CementUsersGuide

Cement Users Guide

CementUsersGuide MATERIALS FOR CONCRETE

Cement Portland cement is a hydraulic binder and a finely ground inorganic material. When mixed with water, it forms a paste which sets and hardens by means of hydraulic reactions. India has made great strides in producing world class cement. Types There are various types of cement in use and the latest revised edition of IS 456:2000, Indian Standard code of practice for plain and reinforced concrete permits the use of 10 different types of cement. These are described below. Ordinary portland cement Ordinary portland cement (OPC) is a product obtained by intimately mixing together calcareous (limestone, chalk, marl, etc) and argillaceous (clay, shale, etc) materials, with or without other materials containing silica, alumina or iron oxide, burning them at a high temperature, and grinding the resulting intermediate product, clinker with gypsum. After burning, no material other than gypsum is added. Grades of OPC The Bureau of Indian Standards has classified OPC into three grades for producing different grades of concrete to meet the demands of the construction industry. The classification is made on the basis of compressive strength at 28 days as: 33 grade 43 grade 53 grade ordinary portland cement, IS 269:1989 ordinary portland cement, IS 8112:1989 ordinary portland cement, IS 12269 : 1987.

The grade indicates compressive strength of the cement in N/mm2 at 28 days. The basic physical and chemical properties of the three grades of OPC are given in Table 1. Since higher grades of concrete necessitate the use of higher strengths of cement at 28 days, use of 33-grade cement has dropped during the last decade. Both 43 grade and 53 grade cement can be used for producing higher grades of concrete. Low alkali portland cement There is no separate standard for low alkali portland cement. But in regions where the aggregates have reactive silica or carbonates, alkalies in the cement are restricted to 0.6 percent of soda equivalent (Na2O + 0.658 K2O) with a view to avoid the occurrence of alkali-aggregate reaction, leading to possible cracking and destruction of concrete. In such cases, instead of low alkali portland cement, blended cements can be used with added advantage. Blended cements Blended cements or composite cements are those cements in which a mineral additive has been added to portland cement. Blended cement is a hydraulic cementitious product, similar to ordinary portland cement, but due to the addition of blending material it has certain improved properties compared to OPC. Portland pozzolana cement (PPC) is manufactured either by grinding intimately together portland cement clinker, gypsum and a pozzolana such as flyash, or by intimately and uniformly blending portland cement and fine pozzolana. The BIS has differentiated PPC based on the pozzolana added to the mix. Thus IS 1489 (Part 1) is portland pozzolana cement (flyash based). According to the latest 1

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amendment in July 2000, the proportion of flyash as a pozzolana used can vary between 15 and 35 percent by weight of cement, as stipulated by IS 1489:(Part I) 1991. The physical requirements of OPC and PPC are similar. Table 2 gives the physical and chemical requirements of PPC. Increased impermeability, lower heat of hydration, lower plastic shrinkage, reduced alkaliaggregate expansion, and improved resistance to aggressive chemical agents and corrosion are some of the major benefits to be derived from the use of PPC. The use of PPC is, thus desirable for enhancing durability in different construction jobs, specially for structures subjected to aggressive environments. In mass concrete construction, PPC concretes have shown rather better behaviour in respect of cracking than OPC concretes because of lower heat of hydration. The several uses of PPC cover building construction, reinforced concrete structures, dams, foundations, machine-beds, floorings, plastering, ornamental and other precast concrete products. Since high strength PPC equivalent to 43 N/mm2 and 53 N/mm2 strength of 28 days is available in the country, PPC is preferred to OPC. PPC ensures durability in addition to strength. Portland blast-furnace slag (PBSC) cement is an intimately ground mixture of portland cement clinker and granulated blast-furnace slag, either inter-ground or ground separately and blended together. The granulated blast-furnace slag is a non-metallic product obtained by rapidly chilling or quenching in water the molten slag tapped from the blast-furnace of a steel plant. As per the latest amendment to IS 455 in May 2000, the slag constituent should not be less than 35 percent nor more than 70 percent of the portland cement. PBSC generally has higher fineness, lower heat of hydration, lower permeability and better resistance to chemical attack and corrosion than OPC. The basic physical and chemical properties of blended cements are given in Table 2. Benefits of blended cements The use of blended cements improves the properties of both, fresh and hardened concrete. These can be as a result of the extended hydration of the cement-pozzolana mixture, reduced water demand, and due to the improved cohesion of the paste. Another important benefit, is the improvement in durability resulting from the lower permeability and improved microstructure of the concrete. This arises from the reduction in pore size of the cement paste and the refinement of pore structure of the cement paste as well as improvements in the properties of the "interfacial zone" between the cement paste and the aggregate/inerts. Portland slag cement (PSC) can be used for all construction jobs in place of ordinary portland cement, but its special properties render its adoption highly desirable for marine structures, for municipal works such as sewers, for structures involving large masses of concrete such as dams, retaining walls, and bridge abutments, and for structures exposed to sulphate-bearing soils such as foundations and roads. PSC is the commonly used cement in the eastern region of the country, including east Madhya Pradesh and Bihar for the past 70 years as it makes the structure strong and durable. PSC with strengths higher than 43 grade level are available today. Sulphate-resisting portland cement Sulphate-resisting portland cement (SRPC) counters what is commonly known as "sulphate attack". Soluble sulphate salts like sodium sulphate (Na2SO4), calcium sulphate (CaSO4) when present in groundwater or in the soil penetrate through the pores of the hardened concrete and chemically react with the tricalcium aluminate (C3A) constituent of the cement. The reaction product called "ettringite", occupies a volume which is more than the reacting compounds. This creates internal pressure resulting in the cracking of the concrete which eventually spalls and disintegrates. This is called "sulphate attack".

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SRPC has a low C3A content which helps in reducing sulphate attack. The use of SRC is strongly recommended for structures in marshy lands, creek areas, coastal areas, in seawater, and in all areas where soluble sulphate salts are present beyond tolerable limits. In respect of all other chemical and physical properties, SRPC is similar to ordinary portland cement and hence can be used for all types of construction where OPC/PPC/PBSC is used. SRPC should conform to IS 12330:1988, Indian Standard Specification for sulphate resisting portland cement, Table 2. Wherever sulphate concentration measured in terms of SO3 content exceeds 300 ppm in ground water, or 0.2 percent in the soil, the use of SRPC is recommended. When chlorides are present besides sulphates beyond permissible limits, it would be preferable to use blended cement instead of SRPC. Low heat portland cement Low heat portland cement has its chemical constituents proportioned in such a way that the heat liberated due to hydration is reduced, making the cement particularly suitable for use in massive structures, such as dams, bridge abutments, and retaining walls. Its rate of gain of strength is, however, slower than that of ordinary portland cement, hence it requires a longer curing period. While using this cement, adequate precautions are necessary with regard to the removal of formwork. LHC should conform to IS 12600:1989, Indian Standard Specification for low heat portland cement. Hydrophobic cement Hydrophobic cement is made by adding water-repellent chemicals to OPC clinker at the grinding stage. This type of cement can be stored under humid and damp conditions for prolonged periods without deteriorating or forming lumps. The film formed around the cement grain breaks down when it is mixed vigorously with aggregates. Except for a slightly longer mixing time, there is no change in the procedure for making concrete with this type of cement, which should conform to IS 8043:1991. Oil well cement Oil well cement (OWC) is specially manufactured for use while drilling oil wells to fill the space between the steel castings and the wall of the well. It has controlled setting under high temperature and pressure conditions in order to give the slurry made from it sufficient time to reach the high depths normally associated with oil wells. However, once setting takes place it develops strength rapidly and remains stable at high temperatures. Oil well cement conforming to the American Petroleum Institute specifications for class G (HSR) cement is now manufactured in India. This meets the need for a general purpose OWC and can be modified with suitable additives for application in deep oil wells. OWC has a high resistance to sulphate attack because of its intrinsic chemical composition. White cement White cement is so called because the raw materials are so chosen that the maximum iron oxide content is strictly limited to 1 percent, Table 2. It is used primarily for decorative purposes but most white cements, which also fulfill the requirements of IS 269: 1989 can be used as a replacement for ordinary portland cement for structural work. A variety of colours can be obtained by the addition of pigments, Table 3. Storage Since cement is a very finely ground hygroscopic material; i.e. it readily absorbs moisture every precaution should be taken to ensure that the cement is kept free from contact with moisture in any form. The storage shed should have a pucca floor raised at least 150 mm above ground level, and it should be provided with airtight doors and windows. Cement stored for a long time tends to 3

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deteriorate and an indicative rate of its deterioration is given in Table 4. A comparison of the rate of hardening of concrete made with fresh and stored cement is given in Table 5. It is a good practice that cement is moved in and out of the godowns in the "first-in-first-out" method. The drainage systems on the roof and around the godown should be well maintained, especially during the monsoon months. At site, the cement bags should be kept on a raised platform and covered with a tarpaulin. Test for adulteration A sample of doubtful cement should be burnt for about 20 minutes on a steel plate heated on a stove. An adulterated sample will change in colour; unadulterated cement, on the other hand, will remain unchanged. Small pats of about 50 50 20-mm size should be made. If the cement is adulterated, the pats can be broken easily with the pressure of fingers the next day. It is, however, always advisable to send a sample to a laboratory for analysis and tests whenever there is doubt regarding the quality of cement. .
Table 1: Physical and chemical properties of various grades of ordinary portland cement
Type of cement Indian Standard PHYSICAL PROPERTIES Minimum compressive strength, N/mm2 3 day 7 day 28 day Fineness Minimum specific surface (Blaines air permeability) m2/kg Setting time, minutes initial, minimum final, maximum Soundness, expansion (Le Chatelier test, mm), maximum Autoclave test for MgO, percent, maximum CHEMICAL PROPERTIES Loss on ignition, percent, maximum Insoluble residue, percent, maximum Magnesia MgO, percent, maximum SO3, percent, maximum for C3A>5 percent C3A > 5 percent Lime saturation factor (LSF) Ratio, AF, minimum 16 22 33 23 33 43 27 37 53 33 Grade IS 269:1989 43 Grade IS 8112:1989 53 Grade IS 12269:1987

225 30 600 10.0 0.8 5.0 4.0 6.0 2.5 3.00 0.66 to 1.02 0.66

225 30 600 10.0 0.8 5.0 2.0 6.0 2.5 3.00 0.66 to 1.02 0.66

225 30 600 10.0 0.8 4.0 2.0 6.0 2.5 3.00 0.8 to 1.02 0.66

Notes: C3A = 2.65(Al2O3) - 1.69(Fe2O3). C3S = 4.07(CaO) - 7.6(SiO2) - 6.72(Al2O3) - 1.43(Fe2O3) - 2.85 (SO3), where CaO is the combined lime

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Table 2: Physical and chemical properties of blended cements (PPC and PBSC), SRC and white cement
Type of cement Indian Standard PPC IS 1489:91 (part 1) PBSC IS 455:89 Rev:4th Amnd No 5 SRC IS 12330:88 White cement IS 8042:89 ,Rev 2nd, Amnd no 6

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES Fineness Minimum specific surface, m2/kg (Blaines air permeability) Setting time, minutes initial, minimum final, maximum Minimum compressive strength, N/mm2 3 day 7 day 28 day Soundness, expansion, mm (Le Chatelier test) Autoclave test, percent Additives, percent by weight of cement Flyash GGBS Degree of whiteness, percent, minimum CHEMICAL PROPERTIES Loss on ignition, percent, maximum Iron oxide, percent, maximum Insoluble residue, percent, by mass, maximum Magnesia, MgO, percent, maximum Sulphur, percent, maximum as sulphuric anhydride (SO3) Lime saturation factor (LSF) Tricalcium aluminate (C3A), maximum Tetracalcium aluminoferrite + 2 tricalcium aluminate (C4AF + 2C3A), maximum

300

225

225

225

30 600 16 22 33 10 0.8 15-35 5.0 # 6.0 3.0 -

30 600 16 22 33 10 0.8 35-70 5.0 4.0 10.0 3.0 -

30 600 10 16 33 10 0.8

30 600 14.4 19.8 29.7 10 0.8

5.0 4.0 6.0 2.5 0.66 to 1.02 5.0 -

70 1.0 2.0 6.0 >3.50.66 to 1.02 25.0

Note: PPC = Portand pozzolana cement, PBSC = Portland blastfurnace slag cement, SRC = Sulphate resisting cement, GGBS = Ground granulated blast furnace slag #x+

4.0(100 x) where, x is the declared percentage of pozzolana in PPC x

Table 3: Production of coloured finishes with white cement

Colours desired Greys, blue-black and black Blue Brownish red to dull brick red Bright red to vermilion Red sandstone to purplish red Brown to reddish-brown Buff, colonial tint and yellow Green * Commercial names of colours Lampblack* or carbon black* or black oxide of manganese* or mineral black Ultramarine blue Red oxide of iron Mineral turkey red Indian red Metallic brown (oxide) Yellow ochre or yellow oxide Approximate quantities required, kg per bag of cement Light shade Medium shade 0.25 0.50 0.25 0.50 0.50 1.00 0.50 1.00 2.30 4.10 2.30 4.10 2.30 2.30 2.30 2.30 1.00 4.10 4.10 4.10 2.00 2.00

Chromium oxide or 2.30 4.10 greenish blue ultramarine 2.70 Only first-quality lampblack should be used. Carbon black is light in weight and requires very thorough mixing. Black oxide or mineral black is probably most advantageous for general use. For black, use 5 kg of oxide for each bag of cement.

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Table 4: Possible reduction in strength of concrete made with stored cement
Period of storage of cement Fresh 3 months 6 months 1 year 2 year Minimum expected reductions in strength at 28 days, percent 0 20 30 40 50

Note: The above values are indicative. If cement is likely to have deteriorated during storage, it should be sent to a laboratory for testing.

