratum as clam shell buckets or grab buckets are used to excavate and remove the soil inside the caisson
its features are

[1] [2]
Jt
performed by repeating a simple execution procedure Depending on the vSoil quality it can be used to construct ext renn
is
ly deep
foundations
380
PRESENT SITUATIONS AND PROBLEMS
IN
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
Shortcommgs are [1] Excavation under cutting edge cannot be performed [2] It is difficult to deal with settlement or inchnation ofthe
caisson body
Table 1, which presents the kmds of foundations selected for Japanese highway bridges (span length of 20 m or more) up to 1995 reveals that the number of caisson foundations constructed has dechned in recent years
~^^-__
Spread Foundation
Pile Foundation
1966
125
1975
1985
1995
1263
1
1526
1996
145
30
1869
2
207
117
383
170
942
81
Caisson Foundation
Steel Pipe Sheet Pipe Foundation
449
2
816
3
59
Cast-in-site Diaphragm Wall

Others
697
4
38
Totais
995
There are two reasons for this tendency [1] The fact that pile foundation has high applicability for various kind of soil and it is now possible to construct large diameter piles [2] The development of new forms of foundations stood for steel pipe sheet pile foundations and diaphragm walls
Table
Changing Highway Brige Foundation Construction Methods in Japan

X open
caisson
Pneumatic Caisson
foundation
><*
PH
(Floating) PneumatieCaisson tlslana Reciamtion)
shows that many of those caisson foundations, which support long span bridges, have been constructed at locations with very deep water The reason of this Situation is that they are appropriate for deep foundations thanks to the benefits cited above and the large bearing capacity of a caisson foundation Fig
1
20
%' tm
5
40
dt
33
2.
History of the Development of Caisson Execution Technology in Japan

1
10
15
20
Water Dapth(m)
Pneumatic Caisson Figure Underwater caisson Founda first pneumatic caisson as highway bridge foundation tion Executions in Japan constructed in Japan was the foundation of the Eitai Bridge (Tokyo) in 1925 Afterwards this method was frequently used to construct deep foundations until the late 1960s It is necessary to limit the period that workers spend in the working Chamber in order to protect them from decompression lllness and other dangers of working in high pressure environments, therefore the higher the pressure m the working Chamber, the shorter the working time that excavation can be performed As a result, it was necessary to replace manual excavation methods with more efficient mechanized excavation methods In the 1960s, tracked bulldozer-shovels powered by electric motors were developed But because drivability of this machines were very bad at the excavation of soft clay new Systems with the excavation shovels moved along raus installed on the ceiling of the working Chamber were developed during the 1970s Because these new Systems were operated by workers seated on the maehmery ltself, they were still subject to the effects of the highly compressed air In 1989, a remote operatmg machine was developed Operator can drive this machine from operating rooms located at ground level and free from the high pressure atmosphere in the working Chamber
2-1
The
2-2 Open Caisson The first open caisson as highway bridge foundation must be the bridge that was completed in 1887 Afterwards many reinforced concrete caissons were constructed The excavation was done primanly using the clam shell bcket method and as the assistant method of caisson settlement pressurized water or compressed air were injected towards the ground from the external wall Then in the 1970s a method of applying a special friction reduetion sheet to the external wall was developed, and in the late 1980s a press-in method employing ground anchors and center hole jacks was developed These
innovations
are
still
in use
MICHIO OKAHARA, JIRO FUKUI, YOSHITOMI KIMURA, MASAHIKO OISHI
381
3.
3-1.
Recent Trends in Caisson Execution Technology

Pneumatic Caisson
The remote Operation method is often used when the pressure in the working Chamber exceeds 0.294 MPa, and it had been used a total of 46 cases according to a May 1997 survey. Even when this method is employed, workers have to work in the high-pressure area to inspect and repair the machinery, lighting fixtures, and so on. When workers breathe air at a pressure in excess of 0.392 MPa, they suffer the Symptoms of nitrogen narcosis. To prevent this from happening, a respiration system that supplies a helium, nitrogen, and oxygen mixture with low nitrogen content was introduced in 1995 and has now been employed at five caisson foundation construction sites. The method is now applied where work is performed in high-pressure conditions expenenced at a depth of 70 meters under the surface of the water.
Foundation Specifications (m)
Center
Category
Vertical
Super
Span Etc
Location
Bridge Name
Plane
Embedding Depth from

Sea Bed or
structure
Water Depth
(m)
Dimensions
(m)
Ground Surface
34
5
Ground reaction per unit area at the bottom of foundation (kN/m2)
Foundation Ground
Floating
caisson
Double wall cofferdam
Tokyo Bay harbor
Rainbow Bridge
Kodai Bridge
700X450
40
Suspension bridge
570 510 720 485 590 405
12 0
1290450
420
~
0
Alluvial Alluvial
Alluvial
gravel
clay to hard pan clay to
Osaka Bay harbor
0X40
0X33
30
Gelbar truss bridge

Suspension bndge
steel cable-
40
70
diluvial
diluvial diluvial diluvial diluvial
gravel to rock
clay to
Island reclamaUon
Hokkaido
harbor
Osaka Bay
Hakucho Ohashi Bridge

/
46
210
27
5
Floating
Underwater Foundation
caisson
harbor
Ise Bay
/
Higashi Kobe Bndge

Meiko Chuo Bndge Meiko Nishi Bndge
Eiso Bridge
35
0X32 0X30 0X25
stayed bridge
steel cable-
90
14 0
656-453
910
0
Alluvial clay
gravel
to
Floating
caisson
harbor
Ise Bay
/
34
35
Alluvial clay
gravel to rock
to
stayed bndge
steel cable-
Floating
caisson
harbor
Korea / Inchon River
Ise Bay
/
40
28 0
stayed bndge
12 0
Floating
caisson
470X180
26
30 85
Suspension bndge
Steel box
300
97
5
10 0
Constructed
x>n
site
river Inde River Bridge mouth

/
0X10.0
40
girber bridge
Suspension bndge
PC box
25
1098~341
Alluvial clay
gravel
to
Alluvial clay
to hard pan
Tokyo Bay harbor
Rainbow Bridge
Nagai River Bndge
Tomei Ashigara
700X450
47
39 0
570
On-land Foundation
Kan-etsu Expressway mountains

Tomei
6X18.0
26 0
girber
bndge
PC cable-
123
Gravel
reconstruetion / mountains
Bndge
0180
22 0
stayed bridge
185
Torock
Table.
Large scale Pneumatic caisson Foundations
The following unresolved challenges remain. [1] Shortening the caisson body construction work process to balance it with the excavation process [2] Gaining the ability to work at deeper levels by resea-rching Saturation methods for mixed gas respiration and the Joint use of other construction method such as the soil freezing methods.
3-2. Open Caisson The Super Open Caisson System (SOCS method), an automatic open caisson technology, has been developed as a joint public - private sector research project at the Public Works Research Institute of the Ministry of Construction.
This new technology provides the following benefits. [1] It includes newly developed excavation machmery that can rehably excavate the ground under the cutting edge ofthe caisson down to great depths. It permits automatic Operation ofthe excavation machinery in harmony with soil lifting equipment.
382
IN
permits the excavation and caisson attitude data to be linked to perform automatic press-in settlement control. [3] To rationalize the execution ofthe caisson body construction, prefabricated caisson bodies were
[2] It
developed.
This new system has been used
to
remains
to be done is to loser its cost and
perform excavations down to a maximum depth of 53.5 m. All that expand the rnge of soil types it can be used to excavate.
Foundation Specifications (m)
Center
Category
Location
Bndge Name
Plane
Embedding Depth from

Sea Bad or
Super
structure
Span Etc.
(m)
Water Depth
(m)
Foundation Ground
Dimensions
Ground Surface
50.0 45.0
Steel box
Crane lowered
Hiroshima
Bay
/
harbor
Umeda Bridge
016.0
girder bridge
Steel box
250
150
10-15
15.0
Alluvial clay
gravel
to
diluvial
diluvial
Undersvater Foundation
caisson
Hiroshima
Bay
/
harbor
/
Hiroshima Bndge
Kiso-sankyo Bndge
^10.0
011.0
09.0
Alluvial clay
gravel
to
girder bridge
Steel Truss
On-iand execution
(Island reclamation method)
Ise Bay
river
/
52.0
40.5
9.0
Sand/clay
to
gravel
to
Anakeurm nver
Nitta Bndge
Nagai River
Stiffened arch bndge

PC box
123
Alluvial clay
gravel
On-land Foundation
Kanetsu Expressway mountains
Bndge
43.5X16.5
10.0
girder
bridge
To
gravel
Table.
Large Scale Open caisson Foundations
4.
Caisson Foundation Design Methods: Present Status and Future Challenges
4-1. Present Design Methods
4-1-1. General Items Design Standards for highway bridge have been issued as a notification ofthe Ministry of Construction under the title, "Technical Standards for Bridges and Highway Viaducts." Regarding Standards for caisson foundations, since "Design of Caisson Foundations" was issued in 1970, it has been steadily revised and enacted in 1980 under the title, "Specifications for Highway Bridges, Part IV: Substructure " as integrated guidelines for substructure. The seismic design method for foundations stipulated in these Standards were the seismic coefficient method. By the lesson from the Hyogo-ken Nanbu Earthquake of January 1995, seismic design was radically revised; the seismic coefficient method was supplemented by verification based on the ductility design method.
4-1-2. Design Model of a Caisson Foundation Rigidity of the caisson body A caisson body is modeled as a Single column, and is in principle, an elastic body. But the design method accounts for a decline in rigidity caused by cracking or the yield of rebar.
a)
ductility
b)
Ground Resistance
The ground resistance is an elasto-plastic spring model as shown in Figure. 2 to account for the horizontal resistance, the vertical shear resistance on the front, the horizontal shear resistance on the* side, the vertical resistance, and the shear resistance on the bottom. But accounting for the execution procedure, the self-weight was assumed to act only on the bottom of the foundation. The maximum value of the horizontal resistance is treated as Coulombs passive resistance earth pressure, and the ductility design method accounted for three dimensional expansion ofthe
passive resistance rnge.

4-1-3. Caisson Foundation Stability Calculations
a)
Normal conditions, earthquake conditions in
case of seismic
coefficient method and storm
MICHIO OKAHARA, JIRO FUKUI, YOSHITOMI KIMURA, MASAHIKO OISHI
383
conditions
On the premise
that the caisson body and the ground at the surface bottom are in the elastic rnge, it is verified that the horizontal displacement, vertical and horizontal ground
ksv
Vo
Ho
R Mo
JTh
1(
KSHDl
resistance at the bottom, and the member stress are all below the allowable values. b) Seismic design based on the ductility design method This method verifies that the horizontal capacity ofthe foundation is equal to or greater than the ultimate horizontal capacity of the bridge pier body, or in other words that when a load that corresponds to the ultimate horizontal capacity of a bridge pier body acts on foundation, the overall behavior ofthe foundation does not reach the yield ofthe foundation. When the term "yield of the foundation" is defined as the State where horizontal displacement at the inertial force action point of the superstructure begins to
rise rapidly as the horizontal load rises.
4-2.
ksvDi
ksvBi
A/W km A/W
ksVD2| ksHD2
KSVB2
ksVB2
W/W
A/WW
KH2
ksVD3
ksVB3
ksHD3
JL|vwl
ksvB
ww
A/WWWWkH3
A/WVWWV
U/v\|
tvsjks
Bearing Capacity Design: Present Status and Challenges Because one feature ofthe caisson construction method is that Figure. 2 Ground Resistance it is possible to confidently embed a body with high rigidity on the bearing Stratum in order to obtain high bearing capacity, this section describes the evaluation of
bearing capacity.
4-2-1. Present Status of bearing capacity design The ultimate bearing capacity of the ground at the bottom of a caisson foundation for a highway bridge is generally found based on the resultL of soil tests and soil explorations and using a formula (1) that is similar to the Terzaghi bearing capacity formula premised on the general shear failure of the ground. Because a deep foundation such as a caisson foundation resists the horizontal load or overturning moment aided by the ground at its front surface, only a little of the load is borne by the ground at its bottom surface. So equation (1) ignores the eccentricity and inclination ofthe load.
qd= a-c-Nc
Where:
qd
a
Nc,
0.5
B-
-Nr
q-Nq
-d)
ultimate bearing capacity (kN/m2)

shape factors
N y, Nq
c
B
y
q
bearing capacity factors cohesion ofthe ground at the bottom surface (kN/m2) width of foundation (m) unit weight of the bottom surface ground (kN/m3) weight of the soil above the foundation bottom (kN/m2)
caisson foundation is deeply embedded, the ultimate bearing capacity calculated using formula (1) is extremely large. But the quantity of settlement during this ultimate bearing capacity is not clearly known. In the case of large foundation dimensions where it is impossible to ignore the quantity of settlement for the stability calculations, a-designing maximum value ofthe allowable vertical bearing capacity is established considering this fact in order to perform the stability calculations for normal conclition or the seismic coefficient method referred to above. This maximum value, which is shown in Figure. 3, is obtained by modifying the results of plate loading testing of the pneumatic caisson added an engineering judgment. To use the ductility design method. an elasto-plastic spring model with the ultimate bearing capacity ofthe bottom surface ground obtained from formula (1) as the maximum value is
When
established.
384
IN
4-2-2. Challenges The plate-loading test performed inside the working Chamber of a pneumatic caisson during construction has, in some cases, obtained an ultimate bearing capacity of about 10,000 kN/m2. But the experimental maximum value of the bearing capacity shown in Figure. 3 is set very low to obtain a value on the safe side in
Pneui natic (Gj avel) 48 M

Pneu
ff and) 48] )f
+ TOC
400
en(Grave])48Df
1
300
&
Open (Sand) !8Df
Figure. 3 Maximum Value (Normal Conditions) of design work. the Allowed Vertical Bearing Capacity of It has been pointed out that there are the Ground at the Bottom Surface of a discrepancies between the measured and Caisson Foundation theoretical equation (1) values with the static formula, even in the case of a shallow foundation: the existence of the scale effect of the bearing capacity factor for example. The scale effect ofthe bearing capacity factor is gradually being clarified thanks to the Performance in recent years of more precise gravity field or centrifuge model tests, and by performing large bearing capacity tests of spread foundations in natural solid
ground1*.
engineering terms. It is, therefore, necessary to establish more precise formulae to estimate bearing capacity and quantity of settlement in order to perform more economical foundation
Effective embedded Depth Df(m)
And to expand and apply the shallow foundation bearing capacity theory to deep foundations, various problems including that of the disparity of the failure mechanisms of the two kinds of foundation must be overcome. For example, while the embedment effect increases the bearing capacity, it also makes the stress- dependency ofthe shear resistance angle of earth <t> used to calculate the bearing capacity factor becomes remarkable. It is also not clear if the shape factor of a shallow foundation that is set primarily based on test results and experience-based judgments can be applied to a deep foundation without modification. And even the deep foundation theory proposed by Meyerhof and Vesic is still plagued by many unresolved problems that are currently under research. These include the problem of the discrepancies on the theoretical model caused by the difference in the size of piles and caissons, the determination ofthe ground constants for design use, and so on. Remarkable progress in computation technology and ground exploration technology seen in recent years are expected to contribute to the final establishment of a bearing capacity estimation formula for caisson foundations based on the perfect plasticity theory and
elasto-plastic theory
activity underway to develop methods of estimating bearing capacity using FEM analysis methods that precisely model the strength deformation properties of ground based on the results of extremely detailed soil tests. In order to obtain data needed to verify the effectiveness of this method, eccentric loading test of spread foundations incorporating pneumatic caissons are being condueted on dense fine sand ground during foundation construction 2); Through these tests and analysis that is expected to provide a practical working bearing capacity estimation method that also aecounts for settlement so that it can be applied to deep foundations as well as shallow foundations.
On the other side, there is lively research
Reference:
1) Kusakabe, 0., Maeda, Y., and Ohuchi, M.: Large-scale loading tests of shallow footings in pneumatic caisson, J. Geotech Engrg, ASCE, Vol. 118, No. 11, pp. 1681 - 1695, 1992. 2) Oyake, T.. Ohuchi, M., Kimura, Y, Nakano, M. and Tatsuoka, F.: Field model bearing capacity tests on a Pleistocene sand deposit Foundation Failures, May 1997, Singapore, pp 1 - 12.
A.K. CHATTERJEE
PROBLEMS OF CONSTRUCTION O THE SECOND HOOGHLY BRIDG CALCUTTA AND TH
A.K.Chatterjee,
Sr
Vice President, Gammon India Ltd, Mumbai, India.
.,**"
Born Bachelor
1938,
fc
of
Engineering(Civil), Calcutta University,

employed Gammon
Since 1960
f:
with India
SUMMARY:
386
PROBLEMS OF CONSTRUCTION OF CAISSON FOUNDATIONS OF SECOND HOOGHLY BRIDGE
1.0
LAYOUT
1
and the layout of F-3 and sections in The general elevation and plan ofthe bridge is shown in fig. fig.2. Layout of F-2 is similar to F-3, but the length ofthe pier in plan is slightly lesser than the pier over F-3. Layout of F-4 is shown in fig.3. F-l is similar to F-4 but with larger sizes.
Photograph
2
shows
view ofthe completed bridge.

