Pagei

HolyFeastandHolyFast

THENEWHISTORICISM:STUDIESINCULTURALPOETICS GeneralEditor,StephenGreenblatt HolyFeastandHolyFast:TheReligiousSignificanceofFoodtoMedievalWomenbyCarolineWalkerBynum TheGoldStandardandtheLogicofNaturalism:AmericanLiteratureattheTurnoftheCenturybyWalterBennMichaels NationalismandMinorLiterature:JamesClarenceManganandtheEmergenceofIrishCulturalNationalismbyDavidLloyd

Pageii

FRONTISPIECE.InthisFlemishretableoftheKinshipofSt.Anne fromabout1500wefindfeedingthemesassociatedwithJesus'femalerelatives. InthecenterMarypresentsherchildtoAnne,whooffershimgrapes(a eucharisticsymbol),whileinthelowerleftanotherwomannursesababy. (Anne'slefthandandthegrapeshavebeenrestored.)Worshipersatmasswould haveseenapriestelevatingthehostjustinfrontofthisdepictionofholy womenofferingfood:bothgrapes(wineorblood)andChristhimself(breador flesh).MuseduPareduCinquantenaire,Brussels.CopyrightA.C.L., Brussels.

Pageiii

HolyFeastandHolyFast
TheReligiousSignificanceofFoodtoMedievalWomen
CarolineWalkerBynum

Pageiv

Disclaimer: SomeimagesintheoriginalversionofthisbookarenotavailableforinclusioninthenetLibraryeBook. UniversityofCaliforniaPress BerkeleyandLosAngeles,California UniversityofCaliforniaPress,Ltd. London,England 1987by TheRegentsoftheUniversityofCalifornia Firstpaperbackprinting1988 LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData Bynum,CarolineWalker. Holyfeastandholyfast. Includesindexes. 1.FoodReligiousaspectsChristianity.2.Women HistoryMiddleAges,5001500.3.FoodhabitsHistory. I.Title. BR253.B961987248.4'68528896 ISBN0520063295(alk.paper) PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica 789 ThepaperusedinthispublicationmeetstheminimumrequirementsofAmericanNationalStandardforInformationSciencesPermanenceofPaperforPrinted LibraryMaterials,ANSIZ39.481984.

Pagev

TOTHEMEMORYOF MERLEBERNICEGRUBBSWALKER (19111979)

Pagevii

CONTENTS
ListofPlates Preface Introduction PartI TheBackground 1 ReligiousWomenintheLaterMiddleAges NewOpportunities FemaleSpirituality:DiversitiesandUnity 2 FastandFeast:TheHistoricalBackground FastinginAntiquityandtheHighMiddleAges AMedievalChange:FromBreadofHeaventotheBodyBroken PartII TheEvidence 3 FoodAsaFemaleConcern:TheComplexityoftheEvidence QuantitativeandFragmentaryEvidenceforWomen'sConcernwith Food Men'sLivesandWritings:AComparison 4 FoodintheLivesofWomenSaints TheLowCountries FranceandGermany Italy 5 FoodintheWritingsofWomenMystics HadewijchandBeatriceofNazareth CatherineofSienaandCatherineofGenoa

ix xiii 1

13

14 23 31

33 48

73

76

94 113

115 129 140 150

153 165

Pageviii

PartIII TheExplanation 6 FoodAsControlofSelf WasWomen'sFastingAnorexiaNervosa? FoodAsControlofBody:TheAsceticContextandtheQuestionof Dualism 7 FoodAsControlofCircumstance FoodandFamily FoodPracticesandReligiousRoles FoodPracticesAsRejectionofModeration 8 TheMeaningofFood:FoodAsPhysicality FoodandFleshAsPleasureandPain TheLateMedievalConcernwithPhysicality 9 WomanAsBodyandAsFood WomanAsSymbolofHumanity Woman'sBodyAsFood 10 Women'sSymbols TheMeaningofSymbolicReversal Men'sUseofFemaleSymbols Women'sSymbolsAsContinuity Conclusion Epilogue ListofAbbreviations Notes GeneralIndex IndexofSecondaryAuthors

189

194 208

219

220 227 237 245

246 251 260

261 269 277

279 282 288 294 297 303 307 421 435

Pageix

LISTOFPLATES
Frontispiece.RetableoftheKinshipofSt.Anne.MuseduParcduCinquantenaire,Brussels.CopyrightA.C.L.,Brussels. followingp.142 1.RetableoftheMysticalMillcentralpanel.UlmMuseum.CourtesyFotographieIngeborgSchmatz. 2.RetableoftheMysticalMillwingsclosed.UlmMuseum.CourtesyFotographieIngeborgSchmatz. 3.MassofSt.Gregory,bytheMasteroftheHolyKinship.MuseumoftheCatherineconvent,Utrecht.CopyrightStichtingHetCatharijneconvent. 4.ChristwithEarofWheatandGrapeVine,fromthestudioofFriedrichHerlin.Stadtmuseum,Nrdlingen.CourtesyFotohausHirsch. 5.SilkembroideryofChristinthewinepress.GermanischesNationalmuseum,Nrnberg.CopyrightGermanischesNationalmuseum. 6.RetableofMaryandtheUnicorn.TheCathedral,Lbeck.CourtesyHerbertJger. 7.MaryAltarwithsaintsCatherineandBarbara.HolyGhostHospital,Lbeck. followingp.302 8.TheMiracleofSt.Elizabeth,SieneseSchool.Pinacoteca,Perugia.CourtesyAlinari/ArtResource,N.Y. 9.ElizabethofHungarywithroses(namelaterreplacedbythatofRoseof

Pagex

Viterbo),byBenozzodiLese,calledGozzoli.MuseodiS.Francesco,Montefalco.CourtesyAlinari/ArtResource,N.Y. 10.WoodcutfromJohnBrugman'sVitaalmeVirginisdeSciedam,1498.MuseumoftheCatherineconvent,Utrecht.CopyrightStichtingHetCatharijneconvent. 11.ThreeminiaturesfromaLifeofColettemadebyMasterJehanBonifacebetween1468and1477forMargaretofYork.Manuscript8,fols.34r,68v,75v,ofthe ConventofClaresatGhent. 12.Miniatureofimagomuliebris,frompart2,vision6,ofHildegardofBingen'sScivias.Plate15inHildegardofBingen,Scivias,ed.AdelgundisFhrktterandA. Carlevaris,Corpuschristianorum:continuatiomediaevalis43,2vols.(Turnhout:Brepols,1978),1:228ff.Madefromahandcoloredphotocopy(19271933)ofthe lostoriginal.CourtesyBrepols. 13.Viergeouvrante,closedandopen.TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,giftofJ.PierpontMorgan,1917. 14.MadonnaandChildbeforeaFirescreen,byRobertCampin.TheNationalGallery,London.CourtesytheTrustees,TheNationalGallery,London. 15.Charity,byLucasCranachtheElder.Mused'Histoireetd'Art,Luxembourg. 16.FountainoftheVirtues,Nrnberg.Photographbyauthor. 17.Ecclesialactansstandingoverthecardinalvirtues,byGiovanniPisano.Detailfromapulpit.TheCathedral,Pisa. 18.DetailoftheRetableofSt.BernardbytheMasterofPalma.SociedadArqueolgicaLuliana,PalmadeMallorca. 19.DetailoftheRetableofSt.IldefonsobytheMasterofOsma.TheCathedral,ElBurgodeOsma,Soria. 20.TheRestontheFlightintoEgypt,byGerardDavid.NationalGalleryofArt,Washington,AndrewW.MellonCollection.CopyrightNationalGalleryofArt. 21.VirginandChildinaLandscape,byJanvanHemessen.NationalMuseum,Stockholm.CourtesyNationalMuseum,Stockholm. 22.TheHolyKinship,byMaertendeVos.MuseumofFineArts,Ghent. 23.VirginandChild,HeuresdeMilan,fol.120r.MuseoCivico,Turin.CopyrightMuseoCivicodiTorinocourtesyAgentFoto,Turin.

Pagexi

24.LuccaMadonna,byJanvanEyck.StdelschesKunstinstitut,Frankfurt. 25.TheSavior,byQuiriziodaMurano.Accademia,Venice.CourtesyO.Bhn. 26.ChristandCharity,byanorthwestGermanmaster.WallrafRichartzMuseum,Cologne. 27.TheManofSorrows,byJacobCornelisz.MayervandenBerghMuseum,Antwerp.CopyrightA.C.L.,Brussels. 28.ChristandtheVirginIntercedingwithGodtheFather,''TurinMilanHours."CabinetdesDessins,MuseduLouvre,Paris.CourtesyDocumentation photographiquedelaRuniondesmusesnationaux. 29.TheLastJudgment,byJanProvost.Groeningemuseum,Bruges. 30.TriptychofAntoniusTsgrootenbyGoswynvanderWeyden.KoninklijkMuseumvoorSchoneKunsten,Antwerp.

Pagexiii

PREFACE
PartofthisbookwaswritteninapleasantofficeonthetopflooroftheBuntingInstituteofRadcliffeCollegeinCambridge,Massachusetts.Iamgratefultomy colleaguesattheBunting,manyofwhomreadportionsofthemanuscriptorarguedwithmeaboutmyideas.IwouldespeciallyliketothankLindaGordon,Ellen Bassuk,NancyMiller,EveSedgwick,MarilynMassey,MarthaAckelsberg,BettinaFriedl,AnnBookman,andDebbieMcDowell,whocareddeeplyaboutmywork butneverletmeforgetthatthemedievalwomenIstudiedsoundeddecidedlypeculiartomodernears.IwouldalsoliketothanktheNationalEndowmentforthe HumanitiesforaFellowshipforAdvancedStudyandResearchandtheUniversityofWashingtonforsabbaticalleavein19831984. NotallofthisbookwaswritteninthescholarlyleisureoftheBuntingInstitutenoramidtherichesofHarvardUniversity'sWidenerLibrary.Muchofitwascomposed inacubbyholeonthetopfloorofSuzzalloLibraryattheUniversityofWashington.Otherswhohavestruggledwiththeinevitablylimitedlibraryresourcesofa relativelynewinstitutionwillunderstandhowmuchIowetolibrariansformakingmyresearchpossible.KristiGreenfieldofSuzzalloAcquisitionsandRuthKirkand AnnaMcCauslandofInterlibraryBorrowingServicesfoundbooksforme,overandoveragain,withanenthusiasmthatwentbeyondprideinajobwelldoneand becameprideinscholarshipitself.Withoutthem,thisbookwouldnotexist. Thecolleagues,formerteachers,andfriendswhohaveinfluencedmyideasonthehistoryofspiritualityareafarflungnetwork.IwouldespeciallyliketothankGiles Constable,JohnBoswell,NatalieZ.Davis,LesterLittle,ElizabethA.R.Brown,RichardKieckhefer,PaulMeyvaert,AnnFreeman,CharlesT.Wood,andMarkR. Silkfortheirinspirationandtheirhelp.JoanJacobsBrumbergandRachelJacoffhave

Pagexiv

generouslyassistedwithtranslationsandcitations.DavidPinkney,RuthMellinkoff,PatriciaFortiniBrown,WalterCahn,andAnnaKartsonistaughtmehowtotrack downarthistoricalinformation.MaryMartinMcLaughlin,whoseworkhaslongbeenanexampleandaninspirationtome,readtheentiremanuscriptandoffered adviceinbothsmallmattersofdetailandlargemattersofinterpretation.KenRosetypedwithcareandenthusiasm.ElizabethGoolianandmyeditor,SheilaLevine,not onlyhelpedmeputthebooktogetherbutalso,intheprocessofdoingso,offeredmeintellectualstimulationandfriendship. Mydeepestthanksgotothreepeople:JudithVanHerikmyhusband,GuentherRothandPeterBrown.JudithVanHerikhelpedmeworkoutmypositionsbothin relationtotheseveralcurrentsofrecentfeministtheoryandinrelationtopsychoanalyticinterpretationsoffood.GuentherRothspottediconographicalevidenceforme inmuseums,arguedwithmeaboutwhatImeanby"cause,"andsavedmefrommyworstinstinctsinthematterofadjectives.PeterBrownispartlyresponsibleforthe factthatthisstudyexistsatall.NotonlydidheurgemetoletitbecomeabookwhenIwasstrugglingtoforceitintothecompassofafiftypagearticlehealsostarted meonthesearchforaconvincinginterpretationofmedievalasceticismwhenheaskedme,morethanfiveyearsago,atellingquestionaboutthenunsofHelfta. WhileIwasatworkonthisbook,RudolphM.BellofRutgersUniversitywasinvestigatingasimilartopic.Itwasfairlylateintheprocessofourrespectiveresearches thatweeachlearnedoftheother'slabors.Whenwedidexchangeportionsofourmanuscripts,wediscoveredhowdifferentourapproacheswere.ProfessorBell's book,HolyAnorexia(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1985),coversamorelimitedgeographicalareaandalongertimeperiod.Hissubjectisabstinence, treatedwithoutreferencetothepositivesignificanceoffoodinChristianpractice.Hisresearchismorequantitativethanmine.Hisexplanatorymodelispsychological. WhereasBellhasbeeninterestedinwomen'sfastingbehavior,puttingitintoapsychologicalcontext,Ihaveconcentratedonwomen'suseoffoodassymbol,puttingit intoaculturalcontext.Itismyhope,asitisProfessorBell's,thatreadersofourbookswillfindourworkcomplementary.HolyAnorexia,withitssophisticated statisticalcomparisons,strengthensmyargumentthatfoodpracticesandfoodsymbolscharacterizedwomen'sexperiencemorethanmen's.Iamgrate

Pagexv

fultoagenerousandlivelyfellowscholarwho,ratherthanwarningmeoffhisterritory,sharedhismanuscriptandhisideas. Themethodandthepaceofthisbookalsorequiresomeprefatorycomment.Inmethodthebookisaninterpretativeessayinsocialandreligioushistory.Althoughit makesextensiveuseofhagiographicalmaterial,itisnotatechnicalcontributiontothelongestablishedfieldofhagiography.WherepossibleIhaveusedthebest editionsofmedievaltextsandinvestigatedthemostpressingproblemsrelatingtothereliabilityofhagiographicalaccounts.ButIhavedeliberatelychosennotto provideexhaustivebibliographiesonthewomentreatedhereortofolloweveryscholarlydebateconcerningeithereventsortextsdownthetwistingbywaysofrecent literature.InsomeinstancesIhaveevencitedoldereditionsalongsidenewonestoaidscholarswhodonothavereadyaccesstothelargestandfinestlibraries. Concerningpace,itseemsworthnotingthatthisbookunfoldsslowly.Thetwobackgroundchaptersareleisurelyintheirdevelopment.Thelongmiddlechapters chapters4and5tellmanystoriesandrefertomanynamesandplaces.Thoughthetempoquickensinthefinalchapters,astheanalysisbecomesevermore complicated,Irepeatedlybreaktheflowbycitingexamples.Therearetworeasonsforthispatternofexposition.ThefirstissimplythatIamcommitted,asahistorian, toprovingratherthanmerelyillustratingmycase.Toconvincemodernreadersofthedecidedlybizarrebehaviorofsomemedievalwomen,itisnecessarytogivethe evidence.Butreaderswhoareinterestedonlyinmyexplanationofthatbehaviormightdowelltostartwithchapter6.Thesecondreasonformydeliberatepace, especiallyinthefirsthalfofthebook,isthebreadthandcomplexityoftheanalysisinthesecondhalf.NotonlydoImove,inthelastfivechapters,onseveralanalytical levelsIalsoadvancetheoriesaboutthenatureofasceticismandaboutwomen'suseofsymbolsthatarefarreachingintheirimplicationsforwomen'shistoryandfor thehistoryofreligions.Bothtoknowledgeablemedievalistsandtocommittedfeministsalthoughfordifferentreasonsthesetheorieswillseemtobeaudacious reversalsofreceivedwisdom.Suchtheoriescannotbeconvincingindeed,shouldnotbeconvincingunlesstheyexplainindividualliveswithoutviolatingtheir specificity.Thus,beforesiftingmedievalexperiencethroughthefinemeshofmyanalyticalsieve,Ihavetriedtoletparticularwomensuch

Pagexvi

asBeatriceofNazareth,ElizabethofHungary,AngelaofFoligno,LidwinaofSchiedam,DorothyofMontau,andCatherineofSienahaveafewparagraphsoreven afewpagesinwhichtotelltheirstories. Thisbookisdedicatedtothememoryofmymother,MerleWalker.Abrilliantphilosopher,poet,scholar,andteacher,shewasascircumscribedasanyfourteenth centurywomanbyhersociety'sassumptionsaboutfemalenurturingandselfsacrifice.Onlythosewhoknewherwillunderstandfullythewaysinwhichthisbookisa tributetoherandanexplorationofthepainandtriumphofherlife.Butthisbookismore.Forthebooksmymothermighthavewrittenneverappeared.Myactof writingisthereforemypledgetohergranddaughter,AntoniaWalker,andtohergranddaughter'sgenerationthatwomen'screativityshallnotinthefuturebesilenced.It isalsoanexpressionofhopethatthosefuturegenerationsofwomenwillnotlosethecompassion,thealtruism,andthemoralcouragethatmadeMerleWalker'slife notatragedyofselfabnegationbutatriumphovermeaninglessnessandsuffering.

Page1

INTRODUCTION
St.BernardcomparedthisSacrament[theeucharist]withthehumanprocessesofeating,whenheusedthesimilesofchewing,swallowing,assimilation,anddigestion.Tosome peoplethiswillseemcrude,butletsuchrefinedpersonsbewareofpride,whichcomesfromthedevilahumblespiritwillnottakeoffenseatsimplethings. JOHNTAULER (FOURTEENTHCENTURY)1

Recentstudiesofthirteenthandfourteenthcenturyspiritualityhavefocusedonpovertyandchastityasthebasicmotifsofreligiouslife.Overthepastfiftyyears, povertyhasbeenstudiednotonlyasthedoctrinalissuethatsplittheFranciscanorderapartbutalsoastheessentialingredientinliteral"imitationofChrist"andasthe basicmetaphorfortherenunciationofwealthandpowerpracticedbytheupperandmiddleclassesofmedievalEurope.2 Chastityhasbeenemphasizedasthesine quanonofreligiousstatus,asthereflectiononearthofthelifeoftheangels,andasarequirementthatlaidaheavyburdenofselfhatredonthoseindividuals especiallywomenwhowereunabletoassertcontrolovertheirownlives.3 Sexandmoney...againandagainmodernscholarshaveemphasizedtheguiltengenderedbytheirseductiveness,theawesomeheroismrequiredfortheir renunciation.YetthismodernfocusmaytellusmoreaboutthetwentiethcenturythanaboutthelateMiddleAges.Inourindustrializedcorneroftheglobe,wherefood suppliesdonotfail,wescarcelynoticegrainormilk,everpresentsupportsoflife,andyearnratheraftermoneyorsexualfavorsassignsofpowerandofsuccess.But evenintoday'sworld,itisnoteverywhereso.Forthehungry,foodforcesitselfforwardasaninsistentfact,aninsistentsymbol.Guidedbyourknowledgeof impoverishedmoderncountries,weshouldnotreallybesurprisedtofindthatfoodwas,inmedievalEurope,afundamental

Page2

economicandreligiousconcern.Medievalpeopleoftensawgluttonyasthemajorformoflust,fastingasthemostpainfulrenunciation,andeatingasthemostbasic andliteralwayofencounteringGod.PeterBrownhascommentedthateventhoughPauldiscountedtheimportanceoffoodandfoodpracticesforChristians(Rom. 14:17),"inthestraitenedMediterranean[world],thekingdomofheavenhadtohavesomethingtodowithfoodanddrink."4 IntheEuropeofthelaterthirteenthandfourteenthcenturiesfaminewasontheincreaseagain,afterseveralcenturiesofagriculturalgrowthandrelativeplenty.5 Viciousstoriesoffoodhoardingmerchants,ofcannibalism,ofinfanticide,ofsickadolescentslefttodiewhentheycouldnolongerworksurviveinthesources, suggestingaworldinwhichhungerandevenstarvationwerenotuncommon.6 Thepossibilityofovereatingandofgivingawayfoodtotheunfortunatewasamarkof privilege,ofaristocraticorpatricianstatusaparticularlyvisibleformofwhatwecallconspicuousconsumption,whatmedievalpeoplecalledmagnanimityorlargesse. 7 Smallwonder,then,thatgorgingandvomiting,luxuriatinginfooduntilfoodandbodywerealmostsynonymous,becameinfolkliteratureanimageofunbridled sensualpleasure8 thatmagicvesselsforeverbrimmingoverwithfoodanddrinkwerestaplesofEuropeanfairytalesthatoneofthemostcommoncharitiesenjoined onreligiousorderswastofeedthepoorandill,pilgrimsandwanderersorthatsharingone'sownmeagerfoodwithastranger(whomightturnouttobeanangel,a fairy,agod,orChristhimself)was,inhagiographyandfolktalealike,astandardindicationofheroicorsaintlygenerosity.9 Smallwonder,too,thatselfstarvation,the deliberateandextremerenunciationoffoodanddrink,seemedtomedievalpeoplethemostbasicasceticism,requiringthekindofcourageandholyfoolishnessthat markedthesaints.Torepresseatingandhungerwastocontrolthebodyinadisciplinefarmorebasicthananyachievedbysheddingthelessfrequentandessential gratificationsofsexormoney.AsChristsupposedlysaidinavisiongrantedtoMargaretofCortona(d.1297):"Inthislife,Christianscannotbeperfectunlessthey restraintheirappetitesfromvices,forwithoutabstinencefromfoodanddrinkthewarofthefleshwillneverendandtheyfeelandsuffermostfromtherebellionofthe fleshwhorefusethissavingremedy."10OrasGuntherofPairis,theCistercianhistorianandpoet,saidinatreatiseonprayerandfastingwrittenabout1200:"Fastingis usefulforexpellingdemons,excluding

Page3

evilthoughts,remittingsins,mortifyingvices,givingcertainhopeoffuturegoodsandaforetaste[perceptio]ofcelestialjoys."11Inthelatefourteenthcentury, CatherineofSweden'shagiographerattributedtohertheopinionthat"abstinenceprolongslife,preserveschastity,pleasesGod,repulsesdemons,illuminesthe intellect,strengthensthemind,overcomesvices,overpowerstheflesh,andstirsandinflamestheheartwithloveofGod."12Ananonymoussatireonhypocritical monks,probablyfromthehighMiddleAges,statesexplicitlythatfoodanddrinkarehardertorenouncethansex:"Manywhoarenotluredbymoreseriousfaultsare castdownbyoverindulgenceinfoodanddrink....Indeed,thinnedbyfastingorvigilsandrepeatedprayers,thestomachthinksnotofawomanbutoffoodit meditatesnotonlustbutonsleep."13 EatinginlatemedievalEuropewasnotsimplyanactivitythatmarkedofffinecalibrationsofsocialstatusandasourceofpleasuresointenseandsensualthatthe renunciationofitwasatthecoreofreligiousworlddenial.Eatingwasalsoanoccasionforunionwithone'sfellowsandone'sGod,acommensalitygivenparticular intensitybytheprototypicalmeal,theeucharist,whichseemedtohoverinthebackgroundofanybanquet.14BecauseJesushadfedthefaithfulnotmerelyasservant andwaiter,preparerandmultiplierofloavesandfishes,butastheverybreadandwineitself,toeatwasapowerfulverb.Itmeanttoconsume,toassimilate,to becomeGod.ToeatGodintheeucharistwasakindofaudaciousdeification,abecomingofthefleshthat,initsagony,fedandsavedtheworld.Thus,toreligious menandwomen,renunciationofordinaryfoodpreparedthewayforconsuming(i.e.,becoming)Christ,ineucharistandinmysticalunion.MechtildofMagdeburg(d. 1282?),whospokeofecstaticexperiencesas"eatingGod,"saidofthemass:
YetI,leastofallsouls, TakeHiminmyhand EatHimanddrinkHim AnddowithHimwhatIwill!15

ThethirteenthcenturyFlemishmysticHadewijchwrote:
IntheanguishorthereposeorthemadnessofLove, ....................... Theheartofeachdevourstheother'sheart. ....................

Page4 AshewhoisLoveitselfshowedus Whenhegaveushimselftoeat ............... ...love'smostintimateunionIs througheating,tasting,andseeinginteriorly.16

JohnTauler,preachingonJohn6:56("Formyfleshismeatindeed"),said:
ThereisnokindofmatterwhichissoclosetoamanandbecomessomuchapartofhimasthefoodanddrinkheputsintohismouthandsoGodhasfoundthiswonderfulwayof unitingHimselfwithusascloselyaspossibleandbecomingpartofus.17

AndWilliamofSt.Thierry(d.ca.1148)spokethusofthemeaningoftheIncarnation:
Itisyourbreasts,OeternalWisdom,thatnourishtheholyinfancyofyourlittleones.18 Itwasnottheleastofthechiefreasonsforyourincarnationthatyourbabesinthechurch,whostillneededyourmilkratherthansolidfood,...mightfindinyouaformnot unfamiliartothemselves.19

Notonlywasfoodamoresignificantmotifinlatemedievalspiritualitythanmosthistorianshaverecognized,foodwasalsoamoreimportantmotifinwomen'spiety thaninmen's.Forcertainlatemedievalwomen,fastingbecameanobsessionsooverwhelmingthatmodernhistorianshavesometimesthoughttheirstoriespreservethe earliestdocumentablecasesofanorexianervosa.WomenalloverEuropeservedChristbyfeedingothers,donatingtothepoorthefoodthathusbandsandfathersfelt proudtobeabletosaveandconsume.Theeucharistandrelateddevotions,suchasthosetothebody,wounds,heart,andbloodofChrist,wereattheverycenterof women'spiety.EatingGodinthehostwasbothasweettastingthatfocusedandtranscendedallhungerandanoccasionforparamysticalphenomenaofthemost bizarreandexuberantsort. InthisbookIexploretheimplicationsoffoodrelatedreligiouspracticesandoffoodimagesinthepietyofmedievalwomen.AlthoughIhavetriedtociteenoughcases todemonstratethecentralityoffoodinbothpracticeandtexts,myconcernhasbeenlesstocollectmetaphorsortocountcasesoffoodasceticism,eucharistic devotion,orfeedingmira

Page5

clesthanithasbeentoshowthemanifoldmeaningsoffoodanditspervasivenessinreligioussymbolism.Ratherthanmentioneverywomanwhofastedorsawvisions oftheChristchildinthechalice,Ihaveconcentratedonwomenwhoselifestoriesandwritingssurviveinsufficientdetailforustotrace,acrossthedistancecreatedby manycenturiesandbyvastlydifferentmodernassumptions,therichandparadoxicalmeaningsofeatingandnoteating.AlthoughIamawareofmodernclinical definitionsoffoodobsession,Ihaveavoidedusingthem,atleastinitially,becauseIfindthatmedievalattitudestowardfoodarefarmorediversethanthoseimpliedby themodernconceptsofanorexianervosaandhysteria.Toreligiouswomenfoodwasawayofcontrollingaswellasrenouncingbothselfandenvironment.Butitwas more.Foodwasflesh,andfleshwassufferingandfertility.InrenouncingordinaryfoodanddirectingtheirbeingtowardthefoodthatisChrist,womenmovedtoGod notmerelybyabandoningtheirflawedphysicalitybutalsobybecomingthesufferingandfeedinghumanityofthebodyonthecross,thefoodonthealtar.However absurdorvulgarsomemedievalpracticesandlanguagemayseemtocasualmodernobservers,wedowelltoheedTauler'swarning(quotedabove)nottotake offense.Deeperstudyofthese"simplethings"suggeststhatfoodandbodycanbepowerfulwaysofencounteringsufferingandfecundityaspectsofthehuman conditionfromwhichevenweinthetwentiethcenturycannothidecompletely. BecauseIintendthisbookbothformedievalistsandforreaderswithageneralinterestinthehistoryofwomenorthehistoryofChristianity,Ihaveprovided backgroundmaterialforbothgroups.Thefirstchapterisabriefaccountofthereligiousoptionsavailabletomedievalwomenthesecondexplainsthemajorfood practicesofmedievalChristiansfastingandeucharisticdevotionwithattentiontotheirrootsinearlyChristianity.Bothchapterscontainmuchmaterialthatwillbe familiartospecialists,althoughIhavepresenteditinanewway.Thethirdchapter,whichdiscussesthenatureoftheevidence,isprovidedprimarilyforscholars.It examinessomeoftheproblemsraisedbytheuseofhagiographicalmaterialitalsogivesaclosereadingofseveralmalefigurestostrengthenthecaseforcharacterizing foodpracticesandmetaphorsas"female."Thefourthandfifthchapterspresentthestoriesaboutwomenandthewritingsbythemonwhichthisbookisbased.Ihave chosentotellsomeofthesestoriesasstoriesbeforeturningtoa

Page6

moreanalyticaldiscussionbecauseitisonlybyrecountingthestoriesthemselvesthatIcandemonstratetoandevokeforreaderstheextenttowhichmanyfood motifstendtobewovenintoasinglelife.Thelastfivechaptersaretheheartoftheargument.InthemIprovidewhatmightbecalled,respectively,afunctionalistanda phenomenologicalexplanationoftheprominenceoffoodmetaphorsandfoodpracticesinwomen'spiety.Inotherwords,Ishow,first,howwomenwereabletouse foodpracticestoshapetheirexperienceandtheirplaceinbothfamilyandcommunityand,second,whatfoodrelatedbehaviorandsymbolsactuallymeantto medievalwomen.Indoingthis,Isuggestbothanewinterpretationoflatemedievalasceticismandanewunderstandingofthesignificanceofgenderinmedieval religion. Thelastfivechaptersindeedbecomeacomplexrefutationofthestandardinterpretationofasceticismasworldrejectionoraspracticaldualismandofthestandard pictureofmedievalwomenasconstrainedoneverysidebyamisogynytheyinternalizedasselfhatredormasochism.Rather,Iarguethatmedievaleffortstodiscipline andmanipulatethebodyshouldbeinterpretedmoreaselaboratechangesrunguponthepossibilitiesprovidedbyfleshlinessthanasflightsfromphysicality.Ialso demonstratetheextenttowhichreligiouswomenderivedtheirbasicsymbolsfromsuchordinarybiologicalandsocialexperiencesasgivingbirth,lactating,suffering, andpreparinganddistributingfood.Theidentificationofthischaracteristicofwomen'ssymbolswhichcontrastssharplywiththeenthusiasmcontemporarymalesfelt forsymbolsofreversal(especiallytherenunciationofwealthandpower)enablesmetoraisefundamentalquestionsaboutdifferencesinmaleandfemalereligiosity. Threeintroductorycommentsmaybehelpful.Thefirstconcernschronology.Despitethefactthatsomeofthemostspectacularcasesoffastingoreucharisticfrenzy discussedbelowcomefromthefifteenthcentury,Ihavelimitedthebulkofmyanalysisto,andtakenmostofmyexamplesfrom,thethirteenthandfourteenthcenturies. Ihavechosenthischronologicalfocusbecausemygoalistoexplaintheoriginsofaparticularemphasiswithinwomen'spiety.Ihavenottriedtofollowthatpietydown intothesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies,althoughonecouldarguethatitpersistedthatlong(andevenlonger)inEurope,especiallyrural,CatholicEurope.Ishall, however,leavethesubsequenthistorytoothers.Mypurposeistoputtheinceptionofthatpietyintoas

Page7

broadacontextaspossible,toshowthattopicssuchaseucharisticdevotion,fasting,andmiraculousbodilychangesshouldnotbediscussedinisolationfromeach other.Todemonstratetheinterconnectionofdevotionalpracticesandsymbolsinoneperiod,Ihadtoavoidcarryingthehistoryofanyofthemtoofarforwardintime. Ihavealsoconcentratedmoreondelineatingtheoverallpatternofsymbolswithintheculturethanonferretingoutchronologicalchange.Ihavefeltthistobenecessary inordertomakethepatternclear,butIhopeIhavenotignoredchangeentirely. Second,IamfullyawarethatmostofthewomenIamdiscussingareexceptional.MaryofOignies(d.1213)andCatherineofSiena(d.1380)arenomoretypicalof religiouswomen(orofwomengenerally)thanTheCanterburyTalesandTheDivineComedyaretypicalofmedievalliteratureorofmedievallife.Indeed,medieval hagiographerspointedoutrepeatedlythatsaintsarenotevenprimarily''models"forordinarymortalsthesaintsarefartoodangerousforthat.LikeChristhimself,they couldnotandshouldnotbeimitatedintheirfullextravaganceandpower.Rather(sotheiradmirerssay),theyshouldbeloved,venerated,andmeditateduponas momentsinwhichtheotherthatisGodbreaksthroughintothemundaneworld,saturatingitwithmeaning.Andyet,inthediscussionthatfollows,Imovefromthese particular,exceptionalwomentotheirreligiousandsocialworlds,explainingthewomenbytheircontextandthecontextbythewomen.Twothings,speakingvery generally,justifythisendeavor.Thefirstisthattheevidencewecangarnerfromchronicles,lawcodes,sermons,andsoonsuggeststhatsomeofthepracticesof exceptionalwomentheirfasting,fooddistribution,psychosomaticchanges,etc.werefoundinordinaryreligiouswomenaswell.Thebehaviorofsaintssuchas ElizabethofHungary(d.1231)orCatherineofGenoafindsdozensofmundaneparallelsinwomensuchasthemotherofPeterofLuxembourg(d.1387),the fourteenthcenturylaywomanMargeryKempe(d.after1438),andthefastinggirlsnoticedinpassingbysixteenthcenturybroadsidewriters.Thesecondjustification isthatthoseholywomenofwhomwehaverecords,especiallythosewhowerecanonizedorwidelyrevered,werechosenbytheircontemporariesasheroines, mirrors,andlessonsaslensesthroughwhichGod'spowerandhumanaspirationswerefocusedtowardeachother.Likeapoemorromancewhosemanuscript traditionatteststhatitwaswidelyread,womensuchasCatherineofSienareflectwhatat

Page8

leastsomeoftheircontemporariesfoundvaluableandaweinspiring.Itisthereforenotunwarrantedtotakethestoriesmostcommonlytoldaboutsaintlywomen howeveratypicalorabnormaltheymayappeartomedievalormoderncommonsenseasimportantevidenceabouttheassumptionsofthepeoplewhoadmiredthe saints.20 Finally,itshouldhardlybenecessarytocommentthatIamnotconcernedwithwhethermedievalaccountsofphenomenasuchasstigmata,levitation,miraculous bodilychanges,extendedinedia,visions,andfoodmultiplicationmiraclesare"true."Asaphenomenologistwouldsay,I"bracket"thequestionofcause,eithernatural orsupernatural,forsuchevents.IaminterestedinwhatmedievalpeopleexperiencedandwhileIhaveahistorian'sskepticismaboutallevidence,Ialso,asa historian,prefertostartmystudyofthepastwithwhatpeopleinthepastsaidthemselves.Medievalpeoplehadseveraldifferentmodelsforunderstandingphenomena suchaseucharisticvisionsorextendedandtotalabstinence.Wheretheythemselvessuggestthatwhatsomeseeasamiracleisfraudordemonicpossessionorillness, Iaminterestedintheirmodelswheretheynotethedifferencebetweenmeditationandvision,orbetweenvisionsoftheinnerandtheoutereyes,Iamcuriousabout whytheyfoundsuchdistinctionsimportant.Butwhentheydonotemploycategoriesorexplanationsthatmodernpeoplefindnecessary,Itrytoavoidsuch terminology.ThuswhenIsay,forexample,thatacertainholywomanlivedforyearswithouteating,Idonotmeantoimplythatthisstatementistrue(orfalse)by twentiethcenturystandardsofreportingorofscientificverification.Imeanthatsuchastoryinterestedmedievalpeopleenoughforthemtorecorditandthatit expressedawayoffindingvalueandgivingmeaningthatholywomen,theirchroniclers,andtheiradmirersallshared.21 Myworkhasimplicationsformodernproblemsandobsessionsthatwillnotbelostonmanyofitsreaders.Ihavetouchedontheseinmyepilogue.Ihave,moreover, triedtowriteinamannerthatisaccessibletothosewhoarenotmedievalists.Thisisnonethelessascholarly,notapopular,book.22Itisabookaboutthen,notabout now.Itisanimatedmostfundamentallyneitherbyhorrorattheproblemsofwomeninthemodernworldnorbydelightattheiradvances,whateverImayfeelofboth emotions.Mycommitment,vision,andmethodarehistoricalIintendtorevealthepastinitsstrangenessaswellasitsfamiliarity.My

Page9

pointistoarguethatwomen'sbehaviorandwomen'swritingmustbeunderstoodinthecontextofsocial,economic,andecclesiasticalstructures,theologicaland devotionaltraditions,verydifferentfromourown.Ifreadersleavethisbooksimplycondemningthepastaspeculiar,Ishallhavefailed.ButIshallhavefailedjustas profoundlyifreadersdrawdirectanswerstomodernproblemsfromthelivesIchronicle.

Page11

I THEBACKGROUND

Page13

1 ReligiousWomenintheLaterMiddleAges
SomeofthesewomendissolvedwithsuchaparticularandmarvelouslovetowardGodthattheylanguishedwithdesireandforyearshadrarelybeenabletorisefromtheirbeds. Theyhadnootherinfirmity,savethattheirsoulsweremeltedwithdesireofhim,and,sweetlyrestingwiththeLord,astheywerecomfortedinspirittheywereweakenedinbody.... Thecheeksofonewereseentowasteaway,whilehersoulwasliquifiedwiththegreatnessofherlove.Manyhadthetasteofhoneysensiblyintheirmouthsbecauseofthegiftof spiritualsweetnessintheirhearts....Another'sflowoftearshadmadevisiblefurrowsdownherface....Othersweredrawnwithsuchintoxicationofspiritthatinsacredsilence theywouldremainquietawholeday....sothattheycouldnotberousedbyclamororfeelablow....Someinreceivingthebreadofhimwhocamedownfromheavenobtainednot onlyrefreshmentintheirheartsbutapalpableconsolationintheirmouthssweeterthanhoneyandthehoneycomb....[They]languishedwithsuchdesireforthesacramentthat theycouldnotbesustained...unlesstheirsoulswerefrequentlyrefreshedbythesweetnessofthisfood.Lettheinfidelhereticsblush,whodonotpartakeofthisfoodeitherbyfaith orbylove. JAMESOFVITRY (EARLYTHIRTEENTHCENTURY)1

ThelaterMiddleAges,especiallytheperiodfromthelatetwelfthtotheearlyfourteenthcentury,witnessedasignificantproliferationofopportunitiesforwomento participateinspecializedreligiousrolesandofthetypeofrolesavailable.Thenumberoffemalesaints,includingmarriedwomensaints,increased.Women'spiety whethermonasticorlaytookoncertaindistinctivecharacteristicsthatpowerfulmales,bothsecularandclerical,noted,sometimeswithaweandsometimeswith

Page14

suspicion.Indeed,forthefirsttimeinChristianhistory,wecanidentifyawomen'smovement(thebeguines)andcanspeakofspecificallyfemaleinfluencesonthe developmentofpiety.Ifwearetograspthesignificanceoffoodasanunderlyingthemeinwomen'sspirituality,weneedtounderstandthegeneralchangesinwomen's religiousexperiencethroughouttheperiod.2 NewOpportunities BeinganunwasalmosttheonlyspecializedreligiousroleavailabletowomenintheearlyMiddleAges.(Canonesses,whoappearedintheCarolingianperiod,were similartonunsbuttooklessstrictvowsofpoverty.)Thehistoryofearlymedievalnunsisacomplexone,andrecentresearchsuggeststhattherewasmorevariation overtimethanearlierhistoriansnoticed,bothintheinfluenceofnunneries(andabbesses)onthesurroundingsocietyandinsociety'srespectforthepietyofmarried laywomen3 .Buthoweverpowerfulcertainearlymedievalladiesmayhavebeeneitherasabbessesorassaintlyqueens,specializedreligiousrolesforwomenwere usuallyrestrictedtothehigharistocracy.InthetenthandearlyeleventhcenturiesagrimperiodofwarandhardshipforwesternEuropefewfemalemonasteries werefounded,andreligiousleadersshowedlittleconcernforencouragingwomen'sreligiosity.Themajormonasticreformoftheperiod,Cluny,foundedscoresof malemonasteriesbutonlyonehousefornunsbefore1100,anditspurposewastoprovidearetreatforwomenwhosehusbandswishedtobecomeCluniacmonks.4 AlthoughwehavenoideawhatproportionofthepopulationofmedievalEuropebelongedtoreligioushouses(or,indeed,whatthesizeoftheEuropeanpopulation was),wearecertainthatbefore1200,monksvastlyoutnumberednuns.5 Overthecourseofthetwelfthandthirteenthcenturies,especiallyintheRhinelandandLow Countries,thisratiobegantochange.6 Theproliferationinthelateeleventhandtwelfthcenturiesofwanderingpreacherswhoattractedbandsoffollowersdeterminedto"imitatetheapostoliclife"inpoverty andpenitencehadsuchasignificantimpactonwomenthatcontemporarychroniclerscommentedonthephenomenon,withasmuchtrepidationasadmiration.7 WomenflockedafterwanderingevangelistssuchasNorbertofXanten(d.1134)andRobert

Page15

ofArbrissel(d.11161117),andthesepreachersambivalentaboutitinerantpreachingevenforthemselvesandclearlyhostiletoitasaformoffemalepiety foundedmonasteriesforthem.Socalleddoublemonasteries(i.e.,communitieswithbothmaleandfemalehouses,oftensidebyside)emergedagaininEngland,where therewasalsoasignificantincreaseinthenumberoffemalerecluses(womenwhovowedthemselvestoalifeofwithdrawalinlittlecellsattachedtochurches).Onthe continent,twoofthemostprestigiousnewordersofthetwelfthcentury,thePremonstratensiansandtheCistercians,foundthenumberofwomen'shousesintheir ranksgrowingatanalarmingrate.Thestoryoffemaleenthusiasminstitutionalizedasstrictmonasticismrepeateditselfintheearlythirteenthcentury,whenClareof Assisi(d.1253)triedtofollowFrancisinthemendicant(i.e.,begging)lifebutwasforcedtoacceptastrictlycloisteredrole. Womenwerenotonlyfollowers,manipulatedandcircumscribedintheirreligiousidealsbypowerfulclerics,theywerealsoleadersandreformers.Inthethirteenth century,whenBenedictinemonasticismformenwaseclipsedbythemendicantmovement(i.e.,thefriars),anItalianwoman,SantucciaCarabotti,foundedaconvent nearGubbio,enforcedastrictinterpretationoftheBenedictineRulethere,andlaterreformedandsupervisedtwentyfourothermonasteries,takingthemunderher direction.8 IntheearlyfifteenthcenturyColetteofCorbie(d.1447),whobeganherreligiouslifeasahermit,reformedmanyconventsofPoorClaresinFranceand Flandersandfoundedothers.9 Therapidgrowthofwomen'shousesstrainedtheresourcesoftheneworders,whichhadtoprovideclergyforthewomen'sspiritualdirectionandsacramentalneeds. ThePremonstratensianswerethefirsttopasslegislationcurtailingwomen'smonasteriestheCisterciansfollowed.AsR.W.Southernhasmadeusaware,misogyny amalefearoffemalesexualitythatwasaprojectionofmalefearofmalesexualitywassometimesthearticulatedmotiveforsuchrepression.Thenotoriousopinion, attributedtothePremonstratensianabbotConradofMarchtal,that"thewickednessofwomenisgreaterthanallotherwickednessoftheworldand...thepoisonof aspsanddragonsismorecurableandlessdangeroustomenthanthefamiliarityofwomen"maybespurious.Butanumberoftwelfthcenturymonasticleadersfeared thatcelibatemaleswouldbecontaminatedbywomenandwerewillingtolimitwomen'sreligiousopportunitiesinordertoprotectfragilemalevirtue.Bernard

Page16

ofClairvaux(d.1153)warnedhismonks:"Tobealwayswithawomanandnottohavesexualrelationswithherismoredifficultthantoraisethedead.Youcannotdo thelessdifficultdoyouthinkIwillbelievethatyoucandowhatismoredifficult?"10 Recentresearchhas,however,shownthatmalereluctanceandoppositiondidlittletoslowthegrowthofwomen'sreligiouslife.11Ineasternareas(suchasFranconia andBavaria),womenevencontinuedtoattachthemselvestothePremonstratensianorder.12TheCisterciandecreeof1228forbiddingtheincorporationofanymore conventsremainedadeadletter,andthroughoutthethirteenthcenturyCisterciannunneriesproliferated(oftenwithsupportfromlocalDominicans)intheLow CountriesandthelowerRhineland.Althoughsomemonks,canons,andfriarsdidresisttakingresponsibilityforthepastoralcareofnuns,somereligiousauthorities, frompopestolocalclergy,andsomeprominentlaymensupportedandendowedwomen'shouses.13BothSantucciaandColettereceivedsignificantsupportfrom popesandpapallegates.Inthethirteenthandearlyfourteenthcenturies,thesewomen'smonasteriesformedinfluentialspiritualnetworksamongthemselvesand producedcollectionsofthesisters'livesandvisionsthatwereoftenreadinbothfemaleandmalehousesasaformofspiritualinstruction.14InsomepartsofEurope, wheremalehousesdeclinedfairlysteadilybothineconomicbaseandinreligiousfervor,nunswereamajorityofthecloisteredreligiousbythefifteenthcentury.15 InthetwelfthandthirteenthcenturiesnewformsofreligiouslifeforwomenappearedalongsidetheoldBenedictinenunneriesandthefemalemonasteriesofthenew orders.Someofthesereligiousopportunitieswereheterodox,andhistoriansarestilldebatingtheextenttowhichwomenwereproportionatelyoverrepresentedinthe majorheresiesofthetwelfththroughthefourteenthcentury.16Althoughtheseheresiessharedmanycharacteristics,scholarsusuallydividethemintothreegroups: dualists,antisacerdotalreformers,andaberrantmystics.Thefirstgroup,knownasCatharsorAlbigensians,appearedprimarilyinthesouthofEuropeandrapidly cametofollowanindependentandalternativereligionbasedonatheologyofabsolutedualism.IncontrasttothemonismoforthodoxChristiantheology,Cathars believedtherewasawarinthecosmosbetweengoodandevilandaparallelwarintheindividualbetweenspiritandflesh.Thesecondgroup,whichincludedsuch movementsastheWaldensians,theHumiliati,theNewApostles

Page17

ofGerardSegarelli,andlatertheLollards,werereformerswhosepuritanicalzealbecameanticlericalismandthen,underthepressureofpersecution,denialofthe sacraments.17Thethirdgroup,whichemergedasathreatintheearlyfourteenthcentury,wasknownastheFreeSpirit.18Theseindividualscarriedpersonalmystical experiencetothepointofantinomianism(therejectionofallrulesandexternalreligiouspractices)andselfdeification.Butthecontemporarynotionthattheywerea formalmovement,akindofconspiracy,mayhavebeeninlargepartafantasygeneratedbyorthodoxfearoftheimplicationsofmysticism. Itseemsclearthatwomenwerepowerfullydrawntosuchmovements,atleastuntiltheytoodevelopedhierarchicalstructuresthattendedtoexcludefemaleleadership. Butitalsoseemsclearthatthesemovementswhichwereofteninitiallylabeledheresiesforreasonsofecclesiasticalpolitics,notdoctrineexpressedmanyofthe basicthemesfoundinwomen'sreligiosityinitsorthodoxforms:aconcernforaffectivereligiousresponse,anextremeformofpenitentialasceticism,anemphasisboth onChrist'shumanityandontheinspirationofthespirit,andabypassingofclericalauthority.19Thuswomenmayhaveflockedtotheheresiesnot(assomehave argued)becausetheyfeltneglectedbyoralienatedfromthechurchbutbecausecertainspiritualimpulsesthatcharacterizedbothheterodoxandorthodoxmovements appealedespeciallytowomenandweregeneratedinsignificantpartbythem. Indeed,thesameimpulsesthatissuedinthevarioushereticalmovementswerethesourceofnewquasireligiousrolesforwomenwithinthechurchrolesthatwere notsomuchnovelinstitutionalarrangementsassimplywaysofgivingreligioussignificancetowomen'sordinarylives.InthenorthofEurope(especiallynorthern France,theLowCountries,Switzerland,andtheRhineland),wefindwomencalledbeguines.(Theetymologyofthewordisdebatedbutitmaybeaslur,derived fromAlbigensian,i.e.,heretic.)Thesewomensetthemselvesapartfromtheworldbylivingaustere,poor,chastelivesinwhichmanuallaborandcharitableservice werejoinedtoworship(whichwasnot,however,rigidlyprescribedasitwasinconvents).Initially,atleast,theirpracticecontrastedsharplywithtraditional monasticism,sincetheytooknovowsandhadnocomplexorganizationandrules,noorderlinkingthehouses,nohierarchyofofficials,nowealthyfoundersorleaders. InthesouthofEurope(especiallyItaly),wefind,parallelingthebeguincs,thetertiariesindividualswholivedintheworldbutwereaffiliated

Page18

withoneofthegreatmendicantorders(usuallyFranciscanorDominican)andfollowedalifeofpenitentialasceticism,charitableactivity,andprayer.InSpain,women insuchquasireligiousstatuseswereknownasbeatas.And,alloverEurope,evenordinarylaywomensometimesfound,throughpilgrimage,awayoftemporarily settingthemselvesofffromthedemandsoftheworldinaspecialreligiousroleofdevotion,service,andpenitence.20Althoughthereisnowayofestimatingthe numberofwomeninEuropewhoadoptedsuchquasireligiousstatus,statisticsforafewnortherncitiessuggesthowpopularthevocationwas.Thethousandwomen livinginbeguinecommunitiesinColognein1320accountedforabout15percentoftheadultfemalepopulation(andthisfigureexcludesbeguineslivingalone).In StrasbourgandBasel,othercentersofthemovement,beguinesaccountedforabout2.5percentofthetotalpopulationinthesameperiod.21 Earlyinourowncentury,somehistoriansarguedthatthewanderingevangelistsofthetwelfthcentury(heterodoxandorthodox)andthemendicants,tertiaries, beguines,andFreeSpiritsofthethirteenthandfourteenthcenturiesrepresentedmovementsofprotestbythenewurbanlowerclasses.22Thesehistorianssawtertiary andbeguinegroupsasfemaleguilds,withessentiallyeconomicfunctions.Morerecently,scholarshavetakenthereligiousnatureofsuchmovementsseriouslyandhave disprovedtheclaimsofpredominantlylowerclassmembership.Butitseemsclearthatthenewgroupscanbeassociatedwithspecificsocialstatuses.Althoughthe newordersandmovementsofthetwelfthcenturybeganwitharistocraticclericsandrecruitedfrombothtownandcountryside,thirteenthcenturybeguines,tertiaries, andeventosomeextentCisterciannunstendedtobedrawnfromthenewbourgeoisieorfromalowernobilityassociatedwiththetowns.Thuswomenwhojoinedthe newtypesofreligiouslifeavailableinthethirteenthandfourteenthcenturiesoftencamefromsocialgroupsthatwererisingandcanbeshowntohavefeltanxietyabout theirnewwealthandstatus.Theiridealastheirmostdistinguishedhistorian,HerbertGrundmann,pointedoutyearsagowasnotsimplyausteritybut,rather, renunciationofcomfortandwealth.Womenfromtheoldnobilitywereapttojointraditionalmonasticestablishments(Benedictinenunneriesorhousesof canonesses),whichrequiredlargedowriesfromentrants.23 Twoexplanationsfortheemergenceofnewtypesoffemalereligiouslifehaverecentlybeenpopular.Onesuggestsdemographiccauses:reli

Page19

giouswomenwerethedaughtersforwhomnohusbandscouldbefound.24Theotherexplanationarguesthatthewomenwhobecamebeguines,tertiaries,orheretics weresimplyareligioussurplus,leftonthefringestoattemptsomekindofquasireligiouslifeafterCistercianandPremonstratensiandoorsclosedandthefriarsshowed reluctancetoexpandtheirpastoratetolargenumbersofnuns.25Bothexplanationsareplausible.Demographicfactorsinfactlaybehindalllatemedievalreligious movements.Thestructureofthemedievalfamilyandofinheritancepatternsnecessitatedalternativestotheroleofmarriageandprocreationforalargeportionofthe population.Andinthethirteenthandfourteenthcenturiesthevalueofdowrieswentupsharply,makingthemarriageofdaughters(oreventheendowingofaplacefor theminoneofthetraditionalmonasteries)sometimesprohibitivelyexpensive.Contemporariesthemselveswereawareofsuchsocialmotives.Adocumentfromearly fourteenthcenturyGhentstatesthat,ahundredyearsearlier,

JeanneandhersisterMargaret,successivecountessesofFlandersandHainault,observedthatthesecountiesteemedwithwomenwhoweredeniedsuitablemarriagesbecauseof theirownsituationorthatoftheirfriends,andthatdaughtersofrespectablemen,ofbothnobleandordinarybirth,desiredtolivechastelyinmonasteriesbut,onaccountofthe numbersofthemorofthepovertyoftheirparents,wereunabletodosoeasily.Furthermore,respectabledemoisellesandimpoverishednoblewomenhadtobegorpursuealife embarrassingtothemselvesandtheirkinunlessaproperremedywasprovided.Thus,underdivineinspiration,orsoitispiouslybelieved,theyroundedinvariouspartsof Flanders,havingfirstsoughtthecounselandapprovalofdiocesanandotherworthyauthorities,spaciousplacescalledbeguinages[quevocanturBeghinarumcurie].Herethese women,girls,ordemoiselleswerereceivedtopreservetheirchastitybyvoworwithoutvowandtoprovidethemselveswithfoodandclothingwithoutembarrassmentto themselvesorthecontrivingoftheirfriends.26

Moreover,themaleresistancetothepastoralcareofreligiouswomenthatisreflectedinthePremonstratensianandCisterciandecreesreferredtoabovecontinuedin thefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies.27 Yetitseemswrongtointerpretthebeguines,tertiaries,andfemalehereticsofthelaterMiddleAgesassurpluswomen,settlingforquasireligiousrolesbecauseneither husbandsnormonasteriescouldbefound.Onthecontrary,saints'livesincludemanycaseswherenoblewomenwho

Page20

couldhaveaffordedtoentermonasteriesinsteadchosebeguineortertiarystatus.TherecentresearchofJohnFreedhasdemonstratedthat,farfrominhibitingthe growthofnunneries,friarsandlocalclergyoftenencouragedthem.Itisnotclearthattherewasagreatshortageofplaces,atleastinCistercianconvents.28Itthus appearsthatthebeguineswerelessanunintendedresultofpastoralnegligencethananewandattractivealternativetotraditionalcloisteredlife.Moreover,formany girls,itwasthepresence,nottheabsence,ofaprospectivebridegroomthatactivateddesireforperpetualchastity.Althoughsomeyoungwomenunquestionably desiredtoleavemonasteriestowhichtheyhadbeengiven,therewerealsomanydaughtersforcedintomarriageorthreatenedwithitwhosawtheconventasan escape.Thedangersofchildbirthandthebrutalityofmanymarriagesdisadvantagespointedoutbymedievalmoralistsledsomewomentoprefercelibacy. Virginitywasnot,however,merelyameansofescapefromfamily.Itwasseenbybothmenandwomenasapositiveandcompellingreligiousideal.29Setapartfrom theworldbyintactboundaries,herfleshuntouchedbyordinaryflesh,thevirgin(likeChrist'smother,theperpetualvirgin)wasalsoabride,destinedforahigher consummation.Shescintillatedwithfertilityandpower.Intoherbody,asintotheeucharisticbreadonthealtar,pouredtheinspirationofthespiritandthefullnessof thehumanityofChrist. Theperiodfrom1100to1400sawnotonlythecreationofnewtypesofreligiouslifeforwomenbutalsoanincreaseinthenumberoffemalesaintsaclearindication ofthegrowingprominenceofwomenbothinreflectingandincreatingpiety.Ofcourse,therewasalwaysresistanceonthepartofchurchauthoritiestothe canonizationofwomen.Althoughthenumberofcanonizationinquiriesforwomenrose,aconsistentlysmallerpercentageoffemalesthanofmalesconsideredfor canonizationactuallyachievedit.30Nonetheless,recentscholarlyinvestigations,bothofactuallycanonizedsaintsandofthosewhoweresimplypopularlyrevered, suggestthattheproportionoffemalesaintsrosefromlessthan10percentintheeleventhcenturytoabout28percentinthefifteenth.AccordingtoWeinsteinandBell, thebigrisecamebetweenthetwelfthandthirteenthcenturies,whenthepercentageoffemalesaintsalmostdoubled(from11.8to22.6percent).Thetrendpeakedin thefifteenthcentury(at27.7percent),despitethefactthatthetotalnumberofsaintsdeclined.Inthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies,when

Page21

thetotalnumberofsaintsturnedslightlyupward,thepercentageofwomendroppedsharply(to18percentinthesixteenthcentury,14.4percentintheseventeenth).
31

Notonlydidthepercentageoffemalesaintsclimbbetweenthetwelfthandthirteenthcenturiesthepercentageofmarriedsaintsroseaswell.32Throughouttheperiod, womenrepresentedaconsistentlyhigherpercentageofthemarriedsaintsthandidmen,althoughWeinstein,Bell,andVauchezsuggest,onthebasisofqualitative evidence,thatanewambivalenceaboutmarriageemergedinthefifteenthcentury.33Theriseinthenumberandpercentageofwomensaintscorrelatesalsowitha broadeningoftheclassbaseofsaints(althoughahigherpercentageofsaintlywomenthanofsaintlymenwereupperclass)andwithanincreaseinthepercentages bothofsaintsfromurbanareasandofsaintsaffiliatedwithmendicantorders(althoughthecanonizationofmendicantwomenalwaysmetwithstiffresistance).34 Theriseofthewomansaintcorrelatesmostdramatically,however,withtheriseofthelaysaint.Indeed,bytheendoftheMiddleAgesthelaymalesainthadvirtually disappeared.Nuns(theonly''nonlay"femalerole)continued,ofcourse,tobecanonizedbutbythesixteenthcenturyalmostallthemalescanonizedwereclerics,and themodelofholybehaviorofferedtotheCatholiclaitywasalmostexclusivelyfemale.AccordingtoVauchez,50percentofthelaitycanonizedinthethirteenth century,and71.4percentofthosecanonizedafter1305,werefemale.35 Connectedtotheemergenceofnewquasireligiousopportunitiesforlaywomenandtotheincreasingvenerationofcertainlaywomenasholyweretwoothertrends: thedeclineanddisappearanceofquasiclericalrolesforwomen,andtheincreasedsuspicion,fromtheearlyfourteenthcenturyon,ofexactlythosepropheticand visionarypowersofholywomenthatcontrastedmostsharplywithmaleclericalauthority,basedasitwasonordination.36Inthechurchofthetenthtothetwelfth century,womendidexercisesome"clerical"roles:preaching,hearingconfessionsfromnunsunderthem,bestowingblessings,andsometimesadministeringcommunion tothemselvesinritualsknownas"masseswithoutpriests."37Butsuchthingswereincreasinglycriticizedandsuppressed.ThedecretalistBernardofParma,inhis commentary(ca.1245),arguedthatwhatevermightbefoundinearlierpracticewomencouldnotteachorpreach,touchsacredvessels,veilorabsolvenuns,or exercisejudgmentandthat"ingeneral,theofficeofamanisforbidden

Page22

towomen."38ThepowerfulabbessesoftheearlyMiddleAgesareseldomfoundinthelaterperiod.Thosedoublemonasteriesoverwhichwomenruledhadmostly beeneliminatedbythethirteenthcentury.Althoughwomenintheworldwhowerereveredassaintsweremorelikelythansaintlymentocomefromthehighestsocial ranks,thosereveredwithinmonasteriesorbeguinageswereoftennotabbessesorprioressesbut,rather,ordinarysistersblessedwithparamysticalandvisionary experiences.39 Thus,fromthethirteenthcenturyon,wefindreligiouswomenlosingrolesthatparalleledorapedmaleclericalleadershipbutgainingboththepossibilityofshapingtheir ownreligiousexperiencesinlaycommunitiesandaclearalternativethepropheticalternativetothemalerolebasedonthepowerofoffice.Itisworthnotingthat suchatrendparallelsseculardevelopmentsinthesameperiod.Betweenthetwelfthandfourteenthcenturies,aristocraticwomen'sabilitytomanagelargeestatesand toruledeclinedwhileordinarywomenclearlygainedopportunitiesforindependenceandeconomicprofitinthesmallcrafts,shops,andbusinessesofthenew towns.40Suchcomplexchangesinthekindsofopportunitiesandsourcesofauthorityavailabletowomen,aswellasinthekindsofwomenforwhomopportunities wereavailable,makegeneralizationsabout"thestatusofwomen"statementstowhichhistorianshavesometimesbeentemptedpresumptuousandilladvised.41 Thefemalereligiousrolehadonlytobecomeclear,however,tobemetwithsuspicion.Aftertheearlyfourteenthcentury,theformsandthemesofwomen'sreligiosity arousedincreasedhostility.In1310awomanmystic,MargaretPorete,wasaccusedoftheFreeSpiritheresyandburnedinParis.Thebeguinesweresuppressedby theCouncilofViennein13111312,althoughthedecreeremainedunenforcedforseveralyearsand,aftermidcentury,thewomen'smovement(inafarmore "monasticized"i.e.,institutionalizedform)wasonceagainpermitted.Thespiritualfriendshipsandnetworksofthirteenthandearlyfourteenthcenturywomen attenuatedasthefourteenthcenturyworeon.Collectivebiographiesofwomenbywomendisappeared.42Fewerholywomenwrote.Malesuspicionofvisionary womenwasarticulatedinaseriesofinfluentialworks,byJohnGersonandothers,onthetestingofspirits.43Inlatefourteenthandfifteenthcenturyhagiography,holy womenappearmoreandmoreisolatedandmaleoriented.Theirstoriesarenowusuallytoldbytheirconfessors,whomtheydominateasspiritual

Page23

mothersandclingtoasvulnerableadvisees,needfulofaguaranteeoforthodoxy.Althoughholywomenwere,bythefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies,morelikelyto belayandmarried,toresideintheworld,andtohaveopportunitiesforsignificantgeographicalmobilitythroughpilgrimage,theywerealsomoresubjecttomale scrutinyandingreaterdangerofbeingaccusedofheresyorwitchcraft.BythetimeofCatherineofSiena,BridgetofSweden,andJoanofArctheinfluenceeventhe survivalofpiouswomendependedalmostwhollyonthesuccess,inecclesiasticalandsecularpolitics,oftheirmaleadherents.44 Suspicionofpropheticwomenreflectedthegeneralfourteenthcenturysuspicionofpopularreligiousmovementsandofmysticism.Theperiodwasoneofdeep hostilitytovisionaryandmysticalmalesaswell.Buttheambivalenceofchurchauthoritiesandtheologiansaboutwomenmysticsalsoreflectedvirulentmisogynya misogynythatissuedbothintheactualwitchaccusationsandinthewitchhuntingtheologyofthefifteenthcentury.By1500,indeed,themodelofthefemalesaint, expressedbothinpopularvenerationandinofficialcanonizations,wasinmanywaysthemirrorimageofsociety'snotionofthewitch.45Eachwasthoughttobe possessed,whetherbyGodorbySataneachseemedabletoreadthemindsandheartsofotherswithuncannyshrewdnesseachwassuspectedofflyingthroughthe air,whetherinsaintlylevitationorbilocation,orinawitches'Sabbath.Moreover,eachboremysteriouswounds,whetherstigmataorthemarksofincubi,onherbody. Thesimilarityofwitchandsaintatleastintheeyesofthetheologians,canonlawyers,inquisitors,andmalehagiographerswhoare,bythefifteenthcentury,almost ouronlysourcesfortheirlivessuggestshowthreateningbothweretoclericalauthorities.46Woman'sreligiousroleasinspiredvesselhadcometoseemutterly differentfromman'sroleaspriest,preacher,andleaderbyvirtueofclericaloffice.Andbecauseitseemedsodifferent,ittitillatedandwasbothencouragedand feared. FemaleSpirituality: DiversitiesandUnity Canonesses,nunsofoldandneworders,beguines,tertiaries,recluses,Cathars,Waldensians,pilgrims,ordinarylaywomeninshopsandkitchensthereweremany kindsofpiouswomeninlatermedievalEurope.Yettheincreasinglysharpcontrastbetweenlayfemalesaintandclerical

Page24

malesaintsuggeststhatbehindthewidevarietyofwomen'srolesaunitycanbefound.Andwecaninfactdelineatesomeconsistentdifferencesbetweenmaleand femalereligiousexperiences.47 Atleastsomeofwomen'sformsoflife(e.g.,tertiaries'andbeguines')werelessinstitutionalizedthanmen's.Indeed,thetendencyoflaterhistorianstoidentifypious womenwithaparticularorderhasobscuredtheextenttowhich,especiallyinthethirteenthcentury,institutionalaffiliationandstructurewere,towomen,unimportant orconstantlychanging.48ThethirteenthcenturysaintJulianaofCornillon,forexample,wanderedfromreligioushousetoreligioushousehercontemporary,Christina theAstonishing(ChristinaMirabilis)despitelatereffortstoclaimherasBenedictine,Cistercian,orPremonstratenstratensianwassimplyalaywomanseekingto followChristandthesaintsMargaretofYpres(d.1237),althoughontheedgeofDominicancircles,soughtnotaparticularorderwithitsarticulatedgoalsbutamale protectorwhomshecouldlove.49Theveryfactthatmalechroniclersfelttheyoughttotellthestoryofthefoundingofthebeguinesasifthe"order"hadaleaderanda rulelikethoseofcontemporarymonasticormendicantorderssuggeststhatwomen'smoreinformalarrangementsforgivingreligioussignificancetoordinarylife seemedoddanddangeroustomalesensibilities. Moreover,thelifepatternsofholywomenshowbasicdifferencesfromthoseofmen.Intheirrecentquantitativestudyofsaints'lives,WeinsteinandBellhave demonstratedthatingeneral,women'ssaintlyvocationsgrewslowlythroughchildhoodandintoadolescenceadisproportionatepercentageoffemalesaintswere certainoftheircommitmenttovirginitybeforeageeight.Despitethefactthatbothchastityandmaritalstatusweremoreprominentthemesinthevitae(writtenlives)of womenthanofmen,malesaintsweremorelikelytoundergoabruptadolescentconversions,involvingrenunciationofwealth,power,marriage,andsexuality.Crisis anddecisivechangeweremoresignificantmotifsinmalethaninfemalevitaethroughoutthelaterMiddleAges,50inpartbecausemedievalmenhadmorepowerthan womentodeterminetheshapeoftheirlives.Forexample,MaryofOigniesandClareofAssisi,wishingtorenounceproperty,werevirtuallyforcedtoretainincome andservantsMargaretofCortona,UmilianadeiCerchi(d.1246),andAngelaofFoligno(d.1309)hadtowaitfortheirhusbandsorloverstodiebeforetheycould espousechastitythevisionaryJulianaofCornillonandthe

Page25

holyinvalidLidwinaofSchiedam(d.1433)wereascruellypersecutedandneglectedattheendoftheirlivesasduringthechildhoodandadolescentstirringsoftheir vocations.51Indeed,hagiographersoperatedwithasomewhatinconsistentdoublemodelofthefemaleadolescent.Thevirtuousgirlmightdemonstratehervirtue eitherbyheroicallyinsistingonchastity(andtherebyrebellingagainstherfamily)orbyobedientlymarryingatherparent'scommand(andtherebyretreatingfromwhat thechurcharguedtobeahighergood).Frequently,insaints'lives,shedidbothwithnoexplanationofwhatthechangefromonebehaviortotheothermeanttoher orcosther.52 Itisbecausewomenlackedcontrolovertheirwealthandmaritalstatusthattheirlifestoriesshowfewerheroicgesturesofcastingasidemoney,property,andfamily. Butwomen'slivesalsoseemtobecharacterizedbyearliervocationsbycontinuityratherthanchangebecause,asweshallseebelow,menandwomentendedto tellstories,tousesymbols,andtounderstandinnerdevelopmentaccordingtodifferentmodels.Menwereinclinedtotellstorieswithturningpoints,tousesymbolsof reversalandinversion,andtoexternalizemotivesinevents(particularlywhentalkingaboutmen).Womenmoreoftenusedtheirordinaryexperiences(of powerlessness,ofserviceandnurturing,ofdisease,etc.)assymbolsintowhichtheypouredeverdeeperandmoreparadoxicalmeanings.Womentendedtotellstories anddeveloppersonalmodelswithoutcrisesorturningpoints.53Andbothmenandwomensawfemalesaintsasmodelsofsufferingandinnerspirituality,malesaintsas modelsofaction.54 Whenwecomparethewritingsaswellasthevitaeofmenandwomen,wefindnopiouspracticesordevotionalthemesthatareexclusivelyfemaleorexclusively male,althoughtherearecertainmiraclesthatoccuronlytopriests(becausetheyareconnectedtosacerdotalfunctions)andcertainmiracles(e.g.,stigmataorbodily elongation)thatoccurfarmorefrequentlytowomen.55MenandwomenoftenthoughtinthesamemetaphorssincetheyreadthesameScripturesandspiritual treatisesandoftenheardthesamesermonsandevenspiritualthemesthatmoderncommentatorshaveassumedtobegenderspecificarefoundinthevisionsand writingsofbothsexesintheMiddleAges.Forexample,ifwomenmoreoftenhadvisionsofnursingtheChristchild,thereisatleastonemonkwhoreceivedthebaby athisbreastifmenmoreoftennursedfromtheVirgin,somewomentoowerefedwithMary'smilk.56

Page26

Butrecentcomparativestudyofvisionliterature,saints'lives,andmysticaltreatisesbywomenandmensuggeststhatthepatternsofmalepietydifferfromthoseof femalepiety. Mysticismwasmoreprominentinwomen'sreligiosityandclaimstosanctitythaninmen'sandparamysticalphenomena(trances,levitation,stigmata,etc.)werefar morecommoninwomen'smysticism.Thereputationsofholywomenweremoreoftenbasedonsupernatural,charismaticauthority,especiallyvisionsandsupernatural signs.Women'sdevotionwasmorecharacterizedbypenitentialasceticism,particularlyselfinflictedsuffering.Women'swritingwas,ingeneral,moreaffective,although malewritingtoobrimsoverwithtearsandsensibilityerotic,nuptialthemes,whichwerefirstarticulatedbymen,weremostfullyelaboratedinwomen'spoetry.And certaindevotionalemphases,particularlydevotiontoChrist'ssufferinghumanityandtotheeucharist(althoughnot,asisoftensaid,totheVirgin),werecharacteristicof women'spracticesandwomen'swords.57(Someofthesedifferencesbecomeimportantinthechaptersthatfollow.) Indeed,recentscholarshipsuggeststhatdifferencesbetweenthesexesoverrideallotherfactors(suchaschronologyorsocialandeconomicstatus)inshaping women'spiety.Apiouspeasantwomanandapiousnobleoneweremorelikeeachotherinreligiositythaneitherwaslikethemalesaintofequalsocialstatus.58But differencesamongwomencanalsobedelineated.Recentwork,forexample,suggestscertainregionalpatterns.ScholarssuchasWeinstein,Bell,Vauchez,and KieckheferagreethatwomensaintsinthenorthofEuropeweremorearistocraticandcontemplative,morelikelytobenunsorreclusesandtofindabasisfortheir sanctityinwithdrawalandprayer.FemalesaintsinthesouthofEurope,particularlyItaly(whichaccountedforaboutathirdofthesaintsofthelaterMiddleAges), tendedtobeurban,middleclass,andmoreactiveinworksofcharity.ReclusesweremorecommoninEnglandmysticalcommunitiesinwhichmanynunsexperienced thesameorsimilarvisionsweremorecommonintheRhineland(especiallyinthethirteenthcentury)charitableservice,particularlycareofthepoorandsick,was especiallycommonamongItalianwomenaffiliatedwiththeDominicanandFranciscanorders.59 Moreover,thereweredifferencesinwomen'sspiritualitythatstemmedfromtheirdifferentreligiousstatusesandlifeexperiences.Astudyofwomen'sownwritings suggeststhatwomenwholivedintheworld

Page27

(eitherastertiariesandbeguinesoraslaywomen)andwomenwhoconvertedasadultsdifferedfromnunsraisedinconventsbyhavingasharpersenseofmale/female differences,asenseof"thefemale"closertothenegativestereotypefoundinthemisogynistclericaltradition,andalessintensesenseofcommunity.Theyweremore awareoftheprohibitionofsacramentalfunctionsandteachingtowomen,morelikelytoseethefemaleasweakandvulnerable,moremaleoriented(i.e.,more dependentonconfessorsorpowerfulmalereligiousleaders,nottomentionhusbandsandfathers),andmoreconcernedwithmalepowerandmaleroles(althoughthe concernwasoftenacritique).Forexample,thethirteenthcenturyItaliantertiaryAngelaofFolignospokefarmorefrequentlyofherspiritual"sons"thanofanyfemale companions.Convertedasanadultafterthedeathsofhermother,husband,andchildren,Angelachanneledhermaternalandspiritualimpulsesintocriticizingand advisinglocalfriars.TheGermanbeguineMechtildofMagdeburg,whofledherfamilyandfriendsinyoungadulthood,directedherconsiderablerhetoricalabilities towardcastigatingthelocaldiocesanclergyandfriars.ThetwelfthcenturyrecluseChristinaofMarkyate,whoranawayonherweddingnight,receivedmostofher visionsandpropheciesforthebenefitofpowerfulmales.Andinthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies,thetertiaryCatherineofSienaandlaywomenasdifferentas BridgetofSweden(lateranun)andJoanofArcwereadvisersandleadersofmen.60 Incontrast,womeninconventsandbeguinages,especiallythosewhohadbeenraisedthere,hadastrongsenseofspiritualnetworksorfamiliesofwomen.Michael Goodichhaspointedoutthatmysticalwomeninthethirteenthandearlyfourteenthcenturies,especiallyinGermanyandtheLowCountries,existedinclusters, whereasmalemysticsweremoreoftenisolatedandlessinfluential.Socommonhadtheclusteringofmysticalwomenbecomebytheearlyfourteenthcenturythat contemporariestendedtoreverehouses,likeTossandEngelthal,ratherthanindividuals.61Forthosewhohadexperiencedsuchcommunity,liketheFlemishbeguine Hadewijch,whowasevictedfromherbeguinage,thegrievingforformercompanionswasintenseandneverhealed.62 Weshouldnot,however,maketoomuchofregionaldiversity,ofcontrastsbetweennunsandquasireligious,orofdifferencesbetweenchildoblatesandadult converts.CertaintownsofthethirteenthcenturyLowCountriesandRhinelandproducedapietymorelikethatofthe

Page28

ItalianfemaletertiariesthantheworkofVauchez,Weinstein,andBellsuggests.63Thesharpcontrastbetweenamorecontemplativeandmysticallifefornorthern womenandthemoreactivecharitypracticedinthesouthblurswhenwereadwomen'sownwordsandfindthatastressonserviceandecstaticencounterunderlies bothkindsoflives.64Moreover,howeverquerulousandapologeticsomemedievalwomenoccasionallyseem(andthisqualitybecomesmorepronouncedinthe fifteenthandsixteenthcenturies),theydifferedfromoneanotherrelativelylittleinselfimage,andtheirvulnerabilityseldominhibitedtheconfidencewithwhichthey approachedGod.CloisteredwomenwereaslikelyaswomenintheworldtousegraphicdomesticimagesforselfandGod.65WomensuchasGertrudeofHelfta(d. 1301or1302)whoenteredtheconventastinygirlsequaledwomenintheworld,suchasGertrudevanOosten(d.1358)orMargeryKempe,intheirmaternal tendernesstowardthebabyJesusandtheireroticyearningstowardthebeautifulyoungChrist.66And,whileitistruethatnunsweremorelikelytouseimagery androgynouslyandtoadviseotherswithselfconfidence,tertiariesandlaywomeninfactcastigated,counseled,andcomfortedothersjustaseagerlyandeffectively. Moreover,whatevertheirstatusordegreeofvulnerability,religiouswomenfeltnonecessitytoacquiremetaphoricalmalenessinthecourseoftheirspiritualjourney.67 Malebiographersfrequentlypraisedwomenforspiritual"virility,"andwomensuchasCatherineofSienasometimesurgedotherwomen(andmen)tobehave "manfully."68Butwomen'smostelaborateselfimageswereeitherfemale("mother"tospiritualchildren,"bride"ofChrist)orandrogynous(''child"toaGodwhowas motheraswellasfather,"judge"and"nurse"tothesoulsintheirkeeping). Mostofourinformationonlatemedievalwomencomesfrommalebiographersandchroniclers.Theproblemofperspectiveisthusacute.Someofthestoriesmen lovedtotellaboutwomenreflectednotsomuchwhatwomendidaswhatmenadmiredorabhorred.Forexample,CaesariusofHeisterbach,writinginthethirteenth centuryformaleCistercians,presentedacollectionofexempla(moraltales)organizedaccordingtotypesofChristianvocation.Writingaboutconfessors,Caesarius simplyexplainedwhatexperiences,especiallymiraclesandvisions,happenedtoconfessors(allofwhomweremale).Butwhenheturnedto"theorderofvirgins"(by whichhemeantfemalevirgins),hisaccounttookacuriousturn.Apparentlyunconsciously,heslippedintowriting

Page29

notaboutthevisionsandmiraclesthathadoccurredtothevirgins(onlytwostoriesoutofnine)butaboutvirginswhohadappearedinvisionstomen(theremaining sevenstories).ItisalmostasifCaesariuscouldnotimaginethewomenortheirvirginitybeingimportanttothemselves.69 Malebiographersromanticizedandsentimentalizedfemalevirtuefarmorethanmale,especiallybydescribingit(asdoesJamesofVitryinthepassagequotedabove asepigraph)inheightenedanderoticimagery.70Theywerealsofarmorelikelytoattributesexualorbodilytemptationtofemalenaturethantomale(men'ssexual yearningscouldalwaysbeblamedonthepresenceofwomenastemptresses)andtoseewomenstrugglingunsuccessfullytoovercometheflesh.71Forexample,as JohnAnsonhasargued,thecommonstoryofthewomanwhomasqueradesasamaninordertoenteramonasteryappearstoreflectmaleanxietymorefrequently thanitdoeshistoricalreality.72Itisthereforecrucialnottotakeaswomen'sownselfimagethesentimentalizingorthecastigatingofthefemaleinwhichmedievalmen indulged.Ifwewishtounderstandwhatitmeanttomedievalwomentobe"bridesofChrist"orsymbolsofeithermercyorfleshliness,wemustpayparticularattention towhatwomensaidanddid,avoidingtheassumptionthattheysimplyinternalizedtherhetoricoftheologians,confessors,orhusbands. Sortingouttheimagesof"woman"andtheexperiencesofwomeninlatemedievalreligion,withappropriateattentiontothedifferingvantagepointsfromwhichmen andwomenviewedthesematters,isfarfromeasy.Butrecentresearchhasdonemuchtoretrievestoriesofwomenandtodescribewomen'spiety.Ithas,however, tendedtofocusontherenunciationofwealth,privilege,andsexualityinwomen'sreligiosityasinmen's,largelybecauseithasproceededfromtwoperspectivesthat ofthefeministandthatofthetraditionalmedievalist.Feministscholarshiphastendedtoconcentrateonthenegativestereotypingofwomen'ssexualityandonwomen's lackofworldlypowerandsacerdotalauthority.73Ithasdonesobecausetheseissuesareofsuchpressingmodernconcern.Traditionalmedievalists,although attemptingtostartfromthevantagepointofmedievalpeoplethemselves,haveinfacttendedtousemalereligiosityasamodel.Whenstudyingwomen,theyhave tendedtolooksimplyforwomen'sanswerstoquestionsthathavealwaysbeenaskedaboutmenquestionsgeneratedinthefirstplacebyobservingmale religiosity.74Becausemedievalmenweredeeplyconcerned,for

Page30

themselvesandforwomen,withtherenunciationofsexualgratificationandofeconomicandpoliticalpower,medievalistshaveseenthesesamerenunciationsascentral inwomen'spiety.Thusrecentworkonmedievalwomenhastendedtohaveeitherpresentistissuesormalemodelsbuiltin.Foodhasbeenignoredchieflybecauseit isnot,inmoderneyes,aprimaryconcern,butalsobecause,tomedievalmen,itwasoneamongmanyreligioussymbolsandpiousrenunciations. Yetfoodwascrucialtothereligiousexperienceofmedievalwomen,inwayssorichandcomplicatedthatitwilltakemeawholebooktoexplainthem.Forfoodwas apowerfulsymbol.Likebody,foodmustbebrokenandspilledforthinordertogivelife.Maceratedbyteethbeforeitcanbeassimilatedtosustainlife,foodmirrors andrecapitulatesbothsufferingandfertility.Thusfood,bywhatitis,seemstosymbolizesacrificeandservice.75And,inChristiandoctrine,thesuffering,broken, crucifiedbodyonthecross,fromwhichspringshumankind'ssalvation,isfood.Butfoodwasnotmerelyapowerfulsymbol.Itwasalsoaparticularlyobviousand accessiblesymboltowomen,whoweremoreintimatelyinvolvedthanmeninthepreparationanddistributionoffood.Women'sbodies,intheactsoflactationandof givingbirth,wereanalogousbothtoordinaryfoodandtothebodyofChrist,asitdiedonthecrossandgavebirthtosalvation. Foodis,ofcourse,onlyonethreadintheskeinofwomen'sspirituality,butbyfollowingitwetouchonmanyaspectsofwomen'sexperiences.Moreover,bystudying thefoodpracticesandimagesofmedievalwomen,webegintoconsidertheirpietynotbyaskinghowitanswersquestionsposedbypresentistconcernsormale perspectivesbutbyallowingthewomenthemselvestogeneratequestionsaswellasanswers.

Page31

2 FastandFeast: TheHistoricalBackground
WeordertoyouthisfastofDecember...becauseitconformstopietyandtojusticetorenderthankstoGodafterhavingreceivedthefruitsoftheearthandtoofferhimthesacrifice ofmercywiththeimmolationoffast.Leteachonerejoiceinthecopiousnessoftheharvest...butinsuchawaythateventhepoorrejoiceinitsabundance....Letallmakeaccount oftheirrichesandthosewhohavemoregivemore.Lettheabstinenceofthefaithfulbecomethenourishmentofthepoorandlettheindigentreceivethatwhichothersgiveup. POPELEOTHEGREAT (FIFTHCENTURY)1

FoodsymbolizedmanythingstomedievalChristians.ButthemostimportantChristianfoodpracticeswerefastingandeucharist.Christiansmaleandfemalepaid tributetoGodspowerandacknowledgedtheirownsinfulnessbyrenouncingfood.AndChristiansmaleandfemalereceivedtheirGodmostintimatelyinthatholymeal inwhichhebecamebreadandwine. Therootsoflatemedievaleucharisticpietyandfoodasceticismlieintheearlychurch.WhenthemedievalauthorsBernardofClairvaux,MechtildofMagdeburg, Hadewijch,andJohnTaulerspokeofeatingandbeingeatenbyGod,2 theirlanguageechoedwordsvoicedcenturiesbefore.AugustineofHippo(d.430)andHilary ofPoitiers(d.367)hadsaidthatweareallpresentinthesacrificeandResurrectionofthecross,thatChrist,indying,digestsandassimilatesus,makingusnewfleshin hisflesh.3 WhenAlanofLille(d.1203)wroteinhisSummaforpreachersthatafaster"musttakelittlefoodatmealssothatpartcangototheneedsofhisneighbor", hewasrepeatinginlessresonantandexpansivelanguageLeotheGreat'sexhortationtoChristians(quotedabove)tocoupleabstinencewithalmsgiving.4 when ThomasAquinas(d.1274)

Page32

discussedfastingandabstinenceinhisSummatheologiae,hecarefullyexaminedthepatristicnotionthathumankindfellfromparadisethroughthesinofgluttony.5 Thereisatleastsuperficialsimilaritybetweenthefoodmetaphorsemployedbypatristicpoetsandthoseoflatemedievaleucharistichymns.Thehymnusedfor MondayLaudsandattributedtoAmbrose(d.397)reads:

Christusquenobissitcibus, potusquenostersitfides laetibibmussobriam ebrietatemSpiritus. (LetChristbeourfoodandfaithourdrinkletushappilydrinkthesoberinebriationofthespirit.)6

ThegreateucharistichymnonceattributedtoInnocentIV(d.1254),theAveverumcorpus,echoessuchimagery:
Aveverumcorpus,natum/exMariavirgine, Verepassum,immolatum/incruceprohomine, Cujuslatusperforatum/verofluxitsanguine, Estonobispraegustatum/mortisinexamine. (Hailtruebody,bornofMarytheVirgin,thattrulysufferedandwasofferedassacrificeonthecrossforhumankind,andfromwhosepiercedsidepouredforthrealblood.Betous intheextremityofdeathaforetaste[ofheaven].)7

Downthroughthecenturies,eatingandfastinghavebeentoChristianscomplexsymbolsandcomplexacts. YetthereligioussignificanceoffastandfoodchangedgreatlybetweenthedaysoftheearlychurchandthelaterMiddleAges.Bythefourteenthcenturythegreatfasts thatintheearlydayshadboundthechurchintoacommunitybecamemattersforattenuationanddispensation.Communion,onceacommunalmealandtheheartof themass,becameseparatedfromconsecrationdevotionpivotedincreasinglynotaroundeatingthehostbutaroundthemomentatwhichtheelementsofbreadand winebecame,inthehandsofthepriest,Christ'sbodyandblood.Christ'sfastinthegardenandhissacrificeonthecrosswerespokenoflessaspartofacosmic dramainwhichhellwasforcedtovomitforththeindigestiblebreadofChristthanasmomentsofterriblesufferingthatgavesignificancetoallhumanexperience becausethemanwho

Page33

sufferedwasGod.Abstinencewasseenlessasselfcontrol,offeredtoGodinpropitiationforAdam'ssinofgreedanddisobedience,thanasaneversatedphysical hungerthatmirrorsandrecapitulatesinbodilyagonybothChrist'ssufferingonthecrossandthesoul'sunquenchablethirstformysticalunion.Thebreadofheaven, whichtoCyprian(d.258)symbolizedthechurch,8 wasreplacedinlatemedievalhymns,poems,andpaintingsbythefleshofChrist,rippedopenandspillingforth pulsatingstreamsofinsistent,scarletblood,towashandfeedtheindividualhungrysoul. Inordertounderstandwhyfoodwassoimportantasymboltolatemedievalwomen,wemustfirstlookathowthereligioussignificanceoffoodchangedforall WesternChristiansinthehighMiddleAges.Wemustexaminehowfastingchangedinmeaningandcontextandhowboththeritualofthemassandthetheologyofthe eucharistalteredaswell. FastinginAntiquityandtheHighMiddleAges ToaChristianoftheMediterraneanworldinthefourthcentury,feastandfastdefinedthechurch.FastingandSundayeucharistwerewhateveryonehadincommon. Toreceivethebreadandwineofcommunionwasnotonlytobemysticallyandindividuallyfedwiththebreadofheaven,itwasalsotobepresentatasacrificethat wasthevictoryandtriumphofthechurch,adeaththatwassimultaneouslygloryandresurrection.Itwas,inCyprian'swords,tobeunitedwithone'sfellowChristians asthegrainsofwheatareunitedintheloafofbread.TofasteitherinpreparationforthisSundaymeal,inLentenanticipationofthecomingofthebridegroom,orin seasonalresponsetotheharvestwastojoinwithscarcityinorderthatplentymightcome.Tofastwas,asGregorytheGreatexplained,tooffertoGodatitheofthe year.9 Itwastoembracehunger,tojoinwiththevulnerabilitytofaminethatthreatenedalllivingthings,inordertoinducefromthecreatorandproviderofblessingsthe giftsoffertility,plenty,andsalvation.Itwaseven,asLeotheGreatstressed,tojoinoneselfwiththecharityandfertilityofGod:fastingprovidedthealmsthatfedone's neighbor.Indeed,infasting,"Christisfed"(asbothLeoandJohnChrysostomsaid),forwhatonedeniedtooneselfinfastwasgiventoChrist'sownbody,

Page34

hischurch.10ThusfastandfeastnotonlyjoinedChristiantoChristiantheyjoinedChristiantotherhythmofnatureaswell. Fastandfeast,inthissense,arefoundinmanyreligions.Anthropologistsandstudentsofcomparativereligion,whooncelookedforasinglecauseormotivefor religiousresponses,arenowcontenttoseemanycomplexstrandsinfastingbehavior.Butitseemsclearthatinpreindustrialsocieties,whereresourcesarelimited, menandwomenfrequentlyrespondtotherhythmofplentyandscarcity,harvestandfamine,bydecidingtocontrolitthroughvoluntaryfastingandbelievethatthey caninthiswaycoercefromthegodsdreamsandvisions,health,goodfortune,orfertility.11Theearliestformsoffastingwereoftenconnectedwithfertilitycults,with goddesses,andwithwomen'sphysiologicalprocesses.12Penitentialorpropitiatoryfastingseemstoarisefromthissenseofnature'srhythm:ifnatureerraticallyand unpredictablyhumblesonethroughhunger,onemaypunishorhumiliateoneselfbeforeGodthroughsimilarhumbling.Thissenseoffoodasasignofvulnerability,a reminder(throughflatulenceandhungerpangs)ofthetollthebodycanexact,canleadtotheasceticimpulsethedesiretodefycorporeallimitsbydenyingbodily needs.Suchanunderstandingoffoodabstentionasinducementoffertility,aspenitence,andasflightfrommatterwaspresentintheMediterraneanworldbeforethe comingofChristianity.13Noristhesenseoffastasanactivitythatbindspeopletooneanotherandtonaturesurprisinginaworldwhoseliferhythmswerestill determinedbytheseasonalrhythmsoftheearth.Nomatterhowlargeandcosmopolitansomeancientcitiesbecame,theywerelessproducersofwealththrough commerceandindustrythangiganticparasitesonthecountryside,asdependentontheharvestasanycountryvillage. TherearereferencestofastinginearlyChristiantexts.TheScripturesthemselves,bothOldandNewTestaments,providedsomemodels.Butfastingasanimportant religiousbehavior,definingtheChristiancommunityandsignalingtheindividual'spurityofheartbeforeGod,didnotemergeclearlyuntilthelatethirdandearlyfourth centuries.14Inearlyreferencestobothindividualandcorporatefasts,manymotivesintermingle.Fasting(e.g.,thefastbeforebaptism)couldbereligiouspreparationit couldbepurificationorexorcismofevilspiritsitcouldexpressmourningforthedepartureofthebridegroom(as,e.g.,inthefastoftwoorthreedaysbeforeEaster). Itwasalsoameritoriouswork

Page35

forGodandneighbor.Moreover,fastingcouldbepenitential.AsithadbeenfortheancientHebrews,foodabstentionwasanexpressionofgriefandrepentance,a pleafordeliverancefromsometestorchastisement,asignofconfidenceinGod'smercy,anintercessionandapreparationformeetingGod.Assuch,fastingwas intenselycorporate,acompaniontoprayerandalmsgiving,arecapitulationofaswellasapreparationfortheeucharisticsacrifice.Byfasting,theChristianjoinedwith Christ,who,inthegardenandonthecross,kepttheruleofabstinencethatAdamhadviolatedinparadiseandbecamehimselfsacrificialfood,propitiatingGodand savingsinners.AugustinewroteinaLentensermon:

Alms,inGreek,isthesameasthewordformercy.Andcanoneconceiveofagreatermercythanthatwhichcamedownfromthesky...?EqualtotheFatherineternity,hemade himselfequalwithusinmortality....Breadhimself,heexperiencedhungertotallysatisfied,heexperiencedthirsthealthitself,hemadehimselfweak...andallthistonourishour hunger,irrigateourdryness,succorourinfirmity....Sohecommandsus,throughalms,togivebreadtothosewhohunger...toreceivethestranger,althoughhe[Christ]cameto usandwedidnotreceivehim....Andsoletoursoulspraisehim...letusgivealmsoften.15

Connectingfastingexplicitlytocharity,Augustinealsoexhortedhisreaders:
Aboveallbemindfulofthepoorsothatyoulayupintheheavenlytreasurywhatyouwithholdfromyourselvesbyamorefrugalmodeoflife.ThehungryChristwillreceivethat fromwhichthefastingChristianabstains.16

Augustine'scontemporaryMaximusofTurin(d.ca.420)wrote:"Whatthefirstmanlostbyeating,thesecondAdamrecoveredbyfasting.Andhekeptinthedesert thelawofabstinencegiveninparadise."17HymnsattributedtoGregorytheGreat(d.604)andstillusedbytheRomanCatholicchurchduringLentexpressthissense of"fruitfulfast,"offastasselfcontrolthatenablesonetopropitiateGodandaidone'sneighbor:

Siccorpusextraconteri donaperabstinentiam, ieiunetutmenssobria alabeprorsuscriminum. Praesta,beataTrinitas, concede,simplexunitas,

Page36 utfructuosasinttuis ieiuniorummunera. (Thusgrantthatthebodybesubjectedfromwithoutbyabstinenceinorderthatthesobermindmayfastcompletelyfromthestainofsin.Grant,blessedTrinityandundivided Unity,thatthesacrificeoffastsmaybefruitfultoyourservants.)18

Intheseventhcentury,IsidoreofSeville,whosummarizedmuchofpatristictradition,spokeoffastingasunionwiththeangels:"Fastisaholything,aheavenlywork, thedoorwaytothekingdom,theformofthefuture,forhewhocarriesitoutinaholywayisunitedtoGod,exiledfromtheworld,andmadespiritual."19 AsthepassagefromIsidoresuggests,thefastoftheearlychurchwasnotmerelythefastofmourning,propitiation,purification,andpenitence.Itwasnotmerelya shadowofthecommunityofheaven.Itwasalsoascetic.PatristicwritersthemselvescitednotonlytheOldTestamentmodelsofDavid,Esther,andJudith,whoby fastingofferedpureheartstoGod,butalsoclassicalstoriesofthewondrousabstentionsofEpimenidesandPythagoras.AsRudolphArbesmannhassaid:"Inthe backgroundtherealways[loomed]thevisionofanidealworldinwhichmanwouldbeabletolivewithoutanyearthlyfood."20Christianwritersdrewsupportfor fastingfrompaganwriters,whohadstressedhygienic,social,andutilitarianmotives.BehindtheChristianpraiseoffastingasawayofmoderatinglust,cleansingthe brainandbody,andpreparingthesoulforGod'sinspirationlayaPythagoreanandneoPlatonicdesiretoescapethebodythatdraggedthespiriteverdownward.In thewordsofClementofAlexandria(d.ca.215):"Fastingemptiesthesoulofmatterandmakesit,withthebody,clearandlightforthereceptionofdivinetruth."21A workattributedtoabbotNilus(d.430)addstotheideathatAdam'ssinwasgluttonythenotionthatmatterweighsdownspirit:
ItwasthedesireoffoodthatspawneddisobedienceitwasthepleasureoftastethatdroveusfromParadise.Luxuryinfooddelightsthegullet,butitbreedsthewormoflicense thatsleepethnot.Anemptystomachpreparesoneforwatchingandprayerthefulloneinducessleep.22

AmidfourthcenturytreatiseforvirginsbytheauthorwecallpseudoAthanasiusargues:"Fasting...curesdisease,driesupthebodilyhumors,putsdemonstoflight, getsridofimpurethoughts,makesthemind

Page37

clearerandtheheartpurer,thebodysanctified,andraisesmantothethroneofGod."23Manypatristicwritersassociatedfoodwithlustandurgedabstinenceasa methodofcurbingsexualdesire.24JohnCassian,writingformonksintheearlyfifthcentury,said:"Itisimpossibletoextinguishthefiresofconcupiscencewithout restrainingthedesiresofthestomach."25Andthatindefatigablepropagandistforasceticism,Jerome(d.420),inaletterofadvicetoawidow,summedupthematter byquotingTerence:"SineCerereetLiberofrigetVenus."26 Fromsuchprecedentsandbeliefscamethegreatcorporatefastsofthechurch.ModeledontheJewishfastsofMondayandThursday,thesocalledstations(the WednesdayandFridayfasts)emergedveryearly,perhapsbeforethesecondcentury.Later,intheWest,SaturdaywasaddedtoFridayasanextrafast(or superpositio)andWednesdayoftendroppedout.ThefastofseveraldaysbeforeEaster,afastofmourningforthosehours"inwhichthespousewastakenaway", alsodevelopedasearlyasthesecondcentury.Lent,orquadragesima,distinctfromthisEasterfastandseenasatimeofpurification,emergedinthefourthcentury duringtheseventhcentury,intheWest,itwasexpandedfromthirtysixtofortydays.AsecondLent(theLentofPentecost,endingonPeterandPaul'sday,June29) emergedintheEastinthefourthcentury.Athirdperiodoffast,beginningNovember14,alsodeveloped,althoughatfirstitwasnotaperiodofanticipationorAdvent, asweknowit,butratheranexpressionofpenitenceofferedattheyear'send.27Fastingwasearlyprescribedasapreparationforbaptismandholycommunionas well,butdirectevidenceforthisusagecomesonlyfromthelatefourthcentury.Thesocalledquarterdays(quattuortempora)latercalledinEnglishEmberDays wereprobablyaddedtothecalendartocounteractandreplacepaganharvestfestivalstheyappearedintheWestinRomeandspreadslowlyduringtheseventh century.28Speciallitaniesandfastsappearedinvariouslocalities,andgraduallytheideaspreadthatthegreatfeastsofthechurchshouldbeprecededbyfasts. Strictlyspeaking,tofastmeanttorefrainfromeating,andtherearestoriesintheearlychurchofmonkssuchasSimeonStylitesgoingwithoutfoodforallofLent.29 ButearlyChristianfoodasceticismwasextremelydiverse.Fastingusuallymeantabstainingentirelyfromcertainfoods(thelistcouldvarygreatly)andlimitingoneselfto asinglemealeachday,takenafterVespers.Abstinencefromparticularfoodsthustendedtofusewithfasting(i.e.,noteating)intoasingleconcept.

