Swarnprastha Public

School
Chemistry Project

Study
Of
Constituents
Of
Alloys

Submitted By:-
Vineet Singhal
 XII A

Introduction

An alloy(through the Fr. aloyer, from Lat. alligare, to combine), is

a partial or complete solid solution of one or more elements in a
metallic matrix. Complete solid solution alloys give single solid
phase microstructure, while partial solutions give two or more
phases that may be homogeneous in distribution depending on
thermal (heat treatment) history. Alloys usually have different
properties from those of the component elements.

Alloying one metal with other metal(s) or non metal(s) often

enhances its properties. For instance, steel is stronger than iron,
its primary element. The physical properties, such as density,
reactivity, Young's modulus, and electrical and thermal
conductivity, of an alloy may not differ greatly from those of its
elements, but engineering properties, such as tensile strength[1]
and shear strength may be substantially different from those of
the constituent materials. This is sometimes due to the sizes of
the atoms in the alloy, since larger atoms exert a compressive
force on neighboring atoms, and smaller atoms exert a tensile
force on their neighbors, helping the alloy resist deformation.
Alloys may exhibit marked differences in behavior even when
small amounts of one element occur. For example, impurities in
semi-conducting ferromagnetic alloys lead to different
properties, as first predicted by White, Hogan, Suhl, Tian Abrie
and Nakamura. Some alloys are made by melting and mixing two or
more metals. Brass is an alloy made from copper and zinc. Bronze,
used for bearings, statues, ornaments and church bells, is an alloy
of copper and tin.
Unlike pure metals, most alloys do not have a single melting point.
Instead, they have a melting range in which the material is a
mixture of solid and liquid phases. The temperature at which
melting begins is called the solidus and the temperature when
melting is complete is called the liquidus. However, for most alloys
there is a particular proportion of constituents (in rare cases
two) which has a single melting point. This is called the alloy's
eutectic mixture.

Some Common Alloys And Their Uses

Amalgam

Any alloy of mercury is called an amalgam. Most metals are

soluble in mercury, but some (such as iron) are not. Amalgams are
commonly used in dental fillings because they have been relatively
cheap, easy to use, and durable. In addition, until recently, they
have been regarded as safe. They are made by mixing mercury
with silver, copper, tin, and other metals. The mercury content of
dental fillings has recently stirred controversy, based on the
potentially harmful effects of mercury.

Mercury amalgams have also been used in the process of mining

gold and silver, because of the ease with which mercury
amalgamates with them. In addition, thallium amalgam is used as
the liquid material in thermometers, because it freezes at -58°C,
whereas pure mercury freezes at -38°C.

Brass
A decorative brass paperweight (left), along with zinc and copper
samples.

Brass is the term used for alloys of copper and zinc in a solid
solution. It has a yellow color, somewhat similar to gold. It was
produced in prehistoric times, long before zinc was discovered, by
melting copper with calamine, a zinc ore.

The amount of zinc in brass varies from 5 to 45 percent, creating

a range of brasses, each with unique properties. By comparison,
bronze is principally an alloy of copper and tin. Despite this
distinction, some types of brasses are called bronzes.

Brass is relatively resistant to tarnishing and is often used for

decorative purposes. Its malleability and acoustic properties have
made it the metal of choice for musical instruments such as the
trombone, tuba, trumpet, and euphonium. Although saxophones
and harmonicas are made out of brass, the saxophone is a
woodwind instrument, and the harmonica, a free reed aerophone.
In organ pipes designed as "reed" pipes, brass strips are used as
the "reed."

Aluminum makes brass stronger and more corrosion-resistant. It

forms a transparent, self-healing, protective layer of aluminum
oxide (Al2O3) on the surface. Tin has a similar effect and finds its
use especially in seawater applications (naval brasses).
Combinations of iron, aluminum, silicon, and manganese make brass
resistant to wear and tear.

Bronze
Bronze refers to a broad range of copper alloys, usually with tin
as the main additive, but sometimes with other elements such as
phosphorus, manganese, aluminum, or silicon. Typically, bronze is
about 60 percent copper and 40 percent tin.

The use of bronze was particularly significant for early

civilizations, leading to the name "Bronze Age." Tools, weapons,
armor, and building materials such as decorative tiles were made
of bronze, as they were found to be harder and more durable
than their stone and copper predecessors. In early use, the
natural impurity arsenic sometimes created a superior natural
alloy, called "arsenical bronze."

Though not as strong as steel, bronze is superior to iron in nearly

every application. Bronze develops a patina (a green coating on
the exposed surface), but it does not oxidize beyond the surface.
It is considerably less brittle than iron and has a lower casting
temperature. Several bronze alloys resist corrosion (especially by
seawater) and metal fatigue better than steel; they also conduct
heat and electricity better than most steels.

