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WATER, A FUNDAMENTAL
ELEMENT
INTRODUCTION
Throughout the universe there is one The formula for water can thus be very
molecule which man seeks above all others simply written as H2 O.
for its discovery in the atmosphere of some Water - the very word brings to mind an
distant planet would immediately unleash image born of recent space voyages the
mankind's wildest dreams. picture of a blue planet: Earth.
This molecule may be easily depicted as Water is the most common mineral on
a simple triangle distinguished by an the earth's surface. It makes up the
interatomic angle of 105° owing to the hydrosphere. Its volume is estimated at
electronegativity of two of its poles. If its 1370 million cubic kilometers; the volume
bonds were exclusively covalent, this angle of fresh water distributed between rivers,
would be 90°. The water molecule has an lakes and ground water is considered to be
electric moment that is reflected in its between 500,000 and one million cubic
physical and electric properties. kilometers. The volume of
Chap. l; Water, a fundamental element
.
1. The physical structure of water
.
1.2. elastic: its volume decreases about 0.048%
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES each time the pressure rises one
atmosphere.
The following are the most important Sea water, with a salinity of 35 g.l-1 , has
physical properties with regard to water an average density of 1.0281 kg.l-1 at 0°C.
treatment: A variation in salinity of 1 g.l-1 causes the
density to change by 0.0008 kg.l-1 .
1.2.1. Density
1.2.2. Thermal properties
Through the compacting of the
molecular structure, the density varies with * Specific heat: 4.18 kJ/kg.°C (1 kcal/
temperature and pressure. Pure water varies kg.°C) at 0°C. This varies with temperature
as follows: and reaches a minimum at +35°C.
e The latent heat of transformation is for
C Density T°C Density fusion: 330 kJ.kg -1 (or 79 kcal.kg -1 ) and for
kg. dm-1 kg. dm-1 vaporization: 2250 kJ.kg -1 (or 539 kcal.kg -
1
0 0.99987 20 0.99828 ) at normal pressure and at 100°C.
4 1.00000 25 0.99707 Owing to the substantial amount of
10 0.99973 30 0.99567 specific heat and latent heat of
15 0.99913 100 0.95838 vaporization, the large expanses of water
on the earth's surface constitute veritable
At pressures encountered in hydraulic heat stores. This is also the reason for the
processes, water is considered a non use of water as a heat transfer fluid.
compressible fluid. In fact, however, it is
Chap. l: Water, a fundamental element
Pressure has a very special effect on the Osmotic pressure describes a phenomenon
absolute viscosity of water. Contrary to what which occurs between liquids with different
happens with other liquids, a moderate concentrations that are separated by a semi-
pressure makes water less viscous at low permeable membrane.
temperatures; it crushes its molecular A simple equation relates osmotic pressure
structure, as it were. When the pressure to concentration:
continues to increase, the water resumes the ? = ∆CRT
structure of a liquid free from any internal ∆C: The difference in concentration in
stresses, and again complies with the general mol.m-3
rule that viscosity increases with pressure. R : The constant of ideal gases: 8.314 J/
mol.K
1.2.4. Surface tension T : The temperature in K
Π : The osmotic pressure in Pa
1. The physical structure of water
Thus, sea water at 35 g.l-1 in NaCl at 15°C conductivity (see page 487) which varies
creates an osmotic pressure equal to 14.38 x according to the temperature.
105 Pa
This parameter is essential in the sizing of1.2.7. Optical properties
reverse osmosis systems. The transparency of water depends on the
wavelength of the light passing through it.
1.2.6. Electrical properties While ultraviolet light passes through it
well, infrared rays, so useful from the
. Dielectric constant: the dielectric physical and biological viewpoints, hardly
constant of water, of the order of 80 Farad penetrate it. Water absorbs a large
Steradian per metre, is one of the highest proportion of the orange and red
known; this is why the ionizing power of components of visible light; this explains
water is so great. the blue colour of light which has passed
. Electrical conductivity of water: through a thick section of water.
water is slightly conducting. The conduc This transparency is often used to measure
tivity of the purest water ever obtained is certain forms of pollution and,
4.2 microsiemens per metre at 20°C (this consequently, the efficiency of purification
corresponds to a res istivity of 23.8 treatments.
megohms -centimetre). The presence of
dissolved salts in water increases its
2.1.3. Activity and concentration the solute is greatly diluted, the law of ideal
The relationship between solute and gases holds good. When the concentration
solvent may be expressed in several ways: becomes sizable, the dissolved molecules
- mole fraction: ratio of number of moles of are less active than the same number of
solute to total number of moles (solvent + molecules of ideal gas. Concentration (c) is
solute), replaced by activity [a]:
- molarity: number of moles dissolved in [a] = f(c)
one litre of solution. f is called the activity coefficient and tends
The molecules of a solute behave in the towards 1 when the solution is very dilute.
same way as a gas would in another gas,
and indeed it has been observed that when
Some acids or bases are entirely
2.2. dissociated even in relatively concentrated
IONIZATION solutions. They are called strong
electrolytes.
An inorganic compound dissolved in
water dissociates to a greater or lesser Other substances, such as acetic acid
extent, with the formation of negatively CH3COOH, are only partially dissociated
charged ions (anions) and positively in solution. These are weak electrolytes. In
charged ions (canons). The dissolved this case we. must distinguish between total
substance is called an electrolyte and acidity wich comprises all possible H+ ions
facilitates the flow of electric current: and free acidity which comprises
dissociated H+ ions.
Water, itself, is partially dissociated into
Where a single solution contains a ions according to the reversible reaction:
number of electrolytes, each is dissociated
to a certain extent and ions formed may
combine with one another to form new This means that in water there are both
compounds. For example, if two H2 O. molecules and OH- (hydroxide ion)
compounds AB and CD are dissolved, the and H+ ions (in the hydrated H3 O+ form
solution will be found to contain molecules called hydronium ion).
AB, CD, AD and CB in equilibrium with
the ions A+, B-, C+ and D-. This equilibrium . Law of mass action
may change if insoluble compounds, In the case of a chemical reaction at
complexes or gases form (Le Chatelier's equilibrium:
principle). For example, if the compound
AD is insoluble, the equilibrium is almost
entirely displaced to the right, in
accordance with the reaction:
Chap. l: Water, a fundamental element
where [A], [B], [C] and [D] represent The pH is measured by means of
the activity of compounds in solution. coloured indicators or, preferably, by
At equilibrium V1 = V2, therefore: an electrometric method (glass-
electrode pH meter).
An acid medium is a solution in
which (H+) is greater than 10-7 mol.l-1
(pH < 7), an alkaline medium is one in
which (H+) is less than 10-7 mol.l-1 (pH
This is the law of mass action. K is > 7).
called the constant of thermodynamic
dissociation. To make it easier, we use . Strength of acids and bases in
the designation pK = colog K. Tables aqueous solution
list the values of pK (see page 505). An acid is a substance capable of
Application of the law of mass action losing protons, that is, H+ ions. A base
to water: pH concept is a substance capable of accepting
Assuming that the coefficients of these protons. There is, thus, in an
ionic activity are equal to 1, we obtain: aqueous solution, an acid-base
equilibrium defined by the following
equation:
Since the dissociation is always weak, Applying the law of mass action and
the concentration of the water taking the concentration of H2 O
molecules is practically constant and we molecules as a constant, we obtain:
may write:
(H+) [OH-] = Ke.
The value of the dissociation (or
ionization) constant of water is of the KA , thus defined, is called the
order of 10-14 (mol.l-1 )2 at 23°C. This affinity constant of the acid-base
value varies with the temperature: couple.
The strength of an acid is
Temperature Ionization determined by the extent to which it
C constant pKe gives off H+ ions, that is, the larger the
Ke 1014
value of KA or the smaller the value of
0 0.12 14.93
18 0.59 14.23 pKA the stronger the acid. The smaller
25 1.04 13.98 the value of KA , the stronger a base.
50 5.66 13.25 Thus, the ammonium ion NH4 + is a
100 58.5 12.54 weak acid with pKA = 9.2. The
corresponding base NH40H is a fairly
In pure water, we have: strong base.
(H+) = (OH-) = 10-7 mol.l-. The concept of pKA makes it
possible to calculate the pH of
By convention, the exponent of the mixtures of corresponding solutions of
concentration of H+ ions or pH acids, bases and salts:
(hydrogen potential) is used: - the pH of a solution of an acid with a
pH = colog (H+) total concentration c is:
Like all living cells, the bacterial cell closely linked with the composition of the
contains a nucleus mainly composed of enzymatic complex secreted by the
chromosomes massed together in the bacteria.Major variations in the characteristics
chromatin and consisting of deoxyribonucleic of the medium may result in a species
acid (DNA). The nucleus controls selection
reproduction, preserves cell lineage in a
genetic code and conducts by means of
messenger RNA (ribonucleic acid) the
synthesis of proteins and especially enzymes
(this takes place in the cytoplasm, a jelly
containing RNA particles, ribosomes, as well
as various organoids such as mitochondria,
lysosomes, etc. which play a very definite
role). The cell is surrounded by a rigid
membrane giving the bacterium its shape. The
motile type of microorganisms has cilia or
flagella (figure 5).
The ratio of surface area to volume is
higher than in the case of other organisms.
Since the metabolic rate rises with this ratio, a
bacterium is more active than more advanced Bacteria may be classified, according to the
organisms. The rate of reproduction depends optimum temperature for their enzymes, as
on the concentration of nutritive substance in thermophilic (temperature over 40°C),
the medium. In the most favorable cases a mesophilic (temperature around 30°C),
cellular division has been observed to take psychrophilic (0 to 15°C) and cryophilic (-5
place in 15 to 30 minutes; sometimes it takes to 0°C).
several days. The speed depends on the Some bacterial species may have a special
temperature. shape owing to sporulation: the spores which
Bacteria can only live in a medium they produce are cells in suspended animation
possessing certain characteristics: water with a structure which makes them much more
content, pH, salinity, oxidation-reduction resistant, for instance, to heat and dryness.
potential and temperature. The favourable When conditions return to normal the spores
oxidation-reduction potential can vary germinate and recreate active bacteria.
considerably depending on whether the A complex bacterial culture may therefore
bacteria are operating under aerobic or adapt itself through selection and mutation to
anaerobic conditions. These conditions are slow changes in the composition of the
substrate on which it feeds.
protoplasmic and cytoplasmic matter. They can feed on other organic substrates such as
consist of an assembly of simple substances, alcohols, phenols, aldehydes, hydrocarbons,
the amino acids. An amino acid is a substance etc.
whose molecule contains one or more acid Autotrophic organisms may synthesize their
groups COOH and one or more amino groups own substance from a carbon source such as
NH2 - linked to the same C atom: carbon dioxide, methane, etc.
cellular requirements. These elements All bacterial groups have in common the
quickly become toxic at high levels. They requirement for these elements but certain
control numerous conditions inside the cell ones, depending on the bacterial family,
such as the ionic transmembrane gradient have very specific requirements. For
(Na +). They are also involved in the instance, nickel is specifically tied to
formation of certain macromolecules enzymes which control the methylation of
associated with enzymatic complexes. acetate in methane-producing bacteria and
is therefore indispensable to proper
methane fermentation.
p
In order to treat water, we must understand True colour after filtration is due most often
it and be able to describe it in as much detail to the presence of dissolved or colloidal
as possible. Certain expressions used in water organic matter. There is no relationship
treatment are far removed from usual scientific between the colour and the quantity of organic
terminology. The most common of these are matter. Colour is measured by comparing the
listed below. specimen with a reference solution (Platinum-
Cobalt method).
. Turbidity
Together with the measurement of . Concentration (by volume)
suspended solids, this gives an initial This is a measure of the quantity of matter
indication of the level of colloidal matter of dissolved or dispersed in a given volume of
inorganic or organic origin. Turbidity is water. As an example, it is indicated as mg.l-1 ,
judged either by comparing the specimen with g.m-3 , g.l-1 etc.
reference opalescent solutions (formazin,
mastic, etc.) or by measuring the limit of . Gramme-equivalent
visibility using a well-defined object (a The gramme-equivalent is equal to the
platinum wire or a Secchi disc). molar weight of a substance divided by the
number of charges of the same sign carried by
. The Fouling index the ions released by a molecule of that
It is a measure of the fouling potential of substance in an aqueous solution.
water. It is also linked with suspended solids For instance, a molecule of orthophosphoric
and is involved in water treatment by acid, H3 PO4 , releases three positive charges
membranes. and three negative charges. One gramme-
equivalent of H3 PO4 is therefore equal to one
. Suspended solids (SS) third of the weight of one mole of H3 PO4 .
This includes all matter suspended in water
that is large enough to be retained on a filter . Normality
with a given porosity. A normal solution is one containing one
gramme-equivalent of the relevant
. Colour
4. The language of water chemistry
substance per litre. Multiples and (A) Total TH: content of Ca and Mg.
submultiples of the normal solution are also (B) Calcium TH: content of Ca.
used (2N, N/10, N/25, N/50, N/100, etc. (C) Carbonate hardness: content of
solutions). bicarbonates and carbonates of Ca and Mg.
In general, when a volume V1 of an It is equal to the M alk. (see below) if the
electrolyte of normality N1 is acted upon by TH exceeds the M alk., or to the TH if the
another electrolyte of normality N2 , the M alk. exceeds the TH.
volume V2 is determined from the relation: (D) Noncarbonate hardness (permanent
hardness): indicates the content of Ca and
N1 V1 = N2 V2 Mg corresponding to strong anions. It is
equal to the difference between A and C.
. Milliequivalent per litre
The unit often used in practice is the . Phenolphthalein alkalinity (P alk.) and
milliequivalent per litre (meq.l-1 ) which is methyl orange alkalinity (M alk.)
obtained by dissolving a quantity of the The relative values of P alk. and M alk.
electrolyte equal to one thousandth of its indicate the quantities of alkaline or
gramme-equivalent in one litre of water. alkaline-earth hydroxides, carbonates or
This is the concentration of an N/1000 bicarbonates in the water (see table page
solution. 18).
The P alk. value therefore includes all
. The French degree the hydroxide content but only half the
The unit used in practical water carbonate content.
treatment is the French degree which The M alk. therefore indicates the
corresponds to the concentration of an bicarbonate content.
N/5000 solution. In some very polluted waters
1 (meq.l-1 ) = 5 French degrees (wastewaters) the M alk. also covers
Example: A solution of a calcium salt at organic acids (acetic, etc.).
25 French degrees contains in calcium Ca
(of molar weight 40 g and valency 2): . Measurement of salts of strong acids
(SSA)
Natural waters contain no free strong acids
(free mineral acidity, or FMA) but only
. The equivalence of various degrees their salts, in particular the sulphates and
1 French degree = 0.56 German degree = chlorides of calcium, magnesium and
0.7 English degree = 10 ppm CaCO3 sodium. The SSA expresses the total
1 German degree = 1.786 French degrees content of these salts of strong acids.
= 1.25 English degrees = 17.86 ppm CaCO3
1 English degree = 1.438 French degrees . Salinity
= 0.8 German degree = 14.38 ppm CaCO3 The overall salinity of water corresponds
1 ppm CaCO3 = 0.1 French degree = to the total number of cations and anions as
-1
0.056 German degree = 0.07 English expressed in mg.l .
degree.
. Permanganate value
. Titration for hardness (TH) Grouped under this heading are all
The titration for hardness indicates the substances susceptible to oxidation by
concentration of alkaline-earth ions in potassium permanganate (KMnO4 ).
water. Various methods of analysis are used
depending on the temperature, the type of
The various types: environment and the procedure.
Chap. l: Water, a fundamental element
1. NATURAL WATER
Available stores of natural water are made aquifers), impounded or flowing surface water
up of groundwater (from infiltration, (reservoirs, lakes, rivers), and sea water
Chap. 2: Treatment. What type of water and why?
A free aquifer, fed by the entire ground French law defines the terms "mineral
surface lying above it, is more susceptible water" and "spring water".
than a confined aquifer. Alluvial aquifers
are also threatened over their entire surface
Mineral water is deep-lying water which
by the tributary network of the river.
may contain some elements in higher
concentration than that authorized for
Once an aquifer has been polluted, it is drinking water and is known for its
very difficult to bring it back to its original therapeutic properties. It is distributed in
purity; the pollutants which contaminated bottles and sometimes undergoes certain
the aquifer are not only present in the water well-defined treatments such as natural
but are attached to and adsorbed on the settling, iron removal by simple aeration and
rocks and minerals in the substratum. removal and/or reintroduction of the original
CO2 .
Groundwater may also contain elements in
concentrations that greatly exceed the Spring water is water which, unlike mineral
standards for drinking water. water, must meet the criteria for potability at
This is due to the composition of the ground its source; it may not run dergo any
where the water is stored. Notable are Fe, treatment.
Mn, H2 S, F, etc.
In contrast to these two types of water, the
Groundwater must be treated before term "table water" refers to bottled water
distribution whenever the concentration of which need only meet the criteria for
one or several elements exceeds the limits potability, and for which preliminary
authorized by regulations. treatment of any kind is authorized.
French French
deg. deg.
Titration for hardness (TH) 650 Free alkalinity………………………… 0
Carbonate hardness 15 Phenolphthalein alkalinity (P alk.)…….0
Permanent hardness 635 Methyl orange alkalinity (M alk.)…….15
Calcium hardness (CaH) 110 Salts of strong acids (SSA)………..3,085
Magnesium hardness 540 Total salinity………………………3,100
(MgH)
- in estuaries, the mixing of rivers with the SS level of which can reach several
the sea as well as the influence of the g.l-1 ;
tides (with an intrusion of sea water into - the plankton level may also vary
the river bed and tidal bores) cause greatly depending on geographical
substantial variations in the salinity and conditions (shallow and motionless sea)
SS level of water samples taken from a and climate (proliferation of algae in the
given area. Agitation caused by North Sea, for instance).
changing of currents replaces sediment
back into suspension and forms a "plug"
bacteria) such as Chlorobium or Chloro The global reaction may then be written:
bacterium; elemental sulphur is formed first:
1.6. • Manganese
BACTERIAL All the above organisms can also
cause the oxidation of manganese if it
OXIDATION-REDUCTION is distinctly more abundant than iron;
OF IRON AND MANGANESE in addition, there are other bacteria
which show a specific activity in this
respect, for example:
• Iron
- true bacteria: Pseudomonas (Ps.
The exothermic oxidation of iron can
manganoxidans), Metallogenium (M.
be catalyzed by some bacteria due to the
personatum, M. symbioticum),
oxidation-reduction enzymes which they
excrete (flavins): trivalent iron, rendered - Siderobacteriales: Leptothrix (L.
insoluble in hydroxide form, is then stored echinata, L. lopholes),
in the mucilaginous secretions (sheaths, - Hyphomicrobiales: Hyphomicrobium
stalks, capsules, etc.) of these bacteria. (H. vulgare).
The organisms responsible for these The action of all these
phenomena are mainly the microorganisms can be very important
Siderobacteriales, particularly: in the processes of iron and manganese
- Chlamydobacteriaceae: Leptothrix (L. removal.
ochracea, L. crassa, L, discophora), Some of these bacteria, when placed
- Crenotrichaceae: Crenothrix (Cr. in a reducing medium, can use the Mn
polyspora), Clonothrix (Cl. ferruginea, Cl. that they have stored in their sheath for
fusca), their metabolism. It is then dissolved
- Siderocapsaceae: Siderocapsa, and released in the form of Mn++.
Ferrobacillus, Sideromonas,
- Gallionellaceae: Gallionella (G. • Bacterial corrosion
ferruginea, G. major). Although the processes described in
This property is also shared by the preceding paragraph are beneficial
Protobacteriaceae (Thiobacillus in a deep-water treatment installation,
ferrooxidans). they can, on the other hand, be very
damaging in a cast iron or steel pipe.
Chap. 2: Treatment. What type of water and why?
and refers solely to the minimum and environment (nuclear power plants
maximum flows of the receiving river. explosion sites) in the largest amount.
The fixed amounts are daily averages and
in France the maximum volume added Origin: water on ocean surface 3 nCi.m-3
can, when authorized, reach, inside of 30
Rain 4 nCi.m-3
days, a maximum of 10 times the
authorized annual average. land water 6 to 24 nCi.m-3
Dis charge: 4 MCi per year in the world
• Tritium 3 H+ (T) Forecast for the year 2000: 30 MG per
year.
This is one of the radioactive elements
that merit special attention even though
the rays emitted by tritium 3 H+ at the same 99% of tritium is found as tritiated
level as the other elements mentioned water ("HTO"): oxidation converts 3 H+
above, pose less of a danger. into liquid or vapour. Tritiated water
Tritium is a naturally occurring element dispersed into the soil (vapour), becomes
in the atmosphere but it is also the easily part of the biological fluids and the
radioactive element discharged into the entire organism, and, unlike other
radioactive elements, does not bind with
the sediment or the SS.
2. WATER FOR CONSUMPTION
2.1.
QUANTITIES REQUIRED
We know that, on the average, man comparis on to domestic use of water. This can
consumes 2 litres of water per day for vary from several litres per day in countries
drinking and cooking. The quantity without public supply and with low household
depends on the climate and increases to 3 usage to several hundreds of litres in very
or 4 litres in hot countries but is low in developed countries.
2.2. WHY TREAT WATER? faucet must be "potable", that is, it must
conform to standards in force (see page
575), regardless of how the consumer
All water made available to
chooses to use it.
consumers through a supply system
must be treated even if only a small
fraction of it is directly consumed by the Water must be treated every time one
individual. It would be hazardous to of the analytical measurements rises
public health and economically above the current legal standard in the
prohibitive to set up a double supply country in question. WHO (World
system with one distributing water for Health Organization) sets
consumption and the other supplying recommendations for each measurement
water for other uses. that must be followed by each country
depending upon health conditions in that
country and the state of its economy; the
Water coming out of the consumer's
goal is to establish national standards.
2.3. CRITERIA FOR CHOICE water drinkable. This process would have
to be weighed against previous years'
fluctuations in the quality of water (daily,
A number of factors determines which
seasonal, climate variations) and against
water should be treated before it is
potential fluctuations that may occur in
distributed. For each available water
the future (with the construction of a dam,
source (groundwater, flowing or stored
for example).
surface water) we must assess:
The growth of common germs may create Moreover, while they grow or at their
major problems in the distribution system: death, some microorganisms
consumption of dissolved oxygen corrosion, (Cyanophyceae, for instance), excrete
bad taste of water metabolites that are toxic to higher animals.
The removal of colour goes hand in hand 2.5.2. Impurities affecting health
with the removal of some undesirable
organic substances (precursors of 2.5.2.1. Study methods
haloforms, etc.).
It is difficult to study the effect of a given
product directly on man. We can guard
• Mineralization against accidents from acute toxicity by
Alkalinity and hardness contribute to the certain products which lead to death
carbonate balance of water together with (poisoning). In the same measure, we can
the pH and the dissolved carbonic acid (see carry out epidemiological studies which
page 262). An attempt is made to attain correlate the ingestion of certain products
such a balance in water in order to avoid with death, cancer risk or a given illness.
scale formation in, or corrosion of, the
system. If the amount of sulphates in water However, given the number of factors
is too high, it affects the taste and gives it that can enter into the environment of each
the quality of a laxative. If the amount of person along with the mobility of
chlorides is too high, it also affects the taste populations in the modern world,
and the water becomes corrosive. epidemiological studies are long, costly
and the results are questionable. It is
• Certain metals therefore preferable to employ
Iron and manganese can colour the water experimental methods. To gain a better
and initiate sedimentation in the system. understanding of the effects of various
This can result in corrosion. In addition, pollutants on the health of consumers,
they affect the organoleptic quality of water studies and experiments are not performed
as do other metals: copper, aluminium, directly on man but rather on those animals
zinc. whose reactions are known to be similar to
man's. The results obtained are then
extrapolated to conform to man by means
• Dissolved gases of models which best reproduce the
H2 S indicates an anaerobic condition and transfer from animal to man.
an oxidation-reduction potential that is too
low; it causes a bad smell and may initiate The effects observed on different animals
corrosion. It must be removed.
can be described in various ways:
• Ammonium NH4 +
- acute toxicity: the product quickly leads
This has no appreciable effect on the to death of the animal. The LD 50 value
health of the consumer but its presence in indicates the lethal dose leading to death in
water indicates pollution. In deep-lying 50% of individuals in a given time (24
water, NH4 may be equally due to reducing hours, for example),
conditions in an aquifer. Ammonium must
be removed from water for consumption as
- chronic toxicity: this is a dose, which
it is a nutritive element that may allow
some bacteria to grow in distribution when ingested on a daily basis, leads to
premature death of individuals. ADI
systems.
(Acceptable Daily Intake) indicates a
maximum dose ingested daily over a
lifetime
Chap. 2: Treatment. What type of water and why?
2.6.2. Pesticides and plant growth regulators The WHO issued (1985) the ADI for some
products.
These products are used in agriculture to Simazin and atrazine are now seen more and
combat organisms that attack vegetables. Some more frequently.
become hydrolysed rather quickly but others These dangerous products must be removed as
are especially resistant and accumulate in the completely as possible to protect the health of
food chain. Some of these products are toxic the consumer.
while others are mutagenous or carcinogenic.
sulphonates (ABS), which have been mainly Before the introduction of biodegradable
responsible for the problems created by the products, the concentration of anionic
presence of detergents in water. They have detergents in river water varied from 0.05 to
usually been replaced by at least 80% 6 mg.l-1 . The figure has dropped since.
biodegradable, linear-chain detergents. Concentrations of non-ionic detergents are
The concentration of anionic surfactants can difficult to express because of the many
be measured easily by methylene blue methods of analysis, their accuracy and
analysis; their biodegradability over a period limits of detection.
can then be followed without difficulty,
- non-ionic surfactants (those now used have • Harmful effects
an alkylphenol or even polyethoxyl alcohol
base). These are being used on an increasing
The harmful effects caused by the
scale, but problems have still to be solved as
regards dosing, presence of detergents in water are:
- cationic surfactants, consisting of - formation of foam, which hinders natural or
quaternary ammonium salts, are little used artificial purification, concentrates impurities
and is liable to spread bacteria and viruses;
and are reserved for special uses linked with
their biostatic properties. anionic detergent concentrations of 0.3 mg .l-1
and over are sufficient to produce a stable
foam,
• Aids - formation of a barrier film on the surface,
which slows down the transfer and
These include: dissolution of oxygen in the water, even
- aids proper such as polyphosphates, when there is no foam,
carbonates, silicates, - a soapy taste, at concentrations well above
- chelating and complexing agents the foam point,
(polyphosphates), - higher phosphate content due to the
- reinforcing agents to improve the action of combination of polyphosphates with
the active constituents (amino oxides, surfactants, leading to the eutrophication of
carboxymethylcellulose, alkanolamides), lakes and the growth of plankton in rivers; in
- additives: bleaching agents, perborates, some countries, a large proportion of
optical bleaches, dyes, perfumes, polyphosphates is replaced by NTA
(nitrilotriacetic acid),
- mineral salt fillers to improve the
appearance of products, - a gradual increase in the boron content of
surface and groundwater supplies, due to the
- enzymes which should be regarded as pre-
large quantities of sodium perborate used in
adjuvants and help to hydrolyse certain types
detergents.
of fouling.
Detergents do not kill bacteria, algae, fish
and other forms of river life, so long as the
• Concentrations found in water concentration does not exceed 3 mg.l-1 .
2. Water for consumption
2.7. RADIOACTIVITY
The ingestion of radioactive products can The water produced must meet regulations
have a somatic effect on man, causing in each country. Treatment of water includes
malignant tumors, or mutations that might precipitation by lime, ion exchange or
appear in future generations. reverse osmosis.
2.9.
POLLUTION FROM
Materials making up the supply
EXTERNAL SOURCES system may also be a source of pollution:
solvents used for the painting and coating
Substances which make up several of of structures, monomers and additives
the products used for water treatment can used in plastic pipe and tube
be a source of pollution. As an example manufacture, metals used in valves and
of this, take the case of ion exchange fittings or even lead used in the
resins or that of membranes. Certain manufacture of pipes and tubes (which
regulations have established a list of might cause lead poisoning), especially
products authorized for use in the in home plumbing systems. Some of
manufacture of these resins (or these materials may release organic
membranes); tests have been worked out carbon which may serve as food for
to ascertain that there is no release while common bacteria, thus aiding their
the product is being used in the treatment proliferation in the supply system; they
line (removal of nitrates by ion exchange may also cause the water to taste bad.
resins, for example).
3. INDUSTRIAL WATER
3.1.
THE USES OF WATER AND
THE QUALITY REQUIRED
The quality of water required by
industry is variable and corresponds to
unequal valorization degrees. If the
needs of small and medium size
companies can often be met with
drinking water or well water, the size
and the situation of large factories may
force them to turn to less expensive
sources of water, possibly even
including sea water.
The recirculation rate may be high and - gas scrubbing with the presence of So 2
the increased concentration of various (boiler fluegas),
dissolved salts through evaporation requires - gas scrubbing with the presence of HF,
preliminary purification of the less soluble HCN (gas from blast furnaces, etc.),
salts in the make-up water and a blowdown - descaling of steel and spraying of rolling
of the water in the system. mills with the entrainment of oils and
Determining the concentration ratio C in scales,
recirculation is basic and rests on the ratio - prilling of nitrogen fertilizer with
between the amount of water supplied, or solubilization of ammonia nitrogen,
make-up water A, and the amount of water
- transport of slag and quenching of coke
lost as a liquid or through blowdown
with solubilization of sulphur compounds.
If the amount of pollution is low (an The second purpose is usually not as
extreme case is in ultrapure water) "noble" as the first, and therefore, an
loops), the impurities in the make-up intermediate treatment may not be
water justify a thorough treatment of the necessary. For example, the draining of an
latter; the in-line treatment becomes open recirculating system of gas from
quantitatively, but not qualitatively, less steel production using oxygen may be
important. used to directly feed a gas scrubbing
system from blast furnaces:
3.1.4. The reuse of water
Recirculation may not be a
sufficiently economical use of water in
view of decreasing availability. The
reuse of water is another means which
consists in using water for two
successive but different purposes, which
may be separated by an intermediate
lifting or treatment stage.
• Carryover in the steam of volatile 3.2.4. Standards for water for use in a
minerals at boiling point, the most conventional steam generating plant
harmful of which is silica which is
produced at above 250°C. These salts are Because of the growing tendency to
deposited on turbine vanes and cause increase the rate of heat transfer through
serious operating problems. Carryover the heated surfaces of modern boilers,
increases with pressure and, therefore, only relatively wide ranges can be given
with temperature. The quantity, of as to maximum levels of alkalis, salts,
course, depends on the amount of silica, phosphates, etc., in relation to
harmful substances such as silica in the working pressure. The actual maximum
chamber. levels must be obtained from the boiler
manufacturer, who will base them on the
• Corrosion of widely varying origin characteristics of the boiler in question.
and nature due to the action of dissolved A point constantly debated is the
oxygen, to corrosion currents set up as a maximum level of NaOH, which
result of heterogeneities on metal decreases as the steaming rate per m2 of
surfaces, or to the iron being directly tube increases, but which in low-and
attacked by the water. Before turning to mediumpressure boilers can be raised if
corrective measures, it is first necessary antipriming conditioning is applied.
to consider the quantity of the various The following are extracts of
harmful substances which can be allowed recommended levels from APAVE
in the boiler water without risk of (Association of electrical and steam unit
damage to the boiler or turbine. Starting owners) (tables 4a, 46, 4c) up to pressures
from these figures, and allowing for the of 100 bar for medium steaming rates and
amount which can be blown down, the for volumes of water in the chambers
permitted concentration in the make-up sufficient to properly control the
water is thus defined. blowdown rates.
Chap. 2: Treatment. What type of water and why?
Table 6b. Steam generator feedwater (normal operating power P > 25% rated P).
Table 6c. APG - Steam generator blowdown system (operating at P > 25% rated P).
coming into contact with the atmosphere; In other combined open recirculating
this is a closed recirculating system, systems, the water can also come into
- it is cooled by partial evaporation in a direct contact with pollutants given off
cooling tower and then returned to the by various processes (for example, gas
appliances; this is an open recirculating scrubbing), thus, this makes the
system. conditioning of the water more difficult.
In closed recirculating systems, that is,
without evaporation, very little make-up
water is required and it may have to meet
conductivity levels related to this
process. Complete and virtually
permanent protection can be obtained
with corrosion inhibitors. Open
recirculating systems are, however, the
most commonly used type.
Make-up water are closely tied to the - maintain an S04 /Cl ratio higher than 1
quality of beer produced. Thus, in brewing (mellowness of beer),
beer, it is important to prevent the - maintain an Na concentration lower than
precipitation of bicarbonates when malt, 100 mg.l-1 to minimize bitterness,
which is rich in calcium phosphate, is - keep N03 < 50 mg.l-1 and NO2 < 1 mg.l-1
added. (limits of toxicity during fermentation and
To start with, the following rules should of potability).
be kept in mind: Examples of mineral analyses of beer
- systematically remove bicarbonates, may be noted:
- keep the Mg concentration as low as:
possible (< 10 mg.l-1 ),
Pilsen Dortmund
Na + K 15-30 0 20 10
Mg 80 1 24 20
Ca 370 7 260 70
C1 34 3 107 2
S04 895 3 290 18
Dry residue 1,800 51 1,100 270
3.4.3.2. Cane sugar mills represent 80% of the total required and be
in the purification of raw juice, clarification divided as follows:
methods similar to those used for water are
required: m3 per t
- accelerated clarification of the lime finished product
defecated juice degreasing of wool 20 to 40
- flotation of the purified juice in order to Finishing and 70 to200
separate the bagasse dyeing of wool
- disinfection of the circuits (essential). finishing of cotton 100
and synthetic
3.4.3.3. Sugar refineries (beet or cane) fabrics
Remelts and liquid sugars must undergo dyeing and printing 70
more or less thorough decolourizing of knits
treatments.
3.4.6. Pulp and paper industries
3.4.4. Vegetable and fruit canneries
These industries (see page 98) use large
Partial softening of process water is generally quantities of water for the following:
essential (for fruit, hardness of - steam production,
10 to 20 French degrees). A reduction in - pulp preparation,
TDS may also be helpful. - making of paper and transport of fibres
with sulphuric acid and electrolysis, are be made ultrapure and further refined in the
used on an increasing scale, because they distribution loops.
allow the treatment of low-grade ores and
flotation residues. Quality of the make-up water
The recent increases in the amount of
Copper wire bar is rolled to make memory from several k-bytes to 256 k-
sections, cables and wires. bytes, if not 1 M-bytes, have led to the need
Roughing involves descaling the surface of for even stricter standards for the quality of
the metal with water; valuable copper ultra pure water for rinsing components. Of
oxides are left in suspension in the water particular importance is the physical and
and these are usually worth recovering. The biological purity.
processes used in making descaling and Worthy of note are the recommendations
cooling systems are similar to those used in of ASPEC 86/17 (Association for the
steel manufacture. control and study of contamination), shown
on table 8.
3.4.10. Automobile and aeronautical A plastic loop, usually with a storage
industries reservoir, ensures a supply of water while
maintaining a relatively constant circulation
rate.
The automobile industry includes plants
that build motors, engines and gear boxes,
those that build bodies and do the 3.4.12. Manufacture of chlorine
assembling, and numerous workshops, often
independent, that are subcontracted. The This is based on the electrolysis of NaCI-
demand for make-up water varies greatly saturated brine, the quality of which
depending on the procedure. However, three depends on the procedures used (diaphragm
general areas for its use may be noted: and mercury cells). The purification of brine
- in cooling, particularly of compressors and takes place either in the make-up water
air conditioners, system or in a closed recirculating system.
- in the preparation of various electroplating The first elements to be removed are Ca 2+,
baths and paint baths that usually require Mg 2+, Fe2+, possibly followed by S04 2- , and,
demineralized water, when recirculation takes place, Hg 2+.
- as feedwater that is soft or low in minerals In using diaphragm cells, Ca 2+ + Mg2+ < 5
for machining and truing. mg.l-1 should be maintained. For the
A description of the various workshops development of membrane cells and an
involved is given on page 110. increase in current density to 7000 Am-2 ,
calcium and organic matter must be
The needs of the aeronautical industry are
completely removed. An extra polishing
much the same.
following purification may have to satisfy
the following requirements:
3.4.11. Manufacturing using ultra pure - Ca2+ < 50µg.l-1
water - SS<1µg.l-1
and possibly: - Sr2+ < 50µg.1-1
This refers to the manufacture of semi
The stripping out of excess chlorine and the
conductors. Make-up water for this use must
reduction of possible iodates pres-
3. Industrial water
The main two collection systems used in along with poor self-cleansing of the
sewerage are of the continuous operation lines during dry periods, two of the
type: main disadvantages of combined
- the combined system conveys domestic systems. However, their construction is
wastewater and rainwater in the same line; easier to control. An essential property
of a network is that it is watertight and
- the separate system is made up of two
keeps out parasites from groundwater or
different pipe networks: one for rainwater,
from surface runoff.
which is about the same size as the
combined system, and the other, smaller in
size, for the wastewater per se. Effluents are conveyed, as far as
possible, by gravity, however, the
topography of a terrain often means that
The first sewerage systems were
intermediate pumping stations must be
combined; the separate system is a more
installed. These can then be followed by
recent development. The collection
mains of considerable length under
systems found in densely populated areas
pressure. In special cases, the effluents
are seldom all of one type.
may be collected at the point of
emission under pressure or even under
The partially-separate system refers to vacuum; these methods, developed for
a separate system in which water from small installations, allow pipes to be
roofs and backyards is conveyed to the laid at a higher level.
wastewater network.
There are two types of sewerage that
The combined systems are equipped do not involve the collective network of
with storm overflows that discharge some sewers:
of the flow directly into a river during - individual or grouped sewerage
rainy periods. In this case, only part of the serving one residence or several
pollution flow reaches the purification residences situated very close together,
plant. This discharge of pollution into a often called
river during rainy periods constitutes,
Chap. 2; Treatment. What type of water and why?
self-directing sewerage. The domestic used to drain off septic tanks. In Asia,
wastewater is conveyed directly to a this type of collection and treatment of
water purification facility, "flowing" night soil is still in use. The delay in
normally into the ground (usually a constructing sewage systems is often
septic tank and subsurface disposal - due to the great density of the
figure 22), population.
- the treatment of night soil in a It must be mentioned, also, that some
centralized plant. This method of countries in Asia follow the ancestral
sewerage consists of storing the most custom of spreading fecal matter
concentrated effluents from each house directly on crops. Thus, wastewater
in watertight pits which are regulary collected in a sewerage system would
emptied into tank trucks and conveyed have a relatively weak concentration in
to a central treatment plant. This method spite of a low water demand.
is still used in some areas where the
houses are very old and/or the ground
relief such that a wastewater collection
network is not feasible. It is sometimes
tration water, which very often enters the The peak dry weather flow Qp in a separate
system unchecked, has the same effect. system can be calculated by the formula:
4.2.2. Rainwater
4.3 • Rainwater
ASSESSMENT It is interesting to make an assessment of the
pollution conveyed by rainwater alone. It is
OF POLLUTION difficult to establish an overall rule since
there have not been many in-depth
4.3.1. SS investigations into the matter and on site
Suspended solids loading contributed by raw conditions play a large role. The pollution
sewage, per head per day, is generally varies considerably during the course of the
estimated as follows: precipitation; it is usually more concentrated
- separate system: 60 to 80 g, including 70% at the beginning of a storm. The matter
volatile solids, entrained in the rain than that found in
sewage, does, however, contain
- combined system: 70 to 90 g, including
hydrocarbons; lead, from motor fuel, is also
65% volatile solids. frequently present.
The per capita quantity of pollution
A study made in France by the Service
increases as the standard of living rises and
technique de l'Urbanisme (S.T.U.), assesses
usually as the population grows. However
the yearly pollution flow at 300 to 1100 kg
the sewage flow increases faster than the SS per hectare of drainage area and from
loading, so that the sewage tends to become
800 to 2650 kg SS per hectare of watertight
less concentrated. If the sewerage system is
drainage area.
badly constructed, infiltration water can get
in and aggravate this tendency. The figures
cited above are for SS after Screening grit 4.3.2. Carbonaceous organic pollution
removal and do not include material the BOD loadings contributed by sewage,
collected during preliminary treatment, per head per day, can be estimated, after
which is roughly as follows: preliminary treatment, as follows:
- separate system: 50 to 70 g,
screening: - combined system: 60 to 80 g.
- 2 to 5 dm3 of screenings per person per Roughly one third of this pollution is
year in the case of screens with bars dissolved; the remaining two thirds are tied
approximately 40 mm apart, to particles (settleable or not). In combined
- 5 to 10 dm3 for screens with bars systems the percentage of organic pollution
approximately 20 mm apart, that is settleable is usually higher than that
- 10 to 15 dm3 for screens with bars found in separate systems.
approximately 6 mm apart. The COD/BOD5 ratio in sewage is usually
The water content of these screenings is between 2 and 2.5.
about 70 to 80% after natural drainage and
pressing. The TOC, due to the nature of the analytical
method, cannot identify particulate
grit removal: components.
In a combined system, the volume of grit per
head per year is about 12 dm3 for an area of
detached houses, and 5 dm3 for areas with
high-rise apartment buildings
4. Municipal wastewater
The fact that coliforms are not found potential of about 100 mV, corresponding,
in an effluent does not mean that it does for a pH of about 7, to an rH of about 17 to
not contain any pathogenic germs. In 21 (see page 249). A potential of +40 mV
MWW, indicator germs are used, above (let rH = 15 at pH 7) or a negative
all, to estimate the level of potential indicates a reducing medium
decontamination (or of partial (septic wastewater, putrid fermentation,
disinfection); this is expressed by the presence of chemical reducing agents). A
number of logarithmic units (power of potential exceeding 300 mV (rH = 24 at
10) which a treatment has been able to pH 7) reflects an abnormal oxidizing
reduce from the initial count in the raw medium.
water. The septicity of the effluent leads to the
formation of sulphur (S2-) and causes
4.3.5. Oxidation-reduction potential- release of H2 S.
Septicity Figure 24 diagrams the evolution of water
Domestic wastewater that is depending on its pH and its rH.
sufficiently fresh has an oxidation-
reduction
4. Municipal wastewater
Table 11. Overall criteria for appraising the quality of river water. (Grid used by the
Agence de Bassin Adour-Garonne, France)
1A 1B 2 3
Conductivity µS/cm at
20°C = 400 400 to 750 750 to 1 500 1 500 to 3 000
Temperature = 20 20 to 22 22 to 25 25 to 30
pH 6.5 to 8.5 6.5 to 8.5 6 to 9 5.5 to 9.5
SS (mg.l-1) = 30 = 30 = 30 30 to 70
Dissolved 02 (Mg.l-1) >7 5 to 7 3 to 5 aerobic medium
Dissolved 02 > 90% 70 to 90 50 to 70 to be
permanently
in saturation % maintained
BOD5 (m.l-1) =3 3 to 5 5 to 10 10 to 25
PV (mg.l-1) =3 3 to 5 5 to 8
COD (mg.l-1) = 20 20 to 25 25 to 40 40 to 80
NH4 (Mg.l-1) = 0.1 0.1 to 0.5 0.5 to 2 2 to 8
N03 (Mg.l-1) < 44 44 to 100
Total N (Kjeldahl) =1 1 to 2 2 to 3
Fe (mg.l-1) = 0.5 0.5 to 1 1 to 1.5
Mn (mg .l-1) = 0.1 0.1 to 0.25 0.25 to 0.5
F(mg.l-1) = 0.7 0.7 to 1.7 0.7 to 1.7 > 1.7
Cu (mg.l-1) = 0.02 0.02 to 0.05 0.05 to 1 >1
Zn (mg.l-1) = 0.5 0.5 to 1 1 to 5 >5
As (mg.l-1) = 0.01 = 0.01 0.01 to 0.05 > 0.05
Cd (mg.l-1) = 0.001 = 0.001 = 0.001 > 0.001
Cr (mg.l-1) = 0.05 = 0.05 = 0.05 > 0.05
CN (mg.l-1) = 0.05 = 0.05 = 0.05 > 0.05
Pb (mg.l-1) = 0.05 = 0.05 = 0.05 > 0.05
Se (mg.l-1) = 0.01 = 0.01 = 0.01 > 0.01
Hg (mg.l-1) = 0.0005 = 0.0005 = 0.0005 > 0.0005
Phenols (mg.l-1) = 0.001 0.001 to 0.05 0.05 to 0.5
Detergents (mg.l-1) = 0.2 = 0.2 0.2 to 0.5 > 0.5
S.E.C.* (mg.l-1) < 0.2 0.2 to 0.5 0.5 to 1 >1
Coliforms (count 100 ml) = 50 50 to 5 000 5 000 to 50 000
Esch. Coli (count 100 ml) = 20 20 to 2 000 2 000 to 20 000
Fec. strep. (count 100 ml) < 20 20 to 1 000 1 000 to 10 000
Diver Divergence of 1 2 or 3 4 or 5 6 or 7
biotic Index** from the
normal index
Note on the use of table 11. livestock. Fish may live in it with no ill
The quality of water depends on many effects but their reproduction may be
parameters (temperature, ammonium (NH4), impaired. It may be used for water sports as
mercury (Hg), etc.). long as there is not excessive contact with
the water.
- It is usual to judge water quality on the
basis of its least favourable parameter. Class 3: "Mediocre" quality: barely
suitable for irrigation, cooling and leisure
- This quality is that which, according to
boating use. This water may support fish
the limits in the table, is achieved by at least
culture but it may be hazardous to fish life
10% of the worst samples in this parameter.
in periods of low flow or high temperatures,
Class 1A: This characterises water that is for example.
considered free from pollution and is of a
Unclassifiable: Water which exceeds the
quality to meet the most exacting
maximum tolerable limit in class 3 for one
requirements.
or more values. It is considered unsuitable
Class 1B: Slightly lower in quality, this to most uses and may constitute a danger to
water may, nonetheless, meet all needs. public health and the environment.
Class 2: "Acceptable" quality: suitable
for use in irrigation and industry, it may be
used for drinking after extensive treatment.
It is generally tolerable for the watering of
Arboriculture, cereals, beets and oleaginous If the SAR nears 10, it signals danger; usually
crops are the types of cultivation most suited. this only happens in certain concentrated
Surface irrigation is preferred to spray effluents (distilleries, sugar mills, cheese
irrigation factories).
An effluent that has an excessive salinity
• Risks to the soil and crops: clogging the level (> 2 g.l-1 ) also causes trouble and leads
soil, increased salinity, introduction of toxins. to a stricter control on the quantity of water
Land disposal can alter the physical properties that is spread and the level of salinity as it
of the soil. In particular, the introduction of an develops in the crop soil. The C/N ratio
excessive amount of sodium and the absence remains essential for crop requirements. The
N/P/K usually shows a very excessive amount
of leaching (especially in areas of low
rainfall) can destroy the soil structure. of nitrogen in domestic sewage. One of the
Knowing the SAR (sodium absorption ratio) drawbacks to using sewage in agriculture is
that it may raise the nitrate level of the
of the effluent is, therefore, imp ortant:
groundwater.
Tables 12 and 13 present an example of
guidelines for irrigation water adopted in
California.
Table 12. Table of guidelines for the main characteristics of irrigation water.
Limits to use
Characteristic None Moderate Strict
Salinity mg.l-1 < 450 450-2 000 > 2 000
Specific conductivity µS.cm-1 (EC) < 700 700-3 000 > 3 000
SAR = 0 - 3 > 700 700-200 < 300
=3-6 > 1 200 1 200-300 < 300
= 6 - 12 EC > 1 900 1 900-500 < 500
= 12 – 20 > 2 900 2 900-1 300 < 1 300
= 20 – 40 > 5 000 5 000-2 900 < 2 900
Na
Surface irrigation SAR <3 3-9 >9
Spray irrigation mg.l-1 < 70 > 70
C1
Surface irrigation mg.l-1 < 140 140 - 350 > 350
Spray irrigation mg.l-1 < 100 > 100 -
pH 6.5 to 8.4
4. Municipal wastewater
Table 14. Measuring methods and the range of standards possible for some organic
compounds.
fying the effluent or in a direct recirculation chromium baths by fixing of Cr3+ ions on
of the wash waters into the process line resins, double ion exchange on rinse water
(ammonium nitrate factories for example). after passivation with recycling of the
This may be carried out by several eluates in the baths.
means: • Separation of suspended compounds
• Eliminating the effluents by from manufacturing processes, and
developing new "dry" procedures such as reintegration, whenever possible, into the
may be the case in surface treatment: process:
- replacing chromium baths by hot ionic - sludge after settling in cardboard
nitriding, production,
- replacing cadmium baths by the - oils from foodstuffs and margarine
application of aluminium in ionized steam refineries,
form, - greases and proteins from
- replacing galvanization by Rilsanising slaughterhouses.
(plastic). • Separation of dissolved compounds
• Separation and possible recovery of synthesised during processes:
dissolved raw materials which are toxic or - phenol from spent soda with liquidliquid
costly. For example: extraction by a recycled oil cut,
- solvents separated by distillation: the -ammonium from formation water in
manufacture of paint (HC), of sulphonated coking plants or from amino acid
resins (dichloroethane), pharmaceuticals production, separated through steam
(ethanol), tawing of hides (petroleum), stripping and later recovered through
- chromium bound to resins: stabilisation of condensation or sulphation.
Notes on the characteristics of the effluents: 5.4.5. Potato processing industries and
- The COD/BOD5 ratio is about 1.4 in milk starch factories
and 1.9 in serum.
- The discharge of TKN varies between 1 The potato contains from 12 to 20%
and 20 g per 1001 of milk. starch, 70 to 80% water and much protein.
- The BOD5 in the effluents in general may Therefore, BOD5 discharge is high in
vary between 700 and 1,600 mg.l-1 . starch whereas the common pretreatments
- The pH, after homogenization, is usually by washing lead to a more mineral
between 7.5 and 8.8. pollution.
The effluents are rather acidic which of water and is made up of volatile organic
is due either to lactic fermentation or to acids.
sulphitation (pH 4 to 5). When a wet A notably soluble protein-rich pollution
technique is used to extract starch, the may, on the other hand, come from the
pollution comes from the evaporation glucose shop.
The pollution load depends upon: - Crvj: 1 to 4 mg.l-1 and S2-: 0 to 50 mg.l-1 ,
- the type of fibres: natural or synthetic, - a rise in temperature with a planned
- the dyeing processes (jiggers, continuous reduction in volume.
dyeing, kiers), and printing process,
- the products used according to their 5.5.4. Industrial laundries
solubility in water (see table 19). Depending on their size, laundries can
With the pretreatment effluents, the discharge high pollution loads which are
wastes are more diluted and are typically composed mainly of washing products
characterized by the following values: (sodium carbonate, tripolyphosphate,
- pH: 4 to 12, most often basic; 4.5 for various soaps, biodegradable detergents,
woolen knits; 11 for cotton, bleaches, chlorine derivatives).
- COD: 250 to 1,500 mg.l-1 (50 to 150 kg.t -1 ), The amount of wastewater in modern
- BOD5 : 80 to 500 mg.l-1 ; COD/BOD5 ratio countercurrent washing units is 2m3 per
usually between 3 and 5, 100 kg of washing and corresponds to
1.5kg to 2kg of BOD5 .
- colour: 500 to 2,000 Pt-Co units,
The washing of jeans with pumice
- SS: 30 to 400 mg.l-1 (sparse, fibre, flock,
stone (1kg per kg) can entrain substantial
down), but may sometimes reach 1,000 mg.l-
1 discharge of SS.
(in the case of cotton),
5.6.
PULP AND PAPER • Chemical processes are used to make
pulp for fine paper (printing, writing).
INDUSTRIES The kraft process, based on alkaline
These industries cover two types of cooking (NaOH, Na 2 S) of wood dissolves 40
manufacturing, that of paper pulp and that of to 50% of the dry solids in the wood: this
paper. The effluents contain very different organic matter reappears in the form of
pollutants. Some companies can integrate the cooking liquors (black liquors) and then of
manufacture of both products. pulp wash waters. When a pulp of this kind is
bleached, overall efficiency is reduced by
5.6.1. Paper pulp factories about 10% and the bleaching process
contributes considerably to the colour
5.6.1.1. Production processes discharged by the effluents.
The composition of wastewater depends on • The bisulphite process is based on acid
the manufacturing process and on the nature cooking of wood (solubilization of lignin by
of the vegetable fibres used (wood, bagasse, Ca, Mg and NH4 bisulphites); these pulps are
straw). There are five broad process classes, almost always bleached, overall efficiency
each of which produces unbleached or, more reaching 50%.
frequently, bleached pulps. Bleaching (figure • Semichemical processes combine
24), which allows a more intensive attack on chemical and mechanical action: the best
the lignin residues (mainly by alkaline known is the NSSC (Neutral Sulphite
dissolving of chlorolignin), makes a Semichemical) process, which has an
substantial contribution to pollution, as table efficiency of 75%.
20 shows.
5. Industrial effluents
The mechanical and thermo-mechanical - high flow: from 30m3 per tonne
processes (TMP) of wood have a 90 to (mechanical pulp) and 150 m3 per tonne
95% efficiency and are used in the (chemical pulp),
manufacture of pulp for newsprint. - high insoluble pollution (fibres and
The new CTMP process is used to fibrils, CaC03 , clays) characterized by a
manufacture pulp for writing and printing noteworthy content of non-settleable
paper and has a high extraction efficiency solids (about 10 to 30% SS),
(90%). This process uses less water but - variable soluble pollution according to
more energy and does not emit malodorous the processes:
gases. • BOD5 : between 100 and 1,000
mg.l-1 .
5.6.1.2. Wastewaters • COD: between 300 and 4,000 mg.l-
Black liquors are usually treated 1
(biodegradability depends heavily on
separately (evaporation, incineration or the type of wood: pines, deciduous
recovery). trees).
In a modern mill there are three sources • Colour: prominent and resistant to
of effluents: biological processes.
- bleaching, Table 20 shows normal values of
- washing and emptying, pollution per tonne of finished product
- evaporation condensates. in a modern mill.
• Black liquor evaporation condensates than 10% of the volume of wastes while
Black liquor evaporation condensates contributing 30 to 50% of BOD5 These
condensates may have the following
which are sources of concentrated pollution,
characteristics
may be treated separately from the
preceding effluents. They may make-up less
Table 21. Paper and cardboard: French discharge standards for new mills (in kg per
tonne). Technical instructions of January 3, 1989.
Composition
of paper Criteria Monthly Monthly Monthly
or cardboard
Note: rw (raw water): measured in unclarified water sample. The maximum allowed
daily discharge is twice the maximum monthly discharge.
5. Industrial effluents
Table 23. Production and refining. The nature of the chief effluents.
- olefin complexes, the best known, Large amounts of inorganic salts are
are based on the steam cracking of discharged with:
naphtha, gas oil or petroleum, - NaCI when chlorine compounds are
- aromatic complexes, based on synthesized (PVC and solvents),
catalytic reforming with BTX - CaCl2 , in the case of propylene oxide as
synthesis and their derivatives. well as ethylene oxide,
Polymers are usually produced in - (NH4 )2 SO4 , in the case of caprolactam and
plants separate from those where the acrylates.
preceding complexes are processed Discharges of AIC13 corresponding to
except in the case of polyethylene and, alkylation reactions occurring during
on occasion, polypropylene. refining (petrols) and during the production
The effluents are polluted by raw of ethylbenzene and cumene (with H3 P04
materials, solvents, catalysts and the acidity).
polymers themselves in suspension or Table 24 shows the nature of the chief
emulsified. organic pollutants from various processes.
Figure 26. Classification of petrochemical production (document from Institut Français du Pétrole).
5. Industrial effluents
5.8.
IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY 5.8.3. Gas scrubbing
There are four groups of activities: some
(coking, pickling) produce effluents with a This is used in balling, agglomeration,
high level of dissolved pollution and are thus blast furnaces, direct reduction and steel
not recylable after treatment (table 25); others works. The pollution consists mainly of
(rolling and gas scrubbing) produce effluents suspended solids except in the case of some
with a high level of suspended pollution direct reduction procedures and of slag
(oxides, SS, insoluble hydrocarbons) and are granulation. In almost all mills, the systems
almost entirely recylable (table 26). are of the open recirculating type and small
amounts of blowdown remain to be treated.
5.8.1. Coking
5.8.4. Rolling
This generates ammonia liquors which
come from coal moisture (8%) and from From the continuous casting of steel and
formation water (4%). These are weak the scarfing of blooms to product finishing
ammonia liquors that are rich in phenols. Gas (hot strip mills, section mills, fourhigh mills,
scrubbing, itself, generates strong ammonia tube rolling mills), water plays a role in a
liquors which are rich in free NH4. whole series of mechanical operations
(descaling, granulation, spraying). It entrains
oxides (scale) or slag which can be joined by
5.8.2. Pickling
small quantities of hydrocarbons from the
lubrication of mill housings or the steel.
Pickling produces rinse water with a high The presence of dissolved pollution is
content of Fe2+ and H2 S04 if it is sulphuric. If unusual (hydraulic fluid leaks from
it is hydrochloric, thermal regeneration of continuous casting). All the systems may
HCI can eliminate a large part of the acid and therefore be of the open recirculating type
dissolved iron wastes. The lubrication of high with a small blowdown to be treated.
reduction rate stands produces alkaline In an iron and steel complex well
wastewater that is rich in animal or vegetable
equipped with a recirculation system, make-
fats. The same holds true for electrolytic up water may equal 3 to 6 m3 of water per
degreasing before tinning. The spraying of
tonne of steel, based on an overall
low reduction rate stands is accomplished
concentration factor of 3 to 4, and the total
with aqueous fluids (usually, conventional volume of effluents from open recirculating
soluble oils) in which a small fraction will be
systems is then 1 to 1.5 m3 per tonne of
treated in the blowdown.
steel.
Chap. 2: Treatment. What type of water and why?
(*) The WAL salinity depends on how rich they are in Cl-: nearly non-existent in South African coal
and concentrated in Saar-Lorraine coal.
(**) In the first case, the water is recylable.
As a reminder, electrogalvanizing, chromium-plating, tinning (see page 110).
5. Industrial effluents
Table 26. Blowdown of systems in iron and steel mills where the effluents are recirculated.
Specific Pollutants
Workshop Origin volume (mg-1-1)
(1 per t)
1. Gas scrubbing
Blast Blowdown of the 50 - 300 Dust 200-1,000
+
furnaces gas scrubbing NH4 0-500
system or sludge CN- 0-20
filtrate Zn2+, Pb 2+ 5-20
2-
Slag granulation 200 - 500 S 0-600
S2 032- 100-400
SiO2 - slag dust
Direct Gas scrubbing and 500 NH4 HC03
reduction cooling KHC03
S02 2-/S03 2 - 500-5,000
SS, oxides
Steel pro- System blowdown 20 - 100 CaC03
duction or sludge filtrate Ca(OH)2 or K2 C03
with oxygen Oxides 1,000-5,000
2. Rolling and granulation
Continuous System blowdown 50 - 100 Scales - HC -
casting or filter wash Hydraulic fluid, F-
Bloom water 20 - 50 Scales - slag
scarfing
Wire mills 100 - 200 Scales - HC
Tube rolling 50 - 100 Scales
mills
Chap. 2: Treatment. What type of water and why?
5.11.
AQUEOUS CUTTING
These fluids are circulated by power
FLUIDS units with capacities of 10 to 500 m .h -1 .
The following types of pollution cause
They are involved in the mechanical, their deterioration:
automobile and aeronautical industries and - metallic dust and oxides,
in rolling mills. - foreign oils or parasites,
The discharge of these fluids which are - oxidized or polymerized organic matter,
sometimes called "soluble oils" or "cutting
- biological sludge and organic acid from
oils" and contain 90 to 97% water and a
fermentation.
high COD level, presents a problem for
treatment because they may contain They must be regenerated (SS and
various organic compounds that are foreign oil reduction) and stabilized in a
neither biodegradable nor can be closed system: the volume discharged for
flocculated. Therefore, it is important to treatment can vary from some in 3.h -1 to
distinguish three product groups (see some m3.d -1 .
above and table 27).
5.12.
ENERGY
5.13
METALLURGY AND
HYDROMETALLURGY
5.14.
GENERAL CHEMISTRY
5.15.
OTHER INDUSTRIES
The great majority of solid pollutants, form of treatment, whether they are
and the converted substances they recycled, reused or discharged into the
produce, removed during the liquid natural environment. This is more and
phase of all types of water treatment, more frequently the same case for
finally collect as suspensions which can sludges which are essentially
vary in concentration and are known as mineralized.
"sludge." Urbanization and the protection of
The characteristic common to all these the environment are making it more and
sludges is that they are still very liquid more difficult to return sludge as is,
and are of little or no commercial value. without a previous conditioning
Some sludge is chemically inert, but treatment, back to the natural
that originating from biological environment. Sludge treatment has
treatment processes is fermentable and inevitably become a corrolary of water
often has an offensive smell. treatment, and, as such, calls for
All organic sludges require a special technical and financial input that
sometimes exceeds that needed for
water treatment.
Notes:
It should be noted that in the treatment of MWW, fresh sludge has a 90%
concentration of pathogenic germs and contains:
- enterobacteria 107 to 1010 per ml
- salmonella 10 to 107 per ml
- parasite eggs 10 to 107 per ml as well as amoebae and viruses.
Chap. 2: Treatment. What type of water and why?
6.3.
SLUDGE PRODUCTION bacterial population and used in the
synthesis of living matter.
The quantity of sludge produced
Treatment of MWW leads to the
directly depends on the amount of SS
removed and the amount of treatment production of the average quantities of
reagents used. In biological treatment, sludge shown in table 33.
however, a large part of the dissolved
substances is assimilated by the
Table 34.
The value of sludge lies generally more Stabilized sludge has an advantage
in the humic matter it provides and in the in that its population of pathogenic
improvement of the water-retention germs is greatly reduced, therefore
properties of the soil than in its nutritive avoiding the problem of bad odours
content alone. The nature of the nutritive being released during land disposal.
matter is equally important since it The hazards due to bacteria should not,
determines the rate at which it is however, be overestimated as microbial
assimilated: nitrogen, for example, is only decontaminating action in the soil is
partially assimilated the first year: about 30 important.
to 50% for liquid sludge and 20 to 40% for In addition to excessive amounts of
dewatered sludge. The annual assimilation grease and fibres in some cases, the
rate then decreases. The use of the sludge number one potential risk in using
depends on the composition of the soil (in sludge for agriculture is the heavy
particular, the pH, the Ca content), metals it contains. These generally
cultivation, what the soil is used for, and come from industry (in particular,
the mode of land disposal. metal surface treatment). The most
common dangerous cations found are
Because of the cyclical needs of crops, a Zn, Cd, Cu, Ni, Cr, Hg.
policy of sludge use for agriculture will not The amount of sludge which may be
be viable until a solution is found that spread depends on current legal
responds to fluctuations in the need for regulations which, generally, take into
nutritive elements throughout the year: account the duration of land disposal
rotation of crops, storage, an alternative and the amount of heavy metals already
means of sludge disposal. In almost all in the soil. This amount must not
cases, a large and satisfactory storage space appreciably increase the leachable
is the underlying condition for a solution to nitrogen.
sludge use in agriculture. Consistency in
quality is also an important factor.
Chap. 2: Treatment. What type of water and why?
- in a granular or powdery form requiring - inorganic sludge after thermal drying or ash
thermal drying in addition to mechanical from incineration: can be reused in production
dewatering. In this case, its value for of roadsurfacing materials and soil or concrete
agriculture may be improved by adding stabilizers (such reuse continues to have only
complementary nutrients. limited application).
1. COAGULATION-FLOCCULATION
Organic coagulants may also be used. lation test. Of chief importance is the
These are cationic polyelectrolytes which timing of the introduction of the coagulant
directly neutralize the negative colloids. and that of the flocculant. In fact, a
Thus the amount of sludge produced is flocculant usually does not take effect
considerably reduced. until the coagulation stage is over. The
length of the coagulation stage depends on
1.1.5. The flocculants the type of colloid as well as on the
temperature of the raw water. The main
factors that should be borne in mind are
Inorganic polymers (activated silica) the size of the floc, its cohesion and its
and natural polymers (starches, alginate) settling rate.
were the first to be used. But the
The use of synthetic flocculants often
appearance of the widely varying
results in a minimum amo unt of sludge.
synthetic polymers has changed
Combined with modern separation
flocculation results considerably.
techniques, this can lead to the production
As in the case of the coagulant, the of very dense sludge that can be directly
treatment rate is determined by a floccu treated in a dewatering unit.
. Ozone
Dosage: chlorine requirements are 12%
of the amount of ferrous sulphate When water contains organic matter that
FeSO4 .H2 O chelates iron or manganese, ozone can
The ferrous sulphate and the chlorine initiate a coagulation-flocculation process.
may be introduced separately. Ferrous The organic complexes are destroyed by
the ozone, and the metal ions which are
sulphate, oxidized by the chlorine before
use, results in chlorinated copperas thus released are oxidized. With the
(Clairtan, etc.). necessary pH conditions, the flocculation of
ferric hydroxide results in a floc with a
rather low density and cohesion that may
. Ferrous sulphate + lime be retained by in-line coagulation.
. Chlorine
In sea water, free chlorine is necessary to
Dosage: for the clarification of surface
initiate the coagulation reaction
water, the amount of lime Ca(OH)z
.
1
. Coagulation - Flocculation
. Aluminosilicate
When the coagulant is aluminium
sulphate (or another aluminium salt), the
acidity of this product may be used in the
These products are particularly
place of that of sulphuric acid to activate
sodium silicate. Products similar to effective as flocculant aids with ferric
salts. They may also give good results
activated silica, such as aluminosilicate,
are obtained. In special cases, sodium with aluminium salts. The treatment rate
silicate may be used alone. is between 0.5 and 2 mg.l-1
. Starches
Starches are obtained from potatoes,
.Other inorganic aids
tapioca or extracts of plant seeds. These
Before the settling or filtration process,
are glucopyranose polymers that are
other products are used for raw water
branched and nonlinear and are
containing insufficient suspended solids. sometimes partially broken down (OH-)
These are not flocculants but they play a
or derived (carboxy -ethyl-dextrone). The
role in the growth and enlargement of the
are used in amounts of 1 to 10 mg.-l ,
floc.
preferably together with aluminium salts.
Among these are:
Starches and alginate are solids that
- certain types of clay (bentonite, kaolin);
must be prepared at concentrations of 5 to
- pure precipitated calcium carbonate;
10 g.l-1 . Their breakdown in an aqueous
- kieselguhr (diatomite); solution may be rapid if the out
- activated carbon in powder form (used
principally as an adsorbent);
- fine sand.
Chap. 3: Basic physical-chemical process in water treatment
. Other compounds
There are many other natural organic
flocculants, but they are mostly used
for specific industrial processes
(hydrometallurgy, paper mills, etc.).
These are basically polysaccharides:
- galactomannans (gums: guar, carob),
- pectins,
- xanthanes (the aerobic fermentation -epichlorydrin dimethylamine
of sugar by means of a bacterium of the (epiDMA)
Xanthomonas; for example the
Rhodopol).
There are other equally common
products such as the derivatives of
cellulose(carboxymethyl-cellulose),
gelatins and tannins. poly (chlorure de diallyldiméthyl-
ammonium) (POLYDADMAC)
1.2.3. Synthetic organic coagulants
. In-line coagulation
In filtering sea water, for certain . Neutral (or nonionic)
products, the coagulation reaction may be These are basically polyacrylamides.
associated with a premature and detrimental
reaction of precipitation of the coagulant
because of its high salinity.
. Industrial wastewater
This is a major field of application
involving organic coagulants. The treatment . Cationic
rate (5-50 g.m-3 ) depends substantially on
These are copolymers of acrylamide and
the type of effluent involved.
a cationic monomer, which are usually
DMAEM (dimethyl-
1.2.3.3. Synergism with an inorganic is aminoethylmethacrylate) or DMAEA
coagulant (dimethyl-aminoethyl-acrylate),
There are cases in which the organic
coagulant alone does not provide the same
quality of water as can be obtained with an
inorganic coagulant.
The use of the two types of coagulant
together provides for a significant reduction
in the quantity of inorganic coagulant that is
required (40-80%), while at the same time
ensuring the production of a minimum 1.2.4.2. Utilization
amount of sludge. Organic flocculants are available in three
forms:
1.2.4. Synthetic organic flocculants - solid,
These consist of long-chain - emulsion (an emulsion of a polymer in an
macromolecules obtained by the association organic solvent),
of synthetic monomers, certain of which - solution (at approx. 20 I in an aqueous
possess electrical charges or ionizable medium).
groups. These are products that have a very
high molecular weight (106 -107 ), enabling The use of flocculants in solid or
them to attain remarkable performance emulsion form always requires special
levels that are usually higher than those preparation before being put into solution.
attained with natural polymers. A secondary dilution process of these
products is always necessary.
1.2.4.1. Classification
1.2.4.3. Fields of application
This is established according to the
ionicity of the polymer.
Surface water
. Anionic In the clarification process, the synthetic
flocculant is used in combination with a
These are usually acrylamide and acrylic
coagulant. The best polymer is
acid copolymers.
Chap. 3: Basic physical-chemical process in water treatment
The precipitations most commonly used in These are obtained after the addition of a
water treatment are those of calcium specific reagent
carbonate and metallic hydroxides.
2.1.2. Calculation and monitoring of always impure and contains more or less
precipitation (obtaining a minimum M alk.) carbonates, and the industrial values must be
increased between 10 and 30% depending on
the situation. To precipitate calcium carbonate
Notation:
alone, the ideal setting is when:
CaH: calcium hardness in French degrees
representing the total calcium salts content,
MgH: magnesium hardness in French degrees corresponding to a minimum M alk. of about
representing the total magnesium salts 2 French degrees if the water does not contain
content, C: free CO2 content in French magnesium.
degrees calculated as:
If MgH is greater than TH - M alk.,
application of this rule leads to excessive M
alk. values owing to the solubility of
magnesium carbonate; the optimum result is
2.1.2.1. Amount of lime obtained when:
.Positive TH - M alk.: the theoretical amount
of lime required for optimum pre cipitation of calcium carbonate alone is:
Ca0 : 5,6 (TAC + C) g.m-3 with the lowest possible value for P alk.
or
Ca(OH)2 : 7,4 (TAC +C) g.m-3 2.1.2.2. Amount of sodium carbonate
The required amount of sodium carbonate
To precipitate calcium carbonate and is:
magnesium oxide simultaneously, MgH being 10.6 (TH - M alk.) g.m-3
higher than TH - M alk.:
Mg(HC03 )2 hardness = M alk. - CaH: . Monitoring of results: theoretically, in a
CaO: 5.6 (2 M alk. - CaH + C) g.m-3 water containing no magnesium, the following
or must be obtained:
-3 TH = M alk. = 2 P alk.
Ca(OH)2 7.4 (2 M alk. - CaH + C) g.m
In practice, in waters where part of the
Negative TH - M alk.:this applies to waters permanent hardness consists of magnesium,
containing sodium bicarbonate. Good this rule may no longer be valid, and each
individual case must then be considered
precipitation of calcium and magnesium is
still possible by calculating the amount of separately.
lime on the basis of M alk. + MgH + C, but
this gives a water containing great quantities 2.1.2.3. Amount of caustic soda
of sodium carbonate and caustic soda, and it The amount of caustic soda (as pure
may be desirable to use a smaller amount. product) required per degree of M alk. to be
precipitated is:
Monitoring of results: in any case, the 8 (2 M alk. - CaH + C) gm-3
amount of lime must be increased (or
reduced) by 5.6 grammes per m3 (as CaO) or Monitoring of results: in order to lower the
by 7.4 grammes per m3 as Ca(OH)2 per degree M alk. by 1 French degree, the TH must be
of P alk.measured above or below the reduced by 2 French degrees.
theoretical value. In practice, the amount of caustic soda
introduced into the water is adjusted to give a
The values 5.6 and 7.4 apply, of course, to minimum residual
100% pure products. In practice, lime is
2. Chemical precipitation
2.3.
PRECIPITATION that may remain in colloidal dispersion
depending on the quality of flocculation and
OF METALS settling.
The desirable residual levels for some
This involves the precipitation of dis metals (Cd, Ag, Hg) are becoming more and
solved metals that are mainly found in the more strictly limited in some countries and
effluents resulting from surface treatment, the have been reduced to less than 100 ηg.1-1 .
leachates from hydrometallurgy and the gas Precipitation may thus take place in the
scrubbing effluents, after the burning of coal form of sulphur compounds, which are hardly
and household refuse. ever soluble and which allow the
The usual procedure consists in precipitating precipitation of weakly chelated metals
the metals in the form of hydroxides by (ammonium or other organic chelating
simply neutralizing the acidic effluents. Since agents) in a narrow pH range.
none of the pH values for maximum This precipitation takes place:
precipitation of all the metals coincide, an - with Na2S and in the form of colloidal
optimum reaction zone (see page 516) must sulphur which requires the copresence of iron
be found for the pH, which may range from 7 hydroxide in order to be flocculated,
to 10.5, depending on the minimum values - or with derivatives of organic mercaptans
desired for the removal of the most harmful which facilitate flocculation.
metals. In cases that are in-between, an excess of a
In the coprecipitation of carbonates in the metallic cation, Fe3+ or A13+, can be used to
form of less soluble hydroxycarbonates, the promote adsorption (Cd, Se, as well as B, As)
removal threshold may be improved, as for or a very strong oxidizing agent can be used
instance in the case of lead. as a preliminary step to break strong
The residual values of ionized metals may chelating agents such as EDTA (see page
vary from 0.1 to 2 mg.l-1 , depending on the 156).
metal; this is independent of the hydroxides
2.4.2. Fluorides
pH of phosphate precipitation
Reagent pH Notes Type of precipitate
Ca(OH)2 9 - 12 + flocculant Hydroxyapatite
Fe'+ 5 Phosphates
+ excess of hydroxide +
A13+ 6 metal hydroxide
Chap. 3: Basic physical-chemical process in water treatment
.In the physical-chemical iron removal Action on the growth rate in modifying
process, the presence of silica considerably the facies of the allotropic variety of the
raises the precipitation time of hydroxide. precipitate, which results in a lower risk of
adhering to the walls and thus forming
2.5.2. Induced inhibition-dispersion scale.
3.1.
DIFFERENT TYPES
OF SETTLING
QS, Ql : densities of the discrete particle and
the fluid,
There are various types of substances that
d, s, v: diameter, area and volume of the
will settle out:
discrete particle,
- discrete particles settle independently of V: settling velocity of the particle, g:
one another with a constant velocity, acceleration of gravity,
- flocculent particles have varying sizes and
C: drag coefficient (dimensionless).
settling velocities. When the concentration is
low, the settling velocity increases as the size An equilibrium is rapidly set up and the
of the floc increases as a result of settling of the particle, assimilated to a
agglomerating with other particles; this is sphere, takes place at a constant velocity Vo:
flocculent settling,
- in the case of higher concentrations, the
large quantity of floc causes hindered overall
settling with a clearly marked interface 3.1.1.2. Hydraulic flow
between the sludge mass and the supernatant The value of drag coefficient C is defined
liquid; this is hindered settling. by the perturbation, which itself is a function
of the settling velocity. This perturbation is
3.1.1. Settling of discrete particles characterized by the particle Reynolds
number, given as:
This is the simplest process, which is the
easiest to describe by equations.
Re = dimensionless
3.1.1.1. Theory
η = absolute viscosity
When a discrete particle is left alone in a
If Re is low, the forces of viscosity are
liquid at rest, it is subjected to a driving force
much higher than the forces of inertia. If Re
FM (gravity) and to a resistant force FT (the is high, the viscosity is negligible.
fluid drag), resulting from viscosity and
inertia: The drag coefficient is given as:
C = a Re -n , where a and n are constants.
Re Flow a n c Formula
10-4 < Re < 1 Laminar 24 1 24 Re-1 Stokes
1 < Re < 103 Intermediate 18.5 0.6 18.5 Re-0.6 Allen
103 < Re < 2.105 Turbulent 0.44 0 0.44 Newton
3. Settling
The table on the opposite page gives the . Horizontal flow settling tank (Figure
different values of a, n and C, depending on 39)
the Reynolds number (charts are also - Let us take a rectangular settling tank of
available). length L and vertical section s (where H is
These formulae are the basis of the the water depth and 1 is the width),
calculation of the movement of particles in uniformly crossed by flow Q.
fluids, and are used for settling (of discrete - The velocity of a particle entering the tank
solids in a liquid, drops of water in air), for at the top has two components:
upward flow (air bubbles in water, oil drops V1: the horizontal velocity of the fluid
in water), centrifugation and fluidization. equal to Q/s,
In laminar flow, Stokes' law gives: Vo: the vertical velocity limit given by
Stokes' law.
This particle is retained in the tank if:
3.1.1.3. Sphericity factor
The factor ψ is as follows:
Values of ψ
Sand 2
Coal 2.25 SH : horizontal area of the tank,
Talc 3.25 VH : Hazen velocity (or hydraulic surface
Gypsum 4 loading).
Graphite lamellae 22 It should be noted that VH is independent
Mica 170 of the depth of the tank.
Theoretically, all particles with settling
In the above operation, it is necessary to velocities exceeding VH will be removed.
replace c by c' = ψc. However, if the feed water is distributed
over the entire depth, part of the particles,
3.1.1.4. Conditions of capture with a settling velocity V which is lower
than the Hazen velocity, will also be
Upward flow settling tank
retained in the V/VH ratio. In an upward
Particles with a settling velocity exceed ing
the upward velocity of the liquid will be
retained.
Chap. 3: Basic physical-chemical process in water treatment
Figure 42. The effect of settling time and depth of settling tank on the removal of
flocculated particles in flocculent settling
Chap. 3: Basic physical-chemical process in water treatment
a: Clarification zone where the liquid is clear. properties of the suspension. As the initial
b: Homogeneous suspension zone where the concentration Co increases, the settling
solution appears the same as at the beginning velocity Vo of the mass drops. For example,
with a clear a-b interface. for a municipal activated sludge with a
c: Transition zone (not always seen). concentration of SS varying from 1 to 4 g.l-1 ,
Vo varies from 6 to 1.8 m.h -1 .
d: Sludge thickening zone in which the level
rises rapidly before it decreases slowly. The concave section CD corresponds to a
gradual slowing down of the falling velocity
At a certain stage, zones b and c disappear;
of the top layer of the deposit.
this is the critical point. The change in the
height of a-b, then a-d interface, measured as From D onwards, the floccules come into
a function of time, is shown by Kynch's contact with one another and exert a
curve . compressive action on the lower layers.
Kynch's theory applies to sections BC and
CD which cover the most important field of
3.1.3.2. Kynch's curve (Figure 44)
settling of activated sludge.
through the point of origin, which means that The three sections BC, CD and DE of
from the first moments of settling, the layers Kynch's curve (Figure 44), are applied in
closest to the bottom go through all the sizing the units for hindered settling. The
concentrations between the initial phase BC corresponds to solids contact
concentration and that corresponding to settling tanks. The phase CD pertains to
point D, where compression starts. installations in which sludge thickening is
The sludge medium of depth eb, at time ti, desirable (thickened sludge recirculation
therefore, has three separate zones: units). The phase DE is applied in sludge
- a top zone bc, where the concentration thickening.
and falling velocity are uniform and have
retained their initial values Co and Vo, Sludge Volume Index or SVI (Mohlman
- an intermediate zone cd, where the index)
concentration gradually increases from c to d On Kynch's curve there is a special point
and the falling velocity drops accordingly; used to define a sludge: it is the 30 minute
- a lower zone de, where the sludge floccules abscissa. The SVI is intended mainly to
come into contact with one another and are define the types of biological sludge.
subject to compression.
In the medium considered in time tz, the
top zone disappears, and in that considered V: Volume of sludge after 30 minutes of
in time t 4 , only the lower zone remains. settling (CM). M: SS present in this volume
For point M in section CD, two (g).
concentrations can be defined: For the same sludge, the SVI partly
CM`: concentration at the interface CM: depends on the geometric characteristics of
average concentration the test cylinder as well as on the initial
According to Kynch's hypothesis: concentration of the sludge. For this reason,
it is recommended that whenever necessary,
the sludge be first diluted with purified water
so that the final volume is about 250 ml (in a
one litre cylinder). Maintaining a slow
agitation during the test is prescribed for
some operations, although this seems
questionable. Activated sludge that settles
easily has an SVI of 50 to 100 cm3 .g -1 .
3.2.1. Influence of the hydraulic surface this point. At this level the flux rate is
loading Fi = Ci Vi .
This loading is directly related to the To this figure F; must be added the draw-
settling velocity of SS. The preceding off flux rate Fs given by Ci Vs with Vs = Qs /S.
paragraphs show that this velocity can be The total solids loading is F = Ci Vi +Ci Vs .
calculated by Stokes' law for discrete Figure 46 indicates the changes of these
particles and can easily be measured in the various flux rates. F shows a minimum FL
case of flocculent settling. associated with a critical concentration CL,
In these cases the dimensions of the which imposes a minimum section Sm for
settling tank depend only on the hydraulic the settling tank so that:
surface loading.
The more stable the circulation, the more systems, as well as the method of sludge
uniform the velocity distribution over the draw-off, all greatly affect the hydraulic
whole section of the tank. Stable efficiency of the settling tank.
circulations have high Froude numbers. In the case where the water or liquids
In practice, H/L or H/R ratios can be have heavy SS loadings, the "density
defined, where H is the wetted depth of currents" may cause an inappropriate
rectangular settling tanks of length L and distribution of settling velocities. Such is
circular tanks of radius R. With a retention the case, for example, with excessively
time of two hours in the tank, Schmidt- long conventional rectangular settling tanks
Bregas gives: used for the clarification of activated sludge
- for horizontal flow, rectangular settling liquors (Figure 47).
tanks: The convection currents due to the
effects of temperature (action of the sun,
hot water) and the disturbances associated
- for circular settling tanks: with variations in salinity (water from
estuaries, industrial wastewater), must be
considered in the design (as well as the use)
of the settling tank.
The shape of the tank, the design of the
raw water feed and treated water collecting
3.3.
LAMELLAE
SETTLING Theoretically, the retention of a particles
does not depend on the height of the
3.3.1. Principle appliance. Thus, in horizontal flow set
For horizontal flow settling tanks, the only ding, it is theoretically possible to
basic size factor is the horizontal set tling achieve - the same results in treating:
area SH (see 3.1.1).
A discrete particle is retained if its - a flow nQ in the same appliance by
settling velocity is higher than the Hazen superimposing n levels of elementary
velocity VH. heightH/n (Figure 48 a and b),
3. Settling
- the same flow Q by superimposing n levels By analogy with Hazen's theory, and at first
of elementary height H/n and of length L/n analysis, the limit settling velocity ui
(Figure 48 a and c). in an element is:
In practice, superimposing horizontal
settling tanks without a scraping system does
not allow for efficient sludge removal,and
thus leads to reduced performance
. cocurrent (sludge and water circulate These formulae do not take into
from top to bottom): account hydraulic limits or the limits
connected with the inflow and outflow of
settled solids.
. crosscurrent (sludge and water
circulate in a perpendicular direction): 3.3.3. Theoretical study
The uneven distribution of velocities
Let us take a system of lamellae packs
arranged in a settling tank. The
distribution of velocities in a laminar
system is parabolic, which in the chosen
system of coordinates results in the
following formulae for a countercurrent
system (Figure 50):
3. Settling
A So:
Circular 8 4/3
tubes
Parallel 6 1
plates
Square Unexplicit 11/8
tubes
Hexagonal Unexplicit 4/3
tubes
Circular Circular
Type of tube in tubes in Square Hexagonal
lamellae pack aligned staggered tubes modules
rows rows
Equivalent
hydaulic 80 80
diameter (mm)
Shape
4. Flotation
4. FLOTATION
of surface area, this will result in a reduc tion 4.1.3.3. Minimum volume of gas, required to
of the factor (ρg -ρs). Therefore optimization cause flotation.
is necessary
The minimum volume of gas Vg of
4.1.3.2. General considerations on the size of density p, needed to bring about the flotation
bubbles of a particle of weight S and density & in a
In order to separate flocs it is necessary to liquid with a density p, is given by the
use microbubbles for the following reasons: expression:
- in case a good distribution of bubbles all
over the cross-section is desired, using
bubbles that measure several millimetres in
diameter would result in an air flow rate
much greater than with microbubbles. At the 4.1.3.4. The importance of the quay of floc
same time, this increase in air flow would set
up disturbing eddy currents, . Physical-chemical floc: flotation is often
- increasing the concentration of bubbles combined with preliminary flocculation: the
increases the likelihood of collision between flocculated form of the particles is an
the solid particles and the bubbles. indispensable condition for an efficient floc-
Moreover, the low rising velocity of bubbles bubble adhering process. By incorporating a
in comparison to the fluid mass allows them flocculant (see pages 141 and 142), the floc
to adhere to the fragile floc particles. This can be enlarged, if necessary, and the particle
assumes that their diameter is less than the area increased. This leads to improved
diameter of the suspended solids or floc. adhesion of the bubbles and an increase in
A flotation process using larger bubbles is the rising velocity of the composites.
used to separate particles that are bulkier
than the floc and lighter than water. Such is . Biological floc: the quality of
the case in the separation of greases. bioflocculation has a definite effect on
flotation (hydration, surface activity, SVI,
floc size, etc.). Bulking activated sludge is
particularly difficult to float.