Page38

Abstinence,strictlyinterpreted,meantsocalleddryeatingi.e.,takingonlybread,salt,andwater,thoughvegetablesandfruitsweresometimespermitted.Some monasticgroupspracticedmoreorlesspermanentabstinenceofthistype.ThemonksofPachomius'smonasteries,forexample,abstainedfrommeat,wine,andfish throughouttheyear.Someindividuals,particularlyhermits,practicedraweatingi.e.,theyatenocookedfood.Strictdryorraweatingneverbecameanelementof ordinaryChristianfastingintheWest,howeverandWesternmonasticrules(withtheexceptionofIrishones)weregenerallylessausterethanEastern.30The BenedictineRule,forexample,permittedamoderateamountofwineandprohibitedonlythemeatoffourleggedanimals,althoughthemonksateonlyonemealaday formorethanhalftheyear.31 ThethirdandfourthcenturiesthuswitnessedtheemergenceoffastingandabstinenceasextensivecorporatepracticesamongChristians.Bothintheperiodsof temporaryfoodrenunciationurgedbypopesandbishopsonallbelieversandinthelivesofpermanentselfdenialundertakenbymonks,foodabstentionwasagroup practice.Butthesamecenturiesalsosawthebeginningsofvirtuosoperformancesbyindividualascetics.Leadersofcenobiticalorhermitgroups(forexample,Basil) sometimespracticedfargreaterausteritythantheylegislatedfortheirfollowers.32Theverynotionofsuperpositio(theaddedonfast)suggeststhatindividualscould multiplymeritbymultiplyingtheirausterities.Preachersmightcontinuetoinsist,asJohnChrysostomdid,thatfastingisabstinencenotfromfoodalonebutalsofromsin andthat''Christdidnotsay:'CometomebecauseIfasted...,'but'becauseIammeekandhumbleofheart.'"33Still,particularlywithinthemonasticcontext, individualswereincreasinglydeterminedtorootoutthepleasureoffoodbyanymeans.GregoryofNyssa(d.395)describedtasteas"themotherofallvice."34 Origen,Cyril,andBasilallsuggestedthatoneshouldinflictpainononeselfinordertodestroypleasureandtoforcethebodytowardvirtue.35Insomequarters, particularlyEgyptandSyriaand,later,Ireland,competitiveasceticismdeveloped.InPalladius'sHistoriaLausiacawhichismoreahistoricalnovelthanafactual accountbutforexactlythatreasonanexcellentreflectionofwhatnonasceticsadmiredintheirasceticheroesandheroineswelearn,forexample,ofoneMacarius ofAlexandria.WhenheheardthatthemonksofTabennisiatenocookedfoodforallofLent,helivedonrawfoodforsevenyears.Whenheheardthatacertain asceticateonlyapoundofbreadaday,heputhisbreadintoanarrowmouthedjarandlivedonwhathecould

Page39

pulloutinasinglehandful.Andfinally,whenheheardoftheseverefastingofthehermitsintheThebaid,hedecidedtoeatonlyafewcabbageleavesonSundays.36 Femaleasceticsalsopracticedheroicausterities.JohnChrysostomdescribeswomen"whoevenatatenderagegowithoutfoodandsleepanddrink,mortifyingtheir bodies,crucifyingtheirflesh,sleepingontheground,wearingsackcloth,lockedinnarrowcells,sprinklingthemselveswithashesandwearingchains."37 Butforalltheindividualism,competition,andspiritualathleticismofcertainlateantiquemenandwomen,wemustnotforgetthatfastingwasmostbasicallysomething thatbroughtChristianstogetheringratitudeforGod'sgiftoftheharvestinobediencetoGod'scommandofabstinence,violatedintheGardenofEdenbutfulfilled onthecrossincharitytowardtheneighborswhowouldbenefitfromalmsandinforetasteofunionwiththesaintsinheaven.Itisthissenseoffastingandoffoodthat wefindinRomanostheMelodist'sremarkablecollectionofhymnswrittenforlaygatheringsattheendofthefifthorthebeginningofthesixthcentury. Behindthesehymnsliestherhythmoftheseasons,ofscarcityfollowedbyabundance.WritingofEliasandthewidow(3Kings17),Romanosseesfastofferedin reparationfordisobedience.38Thusfastisajoiningwithfamine,death,andhunger.ItisachoosingoflackthatinducesGodtosendplenty:rain,harvest,andlife. Hungerislessdeprivationorsufferingthanvulnerability,andtheimplicationisthatGodwillrespondtovulnerability,toman'schosenlack,withfood.Writingofthe threechildreninthefieryfurnace,thepoetseesabstinenceascoercingselfdenialfromnature.39Thusfireforgetsitsaccustomedrole,becomesa"spring,""watering thechildreninsteadofconsumingthem,""keepingthemlikeavineherharvest."40Man'schoiceofhungerisachoiceofselfcontrol,anditarousesinnaturean answeringselfcontrol.Theangelsays:
Holychildren,hearmywords.IdoasIhavebeenordered,youdoasyouhavebeentaught.AsIholdbacktheflame,youholdbackyourtongues....Donotfear.Thefirewilldo younoevilitwillturnonyourenemies.Ihavegiventheorderthatitfastasyouhavefastedandthatitdevourgreedilythegluttonswhodonotsingwithyou.41

Hymningthemiracleoftheloavesandfishes,Romanosbeginswithaprayerfordeliveryfromfamine,picturestheassembledcrowdfastinginexpectationofthebread ofangels,andthendescribesthemultiplication

Page40

itselfasatypeoftheIncarnation.AstheVirgingavebirthtonewflesh,sothefiveloavesmiraculouslygivebirthtonewbread.42Insharpcontrasttothelatemedieval emphasisonChrist'sbodyasbrokenandbleeding,RomanoswritesoftheIncarnationasfreshbreadthatfeedsthehungrypeopleofGod. WhenRomanosspeaksoftheCrucifixionandResurrection,hisimageis,onceagain,ofbread.Ingraphicallyphysicallanguage,hespeaksofAdamwaitinginhell"as theearthwaitsforrain",whilehellexultsthatithasdevouredChristasitearlierdevouredsinfulhumanity.43ButAdamanswers:

Heenduredmypunishmentforme,bearingmyflesh.Hewhomthecherubimdidnotdaretolookatwaspiercedformeinthesideandthewaterthatpoureddownputoutmy torment.HewhomyoubelieveyouwillholdbecauseheisamanyouwilldevourbecauseheismortalbutasheisGodyouwillvomithimupafterthreedays.44

ThefoodmetaphorsinRomanosareanexpressionofcosmicdrama.Jesusisthe"celestialbread"thathell"cannotdigest".(Inanotherhymn,Jesusforceshelltoempty itsbowelswhenheraisesLazarusfromthedead.)45Insatiable,devouringhungerisevil,desirerunoutofcontrol,thegreedcharacteristicofhellandSatan.Butif humanhungeriscontrolled,itwillbemetwiththebreadofheaven,newfleshtoredeemthefleshofAdam.Thereisherenoneofthelatemedievalsensethatman imitatesthecrossinsuffering,nosenseoflimitlesshungerasametaphorfortheChristiandesireforGod.Butaroundthefastoftheindividualworshipercirclesa fastingcommunity,anaturalorderwithitsowncyclesofwantandplenty,andevenacosmicdramainwhichthebreadthatChristbecameattheLastSupperandon thecrosspurgeshellitself.46Itisthisnatural,corporate,andcosmiccontextthatfellawayfromfastinginthelaterMiddleAges,leavingthefoodasceticismofheroic individualstobecomemoreandmoreextreme. ThroughouttheMiddleAges,theLentenfastsandweeklyfastdays,especiallyFridays,remainedbasicmarksoftheChristian.47Inthethirteenthandfourteenth centuriesaChristianwas,asaminimaldefinition,someonewhoreceivedyearlycommunion,fastedonFridaysandinLent,paidtithes,andhadhisorherchildren baptized.Inthefollowingstoryfromatwelfthcenturychronicle,wecanseethewayinwhichfoodpracticesdefinedtheChristian.OneofthebastardsonsofArnold theElder,founderofthelineofArdres,becamea"Saracen"intheEast.

Page41

Hewas,however,acceptedbackintohisfather'shousewhenhereturned.ItwasonlywhenheinsistedoneatingmeatonFridaythatthefullimpactofhisapostasy wasbroughthome,andthefamilykickedhimout.ToviolatetheFridayfastwastheclearest,mostvisiblewayofrejectingthefaith.48 Medievalcookbookssuggestthatthearistocracyobservedfastingstrictly,iflegalistically.Meatdayandfishdayrecipeswerenotseparatedinmedievalrecipe collections,astheywereinlater,betterorganizedcookbooks.Butthemostbasicdishesweregiveninfastdayaswellasordinarydayversions.Forexample,athin splitpeapure,sometimesenrichedwithfishstockoralmondmilk(producedbysimmeringgroundalmondsinwater),replacedmeatbrothonfastdaysandalmond milkwasageneral(andexpensive)substituteforcow'smilk.49 Bythethirteenthcentury,however,theunderstandingoffastandabstinenceputforwardbycanonlawyersandtheologianswasamuchattenuatedversionoftheideals oftheancientwriters.50TheLentenfastwasnowunderstoodtoterminatenotatVespersbutatNonebythefourteenthcenturyitterminatedatmidday,andasmall eveningmealwaspermitted.Abstinencewassometimesunderstoodassimplyabstinencefrommeat,althoughitusuallyincludedcertainanimalproducts(especially milkandeggs)aswell.AuthoritiesdiscussedwhichcategoriesofChristianswereexemptfromfasting.ThomasAquinas,forexample,exemptedchildren,theold, pilgrims,workers,andbeggars,butnotthepoorwhohadroofsovertheirheads.51Dispensationsforcertaingroupsandundercertaincircumstancesbecame common.MedievalcookbookssuggestthatthearistocracydinedsumptuouslyonthefishpermittedinLent."Fish"indeedincludedwhale,dolphin,porpoise,andalso beaver'stailandbarnaclegoose(becausebeaversandgeesewerethoughttostaymostofthetimeinwater).Cooksconcoctedimitationeggsfromfishroeandmade "ham"or"bacon"slicesfromdifferenttypesofgroundorshreddedfish.52ThefoodinsomeBenedictinemonasteriesbecameverylavish.Whereastheaverage twelfthorthirteenthcenturyaristocratatemealsoffourorfivecourses,someblackmonksenjoyedasmanyasthirteentosixteencoursesonmajorfeastdays.53 Awareofsuchlegalisticobservance,ThomasAquinasclearlyfearedthatgluttonymighttainttheabstinenceofsomeChristians.Greed,heobserved,includedeating rich,expensivedishesaswellaseatingtoomuchfoodorfoodprohibitedbythechurch.54 WhilethefastingrequirementsforordinaryChristiansandBenedic

Page42

tinemonksgrewlessstringent,however,somenewmonasteriesadoptedextraordinaryrigor.MonasticfastinghadalmostdisappearedinthecentralMiddleAges, withtheadditionofmanyfeastdaystothecalendar,butthenewordersoftheeleventhandtwelfthcenturiesturnedtoincreasedausterities.55Thefoodasceticismof eleventhcenturyItalianhermits,forexample,imitatedandequaledthatoftheearlymonksofSyria,andpropagandistssuchasPeterDamianspreadtheirfame.The newordersnotonlypracticedgreaterausterity,theyalsodefinedanddifferentiatedthemselvesinpartbytheirparticularrulesofabstinence.TheCistercians,for example,addedtotheBenedictineRuleafastofbreadandwateronFridaysinLent.TheCarthusians,whofastedthreetimesaweekonbread,water,andsalt(with permission),cameovertimetodefinetheirperpetualabstinencefrommeat(evenforthesick)assocrucialacharacteristicoftheorderthatviolationofthisprohibition meantexpulsion.Buttheearlyausterityofmanyorders,suchasthePremonstratensiansandDominicans,waslaterrelaxed,sometimestobefollowedafterhundreds ofyearsbyreformmovementsthatreturnedtotheearlierstrictness.(TheTrappistswhoreformedtheCisterciansintheseventeenthcentury,forexample,rejectedthe fourteenthcenturyrelaxation.)56 Whatchangedmostoverthelongperiodfromthesixthtothetwelfthcenturywasthetoneofthediscussionbypreachers,lawyers,andtheologians.Asfoodbecame increasinglyamatteroflegislationanddispensation,concernwiththeabusesoflegalismandliteralismalsogrew.Thirteenthandfourteenthcenturywriters,busy definingexactlywhoshouldfastwhen,urgedspiritualmorethanphysicalabstinence.Theystressedtheneedformoderationinobservance.57Andrenunciation whetheroffoodorofvicewasinvariablyseenasmoresignificantfortheindividualsoulinitsinmostrecessesthanforthecommunity. WefindsuchaninterpretationoffoodasceticisminoneoftheadditionstotheVitismystica(TheMysticalVine)ofBonaventure(d.1274):
Thevirtueofabstinenceisintwoparts.Oneiswithin,inthemindtheotherwithout,inbehavior.Andthatwhichisinthemindistobeobservedalways,butthatwhichisin behavioristobedisplayedaccordingtocircumstances.IndeedJohn,whowasapureman,practicedabstinenceasmuchinmindasinbodyinorderthathenotbedespisedbut Jesus,whoistrulyourhumanity[homonosterverus],whowasincapableofsin,

Page43 usedfoodanddrinkforatime....Norshouldyoubelieveinanywaythatitisagreatervirtuetoabstainfromfoodthantomakeuseoffoodinmoderation.58

ThemonasticwriterPeterofCelle(d.1183),inasermononfasting,alsoexplainedthatonecanfastfromfoodandfromevil.Abstinencefromevilmustneverbe relaxed,butabstinencefromfoodcanbe.Fasting,hewrote,"isrightlydonewhenitisdonetowipeoutvicesforthefullnessoffoodheatsupthebody."59Ina treatiseforpreachers,PetertheChanter(d.1197)explained:

Paulthefirsthermitalwaysfasted,andbreadwassenttohimfromtheskies....AndJeromewascontentwithmeanvegetables,bread,andwater.Butthishardestfastwearenot capableofbecauseofourcorruption.Letourobservanceberational,forwedonotwanttobedespoiledbut,rather,clothed.Forthreethingsarenecessarytotheass[i.e.,the body]:food,thatitbesustainedtherod,lestitbestubbornburdens,thatitmaybeusefultoitsmaster.Concerningthefirst,itissaid:"Noonehateshisownbody"[Eph.5:29], foritiscreatedbyGod,notbythedevil,asManichaeussaid....Butconcerningthesecond,theapostlesaid:"Ichastisemybody..."[ICor.9:27].Andconcerningthethird,he said:"Bearoneanother'sburdens"[Gal.6:2].60

Fastingwasattimesalmostcompletelyallegorizedorspiritualized.Forexample,thegreatmonasticreformerBernardofClairvaux,whohimselfpracticedsevere abstinence,wroteinaLentensermon:
Howcanonebe,Ishallnotsayamonk,butaChristian,whodoesnotfast,whenChristgaveusthepractice?ForifChristfasted,itwastogiveusanexample....ForLentisa sacramentofalltime[andfastingasignofallabstinence].Ifonlythetonguesinned,thenitonlywouldfast,andthatwouldsuffice.Buttheothermemberssin.[Sotheymust fast.]...Theeyesshouldfastfromcuriosity...,theearsfromtalesandrumors,thetonguefromdetractionandmurmuringandfromvainandscurrilouswords,...thehandsfrom lazysignsandfromallunnecessarybusynessbutmostofall,thesoulfromvicesandthewillfromitsowndesire.61

HenrySuso,oneofthemostextravagantlyasceticoffourteenthcenturysaints,warned:
Inreadingthelivesoftheancientfathersourlukewarmbloodcurdlesatthethoughtoftheirausterities,butweremainstrangelyunimpressedby

Page44 theessentialpoint,namely,theirdeterminationtodoGod'swillinallthings,painfulorpleasant.ThesemenoffirethoughtitpossibletodotheimpossiblewhenhelpedbyGod.... However,wemustnotforgetthatsomeoftheseancientfathersdidnotpracticeseverebodilyausteritiesandneverthelessattainedgreatholinessoflife.62

Aboveall,wesenseinthetheologiansofthetwelfthtothefourteenthcenturyanefforttogivenotonlyprecisiontorulesbutalsodignityandspiritualsignificancetothe practiceofawidespectrumofChristians.InthechapteronfastinginhisSummaforpreachers,AlanofLillearguedthatabstinencemustbeinnerandouter,thatmere obediencetothelawisnotenough.Simplygoingwithoutfood,asthesickdo,ismorallyindifferent."Fastmaceratestheflesh,elevatesthesoul,restrainsthesparkof concupiscence,andexcitesreason....Forwhatcanitprofitifthemouthrejectsfoodwhilethetonguelapsesintomendacity?"Alanretainssomesensethatpractice bindsChristianstogetherandhassocialsignificance.HearguesthatbyfastingtheChristiangainsheaven,repairsthesinsofhisancestors,preparesforeucharist,and givesalmstothepoor.ButAlan'semphasisisonpersonaldevotionandindividualobservance:

Fastismedicinetosoulandbody.Itpreservesthebodyfromdisease,thesoulfromsin.Aboutitsmedicinaleffects,earthlyandheavenlyphilosophyagree.IfAdamhadfastedin paradise...,hewouldnothavebeenexiledintodamnation.IfEsauhadfasted...,hewouldnothavelosthisbirthright.IfNoahhadfasted...,hewouldnothavelosthis modesty.Therefore,throughfastingthebodyispurgedthatitmayreceivetheeucharistsacramentally,andthespiritthatitmayreceiveitspiritually....Andthreethingsshould informfasting:goodintention,almsgiving,andlove....Ohman,considertheFathers,whoateonlyonceortwiceaweek....Butifyouarenotmovedbyancientexamples,be movedatleastbythetaleofSt.Nicholasthebaby,whotookonlyonebreastontheWednesdayandFridayfasts.Andletnotadultsblushtofastwhentheyseewhatchildren havedone.63

ThomasAquinas'sextendedtreatmentofabstinenceintheSummatheologiae,writtensomeyearslater,soundsasimilarnote.Stressingmoderation,Thomasquotes Jerome,whosaid:"Byeatingandsleepingtoolittleyouareofferingasacrificeofstolengoods....Rationalmanforfeitshisdignityifhesetsfastingbeforechastity,or nightwatchingbe

Page45

forethewellbeingofhissenses."AndThomasexplainsthisbysaying:"Rightreasondoesnotrefusefoodtotheextentofrenderingusincapableofdischargingour duties."Thegoaloffastingistobridlelust(whichisparticularlyexcitedbymeat),tomakesatisfactionforsin,andtohelpthemindrisefromearthtoheaven.Like Alan,Thomashassomesenseofthesocialsignificanceoffastingandofitscorporatesetting.ButinhisdiscussionoftheEmberDays(whichPopeLeoIsawasa sacrificeofferedinreturnforanabundantharvest),weseehowmuchthenotionofChristendomhaschanged.ToThomas,fastingisappointedonthequarterdays becausetheyaretimesofordination,atwhich"boththeordainerandthecandidatesforordinationandeventhewholepeople,forwhosegoodtheyareordained," abstaininordertobeready.64ThusthefastunitesnotaChristiancommunitytotherhythmsofnaturebutapeopletoitsleader,thepriest.Andthisleaderstandsfor thepeopleinhiseatingaswellashisnoteating.ThomasAquinas,likeotherthirteenthandfourteenthcenturytheologians,sawthepriestinthemassasreceivingfor thepeopleanideathatbecameoneamongseveraljustificationsforwithdrawingthecupfromthelaity.65 ThissamesenseofthesignificanceofrulesandofaChristiancommunitysubsumedinthepriesthoodreverberatesinthegreathymnsforCorpusChristithatare associatedwithAquinas'sname.Againandagain,thepoetsingsofaChristwho"obeysfullythelawconcerningfood[i.e.,thePassoverritual]andgiveshimselfas foodwithhisownhands,"who"gavehisbrothersthelambandtheunleavenedbread,accordingtothelawofourforefathers.'"66Againandagainhestressesthe comingofthewholeChristtotheindividualChristian,whoseesbyfaiththebodyandbloodinthefragmentofbread.ButevenashepraisesthemagnanimityofaGod whogiveshimselfintothehandsandteethofthelowly,heunderlinesthatthegivingandtheunioncomethroughthepowerofpriests:
Sicsacrificium Istudinstituit, Cujusofficium Committivoluit Solispresbyteris, Quibussiccongruit Utsumantetdentceteris.

Page46 Panisangelicus Fitpanishominum: Datpaniscaelicus Figuristerminum: Oresmirabilis: ManducatDominum Pauper,servus,ethumilis. (Soheinstitutedthesacrificeandwishedittobeperformedonlybypriests,thatpriestsreceiveitthemselvesandgiveittoothers.Thebreadofheavenbecomesman'sbreadthe breadofheavenputsanendtotypes[i.e.,foreshadowings].Ohwhatamarvelousthing!Thepoorman,theservant,thelowlypersoneatsGod.)67

Aglanceattwelfthtofourteenthcenturyexemplamoraltalesusedbypreacherstoeducatebothmonasticandlayaudiencestellsthestoryofattenuatingpractice. OfthirteenexemplaconcerningabstinencelistedinTubach'srecentindex,fivesimplyurgethepractice,twoareattacksonhypocrisy,andthreeurgemoderation.Of thirtythreestoriesthatconcernfasting,onlyfifteenreallyadvocateitorexpressadmirationforasceticfeats(andseveralofthesestoriesaremerelyrepeatedfrom patristictexts).Twotalesstressthedifficultyoffastingsevenurgetheavoidanceofhypocrisyorpreferaninner,spiritualresponsetolegalisticobservancesixadvise moderation.Thereisastrongnoteofwarningagainstnotonlyexcessbutfraudandselfdelusionaswell.Abstinenceisseenasausefultoolforconqueringlustand,in onecase,forconvertingordefeatinghereticsbutnotaleplacesthepracticewithinacosmicdrama,concernsagroupfast(beyondonepatristicstoryofagroupof hermits),speaksofmourningorofthepenitenceoftheChristiancommunity,orsuggeststhatfastingshouldissueinalmsgiving.Practiceisoftenallegorizedor spiritualized.Gossipingissaidtobeworsethanbreakingfastfeedingthepoorisbetterthanobservingit.Weareeventoldofmonkswhobreaktheirfastoutof charityinordernottoscandalizetheirneighborsortaxthembeyondtheirstrength. Amongtheexemplathatdealwithfood,noclearpatternemerges.Afewtalesexpressabhorrenceofstealingorhoardingfood,seefastingasinducingmiracles,or connectholinessandfoodmultiplication.Butwhenwelistentothevoicesofthesepreachers,wehearnoinsistentconcernwitheatingeitherastheactnecessaryfor survivalorasa

Page47

metaphorforthewayinwhichGodismet.68Asintreatisesandhymns,sotoointhesemoraltalesforordinaryChristians,weseemtoseeachurchstrainingto enforceminimumobservance.Yetwealsoseeanefforttogivesuchobservanceadignifiedmeaningsensitivetotheneedsofindividuallivesandtemperaments,sothat hypocrisyandselfdelusionmaybeavoided,spiritualgrowthmayabound. Asinthethirdandfourthcenturies,however,therewerethoseinthelaterMiddleAgestowhomsuchcounselseemedweakness.Theyrespondedtothepastoral concernoftheologiansandlawyerswithapassionateconvictionthatevilwasdarkerthanthemoderatessupposedandcouldberootedoutonlybydrasticmeans.The majorityofthesenewvirtuosiwerewomen.Insomewaystheymaybeseenasrespondingtoatwelfthandthirteenthcentury"triumphofChristianity"asstrikingas thetriumphofthefourthcentury.Likeearlyascetics,theyfoundonlycompromiseandfailureinachurchcharacterizedbyanewbureaucracy,anewdefinitionofitself, anewpastoralpolicy,anewability(throughtherequirementofyearlycommunionandconfession)totouchordinaryChristians,andnew,minimalrequirementsfor observance.WordssuchasthoseoftheVitismystica"Norshouldyoubelieveinanywaythatitisagreatervirtuetoabstainfromfoodthantomakeuseoffoodin moderation"musthaveannoyedsomepeopleeveniftheycomfortedothers.SuchChristiansresponded,astheyhadinthefourthcentury,withextravagant asceticism,ahauntingsenseofhumanevilandalienation,andatheologyofsacrificeandselfsacrifice.69Theyrevivedancientmodels,citingJeromeontheconnection betweenfoodandlust,competingwiththeDesertFathersinmarathonfasts.Theyalsostruggledtorecreateintheirliveswhattheycouldnotquitefindin contemporarytheology:thecorporatesenseoftheearlychurch.Althoughlatemedievalwomenremainedindividualandoftenidiosyncraticintheirfastingbehavior, theyconnectedfastwithfeedingandabstinencewithfertilityassurelyasLeotheGreathaddone,inaverydifferentcontext. Butthefoodasceticismoflatemedievalpeopleespeciallywomenwasnotmerelyarevivalofthelifeofthedesertorafranticgraspatpurityinthefaceofachurch withmoderaterequirements.Itwasalsoimitationofthecross.ThebasicsignificanceofChrist,andofChristasfood,hadchangedandintheshadowofthischange abstinencetookonnewmeaning.InordertounderstandthenewsenseofJesusassufferingflesh,wemustconsiderthehistoryofeucharisticdevotion.

Page48

AMedievalChange: FromBreadofHeaventotheBodyBroken AlthoughChristiansevolvedafixedliturgyfortheirholymealonlyveryslowly,theeucharistwasby200thecentralactofthechurch:asacrificeofpraiseanda memorialofredemption.ItissignificantthatasinglemealoneconsistingofthetwobasicelementsoftheMediterraneandiet,breadandwinerosetoprominence, fortheolderMediterraneantraditionsoffeastinglastedthroughouttheMiddleAges,invariousformsofcarnival.70NotalltheFathersagreedwithAugustine,who triedtoeliminatebanquetsanddrunkenrevelryfromthefestivalsofthemartyrs.71ThemissionarieswhocarriedChristianitytothenorthernlandspermittedlavish mealsonsaints'days,aslongasthemeatwasnotsacrificedtotheoldgods.72 ButthecentralChristianmealwasnotthecarnival,notthebacchanal,notanexuberantrevelexpressingabundanceandfertility.73Thecentralmeal,thecentral liturgicalact,wasafrugalrepast,evokinglesstheluxurious,proliferatingrichnessofthenaturalworldthanthehumanlifeitsupported.Indeed,Christhadsaiditwas humanlife,wasbodyandblood.Fromtheverybeginningtheeucharisticelementsstoodprimarilynotfornature,forgrainandgrape,butforhumanbeingsboundinto communitybycommensality. EarlyChristianwriterssawtheeucharistasspiritualrefreshmentandasapledgeofthechurch'sunity,asthebreadofheavenandtheonebodyofChrist.74For example,theSyriacwriterEphremofNisibis(d.373)linkedtheeucharistwiththechurchnotsomuchbecauseheexplicitlyidentifiedthechurchwithChrist'sbodyas becausehesawtheeucharistinthechurchunitingChristians:
Andbecausehe[Christ]lovedhisChurchgreatly hedidnotgiveherthemannaofherrival HebecametheBreadofLife forhertoeathim.

LikeCyprianearlierandRomanostheMelodistlater,Ephremsawinbreadapowerfulsymbolofmany(fragments,crumbs,loaves,etc.)unitedintooneandagraphic pledgeoftheresurrection:
Hisbread,beyonddispute, bearswitnesstoourresurrection,

Page49 for[if]heblessedthefood, howmuchmorethosewhoeat! Inthetwelveloaves whichheblessedandmultiplied, heblessedandmultipliedhisTwelve. Andhetookbreadandbrokeit, another,onlyone[loaf], thesymbolofthebody, theOnlybegotten,[born]ofMary.75

TheanthropologistGillianFeeleyHarnikhasrecentlypointedoutthattheearlyChristiansnotonlytookoverJewishnotionsoffoodastheembodimentofGod's wisdombutalsosignaledanexpansionofcommunitybyexpandingcommensality.FromtheChristianpassovernolongeraprivate,domesticmealnonewas excluded.Richandpoor,JewandGentile,cowardandhero,allcelebratedtogether.EatingChrist'sbodywasaninclusiveact,onethatcreatedcommunity.76 Forallthetalkofsignandsacrament,typeandsymbol,noearlywriterdoubtedthatasacredrealitylaybehindthebreadandwineandinthethirdandfourth centuriesincreasingcarewastakenoftheelementsthemselvesasthe''bodyoftheLord."77AsanearlyEasterhymn(fourthtosixthcentury)expressesit:

Adcenamagniprouidi, ........... Cuiussacrumcorpusculum inaracrucistorridum cruorecuiusroseo gustandouiuimusDeo. .......... iampaschanostrumChristusest, quiinmolatusagnusest sinceritatisazyma caroeiusoblataest. ([Weare]lookingforwardtothesupperofthelamb...whosesacredbodyisroastedonthealtarofthecross.Bydrinkinghisrosyblood,welivewithGod....NowChristisour passover,oursacrificiallambHisflesh,theunleavenedbreadofsincerity,isofferedup.)78

OrasaslightlylaterIrishhymnputsit:

Page50 Sanctiuenite,Christicorpussumite, sanctumbibentes,quoredemptisanguinem. saluatiChristicorporeetsanguine, aquorefectilaudesdicamusDeo. hocsacramentocorporisetsanguinis omnesexutiabinfernifaucibus. ............... prouniversisinmolatusDominus ipsesacerdosexstititethostia .............. caelestempanemdatesurientibus, defonteuiuopraebetsitientibus. (Come,holypeople,eatthebodyofChrist,drinkingtheholybloodbywhichyouareredeemed.WehavebeensavedbyChrist'sbodyandbloodhavingfeastedonit,letusgive thankstoGod.Allhavebeenrescuedfromthejawsofhellbythissacramentofbodyandblood....TheLord,offeredassacrificeforusall,wasbothpriestandvictim....He givesthecelestialbreadtothehungryandoffersdrinkfromthelivingfountaintothethirsty.)79

ExactlyhowChristwaspresentinthebreadandwinewasnotaquestionthatanimatedearlytheologians.Betweentheninthandtwelfthcenturies,however,itbecame suchaquestion.PreachersandschoolmenarguedoverwhatsortsofmetaphorswereacceptableforexpressingthenatureofGod'spresence.80Themajorityclearly favoredlanguagethatwasfranklyliteralandphysical.WhentheFourthLateranCouncil(1215)statedinphrasesneitherasscholasticnorasAristotelianasthey mighthavebeenthatChristispresentinsubstanceonthealtarattheconsecration,itwasmerelymakingexplicitwhattheologiansandlayfolkhadassumedfor centuries:

Thereisoneuniversalchurchofthefaithful,outsidewhichnooneatallissaved.Inthischurch,JesusChristhimselfisbothpriestandsacrifice,andhisbodyandbloodarereally containedinthesacramentofthealtarunderthespeciesofbreadandwine,thebreadbeingtransubstantiatedintothebodyandthewineintothebloodbythepowerofGod,so thattocarryoutthemysteryofunityweourselvesreceivefromhimthebodyhehimselfreceivesfromus[accipiamusipsidesuo,quodaccepitipsedenostro].81

Page51

Theproliferatingeucharisticmiraclesofthetwelfthandthirteenthcenturiesinwhichthehost,lyingonthepaten,shutawayinthetabernacle,orraisedonhighinthe priest'shands,turnedvisiblyintoChristwerenot(assomehaveargued)theresultofthedoctrineoftransubstantiation.Rather,theywereanexpressionofthesortof pietythatmadesuchdoctrinaldefinitionseemobviouslytrue.82AsPeterofPoitiers(d.1205)putit:Christispresentbeneaththeveilofthespecies"likeahandina glove."PetertheChanterevenwentsofarastoask:"Ifweconcede,withoutreservation,thatthebodyofChristiseaten,asAugustinesays,whynotsayabsolutely thatoneseesGod?"(ButPeterdidnotquitedaretoanswerthat,yes,thefaithfuldoliterallyseeGodthroughtheelementsasthroughatransparentveil.)83 TheconvictionthatGodwaspresentintheeucharistmoreliterallythaninanyothersacrament,thatbehindtheveilofthe"accidents"of"wineredness"or "crumbliness"laythesubstanceofthebodyofGod,raisedcertainproblemsfortheologians.HowcouldthetotusChristusbepresentinphysicalelementsso distressinglyfluidorbreakable?WouldnotthepiousdrawtherisibleconclusionastheyunquestionablydidonoccasionthatlittlebitsofJesusfelloffifcrumbs werespilledorthatonehurtGodbychewingthehost?Desiringtoavoidtheimplication,foundinsomeeleventhandtwelfthcenturysupportersoftherealpresence, thatthefaithfuldoeatlittlepiecesofGod'sflesh,theologianssuchasAquinasaffirmedthatChrist'sentirebodywaspresentineveryparticle.Thushisbodywasnot physicallybrokeninthefractionofthehost.Theyalsoelaboratedthedoctrineof''concomitance"theideathatboththebodyandthebloodofChristarepresentin eachelement.Facedwithgrowingdevotiontothebreadandwinethemselves,exactlybecausethecrumbsanddropsmasked(thinly)thesubstanceofChrist, theologiansstruggledtoretainafirmemphasisonChrist'sbodyasone,becauseonechurchandonehumanityaresavedinit.84IntheCorpusChristihymns associatedwithAquinas,wehearechoingagainandagainnotonlythedoctrineoftransubstantiationbutalsotheinsistenceononeChristintwospecies.Onlythusis totalhumannature(sensualaswellasspiritual)saved:
Verbumcaropanemverumverbocarnemefficit FitquesanguisChristimerumet,sisensusdeficit, Adfirmandumcorsincerumsolafidessufficit.

Page52 (TheWordmadefleshbyawordchangestruebreadintoflesh,andwinebecomesthebloodofChristandifsenseisdeficient[inperceivingthechange],faithalonesufficesto makethesincereheartfirm[inbelievingit].)85 Postagnumtypicum,expletisepulis, Corpusdominicumdatumdiscipulis, Sictotumomnibus,quodtotumsingulis, Ejusfatemurmanibus. (After[theyhadeaten]thelamb,whichisatype[i.e.,aforeshadowing],andwhenthemealwasover,thebodyoftheLordwasgiventothedisciplesinsuchawaythatthewhole wasgiventoallandthewholegiventoeach,andthiswasdonebyhisownhands.)86 Quibussubbinaspecie Carnemdeditetsanguinem Utduplicissubstantiae Totumcibarethominem. ([Tohisdisciples]hegave,undertwospecies,hisfleshandblood,sothatitmightfeedthewholeman,whoisoftwofoldsubstance.)87

Sometimesthehymnsbecomeveritabletheologicaltractates:
Subdiversisspeciebus, Signistantumetnonrebus, Latentreseximiae. Carocibus,sanguispotus, ManettamenChristustotus Subutraquespecie. ........... Fractodemumsacramento Nevacilles,sedmemento Tantumessesubfragmento Quantumtototegitur. (Underthedifferentspecies,whichareonlysigns,notthings[i.e.,realities],liehiddenwonderfulthings.Thefleshisfood,thebloodisdrink,andyetthewholeChristremains undereachspecies....Finally,whenthesacramentisbroken,donotdoubt,butremember:thereisasmuchhiddeninafragmentasinthewhole.)88

Thetheologicalquestionsoftransubstantiationandconcomitancewerenotmerelyschoolroomproblems.Theyarosefromandhadgrave

Page53

implicationsforChristianpractice,asisdemonstratedbyacontroversythateruptedinParisinthelatertwelfthcenturyyearsbeforetransubstantiationwasdefined. ThequestionwaswhetherChristwaspresentfromthemomentofthefirstwordsofinstitution:"Hocestenimcorpusmeum."Sinceabodycannotexistwithoutblood andsincethebloodwasclearlynotyetpresent,thewinenothavingbeenconsecrated,PetertheChanterconcludedthatthebodycouldnotbepresentuntilthewords overthewineweresaid.BothelementswerenecessaryforChristtobepresent.Indeed,Peterheld,bothelementswerenecessaryfortheconsecrationofeitherto occur.If,duringthemass,thepriestdiscoveredthathehadforgottentoputwineinthechalice,hehadtorepeattheentireconsecration. Peter'sargumentmetwithoutragedrebuttalinsermons,intheologicalanalyses,andevenintheglossesprovidedtoaccountsofmiracles.Itannoyedbothlearnedand popularopinion,partlybecauseitranafoulofcommonliturgicalpractice(whichwassimplytofilluptheemptychaliceandgoon)butmostlybecause,asGuyof Orchellessaid,itmadeexistingpietyintoidolatry.Priestandpeoplealikehadbeguntopracticeadorationofthehostfromthemomentofitsconsecration.Ifitwasnot yetChrist,thenthefaithfulwereworshipingflour.WhilenooneinvolveddeniedthattheelementswereinsomesenseChrist'sbodyandblood,theexactmomentof thechangematteredenormouslybecausepeoplewerebehavingasifChristappeared,substantiallyandtotally,inthewaferwhenthewords"Hocestcorpusmeum" weresaid.89 Thisratherminortheologicaldebatereflectsagreatmedievalchange.Bythethirteenthcenturytheeucharist,onceacommunalmealthatboundChristianstogetherand fedthemwiththecomfortofheaven,hadbecomeanobjectofadoration.Thephysicalappearanceoffoodonthealtarwasinfactaveilthroughwhichholyfleshwas spirituallyormysticallyseen.SinceChristarrivedatthemomentofconsecration,notofcommunion,hearrivedinthehandsofthepriestbeforeheappearedonthe tongueoftheindividualbeliever.Whetherornotoneheldortastedthewafer,onecouldmeetChristatthemomentofhisdescentintotheelementsadescentthat paralleledandrecapitulatedtheIncarnation. Despitethenewfocuson"seeing"ratherthan"receiving,"onconsecrationratherthancommunion,medievalmenandwomendidnotlosetheirsenseofthereligious significanceoffoodandhunger,bothasfacts

Page54

andasmetaphors.Ifanything,foodbecameayetmorepowerfulandawefulsymbol,forthebreadandwinethatlayonthealtarwerenowevenmoregraphically seentobeGod.Butthemeaningoffoodandhungerchanged.Topatristicpoetsandtheologians,thefoodonthealtarhadsuggestedthatChristhimselfcameas breadtohungryhumankindorthathe"digested"Christians,bindingthemtohimashisbodyi.e.,thechurch.Hungermeanthumanvulnerability,whichGod comfortedwithfood,oritmeanthumanselfcontrol,adoptedinanefforttokeepGod'scommandments.Inthesermonandsong,theologyandstory,ofthehigh MiddleAges,however,thefoodonthealtarwastheGodwhobecamemanitwasbleedingandbrokenflesh.Hungerwasunquenchabledesireitwassuffering.To eatGod,therefore,wasfinallytobecomesufferingfleshwithhissufferingfleshitwastoimitatethecross. Manychangesinpietysomecomingasearlyastheninthcenturyforeshadowed,accompanied,andreflectedtheshiftfromcommuniontoconsecrationasthefocal pointofdevotion.EarlymedievalChristianshadsometimesreservedthesacramentonthealtarinapyx(forcarryingtothesick)andhadcombineditwithor substituteditforrelicsintheconsecrationofchurches.Perhapsasearlyastheeleventhcentury,atBecandatCanterbury,theyvenerateditwithgenuflection,incense, andprocession.Butthecultofthesacrament,ofdevotiontotheconsecratedhostitself,didnotreallybeginuntilthetwelfthcentury.Itthendevelopedrapidly.The pyxesandreliquariesinwhichthehostwasreservedbecamemoreandmoreelaborate,bothtoprotectthehostfromprofanationandtoallowthefaithfultoadoreit outsidethemass.Lampsandcandleswereburnedbeforeit.Small,usuallycircularopenings(oculi),wereplacedintheexteriorwallsoftheapse,sothatthepious couldlookdirectlyintotheeucharisticchestandveneratethehostfromoutsidethechurch.90FromGermanycomestoriesofknightsandpeasantsgallopingupon horsebacksothatthehorsesmightadoreGodalso,inakindofequinecommunionknownastheUmritt.91Perhapsasearlyastheninthcentury,recluseshadtheir cellsinchurchespositionedsotheycouldadorethehosteachday.92Visitstothehostbeganinthetwelfthcenturysomewriterssuggestedthatsuchvisitsmight substituteforgoingoncrusade. ThefirstevidencefortheelevationofthehostafterconsecrationcomesfromParisabout1200.93Thepracticespreadrapidly,andwithittheconvictionthatseeingthe hosthadspiritualvaluethatitwasa

Page55

"secondsacrament,"alongsidereceiving.Prayerswerecomposedforthemomentofseeing,whichwashonoredbytheringingofbells,genuflection,andincense.By thethirteenthcenturywefindstoriesofpeopleattendingmassonlyforthemomentofelevation,racingfromchurchtochurchtoseeasmanyconsecrationsaspossible, andshoutingatthepriesttoholdthehostuphigher.94Anaccountevensurvivesofguildmembersbringingchargesagainstapriestforassigningthemplacesinchurch fromwhichtheycouldnotseetheelevatedhost.95WhenJohnMarienwerder,DorothyofMontau'sconfessor,wrotehisaccountofhervisionsandteachings,he especiallyemphasizedthesaint'sdevotionto"seeing"Christ:

Thespouse[ofChrist],compelledbytheodorofthisvivifyingsacrament,hadfromherchildhoodtotheendofherlifethedesiretoseetheblessedhost.Andifshemanagedto viewitahundredtimesinoneday,assometimeshappened,shestillretainedthedesiretoviewitmoreoften.96

Thecultoftheeucharistichostwasfullyestablishedbythelatethirteenthcentury,withtheinstitutionin1264ofthefeastofCorpusChristi(revealedtoJulianaof CornillonandlongworkedforbyJulianaandherfriendsEvaofSt.MartinandIsabelleofHuy).97DespitetheintenseeucharisticenthusiasmoftheareaaroundLige, Juliana'shome,thefeastmadelittleheadwayatfirst,inpartbecausesomearguedthataspecialfestivalforChrist'sbodymightimplylessreverenceforitatevery mass.Butafterthefeastwasrepromulgatedin1311/12,andagainin1317,itspreadrapidly.Inthefourteenthcentury,"showing"wasseparatedentirelyfromthe mass,withtheintroductionofthemonstrance,aspecialvesselfordisplayingtheconsecratedwafer.ThehostwasnowcarrieduncoveredinprocessiononCorpus Christiandleftexposedonthealtarforadoration,sometimesfortheentireoctave.Bythefifteenthcenturycertainfeastsendedwiththeexpositionandbenedictionof theblessedsacrament.EvenbeforethepromulgationofCorpusChristi,ordersandconfraternitiesappearedwhosepurposewastopromotethecultofthehostandto makereparationforthesacrilegeofheretics.Onesuchconfraternity,itselfperhapsnotthefirst,wasthegraypenitentsofAvignon,foundedin1226.98 Elevationofthechaliceemergedmoreslowly.ThefeastsoftheSacredHeartandofthePreciousBloodwereestablishedonlyinmoderntimes.Buttherootsofthese festivalsgobacktotheintensedevotionto

Page56

theheartofJesusfoundamongtheSaxonnunsandFlemishholywomenofthethirteenthcentury.99Andasweshallsee,latemedievalspiritualtextswereawashin referencestothebloodofthelamb. Inthemassitself,receptionandconsecrationwereincreasinglyseparated,andtheelementstreatedwithincreasingawe.Moreandmoretherhythmoftheservice itself,theliturgicalpracticessurroundingit,andeventhearchitectureofchurchessuggestedthatGodcame"through"andevenprimarily"to"priests.Intheearlychurch thealtarhadbeenasimpletable,andthepriesthadcelebratedfacingthepeople.Bythetwelfthcenturythealtarstoodagainstthewalloftheapseandwasoften surmountedbyaretable.Across(usuallynotyetacrucifix)andcandlesadornedit.Thepriestcelebratedwithhisbacktothepeople,recitingthecanonofthemassin aninaudiblewhisper,whilethepeopleengagedinallsortsofpersonaldevotions(ordaydreaming)looselyconnectedwiththeceremony.Communionwasgiven before,after,orcompletelyapartfrommass.Monksandnunsmightgotothehighaltarlayfolkusuallyreceivedatthesidealtar,wherethesacramentwassometimes placedbeforehand.Womenhadbeenprohibitedsincethedaysoftheearlychurchfromreceivingintheirbarehands.Fromtheninthcentury,womenandlaymen usuallyreceiveddirectlyonthetongue.BytheeleventhcenturyonlypriestscouldtakeGodintheirhands.100 Moreover,changesinthephysicalelementsthemselvesmadethemseemmoreawesome,magical,andremote.Sincetheninthcenturythewaferhadbeenmadefrom unleavenedbread,perhapsbecauseitadheredmoreeasilytothetonguethandidleavenedbread.Intheearlytwelfthcenturythehostbegantobestampedwith picturesofChristratherthanwiththesimplemonogramscommonearlier.101Inthetwelfthandthirteenthcenturiesthechalicesometimescontainedmerelyadropof thepreciousbloodmixedwithunconsecratedwine(thesocalledlaychalice).Thecupwassometimeswithheldentirely.Inthethirteenthcenturythepeoplewere sometimesofferedsimplyacupofunconsecratedwineforcleansingthemouthaftercommunion.Theinterchangeofthevariouschalicesoftenwentunnoticed,and theologiansarguedoverwhetherthefaithfulshouldbetaughtthattheyreceivedthebodyandbloodinthewaferandmerewineinthechalice,orwhetherthecupofthe laityindeedheldthebloodoftheLord.102ThomasAquinasjustifiedthewithholdingofthecupbypointingoutthatthepriestreceivedbothspecies.103

Page57

Thetheorythatthepriestreceivedforthepeoplewaselaboratedgradually.OttoofBamberg(d.1139)saidthattheconvertedPomeraniansshouldcommunicate throughtheirpriestsiftheycouldnotreceivethemselves.BertholdofRegensburg(d.1272)explainedthatthecommunicatingpriest"nourishesusall,"forheisthe mouthandwearethebody.WilliamDurandustheElder(d.1296)suggestedthatthefaithfulreceivethreetimesayear"becauseofsinfulness"but"priests[receive] dailyforusall."LudolfofSaxony(d.1377)arguedthattheeucharistiscalledourdailybreadbecauseministersreceiveitdailyforthewholecommunity.104 NotonlywasthepriestthechannelthroughwhichGoddescended,hewasalsoseenasassimilatedtoChrist(ortheVirginMary)intheactofconsecration,asdeified atthemomentinwhichGodarrivedbetweenhishands."Ohrevereddignityofpriests,inwhosehandstheSonofGodisincarnatedasintheVirgin'swomb,"readsan oftencitedtwelfthcenturytext.105AndthefollowinglineshavebeenattributedtothewanderingpreacherNorbertofXanten,whofoundedanorderofclerics:

Priest,youarenotyou,becauseyouareGod. Youarenotyours,becauseyouareChrist'sservantandminister. Youarenotofyourselfbecauseyouarenothing. Whatthereforeareyou,ohpriest?Nothingandallthings.106

Intheearlythirteenthcentury,FrancisofAssisiexpressedthesameaweofpriests:
IfitisrighttohonourtheBlessedVirginMarybecausesheborehiminhermostholywombifSt.JohntheBaptisttrembledandwasafraideventotouchChrist'ssacredheadif thetombwherehelayforonlyashorttimeissoveneratedhowholy,andvirtuous,andworthyshouldnotapriestbehetouchesChristwithhisownhands....Apriestreceives himintohisheartandmouthandoffershimtootherstobereceived.107

Astheroleofthepriestwasexalted,thegapbetweenpriestandpeoplewidened.BythelateMiddleAgesinnorthernEurope,elaboratescreenswereconstructedto hidethepriestandthealtar.108Thus,atthepivotalmomentofhiscoming,Christwasseparatedandhiddenfromthecongregationinasanctuarythatenclosed togetherpriestandGod. Insuchanatmosphere,deepambivalencedevelopedaboutthereceptionofcommunion.109Ontheonehand,theologiansandcanonlawyers

Page58

encouragedfrequentreception.TherequirementofatleastyearlyconfessionandcommunionestablishedattheFourthLateranCouncil(1215)wasintendedtoset forthaminimumofobservance.Andanumberofthenewmonasticordersrequiredfrequentcommunion.But,ontheotherhand,theologiansfearedthatfrequent receptionmightleadtolossofreverence,tocarelessness,eventoprofanationoftheelements.Familiaritymightbreedcontempt.AlberttheGreat,forexample,who supportedthepracticeofdailycommunion,arguedagainstitforwomen,fearingthatfrequentreceptionwouldtrivializeresponse.110Theologiansoftenassertedthat abstainingoutofawewasequaltoreceivingwithconfidenceandjoy.QuotingAugustine,theyurgedaninteriorseeingandfeeding,whichbecamethenotionof "spiritualcommunion."111 Facedwithsuchambiguousadvice,manypiouspeopleinthelaterMiddleAgesdeveloped,alongwithafrenziedhungerforthehost,anintensefearofreceivingit. MargaretofCortona,forexample,pledfranticallywithherconfessorforfrequentcommunionbut,whengiventheprivilegebyChrist,abstainedoutofterrorather unworthiness.112GertrudetheGreatexpressedasenseofChristandsacramentastrulyawefulwhenshewrote:

You,whoarethesplendorandthecrownofcelestialglory,youappearedtodescendfromtheimperialthroneofyourmajestywithamovementfullofsweetness,andfloodedthe widthoftheskywithasweetliquorsothatthesaintshastenedtodrink... Andyouaddedthisunderstanding[tothevisionjustrecounted]:thatoneoughttoapproachthesacramentofyourbodyandbloodinsuchloveforyourcommunion(even beyondtheloveforyourglory,ifthatispossible)thatonewouldbewillingtoeatthesacramenttoone'sowncondemnation.113

GertrudetookcomfortforherownfeelingsofunworthinessfromwordsthatGodsupposedlysenttoherwhenshetriedtoexplainwhyafriendabstained:"Iheard your[i.e.,God's]blessedresponse:'Itisimpossiblethatanyonereceivingwithsuchanintention[i.e.,theintentiontoabstainfromfear]couldbeirreverent.'"114 Foralltheterrortheeucharistinspired,however,receptionofGodasfoodbetweenone'slipsremainedauniquelyimportantmodeofspiritualencounter.Late medievalsaints,especiallywomen,frequentlyreceived

Page59

fromconfessors,oreventhepopehimself,theprivilegeofdailycommunionasanalmostofficialrecognitionoftheirreputationsforsanctity.115Religioussuperiors, bishops,andcanonlawyerslegislatedagainstreceptionduringecstasy,inanefforttocontrolthewavesoffrenzyfortheeucharistthatshookreligioushouses.116The deathbedsofpiouspeoplesometimesbecamethesettingforbitterstrugglebetweenpriestandrecipientoverhowoftentheholyfoodcouldbetaken.117Indeed,as themomentofconsecrationbecameincreasinglyfraughtwithmeaning,asthepowerofpriestsgrewevermoreawesome,asthenotionofeatingGodseemedmore andmoreaudaciousandthedrinkofChrist'sbloodwaspermanentlywithdrawn,someofthedevoutfoundthattheirhunger,seasonedandimpelledbyfear,merely intensified.118Themorechurcharchitecture,liturgicalpractice,andpriestlypowercontrivedtomaketheelementsseemdistant,themoresomepeopleluxuriatedin theminprivate,ecstaticexperiences.JamesofVitry'sdescriptionoftheeucharisticpietyofMaryofOigniescouldbematchedbydozensofsimilardescriptionsfrom thenexttwohundredyears:

Thus[Mary]languishedinexile.Thesoleandhighestremedywasthemannaofcelestialbread,untilshecouldcometothepromisedland[heaven].Init,theanxietyanddesireof herheartweretemperedinit,allhersorrowswereappeased....Inthehighestandmostexcellentsacrament,shepatientlyboreallthehardshipsofherenforcedwandering... Theholybreadstrengthenedherhearttheholywineinebriatedher,rejoicinghermindtheholybodyfattenedherthevitalizingbloodpurifiedherbywashing.Andshecould notbeartoabstainfromsuchsolaceforlong.ForitwasthesametohertoliveastoeatthebodyofChrist,andthisitwastodie,tobeseparatedfromthesacramentbyhavingfor alongtimetoabstain...Indeed,shefeltalldelectationandallsavorofsweetnessinreceivingit,notjustwithinhersoulbuteveninhermouth...Sometimesshehappily acceptedherLordundertheappearanceofachild,sometimesasatasteofhoney,sometimesasasweetsmell,andsometimesinthepureandgorgeouslyembellishedmarriagebed oftheheart.Andwhenshewasnotabletobearanylongerherthirstforthevivifyingblood,sometimesafterthemasswasovershewouldremainforalongtimecontemplating theemptychaliceonthealtar.119

DespitetheauraofmajestythatsurroundedtheeucharistinthelaterMiddleAges,itseemedtothefaithfultoofferitselftotheirsenseswithastonishingfamiliarity.120It rangwiththemusicofbells,glowedwith

Page60

light,dissolvedonthetongueintohoneycomborbloodyflesh,andannounceditspresence,whenprofanedorsecretedaway,byleavingatrailofblood.Christ appearedagainandagainonthepatenandinthechaliceasababy,agloriousyouth,orableedinganddyingman.121 Thechangesinliturgy,theology,andevenarchitecturediscussedabovehelpexplainwhysomanyvisionsofChristcameatmass.Inanatmospherewhereconfessors andreligioussuperiorscontrolledaccesstotheeucharistandstressedscrupulousandawefilledpreparation,recipientsnaturallyapproachedtheelementsina spirituallyandpsychologicallyheightenedstate.When,aftermumblinginaudibly,thepriestsuddenlyandtotheaccompanimentofincenseandbellsraisedonhigha thin,shimmeringwaferofunleavenedbreadembossedwiththeimageofChrist,itissmallwonderthatthepioussometimes"saw"Jesus.When,afterhoursofself examinationanddoubt,anxiousnunsorlaypeopletookGodontheirtongues,itissmallwonderthatthebitofbreadsometimesswelled"withmarveloussweetness" tochokethem.Gazingaloftatahangingpyxshapedintheformofadove,somemysticsthoughttheysawtheHolySpiritwingingtowardthem,thewaferinhisbeak. Contemplatingthenewdevotionalobject,thecrucifix,indimanddampchurches,piouspeoplesometimesthoughtitdrippedbloodbecauseoftheirownprivatesins. Deniedthecuporeventhehostbyecclesiasticalregulation,manyofthedevoutthought,whentheyatleastobtainedreleasefromtheirinnerdistressandlonging,that thecomfortofChristwasintheirmouthsorheartsimmediatelywithoutthepriest'senablinghandsorwords. Aglanceatbasicmedievalattitudestowardfoodalsohelpsustounderstandcertainaspectsofeucharisticdevotion.Asculinaryhistorianshaverecentlyobserved,the characteristicmedievalmealwasthefeast,anditwasmoreanaestheticandsocialeventthanagastronomicone.122Thefeastwasabanquetforallthesenses indeed,foodwasalmostanexcuseforindulgingsensesotherthantaste.Medievalchroniclerswhodescribefeastsdonotgivemenus,althoughtheylavishattentionon theentertainmentprovided.Theydescribetheappearanceofdishes,nottheflavorthesequenceofevents,notofcourses.Medievalcookbooksmakeitclearthat visualeffectsweremoreimportanttoamedievaldinerthantasteandthatvividcolors(forexample,greendyefromspinachorleeks,orgoldandsilverleafgarnish) wereoftenappliedattheexpenseofflavor.Insomeaccountsofbanquets,itishardtotellwhetherthelavish

Page61

pastryconstructions,scenes,andpuppetshows(knowninEnglishas''sotelties")displayedbetweencoursesweremeanttobeeatenornot.Medievalcookbooks providedetailedinstructionsonhowtoconstructillusionsortricksfortheeye,suchasimitationmeatconcoctedfromfish,orroastfowlsewnbackintoitsplumagein ordertoappearalive,orpies(likethatinthenurseryrhyme)withlivebirdsbakedinside.123 Givensuchassumptionsaboutandexpectationsoffood,itissmallwonderthatmedievalmysticsconsideredsoundsandsightsascrucialtotheeucharisticbanquetas eating,orthattheysometimesfeltthey"ate"or"received"withtheireyesorintheirmindsandhearts.ItisnoaccidentthatChrist'sfeastinvolvedallthesenses,since secularbanquetsdidso.Norisitsurprisingthatonetaste(bread)changedeasilyintoanother(flesh,blood,meat,honey,etc.)inthemouthforordinaryfood,atits mostsumptuousandexciting,wasoftenillusion. Eventhelegalismofmedievalfastingpracticesmightencouragetheassumptionfoundbothincookbooksandintreatisesontransubstantiationthatthingswerenot reallywhattheyseemed.WhenanEnglishdinerinthe1460shadbarnaclegooseservedtohimasfish,hewrotethat"wehadtoeatitasfish,butinmymouthitturned tomeat."124Hisremarkwaspresumablyanironiccommentonhypocrisyorcasuistry,butmysticsusedsimilarphrasessimplyandsincerely.Whenthey"tasted" God'sbody,whattheyfoundwassometimesnotwhattheyanticipated,andtheyencountereditwithmorethanthesenseoftaste.Inaworldwherenotonlypoetsbut ordinaryfolkaswelltreatedthesensesasfarlessdiscretethanwedoandtheitemsofthephenomenalworldasmorefluidinidentityorsignificance,itishardly surprisingthatthosewhoateGod,likethosewhoateblackbirdpie,weresometimesastonished,titillated,ordisturbedbytheexperience. Historiansandtheologians,bothProtestantandCatholic,havecustomarilyseenlatemedievaleucharisticpietyasindividualisticasquietlybutsometimesinsidiously bypassingbothpriestandcommunity.125Suchinterpretationshaveemphasized(andsometimesdeplored)thelossofaliturgicalcontextfordevotiontotheelements andthedisappearanceofanysensethatChristianswereunitedinaholymealorinacommunalsacrificetoGod.Butitisnotquitetruethatlatemedievaleucharistic devotionlostallcorporateelements,narrowingtosimplytheindividual'sinnerexperienceofChrist.ExactlybecausethehostbecamesoinsistentlyChrist'sbody whosefirmoutlineshadbeenviolatedbyRoman(or

Page62

Jewish)spearsandnailsitremainedapowerfulcorporatesymbol,asymbolofhumankind,ofChristendom,andofthechurch. Twoconservativetheologiansofthetwelfthcentury,forexample,describedtheeucharistasthesalvationnotmerelyoftheindividualwhoreceivesitbutofall humanity,becauseitrecapitulatestheIncarnation.HildegardofBingen(d.1179)receivedavisioninwhichWomanasEve,symboloffallenhumankind,andasthe church,symbolofsavedhumanitycollectsChrist'sbloodinachaliceandhearsavoicesaying:"EatanddrinkthebodyandbloodofmySontoabolishthe prevaricationofEveandreceiveyourtrueinheritance."Hildegard'svisionwasnotaprivate,sensoryexperiencebutatheologicalstatement.Hermessageisclear: ChristianswhoeatGodeattogether,anditishumankindthatissaved.126Expressingthesamesensibility,RupertofDeutz(d.1135)wrote:

TotheoneandonlySonofGodandSonofMan,asiftoitshead,allthemembersofthebodyarejoinedallarereceivedinthefaithofhissacramentandthefullnessofhis charityandthusonebody,oneperson,oneChrist,theheadwithallitsmembers,ascendsintothesky...[Andheshowshimselftobe]twoinoneflesh.Agreatsacramentis this!ThefleshofChrist...thussatisfies[implevit]thewholeworld,sothatitmakesintoonechurchalltheelectwhohavebeenfromthebeginningsoftheworldorshallbeuntil theendoftime,joiningGodandmaneternally.127

Moreover,someoftheeucharisticvisionsseenbylatemedievalnuns,beguines,orlaywomenhavecorporateelementsorimplications.Forexample,whenMechtildof Hackeborn(d.1298or1299)received"theimprintofresemblance"toGodin"thehourofcommunion,"shereceivedalsoChrist'sheartintheformofacup marvelouslychiseled."Bymyheart,''sheheardhimsay,"youwillpraisemealwaysgo,offertoallthesaintsthedrinkoflifefrommyheartthattheymaybehappily inebriatedwithit."128Mechtild'ssisternunGertrudetheGreatreceivedavisioninwhichthosenunswhomovedtowardGodholdingthehandsofothers(i.e.,trusting intheprayersofothersforthem)werethefirsttoreachthesplendorsoflightfromChrist'sheart.129 Thehostwasapowerfulsymbolnotjustofhumankindorofthemonasticcommunitybutalsoofthechurch.WilliamofSt.Thierryexplainedthatthebodyonthealtar isChristintercedingforus:itisthe

Page63

physicalbody,bornofMaryitisalsothemysticalbody,thechurch.BaldwinofFord(d.1190)stressedthatcommunionunitesusnotonlywithJesusbutalsowith thewholechurchincommunity.130ArnoldofBonneval(d.after1156),inoneoftherareeucharisticprayersthatsurvivefromtheperiod,expressestheidentification ofeucharistandchurch(althoughhisemphasisisonthecomplexsignificanceofthesacramentfortheindividualChristian):

Christcallsthissacramentsometimesfleshandblood,sometimesbread,andsometimeshisbody.Itiscalledbreadbecauseitisthenourishmentoflife,fleshandbloodbecauseof thetruthofitsnature,bodybecauseofitsunityofsubstance.Byhisbodyhemeanttoindicatebothhimselfandhischurch,ofwhichheisthehead,andwhichheunitesbythe communionoffleshandblood.Andweindeed,whenweeatthefleshandblood,willnotbereformedinthecorruptandinfirmnatureofourbodyandsoulnorreturnedtolikeness withGodunlessasuitablepoulticeisplacedonsin.131

Indeed,latemedievaleucharisticdevotion,parallelingthetheologicaldiscussionsofconcomitanceandofthetotusChristusineveryparticleofbread,cameto expressanalmostfranticsenseofthewholeness,theinviolability,ofChrist'sbodyandatremendousfearofrendingandbreaking.Tubach'sindexofexemplalistsfifty threemiracleshavingtodowiththehostandonlythreeconcerningthechalice.132Itishardtoavoidtheconclusionthatthisemphasisonthehostreflectedafearthat themysticalbody,thechurch,wouldberentbyitsenemies. Insistentlythehostforceditselfontothesensesofbelieversasfleshwithfirmboundaries.Themanymiraclesofconsecratedwafersoozingorstreamingdropsofblood wereunderstoodtobeannouncingnotjustthesinsofindividualChristiansbutalsoattacksbyoutsiders,especiallyhereticsandJews.Miraclesofbleedinghosts, whichproliferatefromthetwelfthcenturyon,sometimeshavesinisterovertones.Thehostbecomesfleshtoannounceitsviolationthebleedingisanaccusation.When thenunWilburgis(d.1289)tookthehosttoherenclosuretohelpheravoidsexualtemptation,itrevealeditself,inaquitecommonmiracle,asabeautifulbabywho spokethewordsoftheSongofSongs.133Butwhenanothernunhidahostthatshedarednotswallowbecauseshewasinmortalsin,itturnedintoflesh.134The secondmiraclesoundsathreateningnotenotpresentinthefirst.Similarly,PeterDamiantellsofahost

Page64

thatprotesteditsabusewhenusedsuperstitiously:awomanwhotriedtoconjurewithitfoundthathalfofitturnedintoflesh.135CaesariusofHeisterbachreportsthat whenanotherwomantriedtousetheconsecratedwaferasalovecharmandthenguiltilyhiditinachurchwall,itturnedtofleshandbled.136Beginninginthelate thirteenthcentury,Jewswerefrequentlychargedwithviolatingthehost,whichannouncedsuchviolationbymiraculousbleeding.LionelRothkrughasrecently underlinedtheconnectionbetweeneucharisticdevotionandantiSemitism.Intheyearsbefore1350anumberofJewsweremurderedforallegeddesecrationsofthe host.137 Moreover,eucharisticmiracleswereexplicitlyseenasvindicationsoforthodoxdoctrine.Eleventh,twelfth,andthirteenthcenturypreacherssuchasPeterDamian, EckbertofSchnau,andAlanofLilleembellishedtheirsermonsagainsttheCatharswithstoriesofbleedinghosts.138Severalthirteenthcenturytheologians,suchas thehagiographersJamesofVitryandThomasofCantimpr,supportedtheincreasingfrenzyofwomen'seucharisticpietyasacountertothehereticaldenialthatGod couldbepresentinmatter.139 TheabstinenceofLutgardofAywires(d.1246)reflectsasimilarfearthatGod'sbodymightbebreachedbyheresy.LutgardbothidentifiedwithChristonthecross byfastingforsevenyearsand,attheVirgin'scommand,offeredherfastasareparationtoGodforthedepredationsoftheAlbigensians.140WhenGertrudetheGreat madetheeucharistichostintomanycrumbsinhermouth,thinkingthateachparticlestoodforasoulintheflamesofpurgatory,sheseemedtobeequatingthe crumblinessofbreadnotwiththeunityofChristians(asdidAugustine)butwiththeirindividualness,theirseparateness,theirsuffering.Gertrude,whooftenfearedto takecommunion,wasawareoftheaudacityofthusviolatingtheintegrityofthebodyofGod.141Asimilarnoteofwarningsoundsinavisionofcrumbsreceivedby FrancisofAssisi.WhenFranciswasorderedtogatherupthecrumbsandmakethemintoonehostforthebrethren,healsosawinvisionthatthosebrotherswhodid notreceivethegiftdevoutlywereafflictedwithleprosy.Thejoiningof"finecrumbs"intoahostheresymbolizesunity,butthehostthenstandsforaRuleandthose whoobserveitimproperlyaremadeillbyit.Thesymbolofunityexcludesassurelyasitjoins.142 Ifbread/body/flesh,withitsfirmboundaries,symbolizedspiritualrefreshmentand,atleasttosomeextent,church,bloodwasanaltogether

Page65

morecomplexandambivalentsymbol.AsthelettersofCatherineofSienasuggest,143bloodwaslifeitself,coursingthroughChrist'sveins,leapingforwardfromhis violatedside.Itwasfood,bothbecauseblooditselffeedsfleshandbecauseblood(processedintomilk,accordingtomedievalphysiologicaltheory)144feedsthe young.Itwasapurgingbath.Itwasbloodshed,thepalpablesignofattackonGod.GertrudetheGreatsaidtheeucharistredeems"evenblood,"whichshecalled"the mosthorribleofnaturalobjects."145Itisnotsurprising,therefore,thatbloodbecameamorecommonandinsistentsymbolasthefourteenthcenturyworeon.The increasedclericaldeterminationtowithholdthecup(theblood)fromthelaitymaythushaveadeeperreasonthantheoneusuallycited:fearofprofanationthrough spilling.Toassociatethelaitydirectlywithsuchapowerfulsymbolofviolationaswellasofsalvationmaysimplyhavebeenfraughtwithtoomuchsignificance.Indeed, thedemandoftheUtraquists,whopushedforcommunioninbothkinds(subutraquespecie),mayhaveseemednotonlyadeliberaterejectionofthedoctrineof concomitanceandanationalistprotestagainsttheheadshipoftheRomanchurch(whichitcertainlywas)butalsoadangerousdemocratizationofanextraordinarily potentandcomplexsymbol. Thecorporateimplicationsoflatemedievaleucharisticsymbolismarethusatleastpartlydefensive.WhereasCyprianhadseenthebreadofheavenasasymbolof Christ'schurchpreciselybecausethegrainsofwheatweregatheredintoawhole,latermedievaltheologiansandvisionariessawinChristasbleedingfleshnotonlythe redemptionofhumankindbutalsoanentityunderattack.AndhoweverpowerfullytheentitysometimessuggestedtheChristiancommunity,eitherunitedinloveor violatedbyenemies,itwasbasicallynotacorporatesymbolatall.ThebreadonthealtarwasthesufferingfleshoftheGodmanwhodiedthebloodandwaterthat pouredfromthebrokenbodyfedandcleansedtheindividualChristian.Incertainways,thepriest,nottheeucharist,wasthepowerfulcorporatesymbol.Hewasthe "mouth"ofthechurch,asBertholdofRegensburgsaid.ButasDurandusimplied,healsowasthechurchhereceivedforall.Certaintwelfthcenturytextssuggested thatinsofarasthepriestwasthe"womb"withinwhichChristwasconsecrated,hestoodforallhumanity. Itisthusaccuratetosaythatlatemedievaleucharisticpietywasindividualistic.Theemphasiswasincreasinglyonexperienceontasting,seeing,andmeetingGod. Forthemostpart,theelementsofcosmic

Page66

dramafellawayfromeucharistichymnsandstories.Andasencounterwiththeeucharistcametomeanbindinguntooneselfeithertheinebriatingjoysofmysticalunion ortheunspeakablepainofGod'ssuffering,hungerbecameapowerfulmetaphorfordesire.InearlyChristianhymns,hungerseemstomeanhumanvulnerability(either inflictedbynature'srhythmofscarcityandplentyorespouseddeliberatelyinfasting)theimplicationis,therefore,thatthehungrywillbesatisfied.Inthespiritualityof eleventhandtwelfthcenturyEurope,however,hungerbegantomeanacravingthatcanneverbefilled.Thustheauthorofthefamoushymn"DulcisJesumemoria" wrote:

DulcisJesumemoria Dansveracordigaudia: Sedsupermeletomnia Ejusdulcispraesentia. .......... Quitegustant,esuriunt, Quibibunt,adhucsitiunt Desidarenesciunt NisiJesumquemdiligunt. ............ Jesusdecusangelicum, Inauredulcecanticum, Inoremelmirificum Cordepigmentumcaelicum. (SweetistheremembranceofJesusinthetruejoyoftheheart.Buthispresenceissweetbeyondhoneyandallthings...Theywhotasteyou[Jesus]stillhunger,andtheywho drinkyoustillthirst.TheyarenotabletodesireanythingexceptJesus,whomtheylove...Jesus,gloryoftheangels,[youare]asweetsongintheears,inthemouthwonderful honey,thespicedwineofheavenintheheart.)146

TheLettertoSeverinus,byacertainbrotherIvo(latetwelfthorearlythirteenthcentury)expressesthesamesensibility:
Thuslovesalovingsoul...Itsdesireeverincreases.Forhecanneverbesatiatedwhosedesireisonlytodesire.Desireisthehungerofthesoul...Godsays:Theythateatme shallyethunger[Eccles.24:29].OhGod,toloveyouistoeatyou.Yourefreshthosewholoveyousothattheyhungermore,forareyounotsimultaneouslyfoodandhunger?He who

Page67 doesnottasteyouwillnotknowatallhowtohungerforyou.Forthisonlydoyoufeedus,inordertomakeushunger.147

Inthethirteenthcentury,asthecravingforexperienceofGodintensified,Hadewijchspokethusoflove:
Todieofhungerforher[i.e.,LoveofGod]istofeedandtaste Herdespairisassurance ........... Hertendercareenlargesourwounds ................ Hertableishunger.148

Thus,bythethirteenthandfourteenthcenturies,theemphasisofhymn,sermon,andstorywaslessonthebreadofheaventhanonflesh(i.e.,meat)andblood.Toeat Godwastotakeintoone'sselfthesufferingfleshonthecross.ToeatGodwasimitatiocrucis.ThatwhichoneatewasthephysicalityoftheGodman.Iftheflesh wassweetaswellasbitter,thatwasbecauseallourhumanness,includingourfleshliness,wasredeemedinthefactoftheIncarnation.Iftheagonywasalsoecstasy,it wasbecauseourveryhungerisunionwithChrist'slimitlesssuffering,whichisalsolimitlesslove. ThissenseofGodasfoodpermeatedspiritualityoutsideaswellaswithintheeucharisticcontext.ColetteofCorbie,forexample,receivedonenight,assheprayedto theVirgin,avisionof

adishcompletelyfilledwithcarvedupfleshlikethatofachild.Andsheheardthisreply:"ThisiswhatIrequestofmybelovedonaccountofthehorriblesins,injuries,and offensesthatpeopledoagainsthim,offensesthattearhimintosmallerpiecesthanthefleshcutupuponthisplate."Andbecauseofthisvisionsheboreforalongtimeinher heartsadnessandpain.149

IdaofLouvain(d.1300?)supposedlytastedtheWordasfleshonhertonguewheneversherecited"Verbumcarofactumest"(John1:14).150Incontrasttoearly medievalmonastictexts,whichfrequentlyspeakofreadingandmeditatingaschewingthewordofGodbutlaynoclaimtoaphysicalexperience,151Ida'sbiographer tellsusthattheWordshechewedwaslikehoney,"notaphantasmbutlikeanyotherkindoffood." ThethemeofGodasfoodwasalsoacommoniconographicmotif.Forexample,afifteenthcenturySwabianaltarpiecedepictingtheso

Page68

called"mysticalmill"showsMaryemptyingsacksofwheatintoafunnel,fromwhichemergeboththeChristchildandthehost(seeplate1).152Inpaintingsofthe massofSt.Gregory(basedonanearlymedievalstorythatgainedpopularityinlatermedievalart),Christappearsatthemomentofconsecration,sometimesbleeding graphicallyintothechalicetoprovidefoodanddrinkforChristians(seeplate3seealsoplates26,27,and30).153Anevenmorestunningdepiction,fromthestudio ofFriedrichHerlinin1469,showsChristasableedingmanofsorrowswithagrainshoot(representingbread)andavine(representingwine)growingoutofthe woundsinhisfeetandhands(seeplate4).154 Feastandfast,andthemetaphorsinwhichtheywerehymnedandpreached,thuschangedbetweenthetimeoftheearlychurchandthehighMiddleAges.Toearly Christianpreachers,fastandfeastjoinedthebelievertotherhythmoftheseasons.Virtuosoasceticperformancewasadmired,butitwasonlyavariationonthe corporatepracticeofthechurch.TheindividualbelieverreceivedthesweetnessofGod'sbodyinconcertwithotherbelievers,inacommunitysymbolizedqua communitybythebreadofheaven.155BythelaterMiddleAges,despiteeffortstoenforceauniform,moderateobservance,thesettinggiventofastingbypreachers andtheologianswaslesscorporateandcosmicthepracticeofsomeindividualswasincreasinglyidiosyncraticandextreme.DevotiontoGod'sbodywasalsoatleast partlycutloosefromacorporatesetting.Notonlydidreceptionitselffrequentlyoccuraftermassthebelieversometimesencounteredthefleshandbloodthrough privatevisionaswell,atthemomentofelevationorevencompletelyapartfromtheliturgy. Suchchangesmayinpartreflectthemassivesocialandeconomicchangesbetweenantiquityandthemedievalworld.Inthesmall,busy,merchantdominatedcitiesof themedievalurbanrevival,wheretheneweucharisticpietyflourished,foodwasperhapsmoreacommodity,cutofffromtherhythmofvillagelife,thaniteverwasin thevastcitiesoftheRomanEmpire,sodependentonthecountrysideforgrain.Thusitwaseasierforthedaughtersandsonsofthesemerchantsorurbanaristocratsto thinkoffoodasanobjecttobemanipulatedratherthanasanecessityoflifesobasicthatitdefinedandwasdefinedbycommunityexperience.Perhaps,then,itisnot surprisingthatinaperiodofintenseworldrejection,thiscommodityobtrudeditselfasaprivilegetoberenounced.Norisitsurprisingthatvirtuosofastsgrewmore commonasfamine

Page69

andmalnourishmentbegan,fromthelaterthirteenthcentury,tobenoticeableaspectsofEuropeanlife. Whatevertheconnectionbetweeneconomicfactsandreligiosity,however(andthereiscertainlynodirectcorrelationbetweentheshiftsinChristianpietyand Europeaneconomicconditions),thesechangesinsensibilityandpracticewerelargechanges.TheytouchedallChristians.Indeed,socrucialafacetofhuman experienceasfoodcouldhardlyhavehadsignificanceforonlyonesocialgrouporonegender.ButcarefulexaminationoftheevidencesuggeststhatinthelaterMiddle Ages,bothfeastandfastweremorecentraltowomen'sspiritualitythantomen's.Againstthebackgroundsketchedhereoffoodpracticesandmetaphorsinthehigh MiddleAges,andtheirrootsinearliertradition,Iwishnowtoexplorewhatfoodmeanttopiouswomenandwhyitmeantwhatitdid.

Page71

II THEEVIDENCE

Page73

3 FoodAsaFemaleConcern: TheComplexityoftheEvidence
AndblessedMarysaidto[Alpas]:"...because,dearsister,youborelongstarvationinhumilityandpatience,inhungerandthirst,withoutanymurmuring,Igrantyounowtobe fattenedwithanangelicandspiritualfood.Andaslongasyouareinthislittlebody,corporealfoodanddrinkwillnotbenecessaryforthesustainingofyourbody,norwillyou hungerforbreadoranyotherfood...becauseafteryouhaveoncetastedthecelestialbreadanddrunkofthelivingfountainyouwillremainfattenedforeternity...."Andsoit was....Butinorderthatthetumultofgossipbequieted,sincesomesaidshehadadevilshewhoneitheratenordranktwoorthreetimesaweekshewasaccustomedtoaccept somemorsel.Andshewouldrollitaroundforatimeinhermouth...andthenspititbackwhole....AndIgivethisonmyowntestimonysinceIreceivedinmyownhandalittlebit ofmasticatedfishshespitout....Thus,rejoicingasifpossessed,shefrequentlyvomitedfromtoomuchfood,asifherdrunkennessandinebriationwereincreasedbyanything beyondatinybit.Andthiswashowandofwhatsortherpreservationwas,howandofwhatnaturewerethebeginningsofherconversion,andhowGodunderlinedhermeritsand virtueswithmiracles...bywhichmiraclesmanifestsignsaregiventothereaders[ofthisstory]. LIFEOFALPASOFCUDOT(D.1211)1

InthespiritualityoflatemedievalEurope,eatingandnoteatingwerepowerfulsymbols.Bothmenandwomenfastedoradulteratedwhatfoodtheyateinorderto destroyanypleasuretheymightexperienceinit.BothmenandwomenadoredChristinthebreadandwineonthealtar,receivedeucharisticvisions,andworkedto propagateeu

Page74

charisticpiety.Bothmenandwomengavealmsandfoodtothepoor.MensuchasDominic(d.1221),RichardofChicester(d.1253),andVincentFerrer(d.1419) andwomensuchasClareofAssisi,AgnesofMontepulciano(d.1317),andCatherineofSienaweresaidtoperformmiraclesinwhichtheymultipliedfoodforothers orhadtheirsanctityrewardedbymannasentfromheaven.2 Poetsandexegetesbuiltelaborateallegoricalconstructsaroundthethemesofmilkandmeat,honeyand thehoneycomb,breadandwine,feedingornursing.Visionsinwhichinstruction,comfort,grace,andsalvationwereseenasmilkorbloodpouringfromthebreastsof theVirgin,ofChrist,orofreligiousleaderssuchastheapostlePaulorFrancisofAssisiwerereceivedbybothmenandwomenbetweenthethirteenthandfifteenth centuries.3 Butdespitethepervasivenessoffoodassymbol,thereisclearevidencethatitwasmoreimportanttowomenthantomen. Itmayseemsurprisingthatthisfacthasnotbeennotedbefore,especiallysinceboththemorebizarrecasesoffastinggirls4 andthedeepdevotionofwomentothe eucharisthavebeenfairlyfrequentlydiscussedbyscholars.InthelatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturiesbothmedicaldoctorsandCatholictheologianswere deeplyinterestedinthephenomenonofwomen(usuallyadolescentgirls)whoclaimedtolivewithouteating.Thisinterestwasforeshadowedintheeighteenthcentury whenPopeBenedictXIV(d.1758)commissionedanappendixforhisgreatworkoncanonizationtoconsiderwhethertheextendedfastsclaimedforcertainCatholic women,severalofthemstigmatics,couldbenatural.5 Bythelate1800sanumberofCatholicscholarswerefascinatedbysuchphenomena,6 andearlierinthis century,CatholicsstimulatedinpartbythecaseofTheresaNeumannofKonnersreuth(d.1962)continuedafairlyheateddiscussionofwhethertheabilitytolive withouteatingneedbeinanysensearesultofsupernaturalpowerand,therefore,asignofsanctity.(Giventhestrangebehaviorofcertainfastinggirls,many theologianswishedtoanswerthatitisnot.)7 NineteenthcenturydoctorssuchasW.A.HammondandRobertFowlerattackedtheclaimsoffastingwomenwith considerablebadtemper8 andtheinterestofthemedicalprofessioninfastingledinthelatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturiestofoodfadsandtoscientific experiments,culminatinginatestbytheCarnegieInstitutein1912todeterminehowlonghumanbeingscouldsurvivewithoutfood.9 Theearly1980ssawa

Page75

flurryofinterestbothinthepopularpressandamongdoctorsinsocalledfemaleeatingdisorderswithouttheleastawarenessofthereligiouscontextinwhich,until veryrecently,similarbehaviorsoccurred.10 Therolethatthirteenthandfourteenthcenturywomenplayedinthepropagationofeucharisticdevotionhasalsobeennotedbyscholars,oftenratherincidentally.11 Buthistorianshavetendedtocorrelateeucharisticconcernwithfactorsotherthangenderforexample,withreligiousorder(particularlyCistercianorDominican),12 withregion(particularlytheLowCountriesorsouthernGermany),13orwithtypeofreligiouslife(particularlymonasticoranchoritic).14Theoverwhelmingtendency amonghistoriansofspirituality,untilrecently,hasbeentostudyfiguresinthecontextoftheorderswithwhichtheywereaffiliated,thusobscuringbroadertrendsinthe historyofpietyandsometimesleadingtorathersteriledebatesoverprecedence.15Therecentextensiveworkonmedievalsaints,someofitdeeplyinterestedinsocial context,has,withafewexceptions,beenmoreconcernedwithclassorregionaldifferencesthanwithgender.16Ithas,moreover,sometimesbeensoconcernedwith socialorpsychologicalissuesastoloseanyfinegrainedsenseofspiritualthemes.17Thustheextenttowhichwomenofalllifestylesandaffiliationsreveredthe eucharistlaywomen,recluses,tertiaries,beguines,nunsofallorders,andthosewomen(especiallycommonintheearlythirteenthcentury)whowanderedfromone typeoflifetoanotherhasbeenobscured,althoughtheevidencehaslongbeenavailable. Basically,however,women'sconcernwiththereligioussignificanceoffoodhasbeenignoredbecausephenomenasuchaseucharisticdevotion,fasting,food multiplicationmiracles,andlactationvisionshavebeentreatedinisolationfromoneanother.Justasdoctorsandpsychiatriststendtotreatfastingundersuchrubricsas fearofmutilation,rejectionofthemother,andbattleforcontrolforgettingthat,whateverelseitis,itisafoodpracticesotheologiansandhistorianshavefailedto noticethatfoodmiracles,eucharisticpiety,andabstinenceareallfoodpractices.OnceonenoticesthateatingandnoteatingarecentralthemesinmedievalEuropean culture,asinmanycultures,muchofthelongavailableevidenceonspiritualityappearsinnewpatterns,andnewevidencebeginstoemerge.Itisthenthatthereligious significanceoffoodforwomenbecomesclear.