Table 5: Rate of hardening of concrete made with fresh and stored cement
Test age 7 days 28 days 6 months 1:5 concrete made with cement stored bags under normal conditions for 6 months, percent 73 75 84 1:5 concrete made within fresh cement, percent 100 100 100

Note: The above values are indicative. If cement is likely to have deteriorated during storage, it should be sent to a laboratory for testing.

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Mineral admixtures Mineral admixtures are finely divided siliceous materials which are added to cement in relatively large amounts. They can be broadly divided into two groups, namely, reactive mineral admixtures, which could be either pozzolonic (for example, low calcium flyash, silica fume), or cementitious (for example, ground granulated blast-furnace slag), or both cementitiuos and pozzolonic (for example, high calcium fly ash) inert mineral admixtures, which have no cementitious or pozzolonic value and are generally added as a filler material (for example, silica flour, limestone powder, etc). When the materials from the first group comprising of reactive mineral admixtures are used to partially replace cement, they react with the calcium hydroxide in the hydrated cement paste to form complex compounds which result in a reduction in permeability, improvement in the ultimate strength, watertightness and durability, besides imparting economy to the mix. However, these admixtures need to be uniformly blended while mixing the concrete. Incidentally, blended cements such as PPC and PBSC contain mineral admixtures as per relevant Indian standards. They are manufactured under controlled conditions in a factory and contain these admixtures uniformly. These cements are most suitable for site as well as ready-mixed concrete. The IS 456:2000 permits the use of the following mineral admixtures, provided uniform blending with cement is ensured: fly ash silica fume rice husk ash metakaolin ground granulated blast-furnace slag. The use of mineral admixtures directly at site in concrete is still in its infancy in India and is mainly restricted to the ready-mixed concrete. Now most of these admixtures are readily available commercially in the market. While the specifications of, rice husk ash and metakaolin are yet to be formulated by the Bureau of Indian Standards, fly ash and silica fume conforming to Grade I of IS 3812:1991 (Table 6) and IS 15388: 2003 respectively shall be used. The revised standard on fly ash lays stress on the uniformity requirement see Note below Table 6.

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Table 6(a): Requirements of flyash for use as pozzolana and admixture Characteristic PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS Fineness specific surface by Blaine's permeability method, m2/kg, minimum Particles retained on 45 micron IS sieve (wet sieving), percent, maximum (optional test) Lime reactivity average compressive strength, N/mm2, minimum Minimum compressive strength, at 28 days, N/mm2, minimum 320 Requirement of fly ash

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4.5 Not less than 80 percent of the strength of corresponding plain cement mortar cubes 0.8

Soundness, Autoclave expansion, percent, maximum

Note: Fly ash of fineness 250 m2/kg (minimum) is also permitted to be used in the manufacture of portland pozzolana cement by intergrinding it with the portland cement clinker if the fly ash when ground to fineness of 320 m2/kg or to the fineness of the resultant portland pozzolana cement whichever is lower, meets all the requirements.

CHEMICAL REQUIREMENTS Silicon dioxide (SiO2) plus alumimium oxide (Al2O3) plus iron oxide (Fe30,), percent by mass, minimum Silicon dioxide (SiO2,), percent by mass, minimum Reactive silica percent by mass, minimum** Magnesium oxide (MgO), percent by mass, maximum Total sulphur as sulphur trioxide (SO3), percent by mass, maximum Available alkalis as sodium oxide (Na2O), percent by mass, maximum Total chlorides, percent by mass Loss on ignition, percent by mass, maximum

Siliceous PFA 70.0

Calcareous PFA 50.0

35 20 5 3 1.5 0.05 5

25 20 5 3 1.5 0.05 5

PFA denotes pulverised fuel ash; **For the purpose of this test wherever reference to cement has been made, it may be read as pulverised fuel ash Uniformity requirements: In tests on individual samples, the specific surface, particles retained on 45 micron IS Sieve (wet sieving) and lime reactivity value shall not vary more than IS percent from the average established from the tests on the 10 preceding samples or of all preceding samples if less than 10. Source: IS 3812 : 2003 (Part I).

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Table 6(b): Requirements of silica fume Sr no Characteristic PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS 1. 2. Specific surface, m2/g, minimum (see Note 1) Oversize percent retained on 45 micron IS sieve maximum, (see Note 1) Oversize percent retained on 45 micron IS sieve, variation from average percent, maximum (see Notes 1, 2) Compressive strength 7 days as percent of control sample, maximum (see Note 3) CHEMICAL REQUIREMENTS 5. 6. 7. 8. SiO2, percent by mass, minimum Moisture content, percent by mass, maximum (see Note 4) Loss on ignition, percent by mass, maximum Alkalies as Na2O, percent, maximum (see Notes 5, 6) 85.0 3.0 4.0 1.5 Requirements 15 10 5

3.

85.0

4.

85.0

Notes: 1. Anyone of the tests specified in (i) or (ii) or (iii) indicated may be adopted. 2. For (iii) the average shall consist of the ten preceding tests or all of the preceding tests if the number is less than ten. 3. In the test method for determination of compressive strength of silica fume cement mortar in accordance with IS 1727, the value of factor N may be taken as one. 4. For determination of moisture content, dry a weighed sample as received to constant mass in an oven at 150oC to 110oC. Express in percentage, the loss in mass and record as moisture content. 5. Requirement of limiting alkali shall be applicable in case silica fume is to be used in concrete containing reactive aggregate. 6. For determination of alkalies, method of test used for determination of this in cement may be adopted. Source: IS 15388 : 2003

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Aggregates Aggregates constitute nearly 70 to 75 percent of the total volume of concrete and are essentially inert in nature. A large number of properties of concrete are governed by them. Aggregates have two prime functions; namely, to provide concrete with a rigid skeletal structure and reduce the void space to be filled by the cement paste. The characteristics of aggregates are dependent upon three main features, namely, the mineralogical composition of the parent rock, exposure conditions to which the rock has been subjected to and the type of equipment and processes used in producing aggregates. Most natural rocks, whether massive or broken down by nature, are suitable for making concrete. In India, the rock types that are most generally used in concrete include: basalt, limestone, sandstone, granite, quartzite, etc. Crushed rock is the commonly-used coarse aggregate in the country, although gravel is also used wherever available economically. For fine aggregate, natural sand, crushed stone sand and crushed gravel sand are permitted to be used. With the natural sources of fine aggregates getting scarce, sand produced in crusher plants or manufactured sand, is increasingly being used in concrete making. Manufactured Sand is an environmentally friendly option of obtaining fine aggregates as the sources of natural sands such as marine streams, river estuary, dunes and alluvila deposits are not disturbed. . IS 456:2000 specifies that aggregates shall comply with the requirements of IS 383. Preference shall be given to natural aggregates. Classification Aggregates are commonly classified into two sizes, fine and coarse, the dividing line being the 4.75mm IS sieve. Where, however, the aggregate is a mixture of fine and coarse particles as it comes from the pit, riverbed, foreshore, quarry or crushing plant it is termed as all-in aggregate. Aggregates can also be classified in two more ways. Depending on the source, they could either be naturally occurring (gravel, pebbles, sand, etc) or synthetically manufactured (bloated clay aggregates, sintered flyash aggregate, etc). Further, depending on the bulk density, aggregates can either be normal weight (1520 to 1680 kg/m3), lightweight (less than 1220 kg/m3), or heavyweight (above 2000 kg/m3). Grading The distribution of the sizes of aggregate particles is called grading. Grading is an important property of aggregate for concrete in view of its effect on the packing, and thus voidage, which will in turn influence the water demand and cement content of concrete. Uniformity of grading within and between consignments is most vital. Grading is usually described in terms of cumulative percentage by mass of aggregate passing particular IS sieves. As mentioned earlier, aggregates are classified into two sizes, fine and coarse, the dividing line being the 4.75-mm IS sieve. Typical grading limits for coarse and fine aggregates as given in IS 383:1970 ( Reaffirmed 2002) , are reproduced in Tables 7 and 8, respectively. Coarse aggregates are either graded ( that is, having more than one size of particles), or singlesized, that is mainly retained between two adjacent sieves in the upper part of the list. Fine aggregate, depending on its fineness modulus (FM), is divided into three categories, namely, fine (FM between 2.2 to 2.6), medium (FM between 2.6 to 2.9), and coarse (FM between 2.9 to 3.2). If the aggregates are not properly graded, they should be screened by hand or by mechanical methods and the various sizes proportioned to get the required grading. Quality The aggregates used to make concrete must be clean, dense, hard, durable, structurally sound, capable of developing good bond with cement, weather-resisting, and unaffected by water. Most of the aggregates available in the country have adequate strength and other properties for using in concrete. The properties of the concrete depend upon the quality of the aggregates their strength, water absorption, shape and texture, the maximum size of aggregate, etc. Typical bulk density, specific 10

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gravity and voids in aggregates are given in Table 9 (a) and the limiting values of its mechanical properties are given in Table 9 (b). The approximate water absorption of different types of aggregates is given in Table 10. Impurities in aggregates are undesirable as they may hinder the hydration of cement and prevent adhesion of the aggregates with the cement paste, reducing strength and lowering durability. The limits of allowable deleterious materials as given in IS 383:1970 are given in Table 11. Sand containing an excess amount of silt or organic matter should be washed. Bulking of sand Sand as delivered sometimes contains moisture which causes a film of water on the surface of the particles, fluffing them apart. This is called bulking which will have to be taken into account while batching the mix. Table 12 shows the bulking of sand for various moisture contents. Table 13 shows the approximate quantity of surface water in a kilolitre of average aggregates. The values given in the table are applicable to nominal mixes only, particularly when no data about the surface water is available. Storage Storing on dusty, muddy, and grassy spots should be avoided. Dumps must be protected from exposure to dust. Aggregates should be placed in stockpiles in individual units not larger than a truckload and in suitable layers to prevent segregation. They should not be allowed to run down slopes.

Table 7: Grading limits for single-sized coarse aggregates

(Clause 4.1 and 4.2 of IS 383:1970)
IS sieve 63-mm 80-mm 63-mm 40-mm 20-mm 16-mm 12.5-mm 10-mm 4.75-mm 2.36-mm Percentage passing for single-sized aggregate of nominal size 40-mm 20-mm 16-mm 12.5-mm 10-mm

100
85-100 0-30 0-5 0-5 -

100 85-100 0-20 0-5 -

100
85-100 0-20 0-5 -

100 85-100 0-30 0-5 -

100 85-100 0-45 0-10 -

100 85-100 0-20 0-5

Table 8: Grading limits for fine aggregates

(Clause 4.3 of IS 383:1970)
IS sieve designation grading zone I 100 90-100 60-95 30-70 15-34 5-20 0-10 grading zone II 100 90-100 75-100 55-90 35-59 8-30 0-10 Percentage passing grading zone III 100 90-100 85-100 75-100 60-79 12-40 0-10 grading zone IV 100 95-100 95-100 90-100 80-100 15-50 0-15

10-mm
4.75-mm 2.36-mm 1.18-mm 600-micron 300-micron 150-micron

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Table 9(a): Aggregates: Bulk density, specific gravity and voids
BULK DENSITY, kg/1 River sand fine medium coarse Beach or river shingle Broken stone Stone screenings Broken granite Trap Granite Gravel Sand River sand fine coarse mixed and moist mixed and dry Broken stone, graded 25-mm maximum size 50-mm maximum size 63-mm maximum size Stone screenings Note: The above values are indicative only

1.44 1.52 1.60 1.60 1.60 1.44 1.68

SPECIFIC GRAVITY

2.9 2.8 2.66 2.65

VOIDS, PERCENT, AVERAGE

43 35 38 30 46 45 41 48

Table 9(b): Aggregates : Limiting values of mechanical properties

Properties Crushing value Impact value Abrasion value (Los Angeles) Soundness (Average loss of weight after 5 cycles) Fine aggregates Coarse aggregates Source: IS 383:1970 for wearing surfaces 30 30 30 When tested with Na2SO4 10 12 Limiting values, percent other than for wearing surfaces 45 45 50 When tested with MgSO4 15 18

Table 10: Approximate water absorption of aggregates, by weight

Average sand Pebbles and crushed limestone Trap rock and granite Porous sandstone Very light and porous aggregates may absorb as much as * The coarser the aggregate, the less the free water it carries. 1.0 percent 1.0 percent 0.5 percent 7.0 percent 25 percent by weight

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Table 11: Limits of deleterious materials*

(Clause 3.2.1 of IS 383 : 1970)
Deleterious substances uncrushed Coal and lignite Clay lumps Material finer than 75 IS sieve Shale Total of percentages of all deleterious materials** * Percentage by weight, maximum ** Mica is excluded Fine aggregates* crushed Coarse aggregates* uncrushed crushed

1.00 1.00
3.00 1.0 5.0

1.00 1.00 15.00 2.00

1.00 1.00 3.00 5.00

1.00 1.00 3.00 5.00

Table 12: Bulking of sands for various moisture contents

Moisture, percent 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 15 17 20 27 fine sand 16 26 32 36 38 37 35 32 28 22 18 9 0 Percentage bulking in medium sand 8 16 22 27 29 28 26 22 19 12 7 0 0 coarse sand 6 12 15 17 18 18 16 12 8 2 0 0 0

Table 13: Surface water carried by aggregate

Aggregate Approximate quantity of surface water

Very wet sand Moderately wet sand Moist sand Moist gravel or crushed rock
Note: Coarser the aggregate, less the water it will carry. Source: Table 10 of 1S 456:2000

Percent by mass 7.5 5.0 2.5 1.24-25

l/m3 120 80 40 20-40

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Water The purpose of water in concrete is three-fold. Water distributes the cement evenly, so that every particle of the aggregates is coated with it and brought into intimate contact with it and brought into intimate contact with its neighbour. It reacts chemically with cement, the reaction being called hydration of cement, and brings about the setting and hardening of cement. Water also lubricates the mix and gives it the workability required to place and compact it properly. Ponding of the freshly hardened concrete with water is a widely prevalent practise in the country. Water used for mixing concrete should be free from oil, acids and alkalis, salts, sugars, organic materials, or any other substances that may be deleterious to concrete. Generally, it should be of potable quality. The pH value of water shall not be less than 6. Sea water is not recommended for reinforced and prestressed concrete, but can be used only under unavoidable circumstances for plain concrete. It is well known that the chloride and sulphate contents of water have a major influence on the durability of concrete. In the latest revision of IS 456:2000, the permissible limits of these harmful agents have been made stringent. The permissible limits for solids in water are given in Table 14. In case of doubt regarding the development of strength the following tests are specified in IS 456:2000. (i) Average 28-day compressive strength of at least three cubes (150 mm) prepared with the water proposed to be used shall not be less than 90 percent of the average strength of cubes prepared with distilled water as per IS 516. (ii) The initial setting time shall not be less than 30 min and shall not differ 30 min from that of the cubes cast with distilled water as per IS 4031 (Part V).