For more thorough oil separation, air is greases are mixed and separated while
diffused in fine bubbles (0.5 to 1 mm) by the air lift effect of the air bubbles carries
an underwater mechanical aerator. The the particles to the surface, thus aiding
moving element of the unit assures that the their accumulation.
- In the clarification of surface water or per in' of flotation unit area. The
industrial wastewater, recycle production of gas is about 50-60 litres per
pressurization is applied; the flow rate of hour per mz of area. The rising velocities
the pressurized water is only a fraction of that are possible are less than those of
the nominal flow of the plant, i.e., 10 to dissolved air flotation because of the
50% of .the flow to be treated, at nature of the bubbles and their method of
pressures of 3 to 6 bar. Air is dissolved at generation.
a rate of about 70% of saturation at the
considered pressure. Hence, the 4.4.2. Fields of application
compressed air requirements vary
between 15 and 50 Nl.m-3 of water under
The applications of DAF in the field of
treatment.
water treatment are various:
- separation of flocculated matter in the
clarification of surface water (for water
with a low SS content),
- separation and recovery of fibres in
paper mill effluents,
- separation of flocculated or non-
flocculated oils in wastewater from
refineries, airports and steelworks,
Figure 56. Solubility of air in water - separation of metallic hydroxides or
(20°C). pigments in the treatment of IWW,
- thickening of sludge from biological
wastewater treatment or from drinking
- In the case of sludge thickening (at a
water clarification (using for example a
drinking water or wastewater facility),
Pulsator),
pressurization takes place on a full-flow
or recycle basis, and air requirements are - clarification of activated sludge liquor.
greatly increased. The separation or downward velocity
Electroflotation is another technique of the water used in the flotation units
in which bubbles (Hz and Oz) are varies according to the nature of the
produced by electrolysis of water using suspensions to be treated, and also
appropriate electrodes. The anodes are according to the method of generation
highly sensitive to corrosion, and the and distribution of the microbubbles.
cathodes to scaling by carbonate removal. For a given flotation unit, the
When protection of the anodes requires acceptable downward velocity (or the
the use of protected titanium, it is not specific solids loading in the case of
possible to periodically reverse the thickening) and the concentration of the
electrodes for the purpose of self- floated sludge are strongly influenced by
cleaning. A preliminary chemical the value of the ratio:
treatment of the water or periodic
descaling of the cathodes must take place
in that case. The current densities used
are of the order of 80-90 ampere-hours
5. Filtration
Usually, the greater this ratio, the greater accumulate on the floor of the unit. The
the rising velocity imparted to the particles flotation units must therefore always be
and the higher the downward velocity. The equipped with a system for the removal of
lower the sludge's bulk density, the greater bottom sludge (a steeply conical bottom or
its concentration in dry solids. floor scrapers).
In the case of wastewater, it is usually The conditions for the application of the
not possible to float all the suspended different flotation processes in water
solids. Inevitably, a fairly large and very treatment are summarized in the following
heavy part of the materials will finally table.
Filtration of sludge-laden liquid through a The graph showing this equation is a straight
support with the formation of a filter cake of line which enables r to be defined as the slope
increasing thickness will now be examined a = tan θ (Figure 58).
(Figure 57).
According to Darcy's law, R consists of two
resistances in series, the resistance Rg of the
cake and the initial resistance Rn, of the
membrane:
in which:
M is the total weight of the deposited cake,
W is the weight of SS deposited per unit
volume of filtrate,
v is the volume of filtrate after a given time t,
S is the filtration area,
r is the specific resistance to filtration of the
cake under pressure P.
Note: This integration is correct only if r remains
constant throughout the filtration - and this only
holds true for incompressible sludges.
If the filtration of a given volume of filter cake is
continued for a fairly long period, we encounter
first of all a break in the curve beyond which the
dryness increases very slowly until it reaches the
limit value of dryness of the cake. The value of r
increases with the pressure in accordance with a
law given by the expression r = to + r 'p s in which
to and r' are respectively the limit specific
resistance where P = 0 and the specific resistance
where P = 1 bar; s, known as the compressibility
coefficient of the sludge, is a dimensionless
number; r, the filtration coefficient or specific
resistance, is expressed in m.kg-1. The resistance
ro.5, measured under a pressure of 49 kPa (0.5
bar), is generally used when comparing various
sludges
.
5. Filtration
5.2.2. Clogging and washing of the filter washing; the method used depends on
material the type of filter and the type of matter it
retains.
Clogging is the gradual blocking of the
interstices of the filter material. Clogging 5.2.3. Choice of 'nterstices method
causes the head loss to rise.
If a constant intake pressure is main Several different criteria govern the
tained, the flow of filtrate will decline. choice between the different types of
To keep output constant, the initial filtration on support and filtration
pressure must be increased as the filter through a filter bed:
becomes clogged. - characteristics of the liquid to be
filtered, its impurities and their evolution
The clogging rate depends on: with time,
- the matter to be retained: the more - the desired quality of filtrate and the
suspended solids there are in the liquid, permissible tolerances,
the greater the cohesion of these solids, - the quality of the mass of retained
and the more liable they are to material when the object is to recover it,
proliferate(algae, bacteria), - installation conditions,
- the filtration rate, - facilities available for washing.
- the characteristics of the filter material:
size of the pores, uniform particle size,
In selecting a filter, the possibility of
roughness, shape of the material.
easy, efficient and economical washing
is as important as obtaining the best
The filter becomes clogged when it filtration quality, since this quality will
reaches the maximum design head loss only . It be maintained if the washing
.It must be restored to its original process allows the filter material to
condition by efficient and economic remain intact.
The "removal capacity" is defined by the animal debris from the water. It may also be
mesh void: the system retains all particles used after biological purification or lagooning
which are bigger than the mesh size. During to remove residual suspended solids.
the operation, strained particles may partially Optimum efficiency is obtained by
obstruct the mesh, and the filter may retain maintaining a more or less constant total head
particles that are smaller than the size of the loss that results from partial clogging by the
actual removal capacity. particles to be retained. However, the
In gravity operation, the maximum head efficiency of such an installation will 181
loss designed for these filters is usually low - always be limited by a number of factors:
in the area of several dozen centimetres. This
is due to the fragility of the cloth used, which - the washed filter cloth does not carry an
may tear under the pressure applied and/or effective deposit at the start of the filtering
when washed. cycle, and filtration is then limited to the size
of the mesh alone,
5.3.1.1. Free surface microstraining
The main objective of microstraining is to - plankton removal is never complete. The
remove the plankton from surface waters. plankton can grow again, particularly when
This process will, of course, also remove the temperature rises,
suspended solids of large size and plant or
- certain very small eggs can easily pass is the case with once through or open
through the filter cloth and hatch in the recirculating cooling systems,
downstream tanks, where crustaceans - or continuous removal of fine solids . The
visible to the naked eye may develop, straining threshold can be lowered to 50-75
- because of the risk of corrosion of the microns, if not lower, and the unit becomes
microstrainer cloth or its supports, it cannot part of a treatment line. This may be the
be used for continuous treatment of heavily case where sea water is injected to obtain
prechlorinated water, secondary recovery of oil.
- microstrainers have to be fairly large to These filters, used mainly for filtering
cope with peaks of plankton growth which industrial water, are called automatic
occur several times a year. If they are too regeneration rotary filters or, sometimes,
small, the output of the plant could be pressure mechanical filters. They are used
reduced significantly during these peaks with differential pressures of 0.5 to 2 bar.
and during alluvial highwater periods. The initial head loss should be small (0.15
to 0.5 bar).
The smaller the mesh, the more important
the straining area has to be. Thus, with a 35- 5.3.2. Filtration using cartridges and
micron mesh size, the filtration rate should candles
be 35 m.h-1 at the most, calculated over the
total area of the strainer (50 m.h-1 on the 5.3.2.1. The goal
real submerged area). In the treatment of water, filters are used
The reduction in clogging capacity of the to solve one of the following problems:
water by microstraining ranges from 50 to
80% with an average of about 65%. As a
Very high quality of the filtrate
comparison, a good settling tank gives a
reduction of 80 to 90% without from water containing a very small amount
prechlorination and 95 to 99% with of particles and without the release of
prechlorination. The microstrainer should support:
be used only for water containing few - co ndensates from HP boilers, whether
suspended solids. It has no effect on colour starting up or in steady operation,
and on dissolved organic matter, and only - the feeding of systems with ultrapure
removes the coarsest proportion of the water,
suspended particles. - protection of reverse osmosis membranes.
For a really effective disposal of plankton, The aim is to remove increasingly finer
clarification preceded by oxidation is particles down to 0.5 microns (bacteria).
essential. Disposable supports may be used despite
their cost.
5.3.1.2. Microstraining under pressure
Protection of hydraulic systems
In industry, water may be strained under preventing the carrying away of discrete
pressure. The aim is to assure: particles:
- either protection against the clogging of - injection of sea water for secondary
relatively large openings (several mm) with recovery,
a straining threshold of 0.15 to 2 mm. This - cooling systems or process water systems.
5. Filtration
It is necessary to prevent the loss of all - Fouling Index FI (see page 359). The
filtering materials (fibres, resins, activated lowering of this index relates to a reduction
carbon, etc.) and any input of particles by of the fouling potential of water; it is often
the air. The level of filtration ranges from far more significant (in colloidal water)
10 to 200 microns. The use of regenerable than the size of the particles alone, which
supports is now in the preliminary phase. are theoretically removed.
effective, the precoat and the suspended solids retained on the precoat must be
completely detached from the support without causing progressive clogging.
and a linear section parallel to the straight front has passed the floor and filter
line bd1 which represents the head loss breakthrough has occurred.
with a clean filter. Point C2 that shows the If a filter with a greater depth of sand
start of the linear head loss, indicates the had been used, the curve representing the
level C reached by the impurities in the pressure at the different points of the filter
sand; below C, when the head loss is linear, for the maximum available head loss would
the sand is clean. Point C defines the depth have become linear at point ef: this
BC of the "filtration front" at the time immediately gives the minimum depth DE
considered. of sand that should have been added to
Therefore, the minimum sand depth and make t 1 = t 2 .
minimum head loss anticipated before Finally, experience shows that the values
clogging are BC and c0 c2 respectively. of ti that correspond to different depths of a
The shifting of point C during clogging specific sand are fairly proportional to the
represents the progress of the filtration corresponding thicknesses.
front. In Figure 65, where the filter no
longer gives clear water once the maximum 5.4.1.5. Maximum removal capacity of a
head loss P2 is reached, the curve filter
representing the pressures at different
Suspended solids lodge between the
points in the filter is given by bcfdfes it
grains of the filter material. Given the fact
reaches the floor without having a straight
that sufficient space must always be left for
section, which means that the filtration
the water to flow, on the average
5. Filtration
the sludge can hardly fill more than a quarter For example, a filter with a 1 m deep bed
of the total volume of voids in the material. operating at a rate of 10 m.h-1 that requires
For a 1 m layer depth and 1 m2 filtering washing every eight hours (80 m3 water per
area, that is, a volume of 1 m3 of material, m3 filter bed between washing operations)
there are approximately 450 litres of empty cannot cope with more than:
spaces whatever the particle size; the volume
available for the removal of particles is about
110 litres, provided that the effective size of
the filter media and the head loss anticipated
by the design of the unit are suited to the
nature of these particles. For suspended solids in river water, the
figure will be midway between the above two
When the filters operate by gravity (open
values.
filter), and the suspended solids to be
retained have a hydroxide floc base, their DS
content does not exceed 10 g.l-1 the quantity 5.4.2. The porous media
that can be removed per m3 of filter material
is therefore no more than 110x 10= 1100g. 5.4.2.1. Physical properties
This figure increases when the floc A filtering material is generally defined by
contains dense mineral matter (clays, calcium the various factors dealt with in chapter 5,
carbonate). For a sludge containing 60 g.l-1 page 378:
DS, it can reach: - grain size,
- effective size (ES),
110 x 60 = 6600 g - uniformity coefficient (UC),
- grain shape: angular (crushed material) or
In the case of pressure filtration of round (river and sea sand). The same filtered
industrial impurities, the layer depth may water quality is obtained using an angular
reach 2 m and the head loss, 0.5 bar or even 2 material whose effective size is smaller than
bar. Thus, the filter can retain a quantity of that of a round grain material.
matter as high as: Given an equal size, the head loss increase
- CaCO3 : 4 to 15 kg per m2 of filtering area, is less with coarse grains than with round
- oily slime: 10 to 25 kg, grains for, contrary to what might be
- mill scale: 20 to 100 kg. expected, coarse grains bed down less easily
than round grains, and leave larger spaces for
the water to pass through,
These values indicate the maximum
- friability: it allows suitable filter materials
permissible content of suspended solids in
raw water entering a filter once its filtration to be selected without the risk that the
rate and the run between two washing washing operations will produce fines.
operations' have been determined. A material that is too friable is
unacceptable, especially with downflow
filters where the washing ends with an expan
Chap. 3: Basic physical-chemical process in water treatment
sion phase with water only, as the fines Some filters use a combination of different
formed clog the filter surface, materials (multi-media filters). In this case,
- loss in acid: obviously, a high loss in acid the sand may be combined with anthracite,
cannot be tolerated when the water is likely to garnet, schists of varying porosity, etc.,
contain corrosive carbon dioxide gas or any provided that these materials have low
mineral acidity, friability and low loss in acid.
- the density of the grains making up the Finally, filtration may be effected through
filter media, sufficiently strong granular activated carbon
- their bulk densities in air and water. in the following cases:
There are other properties specific to - to replace sand after settling treatment both
adsorbent materials such as activated carbon; to remove the residual floc and to combat
they will be examined in chapter 5, page 383. pollution by adsorption,
- in a second filtration stage for polishing
treatment only or dechlorination.
5.4.2.2. Nature of the porous media
Quartz sand was the first material that was
used for filtration, and it is still the basic 5.4.2.3. Choice of grain size for a filter media
material in many existing filters. This choice must be made while also taking
Anthracite or marble can be used instead the depth of the layer and the filtration rate
when any trace of silica must be avoided in into account. It depends on the nature of the
industrial processes or when they are easier to water to be filtered (direct filtration of raw
obtain. water, filtration of settled water, biological
filtration of secondary or tertiary wastewater),
For some methods of treatment, such as
and on the desired quality of water. It also
polishing, tertiary treatment of effluents, etc.,
depends on the type of filter used (pressure
it.,is advantageous to use materials with a
filter or gravity filter) and on the available
large specific area, e.g., expanded schists,
head loss. The following table shows the
Biolite, pozzuolana or other similar material.
influence of various parameters on the quality
of water and the filter runs.
The direction of filtration is generally water alone or when there is a final rinsing
downward. Depending on the type of washing phase with hydraulic expansion of the material,
system selected (see page 192), there are three classification of filter material occurs. Here,
types of filtration which correspond to a choice the coarsest grains are at the bottom of the
of different grain sizes: filter while the finest are at the surface. During
the filtration cycle, the fine filtering material
receives the water to be purified which
. filtration on a layer of homogeneous
contains all the matter to be retained, while the
material. This material is washed with air and
coarsest filter material receives a cleaner water.
water without hydraulic expansion during the
Thus, controlling the filtration cycle is more
final rinsing phase. This results in a perfect
difficult; the cycles are shorter given the fact
homogeneity of the filtering layer; the size of
that the fine material screens the water at the
the grains in the filter material is the same at
surface of the filter. Figure 67 shows the
the bottom and the top of the filtering layer.
pattern of pressure curves in the filter bed,
During the filtration cycle, the filtration front is
formed and progresses regularly; this helps
control the filtration cycle. Figure 66 shows the . filtration through a multi-media filter: the
pattern of pressure curves in a filter bed, observations mentioned above have led to the
setting up of a filtration process using two filter
layers (dual-media
. filtration on a layer of heterogeneous
material. When the washing process uses
filtration) and even several filtering grained layer performs a polishing and
layers (mufti-media filtration). safety process.
To avoid the screening effect resulting There are also filters that consist of
from the finest grains of sand in filtration three or more media; they improve the
on a heterogeneous layer and to promote indepth penetration of the impurities,
the penetration of impurities throughout although their use imposes a variety of
the entire depth of the filter, part of the conditions affecting the choice of
fine sand must be replaced by a layer of materials and the washing technique
lighter material with an effective grain employed.
size greater than that of the sand. The
grain size for each of the two layers must 5.4.3. Washing the filtering media
be carefully selected for it enables them
to undergo similar expansion with the
Washing is an extremely important
same flow of wash water, thus enabling
operation, which, if inadequately done,
them to be reclassified at the end of each
leads to permanent clogging of some
washing, prior to resuming the filtration
areas resulting in only a small passage
cycle.
for the water. The head loss increases
This rule (which dates back to 1880 more rapidly, and filtration is locally
when it was used by Smith, Cuchet and faster and less effective.
Monfort), allows distribution of the
retained SS: the coarsest are retained in
the upper layer which is composed of
large grains, while the lower, fine-
5. Filtration
- sweeping the surface of the filter with a a side discharge channel. The water to wash a
horizontal current of raw or settled water cell comes directly from neighbouring cells.
combined with the backwash, The cells are washed one after the other.
- draining off the dirty water above the sand This type of washing may be continuous.
and sweeping the filtering material surface as Its major drawbacks are:
above. - the washing takes place with water alone,
i.e., without air,
5.4.3.3. Washing with air and water in - it is impossible to limit the flow of water
succession filtering through the cell that resumes
filtration; thus, the velocity is higher because
there is no cellular regulating system and, in
This method of washing is used when the
certain cases, this can result in a deterioration
filtering material is of such a nature that it is
of the quality of filtered water,
impossible to use air and water
simultaneously without running the risk that - there is a risk of cell isolation being
the wash water will carry off the filter media insufficient.
to the drain. This applies to filter beds
composed of fine sand or low-density This type of washing can be justified in
materials (anthracite, activated carbon or certain cases (filtration of cooling system
Biolite, etc.). This type of washing is also water, of wastewater, etc.). However, it is not
used for dual-media filter beds. safe for the filtration of good quality water
(drinking water, etc.).
In the first stage of the washing operation, air
is used alone to detach the retained impurities
from the filtering material. In the second
stage, a backwash of water with a sufficient
velocity to bring about the expansion of the
filtering materials) enables the impurities
detached during the first stage to be removed
from the bed and to be carried away. In the
case of impurities which are heavy or
particularly difficult to remove (for example
wastewater), this cycle may be repeated
several times.
5.4.3.5. Frequency of washing and wash microorganisms which are retained on the
water requirements sand (biological membrane). In order to get
satisfactory results, three stages of filtration
are usually necessary:
The frequency of washing depends on the
nature of the water to be filtered as well as on - roughing filters working at a rate of 20 to 30
the nature and the quantity of the SS to be m3 /h.m2 ,
retained. Washing must begin as soon as the - prefilters working at a rate of 10 to 20
head loss reaches its maximum value or when m3 /d.m2 ,
filter breakthrough occurs. In practice, the - filters working at a rate of 2 to 5 m3 /d.m2 .
washing operation is often carried out after a The slow filtration rate ensures a fairly low
certain volume of water has been filtered, head loss at each stage, and the filters are
according to operating conditions and usage washed an average of once a month.
experience. Roughing filters and prefilters are washed
The amount of wash water consumed more often according to the turbidity of the
depends essentially on the character and raw water.
weight of the particles retained per m3 of After washing, the quality of the filtered
filtering material. The combined use of air water is not yet satisfactory; the filter must be
scour and settled water makes it possible to allowed to discharge to drain until the
reduce water requirements by some 20 to 30% biological membrane forms; this
as compared with washing with water alone. takes several days.
Wash water requirements are greater: Slow filtration gives good clarification
- the deeper the layer of water above the results provided that the water does not
filtering material, contain large quantities of SS, and that a low
- the lower the flow rate of the backwash final filtration rate is maintained. However,
water alone, when the suspended solids in the water
- the greater the distance separating the sludge increase, roughing filters and prefilters are not
discharge channels, sufficiently efficient, and the turbidity of the
- the larger the quantity of sludge to be treated water is likely to rise well above the
removed, and values permitted by the appropriate standards
unless the filtration rate is further reduced.
- the greater the cohesion and density of the
sludge. These filters are also particularly sensitive
to a high plankton growth which may clog
Water requirements are also increased by
their surface.
surface washers.
Moreover, if slow filters are used for
surface water with a high content of organic
5.4.4. Slow filtration and rapid filtration matter and chemical pollutants, the filtered
water may still have an unpleasant taste.
5.4.4.1. Slow filtration Furthermore, the biological action of slow
The object of slow filtration is to purify filters is not effective when it comes to
surface waters without prior coagulation or removing all micropollutants (phenols,
settling. The colloidal matter is coagulated by
the enzymes secreted by algae and by
Chap. 3: Basic physical-chemical process in water treatment
detergents, pesticides). For instance, they can to a biological activity because of the
only remove about 50% of organochlorinated substantial amount of organic pollution, the
pesticides. Moreover, they are not successful possible input of oxygen and the temperature.
in retaining heavy metals.
5.4.5. Filtration direction
5.4.4.2. Raid filtration
Rapid filtration takes place at rates ranging Water to be filtered usually passes through
from 4 to 50 m3 /h.m2 depending on the the filtering material in a downward
application. direction, whereby the filtering material is
completely submerged. The water flows
. In the treatment of drinking water, either by gravity or under pressure.
biological action is weak; at the most, there is In some filters, the filtering material is not
some nitrification in cases when the velocity completely submerged and the water trickles
is limited, when the oxygen content is into the filtering media; this type is called a
adequate and when the nitrifying bacteria "dry" filter and is especially useful for some
find favourable nutritive conditions in the biological treatments (see page 312).
water. Other filters use an upward filtration flow;
the water percolates through the filtering
The principal methods are: material from the bottom to the top. With this
method the storing capacity may be higher
- direct filtration, in which case no reagents
but the head loss is limited by the weight of
are added to the water to be filtered,
the filtering material. Beyond this limit the
- filtration with in-line coagulation of water material is pushed upward and breakthrough
not previously settled; the reagent used may occurs. In order to avoid this drawback it is
be a coagulant, a flocculant aid or an necessary to provide for a blocking unit in the
oxidizing agent, filtering material (grid, etc.). This unit
- filtration of coagulated and settled or permits the use of a material to be used that is
floated water. lighter than water.
In the latter case, the filters are in an ideal A double filtration direction can also be
situation when they receive water of nearly used. The water to be filtered penetrates the
constant quality that contains a low SS filtering material from the top as well as from
content. The filtration rates are tied to the the bottom. The recovery of the water takes
desired quality of the filtrate; they may range place in the core of the filtering media.
from 5 to 20 m3 /h.m2 , depending on the A variation of upward filtration method
quality of settled water and the nature of the uses floating materials. This is still being
filters used. studied.
Lastly, tests have been carried out to
It is also possible to use two consecutive develop a filter which would allow water to
filtration operations, with each filtration stage flow through the filtering material in a
preceded by coagulation in which an aid and horizontal direction. The difficulties inherent
an oxidizing agent are added. in clogging and washing this type of filter
have limited the use of this method.
. In the treatment of wastewater (municipal
or industrial), filtration is always connected
6. Centrifugation
6. CENTRIFUGATION
6.1. The acceleration generated by centrifugal
separation is always expressed by reference
DEFINITIONS to the earth's gravitational field as a
multiple of g:
Centrifugation is a separation process
which uses the action of centrifugal force
to promote accelerated settling of particles
in a solid-liquid mixture. Two distinct
While a static settling tank clarifies a
major phases are formed in the vessel
during centrifugation: suspension according to the laws of
sedimentation using gravitational pull of the
earth alone, rotary machines (centrifuges)
- the sediment, resulting from built on an industrial scale enable
centrifugation, which usually does not have accelerated sedimentation to take place
a uniform structure. In fact, classification under the action of centrifugal fields that
occurs between the particles with a high range from 800 to 4,000 g depending on the
density (bottom of sediment ) and the size of the machine.
lighter particles (organic colloids, for The force exerted on a particle of unit
example), weight is expressed by:
Centrifugal force
y = ? 2 R = 0,011 N2 R
Chap. 3: Basic physical-chemical process in water treatment
.
Chap. 3: Basic physical-chemical process in water treatment
. Main reactions
Electrochemical
units is somewhere around 4 kWh per kg of - the release of metallic ions (Fe, Al) when
equivalent chlorine produced. The con the sacrificial anodes dissolve; these ions
centration of hypochlorite solutions pro generate hydroxides which enable floc.
duced usually ranges from 1 to 3 g per litre equivalent chlorine. of to form
. Asymmetrical membranes
These membranes are made in one stage
using the same polymer material.
However, in this case, the selectively
permeable layer has been reduced to a
very fine "skin" in order to limit the
resistance to transfer in proportion to the
thickness of the layer. This layer rests
upon another, thicker substrate that has
much slacker pores which intends to
provide the membrane with satisfactory
mechanical properties without
significantly impeding the flow of water.
These properties can be artificially
improved even more by anchoring the
membrane onto a fabric support, thus
reinforcing the slack substrate.
. Composite membranes
These membranes enable a
permselective skin to be placed on a
preexisting porous support which is,
itself, often asymmetrical; this is a more
recent addition. Since the two materials
placed together are usually of different
types, the properties of each, mechanical
in one, selective in another, are used to
their fullest extent.
. Filtration
In this case membranes called
semipermeable membranes are used.
The solution is concentrated due to
selective passage of the water
Chap. 3: Basic physical-chemical process in water treatment
9.2.1. Reverse osmosis (RO) the osmotic pressure set up by the same
difference in concentration. This explains
why ultrafiltration leads to an osmotic
Reverse osmosis makes use of the
backpressure which is much lower than that
properties of semi-permeable membranes
experienced with reverse osmosis.
which allow water to pass through while
solutes are retained except for certain This is illustrated in Figure 85, which
organic molecules very similar to water shows that the theoretical law does not apply
(with a low molecular weight and strong to higher concentrations.
polarity).
If a concentrated saline solution is
separated from a more dilute solution by
such a membrane, the difference in
chemical potential tends to promote the
passage of water from a compartment with
a low potential to that with a higher
potential in order to dilute it (natural
osmosis). In order to stop this diffusion, a
pressure must be exerted on the "filtered"
fluid. At equilibrium, the pressure
difference established in this way is known
as the osmotic pressure of the system
(Figure 84).
A simple equation relates osmotic pressure
to concentration: Π = ∆ C.R.T.
Π: osmotic pressure in Pa,
∆C: difference in concentration in mol.m-3
the polymer making up the membrane The coefficient Kt takes the viscosity of
(water used for swelling the polymer); this water into account. The latter decreases
water moves under the effect of the when the temperature rises. Therefore, the
pressure gradient, while the salts move flow is greater when the temperature rises
under the effect of their concentration (2.5 to 3% difference per degree at about
gradient alone. 15°C).
For a saline solution, the water and salt
flux rates may be obtained by Fick's and For salts:
Henry's laws.
Thus, this concentration is proportional Figure 87. Design of a reverse osmosis unit.
to the gradient of concentration through the
A system such as this is characterized by
membrane, inversely proportional to the
two of the following variables if Cr is the
effective pressure gradient (∆P - ∆Π), and
brine concentration: the conversion
independent of the thickness of the
membrane.
Moreover, the above equations
demonstrate the importance of ψ, especially
when one realizes that the polarization also
increases ∆Π. . In fact, one of these, SP, basically depends
The following tendencies are observed in on the type of membrane selected. In
all RO systems: Chapter 15, where membranes and
commercial permeators are described, it
Product Product will be seen that these allow for salt
passages that range from:
flow salinity
0.5 to 15% on monovalent ions,
QP CP
0.05 to 8% on bivalent ions.
Pressure ä ä æ
It will be observed that these values are
Temperature ä ä = rather low. So, as a first approximation, CP
Salinity ä æ ä often tends to be overlooked in favour of Ce
ψ ä æ ä or Cr, a step which simplifies the equations
mentioned above.
In practice, the simplest osmosis System . The others, Y or CF, depend on the choice
contains the following elements: the project director makes as to the use of
more or less raw water. This choice is
- a high pressure pump to supply energy to
fundamental:
the system,
- if Y rises, the energy cost pet m3 product
- a permeator (module) or group of
E decreases, since less water is pressurized
permeators,
for the same amount of production, -
- a valve on the discharge line circuit to however, the CF rises at the same time,
maintain pressure in the system: since using the same approximation as
mentioned above, the salt evaluation gives:
,
average concentration in the permeator,
9. Separation by membranes
- QP decreases; as a result, the osmotic and a fortiori all types such as viruses and
bacteria.
They are usually characterized by their
pressure p, proportional to
removal threshold, i.e., the size of the
increases.
lowest molecular weight protein rejected
The influence of the choice of the by the membrane. There are industrial
conversion may be summarized in the table membranes which have a removal
below: threshold ranging between 2 x 103 to 105
daltons.
This concept is only meaningful in
view of the variations in the steric
configuration of the same protein
Note: the positive effects (less brine to be
depending on the salinity, the pH, etc.,
rejected) and, often, the negative effects
and a fortiori of two macromolecules of
(scale formation, fouling) resulting from
identical molecular weight.
the increase in CF, will be seen in Chapter
15. The unit flows indicated for OF
membranes range from 0.1 to 1
m3 /h.m2 .bar for clean water, but these
9.2.2. Nanofiltration decrease considerably when colloids are
present for two basic reasons:
This is a variation of the RO membranes concentration polarization and fouling.
that has recently been introduced, which The first phenomenon has already been
features: shown in the case of reverse osmosis. In
- passage of monovalent salts that is ultrafiltration, it is responsible for the
relatively high: 30-60%, presence of a boundary flux when the
- passage of bivalent salts that is pressure across the membrane increases
substantially lower: 5-15%, (Figure 88).
- passage of organic solutes of the same
type as with RO membranes.
Thus, the main advantage of these
membranes is that by allowing a higher
passage of monovalent salts (which
contribute most to the osmotic pressure),
they limit ∆Π, hence the energy required to
achieve:
- partial desalination in combination with
adequate softening of a moderately saline
water (TDS less than 2 g.l-1 ),
- "cheap" purification of water as far as
organic pollutants are concerned.
The overconcentration of solutes near the
9.2.3. Ultrafiltration (UF) membrane leads in fact to a sub stantial
increase in osmotic pressure; the
resis tance to transfer of the substances in
The membranes used in ultrafiltration
this very concentrated boundary layer (the
possess a slacker structure (asymmetric or
composite), which allows only the coarsest
solutes (macromolecules) to be rejected,
Chap. 3: Basic physical-chemical process in water treatment
on the two sides of the membrane. If the plasma containing solutes that must remain
phase which is being concentrated is in the blood while excluding those that
sufficiently renewed, a nearly total removal must be removed.
of impurities may be obtained.
The main application is hemodialysis 9.4.3. Electrodialysis
(Figure 93 - artificial kidney functioning),
which results in a purification of the blood
. Principle
(the removal of salts, urea, etc.) in cases of
renal deficiency, by placing it in contact via If a liquid that is rich in ions, is subjected
a dialysis membrane with to an electrical field by means of two
electrodes with a continuous potential
difference applied between them, the
cations will be attracted to the negative
electrode (cathode) and the anions will be
attracted to the positive electrode (anode).
If nothing impedes their movement, they
will each lose their charge on the opposite
sign electrodes and thus, electolysis takes
place.
However, if a series of selective dialysis
membranes is placed between the
electrodes:
- cation membranes, permeable only to the
cations,
- and anion membranes, permeable only to
the anions,
and arranged alternately as shown in the unrealistic to try to reduce the TDS of the
diagram in Figure 94, the migration of treated water below 300 mg.l-1 ,
ions is restricted as the anions cannot pass B) the cost of the treated water, which
through the negative membranes and the increases rapidly with the TDS of the
cations cannot pass through the positive feed: - on the one hand, as has been
membranes. already seen, the power consumed is
Thus, in the case of the cell in the proportional to the quantity of salts
diagram, which has three pairs of removed,
membranes, of which compartments 1, 2, - on the other hand, if we wish to avoid a
3, 4 and 5 are fed by a flow consisting of fall off in selectivity and a back diffusion
a sodium chloride solution, the ions in of ions caused by an excessive chemical
compartments 1, 3 and 5 pass into gradient between the two sides of the
compartments 2 and 4 under the influence membrane, this concentration gradient
of the electrical field created by the must be restricted.
electrodes. Depending on the internal hydraulic
It is easy to see that in this way the conditions in the electrodialysis units
water in compartments 1, 3 and 5 (turbulence all along the membranes) the
becomes low in salt (becomes optimum level of salt removal that can be
"demineralized"), while the water in achieved ranges from 40 to 66% per
compartments 2 and 4 becomes processing stage (i.e., the salt passage is
concentrated. between 60 and 34%). It is for these
The introduction into the system of each reasons that most units are built up of
coulomb will therefore result in one several stages (see Figure 95),
gramme-equivalent weight of anion and C) the necessity of pretreatments:
cation leaving each of the - turbidity must be removed (to avoid
demineralization compartments (1, 3 and deposits, especially in poorly irrigated
5). This gramme equivalent weight will areas),
be added to the others already present in - the metal content must be reduced, for
the concentration compartments (2 and example: Fe and Al < 0.3 mg.l-1 , Mn <
4). 0.1 mg.l-1 , etc.,
As the potential difference is proportional
to the number of cells, the power
consumption per kilogramme of salt
removed is more or less constant (i.e.,
0.6-0.8 kWh/kg of salt removed), as long
as the electrical conductivity remains
adequate.
It is therefore possible to demineralize
water by this process. However, the non-
ionized molecules (in particular organic
compounds) and the colloids, among
which are colloidal silica and the
microorganisms, remain behind in the
treated water.
The main limitations to this method are
due to:
A) the impossibility of obtaining fully
demineralized water, as the Figure 95. Two-stage electrodialyis
corresponding compartments would have installation.
an excessive electrical resistance leading
to ohmic losses. Generally speaking it is
10. Adsorption
- there must be a reduction in salts which are desalination compartments, and thereby the
liable to precipitate in the concentration position of the polarization layers that change
compartments. The phenomenon of sides on the memb rane. The water "produced"
polarization must be taken into account, which, during these phases must therefore be
in the case of electrodialyis, tends not only to discharged.
cause excessive concentration of the ions This technique is planned for all modern
present in the water to be treated but also to electrodialysis installations, for it results in a
change the pH value (due to the simplification of the pretreatment process,
overconcentration of OHor H+ ions, which may although it should be admitted that the price for
reinforce the tendency of some compounds to this involves complex additions of major
precipitate, importance:
D) limitations of use: membranes, that have the - automatic valves to allow for discharge to
same chemical make-up as ion exchange drain during the reversal phases,
resins, also have the same limitations as the - electrodes to impede anodic corrosion.
latter (see page 235): in particular, sensitivity
The main area of application of
to oxidizing agents (C12 < 0.1 mg.l-1 ), and
electrodialysis is the production of drinking
especially the risk of irreversible poisoning of
water from brackish water with a low mineral
anionic membranes if the water to be treated
content (0.8 to 2 g.l-1 ), and here it remains
contains organic macromolecules that are liable
competitive with reverse osmosis. It also offers
to be adsorbed on the membranes.
advantages for the desalination of colloidal and
organic solutions (e.g., for demineralizing
. Polarity reversal electrodialysis (EDR) whey). In this field, it competes with the ion
In order to avoid the risk of scale formation, exchangers alone. In fact, the use of reverse
an ideal solution consists in reversing the osmosis would involve the attendant
polarity of the electrodes on a regular basis (for concentration of all the species present and
instance for five minutes every 30-60 minutes), would produce demineralized water, whereas
thus instantaneously switching the electrodialysis only removes the ionized
concentration and species.
10. ADSORPTION
(pH value, nature of the bound cations, field of adsorption on activated carbon is
surface saturation by organic molecules, etc.). Freundlich equation:
Thus, certain clays such as bentonites X/m = Ce l/n (cf. Figure 96)
(Montmorillonite for instance) have a surface where:
area which is accessible to most molecules - X/m is the weight of pollutant retained per
and ranges from 40 to 800 m2 .g -1 . Their unit weight of the adsorbent,
adsorptive capacity is quite variable but
- Ce is the equilibrium concentration of
constitutes the main parameter in the
pollutant molecules in the aqueous phase,
regulation of transfers and in the mobility of
elements in the natural environment. - K and n are energy constants depending on
the adsorbate/adsorbent couple at a given
temperature which is kept constant during the
Industrial adsorbents (mainly activated operation (isotherm). In fact, no modelling,
carbon) develop extensive surface areas no matter how "complex", can cover the
(roughly between 600 and 1200 m2 .g -1 ) structure of the isotherm, and a fortiori
which are characteristic of a very strong explain the mechanisms of adsorption. The
microporosity. Other adsorbents such as basic reason for this is that any surface is
metallic hydroxides that are formed in the heterogeneous both as regards physical aspect
course of the coagulation-flocculation and energy.
process also develop very large surface areas
Mainly, the Van der Waals type attraction
whose expanse is closely dependent on the
and the Coulomb electrostatic type attraction
pH value;
are the basis for adsorption. For instance, it
can be seen that there is a strong affinity of
. on the nature of the adsorbateadsorbent aromatic molecules for the graphitic structure
bond, in other words, on the free energy of of carbon and a repulsion of the nonaromatic
interaction G between the adsorption sites polar molecules.
and that part of the molecule which is in
contact with the surface. This energy is
directly measurable in the case of the
adsorption of gases. However, in a liquid
medium, the calorimetric methods only
record the differential enthalpy of adsorption
which corresponds to the difference between
the adsorption energy of adsorbed molecules
and the desorption energy of bound water at
the interface;
10.2.
MAIN ADSORBENTS the use of activated carbon often allows the
selective retention of toxic elements and the
resultant liquid can thus be degraded by
10.2.1. Activated carbon normal biological means;
10.3.2.2. Adsorptive capacity of carbon There are laboratory models which provide
Granular activated carbon is used as a filter information on which to base the anticipated
bed through which the water to be treated adsorptive capacity of carbon.
passes, leaving behind its impurities which are
thus extracted methodically: the water, as it 10.3.2.3. Functions of a carbon bed
progressively loses its pollutants, encounters A compact bed has four functions:
zones of activated carbon which are less and
. filtration: this must often be reduced to a
less saturated and therefore more and more
minimum in order to avoid clogging of the
active.
bed which is unavoidable without efficient
Whether treatment using activated carbon is washing systems to break up the layers
economical or not largely depends on the completely after each cycle. In addition the
adsorptive capacity of the carbon, expressed carbon tends to extract adsorbable products
in grammes of retained COD per kilogramme from the floc with which it is in contact,
of activated carbon, which characterizes the causing premature saturation. This is why it is
"carbon requirements" for a given result. For a often advisable to use sand filtration as a
given polluted water-carbon system, this preliminary step;
capacity depends on:
. biological media: this phenomenon can
- the depth of the bed: the deeper a bed, the contribute to the process of purification, but
easier it deals with extended adsorptive fronts can also be very dangerous if not properly
without excessive leakage (a principle similar controlled (fermentation, giving off odours,
to that of ion exchange described on page clogging of the bed, etc.);
230) while still ensuring thorough saturation
. catalytic action (as a reminder);
of the upper layer,
. adsorption: this must remain the basic role
- the exchange rate: experience shows that
of the carbon.
three volumes of water per volume of carbon
per hour can seldom be exceeded when
treating high levels of pollution. In the case of There are three possible arrangements:
drinking water, in which the content of - simple fixed beds : this technique is widely
adsorbable products is very low, any decision used in drinking water treatment (see
as to the economic optimum has to take the Mediazur filters, Chapter 13, par. 3.2);
high investment costs into account, with the - fixed beds in series: a series of several
result that higher bed volumes are used: 5 to columns is used which are regenerated by
10 vol./vol.h, with a smaller degree of carbon permutation (Figure 99). Thus, a
saturation. countercurrent extraction system is organized.
The theory only gives an indication of the The Mediazur filter which involves a biflow
trend of the laws of adsorption. It still remains (see Chapter 13, par. 4.2) is a variation of this
indispensable to call upon the experience of and uses two cells;
the expert and to carry out dynamic tests on - moving beds : these make use of the
columns of sufficient size so that results can countercurrent principle (Figure 100). The
be extrapolated. base of the bed can be fluidized.
10. Adsorption
Figure 98. Vity-Chdtillon facility, Paris area (France) - LE-Dumez. Flow: 4,000 m3.h -1 .
6 Mediazur T filters and 9 Mediazur V filters.
Chap. 3: Basic physical-chemical process in water treatment
10.3.2.4. Regeneration erates the carbon very well, but it has two
disadvantages:
Activated carbon (like artificial adsorbents) is - it requires considerable investment in either a
an expensive product. In most cases the cost of multiple-hearth furnace, a fluidized bed
replacing the saturated carbon would be furnace or a rotary kiln. The furnace must have
prohibitive. It should therefore be regenerated, monitoring devices for atmosphere and
and three methods have been developed for temperature, a dewatering system at the inlet
this purpose: and a carbon quenching system at the outlet;
- it causes high carbon losses (7-10% per
. Steam regeneration: this method is regeneration), so that after 10 to 14
restricted to regenerating carbon which has regenerations, the GAC volume will, on
only retained a few very volatile products; average, have been entirely replaced.
however, steam treatment can be useful in The use of electrical heating (infrared
unclogging the surface of the grains and furnace, induction furnace) reduces these
disinfecting the carbon. losses. However, these methods, which are
expensive, are only used for the recovery of
costly metals.
. Thermal regeneration: by pyrolysis and
burning off of adsorbed organic substances
(Figure 101). In order to avoid igniting the . Chemical regeneration: (Degrémont has
carbon, it is heated to about 800°C in a developed a process based on the action of a
controlled atmosphere. This is the most widely solvent used at a temperature
used method and regen-
11. Ion Exchange
of approximately 100°C and with a high of eluates from which the solvent must be
pH. separated by distillation. The pollutants are
The advantage of this process is that for then destroyed by incineration unless they
the same capital outlay, only minimum can be recovered. The process is less
carbon loss occurs (about 1% of the widely used than thermal regeneration.
quantity treated). However, the use of Biological regeneration: this method of
chemical reagents for regeneration (alkaline regeneration has not yet been applied on an
reagent and solvent) leads to the formation industrial scale.
11.ION EXCHANGE
has a greater affinity for calcium than for 103 a for two ions of similar affinity and by
sodium, and the more dilute the solution the Figure 103 b where the exchange material has
more this will be the case. a much greater affinity for ion B' than for ion
As mentioned above, static batch treatment A'. The "leakage point" is reached when the
effected by bringing the liquid and the isochronous curve leaves the vertical right-
exchange material into contact in a tank hand axis (positive concentration of B in the
would reach a certain point on the curve and liquid outlet curve). The curves for the two
remain there. cases of different affinity are represented in
If the treatment is to be continued until one Figure 103 c.
ion is effectively removed in favour of
another, the point of equilibrium must be If the area represents the frac tion of
progressively shifted by passing the liquid the total exchanger capacity used when the
through a series of successive layers of the leakage appears, it is clear that this fraction is
exchange material containing fewer and fewer much greater for B' than for B.
ions to be retained, thereby moving along the This is also obvious with the treated liquid
equilibrium curve almost to the zero in the form of "the exhaustion curves" (Figure
concentration point for the unwanted ion. If 104).
we take a layer of exchange material entirely The form of the exhaustion curves depends
in form A, and if a liquid containing ion B is not only on the static equilibrium curve
passed through it, the successive equilibrium mentioned above, but also on the exchange
points between A and B give a series of kinetics„ between the liquid and the exchange
isochronous concentration curves that can be material; these kinetics involve the
represented by Figure penetration of solutes into the exchanger, and
are governed by laws known as the "Donnan
equilibrium laws°.
Chap. 3: Basic physical-chemical process in water treatment
reduction phenomena affecting the ions in the . Cocurrent regeneration: in this operation
water or liquid to be treated, without itself (Figure 105) the concentrated solution of A'
dissolving in the liquid. ions is initially brought into contact with
For example: absorption of dissolved those layers of the ion exchanger saturated
oxygen by oxidation of a sulphite anion resin with the B' ions which are expelled from the
R - NH3 -HSO3 into a sulphate resin R - NH3 resin; these B' ions are then carried to those
- HSO4 . layers of the ion exchanger which are at a
lower level of exhaustion and where the
conditions are favourable to their capture;
11.1.2.4. Other uses
during the first stage of regeneration it is
therefore mainly the A' ions which are eluted
The ion exchange laws do not concern the from the column.
use of ion exchangers for other purposes Therefore it appears that, in order to
(catalysis, adsorption). achieve total regeneration of the ion
exchanger, it is necessary to subject a
11.1.3. Methods of regeneration quantity of ions corresponding to the ratio
In the case of softening and A'/B' to a double exchange process.
demineralization processes, the end of the Finally, if the quantity of regenerating
cycle is reached when the exhaustion curve solution is limited, the B' ions will not be
corresponds to that shown in Figure 103 completely eluted from the ion exchanger and
(compounds A' and B'). It can then be the bottom layers will not be fully
assumed, at least as far as the upper layers are regenerated.
concerned, that the ion exchanger is saturated Consequently, during the following cycle,
with B' ions and is in equilibrium with B' the B' ions will undergo selfregeneration by
concentration in the inflowing solution. the A' ions displaced from the upper layers.
Regeneration is carried out by causing a
concentrated solution of A' ions to flow . Countercurrent regeneration: the course
through the exchanger either in the same of events will be different when the
direction as the exhaustion (cocurrent regenerating reagents are made to flow
regeneration) or in the opposite direction upwards from the bottom. In this case,
(countercurrent regeneration).
Chap. 3: Basic physical-chemical process in water treatment
the concentrated A' ions first of all encoun takes place in favourable conditions; what
ter the resin layers with a low concentration is more, the B' ions cannot be recaptured in
of B' ions, the elution of which therefore the exhausted upper layers (Figure 106).
. Exchange capacity of an exchanger: this This ratio is always equal to or greater than
is the weight of ions that can be retained per 100%
unit volume (or sometimes per unit weight) (100% corresponds to the stoichiometric
of the exchange material concerned. The efficiency).
capacity is expressed in gramme-
.
equivalents or in degrees per unit volume of
compacted resin. Regeneration efficiency: this is the
opposite ratio to the above.
A distinction is drawn between:
- total capacity, which is the maximum
volume of ion that can be exchanged, and . Ion leakage: this is the concentration of
which characterizes a given resin, the unwanted ion left in the treated liquid. It
- breakthrough capacity, which is the usable is expressed in mg.l-1 , µg.l-1 ,
milliequivalents/litre, sometimes in % in
fraction of the above, depending on the
hydraulic and chemical conditions of each relation to the inflowing liquid.
individual application.
11. Ion Exchange
. Inorganic exchangers and sulphonated The best known resins are listed below:
carbons: these products are merely of Strong acid cation exchangers.
historical interest.
. Synthetic exchangers: these products can NAME OF PRODUCT
be divided into two groups: Supplier Gel type Macroporous
- strong acid cation exchangers, type
- weak acid cation exchangers Lewatit Lewatit
Bayer S 100 SP 112
11.2.2.1. Strong acid cation exchangers Duolite Duolite
Duolite C 20 C 26
They are characterized by having HSO3 Dow Dowex Dowex
sulphonic radicals and acidities close to that Chemical HCR-S MSC-1
of sulphuric acid. In current use these are Rohm Amberlite Amberlite
sulphonated polystyrenes obtained by: & Haas IR 120 IR 200
- copolymerization of styrene and
divinylbenzene in emulsion form to obtain
perfect spheres on solidification, 11.2.2.2. Weak acid cation exchangers
- sulphonation of the beads thus obtained.
These are polyacrylic resins characterized
The products obtained by this process are by the presence of HCO2 carboxyl radicals
virtually monofunctional. Their physical that can be likened to organic acids such as
and chemical properties vary depending on formic or acetic acid. They differ from
the percentage of divinylbenzene to styrene, strong acid exchangers in two respects:
known as the degree of crosslinking, which - they retain only the Ca, Mg, Na, etc.,
generally varies from 6 to 16%. cations that are bound to bicarbonates, but
The second column in table 40 lists a they cannot exchange canons at equilibrium
number of products in current use for fixed with strong anions (SO4 , Cl, NO3 ),
beds with a moderate percolation rate and - they can be regenerated more easily and
for the treatment of waters of average their regeneration rates are close to those of
properties. stoichiometric efficiency.
These products are not suitable for
treatment (continuous or batch processes)
11. Ion Exchange
The best known carboxylic resins in whereas the strong base types are
current use are listed below: practically unaffected by this phenomenon,
- the weak base types are regenerated more
NAME OF PRODUCT easily.
Supplier Gel type Macroporous
type 11.2.3.1. Weak or intermediate base anion
Lewatit exchangers
Bayer CNP 80 All these products consist of a mixture of
Duolite Duolite primary, secondary, tertiary, and sometimes
Duolite C 433 C 464 quaternary, amines. The nucleus of the
Dow Dowex molecule is highly varied in nature and may
Chemical CCR 2 be aliphatic, aromatic or heterocyclic.
Rohm Amberlite A list of this type of resins
& Haas IRC 50 (nonexhaustive) is shown below. Some of
IRC 84 these resins have a macroporous structure.
NAME OF PRODUCT
Supplier Gel type Macroporous
11.2.3. Anion exchangers
type
Lewatit
Anion exchangers can be divided into
Bayer MP 64
two main groups:
Duolite
- weak or intermediate base anion Duolite A 378
exchangers,
Dow Dowex Dowex
- strong base anion exchangers. Chemical WGR 2 MWA 1
The two types can be distinguished in Rohm Amberlite Amberlite
practice as follows: & Haas IRA 68 IRA 93
- the weak base types do not retain very
weak acids such as carbonic acid or silica,
11.2.3.2. Strong base anion exchangers
but the strong base types retain them
completely, The existence of quaternary ammoniums
- the strong base types alone are able to in the molecule is typical of these products.
release the bases from their salts by the All the strong base resins used for
following typical reaction: demineralization purposes belong to two
main groups commonly known as type I
and type II. The former consists of simple
- the weak base types are more or less quaternary ammonium radicals, the latter of
sensitive to hydrolysis, in the form of the quaternary ammonium radicals with
displacement by pure water of the anions alcohol function. Each type has its own
previously attached to the resin: field of application, depending on the
nature of the water to be treated and the
condi-
Chap. 3; Basic physical-chemical process in water treatment
tions applying to the regeneration cycle. - in type II, the basicity is weaker and the
The two types differ in the following capacity higher; the regeneration efficiency is
respects: also better.
- in type I, the basicity is strong and the The following list of resins used for ordinary
capacity low; the regeneration efficiency is applications is not exhaustive:
poor,
11.2.5. Adsorbent and special resins adapted organic solvents and, in certain cases,
pure water or steam.
11.2.5.1. Adsorbent resins The choice of the correct adsorbent
These are products that are designed to presents some difficulty; it must be guided by
retain nonionic compounds (basically organic the properties of each adsorbent and the
molecules) in solution in polar and nonpolar products to be retained. Therefore, laboratory
solvents by means other than ion exchange or pilot studies are indispensable in the
and by a reversible technique. majority of cases.
This process of adsorption on solids is very
complex and involves various types of 11.2.5.2. Special resins
interaction between the adsorbent surface and
the adsorbed molecules. . Polyfunctional resins: these are products
For this reason, the adsorptive capacity of that combine the properties of strong resins
the resins depends on numerous factors, of with those of weak resins. This is the case
which the main ones are: with anion resins which are able to remove all
- the chemical composition of the skeleton the anions including silica and COz while
(polystyrenic, polyacrylic, formophenolic), ensuring a high exchange capacity and an
- the type of functional groups of polar excellent regeneration efficiency due to their
adsorbents (secondary and tertiary amines, weak-base function.
quaternary ammonium), o Chelate resins: these comprise special 239
- the degree of polarity, functional groups (aminophosphoric,
aminodiacetic, aminodioxime, mercaptan)
- the porosity (usually macroporous materials
which permit the selective retention of heavy
with pore sizes up to 130 nm),
metals from various effluents (zinc, lead,
- the specific surface area: up to 750 m2 .g -1 , mercury, etc.), gas chromatographic
- hydrophilic nature, separations of metals, and also the final
- the shape of the grains. softening of brine from the electrolysis
process.
Possible uses include: . Resins for nuclear use: this involves
- protection of the ion exchange system by products with a higher degree of purity than
retaining the pollutants present in feed water that of resins used in common operations.
(humic acids, detergents, etc.), Among these are strong acid cation resins in
H+ form that are regenerated to 99%, and
- decolourization of sugar syrups, glycerin,
strong base anion resins in OHform with less
grape musts, whey, etc., than 0.1% of Cl-.
- separation, purification and concentration
Catalyzing resins:
processes in the pharmaceutical industry and
synthetic chemistry. - conventional resins used in a basic or acidic
catalyst process (for example, the inversion of
The regeneration method of adsorbent
glucose in the manufacture of liquid sugar),
resins basically depends on the product
- resins with a metallic catalyst (for example,
adsorbed. The traditional eluants are: acids,
bases, sodium chloride, methanol, a palladium resin for deoxygenation of
demineralized water or sea water).
Chap. 3: Basic physical-chemical process in water treatment
equal to the TH - M alk. value of the raw water; sodium ions for permanent hardness which is
the hardness value may therefore fall to zero if equal to TH - M alk. In this way a carbonate-
the TH is equal to or less than the M alk., since free and softened water is obtained.
the alkaline-earth ions are exchanged rather With water containing sodium
than the alkaline ions. bicarbonate, the efficiency of carboxylic
In the opposite case, a zero hardness may be resins is poor, and the H-Na method is
obtained by combining in the same vessel a sometimes used instead: a sulphonic resin in H
layer of carboxylic resin and a layer of form is placed in parallel with another in Na
sulphonic resin, regenerated in turn with a form and while the former retains all the
strong acid and a solution of sodium chloride. canons and releases the corresponding acids,
The carboxylic resin works in the H cycle and the latter produces softened water. A mixture of
retains the TH in a quantity which is equivalent decationized and softened water in suitable
to the M alk. The sulphonic resin exchanges the proportions provides treated water of the same
composition as the first method.
.
11. Ion Exchange
exchanger by installing, between the anion practice, in most of the cases the water
exchanger and the cation exchanger, a CO2 obtained by this method has a conductivity
removal unit intended to reduce the CO2 of 3 to 20 µS.cm-1 a silica level of 0.05 to
content to a few mg.l-'. This brings about a 0.5 mg.l-1 and a pH ranging between 7 and
reduction in the volume of strong base 9.
anion resin and in the regeneration reagent This is the simplest arrangement and a
requirements. demineralized water that may be used in a
The quality of demineralized water wide variety of applications can be obtained
essentially depends on the regeneration rate with it.
of the cation exchanger. The ion leakage . SCR + WBR + SBR system: this
takes the form of a trace of caustic soda (or combination (Figure 113) is a variation of
of lime, if the raw water contains no the previous one. It provides exactly the
sodium) from the cation exchanger. A same quality of water, while offering
reduction in the level of silica itself economic advantages in the case where the
depends on the level of caustic soda that water to be treated contains a high
remains in the demineralized water. In proportion of strong anions (chlorides and
sulphates). In this system, the water, after
first passing through the weak base anion Moreover, when raw water contains a high
exchanger, in turn passes through the proportion of organic matter, the weak base
strong base anion exchanger. The optional resin protects the strong base resin.
COz removal unit may be installed either . Systems with WCR + SCR grouping:
between the cation exchanger and the first this combination is advantageous in cases
anion exchanger, or between the two anion where the water contains a high proportion
exchangers. of bicarbonates. In this system,
The regeneration of the anion regeneration is effected in series first
exchangers takes place in series with the passing through the sulphonic exchanger
caustic soda solution first passing through and then through the carboxylic exchanger.
the strong base resin and then through the Since the carboxylic resin is regenerated
weak base resin. This method requires the more or less stoichiometrically, from the
use of much less caustic soda than was excess free acid that remains after the
used in the previous one, because the regeneration of the sulphonic resin, the
excess caustic soda remaining after normal total regeneration rate is considerably
regeneration of the strong base resin is lowered.
usually sufficient to regenerate the weak Figure 114 shows a system permitting
base resin completely. minimum consumption of reagents.
Chap. 3: Basic physical-chemical process in water treatment
. Mixed bed installations (MB): this process very few ions (water which has undergone
differs essentially from the separate bed prior treatment by reverse osmosis or
system in that the two strong resins, the cation distillation, condensed water, nuclear pool
and the anion, are joined in a single vessel. water in closed loops, etc.). A complex
The two resins are intimately mixed by system of ion exchangers can be replaced by a
agitation with compressed air. The grains of single mixed bed.
resin are thus arranged side by side, and the Special layouts have also been used as
whole bed behaves like an infinite number of follows:
anion and cation exchangers in series (Figure - SCR + | C02 | + MB, -softener + MB,
115).
- SCR + WBR + | C02 | + MB: useful
arrangement for a water containing many
To carry out regeneration, the two resins strong anions.
are separated hydraulically during the However, the mixed bed exchangers are
loosening phase. As the anion resin is the most often used in polishing treatment.
lighter, it rises to the top, while the heavier
cation resin falls to the bottom.
.Installation equipped with a polishing
When the resins have been separated, each
system: the quality of water flowing out of a
of them is separately regenerated in turn with
primary system, whatever its composition, is
caustic soda and a strong acid.
determined by the ion leakage from the cation
Any excess regenerant is removed by rinsing exchanger. This ion leakage varies, depending
each bed separately. After partial emptying of upon the properties of the raw water and the
the vessel, the two resins are remixed with rate of regeneration. The quality of the
compressed air. Rinsing is completed and the demineralized water obtained is not sufficient
vessel is then ready for a fresh cycle. for certain uses such as that of feedwater for
The advantages of mixed bed systems as very high pressure boilers and various
compared with separate bed systems are as applications in the chemical, nuclear or
follows: electronics industries. Therefore, it has to be
- the water obtained is of very high purity and further treated in a system known as a
its quality remains constant throughout the polishing plant.
cycle (its conductivity is below 0.2 µS.cm-1 , The ion leakage from the cation exchanger
its silica level is less than 20 µg.l-1 ), is converted to a free base on the anion
- the pH is almost neutral, exchanger, which therefore entails a silica
- rinse water requirements are very low. leakage from the latter. As a result, a
polishing system must necessarily contain a
The disadvantages of mixed bed systems
strong acid cation exchanger and a strong base
are a lower exchange capacity and a more
anion exchanger.
complicated operating procedure because of
the requirement that the separation and The polishing system may be arranged so
remixing processes be carried out absolutely that there are two columns in series with
correctly. regeneration taking place in the direction
Mixed bed exchangers can be used directly SBR2 - SBR1 and SCR2 - SCRl. In these
arrangements the polish
on raw water as long as it contains
11. Ion Exchange
ing exchangers are perfectly regenerated and regenerated only every 5 to 10 cycles of the
the quality of the demineralized water is primary system.
excellent (the conductivity is less than 1 In some applications, it may be sufficient
gS.cm ', its silica level ranges between 5 and to have as a polisher a weak or a strong acid
20 µg.l-1 ). cation exchanger designed to neutralize the
This system, however, is being used less caustic soda leakage from the anion
and less frequently. Mixed bed exchangers exchanger in the primary system. By using
that produce water with a conductivity in the this polishing exchanger, known as a "buffer
order of 0.05 gS.cm-1 at 25°C, and have silica filter„, it is possible to obtain water that is
leakages that are considerably below 10 gg.l- virtually free of cations (with a conductivity
1
, are preferred. A polishing mixed bed, due below 1 µScm) and has a pH value of
to the low volume of inflowing ions, is between 6 and 7.
11.5.
MONITORING AND bed with formol, or with a solution of a
quaternary ammonium-based product, or
MAINTENANCE OF A else with a brine of 200 g.1- in NaCl,
DEMINERALIZATION alkalinized to a pH of 12 with the aid of
caustic soda.
PLANT
11.5.3. Storage of resins
11.5.1. Checking the treatment
into nonionic groups, which leads to Anion exchanger beds can be filled with
losses in capacity. a 0.1% solution of a quaternary
Cation exchanger beds can be filled ammonium salt
with a 0.5% formol solution. It is It is equally effective to fill the unit with
advised that this concentration be a brine with a minimum concentration
checked periodically to ascertain that it of 200 g.l-1 ; moreover, it constitutes a
does not fall below 0.2 % . protection against freezing and
hydrolysis.
12. OXIDATION-REDUCTION
tial than a substance B will oxidize the Figure 116. Measurement of the oxidation-
latter. Thus, the substance B is the reducing reduction potential.
agent for substance A. Table 40. Normal oxidation-reduction
By definition zero potential is that of a potential values of oxygenated and
hydrogen electrode. Listed in table 40 are halogenated compounds.
the normal potential values at 25°C of a
number of substances found in water.
In fact, conversion of a substance from an
oxidized form to a reduced form usually
takes place by means of another substance
which itself is converted from the reduced
form into the oxidized form:
Water
E Hg Measured potential
Calomel electrode
A = 0,248 à 20° C
Depending on experimental conditions,
water can take part in oxidation-
Hydrogen electrode reduction reactions (see page 206).
12. Oxidation - Reduction
Figure 117. Diagram ofiron 'potential pH" (areas where ions and precipitates are
located), so called: diagram of stability from MrPourbaix.
Chap. 3: Basic physical-chemical process in water treatment
Network test: this test shows chlorine fold. Ozone may act by direct reaction of the
consumption by water versus time (Figure ozone molecule: these reactions are usually
120). From this graph can be deduced the very selective.
quantity of chlorine necessary to obtain a given Ozone may also be induced to act through
residual chlorine at the end of a system, whose secondary species such as OH0 radicals,
retention time is known. This test also shows formed when the ozone molecule decomposes
the efficiency of the treatment applied to raw in water. This OH0 species may react with
water: a clarified water absorbs less chlorine compounds known as "scavengers" resulting in
than a raw water but more chlorine than a reaction products without acting on the ozone
polished water. dissolved in the water. The OH0 species may
also react with solutes M, resulting in R°
B) Ozone. In practice, ozone is the most radicals which will themselves promote the
powerful oxidizing reagent used in the breakdown of the ozone molecule in water.
treatment of drinking water. It is a gas which is The presence of OH- also allows the ozone
produced on the site of its use (see Chapter 17, molecule to break down. This indirect or
sub-chapter 4). radical-forming action of ozone is not very
The action of ozone in water is the result of selective, but the kinetics of the reaction vary
two successive phenomena: widely depending on the substances to be
oxidized.
- the dissolution in water (transfer from gas to
water), Due to its oxidizing properties, ozone is also
used for disinfecting water. It acts rapidly and
- the action of dissolved ozone on the body to
efficiently but does not have any residual
be oxidized.
power.
Hoigné demonstrated (Figure 121) that the
action of ozone is actually two
12. Oxidation - Reduction
. Chlorine compounds
Chlorine dioxide has a high oxidizing power
(see table 40). It reacts according to the
reaction:
C1O2 + 5e - àCl- + 2O2-
power that is far lower than in the preceding generally accepted governing their use are
examples but they are more stable and they the following:
have a residual effect that is useful in the - chlorine: a rate of 0.5 mg.l-1 of free
case of large systems that supply water at a chlorine must be maintained for a contact
high temp erature. period of at least 30 minutes at a pH level
of below 8,
. Hydrogen peroxide - ozone: a rate of 0.4 mg.l-1 of residual
Hydrogen peroxide is a strong oxidizing ozone must be maintained for 4 minutes -
agent (see table 40) which breaks down in chlorine dioxide: a rate of 0.2 mg.l-1 must
water according to the reaction: be maintained for 15 minutes.
These conditions ensure the effectiveness
of the bactericidal action of these oxidizing
agents. To achieve proper disinfection, it is
However, its high cost limits its use for furthermore indispensable that the water's
specific purposes. As a bactericide, it may turbidity be lower than 1 NTU.
be used to disinfect pipes in a system
Ozone is particularly effective in
supplying ultrapure water (placed in contact
removing viruses (virulicidal effect).
with water containing several hundred
milligrammes per litre of H2 O2 for about
one hour). The advantage of this oxidizing .Other possible applications
agent is that it does not cause the formation Table 41 summarizes the stages in which
of halogen compounds. the various oxidizing agents commonly
It is sometimes used to oxidize sulphur employed during the production line of
compounds which cause foul odours during drinking water might be used.
sewage treatment. The directives governing the use of the
It may also be used in combination with most important of these oxidizing agents
other oxidizing agents. With ozone: the are as follows:
reaction of ozone on hydrogen peroxide is - ozone may be used advantageously at any
very slow. Ozone would react with the HO2- point in the treatment line. It does not
ion in reaction (1) according to the however have a residual effect. Thus it does
following overall reaction: not prevent the growth of algae in tanks and
2O3 + H2 O2 –> 2OH° + 3O2 on gravity filters. It does not ensure a
The result is the formation of OHO residual effect in the system,
radicals, the action of which has been cited - chlorine ensures that a percentage of
above. residual oxidizing agent remains following
its use; thus its bacteriostatic effect is
noteworthy. If chlorine is applied at the
12.3.3. Applications
start of the treatment line with a higher
dosage than the breakpoint (see Figure
12.3.3.1. Drinking water 119), it provides for the remo val of
ammonium. On the other hand, it leads to
. Disinfection of water: this is the primary the formation of organochlorinated
reason for using oxidizing agents in treating compounds that must be avoided as far as
water for consumption. The conditions possible (see page 44). Therefore it is rec
12. Oxidation - Reduction
ommended that the introduction of chlorine As a guide, table 42 lists the relative
be delayed so that it comes as far effectiveness of oxidizing agents with
downstream as possible in the treatment regard to a variety of parameters.
line,
12.3.3.2. Municipal wastewaters
- chlorine dioxide is an equally excellent Except for oxygenation phases in which
bacteriostatic compound. Introduced at the the aim is to ensure oxidation and
end of the treatment line, its level must not assimilation of organic matter and
exceed 0.4-0.6 mg.l-' to preclude the water ammonium by bacteriological means,
from tasting bad owing to the chlorite ion chemical oxidizing agents are not used other
which appears after the oxidation-reduction than for disinfection which is generally
reaction of dioxide with organic matter. The partial.
following reaction takes place: While the disinfection of water for
consumption has as its aim the total removal
OM of water + C1O2 à of pathogenic germs (which show up in the
oxidized OM + C1O2 + Cl- fecal contamination indicator germs), the
aim of partial disinfection is to reduce the
concentration of pathogenic germs which is
When the dioxide is introduced at the
controlled by a reduction in the number of
start of the system, this same reaction causes
fecal contamination indicator germs. The
a substantial amount of C102 to appear
desired reduction most often corresponds to
which must not be allowed to remain in the
a lowering of 2 or 3 logarithmic units.
treated water. It can be removed by
ozonation (resulting in the production of the
chlorate ion C103 ) or by filtration on GAC It is clear that the amounts used depend
(resulting however in a shortening of the on the quality of the effluent. Special
service life of GAC). Chlorine dioxide does emphasis should be placed on removing the
not remove ammonium. SS to the greatest extent possible before
disinfection (tertiary filtration).
Chap. 3: Basic physical-chemical process in water treatment
12.3.3.3. Industrial waters and effluents. Most of these reactions present a high
This mainly concerns the following enough potential and rapid enough kinetics
industrial waters and effluents. to permit regulation except in the case of
thiosulphates. If other less dangerous
reducing agents co-exist, a posteriori
. Using oxidizing reagents - cyanide-laden
monitoring to limit the overconsumption of
waters from electroplating or gas
a costly oxidizing agent, as in the case of
scrubbing, -hydrazine-laden condensates:
cyanide-laden effluents from gas scrubbing,
oxidation by H2 O2 catalyzed on specific
is considered adequate.
resins, - nitrite baths from electroplating:
++
oxidation by H2 O2 + Cu (Fenton reagent), The use of air and oxygen in the
NaClO or H2 SO5 , equipment known as "oxidizers" requires
high temperatures and pressures in order to
- solutions of thiosulphates oxidizable
achieve adequate kinetics and efficiency.
from H2 O2
.
. Using ozone
. Using air or oxygen - spent caustic soda,
2-
rich in S , - effluents containing low CN or phenol
2+ concentrations,
- waters from pickling, loaded with Fe ,
- effluents from methionine units or those
- uranium leachates U4+.
containing refractory compounds.
12. Oxidation - Reduction
13.1.
THE CARBONATE BALANCE
Natural water is not pure and contains ions and carbonic acid are fundamental
various dissolved chemical elements, the most factors of the carbonate balance. The N and
common of which is calcium bicarbonate (or P ions which essentially involve the ionic
hydrogen carbonate). strength of the solution are secondary factors
The practical balance of this salt with with regard to the balance and are defined by
carbon dioxide is governed by rather complex Legrand and Poirier ascharacteristic
laws, and shifting it can provoke chemical elements
reactions causing the dissolution of calcium Temperature is also an important factor
carbonate (or aggressiviry), or the influencing the value of dissociation
precipitation of calcium carbonate (or scale constants.
formation) which can add to simple The term E depends on the ionic strength
electrochemical corrosion reactions particular ~1 of the solution according to the equation:
to the metals.
ature, but does not permit amounts of The graph contains two curves representing
neutralization reagents to be calculated. physical dissolution of the CO2 and
In the case of brackish water, and especially neutralization by lime and limestone.
sea water, the correction proposed by Stiff and Figure 124 a shows an example of a water
Davis in the pHs calculation (see Figure 123) in which the representative point M, defined
is employed. by its coordinates (M alk., pH), is located in
pHs = K + pCa + pAlk where K = pK'z - pK's an aggressive zone. In order that it be brought
in line with the balance, three solutions are
possible:
13.1.2.2. Hallopeau and Dubin method
- No. 1: escape of CO2 by aeration; the M alk.
These authors have devised a graphic method
and calcium remain unchanged; the saturation
of determining the aggressive action of water
pH thus corresponds to the pHs of the initial
on limestone and of calculating the amounts of
water,
neutralizing reagents, by expressing the
saturation pH in terms of the logarithms of - No. 2: neutralization by a base (caustic soda
alkalinity (measured by the M alk. and or lime); the M alk. rises and, if lime is used,
expressed in moles.l-1 ) and of calcium calcium rises in the same proportion,
hardness (in moles.l-1 ): - No. 3: neutralization by an alkaline
(Na 2 CO3 ) or alkaline-earth (CaCO3 )
carbonate; the M alk. and possibly (in the case
of CaCO3 ) the calcium increase approximately
twice as much as in the preceding case.
This demonstrates that on the one hand the
In this graph (see Figure 124), free CO2 and saturation pH is different in the three cases
pH are therefore represented by two sets of studied, and that on the other hand the higher
parallel straight lines. the final M alk., the lower the saturation pH.
Free CO2 can be determined when the pH and
alkalinity of a water are known.
13. Neutralization - Remineralization
Chap. 3: Basic physical-chemical process in water treatment
13. Neutralization - Remineralization
Chap. 3: Basic physical-chemical process in water treatment
13. Neutralization - Remineralization
In cases numbers two and three, the 13.1.2.3. Legrand and Poirier method
difference between the final M alk. and the These authors considered the system of
initial M alk. makes it possible to determine coordinates. plotting Ca 2+ on the X-axis and
the amount of alkaline reagent to be used total CO2 on the Y-axis (see Figure 125).
after an evaluation of the shifting of the They justified this choice with the
equilibrium line which is tied to the advantages it presented: the steps are
variation in the alkalinity/calcium ratio arithmetic (as a rule in millimoles.l-1 ),
during the neutralization process. which prevents the origins being shifted to
Although it introduces concepts of the infinite; the concentrations of all basic
calcium and total hardness, this method elements show up immediately; the shifting
does not take the total salinity or the of the representative point of water occurs
alkaline waters into account and only almost always following the
covers waters with a low or moderate
mineral content.
Chap. 3: Basic physical-chemical process in water treatment
is to say between the line of slope 4 (which ater (particularly the proportion of aggressive
corresponds to pH = pK'i = about 6.4 at CO2 in the total free CO2 content).
20°C) and the line of slope 2 (which
corresponds to The use of the graph makes it possible to
predict the development of the system in all
possible cases (with the amount of reagent
The curve to which all the waters at doses if necessary) with or without changes
equilibrium relate for given values of in the equilibrium curve.
temperature and parameter λ, is the type Apart from the Legrand and Poirier
shown in Figure 126; this figure, among other method, there are hardly any other methods
things, shows an example of figurative point that provide such thorough results. However,
M of a given water, which is assumed to be this method involves long calculations.
aggressive, with its position relative to the Nonetheless, its use has been simplified and
equilibrium curve and data which may be expanded through the use of the micro data
deduced as regards the characteristics of the processing.
Magno, Akdolit, etc., are now preferred. (removal of iron and manganese from
The reaction kinetics of these agents give deep-lying water, clarification of surface
complete effectiveness with a relatively water, etc.).
small compact mass. However, with this procedure the
Some of the products available on the saturation pH cannot be exceeded to speed
market are calcined during their up the formation of the protective film
manufacture and therefore contain a high which may require the additional injection
proportion of alkaline-earth oxides and give of an alkaline reagent.
the treated water a high degree of alkalinity
when they are first put into service which 13.2.3. Consumption of reagents in the
gradually diminishes in the course of time. adjustment of carbonic acidity
Neutralite and Neutralg, with no free
bases, do not have these disadvantages and Consumption of Increase of
are indefinitely stable. They are available in Reagent pure product hardness
various grain sizes and are composed of per g of aggressive aggressive
C O 2,
calcium and magnesium carbonates. Their
CO2 in Fr. degrees
special structure insures a rapid and Lime 0.84 g Ca(OH)2 0.11
uniform solubility which is always (0.85-1 g of
proportional to the amount of C02 to be commer-
cial grade product)
neutralized.
Caustic 0.91 g NaOH 0
Filtration through alkaline-earth soda
materials is employed very often in deep- Sodium 2.4 g Na2 CO3 0
carbonate
lying water where no other treatment is
Marble 2.3 g CaCO3 0.23
required, while the addition of products in Magnesium 0.45 g MgO 0.11
slurry or solution form is generally oxide
incorporated in a complete treatment line Neurralite 2-2.2 g 0.23
13.3.2.2. CO2 and filtration through - 11.1 g of calcium chloride (as CaCl2 ),
neutralizing materials - or 13.6 g of calcium sulphate (asCaSO4 ).
For this last process, unfired gypsum may be
In this case carbon dioxide consumption placed in contact with the water in order to
is reduced (4.4 g.m-3 3 per degree of prepare a saturated solution containing 2.3 g
remineralization) and the process runs more of CaSO4 .2H2 O or 1.8 g of CaSO4 per litre.
smoothly. However, contrary to the CO2 and Calcium chloride has the advantage of being
lime processes, the saturation pH cannot be easier to use due to its solubility. However,
exceeded, even when this is necessary. it introduces Cl- ions into the water which,
when added to a pre-existing concentration
13.3.2.3. Sodium bicarbonate and calcium that is already high, may reverse the effects
salt of the remineralization treatment by exerting
an influence on the corrosion processes.
HCO3 bicarbonate ions (as sodium Unless a high degree or
bicarbonate) and Ca 21 calcium ions remineralizationization has been achieved,
(generally as calcium chloride, though this type of treatment usually must be
sometimes as calcium sulphate) are completed by an injection of an alkaline
introduced into the water simultaneously. reagent in order to reach the saturation pH.
These treat-
To obtain an increase of 1 French degree
in 1 m3 of water, 16.8 g of sodium
bicarbonate must be used with either:
Chap. 3: Basic physical-chemical process in water treatment
ments which require a small initial outlay the availability of local materials, the
(preparation tanks and metering pumps) following techniques may sometimes be
lead, however, to high operating costs. These employed:
techniques are usually used with small and - sodium bicarbonate + lime or sodium
medium-size plants. carbonate
- sodium carbonate and carbon dioxide,
13.3.2.4. Miscellaneous - sulphuric acid and calcium carbonate.
Depending on the quality of the water and
14. GAS AND LIQUID PHASE MASS TRANSFER
and sulphur products, NOx, NH3 and volatile
Among the techniques of water treatment organic products, HCl, etc.), in a liquid
there are many which cause the transfer of solution in order to purify the gas phase: gas
water between two phases, the liquid and the scrubbing.
gas phases. Absorption is often associated with a
chemical reaction;
These mass transfers consist in causing a - desorption involves the reverse process
constituent (referred to as a solute) to change whereby volatile gases such as CO2 , O2 ,
from one phase to the other. They may be H2 S, NH3 , chlorinated solvents, which are
divided into two categories: dissolved in liquid are made to change to the
gas phase such as in stripping and deaeration
- absorption involves the transfer of The desorption process takes place
constituents from the gas phase into the without a chemical reaction.
liquid phase. It involves either the dissolving The liquid-gas system, however, always
of a gas (air, oxygen, ozone, chlorine) in follows the laws of mass transfer from one
water in order to treat the latter: biological phase to the other until a state of equilibrium
purification, iron removal, disinfection; or is ultimately reached.
the dissolving of a polluting gas (H2 S, SO2
14.2. where:
GAS DISSOLUTION M: mass of gas transferred,
Cs: saturation concentration of the gas and
(ABSORPTION) the liquid, G: concentration of the gas in
The purpose of this process is to treat a the liquid. If
water (iron removal, disinfection, V is the volume of the liquid, then:
biological purification) or to purify a
polluted gas. The gases to be dissolved are
usually not very soluble and their resistance
to transfer comes from the liquid film, so
that the following equation may be written:
Chap. 3: Basic physical-chemical process in water treatment
NTU is the number of transfer units and theoretical plate, which mainly depends on
depends solely on the initial and final packing.
concentrations and on the interface at the In order to remove oxygen the number of
various stages, transfer units (or stages) varies according to
- or by the product H = HETP x NTP (in the the saturated waters at 15°C, from 8 to 12 for
case of highly soluble gases), final concentrations of 50 to 10 µg.l-1 .
NTP is the number of theoretical plates as The desorption of CO2 is not so extensive.
determined by analytical or graphic In a demineralization facility a reduction in
calculation, CO2 concentration of 70 down to 10 mg.l-1
HETP is the height equivalent to one requires less than two stages.
15. LIQUID/LIQUID EXTACTION
The liquid/liquid extraction process is a (solute) to be extracted from an inert liquid
basic operation that allows a component by another liquid known as a solvent:
Chap. 3: Basic physical-chemical process in water treatment
The liquid phase 1 is a homogeneous two phases take place in two successive
mixture. The solvent must not be miscible units: the mixing-settling tank and the
with one of the two initial compounds. The hydrocyclone-settling tank,
inert compound and the solvent are usually - differential contactors in which one phase
not miscible. is dispersed into the other on a
The liquid/liquid extraction is also countercurrent basis. Following this, the
governed by the laws of mass transfer and it phases are separated in the two ends of the
is necessary to determine features that vertical column (see Figure 131).
favour exchange, such as maximum The method of dispersion of the two
interfacial area, wide concentration phases may be by gravity, mechanical
difference and a notable transfer (or stirring, pulsation, etc.
extraction) coefficient. Liquid/liquid extraction is used it!
There are two main types of industrial phenol removal from spent caustic soda
equipment employed in the liquid/liquid from refineries using gas oil as a solvent.
extraction process: The efficiency of phenol removal is high
- contactors with several separate stages in (90-95%) when pulsed columns with
series. At each stage, the functions of perforated trays are used.
dispersion followed by separation of the
4
BASIC BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES
IN CATER TREATMENT
1. GENERAL
The biological treatment of water involves accompanied by the release of gases due to
various types of fermentation. the action of the enzymes that are secreted
Fermentation is the deterioration of certain by microorganisms.
organic substances and is often
. Endogenous phase
The concentration of living cells
where µm is the maximum growth rate.
decreases because of an increasing
Or:
mortality rate. The enzymatic autolysis of
the cells causes them to die.
These various phases and the equations
that govern them are applicable to aerobic
and anaerobic media. The values of the
various coefficients depend, of course, on
the nature of the microorganisms, the
. Declining growth phase substrate, and various factors, such as
This phase comes about with the temperature and pH.
depletion of the culture's medium and the
1. General
1.2.
BACTERIAL
GROWTH MODELS where S is the concentration of the solution
In most industrial applications, the
in the growth-limiting substrate.
biomass is in the declining growth phase
K signifies a concentration threshold
because the required levels of pollution
below which the growth rate becomes
control result in weak final concentrations of
closely dependent on the concentration of
the substrate. Several mathematical models
substrate. This constant corresponds to
have been proposed to integrate the part of
the curve corresponding to the declining the value of S for which
growth phase and beyond. However, most K is usually very small, and during the
perfected models attempt to cover the total entire exponential growth phase, µ = µmax
growth curve. It must be emphasized that in the case of
Monod's model is the oldest, the best bacterial growth involving other strains of
known, and the most widely used. It is an microorganisms, the measured value of g is
empirical model, very close to the in fact a resultant g. At any given moment,
Michaelis -Menten equation for enzymatic some bacteria may be in a different growth
reactions. It is expressed as follows: phase from other bacteria.
Other models are used for specialized
studies such as pure cultures and the use of a
metabolite.
1.6.
TOXICITY certain organic compounds may also
denature proteins or other cell components.
AND INHIBITION Bacteria are not equally sensitive to
Successful fermentation, whether aerobic different toxins. Their sensitivity to a given
or anaerobic, requires rather stringent
product also depends on their physiological
conditions concerning the medium. The state. Some strains are even capable of
temperature and the pH play particularly degrading toxins such as cyanide and
important roles. Equally important, the
phenols.
medium must not contain any toxic products In practice, it is often possible to
or inhibitors that may slow the process or acclimatize a bacterial growth to the presence
irreversibly halt bacterial activity.
of toxins or inhibitors and thus lower the
Most heavy metals act as toxins on toxicity thresholds. Certain metals attach
bacterial flora. This is especially true of themselves to bacterial floc in the form of
copper, chromium, nickel, zinc, mercury and
insoluble organometallic compounds without
lead. These metals act by attaching disturbing bacterial growth. It should be
themselves to certain enzymatic sites and noted, however, that excessive levels of these
blocking them, or by denaturing certain
metals in sludge may render the sludge
enzymes or, lastly, by changing the unsuitable for agricultural use.
permeability of the cellular membrane. Above a certain threshold, certain
Anions such as cyanides, fluorides,
metabolites may themselves inhibit bacterial
arsenates, chromates and dichromates all activity.
behave in a similar way. Halogens and
1.7. SALIENT FEATURES OF in floc form in the liquid being treated. The
BIOREACTORS culture is kept in suspension in a stirred tank
in which one of the following conditions
1.7.1. Suspended growth and attached exists:
growth - a given concentration of oxygen, in the case
of aerobic processes such as activated sludge
Bacterial growth may be used in many and aerated or natural lagoon processes;
different ways. Traditionally, a distinction is - the exclusion of oxygen, in the case of
drawn between "suspended growth" and anaerobic processes such as contact-
"attached growth" processes. clarification, sludge blankets, and anaerobic
lagoon processes.
Suspended growth processes, used solely
for treating wastewater, stimulate the growth Attached growth processes make use of
of a bacterial culture dispersed the ability of most microorgan
Chap. 4: Basic biological processes in water treatment
isms to produce exopolymers, which enable moment are thereafter continuously subject to
them to become fixed to widely varying identical hydraulic conditions (velocity and
supports so as to form a biofilm. Attached direction). The hydraulic retention time is
growth, like suspended growth, may be used theoretically the same for all the particles,
in either aerobic or anaerobic treatment (fine whereas in a completely mixed reactor the
granular media biofilters, trickling filters, distribution of the retention times for the
biological discs, etc.). particles is Gaussian.