F3
THE PROBLEMS FOR CAISSONS UNDER F-2 &
AND THE SOLUTIONS
Problems connected to the construction ofthe caisson plugs Originally it was required that the bottom plugging be carried out in the dry. This could have been achieved by plugging under pneumatic conditions only, if to be done in one Operation. However to obviate risks and dangers associated with plugging under pneumatic condition under a large head of water, pneumatic plugging was ruled out, as a measure of prudence and abundant caution.
2.1
The Solutions and methodology finally adopted to overcome the problem 2.2 On examining other alternatives, a safer and satisfactory alternative of forming the plug in two stages, was adopted. In this methodology an under water plug in colcrete/concrete to sustain base pressures due to seif weight of caisson and the vertical pressure caused under the plug by a hydrostatic head reckoned from HTL or LTL, after placing vertical steel bond bars in this plug for
eventual Integration, was cast in the first stage. After curing followed by dewatering, a Iayer of RCC plug over the first stage plug was cast in dry and cured to integrate with the first stage plug. Both these plugs were individually and integrally designed to sustain the various stage loadings that would be incident on them including the service loading. Fig.4 shows the typical integrated plug.
2.3
The problem of casting the caisson caps for F-2 and F-3
To cast the heavy capping slabs, an elaborate and supporting system would normally have been required, even though constructing such a structure in dry was possible. However this would have been uneconomical and time consuming.
2.4
The Solutions and methodology of construction Precast concrete shuttering slabs were designed to sustain the seif weight
of the caisson cap.
Connector reinforcements were provided to integrate them monolithically with the caisson cap which was designed to cater for loadings that would occur under service. These precast slabs being light, in actual construction, handling was not difficult and the system worked well and successfully during actual construction.
3.0
3.1
PROBLEMS OF CONSTRUCTION
The problem
is
OF
CAISSONS FOR F-3
sensitive to silting and scouring even with slight disturbances in regime conditions. To obviate destabilisation of the bed, large obstructions to the river flow was considered undesirable. Construction of caissons with the aid of cofferdams was therefore ruled out.
The river The Solution and methodology of construction The alternative of constructing by the floating caisson method was adopted. The depth of water at the foundation location was about 15.0 m during high tides. Structural steel caissons 22 m high and weighing about 800t were used. Initially an 8.0 m high steel caissons weighing about 360t were
3.2
assembled over a specially designed tilting slipway platform (photograph 2), launched into the river during the high tides and transported to location by tugs. The steel caissons were aligned by using
A.K. CHATTERJEE, V.M. DHARAP
387
very high precision theodolites and distance measuring units (distomats) from two survey stations on opposite river banks and one survey Station constructed in the river on the upstream side of the location. The caissons were grounded at the location using a combination of concrete and water bailast providing the flexibility to refloat the caisson in an eventuality. The design and construction of the steel caissons, tilting slipway platform, floating Operation, anchoring arrangement, towing including many other associated Operation, alignment and grounding and sinking Operations, activities needed a very detailed investigation and meticulous planning to achieve the desired results, which was very successfully done at site. Photograph 3 shows caissons of F-3 under
construction.
The problem of constructing the pier over F-3 As mentioned above, obstruction to water way had to be minimum. Therefore the top level ofthe caisson was kept very low at +0.609 KODS i.e. 6.76 m below high tide level. Construction of caisson caps and part of the pier system had therefore to be carried out underwater, throwing a
3.3
serious challenge.
3.4
A
The Solution and methodology adopted
circular RCC wall of short height was constructed over the outer wall of the twin caissons followed by the construction of 7.0 m high dismantlable circular steel cofferdams. The caisson caps and a part of the pier box was then cast within the circular cofferdam upto a height slightly above the HTL. Four temporary RCC columns were cast alongside the partly cast pier boxes to support steel trusses spanning over the twin caissons. Thereafter a 6.0 m wide & 16.0 m long portion ofthe connecting pier beam weighing 600t approx., in the shape of a trough and being a part ofthe pier system, was cast above the high tide level. The soffit shuttering for this pier beam was supported by a support system suspended from the truss. A portion of the circular steel cofferdams was dismantled and the pier beam partly cast with the truss support, was lowered into position by means of hydraulic jacks and seated over brackets provided at the soffit level of the caisson caps. Vertical steel gates were then erected on the outer faces of the pier walls at the junctions between the connecting pier beam and the pier box. These gates were sealed with the help of divers. Thereafter the pier box with the pier beam was dewatered completely, which resulted in a very effective sealing by water pressure from outside. The junction at the soffit slab level and between the pier walls were integrated by insitu concrete. The joints were shaped in the form of saw-tooth type castellations with connector reinforcements for proper shear transfer. The steel cofferdams were then completely dismantled and the rest of the pier box above the HTL and the pier cap constructed in the conventional manner. A difficult part in this construction was to achieve the enmeshing of the horizontal bars of the pier boxes and the connecting beam, and the vertical bars of the steining. Hence every space between the steining bars was actually measured and a layout drawing made. The horizontal bars in the pier beam were slightly adjusted before lowering to enable a smooth passage.
4.0
THE PROBLEMS OF F-l & F-4 AND SOLUTIONS
Being land based foundations no extraordinary problem excepting during sinking the caissons, was encountered. The slight difficulty in sinking during the last few metres was overcome by providing a moderate kentledge. Normal underwater plugging was carried out on completion of sinking
5.0
CONCLUSION
construction of the foundations and substructure of 'Vidyasagar Setu' provided many chailenges to the design and construction engineers. It can be said that the
As described above, the
388
PROBLEMS OF CONSTRUCTION OF CAISSON FOUNDATIONS OF SECOND HOOGHLY BRIDGE
experience gained by the engineers in tackling the design and construction problems would provide the knowledge that could be drawn upon to help resolve similar problems expeditiously in future projects of this nature.
Acknowledgement:
Hooghly River Bridge Commissioners
OF
BfOCC
<)calcutia see
HOWRAH
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II
ELEVATION
I
SECOND
HOOGHLY
BRIDGE
FIG.1
m
PICR
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PIER
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CAISSONS F3
2
FIG.
AK CHATTERJEE VM DHARAP
389
:;
OF
BRIDGE
WIOIH
OF
WELL/PIER
j!
OF
WELL/PIER
r'
A
sj
A
y ^
y A
RLt
30
05M
JrR LOO
05M
U/<
ANCHOR CABLES FOR ANCHORING
PIER
DECK
TO
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QQ
^flfl.
00
um
-40
60M
10M
<>)v.y
500
X
2
L + 6
500
MAX AND NORM LEVEL SCOUR
N
CAISSON
1100
*2
44M
PART
1
SECTION
i
5
000
5TE
DIA
50
U/S
f-FOUNOING vb-R L -2 2
LEVEL
8
BOX
PIER
6M
SECTION
L-rAWKi -CONNECTING
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AT
B-B
PLAN
AT
1-1
p7oo
PART
PIER PA
j[ AOA
OF
AND
ONE
CAISSON
OF
F-4
FIG.3
WELL
CAISSON
A-
EMPTY
~)
~>
<
M
C-
30
rltC
C SLAB n STAGE
7*
-)
r*
,/
-.*LVG
15
ANCHOR BARS
RST
STAGE
M
CONCRETE
PART CROSS SECTION SHOWING BOTTOM SLAB REINFORCEMENT
BOTTOM
PLUG
FOR
CAISSON
OF
F-3
FIG. 4
DIFFICULT FOUNDATIONS
- SOME DESIGN
Malik, 1RSE General Manager (Constn) N. F. Railway, Maligaon Guwahati-781011 (Assam)

R. L.
r:^
Lalloo Singh, IRSE Chief Engineer N. C. Railway, Allahabad (U.P.)
392
DIFFICULT FOUNDATIONS OF JOGIGHOPA BRIDGE
- SOME
DESIGN ASPECTS
INTRODUCTION
Jogighopa Bridge has a span configuration of 17 spans of 125 m each, one span of 94.60m and 2 shore spans of 32.60m each, all between the centres ofthe piers. The superstructure ofthe bridge consists of 18.50m high and 11.50m wide double Warren-type open-web steel girders. The roadway is on upper deck and the railway line is on the lower deck. All the foundations are well foundations. Abutments are
supported on twin circular wells of 6.0m diameter having common well cap. 17 foundation wells are of double D type with plan dimensions of Im x 17m. For Separation ofthe road and rail traffic immediately beyond the main bridge, two road viaducts have been constructed. The north viaduct is 422m long and has 7 spans of 18m-RCC girders and 10 spans of 30m-PSC girders. The south viaduct is 660m long and has 7 spans of 18m-RCC girders and 18 spans of 30m-PSC girders. The substructure consists of hollow circular piers supported on pile foundations The sahent features ofthe bridge are given in the table below
1
JOGIGHOPA
(North
KS2
G0ALPARA
(South
125m
T0WN
Bank)
10X125m
Bank)
6mh-
5m
-|32
HFL
36.87
29.55
LWL
ROCK
BEO
PROFILE
11
x
RAIL
CUM
I
ROAD
A
r
BRIDGE
r
AT
i
JOGIGHOPA
Figl
SALIENT FEATURES AT
GLANCE
:
Length of Main Bridge

Span configuration Length of Road Viaducts
2.284 Kms
Ix32.6m+14xl25m+lx94.60m+3xl25m+lx32.60m.
1.082 Kms
:
Span Configuration (i) North Viaduct
7
:
Guide Bunds
(ii) South Viaduct (i) North Bank (ii) South Bank

:
7 x
17.86m (RCC) 17.86m (RCC)
+ +
10 x
18 x
29.73m (PSC) 29.73m (PSC)
850 m long.
478 m long.
General Configuration
Road on upper deck, Railway Line on lower deck.

steel girders. Main spans Double 'D' Type well foundations (1 Im x 17m). Circular well foundations for P-17 and P-18 (18m dia). Navigational Clearance 12.50 M above HFL. Foundation Design Parameters 90,400 cumecs. Design discharge 90 Cumecs/m max. Design discharge intensity 5.00 m/sec Max. velocity of flow RL (+) 36.87 m. Design HFL RL (+) 35.87 m. Seismic design HFL RL (+) 29.55 m Low water level
:
: :
Scour level
Maximum
Seismic Design founding level well resting on sand Buoyancy Well resting on rock
16.95 m 8.79 m RL(-) 36.75 m RL(-) 100% 75%
RL(-)
Maximum tilt Maximum shift
in 80
D/40
393
FOUNDATION PROBLEM
the pier under the
overturning moments caused by
applied loads.
The detailed geotechnical investigations site condueted during the final location survey had revealed the presence of rocky strata at varying depths towards the southern side of the bridge alignment. Two foundations, namely P-17
P-18
ff^FF^H
yu
ii.
of the
and
r
L
r
/!/
*"!
^ÔCK
TRI
SECTIONAL
ELEVATION
OF
affected by the presence of the undulating bed rock. The antieipated maximum scour was expected to reach upto the rock level leaving no grip around the wells. Due to the lack of lateral resistance, the foundations were unsafe from under conditions seismic stability considerations. Since the bedrock was 45 m below LWL, it was not possible to adopt pneumatic working for socketing the well into the bed rock. The design was governed by seismic forces. Since the earthquake can strike from any direction, a large size circular well was required. Since it was not possible to socket the well into the bed rock further sinking, other means of positive by anchorage of well with the bed rock was required.
were
these foundations of with 18m of diameter wells comprises of circular 12 numbers of 1.50m diameter anchor piles socketed through the well steining into the bed rock. The buoyancy effect at the rock base was taken @75% instead of usual 50%. The diameter ofthe wells has been reduced from 18m at the base to 17m at the well cap level. The anchoring of wells with the rock has been done with 12 nos.
The
PIER
NO.-17
design
>'
m
\o
o.<
SECTION
ON
A-A
F,g2
normal well foundations have been sunk through the river bed material and are usually founded on the dense sand. The founding is level generally well below the deepest antieipated scour level so that the well has sufficient grip around the steining. During the worst scour conditions, the available grip around the well foundation prevents the overturning of
The
reinforced diameter spaced equally concrete piles through the steining of the wells. The piles are anchored by 10m inside the rock and fully bonded with the well steining. The well has been provided with an 18m diameter solid M-30 grade concrete bottom plug at the base for transmitting the weight of the structure to the base rock. In addition to the internal piles, 8 numbers of 1.50m diameter external piles were also constructed at Pier No. 17 subsequently to strengthen it. These piles have been integrated with the well cap by a common well-pile cap. Various design aspects of the well base and internal and external piles are briefly discussed in the following sections.
1.50m
394
DIFFICULT FOUNDATIONS OF JOGIGHOPA BRI
Design Loads at Well Base

The dimensions
the foundations,
is
ofthe well
are shown in
figure-
substructure and the superstructure wer different elevations. The weight ofthe superstructure inc
2646t.
The experts at the University of Roorkee carried out the d seismic forces induced by the weight of the structure the entire pier structure was mathematical modeling, appropriate levels. The pier structure has been modele
laterally. The response spectrum for the site was deve epicenters at different fault zones. Based on dynamic moments and seismic shears at different levels were wor as s/16. The moments and shears at the base ofthe well u
**
395
Analysis ofthe Well Base