Solids Organic Inorganic Sulphates (as SO3) Chlorides (as Cl) for plain concrete for reinforced concrete Suspended matter Source: IS 456:2000 (clause 5.4)

Table 14: Typical limits for solids in water Permissible limits, max, mg/l 200 3000 400 2000 500 2000

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Chemical admixtures Chemical admixtures are sometimes called the fifth ingredient of concrete, other than cement, coarse and fine aggregates and water. They are inorganic or organic materials solid or liquid which when added to the normal components of a mix (either concrete, mortar or paste), interact with the cementitious system through chemical, physical or physico-chemical means, modifying one or more properties of the mix in the fresh, setting, hardening or hardened state. A number of advantages can be derived with the use of admixtures. For example, in the fresh state of concrete, depending on the type of admixture used, they can increase the workability without increasing the water content, reduce or prevent settlement, modify the rate and/or capacity of bleeding, reduce segregation and reduce slump loss, retard or accelerate the time of initial/final setting. Aside from altering the properties of the fresh mix, they can retard or reduce heat evolution during early hardening, accelerate the rate of strength development at early ages, increase the compressive/flexural/tensile strength of concrete, improve durability, control alkali-aggregate reactivity, produce aerated concrete, improve bond between old and new concrete, inhibit corrosion of reinforcement, produce coloured concrete/mortar, etc. Chemical admixtures can be classified according to the purpose they are used, or according to the type of materials constituting them. Commonly-used admixtures are: water-reducing/plasticising admixtures set controlling admixtures, or retarders air-entraining admixtures accelerating admixture high-range water reducing, or superplasticising admixtures Besides the above, other types of admixture are also used. These include: grouting admixtures, pumping aids, bonding admixtures, expansion-producing admixtures, fungicidal, germicidal and insecticidal admixtures, etc. Commercially available admixtures may contain materials that separately belong to one or more groups. For example, a water-reducing admixture may be combined with a retarding admixture, and so on. The effectiveness of an admixture depends upon such factors as type, brand and amount of cement; water content; aggregate shape, grading and proportions; mixing time; slump; and temperatures of concrete and air. The physical requirements for the main types of admixtures extracted from i IS 9103:1999 are given in Tables 15 and 16. Trial mixes should be made with the admixture and the job materials at temperatures and humidity anticipated on the job. In this way the compatibility of the admixture with other job materials, as well as the effects of admixtures on the properties of the fresh and hardened concrete, can be observed. The amount of admixture recommended by the manufacturer, or the optimum amount determined by laboratory tests should be used. Since admixtures are generally supplied in bulk it is necessary to carry out uniformity tests on the lot of admixtures, as per requirements of IS 9103:1999, Table 17. Despite the variety and combination of admixture used, it should be borne in mind that no admixture at any time or amount can be considered a substitute for good concreting practice. 15

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Table 15: Physical requirements for accelerating, retarding, water-reducing, and air-entraining admixtures
Requirement Water content, percent of control sample, maximum Slump Time of setting, allowable deviation from control sample, hours: Initial maximum minimum final maximum minimum Compressive strength, percent of control sample, minimum: 1-day 3-day 7-day 28-day 6-month 1-year Flexural strength, percent of control sample, minimum: 3-day 7-day 28-day Length change, percent increase over control sample, maximum: 28-day 6-month 1-year Bleeding, percent increase over control sample, maximum Air content, percent, maximum, over control Source: IS 9103:1999 Notes: AA: Accelerating admixture; RA: Retarding admixture; WRA: Water-reducing admixture; AEA: Air entraining admixture; NSA: superplasticising admixture (normal); RSA: superplasticising admixture (retarding). * Not more than 15 mm below that of the control mix concrete ** At 45 min the slump shall not be less than that of control mix concrete at 15 min ***At 2 hour, the slump shall not be less than that of control mix concrete at 15 min AA RA WRA AEA NSA RSA

95 -

80 *

80 *

-3
-1 -2 -1

+3
+1

1 1 -

1.5
+1.5 -

+4
+1 +3 125 125 115 100 100 110 100 100

+3 +1 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90

90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90

125 100 100 90 90 110 100 90

110 110 110 100 100 100 100 100

140 125 125 115 100 100 110 100 100

0.010 0.010 0.010 5 -

0.010 0.010 0.010 5 -

0.010 0.010 0.010 5 -

0.010 0.010 0.010 5 -

0.010 0.010 0.010 5 1.5

0.010 0.010 0.010 5 1.5

Table 16: Requirements for high workability mix

Sr.no. Requirements Type of superplasticising admixture normal 510620 retarding type 510620

1. 2.

Flow, mm Loss of workability on standing

At 45 min the slump shall be not less than that of control mix concrete at 15 min

At 2 hr the slump shall be not less than that of control mix concrete at 15 min

3. Minimum compressive strength, percent of control mix concrete 7-day 28-day 6-month 1-year
Source: IS 9103:1999

90 90 90 90

90 90 90 90

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Table 17: Uniformity tests and requirements
Uniformity test Dry material content(DMC) liquid admixture solid admixture Requirements 0.95TDMC<1.05T where T is the manufacturers stated value in percent by mass and DMC is test result in percent by mass.

0.95TAC<1.05T where T is the manufacturers stated value in percent by mass and AC is test result in percent by mass. Relative density Within 0.02 of the value stated by the manufacturer Chloride ion content Within 10 percent of the value or within 0.2 percent, whichever is greater as stated by the manufacturer pH 6 min, within 1 of the value stated by the manufacturer Source: IS 9103:1999(Reaffirmed 2004) including Amendments nos 1 Jan 2003) and 2( Aug 2007).

Ash content (AC)

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Durability During the recent past the problem of early deterioration of concrete structures has assumed serious proportion all over the world. In India too, this problem is being witnessed in past few years, especially in coastal and industrial belts and other aggressive environments. The revised IS 456 lays emphasis on different aspects of durability. Durable concrete can be defined as one that is designed, constructed and maintained to perform satisfactorily in the expected environment for the specified life of the structure without undue maintenance. The materials and mix proportions chosen should be such as to maintain the integrity of the concrete and to protect the embedded reinforcement. The principal causes of deterioration of concrete have been identified as: carbonation, corrosion of reinforcement, sulphate attack and alkali-aggregate reaction. Generally, the concrete suffers from more than one cause of deterioration, which is generally seen in the form of cracking, spalling, loss of strength, etc. It is now accepted that the main factors influencing the durability of concrete is its impermeability to the ingress of oxygen, water, carbon dioxide, chlorides, sulphates, etc. Impermeability is dependent on the constituents and workmanship used in making the concrete. IS 456:2000 identifies various factors influencing durability as: environment cover to the embedded steel - type and quality of constituent materials - cement content and water-cement ratio - workmanship to obtain full compaction and efficient curing - shape and size of members. IS 456:2000 classifies the general environment in which the concrete will be exposed into five levels of severity mild, moderate, severe, very severe, and extreme, Table 18. The code has also specified the values of minimum and maximum cement content, maximum free water-cement ratio and the grades of concrete for different exposure conditions, Table 19. These values are applicable for those mixes having 20-mm nominal size aggregate. For other sizes of aggregates, the values need to be changed as given in Table 20. It is to be noted that the minimum specified grade for reinforced concrete is M 20. Incidentally, the grades of concrete have been classified into three different categories in IS 456, namely, ordinary concrete (M 10, M 15 and M 20), standard concrete (M 25, M30, M 35, M 40, M 45, M 50, M 55) and high strength concrete (M 60, M 65, M 70, M 75, M 80), Table 21. Carbonation and chlorides in concrete Generally, impermeable concrete provides adequate protection to reinforcing steel. However, the atmospheric carbon dioxide can react with the products of hydration resulting in the process of carbonation, which on reaching the reinforcing steel makes it vulnerable to corrosion. This process may take a few years, or even decades, depending on a host of factors, such as depth of cover, its permeability, level of CO2, type of cement and/or additive used, etc. Another major source of corrosion is the presence of chlorides in the concrete. The chlorides may get introduced into the concrete through the chlorides present in any of the ingredients, such as cement, aggregates, water, admixtures, etc, or through an external source into the hardened concrete. IS 456: 2000 lays down the limits of the chloride content ( as Cl ) in concrete at the time of placing, Table 22.

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Sulphates in concrete Sulphate attack can originate from ground water, soils, sea water or industrial effluents. The reaction depends on the concentration of sulphate ions present in sulphate solutions (that is, sodium, potassium ammonium, or magnesium), C3A content of the cement and the quality of the concrete. Sulphates convert the free lime in the hardened concrete to calcium sulphate, and the hydrates of calcium aluminates and ferrites to calcium sulphoaluminates or sulphoferrites. These conversion occupy more than double the solid volume, which results in disruption, expansion and cracking of the concrete. IS 456:2000 stipulates that the total water-soluble sulphate content of the concrete mix, expressed as SO3 should not exceed 4 percent of the mass of cement in the mix. The standard also gives recommendations for the type of cement, maximum free water-cement ratio, minimum cement content required at different sulphate concentrations in near neutral ground water having a pH of 6 to 9, Table 23. Alkali-aggregate reaction Certain aggregates contain reactive varieties of silica which may be susceptible to attack by alkalies originating from cement or other sources. The reaction is essentially expansive, resulting in alkaliaggregate reaction (AAR), of which the most common is alkali-silicate reaction (ASR). For AAR to occur the following attributes should be present: sufficient alkalies in concrete; a critical amount of reactive silica in the aggregate; and sufficient moisture. Relative humidity has an important influence on AAR, and high temperature with adequate moisture generally accelerates ASR, whereas low temperature slows it down. IS 456-2000 suggests that the following precautions be taken: choose an alternate supply of aggregates use low alkali cement cement having an alkali content not more than 0.6 percent as Na2O equivalent use mineral admixtures such as flyash (at least 20 percent), or ground granulated blast-furnace slag (not less than 50 percent); this implies use of blended cements with flyash or ground granulated blast-furnace slag limiting cement content in the mix measures to reduce the degree of saturation of the concrete during service. Cover to reinforcement It is observed that inadequate cover to the reinforcement is one of the major factors leading to early deterioration of reinforced and prestressed concrete structures. Provision of appropriate cover to all reinforcements and ensuring that the quality of the cover concrete including that of the cover blocks is same as that of the core concrete go a long way in mitigating the problem of early deterioration. IS 456 : 2000 gives detailed guidelines on provision of cover. The code defines nominal cover as the design depth of concrete cover to all reinforcement, including links. In order to meet durability requirements, the cover for normal weight concrete, including links as specified by the code is given in Table 24. Incidentally, the cover should not be less than the diameter of the bar. The code specifies that for longitudinal bar in a column nominal cover shall not be less than 40 mm, or less than the diameter of the bar. In those columns of minimum dimension of 200 mm or less, where the reinforcing bars do not exceed 12 mm diameter, a nominal cover of 25 mm may be used. For footings minimum cover shall be 50 mm.

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Cover for fire resistance : For the first time, IS 456 has specified cover for fire resistance. The nominal cover of normal-weight aggregate concrete shall be provided to all reinforcement, including links to meet fire resistance as specified in Table 25.

Table 18: Environmental exposure conditions

Sr No (i) Environment Mild Exposure conditions Concrete surfaces protected against weather or aggressive conditions, except those situated in coastal areas Concrete surface sheltered from severe rain or freezing whilst wet; concrete exposed to condensation and rain concrete continuously under water; concrete in contact or buried under non-aggressive soil/ground water; concrete surfaces sheltered from saturated salt air in coastal area Concrete surfaces exposed to severe rain, alternate wetting and drying or occasional freezing whilst wet or severe condensation; concrete completely immersed in sea water; concrete exposed to coastal environment Concrete surfaces exposed to sea water spray, corrosive fumes or severe freezing conditions whilst wet; concrete in contact with or buried under aggressive sub-soil/ground water Surface of members in tidal zone; members in direct contact with liquid/solid aggressive chemicals

(ii)

Moderate

(iii) (iv) (v)

Severe Very severe Extreme

Source: Table 3 of IS 456:2000

Table 19: Minimum cement content, maximum water-cement ratio and minimum grade of concrete for different exposures with normal weight aggregates of 20 mm nominal maximum size Plain concrete Reinforced concrete Minimum Minimum Exposure Maximum free Minimum Maximum free Minimum cement cement water cement grade of water cement grade of conditions content, content, ratio concrete ratio concrete kg/m3 kg/m3 0.60 0.55 M 20 Mild 220 300 0.60 M 15 0.50 M 25 Moderate 300 240 0.50 M 20 0.45 M 30 Severe 320 250 0.45 M 20 0.45 M 35 Very severe 340 260 0.40 M 25 0.40 M 40 Extreme 360 280
Source: Table 5 of IS 456 : 2000 Note: (i)Cement content prescribed in this table is irrespective of the grades of cement and it is inclusive of additions mentioned in clause 5.2 of IS 456. The additions such as fly ash or ground granulated blast furnace slag may be taken into account in the concrete composition with respect to the cement content and w-c ratio if the suitability is established and as long as the maximum amounts taken into account do not exceed the limit of pozzolana and slag specified in IS 1489 (Part I) and IS 455, respectively.