Suspended growth has the basic advantage These hydraulic factors are important
of being easy to use. However, since the because they may affect the reaction kinetics
concentration of microorganisms cannot and may even encourage the growth of
exceed certain limits, suspended growth particular bacterial species.
processes require structures that can hold
large volumes of liquid. Reaction kinetics
Reactors can be smaller when attached Theoretical considerations indicate that, for
growth is used, because higher concentrations a unit containing a given volume and when
of biomass, and at times higher activity levels, the reaction order is greater than zero, the
can be obtained. reactions in a plug flow bioreactor will be
more advanced than those in a completely
It should be noted that in suspended growth as mixed bioreactor, in other words, that plug
well as in attached growth there is an excess flow reactors can be smaller than completely
production of biomass, which must be mixed units.
extracted, treated and disposed
of Dispersion coefficient
On an industrial scale, there are no
1.7.2. Dispersion and hydraulic retention time bioreactors that are strictly of either the
completely mixed or the plug flow type.
Another important distinction, espe cially in However, some units are approximately
suspended growth processes such as those equivalent to one type or the other. In order to
involving activated sludge, must be made measure just where the units are positioned in
between the homogeneous or completely this respect, a longitudinal dispersion
mixed bioreactor and the heterogeneous coefficient is used. A value of zero signifies a
bioreactor, such as the plug flow type. A perfect plug flow, while an infinite value
bioreactor is said to operate as completely corresponds to a perfect complete mixing.
mixed when the concentrations (biomass,
substrate, oxygen, etc.) and the temperatures Hydraulic retention time
are identical throughout the reactor. In plug Given that:
flow bioreactors, the channels have a high tt is the theoretical retention time given by
length-to-width ratio and axial concentration tt = V/Q, where V is the volume of the reactor
gradients exis t. and Q is the flow,
In an ideal plug flow reactor, all the particles and t, is the weighted average real retention
entering the reactor at a given time, the response curve may be
1. General
1.8.
PROPERTIES - major elements: C, H, O and N;
OF THE SUBSTRATE - minor elements: P, K, S and Mg;
A substrate is a group of products that is - vitamins and hormones;
contained in water and is liable to be used by - trace elements (Co, Fe, Ni, etc.).
bacteria for growth. These elements may be
classified in the following way:
Chap. 4: Basic biological processes in water treatment
Aerobic treatment facilities have long been treatment processes for removing not only
designed empirically by rule of thumb: 150 to carbonaceous pollution, but also nitrogenous
200 litres of aeration tank per population and phosphorous pollution;
equivalent or 100 litres of trickling filter per - on the other hand, the development of
population equivalent, etc. fermentation technology that makes it possible
A more rational approach to planning and to determine more precisely the principal
designing such facilities is now possible thanks parameters of a facility, such as hydraulic
to: circuits, tank capacity, oxygen requirements,
- on the one hand, the benefits of sludge production, etc.
microbiological studies, which, by explaining
many phenomena, have perfected the original
Until the end of World War II, purification
2.1 facilities were very modest in design. It was
SUSPENDED GROWTH not until later that high rate systems using
(ACTIVATED SLUDGE) combined tanks (Aero-accelerator, Oxycontact,
Oxyrapid) and the °Biosorption or Contact
2.1.1. Definitions Stabilization" processes, etc. were developed.
Currently, research into more efficient
Activated sludge processes essentially purification processes prompted by the
involve a phase in which the water to be frequent need to remove nitrogen and the
purified is brought into contact with a bacterial relative difficulties involved in operating high
floc in the presence of oxygen (aeration), rate systems, have reawakened interest in low
followed by a phase of separation from this rate treatment.
floc (clarification). In fact, these processes An activated sludge facility always includes
amount to an intensification of the phenomena (Figure 137):
that occur in the natural environment. The
difference lies in the greater concentration of
microorganisms which results in a greater
oxygen volume demand. Moreover, in order to
maintain the bacterial mass in suspension, it
must be artificially mixed.
The birth of this process can probably be
traced back to Friday, April 3, 1914, when two
British researchers, Edward Ardern and
William Lockett, presented an account of their
work, entitled "Experiments in the Oxidation
of Sewage without Filters" to the Industrial
Chemical Society of London.
Chap. 4: Basic biological processes in water treatment
Seen under a microscope, the flocs the same time, the gas starts diffusing toward
frequently appear to be branched like the the deeper layers of water.
fingers of a glove, and the bacteria seem to be The quantity of oxygen diffused per unit of
enveloped in a gelatinous substance. The floc time is:
remains in the endogenous metabolic phase.
However, by observing the correlations
between the sludge age and the changes in the KL is known as the transfer coefficient
percentage of free organisms not associated (see Page 277).
with the floc, it is possible to determine that On the basis of this equation, the
the minimum value lies in a range of four to oxygenation capacity (OX.CAP.) of an
nine days. After more than nine days, aeration system is defined as the quantity of
although the settleability remains adequate on oxygen expressed in g.rri 3 supplied in one
the whole, a deflocculation process begins. hour to pure water with a constant zero
The flocs become smaller, and increasing oxygen content, at a temperature of 10°C, and
numbers of small particles escape (pinhead at atmospheric pressure of 760 mm mercury.
flocs). The following equation allows the value of
OX.CAP. to be calculated:
Conversely, in less than four days, the very
hydrophilic floc settles poorly and the number
of free microorganisms increases very
rapidly.
The quantity of oxygen introduced de- remove nitrogen, all the reactions can be
pends on: illustrated in the following diagram:
- the value of the interfaces between the air
and water, and their renewal;
- the oxygen concentration gradient
between the air and water;
- the time available for oxygen diffusion.
Nitrification requires additional oxygen. It water areas, when no correction is made the
is necessary to supply 4.6 mg of oxygen per nitrification process results in a pH that is
mg of N(NO3 - ) produced; or more precisely, too low for the complete oxidation of
4.2 mg, taking into account the oxygen ammonia.
released by HCO3 . The nitrifying bacteria Lastly, nitrifying bacteria are sensitive to
tolerate, however, periods of insufficient many factors in their environment. The
oxygen relatively well. presence of certain organic or inorganic
compounds may modify or even inhibit the
growth of nitrifying bacteria, particularly in
certain industrial wastewaters.
2.1.3.4. Denitrification
mined experimentally, equals 1.116 for the floc is and how easily oxygen transfers to
temperatures between 5 and 27°C (see Figure the bacteria. These values also depend on the
140). nature and concentration of organic carbon.
However, Oz concentrations higher than 0.5
mg.l-1 are known to be highly inhibiting.
Another approach is to measure the redox
potential instead of the dissolved oxygen.
Even though the figures observed frequently
vary, it seems that denitrification is not
satisfactory unless the redox potential is less
than 220 mV.
.pH
The optimum pH lies between 7 and 8.2.
2.1.4.3. Factors involved in biological explains why free acetate is not found in
phosphate removal anaerobic zones.
The biological removal of phosphates
requires alternating anaerobic and aerobic . Aerobic phase
sequences. The aim of alternating these The Acinetobacter/Moraxella locate the
sequences is to modify the enzymatic electron acceptors for their metabolism (N03,
equilibrium regulating the poly-P synthesis oxygen). The PHB is then used as organic
in the anaerobic phase. substrate for their growth and the
replenishment of their reserve of poly-P
The anaerobic phase through the reabsorption of interstitial
Acetate-producing bacteria, facultative phosphorus. The quantities reabsorbed
anaerobes, use the available organic carbon, exceed the amount released during the
existing for example in raw water, to produce anaerobic phase. Thus, in a succession of
acetate. Aeromonas are the main organisms anaerobic-aerobic phases, phosphorus is
responsible for this anaerobic acidogenesis. gradually accumulated in these
It should be noted that the presence of microorganisms in quantities reaching 10 to
nitrates in this anaerobic phase prevents the 11 % of dry weight. In a phosphorus-
production of acetate. This point is explained removing activated sludge in which other
by the denitrifying capabilities of bacteria live, this value could reach 7% of
Aeromonas, which do not use their dry weight.
fermentative metabolism as long as there are It should be noted that in the aerobic
nitrates in the medium to act as final electron phase, other heterotrophic organisms that do
acceptors. not accumulate poly-P have at their disposal
only a fraction of the organic matter, which
The acetate produced is reused by the is, moreover, the least biodegradable.
bacteria of the Acinetobacter/Moraxella The different reactions are illustrated in
group. These bacteria are strictly aerobic and Figure 141.
can only use a limited range of substrates. The common denominator in all these
They consume acetate, ethanol, lactate, processes using the biological removal of
citrate and several amino acids, but they phosphates is thus the alternating of an
cannot use sugars or volatile fatty acids with anaerobic phase, in which the biomass comes
a molecular weight higher than that of into contact with the organic carbon in
propionic acid. untreated water, with an aerobic phase in
which the previously released phosphorus is
The acetate used by the reassimilated.
Acinetobacter/Moraxella is stored in situ in These processes fall into two general
the form of PHB (polyhydroxyburyrate). The categories:
energy required for this storage comes from - processes in which no chemical reagent is
the hydrolysis of poly-P, which explains the added; in these systems the phosphorus is
accelerated release of phosphate into the "biologically" stored in the sludge and
medium. In this process, acidogenesis is the removed with the excess sludge. The
limiting step, which efficiency of phosphate removal thus de
2. Aerobic bacterial growth
an age of five days, obtained from Koers and Mavinic consider that the
nonsettled municipal wastewater. product (temperature °C x stabilization
Oxygen requirements for a stabilization time) can be used to calculate the
time of 15 days at 15°C vary from 0.1 reduction rate of organic matter for
to 0.15 kg of O2 per day and per kg of
VS, depending on the source of the
sludge. This oxygen consumption also
depends on the temperature.
2. Aerobic bacterial growth
sludges of the same type (see Figure 143 b). Another proposed method is to assess the
amount of volatile acids formed and the
Various quantitative criteria have been amount of nitrogen ammonified per
proposed to define a sufficiently stabilized gramme of OM maintained under anaerobic
sludge: conditions.
- the respiration of the sludge: 0.1 kg Oz The term thermophilic aerobic digestion
per kg of OM per day, at 20°C; refers to the stabilization process that, by
- weight loss of less than 10% after 120 h of limiting heat losses, benefits from the
aeration at 20°C in a medium with an Oz exothermic nature of the OM oxidation
level of 2 mg.l-1 . reaction to heat the sludge to more than
50°C.
After some time, stratification occurs If the substrate fails to reach them, the
with an aerobic layer, where the oxygen is microorganisms in the anaerobic layer die,
diffused, on top of a deeper anaerobic layer then undergo autolysis. In this way, their
in which there is no oxygen. The thickness cellular contents become available to other
of these two layers varies according to the facultative aerobic or anaerobic
type of reactor and support (see Figure microorganisms. When all of the substrate
144). reserves are truly exhausted, the lysis of the
The use of biofilm methods for treating remaining cells causes the biofilm to
water shows that: become locally detached from the surface.
- the rate at which the substrate is used This surface then becomes available for a
stabilizes at a constant value when the new colonization. The action of water
biofilm is deep enough for oxygen to currents on the surface of the biofilm can
become a limiting factor in the deepest bring about or contribute to its detachment
layers. The "active" depth may be about (sloughing).
300 - 400 µm; Whatever the material, all trickling
- the bacteria attached to a support usually filters operate on the same principles.
display higher specific activity than those The filter is aerated, in most cases by
observed in suspended growth. natural draught, but occasionally by forced
countercurrent ventilation.
2.2.2. Trickling filter (bacteria beds)
2.2.2.1. Basic equations
The operating principle of a trickling The BOD removed by a trickling filter
filter (sometimes referred to as a biofilter or depends on the nature of the water to be
as a percolating filter) consists in allowing treated, the hydraulic load, the temperature,
the water to be treated to trickle onto a and the type of fill material.
mass of material with a specific surface The mathematical formulation is based
area of between 50 and 200 m2 .m-3 and on the assumption that the microorganisms
supporting a film of purifying in the trickling filter are in the declining
microorganisms. Depending on the type of growth phase:
material used, there are two basic
categories of trickling filter:
- trickling filters with traditional fill. The
fill can be pozzuolana, blast furnace coke, where:
or crushed siliceous rocks with a void ratio Sf. BOD5 of the clarified effluent
of about 50%. This type of biological filter So : soluble BOD5 from the feed to the filter
is predominantly used for municipal t: average retention time of water in the
wastewater; filter
- trickling filters with plastic fill, often used k1 :a constant depending on:
in the treatment of industrial wastewater. . water temperature
These plastic materials, which are used in a . the type of fill
random or ordered fashion, have void ratios . the nature of the wastewater to be treated.
above 90%.
2. Aerobic bacteria! growth
2.2.2.2. Trickling filters with traditional In high rate filters, which normally
fill require recirculation, the hydraulic loading
With traditional fill materials and a bed is sufficient to homogenize the bacterial
depth of 2 m, purification efficiency is flora at the various levels. Selfcleaning of
relatively low (66%) when the loading the material, which then retains only a thin
(expressed in kg of BOD5 per m3 of active film, encourages rapid exchanges
material per day) is high. In this case, and relieves the trickling filter of the task of
efficiency can be increased by recirculating breaking down the cellular material that
the filter effluent back to the filter, thus develops. This process of mineralization
diluting the feed water. (stabilization) occurs in other sections of
Empirical equations have been the facility, such as the anaerobic digester,
developed for domestic wastewaters. For which means that a clarifier must be used at
example, Rankin gives the following the filter outlet to collect the settled matter
equations, based on a maximum hydraulic for transfer to the sludge treatment
load facilities.
(including recirculation) of 1.13 in m3 /m2 h: In a high rate filter, the activity of
-single-stage trickling filter: predatory agents is limited.
Chap. 4: Basic biological processes in water treatment
On the other hand, in a low rate filter there Owing to the depth of the zoogloea
is no continuous washing of the sludge, which attached to the support and the fact that
tends to build up in the contact mass. The oxygenation is often insufficient, trickling
action of predatory agents is essential, and filters frequently enable partial denitrification
this, together with endogenous respiration of to take place. This denitrification is improved
the bacteria, limits excessive growth of the by recycling and it essentially occurs in the
film. upper layers of the trickling filter, where the
organic carbon from the raw water is
Nitrification may take place if the organic available.
carbon load applied is sufficiently low. Figure
146, showing the curve obtained for municipal In a low rate filter, the sludge is strongly
wastewater settled at 15°C (G. Martin), gives mineralized and can be discharged into the
the TKN removal efficiency as a function of outlet without final clarification if periodic
the loading in a trickling filter with discharges of sludge into the final effluent are
pozzuolana packing. permissible.
Unlike in activated sludge, nitrification is
not an "all or nothing" process, because the Because of the frequent risk of clogging,
microorganisms are stratified throughout the the large fly population they encourage and
entire depth. The top portion contains their high cost, low rate filters are little used
primarily heterotrophs, while the bottom part despite their high efficiency (95% for BODS).
is mostly made up of autotrophs. In contrast to High rate filters, with recirculation, are more
activated sludge, the limiting factor is not the commonly used for removing carbonaceous
sludge age, but the kinetics of nitrification. pollution.
Recirculation
Recirculation has several advantages:
- self-cleaning of the trickling filter,
- seeding of the settled effluent,
- diluting of the high BOD wastewater.
The fill materials used for trickling - they may be operated with high BOD5
filters must be clean and non-friable. loadings of between 1 and 5 kg/m3 .d, or
Particle size must be regular and between even higher;
40 and 80 mm. The void ratio is about 0.5, - since plastic is more expensive than
which means that, allowing for the traditional fill, the aim is to use
biological film, the void left free for plasticmedia high rate trickling filters.
aeration is limited to about 0.15. Whatever Under these conditions, the BOD5 removal
the traditional material used, the risk of is too low to yield an effluent complying
clogging by coarse suspended solids from with the standards usually in force, since it
the raw water requires the construction of a fluctuates between 50 and 80% depending
primary settling tank upstream of the filter. on the type of flow treated and the loading
chosen. For this reason, treatment by a
2.2.2.3. Trickling filters with plastic fin trickling filter with plastic fill is often
Trickling filters with traditional fill are followed by a stage of conventional
little used for the treatment of high BOD treatment, such as activated sludge.
industrial wastewater flows from sources Random packings seem to become
such as the agrifood industries, because of clogged more readily than ordered
the risk of clogging and the excessive materials, and their use is generally limited
proliferation of filamentous biological to low pollution flows free of suspended
films. solids, fibres or greases.
Plastic fill considerably reduces these They may also be used in nitrifying
risks and provides a higher oxygen transfer filters downstream of an activated sludge
coefficient. The applications of plastic stage. Thus, the nitrification rate for
packing filters are very different from those industrial wastewater is approximately 100
with traditional fill for the following g of N-NH4 per m3 and per day at 20°C and
reasons: 50 g at 15°C.
Chap. 4: Basic biological processes in water treatment
Figure 149. Fixed bed reactor (Nitrazur) being washed. Louveciennes plant near Paris (France).
Nitrification of groundwater, Maximum flow: 5000 mj.h -1 .
2. Aerobic bacterial growth
It is thus possible to operate at high BOD Fixed bed reactors may operate in upflow or
loadings and still obtain, in a single stage, downflow, according to the direction of the
purification efficiencies that produce municipal water flow chosen. Depending on the relative
wastewater effluent meeting usual discharge directions of the water to be treated and the
standards. oxygenating gas, a distinction may also be
These granular-media bioreactors may be made between cocurrent and countercurrent
divided into two main groups: reactors. The granular support material is
- those which perform biological purification periodically regenerated by washing in the
and retain the SS initially present in the raw reactor itself (Figure 149). Note that, in theory,
wastewater as well as the excess sludge the principle of purification applied in fixed
produced. These are fixed granular beds , also granular beds can be extended to include
known as biofilters; floating granular beds made up of low-density
- those in which the bioreactor performs only beads.
biological purification, with SS being removed Moving beds can be:
by a unit situated downstream. In this case, the - fluidized, where oxygen is dissolved in the
exchange surface for microorganisms and recirculated effluent. However, controlling the
substrates is optimized by using very fine growth of the biological film requires an
granular materials that are kept in motion. extraction, washing and material recycling
These units are known as moving granular system. The loadings used are limited by
beds. oxygenation capacity.
Figure 150. Aerobic reactor with a turbulent granular bed at the Beghin-Say sugar refinery in
Thumeries in northern France.
Chap. 4: Basic biological processes in water treatment
- turbulent, where air is directly introduced They are spaced 2 to 3 cm apart and turn at 1
into the reactor (Figure 150). A settling tank to 2 rpm.
downstream is essential. The purification
efficiency is limited. A clarifier, designed for rising velocities
of up to 2 m.h -1 , retains the excess sludge.
2.2.4. Other systems The absence of any stirring in the aeration
tank:
2.2.4.1. Biological discs - necessitates the presence of a primary
settling tank;
This method, which is also known as the - prohibits the recirculation of sludge after
Rotating Biological Contactor (RBC), goes the clarifier.
back to the 19th century, to the work of
Weigrand on the purifying capabilities of These systems are often made up of
water mill wheels. several disc stages, the first of which remove
organic carbon, and the last of which
The biomass is attached to discs that turn perform nitrification. Loadings are expressed
around a horizontal axis and are partially in g BODS per m2 of disc surface per day
bathed in the water to be treated (Figure Loadings rarely exceed 25 to 30 g/m2 .d.
151). Rotation brings the biomass alternately With considerably lower loadings,
in contact with the water to be treated and nitrification is possible but the system is
the oxygen in the air. highly temperature-sensitive.
An electric motor usually provides the The advantage of this method is that it
energy for the discs to rotate. Several consumes little electrical energy (2 to 4 W.m-
2
methods have been designed to aid rotation of disc), but widespread use has been
and oxygenation by blowing additional air hindered by:
into pockets attached to some of the discs. - the need to stabilize primary and biological
The discs, which are made of polystyrene, sludge;
PVC, or corrugated polyethylene sheets, are
2 to 3 m in diameter.
2. Aerobic bacterial growth
- the great difficulty in obtaining a treated directly on the surface area. Processes may
municipal wastewater effluent with less be grouped on the basis of this criterion,
than 40-45 mg.l-1 BOD5 without making which determines all the subsequent
heavy additional investments; - the need to technological options;
cover the discs to protect them against harsh - sensitivity to clogging and the possibilities
weather. of cleaning;
- the resistance to wear and tear;
2.2.4.2. Submerged contact structures - the material and installation costs.
This method consists in submerging in a The processes differ mainly in the type of
tank of activated sludge a fixed or floating materials used:
structure on which an additional biomass - flat materials.
has developed, which is not required to pass These processes use plastic fill similar to
through the clarifier. Thus, it is theoretically that used in trickling filters. The BOD
possible to improve the performance of a loadings applied remain below 2 kg/m3 .d.
biological purification facility without The increase in the level of sludge is about
enlarging the clarifier, which may be 20 to 40% as compared to traditional
limited by the solids loading applied (see activated sludge;
Page 164). - filiform materials. The threads employed
Another more promising application may be used in two ways:
involves nitrification tanks that are fitted
with these contact structures and placed * by direct implantation of threads
downstream of a conventional facility arranged in various ways (loops,
removing carbonaceous pollution. This clusters, etc.), mainly using the "ring-
system can be compared with a method that lace" technique.
is widely used in small facilities in Japan,
where a final aeration tank fitted with * by using 2 to 3 cm edge cubes made of
honeycomb modules is located downstream polyurethane mesh.
of the small plant with no final settling tank.
The criteria determining the choice of The major drawback of this method lies in
contact structure are: the especially high risks of clogging and
- the specific surface area. The growth of agglomeration, particularly with waters
the biomass concentration depends containing fibres, greases, etc.
- floating materials.
Chap. 4; Basic biological processes in water treatment
The following are the main genera: The generation time varies widely,
Genus Substrates depending on the type of substrate, from
Methanobacterium H2/CO2 several hours for hydrogenophilic bacteria
Methanobrevibacter H2/CO2 to several days for acetate-cleaving
Methanococcus H2/CO2 bacteria.
Methanosarcina H2/CO2/acetate The affinity constants with regard to the
Methanothrix acetate substrates also vary widely, while very
low acetate levels tend to promote the
presence of Methanothrix in anaerobic
ecosystems.
3.3.
Substrate CH4 production
FACTORS CHARACTERISTIC (m3.kg-1 of
OF ANAEROBIC substrate)
DIGESTION Sugars 0.42 to 0.47
Proteins 0.45 to 0.55
3.3.1. Biogas Greases Up to 1
are similar to those in trickling filters, very good substrate-culture exchange and a
except that they are submerged. The high high concentration of active biomass can be
void ratio of these materials substantiallyachieved with these reactors. The loadings
limits the risk of clogging, while the here may reach 50 kg/m3 d of COD or even
relatively high developed surface area more for some effluents.
allows operation at satisfactory loadings, It is necessary to control the growth of
generally greater than 10 kg/m3 .d of COD. the bacterial mass so as to avoid an
excessive buoyancy increase of the support
. The use of moving support materials material or congestion of the bed.
(Figure 153) Methane fermentation is well suited to
Moving supports usually have a particle certain fluidized or expanded bed reactors,
size of a few hundred microns. They are but the hydraulic system must be perfectly
expanded by an ascending flow of water. A controlled.
Figure 153. The Anafix fixed bed reactor. The Saint-Hubert dairy. Magnieres factory in
eastern France.
4. Using membranes in the treatment of wastewater
Large surface area processes involve substantial surface area, but installation of
purification processes with low the treatment unit is always very simple
concentration of purifying organisms in the and requires little electromechanical
biological reactor. These systems do not equipment.
include recirculation of bacterial liquor or a
separate clarification stage. They require a
In any lagoon, the aerobic and anaerobic the action of aerobic bacteria and algae,
phenomena are more or less related. If, in while in the layers lying below the surface,
an aerobic lagoon, a large part of the liquid it is removed by anaerobic bacteria and so-
mass is deprived of oxygen and is the scene called "facultative" bacteria, which are
of anaerobic bacterial growth, the lagoon is bacteria that are adapted to both
referred to as facultative. In the upper environments.
water layers, organic matter is removed
through
One approach to the necessary retention tion) and the development of algae are
time is based on the application of Monod's detrimental to good separation of
model for a single completely mixed suspended solids. In the treatment of
reactor (refer to Page 285). If So and Sf are municipal wastewater, the SS concentration
BODS levels in the raw and treated in the treated effluent may vary between 50
wastewaters, then: and 250 mg.l-1 .
Locating a settling lagoon downstream
of the aerating lagoon allows these values
where: to be reduced. The soluble BODS of the
t is the retention time in days, treated effluent is low and corresponds to a
KT depends on the temperature T in °C reduction of 80 to 90% for a retention of
according to the relation KT = Kzo x about 10 days in temperate climatic
1.07T-z° if T> 10°C. For municipal conditions.
wastewater, Kzo is about 0.5.d-1. The efficiency of bacterial
The temperature Ti in the lagoon may be decontamination depends mainly on the
calculated by the equation: retention time and the absence of
preferential paths in the lagoon.
It is therefore clear that aerated lagoons
where: are best suited to the breakdown of organic
T° is the temperature in °C of the pollution and that natural lagoons are
wastewater to be treated, particularly well suited to reducing the
T1 is the temperature in °C in the lagoon, bacterial concentration in an effluent that
Ta is the temperature in °C of the ambient has already undergone secondary
air, purification, whence the name `stabilizing'
A is the surface area in m2 of the lagoon, or `ripening' lagoons.
Q is the flow in mj.h -1 ,
F is a coefficient that varies from 0.5 to 1.2 5.2.3. Anaerobic lagoons
in the temperate zones of the northern
hemisphere. The retention times are greater than 20
In reality, dividing the lagoon into days and often exceed 50. The BOD
compartments and rational distribution of loadings are about 0.01 kg/m3 .d and the
aerators reaps some of the benefits of removal efficiency may vary in a wide
having the tanks arranged in series. On the range of 50 to 80%. The SS level is high.
other hand, the dispersed character of the Deep lagoons (5 to 6 m for example)
bacterial floc in low concentrations (low should theoretically enhance the process.
sludge age and limited level of stabiliza
banks must be as steep as possible and be lagoon be supplied with wastewater that
protected against wave action (adequate has not been previously settled. The
rock support, sufficient freeboard) upstream zones of lagoons often carry large
especially in aerated lagoons. amounts of sludge deposits that may cause
The operation of the lagoons is made easier a nuisance.
if settleable and floating matter is The systematic cleaning of lagoons is an
previously removed from the wastewater. essential part of operations and it is
The ideal solution for municipal wastewater important that this be taken into account in
consists in installing upstream of the lagoon the study phase. Sludge removal is often
a pretreatment and primary settling facility accompanied by the clearance of excess
combined with, for example, an anaerobic aquatic plants, particularly in natural
digestion plant. However, economic factors lagoons
generally dictate that the
5.4. THE USE OF SOIL FOR Table 45 gives typical characteristics and
PURIFICATION performance of these treatment systems.
ing these irrigation techniques is the limited tolerant. A detailed plan of irrigated crop
period of use. For annual crops, land rotation has to be drawn up.
disposal is only possible during 3 to 6 It is preferable that the raw wastewater
months per year. In grassland, land disposal has at least undergone settling before use
is not possible during the rainy season or in (refer to Page 81). The more advanced the
the months before animals are put out to pretreatment of the effluent, the more
pasture. Tree plantation (poplars) are more constant and rapid its infiltration rate.
Table 45. Characteristics and performance of the main methods of treating municipal
wastewater by soil.
Annual Daily Treated water mg.l -1
hydraulic hydraulic Required
Treatment
loading loading pretreatment SS BOD5 TKN
m/year mm/day
Irrigation 0.5 to 3 3 to 10 Primary settling <5 <5 3-5
Infiltration- 4 to 50 20 to 200 Primary settling <5 <5 10
percolation
Controlled 1 to 10 10 to 30 Screening < 20 < 15 5
runoff
Chap. 4: Basic biological processes in water treatment
5
METHODS AND MEANS OF
ANALYSIS
1 GENERAL
Analysis is absolutely necessary to design The relentless progress of analytical
a water treatment installation project as well techniques makes it possible to improve our
as to monitor its operation and to evaluate the knowledge of the constituents of the different
quality of the treated water (plant outlet, types of water and their effects. Quality
systems, natural environment). standards are increasingly rigorous, treatments
are increasingly sophisticated and monitoring
needs to be all the more precise and reliable.
2. SAMPLES
The primary objective of sampling is to In most physical-chemical analyses of
obtain samples representative of the water intended for supply (system water,
element that one wishes to analyze (water, drilling water, etc.), it is necessary to wait
material, sludge, deposit, gas, reagent, etc.). the needed amount of time to obtain a
Samples of water must be taken in constant water quality. With regard to lake
particularly clean bottles rinsed several or reservoir water, the choice of sampling
times with the water to be examined, unless sites must take into account the variations
the bottle, originating from the laboratory, in the parameters to be measured in relation
contains a chemical agent: for example, a to depth, season, winds, rains, etc.
chlorine removing agent (bacteriology) or
preservative acid (metals), etc.
The latter two pieces of apparatus can greater number of compounds (humic acid,
operate at several pH levels. An for example). The liquid-liquid extractor
extraction cell is less sensitive to the also has the advantage of providing more
presence of SS than resins; on the other easily quantifiable results and presents
hand, the latter make it possible to recover a fewer blank testing problems.
Maximum
Determination Flasks Recommended preservation periods
conditions of non-
evolution
pH 250 ml, Pyrex Analysis on-site 24 hours
preferably
TH, M alk., Cl-, NO2-, 2 1, plastic Refrigeration at 4°C 48 hours
N03- , NH4 + , SO4 2-, color, or Pyrex
SS, dry solids
Tasting 1 1, Pyrex Refrigeration at 4°C Less than
24 hours
Dissolved 125 ml, Pyrex 1 ml solution A (MnSO4 ) 12 weeks
oxygen 1 ml solution B (KI)
(see Winkler method)
Refrigeration at 4°C
Detergents, P04 3- 250 ml 1 ml 50% H2 SO4 4 weeks
plastic Refrigeration at
4°C and darkness
CN- 1 1, Pyrex 2 ml NaOH, pH 10, 24 hours
Refrigeration at
4°C and darkness
Al, B 250 ml 5 ml HNO3 4 weeks
plastic
Heavy metals 1 1, plastic 5 ml HNO3 4 weeks
TOC 125 ml, Pyrex 2 ml H2 SO4 pH 2, 4°C 1 week
Chap. 5: Methods and means of analysis
Maximum
Determination Flasks Recommended preservation periods
conditions of non-
evolution
Hydrocarbons 1 1, Pyrex 2 ml H2 SO4 , pH 2, 4°C 24 hours
Phenols 1 1, Pyrex 1.5 ml H3 PO4 and 10 ml 1 week
10% CUS04 solution
TKN 1 1, Pyrex 2 ml 50% H2 SO4 at 4°C 1 week
in darkness
PAH and pesticides 2 1, Pyrex Refrigeration at 4°C 1 week
in darkness
Halomethanes 30 ml 0.5 g thiosulphate and to be 1 week
filled
glass up to shoulder level
Bacteriology 250 ml Sterile flasks with 24 hours
or 500 ml thiosulphate - Refrigeration
plastic at 4°C vital
Algology 1 1, Pyrex 40 ml formol - Refrigeration 1 week
at 4°C and darkness
COD 1 1, Pyrex 2 ml H2 SO4 , 1 week
BOD 1 1, Pyrex Refrigeration at 4°C 6 hours
or 2 ml H2 SO4 1 week
3. Analyses
3. ANALYSES
Reaction Detection
COD Reflux boiling oxidation Volumetry by oxidation-reduction
TOC Combustion
Chemical oxidation + UV IR absorption for C02
BOD Biochemical oxidation Volumetry of O2
or selective electrode
Manometry
To design a water treatment plant, often indispensable to carry out certain tests
knowledge, even in-depth knowledge, of to choose the process and evaluate its
physical-chemical analysis is necessary, yet effectiveness. These tests must be carried
it is not sufficient. According to the final out on site or shortly after the sample is
use (drinking water or process water), it is taken.
will actually have in the course of its - measurements specific to the treatment
fullscale treatment. under study: Fe, Mn, TOC, specific
First of all, a single reagent is pollutants, etc.
experimented at different dosages; if the
result is insufficient, a new test is run 4.1.2.3. Study of settling
repeating the treatment that produced the best
result in the first test and experimenting with The electrophoretic study and the
another treatment at the same time. If several flocculation test are not enough to transpose
reagents are used, it is important to take the the results to a full-scale level, as the most
order and the sequence of their introduction important thing is to know at what speed the
into account. clarifier can be operated. It is thus
A flocculator making it possible to advantageous to also study settling.
simultaneously shake the liquid contained in Two.cases can occur:
a series of beakers must be used for the - relatively limited flocculation: if the
results to be comparable. The rotation speed flocculated water is allowed to rest, each of
must be identical in all beakers; the optimal the particles deposits as if it were alone,
value is near 40 revolutions per minute for a some at high velocity and others at lower
1 x 5 cm blade turning in a 1 liter beaker. velocity. The liquid gradually clears and a
This test is carried out for 20 minutes. deposit forms at the bottom of the beaker;
Note down the following information: this is known as flocculent set
tling,
• Dosage of reagents and sequence. - abundant flocculation: settling involves
• Appearance of the flocculation the whole of the flocculated particles,
expressed by a mark: causing a clear liquid above a sludge layer at
0 : no floc, the upper part of the beaker; this is known as
2 : barely visible floc, small dots, hindered settling which, practically speaking,
4 : small floc, only occurs when liquids that are very rich in
6 : floc of average size, flocculable substances are treated.
8 : good floc,
10: very large floc. The measurements to be carried out are
• pH after flocculation. For the best different in either case.
results obtained, these indications are
completed with the following information: • Measuring the cohesion of the sludge
- color and turbidity of the settled water, If one adds an increasing quantity of sludge
- percentage of sludge after settling, - to the water from a previous test, it will be
flocculent settling velocity, noticed that the settling velocity increases.
- cohesion coefficient or settling velocity of This occurs until the liquid has been loaded
the sludge, with a sufficient quantity of sludge to obtain
- settled water's permanganate value, hindered settling. This observation is at the
basis of industrial use of "solids contact"
clarifiers.
Chap. 5: Methods and means of analysis
It can be observed that a sludge layer keep the air bubbles from being drawn
submitted to an upward water current expands along; this water must imperatively be the
and occupies an apparent volume roughly water settled in the course of the
proportional to the velocity of the water, flocculation test so that no variation in pH
according to a ratio that characterizes the or temperature is introduced. This water
cohesion of the sludge. A 250 ml cylinder (see must be introduced in a discontinuous
Figure 167) is used in which one places the manner by small quantities, with the excess
sludge collected from different beakers in the liquid running off by overflow from the top
course of the flocculation test with each part of the cylinder.
beaker having received the same amounts of The effect of this is to expand the sludge,
reagents. This is allowed to rest for ten and one calculates the upward velocities of
minutes. Then the excess sludge introduced is the water which correspond to different
siphoned off so as to only leave an apparent states of expansion of the sludge.
volume of about 50 ml in the cylinder. The measured time T (in seconds)
A small funnel is then introduced into the corresponds to the introduction of 100 ml of
cylinder; this funnel is extended by a tube the water for apparent volumes V ml of the
end of which is located about 10 mm from the sludge equal to 100, 125, 150, 175 and 200
bottom of the cylinder. ml.
Then, water is poured in the cylinder through To calculate the velocity v, if A is the
the funnel, which must be pushed lightly into height in mm of the cylinder corresponding
the cylinder in order to to 100 ml (distance between the 100 and
4. Drinking water and process water
increasing dosages of chlorine from the first dose of chlorine into the raw water (A in
bottle to the last bottle. After a contact time Figure 119 of page 253); after contact,
generally corresponding to the retention time measuring the residual chlorine (Aa) makes it
of the water in the installation, at constant possible to determine approximately the
temperature and away from the light, the value of the breakpoint:
chlorine remaining in the water of each bottle Om = OA – Aa
is measured (for some studies, it is
recommended to carry out this study after • Network test - Chlorine absorption
different contact times: 1, 2, 5 ... 24 hours). kinetics curve
One can thus establish the curve For a chosen level of chlorine, the
representing the residual chlorine vs the concentrations of free chlorine and total
chlorine introduced (see Figure 119, page 253). chlorine are measured as a function of time
Analysis of total chlorine and of free (see page 254 - Figure 120). The curve
chlorine is always recommended, especially if sections to examine, most specifically,
the absorption curve shows no breakpoint, in correspond to the "immediate demand" (less
order to determine chlorine demand according than one hour) and to consumptions after a
to a residual chosen for a certain contact time. long contact time (long networks). This test
Moreover, certain specific measurements can can provide indications on the usefulness of
be carried out according to increasing chlorine chlorination at different points in the
dosages: formation of haloforms, color, network.
organic matter, influence on the flocculation,
taste thresholds. 4.1.4.2. Chlorine dioxide absorption test
To find out the chlorine dioxide demand of
• Quick method of determining the water, the same procedure is used as for the
breakpoint chlorine demand: the curve of the
This is used carrying out a single disinfectant residual is drawn according to
measurement, introducing a largely excessive the amounts introduced. In the presence of
ammonia, the curve shows
Chap. 5: Methods and means of analysis
no breakpoint (since the dioxide does not to the contact time of the water in the
react with the ammonium ion). A ozonation column. The residual ozone is
concentrated solution of chlorine dioxide is measured by titration with
prepared from sodium chlorite in the diethylphenylenediamine (DPD) after adding
presence of an excess of hydrochloric acid. potassium iodide.
The concentration of the stock solution is The rate of ozone introduced is determined
about 15 g.l-1 ClO2 . The standard solution is by the following formula:
generally prepared at 0.5 g.l-1 . This Level of ozone mg.1-1
concentration must be verified as well as the
absence or presence of chlorite.
4.1.6 Physical-chemical iron removal test - monitor the concentration of residual iron,
the change of pH, the dissolved oxygen and
Iron removal by oxidation with air is carbon dioxide.
not always possible, particularly for If the concentration of residual iron is not
waters rich in OM. To determine. this, a less than 0.1 mg.l-1 , more complete tests
test must be carried out. This must be must be carried out, on a pilot installation if
performed on site, immediately after the possible, making use of other oxidizing
samples are taken: agents and/or various coagulants and
- aerate quickly by transferring the water flocculants (alginates, for example).
20 times from one beaker to another,
- filter through blue strip Durieux paper or
through 0.45 µm membrane,
4.2.
MEASURING OVERALL 4.2.1. Fouling index (FI)
PARAMETERS When the criterion of turbidity is no longer
In the field of water treatment there exist sensitive enough, the presence of particles
some indices that are characteristic of the
can be determined by the fouling of a filter
water or the operation of an installation or (Figure 171). This measurement is
are used for selecting treatment applicable to membrane filtration processes.
procedures Three such indices are
described below
Chap. 5: Methods and means of analysis
The analytical equipment is becoming Fill a 125 ml bottle with the water
increasingly efficient: counting, particle sample, adding 1 to 2 grammes of finely
size distribution curve, measuring ranges. crushed marble previously washed several
Nevertheless, measurement remains tricky: times with distilled water then with the
transporting the sample, choosing water under test. The bottle must be filled
measurement ranges, possible dilution. completely without any air bubbles.
Equipment proposed in the field of water Shake slowly for 24 hours and measure
treatment is usually based on optical pH, M alk. and hardness of the water after
principles of scattering, absorption, filtration.
diffraction (light or laser). Comparing these values with the pH, M
alk. and hardness of the water before
4.2.3. Marble test contact with the marble makes it possible to
determine the aggressive or scaling
To determine the aggressivity or scaling tendency of this water.
power of water, a chemical test can be
carried out in addition to calculating the
carbonate balance (see page 262).
5. WASTEWATER
The uncertainty in determining the BODs BOD5 ratios which can be indicative of
can be considerable, particularly on certain particular types of pollution (industrial
raw IWW if the seeding is not suitably wastewaters).
adapted. On raw MWW, the imprecision
does not exceed 10 to 15%; on MWW after 5.1.3. Suspended solids (SS)
extensive biological purification, however, it
can reach 50%. Membrane filtration methods seem simple
but the analytical methods must be
5.1.2. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) scrupulously adhered to. The operational
procedure must always be the same for the
The standardized method (NF T 90.101) results to be comparable. Error sources are
for wastewater uses potassium dichromate in numerous: type of membrane, value of
a hot sulphuric acid medium, a powerful pressure, vacuum or acceleration (method
oxidizing agent the consumption of which using centrifugation), volume of the test
makes it possible to define the COD. The samples, washing procedure after separation
precision of this measurement is in the 10% and, particularly, subsequent precipitation
range for values located above 50 mg.l-1 of between sampling and analysis (hydroxides,
O2 . Other methods are adapted to lower carbonates, phosphates, gypsum, etc.).
COD levels.
The COD represents everything that can 5.1.4. Volume of settleable matter
be oxidized, particularly certain oxidizable
mineral salts (sulphides, sulphites, etc.), and The analysis is carried out on samples
most organic compounds. Only certain passed through a 5 mm sieve to remove large
nitrogen compounds and hydrocarbons debris. Substances that deposit in a liquid at
escape this powerful oxidizing agent. rest during a period commonly set at two
The accuracy of the COD test is not hours are known as settleable matter. The
satisfactory for chloride concentrations graduates are conical or cylindroconical in
exceeding 2 g.l-1 . shape, making it possible to evaluate a
Permanganate value under cold (4 settled volume. This measurement is only
hours) or hot (10 min. boiling) conditions representative on relatively highly loaded
can also constitute a good field method for water.
monitoring the quality of water at a
treatment works (especially treated water). 5.1.5. Hydrocarbons
Measuring the TOC is now more and
more widely used (see page 340); the The analytical methods to determine
oxidation of the organic matter is generally hydrocarbons as a whole are quite numerous
more complete than when measuring the and their results can be very different.
COD. Numerous parameters are important: the
It is often advantageous to measure the solvent, extraction conditions, gravimetry or
three criteria TOC, COD and BOD5 and to IR absorption, calculation of IR absorbance
know the COD/TOC and COD/ levels (method of calibration,
5. Wastewater
wavelengths used). The methods applied All analyses must be carried out after
must always be specified and the inhibiting the biological reactions when
operational procedures must be taking the sample.
scrupulously adhered to. The results
according to the standards NF T 90.114, 5.1.7. Phosphorus
90.202 and 90.203 can thus differ
considerably. Analysis makes it possible to
The oils and fats present in MWW or distinguish three different forms of
food industry wastes are generally phosphorus:
measured by the methods described in 6.4. - orthophosphates,
- polyphosphates (acid hydrolysis),
5.1.6. Nitrogen - organophosphates (acid hydrolysis with
oxidation).
To follow the evolution of nitrogen
compounds throughout a treatment, the Inductive coupling plasma
different forms must be known: spectrometry makes it possible to
- ammonia nitrogen, determine the total phosphorus directly.
- nitrous nitrogen making it possible to
detect any biological inhibition, 5.1.8. Sulphur
- Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) or organic and
ammonia nitrogen. This category does not Sulphides can be determined by
include the oxidized compounds of iodometry after fixing the sulphides, by
nitrogen: nitrites, nitrates and certain potentiometry using a silver electrode, or
nitrated organic compounds. Measuring by colorimetry for low levels.
low values of TKN is a delicate procedure. Determining other reducing forms in
IWW is always more delicate
It should be pointed out that in France, (thiosulphates, dithionates, sulphites,
nitrogen as a whole in all its forms is often sulphocyanides, etc.). Selective methods
called total nitrogen (TN). using precipitation or chelation should be
avoided. Ion exchange chromatography
can be used in certain conditions.
Chap. S: Methods and means of analysis
plant and feeds the pilot with a mixture of seeded by sludge from municipal
municipal wastewater and the water to be sludge digesters presenting a wide
tested. In about ten days, the IWW bacterial population. The initial
proportion is gradually increased in steps operations are carried out under
of one to two days. If 100% IWW is nitrogen bubbling, then the bottle is
reached, it can be concluded that it is hermetically sealed. The batches are
treatable; if not, one can determine to what maintained at 37°C in a shaking
proportion it needs to be diluted with an incubator. Samples of gas and waste are
MWW for it to remain a valid food for taken at regular intervals to monitor the
microorganisms. Of course this test must formation of methane and the reduction
be carried out on a medium that is naturally of the COD. Complementary analyses
balanced in assimilable carbon, nitrogen can be carried out (composition of the
and phosphorus. gas, VFAs on the supernatant) so as to
display the limiting stages or the
• Anaerobic medium inhibition of the degradation reactions.
Discontinuous fermentations in batches are
carried out in small reactors (Figure 177),
Figure 177. Laboratory anaerobic reactor.
Chap. 5: Methods and means of analysis
6. SLUDGE
6.1. and V (ml) the volume of centrifuged
SUSPENDED SOLIDS (SS) sludge (V = 160 or 320 ml).
IN THE LIQUID SLUDGE
When the sludge is not very
concentrated, the dry weight should not
6.1.2. Filtration
include the quantity of dissolved substances
of the interstitial water of the sludge. Two
This method is reserved for sludge that is
methods are proposed:
not very concentrated (5 to 20 g.l-1 , for
example).
6.1.1. Centrifugation
A paper filter (ashless type extra rapid
filter, 150 dia., Durieux for example) is
A laboratory centrifuge equipped with
weighed precisely and the sludge (25 to
graduated 100 ml tubes is used. Each tube is
100 ml depending on the concentration) is
filled with 80 ml of sludge and centrifuged
filtered through a glass funnel. This process
at 4,000-5,000 rpm for 10 minutes. At the
can be quite lengthy in some cases where
end of the operation, the supernatant is
the sludge is not easily filterable. The filter
removed and all the sludge sediments are
is then dried in an oven at 105°C until
carefully recovered and allowed to dry in an
attaining a constant weight.
oven at 105°C until a constant weight is
obtained (generally for at least 12 hours).
NOTE: prior flocculation of the sludge
by a few mg.l-1 of polyelectrolyte (in situ
flocculation in the tube) makes it possible
to obtain homogenous sediments that are
easy to recover without substance loss. Let
M (g) be the weight of dry residue obtained
M l is the weight of the moist sample and M 2 - a portion of the inorganic substances and
the weight after drying. salts can decompose between 105°C and
550°C,
- a portion of the OM (namely certain
organocalcic or organometallic complexes)
might not volatilize at 550°C but rather at
6.2.2. DS at 175 to 185°C about 650 to 700°C,
- in the case of lime conditioned sludge, the
Drying at 175 to 185°C, compared to C02 produced by the combustion of the OM
drying at 105°C, makes it possible to is faced by the lime to yield CaC03 which
evaluate the water-of-crystallization content only decomposes at over 550°C.
of salts, the content of water bound to
hydroxides and certain volatile substances. Nevertheless, for most sludge,
determining the VS is an approximate
6.2.3. DS at 550°C and volatile solids (VS) evaluation of the organic matter. The VS
rate is generally expressed in % of DS
The residue is brought to 550°C for. two 6.2.4. DS at 900°C
hours in a muffle furnace, heated The VS between 550 and 900°C are
beforehand, and monitored by thermostat. essentially composed of the C02 resulting
Silica crucibles with 10 to 20 g of finely from the decomposition of carbonates
ground dry sludge are generally used. contained in the initial sludge.
The quantity of volatile solids volatilized
at 550°C must not be confused with the
organic matter content, for several
reasons:
Using a burette calibrated in 1/10 ml, precisely 3 min, and allowed to cool. Put the
add 0.1 N H2 SO4 , down to pH 4, i.e., cooled liquid under the electrodes of the pH
V ml: meter and while shaking add, with a burette
calibrated in 1/10 ml, 0.1 N NaOH to pH 4;
let V2 be the volume obtained.
Continue to add NaOH up to pH 7;
or: let V3 be the new volume.
M alk. = V X 4 X 0.05, in g.l-1 of CaCO3
have to be subtracted from the volumes bar (49 x 103 Pa) is given by the
collected later. Record the volumes of relationship:
filtrate collected in the course of the test for
different filtration times: every 10, 15, 20,
30 or 60 seconds, according to the filtration a: in s.m-6
rate. P: in Pascal (i.e., 49 x 103 Pa)
The test is conducted until the cake is S: in m2 in Pa.s. (at 20°C, near 1.1 x
dewatered (loss of vacuum due to the 10-3 Pa.s.)
cracking of the cake). C: in kg.m-3 j
• Calculation of the specific resistance r: in m.kg -1
to filtration
The volumes of the filtrates V0 , V1 , V2 , NOTE: C, residue on evaporation
V3 , etc., corresponding to the times T0 , Ti , at 105°C divided by the volume of
T2 , T3 , etc., are recorded. sludge, is an approximation of W
Record on a graph the points that have (weight of SS deposited per unit
VX as abscissa and as ordinate: filtrate volume).
6.6.
DETERMINING
COMPRESSIBILITY
COEFFICIENT
Measure specific resistance r to
filtration under several pressures P and
draw the curve log r = flog P). Verify
the linearity and measure its slope
which equals the compressibility
coefficient.
The equipment used is the same as
that of the preceding test.
In order to obtain maximum
precision, it is desirable to use pressures
that are reg
6. Sludge
6.8. THERMOGRAVIMETRY
• Procedure
1. - Fill the reservoir (10 or 18 mm dia.
according to the filterability of the sludge)
with a representative sample of the sludge.
If a monitoring test is involved, repeat the
test at least twice in view of the small
volume of sludge used.
If a flocculation study is involved, respect
the repetitive conditioning methods.
2. - As soon as the cylinder is filled, the
filtrate gradually expands more or less
quickly out of the cylinder under the effect
of the capillary suction of the filter paper.
The speed at which the filtrate "halo"
expands concentrically to the sur
face occupied by the sludge depends on the
quality of the paper but mainly on the
filterability of the sludge. When the liquid
filtrate front reaches 1A and 113, the
increase in conductivity between these two
probes causes the clock to start. When the
filtrate reaches probe 2, a similar change in
conductivity between it and 1A stops the
clock.
The apparatus thus automatically determines
the time the filtrate halo takes to go from a
diameter of 32 mm to 45 mm. The reference
times are from 5 to 10 seconds according to
the equipment.
• Interpretation
The lower the CST, the more filterable the
sludge. This test, which is quite rapid, makes
it possible to compare the effectiveness of a of sludge filterability, that is particularly well
mineral or thermal conditioning (formation suited to operating checks in filter press or
of very fine flocs). vacuum filter facilities.
In the standard conditions of use, and for If the CST is used to check the quality of
a given sludge (low variation in flocculation with a polyelectrolyte, the results
concentration), the CST can be correlated are hardly exploitable when there are highly
with the specific resistance to filtration. This differing flocs several milli-
is thus a quick, sufficient indication
6. Sludge
metres in diameter. This is the case for the of belt filters, and a simple drainage test is
flocculation needed for the operation then preferable
7. EXAMINATION OF GRANULAR
AND POWDERED MATERIALS
per unit weight for a pollutant concentration concentration of the pollutant in the water
equal to a tenth of the initial pollutant after contact.
concentration. This index makes it possible to Draw the isothermal curve in log-log
estimate the adsorption capacity of the coordinates plotting the concentration
carbon for average conditions close to the equilibrium expressed in mg.l-1 on the x-axis
normal use of carbon, and the pollutant weight (mg) retained per
- an index defining the treatment rate gramme of carbon on the y-axis (Figure 183).
necessary for a pollutant to go from one
concentration to another. 7.2.2.2. Kinetic study
The user must be attentive to the In the case of granular carbon contact can
operational conditions used by the various be made without grinding the carbon, by
suppliers to define these parameters. continuing to shake for a substantial period of
time (several weeks). Measuring the
7.2.2.1. Establishing an isothermal curve equilibrium concentration after different
- Take 6 No. 1.2 litre glass bottles. contact times makes it possible to model the
- Introduce 1 litre of water containing the adsorption of the pollutant under study.
pollutant the removal of which is to be
studied. 7.2.3. Ash residue of the carbon
- If a naturally polluted water is studied, the
water is introduced as is. Weigh precisely 1 g (approx.) of dry
- If a synthetic water is studied, generally a 1 carbon and introduce it into a calcining
mg weight of pollutant under testing is crucible; let Pi be the initial weight.
introduced into each bottle. Calcine the carbon at 625°C (± 25°C).
- Grind the carbon under study to a powder in Make sure the calcination is complete. After
a mortar and sift dry on a 40 gm sieve. Keep cooling, weigh the ash; let P2 this weight.
the particles which pass through the sieve. The ash content C is expressed as follows:
- Dry the carbon for 4 h at 120°C in a
crucible.
- Increasing dosages of carbon, precisely
weighed, are introduced into the bottles 7.2.4. Iodine index
containing the polluted water under analysis:
The iodine index represents the number of
Bottle No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 milligrammes of iodine absorbed per gramme
Dosage (mg.1-1 ) 0 10 20 30 40 50 of carbon for a residual iodine concentration
in the filtrate of 0.02 N. The adsorption
After one hour of moderate stirring (30 to capacity of a carbon depends on the
40 rpm) at constant temperature, each sample concentration of the medium to be adsorbed
is filtered on a 0.45 µm cellulose acetate with which it is in contact. Therefore, the
membrane. Remove the first 100 millilitres concentration of the filtrate must be known
and determine the pollutant remaining on the so that a correction factor can be applied in
rest of the filtrate. For each carbon dosage, order to comply with the definition.
one thus obtains the equilibrium
7. Examination of granular and powdered materials
Figure 184,
1 GENERAL
Life originated in water and a large activities are remineralized, through the
number of vital phenomena still occur action of bacteria and other
both in the original marine environment microorganisms, in the self-purification
as well as in lakes, rivers, ponds, process.
reservoirs, etc. In fact, biological treatment and
Many of these phenomena are useful. For purification of water are examples of
example, the mass of organic com pounds man's
generated by photosynthesis or by human
Chap. 6: Aquatic organisms
There are three kingdoms: bacteria, A simplified table (see pages 392 to 395)
animals and plants, the first having its place is given for each kingdom, containing only
at the lower end of the other two. Viruses, certain subdivisions (phylum, class, order,
large molecules of nucleic acid (combined family and genus) and including only those
with proteins), may be considered to mark groups which live in aquatic environments.
the border between life and inert matter. For the purpose of illustration only, a few
They form a separate world which is quite isolated examples are given at the level of
distinct from the "cellular" life represented order, family and genus: greater detail can
by the three kingdoms mentioned above. be found in the sub-chapters on
bacteriology and the study of plankton.
2.1.
THE BACTERIAL KINGDOM Nevertheless, bacteria have affinities
with both of the higher kingdoms. The
This is composed of microscopic classification of bacteria given here (Prévot,
unicellular organisms, living either 1961), is divided into four phyla: alongside
true bacteria (Eubacteria), the three other
separately or in colonies. It is distinguished
from the other two kingdoms by numerous phyla show certain analogies with fungi
characteristics; in particular, bacteria are (Mycobacteria), with algae (Algobacteria)
and with unicellular or protozoan animals
Procaryotae (having no nuclear membrane),
a characteristic which they share with the (Protozoobacteria).
Cyanophyceae (see later: Procaryotae
Protista).
3. IDENTIFICATION OF AQUATIC
MICROORGANISMS
For practical purposes, these of in rudiments relation to water, firstly as
identification are grouped according to a product for human consumption and
the role played by the microorganisms secondly as a product to be purified.
Protozoa
Giardia lamblia is responsible for
numerous cases of waterborne
gastroenteritis throughout the world (4 to
22% in the U.S.A.). The large spread of
infection is due to the abundance of healthy
carriers. Its resistance to disinfection is
particularly high when it is in the cyst state.
It can be successfully removed by
flocculation treatment using optimised
dosages, followed by rapid filtration
through sand.
If present in water, viruses are generally
found in very small quantities. The water to . Worms
be analysed must therefore be concentrated Water may serve as the vehicle for many
(see page 346). parasitic worms affecting man and animals.
These worms and their eggs are not
Fungi destroyed by disinfection using normal
A microscopic fungus, Histoplasma dosages but they are usually large enough
capsulatum, sometimes infests mains to ensure that efficient filtration will
piping and causes histoplasmosis. practically eliminate the risks of
Other than this exceptional case, no contamination. These worms generally
other waterborne epidemic is known to develop in a succession of different hosts:
have been caused by fungi.
- Taenia solium (tapeworm): spherical egg
.Amoebae measuring 35 µm, encysts in pigs,
Amoebae are able to survive for over a
month in water in the form of cysts.
3. Identification of aquatic microorganisms
- Taenia saginata (tapeworm): oval egg 25 x spike. It is excreted in the urine, develops in
35 µm, encysts in cattle, water to produce a cili
ated embryo (miracidium) which infects a snail
- Taenia echinococcus: adult stage in dogs, which lives in still waters. There it turns into a
encysts in sheep (hydatid cyst); egg 25 x 35 cercaria (larva with a forked tail) which returns
µm, to the water and invades a new human host
through the skin (or the mucous membranes of
- Bothriocephalus latus: adult stage in man. the mouth if the water is swallowed). The
The oval egg, 45 x 70 hum, develops in water, cercaria has a life span of two days.
releasing an embryo which infects a copepod. This epidemic is fought by destroying the
When this latter is swallowed by a fish, the molluscs which act as intermediate host, using
embryo becomes a larva (8 to 30 mm long) and either chemical methods (molluscicides),
lodges in the muscles of the fish, biological means or changing the habitat of the
molluscs.
- Distoma hepatica: a flat worm, adult stage in In drinking water the cercariae can be
man and sheep. The ovoid egg, 70 to 130 µm, removed by filtration through fine sand (0.35
develops in water and produces a ciliated mm maximum). However, total destruction of
embryo which infects a water snail, inside the cercariae requires effective prechlorination
which it transforms into a cercaria. This swims and final disinfection (chlorine or ozone) using
away to attach itself to a water plant before suitable dosages and contact times,
infecting a sheep again. The adult form fixes
itself in the liver, - Ascaris lumbricoides: occurs frequently in
the small intestine of man and pigs. Ovoid egg
- Distoma lanceolata: similar to the above, the 50 x 75 µm. It develops in water or wet soil to
intermediate host being a planorbis snail, form an embryo 0.3 mm long which is
transmitted directly to man,
- Bilharzia: a trematode worm, whose generic
name is Schistosoma and which is the cause of - Oxyuris vermicularis: often found in
a serious disease called bilharziosis or children. Oval egg with one slightly flattened
schistosomiasis, widespread in the hotter parts side 20 x 50 elm. Does not seem to live long in
of the world. There are two forms of the water,
disease and three species of this parasitic
worm: - Eustrongylus gigas: infects the urinary tract.
- vesical schistosomiasis, due to S. The elliptical egg (40 x 60 gym), paler at each
haematobium (Egypt, tropical Africa, end, is expelled in the urine. The embryo, 0.25
Madagascar) mm long, infects a fish as an intermediate host,
- intestinal schistosomiasis, caused by S. - Ancylostoma duodenale (hookworm): a
mansoni (Egypt, tropical Africa, small worm, 6 to 20 mm in length, that lives in
Madagascar, South America) or by S. the intestine, pierces the mucous membranes
japonicum (Far East). and causes persistent hemorrhages and diarrhea
The adult lives in the blood vessels of man. (ancylostomiasis or hookworm disease). The
The egg is ovoid (50 x 150 gym) with a 25 gm
Chap. 6: Aquatic organisms
Odour description
Algae class Moderate Large Tote Tactile
description sensation
quantities quantities
of algae of algae
Cyanophyceae
Anabaena grassy, musty, rotten, - -
nasturtium septic,
medicinal
Anabaenopsis - grassy
Aphanizomenon grassy, musty, rotten, sweet dry
nasturtium septic,
medicinal
Cilindrospermum grassy septic - -
Gloeotrichia - grassy - -
Gomphosphaeria grassy grassy sweet -
Microcystis or grassy, musty rotten, sweet -
Anacystis septic,
medicinal
Nostoc musty rotten, - -
septic
medicinal
Oscillatoria grassy musty, spicy - -
Rivularia grassy musty - -
Chlorophyceae
Actinastrum - grassy, musty - -
Ankistrodesmus - grassy, musty - -
Chara garlic, musky musty, garlic - -
Chlamydomonas musty, grassy fishy, sweet soft,
septic oily
medicinal
Chlorella - musty - -
Cladophora - septic - -
Closterium - grassy - -
Chap. 6: Aquatic organisms
Odour description
Algae class Moderate Large Tote Tactile
description sensation
quantities quantities
of algae of algae
Meridion - spicy - -
Pleurosigma - fishy - -
Stephanodiscus grassy, spicy fishy - soft,
geranium oily
Synedra grassy musty, fishy - soft,
oily
Tabellaria grassy, spicy, fishy - soft,
geranium oily
Chrysophyceae
Dinobryon violets, fishy - soft,
fishy oily
Mallomonas violets fishy - -
Synura cucumber, fishy bitter dry,
rotten, metallic,
medicinal, soft
muskmelon
Uroglenopsis cucumber fishy - soft,
oily
Euglenophyceae
Euglena - fishy sweet -
Dinophyceae
Ceratium fishy rotten, bitter -
septic,
medicinal
Glenodinium - fishy - soft,
oily
Peridinium cucumber fishy - -
Cryptophyceae
Cryptomonas violets violets, sweet -
fishy
Chap. 6: Aquatic organisms
Identification of planktonic algae (or support themselves in the water. They sink to
phytoplankton) varying depths according to the degree of
The classification of algae is based turbulence on the water surface. Daily vertical
primarily on their pigments (large phyla) and migrations also take place due to
then on the morphology, the stored phototropism. Their size is highly variable.
substances, the flagellae. Algae comprise a Some phyla only include microscopic
vast range of organisms representing more individuals (Protozoa, Rotifera), whereas
than 2000 genera, many of which are others include individuals of several
composed of many dozen species. millimetres in length (Crustacea). They feed
The identification of algae is a highly on algae, bacteria, organic detritus or on each
specialised task, requiring long experience other. Their multiplication is influenced by
and the use of many references. seasonal changes affecting the growth of
The following illustrations are not phytoplankton, which in turn is influenced by
sufficient in themselves for the identification the zooplankton. Indeed, algae proliferation
of an individual species but simply give an has been observed in rivers and reservoirs
indication of the genus or group (see figures following the destruction of algae-consuming
188, 189, 190). zooplankton using toxic chemicals.
In addition to the three main groups given
3.1.2.3. Zooplankton above, there are other organisms whose larvae
are planktonic while the adults live attached
Fresh water zooplankton comprises relatively to a support. Some may form themselves into
few genera and species; they are rarely groups which are large enough to block pipes
represented by a large number of individuals carrying untreated water (as in the case of the
in streams and rivers although the opposite is mollusk Dreissensia polymorpha) or to hinder
true in lakes and ponds. They include mainly filtration processes (Mollusca, Porifera,
Crustacea, Rotifera and Protozoa (see figures Bryozoa). The eggs, cysts or larvae can pass
191, 192, 193). Planktonic animals are through filters and develop later (worms,
transparent. They swim fairly actively and nematodes).
possess appendages which enable them to
3.2.
MICROORGANISMS Bacteria form the largest group and are
principally responsible for pollution removal
ASSOCIATED and floc formation.
WITH PURIFICATION Numerous species of bacteria may be
involved in activated sludge formation. The
3.2.1. Purifying bacteria dominant genus present depends on the type
of organic compounds comprising the
Activated sludge consists essentially of pollution and the environmental
bacteria and protozoans with, in certain cases,
fungi, rotifers and nematodes.
3. Identification of aquatic microorganisms
3.2.2. Microflora
3.2.3. Microfauna
7. SEA WATER
7.1. the oxide film, is approximately 100 to 200
CORROSIVITY AND SCALE microns per year. In the flow conditions
experienced in tanks and piping, pitting
FORMATION occurs at a rate of between 400 and 700
microns per year, thus prohibiting the use
The substantial corrosivity of sea water of bare steel.
varies in accordance with oxygen content It is equally important to note the scale-
and temperature. Cold water from the forming properties of sea water at
depths of the northern seas are more temperatures of more than 60°C on
corrosive than warm surface waters from limestone or other non-metallic materials.
tropical regions. The corrosiviry of sea Rapid corrosion and the formation of scales
water cannot be characterized by the may both occur when sea water comes into
Ryznar index. contact with ferrous and nonferrous metal
In permanently submerged areas of calm materials. The greater the levels of
waters, the overall corrosion of steel, which heterogeneity of the metals, the more
depends on the speed of the oxygen transfer severe the process of electrochemical
through marine organisms and corrosion.
2. FORMATION OF PROTECTIVE
LAYERS AND PASSIVATION
Corrosion can be combatted by the On the other hand, external agents,
spontaneous or induced formation of pro- such as inhibitors or electric current,
tective layers. These layers are said to be can be used to induce the formation of
natural when they result from interaction an artificial protective layer by a proc-
between the components of the water and ess of inhibition or controlled passivation
vation.
Tannates and hydrazine can also partially monomolecular film between the metal and
work this effect (refer to Chapter 25, the water. These compounds have a strong
paragraph 1.2). When used alone, anodic affinity for solid surfaces on which they can
protection requires high quantities of product be adsorbed.
in doses of up to 1 g.l-1, as insufficient doses - film-forming amines. In these fatty amines,
run the risk of pitting. which contain 4 to 18 carbon atoms, one end
of the molecule is hydrophilic, while the other
2.3.2. Cathodic inhibitors end is hydrophobic. The molecules are
arranged parallel to one another and
Cathodic inhibitors form a protective film perpendicular to the walls, thus forming a
on cathodic alkaline surfaces by producing a continuous and impermeable film. Doses
compound that is insoluble at high pH levels. range from 2 to 20 g.m-3 . These amines are
The electrochemical reaction occurring in the difficult to use and the corresponding
presence of oxygen is thus inhibited. analyses are delicate. Film-forming amines
Examples include: metal salts, and zinc are recommended for the protection of
salts in particular, condensate return circuits when large
phosphates quantities of CO2 are released, i.e., when the
organic inhibitors. consumption of neutralizing amines would be
prohibitive.
Cathodic inhibitors are generally used The networks are rarely suited to the
together with other types of inhibitor. formation of truly continuous films, in which
this process should be avoided, since all
2.3.3. Mixed anodic/cathodic corrosion phenomena would be concentrated
inhibitors on the anodic surfaces, thus provoking serious
pitting;
When the corrosion anodes and cathodes are - azole derivatives work by chemisorption
simultaneously inhibited, the synergism with a charge transfer between the organic
between the ions associated in the molecule and the atoms of the metal requiring
formulations offers greater protection against protection. Inhibiting azole derivatives used
corrosion than the sum of their individual specifically to protect cuprous metals include
actions. Product dosages can thus be greatly mercaptobenzothiazoles, benzotriazoles,
reduced to just a few dozen mg.l-1 in and tolyltriazoles (more resistant to
oxygenated waters. chlorination).
Examples include: chromates - zinc
polyphosphates - zinc 2.3.5. Protecting non-ferrous metals: copper
phosphonates - zinc and aluminium
polyphosphates - silicates.
Inhibiting copper is an important step
2.3.4. Organic inhibitors towards preventing corrosion of the actual
cuprous alloys and reducing galvanic losses
These compound products, which feature caused by copper particles and other metals -
polar groups, work by forming a aluminium and steel in partic-
2. Formation of protective layers and passivation
ular). The most widely used specific Corrosion inhibitors are usually delivered
inhibitors are the azole derivatives in this multi-purpose form. Degrémont has
mentioned above. developed its own specific "Complexes"
Aluminium is particularly sensitive to and "Kemazur" formulations that can be
electrolytic corrosion. The most common used to solve problems occurring in boilers
corrosion inhibitors are silicates, and cooling systems (Chapter 25, par. 1.2).
phosphates, organo-azoles (organic But protection is not provided by means
inhibitors), molybdates or nitrates, used in of corrosion inhibitors alone. There are
conjunction with other inhibitors. several other parameters capable of greatly
influencing the process, including the way
2.3.6. Inhibitors for composite systems - surfaces are prepared, the startup phase and
Industrial solutions on-going control, the pH, and any pollution
(SS, OM, hydrocarbons, etc.).
The action of corrosion inhibitors Skilled conditioning experts must be
frequently needs to be stabilized, able to identify the right combination of
reinforced, or enhanced by other chemicals, these different methods.
such as buffering salts, catalysts,
dispersants, or azole derivatives.
Reactive anodes
3. SECONDARY PARAMETERS
OF CORROSION
Corrosion conditions depend mainly on the include the presence of dissolved salts -
carbonate balance and oxygen levels. mainly chlorides -temperature, the clean-
However, other factors do affect the ness of the water, and the presence of
corrosion process by in fluencing the form microorganisms.
and the rate of corrosion. These factors
.The effects of sulphates are felt in three - through a specific process that is
ways: damaging mg to concrete (refer to Page
-directly, through the increase in 453).
conductivity;
- indirectly, through participation in the Cu2+ ions in doses of less than 1 mg.l-1 can
cycle of sulphate-reducing bacteria and the cause a sharp acceleration in corrosion by
development of bacterial corrosion; electrodeposition of copper.
3. Secondary parameters of corrosion
3.4.
EFFECTS the transfer of poorly filtered water can give
rise to corrosion for two reasons:
OF THE CONDITION - creation of non-oxygenated zones beneath
OF THE SURFACE the deposits that may create anodic areas;
AND THE CLEANNESS - areas encouraging the development of
OF THE WATER various bacterial stocks and different
The presence of deposits in an old and depassivating reducing reactions.
soiled system or that result from Stainless steels are particularly sensitive to
this phenomenon.
Ferritic steels: these steels have bodycentred Austeno-ferritic steels: increasing the
chromium content favours the ferritic
cubic crystalline structures and contain
between 16 and 30% of chromium. High- structure (alphagenous element) and reduces
chromium steels are resistant to oxidation at the nickel content. The austenitic structure
(gammagenous element) causes a certain
high temperatures, particularly in the
presence of H2S. Resistance to pitting is amount of ferrite to appear in the structure of
further increased by stabilizing with titanium, these steels.
Austeno-ferritic steels are distinguished by
which traps the sulphur. Ferritic steels with
very high chromium contents (28%), also mechanical properties that are superior to
referred to as superferritic, are also highly those of austenitic steels and strong resistance
to intergranular and stress corrosion.
resistant.
Note: Richer grades do exist (Hastelloy, Incoloy, or Monel) but are only used in special cases.
Chap. 7: The effects of water on materials
If the corrosion products are removed The resistance of a steel to these two types
during the incubation phase by stirring the of corrosion and local depassivation can be
water, the process is halted and has to start assessed by its content of equivalent Cr
from scratch again (refer to Table 51)
Resistance to crevice corrosion can be
assessed using the depassivation pH value, Cr + 3.3Mo + 16N
which must be as low as possible. Austen
itic steels are more resistant. Additional 4.3.2.3. Stress corrosion (cracks)
titanium and molybdenum can prolong the
incubation time and increase the chances of Stress corrosion cracking may appear in
interrupting the corrosion proc ess. austenitic steels subject to residual stress
However, once the incubation period is caused by welding, stamping, or the
over and the process has started, it usually operating conditions.
develops as quickly in steels with high Cracking occurs in the presence of
nickel and molybdenum levels as in steels chlorides. Above 60°C austenitic steels
containing lesser amounts of those must be replaced with ferritic or austeno-
elements. ferritic steels.
5. CAST IRON
Water distribution systems need very
The corrosion of cast iron by water is long term protection. The interiors of tubes,
different from that of steel mainly due to the which used to be protected by simple
presence of carbon particles in form of fine bituminous lacquer type coverings, are now
flakes (grey cast iron) or nodules (ductile preserved by cement mortar-based
cast iron). These inclusions form cathodic coverings that can be adapted to
areas that come together in a carbonaceous wastewaters containing sulphides.
framework that sustains the presence of Approved plastic-based coverings can also
oxidation products in fairly hard and be used.
oxygenated waters (particularly in the case External protection against corrosion is
of grey cast iron). offered by bituminous coverings measuring
In deoxygenated or sulphurous waters, about one hundred microns in thickness.
on the other hand, the corrosion process, Such coverings may be reinforced by
which is known as graphitization, can be pulverized zinc or cathodic protection by
amplified by the entrainment of these same imposed potential in aggressive soils
products. (depending on the analysis of the corrosivity
The relative uniformity of corrosion, the of the soil).
thickness of the cast parts, and the absence The use of ductile cast iron tubes has
of any macro-irregularities, such as welds, spread widely in view of their high
mean that the service life of cast iron is mechanical strength. Although they are not
quite satisfactory in naturally occurring or as thick as grey cast iron tubes and the
oxygenated alkaline waters below 70°C. initial rate of corrosion is higher, they offer
Cast iron is used for a number of specific the same service life performance.
applications, such as pumps or valves.
6. Corrosion of non-ferrous metals
fers protection if precipitated with calcium of drinking water and, is prohibited from
carbonate. Nevertheless lead piping is not use with fresh waters
recommended for together the conveyance
6.5.
BRASS Dezincification, or the dissolving of
zinc and release of residual Cu,
occasionally occurs in highly saline
Brass is a copper-zinc alloy that is
used in the following forms: and soft waters and renders the metal
porous and brittle.
Fittings Brasses now exist that are protected
Screw turning Cu Zn 37 Pb 3 against dezincification (Cu Zn 35 Pb 2
Cu Zn 4 Pb 3 As) and can be used to avoid this very
Stamping Cu Zn 39 Pb 2 rare phenomenon.
Foundry Cu Zn 40 In highly chloride-laden waters or
Shell-and-tube heat sea water, exchanger tubes can be
exchangers made of Admiralty quality brass (Cu
Admiralty brass Cu Zn 30 As Zn 29) or titanium.
Cu Zn 29 As 1
7
THE EFFECTS OF WATER
ON MATERIALS
When water is being conveyed or used for particular. Other forms of damage are
any purpose, it may degrade in one of possible, such as the dissolving of
many ways the material with which it calcareous materials or the degradation of
comes into contact. The most frequent concrete.
effect is corrosion of metals, and of steel in
Pure water will always attack iron, because greatly affected by the presence of oxygen.
the two bodies do not share any common If oxygen is absent, then corrosion is due
conditions of thermodynamic stability. The to the action of hydrogen.
kinetics of this electrochemical process are
Table 38 in Chapter 3 (page 207) shows processes occurring on more noble parts of
the theoretical classification of metals the same metal.
according to their potential. Noble metals A difference in potential is created in the
have a positive potential, whereas non- medium and the ensuing electric current
noble metals have a negative potential. Real sustains the reaction whereby the metal
measured potentials may differ as the electrode is dissolved, or corroded.
process preceding the dissolving of the The process is greatly affected by the
metal may be countered by other presence of oxygen.
As more iron is being dissolved, EFe an infinite number of coexistent anodes and
increases, while EH decreases as H2 is cathodes, that may even feature alternating
released. The phenomenon should stop poles. This so-called acidic corrosion is in
when the two potentials become equal: - fact less dangerous under neutral
0.44 + 0.029 log (Fe 2+) = -0.058 pH conditions, as the concentration of H+ ions
i.e., is too low to sustain the cathodic reaction,
log (Fe2+) = 15.1 - 2 pH and a protective layer may form.
There are no common conditions of The Nernst curve shown in Figure 207
stability shared by iron and water below a can be used to work out the equilibrium
pH value of 10.5, at which the solubility of potential of each electrode versus the pH
iron is 10-6 mol.kg -1 and corrosion remains value.
negligible. The lower the pH and the The horizontal lines represent the
concentration of Fe2+ ions, the greater the potential of the iron electrode, irrespective
level of corrosion. In the absence of of pH, at different concentrations of Fe2+
oxygen, this process leads to the corrosion ions in the water. The concentration of Fe2+
of metal. is limited by the solubility of that ion,
In morphological terms, corrosion by which tends to precipitate in the form of
hydrogen is characterized by regular ferrous hydroxide Fe(OH)2 .
corrosion of metals due to the presence of
Chap. 7: The effects of water on materials
rate of corrosion. Corrosion meters are tests. The number and choice of samples is
difficult to calibrate and the significance of often restricted.
their readings is relative. A rise in the
corrosion current indicates that some form Table 50. Assessment of corrosion in mild
of interference has occurred. Corrosion steel (equivalence table for different
meters are well suited to inspection units).
purposes.
Rate gm/year mdd* mpy*
Measuring using coupons of corrosion
Coupons of metal are immersed in the water µm/year 1 0.2 0.04
in the system and periodically removed and mdd* 5 1 0.2
weighed. The weight loss of the metal mpy* 25 5 1
versus the unit of surface area is a direct * mpy: thousandth of an inch per year - mdd:
mg/dm2.day.
expression of the mean scope of corrosion.
Table 50 indicates the equivalences of the Quality of protection
most frequently used units. Excellent ≤ 50 ≤ 10 ≤2
Good 50 to 125 10 to 25 2 to 5
Examination of network materials Average 125 to 25 to 50 5 to 10
-Removable reference nipples that can be 250
examined regularly. Poor ≥ 250 ≥ 50 ≥ 10
- Tube sections can be removed from a
network or an exchanger for laboratory
Chap. 7: The effects of water on materials
are released in the form of Ca(OH)2 , with Chemical degradation may be the result
the formation of tricalcium aluminate CA. of a number of factors:
Depending on the composition of the - carbonic attack;
cements and the chemical nature of the - attack by strong acidity;
water, either the free lime or the aluminium - effects of ammonium;
oxide may undergo the solubilization - effects of sulphates;
process. The table below shows the main - attack by strong alkalinity;
components of different types of cement. - bacterial corrosion with formation
of H2 S.
reactions, which can only take place in hydraulicity index if no other chemical
aerobic media, such as cooling towers parameters of the water are to be taken into
- by releasing the ammonia displaced by the account.
lime. This ammonia then speeds up the
solubilization of the lime and damages the Examples:
cement - clinker slag cement, with 80% granulated
Magnesium salts may also provoke the same slag;
process with the formation of brucite. - blast furnace cement with 60-75% slag.
Excessive concentrations of NH4 and Mg Different types of cement also exist with
should therefore be avoided, especially when low C3 A contents for use in sea water.
sulphates are also present.
8.2.5. Attack by strong alkalinity (NaOH,
8.2.4. Effects of sulphates KOH, Na2 CO3 )
The effects of sulphates are highly complex Strong alkalinity is harmful to all cements
and involve the transformation of calcium due to the danger that certain alumina-based
sulphate into Candlot salt or ettringite: components of the cements will be
- sulphation of the free lime in the cement by solubilized. If no covering is provided, waters
the dissolved sulphates in the water: with a pH value greater than 12 should never
Ca(OH)2 + .NazSO4 + 2H2 0 -> come into contact with high-alumina cements.
CaS04 .2H2 O + 2NaOH
- transformation of the aluminates in the 8.2.6. Bacterial corrosion with formation of
cement into highly expansive ettringite (factor H2 S
2 to 2.5):
3CaO.Al2 O3 .12H2 0 + 3CaSO4 .2H2 O + 13H2 O This type of corrosion occurs in systems
–>3CaO.A12 O3 .3C6 O4 .27H2 O conveying municipal wastewater. The way the
When magnesia is present, these two corrosion process works in anaerobic media
phenomena may be accompanied by the has already been described. Whereas in
decomposition of the alkaline silicates in the cooling systems this process sustains and
cement. amplifies existing chemical corrosion, in
French recommendation AFNOR P. 18.011 domestic wastewater or very dirty water, this
defines the categories of aggressivity of saline corrosion is usually initiated by the anaerobic
waters on conventional concretes and the fermentation of deposited materials. The
underlying guidelines for protective measures process occurs in two phases:
(refer to Table 54). - formation and release of H2 S;
In extremely aggressive waters the - oxidation of H2 S in water and formation of
application of special coverings is H2 SO4 .
recommended, while aggressive waters may These reactions speed up as soon as the pH
require cements made of slag with a high drops below 6 and are further accelerated by
hot waters.
8. Degradation of concrete
In sewers, attacks take place above the be partly or totally avoided by preliminary
water surface as the water condenses and settling or inputting oxygen or oxidizing
gas is released. The formation of H2 S can agents.
9. AGEING OF PLASTICS
Just like steels and concretes, plastics are Over and above the mechanical factors,
also subject to degradation over time. Many the potential damage likely to occur in water
factors contribute to the ageing process and treatment applications are as follows:
the actual service life of the material - chemical or biological destruction of the
depends on the particular property under material in reactive liquid media;
consideration and the conditions of use.. - discharge of organic substances in the
It is difficult to assess the service life systems: drinking water and ultrapure water
since materials are often required to achieve in particular;
levels of mechanical and chemical strength - changes due to sunlight prior to flooding -
that may be affected by numerous additives works in tropical regions, lengthy storage
or fillers (plasticizers, pigments, antioxygen periods, etc.
agents, or even impurities).
The Water Treatment Handbook was for example, the definition of elementary
originally compiled to provide both water geometric volumes could be useful for
treatment engineers and technicians with basic determining the capacity of a reagent storage
data and practical information most frequently tank; reiterating certain essential regulatory
required on-site. provisions regarding wastewater discharge
Water treatment engineering calls for could be of use to the site manager who may
increasingly specialized and diversified not be familiar with certain regulations, etc.
knowledge, yet there is still a definite need for To some readers, this digest will no doubt
a digest of basic information and simple seem incomplete, while others will feel it
numeric or graphic data most frequently used contains too many universally known basic
by technicians, particularly when working on facts. The Digest aims to be of help to the
rushed projects or during start-up operations. largest possible number of Handbook users. It
The Formulae Digest sets out to meet this is simply a "tool kit", for each to use according
need, although it is difficult to set clear limits to their particular requirements.
to its contents, which should remain concise:
Chap. 8: Formulae digest
1. UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
. Base units
Quantity Unit name Unit symbol
. length metre m
. mass kilogramme kg
. time second s
.electric current intensity ampere A
. absolute temperature kelvin K
. amount of substance mole mol
.luminous intensity candela cd
Mole: the mole is the amount of substance fication of platinum, under a pressure of
of a system containing as many elementary 101,325 newtons per square metre.
units as there are atoms in 0.012
kilogramme of carbon-12. When using the Supplementary units
mole, the elementary units must be Radian: the radian is the plane angle
specified and may be atoms, molecules, comprised between two radii that intercept,
ions, electrons, or other partides or on the circumference of a circle, an arc of
specified groups of such particles. equal length to that of the radius.
Candela: the candela is the luminous
intensity, in perpendicular direction, of a Steradian: the steradian is the solid angle
surface of 1/600,000 square metres of a which, having its apex in the centre of a
black body at the temperature of solidi sphere, delimits, on the surface of this
sphere, an area equal to the square of the
sphere's radius.
1. Units of measurement
Quantity Unit Expressi Expression in Units used with the Sl or temporarily accepted
on in base units (BU) or (T)
Name Symbol other (SI) supplementary Name Symbo Value in units
units units (SU) l
Space and time
length metre m (BU) angstrom (T) A 1A = 10-10 m
naut. mile (T) 1 mile=1,852 m
Pressure
The figures give the value Bar Atmosphere mm of Metre of Pascal (SI)
of one unit indicated below mercury water
Pascal (SI) 10-5 9.87 x 10-6 0.0075 1.020 x 10-4 1
Bar 1 0.98692 749.75 10.1972 105
Normal atmosphere 1.01325 1 760 10.3323 101,325
kgfcm 2 0.98066 0:96784 735.514 10 9.81 x 104
Metre of mercury 1.33377 1.316 1000 13.596 1.33 x 105
Metre of water (at 4°C) 0.09807 0.09678 73.551 1 9.81 x 103
Energy
The figures give the value Joule kWh kcal or mth • hph Btu
of one unit indicated below
joule 1 27.78 x 10-8 238 x 10-6 37.25 x 10-8 948 x 10-6
Kilowatt-hour 3.6 x 106 1 860 1.341 3413
Kilocalorie 4186 116 x 10-5 1 156 x 10-5 3.968
Horsepower-hour 2.68 x 106 0.746 641 1 2545
British thermal unit 1055 293 x 10-6 0.252 393 x 10-6 1
1.Units of measurement
Chap. 8: Formulae digest
1.3.
VARIOUS OTHER UNITS If RBE is the relative biological
effectiveness coefficient of the radiation:
1.3.1. Radiation units 1 Sv = 1 Gy x RBE
Another unit used is the rem:
Becquerel (Bq) 1 Sv = 100 rem.
This unit is used for measuring
radioactivity. It corresponds to one 1.3.2. Units used in the sugar industry
transition of an atom per second. Density
2. MATHEMATICS
2.1. The number of possible permutations with
ALGEBRA ARITHMETICS m objects:
Pm=1X2x3X4x5...x m = m!
Progressions
The form of an arithmetic progression is:
a;a+r;a+2r;...a+(n-1)r Combinations
Total number of possible combinations
with a being the first term, and r the
common difference between any two with m objects taken n at a time:
numbers of the sequence.