Normal Case
Area
:
As already stated, the base
ofthe well
is
18m in diameter. The total section properties are
254.47
m2
Maximum stress
at the
Ixx 5153 m4. Iyy well base= P/A + (Mxx/Ixx).
R +
(Myy/Iyy).R
x
(25212/254.47)
(24930/5153)
- 99.08 146.54
and
9.0 (2242/5153)
9.0
43.54
t/m2
3.92 14.65 kg/cm2
- Maximum compressive stress
51.62 t/m2
5.16 kg/cm2
- Minimum compressive stress
Thus, no tension develops at base and the stresses are much below the permissible stress of 100 kg/cm2 under bending compression for M-30 grade of concrete.
ofthe well is subjected to large moments (2,12, 442tm) in load of vertical 22,938t. This combination of loads induces an eccentricity of about heavy ofthe large eccentric load, the major portion ofthe base shall be subjected to tensile stresses. the base as cracked RCC section is, therefore, called for. The results of the analysis of the seismic condition are given in a tabulated form. The Symbols used in the table are explained in the accompanying figure. The position ofthe Neutral Axis ofthe section was calculated by the process of successive iteration. To begin with, the location of the neutral axis has been assumed at the centre of the bottom plug. The sectional properties ofthe cracked section are then determined by Standard formulae. With the load combination acting on the cracked section and the section properties thus determined, the revised location of the neutral axis is worked out and compared with the assumed location. The new location of the neutral axis is then taken as the basis for next iteration. After a few iterations, the correct location of the neutral axis is known along with the section properties of the cracked section. The stresses in the concrete and the steel are then worked out. 22938 t. Axial Compression 212442 tm. V[(2124302 + 22422)] Applied Moment 16.20 Radius of bottom plug, R 9.00m Modular Ratio, mr 0.75 m. Radius of internal piles, r, 7.25m and R0= R'. Cos 15= 7.003m. Distance of piles from centre of bottom plug R' Area of steel in each pile Astp= 0.0550 m2 (54 nos. of 36mm dia HYSD bars). Gross area of each pile Acp= 3.14/4*1.52=1.767m2. 0.891 m2. 16.2 x 0.055 Equivalent area of pile reinforcement Determination of Neutral Axis (refer figure 4) 2.82m. The distance ofthe N. A. above the centre ofthe bottom plug (assumed), Xna 1.2512 rad. Half the angle subtended by the Neutral Axis at the centre, a Cos^Xng/R)
Seismic Case addition to the 9.26m. Because The analysis of well base under
:
In the seismic case, the base
Formulae for segment of circle Area Cosa].R (a Sina.Cosa) R2; Xcg Xna + [(2/3).Sin3a/(a Sina.Cosa) {(16/9).Sin6a/(a Sina.Cosa)}] (R4/4).[ a Sina.Cosa + 2.Sin3a.Cosa leg Moment of Inertia of Moment of Inertia of the element about its own centroid; I0 Notations Icg
:
the
Effective area of X-section after neglecting the element about the centroid of the effective section; Aeff in the section about the centroid of the effective of effective tension Inertia of Moment Ieff concrete area section. Sectional properties under load I0=ICB+A.(Xa!-X0)2(iii4) IcCm4) Area (mz) A.XQ, (m Description X(m)
1.
Core concrete above N. A.
77.189
1.782 1.782 1.782
1.782 1.782
5.387
415.850
12.479
9.135
204.575
0.000 0.000 0.000
237.738
9.190 0.277
14.531
2.PileNo. 1& 12 (steel) 3.PileNo. 2& 11 (steel) 4. PileNo. 3& 10 (steel) 5.PileNo. 4&9(steel)
6.
7.0035.127
1.876
3.344
Pile N.
&
(steel)
>
7.PileN0.6&7(steel) Aefr=IA
1.782
-1.876 -5.127 -7.003
-3.344
-9.135 -12.479 415.850
0.000 0.000 0.000
77.822 173.193 245.398
87.881
Ho
758.149
396
- SOME -
DESIGN ASPECTS
Distance of centroid ofthe effective section from centre, X0 E (A.Xcg)/ ZA 4.732 m. M 103904.3 t-m. P.X0 Applied Moment about the centroid ofthe effective section, M' Distance of N.A. from centroid ofthe effective section, Yc 1.904 m. (P.Ieff)/(M'.Aeff) Distance of Neutral Axis above the centre of circular section, Y0 2.828 m. X0 Yc
(The distance of neutral axis, Y0, as calculated above matches with the distance ofthe neutral axis, are equal, the assumed position of neutral axis is correct.)
Xna,
assumed above, since both
Calculation of Stresses
in the Section
Max. comp. Stress in pile concrete ac Maximum tensile stress in pile steel, ast:
Pile Forces
(P/Acff)
845.93 t/m2 21825.8 t/m' mr{M7Ieff).(R0+X0)-(P/Aefr)}

+
(MVIeff).(R-Xo)
845.93 (7.003-2.828)/(9-2.828) Max. comp. Stress in pile concrete <tc' in the Maximum compression ac'. {A cp + (16.2-1).Astp} pile in the 21825.8 x 0.055 Maximum tension (uplift) outer most pile
572.22 t/m2
1489.6 1200.4
t.
t.
'""
'
tension in the piles is 1200t. maximum the earthquake direction, any pile Depending upon be the to can subjected uplift of 1200t and hence
The
--f-843
piles have to be designed for the same capacity. The bottom plug and the piles are designed with M-30 grade concrete for which permissible stress under seismic condition is 133.3 kg/cm2 under bending 1.333 x 100 113.3 kg/cm2 under compression and 1.333 x 85 direct compression. The maximum compressive stress in the bottom plug as well as pile concrete is well below these values and hence safe. The design ofthe anchor piles for the uplift capacity is given below
all
the
NEUTRJ
AXIS
r
828m
93
^^ztjS^
SFCTION
AT
1
113-47 27*1
(21875 8/nw)
WELL
BASE
STRESS
DIAGRAM
WITH
12
INTERNAL
PILES
Fig:4
DESIGN OF ANCHOR PILES

The
essentially for base of the tensiondeveloped well caused due to overturning moments and resultant uplift under seismic conditions. The base of the well is treated as the solid circular section with each pile acting as steel reinforcement resisting the tension. The socket length inside the rock and the bond length of pile within the well steining have to provide adequate safety against the uplift. The brief computations are given below.
piles
have
been
provided
resisting the
at the
^d
s\
PK
3000m
50t2ilO*T#U<r
I306W-J
er-
SHAPF
OF
ROCK
WEDGE
FOR
INTfRNAl
PILES
Fig:5
397
Pile Reinforcement Maximum tension developed in the pile 1200.4 t. Use 36mm diameter HYSD bars. Area of each bar 10.18 cm2. No. of bars per pile 1200.4 x 1000/(1900 x 10.18 x 1.33)-46.66 nos. 54 nos. of 36mm dia HYSD bars have been provided in each pile. This ensures the pile capacity of about 1392t in tension.
Pile Anchorage in the Rock (see figure Max. uplift capacity ofthe pile
1.333) x 54 x 10.18/1000 (actual tension 1200.4t) Assume piles in a row, the contributing length will be n x 14.5/12 3.80m 10m. Anchorage length in the rock 2 x 10 tan 30 + 1.5 Width ofthe wedge at the top ofthe rock 13.05m 1.55 t per cum. 2.30 0.75 Buoyant unit weight ofthe rock @75% buoyancy Unconfined compressive strength ofthe rock 253.4 kg/cm2 2534 t/m2. Volume ofthe wedge 276.45 cum (1.50 + 13.05) x 10.00 x 3.80/2 276.45 x (2.3 428.50 t Buoyant weight ofthe rock wedge 0.75) 0.01 x UCS Shear stress 0.01 x 2534 t/m2= 25.34 t/m2. Surface area 3.80 x (10.0/Cos30) x 2 3.80 x 11.55 x 2 87.88 m2. Shear resistance 87.88 x 25.34 2224.3 t. Vertical component of shear resistance 2224.3 x Cos30 1926.3 t. Total resistance 428.5 + 1926.3 2352.1 t. Load factor available 2353.1/1392.3= 1.90 > 1.5 OK
=(1900x
1392.3
5)
In the
been considered. This
above calculations, submerged weight of soil above the rock-top upto will provide additional safety against uplift.
the scour level has not
in the Well Steining All the piles are fully bonded with well in the entire length of the steining. Out of 54 nos. of 36mm dia bars, 36 nos., have been curtailed after 10m of bond length in the steining. Beyond this only 18 nos. of 36 mm dia bars have been retained, which have been continued right upto the well cap.
Anchorage
EXTERNAL PILES AROUND

This
is
P-17
the piles, it was found that the
the pier where the work of bottom plug and piling was done first. During the construction of diameter ofthe bottom plug possibly did not cover the entire base ofthe well. This was attributable to improper cleaning of the dredge hole in the under water conditions. The jet grout columns surrounding the well base possibly did not seal the entire periphery of the well. This permitted the
in the dredge hole under the high hydrostatic pressure of 45m during cleaning Operations. The of bottom plug with bedrock below was doubtful in the outer peripheral zone. After discussions contact area with the experts, it was decided that the effective area ofthe truncated bottom plug of 14.0m diameter i.e. the area enclosed by the internal piles only should be considered in design. The integrity of the bottom plug in outer portion was doubtful and hence the foundations needed further strengthening. It was decided to construct 8 nos. of external piles around P-17 to strengthen this pier. 8 nos. of external piles of 1.50m diameter have been constructed outside the well in a symmetrical pattern and integrated with the foundation well by a common well cap. A socket length of 5m has been provided for these piles. The design of these external piles is covered under this section.
inflow of sand
DESIGN OF EXTERNAL PILES:

Basic of Analysis For the design ofthe external piles, the fresh dynamic analysis ofthe pier has not been done. The pseudo-static seismic coefficients obtained from the earlier dynamic analysis were used for calculating the
398
- SOME
DESIGN ASPECTS
additional forces and moments induced at the well base due to the the extended well cap. The critical combination ofthe design loads
additional weight ofthe external piles is given below:
and
Before construction of external piles i.e. all loads excluding the dead load of external piles and the extended portion ofthe well cap, all live loads and the seismic loads. P 2,773 tm. 25,993 t. M After the construction of external piles, i.e. fll dead loads, live loads and seismic loads.
P
32,467
t.
2,42,057 tm.
The foundation well was found to be safe under the normal loading conditions without external piles. The external piles were required only under the seismic loading condition. The analysis ofthe combined well base has been done corresponding to two stages of loading. In the first stage of loading, the section consists ofthe well with the truncated bottom plug of 14m effective diameter and the fll section ofthe 12 nos of internal piles. The loads operating at this stage are the fll dead load of the well, piles, substructure and superstructure complete. At this stage fll section is effective since the moments are small. It does not crack and therefore total section properties are applicable.
The second stage of loading will consist of the loads of external piles and the extended portion of the well cap, the live loads and seismic forces. At this stage, the external piles shall also be effective. The incremental effect of the second stage loads will be resisted by the composite section comprising of truncated bottom plug,
dead
been checked.
The forces in the piles have been worked out from the final stress diagram.
-INTERNAL PILES
151
62->I
'
8OTT0M
PLUG
internal piles and the external piles. Only the uncracked concrete along with the steel in the internal and external piles shall be effective in the applied loads. Because of the resisting the and action two stages of loading, composite the combined section will have two neutral axes, one for the initial section consisting of bottom plug and the internal piles and the other for the group of external piles. Both the stages of loading have been superimposed to obtain the final stress diagram. The position ofthe neutral axes has been of found by trial and error. The compatibility internal and external forces acting on the combined section of bottom plug and piles has
The pile forces
in
AH.
ZONE
H67/mj
744
w*
t/m
U
1
-~ri;
1299 09
(21045
ft/nv)
STRESS
DIAGRAM
COMBINED
SECTION
WITH
EXTERNAL
PILES
Fig:6
different internal
Pile No.
1
and external piles are
tabulated below
Internal Piles
1938.24 1418.77 519.04 -177.95 -485.91 -663.71 -663.71 -485.91 -177.95 519.04 1418.77 1938.24
External Piles
2650.05 1766.72 -125.22 -855.14 -1157.49 -855.14 -125.22 1766.72
2
3
4
5
6
7 8
10
11
12
399
Design of External Piles
All the 8 external piles are of 1.50m diameter and are placed in a symmetrical pattern at 45 apart. These are reinforced by 54 nos. of 36mm diameter HYSD bars in a pattern similar to that of internal piles. The free standing length ofthe piles is 50m in the maximum antieipated scour condition. The effective length has been taken as 0.65L in accordance with Appendix-D of IS:456-1978.
The lateral shear acting at the bottom of the well cap has been assumed to be shared by the well and the group of external piles by frame action. The piles are fixed both at bottom and top. The well has been assumed as fixed at the bottom and free at the top. This is a conservative assumption for calculating shear in piles and gives higher shear force and consequently higher bending moment in the piles. The external piles
have been designed for the tensile force of 1157 mt, compression of 2650 mt and the bending moment induced due to horizontal shear in piles. The socket length of 5.0m in the rock has been provided which is
adequate for resisting the tension in the piles.
CONCLUSION:
P-17 and P-18 have been briefly discussed in this paper. These special design features were necessitated due to peculiar and difficult foundation conditions at site. The work has already been completed and the bridge has been opened to traffic.
Some
ofthe important design features ofthe difficult well foundation
FOUNDATION FOR THE

Ingmar SVENSK
Vice President Skanska Teknik AB Gteborg, Sweden
Per-Ola SV AHN
Technical Manager Bridge department Skanska Anlggning AB Gteborg, Sweden
402
tsy
FOUNDATION FOR THE UDDEVALLA BRIDGE
$!/
Figure lb
Sections ofthe bridge
Soil Conditions
The main span for the Uddevalla Bridge crosses the fjord "Byfjorden", while the northern approach bridge crosses the small creek "Kroken". The ground level above the water surface varies along the bridge from 0 to + 37 m.
The soil layers along the southern approach bridge are parts of an end moraine. This formation has length of about 2 km and a width of about 500 m. The Supports SI 1, S10 and S9 are all placed in the central parts ofthe frontal moraine. To the north of these Supports the bridge is located towards
the western side ofthe centre ofthe end moraine. S8 to S5 and the southern tower SI are thus founded in the western outer parts ofthe end moraine.
The northern part ofthe frontal moraine lies under water and forms the threshold ofthe fjord towards the sea. The frontal moraine was created during the last glaciation when temporary breaks
occurred in the ice melting. The deposit was formed along the ice margin during a period of 100 to 200 years around 12 500 years ago. In a limited area moraine, silt, sand and gravel accumulated in one or several ridges in front ofthe ice. Fine-grained soils also sedimented when melt water from the ice flowed out at the ice front. Later when isostatic uplift occurred, the frontal moraine was exposed to waves and wave-wash, thus the soils vary in a dramatic way across the frontal moraine.
The thickness ofthe tili, south ofthe fjord, varies between 30 to 60 m. Depth down to solid rock
and its Variation is indicated in figure 1. Sand is the dominating soil type down to 25 35 m depth. From S6 and north the sand is silty in the surface Iayer. The sand overlays silty clayey moraine.
The soil is dense to very dense at the location of SI 1, S10 and S9 according to results from hammer soundings. Further north the Sediments are very loose to loose down to 10 15 m depth. Underneath these loose Sediments the soil is dense to very dense.
North ofthe fjord where the northern tower

rieh gneiss.
is
founded rock surface occurs. The rock type
is
mica
The Supports N5, N6 and N7 are placed and founded in the small creek. The water depth in the creek is limited to about 3 m. The depth down to solid rock is however up to 80 meters. Great variations in depth occur, as can be seen from figure 1, and locally the rock surfaces form very
steep slopes. In this area the soil consists of postglacial Sediments down to 20 m depth and
INGMAR SVENSK, PER-OLA SVAHN
403
Introduction
The E6 highway between Oslo in Norway and Malmoe in the southern part of Sweden has during the last ten years been continuously upgraded to a motorway Standard. The highway acts as an important link for the communication from Scandinavia to Europe.
One critical Stretch is the by-pass of Uddevalla, which is located in the end of a deep fjord. The existing road passes east and through the central part of Uddevalla. After extensive investigations
during the last thirty years
it was
9
decided that the new road will pass west of Uddevalla.
The new route is approximately
km and will save 12.8 km in total length for the road E6. However the route passes through very sensitive locations. The southern side ofthe fjord has both archaeological and geological values which are classified as of national interests. At the northern
side
ofthe fjord there
is a
location of established dwelling houses, which partly interfere with the
suggested route.
The Swedish Road
conceptual design and the tender work started in May 1996. The accepted tenderer was the Swedish contractor SKANSKA and the Design and Build contract was signed in January 1997. Structural and geotechnical design was performed by Skanska Teknik. The design work started immediately and the construction works started in
a
Administration performed
August 1997. The bridge will