Page76

QuantitativeandFragmentaryEvidenceforWomen'sConcernwithFood Anumberofrecentworksonsanctityprovidequantitativeevidencethatfoodisamoreimportantmotifinwomen'spietythaninmen's.DonaldWeinsteinandRudolph Bell,intheirstudyof864saintsfrom1000to1700,demonstrateconclusivelythatalltypesofpenitentialasceticism,includingfasting,aresignificantlymorecommonin femalereligiosity.Althoughonly17.5percentofthosecanonizedorveneratedassaintsfrom1000to1700werewomen,womenaccountedforalmost29percentof thosesaintswhoindulgedinextremeausterities,suchasfasting,flagellation,orsleepdeprivation23.3percentofthosewhodiedfromsuchpracticesand53.2 percentofthoseinwhoselivesillnesswasthecentralfactorinreputationforsanctity.18RichardKieckhefer,inhisexaminationoffastingbyfourteenthcenturysaints, citesalmostasmanyexamplesofwomenasofmen,despitethefactthatfewerthan30percentofthosereveredassaintswerewomen.Kieckheferalsofindsthat,in theperiodhehasstudied,HenrySusoisalmosttheonlymaletoreceiveeucharisticvisions.19AndrVauchez,inhisstudyoflatemedievalcanonizations,suggeststhat fastingwasimportantforonlyonetypeofmalesaintthehermit(whowasoftenalayman)whereasitwasacrucialcomponentofthereputationofholywomen.20 TheolderworkofHerbertThurston,whichattemptsa''scientific"approachnolongerfashionable,nonethelessassemblesawiderangeofcases.Itis,therefore,worth notingthatThurston'sdiscussionof"authentic"foodmultiplicationmiracleslistsalmostasmanyperformedbywomenasbymen.21 PeterBrowe'sworkontheeucharistindicates,moreover,thattheeucharisticmiracleisalmostentirelyafemalegenre.22IfoneacceptsBrowe'scategories(oftwenty typesofeucharisticmiracle),onlytwotypesoccurprimarilytomales,andbothoftheseareassociatedwiththeactofconsecration,whichcouldbeperformedonlyby men.Thetwomaletypesarethemiracleofthespiderinthechalice,traditionallytoldofpriests,andthemiracleoftransformationatthemomentofconsecration,which wasbydefinitionlimitedtopriests.Atleasteighttypesofeucharisticmiracle,however,arepredominantlyorexclusivelyfemale.Fourtypesoccuralmostexclusivelyto women:miraclesinwhichtherecipientbecomesacrystalfilledwithlight,miraclesinwhichtherecipientdistinguishesconsecratedandunconsecratedhosts,miraclesin

Page77

whichworthyandunworthyrecipientsandcelebrantsaredistinguished,andmiraclesinwhichtheeucharisthasaspecialeffectonthesenses(smellingsweet,ringing withmusic,fillingthemouthwithhoney,announcingitspresencewhenhiddenawayorhoarded,etc.).Predominantlybutnotexclusivelyfemalearemiraclesinwhich thehostorchalicechangesintoabeautifulbabymiraclesthatsometimes(butnotalways)havehighlyeroticovertonesforbothmenandwomen.Moststrikingofall, thereisonlyonemaleexample(afterthepatristicperiod)ofthecommonstoryofthesaintwholiveslargelyorentirelyontheeucharist.Thereareveryfewmalecases ofthevariousdistributionmiracles,inwhichtheeucharistisbroughtbydovesorangelsorfliesbyitselfthroughtheair,andthesearemostlytoldoflowstatusmales laybrothersoraltarboys.AndthereappearstobeonlyonemalecaseofthemiracleinwhichChristbecomesthepriestandoffershimselfasfoodanactsometimes accomplishedwithfrighteningliteralism,aswhenhetearsoffthefleshfromthepalmofhishandforAdelheidofKatharinental.23Notonlyarethesepatternsstrikingin themselves,itisalsoclearthatthemalemiraclesunderlinethepowerofthepriest,whereasinatleasthalfofthewomen'smiraclesitisthequalityoftheeucharistas foodthatisstressed.24Theeucharistisofferedasfleshorhoneycombitaffectsthetasteitsustainslifeitisvomitedoutifunconsecrated. AcursoryglanceatthehistoryofeucharisticpietyindicatesthatwomenwereprominentinthecreationandspreadofspecialdevotionssuchasthefeastofCorpus Christi(revealedtoJulianaofCornillon)25orthedevotiontotheSacredHeart(foundespeciallyintheFlemishsaintLutgardofAywiresandthemanyvisionsofthe nunsoftheSaxonmonasteryofHelfta).26Soimportantwastheeucharistthatsomethirteenthcenturywomen(e.g.,IdaofNivellesandtheViennesebeguineAgnes Blannbekin)madevocationaldecisionsorchangedordersoutofdesiretoreceiveitmorefrequently.27Storiesofpeoplelevitating,experiencingecstasyduringthe mass,orracingfromchurchtochurchtoattendasmanyeucharisticservicesaspossibleareusuallytoldofwomenforexample,ofHedwigofSilesia(d.1241), DoucelineofMarseilles(d.1274),andseveraloftheFlemishholywomendescribedbyJamesofVitry(seetheepigraphtochapter1above).28TheworkofImbert Gourbeyre,despiteitsscantydocumentationandnotoriouslyuncriticalstance,nonethelessprovidesarevealingideaofwhatthepious

Page78

expectedofreligiousheroesandheroines.ImbertGourbeyreculledfromsaints'livesninecasesofmiraculousabstinence,allofthemfemale,andfiftytwocasesof miraculouscommunion(betweenthethirteenthandsixteenthcenturies),ofwhichfortyfivearefemale.29 Eveninaccountswrittenbymedievalmalesformaleaudiences,wefindtheeucharistandtheattendantthemeofthehumanityofChristassociatedespeciallywith women.Forexample,CaesariusofHeisterbach,writingintheearlythirteenthcenturyformalenovicesanddrawingonhisownmaleworld,ingeneraltold overwhelminglymalestories.Inhistreatmentofdying,intheDialogueonMiracles,hegivesfiftyfourstoriesaboutmenandeightaboutwomenonpunishmentofthe dead,hegivesfortysevenmalestoriesandeightfemaleonsuchtopicsaslustanddespair,hepreservesasimilarratio.Butwefindasmanycasesofnunsasof monksreceivingtheinfantJesusinvisions,andtherearemorethanhalfasmanyappearancesofthecrucifixtowomenastomen.Inthesectionontheeucharist,where heturnsfromcelebrant(allmalestories,ofcourse)torecipient,wefindalmostasmanymiraclesoccurringtowomenastomen.30Althoughseveralearlycollectionsof exemplaaddressedtomen(forexample,ConradofEberbach's,PetertheVenerable's,andGeraldofWales's)containstoriesonlyaboutmales,31bothJamesof VitryandThomasofCantimpr,writinginthethirteenthcentury,givefemaleaswellasmaleexamplesofeucharisticmiraclesanddevotion.32Tubach'sindexof exemplaliststhirtytwomiraclesconcerningthehostthatoccurredtomen,twentytowomen.Ofthemalemiracles,twelveoccurredtopriests.33 Exemplaaboutfastingorabstinenceshowasimilarpattern.About10percentofthestoriesinTubach'sindexconcernwomen.34(Thestorieswere,ofcourse,toldby preachersi.e.,bymen.)Women,however,figureinasignificantlyhigherpercentageofthestoriesconcerningfoodpractices.Exemplaaboutabstinencearefew fourteencases,elevenofwhichtellofamanorwomanpracticingabstinence.Nonetheless,oftheeleven,four(36percent)areaboutwomenandsevenaboutmen.35 Moreover,thefourstoriesaboutwomenseemtoexpressanxietyaboutfemalepractice,fortwourgemoderationandtwo(theonlytwowiththismotif)show individualstrickedbythedevilintooroutofabstinence.36Thethirtythreestoriesoffasting(twentysixofwhichareaboutthefoodpracticesofindividuals)are predominantlyaboutmen,althoughcasesoffemalesare19percentofthetotal(fiveoutoftwentysix)stillabove

Page79

thepercentageofwomen'sstoriesgenerally.37Whenwelookmorecloselyatthecasesoffasting,however,severalinterestingfactsemerge.Thelongestfastsare thoseofwomen.(Onelastedthirtyyears,anotherthree,whereasthelongestmalefastwasseventyeightweeks).38Womenprovidebothofthecasesoffastinguntil death.39Furthermore,ofthetwentysixstoriesaboutindividuals,onlynineteenareactuallyaboutfasting.(Theothersareaboutfailuretofast.)Sinceallthefemale casesareaboutfasting,womenaccountfor26percent(fiveoutofnineteen)ofthestoriesofpeoplewhofast. Notonlydidpreacherstelladisproportionatenumberofstoriesaboutwomenandfoodpracticestheyalsotendedtoadvisewomenaboutbothfastandfeast.Evenin thepatristicperiod,writerswhoaddressedwomentendedtoassociatefoodandlustandtodevoteaninordinateamountoftherelativelylittlewritingtheydirected towardwomentothesetopics.TwoofJerome'smostextensivediscussionsoffoodasincentivetolicentiousnesswereaddressedtowomen,40andFulgentiusof Ruspe(d.533),adiscipleofAugustine,wroteseverallettersonfastingtowomen,urgingafinebalancebetweenabstinenceandmoderation:

Wemustpracticesuchmoderationinfastingthatourbodyisnotexcitedbythefullsatisfactionoftheappetiteorenfeebledbytoomuchprivation.Itisnecessarythenthatthe fastofvirginsbefollowedbyeatingsuchthatthebodyisnotdrawnbythepleasuresofeatingnorexcitedbyitsfulfillment.41

MedievalpreacherssuchasPetertheChanterrepeatedJerome'sadvicetowomenandcitedpatristicexamplesoffemaleasceticsandfasters.42 InmonasticcirclesinthehighandlaterMiddleAges,wefindsomeevidencethatmoralistsassociatedfoodwithmenmorethanwithwomen.Butthefoodbehavior especiallyassociatedwithmenwasgluttony,notabstinenceorfoodprovidingoreucharisticfervor.Forexample,ashortbutpopularantimonasticparodyfromthe laterMiddleAges,theDemonachiscarnalibus(OnWorldlyMonks),survivesinthreeversions,oneanadaptationfornuns.Althoughthemonks'versionspresenta fairlyunpleasantpictureofthemonkwho"asksnomorethanthathisgutsbefilled,"thenuns'versioneliminatesmostofthefoodreferences,suggestingthatvanity aboutlooksandclothesisagreatertemptationtowomenthanmeals.43Thisconcernwithgreedasaviceofmonks,whichbecomesathemeinmedievalsatire,44 probablyreflectsthefactthatsome

Page80

latemedievalmonastichousessetlavishtables.45Ingeneral,malehouseswerebothwealthierandlargerthanfemalehouses,andgluttonywas,infact,agreater possibilityand,therefore,temptation.46 ThroughouttheMiddleAges,however,preachersassociatedreligiousfoodpracticesespeciallycharitablefooddistribution,fasting,andeucharisticfervorwith women.Inthethirteenthandfourteenthcenturies,theologianssuchasAlberttheGreat,DavidofAugsburg,andJohnGersontendedtoworryaboutwomen's eucharisticpietyandtheirfoodasceticism,althoughwriterssuchasJamesofVitry,ThomasofCantimpr,JohnTauler,andGersonhimselfalsofoundtheseaspectsof women'sspiritualityusefulinpolemicagainsthereticsoragainsttheapatheticorthodox.47Gerson,whoperhapsmorethananyothermalewriterstressedtheeucharist asexperientialreceptionofGod,feltthatMaryreceivedmysticaleucharisticexperiencesbeyondthoseofallothermortals.Moreover,hedescribedtheecstasiesof bothmaleandfemalemysticsinstrikingfemininemetaphors:

Inhim[Christ]isthetruevine,whosewinegeneratesvirginsandnotonlygeneratesthembutimpregnatesthem.Lethimgivethatwine,lethimgivethesoberinebriationofthe spiritasdrink.Heintroducesmeintothecellarofthevineyard.Whatdoyouwant,ohmysoul?Alittlewhileagoyousaid(afteraskingforthekissofhismouth):thybreastsare sweeterthanwine....Whydoyounowseekwine?ButIshallanswerforyouthatheisbothwineandmilktoyou....Hecalls:Eat,myfriend,anddrinkandbeintoxicated....He willbesweetfruittoyourthroat.48

Maletheologianswrotemuchontheeucharist,andcertainformaltheologicalconsiderationsofthesacramentwere(likeallscholastictheology)exclusivelymale genres.ButitisstrikinghowmanyimportanttreatisesontheeucharistoronthecloselyconnectedthemeofthehumanityofChristwereaddressedbymentowomen. Onethinks,forexample,oftheworksofJanvanRuysbroeck(d.1381),RichardRolle(d.1349),HenrySuso,andDionysiustheCarthusian(d.1471).49Itisalso noteworthythatmanyofthepreacherswhowerecentralinelaboratingeucharisticpietypreachedmostoftentowomen(forexample,GuiardofLaon[d.1248]and JohnTauler).50Moreover,manyoftheearliesttextsrecommendingfrequentcommunionweredirectedtowomen,although,ingeneral,littletheologicalinjunctionwas writtenforthem.Intheelev

Page81

enthcentury,JohnofFcamp,PeterDamian,andPopeGregoryVIIallrecommendedtowomeneucharisticdevotionandfrequentreception.51 Iconographicevidencealsosuggeststhatmedievalpeopleofbothsexesassociatedfoodandfastingwithwomen.Inparticular,theeucharistwasassociatedwith femalesaints.ThecommunionoftheVirgin,ofMaryMagdalen,andofMarytheEgyptianwasafairlycommonthemeinpainting.52Thesaintsmostfrequently depictedoneucharistictabernaclesweretheVirgin,theMagdalen,Christopher,andlittleSaintBarbara,asshewasknownfromtheGoldenLegend.53Dumoutet commentsthatBarbarawasprobablythesaintmostfrequentlyassociatedwiththeeucharistiniconography.(Seeplate7foraretablewithsaintsBarbaraand Catherine.)PopularwisdomheldthatBarbara'sdevoteeswouldnotdiewithoutachancetoreceivethesacramentattheend.54MaryMagdalenwasthesaintmost closelylinkedwithfasting,owingtotheversionofherlegendthatcirculatedintheMiddleAgesandattributedtoherafastofmanyyearsinthedesertnear Marseilles.55AsthecultofthehostgrewinthelaterMiddleAges,tabernaclescametoassociatetheconsecrationwiththeIncarnation,andthereforewiththeVirgin Mary.TheCisterciansgenerallystressedtheassociationofMarywiththesacrament,andatCteauxthepyxwasheldbyanimageoftheVirgin.56Theangel'swords ofsalutationtoMaryweresometimesreproducedontabernacles.57Inhisexplanationofthemass(12851291),WilliamDurandussaidthatthepyxortabernacleor reliquaryinwhichthehostiskeptsignifiesMary'sbody.58ThereisevenanextanttabernaclethatexplicitlyidentifiesthecontainerwithMary.(Itissurmountedby Anne,Mary'smother,andthussuggeststhatitisMaryherself.)59Asretablesdeveloped,theyalsotendedtolinkthemomentofconsecration(sometimesdepictedas theMysticalMillorthebabyChristinthechalice)withtheAnnunciationorsomeotherscenesuggestingtheIncarnationorthereceptionofChristforexample,the Virgincapturingtheunicorn,meetingwithhercousinElizabeth,ornursingtheChristchild(seefrontispieceandplates1,6,and7).60Depictionsoftheiconographic motifsoftheEucharisticManofSorrowsorChristintheWinepress(seeplates1,5,25,26,and30)oftenincludenunsorotherfemalefigures(MaryorCaritas),not onlyasrecipientsoffoodbutalsoasprovidersorcelebrants.61 Quantitativepatterns,therefore,suggestthatfoodpracticesweremorecentraltofemalespiritualitythantomaleinthelaterMiddleAges.Quantitativeevidenceis, however,theleastreliabletypeofevidenceon

Page82

thismatter.Thisissonotonlybecausethetotalnumberofrecordedeucharisticmiracles,exempla,saints'lives,causesforcanonization,retablesandpyxes,and treatisesonasceticismissometimestoosmallforpercentagestobetrustworthyindices.Itisalsobecausethestoriesthemselvesaremisleading.Tosaythisisnotto raisethequestionofwhetherthemiraclesreportedinthesewritings"reallyhappened."Mypointhereismerelythatthenumerouspassingreferencestoeucharistic devotionandfoodasceticisminsaints'vitaeandothersourcesmustbeviewedwithskepticism,because,iftheyareonlypassingreferences,thereisadistinct possibilitythattheauthorsthemselvesmaynothavemeantthemliterally.Thereisreasontosuspectthatfastingandvisionsweresometimesdescribedorattributed whereneitherwasexperiencedand,conversely,thattheyweresometimesdiscouragedinindividualswhoweredrivenobsessivelytowardthem.Boththesepoints deserveelaboration. AmongearlyChristianwriters,bothJeromeandCassianhadtaughtthatmeatandwineexcitedsexuallustandthatgluttonywasthebasicsourcefromwhichflowed othersins.62AnumberoftheDesertFathers(forexample,Anthony,Hilarion,SimeonStylites,andGerasimus)weresaidtohavepracticedextremefoodasceticism, combinedwithintenseeucharisticpiety.63Manyhagiographersandsaintsfromtheeleventhtothefifteenthcenturyborethismodelinmind.PeterDamiantoldof ItalianhermitswhomimickedPaulandAnthony.64InthevitaofMaryofOignies,JamesofVitryunderlinedthewaysinwhichMaryimitatedtheDesertFathers,and RaymondofCapuamadethesamepointaboutCatherineofSiena.65PeterofVauxclaimedthatColetteofCorbiesurpassedtheFathersinherfoodasceticism.66 HenrySusopostedthesayingsoftheFathersonthewallsofhiscell,andanumberoftheaphorismshechosedealtwithfasting.67 BythehighMiddleAges,fastingandeucharisticdevotionwereexpectedofsaints,especiallyhermitsaintsandwomen.68Those,suchasRichardRolle,whowerenot abletomaintainfastswerecriticizedfortheirfailureandawriterlikeTaulerwhodidnothavethegiftoffoodasceticismfeltitnecessarytoapologizeforthelack.69 Witnessesincanonizationproceedingsregularlytestifiedtothefastingofcandidatesforsanctity,althoughadditionalevidencesometimessuggeststhatthetestimony wasnottrue.Vauchezcites,forexample,witnesseswhodeposedthatPhilipofBourges(d.1261)andThomasofCantilupe(d.1282)practicedabstinence,although aclericofPhilip'sdioceserefusedtobe

Page83

lieveinhissanctitybecausehe"drankandatenormally,"andseveralotherwitnessestestifiedthatThomasdidnottrytobebetterthanothermen.70Atvariouspoints inRaymondofCapua'saccountofCatherineofSienahetellsusthat"afterthis"she"atenothing"butlaterinthenarrativethereisclearevidenceofeatingperhaps evenofbingeeating.Forexample,twowitnessesrecountthatsheoncebrokeafastoffiftyninedaysbyeatinglargeamountsoffoodonthefeastoftheAscension.71 AlpasofCudot'shagiographerreportssimultaneouslythatshelivedwithoutcorporealfoodandthatshesuckedmorselsoffoodthreetimesaweektoquellgossip.72 "Eatingnothing"inhagiographicalaccountsoftenmeans''noteatingnormally."73 Hagiographerswerethusexpectedtoincludeatleastpassingreferencestofoodabstentionandeucharisticpietyintheiraccountsofpiouspeople.Thereis,moreover, somereasontothinkthatwomen'svitaeinthelaterMiddleAgeswereevenmorestereotypicalthanmalevitae.Inpartthismaybebecausewomen'sliveswerein factlessdiverseandbecausewomenoftenlearnedpatternsofpietyfromoneanother.74MichaelGoodichhassuggestedthatreligiouswomen,morethantheirmale counterparts,tendedtobeassociatedingroupsandtocomefromsociallyandgeographicallyhomogeneousbackgrounds.Inthethirteenthcentury,forexample, severalconventsintheLowCountries(Aywires,Ramey,andSalzinnesinNamur),themonasteryofHelftainSaxony,andClare'sconventatSanDamianoeach containedagroupoflearnedandmysticalwomen.Indeed,inthethirteenthandfourteenthcenturiestheisolatedwomanecstaticwasrareusuallythesourcesshowus severalwomeninabeguinage,convent,orhospital,orinagroupsurroundingaparticularlysaintlytertiaryorrecluselearningmysticalpracticestogetherand(albeit veryhesitantly)sharingtheirvisions.SimoneRoisinhaspointedoutthatinthisperiod,thereputationsoffemalemysticshadmoreinfluenceoutsidetheircloistersthan didthereputationsofmalemysticstheirvitaewerefrequentlyreadinmaleaswellasfemalehouses.Thuswomen'svitaeandtheirdailylivesborrowedpatternsfrom eachother.Bythelatethirteenthandfourteenthcenturies,anumberofcollectivebiographieswrittenintheRhinelandthesocalledNonnenbchergivedozensof vignettesofecstatic,visionary,orpiouswomenwhobeararemarkableresemblancetooneanother.Sostandardizedhadtheexpectationsbecomethatinthe fourteenthcenturytheauthorofoneofthesebooks,ChristinaEbner,commentedthatshewaspuzzledby

Page84

thepresenceatherhouse,Engelthal,ofanunwhodidnothavevisionsandecstasies.75Bythelatefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies,whenholywomenhadbecome moreisolatedfromeachotherandwereincreasinglydominatedbytheirconfessors,whoweremoreandmorefrequentlytheirbiographers,aprototypicalfemalevita (forexample,thatofCatherineofSiena)wasoftenthemodelaccordingtowhichbiographerswroteandwomenlived.76 Toholypeoplethemselves,fasting,meditation,andeucharisticdevotionwereoftenmerelystepstowardGod,partofthepreparationforcontemplation.Totheir adherents,however,abstinenceortrancesweresignsandsourcesofsupernaturalpower.Thuswesometimesfindthatthefurtheranaccountofasaintisfromthesaint herself,themoreherfoodasceticismorparamysticalphenomenaareemphasized.Forexample,thebiographerofthepeasantsaintAlpas,whosupposedlylivedfor fortyyearsontheeucharistalone,devotesmuchattentiontothesaint'svisionsandspiritualteaching,whereasthecontemporarychroniclersandcollectorsofexempla whopickedupherstoryfocusedalmostexclusivelyonthemiraculousnoneating,includingclinicaldetailsaboutherfailuretoexcreteandtheemptinessofher intestines.77InthesecondbookoftheHeraldofDivineLove,GertrudetheGreatstrainedtoexpressanultimatelyinexpressibleunion,moreorlessignoringthe paramysticalphenomenathatdominatetheotherfourbooks,whichshedidnotwrite.78SimoneRoisinhasfoundthatingeneral,thirteenthcenturysaints'vitaewritten forthelaitycontainmoremiraculouselements,whereasthosecomposedforthecloisteredstressinnerspiritualdevelopmentandmysticalunion.79Cullingreferencesto fastsandeucharistfrombiographiesofholypeoplethustellsusmoreaboutthestereotypesofholinessheldbydifferentaudiencesthanabouttheexactdistributionof asceticorpiouspractices. Ifadherentsencouragedfeatsandmiraclesofabstinence,churchauthoritiesontheotherhandwereoftensuspicious,especiallyoftheabstinenceandpietyofwomen. AsIexplainedinchapter2,thetwelfthandthirteenthcenturiessawthecuriousconjunctionofanewwaveofextremeasceticpracticeswithrepeatedexhortationsto moderation.SpiritualwriterssuchasBernardofClairvauxstressedinnerratherthanoutwardresponse,whiletheologianssuchasPetertheChanterandAquinasurged commonsenseand"rationality."Thesecallsforreasonablenessandinterioritywereclearlyinpartaresponsetosuchalarming

Page85

austeritiesaswearingironplates,mutilatingone'sfleshandrubbingliceintothewounds,orevenjumpingintoovensorhangingoneself.80Buttheausteritieswerein partaresponsetotheinjunctionstomoderation.Insuchanenvironment,women'sasceticismoftencameinforparticularcriticism. ThesuspicionofasceticpracticesorofmarvelsthatwefindinmedievaltextssometimesmerelyreflectswhatRichardKieckheferhascalledthe"imitation wonderment"toposinsaints'vitae.81Authorswerefondofexhortingreaderstoadmire(wonderat)ratherthantoemulate(imitate)saintlyasceticism,ortoimitatethe virtuesrevealedinthedeedsofthesaintsbecausethedeedsthemselveswerebeyondthelimitedabilitiesofordinaryfolk.ThusJamesofVitryurgedreadersnotto copybut,rather,toveneratethesaintlywomenwhosestorieshetold.82ThenunwhocompiledGertrudetheGreat'svisionsreportedthatChristhimselfrefused Gertrude'sprayerthatasisterbegivenwonderworkingpowersitwaspreferable,heexplained,thatthepiouslearnfromthespiritualteachingofthosewhohad "tastedthekingdom"inmysticalunionratherthanthattheybeenticedandoverwhelmedbysignsandmiracles.83 Buthostilitytowardwomen'sasceticpracticesoftenwentbeyondtheadviceofpreachersorhagiographersthatthefaithfulshouldadmireratherthanimitate.Abelard inthetwelfthcenturyandHenrySusointhefourteenthwarnedtheirbelovedspiritualdaughtersthatsevereasceticismwasunwiseforthe"weakersex."84Susowrote toElsbetStagel:
Deardaughter...discontinuetheseexcessiveausteritieswhichareunsuitabletoyoursexandunnecessaryforyourdisposition....ThegoodJesusdidnotsay,"Takeupmy cross,"but"Leteveryman[mensch]takeuphiscross."Consequentlyyoushouldaim,notatimitatingtheausteritiesoftheancientfathersorofyourspiritualfather,butat crucifyingyourbadhabitswithoutdetrimenttoyourhealth.85

AndFrancisofAssisiintervenedtogetClaretomodifyherfasts.86Thirteenthandfourteenthcenturytheologianssometimesscoffedatwomen'seucharisticvisions andcurtailedtheiraccesstotheeucharist.AlberttheGreat,forexample,opposeddailycommunionforwomenbecauseoftheir"levity"andcommentedthatnuns' visionsofsucklingJesuswere"silly,"althoughhedefendedthemagainstthedangerouschargeofheresy.87DavidofAugsburgsuggestedthatsomefemalevisions were

Page86

merelyindulgenceoferotic"ticklings."88Itistruethatbytheearlyfourteenthcenturycertainmysticalresponsesweredangerousformenaswellasforwomenand thatmenfrequentlyurgedorforcedmentomodifytheirpractices.89Butthirteenthandfourteenthcenturyliteratureofspiritualcounselcontainsaspecificandgrowing suspicionoffemaleasceticismandfemaleecstasiesthatreflectsageneralsuspicionoffemalecharacter.Indeed,WeinsteinandBellsuggest,onthebasisoftheirsurvey oflatemedievalvitae,thatfemalesaintsweredepictedasthemorallyweakersexgenerallyandthathagiographerstendedtoattributethesinsorlapsesofwomento innerfaults,whereasmalelapseswereapttobeattributedto"perniciousoutsideinfluences"(including,ofcourse,women).90 Womensometimesinternalizedsuchsuspicionoftheirpietyorevidencedadeepambivalenceabouttheirownyearningstowardsupernaturalpowerorextraordinary penitentialpractices.ClareofAssisi,herselfapractitionerofextremefooddeprivation,encouragedAgnesofPraguetomildnessandprudenceinfasting.91Angelaof Folignocalledtheideathatshegiveupeatinga"temptation."92BeatriceofNazarethandColumbaofRietifearedthattheireucharisticdevotionandasceticismwere inspiredbythedevil.93LutgardofAywireswasrequiredbyherownabbesstoomitfrequentcommunion,andCatherineofSiena'sfellowtertiariesatonepointurged thatshebedeprivedofreceptionandejectedfromthechurchbecauseofherexuberantecstasies.94MargaretofCortona,thoughrepeatedlyurgedbyChristhimself todailycommunion,wentthroughagoniesofuncertaintythatledherrepeatedlytoabstain.95GertrudetheGreatworriedaboutthedangersofprivaterevelationifshe introducednewprayersontheauthorityofvisionsalone,shereasoned,thenthecommunitywouldhavenoprotectionagainstfalsesisterswhoclaimedsimilar inspiration.96 Medievalpeoplewere,moreover,acutelyattunedtothedangersofconfusingdespair,pride,exhibitionism,orillnesswithpiety.Thebiographersandinquisitorswho investigatedsanctityandprovidedglossesonitstressed,forexample,thatfoodabstinencemustbevoluntary,ameanstoselfabnegation.Taken,alone,itwasnot necessarilygood.Itmightbedisease,depression,ordelusion.CatherineofSienainsistedthatherinabilitytoeatwasaninfirmity,notanasceticpracticeatallina visionsheheardChristcommandhertoreturntothetableandeatwithherfamily.(The"infirmity"hadprogressedsofarthatshewas

Page87

unabletodoso.)97EvenCatherine'sbiographer,Raymondwhoemphasizedherfastingpartlybecausehefeltguiltyabouthisownfailuretofast,partlyas propagandafortheObservantreformtowhichhewasdeeplycommittedexhortedhisreadersthattruemeritliesnotinfastsbutincharity.98Awitnessinthe canonizationproceedingsofanextremeascetic,JohntheGood(d.1249),testifiedthatJohnsometimes,inthepresenceofall,"atemorethananyotherbrotherand morequickly,"inordertoprovethathisabstinencewasunderhiscontrol.99ColumbaofRieti,whowascriticizedbothforabstinenceandforfrequentcommunion, defendedherselfbyeatingagrapebeforewitnessestosquelchrumorsthatshelivedonlyontheeucharist.100Thus,justaspopularenthusiasmforfeatsofascetic prowessandtraditionalassumptionsaboutthehermitrolemayhaveledtothewidespreadpresuppositionthatfastingandvisionswentwithholiness,soclerical suspicionofecstasiesandextremeasceticism,particularlyinwomen,mayhaveinducedmanypiouspeopletohideoreventomodifyselfmortificationstowhichthey weredrawn. Tabulatingreferencestopietyinhagiographicalliteraturecan,therefore,bemisleading.Allusionstofastingoreucharisticdevotionwereoftensimplyclichs,and clichscanobscureaswellasrevealdevotionalpractices.Furthermore,asiswellknown,miraclestoldofonesaintwereoftenborrowedandtoldofothers:as GregoryofTourshadsaidcenturiesearlier,thesaintsshareonelifeinGod.101Yetitisdifficulttoavoidtheconclusionthatabstinencefromfoodanddevotiontothe eucharistweremoreimportanttosaintlywomenthantosaintlymen.Indeed,thediscussionabovesuggeststhatmen'sreputationsforabstinenceweremorelikelytobe exaggeratedthanwomen's,whereaswomenweremoreapttodoubttheirasceticpracticesasprideordelusion.Moreover,hagiographicalmaterialsandchronicles frequentlygiveusglimpsesofthemoreordinaryfolkwhosurrounded,admired,anddoubtedthesaints.Theseglimpsessupporttheargumentthatfoodasceticism,like charitablefooddistributionandperformanceoffoodrelatedmiracles,wasparticularlytheroleofwomeninthehighMiddleAges. Thereisnoevidencethatmothersweregenerallymoresupportiveoffuturesaintsthanwerefathers,anditcanbedemonstratedthatdaughters'vocationsmetwith moreparentaloppositionthansons'.102Nonetheless,anumberofsaints'vitaesuggestthatmothersorsurrogatemotherstaughttheirchildrenfastingandeucharistic devotion.AelredofRie

Page88

vaulx(d.1167)reportsthatKingDavidofScotland(d.1153)learnedfastingandeucharisticdevotionfromhismother,herselfasaint.103PeterofLuxembourg,one ofthefewmaleswhobrokehishealthwithfasting,hadmodelsofasceticisminbothmotherandfather.ButPeter'sbiographertellsusthathismotherwasmoreactive incharity,providingmealsfortheneedythreetimesaweekandsendingdelicaciesfromherowntabletowomeninchildbirth.Peterlaterfollowedtheexampleofboth parents,givingmoneyandfoodtothepoor.104TheauthorofthevitaofColetteofCorbieimpliesasimilarcontrastbetweenmaleandfemalepracticewhenhenotes thatColette'sfathergavemoneytothepoor,especiallyreformedprostitutes,whereashermotherlivedparsimoniously,undertookmanypenances,meditatedevery dayonthelifeofChrist,andwenttoweeklyconfessionandcommunion.105Itappearstohavebeenaclichofhagiographythatpiousfathersgavealmswhilepious mothersgave(andgaveup)food.Moreover,inpraisingthepatiencedisplayedbysaintlygirlstowardunsympatheticmothers,hagiographersoftenrevealthatthegirls werecarryingtoextremesdevoutpracticeslearnedfromotherwomen.WhenlittleDorothyofMontauwishedtopracticetheseverefastingshesawhermother perform,conflictflaredbetweenmotheranddaughter.106JulianaofCornillon,taughtfastingbythereligiouswomanwhowascaringforher,waspunishedwhilea childfortakingtheteachingtoomuchtoheart.107ElizabethofHungarymayhavefoundamodelforherextremefastingandcompulsivefooddistributioninthe behaviorofherfuturemotherinlawSophia,whoraisedher(althoughsubsequentcommentatorssuggestonlythattherewastensionbetweenElizabethandher surrogatemother).108 Othervignettesfromchroniclesandsaints'vitaesuggestthatfoodabstinencefrequentlycharacterizedwomenwhowerenotconsideredsaints.CatherineofSiena's fastingdevelopedinthecourseofconflictwithherparentsaboutherreligiousvocation,butherbiographertellsofanothergirlinthefamilywhoseselfstarvationbegan inresponsetothedissolutebehaviorofheryounghusband.109TheearlyfifteenthcenturyEnglishlaywomanMargeryKempe,uponChrist'sadvice,manipulatedher husbandintoacceptingcontinencebyofferingtogiveupthepublicfastswithwhichshewasembarrassinghimbeforetheneighbors.110 Becausemedievalpeoplelovedmarvels,chroniclersoftenpreservedstoriesofstrangeeatingbehavior.Mostofthesurvivingtalesareaboutwomen.Ninthcentury chroniclesreport,withoutmuchdetail,twocases

Page89

oftwelveyearoldgirlswhorefusedtoeatforthreeyears.111Inoneofthesestories,toldbyEinhardandpickedupbyanumberofotherchroniclers,thegirlbegan herfast"firstfrombreadandthenfromallfoodanddrink"afterreceivingEastercommunionfromthepriest.Readersarethentoldsimplythat,afterthreeyears,she "begantoeatagain.112 FarmoreinterestingaretwohealingmiraclesrecountedintheearliestvitaofWalburga(d.779),writtenbyWolfhard,priestofEichsttt,aboutahundredyearsafter herdeath.113ManyfoodrelatedthemesclusteraboutWalburga'slife.ThatsheherselffastedandsometimesremainedinthechurchafterVesperswhiletheother nunstooksupperintherefectoryisoneoftherelativelyfewdetailsweknowaboutherownpiety.114Shewasalsooneofthemostfamousmyroblytes,oroil producingsaints,curingtheafflictedformorethanathousandyearsafterherdeathwithanaromaticfluidthatflowedfromthestoneonwhichherrelicsrestedsome saidfromherbreastbone.115Thesymbolofearsofcornwithwhichsheisassociatediconographicallyseemstohavebeenborrowed,alongwithotherdetails,froman earlierfertilitycult,thatofWalborgorWalpurg,theearthgoddess.116Notsurprisingly,then,twoofWalburga'searlyposthumousmiracleswerecuresofwhatcan quiteaccuratelybecalled"eatingdisorders."WolfhardrecountsthatamannamedIrchinbaldwasindangerofbecomingagluttonuntilhewassuddenlyseizedwith loathingforfood.Hethenwentfortwentysevenweekswithoutbreadormeat,takingonlyafewvegetablesoralittleeggyolk.Whenhehadbecomeemaciatedand extremelyill,heheardavoicetellinghimtogotoMonheim(towhichsomeofWalburga'srelicshadbeentranslated),topraytoWalburgaandtodrinkfromthe consecratedchalicethatwouldbeofferedtohimbythreenunsstandingnearthealtar.Assoonashedrank,hefelthungryforbread.Asimilarstoryistoldofaservant girlnamedFriderade.But,inhercase,theselfstarvationwasnotcured.Rather,itwaselaboratedintoamiracle.117 Friderade,sothestorygoes,sufferedfromavoraciousappetitesheateuntilshegrewenormouswithgoutordropsy.WhenshevisitedWalburga'sshrineherswollen feetwerecured,butnotherappetite.ShethenconfessedtoasisterDeithildaandreceivedconsecratedbreadfromthepriest.Afterthisshefeltaloathingforallfood excepttheeucharist.Deithilda,whoworriedabouther,persuadedhertodrinkalittlebeer,butitmerelygushedoutagainfromhermouthandnose.Friderade subsequentlypassedthreeyearswithouteating.Apriestwhoobserved

Page90

herforthelocalbishoptestifiedthatsheindeedsurvivedwithoutfood.Thus,inthesetwoninthcenturymiracles,aman'sloathingforfoodwascuredbyasacreddrink administeredbynuns,whereasawoman'sgreedwascuredbysacredbreadadministeredbyapriest.Asthehagiographertellsthestory,Irchinbald'stransitionfrom gluttonytostarvationisnaturalitishisreturntoeatingthatisthemiraculouscure.Incontrast,Friderade'slossofappetiteisthemiracle.Theimplicationisthather subsequentreturntoeatingneedsnoexplanation. Bythetwelfthcenturysuchreportsweremorecommon.Oneofthemostinterestingisfound,likeWalburga'scures,inasaint'slifethathasovertonesoffertilitycult.In thevitaofBridgetofKildare(d.ca.525),foodisacentraltheme.Bridgetsupposedlyturnedastoneintobreadintimeoffamine.(Butwhentwoofhernunswere discontent,wantingmeat,thebreadturnedintoserpents.)Shegaveawaybutter.Thecowsshemilkedproducedenormousamounts.Sheisassociated iconographicallywithacowandalargebowl.118LawrenceofDurham,writingaversionofherlifesixhundredyearsafterherdeath,foundinthechapteronher babyhoodanopportunityforinsertingacontemporarymarvel.Bridget,henotes,wasallergictocow'smilk.Onceshewasweanedshecouldnotkeepmilkdown.But shegrewanyway,asifshewereeating.
Althoughherstomachwasindignantandrejectedallfood...,nonethelessherbodygrewandwasbeautiful,asifshehadfood.AndletnoonebesurprisedbecauseIknowof suchathingfromourowntime.TherewasavirginfromthesouthofEnglandwholivedinherfather'shousefortwentyyearswithoutacceptinganyfood,withthisexceptionthat everySundayshefedherbodyonthecommunionoftheLord'sbodyandbecausethemorselcouldhardlypassdownherthroatshewasaccustomedtoacceptalittleholywater tomakethiseasier.Andonfeastdayssheonlytastedthewaterbutdidnotswallow,andthroughthecourseoftheseyearssheneithertookfoodordrinknordidshehaveany appetiteforfoodanddrink.Andherbodythusdestituteofstrength,shelosttheabilitytogrow,buthermindremainedfirmandhermemberswellcoordinatedandshedidnotlose theabilitytospeak.Andsincethisthing,whichismoreremarkable,isprovedbymorewitnessestoitstruththantherewereinhabitantsintheplacewherethegirllived,weshould believesuchathingallthemoreofSt.Bridget,sinceitisalessermarvel.119

Similarstoriesarefoundinotherlivesandchronicles.RogerofWendoverandMatthewParisreportedfortheyear1225:

Page91 InthatsameyearinthecityofLeicesteracertainreclusediedwho,forsevenyearsbeforeherdeath,hadnevertastedfoodexceptthatshereceivedthebodyandbloodofthe LordincommuniononSundays.WhenthebishopofLincoln,HughofLincoln,heardofthismiracle,hedidnotbelieveit.Completelyincredulous,hethereforehadherstrictly guardedforfifteendaysbypriestsandclericsuntilitwasfoundthatshereallytooknonutrimentforherbodyinallthattime.Andshealwayshadafacewhiterthanalilybutwith arosytint,asasignofhervirginalpurityandmodesty.120

JamesofVitrycoupledwithhisaccountofAlpasareferencetoareclusefromNormandywho"formanyyears""ateanddranknothing,norfromhermouthnorfrom anyoftheothernaturalorgansdidanythinggoout."121CaesariusofHeisterbachalsotoldthestoryofAlpasalongsideanotheraccount,thisoneofawomanwho livedonSundaycommunionalone"withoutbodilyhunger"andpassedthetestofidentifyinganunconsecratedhost.122Alittlelater,RogerBacondescribedawoman ofthedioceseofNorwichwho

didnoteatfortwentyyearsandshewasfatandofgoodstature,emittingnoexcretionfromherbody,asthebishopprovedbycarefulexamination.Norwasthismiraculousbut, rather,aworkofnature,forsomebalance[constellatio]wasatthattimeabletoreducetoastateofalmostcompleteequilibriumtheelementsthatwerebeforethatinherbodyand becausetheirmixturewasfromtheirpropernaturesuitabletoabalancenotfoundinothermakeups,theiralterationhappenedinherbodyasitdoesnotinothers.123

Bythefifteenthcenturysuchcasesservedtheologicalpurposesandwerecarefullytestedbytheauthorities,whooccasionallyunmaskedfrauds.ThomasNetter(d. 1430),inatreatiseagainsttheLollards,toldthestoryofJoantheMeatlessasproofofthedoctrineoftherealpresence:
IfEliascouldliveonalittlebreadandwaterbroughtbyangelsforfortydays,howmuchmorecanpeopleliveonthefleshandbloodofChrist?...Butifanyonedoesnotbelieve this,Iwillciteacasefromourowntimeandexperience.InthenorthernpartofEngland,calledNorfolk,whichisveryrichinbothtemporalandspiritualthings,thererecentlylived adevoutChristiangirlcalledinthevulgartongueJoantheMeatless(thatis,"withoutfood"),becauseitwasproventhatshehadnottasted

Page92 foodordrinkforfifteenyears,butonlyfedwiththegreatestjoyeverySundayonthesacramentoftheLord'sbody.Andwhatisevenmoreremarkable,shecoulddistinguisha consecratedhostfromunconsecratedonesamongathousandbreadsallalikeandcouldnotbedeceivedaboutthetruthofthesacrament.Andwhatmanythoughtwasmore wonderfulstill,shedidthisnotsomuchbydivineinspirationbutbyacertainskillofhersenses,sinceshehadsuchahorrorofallbodilyfoodthatshecouldnottolerateitstaste orsmellandturnedfromitevenatadistance.124

CanonizationinquiriesforColetteofCorbie(d.1447)uncoverednotonlythesaint'sown"miraculous"fastsbutalsostoriesofColetteherselfrejectingafraudulent fasterandcuring,withwaterfromherrelics,anunwhohadnotbeenabletoeatforthirteenyears.125Thereareatleastsevencasesof"fastinggirls"inthesixteenth centurytheirselfstarvationisreportedbothasevidenceforcanonizationandasascientificcuriosity.126Alsofromthesixteenthcenturycomesthefirstcaseinwhich theclaimsofafasterareunmasked,notasfraudbutasdisease.JohnWeyer(d.1588),wellknownforhisskepticismaboutwitchcraft,discoveredthatatenyearold crippledgirl,BarbaraKremers,whosemotherclaimedthatsheneitheratenorexcretedandwhosemarvelousabstinencehadbeencertifiedauthenticbyherlocal towncouncil,wasbeingsecretlyfedbyhertwelveyearoldsister.AfterpersuadingBarbaratoeatnormallyandtogiveuphercrutches,Weyersentherhomeunder ducalprotection.Theoutrageddukeinsisted,however,thatallcertificatesandtestimonialsaboutthemarvelousfastingbeburnedinthemarketplace,andhe reprimandedthetowncouncil.127 BetweentheearlyMiddleAgesandthefifteenthcentury,whentheilliterateSwisshermitNicholasofFle(d.1487)becamefamousforlivingtwentyyearsonthe eucharistalone,suchstoriesarenottoldofmen.128PeterofLuxembourgandJamesOldo(d.1404),whobeganextremefasts,resumedeatingatthecommandof theirsuperiors.129ThemaleexamplesclosesttothesefemalecasesofextendedstarvationarethecaseofayoungmonkintwelfthcenturyEngland,whowentfor morethanayear"eatingverylittle,"130therathersimilaraccountofAelredofRievaulx,131andapassingchroniclereferencetoFacioofCremona(d.1272),who supposedlyneitheratenordrankforseventytwodays,duringwhichtimehetwicereceivedcommunion.132Thereis,atSt.Mary'sinBurySt.Edmonds,theeffigy andtombofoneJohnBaret(d.1463),aboutwhomtraditionholdsthathediedfromimitatingJesus'

Page93

fastoffortydaysandsimilartraditionshavebeenattachedtoeffigiesinotherchurches.Butthesestoriesmayhavearisensimplyfromtheemaciatedappearanceofthe carvedcorpse.133 Animpressivearrayofexamplescanthusbecollectedtoshowthatfastingandeucharisticmiraclesweremoreprominentinwomen'sreligiositythaninmen's.Butmy purposeinthisbookisnotsimplytocountcasesofmaleandfemalebehavior.Itis,rather,todemonstratethatfoodwasanobsessiveandoverpoweringconcernin thelivesandwritingsofreligiouswomenbetweenthetwelfthandthefifteenthcentury.Itwaswomen,notmen,whowerereputedtoliveforyearsontheeucharist aloneorwhoseabstinencewentsofarthatnormalbodilyfunctionssuchasexcretionceased.Itwaswomenwhoinstoryafterstorydrankpusorfilthfromthesick theycaredfor,whileabstainingfromordinaryfood.Moreover,itwaswomenwhodevelopedeucharisticpiety,includingthecultoftheSacredHeartandthefeastof CorpusChristiwomenwhoinvisionaftervisionsawChristinthehostorchalicewomenwhogavethefoodfromtheirtablestothesickorthepoor,frequentlyin defianceofhusbandorfamilywomenwhosemiraclesinlifemultipliedfoodforothersandwhosebodiesafterdeathexudedhealingliquid.Finally,itwaswomenwho intheirwritingsrepeatedlyusedbread,blood,hunger,andeatingastheirdominantimagesforunionwithGodandneighborlanguagewhichappearsinmalewriters butisnevercentraltotheirpiety. Quantitativepatternsarethusnomorethanthebeginningofmyinquiry.Indeed,suchpatternsobscureevenwhiletheyelucidate.For,inordertobecounted, phenomenamustbecutapartfromeachotherandputintocountablecategories.Whatisreallyimportanttoanunderstandingofwomen'spiety,however,isnotthe numberoffoodmiraclesorfastsorthefrequencyofeucharisticecstasies,butthewayinwhichfoodasapolysemoussymbolofsufferingandfertilityliesatthecenter ofhowwomenthoughtandhowtheysurvived.Intherestofthisbook,therefore,Ishallbeconcernedwithparticularlivesandparticulartexts,inalltheircomplexityof livedandliterarymetaphor.Ishalltrytodemonstrate,byexploringwomen'sstories,thatfoodwasanoverwhelmingconcern,thatdenialanddevotionfastand feastwereconnectedinbasicandcomplexways,andthatthecausesofwomen'spietyliedeepwithinthestructuresofmedievalassumptionsandmedievalsociety. Inordertodemonstratethis,Ishallfirstbrieflyexaminethemalepietytowhichwomen'sreligiositymustbecompared.

Page94

Men'sLivesandWritings: AComparison Theclaimthatfoodandfoodimageryarenotcentraltomalespiritualitymayseemodd,for,aschapter2makesclear,theoriesoffastandfeastintheearlychurch wereformulatedbymen,andmedievaltraditionsoffoodasceticismwentbacktotheDesertFathersofantiquity.AlthoughmedievalwomensometimestookMary MagdalenasamodeloffastingorpenitenceandCatherineofAlexandriaasamodelofwisdomorofecstaticunion,confessorsandhagiographersusuallyclaimedthat bothpiousmenandpiouswomenimitatedmalemodels.134Allstoriesfromtheearlychurchofindividualswhosurvivedontheeucharistaloneweretoldofmen.It wasClementofAlexandriawhointhesecondcenturyelaboratedtheexplicitlyeucharisticimageofChristasamotherfeedingthesoulfromhisbreasts,135andthe directsourceinthelaterMiddleAgesforsuchimagerywasthewritingsofAnselm(d.1109)andofseveraltwelfthcenturyCistercianmonks,amongthemBernard, GuerricofIgny,andWilliamofSt.Thierry.136AsJohnTaulerimplies(inthepassagequotedastheepigraphtotheIntroductionabove),thelocusclassicusof metaphorsoftastinganddevouringwasBernardofClairvaux'scommentaryontheSongofSongs,whichdescribesformationintheimageofChristas''being swallowedanddigestedbyhim."137Whatcanitmean,therefore,toclaimthatfoodsymbolismwasmoreimportanttowomenthantomen? Clearlysuchaclaimdoesnotmeanthatfoodmetaphorsandfoodpracticesweretheexclusivepreserveofpiouswomen.AsVauchezandKieckheferamply demonstrate,malesaintspracticedbothfoodasceticismandpassionateeucharisticdevotion.DodoofHascha(d.1231),LawrenceofSubiaco(d.1243),Johnthe GoodofMantua(d.1249),thepioushermitwhobecamePopeCelestineV(d.1296),PeterofLuxembourg,andJamesOldoareexamplesofdevoutmenknownfor theirfoodausterities.138But,asVauchezhaspointedout,fastsandecstasiesarecharacteristiconlyoftheminorityofmalesaintswhoarelay.Andevenmaleswho belongedtothiscurrentoflay,ofteneremitical,pietybarelyapproachedeithertheeucharisticfrenzyortheselfstarvationoftheirfemalecontemporaries.Menwho usedelaboratefoodmetaphorsintheireucharistictreatisesandsermonsdidnotcarrythoseimagesoverintotheirotherspiritualwritingascentralmetaphorsfor encounterwith

Page95

God.Itisinwomen'svitae,notmen's,thateating/noteatingsometimesbecomesboththeleitmotivtyingthestorytogetherandtheunderlyingpsychologicaltheme.In ordertounderstandthis,wemustexplorethevitaeandwritingsofafewlatemedievalmenwhodidfast,displayunusualeucharisticfervor,ordevelopfood metaphorsinacontextofaffectivespirituality.Suchanexplorationshowsverypreciselythatfoodis,atbest,atheme,notthetheme,inmalelivesandsensibilities.For example,FrancisofAssisi,themostinfluentialmalesaintofthelaterMiddleAges,insistedonretaininglaystatusanddisplayedanintenselyaffectivepietybutneither feastnorfastwasacentralconcerninhisdevotion.DespiteFrancis'srepeateddescriptionsofhimselfandofthe"goodfriar"aswomanandmother,139hedidnotin factdisplaytheconcernwithfoodmetaphorssomarkedinthepietyofthirteenthcenturywomen. TheextensivematerialthatsurvivesonFrancisandhisearlyfollowershasgivenrisetoscholarlycontroversiesaboutthebasiccharacteristicsofhisreligiosity.Itis clear,however,thatfastingandabstinencewerenotcentralaspectsofFrancis'sconcernfor"purityofheart."Hedid,ofcourse,practiceharshfoodasceticismhimself, butneitherhisownwritings,thestoriesofthethreecompanions,thevitaeandmiraclecollectionsbyThomasofCelano,norBonaventure'svitaediscussitinmuch detail.140AlltheseaccountsagreethatFrancisrarelyatecookedfoodand,whenhedid,hemixeditwithwaterorashestospoilitsflavor141(apracticelaterimitated byotherFranciscanssuchasFrancisofFabriano[d.1322]).142Hedrankwineonlywhenhewasillandeventooklittlewater.Passingreferencesinthevitae indicatethathesometimesfastedtothepointofweaknessandprobablypermanentlydamagedhishealthbysodoing.143ThomasofCelano,intheFirstLife, describesFrancispretendingtoeatbutdroppingthefoodintohislap.144ButneitherFrancis'sownwritingsnortheearlybiographies,whichpresenthimasan exampleforteachingothers,suggestthatfooddenialwasanimportantpracticetohim.HisRuleof1223saysmerelythatthebrothersaretofastonFridaysandin AdventandLentbut"arenotboundtofastatothertimes."TheymayfastafterEpiphanyiftheywish.But"incaseofmanifestnecessity[they]arenotboundto corporalfast."145TheonlyreferencestofoodpracticesinhisearliestRule(1221)areanadmonitiontothesicknottofeelhesitantaboutseekingmedicines,an injunctionto

Page96

thebrotherswhopracticegreaterrigornottodespisethosewhopracticeless,andthereminderthat"incaseofnecessity,thefriars,nomatterwheretheyare,caneat ordinaryfood."146 ThemessageinFrancis'sownwritingsisclearandfarclosertothetoneoftheNewTestamentthantothatoftheDesertFathersofthethirdandfourthcenturies. Francis'sdeepestconcerniswithdetachment,whichhecallspurityofheart,andwithteachingbytheexampleofone'sownlife.Thegoodfriarmustbetrulypoor,as thenewurbanpoorarepoorhemusthavenosecurity,noguaranteeforthemorrow.Thepatternofhislifemustcomfortratherthanscandalizeitmustdisplay Christ'sloveinthemidstoftheneedy.ThusFrancis'stwoRulesquoteRomans14:3,"Letnothimthateatethdespisehimthateatethnotandhethateatethnot,lethim notjudgehimthateateth,"andLuke10:8,"Eatwhatissetbeforeyou."147ThesefragmentaryRulesargueagainstcarryingasceticismtoextremes,lestthebodybe harmed,lesthypocrisybeencouraged,lestthosewhocannotbeargreatasceticismbemadetofeelinferiorbythosewhocan.Likethetwelfthcenturypreachersof moderation,Francishimselflinksactualandmetaphoricalfastinginhislettertothefaithfulhemerelyenjoinsthat"wearealsoboundtofastandavoidviceandsin, takingcarenottogivewaytoexcessinfoodanddrink."148Indeed,sinceFrancis'scentralconcernisforapovertythatmeanscompletevulnerabilitytocircumstance, itisnotsurprisingthatcorporateorevenindividualisticfoodasceticismshouldhavelittleimportancetohim.Periodicrenunciationofcertainfoodsormealsdepends, afterall,upontheregularityofthesustenanceandcommensalitybeingrenounced.InatonethatechoesPaulandJesus,Francisdenigratesnoteatingasamarkof religiouscommitment,substitutinginsteadavulnerabilitytowantandhungerthatjoinstheonewhobegstothelowliestoftheworld. InFrancis'sownwords,therefore,foodisnotthechiefsymbolfortheworldonerenounces,norishungeranimageofdetachment.Rather,theirregularitywithwhich foodcomestoabeggarisoneofthemarksofthe"poverty"and"nakedness"thatareFrancis'smajorimages.ThusitisnotsurprisingthatdespiteFrancis'spersonal abstinence,mostoftheearlystoriesabouthisfoodpracticesdealwithhiseating.ThematerialthatprobablyderivesfromBrotherLeoandwasreworkedinThomas ofCelano'sandBonaventure'svitaeofFrancisnotonlystatesexplicitlythatFranciswas"prudent"withhisfriarsyet"austere"himself,149italso

Page97

instructsbyhisexample,first,thatwemustneveruseourasceticismtocensorothersand,second,thatwemustalwayshavefaiththatGodwillfeedusinourneed. InonestoryabrotherwakesinthenightveryhungryandFranciseatswithhiminordertoshowthat"weareboundtobewareofsuperfluityoffood...butwemust shuntoogreatabstinenceevenmore."150InanotherstoryFranciseatsgrapesinordertoinduceasickbrothertofollowhisexample.151Inyetanotherstorythe friarslayaverypoortableforavisitingdoctorbutinresponsetoFrancis'strustinGodawealthyladyarriveswithafeastfortheassembledcompany.152When Francishimselfissick,wearetold,fish,parsley,wine,andevenmarzipanmiraculouslyappear.153Storiesoffoodsentforthehungrybrothersrecordnotexactly feedingmiraclesperformedbyFrancisbut,rather,occasionsonwhichhebothpredictsthefutureandoffershisconfidenceinGodasamodelforothers. SometimesFrancis'seatingispresentedprimarilyasawarningagainsthypocrisyagainwithanalmostNewTestamentcondemnationofprideinreligiousobservance. OntwooccasionswhenFranciswasveryill,forexample,heatethemeatorlardheneededtosurvive.Oncerecovered,heconfessedtheeatinginextravagantself denigrationincludingstrippinghimselfnakedandaskingabrothertoleadhimbyaropebeforethepeople.Suchdisplayswereintended,apparently,togivean examplebothofhumilityandoftakingfoodinnecessity.154ThomasofCelanosaysthatFrancischaracterizedhypocritesaspeoplewho"sellthepallorofthefaceof fastingforruinouspraises,thattheymayappeartobespiritualmen,"andthatheexplicitlyenjoinedsuperiorstotakeextrafoodiftheyneededitinpublic,notin private,sothatotherswouldnotbe"ashamed"toprovidefortheirbodies.155Thomaseventellstheoddstoryofafriarwhoworriedabouteatingmeatwhen ChristmasfellonaFriday.ButFrancisurgedthebrothersnotonlytoeatbuteventosmearthewallswithmeatsothattheverybuildingwouldfeastonthedayofthe Lord'sbirth.156 InBonaventure'slatervitae,whichglossthematerialsoastominimizemanyofFrancis'sausterities,wefindsimilarstoriesofFranciseatinginordertoencourage otherstodoso.ThemostextremeasceticismintheLegendamaioristhatofsomeoneFranciscures,notofFrancishimself.157Moreover,foodisnot,in Bonaventure'saccount,afrequentorapowerfulsymbol.WhenFrancishasavisionofhimselffeedinghis

Page98

brotherswithcrumbs,forexample,thefoodisanimageofsomethingunrelatedtonurtureorsustenanceitstandsfortheRule.Thepointofthestory,asBonaventure glossesit,isthewickednessofthosewhorefusetoaccepttheRulewithreverence.WhenBonaventurerecountsanoccasiononwhichfoodcameasmiraculousalms, hispointisnottocommendorcommentuponthefriars'fastingbut,rather,toemphasizepovertyandmendicancy.158 ItthusseemsclearthatdespiteFrancis'sownabstinence,povertywasafarmorebasicvaluetohimthanfasting,andnakedness/clothingamoreimportantmetaphor. M.D.Lambert,MichelMollat,LesterLittle,andothershaveelaboratedthecomplexwaysinwhichvoluntarypovertythatis,renunciationofownershipandmoney, andofthepowermoneybringswerecentralpracticesandimagesinthespiritualityofFrancisandhisfollowers.159AsThomasofCelanoandBonaventure describedhim,FrancisnotonlymarriedLadyPoverty,hewasLadyPoverty.160Andforthedenudingofpoverty,nakednesswasakeymetaphor.Atthecrucial turningpointsinFrancis'slife,hecastoffhisgarmentsasaliteralsignofrenunciationoftheworld.Whenherejectedhisearthlyfather,forexample,hetookoffhis clothesandhisshoesandthrewawayhismoney.Whenhepreparedfordeath,heagainremovedhisclothesinordertomeethisheavenlyfathernaked.161TheLeo materialincludesatleasttwootherstoriesofFrancisstrippinghimselfasasignofhumilityorpenitence.162ThomasofCelanointheSecondLifereportsthatFrancis metabrotherwhobeggedhimforhistunic(presumablyasarelic)Francisgaveitawayatonce,leavinghimselfnakedinthecold.163Thomas'sFirstLifeofFrancis liststhirtysixhealingmiracles,onlyoneofwhichisperformedwithfood164buttheSecondLifelistsatleastsevenoccasionsonwhichFrancisgavehisclothestothe poor.165WhenFrancisservedandkissedlepers,hiscrucialactwasgivingthemalmsandclothingthemwithhisowngarments,notdrinkingthepusoftheirsores(a favoriteasceticismoflaterfemaletertiaries).166IntheLegendamaior,Bonaventuresuggeststhecentralityofdenudingasanimageofdetachmentandgenerosity whenhesays:
Francisnowdevelopedaspiritofpoverty....Hehadneverbeenabletostandthesightoflepers...butnowinordertoarriveatperfectselfcontemptheservedthem devotedly...becausetheprophetIsaiastellsusthatChristcrucifiedwasregardedasaleperanddespised.Hevisited

Page99 theirhousesfrequentlyanddistributedalmsamongthemgenerously,kissingtheirhandsandlipswithdeepcompassion.Whenhewasapproachedbybeggars,hewasnot contentmerelytogivewhathehadhewantedtogivehiswholeselftothem.Attimeshetookoffhisclothesandgavethemaway,orrippedandtorepiecesfromthem,ifhehad nothingelseathand.167

Althoughitmaybeimpossible,asmanyhaveargued,toseparateFrancishimselffromthecolorfulstoriesthatcirculatedsoearlyabouthim,whatmattersformy purposesisthattheearlyfriarsdidnotseethemanwhocalledhimself"mother"asonewhofedthemwithhislife'sbloodorclosedhisbodyoffmiraculouslytofood. Rather,theysawhimasanimageofthepoorandnakedChristassomeoneeverreadytogivehisraggedtunictoanother,beggingfrommealtomeal,trustinginthe providenceofGod. Nor,forallhisdeepreverenceforthesacrament,washolyfeastcentraltoFrancis'sspirituality.HishagiographersassureusthathereveredtheBodyoftheLord, communicated"frequently,"andwantedtohearmassonceaday.168Inhisownwordsthereechoesadeepawebothbeforetheeucharistandbeforepriestswhocan holdGodintheirhands.Buttheeucharistwas,toFrancisastomanyaround1200,morearevelationthanameal.Hespoke,withprofoundreverence,notof receivingbutof"seeing"thehost.HewasawestruckbeforeGod"comedown"intoaVirgin,"hidingundertheformofalittlebread."169Hesenthisfriarsfromchurch tochurchwithpyxesto''house"Christ(i.e.,theconsecratedwafer)reverently,justashesentthemtopickupandcareforallbooksinwhichthenameofJesusmight beinscribedortorepairthecrumblingstonesofanychapelsinwhichGodwasworshiped.170Althoughhiseucharisticfervor(whichhemayinparthavecopiedfrom thedevotionofcontemporarywomenintheLowCountries)171wassincereandinfluencedlaterFranciscans,heseemstohavereveredthehost,ratherasherevered Bibles,asarelicofChrist.HisconcerntoseeGodatthemomentofincarnationinthehandsofpriestsdidnotemphasizethequalityoftheeucharistasfood,linkfeast andfastaspractices,orflowerintometaphorsofeating,drinking,intoxication,orassimilationaswaysofspeakingaboutthesoul'sunionwithGod. Foodwas,however,centraltoClareofAssisi,thewomanwhochosetofollowFrancisinasceticismandwhofoughtunsuccessfullymostofherlifefortherightto imitatehispoverty.Wehave,ofcourse,farless

Page100

materialaboutClare,andherrangeofactivitywasfarmoreconstrainedthanFrancis's.172But,incontrasttotheevidenceconcerningFrancis,theearlyevidence aboutClareThomasofCelano'svita,theprocessforcanonization,thebullofcanonizationitself,andevenThomas'sdescriptionsofherandhersistersinthevitae ofFrancisdoesnottreatherfoodasceticismmerelyinpassingoraspartofacatalogueofausterities.Rather,Clare'sfoodpracticesarecentraltotheargument madeforherholiness.BothThomas'svitaandthebullofcanonizationunderlineherdevotiontotheeucharistandherfoodasceticism.Thomaswrote:

DuringtheseLents[i.e.,thefortydayspriortoEasterandtheperiodfromNovember11toChristmas],shetooknofoodwhateveronthreedaysoftheweek,Monday,Wednesday, andFriday.Thusthedaysofhermeagerfareandthedaysofherstrictmortificationfollowedoneupontheotherinsuchwisethatavigilofperfectfastwasendedbyafeastof breadandwater!ItisnotremarkablethatsuchaseveritymaintainedoveralongperiodmadeClaresubjecttoinfirmities,consumedherstrength,andunderminedherbodilyvigor.

ThomassaysthatFrancishimselfandthebishopofAssisifinallyforbadeherpracticeofkeepingthreedaysoftotalfastandforcedhertotakeanounceandahalfof breadofday.173TheaccountthusmakesitclearthatClareunlikeFrancis,whodesiredtobeindifferenttofoodandnevermadeapointofeatingnothingfoundit importanttokeepa"perfectfast,"thatis,tocloseherbodyentirelytofood. Clare'sadvicetohersisterswasharsherthanFrancis's.HerRuledoesrepeatFrancis'sadmonitiontomoderation("intimesofmanifestnecessitysistersshallnotbe boundtocorporalfasting"),174andinalettertoAgnesofPragueshedidrecallthatFrancisurgedhisfollowerstocelebratefeastsbyachangeinfoodandtobe lenientinrecommendingfoodpracticesfortheweakandinfirm.175Nonethelessshealsostatedunequivocally:"Atalltimesthesistersaretofast[i.e.,totakeonlyone mealaday]"176and"wewhoarewellandable[should]alwayseatLentenfood."177WhensheheardthatAgneshadundertakenfoodausteritiessimilartoherown, shefeltcompelledtorecommendsomerelaxation(asFrancishaddonewithher).''Iaskandbegyou,"shewrote,"torefrainwiselyanddiscreetlyfromanyindiscreet andimpossibleausterityintheabstinencewhichIknowyoutohaveadopted."178Buttakentogether,Clare'sandAgnes'spracticesandClare'sownRulesuggestthat food

Page101

austeritieshadgreaterprominenceinthedailylivesofearlyFranciscannunsthaninthelivesofthefriars. OtherfoodmotifsareimportantinClare'sstoryaswell.Sheshedtearsbeforetheholyfoodoftheeucharistandapproacheditwithawe.179Sheonceputanenemy toflightwiththehost.180Hericonographicmotifisthemonstrance.Sheisthusassociatedvisuallyaswellasinwrittenevidencewiththeemergingcultofthe consecratedhost.181Furthermore,servingespeciallyfeedingothersisamajorthemeinClare'svita.Asidefromafewmiraculouscures,hermajormiraclesduring herlifetimewerethemultiplicationofbreadononeoccasionandofoilonanother.182Sheservedthesistersattableandcleanedupthefilthofthesickwithout complaint.183Partofherenthusiasmforholypovertyseemstohavestemmedfromthefactthatbeggingbrothersbroughtbackmerecrumbsforthesisters'meals Thomastellsusshewas"almostsorry"whenbeggingproduced"wholeloaves."184Ononeoccasion,whenPopeGregoryIXissuedabullwhoseresultwouldhave beentoprovidelesspreachingtoherconvent,Clareseemstohavethreatenedakindofhungerstrike.InanyeventorsoThomastellsusshedrewananalogy between''foodforthesoul"(i.e.,preaching)andearthlybread:ifthepopeforbadepreacherstocome,shesaid,thesisterswouldrefusetoacceptthemundanebread providedbythebeggingbrothers.185 AfinalfoodmotifintheClarematerialappearsintheprocessforcanonization,wheretwowitnessesrecountalactationmiracle.186Accordingtothefullestofthe reports,ClareoncesawFrancisinavisionandtookhimajugofhotwaterandatowel.Whenshereachedhim,hebaredhisbreastandgavehersuck,andthe substancewas"sweetanddelightful"and"suchpureshininggoldthatshesawherreflectioninit."Itisreasonabletothinkthatthisvisionwasinfluencednotonlybythe extensiveuseofnursingasametaphorforinstructingandcounselingintwelfthcenturyspiritualliteraturebutespeciallybyFrancis'sownnotionofhimselfandanygood friaras"mother"anotionfoundrepeatedlyintheearliestFrancismaterial.187Nonetheless,theappearanceofsuchavisiontoClareratherthantoFrancis'smale followers,togetherwithotherevidenceofClare'semphasisonservingandfeedingotherswhileherselfnoteating,suggeststhatfoodwastoClarewhatclothingand moneyweretoFrancis:abasicsymbolofbothsacrificeandservice. ThisbriefcomparisonofClareandFrancissuggests,farmorevividlythandoanystatistics,thedistinctiveemphasesofmaleandfemalepie

Page102

ties.RaisedinthesamesmallItaliancity,tributarytothesamespiritualcurrents,influencedbyeachother,ClareandFrancisexpressedthesamecravingforself abnegationandworlddenial.Buttheyexpresseditindifferentbehaviorsandmetaphors.OnlytoClarewasfoodcrucial.FrancisrenouncedwealthClarerenounced food.Francisrepairedchurches,clothedthepoor,begged,andpreachedinthestreetsofthetownClare,bothmiraculouslyandprosaically,servedandfedhersisters inthecloister.ToFrancis,"nakedness"wasthesymbolofthepovertyandhumilityofChrist.Clare'smostferventdenudingofselfwasabstinence. AnotherpieceofthirteenthcenturyevidencesuggeststhatcontemporariesrecognizedthiscontrastbetweenFrancisandhisfemaledisciples.AnanonymousFrench FranciscanwhotranscribedacollectionofmaterialsonElizabethofHungarycastFrancisandElizabethindistinctiverolesassociatedbothwithgenderandwithfood. Hewrote:"[Francis]wasthefatherofthefriarsminorand[Elizabeth]wastheirmother.Andheguardedthem[custodiebateos]likeafather,shefedthem[nutriebat eos]likeamother."188IfweturntothosefourteenthcenturymenwhosepietyisatfirstglancemostnearlyparalleltothatoffourteenthcenturywomenHenry Suso,JohnTauler,RichardRolle,andJanvanRuysbroeckwefindclearevidenceofthedifferencebetweenmaleandfemalepietysuggestedbytheanonymous Franciscan'scomparisonoffatherFrancisandmotherElizabeth. HenrySusowasboththemostextremefoodasceticamongfourteenthcenturymenandoneofthefewmalesaintsoftheperiodgiftedwitheucharisticvisions.189He wasdeeplyinfluencedbywomenbothhispracticesandhiswritingswereveryclosetothefemalespiritualityofhisday.YetSuso'sfastingneverbecameafood fixationoradenialofordinaryhungersensationshunger,eating,andfoodwerenotbasicmetaphorsinhiswriting.Insofarasnursingwas,forhim,afundamentalmotif, itexpressedthecentralitynotsomuchoffoodasofwomenandmothersinhisemotionalworld.ApassagechosenalmostatrandomfromSuso'sLittleBookof Wisdomfindshimdescribingpatienceinsuffering(abasicfourteenthcenturymotif)asalivingsacrifice,asweetodor,avaliantknightintournament,acupof wholesomedrink,andaglitteringruby.190SucharangeofimagesistypicalofSusoeatinganddrinkingarenomoreorlessimportantherethanelsewhereinhis spiritualwriting. Suso'sorientationwasalmostentirelytowardwomen.Heexplicitly

Page103

identifiedwithhismother'spietyratherthanhisfather'sworldliness191heservedasadvisertoseveralcommunitiesofnunshisvita(whichwasdraftedinpartby ElsbetStagel,inpartbysomeoneelse,perhapsalsoanun)192makesitclearthathesoughtfemalefollowers,thatmorewomenthanmencametohimforadvice,and thatthispopularityledtounpleasantgossip.193Moreover,despitehislikingforchivalricmetaphors,Susooftensawhimselfinfemaleimages.Althoughtheearliest extantaccountofhislifewascompiledbywomenandtherefore,presumably,coloredbytheirchoiceoflanguage,itishardtoavoidtheconclusionthatthefeminine metaphorsemployedtodescribeSusoreflecthisselfperception,sinceboththereportedvisionsandhisownproseinotherworksrepeatedlycasthiminfemaleroles. HesupposedlyoncesaidtoGod:"Peoplecallmethefatherofthepoor...itismypolicytoweepwiththetearfulandmournwiththesorrowladenasamother smoothestheruffledbrowofafeverishchild."194Suchlanguage,inwhichotherscallSuso"father"buthehimselfclaimsamaternalresponsibility,istypicalofhisvita. WhenGodofferedhimavisionofhimselfasaknight,hetriedtorejectit.195Inanotherworkhewrote:"Lord,yourtreatmentofmeispuzzling:Ilookeverywherefor yourdivinitybutyoushowmeonlyyourhumanityIdesireyoursweetnessbutyouoffermeyourbitternessIwanttosucklebutyouteachmetofight."196Buthe welcomedJesus'descriptionofhiminavisionasamaidenpickingroses.197Speakingforallsouls,hewailed:"TheheavenlyFathercreatedmemorelovelythanall merecreaturesandchosemeforhistenderlovingbride,butIranawayfromhim''"formerlyIwascalledhisdearbride,butnow,sadtosay,Idonotdeservetobe calledhispoorlaundress."198Moreover,Susorepeatedlydescribedhimselfasanursingbaby.199Thefollowinglinesfromhisvitaaretypical,andthemetaphormay behisown:"WhenheenjoyedthefamiliarpresenceofEternalWisdomhefeltlikeasmilingbabeheldsecurelyonitsmother'slap,hungrilynuzzlingitsheadagainsther breast."200Sometimeshisdesiretosucklewasexpressedinmorethanmetaphor.Onenight,afterhehadsteppedasideforapoorwomanbecausehe"reveredMary inher,"Maryappearedtohiminavisionandlethimdrinkliquid"flowingfromherheart."201 Susothusclearlyidentifiedwithwomenandchildrenandwithfemalepiety.Nonetheless,hediscouragedwomenfromexactlythoseausteritiesinwhichhegloried.His wordstoElsbetStagelreflectafeelingofsu

Page104

perioritytopiouswomenandasomewhatdefensiveprideinhisownasceticattainments:"Discontinuetheseexcessiveausteritieswhichareunsuitabletoyoursex.... [Donot]aim...atimitatingtheausteritiesof...yourspiritualfather."202Moreover,althoughhefrequentlylikenedhisownsoultomaidenormother,hesometimes used"woman"asanimageofmoralweakness(ratherthanhumility)whenaddressingactualwomen.203Toaspiritualdaughterhewrote:"Knowthatyoucannotteach yourselfyouareweakerthanEveinparadise,andyetyouwanttoleadotherstoGod!"204Andheurgedhertoact"virilely,''tobea"knight"forGod,andeven likenedhimself,inteachingher,toaknighttraininganewsquire.205 Fromageeighteentoforty,Susopracticedextremeausterityintheuseoffoodanddrinkaspartofageneralprogramofbodilymortification,whichincludedfrequent scourgings,wearingahairshirt,andcarvingthenameofJesusintohisbarechestwithastylus.206Yetthroughouthisintensefastsandthirsts,heneverlosthistastefor foodanddrink.207Once,afterhavingabstainedfrommeatformanyyears,hegaveintoacravingforitasaresult,hewasattackedbydemonsandsufferedakindof lockjawforthreedays.208 Acharmingstoryfromchaptersevenofhisvitamakesitclearthathisfoodasceticismwasmerelyoneaspectofageneraltraininginselfdenialratherthanthe keystoneofhisasceticvocation.Suso,sothestorygoes,lovedfruit.Inordertocurehimofthiscraving,Godsentavisionofanapplethatsaid:"Eatme!"Suso replied,"No."Butthen,rememberingthathealwaystookanextraportionwhenfruitwasserved,hevowedtoeatnofruitfortwoyears.Becausetherewasfor severalyearsapoorharvest,fruitwasinanycasescarceyetwhenitbecameavailable,Susostillcravedadoubleportion.Atthepointwherehungerhadalmost conqueredhiswill,he"madeabargainwithGod."IfGodwantedhimtosatisfyhiscraving,Godwouldsendhimmuchfruit,Susosaidtohimself.Itseemedanunlikely possibility,inviewoftheshortage,butearlythenextmorningastrangerbroughtasumofmoneytothemonasterywiththestipulationthatitbespentforapples.Suso wasdelighted.209 Thus,despiteSuso'sidentificationwithfemalepietyandhisprideinhisextremeausterities,heneverlostthedesireforfoodassomanyasceticwomendid.Evenin hisyouth,fastingwasnotatthecoreofhis

Page105

determinationtoimitateChristandtosufferinpatience,ashismotherhaddone.Norwasfoodapowerfulimagetohim.210Theeucharisticvisionhereceived"many times"issurprisinglylackinginvividdetail,letalonefoodimagery.Hemerelysawraysemanatingfromthehost,andhissoulmeltedaway,piercedwithsweetness.211 Thedescriptionofhistablemanners,whichsoamusedandannoyedthegreathistorianHuizinga,makesitclearthattoSuso,foodpracticesfrequentlyevokedother religiousconcerns,whereasotherpracticesorsymbolsseldomevokedfood.WhenSusodrank,forexample,heswallowedfivetimesforthewoundsofJesus.Heate thefirstandlastmorselsofeachmealinhonoroftheheartofJesus.Hecutanylargefruitintofourparts,threefortheTrinityandthefourthpartforMaryheleftthe fourthpartunpeeledforMary'sbaby,becausechildrendonotpeelfruit.212InsuchpracticestheemphasisisonthebodyorthebabyhoodofChristandnotonthe factthatselfdisciplineisachievedthroughfood.Suso'sonlypersistentandelaboratedfeedingorfoodimageisnursingwhichseemstoexpressnotafixationonfood butaprofoundneedtobecaredfor,asachildiscaredforbyitsmother. FrancisofAssisiandHenrySusoareprobablythethirteenthandfourteenthcenturymenwhosepietyismost"feminine"ifweusethetermfeminine,ashistoriansof spiritualityhavedone,tomeanaffective,exuberant,lyrical,andfilledwithimages.Itis,therefore,deeplysignificantthatdespitetheaustereasceticismandeucharistic fervorofthesetwosaints,metaphorsotherthanfoodandpracticesotherthanfastingdominatetheirpiety.ThespiritualityofthreeothermalewriterstheEnglish hermitRichardRolle,JohnTauleroftheRhineland,andJanvanRuysbroeckfromtheLowCountrieswasalso,inthissense,"feminine."Allthreeelaboratedthe devotiontoChrist'shumanitysocentralinwomen'spiety.AllthreeRollemostofallvoicedtheemotionalidentificationwiththeeventsofChrist'searthlylifethat characterizedecstaticwomensuchasMaryofOignies,Hadewijch,ElsbetStagel,andMargeryKempe.213RuysbroeckandTaulerwerecrucialfiguresinthe developmentofeucharisticdevotion,andallthreewerecloselyassociatedwithcloisteredwomen.Yetfornoneofthethreewasfoodasceticismamajorreligious practicefornoneofthemwasfoodafundamentalmetaphorforencounterwithGodorserviceofneighbor.Nonechosehungerashisbasicsynonymfordesire,and tononewaseatingamajormetaphor

Page106

forbecomingonewithChrist'ssufferings(asitwasforHadwijch),forthedelightsofmysticalunion(asitwasforMechtildofMagdeburg),orforthesavingofsouls (asitwasforCatherineofSiena). Allthreeofthesewritersadvisedwomen,wroteforthem,andwereinfluencedbythem.Rolle'sFormofLiving,likehisothertwoEnglishepistles,waswrittenfora woman.Ruysbroeck'sMirrorofEternalSalvation,whichcontainsatreatiseontheeucharist,wasprobablycomposedforMargaretofMeerbeke,towhomhe addressedhisBookoftheSevenCloisters.AndRuysbroeck,likeSuso,wasdeeplyinfluencedbyhismother,whofiguredprominentlyinthevisionshereceived beforeheresolvedhisvocationalcrisisandenteredthehermitageatGroenendael.214MostofTauler'ssermonswerepreachedinGermantonuns.215 Onsomelevel,however,TaulerandRolledislikedwomen.Rollewascloselyassociatedwithanunneryduringhislifeasahermit,andhesymbolizedhisconversionby puttingonahabitmadeofhissister'sdresses.Hisvitawaspreparedbynuns,andheperformedthegreatmajorityofhismiraclesforwomen.216YetRolle,possibly becauseofadeepattachmenthehaddevelopedtowardawomanwhowastotallyignorantofhisfeelings,judgedwomenharshly.Hesawthem,inKnowles'swords, as"agreatdanger...,anoccasionofsin,deceitful,foolish,andweakinreasoning."217Taulertoo,likehisfellowDominicanandcontemporarySuso,viewedthenuns headvisedwithacertainambivalence.HesawwomenascreatedinGod'simage218anddescribedMaryasthemeansbywhichhumankindretrievedthelikenessto GodlostinEden.219Herecognizedthateucharisticpietywasaparticularcharacteristicofwomen.220Nevertheless,herepeatednegativestereotypesofthefemale:
Weareallwomeninourfrailty,amanlikeme,nolessthanyouwomengiddyweare,andunstable.ButIhavebeenincountrieswheretheyactlikemen,showinggreatstrengthin theirconversions,andgreatsteadfastness.ThewordofGodproducesgreaterandfinerfruitsthereinasingleyearthanintenwholeyearswithus.Miraclesandgreatgraceareto beseenthereamongsuchblessedpeople.Inothercountriestheyallbehavelikewomen.Whatevertheiropportunitiestheymakenothingofthem.Iknowthatyouwillnotliketo hearmespeakinthiswayaboutwomen,but,mydearchildren,wemustallbecomemenanduseourstrengthtoturntoGod,ifwearetobeofanyuse.221

Page107

UnlikeSuso,TaulerfeltnogreatneedtodescribehimselforGodinfemaleimagesalthough,likeallspiritualwriters,hecallsthesoul"abride."222ToTauler, tendernessaswellasharshnessandrigorwasincorporatedintothenotionoftheGodheadthroughthemaleimagesof"lovingfather"and"goodshepherd."223But whenheneedednotonlytosymbolizeutterselfabasementbutalsotourgeitastheonlypathtoGod,hechosetheCanaanitewomanfromMatthew15:2128and toldofacontemporarywomanwhoofferedtogotohellinordertodebaseherselfbeforetheCreator.224 TaulerandRollerejectedsevereasceticismasinappropriateattentionto"works"andwereslightlydefensiveaboutbeingthemselvesunabletopracticeit.Rolle'svita includesapassingreferencetofasting:

Hespurnedtheworldtoowithitsriches,beingcontentwithonlythebarenecessitiesoflife....Hemortifiedhisfleshwithmanyfasts,withfrequentvigils,andrepeatedsobsand sighings,quittingallsoftbedding...fixinghismindalwaysonheaven,anddesiringtodeparttobewithChrist,hismostsweetBeloved.225

ButRolle'sownwordsclearlyindicatethathedidnotpracticeextraordinaryfoodasceticismandthathewascriticizedbycontemporariesforfailingtofitthe recognizedhermitpattern. IntheMelodyofLoveRolleclaimsthathehasbeenattackedunfairlybysomewhoattributethemysticalfavorshereceivestodrunkennessorafullstomach. Althoughhedescribeshimselfaspracticingpenance,avoidingwomen,andmaceratinghisflesh,headmitsthathehasfounditnecessarytoeatandthat"althoughIam gratifiedwiththeheavenlymelody,someholdmeforamanofnothing.Theseeviltonguessaythat,liketherich,Ilivewell.AndtheywishtoconvinceeveryonethatI amunworthyofGod."226IntheFireofLovehecommentsthatitisbettertoeatalittletoomuchbymistakeifitisdone"withgoodintenttosustainnature"thanto fastuntilonebecomestoofeebletosingwithloveofGod.

EatenhaveIanddrunkenofthisthatseemedbest,notbecauseIlovedpleasantnessbutbecausenaturemustbesustainedintheserviceofGod....IdaresaywithblessedJob: "Foolshavedespisedme...,"neverthelesstheyshallbeashamedwhentheyseemethathavesaidthatIwouldnotabidebutwhereImightbedelicatelyfed.227

Page108

RollecriticizesthosewhoputawaynotmerelysuperfluitiesbutalsonecessitiesorwhodesiretopleaseGodby"toomuchabstinenceandnakedness":
Andthoughpalenessoffacebethebeautyofsolitaryman,neverthelesstheirserviceisnotrightlyorderedforiftheybebiddentochastisetheirbodiesandbringthemintothe serviceofthespirit,yetoughttheynottoslaytheirbodies,butkeepthemforthehonourofGod.228

LikeFrancisofAssisi,Rolleseemstohaveconceivedoftrueasceticismasthestateofbeingatthemercyofothersratherthanasrigorouscontrolanddenialofself. Thushestressedtheirregularityofsustenancemorethanitsabsence,writing:"Ifreelypraisethegiverofthelaw...becauseinthislifeIamwithoutpowernordoI haveanythingwhenIhungerexceptwhatothersgivetomeandIeatnotwhenIwillitbutatthewillofothermen."229 Tauler,likeRolle,wasbothunabletofastandunimpressedwiththespiritualvalueofextremefoodasceticism.HeadvisedthefaithfultoacceptthesufferingGod sendsratherthanseekoutmorebitternessthroughselfimposedausteritiesorthe"busyness"of"works":

Setyourheartatrest.Whetheryouhavedeserveditornot,takeyoursufferingascomingfromGod,thankhimforitandbeatpeaceandatrest....[Butsomepeople]wanttotake stillmore[bitterness]uponthemselves.Theymakethemselvesillandqueerinthehead,anditisallofnoavail.Thereasonwhytheyderivenogracefromtheireffortsandmakeno progressisthatthewholeperformanceisselfdetermined,whethertheyaredoingpenance,fasting,prayingormeditating.TheyexpectGodtofallinwiththeirideas.230

Taulerarguedthatthevalueofsufferingliesinselfabnegationthereforesilenceisthebestausterity,moreusefulthanfastingorvigilsorselfflagellation.231Hecalled thetendencytojudge(oreventopayattentionto)theasceticpracticesofothersa"murderer"and"thief"thatrobsGodofproperhonoranddevotion,232andhe warnedthatasceticismcanleadtopride:

Dearchildren,whatarethesedelightsandsatisfactionsthatwehavetobedetachedfrom?Theyarethingslikefasting,keepingvigils,praying,observingtheRuleoftheOrder thesearethedelightswhichithasnotbeenourLord'swillformetofindinourOrder.233

Page109

TaulerevenadvisedthefaithfultorejoiceinGod'screationsolongasitsbeautiesdonotdistractthemfromthehigherbeautiesofGodhimself:
NordoImean[thatweshoulddespise]thosethingswhichservetheneedsofournature.Whenwearehungryorthirstywewillnaturallyenjoyeatinganddrinking,atiredman willnaturallylookforwardtoagoodrest....Evenso,ifwedesirethesethingsgreedilyasmeresourcesofpleasure,andnotbecauseweneedthemorfindthemuseful,theycan hinderthebirthofGodinoursouls.234

Urginganinnerpoverty,areposebeyondworksandbusyness,TaulerjustifiedhisowninabilitytopracticeasceticismasitselfascourgesentbyGodandatthesame timearguedforadeeperandhighersurrenderthatwentbeyondallpracticesevenbeyonddiscursivemeditationonChrist'sPassion:235
ButGod...oftenbreaksdownwhateverrestsonsuchafoundationasthis[i.e.,piouspractices]byfrequentlyarrangingthingswhichruncontrarytomen'sdesires.Iftheywant tokeepvigil,theyareobligedtosleep,againsttheirwilliftheyliketofast,theyaremadetoeat....Forjustasworldlyandsinfulpersonsareseducedbysensualpleasures,so thesepeopleareheldbackbycomplacencyinwhattheydoorwhattheyfeel,andarethushinderedfromanabsoluteandsimplesurrendertoGod.236

TheFlemishmysticRuysbroeck,anxious(likeTauler)tocounteranysuggestionofquietismorantinomianism,alsomaderoomformeditationonthePassion,for fastingandabstinence,andevenforphysicalmanifestationsoflikenesstoChristsuchasstigmata.ButhepreferredahigheranddeeperunionwithChrist'sdivinity, beyondworksandbusynessandconcernforpractice.237InhisBookoftheSevenCloisters,writtenforanun,hepraisedthe"poorconvent,"warnedagainstexcess infoodanddrinkasthe"rootofallsins,"andpointedoutthatAdamfellthroughgreedalthoughhewasnothungry,whereasChrist,hungryandtemptedbythedevil, resistedfood,saying"Mandoesnotlivebybreadalone"(Matt.4:4).Buthealsowarnedagainsteatingtoolittleanddamagingthebody,whichshouldbeourservant, andpointedoutthatwisereligiousleaderssuchasAugustineandFrancis,whilestrictforthemselves,werelenienttowardthehumanneedsoftheirfollowers.238 Moreover,HenryPomer,inhislifeofthesaint,laysnostresswhatsoeveron

Page110

foodasceticism.239HeevensuggeststhatwhatwasremarkableaboutRuysbroeck'sdevotiontotheeucharistwasthefactthathedidnottreatitlikefood.Unlike othercelebrants,Ruysbroeckseemedtoabsorbthehostwithoutopeninghislipsorchewingorrollingitonthetonguerather,hewastransportedtoGodfromthe momenthetouchedtheelements.240 Despitetheirprofounddevotiontotheeucharist,neitherTauler,Rolle,norRuysbroeckusesfoodasabasicimage.Ruysbroeck,althoughinfluencedbyHadewijch,to whomfoodimageryandeucharisticdevotionwerecrucial,241makeslittleuseofanyimagefromanimatenature,althoughhisworkisfilledwithmetaphorsoflightand water,sunandsea.242Eveninthelittleeucharistictreatisefoundinchapters4to17oftheMirrorofEternalSalvation,hungerandthirst,althoughoccasionally metaphorsfordesireforGod,arenotthemostcommonimages.RuysbroeckranksthemfourthamongthesevenblessingsofthosewhoattainunionwithGod.243The onlypassageinwhichhungerbecomesanimageofinsatiable,consumingdesireisadiscussionofChrist'sdevouringofoursins.244OnlyintheBookoftheTwelve BeguinesdowefindrepeatedpassagesinwhichdesireforGodistreatedasinsatiablehunger,ashellitself,245andanoccasionalearthyimage(likethosesocommon inRuysbroeck'scontemporary,CatherineofSiena)ofChristasroastedmeatandwarmdrink.246AndtheBookoftheTwelveBeguinesnotonlyputssuchimages intothemouthsofwomen,itisalsosometimesdirectlyimitatedorevenborrowedfromHadewijch.247 ToRolle,heatandmelodyarethedominantimages,astheverytitlesofhisworksindicate.248Evenwherehequotesbiblicalpassagesthatsuggestimagesofeatingor drinking,Rolleavoidselaboratingthem.Commenting,forexample,onPsalm77:25("Manhaseatenthebreadofangels"),Rollewrites:"Thesoundofpraiseisangels' food."249 Tauler'sbasicthemes,oftenadoptedfromEckhart,areofthesoul'sfreedomfrom"works"andworldlyconcerns,itstrue"patience"beforeGod,itsfinal"illumination" and"transformation"intoGod.HeusestraditionalBernardianlanguageof"eating''and"beingeaten"todescribethesacrament,butsuchimageryexpressesnotso muchyearningasrepose.NeitherChrist'sbody,hisflesh,hishumanityas"food"norourdesireas"hunger"iscentralinthesepassages,but,rather,anEckhartiansense ofourdeification:"250

Page111 WefeeduponourGod[WiressentunsernGot].HowwonderfulandinexpressibleisthisloveofHisthatfoundthismarvelouswayforHimtocometous.251 ItisGodHimself,andnointermediary.ThereisnodifferencebetweenitandGod.InthisgiftHegivesHimselftousdirectlyandnotinanyfigurativewayHeisunited,simplyand purely,withus.Thisisafeastindeed."252 Alltheotherfoodweeatisabaseandlifelessthing,derivingitsworthonlyfromthedignityofhumanlifewhichitsupports.Butthisnoblefoodislivingitself,andisthelifeof men.Allthosewhoarerefreshedandnourishedbyitliveeternally.253

Tauler,likeRolleandRuysbroeck,allowsbiblicalpassagestosuggestfoodmetaphorstohim.Forexample,whenhepreachesonJohn7:37("Ifanymanthirst,lethim cometomeanddrink"),hesaysthattheHolySpiritgivesusthirstforGodandthatonceweshakeoffearthlythings,wearejubilantandinebriatedwithGod.But evenhereheweavesthirstinginamongotherimages(suchasthatofhoundspursuingthehart),andheshiesawayfromthesortofhungerimagesthatdelighted fourteenthcenturywomenimagesinwhichhungerisinsatiablelonging.254Rather,hespeaksoftakingtherichandtastydishesofGodpreparedinthekitchenorof aworkmanstoppingtoeatinordertogoonworking.255Foodisrefreshmentorrespiteitisnotacentralimageeitherofourcravingformysticalunionorofsuffering inimitationofChrist.Awareoftheeucharisticpietyofthewomenofhisday,heholdsbackalittlefromadvocatingitsenthusiasms.InaCorpusChristisermonon John6:5("Hethateatsmyfleshanddrinksmybloodabidesinme"),hewarns:

Hedoesthis[giveshimselfasbread]sothathemaycomeintous,sinkintous,becomeapartofus,socloselyandintimatelythateventhesensescangraspandunderstandit. Hadhewished,hecouldhavedonethisinamuchgranderandmoresplendidway,illuminingandtransfiguringus.IndeedSt.Hildegardwrotethatthisdoeshappeneveryday, thoughinvisibly.AsisterofourOrderupinthemountainshadavisionofthisverythingshesawanamazinglightsurroundingthepriestandthealtar,agreathostofangelsand manylovelythings.ShesawallthiswithherbodilyeyesbutthisisnotthewayinwhichourLordgivesHimselftoyouandme.256

Page112

MensuchasFrancisofAssisi,RichardRolle,andHenrySusoareoftenseenasthemostextremeexamplesoftheaffectivespiritualitythatcharacterizedmanylate medievalwomen.AnditiscertainlytruethattheiremotionalidentificationwithscenesfromChrist'slife,especiallyhisNativityandCrucifixion,wasbothliteraland extravagantalthoughsomemedievalwomen,suchasMaryofOigniesandDorothyofMontau,exceeditinexuberance.Inanycase,therewasnothingexclusively "feminine"abouttearsorecstasies,aboutvisionsorpoetry,inthelaterMiddleAges.Yetthemenwhodisplayedsuchcharacteristicswerefrequentlyadvisersof womenandcloselyinfluencedbythem,andthecharacteristicsweremoreoftenfoundinwomen'sreligiosity.257IndiscussingFrancis,Suso,Tauler,Rolle,and Ruysbroeck,Ihavelookedbrieflyatthosethirteenthandfourteenthcenturymenwhoweremostinfluencedbywomenandwhosepietymostresembledtheirs.Itis thussignificantthattheirdevotionshowednomarkedinterestinfood,eitherasasceticrenunciationorasmetaphorforencounterwithGod.Itisalsosignificantthat theyexplicitlyassociatedeucharisticdevotionandfastingwiththeirfemalefollowersandbothadmiredandcastigatedinwomentheextravagantvisionaryandascetic experiencestheythemselvesfounditimpossibletoachieve.258

Page113

4 FoodintheLivesofWomenSaints
[Avoicesaid:]"Believe,daughter,andyoushalleat.Andletnooneputawayfromyoutheconsolationofsufferingforme,becauseyouwillnotlackmeindeed,youhavemenow andbecauseyouloveme,nowyouhavewhatyoulove....Trusttherefore,daughter,andhastentoLukardis,yoursister,andjoinyourselfthustohersothatyourmouthcanreceive breathfromhers...."[Agnesobeyed,andLukardisblewinhermouth.]...Inthatmoment,[Agnes]feltinhermouthasifshehadthesacramentofthehostgiventoherbythehand ofapriest.Throughthis,sheafterwardsasserted,agreatsavorofthesweetnessofdivinegracepenetratedheratthisveryhour...sothat,herinnereyebeingillumined...,shesaw openlymanymiraculousthingsworkedwithintheservantofGod,hersister,byGod.AndamongmanyotherthingsshesawcelebratedintheheartofthehandmaidenofChristthe deliciousbanquetofGod....There,ifitispermittedtosayit,sheknewtheholyTrinityinunityofessenceasifitcelebratedmass....Andeach[sister]sawherselfintheotherasif inamirrorandknewtheremarvelousthingsinthelightofdivineunderstanding. LIFEOFLUKARDISOFOBERWEIMAR (EARLYFOURTEENTHCENTURY)1

InthehighMiddleAgesdevoutChristiansfastedbeforecommunionandreceivedtheirGodasfood.Because,inthisoneritualmoment,foodactuallybecameGod, foodwasapowerfulsymbol.MysticsandpreachersfromAugustineandJohnChrysostomtoBernard,Tauler,andGersonusedfoodasametaphorforgraceand inspiration,fastasasymbolofpenanceandpreparation.Someholywomencarriedthereligioussignificanceoffoodmuchfurther.Notonlydidabstinenceand eucharistlieattheheartoftheirpractice,eachtookamoreradicalform,fastsometimeslengtheningintoyearswithouteating,communionsoar

Page114

ingintodaysoffrenzyortrance.Moreover,asthepassagefromtheLifeofLukardissuggests,eatingandnoteatingbecamemorethanmetaphorsforgraceand desire.Theybecameactualmodesofexperiencing.Andsuchexperiencingwasnotlimitedtothecontextofthemass.TobothLukardisandAgnes,revelationand healingweregivenfromnuntonunasfood.Anygracemighttastelikethesacramentanycommunionorsharingmightbeabanquetanygiftmightbegivenbyorinto themouth. Itisonlythroughcloseanalysisofanumberofmedievalstoriesthatwecanseethewayinwhichfoodthemesinteractandinterweaveinwomen'slives.Suchanalysis indicatesthatwomen'swaysofservingtheirfellowChristiansandofunitingwithGodwerecloselytiedtofood,bothsymbolicallyandinfact.Medievalwomenfed others.Theyabstainedinordertofeedothers.Theyfedotherswiththeirownbodies,which,asmilkoroil,becamefood.Theyateordrankthesufferingoftheir fellowcreaturesbyputtingtheirmouthstoputrifyingsores.Moreover,womenachievedecstaticunionbyfusingwithaGodwhobecamefoodonthealtar.Inafierce imitationofthecrossthatincludedselfflagellation,selfstarvation,andacuteillness,womenbecamethemaceratedbodyoftheSavior,thebleedingmeattheyoften sawineucharisticvisions.IneroticunionwiththeadorablebodyofJesus,theyfeltgracewithinasinebriatingdrinkorasameltinghoneycomb. Thisassociationofthecontemplative,theascetic,andthecharitableactivitiesofwomenwithfoodbothactualfood,eatenanddistributed,andfoodasasymbolof giftorfleshrunsthroughoutthevitaeofwomensaints.Someofthesevitae,particularlythecollectivelivesknownasNonnenbcher,werewrittenbywomen, thoughthemajorityofextantdescriptionsofholywomenwerecomposedbymen.Thusitwouldseemthatbothmenandwomencontributedtothetendencyto describewomen'sexperiencesandwomen'sbodiesinfoodimagery.Theguidanceofconfessorsandpreachersaswellasofabbessesandspiritualfriendslaybehind thestrikingpatternoffeedingmiracles,eucharisticvisions,andextendedfaststhatcharacterizedwomen'slives.Theanalysisthatfollowsdemonstrateshowimportant foodwastowomen,bothassymbolandasfact.Italsosuggeststhattheassociationofwomanwithfood,especiallythenotionthatwoman'sbodyisfood,was importanttobothmenandwomenfromthethirteenthtothesixteenthcentury,andperhapsbeyond.