Value of the nth term p:
P=a+(n-1)r
Sum of the first n terms: Compound interest
If C is the original capital, r the annual
interest on 1 franc, A is the capital
obtained after n years (compound interest):
The form of a geometric progression is: A=C(1+r)"
a; aq; aq 2 ; ...aqn-1
with a being the first term, and q the Annuities
common ratio between terms. If A is the final value of a sequence of
Value of the nth term p: n annuities of
value a,
p = aqn-1
Sum of the first n terms :
Amortization
V = sum to be amortized.
a = annuity for amortization and interest
Sum of an infinite number of terms when
n = number of annuities
q< 1:
T = amortization rate
Arrangements
The total number of possible arrangements
of m objects n at a time:
Am = m(m - 1)(m - 2)(m - 3) ...(m-n+1)
Permutations
Chap. 8: Formulae digest
2. Mathematics
Chap. 8: Formulae digest
2. Mathematics
Chap. 8: Formulae digest
2.4.
FIGURES FREQUENTLY
USED IN CALCULATIONS
2.5.
STATISTICS
The mean value of an expression is
indicated by the symbol (-) placed above it.
2.5.1. Definitions
Sum Median
If we consider N values X1 , X2 , ..., Xj , ... Xn The median of a series of number arranged
in increasing order is the middle number, or
the arithmetic mean of the two middle
their sum is:
numbers (in the case of an even number of
items).
Arithmetic mean
Mode
The mode of a series of number is the
2. Mathematics
V=SD2
. Standard deviation SD
For n numbers: if x = X – ξ(deviation of the
number from the mean ξ)
Chap. 8: Formulae digest
Definition
Isotope atoms have the same chemical The properties of the chemical elements are
properties because they have the same number not random, but are determined by the
of electrons. They differ only in terms of electronic structure of the atom: two different
kinematics. Thus all the atoms for which Z = atoms with identical peripheral layers have
8 form the element oxygen. similar chemical properties (alkaline and
Isotopes are distinguished by the number halogen families, etc.). These similarities
of nucleons A being placed to the top left of transpire in the Mendeleev table, or periodic
the symbol of the atom, for example: table of the elements (figure 219).
1
H light hydrogen, or protium,
2
H heavy hydrogen (deuterium), 3.1.3. Formulae of compounds
3
H tritium,
35
Cl and 31 CI. Compounds are represented by formulae
comprising the symbols of their constituent
3.1.2. Atomic mass of the elements Mole elements. When the compound includes
elements with different numbers of atoms, the
Within the approximations of conventional symbols are completed by whole indices
chemistry, the mass of an atom is equal to the stating the proportions of the various atoms in
sum of the masses of the nucleons. As these the compound. These indices are noted on the
masses are extremely small, and therefore lower right side of the symbols: for example,
awkward to use, it was agreed to start from H2 0 contains two hydrogen atoms for one
the mass of a certain number of atoms. The atom of oxygen.
nuclide 1ZC was chosen as basic element (at Table 54 shows the gramme-molecular
the 14th General Conference on Weights and weight of the main salts used in water
Measures, 1971). treatment.
A mole is, by definition, the amount of Formulae of organic substances often
substance of a system, which contains as indicate how certain groups of atoms are
many elementary units as there are atoms in associated within a molecule. Acetic acid is
12 g of 12 C. It is symbolized as mot. thus written CH3 COOH to show that a CH3
The number of atoms contained in a mole group is attached to an atom of carbon, itself
of an element is 6.023 x 1023 (Avogadro carrying an oxygen atom and an OH group.
number).
The mass of a mole of 12 C is exactly 12 g, 3.1.4. Formulae writing rules
and that of a mole of chlorine atoms 35.453 g;
the amount of substance contained in 1 kg of The complete rules concerning the
H2 0 is 55.533 mol. Inorganic Chemistry Nomenclature were
The gramme-molecular weight of a published by the Societe Chimique de France
substance is, by definition, the quotient of the (French Chemical Society) in February 1975.
mass of the substance by the amount of Here follow a few fundamental paragraphs
substance it contains: it is expressed in from this document:
grammes per mole (g.mol-1 ). It is now also (§ 2.15): in formulae, the electropositive
frequently expressed in daltons. The dalton is constituent (cation) must always be placed
the mass of the isotope 1 H.
Chap.8 Formulae digest
3. Chemistry and reagents
first, for example KCI, CaSO4 - If the sodium ammonium hydrogen phosphate
compound contains more than one with 4 water molecules.
electropositive or electronegative constituent,
the symbols within each class should be (§ 6.33): anions must be written in
arranged in alphabetical order. Acids are alphabetical order, and this order can be
treated as hydrogen salts, for example H2 SO4 different in the corresponding formulae.
and H2 PtCl6 for the position of hydrogen, see
6.2 and 6.32.3. 3.1.5. Concentration evaluation
3.2.
CHARACTERISTIC
CONSTANTS OF
SOLUTIONS
Ammonia
Specific H2 SO4 HCI HNO3 NaOH Specific NH3
gravity gravity
Table 57. The relationship between specific gravity and concentration of saline
solutions (and milk of lime)
(grammes of pure product per litre of solution at 15°C).
Specific Aluminiu Ferric Ferrous Anhydrou Salt Bleach CI Milk of
gravity m chloride sulphate s NaCl (approx.) lime
sulphate FeCla FeSOa.7H sodium ) Ca0
Alz(SO4) z0 carbonate (approx.)
3. NazCOa
18Hz0
1.007 14 10.1 13.1 6.3 10.1 2.8 7.5
1.014 28 20 26.4 13.1 20.5 5.5 16.5
1.021 42 29 40.8 19.5 30.5 8 26
1.028 57 37 55.5 29 41 10.5 36
1.036 73 47 70.5 35.4 51 13.5 46
1.044 89 57 85.5 41.1 62 16 56
1.051 103 66 102 50.8 73 18.5 65
1.059 119 76 116.5 58.8 85 21 75
1.067 135 86 132 67.9 97 23 84
1.075 152 96 147 76.1 109 25 94
1.083 168 106 163 85.0 121 27.5 104
1.091 184 116 179 93.5 134 30 115
1.099 200 126 196 101.2 147 32 126
1.108 218 138 213 110.6 160 34 137
1.116 235 150 230 122 174 36 148
1.125 255 162 247 131 187 38 159
1.134 274 174 265 141.5 200 40 170
1.143 293 186 284 150.5 215 181
1.152 312 198 304 162.5 230 193
1.161 332 210 324 248 206
1.170 351 222 344 262 218
1.180 373 236 365 277 229
1.190 395 250 387 292 242
1.200 417 263 408 310 255
1.210 440 279 430 268
1.220 462 293 452 281
1.230 485 308 474 295
1.241 509 323 501 309
1.252 534 338 324
1.263 558 353 339
1.285 609 384
1.308 663 416
1.332 720 449
1.357 483
1.383 521
1.41 1 561
1.437 601
1.453 626
1.468 650
Note: Bleach, the commercial term for 1° chlorometric = 3.17 g of available chlo
sodium hypochlorite, is characterized by rine per litre. 1 1 of 18° Cl bleach contains
its available chlorine content, which is 57 g of available C12. 1 1 of 48° Cl bleach
evaluated in chlorometric degrees. contains 152 g of available C12.
3. Chemistry, and reagents
NOTE: certain flocculants have a high viscosity that should be specified by the
supplier (see par. 3.5.7).
Chap. 8: Formulae digest
3.2.4.1. Solubility
*Solubility of lime
Temperature °C 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Ca0 g.l-1 1.40 1.33 1.25 1.16 1.06 0.97 0.88 0.80 0.71 0.64 0.5
Ca(OH)2 g.l-1 1.85 1.76 1.65 1.53 1.41 1.28 1.16 1.06 0.94 0.85 0.7
Titer of lime 250 238 223 207 190 173 157 143 127 115 104
water in M alk.
degrees
3. Chemistry and reagents
pH NaOH pH NaOH
mg.l mg.l
8 0.04 10 4
9 0.4 11 40
3. Chemistry and reagents
NOTE: Strong acids and strong bases are considered to be totally dissociated.
Chap. 8: Formulae digest
Note: The BOD of certain compounds is initial concentration, whose increase causes
strongly dependent on either seeding or reduced degradability (aromatic
acclimatization conditions (ketones, SCN-, hydrocarbons in particular).
etc.), or on
Chap. 8: Formulae digest
3.3.
Gas Sp. gr. in Mass per
CHARACTERISTIC relation to litre at
CONSTANTS OF GASES air 0°C and at
760 mm of
3.3.1. Density of gases mercury,
in g
If M° is the mass of a litre at 0°C, the
mass of a litre at t 'C at the same pressure is:
Air 1 1.29349
Oxygen 02 1.1052 1.4295
If M° is the mass of a litre at a pressure of
Nitrogen N2 0.967 1.2508
760 mm of mercury, the mass of a litre at the
Hydrogen H2 0.06948 0.08987
real pressure P is: Carbon dioxide CO2 1.5287 1.978
Chlorine C12 2.491 3.222
Ammonia NH3 0.5971 0.772
Sulphur dioxide SO 2 2.263 2.927
3.3.2. Solubility of the main gases in water Hydrogen sulphide 1.1895 1.539
H2S
The dissolved gas content of a liquid can
be calculated by means of the following
formula, based on Henry's law constant
(figure 238):
Py i = Hxi
Normal litres of gas per litre of water in an atmosphere of pure gas at a pressure of 1 bar.
Temperature Gas
°C Air O2 N2 CO2 H2S C12 NH3 SO2
0 0.0288 0.0489 0.0235 1.713 4.621 4.61 1135 75.00
5 0.0255 0.0429 0.0208 1.424 3.935 3.75 1005 62.97
10 0.0227 0.038 0.0186 1.194 3.362 3.095 881 52.52
15 0.0205 0.0342 0.0168 1.019 2.913 2.635 778 43.45
20 0.0187 0.0310 0.0154 0.878 2.554 2.260 681 36.31
25 0.0172 0.0283 0.0143 0.759 2.257 1.985 595 30.50
30 0.0161 0.0261 0.0134 0.665 2.014 1.769 521 25.87
35 0.0151 0.0244 0.0125 0.592 1.811 1.570 460 22.00
40 0.0143 0.0231 0.0118 0.533 17.642 1.414 395 18.91
50 0.0131 0.0209 0.0109 0.437 1.376 1.204 294 15.02
60 0.0123 0.0195 0.0102 0.365 1.176 1.006 198 11.09
70 0.0118 0.0183 0.0097 0.319 1.010 0.848 8.91
80 0.0116 0.0176 0.0096 0.275 0.906 0.672 7.27
90 0.0115 0.0170 0.0095 0.246 0.835 0.380 6.16
100 0.0115 0.0169 0.0095 0.220 0.800
110 0.0172 0.204
120 0.0176 0.194
130 0.0183
140 0.0192
Chap. 8: Formulae digest
3. Chemistry and reagents
t°C 0 20 40 60 80 100
Air 13.20x10-6 15.00x10-6 16.98x10-6 18.85x10-6 20.89x10-6 23.00x10-6
Water 11.12 12.90 14.84 16.90 18.66 21.50
vapour
C12 3.80 4.36 5.02 5.66 6.36 7.15
CH4 14.20 16.50 18.44 20.07 22.90 25.40
CO 2 7.00 8.02 9.05 10.30 12.10 12.80
NH3 12.00 14.00 16.00 18.10 20.35 22.70
02 13.40 15.36 17.13 19.05 21.16 23.40
S O2 4.00 4.60 7.60
Chap. 8: Formulae digest
3.3.5. Chlorine
gas, and 1 litre of liquid chlorine corre- der a pressure that varies with temper
sponds to 456 litres of gas. Chlorine gas is ature:
liquefied by cooling and compression un- 1,000 kPa at 40°C; 500 kPa at 18°C.
Chap. 8: Formulae digest
.
3. Chemistry and reagents
3.3.7. Ozone
Figure 244, Solubility of ozone in water. S = mg per litre in waterlmg per litre in the
carrier gas.
Chap. 8: Formulae digest
3.5.1. Clarification
3.5.2. Adds
3.5.3. Bases
3.5.4. Disinfection
3.5.7. Polyelectrolytes
3.5.10. Miscellaneous
3.5.11. Gases
4. Hydraulics
4. HYDRAULICS
t°C 0 5 10 15 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
v x 106 1.792 1.52 1.31 1.14 1.006 0.80 0.66 0.56 0.48 0.41 0.36 0.33 0.30
nature of pipe walls, to their change overtime,
Selecting the roughness coefficient and the physical and chemical characteristics of
the conveyed water.
The accuracy of results in friction loss - Smooth non-corrodible pipes and unlikely
calculations depends on the initially selected deposit formation
roughness coefficient. For water pipes, this - These conditions are applied to water
coefficient is related both to the
Chap. 8: Formulae digest
with a low suspended solids content, evitably occur over time, although k = 0.03
flowing through pipes made of plastic, mm is accepted in theory for new pipes.
asbestos-cement, spun cement or any The following table shows roughness
material that is non-corrodible or has a high coefficients k for all commonly used
quality smooth lining. For practical materials, under average conditions of use,
purposes, roughness coefficient k = 0.1 mm including seals:
should be used, due to the slight changes
that in
Note: if Le is the straight pipe length equivalent For a conduit of rectangular cross-section
to the successive points of local minor losses of with sides a and b:
the pipe section, the following relations are
obtained:
X 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
(%)
m 0.08 0.13 0.185 0.25 0.32 0.40 0.50 0.58 0.67 0.74 0.82 0.89
Chap. 8: Formulae digest
Diameter
Coefficient D for a roughness equal to:
mm k=0.lmm k=0.5 mm k=lmm k=2mm
0.025 1.26 2 2.84
0.030 1.02 1.54 2.00 2.71
0.040 0.700 1.04 1.34 1.80
0.050 0.528 0.78 0.985 1.30
0.065 0.35 0.500 0.615 0.80
0.080 0.290 0.413 0.512 0.660
0.100 0.222 0.310 0.380 0.490
0.125 0.168 0.232 0.284 0.360
0.150 0.133 0.182 0.223 0.280
0.200 0.0935 0.128 0.153 0.190
0.250 0.0710 0.096 0.114 0.141
0.300 0.0573 0.076 0.090 0.110
0.350 0.0475 0.0625 0.0735 0.0900
0.400 0.0400 0.0530 0.0625 0.0758
0.450 0.0351 0.0460 0.0538 0.0650
0.500 0.0308 0.040 0.047 0.0566
0.600 0.0245 0.0322 0.0371 0.0477
0.700 0.0206 0.0266 0.0307 0.0368
0.800 0.0175 0.0225 0.0260 0.0310
0.900 0.0151 0.0194 0.0225 0.0267
1.000 0.0134 0.0170 0.0197 0.0234
1.100 0.01163 0.015 0.01754 0.0209
1.200 0.0104 0.01358 0.01583 0.01875
1.250 0.0102 0.0130 0.0150 0.0177
1.300 0.00946 0.0123 0.0142 0.01676
1.400 0.00878 0.01128 0.01307 0.01535
1.500 0.00827 0.0104 0.0120 0.0140
1.600 0.00737 0.00956 0.01106 0.0131
1.700 0.00694 0.00882 0.0103 0.01235
1.800 0.00655 0.00833 0.00966 0.0111
1.900 0.00605 0.00773 0.00894 0.0104
2.000 0.00586 0.00735 0.0084 0.00980
2.100 0.00538 0.00690 0.00785 0.00928
2.200 0.00513 0.0065 0.00740 0.00881
2.300 0.00491 0.00621 0.00708 0.00834
2.400 0.00466 0.00591 0.00675 0.00791
2.500 0.00453 0.0056 0.0064 0.00745
Estimated
velocity range 1 to 3 m.s -1 1 to 3 m.s-1 ≥ 1 m.s -1 ≥ 0.5 m.s -1
4. Hydraulics
4.2.
MINOR LOSSES c) With rounded entrance fitting:
IN PIPES, FITTINGS,
VALVES, ETC.
OF WATER CONDUITS
A. Sudden contraction
with 2D<1<5D
B. Sudden enlargement
Chap. 8: Formulae digest
The following formula is generally where D: pipe inlet diameter. d: pipe outlet
n diameter.
more appropriate: b) Head loss by detachment (∆h2 ):
Apex angle
60 0.006 0.018 0.085 0.23 0.5 1.5
80 0.009 0.028 0.138 0.373 0.791 2.42
100 0.012 0.04 0.2 0.53 1.05 3.4
150 , 0.022 0.07 0.344 0.934 1.98 6.07
200 0.045 0.12 0.6 1.73 3.5 11
300 0.28 0.25 1.25 3.4 7
4. Hydraulics
1 1.5 2 3 4
F. Pipe tees
It is assumed that:
- the fitting connections have the same diameter as the main pipe;
- the fitting has sharp angles.
Kb (1.0) 1.0 1.01 1.03 1.05 1.09 1.15 1.22 1.32 1.38 1.45
Kr 0 0.004 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.26 0.32 (0.40)
Kb (-0.60) -0.37 -0.18 -0.07 +0.26 0.46 0.62 0.78 0.94 1.08 1.20
Kr 0 0.16 0.27 0.38 0.46 0.53 0:57 0.59 0.60 0.59 0.55
b) Gate valves:
Gate lowering
value
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
d 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
K 0.12 0.15 0.26 0.81 2.06 5.52 17 98
Chap. 8: Formulae digest
c) Plug valves:
β 15° 20° 25° 300 350 40° 450 500 60° 700
K 90 62 42 30 20 14 9.5 6.6 3.2 1.7
Typical K Variation of K
Parallel seat valve 0.12 0.08 to 0.2
Wedge gate valve 0.15 to 0.19
Angle valve 2.1 to 3.1
Needle valve 7.2 to 10.3
Straight screw-down valve 6 4 to 10
Screw-down stop valve, angle type 2 to 5
Float valve 6
Plug valve 0.15 to 1.5
Swing check valve 2 to 2.5 1.3 to 2.9
Foot valve (without strainer) 0.8
Sleeve coupling 0.02 to 0.07
Cv coefficients of a valve:
For some valves, and particularly of water of specific gravity 1 (expressed in
regulating valves, the current trend consists US gpm), which flows through the
of providing the flow rate coefficient Cv for contracted pipe section for a head loss of 1
the various openings rather than the actual psi. This is roughly equivalent to the water
head loss coefficient. By definition, Cv is flow rate in litres per min creating a head
the flow rate loss of 5 mbar, i.e., 0.05 m WC.
4. Hydraulics
Installation: orifice plates, nozzles and turi tubes, the minimum straight upstream
venturi nozzles must be placed in a straight length is only 1.5 to 6 D depending on the
length of pipe, the length of the upstream degree of contraction (standard X 10.102
portion being equal to at least 10 D, and the pages 9 and 10).
downstream portion being longer than 5 D. The length of a venturi tube is determined
These minimum values are increased for by the standardized shape coefficients (above
slight contractions. For standard ven standard) and the selected throat diameter D -
d.
4.4.
Coefficient k used here and coefficient K
DISCHARGE defined in par. 4.2 are related by the equation
OF OPENINGS k = K-2 .
AND SHORT TUBES Simplified formula with k = 0.62:
The nature and surface texture of the it possible to calculate one of these values
walls may limit the maximum admissible knowing the other two, i.e., three of the
velocity in their vicinity. following four parameters: flow rate,
Critical flow is reached in a channel wetted cross-section, wetted perimeter
with a rectangular cross-section of width and slope.
1, with water depth H, such that Q2 = g12 Taking the above as the normal
HC3 , Q being the flow rate (i.e., critical equilibrium level, local rises in the water
level, or hydraulic jumps, resulting either
velocity ). At greater from increases in velocity or from
velocities, flow is non-uniform restoration of energy due to bends or
(accelerated): it follows complex laws obstructions, must be calculated as
and requires specialized studies indicated in paragraph C below.
(mathematical models, scale models, In water treatment works, where
etc.). Below this level, flow is considered straight pipe lengths are generally short,
to be uniform with H > Hc and V < Vc. level variations in the bends or
In water treatment works, flow is usually obstructions have considerable relative
of the uniform type, i.e., the two importance.
preceding conditions are verified.
In uniform flow, the wetted B. Use of the Standard Chart
crosssection and the velocity are constant This chart (figure 247) giving friction
in the successive profiles, the friction loss loss coefficient, X, also applies to
being exactly compensated by the slope. channels
The Bazin formula or the
Manning-Strickler formula relating
velocity, hydraulic radius and slope make
4. Hydraulics
- Corrections for other water depths: H 0.3 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.5 2.5
(m)
µ≈0.40
Weir coefficient µ is given by one of the These formulae, with h and P expressed
following formulae: in m, can be used for heads h of 0.10 m to
- Bazin formula (1898), widely used in 0.60 m for the Bazin formula, and of 0.025
France: m to 0.80 m for the S.I.A. formula, which
gives slightly lower results than those
obtained by the Bazin formula.
Other applications:
Notation:
∆h = total head loss, in bar
Chap., 8: Formulae digest
Dh = hydraulic diameter of the pipe (or m-3 at 4°C). The preceding formulae then
become:
channel) in metres; where S
the pipe (or channel) cross-sectional area
filled by the fluid, in mz, and pm is the
perimeter "wetted" by the fluid in this
cross-section, in m. Dn is equal to four
times the hydraulic radius or the typical
mean radius. In a circular pipe of diameter
D, Dh = D. Friction loss is calculated as in
par. 4.1.2 (pipes) and par. 4.5 (channels),
where Ko has specific values to be
and minor losses as in par. 4.2 and par. 4.5.
calculated using specialized reference
It is often customary to express head loss
documentation.
values in metres of water column (WC)
(taking the density of water at is1'000 kg.
4.8.
MISCELLANEOUS
INFORMATION
Hydraulic motors
-1
Q = required discharge, in m3 .h . The power supplied, in kW, is
H = total static head (in m WC).
h = head loss in pipes (in m WC).
r = pump efficiency (from 0.6 to 0.9).
Q = flow rate in M 3 h -1 H = water falling
head in metres. r = efficiency of the
As a rule, h should be turbine.
When rotation speed N becomes N' = Values of r
kN, centrifugal pumps follow the Water wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.70 to 0.75
formulae: Propeller and Francis turb. . . . . . . 0.70 to 0.88
Q = kQ; H' = k2 H; P' = k 3 P Kaplan turbine and Pelton wheel . 0.70 to 0.92
Chap. 8: Formulae digest
5. ELECTRICITY
5.1. UNITS, SYMBOLS
Direct current
Single-phase alternating current: r = resistivity in microhm-cm,
1 = length in m,
s = cross-sectional area in mm2 .
Three-phase alternating current:
5. Electricity
Single- Three-phase
phase
Apparent power el El F3
Active power el cos ¢ El V3 cos ∅
Reactive power eI sin ¢ El V3 sin ∅
As the line losses through joule effect The lighting levels described above are
are proportional to I2, whereas the active minimum acceptable values.
energy consumed is only proportional to I
cos ∅, the utilities penalize users whose Interior space-heating
facilities have a power factor under a To calculate the power needed for
specified value (approximately cos ∅ = space-heating, numerous factors must be
0.93, corresponding to tan ∅ = 0.4 in the taken into account: the space dimensions,
French network). orientation, thermal insulation provisions,
When the reduction in cos ∅ is due to a minimum outside temperature, etc.
self-inductive reaction of the facility, it is However, taking into account the
improved by a capacitor bank. The difference between the minimum outside
capacitor bank power (in kilovar) needed to temperature and the maximum
bring cos ∅ to the desired value can only spaceheating temperature required, it can
be calculated accurately after 4-6 months of be assumed that the power to be installed
the water treatment plant being operational. will be approximately 2-3 watts per °C (of
Nevertheless, to compensate for a poor temperature difference) and per m3.
power factor during a transition phase, a
capacitor bank can be installed whose value 5.3.2. Motors
is approximately 10% of the total installed Motors currently used are of the
capacity of the plant. asynchronous type; the information below
applies solely to this type of motor.
Lighting and heating
The number, arrangement and power of
the lighting units are generally calculated to
5. Electricity
. Efficiency
For commonly manufactured motors,
efficiency p becomes greater as the power of
the motor increases.
Example: motor of 50 kW p = 0.85
motor of 1 kW p = 0.70.
For a given motor, the efficiency indicated
by the manufacturer corresponds to operation at
full load; it decreases slightly with the load.
Example:
motor of 50 kW p = 0.85 at 4/4 load,
p = 0.82 at 3/4 load,
p = 0.80 at 1 /2 load.
3 months, from December to February. with the utility as a function of the amount
Off-peak hours a x 1.48 centimes per kWh of power subscribe
(Sunday, off-peak hours all day) The above facts indicate simply that it is
Standard hours a x 3.18 centimes per kWh in the general interest of facilities to ensure
that units with high energy consumption
Peak hours a x 6.16 centimes per kWh can be stopped or slowed down during
The fixed annual rate for average periods where the kWh price is high.
consumption is a x 2000 centimes per kW Similarly, if the facility has an autonomous
(number of kW defined in the contract). power production (biogas), it could be
Many other contracts and values of the reserved for preferential consumption
kWh can be established and negotiated during these peak periods.
Chap. 8: Formulae digest
5. Electricity
Chap. 8: Formulae digest
5. Electricity
Chap. 8: Formulae digest
5.5.
Nature of the Resistance Temperatur
MISCELLANEOUS conductor microhms.cm e
NUMERICAL VALUES (resistivity) at coefficient
°C
• Resistivity of the main conductive Electrolytic 1.593 0.00388
metals and alloys copper
Resistivity at e C: Annealed 1.538 0.0045
rt = ro(I + at), copper
Aluminium 2.9 0.0039
where:
Silver 1.505 0.0039
to = resistivity at 0°C, Pure iron 9.065 0.00625
a = temperature coefficient, Icon wire 13.9 0.00426
t = temperature in degrees Celsius. Steel wire 15.8 0.0039
• Voltage of a lead accumulator 2 volts Telephone
per element. silicon
• Minimum isolation of a low voltage bronze 3.84 0.0023
motor per service volt 1000 O. Fer 18.3 0.00093
Nickel silver 30 0.00036
Constantan SO 0
Mercury 95 0.00099
Zinc G 0.0031
5.6.
PERSONNEL SAFETY The safety limit of current tolerability
It is accepted that the maximum safe is around 25 mA for alternating current
voltage levels are: and 50 mA for direct current.
- 50 V for direct current, Assuming the body's resistance lies
- 24 V for single-phase current, between 2,000 and 1,000 ohms,
- 42 V for three-phase current with
grounded neutral.
therefore E = 50 V in direct current
and E = 25 V in alternating current.
6. Instrumentation
6. INSTRUMENTATION
Table 59. Identification of the elements used to encode a function or a piece of equipment.
First letter Succeeding letters
Measured Modifier Readout or Output function Modifier
or initiating passive
variable function
A Analysis Alarm
B Combustion User's choice User's choice User's choice
C Conductivity Control
D Density Differential Fault*
Concentration
Turbidity
E Voltage Primary
element
F Flow rate Ratio -
Fraction
G User's choice Glass viewin
device
H Hand High
(Very high-
HH)
I Current Indicate
J Power Scan
K Time Time rate Auto-manu
of change selection
L Level Pilot light Low (Very
low-LL)
M Humidity Middle
Intermediate
N Viscosity Supply to User's choice User's choice
User's choice sensors*
O User's choice Orifice plate
P Pressure Point (test)
Vacuum connection
Q Quantity Integrate Integrate Totalize
Totalize
R Radiation Record
S Speed Safety Switch
Frequency
T Temperature Transmit
U Multivariable Multifunction Multifunction Multifunction
V Vibration Control device
Solenoid valve
Control valve
W Weight Well
Force
X User's choice Temperature Galvanic User's choice User's choice
compensation* isolation*
Y Event Relay
Z Position Actuator
Dimension
Note: * Not covered by AFNOR and ISA standards.
6. Instrumentation
7. HEAT
Figure 257. Mollier chart for water vapour. According to E. Schmidt (Munich).
1 kcal = 4.1868 kJ
1 atm = 0.980665 bar
To convert the differences in enthalpy Ah into flow velocities v, the following equation
is applied:
A. Definitions
Dry-bulb temperature: temperature of an
unsaturated wet gas measured using a
dry-bulb thermometer.
Wet-bulb temperature: temperature of a
wet gas that becomes saturated on contact
with a sheet of liquid.
Dew point: temperature at which the
vapour contained in the gas starts to
condense.
Saturated vapour pressure: partial pressure
of the vapour in the gas at dew point.
Relative humidity: ratio of the partial water
vapour pressure of the gas to the saturated
vapour pressure corresponding to the
dry-bulb temperature of the gas. It is
generally expressed as a percentage.
B. Water vapour content of a gas (m)
If P is the total pressure of a gas with a
gramme-molecular weight M, and p, is the
partial pressure of the vapour, the water
content m of a gas in kg.kg ' of dry gas is
given by:
The smoke-generating capacity of a fuel - for a solid fuel: 1 Nm3 .kg -1 per 3,500
refers to the quantity of smoke produced in kJ.kg -1 of NCV,
the neutral combustion of this fuel. In - for a liquid fuel: 1 Nm3 .kg -1 per 3,800
practice, the concept of the wet kJ.kg of NCV,
smoke-generating capacity is applied. - for a gaseous fuel: 1 Nm3 .Nm- 3 per 3,500
Water vapour is assumed not to be kJ.Nm -3 of NCV.
condensed. The Veron formulae can be This figure is not valid for lean gases
used to give a rough estimate: whose NCV is less than 8,000 kJ.Nm-3 .
7.3.
W/m. mth/m.h.°C
CONCEPTS OF HEAT K
EXCHANGE Mild steel (l% carbon) 45 39
Stainless steel (72 CN 15 13
7.3.1. Definitions 18-10)
Pine copper 384 330
Conduction refers to the transfer of Aluminium 200 175
heat between two substances in contact Brass (30% zinc) 99 85
Glass wool 0.038 0.033
whose temperatures differ or between two
Expanded cork 0.040 0.035
parts of the same substance that have
Expanded polystyrene 0.035 0.030
different temperatures.
The heat flux ∅ transmitted by
The values below can be applied at
conduction over a length x across a surface
ambient temperature:
S that is perpendicular to this flux is given
- for still water: λ = 0.58 W/m.K (0.5
by Fourier's law:
mth/m.h.°C),
- for still air: λ= 0.027 W/m.K (0.23
mth/m.h.°C).
where θ1 - θ2 is the fall in temperature The Fourier heat equation can also be
over the distance x, and λ is the coefficient written in the form:
of heat conduction of the material and is
expressed in practice in mth/m2 .h per
degree Celsius .If heat is conducted through several
For most solids, λ is virtually a linear materials one after the other, the following
function of temperature: λ = λo (1 + αθ); α is written for a total temperature drop ∆θ:
is generally positive for insulators and
negative for metals, with the exception of
aluminium and brass. However, the
coefficient of heat conduction varies only Convection is the transfer of heat within
slightly with the temperature. Between 0° a fluid from a solid as a result of the motion
and 100°C, the following values may be that occurs either as a result of
taken as rough estimates:
7.Heat
In a wet cooling tower, the approach H': the enthalpy of the air in contact with
depending on the difference in the enthalpies the water,
of water and air is not constant when the K: the mass transfer coefficient,
wet-bulb temperature varies (c£ figure 261). S: the surface of exchange.
Natural draught coolers are used primarily
The ratio is considered dimension less.
for high flow rates and low temperatures
This value can vary between 0.7and 2
(the heated air is less heavy). Taking as his
basis the relations of onvection and
In a dry cooling tower, the approach is
evaporation, Merkel 1925) developed an
constant when the temperature varies
approximate equation characterizing the
Cooling dirty water
total heat transfer process:
When gas scrubbing water is recirculated
M d Ce = K (H - H')S, where:
or wastewater cooled prior to treatment, the
M: the mass of water being cooled,
cooling towers can suffer from scaling,
d: the variation in the temperature of this
fouling or even corrosion. These difficulties
water
can be attenuated by projecting the droplets
Ce: the specific heat of the water,
of water onto plastic gratings rather than
H: the enthalpy of the saturated air at the
running the water in films over a packing.
temperature of the water,
Chap. 8: Formulae digest
7.Heat
Chap. 8: Formulae digest
7.5
EXPANSION OF MATERIALS
Table 63. Coefficients of linear expansion of a few solids.
Material Density Coefficient of linear
Kg.dm -3 expansion between
20 and 100°C
[m/m. C} x 106
Metals
Plain carbon steel 7.85 12.4
Austenitic stainless steel 7.9 16.5
Ferritic stainless steel 7.7 10.5
Refractory steel 7.9 15.5
Aluminium 2.70 23.8
Bronze 8.9 15.5
Copper 8.9 16.8
Tin 7.28 27
Iron 7.87 11.4
Gray cast iron 7.2 11 to 12
Spheroidal graphite cast iron 7.4 17.5 to 19.5
Brass containing 35% zinc 8.45 20.3
Lead 11.4 28.6
Titanium 4.5 8.35
Zinc 7.14 30
Plastics
Acetal (resin) (Delrin) 1.4 130
Glass cloth reinforced epoxy
(40% resin) 1.7 to 1.8 10
Glass cloth reinforced polyester
00176 resin) 1.8 30
Polyamide 6 (Nylon) 1.12 to 1.15 70 to 140
Polyamide 11 (Rilsan) 1.04 110 to 150
Polycarbonate (Makrolon) 1.20 60 to 70
PVC 1.35 to 1.45 50 to 180
Superchlorinated PVC 1.50 to 1.55 60 to 80
HDPE 0.95 110 to 140
Polymethacrylate (Plexiglas) 1.17 to 1.20 50 to 90
PP 0.9 70 to 150
PTFE (Teflon) 2.1 to 2.3 80 to 120
Impact PS 1 to 1.1 35 to 210
9
PRELIMINARY TREATMENT
SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
1. SCREENING
1.1. OPERATING
To reduce manual operations as much as
CONDITIONS possible, screening procedures have become
increasingly automated, even in small
Screening is the first treatment station, both facilities. Automation is essential in
for surface and wastewater. Its purpose is to: situations where large amounts of plant
- protect the structure downstream against matter (such as leaves during the autumn
large objects which could create obstructions season) are carried by the water and arrive
in some of the facility's units, all at once at the bar screen, tending to mat
- easily separate and remove large matter the bars and completely clogging the screen
in a few minutes. Fine screens must be
carried along by the raw water which might
automated.
negatively affect the efficiency of later
treatment procedures or make their
implementation more difficult. The collected refuse is stored in a con-
The efficiency of the screening operation tainer of a given capacity, calculated
depends on the spacing between screen bars: according to the acceptable frequency of
refuse disposal operations.
- fine screening, for a spacing of under 10
mm,
- medium screening, for a spacing of 10 to 40 Usual spacings are:
mm, - for surface waters, between 20 and 40 mm
- coarse screening, for a spacing of over 40 (upstream of strainer),
mm. - for municipal wastewater: for raw water,
Usually, fine screening is preceded by a from 15 to 30 mm (but upstream from a
preliminary screening operation for purposes straining and/or lamellae settling process,
of protection. fine screening is necessary); for sludge (if
Screening is carried out by a manually necessary), 10 mm or less,
cleaned bar screen (large in size, in order to - for some industrial effluents, especially
reduce the frequency of screenings collection agrifood effluents, fine bar screening (or at
operations) or, preferably, by an times, medium screening followed by
automatically cleaned bar screen (essential in straining).
cases of high flow rates or for water with a
high solids content). The automatic bar screen 1.1.1. Hydraulic sizing - Clogging
is usually protected by a sturdy preliminary
bar screen which should also be provided Under normal circumstances, the cross-
with an automatic cleaning system in large ing velocity through the bar screen should
facilities, and in the case of raw water be sufficient for matter to attach itself to the
containing a high volume of coarse matter.
screen without producing an excessive
1. Screening
loss of head or a complete clogging of the 1.1.2. Automatic control and the protection
bars, or allowing matter to be carried by the of bar screens
flow; normally acceptable crossing In general, the bar screen cleaning
velocities between bars average between system works on an intermittent basis. It
0.6 and 1.0 m.s -1 and 1.2 to 1.4 m.s -1 at the can be controlled in three ways: a) by a
maximum water flow. cyclic system of controllable frequencies (1
These velocities apply to the area of the min to 1 h) and lengths of time (1 to 15
clogged bar screen that is still clear. The min); b) by a differential head loss
degree of clogging (as a percentage of the indicator; c) (even better) by a combination
clear wetted section) depends on the water of both systems. When the bar screen is
quality and on the system used to recover located downstream from a pumping
waste from the bar screen. For automatic station, the control mechanism can be
bar screens it can be anywhere between linked to the start-up of the pumps, with a
10% (surface water) and 30% (wastewater built-in timer to keep the screen in
with a high solids content). For manually operation for 1 to 30 minutes.
cleaned bar screens, the area of immersed Automatic bar screens must be equipped
bar screen must be larger, so as to avoid with torque limiters to prevent equipment
frequent cleanings. damage in case of overloading or blocking.
Approach velocities upstream of the bar Normally, reciprocating cleaning bar
screen are generally slow, especially in the screens, both curved and straight, include a
case of fine bar screens with an open area device to ensure that the rake automatically
of less than 50%; frequent sediment stops moving at a point outside of the
accumulation occurs upstream of the bar screen area, so as to avoid jamming upon
screen, which must either be prevented (by restarting.
stirring) or disposed of, for instance, by
daily self-cleaning.
details. On the screen rack, the bars' cross- ciprocating device (rake, doctor grab or
section is round or trapezoidal (thus lessening swivelling ladle) brings up the screenings,
the risk of solid matter jamming), with sharp or first along the screen area and then along the
rounded-off edges. Some of these bar screens apron; it then comes down away from the
allow for fine screening (and even straining) screen area. The screenings are removed
through the use of a custom made bar screen from the elevated position by an extractor
rack (of the Johnson type, where spacing ranges (which may be motor driven).
from a few millimetres to 0.5 mm) or a When handling very large flows (surface
perforated steel sheet. Screenings disposal is water intakes), greater for instance than
carried out downstream of the screen. 30,000 m3.h -1 , of water that does not have a
. Type I: curved bar screens large volume of matter, the operation can be
This is the best bar screen for medium size carried out with a mobile screen which cleans
facilities, where the water does not carry a high only part of the bar screen, and moves
volume of matter and screenings are removed at laterally after each cycle.
a low elevation. Also, the effective cross-section . Type III: continuous cleaning straight
of the opening is large and it is mechanically bar screens
simple. Cleaning is done with one or two rakes These are the best bar screens for fine
located at the end of the rotating arm which screening when there is a risk of matting.
revolves around the horizontal axis. Preliminary screening must be done first if
. Type II: straight bar screens with there is a probability that the water is
reciprocating cleaning mechanism carrying coarse matter. Straight bar screens,
In general, the bar screen surface (at an angle of at an angle of 80° to the horizontal, are
around 80° to the horizontal) stops slightly cleaned by doctor blades, rakes or brushes
above the maximum level of liquid; it is driven by chains. In general, screenings are
extended with an apron. A re- ejected by means of a motor-driven
mechanism.
1.2.1.3. Back-cleaned bar screens torque limiter with a reaction arm, and a
Some bar screens include a downstream horizontal automatic stopping device,
endless chain cleaning system. With this - a noiseless extractor equipped with
set-up there is a risk that some of the dampeners.
screenings will fall back into the water
downstream; however, for water carrying a 1.2.3. Fine curved bar screen (GFC
high volume of matter, it may be advisable The general design of this type I bar
to have a back-cleaned preliminary screen screen is the same as the DC bar screen,
with a high removal capacity (figure 263). except that it includes a fine screen or a
stainless steel perforated sheet for spacings
1.2.2. Curved bar screen, (DC type) of less than 10 mm. Instead of rakes,
polyurethane scrapers or nylon bristle
This type I bar screen (fig. 264) includes: brushes are used.
- a curved bar screen rack in a quadrant, 1.2.4. Straight bar screen (GDH type)
supported by a rigid frame, This type II bar screen uses hydraulic
- a diametral rotating arm with two jacks to ensure a simple kinematic operation
adjustable rakes, with a reduction gear, a (figure 265).
1. Screening
It specifically includes:
- a vertical bar screen rack supported by a
rigid frame (1),
- a frame (2) that tilts upstream by means of
a jack (3), thus allowing the cleaning rake
to descend away from the bar screen
surface,
- a cleaning device made up by a rake
carriage (4) which slides in the moving
frame, driven by a jack (5),
- an ejector (6) driven by a jack.
- an assembly for ejection and cleaning of the block, is driven by a third axial cable.
lifting brushes, with a revolving brush roll Its construction and operation are simple,
driven by a chain. but its electrical drive (track limit switches,
for instance) must be extremely reliable.
Continuous moving screen that mesh with one another, hinged on two
This machine is used for fine screening of lateral chains (which ensure rotation of the
wastewater, after preliminary screening and assembly). Through the relative movement
grit removal. Its bar screen surface is made of two successive rakes, matter picked up
up of a group of custom made hinged rakes by the machine can be removed.
(made of plastic) inscribed in a cylinder,
2. GRIT REMOVAL
2.1.
OPERATING by grit removal operations is equal to or
greater than 200 µm; smaller particles are
CONDITIONS removed by presedimentation or settling
treatments.
Grit removal operations remove gravel, The theoretical principles of both grit
sand and fine mineral particles from raw removal and settling of discrete particles
water, in order to prevent deposits in are closely related (see page 158).
channels and pipes, to protect pumps and In practice, the following data can be
other machines against abrasion, and in used (valid in unhindered settling for grit
order to avoid problems in later treatment particles with a specific gravity of 2.65).
stages. The normal size of particles treated
dense particles of iron oxide, of granulated centrations ranging from 0.2 to several slag and of
oily scale with a bulk density grammes per litre, and therefore should of 2.5 to
4. These abrasive particles that be recovered by special equipment in the settle
quickly, are present in initial con- grit remover.
.
2. Grit removal
"Classifier" separators: their only role is circular zone for rapid settling with a low
to remove discrete particles larger than 200 water depth. A centrally driven diametral
or 250 gm. They are located upstream of scraper arm discharges sediments towards
the clarifier thickeners, and protect the an outside pit, from where dry extraction is
sludge pumps and dewatering equipment. carried out through a screw or a
Built by Degrémont in the range 5-12 m reciprocating rake (figure 273).
diameter, these units are fed, in general, by
overhead conduits, and they comprise a
2.5.
HYDROCYCLONES
These machines separate particles
through centrifugal hydraulic
classification. They are made up of a
cylindroconical compartment in which,
because of the tangential feed, water
rotates before leaving through an axial
overflow pipe (figure 274).
The concentrated sludge leaves through
the cone bottom (underflow). Even in the
smallest machines, the centrifugal
acceleration can be greater than 600 g, and
the feed pressure ranges from 0.5 to 2 bar.
The separation factor d50 generally
expressed in gym, and improperly called
removal capacity, corresponds to the
particle diameter for which there is a 50%
separation.
Its construction has the following
characteristics: compartment diameter D,
length L/diameter D ratio, diameter a of
the inlet opening and diameter s of the
outlet opening, and cone angle a.
Different ratios have been considered in
order to define a cyclone in terms of its
size; according to Rietema, typically it is
as follows (based exclusively on the
geometric aspects)
Chap. 9: Preliminary treatment systems
3. PRESEDIMENTATION
These inorganic coagulants should only be used, performance is usually lower than when
used on water with SS definitely lower than only an organic flocculant is used.
30 g.l-1 . The need for, and the sizing of a
With an organic flocculant only, presedimentation facility are often difficult to
settling velocity increases considerably; the determine. There are four basic factors that
colloidal fraction can be decreased if the must be considered:
polymer has been correctly selected. Of the - nature and concentration of particles (fine
three options, this is the best, because the floc sand, silt, clay, colloids, etc.);
produced is very compact, and the sludge very - range and frequency of peaks,
concentrated (more than 100 g.l-1 ). For a - need to maintain quality;
treatment rate of 1 g.m-3 of active product, - operational costs: reagents, labour.
applicable velocities can reach the following
Presedimentation tanks are rectangular
levels:
(suction bridges, chain scraper) or circular
- 3 to 5 m.h -1 for raw water with 30 g.l-1 of SS; (diametral scraper). Their construction is
- 8 to 10 m.h -1 for raw water with) similar to that of settling tanks (chapter 10,
10 g.l-1 of SS. subchapter 3). They should be preceded by a
In some cases, an inorganic coagulant flash mixer to add the reagents, and
and an organic flocculant can be used sometimes even by a flocculator. Sludge
together. When only an organic coagulant is removal by pumps is strongly recommended
because of the concentration and large
quantities of sludge that must be removed.
as to avoid, as far as possible, the deposit of along the axis. The Turboflot mixer/aerator
heavy matter; but it might be advisable to (figure 276) includes a centrifugal pumping
include upstream a settling tank for coarser impeller, submerged under some 2 m of
matter, easy to clean, and with a retention
time of 1 to 3 min.
4.2.3. Rectangular grit/grease separator which can be slow without causing any
Units with a width of 4 m (single unit) to problem:
8 m (double unit) have a liquid depth of - a possible preliminary grit removal zone at
about 4 m and a maximum length of about the inlet (which can be up to 1/3 of the unit's
30 m. They are able to treat large flows length), includes an in-line air-injection
(figures 278 and 279). system equipped with custom made air
The unit's cross section has a shape that diffusers such as Vibrairs, which deliver a
works well with sweeping crossflows, with specific aeration power of 20 to 30 W.m-3 .
slopes that promote grit collection on the The blown air maintains a transversal
bottom of the unit. Water is introduced at circulation velocity, promotes (through
the head of the unit, and recovered at the turbulence) separation of the organic matter
other end through a wide submerged coalesced to the grit, and prevents the
opening in the wall, passing through a massive accumulation of large grit particles
downstream weir to maintain the water level at the head of the unit;
constant. - the rest of the unit is used for grease
The unit, with a slow horizontal flow, separation and fine grit remo val; it includes
a series of in-line Turboflots, which produce
is generally equipped with two interrelated
a slower spiral flux and allow grease to
mixing and aeration systems which create
float.
transverse spiral flows independent of the
flow of water. This permits significant Grit is automatically extracted by a
variations in the velocity of horizontal flow reciprocating travelling bridge with a
programmed sequence:
- oil separation which, depending on the removes the dispersed hydrocarbons (table
objective, almost completely 74).
4.3.2. Gravity preliminary oil separators retention time has decreased from several
The performance of preliminary hours to less than 60 min and even 30 min.
separation units, which are generally These devices require some maintenance;
operated without the use of a reagent, also, it is advisable to use them for
cannot be quantified: relatively warm water (solidification
- the hydrocarbon specific gravity and size should be avoided) with small amounts of
distribution of droplets in water are usually suspended solids (bottom scraping is
unknown, expensive).
- the nature of the emulsion is poorly Since their construction is of a modular
defined, type, treatment of heavy flows requires a
large number of modules (each one able to
- it is practically impossible to do upstream
treat 15 to 30 m3 .h -1 , with distribution units
sampling.
that are both difficult to cover and to skim;
These devices eliminate very large and
irregular peaks of oil, as well as larger
droplets. There are three types:
• longitudinal separators (API):
operate according to American Petroleum
Institute standards (separation of droplets
greater than 150 µm in diameter); their
width ranges from 1.8 to 6 m, their water
depth from 0.6 to 2.4 m.
These separators are difficult to cover
(for smell reduction purposes), and sludge
removal from the bottom is impractical;
• lamellae separators: through the use
of lamellae settling procedures with plastic
plates spaced at about 4 cm (figure 281),
Chap. 9: Preliminary treatment systems
4.4.
RECOVERY OF OIL AND
FLOATING MATTER IN BASINS
OR LAGOONS
5. STRAINING
ter is carried by the strained water which - in other devices (figure 286), matter
crosses the strainer in the opposite direction retained inside the drum is removed because
(figure 285), of its slope, and cleaning is carried out
through water spraying (also in the opposite
direction).
150 µm. They are mounted on drums. The and silt. Joint watertightness is
washing equipment must be capable of essential. These devices have a limited
intense spraying of the fabric because of capacity (figure 289).
the increased clogging risk due to fine sand
6.3.
GREASE AND SCUM
In general, grease and scum collected at the
surface of grit removers, grease separators
and primary settling tanks, cannot be reused.
One possibility is to send this kind of waste to
anaerobic digestion (after having been fine
screened during its hydraulic transfer): this
arrangement usually increases gas production,
but at the risk of producing a scum layer.
It is preferable to store it in a skip, which
could be equipped with an overflow outlet
scum baffle, and then remove it periodically
for burial or landfill. It can also be incinerated
with sludge or screened matter, if the furnace
and handling conditions allow it.
Chap. 9: Preliminary treatment systems
In large facilities, grease and scum from then stored in a skip or pit. After
different units are sometimes hydraulically supplementary screening and, possibly,
transported towards a static flotation unit, reheating to liquefy them, the products are
which is equipped with a mechanical blade pumped at a constant rate into an
skimmer for dry recovery of grease, which is incinerator or sludge treatment furnace.
10
FLOCCULATION - SETTLING
FLOTATION
1.ADDITION OF REAGENTS
The effectiveness of the flocculation process reactor characterized by high power input
is directly affected by the efficiency of prior and a high velocity gradient (see page 135).
coagulation. To ensure the latter the reagent Depending on the technology, the liquid's
must be dispersed virtually instantaneously retention time varies from a few seconds to
in a coagulation chamber, a flash-mix a few minutes.
1.1.
IMPELLER TYPE FLASH
MIXERS
These cylindrical (steel) or rectangular
(concrete) tanks are fitted with a high speed
impeller type mixer (Figure 295).
Depending on their design, retention time
varies from 1 up to 3 minutes, for the
largest. The velocity gradient is between 250
and 1,000 s -1 depending upon the
application.
The reagent is fed into the zone of highest
turbulence, i.e., above or below the impeller,
depending on the flow direction (upward or
downward).
For some applications in which the velocity
gradient must be adjustable according to the
temperature or a varying pollution load, the
impeller mixer is fitted with a variable speed
drive.
Chap. 10: Flocculation - Settling - Flotation
1.2.
STATIC MIXERS
• Radialmix 2 MH • Radialmix 2 C
Similar to the Radialmix 2 M, but with a This compact model is housed in an orifice
nozzle and impeller. This mixer is not plate and is fitted with a nozzle and impeller.
.suitable for fluids containing coarse or It is especially suited for addition of clear
fibrous particles. reagents or liquids.
2. FLOCCULATORS
Flocculation is carried out in tanks - short circuits between the liquid inlet and
known as flocculators, equipped with outlet are prevented.
mixers. The mixing system, reactor volume Finally, it is important not to rupture the
and energy dissipation differ according to floc as it is transferred from the flocculator
the specific application or fluid involved. to the settling zone. Depending on the
A flocculator is characterized by its quality of the water treated, the following
velocity gradient, its contact time, and the transfer velocities are used for surface water
extreme local velocities of the moving clarification:
element and liquid, which shear the floc. - fragile metallic hydroxide floc
For example, for a metallic hydroxide floc, v = 0.20 m.s -1
the peripheral velocities of the moving - strong metallic hydroxide floc
element must not exceed 40 cm.s -1 v = 0.50 m.s -1
Geometry of the tank, mixing system Flocculators may be classified in two
and related equipment is defined such that: categories:
- dead zones are avoided (areas of deposits - flocculators with a mobile mixer unit
on the bottom, for example), (mechanical flocculators),
- dissipated energy is recovered as - off-set baffle or static flocculators.
turbulence (by means of peripheral
deflectors in circular tanks, for example),
Figure 300. Paddle type flocculator. Figure 301. Propeller type flocculator.
Figure 302. Moulle facility (Northern France) for LE-Dumez. Surface water clarification by
flotation. Battery of four dual-cell flocculators: Flow: 4 x 300 m3 .h -1 .
2. Flocculators
3. SETTLING TANKS
Separation by settling can take place - flow, concentration and sludge removal are
intermittently or continuously. Intermittent all essential parameters in the proper
processes, or batch settling, are used only in operation of the unit and the concept of
small makeshift facilities or in biological solids loading or even sludge volume
facilities with sequenced tank operation, in loading is very important:
which the aeration and settling phases occur
in the same unit (Sequenced Batch Reactor).
Generally, however, settling is a continuous
process. The water specialist must be thoroughly
familiar with the sludge characteristics in
In a settling tank: every application. The considerable
- the flow must be even; with good raw differences in treatment requirements have
water distribution and uniform recovery given rise to the wide variety of equipment
of the settled water, described below.
- the flow must be as non-turbulent as
possible; energy dissipation at the water
inlet must be gradual,
3.1.
STATIC SETTLING TANKS
The term "static" when applied to settling
tanks has come to refer to those involving
neither sludge recirculation nor sludge
blankets, despite the fact that settling in these
units is actually a dynamic process.
Depending on the quantity and type of SS in
the raw water, the volume of precipitates to be
drained and the slope of the tank floor, the
settler may or may not be fitted with a sludge-
scraper system.
up to about 20 m3 .h -1 , especially in physical- entails vast available space and extensive civil
chemical treatment. They are also used in works. Moreover, tanks require periodic
MWW plants serving populations of less than draining to remove the settled sludge,
1,000 or 2,000 inhabitants. restricting use of the system to cases
In larger facilities, this type of settler is involving low volumes of settled sludge.
implemented when the volume of precipitates Static settlers are generally preceded by a
is low and their specific gravity high. A mixing chamber in which the reagents are
flocculator and even a grit chamber may be dispersed quickly, and by a slowspeed
provided upstream from the settler if flocculation phase.
necessary. The slope of the tank's conical Two-stage settling tanks are a variation on
section ranges between 45° and 60°, horizontal-flow static settling tanks.
depending upon the sludge composition and
the treatment process applied. 3.1.1.2. Static settling tanks with me
The mean upward flow velocity is 0.5 m.h-1 chanical sludge scraping
for clarification of drinking water and from 1 A mechanical device for sludge scraping is
to 2 m.h -1 for the primary settling of MWW. used whenever the area of the settling zone
• Horizontal-flow static settling tanks exceeds 30 to 40 m2 This permits a reduction
In this type of settling tank, formerly used for in the steep floor slopes required for natural
drinking water, the surface area of the settling sludge drainage (down to 2% for light
zone, expressed in square metres, is equal to sludge), thereby making construction of large
one or two times the hourly flow of the water units with limited depth economically
to be treated, expressed in cubic metres. This feasible.
Figure 304. Facility in Kerkh (Iraq). Capacity: 1,200,000 PE Primary settling tanks.
Chap. 10: Flocculation - Settling - Flotation
The scraper system is used to push the (where the clarified effluent is recovered)
sludge into one or more hoppers from which and of the settled sludge moving in the
it is extracted. Sludge scraping also opposite direction toward the centre. The
promotes sludge thickening, which can complexity of the sludge scraper system
sometimes be further enhanced by depends on the application; it may be radial
concentrating sumps. The rate at which or diametral, and may or may not include a
sludge draw-off is performed by an surface skimming system (commonly used
automatic draw-off system, depends on the for wastewater).
acceptable duration of storage.
Scraper settling tanks are usually used for In radial scraper systems, the bottom
roughing treatment of river water as well as scraper unit is mounted on rods and
for primary settling and final clarification in suspended from a supporting bridge that
conjunction with biological or chemical rotates about the axis of the tank; it may
treatment of wastewater. They are also used have only one scraper or a series of scraper
for settling heavily loaded industrial blades arranged in echelon.
wastewater from sources such as: mines,
steel manufacturing, sugar mills, coal An on-board drive at one end of the bridge
washing, etc. powers a wheel that moves along the
periphery of the unit, thereby rotating the
• Circular settling tanks bridge (Figures 305 and 306).
Scraper circular setting tanks, with diameter
greater than approximately 10 m, are In diametral scraper systems, the length of
basically horizontal-flow tanks, both in the scraper unit is doubled. As above, it may
terms of the settling particles, which move be suspended from a diam-
away from the middle toward the periphery
etral bridge with a dual reduction gear drive The Centrideg central drive unit
at both ends. For these systems, however, a (Figure 307) is designed for higher
central drive is often preferred to the scraper torques. It is mounted on the
peripheral one, in which case the bottom tank centreline, usually on a centre
scrapers (and surface skimmers where column made of concrete or, for small
applicable) are attached to a diametral diameters, over a diametral access
bridge. The bridge in turn is hung from a walkway made of either steel or
centrally-located drive unit that rotates the concrete (for settling tanks with built-in
bridge about the tank axis. thickeners).
In drinking water and wastewater treatment 309). The flocculated water flows through
applications, scraper circular settling tanks wide orifices into the set tling area, where
with peripheral drive may be designed to the flocculated particles are deposited with
include a central area for flocculation, with the settleable solids.
the associated slow mixers also being
mounted on the supporting bridge (Figure
Figure 308. Valenton (Paris area, France) facility for SLUR Flow: 300,000 M 3 .d.-1 , Central
drive unit on the concrete centre column of a primary settling tank, 52 m dia.
3. Settling tanks
Figure 310. Cannes (Southern France) facility. Maximum flow: 5,500 m3 h -1 . Flocculator/settling
tanks.
Figure 313. Aïre effluent treatment facility in Geneva (Switzerland). Flow rate: 3.6 m3 .s-1 . One of
the 8 settling tanks equipped with a flight-and-chain scraper system. Dimensions: 70 m x 18.5 m.
Other designs involve bridges that straddle several tanks with one scraper device
and scrape several settling tanks at the same shifting periodically from one tank to the
time, or bridges that span next (Figure 314).
Chap. 10: Flocculation - Settling - Flotation
sludge flow at a single point, yet provide rapidThe bottom scrapers are generally supported and
sludge recirculation, it is preferable to increase
driven by trussed arms attached to the support
the number of draw-off points. walkway, and have no support wheel on the tank
Suction-type settling tanks, in which each floor. Each scraper is fitted with a PVC or HDPE
scraper blade is paired with a draught tube,draught tube placed at intervals that vary from the
meet this objective. The technique can be centre to the periphery. The tubes discharge into a
applied to circular as well as rectangular recovery hopper. A telescopic sleeve with an
settling tanks and many methods of operation adjustable overflow is mounted at the discharge
are possible. The suction effect is most often point of each draught tube, permitting individual
achieved simply by using hydrostatic pressure.visual flow control. Air may be injected into the
straight upright section of each draught tube,
3.1.3.1 Circular units which then operates as an air lift pump.
Suction-type scrapers are normally used in Transfer of sludge from the movable recovery
units with diameters greater than 20 m, and are hopper to the fixed extraction pipe built into the
designed for sludge that does not require unit is performed using a vacuum siphon with a
scraping torque greater than 3 daN.m2 per m of priming device. These units may also be fitted
tank surface area.
3. Settling tanks
with surface skimmers for scum removal. recovery in the middle zone. Another
In standard Degrémont radial settling tanks, recovery tank and upstream siphon
the downstream branch of the siphon is branch are included.
located along the axis of the unit. The diameter may exceed 50 m.
• Radial suction
SV-type (Figure 322) • Diametral suction
The system features a peripherallydriven SD-type
radial bridge rotating about a central In-line suction is equally applicable to
column and is equipped with a low, the full tank diameter. In this
partially-immersed beam, which acts as a configuration, suction devices and the
sludge recovery trough. activated sludge collection equipment
The diameter is less than 40 m. are added to the type of centre drive
SR-type (Figure 323) described on page 644. The two-
The SR-type has a radial bridge consisting branch siphon feeds a revolving
of a horizontal beam, above the water. This annular recovery tank serving all
walkway structure is made of folded steel draught tubes (Figure 325).
plate or truss elements for large units. The The diameter is 60 m maximum.
sludge recovery tank is mounted on the • Annular suction
walkway and partially submerged. Succir type
The diameter of such units is up to 40 m. The purpose of this type of unit
The alternative SRP version of this unit (Figure 326) is to achieve more
(Figure 324) involves extending the balanced sludge recovery in the central
walkway in cantilever over one-third of the zone.
opposite radius, thereby enhancing sludge
Chap. 10: Flocculation - Settling - Flotation
Typical design is based on the peripheral- A simplified use of this technique - and one
drive radial bridge. Most of the draught suitable for small units only - involves
tubes, which rotate with the bridge, are annular extraction points embedded in the
arranged concentrically with the unit, at one- tank floor.
third of its radius. The others are in line with
the scrapers. The diameter ranges from 30 to
more than 50 m.
Figure 324. Mulhouse (Eastern France) facility. Flow.' 98,135 m3 .d -1 . SRP-type settling tank.
3. Settling tanks
Figure 326 Roanne (Central France) facility. Flow: 30,000 m3 .d -1 Succir type setding tank, 54 m
dia.
Chap. 10: Flocculation - Settling - Flotation
Figure 327. Valenton (Paris area, France) facility for SIAAP. Flow: 300,000 m3 .d -1 . SD-type
settling tank, 52 m dia.
ding tanks. However, even distribution of Most recirculated sludge is removed using a
mixed liquor at the inlet is particularly series of fixed air-lifts, placed all along the
important (Figure 330). tank centre line and emptying into a general
Distributed fixed-extraction settler with recovery channel (Figure 331). A travelling
additional mobile suction bridge with scrapers and air-lifts scrapes the
floor and provides additional recirculation.
Figure 329. Strasbourg (Eastern France) facility. Flow: 242,000 m3 .d -1 . SLG-type settling tank. 18
units, 20 m x 66 m each.
Chap. 10: Flocculation - Settling - Flotation
Figure 331. Nice (Southern France) facility. Flow: 220,000 m3 .d -1 . One of 12 secondary clarifiers,
15 m x 60 m.
3. Settling tanks
then discharging it instantaneously into actuates a valve (8) that is thrown open to
the unit. connect the chamber with the atmosphere.
The most economical means of Atmospheric pressure is therefore
achieving this is to take the raw water immediately exerted on the water stored
into a chamber from which air is sucked in the chamber, which rushes into the
by means of a vacuum device (7) clarifier.
displacing an air flow that is These units are usually calibrated so
approximately equal to one half of the that the chamber drains into the clarifier
maximum flow rate of the water to be in 5 to 20 seconds, whereas it takes 20 to
treated. The chamber is connected to the 40 seconds to fill.
distribution system at the base of the The suction in the chamb er is created
clarifier. using a fan or blower operating as a
During the filling phase, the raw water vacuum pump. The opening and closing
level rises gradually in the chamber. of the air release valve are controlled by
When it rises 0.6 m to 1 m above the the chamber water level.
clarifier water level, an electric relay
The main distribution system, located in its role as a buffer, poor adjustment of the
the lower portion of the clarifier, has a treatment rate or a variation in the
large cross-section to reduce head loss.
The orifices along the laterals are raw water pH have no immediate negative
positioned to permit a homogeneous effects; a slow variation in the turbidity of the
sludge blanket to form in the lower part of settled water is observed, but this does not
the clarifier. The blanket pulses up and produce any massive loss of the sludge in the
down and tends to expand due to the clarifier.
added reagents and the impurities borne It is easy to convert an existing tank, filter or
by the raw water; its level rises regularly. reservoir into a Pulsator, thereby modernizing
The excess sludge flows into hoppers (10) old facilities and increasing their flow
provided in one section of the clarifier and capacity two or three times over. Examples of
becomes concentrated there. Sludge is this type of retrofit are the facilities in Buenos
drawn off periodically through the pipes Aires, Argentina: 1,300,000 m3 .d -1 , and
(3). One major advantage of the unit is Alexandria, Egypt: 240,000 m3 .d -1 .
that if too much sludge is drawn off, the 3.2.1.2. Larnellae Pulsator clarifier or
resulting water loss does not affect the Pulsatube
sludge blanket; operational integrity Installing Degrémont modules above the
remains the same. sludge blanket of the Pulsator clarifier results
The unit has no mechanical sludge mixing in superior water quality with the same
system that would break up the floc settling velocity as a conventional unit, or
particles already formed. Given the high allows an increase in settling velocity which
concentration of the sludge blanket, and can range from 4 to 8 m.h -1 (Figure 334).
Figure 333. Palermo II facility for drinking water supply for Buenos Aires (Argentina). Flow:
36,000 m3 .h -1 . Surface water clarification. Four Pulsator clarifiers, 99.5 m x 27 m.
Chap. 10: Flocculation - Settling - Flotation
However, in the latter case, special accumulate there in a thin layer until their
attention should be paid to the raw cohesion allows them to slide back down
water distribution and settled water into the sludge blanket.
collection systems, for an increase in
the flow modifies the hydraulic regimen 3.2.1.3. Superpulsator clarifies
through the systems. The Superpulsator (Figure 336) is a
The floc particles that have escaped compact and economical sludge blanket
from the sludge blanket are deposited unit derived from the Pulsator.
on the lower walls of the modules and
Figure 335. Boudouaou facility for drinking water supply for Greater Algiers (Algeria). Flow:
540,000 m3 .d -1 . Surface water clarification. Six Pulsatube clarifiers. Unit area: 551 m2 .
3. Settling tanks
Figure 338. Burlington (Vermont, U.S.A.) facility. Flow: 1,500 m3.h -1 . Retrofitting two
existing tanks with Superpulsators.
3. Settling tanks
The unit has a conical floor to help the applications, by accommodating significant
sludge slide toward the ejector for flow rate variations and high rising velocities,
recirculation. It has no moving parts. comparable to those of the Circulator.
The Circulator can usually clarify or soften
water with a retention time of 45 minutes to The reaction zone, located in the middle of the
2 hours depending on the specific case; the unit, allows excellent control over the
maximum admissible rising velocity is 2.5 coagulation, flocculation, softening and even
m.h-1 for clarification and 5 to 7 m.h -1 for oxidation reagents. A scraper system
softening. continually brings the sludge to the centre,
• Scraper Circulator where it is then collected by the recirculation
For large-diameter units that cannot have a system or pushed to the hoppers for
sufficient floor slope, a scraper bridge is concentration and periodic extraction.
used to bring the sludge continually to the
middle; design is identical to that of static 3.2.2.4. CLARICONTACT clarifier
settling tank scraper systems (page 643). In this unit (Figure 343), an air-lift system is
implemented to recirculate the thickened and
3.2.2.3. Turbocirculator clarifier scraped sludge into the flocculation zone,
In this unit (Figure 341), precipitates are thereby permitting monitoring of sludge
recirculated by a special impeller. The quality. The volume and the contact time
impeller prevents damaging fragile metallic (hence, the flocculation time) are defined
hydroxide precipitates which would not based on water characteristics. A scraper
withstand recirculation by an ejector. This system allows the sludge to thicken as it is
feature makes the unit suitable for pushed toward the hoppers, from which it is
clarification as well as softening peri
3. Settling tanks
Figure 342. James MacLaren Industries Inc. (Canada). Primary settling of effluents.
Turbocirculator 55 m dia.
L - Lamellae settling: this settling relative sizes of the lamellae settling zone
chamber, fitted with hexagonal-section and of the prethickening zone can be
Degrémont modules (11), removes the varied. Thus, if the purpose is simply to
residual floc. The settled water is recovered concentrate the suspended solids in the raw
(13) by a system of collection troughs (12). water, without attempting to achieve the
Depending on the size of the unit, the best possible quality of settled water, a unit
sludge is collected by gravity or scraping without a lamellae zone (Densadeg RP) is
(15 ), extracted in (16) and recycled to the sufficient. One such application involves
head of the reactor. the treatment of filter backwash water in
The Densadeg can be used in a variety of facilities not equipped for in-line settling:
applications: production of drinking or in-line coagulation, biological iron
process water (clarification, lime removal. This also applies for treatment of
softening), treatment of waste filter mine water, and some IWW. On the other
backwash water, treatment of industrial hand, if highquality settled water is the
wastewater (flocculation, precipitation), or priority treatment goal, and if there is no
MW (physical-chemical treatment, tertiary need to achieve maximum sludge
treatment for phosphate removal, etc.). thickening, then the Densadeg RL (Figures
Depending on the treatment goals, the 346 and 347) is appropriate.
Chap. 10: Flocculation - Settling - Flotation
3. Settling tanks
Figure 348. Franken 11 (Germany) facility. Flow rate: 150 m3 .h -1 . Clarification of river
water for the production of process water. Steel Densadeg clarifier.
- instead of sludge, they create beads 1 to 2 and replaced by new small nuclei
mm in diameter which dewater very rapidly. introduced through (5).
Since catalytic lime softening involves
crystallization of the calcium carbonate of
the water with the granular media,
dispersing agents must not be used. The
process is not applicable to water containing
too much colloidal matter, iron or magnesia.
To prevent precipitation of magnesium
oxides, the magnesium hardness of the raw
water (MgH) must conform to the relation
MgH < TH - M alk.
The Gyrazur can be used to produce
carbonate-free water with low SS, as the
solids are mainly a result of impurities in the
lime used (lime grit).
The Gyrazur (Figure 349) is a metal unit
comprised of a stack of three cylinders with
diameter increasing from bottom to top,
connected by truncated conical sections.
This geometry contains practically twice as
much granular media as a conventional
conical unit of like upper diameter and
height.
The raw water is introduced horizontally
and tangentially (1) into the lower cylinder
so as to impart an upward spiralling motion
that makes the media expand and move.
The lime, in the form of highly diluted
milk of lime or lime water, is injected
directly into the media at (3), which is
slightly above the raw water inlet and thus
in a highly turbulent zone that facilitates
rapid mixing.
The treated water, separated from the
media in the upper cylinder (7), is recovered
at the top of the device and drained out
through (2).
Since the grains of the media grow
continually, the largest must be removed
periodically from the base of the device (4),
3. Settling tanks
High rising velocities, from 30 to 70 m.h -1 Gyrazur reactor can also be used for
are possible in the separation zone. Gyrazur removal of carbonates using caustic soda.
models may be designed to accommodate Layout is shown in Figure 350.
flow rates from 50 to 2,000 m3.h -1 . The
Figure 351. LE-Dumez facility in Villeneuve-la-Garenne (Paris area, France). Maximum flow
rate: 1,800 m3 .h -1 . Lime softening of groundwater using a Gyrazur reactor. View of the reagent
feed point at the base of the unit.
Chap. 10: Flocculation - Settling - Flotation
With suction systems, sludge can be Figure 352 shows two configurations
collected without hoppers. applicable to concentrated industrial sludge
for:
3.4.2. Recovery - direct recovery,
Sludge recovery may be by gravity flow, - recovery via an intermediate storage sump.
provided that a sufficient head is available
and that sludge characteristics (viscosity, This configuration allows visual control
thixotropy, texture, etc.) permit. Otherwise, and accommodates different instantaneous
the sludge must be recovered directly by flows between the settling tank draw-off
pump, and recycled where applicable.One process and sludge removal.
3. Settling tanks
4. FLOTATION UNITS
chamber (1) where it is placed in contact with For some applications and for large-
air-saturated water (9) that has passed through diameter units, the flotation unit is fitted
a pressure-release valve, resulting in the with a bottom scraper to facilitate the
formation of small air (or gas) bubbles that removal through (10) of any sludge that
attach to the solid particles. Being of lower settles on the floor.
specific gravity than the water, the particle/ Comments:
bubble composite is separated out in zone (2) a) The mixing chamber serves two
and collects at the surface. The resulting purposes:
sludge is recovered by a surface skimmer and -to combine the water to be treated with the
channelled out through a trough (4). The water pressurized water,
separated from the particles is recovered under - to dissipate the kinetic energy from the
a scum baffle (5) before it is collected and mixture before the latter passes into the
drained off in (6). separation zone.
Pressurized water is obtained: b) The floated sludge layer may in some
- either by recycle pressurization, i.e., part of cases reach a thickness of several dozen
the treated water is recycled (7) and brought centimetres and be extremely stable
into contact with pressurized air (or gas) (14) (thickening of activated sludge). In other
in a saturation vessel (8); cases it is not as thick and/or is more fragile
- or by full flow pressurization, in which all (flotation of metallic hydroxide floc or
the liquid to be treated is pressurized. oils).
The pressurized water is injected into the c) The number of surface skimmer blades
mixing chamber (1). depends on their rotational veloc-
4. Flotation units
ity, the distance between two blades and are used for flow rates under about 300
the amount of sludge to be removed. m3 .h -1 .
The risk of deaeration or rupture of the Different types of regulation prevent
sludge must be avoided. the pressurization gas from discharging
directly into the flotation units. Figure
4.1.2. Saturation vessels 356 shows one configuration that is
These gas -dissolving units are made widely used because of its simplicity.
of galvanized steel or have internal 4.1.3. Recovering floated sludge
protection. They may be vertical or Floated sludge to be recovered from
horizontal. the receiving hopper may require
The standard Degrémont vessels have deaeration before pumping. The pumps
a contact time ranging from a few dozen must have a positive suction head.
seconds up to one minute. Vertical units
Figure 358. Barrancabermeja (Colombia) facility for Ecopetrol. Flow rate: 3,000 m3 .h -1 . Flotation
of oily water. 4 Sediflotazur units, each 15 m dia.
Figure 360. Facility at Pontrieux (Western France). Drinking water supply. Flow. 200 m3 .h -1 .
Clarification of river water by flotation. View of the sludge and the Flotazur P scraper system,
with a surface area of 27 m2 .
The Flotazur L has the same arrangement and, if necessary, the sludge at the. bottom
as the Flotazur P for mixing the water to be (chain scraper or scraper bridge).
treated with the pressurized water. The
scraper system removes the surface scum
4. Flotation units
4.4. - a scraper system with a large number of
FLOTATION UNITS scraper arms,
- sludge removal troughs designed to
FOR SLUDGE increase the volume of the sludge removed
THICKENING each time the scraper arm passes,
- the option of mounting an anti-odour
4.4.1. General cover on the scraper arms.
In this application, the full flow
The flotation units used in the treatment pressurization technique is generally used.
of water with high SS concentrations Although rectangular tanks may be used,
(several grammes per litre.) have the circular tanks allow greater efficiency,
following characteristics: especially for the larger sizes, using simple
- a modified mixing chamber design, equipment with minimal maintenance
- greater depth, providing more than 80 cm requirements.
for storage of larger quantities of sludge,
thereby promoting thickening,
Chap. 10: Flocculation - Settling - Flotation
Figure 362. Maxéville (Eastern France) facility for the Champigneulles brewery. Flow
rate: 600 m3 h -1 . One of two 20 m dia. Rotation units.
11
AEROBIC BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES
1. ACTIVATED SLUDGE
1.1 INSTALLATION For continuous removal of the
LOADING soluble carbonaceous pollution, the
purification efficiency is greater the
AND OPERATIONAL lower the F/M ratio (see page 296)
CHARACTERISTICS and the greater the sludge age. This
might not be the same for concomitant
The purification efficiency of an nitrification or phosphate removal.
activated sludge plant depends on two Purification processes by activated
factors simultaneously: sludge are thus classified in families.
- fixing, by adsorption and oxidation, of the However, it is customary to relate
polluting elements by the bacterial mass (or these processes not only with F/M ratio
biological floc), but also with BOD loading. There are
- effective separation of this floc from the two reasons for this:
purified interstitial water. - the requirements of clarification -
In the activated sludge reactor, bacterial usually carried out by settling - make it
mass is accumulated due to sludge necessary not to exceed maximum
recycling; sludge age thus increases with concentrations of SS (g.l-1 ) of the
the available biomass quantity and has a activated sludge liquor. For the limits
somewhat slowing effect on the bacterial of F/M ratio there are thus
activity; however, in the development corresponding limits of loading in
phase (see page 297) which is the phase of BOD5 or COD (kg/m3 . d) calculated
most of the bacterial flora, this effect is not on the volume of the biological reactor,
predominant and, generally speaking, the - a minimum retention time in the
quantity of pollution retained is all the biological reactor is necessary to
greater because the bacterial mass is facilitate the
considerable.
Chap. 11: Aerobic biological processes
phenomena of adsorption and to dampen the pollution by activated sludge. The stated
effect of peaks, particularly common in efficiencies assume the case of proper
municipal effluents. Table 76 summarizes the separation of all the elements that can be
usual classification by loading level of the settled from the activated sludge liquor.
processes of removal of carbonaceous
High loading 1.2 > F/M > 0.4 1.5 < Cv < 3 1.5 to 4 ? < 80%
Very high loadings (F/M> 1.2) are Figure 363 characterizes the development
sometimes used in an initial roughing of purification according to the F/M ratio.
stage where the pollution is basically
removed by adsorption and retaining of
particles in the biological floc.
1.2.5. Stepped feed tank This process consists of carrying out the
biological purification in two separate
(incorrectly called "step aeration°). The phases each including a reactor and a
inflow of wastewater is organized in step clarifier. It is used on raw wastewater and
fashion in the aeration tank, which is consists of
comprised of a series of cells successively - a phase with very high loading (high
traversed by the liquor, which "zigzags" rate), greater than 2 kg BOD5 per kg SS
forward. The recycled sludge is introduced at per day,
the head of the tank. Oxygen needs are thus - a phase with medium loading (medium
much better distributed than in a plug flow rate) (F/M ratio of 0.3 kg BOD5 per kg SS
tank and, for the same SS concentration at the per day).
inlet of the clarifier, the mass of activated The purpose of this process is to
sludge present in the reactor is also greater. develop two completely different bacterial
Degrémont have perfected various floras in the two stages. In the first, the
regulating systems for this stepped feed phenomena of adsorption dominate and a
process (Figure 369). reduction of about 30 to 50% BOD5 is
sought. In the second stage, the
mechanisms of oxidation and synthesis are
predominant. Nitrification is possible if
the F/M ratio is sufficiently low.
1.3.
Activated Rising velocity Solids loading (SS)
THE CLARIFIER Daily Maximum Average Maximum
AND RECYCLING 3 2 3
m /m .d M /m .h2
kg/m 2 .h kg/m 2 .h
Separation of the bacterial floc from the Medium
rate 15-30 1.2-1.8 3-6 8
interstitial liquor, or clarification, is usually Low
achieved by settling. rate 8-15 0.8-1.2 2-5 6
In a continuous purification process, this
clarifier, separated from the actual reactor, is The rising velocity corresponds to the flow
called secondary settling tank. In intermittent of treated water alone. Solids loading is
processes (in batch run) or alternating calculated on the total throughflow.
processes, settling can be ensured in the actual However, the preceding values must
reactor. On highly concentrated activated sometimes be considerably reduced with a
sludge liquors, separation by flotation may sludge that settles poorly. Sludge volume load
sometimes be used. (see page 642) is then quite often
Activated sludge tends to flocculate, with a representative of the spatial sludge load of the
specific gravity quite near that of water. Its clarifier. In the case of sludge bulking with
ability to settle, monitored by the SVI (sludge SVI's of 300 or 400 ml.g -1 and for
volume index), or Mohlman index (see page concentrations of 1 to 2 (g.l-1 ) the rising
297), depends on a certain number of factors velocity must be adjusted to several dozen
that affect the characteristics of the bacterial cm.h -1 .
floc: the presence of industrial wastes, the Other elements, inherent in the very design
dissolved oxygen content, the variation in the of the clarifier, are important for the results of
microorganisms load conditions throughout clarification: the means of collection of the
the treatment cycle, the aeration mode, the treated water, weir loading rate (which
temperature, etc. The settleability and the normally should not exceed 15 m3 /h.m).
concentration of activated sludge determine, The depth of the structure is one of the main
with the flow of treated water and the total sizing parameters. It must be sufficient to give
throughflow (raw wastewater flow + recycled the sludge the required time to thicken and, at
flow) the proper operation of secondary the same time, to allow the inevitable
settling tanks. fluctuations of the sludge blanket due to
They provide two equally important variations in hydraulic operating conditions.
functions: A 3 m minimum straight tank height is
- clarification of the wastewater, recommended for circular units 5 m for units
- thickening of the recycled sludge. of large diameter (40 to 50 m). The maximum
Rising velocity and solids loading admissible rising velocities in practice are
(SS) are typical parameters for sizing the highly depend-
having a small diameter. It may be 4 to
secondary settling tanks whose guide values
are as follows for MWW:
1. Activated sludge
ent on this height when the sludge volume is The effectiveness of a clarifier also depends
considerable. on its shape. The best results are obtained by
The recycle rate, which determines the vertical flow settling implemented in deep
concentration of suspended solids of the units with a highly sloping bottom (at least 50°
recycled sludge, governs the volume to horizontal) but the construction of such
occupied and the retention time of the units, of limited diameter, is expensive. Units
sludge in the clarifier. If it is insufficient, the with large surfaces have slightly sloping
volume of sludge stored is too great: the top bottoms and are often equipped with bridge or
sludge level nears the collecting weirs and flight scrapers pushing the sludge into pits
the water quality deteriorates. This results in whence it is recovered for recycling and
a risk of anaerobic conditions and, in some removal of the excess fraction. However,
cases, denitrification, with the activated mechanical scraping is not the most
sludge rising to the surface. If it is appropriate method for sludge that is often
excessive, the clarification may be disturbed light and flocculent.
by the excess hydraulic energy introduced. A more effective sludge recovery system is
For MWW activated sludge with proper that of "suction settling tanks" (see page
settleability, a recycle rate adjustable from 652). It allows:
50 to 100% of the average flow is - high recycle flow without creating excessive
satisfactory. For sludge that is very difficult sludge velocities at the bottom of the unit,
to settle, a rate of 200% may be necessary.
Chap. 11: Aerobic biological processes
- a more orderly recovery of the sludge over retention times in the biological reactor.
the entire surface of the floor, avoiding Figure 373 shows that there is a minimum
excessively long sludge retention times in total volume for a set purification
the clarifier. efficiency. This minimum does not
The risk of degradation of the sludge is necessarily correspond to the economic
considerably reduced. This arrangement is optimum
absolutely necessary for large-sized tanks
operating under difficult circumstances (hot
countries, poor settleability of sludge). The
draught tubes are mounted on a movable
bridge (rotating or travelling back and
forth); each one is connected with a short
scraper sweeping the adjacent surface.
Degrémont largely developed the
technology of these suction settling tanks.
The sizing of an activated sludge treatment
plant depends equally on the aeration unit,
the clarification unit and its recycling
system. Sizing of these elements is
interdependent. For example, making the
clarifier large will make it possible to
accommodate greater concentrations of
activated sludge and, consequently, shorter
These systems usually consist of an
1.4 apparatus or a group of apparatus placed in a
AERATION SYSTEMS tank of determined volume and shape,
accomplishing these two functions
1.4.1. Efficiency criteria and comparison of simultaneously.
aeration systems
Aeration systems in an activated sludge 1.4.1.1. Oxygenation capacity under
tank have a dual purpose: standard conditions (OX.CAP.)
- to provide the aerobic microorganisms with This basic criterion (OX.CAP.) makes it
the oxygen they need, generally taken from possible to determine the oxygenation
the air, capabilities of an aeration system.
- to cause sufficient homogenization and It represents the oxygen mass that can be
mixing so as to ensure close contact between transferred by the system, per hour per cubic
the live medium, the polluting elements and metre of tank, into fully deoxygenated water,
the water thus oxygenated. (i.e., under maximum transfer conditions).
(OX.CAP.) = KL a.Cs (O2 in kg/h.m3 of tank)
1. Activated sludge
that Tp be known, and its precise definition special computer program, perfected
requires delicate measurements carried out with the help of oxygenation tests used
in a pilot biological treatment unit fed with as models, carried out in up to 25 m
the wastewater being studied. submergence and reaching efficiencies in
The coefficient Tp can be considerably the 85% range.
lower in the case of fine bubble diffusion of
air than in the case of coarse bubble 1.4.1.4. Other comparison criteria
diffusion or of surface aeration, particularly The comparison also involves other
due to the influence of the surface-active supplementary criteria which are not
detergents. easily calculable and can only be
The method explained above of qualitatively evaluated:
converting standard conditions into actual - mixing, which should allow sweeping
conditions is suitable, where the oxygen velocities sufficient to avoid deposits and
transfer efficiencies are not too high (up to to ensure successful homogenization,
25%, for example) and the water depths are etc., - the constant nature of the specific
moderate (up to 5 m), but it is not oxygen transfer capacity in the various
applicable for high performance aeration operational modes,
systems and for great depths, because it - the reliability of all the components
does not take the gradual reduction of the such as reducer, compressor, diffuser,
oxygen content of the air bubbles into conduits, etc.
account, which may then become It is of little use if, for example, an
considerable causing a reduction in the aerator has excellent oxygenation
transfer coefficient. capabilities at the cost of insufficient
hydraulic mixing or a risk of clogging,
As the actual performance in liquor is which results in a drop in oxygenation
generally less than that at standard capacity and the production of anaerobic
conditions, the oxygen impoverishment of deposits in the tank.
the air bubbles is lower and, for this reason,
the effect of reduction of the transfer 1.4.2. Surface aerators
coefficient due to this impoverishment is 1.4.2.1. Different types of aerator
less. Failure to take this parameter into Surface aerators are divided into three
account thus leads to an underestimation of groups.
performance in actual conditions in liquor, The two most important ones are low
all the more pronounced as the usual speed aerators:
coefficient Tp of the system deviates from - vertical axis type, which take in water
1. either through a draught tube or not, then
spray it laterally into the air,
Determining with sufficient accuracy the - horizontal axis type (roller or brush),
actual aeration performance in liquor in a which sweep the water with a submerged
deep tank requires a fairly complex portion of the blades and spray it
method, with various undetermined points downstream.
requiring iteration. Degrémont uses a
Chap. 11: Aerobic biological processes
The third group comprises high the demands, may promote partial
speed, vertical axis aerators driven denitrification.
directly by an electric motor at 750 or Actirotors are vertical surface aerators
1,500 rpm without an intermediate developed by Degrémont Several
reducer. The impeller, generally placed thousand are in operation.
inside a short tube, is of small diameter.