(ii)

Minimum grade for plain concrete under mild exposure condition is not specified.

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Table 20: Adjustments to minimum cement contents for aggregates other than 20-mm nominal maximum size Sr. No. Nominal maximum aggregate size, mm in Table 19*, 10 20 40 Adjustment to minimum cement contents. kg/m3 +40 0 -30

(i) (ii) (iii)

Source: Table 6 of IS 456: 2000, *(Table 5 of IS 456: 2000)

Table 21: Grades of concrete Group

Grade designation M10 M15 M20 M25 M30 M35 M40 M45 M50 M55 M60 M65 M70 M75 M80

Ordinary concrete

Standard concrete

High strength concrete

Specified characteristic compressive strength of 150 mm cube at 28 days, N/mm2 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80

Source: Table 2 of IS 456 : 2000 Notes: (i) In the designation of concrete mix, M refers to the mix and the number to the specified compressive strength of 150-mm size 2 cube at 28 days, expressed in N/mm . (ii) For concrete of compressive strength greater than M 55, design parameters given in the standard may not be applicable and the values may be obtained from specialised literature and experimental results.

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Table 22: Limits of chloride content of concrete
Type or use of concrete Concrete containing metal and steam cured at elevated temperature, and pre-stressed concrete Reinforced concrete or plain concrete containing embedded metal Concrete not containing embedded metal or any material requiring protection from chloride Source: Table 7 of IS 456:2000 Maximum total acid soluble chloride content expressed as 3 kg/m of concrete 0.4 0.6 3.0

Table 23: Requirements for concrete exposed to sulphate attack

Class Concentration of sulphates, expressed as SO3 Type of cement Dense fully compact with 20-mm nominal maximum size aggregates complying with IS 383 Minimum cement 3 content, kg/m Maximum free water- cement ratio

in soil SO3, in 2:1water:soil extract g/l Less than 1.0 1.0 to 1.9 1.9 to 3.1

in ground water

total SO3 percent (i) (ii) (iii) Traces (<0.2) 0.2 to 0.5 0.5 to 1.0

g/l Less than 0.3 0.3 to 1.2 1.2 to 2.5 Ordinary portland cement, or portland slag cement, or portland pozzolana cement Ordinary portland cement, or portland slag cement, or portland pozzolana cement Supersulphated cement, or sulphate resisting portland cement. Portland possolana cement or portland slag cement Supersulphated, or sulphate resisting portland cement Sulphate resisting portland cement, or supersulphated cement with protective coatings 280 330 330 350 370 400 0.55 0.50 0.50 0.45 0.45 0.40

(iv) (v)

1.0 to 2.0 More than 2.0

3.1 to 5.0 More than 5.0

2.5 to 5.0 More than 5.0

Source: IS 456 : 2000 (Clauses 8.2.2.4 and 9.1.2) Notes:(i) Cement content given in this table is irrespective of grades of cement. (ii) Use of supersulphated cement is generally restricted where the prevailing temperature is above 40oC. (iii) Supersulphated cement gives an acceptable life provided that the concrete is dense and prepared with a watercement ratio of 0.4 or less, in mineral acids, down to pH 3.5 (iv) The cement contents given are the minimum recommended. For SO3 contents near the upper limit of any class, cement
contents above these minimum are advised. (v) For severe conditions, such as thin sections under hydrostatic pressure on one side only and sections partly immersed, considerations should be given to a further reduction of water-cement ratio. (vi) Portland slag cement conforming to IS: 455 with slag content more than 50 percent exhibits better sulphate resisting properties. (vii) Where chloride is encountered along with sulphates in soil or ground water, ordinary portland cement with C3A content from 5 to 8 percent shall be desirable to be used in concrete, instead of sulphate resisting cement. Alternatively, portland slag cement conforming to IS: 455 having more than 50 percent slag, or a blend of ordinary portland cement and slag may be used, provided sufficient information is available on performance of such blended cements in these conditions.

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Table 24: Nominal cover to meet durability requirements
Exposure Mild Moderate Severe Very severe Extreme
Source: Table 16, IS 456:2000 Notes: (i) For main reinforcement up to 12-mm diameter bar for mild exposure conditions, nominal cover may be reduced by 5 mm (ii) For exposure conditions of severe and very severe, cover may be reduced by 5 mm, where concrete grade is M35 and above. (iii) Unless specified otherwise, actual concrete cover should not deviate from the required nominal cover by + 10 mm

Nominal cover, not less than, mm 20 30 45 50 75

Table 25: Nominal cover to meet specified period of fire resistance

Fire resistance, hr Nominal Cover

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0

Beams Simply Continuous supported 20 20 20 20 20 20 40 30 60 40 70 50

Slabs Simply supported 20 20 25 35 45 55 Continuous 20 20 20 25 35 45 Simply supported 20 20 35 45 55 65

Ribs Continuous 20 20 20 35 45 55

Columns

40 40 40 40 40 40

Source: Table 16A of IS 456:2000 Note: (i) The nominal covers given relate specifically to the minimum member dimensions given in Fig 1 of IS 456: 2000 (page 34). (ii) Cases that lie below the bold line require additional measures necessary to reduce risk of spalling.

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Concrete mix proportioning Proportioning of concrete mixes can be regarded as procedure set to proportion the most economical concrete mix for specific durability and grade for required site condition. The revised IS 10262 :2009 provides the concrete mix proportioning guidelines. In the revised version, the requirements of selection of water-cement ratio, water content and estimation of coarse aggregate content and fine aggregate content have been modified. A new illustrative example using fly ash as one of the ingredients has been included in the guidelines. Different ingredients of concrete need to be mixed in appropriate proportions during the production of concrete. This can be done either by volume or by weight, the latter being more precise and scientific. It is essential that concrete mixes be proportioned for a particular set of given ingredients to produce specific properties of concrete in the most economical ways. This is a must for large-scale jobs, where quality is an important yardstick. Rational proportioning of the ingredients of concrete, generally referred as mix proportioning or mix designing is a process by which one can arrive at the right combination of cement, aggregates, water, and admixtures (if any) for producing concrete to satisfy given specifications. The purpose of mix proportioning is to obtain a product that will perform to certain predetermined requirements. The objective of mix design is to ensure that the concrete: (i) complies with the compressive strength as laid down in the specifications (ii) conforms to the specified durability requirements to resist the environment in which the structure will be serviceable during its design life (iii) has adequate workability (iv) is capable of being mixed, transported, laid down and compacted as efficiently as possible (v) and last but not least, be as economical as possible. To achieve an optimum mix proportion to fulfil the above parameters is a challenging task. The work of mix designing is a trial and error exercise, which need to be carried out by an experienced person in a laboratory. The concrete mix needs to be designed to produce the grade of concrete having characteristic strength not less than the appropriate values given in Table 21. The mix also needs to be designed for adequate workability so that it could be being mixed, transported, laid down and compacted as efficiently as possible. Depending upon the placing conditions, IS 456 has recommended different ranges of workability and these are given in Table 26. In addition, the concrete has to satisfy the durability requirements. Some of these requirements, namely the minimum cement content, maximum water-cement ratio and minimum grade of concrete, as specified by IS 456 are already given in Table 19. It may be noted that the code has specified the minimum grade of concrete to be not less than M 20 for reinforced concrete constructions. The responsibility of carrying out the mix design rests with the contractor or an expert agency employed by the contractor. The mix so designed needs to be approved by the employer/client. The contractor/expert agency can use any mix design method in designing the mix. It would be appropriate to obtain standard deviation based on the test strength of samples at a project site. In case such test results are not available, assumed values of standard deviation as given in Table 27 may be used for the design of the mix in the first instance. As soon as the results of sample are available, actual calculated standard deviation shall be used and the mix designed properly.

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Nominal mixes If mix design concrete cannot be used for any reason on the work of grades of M 20 or lower, IS 456 permits the use of nominal mixes. The proportion of materials for nominal mix concrete shall be as given in Table 28.

Table 26: Degree of workability for different placing conditions

Placing conditions Blinding concrete; shallow sections; pavement using pavers Mass concrete; lightly reinforced sections in slabs, beams, walls, Columns; floors; hand- placed pavements; canal linings; strip footings Heavily reinforced sections in slabs, columns, beams, walls; columns sSipform work; pumped concrete Trench fill; in-situ piling Tremie concrete Source : IS 456 : 2000 Degree of workability very low Slump, mm use compacting factor test as per IS:1199 25-75

low

medium medium high very high

50-100 75-100 100-150 use determination of flow test as per IS : 9103

Table 27: Assumed standard deviation

Grade of concrete Assumed standard deviation, N/mm
2

M 10 M 15 M 20 M 25 M 30 M 35 M 40 M 45 M 50

3.5 3.5 4.0 4.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0

Source: Table 8 of IS 456 : 2000 Note: The above values correspond to the site control having proper storage of cement; weigh batching of all materials; controlled addition of water; regular checking of all materials, aggregate gradings and moisture content; and periodical checking of workability and strength. 2 Where there is deviation from the above, the values given in the above table shall be increased by 1 N/mm .

Table 28: Proportions for nominal mix concrete

Total quantity of dry Proportion of fine aggregate (coarse + fine Water per 50-kg cement, Grade of concrete aggregate to coarse aggregate) per 50-kg maximum, lit aggregate, by vol cement M 5 800 60 M 7.5 625 45 1:2, subject to upper limit of 1:1.5 and lower limit of M 10 480 34 1:2.5 M 15 330 32 M 20 250 30 Note: 1. The proportions of fine to coarse aggregates should be adjusted from the upper limit to the lower limit progressively as the grading of fine aggregates becomes finer and the maximum size of coarse aggregates becomes larger. Graded coarse aggregate should be used. 2. Quanity of water required from durability poit of view may be less than the value given above (Ref Amend No 3 to IS 456:2000)

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Acceptance criteria The IS 456:2000 specifies that in all cases the 28-day compressive strength given in Table 21 shall alone be the criteria for acceptance or rejection of the concrete. However, in order to get a relatively quicker idea of the quality of concrete, testing may be carried out 7 days or even earlier, depending on requirements. According to the code, the concrete shall be deemed to comply with the strength requirements when both the following conditions are met: Compressive strength (i) the mean strength determined from any group of four consecutive tests complies with the appropriate limits of col 2 in Table 29 (ii) any individual test result complies with the appropiate limits in col 3 of Table 29. Flexural strength (i) the mean strength determined from any group of four consecutive test results exceeds the specified characteristic strength by at least 0.3 N/mm2 (ii) the strength determined from any test result is not less than the specified characteristic strength less 0.3 N/mm2. For individual test result requirements given in column 3 of Table 29 or at (ii) above under title "flexural strength" only the particular batch from which the sample was taken shall be at risk. If the concrete does not comply with the above requirements, the code advises that the structural adequacy of the parts affected shall be investigated. Incidentally, concrete of each grade shall be assessed separately. The code suggests that concrete will be liable to be rejected if it is porous or honeycombed, its placing has been interrupted without providing a proper construction joint, the reinforcement has been displaced beyond tolerances specified, or construction tolerances have not been met. However, the code also states that the hardened concrete may be accepted after carrying out remedial measures to the satisfaction of the engineer-in-charge.

Table 29: Characteristic compressive strength compliance requirement

Specified grade Man of the group of 4 non-overlapping 2 consecutive test results, N/mm fck + 0.825 established standard deviation (rounded off to nearest 0.5 2 2 N/mm ) or fck + 3 N/mm , whichever is greater fck + 0.825 established standard deviation (rounded off to nearest 0.5 2 2 N/mm ) or fck + 3N/mm , whichever is greater Individual test results, N/mm fck 3 N/mm
2 2

M 15

M 20 or above

fck 3 N/mm

Source: Table 11 of IS 456 : 2000 Note: In the absence of established value of standard deviation, the values given in Table 8 of IS 456 may be assumed, and attempt should be made to obtain results of 30 samples as early as possible to establish the value of standard deviation

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Batching and mixing Batching While traditionally batching has been done by volume and still continues to be done even today, it is more accurate to batch the concrete ingredients by weight. IS 456:2000 insists on batching by weight. The method is absolutely straightforward the cement, sand and coarse aggregates are weighed directly in kg, and the water in litres (or in kg), and the chemical admixture(s) in lit. Weigh batching Cement comes in 50-kg bags. The aggregate and sand can be weighed by a variety of weighing devices, the simplest being a spring dial scale, to more accurate portable weigh batchers. A spring dial scale is hooked from a fixed support or frame which is easily rigged up. A metal scoop is hung from the hook of the scale, into which the materials are weighed. The metal scoop can then be emptied directly into the skip or drum of the mixer, or if mixing is done by hand, on to the mixing platform. The weight of the empty scoop has to be taken into account while weighing, and this can normally be done by adjusting the dial to zero weight, thereby permitting direct reading of the loads. Another device is a platform scale. This is placed in the route from the stockpiles to the mixer and the materials weighed in containers. It is preferable that all the containers are of a similar weight; if not bring all the empty containers to the weight of the heaviest one by tying pieces of iron or weights onto them. A more efficient and accurate method is to use portable weigh batchers available in the market. This equipment consists of weigh buckets connected through a system of levers to a spring loaded dial which indicates weight. The weigh batcher can be so positioned such that the weighed material is discharged directly into the mixer positioned adjacent to it. Some weigh batchers come with two weigh buckets which can revolve around each other, each with its own dial, allowing the material in one bucket to be weighed while the other bucket is emptying its material into the mixer. IS 456 specifies the accuracy of the measuring equipment shall be within 2 percent of the quantity of the cement being measured, and within 3 percent of the quantity of aggregate, admixtures and water being measured. Volume batching IS 456 allows batching by volume, only where weigh batching is not practical and accurate bulk densities of materials to be actually used in the concrete have been established earlier. When volume batching is practised, use of measuring boxes, control on water-cement ratio, measuring bulking of sand and accounting for surface water of aggregates need to be strictly adhered to. To ensure a certain degree of consistency, farmas (wooden/steel batch boxes) should be used. The dimension of the farma should be in multiples of one bag of cement, or 35 lit, since the batching is always related to a single bag of cement. A convenient size of farma would be 350 250 400 mm. Farmas should not be made too large and unwieldy; it would be preferable to have a farma which can contain, say half the required quantity of aggregate, and to fill this twice over for each batch of concrete. Before concreting operations are started, the supervisor should check the farma volumes against specified quantities. While filling the farma the material should be loosely filled in and struck off level without compacting it. Water can be measured either in lt or kg. For example, if the water-cement ratio is specified as 0.45, the quantity of mixing water required per 50-kg bag of cement is 0.45 50 = 22.5 kg, or lt. This is of course, inclusive of any surface moisture present in the aggregates. The amount of surface water present in aggregates can be estimated as given earlier in Table 13.