Page115

TheLowCountries ThecentralityoffoodinfemalespiritualityfirstemergedinaremarkablegroupofLowCountrywomeninthelatetwelfthandthirteenthcenturies.Mostlythedaughters ofwealthyurbanfamilies,frequentlysufferingintenseadolescentconflictovertheirparents'desireforthemtomarry,oftenofquasireligiousstatusratherthanaffiliated withanyestablishedorder,thesewomencombinedacontemplativeorientationwithintensespiritualfriendships.2 Theydisplayedaquietsenseofservingothers throughprayerandsometimesthroughmoreactivecharities.ThemostfamousisthebeguineMaryofOignies,precursorinmanydevotionalpracticesofFrancisof Assisi.Numerousothersemergefromthesourceswithdistinctivepersonalities:thelearnedandaccomplishedwritersBeatriceofNazareth(d.1268)andHadewijch MargaretofYpres(d.1237),whodiedyoungandneverreallyfoundthespiritualadvisershecravedIdaofNivelles(d.1231),IdaofLouvain,andIdaofLau(d. latethirteenthcentury),withtheireucharisticfervorthesufferingleperAliceofSchaerbeke(d.1250)JulianaofCornillon,whowanderedinsearchofareligious house,neverfindingadequatesupportforhergreatvisionofthefeastofCorpusChristiLutgardofAywires,quiet,reclusive,butsoughtoutbyothersasareaderof heartsandChristinatheAstonishing,whosevitaisfilledwithsomeofthemostvividandimprobablemiraclesofthethirteenthcentury.Intheirvitaewrittenbytwo remarkableclericalbiographers,JamesofVitryandThomasofCantimpr,andseverallesswellknown,sometimesevenanonymous,authorsfoodmetaphorsare prominent.Themaleauthorsfoundextravaganteatingimageryusefulindescribingtheecstaticexperiencesoftheirsubjectsthewomenthemselveswhenwehear theirvoicesrecountingvisionsordeliveringpithyopinionsusedeatingimagerynotmerelyfortheeucharistbutforotherspiritualexperiencesaswell.3 MaryofOignies,whofrequentlyexperiencedthetasteofhoneyinhermouthatmass,alsoreceivedsensationsofbeingfulloroftastingsweetnesswhensheheard wordsofspiritualadvice.4 Whenherbiographer,JamesofVitry,wonderedwhyherfrequentvigils,fasts,andeffusionsoftearsdidnotcauseheadaches,Mary replied:"Thesetearsaremyfeast[refectio]theyaremybreaddayandnightthey...feedmymindratherthanemptyingandafflictingmyhead,theybringsatietyto

Page116

mysoul."5 LutgardofAywires,harassedbysuitorsinheryouth(oneevenattemptedtoabductandrapeher),6 spokethustoaprospectivehusband:"Goawayfrom me,foodofdeath,nutrimentofvillainy,sinceIamheldbackbyanotherlove."7 Asmarriagewasthefoodofdeath,sodeath,toLutgard,wasthefoodoflife.Five yearstothedaybeforeherdeath,uponhearingthegospelparableofamanwhopreparedagreatfeast,shetoldSybilofGagesthatonthatverydayshe"wouldgoto themealofthespouseofthelamb."8 IdaofLouvain,likeMaryofOignies,experiencedbizarresensationsofeatingwhennofoodwaspresent.Shereceivedthe"food ofspiritualreading"intoherstomach,felttheeucharistslipdownherthroatlikeafish,saidtotheothernunsbeforecommunion,''LetusgodevourGod,"andfound hermouthfilledwithhoneycombwheneversherecitedJohn1:14:"Verbumcarofactumest."9 Whenoneofherbloodsisterscalledhertocomeawayfromprayerand smellthesweetwineherfatherofferedforsale,Idasaid,"Winewillprovokemetotears,"but,saidherhagiographer,she"didnotmeanmaterialwine."10Julianaof Cornillon,whopracticedextremefastsandfeltpassionatecravingfortheeucharistduringadolescence,wasteasedanddisciplinedforherexcesses.Whenhernurse andsisterstoreherawayfromprayer,callinghertoeat,shetoldtheminajollyway,"Iwantbetterandmorebeautifulfood,"butshehidherrealmeaningfrom them.11 SuchpassagessuggestthatthesewomenquiteunselfconsciouslythoughtofGodasfood.Moreover,thebiographerswhorepeatedtheircommentspersistentlyused extendedfoodmetaphorstoelaboratethesignificanceofwomen'spractices.JamesrepeatedlydescribedMary'secstasiesasinebriation,ashungerandfullness,as receiving"milkandhoneyfromthelipsofthespouse."12ThomasofCantimprspokeofMargaretofYpresasaccepting,chewing,andsavoringGod.13The anonymousauthorofAliceofSchaerbeke'svitadescribedherasrestoredbyliquidfromthebreastsofChrist,asinebriatedwithhissweetness.14Hewrotethusof Alice'sseclusionbecauseofdisease:
Thefirstdayshewentintothe[littlehousebuilttoisolateherfromtheothersisters],theLordappearedtoherandtookherinhisarmswithanembraceandsaid:"Welcome, daughter!Ihavelongdesiredthistabernacle.Aslongasyouareinthisbody,Iwillremainwithyou.AndIwillbeyourcellarer[themonasticofficialinchargeoffood]toprovide youwithwhatyouneed."15

Page117

TheauthorofthebriefvitaofthebeguineGertrudevanOostenechoedJamesofVitry'svitaofMaryofOignieswhenhesaid:"Andsodayafterdaytearswereher fooddayandnight,andifshetookanycorporealfooditwasonlyalittleandneverwithoutweepingandwailing."16 Foodwasnot,however,merelyametaphorforinteractionwiththedivine.Itwasattheheartofreligiouspractice.TheprimarydevotionalemphasisintheseLow Countryvitaeisthesubstitutionofholyfood(eucharist)forordinaryeating.Whetherornotpenitentialasceticismingeneralcharacterizedtheirlives,thewomenall fastedinordertopreparethemselvesforChrist'sbodyandblood.SeveralofthemwereincapableofeatingordinaryfoodwhentheyexperiencedthefillingofChrist. MaryofOigniesvomitedoutanunconsecratedhostandcompulsivelywashedhermouthtoridherselfofthetaste.17IdaofLaurepeatedlyexperiencedfitsand tranceswhichshefoughttocontrol,becausenewlegislationhadbeenpasseddenyingthecuptoanyonesufferingfromfrenzy.18Whileoutofhersensesshecouldnot swallowordinaryfoodevenifitwasplacedonhertongue,andevenwhileinhersensesshefeltnonormalhungerondayswhenshehadtheeucharist.19Margaretof Yprescouldtastenothingexcepttheeucharistduringthelastyearofherlife.20IdaofLouvainandChristinatheAstonishingwerebothconsideredinsaneandwere chainedupbytheirfamiliesbecauseoftheireucharisticcravings.21 Themass(and/orreceptionoftheeucharist)wasfrequentlytheoccasiononwhichthesewomenreceivedecstaticunionwithChrist.Andthesweetnessofecstasywas oftenexperiencedaspalpablefood.WhenIdaofLouvain,forexample,begantofeelstrongerandstrongerdesireforfrequentcommunion,shewastoomodesteither tobringthematterupwithherconfessorortoreceivetheeucharistwithouthispermission.Thus,wroteherhagiographer:
Itfrequentlyhappenedatthattimethat,whenthepriestreceivedtheholycommunionatthealtar,asthecustomwas,she,intheintensityofherdesire,receivedwithhermouthat theselfsamemomentthemostsacredpledgeofthehostoftheSavior(brought,webelieve,byaministeringangel)anddiscerneditwiththesenseoftasteandevencheweditwith herteeth.22

UnlikeFrancis,Suso,andRuysbroeckwhosemostintenseeucharisticexperienceswereweepingatthe"sight"oftheLordorexperiencingthe

Page118

eucharistas"light"orasavaguesweetnesswithinIdareceivedherLordasfoodbetweenherlips.23 Whenreligioussuperiorsdeniedthecuporthehosttowomen,sometimesindirectresponsetotheirextravagantbehavior,Christoftenfedthemdirectlyinvisions.For example,IdaofLauwasdeniedthechalicebecauseoffrenzyandAlicebecauseofleprosy.24IdaofLouvainwasdeniedthecupbecauseofnosebleedsand,at anothertime,wasdeniedreceptionbecauseofherstatusasnovice.25Lutgard'sabbessforbadeherweeklycommunion,probablybecauseofthejealousyoftheother nuns.26Inconsequence,allwerecomforted,fed,andvindicatedbyChrist.IdaofLouvainandLutgardhadvividexperiencesofnursingfromChrist'sbreast.27 Thomastellsusthatonce,whenLutgardstoodbeforethecrucifixduringoneofherillnesses,shesuddenly"sawChristwithhiswoundallbleeding.Andshesucked suchsweetnesswithhermouthathisbreastthatshecouldfeelnotribulation."Onanotheroccasionthefigureonthecrucifixleaneddownandpickedherup,holding hertohissidetonurse.YetanothertimeChristcameasalambtoherandsuckedfromhermouthamarvelouslysweetsong.28Thomasalsodescribesafourthvision inwhichLutgardencounteredGod(orGod'srepresentative)inagraphicallymouthtomouthembracethatbroughtcomfortindeprivation.ShesawJohnthe EvangelistasaneaglesuckingfromChrist'sbreasttheeaglethenflewtoher,insertedhisbeakbetweenherlips,andfilledhersoulwithsplendors.29Theauthorofthe vitaofIdaofLaumakesitquiteclearthatGodsubstitutesheavenlyfeedingwhenwomen'spassionatedevotionisdeniedbyearthlyauthorities.
Andmanygrieved[whentheablutionscupwasprohibitedtonuns],thirstingwithunquenchablethirst,...andtheyobservedthesentencegivenbecauseofthegoodof obedience,althoughtheyburnedagainstit....[But]listentowhatthephilosophersays:Whogivesalawtolovers?Loveistheirparamountlaw.ThereforeblessedIda..., afflictedbyarigidsentencewhichwasthewayoftheorder,prostrateasmuchinbodyasinspirit,...lifteduphervoicetoGodsaying:"Youknow,ohLord,thatIdarenotcome toyoubutyoucanstillcometome."Whichthingsbeingsaid,thefatherofmercies...filledherdesireslovinglyandquickly.And...hevisitedherthroughthewholeyearon Sunday,givinghersweetnessandsavormorefullythanshehadhadbeforewhenshehadreceivedthebodyoftheLord.30

Theheavenlyfoodthesewomencravedwasnotonlysweetness,inebriation,joyitwasalsoidentificationwiththesufferingofthecross.

Page119

FilledwithChrist,therecipientwassimultaneouslycrucifiedwithhisagony.IntenselyliteralintheirimitatioChristi,desiringtofusewiththephysicalbodyofChrist thattheychewedandconsumed,thesewomenprovidesomeoftheearliestexamplesofthenovelmiracleofstigmata.MaryofOigniesrespondedtohereucharistic cravingandtoguiltabouteatingafteranillnessbymutilatingherselfintheformofChrist'swounds.31IdaofLouvainreceivedstigmataatthemomentinherlifethat wasthehighpointbothofeucharisticfrenzyandofconflictwithherfamilyalthoughsheaskedtohavetheoutersignsremoved,theinnerpainremained.32Therecluse ElizabethofSpalbeek(orHerkenrode)(d.after1274),whoimitatedthePassionofChristinelaboratepantomimeandselftorture,supposedlyreceivedinherbody "veryclearly...withoutanysimulationorfraud"thefivestigmataoftheLordasrecentwounds,"whichfrequently,andespeciallyonFridays,emittedastreamof blood."33Moreover,likeChrist'sdeathonthecrossitself,suchimitationhadevangelicalovertones.Lutgard,Aliceandothersofferedtheirexcruciatinghungerfor Christ'sbodyandbloodinexchangeforthesalvationofthesoulsoftheirfellowChristians.34 ExtremefastingisathemeineveryfemalevitafromtheLowCountries.Whenthewomenlivedintooldage,fastingwasusuallymostintenseinadolescence.Itwas oftencombinedwithsleeplessnessandhyperactivity.ThevitaeofMaryofOignies,JulianaofCornillon,IdaofLouvain,IdaofLau,ElizabethofSpalbeek,and MargaretofYpresmakeitclearthatthewomenreachedapointwheretheywereunabletoeatnormally,wherethesmellandsightoffoodcausednauseaandpain. MaryofOignies,whomutilatedherfleshoutofguiltovereating,thenembarkedonaprogramofextendedfast.Sheateonlyonceaday(atVespersoratnight)she tooknowineandnomeatoftensheateonlycoarseblackbreadthattoreherthroatandmadeitbleed.Once,afterthirtyfivedaysoftotalabstinenceandsilence,she "camebacktoherself"andtriedtoconsumeearthlyfood.Butshecouldnotbearitsodorandcouldsiponlywinefromtheablutionscup.IdaofLouvain,whorefused toacceptanythingfromhermerchantfatherexcepttheroomshelivedin,workedatnighttoprovidefoodforherselfandforthepoorwhocametoherforaid.Sheate onlymoldybreadand,iffoodwasservedtoher,shemixedittogetherinordertodestroyanypleasanttasteitmighthave.Onceshewentforelevendayseatingonly thelittleflowersofthelimetree.JulianaofCornillon,whowaspunishedforexcessivefastingasachild,triedtohideherrefusaltoeatduringado

Page120

lescence,butsheconsumedsolittlethathersisterswonderedhowshelived.35WhenLutgard,duringoneofhersevenyearfasts,wascommandedtoeat,thefood refusedtopassdownherthroat.36PhilipofClairvauxreportsthatElizabethofSpalbeekatealmostnothing.Shecondescended,withobviousreluctance,tolapupa littlemilk,butsheabhorredfood.Whenrelativesorcompanionsputfruit,meat,orfishtoherlips,shesuckedalittlejuicebuttookinnothingof"thegrossermatter."A doveconsumedmoreinasingleswallow,saysPhilip,thanElizabethwaswillingtodrinkofthewineshewasoffered,andheremarks:"Sheateanddrankmoreto satisfythewillofothersthanbecauseofherownwillorevenbecauseofnecessity."37 Suchfastingwasinterpretedbybiographersasrenunciationoftheworld.ThomasofCantimprcommentsthatChristinatheAstonishingcamefromafamilysopoor thatshehadnothingtogiveupexceptfoodanddrink.38Butfastingwasoftenspecificallyaresponsetoguiltoverthewealthandconspicuousconsumptionpracticed bymerchantfamilies.MaryofOignies,Lutgard,andIdaofLouvain(whosefathersoldwine)struggledtoavoidtheprosperousmarriagesplannedforthem.Julianaof Cornillonfastedaspartofabattlewiththesuperiorsofherlittlemonasticdependency,whoweretoolenientforhersevereadolescenttaste. Fastingwasseldomexplicitlylabeled,eitherbywomenorbytheirhagiographers,asanattackonthebody,anexertionofcontroloverit,oranefforttodestroyits sensationsorresponses.Hagiographersoccasionallypraisedwomen'sasceticfeatsandcomparedtheirsubjectsfavorablytotheDesertFathersofantiquity.39But theyalmostneverdrewadichotomybetweenfleshandspirit,nordidtheyjustifyfastingbyreferencetoaconnectionbetweenfoodandlust.Rather,theyspokeof abstinenceaspreparatorytoandsimultaneouswithtruefeedingbyChrist.ItwasidentificationwithChrist'ssufferingitwasaffective,evenerotic,unionwithChrist's adorableself.Itwasalsoserviceofothers. ThehagiographersandthewomenthemselvessawselfstarvationandillnessasextensionsbothofChrist'ssufferingonthecrossandofthepainsofpurgatory. Purgatorywasnotprimarily,tothesewomen,aphysicalplacesomewhere,alogicalcomplementtoheavenandhellitsimplywassufferingredemptivesuffering whichwassimultaneouslyChrist'sandthesinner's.Thussufferingonearthcouldreplacesufferinglater,andbysufferingonecouldredeemothersaswellasoneself. Mar

Page121

garetofYpresdesiredthetormentsofherdeathtolastuntiltheyconsumedhertimeinpurgatory,andChristinavisionguaranteedthatthishadalreadyhappened.40 LutgardtoldafriendthatChristhadpromisedherthatherblindness,patientlyaccepted,wouldreplacethepangsofpurgatory.41 Suchsufferingalsoservedone'sneighbors.AliceofSchaerbekeofferedupforspecificgoalsthelossofvariouspartsofherbodytoleprosy.42Lutgard,attheVirgin Mary'scommand,undertookthreefastsofsevenyearseach(onbreadandbeer)inordertorelievesoulsinpurgatoryandtoquietChrist'sangeroverheresy.43Ona lessuniversalnote,MaryofOigniesfastedfortydaystodriveademonoutofanafflictednun.44Speakingtoabelovedcompanionafterlosingherrighteyetoleprosy, AliceofSchaerbekevoicedthenotionofsufferingthatsustainedmanyreligiouswomen:"Dearsister,donotgrieve[forme]anddonotthinkthatIsufferforor expiatemyownsinsIsufferratherforthosewhoarealreadydeadandintheplaceofpenitence[i.e.,purgatory]andforthesinsoftheworld."45 Fastingwasnottheonlyformofservicethesewomenpracticed.Theyalsocareddirectlyforthesickandthepoor,oftenbyprovidingfood.MaryofOignies,who neverachievedthecompletepovertyshewanted,gaveherowngoodstothepoor,beggedinordertofeedthem,andworkedfortheirfoodandclothing.46Christina beggedinordertoshareherfood.47EvenlittleJulianaofCornillonfedhersistersbyrequestingthejobofcowherdandproducingmoreinmilkingthecowsthan anyoneelsehadbeenabletodo.48 AcharmingstoryfromthelifeofIdaofLouvainillustratesnotonlyIda'scommitmenttofeedingthepoorbutalsoherstrangeeatinghabits,herecstasies,andher conflictwithherfather.Moreover,itshowsthewayinwhichsuchmotifstendtobewoventogetherinthesevitae.Oneday,sothestorygoes,Idawassnatchedinto ecstasywhilereturningfromVespersandsawMarycarryingJesusonherbreast.Shefelldowninthestreetasifdeadand"agreatwaveofcorpulence"invadedher body.Shebegantoshake,alarminghercompanion.Atthisverymoment,however,apoormanwasbeingdeniedhospitalitybyIda'sfather.Whenthepauper, mutteringtohimself,madehiswaypastIdainthestreet,shecamebacktoherself,wenttoherfather,andobtainedalmsforthebeggar.Shethenreturnedtoherroom anddalliedinspiritualdelightsforthirteendays.Duringthistimeshetookmaterialfoodonlyonce,when

Page122

breadlyingbesideherbedbegantosmellunnaturallysweet.Thenshesnatcheditupandateit"bydivinepurpose,thatherbody,whichwastakingnomaterialbread, mightbestrengthenedduringthesethirteendays."49 ThereligiouswomenoftheLowCountriesfedothersthroughmiraclesaswellasbytheworkoftheirhands.IdaofLouvaincuredthereligiousdoubtsofayounggirl bychangingbeerintowine.OnoneoccasionthebreadonIda'stablegrewratherthandiminishedduringthecourseofthemeal,inordertohelpthepoorandsickto whomitwastobedistributed.50Lutgardtwicecuredgirlswhofeltacravingformeat,whichThomasinoneinstancelabeledan"infirmity."51ThefruitJulianaof Cornillongavetoafriendwassubsequentlydiscoveredtohavesupernaturalsweetness.52 Mostremarkableofall,thewomen'sbodiesthemselvesbecameasourceoffood.Theyexudedoil,milk,orsweetsalivathathadthepowertocureothers.Such extraordinaryexudingwasclearlypredicatedonunusualclosure.Hagiographersconnectedfailuretoeatordinaryfoodorexcreteordinaryfluidswithexuding extraordinaryliquids.ThomasofCantimprmentioned,forexample,themomentatwhichLutgardceasedtomenstruate.53HealsoreportedthatChristonce commandedhertogetupfromafeverishsweatinwhichshewaslanguishingandgodirectlytochurch."Whyareyoulyingthere?"heasked."Youmustdo penance...notindulgeinsweat."When,afterthisreprimand,sherantoMatinsshesawChristinthedoorwayofthechurch,andshenursedfromhisside.54Philipof ClairvauxcombineswithhisdiscussionofElizabethofSpalbeek'sinediatheinformationthat"neithersalivanorsputumemanatedfromhermouthnoranymucusor otherfluidfromhernostrils."55Itisexactlyinthosevitaethatstressbothwomen'sexudingsandthelactatingChristthatunusualclosurealsocomesinforspecial attention. ExudingcuringfluidisparticularlyathemeinThomasofCantimpr'swritings.56Hetellsus,forexample,thatChristinatheAstonishingfledintotheremotedesert, whereshebecameveryhungry.Sosheprayed,andGodmadehervirginbreastsswellwithmilk,fromwhichshefedherselffornineweeks.Later,whenshewas persecutedbysistersandfriendswhothoughthermadandchainedherinthecellar,herbreastsfilledagainandranwithoil.Whentheoilprovedacuringsalve

Page123

thathealed,amongotherills,thesoresofoneofhersisters,hertormentorsreleasedherfromthecellar.57 AnotherofThomas'sheroines,Lutgard,alsoexudedoil,althoughinhercaseitcamefromthefingertips.Theincidentispresentedasherresponsetothevision (discussedabove)inwhichJohntheEvangelistdrankfromChrist'sbreastandthenbreathedintohermouth.LutgardrepeatedlynursedfromChristandsawothersdo so.Ononeoccasion,afterChrist(intheformofalamb)suckedfromherlips,hervoicebecamemoresolemnandwiseonanotheroccasion,aftershehadnursed fromChrist'sbreast,herownsalivabecamesweettothetaste.58Hercharacteristiccureswereperformedbytouchorsaliva."Thosewhohadillnessinhandorfoot orothermemberswerecuredatoncebycontactwithherhandorhersaliva,"Thomassays."Butthisdrewmanypeopletoher,andsheaskedGodtotake[thegift] away."59 JamesofVitry'sbiographyofMaryofOigniesreflectsasimilarconcernwithmiraculousfluids.JamesrecountsthatMarythoughtshesawmilk(notoil)flowingfrom relicsonanaltardedicatedtoNicholasofMyra,themostfamousmedievalmyroblyte.60Alaterbeguineandstigmatic,GertrudevanOostenwhodisplayedso ferventadevotiontotheinfantJesusthatthedevilsometimesappearedtoherasacryingchildfoundthatherbreastsfilledwithmilkwhenshemeditatedonthe Nativity.61Moreover,unusualbleeding(incontrastwiththeordinarybleedingofmenstruation)wasasignofholinessinmanyoftheseLowCountryvitae.Idaof Louvain,IdaofLau,MaryofOignies,Lutgard,andBeatriceofNazarethallsufferedviolentnosebleedsduringeucharisticecstasies,andtheirhagiographerssawthe bleedingasasignofmysticalfavors.Lutgard'svariousbiographersreportthatevenherhairdrippedwithbloodwhencut.62Notonlydothehagiographersattribute stigmatatoseveralofthesewomentheyalsoclaim,inthecasesofElizabethofSpalbeekandGertrudevanOosten,thatthewoundsbledinaperiodicpattern. Holywomencontinuedtofeedothersmiraculouslyfrombeyondthegrave.Indeed,indeaththeysometimesachievedaquasisacerdotalfeedingroledeniedtothemin life.Bythelatetwelfthcentury,womenwereprohibitednotonlyfromordinationbutevenfromcontactwithaltarvesselsbythelatethirteenthcentury,laypeople weredeniedthechalice.Yetafterdeathholywomenoccasionallyreappearedinvisionstooffer

Page124

communionandtheyappearedtomenaswellastowomen.AfterMaryofOignies'sdeathshecametoaCistercianmonk,and,Jamestellsus,agoldenchalicethat issuedfromhermouthgavedrinktotwoofthemonk'sfriends.63JulianaofCornillonwasseenafterherdeathassistingChristwiththecupatthealtar.Thewoman whoreceivedthisvisionwascuredofagreatdesireforfoodanddrink"whichtheweaknessofthefleshhadgivenher"andfeltherself"inebriated"with"spiritual refreshment"sothatshedidnotneedtodrinkwine.64Althoughmalebiographersmayhaveoveremphasizedtheimportanceofwomensaintstomalefollowers,while neglectingtheirimpactonotherwomen,65suchvisionsmakeitclearthatholywomenservedbothmalesandfemalesbytheirfastingandbytheirfeeding.Thevisions alsodemonstratetheextenttowhichbothmenandwomeninthethirteenthcenturyassociatedwomenwithfeedingandwithfood. TwohundredyearsafterMaryofOigniesandmorethanahundredyearsaftertheFlemishholywomenIdaofLauandIdaofLouvain,apoorlaywomaninwhatis nowHollandgainedbothrespectandnotorietyforaverysimilartypeoffemalespirituality.InthestoryofLidwinaofSchiedam,whodiedin1433attheageoffifty three,suchthemesascharitablefooddistribution,feedingmiraclesandvisions,fastandillness,miraculouslysweetbodilyeffluvia,andeucharisticdevotionaretightly interwoven.66AsinthelivesofMaryofOignies,LutgardofAywires,andIdaofLouvain,foodisclearlythedominantfactandthedominantsymbolinLidwina'slife. SeveralhagiographicalaccountsofLidwinaexist,incorporatinginformationprovidedbyherconfessors67moreover,thetownofficialsofSchiedam,whohadher watchedforthreemonths,promulgatedadocumentthatsurvives.SuggestingthatLidwina'smiraculousabstinencewastheaspectofherlifethatmostcapturedpublic attention,thedocumentsolemnlyatteststohercompletelackoffoodandsleepandtothesweetodorgivenoffbythebitsofskin,bone,andentrailsshesupposedly shed.68HerbiographersalsoreportthatPhilipofBurgundy'ssoldiers,whileoccupyingthecity,setaguardaroundLidwinatotestherfasts,whichtheythen authenticated.69OnanotheroccasionfoursoldiersofthesamePhilipbrokeintoherhouse,seriouslyinjuredherniece,andridiculedandabusedLidwina,claimingthat herswollenbodywaspregnantbythelocalpriest.70Theincidentcorroboratestheimpressionthatherprolongedsurvivalinextremeillnessandwithouteatingwas what

Page125

mostattractedcontemporaryadmiration,makingenemiesofhercityfearthepowerofherprayers. TheaccountsofLidwina'slifesuggestthattheremayhavebeenearlyconflictbetweenmotheranddaughter.Whenherterribleillnessputaburdenonthefamily's resourcesandpatience,ittookamiracletoconvincehermotherofhersanctity.71Oneofthefewstoriesthatsurvivefromherchildhoodshowshermotherannoyed withherchildishdawdling.Lidwina,whowasrequiredtocarryfoodtoherbrothersatschool,slippedintochurchonthewayhometosayaprayertotheVirgin.The incidentshowshowgirlishpietycouldprovidearespitefromhouseholdtasksinthiscase,asinsomanycases,thetaskoffeedingmen.72WealsolearnthatLidwina wasupsettodiscoverthatshewaspretty,thatshethreatenedtoprayforadeformitywhenplanswerebroachedforhermarriage(herehermotherdefendedher),and that,afteranillnessatagefifteen,shegrewweakanddidnotwanttogetupfromhersickbed.Theaccountthussuggeststhatshemayhavebeencultivatingillness perhapsevenrejectingfoodbeforetheskatingaccidentsomeweekslaterthatproducedsevereinternalinjuries.Inanyevent,Lidwinaneverrecoveredfromherfall ontheice.Herhagiographersreportthatshewasparalyzedexceptforherlefthand.Sheburnedwithfeverandvomitedconvulsively.Herbodyputrefiedsothatgreat piecesfelloff.Frommouth,ears,andnoseshepouredblood.Andshestoppedeating.73 Lidwina'shagiographersgointoconsiderabledetailaboutherabstinence.Atfirstshesupposedlyatealittlepieceofappleeachday,althoughswallowingbreaddipped intoliquidcausedhermuchpain.Thenshereducedherintaketoabitofdateandwateredwineflavoredwithspiceslatershesurvivedonwateredwinealoneonly halfapintaweekandshepreferredriverwatercontaminatedwithsaltfromthetides.Whenshestoppedtakinganysolidfood,shealsostoppedsleeping.Finally sheceasedtoswallowanythingatall.74AlthoughLidwina'sbiographerspresentherabstinenceasevidenceofsaintliness,shewassuspectedbysomeduringher lifetimeofbeingpossessedbyadevilinsteadsheherselfseemstohaveclaimedthatherfastingwasnatural.Whenpeopleaccusedherofhypocrisybecauseshefound joyinherillness,sherepliedthatitisnosintoeatandthereforenoglorytobeincapableofeating.75 FastingandillnesswerethusasinglephenomenontoLidwina.Andsincesheperceivedthemasredemptivesuffering,sheurgedbothon

Page126

others.WearetoldthatacertainGerardfromCologne,atherurging,becameahermitandlivedinatree,fedonlyonmannasentfromGod.76Wearealsotoldthat LidwinaprayedforhertwelveyearoldnephewtobeafflictedwithanillnesssothathewouldberemindedofGod'smercy.Notsurprisingly,theillnessitselfthen camefrommiraculousfeeding.ThenephewbecamesickafterdrinkingseveraldropsfromapitcherofnewbeeronatablebyLidwina'sbedsidebeerthathad overnightbecomemarvelouslyaromaticandsweet.77 Likethebodiesofmanyotherwomensaints(suchasChristinatheAstonishingandLutgard),Lidwina'sbodywasclosedtoordinaryintakeandexcretionbut producedextraordinaryeffluvia.78TheauthenticatingdocumentfromthetownofficialsofSchiedamtestifiesthatsheshedskin,bones,andevenportionsofintestines, whichherparentskeptinavaseandthesegaveoffasweetodoruntilLidwina,worriedbythegossiptheyexcited,insistedthathermotherburythem.ThusLidwina's bodyshedholypiecesexactlyasdidthebodyofChrist,whichonceleftbehindamiraculoushostafterappearinginavision.79Moreover,Lidwina'seffluviacured others.AmaninEnglandsupposedlysentforthewatershewashedherhandsintocurehisdiseasedleg.80Thesweetsmellfromherlefthandledoneofher confessorstoconfesshisownsins.81 Lidwinaevennursedothers,inanactthatsheherselfexplicitlysawasanalogoustotheVirgin'snursingofChrist.82OneChristmasseason,allherhagiographerstell us,acertainwidowCatherine,whotookcareofher,hadavisionthatLidwina'sbreastswouldfillwithmilk,likeMary's,onthenightoftheNativity.Whenshetold Lidwina,Lidwinawarnedhertoprepareherself.ThenLidwinasawavisionofMarysurroundedbyahostoffemalevirginsandthebreastsofMaryandofallthe companyfilledwithmilkthatpouredoutfromtheiropentunics,fillingthesky.WhenCatherineenteredLidwina'sroom,Lidwinarubbedherownbreastandthemilk cameoutandCatherinedrankthreetimesandwassatisfied(nordidshewantanycorporealfoodformanydaysthereafter).83OneofLidwina'sbiographersadds thatwhenthesamegracewasgiventoheragain,shefedherconfessor,JohnWalter84buttheothertwohagiographicalaccountssaythattheconfessorwasnotthere attheappointedhouranddidnotreceivethegift. Lidwinaalsofedothersbycharityandbyfoodmultiplicationmiracles.Althoughshedidnotherselfeat,shechargedthewidowCatherinetobuyfinefishandmake fragrantsaucesandtogivethesetothepoor.

Page127

Themeatandfishshegaveasalmssometimeswentmuchfurtherthananyonehadexpected.85Shegavewater,wine,andmoneyforbeertoanepilepticburningwith thirstshesentawholeporkshouldertoapoorman'sfamilysheregularlysentfoodtopoororsickchildren,forcingherservantstouseforothersmoneyorfoodshe wouldnotherselfconsume.86Whenshesharedthewineinherbedsidejug,itseemedinexhaustible.SopleasedwasGodwithhercharitythathesentheravisionofa heavenlybanquettableladenwiththefoodshehadgivenaway.87 LidwinaclearlyfeltthathersufferingwasservicethatitwasonewithChrist'ssufferingandthatitthereforesubstitutedforthesufferingofothers,boththeirbodilyills andtheirtimeinpurgatory.Indeed,accordingtoatleastoneofherhagiographers,herbodyquiteliterallybecameChrist'smaceratedandsavingflesh,for,likeIdaof Louvain,shereceivedstigmata.88JohnBrugman,intheVitaposterior,notonlyunderlinestheparallelbetweenLidwina'swoundsandthoseonthemiraculous bleedinghostshereceivedhealsostatesexplicitlythatinherstigmata,Christ''transformedhisloverintohislikeness."89Herhagiographerstellusthatthefeversshe sufferedalmostdailyformanyyearsbeforeherdeathreleasedsoulsfrompurgatory.90Thisnotionofsubstitutionisreflectedquiteclearlyinthestoryofanevilmanin whosesteadLidwinamadeconfessionshethentookuponherselfhispunishmenttotheincrementofherownbodilyanguish.91Weseesubstitutionofanotherkindin thestoryofLidwinatakingoverthetoothacheofawomanwhowailedoutsideherdoor.92 Thus,inLidwina'sstory,fasting,illness,feeding,andsufferingfuse.Lidwinabecomesthefoodsherejects.Herbody,closedtoordinaryintakeandexcretionbut spillingoverinmilkandsweetputrefaction,becomesthesustenanceandthecurebothheavenlyandearthlyofherfollowers. ButholyeatingisathemeinLidwina'slifeaswell.Theeucharistwasatthecoreofherdevotion.Duringherpatheticfinalyears,whenshewasalmostunableto swallow,shereceivedfrequentcommunion(asoftenaseverytwodays).Herbiographersemphasizethatduringthisperiod,onlytheholyfoodkeptheralive.93But formuchofherlifeshewasembroiledinconflictwiththelocalclergyoverhereucharisticvisionsandhunger.Oneincidentinparticularshowsnotonlytheimportance ofChrist'sbodyasfoodinLidwina'sspiritualitybutalsotheway

Page128

inwhichawoman'scravingforthehost,althoughitkeptherunderthecontroloftheclergy,couldseemtothatsameclergyathreatbothbecauseitcriticizedtheir behaviorandbecauseifthwarted,itcouldbypasstheirpower.94 OnceanangelcametoLidwinaandwarnedherthatthenextdaythepriestwouldbringheranunconsecratedhosttotesther.Thenthepriestcameandpretendedto adorethehost,butLidwina,whenshereceivedit,vomiteditout,declaringthatshecouldeasilytelltheLord'sbodyfromunconsecratedbread.Thepriestsworethat thehostwasconsecrated,however,andreturnedangrilytothechurch.Lidwinathenlanguishedforalongtime,cravingcommunionbutunabletoreceiveit.About threeandahalfmonthslater,Christappearedtoher,firstasababy,thenasableedingandsufferingyouth.Angelsappeared,bearingtheinstrumentsofthePassion, andthen(accordingtoonehagiographer)raysfromChrist'swoundedbodypiercedLidwinawithstigmata.Whenshesubsequentlyaskedforasign,ahosthovered overChrist'sheadandanapkindescendedontoherbed,containingamiraculoushostmarkedwithdropsofblood,whichremainedandwasseenbymanypeoplefor daysthereafter.95ThepriestreturnedandorderedLidwinatokeepquietaboutthemiraclebutfinallyagreed,atherinsistence,tofeedherthemiraculoushostas communion.LidwinawasconvincedthatitwastrulyChristbecauseshe,whowasusuallystifledbyfood,atethisbreadwithoutpain.Thenextdaythepriestpreached inchurchthatLidwinawasdeludedandthatherhostwasafraudofthedevil.But,heclaimed,Christwaspresentinthebreadheofferedbecauseitwasconsecrated withallthemajestyofthepriesthood.Lidwinaprotestedhisinterpretationofherhost,butsheagreedtoacceptaconsecratedwaferfromhimandtoprayforhissins. SubsequentlythepriestclaimedthathehadcuredLidwinafrompossessionbythedevil,whileLidwina'ssupporterscalledherhostamiracle.AlthoughLidwina's hagiographersdonotgivethefulldetails,theyclaimthatthebishopcametoinvestigatethematter,thatheblessedthenapkinfortheserviceofthealtar,andthatthe priesthenceforthgaveLidwinathesacramentwithouttestsorresistance. Asthestoryworksitswayout,itsthemeisnotsubversiveofclericalauthority.Theconflictbegins,afterall,becauseLidwinawantsaconsecratedhost,anditresultsin herreceivingfrequentcommunion,humblyandpiously.Accordingtooneofherhagiographers,themoralofthestoryisthatthefaithfulcanalwayssubstitute"spiritual communion"

Page129

(i.e.,meditation)iftheactualhostisnotgiven.96Butthestoryhasradicalimplicationsaswell.ItsuggeststhatJesuscancomedirectlytothefaithfulifpriestsare negligentorskeptical,thatapriest'swordmaynotbeauthoritativeonthedifferencebetweendemonicpossessionandsanctity,thatvisionarywomenmighttestpriests. OtherstoriesinLidwina'slifehavesimilarimplications.Sheforbadeasinningpriesttocelebratemassshereadtheheartofanotherpriestandlearnedofhis adultery.97Hervisionsofsoulsinpurgatoryespeciallyconcernedpriests,andshesubstitutedhersufferingsfortheirs.98OneAshWednesdayanangelbroughtashes forherforeheadbeforethepriestarrived.99EvenifLidwinadidnotrejecttheclergy,shesometimesquietlybypassedorjudgedthem. LidwinafocusedherloveofGodontheeucharist.Inreceivingit,invisionandcommunion,shebecameonewiththebodyonthecross.EatingherGod,shereceived hiswoundsandofferedhersufferingforthesalvationoftheworld.Denyingherselfordinaryfood,shesentthatfoodtoothersandherbodygavemilktonurseher friends.FoodisthebasicthemeinLidwina'sstoryselfasfoodandGodasfood.ForLidwina,asforthemanyFlemishholywomenbeforeher,eatingandnoteating werethus,finally,onetheme.BothfastingandeatingthebrokenbodyofChristwereactsofsuffering.Andtosufferwastosaveandbesaved. FranceandGermany ThevariousvitaeofLidwinaofSchiedamdonotshowthepiouswomancollectingalargenumberofdisciples,maleorfemale.100Indeed,Lidwinahadfewparallels orimitatorsinherownregion,eitherinherdayoroverthenexthundredyears.ButifweturnfromtheLowCountriestotherestofEurope,wefindthatfood metaphors,foodmiracles,andfoodpracticescharacterizedthelivesofwomensaintswellintothesixteenthcentury.Despitethesuggestionofrecentscholarsthatthe natureoffemalesanctitychangedbetween1200and1500anddisplayeddifferentpatternsinnorthandsouth,thethemesfoundinLowCountryspirituality,from MaryofOigniestoLidwinaofSchiedam,echothroughoutfourteenthandfifteenthcenturyEurope. Femalerolesdiffered,tobesure,accordingtoregionandperiod.Somewomen,especiallyItalianlaywomenandtertiaries,centeredtheir

Page130

livesonactivecharity,whereasothers,usuallynorthernnunsorrecluses,centeredtheirsonecstasyandprayer.Butfoodassymbolandasfactremainedcrucialin boththeseroles,inallregionsandinallperiods.Tothemorecontemplativenun,fastingandillness(thetwowerefrequentlyindistinguishable)werepreparationand occasionformysticalunion,forbeingfedbyChrist.Forthoseinwhoselivesservingwasmoreimportant,fastingandeucharistweretheselfdenialandself replenishmentthatmadethefeedingofotherspossible.Moreover,asthelifeofLidwinaofSchiedamsuggests,thetworolesweresometimesnotsodifferentafterall. AliceofSchaerbeke,languishinginhercellwithleprosy,andLutgardofAywires,fleeingfromcrowds,wereclearlycontemplatives,whileMaryofOigniesleda moreactivelife,nursingthesickandbegging.ButLidwina,lyingparalyzedonherbedandofteninecstasy,orderedmuchfoodsenttothepoorandsawhersuffering asservice.EvenMaryofOigniesandLutgardcombinedecstasyandcuring. Withdrawalandaction,prayerandservice,thustendedtofuseasvaluesinwomen'slives,despitetheirvaryinginstitutionalframeworksandemphases.Andfoodwas acentralmetaphorforthisfusion.Tomedievalwomen,"feeding"wasabasicreligiouscommitment,atransitiveandanintransitiveverb.Medievalwomenfedothers (pascere)theyalsofedonGod(pasci).IfwesurveysomeofthemanystoriesofFrenchandGermanholywomenfromthethirteenthtothefifteenthcentury,itis easytoseethatfoodthemesareasprominentthereastheyareinthelivesofMaryofOignies,LutgardofAywires,IdaofLouvain,andLidwinaofSchiedam.As prominent,andascomplicated.Here,too,eating,feeding,fasting,hungering,andbeingfoodfuseintoasinglethemeathemethatexpressesthewoman'sloveof neighborandloveofGod. EucharisticdevotionfigurescentrallyinawidevarietyofvitaefromGermanandFrenchspeakingareas,andtheecstasiesthateitheraccompaniedreceptionofthe hostorsubstitutedforitunderlineitsqualityasfood.Forexample,BeatriceofOrnacieux,whoseLifewasprobablywrittenbyMargaretofOingt(d.1310),received manyvisionsofChristinthehostattheelevation.101OneChristmas,whenshehadworkedherselfintoanagonizedfeelingofunworthinessbeforereceiving,acrumb ofthebreadremainedinhermouthandswelled,almostchokingher.Shewasunabletoeatforalongtimeafter.102ThenunsofTss,Unterlinden,andEngelthal, whosecollectivebiographiesorNonnenbcherwerecom

Page131

posedintheearlyfourteenthcentury,repeatedlyreceivedeucharisticvisions.ChristappearedtoasicknunatTssonaplatterasfood,andanothersicksisternursed atthebreastoftheVirginMary.103AnunatUnterlindensawChristinavisioncelebratingmassafterthecelebration,sheandallthesistersoftheconventwent forwardandreceivedthesacramentfromtheLord'sownhand.104AnunatEngelthaladdressedthebabyJesus,whoappearedinavision:"IfIhadyou,I'deatyou up,Iloveyousomuch."105AdelheidLangmann,alsoofEngelthal,thoughtshemarriedJesuswiththehostratherthanwithaweddingring.106Inanevenmore startlinguseoffoodimages,AdelheidalsoclaimedthatJesussaidtoherinseveralvisions:"Yourmouthtasteslikerosesandyourbodylikeviolets""Mysugarsweet andhoneysweetlove,mytenderone,mypureone,youaremineandIamyours."107 InmanyothervitaeofFrenchandGermanwomenfromthesameperiod,theeucharistservesasmarvelouslysustainingfood,replacingallothernurture.JaneMaryof Maill(d.1414),whofastedandpunishedherbody,issaidtohavelookedrosy,wellfed,andhappyaftercommunion,108whileFloraofBeaulieu(d.1347),after beingsplashedinavisionwiththeliquidfromagoldenchalice,wentfordayswithouteating.109Florafrequentlyexperiencedeucharisticecstasiesthatleftherunable towalkortoswallowsincesheassumedthatothersweresimilarlyaffectedbyreceivingorhandlingthehost,shemarveledthatanypriestcouldfailtoachieve mysticaldelightswhencelebratingmass.110ThemouthsofbothFloraandJaneMaryofMaillfilledmiraculouslywithChrist.JaneMaryfoundbloodinhermouth whensheprayedforadrinkfromthechaliceFlorareceivedaportionofthehostwhenthepriestwhowascelebratingdiscoveredthatithaddisappearedfromthe paten.111 ThepatternofeucharisticfoodarrivingmiraculouslyandreplacingordinarynurtureisfoundthroughouttheremarkablevitaofLukardisofOberweimar(d.1309), whosestory,likethatofhercontemporary,IdaofLouvain,isdominatedbymotifsofofferingandreceivingfood.Inaseriesofvividvisions,Lukardiswas miraculouslyfedbyChristandMary.Christoften,wearetold,broughtherdeliciousdrinkwhenshewasthirsty.112Oncewhenshewastooweaktogotothechapel tomeditate,shehadherselfcarriedtherebytwosisterswhenthedoorwasclosedMaryappeared,nursingJesus,andsaid,"Askforwhatyoudesire.""Seeingyouis enough,"repliedLukardis.ButMaryinsisted.SoLukardisansweredthatshewishedtobefedfromMary'sbreast.After

Page132

shewasthusfed,"Lukardislayinherbedforthreedaysandnightswithouttakingfoodordrinkorseeingthelightofthesky.Forshelayasifdead,butherfacewas ruddy."113 Onanotheroccasion,afterLukardishadfastedseverely,Christappearedasabeautifulyouthandblewintohermouth."Shewasinfusedwithsuchsweetnessand suchinnerfruitionthatshefeltasifdrunk"andonceagaincouldnoteatforthreedays.114Onyetanotheroccasion,whenLukardiswasintheinfirmaryatEaster,her desirefortheeucharistgrewandgrew.Asistersawherstruggleintothechoirandstandthere,movinghermouthasifchewing.Afterthemass,whenthepriorasked herifshewishedtocommunicate,shesignedthatshehadalreadydonesoandshecontinuedtochewallday.115FromcommunicatingeverySundayandfeastday, sheprogressed,atdivinecommand,tocommunicatingeveryFridayandeverydayinLentaswell.Whenseveralofhersistersmurmuredthatthiswasanunheardof innovation,wordcamethatanuninanothermonasteryhadreceivedavisionvindicatingLukardis'spractice.116 NotonlydidLukardisprepareforGodbyfastingandsuffering,receivehimpalpablyasfood,andfindordinarynourishmentunnecessaryaftershewasmiraculously filled,shealsofusedwithChristinafrenzyofpenitentialsuffering,andtheidentificationspilledoverintobothstigmataandfeedingmiracles.AsChristhadfedherwith hisbreath,soLukardisfedafellownunbybreathingtheeucharistintohermouth.117Lukardisalsofunctionedasspiritualadvisertoanunwhosufferedagoniesof indecisionaboutwhethershemightreceivecommunion.118Moreover,LukardisreceivedChrist'swoundsinwardlyinavision,andafterwardssheinducedvisible stigmatabycompulsivelydiggingherfingersintoherownflesh.119WhenalocalDominicanhadavisionofLukardisandtwoothersnailedtocrosses.Godtoldhim thatLukardiswastheonetobeidentifiedwithChrist."Theonewhosuffersmost[isgreatest],"Godsaid,"formyPassionbringsredemptiontothewholeworld."120 TothenunsofLukardis'sconvent,foodwassonaturalametaphorandmeansofgracethathealingandrevelationcouldbeexperiencedasahostblownfrommouth tomouth.OtherthirteenthandfourteenthcenturywomenalsoconsideredfoodandeatingbasicmetaphorsandevenmorethanmetaphorsforunionwithGod andserviceofneighbor.ThenunsoftheSaxonmonasteryofHelfta,forexample,thought

Page133

thatmanyoftheirsistersdrankfromJesus'sideorheartinecstasyandGertrudetheGreatsupposedlytooktheinfantChristtoherownbreastinseveralvisions.121 ThebeguineMechtildofMagdeburg,whotookrefugeatHelftainoldage,reflectsnotonlythetendencytodescribeunionineatingimagerybutalsotheconfidence, foundinLukardisandLidwinaaswell,thatGodwillfeedhisfollowersdirectlyifhumansfailtodoso.When,ononeoccasion,Mechtildlamented,"MustIbewithout massthisday?"shereceivedavisioninwhichJohntheBaptistcelebratedmassforher:

Thenthemaid[Mechtild]wentuptothealtarwithgreatloveandwidelyopenedsoul.JohntheBaptisttookthewhitelambwiththeredwoundsandlaiditonthemouthofthe maid.ThusthepureLamblaiditselfonitsownimageinthestallofherbodyandsuckedherheartwithitstenderlips.122

Mechtild,whoseownwordssurvive,althoughrearrangedbytranslators,sawherselftastingGodinmysticalunionandfeedingothersbyhersuffering.Shewroteof botheucharistandecstasyas"eatingGod."123ShecomposedalovelydialoguebetweenthesoulandthesensesinwhichthesensesurgedhertorestatMary'sknee, watchingtheangelsdrinkMary'smilkbutsherefused,turningtoJesus'bloodasthehigherfood.124Shespokeofherloveandhersufferingforsoulsinpurgatorynot justasfeedingbutasnursingfeedingwithherblood:"Imustgivethemmyheart'sbloodtodrink.IfIprayforthem,becauseoftheirgreatneedandseethebitterfate theymustsufferforeverysin,thenIsufferasamother."125Overandoveragain,insuchvisions,Christisfood,desireisinsatiablehungerorthirst,servingisfeeding ornursing,and(howeveroddthismayseemtomodernsensibilities)themouthisafundamentalwayofmeetingGod. IntheNonnenbcherandwomen'svitaeofthethirteenthtothefifteenthcentury,fasting(sometimesinducedbyillness,sometimesleadingtoit)wasclosely intertwinedwithheavenlyfeast.NoteatingwaspreparationforeucharistitwasalsorenunciationoftheworldandunionwiththeagonyofChrist'sredeemingdeath. Indeed,theauthorofthenuns'bookofUnterlindencalledfastingimitatioChristiandthegloryofthemartyrs.126SaintssuchasDoucelineofMarseilles(d.1274) andJaneMaryofMaillfastedasanaspectofeucharistdevotion.Doucelinewentintoecstasyeverytimeshereceivedcommunion,sawprayerasa

Page134

substituteforeating,andinavisionenteredthetabernacleto"taste"Christ'ssweetness.127JaneMary,whoconvincedherhusbandontheirweddingnighttoobserve chastity,sufferedpatientlyfromillnessintheearlyyearsofhermarriage.Afterherhusband'sdeathshecaredforthepoor"likeMartha,"sendingdelicaciesfromher tabletothesick,theold,andthepregnant,andfastedonbrownbreadanduncookedherbsuntilherbodywaspaleandskeletal.ButChristhimselfsummonedherto theeucharist,appearedinvisionswithhiswoundsallbleeding,changedwaterintowineforher,andkeptherrosyandbeautifulwithhimselfasfood.(Shelivedtobe eightytwo.)Hercharitablefeedingofotherswasrewardedwhenshefedanangelindisguise.128 ManyoftheFrenchandGermanvitae,likethosefromtheLowCountries,depictwomenwhoapparentlybecameunabletoeatnormally.AlpasofCudot,who supposedlylivedfortyyearsontheeucharistalone,beganher"fast"duringasevereillness(perhapsleprosy),inwhichsheswelledandstankandwasleftfordeadby herfamily.129CuredbyMary,whotoldherthatshewouldneverneedtoeatordrinkagain,Alpasafterwardstookonlytinybitsoffood,whichshechewedforthe juice,spittingoutthepulp.HerCistercianhagiographerunderlinedtheinterdependenceinherlifeofeucharisticfeastandbodilyfast,ofaclosedandshriveledearthly bodyandthe"fattening"ecstasiessentfromheaven.130Alpas,whowasparalyzed,clearlydevelopedphysicaldifficultiesinswallowingatonepointshewasacutely afraidoftakingevenawholehostintoherthroat,untilJohntheEvangelistcameinavisiontohelpher.131Althoughshesawherinediaasaninfirmity,sheclearly valueditasaspiritualgiftaswell,andshethoughtitwasatemptationofthedeviltodesireitcured.132Herchroniclersemphasizethefactthatherbody,whichearlier ranwithstinkingsores,closedupafterdeathherintestineswerealmostempty.133 Despite(andalsobymeansof)herbodilyagony,Alpasservedotherswithvisions,advice,andevenfood.Aninterestingaddendumtooneofthemanuscriptsofher vitasaysthatwhenthepriorofCudotbroughtherbitsofporktosucksheatethemallandwashorrifiedbyhergreed,forsheusuallysentwhatwasleftonhertable toanoldwomanintheneighborhoodwholackedeventhenecessitiesoflife.Thenextdayshesentalltheporkmorselstotheoldwomanandthatnightsawavision ofthedevilasacook,bearingfood.134Thesuggestioninthisstorythatasaintlyabstainermightlosecontrolandslip,almostagainstherwill,

Page135

intogluttonyfindsechoesinafewlaterlives(forexample,thoseofElsbetAchlerofReute[d.1420],CatherineofSiena,andColumbaofRieti)thatgiveevidenceof surreptitiousandcompulsivegorgingbyfemalefasters.135 Behindthelivesdiscussedhere,whethersharplyindividualizedliketheportraitofAlpasorstereotypedlikethenuns'bookfromTss,wefindacommonpattern.Like outcroppingsofrockthatmaytakedifferingandsometimestwistedformsbutarebuiltonthesamecrystallinestructure,thesestorieshaveaunifyingthemebehindtheir flamboyantvarietyofdetail.Inthem,Godisfoodandselfisfood.ThecommunicationofGodtohumanityandthegivingofoneselftoanotherthroughsufferingor serviceisunderstoodas"feeding"animpartingoffleshthatnurturesasitisconsumed.Suchacomplicatedexchangeoffleshrequiresfastingfromordinaryfoodas thestandardprerequisite.Thusclosingandopening,abstainingandeating,arethebasicpatternsorganizingsuchnarrativesandsuchlives. ThiscommoncrystallinestructureunderliesthestoriesoffourofthegreatestreligiouswomenofthenorthofEuropeElizabethofHungaryorThuringia,Margaretof Hungary(d.1270or1271),DorothyofMontau,andColetteofCorbie.Toallfour,obsessivefasting,accompaniedbysleeplessnessandfreneticactivity,becamea focalpointofpiety.Allfourstruggledforcontrolovertheirvocations.Allfourfedothers.Yetdespitethelargeamountofscholarshipdevotedtotheirlives,the commonpatternhasgoneunnoticed.Itwillthereforebeusefultotakeafewparagraphstotelltheirstories. ThelifeofElizabethofHungary,marriedatfourteentothesonofthedukeofThuringiaandwidowedattwenty,hasbecomesoencrustedwithlegendthatitishardto decipher.136Theimportanceofhersternconfessor,ConradofMarburg,ininducingherobsessionwithfoodisimpossibletoassessatthisdistance.137Itisclear, however,thatshefeltintenseguiltaboutherhusband'swealthandprobablyaboutherloveforhimaswell.Itisalsoclearthatsheceasedeatingthefoodfromher husband'stableforfearithadbeenacquiredimmorallyandthatshehidheracutefasting,crumblingherbreadtomakeitappearshehadeatenandspendingherdowry tobuyalittleuntaintedfoodforherselfandherservants.Onceshetookthehabitofatertiary,sheperformedextremefastswhilecookingforandservingothers. Throughoutherlife

Page136

shecompulsivelygaveawayfood.138Afterdeath,herbodyoozedhealingoil.139Thestoriesanddescriptionsthataccumulatedaroundhereventhosethatare clearlyapocryphal(likethelegendofbreadturnedtoroses)stressedherfooddistributiontothepoorandhermotherly"nourishing"ofhersons,thefriars.140 Anotherroyalsaint,MargaretofHungary,anunfromgirlhoodwhoferociouslyrefusedoffersofmarriage,141practicedsimilarfoodasceticism.Shetoowasfreneticin theserviceofothers,evencleaninglatrinesandcarryingtheexcrementandvomitfromseriouslyillnuns.142Toavoideating,Margaretseveraltimesservedhersisters atthebeginningofthemeal,escapedtothechapeltopray,andreturnedtoservethemagain143shefrequentlycoveredherfacewithaclothduringmeals.144Shehid herownillnesses,lestshebesenttotheinfirmaryandofferedmeat,andherbodywasso"emaciatedandpale"fromfastingthatallmarveled.145Yetsheinsistedon cookingforothers,freezingherhandsincoldwaterandcuttingthemonfishscales,andshewentintoecstasyatcommunion,remainingforhoursafterwardinthe churchandrefusingordinaryfood.146Moreover,herbodyitself,whichsherefusedtowashorcarefor,curedthesick.Washwaterfromherhair,whenheldinthe mouthorswallowed,curedillsistersandevenabrotherinanothermonastery.147 ThelaywomanDorothyofMontau(orPrussia),whosefoodasceticismbeganearlyandbroughtherintosevereconflictwithhermother,148feltagoniesofguiltover enjoyingthreesmallfishes,developednauseaatthesightorsmelloffood,atesolittlesheceasedexcreting,andwouldhavegonewithoutfoodentirelyatonepointin herlifehadnotherconfessorintervened.149Shewaspassionatelydevotedtotheeucharist,aroundwhichhermostelaboratevisionsandimagesclustered,andshe developedakindofmysticalpregnancyorswellinginpreparationforcommunion.150Anxioustobefreeofherhusbandandhousework,sheenjoyedbegging,and onecannothelpsuspectingthatamongitsattractionswasthefactthat,likeherfrequenttrances,itrelievedherofthejobofpreparingfood.151Oneofherhusband's fiercecomplaintswasthatwhileshewasinecstasysheforgottoshop,orcookedtheeveningmealwithoutscalingthefishorcleaningthevegetables.152Her descriptionsofeucharistictrances,writtendownbyherconfessor,JohnMarienwerder,notonlymentionsensibleeffectssuchasvisionsofChristbleedingonthecross orofferingaheavenlybanquet,153theyalsomakeitclearthatshesawtheagonyofactualhungerforthehostasanecessaryprepara

Page137

tionfortheproperreceptionofcommunionandastheextension,inthislife,ofthepainsofpurgatory.ShereportedthatChristsaidtoher:
Thosepeoplewhoreceiveme[inthehost]becauseitiscustomarytodosoorinordertowinfavororpraisefromothersreceivegreatdamnationintakingme,fortheydonothave theintensedesireoflove.IndeedIjustsaidtoyouthathewhodoesnothungerformybody...doesnotreallydesireeternallife.Foritisnecessarythatmanclamorandlaborfor me,thathewailaloudeitherhereinthisworldorinpurgatory.Andyoumusthaveforme,beforeconsumingthesacrament,agreatlaborandhungerandafternoon[i.e.,afterthe mass],youmusthaveagreathungerandlaborforeternallife....Hewhodoesnothungergreatlyformewillnotbefilledbymenorhavedelightinme.Forhowcananyonehave sweetnessanddelectationinthatfoodwhohasnothungeredforit?Andhowcanhebesatiatedandcontentedfromfoodinwhichhehasnotplacedallhishopeofdelight?154

OfDorothy'seucharisticcraving,Johnwrote:
Often,indeed,becauseofthefrenzy[aestus]ofthisdesireshewasnotabletoprayherheartgrievedsothatitseemedtoherasifshewantedtodieifshewasnotpermittedto receivethesacramentonthatday.Sometimes...shecouldhardlystandorwalk....Often...sheremainedinbedasifoppressedwithagraveillness.[SoGodorderedher confessortogivehercommunionthreetimesaweek.]...Butherdesirewasnotsatisfiedbythisfornowshehungeredinsuchintensedesireanddestitutionofallstrengththatit appearedtoherthatshecouldneverexpressherhungeroracceptintohermouthanycorporealfood....Andthisdesiregrewnightandday.155

Indeed,Dorothyfrequentlytoyedwiththeideaofextendingherexcruciatingfaststothehostitselffordespitehercravingfortheeucharist,sheexperienced overwhelmingsensationsofunworthinessandhadtobereassuredrepeatedlybyChristthathedesiredhertopartakeofthepreciousfoodofhisbody.156 OnefinalstoryfromthenorthofEuropeunderlineshowcentralfoodmotifshadbecomeinwomen'slivesbythefifteenthcentury.ColetteofCorbiewasfirstahermit andthentheinfluentialreformeroftheClares.157Shetraveledfrommonasterytomonasteryworkingforstrictobservanceandevenwithmalesupportdabbledin papalpolitics.ShewasanexactcontemporaryofLidwinaofSchiedam,whodiedin

Page138

1433attheageoffiftythree,and,aswithLidwina,theseveralsurvivingvitaeseemtobeembroideredwithcertainthemesthathagiographersandreadersconsidered appropriatetofemalesaints.158LikeLidwina,Colettesupposedlywentforlongperiodsoftimewithouteatingorsleeping.Herhagiographer,PeterofVaux, commentsproudlythatshe''wentbeyondtheFathers,"forshespentfortydaysandnightswithoutfoodordrink,"somethingthatisimpossibleoragainstnature...but notimpossibletooragainstGod."159LikeLidwina,Coletteexperiencedeucharisticecstasies.Likeherfastingcontemporary,shesupposedlyreceivedstigmata.160 AcopyofColette'sownexhortationtohernunssurvives.Whileitmentionsfastingamongothersevereausterities,itlaysnoparticularstressonfoodasceticism.161 Butinthehagiographicalaccounts,foodisacentraltheme.Colettesupposedlybegantofastasachild,givingawayherdinnertootherschoolchildren,runningfrom thefamilytabletowelcomebeggarsatthedoorandpressthemtoacceptherfood.Fromgirlhoodsheatenomeat.Throughoutherlifeshesentfoodfromhertableto thoseinthesurroundingcityandcountryside,andsometimesshemiraculouslymultipliedfoodorwineforhermonasteries.162Moreover,sheeffectedcureswithfood, puttingbreadshehadchewedintothemouthsoftwosicksistersor,onanotheroccasion,curingwithacrumbofbread.163Herkisshealedalepershewascuredby receivingtheVirgin'skissinavisionasicknunonceclaimedthatsherecoveredbecauseColetteappearedtoherinavisionandofferedhera"beautifulfruit"to eat.164Colettehealedanotherwomanbyblowingoverthewoman'scancerousfacewatershehadheldinhermouth.165Duringherlifetimeshecuredanunwho, possessedbythedevil,sufferedaterribleboutofbodilyrigidityandcouldnoteatordrink.166Afterherdeathwaterfromherrelicssupposedlyhealedawomanwho hadscarcelyeatenforthirteenyears.(Asadditionalevidenceoftheimportanceoffoodritualsinthisculture,weshouldnotethatthecuredwomanherselffirst acceptedthefoodoftheeucharistandthenfastedinthanksgivingforherrecovery.)167Colette'sbiographerstressesthatshenevermenstruated,"aspecialgracenot heardofinothers,"andthatbothinlifeandindeathherbodygaveoffonlysweetodors.168 SoimportantwastheeucharistinColette'spietythatsheheardmasseverydayandcommunicatedfrequentlybutshepreferredtodosoinprivatebecauseshecould notcontrolherweepingandtrances,anda

Page139

crowdoftengatheredtogawk.ShefrequentlysawChristinvisionsattheelevationandsometimes,outofreverenceandfrenzy,shewasalmostunabletoswallowthe host.Shecouldnoteataftermassandoftenremainedraptinecstasyformanyhours.169Once,whenthepriestfilledthechalicewithwaterbymistake,sheknewthat Godwasnotpresentatthemomentofconsecration.Onanotheroccasion,whenthepriestforgottoconsecrateahostforher,Christbroughtthewaferwithhisown hand.Aminiatureofthisscene,paintedbetween1468and1477forMargaretofYork,wifeofCharlestheBoldofBurgundy,showshowsuchanimmediateand individualrelationshipbetweenGodandthesoulcouldseemtobypassclericalauthority(seeplate11).170Onanotheroccasion,ColettesawavisionoftheChrist childonadish,carveduplikeapieceofmeatafterwards,asshebroodedoverthehorrifyingvision,sheknewthatitrepresentedChrist'sreparationforoursins.171 Imitatingthismaceratedfleshinherownbody,shebeatandstarvedherselfandsometimesbrieflydisplayedonherbodythemarksofChrist'sPassion.172 ThustheactiveandforcefulreformerColette,likehermorepassiveandpitifulcontemporaryLidwina,notonlyfastedfromordinaryfood,shealsofeastedonheavenly food.Indeed,Colettebecamefood.Inherasceticismandhertrances,shewasthetorturedfleshofChrist'sbrokenbody,offeredupforsin.Andasshemoved amonghersistersoramongthepoor,shenurturedtheminanotherway,throughhercomfortingpresence.Withherownmouthsheprovidedfoodtohealtheilland needy. Toamodernsensibility,thereisagreatdifferencebetweeninnermeditationthatvisualizesGodinfoodimagesandwhatpsychologiststodaycallsomatizationthat is,manifestationsinone'sbodyofemotionalandspiritualreactions(suchasstigmata,sweetmucusinthemouth,feelingsofbeingfilledorstifled,orspontaneous exudingsofsweatormilk).ButtoaGertrude,aLukardis,oraFloraofBeaulieu,suchexperiencesweremerelydifferingpointsonacontinuumthatwasencounter withGod.Tomedievalpeople,MechtildofHackeborn'svisionofthecommunioncupasChrist'sheartwasnotsimplyapoeticimageofatheologicaltenet,173nor wasColette'sinabilitytoeataftercommunionsimplyabodilyresponsetomentalexcitement.Whatisstrikingformypurposesthereforeisthatwhethertheyare ineffableexperiencesdescribedinpoeticlanguage,visionsseenwiththeeyesof

Page140

thebody,orfullbodilymanifestationsthemeetingswithGodthatmedievalwomenreceivedwereofteneatings,tastings,andsavorings.Themouth(breathing, kissing,spitting,swallowing,andsucking)wasawayofunitingwithGodandservingneighbor.DesireforChristwasfeltinmind,soul,andentrailsasinsatiablehunger orthirst.Abstinencefromordinarysustenancewasnotsomuchagoalinitselfasatributetotheoverwhelmingsweetness,theexhilaratingpain,ofthemeatanddrink thatGodwas. Italy MorevitaeofwomensaintscomefromItalythanfromanyotherregioninthelaterMiddleAges.Perhapsforthisveryreason,asscholarssuchasVauchez,Petroff, Weinstein,andBellhaverecentlyemphasized,Italianlivesfallintoaconsistentandpredictablepattern.Theyplaceastrongemphasisoncharitableactivityinthe world,lacedwithmiracle.Theyarealsostronglymaleoriented:thesewomensaintsoftensimultaneouslydominateandaredominatedbytheconfessorswho eventuallywritetheirbiographies.Thus,incontrastwithLowCountrywomenofthethirteenthcenturyorGermannunsoftheearlyfourteenth,Italianfemalesaints seemtobemoreisolatedfromotherwomen,withoutthesupportoforganizedfemalecommunities.Yet,asinnorthernstories,theunderlyingcrystallinestructureis there.Afewexampleswillshowtheprominenceofeucharisticdevotion,foodasceticism,feedingmiracles,andfoodimagesintheseItalianlives. EucharisticpietyisasignificantthemeinthevitaeofGherardescaofPisa(d.1260or1267),MargaretofCortona,AngelaofFoligno,AldaofSiena(d.1310),Agnes ofMontepulciano,CatherineofSiena,RitaofCascia(d.midfifteenthcentury),ColumbaofRieti,andCatherineofGenoa.AlthoughearlierItalianvitae,suchasthose ofGherardescaandUmiltaofFaenza(d.1310)sometimesdepicttheeucharistascleansingwatermorethannourishingbloodandstressseeingovereating,women's storiesingeneralmaketheroleofChrist'sbodyandbloodasholyfoodveryclear.174MargaretofCortona,AngelaofFoligno,ColumbaofRieti,andCatherineof Genoa,forexample,cravedfrequentreceptionandsubstitutedtheeucharistquiteexplicitlyforthefoodtheydeniedthemselvesinlongfasts.175

Page141

MargaretofCortona,oneofthemostinterestingofwomensaintsbecauseofherlowlyorigins,wasdirectedbyChristtocenterherpietyindailycommunionshe focusedonthehostbothheragonizedsenseofunworthinessandherdesperateneedforJesus'speciallove.Shecravedreceptionbutwasoftentooterrifiedtogo forwardtoreceive.176Sheadoredpriests.Jesussupposedlysaidtoherinavision:

Daughter,Icomplaintoyoubitterlyabouttheirreverenceofpriestswhotouchmedailyinsuchgreatnumberswithoutknowingorlovingme.Foriftheytrulyknewmetheywould knowthatthereisnobeautyinthecreatedworldsimilartothatofthosepriestswhocelebrate.Andtheywouldnotcometotouchmewithpollutedhands.177

Margaretwasgiventhegiftofdetectingbytasteunconsecratedhostsorthoseconsecratedbyunworthyclerics.178Jesuswarnedherinavisionnotonlyto"clingto thebreastsofconsolation"buttojoinwiththesorrowsofthecrossaswell.Inanothervisionhesaidtoher:"Youwishtobemydaughterofmilkbutyouwillbemy daughterofpoison,becauseofthepainsyousuffer."179ShespokerepeatedlyofChristas"livingbread"andsawherselfasanexampletoothers,bothofabstinence fromearthlyfoodandofheavenlyeatinganeatingthatwasexperiencedsimultaneouslyassufferingandasjoy.180 OtherItalianwomenalsolookedtotheeucharistwithobsessiveconcentrationofpurposeandhope.AngelaofFolignoacontemporaryofMargaretwho,like Margaret,wasreleasedtofollowareligiouslifebythedeathofamandescribedthehostassweeterthananyotherfood.Shesaidshewouldhavelikedtokeepit onhertongueagreatwhilelonger,ifshehadnotheardthatonemustswallowitinstantly:

Shesaidthenthatsometimes,whenshemadecommunion,thehostexpandedinhermouthandshetastedneitherthebreadnorthe[ordinary]meatwhichweknow.Certainlyit hadthesavorofmeatbutwithacompletelydifferenttaste,which"Idonotknowhowtocomparetoanythingelseinthisworld."Itwentdownwithgreateaseandsweetnessand notwiththedifficultytowhichshewasaccustomed.Shesaidthatitsoftenedquicklyandwasnothardasitusuallywas.Andithadsuchsweetnessthat"hadInothearditsaid thatapersonoughttoswallowquicklyIwouldhavehelditfreelyinmymouthwithgreatdelay.ButatsuchtimesIremembersuddenlythatIoughttoswallowquickly,andthe bodyofChristgoesdownwholewiththatsavorofunknownmeat,nor

Page142 doIneedtodrinkanythingafterwards.ButthisdoesnotnormallyhappenandsoImakeagreateffortthatnocrumbofthehostremainsbetweenmyteeth.Butwhenitdoes descendinthisway,itgivesmeagreatfeelingofpeace.Andthisisdiscernedoutwardlyinmybody,becauseitmakesmetrembleviolently,sothatonlywithgreateffortamIable tograspthechalice."181

AngelarepeatedlyreferredtoChristas"ourfood"and"ourtable,"andinavisionsawhimputthefriarsofFoligno,her"sons,"intohisside,whencetheyemergedwith lipsrosyfromdrinkingblood.182OnanotheroccasionChristappearedtoherallbleedingandgaveherhiswoundtosucksheprayedtobeallowedtodrinkhis sufferinganddeathbutknewshewasnotworthytodieamartyr.183 ThevitaofAlda(orAldobrandesca)ofSiena,whichsurvivesonlyinasixteenthcenturyversion,showsasimilarconcernwiththeeucharistasnurturingblood.Inone ofhereucharisticvisions,AldatastedadropofbloodfromChrist'ssideonanotheroccasionthedropfellontohergirdleandshesuckeditoutwithhermouth.In honorofsuchvisions,Aldahadapicturepaintedthat,reversingtheusualimageofthenursingmadonna,showedMarydrinkingfromChrist'ssidewhileholdinghimin herarms.184 FoodasceticismisalsocommonintheseItaliantexts,asselfdiscipline,aspreparationforeucharist,orasunionwiththecross.MargaretofCortona,forexample, undertookextendedfastsandstruggledtoconquerthirst.Sherefusedtokeepforherselfmorethancrumbsfromherbegging,givingthewholeloavestothepoor.She spokeofhereffortstoeatlessandlessasawaragainstthebodyinwhichnotreatyofpeacewaspossible.185Sofixatedonfooddidhergreedandguiltbecomethat thedeviltorturedherwithphantasmsandodorsofdelicaciesshehadneverevenseen.186 Somewomen,suchasCatherineofSiena,CatherineofGenoa,andColumbaofRieti,quicklybecameunabletoeat.Villanade'Botti(d.1361),likeAngelaof Foligno,foundthatshelostherappetiteforcorporealfoodwhenshewaspraying.187RitaofCascia,whoinheryouthtriedtotameandexpiatetheviolenceofherill temperedhusbandbyfastsandserviceofthepoor,atehardlyatallinlaterlifeherreligiouscompanionsbelievedshewassustainedbyfrequentcommunion.188But otherwomenfoundhungerdifficulttoconquer.ClareGambacortaofPisa(d.1419),whomixedasheswithherfoodtospoilthetasteandate

Page143

onlythescrapsleftonothers'plates,hadtoinflictpainonherselftodivertherattentionfromheraching,growlingstomach.189 Abstinenceandeucharisticdevotionarenotmerelyincidentalthemesinthesetexts.Wecanseehowintegraltheyareandhowintegrallytiedonetotheotherin AngelaofFoligno'sBookoftheExperienceoftheTrueFaithfulorBookofDivineConsolation,which,althoughwrittendownbyherconfessor,frequently includesherownwords.190Thebooktreatsfoodinpartasasymbolofhumancorruption.WhenAngelawantedtodeclareherformerhypocrisypublicly,she proposedtoparadethroughthestreetswithrottingmeatandfishtiedaroundherneck.191WhenshebegantoreceivethecomfortofGod'spresence,shefound,she tellsus,thatshescarcelyneededtoeatatall.Sometimesshewishedthatshemightbereleasedentirelyfromfoodinordertorevelonlyinthesweetnessofprayerand eucharist.192 ButfoodwasmoretoAngelathansimplyasymbolofhumancorruption.FoodwasphysicalityandAngelaunderstoodChristtobesayingtoherinvisionaftervision thatshemustfusewith,notflee,thephysicalitythatsufferedandbledonthecross.SoAngeladecidedtorejectthe"temptation"bothtoexhibitherguiltinthe symbolismofrottingfoodandtoceaseeatinginordertodallywithChrist.193Shecametoseeherdesiretoparadethroughthestreetsasthesinofdespair.Shelater saidofthisepisode,inoneofherfewextantletters:
Iwantedtoputacordaroundmythroatandhavemyselfledthroughpublicplaces...whilepeoplejeered:"SeethegreatmiracleofGodhehasmademanifestalltheiniquities andevildeeds,thehypocriticalactsandsins,whichshekepthiddenthroughherwholelife."YouknowthatIwastheninsuchdesolationthatIdespairedcompletelyofGodand hisgiftsandenteredintostrugglewithhim.194

Angelacamethroughherdespairtoavisionoftruehumility.ShearguedthatChristvaluedmeeknessofheartmorethanthe"works"offasting,abstinence,and poverty.ShereportedthatJesussaidtoherinavision:"Yourwholelifeyoureatinganddrinkingandsleepingandeverythingyoudoinlivingispleasingtome[if youloveme],"andshewrote:

Ohmysons,listen....[Christ]didnotsay:"Learnfastingfromme"...nor"Learn...poverty..."nor"Learntoworkmiracles,"...buthesaidonlythis:"LearnfrommeforIam meekandhumbleofheart."

Page144 Fortrulyhemadethishumilityofheartandpropercomportmentofbodythefoundationandmostfirmrootofallvirtuesbecauseneitherabstinencenortheharshnessoffasting, norexternalpovertyandvileclothing...norvirtuosityinmiraclesisworthanythingwithouthumilityofheart.Butwhenfoundedonthisroot,blessedareabstinenceand harshnessandvileclothingblessedandlivingaresuchworks.195

Fromadichotomyinwhichhumanfoodwasnegativeanddivinefoodareplacement,Angelaseemstohavemovedtoanotionthatonemusteatthebloodofsuffering, afoodbothearthlyanddivine.Oncethecrisisofherconversionwasover,foodasceticismbecamelessimportantinherspirituality.Bloodanddrinkingwereher dominantimagesforencounterwithGod.TheeucharistshetookcametobenotsomuchareplacementforearthlyfoodasthedyingfleshofJesus,withwhichshe mergedininfinitesweetnessandinfinitesuffering.196Shetoldherconfessor:

Once,whenIwasatVespersandwascontemplatingthecrucifix,...suddenlymysoulwasliftedintolove,andallthemembersofmybodyfeltaverygreatjoy.AndIsawandfelt thatChrist,withinme,embracedmysoulwiththatarmbywhichhewascrucified...andIfeltsuchgreatsecuritythatIcouldnotdoubtitwasGodevenifallmentoldmeto doubt....SoIrejoicewhenIseethathand,whichheholdsoutwiththesignsofthenails,sayingtome:"BeholdwhatIboreforyou." NowIcanfeelnosadnessatthePassion...forallmyjoyisinthatsufferingGodMan.AnditseemstomysoulthatitenterswithinthatwoundinthesideofChristandwalks therewithdelight.197

Shealsowrote:
Themomentofcommunionapproached....AndIwaspresent[withtheangels],asIhadasked....AndIsawhim,withtheeyesofthespirit,veryclearly,firstliving,fullof suffering,bloodyandcrucifiedandthen[Isawhim]deadonthecross.IfeltitIhadsolivelyasadnessatthepitifulsightthatmyheartseemedalmosttobreak.Butontheother handIfeltgreatdelightsandavastjoyatthepresenceoftheangels.198

Inherdaytodayactivities,Angela,likemanyotherItaliantertiaries,cametoexpressthisimitatiocrucisbyfeedingandcaringforthesick.199Heretoo,perhaps becauseshecaredfortheirbodiesasasubstituteforJesus'own,sheusedmetaphorsofeatingquiteliterally.LikeCatherineofSiena,whodrankpus,andCatherine ofGenoa,whoatelice,Angela

Page145

drankwaterthatcamefromwashingthesoresoflepers.Oneofthescabsstuckinherthroat,shesaid,andtasted"assweetascommunion."200 InmanyoftheotherItalianvitae,asinAngela's,abstinencefromfoodanddevotiontotheeucharistareconnectedtothefeedingandservingofotherseitherby charityorbymiracle.MargaretofCortonaservedasadvisertomanyafflictedlikeherselfwithscrupulosity.201Shecaredforthesick.Shedetectedandexcoriated corruptclergy.202Christhimselfcommandedhertobeanexampleofabstinence,fasting,andpatience.203UmiltofFaenzawhosepiety,likeMargaret's,was characterizedbyeucharisticdevotionandabstinenceperformedafoodmultiplicationmiraclethat,accordingtoherhagiographer,shelikenedtothegospelmiracleof theloavesandfishes.204Umilt'sdiscipleMargaretofFaenza(d.1330)miraculouslymadewateredwinesweetandmultipliedloavesforworkmenatthe monastery.205AldaofSienacuredthesickservedthepoor,especiallyinheroldagedistributedtheproducefromherfarmtothedestituteandtwicechangedwater intowine.206AgnesofMontepulcianosawherprayersrewardedwitharainofmannafromheaven,andasimilarshowerblessedaspringshevisited.207She frequentlymultipliedoil,wine,andbreadforhersistersandoncechangedmeatintofishtomakeitmoreappropriateLentenfare.208CatherineofSienaherself reportedthatGodenabledAgnesandeighteennunstosurviveforthreedaysongreensalone,afterwhichhehelpedAgnesfeedthesistersfortwomealsonfivelittle rolls.209AfterherdeathAgnes'sbodyexudedsweetoilfromhandsandfeet,andtheoileffectedmanycures.210 ThethemeofexudingappearsinseveralItalianvitae,asitdoesinthosefromtheLowCountriesandGermany.Flemishwomenweremoreapttoexudemilk,Italian andGermanwomenoilormannabutinvitaefromallregionsthethemeisclear.RitaofCascia,forexample,whoclosedherbodytoordinaryeating,developeda permanentlyrunningsoreonherforehead(supposedlymadebythecrownofthorns)afterdeathsheexudedasweetodor.211Inasimilarstory,wearetoldthat MargaretofCittdiCastelloexudedoilafterdeathshealsosupposedlyeffectedcuresthroughthreepreciousstonesfoundinherheartduringautopsy.212Thebody ofRoseofViterbo(d.ca.1252)wasfoundatexhumationtohaveproduced"mannalikesweetsmellingoil."213Whetheroil,milk,ormanna,theprecioussubstance exudedbythewoman'sbodywasusuallyseenascuringandfeeding.Moreover,theexudingofex

Page146

traordinaryfluidswasaccompaniedbyextraordinaryclosure.Awomanwhosebodywascommunicatedtootherswasusuallyawomanwhoherselfateonlythe specialfoodofGodtheeucharist. InItaly,asintheLowCountriesandFrance,thevitaeoflatefourteenthandfifteenthcenturyabstainersareoftenmoreelaboratethanthirteenthcenturytexts.Their extravagantdetailstendtosuggesttomodernreaderseitherpathologyonthepartoftheirsubjectsoruncontrolledimaginationonthepartoftheirauthors.Yetitis fromtheselatetextsthelivesofLidwina,Colette,andColumbaofRietithatwegetourclearestsenseofthecrystallinestructureunderlyingnotmerelythebehavior ofsaintlywomenbutalsotheexpectationsofordinarywomenandmen,whichshapedthatbehavior.ThusthesixteenthcenturyvitaofColumbaofRieti(d.1501) canserveasasummaryofthepatternwehavelearnedtorecognizeintextsfromtheprecedingperiod.214Strugglingtocontrolherenvironmentthroughfasting,like RitaofCasciaandDorothyofMontau,consumedwithdesirefortheeucharist,likeMargaretofCortonaandIdaofLouvain,givingawayeverything,likeMargaretof Hungary,andafflictedwithdiabolicalvisionsoffood,likeAlpas,ElsbetAchler,andAngelaofFolignoColumbaofRietistarvedherselftodeathattheageofthirty four. Columba'shagiographerbeginshisstorybyunderliningthethemeoffood.HesuggeststhatColumba'sfuturesanctitywasforeshadowedbyhermother'sabstinence fromallfoodanddrinkexceptgreens,vinegar,andwildgrapesduringherpregnancy.LikeRoseofViterbo'shagiographer,hepresentstheholygirlasabstainingwhile stillababyatthebreast.215Atagefive,hetellsus,Columbamadeherselfahairshirtandwasteasedbyhermother'sfriendsforrefusingtoeat.216 Columba'sfoodasceticismhadapparentlyledtoaconflictofwillswithhermotherevenbeforeherparentsdecidedtofindahusbandforher.Thatdecision precipitatedfurtherconflict,duringwhich,likeClareandCatherineofSiena,Columbacutoffherhair.217Aspartofthisstruggle,shebegantofasttwodaysaweek andfiveLentsayear,takingonlywaterandbreadorunripefruit.Shealsopracticedflagellationandsleepdeprivation,andshegaveawaysomuchfamilyfoodthather mothercametoheroncetosaythattherewasnothingtoeat,atwhichpointColumbaperformedafoodmultiplicationmiracle.Whenhermotherandherconfessor triedtoenticeherwithherbsorvegetables,shemixedashes,dirt,orwaterintothefoodtospoilthetaste.218Shefell

Page147

intotranceswhiledoinghousework,onceevendroppingababyintothefire.219Herharassedmotherexclaimed:"Youdespisedahusband,youneglectyour householdchores,andnowyouremainatleisureforyourownpleasure.Daughter,Isayyoumustwork."ButColumbasawavisionofJesus,whosaid,"Followme." ShereturnedtohersenseswithgaietyandpointedouttohermotherthatGod'scommandsoverridethoseofparents.220Throughoutherlifetheextravagantself denialcontinued,asdidthepassionateserviceofothersandthestubbornnessaboutdecidingforherself.Sheclearlylosttheabilitytodealnormallywithbodily sensationsand,althoughfeelinghorroroffoodanddrink,sometimesdrankvinegarorlickedthedirtydisheswaitingtobewashed,withoutknowingwhatshewas doing.221 Columba'sfastingwasconnectedtoacravingfortheeucharist,whichshewaseventuallypermittedtoreceivedaily.222Althoughshecouldneverarticulateherjoyat receivingGod'sbody,shesometimescriedwhenshereturnedtohercellaftermassandfelthorrorwhenshecomparedordinaryfoodwiththecelestialsweetness.223 Thedevil,whocameinuglyvisionstotemptherwithbreadandfruitandwithanudemalebody,eventriedtoinduceinherdoubtsabouttransubstantiation.Whenhe toldhershewasguiltyofhomicidebecauseshewasstarvingherself,shecriedoutthatshewasonlydiscipliningtheflesh."Heeatsallthingswhorefresheshimselfon God,"sheasserted,"sinceinhimallthingsarecontained.""That'swhatyouthink!"repliedthedevil."Itcontainsonlyseeds,likeflourandbread."Butthenextday ColumbareceivedcomfortintheformofavisionofJesushangingonthecrossabovethechalice.Onanotheroccasion,afteranexhaustingsetofvisionsinwhichthe devilrepeatedlyforcedfoodtohermouth,shesuddenlylaughedandcriedout,''InthenameofJesus,takeitawayyoueat!"224 Columba,likeMargaretofCortona,reveredpriestsfortheirpowerovertheeucharistandevenshedtearsofloveandaweforherownspiritualfather.225Buther eucharisticvisionssometimesbypassedpriestlycontrol.Onenightshewasledtocommunionbythesaintsinavision,andthenextday,whenherconfessoraccused herofneglectingtheeucharist,shesaid,"Why,father,yougavemecommunionthismorningatthebigaltar."Hedeniedit,butwhenhelookedforthehost,hefoundit haddisappeared.226 Ifwereadbetweenthelinesofthevita,itisclear,inpartbecauseofthebiographer'sdefensiveness,thatshewasmuchcriticizedbyreligious

Page148

peopleanddidnotalwayssubmit.227Agroupofnunsoncetriedtoforcehertoeat,suspectingthatshestarvedherselfbecauseofunrequitedlove.228Althoughshe ateagrapeanddrankwaterbeforevisitorstodisproverumorsthatshewassubsistingontheeucharistalone,sheobeyedimmediatelywhenDominicorderedherina visiontoeatonlythesacrament.229Herpriestscouldnotdissuadeher.Receivingnothingbeyondthehostnotevenpurewatershedied. Likeotherfastingsaints,Columbafedandservedothers,bothbymiracleandbytheworkofherhands.Shenursedthesickduringtheplague.Shewashedher companions'feetatmeals.Whenapoorwidowlackedfood,Columbatoldhertogohomeandlookagain,andthewomanfoundsustenance.Onanotheroccasion Columbacausedalittlebitofflourtomakemuchbread.230 Withtheclinicaldetailthattellsusweareinthesixteenthcenturyratherthanthethirteenth,Columba'shagiographerunderlinesasthebiographersofAlpas,Colette, andLutgardhaddoneearlierthedryingupoftheascetic'sbody.AttemptingtoproveboththatColumbawaskepthealthybytheeucharistandthatherbodygave noevidencethatshehadeaten"heavy"food,especiallymeat,thebiographerdetailsherlovelysmell,herfailuretosweat,thepurityofherfingernails,thestrengthof herlimbsandteeth,andthebeautyofhercountenance.Hereportsthatshetoldherprioressthatshedidnotmenstruate.Healsoclaimsthatwaterranrightthrough herwhenshedrankandthatsheonlyoccasionallyeliminatedatinybitofyellowfecalmatter.231Butnomatterhowclosedandcontrolledherbodywas,the investigatorswhoopenedherchestfivedaysafterherdeathdiscoveredaroundherdryheartastreamofpureandlivingblood.232 ThusinColumba'slife,asinmanyotherfemalelivesfromalloverEurope,eucharisticdevotion,charitablefooddistribution,feedingmiracles,abstinence,andself starvationweremajorthemes.Suchvitaeclearlyindicatethatfastingandeucharisticpietywerecentralpracticesinwomen'ssearchforunionwithGod.Moreover, theselivessuggestthathagiographers,thosewhoreadtheirstories,andthosewhoreveredtheirsubjectsassociatedfasting,eating,andfeedingotherswiththe religiosityofwomen.AccountssuchasthevitaeofMaryofOignies,IdaofLouvain,LukardisofOberweimar,AngelaofFoligno,DorothyofMontau,Lidwinaof Schiedam,ColetteofCorbie,andColumbaherselfarenotmerelyfragmentsofdocumentationaboutasceticismanddevo

Page149

tion.Theyarepiecesofliteraturewhosedramaandpathosarewovenaroundthecentralmotifofbodiesasfood:God'sbody,dyinginorderthatChristiansmayeat andlive,andwomen'sbodies,receivingfood,refusingfood,becomingfood. Yethagiographynomatterhowelegantitsstructureisnotoriouslystereotypicalandexaggerated.Thestoriesofsaintssometimesexpressmoreclearlythe expectationsofauthorsandreadersthanthehopesandfearsintheheartsoftheirretiringandearnestsubjects.Wemustthereforeaskwhetherwomen'sownwritings suggestthesamefixationonfoodthattheirconfessorsandbiographersoftenbuiltintotheirvitae.Theanswer,asweshallseeinthenextchapter,isthattheydo.

