Literature on Special Educational Needs in Mathematics

A bibliography with some comments

Olof Magne
Magne, O. (2003). Literature on Special Educational Needs in Mathematics: A bibliography with some comments. (4th Ed.) (Educational and Psychological Interactions, 124). Malm, Sweden: School of Education. Abstract: This documentation presents the findings of a survey of about 5,000 documents on low achievement in mathematics that have been published in one form or another during a long time, actually since 1886 and up to the new millennium. All these terms are defined as related to one and the same notion, namely low achievement in mathematics. For such low achievement some authors have used the term disability. Neurologists often prefer words beginning with the prefix a or dys, such as acalculia or dyscalculia, thus referring to simple arithmetic only. For ordinary educational purposes the author prefers less defect orientated expressions, as special educational needs in mathematics. Is the low achievement observed together with physical impairment of the individual, wrong learning strategies, unwise teaching, social circumstances etc.? Mathematics learning has been subjected to many conflicting impulses, not always favourable. The survey indicates a bias in the investigations. As to mathematical topics, simple arithmetic operations seem to have been most attractive to research. From a didactical view, the major part of the studies concerns extremely primitive learning conditions. Neurologists have often preferred to study simple neural deviations and sensori-motor processes connected with arithmetic. Future studies ought to go in for factor interplay between logical stuctures of mathematics, productive thinking of the student and social network of the environment, that is the factor-interplay model. Keywords: Bibliography, factor-interplay model, individualisation, mathematics, special education, special educational needs.

School of Education, Malm University

This report can be read or downloaded from the following address: www.bit.mah.se/MUEP

Contents

Introduction ................................................................................................. 7 Prelude .............................................................................................. 7 Definitions and terminology ............................................................. 8 Qualitative criteria ............................................................................ 9 Choice of policy.............................................................................. 10 The thematic field of special educational needs in mathematics .... 10 A category system........................................................................... 13 Suggested categories ....................................................................... 14 Characteristics of the students......................................................... 17 Qualitative interpretations............................................................... 18 Lubienskis survey of mathematics education research 19821998 ................................................................................. 24 Remarks on future studies............................................................... 24 References....................................................................................... 26 A survey of literature on special educational needs in mathematics: Suggested categories ................................................................................. 29 Ability and mathematics ................................................................. 30 Affect and motivation ..................................................................... 34

Aggressiveness, behaviour disorders, criminality, and mathematics .................................................................................... 58 Bibliographies ................................................................................. 60 Case studies..................................................................................... 65 Communication............................................................................... 70 Concentration, attention, effort, exertion, and mathematics ........... 71 Content areas: General .................................................................... 73 Content areas: Problem solving (See also Problem solving) .......... 73 Content areas: Number ................................................................... 74 Content areas: Calculation .............................................................. 79 Content areas: Geometry. Measurement. Money............................ 92 Content areas: Algebra. Functions .................................................. 95 Content areas: Statistics. Probability ............................................ 100 Content areas: Computers, Calculators ......................................... 102 Curriculum .................................................................................... 110 Diagnosis....................................................................................... 116 Didactical considerations .............................................................. 143 Equality, inequality ....................................................................... 163 Errors, misconceptions.................................................................. 163 Gender .......................................................................................... 185 Genetic conditions ........................................................................ 188 Hyperactivity, impulsivity etc....................................................... 190 Impairments, various multiply disabilities.................................... 191 Impairments, as to hearing impairments ....................................... 191 Impairments, as to visual impairments ......................................... 203 Impairments, as to cerebral palsy etc. ........................................... 208 Individual variations. Individualizing learning ............................. 211 Instructional aids........................................................................... 215 Integration and inclusion............................................................... 224

Language and mathematics........................................................... 225 Learning, instruction: theories ...................................................... 238 Low and high achievers in regular mathematics education compared....................................................................................... 243 Mathematical competence in everyday life................................... 253 Memory and mathematics............................................................. 265 Mentally handicapped, General .................................................... 269 Mentally handicapped, Idiots savants........................................ 288 Minorities...................................................................................... 293 Movement/motility, motor skills, and mathematics...................... 297 Neurological or neuropsychological characteristics of individuals..................................................................................... 298 Nonverbal disabilities ................................................................... 332 Perception and mathematics.......................................................... 334 Planning, strategy, metacognition of students .............................. 339 Problem solving ............................................................................ 345 Social conditions in mathematics. Ecology .................................. 357 Specific difficulties or underachievement in mathe-matics .......... 366 Teaching and learning methods in preschool................................ 370 Teaching and learning methods in primary education .................. 374 Teaching and learning methods in secondary, post-secondary education ....................................................................................... 391 Teachers ........................................................................................ 397 Thinking, active construction, and representation ........................ 408

Introduction

Prelude
Bibliographies of mathematical low achievement are found, for instance, in Fleischner and Garnett (1980), Matulis (1981), Fletcher and Loveland (1986), Grissemann and Weber (1989), Knig (1989), Lubienski and Bowen (2000), and Magne (1996b), see the references. Here and in the following context, the reader will mainly be referred to Magnes (1996b) list of literature for full references to the cited works. These surveys of the literature are, by no means, complete catalogues of all existing documents. First of all, there are many records of research or practical work that are not printed or in other way offered to the public. Secondly, many documents are available in languages that are difficult to understand or even to register. Thirdly, some documents refer to infrequent conditions, complaints or impairments and, thus, are seldom available to persons outside a very exclusive circle of specialists. This presentation shows the findings of Magnes survey of about 4,300 documents on low achievement in mathematics that have been published in one or another form during a long time, actually since 1886 and up to the 1990s. The author has chosen documents from the following areas in connection with mathematical low achievement: philosophy neuropsychology sociology education technology.

Specifically chosen themes are for instance: Educational and social needs, physical impairment, affect and motivation, competence and ability, mathematical content, teaching and learning, diagnosis and achievement. The bibliography is justified by the fact that it is still a very tedious practice to find relevant literature in this particular field by looking for documents in libraries data bases or free search with IT techniques, particularly before the present decade.

Definitions and terminology

In this presentation I mainly use special educational needs in mathematics as a comprehensive technical term, or shorter, special mathematical needs. For colloquial use I suggest the least defect oriented expressions as problems in learning mathematics, unsuccessful learning of mathematics or other similar expressions which can be treated as synonyms. I like to advise people not to use defect oriented words like mathematical disability or acalculia. Definition: All these expressions are defined as related to one and the same notion, namely low achievement in mathematics. It is totally irrelevant which are the possible causes to the low achievement. The definitions of the condition in view are often based upon: either a statistical measurement, such as 1 to 1.5 standard deviation units below the mean of a normal population as to a defined mathematical type of task, or a certain fixed criterium, irrespective of population, for example that the student shall achieve 90 per cent of a certain measurable aspect of mathematics. However, the literature displays a great variety of terms and definitions. The total number of terms is great. For further discussion of terms and definitions I want to refer to Magne (1998).

Terms like Arithmasthenia (Ranschburg, 1905), Acalculia (Henschen, 1920) and Dyscalculia (Gerstmann, 1924) are restricted to low achievement in elementary arithmetic. Etymologically, the word dyscalculia is a linguistic monster, being a compound of of the Greek element dys- and the Latin element calculus. Magne (1988) introduced the term Dysmathematica, or Dysmathematics because it covers the widest possible range of topics in school matematics. According to the author, low achievement is a social construct. It is not a fact but a human interpretation of relations between the individual and his environment. Special educational needs in mathematics must be looked upon from a relativist view. The assessment refers to a set of achievement elements and depends on the learning or instructional criteria due to the prevailing educational conditions, traditions or legislation in a given school system. Obviously, standards may vary from one school system to another. The condition may refer to a given occasion or to a defined period of the individuals life. Low achievement may be assessed by different criteria in and outside the school systems. The expression Special educational needs in mathematics is often used for the condition when a student fails in his/her efforts to master one or several main areas of mathematics according to set standards. Applied to education, the low achievement is often general, related to the whole set of mathematical topics or even to all other school subjects as well. The low achievement sometimes refers to one mathematical topic but not to others. In exceptional cases the special need is observed in mathematics only, a case which is often called underachievement or specific educational needs in mathematics.

Qualitative criteria
The author has subjected the bibliography to a qualitative categorization although the reader may be better assisted by himself or herself if he/she elaborates a register from this biographical material fitting his/her own interests or study purposes. There are many conceivable criteria for such

categorizing attempts, due to various value judgments, ideologies or practical purposes. It may be useful to introduce some examples of criteria.

Choice of policy
One important comprehensive value perspective has to do with the official choice of policy for education and socialization of individuals (Magne, 1996a). For the States Administrative Unit or Authority for Education, the point of departure may be looked upon as a mandate for the Administration to work out systems for transmitting or impressing a certain uniform, regimented civil preparedness upon the minds of all citizens. A second mandate to consider could be founded on a principle of options for the individual to satisfy his/her personal interests and talents. This mandate may very well clash with the official uniformity mandate and, therefore, be opposed to administrative legislation. A possible third mandate may refer to groups of citizens to give them opportunities, in an informal or formal sense, to attain certain individual and group competences in their respective activities, according to their interests.

The thematic field of special educational needs in mathematics

A second comprehensive value perspective concerns the thematic field of special educational needs in mathematics. One starting-point is the mathematical subject matter. In that case, research stresses the students difficulties to attain certain objectives in the various main areas of mathematics. Apparently, in the traditional school systems this was a usual foundation for investigating the trouble the teachers experienced when they instructed their students. One consequence was a belief that only some students can acquire mathematical knowledge and

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that other students had better do something else. In relation to low achievement in mathematics this approach has been described as the content deviation model (Magne, 1998). The remedy would be either to exclude the student from mathematics, or to assign to the students tasks on an appropriate optional level of mathematical complexity. A contrasting starting-point is to base the corresponding research on biological conditions, for instance to study neuronal impairment, and follow up on the consequences for mathematical achievement. Some early anatomical and histological investigators worked from this starting-point. Today we find that neuropsychologists like to use this mode of thought. They seem to believe that, by diagnosing brain functions, tuition will get a foundation for sound strategies and consequently give educators and therapists the obvious means to habilitate or rehabilitate a low achiever properly. In relation to special educational needs in mathematics, this approach may be called the behaviour deviation model (Magne, 1998). The treatment consists of organic and mental therapy. Obviously, research has so far been unable to prove that organic lesions play more than a marginal part in the learning of mathematics even for low achievers. It is usual to find that the supposed proportion of brain injuries among students with special mathematical needs amounts to no more than about 20 per cent of those with special mathematical needs. This fact makes it unrealistic to fully accept both the content deviation model and the behaviour deviation model to one hundred per cent. It also seems necessary to concede that mathematical knowledge is not an objective reality but constructed by the human mind. The content deviation model seems to be valid only when due consideration is taken to the learners mind, beliefs and attitudes. On the other hand, the behaviour deviation model seems to have no validity on its own, namely if the subject matter of mathematics is disregarded. Content and behaviour balance each others. A third starting-point is to include the social prerequisites that trigger the reactions of the thinking/learning students when they are brought face to face with mathematics topics. After the recent introduction of ethnomathematics a great deal of arguments have been suggested in favour of alternative mathematics (see for instance DAmbrosios contributions). It has been urged that, to some extent, the traditional formal didactics shall