The mechanical assembly is often (a) The impeller and shaft
supported by one or more floats, so as to The impeller of the Actirotor (Figure
be easily placed on the water and to 374) is of the completely open type,
provide considerable mobility. This type which eliminates any possibility of
of aerator has the advantage of being clogging or packing. It includes a closed,
inexpensive, but it consumes large hollow hub on which thin, streamlined
amounts of energy (specific oxygen pumping blades and blades for dispersing
transfer capacity rarely exceeds 14 the spray are attached.
kg/kWh net) and has a low mixing This balanced impeller is supported
capacity. It is better suited for lagoons and driven by a tubular shaft, fastened on
than for activated sludge tanks, where a high output drive assembly calculated,
deposits must be avoided. These units according to AGMA standards, for a
are produced for a power range of 2 to service life of over 80,000 hours in
50 kW or more. conditions of intensive use.
The peripheral velocity of the impeller,
1.4.2.2. Vertical axis, low speed at full power, varies according to models
aerators. The Actirotors between 4 and 4.5 m.s -1 , i.e., rotation
This type of unit is as old as the speeds from the 100 rpm range for small
activated sludge process itself units to 40 rpm for large models (75 kW).
(Manchester 1916). Operation at limited power can be
obtained by a two-speed or variable speed
The advantages of these aerators are: motor (1).
- simplicity of installation and use,
- their energy consumption, (b) Installation
- their mixing capabilities. The assembly is often mounted on
They are still very widely used fixed support: a walkway or, even better,
despite their relative lack of flexibility a circular platform surrounded by a semi-
of use (particularly if the number of rigid, anti-aerosol, anti-noise skirt, flush
units in the tank is low) and certain risks with the liquid level (Figure 375).
of nuisance (aerosols, noise). These
nuisances can be avoided by judicious (1) Another method of regulating the input
power and thus the oxygen transfer capacity which
covering of the spray, and by is sometimes used consists in adapting the
soundproofing the drive assembly. submergence of the aerator by variations in the
The sequencing of operation by PLC liquid level. This arrangement has the disadvantage
(see page 1143), a constraint often of a very low mixing capacity at limited
submergence and hydraulic surges on the clarifier if
necessary to adjust the oxygenation to the water level variations are rapid.
1. Activated sludge
(e) Actual oxygen transfer capacity liquid and the nature of the SS), to be
For mainly domestic wastewater, the determined on a case by case basis,
correction coefficient T for conversion into
actual conditions is generally good, with the - the gyration radius of the tank - by analogy
oxygen transfer correction coefficient Tp with channel flow, gyration radius is defined
being near 1. as the ratio of the volume to the wetted
(f) Mixing surface. When the gyration radius increases,
The mixing effect must ensure that the mixing improves.
sludge is kept suspended and that the mixture Certain types of aerators must be equipped
is homogeneous, but it must also produce with a draught tube. Due to their considerable
floor sweeping velocities (in the 0.2 to 0.3 pumping capacity, Actirotors do not require
m.s -1 range depending on the quality of the this accessory, except in special cases.
sludge) avoiding deposits, which is often the
determining requirement. 1.4.2.3. Horizontal axis, low speed aerators.
The mixing effect is influenced by two The Rolloxes
main parameters. These units are similar to the vertical
- specific power: which must be in the 30 to aerators in their simultaneous functions of
40 W.m-3 range for activated sludge of oxygenation by aerial spray and mixing by
domestic wastewaters; mainly industrial moving the liquid mass. They are intended for
effluents may require greater power moderately deep, closed loop aeration basins
(according to the viscosity of the interstitial (ditches) in which they cause a horizontal
flow.
Chap. 11: Aerobic biological processes
The air flow per diffuser is about 1 to 2 In this tube-shaped diffuser (Figure 389),
Nm3 .h -1 for a head loss in the 0.05 bar range. diffusion of the air in fine bubbles is
The nominal oxygenation efficiency of an achieved by a thin, flexible, elastic
Oxazur system, promoted by the very good membrane perforated with numerous small
distribution of the air in the granular mass, is diameter orifices (in the 0.2 mm range).
10 to 15% at 4 m submergence. The innovative perforation method makes
it possible to obtain a good oxygen transfer
efficiency and a low head loss.
The nominal oxygen transfer efficiency of
the Flexazur is 25 to 30% at 4 m
submergence, with a head loss (diffusion +
distribution) of between 0.03 and 0.05 bar.
Figure 390. Palo Alto plant (California, USA). Aeration tank equipped with Vortimix aerators,
for treating
Chap. 11: Aerobic biological processes
Figure 391. Leykam plant Austria. Treatment ofpaper mill effluents. Flow: 856 M 3 h -1 . Pure
oxygen activated sludge reactor.
Chap. 11: Aerobic biological processes
To limit the production of this gas, the flotation makes it possible to reach an
alkalinity of the liquor is increased or air optimal concentration of the sludge in the
stripping is practised. This is why the reactor straightaway.
adoption of the Degrémont system in two
steps (oxygen followed by air) is often • Oxygenation and mixing devices
advantageous. The use of pure oxygen in the The surface aerators are of the low speed
first cells of the reactor makes it possible to type, made of stainless steel, with the drive
limit energy consumption and the size of the assembly located outside and a hydraulic
plant for the removal of most of the seal.
pollution. The use of air in the last cells In the case of considerable load
makes it possible to remove the free CO2 variations, systems that separate the
and reduce the phenomena of degassing and oxygenation and mixing operations and
foaming in the clarifier. It helps in removing make it possible to ensure mixing with very
the residual pollution and ensures low energy consumption are recommended.
nitrification where applicable. For small units, the use of open tanks and
primary negative pressure systems (in which
In order to limit the losses as much as the gas is introduced at low pressure at the
possible, the Oz reactor generally throat of an ejector through which the
comprises several cells crossed by the contents of the tank are recycled) makes it
gaseous mixture in succession. The rate of possible to considerably reduce investments.
oxygen use in the reactor is near 90%.
1.4.5.4. Production of oxygen
The inlet of pure oxygen is normally The most favourable case is by far the one
controlled by the pressure in the atmosphere in which the pure oxygen is available in an
of the reactor. For safety, the latter is oxygen duct running nearby and coming
equipped with a detector of hydrocarbons in from a steelworks or a large independent
the air space. production unit.
• Separator If this is not the case, in small plants, the
The separation of the activated sludge is, oxygen is supplied in liquid form and stored
in general, carried out in a settling tank, with in insulated containers equipped with
the removal of the highly concentrated evaporators.
sludge normally allowing a lower recycle For larger plants, two technologies are
rate than in the case of standard aeration. possible: that of molecular sieves (Pressure
In certain cases, if an appreciable loss of Swing Adsorber or PSA) up to capacities of
SS is acceptable in the treated water (for 30 t.d -1 , or that of cryogenic stations starting
example, pretreatment of a highly from 10/20 t.d -1 . Generally, the gas produced
concentrated waste prior to discharge to a has a purity level of 95 to 99% O2 .
municipal plant), separation by dissolved air
1. Activated sludge
1.5.
PACKAGE UNITS Minibloc AP 100 to 500
population (concrete
1.5.1. General version for up to
The most common arrangement of 2,500 users).
activated sludge treatment plant is that of Compact MA 1,000 to 10,000
separate units. The aeration tanks are population (designed
connected to the clarifiers by channels or with mechanical
conduits with possible deaerating units in aeration or air
between; the sludge recycling equipment is injection).
located outside the clarifiers or is integrated Compact Alterné 1,000 to 10,000
with them. This design allows a large variety (Alternating) population
of plant possibilities and is highly adaptable Compact Chenal 1,000 to 20,000
to local construction norms as well as to the (Ditch) population
constraints imposed by the nature of the Oxyrapid R 20,000 plus
terrain or the water table. However, it leads
to a greater land use than with the package 1.5.2. Extended aeration units
units.
These units are designed with a view to
These package activated sludge plants unsupervised operation, without permanent
are standardized. They make it possible to staff, according to the following criteria:
treat MWW in a range of several hundred to - simple process (without primary settling)
approximately 20,000 users, on an extended with completely mixed aeration tank, safe, at
aeration basis, and beyond that with medium the expense of large unit sizing,
loading - operation with low labour cost and
reasonable energy consumption.
They unite the aeration and settling phases They can be equipped with a
in a single structure. They simplify the programmable logic controller that ensures:
hydraulic systems and ease of access. The - management of the oxygenation of the
aesthetics of the units are improved and it is activated sludge, by sequencing based on the
easier to cover them loading curve of the unit and/or the hourly
electricity rate of the local utility, while
The pretreatment of raw water comprises maintaining minimum mixing,
automatic screening, grit and grease removal, - management of sludge recycling and
with automatic storage of the residues extraction.
(separate or combined, according to their
method of collection) with a view to weekly
removal. Depending on each case, the
pretreatment unit can be integrated with the
biological purification unit (ease of access)
or located upstream
The biological reactor allows sludge (3), and possible lifting of the raw or
simultaneous stabilization of the sludge. treated water, in a single shop-fabricated,
The installation of a thickening GDE parallelepipedal steel tank.
screen on a storage silo is a simple Aeration is ensured by injection of
means (nevertheless requiring the use of compressed air (4) (Vibrair, Oxazur or
polymer) of obtaining a thickened Flexazur diffusers). The air is supplied by a
liquid sludge (6 to 8% SS), thus blower located on the unit, inside a
considerably reducing the volumes to soundproof hood; the blower also feeds a
be removed. The silo can be aerated and battery of air lifts (3) operating in parallel,
mixed to ensure an additional in an alternately sequenced manner, and
stabilization effect by aerobic digestion. ensuring recycling of the settled sludge
towards the aeration compartment.
1.5.2.1. Minibloc AP The treated water collecting weir (5) may
The Minibloc (Figure 392) combines be protected by a scum baffle to retain the
the various compartments needed for floating matter, collected periodically by an
the process of the treatment - aeration air lift.
(1), clarification (2), recycling of the
1. Activated sludge
mixing in this zone), the operations of The Oxyrapid R (Figure 400), which
zones (2) and (3) are reversed and the is usually rectangular in shape, includes:
sludge deposited in (3) in the preceding - a completely mixed aeration tank
cycle is resuspended. located along the axis of the unit,
Aeration and mixing are ensured by air - one or two lateral clarifiers with
injection. vertical flow, equipped with travelling
The absence of a scraper bridge allows scraper bridges,
complete covering of the unit at ground - rapid recycling of the sludge, with
level with only a few access hatches, adjustable flow (up to 300%), ensured
allowing the unit to be almost totally by a battery of air lifts fed by the
concealed. aeration blowers.
The careful distribution and
1.5.3. The Oxyrapid R introduction of the aerated liquor into
The Oxyrapid R, intended for medium the clarifier makes it possible to reach
rate biological treatment of wastewaters high rising velocities and to make good
of large conurbations, is the use of the sludge blanket.
development of considerable experience The unit can be constructed in
acquired by Degrémont in the field of lengths of 120 m or more.
large, package units featuring complete
mixing and short retention times.
1. Activated sludge
2. ATTACHED GROWTH
combination of fixed and rotary distributors. Supporting the media: the media is
supported either by a grating or by a system
The disadvantage of fixed systems, with of small metal or wooden beams
their smaller orifices, is their requirement of The means varies according to type of
a means of access for the periodic clearing of media chosen. The design of this support
the distribution orifices. This periodic must be carefully studied because most often
clearing must be expected with most the bed begins to clog at this level.
wastewaters because whatever the quality of
pretreatment, the presence of debris capable (c) Hydraulic recycling
of clogging the water distributing orifices is To avoid clogging of a trickling filter due
inevitable. to excessive growth of the biofilm, it is
necessary to work with a minimum hydraulic
(b) Structure of the trickling filter load, variable according to the type of
wastewater and the nature of the material
In the case of ordered materials, since chosen. In most cases, it is necessary to carry
plastic fill is self-supporting, the outside out recycling. The instantaneous hydraulic
structure can theoretically be calculated only loading, continuous or discontinuous, is
to resist wind load. The outer walls of the between 1.5 and 5 m3 /m2 .h. Recycling is
filter are generally built around a frame of normally carried out directly at the outlet of
concrete, wood or metal posts; a plastic the trickling filter. If the production of SS is
sheeting is then stretched over, avoiding high, it may be preferable to carry out this
splashing from the outside. recycling from the settling tank located
downstream, but then the latter must be
In the case of random fill, the outer casing larger.
must normally be calculated to resist the
water pressure throughout the height of the (d) Protection
bed.
From the cold: trickling filters with plastic
Aeration systems: aeration is ensured by media behave like cooling towers. In winter,
openings set at the base of the bed. In the a considerable lowering of temperature can
case of covered beds (Figure 402), these be observed. In cold countries, it is advisable
openings are connected by ducts to blowers. to limit thermal losses by using a twin shell
The minimum surface of the openings must (cladding) construction and a cover as well
represent 2% of the developed surface area as by controlling the ventilation.
of the tower. It is advisable, however, for From corrosion: particular attention must be
industrial wastewaters heavily loaded with paid to protecting the metal parts, especially
pollutants, to have a greater surface area. In in the distribution area and on the support
the case of low temperatures, it is desirable floor. Corrosion can be expected in the case
to allow for the possibility to partially close of H2 S release and with high water
the air inlets, by a system of flaps, for temperature.
example.
2. Attached growth
.
Chap. 11: Aerobic biological processes
From environmental nuisance: when can weigh between 300 and 350 kg.rri 3.
treating some types of wastewater (brew Figures of 500 kg.m 3 are often taken into
eries, distilleries, etc.), trickling filters can account for calculating the supporting
be a source of considerable odours. It is then system,
necessary to cover them and some times to - biologically inert,
deodorize the drawn air. - chemical stability.
The plastic media differ in shape (which
2.1.2.2. Media governs the surface area/volume ratio), in
Most of the media (Figures 403 and 404) honeycombing, in the weight/ volume ratio
available on the market meet the following and in the nature of their constitutive
requirements: material (generally PVC or polypropylene).
- large specific surface area, varying from 80 Two broad categories of media exist:
to 220 M2.rri 3, - those using ordered packing,
- high void ratio to avoid clogging (often - those using random fill.
greater than 90%), It seems that the average service life of
- lightness, so that they can be used to plastic media is about ten years. The need to
considerable heights (4 to 10 m), replace the media is caused by various
- sufficient mechanical strength. It should be phenomena: fouling, crushing, support
noted that once in regular use and loaded defects, etc.
with zoogloea and trickling water, the media
2. Attached growth
(2) To obtain a given efficiency, it is better to The sludge (fragments of biological film)
work with a great depth of material and a released by a pretreatment trickling filter
smaller bed cross-section than with limited can settle very well, but the interstitial water
depth and greater cross-section. is quite turbid.
(3) For a given hydraulic load, the So/Sf
relation is practically independent of the
concentration of the influent. This is only true
in a certain concentration range (roughly from
200 to 1,000 g.m3 of BOD5 .
(4) Experience shows that the influence of the
recycle rate is practically insignificant on the
efficiency of a trickling filter with plastic
media. But this recycle is nevertheless
absolutely necessary to maintain the minimum
hydraulic load below which there would be no
sloughing.
Figure 406. San Miguel brewery, Philippines. Capacity: 14 t BOD5 per day. Trickling
filter for pretreatment.
These techniques use biomass of greater - this excessive injection of air causes
concentration and, above all, of greater turbulence reducing the SS retention
activity than activated sludge and have the capacity.
following advantages: These different reasons led Degrémont in
- savings in land space, particularly due to the case of direct transfer, to select air-water
elimination of the wastewater clarification cocurrent techniques, either in upflow
stage. This compactness makes it easier to (Biofor), or in downflow (Biodrof). There
cover units, control harmful effects (smell is one exception, however: nitrification of
and sound) and produce aesthetic units, drinking water in which clear treated water
- no risk of leaching since the biomass is is also desired. The negligible concentrations
attached to a support such that flow of SS in the effluent to be treated, together
variations can be readily handled, with the low growth rate of the nitrifying
- easy adaptation to dilute wastewaters, bacteria, considerably limit clogging and,
- quick restarting, even after stopping for consequently, the risks of air binding. In this
several months, case it is possible to use an air-water
- modular construction and easy automation countercurrent (Nitrazur process).
- surface conditions favourable to bacterial - a bay for the various air blowers and
development, compressors (5),
-low friability and low loss in acid. - a treated water tank for wash water (6).
- possibly a tank for recovery of the waste
2.2.2. Biofor (Biological Filtration wash water, with drainage pumps (7).
Oxygenated Reactor) Each reactor, comprised of a
rectangular, concrete pit, includes:
2.2.2.1. Description - a feed well for water to be treated,
This is a system of aerobic biological equipped with a protecting screen,
filtration with air and water upflows (Figure - a support floor for the granular media,
407). Oxygenation is thus carried out by made of prefabricated slabs,
introduction of air cocurrent with the water. - two front-mounted weirs, with surface
A Biofor installation mainly comprises sloping upstream for collecting the treated
(Figure 408): water and the wash water. These weirs are
- a battery of identical reactors generally made protected by a material trap comprised of a
of concrete (1), operating in parallel (or stilling picket fence eliminating turbulence,
possibly two batteries in series, in the case of particularly in the air scour + water
combined removal of carbonaceous pollution washing sequence of the washing cycle
with nitrification), (Figure 409),
- a unit for distributing the water to be treated - a front-mounted treated water collecting
(2), trough for each reactor, and a part of the
- an access gallery to the automatic valves and waste water collecting channel shared with
pipework, to the filter bottoms, drains, etc. (3), the battery of reactors.
- an adjoining bay for the backwash pumps
(4),
Chap. 11: Aerobic biological processes
In the case of lightly loaded wastewaters (b) Washing cycle: this is automatically
that must comply with strict SS standards, initiated by a time switch, or possibly earlier
sand with an ES of 1.35 mm is used: this can if the maximum allowable head loss is
be the case for nitrification on a Biofor, reached. The entire washing cycle is
downstream of a first Biofor removing the automatic and lasts 30 to 40 minutes; it
carbonaceous pollution. includes an actual washing phase (with air
and water) and a rinsing phase. The
2.2.2.2. Operation - Automation techniques used are quite similar to those
(a) Treatment cycle: the raw water is described on page.775
introduced under the floor of the reactor. The The air is supplied by a blower common
number of units in use may be related to the to all the Biofors. The wash water represents
flow to be treated. 5 to 10% of the volume of the filtered water.
The introduction of process air is (c) Automation: management of the
continuous on the reactors in service. Each of washing cycles and control of the rotating
them is equipped with a blower of its own, in machinery and automatic valves are ensured
such a way as to overcome the variations in by a programmable controller.
head loss from one reactor to the other. 2.2.2.3. Application and operating results
The treated water, collected by the The Biofor is normally used after primary
front-mounted weir, drains by gravity at the settling or flotation (these steps can be
outlet after filling the treated water reservoir. preceded by flocculation). The application of
this technique is:
2.2.3.1. Description
In this process (Figure 413), the
wastewater to be treated trickles through
the granular bed. This allows the transfer
of oxygen within the active mass without
having recourse to direct injection of air
into the reactor. The air circulates in
cocurrent with the water, creating a low
pressure zone at the base of the reactor.
Chap. 11: Aerobic biological processes
2.2.3.2. Operation
standard washing phases of a filter with water
and air.
The Biodrof is used for simultaneously
The total duration of these operations,
removing the carbonaceous pollution and SS,
including drainage and emptying, is about 45
on MWW or on certain IWW, either directly
minutes. As in the case of the Biofor, the
after primary treatment or as polishing
volume of wash water represents 5 to 10% of
treatment after an existing facility.
the volume of filtered water. This wash water
The media is washed as soon as the internal
follows the circuit described earlier for the
low pressure or the cycle duration reaches a
Biofor.
predetermined value. After filling the
biofilter, this washing includes the
Figure 417. Obernai facility for the Kronenbourg brewery in eastern France. Flow: 15,000
m3 .d -1 . Tertiary treatment by filtration ow Biolite with predissolution of air.
Chap. 11: Aerobic biological processes
2.2.4. Filtration with predissolution of air values desired in MW (0.05 mg1-1 according
or oxygen (Oxyazur) to EEC standards). Moreover, the medium is
very poor in nutrients.
The predissolution of air under The support material used si Biolite L,
pressure makes it possible to work in a which was recognized as being the most
twophase system in the biofilter. The effective for nitration (transformation of
filtering effect of the media (in general nitrites into nitrates); this reaction has slower
Biolite) is not disturbed by the presence kinetics than nitrite production
of air bubbles, making it possible to (NH4 à NO2 )and it is the limiting factor of
obtain high SS removal efficiency. The nitrification.
filters used are of the downflow type. This The Nitrazur N can be used either in
technique is used especially in polishing, upflow, where its effectiveness will be at
for removing the suspended solids, when maximum, or in downflow: in this case, the
the residual BOD of the water to be benefit is a greater filtering effect which
treated is low. On more polluted water, makes it possible to retain a greater quantity
the capabilities of removal of the organic of SS. This is illustrated in Figure 418. The
pollution are enhanced by recycling the support floor (9) is equipped with two types
treated water, although this has the of nozzles one of which is reserved for
disadvantage of increasing the filtration introducing the process air. This process air
rate, or better by using pure oxygen makes it possible to maintain a sufficient
under pressure (see Figure 416). oxygen concentration throughout the depth
of the media. It is thus possible to nitrify
2.2.5. Nitrazur water containing more than 2 mg.l-1 of NH4 .
During washing, the two types of nozzles are
The Nitrazur process covers the used to simultaneously inject the air and the
techniques for removal of nitrogen in wash water. In order to keep the light
dcinking water treatment. The process is material from being washed out, zone (8) is
applicable either for nitrification used to store the waste wash water during
(oxidation of ammonium to nitrates), or in t h e air scour and water wash phase; this
denitrification (removal of nitrates in wash water is then
nitrogen form). drained via the channel and the valve (7).
During rinsing, the water level is maintained
2.2.5.1. Nitrazur N (Nitrification) at the level of the wash weir (6); this phase
The ammonium concentration after is shortened due to sweeping by the water to
treatment must be much lower than the be nitrified.
2. Attached growth
Process Application
Suspended Completely-mixed see page 936 Excess sludge
growth
digester unit Liquid manure
Digester/settler Analift Concentrated wastewater
(anaerobic contact)
Sludge-blanket Anapulse Some dilute,
digester easily degradable
wastewaters
Attached growth Ordered packing Anafiz Wastewaters of low- to
(plastic media) medium-concentration with
Fluidized bed Anaflux low SS content
Chap. 12: Methane fermentation
1. . GENERAL DESIGN
2. SUSPENDED GROWTH
Methane fermentation of sludge, as it applies to liquid manures, is discussed in
Chapter 18, page 932.
protection is often required. Insulation must entailing rising velocities of 0.05 to 0.2
be extremely effective so that temperature is m.h-1 .
kept constant at the desired level in the The sludge recirculation rates
medium. Under particularly favourable implemented typically range from 50 to
climatic conditions, this requirement may be 150%.
waived.
• Degasification 2.1.2. Applications and performance
The sludge mixture emerging from the This process, which is relatively
reactor passes through a degasifier which insensitive to load fluctuations, is suitable
serves three purposes: for concentrated effluents (distilleries,
- stilling (if required); canning factories, chemical industries,
- degasifying of the liquor; paper and pulp industries), and for dilute
- flocculation of the sludge. effluents which involve a risk of mineral
Retention time in this unit must be at least precipitation (sugar beet refineries).
30 minutes. A variety of degasification With the methane fermentation and
methods are available. Covering settling functions handled in two separate
requirements and the layout of the facility units, independent access is available to
may point to the use of a vacuum degasifier. each, for the following purposes:
Slow mixing is also often used. - transferring sludge from one tank to the
• Settling tank other to facilitate maintenance and restart
The settling tank can be viewed as a operations;
thickener, since the sludge is highly - stripping H2 S (a gas produced by sulphate
concentrated upon extraction. The unit is reduction that tends to inhibit the
sized on the basis of the solids loading,
Chap. 12: Methane fermentation
Figure 424. Armentières (Northern France) facility for the Sébastien Artois brewery. Capacity: 8
tonnes COD per day. Anapulse reactor for effluent methane fermentation.
Chap. 12: Methane fermentation
3. ATTACHED GROWTH
able biomass. Hydrolysis of the raw water In most cases, excess sludge is discharged
SS can occur here; with the treated effluent, and periodic gas
- an upper layer of random fill featuring a injections may also be performed to create
high specific surface, allowing rapid turbulence in the packing. Depending on the
colonization and offering favourable effluent quality required, additional
conditions for methanogenesis (which, in clarification may be necessary.
this process, is the reaction requiring the In addition, sludge is periodically extracted
most intimate contact between the substrate through the lower reactor zone.
and the active biomass). The risk of The reactor can be made of concrete,
clogging of this type of material is greatly suitably protected steel, or plastic, with
diminished by the fact that the raw water has thermal insulation.
first passed through the lower hydrolysis
zone and is already in the methanogenesis 3.1.2. Applications and performance
phase, during which little excess biomass is The Anafiz process is suitable for relatively
produced. dilute effluents from agricultural and food
When the raw water has undergone prior processing industries such as dairies,
complete acidification (as is frequently the distilleries, sugar refineries (if lime is not used
case with sugar refinery effluents), the in the process), sweets factories, etc.
ordered packing can be eliminated. Alter Depending on raw water composition, the
natively, ordered packing may be replaced COD load applied ranges from 8 to 15 kg /m3
by random fill if the effluent to be treated A, with COD removal efficiencies of 70 to
contains no suspended solids. 80%, and BOD5 removal rates between 80 and
90%.
Figure 427. Ahausen facility (Germany) for DAA. Capacity: 12 tonnes COD per day. Methane
fermentation of distillery effluents in an Anafiz reactor.
3. Attached growth
turbulence chamber constitutes a means of COD values on the order of 2.5 g.l-1 or more,
removing this excess matter with the treated i.e., effluents from food processing
water. An added clarification step may be industries (breweries, sugar refineries,
necessary for removal of suspended solids canning factories, starch plants, distilleries,
dairies, etc.), the paper industry (paper mills,
3.2.2. Applications and performance evaporation condensates, etc.) and chemical
The high loads applied involve relatively or pharmaceutical plants.
short retention times in the reactor, dictating
a prior acidification step in most cases.
The principal advantages of the process
are:
- no risk of clogging of the support medium,
- rapid start-up,
- compact treatment unit,
- no risk of biomass entrainment,
- accommodation of considerable flow
variations, within the velocity range
acceptable for fluidization.
Depending on the raw water characteristics,
the COD load can vary between 30 and 60
kg/m3 .d with treatment efficiency ranging
from 70 to 90%. The Anaflux process is
suitable for effluents having
The enormous variety of ways in which - (open) gravity filters, made of concrete or
granular or precoat filtering media can be metal,
used, means that a large number of filters - special filters.
have been designed accordingly. The major
groups are as follows:
• for precoat filters, depending on the
• for granular media, depending on support:
hydraulic conditions during use:
- candle filters,
- pressure filters,
- frame filters.
Chap. 13: Filters
1. FILTERS USING
GRANULAR MEDIA
The technical considerations common to - operating conditions; and
the various types of filters which use - internal arrangements for backwashing.
granular media are summarised below;these
relate to:
1.3.
BACKWASHING DENSE
MEDIA FILTERS
1.3.1.3. Nozzles
-nozzles for water and air washing: air is 1.3.2. Wash water consumption versus
distributed via an air cushion, and the long- filtered volume
stem nozzles (Figures 433 and 434), Consumption is highly dependent on SS
specially designed for this application, concentration and on the nature of the
ensure the equal distribution of air and solids. For clarified water filtration,
water. however, it is possible to indicate some
Experience gained at Degrémont has led comparative orders of magnitude:
to the development of various types of - 1-2% for "air and water" washing of
nozzles that are adapted for different single-media filters (Aquazur),
filtration techniques, and are made of - 3-5% for "air then water" washing of
materials that can withstand a variety of dual-media filters (Mediazur).
aggressive environments.
1.4
DEGREMONT FILTER
TYPES
2. PRESSURE FILTERS
These filters are constructed with coatings These filters readily lend themselves to
suitable for their applications. Provisions for completely automatic operation. Degrémont
discharging backwash water must be has produced units in diameters of up to 8
particularly well-designed, to ensure uniform metres.
water collection.
FP filters:
-Tall cylindrical vertical filters (Figure 438).
-Layer depth 1.8 to 2 m. -Diameter 2.5 to 6
m.
-Specific applications: steel industry,
wastewater,biological iron removal.
FECM filters
- Compact, high-rate vertical filters for
corrosive water (figure 439).
- Layer depth of about one metre.
-Diameter 1.6 to 3.5 m.
-Applications: brines, sea water injec-
tion.
FH filters:
- Horizontal filters, with one or two troughs,
with special provision for collecting wash
water (figure 440).
- Layer depth of about one metre.
- Diameters 2.5 to 3.4 m, length up to 12 m.
- Applications: filtration of large volumes of
industrial water (lime softening, rolling
mills, sea water).
Chap. 13: Filters
2.3.
FILTERS FEATURING
SUCCESSIVE AIR SCOUR
AND WATER WASHING
§ Possible configurations
FECB filters:
- Compact vertical filters for corrosive water
or sea water (figure 441).
- Layer depth of about one metre.
- Diameter 1.6 to 3.5 m.
- Applications: in-line coagulation, iron
removal, lime softening.
FPB filters:
- Vertical filters with a deep layer of large-
grain media, for water from rolling mills
and oily waste water (figure 442).
- Layer depth 2 m.
- Diameter 2.5 to 6 m.
- Applications: rolling-mill water, oily
waste water.
The characteristics of dual-media filter
beds are as follows:
washing and a depth generally between The third type is constructed using the
0.80 m and 1 m, precast slab method; it has the advantage
- an effective media size between 0.7 and of simplified design and absence of joints.
1.35 mm, In T filters with a low surface area, air is
- a shallow water depth above the sand distributed beneath the floor by a manifold
(0.50 m), of air pipes (figure 446).
- a reduced available head, generally 2 In larger filters, air is distributed by a
metres, which prevents excessive clogging concrete channel located under one of the
from causing significant gas release. wash water drainage troughs (figure 447).
Depending on the nature of the water In both cases, this air is distributed
being treated, and its tendency to release equally over the entire surface of the filter
gases, the maximum filtration rate can be due to formation of an air cushion by the
between 5 and 10 m.h -1 . long-stem nozzles.
Aquazur T filters are equipped with T filters have three main valves, for
type D20 long-stem nozzles screwed into a filtered water, wash water, and air scour.
floor that can consist of: The raw water inlet is controlled by a
- slabs of reinforced polyester (figure 444), clack valve which closes automatically
- slabs of prefabricated concrete (figure during washing when the water level in the
445), or filter rises above the level in the inlet trough
(figures 448 and 449).
- a monolithic slab.
Wash water is discharged by overflow
into the longitudinal troughs.
Level control in these filters is pro-
Figure 444. Reinforced polyester plate; its Figure 445. Aquazur V filters under
length is the same as the width of the filter construction: view of the filter floor with the
nozzles, the V-shaped sweeping trough, and
cell
the wash water discharge trough.
Chap. 13: Filters
Figure 448. Water inlet clack valve in open Figure 449. Water inlet clack valve in closed
position (filtration) position (Flier washing)
.
vided either by a partialised siphon or by element) or as double-cell filters. In the latter
single filters valve. case, the two filter elements communicate at
The shallow water depth above the sand the top and bottom, with a single controller
(0.50 m) is an important operating (figure 450).
advantage: it allows very rapid rinsing, since
the impurities being discharged are not Washing Aquazur T filters
diluted in a large volume of water. This saves These filters can be washed either
both time and wash water. This type of filter manually, semi-automatically, or completely
is extremely simple to operate, and can be automatically.
run by non-specialised personnel. The washing cycle is as follows:
The filters can be arranged either as single -setting up the air cushion,
filters(including one controller per a filtration
3. Gravity Filters
Advantages of the Aquazur V filter partially, for the entire washing period
This filter combines all the features that to provide surface sweeping; during this
ensure good filtration and efficient period, the other filters in the battery do
washing: not experience sudden increases in flow
-the water being filtered is continually rate or filtration rate,
delivered to the filter, completely or - it is especially suitable for high
filtration rates, for which sand depths of
between 1 and 2 m can be used,
-it retains positive pressure over the
entire sand depth, and during the entire
filtration cycle,
- its washing method, with no
expansion, prevents any hydraulic
reclassification of the filter bed,
- during washing, the filtered water
backflow rate is low, which reduces
equipment requirements and energy
Figure 452. Aquazur V filter. Air/water consumption,
washing phase with surface sweeping.
3, 4, 5, 6 - See figure 451
opposite.
Figure 453. Treatment plant at Pertusillo (Italy). Battery of 14 double Aquazur V filters.
Capacity: 16,200 m3 .h -1 .
Chap. 13: Filters
- the washing method, using water back- butterfly valve) and the water and air wash
wash during the entire air scour period, is system.
combined with the surface sweeping action. The depth of the filter media (generally
Water loss is the same as with Aquazur T sand) depends essentially on the filtration
filters, rate and the solids load that needs to be
- filtration is resumed by raising the water retained.
level, which produces a gradual restart after The characteristics of these filters
washing regardless of the type of control (filtration rate, wash water and air flow
element used. This progressive restart can rates) are identical to those of the Aquazur
be extended, if desired, over a period of 15 filter.
minutes,
- lastly, the use of constant-flow pump 3.1.4. Greenleaf filters
washing eliminates the need for an elevated
water tank, with all the drawbacks resulting
from such systems. The Greenleaf system is used with a
battery of gravity filters, washed by water
backflow only.
. Standard dimensions
The main element in the Greenleaf
Width (m) Surface area (m2) system is the central control and
3 from 24.5 to 38.5 distribution unit. This can control four or
3.5 from 28 to 52.5 more filtration cells, which can be circular,
4 from 46.5 to 70 square, or rectangular.
4.66 from 56 to 79
5 from 70 to 105 Filtration
The water being filtered (figure 454) is
brought to the central unit through an
These dimensions refer to single-cell
annular steel distribution trough (1).
filters with prefabricated concrete slabs.
For double-cell filters, surface areas range The inlet siphon (2) of each filtration
between 45 and 210 m . cell brings the water for filtration into the
inlet chamber (3) of each cell, which is
equipped with a splitting weir (4). These
3.1.3. FV 1 filters constant-level influent weirs act as flow
controllers.
These are (open) gravity vertical metal The filtered water is collected in a
filters, identical to the Aquazur filters in chamber (5) shared by all the filtration
terms of control system (siphon, cells, and leaves it over a weir (6) which
continually maintains a positive head above
the filter media (12).
3. Gravity filters
- dual-media filters (Mediazur B and BV); The Mediazur GH filter is also equipped
Mediazur B is washed without sweeping, with multiple transverse troughs.
Mediazur BV with sweeping. The washing sequence is as follows:
The following features are common to - draining down to the level of the filter
the Mediazur V, BV, B and GH types: layer either by filtration or by dumping to
- one or more air plug valves, to completely waste,
isolate the flow of raw water during the - setting up the air cushion,
drainage and air scour phases. In Mediazur - air scour alone,
BV filters, these air plug valves also
- blowing down the air cushion,
partially isolate the feed rate to provide
surface sweeping at a restricted velocity, - rinsing with water alone, at a high rate, to
- an electrode located above the top of the expand the filter layer, force out impurities
dispersed over its entire depth by the air
filter bed, to stop drainage of the filter
scour process, and reclassify the media.
before washing,
In Mediazur BV filters, this washing
- an air scour rate of between 55 and 70
phase is accompanied by readmission of
m3 /h.m2 ,
water for filtration through the inlet troughs,
- a high rate of wash water backflow, to provide surface sweeping which enhances
depending on the media of the filter bed, to the discharge of impurities
keep its expansion constant during the
washing phase.
Figure 458. LE-Dumez facility at Moulle (Northern France). Capacity: 2,000 m3 .h -1 . Battery of
seven Mediazur V filters for granular activated carbon filtration.
3. Gravity Filters
Figure 459. LE-Dumez facility at Morsang-sur-Seine (Paris area, France). Capacity: 3,800
m3 .h -1 . Phase III extension. 6 covered Médiazur GH filters for granular activated carbon
filtration.
Chap. 13: Filters
4. SPECIAL FILTERS
When commissioned, cell 1 and cell 2 are The configuration of this filter, with
filled with activated carbon. When the two cells, allows "countercurrent"
carbon in cell AC1 is exhausted, it is contact, which increases the efficiency of
extracted with a special device (13), and sent the activated carbon: the carbon sent for
for reactivation. Carbon AC is then reactivation is media that is effectively
transferred from cell 2 to cell 1, using the exhausted in terms of the quality of water
carbon extraction device (13) of cell 2 and being treated. In addition, when the filter
the carbon loading device (14) of cell 1. Cell is used after ozone treatment, residual
2 is filled, using its loading device (14), with ozone is destroyed by passing through
either new or reactivated carbon. cell 1; the atmosphere above the filtration
cells therefore contains no ozone, and the
cover over the filter does not have to be
completely sealed.
Figure 462. Mont-Valerien facility (Paris area, France), for CEB. Capacity 2,000 m3.h-
1. Six biflow Mediazur filters using GAC
Figure 466. Shell Brent facility (North Sea). Flow rare: 1100 m3 .h -1 . Candle filtration skid.
4.4.2.1. Candle filters under the candle support plate. This air
Cannon filters (Figure 465) consist of a forces a certain volume of water through
sealed cylindrical casing, inside which are the candles towards the top of the filter,
located a certain number of vertical thus pressurising the air cushion at the top.
candles, fastened onto a support plate. The air located under the plate is then
These candles are perforated, hollow abruptly released by venting it to the
stainless steel cylinders, onto which is atmosphere: water then passes from the
wound a thin layer of synthetic fibre thread inside to the outside of the candles at a very
which forms a sleeve: the precoat media is high rate. This "Cannon" effect abruptly
first made into the form of a dilute and instantaneously detaches all the
suspension and then applied onto this deposits, which fall to the bottom of the
sleeve. filter. The process ends with a drainage
step.
These filters have:
This type of washing makes it possible to
- diameters of between 0.8 and 1.8 m,
use very long candles, eliminates any
- a filtration surface area of 15 to 378 m2 danger of irreversible clogging, and
(120 to 624 candles). Filtration rates are requires a minimal quantity of water.
between 2 and 15 m.h -1 , depending on the Cannon filters can be used with
composition and concentration of the
lowsolids water, and generally feature very
suspension.
long cycle times between washes:
- PWR and thermal power plant
. Cannon washing condensates (various resins),
An air cushion is formed in the upper - deep sea water injection (diatomaceous
part of the filter; then, once the filter has earth or perlite),
been isolated, compressed air is injected
Chap. 13: Filters
on the particle size of the filter media. which variable level operating media, a
theoretically has no filtering action. This neutralisation product method is commonly
elevation is lower (0.80 to 1 m) This is the used.
case for Neutralite filters, for when the filter
contains, instead of a filter which this
reservoir and adjusts the individual set- filters with a flow rate equal to their set-
point rate of each filter accordingly. point rate.
Another central controller, located in the The change in water level in the trough and
filter feed,channel, detects the water level the filters can again be as much as 30 cm.
and acts on the actuator controlling the flow
rate entering the plant, so as to provide the
5.2.1.2. Control to maintain a constant sated for until it reaches a maximum level
level which depends on the available head.
A constant level can be used as a means When a filter is shut down, the total
of producing a constant flow rate from each incoming flow is automatically distributed
filter. In this case, the first task is to over the filters that are still in service
distribute the total flow equally among the (except with surface sweeping filters,
filters, the outlet valves of which are where water is continuously supplied to the
governed by the constant level upstream (or filter while it is being washed).
in some cases downstream), which is taken With this constant level control mode,
as a reference. equal distribution of the flow is
With upstream control (figure 470), implemented simply and reliably by static
the flow rate entering the plant is first devices (orifice plates, weirs, etc.). This
distributed equally to the inlet of each filter, eliminates the discrepancies between total
which thus receives a flow rate equal to the filtered flow and incoming flow that can
incoming flow rate divided by the number occur with control systems that use flow
of filters. rate measurements.
Each filter is equipped with a control
element which detects the upstream level, 5.2.2. Filter controllers
which it keeps constant by acting on the
outlet flow controller. 5.2.2.1. Siphon control
Because the upstream level is kept The Degrémont concentric siphon and
constant, the outlet flow is equal to the its partialisation box (figure 471) can be
incoming flow and clogging is compen- used as a level control system in which the
partialisation box is the detec-
5. Control and regulation of filters
tion and control element, and the siphon is the down to the siphon neck, h2 represents the
regulating element. available clogging head for the filter bed.
. Siphon When the. filter is clean, one therefore
The siphon consists of two concentric tubes, simply introduces enough air to create a head
in which flow occurs from the internal branch loss h 2 and as the filtration bed becomes
into the external (peripheral) one. dogged, the rate of air is then gradually
If air is introduced into the upper part of the reduced to zero to bring hl up to H.
siphon, this air is carried along by the water . Partialisation box (figure 473)
into the downstream branch, where the specific This element (B) introduces air at the top of
gravity of the air/water mixture drops, thus the siphon to control its flow rate. It can be
decreasing the vacuum at the neck. With no depicted schematically as a flap valve (C)
partialisation air, the vacuum at the neck is suspended from a spring (D) attached at a point
equal (disregarding the head loss in the (F) (figure 472).
downstream branch) to the head H between the As a first approximation, at constant flow, F
water level in the filter and the water level in is fixed. The filter gradually becomes clogged;
the downstream filtered water chamber. With its output decreases, which causes a decrease in
air partialisation, this vacuum is reduced to a the specific gravity of the water/air mixture
height "hi" which is equal to °H" times the and therefore in the vacuum hl at the neck and
specific gravity of the water/air mixture. The in the partialisation box housing. The cross
difference H - h l = h2 represents the head loss section and therefore the air flow rate are then
created by the addition of air (figure 472). reduced by the action of the spring; the specific
If hl represents the clean filter head loss due gravity of the water/air mixture increases,
to filtration through the bed, the floor, and the producing a height hl which is greater than the
filtered water discharge pipe height exist-
Figure 472.
Figure 471 Figure 473.
Partialisation box
Chap. 13: Filters
Ing before clogging; the quantity of rate until the water surface (which carries
airintroduced into the siphon decreases. the partialisation box float) reaches its
When the filter is completely clogged, normal level, is to provide for gradual
no further air is introduced at all; the filter displacement of point F, or for an auxiliary
delivers water at the maximum geometric air input which gradually decreases to zero.
head H. If it is not washed at this point, its When an Aquazur filter with a shallow
outflow rate will start to decrease. water level is controlled from upstream,
The partialisation box thus provides this auxiliary air input is controlled by a
automatic clogging compensation. It can clack valve installed on the box.
also be used to adapt the filter flow rate to
the total flow being filtered, simply by 5.2.2.2. Control by valve
linking the height of point F with the box's
float level. An increase in flow will
The regulated element is a hydraulically
correspond to a rise in point F and a
or pneumatically actuated valve installed
decrease in the quantity of air entering the
on the filtered water outlet pipe.
siphon. The head loss h 2 will decrease,
causing an increase in the flow rate dis - Figure 475 shows the operating principle
charged through the siphon. of an electronic control system.
A strain gauge pressure sensor (6)
generates an electrical signal proportional
Vacuum gauge to indicate head loss
to its immersion depth: this signal is
By placing a vacuum gauge at the neck compared to a level set-point value which
of the siphon, it is possible to measure the is to be kept constant. Any discrepancy
vacuum hl which represents the head loss between the measured value and the
through the filter and its pipework. setpoint value that exceeds the threshold
defined for the system is expressed within
Priming the siphon
A simple way of preventing filter re- starts
from producing an abrupt increase in flow
Figure 474. Bombay 1 plant (India), Maximum capacity: 87,500 m3 h -1 . Production of drinking
water. 72 declining rate Aquazur V filters. Surface area per unit: 151.4 m2 .
5. Control and regulation of filters
With this type of system, the auxiliary head These two conditions determine both the
loss p created by valve (8) is adjusted so that at auxiliary head loss p and the geometrical head
the maximum flow rate Q treated in the plant: that must be provided on the filters.
- the individual flow rate of the filters varies, In the diagram in figure 478, the raw water
depending on their degree of clogging, by ± flow rate is adjusted on the basis of the level in
m% of the average flow value Q/N where N is the tank, resulting in a variable level in the
the number of filters in service. The flow rate filters. Operation of the declining rate filters
for a clean filter after washing is therefore (1 + requires a knowledge of the individual flow
m/100)Q/N’ while the flow rate for a clogged rate of filters, which can be measured, in the
filter before washing is ((1 –m/100)Q/N same kind of system, by the head over the
overflow weir (9).
Values of m between 20 and 40% are Characteristics of this type of filter control
currently used, depending on the particular system include:
average rate that has been determined, - an incoming water inlet valve (5) with a large
- the head loss due to filter clogging before cross section, to prevent any appreciable head
washing is such that, when brought back to its loss,
value for the average filtration rate, it reaches - a high water depth above the filter bed,
the usual values of 1.75 to 2 m.
5. Control and regulation of Flters
- a greater filter height and therefore more under washing, which increases the number
extensive civil works than for a filter of filters per plant compared with a
operating at the same average rate, conventional control system,
- a lower geometric head than with a filter - relatively easy operation when the overall
battery operating at a constant rate equal to flow rate and quality of the water being
the average rate of a declining rate filter filtered are constant,
battery, for the same increase in head loss, - conversely, much more difficult operation
- poorer filtered water quality at the when:
beginning of the cycle due to the high initial • the overall flow rate being treated in the
rate, plant varies; in such cases, each time the
- extended isolation of a filter for washing. overall rate changes, the auxiliary head loss
The reason is that first a large volume of created by valve (8) must also be changed,
water above the filter layer must be drained • the quality of the water being filtered
by filtration, then the filter must be washed suddenly deteriorates; in this case the level in
and progressively brought back on line; these the settled water channel rises rapidly, since
operations can take almost an hour per filter. the filters cannot be washed fast enough.
This means that often two filters must be shut This leads to the danger of significant losses
down simultaneously, one being drained and to the overflow (4) which must be provided
the other upstream from the filters.
Figure 479. Brasilia facility, Brazil. Capacity: 5,000 m3 .h -1 . Surface water clarification. Siphon gallery.
Chap. 13: Filters
1. COUNTERCURRENT REGENERATION
1.1.
WATER BLOCKING
As opposed to floating beds, the suspended solids in the water, they are
production cycle takes place in downflow, stopped by the upper layer of the resin bed,
and regeneration in upflow. which can be cleaned without upsetting the
Under these conditions, a preliminary lower layer, ensuring the quality of treated
"compacting" sequence is used during water.
regeneration to block the resin bed; this The upper layer of the resin bed is
process consists in subjecting the resin bed hydraulically transferred to a washing
to a strong upflow stream of water; due to column where it is flushed with water, and
the high velocity and the limited space, the then hydraulically returned to the
resin bed rises like a piston, becoming exchanger. This operation does not need to
blocked against the upper recovery system, be carried out prior to each regeneration. Its
and so unable to expand and there is frequency depends on the increase in head
therefore no risk of the layers being mixed. loss during the production cycle. With
Moreover, when the compacting flow is clean water, no more than three or four bed
maintained for just a few minutes, a highly decompactions and washing operations
compacted resin layer can be obtained, may be required each year.
which then enables injection of reagents at
much lower velocities, without the resin bed 1.3.4. Use of superimposed beds
dropping and disintegrating.
In certain cases, both strong and weak
The fact that the production cycle takes
ion exchangers of equal polarity can be
place from top to bottom makes the UFD
combined in a single production unit,
insensitive to flow variations and mid-cycle
interruptions. Moreover, if there are
1. Countercurrent regeneration
a polishing train for MP boiler feedwater and figure 488 shows the combinations most
some of the process water. frequently used in demineralization
For obtaining even higher quality, more processes.
complete trains are available. The chart in
2. Moving beds
2. MOVING BEDS
2.1.
CIE (CONTINUOUS ION those theoretically possible. Ion exchange
EXCHANGER) specialists have therefore long been
attracted by the idea of substituting the
conventional method by a continuous
All the above methods use fixed resin- counter current process.
layers ,operating in batch processes:
contained in vertical cylindrical vessels.
The difficulties to be overcome concerned,
In these vessels, each unit is character-
in particular-regular and controlled resin
ized by service, loosening, regeneration and
circulation;
washing cycles, after which the ion
-separation of the exhausted resin from the
exchanger returns to its original state, ready
to begin a new cycle. treated water;
-correct distribution of fluids in a moving
resin bed;
This system has several disadvantages:
-circulation methods that would not exert
- use of resin quantities that are usually
mechanical stress on resin beads;
assessed not in terms of hourly flow, but
-regulating and control devices.
rather on the basis of autonomous operation
between regenerations, which means that
with high salinity levels, very large amounts All these difficulties were overcome
of resin are required; during the development of the CIE-
- interruption of the treated water output Degremont process, the current version of
while regeneration is in progress, which which incorporates several improvements
requires the provision of double treatment and simplifications compared to previous
trains or extensive facilities for storing procedures (Asahi, etc.).
treated liquid;
- the complexity of regeneration operations; 2.1.1. CIE using a single exchanger
- high consumption of loosening and rinsing
water. The simplest flow chart (figure 489)
includes several units, comprising:
Furthermore, since it is essential to stop - service column S for treated water
the cycle as soon as an ion leakage appears production,
at the bottom of the resin layer, which - regeneration column R,
occurs well before all the resin becomes - washing and fines removal column W to
exhausted, the resin operates at retention remove resin fines and any suspended
and regeneration efficiencies well below solids and, if necessary, to complete rinsing
of the regenerated resin.
column toward the cation and anion carefully selected location in the upper part
regeneration columns; of the column.
- two regeneration columns, one for the
cation exchanger (CR) and one for the A resin level detector placed in the
anion exchanger (AR). division column activates an automatic
valve which starts and stops the resin
In a mixed bed, it is not necessary to supply depending on the transfer rate to the
continue the washing process until all salts regeneration columns, which operate as
are completely removed, therefore the previously described.
washing column is replaced by a small
mixing hopper (MH). The regenerated and washed resins are
transferred hydraulically to the mixing
The division column is supplied with hopper, which feeds the service column.
resins mixed by hydraulic transfer from the
bottom of the service column, ensuring The resin flow rate is determined very
clear separation of cation and anion resins, simply by multiplying the volume of each
with cation resins being removed from the metering compartment (CH and AH) by the
lower part, and anion resins from a transfer frequency.
.
Chap. 14: Modern ion exchange methods
2.2.
FLUIDIZED BEDS
3. OTHER TREATMENTS
3.1. selected. In some cases however, and
particularly when the raw water contains
REMOVAL humic compounds, it has been observed
OF ORGANIC that the conventional resin comb inations do
MATTER not produce the expected results.
The various ion exchange methods With this type of raw water, highly
presented above assume that the raw water porous anion exchangers with a high
contains only dissolved minerals. adsorption capacity can be used in a con-
ventional train as polishing units or at the
In fact, natural water always contains a
beginning of the train in order to protect the
certain amount of organic substances which
resins specifically used for
vary, according to their particular nature, in
demineralization. These anion resins
their reaction to resins. Some pass easily
directly adsorb the organic matter, which
through the resin bed, others are reversibly
may be eluted by treatment with sodium
attached to the resin and then removed
chloride or caustic soda, or better yet, with
during regeneration, and others are
a mixture of salt and caustic soda.
irreversibly retained, tending to poison the
resins.
In practice, this last disadvantage mainly With surface water, it is obviously better
affects strong base anion exchangers, since for demineralization to be preceded by
cation exchangers are virtually insensitive well-controlled coagulation, settling, and
and the weak base anion exchangers tend to filtration, which often makes it possible to
retain these products more or less remove 50 to 90% of soluble and colloidal
reversibly. organic matter.
Most often, the systems described above
yield satisfactory results in industrial After the coagulation-filtration process,
applications if the resins are properly the solution can be treated by passage
through powdered activated carbon for
achieving a more thorough removal of
humic acids.
Water treatment is not the only area in Some of the most common industrial
which ion exchanger are used: they are a applications are:
Chap. 14: Modern ion exchange methods
3.2.1. Treatment of juices and sweet liquids involving replacement of Na + and K+ ions
by Mg 2+ ions with lower molasses content
• Softening which consists in replacing (Quentin method).
Ca2+ and Mg 2+ ions by Na + ions to avoid
scale formation in the evaporators. There 3.2.2. Dairy applications
are examples of applications.
• Partial or total demineralization, • Demineralization and decolourizing
yielding very pure sugar or glucose syrups. processes applied to diluted or concentrated
When used for grape must, this method can whey.
be used for producing liquid grape sugar. • Milk acidification by contact with a
• Decolourizing, which can be strong acid cation resin. This treatment is
combined with demineralization due to the part of a patented process for casein
high adsorption capacities of properly- production.
selected anion resins. • Sodium removal, to produce diet milk
This process is carried out directly on in which the Na + ions contained in the milk
adsorbent resins (see page 239). are partly replaced by Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ ions
• Exchange of one ion for another, attached to resin. This resin is regenerated
by a mixture of calcium and magnesium
salts.
Figure 494. Tienen facility (Belgium) for the Tirlemont sugar refinery.
Flow: 30 m3 .h -1 . Decolourizing of beet sugar syrup. Three double columns.
3. Other treatments
3.2.3. Treatment of industrial effluents cation resins, regenerated with sulphuric acid.
The copper or ammonium sulphate solutions
The objective here consists in the recovery obtained are suitable for use in industry.
and/or concentration of valuable substances.
• Ammonium nitrate recovery from
• Stabilization of chromic acid baths wastewater from the production of
used in continuous chromium plating, nitrogenous fertilizers. Here again, treatment
enabling prolonged use of the bath by consists in concentration on a strong cation-
retaining the trivalent chromium and the iron weak anion train (UFD exchangers
on a strong acid cation resin. regenerated respectively using nitric acid and
ammonia). This process is of particular
interest in that it enables the recovery of
• Treatment of hydrochloric acid demineralized water, helps to eliminate losses
pickling baths: in this process, the bath and, particularly, waste, without using any
becomes highly concentrated with iron, which reagents, as the regeneration eluates are
weakens its activity. The ferric complex recycled in the production plant after being
attaches itself on a strong base anion resin, in re-concentrated, if needed.
the form of chloride, thereby allowing longer It should be noted that biological
use of the bath. The complex attached onto
treatments of this discharge do not produce
the resin is eluted with water, producing a
any recoverable substance, produce mud and
ferric chloride solution which can be sold or require large quantities of carbonaceous
used after concentration by evaporation.
nutrients to be added, such as methanol.
However they can be adapted to treat
• Hexavalent chromium recovery: rinse effluents that are either overdiluted or contain
water with a low sodium bichromate content other cations.
is treated in a strong cation-weak anion train. There are other possible applications,
Bichromate ions are eluted using caustic soda. which require the use of techniques similar to
Part of the resulting alkaline chromate those used in chromatography. These
solution is treated on a strong cation resin. techniques make it possible to separate the
The recovered chromic acid is then mixed following:
with the remaining alkaline eluate to form a -several ions from each other;
sodium bichromate solution, which is suitable
-an electrolyte from a non-electrolyte;
for use in industry. This process can also be
used for recycling large quantities of -several non-electrolytes from each other.
demineralized water.
Separation is achieved by displacement,
• Copper and ammonium recovery from selective displacement, elution, ion exclusion,
wastewater from synthetic textile production. etc. These techniques are particularly used by
the pharmaceutical industry, and in-depth
laboratory and pilot studies are required
Depending on the quality of water, before industrial application can be
treatment uses either strong or weak considered.
15
SEPARATION BY MEMBRANES
Unit type separating apparatuses, volume of treated liquid, but they also tend
known as "modules" or "cartridges", using to increase the energy cost of separation:
membranes, are designed to achieve two high circulation velocity and small passage
essential objectives: cross section with a great head loss as a
- to ensure, at membrane level, a sufficient consequence. A compromise must therefore
circulation of the liquid to be treated in be found, but the module must satisfy other
order to limit the phenomena of requirements such as:
concentration polarization (RO, UF) and of -ease of cleaning (hydraulic or chemical
particle deposits (MF), unclogging, possible sterilization),
-to produce a compact module, i.e., one -ease of assembly/removing, etc.
providing a maximum exchange surface per Four major types of modules are found
unit volume. on the market: plate type, spiral wound,
These two objectives tend to reduce the tubular, hollow fibres.
cost of the module for producing a given
1.1.
PLATE TYPE MODULES
0.5 to 3 mm. The plates ensure the Fairly compact, these modules have
mechanical support of the membrane the advantage of being easy to remove,
and, at the same time, drainage of the thus allowing replacement of the
permeate. Their arrangement makes it membranes and, where necessary,
possible to bring about in parallel and/or complete cleaning.
in series circulation. Unitary assemblies Due to the length and the winding
with a surface of up to 50 m2 can thus configuration of the circulation path,
be formed. head losses are relatively high.
The diameter of an elemental can be as Much more compact and causing a lower
much as 30 cm and its length can be placed head loss than the plate type module, the
in series in a single cylindical casing. spiral wound module is, however, more
sensitive to fouling, as flow in the spacer
cannot take place at a high velocity.
clean. They are particulary well adapted Their main disavantage is that they are
to the treatment of very viscous fluids not compact and have a high cost per m2
with a large volume of matter. installed.
Spiral Hollow
CRITERIA Plate type Wound Tubular fibres
Compactness
+ ++ - +++
Ease of cleaning:
-in situ + - ++ -
-by backflush - - -(2) ++
Quality of pretreatment
Required + - +++ -
2.2.2. Intermittent flow in closed loop reservoir is filled, it continues to receive the
feed liquid at a flow equal to the flow of
permeate. The advantage lies in the
To reduce energy requirements, it can be
reduction of the volume of the feed tank.
advantageous to modify the preceding
With the concentration gradually increasing,
system by placing a force feed pump
however, the flow of permeate decreases
between the tank and the recirculation pump
with time. There must then be control of the
(Figure 504).
feed flow to the tank or the pressure across
the membranes, in order to maintain the
overall matter balance of the system.
The energy gain compared to the open Such a system is used, for example, in UF
loop system is all the greater as the outlet to recover pigments and resins from the
pressure Ps is high. For example, taking into rinse waters of car bodies painted
account the flows indicated in Figures 502 electrophoretically.
and 504, the different powers involved for
the circulation are, as a first approximation: 2.2.4. Single-stage continuous flow
W o (open loop) = K x 10 (Pe-Pa)
W f (closed loop) = K x 10 (Pe-Ps) The system is similar to the preceding
i.e., W o -W f = K x 10 (Ps-Pa) one with the exception of the reject line.
whereas the power necessary for permeation The concentrate is drawn off continuously;
is the same in both cases: the valve V controls the conversion which,
in the case of Figure 506, is 90%.
3. DESALINATION
3.1. distillation, electrodialysis, ion exchange,
and carbonate removal.
OBJECTIVE Considering the size of the installations,
and considering that the osmotic pressures
In many cases, the excess of dissolved become great as soon as salinity levels of a
salts present in natural waters prohibits few grammes per litre are reached (see Page
their use: 211), the problems of compactness and of
- as drinking water, for health reasons, energy are predominant. For desalination,
- as process water, as the salts present therefore, spiral wound modules and
induce serious difficulties such as modules with hollow fibres (fibres with
corrosion, scaling. external skin of small diameter < 200µm)
are used, with the membrane being either
asymmetric or composite.
Such water must therefore be
It is obvious that these membranes
"desalinated" before use.
totally reject particles (colloids, bacteria,
For basically economical reasons and viruses) and macromolecules. Unlike the
those of ease of use (simple automatic other distillation processes, particularly
operation, low energy cost, etc.) the electrodialysis or ion exchange, these
processes of osmosis, and more recently membranes thus make it possible to obtain
of nanofiltration, have gradually come to very pure and very safe water, whatever the
compete with the older processes such as raw water used.
installations, such that on difficult water, the membranes can make perfect clarification of
use of microfiltration or ultrafiltration water possible.
Figure 509. San Andres facility, Colombia. Capacity: 3,000 m3 .d -1 . Production of drinking water
from coastal wells. Treatment by RO, preassembly in containers (reduction of the conductivity
from 30,000 to100µs.cm-1 and of chlorides from 15 g.l -1 ' to 150 mg.l -1 ).
Figure 510. Salbukh facility for the city of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Flow of water treated by
RO:1920 m3 .h -1 . Desalination of groundwater.
The Riyaldh-Salbutkh plant, the largest in makes it possible to make hot (65-70°C),
the world, operating since October 1979, hard groundwater high in silica and iron,
drinkable (Table 79). The choice of a very cost and scare supply of raw water, but
high conversion (90%) was dictated by the necessitated an elab-
3. Desalination
orate pretreatment (Figure 511), requiring standby). The residual flocs and colloids
the control of the temperature (cooling are removed on the two filtration stages,
towers), of the iron (oxidation - settling), upflow then downflow, with sand of 1.75
of the silica (removal by precipitation with and 0.7 mm respectively.
aluminate), of the bicarbonates Table 79 gives the characteristics of the
(precipitation with lime) and of the water, raw, pretreated, treated by osmosis
calcium (softening with sodium and drinkable (after blending with raw
carbonate). All of these reactions take water that has only been filtered; to raise
place in five Turbocirculators (one as the mineral content to about 500 mg.l-1 ).
Drinking
Cooled Osmosed water Cooled Pretreated Osmosed
raw water water (after raw water water water
blending)
TH (French
deg.) 62.5 2.7 <25 71 18 <1
by the value of the force feed flow. As the decisive advantages of the membrane
circulation loop becomes concentrated, the processes: not to need adjustment of the
resistance of the filtration cake increases reagents (coagulant, flocculant) when raw
and the pressure across the membranes water quality varies. This security of
needed to produce the set flow of permeate treatment of the membrane system is
fluid becomes greater. particularly advantageous for small and
medium-size installations.
When it reaches a set value, the Figure 514 gives the results, over several
recirculation pump is stopped, the months, of a system with Lyonnaise des
backflushing pump located in the permeate Eaux-Dumez type microfiltration
line is started up and the reject valve is
opened. The reversal of the directions of
flow through the wall of the hollow fibres
makes it possible to dislodge then remove
the cake of particles (Figure 513).
The backflushing operation is very short
(e.g., 30 s every 60 min) and the
conversions are thus greater than 90%, even
95%.
Designed like this, the system is easy to
automate. The conversion depends on the
frequency of the backflushes needed to
maintain the set flow. The quality of the
water produced does not depend on the
quality of the raw water; that is one of the
4. Clarification and desinfection of water
membranes compared to those of the pressurized outside the bundle of fibres, and
preexisting facility equipped with direct the drinking water is recovered inside the
filtration. fibres.
In certain cases the preceding system can The "cake" accumulated outside the fibre
be modified to operate without a is regularly removed by very frequent
recirculation pump. Hollow fibres with backflushes (for example, every 5 to 30
external skin operating in "dead end" mode min). This system, more economical in
are then used. The raw water is energy and capital cost (absence of
recirculation loop), leads to a greater loss of process water used, for example, in the
water if the raw water has a high solids load, beverage industry or the pharmaceutical
however. industry.
Based on the same principle, one can In all these applications, the
clarify swimming pool water, brackish water or membranes als o constitute an absolute
sea water before passage through RO modules, barrier for microorganisms. This is often a
water intended for reinjection in enhanced oil decisive advantage compared to other
recovery, clarification processes.
5. Ultrapure water
5. ULTRAPURE WATER
ins. Indeed, we kwon that an insufficient 5.1.1.2. Particle, organic and bacteriological
separation of the resins causes ion leakages pollution
that are intolerable in this case (cross-
contamination, see page 1355). In this area, These types of pollution, which are not
several improvements are proposed: independent, are measured by the number of
-use of triple-layer beds, particles and their sizes, the number of
-development of the resins knows as bacteria, the TOC.
"monopheres" the granulometry of which is
extremely precise and allows an excellent The techniques used to treat them can be
reclassification, classified into two groups:
-use, in polishing, of non-regenerable resins -disinfection/oxidation processes that
of "electronic quality", specially treated and destroy the bacteria and oxidize the organic
rinsed to obtain a very high resistivity and a particles more or less totally,
low TOC. These resins, relatively costly to
-membrane processes that remove particle
use, have two important advantages,
and organic pollution.
however:
-no risk of contamination of the circuits and
of the resins by the regenerents, -Disinfection
-simplicity of the equipment used. Chlorine and its derivatives can be used,
but only in pretreatment. Highly effective,
they have the disadvantage of increasing
TDS while introducing chloride ions as well
as derivatives (haloforms).
5. Ultrapure water
5.1.3. Comments on the design and design necessitates the of recycle loops in all the
completion of installations systems,
-to avoid or reduce the storage of water,
It is necessary to take a certain number -to provide, immediately downstream from
of precautions for the general design of the a unit, for the stopping of the pollution that
systems, in particular: unit can cause, e.g.: filtration of resin fines
-to avoid all dead zones as much as possible downstream from an ion exchanger,
(valves, elbows, sample tappings, by-pass -by virtue of the corrosity of ultrapure
systems, branches of shut down pipes, water, to carefully choose the materials in
"dead ends"). A minimum velocity must be contact with such water in order not to
maintained in all systems, a velocity below release by-products. The use of PVC is
which dead zones would be created that are becoming less frequent, giving way to more
favourable to bacterial growth. This "noble" materials such as ABS and PVF.
Figure 517. Corbeil facility, Paris area, France, for IBM. Production of ultrapure water by RO. 4
treatment lines each including 3 module stages (5 + 2 + 1) of unit capacity 47 m3 .h -1 .
the reasons why these techniques are -metals of electroplating baths (e.g.,nickel
presently only considered in the following by RO),
cases: -lignosulphonates in the black liquors of
-recovery of a high quality water for local paper pulp mills.
reuse (preceding par.), -treatment of wastewaters that are quite
-reclaiming of the concentrate. difficult due to their non-biodegradability
In this case, it is necessary to recover the or toxicity, for example:
wastewater in the immediate vicinity of its -"soluble" oils of machine-tools,
production: one can then remove -lubricants of cold rolling mills.
contaminants and obtain a product of value
at the same time. For example:
Ultrafiltration can make it possible:
-oiling products and indigo in the textile
industry (UF), -either to concentrate" hydrocarbon
-pigments and resins in rinse water after suspensions from 10-30 g.l-1 up to 300-500
g.l-1 (suitable for incineration),
electrophoretic painting (UF, MF),
-or to purify so-called "synthetic" solutions
-proteins of the red liquors from starch mills
in removing their suspended impurities,
(UF),
oxides, oils and greases that otherwise must
-whey proteins (UF), be periodically drained. The noble metals in
-noble metals in colloidal suspensions colloidal suspensions "effective life" of
(UF,MF), costly, highly polluting products is thus
prolonged
6. Other applications of membranes in the treatment of water -
CO2 removal is a necessary component - although CO2 removal may also be carried
spray aeration (see page 874), of various out by:
water treatment processes: - bubble aeration (see pages 705 and 877),
- pH correction of drinking water, - mechanical mixing (see pages 699 and
-removal of the CO2 from water to be 877).
demineralized after In these packed columns a strong
-treatment on a cation exchange resin, countercurrent flow of gas, called the
- removal of the CO2 from an activated stripping gas, removes the undesirable
sludge liquor (pure oxygen process) or from dissolved gas. As the liquid descends inside
industrial wastewater. the column, it is depleted of the dissolved
Packed column technology is generally gas and enriched with the stripping gas in
considered to be the most frequently used, the gaseous phase.
Chap. 16: Deaeration, stripping, evaporation
Figure 522. Nangis facility (Paris area, France) for SEIF (Orkem Group). Flow: 140 m3 .h -1 .
Decarbonacor in the ammonia condensate treatment unit.
Chap. 16: Deaeration, stripping, evaporation
1.3.
GAS STRIPPERS
2. STEAM STRIPPERS
AND DISTILLATION COLUMNS
When the gases to be removed are in deposits), and operation (harmful gases,
terms of equipment selection (corro highly hazardous materials).
soluble (NH3 ), deaerating at ordi- Sion, tar
deposits), and operation (harmnary
temperatures is a costly process. ful gases,
hazardous materials). Since the solubility
of gases decreases as the temperature rises,
high temperatures fac ilitate their removal.
This process is implemented in steam
strippers or distillation columns (which
involve a reflex), in which the steam serves
two purposes: it heats the liquid phase and
carries off the dissolved gases for removal.
In water treatment, these units are used
primarily to remove ammonia from
gasification or coke plant effluents (Figure
524). The water to be treated is introduced at
the top of the column; the steam is injected
into the base in a countercurrent flow.
Contact between the liquid and gas phases
can be achieved either by a stack of trays or
by several levels of packing. In view of the
ammonium content in the water to be
treated, an additional area must often be
provided above the water inlet for ammonia
vapour concentration. Once condensed, the
product may be either recovered or
destroyed, as needed.
In any case, implementing this type of Figure 524. Seraing (Belgium) facility, for
facility requires special precautions, both in Cokerill-Sambre. Flow: 30 m3 h -1 .
terms of equipment selection (corrosion, tar Distillation of coke plant ammonia liquors.
Chap. 16: Deaeration, stripping, evaporation
3. DEAERATING HEATERS
Figure 527. Polychemie Bedrijf Beek (Netherlands) facility for DSM (Dutch Staat
Smijnen). Flow: 255 m3 .h -1 . Horizontal deaerating heater.
3.4. PACKED COLUMN rings. The water is sprayed from above the
packing and the steam is injected from
DEAERATOR under the packing support tray.
Like deaerators with horizontal storage For a given flow of water to be deaerated,
tanks, these units are usually mounted on packed column units have a smaller
storage tanks to which they are connected diameter than deaerating heaters with
by the deaerated water and steam pressure horizontal storage tanks. Both designs can
equalizer pipes. tolerate flow variations and frequent
The gas-liquid interface forms on pack-ing startups.
consisting, for example, of metal or plastic
3. Deaerating heaters
Figure 529. Paris-La Villette (France) facility for CPCU. Flow: 120 t.h -1 . Packed column
deaeracor.
Chap. 16: Deaeration, stripping, evaporation
4. VACUUM DEAERATORS
When even temporary heating of the the packing and the gases are removed by
water to be deaerated is unfeasible, or when the vacuum system. Pressures decreasing
stripping steam is unavailable, dissolved from the upper to the lower stages permit
gases are removed in a vacuum.
Water, which vaporizes naturally under
vacuum pressure of between 1.5 and 6 kPa,
depending on the temperature, constitutes
the stripping phase.
This unit operates under absolute
pressure close to the saturated vapour
pressure for water at a given temperature to
permit transfer of the dis solved gases from
the liquid to the gas phase.
Contact between the two phases occurs
on packing, the choice of which depends on
the gas to be removed and the desired
degree of removal.
Degrémont vacuum deaerators (Figure
530) consist of a hermetically sealed
vertical tank that contains the packing. The
water is evenly distributed over the entire
surface of the packing by one or more spray
valves or distributors. The gases removed
from the liquid phase are sucked out
through the upper section to the system t hat
maintains the permanent vacuum required
for deaeration.
The vacuum device is relatively
expensive and is comprised of:
- liquid ring vacuum pumps, -steam or air
jet ejectors,
- vacuum pumps combined with air ejectors
used to create a very high vacuum.
Vacuum deaerators often have two or
three packing stages. For cold water, three
stages are required for thorough deaeration
(15 to 20 µg.l-1 of oxygen). At each stage,
the water is distributed from above
4. Vacuum deaerators
Figure 531. Dubai (Persian Gulf facility, for Dubai Petroleum. Flow: 3 x 750 m3 h -1 . Sea water
injection platform. Three vacuum deaerators.
6. AIR SCRUBBERS - AIR DEODORIZING DEVICES
It is often necessary to treat contaminated Table 80 shows indicative odour
air in industrial or municipal wastewater threshold concentrations for some of these
treatment facilities or in some factories compounds.
(synthetic chemistry, biochemical The solutions used to treat the preceding
plants, agricultural and food processing products are: caustic soda, acid, sodium
industries, etc.). hypochlorite, ozonated water. The
One effective means of coping with the pollutants are either removed by simple
odour problem is to scrub the air with an dissolution or neutralized by chemical
appropriate solution. Pollutant removal is reaction. For example:
governed by the laws of gas and liquid H2 S + 4NaClO à H2 SO4 + 4NaCl.
phase mass transfer. The choice of solution depends on the
The most common pollutants fall into the pollutants) to be removed and on the
following categories: desired removal efficiency. Often, several
- sulphur compounds: H2 S, mercaptans, different scrubbing procedures are
sulphides, combined using several scrubbers in series.
- nitrogen compounds: ammonium, This multi-stage process achieves a high
amines, amine oxides, indole, skatole, etc. degree of removal of most pollutants.
- various organic compounds: organic The scrubbers most frequently
acids (acetic, propionic, butyric, etc.), encountered in the treatment of
aldehydes, hydrocarbons, phenols. contaminated air are described hereafter.
Table 80. Odour threshold concentration of certain compounds (in air, in mg.Nm-3 ).
7.4. STEAM
COMPRESSION
DISTILLATION
In this process, a heat pump transfers heat energy corresponding to the latent heat
calories from the cold fluid to the hot fluid of vaporization.
using mechanical energy produced in a With this system, very low specific
high efficiency thermal machine (Figure consumption, on the order of 30 kcal.kg -1 ,
536). can be achieved.
In practice, a compressor or an ejector takes The number of effects varies from two to
in the steam produced in the evaporator and four. The maximum temperature is 57°C.
discharges it at a higher pressure into a tube
bundle immersed in the brine to be heated.
The steam then condenses, giving off the
17
OXIDATION - DISINFECTION
Air oxidation techniques use the oxygen Bubbling techniques will produce pressure
present in the air and work according to drops of a few centimetres, while spraying
the laws of gas and liquid phase mass techniques may reduce pressure by a bar
transfer. It should be remembered that the or more.
oxygenation of water by aeration can
produce substantial - and undesirable -
increases in scale-forming and aggressive
properties; CO2 stripping tends to increase
the liability to scale formation and may
even bring about precipitation of calcium
carbonate.
Air oxidation processes can be categorized
according to the method used for bringing
the liquid and the gas into contact:
- water trickling; Figure 537. Chateau-Landon plant near
-water pray; Paris, France. Flow rare: SO m3 .h -1 .
-air injection. Biological denitrification Cascade
Different aeration methods produce widely aeration following Nitrazur D.
differing losses of head and thus have a
determining influence on the overall
hydraulic gradient of the treatment plant.
Chap. 17: Oxidation - Disinfection
1.3.
DIFFUSED AERATION - small-bubble devices: porous diffusers
(DP230), membrane diffusers (Flexazur).
Coarse-bubble and medium-bubble devices
Gas diffusion consists in dispersing a
are almost exclusively used for aerating
pressurized gas into a mass of liquid (which wastewater. Small-bubble devices may als o
will usually have a high proportion of
be used for injecting other gases, such as
suspended solids).
ozone, CO2 , etc.
Air injection may be applied directly in a Gas diffusers are discussed in detail in
pressurized pipe, via a baffle mixer or Chapter 11 (Page 705). Ozone diffusion is
primary negative pressure element (see
also dealt with on Page 888.
Figure 540).
Water can also be aerated by bubbling large
Gas diffusers are often categorized
amounts of air through a small head of
according to the size of bubble they water (0.8 to 1 m for municipal wastewater
produce:
treatment; 0.25 to 0.30 m for drinking water
- coarse-bubble devices: gas is injected treatment). Air is injected though a diffusion
directly through vertical pipes or via grid at flow rates which may be from 30 to
largeorifice diffusers, such as the Dipair, 60 times greater than the flow rate of water
designed for high-head basins;. treated. The small head of water means that
- medium-bubble devices: Vibrair; this system will be highly sensitive to
variations in the water level and pressure
drops in the distribution system. For this
Under normal conditions, the useful. 549). This means that the ozone generator
specific energy required for the production requires an efficient cooling system,
of one kilogramme of ozone is calculated generally provided by water circulation.
as follows:
-air: 13 to 18 kWh.kg -1 for a
concentration of 18 g.Nm-3
- oxygen: 6 kWh.kg -1 for a concentration
of 70 g.Nm-3
A very substantial proportion of this
energy is given off as heat, which greatly
increases the temperature of the plasma.
Equation (5) clearly shows that the overall
yield of the oxygen - ozone transformation
is dependent on the temperature; any
increase in temperature is bound to decrease
the overall yield. For this reason, the heat
must be constantly drawn off in an effort to
keep the plasma at a constant temperature
(see Figure
tions in the feed gas (10% maximum the tion tends to stabilize out above a certain feed gas
vehicle is pure oxygen). concentration.
In practice, the actual concentrations
achieved remain far behind the 4.5.2. Theoretical considerations on ozone
saturation concentration, Cs . Typical transfer
concentrations are shown in Figure 552, The goal of ozonation treatment is to transfer
from which it can be seen that the ozone from a gaseous vehicle into a liquid-phase
dissolved concentra- medium across a gas-liquid interface.
Degrémont has carried out a series of studies
aimed at identifying the parameters which govern
this transfer.
Examining the stages involved in the absorption
of ozone across the gas-liquid interface, the
soluble gas (ozone) must first of all diffuse across
the surface of the liquid, then dissolve into the
liquid, then diffuse within the liquid. The transfer
rate between gas and liquid phases will thus
depend on the following:
- the physical properties of the gas and liquid
phases,
- the difference in concentration across the
interface,
- the degree of turbulence.
The transfer conditions across the interface are
best des cribed using the double-layer theory as
discussed on Page 276, Chapter 3. A double-
layer model is shown in Figure 553 below.
4. Oxidation and disinfection using ozone
The transfer equation is as follows: controls the transfer (as in the case of
ozone/iodine reactions, for example). This is
the type of reaction that takes place when
ozone acts on iron and manganese salts. The
Here, the exchange potential depends not acceleration factor will depend not only on
only on the difference between gas and the kinetics of the reaction in the liquid
liquid concentrations but also on the direct phase but also on the hydrodynamics of the
chemical reactivity of the ozone on the ozone/water interface.
pollutants in the water.
The following conclusions can be reached
4.5.3. Absorption with chemical reactions by considering the concentrations of organic
Ozone will react with the various organic matter present in surface and waste waters
substances present ni the water (organic and the relatively low rates of the reactions
compounds, viruses, bacteria, etc.), and it involved:
can be useful to know whether or not these - In surface waters, reactions generally take
reactions will tend to increase the transfer of place within the liquid rather than at
ozone. For this purpose we might wish to the interface.
determine an acceleration factor expressing -In deep-lying waters, reactions involving
the ratio between the amount of ozone iron and manganese salts will often take
transferred under the influence of the place at the interface.
chemical reaction and the amount of ozone - In wastewater, we may find both types
transferred without this reaction taking
of reaction.
place. Reactions can be categorized by
speed as follows:
Very slow reactions 4.5.4. Choosing the contact reactors
Very little ozone is consumed and the liquid
remains virtually saturated with the gas If fast reactions predominate, the rate of
which has not reacted. The speed of the ozone transfer will be the limiting factor and
reaction in the liquid is independent of the a high transfer coefficient will be called for.
amount of ozone transferred and no Suitable reactors in this case are packed
chemical reaction takes place in the film columns or U-tubes.
layer.
If slow reactions predominate, the
Slow reactions reaction itself will be the limiting factor. In
A small amount of ozone is transferred from this case, bubble diffusion reactors may be
used, with or without mechanical agitation.
the gas phase to the liquid phase. Transfer is
again limited by the rate of the reaction
taking place in the liquid phase. In all cases, ozone dissolution efficiency
is high (70 to 98%) and well above that of
Fast reactions the oxygen or air in the feed gas.
All the ozone reacts in the liquid film layer
and the ozone concentration in the liquid Bubble diffusion
itself is negligible. The chemical reaction The general transfer equation shows
Chap. 17: Oxidation - Disinfection
that the following factors will increase the has terminated and additional stages may be
amount of ozone absorbed: required to maintain this residual level
- The difference in concentration between throughout the reaction. For fast reactions,
gas and liquid phases. This means that the one reactor stage will generally be enough.
absorption rate will be highest at the time of
bubble formation. 4.5.5.1. Porous diffuser reactors
- The duration that the bubbles remain in In a porous diffuser reactor (see Figure
contact with the liquid (i.e., the deeper the 554), the water to be treated is made to flow
water the greater the absorption). through one or more chambers, the bases of
- The ratio between bubble surface area and which consist of porous diffusers giving off
water volume. very fine bubbles of ozonized gas. For
As a rule of thumb, the total surface area, optimum gas-liquid contact, the water is
St, developed by one Nl of gas in bubbles of usually fed in from the top of the chamber
diameter d will be as follows: to ensure countercurrent mixing.
Ozone may be injected into any or all of the
chambers. In all cases, countercurrent
mixing is(see
To produce very fine bubbles, high energy levels are required preferable.
the case of flotation with pressurized air). For ozone treatment, experien
The porous diffusers are of the DP 230 disc
4.5.5. Reactors type (see Page 705).
In this type of reactor, the depth of water
The number of series reactor stages will
above the porous diffuser should be from 5
depend on the oxidation kinetics of the
pollutants to be removed. to 7 m.
For very slow or slow reactions, residual In pre-ozonation stages, some of the
ozone will appear well before the reaction pollutants in the water (detergent, algae,
4. Oxidation and disinfection using ozone
etc.) may rise to the surface as scum, which ized gas together with a certain amount of
should be taken off separately. water, to produce an emulsion of fine
bubbles. To ensure efficient gas diffusion,
4.5.5.2. Turbine reactors this type of turbine is custom-built to match
the depth of immersion, the gas flow rate
and the water recirculation rate at the plant
There are two types of turbine reactor. In in question. This type of turbine will provide
the first type, the water to be treated is fed excellent performance provided it is
into the suction area of a turbine, which operated at its nominal rate. Under such
sends the water down through the stream of conditions, it is capable of treating quite
ozonized gas being injected upwards. This heavily polluted water, which makes it
produces a fine emulsion of gas and water, suitable for preozonation work. The
which diffuses throughout the upstream turbine's speed of rotation must be matched
section of the chamber to be again projected to the flow rate of ozonized air/oxygen to be
downwards by the turbine. All the water to injected. The number and layout of turbines
be treated is sent several times through the will depend on the hydraulic characteristics
turbine to ensure good mixing (see Figure of the treatment tank.
555). The turbine blades must be carefully
designed to split the gas bubbles and ensure
efficient diffusion of the gas mixture 4.5.5.3. U-tube reactors
throughout the liquid.
The second type of reactor uses a turbine Chemical engineering considerations
with submerged motor located at the bottom dictate that the most efficient ozone/ water
of the chamber. The specially designed transfer will take place under high pressure
turbine sucks through the ozon- using a large exchange surface. These are
the precepts on which the plug-flow U-tube
reactor is based.
a) b)
Figure 557. Le Pecq facility for LE-Dumez near Paris, France. Capacity: 1,500 m3 .h -1 .
Ozonation of nitrified water prior to GAC filtration. U-cube: a - well head; b - injection
head.