The Bridge
The bridge has
be
opened for traffic in May 2000.
total length of 1712 m and comprises of three different parts. The southern part an approach bridge with a length of 506 m. The central part is the main bridge with a total length of 772 m and finally the northern part is an approach bridge with a length of 434 m. The bridge width is designed for a four lane motorway, i.e. a free width of 11.25 m in both directions.
a
is
The two approach bridges are composed of two parallel steel box girders with an upper composite slab of concrete. Each girder is supported on six piers and one abutment. The two piers for a support are normally founded on one common footing. The foundation is performed with footings
on soil, solid rock or piles.
The main bridge is a cable stayed bridge having a main span of 414 m and two side spans of 179 m each. The superstructure is a steel grid with a composite slab of precast concrete. The two towers have a height of 140 m above the sea level. The towers are built in concrete using seif climbing
formwork. The southern tower
is
founded on piles and the northern tower
is
founded on solid rock.
(S?l)
@>
(S9)
(SB)
(S7)
(S6j
()
^
i
'
rt
ft
--de
xr
i
Figpre la
Elevation ofthe bridge
404
FOUNDATION FOR THE UDD
underneath follows glacial Sediments. The postglac gyttja, clay and silt. The dominating postglacial soi in figure 2. The glacial Sediments are sand and clay
Figure
CPT-results and results from laborato
INGMAR SVENSK, PER-OLA SVAHN
405
4500 kN. Calculated vertical deformation in serviceability limit State is 7 mm. The very limited deformation is due to the fact that most ofthe pile capacity origins from the toe located near solid rock.
ultimate limit State
is
The northern tower,
Nl,
is
ultimate limit State
founded directly on the solid rock. Maximum allowed rock pressure in 3,9 MPa.
is
The support N5 is founded with 41 steel core piles drilled down into solid rock. The steel core diameter is 150 mm and 210 mm for some ofthe piles and the pile capacity is 2500 respectively
3600 kN in compression. In tension the required pile capacity is 800 kN for both types of piles. The steel core is surrounded by a steel-pipe filled with concrete.
The two supports N6 and N7 in the small creek are both founded on driven steel pipe piles filled with concrete. About 50 piles were used for each support. The pile diameter is 508 mm and the
mm. The pile capacity is 2250 kN. The piles are driven down to the rock surface and thus end bearing. Due to the steep rock surface the toes for 15 % ofthe piles are secured with a dowel drilled into the rock. Dynamic testing was used for determining the pile
wall thickness
is 14,2
capacity.
The supports N8, N9 and
Nil
are founded
directly
on the rock surface.
The support N10 rests on a footing founded on compacted fill lying directly on the rock surface. The thickness ofthe fill is up to 7 meters. The compacted fill consists of friction material.
Performance of the foundation work The available time for construction is very short. Therefore it has been necessary to Start the foundation works for several supports simultaneously. These works started in August 1997 and
were completed in March 1998.
As mentioned in the
the bridge is placed in a very sensitive environment in many respects. Foundation works in general have a significant impact on the surrounding area. Noise, pollution and destruction of archaeological and geological values are common negative effects. To
introduction
avoid these effects the contractor has had to present and follow, for Swedish regulations, an extensive environmental plan. The Performance ofthe foundation work has been strongly influenced by this plan. The requirement for maximum noise level is based on an equivalent noise level, LAq, in dB(A). The requirements for different times during a week are shown in the table below. LA(t) is the ndlse level in dB(A) at time t.
Mon-Fri
07-18
18-22&
Weekends
22-07
MO
L^lOlog^-JlO T
1 o
l0
-dtW(A)]
Dwelling houses
LAq<60
LAq<50
LAq<45
The southern approach bridge is founded with footings and piled foundations. The piling work started in a support close to the core ofthe end moraine (S8). The support was originally designed with friction piles. However the piling work was soon interrupted because it was impossible to continue the work without destroying the concrete piles during the installation.
After additional geotechnical investigations it was decided to change the foundation to a footing founded directly on the soil. The remaining supports are performed in principal according to the initial design.
406
FOUNDATION FOR THE UDD
The two towers for the main bridge are founded w The installation ofthe 106 steel pipe for the southe
pile driving. The work was plarined to be performe 7 tons and a theoretical energy of 75 kNm. The wo
weeks it was obvious that the pile driving equipme time schedule. It was common with pile-stop after
rock. After some days without driving it was possi refusal" was a matter of fact.
To increase the capacity
ofthe pile driving it was decrease the amount of blows for the installation w the equipment to a more efficient one. However th cases exceeded) with the initially selected pile driv
noise level the first alternative was to reduce the a drilling beside the pile during the driving. High wa driving. The drilling reduced the pore pressure and driving, but not good enough. Hence it was decide
hammer to make the final driving ofthe piles. Tha additional measures to increase the noise damping. was a tube of concrete with a length of 5 m placed pile driving. The second way was a wall of normal
placed on three sides ofthe foundation area. Toget noise level so it was possible to perform the piled maximum noise level in any apparent way.
Planning and Monitoring the Foun
L
Klaus FALBE-HANSEN Director Ove Arup & Partners
Copenhagen Denmark
Klaus Falbe-Hansen, born 1943,
'..i:.
Jrgen GIMSIN Managing Direct Gimsing & Mads

Horsens
Denmark
Jrgen Gimsing, bo
received his degree from the
received his degree

1967. He
is
Technical University of Denmark

in
Technical University
in
1967. He joined Ove Arup &

is a
Mana
Partners UK in 1968 and
of Gimsing & Mads
Director of Ove Arup & Partners Denmark. He is Project Director of

the ASO Group
Technical Manager
Group.
SUMMARY
The Oresund Bridge across the sound between Den
408
PLANNING AND MONITORING THE FOUNDATION
INTRODUCTION
The Oresund Link across the sound between Denma is owned by Oresundskonsortiet who, with advise fr
and
build contracts for the main section ofthe Link responsable for design as well as the actual construc
the year 2000.
COPENHAGEtf
"V
ORE
Sai
Central Station
Kastrup
mmersed
tunnel
Copenhagen Airport
I
Appr
Artificial island
K.
FALBE-HANSEN,
J.
GIMSING,
P.
MORRISON
409
CONTRACT STRATEGY AND DOCUMENTS
Contract Strategy The construction contract for the 0resund Bridge was a modified design and construction contract. Prior to the tender stage the Owner and his Consultants carried out extensive investigations into the physical conditions along the bridge alignment. These investigations allowed characterisation of the ground conditions prevailing at the site.
2.1
2.2
Contract Documents
The Contract Documents provided adequate information on which all tendering consortia could provide a fixed price tender bid. The main documents concerning the design and construction ofthe
bridge foundations were:

2.2.1
Reference Conditions
a
description ofthe weather and ground conditions (mainly clay and sand tills over layers of limestone), that could be encountered at the site. This ground condition information included a summary ofthe stratigraphy (the Variation in surface level of each Stratum along the bridge centreline) and the strength and deformation properties ofthe Stratum (mainly tili and limestone); the information provided was sufficient to design the bridge foundations. The Reference Conditions also presented index property test results that demonstrated the variability of materials encountered (especially in the limestone strata). These properties allowed characterisation of the material (based on relatively inexpensive laboratory and descriptive techniques) during the Contractor's ground investigation. The information was provided at tender stage and was used during the basic design stage ofthe bridge foundations; at this stage ofthe design process pier specific ground investigation was not yet available. The soil and rock parameters contained in the Reference Conditions were also the basis for the detailed bridge foundation design. However, at the detailed design stage, the Contractor was required to demonstrate (by means of his site specific ground investigation drillings) that the information provided in the Reference Conditions was valid for each and every pier location. Detailed information on the Owners pre-tender ground investigation work carried out during the preparation ofthe Reference Conditions document are contained in Volume 5 ofthe lth European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering including [1] and [2].
The Reference Conditions contained
1
The weather
conditions were defined in terms of current, wind and temperature all three of which influence construction activities offshore.
Design Requirements The contractual design requirements consisted of three parts: Design Requirements. the Project Application Document and the Definition Drawings. As a basis for the design the Eurocode system was adopted. However, not all the relevant Eurocodes were complete at the time of tender, and many existed only in draft form, so to adapt them to this project a set of Project Application Documents was prepred giving amendments to individual Eurocodes (e.g. EC7 for foundations). Partial safety factors were calibrated, and accidental load cases identified and defined to satisfy the operational risk acceptance criteria developed for the completed Link. The Design Requirements document listed specific load cases and methods for calculation of these loads. Critical load cases for foundation design were ship impacts for the central piers and pylons and the serviceability limit case for all piers/pylons.
2.2.2
410
PLANNING AND MONITORING THE FOUNDATIONS FOR THE 0RESUND BRIDGE
The
Definition Drawings defined
input here.
all visual geometry ofthe bridge; there was little geotechnical A parallel document to the Definition Drawings was the Illustrative Design, which was
not part ofthe contractual documentation but included for information only. This set of drawings showed an example design for the bridge conforming to the design requirements.
Owner retained the right to approve the basic design for conformance to the Design Requirements. However, the Owner only retained the right for comment on the detailed design and thus did not perform the role of checker. This firmly laid the design responsibility on the Contractor.
the
In terms of review
ofthe Contractor's design
Construction Requirements This document contained the requirements (the minimum requirements) for all antieipated construction activities. Regarding the foundations there where structural related requirements for concrete, there were also requirements for the detailed ground investigations at each pier/pylon location and requirements for the underbase grouting and full-scale trials of this grouting between the underside of caissons and the excavated limestone surface.
2.2.3
the
The requirements for the detailed ground investigations were such that, assuming good execution of drilling work, the index properties ofthe sampled ground (density, point load index and unconfined compressive strength etc.) could be compared with the parameters that were measured
during the formulation ofthe Reference Conditions. This approach reduced the necessary ground investigation at each pier location to a minimum by reliance on the vast amount of pre-tender detailed information that was correlated with the design parameters.
The necessary bond between the bases of the caissons and the intact Limestone was to an extent a function ofthe Contractor's design. However, even with this condition it was considered necessary to State that a uniform contact between the caisson base and the intact Limestone must be achieved.
Contractor's construction method to be demonstrated the Contractor was required to carry out a full-scale trial (in fact large scale) ofthe grouting procedure. To enable the robustness of the trial to be proven the trial was required to be carried out successfully twice. The trial grouting Im in plan and represented the bases of both the pylon caissons (rough) and the area was 8m by caissons pier (toothed). It is noted here that the requirement for trial grouting was so strict that when. on one cf the pylon caissons, imperfections were discovered beneath the caisson the need to execute trials ofthe remedial measures was an accepted part ofthe repair process.
To enable the
1
juji
tKJK
ÔiOifrtOiOtCMOtOiOtCrg
i\i\i\i\
w~jr::LW'^t^-*^;,W^:*m$<U
l60rrL
1_
141 m
Fig.2
The 490m Main Span crosses an international Shipping
Lane
K.
FALBE-HANSEN,
J.
GIMSING,
P.
MORRISON
411
MAIN FOUNDATION DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
The depth of water along the bridge alignment varies from approximately 2m to over 8m. At the high bridge pylons the water depth associated with the main shipping water level resulted in ship
impact design forces of up to 560MN being appropriate. Although the pylons were surrounded by protective islands (Fig.2) they were still required to be able to resist the fll ship impact force of 560MN ignoring the effect ofthe protective island. The three adjoining piers were also protected but not required to resist the impact irrespective ofthe islands. Unprotected piers were designed for ship iffltybct forces up to 211MN. These large horizontal forces combined with the anisotropic strength ofthe limestone foundation (weak and weathered horizontal layers) resulted in an accidental impact loading that was in some instances the critical load case. Design ofthe ship impact resistance needed to limit the permanent bridge displacement to 100mm requiring dynamic calculations used whereby the caisson's inertia, movement (acceleration etc.) and the shear resistance ofthe ground was related to the impact energy and stiffhess.
1000
900 800 700 600
500
(1000,800)
400
300 200
(300,300)
Elastic Stress Space

(0,0)
1001000
lA
(1500,0)
200
400
600
800
1200
1400
1600
1800
Mean Effective Stress &m
(Oi'+ c3*) [kN/m2]
Where:
aj': Major Effective Principal
Stress
03': Minor Effective Principal Stress
Fig.3
Definition of Elastic Stress Space for Limestone Formation

a
critical load case was that of c\clic degradation ofthe Limestone foundation material appropriate to the serviceability limit State The specified design check for this required that the stresses mobilised in the limestone were within a predefined eiastic yield loci with bounds related to both shear stresses and normal stresses (Fig.3). The Design Requirements stated that all stress states within the yield loci would result onh in elastic strains and thus limit any cyclic degradation ofthe limestone to a minimum.
For ship impact loading, the anisotropic nature ofthe limestone was of great importance. Hence. the nature ofthe site investigations mentioned above was such that low strength la\ers (called Hl
For all caissons regardless of seabed level
412
Jr\
layers of completely weathered limestone) of 100mm or greater had to be identified by means of core recovery and downhole geophysical testing during the Contractors site specific ground investigations. Similarly, occurrence of weak layers immediately beneath the foundation level would invalidate the Elastic Stress Space and would result in large and possibly uneven settlement ofthe bridge foundations.
information supplied to the contractor led to the design criteria the need for a comprehensive investigation into the behaviour of the limestone being undertaken during the detailed design stage ofthe contract. j(r*
In both
the
ofthe critical load cases being easily understood without
ACTUAL GROUND CONDITIONS AND CONSTRUCTION

Revealed Ground Conditions
*
4.1
The geological boundaries (the important ones being the seabed level and level ofthe top of limestone) specified in the Reference Conditions document were given to an accuracy of 1.5m. Any Variation ofthe level of less that 1.5m from the Reference Conditions was deemed to be at the
Contractor's risk whereas