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be supplemented with a more dynamic approach characterised by a social or sociological bearing. According to this starting-point we get a balance between mathematics, behaviour and social environment. This third model appears to be more realistic than the two previous attempts to describe the thematic field of special educational needs in mathematics. It has been called the factor-interplay model (Magne, 1998). Summing up these thematic perspectives, research as well as curriculum innovation and teaching practice are approached from the notion of a complex vector space where, among other factors, three main vectors are considered, namely the mathematical contents, the pupils individuality and the social environment (network). The corresponding remediation would be to give social tuition with freedom for the educator and the student to select mathematical options according to the students interests and personal circumstances in the natural settings of both student and teacher. The author looks upon mathematical knowledge as the dynamic interplay of mathematical subject matter, individual activities and social opportunities. The author accentuates the complexity of mathematics learning. An additional value perspective refers to research on specified varieties of special mathematical needs per se. The three aspects of mathematics learning (a) a mathematical goal (seen from a mathematical point of view), (b) a personal predisposition (seen from a behavioral point of view) and (c) a social need (seen from a socio-educational aspect) calls for a good diagnosis and a well defined programme of tuition, treatment and/or habilitation. From all three aspects, a multi-factored research programme seems to be recommended. As to mathematical topics, the author recommends that we should devote more studies to complex than to simple subject matter. From a socio-educational view, the studies should rather concern complex productive learning than simple learning skills. Behavioural research

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should not limit itself to simple sensori-motor processes but more thoroughly study higher mental processes. The author suggests that simple mathematics themes should be balanced against complex themes, that simple sensory-motor processes and complex central neural processes should be compared, and that we should weigh pros and cons between simple learning and complex learning. The students retention tends to be optimal if the learning and instruction is based upon thinking strategies and constructive activities. Thus, it is the students own efforts to learn that shall be ascribed the central position in mathematics education. Also the student with special educational needs in mathematics learns through his/her own efforts with the aid of social tuition.

A category system
What can be found in a bibliography of special educational needs in mathematics? In order to answer this question the author has carried out some analyses of the content of the bibliography. The method was to study the documents and assess the main character of each one. It must be stressed that each document has been chosen because it deals with some aspect of special educational needs in mathematics or, seen from another aspect, low achievement in mathematics. These aspects may refer to variables of mathematical content, variables of students characteristics or variables concerning environmental networks. After assessing the distinctive features of the documents a descriptive category system was worked out. The categories do not constitute a hierarchy but are placed on a par independent of each other. They may be coupled together in optional combinations by the reader. The method to categorize the documents involves certain validity and reliability error factors that cannot be easily controlled. However, the bibliography is available to every researcher. Everybody has an opportunity to analyse the material and, thus, to construct a category system according to his/her own purposes.

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With this in mind it is possible to quantitatively interpret the research situation in the field of special educational needs in mathematics. The number of documents in the respective categories is shown in the following list, displaying the frequences after the October 2000 revision.

Suggested categories
Categories
Ability and mathematics Affect and motivation Aggressivity, asocial behaviour, criminality Bibliographies Case studies Communication Concentration, attention, exertion Content areas: General Content areas: Problem solving (see also Problem solving) Content areas: Number Content areas: Calculation Content areas: Geometry. Measurement. Money. Content areas: Algebra. Functions. Content areas: Statistics. Probability. Content areas: Calculator, Computer Curriculum, syllabus. Diagnosis Didactical considerations Equality, inequality Errors, misconceptions Gender Genetic conditions Hyperactivity, impulsivity Impairments, various multiply disabilities Impairments, as to hearing impairments Impairments, as to sight impairments

Number
48 291 19 51 61 6 19 6 8 63 147 40 64 26 83 59 259 205 3 264 28 26 8 5 126 60

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Impairments, as to cerebral palsy etc. Individual variations, individualisation Instructional aids Integration and inclusion Language and mathematics Learning, instruction: theories Low and high achievers Mathematical competence in everyday life Memory and mathematics Mentally handicapped Minorities Movement/motility, motor skills and mathematics Neurological or neuropsychological characteristics Nonverbal disabilities Perception and mathematics Planning, strategy, metacognition of students Problem solving Social conditions in mathematics, ecology Specific difficulties or underachievement in mathematics Teaching and learning in preschool Teaching and learning in primary education Teaching and learning in secondary and post-secondary education Teachers Thinking, active construction, and representation

40 33 107 12 153 55 89 86 42 203 45 15 399 22 60 51 129 100 37 42 216 63 125 27

Let us begin with quantitative notions based on the categories. First of all, a few categories contain many times more documents than the least frequented categories. This indicates that some themes are popular among researchers, possibly because they are looked upon as being more relevant for studies than other categories. The following categories or groups of categories are represented by a large number of documents. Here are some examples: Content areas, indicating specification of non-achievement (437) Neurological or neuropsychological characteristics (399) Affect and motivation (291)

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Errors, misconceptions (264) Diagnosis (259) Impairments (231) multiply 5, hearing 126, sight 60, palsy 40 Mentally handicapped (203) In fact, there are surprisingly few documents on each kind of impairment. Some categories are represented by a small number of documents, for instance: Equality, inequality (3) Communication (6) Hyperactivity (8) Integration and inclusion (12) Aggressivity (19) Concentration, attention, exertion (19) Genetic conditions (26). Gender (28) Individual variations, individualization (33) Specific difficulties or underachievement in mathematics (37) It is difficult to understand these frequences from any understandable reason than a bias of the authors. If we consider the various school levels it is remarkable that studies of primary education are much more frequent than studies of preschool and secondary or tertiary education. Another example of possible bias is the preference of simplest possible arithmetic over more sophisticated processes. An interesting finding is that the main part of the studies is devoted to the four rules, usually simple exercises with small natural numbers. Thus, in the categories of Content areas a third of all documents refer to this skill. In the categories of Impairments, as to sight, hearing and cerebral palsy, skill in the four rules is treated by 63, 55, and 70 per cent, respectively, of all documents in question. In the category Mentally handicapped 56 per cent of the documents

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mainly discuss skill in the four rules. The neurological or neuropsychological studies nearly always refer to extremely simple calculations. Such proportion between simple skills and all other mathematical topics is absurd. Apart from this illustrative quantification of the bibliography qualitative interpretations appear to be of considerable interest.

Characteristics of the students

Students with similar characteristics may have similar needs. But relevant research is scarce. The blind, deaf, physically disabled, mentally handicapped, phobic and emotionally disturbed students, respectively, may, as kindred groups show similar, typical learning reactions due to their specific physical or mental dispositions. Blind students are at a disadvantage because they have a handicap to visualise. Deaf students may be linguistically impaired. Emotionally disturbed students may display a disordered state of mind. Physical impairment often inhibits the growth of form perception and geometric notions. According to other studies, mathematical low-achievement and underachievement appear as complex and multi-factored disabilities. The literature indicates that many children ought to be treated not only with respect to the learning needs in mathematics but, in addition, to several other needs as well. We may find it well-advised to look at each individual student as unique. One inference of this analysis is that planning for mathematical tuition must emphasise both learner and subject matter, both teacher and student, both individual and environment. The relationship between student and school organisation is also very complex. Some mathematics special needs students are unable to adapt themselves to demands in a national curriculum. A special programme should be worked

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out. The tuition can often be conducted in the classroom. Severe learning needs may or may not be able to be met in the regular classroom. However, few studies concern these complexities of the learning conditions for the individual student.

Qualitative interpretations
From the present categorization of the documents in the Magne bibliography (1996b) it seems possible to make a few inferences concerning the many authors selection of their topics.

A. Notions on the nature of mathematics learning

1. This bibliography indicates that authors seem to look at special needs mathematics learning as identically the same as mathematics content according to prescribed curricula for the regular school systems. 2. Neuropsychological studies nearly always comprise mathematical areas of the most elementary types of number notions or calculations. 3. In neuropsychological studies it is usual to find confusion between reading, writing and simple arithmetic. 4. The most frequently investigated part of mathematics is arithmetic, most common is addition with one- or two-digit numbers (numerals). It is usual that authors study and describe unrealistic, unsophisticated tasks. Social or ethnic backgrund is rarely considered. Students future social needs are seldom discussed. 5. Investigations are rare in the field of preschool, secondary and university mathematics learning although a promising literature was emerging during the latest decade. 6. In connection with ethnic research, a few authors have lately discussed options how to learn alternative and informal mathematic topics, what may be called social mathematics.

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B. On mandates to mathematics special education

1. The overwhelming majority of authors in this bibliography seem to start from the presumption that mathematics for the special needs student should contain fixed standard topics and exercises, presented in one and the same order, and have the same structure and function as for all other students. The usual standpoint of the authors seems to be that official curriculum standards ought to be followed in order to remediate the mistakes of the special needs student adequately. 2. Individual programmes and group work are surprisingly seldom described, discussed or analysed in connection with students with special mathematical needs. 3. There is an apparent lack of studies on how teacher education should take place in order to prepare the trainees to take care of students with special mathematical needs. 4. Very few studies deal with the so-called didactogenic problems, for instance conditions in school administration, curricular construction, classroom organisation, instruction methods etc. that may elucidate the origin of special mathematics needs.

C. The thematic interests of the authors

1. The most common approach to the various topics seems to be to promote mastery of the mathematical content (may indicate tuition according to the content deviation model). a. Diagnostic studies are frequent. Diagnostic research oftens aims at finding achievement levels of special mathematical needs students or relating these students results to normalisaed data or to fixed standards. This is particularly obvious in studies concerning achievement of students with visual and hearing impairment. Investigating errors and their diagnosis is also popular in documents on mentally handicapped students. Apparently, studies of mathematical learning among mentally retarded students are mainly directed towards numeration, calculation or visual perception, not mathematical thinking/reasoning by the students.

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2.

3.

4.

5. 6.

b. Error studies are very common. Surprisingly, they may be assessed to more than two fifths of all the cited studies. A usual procedure is to describe errors as related to various defects in a student who is incapacitated to automatise skills in arithmetic prescribed by authorities. c. Also neuropsychological studies seem to refer to student defects related to basic mathematical formal standards rather than socioeducational reaction patterns (indicating belief in both the content deviation model and the behaviour deviation model). In some studies mathematical errors are interpreted as results of erroneous automatisation, slips of the tongue, wrong concentration, verbal misinterpretation etc. This may indicate belief in the behavior deviation model. Many authors presuppose circumscribed organic impairment as the main cause of low attainment, exclusively, in spite of obscure foundation, for instance supposed lesions to the nervous system (behaviour deviations). Anxiety is a very common theme, usually in one or both of two varieties: mathematics anxiety and test anxiety, where innate behaviour, neuronal disposition, learning conditions and/or instructional conditions are looked upon as instrumental to the anxiety. The building up of mathematics anxiety is sometimes looked upon from the behaviour deviation model or the content deviation model but seldom with reference to the factor-interplay model. There is a lack of interest among authors to relate special mathematics needs to socio-educational system factors. Motivation, attribution and belief theories as well as the self-efficacy conception have been considered as causal factors despite doubtful evidence. An increasing number of authors tends to take up these themes.