Page150

5 FoodintheWritingsofWomenMystics
Lethimkissmewiththekissofhismouth:forthybreastsarebetter thanwine, Smellingsweetofthebestointments.Thynameisasoilpouredout: thereforeyoungmaidenshavelovedthee. Drawme:wewillrunaftertheetotheodourofthyointments.The kinghathbroughtmeintohisstorerooms:wewillbegladand rejoiceinthee,rememberingthybreastsmorethanwine. .......................... Isatdownunderhisshadow,whomIdesired:andhisfruitwassweet tomypalate. Hebroughtmeintothecellarofwine:hesetinordercharityinme. Staymeupwithflowers,compassmeaboutwithapples:becauseI languishwithlove. SONGOFSONGS1:13,2:35 Igaveyoumilktodrink,notmeatforyouwerenotableyet.But neitherindeedareyounowableforyouareyetcarnal. 1CORINTHIANS3:2

LatemedievalmysticsborrowedfromScripture,particularlyfromtheSongofSongs,thenotionofusingimagesoffoodandeatingtotalkaboutthesoul'sdesirefor God.Whentheythoughtabouteucharistoraboutmysticalunionitself,theythoughtofthesweetnessofthebridegroom'sbreasts,ofmilkandthehoneycomb,of flowingoil,andofthecellarofwine.Moreover,drawingonPaul'swords,theyconceivedofspiritualinstruction,evenofdivineillumination,asmilkofferedtothosenot yetgrowntoadulthood.ThustheysometimessawJesusortheapostlesandsaintsasnursingmothersorasabanquetofrefreshmentandlove.1 Tomedievalexegetesandspiritualwriters,suchthemeswerenotmere

Page151

metaphors.Intellect,soul,andsensoryfacultieswerenotdivided,withaseparatevocabularytorefertoeach.Rather,Godwasknownwithsensesthatwereafusion ofallthehumanbeing'scapacitiestoexperience.WhenmedievalwritersspokeofeatingortastingorsavoringGod,theymeantnotmerelytodrawananalogytoa particularbodilypleasurebut,rather,todenotedirectlyanexperiencing,afeeling/knowingofGodintowhichtheentirepersonwascaughtup.Themysticalwriter RudolphBiberach(d.ca.1350)pointedoutthatsapientia(wisdom,goodtaste)andsapere(totasteorsavor)arerelatedetymologically:"totaste"is"toknow."2 As WilliamofSt.Thierryputitinthetwelfthcentury:''...gustare,hocestintelligere."3 Thusalmostallmedievalmysticssometimesspeakof"tastingGod,"andtheverbitselfisakindofbridgebetweenthephysicalactofeatingthehostandtheinner experienceofrestinginthesweetness(fruitio)ofmysticalunion.ItisexactlybecausemysticsexperiencedGodwithmorethanintellect,andfeltcomfortableusing sensuallanguagetoexpresstheexperience,thattheyandtheirhagiographerssometimesdifferedoverwhetheravisionwasseenwiththeeyesofthebodyortheeyes ofthemind.Aninner,glorious,wordlessmoment,describedinhighlyaffectivelanguagetoasisteroraconfessor,easilybecameavisionoranapparitionoramiracle asitwasretoldbyoneexcitedhearerafteranother.BernardofClairvaux,forexample,saidthatthingscomefromGodwithoutimages,andGertrudeofHelfta's biographersquotedBernardinanefforttoexplainthatGertrude'svisionsweremerelyChrist'swayofteachingherwhatultimatelysurpassesallsenses.Gertrude's sisters,however,weresureshereceivedChrist'sheartasfoodanddrink,hidinitasthedoveintherocks,ornursedfromitthroughhisside.4 Becauseofexegeticaltraditionandbecauseofthecentralplaceoftheeucharistintheliturgy,verbssuchasmanducare(tochew),pascere,pasci(tofeed),sapereor gustare(totaste),edere(todevour),esurire(tohunger),andfruor(todelightin,withconnotationsoftofructify)camenaturallytolatemedievalspiritualwriters.But manyotherequallysensualverbswereavailableforexpressingthesearchforandenjoymentofGodverbsofseeing,ofhearing,oftouchingandthesewordstoo reverberatewithcomplexbiblicalandliturgicalresonances.Godcouldbelight,water,heat,word,orsong,aswellasthebreadofangelsorsweetwine.5 TheSongof Songssuggestedmetaphorsofsexualunionandfertilityatleastasmuchasmetaphorsofdrunkennessandfeasting.6 .

Page152

Andmanyhighlyaffectivewriters,suchasRuysbroeck,Rolle,andSuso,seemtohavepreferredimagesoftheseaorofmelodytoimageryoffood,despitetheir eucharisticpiety.YetwomenmysticsinthelaterMiddleAgeswereparticularlyfondnotonlyofimagesoftastinganddevouringbutalsoofextended,elaborate metaphorsofhungerandofbread,blood,andfood.Ifhandbooksandsurveyaccountsofthehistoryofpietyhavetendedtoassociatefemalespiritualitywithnuptial oreroticmetaphors,7 itappearstobemorebecausemodernsensibilitiesaretitillatedbysuchimagesthanbecausetheyarewomen'smostcommonmetaphorsfor unionwiththedivineorbecausetheyrepresentadistinctivelyfemalepatternofexpression.Whatdoesseemmorecharacteristicofwomenmysticsthanofmen, however,ishungeringforGod. InthepagesthatfollowIanalyzethewordsthatwomenthemselveswroteorspoke.Imighthavechosenotherfiguresfordetailedconsiderationforexample,Angela ofFolignoorMechtildofMagdeburg.IhavedecidedtotreatHadewijch,BeatriceofNazareth,andthetwoItalianCatherinesinpartbecauseIcaninthatwaylimit myselftotworegions,treatingtworepresentativeseachofnorthernandsouthernpiety.IhavealsochosenthesefourfiguresbecauseIcan,ineachsection,couplea womanwhoseownwritingsurvives,articulatedinseveraldistinctgenres,withawomanwhoseideaswerepartiallymediatedbutbynomeansentirelymaskedby thosewhorecordedthem. Atfirstglancethischaptermayseemmerelytocontinueexplanationanddepictionofthemestreatedinchapter4.Thisisnotso.Thewomenconsideredinthe previouschapterareseen,sotospeak,fromtheoutside.Occasionallytheir"sayings"havebeenrecordedbyhagiographerssometimesafewlettersordirectaccounts ofvisionshavesurvived.Butforthemostpart,theirvoicesaresilent.ThusIhadtoinducetheirtheologyfromtheirbehavioranenterpriseofuncertainreliability,as medievalinquisitorialrecordsshowonlytooclearly.Incontrast,thewomenIconsiderinthepresentchaptertellushowtheygavemeaningtotheirexperiences.They articulateamysticaltheologyofconsiderablepowerandbeauty.Andinthattheologytheytellusthattoofferandtobecomefood(i.e.,macerated,torn,andnurturing flesh)istoserveandtosave.Itisnecessarytolistenwithsomecaretotheirvoices,foralthoughthesewomenhavebeenmuchstudiedbyscholars,thecomplexityof theirideashasseldombeenunderstood.8 .

Page153

HadewijchandBeatriceofNazareth Sometimeswefindimageryofeating,devouring,andhungeringinmysticalwritersofwhoselivesweknowlittle.ThisisthecasewithHadewijch,9 thefirstgreatpoet intheFlemishlanguage,whoprobablywrotebetween1220and1240,wasprobablytheleaderofabeguinegroupfromwhichshewasatsomepointexiled,andwas perhapsactuallyaccusedofquietism,achargesheseemstohavebeenanxioustorefute.10Ofherownreligiouspracticesweknowonlywhatissuggestedbyobscure autobiographicalfragmentsinherpoems,letters,andvisions.Shewarnsagainstgluttony,urgingherdaughtersthattheyshouldneverhave"taste"foranythingoutside God,11andshewasclearlydeeplydevotedtotheeucharist,thereceptionofwhichismentionedasprovidingtheoccasionforatleastfourofherthirteenrecorded visions.12ButeventhoughweknowlittleofHadewijch'sspiritualpractices,wecanseethepoweroffoodasanimageinherwriting.Hungeringanddevouring,ifnot hercentralmetaphors,arenonethelessrepeatedlyusedinherpoemsandletterstotalkaboutthe"love"thatishercentralconcernalovethatisbothGodandthe searchforGod.13Moreover,asPaulMommaersandJ.Reynaerthavepointedout,themysticalonenesssheachievesnotanecstatictranscendingofhumannessbut ajoiningwithJesus'"concrete,disconcerting,humanHumanity"isanexperienceshecalls''tasting":
TheCountenancewhichhetheremadevisiblewasinvisibleandinaccessibletothesightforallcreatureswhoneverlivedhumananddivineloveinonesimpleBeing,andwho couldnotgrasporcherishintheundividedtastetheonenature.14 Iwaschosen[toreceiverevelations]inorderthatImighttasteManandGodinoneknowledge[daticmenscheendegodineenreconstsmakensoude].15

TheuniontowardwhichHadewijchstrainedwitheveryfiberofherbeingwasbestspokenofinparadoxes,shefelt,becauseitwasthesoul'sonlygoal,yetimpossible ofmorethanmomentaryattainment.Thusitwasbestarticulatedinthecriesofpain,theimagesofhellandloneliness,thatreflectthemystic'sfailuretoretainit. Hadewijchwrotebothsomeofthemostaffective,sensual,eveneroticdescriptionsofunionwith

Page154

Christeverpennedandsomeofthefiercestcriticismofaffectivespirituality,denyingthatloveiseversweetness,joy,orpeace.Exactlybecausefinalrestisnever possibleinthislife,HadewijchagainandagainchallengedherspiritualdaughterstofusewiththehumanityofChristbeforeattemptingto"becomeGodwithGod"(i.e., torestinsweetness).16TheHadewijchwhocoulddescribehersoulmeltingeroticallyintothebeautifulhumanJesusatthemomentofeatinganddrinkinghisbodyin communionalsowrote:

Hellistheseventhname OfthisLovewhereinIsuffer. ForthereisnothingLovedoesnotengulfanddamn. ....................... AsHellturnseverythingtoruin, InLovenothingelseisacquired Butdisgustandtorturewithoutpity Forevertobeinunrest, Foreverassaultandnewpersecution Tobewhollydevouredandengulfed[alverslonden endealverswolghen] Inherunfathomableessence, Tofounderunceasinglyinheatandcold, Inthedeep,insurmountabledarknessofLove. Thisoutdoesthetormentsofhell.17

ToHadewijch,onesoughtunionwithahumanChristinafrenzyofsufferingthatincludedandtranscendedpleasureandpain. Forsuchunion,bothhungerandeatingwerepowerfulimages.Hadewijchwishedtoexpressthetotalincorporationofhumanityintohumanitydivinity(eatingofGod bytheselfandoftheselfbyGod),yetshealsofeltanachingdesirethatyearnedforafillingbeyondsatiety.Tohungerandtodevour,forher,hadclearovertonesof physicalityjoiningphysicality.Toeatmeantbothtofusewith,ineroticunionofmouthtomouth,andtobecomepregnantwith,tohavegrowwithinone'sbelly.Yet suchunionwasunionwithsufferingfor"frenzieddevouring"carriedwithitconnotationsoffailureevertobefilled,evertostaytheagonizedlongingthatreturnedand returnedandreturned. HadewijchsometimesspeaksofthesoulasfedbyChristintheeucharistorinecstasy.SheborrowsfromWilliamofSt.Thierrytheimage

Page155

ofthesoulrearedbyChrist,"nursedwithmotherlycare...[and]disciplinedbytherodoffatherlymercy."18Shesayslove"nourishes[thehumble]withherfood."19 Andshedescribesthebeginningsofherownmysticallifeinlanguagethatusesdevour,swallow,anddrinktoexpressasweetengulfingofselfinGod:
SinceIwastenyearsoldIhavebeensooverwhelmedbyintenselovethatIshouldhavedied,duringthefirsttwoyearswhenIbeganthis,ifGodhadnotgivenmeotherformsof strength....AndthroughallthesetokenswithwhichImetintheintimateexchangeoflovebetweenhimandmeforasitisthecustomoffriendsbetweenthemselvestohide littleandrevealmuch,whatismostexperiencedistheclosefeelingofanother,whentheyrelish,devour,drink,swallowupeachother[Endeindoersmakene,Endeindoeretene, Endeindoerdrinckene,Endeinverswelgheneelcanderen]bythesetokensthatGod,myLove,impartedtome...hegaveme...confidenceinhim....SometimesLoveso enlightensmethatIknowwhatiswantinginmethatIdonotcontentmyBelovedaccordingtohissublimityandsometimesthesweetnatureofLoveblindsmetosuchadegree thatwhenIcantasteandfeelher[teghesmakeneEndetegheuoelne]itisenoughforme.20

Sometimes,drawingontheSongsofSongs,sheweavestogetherlanguageofkissingandeatingandflowingoil,expressingaclearsensethatthefoodbodyGodgives intheeucharistisreceivedbyChristiansasbotheroticandnourishingsweetness:
Hedelivereduptodeathhissubstance,thatistosayhisholyBody...andhegavehimselftobeeatenanddrunk,asoftenaswewill....Yes,muchsmallerthananatom comparedtotheentireworldiswhatwereceivefromGodcomparedtowhatwecouldhavefromGod,ifwetrustedinhimandwouldreceiveitfromhim.Alas,howmanysoulsnow remainthusunfed,andhowfewconsumehimamongthosewhohavetherighttoeatanddrink! Herelaxedtimethatis,heispatienttowaitforouradvancetoagoodlifewhenwewill.Weseehismouthbroughtclosetoustokisshimwhowishesit.Hisarmsareoutstretched: Hewhowishestobeembracedmaythrowhimselfintothem.21

Theunionofmouthtomouthshedescribesissometimesfranklyerotic,underliningtheextenttowhichallthesensesareinvolvedinthisknowingandexperiencingof God:

Page156 Theypenetrateeachotherinsuchawaythatneitherofthetwodistinguisheshimselffromtheother.Buttheyabideinoneanotherinfruition,mouthinmouth,heartinheart,body inbody,soulinsoul.22

Inherpoem"Love'sSevenNames"sheassertsthatwedoeatGod:
...love'smostintimateunion Isthrougheating,tastingandseeinginteriorly. Heeatsuswethinkweeathim, Andwedoeathim,ofthiswecanbecertain.23

Inthesestanzas,eatingisacentralmetaphornotmerelybecausetheeucharististheplaceinChristianritualinwhichGodismostintimatelyreceivedbutalsobecause toeatandtobeeatenexpressthatinterpenetrationandmutualengulfing,thatfusionoffleshlyhumannesswithfleshlyhumanness,thatHadewijchsawasnecessaryfor unitingwithaGodwhoisman.Moreover,inoneofhervisionsHadewijchherselfexperiencedwhatsheevokesinherpoetry.HeraccountofthismeetingwithGod readslikeadescriptionofsexualorgasm(anditisonlyourmodernsensibilitythatmakesthesuggestionashockingone):

HecameintheformandclothingofaMan,ashewasonthedaywhenhegavehisBodyforthefirsttime...hegavehimselftomeintheshapeoftheSacrament,initsoutward form...andthenhegavemetodrinkfromthechalice....Afterthathecamehimselftome,tookmeentirelyinhisarms,andpressedmetohimandallmymembersfelthisinfull felicity,inaccordancewiththedesireofmyheartandmyhumanity[namierehertenbegherten.namieremenscheit].SoIwasoutwardlysatisfiedandfullytransported.Alsothen, forashortwhile,Ihadthestrengthtobearthisbutsoon,afterashorttime,Ilostthatmanlybeautyoutwardlyinthesightofhisform.Isawhimcompletelycometonoughtand sofadeandallatoncedissolvethatIcouldnolongerdistinguishhimwithinme.Thenitwastomeasifwewereonewithoutdifference.

Hadewijchgoesontosuggestthatsuchinner"dissolving"isonewiththe"outward"seeing,feeling,andtastingofthesacrament.24 Eatingorbeingfedisnot,toHadewijch,merelyaunioninwhichGodtakestheinitiative,aswallowingordevouringofthesoulbyGod.Thesoultoogivesfood.It "suckles"whatitloves.AnditreachesouttotasteandmasticatethesweetnessoftheLord.Inthepoemhereditorcalls"WereIButLove,"Hadewijchspeaksofour ownlovingasakindoffeeding:

Page157 IgreetwhatIlove Withmyheart'sblood. .......... Ilong,Ikeepvigil,Itaste[Jchake,icwake,ic smake] ..................... Isuffer,Istriveaftertheheight, Isucklewithmybood[Jcsoghemetminnenbloede] Igreetthesweetnessthatcan Alleviatemymadness[orewoede]ofLove.25

Inherpoem"Love'sGrowth"shespeaksofbeingpregnantwithLove,asweetchild,whichiscarriedandnourishedinpainandfinally"whollyengulfsfromwithin"the motheringsoul.26Thus,toHadewijch,biologicalimagesfortheloveofferedandreceivedbytheselfareimagesoftheutmostintimacy.Toloveistogiveone'sbodily fluidasfood,tocarryafoetuswithinoneself,tochewortobecheweditisnotmerelytokissbutalsotofeeltheotherwithinone'sownbowelsorheart.Toloveisto engulfandbeengulfed,tomasticateandtoassimilate,toflowoutwithnurturesothatone'sbodybecomesfoodforanother. ButmetaphorsofeatingareusuallytoHadewijchnotmetaphorsofengulfingandincorporatingbutmetaphorsofemptinessandhunger.Nomatterhowmuchone "tastes,"oneisneverfull.ThemoreprofoundtheintimacywithGod,thegreatertheunrequitedcraving.Hadewijchwrites:

WhenanyoneseeksLoveandundertakesherservice,hemustdoallthingsforherglory,forduringthistimeheishumanandneedyandthenhemustworkchivalrouslyinall things,begenerous,serve,andshowmercy,foreverythingfailshimandleaveshiminwant.27

ThusHadewijchdoesnotconcludeherpoem"Love'sSevenNames"withassurancesofheavenlynurture.Shecontinues:
Andwedoeathim,ofthiswecanbecertain. Butbecauseheremainssoundevoured, Andsountouched,andsoundesired, Eachofusremainsuneatenbyhim Andseparatedsofarfromeachother. Butlethimwhoisheldcaptivebythesechains Notceasetoeathisfill,

Page158 Ifhewishestoknowandtastebeyondhisdreams TheGodheadandtheManhood!28

AndherpoembuildstoLove'sseventhname:
HewhoknowsLoveandhercomingsand goings Hasexperiencedandcanunderstand Whyitistrulyappropriate ThatHellshouldbethehighestnameof Love.29

Ultimately,toHadewijch,loveismostcloselyapproachedinparadox.Thushercentralfoodimagesareimagesofaneatingthatleavesonehungry,ofanunfulfilled cravingthatneverthelessistheonlyfood.
WhatissweetestinLoveishertempestuousness, Herdeepestabyssishermostbeautifulform .................... Todieofhungerforheristofeedandtaste Herdespairisassurance Hersorestwoundingisallcuring Towasteawayforhersakeistobeinrepose .................... Hertendercareenlargesourwounds ................ Hertableishunger.30

ToHadewijch,thedeepestdangerforthesoulwouldbetotrytoescapeorbypasssuchfrenzyandpain.Toherdaughtersshewrote:
WeallindeedwishtobeGodwithGod,butGodknowstherearefewofuswhowanttoliveasmenwithhisHumanity,orwanttocarryhiscrosswithhim,orwanttohangonthe cross....ButbeforeLovethusburstsherdikes,andbeforesheravishesmanoutofhimself...,hemustofferhernobleserviceandthelifeofexile.31

Inavision,shereceivedachalicefullofbloodwhenshedrankit,sherealizeditwasthechaliceofpatience.32AndinthesamevisionGodtoldher:"Sinceyouarea humanbeing,liveinmiseryasman[mensch]."33Shespokeofexpandinghersuffering,herterriblecravingforGod,intosuchcompassionforothersthatshewould havebravedGod'scondemnationtobringthemtolovehim.Heragonywasthusakindofservice,

Page159

whichonceevenmanagedtocoerceGodintoreleasingsoulsfromtheirdeservedjudgment.34ButshelearnedthatthepowerofGod'sawfuldecisionlaybeyond eventheserviceofsuffering.Shewrote:
IhaveneverexperiencedLoveinanysortofwayasrepose....ForIwasahumancreature,andLoveisterribleandimplacable,devouringandburning....Nowforpersons,my reposelayinlovingeachoftheminwhatwaspropertohim....AsforpersonswhofailedGodandwerestrangerstohim,theyweighedheavyonme.ForIwassoladenwithhis loveandcaptivatedbyitthatIcouldscarcelyendurethatanyoneshouldlovehimlessthanI.Andcharityforotherswoundedmecruelly,thatheshouldletthesesoulsbesuch strangerstohim....Iwouldgladlyhavepurchasedloveforthembyacceptingthatheshouldlovethemandhateme....ButthesovereignpowerthatisactualLovesparesno one....ThispowerheldmebackonceagainwhenIhadwishedtofreeallmen.35

Thus,toHadewijch,thesoulshouldstrivenotsomuchtorestinsatietyastosufferadeeperhungerbeyondfilling.Forthetruestsatietyisthepainofdesirethetruest reposeisthehorrorofGod'spower.AndallweattainfullnessorhungeristhegiftofLove.
ForIdependwhollyon[Love], IfIshalleverascendcleartohersummit. WhateverelseIdid, Myhunger[hongher]wouldremainasstrongasever: Didshenotgivemefullsatisfactioninher. SoIremainonLove'sside, Whatevermayhappentomeafterthat: Thepainofhungerforher,thejoyofsatisfactioninher, Notodesires,oryestodelight.36

Hadewijch'sreasonforstressinghungerratherthanreposeisnotmerelyexperiential.Itdoesnotliesimplyinhersensethatdesiregrowsevergreaterasittastesmore oftheineffablesweetness.ForHadewijch'slanguagereflectsdoctrineaswell.ItreflectsherconvictionthattheGodwemeetishumanityaswellasdivinity,and nowheremorehumanthanwhenhisfleshbecomesfood.37"Dearchild,"shewrotetoadisciple,"youhavemuchtodoifyouaretolivetheDivinityandthe Humanity."38"[Christsaid]:'IfyouwishtobelikemeinmyHumanity,asyoudesiretopossessmewhollyinmyDivinityandHumanity,youshalldesiretobepoor, miserable,anddespisedbyallmenandallgriefswilltaste

Page160

sweetertoyouthanallearthlypleasures.'"39Hunger,then,toHadewijch,isincorporationwithChrist'ssufferinghumanity,whichisourpathtohisdivinity.Themore wehungerwithChrist,themorewearefilled.Themoreweunitewith"eat"theloneliness,thedeath,thebodyofChristonthecross,themorefullyGodunites withus,swellingourfullnessandourdesire.

Inseparablesatietyandhunger AretheappanageoflavishLove .............. Satiety:forLovecomes,andtheycannotbearher Hunger:forshewithdraws,andtheycomplain. ..................... HowdoesLove'scomingsatiate? Filledwithwonder,wetastewhatsheis, Shegrantspossessingofhersublimethrone: Sheimpartsthegreattreasureofherriches. HowdoesLove'srefusalcreatehunger? Becausewecannotcomeatwhatwewishtoknow Orenjoywhatwedesire: Thatincreasesourhungeroverandover. ................... Maynewlightgiveyounewardor Newworks,newdelightstothefull NewassaultsofLove,newhungersovast ThatnewLovemaydevourneweternity!40

ThusweseethatthefoodmetaphorsinwhichHadewijchspeaksofhermysticalcravingexpressherconfidencethatweexperienceGodthroughalloursenses.Our knowingisatasting,aswelling,abeingfull,aflowingoutthatengagesallourhumanity.SuchmetaphorsalsoexpressherconvictionthatthesweetnessofGod's comingisinfinitepain,evenmadness,forhowevermuchwetaste,wecravemore.Thefullerourdesire,thehungrieroursoul.And,finally,suchmetaphorsofbodily encounterconjuringupastheydoteethandmouths,bowelsandbreasts,fleshchewedandswallowedandmadeintonewfleshrevealhowmuch,toHadewijch, theGodwhoistheinfiniteabyssbeyondalllanguageandmetaphorisalsofleshlyhumanityahumanitythatsuffersandfeeds. Hadewijch'ssenseofunionwithGodasfrenzy,likehereucharisticfer

Page161

vorandherpassionateimagesofdevouringanddesire,findsaparallelinthevitaofherFlemishcontemporary,BeatriceofNazareth.InBeatrice,thefrenzybecomes illness,"insanity,"inimageandinfacttheeucharistbecomesacascadeofblood,withwhichthewoman'sbodyunitesitself.AboutBeatrice'slifeweknowenoughto seethatasceticismandeucharisticdevotionwerecentraltoheractualpiety,thatshesoughthysteriaasameansoffusingwithChrist'scross,andthatfromthisfusion camehealth,whichspilledoverintobledintoserviceforothers. Beatricecamefromareligiousfamily.Whenshewassevenhermotherdied,andherfathercommittedhertothebeguinesofLautolearnherletters.Shewaslater educatedatoneoftheCistercianmonasteriesherfatherhadfounded,andshemadeherprofessionthereatsixteen.Ataboutagethirtysevenshebecameprioressat Nazareth,yetanotherofherfather'sfoundations,andservedinthiscapacityuntilherdeathatsixtyeight.41Beatricewrotedownherspiritualexperiences,inserting amongthemshortessaysonasceticormysticaltopics,atleastoneofwhichhassurvivedintheoriginallanguage.Thewholeformsakindofspiritualautobiography. AfterBeatrice'sdeath,ananonymousconfessorofNazarethtranslatedtheautobiographyintoaLatinthat,wherewecancompareittoherFlemishoriginal,appears bothfloridandessentiallytruthful.42ThisautobiographymakesitclearthatBeatricetorturedherbodyinextremeasceticismflagellatingherself,sleepingonstones, walkingonice,bindingthornsbetweenherbreastsandaroundherloins,and,eveninillness,eatingonlydrybreadandthatdevotiontotheeucharistwasattheheart ofherpiety.43 ToBeatrice,illness,whichischieflyinsanity(orewoetinFlemish,insaniaamorisoraestusinLatin),istheessentialthelivedmetaphorforunionwithChrist.44 Forthisillness,however,food/drinking/bloodisamajorimageandbothfood/drinking/bloodandfrenzy/hysteria/insanityare,toBeatrice,imagesofphysicality,of unionwiththeagonizedhumanbodyofChristonthecross.SuchunioncametoBeatricemostfrequentlyatreceptionofcommunion,areceptionthatproducedillness andhealth,45foritledthebodytolanguishbeyondconsciousnessandyettopouroutinbloodforthesisters.46 Beatrice'sfrenziedcenteringofherlifeintheeucharist,hervacillationbetweenjoyandterror,reflectstheambivalenceaboutcommunionfoundinthirteenthcentury theology.Aswesawinchapter2above,theologiansoftheperiodbothurgedandwarnedagainstfrequentreception.Bea

Page162

tricelikeGertrudetheGreatandMargaretofCortonarespondedtosuchwarningsbothwithagonizedfeelingsofunworthiness,offearofChristthejudge,and withcravingsfortheholyfood.47Beatrice'sunionwithChristintheeucharistwasthusbothawefulandintimate,intenselyeroticandexcruciatinglypainfulas paradoxicalastheimagesofloveinHadewijch'spoems.Once,onthesecondSundayinEpiphany,whensheproposedtogotocommunion,she"sawhim[i.e., Jesus],thesweetestspouseofthesoul,standingonthealtar,"withhisoutstretchedarms,drawinghertohim,andshe"desiredthesavingreceptionofhisbody,in marveloustasting."

Refreshedbythismosthealthgivingcommunion,inthemarvelousembraceofthesamedivinity,shesuddenlyfeltherwholesoul,diffusedthroughallthemembersofherbody, soviolentlycaughtupthatthesamelittlebodyfeltitselfinallitsindividualmembersstronglygatheredintotheembrace.Indeed,intheunionofthissweetembrace,theLord appliedtheheartofhischosenonetohisownheart,andheabsorbedherwholespiritwithinhimselfandthesoulofBeatricetastedthereaheavenlyfloodofcharity....Atthis taste,losingtheuseofhercorporealsenses,shefelltoearthandherfeetcouldnotholdher....Andthenunwhocaredforherinhersicknesswentbeforeherholdingherbyher arms...,and[shefelldown].Andafterwards,whenshecamebacktoherself,thenunputherinherbedwhereshelayforawholedayinebriatedininestimablesweetnessofmind, jubilantandexulting,intranquilpeaceofconscience,restingwithChrist.48

OnotheroccasionsherdesireforChristwassuchtorturethatshefearedtodieofit.Drawingonherowndescription,herhagiographertellsusthatshelanguished morethanayearinthefollowingway:
Thefervorofthisdesireinflamedhermindsomuchthatasoftenassheremembered[Christ'sdeathandherownexile,shecried].Andherheart,foralongperiodoftimelaidopen bydesire,andherarteries,alsoopened,frequentlybrought[toher]ahorrorofdeath,sincetheycouldnotbebroughtbacktotheirnaturalcondition,becauseoftheimpedimentof herdesire....Indeedsuchwasthewoundeddevotion[sauciatadeuotio]ofthisholywoman,suchthedesireforcelestialjoys,suchtheaffection,atoncewoundedand languishinginlove[vulneratasimuletamorslanguens],that,inthefervorofherdesire,riversofcopiousbloodfrequentlypouredfromhermouthandnostrils....Sofinallythis violentdesirecontinuallydominatedinhermind,evergrowing,untilveryoften,des

Page163 tituteoftheobedienceofhercorporealsenses,shewasnotabletodiscernbytheirserviceswhatwasoutsideher....Howeveronegreatsolaceremained:...thevivifying consolationofthesacramentoftheLord'sbodyandblood....Thiswasthehighestsolaceoftheholywoman,thisheroneandonlyrefugefromallthemiseriesofthehuman condition,thisatoncethenourishmentthatsustainedher[sustentationispabulum],andthesavingprovision[viaticum]onthewayofpresentexile,andafoodofmedicinalvalue inherviolentseizuresandoutbursts.49

OccasionallyBeatrice'sdesireliterallychokedher.Once,uponhearingthewordpreachedintheconvent,''herheartwasshattered.""Desertingitsnaturalplaceitrose uptoherthroatandremainedthereforalongspaceoftime,tremblingandpalpitating,fromwhichshecontractedagreatillness."50Afterherfirstmysticaltrance,her laughterbecamesouncontrolledthatGodhadtoputoutthebedroomlampbyamiracletohidethecontortionsofherfacefromhersisters.51Afewyearslater,she begantomeditateon"howChristfedherwiththemilkofconsolationandmaternalaffection,"andshebegantothinkthatiftheLorddidallthosebenefitsforher,then alsohesufferedallhispainsforher.Soshestrove"todiscoverhowtoshapeherselftosuchtorture[orinsanity]...andsofollowperfectlyChrist'sfootsteps."And sheconsultedherspiritualadviseraboutthedesirabilityof"moldingherselftothewayof...madnessorfoolishness"forChristi.e.,ofdrivingherselfmad.Buther advisercounseledagainstit.52 AccordingtoBeatrice'sbiographer,shecameaftermanyyearstoastateinwhichthesacramentcuredherfromallsickness,inwhichherinebriationandjoyinChrist flowedoutintooverpoweringcompassion.Shethenservedthesickandthepoor,readingtheheartsofthoseindistressandevenarguingthecasesofcriminalsbefore thelocaljudge.53Moreover,Beatrice'sownwordssuggestthatsheherselfsawsuchapatterninherlife,amovementfromsicknesstoservice.Inherlittletreatiseon thesevenstepsoflove,whichsurvivesinherownversion,shedescribesthestagesas:(1)thesearchforpurity,(2)disinterestedlove,(3)torturebecauseonecannot loveenough,(4)thefirstexperienceofabsorptioninGod,(5)insanity[orewoet],(6)triumphantlove,and(7)theviolentdeathofloveeternal,thefinalfusionwith Christ.Thestepsalternatebetweentortureandpeace.54ThefinalstageisasparadoxicalasHadewijch'snotionofloveashell.Init,"theheartbecomescrazywithin," themindis"suspended,"andthesenses"aredrawntoward

Page164

joy.""Lovecalls[thesoul]anddismissesit,sweetensitandtorturesit,givesdeathandofferslife,giveshealthandthenwoundsagain,givesinsanityandwisdom."55 Alongthewaytoultimateunion,however,thesoulisdescribedinimagesofserving.Atthesecondstageitisaservingmaidatthesixthstage,amotherrulingalarge family.56 ThroughoutBeatrice'swriting,drinkingisacentralimageofunion,bleedingacentralimageofbothsufferingandjoy.Beatricespeaksofthefourthstageofloveasa cupbrimmingover.57Ofthefifthstageshewrites:

Meanwhilelove,whichmovessoviolentlyandtumultuouslyintheheart,growsbeyondmeasureandoverflowssointhesoulthattheheartthinksitselfmuchwounded,and thesewoundsaredailyrenewedandmademorepainful....Andthusitseemstoherthatherveinsareopenedandherbloodflows,hermarrowisweakened,...andherchest burnsandherthroatdriesup....Inthistimeshefeelsherheartpiercedbyanarrowuptothethroatandfinallyeventothebrain....Andbyallthese[assaults]sheismuch wounded,andherhearttrulyrejoicesandlosesallitsstrength.Andtrulyhersoulisnourished,andherloveisfed,andhermindissuspended....Andalwayshersoulismore andmoreexcitedandluredonward,neversaturatedorsatiated.Forthemoreitistorturedandwounded,themoreitisrenewedandcalmed,andthatwhichprofoundlywoundsit alonegivestoithealth.58

Shefrequentlysawvisionsofbloodatmass.Once,whenshereceivedthesacramentandmeditatedonChrist'swounds,she"sawthatallthebloodwhichflowedfrom thosewoundsfloodedintoherheart...sothatshewaswashedperfectlyclean....Andinthisfireoflovewhichburnedwithinheracertainspecialfriendwas broughtintothesightofherheartandbothwereunitedsoinChristthatonespiritwasmadefromtwo."59Inanothersetpiece,aChristmasmeditationonthe mysteriesoftheIncarnation,Beatrice'sbasicmetaphorisdrinkingChrist,asrivulets,asstreams,orasamightyriver.Thosewhodrinkrivuletsarethosewhostrivefor virtuesthosewhodrinkstreamsarethosewhosecompassiongrowsinmemoryofthePassion.Buthighestarethosewhoimitateandfusewiththecross,forthey drinkChristhimself.60 Thus,toBeatrice,insanitywhichisalsohealthwasbothanimageofunionandawayoflife.DrinkingJesus'bloodwasbothametaphorforimitatioChristianda ritualact(thereceptionofcommunion)thatlayattheheartofreligiouspractice.Bleedingwasametaphorforpainand

Page165

lossofselfcontrolitwasalsoametaphorforjoyandredemption.Anditwasabodilyfunctionofthewomanmysticwholayinbed,outofhersenseswithinebriation, andwhorosetoadvisetroubledsistersandvisitorsfromtheworldoutsidetheconvent. ToHadewijch,hungeranddevouringwerepowerfulandcentralimagesforthelovethatisunion.Tohercontemporary,Beatrice,drinkingandbleedingwereimages fortheinsanitythatisunion.Bothmysticsthusproceedtodivinitythroughahumanitythatisintenselyphysical.TheirlanguageexpressesaspiritualityinwhichGodis notmerelydescribedasifhewereabodybutiseatenanddrunkbecauseheisabody.AndbecausethepainofGod'sbodilinessistheinstrumentofsalvation, imitationofthatGodisthroughthewounds,laughter,tears,suffocation,andhungerthatoccurintheself(bodyandsoul)ofthemysticstrugglingtowardecstasy. CatherineofSienaandCatherineofGenoa Ifwemoveonahundredyearsormoreandmanymilestothesouth,wefindinthetwogreatestwomenwritersofmedievalItaly,CatherineofSiena(d.1380)and CatherineofGenoa(d.1510),asimilarconcentrationoneatinganddrinking,onbreadandblood,asthecrucialimagesforencounterwithGod.Inbothcases,we knowenoughaboutthewomen'sactuallivestobesurethatobsessivefastingandeucharisticpietywerekeyelementsintheirreligiouspractices.Wealsoknowthat fastingandfeedingbecamelivedmetaphorsforthem,asillnessandbleedingdidforBeatriceofNazareth.BothCatherinesfedthedestitute,byordinarycharityand bymiracle.Bothatethefilthofthesicktheytended.BothfeltthatitwasintheexcruciatingpainofmorethanearthlyhungerthattheyfusedwiththeagonyofChriston thecrossandofferedupsuchagonyforthesalvationoftheworld. ManycontemporaryandnearcontemporaryaccountsofthelifeandmiraclesofCatherineofSienasurvive61andwehave,inaddition,herownwritings(dictatedbut certainlyauthentic)i.e.,theDialogue,hervoluminouscorrespondence,andsomeofherprayers.62Notsurprisingly,thesematerialssometimesgivedivergent interpretations,particularlyofhermiraclesandvisions.Andtwentiethcenturyscholarshavedebatedthedatesofcertainkeyeventsinherlife(particularlyinher adoles

Page166

cence).63Nevertheless,somethingsarenotindoubt.ItisclearthatnoteatingwasacentralelementinCatherine'sbehavior,thateucharisticpietywasatthecoreof herreligiouspractice,64thatfoodespeciallybloodasfoodwasthecentralmetaphorinherprolixmetaphoricalwriting,andthather(predominantlymale)advisers andfollowerssawnoteating,eating,andfeedingashighlysignificantaspectsofherimpactonothers.65 ThereisreasontosuspectthatRaymondofCapuawhosebiographyofCatherinemostscholarshavepreferredasthebasicsourceforherlifehadhisown reasonsforemphasizingherdecidedlyoddeatingbehavior.Raymondhimselfhadpoorhealthandfeltmuchguiltabouthisowndifficultiesinfasting.Hewas, moreover,apropagandistforstrictDominicanpracticeandfoundCatherineusefulasamodeloffasting,vigils,andselfabnegation.Raymondhimselfwasclearlyless criticalofCatherine'sinabilitytoeatthanherpreviousconfessorshadbeeninpartbecauseofhisowndistrustofdoctors.66Heenjoyedassociatingbothfastingand miraculousfeedingwithwomensaints.HenotonlywroteabiographyofAgnesofMontepulciano,inwhoseliferainsofmannaarethecharacteristicmiracle,67healso introducedAgnesintohisvitaofCatherine,68andhemayhavebeenoneofthereasonsforCatherine'sinterestinAgnes,whichisreflectedinherletters,inthe Dialogue,andinhervisitstoAgnes'smonastery.69HisLifeofCatherinecertainlylaysmorestressonherinabilitytoeatthansheherselfdoesinherletters.For example,althoughRaymondandCatherineagreeontheimportancetoherofMaryMagdalen,RaymondsaysatleastthreetimesthattheMagdalenisamodelfor CatherinebecausetheMagdalenfastedforthirtythreeyears,70whereasCatherineherselfalwayspresentsMaryMagdalenasamodelbecauseshestoodunderthe crossandwasinundatedwiththebloodofChrist.71Furthermore,Raymond'saccountmayemphasizenursingandfeedingmiraclesandvisionssomewhatmorethan othersources.Raymond,forexample,placesavisionofChristasnursingmotherjustafterthecrucialmomentinwhichCatherinedrinkspusfromthediseasedbreast ofthetertiaryAndrea,whereastheanonymousMiracoli(Miracles)placesatthisturningpointavisionofmarriagewithChrist.72But,inthiscase,thereisnogreat needforskepticismCatherine'sownlettersarefilledwithimagesofnursingfromthebreastofChrist.73Thus,regardlessoftheinterestRaymondandothermale advisersmayhavehadinassociatingimagesoffeedingandnursingwith

Page167

womensaintsorinreveringtheirselfsacrificethroughfasting,boththewidevarietyofextantsourcesandCatherine'sownwordsmakeclearthecentralityoffoodin herspirituality. IfwecantrustRaymond'saccount,CatherinewashermotherLapa'stwentythirdchild,theonlyoneLapanursedatherownbreastandlaterherfavorite.Catherine's twinsister,Giovanna,wassentouttoawetnurseanddied.Thelastchild,borntoLapawhenCatherinewasweaned,wasgiventhenameofthedeadtwin.No particularlysubtlepsychologicalanalysisisnecessarytosuggestthatsuchaconfigurationofevents(i.e.,thedeathofone'ssisterbecauseonewaschosenfornursing andtheconstantreminderthenofthedeadtwininthenameoftheverychildwhosupplantedoneastheyoungest)mightpreconditionafavoredgirlchildtoguiltand guiltassociatedwithfoodandnursing.Moreover,Raymondreports(andthereisnoreasontodoubtthis)thatCatherine'soldersisterBonaventurastarvedherselfafter marriagebecauseofthedissolutebehaviorofherhusband74afastingthatsuccessfullymanipulatedtheyoungmanintoreformandthatthissameBonaventura latertemptedCatherineintodisplayingthemildvanityofelegantdress.ShortlyafterCatherineagreedtomakeherselfpretty,Bonaventuradiedinchildbirth.(Lapa's lastchild,Giovanna,calledNanna,diedaboutthesametime.)75CatherinethushadinherbelovedsisterBonaventuraagraphicillustrationofthesuccessthatfasting couldachieveandofthedangersofmarriageandpregnancy.ItdoesnotseemsurprisingthatwhatevertheexactchronologyofCatherine'semergingvocation,she rejectedmarriageandfood.76Furthermore,sinceonesourcereportsthattherewastalklaterofmarryinghertoBonaventura'swidower,wemayalsosuspectthat Catherinefeltguiltaboutsurvivingasareplacementforbothhersistersandthusdeterminedtosubstitutefortheirsufferingratherthanfortheirpleasure.77 Catherineclearlybeganfastingasachildanddevelopedadistasteformeatquiteearly.78ShetooktheDesertFathersasmodels.(Severalsourcestellofherrunning awaytoacaveasalittlegirl.)79Shethendevelopedanintenseadolescentconflictwithherfamily,especiallyhermother,overherasceticismandherrefusalto considermarriageattheheightofthisconflictshecutoffherhair,shescaldedherselfatthehotbathstowhichshewastakenonvacation,andshedevelopedapox fromwhichshemadenoefforttorecover.Inthecourseofthestrugglewithherfamily,Catherinewentthroughaperiodofwithdrawalduring

Page168

whichshepracticedextremesleepdeprivationaswellasselfstarvation.BothRaymondofCapuaandThomasAntoniideSenis(alsoknownasCaffarini)associate foodvisionsvisionsoffruittreesorofnursingfromthesideofChristwiththisperiodofherlife,althoughtheydonotgivethesamefoodvisions.80 RaymondreportsthatChristsummonedCatherineoutofherwithdrawalbycommandinghertoeatagainwithherfamilyattable,somethingshewasphysicallyunable todo.81Hesaysthatshespokeofthepainofeatingas"dealingoutjustice[i.e.,punishment]tothismiserablesinner[i.e.,herself]"82andthatshefocusedallher hungerontheeucharist.83SeveraleyewitnessesalongwithRaymondreportseeinghershovetwigsdownherthroattobringupthefoodshecouldnotbeartohave restinherstomach.Otheraccountsreportspontaneousvomiting.TheMiracolidescribesCatherine,likeAlpas,chewingandsuckingmorselsoffoodwhichshethen spitout.84Raymondwrote:

Thehabitofreceivingcommunionpracticallyeverydaystruckrootinherandbecamepartofherlife....Herlongingformoreandmorefrequentcommunionwassointensethat whenshecouldnotreceiveitherverybodyfeltthedeprivation,andherforcesseemedtodroop....Afterthevisionjustdescribed[i.e.,thevisionofdrinkingfromthewoundin Christ'sside],andespeciallywhenevershereceivedHolyCommunion,averytorrentofheavenlygracesandconsolationsfloodedhersoul.Theseweresoabundantthattheir effortsbrimmedoveruponherbodyalso,checkingthenaturalflowofitsvitaljuices,andsoalteringtheactionofherstomachthatitcouldnolongerassimilatefood.Indeed,the takingoffoodbecametohernotmerelyunnecessarybutactuallyimpossible,excepttotheaccompanimentofgreatbodilysuffering.Iffoodwaseverforceddownherthroat, intensepainfollowed,nodigestiontookplace,andallthathadbeenviolentlyforceddownwasviolentlyforcedbackagain. ...Imyselfsawithappen,notonce,butagainandagain,thatheremaciatedbodywouldbereducedtothelastextremity,unabletotakeanythingtorestoreitsforcesbutadrink ofcoldwater...andthensuddenlyshewouldseize...anopportunityoftakingonsomeworkforthehonorofGod'snameorthegoodofsouls,andlikeaflash,withoutthehelp ofanyotherrestorative[i.e.,withouteating],...allherforceswouldrevive.85

Catherinesaidinherownlettersthatshecouldnoteat.Theconditionwas,shesaid,an"infirmity"(infermit).86Butshealsodefendedherself

Page169

toananonymousdetractor(probablyin1373or1374)bysayingthatshemadeanefforttoeatonceortwiceadayandsuggestingthatGodsenttheinfirmitytocure her"gluttony"(elvitiodellagola).87RudolphBellhascarefullydocumentedthestagesofherinedia.Fromaboutagesixteen,shesubsistedonbread,water,andraw vegetables.Fromabouttwentythreeshegaveupbread,survivingontheeucharist,coldwater,andbitsoffood(mostlybitterherbs)thatshesuckedandthenspitout orswallowedandvomitedup.(Raymondcallsthis"eatingnothing.")InJanuary,1380,whenshewasaboutthirtythreeyearsold,shegaveupwaterforanentire month,offeringhersufferingasexpiationforthecrisisofthechurchinItaly.AlthoughsheendedhertotalfastinFebruary,shediedonApril29,1380,emaciatedand wrackedbystomachpains.88 Catherineclearlylosttheabilitytoreadbodilysensationsinwhatweconsideranormalmanner.Forexample,sheseemstohaveseenanyhungerpangsas"greed,"to havelosttheabilitytofeel"cold,"andtohavefeltpanicatthepassageofanyfooddownherthroat.89Sometimessheseemscutloosefromanyordinarysenseofego boundariesatall,aswhensheblamesherselfforRaymond'scowardiceorforalltheillsoftheworld.90Herhagiographerscommentonher"restlessenergy"and sleeplessness,whichincreasedassheatelessandless.91Onemightinterpretasbingeeatingherpatternoflongfastsfollowedbyeatingseveraltimesaday92orher practiceofforcingherselffirsttoeatandthentovomit.Moreover,shedevelopedacomplexcasuistryaboutherselfstarvation,arguingtoherfirstconfessorandlater toRaymondthat,sinceeatingcausedhertorture,itwasthesinofsuicideforhertoeatafarworsehomicideoftheselfthanstarvingoneself,becauseitwas homicidebygreed.93Sympatheticscholarshavesometimessuggestedthatsheprogressedfromviewingasceticpracticesasanendtoseeingthemasameanstokill thewill,andherletterssuggestthis.94ButalthoughshewrotetoheranonymouscorrespondentthatsheprayedtoGodtoremovehereatinginfirmity,itwasexactly herconsideredandmatureunderstandingofitasaninfirmity(ratherthanavoluntarypracticeoradelusionofthedevil)thatallowedhertoretainthebehaviorwithout anyefforttoalterit.ApassageintheDialoguewhereshesaysthatAgnesofMontepulcianowasabletosurviveonvegetablesaloneonlybecauseshewas''perfect" suggeststhatCatherinemayhaveseen(andcultivated)herownnoneatingasamarkofGod'sfavor,despiteherprotestations

Page170

thatitwasanabnormalphysicalcondition,notareligiouspracticeatall.95 AfterCatherine'speriodofwithdrawalintoacellinherfather'shouse,96sherejoinedherfamilyandplungedintoacombinationoffasting,sleeplessness,and hyperactivity,particularlyfrenetichouseworkandfeedingofothers.Shedidthelaundryatnight.Whenthehouseholdservantgotsick,Catherinecarriedoutthe servant'sworkandnursedherinherillnessaswell.97Shegaveawaygreatquantitiesoffood,andononeoccasion,whensheangeredherfatherbygivingawaythe bestwine,Godmiraculouslymadethecaskflowagain.98Thetenyearsofherextremeinediawere,byallaccounts,filledwithcaringforthepoorandsick,oftenby preparingfoodforthematoddhours,99andherchiefandrepeatedmiracleswerecuresofillness(thechiefmiracleperformedbyallsaints,ofcourse)andmiraculous feedingsorfoodmultiplications.100Raymonddrawstheanalogybetweenoneofhermiraclesandthegospelfeedingofthefivethousand.101InthemiracleofAlessia's corn,thefoodmultiplicationwasthreefold:first,sourwheatturnedsweetsecond,theflourmademorebreadthanitshouldhavefinally,theloavesthemselves multiplied.102CatherineherselfintheDialoguerevealsherowninterestinfeedingmiraclesbyrecountingthoseofDominicandAgnes,althoughherbasicconcernin thetreatiseisspiritualteaching,notmiracles.103ThomasAntoniideSenisreportstwooccasionsonwhichshemiraculouslyrestoredbreastmilktowomenwhose breastshadgonedry.104Moreover,Catherineoftencombinedhealingwithfeeding.Forexample,shegavewinetosomeoneshecured,andshediagnoseda possessedmanasneedingfood.105Inthemostvividlydescribedofthemiraclesthatfollowedherdeath,Catherinemiraculouslypreparedthefamilydinnerfora womanwhohadgonetochurchinsteadofcookingforhersons.106Raymond,inrecountingherfeedingmiracles,underlinesboththecontrastbetweenherownclosed bodyandherbountyinfeedingothers,andthefactthatfeedingisamaternalroleparalleltogivingbirth.Hesays:
Thewholecitywasincommotion.Everybody...flockedtocatchsightofher."Whatawoman!"theysaid."Onewhodrinksnowineherself,butcanbyamiraclefillwithwinean emptycask!"107 Takenote,dearReader[ofthismiracleinwhichbreadismultiplied].HowgreatmusthavebeenthemeritofthismaidenwhentheQueenofHeavenherselfassistedherinmaking breadforherchildren.Insodoing

Page171 theMotheroftheWordofGodgaveustounderstandthat,asthroughCatherineshesupplieduswithsuchwholesomebreadtofeedourbodies,sotooshepurposedbymeans ofhertosupplyusalsowiththewordofsalvationwhichisthebreadthatfeedsthespirit.Andindeedallofus,asifimpelled...by...God,habituallycalledCatherine "mother."...Shetrulywasamothertous,whocontinuallygavebirthtousfromtheuterusofhermind,enduringforusthegroansandpangsoflabor[nosnonabsquegemitibus etanxietatibusparturiebatexuterosuaementis],andfedus[nosnutriebat]assiduouslyonthebreadofsoundandsavingdoctrine.108

Indeed,Catherinesawhersuffering(whichincludedherpainfulandgrowinginabilitytoeat)asservice.Severalsourcesreporthermiraculous"death"and "resurrection,"andtheMiracolisaysexplicitlythatsheagreedtocontinuelivingonlybecausetheVirginMarypromisedthatGodwouldfreesoulsfrompurgatory becauseofherpain.109Shetriedtosubstituteherownagoniesforherfather'stimeinpurgatory.110Ontheoccasionofhermother's''death"withoutconfession CatherinesimplyinsistedthatGodbringLapabacktolifebecauseGodhadalreadyagreedtosaveCatherine'sfamilyasarewardforhersuffering.111Like Hadewijch,Lutgard,BeatriceofNazareth,LukardisofOberweimar,andMargaretofCortona,CatherinesawhersufferingasquiteliterallymergedbothwithChrist's agonyonthecrossandwiththepainsofpurgatory.Shethereforeknewwithutterconfidencethatherpainsdidsavesouls. ServingaswellassufferingthuslayattheheartofCatherine'slifebothwereexplictlyunderlinednotonlybywhatshedidbutalsobythemaleswhochronicledher storyandcorrespondedwithher.Repeatedlytheyemphasizeherfoodasceticism,usuallyadmiringlyrepeatedlytheycallher"mamma"repeatedlytheyspeakofher innursingmetaphors.Forexample,inhispanegyricwrittensoonafterherdeath,WilliamFlete,anEnglishhermitofconsiderablereputation,reportedthesweetodor thatcamefromherclothesduringlife,thebloodthatflowedfromhermouthinhereucharisticecstasies,theagonyshesufferedwhensheattemptedtoeat,andthe "food"sheofferedtoher"sons"byherholywords.112 AccountsofCatherine'slifeaccentuatenotonlyherfoodabstentionandfeedingofotherstheyalsounderlinehersubstitutionofthefilthofdiseaseandthebloodof Christ'sagonyforordinaryfood.Severalofherhagiographersreportthatshetwiceforcedherselftoovercomenausea

Page172

bythrustinghermouthintotheputrifyingbreastofadyingwomanorbydrinkingpus,andthereportsstresstheseincidentsasturningpointsinherdevelopinginedia, hereucharisticcraving,andhergrowingcompulsiontoserveothersbysuffering.113ShetoldRaymond:"NeverinmylifehaveItastedanyfoodanddrinksweeteror moreexquisite[thanthispus]."114

[And]onthenightfollowing...avision[ofChristwithhisfivewounds]wasgrantedtoherasshewasatprayer...."Mybeloved,"[Christ]saidtoher,"youhavenowgone throughmanystrugglesformysake....Previouslyyouhadrenouncedallthatthebodytakespleasurein....Butyesterdaytheintensityofyourardentloveformeovercame eventheinstinctivereflexesofyourbodyitself:youforcedyourselftoswallowwithoutaqualmadrinkfromwhichnaturerecoiledindisgust....Asyouthenwentfarbeyond whatmerehumannaturecouldeverhaveachieved,soItodayshallgiveyouadrinkthattranscendsinperfectionanythathumannaturecanprovide...."Withthat,hetenderly placedhisrighthandonherneck,anddrewhertowardthewoundinhisside.''Drink,daughter,frommyside,"hesaid,"andbythatdraughtyoursoulshallbecomeenraptured withsuchdelightthatyourverybody,whichformysakeyouhavedenied,shallbeinundatedwithitsoverflowinggoodness."Drawnclose...totheoutletoftheFountainof Life,shefastenedherlipsuponthatsacredwound,andstillmoreeagerlythemouthofhersoul,andtheresheslakedherthirst.115

Fromthattimeon,saysRaymond,shecouldnotdigestordinaryfood.116But,althoughshecouldswallownocorporealfood,shefeastednotonlyonpusbutalsoon theeucharist.117 ThevariousaccountsofCatherine'slifeallstresshereucharisticdevotion.Likeotherfastingwomen,Catherinesubstitutedfrequentcommunionforordinaryeating, althoughsheencounteredcriticismforthisfromconfessors,family,andherfellowtertiaries.118LikeMargaretofCortona,shedetectedanunconsecratedhost,yet alsolikeMargaretshereveredpriestspassionatelyfortheirabilitytocelebratemass.119Raymondrecountsherecstasies,trances,frenzies,bleedings,andtearsatthe eucharist,andheassociateshercravingforChrist'sblood,likeherdrinkingofpus,withanursingChrist.120HereportsoneoccasiononwhichGodinspiredher confessortocelebratebecauseofCatherine'sdesperateneedtocommunicate.LaterCatherinesupposedlysaid(inatraditionalmetaphor,found,forexample,inthe AncreneRiwleandtheRevelationsofGertrudeofHelfta):

Page173 Father,doyouknowwhattheLorddidtomysoulthatday?Hebehavedlikeamotherwithherfavoritechild.Shewillshowitthebreast,butholditawayfromituntilitcriesas soonasitbeginstocry,shewilllaughforawhileandclaspittoherand,coveringitwithkisses,delightedlygiveitherfullbreast.SotheLordbehavedwithmethatdayhe showedmehismostsacredsidefromafarandIcriedfromtheintensityofmylongingtoputmymouthtothesacredwound.Afterhehadlaughedforalittlewhileatmytearsat leastthatiswhatheseemedtodohecameuptome,claspedmysoulinhisarms,andputmymouthtowherehismostsacredwoundwas,thatistosay,thewoundinhisside. ThenwithitsgreatlongingmysoulenteredrightintothatwoundandfoundsuchsweetnessandsuchknowledgeoftheDivinitytherethatifyoucouldeverappreciateityou wouldmarvelthatmyheartdidnotbreak,andwonderhoweverImanagedtogoonlivinginthebodyinsuchanexcessofardourandlove.121

WhenwecompareRaymond'saccountofCatherine'swordswithCatherine'sownletters,wefindthatRaymondhasnotmisledus.TheimageofthenursingChristis oneofherfavoritemetaphorsandiscloselyassociatedwiththeeucharist.122ButinCatherine'swordsthereisadifferentemphasis,onereminiscentofAngelaof Foligno's.MuchmorethaninRaymond'sparaphrase,Catherineherselfstressesservice,thedrinkingofpainaswellascomfort,andtheactiveseekingofbreast (Christ)bytheinfant(soul).123ShewritestoaFlorentineabbess:

Wecannotnourishothersunlesswenourishourselvesatthebreastsofdivinecharity....Yes,mother,wemustdoasalittlechilddoeswhowantsmilk.Ittakesthebreastofits mother,appliesitsmouth,andbymeansofthefleshitdrawsmilk.Wemustdothesameifwewouldbenourished.WemustattachourselvestothebreastofChristcrucified, whichisthesourceofcharity,andbymeansofthatfleshwedrawmilk.ThemeansisChrist'shumanitywhichsufferedpain,andwecannotwithoutpaingetthatmilkthatcomes fromcharity.124

AgainandagaininthelettersandintheDialogue,CatherinedescribestheholysoulclimbingupChrist'sbody,seekingthebreast,anddrinkingbitternessaswellas comfort,likethemedicineasickchildsometimestakesinwithitsmother'smilk.125IntheDialoguesheputsthefollowingwordsintoGod'smouth:
NowAdam'ssinoozedwithadeadlypus,butyouweretooweakenedtodrainityourself.Butwhenthegreatdoctorcame(myonlybegottenson)hetendedthatwound,drinking himselfthebittermedicine....Andhe

Page174 didasthewetnursewhoherselfdrinksthemedicinethebabyneeds....Mysonwasyourwetnurse,andhejoinedthebignessandstrengthofhisdivinitywithyournatureto drinkthebittermedicineofhispainfuldeathonthecrosssothathemighthealandgivelifetoyouwhowerebabiesweakenedbysin.126

InadditiontothemanyeucharisticmiraclesandvisionsrecountedbyCatherine'shagiographers,wehaveCatherine'sowndescriptionsofthecentralityoftheeucharist. Sheurgesanumberofhercorrespondentstofrequentcommunion.127IntheDialogue,shetells,inrichlymetaphoricallanguage,ofhervisions.Shespeaksofsmelling thestenchofsin,oftastingthefragranceofthesacramentshesaysthatthetasteofbloodwas"wonderfullypresentto[her]mouthandbodilytasteforseveraldays" afterreceiving.128ShesaysexplicitlythatGodprovidestheeucharistasasubstitutefor"heavyphysicalbread,"whichexcitesgluttonyandlust.Shealsosaysexplicitly thatministers,whomsherespectsandfearsbecauseoftheircontroloftheholyfood,sometimesdenythesoulthefooditcraves.129Andshetellsoftwomiraclesin whichChristfedherdirectlyinvisionsbecauseserversorcelebrantswouldnot.130 ThevisionsthatCatherine'sbiographersassociatedwithturningpointsinherlifeallhadastheircentralthemetheredemptionofhumanityasphysicalitybythe substitutionofChrist'sfleshforhumanfleshliness.Raymondreported,forexample,thatJesusexchangedheartswithCatherineandtookatunicoutofhissidetokeep herwarm.131JustasChristenabledLutgardofAywiresandDoucelineofMarseillestoavoidordinarybodilycontactwithothers,yetdrewthemintohisown physicalitythroughthefusionofmouthtomouthandhearttoheart,soChristenabledCatherinetofusewithhisbody.132Noteveryvisionisreportedbyall biographersandnotallareemphasizedbyCatherineherself,133butwherewecancompareherowndescriptionswiththoseofherhagiographers,theemphasison redeemedfleshandphysicalitybecomesevenmorestriking.Forexample,severalsourcestellusthatasachildshesawavisionofChristasbridegroomandpope(or bishop),andthat,aftershemarriedChrist(aneventclearlymodeledonCatherineofAlexandria'smysticalmarriage),sherejectedearthlybridegrooms.134Inher hagiographers'accounts,Catherinewasmarriedwitharingofsilverorgoldandjewels,whichRaymondsaysshecouldalwayssee.ButCath

Page175

erineherself,inletterafterletter,sayswedonotmarryChristwithgoldorsilverbutwiththeringofChrist'sforeskin,givenintheCircumcisionandaccompaniedby painandthesheddingofblood.135ThusthosewhoadmiredCatherinesawherasputtingonquiteliterallythefleshofChrist,which,asholyflesh,protectedherfrom theordinarybodilysensationsofhungerandthirstandcold.ButCatherineherselfsawthatfleshlessassubstituteandprotectionthanasbloodandagony,shedforthe sakeoftheworld. AlthoughCatherineabhorredherownflesh,condemningitasa"dungheap,"136shesawthefleshlinessofChristnotassomesortofmiraculousprotectiontosaveus fromhumanvulnerabilitybutasthe"way"or"bridge"toleadustosalvationthroughsuffering.137SheevensaidthattheringoffleshwithwhichChristmarriesusinthe Circumcisionisasignthatheisthespouseofourhumanity.138Thus,hatefulasbodymayhavebeentoCatherine,itwasbodythatshesawasunitingustothebody ofGod.AnditunitedustoGodbysuffering.139 Thethemeofsuffering,whichringsthroughoutCatherine'svoluminouscorrespondence,is,ofcourse,atraditionalChristiantheme.Indeedthereisprobablynota singleoriginalimageinallthehundredsofletters.ButnoonewhohasreadCatherine'sworkcanfailtorealizethateatingandbloodweresoprominentinher interpretationofreligiousexperienceastogiveauniquenotetoherwriting,despiteitsessentiallyderivative,evenmonotonous,content. Metaphorsofeating,drinking,hungering,andvomiting,offood,blood,tables,andservantsarecentralinCatherine'swritings.140ToeattoCatherinemeanstobeor tobecome,totakeinortolove.HerstandardformulationofChristianobligationisto"eatatthetableofthecrossthefoodofthehonorofGodandthesalvationof souls."141Mostfundamentally,forCatherinetoeatandtohungerhavethesamemeaning:oneeatsbutisneverfull,desiresbutisneversatiated.142Bothareactive, notpassive,images.143Bothstresspainmorethanjoy.144Bothmean,mostbasically,tosufferandtoservetosufferbecauseinhungeronejoinswith,"eats,"Christ onthecrosstoservebecausetohunger/sufferistoexpiatethesinsoftheworld.ForCatherine,thehungeringofordinaryChristiansisservicebecauseitfusesnot onlywiththesufferingsofthoseinpurgatorybutalsowiththedeaththroesofChristthatarealsothebleeding/feedingofanursingmother.145ToalaymanCatherine wrote:

Page176 Seatyourselfatthetableofthecross....There,allinebriatedwiththepreciousblood,takethefoodofsouls,sufferingpain,opprobrium,curses,villainy,hunger,thirst,and nudity....Youmustsufferpainandbeinshadow.Mysoulknowsit,anditishungryforyoursalvation.146

Toalaywomanshesaid:
[Jesus]madeofhisbloodadrinkandhisfleshafoodforallthosewhowishit.Thereisnoothermeansformantobesatisfied.Hecanappeasehishungerandthirstonlyinthis blood....Amancanpossessthewholeworldandnotbesatisfied(fortheworldislessthanman)untilbloodsatisfieshim,foronlythatbloodisunitedtothedivinity....Eight daysafterhisbirth,ChristspilledalittleofitintheCircumcision,butitwasnotenoughtocoverman....Thenonthecrossthelance...openedhisheart.TheHolySpirittellsus tohaverecoursetotheblood.... Andthenthesoulbecomeslikeadrunkenmanthemorehedrinks,themorehewantstodrinkthemoreitbearsthecrossthemoreitwantstobearit.Andthepainsareits refreshmentandthetearswhichithasshedforthememoryofthebloodareitsdrink.Andthesighsareitsfood.147

TothreewomenofNaples,Catherinewrote:
DearestmotherandsistersinsweetJesusChrist,I,Catherine,slaveoftheslavesofJesusChrist,writetoyouinhispreciousblood,withthedesiretoseeyouconfirmedintrue andperfectcharitysothatyoubetruenursesofyoursouls.Forwecannotnourishothersiffirstwedonotnourishourownsoulswithtrueandrealvirtues....Doasthechild doeswho,wantingtotakemilk,takesthemother'sbreastandplacesitinhismouthanddrawstohimselfthemilkbymeansoftheflesh.So...wemustattachourselvestothe breastofthecrucifiedChrist,inwhomwefindthemotherofcharity,anddrawfromtherebymeansofhisflesh(thatis,thehumanity)themilkthatnourishesoursoul....Foritis Christ'shumanitythatsuffered,nothisdivinityand,withoutsuffering,wecannotnourishourselveswiththismilkwhichwedrawfromcharity.148

Catherinerepeatedlyexhortedtheclergytosufferandtoserve.149ShewrotetoCardinalPeterofOstia:
Divinegoodnesshasplacedyouinthemysticalbodyoftheholychurch,hasnourishedyouonthebreastofthisgentlespouse,sothatyoucaneatonthetableofthecrossthe holyfoodofthehonorofGodandthesalvationofsouls.Itwantsyoutobenourishedonlybythecross,byfatiguesofbodyandanguishesofdesire.150

Page177

Toanothercardinalsheexplained:"GivethebloodofChristtoyoursoulthatitmaybearoused...andruntothebattletofightmanfully....Lether[yoursoul]seat herselfatthetableofthecrossandlethertheretakethefoodofsoulsforthehonorofGod,sufferingwithpatience,bearingthefaultsofneighboringreatcompassion, andacceptingallinjustice."151 Catherinestressesexplicitlythatoneshould"eatsoulsonthetableofthecross"inplaceofordinaryfood.152ShedescribesherprayersandsufferingforRaymondby saying:"Sweetestfather,yoursoul...hasbecomefoodtomeandnomomentpassesinwhichIdonottakethisfoodonthetableofthesweetsacrificedLambwith ardentlove."153Sometimesthespiritualfoodofwhichshespeaksisbreadormeat.ShecallsChristthebreadofangels.154Sheevenspeaksoftheeucharisticlamb as"roastednotboiled"onthe"spitofthecross.''155AndinseveralletterssheelaboratestheunusualTrinityoftable(Father),food(Son),andservant(Holy Spirit).156ButmuchmorefrequentlyinCatherine'susagethesoul"eats"liquidsmilkorwineorblood.AndbloodisCatherine'scentralimage.Almostallherletters beginwithgreetingsinthesacredblood,andshescreamedout"Blood!blood!"onherdeathbed.157AlthoughdevotiontothebloodofChristhadalonghistoryinlate medievalItalyandChrist'sbloodwas,toearlierdevotees,mostfundamentallyasymbolofthewashingawayofsin,bloodtoCatherinewasfoodorlife.158Blood "feeds"or"iseaten"inherlettersalmostasfrequentlyasit"cleanses"or"washes."159TwoaspectsofthereligiousworldofthefourteenthcenturyasCatherine experiencedithelpexplainwhybloodasfoodwascentraltoherthought:herreverencefortheclergy,andherdevotiontothehumanityofChrist. Catherinereveredpriestsas"littlechrists"herawe,likeMargaretofCortona's,centeredontheircontroloftheeucharist,whichshecraved.160ButinCatherine'sday thecupwasdeniedtothelaityaltogether,andCatherine'sextravagantrespectforpriests'authoritythusfocusedontheircontrolofandaccesstotheawesomeand taboochalice.Itissignificantthatsherepeatedlyreferredtoclergyas"ministersoftheblood,"not"ofthebody."161Shecalledthepope"vicarofChrist'sblood"and saidthatheheld"thekeysoftheblood."162Ineucharisticmiracles,itwasbloodthatremainedinhermouthorpouredfromit,althoughwhatsheactuallyreceivedwas bread(interpreted,ofcourse,asbothelementsinthetheologicaldoctrineofconcomitance).163 Bloodmayalsohavehad,toCatherine,otherassociationswithan

Page178

authorityandpowersheherselfwieldedonlyindirectly,throughprayerorpersuasion.Bloodwasingeneralamorepublicandsocialsymbolthanbread,aswellasa moreambivalentsymbol.Breadsymbolizedhouseholdandcharityandsupportoflife,butbloodsymbolizedwar,civilstrife,andexecutions.Moreover,itwasthe supportoflifeevenmorebasicallythanbread,becauseitcoursedthroughtheveinsaslifeitself.164InthefamousincidentinwhichCatherinestoodbeneaththe scaffoldtoreceivetheheadofayoungmanexecutedforapoliticalcrime,thebloodthatcoveredherandsmelledsosweetwasclearlyasymbolofpoliticsandthe publicarena,ofsufferingandinjustice,andoflifeitselfallofwhichcouldberedeemedonlybyassimilationtoChrist'sinnocentblood,onwhichwefeedinsuffering andservice.165 Catherine'scravingforbloodwasnotmerelyacravingforencounterinChristwithallthatwasdeniedhersociallyandpolitically:thechalice,thepoweroftheclergy, thepublicarena.ShealsocravedbloodbecauseshecravedidentificationwiththehumanityofChrist,andshesawthishumanityasphysicality.Althoughscholarshave sometimesseenthespiritualityofalllatemedievalwomenas"erotic"or"nuptial,"166Catherine'ssenseofthefleshisextremelyunerotic.Shewrites,especiallyto women,of"puttingonthenuptialgarment,"butthephrasemeanssuffering.167InherrepeateddescriptionsofclimbingupChrist'sbodyfromfoottosidetomouth,the bodyiseitherafemalebodythatnursesorapieceoffleshthatoneputsononeselforsinksinto.168PhysicalityistheforeskinoftheCircumcisionfleshthat bleeds.169CatherineunderstoodunionwithChristnotasaneroticfusingwithamalefigurebutasatakinginandatakingonabecomingofChrist'sfleshitself. Infact,CatherineclearlyassociatedChrist'sphysicalitywiththefemalebody,underliningtherebybothhercapacityforassimilationtoChristandhercapacity,likehis, forservice.Shecalledhumanity"Adam"aswellas"Eve,"ofcourse.170But,adoptingboththegenderstereotypesofherdayandtheageoldChristiannotionof femaleweakness,sheassociatedfleshlinessandsensualityespeciallywith"woman."171ShestressedrepeatedlythatMaryprovidedinherwombthestuff(i.e.,the menstrualmatter)fromwhichtheSpiritfashionedChrist'shumanbody.172AndsherepeatedlycalledChrist'swoundabreast.173Indeed,toCatherineChristwasa nursingmothermoreoftenthanabridegroom. Catherine'simageofChristasmaternal,whichhadalongancestryintwelfthandthirteenthcenturyspirituality,mustbeunderstood

Page179

againstthebackgroundofcontemporaryphysiologicaltheory.174Medievalnaturalphilosophersthoughtthatbreastmilkwasblood.Thusbloodwasthequintessential foodanditwaspouredoutasfoodorprovidedasthebasicstuffoflifeonlybyfemalebodies.Therefore,asIshalldiscussatgreaterlengthinchapter9,thefemale bodywasanobviousimageforaGodwhodiedtogivebirthtotheworldandbledtofeedallsouls.Catherineherselfnotedexplicitlythatthefemalebodyisfoodand thereforeanappropriateimageforbothmaleandfemaleselfsacrifice.WhenshewrotetoherownnaturalbrotherabouthisobligationstoLapa,shestressedthata mother'sbodygivesfleshtoandfeedsitschild.175Shecontinuedthisthemewhenshedescribedcharity:

Onhowsweetamotherischarity!Shenourishesonherbreastthechildren[i.e.,thevirtues]towhomshegivesbirth....Sheisafood,whichnurturesthesoulinitshunger.... Andthesoul,consumedinthisfurnace,wantstoeatthefoodforever,andthemoreiteatsthemoreithungers.176

Shewrotetoacleric:"Befaithful.RunwithMary'sdesiretohonorGodandsavesouls....Guardyourownsoulandbodysoyoucannourishothersoulsandgive birthtothem."177 AttheheartofCatherine'sunderstandingof"eating,""hungering,"and"bleeding,"therefore,wasidentificationofservingwithsuffering.Forexample,Catherinewrote totheQueenofHungaryaboutacrusade:

Truly,noblemother,whenthesoulbeholdsthelambonthewoodoftheholycross,becauseofitsineffableloveforcreation,sheconceivessuchagreatloveforthesalvationof soulsthatshewouldgiveherselfupahundredthousandtimestodeathtosaveevenonesoulfrometernaldeath.AndonecannotmakeasacrificemorepleasingtoGodthanthis. Youknowthathelovesthisnourishmentsomuchthathedidnotfear,intakingiton,bitterness,suffering,death,oroutrage.Evenouringratitudedidnotstophimfromrunning, inebriatedandpassionateforoursalvation,totheopprobriumofthecross.SoIinviteyou...tothisfood.Youhavefoundtheplacewhereonemusttakeitandthefruitisripe.... TheplaceisthegardenofHolyChurch,andthereisplantedthetreeonwhichhangsthefruit,Christ.178

ToCatherine,sufferingwasservingbecauseChristhadbecomefleshafleshthat,bybleedinganddying,savedtheworld.Notresurrectionthenbutincarnationwas atthecenterofhertheology.179Itwasinsuf

Page180

fering,notintriumph,thatshesawherselfbecomingChristChristasfoodandChristasredemption.Heragoniesofstarvation,illness,andstigmataweretheagonies ofthecrossandofpurgatory.Suchsufferingwasfertileandgenerative,foritwasthesourceofsalvation.Asshewrotetooneofherconfessors:"Theimmaculatelamb [Christ]isfood,table,andservant."Thistable,saidCatherine,offeredthefruitsoftrueandperfectvirtues."Andwewhoeatatthattablebecomelikethefood[i.e., Christ],actingnotforourownutilitybutforthehonorofGodandthesalvationofneighbor."180 Thus,throughoutCatherine'sletters,herconcernforsavingsoulsthroughherownagonywasexpressedinthepairedmetaphorsoffeedingandfasting.Feedingand fastingwerecentralpracticesinherlifeaswell.Catherinerejectedfood,assherejectedherownfleshyetshegavefoodtothepoorandhungry.Andsheateboth pusandtheeucharist,confidentthatthebodyofGodandthebodiesofherneighborswere,forherselfandforothers,thewayofsalvation.Whenweturntotheother greatItalianCatherine,CatherineofGenoa,thetheoristofpurgatory,wefindasimilarconceptionofsufferingasservice.TothislaterCatherine,astoherforerunner, foodisthefundamentalmetaphorforsuffering,forservice,andforlove. ThreeworkssurvivethatreflectCatherineofGenoa'steachings,althoughnonewaswrittenbyher.Allthreewereputtogethershortlyafterherdeath,andtwo,the LifeandtheDialogue,arepartlyautobiographical.TheLifeisbasedonheractsandsayings,takendownafter1495byherconfessor,Marabotto,herspiritualson, EttoreVernazza,andpossiblyothers.TheDialogue,whichtreatsherinnerhistory,isprobablyacombinationofthreeworks.Inthelastpartanunknownauthor recountsandinterpretsCatherine'sfinalillnessanddeathinexcruciatingdetail.Thefirsttwopartsgenerallyagreedtobeofhigherliteraryqualityarealsoof uncertainauthorship.AnearlytraditionattributesthefirstparttoCatherineherself,butsomescholarsarguethatsheisunlikelytohavedictatedsuchasophisticated useofdialogueform.AllscholarsagreethatTheTreatiseonPurgatoryreflectsherownideasonpurgation,atleastinitsoriginalform(i.e.,thefirstsevenchapters). ItwasprobablywrittendownbyVernazzacertaintheologicalglosseswereintroducedbeforetheofficialpublicationin1551.181Thus,althoughnosinglesentenceof Catherine'sworkcanbetrustedasherownlanguage,thetreatisestakentogethergiveaclearpictureoftheinnerandouter

Page181

lifeofawomaninwhosepietyfasting,eucharist,andsufferingwerethecentralfoci.182 Bornin1447andrefusedpermissiontoenteraconventatthirteen,Catherinewasplungedintodepressionbyhermarriageatagesixteentoayoungnobleman, GiulianoAdorno.Herdespairatthemarriage,intowhichshewasforcedforfinancialandpoliticalreasonsbyanolderbrothertwoyearsafterherfather'sdeath,was perhapsincreasedbothbythefactthatGiuliano'sfamilywasanenemyofherownandbywhatlaterscholarshavecalledGiuliano'swastefulanddissolutebehavior. (Although"dissoluteness"ishardtoevaluateacrossthecenturiesandmightwellbeexacerbatedbyawife'sdepression,itiscertainthatGiulianosquanderedhisfamily money,forhewentbankruptabout1474,andthathehadamistressandanillegitimatechild.)Afterfiveyearsofsevereaccidiaandwithdrawal,Catherinemadean efforttoreturntosociallife.ShecollapsedintoevenmoreacutedepressionatChristmas1472.Anumberofthingsthenhappened. Manyscholars,wishingtoorganizemysticalandsaintlybiographiesaroundturningpointsandintoneatstages,seeasuddenconversionatherLentenconfessionof March,1473,andhersubsequentvisionofChristcarryingthecross.Itismoreaccurate,however,toseeaperiodofaboutthreeyears(orperhapslonger)during whichcertainexternalconstraintsonCatherine'slifewereremovedandsheforgedforherself,outofaperiodofsevereselfabnegation,anewlifepatterninwhich fasting,eucharisticdevotion,serving,andunionwithChristwerethecentralmotifs.183Thefirstmonthsaftertheconfessionandvisionof1473weremonthsofvirulent asceticism,includingacutefooddeprivationandillness.Then,betweenMarch,1473,andMarch,1476,Catherine'shusbandwentbankruptandCatherinelearnedof hismistressandillegitimatechild.Theseeventsnormallydeeplyhumiliatingwereperhapsfreeingtoawomanwhohatedhermarriage.Inanycase,theyprovided forheranopportunitytothrowherselfintocareofthepoorandsickandidentificationwiththeirsufferinganddestitution.By1476Giulianohadagreedtoachaste marriageby1478hejoinedherinvoluntarypovertyandinthehospitalworkinwhichtheyspenttherestoftheirlives.ItwasduringtheseyearsthatCatherine developedaregularpatternoffastingandeucharisticcravingshewaspermitteddailycommunionfrom1474on.184Thispatternlasteduntilshewasfiftytwoyears old,atwhichpointsherelaxedherrigidfastingbehaviorsimultaneously

Page182

withrelinquishingresponsibilityforhersoulintothehandsofaconfessorandspiritualdirector.185(Shehadspentheradultyearswithoutone.)Shediedatsixtythree, inanacuteillnessthatonceagainmadeeatingimpossible.186 LikeAngelaofFolignoandCatherineofSiena,CatherineofGenoainthelongperiodbetween1476and1499combinedperiodicinediawitheatingbothfilthand thebodyofGod.Moreover,likehertwopredecessors,sheexplicitlyconnectstheseformsofeatingandnoteating.Catherinetookinillnessandfilthbymouth.187 Shekissedatertiarysufferingfromplagueandcaughtthedisease.Sherubbedhernoseinpusandatescabsandliceinordertoovercomehernauseaatillness.188In theinitialcrisisafterMarch,1473,sheattackedherbodyferociously,adulteratingherfoodtokillhersenseoftaste.Shealmostcompletelyceasedtoeatandshetried tostopsleeping.Shewasafflictedwithatrocioushungerandthirst.After1476shesettledintoapatternoffastingeveryAdventandLentononlywater,vinegar,and salt,duringwhichperiodshewasunabletokeepfoodinherstomachwithoutvomiting.Sheappearstohaveworriedaboutherinedia,fearingitmightbeprideor morbidselfpunishment,foroneversionoftheLifereportsinpassingthatsheaskedherconfessorwhethersheshouldforceherselftoeat.189LikeCatherineofSiena, shedevelopedwhatappearstousabizarrerelationshiptobodilysensations,experiencingburningorextremecold,heaviness,convulsions,andinvisiblestigmata.190 Shesometimesbitorburnedherselfwhileintrances.191Shefelthungerandthirstsoextremeshelickedtheearthinagony,yetsheclaimedsheexperiencednodesire toeat.192Shespokeexplicitlyoftheneedtodestroywhatwewouldcalltheegoorbreakitsboundaries,insistingonusingweinsteadofthepronounIorher name.193YetboththeLifeandtheDialogueinsistonthecentralitytoherofeatingholyfood.Shetellsusthatthreedaysafterherconfessionof1473she"feltthepull ofHolyCommunion,whichfromthatdayneverlefther."194OneversionoftheLifeattributestohersentimentsthat,whetherauthenticorinauthenticforCatherine herself,aretypicaloflatefifteenthcenturyreligiouswomen:
WhenshewasatmassshewasoftensooccupiedinteriorlywithherLord,thatshedidnothearawordbutwhenthetimecametoreceivecommunionsheaccusedherself,and wouldsay:"Oh!myLord,itseemstomethatifIweredead,Ishouldcometolife,inordertoreceivethee,and

Page183 ifanunconsecratedhostweregiventome,thatIshouldknowitbythetaste,asoneknowswinefromwater."195

Shesaidrepeatedlythatshefelthungeronlyforcommunion.196 ThesecondofCatherine'sspiritualdialoguesweavestogetherthesethemesofeatingandnoteatinginawaythatclearlyimpliesthateatingpainandeatingChrist substituteforeatingordinaryfood.197Inthisdialogue,thepersonificationHumanity(i.e.,humanfrailty)firstattacksitsownneedforfriendsandforfood.Onceit conquersordinaryhunger,itallowsitselftodesiretruenourishment,andGodgivescommunion.HumanityisthensoinebriatedwithsweetnessthatSoul(another personification)isfrightenedandasksGodtoremovethefeelingsofbliss.CatherinecommentsthatSouldoesnotwantsweetnessorreward,butGodsendsit.She alsosuggeststhatGodsendsserviceofthesicktogiveHumanitysomethingtodo,198andshespeaksofservinginfoodmetaphors,as"kneadingbread"or "fasting,"199justbeforeshetellsofeating"liceasbigaspearls""manytimes."200Thus,inCatherine'slife,assheherselfinterpretsitintheDialogue,ordinaryfoodisa symbolforinept,rebelliousbody(whichsheoftencalls''humanity"[umanit]).201ButfoodisalsoasymbolofGod.Forfoodiseucharist,thatcelestialsweetness throughwhichthesoulachievesmysticalunion.Andfoodisthefilthandhorrorofsuffering,throughwhichonealsojoinsGodandservesone'sfellowcreatures.Desire forGodishungerinsatiablehunger.202ThefoodthatisGodandthefoodthatisneighborarethusthenourishmentwecrave,inebriatedyetunfilled. AtthecoreofCatherine'sspiritualityissuffering,thatparadoxicalsufferingwhichforher,asforHadewijchandBeatrice,isultimatepainandtheecstasybeyond.The sufferingispurgatory,andinasense,therefore,purgatoryitselfisbothChrist'sdeathagoniesonthecrossandtheagoniesofthesoulasitisannihilatedinthefiery bliss,thedevouringmouth,ofGod.203Catherine'spurgatoryisChrist'slove,withwhichwecanneverfullyjoin.ItisimitatioChristi,butanimitationeverfully achieved.Itexpiatesoursinsandthoseofothers,butitisnotsomuchaplaceoratimeasanexperienceofpurging,andwecouldnotwishitamomentshorter,for ourselvesorforothers.Catherinewrites:
Inpurgatory,greatjoyandgreatsufferingdonotexcludeoneanother....Andifthelivingweretoofferalmsforthebenefitofthesoulsinpurgatory,toshortentheassignedtime oftheirpurgation,stillthosesouls

Page184 couldnotturnwithaffectiontowatch,butwouldleaveallthingstoGod,whoispaidashewishes....Whathewillsforthemiswhatgivesthemjoy.204

ToCatherine,purgingisasufferingsovastthatinitfuseone'sowncleansing,one'sneighbor'sexpiation,andthedeathagoniesofChrist.Insufferingoneistherefore servingneighborandhungeringforGod. Catherinesaysexplicitlythatofallthemetaphorsonemightchooseforthismomentwhichisattheheartoftheuniverse,themetaphorsheprefersisthatofhungerfor bread.IntheTreatiseonPurgatoryshewrites:

JoyinGod...istheendofthesesouls....Noimageormetaphorcanadequatelyconveythistruth.Oneexample,however,comestomind.Letusimaginethatinthewholeworld therewasbutonebreadandthatitcouldsatisfythehungerofall.Justtolookatitwouldbetonourishoneself.Thatbreadiswhatahealthyman,withanappetite,wouldseek andwhenhecouldnotfinditoreatit,hishungerwouldincreaseindefinitely.Awarethatthatbreadalonecouldassuagehishunger,hewouldalsoknowthatwithoutithishunger couldneverabate.Suchisthehellofthehungrywho,theclosertheycometothisbread,themoretheyareawarethattheydonotasyethaveit.Theiryearningforthatbread increases,becauseitistheirjoy.Weretheytoknowthattheywouldneverseethebread,thatwouldbeperfecthell,thecaseofthedamnedsoulswhonolongerhopetoseethe truebreadandthetrueGod.Thehungrysoulsinpurgatory,however,thoughtheydonotseeasmuchofthebreadastheywouldwish,hopetoseeitandfullyenjoyitoneday. This,then,istheirsuffering,thewaitingforthebreadthatwilltakeawaytheirhunger.205

ThroughoutCatherine'steachings,hungerandfire(reflectingherownbodilyexperiencesofatrocioushungerandburningflashes)arethebasicimagesfordesireand forencounterwithGod.IntheLifeasinthePurgatory,wefindeatingbreadasanelaboratespiritualmetaphor.Inchapter32(ofthe1551edition)theannihilationof ordinaryfoodbyadevouringbodybecomesanimageforthepurificationevenannihilationoftheselfinmysticalunion.HeretherecorderofCatherine'ssayings reports:

"Takealoaf,"saidthesaint,"andeatit,andafteryouhaveeatenit,itssubstancegoestothenutrimentofthebody,andwhatissuperfluous

Page185 passesawayforifnatureretainedit,havingnoneedofit,thebodywoulddie.Nowifthatbreadshouldsaytothebody:Whydoyoudeprivemeofmyexistence,forbymy natureIamnotsatisfiedtobethusreducedtonothingness?IfIcould,Iwoulddefendmyselffromthee,foritisnaturalforeverycreaturetopreserveitself,thebodywould answer:Bread,thybeingisdesignedformysupport,whichismoreworthythanthee,andhencethoushouldstbemorecontentwiththeendforwhichthouwastcreated,than withthyownbeingforifitwerenotforthyend,thybeingwouldhavenovaluebuttobethrownaside,assomethingworthlessanddead.Itisthyendwhichgivestheeadignity towhichthoucanstnotattainbutbymeansofthyannihilation.Ifthouwouldstliveforthyend,thouwouldstnotcareforthybeing,butwouldstsay:Quickly,quickly,takeme frommyself,andletmeattainmyendforwhichIamcreated."206

Christ'sblood,bothasdrinkandascleansingwater,wasalsoakeymetaphortoCatherine.ShereceivedavisionofthebleedingChristafterhertraumaticLenten confessionof1473.AndtheredactorofherLifereportsthat:
filledwithcompassionfortheblindnessofman,shesaid"Ifbytakingmybloodandgivingittomantodrink,Icouldmakeknowntohimthistruth[aboutlove],Iwouldgiveitall forloveofhim.Icannotendurethethoughtthatman,createdforthegoodthatIseeandknow,shouldloseit....IfIknewhow,Iwouldleavenothingundonetomakeknownhow dreadfulathingisthisprivationoftheloveofGod."207

ThusCatherineofGenoausedhungerasametaphorforinsatiabledesire,eatingasametaphorforlove,andbreadasasymbolofselfandofGod.Sheconsciously andexplicitlychosefoodashercentralimageformysticalunion.Moreover,Catherinelivedthesefiguresofspeech.Fasting,feedingothers,andfeastingonthe eucharistwerenot,toher,occasionalpractices.TheywerethewayshelovedherneighboranddrewnearherGod. Notallwomenwriters,ofcourse,madefoodsocentralanimageasdidHadewijch,Beatrice,andthetwoCatherines.TotheGermanmysticsHildegardofBingen, ElizabethofSchnau,GertrudetheGreat,andMechtildofHackebornitwasausefulmetaphorbutnotacentralonenorwasfoodacrucialimagetoJulianof NorwichorMargaretofOingt.AndMargaretPorete,whoseMirrorofSimpleSoulswascondemnedintheearlyfourteenthcentury,rejectedthewholetraditionof affective

Page186

spiritualitywithanattackon"works"(suchasfastingandcommunion)thatwentfarbeyondTauler'sorEckhart's.But,toallthesewriters(exceptMargaretPorete), thehumanityofChrist,understoodasphysicality,wascrucialandeucharisticdevotionwasimportanttothemall.208Moreover,thereareotherwomenwritersfrom theperiod,forexampleMechtildofMagdeburg,AngelaofFoligno,andMargeryKempe,towhomfoodpracticesandfoodimageswerefundamental.209Andinthe fourgreatwritersexaminedhere,food,hunger,eating,andfeedingwerefarmorevibrantandcompleximagesthantheyeverweretomalewriters,eventhosesuchas RuysbroeckandTaulerwhohelpedelaboratelatemedievaleucharisticdevotion.210Furthermore,toeachwomantheimageresonatedwithitsownparticularpower. Hadewijch'sunionwithGodwaseroticandanguishedherbasicfoodmetaphorwashunger.Beatrice'sunionwasinsaneandfrantichermetaphorsweredrinkingand bleeding.CatherineofSiena'sencounterwithGodwasinsufferingandservingherrichimagesrevolvedmostbasicallyaroundeatingandblood.ToCatherineof Genoa,unionwassuffering,evenannihilationthemetaphorwaseatingandbeingeaten.Whattiesthesedistinctivespiritualitiestogetheristhesamepatternwefindin women'slives,asseenbythemselvesandbymalebiographers.Itisathreefoldpattern:womenfast,womenfeedothers,andwomeneat(butneverordinaryfood). Womenfastandhungerbecomesanimageforexcruciating,neversatiatedloveofGod.Womenfeedandtheirbodiesbecomeanimageofsufferingpouredout forothers.Womeneatandwhethertheydevourthefilthofsickbodiesorthebloodandfleshoftheeucharist,thefoodsareChrist'ssufferingandChrist'shumanity, withwhichonemustjoinbeforeapproachingtriumph,glory,ordivinity.

