MILLER ANTENNA 1.

How should a transmitting antenna be designed if a vertically polarized wave is to be radiated, and how should be the receiving antenna be designed for best performance in receiving the ground wave from this transmitting antenna? Answer: The transmit antenna must be vertically polarized. The receive antenna must also be vertically polarized.

2. A ship radio-telephone transmitter operates on 2738 kHz. At a certain point distant from the transmitter, the 2738 kHz has a measured field of 147mV/m. The second field harmonic at the same point is measured as 405V/m. To the nearest unit in decibels, how much has the harmonic emission been attenuated below the 2738 kHz fundamental? Solution: = 20 Final Answer: 51.2dB 1 147 103 = 20 = 51.2 2 405 106

3. If a field intensity of 25 mV/m develops 2.7 V in a certain antenna, what is its effective height? Solution: = = 25 mV /m = 108 Final Answer: 108 m 4. If a power of 500 kHz transmitter is increased from 150W to 300W, what would be the percentage change in field intensity at a given distance from the transmitter? What would be the decibel change in field intensity? Solution: I2 . : change=2
2.7

. : 2 1.414 141.4% = 20 log 1.414 = 3 Final Answer: 3dB

5. If a 500 kHz transmitter of constant power produces field strength of 100V/m at a distance of 100 mi from the transmitter, what would be the theoretical field strength at a distance of 200 mi from the transmitter? Solution: =
30

200 : =
100 V/m 2

= 50V/m

Final Answer: 50V/m

6. If the antenna current at 500 kHz transmitter is reduced 50%, what would be the percentage change in the field intensity at receiving point? Solution: i2 . : =
1 2 2

= 0.25

. : 0.25 . : 0.5 Or 50% Final Answer: 50%

7. Define field intensity. Explain how it is measured. Answer: The intensity of radiation any point in a radiation field. This is measured in terms of field strength which is inversely proportional to the distance from the transmitters.

8. What is effective radiated power? Given transmitter power output, antenna resistance, antenna transmission line losses, transmitter efficiency, and power gain, show how ERP is calculated. Answer: This refers to the fact that an antenna will work equally well for transmit and receive given adequate power boundaries. ERP is the product of the antenna input power and antenna power gain or the product of power fed to the antenna and its power gain,ERP=PinG

9. Define polarization as it refers to broadcast antennas. Answer: The direction in space of the electric field portion of the electromagnetic wave being radiated by transmitting system.

10. Explain the development of Hertz antenna from a quarter-wavelength, open-circuited transmission line. Answer: The two wire transmission line was considered to be an adequate transmission medium at extremely high frequencies; it can become an effective antenna. The characteristic of the openended line are such that the voltage of the line is maximum, and the current at the end is zero. Since the current at the ends of the line is minimum, a quarter-wave (at the source) the current must be maximum. The impedance at the sending end is low, and the impedance at the open circuit is high. It is desired to have maximum radiation. This maximum radiation is not possible with the two-wire transmission line because the magnetic field surrounding each conductor of the line is in a direction that opposes the lines of the force about the other conductor. Under this condition, the quarter-wave transmission line proves to be an unsatisfactory antenna; however, with only slight physical modification, this section of the transmission line can be transformed into a relatively efficient antenna. This transformation is accomplished by bending line outward 90^0to form a Hertz antenna.

11. Draw a diagram showing how a current varies along a half-wavelength Hertz antenna. Answer:

the current is at maximum at the center and minimum at both ends.

12. Explain the voltage and current relationships in one-wavelength antenna, one-halfwavelength (dipole) antenna, and one-quarter-wavelength grounded antenna. Answer: For one wavelength antenna the current is minimum at both ends and at the center. The voltage is maximum at these points. For half-wavelength antenna the current is at maximum at the center and minimum at both ends. The voltage is maximum at both ends but minimum at the center. For one-quarter wavelength the current is maximum at the ground point and minimum at the top of the antenna. The voltage is maximum at the top of the antenna but minimum at the ground point.