Chap. 17: Oxidation - Disinfection
5. OZONE GENERATORS
On small ozone generators, the special power high-pressure weak spots and chemical
supply tips on each element can be connected corrosion caused by chloride build-up.
directly to the H.V. supply via a junction rod. Stainless steels are prone to corrosion by
On larger generators, the connection will be via chlorides. Any folds and dents in the joint will
individual H.V. fuses, capable of isolating a tend to trap cooling water, leading to chloride
defective tube while allowing the remaining build-up, scaling and, eventually, puncturing of
rods to remain operative. To eliminate the risk the seal. The weld between the stainless steel
of faulty contacts due to loose joints and tubes and the tube sheet must therefore be of
corrosion, and thereby reduce overall system even thickness and free from folds and dents,
losses, all electrical connections to junction rods and manufacturing operations must avoid work-
and fuses are bolted down using stainless steel hardening the metals used. Degrémont has
connectors onto strips perforated to gauge (see developed an automatic filler-free welding
Figure 560). system which meets these criteria. This, coupled
Ozone generators operate under pressure and with thorough preparation of the stainless steel
must be completely air-tight. The critical seal in prior to assembly (cleaning, degreasing,
a tubular ozone generator is at the junction pickling, decontamination, passivation, and
between the stain rinsing by total immersion in controlled
less steel tubes and the tube sheet. This treatment tanks), ensures the very highest
junction must be very well designed to avoid standards of manufacture and passivation of the
stainless steel providing unrivalled technology.
The body of the ozone generator con-
Figure 561. Ozone generator (open) at the Belgrade city council plant at Makis, Yugoslavia.
Production capacity: 3 x 14.5 = 43.5 kg.h -1 .
5. Ozone generators
5.3.1.1. Description
An independent pulsed-air cooling system mum rated input voltage. This means that
keeps the whole of the electrical control mains supply fluctuations on the high side
equipment at the specified operating might cause slight variations in power factor
temperature. Degrémont frequency owing to the increased switching rate of the
converters are available with maximum thyristors in the rectifier bridge.
power ratings going from tens of kilowatts For the same volume of ozone
to several megawatts. production, NF power supplies make it
MF power supplies draw a perfectly even possible to use smaller generators,
current from the three-phase mains, at an implement fewer tubes and occupy less
overall lagging power factor close to 1 to the ground space than with 50 or 60 Hz
inverter. generators (reduced civil works).
The frequency converter is designed to
supply its full rated power at the mini
itself together with air-feed conditioner, power supply and automation and safety
low-voltage electrical gear required for devices, as well as step-up transformer.
Figure 569. Battery of oxygen-fed MBF 202 ozone generators at municipal wastewater
disinfection plant in Henrico County in the United States. Production capacity: 4 x 25 = 100 kg.h -1
5. Ozone generators
5.5.
FEED GAS SUPPLY 5.5.1. Air-fed generators
Ozone generators can be fed with air,
oxygen or a mixture of both, in any Before being fed into the ozone generator,
proportion. air must be thoroughly conditioned and
The choice of feed gas will depend on the dried. This is important for a number of
following: reasons:
- the application in question, - Dust becoming electrically charged can be
responsible for arcing in the ozone
- the availability of pure oxygen,
generator, thus reducing production and
- the size of the plant. wasting energy. The deposits formed by
The use of oxygen brings about a arcing create electrostatic disturbances
significant reduction in equipment size and which also tend to reduce production.
running costs, but despite these and other - Water vapour can also cause arcing by
advantages, air is still predominantly used in reducing the dielectric strength of the gas in
small and medium-sized treatment plants the discharge gap. Also, part of the electrical
(see Figure 570). energy will be wasted in ionizing the water
vapour, again reducing the ozone yield.
- Finally, in the presence of water vapour,
the nitrogen oxides produced by electrical
discharge in the air will form nitrates, which
are undesirable in drinking water and
harmful to the ozone generator.
5.5.1.1. Compression
Figure 571. Low pressure air compression facility at Louveciennes plant near Paris, France. MF
production capacity: 2 x 6,25 kg.h -1 .
lute pressure of the air line will be between 8 - lubricated screw machines,
and 9 bar and the above types of machine - improved Roots blower (for simple
may be used for compression. applications).
. Low-pressure drying with heat applied.
Here, the absolute pressure of the air line 5.5.1.2. Drying
will be between 2 and 2.2 bar. The following
High pressure drying usually involves a
types of machine may be used for
single stage and low pressure drying two.
compressing the air:
a) Single-stage heatless drying (Figure
-dry screw machines,
572)
Compressed air, previously cooled in a
5.Ozone generators
Figure 574. Mont-Valérien facility for CEB. near Paris, France. Production capacity 2 x
65 = 13 kg.h -1 . AF ozone generation - HP heatless driers.
c) Two-stage low-pressure drying (see The chiller may take the form of a
Figure 575) conventional refrigerating set or a
Low-pressure drying is used in large- condenser supplied with near-freezing
scale treatment plant. Air is first taken into water by the ozone generator cooling
a water-cooled primary exchanger-cooler, system, if one is fitted.
leaving at a temperature of 30 to 40°C. It is The air then passes through the second
then taken into the first drying stage - a drying stage, a drier again filled with
chiller which condenses out a large part of adsorbent material such as activated
the water vapour. It leaves the chiller at a alumina. Again, this low pressure drier
temperature of 3 to 5°C and is close to stage consists of two chambers (A and B)
saturation. operating alternately (see Figure 576).
Regen-
5. Ozone generators
Figure 577 - Low pressure air drier at Louveciennes plant near Paris, France. MF ozone
capacity 2x6.25 = 12.5kg.h -1
has been completed, the column is swept and the staggering of the adsorption/
using a desorption gas, which may be either desorption cycles. The throughflow and the
pure nitrogen from the cryogenic plant or concentration of ozone in the feed gas can
conditioned dry air. The air of nitrogen be varied by regulating the desorption rate
leaving the column contains roughly the and the power consumed by the ozone
same proportion of ozone as the oxygen generator.
which entered the column. The oxygen recycling loop is of
The evenness of the ozone supply will particular interest in full-scale processes
depend on the number of columns used which have a heavy consumption of ozone.
Figure 581. Thermal ozone destruction, at Hwamyong plant (South Korea). Ozone production
capacity.' 4 x 25 = 100 kg.h -1 . Four MBF 536 ozone generators.
Catalytic destruction has been tried, but - For small-scale plant, with less than 200
the catalysts used are not specific to ozone Nm3 .h -1 of air to be treated, ozone is
destruction and are highly sensitive to destroyed by heating the gas to about
poisons such as nitrogen oxides, chlorides 320°C by means of special easy-to-install
and sulphides. Further, they have a short high-surface-area expanded metal heating
life-span and require frequent recharging. elements. No attempt is made to recover the
The most reliable method is thermal heat energy in the outgoing gas. The
destruction, with or without recovery of heaters are powered from a
the heat energy applied. thermostatically-controlled thyristor power
supply.
5. Ozone generators
- For medium- and large-scale plant, with contact column and taken into the
more than 200 Nm3 .h -1 of air to be treated, secondary circuit of a high-efficiency plate-
ozone is again destroyed by heating, but type heat exchanger (5), where, under
this time a heat-exchanger system recovers steady state conditions, its temperature is
up to 80% of the heat energy as the gas brought up from 15 to 260°C. The air then
leaves the furnace. goes through the furnace as such (3), where
This means that, under steady-state its temperature is further increased to about
conditions, the electrical energy input 320°C. After spending about 3 seconds in
required for ozone destruction will only be the reactor (4), the purified air comes back
about 20 to 25% of the total energy through the primary circuit of the
required for heating the gas up to 320°C. exchanger, where, flowing in
The energy recovery system is shown in countercurrent, it yields its heat energy to
Figure 580. Air containing the residual the new incoming air. Purified air leaves
ozone to be destroyed (1) is sucked in by a the exchanger at about 70°C and is released
fan (2) located in the upper part of the into the atmosphere (6).
Figure 581a. Bedok plant (Singapore). Battery of ozone generators. Production capacity
4 x 12.4 = 49.6 kg.h -1 .
Chap. 17: Oxidation - Disinfection
6.2.
BROMINE cidal properties and is used in the
disinfection of swimming pools. The
minimum residual bromine
Bromine possesses antiseptic and algi concentration to be observed is 1 g.m-3 .
6.4.
will remain stable for a few months if
PERMONOSULPHURIC
kept cool.
ACID (CARD'S ACID) The commercially available solution
Caro's acid (chemical formula H2 SO5 , is usually added directly to the cyanide
see Page 521) is used for oxidizing out oxidation chamber and the pH corrected
cyanides before disposal (see 259). It is by adding caustic soda.
commercially available as a 200 g.l-1 The reagent can also be prepared in
solution of H2 SO5 (15% by weight). situ from hydrogen peroxide and
This solution sulphuric acid.
6. Other oxidation processes
Residual traces of oxidizing agents must - drinking water transported over long
be removed from water in cases such as the distances,
following: - disposal of disinfected wastewater into
- preparation of drinking water, fragile natural environment,
- oxygen traces in boiler feedwater.
- water to be filtered by ion-exchange resin Removal can be carried out using chemical
or membrane, or physical methods.
1.SLUDGE THICKENING
Thickening is the first stage in reducing the particularly in the case of thermal
volume of sludge. The design and operating conditioning;
costs of the sludge treatment line depend - improved performance of dewatering units,
directly on the thickening process. The such as the drying beds, centrifuges, belt
thickening process usually corresponds to an filters, and particularly filter presses.
increase in the concentration of the sludge
collected in the clarification settlers, whilst
Over and above increased investment
remaining within the limits of sludge pump -
costs, which are often compensated for
ability. The levels of maximum concentration
elsewhere, the main drawback of the
vary between different types of sludge. The
thickening process is that it is a source of
threshold is much higher in suspensions of
nuisances when applied to organic sludge.
discrete particles than colloidal suspensions.
The main preventive measure is to ensure that
The true state of a sludge cannot be estimated
works are operated in a regular and rational
on the basis of the concentration of dry solids
manner. The environment can be protected by
alone, but also requires thorough knowledge
covering the works and de-odorizing the
of constituents.
enclosed stagnant air. Smell can also be
controlled by treating the sludge with lime.
The thickening process offers numerous
advantages:
There are two main thickening techniques:
-thickening by settling;
-in works of equal capacity, thickening
-thickening by flotation.
increases the retention time and the
degradation rate of organic matter in
anaerobic digesters or aerobic stabilizers. Other techniques should also be
Thickening fresh sludge can avoid the need to mentioned:
recirculate supernatant matter from these -thickening by centrifugation;
works; -thickening by drainage.
-improved reliability along the entire water Some of these techniques only apply to
treatment line. Sludge can be extracted from restricted cases and to given types of sludge,
the settlers in very liquid form without which is why more and more treatment plants
degrading the quality of the settled water, are combining different thickening processes
since the sludge levels in the settlers remain on a single site. This is particularly true of
sufficiently low. The delicate sludge plants treating municipal or industrial
extraction process is thus limited to a single, wastewater that feature primary settling and
or small number of units; secondary biological treatment. If excess
activated sludge is thickened separately using
-reduced volume of conditioning works, a technique that is suited to colloidal sludge,
such as flotation, then the total volume of
thickened primary and second-
Chap. 18: Thickening and stabilization of sludge
1.1.
THICKENING a certain "freeboard" height. The freeboard
allows for:
BY SETTLING -clarification of interstitial liquid;
(often referred to as just "thickening")
-variation sludge level resulting from
changing withdrawal conditions;
The sludge-laden suspension is fed into a -correct hydraulic distribution of the
tank (thickener), where it remains for a incoming liquor.
lengthy retention time so that the sludge is The freeboard usually measures between
compacted. The sludge is extracted from the 1 m and 2 m. It is important that thickeners
bottom, while the supernatant liquid is
be deep enough. By way of example, a total
drawn off the top. cylindrical depth of at least 3.5 m, including
storage volume, is recommended for MWW
1.1.1. Design laws sludge.
The sludge's sedimentation curve, which Thickening by settling does not usually
is drawn using a recipient with a sufficiently involve any preliminary conditioning, with
large diameter, is a reliable guide for the the exception of the thermal conditioning of
design of the thickener. Kynch's theory is organic sludge. Lime is sometimes added to
applied to the design of thickeners, and fermentable sludge (refer to Page 944) to
more particularly, to the calculation of the avoid emissions of foul-smelling gases that
surface area corresponding to the impair the settling process. The retention
withdrawal concentration CS (refer to Page time for this type of sludge is usually
164 for calculation of the limits of solids limited to one day.
flux rate FL ). If precise experimental information for
It is more difficult to calculate the depth the sedimentation curve of the suspension in
of the thickener, which must correspond to hand is unavailable, the following design
the sum total of the height required to apply data can be used as a first approximation:
the compression needed to achieve the
requisite concentration, and
1. Sludge thickening
Primary sludge
+ fresh activated 45 to 70 40 to 60
sludge (MWW)*
Carbonate
sludge
-high hydroxide content 350-450 150-200
-low hydroxide content 800 to 1200 600-800
Figure 588. Thickener with scraper and picket fence, 13 m dia. Lagny facility, Paris area
(France).
1. Sludge thickening
The rising velocity that corresponds to the The mechanical rotary system is usually
overflow rate is an important design factor centrally driven with a diametral bridge and is
only for highly diluted sludge (SS < 3 g.l-1 very sturdy in design. In large-diameter units
approximately). The rising velocity for a mix or when handling heavy sludge, such as
of primary sludge and fresh activated sludge discharge from mining industries, drive
in a sufficiently deep thickener is about 0.5 torque may exceed 80 m.daN.m-2 . In units
m.h-1 . handling MWW sludge, the drive
mechanisms are usually designed for drive
1.1.2. Mechanized thickeners torques of between 20 and 30 m.daN.m -2
Thickeners are always circular in shape. The rotating assembly is suspended from a
Small-diameter cylindrical tanks are made of gangway, which is usually made of concrete
steel. The thickeners are fitted with a dual- (see Figure 587). The scraping system is
purpose rotary mechanism: made up of a series of scrapers arranged in
echelon.
-first, it transfers the sludge deposits to the
central hopper using scrapers positioned In large-scale units, the rotating assembly
immediately above the floor of the tank; may be suspended from a central column,
which also acts as a guide. When handling
-second, it enhances the release of interstitial
highly compacted sludge, the extraction
water and occluded gas using a vertically-
pumps can be located inside this central
mounted "picket fence" attached to the rotary
column, which virtually does away with the
mechanism.
need for sludge pump suction pipes (see
In works made of concrete, the gradient of Figure 589).
the floor is between 10 and 20%.
Chap. 18: Thickening and stabilization of sludge
In a number of cases (lack of space, risk Tunnels passing beneath the tank floor to
of smells), sludge is thickened in the raw the central hopper are very useful in large-
water settler itself The centre of the settler-
diameter thickeners, particularly those
thickener features a large thickening area, handling very compact or thixo -tropic
complete with scraper and picket fence. sludge.
The depth at the centre of such units varies The sludge entering the thickener is
between 6 and 9 m (see Figure 590). sometimes diluted with water for one of
It is preferable that the sludge enter theseveral reasons: either to wash the sludge
thickener from above, particularly when the (elutriation) with a view to reducing-
risks of clogging are high. consumption of the conditioning minerals
used to remove colloidal matter, or to
1.1.3. Operation of thickeners reduce excessive sludge salinity prior to
incineration. This type of sludge washing
The sludge withdrawal system must be usually substantially increases the load at
safe, reliable, and flexible. The extraction the head of the plant due to the returns from
valves or pumps must be positioned as the thickener overflow.
close to the central sludge hopper as In order to reduce the danger of bad
possible (refer to Page 676). smells, the upper liquid layer is usually
regularly renewed by feeding the thickener
1. Sludge thickening
the higher the concentration of the floated liquor is clarified by flotation, there is no
sludge. need for additional thickening of excess
The underflow from flotation units with sludge.
full-flow pressurization is usually slightly In MWW purification plants, flotation
more laden (SS 80 to 250 mg.l-1 ) than the can also be used to thicken fresh sludge
underflow from recycle systems (SS 30 to mixtures. Although the concentration of
150 mg.l-1 ). Clarification can be further floated sludge may reach 5 to 8%, the
improved through the use of polymers. advantages of this solution remain to be
In exceptional cases, such as the proven. A more common option includes
treatment of certain concentrated industrial the gravitational thickening of primary
wastewaters, where the activated sludge sludge with thickening by flotation of
excess activated sludge (see Figure 593).
Figure 592: The Life-Marquette plant serving the conurbation of Life in northern France.
Capacity. 750,000 population equivalents. Activated sludge flotation unit. Diameter: 11 m.
Chap. 18: Thickening and stabilization of sludge
1.2.2. Drinking water sludge Solids flux rate varies between 50 and 150
The concentration of sludge produced by kg of SS/m2 A depending on the type and
settling surface water that has already concentration of the sludge, and more
undergone flocculation is usually low. particularly on whether the flow includes
Flotation can be used to quickly reach filter wash water.
thickening rates that are substantially higher If the water is clarified by flotation, then
than those possible by straightforward there is clearly no need for a second
sludge settling. This sludge is made up flotation unit.
mainly of metallic hydroxides.
The pressurization system is usually of 1.2.3. Operation of flotation-thickening
the recycle type. The flow rate of recycled units
pressurized water is usually less than half Since the thickened sludge is located on
that of the water being treated. Flotation the surface, it is all the more easy to extract
aids should be applied in dosages of about 2 (see Figure 595). A high number of scrapers
kg of polymer per tonne of DS. Sodium are required per unit of surface area, and
alginate is one possible aid. large units measuring more than 14 m in
The concentration of the extracted sludge diameter require two inlet hoppers, each
can thus rise as high as 2 or 3 g.l-1 . fitted with a lifting pump.
1. Sludge thickening
1-Sludge inlet.
2-Drainage screen.
3-Scraper.
4-Water outlet.
5-Thickened sludge outlet.
1. MWW
Extended aeration
< 10 g.l-1 30 to 70 5 to 6
> 10 g.1-1 60 to 200 5 to 8
Anaerobic digestion
15to25g.1-1 70 to 140 7.5 to 9
2. Dairies
Trickling filter +
extended aeration
30 g.l-1 140 to 180 7 to 8
3. Clarification
Aluminium hydroxides
10to15g.1-1 25 to 35 2.5 to 4.5
Since there is no pressing stage, the Stream of a dewatering unit (belt filter,
extraction rate is high, occasionally reaching centrifuge, filter press), or for solids-liquid
95%. separation in industrial manufacturing
The GDE screen can also be used as a pre- processes.
thickener located immediately up-
Chap. 18: Thickening and stabilization of sludge
2. SLUDGE STABILIZATION
content is usually reduced by between 45 and content, and usually increases in line with
50%. digestion time. The figure is usually between
Since the destruction of 1 kg of organic 22,600 and
matter contained in MWW produces between
900 and 1,0001 of gas, the gas output of a 25,100 kJ.Nm -3 , which corresponds to
correctly balanced digestion unit is between 5,400 and 6,000 kcal.Nm -3 .
400 and 500 1 of gas for every kg of
incoming organic matter. 2.1.2. Parameters affecting tile performance
The temperature is critical to the digestion of anaerobic digestion
process, affecting the startup speed, the Over and above the temperature, the
stabilization of fermentation, and the gas retention time, relative to the daily input of
output. The sludge heating facilities can only fresh sludge, is a very important design factor
be bypassed on small units -a few thousand for two reasons. First, because the settled and
population equivalents with very long digested sludge is not recycled in the reactor,
retention times. and second, because the sludge thickens only
The process generally used is mesophilic very slightly in the reactors.
fermentation at temperatures around 35°C. Satisfactory retention times can be
Thermophilic fermentation is rarely used achieved by:
because the gains in reactor size and removal
-a sufficiently high reactor volume;
of pathogenic germs are cancelled out by high
power consumption and heightened -highly concentrated fresh sludge.
sensitivity to variations in load. Biochemical reactions are encouraged by
The net calorific value of gas produced by high sludge concentration levels. A
digestion varies according to the methane
concentration of 15 g.l-1 DS is the minimum matter, vegetable waste, paper, etc., and has
value for industrial plants handling a foul smell. Digested sludge is black-iron
municipal waste sludge. sulphide-and smells like tar. The initial
constituents can barely be distinguished-
except human and animal hair, certain seeds,
Two other parameters can be used to
and small pieces of plastic. 90% of
improve the performance and control of
salmonella and most pathogenic germs are
sludge digesters:
destroyed, although the removal of viruses
-intensive mixing,, which is more useful in appears slightly less efficient. Exposing
methane fermentation of (viscous) sludge digested sludge to the open air does not
than that of the effluents. Thorough mixing cause any nuisance.
minimizes the differences in temperature and
organic matter concentration between the
fresh and digested sludge in the digester, and Let:
improves the chances of contact between the
microorganisms and the matter to be broken -m1 be the percentage of inorganic matter in
down. The difference in performance the fresh sludge;
between laboratory digesters and full-scale -m2 be the percentage of inorganic matter in
versions is often due to a difference in the the digested sludge.
intensity of mixing;
-regular feed - the input of fresh sludge and The reduction x of the VS by digestion is
the extraction of digested sludge must be obtained by the following formula:
regular to avoid sudden variations in the
development of microorganisms.
Figure 600. Barueri plant, Brazil. View of the digesters and a 5,000 m3 gas holder.
The excess gas can be used for 2.1.4. Types and design of sludge
heating purposes and to generate digesters
electromechanical energy (refer to Page
1324). A straightforward plant for the The two-stage Imhoff or Emscher
primary settling and digestion of MWW tank is the oldest type of digester. It
can thus virtually achieve self- combines a primary settling tank in the
sufficiency in electric power. upper part with an unheated digester in
Purification plants using biological the lower part. This type of digester is
treatments can also perform well in best suited to small installations, but is
terms of energy consumption if the hardly used any more today, mainly due
aeration process is energy-saving (e.g., to the spread of extended aeration
activated sludge with air diffusion by processes, which are less sensitive to
small bubbles, trickling filters) and the temperature and more efficient in terms
sludge treatment is simple. of purification.
The buffer capacity that digesters Digestion systems operate at either
provide can also be used to regulate the high or medium rates. High-rate
working of the downstream sludge systems usually feature two stages: one
treatment units. Lastly, digested sludge which is vigorously mixed, the other
can be stored in open ponds without only slightly mixed. However, the
causing any unpleasant smells. The phases of the actual fermentation
absence of any nuisance and the virtual process are rarely separated (acid on the
energy self-sufficiency of the treatment one hand, acetate and methane
plant are important factors contributing producing on the other) in sludge
to the reliability and the continuity of digestion systems, mainly as a conse-
the purification process.
Chap. 18: Thickening and stabilization of sludge
quence of the relatively long retention The secondary reactor, where the
times required (refer to Page 319). sludge is mixed intermittently, serves
The purpose of medium-rate several purposes:
digesters is to completely digest the -to ensure complete methane
sludge and then to partly thicken the fermentation of particles that are
digested sludge and separate the floating retained only for a short time in the
matter (scum) all in the same reactor. primary digester, which operates in the
The mixing is therefore gentle and same fashion as a complete mixing
intermittent. The temperature is usually reactor;
about 25°C. This type of digester is -to separate and remove floating
particularly well suited to medium size material;
units and to fresh unthickened sludge. -to enhance sludge thickening, with
The purpose of high-rate digestion is removal of the so-called supernatant
to shorten the digestion time. Such "water band".
digesters, where the sludge undergoes High-rate digestion should be fed
mesophilic digestion, feature at least with previously thickened fresh sludge.
one primary reactor, where the sludge is
The following table shows usual
vigorously mixed at a constant
design data for sludge digesters.
temperature of approximately 35°C.
PRIMARY SECONDARY
DIGESTER DIGESTER
High rate 2 to 3 12 to 16 3 to 4
2-stage (35°C)
The design data for unheated digesters 2.1.5. Design of sludge digesters
are more variable and depend chiefly on
climate and operating conditions. Even 2.1.5.1. Mixing mechanisms
in the temperate regions of western
Gas mixing is an efficient technique
Europe, the digestion process is
that can be used with economical civil
practically halted for between 3 and 6
works.
months of the year. Digestion capacity
under these conditions corresponds to a The gas is recirculated and injected
minimum retention time of 90 days. into the mass of sludge under pressure.
2. Sludge stabilization
When the gas is injected into the centre of the fresh sludge is mixed with the
the base of digesters with suitable recirculated sludge in the process of
diameter/height ratios, a powerful "swirl" being digested.
phenomenon is generated from the centre Shell-and-tube exchangers are
towards the edge. At least 0.8 m3 /h.m2 must recommended (see Figure 602) where the
be extracted from the gas holder or the high recirculation velocities of the sludge
digester dome to produce swirl mixing. (1 to 1.5 m.s -1 ) and the hot water (1.5 to
Degrémont has developed a series of 2.5 m.s -1 ) allow the exchange coefficient
standardized mixing devices fitted with to rise to 4300 kJ (i.e., 1000 kcal)/
injection pipes and special diffusers (see °C.m2 .h. Spiral exchangers, where the
Figure 601). flow rate and the cross-section of the
The location of the recycled gas injection pipes are smaller, can also be used if a
point varies according to the diameter and number of suitable precautions are taken.
type of digester (high-or medium-rate). In addition to heating the fresh sludge,
the heating systems must also compensate
2.1.5.2. Heating systems for the external heat losses. The transfer
The most reliable heating system uses coefficients depend on the materials used
external heat exchangers containing hot and the physical location, e.g., highly
water that are inserted in the circuit where undesirable effect of positioning the base
the sludge undergoing digestion is of the digester below the water table.
recirculated. Before entering the digester, In temperate regions, external heat
Chap. 18: Thickening and stabilization of sludge
losses of approximately 2100 to 2500 kJ opens the way for wide digesters with only
(500 to 600 kcal)/m3 .day are permissible for slightly inclined floors, which is important
units with a capacity of less than 1000 m3 , in systems of the high-rate variety. A large
and 1250 kJ(300 kcal)/m3 .day for capacities exposed surface enhances gas release and
greater than 3000 m3 . reduces the danger of frequent foaming,
Digesters are usually thermally insulated particularly when starting up vertical-type
by a double enclosure. The space between digesters. In any case, the routine
the walls is either left empty or is filled with maintenance operations of sludge digesters
insulating material, such as glass wool or include regular drainage. The maximum
expanded materials. Composite materials lapse between maintenance visits is usually
are used to make the vessels in major 10 to 12 years. The grit and silt that
installations. Concrete structures can be accumulate in the bottom of the digester and
effectively replaced by suitably protected substantially reduce capacity are then
steel vessels. removed. These operations are made easier
In high-velocity shell-and-tube by the manholes provided in the lower part
exchangers, hot water temperatures of 90°C of the units. The raw water should always
are permissible, but the water must be no be thoroughly degritted as a means of
hotter than 60°C in low-velocity devices. substantially slowing down the drop in
Gas-fired boilers must be fitted with oil-or digester capacity.
propane-fired standby burners, which are
particularly useful when starting the system. The units are usually covered with a
fixed dome. Floating roofs can also be used,
2.1.5.3. Digester shape but they require high investments and
substantially more maintenance work.
A well designed gas mixing system
Figure 602. The Acheres plant near Paris, France, operated by the S.I.A.A.P. Exchanger used to
heat sludge in the digester.
2. Sludge stabilization
to maintain the pH of the sludge between 6.8 Foaming frequently occurs when the unit is
and 7.2. As a general rule in units handling started up. Risks of foaming can be
heavy loads, 8 kg of lime are injected per day considerably reduced by increasing load very
per 1000 inhabitants until the pH stabilizes at gradually
6.8.
Aerobic Anaerobic
stabilization digestion
Products CO2 , H2 O, NO3 CH4 , CO2 , H2 O, NH4 +
Energy released in liquid
medium per g of OM 20 kJ 0.8 kJ
removed
Energy generated in gas
form per g of OM - 20.9 kJ
removed
Rate of breakdown + -
Final reduction of OM - +
BOD5 of filtered 30-50 mg.l-1 200-400 mg.l-1
supernatant
Resistance to inhibitors + -
Long-term storability - +
Sludge filterability - +
2. Sludge stabilization
Figure 604. Aerobic stabilization. Mixing by Actirotor-type surface aerator fitted with skirts and
soundproofing cover.
Chap. 18: Thickening and stabilization of sludge
The rise in temperature increases the -increased aeration power may enhance
reaction rate and, if sufficiently high, can oxygenation, but it also results in greater
even partly free the sludge from pathogenic heat losses.
germs. Thermophilic aerobic stabilization Aerobic stabilizers cannot withstand
systems work at temperatures between 45 major fluctuations in load or, at the very
and 60°C. least, their temperature is likely to change
Special precautions must be taken to substantially according to load. Several
restrict heat losses so that the temperature units are required in plants handling
in the reactor remains sufficiently high. The seasonally variable loads, or in plants that
first step is to ensure that the concentration operate for long periods with partial load.
in OM of the fresh sludge is as low as
possible; 25 to 30 g.l-1 of VS correspond to The rise in temperature ? T in the reactor
an SS concentration of about 35-40 g.l-1 . can be quickly estimated using the
Another precaution is to minimize heat following formulae:
losses by evaporation related to agitation of
the medium by the oxygenation and mixing
?T(°C) = 25?COD (g.l-1 )
system. It was initially thought that
sufficiently high temperatures could only be or ?T(°C) = 3.5 ?OM (g.l-1 )
achieved by using pure oxygen, which is where ? T is the difference in temperature
highly dissolvable and incurs minimal gas between the stabilized sludge and the
losses. incoming sludge
In specific submerged aerators (that ?COD = COD removed in the reactor
combine injection of very small bubbles of ?OM = OM removed in the reactor.
air with mechanical mixing systems) with
highly efficient air diffusion mechanisms In temperate regions, the temperature in
and suitable insulation and/or covering, the the reactor can reach about 50°C with a
temperature can reach levels conducive to retention time of 4 to 6 days and 40% of
thermophilic organisms with OM can be removed in sludge with an
straightforward oxygenation by air. This initial DS concentration of 50 g.l-1 (35 g.l-1
arrangement is the most frequently used of which is OM). The shorter the retention
solution. time, the greater the heat losses due to
It is difficult to precisely define the outgoing sludge, particularly in harsh
optimal volume for a thermophilic aerobic climates where the sludge is colder.
digester. The following interactions, which It is, however, feasible to heat up the raw
are frequently conflicting, have to be sludge with the stabilized sludge in a
integrated: countercurrent heat exchanger.
-increasing the reactor volume causes the
contact time to rise, but also results in
Special measures should be taken in
increased heat losses by radiation and
thermophilic aerobic digestion plants to
evaporation;
limit foaming and the occasional release of
-high temperatures speed up the reaction
foul smells.
kinetics, but they also require greater
aeration power due to the reduced solubility
of the oxygen;
Chap. 18: Thickening and stabilization of sludge
its effects differ substantially according to mixing machinery. By using quick lime, it
the conditions of use. is possible to benefit from the exothermic
lime hydration reaction, in view of the low
There are two possible courses of action water content of the sludge. The effects on
for liquid sludge: both the reactivity of the lime and the
disinfecting action of the process are
-injection upstream of the fresh sludge
positive. Indicator germ counts may drop
thickener to prevent fermentation. Dosages
by 106 to 107 and salmonella may virtually
of Ca(OH)2 applied amount to 15% of the
disappear. CaO doses correspond to
SS contained in the sludge,
between 30 and 40% of the DS content of
-stabilization of liquid sludge in preparation the cake.
for use in agriculture. Adding Ca(OH)2
dosages amounting to 10% of the SS
content to small sludge samples and mixing If the dewatered sludge is cohesive
intimately can increase the pH to 12 after enough to begin with (about 25% of DS for
two hours, and the fecal coliform count is MWW sludge), then the chemical
reduced by between 104 and 106 . But the stabilization process is followed by a
pH changes very quickly, and dosages of physical "stabilization", which makes the
more than 30% should be used to prevent sludge cake more suitable for use as filling
fermentation from resuming in the or covering material.
following fortnight.
Dewatered sludge treated with lime can
Fresh sludge treated with lime cannot be be stored for months at a time. But the
stored for very long. Recarbonation and the massive introduction of lime affects the
high water content encourage renewed way the sludge drains when used for
fermentation, which can only be halted by agricultural purposes. Although the sludge
applying more lime. may drain quite easily on acidic soil,
chemical stabilization causes a number of
problems in agricultural applications:
Stabilization by lime is more durable on
-slow OM change in the soil;
dewatered sludge, particularly when the
water content is low. However, the intimate -sequestering of fertilizer elements, which
mixing of sludge and lime is more difficult become less accessible;
and requires more powerful -loss of nitrogen due to lime treatment.
1 SLUDGE CONDITIONING
To ensure that all dewatering equipment is with inorganic electrolytes (especially
optimally used, sludge has to be flocculated metallic salts and lime) also reduces the ratio
in order to "break" colloidal stability and of bound water, but considerably less so.
artificially increase the size of particles. Polyelectrolytes, on the other hand, provoke
Although conditioning may be based on no reduction in the ratio at all and may even
physical procedures (mainly thermal), contribute to its increase. In short, the type of
chemical alternatives are more widely used conditioning used will have a direct influence
(addition of inorganic reagents or synthetic on the moisture content of sediment obtained
polymer). (see thermogravimetric analysis on page
Among the different processes available 125).
(see figure 606), thermal conditioning is by Adequate sludge conditioning is the key
far the most efficient for reducing particulate factor for optimum operation of the
hydrophily. Chemical flocculation dewatering unit.
- reduction in the ratio of bound water hand, with hydrophilic hydroxide sludges,
(production of a drier, more consistent cake), simple addition of lime is generally sufficient
- precipitation of a certain number of organic for improving the filterability of sludge.
and inorganic calcium-based salts which are Dosages of inorganic reagents depend both
favourable to filtration, on the nature of the sludge to be filtered, as
- input of a dense inorganic additive for well as the yield required. As a first step
destabilisation of the colloidal structure. before the filter press stage, dosages can be
estimated as follows:
With organic sludges, the dual dose of iron
salt/lime is often mandatory. On the other
Chap. 19; Sludge treatment
lime at a dosage of 50-80 g.l-1 , facilitate remains in the tanks for 5 to 10 minutes
distribution of reagents within the mass. which is sufficient for floc development.
Flocculation of sludge is carried out in Stirring energy requirements are quite
stirring tanks in series (the first for metallic high(150-300 W.rn -3 ), but not excessively
salt, the second for lime). Figure 607 so. Additional time for floc ripening is often
illustrates the filtration configuration. Sludge helpful. On the other hand, if the
Chap. 19: Sludge treatment
sludge stays in a stirring environment for For small and mid-size purification
too long, effects impair the filterability of facilities and certain qualities of sludge, in-
conditioned sludge. Prolonged storage of line flocculation with fast, well-designed
conditioned sludge prior to filtration mixing equipment is perfectly feasible.
(sometimes useful for large treatment Using the conditioning process (see figure
plants) can also have a negative effect 609) is easier, but dosages are slightly
especially on fresh, insufficiently limed higher.
municipal sludges which are vulnerable to The conditioning unit can be fully
on-going development. automated with automatic control of
The transfer of flocculated sludge must not reagents in relation to flow rates and if
give rise to floc destruction. Centrifugal required, to sludge concentration also. With
pumps should be avoided for the same specially-adapted sensors, it is also possible
reason. to control the filterability of
1. Sludge conditioning
1.1.2. Polyelectrolytes
Figure 612. Facility in Lisbon, Portugal. Semi-automatic preparation of polyelectrolyte for use
on belt filters.
Chap. 19: Sludge treatment
For smaller facilities, polyelectrolytes are lator is used. The energy produced in the
easier to handle in viscous form. The variety centrifuge is sufficient,
of powder-based products available is very - for belt filters, injection is carried out in a
wide. This is a considerable advantage since small stirring tank positioned after the
sludges are of diverse qualities. Chapter 20, system's draining area. Flocculation time is
par. 6.1, presents the different types of very short; generally less than one minute,
preparation and distribution configurations. - for the GDE and simplified belt filters,
flocculation can take place by injection of
The stock solution (4 to 6 g.l-1 ) is generally polyelectrolyte through a pipe in an MSC-
diluted before introduction into the sludge, but type static cyclonic mixer,
there are no hard and fast rules regarding this - for filter presses, injection modalities are
procedure. The whole process depends on the more complex. As output from a filter press is
respective viscosities of the sludge and not constant throughout a cycle, two operation
polyelectrolyte solution. Sludge- modes can be used:
polyelectrolyte mixing is carried out very • flocculation in a tank prior to pumping and
easily as flocculation is almost immediate. On then sending of flocculated sludge to the
the other hand, flocs are often fragile: filter. This operation mo de frequently results
for continuous centrifuges, polyelectrolyte is in failure (except on fibrous sludges) as the
injected directly into the sludge pipe at the floc is partially destroyed during pumping.
input of the device. No floccu
1. Sludge conditioning
• flocculation after the filter feed pump (see present the inherent problems of sensors
figure 614): in this case, it is best to measuring high levels of suspended
calculate the proportion of polymer flow to solids.
that of the highly variable sludge flow. This The reliability of polyelectrolytes in
implies using two high-pressure pumps with filter press processes almost always
identical characteristics (or a metering requires full-scale confirmation testing.
pump connected to the sludge pump). The main characteristic of a floc
This method means that the floc is not obtained by adding a polyelectrolyte is its
destroyed before entry to the filter. The potentially high fragility. When setting up
injection of polyelectrolyte is carried out any dewatering process with this reagent,
through a pressurised pipe and an adapted it is best to avoid tanks with high stirring
mixing system. This process is undoubtedly rates, long flocculation times and
the safest available but has a major pumping processes that destroy
drawback in that cakes are often too sticky previously flocculated sludge. As a
and difficult to release from the press. precaution, injection points are located
Furthermore, significant variations in immediately before the drainage system
sludge concentration are a distinct and short, efficient mixing is performed.
disadvantage to this method. There is,
however, the possibility of using solids flux
rate mea-surement sensors. But these too,
tial liquors resenting BOD5 of 3,000 to 6,000 reintroduced into the ground without any
mg.l-1 (COD/BOD5 ratio of about 2.5). The problem,
highest values are obtained with the heating of - optimum reuse of biogas; the combination
fresh sludge. This solubilisation increases of anaerobic digestion and thermal
with temperature and heating time. conditioning is one of the most attractive
The amount of nitrogen present in the methods currently available. It allows better
liquid-phase is relatively high (0.5 to 1.5 g.l -1 handling of energy production and
NH4 +), but phosphorus, as well as metals, consumption.
remains precipitated in the sludge.
1.2.2. Constraints of use
1.2.1. Advantages of thermal conditioning
The efficiency of thermal conditioning
Opting for this form of conditioning, which does, however, have some constraints:
involves higher investment costs, can be Recycling of thermal liquors
explained by: The organic pollution linked to these
- global application on all predominantly thermal liquors is easily biodegradable and its
organic sludges, consistent performance impact on the smooth running of the water
regardless of the quality and concentration of treatment plant is reduced insofar as recycling
sludge. Temperature adjustment is sufficient, is continuous. This can be obtained in large
- fast, effective thickening after heating: purification plants. BOD5 overload is around
settled sludge rates of more than 120 g SS.1-1 10 to 25% (pollution is, for the most part,
or even 200 g.l-1 may be achieved, soluble and rich in nitrogen). It is therefore
- improvement in sludge structure resulting in advisable to account for this factor when
that filtration without the addition of reagents sizing aeration tanks.
(filter press or vacuum filter) is always
possible. Temperature influence is a key
factor in the filterability, as the heating time
adopted for industrial facilities, generally
longer than half an hour, is perfectly adequate.
(figure 615). The temperature should be
sufficiently high so as to yield effective
filtration. Care should be taken, however, to
keep heat at the right level in order to avoid
overconsumption of energy, high
concentrations of thickened sludge and
thermal liquors (overflow of heated sludge
thickener and filtrate) with high COD loads,
-very dry cakes produced by the filter press
(generally more than 50% of dry solids. This
is significantly higher than rates obtained by
chemical conditioning),
- production of sterilised dewatered sludges,
with no addition of reagents; these can be
1. Sludge conditioning
with a water nozzle set at 100 bar, matter, it is best to recover heat from
requiring just a few days of downtime), heated sludge by an intermediary fluid
preferential treatment of digested such as water. Grit should also be
sludges allowing easy implementation removed from sludge to preclude
of sludge/sludge exchangers. In cases premature wearing of material.
where sludge contains a certain Furthermore, stainless steel is worth
proportion of non- or poorly-stabilised using to prevent certain types of
heterogeneous corrosion.
1. Sludge conditioning
Necessary gross heat consumption (fuel) more). The idea was to provoke advanced
varies according to the flow sheets and oxidation of organic matter simultaneously
scaling condition of exchangers. With with the physical transformation of
carefully monitored utilisation colloidal matter. This procedure required
and
sufficient exchange surface area, energy the use of complex technology.
consumption falls within the following An alternative uses the deep well
range: - direct injection of live steam: 50 to
technique according to methods used for oil
80 th.m-3 of sludge, drilling (depth: 1,500 m).
- indirect supply by heat transfer fluid: 35 The only pumping energy required
to 60 th.m-3 of sludge. corresponds to the head loss in the wells.
Note: heat recovery is also possible by The high temperatures reached are due to
stepped pressure release. This solution, temperatures found at great depth and the
which seeks to avoid the use of shell-and- exothermal character of reaction. Oxygen
tube exchangers, imposes successive injection is preferred to air injection.
highpressure, high-temperature pumping of The following results are those achieved
sludge for conditioning. on biological sludge from oxidised IWW: -
SS reduction: 70 to 80%
1.2.4. Wet oxidation of sludge - VS reduction: > 95%
Originally, this procedure consisted of - COD reduction: 75 to 80%
heating sludge in the presence of air in
high-pressure conditions (up to 200 bar or
Chap. 19: Sludge treatment
The following are extracted from deep This procedure of advanced oxidation of
wells: organic matter in a liquid environment has
- gas (especially C02 and a few been applied to very few industrial
hydrocarbons), processes (due to low yield, drilling costs,
- oxidis ed sludge where SS are easily inevitable corrosion of well foundations).
filtered or centrifuged (DS content of Nevertheless, this can be an attractive
residue from 40 to 70%). The clarified solution for treating small quantities of
thermal liquors can be treated by methane IWW presenting high concentrations of
fermentation. organic pollution.
If beds are fed at a single point, it is Drying bed yield can be improved by
difficult to extend their width beyond 8 m conditioning sludge with polyelectrolyte;
for a length of 20 m. Mechanical collecting its implementation is easy and becoming
of dried sludge enables beds to be 20 m more widespread. Draining velocities are
wide and one kilometre long (figure 624). thus considerably enhanced. Nevertheless,
Investment costs are, however, high. drying times remain dependent on climatic
conditions. When they are very
Figure 623. Installation at Acheres, Paris area, France, for the S.I.A.A.P. Travelling bridge for
sludge spreading and collection.
Chap. 19: Sludge treatment
With continuous washing of the cloth, mesh spaces varying from 30 to 100 gm
the vacuum filter offers consistent (SS of filtrates are generally less than 300
performance and can also function with mg.l-1 ).
thin cakes. In the case of sludge that is liable to clog
Sludge is filtered under industrial the system (oily sludge, for example), the
vacuum conditions of 300 to 600 mm of addition of a precoat (sawdust) is often
mercury. Rotation speed of the drum varies used as a filtering support. A micrometer
from 8 to 15 revolutions per hour. Filtering advancing scraper removes a precoat film
cloths are made of synthetic fibres with together with the cake.
Chap. 19: Sludge treatment
This precoat process is rarely used as 2.3.3. Calculating the rate of chemical
centrifuging is the treatment of choice for conditioning
oily sludge. To obtain acceptable operating
conditions, the specific resistance to
2.3.2. Production capacity filtration r must be very low; between 1 and
3x1011 m.kg -1 . This imposes:
Production capacity is expressed in kg of
dry solids retained per m2 of drum surface - reserving the filter under vacuum
per hour. Usable filtration capacity should conditions for dense inorganic sludge with
2
be more than 15 kg/m .h. high natural filterability (carbonate sludge,
for example),
The production capacity L of a vacuum
filter may be calculated by integration of - or using large quantities of reagents on
Carman's equation for the effective filtration more difficult, colloidal sludge.
time to = nT (where T represents total drum Plotting curves giving the L filtration
rotation time and n the immersion fraction): capacity in relation to the different reagent
dosages (ferrous salt and lime for organic
sludge), highlights the realistic area of
operation for each type of sludge. A
production capacity of 20 kg /m2.h should
be overstepped if satisfactory dis charge of
where the filtration cake is to be achieved
k = correction factor depending on the fil-ter medium's own resistance
(filtration (k taken be-tween
cake thickness 0.75 0.6
greater than and 0.85),
-
2
P =effective vacuum in kg.cm (gener-ally 0.7 mm) (see figure 626).
0.5),
C = concentration of sludge in kg, dm-3, Inorganic reagents (or thermal
SF=dry solids content of filtered cake in %, conditioning) are adapted for sludge
? = viscosity of the filtrate in centipoises treatment prior to vacuum filtration.
(1.1 at 20°C), Satisfactory dewatered cake consistency and
r = specific resistance of sludge under 0.5 low adherence to the filtration cloth are
11
bar in 10 m.kg -1 required.
n = drum immersion factor taken between
0.3 and 0.4, The use of polyelectrolyte is not,
T = rotation time in minutes. however, suitable (except for a few
inorganic or fibrous sludges). In this case,
This relation shows the value of high
the drop in specific resistance is
sludge concentration (L = kand of considerably higher, thereby provoking the
keeping the filter medium clean (factor k). formation of a soft, thick cake with low
cohesion properties. It is thus difficult to
maintain the cake on the drum, dewater it
and then scrape it efficiently.
2. Dewatering of sludge by filtration
Chap. 19: Sludge treatment
The table below gives a sample of the be vacuum filtered on an industrial scale:
results obtained for sludge that can
Vacuum filtration is being used less and very high rate of conditioning
less due to: (inorganic addition greater than 50% on
-high energy consumption for achieving SS), filterability of certain highly
vacuum conditions (from 80 to 150 kWh colloidal sludge remains insufficient and
per tonne of SS for mixed municipal vacuum filtration is to be precluded,
sludge), - maintenance constraints (scaling of
- high dosages of reagents for most vacuum circuits, liquid ring pump and
organic or hydroxide sludges. Even with a filter cloth).
2. Dewatering of sludge by Fltration
The sludge to be filtered arrives (5) under generated by plate jacks) is evenly spread
pressure in the filtration chambers through due to an intermediary moving head. This
orifices (6) generally in the centre of the head is usually assembled on rods or bear-
plates. The alignment of these orifices ings so that the thrust always operates
serves as a feed passage for the sludge. according to a horizontal axis even when
Central feed allows even distribution of dried sludge has accumulated on the lower
flow, pressure and better drainage of sludge joint faces after a certain operating time.
within the chamber.
Solid sludge matter gradually accumu -
lates in the filtration chamber until the final
compacted cake is formed.
The filtrate is collected in the grooves at
the rear of the filtration support and carried
away by internal ducts (7). This form of
evacuation reduces odours and is preferred
to the "plate-by-plate" method (for organic
sludge at least).
The pressure applied to the joint face of
each filtering plate must withstand the Figure 629. Discharge of a filter press cake.
chamber's internal pressure developed by
the sludge pumping system. The pressure
2. Dewatering of sludge by filtration
chambers before the last ones have been formation of an increasingly thick layer of
filled. filtered sludge on the cloths. Maximum
filtration pressure is usually achieved in half
an hour. The filtering process can last
Filtration
anything from 1 to 6 hours depending on the
Once the chambers have been filled, depth of chambers and filterability of the
continuous arrival of sludge to be dewatered sludge.
provokes a rise in pressure due to the
Figure 632. Barueri facility (Brazil) for the town of Sao Paulo. Three filter presses consisting of
150, rail suspended 2 m x 2 m plates.
2.4.1.6. Operation
Cloth service life is highly variable, but 637) or a rubber diaphragm (where fastened
1,500 to 2,000 cycles are frequently to the plate, this diaphragm can be
achieved in well maintained facilities. disassembled and replaced, see figure 638).
Cakes are collected beneath the filter. They The other side of the filtration chamber has
are first broken on steel cables, then they a conventional aspect: grooving on the
are continuously discharged by a conveyor plate and a filtration cloth.
system (belt or chain configuration in an To ease filter opening, certain
enclosed area). manufacturers (polypropylene-plate
Filter presses need to be installed in a two- diaphragm suppliers in particular), suggest
storey building. fitting diaphragms on both sides of the
filtration chamber. Filtration takes place on
just one side of the chamber or on both
2.4.2. Conventional plate-diaphragm Filter
sides: the diaphragm is therefore grooved
presses
and lined with a filtering medium.
From the outside these filter presses look Production capacities are obviously
similar to conventional plate-and-frame increased with dual-side filtration. This
filters. One of the internal sides of each process is now commonly used for filter
plate is lined with a plastic diaphragm (such presses with diaphragm plates.
as the polypropylene plate with a built-in
This type of filter offers the following
diaphragm, see figure
advantages:
Chap. 19: Sludge treatment
- by inflation (air and sometimes water) of Installations are sometimes more complex
the diaphragm, pressure is evenly spread (independent pressure fluid inlet for
across the whole surface of the cake. diaphragms on each plate) and often more
Uniform distribution is impossible on costly. These filters require greater
conventional filter-presses as pressurisation maintenance (periodic replacement of
pump systems provoke pressure gradients diaphragms) and all chambers must be
within the filtration chamber. With inflation, regularly and sufficiently filled at each cycle.
DS content is therefore improved and cakes Sludge should not contain heterogeneous
are easier to discharge as they are more matter as it may clog the chamber feed ducts.
homogeneous (elimination of moist areas These plate-diaphragm filters, although
that are difficult to avoid with conventional widespread in industrial process
filter presses), environments, are less used with wastewater
- feeding of sludge into the filter takes place sludge as monitoring of filter opening is
at a rate of up to 3 or 4 bar, with eccentric always necessary.
rotor pumps where possible. Pumping times In spite of greater complexity, certain
depend on the filterability and concentration manufacturers propose other mechanical
of sludge. When the quantity of sludge is enhancements such as suspension of cloths to
sufficient, pumping is stopped and a vibrating or moving system. Discharge of
pressurisation of diaphragms (7-10 bar) sticky cakes, however, remains difficult.
continues dewatering,
- these filters are better adapted to 2.4.3. Automatic filter presses
polyelectrolyte conditioning and offer
Even the most efficient conventional filter
slightly easier filter opening. Nevertheless, as
presses with mechanical plate separation and
for the conventional filter, industrial tests are
automatic fabric washing require operator
highly recommended as some types of sludge
supervision to assist with discharge of cakes
(especially biological colloidal sludge)
for 20 to 30 minutes every 1 to 4 hours.
cannot be properly filtered with this form of
conditioning, A new type of fully automated filter press
has been developed to reduce these labour
- production capacities are enhanced: around
costs.
20 to 40% in relation to a conventional filter.
Cycles are shorter but cake discharge times
still take between 15 and 20 minutes. The 2.4.3.1. Multicellular, vertical plate filter
gain in filtration capacity is not always press
guaranteed with sludge having average These are plate-diaphragm filters. They
filterability and high compressibility differ from conventional filters by the
coefficients (s>0.7). This is the case for following two innovations (see figure 639):
organic sludge which has undergone - the plates all open at the same time so
minimum conditioning. that cakes are discharged simultaneously.
Idle time is reduced to a few minutes but the
collection device must be calibrated
accordingly,
2. Dewatering of sludge by filtration
- when the filter is open, the filter cloths installations. Furthermore, certain operating
suspended on a mobile system, unfold constraints have to be taken into account:
downwards to force release of the filtration -the importance of monitoring and
cake. In the event of sticking, a filtering maintenance of a complex mechanical
support scraper is fitted to the bottom of system: diaphragms, the rotation actuating
each plate. After discharge, when the filter mechanism for filtration supports, positive
cloth returns to its original position, washing and negative pressure circuits for
with moderate pressure spraying is -carried diaphragms, mobile systems for feeding
out. sludge into the chambers, etc.,
With the plate-diaphragm system, cake - system reserved for very well conditioned
thickness can be limited to about 10 mm. sludge containing no coarse heterogeneous
Filtering time is therefore reduced to about materials (fibres, etc.). Indeed, the major
10 to 20 minutes. drawback of these filters lies in the narrow
These filters offer production capacities passage for the introduction of sludge into
(kg/m2 .h) that are 5 to 10 times higher than the filtration chambers. These filters are
those of conventional filters. The major best reserved for sludge comprising fine,
drawback of these systems, however, is homogeneous particles such as lime-treated
initial investment costs which are 2 to 3 clarification sludge (hydroxide) or sludge
times higher than those of conventional carbonate.
Chap. 19: Sludge treatment
the thin layer (3 to 6 mm) technique via a the belt where the pre-dewatered sludge has
plate and diaphragm system. been placed during the previous filtration
The system comprises (figure 641): period. System kinematics are adjusted so that
pressed thin cakes are juxtaposed.
Because of continuous cake discharge,
a first part corresponding to a simplified belt
efficient preliminary thickening and cake
filter (page 994): sludge is conditioned with
thinness, production capacities are 15 to 20
polyelectrolyte (1), drained in the draining
times greater than those of a conventional
zone (2) and pressed a first time in the roller
filter press. In view of the wide feed section
zone (3). The partially dewatered sludge then
of the pressing zone, this system can treat a
enters (4) the pressing zone. Production
variety of sludge. A screening phase is
capacity is thus improved;
nevertheless recommended as a precaution.
Furthermore, as pressing times are very short
a second part similar to a watertight (1 to 2 minutes), it is best to reserve this
filtration chamber: the cake which is evenly system for polyelectrolyte-conditioned sludge
spread in a thin layer between two filter belts presenting a low compressibility coefficient
(5) is pressed on both sides by two filtering (s<0.7) and dryness limit levels greater than
plates. The lower plate is fixed in the vertical 35% (organic sludge with fibrous texture,
plane; the upper plate is actuated vertically by lowhydrophilic municipal sludge, inorganic
pneumatic jacks (effective filtration pressure sludge with hydrophobic tendencies).
of 10 bar). To ensure continuous discharge of
the dewatered cake, the press assembly (6) is
As with all automatic filter presses, specific
mobile and moves forward with the belts; at
maintenance constraints must be respected.
the end of the filtration phase, the press
releases a "thin cake" and quickly moves A variation on this filter is one with a
backwards for application to the upper part of pressing module formed by several verti-
2. Dewatering of sludge by filtration
Figure 643. Facility at Vic-le-Comte, Central France, for the Banque de France.
Capacity: 1,500 kg of DS.h -1 . Two screw presses with a diameter of 600 mm
It remains reasonable (0.3 to 1 bar) due belts and rollers. Pe is as high as the
to the mechanical resistance of filter diameter of the roller is small.
Conventional belt filters achieve
Pressing time depends on the active satisfactory results on most organic or
pressing surface at the level of the hydroxide sludge as dryness efficiency
rollers (see figure 644) and the speed of is close to maximum values.
unrolling.
Water release is facilitated by sludge 2.5.2. Superpressdeg filters
shearing stresses at roller level and can According to the desired final result and
be carried out on alternate sides of the quality of sludge for dewatering, several
sludge "layer". filters are available.
Pressing operations on belt filters are
performed in an open environment: the 2.5.2.1. Superpress ST
sludge blanket itself ensures lateral
sealing under pressure that it sustains
during progression. If pressure is too This standard version obtains optimum
high, the cohesion of the sludge layer is results on a large number of sludges.
destroyed and lateral squeezing out This is currently the most widely used
occurs. This means that partially system. 99Figure 645 illustrates a
dewatered sludge is laterally ejected section diagram
from the filtration area. of the device:
Pressure rates causing lateral squeezing The sludge and flocculant are fed into a
depend on the physical structure of mixer (1) fitted with a variable speed
drained sludge. Dryness efficiency stirrer. The flocculated sludge flows
obtained on belt filter presses is lower onto a belt (2) in the drainage zone (3).
than that achieved by recessed plate The sludge is evenly distributed across
filter presses. the width of the filter by a rubber band
To improve rates, two solutions are which prevents draining from taking
available: place too quickly and assists in the
spreading of liquid sludge.
- multiply the number of rolling up
operations and reduce the diameter of In this drainage zone, the sludge layer,
the rollers in the final phase of filtration after passing through a picket fence (4),
(within the limits of mechanical is spread in an even, homogeneous layer
strength), by a drainage roller (5) allowing:
- use external compression systems that - introduction of a regular sludge layer
are independent of belt tensions. in the pressing zone (thickness variable
from 10 to 40 mm depending on the
These additional devices can only be
operatorselected position),
used with sludge having a high cohesion
factor, for example, fibrous sludge. - and above all, first-stage sludge
Colloidal sludge would not resist compression, so as to curb lateral
additional compression or would allow squeezing out at the start of the pressing
only a minimum gain in DS content. phase.
Chap.19:Sludge treatment
Sludge is then trapped between the lower by means of a pressurised spraying device
(2) and upper (6) belts and undergoes a first calibrated at 4-6 bar.
pressing operation around a wide diameter Simple adjustments allow adaptation of
perforated drum (7). The two, filter operation to sludge characteristics:
continuously driven belts then pass over a - belt tension by pressure-adjustable
series of return rollers (8) with decreasing pneumatic jacks (13),
diameters, for gradual sludge - drive speed of belts adjustable from 1
pressurisation. The number of rolling to 4 m.min -1 ,
operations is carefully selected so that - flocculation energy adaptable by
dewatering is almost finished before action changing the speed of the flocculator
of the last roller. stirrer,
At outlet, the two belts separate after - adjustment of the height of the sludge
passing over the drive roller (9). The cake layer at entry to the pressing zone.
is dislodged by two doctor blades (10) for The Superpress filter chassis has been
evacuation by conveyor belt or booster engineered so as to enable:
pump. - good visualisation of the drainage zone,
Automatic tracking of belts is ensured by - easy access to mechanical workings. Belt
an air-actuated pinch roller (11). widths of 1, 2 or 3 m allow a certain
The two, wide-meshed belts are flexibility in the sizing of sludge treatment
continuously cleaned in wash stations (12) workshops.
-
Chap. 19: Sludge treatment
The release of water is carried out easily modified depending on the resistance
alternately from one side, then the other, of. of the sludge layer
the cake This squeezing device is only used on
.The pressure applied to the squeezing sludge capable of withstanding additional
rollers is carried out by air plug valves. It is compression
.
2. Dewatering of sludge by filtration
Flow rates treated by ST or SP filters are For this application, the GDE system is
generally in the range of 6 to 8 m3 /m.h. With integrated in the Superpressdeg structure (see
fibrous sludges figures can reach 10 to 15 figures 654 and 655).
m3 /m.h. It is advisable to use the GDE system rather
than extending the length of filter drainage
2.5.2.6. Improvement of Superpressdeg zone. Continuous scraping of the filter media
capacities: preliminary draining avoids slowing down of drainage through a
Setting up of additional preliminary draining sludge layer.
facilities, GDE for example (see page 930), 2.5.2.7. Using the Superpressdeg sys
after the Superpressdeg draining zone allows: tem
- increase in flow rates: for example, The conditioning installation (pipe injection
municipal sludge with good cohesive of polymer) is extremely simple (see page
capacities: 10 to 13 m3 /m. h., or low- 958). The installation of the filter requires a
concentration sludge from the paper industry: small, single-storey building. For total ease of
20 to 30 m3 /m. h, use and maintenance, a belt filter workshop
- maintaining of sufficient capacities for low- must be properly ventilated. Superpressdeg
concentration organic sludge. Preliminary systems can be fitted with an exhaust fan that
draining on the GDE screen enables filter covers the whole of the upper part of the
feeding with 10-15 g.l-1 of sludge which can device.
then be drawn off directly from the
recirculation system of an activated sludge Operation
system. This allows treatment of non- Keeping the roll of sludge upstream of the
fermented sludge, better DS content and drainage roller (figure 645) achieves
elimination of concentration tanks.
.
Chap. 19: Sludge treatment
Figure 655. Facility at Saint Bon-Tarentaise, French Alps. Superpressdeg with an integrated GDE
screen.
2. Dewatering of sludge by filtration
This mode of control requires a relatively This is a GDE drainage screen followed by
reasonable investment and is managed by a fast dewatering. Like the GDE, the
PLC. GDPresse can be fed with diluted sludge so
The information provided by three sensors as to avoid installation of an intermediary
(eight in all) enables automatic control of static thickener.
sludge and/or polymer flow rate. The sludge is pipe flocculated by means of
Automatic control uses neither costly an MSC cyclonic static mixer (1) before
sludge concentration measurement being introduced onto the GDE screen (2).
apparatus nor flow meters. Following drainage, the sludge is
precompacted by an equalizing roller (3)
forming a forced wedge-shaped passage.
2.5.3. Belt filters for small
The consistent sludge is carried along by a
purification facilities single belt (4), and then passes under a
For small facilities producing difficult fixed roller (5) for dewatering. Pressing
biological sludge (extended aeration, dairy time is short and pressure relatively low.
industry, dyeing plant), "simplified" filters Belt tension adjustment is carried out by a
can be used to obtain easily shovelled spring (6). The thick belt is mechanically
sludge in spite of low DS levels. This type guided by flanges (7) at each roller.
of filter requires a relatively mo derate Suspended solids capacities are in the
investment. region of 70 to 120 kg.h -1 (1-metre wide
press) for a sludge at 10-20 g.l-1 and 30 to
2.5.3.1. The GDPresse (see figure 657)
Chap. 19: Sludge treatment
60 kg.h -1 for sludge at 5-10 g.l-1 drawn those obtained on more sophisticated belt
directly from the aeration tank. DS levels (10 filters. For liquid-form land disposal, the
to 14%) are only 3 to 5 points lower than
GDPresse can easily be transformed into a filtration belt (2). A picket fence (3) allows
draining table yielding thick sludge with 5- better draining. Preliminary compacting is
7% of SS. carried out by a roller (4). This produces a
sludge layer with a thickness of 2 to 3 cm.
2.5.3.2. The T-Deg (see figures 659 and Final compacting is ensured by the roller
660) (5) which rolls out the sludge layer to a
This is a small, single-belt horizontal filter: thickness of about 1 cm.
the flocculated sludge (1) falls onto a
3. CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATION
The centrifuges that can be used in the more skilled labour to interpret the reasons
treatment of waste sludge are continuous for absence of extraction or poor separation
machines incorporating a horizontal axis yield,
cylindroconical bowl (see page 200), - significant maintenance as abrasive
allowing: sludge prematurely wears the screw. To
- continuous dewatering in comp act slow down the process, most manufacturers
enclosed premises to reduce smells and propose abrasion-proof coating for screw
keep deodorisation costs to a minimum, thread: pulverised tungsten carbide, added
- effective separation of solids on very sintered tungsten carbide tiles, chromium
difficult sludge (low concentration plating, etc. Furthermore, on most sludges
hydroxide sludge, certain, highly organic (especially municipal), sand blasting is
sludge). Centrifuging is especially suitable advised, preferably upstream of a thickener
for oily sludge, and by cycloning methods presenting a
- reduced monitoring following the removal threshold in the region of 50-80
starting-up phase, on condition that sludge µm,
is sufficiently homogeneous. - considerable mechanical stresses due to
The utilisation of continuous centrifuges high rotor and scroll speeds. After loll each
presents certain drawbacks: intervention on one or other of the two
devices, recalibration is necessary,
- soundproofing of the room, to be
carefully studied in covered plants, - relative sensitivity to sudden variations
in quality and concentration of sludge and
- energy consumed is definitely greater
the need to determine the best combination
than that for belt filters and filter presses,
of operating parameters: speed of scroll,
- non-visualisation of the sludge during bowl and height of the liquid ring.
treatment and the need for slightly
.
Chap. 19: Sludge treatment
This vital parameter determines the speed belt, adjustable frequency drive or
conveyance of sediment and compacting even hydraulic motor which allow easy
time. The difference in velocity between the adaptation to different sludge qualities
scroll and bowl is generally obtained by (torque regulation possible).
planetary reducing gear. In order to avoid
deterioration of the reducing gear, 3.1.3. Liquid ring depth
centrifuges are equipped with a torque The depth of the liquid ring is adjustable
limiter whose function is to cancel VR and by moving the recovery louvres. These
torque, when the latter achieves the louvres are positioned in the fixed plate on
authorised maximum value. the bowl at the top of the cylindrical zone
(figure 663).
Relative velocity can vary from 2 to 20
rpm in most applications. Its increase means 1 - A low liquid ring encourages dryness by
that the volumetric flow rate of sediment can freeing a drying area in the dry zone. The
be upped within the limits of scroll filling. sediment, however, has to be sufficiently
Figure 662 shows variations in torque, DS consistent when leaving the ring in order to
levels and percentage recovery in relation to overcome the extended effect of the
VR. backflow force due to bowl tapering. To
improve DS content, certain manufacturers
The decrease in VR produces drier propose double tapering in the drying zone.
sediments, but it is always useful to carry out
laboratory verification of liquid ring filling 2 - When the sediment is too loose and
rates in sediment so as to set certain lower therefore sensitive to backflow in the dry
limits for VR and avoid jamming up of the zone, there are advantages in selecting a high
extraction scroll. liquid level so as to reduce the drying zone as
much as possible.
VR setting can be carried out by
removable pulley, cone pulley, variable-
3. Centrifugal separation
Extraction and therefore settling are the liquid ring can especially in the
be set, conditions operational case of sludge with inconsistent
flexibility, improved to the detriment textures.
of DS content. The ease with which
Figure 664. Facility in Saint-Brieuc, Western France. Two Guinard D4L centrifuges for
dewatering of digested sludge (2 x 500 kg.h -1 of DS), and two Guinard D4L centrifuges for
thickening of biological sludge (2 x 15 m3 .h -1 ).
Figure 665. Facility in Bologna, Italy. Capacity. 3 x 600 to 800 kg.h -1 of DS. Dewatering of fresh,
mixed sludge.
3. Centrifugal separation
This dedicated formula implies a double In the tapered drying zone, certain
approximation in the measurement and machine designs include a device for
expression of concentration but does not compacting sediment and improving DS
lead to any major errors in routine levels of fibrous sludge. Production
centrifuging operations. capacities are not as high with this type of
The centrifuge must normally be set to configuration.
obtain a Tc in the region of 0.95 for a Capacities are correlated to the diameter
percentage recovery of 95%. of the bowl. Other geometrical parameters
Cake DS levels are similar to those are also important. The hydraulic
obtained on a conventional belt filter. The possibilities most frequently encountered
range of possible DS levels is limited even are the following:
by modification of the different operational
parameters, sludge flow rates or reagent Bowl diameter Flow rate
dosages. cm m3 .h-1
The depth of the liquid ring which sets
30-35 5-12
the drying zone, is often the crucial
40-50 12-30
parameter for determining the hydration
rate of the sediment. Cakes generally have 60-70 25-40
a "plastic" structure. 90 - 100 50 - 100
110 - 120 70 - 130
3.3.
THICKENING Specific centrifuges achieve regular DS
contents of thickened sludge (especially
OF EXCESS SLUDGE nozzle-system machines). This is not
BY CENTRIFUGING always the case with conventional
Different constructions are used for this machines where DS content fluctuates with
type of application: the solids flux rate.
- conventional cylindroconical Installations are very compact, but
continuous centrifuges with specially certain constraints must be taken into
adapted constructive and operational consideration:
parameters (tapering, velocities, - high energy consumption: about 0.8 to
separating length, retaining discs in the 1.2 kWh.m-3 with polyelectrolyte and 1.3 to
tapering part, etc.), 2 kWh.m-3 without,
- - specific continuous centrifuges - relatively moderate hydraulic flow rate
(cylindrical with nozzles, for example). with conventional centrifuges if acceptable
With conventional machines, the degree clarification is to be achieved. The centrate
of thickening obtained (4 to 6% DS) is remains loaded with fine, hardly settleable
better than with flotation. It is lower with colloids, without reagents, and generally
nozzle machines 0 to 4.5%). contains between 0.8 and 1.2 g.l-1 of SS.
Chap. 19: Sludge treatment
Flow rate is situated around 8-15 m3 .h -1 for addition less frequently required. However,
a bowl having a diameter of 400 mm and fine straining must be programmed if the
60-80 m3 .h -1 for a bowl with a 1100-mm thickened sludge has to pass through
diameter. These centrifuges are not really orifices with small diameters (nozzles, for
adapted for sludge with very variable example). On low concentration sludges,
qualities as they require frequent changing rates over 100 m3 .h -1 can be achieved with
of operating parameters (bowl and scroll very large diameter bowls (1.2 to 1.4 m),
velocities and liquid ring). Due to this - advantage of anaerobic digestion is that it
constraint, the use of polyelectrolyte is ensures homogenisation of thickened sludge
sometimes necessary to stabilise separation prior to dewatering. In this case, thickening
yield and DS content. The SS content of rates must be limited to avoid poor mixing
centrates can be lowered to less than 0.8 g.l- of highly viscous sludge.
1
and outputs increased,
-clarification is generally better with
specific centrifuges and polyelectrolyte
4. DRYING - INCINERATION
Drying, a term generally reserved for Drying and incineration are generally
thermal drying, comprises evaporative applied to sludge that has undergone pre -
removal of the interstitial water in sludge. liminary dewatering as mechanical re-
Drying can be partial (residual water con- moval of water is more economical than
tent from 30 to 10%) or practically total evaporation. In some cases, however, water
(water content from 5 to 10%). from liquid sludge can be evaporated
directly (by drying or incineration):
Incineration not only totally removes the - low volume of concentrated liquors which
interstitial water but also leads to are more economical to destroy by
combustion of the organic matter contained combustion than by biological treatment,
in the sludge. Incineration is a process that - utilisation of low-priced fuels: used sol-
yields residues with the lowest masses: ash vents from certain organic chemical
consis ting of nothing but the inorganic industries, used oils, etc.,
content of the sludge. - mixed combustion with other residues
The incineration process also includes a ensure added heat: refuse, for example.
drying phase prior to inflammation of the
combustible organic part of the sludge. The high costs involved in thermal energy
Thermal drying alone is only worth lead to limited use of these processes of
considering if the end product can be direct removal of liquid sludge.
reclaimed for soil improvement or if dis -
charge conditions impose solid structure
Chapter 8, subchapter 7, looks at a few
waste. Energy recovery is generally sought
fundamental thermal notions.
to ensure evaporation: for example, bio-gas
or hot gas from an incineration fur-nace.
The heat balance is the vital element in The NCV of municipal sludge generally lies
determining the characteristics of a furnace. between 4,500 and 6,000 kcal.kg -1
It allows optimum sizing and assessment of VS.
running costs. The heat balance is the sum of positive
A whole set of analyses on different types of terms, corresponding to the quantity of heat
municipal sludge give the following average let off by combustible products or added by
composition of organic matter: combustion products, and negative terms
corresponding to the quantity of heat
C% H% O% N% absorbed by combustion products,
Fresh 56_62 7.9-8.7 26.5-29 3.5-6.8 evaporation of water, ash and the furnace.
sludge 4.1.1. General formulation
Digested
As a general rule, heat balance can be
sludge 53-59 7.2-8.5 28-31 3-7
established as shown in figure 665b.
with
P: NCV of dry sludge
F: Fuel make-up
?: Coefficient of excess air (stoichiometric combustion, ? = 1)
VB: Combustion capacity of sludge
VF: Combustion capacity of fuel
CA : Specific air heat
TP : Combustion air temperature
VG : Smoke-generating capacity of sludge
VC: Smoke-generating capacity of fuel
CF: Specific heat of smoke
TC: Temperature of smoke at reactor outlet (often combustion temperature)
S: Sludge DS
? HH20 : Difference of water enthalpy between 20°C and TC
4. Drying - Incineration
aiming to obtain residual moisture con- They support different hollow mixing
often heated. Several rotors rotate inside devices in which pressurised steam
tent of less than 5%. If the dried material is circulates (or more rarely, an oil heat
then stored in the open, even when transfer medium).
protected from rain and snow, it is likely to
take up more water with the humidity of the The absence of contact between the heating
atmosphere. fluid and the sludge enables suppression of
all odour problems. Indeed, the production
The degree of vaporisation increases as: of unpleasant smelling vapours is greatly
- partial vapour pressure in the surrounding reduced and purification is easier and more
air decreases (as the temperature is higher), efficient.
- the surface area of the material is more The vapours are very rich in water (low air
developed, flow used for circulation in the enclosed
area) and are easily condensed. This
- the renewal frequency of this surface in
condensation allows recovery of a
contact with the heat source increases.
considerable quantity of heat (hot water at
70-80°C) which can be used in the heating
Drying can be direct with sludge in contact of digestion sludge, for example.
with combustion gas, or indirect Low volume (5 to 10% of vapour volume),
with heat addition solely by exchange unpleasant smelling non-condensible gases
surface (steam-heated in most industrial are burned in the steam production boiler or
indirect driers). in the incineration unit coupled to the drier
(household refuse or sludge furnace).
Drying can also lead to obtaining sterilised Vapours contain a small quantity of dust
sludge. Heat sources are diverse and particles that are easily removed by
preferably of recovered origin: biogas, cydoning.
steam produced in incineration unit Indirect thermal drying facilities also offer
reheaters or hot gases produced by waste the advantage of being compact, fairly silent
combustion (household refuse, bark, etc.). and generally clean.
All driers are sized with respect to the The main problem to avoid with this type of
quantity of water for evaporation. Where drier is the sticking of sludge to the walls
biogas is used, it is recommended that a and rotor as this provokes jamming and
safety back-up source be close by (natural poor heat transfer.
gas, oil) for starting up the installation and Most processes require recycling of dried
ensuring flexible operating conditions. matter so as to feed the drier with a mixture
offering a 45% DS content. This DS level
4.3.1. Indirect drying enables by-passing of the sticky plastic
This technique uses driers comprising a phase that characterises the large majority
stationary cylindrical shell which is often of organic sludge treated
heated. Several rotors rotate inside he shell.
4. Drying - Incineration
by centrifuging or belt filter methods. With Rotor revolution speed is fairly slow at 10 to
certain types of sludge, this recycling phase 20 rpm.
may be avoided. Having crossed the slightly inclined drier,
A good illustration of this technique is the the dried sludge leaves the device via the
Naratherm process. adjustable overflow (5). This means the
filling rate of the thermal enclosure can be
4.3.1.1. The Naratherm process adjusted as required.
.Description of the drier (see figure 668). Drying times are in the region of one hour
and mean that this well mixed drier is
The drier comprises a steam-heated shell (1)
relatively insensitive to flow variations.
in which two parallel shafts rotate in
opposite directions (2). Along their entire DS content of the final product can be
length, these shafts support hollow paddles modified by injection of more or less steam.
(3) comprising variable thickness half discs It can be easily regulated at 65 to 95%.
fitted with scrapers. The steam (4) also Beyond 75-80%, the dry product is finely
passes into the interior of each rotor and broken up. Over 90% the product becomes
each mixing paddle. powdery. Post-granulation is possible
depending on the requirements of final
The product for drying is mixed, broken up
utilisation.
and scraped. These processes take place in a
spiral formation.
Chap. 19: Sludge treatment
hot gases from an incineration furnace three horizontal cylinders laid out in a
(usually household refuse). concentric configuration: the sludge to be
The drier comprises a rotating cylinder (1 dried has a forced passage from the internal
to 2.5-metre diameter and ten or so metres cylinder to the external cylinder,
long), slightly inclined to the horizontal. - cement kiln-type cylinder fitted with flaps
This cylinder is generally supported by two in the first part then tillers for breaking
riding rings mounted on thrust rolls and lumps and finally, blades for improving heat
bearings. exchange.
The inside of the cylinder is equipped with Fan extracted hot gases (120-200°C) are
various devices ensuring mixing and slow first of all freed of dust by cycloning.
forward motion of moist sludge during Odours are then removed in an afterburning
drying, for example: chamber at a temperature of 800-900°C
- cylinder divided into a series of (with possible recovery on air heater
compartments by baffles thereby forcing apparatus) or sent to the household refuse
sludge to take a staggered course through incinerator if the two units are connected. In
the cylinder, the first case, additional final wet removal
- three-diameter cylinder comprising of dust is generally necessary to comply
with discharge standards.
4. Drying - Incineration
Figure 672. Facility in Modena, Italy. Capacity.. 25 t.d -1 of dry solids. Rotary drier.
Odours from hot gases can also be removed which are easy to store and handle. At drier
by wet processes, but the large, multi-stage outlet, sludge is strained; fines and coarsely
installation is less efficient than ground lumps are recycled. Granules which
afterburning. maintain 15% dust, are stocked for
In the drier, hot gases circulate in the agricultural, landscaping or even energy
opposite direction to sludge for drying recycling purposes.
(countercurrent mode) or in the same The production of granules in adequate
direction (cocurrent mode). quantities often requires very close
In countercurrent drying, sludge can be monitoring of the installation and more
sent to the drum in the form of a relatively especially, frequent visual control of the
moist sediment (85 to 70% water content). sludge mix upon entry to the drier.
On the other hand, the hottest gases are in The main operating parameters are sludge
contact with the driest sludge and so inlet flow rate and gas temperatures.
temperatures must be limited to 400-4500C. In comparison with indirect drying, direct
Cocurrent drying allows the use of drying requires greater precautions: risk of
combustion gases at `high temperatures unpleasant smelling smoke, greater heat
(600-700°C); but in order to avoid loss, lengthy setting up, noise, less flexible
"crusting" and sticking problems, it is vital modification of dewatering rate (85 to 95%
to ensure efficient mixing of moist sludge DS) and slightly higher energy consumption
with the recycled dry product so as to send a when using afterburning procedures.
well broken-up product to the drier. On the other hand, units can present higher
Moisture content at this stage should be capacities: evaporation of 4 to 5 tonnes of
close to 50%. water per hour for a drum 2.2 to 2.5 metres
Improvement in the physical structure of in diameter.
sludge before drying (breaking up into
lumps of a few millimetres) is vital for 4.3.2.2. Other direct driers
production of hard granules of 2 to 4 mm
Fluidised bed drier: this is a convection
drier in which broken up sludge con
Chap. 19: Sludge treatment
This furnace operates in countercurrent closed tank screw with a double jacket for
mode and therefore has high thermal effi- circulation of cold water.
ciency. The outlet temperature of gases (5) The main advantages of this type of furnace
is close to 400-500°C while that of the are the following:
sludge at the upper drying levels should not - combustion gas has a very low dust con-
exceed 70°C if smoke is not to contain non- tent: simple wet scrubbing (Venturi scrub-
burned organic residue. ber and impingement scrubber) reduces dust
Sludge cakes are dried gradually in the three content to less than 150 mg.Nm-3 ,
or four upper hearths (to a moisture content
of 30 to 20%). They then fall on to the
combustion hearths (6) in a highly oxidising
atmosphere where organic matter is
completely ignited at a temperature of 750
to 850°C.
The lower hearths collect the ash (7) which
is partially cooled in contact with the
combustion air. Ash is directly evacuated by
chain or bucket conveyor. Depending on the
size of the furnace, external ash cooling is
sometimes necessary:
Figure 675. Organic matter combustion
hearth.
Figure 674. Facility at Bergisch-Gladbach, Germany, for the Zanders paper mill. Sludge
incineration in multiple-hearth furnace (7) with a diameter of 5.1 m.
4. Drying - Incineration
- acceptable heat balance due to: - heat recovery difficult to uj stify (heavy
• stable operation (low sensitivity to flow investment) with low temperature smoke
variations and long retention time of solids (400°C), but more especially,
in furnace - 3 to 4 hours), - risk of discharging unpleasant smelling
• recirculation of cooling air in the central smoke into the atmosphere by the carrying
shaft, away of unburned organic products,
• partial reheating of gases as a result of ash inevitable in certain municipal or industrial
cooling in the lower part of the furnace, sludge. Efficient deodorising requires
afterburning at 700-900°C which is
• countercurrent operation (reduced losses
detrimental to the heat balance: independent
by sensible smoke heat),
afterburning chamber or furnaceintegrated
- stable operation at distinctly lower loads chamber.
than the nominal load (up to 30%). This
The largest multiple-hearth furnace units
means the heat balance is slightly affected,
reach 8 metres in diameter and can include
but the furnace can function continuously,
up to 12 levels. Specific feed rates are in the
- relatively moderate electrical energy region of 40 to 60 kg of raw product per m2
consumption, of hearth surface per hour.
- possibility of incinerating at fairly low The largest units can therefore incinerate 15
temperatures (750-800°C) to avoid to 20 tonnes of cake per hour. This rate
overmelting of certain types of ash from corresponds to evaporation capacities of
industrial sludge, more than 10 tonnes of water per hour (15
- simple, flexible regulation: considerable to 25 kg of water per m2 of effective
variation in air flow possible, easy heating surface per hour).
adjustment of temperatures by acting on Multiple-hearth furnaces can be used as
hearth burners or adjusting the temperature driers with lateral removal of the dry
of the combustion air if there is an external product at the level of the lower drying
chamber for pre-heating of air, hearth. They may also be implemented for:
- few precautions to take for sludge feeding - regeneration of granular activated carbon
(a simple chain conveyor is adequate for (operating in a reducing atmosphere with
breaking up filter press cakes). added steam),
On the other hand, there are a number of - recycling of lime sludge (recovery of
drawbacks: quick lime).
- furnaces have great thermal inertia which
means slow set-up and considerable heat
4.4.2.2. Pyrolysis-combustion multi
make-up at start-up. It is therefore best to
use this furnace continuously or with short pie-hearth furnace
stoppages only, - The principle behind pyrolysis
- relatively high excess of air (50 to 80%). In the strictest sense, pyrolysis (see figure
This does not alter the heat balance in any 676) consists of decomposition at high
way due to the countercurrent operating temperatures, (800-1,000°C) of or
mode,
Chap. 19: Sludge treatment
.
Chap. 19: Sludge treatment
- total deodorising of flue gas which leaves adjustment of the refractory lining, are
the incineration chamber at very high relatively short.
temperatures (850-900°C),
- no moving mechanical parts in contact 4.4.3.1. Principle of the fluidised bed
with the hot gases, A fluidised bed (see figure 680) is a dosed,
- operation with relatively low excess air generally cylindrical vertical chamber,
rates (about 40% in practice), containing a very hot bed of sand
- intermittent operation mode possible. (750,850°C). The bed is held in suspension
The fluidised bed incinerator is well adapted by a rising flow of air injected at the base
to night stoppage with low fuel make-up at through a distribution grid equipped with a
morning start-up resulting from; number of diffusers.
- the low volume and confined character of Sand bed depth at rest varies from 0.5 to 0.8
the incineration chamber, metres. Sludge is injected into the bed itself
(screw or force-feed pump), or introduced
- considerable calorific reserve of the
through the upper part of the furnace. The
refractory mass and sand mass.
bed of sand has both a thermal and
Setting up times which have to be mechanical role (breaking up of
compatible with careful temperature
Chap. 19: Sludge treatment
lumps of dewatered cake). Air flow in the region of 900°C. This is about
must ensure fluidisation of the material 100 to 150°C higher than in the bed
and addition of oxygen necessary for itself. An injection of "secondary air" is
combustion. It must not, however, cause often feasible at this stage.
the sand to blow away. For this reason, The higher the moisture content of the
air flow through the grid is only variable sludge to be burned, the more evenly the
within a narrow adjustment range. sludge flow and any make-up heat must
Drying and gasification take place in the be distributed over the bed surface.
sand bed. A fairly large amount of fine, Any necessary external energy
dried solids and volatile solids complete addition can be carried out in several
combustion in the freeboard zone above ways:
the fluidised bed where temperatures are
- combustion air preheating chamber before • wet scrubbing alone (after exchanger),
transfer into the wind box under the grid, followed by lagooning, static thickening or
- additional and (or) start-up burner located multicycloning of ashladen water charged
above the fluidised bed, with 1-4% of suspended solids.
- direct injection tubes into the bed (fuel oil, The thixotropic nature of the product can
gas, or even used oils). cause certain problems of disposal if a
All burned matter is in the form of fly ash minimum level of DS is not achieved.
in the flue gas that leaves the furnace at a
temperature of 800-900°C. Recovery of this 4.4.3.2. Operation
inorganic ash can take place in several
ways: -dry disposal by a cyclone and/or an The fluidised bed technique imposes a
electrostatic filter preceded by one or certain number of precautions:
several cooling devices (flue
Heat recovery
gas/combustion air exchanger, water cooler,
etc.) (see figure 681), Heat recovery from flue gas, necessary for
- wet disposal: effective thermal efficiency, is applied: - for
heating combustion air. The temperature
• cyclone treatment (after cooling) followed of this heated air must be compatible with
by wet scrubbing (Venturi scrubber, water the thermal resistance of the fluidisation
curtain device, counter-current grid (heated air temper
impingement plate scrubbing tower),
atures between 450 and 650°C),
Chap. 19: Sludge treatment
- for steam production. As with the must overcome head losses through grid and
multiple-hearth furnace equipped with sand bed.
afterburning facilities, steam can be easily
reused in a sludge predrier (paragraph 4.3.1) The fluidised bed can accept sludge of
and for thermal conditioning of sludge. The varying qualities, but as solids stay in the
drier-furnace combination is useful as it furnace for a short time only, accurate
improves: regulation of temperature, positive and
• the global heat balance of the installation negative pressure, and oxygen rate is
(incineration possible with moister cakes), indispensable.