Page187

III THEEXPLANATION

Page189

6 FoodAsControlofSelf
Itisanoftendiscussedquestionwhyanorexianervosaissoconspicuouslylessfrequentinmalesthaninfemales.Itmaywellberelatedtopubescenceitself,tothepsychological effectsofthemalesexhormones....Itisquitepossiblethatthecharacteristicslavelikeattachmentofachildtothemotherismoreapttodevelopinagirlandeffortstosolve psychologicalproblemsthroughmanipulationofthebodyarealsoconsideredcharacteristicallyfemale.Itisprobablethatitisunusualforaboytobecaughtinthisdevelopmental impasse.Inaddition,malepubescencewillfloodaboy,evenonewhohasthistypeofattachment,withsuchpowerfulnewsensationsofamoreaggressiveselfawarenessthatthe eventofpubertymakesanewselfassertionpossible. HILDEBRUCH EatingDisorders (1973)1

Whyisfoodsocentralathemeinthereligiosityofmedievalwomen?Theansweriscomplicated,anditwillnotdotorushtoasingleexplanation.Indeed,the remainderofthisbookprovidesseveralanswersandgroupsthemintotwokinds.Inthischapterandthenext,Idescribethevariousfunctionsfoodservedfor womenthemanifoldwaysinwhicheating,feeding,andnoteatingenabledthemtocontroltheirbodiesandtheirworld.Inthelastthreechapters,Itreatthesymbolic meaningsfoodheldforwomenandthesignificance,forbothsexes,ofthenotionthatwomanisfood.Ifthereasoninginchapters6and7attimesfinds,inwordsand deeds,importthatmedievalpeoplewouldnothaverecognized,thefinalchapterstakeseriouslythesignificancesmedievalwomenandmenattributedtotheirown experience. Myfullexplanation,then,ismultifaceted.ButIcanbeginsimply.Foodisimportanttowomenreligiouslybecauseitisimportantsocially. Itisafactcrossculturallythatfoodisparticularlyawomancontrolledresource.Inthemajorityofcultures,foodpreparationisawom

Page190

an'srole.2 ItwascertainlysoinmedievalEurope.OneoftheearliestextantFrenchcookbooks,thefourteenthcenturyViandier,assumesthatbasiccookeryisdone bywomen.Theauthorsayshedoesnotdescribethepreparationofcertainitems,suchascabbage,leeks,andvealwithsaffronandpeppersauce,because"women andtheirmistressesandeveryoneknowhowtocookthem."3 But,beyondwomen,"everyone"didnotknow.WhenanelderlyParisianhusbandwroteanowfamous bookofhousekeepingadviceforhisyoungbrideabout1392,hisbookrevealedthathehimselfwasnotacook.Arecenthistorianpointsoutthathe"describescertain aspectsofcookeryanyworkingcookwouldhavetakenforgranted."4 Althoughthefirstcookbookswerewrittenbymenandthejobofchefinthewealthiest householdswenttomales,everyoneagreedthatthebasicsocialresponsibilityforfoodpreparationwaswoman's5 Indeed,cookingwassomuchawoman'srolethatitappeared,tomen,notmerelyarcanebutthreatening.Whenmedievalmenprojectedtheirhostilitytowardwomen intosuspicionofwhatwentoninthewomen'squarters,theyfrequentlyspokeofwomen'scontroloffood.6 Mensuspectedwomen(especiallywives)ofmanipulating thembyaddingpotionsorpoisonstotheirmeals.TheDecretumofBurchardofWorms,compiledbetween1008and1012,liststhespellsandincantationsresorted tobywomenmostoftheminvolvemanipulatingfoodforexample,increasingordecreasingthesexualardorofahusbandbyaddingtohisfoodsuchthingsas menstrualblood,semen,ordoughkneadedwithawoman'sbuttocks.7 Therearemanyreasonsfortheassociationofwomenandfoodpreparationthatisfoundinsomanycultures.Onereasonseemstobethebiologicalanalogy.Through lactation,womanistheessentialfoodproviderandpreparer.AsthenovelistEliasCanettiexpressesit:
Inafamilythehusbandcontributesfoodandthewifepreparesitforhim.Thefactthathehabituallyeatswhatshehaspreparedconstitutesthestrongestlinkbetweenthem. Themother...isthecoreandveryheartofthisinstitution.Amotherisonewhogivesherownbodytobeeaten.Shefirstnourishesthechildinherwombandthengivesither milk.Thisactivitycontinuesinalessconcentratedformthroughoutmanyyears....Herpassionistogivefood.8

Page191

Indeed,inanumberofcultures(e.g.,modernLatinAmerica,Indonesia)womenprepareandservefoodbutdonoteatwiththefamily.Inmostcomplexsocieties, evenupperclasswomenwhoarefreedfromthetaskoffoodpreparationstillhavetheresponsibilityofsupervisingthosewhocook.Thereiscertainlyreasontothink thateatingintheEuropeanMiddleAgeswasstereotypedasamaleactivityandfoodpreparationasafemaleone.Thesexeswereoftenseparatedatmedieval banquets,andwomenweresometimesrelegatedtowatchingfromthegalleries.9 ThehistoryofWesterncooking,asreflectedincookbooks,diaries,andmemoirs, suggeststhat"heavy"food,especiallymeat,wasseenasmoreappropriateformenandlighterfoodforwomen,10inpartbecausemeathad,forathousandyears, beenseenasanaggravatoroflust.11Cookbookscameincreasinglytosuggestthatwomenwhopreparedthemealshardlyneededtoeatatall.12Wenowknow thatsuchnotions,bythenineteenthcentury,actuallyproduceddietarydeficienciesinwomen13indeed,thetwentiethcenturyWesterncrazeforfemaledietingmay owesomethingtothisolderassumptionthatwomenpreparefoodandmeneatit. Thistraditionalassociationofwomenwithfoodpreparationratherthanfoodconsumptionhelpsustounderstandcertainaspectsofthereligioussignificanceoffood. Topreparefoodistocontrolfood.Moreover,foodisnotmerelyaresourcethatwomencontrolitistheresourcethatwomencontrolbothforthemselvesandfor others.InthelongcourseofWesternhistory,economicresourceswerecontrolledbyhusbands,fathers,uncles,orbrothers.Yethumanbeingscanrenounce,ordeny themselves,onlythatwhichtheycontrol.Thus,inperiodssuchasthelaterMiddleAgesinwhichworlddenialwasafavoritereligiousresponse,womenfounditeasier torenouncefoodthananythingelse(forexample,money,sexualactivity,orfamilyties).14Itwasfarmoredifficulttofleeone'sfamily,todenyafather'splansforone's betrothal,ortorefusesexualrelationstoahusbandthanitwastostopeating.Inperiodsinwhichcharityandserviceweredeeplyvalued,womenfoundfoodthe easiestthingtogiveaway.Slippingoutofthekitchenorbanquethallwithfoodforthepoorwasthemostconvenient,theleastostentatious,service.Moreover,both women'sfooddistributionandtheirfastingappearedculturallyacceptableformsofasceticism,becausewhatwomenordinarilydidmostvisiblyashousewives, mothers,orthemis

Page192

tressesofgreatcastleswastoprepareandservefoodratherthantoeatit.Yetifwomen'sfooddistributionorfoodavoidancebecameacuteenoughtodisrupttheir roleasfoodpreparer,itcouldwreakhavocwithsocialrelations.ItcouldthereforeapointtowhichIshallreturnbeanextremelyeffectiveformofmanipulation. Atthesimplestlevelofexplanation,therefore,wecansaythatmedievalwomenfastedandfedothersbecausepreparationanddistributionoffoodwerewomen's specialconcerns.Itisworthnotingthatinmanycultures,fastingasareligiousactivityisdoneprimarilybywomen,althoughfastingasscientificexperimentoras politicalprotestisusuallyperformedbymen.AmongEskimos,forexample,itiscustomaryforthehusbandtogooutfishingwhilethewiferemainsathomefastingfor agoodcatch.15InOldTestamentJudaism,fastingisalmosttheonlyreligiousactforwhichwomen(e.g.,Judith,Esther,Sarah,themothersofSamuelandSamson) areprominentmodelsofpiety.InIndia,wherethehungerstrikewasusedveryeffectivelybyGandhiandhisfollowersasapoliticalweapon,fastingisperformed primarilybywomenwhenitisofferedasareligiousactforprivateorfamilialgains.(Themostcommonpatternisforawomantofastinordertogainaspecific benefitforamalerelative.)16Gandhiinfactlearnedfastingfromhisdevoutmother,whoaddedfaststothealreadystrictHinduschedule.17IntheEuropeantradition also,thehungerstrikehasbeeneffectivelyusedbymenforpoliticalpurposes.ItsrecentpopularitywiththeIrishRepublicanArmyhasalongandspecifictradition behindit.MedievalIreland(likemedievalIndia)hadanactuallegalprocedureof"fastingtodestrain,"inwhichacreditorfastedagainstadebtortogainrepaymentora manfastedagainsthisadversarytogainrestitution.18InTudor/StuartEnglandandamongthePuritansintheNewWorld,publicfasts,proclaimedbythegovernment toexpiateorprotestparticularevents,becameincreasinglypolitical.The1774fastoftheMassachusettsandVirginiacoloniststoexpressdissatisfactionwithEngland wasthefirstmodernmasspoliticalprotestbyfasting.19But,aswehaveseen,fastingasanindividualactofworldrenunciationhasbeenmorecentralinthereligiosity ofEuropeanwomenthanofmen.20 Fastingandcharitablefooddistribution,andtheirmiraculouscounterpartssurvivingontheeucharistalone,foodmultiplicationmiracles,thefemalebodythatexudes foodorcuringliquidwerethus,inonesense,religiousexpressionsofsocialfacts.Theymanifestedinreligious

Page193

behaviorthesexualdivisionoflabor.Sincelatemedievalspiritualityvaluedbothrenunciationandservice,eachgenderrenouncedanddistributedwhatitmost effectivelycontrolled:mengaveupmoney,property,andprogenywomengaveupfood.Moreover,suchadivisionofreligiousresponseclearlysuitedmedievalmen. Severalscholarshavepointedoutthatlatetwelfthandearlythirteenthcenturywomen(e.g.,ClareofAssisiandMaryofOignies)whowishedtofollowthenewideal ofmendicantpovertythatis,torenounceeconomicsupportsweresimplynotpermittedeitherbytheirfamiliesorbyreligiousauthoritiestodoso.21Theolder aristocracyandthenewurbanpatriciatemightalloworencouragedaughterstowithdrawintoconventsorhermitcellsortoperformfastsandvigilsundertheirfathers' oruncles'orhusbands'roofs,butwomenwanderingandbeggingandlivingwithoutservantswenttoofar.SowomensuchasMaryandClareandIdaofLouvain substitutedfastingforotherwaysofstrippingtheselfofpleasureandsupport.ThethirteenthcenturyhagiographerThomasofCantimprcommentedexplicitlythat ChristinatheAstonishinggaveupfoodbecauseshehadnothingelsetogiveupforChrist.22Betweenthetwelfthandthesixteenthcentury,beguines,tertiaries,devout laywomenwhoresidedinthehousesoffathersorspouses,andevennunswhoseconventlifeseemedtotheminsufficientlyausterewereabletorenouncetheworldin themidstofabundancebyrefusingtoeatordrinkanythingthatwaspaidforbyfamilywealth.MargeryKempefastedatherhusband'stableCatherineofSienaand IdaofLouvainrefusedfoodprovidedbytheirfathersElizabethofHungarylivedamongherhusband'srelativesbutrefusedtoeatanyfoodexceptthatpurchasedwith herdowry.23Becausefoodpreparationwaswoman'ssphere,foodasceticismandfooddistributionwereforwomenobviousmodesofimitatingthevulnerabilityand generosityofChrist.Moreover,fastingandfeedingwereactsofcharityandofselfdenudingthatcouldbeperformedevenwhenawomanwasunabletodetermine theframeworkofinstitutionsoreconomicsupportswithinwhichshelived. Theissueofcontrolis,however,muchmorebasicthanthisanalysissuggests.Foodrelatedbehaviorwascentraltowomensociallyandreligiouslynotonlybecause foodwasaresourcewomencontrolledbutalsobecausebymeansoffoodwomencontrolledthemselvesandtheirworld.Bodilyfunctions,sensations,fertility,and sexualityhusbands,mothers,fathers,andchildrenreligioussuperiorsandconfessorsGodinhismaj

Page194

estyandtheboundariesofone'sown''self"allcouldbemanipulatedbyabstainingfromandbestowingfood.Inordertounderstandthis,wemustlookcloselyat women'sfastingandfeedingbehavior.ItseemswisetobeginwiththequestionIearlierpostponed,thequestionoftheapplicabilityofmodernpsychologicalormedical models.Forinthefloodofrecentwritingonfood"disorders,"theissueofcontrolhasbeencentral.And,asseveralrecentwritershavenoticed,thefastingbehaviorof somemedievalwomenclearlyfitsratherwellthemodernsyndromeknownasanorexianervosa.Howhelpful,then,aremodernclinicaldefinitionsforour understandingoflatemedievalpiety? WasWomen'sFastingAnorexiaNervosa? Theideathatsomesaintlyormysticalwomenofthelatemedieval/earlymodernperiodwereanorecticsisnotnew.Infact,historiansofmedicinehaveviedwitheach otherinfindingtheearliestcasesofeatingdisorders.Onemedicalhistorianhasarguedthatitisonlyintheseventeenthcenturythatwefindanaccountoffemalefasting sufficientlydetailedtofitmodernclinicaldefinitions.24Butsomehaveseenanorecticoranorexialikebehaviorinearliercases.25Inabizarrecommunicationtoa Britishmedicaljournal,onedoctorrecentlyarguedthatthelegendofthebeardedfemalesaintWilgefortiswhichwasexplainedbythegreatBollandistscholar Delehayeasspringingfrommisperceptionofaveiledcrucifixisanearlyandcompletedescriptionofthecomplexoffeatures(includinghirsutism)consideredby psychologiststocharacterizeanorexia.26EarlierinthiscenturyCatholicscholarssuchasPaterandThurstonstrovetodifferentiate"natural"(whichsometimesmeant pathological,i.e.,anorecticorhysterical)and"miraculous"(i.e.,supernaturallyproduced)fasting.27Andanumberofrecentscholarshavementionedinpassing sometimesquitedefensivelythepossibilitythatprominentmedievalsaintssuchasCatherineofSienaandCatherineofGenoasufferedfromanorexianervosa. RudolphBellhasrecentlypublishedacarefulanddetailedstudyofanorexiaamongItalianwomenfromtheeleventhtotheseventeenthcentury.28 Manyofthesediscussions,whethertheygrantorrefusethelabelanorexianervosatoearlycasesoffemalefasting,seemtoassumethatweareinthepresenceofa trendwhichwecancalleitherthe"seculariza

Page195

tion"orthe"medicalization"ofbehavior.29Theyassume,thatis,thatmedievalpeoplegavetheologicalsignificancetobehaviorthatpsychiatristsanddoctorstodaysee insecularterms,whethermedical,psychoanalytical,orpsychodynamic.Thustheysometimessuggestthatmedievalwomenandtheirconfessorsattributenoteatingto divineordemonicinspirationwhereasmodernwomenandtheirtherapistsblameiteitheronpsycheoronbiochemistry.(Thisclaimcanbeusedeithertosupportthe notionthatsuchfastingisanorexianervosa,becauseitisthesamephenomenondifferentlyinterpreted,ortodenythenotionthatsuchfastingisanorexia,because "anorexia"isamodernculturalconstruct.)Theargumentisrelatedtotheidea,whichhasbeenmuchfoughtoverbyhistoriansofpsychiatry,thatlatemedievalwitches and/ortheirvictimswerefrequentlythesociety'smentallyilloftenhystericsandsometimesanorecticswhosebehaviorwasattributedbytheologianstobothmoral failinganddemonicpossession.30But,inordertounderstandmedievalbehavior,thefirstthingwemustnoteisthatsuchaclaimisnotquiteright.Itisnotquitetrue (althoughthereareelementsoftruthinit)tosaythatfastingwastheologizedintheMiddleAgesandissecularizedormedicalizedtoday.AsthecasesIdiscussabove makeclear,medievalpeopledidnotseeallrefusaltoeatas"fasting"(i.e.,asceticism)orallextendedabstinenceasmiraculous.Andthecaseofthemodernmystic SimoneWeilandhermanyadmirers,likethecaseoftheGermanstigmaticTheresaofKonnersreuth,makesitclearthatnotallfemaleabstinenceinthetwentieth centuryismedicallyorpsychologicallyinterpreted.31 Medievalwritershadinfactanumberofparadigmsforexplainingextendedperiodsofnoteating.Noteatingwassometimesseenassupernaturallycausedeither miraculousordemonic.Itwassometimesseenasnaturallycausedassuch,itwassometimesbutbynomeansalwaysinterpretedasaconditiontobecured.(Both miraculousandnaturalisticexplanationsweresometimesusedbytheologiansastheCouncilofTrentusedthecaseofNicholasofFluetoprovethedoctrineof transubstantiation.)Noteatingwassometimesinterpretedasdeliberatefraudorasselfdelusion.Wecanfindallthreeparadigmseveninearlysaints'livesand chronicles.Thenotionthatrefusaltoeatcanbefraudulentorattentiongettingbehavior,orillness,wasnonewdiscoveryinthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies. Inediaappearsinanumberofmedievaldocumentsassimplyaphys

Page196

iologicalcondition.TheauthoroftheninthcenturylifeofWalburga,forexample,presentsacaseofloathingforfoodasanillness,whichthesaintcures.Afifteenth centurylifeofColetteofCorbiealsotreatsinabilitytoeatasanillness.32RogerBaconsaidofathirteenthcenturyEnglishwomanthathersurvivalwithouteatingwas notmiraculous,"butratheraworkofnature,"andgaveasomewhattorturedbutingeniousexplanationofhowthebalanceofelementsinherbodymightmakethis possiblesincenothingcameinasfood,butnothingwentoutasexcrement.ThomasNetter,inafifteenthcenturytheologicaltreatise,arguedthatJoantheMeatless distinguishedconsecratedfromunconsecratedhostsbyanaturalskill,becauseherconditionwassuchthatshecouldnotbearanybodilyfood.CatherineofSiena herselfreferredtoherinabilitytoeatasan"infirmity,"notavoluntaryreligiouspractice.LidwinaofSchiedamclaimedthatshedeservednopraiseforabstinencesince shewasinfactunabletoeat.AlpasofCudotindicatedherunderstandingofherconditionasanillness(whichwastobepatientlyborne)byhavingavisionofthedevil asadoctorwhoofferedtocureit.Asearlyastheninthcentury,chroniclerswerebusycollectingstoriesoffreaksandmarvelsanddidnotpresentallcasesofwomen whorefusedtoeatasexamplesofsanctityorillustrationsofGod'spower.TheveryfactthatsupposedsaintssuchasJohntheGoodofMantuaandColumbaofRieti sometimesatebeforeanaudiencetodemonstratethattheycouldeati.e.,thattheirabstinencewasvoluntarysuggeststhatmedievalinterpretersdrewaclear distinctionbetweeninabilitytoeatandasceticism.Someauthorsfoundonlythelatteramarkofsanctity,althoughsome(forexample,ElsbetAchler'shagiographer)did presentanysurvivingwithouteatingasamarkofdivinefavor. Medievalpeoplethemselvesthoughtthatselfstarvationwassometimesadelusionandsometimesacarefullyorchestratedfraud.Whenwenotethechargesagainst whichholywomendefendedthemselvesweseequiteclearlywhatanumberoftheircontemporariessuspected.CatherineofSienawasaccusedofbeingdeluded, evenofbeingawitch.ColumbaofRietiwasaccusedofmerelywastingawayfromlovesickness.BothCatherineandColumbadefendedthemselvesagainstthe chargethattheirrefusaltoeatwasaformofsuicideandthereforeamortalsin.ItwasCatherine'sowndefinitionofherbehaviorasaninfirmitythatenabledherto claimthateatingwouldbeanevenmoregrievoussuicide.Moreover,ifElsbetAchlerdidnothidefoodunderherbed,someone

Page197

elsehidittheretocreatetheillusionofthefraudhersisterssuspected.33Andinthefifteenthandsixteenthcenturiesseveralfraudulentfasterswereunmasked.34The factthattherewere"frauds"indicatesthatthosewho"pretended"expectedtogainprestigewhetherasfreakorassaint.Buttheratherdefensivetoneof hagiographers(suchasthebiographerofColumbaofRieti)whoclaimedthatfastingsaintsshowednosignsofemaciationindicatesthat"miraculousabstinences"were asregularlydoubtedasapplauded. Itthusappearsthatmedievalwritersthemselvesspokeratherdifferentlyoffastingasvoluntarypenanceandofcasesofwomen,especiallyyounggirls,whowere unabletoeat.Iftheydidnottreattheselattercasesasmattersfordoctorsalone,theyalsodidnotseethemsimplyasaspectsofpenitentialasceticism.Medieval peoplethemselveswereclearaboutthedifferencebetweenchoosingtorenouncefood,oneofthepleasuresofcivilization,andbeinginthethroesofabehaviorpattern thatmadeeatingimpossible.TheyevenoccasionallysawsaintssuchasColetteandWalburga,whochosenottoeat,aspatronsandcurersofthosewhosufferedfrom whatwewouldcallfooddisorders.Ifmedievalchroniclersreportedcertainrefusalstoeatasfreakishbehaviornotnecessarilyconnectedtoreligiosity,whatthenisto preventusfromseeingthemascasesofanorexianervosa,having,assomecurrentmedicalopinionargues,abiochemicalbasis? Twentiethcenturyworkonanorexiaandthecloselyrelateddisorderbulimia(bingeeating)offersmanyexplanationsofthesyndrome.Psychodynamicinterpretation relatesthebehaviortoneurosis,generatedfundamentallybyanovercontrollingparentbehavioristtheoryseesbingeingorselfstarvationaslearnedbehavior socioculturaltheoryrelatesfooddisorderstotheculturalrequirementsofslimnessandnurturingimposedonwomen.Biochemicalexplanationshavebeenparticularly popularrecently.Onecurrentvariantseesanorexiabulimiaasatypeofbiologicallycauseddepressionwithapharmacologicalcure.(Inthepastfewyearsresearchers havehadnotablesuccesscuringbingeeatingwithdrugslongusedtotreatbiochemicallycauseddepression.)35Moreover,researchonthephysiologicalbasesof psychologicaldifferencesbetweenthesexessuggeststhatdifferencesinmaleandfemalemetabolismmakeiteasierforwomentofast,andeventhatmenandwomen cravedifferenttypesoffood(particularlyproteinandcarbohydrates,respectively)becausethesefoodsactuallytastedifferenttothemandareusedbytheir

Page198

bodiesindifferentways.36Thereisthusevidencethatsomeeatingbehaviorthatdepartssignificantlyfromtheordinarydoesinfacthaveaphysiologicalbasis,and nothingonecouldadduceaboutmedievalpeoplewouldeitherconfirmordenythisconclusion.37 Evenforthemodernperiod,however,therearefactsthatconfutearigidlybiochemicalexplanation.Mostresearchersagreethattheincidenceofbulimiaandanorexia isincreasingrapidlytoday,althoughrecenttalkofan"epidemic"maybejournalisticoverreaction.38Nobehaviorwithapurelybiologicalcausecouldfluctuateas drasticallyinincidenceasanorexiaisagreedtodo.Thebehavior,then,whateverbasisitmayinsomecaseshaveinthephysiologyandthefamilyhistoryofindividuals, isalso,intheveryparticularformittakes,learnedanditislearnedfromaculturethathascomplexandlongstandingtraditionsaboutwomen,aboutbodies,and aboutfood.Whateverbiologicalorpsychologicalunderpinningsitmayhave,twentiethcenturyanorexiahasaculturalcontext.39 Thesameistrueformedievalcasesoffooddelusionandmiraculousabstinence.Althoughsomemedievalwomenforexample,AlpasandLidwinaofSchiedam wereunabletoeatforgravephysicalreasons,thereismuchevidencetosuggestthatthevirtuosofastingbehaviorofwomenmustbeexplainedprimarilyinacultural context.Thefirstandmostbasicargumentforaculturalexplanationcomesfromthedistributionofmedievalcases. Miraculousabstinenceitselfisattributedonlytomeninthepatristicperiod.SeveraloftheDesertFathersofthethirdandfourthcenturiesweresaidtosubsistonthe eucharistalone.Whensuchstoriesaretakenupbytheologiansinthefifteenthcenturyasproofofdoctrinalmatterstheybeginonceagaintobetoldoccasionallyof men.Butinthelonginterveningmedievalperiodtheyaretoldonlyofwomen.40Nobiologicalcausecouldpossiblyexplainsuchdiscrepanciesindistribution.Evenif weassumethattheincidenceofabehaviorremainsconstantandmerelythereportingofitchanges(anassumptionwearehardlyentitledtomake),thenthereporting itselfbecomestheinterestingandretrievablephenomenon.Andwhatischosenforreportingisclearlyculturallyconditioned.Moreover,themedievalevidencesuggests thatculturalmodelsarecrucialinproducingfoodrelatedbehavior. Whereextendedabstinenceisreportedformen,themodeloftheDesertFathersisclearlyatwork.Thestory,toldinLidwina'svita,ofa

Page199

certainGerardwhowentfromColognetoEgypt,climbedatree,andlivedtheremiraculouslyforyearsonmannafromheavenissoobviouslyaretellingofpatristic materialthatitdeserveslittlecredenceascontemporaryreporting.Andmanythirteenth,fourteenth,andfifteenthcenturywomen(forexample,MaryofOignies, CatherineofSiena,Colette)wereseenbytheiradmirersthroughlensesshapedbypatristiclegend.Thisisaculturalmodelinthemostobvioussense.Theninth centurylifeofWalburgasuggestsafarmoresubtleshapingofbehaviorbyculturalexpectation.ThestoriesofIrchinbaldandFrideradetoldthere(seeabove,pp.89 90)arebothstoriesofindividualswho,forreasonsthatareundoubtedlypartlyphysiological,haveuncontrollablefoodreactionsfirsthunger,thenrevulsion.The actionofthesaint'srelicsandtheexpectationsofobserversproduceoppositeresultsinthetwocases,however.Walburga"cures"themanshefailsto"cure"the woman,andanotherinterpretationisthenplacedonthewoman'sbehavior.Asthestorygoes,theman'sgluttonyisfollowedbyloathingforfood,andthesaint'srelics thenenablehimtoreturntonormaleating.Butthegirl'sgluttony,whichdidnotenduntilsheconfesseditasaterribleguilt,wasfollowedbyfoodrevulsionthata sympatheticnuncouldnotcure.Thosearoundthegirlthencametoseethenoteatingasamarvelandhaditattestedtobyapriest.Itseemslikelythatthedivergent outcomesofthetwostorieshadsomethingtodowiththeexpectationsofthosewhoviewedthetwoafflictedpeople.Noteatingseemedtothemamoreappropriate storyforawoman.Asgluttonyinawomanwasamoreterribleguilt,soinher,noteatingwaslesslikelytobe"cured"orinneedof"cure."Thustheprevalenceofnot eatingamongwomenseemstohavesomethingtodowithwhichbehaviorstheculturesawasbehaviors"tobecured.'' Whatdetermineswhetheranepisodeisseenassomething"tobecured"inagivencultureiscomplex.ButforthelateMiddleAgesthereisclearevidencethat behaviorandoccurrencesthatbothweandmedievalpeopleseeas"illnesses"arelesslikelytobedescribedassomething"tobecured"whentheyhappentowomen thanwhentheyhappentomen.Women'sillnesswas"tobeendured,"not"cured."Patientsufferingofdiseaseorinjurywasamajorwayofgainingsanctityforfemales butnotformales.AsWeinsteinandBellhavedemonstrated,womenaccountforonly17.5percentofthosecanonizedinthelaterMiddleAges,buttheyaccountfor 53.2percentofthosesaintsinwhoselivespatientbear

Page200

ingofinfirmitywasthecentralfactorinreputationforsanctity.ErnstBenzhascataloguedtheprominenceofsicknessasathemeinwomen'svisions.41Indeed,the vitaeofsomewomensaints,suchasSerafinaofSanGimignano(d.1253),haveastheirsolethemethesaint'sillness.42Andmanyholywomendesiredtobeill. Villanade'BottirefusedprayersforreliefofsicknessGertrudeofHelftaembracedheadachesasasourceofgraceBeatriceofNazareth,whodesiredthetormentsof illness,washealedalmostagainstherwishesMargaretofYpressodesiredtojoinwithChrist'ssufferingthatsheprayedforherinfirmitiestolastbeyondthegrave.43 DauphineofPuimichel(d.1360)evensuggestedthatifpeopleknewhowusefuldiseaseswereforselfdiscipline,theywouldpurchasetheminthemarketplace.44 JulianofNorwichaskedforandreceivedthegraceofsicknessanddeathinliteralimitatioChristi.Inherthirtiethyear,she"died"andreturnedtolife,whilereceiving avisionoftheCrucifixionwith"theredbloodrunningdown...,hotandflowingfreelyandcopiously,alivingstream."45 Notjustillnessingeneralbutthespecificillnessofnotbeingabletoeatwasembracedbymedievalwomen.AlpasandLidwinarejoicedintheirinediaandsawthe desiretobecuredasa,temptation.CatherineofSienarefutedchargesofsuicideorstubbornnessbyinterpretinghereatingbehaviorasinfirmity. Ofcourse,noteveryonesawillnessasdesirable.Lidwinaherselfhatedherillnesswhenshewasfirstafflicted.Theheroicembracingofsicknesscharacterizedonly saints.Butitseemstohavecharacterizedsaintlywomenfarmoreoftenthansaintlymen. ThegrowingincidenceofcasesoffemaleabstinenceinthelaterMiddleAgesoccursinthecontextofothernewmiracles.Miraculousabstinenceincreasesasfemale eucharisticdevotionincreasesandassuchdevotionbecomesmoreandmoreliterallytheconvictionthattakingtheeucharistisfeedingonthebodyofGod.Miraculous abstinencealsoincreasesmarkedlyinthecenturiesinwhichstigmataandothermiraclesofbodilymanipulationfirstappear.Betweenthelatetwelfthcenturyandthe sixteenth,manywomenwerereportedtoexperiencethewoundsofChristappearingupontheirbodiesandbleedingamiracleneverbeforereported.46Francisof Assisi(andthemodernfigurePadrePio)aretheonlymaleswhoarebelievedtohavepossessedallfiveofChrist'swoundsinvisiblestigmataandtheyarenotsaidto havedisplayedperiodicbleeding.47ButmanycaseswerereportedinthelateMiddleAges

Page201

ofwomenwhodisplayedfullstigmatawhichbledinarhythmicpatternmostfrequently,onFridays.Allcasesofredmarks(calledespousalrings)appearing miraculouslyaroundfingersare,nottoosurprisingly,female.Mostcasesofbodilyelongationarefemale.Andinthemedievalandmodernperiodsmoststoriesof sweetsmellingbodies,livinganddead,aretoldaboutwomen,although(liketalesofsurvivingontheeucharist)suchstoriesaretoldofmeninantiquity.48Ishall returntothesignificanceofthesenewmiraclesbelow.Mypointhereisthatabstinencebecomesanimportantcharacteristicofwomen'spietyinthesameperiodthat seesanincreaseinseveraltypesoffemalemiraclesofbodilymanipulationandanincreaseintheextentandliteralismofwomen'sdevotiontoholyfood.Thuscultural aswellasbiologicalcausesclearlyliebehindwomen'sfasting,forfastingisonlyoneaspectofabroadspectrumofbehaviorsthatappearinthelaterMiddleAges becauseofchangingculturalvaluesandimages. Doesitmakesense,however,toapplythelabelanorexianervosatothefastingbehavioroflatemedievalwomenifweuseapsychologicalratherthanabiochemical understandingofanorexia?Theanswerdependsinpartonwhichdefinitionofanorexiawechoose.Currentpsychologicaldefinitionsdiffer,andmanyaresonarrow andcultureboundastobequiteobviouslyinapplicabletowomen'sbehaviorbeforethenineteenthcentury.49Ifanorexiaisdefinedas"therelentlesspursuitof thinness"oras"dieting"thathasgoneoutofcontrol,thenanorexiacanbediagnosedonlyinculturesthatassociatethinnesswithbeauty.50Anddietingwasnot,of course,amedievalpractice,northinnessamedievalvalue.51Butotherpsychologicaldefinitionsofanorexiaareconsiderablysubtlerandmoreflexiblethanthosethat connectitnarrowlytotwentiethcenturynotionsoffemaleattractiveness. TheGermanAmericanpsychiatristHildeBruchdescribesanorexiaas"selfinflictedstarvationintheabsenceofrecognizableorganicdiseaseandinthemidstofample food."52TheItalianpsychiatristMaraSelviniPalazzoliseesanorexia/bulimiaasadeliberatestruggleagainstpersistenthunger,althoughthehungerisusuallydeniedor disguised.Theactofeating,saysPalazzoli,fillsanorectics"withfearandanxiety,and...theyconsider[it]degradingandselfdefeating,"althoughtheyoften compulsivelyurgefoodonothers.53Theseexpertsagreethatthephysicalsymptomsofanorexia,whichmaybesimplytheresultsofstarvation,arefatigue,anemia, andamenorrhea.Thepsychologicalsymptomsaredis

Page202

turbanceinbodyconcept,disturbanceinperceptionofbodilyfunctions(oftencombinedwithsleeplessnessandfoodrelatedhyperactivity),and"aparalyzingsenseof ineffectiveness."Anorecticstypicallyfeelthemselvestobepuppets,manipulatedbyothers,unabletoassertthemselvesagainstortopleaseacontrollingparent usuallyanenergeticandlovingmother.Noteatingis,forthem,anexperienceofcontrolcontrolofself,whichtheysubstituteforthecontrolofcircumstancestheyare unabletoachieve.Theytendtoseetheselfassplitortoloseallsenseof"ego."Theyarenotoriouslydifficulttotreatinpsychotherapybecausetheylieandtheextent oftheirdishonestysuggeststhattheyareincapableofperceivingtheirbodilyurgesandtheirfoodrelatedbehaviorrealistically.Theyareafraidoftouchingandbeing touched,andtheyfearanddisliketheirowncorporality.Theonsetofthesyndromecomestypicallyforgirlswhoarethevastmajorityofthevictimsatpuberty. Menstruation,likehunger,isseenasshameful,violating,andthreateningbody,likefood,isseenasfrighteningandpowerfulsexualmaturationisseenasvulnerability, aslossofwhatlittlecapacityforselfdeterminationthechildhadpossessed.Modernpsychodynamicexplanationsofanorexia/bulimiathusseecontrolasthebasic issue.In"typical"anorexia,thewomanstarvesherselfasawayofassertingpowerovermanipulatingherbody,whichishatedandfeared.Andprimaryanorexiais thusdistinguishedfromatypicalanorexia(whichsomewriters,forexampleBruch,alsocall"hysteria"),inwhichthewomanisobsessivelyconcernedwithfoodandits significancebutmanipulationofbodysizeisincidental.Treatmentofanorexia,whetherinindividualorfamilytherapy,focusesonintrafamilydynamics,particularlythe motherdaughterrelationshipittriestorestoretothegirl,whohasspentherlifepleasingothers,somesenseofsettingandmeetingherownstandards.54 Howwelldoesthismorecomplexdelineationofanorexianervosadescribemedievalbehavior?Somemedievalvitaedepictextravagantfastingthatappearscloserto atypicalanorexia(orhysteria)thantoprimaryanorexia."Hysteria"isnolongerrecognizedbypsychiatristsasadiagnosis,andthehystericalbehaviorsomuchstudied inthenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturiesbyCharcotandFreudis,inthelatetwentiethcentury,foundonlyintheThirdWorldorinveryruralareasofEurope.55 Butsomemedievalsaintsinwhoselivesfoodwasacentralobsessionseemclosertoclassicnineteenthcenturyhystericsthantomod

Page203

erncasesoftypicalanorexia.ThetermhystericalseemstofitatleastsomeofthebehaviorofBeatriceofOrnacieuxandBeatriceofNazareth,whoexperiencedthe kindofchokingsensations,knownasglobushystericus,oftencharacteristicofhysteriaoracuteanxiety.56ThetermalsoappearstodescribeIdaofLouvainand RitaofCascia,whosebodiesbrokeoutinsores(sometimesstigmata)thatappearedordisappearedwithvariouslevelsofreligiousexcitement,aswellasIdaofLau, ChristinatheAstonishing,andthemanyotherwomenwhoexperiencedtrances,"fits,"andnosebleedsbroughtonbymysticaldesire.Thespasmsdescribedinthevita ofLukardisofOberweimar,inwhichherspinewasarchedandherlegsandheaddrawnbacksotightlythatherbodynearlyformedacircle,arearecognizedformof hystericalbehaviorknownasopisthotonos.(Twofamousmodern"fastinggirls,"MargaretWeisandSarahJacobs,sufferedfromsimilarattacks.)57Moreover,in somecasesofextendedstarvation,theinediaappearstobemerelyonemanifestationofgeneraldepression.JaneMaryofMaill,AngelaofFoligno,andCatherineof Genoa,forexample,themselvesconnectedtheirinabilitytoeattowhatmedievalpeoplecalledaccidiaakindofspiritualslothordespair.Andtheyseemtohave recognizedmarriageasitscause.Suchwomenmightperhapsbetterbelabeleddepressivesthananorectics.Butthedistinctionisunimportant.AsInotedabove,some recentmedicalresearchhypothesizesthatanorexia/bulimiaisaformofdepression. Despitethefactthatsomeextendedstarvationseemsbetterdescribedasdepressionorhysteria,apsychologicalorpsychodynamicdefinitionofanorexiaseemsatfirst glanceapplicabletosomemedievalwomen,amongthemMaryofOignies,JulianaofCornillon,MargaretofYpres,JaneMaryofMaill,ElizabethandMargaretof Hungary,ElsbetAchler,AngelaofFoligno,MargaretofCortona,CatherineofSiena,ColumbaofRieti,andCatherineofGenoa.Thesewomenwentthroughintense periodsofinabilitytoeat,oftenbeginninginadolescence.Theyateandvomiteduntiltheydamagedtheirthroatsanddigestivesystems.Someofthem(forexample, AngelaofFolignoandCatherineofGenoa)later"recovered,"atleastpartly,fromtheirfastingsome(forexample,ElsbetAchler,CatherineofSiena,andColumbaof Rieti)died.Likemodernanorectics,manyofthesesaintslost"normal"bodyconceptorperception.Theysometimesexperiencedstrangesensationsofswellingor flying.DorothyofMontauandIdaofLouvain,forexample,swelledas

Page204

ifpregnantwithChrist58DoucelineofMarseilleslevitatedBeatriceofOrnacieuxmovedmiraculouslythroughoroverwalls.BothCatherineofSienaandCatherine ofGenoalosttheabilitytogaugetemperature CatherineofGenoaexperiencedextremeandmysteriousperiodsoffreezingorburningandonoccasionCatherineofSiena,ColumbaofRieti,andLidwinaof Schiedamallfailedtoperceivefireashot.Manyofthesewomensteadfastlydeniedbeinghungryalthoughtheiractionsbetrayedagoniesofgreedandthirst,whichthey focusedontheeucharist.IdaofLouvainattackedalockedpyxwithherbarehands,desperateforthehost.59CatherineofGenoa,ColumbaofRieti,andElsbet Achlerseemnottohaveknownthattheywerelickingdirtydishes,drinkingvinegar,orhoardingfoodtoassuagethehungertheydeniedfeeling. Manyofthesewomendisplayedtheeuphoria,thesleeplessnessandhyperactivity,andthecasuistrycharacteristicofpresentdayanorectics.Anumberoffemalesaints (forexample,MaryofOigniesandColette)supposedlydidnotsleepatall,andthetownofficialsofSchiedamtestifiedthatLidwinadidnotsleep.Aswesawin chapter5,CatherineofSienapreparedfoodforherfamilyanddidtheirlaundryatnightwhenhermothertriedtoforcehertogotobed,shesurreptitiouslysubstituted aboardforthemattress.MaryofOignies,ElizabethofHungary,MargaretofHungary,andAngelaofFolignofedothersfranticallyandobsessivelyandElizabeth,like modernanorectics,rivetedattentiononhereatingbehaviorbyinquiringintothesourceofeverymorseloffood.CatherineofSienaandColumbaofRietideveloped intenseandtheologicallyelaboratedefensesoftheirrefusaltoeat.Manyofthesefastingwomenalsocombinedselfdenialwithanacutesenseofunworthinessand inabilitytoact.MargaretofCortona,BeatriceofNazareth,andJulianaofCornillon,forexample,sufferedrepeatedperiodsofselfdoubtCatherineofGenoa developedthetheorythatoneshoulddestroytheegosocompletelythatthefirstpersonsingularpronounwoulddisappearaltogetherfromone'sspeech.60 Itthusseemspossibletoapplytosomeextendedfastingdonebymedievalwomenthemodernpsychologicallabelsanorexianervosaandbulimia.Thereare, however,problemswithsuchapplication.Thefirstproblemisthemostobvious:ourinformationaboutthebehaviorofthesewomenisoftentoofragmentarytoallow usto"diagnose"(orclassify)themproperlyortoextrapolatefrombehaviortocause,yetthepsychodynamicdefinitionassumesacauseinfamilysituationand interac

Page205

tions,particularlyintherelationshipofmotherandchild.Someofthemedievalcasesthatlookmostlikemodern"fooddisorders"mayhaveoriginsthathavenothingto dowithfamilydynamics.Forexample,Alpas,Lidwina,andDorothyofMontaurefusedtoeatandfeltaguiltoverhungersensationsthatresemblesmodernanorectic behavior.Allthreeexperiencedconflictwiththeirmotherswhenyoung.ButtheyclearlysufferedfromotherseriousdiseasesinAlpas'scasepossiblyleprosy,in Lidwina'sgangrene,inDorothy'ssomesortofdefectintheautoimmunesystem.61Thusitisimpossible,fromtheevidencewehave,toknowtowhatexactlyone shouldattributetheiroddsenseofbodilyfunctions,theirfoodcravingandvomiting.Moreover,modernresearchershavebeenaware,sincetheCarnegieInstitute experimentsoftheearlyyearsofthiscentury,thatstarvationorfastingitselfproducesqueerbehaviorpatternsandmentalreactionssuchasexaggeratedand exhibitionistclaims,paranoia,sleeplessness,inabilitytogaugebodytemperature,andeuphoria.62Itisthuspossiblethatsomemedievalwomenwhochosetofast developed,asaresultofstarvation,thosepsychologicalcharacteristicsthatsomerecenttherapistsseeassymptomsoreven"causes"ofthementaldiseaseanorexia nervosa.63 Thepsychodynamictheoryofanorexia/bulimiais,moreover,likeotherdiagnosticconceptsinmodernpsychiatry,bothreductionistandindividualisticinitsapproachto causation.Justasrecentbiochemicaldefinitionsofanorexia/bulimiadisplaythemodernWesterntendencytoreducementalandemotionalexperiencetophysiological phenomena,sopsychodynamicdefinitionsreduceittodynamicsinthepsycheorthepsyche'spersonalhistory.Suchdefinitionsassumethattheinterpretationgiven tobehaviorbythebehaverisanepiphenomenon.Whatagirlorwomansaysabouthereatingbehavioristhuslabeled"rationalization"or"symptom."Accordingto suchinterpretation,CatherineofGenoa'snotionthatherthirstwasdiabolicallyinducedorCatherineofSiena'sargumentthateatingissuicidecanbeseenas"casuistry" or"avoidancetactics"andthereforeasfurtherevidenceoftheinaccurateperceptionofbodilysensationsthatcharacterizesanorectics.Suchlabelingis,inonesense, quiteplausible,ofcoursethetwoCatherinesdoseemoccasionallytohaveusedreligiouscategoriestodistancethemselvesfromtheirownbehavior.Buteveninthese twoexamplessuchexplanationdismissesideas(theconceptsofthedevilandsuicide)thatwouldneedhistoricalandculturalexplanationiftakenseriously.Moreover, themysticaltheory

Page206

advancedbythetwoCatherines,BeatriceofNazareth,MaryofOignies,andHadewijch(likethetheoriesofthemodernmysticSimoneWeil)shouldsurelynotbe treatedas(i.e.,reducedto)casuistryorlossofegoboundaries.Thenotionofsubstitutingone'sownsufferingthroughillnessandstarvationfortheguiltanddestitution ofothersisnot"symptom"itistheology. Finally,explanationsthatworkbackwardfromagivenbehaviortolocateitssourcesinfamilydynamicscan,ascriticsofpsychoanalysisoftenpointout,explainonly individualcases.SuchexplanationscanaccountfortheguiltanddepressionofparticularwomenforAngelaofFoligno'sorMargeryKempe'sshameoversexin marriage,forexample,orCatherineofSiena'sguiltaboutherpositionasfavoritechildandsurvivor.64Suchexplanationscannot,however,accountforawidespread patternofwomenwhorefusetoeat,becausetheexplanationsdonottakeseriouslyenoughthesymbolsinvolved"food"and"body"orseethattheirmeaningqua symbolscomesfromtheculture,notfromtheeventsofaspecificlife.Thecourseofanindividuallifecanneverexplainwhythedepressionorguiltinthatlifeexpresses itselfinsymbolssuchas"blood"and"hunger"orwhyaparticulartheologicalnotion,suchastheideaofservicethroughsuffering,emergesasasolution.Wecannot understandthevoluntarystarvationofanyparticularwomanunlessweunderstandfullywhatfoodmeanstothoseamongwhomshelives.Ifwetakeseriouslythe imagesandsymbolsinwhichguilt,responsibility,joy,andunhappinessmanifestthemselves,sociologicalandculturalexplanationsarenecessary.Modern psychodynamicdefinitionscutaportionofthebehaviorofmedievalwomenofffromitsbroaderandrichercontext. ThuswhateverphysiologicalandpsychodynamicfactorsmayhaveinfluencedmedievalbehaviorandIdismissneithersetoffactorsculturalsettingwascrucial. Biology,psyche,andcultureinterpenetratedandinfluencedeachother.Thismeansthat"medievalanorexia"isnotquitetherighttopicforhistoricalinvestigation.We shouldnotisolatetheratherrarephenomenoncalledbycontemporaries"miraculousabstinence"or"fastinggirls"fromthebroaderphenomenonoftheoverpowering concernwithfoodwithfeastaswellasfastthatcharacterizesthelivesandwritingsofmedievalwomen.Notonlydidmedievalwomendenythemselvesfood,they alsobecamefoodintheirowneyesandintheeyesofmaleadmirers.AndwhentheyateGod,theywere

Page207

notmerelyfocusingtheirhungersensations(otherwiseunrecognized)ontheeucharist.Theywerealsoreversingtheirordinaryculturalroleoffoodpreparersandfood abstainers.Theywere"eating"aGodwhoseediblebodyanursingbodywasinsomesenseseenasfemaleandthereforeasfood.Moreover,womenmanipulated farmorethantheirownbodiesthroughfasting.Theymanipulatedtheirfamilies,theirreligioussuperiors,andGodhimself.Fastingwasnotmerelyasubstitutionof pathologicalandselfdefeatingcontrolofselfforunattainablecontrolofcircumstance.Itwaspartofsufferingandsufferingwasconsideredaneffectiveactivity,which redeemedbothindividualandcosmos.Women'sinediawasthereforenotsomuchbizarrebehaviorafflictingafewindividuals,aspartofabroaderpatternthat includedeucharisticdevotion,foodmultiplicationmiracles,devotiontoChrist'shumanity,thetheologyofpurgatory,andcareofthesick.Suchfastingcanbe understoodonlyifweunderstandthelatemedievalnotionofimitatioChristiasfusionwiththesufferingphysicalityofChrist,andlatemedievalnotionsofthefemale asflesh. ThusitisnotparticularlyhelpfultoknowthatCatherineofSienacanbesaidtobe,inthemodernsense,anorecticorevenbulimic(althoughthestatementisclearly true).Thequestionis:whyisfoodsocentraltowomen?Moderndefinitionsofanorexia,whilehelpfulinpointingoutthat"control"isakeyissueinanorecticbehavior, obscureourperceptionofsuchbehaviorbyglossingoverthefactthatfoodandcorporalityareatstake.Psychologiststodaynotethatanorecticsareusuallyfemale andthatwomentendtomanipulatetheirbodieswhereasmenmanipulatetheirenvironments.65But,asthequotationwithwhichIopenedthischaptersuggests,they donotknowwhy.Becausetheydonottakeseriouslythesymbolsusedinwomen'sexperienceortheideologiesformulatedaboutit,theyhavecutthephenomenonof refusaltoeatofffromitscontextoffoodrelatedbehavior.Moreover,theyhaveneglectedfemaleattitudestowardsufferingandgenerativity.Yetonesuspectssuch attitudestobepartofthecontextinwhichmoderngirls,aswellasmedievalones,viewbothbodiesandfood. Iwill,then,leaveasidethefactthatsomeofthefastingbehavioroflatemedievalwomencanbedescribedbythemodernpsychologicalandmedicaltermanorexia nervosaandaddress,rather,thequestionofwhysomuchofthereligiousbehaviorandthereligiouslanguageofthesewomenrevolvedaroundfood.

Page208

FoodasControlofBody: TheAsceticContextandtheQuestionofDualism Isuggestedabovethatwomenusedfoodinawidevarietyofwaysbecausefoodwasthebasicresourceoverwhichtheyhadmostcontrol.Womendidnotmerely abstainfromfood.Theyalsodistributedfood,bothprosaicallyandmiraculously.TheymergedwithChristthroughfood.Inmiraculousexuding,theybecamefood.In short,womenhadmanywaysofmanipulatingandcontrollingselfandenvironmentthroughfoodrelatedbehavior,forfoodformedthecontextandshapeofwomen's worldoftheirresponsibilitiesandprivilegesmorefundamentallythanitdidtheworldofmen.Tosaythis,however,ismerelytoskimthesurface.Italmostreduces tosayingthatwomenusedfood,asfactandassymbol,becauseitwastheretobeused.Clearly,then,wemustprobebeyondthis.Wemustaskonadeeperlevel aboutboththefunctionandthemeaningofeatingandnoteating. Todosoistoconfrontdirectlysomeextremelydifficultproblemsinhistoricalinterpretation.Itisultimatelytoconfrontboththequestionofthenatureofasceticismand thequestionofthebasicstructurespsychological,social,andreligiousofwomen'slivesinthelaterMiddleAges.Inansweringthesequestions,Imustpropose someverylargerevisionsofwhathasalwaysbeenassumedaboutwomenandmedievalChristianity.Toputitverysimply,intheselastfivechaptersIarguethatthe extremeasceticismandliteralismofwomen'sspiritualitywerenot,atthedeepestlevel,masochismordualismbut,rather,effortstogainpowerandtogivemeaning.I alsoarguethatalthoughmenandwomenagreedinseeingfoodasafemaleconcern,thesymbolhadprofoundlydifferentandasymmetricalmeaningstothetwosexes becausemenandwomenhaddifferentsocial,psychological,andreligiousexperiences. Letmebegin,then,withthewaywomenexertedcontrolovertheirownbodiesthroughfasting,forwhateverotherfunctionfoodhadformedievalwomen,itwas clearlyameansbywhichtheymanipulatedphysicality.Theinterpretationhistoriansofreligionhavegiventothisphenomenonhasbeenmonolithicsomuchsothatit hascometoseemcommonsense.Latemedievalwomenhatedtheirbodiesandtheirsexuality,wearetold,andpunishedthemthroughfastingandotherformsofself mutilation.Theyinternalizedamisogynytowhichthephilosophical,scientific,theological,andfolktraditionsandthestructuresof

Page209

churchandsocietyallcontributed.66Somehistorianshaverespondedtowomen'sasceticpracticeswithembarrassmentorevenangerothershaverespondedwith compassion.Conservativehistoriansoftheologyhavesometimesblamedthewomen.67Historiansofmedicineorpsychiatryhavesometimesblamedsociety.68 Marxistandfeministhistorianshaveoftenblamedthechurch.69But,whateveritscause,women'sasceticismhasseemedtomodernscholarsselfevidentlydualistic andpathologicalanefforttofleeordestroythefleshsothatthespiritmightreturntoGod.Ithasgenerallymetwithrepugnanceor,occasionally,withvoyeuristic prurience.Thosewhohavefeltitnecessarytodefendthepast(alwaysariskyundertaking)havethushadeithertotaketheoffensiveandblameinstitutionsor individualswho''oppressed"womenortoignorethefullrangeandextremismoftheselftorturingbehaviorandconcentrateonotheraspectsofwomen'sspirituality.70 Butwhenweplaceeventhemostextravagantfastingandselfmutilationinitsmedievalcontextitisnotclearthatsuchbehaviorwasrootedeitherinselfhatredorin dualism.71 Thereisnoquestionthattheexperiencingofpainwasaprominentaspectofthespiritualityofbothlatemedievalwomenandlatemedievalmen.Thereisnoquestion alsothatitwasmoreprominentinwomen'sreligiosity.IpointedoutabovethecentralityofillnessselfinducedorGodgiveninwomen'sclaimstosanctity.And womenwhowerenotill(forexample,MechtildofMagdeburgandHadewijch)frequentlydesiredtoidentifywithChristthroughlonelinessandpersecution.Some Italiansaintsdrankpusorscabsfromlepers'sores,eatingandincorporatingdisease,andthedesireforillnessisacommonthemeintheNonnenbcher,wherethe sistersexposethemselvestobittercoldorpraytobeafflictedwithleprosy.72Moreover,thecentralthemeinwomen'svisions,increasingfromthethirteenthtothe earlyfifteenthcentury,wasfusionwiththecrucifiedbodyofChrist.Thesevisionsstreamwithblood.Andinthefrenzyoftranceorecstasy,piouswomensometimes mutilatedthemselveswithknives,asMaryofOigniesdid,or,likeBeatriceofNazarethandElizabethofSpalbeek,drovethemselvestowhattheyandtheir companionssawas"insanity."73 Deliberateandsystematicphysicalpunishmentwaspartofthedailyroutineformanyreligiouswomen.74ThesixteenthcenturyaccountofthelifeofAldaofSiena,for example,saysthatthesaintsleptonabedofpavingstones,whippedherselfwithchains,woreacrownofthorns,

Page210

andcarvedforherself,asanobjectofdevotion,awoodennailliketheonethatpiercedChrist'sfeet.75DorothyofMontauputherselfthroughapantomimeofthe Crucifixionthatinvolvedprayingwithherarmsextendedintheformofacrossandlater,inimitationofChrist'sburial,lyingprostratewiththeentireweightofherbody supportedonlybytoes,nose,andforehead.76JaneMaryofMaillstuckathornintoherheadinremembranceofChrist'scrownofthorns.77Readingthelivesof fourteenthandfifteenthcenturywomensaintsgreatlyexpandsone'sknowledgeofLatinsynonymsforwhip,thong,flail,chain,etc.Asceticpracticescommonly reportedinthesevitaeincludewearinghairshirts,bindingthefleshtightlywithtwistedropes,rubbingliceintoselfinflictedwounds,denyingoneselfsleep,adulterating foodandwaterwithashesorsalt,performingthousandsofgenuflections,thrustingnettlesintoone'sbreasts,andprayingbarefootinwinter.Amongthemorebizarre femalebehaviorswererollinginbrokenglass,78jumpingintoovens,hangingfromagibbet,79andprayingupsidedown.(Inthelattercase,thenun'sskirtsclung, modestlyandmiraculously,aroundherankles.)80Theauthorofthenuns'bookofUnterlindenintheAlsacewrote:

InAdventandLent,allthesisters,comingintothechapterhouseafterMatins,orinsomeothersuitableplace,hackatthemselvescruelly,hostilelylaceratingtheirbodiesuntilthe bloodflows,withallkindsofwhips,sothatthesoundreverberatesalloverthemonasteryandrisestotheearsoftheLordofhostssweeterthanallmelody.

Andshecalledtheresultsofsuchdisciplinestigmata.81 Thusfastingwaspartofabroaderpatternofconductthatappearstomoderneyestobeasystematicattackontheflesh.Moreover,fastingwaspartofapatternof pietyinwhichwhatwewouldcallpsychologicalmanipulationofthebodyisaprominenttheme.Whereasextremepenitentialasceticismisfoundinmaleaswellas femalesaints(forexample,FrancisofAssisi,HenrySuso,JamesOldo,PeterofLuxembourg),psychosomaticmanipulationisalmostexclusivelyfemale.Wounds imitatingthoseonChrist'sfeet,hands,side,orheadorsometimeseventhescourgemarksonhisbackappearedonthebodiesofmanyfemalesaintsinthethirteenth, fourteenth,andfifteenthcenturies.82Redmarksknownasespousalringssometimesappearedonwomen'sfingers.Andwomen'swoundsoftenappeared,orbled,at thedayandhouroftheCrucifixion.Storiesareeventoldofmiraculouselongationofwomen'sbodiesandof

Page211

womenlevitatingmanyfeetintheairorflyingoverwalls.83Evenafterdeaththebodiesofsaintlywomenwerediscoveredtohavebeencontrolledandmarkedin strangeways.Intestinesandstomachswerefoundtobeempty,heartswerediscoveredtobeetchedwiththesignsofChrist.Althoughsomewomen,forexample GertrudeofHelfta,receivedthewoundoflove"inwardly,"otherswerethoughttobecomeChristmoreliterally.ClareofMontefalco'sspiritualsisterscametobelieve sointenselythatChristhadplantedhiscrossinherheartthatatherdeathin1308theythrewthemselvesuponherbody,toreoutherheart,andfoundinciseduponit theinsigniaofthePassion.84 Thebodiesofholywomenwerefrequentlyseenbymedievalpeopleasexudingmiraculousfluids,substances,orodors.Ofthethreemostfamousmyroblytesofthe MiddleAges,two(CatherineofAlexandriawhosupposedlybledmilkwhenbeheadedandElizabethofHungary)werewomen,andalthoughresearchremainsto bedoneonthedistributionofthisphenomenon,adisproportionatenumberofmedievalmyroblytesappeartohavebeenwomenforexample,Walburga,Hedwigof Silesia,AgnesofMontepulciano,andLutgard.85Womenalsoseemtoaccountforthemajorityofcasesofbodiesthatexudedsweetodors,eitherfromwoundsor soresthatappearedduringlifeorfrombodies(whichsometimesalsobecameyoungandbeautiful)afterdeath.86FlemishholywomensuchasChristinathe Astonishing,GertrudevanOosten,andLidwinafedotherswithmilkthatflowedfromtheirvirginbreasts,oftenduringmeditationsontheNativity,andtheirItalian counterpartssometimeseitherexudedorcalleddowncloudsofmanna.87Moreover,hagiographersfrequentlypointoutthatholywomendonotexcreteor menstruate.Sofardoesthisconcernwithexudingextraordinaryeffluviaandrepressingordinaryonesgothatbythesixteenthcentury,biographers(suchasColumba ofRieti'shagiographer)arguethatholywomendonotsweatorhavesourbreath.88And,introducinganewly"scientific"noteintothegrowingconcernwiththeclosing offoffemalebodies,anaccountpublishedin1603ofJaneBalamoftheareaaroundPoitiersstatesexplicitlythatthisfastinggirlexcretedneitherfecesnorurine,did notmenstruate,neversweatedexceptfromthearmpits,dischargednofilthordandrufffromherhair,andonlyoccasionallygaveforthspittlefromhermouthortears fromhereyes.89 Tomedievalpeoplethemselves,whatmoderneyesseeasselfpunishmentorpsychosomaticmanipulationwasimitatioChristiafusionwith

Page212

Christ'sagonyonthecross.Thusmedievalwriterswereoftenuninterestedincertaindistinctionsthatintheearlymodernandmodernperiodshavefascinatedcanon lawyers,theologians,andpsychiatristsdistinctions,forexample,betweenmiraculousandselfinducedorbetweenvisibleandinvisible.ToGertrudetheGreat, Lutgard,FrancisofAssisi,Lukardis,orCatherineofSiena,thepointwasthepainofstigmataorofthewoundintheheart,notthevisibilityofthescars.Thepointwas painbecausethepainwasChrist's.Visiblewoundscouldbeanembarrassment.ToRitaofCasciaandJaneMaryofMaillthethornwoundstheysufferedwere imitatioChristi.ThefactthatRita'sappearedbyautosuggestionandJaneMary'scamefromarealthornwasnotanimportantdifference.WhenBeatriceof Ornacieuxthrustanailthroughherhand,shewassaidtoreceivestigmata.LukardisofOberweimar'shagiographersaysthatshedrovethemiddlefingerofeachhand, hardasanail,throughthepalmoftheoppositehand,untiltheroomrangwiththesoundofhammering,andstigmata"miraculously"appeared.90Onlyafewdaysafter asisternunaskedinnocentlywhyLukardisdidnotalsobearthemarksofthethornsonherforehead,these,also"miraculously,"appeared.Bothbecausemedieval peopledidnotdividebodyandmindsosharplyaswedoorthesensesfromoneanother,andbecausethesignificanceof"stigmata''wastheexperienceofpain,notits source,accountsofsuchbodilychanges,particularlyinthethirteenthandfourteenthcenturies,telluslessaboutwhatcausedthemorhowtheylookedthanabouttheir meaning. Thusitisclearthatmedievalwomenintendedtoproducepainwhentheyperformedmanyoftheirreligiouspractices.Itisalsoclearthattheyweresomewhatmore likelythanmentoinflictinjuryonthemselvessystematicallywithflailsorthorns,stonesornettles,andthattheywereagreatdealmorelikelythanmentohavetheir desireforpainresultinsomaticchangesandtohavethesechangesscrutinizedandrecordedbyadmirersandbiographersofbothsexes,whofoundfemalebodies fascinating.91Doesthismeanthatwomenwishedtoeschewphysicalityandbecomespirit?Doesitmeanthatfemalefastingwasanefforttopunishtheflesh,to destroyordenyitsurges,torepressitssexuality?Thereiscertainlysomeevidencetosupportsuchaninterpretation. Malebiographers(frequently)andwomenthemselves(occasionally)suggestthatbodyshouldbedisciplined,defeated,orevendestroyed,inordertoreleaseor protectspirit.Somewomenactuallyreflectthevery

Page213

oldMediterraneannotionofthefemalebodyaspolluting.Inthefourteenthcentury,forexample,BridgetofSwedenprohibitedhernunsfromtouchingaltarclothswith theirbarehands.92Severallatemedievalsaintsforexample,DoucelineofMarseillesandLutgardofAywiresseemtohavedevelopedanobsessivefearofany bodilycontact.ClareofMontefalcosaidshewouldratherspenddaysinhellthanbetouchedbyaman.93Lutgardpanickedatanabbot'sinsistenceongivingherthe kissofpeaceJesushadtointerposehishandinavisionsothatshewasnotreachedbytheabbot'slips.Sheevenaskedtohaveherowngiftofhealingbytouchtaken away.94DoucelineofMarseilles,whoperformedmanymiraclesbytouch(sometimesinadvertently),95wasdeeplyantagonistictoanybodilycontactwithaman.96 Whenshewasachild,Christhadtoforcehertoovercomeherabhorrenceofthemalebodybyappearinginavisionwithadisgustingsicknessanddemandingthat shetouchhischest.97Althoughsheforcedherselfandhersisterstocarefortherepulsivelyill,shebeatasevenyearoldgirlbrutallyforlookingataworkman.98 ChristinaofStommein(d.1312),whofellintoalatrinewhileinatrance,awokeinfurybecausethelaybrotherwhorescuedhertouchedherinordertodoso.99In thelivesofmanywomen,particularlythose,likeLutgard,whohadexperiencedphysical(especiallysexual)brutality,thetouchofChrist'sbodycameasahealing experiencetoreplaceallothertouching,whichwasabhorrent.100 Manyholywomenwereprofoundlyafraidofthesensationsoftheirbodiesespeciallyhungerandthirst.MaryofOignies,forexample,wassoafraidoftaking pleasureinfoodthatChristhadtomakeherunabletotaste.InthesadlittlestoryofAlpassendingawaythefewmorselsofporkgivenhertosuck,weseeabizarre fearthatanyenjoymentoffoodmightmushroommadlyintogluttonyorlust.WomensuchasIdaofLouvain,ElsbetAchler,andColumbaofRieti,whosometimes snatchedupfoodandatewithoutknowingtheyweredoingso,clearlydirectedtheirhungertowardtheeucharistpartlybecauseitwasanacceptableobjectofcraving andpartlybecauseitwasaselflimitingfood.Suchwomenfeltdesperatelyvulnerablebeforebodilyneedsandusedasceticismtodestroythem. Itisalsopossiblethatsomefastinghadasagoalothersortsofbodilycontrol.Thereissomesuggestionintheaccountsofbiographersthatfastingwomenwere admired(asarefastingwomeninIndiatoday)forsuppressingexcretoryfunctions.101Severalhagiographerscommentwith

Page214

approvalthatholywomenwhodonoteatalsoceasetoexcrete,andRogerBaconusedthephenomenonaspartofhisnaturalisticexplanationofinedia.102 Moreover,atleastthreehagiographerspointoutexplicitlythatthemenstruationoftheirsaintlyheroinesceases.103Medievaltheologywasprofoundlyambivalent aboutmenstruationapointtowhichIshallreturnbutnaturalphilosophersandtheologianswereawarethatfastingdoesinfactsuppressmenstruation.104Albert theGreatnotedthatsomeholywomenceasedtomenstruatebecauseoftheirfastsandausteritiesandcommentedthattheirhealthdidnotappeartosufferasa consequence.105AlthoughmedievalwomensuchasBeatriceofNazareth,MargaretofYpres,Lutgard,IdaofLouvain,Lukardis,andRitaofCasciadelightedinthe abnormalbleedingfromnose,mouth,orstigmaticwoundsthataccompaniedtrancesandmysticalunion,itdoesnotseemunreasonabletosuggestthattheymayalso havedesiredcessationofthatmoreordinaryfemalebleedingthattheirreligioninterpretedambivalentlyatbest.FiguressuchasJulianaofCornillon,MaryofOignies, CatherineofSiena,andCatherineofGenoa,whethermarriedornot,escalatedtheirfoodasceticismmarkedlyatpuberty. Moreover,incontrollingeatingandhunger,medievalwomenweresometimesexplicitlycontrollingsexuality.EversinceJerome,malewritershadwarnedreligious womenthatfoodwasdangerousbecauseitexcitedlustandthemedievalauthorsoftheologicalsummaeandmanualsofreligiouspracticeforvirginsrepeatedthese warnings.106Somelatemedievalhagiographersremarkedthatwomen(forexample,AldaofSiena)fastedinordertoquellsexualdesire.107Thispointshouldnotbe exaggerated.AsWeinsteinandBellpointout,malebiographersgenerallyoveremphasizedwomen'ssexualtemptations,becauseculturalstereotypessuggestedthat womenwerefarmorevoracioussexuallythanmenwere.108Womenwritersactuallypaidlittleattentiontolust,andevenauthorsofMirrorsforVirginsinthehigh MiddleAgesdevotedlessattentiontofoodasanarouseroflustandtolustitselfthanonewouldexpectfromtheinterestofmodernhistoriansinthesubject.109But therewerewomen(forexample,MargaretofCortona,CatherineofSweden)whoassociatedfoodabstinencewithchastityandgreedwithsexualdesire.110In ColumbaofRieti'spainfulandgraphicvisions,foodandnakedbodieswereinterwoventemptations,astheyhadbeenforJeromesomanycenturiesearlier.Andina charmingstorythatassociatesfoodandsexualityonadeeperlevel,thebabyCatherineofSwedenrefusednot

Page215

onlythebreastofhersinfulwetnursebuteventhebreastofhersaintlymother,Bridget,wheneverBridgethadhadconjugalrelationsthenightbefore.111 Medievaltextsthussuggestthatwomensometimesabstainedfromfoodinordertosubvertlust.Italsoseemsthatsomewomenpunishedtheirfleshforenjoyingsexual pleasure,andsome,forwhomsexualactivitywasatorment,punishedthebodythatwasunwillinglysubjectedtoit.Somewomen(forexample,AldaofSiena,Umilt, AngelaofFoligno,MargeryKempe)feltguiltyinlaterlifebecausesexualactivitywithinmarriagehadbeenenjoyable,andsomesaints,suchasElizabethofHungary, lovedtheirhusbands.112Butevenwomeninhappymarriagesoftenfeltguiltyabouttheirsexuality.TheconfessorofEllenofUdine(d.1458)recordsherown explanationofherpenitentialasceticism:

IwearahairshirtbecauseofthesilkenundergarmentsandpreciousstuffswithwhichIusedtoclothemyself....ThirtythreestonesIputinthesolesofmyshoesbecauseI havesooftenoffendedGodwithmyleapinganddancing....IflagellatemybodyfortheimpiousandcarnalpleasureswithwhichIindulgeditduringmymarriageandoutof regardformyLordwhowaswhippedatthepostforme.113

Somewomen,suchasMaryofOignies,JaneMaryofMaill,RitaofCascia,DorothyofMontau,andCatherineofGenoa,hatedtheirmarriages.Althoughtheexact reasonsareoftenimpossibletoretrievenow,dislikeofsexwasclearlyone.FrancescaRomanade'Ponziani(d.1440),forexample,vomitedwhenevershewas forcedtohavesexualrelationswithherhusband.YvetteofHuy(d.1228)said,afterherhusband'sdeath,thatnothingcouldcompelhertothesexualactagain.114 Andmedievalmarriageswereoftenbrutal.Foreverywifewhopersuadedherhusbandtoacceptcontinenceontheweddingnightorafter,thereisastoryofawoman (forexample,ClareofAssisi'ssister)beatenalmosttodeathbyahusbandwhomsherefusedtoaccept.115Thusitseemsreasonabletosuggestthatsomemedieval womenrenouncedfoodbecauseofoverpoweringanddeeplyrootedfearsofsexuality.WhenwomensuchasMargeryKempeandAngelaofFolignofasted,they werediscipliningbodiesthathadpreviously,theyfelt,runoutofcontrolinhungerandthirstanderoticdesire.WhengirlssuchasRitaofCasciaandCatherineof Genoafasted,theywereexertingcontroloverfleshbecausefleshwas

Page216

infactwhateveritsemotionalresponseactedupon,bythedemandsofthemaritaldebt,inwaysabhorrenttoitsinhabitor. Thefoodpracticesofmedievalwomenthussometimesappeartobeeffortsnotjusttocontrolbuteventoattackorpunishthebody.And,aschapter2demonstrates, therewasclearlyanelementofdualisminthefastingpracticesoftheFathers,whichmedievalwomeninherited.Althoughthereweremanystrainsinantiquefasting,the notionofdiscipliningorevenpunishingthebodywasclearlyone.SomeoftheFathersexplicitlysawtheasceticallifeasasubstituteformartyrdomorasahurtingof thebodytoforceittovirtuousdeeds.Gluttonywasseenasthecauseofmoreserioussins.AsJohnClimacusputit:thesonsofgluttonyarefornication,hardeningof theheart,andsleepwithimpurethoughtsitsdaughtersincludelaziness,loquacity,scurrility,andboldness.116Thusfasting,aspseudoAthanasiussays,purifiesthe bodyandthemind,dryingupbodilyhumorsandputtingimpurethoughtstoflight.117TheSayingsoftheFathersreportsthewordsofacertainDaniel:"Asthebody waxesfat,thesoulgrowsthinandasthebodygrowsthin,thesoulbysomuchwaxesfat.118JohnChrysostomrelatedsuchargumentsparticularlytowomenwhenhe said:"Nothingisworsethanadissipatedwomannothingworsethanadrunkenwoman.119Thesenotionswererepeatedbylatermedievalpreachersandspiritual advisers.PeterDamian,forexample,writingofapenitentwhocarriedhisfastingbeyondLent,saidthatitwasdoneto"crucifythecarnalpassions,"to"breakthetaste andextinguishthefervorofconcupiscence."PetertheChanterwarnedthatwemustmakeourbodiespure,"forthestomachandthegenitalsareclosetogether''thus "wemustbearthestigmataofChristinourbodies(Gal.5:6)byabstinenceandpenitence."120 Onestraininmedievalmoralteachingthusassociatedfastingwithakindofpractical(notphilosophical)dualism.Accordingtothisstrain,abstinencewasrejectionof body.Moreover,thereissomereasontoarguethatwomenweremoredrawntosuchfastingthanmenbecausewomenwereespeciallyassociatedwiththeevilsof body,whichneededtobepunishedorexpiated.BorrowingfromJerome,Augustine,andGregorytheGreat,amongothers,medievalmoralteachingsawwomenas especiallyafflictedwiththeweaknessoftheflesh. Antiqueandmedievalmisogynyanditsrootsindualismarephenomenatoowellknowntoneedmuchexplanationhere.121Fromthescientificandphilosophical traditioncamethenotionofwomanasanincomplete

Page217

orinferiormaleandtheideathat,intheprocessofconception,womanprovidedthematterfromwhichthefoetuswasshapedwhereasmancontributedtheshapingor animatingformorprinciple.FromtheFathersofthethirdandfourthcentury,newlyconcernedwithsexualdesireastheparadigmforhumanevil,camethenotionof womanasfleshandmanasspirit.Itistrue,asseveralrecentscholarshavestressed,thatAugustinebelievedtherewasfriendshipwithinmarriageandspokeof marriageastheredemptionofthesexualact.122Buthealsotreatedsexualdesireasthemostbasicsymbolofwillfulnessandsawthefemaleasthesymbolofaflesh thatmustbesubjecttothemale(spiritorreason).Suchviewsledtotheassumptionoflatermedievaltheologiansthatvirtuewasharderfor"weak"womentoachieve. Themedievalchurchitselfelaboratedakindoffunctionalinferiorityofwomentocomplementthephysiologicalandontologicalinferiorityelaboratedbyearlier philosophicalandtheologicaltradition.Althoughsome(forexample,Aquinas)arguedthatwomenwereunfitforpriesthoodbecauseoftheirnaturalstateofsubjection andsome(forexample,Bonaventure)disqualifiedwomenbecauseofChrist'smalesex,woman'sincreasedexclusionfromclericalleadershipandfromcertainnew typesofevangelicalreligiouslife(forexample,mendicantpoverty)wasconnectedtothenotionofherinferiorityi.e.,herfleshlinessandweakness.123Eventhefolk tradition,initscarnivalritualsofreversedsexrolesanditslewdtalesofcuckoldedhusbands,expressedaclearsenseofthefemaleasdisorderlyandsexually voracious.124Itthusseemspossibletosuggest,asthevastmajorityofhistorianshavedone,thatwomenunderstoodthemselvestobesymbolsoftheflesh,sawfasting andotherformsofasceticismasweaponsforroutingthatflesh,andthereforeadoptedextremestarvationandotherformsofselfmutilationinanefforttorisetothe levelofspiritandtobecome,metaphoricallyspeaking,male.C Tomakesuchanargumentappears,however,toinvolveaprofoundmisunderstandingoflatemedievalreligiouslife.Idonotdenythatdualismwasoneelementin asceticismorthatmisogynywasoneelementinwomen'sselfperception.Andanegativesenseofthefemalebodyclearlyunderlaybehaviorsthatweredirected towardshuttingoffmenstruation,excretion,hunger,sexualresponse,andeventheordinarysensationsofwarmthandtouchandsleepiness.Butlatemedieval asceticismwasnot,atitsmostbasiclevel,dualistic,norwasinternalizedmisogynythedominantelementinwomen'sconceptionoftheirreligiousrole.Wemustgo

Page218

beyondtheinterpretationsthatseewomen'sfoodbehaviorasprimarilypunishmentorcontrolofbody.Andwemustdothisforthreereasons.First,women'sfood behaviorfastingandfeedingwasaneffectivewayofmanipulatingtheenvironmentinaworldinwhichfoodwaswoman'sprimaryresource.Second,women's radicalasceticismwaslessaninternalizingofthechurch'snegativeviewsoffleshandfemalethanarebellionagainstthemoderationofthehighmedievalchurch,which wasmovingtowardamorepositivesenseofthebody.Third,foodasceticism,fooddistribution,andeucharisticdevotiondidnot,tomedievalpeople,meanself torturerather,theywerewaysoffusingwithaChristwhosesufferingsavestheworld. Inthenextchapter,Iconsiderindetailthefirsttwoofthesethreearguments.Iconsider,thatis,howwomencontrolledandmanipulatedtheirenvironmentthroughtheir controloffood,andwhytheyneededtodoso.AndIarguethatwomen'sradicalasceticismwasnotonlyarejectionofaworldinwhichtheyhadlittlecontrolover theirbodiesandtheirdestiniesbutalsoarejectionofachurchwhich,asittouchedmoreandmoreoflifeandprovidedordinaryfolkwithappropriatewaystobe religious,seemedathreataswellasanopportunitytothosepiouswomenwhowanted,withoutcompromiseormoderation,toimitateChrist.

Page219

7 FoodAsControlofCircumstance
Astheycamebyacross,herhusbandsatdownunderthecross[andsaid]:"Margery,grantmemydesire,andIwillgrantyouyourdesire.Myfirstdesireisthatweshallstilllie togetherinbedaswehavedonebeforethesecond,thatyeshallpaymydebts,ereyegotoJerusalem[onpilgrimage]andthethird,thatyeshalleatanddrinkwithmeonthe Fridayasyewerewonttodo." "Nay,sir,"saidshe,"tobreaktheFriday,IwillnevergrantyouwhilstIlive." "Well,"saidhe,"thenIshallmeddlewithyouagain." Sheprayedhimthathewouldgiveherleavetosayherprayers,andhegranteditkindly.... ThenOurLordJesusChristwithgreatsweetnessspoketoher,commandinghertogotoherhusband,andprayhimtograntherwhatshedesired,"andheshallhavewhathe desireth.For,mydearworthydaughter,thiswasthecausethatIbadetheefast,sothatthoushouldstthesoonerobtainandgetthydesire,andnowitisgrantedtothee.Iwillno longerthatthoufast.ThereforeIbidtheeintheNameofJesus,eatanddrinkasthyhusbanddoth." ThenthiscreaturethankedOurLordJesusChristforhisgrace,andgoodness,androseupandwenttoherhusband,sayingtohim: "Sir,ifitpleaseyou,yeshallgrantmemydesireandyeshallhaveyourdesire.Grantmethatyewillnotcomeintomybed,andIgrantyoutorequiteyourdebtsereIgoto Jerusalem.MakemybodyfreetoGodsothatyenevermakechallengetome,byaskinganydebtofmatrimony.Afterthisday,whilstyelive,IwilleatanddrinkontheFridayatyour bidding." Thensaidherhusband:"AsfreemayyourbodybetoGod,asithathbeentome." THEBOOKOFMARGERYKEMPE(1436)1

Page220

Tostresswomen'sfoodpracticesandconcernsascontrolofbodyistofocustoonarrowlyonfastingonnoteating.Infact,aswehaveseen,women'sfastingwas partofabroaderpatternofbehaviorinwhichfeedingothersandeatingGodwerealsocentral.Women'sfastingwasexplicitlyseen,bywomenthemselvesandby theirconfessorsandadvisers,aspreparationbothforreceivingtheeucharistandforalmsgiving.Womengavetothepoorandsickthefoodtheydeniedthemselves womencleansedtheirbodiesofprosaicfoodinordertoreadythemforthecomingofthefoodthatwasChrist. Whenwelookatwomen'svariousfoodpracticestogether,wefindthatvoluntarystarvation,charitablefooddistribution,andeucharisticdevotionwereallmeansby whichwomencontrolledtheirsocialandreligiouscircumstancesquitedirectlyandeffectively.Farfromsubstitutingcontrolofselfforcontrolofcircumstanceor destroyingegoandbodywhileattemptingtodirecttheattentionofotherstowardthem,women'sfoodpracticesfrequentlyenabledthemtodeterminetheshapeof theirlivestorejectunwantedmarriages,tosubstitutereligiousactivitiesformoremenialdutieswithinthefamily,toredirecttheuseoffathers'orhusbands'resources, tochangeorconvertfamilymembers,tocriticizepowerfulsecularorreligiousauthorities,andtoclaimforthemselvesteaching,counseling,andreformingrolesfor whichthereligioustraditionprovided,atbest,ambivalentsupport. FoodandFamily InthestoriesItoldinchapters4and5,itisveryclearthatwomenoftencoercedtheirfamiliesboththroughfastingandthroughfeedingothers.2 Toanaristocraticor risingmerchantfamilyoflatemedievalEurope,thevoluntarystarvationofadaughteroraspousecouldbedeeplyperplexingandhumiliating.Thecharitableactivities offemalefamilymemberscouldappeartoberejectionofthefamily'ssuccessandofitsvalues.Awoman'sfastingandfooddistributioncouldthereforebeeffective meansofcriticizing,manipulating,educating,orconvertingfamilymembers. Letmebeginwithafewexamplesinwhichfoodpracticeshadveryspecificresults.Oneofthemostcharming,fromtheautobiographyof

Page221

thefourteenthcenturyEnglishwomanMargeryKempe,isquotedintheepigraphabove.Inthispassage,Margery,speakingofherselfinthethirdperson,describesa discussionwithChristaboutherasceticpractices.Theexchangehassomethingofthetoneoftwohousewivesgossipingabouthowtomanageadifficultandchildish husband.ChristandMargerydecidethatalthoughMargerywishestopracticebothfoodabstentionandsexualcontinence,sheshouldoffertotradeonebehaviorfor theother.Themostinterestingaspectofthepassage,forourpurposes,isthefactthattheploywassuccessful.Margery'shusband,whohadmarriedherinaneffortto risesociallyinthetownofLynnandwasobviouslyashamedofherqueerpenitentialclothesandfoodpractices(aswellasbeinginneedofhermoney),finallyagreed togranthersexualabstinenceinprivateifshewouldreturntonormalcookingandeatinginfrontoftheneighbors. Otherexamplesofsuccessfulmanagementoffamilymembersthroughfoodpracticesareeasytofind.RitaofCasciaandCatherineofSiena'ssisterBonaventura,who apparentlyreactedtoprofligateyounghusbandsbywastingaway,weretherebyabletotamedisorderlymalebehavior.MaryofOigniesandCatherineofGenoa eventuallywonovertheirhusbandstolivesofchastityandcharitybythemodeloftheirownbehavioramodelmademoreconvincingbytheheroicseverityoftheir selfdenial.ColumbaofRietiandCatherineofSienarebelledagainsthouseholdtasks(andagainstthemotherswhoimposedthem)byrefusingtoeat.Columba, CatherineofSiena,andIdaofLouvainalsousedtrancesatwhatwere,tothefamily,veryinconvenientmomentsinordertoavoiddomesticroles:bothCatherineand Columbasupposedlyletbabiesfallintothefirewhiletheywereraptinmysticalecstasy. Wivesaswellasdaughtersusedfasting,charity,andecstasyasmeanstoescapetheroleoffoodpreparerornurturer.DorothyofMontau,likeMargeryKempe, madeelementarymistakesincookery(suchasfailingtoscalethefishbeforefryingthem)orforgotentirelytocookandshopwhileshewasinmysticaltrances.The ItaliantertiaryMargaretofCortonarefusedtocookforherillegitimateson(aboutwhomsheobviouslyfeltagonizingambivalence)because,shesaid,itwoulddistract herfromprayer.3 Butsheenergeticallyfedthepoorandsickbothbymiracleandbycharity.WearetoldbyRaymondofCapuathatCatherineofSiena,afterher death,miraculouslycookedforawomandevoteewhohadgone

Page222

tochurchinsteadofpreparingdinnerforhersons.Catherinethus,frombeyondthegrave,blessedandapprovedbymiracleawoman'sescapefromtheordinary maternaldutyoffoodpreparation. Sincefoodpracticessosuccessfullymanipulatedandembarrassedfamilies,itisnotsurprisingthatvoluntarystarvationandcharitablefooddistributionoftenoriginated orescalatedatpubertythetimeatwhichfamiliesbegannegotiationsforhusbandsfortheirdaughters.FemalesaintssuchasCatherineofSiena,Columba,Lidwina, FrancescaRomana,andMargaretofHungarysometimescutofftheirhairtomakethemselvesugly,longedfordiseaseasanescapefrommarriage,orthreatenedself mutilationifthatwastheonlywaytoavoidahusband.MargaretofHungary,forexample,whenofferedasuitor,threatenedtocutoffhernose.4 Itthusseemslikely thatfastingwassometimesanefforttoavoidorpostponeanunwantedmarriagebybecomingphysicallyunattractive.Fromthemomentmarriagewassuggestedtoher, LidwinaofSchiedamwantedtobeugly,andshemayhavebeencultivatingphysicalproblemsbeforeherfallontheiceandhermiraculousabstinence. Butfastingandgivingawayfamilypropertywerenotmerelywaysofappearinguglyandintractable,andtherebypresentingoneselfasunpromisingmaritalmaterial. Theywerealsowaysofdefiningoneselfbychoosingaverydifferentlifefromthatofone'sfamily.Andtheywereeffectiveways.Somegirls,suchasChristinaof Markyate,Lutgard,MechtildofMagdeburg,andElsbetAchler,hadtofleetohermitages,beguinages,orconventsinordertoescapefamilyothers,suchasCatherine ofSienaandLidwina,createdpartlybytheirextravagantfasting,charity,andeucharisticdevotionanalternativetomarriagewithouteverleavinghome.5 Giventhe optionsopentomedievalgirls,whocouldhardlypicktheirhusbandsortheirfuturesdirectly,suchbehaviorswereoftenconstructivewaysofescapingfromunwanted suitorsandchoosingtoserveandinfluenceabroaderworldthanthatofthekitchenandthenursery. Wemustnotforgetthatavoidingmarriagewasnoteasy.Manygirlswereforcedtoaccepthusbands.FrancescaRomana,forexample,eventuallyacceptedmarriage andboreseveralchildren,althoughshehadfeltagreatabhorrenceofmensincechildhoodandhadsufferedfromparalysisatpubertywhenherfatherrefusedher permissiontoenteraconvent.6 Onceagirlwasmarried,sheoftenhadtowaitlongyearsuntildeathordisasterstruckherhusbandbeforeshecouldpursuethe

Page223

religiouspracticesshecraved.(Onesuspectsthat,withoutherhusband'sbankruptcy,CatherineofGenoa'sreligiousgeniusmightneverhaveacquiredvoice.)A comparisonofmaleandfemalesaints'vitaesuggeststhatmedievalparentswerelesswillingtoacceptthereligiousvocationsofdaughtersthanthoseofsons.7 Even thereligioustraditionpresentedgirlswithcontradictoryidealsthatofthedutifuldaughter,whopatientlyacceptedtheparents'choiceofhusband,andthatofthe heroicvirgin,whoboreanytortureratherthansurrenderhervirginity.Thefactthatthevitaeofwomensaints(incontrasttothoseofmen)showapatternofvocations tovirginityemerginginchildhoodperhapssuggeststhatgirlswhomanagedtodefinetheirownstatusesparticularlyastertiariesandbeguines,setapartbyvirginitybut livingintheworldhadtostartpreparingthewayearlyforfamilyacceptanceoftheirvocations.8 Severalscholarshaverecentlysuggestedthatconflictbetween parentsandchildrenoverreligiousvocationincreasedinthethirteenthandfourteenthcenturies.9 Fastingandcharitablefooddistributionseemtohavefunctionedas weaponsgirlsdeployedintheintrafamilywar. Indeed,women'sfoodpracticeswereinsomesensearejectionoffamily.AsDavidHerlihyhassaid,afamilyisagroupofpeoplewhoresideandespeciallyeat together.Torefusecommensalityisbothtorefusethemealassymboloffamilialbondandtorefusethemostbasicsupportthatafather'smoneyandamother's householdskillcanprovide:food.10Togiveawaythecontentsoffamilycupboardsandcellarsistorejectthecomfort,thesecurity,andthesocialstatusthatthelabors ofthefamilyprovideitisalsotorejectthevaluesofparentswhoclingtosuchstatusandcomforts.Manymedievalgirlsseemtohaveexpressedsuchrejection,both oftheirownfamiliesandofthestateofmarriage,throughfastingandfooddistribution.11ColumbaofRieti,forexample,oncegaveawaythefamily'sfooduntilthere wasnothinglefttoeat.Somefamilies,understandingthemessageofrejection,respondedwithrageorridiculeorpersecution.ChristinatheAstonishing,forexample, soangeredhersistersbyhercharityandasceticismthattheylockedherup.Somefamilies,however,gavegrudgingandpuzzledacceptance,evensupport,totheir daughters'desiresforreligiouslife,thusmanifestingtheirownambivalenceaboutmarriageandfamilies.LidwinaofSchiedam'smother,forexample,althoughshewas annoyedwithherdaughter'sneglectofdomesticduties,supportedherinherhesitationsaboutmarriage.InthelifeofCatherineofSienaweseefoodpracticesasa

Page224

quitesuccessfuldevicebywhichagirlavoidsbecominganobjectinthemarriagemarketasheroldersistershaddone.ButCatherine'sfoodpracticesweremorethey werealsothegirl'sselfdefinitionandherintenserejectionofparental,especiallymaternal,values. Catherine'svitashowshowconstrictedlifecouldbecomeforagirlonceshecametoherparents'attentionasmarriageable.Asachild,Catherinehadbeenpermitted towanderaroundthecityandplayinthestreetssofreelythat,ononeoccasion,noonenoticedherdaylongabsencefromhome.12Atpubertyshesuddenlyfound herselfpressuredtogroomherselftoattractmenandallowedoutofthehouseonlywithachaperone.SmallwonderthatCatherineandherparentsthenbegantofight overbothherphysicalappearanceandherrighttoprivacy.Catherinerejectedherparents'ambitionsforherbycuttingoffherhairandstarvingherselfherparents respondedbydenyingheraroomofherown,aspacewithinwhichshecouldpracticetheprayerandasceticismthatdefinedherasreligious.Whenforcedtosharea bedwithhermotherbecauseofherrefusaltosleepandherbusynessallnight,Catherineputaboardunderthemattressorcreptoutofbedtolieonthefloor.When takenagainstherwillonaholiday,Catherinescaldedherbodyinthehotbathsofthevacationspot.Thus,byaseriesofasceticbehaviors,Catherineslowlyforgedfor herself,withouteverleavinghome,alifewhosevalueswereutterlydifferentfromthoseofherwealthymerchantfatherandherdoting,efficientmotherwithabroodof twentychildren.Ittookamiracletobringherfathertoacceptanceofherlifeandhermotherwhounderstoodonlytoowellwhatitmeantseemsnevertohave beencompletelyreconciledtoit. ItishardnottoseeintenseconflictwithfamilyinCatherine'sbehavior,aconflictinwhichfastingwascrucial.Similarlyitishardnottosee,inElizabethofHungary's practiceofgivingawayfoodfromherhusband'stable,intenserebellionagainstherhusband'sfamily,bywhomshehadbeenraised.Herrefusaltoeat(orfeedher servants)anyfoodexceptthatpurchasedwithmoneyfromherdowryseemstoreflectadeepsensethatonlypropertyfromherownpaternalline(i.e.,fromthefamily thathadnotraisedher)couldbetrustedasmorallyuntainted.AlthoughthewellknownstorythatElizabeth'sbasketofbreadforthepoorturnedintoroseswhenher husbandaccostedherisapocryphalanduntruetoallweknowofLouis'sattitude,itissignificantthatthestory,withits

Page225

implicationsofintrafamilyconflict,wastoldandtoldnotjustofElizabethbutofatleastfivewomensaintsinthelaterMiddleAges.13 ForIdaofLouvain,whosevitaisinterwovenwithfoodmotifsofallkinds,rejectingdrinkwasarejectionoffamilyvaluesinamorespecificsense.Ida'sextreme fasting,herfascinationwiththeinebriatingdelightsofChrist'sblood,herrepeatedmiraclesthatchangedotherfluidsintowine,herrefusaltoacceptanyfoodor economicsupportfromherfamilyotherthantheroomshelivedin,andherobsessionwithgivingawayfoodanddrinksurelyowesomethingtothefactthather merchantfather,whosevaluesshewasrejecting,soldwine.Rejectionoffamilyauthorityandvaluescould,moreover,focusonsurrogatefamiliesaswellasbiological ones.JulianaofCornillon,whowasraisedbyanursecalledSapientiainasmallcelldependentonareligioushouseandwasdisciplinedasachildforwhather confessorsawaswillfulandexcessivefasting,returnedtoselfstarvationinadolescence.Onesuspectsthatthisbehavior,andthestubborn,enigmaticresponsesthat shemadetohersistersconcerningit,wereinpartexpressionsofhostilitytowardthereligious"family"thathadrearedher. HistoriansofthemodernandearlymodernworldsuchasLawrenceStone,PhilippeAris,andPeterLasletthavelongarguedthattheMiddleAgeshadlittle conceptionofchildhoodandnoneofadolescence,thatthecloseknitaffectivefamilywasaproductofthelateseventeenthandeighteenthcenturygentryand bourgeoisie,thatmedievalfamilieswereextendedratherthannuclear,andthatmedievalparentsoftenhadlittletodowithrearingtheirchildren.14Ifthiswereso,one couldhardlyexpectfamilydynamicstoplayaroleinthefoodpracticesofmedievalgirls.ButhistoriansoftheMiddleAgeshaverecentlyobjectedtothispicture.15 Theysuggest,partlyonthebasisofthesaints'livesIdescribeaboveinchapters4and5,thatthenuclearfamilywithtightaffectivebondsdidexistintheMiddleAges, particularlyinurbanareasinthethirteenthandfourteenthcenturies.16Theyalsosuggestthatagnaticorpatrilinealprincipleswerereplacingthebilinealfamilyinthelater MiddleAges,makingthesituationofdaughtersmoreproblematicbutnoteclipsingafamilysenseofresponsibilityforthem.17Ifdaughterswereincreasinglyaproblem forfamilies,itstandstoreasonthatfamilywasincreasinglyaproblemfordaughters. Recentresearchdemonstratestheproblemveryclearly.After1200,

Page226

women'slifeexpectanciesoutranmen's.Womenbecameasurplusinthepopulation.Thetypicalagediscrepancybetweenhusbandandwifeincreased.(Onaverage, menmarriedat30,womenat15to17.)Thedowrynowthedaughter'sonlyclaimonthefamilyproperty,aspatrilinealprinciplestriumphedinflatedwildly.Bythe fourteenthcentury,asDantetellsus,thebirthofadaughtercouldbringdespairtoafather'sheartifhecontemplatedwhatitwouldcosttoprovideforher.18But exactlybecausehedidfeelsomeobligationtohisfemalechildren,aprosperousfatherpushedtoarrangeearlymarriagesfordaughters.Itthusseemsreasonableto suspectthatdaughtersresentedthepressure,feelingguiltyaboutthestraintheirdowriesputonfamilyresourcesandyetangryaboutthefactthatthisonelarge paymentboughtofftheirparents'obligationtothem.Eveninthethirteenthcentury,ElizabethofHungary'srefusaltouseorconsumeanythingderivedfromtheproperty ofherhusband'sfamily,whoraisedher,canbeinterpretedasherwayofclingingtoherdowrytheonlythingsheretainedfromthefamilythathadsentherawayto beraisedinaforeignland.Suchsocialfactssuggestthatsomegirlsmayhaveseenbetrothalandmarriageasabandonmentbytheirownfamilies.Itisthusnot surprisingthatadolescentssuchasFrancescaRomana,LidwinaofSchiedam,andCatherineofGenoareactedwithawildanger,whichturnedinwardtoward themselvesasselfhatredordespair,whensuitorswereproposed. Marriageforawomanwasalifethreateningundertaking,andsomefemalehesitationneedsnomorecomplexexplanationthanthis.Daughtersgrewupexposedtothe drudgeryofhouseholdtasksandaware,throughtheexperiencesofoldersistersaswellasmothers,ofthepainanddangersofchildbirthapointpreachersdidnot failtorefertoinsermonsandtreatisesonvirginity.19Forexample,CatherineofSiena'smomentarysurrendertohersister'sinsistencethatshemakeherselfprettyto attractmenwasbroughttoastunningconclusionwhenthatsamesisterdemonstratedtowhatitallreallyledbydyinginchildbirth.Itisthushardlysurprisingthatsome girlsrejectedmarriageandsomebridesstruggledfiercelyanddesperatelyforcontinence.Norisitsurprisingthatparentsandhusbandsthemselvesambivalentabout familyandmarriageforthesameculturalreasonsthatconvincedtheirdaughtersandwivessometimesgavesupporttowomenwhoescapedtoreligioushousesor wholived,undertheirownroofs,alifesetapart.Moreover,asseveralscholarshaveunderlined,thebehaviorofmedieval

Page227

merchantsoftensuggestsambivalence,evenguilt,aboutthewealththeysoeagerlygarnered.20Permittingawifeoradaughtertogiveawaythiswealthmight exacerbatesuchambivalencebutitmightalsoassuageguilt.Somefamiliesandhusbandsclearlyexpressedtheirreligiousimpulsesthroughtheirdaughters'andwives' asceticism.Andsomehusbands,suchasCatherineofGenoa'sandMaryofOignies's,evenespousedchastity,charity,andfastinginimitationoftheirpiouswives. Thuswomen'sfoodpracticeswereeffectivewaysofshapingtheirlives,ofrejectingrolestheydidnotdesire,ofcriticizingandredirectingthevaluesofhusbandsand parents.21Butitwasnotmerelyfamilywhowereinfluencedbysuchpracticesfoodbehaviormanipulatedandcontrolledreligiousauthoritiesaswell.Bytheir eucharisticvisions,theircharity,theirfoodmiracles,andtheirfasting,medievalwomenbypassedcertainformsofclericalcontrolthatstoodbetweenthemandGod. Theyalsoforgedforthemselvesrolesashealers,teachers,andsaversoftheirfellowChristiansthatwereinexplicitcontrasttothecharacteristicformsofmale leadership. FoodPracticesandReligiousRoles Whenweturnfromthefunctionoffoodpracticeswithinthefamilytothefunctionoffoodpracticeswithinthechurch,itiscrucialtonotethatfasting,feasting,and feedingaremerelyaspectsofthesamephenomenon:thereligioussignificanceoffood.Theseaspectswerecloselyintertwinedinthedailylivesofholywomen. Whetherawomanwaswithdrawnfromtheworldorlivinginit,whethershesawherselfasacontemplativeorasaservantofthepoor,shetendedbothtorejectfood andtoseeitasapowerfulsymbolofunion.Girlsandwomenwhofastedhungeredfortheeucharistandreceived,alongwithit,visionsandsupernaturalsignsthat bestowedpoweruponthem.Fastingwomengave,totheneedy,food,alms,andotherlesstangiblebutevenmoresignificantbenefits,suchasremissionofpurgatory orinsightintothetruestateofthesoul. Takentogether,thefoodpracticesofholywomensometimesbypassedtheclergy,sometimesexposedtheirfailures,andsometimesfranklyusurpedtheirauthority notsomuchbyclaimingpriestlyofficeasbysimplyallowingChristorthespirittospeakthroughthe''weakerves

Page228

sel."22Itiseasiesttoseethewayfoodpracticesmanipulatedreligiousauthoritiesbylookingateucharisticmiracles,especiallythosemiracles,toldalmostexclusively ofwomen,inwhichunconsecratedhostsorunchastecelebrantswereidentified.Suchmiraclesgrewdirectlyoutoffemalefasting.Observersagreedthatfastinggirls generallyvomitedoutanyfoodtheyweremadetoreceive.Theabilityofsuchgirlstotolerateeucharisticbread(whichsometimesturnedtohoneyorfleshintheir mouths)wasindeedsometimesusedbytheologianssuchasThomasNettertoprovethedoctrineoftransubstantiation.23Ifordinarybreadcouldnotbetolerated,then thatwhichwasswallowedmustbethefleshofChristifnootherfoodwasevertaken,theweeklyordailymorselthatalonesustainedlifemustbethebodyofGod. Whetherapiouswomanswallowedorvomitedthusbecameatestofthepriestwhoprovidedthewafer.IfatrulyholywomansuchasMaryofOignies,Lidwinaof Schiedam,orJoantheMeatlessvomitedoutahost,suspicionimmediatelyturnedonthepriestwhohadofferedit.Thefaithfulassumedthathehadgiventhegirlan unconsecratedhost,eitherbymistakeorbydishonesty.Goingfurther,theymightseethepiouswoman'srejectionofthehostasareasonforquestioningthepriest's actofconsecration.Howevertheologicallyunsoundtheconclusionmightbe,theytendedtodeducethatinsomeunspecifiedwayhewasdisqualifiedbyimmorality (usuallysexualimmorality).IntheconflictofLidwinaofSchiedamwithherpriest(discussedabove,pp.12829),suchamiracleproveddecisive.Lidwina'sgaggingon thehostwastakenbysomeadherentsasproofofthepriest'sdeviousnesshehadnotinfactofferedherthehost,theythought,buthadattemptedtotrickherinstead. Lidwinaherselfthenpresentedherabilitytoswallowadifferenthostasproofofitsdivinesource.AndthelessonthatthissecondhostarriveddirectlyfromChristto replacethepriest'sfraudulentofferingwasnotlostonthosewhoflockedtoseethemiraculousdropsofbloodwhichgracedit.Lidwinanotonlyachieved,throughthis drama,thefrequentcommunionshecravedthroughthisandotherinsightssherepeatedlycriticizedthepriestandestablishedageneralimpressionofhis dissoluteness.24 Women'seucharisticvisions,liketheirsenseoftaste,wereakindoflitmustestforclericalimmoralityornegligence.Womenfrequentlysawthecorruptionoftheclergy atthemomentofconsecrationorelevation.