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Mixing Mixing by machine is more efficient than mixing by hand, and IS 456:2000 recommends that mixing should be done in a mechanical mixer. The mixing should be continued till all the materials are uniformly distributed in the mixer and the end product is of a consistent colour. Mixing time should be at least 2 min, or the recommendations of the manufacturer should be followed. IS 456:2000 recommends that mixers should be fitted with water measuring devices. If there is segregation after loading the concrete should be remixed. Though mixing by machine is now commonly adopted, a considerable amount of concrete is still mixed by hand, particularly on small jobs. Concrete should never be mixed just on the ground; otherwise, dirt will also get mixed in. Mixing must be done on a clean hard surface such as a concrete floor, a wooden platform, or in a sheet metal trough. While mixing the raw materials, cement and sand should be intimately mixed first, then the coarse aggregates. Water is added last and the mixture should be turned over until a uniform colour is obtained all around. At civil construction sites where considerable quantity of concrete is required, central batching plants or batching and mixing plants are deployed. Concrete mixed in a stationary mixer in a centrally batching and mixing plant or in a truck mixer and supplied in the fresh condition to the purchaser or into the purchares vehicle is called ready-mixed concrete. The Indian code for ready-mixed concretre was first published in 1968. In the first revision in 1976, the major modification included increasing the time for supplying by half an hour and permitting use of fly ash. The second revision published in 2003 introduces 13 major modifications based on experience of using the earlier versions of the standard and other developments in the concrete industry. For more details see Indian Standard IS 4926:2003, Ready-Mixed Concrete Code of Practice.

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Making good concrete The following points pertaining to materials and workmanship are important. 1. Cement: Select the appropriate type of cement. Use fresh cement of approved quality. Store it properly to prevent deterioration. 2. Aggregates: Use well-graded aggregates, free from silt, organic matter, and other undesirable impurities. Store aggregates properly and don't allow different fractions to mix together. 3. Water: Use potable quality of water. It should be free from impurities and harmful ingredients. It should be within the tolerable limits specified by BIS. 4. Chemical admixtures: Use optional. Use appropriate type of admixture(s) in correct dosages, as recommended by the manufacturer, and/or confirmed by laboratory tests. Ensure that the admixture(s) are compatible with the cement and other ingredients. Trial mixes should be made, if necessary. Ensure that there is no batch-to-batch variation in quality. 5. Durability: Ensure that the durability requirements like minimum cement content, maximum water-cement ratio, grade of concrete, cover to reinforcement, etc as specified in IS 456:2000 are satisfied for the given exposure conditions. 6. Mix design: Use of a properly designed concrete mix is essential for large jobs. BIS permits use of nominal mixes for works using concrete grades of M 20 and below. 7. Batching: Batching materials by weight is preferable and the BIS emphasises its use. If batched on volume basis, use measurement boxes in units of 35 litres, which is the capacity of one 50-kg bag of cement. In any case the cement should,, be batched only by weight and preferably by whole bags. Allowance for water because of bulking of sand and surface water carried by coarse aggregates is essential. 8. Quantity of mixing water: Use the minimum quantity of mixing water, consistent with the degree of workability required to enable easy placing and compaction of concrete. Ensure that a water-measuring device is fitted on the mixer and is used. 9. Mixing: Use a mixing machine. There should be uniform distribution of the material until the mass is uniform in colour and consistency. Avoid hand mixing. Where it is unavoidable, hand-mixing should be done on an impervious platform. In the case of hand mixing, mix cement and sand first and then add aggregates. 10. Transporting: Avoid drying out, segregation, setting, loss of any ingredients, ingress of foreign matter or water during transportation. 11. Placing: Place concrete in its final position before setting starts; avoid segregation of materials and disturbance of the forms; lay concrete in suitable layers without any break of continuity; maximum free-fall of concrete should not exceed 1.5 m. 12. Compaction: Ensure thorough compaction, particularly around the reinforcement and embedded fixtures and into the corners of the formwork. Use internal/external/form vibrators; avoid under- and over-vibration. 13. Finishing: Finish after a little stiffening. 14. Curing: Keep concrete continuously moist, preferably for a period of seven to 14 days. 15. Formwork: Use formwork, which is rigid and closely fitted, with sufficient strength to support the wet concrete and to prevent loss of slurry. The face of the formwork should be treated with form-release agents.

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CementUsersGuide
16. Reinforcement: Make sure that the reinforcement used is free from loose rust, oil, paint, mud, etc. The reinforcement shall be placed and maintained in position by providing proper cover blocks, spacers, supporting bars, etc. Reinforcement shall be placed and tied such that concrete placement is possible without segregation, and compaction possible by an immersion vibrator.

Table 30: Recommended volumetric mixes for various types of construction Water for 1-cement bag batch, lt for aggregates Approx. Maximum size of Total for dry condition Kind of work mix, loose aggregates, mm aggregates from moist to volume wet Small precast work, fence posts poles, garden furniture and other 1:2:2 16 20 15 to 16 work of very thin sections Storage tanks, cisterns, sewers,

best consistency

Soft

well kerbs, watertight work, and columns or other structural parts subjected to high stresses Reinforced concrete work, floor slabs, beams, columns, arches, stairs, etc Ordinary floors, footpaths, driveways, steps, roads, pavements Building and basement walls, silos, sills, lintels, machine foundations subject to vibration, bridges, dams, piers, etc exposed to action of water and frost foundation concrete for masonry walls Culverts retaining walls, compound walls, ordinary machine bases, etc Mass concrete for heavy walls, lean concrete for levelling course of RCC foundations

1:2:3

20

25

19 to 22

Medium

1:2:3 1:2:3

20 20

32 23

23 to 27 20 to 23

Medium or soft Stiff

1:2:4

40

30

23 to 26

Stiff or medium

1:3:5

40

34

26 to 30

Stiff or medium

1:3:6

63

36

30 to 32

Medium

Notes: When both coarse and fine aggregates are poorly graded the following general rules regarding suitable proportioning of these will be found helpful: (i) For maximum size of coarse aggregates as 40 mm and over, sand should be half as much as coarse aggregate. (ii) For maximum size of coarse aggregates as 20 mm and over, sand should be two-thirds of the coarse aggregate. (iii) For maximum size of coarse aggregates as 16 mm, sand and coarse aggregates should be in equal parts.

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Table 31: Estimated quantities of materials required per cubic metre of compacted mortar or concrete
cement 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Nominal mix fine coarse aggregate aggregate 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 6 8 1 2 2 2 1.5 3 1.66 3.33 2 3 2 3.5 2 4 2.5 3.5 2.5 4 3 4 2.5 5 3 5 3 6 4 8 Watercement ratio 0.25 0.28 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.53 0.70 0.90 0.30 0.42 0.42 0.48 0.50 0.53 0.55 0.57 0.60 0.65 0.65 0.69 0.75 0.95 Water, litres per 50-kg bag of cement 12.5 14.0 15.0 17.5 20.0 26.5 35.0 45.0 15.0 21.0 21.0 24.0 25.0 26.5 27.5 28.5 30.0 32.5 32.5 34.5 37.5 47.5 Cement by weight, kg 1015 815 687 585 505 395 285 220 560 430 395 363 385 330 310 305 285 265 255 240 215 165 by number of bags 20.3 16.3 13.75 11.7 10.1 7.9 5.7 4.4 11.2 8.6 7.9 7.25 7.7 6.6 6.2 6.1 5.7 5.3 5.1 4.8 4.3 3.3 Sand, liters 710 855 963 1023 1060 1106 1,197 1,232 392 602 414 419 539 462 434 534 499 556 446 504 452 462 Crushed stone, liters 784 602 828 838 808 808 868 748 798 742 892 840 904 924

Notes: (i) The table is based on the assumptions that the voids in sand and crushed stone are 40 and 45 percent, respectively. (ii) Air content of 1 percent has been assumed. (iii) For gravel aggregate decrease cement by 5 percent, increase sand by 2 percent and coarse aggregate in proportion to fine aggregate in mix. (iv) No allowance has been made in the table for bulking of sand and wastage.

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CementUsersGuide
Table 32: Materials required per m2 for various thicknesses of concrete screed
Nominal mix Material Thickness, mm

50

60

70

80

90

100

125

150

200

225
89 93 187

250
99 104 207

300
118 124 249

C 20 24 28 32 36 39 49 59 79 1:1:3 FA 21 25 29 33 37 41 52 62 82 CA 41 50 58 66 75 83 104 124 166 C 19 23 7 31 35 38 48 58 77 1:2:3 FA 27 32 38 43 49 54 67 81 108 CA 40 49 57 65 73 81 101 121 162 C 18 22 26 29 33 36 45 55 73 1:1.5:3.33 FA 21 25 29 34 38 42 52 63 84 CA 42 50 59 67 75 84 105 126 168 1:2:4 C 16 19 22 25 28 31 39 47 62 FA 22 26 30 35 39 43 54 65 87 CA 43 52 61 70 78 87 109 130 174 1:2.5:5 C 13 15 18 20 23 26 32 38 51 FA 22 27 31 36 40 45 56 67 89 CA 45 54 63 71 80 89 112 134 178 1:3:5 C 12 14 17 19 22 24 30 36 48 FA 25 30 35 40 45 50 63 76 101 CA 42 50 59 67 76 84 105 126 168 1:3:6 C 11 13 15 17 19 22 27 32 43 FA 23 27 32 36 41 45 57 68 90 CA 45 54 63 72 81 90 113 136 181 1:4:8 C 8 10 11 13 15 17 21 25 33 FA 23 28 32 37 42 46 58 69 92 CA 46 55 65 74 83 92 116 139 185 Notes: (i) C = Cement, kg; FA= Fine aggregate, saturated surface-dry, litres; CA = Coarse aggregate, litres (iii) No allowance made for bulking and wastage

87
122 182

96
135 202

115
162 242

82
95 189

91
105 210

109
126 251

70
98 196

78
109 217

93
130 260

57
100 200

64
112 223

77
134 268

54
114 189

60
126 210

72
151 252

48
101 203

54
113 226

64
136 271

37
104 208

41
116 231

49
139 277

Table 33: Materials required per m2 for various thicknesses of plaster

Mix Material

1:1 1:1.5 1:2 1:2.5 1:3 1:4 1.6 1.8

Notes:

C FA C FA C FA C FA C FA C FA C FA C FA

5 5.1 3.5 4.1 4.3 3.4 4.8 2.9 5.1 2.5 5.3 2.0 5.5 1.4 6.0 1.1 6.2

10 10.1 7.1 8.2 8.6 6.9 9.6 5.9 10.2 5.1 10.6 4.0 11.1 2.9 12.0 2.2 12.3

Thickness, mm 20 30 20.3 30.5 14.2 21.3 16.3 24.5 17.1 25.6 13.7 20.6 19.3 28.9 11.7 17.5 20.5 30.7 10.1 15.2 21.2 31.8 7.9 11.9 22.1 33.2 5.7 8.6 23.9 35.9 4.4 6.6 24.6 37.0

40 40.6 28.4 32.6 34.2 27.5 38.5 23.4 41.0 20.2 42.4 15.8 44.2 11.4 47.9 8.8 49.3

50 50.8 35.5 40.8 42.7 34.4 48.1 29.2 51.2 25.3 53.0 19.7 55.3 14.3 59.9 11.0 61.6

(i) C = cement, kg FA = fine aggregate (sand), litres (ii) No allowance has been made in table for bulking and wastage

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Table 34: Approximate materials required for plastering 100 m2 area using different proportions of cement mortar
Cement mortar 1:2 1:3 1:4 1:6
3

Cement, m (no of bags) 0.7 (21) 0.5 (15) 0.4 (12) 0.3 (9)
2

Sand, m 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.8

Note: Thickness of plaster is 12 mm and 2 m of mortar is used for 100 m area

Table 35: Approximate materials required for whitewashing, distempering and painting 100 m2 area
Job Lime for whitewashing (1 coat) Dry distemper for 1st coat Dry distemper for 2nd coat Snowcem for 1st coat Snowcem for 2nd coat Paint, ready mixed for one coat Paint, stiff for one coat Quantity 10.0 kg 6.5 kg 5.0 kg 30.0 kg 20.0 kg 10.0 lt 10.0 kg