• the capacity of the furnace as with drier
sludge, flue gas volume is less, Waste introduction
- for hot water production, by setting up Combustion of voluminous waste
an economiser downstream of preceding (especially from screening) is not really a
recuperators (heating of buildings, digesters, viable proposition except with furnaces
etc.). incorporating an upper feed hopper.
On the other hand, grease from preliminary
Special attention must be paid to the choice treatment (preferably homogenised and
of recuperator technology. This is due to the preheated) can be introduced easily.
fact that flue gas contains a high dust load
(continuous blasting dust removal, for Ash melting
example).
According to the characteristics of the
sludge to be treated, precautions should be
Fluidised bed heat recovery requires taken against possible overmelting of ash in
carefully monitored maintenance. the presence of silica (formation of flux
leading to compaction of the bed). This
. Wet scrubbing vitrification phenomenon can be a real threat
If flue gas has not undergone preliminary with sludge having a, high saline content
dust removal, wet scrubbing must be (presence of Na, K in excessively high
considered with care so as to reduce deposits quantities).
and concretion especially in cases where Fluidised bed furnaces are constructed for
high quantities of lime have been used for diameters greater than 10 m (more than 90
sludge conditioning. m2 of grid surface), presenting evaporation
capacities of more than 25 tonnes of water
per hour (more than 300 kg of water per m2
Operation
of grid surface per hour).
Fluidised beds can only operate at loads that
The combination of a multiple-heath furnace
are fairly close to the nominal rate (at least
used as a drier and located in the freeboard
70%), otherwise the heat balance will be
zone of a fluidised bed furnace presents
seriously impaired.
several advantages: enhancement of the heat
Electricity consumption in a fluidised bed is balance, greater stability, reduction in the
relatively high as fluidisation air pressure size of the combustion chamber.
4. Drying - Incineration
allow both composting and partial drying by A whole range of organic supports is used:
evaporation. not only sawdust (very widely used) but also
Evaporation may require more than 80% of wood shavings or wood tips, ground bark,
composting energy needs. Most of the time, chopped straw, mart, flax
the ratio of water weight to degradable and maize cobs, sometimes sorted house-
organic matter must be maintained at less hold refuse, etc.
than 10, To keep carbon purchasing expenses to a
- aeration is only efficient if the minimum, the following are used more and
environment is permeable to air. As more frequently:
dewatered sludge often has low porosity - recycling of partially dewatered compost,
levels, it is vital to add a swelling agent, - recovery by separation of coarse sup-ports
generally represented by the carbonaceous (wood shavings, bark, etc.).
support (20% void to be achieved in the
The initial moisture content of dewa-tered
mixture).
sludge determines the quantities of support
Aeration enables addition of oxygen for needed: for a cake with a 20% DS content,
biological oxidation, but also evacuation of about three volumes of support are needed
the steam released in the compost mass. (fresh, recycled or compost product) for one
Dewatering by air circulation is as efficient volume of sludge.
as good weather conditions.
. Nutritional balance
5.1.3. Ripening
The C/N ratio regulates microbial dynamics.
After all compost process (more or less
At the beginning of the compost process,
lengthy depending on the technique used),
C/N should be about 30. The C/N ratio of
and before agricultural use it is necessary to
sludge (about 10) is to be re-balanced with a
stabilise the mixture by a period of ripening
high C/N carbon source (260 for sawdust).
(generally in windrows) of two to three
The other elements (P, Ca, Mg, trace
months during which the product is
elements) are present in sufficient quantities
periodically turned. The C/N ratio and the
in the sludge.
pH level drop and nitrogen becomes
nitrified. It is during this period that the
5.1.2. Choice of the carbonaceous support humification phenomenon emerges.
The support plays several roles: 5.1.4. Main sludge compost procedures
- swelling agent (non-organic swelling Procedures can be divided into two groups:
agents such as shredded tyres or pieces of
plastic are also used and recovered after
in the open air
separation),
- in windrows with mechanical turningby
- carbonaceous soil improvement,
appropriate machines,
- sponge to absorb a part of sludge mois -
ture and improve its structure.
Chap. 19; Sludge treatment
5. Other treatment for dewatered sludge
Figure 688. Facility ac Saint-Palais, South-Western France. Capacity: 9,000 tonnes of cakes per
year. Two Triga compost columns.
These demands mean that breeding has Worm culture on purification sludge is
to take place in thin layers in open air still biologically sensitive and worm
windrows (0.4-m high for a width of 1.2 composting does not always achieve the
m). Some 15 000 to 30,000 worms are desired results.
needed per m2 .
The windrow remains in place for 6 to 5.2.2. Production of combustible oils
12 months, after which the "composted" from sludge
sludge is separated from the worms. Generating energy from waste sludge is
There is no sanitisation by temperature now possible and proven in the
rise. industrial environment with methane,
Technological development of the steam, hightemperature gas, hot water,
process still has to be carried out, etc. The energy produced, however,
especially worm composting quality must be reused immediately, which also
improvement. Two other aspects have makes rational handling a delicate
to be carefully considered; firstly, matter.
reduction in labour and secondly, The generation of storable energy is
reliability of performance. also an interesting future perspective.
Experiments are almost all based on organic matter transformed into oil
transformation reactions of organic matter in depending on the type of sludge and type of
sludge at high temperatures in the absence of reaction. The possible future development
O2 . of these fairly sophisticated processes
Conversion products of organic matter obviously depends on energy costs and
include highly calorific, more or less heavy economic comparison with conventional
oils, and tar residues (carbonisation). These incineration practices.
are also calorific but to a lesser degree. The
main processes tested are: 5.2.3. Formation of lightweight aggregates
1. Those using pyrolysis. Lightweight aggregates are generally
- Pressurised reactor at about 300°C (with natural products (volcanic lava, such as
catalyst) under an H2 , N2 , etc. atmosphere, pozzuolana) or products manufactured from
- Specially adapted reactor, comprising a specially fired clays or fly ash from iron
first, volatilisation zone and a second zone and steel works. These aggregates are used
for reaction (450°C). In this second zone, in the manufacture of lightweight concretes.
volatilised recycled gas from the first zone It is possible to manufacture such
undergoes conversion reactions when in aggregates using waste sludge. The
contact with the residual tar. Oil is recovered industrial process is described below:
by vapour condensation. This reactor - dewatering and partial drying (DS content
operates at low pressures. It is fed with 35-40%),
thermally predried sludge in the presence of - addition of ash (DS content 55%),
a catalyst, if required. - manufacture of 1-3-mm small pieces in a
2. Those using liquefaction of organic matter granulating drum (pelletisation),
with solvents at more moderate - direct thermal drying by hot gases (90%
temperatures. DS content),
- Atmospheric pressure reactor heated to a - sintering of small dried pieces in a 40-cm
temperature of 200-300°C in which the layer by very high temperature combustion.
thermally predried cake is mixed with A very strong current of air crosses the layer
polyaromatic solvents and bituminous from top to bottom (temperature at about
products. The ratio of sludge dry solids to 1200°C). The dry pieces soften on the
solvent is often quite high: 1 or sometimes surface and stick together (approximately
1.5 (see figure 690). 10-cm chunks),
- Very-high-pressure reactor with solvents - fast, aggressive cooling,
and catalysts on liquid or predewatered
- crushing and stabilisation (erosion) of
sludge.
aggregates,
The problem with these liquefaction
- separation.
processes lies in the reliability of recovery
and recycling of solvents and the separation The investment for such an installation is
of oils and tar. high and operating conditions relatively
difficult: odour, dust, maintenance,
complexity. The economic advantage of
All these conversion processes have such a process has not been proved as yet.
relatively moderate oil yield: 20 to 60% of
20
STORAGE AND FEEDING OF
REAGENTS
1. GENERAL CONDITIONS
The liquid and gas phases exist in a cylinders must only be used in a
state of equilibrium at the vapour vertical position. Horizontal tanks can
pressure corresponding to the reagent be used to withdraw the gas phase by
temperature (6 to 9 bar at 20°C for opening the upper of the two vertically
chlorine and ammonia, 60 bar for aligned taps only, or large quantities of
carbon dioxide). the liquid phase, which are then
When using cylinders, it is important channelled to an evaporator.
to remove only the gas. Therefore, the
off by tight partitions, doors, and windows. perfectly dry places, since solid flocculation
The premises are usually fitted out with a agents are highly hygroscopic.
system to extract and filter dust laden air. -Control switchboards must be located in dry
-The automatic preparation of powdered premises that are protected against dust from
flocculants must always take place in powdered reagents.
1.3.
STORAGE UNIT DESIGN Most common reagents in France (lime,
acid, liquid caustic soda, ferric chloride,
aluminium sulphate, ect.) can be shipped by
The size of the storage areas and units (silos tanker truck in maximum unit capacities of
and tank) is dependent on the local some 24 tonnes.
conditions of supply. Liquid chlorine is delivered:
The objectives are as follows:
- in 5, 15, 30, and 50 kg cylinders;
-to avoid running out of stock by allowing
- in 500 and 1000 kg drums.
for the time taken to ship certain products to
the region concerned;
-to minimize transportation costs, the storage These container are given the stamp of
units must be a simple multiple of the approval of the French "Service des mines"
capacity of one lorry- or truck-load. at 30 bar.
Table 83 lists the materials most commonly • concentrated sulphuric acid (at least
used to store liquid reagents. 92%), provided that there is not the
slightest trace of humidity. The vent must
The following points are worth noting: be protected by a desiccant;
-plastics, polyethylene and PVC in -plain carbon steel, and even stainless steel,
particular, are frequently used to store must not come into contact with any of the
corrosive liquids; common chlorine-containing reagents
-reinforced polyester is well suited to (ferric chloride, hypochlorites, hydrochloric
making silos holding lime and other acid, or chlorine gas in the presence of
powdered products, because it is wholly humidity).
non degradable and is sufficiently smooth
to allow products to flow freely;
Chap. 20: Storage and feeding of reagents
2.1.2. Pompe doseuse à membrane moins précise que les précédentes et son
actionnée hydrauliquement débit ne dépasse pas 200 l.h -1 .
D'une très bonne précision, légèrement
inférieure toutefois à celle de la pompe à 2.1.4. Pompe doseuse électromagnétique
piston, elle est utilisée pour des liquides
corrosifs, toxiques, abrasifs, chargés ou
Ce type de pompe (figure 695), dont la
visqueux; elle peut être à simple ou à
membrane est commandée par le
double membrane, avec détection de
déplacement de l'électro-aimant, peut être
rupture (figure 694).
utilisée pour des petits débits inférieurs à
Le débit de ce type de pompe doseuse 10 l.h -1 . Pour un dosage proportionnel,
peut atteindre 2 500 l.h -1 par tête doseuse. chaque impulsion émise par le compteur
d'eau provoque le déplacement de
l'électroaimant et de la membrane
(refoulement d'une cylindrée de réactif).
Sont également utilisées en dosage des Ces pompes ne nécessitent pas d'énergie
pompes doseuses à vis excentrée (figure électrique. Elles sont placées directement
696), dont le débit est réglable par (ou en dérivation) sur la tuyauterie de l'eau
modification de la vitesse, manuelle ou à traiter qui actionne un piston doseur.
automatique (par servomoteur ou moteur à
vitesse variable).
que est remplacé par un système à ressort à lequel elle s'écoule pour retourner au bac de
remontage mécanique. préparation par la tubulure (2).
Le réactif traverse la cloison perforée de
2.2.2. Dosage par doseurs à orifice tranquilisation (7) pour être dosé au travers
d'un orifice calibré à section réglable (6)
Les doseurs à orifice sont des appareils
protégé contre le bouchage par une grille
robustes adaptés au dosage des
(8).
suspensions. Ils sont conçus pour
fonctionner à débit proportionnel au débit à Le réactif tombe ensuite dans un godet
traiter. oscillant (11) commandé par un vérin
pneumatique ou hydraulique (9) qui, en
Doseur P 106 (figure 698) : une pompe
fonction des impulsions données par un
d'un débit supérieur à celui à distribuer
régulateur de proportion, le dirige soit vers
refoule par la tubulure (1) la solution ou la
son point d'injection dans l'installation par
suspension dans un compartiment (5) où
la tubulure (3) soit en retour vers le bac de
son niveau est maintenu à une hauteur
préparation par la tubulure (4).
constante grâce à un déversoir par dessus
3.1.
STOCKAGE 3.1.2. Remplissage du silo
Il se fait pneumatiquement par le haut du
silo. Le produit est soufflé (par de l'air
Petites installations: aire de stockage (sacs
fourni par un compresseur installé sur le
ou conteneurs).
camion ou en poste fixe) dans une
Moyennes et grandes installations canalisation souple reliée à la conduite
silos. montante du silo par un raccord pompier.
La capacité du silo est variable (15 à 200 La pression de dépotage doit être limitée à
m3 , voire 400 m3 ) selon l'importance de 160 kPa.
l'installation et l'autonomie recherchée. Plusieurs types de contrôle du niveau sont
L'approvisionnement des produits se fait en possibles
vrac par camion ou wagon. Les silos sont - mesure capacitive (à éviter sur produits
métalliques, en polyester armé de fibre de colmatants),
verre ou en béton. Ils sont de forme - lame vibrante,
cylindro-conique.
- palpeur à va-et-vient entraîné
mécaniquement
3.1.1. Règles d'installation Nota: il est également possible de contrôler
Le silo doit être équipé d'un évent muni le poids de produit par pesée du silo.
d'un dépoussiéreur à manches et d'une
soupape de sécurité contre les surpressions.
La conduite de remplissage, de diamètre 80
ou 100 mm, doit présenter des coudes de
rayon de courbure suffisant pour limiter
l'usure et la perte de charge. Il y a lieu de
limiter, dans la mesure du possible, la
longueur de la conduite. Le silo doit être
mis à la terre pour éviter la formation de
voûte due à l'électricité statique. La
capacité de stockage doit être largement
supérieure (au moins 50 %) au volume de
livraison.
Pour faciliter la vidange:
- la pente du cône au bas du silo doit être Figure 699. Silo avec dévoûteur
d'au moins 60°, SODIMATE.
- des dispositifs destinés à faciliter
l'écoulement sont à prévoir.
Chap. 20: Stockage et distribution des réactifs
10 à 1000 lh -1 ) de réactifs tels que le sulfate constante. La vis ainsi saturée entraîne une
d'aluminium, la chaux, le carbonate de quantité donnée du produit par rotation de
calcium ou de sodium, etc. la spire dans la gaine. La spire et la gaine
La modification du débit se fait par sont flexibles ou rigides.
variation de l'angle d'attaque du couteau, le Bien que l'installation optimale soit à
moteur étant à vitesse constante et l'horizontale, un doseur à vis permet, si
fonctionnant en continu ou par syncopage. nécessaire, de remonter le produit sur une
Un moteur à vitesse variable peut faible hauteur.
également être utilisé.
3.2.2. Dosage gravimétrique
. Doseurs à vis Le dosage gravimétrique n'est pas
Ce type de doseur permet le dosage, avec influencé par les variations de densité
une précision suffisante, de la plupart des apparente du produit distribué. Celui-ci est
produits pulvérulents y compris les produits pesé en continu. Tout écart, entre le débit
à caractère fusant. Il est alimenté à partir massique mesuré et le débit massique de
d'un silo muni d'un dévoûteur (figure 702). consigne, conduit à une action sur le
Ce dévoûteur assure l'alimentation régulière dispositif de distribution tendant à annuler
de la vis en produit de densité apparente cet écart.
Chap. 20: Stockage et distribution des réactifs
1 - Trémie de remplissage.
2 - Vanne à pelle.
3 - Trémie peseuse suspendue.
4 - Doseur à vis.
5 - Racleur.
6 - Bac délayeur.
Figure 703. Schéma de dosage gravimétrique à perte de poids DEGRÉMONT.
4. Preparation of suspensions and solutions of powdered or granular reagents
4. PREPARATION OF SUSPENSIONS
AND SOLUTIONS OF POWDERED
OR GRANULAR REAGENTS
4.1
GENERAL
Metering is conducted in a separate tank The dry product is fed using volumetric
containing brine at a fixed concentration, devices (revolving disc, screw system, or
usually quite close to saturation. rotary vane feeder), or when higher
The solution is controlled by densimeter standards of precision are required, gravity
(refer to Chapter 8, Paragraph 3.2.2). feeders. The devices illustrated in Figure
706 and 707 can also be used whit slaked
- Materials lime.
Concrete tanks are lined with protective For products whit a high content of
coverings. Plain carbon steel or stainless impurities, the type of set-up illustrated in
steel cannot de used to make any parts Figure 708 for ferric chloride is preferred.
coming into contact with brine.
Plastics and vulcanized steel are widely -Materials and safety
used.
Aqueous solutions of aluminium
4.2.2 Aluminium sulphate sulphate are acidic and the materials used
for storage and feed purposes must be
chosen accordingly (plastics or stainless
Aluminium sulphate is used as a
steel).
coagulant in solid or, more frequently, liquid
form. The crystallized product Al2 (SO4 )3 .
18H2 O is as follows: In its solid form, this product releases a
dust that irritates the nose and throat.
-powder:<0.5 mm,
-semolina: 1 to 3 mm,
4.2.3. Ferric chloride
-broken lumps: 5 to 30 mm,
-blocks (occasionally).
Ferric chloride is used as a coagulant in
solid, or more usually, liquid form. The
-Dissolving crystallized product (EeCl3 .6H2 O) comes in
The product is usually dissolved in the shape of brown or red pieces that tend to
concentration of between 100 and 200 g.l-1 fuze in their own crystallization water.
of crystallized product, which is checked by
densimeter (refer to page 487). -Dissolving
-Small units
In order to make a solution, it is
In small units, 25 or 40 kg bags are necessary to drain the dilution tank of all
dissolved in a dilution tank that operates insoluble impurities that commercial
between two levels (tank-wise preparation) products often contain.
(Figure 706).
Chap. 20: Storage and feeding of reagents
4. Preparation of suspensions and solutions of powdered or granular reagents
The feed system is pump operated: - the section of the piping should be a
- positive displacement pumps (metering compromise between:
or eccentric rotor pumps); • a sufficiently wide diameter to prevent
- centrifugal pumps, preferably feeding a dogging;
distribution loop fitted with automatic • a satisfactory flow velocity to prevent
injection valves operating on an . on/off deposits.
basis (Figure 709), in which case the - the unit must be rinsed with clear water
product is often metered by changing the whenever it is stopped.
pump settings according to the pH meter
readout. 4.3.2. Lime water
The inlet water arrives in the lower part The milk of lime, which is prepared
of the unit and the saturated water is drawn continuously or intermittently, must be fed
off from the surface. continuously. The milk of lime is injected
The flow rate of saturated lime water by gravity or is pumped into the sludge
can reach 1.3 to 1.6 kg of Ca(OH)2 per recycle nozzle or the water inlet pipe.
hour and per square metre of surface area. The preparation is recycled by a
propeller-operated mixer (7) located in the
Turbine saturators top of the nozzle through which the inlet
water arrives (1) and where the water, milk
of lime, and carbonate sludge are
Turbine saturators (Figure 711) are used intimately mixed. The sludge level in the
to reach higher flow rates than static saturator is controlled by the threshold in
models with the same surface area. Flow the concentrators into which the sludge
rates can reach 3.2 to 4 kg of Ca(OH)2 per overflows.
hour and per square metre of surface area.
Chap. 20: Storage and feeding of reagents
The sludge is usually extracted by the of increases the CaO content of the lime
small doses of ferric chloride further sludges can be drained (4). The addition
concentrator piping (5), although heavy water.
-4. Preparation of suspensions and solutions of powdered or granular reagents
The lime saturators can also be used to plant (dilution tank and saturator) that is
make unsaturated dissolved lime solutions. frequently used in medium-size or small
Figure 713 shows the overall layout of a drinking water plants (lime in bags and
complete milk of lime and lime water sack splitter).
chlorine and the caustic soda in the solution, In the event of a chlorine leak in the
and the caustic soda neutralizes the acid premises where the chlorine storage tanks or
released by the reaction between the the chlorinators are located, a chlorine leak
chlorine and the hyposulphite. detector (19) sounds an alarm and
About 1.1 kg of hyposulphite and 1.7 kg automatically starts fan (18) that extracts the
of caustic soda are needed to neutralize 1 kg air from the polluted places and pump (15)
of chlorine. conveying the neutralizing solution (caustic
For safety reasons, the storage unit, the soda, sodium hyposulphite). The
evaporator-chlorinator assembly, and the chlorine-laden air flows through the mass of
leak neutralization tower are always located contact rings (17) in the opposite direction
in separate places (Figure 718). to the neutralizing solution, which is fed
from the top (16).
5.1.4. Complete installation
Figure 719 shows an installation for storage,
withdrawal of the liquid phase, evaporation,
and feeding of the gaseous phase.
Even though carbon dioxide can be Figure 720 refers back to the drinking
produced by burners immersed in the water remineralization unit in the
treatment inlet water (type P LisbonAsseiceira plant.
Recarbonator), the most widespread The total capacity of the plant varies
method uses liquid CO2 stored in from 200 to 850 kg.h -1 of CO2 . The flow
pressurized tanks that are insulated and rate is slaved to the flow rate of water to be
cooled (pressure: 20 bar, temperature treated, to the required treatment rate, or to
-20°C). The liquid C02 is vaporized in the pH of the remineralized water by means
evaporators by inputting heat from an of the regulation valves located on the gas
outside source, then depressurized under circuit and controlled in turn by the
the conditions of use (3 bar, 12°C). The gas regulators that follow instructions received
is then injected into the water to be treated from the programmable controller that
through porous discs immersed under water commands the overall process.
at a depth of several metres in contact
towers.
-5. Storing, feeding, and dissolving gaseous reagents-
6. OTHER PREPARATIONS
three sections with transfer by overflow • Low level: tempory water intel + powder
from one section to the next: intel;
- the preparation tank receives the water at • very low level: metering pump shutdown
controlled pressure and flow rate, and the (safety).
metered powder through a screwoperated
feeder that ejects the product into the Note:
disperser in a regular manner;
The automatic preparation units should be
- the product remains in the so-called located in separate premises.
ripening tank for the length of time required
to "swell" the molecular chains of the
flocculant; 6.1.2.2. Polyacrylamide emulsion
- the third tank, or storage tank, is fitted with • Manual preparation
a regulation device used to automate plant Emulsions are manually prepared in the
operation: same way as powders, except that the
• very high level: safety alarm sounds; dispensers serve no purpose.
• high level: temporary cut-off of water + The concentration of the stock solution
powder; ranges from 5 to 10 g.l-1 and the preparation
time is limited to 15 to 20 minutes.
Chap. 20: Storage and feeding of reagents
sludge treatment usually meets the water are mixed with one part of lime. The
following specifications: temperature rise is high and the reaction
- CaO content > 90% time is short. The quantity of additional
- MgO content < 1.5% water depends of the viscosity of the paste
(torque of the mixer) and/or the
- S04 content < 1.0%
temperature;
- reactivity of the water: less than 25
• slurry slaking plant: the Ca(OH)2
minutes required to reach 60°C with a mix
concentration of the milk of lime is less
of 150 g of lime and 600 g of water at an
than 200 g.l-1 .. The temperature sensor
initial temperature of 20°C; - fine or sieved
measures the temperature at the lime inlet.
lime (grain size of 0-90 µm).
This type of unit, which is illustrated in
There are two types of preparation: Figure 724, may be less efficient, but is
• paste slaking plant (with high mixing more simple to automate thus offering
energy): between three and four parts of limited operating, maintenance, and safety
constraints.
The chlorine water comes into contact must be less than 10 minutes, the optimum
with the concentrated NaClO2 (solution being 6 minutes.
available on the open market at 310 g.l-1 )
inside a contact tower fitted with
Raschigings. The contact time in the tower
The chlorine dioxide solution is transferred This CIO2 production process is used in
into a storage tank using the water from an plants that have no supply of chlorine gas
injector before being fed into the mains and no chlorine gas storage facility.
water. The C102 solution is diluted in the Figure 727 shows a CIO2 plant using
storage tank (0.5 to 1 g.1-1 ) and remains concentrated reagents that are diluted at the
stable for up to 24 hours. reactor inlet:
- sodium chlorite in a 25% solution (310 g.l-
Assuming that an excess of chlorine of some 1
);
10% above stoichiometric requirement is - hydrochloric acid in a 32% solution (370
available and that efficiency is about 95%, g.l-1 ).
1.41 g of pure sodium chlorite and 0.61 g of
The CIO2 solution is extracted by an
chlorine are needed to produce 1 g of CIO2 .
injector and then diluted in a storage tank.
To obtain a chlorine dioxide solution at 17
6.3.2. Action of hydrochloric acid g.l-1 , one volume of 25% sodium chlorite
on sodium chlorite solution, at least 0.65 volumes of 32%
The following reaction occurs: concentrated hydrochloric acid, and 6
5NaClO2 + 4HCl à 4ClO2 volumes of primary dilution water are
required. One litre of NaCIO2 at 25%
+ 5NaCl + 2H2 O
produces 125 g of CIO2 . The ideal reaction
In stoichiometric terms, 1.67 g of NaCIO2 time is 6 minutes.
are needed to produce 1 g of CIO2
6. Other preparations
6.3.3. Feeding chlorine dioxide
solutions • Storing the solutions
Concentrated solutions of NaClO2 are
If the concentrated C102 solution is not sensitive to the cold. A 25% solution of
diluted at the reactor outlet, then it must be NaClO2 starts to crystallize at about 10°C.
fed immediately. This unstable Solutions of sodium chlorite and
solution-decomposes into ClO3 and hydrochloric acid must be kept in heated
ClO2 .The diluted ClO2 solutions can be fed premises at 15°C. The kinetics of the ClO2
immediately (ClO2 concentration ranging formation decrease when the temperature of
from 0.5 to 1 g.l-1 ) or within a 24-hour the reagents and the water is below 15°C.
period at this same concentration prior to
the disinfecting treatment. • Handling
Chlorite is an oxidizing agent and must not
6.3.4. Precautions come into contact with reducing matter,
such as:
• Preparing sodium chlorite solutions - sulphur and its derivatives, or any
Sodium chlorite solutions can be prepared products containing sulphur;
using powdered sodium chlorite. The - organic matter;
precipitation of calcium carbonate can be - powdered metals, etc.
avoided by using pre-softened water.
Chap. 20: Storage and feeding of reagents
Figure 729. La Roche plant serving the city of Nantes in western France. Powdered activated
carbon feed unit. Flow rate: 98 kg.h -1 .
21
MEASUREMENT, CONTROL,
AUTOMATION AND SUPERVISION
1. MEASUREMENT
ure even high flow rates in clear liquids fluid. These devices generally consist of a
without gas bubbles. short section of pipe traversed by a bar with
a suitable shape and size. The wake created
around the bar generates vortices alternately
to either side of the obstacle. The frequency
at which the vortices are created (measured
by a sensitive pressure sensor calibrated to
detect oscillatory changes in pressure or
velocity) is proportional to the flow. Vortex
velocity flowmeters are employed for pure
water and gases.
the difference represents the loss of head, electrical current traversing such a
read on a dial pressure gauge or transmitted constantly-fed resistor is therefore inversely
to a remote station. proportional to the temperature of the
surrounding environment.
1.2.4. Temperature For high temperature ranges (steam
Water temperature is generally measured production, furnaces, etc.), the thermocouple
using a resistor-type thermometer that effect is employed, in which the potential
transmits to a remote station. The principle difference is measured between two
is based on the increased resistivity of dissimilar metal elements jointed at one end.
metals as temperature rises. The
a continuous value but an On-Off (or electrode located at the desired level. Since
binary) indication: the threshold is either the water is connected to earth, a current is
exceeded or not. established between the water and the
Other sensors deliver On-Off indications electrode once the latter is immersed.
only, and are much used in indicating For wastewater, a float switch is generally
systems, alarms and automatic controls. preferred; the most common type, consists
A pressure switch detects a pressure of a tilting mercury switch encased in a float
threshold, and a thermostat detects a suspended above the water surface on a
temperature threshold. cable.
The end of travel of a piece of travelling For powdered substances or heavily loaded
equipment (rotating scraper bridge, or clogging liquids, a vibrating detector is
automatic screen rake or valve shutter) can employed, in which the vibration of a blade
be detected by a mechanical limit switch varies depending on whether it is immersed
containing a plunger that pushes an or not.
electrical contact, or by an electronic In the case of pressurized enclosures at high
proximity detector which opens or closes an temperatures, gamma ray detectors are
electric circuit as an object is detected employed.
within a sensitive zone, without touching the Finally, other types of sensor deliver pulses
sensor. of varying frequency used for measuring
The level of a non-demineralized water purposes. Examples include propeller-type
volume is determined using a flowmeters, rotation controllers, particle
conductimetry cell consisting of an counters, etc.
Measurement signals are processed in one of The maintenance and running of such a station
two ways: require personnel highly qualified in diverse
- either real time transmission of a pollution disciplines, and represent an annual cost of
warning to plant personnel, with triggering of between 10 and 25 percent of the initial
a sampling procedure for manual verification investment value, depending on the
by laboratory analysis (equipment failures are complexity of the analytical methods used.
also transmitted in the same way);
- storage of measured values for off-line data Tables 84 and 84a resume the purpose of the
processing. various measurements performed in a warning
station.
where:
S is the value of the signal,
x is the value of the measurement,
S0 is the value of the scale base signal,
I. Measurement
The signal thus obtained is transmitted to a for the value obtained, by the corresponding
series of receivers whose function is to: scale and for given operating conditions.
- transform the data into intelligible format b -Systematic errors, due to incorrect or
(for example, on a dial pointer or digital infrequent calibration, or inappropriate
gauge, recorder, data acquisition unit, installation conditions, etc.
computer, etc.); c - Accidental errors, due to spurious
- process the data in order to intervene signals, lack of correction (temperature,
automatically in the process (through a pressure, position, humidity, etc.).
regulator, programmable logic controller, d - Reliability of instruments: correct
etc.). operation can be jeopardized by faults,
sample-line blockages, insufficient
1.6.3. Quality factors maintenance, etc.
In order for the measurement loop to e - Choice of parameter, which should
operate correctly, it is essential to have full correspond to the function of instrument
compatibility between all the instruments (which equally affects the degree of
connected into the loop, to ensure that confidence in the delivered data). For
impedances are matched and that the loop is example, estimating the oxygen demand of
electrically isolated from other a water supply by taking a measurement
measurement loops, etc. requiring prior filtering of the water is not a
good choice if a large proportion of the
The data obtained, particularly if intended
organic pollution is associated with the
for an automatic control system or for log-
presence of other SS.
recording, must represent as closely as
possible the actual value of the measured In conclusion, drawing the maximum
parameter. advantage from measurement sensors and
their associated instrumentation inevitably
Numerous factors can induce errors
entails the acceptance of certain constraints
between the value of the measured
such as cleaning of probes, regular the loop,
parameter, and the delivered data. In
characterized by its precision calibration,
particular:
preparation of reagents for class. This class,
a - The precision of each instrument in age, expressed as a percent- analyzers,
is the quotient of the degree of incertitude troubleshooting and so on.
Chap. 21: Measurement, control, automation and supervision
2. AUTOMATION
One of the effects of reliable automation is - commands issued to the actuators, and
to make the plant owner "lose his memory", reports issued to the operator, are system
since he is no longer in direct contact with outputs.
the process. Nevertheless, the advantages of
automation are obvious if the installation is
designed and operated by a treatment
specialist with long experience of local
conditions and skills in widely differing
processes.
The three combined control modes Selecting the control mode therefore
explained above are intended solely to depends on the nature of the plant, and the
maintain automatically a variable function degree of precision and stability desired.
at a fixed, preset value. The problem to be
solved is often more complex, and may The proportional action mode generally
involve establishing a correlation between returns an adjustment with little precision.
the variable value of a certain function and Nevertheless, the precision level is quite
another function, or the alteration of a sufficient in, for example, the case of level
physical magnitude in respect to time by a control, where a relatively low proportional
programmed controller. bandwidth can be employed, against a
trade-off of slight hunting. In other cases,
2.2.3. Choice of control mode such as controlling the water level of a
filter, the phenomenon of hunting could
Any control problem must be subjected to prove prejudicial to the water quality, hence
precise analysis to determine the optimum it is recommended to employ a relatively
control mode and type of control system. wide band, and tolerate a few centimetres'
difference in water level between a freshly
washed filter and a dogged filter.
The first operation consis ts in selecting the
manipulated variable (y) which, when
The proportional-plus-integral action
coupled with the controlled variable (x),
will stabilize the latter at its set-point value mode provides better precision independent
(x.) further to any change in variable x of the size of the proportional band.
created by external effect (disturbance).
2. Automation
triggered at activation of any other step. Wired systems are built by interconnecting
individual modules with electrical wiring
2.3.2.6. Advantages of the GRAFCET (or printed circuits). The modules may
consist of semiconductors (diodes and
The GRAFCET is graphical and rigorous. It
transistors); semiconductor-based static
can be used at any level throughout the life
relays; integrated circuits; electronic
of the automatic control system.
sequencers, or electromagnetic relays.
Although use of the above technologies is
Starting with definition of the problem: steadily declining, electromagnetic relays
- the GRAFCET is independent of the are still widely employed in the .
technology used for the control system manufacture of simple automatic controls
itself; and interfaces.
- it is universally accessible, representing a Programmable circuitry . differs from
means of communication and dialogue wired logic in the following ways:
between persons of varying disciplines; - logic functions and calculations are
- it allows the creation of functional "first- performed by a processor;
level" charts, where each step represents an - links between various modules no longer
overall function, with transitions defined in take the form of physical wiring, but are
literal terms (Figure 743). provided by a program contained in a
memory. This allows a standard system to
At the detailed analysis level, it obliges the be employed for a specific application.
analyst to pose the proper questions, hence
ensuring that specifications are complete. Three main groups of control systems may
At the production level, ever-increasing be distinguished:
amounts of equipment are operated directly
from the GRAFCET: sequencers, a - Microprocessor-based systems:
programmable logic controllers, etc. ,
Considering their degree of performance,
At the operational and maintenance level,
the price of these systems is low. Since they
knowing the number of active steps allows
involve large-scale design and development
precise appraisal of the state of the process,
costs, they are mainly used in mass-
with the exact conditions necessary for
produced equipment.
forward movement. Help and
troubleshooting GRAFCETS can also be In the field of water treatment, they are
designed for operator guidance. increasingly found in special
parameterizable equipment (programmable
devices) such as controllers, sensors, etc.
2.3.3. Technology part for control
Compressed-air techniques are these days
b - Programmable logic controllers
rarely employed, save for a few special
(PLCs).
cases such as explosive atmospheres, etc.
2. Automation
Specially designed devices for performing favour of PLCs); nevertheless, they remain
automatic control functions in diffi-cult of great importance for automated systems
environments. They are easily installed by requiring very high memory capacity (such
automation experts. as hierarchical organization, algorithms
based on statistical calculation,
mathematical models, matrix calculus,
c - Mini- or micro-computers
expert systems, etc.). Their installation
Use of these equipments is diminishing in requires special environmental conditions.
local automatic control applications (in
Automated Reference
functions Method Remarks
parameters
Diffused aeration Duration; time of Varying number of aerators Small plants fitted with fixed-
day rate air blowers
Dissolved oxygen Varying air flow to maintain For 1 a r g e
constant dissolved oxygen plants, reliabil-
content
(by altering air blower speed or ity and validity
position of paddles). (Blowers o f oxygen
controlled by PLC) measurement is
essential.
If using sev- Dissolved oxygen Same as previous, with distribu- Head losses
eral tanks and air flow tion of air by regulating valves. induced by
dis-
and a single (Requires a PLC) tribution
air produc- valves to be as
tion unit low as
possible
(one valve
con-
stantly open).
See par. 3.6.3
Recirculating sec- Duration; time of Syncopated operation (manually Small plants
ondary sludge day parameterized)
Varying number of pumps in Do not exceed maximum feed
service rate of clarifier
Raw water flow Recirculation flow proportional
to raw water flow
Raw water flow Variable flow; depends on raw Providing SVI is low
and
sludge level water flow and sludge level
Extracting excess Duration; time of Syncopated operation (manually Conventional Extraction over
sludge after bio- day parameterized) one or more
logical daily periods,
purification or
Daily water flow Daily volume of extracted spread
sludge through -
proportional to daily water flow out day (de-
pending on
sludge thicken-
Sludge Volume of sludge extracted Pay attention ing and treat -
concenration daily
(during aeration) to maintain average daily sludge to the concen- ment possibili-
concentration constant tration mea- ties)
surement
(time of day,
mixing condi-
tions,
measure-
ment point,
etc.)
3. Automatic control systems and water treatment
(Superpressdeg)
Special sensors Sludge and polymer flow con- See par. 3.6.5
trol by special PLC
Sludge disposal Loading of skips Mobile transporter
Polymer prepara- Tank level Prepared in batches
tion
remover
Adjusting cooling air flow Electrostatic extractor
Thermoposting Extracted air tem- Air flow control
perature
Deodorizing pH, rH, Cl2, de- Controlling quantity of re-
scrubber pending on re- agents
agents
Figure 745. Dispatching control room, LE-Dumez treatment plant at Le Pecq (Paris area,
France).
In the majority of cases where a pumping At Maromme, the PLC system manages raw
plant feeds a single, high-volume reservoir, water pumping and the reagent station in the
a PLC ensures the reservoir is full at the end treatment plant, such that the level of the
of the nighttime period, and empty (but for a filtered water reservoir follows a set point as
safety margin) at the end of the daytime shown in Figure 746.
period.
Chap. 21: Measurement, control, automation and supervision
Figure 747. Morsang-sur-Seine plant neat Paris (France) for LE-Dumez. Reservoir
graph monitoring (set point and actual levels).
In the LE-Dumez treatment plant at filter control (slow start-up), wash control
Morsang-sur-Seine, the PLC is additionally (depending on measured parameters such as
assisted by a microcomputer that allows filtration time or degree of clogging), and
monitoring of the changes in the reservoir automatic washing sequence guarantee
graph as represented by a model. The graph regular quality in the filtered water. The
is selected from a series of available curves, most recent developments in this field are
and takes account of daily water described in detail in Chapter 13, Page 798.
consumption and certain essential operating Mention may also be made of the modern
parameters. The operator can simulate the treatment plant at Xian in China, which
effect of a given pumping operation on the contains two batteries of twelve filters each.
reservoir level to meet various consumption Each filter is managed by a programmable
hypotheses (Figure 747). logic controller fitted with a control coupler,
a keyboard for operator messages, and a
3.6 2. Filtration of drinking water supplies communications controller for dialogue
between the PLCs . Each battery has another
Automating the filter battery removes the
PLC controlling the common washing
greater part of the tepetitive manual work
equipment, washing priorities and dialogue
entailed in filter washing. It also reduces
with a supervisor (Figures 748 a and b).
energy costs, by making efficient use of off-
peak periods. In parallel with these savings,
3. Automatic control systems and water treatment
Chap. 21: Measurement, control, automation and supervision
Figure 750. Villeneuve d'Ascq treatment plant in northern France: 120,000 population
equivalents. PLC controlled aeration tank.
3.6.5. Sludge dewatering by belt filter which also allows remote stopping and
(Superpressdeg) starting (see Page 1150).
A second "controlled" version is available
In terms of operator presence, mechanical for plants treating sludge of varying quality,
dewatering of sludge is generally one of the which entails the risk of poor flocculation or
most demanding operations performed in a squeezing out characteristics.
wastewater treatment plant. Automation can Apart from the above functions, a
either release personnel for other tasks, or programmable logic controller can detect
open the way for operation of the plant over special types of interference, through the use
a wider timescale. of additional special sensors (sludge
This is the purpose of the Superpress squeezing out, accumulation or shortfall). A
automatic control system. control coupler reacts to such phenomena by
modifying the speed of the sludge pump or
The initial version uses a small PLC for
the polymer pump.
sequential starting and stopping of the
dewatering plant, with an operator interface The Tarbes plant in southern France employs
consisting of a smart keyboard. Operating two Superpress units, each controlled by a
faults can thus be displayed remotely to the special PLC with a keyboard for operator
operator via a videotexbased Aquaveil unit, dialogue.
3. Automatic control systems and water treatment
Chap. 21: Measurement, control, automation and supervision
4. SUPERVISION
Figure 752: Acheres 111 plant near (France) Paris for SIAAP. Flow. 900,000 m3 /d -1 . Console and
mimic panel.
4. Supervision
sole and mimic panel), and is non-mobile. For the centralized supervision of largerscale
Modifications often involve heavy plants, the operator interfaces depend
sheetmetal work, rewiring, rearrangement of increasingly on peripheral units such as
the mimic panel, etc. keyboards, monitors and printers offering the
The use of programmable operator consoles full benefits of modern data processing
provides a solution to such problems: techniques. Figure 754 represents a model of
operating reports are presented in the form of an automatic control system including a
pre-recorded text (16 characters or more), supervision function based on peripheral
and operator instructions are entered via a equipment.
compact keyboard with programmable keys. The data acquisition function connects the
When used with a programmable logic control part to the supervision function.
controller, an "intelligent" operator console
(Figure 753) also enables operating
parameters to be modified, such as timedelay
values, control reference level (setting), etc.,
while supporting maintenanceaid functions
(since it can store a large number of
individual texts concerning faults detected by
the PLC, without the addition of extra
equipment). The texts displayed are
themselves programmable, and the operator
can thus enrich the system in terms of his
own experience.
Intelligent operator terminals are
nevertheless limited to small plants, or to
local control of plant units.
- the progression commences with known or the structures and the equipment of the
easily-acquired information (visual aeration tank, the clarifier and the sludge
observation, simple tests, etc.); recirculation system, and accommodates
- certain data may be omitted and/or analytical data and the results of other
calculated automatically by the system; common tests.
- complex data (analytical results, etc.) are
only entered if absolutely necessary. SUPERPRESSDEG
Examples of Expertveil modules The system is designed to aid the operation
and optimize the performance of sludge
SLUDGE LOSS dewatering units employing belt filters.
The system is designed to analyze, Expertveil locates and corrects mechanical
determine parameters, prevent loss of incidents or efficiency losses, and
activated sludge and otherwise avoid determines the optimum plant settings to
clarification incidents in biological meet the requirements set by the user
treatment plants. It takes account of the (degree of dryness, solids loading, etc.).
technical and dimensional characteristics of
Chap. 21: Measurement, control, automation and supervision
Figure 763. Morsang-sur-Seine plant near Paris for LE-Dumez, France. Example of functional
breakdown for a drinking water treatment plant. Crippled mode operation by local manual control.
4. Supervision
Figure 764. Valenton plant near Paris for SIAAP, France. Example of functional
breakdown for a municipal wastewater treatment plant. Crippled mode operation by
local manual control
Chap. 21: Measurement, control, automation and supervision
4. Supervision
- token-based system, whereby each station the term multi-vendor network is employed
has access to the channel when authorized by to indicate that the
a special message (called a "token"), issued network is linking varying types of
by the previous station. equipment from different manufacturers.
Special devices exist to ensure only a single Transmission speed is measured in bauds,
token is in circulation, and that it is not lost ; that is the number of bits transferred in one
second.
- random access system, whereby any Field networks, coordination networks and
station can connect in to the channel, supervision networks often employ standard
provided no other station is there first. transmission speeds of 19,200, 9600 or 4800
Collision-avoidance mechanisms are bauds, etc.
provided. Where the data traffic over a given channel is
heavy, higher speeds are used (between 1
The rules governing the various inter-station and 10 million bits per second - megabauds).
exchanges are called protocols; they must be Nevertheless, the essential parameter
programmed into each station in the network. dictating choice of network is time: the time
taken for a bit of data to reach its destination
depends not only on the transmission speed,
Communications bridges or communicators
but also on the number of stations connected,
are sometimes used to connect stations
the data stream, and the protocols employed.
employing one protocol to stations
employing a different protocol. In this case, Figure 768 illustrates the position of the
various networks within the hierarchical
organization represented in Figure 766.
Chap. 21: Measurement, control, automation and supervision
INTRODUCTION
A treatment plant designed to produce water Line 2 is designed to treat water with no
of drinking quality must always produce water pollutants, except SS, and requiring simple
to given standards, which may differ from filtration prior to disinfection. Where the water
country to country. Yet the raw material, i.e., contains a small quantity of colloids, or has a
the input water, may have varying more pronounced colour, in-line coagulation
characteristics, particularly in the case of will solve the problem (Line 3). If the quantity
surface water. of coagulant required to remove the colloids or
To cater for these variations, the treatment reduce the colour is too high, the floc formed
plant design may employ several of the will be large and will rapidly clog the filter
processes described in Chapter 3, in which case creating the need for frequent washing. It is
the most judicious combination will be sought therefore essential to provide a floc separation
from both the technical and the economic stage that uses settling or flotation techniques
viewpoints (cost of acquisition, and operating prior to filtration (Line 4).
costs). The floc formed after addition of coagulant
Figure 769 illustrates the main treatment clarifies the water. This floc also has adsorbent
lines commonly found, which may be qualities allowing a number of dissolved
supplemented by additional special treatment pollutants to be adsorbed on its surface.
lines made necessary by the presence of However, if the concentration of pollutant
specific undesirable substances in the raw organic matter is too high, it may be necessary
water (fluorine, nitrates, calcium, etc.). to include additional treatments, such as
oxidation (Line 6) or adsorption (Line 5),
Line 1 is designed to treat clean, unpolluted
which are used together with one or other of
raw water requiring only disinfection to
the clarification processes.
achieve the required microbiological quality.
Chap. 22: Treatment of drinking water
Some of the above treatment stages may have a positive effect on the treated
have a biological effect (Line 7). When- water. This is true of filter stages (sand or
ever a treatment process involves a solid- GAC) and, to a lesser extent, the sludge
liquid interface, the latter encourages the bed employed in settling tanks.
development of microorganisms, which
1. General processes
1. GENERAL PROCESSES
1.2.1. Design of water intake intake, a siphon intake, etc. Each case has
to be examined
With a lake of virtually constant
individually. level, the height of the intake 1.2.2. Roughing treatment
must be selected such that ingestion of SS, Depending on the type of water
colloidal substances, iron, manganese and extracted, the first treatment stage will be a
plankton will be as low as possible roughing treatment stage, designed to
throughout the year. remove coarse particles likely to interfere
If the lake is deep, it is recommended to with the subsequent treatment processes.
locate the intake 30 to 35 metres below the The installation (refer to Chapter 9) may
surface, where the influence of light is include:
minimal, thus guaranteeing limited - a screening unit;
plankton content, particularly during - a straining unit, also known as
periods of high growth. However, the macrostraining, which is required if the
intake must be at least 6 to 8 metres above water contains grass, leaves, plastic debris,
the bed of lake to avoid the influence of etc. Cleaning must be automatic. Failure to
deposits and currents on the bottom. include strainers for reasons of economy is
Lastly, allowance must be made for the origin of trouble at numerous treatment
stratum turnover in lake water; a plants, particularly those using lifting
phenomenon which can occur under the pumps;
influence of temperature variations. - a grit chamber, located - according to the
Intakes built in impounding reservoirs intake design - either upstream of
with variable water level, such as dams, downstream of the straining unit (if
must cater for the same phenomena, a need installed). Grit removal is essential if the
that requires the construction of intake next stages of the treatment plant are
towers through which water can be sensitive to the quantity of sand in the
extracted from various levels, depending on water;
the time of year. - a microstraining unit if the amount of
A river intake must be designed for plankton is limited and if no subsequent
protection against various entrained bodies settling is planned. Given the limited effect
such as earth, sand, leaves, reeds, grass, of microstrainers, this type of treatment is
discarded packaging materials (plastics in rarely suited to modern treatment plants;
particular), floating bodies, foam and - a surface deoiler;
hydrocarbon slicks, etc. There is no single
- a preliminary sedimentation unit, required
ideal intake design. Various types of intake
if the level of SS in the raw water (silt,
exist, suited for different types of river
clay, etc.) exceeds the concentration and
debris , river level, type and shape of bank,
extraction levels for the settling tanks
presence of river traffic, access constraints,
downstream.
etc. All these considerations may result in
the need for a bottom intake, a lateral
1. General processes
Figure 770. The Apremont treatment plant, western France. Flow rate: 2000 m3 .h -1 . View
of the Apremont dam intake, which supplies the drinking water plant.
and prevent corrosion of metal pipes by develop in settling tanks and filters, thus
allowing the formation of a protective layer. facilitating plant operations (cleaner settling
Aeration may also be necessary if the water tanks, longer filter life).
contains excess gases: The risk of anaerobic fermentation is thus
- H2 S, which imparts a very unpleasant taste avoided;
and can be easily removed by atmospheric - colour attenuation when due to humic
aeration; matter;
- oxygen, when the water is supersaturated - removal of ammonium, if applied dosage
and oxygen release would impede the is above breakpoint, and nitrites;
operation of settling tanks, where the floc - possible reduction in coagulant treatment
tends to collect at the surface, or filters, rate;
which suffer from spurious clogging due to - partial removal of strong tastes;
the release of gas inside the filter bed (air - stabilized chlorine absorption as a function
binding); of time (for description of network test, see
- carbon dioxide (CO2 ), which renders water page 254);
aggressive, is removed by aeration at - increased safety for disinfection of
atmospheric pressure. The extent of carbone distributed water.
dioxide removal will vary according to the
The treatment rates employed generally
mineral content of the water. Partial CO2
correspond to the breakpoint, with a certain
removal will, in certain cases, be sufficient,
residual free chlorine rate where ammonium
with the residual gas serving to increase the
has to be removed. In the case of inorganic
mineral content by reacting with
ammonium, the required ratio of Cl2 to NH4+
neutralizing agents.
(in mg.l-1 ) is 7. This ratio increases with the
level of organic matter, and may reach 15 or
1.3.2. Chemical treatment 25. It is possible to treat at rates below
Chemical treatment includes the use of breakpoint, in which case chloramines are
chlorine and its derivatives, ozone, and formed. It is essential to ensure that this
potassium permanganate. method will not cause undesirable taste
problems (as, for example, phenols oxidized
1.3.2.1. Preoxidation with chlorine into chlorophenols), with resulting
complications for removal.
Prechlorination before clarification
developed rapidly during the 1960s. Its main However, prechlorination also involves
advantages are now well established: the production of undesirable compounds
which may be harmful to health, such as
- improved flocculation by acting on organic
organochlorinated compounds and
matter adsorbed on the SS. This results in an
halomethanes (haloforms) (see page 44).
increased sludge cohesion coefficient, thus
These compounds are formed by the action
enabling higher settling velocities;
of the chlorine on certain compounds in the
- removal of most algae and other organisms water, known as precursors.
(zooplankton and phytoplankton) likely to
1. General processes
ing the initial treatment are completely Whenever lime has to be used to correct the
oxidized. pH during the flocculation stage (as with
mineral waters), it is recommended to allow
a few minutes' contact time following
1.3.2.5. Preoxidation with potassium
introduction of the lime and the potassium
permanganate
permanganate, before adding the coagulant.
This oxidizing agent is employed
Potassium permanganate is sometimes
particularly when the raw water contains
used for partial oxidation of certain organic
manganese. The manganese and
matter and the removal of certain bad tastes.
permanganate ions undergo the following
oxidation-reduction process: The quantity of KMnO4 injected in
preoxidation processes must be strictly
controlled. Excess treatment can result in a
The process is aided by a high pH level, pinkish colour in the treated water due to the
which increases the reaction kinetics. presence of soluble Mn(VII).
Figure 773. View of the CEB's Mont-Valerien treatment plant near Paris, France, showing a
Pulsator clarifier and the preozonation building.
in the complete coagulation of the colloids, - an SS level higher than 20 to 40 g.m-3 for all
which can then flocculate; or part of the year;
- causes coprecipitation of certain OM; - colour level greater than 30 mg.l-1 on the Pt-
- causes adsorption of certain organic matter Co scale (if excess colour is the only fault in
and colour on the formed floc. the water, other treatments are possible as
examined hereafter);
Depending on the quality of the raw water, - high level of organic matter, which must be
large quantities of coagulant may be required. reduced to a minimum;
It is therefore necessary to remove the major - heavy metal content above the maximum
part of the resulting floc by a separation stage recommended limit;
(either by settling or flotation) before - high plankton content, even if temporary. In
filtration. The hydroxide removal capacity of actual fact, only combined coagulation,
the filter is limited, and if the water were filtration and settling associated with pre-
filtered directly without this preliminary oxidation is able to reduce the plankton by up
operation, the filter would rapidly clog, to 95 to 99%, with the remainder being
requiring frequent washing (in turn resulting removed by filtration. Microstraining is
in unacceptable water consumption from both wholly unable to serve this purpose.
the economic and technical view-points). The clarification treatment may take
If the required treatment rate is low, it may several forms, depending on the level of SS
be possible to use direct filtration following in the water.
addition of the coagulant and any necessary
coagulant aid. This process is referred to as 1.4.1.1. Clarification of highly turbid water
in-line coagulation and can also be used
Where the content of SS is likely to exceed
where partial coagulation (i.e., incomplete
1500 to 3000 g.m-3 over a prolonged period,
cancelling of electronegative charge of
provisions must be made for:
particles) produces water of a satisfactory,
though not superior, quality. - either single-stage settling in a flocculator-
settling tank with scraper, which is only
If the floc formed after complete
possible if the maximum content is not too
coagulation contains a high proportion of
high and will not lead to an excessive sludge
hydroxide (high ratio of AI(OH)3 to SS in the
volume likely to choke the settling tank. The
raw water), then the density of the floc will
generally accepted rising velocity can vary
be low and it may be wiser to employ
between 1 and 1.5 m.h -1 or even 2 m.h -1 ;
flotation rather than settling for the separation
stage. - or two-stage settling using a preliminary
sedimentation tank and a finishing settling
tank. This process is suitable for water with a
1.4.1. Clarification by coagulation, very high clay content.
flocculation, settling and filtration
For maximum efficiency, the preliminary
The above technique is reserved for water sedimentation tank must not be
having one or several of the following
characteristics:
1. General processes
required standards, the coagulant rate can be tank. This system achieves a water quality
reduced with or without a coagulant aid. that meets the required standards, without,
In countries where synthetic aids are however, reaching optimal levels (no solids
authorized in drinking water, the coagulant contact).
rate has been reduced by means of cationic The above-mentioned process of complete
coagulant aids. The type and amount of aid coagulation, flocculation, singlestage settling
are determined after laboratory testing. and filtration is by far the most commonly
The different reagents are only optimally used. This process lends itself to
effective when the flocculation process simultaneous complementary treatments
occurs in a medium with a high concentration such as the removal of iron and manganese,
of flocs. This is why flocculator/settling tanks and polishing. This process has the
are so effective, with their high concentration additional advantage of being able to operate
of flocculated sludge, as opposed to SS. It is as such for part of the year, or being
possible to use a conventional flocculator switched to partial in-line coagulation for the
followed by a short retention time settling rest of the time, in which case the settling
tank is bypassed or used as a single contact
tank before filtration for prechlorination
purposes.
1. Genera! processes
Figure 776. Treatment plant at Florence, Italy. Flow: 5400 + 9000 m3 .h -1 . Water
treatment by clarification-filtration.
rain for instance, the coagulant feed system material and serves roughing purposes,
is started up to make sure that the water is producing water with a normal turbidity
of the required quality. level of between 5 and 10 NTU. The
An interesting improvement on this second filtration stage clarifies the water
technique is the installation of two until the final required quality is reached.
successive in-line coagulation stages, with Figure 779 shows the flow sheet for the
the possibility of injecting coagulating and renovated water treatment plant at Ivry,
flocculating agents upstream of each stage. France, which supplies the city of Paris at a
The first filtration stage is filled with coarse rate of some 14,600 m3 .h -1 .
Figure 777. Flow sheet of the Nartassier plant in southern France. Flow: 2000 m3 .h -1 .
.
1. General processes
The Gileppe plant (Figure 780) treats After flotation, the water is
water from a dam. The water is acidic, remineralized with injection of CO2 and
coloured, rich in OM and relatively free of filtered on a neutralizing agent. This
minerals, with little SS. The floc therefore filtration process also removes residual
consists mainly of aluminium hydroxide on turbidity in the floated water, and retains
which the organic matter of the raw water the manganese precipitated by the increase
is partially adsorbed. in pH.
(by cascading or spraying), in the channels If the organic pollution in the water is
conveying the settled water (by air due only to volatile compounds, then they
injection), during certain treatment can be removed by stripping techniques.
processes on attached growth using air This applies to some groundwaters.
injection techniques (such as nitrification), Following stripping, the final treatment
or during ozonation. stage consists in filtering on activated
carbon, as shown in Figure 782.
Figure 783. View of the Menden treatment plant in Germany. Flow: 210 m3 .h -l . Stripping column
used for the removal of volatile solvents.
The efficiency of ozone on simple worth noting that where the treatment rate
aromatic compounds varies greatly and is too low, the degradation of certain
depends on the nature of the radicals fixed organic compounds leads to the formation
to the aromatic ring. of other compounds affecting the taste of
Ozone is particularly effective for the water (ketones, aldehydes). In this case
removing phenols, detergents, polycyclic it is important to increase the treatment
hydrocarbons, and certain pesticides, such rate, as well as the contact time, to ensure
as aldrin. On the other hand, ozone will not that the correct quality is reached.
remove other pesticides, such as lindane. The ozone dosage required to treat a
Ozone also considerably lowers the given water can be determined by
levels of haloform precursors, thus laboratory testing (refer to Page 356).
reducing the potential for the formation of In industrial plants, the ozone dosage
haloforms. can be adjusted as a function of the UV
Ozone also removes numerous sapid absorption level (an LE-Dumez patent).
organic compounds. Nevertheless, it is
Figure 784. The Bedok treatment plant in Singapore. Flow: 5700 m3 .h -l Ozonation unit.
vated carbon alone is not enough to new carbon. The activated carbon bed then
satisfactorily remove haloform compounds. becomes gradually exhausted and its
When the carbon is used in powder form efficiency gradually decreases over time.
prior to settling, the permanganate value or The drop in efficiency depends on the
the TOC can be expected to drop by about number and type of compounds being
an additional 10%. Powdered carbon can retained. When the carbon is considered to
also be used in severe cases of accidental be inefficient, it must be replaced or
pollution to clip the pollution peak. reactivated. The time that elapses between
the service entry and regeneration of the
With activated carbon in granular form,
GAC is called the "service life"..
all the organic compounds are removed by
Figure 785. LE-Dumez treatment plant at Viry-Chatillon near Paris. Flow: 4000 m3 .h -l .
GAC filter plant.
The removal process is due partly to the 1.5.4.3. Combined ozone-activated carbon
diffusion of organic compounds inside the treatment
pores of the carbon, and partly to biological This treatment is the ideal means of
activity of microorganisms inside the filter removing organic matter, and is used in
bed. The removal process may cease in many modern treatment plants (Nantes,
cold water. Morsang, and Mont-Valerien in France,
The service life of a given GAC used for Belgrade, etc.). This process optimally
organic matter removal purposes can be combines the advantages of both ozonation
predicted using numerous models and and activated carbon treatment.
laboratory tests on both the water to be Use of the process at the Morsang plant
treated and the carbon to be employed. The (phases 2 and 3) is illustrated in Figure 786.
Lyonnaise des Eaux-Dumez-Degremont By improving the biodegradability of the
model is based on adsorption of TOC. organic matter, the ozone lightens the
adsorption workload of the activated
carbon, thus increasing the cycle run
between two regenerations by between 20
and 50%.
Chap. 22: Treatment of drinking water
rine demand of the mains, and therefore plants. Figure 788 illustrates the flow dia-
the final injected dosage. This treatment gram in the Tours treatment plant in
is being adopted in a growing number of France, which treats groundwater.
1. General processes
Figure 791 illustrates how the aquifer underground reserve and the polishing
recharge system operates. stages.
For each aquifer, the requirements and
. Advantages of aquifer recharge timeframe of the recharge program can be
determined using a mathematical model
- natural removal of all pathogenic germs
established on the basis of various factors
and bacteria by the biological membrane
such as pump flow rates, rainfall, etc.
that develops in the bottom of the recharge
basins and by percolation through the
ground; . Maintenance of recharge basins
- reduction in the amount of assimilable When the loss of head through the
OM contained in the water through the recharge basins is too high due to an
biological action of the various treatment overdeveloped biological membrane, the
stages; level will rise. In this case, the feed to this
- availability of a substantial reserve of basin is stopped and the pit is allowed to
good quality water: the aquifer acts as a run dry. Following natural dewatering, the
storage facility and recharge is performed membrane can be easily removed just like a
only when the raw water is at optimum piece of carpet. This operation produces
quality. In the event of accidental pollution, little disturbance in the sandy infiltration
only the recharge operation is interrupted, surface, and the sand is replaced only after
distribution being continued from the several years of service.
Note: Potassium permanganate is not employed constant residual disinfectant level in the
as a disinfectant in communal water network.
distribution plants, except for certain pipe Applying disinfectant to water often leads to
cleaning operations. Potassium permanganate reactions producing by-products, which must
is used in private applications only. be minimized as far as possible. Nevertheless,
the measures taken to reduce the by-products
1.8.3. General conditions for good disinfection must not be detrimental to the action of the
disinfectant itself.
Disinfection is only effective when applied
to good quality water. The concentration of 1.8.4. Conditions of use
suspended solids should be as low as possible Effective disinfection entails combining a
and 1 mg.l-1 at the most. Bacteria and residual level C with a contact time T. The
microorganisms can agglomerate on the SS, result is the C.T factor:
which protect them against the effect of C mg.l-1 x T minutes = Concentration x time.
disinfectants. The relative effectiveness of various
The OM content, the TOC and above all the disinfectants differs from one bacteria to
content of assimilable organic carbon (AOC) another. For example, Figure 792 shows the
must be as low as possible. If these parameters time versus concentration conditions required
are too high, the water will consume the to remove 99.9% of a population of
residual disinfectant, thus allowing for the Escherichia coli.
possible reviviscence of bacteria. It would also
be difficult, if not impossible, to maintain a
1. General processes
The graph shows that ozone acts far A free chlorine rate of 0.5 mg.l-1 for a
more rapidly than chlorine or chlorine contact time of 30 minutes at a pH of less
dioxide, and that monochloramine acts than 8 is sufficient to remove patho genic
very slowly. bacteria and the poliomyelitis viruses.
Similarly, for a given disinfectant, the C.T During disinfection, it is important to
factor varies from one microorganism to check that the water is free of certain
another (Figure 793). residual organic compounds, which,
although allowed by legislation and not in
themselves a source of foul taste, may react
with the chlorine disinfectant to produce
foul taste.
1.8.4.3. Ozone
related to the degree of residual organic The above equation expresses how a given
matter, will not give rise to precipitation after dosage will remove a certain percentage of a
ozonation. given microorganism. For example:
- to remove 90.0%, the required dosage =
1.8.4.4. Chloramines D10;
Chloramines are hardly ever used for their - to remove 99.0%, the required dosage = 2
bactericidal effect, but for their remanent D10;
effect, particularly in the distribution of - to remove 99.9%, the required dosage = 3
relatively warm water (above 25°C), since D10;
they are more stable than chlorine at these The dosage, which is applied on thin water
temperatures. The use of chloramines is films, depends largely on the types of
likely to develop in countries where a high microorganisms to be removed:
residual disinfectant level is required at the
consumer tap and in order to reduce the
Dosage required
haloform content. Chloramines are used
Organisms to inhibit 99.9%
following prior disinfection with ozone (for
(in mW.s/cm2)
bactericidal effect), or at the end of treatment
plants employing ozone for oxidation at Escherichia coli 6
various stages. Pseudomonas aeruginosa 10
Bacillus subtilis spores 20
1.8.5. UV radiation
Escherichia coli are more resistant than
1.8.5.1. General principles most other Enterobacteriaceae, and the same
appears to be true of the polioviruses. Algae
- Disinfecting water by UV radiation involves and Protozoa require larger dosages.
applying a sufficient dosage required to
In general terms, it is thought that a dosage
obtain a given effect (for example, a given
percentage of removal). To obtain this dosage of between 20 and 25 mW.s/cm2 is sufficient
for effective disinfection in the production of
D, a given intensity of radiation, I, must be
drinking water. Ongoing research aims at
applied for a given time, t. D = I.t.
identifying the dosages required to inhibit
D = mJ.cm-2 (or mW.s/cm2 )
other organisms, such as Yersinia and
I = mW. cm-2 Giardia, which may require quantities that are
t = s. higher than usual. A dosage of 150 mW.s/cm2
- The variation in the number of surviving seems to be required to inhibit Giardia cysts.
microorganisms N is given by a law of the - The above dosages refer to UV radiation at
type: 253.7 nm, and not to total radiation.
Figure 795. The Cholet plant in central France, showing flotation of drinking water sludge.
1. General processes
Figure 796. General view of plant operated by the Syndicat de Production des Eaux du Cher
(Cher Water Authority), France. Flow: 700 m3 h -1 .
Chap. 22: Treatment of drinking water
The above types of plant produce two . Sludge extracted from the separation
types of sludge: stage. The volume of sludge depends on
. Filter wash water. This water is stored in a the type of water and the separation
tank with sufficient volume for water from methods. On average, the volume
one, or preferably two, filter washes. The represents about 0.5 to 2% of the total
water is then continuously pumped at low treated volume. If the sludge cannot be
rate to the head of the plant prior to transferred to the main sewer, it must be
coagulation. The average flow rate is processed on site using the thickening and
generally between 1 and 3% of the total dewatering techniques detailed in Chapter
plant flow. This type of recirculation causes 19. Aluminium sulphate used as a
no problems in the clarification stage. coagulant can sometimes be recovered by
acidification.
2. Special treatment processes
2.1.
REMOVAL OF IRON Note: Iron is often associated with manganese
(see par. 2.2) and/or ammonium (see par. 2.3).
the oxidation potential or the pH, or both. Unoxygenated waters from deep sources
The various applicable physical-chemical can always be oxygenated, even if a
treatments are based on these principles. chemical oxidizing agent is also employed.
Microscopic examination is also Aeration is necessary if the water contains
recommended to determine whether iron H2 S.
bacteria are present. Ozone is a choice chemical oxidizing
agent for the oxidation of iron. If the water
2.1.2. Iron removal by physicalchemical contains a high degree of OM or
means manganese, the required dosage must be
carefully calculated.
Together with oxidation by air and
filtration, this technique was for a long time
the most common method used, 2.1.2.1. Simple iron removal without
particularly for well water. If necessary, settling (aeration-filtration)
other treatments can be added, such as pH Principle
Correction, chemical oxidation, settling, This technique applies to raw water with
etc. a maximum iron level of 5 mg.l-1 and
which is otherwise free of other
2. Special treatment processes
dissolved iron and oxygen contents. The The above effects can be combatted by
reaction may be written as: additional treatments: oxidation with
potassium permanganate or ozone,
coagulation with aluminium sulphate, or
and the kinetics expressed by Stumm and flocculation with alginate.
Lee's equation:
. Conditions of use
The most common type of equipment is the
Pot is the partial oxygen pressure and k is a pressurized iron removal plant illustrated in
constant function of temperature and the Figure 538, which comprises:
buffering power of the raw water. - an oxidation tower containing a bed of very
Equation (2) shows that the higher the pH hard and porous volcanic lava which divides
and the closer the water is to being saturated the water, ensuring maximum contact with the
with oxygen, the faster the reaction. The air and thus a large oxidation surface;
oxidation time determined in the laboratory - a filter featuring backwashing and air scour.
on a synthetic water sample may be The filter can be combined with the oxidation
considerably reduced on most plants, due to tower.
certain catalytic effects resulting mainly from
previous deposits. Certain biological Gravity units contain an atmospheric
phenomena, investigated hereafter, have a pressure aeration system followed by an open
similar effect. On the other hand, oxidation of or closed filter. The latter may or may not
iron is retarded by the presence of humic feature a booster pump.
acids. Oxidation can also be performed with
The effective size of the filter medium can ozone, as at the Crissey plant (Figure 800)
be between 0.5 and 1 mm, with filtration rates which comprises:
between 5 and 15 m.h -1 . The weight of iron - a cascade aeration system located over the
retained per unit of filter surface varies from ozonation tank where initial oxidation is
200 to 1000 g Fe per m2 of sand, depending performed by the residual ozone released
on the circumstances. In general terms, dual-
from the ozonation tank;
media filters (anthracite + sand) are
- an ozonation tank for the main iron
particularly suitable for iron removal
applications. oxidation process;
- an alginate injection system to improve the
Substances such as humic acids, silicates,
quality of the floc;
phosphates and polyphosphates play an
inhibiting role in the oxidation, precipitation - a filtration system comprising a dualmedia
or filtration of ferric hydroxide. The presence filter:
of silica thus leads to the formation of the . filtration rate: 7 m.h -1 ,
complex FeSiO(OH)3 2+, which is stable in an . sand: ES = 0.5 mm; depth = 0.4 m,
alkaline medium, whereas the oxidation and . hydroanthracite: ES = 0.85 mm; depth =
hydrolysis of iron necessitate an increase in 0.5 m.
pH.
2. Special treatment processes
2.1.2.2. Iron removal with settling 2.1.2.3. Treatment combined with lime
Settling is required between the softening
aeration and filtration stages in the Lime softening, which causes the pH
following cases: to rise, is also conducive to the removal
- raw water with high iron content, of iron and manganese. Precipitation of
leading to excessive precipitates; ferrous carbonate is practically total at a
- presence of colour, turbidity, humic pH of 8.2, and that of ferrous hydroxide
acids, chelating agents, etc. that is practically total at a pH of 10.5 (see
considerably reduce the kinetics of the Figure 801a). If the redox potential is
oxidation and precipitation of iron and/or high, bivalent iron in solution may be
require injections of coagulant precipitated in the form of Fe(OH)3 :
(aluminium sulphate of ferric chloride) in
doses greater than ten grammes.m 3 of
commercial product. In the case of manganese, the
Solids contact settling processes are precipitation pH is around 9.2 for
well suited to treating water under the carbonate, and 11.5 for hydroxide.
above circumstances. If the raw water Partial carbonate removal at a pH of
contains no oxygen, aeration must be around 8 can therefore result in total iron
performed before settling. removal. In certain cases, particularly
with catalytic carbonate removal devices,
such
Chap. 22: Treatment of drinking water
as the Gyrazur (Page 673), satisfactory 2.1.3. Biological iron removal - The
removal of manganese can be achieved at Ferazur process
the same pH, whereas in theory manganese
removal is associated with total carbonate 2.1.3.1. How it works
removal at a pH of 9.5 or 10. This principle
As seen in Chapter 2, par. 1.6, numerous
is applied in the Ratingen treatment plant in
bacteria are capable of provoking the
Germany (Figure 801b), which is used for
biological oxidation of iron by taking up
partial carbonate removal, iron removal,
iron inside or outside their sheaths. These
manganese removal and nitrification.
bacteria are likely to develop under condi
.
2. Special treatment processes
Chap. 22: Treatment of drinking water
tions where the physical-chemical oxidation of it is often useful to run pilot tests to identify the
iron is not possible, e.g.: best operating conditions.
- concentration of dissolved oxygen between
0.2 and 0.5 g.m-3 ; 2.1.3.2. Advantages of biological iron removal
- pH: 6.3; The advantages can be summarized as
- redox potential: 100 mV; follows:
- rH greater than 14. - rapid oxidation and no need for an oxidation
If the rH is less than 14, the bacteria will not tower, with on-line injection of pressurized air
metabolize all the iron, while if it is greater normally being enough;
than about 20, oxidation and physical-chemical - reagents are not normally required for pH
precipitation compete with one another. Figure correction, and flocculation;
802 shows the conditions conducive to - high removal capacity. The iron is retained
biological iron removal. in very compact form, which means that the
In reality, the boundary between physical- filter can retain up to five times more iron than
chemical and biological iron removal is not is possible with the physical-chemical option;
well defined. In the physicalchemical zone, the - high filtration rate due to the solidity of the
presence of an inhibitor can slow down the biological floc with no detrimental effect on
oxidation process and allow the biological filter life cycles. Filtration
process to become predominant, which is why
2. Special, treatment processes
rates can in certain cases attain 40 or even 50 destroy the population of iron-removing
m.h-1 ; bacteria;
- economical washing with a percentage of - easier sludge treatment as the sludge is
wash water that is approximately five times compact.
smaller than for physical-chemical iron
removal. In certain cases the filters can be 2.1.3.3. Conditions of use
washed with taw water. It is advisable to A biological iron removal facility
avoid washing filters with treated water (Figure 803) comprises:
containing chlorine, as this could partly
Figure 804. Sablons-de-Guîtres treatment works in south-western France. Flow. 100 m3 .h -1.
Pressurized biological iron removal.
Chap. 22: Treatment of drinking water
Figure 805. The Lomé treatment works in Togo. Flow: 2200 m3 .h -1 . Four filters of 24.5
m2 each for gravity biological iron removal.
The overall result of reactions (1) and (2) The theoretical proportion is 1.9 grammes
is: of KMnO4 for 1 gramme of Mn, but in
practice this value varies with the pH and the
composition of the water. In actual fact, part
of the permanganate participates in the
oxidation of some of the reducing OM in the
The MnO2 deposit acts as a reactor, but water. It is also indispensable to carefully
the same quantity of oxidizing agent is check the dosage used, as an excess of
required as for reaction (3) given below. KMnO4 gives the water a pinkish colour,
In practice, instead of seeking to which later turns yellow in the water mains.
manganize a particular filter sand, a filter
material can be used that is composed largely If the manganese is not chelated the
of MnO2 ,which can be mixed in greater or optimal pH is around 7.2 - 7.3, with a contact
smaller proportions with sand, and which time of less than five minutes. When the
also requires regeneration at regular manganese is combined with OM, the
intervals. reaction time may increase to 20 minutes, in
which case the pH can be adjusted to above
2.2.2.2. Oxidation by chlorine dioxide 8.5 to accelerate the reaction.
The reaction is as follows:
Figure 808 illustrates the process for
treating coloured, soft surface water
containing large quantities of OM, requiring
The amount of ClO2 required to oxidize 1
complete clarification with coagulation-
gramme of Mn2+ is 2.5 grammes. Oxidation flocculation and settling. Such waters occur
by chlorine dioxide is little used since it is
in the granitic regions of the Paleozoic
relatively slow and acceptable rates can only
massifs, for example.
be achieved by greatly exceeding the
2. Special treatment processes
Figure 809. Treatment works in the Basse Vallee de I'Oust in western France. Flow: 400
m3 h -1 . Two 80 m2 Pulsator clarifiers and four 21 m2 Aquazur filters.
These waters may also require The ozone dosage introduced must result
remineralization (see Page 1226). only in oxidation of the Mn2+ into MnO2 . (If
excess ozone is added, the MnO2 is
2.2.2.4. Oxidation with ozone oxidized into MnO4 , giving the treated
water a pinkish colour.)
Oxidation of the manganous Mn2+ ion by
ozone is a rapid process. The reaction is as The Jonchay treatment plant in France
follows: uses this principle (Figure 810).
When the manganese is complexed with
OM and requires complete clarification
with coagulation-flocculation and settling,
The quantity of ozone required to oxidize ozone cannot be used as a preoxi-
1 gramme of Mn2+ is 0.9 grammes.
Chap. 22: Treatment of drinking water
dining agent for manganese. The Certain bacteria cause oxidation of Mn2+ by
ozone oxidizes the manganese only after indirect means, such as an increase in pH
destroying the organomanganous complex, associated with their growth. This increase in
which leads to excessive and costly ozone pH in the vicinity of the bacteria causes the
consumption, and the stabilization of the Mn 2+ to be oxidized by oxygen at an
colloids making coagulation and flocculation appreciable rate. For other bacteria, oxidation
difficult. Ozone must only be used to enhance is due to the action of an intercellular enzyme.
settling and remove organic matter in low Finally, with other bacteria, the soluble
dosages and for short contact times. manganese starts to be adsorbed onto the
Manganese may then be removed in two surface of the cellular membrane and is then
ways: either by KMnO4 before settling (as oxidized by the enzyme effect. The
shown in Figure 808), or by the ozonation of manganese then concentrates into a sheath
the settled water, in which case the surrounding a cell or a group of cells.
precipitated MnO2 is removed by the filters. The development of these bacteria requires
an environment with an EH above 400 mV.
2.2.3. Biological removal of manganese. The Furthermore, if this potential drops
Mangazur process significantly, certain bacteria are capable of
dissolving the manganese they previously
acquired thus transforming the MnO2 into
2.2.3.1. How it works
Mn 2+
Manganese can be biologically oxidized by
It has been demonstrated that the presence
numerous bacteria (see Page 29) in an aerobic
of easily assimilated OM encourages the
environment.
metabolism of certain of the bacteria types
mentioned above.
2. Special treatment processes
Figure 812. The Sorgues treatment plant in southern France. Flow: 1200 m3 .h -1 . View of
Mangazur reactors used for biological manganese removal
2. Special treatment processes
2.3. REMOVAL OF AMMONIUM then nitrate are laid out in Chapter 4, Page
299, and stipulate the following:
- a sufficient amount of oxygen to oxidize
Ammonium can be removed from water
the NH4 into NO3 ;
by either physical-chemical or biological
processes. - addition or presence of phosphorus to
support b acterial growth;
- a sufficient concentration of hydrogen
2.3.1. Physical-chemical processes
carbonates to supply the autotrophic
On Page 253, we looked at the effect of bacteria with the carbon necessary for their
chlorine on ammonium, which is removed development;
when the chlorine dosage is above the - a suitable pH (> 7.5); - a support material;
breakpoint. Under these conditions, various
other products (organochlorinated - a sufficiently high temperature: below
compounds, haloforms, etc.) may appear 10°C, the metabolism of the bacteria
that are undesirable in drinking water (see decreases rapidly, and oxidation of the
Page 44). Therefore, this technique is only ammonium slows down substantially
suitable if the quantity of precursors in the (accompanied by production of nitrites) and
water is very low, i.e.: - in waters with a stops completely below 4°C;
low OM content; - absence of all residual disinfectant.
- towards the end of the treatment line, after
the water has been clarified and refined. Actual conditions of use vary essentially
This observation is particularly true where according to the type of support used to
the shortcomings of biological ammonium grow the bacteria and the direction in
removal need to be remedied (e.g., when which the water to be treated percolates
the water is cold). The Morsang plant through this support.
(Figure 786) is one example of this
technique that uses a plug flow polished 2.3.2.2. Pozzuolana filters
water tank at the end of the treatment line.
Other oxidizing agents (ozone, ClO2 ,
In most countries, pozzuolana is cheap.
chloramines, KMnO4 ) are not effective in
A large ES is used (> 1 cm). During
the removal of ammonium.
operation, head loss is only slight, but at
Ion exchange: clinoptilolite, a natural the same time it is practically impossible to
zeolite, has occasionally been
wash the material inside the filter once
recommended to remove ammonium, but clogging reaches a level incompatible with
the price is prohibitive. correct operation of the nitrification unit.
Two methods are used to wash the filters: -
2.3.2. Biological removal of ammonium either regular maceration with chlorinated
water to limit development of bacteria and
2.3.2.1. Conditions of use accumulation of biological sludge. The
material is then rinsed with raw water, and
The conditions required for the
the treated water is discharged into the
development of the bacteria that
sewer for as long as it
biologically oxidize ammonium into nitrite
Chap. 22: Treatment of drinking water
takes to start up the reactions of nitrite and scaling in the form of a calcareous deposit
nitrate production, on the surface of the pozzuolana. The
- alternatively, every two or three years the technique is therefore labour-intensive.
material is extracted from the nitrifying
filter for more effective washing, to prevent 2.3.2.3. Biolite filters
compaction of the beds. Although This technique was developed by
biological nitrification lowers pH, the Degrémont, who have put it to good effect
aeration required for the biological reaction in the Nitrazur N reactor (see Page 740),
removes CO2 , hence increasing the pH. The which is used in the Louveciennes
treated water would then produce treatment plant near Paris.
2. Special treatment processes
The plant, which treats water from the - Biolite L filter material in 2 m deep
Croissy aquifer, is designed to remove5 layers;
g.m-3 of ammonium. The plant comprises: - nitrification air: the air/water ratio can
vary between 0.5 and 1;
. a raw water storage facility with a - phosphoric acid can be injected in
volume of 600,000 m3 , which is enough dosages of up to 0.2 g.m-3 to allow the
for five days operation at maximum rate; nitrifying bacteria to develop;
2.3.3. Biological treatment of water - where NH4 and Mn are present together
containing ammonium and iron or and the level of NH4 is too high, the redox
manganese potential of the filter medium may descend
to a level where manganese can no longer
Water obtained from great depths or be removed, in which case, two-stage
from certain eutrophic reserves will often treatment has to be considered;
contain ammonium and iron or manganese - manganese is the element removed last,
as well as organic matter. It is useful to after the iron and then the ammonium.
remember a few important guidelines:
- at each stage of treatment, it is necessary Note: Where a surface water intended for
to check that the available quantity of drinking requires complete clarification
dissolved oxygen, as well as the redox including polishing, a certain degree of
potential of the medium, correspond to the nitrification may be observed at several
requirements for each particular element; treatment stages, such as raw water storage,
- where Fe and NH4 are present together, sludge beds in settling tanks, sand filters, or
the ammonium can often only be oxidized GAC filters.
after the iron has been removed;
retains SO4 2- ions and some of the HCO3 - 2.4.1.2. Conditions of use
ions, and replaces them with Cl- ions when The Azurion nitrate removal technique
the resin is regenerated by sodium chloride. is employed at the Rest treatment works at
The concentration of Cl- ions in the treated Plouenan in western France, which treats
water may consequently be excessive. surface water. The flow sheet is given in
Certain resins combat this problem by Figure 817.
retaining mostly nitrates, but their During the dry season, eluates are stored
exchange capacity is lower. HCO-3 ion in a lagoon, whence they are pumped to the
exchange may offer a solution, but the river for dilution during the rainy season.
technique is both costly and delicate;
Ion exchange proper at the Rest plant
- removal of the regeneration eluates, works by countercurrent regeneration with
which contain all the sulphates and nitrates a drained layer (air blocking), although
from the raw water prior to treatment, plus other methods do exist (see Page 805).
part of the bicarbonate ions, and a high
proportion of the sodium chloride used for
regeneration. It is essential to provide a 2.4.2. Biological processes
discharge channel for these eluates;
- influence of temperature: the advantage of 2.4.2.1. Conditions
ion exchange is that it can be used These techniques use attached bacteria.
irrespective of the temperature of the water Tests have been conducted with
to be treated. autotrophic bacteria, which can be grown
using hydrogen as in the example below:
Chap. 22: Treatment of drinking water
With ethanol:
Some processes attempt to remove the
12NO-3 + 5C2 H5 OH --> 6N2 + 10CO2+ 9H2 O nitrate in the ground, a process that
+ 12OH- sometimes occurs naturally in certain
aquifers. However, such processes are dif-
2. Special treatment processes
Figure 820. Chateau-Landon treatment works in the Paris region, France. Flow., 50 m3 .h -1 .
Biological nitrate removal for drinking water supply.
2.5.1. Neutralization
Figure 821. Yaounde treatment plant (Cameroon). Flow: 4200 m3 .h -1 . Clarification with pH
correction.
Chap. 22: Treatment of drinking water
2.5.3. Softening Lime softening - or, to remove part of the carbonates from the
water while it is being clarified. This option
2.5.3.1. Lime softening requires lower settling rates corresponding to
the proportion of carbonates removed.
When the TH of the water is high and is
Furthermore, the pH may be too high and
accompanied by a high M alk., lime softening
require correction.
can be performed.
In waters with a high permanent hardness,
It can take place either:
lime-soda softening can be applied to establish
- catalytically, in a Gyrazur unit, if clarification the minimum M alk., then precipitate the
is not necessary and the magnesium content is calcium from the sulphates and chlorides,
low; thereby continuing the softening process. The
- or by settling in all other cases. M alk. should be restored to a certain degree by
The clarifying reagent used is ferric chloride. mixing with a fraction of non-lime-softened
At the treatment pH, aluminium sulphate would water, so that the final drinking water has a
lead to solubilizing of aluminium, which ' pleasant taste.
might subsequently reflocculate. A Gyrazur unit is used to partially soften the
Therefore, when treating drinking water, it is water in the Vifeneuve-La-Garenne plant. The
necessary: plant (Figure 825) treats water from a deep
- either, to remove all the carbonates from part underground source, with a TH of between 32
of the flow only and mix it with the rest, which and 73 Fr. deg. and M alk. of between 29 and
may also have to be clarified; 44 Fr. deg. The water also contains a lot of
ammonium.