Page229

MargaretofCortona,forexample,sawthehandsofanunchastepriestturnblackwhenheheldthehost.Whenthepriestbroughtanunconsecratedwaferbymistake, Margaretvomiteditout.MaryofOigniesandIdaofLouvainalsoknewmiraculouslywhencelebrantswereunchasteorunauthorizedtoofficiate.ColetteofCorbie wasaware,asifbymiracle,whenthepriestforgottofillthechalicewithwineduringmass.25Womensometimesalsosaw,ineucharisticvisions,thefailingsoftheir fellowChristians.AnunofEngelthal,forexample,sawthehostturnintotheChristchild,whothencamedownfromthealtarandapproachedhersisterswithbehavior thatvariedaccordingtotheirrespectivedegreeofpurity.26 Clericswerenotmerelypassivelymanipulatedbysuchvisions.Theyactivelysought,inholywomen,bothastandardofpietyandawindowopentothedivine. Religiouswomenwereseenbymenasanalternativetoandacriticismofwealth,power,andoffice.Intheirvisionsanddevotions,womenmysticswerethepoint wherethepowerfulmalefoundareversalandacritiqueofexactlythosethingsaboutwhichhefeltgreatestambivalence.27Woman,inotherwords,was"liminal"to meninthetechnicalsensegiventhetermbytheanthropologistVictorTurner.28ThomasofCantimpr,JamesofVitry,andTauler,amongothers,deliberatelyused storiesoftheeucharisticdevotionofholywomentoshametheclergyforlukewarmpiety.JamesandThomasalsospokeofthewomenwhosestoriestheychronicled as"mothers"toclericsanddescribedtheirinspirationofmenasaformof''preaching."29ThebiographersoftheItaliantertiariesAngelaofFolignoandMargaretof Cortonasawthemasspiritualmotherswhohadonly"sons"(theFranciscanfriars).ThirteenthcenturyhereticalgroupssuchastheGuglielmitesinItalyandthe followersofBloemardineintheLowCountries,whotriedtosetupafemalechurchorpreachafemaleGod,hadmalefollowersandmay,asheresies,havebeenmale creations.30Inspiredcriticismofmaleespeciallyclericalcorruptionwasunderstood,bybothmenandwomen,tobeafemalerole.MechtildofMagdeburg,for example,whodidnotscrupletohurlabusiveepithetsatlocalcanonsandfriars,sawvisionsinwhichhellandthelowercirclesofpurgatorywerepopulatedentirelyby men(withtheimportantexceptionofprincessespresumably,toMechtild,theonlypowerfulandthereforedangerousfemalerole).31Thefunctionofpointingout uncomfortabletruthstosociety

Page230

wassometimesseenaspossessionbydemonsratherthaninspirationbyChrist,butwhetherdemonicordivine,itissuedprimarilyfromwomen,whoweremarginalto therolestheycriticized.32 Women'svisionscamemostfrequentlyinaeucharisticcontext.Andwomen'sspecialandintimaterelationshiptotheholyfoodwasitselfoftenawayofrejectingor bypassingecclesiasticalcontrol.Latemedievaltheologiansandconfessorsattemptedtoinculcateaweaswellascravingfortheeucharist,andwomennotonly receivedambiguousadviceaboutfrequentcommunion,theywerealsosometimesbarredfromreceivingitatexactlythepointatwhichtheirfastingandhungerreached feverpitch.33Insuchcircumstances,manywomensimplyreceivedinvisionwhatthecelebrantorconfessorwithheld.AliceofSchaerbeke,deniedthecupbecauseof leprosy,wasreassuredbyChristinimpeccablethirteenthcenturytheologythatshereceivedbothbodyandbloodinthehost,34butitwasfarmorecommonforChrist toprovidethedesiredcommunioninavisionthantoreassurethewomanaboutitsabsence.WhenLutgardofAywireswasrequiredbyherabbesstoomitfrequent communion,Godengineeredeventssothatthebenefitwasrestored.35WhenlittleImeldaLambertini(d.1333)wasdeniedcommunionbecauseshewastooyoung, thehostflewdownfromheavenandhoveredoverher,andthepriestwasforcedtogivehertheeucharist.36WhenIdaofLau'sCisterciansuperiors(inaneffortto curbwomen'sdevotion)passedlegislationdenyingaccesstothecuptoanynunwhowentoutofhersenses,ChristprovidedIdawithcommunion.37IdaofLouvain, deniedcommunionbecauseshewasanovice,hadtheimpressionthatsheslipped(whetherbodilyorinavisionsheneverknew)intotheranksofthenunstoreceive thehostonanotheroccasion,whentherewasnoservice,shewasmiraculouslytransportedintothetabernacletotasteGod.38StoriesofChristasapriestbringing thehostorthechalicetosickwomenareverycommon.Thenuns'bookofTss,forexample,describesavisionseenbyanuntoosicktoswallowtheeucharist:a tableclothdescendedtoherwithChrist'sbodyonaplatterinabeautifullight,ahandappearedfromheavenandgaveher"ourLord""justasifshereceivedhimfrom thealtar."39 Boththevisionarywomenandtheirconfessorswereacutelysensitivetotheproblematicimplicationsofsuchvisions.Bypassingclericalauthoritymightbetakento implythatpriestswereunnecessary.ThusJamesofVitry,inhisHistoriaoccidentalis,tellsofafastingwomanwho

Page231

receivedcommunionfromadoveandaddsthatshereceiveditthenextdayfromapriestatthedove'scommand,"lestitbebelievedthatshewasdeprivedofthe receptionofthetruesacramentbyaphantasm."40Storiesofwomenwhoreceivedeithercommunionorabsolutioninavisionarefrequentlyglossedwithassurances thattheyhadrecoursetoapriestassoonastheywereable.InthevisioncollectionsproducedbythenunsofHelfta,forexample,thevisionitselffrequentlyexhortsits recipienttohastentoactualcommunion.41Butsometimesthewomanwhoisstrickenwithfaintingfits,paralysis,ornosebleedsatmassandexperiencesa"filling"by Christ,accompaniedbysensationsofchewingandsweetnessonthetongue,prefersthemysticalcommunion.IdaofLouvainandLukardisofOberweimarclearly preferrednursingatMary'sbreastorrestingwithinthearmsofChristandhadnodesireafterwardstoreceivetheactualelements. Somewomenwentevenfurtherintheirvisions:notmerelybypassingclericalmediation(andtherebyimplyingittobeunnecessary),theyactuallyclaimedakindof priestlyrole.Weseesuchachallengetothepriesthoodachallengethatalwaystreadsthethinedgeoforthodoxyinsomeofthevisionsofthethirteenthcentury nunGertrudetheGreat.WhenGertrudeassuredhersistersthattheywereforgivenbyChristandbadethemgotocommunion,avisioninformedherthatthosewho followedheradvicewereclosertoChristthaneitherthosewhoabstainedbecausenoconfessorwasavailableorthosewhocommunicatedwithoutconsulting Gertrude.42WhenGertrudeworriedabouthersins,Christtoldherthatherenewedinhersoul"allsevensacramentsinoneoperationmoreefficaciouslythananyother priestorpontiffcandobysevenseparateacts."43WhenGertrudereceivedthepowertodiscriminatebetweenguiltyandinnocent,"discerningthroughChrist'sspirit," Christinavisioncalledit"thepowerofbindingandloosing"anddescribeditasanalogoustoordination.44WhenChristinavisiontoldGertrudethathewouldbring topasswhatevershepromisedinhisname,hetouchedhertongue,saying,''Behold,Igivemywordsintoyourmouth,"andexplained:
IsnotthefaithoftheuniversalchurchthatpromiseoncemadetoPeter:Whateveryoubindonearthwillbeboundinheaven[Matt.16:19]?Andfirmlyshebelievesthistobe carriedoutbyallecclesiasticalministers.ThereforewhydoyounotequallybelievebecauseofthisthatIcanand

Page232 willperfectthatwhich,movedbylove,Ipromisetoyoubymydivinemouth?45

Noelementinthesevisionscontradictsorthodoxteachingonconfessionorcommunion,forGertrudeherselforthenunswhowroteofherexperiencescarefullygloss eachincidentsothatGertrudemerelyannouncesforgiveness,guilt,orinnocence,whicharefreegiftsorjudgmentsofGod.Butthebypassingofsacramentsandpriest isclear,asisGertrude'sownextraordinarypowertogivecounselintheirstead,andtheanalogyoffemalemystictopriestisrepeatedlydrawn. Itwasparticularlyintheireucharisticvisionsthatmysticalwomensawthemselvesin"priestly"imagesandclaimedrolesandopportunitiesotherwiseprohibitedtothem. Somewomenreceived,invisions,thepowertodistributetheeucharistandtotouchaltarvesselsapowertheywereforbiddenbecauseoftheirgender.46Some receivedtheconsecratedchalice,whichtheyweredeniedbecauseoftheirlaystatus.Forexample,awomanwhohadlovedJulianaofCornillonverymuchinherlife sawherafterdeathatmassthefriendthenreceivedfromChristthehighpriestarichandbeautifulchalice,andJulianahishandmaidenassistedhimwithhervirgin hands.MechtildofHackebornthoughtshereceivedfromChristhisheartintheformofacupmarvelouslychiseled,andhesaid:"Bymyheartyouwillpraiseme alwaysgo,offertoallthesaintsthedrinkoflifefrommyheartthattheymaybehappilyinebriatedwithit."AngelaofFoligno,feelingthatthecelebrantwasunworthy, hadavisionofChristbleedingonthecross,andangelssaidtoher:"OhyouwhoarepleasinganddelicioustoGod,behold,hehasbeenadministeredtoyouandyou havehimpresent.Moreover,heisgiventoyouinorderthatyoumayadministerandpresenthimtoothers."LukardisofOberweimarbroughttheeucharisttoafellow nunbyblowingintohermouth.47IdaofLouvain,whohadbeencriticizedbythechaplaintoherconvent,was"clothedinsacerdotalclothesorpricelessornaments" andmiraculouslyreceivedthehostwhilehecelebrated,unawareofherpresence.Moreover,onthefollowingday,sheagainmiraculouslyreceivedthesacrament duringamassatwhich''noonewasusuallyadmittedtoreceivethehostwiththeexceptiononlyoftheministerwhocelebrated."BenevenutaofBojano(d.1292)and MechtildofHackebornbothsawvisionsoftheVirginMaryadministeringthechalice.48CatherineofSiena,likemanyofherholypredecessors,repeatedlyreceiveda

Page233

sensationofbloodinhermouthwhenshetookthewafer.49Therewasnothingtheologicallyincorrectinsuchmiracles,forthefaithfulweretaughtinthedoctrineof concomitancethatbodyandbloodwerereceivedtogether.Furthermore,visionsofchalicesorflyinghostscouldalwaysbeinterpretedasimagesofgraceorcharity. Buttheinsistenceonreceivingbloodandondistributingtheelementsthatwefindinwomen'svisionsappearstoreflectakeendesireforthatwhichthewoman becauseofhergenderandbecauseofherlaystatuswasnotpermittedtodo. Thus,intheireucharisticvisions,womennotonlyreceivedGodasholyfood,theyalsosometimesclaimedforthemselves,atleastmetaphorically,boththepriest's proximitytoGodandthesacerdotalroleofmediatorbetweenhumananddivine.Moreover,themostextremeimplicationsofsuchfemalevisionswereoccasionally extrapolated,probablymorebymalethanbyfemaleadherents,intoheterodoxclaimssuchasthoseofthefollowersofBloemardineorGuglielmaforafemale clergy,afemalechurch,orperhapsevenafemalemanifestationofGodonearth.50Suchoccurrenceswereveryrare,however.Forthemostpart,womenclaimedthe priesthoodonlybyanalogyorinveryprivateandcarefullyglossedvisions.Indeed,holywomensuchasthenunsofHelfta,CatherineofSiena,andColumbaofRieti oftenfeltextravagantregardfortheclergy.Catherinecalledthem"littlechrists."Some,suchasMargaretofCortona,trembledbeforethepriestlypowertoconsecrate anddistribute(and,therefore,withhold)thesacrament.Itisthusincorrecttoseewomen'secstaticreligiosityprimarilyasapingclericalpower.Rather,womenforged, throughcharity,miracle,andfasting,analternativeroleanessentiallylayandcharismaticroleauthorizednotbyordinationbutbyinspiration,notbyidentification withChristthehighpriestbutbyimitationofChristthesufferingman.Women'scharismatic,propheticrolewasanalternativeto,andthereforeacritiqueofanda substitutefor,thecharacteristicmaleformofreligiousauthority:theauthorityofoffice. Towomen'scharismaticrole,foodwascentral.ThecharitablefooddistributionofaristocraticandbourgeoiswomensuchasIdaofLouvain,ElizabethofHungary, Lidwina,andJaneMarywasalifesavinggifttothestarvingpooroftownandcountryside.Andsuchgenerositycapturedthepopularimaginationbyitscourage.To emptyfamilycupboardsindefianceofhusbandsandfathers,torenouncefamilysupport,towork

Page234

orbeginordertofeedthepoorthesewereheroicandsometimesdangerousacts.Moreover,womenfedtheneedywithmiraculousfoodaswell.Sometimes,like UmiltandMargaretofFaenza,theymultipliedfoodbothforthosewithintheconventandforthoseoutsideitswallssometimesGodrewardedtheirsanctity,ashedid AgnesofMontepulciano's,byrainsoffoodfromheavensometimes,likeLutgard,Lidwina,orChristinatheAstonishing,theyweremiraculouslychangedintofood itself,feeding,healing,andsavingwiththeliquidsfromtheirbreastsorfingertips.Theteaching,healing,andcounselingsopowerfullyandfrequentlyperformedbyholy womenwereoftenaccompaniedbyfoodsymbolism.ColetteofCorbie,forexample,curedthesickbyplacingintheirmouthscrumbsoffoodthatshehadchewed withherownteeth.IdaofLouvainandLidwinaofSchiedamconvertedthedoubtingbyfoodmiracles. Moreover,thefemalefastingthatmovedfathersandhusbands,confessorsandbishops,alsomovedGod.WomenmadedemandsonGodbytheirabstinence. CatherineofSienademandedthathereturnhermothertolife,becauseCatherinehadalreadydonetherequisitesuffering.MaryofOigniesfastedtomakeademon leaveapossessednun.Lutgard,atthecommandoftheVirginMary,undertookthreesevenyearfastsagainsthereticsandtheenemiesofGod.Manyholywomen weregrantedbyChristthepowertoremoveaspecificnumberofsoulsfrompurgatorythroughfastingandpain.AliceofSchaerbeke,dyingintormentfromleprosy, wasassuredbyChristthathersuffering,includinghersufferingatthelossofcommunion,releasedsoulsfrompurgatory.51Andwomenundertooktheholyeating,for whichfastingprepared,asaformofserviceaswell.Whenthedoctrineofvicariouscommunioni.e.,thenotionthatonepersoncanreceivecommunionfor anotherwasdevelopedinthethirteenthcentury,somemonasteriesofwomenwereespeciallyattractedtoit.Althoughmaletheologiansexpressedthedoctrinein clericalform,arguingthatthepriestreceivesforthechurch,womenassertedthepossibilityofofferinguptheircommunionsforothers.AbeguineinStrasbourgin 1317arguedthatthecommunionofalaypersonwouldprofitasmuchfortheredemptionofadepartedsoulasthemassofapriest.52Inaparticularlyliteralminded versionofsuchanotion,wefindGertrudeofHelftathinkingthatsheshouldchewthecommunionwaferintoasmanycrumbsaspossiblesothatChristwouldsave exactlythatmanysoulsfrompurgatory.53

Page235

Thusholywomenfedothersnotmerelythroughcharityandmiraclebutalsothroughtheirownfastingandeating.Whenwelistentothewordsofmysticssuchas Hadewijch,CatherineofSiena,andCatherineofGenoa,weseethatbothfastingandcommunion(whetherthewaferistakenonthetongueortheelevatedhostis adoredwiththeeyes)arepartofaneverfilledcravingforGod.Thiscravingispainaswellasglory.Itispainsovastthatitfuseswithallpain.Itisthereforethepain ofpurgatory. Purgatorywastothesewomennotprimarilyaplaceinthecosmosoracountinghousewheredeedsaremeasuredandexchanged.Imageryofthemarketplace howevermuchitmaydominatecontemporarymalewritingisalmostabsentfromtheirpoetryandvisions.Purgatorywas,rather,thefactofsuffering.54Formystics suchasMechtildofMagdeburg,JulianofNorwich,andCatherineofGenoa,purgatorywaslesspunishmentthanlossoralienation.Purgatorywasbeingwithout(or, rather,veryfarawayfrom)God.Inthissenselife,too,waspurgatory.Fastinganddiseaseandeucharisticfrenzywereallpurgatory.Andifthepainwastheretobe endured,eddyingaroundonewheneverthegloryfadedasitalwaysdidfadethenonemightdecreaseitforothersbyenduringmoreoneself.Mysticalwomen substitutednotonlytheircommunionsforthehungerofothersbuttheirpainforthepunishmentofothersaswell.Hadewijchevenwrotethatshehadbeentoo audaciousinherclaimsforhersufferingandherlove,forshehadwishedtosnatchfromhellitselffourwhomGodhadcondemned.SotolerantwasGodofher ignorance,shesaid,thatheactuallyallowedherto"deliverfromdespair"and"spiritualdeath"thefourforwhomshehadenduredallmannerofagonyandalienation.55 ThesavingandservingrolethatmysticalwomencreatedforthemselvesinthelaterMiddleAgeswasthereforeneitherapingoftheclergynoropenrebellionagainst clericalprerogative.Itwassimplyanothermodelacharismaticmodel,alaymodel.Womensawthemselvesasauthorizedtoteach,counsel,serve,andhealby mysticalexperienceratherthanbyoffice.Despiteoccasionalvisionsinwhichtheythemselvesreceivedsacerdotaltrappings,femalemysticsusuallysawthemselvesas laityratherthanpriests,recipientsratherthanconsecrators.BothJulianaofCornillonandMechtildofMagdeburg,forexample,inspiredbyGodtoleadandtocriticize hischurch,suggestedthatheshouldsendclericsinsteadtheyboth,however,cametoaccepttheirpropheticandvisionary

Page236

roleasanalternative.56GertrudeofHelfta,tougherandmoreandrogynousinherselfimage,enviedprieststheirabilitytohandleGodbutsaidthatitmightbemore dangerousthanusefultotheirownspiritualstate.57AlreadyinthetwelfthcenturythetheologianHildegardofBingenexplainedthedifferentandfullycomplementary rolesofmenandwomen,underliningboththeirequalandmutualcontributionstothebiologicalprocessofconceptionandtheirpairedreligiousrolesasmysticonthe onehandandpriestontheother.58GherardescaofPisa(d.1269),inoneofhervisions,expressedthissenseofmanaspriest,womanasrecipient:"OnSundays, BlessedJohn[theEvangelist]celebratesthemysteriesofthemass,withallholyclericsofeveryreligiousorderbeingpresentfortheoffice,andtheBlessedMary receivestheeucharistoftheLordseventimesforallsinners....NoneexceptSaintJohndarestosingmassthere[inheaven],nordoesanyonedaretotake communion,excepttheBlessedVirgin."59CatherineofSienainthefourteenthcenturywastoldbyChristinavisionthatsheneednotdressasaman,forChristhad chosentospeakthroughher,theweakervessel.60 Eventhedistributionofeucharisticmiraclesmakesitclearthatbothmenandwomenincreasinglyviewedtheroleofrecipient,ofpiouslayperson,asafemalerole.As Ipointedoutabove,almostallmedievalmiraclesthatspecificallyconcernreceptionoftheeucharistoccurredtowomen,61andalmostthreefourthsofthelaysaints fromthelaterMiddleAgeswerewomen.62(ItissignificantthattheoccasionalmalewhoreceivestheeucharistdirectlyfromChristorangelsoradovei.e.,whose actofreceivingisgivenspecialemphasisisinvariablynotapriestbutalayman,andalaymanoflowstatus.Receivingi.e.,eating,ratherthanpreparing,holy foodandlaystatusthustendtogotogether,andneitherisassociatedwithpowerfulandadmiredmales.)63Thepatternofmiracles,likethepatternofcanonizations, underlinesthedichotomy:menarepriests,whoseactofconsecratingGodshimmerswithunearthlypowerwomenarerecipients,whoseactofeatingisdignifiedwith thereassurancethatthefoodtheytakeisreallyGod. Inwomen'sreligiosity,however,theroleofvessel,ofrecipient,waselevatedtonewsignificance.Whereasmaletheologianssawthepriestasdivinizedintheactof consecrationandevenattemptedtoidentifypriestwithchurch,womensawtheiractofreceiving,ofeating,aspregnantwithsalvation.Womensubstitutedtheir communionsforthenegligenceofthosewhodidnotorcouldnoteatwomenofferedtheirsuffering

Page237

inhungerordiseaseforthesufferingofthesinfulinpurgatory.Indeed,somewomen'svisionselevatedthestatusofrecipientabovethatofpriest:JulianaofCornillon advisedapriesttobearecipientAgnesBlannbekinsawtheeucharistdepartfromacorruptpriestandflyintoherownmouth.64 Thuswomen'sfoodpracticescontrolledtheirreligiouscircumstancesaswellastheirdomesticones.Notonlydidwomensuccessfullyavoidmarriageorshapeitmore totheirlikingbyrefusingcommensalityandgivingawayfamilyfoodtheyalsotestedclergybytheirfoodmiracles,tookondirectserviceoftheirfellowChristians throughfooddistribution,andbypassedecclesiasticallimitationsontheirintimacywithGodinastonishingencounterswithChristhimselfasnursingmother,chalice bearer,orbleedingmeat.Moreover,elevatingtheirfastingandhungerforGodintocosmicsignificance,womenofferedtheirsufferingforthesalvationofsinnershere onearthandbeyond,inthefarreachesofpurgatory,aswell.Foodwasnotmerelyadevicebywhichwomenmanipulatedthosefathers,husbands,confessors, priestswhohadgreaterauthoritythantheyrather,foodobservances,foodmiracles,andfoodmetaphorswereameansbywhichwomenshapedforthemselves complex,spirituallyeffective,anddistinctiveroleswithinthemedievalchurch. FoodPracticesAsRejectionofModeration Whenweseeclearlythearrayoffunctionsthatwomen'sfoodpracticesperformedinlatemedievalsociety,weunderstandhowmyopicitistoviewfemalefastingas primarilyanattackonbody.Thecounselingandhealingmedievalwomenpracticedthroughtheireucharisticvisionsandmiracles,thecriticismsofthechurchthey announcedininspiredutterances,thesalvationtheyofferedtotheirfellowsthroughdiseaseandsufferingarefarmoreemphasizedinwomen'sownwordsandfarmore prominentinstoriesaboutthemthananythemeofdualismbetweenbodyandspiritoranynotionofthefemaleasweakorevil. Itisnotenough,however,toargueagainsttheconventionalinterpretationofwomen'sreligiosityasinternalizeddualismormisogynybypointingoutthatother,social functionscanbefoundforwomen'sasceticism.Thereisadeeperproblemwiththeinterpretationthatstates

Page238

thatwomen'sfastingandfeasting,theirselfpunishment,miraculousbodilymanipulation,andeucharisticfrenzywereinternalizationsofmedievalstereotypesoftheflesh andthefemaleasnegative.Theproblemisthis.Intheperiodinwhichthischaracteristicfemalespiritualityemerges,theologywasdevelopinginpreciselytheopposite direction.Thetheologiansofthetwelfthandthirteenthcenturychurchwerebusymakinganhonoredplaceintheschemeofthingsforthelaity,forwomen,forthe femalebody,andformarriage.Itwaspreciselythesetheologianswho,asIindicatedinchapter2,arguedformoderationinasceticismandineucharisticdevotion, warningwomenagainstextensivefastsandprohibitingthefamiliarityoftoofrequentcommunion.ThustheextremismofreligiouswomeninthelaterMiddleAgescan hardlybeaninternalizingoftheviewsmaletheologiansheldeitheroffoodpracticesorofthefemale.Yettwelfthandthirteenthcenturytheologyandreligiouslife suppliedthecontextwithinwhichwomen'sextravagantasceticismandeucharisticdevotionwereforged.Itseemslikely,therefore,thatwomen'sreligiositywasa reactionagainstthemoderationurgedbychurchleaders,againstneweffortstomakeaplacebutasecondaryplaceforwomenandforthelaitywithinaChristian universe.Inordertoexplainthis,alittlemoremustbesaidaboutthedirectionoftwelfthandthirteenthcenturytheology. MuchattentionhasrecentlybeengiventothewaysinwhichpreachersofthetwelfthtotheearlyfourteenthcenturyexpandedthenotionofChristianroleswithin society.Althoughcanonlawyersincreasinglydefinedtheclergyassetapartbylifestyleandprerogativesandtoalargeextentequatedthechurchwiththeclergy, preacherswroterepeatedlybothaboutandforthevarietyofwhattheycalled"orders"(statuses)insocietyanddevotedmuchcaretoexplaininghoweachwas religious.65TheanonymoustwelfthcenturyauthoroftheLibellusdediversisordinibus,forexample,arguedthatGodintendsadiversityofwaysofservinghimto existtogether,"asaharmonyisachievedfromdifferentchords."66JamesofVitrywrotethatclerics,priests,marriedpeople,widows,virgins,soldiers,merchants, peasants,craftsmen,and"othermultiformtypesofmen,''eachgrouphavingitsownrulesandinstitutions"accordingtothediversetypesoftalents,"makeup collectivelythebodyofthechurchunder"theabbotChrist."67Justasfeudallawyersbusiedthemselvesinclassifyingthemanydegreesof"freedom"thatis,of

Page239

privilegeandobligationthatcharacterizedthewidevarietyofrolesandstatusesinmedievalsociety,somoralistsandtheologians,fromthetwelfthcenturyon,busied themselvesinsayingwhythesediversestatuseswereallvaluable(althoughnot,ofcourse,allequal)beforeGod.Corporatemetaphors,classicalandPaulineinorigin ("therearemanymembersbutonebody"),andparaphrasesofJohn14:2("therearemanymansionsbutonehouseofGod")becameincreasinglypopular.68 ThegrowingsensethataworldlyrolesuchascraftsmanormarriedwomanmighthavearuleoflifedefiningitandmightwinforitspractitionersmeritbeforeGodwas reflectedinwhatsomescholarshavecalledthe"riseoflayspirituality."69Fromthelatertwelfthcenturyon,thechurch,increasinglyorganizedhierarchicallyunderthe papacy,feltagreaterandgreaterresponsibilityforordinarylayfolk,devotedmoreattentiontodefiningforthemtheircharacteristicformsofdevotion,andcanonized moreandmorelay(evenmarried)saints.Theologiansdefinedmarriageasasacramentanddidnotinthisprocess,asGeorgesDubyhaspointedout,totallyspiritualize itifitsbasicsignificancelayinthecommitmentofthepartners,itwasacouplingofbodiesaswell.PreachersromanticizedtheHolyFamilyandthemarriageofMary andJoseph.70TheologiansevendebatedwhethertheVirginMarymenstruatedandonegroupamongthemdecidedthatshedid,givingnewandpositivesignificance toaphysiologicalprocessonceconsideredacurseandapunishment.71 Thesesametheologiansandcanonlawyers,whopermittedandevengave(somewhatgrudging)spiritualsignificancetosexualityandchildbearing,modifiedearlier notionsoffastinginparttomakeitpossibleforthelaitytomeettheminimumrequirements.Inthethirteenthtothefifteenthcentury,thenumberofcategoriesof exemptionfromfastingincreased,andthestandardfastcametobebrokenearlierintheday.Fastingwasoftentreatedbypreachersandexegetesassymbolrather thanact.Itwasseldomspokenofasanattackonthebody.Aquinas,forexample,sawfastingasameanstocurbthedemandsofthebodynotarejectionofmatter butalimitedrenunciationofoneofthegoodsofGod'screation."Tostarvethebody"wouldbe,saidAquinas,tostealfromwhatitshouldbeandoffertoGodonly "stolengoods."Tofastintoillhealthwoulddestroyone's"dignity"asaperson.72Anearlyexampleofthekindofpressureformoderationthatcharacterizesthe

Page240

medievalchurchcanbefoundinalateeleventhcenturyletterfromGeoffrey,abbotofVendme,toacertainbrotherRobert,whohadtakenonhimselfwhatGeoffrey consideredinappropriateabstinence:
Ifyoulovetofast,Ipraisethis,thatyoumayeatbyfastingandabstainbyeating.Forheeatsbyfastingandabstainsbyeatingwhoeatsthusdailywhatinnowaysatisfiesthe stomach.Fortoabstainonedayandonanothereatfullydoesnotseemlaudable.Onthedaysonwhichpeopleeatnothingtheymurmurmuchandthenondayswhentheyeat muchtheyfeelinappropriatejoy.Thereforeitisbetterthatwerecognizeneedanddailysustainourselvesandrefrainfromvice....Forgainingeternallife,abstinenceofthebody isnotenoughunlessthefastofthesoulismarriedtoabstinence.73

Thetoneoflatemedievalpreachersandtheologiansoftenhasthisnoteofrationality,sobriety,anddecency,thissortofconcernforsteady,moderateobservance, especiallywhenaddressingwomen.Eventhose,likeAbelardandSuso,whohadreasontoknowthatsomewomenwerecapableofgreatdevotionandasceticism, advisedthatextravagantausteritieswere"unsuitabletoyour[i.e.,thefemale]sexandunnecessaryforyourdisposition."74 GeorgesDubyhasrecentlysuggestedthatthosemenandwomenwhoturnedtoheresyinthetwelfthandthirteenthcenturieswereinpartreactingagainstachurch whichtriedtocontrolanddomesticatemarriageachurchwhichmadeaplaceintheschemeofthingsforwomenandsexuality,butasecondaryplace.75Whetheror notthisisacorrectanalysisoftheimpulsetorejecttheinstitutionalchurch,itappearstopresentacluetotheextravaganceofwomen'sspirituality.Whilepreachers werebusyformulatingsermonsadordinesthatcarefullydefinedaplaceforeverysortandconditionofperson,whilelawyerspressedforcanonizationofeverytype ofsaintinpartsothatamodelmightbeavailableforeverytypeofChristian,whilemoralistsurgedmoderationinasceticpracticesothatthechurchmightbebroad enoughforallpiouswomenelaboratedareligiositythatwasinnowaymoderate,asenseofselfthatwasinnowaysecondary.Instead,immoderateandfrantic, womenmysticssoaredbeyondallcarefulgradationsanddistinctionsintotheimmediatepresenceofGod. Theextenttowhichwomen'sspiritualitywasitselfarejectionofasuccessfulandmoderatechurch,withitscozydomesticationofwomen

Page241

andofthelaity,canbeseeninthealarmwithwhichpreachersviewedit.TheologianssuchasGersonandDavidofAugsburg,whosawtheextravaganceofwomen's religiosityandsometimesthemselvesdescribeditinextravagantlanguage,wereupsetbyitsexuberanceanditssensuality.76AlberttheGreat,althoughhewouldnot allowittobeattackedasheresy,denigrateditasridiculous.TaulerwarnedthatalthoughGodsometimescametopiouswomeninvisions,thiswasnot,andshouldnot be,thenormalwayofmeetinghim.77Intheearlyfourteenthcentury,somewomenmysticswhorejectedthemoderate,decentspiritualityofcarefullygradedworks andprayersas"inferior"(andrejectedaswelltheaffectivereligiousresponsesofsomeoftheirsistermystics)werecondemnedorburned.78 Moreover,womenthemselvessometimessuggested,intheirstridentrefusaltoacceptcounselsofmoderation,thatmoderationwasexactlywhattheyobjectedto. ColumbaofRieti,whoonceattemptedtopacifycriticismbyeating,refusedtotakeanythingbutthesacramentonceDominicappearedinavisionandauthorizedher behavior.CatherineofSiena,whoobedientlytriedtoeatwhencommandedbyherconfessorandwhodefendedherselftoamaledetractorbysayingthatherinedia wasmerelyaninfirmityandwithoutspiritualsignificance,revealedwhatwasprobablyhertrueunderstandingofasceticismwhenshesaid,ofAgnesofMontepulciano, thatsurvivalwithouteatingischaracteristicof"theperfect."Hadewijch,whosometimesinherlettersandvisionsapologizedforheraudacity,alsoluxuriatedinthe powerthatheragonyachieved.ShereportedthatChristsaidtoher:"Beautifulrevelationsandmiracleshavehappenedtoyouduringyourdays...morethantoany personwhowasbornsinceIdied."79Healso,shetellsus,addressedher:
Ostrongestofallwarriors!Youhaveconqueredeverythingandopenedtheclosedtotality[i.e.,theunionofhumanityanddivinityinChrist],whichwasneveropenedby creatureswhodidnotknow,withpainfullywonanddistressedLove,howIamGodandMan!Oheroine,sinceyouaresoheroic,andsinceyouneveryield,youarecalledthe greatestheroine!Itisright,therefore,thatyoushouldknowmeperfectly.80

Amoreimmoderatevisioncouldhardlybeimagined.81 Theimmoderatenessofwomen'sspiritualityisfoundintheirnotionsofselfabasementaswellasintheirmysticalheights,theirsenseofbeingspecialtoGod.So tortureddidsomewomenbecomenotonlywiththeir

Page242

ownawarenessofunworthinessbutalsowiththeircompassionforotherswhowerealienatedfromGodthattheyofferedtogotohellitself.GertrudetheGreat claimedthatoneshouldbewillingtotaketheeucharisttoone'sowncondemnationifsuchanactcontributedtoGod'sglory.82MechtildofMagdeburgcriedoutin anguishtoaskChristhowhecouldallowsoulstolanguishinhell,andsherepeatedlyprayedfortheirrelease.83Hadewijch,whohadconfidencethathersuffering liftedhertolikeness("GodpromisedmesomuchsufferingforthesakeoflikenesstohimselfthatI,inpreferencetoallmenandmorethanallmen,shouldsufferthisin ordertocontenthimandliveasaperfecthumanbeing"),84alsousedhersufferingtobeatagainstGod'sjusticeanddemandthereleaseofcondemnedsouls.

InonethingIdidwronginthepast,tothelivingandthedead,whomIwithdesirewouldhavefreedfrompurgatoryandfromhellasmyright.Butforthisbeyou[God]blessed: Withoutangeragainstme,yougavemefouramongthelivingandthedeadwhothenbelongedtohell.Yourgoodnesswastolerantofmyignorance....ForIdidnotthenknow yourperfectjustice....ThroughloveIwishedtosnatchthelivingandthedeadfromalldebasementofdespairandofwrongdoing,andIcausedtheirpaintobelessened,and thosedeadinhelltobesentintopurgatory,andthoselivinginhelltobebroughttotheheavenlymodeoflife.85

ThestorythatTaulertoldasanexampleofhumilitytothenunsheadvised,ringstrueasevidenceofboththeradicalselfabnegationandthesoaringtriumphof contemporaryfemalespirituality:
Youwillnevergainwhatyouwantuntilyouwantnothingcreated,butonlytheCreator....Children,thereisnothingfurtherIwanttosaytoyou,excepttotellyoualittlestory whichillustrateswellwhatImean.IknowaCanaanitewoman[cf.Matt.15:2128]letuscallherthatbecausetheincidentIamgoingtotellyouabouthappenedlessthanfour yearsago,andsheisstillalive.Sheonceexperiencedrapture,andwastransportedsothatshecouldseeGodandourLadyandallthesaints.Atthesametimeshesawherself placedunutterablyfarawayfromGod.Thenthissoul,insuchunspeakabletorment,turnedtoourLadyandtoallthesaintsandbeggedthemalltohelpher.Butthenshesawthat theydidnotpaytheslightestattentiontoherentreatytheywereinsuchgreatjoyandblissthattheyneitherheardnorheededherprayers.Then,aswemortalsdo,sheinvoked thePassionanddeathandwoundsofourLordJesusChrist,butforanswershewasaskedhowshecouldinvokewhatshehadneverhonored.WhenshesawthatourLadyand thesaintsand

Page243 theblessedPassionofourLordwereofnohelptoher,sheturnedtotheLordHimself,andthishumansoulsaid:"OhLord,sincenoonewillhelpme,see,mylovingGod,thatIam YourpoorcreatureandYouaremyGod,andthenjudgemeaccordingtoYouradorablewill.IfitisYourwillthatIshouldbeforeverinthedeepesttormentsofhell,Isubmittoit all,dearLord,asYourblessedwill."Andsosheutterlyabandonedherselfforalleternitybutshehadhardlymadethisactofselfabandonmentwhenshewasatoncetakenup, faraboveallintermediaries,andwasdrawnutterlyintoGod'sabyss,trulysubmergedinHismarvelousdivinity.86

Suchexuberanceandextremismsometimescarriedwomenintopositionsthattheologianssawasheterodoxas"dualist"or"quietist"or"antinomian."And,despite theconvincingeffortsofbothmedievalandmoderntheologianstospellouttheopposingphilosophiesandtheologiesbehind"heterodox"and''orthodox"positions,the twopositionsfusetogethersocloselyinactualmysticalwritingthatthesamephrasecanoftenbeinterpretedbothways.InHadewijch,forexample,bothreligious affectivityandadeepcritiqueofaffectivitycryoutinthesamepoeticlinesothatquietismandevenantinomianismcanbesuspectedinhernotionthatGod,the infinitelylovableanddesirable,isbeyondallpossibleeffortordesire.InCatherineofSiena'sdescriptionofAgnesas"perfect"becauseofhervegetarianismandattack onthebody,wefindaterminologythatmightoccurinCatharliteratureaswell.Itseemsthatweashistoriansshouldavoidadoptingthemedievalcategoriesof "heterodox"and"orthodox"asourcategoriesofanalysisnotonlybecause,asscholarssuchasGrundmannhaveargued,87thesameparticularthemesfrequentlyoccur inbothtypesofreligiosity,butalsobecause,behindwomen'softenquitedivergentreligiouspracticesandideas,layacommonextremismofreactionthatsuggests dissatisfactionwithclericaladvisersandtheircounselsofsweetreasonableness. Inconclusion,then,wecansaythatwomen'sfoodpracticesfunctionedasawayofcriticizingandcontrollingthoseinauthority.Theyalsoprovidedadistinctiveway forwomentoservetheirfellowsandmeettheirGod.Buttheydidmore.Bytheirveryextravagance,audacity,andmajesty,theyrejectedthesuccessofthelate medievalchurch,rejectedforawider,moresoaringvisionaninstitutionthatmadeatidy,moderate,decent,secondrateplaceforwomenandforthelaity.88Like thedesertasceticsofthefourthcenturywhomtheysometimestookasmodels,womenmysticsfromthetwelfthtothefourteenthcentury

Page244

wereincertainwaysreactingagainstthe"triumph"ofthechurch.And,likethoseearlymonksandascetics,womenoftenexpressedtheirdissatisfactionwithwhatthey sawastheirreligion'sworldlinessandcompromisenotbyleavingtheinstitutionbutbyfulfillingitspreceptswithavehemencethatfrightenedandtitillateditsleaders. Foodpracticesfunctionedinalltheseways.Butfunctionisnotmeaning.Itistimetolookatwhatthewildsoaringvisionactuallymeant.

Page245

8 TheMeaningofFood: FoodAsPhysicality
Theimmaculatelamb[Christ]isfood,table,andservant.Andthistableoffersthefruitsoftrueandperfectvirtues....Andthetableispiercedwithveins,whichrunwith blood....Ohmyson,runtothistable[anddrink]....Andwhen[thesoul]hasdrunk,itspitsupthebloodontheheadsofitsbrothers[becauseitistoofullwithhotandinebriating wine]andisthuslikeChristwhocontinuallypoursouthisbloodnotforhisutilitybutforours.Andwewhoeatatthattablebecomelikethefood[i.e.,Christ],actingnotforour ownutilitybutforthehonorofGodandthesalvationofneighbor. CATHERINEOFSIENA(D.1380), WRITINGTOONEOFHERCONFESSORS1

AsthewritingsofCatherineofSienamakeclear,toeatChrististobecomeChrist.TheChristonebecomes,inthereceptionofcommunionandintheimitatioof asceticism,isthebleedingandsufferingChristofthecross.ThefleshofJesusbothfleshasbodyandfleshasfoodisattheverycenteroffemalepiety.Andthis fleshissimultaneouslypleasureandpain. Wecannotunderstandmedievalreligiosityuntilwerealizehowdifferentsuchprobingandembracingofbodyaspainpleasureisfrommostmodernnotionsofbody,in whichpleasureandpainareseenasoppositesandthecultivationofpainisrejectedaspathological.Inunderstandingthisdifferenceitishelpfultorememberhowlittle medievalpeoplecoulddotomitigatediscomfortofanykind.Thusmedievalmetaphorsandsymbolsexpresstheexperiencingofbodymorethanthecontrollingof it.2 Sensationsandsensesthatwedifferentiatefromoneanothertendtobefusedinmedievalpiety,wheresatiationisdescribedas"hungry"anddiscomfortiscalled "delicious."Todenybodilyresponsestowardtheworldisoften,toamedievalwriter,toreleasetorrents

Page246

ofbodilyenergytowardGod.Anapproachtothebodysoalientoourmodernoneneedsfurtherexplanationforthetwentiethcenturyreader. FoodandFleshAsPleasureandPain AsIexplainedinchapter6,thefastingandeucharisticfrenzy,charityandselfdenial,ofpiouswomenfrequentlybroughtexcruciatingpain.Yetwomendidnot ordinarilyspeakofthesepracticesaspunishmentorasescapefromthebody.AngelaofFolignofoundthetasteofpus"assweetascommunion"BeatriceofNazareth spokeofJesus'tormentas"healthywounds"theauthorofthenuns'bookofUnterlindendescribedthesoundofselfflagellationasmelody,risingsweettotheearsof theLordofHosts.Women'sownviewofphysicalitywasnot,mostbasically,dualistic.Whenwomenspokeofabstinence,ofeucharisticecstasy,ofcuringandhealing throughfood,theycalleditimitatioChristi."Imitation"meantunionfusionwiththatultimatebodywhichisthebodyofChrist.Thegoalofreligiouswomenwas thustorealizetheopportunityofphysicality.Theystrovenottoeradicatebodybuttomergetheirownhumiliatingandpainfulfleshwiththatfleshwhoseagony, espousedbychoice,wassalvation.LuxuriatinginChrist'sphysicality,theyfoundtheretheliftinguptheredemptionoftheirown. ThehumanityofChrist,understoodasincludinghisfullparticipationinbodiliness,wasacentralandcharacteristicthemeinthereligiosityoflatemedievalwomen.3 Oftenithaderoticorsensualovertones.Forexample,MargeryKempewassointenselyattractedtoChrist'smalenessthatsheweptwhenevershesawamalebaby inhervisionsshecuddledwithChristinbedandwasboldenoughtocaresshistoes.4 AngelaofFoligno,AdelheidLangmann,andCatherineofSiena,amongothers, marriedChristineucharisticvisions.UnderliningtheextenttowhichthemarriagewasafusionwithChrist'sphysicality,Adelheidreceivedthehostasapledgerather thanaweddingring,whileCatherinereceived,nottheringofgoldandjewelsthatherbiographerreportsinhisbowdlerizedversion,buttheringofChrist'sforeskin. ManylatemedievalwomenhadvisionsofbathingornursingtheChristchild.Tosome(forexample,IdaofLouvain,AgnesofMontepulciano,andMargaretof Faenza),thepleasurewassointensethattheyrefusedtosurrenderthebabyagaintohismotherMary.5 ThebeautifulyoungChristwho

Page247

appearedtoLutgard,MargaretofYpres,andMargaretofOingt,baringhisbreast,wasbothnursingmotherandsensualmalelover.6 Hadewijchdescribedencounter withthisChrist,mouthonmouth,bodyonbody,inlanguagethatseemstoreporttheexperienceoforgasm(seeabove,p.156).Thetwelfthcenturyauthorofthe storyofChristinaofMarkyatereportsasimilarlysensualencounter:

Dayandnightshekneltinprayer,weeping,andlamenting,andbeggingtobefreedfrom[sexual]temptation....ThentheSonoftheVirginlookedkindlydownuponthelow estateofHishandmaidandgrantedhertheconsolationofanunheardofgrace.ForintheguiseofasmallchildHecametothearmsofhissorelytriedspouseandremainedwith herawholeday,notonlybeingfeltbutalsoseen.SothemaidentookHiminherhands,gavethanksandpressedHimtoherbosom.AndwithimmeasurabledelightsheheldHim atonemomenttohervirginalbreast,atanothershefeltHispresencewithinhereventhroughthebarrierofherflesh.Whoshalldescribetheaboundingsweetness...?Fromthat momentthefireoflustwassocompletelyextinguishedthatneverafterwardscoulditberevived.7

MargeryKempethoughtChristsaidtoher:
"Daughter,thoudesirestgreatlytoseeMe,andthoumayestboldly,whenthouartinthybed,takeMetotheeasthyweddedhusband,asthydearworthydarling,andasthy sweetson,forIwillbelovedasasonshouldbelovedbythemother,andIwillthatthoulovestMe,daughter,asagoodwifeoughttoloveherhusband.Thereforethoumayest boldlytakeMeinthearmsofthysoulandkissMymouth,Myhead,andMyfeet,assweetlyasthouwill.AndasoftenasthouthinkestofMe,orwouldstdoanygooddeedto Me,thoushalthavethesamerewardinHeaven,asifthoudidstittoMineownPreciousBodywhichisinHeaven."8

Italianwomentooreporteroticvisions.AngelaofFolignoburnedsoinpenitencethatshestrippedbeforethecrucifixandofferedherselfnakedtoChrist,pledging perpetualchastity.9 ShedescribedherunionwithChristthus:

Once,duringLent,feelingherselfverydry,sheaskedGodtogivehersomethingofhimself....Andhereyeswereopened.Shesawlove,whichcamesweetlytowardher.Shesaw itsbeginningbutnotitsend[caputetnonfinem],butitwascontinuous.Andshedidnotknowhowto

Page248 compareittoanycolor.Butallatoncewhenitcametoher,itseemedtoherthatshesawitclearlywiththeeyesofthesoul,moreclearlythanshewasabletoseewithbodilyeyes, andintouchingofheritseemedtotaketheformofasickle[uniusfalcissimilitudo].Notthattherewasanymeasurablelikeness.Lovetooktheappearanceofasickle,because thenatoncelovewithdrewitself,notconferringitselfasmuchassheexpected....Thusitmadeherlanguishallthemore....andsheunderstooditastheoperationofgrace. Andthenatonceshewasfilledwithloveandinestimablesatiety,which,althoughitsatiated,generatedatthesametimeinestimablehunger[fameminextimabilem],sothatallher memberswereunstrungandhersoullanguishedanddesiredtoflyaway[omniamembratuncdisjungebanturetanimalanguebatetdesiderabatpervenire].Andshewished neithertoseenortofeelanycreature.Andshedidnotspeakanddidnotknowwhethershecouldspeak,butwithinshespoke,clamoringthatGodnotletherlanguishinsucha death,forshethoughtlifetobedeath.10

Umilt,inafragmentthatsupposedlyreproducesoneofherownsermons,speaksofJohntheEvangelistinvivideroticimagery:
Inrenewinglove,youhavethrustthatknife[oflove]inmeanew.Youhaveboundmetoyousofirmlythatitisimpossibleformetobepulledawayorcarriedawayfromyourlove. OmostbelovedJohn,youhaveboundmewithchainsofgold,andyouhavemarriedmewitharing.11

Scholarshave,ofcourse,suggestedthatsuchreactionsweresublimatedsexualdesire,butitseemsinappropriatetospeakof"sublimation."12Intheeucharistandin ecstasy,amaleChristwashandledandlovedsexualfeelingswere,ascertaincontemporarycommentators(forexample,DavidofAugsburg)realized,notsomuch translatedintoanothermediumassimplysetfree.13 Inwomen'swritingandvisions,suchimagesofmarriageandsexualconsummationoftendescribeexactlythetormentandsufferingthatwomensawasimitatio Christi.Inoneofthemosttouchingofallthirteenthcenturyvitae,ananonymousbiographerdescribesAliceofSchaerbeke:

Andalittleafterthis,...asshesurpassedinvirtueswhatcouldbeexpectedfromthenumberofheryears,Godwishedtopurgeherwithin...fromallstrifeandiniquityofthis world,notbecauseofanycrimeordefectinherbutbecauseshewashisspouse....AndsothatshewouldbefreetorestwithGodaloneanddallyinthecubicleofhermindasin

Page249 abridalchamberandbeinebriatedwiththesweetnessofhisodor...,hegaveheranincurabledisease,leprosy.Andthefirstnightwhenshewassequesteredfromtheconvent becauseofthefearofcontagion,shewasafflictedwithsuchsadnessherheartwaswounded....[SoshecriedandprayedatGod'sfeet]...andthetenderLordseeingthehumility ofhishandmaidenwiththeeyeofhismercywantedtorestoreher....Andhefilledherwiththesweetodorofdivinity...andsosheremained,visitedonlybyGod....Andwhen shehadlearnedfromwhatsheexperiencedtotakerefugeinthemostsecureharborofGod,sherantoChrist'sbreastsandwounds,ineverytribulationoranguish,every depressionordryness,likealittlechilddrinkingfromitsmother'sbreasts,andbythatliquidshefelthermembersrestored.14

JulianaofCornillon'sbiographersays(quotingtheSongofSongs)thatsinceshecouldnotliterallydiewithChristasshewished,shesufferedinspiritwithhimonthe crossandheldthispainbetweenherbreasts"likeabundleofmyrrh."15MargaretofOingtwritesthat,meditatingonthecrucifix,shetookoutthenailsandcarried Christ'sbodybetweenthearmsofherheart,andkissedandswoonedoverthewounds.16Indeed,Margaretreceivedavisionthatgraphicallyexpressedawareness thatherpietyimpliedsensualencounterwithChrist:thebranchesofadryanddeadtree(presumablyMargaretherself)floweredwhentheywerefloodedbyagreat riverofwater,andonthebrancheswerewrittenthewordssight,hearing,taste,smell,andtouch.17ShealsoreportsavisionofJesusasadoorwaythroughwhich thesoulmustpassandsaysthe"person"whoreceivedthevisionthenvowedtosayfiftyPaterNostersinmemoryofChrist'swounds.Butwhenthe"person"prayed, sheofferedfivePaterNostersnotonlyforeachofthefivewoundsbutforotherpartsofhisbodyaswellhead,eyes,ears,nose,andmouthbathingandanointing "inspirit''hispreciousbody.18ThefranksensualityofMargaret'sdevotiontoJesus'sufferingfleshhasnotescapedmoderncommentators,whohavevehemently disapproved.19 SuchresponsetothebodyofJesuscontainedelementsofterroraswellasofjoy.Somewomenweredriventowhattheircontemporariescalledinsanityandothers mutilatedthemselveswhileinecstasy.Buthoweverextravagantsomeofthesereactionsmayhavebeen,noneisaccuratelydescribedasflightfrommatteroras "decadent"or"literalminded"symbolism.20Inareligiositywherewoundsarethesourceofamother'smilk,fataldiseaseisabridalchamber,painorinsanityclings

Page250

tothebreastlikeperfume,physicalityishardlyrejectedortranscended.Rather,itisexploredandembraced.Eventheabhorrenceoftouchorwarmthorfood,which womensuchasMaryofOignies,Lutgard,Douceline,CatherineofSiena,andCatherineofGenoadevelopedaftermeetingthefire,thekisses,andthefleshofChrist, werenotrejectionofthebody.Theywere,rather,anumbingoftheordinarysensesleftbythetransfixingencounterwithGod.Insuchreligiosity,bodilyimpulsesand emotionstheperson'sfullsensualitywerereleasedintonewexperience.Physicalitywasfreedandtransfigured.ButithadtobearousedbyGod.21 Women'sfoodimagesoftenevokedsuchtransfiguringofbodyandsuggestedanalmostphysicalunionwiththedivine.Inboththemetaphorsofpoetryandthe experiencesoftranceandvision(andthesefrequentlyflowedtogether),womenmetGodasfleshtakeninto,eatenby,flesh.ThusHadewijch,Mechtildof Magdeburg,andIdaofLouvainspokeofencounterwithGodas"eating"him,andAnnaVorchtlinsaidtotheinfantJesusinthesortofaffectionateteasingmothers haveusedwithbabiesforcenturies"Iwouldeatyouup,Iloveyousomuch."CatherineofSienarepeatedlyspokeofservingandsavingothersaseating.She describedthesoulascendingtoGodasababyreachingforthematernalbreast.Andsheemphasizedthebreastassymbolnotonlyofcharitybutalsoofthefleshthat isourhumanness.22 Foodwasamultifacetedsymbolinmedievalspirituality.Yet,asthesophisticatedrhythmsofHadewijchandthetheologyofCatherineofSienasuggest,foodmost basicallymeantfleshfleshmeantsuffering(sometimesecstatic,delicioussuffering)andsufferingmeantredemption.Fasting,feeding,andfeastingwerethusnotso muchoppositesassynonyms.Fastingwasflightnotfrombutintophysicality.Communionwasconsuming,i.e.,becoming,aGodwhosavesthroughphysical,human agony.Tofeedotherswastoofferone'sownsufferingasfood.Whetherecstaticallyanddefiantlyconfidentinthegloryofdivinity,towhichphysicalitywas inextricablylinked,ortorturedintheparadoxicaldarknessofhumanity,whichistruerthanglorybecausegloryisbeyondmedievalwomenwenttoGodthrough suffering.Theyfrequentlycalledthisjourney"eating"or"hungering,"becausetoeatistojoinwithfoodandGodisfood,whichisflesh,whichissuffering,whichis salvation. Latemedievaltheologyitself,ofcourse,providedthebasicequation:

Page251

foodequalsbody.Ittaughtthat,atthecentralmomentofChristianritual,themomentofconsecration,Godbecamefoodthatisbody.Thismomentthenrecapitulates boththeIncarnationandtheCrucifixion.Inbecomingflesh,Godtakesonhumanity,andthathumanitysaves,notbybeingbutbybeingbroken.Thefoodonthealtar wasthusforallChristiansasymbolbothofassimilationandofrending.Toeatwastoconsume,totakein,tobecomeGod.AndtoeatwasalsotorendandtearGod. Eatingwasahorriblyaudaciousact.Yetitwasonlybybleeding,bybeingtornandrent,bydying,thatGod'sbodyredeemedhumanity.Tobecomethatbodyby eatingwasthereforetobleedandtosavetoliftone'sownphysicalityintosufferingandintoglory. Theparticularimplicationsthatlatemedievaltheologygavetotheeucharistwerethemselves,however,historicallyconditioned.Aswesawinchapter2,thesacrament itselftookonmanymeaningsoverthelongcourseoftheMiddleAges.ItcouldunderlinethepowerofthesacrificingpriestandofthepropitiatedGod.Itcould symbolizethechurch,eitherasbelieversgatheredintoonebodythroughcommensalityorasaunitydefendedagainstthosewhowouldrenditassunderbyheresyor apostasy.ItcouldreflectamomentinthecosmicwarofgoodandevilthemomentatwhichGodtrickedthedevilbyofferinghimselfasbait.Itcouldstandforthe transformationofsufferingintosalvation.TheeucharistcouldthusrecapitulateeithertheIncarnation(Godbecomeshumanity),theCrucifixion(Goddiesforhumanity), ortheResurrection(humanityisglorified).Inordertounderstandwhythefoodpracticesandimagesoflatemedievalwomenweresuchaconsistentprobingofand exultinginhumanity(understoodasfullphysicality),wemustlookfurtheratthewayslatemedievalpeopleofbothsexesshowedincreasingconcernwithmatterand corporalityasreligiousissues.Forintheperiodbetween1200and1500,physicalitycametotheforefrontasareligiousconcern. TheLateMedievalConcernwithPhysicality NotionsoftheeucharistshiftedinfundamentalwaysfromthedaysoftheearlychurchtothelaterMiddleAges.Althoughtheologiansandvisionariesneverforgotthat thebreadonthealtarwasthememorialofacommunal,passovermealandofOldTestamentsacrifice,theyincreas

Page252

inglyemphasizedtheeucharistassufferingandbleedingflesh.Asthethirteenthandfourteenthcenturiesworeon,theologianscametoplacethesavingmomentof ChristianhistoryintheCrucifixionratherthanintheIncarnationorResurrectionvisionariessawChristintheelevatedhostorchalicenotasregallord,lavishlyrobed priest,orwarrioragainstSatan,butascrucifiedmanpoetsandsaintsusedhungerandabstinencelessasmetaphorsforselfcontrolorfordependenceonthebounty ofGodthanasimagesforneversatiated,sensual,andagonizedyearning.Behindtheseshiftsinmetaphorandintheologyliesaheightenedconcernwithmatter,with corporality,withsensuality.Although,aswehaveseen,someambivalenceaboutmatter,somesharpandagonizingdualism,remainsinlatemedievalreligiosity,no otherperiodinthehistoryofChristianityhasplacedsopositive(andthereforesocomplexandambiguous)avalueonthebodilinessofChrist'shumanity. ThelatemedievalconcernwithmatterandphysicalitywasinpartanexplicitmoveinChristendom'swaronheresy.Amorepositivesignificancewasgiventobodyin theologybecausevariousextremeChristianandquasiChristianpositionsseemedtodenouncefleshandmatter.Inthethirteenthcentury,theologiansthemselvessaw thefullphilosophicalandtheologicaldualismoftheCatharsasthemajorthreattoChristianorthodoxy.Startingfromthepremiseofacosmicdichotomybetweenspirit andmatter,theCatharsrejectedthedoctrineoftheIncarnation,arguedthattheholyor"perfect"mustfleethefleshinthislife,andchallengedthenotionsof resurrectionofthebodyandofpurgatory.Inthefourteenthcentury,variousformsofintensemysticismweredefinedasheresybecausetheyseemedtoignoreorreject thefleshinotherways.Incertainquietistforms,mysticismsometimesseemedtodenyallspiritualandmoralstrivingbytranscendingallsufferingandalienationall humanness.Initsmoreantinomianforms,mysticismsometimesthreatenedtopermitthebodyalllicensebecauseittookbodyasfundamentally"unreal."Thus,the variouslatemedievalheterodoxies,diversethoughtheywere,seemedtocontemporariestohaveincommonadenigrationofthebody,adenialthatitmightbeeithera sourceorarecipientofsalvation.Manytwelfth,thirteenth,andfourteenthcenturytheologiansandpreachers(includingthefirstgreatwomantheologian,Hildegardof Bingen)arguedexplicitlythatdenialoftheeucharist(i.e.,ofthenotionthatGodbecomesfleshandfood)wasoneofthechiefdangersofallkindsofheresy.23

Page253

Modernhistorianshavesuggestedthattheformulationofthedoctrineoftransubstantiation,thespreadofdevotiontothehostascorpusChristi,andthechurch's enthusiasticencouragingofmiraclesinwhichthehostturnedintofleshwerepartofageneralefforttocounterheresy.24Medievalauthorssometimessaidasmuch. JamesofVitryandThomasofCantimpr,writingaboutthefemalemysticalmovementoftheLowCountries,heldupwomensaints,withtheirreverenceforChrist's bodyandblood,asanalternativetotheCatharviewthatthephysicalisthecreationofanevilGod.25ThecardinallegatewhohelpedJulianaofCornillonpropagate thefeastofCorpusChristisupporteditexplicitlyasaweaponagainstdualism.26PreacherssuchasPeterDamian,EckbertofSchnau,andAlanofLillechosestories ofbleedinghoststoembellishtheirdiatribesagainstheretics.27And,asIexplainedinchapter2,eucharisticmiraclesthemselvessometimesdenouncedsuperstition, apostasy,orunbelief.ItisalsoquitepossibletoreadtheeucharisticdevotionofthehighMiddleAgesasamovetocounterheresybyincreasingclericalcontrol.Some confessors(forexample,MargaretofCortona'sandDorothyofMontau's)seemtohaveurgedwomentowardfrequentcommunionnotonlyasanefforttokeeptheir devotionallifeorthodoxbutalsoasawayoftyingthemmorefirmlyintotheecclesiasticalsupervisionwhichconfessionrepresented.28 Wemust,however,lookbeyondanyconsciouseffortsatpropagandaagainstCathardualismoraberrantmysticismifwearetounderstandtheattentionpaidtomatter andfleshinlatemedievalspirituality.Aconcerntogivethepropersignificancetofleshwasnotsomuchaconcernthatcharacterizedorthodoxasopposedto heterodox,asitwasaconcernthatboundallreligiousreactionsoftheperiodtogether(howevermuchtheymightdifferoverwhatthepropersignificancewas).Itis sometimesimpossibleforus,asitwasforcontemporaries,todrawalinebetweenCatharandorthodoxasceticisms(bothstressedfastingandcontinence,for example)orbetweenquietistandorthodoxmysticism(both,forexample,valueddesireforGodmorethan"works").Thisfactindicatesthatallthereligiosityofthe periodwasanimatedindeepwaysbytheneedtotakeaccountof(ratherthanmerelytodeny)matter,body,andsensualresponse. Indeed,whereverweturninthelaterMiddleAgesweseemtofindthethemeofbodyandofbodyinallitsaspects,pleasureaswellaspain.Forexample,the effortsoftheologiansandcanonlawyerstodefine

Page254

marriageasasacrament,toseeinfamilyasourceofgrace,toacceptandevensentimentalizefemalebodilyfunctionssuchaslactation,atleastintreatingJesus' mother,allindicateanewacceptanceofbody.Thepietyofthemendicants,especiallytheFranciscans,waspermeatedbyattentiontothefactofbody,bothinintense union(throughasceticism)withChrist'ssufferingandinaviewofallcreationasthetracesandfootprintsofGod.FrancisofAssisi,asiswellknown,rejoicedbothin punishingwhathecalled"theass"(hisbody)inimitatioChristiandinfindingGod'sgloryinbirds,flowers,sun,andmooninallthecreaturesoftheuniverse.Oneof themostimportantphilosophicalformulationsofthethirteenthcentury,ThomasAquinas'sstatementofthehylomorphiccompositionofthehumanperson,wasanew attempttocometotermswithmatter.Thedoctrinesaysthatwhatthepersonis,theexistingsubstanceman,isformandmatter,soulandbody.ToAquinas,the personishisbody,notjustasoulusingabodytheresurrectionofthebodythusbecame,forthefirsttime,notmerelytheologicallybutalsophilosophicallynecessary.

29

WomenwerenotusuallydirectlyintouchwithsuchabstracttheologicalorphilosophicalspeculationasThomas'sideaofhylomorphism,buttheynonethelessreflected intheirvisionsageneralsenseofbodyasnecessaryforsalvation.Thesameauthorswholiftedbodilyagonytowardthedivinethroughmetaphorsoflove,marriage, sweettasting,anddelightalsospokeofthegloriesofmatterandcreation.Theauthorofthenuns'bookofUnterlinden,whodescribedflagellationasmusic, commentedthathomo(ourhumanity)reallyincludesallcreatures.30MargaretofOingt,whoglorifiedtheselfinducedstigmataofBeatriceofOrnacieuxandoffered tobecomealeperifGodsowilled,sawChrist'shumanityasaclearmirrorinwhichisreflectedallthebeautyofcreation.31MechtildofHackeborn,whorolledin brokenglass,sawavisionofthecelebratingpriestinwhichhisvestmentswerecoveredwitheverybladeandtwig,everyhairandscale,ofthefloraandfaunaofthe universe.Asshelookedinsurprise,shesawthat"thesmallestdetailsofcreationarereflectedintheholyTrinitybymeansofthehumanityofChrist,becauseitisfrom thesameearththatproducedthemthatChristdrewhishumanity."32Suchvisionsmakeitquiteclearthat"humanity"includednotmerelysensesandagoniesbutbones andflesh,evensticksandstones,aswell.Forbetterorworse,forpainorpleasure,bodywasbecomingmoreandmoreofanissueintheologyandinpiety.

Page255

Behindsuchlatemedievalideas,wehearechoingfundamentalshiftsindevotionthatcameinthelongspanofyearsbetweenantiquityandthetwelfthcentury.More thananyotherfactor,itwasthecultofsaintsthatintroducedintoChristiantheologyandpracticeasenseofthepowerofbody.33BeginninginaRomanworldthat fearedthedeadaspollutingandlegislatedagainsttheirremovalordismemberment,aChristianenthusiasmforbodies,especiallymutilateddeadbodies,aslociof divinepowermadesteadyheadwaythroughouttheearlyMiddleAges.Indeed,those(suchasGuibertofNogentinthetwelfthcentury)whoopposedthecult understoodpreciselywhatwasatstake:thecultofrelicsnotonlyabolishedadistinctionbetweenspiritandmatteringivingterrifyingpowertoboneandsinew,it forcedanewlookatwhatitmeantforeveryhumantobeabody.34 Thissenseofbodyaslocusofthedivinehadbecomesopowerfulbythethirteenthcenturythattheconsecratedhostwasfrequentlycomparedtothebodiesofthe saintsandreveredasarelicofChrist.Notonlydidthepracticeofreservingthehostinpyxesortabernaclesspreadrapidlyafter1200,thehostwassometimes actuallyreservedinareliquaryordisplayed,inapyx,alongsidereliquaries.Mobiletabernacleswereoftenmodeledonreliquaries.Thepracticeofburningcandlesor lampsbeforethehostwasclearlyborrowedfromthemannerinwhichrelicsweretreated,andthepracticeofvisitingthehostasifitwerearelicspreadrapidly, probablyhavingbegunwithfemalerecluses.35AparticularlyvividexampleofthisparallelismofeucharistandrelicsisprovidedinthebehaviorofHugh,Bishopof Lincoln,whochewedoffapieceofMaryMagdalen'sarmwhilevisitingFcampanddefendedhimselftothehorrifiedonlookersbyreplyingthatifhecouldtouchthe bodyofChristinthemass,hecouldcertainlyapplyhisteethtotheMagdalen'sbones.36 ThisemphasisonthefactthatChrist'shumanityistrulyfleshandbloodledtoanincreasinglyliteralsenseofwhat"imitation"ofChristmeant.Bythelatetwelfth century,imitatioasaspiritualthemehadmovedfarbeyondtheCisterciannotionofaffectivemeditationontheeventsofthelifeofJesus.37Thegreatestspiritual writerofthetwelfthcentury,BernardofClairvaux,hadtaughtthatweidentifywithChristbyextendingourcompassiontohishumanitythroughpityingthesuffering humanityofourneighbors.38Butby1200FrancisofAssisiandMaryofOigniesactuallyreceivedintheirbodiesthewoundsofChrist

Page256

whileaseraphlookedon.About1275,PhilipofClairvauxdescribedarecluse,ElizabethofSpalbeek,whoactedoutthepersecutionofChristeverytwentyfour hours,draggingherselfabout,beatingherself,andbleedingfromstigmaticwoundsandfromunderherfingernails.39Inthefourteenthcenturyholywomensuchas DorothyofMontau,RitaofCascia,andJulianofNorwichandholymensuchasHenrySusoandRobertofSalentino(d.1341)actedoutthePassioninelaborate pantomimesorprayedforliteraldeathinimitationoftheCrucifixion.40 Somedescriptionsofholywomenstressedexplicitlythatimitatioisfact,notmemoryorimagination.Wearetold,forexample,thatMargaretofCortonaand LukardisofOberweimarbecameonewiththeCrucifixionratherthansimplyrememberingorpityingChrist'ssuffering.41MargaretofYpres'sextremeselfflagellation asameansofjoiningwithChristwascalledarecordatio(remembrance),butinsuchapassagethemeaningofthewordrememberhaschanged.42Beatriceof Nazareth,moretheologicallysophisticatedthanmanyofherfellowwomenmystics,spokeofthreegradesofmovingtowardChrist:turningtowardgracegrowingin thememoryofChrist'sPassionand,finally,inheringinJesus.43 By1350,preacherswereincreasinglyemphasizingimitatioasliterally"shapingoneselfto."44WhenLudolfofSaxony,inhisLifeofChrist,explainedhowChristians shouldconformthemselvestoChrist(actusconformationis),hesaidtheyshouldnot,forexample,merelymeditateonhowChristwasslappedbutshouldinstead slapthemselves.(Theslapshould,however,be"moderate.")45SusoexplainedhowliteralcopyingofChrist'sagoniessavedbothneighborandself:
AndI...desirefromthisdayforthtostandbeforeyourthroneasthetrustyrepresentativeofallsufferers....Ifsufferingbroughtwithitnoothergainthanthatbyourgriefsand painswegrowinlikenesstoChrist,ourprototype,itwouldstillbeapricelessbenefit....EvenifGodshouldchoosetogivethesameeternalrewardtothosewhosufferandto thosewhodonot,weshouldneverthelesspreferafflictionsasourearthlyportioninordertoresembleourleader.46

Thissenseofimitatioasbecomingorbeing(notmerelyfeelingorunderstanding)layinthebackgroundofeucharisticdevotion.Theeucharistwasanespecially appropriatevehiclefortheefforttobecomeChristbecausetheeucharistisChrist.Thedoctrineoftransubstantiation

Page257

wascrucial.OnebecameChrist'scrucifiedbodyineatingChrist'scrucifiedbody.Thusthereceptionoftheeucharistledsonaturallytostigmata,visibleorinward, thatcontemporarieshardlyworriedabouthowtoaccountfortheirappearance.Imitatiowasincorporationoffleshintoflesh.Bothpriestandrecipientwereliterally pregnantwithChrist.ThemetaphorofthegoodsoulasChrist'smother,whichhadanancestrygoingbacktoMark3:35,becameinthethirteenthcenturymorethan metaphor.CaesariusofHeisterbachdescribedapriestwhoswelledupattheconsecration,pregnantwithChrist.47ChristinaEbnerdreamedofbeingpregnantwith Jesus.BythefourteenthcenturyDorothyofMontauwasalmostrequiredbyherconfessortoexhibitmysticalpregnancyaspartofherpreparationforcommunion.48 Inotherinstancesofsuchliteralism,thedyingJulianaFalconieriwasobservedtoincorporatetheeucharistbyhavingitfadeintoherchest49andClareofMontefalco's sistersclaimedtoseetheinsigniaofChrist'sPassionetcheduponthemuscleofherheartafterdeath.50 NothinginlatemedievalnotionsofimitatioimpliedthatChrist'shumanitywasmerelybodyorthatChristwasmerelyhuman.Repeatedly,betweenthethirteenthand thefifteenthcentury,mysticsstressedthattheChristencounteredintheeucharistwasfullyhuman,soulaswellasflesh,andfullyGod.GuiardofLaoninhisDe eucharistia,composedintheearlythirteenthcentury,arguedthattherewerethreefruitsoftheeucharistbecauseofitsthreeelements:body,soul,anddivinityof Christ.51Inthelatefourteenthcentury,CatherineofSiena,inherDialogue,putthefollowingwordsintothemouthofGod:
IamthatSun,Godeternal,whenceproceedtheSonandtheHolySpirit....ThepersonoftheincarnateWordwaspenetratedandkneadedintoonedoughwiththelightofmy Godhead,thedivinenature.... Whattastesandseesandtouchesthissacrament?Thesoul'ssensitivity.Howdoessheseeit?Withhermind'seye....Thiseyeseesinthatwhiteness[ofthebread]thedivine naturejoinedwiththehumanwhollyGod,whollyhumanthebody,soulandbloodofChrist,hissoulunitedwithhisbodyandhisbodyandsoulunitedwithmydivinenature, neverstrayingfromme. ...AndatthewordsofconsecrationIrevealedmyselftoyou.Yousawarayoflightcomingfrommybreast,liketheraythatcomesforthfromthesun'scircleyetneverleavesit. Withinthislightcameadove,

Page258 anddoveandlightwereasoneandhoveredoverthehost....Yourbodilyeyescouldnotendurethelight,andonlyyourspiritualvisionremained,butthereyousawandtasted thedepthoftheTrinity,whollyGod,whollyhuman,hiddenandveiledunderthatwhiteness.52

ThejoymysticsfeltinphysicalunionwithChrist'shumanitywasneveradenialofChrist'sdivinity.BecomingChristphysicallywas,rather,awayofbeingsnatchedup intohisdivinity.Themoretheologicallysophisticatedofmysticalwriters(forexample,theHelftanuns,Hadewijch,andthetwoCatherines)insistedrepeatedlyonthe twonaturesofChrist.53ButasHadewijchputit(inherownsubtlelanguagewhichitissodangeroustoquoteoutofcontext),wecannotjust"beGodwithGod,"we mustalso"behumanwithChrist."54OrasAngelaofFolignoputit(inherbiographer'sparaphraseofherteaching):

[Thesoulinthispresentlifesees,feels,andknows]thelesserinthegreaterandthegreaterinthelesser,foritdiscoversuncreatedGodand"humanated"God[Deum humanatum],thatisdivinityandhumanity,inChrist,unitedandconjoinedinoneperson....Andsometimes,inthispresentlife,thesoulreceivesgreaterdelightinthelesserthan inthegreater.ForthesoulismoreconformedandadaptedtothelesserwhichitseesinChrist,theincarnateGod,thanitistothatwhichitseesinChrist,theuncreatedGod becausethesoulisacreaturewhoisthelifeofthefleshandofallthemembersofitsbody.ThusitdiscoversbothGod"humanated"andGoduncreated,Christthecreatorand Christthecreature,andinthatChristitdiscoverssoulwithfleshandbloodandwithallthemembersofhismostsacredbody.Andthisiswhy,whenthehumanintellectdiscovers, sees,andknowsinthismysteryChristthemanandChristGod,ordainerofthemystery,thisintellectfeelsdelightandexpandsinhim,becauseitseesGod"humanated"andGod uncreatedconformed,andmadelikeitselfbecause,thatis,thehumansoulseesthesoulofChrist,hiseyes,hisflesh,andhisbody.But,whileitlooks...,itshouldnotforget alsototurntothehigher...,thedivine.55

Thereisnothingspecificallyfemaleaboutthelatemedievalconcernwithmatterandbodyorabouttheextravaganceofcertainfourteenthandfifteenthcenturyefforts atimitatio.Physicalityasproblemandopportunitywasabasicthemethroughoutlatemedievalreligiosity.Butthisthemewastakenupespeciallyintenselyinwomen's livesandwomen'swritingandwasexpressedthereespeciallyineucharisticdevotionandinothersortsoffoodimagery.Forthistherearespecificculturalas

Page259

wellaspsychologicalandsocialreasons.Toputitsimply,theweightoftheWesterntraditionhadlongtoldwomenthatphysicalitywasparticularlytheirproblem, nurturingparticularlytheiropportunity. Inordertoplacewomen'sfoodpracticesintheirfullhistoricalcontext,itisthereforenecessarytocomeatlasttothevexedquestionofthe''imageofwoman."In chapters9and10,Iexplorehowthelongstandingassociationof"woman"with"body"andwith"food"contributedtothedistinctiveemphasesinwomen'spietythat arethesubjectofthisbook.Ialsoarguethatthenotionofwomanasfoodandfleshhaddifferentimplicationsformedievalwomenthemselvesandfortheirmale admirersanddetractors.