13. What effect does the magnitude of the voltage and the current at a point on a halfwavelength antenna in free space (a dipole) have on the impedance at that point? Answer: The impedance value for half-wave dipole varies from about 2500 at the open ends to 73 at the source ends. 14. Can either of the two fields that emanate from an antenna produce an EMF in a receiving antenna? If so, how? ANSWER: Yes, This property of interchangeability for transmitting and receiving operations is known as antenna reciprocity. It occurs because antenna characteristics are essentially the same regardless of whether an antenna is sending or receiving EMF energy. And because of

that, antenna can also be treated as the same viewpoint of transmitting antenna when an antenna is used for receving EMF energy. 15. Draw the three-dimensional radiation pattern for the Hertz antenna, and explain how it is developed. ANSWER:

The linear half-wave dipole is one of the most widely used antennas at frequencies above 2MHz. At frequencies below 2MHz, the physical length of a half-wavelength antenna is prohibitive. The half-wave dipole is generally referred to as Hertz Antenna after Heinrich Hertz, who was first demonstrate the existence of electromagnetic wave. The radio signals radiated by an antenna form an electromagnetic field with a definite pattern, depending on the type of antenna used. This radiation pattern shows the antennas directional characteristics. The pattern shows that maximum field strength for wavelength dipole occurs at the right angles of the antenna, while virtually zero energy is launched off the ends. Its radiation pattern is spherical or it is circular or omnidirectional.

16. Define Antenna Beamwidth. ANSWER: Antenna Beamwidth is the angular separation between the half power points on its radiation pattern. Beamwidth is the angular separation between the two half power levels (-3dB) on the major lobe of an antennas plane radiation pattern.

17. What is the effective radiated power of a television broadcast station if the output of the transmitter is 1000W, antenna transmission line loss is 50W, and the antenna power gain is 3? (2850W) SOLUTION: where Po= output power of the transmitter l = transmission line loss Ap= Power gain ERP= Po*Ap-l ERP= ((1000)*(3))-50 ERP =2850W

18. A /2 dipole is driven with a 5-W signal at 225 MHz. A receiving dipole 100km away is aligned such that its gain is cut in half. Calculate the received power and voltage into a 73-receiver. (7.57 pW, 23.5 V) ANSWER:

= 5W = 1.64

1.64 = 0.82 2

 = 100 103 m = 73

2 16 2 2

3 108 m/s 5W 1.64 0.82 225 106 Hz = 16 2 (100 103 m)2

= .

2 = ; =

(7.57 pW)(73)

= .

19. Define radiation resistance and explain its significance. ANSWER: Radiation resistance is the value of resistance that, if it replaced the antenna, would dissipate exactly the same amount of power that the antenna dissipates. In a sense, it is a fictitious quantity. It seems apparent that radiation resistance is at times a rather nebulous concept, as it is not always easily measured. It is a useful concept only when it is readily

measurable and has no meaning for antennas in which there is no clearly defined current value to which it can be referred.

20. The ammeter connected at the base of a Marconi antenna has a certain reading. If this reading is increased 2.77 times, what is the increase in output power? (7.67) ANSWER: = 2 I = 1 = 50,

= 1

50 = 50
2

2 = 2.77

50 = 383.645

2 383.645 = 50

= .

21. How is the operating power of an AM transmitter determined using antenna resistance and antenna current? ANSWER: It can be determined using the formula,

; =

where = radiation resistance () = effective rms value of antenna current at the feed point (A)

 = l power radiated from the antenna

22. Explain what happens to an antennas radiation resistance as its length is continuously increased. ANSWER: The antennas radiation resistance increases as its length is continuously increased.

23. Explain the effect that ground has on an antenna. ANSWER: The height of antenna above ground affects radiation resistance. Since earth is considered to be a good conductor, changes in radiation resistance occur because of ground reflections that intercept the antenna and alter the amount of antenna current flowing.