As part
any Variation beyond 1.5m was deemed to be at the
Owner's risk.
ofthe Contractor's design he was allowed to alter the pier locations within certain geometrical constraints. Hence, the pre-tender borings commissioned by the Owner did not, nor were intended to, survey all pier locations. Interpolation between borehole positions was aided by geophysical survey techniques.
In order that there was a thorough check ofthe information contained in the Reference Conditions the Contractor was required to carry out a specific site investigation at each pier location. The nature ofthe site investigation was specified in the Construction Requirements document in terms
of both borehole dimensions, depth, type of drilling equipment and the regimes for sampling and testing of samples. The specified methods of investigation had previously been tested during the Owners pre-tender investigations and were seen to be the most appropriate for the antieipated ground conditions. The Contractor's ground investigation was not intended to redefine the Reference Condition ground parameters, but was aimed at justifying their use during the detailed design ofthe bridge. The investigations carried out during the formulation ofthe Reference Conditions involved sophisticated large scale laboratory testing and complimentary quarry plate load tests, neither of which were part ofthe Contractor's investigation.
At only 5 ofthe 53 offshore foundation positions were the Reference Conditions seen to be inaecurate with respect to strata levels The most notable, though not largest, Variation in level was at the West Pylon where the surface level ofthe Limestone was seen 1.5m lower than the Reference Condition median level. The result of this was that the approved basic design needed to be modified to account for this strata level change. The cost ofthe physical change was absorbed by the Contractor, the cost of the redesign was, however, absorbed by the Owner due to bad weather conditions delaying the availability of site investigation information. This meant that the Contractor had to Start the detailed design without having the results of his site investigation. At the five most easterly caisson locations the Limestone was observed by the Contractor to be more porous and to have thicker highly weathered bands than previously antieipated i.e. that the Reference Conditions were invalid. It was not suggested that the caisson foundation would fail but that larger than usual settlement (and differential Settlements) could occur. The Owner noted the concern ofthe
J%
K.
FALBE-HANSEN,
J.
GIMSING,
P.
MORRISON
413
Contractor's designer and, without agreeing that abnormal ground conditions were present, accepted that precautionary measures should be adopted to limit the implications of larger than the assumed Settlements of 30 to 50mm. The design Solution was to construct the bearing plate oversized
making allowance for possible future shimming and if necessary realignment ofthe bridge bearings in case larger movements occurred when the fll dead load was transferred. The cost of this extra bearing size was shared between the Contractor and the Owner. The Owner accepted that should further modifications be needed he would himself absorb these extra costs. In the end no additional measures were required and the caisson behaviour ofthe five caissons in question was seen to be similar to other caissons.
4.2
Construction Quality
The Contractor is responsible for the quality ofthe permanent works. To enable the quality to be monitored by the Owner the Contractor was required to seek approval for his Quality System and his detailed Quality Plans covering all design and construction activities. On site monitoring and
assessment ofthe Contractor's Performance by both the Contractor's own quality management and the Owner's Consultant ASO Group, is then carried out on the basis of these approved Quality Plans, the Construction Requirements and the Working Drawings. That the Contractor is responsible for the quality of his own work means that if he flnds that the quality is not as required or procedures are not adhered to, then he is required to issue a non-conformance report (NCR)
non-conformance and the proposed corrective action. In case of remedial work being required, approval is required by both the Contractor's designer and the Owner prior to the remedial work being carried out. In the case ofthe West Pylon foundations faulty underbase grouting was found. The Contractor had located the bad grout, carried out tests and subsequently flled an NCR. The corrective action, which consisted of revisions to method and procedures for the future grouting Operation, was agreed as was the remedial measurements required to the actual substandard grout. In other instances where the Owner's Consultant identifies an apparent nonconformance (ANC), the fact is drawn to the attention ofthe Contractor, and when agreement is reached as to the Status ofthe ANC the Contractor issues an NCR similarly to him having identified the non-conformance himself. Hence, in all instances the Contractor remains solely responsible for the quality and for satisfactory remediation of non-conformances.
identifying
the
CONCLUSIONS
The strategy adopted by the Owner with respect to the way in which the ground conditions were treated for the Oresund Link project can be summarised as follows:
Carry out detailed pre-tender site investigations and interpret all data to be included in the Reference Conditions;
Accept the risk, and cost/time implications, should the ground parameters and stratigraphy levels found at each pier location be outside the limits ofthe Reference Conditions; Accept no claims for unforeseen ground conditions for ground parameters and stratigraphy levels inside the Reference Conditions; and Accept no change in ground parameters resulting in an increased strength utilised by the Contractor without being substantiated by a site investigation at lest as sophisticated as the Owner's pre-tender investigations.
414
This approach resulted in the following benefits relating to the tendering phase ofthe contract:
as
well
as the
construction
The bids returned by each tenderer were based on the same set of ground conditions and on the
same interpretation resulting in a uniformity of tenders for tender evaluation and comparison. The Contractor's designer could commence his design prior to the results ofthe site specific
ground investigations becoming available. Evaluation and approval ofthe Contractor's preliminary design was made against the Reference Conditions which were formally adopted within the contract framework; The details ofthe pre-tender site investigations provided adequate information to ascertain if the ground conditions were in accordance with the Reference Conditions by relatively simple
means.
At the time of writing all site investigations have been finished offshore. The Reference Conditions have been shown to be reasonably accurate with respect to the level ofthe different strata and on no occasion has the condition ofthe Limestone been proven to be significantly worse that the parameters in the Reference Conditions.
REFERENCES
1
Bergdahl U., Mller Malmoe
B. and
Petersson E. (1995).
Site investigations in limestone in
Knudsen C, Andersen C, Foged N., Jakobsen P.R. and Larsen B. (1995). and engineering geology of Kobenhavn Limestone.
Stratigraphy
FOUNDATION FAILURE OF BRIDGES
Ivfl
S.K.B. NARAYAN
Engineer-in-Chief, PWD, Sachivalaya Marg, Bhubaneswar 751 001,
Onssa, INDIA.
S.K. Bijayendra Narayan(bron 1941) Graduate in Civil Engineering and Law, joined State PWD. (1962) and presently posted as Engineer-in-
Chief, P.W.D., Orissa. A life-member of Indian life and Roads IABSE fellow, Congress, Institution-of-Engineers (India) has taken keen in interest of Socio-Technological aspects engineering and has written articles in various forums. He is presently President of Orissa
416
IN
ORISSA-TWO CASE STUDIES
Introduction
The term "Failure", though creates despair & despondency in human mind, often leads to interesting findings, when the misty clouds of causes of failures are unravelled Thus finding out causes of failure always represents an indicator of growth of technology And hence the importance of highlighting the failure Foundation failure is one of the most important modes of failures of any type of structure, more so incase of bridges Two case studies are brought out here only for this purpose
2.
Brief History of Tel Bridge

Originally the Tel Bridge near Belgaon, opened to traffic in 1957, was a submersible bridge of total length 340 40M consisting of 38 No clear spans, each of 7 62M & 1 No clear span of 6 10M The deck level & Highest Flood Level of the bridge was at RL 165 85M & 170 25M respectively This bridge was washed away partially during exceptional flood in 1967 because of the following reasons
a)
b)
c)
Trees hitting the bridge Excessive flood for which the bridge was not designed Excessive scour uprooting the pile foundation (smaller dia
&
length)
As this used to be an important link connecting Bolangir & Bhawanipatna, the two distnct Down head quarters on State Highway 2, immediately a bridge was planned at 393M Stream of the damaged bndge The new proposed High Level Bridge consists of total length 459 15M with 12 spans each of 38 263M centre to centre, resting over foundation with twin-
wells The work was started
in
March, 1969 by one agency
The salient features of the bridge are as follows
Maxm Discharge Velocity Highest Flood Level Maxm scour level Foundation level
11325 Cumec 19M/Sec
171
04M RL 146 32M RL 137 20M RL
During the construction, the high flood of 1973 necessitated construction of one additional span of 15 24M on right side (Kesinga side) By 1973, 8 intermediate wells, 1 abutment well & 7 piers were completed when the first agency left the work The bridge was started by the second agency in October, 1975 By September, 1977, the major portion of the bridge work was completed except the following components
i)
Sinking of pier well No 1 on right side (Kesinga side) was numbered from right to left bank)
Casting of superstructure span numbered from left to right bank)
11
in
progress (well has been
n)
&
12
were to be taken up (superstructure has been
Suddenly again on 13 09 77 the Highest Flood Level rose as high as 171 63M RL & the discharge, calculated corresponding to the Highest Flood Level came out to be 15289 Cumec e about 35% excess over the Design discharge of 11325 Cumec The wells under each pier were twin circular wells each of 4 27M external dia with 0 75M steining thickness Because of such unprecedented flood, pier well No 2, 3 & 4 towards right side (Kesinga side)
i
S K B
NARAYAN, ASHOK
BASA
417
along with superstructure span No 8, 9, 10 between well No 5-4, 4-3 & 3-2 respectively were washed away The rest of the bridge remained in tact, although the river bank of left side & was (Belgaon side) was eroded considerably both in Up stream & Down stream submerged under water No distinct bank used to exist on this side possibly due to considerable erosion and deposition of thick pile of nver born Sediments However the right bank (Kesinga side) is firm with steep bank slope & the tendency of water is to flow in this portion
Causes of failure of Tel Bridge

After the above disaster, a High Power Committees (HPC) consisting of some eminent engineers of the country was formed to find out the causes of failure After a careful study of the available records, data & the evidence received from various officers, the committee was of the opinion that the damage to the bridge had occurred on account of i)
Increased discharge than that for which the bridge was designed
ii)
Concentration
of flow with high
velocity towards Kesinga side (right side)
in)
Erosion of the strata on which the wells were founded
The location of the site was not an ideal one as it was just below a constricted section of the nver Channel resulting in concentration of flow, high velocity & turbulence towards the right bank However, if the rocky strata on which the foundation was located, was strong enough, even the turbulence and high velocity should not have affected the safety of the structure This site, however, has the advantage of having the shortest bridge length It seems that the siting of the bridge was done on the assumption that the rock is hard and merodible, giving a false sense of safety
It
was found from the records that rock was available at a much higher level than the stipulated founding R L In almost all the cases the wells were taken 1 8M to 2 4M inside the rock and then founded
The rock samples from each well were sent to the laboratory for test As the Safe Bearing Capacity of rock reported by laboratory was much more than the design base pressure, those were presumed to be suitable for founding the wells As such the wells were not taken to the stipulated founding level The table below would explain the same in details Since each pier is supported below by twin circular wells, the wells are designated in each location as Up Stream(U/S) & Down Stream(D/S) well
Well
No
ffcunding RL ff metre
l|/S 152
D/S
91
Safe Beanng Capacity (MPa)

1
Calculated Base Pressure (MPa)
03
1
01
152 91
03
U/S D/S
152 65
30
0
86
152 79
92
418
IN
ORISSA -TWO CASE STUDIES
Well
No.
Founding
in
RL
metre.
151.51
Safe Bearing Capacity (MPa)

4.41
Calculated Base Pressure (MPa)
U/S
4
2.34
D/S
151.51
4.41
U/S
5
151.17
6.13
2.34
D/S
151.17
6.13
U/S
6
151.40 151.40
4.98 2.34 4.98
D/S
U/S
7
150.81
8.40
1.96
D/S
149.70
3.65
U/S
8
148.37
2.22
1.82
D/S
148.45
2.22
U/S
9
138.08 138.08
3.45
1.20
3.01
D/S
U/S
10
146.64
7.86
1.97
D/S
146.00
7.68
U/S
11
152.44
1.42
1.31
D/S
152.44
2.99
The only short coming in the project was that Geological investigation of the rock by an expert Geologist was not condueted which would have revealed a typical nature of the rock. The actual reason of the failure was the founding of the well on a peculiar type of rock
formation.
On the advise of the High Power Committee, a Geologist was deputed for the purpose of investigation of rock strata. According to him, the rock strata is dipping at 45 to the horizontal sloping towards left bank & Up stream side. The rock layers are intervened with a
thick Iayer of whitish powdered chalky matenal which get leached out when absorbed in water. Some percentage of white mass which is found within the layers of the rock, rather get disintegrated by coming in contact with water and lead to the collapse of the rock layers. This
Ml
4.
S K B
NARAYAN, ASHOK
BASA
419
caused the collapse of foundation & superstructure of 3 spans of the bridge Hence stated that the rock on which the wells have been founded are partially erodible
it
may be
Recommendation
As
of High
Power Committee(HPC) to protect the undamaged portion
the damaged wells were lying along the bridge axis, these could not have been reconstructed at the same location Therefore the wells were sunk at suitably shifted positions along the bridge axis resulting in change of superstructure spans The flood 2M x 1 2M x protection in the form of garlanding ring with the help of concrete blocks of 1 2M interconnected with 32mm dia hook bars with loose chain for easy launchmg, both in Up stream & Down stream of the bridge axis were provided to resist the water current of high velocity of the order of 4 27 M/Sec in accordance with the Suggestion of the High Power Committee The cost of such protection work was high However this type of floor protection was considered essential for the safety of the bridge particularly for the undamaged spans whose foundations can also be eroded, if the concentration of flow shifted to left side
1
was observed during the flood of 1977 that apart from the damage to 3 spans of the bridge, water spilled on the bank causing a breach of about 122M on the Belgaon side (left side) approach road to the bridge A suitably designed spill portion was provided as per the Suggestion of the High Power Committee on the left side with proper pitching such that Provision was made for passing 11325 Cumec discharge through the bridge proper and balance through the spill portion on left side (Belgaon side) and it was made in such a way that in the normal flood, the communication system is not disrupted by more than one or two days
It
The bridge was completed by the year 1994

5
third agency after many hurdles
&
finally opened
to
traffic
in
Brief History of Surlake Cut Bridge
located at 10 KM from Puri on the famous Pun-Konark marine dnve It was completed in the year 1982 during the construction of Pun-Konark Manne dnve, which was made to complete the Golden Triangle of Orissa consisting of Puri, Konark & Bhubaneswar The traffic density of foreign tourist is quite high on this road and hence its importance
Surlake Cut Bridge
is
the Tel Bridge, Surlake Cut Bridge is a small, but important High Level Bridge, consisting of R C C box culvert of 7 units of 4 88M Centre to Centre each with a central suspended span of 2 44M There is discontinuity at the foundation level as well as the deck slab level Up stream & Down stream end are protected by sheet pile
Unlike
6.
Causes of Failure of Surlake Cut Bridge
The bridge was designed for a discharge of 85 Cumecs Suddenly in the rainy season of 1997, because of a breach in the nearby River, Nuanai, discharge of about 850 Cumecs (i e 10 times the design discharge) passed through the box culvert Because of such of the to a water increased exceptionally high discharge, velocity great extent and it the sheet pile cut-off provided earlier and caused heavy local scour, forming deep displaced gorge to the tune of about 5M in the Down stream end from Left Bank (Konark side) to the centre of the bridge and its depth gradually reduces towards the Up stream The raft has been cracked & displaced in the central portion of the bridge Near the joint of the suspended
420
IN
ORISSA -TWO CASE STUDIES
settlement of about 325mm on Down stream end Thus the portion of the Box Structure Bank (Konark side) has been tilted towards the Down stream end As a deep gorge has been created in the Down stream end and the raft has settled to a great extent, it is quite risky to jack up the superstructure to restore the relative settlement of 325mm of the superstructure A Baily Bridge type arrangement was made to restore the traffic on such an important route
span there
is a
of Left
7.
Conclusion
Fixing of the founding level in case of bridge depends on the discharge, waterway provided and type of strata of the nver bed For different types of soil the maximum scour level & founding level can be calculated depending on the silt factor, flow concentration & water way But in case a sound hard inerodible rock is encountered at a level, higher than the etc Maximum Scour Level, then the scour line is considered to be the top of the rock level and founding level can be fixed by keeping the structure below the rock with some minimum grip length as per relevant code But to take a decision, whether a rock ss hard & inerodible, is a tncky one In such cases, it is always preferable to take the help of an expenenced geologist to find out the nature of rock and the rock profile (Dip & fault), along with field testing of the & erodibility) Then only the decision on quality of rock (both Safe Bearing Capacity foundation can be safe & suitable
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to the authonties of the Works Department, Government of Onssa, for allowing to see the different relevant documents on the above two bridges and permit to publish this paper
REFERENCES
i)
Design
&
Drawings of Tel Bridge near Belgaon

in
ii)
Report of High Power Committee (HPC) on failure of Tel Bridge near Belgaon
Design
&
1977
in)
Drawings
of
Surlake Cut Bridge
CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE BRIDGE ACROSS RIVER BRAHAMPU