Table 36: Coefficients to be applied over area of different surfaces to get equivalent plain area in painting jobs
Description of work Panelled framed and braced doors, windows, etc Ledged and battened doors, windows, etc Flush doors, etc Part panelled and part gauzed doors, etc Fully glazed or gauzed doors, windows, etc Fully lowered doors, windows, etc Trellis work, one way or two way Carved or enriched work Weather boarding Wooded single roofing Boarding with cover tillets and match boarding Tile and slate battening STEEL DOORS, WINDOWS, ETC Plain sheeted steel doors or windows Fully glazed steel doors or windows Party panelled and glazed doors and windows Corrugated sheeted steel doors and windows Collapsible gates
Rolling shutters of interlocked lathes GENERAL Expanded metal, hard drawn steel, wire fabric grill works and gratings in guard bars, railings, etc Open palisade fencing and gates including standards, braces, rails, etc Corrugated iron sheetings in roofs, etc AC corrugated sheetings in roofs AC semicorrugated sheetings in roofs, etc Wire gauze shutters including painting of wire gauze Measured flat Measured flat Measured flat Measured flat Measured flat Measured flat 1 (for painting all over) 1 (for painting all over) 1.14 for each side 1.20 for each side 1.10 for each side 1.00 for each side

Measurement Measured flat including chowkat frame, edges cleats, etc Measured flat including chowkat frame, edges cleats, etc Measured flat including chowkat frame, edges cleats, etc Measured flat including chowkat frame, edges cleats, etc Measured flat including chowkat frame, edges cleats, etc Measured flat including chowkat frame, edges cleats, etc Measured flat Measured flat Measured flat Measured flat Measured flat Measured flat Measured flat Measured flat Measured flat Measured flat Measured flat
Measured flat

Multiply by coefficient or or or or or or 1.30 each side 1.30 each side 1.20 each side 1.00 each side 0.80 each side 1.80 each side 2.00 for all over 2.00 for each side 1.20 1.10 for each side 1.05 for each side 0.80 for all over 1.10 for each side 0.50 for each side 0.80 for each side 1.25 for each side 1.50 for all over
1.10 for all over

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Reinforcement
Table 37: Mechanical properties of cold steel bars for reinforced concrete (clause 8.1 of IS:432 (part I) 1982)
Type and nominal size of bar Ultimate tensile stress, minimum Yield stress, minimum, N/mm2 Elongation,* percent, N/mm2

MILD STEEL GRADE I For bars upto and including 20 mm For bars over 20 mm, upto and including 50 mm MILD STEEL GRADE II For bars upto and including 20 mm For bars over 20 mm, upto and including 50 mm MEDIUM TENSILE STEEL For bars upto and including 16 mm For bars over 16 mm, upto and including 32 mm For bars over 32 mm, upto and including 50 mm
*Elongation on a gauge length 5.65

410 410 370 370 540 540 510

250 240 225 215 350 340 330

23 23 23 23 20 20 20

So where So is the cross-sectional area of the test piece

Table 38: Mechanical properties of cold worked high strength steel deformed bars for concrete reinforcement (IS:1786-2008)
Type of bar 0.2 percent proof stress 2 minimum, N/mm Elongation percent minimum, on gauge length of 5.65
A*

Tensile strength minimum, 2 N/mm 10 /12percent more than actual 0.2 percent proof stress/yield stress but not less than 485.0 / 500N/mm2 8/10 percent more than actual 0.2 percent proof stress/yield stress but not less than 545.0/565.0N/mm2 6/8 percent more than actual 0.2 percent proof stress/yiled stress but not less than 585.0/600.0N/mm2 6/percent more than actual 0.2 percent proof stress/ yield stress but not less than 660.0N/mm2

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES Grade Fe 415/415D 415/415 14.5/18.0

Grade Fe 500//500d

500/500

12.0/16

Grade Fe550/550D

550/550

10.0/14.5

Grade Fe600 *where A = cross-sectional area of the test piece

600

10.0

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Table 39: Weight, perimeter, and area of steel bars

Bar dia mete r, mm
5 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 25 28 32 36 40 45 50

Weight per meter, kg

0.154 0.222 0.395 0.617 0.888 1.21 1.58 2.00 2.47 2.98 3.85 4.83 6.31 7.99 9.86 12.50 15.40

Peri meter, cm
1.57 1.89 2.51 3.14 3.77 4.40 5.03 5.65 6.28 6.91 7.85 8.80 10.05 11.31 12.57 14.14 15.71

Area, cm2 for various numbers of bars 1

0.20 0.28 0.50 0.79 1.13 1.54 2.01 2.54 3.14 3.80 4.91 6.16 8.04 10.18 12.57 15.90 19.63

2
0.39 0.56 1.00 1.57 2.26 3.08 4.02 5.09 6.28 7.60 9.82 12.31 16.08 20.36 25.13 31.81 39.27

3
0.59 0.85 1.51 2.36 3.39 4.62 6.03 7.63 9.42 11.40 14.73 18.47 24.13 30.54 37.70 47.71 58.91

4
0.78 1.13 2.01 3.14 4.52 6.16 8.04 10.18 12.57 15.21 19.63 24.63 32.17 40.72 50.26 63.62 78.54

5
0.98 1.41 2.51 3.93 5.65 7.70 10.05 12.72 15.71 19.01 24.54 30.79 40.21 50.90 62.83 79.52 98.18

6
1.18 1.70 3.01 4.71 6.78 9.24 12.06 15.26 18.84 22.81 29.45 36.94 48.26 61.07 75.40 95.42 117.81

7
1.37 1.98 3.52 5.50 7.91 10.77 14.07 17.81 21.99 26.61 34.36 43.10 56.30 71.26 87.96 111.33 137.45

8
1.57 2.26 4.02 6.28 9.05 12.32 16.08 20.36 25.14 30.41 39.27 49.26 64.34 81.43 100.53 127.32 157.08

9
1.77 2.54 4.52 7.07 10.18 13.86 18.09 22.90 28.28 34.21 44.18 55.42 72.38 91.61 113.09 143.14 176.72

10
1.96 2.83 5.03 7.85 11.31 15.39 20.11 25.45 31.42 38.01 49.09 61.58 80.42 101.79 125.66 159.04 196.35

11
2.16 3.11 5.53 8.64 12.44 16.94 22.12 27.99 34.56 41.81 54.00 67.73 88.47 111.97 138.23 174.94 215.99

12
2.35 3.40 6.04 9.42 13.57 18.48 24.13 30.54 37.70 45.62 58.91 73.89 96.51 122.15 150.80 190.85 235.62

Table 40: Areas of steel bars for various spacings

Spacings, cm 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.0 12.5 13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5 15.0 15.5 16.0 16.5 17.0 17.5 18.0 18.5 19.0 19.5 20.0 Area, cm2, per metre width of slab for bar diameter of 5 mm 3.27 3.02 2.81 2.62 2.46 2.31 2.18 2.07 1.96 1.87 1.78 1.71 1.63 1.57 1.51 1.45 1.40 1.35 1.31 1.27 1.23 1.19 1.16 1.12 1.09 1.06 1.03 1.01 0.98 6 mm 4.71 4.35 4.04 3.77 3.53 3.33 3.14 2.98 2.83 2.69 2.57 2.46 2.36 2.26 2.17 2.09 2.02 1.95 1.89 1.82 1.77 1.71 1.66 1.62 1.57 1.53 1.49 1.45 1.41 8 mm 8.38 7.73 7.18 6.70 6.28 5.91 5.59 5.29 5.03 4.79 4.57 4.37 4.19 4.02 3.87 3.72 3.59 3.47 3.35 3.24 3.14 3.05 2.96 2.87 2.79 2.72 2.65 2.58 2.51 10 mm 13.09 12.08 11.22 10.47 9.82 9.24 8.73 8.27 7.85 7.48 7.14 6.83 6.54 6.28 6.04 5.82 5.61 5.42 5.24 5.07 4.91 4.76 4.62 4.49 4.36 4.25 4.13 4.03 3.93 12 mm 18.85 17.40 16.16 15.08 14.14 13.31 12.57 11.90 11.31 10.77 10.28 9.84 9.42 9.05 8.70 8.38 8.08 7.80 7.54 7.30 7.07 6.85 6.65 6.46 6.28 6.11 5.95 5.80 5.65

14 mm
25.66 23.68 21.99 20.52 19.24 18.11 17.10 16.20 15.39 14.66 13.99 13.39 12.83 12.32 11.84 11.40 11.00 10.62 10.26 9.93 9.62 9.33 9.05 8.79 8.55 8.32 8.10 7.89 7.69

16 mm
33.52 30.95 28.73 26.81 25.14 23.66 22.34 21.17 20.11 19.15 18.28 17.49 16.76 16.09 15.47 14.90 14.36 13.87 13.41 12.97 12.57 12.19 11.83 11.49 11.17 10.87 10.58 10.31 10.05

18 mm
42.41 39.15 36.36 33.93 31.81 29.94 28.28 26.79 25.45 24.24 23.14 22.13 21.21 20.36 19.58 18.85 18.18 17.55 16.97 16.42 15.90 15.42 14.97 14.54 14.14 13.76 13.39 13.05 12.72

20 mm
52.36 48.33 44.87 41.88 39.26 36.95 34.90 33.06 31.41 29.91 28.55 27.31 26.17 25.13 24.16 23.27 22.44 21.66 20.94 20.27 19.64 19.04 18.48 17.95 17.46 16.94 16.54 16.11 15.72

22 mm
63.36 58.48 54.30 50.81 47.51 44.72 42.33 40.01 38.01 36.20 34.55 33.05 31.67 30.41 29.24 28.16 27.15 26.21 25.34 24.52 23.76 23.04 22.36 21.72 21.12 20.55 20.01 19.49 19.01

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Table 41: Weight of reinforcement per m2 of slab

Bar spacing, cm
5.0 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.0 12.5 13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5 15.0 15.5 16.0 16.5 17.0 17.5 18.0 18.5 19.0 19.5 20.0

Weight, kg/m for bar diameter of 5 mm

3.00 2.50 2.31 2.14 2.00 1.87 1.76 1.67 1.58 1.50 1.43 1.36 1.29 1.25 1.20 1.15 1.11 1.07 1.03 1.00 0.97 0.94 0.91 0.88 0.86 0.83 0.81 0.79 0.77 0.75

6 mm
4.40 3.67 3.38 3.14 2.93 2.75 2.59 2.44 2.32 2.20 2.10 2.00 1.91 1.83 1.76 1.69 1.63 1.57 1.52 1.47 1.42 1.38 1.33 1.29 1.26 1.22 1.19 1.16 1.13 1.10

8 mm
7.80 6.50 6.00 5.57 5.20 4.88 4.59 4.33 4.11 3.90 3.71 3.55 3.39 3.25 3.12 3.00 2.89 2.79 2.69 2.60 2.52 2.44 2.37 2.29 2.23 2.17 2.11 2.05 2.00 1.95

10 mm
12.40 10.33 9.54 8.86 8.27 7.75 7.27 6.89 6.53 6.20 5.90 5.64 5.39 5.17 4.96 4.77 4.59 4.43 4.27 4.13 4.00 3.88 3.76 3.65 3.54 3.44 3.35 3.26 3.18 3.10

12 mm
17.80 14.84 13.69 12.71 11.87 11.12 10.47 9.89 9.37 8.90 8.48 8.09 7.74 7.42 7.12 6.85 6.59 6.36 6.14 5.93 5.74 5.56 5.39 5.24 5.09 4.94 4.81 4.68 4.57 4.45

14 mm 24.20 20.17 18.61 17.28 16.13 15.12 14.24 13.44 12.72 12.10 11.50 11.00 10.52 10.08 9.68 9.31 8.96 8.64 8.35 8.07 7.81 7.56 7.34 7.12 6.92 6.72 6.54 6.37 6.21 6.05

16 mm
31.60 26.33 24.31 22.57 21.06 19.75 18.59 17.55 16.63 15.80 15.05 14.37 13.74 13.16 12.64 12.15 11.70 11.29 10.90 10.53 10.20 9.88 9.58 9.29 9.03 8.78 8.54 8.32 8.10 7.90

18 mm
40.00 33.33 30.71 28.57 26.67 25.00 23.53 22.22 21.05 20.00 19.05 18.18 17.39 16.67 16.00 15.39 14.82 14.30 13.80 13.33 12.90 12.50 12.12 11.77 11.29 11.11 10.81 10.53 10.26 10.00

20 mm
49.20 41.00 37.85 35.14 32.80 30.75 28.90 27.34 25.90 24.60 23.43 22.46 21.40 20.50 19.64 18.92 18.22 17.57 16.97 16.40 15.88 15.38 14.91 14.47 14.06 13.67 13.30 12.95 12.62 12.30

22 mm
59.60 49.67 45.85 42.57 39.73 37.25 35.06 33.11 31.37 29.80 28.38 27.09 25.91 24.83 23.84 22.92 22.08 21.29 20.55 19.87 19.23 18.63 18.06 17.52 17.02 16.67 16.11 15.69 15.28 14.90

25 mm
77.00 64.16 59.23 55.00 51.33 48.12 45.30 42.77 40.52 38.50 36.37 35.00 33.43 32.08 30.80 29.62 28.52 27.50 26.55 25.67 24.84 24.06 23.30 22.65 22.00 21.33 20.81 20.26 19.74 19.25