24. Calculate the efficiency of an antenna that has a radiation resistanc e of 73 and an effective dissipation resistance of 5. What factors could enter into the dissipation resistance? (93.6%) ANSWER: = 73 = 5

100 +

73 100 73 + 5

= . %

25. Explain the following terms with respect to antennas (transmission or reception): (a) Field strength (b) Power gain (c) Physical length (d) Electrical length (e) Polarization (f) Diversity reception (g) Corona discharge ANSWER: (a) Field Strength of an antenna describes its received signal strength. It is inversely proportional to the distance from the transmitter. (b) Power Gain is the same as directive gain except that the total power fed to the antenna is used. It is assumed that the given antenna and the reference antenna have the same input power and that the reference antenna is lossless. (c) Physical Length of an antenna is less by about 5% than the corresponding wavelength in space. It can be approximated as about 95% of the calculated electrical length. (d) Electrical Length of an antenna is determined by the ratio of speed of light with its operating frequency. In other words, it is the wavelength in space. (e) Polarization of an antenna refers to the orientation/direction of the electrical field radiated from it with respect to earth. (f) Diversity Reception is the process of transmitting and/or receiving a number of signals and then either adding them all together at the receiver or selecting the best one at any given instant. It is used to accommodate severe fading problems. (g) Corona Discharge is the term coined to the arcing effects in high-powered transmitters that causes dissipation of power in the actual antenna.

26. What is the relationship between the electrical and physical length of Hertz antenna? ANSWER:

The physical length of Hertz antenna is one-half of its electrical length.

27. What factors determine the resonant frequency of any particular antenna? ANSWER: The factors that determine the resonant frequency of any particular antenna are inductance and capacitance.

28. If a vertical antenna is 405 ft high and is operated at 1250 kHz, what is its physical height expressed in wavelengths? (5.54 ) ANSWER:

29. What must be the height of a vertical radiator one-half wavelength high if the operating frequency is 1100 kHz? (136 m) ANSWER: = 1100

3x108 m/s = 272.727 m 1100x103 Hz

272.727 m = 2 2

= .

30. What is an antenna feed line? Explain the use of resonant antenna feed line including advantages and disadvantages. ANSWER: Antenna feed line is the transmission line used to transfer energy from the generator (transmitter) to the antenna. Resonant antenna feed line is actually not widely used because it tends to be inefficient and is very critical with respect to its length for a particular operating frequency. However, in certain high-frequency applications, it sometimes proves convenient. A series resonant circuit is used to develop the high currents needed to excite the line. The advantages of this is that it makes impedance matching unnecessary and it makes it possible to compensate for any irregularities in either the line or the antenna by providing the appropriate resonant circuit at the input. Its disadvantages are increased power losses in the line due to high standing waves of current, increased probability of arc-over because of high standing waves of voltage, very critical length, and production of radiation fields by the line due to the standing waves to it.

31. What is a non resonant feed line? Explain their advantages and disadvantages. ANSWER: A non resonant feed line or flat, meaning that there are no standing waves on the line. The value of the impedance will be the same in each point of the line. If the feed line were lossless, the magnitude of the voltage and current would also be the same along the line. The only thing that would change is the phase angle and that would be directly proportional to the line length. 32. Explain the operation of a delta match. Under what conditions is it a convenient matching system? ANSWER: The delta matching system matches a high-impedance transmission line to a lower impedance antenna by connecting the line to the driven element in two places spaced a fraction of a wavelength each side of element center. It is mechanically simpler to leave the antenna wire uncut, and to bridge the split line across a portion of the uncut antenna. This delta method of matching is not as flexible as to frequency, and for that reason, perhaps, is in little use among amateurs for low impedance lines. It is quite practical. 33. Draw a simple schematic diagram of a push pull, neutralized radio frequency amplifier stage, couple to a Marconi type antenna system. ANSWER:

34. Show by a diagram how a two wire radio frequency transmission line may be connected to feed a Hertz antenna. ANSWER:

35. Calculate the characteristic impedance of a quarter wavelength section used to connect a 300- antenna to a 75- line. (150 ) ANSWER: Z0= 75 (300) = 150 36. Which type of antenna has a minimum of directional characteristics in the horizontal plane? ANSWER: 37. If the resistance and the current at the base of a Marconi antenna are known, what formula could be used to determine the power in the antenna?