D. Interest in specific traits or special needs

1. Apart from neurological studies, the majority of the documents deals with general conditions among ordinary students in regular classes,

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usually very mild disabilities or educational needs with small discrepancies from statistical standards. 2. Mental handicap is the most frequently studied form of special need. These studies most often deal with mild learning disability. Severe mental handicaps are rather neglected. 3. A remarkably small number of authors have tried to investigate relations between language disabilities (e.g. dyslexia) and cases of underachievement in mathematics. 4. There has been a limited interest in underachievement in mathematics. In some countries results from this research seem to have started animated discussions. 5. Aggressiveness has seldom been studied in connection with special educational needs in mathematics 6. Mathematical attainment and needs of socially and emotionally disturbed students have attracted only slight attention. This also holds true for criminality and psychotic conditions. 7. There is also a lack of studies on the problem how students with emotional or social disturbances learn mathematics. 8. Few studies are devoted to the role of concentration, staying power etc. 9. Many authors have tried to describe mathematical skills of visually and hearing impaired persons but few have investigated remediation of their mathematics achievement. 10.Only few investigators have taken up the issue how mathematics is learnt by disabled students in ethnical or cultural minorities.

E. Causes for mathematical disability

1. Although the study of symptomatology of special educational needs in mathematics seems to be very popular theme there are few effective studies which have succeeded to demonstrate clear causes for difficulty to learn mathematics. According to the accessible literature mathematics special needs students display very complex behaviour profiles. 2. Some authors claim that they have found a causal relationship between some very simple arithmetic skills and neurological lesions to frontal,

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3. 4. 5. 6.

occipital and parietal lobes of the left hemisphere. Some parts of the right hemisphere are described as sites of geometrical skills and possibly problem solving skills. As to more complex mathematical topics there is no proved relationship between neuronal functions and mathematical achievement. There are only vague unverified hypotheses concerning causal genetic factors and mathematical ability. Interrelations also seem to be uncertain between social conditions and mathematical ability and mathematical achievement. Some authors claim that they have found circumstantial evidence that some types of instruction can cause low achievement in mathematics. It has been maintained that one such condition might be mechanical training, based upon associationistic learning principles.

F. Educational principles and remediation methods

Few authors in the bibliography have written about methods how to treat low achievers in mathematics. Most of these methods may described as remediation. These methods can be roughly categorised as medical, educational, psychotherapeutic and social (sociological). It seems to be a remarkable fact that quite a few authors write about successful treatment or instruction methods but, nevertheless, seldom describe their methods. Another remarkable fact is that these same authors specify their diagnosis of mathematical difficulties with a wealth of details, but seem rather reluctant to specify learning objectives or instructional procedures. The authors usually write about the mild complaints. Mostly, they describe mild learning disabilities treated with various forms of educational and social tuition, for instance the educationally subnormal children. Usually little is written how they are tutored. There is very little research reported on the education of severe cases, and apparently this refers to all sorts of impairments, disabilities or handicaps. Severe and moderate difficulties of all kinds are sometimes given a mixed treatment. But there are few reports on the efficacy of the various methods. To a great extent the bibliography reveals that there are various kinds of

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grave controversies concerning adequacy of treatment principles, for instance associationism/behaviorism psychodynamism, instruction learning, individualistic approach social interaction, drill constructive thinking, frontal instruction individualised discourse, whole-class mediation small group tuition, external motivation internal motivation. Many authors try to justify their irreconcilable contrasting opinions by reference to educational philosophies, theories of cognition and political ideas. In some cases, the testing outcome is exhaustingly documented but without sufficient information of the previous learning and instruction procedures of the conducted research projects which, as a consequence, result in inconsistent research documentation. Most authors present reports on a small scale and/or refer to extremely specific situations. There are few reports on large-scale, well-designed projects on relearning of special educational needs in mathematics which could be looked upon as pioneer work and serve as model projects or prototypes for future studies. There are a few exceptions. The following examples may be mentioned: The Finnish-Swedish mathematics clinics experiment (Ikehimo and Magne et al.) and the Hungarian realistic, experimental teaching in special schools (Tarnai and Varga et al.). A critical comment might be that, unfortunately, researchers on relearning seem to have selected experimental problems and procedures more or less by trial and error and examined the outcome haphazardly. The research development may have let circumstances decide in an undirected way, and passing fancies may have been more influential than wellstructured presumptions. Psychologists, neurologists and mathematics educators seem to share related perspectives, but this is often done in awkward manner. What Shaughnessy says about controversies on psychological research in prob-

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ability and statistics may be applicable to mathematics special needs students (1992), that is to say that some researchers seem to the same high degree be busy muddying the primeval waters of cognition with murky educational experiments that may distort their observation paradigm (op. cit. p. 469).

Lubienskis survey of mathematics education research 19821998

Our results mainly seem to agree with Lubienskis (2000) inventory of mathematics education research. Lubienski utilized the ERIC database on Silver Platter CD ROM containing 510,241 abstracts. She identified information from 23,000 items published in 48 journals between January 1982 and early 1998 and counted and categorised 3,011 articles which provide a broad look at mathematics education research. This study differs from our study insofar as it is about the whole field of mathematics, but she interested herself to an intensive analysis of the following three subthemes, namely gender, ethniticy, class and disability. 623 of the 3,011 mathematics education articles related to at least one of the four equity categories. Most attention was given to gender with 323 articles, disability was second with 193 articles and then followed ethniticy with 112 and class with 52 articles. The overall result of her survey was a broad, rough picture showing a body of research that gives considerabe focus to cognition and achievement, primarily in Grades K12, with significant attention to integers and problem solving. In relation to equity, the results appear mixed (p. 631).

Remarks on future studies

A recommendation would be that prospective investigations should be better organised, focus on cardinal issues and build upon carefully prepared cooperation between universities and nations.

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Special educational needs in mathematics are disregarded both in political intercommunication and international research and development programmes. Lately, problems of special educational needs in mathematics have appeared at a few international conferences, for instance ICME and EASE. There is a great need of increased research. The author suggests that research starts with Magnes definition of the special educational needs. In addition, the author recommends that future studies should consider Magnes qualitative criteria concerning choice of policy (p. 10-11) and thematic fields of mathematics (p. 1114) or similar preconceived models. The author therefore suggests that the factor-interplay model (p. 13) seems to constitute a sound foundation for didactical philosophy, research policy, administrative decisions, curricular planning and actual classroom work. Regarding the matematical subject matter it is important to expand our knowledge on low achievement in mathematics to other school systems than primary education. We should investigate retention of subject matter curricula in preschool, secondary and tertiary education, universities and all types of continued education for disabled students. Regarding the students and their activities we must map out the relation between mathematical subject matter and varieties of personality traits. The literature provides meagre information on concentration, cognitive perception and memory, productive thinking, planning strategies, aggressivity, hyperactivity, associated with mathematical subject matter. On the other hand, literature abounds in descriptions of sensori-motor processes, affectivity, intelligence and elementary language habits. But even these themes need deeper analysis according to aforementioned principles and other up to date philosophical and didactical principles. Regarding the social environment in which the special needs students create their mathematical knowledge we notice proportionally little interest. The list on page 1011 shows few documents on Criminality (0), Communication (6), Equality, inequality (3), Hyperactivity (8), Integration and inclusion (12), Concentration, attention, exertion (19) and Aggressivity (19). Some essential themes are represented by a moderate number of references, as Individual variation, individualization (33), Teaching and

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learning in preschool (42), Minorities (45), and Social conditions in mathematics and ecology (78). Although the literature displays many documents on physically impaired or otherwise disadvantaged students, there is a lack of penetrating studies concerning the connection between their mathematical needs and learning conditions. There are extensive studies on the quality of life and social competence of socially disadvantaged persons. But it appears from these studies that solid analyses have been neglected concerning the relation between mathematical subject matter curricula and learning options for the special needs student. A consequence of these reflections is to study a change from traditional subject matter curricula to an alternative social mathematics curriculum that concentrates on mathematical topics of present and future social relevance for the special needs students, maybe a prevocational experience. The author suggests that the ecological network idea is useful to help the disabled student to create an appropriate study programme together with teachers, classmates and, outside the class, parents and family. This approach may also vitalise the social climate in a more general sense.

References
Fleischner, J.E. & Garnett, K. (1980). Arithmetic learning disabilities. A literature review. New York: Columbia University, Research Institute for the Study of Learning Disabilities (Also ERIC: ED 210843). Fletcher, J.M. & Loveland, K.A. (1986). Neuropsychology of arithmetic disabilities in children. Focus on Learning Problems in Mathematics, 8(2), 2340. Grissemann, H. & Weber, A. (1989). Grundlagen und Praxis der Dyskalkulietherapie. Bern: Huber. Knig, G. (1989). Bibliographie zur Arithmasthenie/Dyskalkulie [Annotated bibliography on arithmasthenia/dyscalculia]. Zentralblatt fr Didaktik der Mathematik [International Review on Mathematics Education, 2(3), 101102.

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Moeller, R. & Craig, K.E. (1971) Monetary training for the mentally retarded and emotionally disturbed. Journal of Home Economics, 63 (8), 599601. Neukter, H. & David, D. (1995 a) Rechenleistungen von Schlern mit und ohne Verhaltensstrungen. Oldenburg, Germany: Oldenburg Universitt, Oldenburger Institut fr Sonderpdagogik. Neukter, H. & Voigt, U. (1995 b) Was leisten psychologische Tests zur Bestimmung von Verhaltensstrungen. Sonderpdagogik, 25, 184191. Scruggs, T.E., Mastropieri, M.A., Cook, S. & Escobar, C. (1986) Early intervention for children with conduct disorders: A quantitative synthesis of single-subject research. Behavioral Disaorders, 11, 260271. Weaver, J.F. & Morse, W.C. (1966) Teaching mathematics to socially and emotionally impaired pupils. In: V.J. Glennon (Ed.) The mathematical education of exceptional children and youth. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 95145. Wilson, J. (1967) Diagnosis and treatment in mathematics: Its progress, problems, and potential roles in educating emotionally disturbed children and youth. In: The teaching-learning process in educating emotionally disturbed children. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 91141.