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CementUsersGuide
Loads
Table 42: Dead weights of important building materials (IS:875 (Part I)-1987)
Material Plain concrete (with sand and gravel or crushed natural stone aggregate) Reinforced concrete (1 to 5 percent reinforcement) Ordinary Portland cement Coarse aggregates (from natural stones) Fine aggregates (from natural stones) Mortar screeding, 10 mm thick Terrazzo paving, 10 mm thick Common burnt clay bricks Sand-cement bricks Sand-lime bricks Common burnt clay brick masonry Pressed brick masonry Rubble masonry (granite) Sandstone masonry Dry earth Cement plaster Lime plaster Bitumen Mild steel Mastic asphalt, 10-mm thick Galvanised steel sheets, 1.25-mm thick Asbestos cement sheets (corrugated) average, 6 mm thick Asbestos sheets (plain) 5 mm thick Mangalore tiles Bitumen macadam roof finish, 10 mm thick Felt roofing, 10 mm thick Teak wood Hollow concrete blocks Lead sheet per mm thickness Solid basalt Solid limestone Solid granite Solid sandstone Weight/mass,kg 2,240 to 2,400 2,310 to 2,700 1,440 1,600 to 1,870 1,540 to 1,600 21 24 1,760 (average) 1,600 to 1,920 2,080 1,920 2,240 2,400 2,240 1,410 to 1,840 2,080 1,760 10.40 7,850 22 10.35 12 to 13 9.16 2 to 3 22 0.8 640 144 9 2,850 to 2,960 2,400 to 2,560 2,640 2,240 Unit 3 m 3 m 3 m 3 m 3 m 2 m 2 m 3 m 3 m 3 m 3 m 3 m 3 m 3 m 3 m 3 m 3 m 3 m 3 m 2 m 2 m 2 m 2 m per tile 2 m 2 m 3 m 3 m 2 m 3 m 3 m 3 m 3 m

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CementUsersGuide
Table 43: Imposed floor loads for different occupancies (IS : 875 (Part 2)-1987)
Type of floor All rooms of residential buildings and kitchens; living rooms, bedrooms and dormitories of hostels; hospital wards; dormitories, dressing rooms and lounges of institutional buildings Toilet and bathrooms of residential buildings Office rooms; lounges; staff rooms; OPD rooms; general use rooms; work areas without machinery Work areas without machinery equipment Habitable rooms, kitchen, toilet and bathrooms, corridors, passages and staircases of dwelling units planned and executed in accordance with IS:8888-1979* Storage buildings (other than cold storage buildings) to be calculated on the bulk density of the materials stored Garage floors for vehicles not exceeding 2.5 t gross weight Corridors, passages, staircases, including fire escapes and store rooms, kitchens and laundries, reading rooms (with separate storage), laboratories, X-ray rooms, operating rooms, office rooms, kitchen and laundries of mercantile, industrial, and institutional buildings Balconies of residential buildings Classrooms, lecture rooms, dining rooms, cafeterias, restaurants, kitchens, banking halls Dormitories, lounges, billiard rooms Assembly areas with fixed seats Dining rooms, cafeterias and restaurants of hotels and hostels Retail shops Reading rooms without separate storage; corridors, passages, lobbies; staircases including fire services (without storage rooms); boiler and plant rooms; restaurants, museums, gymnasia and art galleries Stationary stores Store rooms of hotels, hostels; boiler rooms, plant rooms; stages; corridors, passages subject to loads greater than from crowds; staircases in grandstands; store rooms, vault and record rooms; corridors, passages & staircases subject to loads greater than from crowds; record rooms; vaults; work areas with light duty machinery Assembly areas without fixed seats Boiler rooms and plant rooms of hostels, hotels, industrial buildings Cold storage buildings Wholesale shops Stack room for libraries Projection rooms Boiler and plant rooms, including weight of machinery Work areas with medium duty machinery Work areas with heavy duty machinery *Guide for requirements for low income housing Uniformly distributed load, kN/m2 2.0 2.0 2.5 2.5 1.5 2.4 kN/m2 per m of storage height with a minimum of 7.5 kN/m2 2.5 3.0 Concentrated load, kN 1.8 2.7 4.5 1.4

7.0 9.0 4.5 1.5 per m run concentrated at the outer edge 2.7 2.7 2.7 3.6 4.5 9.0

3.0 3.0 2.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 for each metre of storage height 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 per m of storage height with a minimum of 15 6.0 6.0 for a minimum height of 2.2 m + 2.0 per metre height beyond 2.2 m 5.0 7.5 7.0 10.0

4.5 3.6 6.7 9.0 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5

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Table 44: Structural details of simply supported solid floor slabs
(Concrete grade, M 20, steel grade Fe = 415 N/mm2)
Thickness of slab, mm Cover to centre of steel, mm Effective depth, mm Moment of resistance per metre width, kNm Area of main steel required per metre width for balanced design, 2 mm 246 312 356 396 440 484 528 567 611 655 699 743 787 Practical arrangement of main steel bar spacing, area of diameter, mm steel mm provided, 2 mm Distribution steel bar spacing, diameter, mm mm

75 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200

19 19 19 20 20 20 20 21 21 21 21 21 21

56 71 81 90 100 110 120 129 139 149 159 169 179

2.86 4.60 5.99 7.39 9.13 11.04 13.14 15.19 17.64 20.27 23.08 26.07 29.25

8 8 8 10 10 10 10 12 12 12 12 12 12

200 160 140 195 175 160 145 195 185 170 160 150 140

251 314 359 402 448 490 541 579 611 665 706 753 807

8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

280 300 300 300 300 300 290 275 260 245 230 220 200

Table 45: Safe distributed superimposed loads, excluding dead loads, for solid floor slabs, simply supported at both ends (Concrete grade M 20, steel grade Fe = 415 N/mm2)
Thickness of slab, mm Safe superimposed load, kN/m for various spans
2

75 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200

2.0 3.85 6.96 9.48 12.04 15.26 18.85 22.80

2.5 1.79 3.64 5.17 6.72 8.69 10.89 13.33 15.70 18.58 21.70

3.0 1.84 2.83 3.82 5.12 6.57 8.19 9.76 11.68 13.77 16.02 18.43 21.01

3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

1.41 2.08 2.96 3.97 5.09 6.17 7.52 8.99 10.58 12.28 14.11

1.57 2.27 3.07 3.85 4.82 5.89 7.04 8.29 9.63

1.11 1.69 2.25 2.97 3.76 4.62 5.55 6.56

1.11 1.65 2.24 2.89 3.60 4.36

Table 46: Minimum dimensions required for a residential building

Description of work Plinth height Head room Area of living/bedrooms Area of kitchen Area of bath room Area of WC Windows Window openings in WC and bathroom Lighting area for staircase Staircase width 1 m Minimum requirements 450 mm in general 150 mm in general 3.00 m for rooms 2 12.00 m 2 8.00 m 2 2.52 m (1.2 m 2.1 m) 2 1.2 m (1.00 m 1.20 m) 1/10 of floor area excluding doors in a dry hot climate 1/10 of floor area excluding doors in a wet hot climate 10 percent of floor area 2 1 m per floor height rise 190 mm tread 250 mm

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Table 47: Classification of CC pipes according to IS:458-1988
Description Conditions under which normally used Unreinforced concrete non-pressure pipes For drainage and irrigation use, above ground or in shallow trenches RC light duty, non-pressure pipe For drainage and irrigation use, for culverts carrying light traffic RC medium duty, non-pressure pipes For drainage and irrigation use, for culverts carrying medium traffic RC heavy duty non-pressure pipes For drainage and irrigation use, such as, railway loading RC pressure pipes tested to a hydrostatic pressure For use on gravity mains, the site test pressure not exceeding two2 thirds of the hydrostatic test pressure of 2.0 kg/cm (20-m head) P2 RC pressure pipes tested to a hydrostatic pressure For use on pumping mains, the site test pressure not exceeding half 2 of the hydrostatic test pressure of 4.0 kg/cm (40-m head) P3 RC pressure pipes tested to a hydrostatic pressure For use on pumping mains, the site test pressure not exceeding half 2 of the hydrostatic test pressure of 6.0 kg/cm (60-m head) Note: The uses are only by way of recommendations as a general guidance and the exact usage shall be decided by the engineer-in-charge. Class NP1 NP2 NP3 NP4 P1

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DESIGN FORMULAE Simple design formulae for simply supported slabs/beams and short columns are given below. These are meant for site engineers who on some occasions are required to carry out design of simple buildings but are familiar with only the preliminary concepts of structural design. For framed buildings and complicated structures a structural designer may be consulted. Notation Ac net area of concrete in a column, mm2 As area of inclined bars in a beam, mm2 Asc area of longitudinal steel in a column, mm2 Ast area of steel in tension in a beam or slab, mm2 Aw area of stirrup legs in a beam, mm2 jd length of lever arm, mm j b lever arm factor, ( 1 n0 3

width of rectangular beam, mm

bf effective width of flange in a T-beam, mm bw breadth of web in a T-beam or L-beam, mm fcb compressive stress at extreme concrete fibre of beam or slab, N/mm2 d effective depth of beam or slab, mm d' distance of centroid of compression reinforcement from the extreme concrete section, mm stress in concrete in direct compression, N/mm2 compression fibre of the

Df thickness of flange in a T-beam or L-beam, mm fc fck characteristic compressive strength of concrete, N/mm2 fst tensile stress in reinforcement of beam or slab, N/mm2 fsc compressive stress in column bars, N/mm2 fw tensile stress in shear steel, N/mm2 fy characteristic strength of reinforcement, N/mm2 l0 distance between points of zero moment in the beam M bending moment, Nmm Mr moment of resistance of beam or slab, Nmm Mu design moment for limit state design (factored moment), Nmm m n modular ratio, (
2,800 3 f cb

depth of neutral axis, mm

n d

no neutral axis factor, (

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P safe axial load on column, N ratio of tensile reinforcement to area of concrete, (
Ast bd

Pu design axial load for limit state design (factored load), N p )

Qr moment of resistance factor Qru moment resistance factor for limit state design q shear stress, N/mm2 spacing of stirrups, mm ratio of stress in steel to concrete, ( shear force, N
f st f cb

qu shear stress for limit state design, N/mm2 s r S )

Sr shear resistance of inclined bars, N Su design shear force for limit state design (factored shear), N xu depth of neutral axis in limit-state design, mm

position of resultant compression in a T-beam or L-beam measured from the top of the beam, mm angle of inclination of bars bent up to provide shear resistance, degrees

c shear stress in concrete, N/mm2

Limit state method of design In the method of design based on the limit state concept, the structure shall be designed to withstand safely all the loads liable to act on it throughout its life; it shall also satisfy the serviceability requirements, such as, limitations on deflection and cracking. The acceptable limit for the safety and serviceability requirement before failure occurs is called a 'limit state'. The aim of design is to achieve acceptable probabilities that the structure will not become unfit for the use for which it is intended, that is, that it will not reach a limit state. All relevant limit states shall be considered in design to ensure an adequate degree of safety and serviceability. In general, the structure shall be designed on the basis of the most critical limit state and shall be checked for other limit states. IS 456:2000 gives partial safety factors for different combinations of loading and the same are given in Table 48.

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Table 48: Values of partial safety factor, gf for loads

Load combination
DL DL + IL DL + WL 1.5 or 0.9* DL + IL + WL Source: Table 18 of IS 456 : 2000

Limit state of collapse

IL 1.5 1.2 WL 1.0 1.5 DL 1.0 1.0 1.0

Limit states of serviceability

IL 1.0 0.8 WL 1.0 0.8

Notes: (i) While considering earthquake effects substitute EL for WL. (ii) For the limit states of serviceability, the values of f given in this table are applicable for short terms effects. While assessing the long terms effects due to creep, the dead and that part of the live load likely to be permanent may only be considered. *This value is to be considered when stability against overtuning or stress reversal is critical.