Bronze has myriad uses in industry. It is widely used today for

springs, bearings, bushings, and similar fittings, and is particularly
common in the bearings of small electric motors. It is also widely
used for cast metal sculpture and is the most popular metal for
top-quality bells and cymbals.

Commercial bronze, otherwise known as brass, is 90 percent

copper and 10 percent zinc. It contains no tin.

Pewter
Pewter plate

Pewter is traditionally composed of 85 to 99 percent tin, with the

remainder consisting of copper, which acts as a hardener. Lead is
added to lower grades of pewter, giving a bluish tint.

Traditionally, there were three grades of pewter: fine, for

eatingware, with 96 to 99 percent tin and 1 to 4 percent copper;
trifle, also for eating and drinking utensils but duller in
appearance, with 92 percent tin, 1 to 4 percent copper, and up to
4 percent lead; and lay or ley metal, not for eating or drinking
utensils, which could contain up to 15 percent lead. Modern
pewter mixes the tin with copper, antimony, and/or bismuth
rather than lead.

Physically, pewter is a bright, shiny metal that is similar in

appearance to silver. Like silver, it oxidizes to a dull gray over
time if left untreated. It is a very malleable alloy, being soft
enough to carve with hand tools. It also takes good impressions
from punches or presses. Given this inherent softness and
malleability, pewter cannot be used to make tools. Some types of
pewter pieces, such as candlesticks, were turned on a metal lathe,
and these items are sometimes referred to as "holloware."
Pewter has a low melting point (around 225 to 240°C), depending
on the exact mixture of metals. Duplication by casting gives
excellent results.
The use of pewter was common from the Middle Ages up until the
various developments in glass-making during the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries. Pewter was the chief tableware until the
making of china. With the mass production of glass products,
glass has universally replaced pewter in daily life. Today, pewter
is mainly used for decorative objects such as collectible
statuettes and figurines, replica coins, and pendants.

Nickel silver (German silver)

Nickel silver is an alloy of copper, nickel, and often (but not

always) zinc. It is named for its silvery appearance and contains
no elemental silver. Other common names for this alloy are
German silver, paktong, new silver, and alpacca (or alpaca).

Many different formulations of alloys fall in the general category

of "nickel silver." Besides containing copper, nickel, and zinc, some
formulations may include antimony, tin, lead, or cadmium. A
representative industrial formulation (Alloy No.752) is 65
percent copper, 18 percent nickel, and 17 percent zinc. In
metallurgical science, such alloys would be more properly termed
nickel bronze. Some nickel silver alloys, especially those
containing high proportions of zinc, are stainless.

The earliest use of nickel silver appears to have been in China. It

became known to the West from imported wares called Paktong
or Pakfong, where the silvery metal color was used to imitate
sterling silver. It was discovered to be an alloy composed of
copper, nickel, and zinc in the eighteenth century.

Nickel silver first became popular as a base metal for silver-

plated cutlery and other silverware, notably the electroplated
wares called "E.P.N.S." (electro-plated nickel silver). It is used in
zippers, costume jewelry, and musical instruments (such as
cymbals). After about 1920, its use became widespread for
pocketknife bolsters, due to its machinability and corrosion
resistance. In some countries, it is used in the production of
coins. Its industrial and technical uses include marine fittings and
plumbing fixtures for its corrosion resistance, and heating coils
for its high electrical resistance.

Steel

Steel is an alloy composed mainly of iron, with carbon content

between 0.02 and 1.7 percent by weight. Carbon is the most cost-
effective alloying material for iron, but many other alloying
elements are also used. Carbon and other elements act as
hardening agents, preventing iron atoms in the crystal lattice
from sliding past one another.

By varying the amount of alloying elements and their distribution

in the steel, one can control its qualities such as hardness,
elasticity, ductility, and tensile strength. Steel with increased
carbon content can be made harder and stronger than iron, but it
is also more brittle. The maximum solubility of carbon in iron is
1.7 percent by weight, occurring at 1130 °C. Higher
concentrations of carbon or lower temperatures produce
cementite, which reduces the material's strength. Alloys with
higher carbon content than this are known as cast iron because of
their lower melting point. Steel should also be distinguished from
wrought iron, with little or no carbon (usually less than 0.035
percent).

Currently, there are several classes of steels in which carbon is

replaced with other alloying materials, and carbon, if present, is
undesired. More recently, steels have been defined as iron-based
alloys that can be plastically formed—pounded, rolled, and so
forth.
 Experiment - 1

Aim : To analyze a sample of brass qualitatively.

Requirements : China dish, test-tube funnel, filter paper and

common laboratory reagents.

Theory :

Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. with the following.

Composition :

Cu = 60-90% and Zn. = 10-40%.

Thus Cu and Zn. form the main constituents of brass. Both these
metals dissolved in 50% of nitric acid due to formation of
nitrates which are soluble.