Bibliographies
Aiken, L.R. (1971) Verbal factors in mathematics learning: A review of research. Journal for Research in Mathematics Teaching, 2. Aster, M.G. von (1994) Developmental dyscalculia in children: Review of the literature and clinical validation. Acta Pdopsychiatrica, 56(3), 169178. Auswahlsbibliographie zum Mathematikunterricht: Berichte und Materialien aus dem Projekt Sondererziehung und Rehabilitation (1988). Hagen.

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Benton, S.E. (1986) A summary of research on teaching and learning estimation. In: H.L. Schoen & M.J. Zweng (Eds.) Estimation and mental computation. 1986 Yearbook. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 239248. Berebitsky, R.D. (1985) An annotated bibliography of the literature dealing with mathematics anxiety. (ERIC Documents Reproduction Service No. ED 257 684). Bleidick, U. (1972) Auswahlbibliographie zum Thema Curriculum. Zeitschrift fr Heilpdagogik, 424432. Brownell, W.A. (1929) Remedial cases in arithmetic. Peabody Journal of Education, 7, 100107. Burrows, J.K. (1976) A review of the literature on computational errors with whole numbers. Vancouver: University of British Columbia. Vancouver MEDIC. Report No. 7. Children and computers abstract. (1992) Journal of Computing in Childhood Education, 3 (1), 97100. Dixon, R., Carnine, D.W. & Kameenui, E.J. (1991) Mathematics instruction and special education: A research review. Monograph for the National Center to Improve the Tools of Education. Eugene: University of Oregon. Fleischner, J.E. & Garnett, K. (1980) Arithmetic learning disabilities: A literature review. New York: Columbia University, Research Institute for the Study of Learning Disabilities. (Also ERIC: ED 210 843). Graeber, A.O. (1978) Math diagnosis and prescription literature search for better schools: Final report. Philadelphia, PA: ERIC, ED 139 663. Grigutsch, S. (1996) Mathematische Weltbilder von Schlern. Struktur, Entwicklung, Einflufaktoren. Doctoral Dissertation. Duisburg, Germany: University of Duisburg. Grigutsch, S.(1998) On pupils views of mathematics and self-concepts: Developments, structures and factors of influence. In: E. Pehkonen & G. Trner (Eds.) The state-of-art in mathematics-related belief research. Helsinki: University of Helsinki, Department of Education, 169197.

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Grigutsch, S., Raatz, U, & Trner, G. (1998) Einstellungen gegenber Mathematik bei Mathematiklehrern. Journal fr Mathematik-Didaktik, 19 (1), 345. Grinstein, L.S. (1992) Mathematical book review index 18001940. New York: Garland. Guttman, K. (1990) Litteraturskning om gravt rrelsehindrade elevers matematiska inlrning /Literature search on mathematics learning of severely physically handicapped/. Gteborg, Sweden: Gteborgs Universitet, Institutionen fr pedagogik. Hall, G.S. (1893) Bibliography of education. Boston, MA: Heath. Hembree, R. (1986) Noncontent variables in mathematics testing: A bibliography of research. ERIC: ED 273486. Hembree, R. (1987) A bibliography of research on academic test anxiety. ERIC: ED 281779. Hembree, R. (1988) Bibliography of research on mathematics anxiety. ERIC: ED 293695. Hembree, R. (1990) Bibliography of research on mathematical problemsolving. ERIC: ED 322008. Henschen, S.E. ( 1920) Klinische und anatomische Beitrge zur Pathologie des Gehirns. 5. Teil. ber Aphasie, Amnesie und Akalkulie. Stockholm: Nordiska Bokhandeln. Hollander, S.K. (1978) A literature review: Thought processes employed in the solution of verbal arithmetic problems. School Science and Mathematics, 78 (4), 327334. Johnsen, F. (1998) Krutetskii: Et viktig bidrag til arbeidet med matematikkvansker /Krutetskii: A weighty contribution to the understanding of difficulties in mathematics/. Skolepsykologi (Norway). Johnson, D.J. (1988) Review of research on specific reading, writing, and mathematical disorders. In: J.F. Kavanagh & T.J. Truss, Jr. (Eds.) Learning disabilities: Proceedings of the National Conference. Parkton, MD: York Press. 79163. Kahn, H. & Whitaker, H.A. (1991) Acalculia: A historical review of localization. Brain and Cognition, 17, 102115.

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Kastner, B., Grinstein, L.S. & Rachlin, S.L. (1979) Applications in mathematics: An annotated bibliography. In: S. Sarron & R.E. Reys (Eds.) Applications in school mathematics. 1979 Yearbook of the NCTM. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 227247. Knig, G. (1989) Bibliographie zur Arithmasthenie/Dyskalkulie: Annotated bibliography on arithmasthenia/dyscalculia, Zentralblatt fr Didaktik der Mathematik/International Reviews on Mathematical Education, 21 (3), 101102. Lessen, E,. Dudzinski, M., Kersh, K. & Van Acker, R. (1989) A survey of ten years of academic intervention research with disabled students: Implications for research and practice. Learning Disabilities Forum, 4 (2), 106122. Magne, O. (1996) Bibliography of literature on dysmathematic: With some comments. Didakometry (Malm: Sweden: School of Education), No. 76. Mastropieri, M.A., Bakken, J.P. & Scruggs, T.E. (1991) Mathematics instruction for individuals with mental retardation: A perspective and a research synthesis. Education and Training in Mental Retardation, 26 (2), 115129. Mastropieri, M.A, Scruggs, T.E. & Shiah, S. (1991) Mathematics instruction for learning disabled: A review of research. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 6, 8998. Mathematics Diagnostic: Preschool Grade 3 ETS test collection. Annotated Bibliography of tests. (1991) ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED366600. Matulis, R.S. (1981) A bibliography of articles on the teaching of mathematics in special education. Arithmetic Teacher, 28 (7), 5356. McGraw, K.O. (1978) The detrimental effects of reward on performance: A literature review and a prediction model. In: M.R. Lepper & D. Greene (Eds.) The hidden costs of reward. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. McLeod, D.B. (1992) Research in affect in mathematics education: A reconceptualization. In: D.G. Grouws (Ed.) Handbook of research in mathematics teaching and learning. New York: Macmillan, 575596.

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McLeod, D.B. (1994) Research on affect and mathematics learning in the JRME: 1970 to present. Journal for Research in Mathematics Learning, 25, 637647. Morris, L.W., Davis, M.A. & Hutchings, C.J. (1981) Cognitive and emotional components of anxiety: Literature review and a revised worryemotional scale. Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 541555. Pereira, R.S. & Winton, A.S.W.(1991) Teaching and remediation of mathematics: A review of behavioral research. Journal of Behavioral Education, 1, 536. Pikaart, L. & Wilson, J.W. (1972) The research literature. In: W.C. Lowry (Ed.) The slow learner in mathematics. 35th Yearbook of the NCTM. Washington, D.C.: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 26 51. Sharma, M.C. (1986) Dyscalculia and other learning problems in arithmetic: A historical prospective. Focus on Learning Problems in Mathematics, 8 (3, 4), 745. Sharma, M.C. & Loveless, E.J. (1986) The work of Dr. Ladislav Kosc on dyscalculia. Focus on Learning Problems in Mathematics, 8 (3/4), 47 119. Sjvoll, J. (1984b) Hva er matematikkvansker? En literaturanalyse p omrdet /What is a difficulty to learn mathematics: A bibliography/. Spesialpedagogikk (Norway), No. 8. Tourniaire, F. & Pulos, S. (1985) Proportional reasoning: A review of the literature. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 16, 181204. Trimmer, R.G. (1974) A review of the research relating problem solving and mathematics achievement to psychological variables and relating these variables to methods involving or compatible with self-correcting manipulative mathematics materials. Colombus, OH: ERIC, ED 092 402. Underhill, R. (1988) Mathematics learners beliefs: A review. Focus on Learning Problems in Mathematics, 10, 5569.

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Wachtel, P. & Rumpler, F. (1999) Bibliographie der Zeitschrift fr Heilpdagogik 19491999. Wrzburg, Deutschland: Verband Deutscher Sonderschulen. Vermeer, A. & Bakx, V. (1990) Evaluating intervention research with cerebral palsied children: A literature review. Journal of Rehabilitation Sciences, 3 (1). Webb, N. (1977) Mathematical Problem Solving Project Technical report 1: Documents related to a problem-solving model. Part A: A review of the literature related to problem-solving strategies used by students in Grades 4, 5, and 6. Final report. Bloomington, Indiana University, Mathematics Development Center. ERIC: ED 168833. Wember, F.B. (1999) 100 Jahre Frderunterricht im Lernbereich Mathematik: Vom Rechenunterricht zur mathematischen Erschlieung der Welt. In: D. Schmetz & P. Wachtel. (Hrsg.) Entwicklungen, Standorte, Perspektiven. Wrzburg, Deutschland: Verband Deutscher Sonderschulen, 212228.

Case studies
Bauer, L. (1991) Christian: Eine Fallstudie ber Lernschwierigkeiten im Mathematikunterricht der 1. Jahrgangssstufe. Mathematik lehren, 49, 1217. Bauer, L. (1993) Hanna Note 6. Analysen und berlegungen zu Mathematikprobearbeit aus der 3. Jahrgangsstufe. Grundschule, 11. Berel, M. (1978) Teaching mathematics to a multihandicapped girl: A case study. International Journal of Rehabilitation Research, 1 (1), 7179. Brousseau, G. 1981) Le cas de Gal. Bourdeau:IREM de Bourdeau. Brousseau, G. & Peres, J. (1981) Etude dun enfant en difficult en mathmatiques: Le cas de Gal. Bourdeaux: IREM de Bourdex. Cohen, L. & Dehaene, S. (1991) Neglect dyslexia for numbers? A case report. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 8, 3950.

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Dickson, J. T. (1968) The plight of the child. Arithmetic Teacher, 15 (1), 1922. Diemair, M. (1984) Frderdiagnostik in Mathematik bei einem Schler, der eine Schule fr Lernbehinderte besuchte (Klasse 9). Unverffentliche Examensarbeit zur ersten Staatsprfung fr das Lehramt an Sonderschulen Reutlingen. Drge, R. (1987) Ein Grundschler mit Lernschwierigkeiten (im Mathematikunterricht). Mathematica Didacta, 10, 221239. Duckworth, E. (1982) A case study about some depths and perplexities of elementary arithmetic. In: J. Bamberger & E. Duckworth (Eds.) An analysis of data from an experiment on teacher development. Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Education. Erlwanger, S.H. (1973) Bennys conception of rules and answers in IPI mathematics. Journal of Childrens Mathematical Behavior, 1 (2), 7 26. Erlwanger, S.H. (1975) Case studies of childrens conceptions of mathematics. Journal of Childrens Mathematical Behavior, 1, 157283. Evans, R. (1930) Remedial cases in arithmetic, case 2. Peabody Journal of Education, 7, 208217. Floer, J. (1987) Mathias und Stephanie. Oder: wie kann man aus Fehlern lernen? Die Grundschule (4), 3841. Ganter, R. (1917) Wormditt: Ein epileptisches Mdchen als Rechenknstlerin. Allgemeine Zeitschrift der Psychiatrie, 73, 536554. Grafman, J., Kampen, D., Rosenberg, J., Salazar, A. & Boller, F. (1989) The progressive breakdown of number processing and calculation ability: A case study.Cortex, 25, 121133. Green, D. (1964) A study of talented high school drop-outs. In: J. French (Ed.) Educating the gifted: A book of readings. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Grigsby, J.P., Kemper, M.B. & Kemper, R.J. (1987) Developmental Gerstmann syndrome without aphasia in fragile X syndrome. Neuropsychologia, 25, 881.