Table 49: Design coefficients for singly reinforced slabs and rectangular beams

Concrete grade

fy = 250 N/mm2

fy = 415 N/mm2 plimit

1.32 1.76 2.20 2.64 3.07 3.51 3.957 4.397

fy = 500 N/mm2 plimit

0.72 0.96 1.19 1.43 1.67 1.91 2.150 2.389

xu , max d
M 15 M 20 M 25 M 30 M 35 M 40 M-45 M-50 0.531 0.531 0.531 0.531 0.531 0.531 0.531 0.531

Qru
2.235 2.98 3.725 4.47 5.215 5.96 6.705 7.450

xu , max d
0.479 0.479 0.479 0.479 0.479 0.479 0.479 0.479

Qru
2.07 2.76 3.45 4.14 4.83 5.52 6.215 6.905

xu , max d
0.456 0.456 0.456 0.456 0.456 0.456 0.456 0.456

Qru
1.995 2.66 3.325 3.99 4.655 5.32 5.986 6.651

plimit
0.57 0.76 0.94 1.13 1.32 1.51 1.698 1.887

According to the limit state method the area of tensile reinforcement is given by the following formulae: Ast = where,
xu p 0.87 f y = d 100 0.36 f ck
Mu 0.87 f y jd

= 1 0.416xu

Rectangular section with compression reinforcement Mu2 = Mu Mu, limit Ast =

plimit bd Mu2 + 100 0.87 f y (d d' )
Mu2 (fsc f cc )(d d')

Asc =

For d'/d upto 0.2 fcc = 0.446fck, and

fsc = 217.5 N/mm2 for mild steel bars

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CementUsersGuide
fsc values for high-yield strength deformed bars are as under: d'/d fy = 415 N/mm2fy = 500 N/mm2 0.05 355 424 0.10 353 412 0.15 342 395 0.20 329 370 Singly reinforced T or L-shaped beam sections For Df < 0.2d Mu, limit = 0.36fckbwxu,max (d0.416xu,max) + 0.446 fck (bf bw)Df (d Df / 2) For T-beams, bf = + bw + 6Df For L-beams, bf = + bw + 3Df For Df > 0.2d Mu, limit = 0.36 fckbwxu,max (d 0.416 xu,max) + 0.446 fck bw d2(bf/bw1)yf(1 yf /2d) / d Where
yf d
= 0.15x u,max d + 0.65Df d

Ast = where,

Mu 0.87 f y jd

xu p 0.87 f y = d 100 0.36 f ck

j = 1 0.416xu Columns For the design of short columns (columns having a ratio of effective column length to least lateral dimension less than 12) subjected to axial loads only, the following formula applies: Pu = 0.4fckAc + 0.67fyAsc Shear The design shear strength of concrete in beams without shear reinforcement is given in Table 50. For slabs and rectangular sections qu =
Su bd

Spacing of stirrups s=
0.87f y A w d Su

If qu > c max , then shear reinforcement is to be provided for: Sus = Su c bd

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Maximum shear stress, c max Concrete M15 M20 M25 M30 M35 M40 grade N/mm2

c max, 2.5 2.8 c max =

3.1

3.5

3.7

4.0

0.85 0.8 f ck ( 1 + 5 1) 6

where = 0.8 fck/6.89 p, but less than 1.0, p = 100 Ast/bwd Shear resistance of inclined bars Su = 0.87fyAssin
Table 50: Design shear strength of concrete, c, N/mm2

100

As bd

Concrete grade M 15 M 20 0.28 0.36 0.48 0.56 0.62 0.67 0.72 0.75 0.79 0.81 0.82 0.82 0.82 M 25 0.29 0.36 0.49 0.57 0.64 0.70 0.74 0.78 0.82 0.85 0.88 0.90 0.92 M 30 0.29 0.37 0.50 0.59 0.66 0.71 0.76 0.80 0.84 0.88 0.91 0.94 0.96 M 35 0.29 0.37 0.50 0.59 0.67 0.73 0.78 0.82 0.86 0.90 0.93 0.96 0.99 M 40 and above 0.30 0.38 0.51 0.60 0.68 0.74 0.79 0.84 0.88 0.92 0.95 0.98 1.01

0.28 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.50 0.43 0.75 0.54 1.00 0.60 1.25 0.64 1.50 0.68 1.75 0.71 2.00 0.71 2.25 0.71 2.50 0.71 2.75 0.71 3.00 and above 0.71 Source: Table 19 of IS 456:2000

Note: The term As is the area of longitudinal tension reinforcement which continues at least one effective depth beyond the section being considered except at support where the full area of tension reinforcement may be used provided the detailing conforms to 26.2.2 and 26.2.3 of IS 456:2000.

Concrete grade

Table 51: Factors for development length of bars for limit state method Mild steel bars conforming to Grade 1 of High yield strength deformed bars conforming IS:432 (Part 1) to IS:1786 (Grade Fe 415)
compression bars 37 32 29 26 24 tension bars 47 41 38 34 30 compression bars 38 33 31 27 24

tension bars M 20 45 M 25 39 M 30 37 M 35 32 M 40 and above 30 Note: Development length = factor diameter of bar

Working stress method Slabs and rectangular beams Slabs and rectangular beams, which are reinforced only in tension and which are subjected to pure bending, are designed using the following formulae: no = 2 pm + ( pm)2 pm =
1 f 1 + st mf cb

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CementUsersGuide
= jd = fcb = fcb = fst =
m m+r n (1- 0 3 2M
jn0bd 2 2 pf st n0 M Ast jd

)d

M pjbd 2
1 n

0 = mfcb n 0 Mr = Qrbd2

f cb 2

n0 (1 n0 3

n0 3

)bd2

= pfst (1 = fstAstjd

)bd2

Control over deflection is an important criteria in the design of slabs and beams. Broadly speaking, for simply supported beams and slabs having spans upto 10 m the vertical deflection limits may generally be assumed to be satisfied, provided the span to depth ratio is not greater than 20. Also a simply supported or continuous beam shall be so proportioned that the clear distance between the lateral restraints does not exceed 60b or (250b2/d), whichever is less, where b is the width of the compression face between the lateral restraints and d is the effective depth of the beam. For more clarity on this aspect, reference may be made to clause no 23.2 and 23.3 of IS 456 : 2000. Table 52 gives design coefficients as applicable for singly reinforced slabs and rectangular beams. Also included are three tables from IS 456:2000 namely, permissible stresses in steel reinforcement, permissible stresses in concrete, and permissible shear stress in concrete, Tables 53, 54 and 55. Shear For slabs and rectangular beams q =
S bd f w Awd S

For spacing of stirrups s =

For shear resistance of inclined bars Sr = Asfwsin Columns For the design of short columns (columns having a ratio of effective column length to least lateral dimension less than 12) subjected to axial loads only, the following formula applies p = fcAc + fscAsc

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Table 52: Design coefficients for singly reinforced slabs and rectangular beams
Concerete, grade M 15 M 20 M 25 M 30 M 35 M 40 M 45 M 50 fcb, N/mm2 5.0 7.0 8.5 10.0 11.5 13.0 14.5 16.0 fc, N/mm2 4 5 6 8 9 10 11.0 12.0 Modular ratio, m 18.667 13.333 10.980 9.333 8.116 7.179 6.437 5.833 Mild Steel bars Upto 20-mm bars Over 20-mm bars n j Or n j Or 0.4 0.867 0.867 0.418 0.861 0.899 0.4 0.867 1.213 0.418 0.861 1.259 0.4 0.867 1.473 0.418 0.861 1.529 0.4 0.867 1.733 0.418 0.861 1.798 0.4 0.867 1.993 0.418 0.861 2.068 0.4 0.867 2.253 0.418 0.861 2.338 0.4 0.867 2.513 0.418 0.861 2.878 0.4 0.867 2.773 0.418 0.831 2.878 High yield deformed bars, (Fe = 415 N/mm2) n j Or 0.289 0.904 0.652 0.289 0.904 0.913 0.289 0.904 1.109 0.289 0.904 1.304 0.289 0.904 1.500 0.289 0.904 1.696 0.289 0.904 1.891 0.289 0.904 2.087

Table 53: Permissible stresses in concrete

Permissible stress in compression, N/mm Grade of concrete Bending cbc M 10 3.0 M 15 5.0 M 20 7.0 M 25 8.5 M 30 10.0 M 35 11.5 M 40 13.0 M 45 14.5 M 50 16.0 Notes: (i) The above table is reproduced from IS 456 : 2000 (Table 21) 2.5 4.0 5.0 6.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0
2

Direct cc

Permissible stress(avg.) in bond for plain bars in tension, 2 N/mm bd 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4

(ii) The permissible bond stress given in the above table shall be increased by 25 percent for bars in compression (iii) In case of deformed bars conforming to IS:1786-1985, the bond stresses given above may be increased by 60 percent

Table 54: Permissible stresses in steel reinforcement

Type of stress in steel reinforcement Tension, st or sv (a) upto and including 20 mm (b) over 20 mm Compression in column bars, 140 130 130 130 Half the guaranteed yield stress subject to a maximum of 190 230 230 190 MS bars conforming to grade I of IS:432(Part I)-1982 Permissible stresses, N/mm Medium tensile steel conforming to IS:432(Part I)1982
2

High yield strength deformed bars conforming to IS:17861985 (grade Fe 415)

sc

Compression in bars in a beam or slab when the compressive resistance of the concrete is taken into account Compression in bars in a beam or slab when the compressive resistance of the concrete is not taken into account (a) upto and including 20 mm (b) over 20 mm Note:

The calculated compressive stress in the surrounding concrete multiplied by 1.5 times the modular ratio or , whichever is lower

140

130 The above table is reproduced from IS 456 : 2000 (Table 22); for detailed notes, please refer to the standard

Half the guaranted yield stress subject to a maximum of 190

190 190

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Table 55: Permissible shear stress in concrete

100 As Permissible shear stress in concrete, c, N/mm grade of concrete
2

M 15 M 20 M 25 M 30 M 35 M 40 and above bd 0.18 0.18 0.19 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.15 0.25 0.22 0.22 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.50 0.29 0.30 0.31 0.31 0.31 0.32 0.75 0.34 0.35 0.36 0.37 0.37 0.38 1.00 0.37 0.39 0.40 0.41 0.42 0.42 1.25 0.40 0.42 0.44 0.45 0.45 0.46 1.50 0.42 0.45 0.46 0.48 0.49 0.49 1.75 0.44 0.47 0.49 0.50 0.52 0.52 2.00 0.44 0.49 0.51 0.53 0.54 0.55 2.25 0.44 0.51 0.53 0.55 0.56 0.57 2.50 0.44 0.51 0.55 0.57 0.58 0.60 2.75 0.44 0.51 0.56 0.58 0.60 0.62 3.00 and above 0.44 0.51 0.57 0.60 0.60 0.63 Notes: (i) The above table is reproduced from IS 456 : 2000 (Table 23) (ii)As is that area of longitudinal tension reinforcement which continues at least one effective depth beyond the section being considered except being considered at supports where the full area of tension reinforcement may be used provided the detailing conforms to clause 26.2.2 and 26.2.3 of IS 456 : 2000.

Minimum reinforcement In slabs, for mild steel bars, 0.15 percent of the total cross-sectional area, in either direction; for high strength deformed bars or welded fabric, this value can be reduced to 0.12 percent In beams, tension reinforcement, Ast = shear reinforcement, Aw = maximum Ast = 0.04bD spacing of stirrups, should not be greater than 0.75d In columns, minimum longitudinal reinforcement is four 12-mm diameter bars in rectangular columns and six 12-mm diameter bars in circular columns. This reinforcement should be less than 0.8 percent of the cross-sectional area of the columns. If the column has a larger cross-sectional area than that required to support the load, the minimum percentage of steel shall be based upon the area of concrete required to resist the direct stress and not upon the actual area. Longitudinal reinforcement in column shall be not more than 6 percent of its cross-sectional area of the column. Diameter of lateral ties in columns shall be not less than one-fourth of the longitudinal bar and in no case less than 6-mm diameter. The pitch of ties should be least of the following: (i) least dimension of column (ii) sixteen times the column main bar diameter (iii) 300 mm Cover to reinforcement For details, see page 49 under the topic "Durability". Minimum wall reinforcement Minimum vertical reinforcement shall be 0.12 percent of the gross concrete area, for deformed bars not larger than 16 mm and with fy equal to or greater than 415 N/mm2, or for welded wire fabric. For other types of bars, the minimum vertical reinforcement shall be 0.15 percent.
0.4bs 0.87 f y
0.85bd fy

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CementUsersGuide
Minimum horizontal reinforcement shall be 0.20 percent of the gross concrete area, for deformed bars not larger than 16 mm and with fy equal to or greater than 415 N/mm2, or for welded wire fabric. For other types of bars, the minimum horizontal reinforcement shall be 0.25 percent. Spacing of wall reinforcement bars shall not be more than 450 mm. For walls having thickness greater than 200 mm, vertical and horizontal reinforcement shall be provided in two grids, one near each face of the wall. If the vertical reinforcement is greater than one percent, transverse reinforcement (links) shall be provided as for columns. Minimum reinforcement in footings Minimum reinforcement shall be as for slabs. For footing sections thicker than one metre, minimum reinforcement shall be 360 mm2 per metre length in each direction on each face.

Table 56: Factors for development length of bars by working stress method
Concrete grade M 15 M 20 M 25 M 30 M 35 M 40 and above Mild steel bars conforming to IS 432 (Part I) tension bars upto 20 mm over 20 mm 59 55 44 41 39 37 35 33 32 30 30 30 compression 44 33 29 26 24 24 High yield strength deformed bars conforming to IS 1786 (grade Fe 415) tension compression 60 45 40 36 33 30 40 30 27 24 24 24

Note: Development length = factor diameter of bar

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CONVERSION FACTORS
To convert meters meters meters millimetres square metres square metres square metres square centimetres cubic metres cubic metres cubic centimetres kilograms grams grams tonnes tonnes kilometres per hour kilometres per hour kilometres per hour grams per cubic centimetre grams per cubic centimetre grams per cubic centimetre kilograms per cubic metre kilograms per litre kilograms per metre kilograms per metre kilograms per metre kilograms per square millimetre kilograms per square millimetre kilograms per square millimetre tonnes per square metre kilograms per square centimetre kilograms per square metre kilogram metres To obtain Into yards feet inches inches square yards square feet square inches square inches cubic feet gallons (Imp) cubic inches pounds (avoirdupois) pounds (avoirdupois) ounces (avoirdupois) tons tons (short) centimetres per second miles per hour feet per second hundred weights per cubic yard pounds per cubic foot pounds per cubic inch pounds per cubic foot pounds per cubic foot pounds per yard pounds per foot pounds per inch pounds per square inch tons per square inch tons per square foot tons per square foot pounds per square inch pounds per square foot foot pounds From Multiply by 1.0936 3.28084 39.3701 0.03937 1.19599 10.7639 1550.00 0.1550 35.3147 219.969 0.061024 2.20462 0.00220462 0.035274 0.98421 1.10231 27.7778 0.62137 0.91134 15.0496 62.428 0.0361273 0.0624 62.428 2.01591 0.67197 0.055997 1422.33 0.63497 91.436 0.091436 14.2233 0.20482 7.2313 0.9144 0.3048 0.0254 25.4000 0.83613 0.092903 0.00064516 6.4516 0.028317 0.00454609 16.3871 0.4535924 453.5924 28.3495 1.01605 0.90718 0.036000 1.60934 1.09728 0.066447 0.0160185 27.6799 16.018 0.0160185 0.496055 1.48816 17.8580 0.00070307 1.57488 0.0100366 10.937 0.070307 4.8824 0.1382 Multiply by

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