CS BALRAMAMURTHI Chief Engineer, Ministry of Surface Transport (Roads Wing),New Delhi
India
SATISH KUMAR Superintendmg Engineer Ministry of Surface Transport(Roads Wmg) New Delhi, India
SUMMARY
The Kaliabhomara Road Bndge across Brahm main spans 120.00m and two shore spans 67.50 Pre stressed Concrete balanced cantilever arm
with
central Reinforced Cement Concrete sus Dunng the construction of the bridge remedial measures taken were as under: 1) Compulsion of plugging of one well mu by providing 5 No. bored 1.50 m RC
a
422
CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE PROBLEMS OF KALIABHOMARA BRIDGE
BRIEF PARTICULARS OF THE BRIDGE

The Kaliabhomara Bridge near Tezpur has 24 main spans 120.00m and two shore spans 67.50m each. It was completed in the year 1987. The span arrangement consists of balanced cantilever arms of 52.50m long on either side of piers with a central suspended span of 15.00m long. The total length ofthe bridge is 3015m. The cantilever arms are of Prestressed Concrete Box girders over the pier and the suspended span consists of two R.C.C.girders jointed by three cross diaphragms and the deck slab. One abutmenfcof the bridge is located on the Bhomorgauri hill on right bank (North side) and the- other abutment is located near the village Burbandha Chapori on the left bank (south siele). A guide bund is provided on the south bank. A schematic view of the bridge is shown in Figure 1. The bridge is located in seismic zone V ofthe country is seen to be subjected to shaking often due to small earthquakes.
During the construction of the bridge certain problems were encountered for the foundation work. Also after completion of the bridge some problems of maintenance were faced mainly due to subsequent floods and a series of earthquakes which took place in the year 1988,1990. Particulars of problems and the remedial measures are detailed below:
PROBLEM NO.l
Sinking of well under Pier P2 was the first activity with which the work of Kaliabhomara Bridge commenced. It also so happened that it was the last foundation to be completed. As per preliminary sub-soil investigation report the strata for founding this well appeared to have dense sand. However after sinking for 25m deep upto RL 35.60m against the design founding level of RL 5.00m, the work slowed down as it encountered bouldery strata. For two seasons the work of removal of boulders continued and after removing 100 boulders the well reached a level of RL 32.08m. At this point the stability ofthe well was checked for scour considerations and it was established by the calculations that if the scour could be controlled at RL 45.00m the well will be safe. Secondly though the calculations proved that the well would be safe under normal conditions, under seismic effect there was tendency to develop tension.
REMEDIAL MEASURES
To arrest scour at RL 45.00m it was decided to provide a boulder apron around the pier. This was feasible since the well was near the bank. The well was protected by providing 60.00m dia, 3.00m thick crated boulder garland packed under dry conditions prevailing at the time of construction ofthe bridge at the location of well under pier P2 (Figure 3). The
top level of this garland was kept as RL 64.12 and it was decided that the Performance of this garland should be closely monitored so that under no circumstances the scour be allowed to reach below the RL 45.00, the calculated maximum scour level for which the well was found to be safe. Regulr probing is being done now to see if the level has gone below RL 45.00 in which case crated boulders are dumped to make up the level
difference.
To solve the second difficulty of development of tension under seismic conditions, it was decided to provide 4 No.RCC.bored piles of 1.50m dia on the outer periphery outside the well and No. similar pile in the middle though the dredge hole (Figure 2). Apart from this a combined well-pile cap, square in size was provided so as to act as a
1
C S
BALRAMAMURTHI, SATISH KUMAR
423
composite unit This was based on the analogy of stays for a tower The piles however had to be terminated at different levels due to the rock sloping steeply towards the nverside The central pile has been taken to RL 24 00m and other piles to levels varying from RL 29 00 TO RL 32 00m Thus the piles take care of the tensile (uplift) forces under seismic condition and ensure stability of the foundation as a whole The above Solution was preferred since the other alternative of anchoring well by inserting anchor rods through well steining or driving piles through the bottom plug was not considered satisfactory due to bouldery strata
PROBLEM NO.2
The bridge work was taken up in December 1981 and completed in all respects by March 1987 When the bridge was under construction the nver bed near pier P2 was dry Later on during the floods of year 1991, the nver started attacking the north bank and active Channel developed near P2 The wire crated boulder garland was washed away and scour
around this well extended up to RL 37 47
REMEDIAL MEASURES
Protection measures and replenishment of washed away boulders were carried out by dumpmg wire crated boulders and the top level ofthe garland was brought back to RL 45 00 A close monitoring of the top level of the garland up to RL 45 00 is being maintained bv taking levels at regulr intervals This level has appeared to stabilize at RL
45 00
PROBLEM NO.3
month of Apnl and August a series of earthquakes in the region took place A routine inspection of the bndge was carried out after the first earthquake on April 16-17/ 1988 when it was noticed that pier P3 showed a tendencv of tilting towards south Further routine inspections were continued and the following inferences were drawn -
During the year 1988
in the
1)
P3
During the penod from Apnl 1988 to September 1988 deck at the location of pier towards south has increased from 55mm to 83mm i e 28mm
2)
The expansion gap in P3-P4 span on u/s side was more than that on the ds side at the fixed end, indicating that the Pier P3 has a tendency to tilt towards south west
direction
3)
The elastomer pd slab seal type expansion joints for the suspended spans for P2-P3 and P3-P4 were under sustained shear stress and there had been same related movement between top and bottom plates of the knuckle-cum-elastomeric knuckle-
cum-shding type of beanngs with seismic arresters

4)
The raihngs on the u/s side at fixed end had touched each other, which also indicated tendency for tilt
P3
POSSIBLE CAUSES OF TILT OF PIER

1)
Although the movement of P3 was first noticed in April 1988, it is to be stated that the slow movement occurring much before that date can not be ruled out The effect of movement was noticeable by the visible distress in expansion joint pads &
424
CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE PROBLEMS OF KALIABHOMARA BRIDGE
reduetion or increase of expansion gaps. The expansion joint pads were placed in March 1987 and the damage was noticed in April 1988 just about a year after placing the pads. Therefore if any movement which could have occurred prior to placing of pads this cannot be determined as there are no records of visible movement.
2)
From the bore log for foundation of pier P3 it could be noted that the well was not seated on rock. The well is resting on 2-3m thick iayer of pebbles/cobbles mixed with sand and therefore movement due to unevenness of bearing capacity could be
possible.
3)
It was possible that the repeated shaking due to the earthquakes could have triggered
ofthe movement.
4)
1990 another earthquake took place when the number of shocks were seven. However this didn't cause any further movement. This showed that pier P3 appeared to have stabilized because of large passive resistance built up due to earlier movement in foundation.
In Jan
REMEDIAL MEASURES
1)
The slab seals ofthe expansion joints are being replaced. The pier P3
is
2)
kept under constant Observation and

is
as
already mentioned in (d) in
prepara no further tilt

3)
A
noticed.
garland of wire crated apron for a thickness of 2.50m has been provided with the top at RL 44.50m and for a diameter of 66m.
SECONDARY EFFECT DUE TO THE PROBLEM NO.3

The clear gaps provided between faces of cantilever end and suspended spans are 40mm 110mm at fixed end and free ends respectively. On the advice of Prof. Leonhardt elastomeric slab seal type of expansion joints were provided. However the expansion joints provided at free end are capable of catering for a movement of +/-62.50mm. The technological development at that time in this respect suggested that wider expansion joints would have been far more costlier and it was thought the Utility of these joints would have been called into play only in most sever combination of movements. However these extreme combinations of movements have probably come into play because ofthe severity of earthquakes and it is observed that the seals of expansion joints
and
are getting damaged
frequently
REMEDIAL MEASURES
other quick alternative to the above problem than that replacing the damaged slab seals at regulr intervals. The only other Solution is the replacement ofthe expansion joints for the entire bridge by providing the latest single strip/modular type of expansion joints at flxed/free ends, which however can probably wait for the time being.
There
is no
PROBLEM NO.4
Dunng initial sub-soil investigations condueted in 1980 it was observed that the founding strata for pier well PI would he on a dipping surface of rock. To overcome this the bridge was shifted by about 60m towards northwards However when detailed boring was condueted at the shifted location of PI, it indicated the presence of a combination of hard
CS. BALRAMAMURTHI, SATISH KUMAR
425
strata in northern half at

it
a higher location and soft strata in southern half. On practical that it was not possible to provide a well foundation for clear was considerations, shallow depth due to risk of tilting. Thus there was a design problem.
REMEDIAL MEASURES
A
separate design for pier PI was carried out by providing a raft foundation for supporting the pier. The raft was designed in the following way: 1) On the south side where the strata was soft, the raft was supported on 6 No. of bored piles of 1.50m dia. 2} On the north side where hard strata was found, the raft was anchored into the rock by means of 98 Nos.36 mm dia HYSD rock anchors. Further in the design it was assumed that the piles would not share any longitudinal force. However the rock anchors would share part ofthe longitudinal force. They were designed for 9 t of uplift force. Balance force was proposed to be taken care of by providing shear keys underneath the raft in the form of beams embedded in the strata below. For this purpose large size RCC. shear keys were provided in both directions under the pile cap (raft) by cutting trenches below soil in a grid pattern and casting beams which formed an integral part ofthe raft.
REFERENCE
1.
Bridging river Brahmaputra
2.
3.
- publication of NEF Railways. Manual for maintenance of Kalibhomara bridge over river Brahmaputra, Calcutta, 1987, by Stup Consultants (India) Ltd Earthquake engineering studies, eq: 90-06, investigation of probable cause of tilt of pier no.3 of Tezpur bridge, by Department of Earthquake Engineering, University of Roorkee, Roorkee-247667, India
426CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE PROBLEMS
OF
KALIABHOMARA BRIDGE
SKETCH SHOWING FQUMOATlQH LEVEL SCOUI? PRQTE.CTIVE. MEASURES To PIER WE.LLS, P-2
LEVELS
AND
OF
TfcNTATlVE
SRlOGE,
OK UV
WD
KAUA BHQt^QÂ.
3"?
120
K-L.
OOM
8S-V>
=a
(?L
85 50
KL 77
SQ
l?L7?50
UEL
RL C7-5Q
RL^CIO
24-O0
H&L RL
SO
^^
120--*
Lfc_k300
61
BEDUV6L
z+oo
SOO
RJ.
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&o
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LXXJSJZ
j-SQD
ao^raCRATCD
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^WRiF^-^î
^s^
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-3o oo*
*\
2.
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IZ
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gLfe-W
>
+4 fcoo
U'bCxl/
'
32 set>
er
114
o
AT
iai5&
SECTION OF PILE
LEVEL. VAJ^KlES
foundiMq
F0UNOAT10N
B-g
P-2
/*-s
/^-N
8-WjIP
63 4-Q
KLCM)
_f'J^
3t^HYSOBAR7?S
Cnp;
75^BORESASSMowNIM PLAN "oR36$H7SDI*S
'7SMLQGR0UT6
2
Comc BM?
C6HEMT GROUTE PEr?HOLe-)
W.TH
fy
LL<5K*P-
fi^***10
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PRAWjmQ
LZS3
SECTiQK^L ELEVATION
AT
A-A>
P-l
_Ei3-_^_
GENIAL AÂNSEMENT
INNOVATIVE BRIDGE FOUN
The CIDF System is a combinaliun of a gro (ABCUP) of small length with grid beams and top foundation system for bridges in eastem provinces.o
foundation and provides some useful data required f
Introduction
The innovative design of combined intermed the stilt root system of plants. In present era of dev
resulting in effort requirement for the digging of m north-east provinces of the country for the natural so by the hls. For the transportation of o and gases p
bridges are frequently used. However this paper especially for these regions.
is
428
INNOVATIVE BRIDGE FOUNDATION FOR HILLY REGIONS
Foundation and Natural Root System

To extend the Korrelation and draw useful mference between natural plant root System and the man
made foundation system, overall study of vanous rott System, particularly the modified form are logical Similar to foundation the major funcon of root is to anchoi the plant and resist load due to weight, wind and so on Functional companson of foundation and root further reflect similanty in mecharusm of load
transfer
in
both the cases fncon and bv beating resistance
Skin Friction
Apart from vertical load transmitted to soil mass b\ skin fncon at side faccs of capping beam lt also transmit the load in beanng for design purpose of well foundation, the values of skin fncon as recommended b\ rerzaghi and Peek (2) given in Iable-1 ma\ be used for load transfer contnbuon
lable -1 Reconimended Skin Friction

fypeofsoil
Densit}
kN/m3
Silt & sott cla\
Skin Fncon kN/m3

7
HO
143
151
\ery suil clay

IooseSand
Medium Dense sand
Dense Sand Dense gra\el
25-30 50-200
10 15
181
Assumption
Following assumpons
1
^
are made
is
212
50-100 50-100
212
for composite block analysis

to the
lhe depth or the block
consideied equal
sum of depth of beam and the length of pile

is
equal to the sum of resistance ofiered bv the all four sides of the foundation block due to allowable skin Inction and allowable beanng offered at the face ol the block (Fig 1)
The total axial lond carrving capautv ol the block
Due to confinement and densification of soil the block coeiTicient k improves so that lt is more reaksc to assume improved of the skin friction for calculation of sides resistance of the block
The combined structuie of slab and beam will jomth behave like The soil contmncd withm the
a
ngid cap
behave hke
a
p^nphtialh circumscnbing
all the piles
solid composite
coniined mass
DEENA NATH
429
3.4.2
Assump'on for CIDF system
as
small group of piles.
Following Assumprion
1.
are made for
CEDF system
as
small group of piles.
It is assumed that all piles scttle
equally and bear same load. for ABCUP the allowable skin friction
is
givenin Table
1.
Slab and beam are softer than the piles so only a fraction of the allowable bearing pressure at the level of slab and beam will be mobilised. For this anarysis this fraction has been assumed as one half the
2.
value grven in Table -1.
Anarysis
The anarysis of foundation may be made on the basis of considering Fig.2b) at distance V deflection is zero. Small group of 9 piles displacement as rigid disk in soil aunulus.
So that
as
a
rigid disk (Fig.
2a and
vertical deflection
d2w
is
grven by
1
dw
-0
(1)
dl2
dr
when the displacement of the disk
is w0 the
Solution of the above equation may be grven by
In r/d
w
wO
[1
In b/d
(2)
The vertical load frorn the bridge applied through the grillage slab cause all piles to derlect through the same \ertical distance. The deflection at a point at radius r/d, w (r/d) due to a load F applied to a rigid
centrally located disk radius

w
is
if r/d
b/d then w
f'2nG In (r'd) be (r/d) will zero.