2. Special treatment processes
After nitrification, the raw water is exchange their Na + ions for the Ca 2+ and
pumped into a Gyrazur reactor, where Mg 2+ ions in the water. The M alk. and
lime is injected at the rate required to the S04 2- and Clcontents of the water are
obtain a final TH of 30 Fr. deg. The water not affected.
then receives a small quantity of FeC13 , The resulting water has nil hardness, is
to ensure that any colloidal particles or SS corrosive, and is unpleasant to drink. A
escaping from the reactor will be retained certain level of residual hardness (8 to 15
on the filters. Dual-media filtration gives Fr. deg.) must be maintained by softening
the best results in this treatment line. The only part of the flow, which is then mixed
water is then ozonated. Treatment is with the rest of the water.
completed by chlorination before The advantage of this method of softening
distribution. is that it leaves no solid waste and can be
carried out under pressure. Highvolume
2.5.3.2. Softening with resins flows can easily be treated in continuous-
It is essential to consult local legislation operation ion exchangers using the CIE-
to check which resins can be used for Degremont process.
softening purposes. Cation resins
The choice will be made according to the amount of dissolved aluminium, which needs
total quantity to be distributed, and local to be reflocculated when the pH is adjusted.
economic conditions. . Activated alumina has already been
While allowing for any fluctuations in the successfully used as a filter material, which
original fluorine content - if any in the raw can be regenerated by aluminium sulphate or
water, the treatment should be adjusted to by caustic soda and sulphuric acid. The
give a fluorine content of between 0.4 and 1 removal capacity may vary from 0.3 to 4.5 g
mg.l-1 , depending on the climate of the of F- ions per litre of product in line with the
country concerned. initial fluorine content of the raw water and
Every precaution should be taken to the operating conditions.
protect plant personnel and to avoid
accidental overdosing. Lime softening of water
This method can be used provided the
2.6.2. Removal of fluorine water has a sufficient magnesium content,
Certain natural waters contain up to 10 mg.l-1 since it is the magnesia which adsorbs the
of fluorine. This figure needs to be reduced to fluorine. Otherwise the water must be
about 1 mg.l-1 with the permissible content considerably enriched with magnesium by
falling as the mean annual temperature rises. adding magnesium sulphate or using
The following processes may be used: dolomitic lime. About 50 mg.l-1 of
magnesium are required to remove 1 mg.l-1 of
fluorine.
Tricalcium phosphate
The affinity of fluorine for this substance has
Other processes
long been known, because natural
phosphates, such as apatites and If the fluoride ion is to be removed from
phosphorites, always contain a substantial the water at the same time as any excess
amount of fluorine (two to five percent), and minerals, reverse osmosis offers the best
the same applies to bones.The following solution to the problem. Electrochemical
substances can be used: processes are also available that use
aluminium anodes, although no major
- either natural products obtained mainly
industrial applications of this method
from cattle bones, such as bone ash ("animal
currently exist.
black") or powdered bone,
- or synthetic apatite, which can be produced
in water by carefully controlled mixing of In any case, preliminary, and preferably
lime and phosphoric acid. on-the-spot, testing and economic surveys
will be needed to determine the most suitable
form of treatment.
Alumina
Aluminium sulphate can be used, but a very
To sum up, fluoride removal requires
large dosage is required, ranging from 150 to
either a settling or a filtration stage. Filtration
1000 g.m , according to the circumstances.
is the more common industrial solution to
Water treated in this way may contain a large
date, with activated alumina being the most
frequent filter medium.
2. Special treatment processes
and the quantity of the various forms of which can be limited by chlorination
plankton. The filtration rate depends on the wherever possible.
permissible frequency of washing and the In raw water reserves, 2 to 3 g.m-3 of
automated filter control systems. If the copper sulphate or disinfection by
water contains plankton, care is required in chlorine-copper can destroy the algae or at
selecting the filtration rate, least limit their development.
- or coagulation-flocculation-settling (or Unfortunately, copper is toxic for fish and
flotation) followed by filtration. there is no treatment capable of destroying
Coagulation must be adjusted to cancel the algae without harming fish. Proliferation
zeta potential. If prechlorination is of algae can also be limited by using lime
possible at breakpoint, 98 to 99% of the to reduce the assimilable CO2 content.
plankton will be removed in the settled In raw water pipes, the same treatments
water. Otherwise, faced with the risk of are possible, as is the use of chloramines.
THM, preozonation will achieve similar Finally, development of algae in settling
results. In filtered water, the residual tanks and gravity filters can be reduced by
content is often below 10 algae per ml, adding a small quantity of PAC, which
with a maximum of 100. acts by forming an obstacle to the
penetration of sunlight into the
Limiting the development algae within water.
the treatment plant Covering plant such as settling tanks
Algae develop most abundantly under and filters is also an effective solution.
the effect of sunlight, in open tanks,
settling tanks, and reservoirs. Free
carbonic acid is essential for their
development,
Chap. 22; Treatment of drinking water
Where simple clarification is sufficient, a precipitating the heaviest matter so that the
standardized plant employing limited SS load of the raw water is within the design
equipment may be used. limits of the GSF.
The GSF is fitted with an electric raw
3.1. water pump feeding a Circulator settling
tank, operating under pressure, followed by
SEMI-PORTABLE sand filters, and returning the treated water to
GSF PLANTS a tank at least 10 metres above ground. Water
from this tank can be used to wash the filters
and the treated water can be distributed by
Degrémont GSF plants meet the above
gravity (Figure 827).
requirements. They are complete treatment
plants operating under pressure and are Three reagents are added by metering
designed to supply drinking water from pumps:
moderately polluted raw water with a - a coagulant before settling,
maximum turbidity of 500 NTU. For higher - a neutralizing or pH-correcting agent before
concentration levels, it is advisable to install settling or after filtration,
a static presettler between the water intake - a disinfectant after filtration.
and the GSF inlet pumps. Static presettlers The salient features of the GSF are listed
are usually simple pits capable of in the following table.
Variants
Alternative configurations offer:
- less advanced design:
• baffle-type flocculator with no mechanical
parts,
• dual-media filter washed with water alone
using a pump,
- alternative hydraulic layout:
• pressure filters and delivery to elevated
tank.
The same principle can be
applied to plants with higher flow
rates, in which case separate filters
can be used (Figure 831).
1. PRINCIPLE
Swimming pool water is regenerated applicable to public swimming pools and
through a closed-loop system, i.e., the private collective swimming pools. It is
water polluted by numerous swimmers is also suitable for leisure pool complexes
treated and pumped back into the pool. comprising swimming pools, artificial
Renewing the water completely would be rivers and various other amusement
prohibitive owing to the high cost of attractions.
purchasing and reheating the feed water, The installation used to regenerate
which needs to be of drinking water swimming pool water must be designed to
quality. offer high standards of health and hygiene
Fresh water does need to be added daily, although specific details may vary from
however, to compensate for water losses country to country owing to differences in
and to reduce concentrations of organic, national legislation. French legislation may
ammonia and mineral compounds, which be taken as a reference when no other
would otherwise increase continuously. legislation exists in a given country.
2. FRENCH LEGISLATION
2.2. FLOW RATE, RECYCLING - 8 h for a diving pool or scuba diving pool;
AND RENEWAL OF WATER - 30 min for a paddling pool;
- 1 h 30 min for other pools or parts of pools
2.2.1. The recycling and treatment whose depth is equal to or less than 1.50 m;
installation - 4 h for other pools or parts of pools whose
depth exceeds 1.50 m.
The role of the recycling and treatment Flowmeters are used to check that the
installation is to supply each of the pools water in each pool is recycled within the
managed with a constant flow of water that specified period.
has been filtered and disinfected in A single installation can treat the water in
accordance with applicable standards (see several pools provided that each pool has its
Page 1244). own supply, drainage and disinfection
For swimming pools whose total surface system.
area exceeds 240 m2 , the duration of the Water running along the edge of the pool
water cycle must be less than or equal to: should be drained off to ensure that it does
not flow back into the pool.
2. French legislation
2.2.2. Fresh water supplies The water in the pool must be renewed
at a rate of at least 0.03 m per swimmer
Fresh water is transferred by overflow daily.
to a separation tank or buffer tank up-
stream of the treatment installation. A Pools must be emptied completely at
meter checks the incoming flow rate. least twice a year.
2.3. WATER CIRCULATION bottom of the pool. Channels running down the
length of the pool or around the sides draw off
the polluted water from the surface (Figure
In new swimming pools, with the exception
832).
of paddling pools and wave pools during wave
- In the mixed hydraulics system, only part of
production, at least half the flow rate drawn off
the surface for recycling must be reinjected at the flow rate (at least half) is drawn off from
the bottom of the pool after treatment. the surface. Water is drained off partly from
the surface and partly from the bottom of the
Skimmers can only be installed in pools
pool (Figure 833).
whose surface area is less than or equal to 200
m2 . There must be one skimmer per 25 m2 of These methods effectively skim off the
water. pollution concentrated on the surface of the
pool.
Numerous constraints must be taken into
Two systems of water circulation are used
account in the design and manufacture of the
for swimming pools:
channels installed along the edges of the pool
- In the inverse hydraulics system, the treated to draw water off from the surface. However,
water is reinjected through an axial channel or inverse hydraulics are simpler and generally
a system of inlets at the more economical than mixed hydraulics.
Chap. 23; Treatment of swimming pool water
pumps to ensure that no waste particles of these flow rates, which may be mod-
enter the circuit. Each preliminary filter ified in certain cases according to the
comprises a simple removable basket that numbers of swimmers using the pool. It is
is easy to inspect and dean. important to select the type of pump best
The number of pumps and preliminary suited to the specific characteristics of
filters depends on the extent of the recycle each pool.
flow rates and the possible combinations
In certain cases, the type of pressure chlorine (and disinfectant in general) will
filter featuring backwash and a combined increase owing to the binding of the latter
air scour may be more suitable. This type of with non-retained matter.
filter is faster to wash and only requires a The higher consumption of disinfectant
small amount of water. is harmful in that it increases the
It is important to note that water, filtered concentration of chlorides in the water and
through sand, will not be perfectly clear favours the constitution of undesirable
unless a water coagulant is used. In organic chlorine compounds.
consequence, a very small dose of The coagulant is injected through a
aluminium sulphate should be injected prior metering pump as is the sodium carbonate
to filtering to coagulate the colloidal or any acid that may be required to bring
suspended solids, which thereby remain on the pH of the water into compliance with
top of the filter rather than circulating applicable standards.
through the whole filtering bed. If no
coagulant is used, the consumption of
chlorine or else as a solution of sodium The average total bromine content in swimming
hypochlorite (bleach) fed by a metering pump. pool water should be between 1and 2 mg.l-1 .
The water should contain between 0.4 mg.l-1 The water must have a higher pH than for
and 1.4 mg.l-1 of free chlorine. chlorine, ideally between 7.5 and 8.2.
The amount of total chlorine should not exceed The use of bromine is, however, a controversial
the free level by more than 0.6 mg.l-1 . issue.
Chlorine is the most commonly used
disinfectant. It does not 3.3.3. Ozone
inconvenienceswimmers, even in large
quantities, when the pH of the water is correct,
Ozone is the most powerful disinfectant
i.e., between 6.9 and 7.7. At this level, the
known. A particularly efficient amoeba
bactericidal properties of chlorine are
destroyer, ozone also breaks down certain
maximized and possible irritations
amino acids and turns the water an attractive
minimizedprovided that the dose corresponds to
shade of blue. Ozone does not favour the
the breakpoint. Relatively large quantities may
formation of products liable to irritate the
be required in certain cases (see Chapter 3,
mucous membranes nor does it affect the taste
Paragraph 12.3.2).
or smell of the water. No traces of ozone should
Compounds from the cyanogen chloride be present in water reinjected into the pool.
family may also be used. Prepared by Residual ozone must be destroyed (filtering on
chlorinating cyanuric acid, these compounds granular activated carbon, etc.). Swimming
include trichloroisocyanuric acid and sodium pool water cannot be treated with ozone alone
dichlorois ocyanurate. The products obtained as the remaining traces would make the water
hydrolyze in water and are in equilibrium with sensitive to subsequent contamination. A low
the hypochlorous acid. dose of chlorine or bleach is required to
complete the disinfection process.
Ozonized air is produced electrically. The
The balance depends on the concentration ozone is dissolved in a contact column. A
and the pH. The hypochlorous acid is also in residual ozone content of 0.4 mg.l-1 must be
equilibrium: maintained for 4 minutes if the ozone is to act
effectively.
The cyanogen chloride family therefore Without preliminary ozonation, the second
constitutes a reserve stock of disinfectants, disinfectant would need to be fed in much
which may be used to disinfect swimming pool larger quantities and the irritant effects of
water. The approval of the health authorities chlorine would be greater.
should nevertheless be obtained before using An ozone-based disinfection system is
these substances. The legislation of the country relatively expensive but operating costs are
concerned should also be studied. modest and the effects greatly appreciated by
swimmers.
3.3.2. Bromine
3.7.
LEISURE POOLS - The pools are often set in parks or wooded
areas where visitors are able to consume
food. The water may therefore contain a
With the development of amusement variety of suspended solids liable to block
parks, leisure pools are becoming the filters. This will create a need for more
increasingly widespread. The water is chlorine.
recycled on the same principle as for sports - The pH of the water is modified by the
pools but the following specific factors large quantities of dissolved CO
2
must be taken into account:
discharged by amusements such as wave
- The pools are used by large numbers of pools, waterfalls, flumes and water
visitors. cannons. Chlorine levels also fall.
- The shape and depth of certain pools may - The type of materials used, e.g., artificial
be irregular. It is vital to ensure that the rocks, make it more difficult to dean the
entire area is effectively covered by the surfaces in contact with the water.
renewal circuit. In certain cases, greater doses of reagents
- The temperature of the water is often may need to be added to the water.
considerably higher than in traditional
Figure 839. The Lauzieres sports and leisure pool at Chateau-Arnoux in the French Alps.
Recycled flow rate: 300 m3 .h -1 . Filters: 2 Hydrazur dual media filters, dia. 2 m.
24
MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER
TREATMENT
1. BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT
The biological treatment facilities of a cled liquors, particularly those produced
plant must be designed to break down the by sludge treatment (thickener tank over-
pollutants in raw water and in the recy- flow, filtrates, centrates, etc.).
1.2.
ACTIVATED SLUDGE - a stabilization tank (capacity: 25 to 501
per inhabitant), generally adjacent to the
PLANTS WITH AEROBIC aeration tank.
STABILIZATION Capacity of the stabilization tank is
This type of plant is designed for inversely proportional to that of the aeration
treatment of raw water and aerobic tank. Two other design criteria for this unit
stabilization of excess sludge in separate are temperature and the frequency of
units, without primary settling. One such extraction of stabilized sludge (see p. 940,
facility is the Sorgues plant (cf. Figures 841 par. 2.2.1).
and 842). The two main difficulties encountered in
In addition to careful pretreatment and operating this type of unit are:
pumping where applicable, the plant - low stabilized sludge concentration due to
consists of the following: the fact that thickening and oxidation of
- an aeration tank (BOD5 loading: 1 to 1.5 microorganisms are carried out in the same
kg/m3 .day), vessel. Providing a separate thickener
- a clarifier with bottom scraper and surface following stabilization affords only slight
skimmer (peak clarification rate: 1 to 1.5 improvement,
m.h-1 in the separate system), - removal of excess sludge, which
1. Biological treatment
requires prior settling of sludge during the sludge is thus removed during primary
stabilization process. settling, and only fresh mixed sludge
If a plant extension is planned, it can be reaches the stabilization tank. Its
worthwhile to include primary settling prior concentration must remain low enough to
to biological treatment. Excess activated allow mixing. Aeration with pressurized air
is preferable in this respect.
Chap. 24; Municipal wastewater treatment
Figure 846. View of the Cluses treatment plant, French Alps. Capacity: 33,000 PE. Activated
sludge treatment of municipal wastewater with primary settling and anaerobic digestion.
Figure 847. Activated sludge treatment of municipal wastewater with primary settling
and sludge incineration at the Bologna treatment plant (Italy). Capacity 450,000 PE.
Chap. 24: Municipal wastewater treatment
tingent upon the efficiency of the sludge BOD5 , with BOD5 loadings of 0.5 kg /m3 .d
dewatering and disposal process. In large for each filter.
plants, this usually includes incineration, as is
the case for the Bologna plant (Figure 847). .Plastic filter media
This type of filter is most frequently used
1.3.3. With the attached growth process in the pretreatment of concentrated effluent,
but it can also be implemented for removal of
1.3.3.1. Trickling filters carbonaceous pollution from domestic
wastewater alone (Figures 849 and 850). In
the case of filters operating in series, no
. Conventional filter media intermediate settling tank is provided.
This technique is still used to oxidize Filter effluent is recycled directly from the
carbonaceous pollution and sometimes filter outlet. Two stages are generally
ammonium in developing countries with required to produce effluent with BOD5 of 30
appropriate climatic conditions. Possible mg.l-1 . However, temperature has a marked
hydraulic designs are shown on page 309. effect on treatment efficiency.
The secondary settling velocities rarely
Most municipal wastewater treatment
exceed a peak value of 1.8 m.h -1 .
plants with trickling filters are designed to
Higher efficiency can be achieved when include anaerobic sludge digestion.
two trickling filters are operated alternately
(Figure 848).
1.3.3.2. Granular beds
When treatment is applied to municipal
wastewater in temperate regions, this
configuration allows removal of 95% of the A biological reactor such as Biofor (see
page 733) is placed at the downstream end of
the primary settling tank.
1. Biological treatment
This treatment line is best used in the page 1288), which permits treatment of
case of raw water with BOD5 on the order more concentrated wastewater. The
of 150 mg .l-1 . However, the most technique is suitable for use in small
frequently adopted solution combines treatment facilities and features an excellent
flocculation with primary settling (refer to degree of suspended solids removal.
Chap. 24: Municipal wastewater treatment
1.5.
BIOLOGICAL 1.5.1. Nitrification
In light of the kinetics of the nitrogen
NITRIFICATION oxidation reaction, two conditions must be
AND DENITRIFICATION satisfied. These are:
Preliminary biological nitrification of an . minimum sludge age (which is strongly
effluent provides for considerable reduction influenced by temperature). At 12°C, the
of oxygen demand in the watercourse. This minimum age is that which corresponds to an
can be combined with biological F/M ratio of about 0.15 kg BOD5 /kg SS.day.
denitrification for nitrogen removal. However, if the nitrifying bacteria have been
Therefore, biological processes are generally allowed to grow normally during the mild
selected for the removal of nitrogenous weather period, lower F/M ratios are often
pollution. defined
1. Biological treatment
Figure 852. The Valenton treatment plant for the SIAAP (Paris area, France). Capacity : 300,000
m3 .d -1 . Treatment of municipal wastewater from Paris and surrounding area. Overall view with
biological reactors for nitrification and denitrification.
Chap. 24: Municipal wastewater treatment
Figure 853. Ribeauvillé treatment plant eastern France. Capacity 12,000 PE Municipal
wastewater treatment by nitrification/denitnfication.
Even on this modest scale, all operations are industrial sources. The prescribed treatment
controlled by a PLC (closedloop control of level must result in maximum N-TKN
surface aerators based on flow rate and redox concentration of 10 mg.l-1 as a daily average,
potential readings). without exceeding a peak value of 15 mg.l-1 in a
2-hour sampling. To reduce the required
aeration capacity, which is designed based on
. Example 3: Wastewater treatment plant for
nitrification requirements, part of the tank
the Strasbourg conurbation (Figure 855).
volume is used to reactivate return sludge.
In addition to an Archimedes' screw lifting Sludge reactivation is followed by an anoxic
system and pretreatment facilities, the plant zone, placed upstream of the aeration tanks
consists of: proper (Figure 856).
- primary lamellae settling in 12 Sédipac U The plant comprises three separate treatment
settling tanks, lines. Each one (Figure 856) has a rectangular
- biological treatment by activated sludge aeration tank 117 m long, for water depth of
(aeration with air injection), 4.40 m. The tanks are subdivided by internal
- clarification in rectangular suction type partitions forming six channels operating in
settling tanks (18 settling tanks, SLG type). series.
Treatment capacity for the first stage is The first two channels (R1 , R2 ) are aer-
242,000 m3 .d -1 , of which 60% comes from
Chap. 24: Municipal wastewater treatment
ated and used for reactivation. The third 1.5.4. Attached growth process
(AN), which is mixed but not aerated, is the Nitrification can be achieved using the
anoxic zone. The last three (Cl , C2 and C3 ) attached growth technique. In the case of
are aerated and include the main trickling filters, nitrification is either
nitrification zone. achieved simultaneously with oxidation of
The total capacity of the plant is 34,350 m3 . the BOD5 , or as a second stage following
Oxygenation is carried out using a DP 230 an initial activated sludge or attached
porous-disc fine bubble diffuser, immersed
to a depth of 4 m.
1. Biological treatment
growth treatment stage. The latter, which uses Figure 857 shows an example of this type of
plastic filter media, can be as much as 4 m plant consisting of two Biofor reactors in
high. Sizing is always critical and the process series, each with surface area of 21.5 m2 ,
is generally a costly one (see p. 311). containing a 3-m deep layer of Biolite filter
When using granular filter media, medium. The first reactor is designed for an
nitrification is generally performed after average flow rate of 90 m3 .h -1 , the second for
BOD5 is removed in an initial reactor. N- a flow of 60 m3 .h -1 supplied from the
TKN loadings are 2 to 3 times higher than previous reactor. Treated effluent shows
those admis sible using a trickling filter. BOD5 = 25 mg.l-1 , NH4 + = 3 mg.l-1 ,
corresponding to removal efficiency of over
89% for BOD5, 88% for SS and 85% for N-
TKN.
.
1. Biological treatment
.
Chap. 24: Municipal wastewater treatment
rus in the thickener, which also helps sludge reduces phosphorus content of the
reduce odour. recycled biological sludge and enhances
Along the same lines, chemical phosphorus assimilation (Phostrip process)
precipitation of the phosphorus released in by the activated sludge in the aeration tank.
the supernatant of an anaerobic thickening This process is different from ordinary
unit located to receive part of the return chemical precipitation in the aeration tank
(see page 1296).
Figure 866. Aerial view of the water treatment plant in Bordeaux, France, serving the Bordeaux
conurbation. Capacity 90,000 m3 .d -1 . Aerial view.
1. Biological treatment
Figure 868. Metamorphosis/Attica combined treatment plant for municipal wastewater and night
soil (Athens, Greece). Discharge area accommodating 2 X 15 tankers of 20 m3 capacity
simultaneously
Chap. 24: Municipal wastewater treatment
COD = 4,000, SS = 2,300, N-TKN = 320 Final effluent has BOD5 < 20 mg.l-1 and SS
of which NH4 + = 290). content < 30 mg.l-1 .
After conventional pretreatment with Excess sludge resulting from biological
removal of H2S by the addition of iron treatment and collected in the primary
sulphate, night soil is flocculated using settling tank is pumped to the digester at
lime, then settled and thickened (Figure the same time as the sludge resulting from
869). night soil clarification. Following
Removal efficiency ranges from 85 to flocculation using a polymer, digested
90% for SS and from 65 to 70% for BOD5 . sludge is dewatered on four Superpress belt
The clarified supernatant undergoes filters (belt width: 3 m). The dry solids
activated sludge treatment concurrently content of the resulting cake ranges from
with the pre-settled municipal wastewater. 29 to 33%.
1. Biological treatment
Figure 870. View of combined pretreatment facility (night soil and municipal
wastewater) at the Metamorphosis/Attica plant in Athens, Greece.
1.8.
TREATMENT QUALITY To ensure efficient pretreatment and
primary settling of raw water upstream of
the biological treatment stage, and to avoid
The quality of biological treatment overloading the biological treatment units,
depends on far more than the biological it is imperative that wastes and primary
parameters themselves. Two essential sludge be removed regularly.
conditions must be satisfied to ensure
optimum efficiency of a biological reactor:
1.8.1. Settling test
- appropriate hydraulic design of the
various plant units, particularly the
secondary settling tanks for activated The test of settling volume of activated
sludge treatment, sludge which allows the determination of
- excess sludge must be extracted reliably the Sludge Volume Index (SVI), also
and without constraint and sludge treatment
facilities must be of suitable capacity.
Chap. 24: Municipal wastewater treatment
known as the Mohlman Index, is one of the oxygen production system, which is
most important routine checks (see p. 163). regulated accordingly. This is not true for
This index: stepped-feed or plug-flow tanks. The choice
- reflects the settleabiliry of sludge and the of multiple or single measurement points is
optical quality of the supernatant, made based on the size of the plant. In the
case of several measuring points, oxygen
- allows approximate determination by
needs are defined by comparison or
default of the sludge return flow rate Qr
weighting of the measurement results. The
required to maintain a given concentration C
location of a single measuring point is
(expressed in g.l-1 ) in the activated sludge
finally defined only following an
liquor of the aeration tank:
experimental phase of observation and
optimization, which must take into account
variations due to fluctuating flow rate
in cm3 .g -1 . However, Qr must not exceed the throughout the day.
limit value beyond which turbulence created The dissolved oxygen content of aeration
in the settling tank becomes excessive. tank effluent must be clearly positive (≥ 1.5
Another empirical formula provides an mg.l-1 ) to preclude fermentation or
indication of the maximum possible denitrification in the secondary settling
concentration G m.. in return sludge: tanks. The oxygen content required in other
sections of the tank depends on the latter's
hydraulic design as well as on the type of
To obtain a sufficiently representative treatment (particularly anoxic and anaerobic
SVI, the test should be conducted on a zones in the case of denitrification and
sludge sample such that the final volume of phosphate removal). In the case of removal
sludge, after a 30-minute settling time, of carbonaceous pollution only, the O2
ranges from 150 to 300 cm3 .g -1 . This content as measured by the probe must
sometimes requires preliminary dilution with remain above 0.5 mg.l-1 . In nitrification
treated effluent. zones, O2 content must sometimes exceed 2
mg.l-1 . In this case measurement of redox
potential is a useful monitoring aid, as it can
1.8.2. Checking dissolved oxygen
provide an indication of the evolution of N-
NHa and N-NO3 contents.
This check is essential in the case of
activated sludge processes so that oxygen 1.8.3. Bulking and foaming of activated
supply can be calibrated to needs. If
sludge
extensive use is made of electrometric
probes, readings can be taken in many
different points. These two phenomena can cause a sharp
Complete mixing tanks are an advantage drop in the quality of treated water due to
in this respect. In general, a single massive entrainment of SS outside the
measurement taken at a given point in the secondary settling tank.
tank provides a representative signal to the
1. Biological treatment
2. PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL TREATMENT
Advantages Disadvantages
. Virtually immediate adjustment to . Lower removal efficiency than biolog-
load variations. ical treatment (no removal of dissolved
pollutants).
* Higher removal efficiency than pri- * Greater sludge production.
mary settling alone.
• Good particle removal. o Cost of reagents.
. Compact facilities, less environmental o Risk of colouring (iron salts in septic
impact. waters).
. Simultaneous phosphate removal.
Experience has shown that the type and - synthetic polyelectrolytes are highly
dosages of reagents required vary greatly specific. When used alone, they cause
with wastewater composition. Flocculation flocculation of a fraction of colloids. For
trials are useful in determining the most fresh, diluted wastewater, anionic reagents
suitable aids, in accordance with the are suitable, while for septic, concentrated
following general guidelines: wastewater, cationic reagents are appro-
2. Physical-chemical treatment
priate. Catiomc reagents are commonly used BOD5 removal efficiency can be graphed
in flotation. fora given wastewater (Figures 872 and
With a suitable reagent at the proper 873). Removal rates of 75% may be
dosage, settling can remove as much as 60% expected for BOD5 , and more than 90% for
of the BOD5 and 75% of the SS. Therefore, SS. Like for surface water treatment, the
synthetic polyelectrolytes are usually used required flocculant dosage is temperature-
in binary compounds with a metal salt such dependent;
as chlorinated copperas, or in ternary - lime treatment, at a high pH (at least
compounds that include lime; 11.5), with addition of a moderate quantity
of iron salts gives results equivalent to the
- iron and aluminium salts can be used above treatment while also affording a
with polyelectrolytes or lime; the first significant degree of disinfection. However,
combination promotes flotation, the second, water treated by this process mu st be
settling. The effect of reagent or neutralized prior to discharge or subsequent
flocculation aid dosage on SS and COD or biological treatment, and this entails high
consumption of acid reagents. Furthermore,
adding high dosages of lime changes the
carbonate balance of the water, leading to
scaling of equipment and clogging of pipes.
Chap. 24: Municipal wastewater treatment
2.3.
PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL leads to extremely high treatment efficiency.
Applying the attached growth process makes
TREATMENT + ATTACHED for a compact treatment unit able to adjust
GROWTH quickly to load variations.
Combining physical-chemical treatment The attached growth process can be
with a subsequent biological treatment stage
2. Physical-chemical treatment
carried out through a preliminary addition Wastewater is pumped to the plant for
of oxygen to be dissolved in influent water treatment flow rates between 75 m3 .h -1 and
(Figures 874 and 875), or by injecting air 400 m3 .h -1 .
into the reactor, as in the Biofor and In Figure 878, treatment efficiencies
Biodrof processes. with and without reagents are compared for
A combination of the Densadeg and a flow rate of 75 m3 .h -1 over a 24 hour
Biofor unit processes is especially efficient period. The efficiency of the Densadeg
and has been implemented in plants like system for particle removal, and of Biofor
Gréoux-les-Bains (Figures 877 and 878), a for removal of dissolved pollutants, is
spa with a year-round population of 2,000 highlighted. Numerical results are
and 20,000 residents in peak season. summarized in the table below.
Figure 879. Treatment plant in Mannheim, Germany. Dry weather flow: 14,000 m3 .h -1 .
Municipal wastewater treatment by biological fiItration using 32 Biodrof units.
Figure 880. Treatment plant in Taif (Saudi Arabia). Capacity 67,000 m3 .d -1 . Overall
view.
3. Tertiary treatment processes
4. EFFICIENCY OF EFFLUENT
TREATMENT PROCESSES
No. Process
Efficiency ConcentratiEfficiency ConcentratiEfficiency ConcentratiEfficiency ConcentratiEfficiency Concentrati
on on on on on
% mg.l-1 % mg.l-1 % mg.l-1 % mg.l-1 % mg.l-1
11 Primary settling,
medium-rare
activated sludge and
granular
bed for nitrogenous 95 10 95 10 90 50 90 5 insig. (3) -
pollution
12 Primary settling, low-
rate acti-
vated sludge with
simultaneous
phosphate removal and
filtra-
tion 95 <5 95 <5 90 50 90 5 95 1(4)
13 Primary settling low-
rate acti-
vated sludge,
flocculation-clar-
ification, sand filter,
GAC and
chlorination ≅1 ≅1 10 95 5 95 1
14 Primary settling, low-
rate acti-
vated sludge,
flocculation-clar-
ification, sand filter,
GAC,
chlorination and
membrane
treatment (5) <1 <1 < 10 99 < 0.5 95 < 0.1
insig: insignificant N.B.1- In the case of water with low concentrations removal efficiency is lower than indicated in the table
(1) 70% of total N with denitrification due to the residual pollution in the form of inseparable or non-degradable malter.
(2) 75% of total P with simultaneous phosphate removal
(3) 80% of total P with simultaneous phosphate removal N.B.2- Regarding the disinfecting action of the various treatment lines, it should be noted that bactericidal
(4) 0.2 mg.l -1 with in-line flocculation using aid action is low despite a high, or even total rate of removal of parasite eggs.
(5) TDS:100 to 200 g.m-3
4. Efficiency of effluent treatment processes
4.2.4. Municipal treatment plant in Taif, sites. The risk of occasional human
Saudi Arabia consumption was taken into account.
Designed for a full treatment range, this plant Two parallel treatment lines are provided
treats wastewater as well as night soif for between the biological treatment stage
Saudi Arabia's summer capital city of Taif. (including nitrogen removal) and GAC
Final effluent is reused in the Taif city adsorption (Figure 886).
water supply system for irrigation, cleaning Mean effluent characteristics achieved are
and cooling, as well as at other industrial shown in Table 87.
Table 87. City of Taif (Saudi Arabia). Capacity: 67,000 m3.d-1 (two trains). Effluent
characteristics achieved from March 1988 to February 1989, with 50% of the nominal load
as pollutant flux rate.
5. SLUDGE TREATMENT
5.1.
MAIN SLUDGE
Process selection is difficult and the
TREATMENT following factors must be taken into account:
PROCESSES - wastewater characteristics and type of
treatment,
The choice of a sludge handling process is - plant size,
critical, as the continuity and the quality of - capital resources,
water treatment depend on it. A municipal - ultimate use of sludge and therefore the
wastewater treatment plant produces form of the finished product.
approximately 2 litres of liquid sludge per Table 88 compares the main features of
population equivalent and per day. various sludge handling processes.
Fresh sludge + thermal Minimum fuel consump- Very high capital cost. Incineration (site-specific) >300,000
conditioning + filter press tion achieved through en- High risk of odour. Spe-
+ incineration (ash) ergy recovery from incin - cial treatment of thermal
eration. liquors.
AEROBIC STABILIZED Simple Poor filterability of
SLUDGE sludge. Risk of odour.
Stabilized sludge and dry- Lowest capital cost. High space requirement. Agricultural reuse of liq- >10,000
ing beds. DS = 30% Uncomplicated. Limited reduction of or- uid or solid phase. Land-
ganics. High labour flu.
requirement for removal
of dried sludge. Subject to
weather conditions.
Liquid stabilized sludge. Low capital cost. Uncom- H i g h s t o r ag e s p a c e Agricultural reuse of liq- < 5,000
DS = 2-5% plicated. requirement. High cost of uid product.
land disposal.
Stabilized sludge and Moderate capital cost. Reagent costs, although Agricultural reuse. Vis- < 15,000
drainage. DS = 5-10% Simple. Moderate storage these are offset by lower cous but pumpable prod-
requirement. land disposal costs. uct.
Stabilized sludge and Moderate capital cost. Reagent costs. Pasty prod- Agricultural reuse possible 10 to 100,000
dewatering on belt filter Compact facility. Easy utt not always accepted using fertilizer broadcast-
or centrifuge after condi- monitoring. for landfill. er. Landfill difficult.
tioning using polymers.
DS = 15-20%
Stabilized sludge and fil- High cake dryness. High reagent costs. Mon- Agricultural reuse possible 30 to 100,000
ter press after condition- itoring critical. Relatively using manure spreader.
ing using inorganic re- high capital cost. Landfill possible
agents. DS = 30-35%
Chap. 24: Municipal wastewater treatment
Digested sludge and Moderate capital cost. Reagent costs. Pasty prod- Agricultural reuse possible 40,000 to 100,000
dewatering, after polymer uct not always accepted with fertilizer broadcaster.
conditioning, by belt filter for agricultural use.
or centrifuge. DS =
20-25%
Digested sludge + filter Good cake dryness. Little High capital cost. Signif- Agricultural reuse of 50,000 to 300,000
press and conditioning reagent use required. icant reagent costs. Mon- peary product. Landfill.
using inorganic reagents. itoring critical.
DS = 35-40%
Digested sludge + Cher- Excellent cake dryness. Very high capital cost. Agricultural reuse of >300,000
mal conditioning + filter Little or no use of con- Risk of odour. Treatment peary product. Landfill.
press. DS = 50% sumables. of thermal liquors. Strict Incineration (after break-
maintenance. ing up of dumps).
Digested sludge + dewa- Varying dryness of final High capital costs. Re- Agricultural reuse of pasty > 100,000
tering with belt filter of product through mixing agent costs. Fuel costs if and peaty products.
centrifuge + partial dry- of dried and dewatered all sludge is dried. Humus. Landfill. Inciner-
ing. DS = 20-25% and sludge. Thermal auton- ation.
80-90%. omy for dry solids of
30-40%.
Digested sludge + dewa- Varying dryness of final Very high capital costs. Agricultural reuse of
tering on filter press + product through mixing High reagent costs. peaty product. Humus.
partial drying and re-mix- of dried and dewatered Landfill. Incineration.
ing. DS = 50-60%. sludge. Thermal auton-
omy.
Chap. 24: Municipal wastewater treatment
The cost of operating a water treatment - personnel expenses, with number and
plant is a heavy burden for a township. From qualification of staff depending on the size
the outset, design must be carried out with a and complexity of the plant as well as on its
view to keeping operating costs to a level of automation and control (personnel on
minimum. call, remote monitoring, centralized technical
Essential components of plant operating management and operating assistance),
costs are: - actual cost of sludge disposal, including
- power consumption, which is a factor in transport, land disposal or incineration,
defining: - maintenance and repair costs.
e the type of lift equipment (screw or pump), Despite the complexity, calculating annual
* the process (activated sludge, trickling costs that include depreciation of capital
filter, granular bed), outlays offers one of the most realistic bases
* the oxygenation system (surface aeration, for comparison among several treatment
fine-bubble diffusers, deep basin, etc.), options.
- cost of consumables, particularly in relation Calculations should reflect the fact that
to sludge conditioning (inorganic or organic during most of its service life, a wastewater
reagents, fuel-oil, etc.), treatment plant operates below its nominal
capacity.
6.4.
BIOGAS RECOVERY - the needs to be satisfied (heat, power),
- the cost of supplemental energy (electricity,
AND REUSE fuel-oil, natural gas),
- objectives (cost saving, flexible operation,
Several techniques are available for reliable service).
recovery of waste heat from a water Generally, selling gas for use outside the
treatment plant. plant is possible but not profitable in light of
the requirements for such supply: reliability,
One of the major sources of waste heat is treatment, compression, gas enrichment or
the effluent itself. Although studies have odorization, etc. The same holds in the case
looked at the feasibility of installing heat of reuse as vehicle fuel, which demands
pumps to take advantage of the temperature treatment, bottling at pressures of about 100
differential between the effluent and the bar, adaptation to automobile engines, etc.
receiving medium, or between the effluent Utilizing the gas to satisfy the plants
and the atmosphere, the heavy investments energy requirement is a much more
required by the technique have precluded its costeffective solution. One key advantage of
use on any significant scale. sludge digestion gas is that it is relatively
easy to store for use in meeting varying
In treatment plants equipped for sludge demands throughout the day.
incineration, smokes are viewed as a
significant heat source, through heating of 6.4.1. Direct heat production
the combustion air. Turbo-alternators may
also be provided to generate power from
This type of reuse is the simplest, and
incinerator gases, but output barely exceeds
usually the most cost-effective, especially if
the power requirement of the incinerators
themselves. This type of recovery is therefore needs are relatively constant. Heating the
not worthwhile; moreover, power generation digester units is one common solution, but
the ideal reuse application involves thermal
is directly dependent on operation of the
incinerator and cannot be adjusted. conditioning of the sludge. Using suitably
designed boilers, the gas is used to maintain
In thermal sludge conditioning facilities,
the correct temperature in the digesters and to
heat is commonly recovered using a
bring the sludge to heating temperature.
countercurrent heat exchanger (see page.
961). The same system is suitable for the
heated effluent from a methane production If incineration is provided, gases can be
unit. used as an additional heat source. However,
the sludge first must be thoroughly
dewatered to ensure spontaneous
Reuse of digestion gases is the greatest
combustion, because the dry solids have a
potential source of energy recovery. low calorific value.
Utilization of the gas depends on:
6. Treatment plant engineering
Viable reuse applications include space exhaust gases, which is then used to heat the
heating, or better yet, hot water production digesters. The ratio of electric power
for which demand is more stable. supplied to heat recovered varies according
to the technique implemented.
6.4.2. Mechanical energy
production using heat There are three types of heat engines:
engines
Gases can be used to: Diesel dual-fuel engines
- provide electricity, via alternators, These commonly used engines offer the
- or to drive rotary machines directly (air advantage of being virtually unaffected by
blowers or pumps), but this solution lacks variations in the calorific value of the gas,
flexibility and is now rarely used despite and are safe to operate as well. Ignition
its theoretically high energy efficiency. occurs by injection of the pilot charge,
consuming 6 to 7% of the total consumption.
The power output is 2.1 kWh per Nm3 of gas
6 4.3. Electric power at full load, with recovery providing 2.4
generation thermies, for a total efficiency of about 70%,
taking into account the pilot charge.
Electric power generation entails At half-load, power output is 1.9 kWh per
recovering heat from cooling systems and Nm3 of gas, with overall efficiency on the
order of 62%.
Chap. 24: Municipal wastewater treatment
6.5.
ENVIRONMENTAL Nitrogen compounds
PROTECTION Ammonia NH3
Amines R-NH2 , R2 -NH, R3 -N
6.5.1. Odour Amine oxides RH2 -NO, R2 H-NO, R3 -NO
Nitrogen oxides NOx
6.5.1.1. Pollutants encountered in the air Sulphur compounds
around municipal wastewater treatment
plants Hydrogen sulphide H2 S
Odours emanating from water Mercaptans R-S-H,
treatment plants are due to gales or fumes Hydrocarbons
given off by some of the components of Saturated and/or unsaturated Aromatic
wastewater. They are also caused by Chlorine derivatives
compounds formed during the various
Other compounds
stages of treatment. The characteristics of
the wastewater and of the treatment Aldehydes R-CHO
processes (particularly sludge treatment) Acrolein CH2 =CHCHO
affect the nature and intensity of plant Alcohols R-CH2 OH
odours. The following list gives an idea of Saturated and/or unsaturated fatty acids
the wide variety of pollutants to be
Skatole
encountered in the atmosphere of a
treatment plant. Diamino sulphides R2 =N-S-N=R2
Chap. 24: Municipal wastewater treatment
ple, when caustic soda is used as a scrubbing There are two ways to gauge process
agent, its consumption by the CO2 in the efficiency:
scrubbed air cannot be avoided, yet the CO2 is - Analytical method: gas bubbling is quick
not a problem. and easy to perform but can only measure
The Degrémont gas-liquid contactor is a certain compounds (H2 S, mercaptans, amines,
packed column that is most often operated light aldehydes). Gas chromatography
under countercurrent, and in some specific provides complete measurement results, but is
applications, cocurrent flows. cumbersome and costly.
A single stage often proves insufficient to - Olfactometric method: based either on the
remove a wide spectrum of odours. The perception threshold or on intensity of odours
solution lies in providing several stages in above the threshold. It is worth recalling here
series, in order that specific scrubbing liquors that physiological perception of odours is
may be used. expressed logarithmically. Several
experimental laws have been proposed to link
Choice of scrubbing liquors the perceived odour intensity to the
concentration of a compound.
The following scrubbing liquors are
available for each stage: Thus, measurement of odours remains a
difficult task. Olfactometry is a rather
- once-through water wash (rarely sufficient),
cumbersome method and does not allow
- acid scrubbing for ammonia and various determination of efficiencies. Analytical
amines, methods, despite their cost and failure to
- alkaline scrubbing for sulphur compounds, measure the full range of pollutants, do
- oxidising scrubbing for sulphur compounds provide the best inventory of odour sources
and VFA, and therefore constitute an optimum solution.
- where indicated, reducing scrubbing to Determining treatment efficiency is
remove residual oxidant (chlorine or ozone) nonetheless a delicate business, in light of
odours at the deodorizing unit outlet. these measurement difficulties.
In all but the first of the above cases, a
reagent make-up is required. Dosage can be 6.5.2. Noise
regulated based on the pH, the residual
oxidant measurements or the redox potential.
6.5.2.1. Characteristic parameters
In addition to the above, make-up water is
Noise is a complex sound, characterized by
needed to compensate for various losses.
the frequency and amplitude of the pure
Some applications dictate the use of softened
sounds comprising it. It is expressed in bels or
water.
decibels (dB) according to a logarithmic law.
Noise measured at the receiver, or sound
Efficiency pressure level Lp is expressed by:
Efficiency depends on the quality of the air
to be treated. Following scrubbing, air is Lp = 20 log Pi/Po
never completely free of odour. Efficiency
appears low if the treatment air itself is only
slightly foul.
Chap. 24: Municipal wastewater treatment
Table 91. Noise levels deemed normal for varions zones and periods of the day.
Period
Zones Day Intermediate Night
7.00 - 20.00 6.00 - 7.00 22.00 - 6.00
and 20.00 - 22.00 dB(A)
dB(A)
Rural, hospital, recreational 45 40 35
Suburban residential, light road
traffic 50 45 40
Urban residential 55 50 45
Urban or suburban residential with
some workshops or shopping cen-
tres or with heavily-trafficked 60 55 50
roads
Business and industry dominant 65 60 55
Industry (heavy industry) dom-
inant 70 65 60
Chap. 24: Municipal wastewater treatment
environmental impact study taking into 6.5.2.3. Sources of noise in the water
account the initial sound level of the site and treatment plant
the noise level of the plant in operation. Noises can be classified in two broad
The noise level produced by a plant must categories:
comply with criteria of perceived sound - noises produced by electromechanical
levels measured at a distance of 2 m from systems:
the outside walls of premises lived in or • aerodynamic noise (fans,
occupied by individuals not connected with compressors, blowers and air in the
the plant. Noise level values are summarized pipes),
in Table 91.
• electromechanical noise (motors,
Some reference values are shown in Table reduction gear, pumps, gears, etc.);
92.
- noise produced by water, or hydrodynamic
Doubling the sound level leads to a 3-dBA noise (flow, mixing, splashing, etc.).
increase in the sound pressure.
These noises can be summarized unit by
Doubling the distance from the noise unit for the treatment plant, as shown in the
source to the receiver leads to a 6 dBA non-exhaustive Table 93 opposite.
decrease in the sound level.
6.5.2.4. Guide-lines for acoustic design Pretreatment and other noisy machinery are
. Build at a distance and provide sound worth housing in buildings as well.
barriers
Site selection is based on several criteria: Construction of pipe galleries is another
distance from residential areas, prevailing effective measure, particularly for the
winds, natural sound barriers (woods, hills, conveyance of pressurized air.
etc.). Plant structural design is also a factor in
protection against noise. . Use the mass effect
Plant layout can also contribute to For a given unit of surface area, every
minimizing noise pollution by providing doubling of wall weight results in a decrease
sound barriers to refract sound waves of 6 dBA in sound level. Provide:
radiating from a machine away from sensitive
- thick building walls,
areas. Moreover, noisy equipment must be
grouped in one location placed as far as - high density insulation materials,
possible from occupied areas of the plant, - earthfill or sand barriers,
particularly the control room. - substantial thicknesses of sound-absorbing
Buildings can be surrounded by earth insulating coverings,
embankments or walls. - large bases for rotary machines.
Figure 895. Activated sludge municipal wastewater treatment plant at Les Deux Alpes, France.
Capacity 1,500 to 15,000 PE.
6. Treatment plant engineering
6.7.
UPGRADING EXISTING - Technical alterations in the interest of the
environment, which may include:
PLANTS - covering sprays caused by surface
The waterworks of industrial countries are aerators to minimize noise and aerosol
ageing, particularly as a result of the rapidly projections,
changing environment in which they - replacing surface aerators with
operate: discharge conditions, urbanization,
pressurized air oxygenation,
standards of comfort, obsolescent
- covering unira such as pretreatment,
technology.
sludge pits, thickeners; keeping them at
Upgrading existing plants must focus on
under-pressure and treating foui air to
three key aspects:
limit odours.
- modernization of equipment and process
technology,
- Technical alterations in the interest of
- improvement of performance for the plant
reliability, such as:
as a whole,
- installation of a remote monitoring
- definition of sludge treatment in light of
system, allowing long distance control
actual disposal options.
of operation and rationalized, efficient
intervention when needed,
6.7.1. Modernization - installation of sensors such as oxygen
and/or rH sensors, concentration
Examples of modernization are as follows: measurements (liquor and secondary
- Technical modifications to improve the sludge), sludge blanket monitoring, flow
efficiency of an installation such as: rate control. Signala from sensor
- pretreatment: devices are processed by PLC for
control of oxygenation, exc ess sludge
• automatic screening or even addition extraction, and recycling systems,
of straining,
- installation of a centralized technical
• mixing/aeration of the grit removal
management system for optimum
unit using aerating pumps to improve process and maintenance management,
grease separation,
- provision of a computer-assisted
• conditioning of by-products, maintenance or artificial intelligence
compacting of screenings, grit drying, system.
incineration of grease,
- clarification: replacing a scraper bridge
6.7.2. Performance lmprovement
with a suction bridge.
courses are more clearly evaluated, effluent - dynamic thickening of sludge (Degrémont
quality is subject to more frequent control, GDE screen) in order to store thick sludge and
costs are more accurately known.... The achieve a three- or even fourfold reduction in
performance of water treatment plants is now the quantity of water to remove,
the object of detailed analysis. - dewatering on belt filter or by centrifuge,
All of the above parameters can lead to a
revision of quality, goals and a decision to b) for fresh mixed sludge:
upgrade the plant.
- flotation of biological sludge,
This can involve reducing the nominal flow
- sludge digestion,
rate of the existing plant, often in conjunction
with an extension, or adding a treatment stage - dynamic drainage or mechanical dewatering.
such as:
- sand filtration to improve SS levels, If a product of higher commercial value,
- biological filtration to reduce concentrations (e.g., compost or pellets) is sought, filter
in BOD5 and SS (Biofor or Biodrof), presses, driers, pelletising units and
composting plants must be considered as
- an anoxic zone in the case of low-rate
additional equipment.
activated sludge treatment, for denitrification,
- biological filtration for nitrification (in
addition to reducing SS and BOD5 levels), - Landfills
- simultaneous phosphate removal, Dryness is critical in the case of landfilling.
In addition to systems designed to reduce the
- phosphate removal in tertiary treatment (with
weight of dry solids and the volume of
clarification or filtration) to achieve
thickened sludge, provision must be made to
simultaneous reduction of P and SS.
produce cakes with a high enough dryness,
such as:
6.7.3. Defining sludge treatment in light of - belt filters or centrifuges followed by lime
actual disposal options treatment or composting,
- filter presses,
Sludge disposal is posing an increasingly - sludge incineration, alone or combined with
critical problem. Landfills are dosing. household refuse.
Agricultural reuse is subject to land disposal
schemes and operating restrictions. Plant
upgrades must be based on real disposal Here again, dryness is vital. For that reason,
options, and include the engineering and thickener performance is critical; separate
equipment to ensure feasibility of disposal thickening of activated sludge, by flotation, is
through time. Disposal options include: recommended.
1. BOILER WATER
1.1. process (between 95 and 110°C) followed
by a softening treatment (this method is not
TREATMENT OF MAKE-UP widely used nowadays);
WATER - carbonate removal through a carboxylic
ration exchanger (see Page 236) followed
1.1.1. Carbonate removal and softening by a softening treatment and including the
facilities physical removal of CO2 .
Boiler make-up water must be treated in In order to facilitate the user's choice,
an ion exchanger to reduce hardness as table 96 shows the results that may be
much as possible. This is the absolute expected of each method.
minimum in terms of treatment. Whichever process is adopted, the
At very low pressure levels, simple oxygen must subsequently be removed from
softening techniques (ration exchangers the water through physical (deaeration) or
regenerated with sodium chloride) are still chemical means. The water must then be
sometimes used, whilst demineralization is conditioned.
preferred at high pressure levels. At Figures 898 and 899 show two possible
intermediary pressure levels, carbonate installations.
removal, silica removal (where necessary)
and softening are combined in a variety of
1.1.2. Total demineralization systems
different methods. The three most
commonly used techniques are described When the above processes do not allow
below: the production of water of satisfactory
- carbonate removal using cold lime process quality, total demineralization must be
performed.
followed by optional silica removal using
iron chloride and aluminate and a softening The technique adopted will depend on
treatment (see Pages 146 and 149); the composition of the make-up water, the
- carbonate removal using hot lime pressure and the type of boiler. Possible
methods are listed in table 97.
Chap. 25: Treatment and conditioning of industrial water
If the requisite SiO2 ratio is not attained at the minimum values of M alk., the levels of silica and alkalinity in the
M alk.
water of the boiler must be readjusted.
1. Boiler water
Chap. 25: Treatment and conditioning of industrial water
Resistivity Silica
in thousands of ohms.cm in µg.l-1
1. Primary demineralization
cocurrent regeneration 10 to 1000 100 to 500
2. Primary demineralization
countercurrent regeneration (UFD, etc.) 500 to 2000 20 to 100
3. Primary demineralization
continuous system 500 to 2000 20 to 100
4. Demineralization through
reverse osmosis 10 to 300 100 to 2000
Primary demineralization (1, 2, 3)
completed by a polishing cation exchanger 500 to 3000 20 to 500
Primary demineralization (1, 2, 3, 4)
completed by a mixed bed or polishing
treatment line 5000 to 20 000 5 to 30
These values are given for reference only. Values may differ for highly mineralized polluted raw water or
water that has undergone insufficient preliminary treatment.
1. Boiler water
1.2.
CONDITIONING BOILER During the subsequent conditioning process,
which is an essential complement to the
WATER water treatment program, specific doses of
The treatment and conditioning of water conditioning products are added to the water
must satisfy three main objectives: by means of metering systems.
- continuous heat exchange; The most commonly used products include:
- corrosion protection; - phosphates - dispersants, polyphosphates
-production of high-quality steam. - dispersants.
The water treatment facilities purify and Reacting with the alkalinity of boiler water,
deaerate make-up water or feedwater. these products neutralize the hard
Chap. 25: Treatment and conditioning of industrial water
Figure 905. Power unit in Alberta (Canada). Flow race: 2 X 540 m3 .h -1 . Demineralization
station on a skid, mixed-bed type.
2. Condensates
The cycles are long owing to the fact that - correct size distribution of resin particles;
TDS is very low. Secondary pollutants, - systematic cleaning of resins with air and
even when present in minimal quantities, water to remove suspended solids.
accumulate sufficiently to affect the
classification of resins following transfer to
2.1.1.3. Very high-rate demineralization
the external regeneration column.
using a ration exchanger and a mixed
bed
The processes below are implemented to When condensed water is conditioned
reduce ion leaks caused by with large quantities of volatile anions
crosscontamination (non-regeneration of (ammonia, morpholine or
resins caused by incomplete separation cyclohexylamine) and the increase in
prior to regeneration) or to improve salinity from leaking raw water is
separation: negligible, the mixed bed is unbalanced
- large quantities of extra reagents owing to the fact that there are far more
(ammonia, lime - Calex process - caustic canons than anions other than OH- - to be
soda); trapped.
- numerous and relatively complex resin A ration exchanger installed upstream of
transfers. the mixed bed removes NH4 + ions or
amines and considerably extends the
The solution recommended by Degrémont operating cycle. Corrosion products are
consists of a triobed with an inert filtered at the same time and in
intermediate layer of resin. This system consequence the sole function of the mixed
greatly improves the classification of bed is to perform demineralization.
resins. The main features are as follows: The above system also protects the
- no risk of mixing resins in the
regeneration columns;
Chap. 25: Treatment and conditioning of industrial water
satisfies the two requirements described It should be noted that this process offers
earlier for this type of system. filtration of exceptional quality.
However, although the initial investment
is lower, operating costs are far higher 2.1.1.5. Filtration on an electromagnetic
owing to the fact that powdered resins are filter
costly and need to be replaced frequently, This filter consists of a column of steel
even when they have only been in operation beads packed into a vertical chamber and
for a short period of time. Powdered resins controlled by an external electromagnetic
tend to become clogged by suspended field. Working at high rates and easy to
impurities or else a leak in the condenser clean, electromagnetic filters make it
causes salinity to increase to an abnormal possible to filter out certain metallic oxides
level. from the condensate water at high
The maximum operating temperatures temperatures without using coating
applicable to the above technique depend products. This process is relatively costly.
on the thermal resistance of the resins
employed and on whether silica needs to be
2.1.2. Conditioning
removed from the water. In the latter case,
the maximum temperature will range The chemical conditioning of HP
between 40°C and 50°C. condensates is performed using ammonia or
morpholine (see Page 55).
Chap. 25: Treatment and conditioning of industrial water
tems in the heating installation from Film-forming amines isolate the metal
corrosion by forming a protective film of from the water by creating a
Fe3 O4 . monomolecular barrier.
In certain cases, ammonia, ammonium Degrémont offers a complete range of
phosphate, polyphosphates and conditioning chemicals, "Complexes" and
pyrophosphates are also used. "Kemazur°, which associate the most
These conditioning chemicals are efficient molecules and thereby protect the
recovered and recycled in the boiler plant in installation effectively.
condensate returns. They also protect the
tanks and supply lines from corrosion. 2.2.2. Treatment
3.2.
BREWERIES AND FACTORIES - carbonate removal by lime and/or softening
of the water used in the preparation of
MANUFACTURING lemonade and sodas; - partial carbonate
CARBONATED BEVERAGES removal and disinfection (superchlorination
The most common methods of water and deodorization using activated carbon) of
treatment include: the water used in the preparation of
- carbonate removal from the water used to beverages such as Coca-Cola and Pepsi-Cola,
produce beer; etc.
Chap. 25: Treatment and conditioning of industrial water
Figure 913. JBAS facility for the preparation of carbonated beverages in East Memphis
(USA). Flow rate : SO m3 .h -'.
Figure 912 shows a line of the type be used to perform carbonate removal if
described above. A safety filter is some- the cation resins necessary have been times
included to trap any small particles approved by the State concerned.
The of activated carbon. An ion exchanger can process then becomes:
If the raw water is highly saline, the Water used to dilute alcohol is demineralized.
above processes may be insufficient and
full demineralization will be required
3. Water used in manufacturing processes
3.4.
ULTRAPURE WATER
verse osmosis or distillation. The - stripping using natural gas where available,
clarification treatment implemented on dry provided that the gas is not acid and that off-
land may be more extensive and comprise a gas can be burned;
settler, particularly as the water in coastal - a 2- or 3-stage vacuum deaerator. If the
estuaries contains large quantities of silt. deaerator is of the correct size, it will not
Deoxygenation can be carried out using one subsequently be necessary to use costly
of two possible methods: oxygen scavengers in large quantities.
Chap. 25: Treatment and conditioning of industrial water
5. PURIFICATION OF BRINE
- Precipitation of Mg2+ by lime and Ca 2+
5.1. by sodium carbonate in Circulator or
Turbocirculator type reactors.
PRODUCTION - Partial sulphate removal using lime or
OF PURIFIED SALT BY sodium chloride, recycling of mother
RECRYSTALLIZATION OF liquor of crystallization in Densadeg RP
type reactors with a high sludge
UNREFINED ROCK SALT concentration.
- Clarification and deaeration of unrefined
brine.
5.2.
MAKE-UP TO ELECTROLYTIC followed by filtration on sand, with an FV
2-type filter or similar.
SODIUM CARBONATE AND
Diaphragm cells developing current
CHLORINE PRODUCTION densities of up to 7,000 A.m-2 require more
SYSTEMS stringent treatment (Figure 916):
- Partial sulphate removal using barium - removal of traces of Ca 2+ on special
carbonate or barium chloride. softening resins (up to 50 µgl-1 Ca2+);
- Precipitation of Mg2+ and Ca2+ by - dechlorination under vacuum, possibly
caustic soda and sodium carbonate. completed by SO3 2-;
These treatments can include intermediary - sidestream dechlorination.
operations such as deaeration or pH
correction. Treatment is frequently
5.3.
CONTINUOUS PURIFICATION The objective is to limit the increase in
metallic hydroxide content by the side-
OF BRINE IN ELECTROLYTIC stream treatment of brine on a centrifuge
MACHINING or on a precoat filter.
5. Purification of brine
6. COOLING WATER
The operator of a cooling system - corrosion.
generally encounters three main Figure 918 shows an open recirculating
problems: cooling system with the different
- fouling and biological growth; devices used to treat the water or to
- scale deposits; inject conditioning products.
Figure 919. Nuclear power station in Leibstadt (Switzerland). Flow rare: 3,600 m3 .h -1 .
Carbonate removal of water from the Rhône river.
Chap. 25: Treatment and conditioning of industrial water
- system preparation (see Page 1377); over chlorine in that they are more active in a
- disinfection in association with biocides; basic pH and in an ammoniacal medium.
- cleaning and pollution control (oil, grease, However, they can be difficult to implement.
hydrocarbons, etc.).
6.1.2.5. Use of biocides
6.1.2.4. Use of chlorine and bromine If preventive treatment is performed using
derivatives the products described above, it is generally
The most commonly used reagent is possible to limit the use of biocides such as
NaClO. The chlorine acts as an oxidant and algicides and bactericides. These products
biocide and also has coagulant properties. will then be reserved primarily for major
offensives in periods where biological
Cl2 requirements may be high owing to
growth is particularly likely to occur (Spring,
the fact that the release of organic matter
Autumn) or when the water is accidentally
trapped on the different surfaces can
polluted.
multiply initial chlorine demand by a factor
of between ten and fifteen. (a) Effect of biocides
Chlorination treatments are generally The chemical compounds used to control
performed on a fairly irregular basis, i.e., the biological content of the water in cooling
between three times a day and four times a systems act in two main ways:
year. To prevent the acceleration of . Compounds acting on the membrane
corrosion phenomena, the quantity of of the cell wall
residual free Cl2 in the systems should not - quaternary ammonium (cationic products)
exceed 1 mg.l-1 . with surface-active effects;
Bromine derivatives offer an advantage - certain amine derivatives;
Figure 920. Uerdingen facility (Germany) operated by Bayer. Flow rate: 350 m3 .h -1 .
Sidestream filtration on a valueless filter, dia. 6.7 m.
6. Cooling water
ing through an open recirculating system on a above all organic polymers with increased
cooling tower. dispersive properties.
This process is still applied to systems in, These scale inhibitors increase the range of
power stations operating on a virtually once- temperatures at which the water can be
through basis (with very low concentrations). considered to be at equilibrium. It is thereby
In this type of system, temperature deviations possible to apply Ryznar indices, which can
are slight and cleaning is performed using a drop to 4 and sometimes lower.
ball-based system.
6.2.2.2. Advantages and disadvantages of
6.2.2. Processes with scale inhibitors precipitation retarders
Stabilization processes offer a considerable
6.2.2.1. Principle advantage in that they make it possible to
operate in "free pH" conditions. However, a
direct link exists between the pH and the M
Especially suitable for water that has a
alk. (Figure 921).
tendency to scale, this process consists in
adding chemicals intended to retard the In reality, a "free pH" limits the M alk. of
precipitation of calcium carbonate - the water between 15 and 30 Fr. deg., i.e., a
particularly in hot spots -into the system. pH of between 8.5 and 9.3. The risk of
corrosion increases towards M alk. 10 Fr.
The pH, M alk. and total hardness of the
deg. and the risk of scale forming towards M
water are then calculated to establish a
alk. 40 Fr. deg. The pH concentration ratio
balance - even where such a balance is scale-
is therefore also limited.
forming - for cold temperatures.
The use of sulphuric or hydrochloric acid
The retarders used are generally a mixture
can lower the M alk. but the pH is therefore
of polyphosphates, phosphonates and
no longer free and the SSA is increased.
The use of scale inhibitors in stabilization
procedures therefore controls the formation
of a protective film of calcium carbonate.
This film can, however, be highly sensitive to
variations in the system's parameters (acidity,
SSA, insufficient reagents, etc.).
The scale-forming characteristics and the
pH of the water limit the risks of corrosion.
The role of the SSA is nevertheless essential
in that chlorides and sulphates accelerate the
disintegration of passivating protective films.
Generally speaking, in controlled scale-
forming operating conditions, the expected
corrosion rates for steel are:
6. Cooling water
- lower than 100 gm per year if SSA < 50 into Cr(III) during the blowdown process
Fr. deg. prior to discharge.
- lower than 150 gm per year if SSA < 75
Fr. deg. 6.2.3. Processes with corrosion inhibitors
Table 98. Comparative table of the properties of the four main families of corrosion
inhibitors for use in open recirculating systems (with a cooling tower).
Zinc is one of the most frequently increase in the quantity of SO4 2- ions makes
encountered binary elements. According to it necessary to limit the concentration ratio
the formulations used, the pH of the water in in order not to exceed the solubility product
the system should be close to neutral or of calcium sulphate. It may be useful to
slightly acidic in order to ensure that zinc perform preliminary carbonate removal,
remains ionized close to the wall. which will remove alkalinity and calcium
and thereby make it possible to increase the
6.2.3.2. Optimizing the pH concentration.
The M alk. of the make-up water must be Silica rarely poses a problem except in the
low in order to ensure that the pH of the Far East where fresh make-up water can
water in the system remains within the contain several dozen mg.l-1 .
desired range. This requirement can be The desired concentration rates generally
satisfied using one of three possible range between 3 and 6 but can rise to 8 or
methods: higher with certain types of purification
- injection of acid: this method has the (demineralized make-up water, sidestream
disadvantage of increasing salinity; purification), or conditioning treatments,
thereby simplifying the problem of
- removal of carbonates on carboxylic
subsequent discharges.
resin: this reduces both the M allc. and the
hardness of the water and hence decreases
salinity; 6.2.4. Discharges
- lime softening: if the water needs to be
clarified. The vast majority of cooling systems
require blowdown and this raises the
6.2.3.3. Finding the optimum concen- problem of discharges.
tration ratio It is forbidden to discharge water
The concentration ratio must be as high as containing chromates where the
possible in order to minimize the quantities concentration of Cr(VI) exceeds 0.1 g.m-3 .
of water and conditioning products required. However, a number of industrial processes
The optimum level will depend on: have been developed to destroy both
chromates (see Page 260) and zinc.
- system operating conditions (search for
spurious leaks, etc.); The concentrations of P2 O5 and zinc
generally required in cooling systems ( < 20
- risk of salt precipitation;
mg.l-1 and < 5 mg.l-1 respectively) are
- the recommended contact time for the usually tolerated in discharges although
inhibitor selected. standards are currently changing.
If sulphuric acid is used to maintain the
pH at the correct level, the consequent
- It would be unfortunate if the new . use of acid reagents (H2 SO4 or HCl);
installation did not make use of any new - discharge constraints;
processes that may have been developed - operating costs.
and tested.
- It is sometimes possible to choose
6.3.2. Operating reports
between water from two or more sources.
- The treatment of make-up water can
easily be integrated into the installation's It may be necessary to consider several
general water treatment system. alternatives and to draw up operating
reports in order to compare different
- The quality of the water available on the
protection processes. These reports should
site could make it possible to use a system
include all items related to operating costs,
that is relatively easy to protect. If the water
such as:
in contact with the surfaces to be protected
- product consumption;
is renewed at an excessively slow rate, it is
- cost of water, which is often the most
practically impossible to protect the system
by adding chemicals to the water. expensive item (several times more
- The type of protection chosen influences expensive than products, particularly if
the choice of construction materials: drinking water is required);
cooling apparatus, pumps, pipes, etc. - labour costs for the monitoring and
maintenance of equipment;
6.3.1. Basic data - amortization expenses;
The basic data involved are as follows: - reduction in cooling system maintenance
-analyses of water and system design; costs and improved production capacity.
Operating reports make it possible to
- system characteristics (flow velocities,
better assess the consequences of increasing
materials, temperature gradients, "skin"
the concentration ratios. Such an increase
temperatures, etc.);
would accelerate amortization of
- desired efficiency; purification facilities (carbonate removal,
- operating constraints: filtration, etc.) by reducing operating costs.
. possible concentration,
caustic soda owing to the substantial achieve zero blowdown. The treatment can
precipitations of carbonate and silica. be implemented in association with a zinc
Sidestream treatment is now imple- mented chromate corrosion inhibitor (see Figure
fairly widely in the United States in order to 922).
Fig. 923. Refinery in Tosco (USA). Flow race: 37 m3 .h -1 . Sidestream purification for cooling
system.
6. Cooling water
6.5. SPECIAL CASES: ONCE- Table 99. Protection of once -through cooling systems.
Problem Solution
THROUGH SYSTEMS - Fouling and - Straining and/or Clarification-
- Biological growth Filtration.
Removal of iron (for certain
types of drilling water)
Dispersants
Chlorination
In these systems, the concentration factor Biocides (on a periodic basis)
cannot be used to limit reagent consumption. - Scale deposit - Scale inhibiting compounds-Dis-
Contact time is usually short, however. Table persants
- corrosion - Corrosion inhibitors (e.g., small
99 lists the different kinds of treatment that quantities of polyphosphate -
can be applied. zinc)
pH adjustment
6.6.
SPECIAL CASES: CLOSED There now exist an increasingly large
number of systems, which, although referred
SYSTEMS to as "closed", undergo considerable losses in
The system is filled with softened or reality and therefore require a certain amount
demineralized "noble" water. of make-up water and effective pollutant
The main methods of protection are listed control measures.
in table 100.
Corrosion inhibitors must ensure complete Table 100. Protection of closed cooling systems.
anodic protection and the level of Problem Solution
- Foaling - Sidestrearn filtration
concentration should be maintained at about
Dispersants
one gramme per litre. Formulations must also - Biological growth - Biocides (shock treatment)
be adapted to the different metals in the - Scale deposit - Softening
system, particularly when copper is used. Demineralization
- Corrosion - Corrosion inhibitors in large
Oxygen scavenging is carried out on hot quantities (chromates, nitrites,
systems or where particular resistivity phosphates, molybdates, organ-
ic) + buffering salt (borax)
requirements need to be met. The oxygen
or
input is controlled by the introduction of Oxygen scavengers (sulphite,
nitrogen. tannate, hydrazine, etc.) +
increased pH (amine, phos-
phate)
6.7.
SYSTEM PREPARATION begin as soon as the water comes into
contact with the steel. Conditioning must
therefore be started as soon as the water
The start-up phase is of capital importance: enters the system. The preparatory process is
an irreversible process of corrosion can as follows:
Chap. 25: Treatment and conditioning of industrial water
- clean the system with dispersants and This layer must subsequently be maintained
detergents by means of a metering unit associated with
- add large doses of inhibitors to form the the make-up water flow rate.
protective layer.
1.6.
TERTIARY TREATMENT - reduction of residual colloidal COD
requiring high dosages of coagulant.
Once biological purification has been
completed, tertiary treatment seeks to ful- Tertiary treatment can be carried out in
fill different objectives: different configurations and makes use of
the following:
- reduction of SS,
- clarifiers (Densadeg, Turbocirculator),
- removal of specific compounds (PAH,
- flotation units (Flotazur etc.),
phenols),
- granular filters, with or without a dom-
Chap. 26: Industrial processes and the treatment of wastewater
inant for biological life (by addition of air using high-temperature and pressure
or oxygen). oxygen, chlorine, ozone.
Application of increasingly severe Although many organic compounds are
regulations may require removal of non- coloured, most of them absorb light in the
biodegradable COD, colour and other ultraviolet region and not in the visible
specific compounds. This COD is due to zone of the spectrum. Even if dyes are of
organic comp ounds of various types natural or artificial origin, they
including solvents, nitro- and sulphonic automatically incorporate chromophoric
compounds, and dyes. COD removal groups, that is, functions having an excess
procedures are the following: of electrons (double or triple bonding,
- adsorption on thermally or chemically aromatic cycles) and heterocyclic
regenerated activated carbon (Degrémont compounds containing oxygen, sulphur or
procedure, see page 228) or miscellaneous nitrogen. Among the techniques available
adsorbents, for removing colour, one of them uses
- ultrafiltration, oxidation reactions to degrade the
molecules responsible for the colour.
- miscellaneous oxidation techniques
Strong oxidants such as ozone are used in
the procedure.
1. Description of treatment techniques
Figure 927. Treatment facility in Briec, Western France, for purification of municipal
and slaughterhouse wastewater. Capacity: 2.2 t.d -1 . Treatment by extended aeration.
2. The agrifood industries
Figure 931. Saint-Hubert dairy in Magnières, Eastern France. Purification of effluents by methane
fermentation. COD capacity: 2.8 t.d -1 . View of the Anafiz reactor.
Figure 934. The Bonduelle canning facility in Renescure, Northern France. Purification
of effluents by methane fermentation. COD capacity: 18 t.d -1 . View of the two Analift
reactors.
Chap. 26: Industrial processes and the treatment of wastewater
Figure 935. The Findus facility in Beauvais, Northern France. Purification of effluents by
activated sludge, BOD5 capacity: 7.5 t.d -1 .
2. The agrifood industries
Figure 938. The El Aguila brewery in San Sebastian de Los Reyes, Spain. Purification of effluents
by methane fermentation, Total COD capacity: 50 t.d -1 . View of the four, 5-metre dia. Anaflux
reactors.
- a high-load aerobic stage. The techniques . The second stage is generally carried out
used are: with low-rate activated sludge. Nutritional
• trickling filters with plastic media rebalancing is normally required. It usually
(figure 941), corresponds to N and P supply in aerobic
• high-rate activated sludge. purification and trace elements in anaerobic
purification.
In the second case, the use of pure
oxygen with DAF enables the setting up of It is worth noting that treatment of
spacesaving treatment facilities as in the effluents from the manufacturing of
case of the Grande Brasserie de carbonated drinks is very similar to that for
Champigneulles, in Maxéville, Eastern brewery wastewater. Operations in this
France. In this plant, brewery effluents are sector are steadily increasing.
treated with MWW from the city of Nancy
(figure 940).
Chap. 26: Industrial processes and the treatment of wastewater
Figure 941. The San-Miguel brewery in the Philippine Islands. Purification of effluents
by trickling filter and activated sludge. BOD5 capacity: 14 t.d -1 .
Figure 943. Sugar factory, in Julich, Germany. Wastewater purification with methane
fermentation by Analift followed by activated sludge. COD capacity: 30 t.d -1 .
2. The agrifood industries
- or by the combination of anaerobic choice of technique must allow for the risk of
purification (mainly during the campaign) CaCO3 precipitation.
and purification in aerated or natural lagoons. Excess condensates with low BOD5 loads
Methane fermentation can be carried out and devoid of SS, can be treated on a
by Analift-type anaerobic contact or by trickling filter prior to recycling or
attached growth (Anafiz - Anaflux). The discharging.
Figure 944. The APAL distillery, Paraguay. Purification of effluents by methane fermentation. COD
capacity: 54 t.d -1 . View of Analift reactors.
Chap. 26: Industrial processes and the treatment of wastewater
3. PAPER INDUSTRIES
3.1. Figure 948 illustrates the general treatment
process.
PAPER PULP This treatment reduces BOD5 by more
FACTORIES than 90% and COD by 50% to 80%.
By using a pure oxygen activated sludge
Analysis of the characteristics of process (figure 949), facilities can be
wastewater discharged by paper pulp smaller with less risk of pollutant nuisance.
factories (see page 98), shows that Evaporation condensates from black
pollutant concentrations are highly variable
according to the manufacturing process.
Figure 949. The Riocell paper mill in Porto Alegre, Brazil. Production: 720 t.d -1 of Kraft
pulp. Purification of effluents by biological treatment with pure oxygen and physical-
chemical tertiary treatment (98% removal of BOD5 ). Overall view of the treatment plant.
3. Paper industries
Sludge dewatering is best carried out by In all cases, excess biological sludge can
the Superpress belt filter. Depending on be dewatered in a mix with primary sludge.
sludge composition or space available, Solution (2) on the opposite page is the
other systems can also be used: screw most frequently used and achieves
press, centrifuge, filter press. excellent removal results: BOD5, 90% to
98%; COD, 80% to 90%.
. Biological treatment Solution (4), requiring higher investment
Depending on BOD5 concentrations in costs, is applicable in cases where BOD5
-1
pre-treated water and the yield required, concentration is higher than 300 mg.l and
several processes are possible (figure 955). when very high purification
3. Paper industries
and lower energy consumption than Solution (3) may be used as polishing
solution (2) are needed. Removal yield treatment of solution (2) or (4). This can
obtained is in the range of 90% to 99% for result in treated effluent containing less
BOD5, and 85% to 95% for COD. SS than 5 to 10 mg.l-1 of SS and BOD5
levels in treated effluents range from 5 to
20 mg.l-1 . Complementary treatment if required
Solutions (1) and (3) are applicable to The removal of non-biodegradable COD
specific cases: and colour can be carried out by specific
(1): where the expected BOD5 removal rate treatment (each case should be assessed
is less than 70%, individually), for example: adsorption on
(3): where BOD5 of raw water is less than activated carbon, ultrafiltration, ozonation,
100-150 mg.l-1 and the rate expected is less chemical precipitation.
than 60-70%.
Chap. 26: Industrial processes and the treatment of wastewater
- effluents from filter washing, water (saline but low in BOD5 and partial
- emulsified water from desalination and recycling, after two stages of biological
other processes. purification of process water and oily rain
water (low saline content), to cooling tower
(figure 961).
. recycling: separate discharge of ballast
4. The petroleum industry
Figure 960. The Scanraff refinery, Sweden. Treatment of ballast water by flotation. Capacity: 150
m3 .h -1 . Treatment of process water by flotation and biological purification. Capacity: 250 m3 .h -1 .
General view.
Chap. 26: Industrial processes and the treatment of wastewater
Figure 962. The Parana refinery in Araucaria, Brazil, for the Petrobras petroleum company.
Effluent purification: biological and flotation treatment. Capacity: 900 m3 .h -1 , View of the
activated sludge biological treatment process.
5. COAL INDUSTRIES
AND THERMAL POWER STATIONS
5.3.
THERMAL POWER 5.3.2. Effluents from flue gas
desulphurisation
STATIONS
The main treatment procedures concern
These are acidic brines resulting from
oily water, effluents from flue gas
desulphurisation and washing effluents. blowdown of flue gas scrubbing circuits for
removal of either SO2 alone, or SO2 and
NOx (nitrogen oxidation products).
5.3.1. Oily water from fuelled
In the first case (figure 965), the
power stations Degrémont purification process comprises:
- 1st step: sulphate removal/neutralisation
Purification operations are intermittent by lime,
and linked to the rhythm of atmospheric - 2nd step: refining and precipitation of
precipitation and handling events. The residual metals (Sedipac) within another pH
process, designed chiefly for the removal of zone.
insoluble HC, comprises a circular or In the second case, ammonium is also
lamellae oil separator and, after present in effluents. Treatment includes
coagulation, dissolved air flotation or final steam stripping after alkalinisation.
settling.
Figure 965. The Oka Riedersbach fuelled power station, Germany. Treatment of
desulphurisation waste.
Chap. 26: Industrial processes and the treatment of wastewater
In some cases, formic acid can be tube bundles, any remaining fluorides
removed biologically. must be precipitated after oxidation.
Neutralisation is always carried out with
5.3.3. Cleaning effluents lime.
from air heaters
and boiler tube bundles 5.3.4. Effluents from ash transportation
Figure 967. The KW Schwandorf power plant, Germany. Settling of ash transport water. Capacity:
130 m3 .h -1 .
Chap. 26: Industrial processes and the treatment of wastewater
6. SYNTHETIC CHEMISTRY
AND THE PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY
The main characteristic of the effluents These considerations guide the design of
from these industries as compared with the a wastewater purification plant which must:
others, is both the diversity of pollutants - accommodate variations in pollutant flow
and the variety in load and type of pollution and load,
of discharged wastewater. In most cases, - offer "all-purpose" facilities for
companies carry out manufacturing in destruction of the different types of
campaigns for one or several products with pollutants,
cycles randomly spanning the year.
- be as flexible as possible so as to
Furthermore, it is difficult for companies to
incorporate modifications or additions to
foresee future industrial developments and
changing industrial processes or factory
their manufacturing needs over a 5 to 10-
products.
year period.
6.1.
SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS 6.1.2. Biological purification -
Odours
6.1.1. Neutralisation and buffer tanks
This type of wastewater often has a
The volume of the buffer tank must be as strong smell owing to volatile composites
large as possible (normally 36 h) and no such as solvents that escape naturally.
less than 24 h of production. Its place in the The aeration tank is the main source of
treatment cycle, that is before or after odour. It is, therefore, preferable to use
neutralisation, depends on pH variations of deep tanks with aeration by pressurised air
effluents. The aim is to gain maximum injected by Dipair-type diffusers. This
benefit from the self-neutralisation effect. reduces the quantity of injected air and, in
It must be remembered that neutralising the event of the tank being covered, both
reagent dosages such as lime, can be very the quantity of stagnant air to be collected
high and provoke considerable and the size of the odour removal unit.
precipitation, including certain types of
scaling.
Chap. 26: Industrial processes and the treatment of wastewater
Figure 972. The Rexim company in Ham, Northern France. General view of the treatment plant.
Chap. 26., Industrial processes and the treatment of wastewater
7. The textile industry
Figure 978. BSC Orgreave, UK Settling of coal preheating effluents. Capacity: 150 m3 .h -1 .
Figure 981. The COSIPA iron and steel works (Brazil). Setding of converter scrubbing water.
Chap. 26: Industrial processes and the treatment of wastewater
Figure 983. Sollac in Gandrange, Eastern France. Filtration of continuous casting water.
Capacity: 800 m3 .h -1 ,
Precipitated sludges of ferrous and fer- 8.2.3. Effluents from cold rolling
ric hydroxides are prone to densification processes
as shown in figure 985.
This technique uses the Densadeg or . Electrolytic grease removal
Turbocirculator clarifier. After preliminary settling, effluents are
Chap. 26.: Industrial processes and the treatment of wastewater
In the less frequent case where gas Dual treatment consisting of fluoride and
purification is not carried out by alumina tar removal is by far the most costconscious
filtration (dry process) at the output of solution. This process does not, however,
encased cells, but by general scrubbing of optimise removal of the two pollutants as
polluted air taken from under the roof, a would flotation with a natural pH level, and
secondary circuit diverts about 10% of the Kemazur coagulant followed by lime
water from the general circuit, and includes process fluoride removal alone.
precipitation treatment of fluorides by lime
in a Circulator clarifier (see page 152). 9.1.4. Effluents from the washing of
cathode carbon lining
9.2.
ZINC AND LEAD 9.2.2. General effluents
9.3.
HYDROMETALLURGY under different sets of circumstances:
uor may contain from 100 to 150 mg.l-1 of or Turbocirculator). The process is similar to
solvent (kerosene). The process illustrated in that of acidic effluents from pickling (page
figure 993 enables either recovery of the 1437).
solvent or recycling of sulphuric acid before Sterile acidic effluents from fines washing
leaching. This treatment also reduces COD and the more acidic regeneration eluates from
from the final effluent. ion exchangers are neutralised with lime and
calcium carbonate. They are then oxidized by
9.3.1.4. Removal of organic matter aeration and settled, as previously, but with
Organic matter poses certain problems two-stage neutralisation because of their high
either because of its irreversible adsorption rate of acidity.
on activated carbon (extraction of the Slightly radioactive effluents of differing
cyanide/gold complex), or because of the origins (drainage water from mines, wash
reduction in efficiency of final electrolysis waters) are purified by precipitation of
(Cu, Zn). When organic matter is produced, radium with barium and coagulant addition.
not from make-up water, but from the ore The treatment can be carried out with
itself, selective removal is possible during the Densadeg RP or RL, preceded by a premix
process (specific coagulants, ozone). This can reactor adapted to the different reagents used.
only be confirmed by studies underway in
pilot plants. 9.3.3. Sludge dewatering
Figure 998. The ACR company in Roanne, Central France. Purification of effluents from pickling,
oil removal, phosphation and surface preparation. Capacity. 30 m3 .h -1 .
Chap. 26: Industrial processes and the treatment of wastewater
11.2.
DESTRUCTION nature of fluids. For emulsions, several
techniques are feasible:
OF CUTTING FLUIDS - Hot breaking (65-80°C) in acid medium
at pH 1-2, with a release agent (Al, Fe),
11.2.1. Emulsions followed by oil separation by natural settling
or centrifuging, and polishing by dissolved
Procedures depend on the concentration and air flotation (figure 999).
11. The automobile and mechanics industries
Figure 1002. BMW AG in Munich, Germany. Treatment of paint booth effluents. Capacity:
10 m3 .h -1 .
12. The fertiliser industry
Figure 1004. The Valefertil phosphoric acid and fertiliser production facility, Brazil.
Treatment of effluents. Capacity : 300 m3 .h -1 .
Figure 1008. Orkem in Nangis, Paris area, France. Recycling of ammonia condensates. Capacity
120 m3 .h -1 .
13. The nuclear industry
13.1.
PWR - lithium regulation (lithium-based
resin), including a mixed bed with
NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS cation resin in Li form (1. regulation of
pH level) and a strong acid canon
13.1.1. Primary system water exchanger in the H+ form (2. retention
of excess Li),
Treatment (chemical and volume - regulation of boron comprising a
control system, RCV) comprises two strong base anion resin in the OH- form
non-regenerated resin processes (figure (3. retention of excess boric acid).
1010):
Chap. 26: Industrial processes and the treatment of wastewater