ANSWER: I2R 38. What is the difference between a Hertz and a Marconi Antenna? ANSWER: Hertz antenna, a vertical 1/2-wave dipole antenna, center fed, positioned 1/2 wavelength above the ground. Clearly this is not a very practical configuration at low frequencies. Nevertheless, it would be possible to improvise a temporary low frequency vertical dipole by suspending a -wavelength section of wire beneath a large helium balloon. The transmitter and battery, mounted in a lightweight box, is attached at the lower end of this wire. A second -wavelength section of wire is connected to the transmitter. Finally the entire assembly is allowed to rise into the air, tethered by a long nylon line. Insulators are inserted at the antenna ends for good measure. The transmitter itself would be wirelessly remote controlled, and could be configured as a cross-band repeater. Next is the Marconi antenna, a vertical 1/4-wave ground-plane monopole antenna element above a conducting surface, at or slightly above ground level. A vertical conductor with no loading coil and no capacitive top loading is assumed. It is fed at its base by an RF power supply plus an appropriate matching section, with the opposing terminal connected to an elevated counterpoise constructed on insulating supports. As an alternative to the counterpoise, a connection is made directly to the earths surface. This shallow ground connection is constructed so as to introduce the least possible resistance. Restrictions are imposed by the depth and surface area of the buried conductors, and the local ground conductivity. 39. Draw a sketch and discuss the horizontal and vertical radiation patterns of a quarter wave vertical antenna. Would this also apply to a similar type of receiving antenna? ANSWER:

40. What is an image antenna? Explain its relationship to the Marconi antenna. ANSWER: An image antenna is an electrical mirror-image of an antenna element formed by the radio waves reflecting from a conductive surface called a ground plane, such as the surface of the earth. It is used as a geometrical technique in calculating the radiation pattern of the antenna. 41. What would constitute the ground plane if a quarter wave-grounded (whip) antenna, 1m length, were mounted on the metal roof of an automobile? Mounted near the rear bumper of an automobile? ANSWER: 42. What is the importance of the ground radials associated with standard broadcast antennas? What is likely to be the result of a large number of such radials becoming broken or seriously corroded? ANSWER: When the antenna is mounted close to the ground, the earth below takes the place of the "missing" half of the dipole. If ground conductivity is fair to good, a short metal stake or rod may provide a sufficiently good ground connection for resonant and low SWR operation on the bands for which the antenna is designed. 43. What is the effect on the resonant frequency of connecting an inductor in series with an antenna?

ANSWER: Indeed it can be a very good antenna. Look no further than the transistor radios and AM band receivers. In those ubiquitous consumer goods the antenna consisted of a piece of very low loss ferrite with a very high permittivity. This was wrapped in many amp*turns of very fine copper wire. The high permittivity gave the antennas an effective cross-sectional area -due to the permittivity- (If I recall correctly) of a square mile or so, thus bringing the antenna's electrical size up to the dimensions of the wavelength that it was receiving. On a technical bent, you could consider that the antennae interacted with the magnetic field portion of the radiating Pointing vector. 44. What is the effect on the resonant frequency of adding a capacitor in series with an antenna? ANSWER: An antenna slightly shorter than a half wavelength will appear to the source as a capacitive circuit. Compensation for additional length can be made by cutting the antenna down to proper length or by tuning out the inductive reactance by adding capacitance in series. This added Xc will completely cancel the inductive reactance, and the source will then see a pure resistance, provided the proper size capacitor is used. 45. If you desire to operate on a frequency lower than the resonant frequency of an available Marconi antenna, how may this be accomplished? ANSWER: Marconi type requires a conducting path to ground. The site location could be moved to a location where the soil possesses a high conductivity. 46. What will be the effect on the resonant frequency if the physical length of a hertz antenna is needed? ANSWER: Since hertz antennas are predominately used with frequencies above 2 MHz, one of its disadvantages was excessive radiation at high frequencies. 47. Why do some standard broadcast stations use top loaded antennas? ANSWER: The metallic spoked wheel at the top adds shunt capacitance to the ground. This additional capacitance reduces the antennas capacitive reactance since C and Xc are inversely related. The antenna can, therefore, be made nearly resonant with the proper amount of top loading. 48. Explain why a loading coil is sometimes associated with an antenna. Under this condition, uld absence of the coil mean a capacitive antenna impedance? ANSWER: Antennas that have less than a quarter wavelength have an input impedance that is highly capacitive and they become inefficient radiators. A highly reactive load cannot accept energy from the transmitter. Series inductance is termed loading coil. It is used to tune