5p
(b>d)/(r/d)
be used.
(3)
Depending upon the load 9p or

After normalization by
fO +
F
1
system can
F0t4F1+4F5=F
4fl
+
(4) (5)
are
4f5'--
the above equation can be rewritten as FO/F where fl)
frorn Eq. (3) we
see that the
deflection ot the three typical pile sections
wo=
2nQ
'
/f
i 1
n\
\hld^\
<
^ 4
/f
\b''
l
<r\
J
2*
/ \n ^4wc
5
i
h>
.2-2;.!J
d=^
11
'
(6)
,,-i^-l-''1"[-rj+/-1"!-27-.U2/,1"lJ
+
2/l|^-^-U 2V2*
J
2/.ml
|
.'
v'J
"-U /im!
'
I
Î
4j
i
(J)
2/rG
fS In
|+2/l
l;jj
\+
/i) l/i|
2) 51|
|--
2/1
1|
/Sin
b 4
v 5s
430
liut sincc
and
vvO
iese
deecon must
~
0
all be the same we can
wnte
(9)
wO-wl =0
- \\
5
(10)
The eq. (9) and Eq. (10) can bc writcn as 0 11) In 2s + 11 in (2/s) 4-15 In (5/4) 4 5 / + 2 2s f5 In [ (2) 5] " f in and n in
(11)
0
(12)
frorn Eqs. (5). (11) and (12) one can get f. fl and f5 for the value of s selected. When a Solution is 2 IT GW/P of the pile disk obtained. the dimensionless displacement w' group can be find out by the use of equation (5) and (6) or (7).
The subgrade reaction coeflicient for each pile
the pile by displacement w' thus
is
computed by drviding the dimensionless force

(13) (14) (15)
in
Ki 2nGfi/wf However the coeicent K for a solitary pile can be written K 2nG/ln(b/d) The ratio of the individual reaction coeflicient can be obtained
Ki/K-fi/\v'ln(Vd)
The relevant values are given in Table
2.
Table Displacement, Forces and

Relative
Stifthess
9p
svstem
Group
Displacement
Efficiencv
Spacing Diameters,
S
FO
Fl
F5
w'
or
k
2 3
4
5
6
8
10
-0.0298 -0.0024 0.0116 0.0203 0.0264 0.0345 0.0417
0.0721
0.0820 0.0864 0.0890 0.0907 0.0929 0.0973
0.1854 0.1686 0.1607 0.1560 0.1527 0.1484 0.1423
2.2274 0.195 1.8822 0.231 1.6338 0.266 1.4399 0.302 1.2810 0.339 1.0294 0.422 0.8439 0.515
-0.0524 -0.0051 0.277

0.0551
0.0806 0.1312 0.1932
0.1266 0.1705 0.2069 0.2417 0.2770 0.3697 0.4510
0.3256 0.3504 0.3848 0.4237 0.4663 0.5641 0.6596
Allowable Ix>ad Carrying Capacity of CIDF System

(a)
Block Foundation (Fig.

P
1)
AMiere Fs and Fb are average

and
P is
Fbj - - weight of the block allowable frictional resistance and allowable bearing resistance the load carrying capacity
[Fs
+
at
Depth T)'
DEENA NATH
431
(b)ClDF system
P
as a
small i*oup of piles.

(17)
Pp-f Pb-.
Ps
Where Pp, Pb and Ps are the load carried by the AB CUP, beam and ie slab individually. (Fig. 4)
However the load carrying capacity of the foundation may be computed by the use of Eq. (16) and Eq. (17) and the lower one will be treated as the load carrying capacity of the foundation. the load settlement and other values regarding load, spacing and diameter of ABCUP are shown in iig. 3, Fig. 6 and Fig. 7
Conclusion
Following
1.
are the main
conclusions
lt pile spacing
is
up to iree times of the diameter. thecentral pile will not be effective so that the
be 4d.
minimum spacing of ABCUP should

2.
When the spacing of ABCIT is more the load carrying capacity of individual pile group will be more so that the whole system, will carry more load. Allhough, due to interaction elfect of pile to pile average load carrying capacity of individual pile in system will be lesser than Single pile. But in the CIDF system contribution ot grid cap. ellect ol densiOcation, confinemcnt will also come into the picture resultiug in more load canying capacity of the system.
The cotining cflcct in loosc soil
I
3.
is
nioie than
that of the denser soil.
4.
oad
caming capacity must
be
verilied vvith field tests of minimum 2% of total number of .ABCUP
used.
References
1.
Brandt. II.
The
interaction bervveen soil and groups
ot small
diameter bored piles". Vanmpe (ed)
1988 balkenia, ISBN 90619118146

2.
(U.K)
A.M.E dissertation U.O.R.
Nath. IL Study ol combined Intermediate depth foundation system. Roorkee (1993) Nath. D. and Nayak. G.C CIDF system
as an
3.
innovative foundation. CE & CR March 1995.

as
4.
Nayak, G.C and sondhi. J. Combined well shell pile foundation Indian Geotechnical Jouranl (17(2) 1987.
innovative deep foundation.
5.
Zicnkicwic/, O.C.
the
finilc dement method
in
engineeiing suence,
Mc. Gravv Hill London - 1971.
432
INCREA3NG
NUMBER
OF
PILLS
RAFTONLY
LOAD
MINM
MAXM
5ETTIHENT
SETtLEMENT
SElTLEMENT
FIG5
LOAD
OF
SETTLEMENT
CHARACTERISTICS
WITH
CAP
PILE
COMBINEO
AND
AFTER
POLOUS
DEVISatatAl97Z)
GRL
DSD
3
CLS
MOS
16
(-
OST
CING xio*
OF 200mm
DIAMETER,
I
ABCUP
ol
J
SPACNG OFTBOmmOlMErER A8CUP
SPACING OF
150mmDIAMETERABCUP
SPACING OF300mmDIMETER AB
F1G6
SPACING
CAPACITY
OF CIDF
SYSTEM
l
2
S,n3
to 20
DSO
CLS
1?
LU
200
200
?5 0
300
DIMETER OF ABCUP INmm
DEMETER
OF
ABCUP INmm
OIMETER OFABCUP INmm
FIG7
DIAMETER OFABCUP
Vs
CAPACITY OFCIDF SYSTEM

OF
AT
VARlOUS
SPACINGS
ABCUP
DEENA NATH
433
^
^
^
-^
g3
S?2-
^
*r
SLAB
'ihGRIO
8EAM
.5^
AXIAL
LOAIMNG
'
J1
,*^
FlC-2a. PILE SECTION
DISPLACEMENT
AS RIGID DISK IN SOIL ANNULUS
J
*#
>=c
LEVEL
OF
STIFF
3^
d
LAYERS FORMATION
a-SlOEOF THE BLOCK

- DEPTH OF BLOCK
OF
tp,0EpTH 0FABCUP
ÔENSIFtEO SOIL MASS VSOIL CEMENT LAYER
db-DEPTH
BEAM
--ABCUP
FG-1 CJDF
SYSTEM AS
BLOCK FOUNDATION
100
0.3
FIG-2b
l/1
02
'/SINGLE / PIPLE
'
i
CIDF
SYSTEM
OF PfLES
AS
/\*-3.*
GROUPS
\<*t 16
.*
of
PILES
IN
GL
/^/Xnumber
]*j''X
GROUP
1-0 TOT? M
10
^
LEAN
CCNCRETE
O IS
PLACEMENT(MM)
^
30CM
SLAB
?T
60
ff
GROUPSOF 9 PILES (02)
79
99
75 TO 15CM
BRCK WORK FOR OR/

TRENCH
*\
GRID
--A,.r.S
BEAM
ABCUP-^fd
055 Du
!0d
-TRANSVERSE
BEAM
(LW:
10
DISPLACEMENT(mm)
1
PILE
AT
HG-3 DISPLACEMENT VERSUS

(Gl)
LOAD
3d
SINGLE PILEAVARIOUS
IN
FIG4-A VIEW OFJUNCTION

BEAM SLAB
P
OF
GROUP
SPACING
SILTY
GROUPAT-VARIOUS
SAND.(b)NINE PlLE* SPACING
ABCUP
SPECIAL
CHEMICALS FOR E
OF
DISTRESSED BRIDGE
M.S.Venkatesh
Regional Manager
(Marketing & Technical) Fosroc Chemicals (India) Ltd.,Mumbai, INDIA
436
SPECIAL CHEMICALS FOR EFFECTIVE RESTORATION OF DISTRESSED BRIDGE FOUNDATIONS
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Bridges frorn an important constituent of the transportation segment and millions of Rupees are spent annually not only in the construction of new bridges but also on the repair & restoration of distressed bridges.
A
eventually consists of three foundation, substructure & superstructure.

bridge
^hoerved
in
major
structural
components
namely
the
The distress features could be
any or all the units of these components.
2.0
BRIDGE DETERIORATION
a
Bridge Deterioration may arise frorn may be classified as

a
number of independent sources. These sources
Design and construction deficiencies
Environmental effects and

Changes
in
use
2.1
Design and construction deficiencies
These include
Insufficient concrete cover over reinforcement

Grouping in tendons Improper compaction of concrete Inefficient bearings Differential movement/ shifting Inadequate spacing between tendons Incomplete grouting of tendons Bad detailing of reinforcement leading to congestion Bad deck drainage system Inadequate curing
2.2
Environmental effects
These include
Material quality Environmental aggression (Chloride) Freeze thaw deterioration Support movement Carbonation Alkali silica reaction Shrinkage Thermal strains Stress corrosion Hydrogen Embrittlement
Corrosion
MS.VENKATESH
437
2.3
Changes includes.
in
use
This
is
significant factor affecting the bridge deterioration
and
Increase in traffic volume Increase in maximum permitted vehicle size i.e. load Increase in the number of frequency of large six wheeled vehicles i.e., repeated loading to maximum Wear and fatigue are two mechanisms that directly lead to deterioration of the bridge and its deck.
3.0
The
DISTRESS
IN BRJDGE
FOUNDATIONS
in
commonly noticed problems
bridge foundations are
Excessive scounng Erosion & cavitation damages
Settlement of foundation Tilting Differential movement / shifting Damages to protection work Corrosion & Cracking Air voids & Honeycombs
4.0
The
ROLE OF NEW MATERIALS
SPECIAL CHEMICALS
conventional methods of repair like patching up mortar/ concrete, guniting, shotcreting, etc. indeed provide a Solution to the problem but these are only short term approaches. The conventional methods do not provide a long term Solution lt has been found frorn expenence that many bridges repaired with the conventional methods fulfill the serviceibility needs for a short duration of time only and within a few years the structures Start developing the same types of Symptoms or distresses as was observed
before.
The latest specialty repair chemicals developed in the recent times play a significant role These chemicals not only help in quick in the rehabilitation of the distressed rc bridges and effective repair but also provide long term Solutions. The role of these specialty
chemicals in effective observed in bridge foundation

repair
is
rehabihtation of common highlighted in Table

1
types
of
distress
normally
5.0
5.1
RESTORATION MEASURES
Excessive scouring
is
This is a common occurrence in flowing rivers The method of restoration the worn out concrete with free flow anti wash out high strength
to remstate
underwater repair micro concrete after cleaning the rust & providing with an anticorrosive treatment
In
cementitious exposed reinforcement to remove
order to protect frorn further scouring
in
future
boulders can
be
dumoed around the
438
SPECIAL CHEMICALS FOR EFFECTIVE RESTORATION OF DISTRESSED BRIDGE FOUNDATIONS
region and the gap between the boulders grouted with 1:3 cement sand slurry modified with plasticising cum expandmg additive.
5.2
Erosion
&
cavitation damages
as
The eroded
explamed
5.3
in
portion can be remstated with underwater high strength micro concrete 5.1 above and the area protected by dumping boulders'.
of
Settlement
foundation
Whenever settlement is noticed in foundation of piers and abutments great care shall be taken to keep the sitution under control and 't shall be regularly monitored. The ieveis shall be frequently checked and the difference be made up with plates or by micro concrete padding. If the settlement is due to scouring then the scoured portion shall be remstated with free flow underwater micro concrete. Pitchmg / dumping of boulders around the piers or abutments shall also be done for protection. In case of integrated wmg walls settlement is a common feature and n is preferable to build a separate wing wall
5.4
The
Tilting
tilting
or
leanmg
is
due
to
excessive pressure
or
other factors
eccentncity
of
loading
&
various
Tilting can be handled by strengthenmg the existing foundation of abutment or piers by adding extra section Jacketing shall be resorted and the extra section shall be provided by using high strength cementitious anti wash out underwater repair micro concrete
5.5
This
Cracking on surface of foundation
is a common problem in most of the bridge foundations. The restoration shall be carned out by sealing the cracks externally with underwater epoxy putty and grouting neat cement slurry modified with plasticising cum expandmg additive in case of wider cracks (>5 mm) The mmute cracks shall be sealed by mjecting low viscosity, high strength moisture insensitive epoxy after sealing the cracks frorn the extenor using under water epoxy putty
5.6
This
is
Corrosion, spalling
also
a
&
delamination
in
common problem noticed
the bridge
foundations.
This distress can be addressed by providmg an anticorrosive treatment to reinforcement after cleaning & remstating the damaged / delammated concrete with high strength cementitious anti worn out underwater micro concrete or with water resistant epoxy mortars in case of damage at isolated locations.
5.7
This
is
Voids
a
&
Honeycombs
common problem in heavily loaded foundations due to congestion of reinforcement lt may also be caused due to poor Site construction practices like improper compaction This can be rectified by pressure grouting neat cement slurry modified with
M S
VENKATESH
439
plasticising cum expandmg additive.