3 Cu + 8HNO3 (Dil) 3 Cu (NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O

or

Cu + 8H+ + 2NO3– 3 Cu+2 + 2NO + 4H2O

4Zn + 10HNO3 (Dil) 4 Zn (NO2)2 + N2O + 5H2O

4Zn + 2NO3– + 10H+ 4 Zn+2 + N2O + 5H2O

The solution is boiled to expel the oxides of nitrogen and the

resulting solution is tested for Cu2+ and Zn+2 ions.

Procedure :

1. Place a small piece of brass in a china dish and heat this with
minimum quantity of 50% HNO3 so as to dissolve the piece
completely.
2. Continue heating the solution till a dry solid residue is obtained.

3. Dissolve the solid residue in dil. HCl and filter. Add distilled
water to the filtrate.

4. Pass H2S gas through the filtrate. A black precipitate of

copper sulphide is obtained. Separate the black ppt. and keep the
filtrate for the test of Zn+2 ions Dissolve black ppt. by heating
them with 50% HNO3. To this solution add ammonium hydroxide
solution. Appearance of deep blue colouration in the solution
shows the presence of copper ions in the solution.

5. To test Zn+2 ions, boil the filtrate to remove H2S gas, then
add solid NH4Cl to this and heat to dissolve NH4Cl. Add excess
of NH4OH so that a solution is ammoniacal. Now pass H2S gas
through this ammoniacal solution. Dirty white or grey
precipitation indicate zinc. Separate the precipitates and dissolve
it in minimum amount of dil. HCl. Boil to expel H2S gas and add
potassium Ferro cyanide solution, white or bluish white ppt.
confirm Zn+2 ions in the solution.

Result :

The given sample of brass contains copper and zinc. metals as the
main constituents.

Experiment - 2

Aim : To analyze a sample of bronze qualitatively.

Requirements : China dish, test-tube funnel, filter paper and

common laboratory reagents.
Theory :

Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin with the following.

Composition :

Cu = 88-96% and Sn. = 4-12%.

Thus copper and zinc. form the main constituents of bronze. Both
these metals dissolved in nitric acid.

3 Cu + 8H+ + 2NO3– 3 Cu2+ + 2NO + 4H2O

4Sn + NO3– + 10 H+ 4 Sn+2 + NH4+ + 3H2O

(Cold and Dil. Acid)

Sn + 4NO3– + 4H+ H2Sn O3 + 2NO2 + H2O

(Conc. acid) (Metastannic Acid)

Excess of nitric acid is removed by heating the solution. The

resulting solution now would contain Cu+2 ions and metastannic
acid. This solution is acidified with dil. HCl and H2S gas is passed
when the sulphides of copper and tin are formed.

Cu+2 + S2- CuS (Black ppt.)

H2SnO3 + 2H2S SnS2 (Black ppt.) + 3H2O

The sulphides are separated by boiling the ppt. with yellow

ammonium sulphide when SnS2 goes into solution as thiostannate
where as CuS is not affected.

SnS2 + (NH4)2S (NH4)2 SnS2 (Soluble)

Ammonium thiostannate.
CuS + (NH4)2S CuS (Unaffected)

Black ppt.

The soluble black ppt. is tested for Cu+2 ions and the solution is
tested for Sn2+ ions as in elementary qualitative analysis.

Procedure :

1. Take about 1g. of small pieces of bronze in a china dish and add
to it 5-10 ml. of dil. HNO3.

2. Heat the contents slowly to dissolve copper and tin completely

and then boil the contents to a paste to remove excess of HNO3.
All this is carried out in cup board.

3. Dissolve this dry mass in distilled water containing HCl (1:1) to

get a clear solution.

4. Transfer the solution in a test tube and pass H2S in excess i.e.
till the precipitation is complete. Filter and reject the filtrate.

5. Take the black ppt. in a test tube and add to it 2-3 ml. of
yellow ammonium sulphide and heat. Filter the contents. Black
residue is tested for Cu+2 ions and filtrate is tested for Sn+2
ions.

6. Analysis of black residue :

Transfer a little of the black ppt. into a test tube. Add to it 2-3
ml. of 50%. HNO3 and boil the contents of the tube. A light blue
or green sol. indicates the presence of Cu+2. Divide this sol. into
two parts.

(a) To one part add excess of NH4OH a deep blue colouration

confirms the presence of Cu+2 ions.
(b) Acidify the second part with acetic acid and add K4 [Fe
(CN)6] i.e. potassium ferrocyanide solution. A reddish brown ppt.
confirms the presence of Cu+2 ions.

7. Analysis of filtrate :

Boil the filtrate with 1 ml. of dil. HCl. A yellow ppt. is obtained.
Dissolve in 1 ml. conc. HCl. To this solution add 0.5 g. of zinc. dust
and boil it for 2-3 minutes. Filter and to filtrate add 1-2 ml. of
mercuric chloride solution. A white ppt. turning grey on standing
confirms the presence of Sn+4 ions.

Result :

The given sample of bronze contains - Cu and Sn as the main

constituents.