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Helle, E. (1930) Untersuchung der Rechenschwche eines intelligenten elfjhrigen Mdchens. Zeitschrift fr Kinderforschung, 37, 525587. Hittmair-Delazer, M., Sailer, H. & Benke, T. (1995) Impaired arithmetic facts but intact conceptual knowledge: A single case study of dyscalculia. Cortex, 31 (1), 139147. Isaacs, A.F. (1959) A gifted underachiever in arithmetic: A case study. Arithmetic Teacher, 6, 257261. Jerome, Sister Agnes (1959) A study of twenty slow learners. Journal of Educational Research, 53, 2327. Jordan, J.H. (1981) Kelleys problems: A case study. Focus on Learning Problems in Mathematics, 3 (1), 3341. Koops, H., Lo, L. & Sorger, P. (1977) Fallstudien zum rumlichen Vorstellungsvermgen. Sachunterricht und Mathematik in der Grundschule, 5 (8), 400409. Koops, H., Lo, L. & Sorger, P. (1978) Fallstudien zum schlufolgernden Denken. Sachunterricht und Mathematik in der Grundschule, 6 (2). Kornmann, R., Wagner, H.-J. & Ehret, D. (1991) Ist 12+5 gleich 5+12? Eine Fallstudie zur Diagnostik und Frderung bei einem speziellen Rechenproblem. Zeitschrift fr Heilpdagogik, 42, 847853. Lo, J.-J., Wealthy, G.H. & Smith, A.C. (1994) The participation, beliefs, and development of arithmetic meaning of a third-grade student in mathematics class discussions. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 25 (1), 3049. Lorenz, J.H. (1983 a) Rechenschwche - Ihre Symptomatik anhand von Fallspielen. In: H. Bauersfeld, H. Bussmann, G. Krummheuer, J.H. Lorenz & J. Voigt (Hrsg.) Lernen und Lehren von Mathematik. Kln: Aulis, 107171. Lorenz, J.H. (1985) ber einige pathologische Flle von Rechenstrungen. Mathematikunterricht, 31 (6), 7077. Lorenz, J.H. (1987 a) Lernschwierigkeiten und Einzelflle. Schritte im diagnostischen und therapeutischen Proze. In: A. Knapp & H.D. Rost (Hrsg.) Ergebnisse der Pdagogischen Psychologie. Band 5. Gttingen, Hogrefe.

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Lunde, O. (1986) En analyse av B-timesknader for spesialundervisning med srlig vekt p matematikkfaget /An analysis of applications for special education, with specific reference to mathematics/. Skolepsykologi (Norway), (7). Lunde, O. (1996 b) Hva gjr vi med Jan nr han ikke fr til matematikken? /What to do with Jan when he fails in mathematics?/ Tangenten, 7 (3), 2643. Lunde, O. (1997 b) Nr Per ikke fr til matematikken /When Per fails in mathematics/. Spesialpedagogikk (Norway), No. 4, 1829. Lunde, O. (1997 c) Bob-Kre setter skelys p matematikkvansker /BobKre throws light on mathematical disability/. Srede Kompetansesenter (to be published, personal communication). Lytton, H. (1961) An experiment in selection for remedial education. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 31, 7994. Lytton, H. (1967) Follow-up of an experiment for remedial education. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 37, 29. Macaruso, P., McCloskey, M. & Aliminosa, D. (1993) The functional architecture of the cognitive numerical-processing system: Evidence from a patient with multiple impairments. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 10 (4), 341376. Magne, O. (1985) Detectives work in teaching geometry. Reprints and Miniprints (Malm, Sweden: School of Education), No. 503. Malinen, P. (1983) Tapatutkimuksia matematiikan oppimisvaikeuksista /Case studies of difficulties in mathematics/. Sellist (1). Malle, G. (1985) Schlerinterviews zur elementaren Algebra. In: W. Drfler & R. Fischer (Hrsg.) Empirische Untersuchungen zum Lehren und Lernen von Mathematik. Wien: Holder-Pichler-Tempsky, 167174. Mazzuchi, A., Manzoni, G.C., Mainini, P. & Parma, M. (1976) Il problema dellacalculia: Studio di un caso. Rivista Neurologica, 46 (2), 102115. McLaughlin, T.F., Laffey, P. & Malaby, J.E. (1977) Effects of instructions for on-task behavior: Two case studies. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 2, 393395.

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McMaster, D. (1929) Case studies of failing pupils in seventh year reading and arithmetic. Pittsburgh University School of Education Journal, 5, 3946. Mercier, A. (1992) Llve et les contraintes temporelles de lenseignement, un cas en calcul algbrique. Thse. Bourdeaux: Universit de Bourdeaux 1. Mercier, A. (1995) La biographie didactique dun lve et les contraintes temporelles de lenseignement. Recherche en didactique des mathmatiques, 15 (1), 97142. Norman, C.A. & Ziegmond, N. (1980) Characteristics of children labeled and served as learning disabled in school systems affiliated with Child Service Demonstration Centers. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 13, 542547. Richter, H. (1955) Kurzbericht ber einen Schwachsinnigen mit auergewhnlichen Rechenleistungen. Zeitschrift der Psychologie, 158, 281 93. Ross, R.A. (1964) Description of twenty arithmetic underachievers. Arithmetic Teacher, 11 (4), 235241. Sleeman, D. (1985) Basic algebra revisited: A study with 14 year olds. International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 22 (2), 127149. Soth, M.R. (1929) A study of a pupil retarded in arithmetic. Elementary School Journal, 26 (1), 4749. Sutherland, P. (1989) Some case studies in learning difficulties in maths in the primary school. Research in Education, 42, 115. Trousdale, M.S. (1930) Remedial cases in arithmetic, case 3. Peabody Journal of Education, 7, 290298. Tucker, B.E. (1989) Seeing addition: A diagnosis-remediation case study. Arithmetic Teacher, 36 (5), 1011. Van der Kolk, J & Jansens, G.J.B.A. (1950) Auergewhnliche Hypermnesie fr Kalenderdaten bei einem niedrig stehenden Imbezillen. Allgemeine Zeitschrift fr Psychiatrie, 62, 351. Van Woerkom, W. (1919) Sur la notion de lespace (le sens gometrique): Sur la notion du temps et du nombre. Une dmonstration de linfluence

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du trouble de lacte psychique de lvocation sur la vie intellectuelle. Revue Neurologie, 1, 113119. Vincent, L. (1954) Peter is a slow learner. Arithmetic Teacher, 1, 2426. Warrington, E.K. (1982) The fractionation of arithmetic skills: A single case study. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 34 A, 31 51. Weidner, S.K. (1980) Case study of the arithmetic problems of a child with severe left hemispheric brain damage. Focus on Learning Problems in Mathematics, 2 (1), 4552. Whitson, W.E. (1930) Remedial cases in arithmetic, case 4. Peabody Journal of Education, 7, 362372. Wittoch, M. (1984) Lernstrungen im Mathematikunterricht ein Fallbeispiel. In: Lernschwierigkeiten: Forschung und Praxis. IDM-Band 10. Kln. Wizel, A. (1904) Ein Fall von phnomenalem Rechentalent bei einem Imbezillen. Archiv fr Psychiatrie, 38, 122155.

Communication
Conlon, M.F., Hall, C. & Hanley, E.M. (1972) The effect of peer correction procedure on the arithmetic accuracy for two elementary school children. In G. Semb (Ed.) Behavior analysis of Education 1972. Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas, Department of Human Development. Daniels, H. (1990) Number competence and communcation difficulty: A Vygotskian analysis. Educational Studies, 16 (1), 4959. Daniels, H. (1993) Coping with mathematics in the National Curriculum: Pupil strategies and teacher responses. Support for Learning, 8 (2), 65 70. Evans, G.W. & Oswalt, G.I. (1968) Acceleration of academic progress through the manipulation of peer influence. Behavior Research and Therapy (6), 189195.

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Johnsen, F. (1998) Matematikkvansker: Fra oppskrift til realkommunikation med elevene /Difficulties to learn mathematics: From prescriptions to real communication with the students/. Nordisk Tidsskrift for Spesialpedagogikk, 37 (3), 136139. Pimm, D. (1991) Speaking mathematically: Communication in mathematics classroom. New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Concentration, attention, effort, exertion, and mathematics

Ackerman, P.T., Anhalt, J.M. & Dykman, R.A. (1986) Arithmetic automatization failure in children with attention and reading disorders. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 19, 222232. Badian, N.A. (1983) Dyscalculia and nonverbal disorders of learning. In: H.R. Myklebust (Ed.) Progress in learning disabilities. Vol. 5. New York: Grune & Stratton. Branch, W.B., Cohen, M.J. & Hynd, G.W. (1995) Academic achievement and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children with left- or right-hemisphere dysfunction. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 28 (1), 3543. Boersma, F., Wilton, K., Barham, R. & Muir, W. (1970) Effects of arithmetic problem difficulty on pupillary dilation in normals and educable retardates. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 9 (2), 142155. Klln, E. (1949) Uppmrksamhetsfrloppens psykologi /The psychology of proceeses of attention/. Gteborg, Sweden: Elanders Boktryckeri Aktiebolag. Kassinove, H. & Summers, M. (1968) The developmental attention test: A preliminary report on an objective test of attention. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 24 (1), 7678. Kinsbourne, M. & Caplan, P.J. (1979) Childrens learning and attention problems. Boston: Little, Brown.