The
various chemicals presented in Table

1
to
be
used
for
different
types
of
foundation
distress
is
also
Table
SPECIAL CHEMICALS FOR REPAIRS

Repair chemicals to be used
SI.No.
Types of Distress
Excessive scouring
Anticorrosive coating for exposed reinforcement Anti washout underwate- micro concrete for remstatmg the scoured portions. Anticorrosive coating for exposed reinforcement washout underwater micro concrete for remstatmg the scoured portions.
/
Erosion
&
Cavitation
Anti
Settlement
of
foundation
Underwater micro concrete for remstatmg scoured damaged portions Underwater concrete micro strengthening of foundation.
for
Tilting
jacketing
Corrosion spalling delamination
&
Anticorrosive coating for exposed reinforcement. Remstatmg spalled areas with underwater micro concrete or water insensitive epoxy mortar.
Underwater epoxy putty for sealing the cracks. Injection of cement slurry modified with non additive low or shrmking grouting injectmg the cracks. water mto resistant viscosity epoxy
Cracking
Voids
&
honeycombs
with cement Grouting slurry placticismg non shrmking additive
modified
with
CONCLUSION
The
different types of distress noticed in the bridge foundation along with a brief methodology of repair using special repair chemicals has been presented. These specialty Chemicals help in effective restoration & provide long term Solutions
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author wishes to
of Fosroc
acknowledge the Managmg Director and the General Manager (West) Chemicals (India) Limited, Mumbai for the help & encouragement provided durmg preparation of this paper.
441
THE CONFEDERATION BRIDGE, CANADA

Gerard SAUVAGEOT Vice President of Engineering
J.
G.
Sauvageot graduated
from Ecole Polytechnique de

Lausanne, Switzerland.
He has been active in design
Muller International San Diego, California

USA
and construction of
segmental bridges since their
beginning and
has
focused
also on stay bridges and
construction methods.
SUMMARY
Confederation Bridge is located in Atlantic Canada; it provides a fixed link across the Northumberland Strait between Cape Tormentine, New Brunswick, and Borden, Prince Edward The 13-km Crossing comprises The design service life of the structure is 100 years. Island. approaches with 93-m spans in shallow water near shores and a main bridge with 250-m Spans in the Strait. Because of the short construction time and the often adverse conditions for work at sea, precasting was used systematically on a large scale for the entire bridge. Precast pier bases were installed and grouted to bedrock at depths down to 38 m below sea level. Precast shafts were erected upon the bases. Typical cantilevers for marine spans weighing 78 MN were precast on shore and set in place with a floating heavy-lift crane, which was also used for placement of 52-m- long precast drop-in spans between cantilevers using a procedure which eliminates excessive erection moments in the piers. Innovative design features and the most advanced construction techniques and skills have been called on to match the challenge presented by such major undertaking.
The
1.
INTRODUCTION
A fixed link between the Provinces of New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island had been considered for nearly a Century. It was not until 1988, however, that the idea materialized into a 13-km bridge,
the
international the for Joint list consideration. final Strait Venture (SCJV), the Crossing Joint ventures were on successful low bidder, is composed of SCI of Canada, Morrison Knudsen of the United States, GTM The bridge design Consultant is J. Muller of France, and Ballast Nedam of the Netherlands. International-Stanley Joint Venture. Construction started in Spring 1994 and lasted until the end of 1996, with opening of the facility in June 1997. Considering the size of the project, the short construction time, and the adverse conditions generally encountered at sea in this region, the realization of this bridge was a monumental work.
In 1992 three
Northumberland Strait Crossing. The bridge would be financed, built, developer for thirty-five years, then turned over to Public Works Canada.
and operated by
private
442
2.
DESCRIPTION
General
OF THE PROJECT
2.1
Deep water in the Strait calls for long spans, whereas shallow water near shores is more suited for shorter spans. The extremely short completion time called for massive use of precasting, large precast elements carried by heavy marine equipment for the long spans and more conventional elements for
the shorter spans.
These requirements naturally divided the bridge into two different structures: the long marine spans in deep water, and the shorter approach spans in waters not accessible by deep draft vessels.
Frorn Jourimain Island on the New Brunswick side Island side, the bridge comprises:
to the
village of Borden
on the Prince
Edward
The West Approach, 1,320 m long with 93-m spans. The Main Bridge across the Strait, 10,990 m long with 250-m spans. The East Approach, 600 m long with 93-m spans.
2.2
Main Bridge Substructure
2.2.1
Foundations
The rock sequence across the Strait consists of a series of interbedded sandstones, siltstones, and These rocks are believed to have been deposited as Sediments in a fluvial or estuarine mudstones. environment, and a broad correlation can be made across the Strait. However, at a small scale, the
rock layers are not very consistent frorn pier to pier, and each pier location must be fully investigated and evaluated on its own. Thick layers of sandstone are interbedded with layers of relatively soft mudstone varying in thickness frorn 5 to 500 mm, most being 50 mm thick. Sandstone is competent
rock, but mudstone layers underlying sandstone constitute weak planes for transmitting horizontal forces, such as those frorn ice and wind. Because of the uncertainty in assessment of the real geometry of these layers, it is assumed that they are present over 100 percent of the foundation areas.
The contractor chose to use spread footings for all the prefabricated piers. For the reasons explained above, the founding level must be on sandstone with the next layer of soft mudstone, if any, following at a depth not less than that determined by the geotechnical analysis on a pier-by-pier basis, but in no
The dredging Operations consist of first removing the overburden, which is up to 10 m thick, and excavating a trench to the competent sandstone level; a template is used to guide the
case less than 1.50 m.
dredging bcket in the circular pattern.

The prefabricated pier base ring footing is installed in the trench on three hard points about 0.5 m above the bottom. The three points determine a horizontal level on which to set the pier base and leave a Space between the ring footing and the trench, which is then filled with a specially formulated
tremie concrete, ensuring uniform bearing of the whole pier base on the rock.
Safety against sliding of the foundation is checked at the interface with the rock assuming a shear friction corresponding to 16 degress/18 degrees for the undrained mudstone. The compressive Stresses
ML
at
GERARD SAUVAGEOT
443
ultimate limit State are in the rnge of 1.2 or larger, depending upon the pier location.
to 1.6
MPa;
actual strength of the rock
is
twice that value
The modulus of subgrade reaction is in the magnitude of 110 MN/m3; long-term Settlements are minimal. At the ultimate limit State, the eccentricity of the resulting force applied to the footing is limited to 0.33 of its diameter.
2.2.2
Pier Bases and Pier Shafts
All pier bases and pier shafts were prefabricated in the casting yard at Borden. They were and because the of prefabricated separately height capacity limitations of catamaran-type floating heavy-lift equipment, called Svanen, which was upgraded after previous use in Denmark on the Great
Belt Project.
There are two types of pier bases: Type Bl for depths down to -27.0 m; and Type B3 for -27.0 to 38.2 m. Bl has a ring footing, 22.0 m in diameter and 4 m wide, that fits exactly between the two hulls of Svanen. B3 has a ring footing 28.0 m in diameter, but with two flat surfaces spaced 22.0 m so that it also fits into Svanen. Above the ring footing, a conical shell Transfers the loads frorn the barrel,
which varies in height according to the depth of the foundation. The barrel ends at elevation -4.0 m by a male cone used to connect the pier shaft to the pier base. The maximum weights of Bl and B3 bases are 35 and 52 MN, respectively. The maximum height of B3 is 42.0 m.
Each pier shaft comprises the shaft itself and the ice shield. It is one of the most critical components of the whole structure because it will be in direct contact with the most aggressive and corrosive
water in the tidal rnge, salt-laden spray and air, and abrasion frorn the ice; therefore all exposed cast-in-place joints were eliminated frorn this dement, which is monolithic frorn the bottom of the ice shield to the top of the pier, with a maximum weight of 40 MN.
environment,
sea
height of 8.0 m and a 52-degree angle on the horizontal. It is solid except for a central conical void that matches the top of the pier base. The ice shield itself extends between elevations -4.0 and +4.0 m; it is clad with a 10-mm mild steel sheet for abrasion protection.
a
The ice shield is conical with
base diameter of 20.0 m,
The pier shaft has a box section, varying frorn an octagon the top of the shaft. The walls are 600 mm thick.
at the
top of the ice shield to
rectangle
at
The pier shaft is assembled onto the pier base by being lowered until it rests on hydraulic jacks on top of the base; the position of the top of the pier shaft is adjusted by activating those jacks. The space left between the two cones is grouted, creating a continuous structure through the keyed Joint, and vertical
post-tensioning tendons crossing the Joint
are then stressed.
The top of the pier shaft is equipped with a template that is matchcast to the soffit of the pier segment. Once the pier shaft is in place, the template (1.0 MN) is grouted in position so that the future cantilever girder (78 MN) can be placed directly in its final position, thereby avoiding delicate and
time-consuming adjustments of
heavy and unstable cantilever.
444
2.2.3
Superstructure
a
60.0-m-long drop-in expansion spans. A frame consists of two cantilevers, integral with the piers and made continuous by inserting a 52.0-m drop-in span between the cantilever tips, pouring closure joints, and stressing post-tensioning tendons to achieve a fully monolithic frame.
The superstructure forms
series of frames connected by
3.
3.1
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
Load Combinations and Load Factors
Public Works Canada requires that load combinations and load and resistance factors for ultimate and serviceability limit states be derived specifically for the Project through a fll calibration process using probabilistic reliability techniques.
A target safety index =4.0, applies to each multi-load-path component of the bridge at ultimate
limit
100-year design life. For single-load-path components =4.25 safety index measure of the accepted risk of failure of a structural member.
states, for
a
is
imposed.
The target
is a
As
a result of the analysis, load factors, different frorn those usually recommended in codes, were obtained.
For
serviceability limit states, crack widths reinforcement or tendon for a given spacing.
are
related
to
the
change
of stress
level
in
the
3.2
Ice Loading
season in the Northumberland Strait begins in December or early January, and until late March. The maximum thickness of ice floes, i.e. floating pressure ridges sheets at the surface of the sea, is about 0.30 m. Floes may occasionally extend mean of 118 m.
Generally, the ice conditions worsen formed frorn large over 500 m with a
Sail
(Loose Ice Blocks)

Ridge Cone
(Mostly consolidated ice blocks and refrozen ice)
Ridge Keel
(Partially consolidated ice nibble)

s*
Figure
1:
Ice
Formations
GERARD SAUVAGEOT
445
Currents, waves, and wind induce ice movements, cause floes to break and result in rafting and ridging; ice ridges consist of a consolidated core of refrozen ice at the waterline with loosely bonded blocks of ice forming a small sail on top of the ridge core and a much larger keel below it.
Ridge dimensions can be 50 to 75 m. The ridge keel depths can be evaluated frorn the number and location of scours seen on the bottom of the Strait; the deepest-is at 18 m with an average of 8.5 m. The ridge core thickness may reach 2.5 m.
The critical case for the substructure of the bridge is the consolidated ridge core hitting the pier shaft. To minimize the horizontal force on the pier shaft, a conical ice shield was designed with an angle of 52 degrees to break the ridge core in bending the ice riding up the cone and collapsing under its own
weight, rather than crushing directly on a vertical surface, producing a much higher force. The ice shield is clad with ultra high-performance concrete to minimize ice abrasion and reduce friction.
It
noted that all assessment of ice loads carries a degree of uncertainty as relevant on-site measurements of ice forces are scarce; besides those made at Lighthouse KEMI-1 in the Gulf of Bothnia 1985-1986, practically none have been reported, and laboratory test results can be only a
should
be
guide.
Another aspect of ice loading is its dynamics. The dynamic response of the bridge allows the assessment of the dynamic loading characteristics of the ice. An analysis was carried out taking into aecount ice force versus time histories derived frorn the consideration of all contributing features: ice failure frequencies; ice speed; ridge core characteristics, ridge keel dynamics; nibble surcharge.
Failurc of the ridge core is estimated to be the most likely source of dynamic ice loads for frequencies 5 11/; ridge keel of less than dynamics activate frequencies below 1.0 Hz; the combination of ridge is relevant only for frequencies less than 1.0 Hz. The lowest natural core and ridge keel effects frequency considered for the completed bridge is 2.6 Hz, higher than the ice-induced frequencies.
The design of the substructure was based on a transverse static ice force (perpendicular to the bridge) of 17 MN and a longitudinal static ice force (in the direction of the bridge) of 12 MN. For ultimate conditions a lactor of 1.8 is applied to the loads, which control the dimensions of the foundations.
4.
CONCLUSIONS
is
fhe Confederation Bridge
one of the longest deep-water structure in the world.
Unique precasting methods 100-years service life in a harsh environment. and substructure superstructure to allow construction of the bridge within a tight schedule. The bridge substructure was designed to resist ice loads up to 30 MN. This unique structure was opened to traffic on schedule in June 1997.
It was designed for were used for the
446
Elevation 40.800
EL 24.96
C.J. EL 8.275
C.G.D. EL 0.00
affin
rv.
=^=
a
*#.-.'.
TTTFP^
\
i\
iwmiijwh
i'iuiy.M ii
n
22000
Figure
2:
Longitudinal Section

IABSE 1999 - Foundation For Major Bridges

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IABSE REPORTS-RAPPORTS AIPC-IVBH REPORTS

Foundations for Major Bridges: Design and Construction

The Indian National Group of IABSE

India India India

Germany Africa Japan

A.D. R.J. B.U. M.V.

S.RChakrabarti S.S. Chakraborty

S.A. Reddi B.C. Roy

Gopalakrishnan Krishan Kant

Sharan Singh K.B. Lal Singhai

New Delhi February, 1999

Chairman, Scientific Committee

Geo-technical and Geophysical Investigation

ELANGOVAN, A. BALASUBRAMANIAN Computerised Resistivity Meter for Subsurface Investigations

JUEL PETERSEN Foundation Design Parameters for Limestone

Bed Erosion and Scour

CHAKRABARTI, N. K. SINHA, KRISHAN KANT An Overview of Indian Practice

B.U. NAYAK, V.K. APPUKUTTAN

Role of Hydraulic Model Studies

JORGE E. PAGAN-ORTIZ Design and Evaluation of Bridges for Scour

United States of America

KOTHYARI, K. G. RANGARAJU Mathematical Modelling for Scour Around Bridge Piers

GEORGE W. ANNADALE Application of the Erodibility Index Method

Estimate Scour at Bride Piers

Loading, Load Factors and Design Techniques (Part -1)

Pylon Foundations of Four Cable Stay Bridges

-The Indian Experience

Elasto-Plastic Foundation Analysis

Collision to the 0resund High Bridge

Loading, Load Factors and Design Techniques

LUC MAERTENS Swing Bridge Over Suez Canal at and Deformations

Ferdan, Soil Structure Interaction

BEN C. GERWICK, ROBERT BITTNER

Large Diameter Steel Tubulr Piles for Optimum Seismic Performance

Well Foundation Construction in Bouldery Bed Strata

NADER HALIMEH Construction of Anchored Caissons for

H.WENZEL Verifying Computer Models

BRUCE MELVILLE, STEPHEN COLEMAN Riprap Protection at Bridge Piers

GHOSHAL Foundation Design and Construction Damodar near Mejia

Rail-cum-Road Bridge Across River

Bridges on River Ganges

FLEMMING M. PEDERSON Design of Foundations for the Storebaelt East Bridge

INGMAR SVENSK, PER-OLA SVAHN Foundation of the Uddevalla Bridge

Innovative Bridge Foundation for Hilly Regions

M.VENKATESH Special Chemicals for Effective Restoration

Distressed Bridge Foundations

Evolution of Bridge Foundat

Executive Director, Transportation

EVOLUTION OF BRIDGE FOUNDATIONS

Two fundamentally different techniques, inherited from o

The first technique was initially developed for offshore oil

out parallel in tw of the cover slabs

crane vessel lifted

work on the critical path offshore. The West bridge wa

EVOLUTION OF BRIDGE FOUNDATIONS

THE 0RESUND BRIDGE

THE GIBRALTAR STRAIT BRIDGE

EVOLUTION OF BRIDGE FOUNDATIONS F

THE RICHMOND-SAN RAFAEL BRIDGE

Henrik OLSEN Geologist L&T-RAMBOLL Consulting Engineers Ltd

DK-2830 Virum, Denmark

Carsten PLOUG Geophysicist