out the capacitive appearance of the antenna. The coil-antenna combination can thus be made to appear resonant (resistive) so that it can absorb the full transmitter power. 49. Explain how the directional capabilities of the elementary antenna array shown in fig. 13-16 are developed. ANSWER: It consists of a simple hertz half wave dipole and a non-driven halfwave element located a quarter wavelength behind the dipole. The non-driven element is also termed a parasitic element, since it is not electrically connected. The dipole radiates EM waves with the usual bidirectional pattern. 50. Define the following terms: ANSWER: a. driven elements is a conductive element and electrically connected to anything else. If it is not electrically connected, it is called non-driven element. b. parasitic elements - is a conductive element, typically a metal rod, which is not electrically connected to anything else. c. reflector reflects energy from the driven element. d. director direct electromagnetic energy since it is in the direction of the propagated energy with respect to the driven element. 51. Calculate the ERP from a Yagi-Uda antenna (illustrated in fig. 13-17) driven with 500W. (2500W) ANSWER: 52. Calculate the F/B ratio for an antenna with a) Forward gain of 7dB and reverse gain of -3dB ANSWER: F/B ratio = [7dB (-3dB)] F/B ration = 10dB b) Forward gain of 18dB and reverse gain of 5dB ANSWER: F/B ratio = [18dB (5dB)]

F/B ration = 13dB 53. Sketch two different Yagi-Uda configurations. ANSWER:

54. Describe the physical configuration of a collinear array. What is the effect of adding more elements to this antenna? ANSWER: Collinear array is any combination of half wave elements in which all the elements are placed end to end so as to form a straight line. Each element is excited so that their fields are all in phase (additive) for points perpendicular to the array. 55. Describe the physical configuration of a broadside array. Explain the major advantage they have as compared to collinear arrays. ANSWER: Such an array provides greater directivity in both the vertical and horizontal planes than the collinear array. The separation between each stack is a half wavelength. The signal reversal shown in the connecting wires puts the voltage and current in each element of each stack in phase. The net resulting radiation pattern is a directive pattern in the horizontal plane (as with the collinear array) but also a directive pattern in the vertical plane (in contrast to the collinear array). 56. What is the direction of maximum radiation from two vertical antennas spaced 180 degrees and having equal currents in phase? ANSWER: It is omnidirectional in the ground plane but falls to zero off the antennas top. 57. How does a directional antenna array at an AM broadcast station reduce radiation in some directions and increase it in other directions? ANSWER: The elements are physically placed in such a way that their radiation fields interact with each other, producing a total radiation pattern that is a vector sum of the individual fields. The purpose of an array is to increase the directivity of an antenna system and concentrate the radiated power within a smaller geographic area.