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Lessen, E.I. & Cumblad, C.L. (1984) Alternatives for teaching multiplication facts. Arithmetic Teacher, 31 (5), 4648. Malle, G. (1986) Zur Rolle der Aufmerksamkeitsfokussierung in der Entwicklung mathematischen Denkens. In: H.G. Steiner (Hrsg.) Grundfragen der Entwicklung mathematischer Fhigkeiten. Kln: Aulis, 28 35. McCauley, J.J. (1971) Training in analytic listening through arithmetic. Journal for Special Educators of the Mentally Retarded, 1 (1), 1233. Rosenberger, P.B. (1989) Perceptual-motor and attentional correlates of developmental dyscalculia, Annals of Neurology, 26, (2), 216220. Sahlin, B. (1997) Matematiksvrigheter och svrigheter nr det gller koncentration i grundskolan /Mathematical disabilities and difficulties of concentration in the Swedish grundskola/. Stockholm: Skolverket. Schwerin, A. von (1992) Wo eine Wille ist, ist immer ein Weg. Sddeutsche Zeitung, 20.2.1992. Stenzel, J.G. (1968) Math for the low, slow, and fidgety. Arithmetic Teacher, 15, 3034. Voeller, K.S. & Heilman, K.M. (1988) Attention deficits disorders in children. A neglected syndrome? Neurology, 36, 806808. Zentall, S.S. & Ferkis, M.A. (1993) Mathematical problem solving for youth with ADHD, with and without learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 16, 618. Zentall, S.S. & Smith, Y.N. (1993) Mathematical performance and behavior of children with hyperactivity with and without coexisting aggression. Behavioral Research and Therapy, 31, 701710. Zentall, S.S., Smith, Y.N., Lee, Y.B. & Wieczorek, C (1994) Mathematical outcomes of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Learning Disability, 27 (8), 510519. Zentall, S.S. & Goetze, H. (1949) Kinder mit Aufmerksamkeits- und Hyperaktivitts-problemen (ADHD) Neuere experimentelle Befunde und Anwendungen im Unterricht. Sonderpdagogik, 2, 8291.

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Content areas: General

Ball, W.W.R. (1928) Mathematical recreations and essays. 10th Ed. London: Macmillan. Ball, W.W.R. (1956) Calculating prodigies In: J.R, Newman (Ed.) The world of mathematics. Vol. 1. New York: Simon & Schuster, 467487. Frege, G. (1959) The foundation of arithmetic. Oxford: Blackwell. First edition Die Grundlagen der Aritmetik was published in Breslau/Wroclaw, Poland, 1884. Russell, B. (1903) The principles of mathematics. London: Allen & Unwin. Safer, N.D. (1980) Implications of minimum competency standards and testing of handicapped students. Exceptional Children, 46, 288290. Wandt, E. & Brown, G.W. (1957) Non-occupational uses of mathematics. Arithmetic Teacher, 4, 151154.

Content areas: Problem solving (See also Problem solving)

Lawton, C.A. (1993) Contextual factors affecting errors in proportional reasoning. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 24 (5), 460466. Noelting, G. (1980 a) The development of proportional reasoning and the ratio concept. Part I Differentiation of stages. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 11, 217253. Noelting, G. (1980 b) The development of proportional reasoning and the ratio concept. Part II Problem structure at successive stages: Problemsolving strategies and the mechanism of adaptive restucturing. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 11, 331363. Noll, R.S. (1983) Effects of verbal cueing and a visual representation on percent problem-solving performance of remedial adults. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Fordham University, NewYork.

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Sophian, C. & Corgray, P. (1994) Part-whole knowledge and early arithmetic problem solving. Cognition and Instruction, 12 (1), 333. Svensson, O. & Broquist, S. (1974) Strategies in simple mathematical problem solving: A comparison of normal and subnormal children. Stockholm: Psychological Laboratories, University of Stockholm. Svensson, O. & Broquist, S. (1975) Strategies for solving simple addition problems: A comparison of normal and subnormal children. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 16, 143151.

Content areas: Number

Barnett, C., Goldenstein, D. & Jackson, B. (Ed.) (1974) Mathematics teaching cases: Fraction, decimals, ratios and percent. Hard to teach and hard to learn? Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Casebook. Baroody, A.J. (1990) How and when should place-value concepts and skills be taught? Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 21 (4), 281286. Baroody, A.J. (1992) The development of preschoolers counting skills and principles. In: J. Bideaud, C. Meljac & J.-P. Fischer (Eds.) Pathways to number, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 99126 (Original: Les chemins du nombre. Lille, France: Presses universitaires de Lille.) Benton, S.E. (1986) A summary of research on teaching and learning estimation. In: H.L. Schoen & M.J. Zweng (Eds.) Estimation and mental computation. 1986 Yearbook. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 239248. Borasi, R. (1985) Errors in the enumeration of infinite sets. Focus on Learning Problems in Mathematics, 7, 7788. Brainerd, C.J. & Kaszor, P. (1974) An analysis of two proposed sources of childrens class inclusion errors. Developmental Psychology, 10, 633 643. Braunfeld, P. & Wolfe, M. (1966) Fractions for low achievers. Arithmetic Teacher, 13, 647655.

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Siegler, R.S. (1989) The perils of averaging data over strategies: An example from childrens addition. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 116 (3), 250264. Smith, D.D. & Lovitt, T.C. (1975) The use of modelling techniques to influence the acquisition of computational arithmetic skills in learningdisabled children. In: E. Ramp & G. Semb (Eds.) Behavior analysis: Areas of research and application. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall, 283 308. Smith, S.B. (1983) The great mental calculations: The psychology, methods, and lives of calculating prodigies, past and presents. New York: Columbia University Press. Sorger, P. (1984) Die Schreibweise der schriftlichen Division mit Rest ein vertracktes und ach so typisch deutsches Problem. Die Grundschule, (4), 5051. Sowder, J.T. (1989) Affective factors and computational estimation ability. In: D.B. McLeod & V.M. Adams (Eds.) Affect and mathematical problem solving: A new perspective. New York: Springer, 177191. Sowder, J.T. & Wheeler, M.M. (1989) The development of concepts and strategies used in computational estimation. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 20 (2), 130146. Spiegel, H. (1988) Vom Nutzen des Taschenrechners im Arithmetikunterricht der Grundschule. In: P. Bender (Hrsg.) Mathematikdidaktik: Theorie und Praxis. Bielefeld. Spiegel, H. (1989) Vom Numerieren und rechnen mit Nummern Brief an eine Lehrerin. Sachunterricht und Mathematik in der Primarstufe, (7), 319232. Stefanich, G.P. & Rokusek, T. (1992) An analysis of computational errors in the use of division algorithms by fourth-grade students. School Science and Mathematics, 92 (4), 201205. Straub, W. (1970) Zum Verstndnis des Bruchrechnens in der Lernbehindertenschule. Zeitchrift fr Heilpdagogik, 7786.

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Svensson, O., Hedenborg, M.L. & Lingman, L. (1976) On childrens heuristics for solving simple additions, Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 14, 161173. Svensson, O. & Sjberg, K. (1983) Evolution of cognitive processes for solving simple additions during the first three school years. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 24, 117124. Thornton, C.A. (1977 a) Helping the special child measure up in basic fact skills. Teaching Exceptional Children, 9 (2), 5455. Thornton, C.A. (1979 b) Basic facts mastery: Guides to success for the LD child. Focus on Learning Problems in Mathematics, 1 (1), 3442. Thornton, C.A., Jones, G.A. & Toohey, M. (1983) A multisensory approach to thinking strategies for remedial instruction in basic addition facts. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 14, 198203. Travers, K.J. (1969) Computation: Low achievers stumbling block or stepping stone? Arithmetic Teacher, 16, 523.528. Uprichard, A.E. & Phillips, E.R. (1977) An intraconcept analysis of rational number addition: A validation study. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 8, 716. Usnick, V. (1988) Childrens and preservice teachers choices of difficult basic addition facts. Focus On Learning Problems in Mathematics, 10, 4354. Usnick, V. & Engelhardt, J.M. (1988) Basic facts, numeration concepts and the learning of the standard multidigit algorithm. Focus on Learning Problems in Mathematics, 10, 110. Vigilante, N.J. (1978) Access to multiplication facts. Arithmetic Teacher 26 (1), 4244. Vinner, S., Hershkowitz, R. & Bruckheimer, M. (1981) Some cognitive factors as causes of mistakes in addition of fractions. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 12, 7076. Wagner, H.-J. & Wacker, C. (1991) 15+3=81 oder 9? Wie Fehlertypen bei der Addition in einer 2. Klasse didaktisch aufgearbeitet werden knnen. Die Grundschule, 9, 6263.

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Wagner, H.-J. & Kornmann, R. (1992) Schwierigkeits- und Fehleranalysen von zweigliedrigen Additionsaufgaben mit der Null im Zahlenraum 0 20 mit Ergebnis grer als 10. mathematica didacta, 15 (2), 96105. Wagner, H.-J. & Born, C. (1994) Diagnostikum: Basisfhigkeiten im Zahlraum 0 bis 20. Weinheim: Beltz. Wagner, H.-J. & Kornmann, R. (1996) Bedeutungsaspekte der Null im Hinblick auf ihre pdagogische Vermittlung. In: G. Siepmann & K. Salzberg-Ludwig (Hrsg.) Gegenwrtige und zuknftige Aufgaben in der Lernbehindertenpdagogik. Teil 2. Potsdam: Universitt Potsdam, Institut fr Sonderpdagogik, 241251. Wheeler, L.R. (1939) A comparative study of the difficulty of the 100 addition combinations. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 54, 295312. Williams, D.M. & Collins, B.C. (1994) Teaching multiplication facts to students with lerning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 27 (9), 589597. Winter, R. (1970) Erfahrungen mit einem Rechenprogramm in der Sonderschule fr Lernbehinderte. Zeitschrift fr Heilpdagogik, 9198. Wirth, R. (1938) Schwierigkeitsbestimmungen an einfachen Subtraktionen. Archiv fr die gesamte Psychologie, 101. Wittmann, E.C. (1989) Ein ganzheitlicher Zugang zum kleinen Einspluseins. Beitrge zum Mathematikunterricht, 406409. Wolters, G., Beishusen, M., Broers, G. & Knoppert, W. (1990) Mental arithmetic: Effects of calculation procedure and problem difficulty on solution latency. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 49, 2030. Yarmish, R. (1988) Numerical equivalence and the developmentally impaired. Focus on Learning Problems in Mathematics, 10 (4), 3150. Young, M., Baker, J. & Meredith, M. (1990) Teaching basic number skills to students with a moderate intellectual disability. Education and Training in Mental Retardation, 25 (1), 8393. Zaskis, R. & Khoury, H.A. (1993) Place value and rational number representation: Problem solving in the unfamiliar domain of non-decimals. Focus on Learning Problems in Mathematics, 15 (1), 3851.

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Zehner, K. (1960) Das invertierte Zahlensprechen als pdagogischpsychologisches Problem. Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Pdagogischen Hochschule Potsdam, 5 (2), 9138. Zweng, M.J. (1972) The fourth operation is not fundamental. Arithmetic Teacher, 19, 623629.

Content areas: Geometry. Measurement. Money

Agam, Y. (1984) Seeing is learning or should be! KIDMA, Israel Journal of Development, No. 30. Agam project: A research and curriculum development program in visual education. (1990) Rehovet, Israel: Department of science teaching, Weizman Institute of Science. Aiello, B. (1976) The tool chest: Demystifying the metric system for exceptional children. Teaching Exceptional Children, 8 (2), 7275. Bachmann, W. & Stagnetz, E. (1970) Die Raumlehreunterricht in der Sonderschule fr Lernbehinderte. Zeitschrift fr Heilpdagogik, 7786. Bereiter, C. (1963) Some persisting dilemmas in the measurement of change. In: C.W. Harris (Ed.) Problems in measuring change. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 320. Bttger, F. (1995) Unterrichtsentwurf: Flcheninhalt des Parallelogramms. Zeitschrift fr Heilpdagogik, 46, 8993. Dicke, C. (1997) Messen mit dem Meterstab Ein Beispiel fr aktiventdeckendes Lernen im Mathematikunterricht der Schule fr Lernbehinderte. Zeitschrift fr Heilpdagogik, 335338. Dubnos, J.S. (1973) Fehler in geometrischen Beweisen. Berlin: VEB Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaft. Duismann, G.H. (1974) Mnzsortierer Ein Unterrichtsbeispiel aus dem Technikunterricht der Lernbehindertenschule. Zeitschrift fr Heilpdagogik, 545550. Ebert, F. (1999) Zeitbewusstsein bei Schlerinnen und Schlern der Primarstufe. In: D. Schmetz & P. Wachtel (Hrsg.) Entwicklungen, Stand-

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orte, Perspektive. Wrzburg, Deutschland: Verband Deutscher Sonderschulen, 229238. Frank, A.R. (1978) Teaching money skills with a number line. Teaching Exceptional Children, 10 (2), 4647. Grobecker, B. (....) Spatial-geometrical understanding: An investigation of spatial-geometrical understanding in students with learning differences, (in Press). Gronewold, H.-H. (1996) Einfhrung in die Dezimalschreibweise von Geldbetrgen. Mathematik in einer 5. Klasse der Schule fr Lernbehinderte. Zeitschrift fr Heilpdagogik, 47, 115119. Haase, P. (1984) Handlungsorientierter Raumlehreunterricht bei Schlern mit geringeren mathematischen Fhigkeiten. Zeitschrift fr Heilpdagogik, 35, 253254. Hannweber, W. (1985) Schulung des rumlichen Vorstellungsvermgens im technischen Zeichnen. Zeitschrift fr Heilpdagogik, 36, 411421. Heise, P., Smith, C.C. & Thornton, C.A. (1976) Basic money concepts and skills in meeting the needs of special children. Journal for Special Educators of the Mentally Retarded, 12 (3), 163167. Hershkowitz, R. (1993) Psychological aspects of learning geometry. In: P. Nesher & J. Kilpatrick (Eds.) Mathematics and cognition. ICMI Studies Series. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Hiebert, J. (1984) Why do some children have trouble learning measurement concepts? Arithmetic Teacher,31 (7), 1924. Hildreth, D.J. (1983) The use of strategies in estimating measurement. Arithmetic Teacher, 30, 5056. Hirstein, J.J., Lamb, C.E. & Osborne, A. (1978) Student misconceptions about area measure. Arithmetic Teacher, 25 (6), 1016. Karwot, I. (1984) Vorschlge zur Didaktik des Geometrieunterrichts fr Schler mit geringeren mathematischen Fhigkeiten. Zeitschrift fr Heilpdagogik, 35, 245252. Kornbrekke, J. (1996) Geometrivansker i ungdomsskolen: Forsk p en gestaltpsykologisk tilnrming til matematikkvansker /Disability in geometry in the Norwegian ungdomsskolen from a Gestalt psychologi-

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cal approach/. Kristiansand, Norway: Hgskolen i Agder (Hovedfagsoppgave i matematikkdidaktikk). Kovar, J.G., Rao, J.N.K. & Wu, C.F.J. (1988) Bootstrap and other methods to measure errors in survey estimates. Canadian Journal of Statistics, 16, 2545. Krantz, D.H. & Tversky. A. (1961) Similarity of rectangles: An analysis of subjective dimensions. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 12, 434. Kchemann, D.E. (1980) Childrens difficulties with single reflections and rotations. Maths in School, 9 (2), 3132. Lovell, K. & Slater, A. (1960) The growth of the concept of time: a comparative study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 1, 179 190. Marpet, L. & Prentky, J. (1974) Tips on teaching measurement. Journal for Special Educators of the Mentally Retarded, 11 (1), 6163. Moeller, R. & Craig, K.E. (1971) Monetary training for the mentally retarded and emotionally disturbed. Journal of Home Economics, 63 (8), 599601. Outhred, L.N. & Mitchelmore, M.C. (2000) Young childrens intuitive understanding of rectangular area measurement. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 31 (2), 144167. Pollio, H.R. & Gray, R.T. (1973) Change making strategies in children and adults. Journal of Psychology, 84, 173179. Rost, D.H. (1977) Raumvorstellung: Psychologische und pdagogische Aspekte. Weinheim, Deutschland: Beltz. Scharlau, R. & Schmitz, G. (1980) Untersuchungen zur Entwicklung des rumlichen Denkens bei geistigbehinderten Kindern. Zeitschrift fr Heilpdagogik, 228241.. Stavy, R. & Berkovitz, B. (1985) Cognitive conflict as a basis for teaching quantitative aspects of the concept of temperature. Science Education, 64, 679692. Swan, M. & Jones, O.E. (1971) Distance, weight, height, area, and temperature percepts of university students. Science Education, 55, 353 360.

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Swan, M. & Jones, O.E. (1980) Comparison of students percepts of distance, weight, height, area, and temperature. Science Education, 64, 297307. Todd, R.M., Houk, C. & Cannon, J. (1976) Metric concepts for children with specific learning disabilities. Science and Children, 13 (8), 1920. Vinner, S. (1982) Conflicts between definitions and intuitions: The case of the tangent. In: A. Vermandel (Ed.) Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference for the Psychology of Mathematics Education. Antwerp, Belgium: Universitaire Instelling, Antwerpen, 2428. Vinner, S. & Hershkowitz, R. (1980) Concept images and common cognitive paths in the development of some simple geometrical concepts. In: R. Karplus (Ed.) Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference for the Psychology of Mathematics Education. Berkeley University of California, Lawrence Hall of Science, 177184. White, G. (1970) The calendar. Journal for Special Educators of the Mentally Retarded, 6 (2), 8389, (3), 172178. Zbick, E.M. (1989) Zum Motivationsproblem im Geometrieunterricht. In: E. Pehkonen (Ed.) Geometry teaching Geometrieunterricht. Helsinki: University of Helsinki, Department of Teacher Education, 5766.

Content areas: Algebra. Functions

Adolfsson, L. (1997) r svenska elever dliga i algebra och geometri? /Are Swedish students bad at algebra and geometry?/ Nmnaren (Swedish), 22 (1), 2126. Blomhj, M. (1997) Funktionsbegrebet og 9. klasse elevers begrebsforstelse / The function concept and the understanding of concept by students in the ninth grade of the Danish compulsory school/. Nordisk Matematikkdidaktikk/ Nordic Studies in Mathematics Education/, 5 (1), 731. Clement, J. & Rosnick, P. (1980) Learning without understanding: The effect of tutoring strategies on algebra misconceptions. Journal of Mathematical Behavior, 3, 327.

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Cornu, B. (1983) Quelques obstacles lapprentissage de la notion de limite. Recherches en didactique des mathmatiques, 4, 236268. Davis, E.J. & Cooney, T.J. (1987) Identifying errors in solving certain linear equations. Mathematics Association of Two-Year Colleges Journal, 11 (2), 170176. Davis, R., Jockusch, E. & McKnight, C. (1978) Cognitive processes in learning algebra. Journal of Childrens Mathematical Behavior, 2 (1), 1120. Eisenberg, T. (1991) Functions and associated learning difficulties. In: D.O. Tall (Ed.) Advanced mathematical thinking. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer, 140152. Ekenstam, A. af & Greger, K. (1987) On childrens understanding of elementary algebra. Journal of Structural Learning, 9, 303315. Ervynck, G. (1981) Conceptual difficulties for first year university students in the acquisition of the notion of limit of a function. Proceedings of the Fifth Conference of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education, 330333. Even, R. (1990) Subject matter knowledge for teaching and the case of functions. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 21, 521544. Fettweis, E. (1929) Versuch einer psychologischen Erklrung von Schlerfehlern in der Algebra. Zeitschrift des mathematischen und naturwissenschaftlichen Unterrichts, 60, 214219. Galvin, W.P. & Bell, A.W. (1977) Aspects of difficulties in the solution of problems involving the formation of equations. Nottingham: Shell Centre for Mathematical Education. University of Nottingham. Hall, D. (1990) Inconsistences in the learning of calculus and analysis. Focus on Learning Problems in Mathematics, 12, (3/4), 4964. Harel, G. & Dubinsky (Eds.) (1991) The concept of function. Washington, D.C.: Mathematical Association of America. Herscovics, N. (1989) Cognitive obstacles encountered in the learning of algebra. In: S. Wagner & S. Kieran (Eds.) Research issues in the learning and teaching of algebra. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

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Herscovics, N. & Kieran, C. (1980) Constructing meaning for the concept of equation. Mathematics Teacher, 73, 572580. Hutchinson, N.L. (1993) Effects of cognitive strategy instruction on algebra problem solving of adolescents with learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 16, 3463. Kchemann, D.E. (1978) Childrens understanding of numerical variables. Mathematics in School, 7 (4), 2326. Kaput, J. & Sims-Knight, J.E. (1983) Errors in translations to algebraic equations: Roots and implications. Focus on Learning Problems in Mathematics, 5 (3), 6378. Kieran, C. (1984) A comparison between novice and more-expert algebra students on tasks dealing with the equivalence of equations. In: J.M. Moser (Ed.) Proceedings of Sixth Annual Meeting of Psychology of Mathematics Education in North America. Madison: WI. Laursen, K.W. (1978) Errors in first year algebra. Mathematics Teacher, 71, 194195. Lrcher, G.A. (1986) Schlerschwierigkeiten in der Algebra. In: P. Kupari (Ed.) Mathematics Research in Finland. Yearbook 1986. Jyvskyl, Finland: Institute of Educational Research. Publication Series B. Theory into Practice. No. 18, 5984. Low, R. & Over, R. (1989) Detection of missing and irrelevant information within algebraic story problems. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 59, 296305. MacGregor, M. & Stacey, K. (1993) Cognitive models underlying students formulation of simple linear equations. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 24 (3), 217232. Marquis, J. (1988) Common mistakes in algebra. In: A.F. Coxford & A.P. Shulte (Eds.) The ideas of algebra, K12. 1988 Yearbook. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 204205. Mercer, C.D., Enright, B. & Tharin, M.A. (1994) Solving division equations: An algebra program for teaching students with learning problems. Gainsville, FL: Author.