58. What factors can cause the directional pattern of an AM station to change? ANSWER: Radiation resistance, Wavelength, distance between antennas. 59. Define phased array. ANSWER: Phased array antenna is a group of antennas or a group of antenna arrays that, when connected together, function as a single antenna whose beamwitdh and direction can be changed electronically without having to physically move any of the individual antennas or antenna elements within the array. 60. Describe the major characteristics of a log-periodic antenna. What explains its widespread use? Explain the significance of its shortest and longest elements. ANSWER: A log-periodic antenna is independent of their radiation resistance and radiation pattern to frequency. They have bandwidth ratio of 10:1 or greater. They can be unidirectional or bidirectional and have low to moderate directive gain. Log-periodic antennas are used mainly for HF and VHF communications. However, they do not have a terminating resistor and therefore, more efficient. Very often, TV antennas advertised as high-gain or high-performance antennas are log-periodic antennas. 61. Design a log-periodic antenna to cover the complete VHF TV band. (See Chapter 7 for the frequencies involved.) Use a design factor () of 0.7 and provide a scaled sketch of the antenna with all dimensions indicated. ANSWER:

Frequencies: 54 216 MHz 62. Describe the directional characteristics of the following types of antennas: a. Horizontal Hertz Antenna ANSWER: The pattern is circular because radiation is uniform in all directions perpendicular to the antenna. b. Vertical Hertz Antenna ANSWER: Two major lobes radiate in opposite directions that are at right angles to the antenna c. Vertical Loop antenna. ANSWER: Vertically polarized. d. Horizontal loop antenna. ANSWER: Horizontally polarized. e. Vertical Marconi Antenna. ANSWER: The conductors are spread out in a straight line to a total length of one-quarter wavelength. 63. What is the directional reception pattern of a loop antenna?

ANSWER: Small vertically polarized loops are very often used as direction finding antennas. The direction of the received signal can be found by orienting the loop until a null or zero value is found. 64. A loop antenna used for DF purposes detects a null from a signal with the loop rotates 35 CCW from a line of latitude. The antenna is moved 3 mi west along the same line of latitude and detects a null from the same signal source when rotated 45 CW from the line of latitude. On a sketch, show the two points when readings were taken and the exact location of the signal source with respect to the two points. ANSWER:

3Miles 45 CW 35 CCW

65. What is a ferrite loop antenna? Explain its application and advantages. ANSWER: Ferrite loop antenna is an extension of the basic loop antenna. The effect of using a large number of loops wound about a highly magnetic core serves to greatly increase the effective diameter in loops. This forms a highly efficient receiving antenna considering its small physical size compared to the hundreds of feet required to obtain a quarter wavelengths for the broadcast AM band. 66. What is the radiation resistance of a standard folded dipole? What are its advantages over a standard dipole? Why is it usually used as the driven element for Yagi-Uda antennas instead of the Hertz antenna? ANSWER: The folded dipole antenna offers the same radiation pattern as the standard Hertz antenna but has an input impedance of 288 ohms and offers relatively broad band operation. For Yagi Uda antennas, Folded dipoles helps to maintain a reasonably high input impedance since the addition of each director lowers this arrays input impedance. 67. Describe the operation of a slot antenna and its application with aircraft in a driven array format.

ANSWER: The individual drive to each slot is controlled by phase shifting networks. Proper phasing allows production of a directive radiation pattern that can be swept through a wide angle without physically moving the antenna. This allows a convenient mobile scanning radar system without mechanical complexities. 68. An antenna has a maximum forward gain of 14 dB at its 108-MHz center frequency. Its reverse gain is -8dB. Its beamwidth is 36and bandwidth extends from 55 to 185 MHz. Calculate a. Gain at 18 from maximum forward gain. (11 dB) SOLUTION: = 14 + (3) = b. Bandwidth. (130 MHz) SOLUTION: = 185 55 = c. F/B ratio. (22 dB) SOLUTION: = 10 log
185+55 2

d. Maximum gain at 185 MHz. (11 dB) SOLUTION: = 10 log(185 108) 8 = . = 69. Explain the difference between antenna beamwidth and bandwidth. ANSWER: Antenna beamwidth is simply the angular separation between two half power (3dB) points on the major lobe of an antenna s plane radiation pattern, usually taken in one of the principal planes. Antenna bandwidth is vaguely defined as the frequency range over which antenna operation is satisfactory and is taken as the difference between the half power frequencies but sometimes refers to variations in the antennas input impedance.