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Payne, S.J. & Sqibb, H.R. (1990) Algebra mal-rules and cognitive accounts of errors. Cognitive Science, 14, 445481. Petitto, A. (1979) The role of formal and non-formal thinking in doing algebra. Journal of Childrens Mathematical Behavior, 2 (2), 6988. Robert, A. (1982) Lacquisition de la notion de convergence des suites numriques dans lenseignement superieur. Recherches en didactique des mathmatiques, 3, 307341. Rosnick, P. (1981) Some misconceptions concerning the concept of variable. Mathematics Teacher, 74, 418420, 450. Rosnick, P. & Clement, J. (1980) Learning without understanding: The effect of tutoring strategies on algebra misconceptions. Journal of Mathematical Behavior, 3 (1), 327. Rossnick, P. (1981) Some misconceptions concerning the concept of variable. Mathematics Teacher, 74, 418420. Shevarev, P.A. (1975) An experiment in the psychological analysis of algebraic errors. In: J. Kilpatrick & I. Wirszup, (Eds.) Soviet studies in the psychology of learning and teaching mathematics. Vol. XII. Chicago: SMSG and University of Chicago, 160. Sierpinska, A. (1985) Obstacles pisthmologiques relatifs la notion de llimite. Recherches en didactique des mathmatiques, 6 (1), 567. Sierpinska, A. (1987) Humanities students and epistemological obstacles related to limits. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 18, 371397. Sleeman, D. (1982) Assessing aspects of competence in basic algebra. In: D. Sleeman & J.S. Brown (Eds.) Intelligent tutoring systems. London: Academic Press, 185199. Sleeman, D. (1983) Inferring (mal) rules from pupils protocols. In: R.S. Michalski (Ed.) Proceedings of the 2nd Machine Learning Workshop. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois, Department of Computer Science, 221227. Sleeman, D. (1984 a) Mis-generalization: An explanation of observed malrules. Technical Report. Stanford, CA: Stanford University, Heuristic Programming Project.

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Sleeman, D. (1984 b) An attempt to understand students understanding of basic algebra. Cognitive Science, 8, 387412. Steinberg, R.M., Sleeman, D.H. & Ktorza, D. (1991) Algebra students knowledge of equivalence of equations. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 22 (2), 112121. Symonds, P.M. (1922) The psychology of errors in algebra. Mathematics Teacher, 15, 93104. Symonds, P.M. (1923) Special disability in algebra. Teachers College Contributions to Education. No. 132. Tall, D.O. (1977) Conflicts and catastrophies in the learning of mathematics. Mathematical Education for Teaching, 2 (4), 218. Tall, D.O. (1980) Mathematical intuition, with special reference to limiting processes. Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference for the Psychology of Mathematics Education, 170176. Tall, D.O. & Vinner, S. (1981) Concept images and concept definition in mathematics with particular reference to limits and continuity. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 12, 151169. The language of functions and graphs (1985). Manchester: University of Nottingham, Shell Centre for Mathematical Education. Vinner, S. (1983) Concept definition, concept image and the notion of function. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 14, 293305. Vinner, S. & Dreyfus, T. (1989) Images and definitions for the concept of function. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 20 (4), 356 366. Wagner, S. (1981) Conservation of equation and function under transformations of variable. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 12, 107118. White, P. (1990) Is calculus in trouble? Australian Senior Mathematics Journal, 4, 105110. White, P. & Mitchelman, M.C. (1993) Aiming for variable understanding. Australian Mathematics Teacher, 49 (4), 3133.

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White, P. & Mitchelman, M.C. (1996) Conceptual understanding in introductory calculus. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 27 (1), 7995. Williams, S.R. (1991) Models of limit held by college students. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 22 (3), 219236. Youschkevitch, A. (1976) The concept of function up to the middle of 19th century. Archive for History of Exact Sciences, 16, 3685.

Content areas: Statistics. Probability

Carpenter, T.P., Corbitt, M.K. & Kepner, H.S., Jr. (1981) What are the chances of your students knowing probability? Mathematics Teacher, 74, 342345. Fischbein, E. (1975) The intuitive sources of probabilistic thinking of children. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Reidel. Fischbein, E. & Gazit, A. (1984) Does the teaching of probability improve probabilistic intuitions? Educational Studies in Mathematics, 15, 124. Fishbein, E., Nello, M.S. & Marino, M.S. (1991) Factors affecting the probabilistic judgements in children and adolescents. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 22, 523549. Fischbein, E. & Schnarch, D. (1997) The evolution with age of probabilistic, intuitively based misconditions. Journal of Research in Mathematics Education, 28, 96105. Garfield, J. & Ahlgren, A. (1988) Difficulties in learning basic concepts in probability and statistics: Implications for research. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 19, 4463. Green, D.R. (1982) Probability concepts in 1116-year-old pupils. Loughborough, UK: Centre for Advancement of Mathematical Education in Technology. Green, D.R. (1983) A survey of probability concepts in 3000 pupils aged 1116 years. In: D.R. Grey, P. Holmes, V. Barnett & G.M. Constable

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(Eds.) Proceedings of the First International Conference on Teaching Statistics. Sheffield, UK: Teaching Statistics Trust, 766783. Green, D.R. (1987) Childrens understanding of randomness: Report of a survey of 1600 children aged 711 years. In: R. Davidson & J. Swift (Eds.) Preceedings: The Second International Conference on Teaching Statistics. Victoria, British Columbia: University of Victroria, 287291. Green, D.R. (1991) A longitudinal study of pupils probability concepts. Tech. Rep. ME90/91. Loughborough, England: Loughborough University of Technology. Hancock, C., Kaput, J. & Goldsmith, L. (1992) Authentic inquiry with data: Critical barriers to classroom implementation. Educational Psychologist, 27, 337264. Hansen, R.S., McCann, J. & Myers, J.L. (1985) Rote versus conceptual emphasis in teaching elementary probability. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 16, 364374. Hawkins, A.S. & Kapadia, R. (1984) Childrens conceptions of probability A psychological and pedagogical review. Educational Studies in Mathematics. 15, 349378. Hope, J.A. & Kelly, I.W. (1983) Common difficulties with probabilistic reasoning. Mathematics Teacher, 76, 565570. Kahneman, D. & Tversky, A. (1972) Subjective probability: A judgment of representative-ness. Cognitive Psychology, 3, 430454. Kahneman, D. & Tversky, A. (1973) On the psychology of prediction. Psychological Review, 80, 237251. Konold, C. (1989) Informal conceptions of probability. Cognition and instruction, 6, 5998. Konold, C. (1991) Understanding students beliefs about probability. In: E. von Glasersfeld (Ed.) Radical constructivism in mathematics education. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer, 139156. Konold, C., Lohmeier, J., Pollatsek, A., Well, A., Falk, R. & Lipson, A. (1991) Novices view on randomness. In: R.G. Underhill (Ed.) Proceedings of the Thirteenth Annual Meeting of the North American Chapter of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Educa-

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tion. Vol. 1. Blacksburg, VA: Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 167173. Konold, C., Pollatsek, A., Well, A., Lohmeier, J. & Lipson, A. (1993) Inconsistencies in students reasoning about probability. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 24 (5), 392414. Mcvarech, Z.R. (1983) A deep structure model of students statistical misconceptions. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 14, 415429. Mokros, J. & Russell, S. (1995) Childrens concepts of average and representativeness. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 26, 20 39. Shaughnessy, J.M. (1977) Misconceptions of probability: An experiment with a small- group, activity-based, model-building approach to introductory probability at the college level. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 8, 295316. Shaughnessy, J.M. (1981) Misconceptions of probability: From systematic errors to systematic experiments and decisions. In: A.P. Shulte (Ed.) Teaching statistics and probability. 1981 Yearbook of the NCTM. Reston, VA: The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 9099. Strauss, S. & Bichler, E. (1988) The development of childrens concepts of arithmetic average. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 19, 6480. Toohey, P.G. (1995) Adolescent perceptions of the concept of randomness. Unpublished masters thesis. University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia. Zeidner, M. (1991) Statistics and mathematics anxiety in social science students: Some interesting parallels. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 61, 319328.

Content areas: Computers, Calculators

Block, G. (1980) Dyscalculia and the minicalculator. The ALP program. Academic Therapy, 16 (2), 175181.

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Bonfranchi, R. (1992) Computer-Didaktik in der Sonderpdagogik. Luzern. Borg, M. & Holm, M. (1993) EDB i spesialundervisningen /EDB in special education/. Oslo: Gyldendal, Ad notam. Bork, A.M. (1995) Why has the computer failed in schools and universities? Journal of Science Education and Technology, 2, 97102 Bright, G.W. & Lamon, W.E. (Eds.) (1987) Computers, diagnosis, and teaching. Focus on Learning Problems in Mathematics. Special Issue, 9 (1/2), Chiang, B. (1986) Initial learning and transfer effects of microcomputer drills on LD students multiplication skills. Learning Disability Journal, 19, 118123. Christensen, C.A. & Cosden, M.A. (1986) The relationship between special education placement and instruction in computer literacy skills. Journal of Educational Computer Research, 2, 299306. Computers in special education. (1985) A report from the first European Conference concerning Teaching and Training the Handicapped through the New Information Technology. Copenhagen: EASE & DFSP, Maglekildevej 3, DK1853, Fredreriksberg C. Cosden, M. (1988) Microcomputer instruction and perceptions of effectivenss by special education and regular elementary school teachers. Journal of Special Education, 22, 242253. Cosden, M.A., Gerber, M., Semmel, D., Goldman, S.R. & Semmel, M.I. (1984) TEECh manual for observation of microcomputer use by mildly handicapped students. Technical Report No. 5. Santa Barbara, CA: University of California, Project TEECh. Cosden, M.A., Gerber, M.M., Semmel, D.S., Goldman, S.R. & Semmel, M.I. (1987) Microcomputer use within micro-educational environments, Exceptional Children, 53 (5), 399409. Dederichs, H. (1987) Computereinsatz in der Grund- und Sonderschule zur Individualisierung des Unterrichts. Zeitschrift fr Heilpdagogik, 38, 594596.

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Genetic conditions
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Hyperactivity, impulsivity etc.

Abikoff, H. (1991) Cognitive training in ADHD children: Less to it than meets the eye. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24 (4), 205251. Branch, W.B., Cohen, M.J. & Hynd, G.W. (1995) Academic achievement and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children with left- or right-hemisphere dysfunction. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 28 (1), 3543. Cowan, P. (1978) Teaching the times tables to a hyperactive boy. Arithmetic Teacher, 13 (5), 569577. Stromer, R. (1979) Remediating academic deficiencies in learning disabled children. In: B.B. Lahey (Ed.) Behavior therapy with hyperactive and learning disabled children. New York: Oxford University Press. Swett, S.C. (1978) Math and LD: A new perspective. Arithmetic Teacher, 14 (6), 417419. Swett, S.C. (1979) Math as a teaching tool for the learning disabled. Education Digest, 44 (5), 3840.

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Impairments, various multiply disabilities

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Impairments, as to hearing impairments

Allen, T.E. (1986) A study of the achievement patterns of hearingimpaired students 19741983. In: A. Schildroth & M. Karchmer (Eds.)

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Neurological or neuropsychological characteristics of individuals

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