Page260

9 WomanAsBodyandAsFood
Andthusmanandwomanaredependentoneachothersothateachisnecessarytotheotherbecausemanisnotcalled"man"withoutwomannoriswomannamed"woman" withoutman.Forwomanisnecessarytoman,andmanistheconsolationofwomanandneitherofthemcanbewithouttheother.AndmantrulysignifiesthedivinityoftheSonof God,andwomanhishumanity. ForthesameGodcreatedmanstrongandwomanweak,andherweaknessgaverisetosin.AnddivinityisstrongbutthefleshoftheSonofGodisweak,andthroughittheworldis restoredtoitsfirstlife.Fortrulythatflesh,immaculateandinviolate,likeaspouse,proceedsfromthevirginwomb. HILDEGARDOFBINGEN(TWELFTHCENTURY)1

LatemedievaltheologyandpietyemphasizedChristassufferingandChrist'ssufferingbodyasfood.Recentscholarlyworkonspiritualityhasnotignoredthis emphasisindeed,itwouldbeimpossibletodoso.Yetscholarshavenotalwaysnoticedthatsuchconcernsweremoreprominentinwomen'sreligiositythaninmen's. Wheretheyhavenoticedthefact,onlyinternalizedmisogynyhascometomindasanexplanation.Butseriousmisunderstandingsofmedievalreligionareinvolvedin suchadescriptionofwomen'spiety.Ihavearguedaboveatlengththatthenatureofmedievalfamiliesandmarriagepatterns,thenatureofclericalauthority,andthe sexualdivisionoflaborallhelptoexplainwhythepietyofwomenhaddifferentemphasesandthemesfromthatofmenandwhyfoodpracticesaswellasfood metaphorswerecrucialtowomen.Butinordertounderstandwomen'sreligiositywemustalsoprobemoredeeplyintothenatureofsymbol.Foritseemslikelythat womenweredrawntoidentifywithChrist'ssufferingandfeedingfleshbecausebothmenandwomensawthefemalebodyasfoodandthefemalenatureasfleshly. BothmenandwomendescribedChrist'sbody

Page261

initssufferinganditsgenerativityasabirthingandlactatingmotherandmayatsomealmostunconsciouslevelhavefeltthatwoman'ssufferingwasherwayoffusing withChristbecauseChrist'ssufferingfleshwas"woman."Thequestionofwhatthefemalemeantassymbolinlatemedievalthoughtmust,however,beapproached withgreatcare. WomanAsSymbolofHumanity Thesocalledimageofwomanhasbeenmuchandheatedlydiscussedbyrecentstudentsofmedievaltheology.2 Someofthediscussionhasbeenmoreobfuscating thanhelpful.Somemoderncommentatorshave,forexample,deploredthefactthatcertainpatristicfigures(suchasTertullianandAugustine)arguedthatwomanqua womanwasnotcreatedinGod'simage,althoughwomanquahumanbeingwas.Themeaningofsuchstatementsinpatristicwritingis,however,quitecomplicated.3 Andbythethirteenthcenturysucharguments,usedintheologicalandlegalwriting,oftenreferredtowoman'ssocialrole(i.e.,hersubordinationtomaninthefamily)as wellastoheranatomicalorbiologicalrole.4 Thustoarguethatwomanaswife(acreatureruledbyman)couldnotbeanimageofthekingshipofGodmightbecome notsomuchaproofoffemaleinferiorityasanargumentforrebellionagainstfamilyandasourceofconfidenceforwomenwhoretainedvirginityoraspiredto continence.Inanycase,thenotionthatwomanwas"notinGod'simage"wasnotabsorbedbymedievalwomen,evenmarriedwomen,asaprohibitionoftheir approachtoGod.Onthecontrary,thewritingofwomenmysticsisfullofreferencestobeingcreatedinGod'simage.GertrudetheGreat,MargaretofOingt, DoucelineofMarseilles,andBeatriceofNazarethallrejoicedintheircreationintheimageandlikenessofGodandsawthisimageasthebasisonwhichimitatiois built.5 Inavision,MechtildofHackebornsawChristplacehishandsonhersandgiveher"theimprintofresemblancelikeasealinwax."6 AndCatherineofSiena wrote,addressingGod:"BythelightofunderstandingwithinyourlightIhavetastedandseenyourdepth,eternalTrinity,andthebeautyofyourcreation.ThenwhenI consideredmyselfinyou,IsawthatIamyourimage.''7 Anotheraspectofmedievaltheologicalviewsofwomanhasalsobeendeploredbymodernscholars,andthereisreasontothinkthatthisnotion

Page262

didinfluencemedievalwomen.Thisisthenotionthat,allegoricallyspeaking,"womanistomanasmatteristospirit."Thuswomanorthefemininesymbolizesthe physical,lustful,material,appetitivepartofhumannature,whereasmansymbolizesthespiritual,orrational,ormental.Aswesawaboveinchapter6,therootsofthis ideaweremultiple,scientificaswellastheological.Ancientscientistshadarguedfrequentlythatatconception,womancontributesthestuff(orphysicalnature)ofthe foetus,manthesoulorform.8 Patristicexegeteshadregularlyseenwoman(orEve)asrepresentingtheappetites,man(orAdam)asrepresentingsoulorintellect.9 WhencombinedwiththenegativeviewofmarriageandsexualitythatcharacterizedmuchearlyChristianthought,suchviewscouldanddidencouragemisogyny.They weresubtleviews,ofcourse.AndoftenwriterssuchasTertullianandAugustinewhovoicedthemhadinmindprimarilytheintegrationofvariousaspectsintoasingle personalitywhentheyspokeof"masculine"and"feminine."Thesepatristicthinkersoftenrejectedmarriagemoreasawayofrejectingfamilythanasawayofrejecting bodyorwoman.10ButbythelaterMiddleAges,aswesawinchapter1,suchrhetoricdidsometimesjustifythesuppressionofwomen'sreligiouslifesimplybecause women,evenchastewomen,wereseenasatemptationtotheclericswhosupervisedthem.Italsoprovidedabasisforthewitchhuntingtheologythatlabeledelderly womenasfleshlyandirrational,evendiabolical.Moreover,asWeinsteinandBellhavepointedout,itlednotonlytheologiansbutalsomalehagiographerstocomment onwomen'sweakness,tofocusonsexualtemptationintellingwomen'sstories,andtoattributethefailingsofmentowomenratherthantothementhemselves.11 Thenotionthatwomanistomanasmatteristospiritwassometimesusedbymaletheologiansandbiographersnotonlytodenigratewomenbuttocastigatemale failureaswell.Theargumentwentthus:ifwomen,whoweremorevulnerabletosinthanmen,lessrationalandstrong,couldrevereChristintheeucharistorflagellate theirbodiesintosubmissionandecstaticunion,howheinousbycomparisonwerethecrimesofmaleselfindulgenceandclericalcorruption!Moreover,menwent beyondtheuseof"thefemale"asawaytocastigatethemselves.Theywereaccustomedtoinverttheimageofwomanandseeherasnotonlybelowbutalsoabove reason.12TheysomewhatsentimentallysawasanapotheosisoffemaleweaknessandunreasonMary'sloveforsoulsandhermercytowardeventhewickedwho superstitiouslyreveredher.They

Page263

encouragedwomen'svisionsasspecial,suprarationalcontactwiththedivineandromanticizedwomen'smysticisminexoticrhetoric.Sometimestheyevenused womanasasymbolofthesoulcherishedbyGodandcalledthemselvesthe"brides"ofChrist.13 Womenwriterswereawareoftheideathatwomanistomanasfleshistospirit.Thefirstgreatfemaletheologian,HildegardofBingen,knewthetraditioninbothits exegeticalandscientificformsand,indeed,arguedagainstsomeofitsimplications.14Somelatemedievalwomen(forexample,MechtildofMagdeburgandCatherine ofSiena)didfallintoaregularpatternofusingmanormanlytomeanstrong,whiledescribingthemselvesas"weak"or"despised"women,"beggars,"''poormaids," "littlegirls,"etc.15Byandlarge,however,womendidnotdrawfromthetraditionalnotionofasymbolicdichotomybetweenmaleandfemaleanysenseofincapacity forvirtue,forspiritualgrowth,orforsalvation.Womenwriterstendedeithertoignoretheirowngender,usingandrogynousimageryfortheself(asdidGertrudethe GreatandHadewijch),ortoembracetheirfemaleness(asdidMargeryKempe)asasignofclosenesstoChrist.CatherineofSiena,forexample,althoughsheurged hermaleandfemalecorrespondentstobemenratherthanweakwomen,receivedavisionfromChristinwhichhetoldherthatsheneednottakeonmaledressasa signofherpowertospeakforGod.16Herusualimagesforherselfwereeitherfemaleorandrogynous:shewasthebridetoJesusthebridegroom,orachildtoJesus thenursingmother.Ifanything,womendrewfromthetraditionalnotionofthefemaleasphysicalanemphasisontheirownredemptionbyaChristwhowassupremely physicalbecausesupremelyhuman.InfluencedbythegrowingconcernwithChrist'shumanityasbodiliness,theysometimesevenextrapolatedfromthenotionthat maleistofemaleasspiritistofleshthenotionthat,inChrist,divinityistohumanityasmaleistofemale.Whereasmalewritersusedthetraditionaldichotomyofmale andfemaletocriticizeparticularwomenandtodifferentiatesharplybetweenmaleandfemaleroles,maleandfemalecharacteristics,womenusedthedichotomy differently.Towomen,thenotionofthefemaleasfleshbecameanargumentforwomen'simitatioChristithroughphysicality.Subsumingthemale/femaledichotomy intothemorecosmicdichotomydivine/human,womensawthemselvesasthesymbolforallhumanity. InmakingthissymbolicequationofhomoorhumanitaswithEve,Mary,ormulier,womenwere,ofcourse,aidedbytheveryslipperiness

Page264

ofthenotionofhumanity.ArecenttranslatorofCatherineofGenoahaspointedoutthat,inherwork,theallegoricalmeaningofumanittendstoslipbackandforth between"humanness"and"flesh"or"fleshlyurges."17Theauthorofthenuns'bookofUnterlindenevenusedhomotomeanallcreatures.18Intheeroticpassagefrom Hadewijchquotedaboveinchapter5,humanity(menscheit)clearlyimpliesbody:"andallmymembersfelthisinfullfelicity,inaccordancewiththedesireofmy heartandmyhumanity."Suchusagetendedbothtoobscureanysharpsenseofabody/souldichotomy(forbothbodyandsoulwerehuman)andtoimplythat humannessintimatelyinvolvedphysicality.Itwasthissenseofhumanityasentailingbodiliness(althoughnotreducibletoit)thatwomenexpressedinexpandingthe male/femaledichotomyfromspirit/fleshtodivine/human. FromHildegardofBingenandElizabethofSchnautoCatherineofSienaandJulianofNorwich,womentheologiansinthelaterMiddleAgesusedwomanto symbolizehumanity.ToElizabethofSchnauthehumanityofChristappearedinavisionasafemalevirgin.19ToHildegardofBingen,Christ'shumanitywasto Christ'sdivinityaswomanistoman,andmulierrepresentedhumankind,falleninEve,restoredinecclesiaandMaria.Inthepassagequotedasepigraphtothis chapter,Hildegardnotonlywritesexplicitlythat"mansignifiesthedivinityoftheSonofGod,andwomanhishumanity,"shealsoarguesthatthetwoare complementaryinoursalvationasmaleandfemalearenecessarytoeachotherinreligiouslifeandinthebiologicalprocessofprocreation.Repeatedlyinherwork, HildegarddescribesthatwhichisredeemedbyChristthehumanity(includingphysicality)thatcomesfromMaryasfeminineandsheunderlinestheassociationof womanhumanitywithfleshlinessbyarguingthatAdamiscreatedfromclaybutEvefromflesh.ThusEve'screationnotfromseedbutfromflesh(nonexseminebut carodecarne)isaparalleltotheIncarnationofChrist.20Moreover,theparallelwomanhumanityChristisenhancedbyHildegard'ssensethatChrist'sbodyisalso ecclesia("church"afemininenouninvariablysymbolizediconographicallybyafemalefigure).Inafamouseucharisticvision,Hildegardsawwhatshecalledthe "figureofwoman"(muliebrisimago)receivingfromChrist,hangingonthecross,adowryofhisblood,whilebelowthecrossstoodanaltarwiththechaliceand aroundthechalicewererevealedasinamirrortheeventsofChrist'searthlylife(seeplate12).AndHildegardheardthewords:"Eatanddrinkthebodyandbloodof mySontoabolishtheprevaricationofEveandreceiveyour

Page265

trueinheritance."Althoughthepriesthoodwas,toHildegard,reveredandessential(andlimitedtomen),thepriestentersthiseucharisticvisiononlyafterholychurch. Theimageofbothsinfulandsavedhumanityistheimageofwoman.21 Moreover,towomenwriterssuchasHildegard,MechtildofMagdeburg,andCatherineofSiena,MarywasthesourceandcontainerofChrist'sphysicality:theflesh Christputonwasinsomesensefemale,becauseitwashismother's.Therootsofsuchtheologicalinterpretationliepartlyinscientifictheory.Aristotelianphysiological doctrineheldthatthemotherprovidesthestuffofthefoetus,thefathertheformoranimatingprinciple,whereasamoreGalenicinterpretation(whichHildegard,for example,reflected)heldthatthemaleandfemaleseedstogetherproducetheinfant.22Butwhichevertheoryofconceptionamedievaltheologianheld,Christ(whohad nohumanfather)hadtobeseenastakinghisfleshfromMary.ThissensethatChristasbodyisformedfromMary'sbodyledHildegardtoarguethatitisexactly femalefleshtheveryweaknessofwomanthatrestorestheworld.Thusfleshistoher,inhervisionsandinthetheologicalexegesistheystimulate,symbolizedby woman.Christ'sflesh(hismother'sflesh)ishisspouse:"trulythatflesh,immaculateandinviolate,likeaspouse,proceedsfromthevirginwomb."Acenturyafter Hildegard,MechtildofMagdeburgwentfurtherandimpliedthatMarywasakindofpreexistenthumanityofChristastheLogoswashispreexistentdivinity. MechtildarguedthattheIncarnationjoinedtheLogos(thepreexistentSonofGod)withapurehumanity,createdalongwithAdambutpreservedaspureinMary aftertheFall.23Otherwomenwritersimplythesamething.CatherineofSiena,whousuallyreferredtohumanityas"Adam,"24sometimesassociateditwiththeflesh ofMary.Shewrote,speakingofMary'ssorrowattheCrucifixion:
Ohsweetestlove,whichwastheswordthatpiercedtheheartandsoulofthemother!TheSonwasbrokeninbody,andthemothersimilarly,forhisfleshwasfromher.Indeeditis justthatshesufferedinwhatbefellhimforhetookhisimmaculatefleshfromher....Hehadtheformoffleshandshe,likehotwax,receivedtheimprintofdesireandloveforour salvationfromthesealingoftheHolySpirit,andbymeansofthissealthedivineWordwasincarnate.25

MargaretofOingt,likeHildegard,wrotethatMaryisthetunicahumanitatis,theclothingofhumanity,thatChristputson.26

Page266

InaveryunsettlingreflectionofthisemphasisonChristasassumingMary'sflesh,afourteenthcenturywomanfromMontaillousaidshecouldnotbelieveinthereal presence:
OnedayasIwasgoingtothechurchoftheHolyCrosstohearmass,Iheardsomewomen...sayingthatawomanhadgivenbirthontheroadside....Hearingthis,Ithoughtof thedisgustingafterbirththatwomenexpelinchildbearingandwheneverIsawthebodyoftheLordraisedonthealtarIkeptthinking,becauseofthatafterbirth,thatthehostwas somethingpolluted.That'swhyIcouldnolongerbelieveitwasthebodyofChrist.27

TheagonizedskepticismofthiswomanAudeaboutthesacramentsandevenaboutGodsprangfromrootssodeepwecannomorediagnosethemthancouldthe inquisitorwhoexaminedherforsymptomsofCatharheresy.Butitisclearthatherobsessionwiththehostasawoman'splacentaaroseinthecontextofaspirituality thatlaidgraphicemphasisontheconsecratedwaferasaproductof,afragmentandexudingof,thefemalewomb. Suchideaslieinthebackgroundofthetheologyof"God'smotherhood,"developedbyJulianofNorwichinthelatefourteenthcenturyandmuchcommenteduponby recentscholars.28Theuseofmotheringasadescriptionforthenurturingandloving(eventhedisciplining)thatthesoulreceivesfromGodisnotnewwithJulian,nor areJulian'sextendedimagesofJesusaslactatingandbirthingmother.Jesus'birthpangshadbeenextensivelydescribedbyMargaretofOingtinthethirteenthcentury, andhisnursingofthesoulwaselaboratedby,amongothers,GuerricofIgnyinthetwelfthcenturyandCatherineofSienaandtheanonymousmonkofFarneinthe fourteenth.29WhatisnewinJulianistheideathatGod'smotherhood,expressedinChrist,isnotmerelyloveandmercy,notmerelyredemptionthroughthesacrifice ofthecross,butalsoatakingonofourphysicalhumanityintheIncarnation,akindofcreationofus,asamothergivesherselftothefoetusshebears.Inavery difficultpassage,JulianexplainsthatthesecondpersonoftheTrinityisourmotherbecauseinhim/herwearedouble,substantialandsensual(thatis,whatweareis human,andthiskindofasoulahumansoulisonethatknowsandfeelsinabody)."Oursubstanceisthehigherpart,whichwehaveinourFather,GodAlmighty andthesecondpersonoftheTrinityisourMotherinnatureinoursubstantialcreation,inwhomwearefoundedandrooted,andheisourMotherof

Page267

mercyintakingoursensuality."30Inotherwords,thefullcreaturethatweare,bodyaswellassoul,isredeemedinChristbecauseChristisfullyhuman.This fundamentalfactofsalvationisappropriatelysymbolizednotby"father,"whorelatestoandisresponsibleforthesoulorreasonorspiritofthechild,butby"mother," fromwhomthechild'sphysicalitycomesandwhoseexistencethereforemakespossibleitswholeness.So,asJulianputsit,inourmother"ourpartsarekept undivided."ToJulian,therefore,MaryisourmotherbecauseherfleshisChrist'sbutsheisashadowofthetruermother,Christhimself,whogivestousourhumanity bytakingiton:

ForinthesametimethatGodjoinedhimselftoourbodyinthemaiden'swomb,hetookoursoul,whichissensual,andintakingit,havingenclosedusallinhimself,heuniteditto oursubstance.Inthisunionhewasperfectman,forChrist,havingjoinedinhimselfeverymanwhowillbesaved,isperfectman. SoourLadyisourmother,inwhomweareallenclosedandbornofherinChrist,forshewhoismotherofourSaviorismotherofallwhoaresavedinourSaviorandourSavioris ourtrueMother,inwhomweareendlesslybornandoutofwhomweshallnevercome.31

Malewritersweremostapttouse"male"and"female"asdichotomousimages,representing,forexample,nurtureversusdiscipline,orweakversusstrong,or inspirationversustheauthorityofofficeandmalewriterssawGod'smotherhoodinhisnursingandlovingratherthan(asJuliandid)inthefactofcreation.32Butmale writerstooassociatedthefleshofChristwithMaryandthereforewithwomen.RobertGrosseteste(d.1253)wrotetothemonksofPeterborough:"Inyourmonastery continuallydwellstheKingofheaven,notonlybyhisdivinitybutalso,inthesacramentoftheeucharist,bythetruesubstanceoftheflesh,whichhetookfromthe Virgin."33AndmalewritersoccasionallysawthefemaleassymbolofChrist'shumanity.InacomplexpassagethatequatesAdamwithallhumanitybutseesthat humanityasthebrideofChrist,Ruysbroeckwrote:

ThisbridegroomisChristandman'snatureisthebride....[Andthedevildeceivedtheman]inwhomhumanityfirstexisted.Andbyfalsecounselheseducedher,Nature,the brideofGod.Andshewasdrivenoutintoastrangeland....ButwhenGodthoughtittime...thenhesenthisonlybegottenSononearth,intoasplendidcourtandintoa glorioustemple,whichwasthebodyofthegloriousmaidenMary.There

Page268 heespousedthisbride,ournature,andunitedherwithHisPersonbythenoblevirgin'smostpureblood.34

Thushumannature,falleninAdam,istakenon,married,andredeemedbyChristthebridegroominMary'sbody.Itisthebrideitissymbolizedbythefemale.Andif ournatureisnotMaryherself(thesecondEve)asitappearstobetoMechtilditsmarriagetoChristisnonethelessmadepossibleonlybythebodyandbloodof woman.35 TheassociationofChrist'sfleshwithwomanwasreinforcediniconography,whereMaryhadaplaceofhonoroneucharistictabernacles.Themodernhistorian DumoutethasdescribedanumberoflatemedievalinstancesinwhichafigureofMaryactuallyisthetabernacleinwhichtheconsecratedhostisreservedand,asI explainedabove,retablestendedtoassociatetheconsecrationwiththeIncarnationbydepictingtogethertheofficiatingpriestandscenesoftheAnnunciationorof Marywithherbaby.36InthesocalledViergesouvrantes(plate13),statuesofMaryopenedtorevealtheTrinityinside,thusunderliningthenotionthatMaryisthe container(i.e.,thewomb,thetabernacle,thereliquary)withinwhichreststhebodyofGod.37WilliamDurandustheElderinhisRationaledivinorumofficiorumof 12851291saidthatthereliquary(capsa)intowhichthepriestputtheconsecratedhostwas,symbolicallyspeaking,thebodyofMary.38FrancisofAssisi,inhis "SalutationoftheBlessedVirgin,"addressedMarythus:
Hail,his[i.e.,Christ's]Palace. Hail,histabernacle. Hail,hisrobe. Hail,hisHandmaiden.39

AndSusocalledhertheshrineinwhichWisdomreposes.40InoneofBernardofClairvaux'ssermonsonthePurification,theparallelbetweenthechildinMary's wombandthehostofferedonthealtarisexplicitlydrawn.BernardsuggeststhatMary,motherandcelebrant,providesandpresentstothefaithfulthebodythatistheir salvation:"Offeryourson,sacredVirgin,andpresenttheblessedfruitofyourwombtoGod.Offertheblessedhost,pleasingtoGod,forthereconciliationofusall."41 Indeed,sincewoman'sbodywasseenastheplacewheretheIncarnationhappens,theconsecratingpriestwassometimesdescribedasapregnantwoman:Caesarius ofHeisterbachdescribedapriestwhoswelledinmysticalpregnancyanoftenquotedtwelfthcenturytextpraisedthedignity

Page269

ofpriestsbecauseintheirhandsChristisincarnated"asintheVirgin'swomb."42 Thesymbolicassociationofhumanitywiththefemalethusderivedstrengthbothfromtheassociationofhumanitywithphysicality(andwomanwasthesymbolofflesh) andfromtheassociationofChrist'shumanitywithhismother.Itisinthiscontextthatwemustunderstandwomen'sdevotiontoMary,forwomen'sdevotionwasless toMary'ssocialorreligiousroleaswomanthantoherphysicalroleasbearerofhumanity.Thisexplainsarathercuriousfact,notedbyrecenthistorians.43Maryisnot reallyasimportantasonemightexpectinwomen'sspirituality. AstheworkofSimoneRoisinhassuggested,Marywasprobablymoreimportantinmen'svisionsthaninwomen'sinthelaterMiddleAges.44Moreover,Weinstein andBellhavedemonstratedthatthehumanityofChristwasamoreprominentemphasisinwomen'spietythanwasdevotiontotheVirgin.45Thisisnottosaythat Marywasunimportanttowomen.ParticularlyinsouthernEuropeansaints'vitae,thethemeofimitatioMariaeisstrong.ThebiographerofDoucelineofMarseilles, forexample,seesherasimitatingthepovertyofMary,whereasherbelovedFrancisimitatedthepovertyofChristdirectly.46AndMargeryKempeclearlyidentified withMaryandwished,likeher,totakeChristinherarms.Butwefrequentlyfindthatitismalebiographersofwomenwhostressthethemeofwomen'simitationof Mary(andofotherwomen).47Somewomensaintsdo,itistrue,seethemselvesinvisionsswooningwithMarybeforethecross.Butallwomensaintsswoononthe crosswithChristhimself.48ThereverenceforMarythatwefindinwomenmysticsislessareverencefora"representativewoman"thanareverenceforbody,forthe bearerandconduitoftheIncarnation.ThusdevotiontoMarytendedtobeapreludetodevotiontoherchild.IfMarywasimportantinHadewijch'smysticism,for example,orinJulianofNorwich'stheology,itwasbecauseChrist'sbodywastheoccasionforhumanredemptionandMary'sbody,thesourceofChrist'sbody,was thesymbolofthebodilinessofusall.49 Woman'sBodyAsFood Medievalpeopledidnotsimplyassociatebodywithwoman.Theyalsoassociatedwoman'sbodywithfood.Womanwasfoodbecause

Page270

breastmilkwasthehumanbeing'sfirstnourishmenttheonefoodessentialforsurvival.Medievalwritersandartistswerefondofthetheme,borrowedfromantiquity, oflactationofferedtoafatherorotheradultmaleasanactoffilialpiety.50ThecultoftheVirgin'smilkwasoneofthemostextensiveinlatemedievalEurope.51A favoritemotifinartwasthelactatingVirgin(see,forexample,plates14,21,22,23,24).TheallegoricalfigureCharitywasfrequentlydepictedasanursingmother, andsometimestheothervirtuesalsowererepresentedaswomenwithflowingbreasts(seeplates15and16).52TheallegoricalfigureEcclesiawasalsofrequently shownasanursingmother(seeplate17).53Eventhebodiesofevilwomenwereseenasfood.Witchesweresupposedtohavequeermarksontheirbodies (supernumerarybreasts)atwhichtheynursedincubi.54 Maleandfemalewritersusednursingimageryindifferingways.Menweremorelikelytouseimagesofbeingnursedwomen,metaphorsofnursing.Whenmale writersspokeofGod'smotherhood,theyfocusedmorenarrowlyonthesoulbeingsuckledatChrist'sbreast,whereaswomenwereapttoassociatemotheringwith punishing,educating,orgivingbirthaswell.55MostvisionsofdrinkingfromthebreastofMarywerereceivedbymen(themostfamousarethevisionsofBernardof Clairvauxseeplates18and19andHenrySuso),althoughthereareatleasttwocasesofGermannunsreceivingthesamevisioninthelatethirteenthcentury.56In contrast,women(forexample,IdaofLouvainandMargeryKempe)sometimesidentifiedwithMaryasshesuckledJesusorreceivedvisionsoftakingtheChristchild totheirbreasts. Bothmenandwomen,however,drankfromthebreastofChrist,invisionandinimage.BothmenandwomenwovefromPaulinereferencestomeatandmilkand fromtherichbreastandfoodimagesoftheSongofSongsacomplexsenseofChrist'sbloodasthenourishmentandintoxicationofthesoul.57Bothmenand womenthereforesawthebodyonthecross,whichindyingfedtheworld,asinsomesensefemale.Again,physiologicaltheoryreinforcedimage.Tomedievalnatural philosophers,breastmilkwastransmutedblood,andahumanmotherlikethepelicanthatalsosymbolizedChristfedherchildrenfromthefluidoflifethatcoursed throughherveins.58Asearlyasthesecondcentury,ClementofAlexandriahadspokenofChristasmother,drawingouttheanalogybetweenaGodwhofeeds humankindwithhisownbloodintheeucharistandahumanmotherwhosebloodbecomesfood

Page271

forherchild.59Inthetwelfthcentury,nursingimageryoftenreferredtomilkandhoney,butbythethirteenthandfourteenthcenturiestheimageofthenursingJesus regularlystressedbloodmorethanmilkasthefoodofthesoul.60MechtildofMagdeburg,forexample,notonlydrewaparallelbetweenbloodandmilk,shealso spokeofbloodassuperiorfoodandsawherownprayerandsufferingforothersoulsasnursingthemwithblood.61WhenCatherineofSienaspokeofdrinkingblood fromthebreastofmotherJesus,sheexplicitlyglossedbloodassufferingbothJesus'sufferingandherown.62 SuchanassociationofChrist'swoundswithwoman'sbodyandofwomanwiththefoodoftheeucharistisalsofoundinlatemedievalart.Medievalartistsexplicitly associatedthelactatingVirginwiththeeucharist.ThebreastoftheVirginwasassociatedvisuallywiththegrapeandtherebywithpassagesfromtheSongofSongs thatwereinterpretedaseucharisticreferences(seeplates20,21,22),andthenursingVirginwasalsodepictedasatableoranovenonwhichthechild(i.e.,thebody orthefood)wasofferedorbaked(seeplates14,24).63Inthosepictureswherethechilddoesnothimselfnursebut,rather,seemstoinvitetheviewertowardthe breast(seeplates14and23),someassimilationofMary'smilkandthebloodoftheeucharistmaybeintended.BarbaraLanehaspointedout,forexample,thatina miniatureofabout13801385fromtheTurinMilanBookofHours(seeplate23),thechildmakesnoattempttonurse,andMary'sgestureofpressingmilkfromher breastisdirectedtowardakneelingsupplicantwhoseemsfarmoreanxiousforthefoodthandoesthechild.64 Artists,however,wentfurtherthanmerelyassociatingthebreastsofMarywitheucharisticfeedingofthesoul.Thereareafewlatemedievalpaintingsthatsuggest (eveniftheydonotdirectlydepict)thelactatingJesusfamiliarfromdevotionaltexts.Wefindthissuggestionmoststrikinglyinanobscurepaintingoverwhichthegreat historianGougaudpuzzledagenerationago(seeplate25).65Thepainting(nowintheAccademiainVenice)wasmadeinthefifteenthcenturybyacertainQuiriziofor themonasteryofSt.ClareontheislandofMurano.Quirizio(oneofwhoseotherextantpaintingsalsodepictsaeucharistictheme)showsayoung,tooureyes somewhatfeminine,andverybeautifulChristdisplayingthewoundinhisrightside,locatedhighup,whereanipplewouldbe.66Heliftsupandoffersthewoundwith twofingersofhislefthand,justastheVirginoffersherbreasttotheinfantChristinhundreds

Page272

ofmedievalpaintings.Withhisrighthandhegivesthehosttoakneelingnun.AndaroundhimiswritteninphrasesborrowedfromtheSongofSongs:"Cometome, dearlybelovedfriends,andeatmyflesh"and"Cometome,mostbeloved,inthecellarofwineandinebriateyourselfwithmyblood."Quirizio'spaintingisrelated iconographicallytothosedepictionsthatarthistorianscallthe"eucharisticManofSorrows"(seeplates26,27,30),andinatleastoneofthesegraphicimagesof Christ'sflowingbloodasfoodthefemalefigureCharity(herselfoftendepictedwithflowingbreasts)receivesthesavingliquidinachaliceasthenuninQuirizio's picturereceivesthewafer.67Thesepaintingsremindusofthepicture(notextant)whichasixteenthcenturyhagiographerreportsAldaofSienatohave commissionedapictureofastunningreversal,inwhichMarydrinksfromthebreastofChristwhileholdinghiminherarms.68 TheparallelismofChrist'swoundandMary'sbreastsuggestedinQuirizio'spaintingissometimesmadeexplicitinmedievalart.AnimageoftheVirginpresentingher breastoftenaccompaniesthefigureofChristexposinghiswound,toformthesocalledDoubleIntercession.Forexample,inamidfifteenthcenturyminiaturefrom theTurinMilanBookofHours,Marytouchesherbreast,whichshedoesnotdointhestandardportrayaloftheMadonnaofHumility(seeplate28).69InaLast JudgmentbyJanProvost(earlysixteenthcentury),theVirginandChristbareandliftuptheirbreastsinexactlyparallelgestures(seeplate29).70Insomesuch depictions,itisnotmerelythebreastassymbolofcompassionorcharity(andthereforeofintercession)thatisoffereditisthebreastasfood,paralleltothebleeding (i.e.,nurturing)wound.InanearlysixteenthcenturydepictionofChristastheManofSorrows,forexample,Christinthecentralpanelliftsupableedingwoundwhile ontherighthandpaneltheVirgin,standingbesideBernardwhomshenursed,liftsupherbreastinanidenticalgesture(seeplate30).Thepictureremindsusthat literaryaccountsofthemiracleofthelactationofBernarddescribeBernardaschoosingbetweenthebleedingwoundofChristandtheflowingbreastofhismother.71 SinceChrist'sbodywasabodythatnursedthehungry,bothmenandwomennaturallyassimilatedtheordinaryfemalebodytoit.WomenmysticssuchasMechtildof MagdeburgandCatherineofSienausedthemetaphorofthenursingmothertodescribetheirownsufferingfor

Page273

others,sometimesclearlyimplyingthattheirspillingofbloodmilkwasimitatioofChrist'snurturingandinebriatingwoundsbreasts.Moreover,miraculouslactating, exuding,andfeedingwerecharacteristicfemalemiraclesinthelaterMiddleAges.MalehagiographerssuchasThomasofCantimprsawwomensaintsdrippingholy fluidfrombreastsorfingertips.SeveralpiousvirginsfromtheLowCountriesChristinatheAstonishing,GertrudevanOosten,andLidwinaofSchiedam supposedlynursedtheiradherentsorcuredotherswiththeirbreastmilk.Womenmysticsthemselveshadvisionsoffeedingothers,includingtheChristchild.Theunion ofmouthtomouth,whichmanywomen(forexample,Lutgard,BeatriceofNazareth,Lukardis,MargaretofFaenza)gainedwithChrist,becamealsoawayoffeeding. 72Lutgard'ssalivacuredthesickLukardisblewtheeucharistintoasister'smouthColetteofCorbiecuredwithcrumbsshechewedandplacedinthemouthsof others.Inagesturethatseemseroticaswellascomfortingandnurturing,MargaretofFaenzakissedherfriendBenevenuta,whowasrecoveringfromatranceinduced bythemass,andreceivedconsolation.

SisterMargaretplacedherfaceonher[friend's]faceandkissedher:andthenshefeltsuchsweetnessandconsolationgooutfromher[friend]andenterintoher,thatitseemedto herthatalltheconsolationsoftheworldcouldnotbeequaltothis.AndthisconsolationremainedinSisterMargaretformanydays,withagreatabundanceoftears.73

Asnotedabove,legendsofmiraculousexudingafterdeathseemtohavebeenattachedmorefrequentlytowomen'sbodiesthantomen'saftertheeleventhcentury.74 Andwheremarvelouseffluviawerepartofasaint'spower(asinthecases,forexample,ofNicholasofMyra,Walburga,AgnesofMontepulciano,Elizabethof Hungary,MargaretofCittdiCastello,RoseofViterbo,andMaryMagdalende'Pazzi),foodandnursingmotifstendedtobeofstrikingimportanceinthesaint's story.ThelegendaryCatherineofAlexandria,forexample,fromwhosetombonMountSinaiholyoilwascarriedallovertheWesternworld,wassupposedtohave bledmilkratherthanbloodfromherseveredveinswhenbeheaded.75Indeed,onesuspectsthatstigmataappearedmostfrequentlyonwomen'sbodiesbecause stigmata(likethemarksonthebodiesofwitchesandthewoundsinthebodyofChrist)werenotmerelywoundsbutalsobreasts.Inthisliteralbecomingofthe crucifiedbody,

Page274

whichafemalemysticmightachievebyecstasyorbyeatingthebleedinghostwhichfeedshumankind,woman'swoundsbreastsrecapitulatedthewoundsbreastsof Christ. Thusthefemalebodywasseenaspowerfulinitsholyormiraculousexuding,whetherofbreastmilkorofbloodorofoil.Suchextraordinaryflowingoutwas predicatedonextraordinaryclosure.Holywomenwereoftensaidneithertoeatnortoexcrete.Stigmaticsormyroblyteswereoftenmiraculousfastersforexample, MaryofOignies,LutgardofAywires,ChristinatheAstonishing,ElizabethofHungary,AgnesofMontepulciano,ElsbetAchler,CatherineofSiena,Lidwinaof Schiedamandtheologiansunderlinedthefactthatthosewhobledorexudedunusualfluidsdidnotexcreteinordinaryways.Theemphasisofhagiographers,who pointedoutthatsaintsneitherexcretednormenstruated,andofearlymodernpamphleteers,whopraisedthesocalledfastinggirlsfornotexudingsomuchassweat ordandruff,seemsbasedonsomenotionofbalance.InthethirteenthcenturyRogerBacontriedtoexplainsuchphenomenanaturalisticallybyarguingthatthemattera fastingwomandidnotexcretemightenablehertosurvivewithouteatingbut,takentogether,thestoriesofpiouswomensuggestadeeper,symbolicbalance:a balanceofeatingwithnoteating,exudingwithnotexuding.ClosingherselfofftoordinaryfoodyetconsumingGodintheeucharist,theholywomanbecameGod's body.Andthatbodyflowedout,notintheinvoluntaryeffluviaofurineormenstrualbloodordandruff,butinachosensuffering,achosenexcreting,thatwashed,fed, andsavedtheworld. Theextremeinterestinphysicalityandthecloseassociationofwomanwithbodyandfoodthatcharacterizedlatemedievalcultureseemtoliebehindnotonlywomen's eucharisticpietyandfoodasceticismbutalsothestartlingnumberofwomen'smiraclesthatinvolvebodilychange.Women'sbodiesgaveoffsweetsmellsaswellas healingeffluvia,indulgedinecstaticnosebleedsandtrances,displayedabruptchangesinsizeandappearance,andbrokeoutinmiraculousphysicalmarksrangingfrom espousalringstostigmata.OncewetakeasseriouslyasmedievalpeopledidtheideathatonthealtarGodbecomesfood(tornandbleedingmeat),wecanseeas neverbeforehowmuchofsuchpietywasliterallyimitatioChristi.Thesomaticchangeswomenunderwentparalleltoastrikingextentthesavors,aromas,marks,and alterationsthatoccur

Page275

intheconsecratedhost.Nowonderwomenmanipulatedtheirbodiesindoingso,theybecameGodaGodwhofeedsandsaves.76 ManyassumptionsinthetheologyandcultureofEuropeidentifiedwomanwithfleshandwithfood.Thissametheologytaughtthattheredemptionofallhumanitylayin thefactthatChristwasfleshandfood.Moreover,bothChristandwomenwerefoodinsofarastheywerebodies.God,likewoman,fedhischildrenfromhisown body,andifGoddidnotmakehischildrenfromhisownflesh,hesavedthembytakingforhimselfabodyfromtheirhumanity.Thuswomenfounditveryeasyto identifywithadeitywhoseflesh,liketheirs,wasfood.Inmysticalecstasy,incommunion,inasceticimitatio,womenateandbecameaGodwhowasfoodandflesh. AndineatingaGodwhosebodywasmeatanddrink,womenbothtransfiguredandbecamemorefullythefleshandthefoodthattheirownbodieswere.77 Anexplorationofwhatwomanmeanttolatemedievalmenandwomen,ofwhatsymbolsandassumptionsclusteredaroundthefemale,thushelpsustounderstand whycertainmetaphorsweresoprominentinwomen'sspiritualwritingandwhywomennotonlypracticedcertainreligiousbehaviorsbutalsooccasionallycarried thosebehaviorstoextraordinarylengths.Ishould,however,closethisefforttoexplainwhywomenchosecertainimagesandpracticeswithanobviousbutnecessary warning.Symboldoesnotdeterminebehavior.TheimagesIhavediscussedherewerefartoocomplex,toomultivalent,todictateanyspecificresponse.Justas women'sfoodpracticesmanipulatedtheirenvironmentwithdivergentandunpredictableresults,sowomen'sattemptstoimitateChrist,tobecomethesufferingand feedingbodyonthecross,issuedinawidevarietyoflifestories.Althoughmostreligiouswomenseemtohaveunderstoodtheirdevotionalpracticesasinsomesense servingaswellassuffering,theyactedinverydifferentways.Some,suchasCatherineofGenoa,ElizabethofHungary,andMaryofOignies,expressedtheirpietyin feedingandcaringforthepoor.Some,suchasAlpas,AliceofSchaerbeke,andElsbetAchler,layraptinmysticalcontemplationastheirbodiesdecayedindiseaseor inselfinducedstarvationthatwasofferedforthesalvationofothers.Some,suchasBeatriceofNazareth,grewfromaperiodofwithdrawal,insanity,anddiseaseinto alaterphaseofconfidentleadershipsome,suchasMargaretofHungaryandDorothyofMontau,spenttheirlivesinabusycombinationof

Page276

charitableactivitiesandacute,selfpunishingasceticism.Itismisleadingtotrytosketchacompositelifestoryforreligiouswomen.78Anditimpliesamisunderstanding ofthefundamentalnatureofsymbolstosuggestthattheycompelledspecificbehaviors.79Instead,symbolsenabledwomentoexpressandgivemeaningtocertain basicrealitiesthatallsocietiesface:therealitiesofsufferingandtherealitiesofserviceandgenerativity. Yet,womenchosecertainsymbolsespeciallyeatingandpainmorefrequentlythandidmen.Andthemedievalnotionofthefemaleasbodyandfoodseemsto havesuggestedthattherealitiesofsufferingandservice,althoughuniversalaspectsofthehumancondition,somehowpressedmoreheavilyonwomenorthatwomen foundinthemaspecialsignificance.Indeed,theassociationofwomanwithbodyandfoodwascharacteristicoftextswrittenbybothwomenandmen.This associationthusnotonlyhelpsustounderstandthemultifacetedbehaviorofmedievalwomen,italsoraisesprofoundquestionsaboutwhethermenandwomenused symbolsinthesameway.For,ifmenandwomenlivedtogetherinasocietyinwhichmaleandfemalenotonlysymbolizeddifferentthingsbutalsohadasymmetrical (thatis,unequalandnonparallel)values,itisreasonabletoaskwhetherthetwosexesmadethesameuseofgenderrelatedimages,orindeedofanyimages.Didthe notionoffemaleasfoodorbody,weaknessorunreason,meantoapersonwhowasfemalewhatitmeanttoapersonwhowasnot?Inconclusion,therefore,letme turntothequestionofhowwomen'simagesoffoodandbodysymbolizedself,makingtheanswermoreprecisebydelineating,ascomparison,howmen'sreligious behaviorandimagesreflectedmen'sselves.

Page277

10 Women'sSymbols
Godhasnowheretoputhisgoodness,ifnotinme...noplacetoputhimselfentire,ifnotinme.AndbythismeansIamtheexemplarofsalvation,andwhatismore,Iamthe salvationitselfofeverycreature,andthegloryofGod....ForIamthesumofallevils.ForifofmyownnatureIcontainwhatisevil,thenIamallevil....NowifIamallevil,andhe isallgoodness,andonemustgivealmstothepoorestbeing,orelseonetakesawaywhatishersbyright,andGodcandonowrong,forotherwisehewouldundohimselfthenIam hisgoodnessbecauseofmyneediness....Ineedtohavethewholeofhisgoodness,thatmyevilmaybestaunched:mypovertycannotmakedowithless.Andhisgoodness,being powerfulandprevailing,couldnotenduremybegging,andIwouldperforcehavetobegifhedidnotgivemeallhisgoodness....SoitisclearlyevidentthatIamthepraiseofGod forever,andthesalvationofhumancreaturesforthesalvationofanycreatureisnothingbutknowingthegoodnessofGod....NorcanIeverlosehisgoodness,sinceIcannever losemyevil. MARGARETPORETE(D.1310)1 MyMeisGod. CATHERINEOFGENOA(D.1510)2

InwesternEuropeintheMiddleAges,asinmanyculturestoday,womencookedandmenate.Oneofthestrongestsociallinksbetweenmaleandfemalelayinthe factthatwifeorservantcookedwhathusbandandlordprovidedandintheevenmoreconsequentialfactthatmother'swombandmother'smilkguaranteedsurvival forthenextgeneration.AsEliasCanettisays:''Amotherisonewhogivesherownbodytobeeaten."Thisisnot,ofcourse,tosaythatwomenneverateorthatonly malechildrenwerenourishedfromthefemalebody.Itis,rather,tosaythatsocialarrangementsandculturalsymbolsstereotypedreceptionofnurtureasamale activity,provisionofnurtureasafemaleone. Itisagainstthisbackgroundthatwemustlocatethefoodsymbolism

Page278

ofmedievalChristianity.AndwhenweunderstandChristianity'sfundamentalsymbolsinsuchacontext,theyburstuponuswithstunningandunexpectedimport.Forin themassthepriestpreparesfood,andthefooditselfisabodythatfeedswithitsownfluidsandsaveswiththefleshlycoveringitprovides.Ifmedievalpeopleturned totheMadonnaandchildasasymbolthattheawfulnessandmercyofGodhavealreadyreachedacrosstheabysscreatedbythesinofhumankind,howmuchmore confidentlydidtheyturntoGodhimself,lactatingonthecross,bearingthesoulinhiswomb,feedingthefaithfulfromthehandsofhisspecialcooksandservants,the clergy?WhenCatherineofSienaspokeofGodastable,Christasroastedflesh,andtheHolySpiritaswaiterandservant,shewasnotindulginginanoddfeminine needtousedomesticimagesshewasexpressingastartlingreversalattheheartofChristianimagery.Whenmedievaltextsandmedievalvisionsspokeofclericsas pregnantwithJesus,theyexpressednotgenderconfusiononthepartofmaleauthorsandworshipersbutthepolysemous,fertile,paradoxicalqualitythatChristian symbolssharewithallsymbols.Inthemass,priestandGodaresymbolicallywoman(althoughtheyareotherthingsaswell)womanasfoodpreparer,womanas food. MedievalworshipersknewthatwomenwerebarredfromclericalordersandfromplacesnearthealtarwhereGodwashandledtheyknewthatonejustificationfor suchprohibitionwasthegenderofthehumanbodybornofMary.3 Increasinglyfromthetwelfthtothefifteenthcentury,theysawwomanasquintessentialrecipient, manasquintessentialcelebrant,makerandcontrollerofthebodyofGod.YettheyoccasionallysawtheNewTestamentaccountofthePresentationintheTempleas amomentatwhichMarythevesselthatboreGod'sbodywaspriest.4 Morethanoccasionallytheysawthecelebrantaspregnantwiththehost.Andinthecultof theSacredHeart,theyfrequentlysawGod'sbodyitselflactating,givingbirth,clothingourhumannesswiththespotlesshumannessofGod.Inexactlythatperiodof medievalspiritualitythatscholarshavedismissedas"literal"and"degenerate,"symbolsfloweredintoacomplexitythatliftedthefullpanoramaofhumanexperience towardthedivine.Priestwaskingandcook.Godwasfatherandmother,powerandnurture,swordandbreast.Ifthemalemonopolyofreligiousleadershipand descriptionsofGodasmalemirroredsocialhierarchy,descriptionsofGodasfemaleandthestartlingreversalattheheartof

Page279

themassprovidedanalternativetoandacritiqueoftheasymmetrybetweenthesexesintheordinaryworkadayworld. Havingsaidallthis,havewe,however,saidenough?Werethefoodsymbolsofmedievalreligionsimplyreversals?Andwerethey,asreversals,perceivedandusedin similarwaysbywomenandmen?Inparticular,didthemedievalwomenwhoselivesIchronicleherefindtheirmostprofoundselfexpressionandtheirmostsuccessful accesstoGodthroughelevationbyreversedimagesintomaleroles,freedoms,andcapacities?Theanswerisclearlyno.Howeverunexpectedandprofoundthe reversalattheheartofthemass,thatreversaldoesnotexpressthedeepestselfperceptionofthewomenwhosevisionsandwordsformtheheartofthisbook.If HildegardofBingen,Hadewijch,MechtildofMagdeburg,andthetwoItalianCatherinessoaredfarabovethehumilitysuggestedbytheirconventionalreferencesto themselvesas"poorlittlewomen,""unlettered"and"soft,"itwasnotbecausetheyclaimedmalepowerandauthorityorfoundtheirdeepestreleaseinasenseof receivingselfwaitedonbypriestascook,HolySpiritaswaiter,orGodasmother.ItwasbecausetheyknewGodactedthroughthelowly.Women'ssymbolsdidnot reversesocialfact,theyenhancedit.ThusHadewijchcouldconceiveofherignorantselfaswrenchingsoulsoutofhellCatherineofGenoacouldclaimpowerthrough sufferingwhenshespokeofher''Me"as"God"MargaretPorete(burnedatthestakeforherconfidenceintheannihilationofsoulsindivinity)couldclaim"I becauseIamlowlyamtheexemplarofsalvation."Women'ssymbolsexpressedthefactthatwomanaswhatsheissoft,unwise,poor,andhumanislovedand savedbyGod. Inordertounderstandtheimportofthisobservation,somemethodologicalandtheoreticalbackgroundisnecessary. TheMeaningofSymbolicReversal Anthropologists,whohaveprovidedtwentiethcenturyhistorianswithimportanttoolsforunderstandinghowsymbols"mean,"havesuggestedthatinritualandin narrative,reversalofsymbolsoftenmarkscrucialmomentsorturningpoints.Theseanthropologistshavetended

Page280

toseesuchsymbolicreversalsasprovidinga"liminality"amomentofescapefromroleandstatus,acrossingofboundariesormarginsintoanoppositeroleor perhapsintorolelessnessthatultimatelyreinforcesnormalsocialstructures.5 Ontheotherhand,historianssuchasNatalieDavishavefrequentlyseenarevolutionary potentialoratleastapowerfulsocialcritiqueinsuchsymbolicreversals.6 TheanalysisofmedievalsymbolsIhavegivenabovesupports,tosomeextent,bothsuchinterpretations.Medievalwomenwhosawthemselvesinvisionsas distributorsofthechalice,aspreachers,orashearersofconfessionwereclearlycarryingoutsymbolicinversions,asweremedievallaypeoplewhosevisionsclaimed thecup,thebloodofChrist,astheirown.7 Andsuchinversionswere,asthestoryofLidwinaofSchiedamandthemiraculoushostsuggests,botheffectiverebellions againstclericalcontrolandescapevalves,sotospeak,thatbyprovidingameansofbypassingauthorityatmomentsofcrisisactuallyreinforcedthenormaldistribution ofauthorityatnoncrisismoments.Thuswomen'suseofsymbolicreversalscanbeseenasadefianceofmaleauthority.Buttheprevalenceofsuchreversalsin medievalreligioncanalsobeseenasformingacontextwithinwhichconventionalasymmetriesbetweenmenandwomen,clergyandlaity,wereundergirdedand reinforced. Suchinterpretationsofsymbolarehelpfulinreadingmedievalexperience.ButIwishtoquestionthemonadeeperlevel,formystudyoffoodandfleshassymbolin latermedievalspiritualwritingandpracticesuggeststhatsymbolsasdichotomies,andthereforesymbolicreversals,arelessimportantinwomen'sspiritualitythanin men's. Letmebeginwithaclarification.Thenotionofrenunciationoftheworldi.e.,followingthenakedandsufferingChristbyrenouncingstatus,power,personalcomfort, andfamilywasattheheartoflatemedievalChristianity.Increasingly,asmanyhistorianshavenoticed,suchrenunciationwaspracticedwithintheworld.Friars, tertiaries,andevenlaypeoplerejectedthewealthandstatustheirfamiliesmighthaveprovidedtheypracticed,sometimesevenwithinmarriages,notonlysexual continencebutalsoastudiedignoringofthespecialdemandsoffamilyloveandloyalty.Latemedievalwomen,likemen,sawacertainrupturewithordinaryworldly lifeasamarkofreligiouscommitment.ThemiraculousabundanceoftearsgiventoMargeryKempe,herwhiteclothes,andherhardwoncontinencewerealay equivalentofthevows,veils,andconventwallsthatsetnunsapartfromsociety.Inarguingthatmen

Page281

andwomenthoughtdifferentlyaboutalifeofreligiouscommitment,andespeciallythatwomenrepresentedthereligiouslyinspiredsoulinmetaphorsthatsuggesta profoundcontinuitybetweenwomen'sbiologicalandculturalroleintheworldandwomen'sspiritualvocations,Iamnotignoringthefactthatforwomen,asformen, somedeparturefromordinarysocialroleswasnecessarytomakeareligiouslifepossible.ChristinaofMarkyateandIdaofLouvain,likeFrancisofAssisi,hadto escapefromtheordinaryexpectationstheworldheldforrichmerchants'children.ThenunswhomHildegardofBingendressedasbrides,8 thevirginsoulsJohn GersondescribedaspregnantwithChrist,9 wereofcourseabletodevotetheirattentiontovenerationoftheeucharistandprayersforthoseinpurgatorybecausethey eitherneverborechildrenandcookedforhusbandsorwereatlastabletoescapefromdoingso.Thequestionthatconcernsmehereisnotthepracticalwaysreligious rolesfreedpeopleofbothgendersfromcertainworldlyburdensandpleasuresbuttheparticularsymbolsthatmenandwomenchosetodescribethisfreedom. Ourquestionisthereforetwofold.First,domenandwomenmakethesame,orsimilar,useofsymbolicreversal?Toaskthisistoaskwhethermenandwomenmean thesamethingbymaleandfemale,whethereachsexusesreversedgenderimagery,andwhethereachsexachievesbysuchuseareleasefromordinarycultural expectationswomenacquiringanimageofselfaspublicleader,menacquiringtheselfimageofnurturerandsufferer.Thequestionalsoinvolvesasecondelement: domenandwomenmakeequaluseofdichotomoussymbols?Forreversalispredicatedupondichotomytoreverseorinvertone'simageofselfistomovefromone poletoitsopposite.Yetnotallsymbolsaredichotomous.Symbolsmaymakeuseofandrefertocontradictionsandmutualexclusions,buttheymayalsobe paradoxes(inwhichcontradictionsoccursimultaneously)orsyntheses(inwhichcontradictionsarethemselvesnegatedinfusion).10Ifmenmakegreaterusethan womenofsymbolicinversion,thisfactmayberelatedtoatendencytoconstruemanyaspectsofrealityintermsofeither/or.Itisthusnownecessarytolookatmen's useofimagesaswellaswomen'sinordertoquestiontheprominenceinbothusagesofreversalanddichotomy.Theanalysisofmalewritersinchapter3willbeuseful here,especiallysincethemenconsideredtherearethosewho,intheirsensibilitiesandintheirlives,cameclosesttoafemalespirituality.

Page282

Men'sUseofFemaleSymbols WhenwelookatmalewritinginthelaterMiddleAgeswefindthatsymbolicdichotomiesandreversalswereatitsveryheart.Mentendedtousethemale/female dichotomytounderlinemale/femaledifferences(fatherversusmother,teacheranddisciplinarianversusnurturer,toughversussoft,etc.)andtocastigateorromanticize femaleweakness.AsIhavedemonstratedelsewhere,mentendedtoassociateaclearlydelineatedsetofsocialandbiologicalcharacteristicswitheachgender,even whentheywereusinggenderasasymbol,andtheytendedtoseethesesetsofcharacteristicsasopposites.Forexample,GuerricofIgny(d.ca.1157)wrote:"The Bridegroom[Christ]...hasbreasts,lestheshouldbelackinganyoneofalldutiesandtitlesoflovingkindness.Heisafatherinvirtueofnaturalcreation...andalsoin virtueoftheauthoritywithwhichheinstructs.Heisamother,too,inthemildnessofhisaffection,andanurse."11AnanonymousFranciscan,describingFrancisand ElizabethofHungaryasparentsofthefriarsminor,wrote:"Hewasthefather...andshewastheirmother.Andheguardedthemlikeafather,shefedthemlikea mother."12Intheirsymbolicuniverse,mentendedtousethemale/femaledichotomynotonlyassymbolofauthority/nurture,spirit/flesh,law/mercy,strong/weak,butin abroadersenseasawayofexpressingthecontrastbetweenGodandsoul,divinityandhumanity,clergyandlaity.13Tomedievalmen,Godwas(ashehasbeento mostofthepiousthroughoutthelongChristiantradition)metaphoricallymalefatherorjudge,bridegroomorfriendandthesoul(partlybecauseofthelinguistic genderofanima)wasfrequentlysymbolizedordescribedasfemale.Moreover,thegenderdichotomieswefindinmen'swritingswerereinforcedbyothergender dichotomiesthatwereimplicitinthewayspeoplelived.Menwerefoodreceivers,womenfoodpreparersandgenerators.Menwerepriestsandwomenlaity.Men wereauthoritativebyofficeorordinationwomen'sreligiouspowerderivedfrominspiration,fromecstaticvisitation. Whateverotherpatternsliebehindthesedichotomies,oneisclear.Ifmaleistofemaleasspiritistoflesh,foodreceivertofoodgenerator,clergytolaity,officeto inspiration,lawtomercy,anddivinetohuman,thenthatwhichissymbolizedbymaleisinsomesenseaproductofculture,cutofffromnatureorbiology.Thus, althoughitmayatfirstappearincoherentorevencontradictorythatthefemaleshouldsymbolize

Page283

bothinspirationversusofficeandfleshversusspirit,thereisaconsistentdichotomybehindthesepairs.Thefundamentalcontrastseemstobebetween(a)constructs oflaws,patterns,forms,erectedatsomedistancefrom,ifnotinoppositionto,nature,and(b)amoreinstinctual,internal,biological"humannature."Inthissense,flesh isnaturalandspiritculturaljustaspropheticinspirationisinterior,subjective,natural,whereasclericalauthorityisanexternal,culturalstructureindependentofpersonal moral,experientialqualifications. Structuralistanthropologistshaverecentlytaughtustoseesuchadichotomyasabasiccontrastinhumansymbolsystems.Ihavebeeninfluencedbytheirformulations, aboveallbySherryOrtner's,14butIdonotmeanherewhattheymean.IagreewithOrtner'scriticsthathertheoryisuniversalistinundesirableways,ignoringthe possibilitythatsubgroupsinasociety,especiallywomen,mayholddifferingandevendisagreeingperspectivesonthesymbolicdichotomiesusedbydominantcultural groups.15ThusIamnotheresayingthattheculture/naturedichotomywasanobjectivelytruedichotomybetweenmaleandfemale.NoramIsayingthatmedieval womenespousedsuchadichotomy.Iammerelypointingoutthatthisisthepatternsymbolsfellintoinmalewritingandreligiouspracticebetween1200and1500. Suchasymbolicpatternwas,tomen,profoundlydisturbing.Forthesamemalewriterswhocametoseethechurchastheclergy,toseetheirgenderasthesymbolfor God'sdivinity,toarguethatmale,clericalmediationwasthenecessarybridgebetweenheavenandearth,knewtheypartookoffallenhumanity.TheyknewChristhad preached:"Blessedarethemeek."Theirpietyreflectedtheirambivalence.IncreasinglytheystressednotGod'sauthoritybutJesus'accessibility,notJudgmentDayor Resurrectionbutamanlayingdownhislifeforhisfriends.Theyhadrecoursetovisionarywomenforcomfortandcounselandforthedirectinspirationtheywere afraidtheynolongerreceived.16Andtheyspoke(asadefinitelysubordinatebutnonethelesshighlychargedtheme)ofJesusasmotherandofthemselvesaswomen. Sometimes,incallingthemselveswomen,malewritersusedwomanasatermofopprobrium.HelinandofFroidmontcastigatedhisbrothers:"BeholdGodcompares mentowomen...andnotmerelytowomen,buttomenstruatingwomen!"17ButmorefrequentlytheyusedwomanasasymbolofdependenceonGodbothasa wayofdescribingthemselvesascaredforbyGodandasawayofunderliningtheirownrenun

Page284

ciationofworldlypowerandprestige.Inhis"LettertoalltheFaithful"FrancisofAssisisaid,describingvirtuousfriars:
Itistheywhoarethebrides,thebrothersandthemothersofourLordJesusChrist.ApersonishisbridewhenhisfaithfulsoulisunitedwithJesusChristbytheHolySpiritwe arehisbrotherswhenwedothewillofhisFatherwhoisinheaven[Matt.12:50],andwearemotherstohimwhenwecarryhiminourheartsandbodiesbylovewithapureand sincereconscience,andgivehimbirthbydoinggooddeedswhichenlightenothersbyexample.18

Speakingoffriarswhogoingroupsofthreeorfourtohermitages,hewrote:
Twooftheseshouldactasmothers,withtheothertwo,ortheotherone,astheirchildren.ThemothersaretoleadthelifeofMarthatheothertwo,thelifeofMaryMagdalen.... Thefriarswhoaremothersmustbecarefultostayawayfromoutsiders....Thefriarswhoaresonsarenottospeaktoanyoneexcepttheirmotherortheircustos[superior].19

Susosawhimselfasamaidenpickingroses,ababynuzzlingitsmother'sbreast.Ruysbroeckwrote:"Man'snatureisthebride[ofChrist]."20 Whenamalewriterdescribedanothermanasawoman(forexample,BonaventurespeakingofFrancisofAssisi)orwhenaman(forexample,RichardRolleorSuso) describedhimselfthatway,hewasusingsymbolicreversal.Manbecamewomanmetaphoricallyorsymbolicallytoexpresshisrenunciationorlossof"male"power, authority,andstatus.Hebecamewoman,asEckhartsaid,inordertoexpresshisfecundity,hisabilitytoconceiveGodwithin.21Suchreversalseemednecessaryina religionatwhoseheartlaycontradictionandIncarnation:Godbecomeman.WhenTaulersoughtasymbolofthesoul'sutterselfabasementbeforeGod,itsutter denudingandemptying,henotonlychosethepoorCanaanitewomanofMatthew15:2128,whoreferredtoherselfaslowerthanadog,healsociteda contemporarywomanwhoreceivedavisioninwhichshewasabandonedbyallintermediariesbetweencreationandCreatorandwhothereforecriedaloudtoGod thatshewouldacceptcondemnationtohellitselfifitwashiswill.22Insuchasermon,"woman"isasymbolandanexamplenotonlyoftheutterlycontemptibleandof theredeemedbutalsoofthegreatreversalattheheartofthegospel:thefactthatitisthecontemptiblewhoareredeemed. ThefoodandfleshimageryIexamineinthisbookis,asIhave

Page285

explainedabove,aparticularcaseofsuchsymbolicinversion.Muchaboutthepriest'sroleandaboutthetheologyofimitatioChristiinthelaterMiddleAgesinvolves areversalofculturalassumptionsaboutgender.Ontheonehand,ofcourse,giventhesymbolicpatterns,thepriestwas"male"andthecommunicant"female"the priestwasGodandtherecipienthuman.Asiswellknown,Bonaventurearguedthatwomencouldnotbepriestsbecausethepriesthood,theauthorityofGod,hadto besymbolizedbyamale.23But,inanothersense,asIhavedemonstrated,God'sdyingbodywasfemaleabirthingandlactatingmotherandthepriestwasfemale too.HewasMary,forinhishands,asinherwomb,Christwasincarnate24hewasfoodprepareranddistributortorecipientswhoate.Inthecentralmomentofthe massthemalecelebrantwaited,readytocareforanddistributeaheavenlyfood,avulnerablebody,providedbyafathermotherGodforthebenefitofhuman children. Iconographicevidencetoosuggeststhatthemassimpliedgenderreversal.PicturesofChristdistributingfoodandwashingthefeetofguestsattheLastSupper outnumbervisualrepresentationsofChristaskingorpriestinthelaterMiddleAges.InsuchpaintingsChristisdepictedinoneofsociety'smostadmiredfemaleroles: theroleoffoodpreparerandservant.AfifteenthcenturyretablefromUlm(plates1and2)showsjustsuchareversal.Ontheouterwings(whenclosed),wefind Christasservantandfooddistributor,testingJudaswiththewafer(asmanymysticalwomentestedfalsepriests).Whenopened,theretabledisplaystheeucharist representedbothasababyinthechaliceandasflourgroundthroughamill.Maryandthefourevangelistspourthegrainintothefunnel(i.e.,celebrate).Apostlesturn thecrank.Itistheprelatesofthechurch,garbedinalltheirsplendor,whowaitquietlybelowasrecipients. Thusmalewriters,artists,worshipers,andpriestsinthelaterMiddleAgesmadeuseofsharpsymbolicdichotomies,andmanyoftheirmostprofoundandmoving imagesweresymbolicreversals.Moreover,men'sownlifestoriestendedtobestoriesofcrisisandconversion.Theyenactedthereversalstheyusedassymbols, strippingthemselvesnaked(asdidFrancisofAssisibeforehisfather),puttingontheclothingofachild,abeggar,orawoman(asRichardRolledidinbecominga hermit),suddenlyanddramaticallyrenouncingwealth,influence,andwifetotakeuppovertyandchastity(asdidJohnColombini).25AsIpointedoutinchapter1, manymoremedievalmenthanwomenunderwentabrupt

Page286

changesoflifestyleduringadolescence.Havinggreateraccesstopowerandfamilywealth,menwereabletoabandonthemmoreabruptlyandflamboyantly,and medievalboysseemtohavebeenolderonaveragethangirlswhenstrickenbytheimpulsetoabandontheworld. Manyexplanationscanbesuggestedforthefactthatmentendtouseimages,andlivelives,ofcontrast,opposition,andreversal.Structuralistanthropologistshave sometimesarguedthatdichotomousimagesofhard/soft,male/female,law/mercy,reason/unreasontendtoappearincultureswithstronglypatrilinealinheritance patterns,becausethefemale(althoughnecessaryforprocreation)tendsinfacttobeadisruptiveforceinsuchsocieties,aforceoutsidelawandstructure.26Such explanation,thoughplausible,appearstoreflectnoneofthesubtletyoflatemedievalimagery,anditdoesnotexplainreversal,althoughitmayexplaindichotomy. Anotherwayofrelatingimagerytosocialstructureseemsmoreconvincing.ThisissimplytonotethatmostgradationsofstatusinthelaterMiddleAgeswere gradationsofmalestatus.Thegrowingconsciousnessofthemultiplicityofstatusesandrolesthatcharacterizestwelfthandthirteenthcenturywritingispredominantly agrowingawarenessofavarietyofmaleroles.AsGeorgesDubyhaspointedout,womenwereoutsidethe"threeorders"ofmedievalsociety:thosewhopray,those whofight,andthosewhotillthesoil.27Eveninthechurch,althoughnunswere"clergy"inonesense(thatis,theywere"regular''theytookvows),inanothersenseall womenwerelaitythatis,outsideorders.Women,asIsaidinchapter1,oftenshiedawaythemselvesfromhighlystructuredinstitutionalforms,avoidingrulesand vowsandmalecharacterizationofwomenwasusuallyaccordingtotheirmaritalorsexualstatuswidow,virgin,marriedwomanratherthantheirinstitutional affiliation.Thuswomenwerenot"on"aladderofrolesandstatusesinthesamesensethatmenwere.28Itishardlysurprisingthereforethatcompleximageryofrole reversal,ofinversionofpowerandstatusoffoolbecomeking,boybecomepope,manbecomewomanorwomanbecomemanappealedmoretomen,forwhom theprecisegradationsofsocietywereselfdefinitionsthatmightbeardownwithapsychologicalweightthatdemandedperiodicrelease. Theremayalsobepsychologicalandtheologicalreasonsformen'spreferencefordichotomyandreversal.Asseveraltheoristshaverecentlypointedout,the maturationofaboy(inWesternculture,medievalandmodern)requiresafundamentalbreakinselfimage:aboymustlearn

Page287

thathecannotbethemotherwhoishisfirstprojectionofself,hisfirstlove,hisfirstmodel.29Aboy'sgrowingupisthereforealearningtobeotherthanfemalea learningbothtoreversehisowndesiresandselfdefinitionandtoseethefemaleas"other."Smallwonderthereforethatreversalsandconversionsbecomecentralin malewaysofthinkingaboutandsymbolizingspiritualgrowth. Moreover,thenatureofthesymbolicdichotomiesmengeneratedcontainedwithinitselfpressureforreversal.NotonlydidChristiantheologystatethatthehumble,the lowly,"thelast,"wereeventuallytocomefirst,thusdictatingthatmenmustfindreversedsymbolstospeakofprogresstowardGod(forexample,thesoulaswoman, child,fool).30Themalesymbolsthemselves,inreferringtothatwhichiscutofffromnature,thatwhichisculturalconstruct,forcedrecognitionoftheiropposites,for menknewthemselvestobenotmerely"divine,""clerical,''"spirit,"and"authority."Becausethesymbolsassociated"themale"withculture,with"morethan"and"other than"humannature,thesesymbolsimpliedthatinordertobehumannaturethemalemusttakeoppositestohimselfinsymbol.Theparticulargroupofcultural activities,responsibilities,andsymbolsassociatedwiththemalebymenitselfimpliedcontrastandreversal.Thesetofactivities,responsibilities,andsymbols associatedwiththefemaledidnot,inthesameway,implyitsobverse.Thatwhichthefemalesymbolizednurture,body,laity,humanity,innerinspirationdidnot requireanythingelseforexample,power,spirit,office,divinityinordertoconjureupperson.Nordiditimplythatreversalwasnecessaryinorderforperson,for thatwhichis,tobegivenreligiousmeaning.Womanalreadywasthatwhichis,inChristianity,givenreligiousmeaning.Forwomanwas,infactaswellassymbolically, human. Thustheverysetofdichotomoussymbolsthatclusteredaroundmale/femaleintheWesterntraditionsuggestedthatmenpowerful,clerical,authoritative,rational, "divine"menneededtobecomeweakandhuman,yetspiritual,"women"inordertoproceedtowardGod.AndmalewritersinthelaterMiddleAgesusedmuch suchreversedimageryforself.Moreover,theyoftenassumedthatreversedimageryanddichotomoussymbolswereappropriatewaysofreflectingonfemale experience.Malewritersurgedwomento"becomemale"or"virile"intheirrisetoGod.31Malehagiographersandchroniclerswerefascinatedbystoriesofwomen's crossdressinginordertoenterreligioushousesprobablyto

Page288

thepointoffabricatingsuchincidents.32Malewritersdevotedmuchattentiontofemaleweakness,bothbyunderliningwomen'ssexualtemptationsandbyexpatiating upontheinappropriatenessofasceticismtowomen'ssoft,tender,andinconstantbodies.Susowrotetoaspiritualdaughter:"YouareweakerthanEveinparadise." ThecompileroftheLifeofIdaofLouvainpraisedherbysayingshewas"notawomanorlazy,butlikeamaninconstancy."33 Thereismuchevidencethatreligiousmeninthethirteenth,fourteenth,andfifteenthcenturieswerefascinatedbywomenbothbythefemalevisionarieswhobecame, throughtheirverylowliness,themouthpiecesofGodonhighandbytheordinarymothers,housewives,laundresses,andmaidservantswhoweresignsofthedepthsto whichJesusstoopedinredeeminghumankind.AsIsuggestedinchapter3above,malemysticssuchasBernard,Francis,Rolle,Suso,Tauler,Eckhart,andGerson advisedwomen,admiredwomen,andabhorredwomen.Theyadoptedtheimageofwomanwomanwhowasmorehumbleandmorefleshlythantheytospeakof theirownapproachtoGod.Indescribingthemselvesasnursingmothersorsucklingbabes,thesemenweredescribingtheselftheybecameinconversionasthe oppositeofadultandmale.Inspeakingoftheirconversionsastheespousingofnakedness,poverty,suffering,andweakness,theywere,evenmoregenerally, renouncingandreversingtheprerogativesofwealth,strength,andpublicpowerthattheirworldconnectedtoadultmalestatus.Ifmalewriterswerefondofseeing themselvesasbrides,mothers,andchildren,suchreversedimageswereonlyonesetofmetaphorsinasymbolicworldinwhichthemanhadtoseehisbasicreligious commitmentasflightfrompowerandgloryforJesushimselfhadfledpower,nomatterhowmuchkingsandprelatesmightwielditinhisname. Women'sSymbolsAsContinuity Femalewriters,expressingtheirreligiousdesiresandfearsinthesamesymbolictraditionasmenandworshipinginthesamerituals,alsoinsomewaysusedand reflectedtheclustersofdichotomiesIhavejustdescribed.Someofwomen'simagesoffoodandfleshwerenotonlyexpressionsofsuchdichotomiesbutprofound reversalsaswell.Inbotheucharistandmysticalunion,womeninvertedwhatthecultureassumed

Page289

themtobe.JustasChrist'sdeathonthecrosswasasymbolicreversalforhebecame,notmale(kingorpriestorrecipientofnurture),butfemale(alactatingand birthingmother,nurturerofothers)sothefemalecommunicantexperiencedgenderreversal.Shebecamenotnurturerandfeederofothersbutreceiver.Inthemass, therolesofclergyandlaityreversedordinarysocialroles.Thecelebrantbecamefoodpreparer,thegeneratoroffood,thepregnantmotheroftheincarnateGodthe womanrecipientfeasted,witheyesandpalate,onafoodshedidnotprepareorexude.Woman'sjubilant,visioninducing,intoxicatedeatingofGodwastheopposite oftheordinaryfemaleactsoffoodpreparationandofbearingandnursingchildren.34 Yet,onadeeperlevel,women'seatingofGodwasnotareversalatall.Forinthemassandinmysticalecstasywomenbecameafullerversionofthefoodandflesh theywereassumedbytheirculturetobe.InunionwiththedyingChrist,womanbecameafullyfleshlyandfeedingselfatonewiththegenerativesufferingofGod. Woman'seating,fasting,andfeedingothersweresynonymousacts,becauseinallthreethewoman,bysuffering,fusedwithacosmicsufferingthatreallyredeemedthe world.Andthesethreesynonymousactsandsymbolswerenotfinallysymbolicreversalsbut,rather,atransfiguringandbecomingofwhatthefemalesymbolized:the fleshly,thenurturing,thesuffering,thehuman. Women'sfoodimagesandfoodpracticesthusreflectalargerpattern.Forwomen'swayofusingsymbolsandofbeingreligiouswasdifferentfrommen's.Itappears asakindofsubtextwithinalargertext,dominatedbydichotomoussymbolsandsymbolicinversions,anditisalwaysawareofmale/femaleoppositionsandofimages ofreversal.Butwomen'ssenseofreligiousselfseemsmorecontinuouswiththeirsenseofsocialandbiologicalselfwomen'simagesaremostprofoundlydeepenings, notinversions,ofwhat"woman"iswomen'ssymbolsexpresscontradictionandoppositionlessthansynthesisandparadox.35 Thisqualityofwomen'sreligiouswritingshasbeenconsistentlynotedbythegreatestscholarswhohavestudiedthem,althoughithasnotbeenplacedinatheoretical framework.BaronvonHgel,commentingonCatherineofGenoa'suseofsimultaneityofoppositesorparadoxes,says,"Foritwastheelementofsimultaneity,of organicinterpenetrationoftheGodlikeTotumSimul,whichchieflyimpressedherinthesedeepestmoments."36BrantPelphrey,inhisexpositionofthetheologyof Julian

Page290

ofNorwich,suggeststhatJuliansawsinasanecessary(ifpainful)partofbeinghumanandthathertheoryofunionwithGoddidnotinvolve"stages"thesoul"passed beyond"but,rather,acontinuityofself,abecomingfullyhumanwithJesus.37PeterDronke,writingonMargaretPoreteandthefemalehereticsofMontaillou, commentsbothontheoriginalityofwomen'sapproachtoevilandonthelackof"apriorism"inwomen'swritings,pointingouttheiravoidanceofrulesofeither/orand theirsubstitutionofsingular,existentiallyappropriatesolutions.38 Allthisisnottosaythatmalemysticsneveruseparadox(onethinksofNicholasofCusa)orthatmaletheologiansneverpushsuchparadoxicalsynthesistothepoint ofreconcilingheavenandhell(onethinksofOrigen)orthatmalepenitentsneversubstitutecontinuityofselfinJesusforpassageupthehierarchyofthecosmostoGod (onethinksofFrancis).39ButtheexplosionofparadoxinaHadewijch,aMargaretPorete,oraCatherineofGenoa,theagonizedrejectionoftheexistenceofhellina MechtildofMagdeburgoraJulianofNorwich,thedeliciousgrovelinginthehumiliationsofbeinghumanthatcharacterizesvirtuallyeveryreligiouswomanofthelater MiddleAgestheseformaconsistentpatternthatisfoundonlyinfrequentlyinreligiousmen.Andbehindthepatternliesaconfidencethatallisoneallis,asJulian said,ahazelnutheldinthepalmofGod'shandbecauseitisfinallythehumanitythatwemostdespicablyarethatisredeemed.40Itisour"Me"thatbecomesGod.41 Toarguethisistoarguethatreligiouswomensawthemselvesashumanbecausetheywerewomen,asredeemablebecausetheywerewomen.Itmayappearavery oddargumentinlightofcertainrecentfeministclaims.JoAnnMcNamara,RosemaryRuether,MarieDelcourt,andMarinaWarnerhave,forexample,arguedthat becausemalewasinWesternculturesuperiortofemale,womanhadtotakeonsymbolicmaleness(or,attheveryleast,abandonmentoffemaleness)inorderto signifyspiritualadvance.42Theycitenotonlyafewscatteredreferencesinthepatristicperiodtowomenseeingtheircourageas"male"butalsothemany (predominantlypatristic)storiesoftransvestitesaintsofwomenmasqueradingasmen,andsometimesevengrowingbeards,inordertoescapemarriage(orrape)or toentermonasteries.TheyalsociteJoanofArc.Suchworktendstosuggestthatgenderreversalwasapowerfulsymboltowomen.Moreover,recentresearch demonstratesthatcrossdressingbymaleswasextremelyrareintheMiddleAges(and

Page291

sometimespersecutedassexualperversion).43AlthoughhistorianswhofocusonJoanofArchavenottendedtofindparallelstohercrossdressinginthelater MiddleAges(thusweakeningtheircase),itisinfacttruethatlatemedievalwomendidadoptmaledress,especiallyinordertorunawayfromtheirfamiliesortogoon pilgrimages.44Why,then,doIsuggestthatreversals,especiallygenderreversals,werenotcrucialinwomen'sreligiosity? Myargumentisbasicallythatcrossdressingwasforwomenprimarilyapracticaldevice,whereastomenitwasprimarilyareligioussymbol.Womensometimesput onmaleclothesinordertoescapetheirfamilies,toavoidthedangersofrapeandpillage,ortotakeonmalerolessuchassoldier,pilgrim,orhermit.But,oncefreed fromtheworldbyconventwallsorhermitage,bytertiarystatus,bythepracticeofcontinence,bymysticalinspiration,orevenbymiraculousinedia,womenspokeof theirlivesinfemaleimages.Theysawthemselves,metaphoricallyspeaking,notaswarriorsforChristbutasbrides,aspregnantvirgins,ashousewives,asmothersof God.Perhapsexactlybecausecrossdressingwasaradicalyetpracticalsocialstepforwomen,itwasnotfinallytheirmostpowerfulsymbolofself.Formen,onthe contrary,whodidnotcrossdressasapracticalstepandcouldhavegainednothingsociallybyitexceptopprobrium,genderreversalwasahighlycharged,even frighteningsymbol.45 Inanycase,whateverthereasonforthefascinationfeltbymedievalmenwithfemalecrossdressingafascinationapparentlysharedbymodernhistoriansofboth genderstheevidenceconcerningimageryisclear.Women'sbasicimagesofreligiousselfwerenotinvertedimages,notmaleimages.Wherewomenusedgenderas imagetheyusuallyspokeofthemselvesasfemaletoamaleGodorasandrogynous.MechtildofMagdeburg,HildegardofBingen,CatherineofSiena,andMargery Kempereferredtothemselvesaspoorwomen,unletteredandweak.Hildegardactuallydressedhernunsasbrideswhentheywenttoreceivecommunion.Margery gloriedinrelatingtoGodaswifeandmother.46Catherinereportedthatshehadwanted,asachild,toimitateoneoftheearlytransvestitesaints,butasanadultshe hearddirectlyfromChristinavisionthatsuchreversalwasnotnecessary:Godpreferredhertoteachandinspireothersasalowlywoman.47 AsIexplainedinchapter9,women'suseoffemaleimagesdidnotexpressanyincapacityforgodlinessorforapproachtoGod.Indeed,

Page292

PeterDronkehaspointedoutthatthetoposofthe"poorlittlewoman"wassometimesanironicclaimtodivineinspiration,tobeingthevesselormouthpiecechosenby God.48Andsomewomenwriterspassedbeyondevensuchirony.JulianofNorwich,forexample,deletedherreferencetofemaleincapacitywhensheexpandedher Showingsintotheirlonger,moretheologicallyaudaciousandsophisticatedversion.49Moreover,women'simagesforselfwerefrequentlyandrogynous,forthey frequentlyincludedqualitiesthelargerculturestereotypedasmale(suchasdisciplineorjudgment)intheirunderstandingof"motherly"or"womanly."Gertrudeof Helfta,Hadewijch,CatherineofSiena,andJulianofNorwichallmixgenderimagesandpersonalitycharacteristics(suchastenderness,severity,love,discipline)so thoroughlyindescribingboththesoulandGodthatonecanonlyintermittentlyseeintheirwritingsthecommonassociationofsoulwithfemaleandGodwithmale. Finally,wherewomen'sownsymbolsdidassociatewithselfactivitiesorcharacteristicsthatthebroaderculturesawasfemale(forexample,lactationandfood preparation,weaknessandfleshliness),womentendedtobroadenthesesymbolstorefertoallpeopleratherthantounderlinetheoppositionofmale/female.Aswe sawabove,women'ssenseofthemselvesassymbolizingthe"humanityofChrist"carriedtheconcepthumanbeyondanymale/femaledichotomy.50 HildegardofBingen,forexample,didwritethatmaleandfemalearedifferentinsocial,biological,andreligiousroles(althoughevenhereshestressedcomplementarity morethandidthemaletheologiansofherday).Buthermostprofounduseofwomanassymboldrewnocontrasttomenatall."Woman"waswhatmodernwriters sometimescall"mankind."InHildegard'svisionofsalvation,the"imageofwoman"thatis,humanitystandsbelowthecrossandreceivesChrist'sblood(seeplate 12).Twocenturieslater,CatherineofSienadidcriticizewomenasweak.Butshesaid,ofherselfandotherwomen,thattheywereallchildren,drawingthemilkof sufferingfromthebreastofChrist'shumanity.AndbysufferingshemeantChrist'ssufferingandtheirown.Thusthesoulwasasucklingchildwhobecameonewitha motherwhosefeedingwassuffering,andthatsufferingsavedtheworld.Thechildwasthemothertheeatingwasfeedingothersthesufferingwasfertility.Such imagesgobeyonddichotomies,yettheyarisefromandexpressordinaryfemaleexperiences.Women'simages,althoughinformedandmadepos

Page293

siblebythesymbolicoppositionsofthedominanttheologicaltradition,arethemselvesneitherdichotomiesnorinversions. Justasmen'slivesshowmuchactualconversionandreversal,parallelingthestronglydichotomousnatureoftheirsymbols,sowomen'sactuallifestoriesshowless reversal,parallelingtheiruseofsymbolsofcontinuity.AsInotedinchapter1,WeinsteinandBellhavedemonstratedthatthepatternofwomen'slivesshowsfewer rupturesinstead,thereisgraduallydawningvocation,voicedearlierandconsolidatedfarmoreslowly.51Thisdifferencedoesnotappeartobeentirelyamatterof women'sgreaterpowerlessness,oftheextremedifficultytheysometimesfacedinrejectingsuitors,husbands,children,orparentaldictatesifavocationtochastityor deprivationcametotheminadolescenceoradulthood.Surveyofalargenumberofmedievalsaints'livessuggeststhatgirls(unlikeboys)oftenknewbeforetheageof eightthattheywishedtoavoidmarriage.Tosuchwomen,virginityandhumbleserviceoffamilymembersorofsisternunswasasmuchacontinuationofchildhoodas itwasanescapefromtheadultstatus"marriedwoman." ThesamesortofexplanationIsuggestedformaleuseofsymbolsmayexplainfemaleusagesaswell.Girls'morecontinuousselfdevelopment,involvingno fundamentalneedtodevelopaconceptof"other,"mayhelpexplainwomen'savoidanceofdichotomousimageryandtheirtendencytoelaborateassymbolsaspectsof lifeclosertoordinaryexperience(eating,suffering,lactating).Recentfeministpsychologicaltheoryhassuggestedthattheprofoundlyasymmetricalpatternsofchild rearinginWesternculturemayinfluencefemalechildrentowardalessacutesenseofbinaryoppositionsandof"otherness."52Moreover,women'splaceinsomesense outsidetheordines(statuses)oflatemedievalEuropemaysuggestwhyimagesofstatusreversalseemedtothemlesspertinentandinteresting.Structuralist anthropologistshaverecentlyshownthewaysdichotomoussymbolsespeciallythefundamentaldichotomyculture/naturetendtoexpressandsupportthepower ofthoseidentifiedwith"culture."53 Whateverexplanationoneproposes,itisclearthatwomen'swayofusingandlivingsymbolswasdifferentfrommen's.Thedifferencelaynotmerelyinwhatsymbols werechosenbutalsoinhowsymbolsrelatedtoself.Wheremenstressedmale/femalecontrastsandusedimageryofreversaltoexpresstheirdependenceonGod, womenexpressedtheir

Page294

dependenceonGodinimageryatleastpartlydrawnfromtheirowngenderandavoidedsymbolicreversals.Althoughmenwroteaboutthenatureofwoman,women tendedtowrite,notaboutgender(maleversusfemale),butaboutthesoulorabouthumanity.Thereisthusasenseinwhichwomen'suseofmetaphorsandimages tookashapeofitsown,obliquetoamaletraditionofspiritualwritinginwhichthemale/femaledichotomywasasymbolformanyotheroppositions.Andyetitisclear thatwomen'ssenseofselfwasformedwithinandinfluencedbythesymbolicdichotomiesofthedominanttheologicaltradition.ItwasfromageoldnotionsthatGod, mind,andpoweraremalewhereassoul,flesh,andweaknessarefemalethatwomendrewinspirationforaspiritualityinwhichtheirownsufferinghumanityhadcosmic significance. Conclusion Inexploringthereligioussignificanceoffoodtomedievalwomen,Ihavetouchedupontwolargerissues:thenatureofmedievalasceticism,andthesignificanceof genderinmedievalreligion.Althoughthisbookdoesnomorethanraisetheseissuesandsuggestthedirectionnewinterpretationofthemmighttake,itiswellto underlinetheminclosing.For,ifIamrightonthesetwoissues,wemustrevisesomeofthereceivedwisdomabouttheMiddleAges. Ihavesuggestedthroughoutthediscussioninchapters6,7,8,and9thatmedievalasceticismshouldnotbeunderstoodasrootedindualism,inaradicalsenseofspirit opposedtoorentrappedbybody.Theextravagantpenitentialpracticesofthethirteenthtothefifteenthcentury,thecultivationofpainandpatience,theliteralismof imitatiocrucisare,Ihaveargued,notprimarilyanattempttoescapefrombody.Theyarenottheproductsofanepistemologyorpsychologyortheologythatsees soulstrugglingagainstitsopposite,matter.Thereforetheyarenotashistorianshaveoftensuggestedaworlddenying,selfhating,decadentresponseofasociety wrackedbyplague,famine,heresy,war,andecclesiasticalcorruption.Rather,latemedievalasceticismwasanefforttoplumbandtorealizeallthepossibilitiesofthe flesh.ItwasaprofoundexpressionofthedoctrineoftheIncarnation:thedoctrinethatChrist,bybecominghuman,savesallthatthehumanbeingis.Itaroseina religiousworldwhosecentralritualwasthecomingofGodintofoodas

Page295

maceratedflesh,anditwascompatiblewith,notcontradictoryto,newphilosophicalnotionsthatlocatedthenatureofthingsnotintheirabstractdefinitionsbutintheir individuatingmatterorparticularity.ThusFrancisofAssisitellinghisdisciplesthatbearingsare"perfecthappiness,"BeatriceofOrnacieuxdrivingnailsthroughher palms,DorothyofMontauandLukardisofOberweimarwrenchingtheirbodiesintobizarrepantomimesofthemomentofCrucifixion,andSerafinaofSanGimignano, reveredbecauseshewasparalyzed,weretotheirowncontemporariesnotdepressingorhorrifyingbutglorious.Theywerenotrebellingagainstortorturingtheirflesh outofguiltoveritscapabilitiessomuchasusingthepossibilitiesofitsfullsensualandaffectiverangetosoareverclosertoGod.54 JustasIhavesuggestedinthelastfivechaptersthatmedievalasceticismwasnotprimarilydualism,soIhavearguedthatmedievalwomenarenotbestunderstoodas creaturesconstrainedandimpelledbysociety'snotionsofthefemaleasinferior.Women'spietywasnot,fundamentally,internalizeddualismormisogyny.Although misogynistwritingdidcertainlysometimesequatewomanwithsexualtemptationandunderlinethemale/femalecontrastasadichotomyofsuperior/inferior, strong/weak,spirit/flesh,Iconsideritmistakentotaketheideasofmaletheologiansandbiographersaboutwomenasthenotionsofwomenaboutthemselves.Women andmenexisted,ofcourse,inthesameuniverseofsymbolsanddoctrineandweretaughtbythesamescriptures,thesamepreaching.Womenwereclearlyawareof theirsupposedinferioritysomecommenteduponitorevenappropriateditasawaytoGod.Ihaveshownabovehowsomewomencastigatedthemselvesfortheir sexualimpulses.Butfromamongthesymbolsanddoctrinesavailabletothem,womenandmenchosedifferentsymbolsmenrenouncingwealthandpower,women renouncingfood.Theyusedsymbolsindifferentways.Men,whoweredominant,usedsymbols(amongthemthemale/femaledichotomy)torenouncetheir dominance.Reversalsandoppositionswereattheheartofhowsymbolsworkedformen.Theimageofwomanascontrastedtothatofmanwas,inthelaterMiddle Ages,atopicofprimaryinteresttomen.Towomen,however,male/femalecontrastswereapparentlyoflittleinterestsymbolsofselfwereingeneraltakenfrom biologicalorsocialexperienceandexpressednotsomuchreversalorrenunciationofworldlyadvantageasthedeepeningofordinaryhumanexperiencethatcame whenGodimpingeduponit.

Page296

Intheirsymbolswomenexpandedthesuffering,givingselftheywereascribedbytheirculture,becomingevermorewonderfullyandhorriblythebodyonthecross. Theybecamethatbodynotasflightfrombutascontinuationofself.AndbecausethatbodywasalsoGod,theycouldsumuptheirloveofGodinparadox:"Hellisthe highestnameofLove,"asHadewijchsaid,orasMargaretPoreteputit,"Iamthesalvationitselfofeverycreature....ForIamthesumofallevils." Inthefinalanalysis,itiswrongtoseemedievalwomenasinternalizingtheideaoftheirgenderasinferior,becausecontrastsofmale/female,superior/inferior,spirit/flesh seem,ascontrasts,tohavebeenlessimportanttowomenthantomen.Ifitisinaccuratetoseelatemedievalasceticismasselfhatingbecauseitiswrongtothinkthat medievalpeoplesawfleshprimarilyasopposedtospirit,itisdoublyinaccuratetoseefemaleasceticismasbasedindualism,becausealldualitieswerelessimportant towomen.Womensawthemselvesnotasfleshopposedtospirit,femaleopposedtomale,nurtureopposedtoauthoritytheysawthemselvesashumanbeingsfully spiritandfullyflesh.AndtheysawallhumanityascreatedinGod'simage,ascapableofimitatioChristithroughbodyaswellassoul.Thustheygloriedinthepain, theexudings,thesomaticdistortionsthatmadetheirbodiesparalleltotheconsecratedwaferonthealtarandthemanonthecross.Intheblindinglightoftheultimate dichotomybetweenGodandhumanity,allotherdichotomiesfaded.Menandwomenmightagreethatfemalefleshwasmorefleshlythanmaleflesh,butsuch agreementledbothsexestoseethemselvesasinsomesensefemalehuman.Foritwashumanbeingsashuman(notassymbolofthedivine)whomChristsavedin theIncarnationitwasbodyasflesh(notasspirit)thatGodbecamemostgraphicallyonthealtaritwashumansuffering(nothumanpower)thatChristtookonto redeemtheworld.ReligiouswomeninthelaterMiddleAgessawintheirownfemalebodiesnotonlyasymbolofthehumannessofbothgendersbutalsoasymbol ofandameansofapproachtothehumanityofGod.

Page297

EPILOGUE
Itmaybethatvice,depravityandcrimearenearlyalways...attemptstoeatbeauty,toeatwhatweshouldonlylookat.Evebeganit.Ifshecausedhumanitytobelostbyeatingthe fruit,theoppositeattitude,lookingatthefruitwithouteatingit,shouldbewhatisrequiredtosaveit. IfIgrowthinfromlabourinthefields,myfleshreallybecomeswheat.IfthatwheatisusedforthehostitbecomesChrist'sflesh.Anyonewholabourswiththisintentionshould becomeasaint. SIMONEWEIL(D.1943)1 Ifculturalemphasisfollowedthephysiologicalemphasis,girls'[puberty]ceremonieswouldbemoremarkedthanboys'butitisnotso.Theceremoniesemphasizeasocialfact:the adultprerogativesofmenaremorefarreachingineveryculturethanwomen's,andconsequently...itismorecommonforsocietiestotakenoteofthisperiodinboysthaningirls. RUTHBENEDICT(1934), QUOTEDBYACONTEMPORARYANORECTIC, SHEILAMcLEOD(1981)2

TheresaNeumannofKonnersreuth,aBavarianpeasantwomanwhodiedin1962,supposedlydisplayedbothstigmataandmiraculousabstinence.LikeLidwinaof Schiedam,shewasobservedbyacommissionwhichsolemnlyauthenticatedherinediaastotalandextended.3 SimoneWeil,aphilosopherandmysticwhodiedin 1943,undertookfatalselfstarvationinanefforttoidentifywiththepoorandoppressedoftheworld.LikeCatherineofGenoa,Weilspokeofgluttonyasametaphor forsinandusedthenotionofselfbecomingfoodasanimageforpersonalsufferingthatfuseswiththeredemptivesufferingofChrist.Westillfind,inthetwentieth century,examplesofthefemalepietythatemergedinthirteenthandfourteenthcenturyEurope. Yetforthemostpart,women'sconcernwithfoodinourowncentury

Page298

occursinadifferentcontext.WomencultivatenotclosenesstoGodbutphysicalattractivenessbyfoodabstinence,whichtheycalldieting.Therecentincreaseofself starvationamongwhite,privileged,adolescentfemalesisnotcalledfastingorasceticismbythemedicalprofessionintowhosepurviewitcomes,butanorexia nervosa.Thenotionthatfoodandeatingareproblemstowomenhasbecomeaclich.4 WhenthepopularfeministmagazineMs.devoteditsOctober,1983,issueto food,ittreatedarangeofissuesfromdeformitiessupposedlyproducedbycontaminatedmeattobulimiaamongcollegestudentsthejoyofcookingoreatingwas noticeablyabsent.5 Latetwentiethcenturystudiesofwomenandfoodthatgobeyonddescribingthenexususuallyassociaterefusaltoeatwiththequestionofcontrol. Culturalinterpretationsofanorexianervosafocusonwaysthemediaurgewomentocontrolbodysizepsychodynamicinterpretationsconcentrateonthegirl'sefforts torebelagainstanovercontrollingmotherevenbiologicalexplanationsrelateanorexiatofemaledepression,whichmanifestsitself(whateveritscause)infeelingsof powerlessnessandworthlessness.6 Modernattentiontothetopic''womenandfood"appearstobeverymuchmoreonesidedthanmedievalpracticeandsymbolism.Itisthereforenotsurprisingthat recenthistorianshavetakenlittlenoticeofthereligioussignificanceoffoodnorthatthesmallattentionthatthetopichasbeguntoreceivehasfocusedonmedieval parallelstothemoderndiseaseentitiesanorexianervosaandbulimia.Buttostudyfastingwithoutstudyingritualsofeating,toconsiderthepainofasceticismwhile ignoringtheexplicitwordsofitspractitionersisnotthemostfruitfulwaytoapproachthehistoryofourEuropeanpast.Formedievalfoodbehaviorwasserviceof othersaswellasrendingandsacrifice.Religiousritualcenteredoneatingaswellasonabstaining. AsIhaveshownabove,medievalwomensometimesrejectedbothbodyandfamilythroughfoodpractices.Foodbehaviorshelpedgirlstogaincontroloverselfas wellasovercircumstance.Throughfasting,womeninternalizedaswellasmanipulatedandescapedpatriarchalfamilialandreligiousstructures.Buttheselfstarvation ofsomethirteenth,fourteenth,andfifteenthcenturywomenhadaresonanceandacomplexitythatarenotcapturedbytheanalogytomoderndiseaseentities.My purposeinthisbookhasbeentoputthebehavior,thesymbols,andtheconvictionsofwomenandmeninthedistantpastintotheirfullcontext.Onlybyconsideringall themeaningsandfunctionsofme

Page299

dievalpracticeandbeliefcanweexplainmedievalexperiencewithoutremovingitscreativityanddignity. Myapproachclearlyassumesthatthepracticesandsymbolsofanyculturearesoembeddedinthatcultureastobeinseparablefromit.Thus,justasIhaveargued thatthenotionofanorexianervosa,whichemergedinthelatenineteenthcenturytodescribeonetypeofinedia,shouldnotbewrenchedfromitsmoderncontextand appliedtothefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies,soIwouldarguethatmedievalsymbols,behaviors,anddoctrineshavenodirectlessonsforthe1980s.7 Theywere producedbyaworldthathasvanished.NorwouldIwantustoreturntotheMiddleAges.HoweverbeautifultheproseofCatherineofSienaorthepoetryof Hadewijch,theactuallivesofsomelatemedievalwomenmustgiveuspause.Althoughwemaywishforanenrichingofoursymbolicuniverse,itishardtowant,for ourselvesorourdaughters,alifelikeLidwina'sorAlpas's,orevenlikeTheresaNeumann'sorSimoneWeil's.Noonecouldwishtoreturntoasocietyinwhichthe horrorsofleprosy,gangrene,orstarvationcanbemitigatedonlybysymbolsthatglorifypainandsacrifice.Thoserecentscholarswhohaveattemptedtourgemedieval devotionsonthemodernchurchruntheriskofignoringthesavageryofsomemedievalasceticism,thesentimentalityofmuchmedievalpreaching,thesexismof medieval(andmodern)society,andtheinappropriatenessofeventhemostgenerousfourteenthcenturynotionsofmothertoaworldwithmoderntechnology.8 On theotherhand,thosescholarswhohaveattackedthepietyoflatemedievalwomenfornotmeetingmodernneedshavemerelypointedouttheobvious,while sometimesmakingitharderforustounderstandthewellspringsofideasthat,intheirowncontext,hadgreatpowerandbeauty. Arethere,then,anyimplicationsofmystudyfortwentiethcenturyculture,inwhichtheassociationofwomanandfoodisstillsostriking,yetthemeaningofthe associationissodifferent?Themostbasicimplication,Ithink,isthis.Althoughmedievallifestylesanddevotionsseeminapplicable(withoutgreatrevision)tomodern problems,therangeandrichnessofmedievalsymbolshavesomethingtoteachusabouttheimpoverishmentofourown.Comparedtotherangeofmeaningsin medievalpoetryandpiety,ouruseofbodyandfoodassymbolsisnarrowandnegative.Andbecauseourunderstandingoffoodandfleshisfearfulandawkward,our therapiesforthosewhosufferfrom"eatingdisorders"

Page300

arenarrowandawkwardtoo.Ouranswertothosewhoseenobeautyorhopeinthefactofembodimentisaconcentrationontheissueofcontrol.9 Andsucha concentrationappearstometoreflectexactlytheculturalemphasisthatproducestheproblem. Medievalpeoplesawfoodandbodyassourcesoflife,repositoriesofsensation.Thusfoodandbodysignifiedgenerativityandsuffering.Food,whichmustbe destroyedinordertogivelife,andbody,whichmustbetorninordertogivebirth,becamesynonymousinidentifyingthemselveswithboth,womenmanagedtogive meaningtoaphysical,humanexistenceinwhichsufferingwasunavoidable.Religiouswomeninthethirteenthandfourteenthcenturies,whowithdrewfromthetasksof childbearingandnurturingwhichthecultureassignedtofemales,nonethelessexpressedthroughtheirimageryawiderangeofpositiveresonancesforbothphysicality andfood. Incontrast,modernpeopleseefoodandbodyasresourcestobecontrolled.Thusfoodandbodysignifythatwhichthreatenshumanmastery.Theysignifythe untamed,therebellious,theexcessive,theproliferating.Messagesmodernwomenabsorbfromthepopularcultureofmagazineadvertisementsandtelevisionurge themtocontroltheirbodieswithdeodorants,tranquilizers,headacheremedies,diets,etc.Breastsarenot,tomodernpeople,symbolsoffood.Theonsetofpubertyis notanoccasionforrejoicingbyanadolescentgirlorherparents.Menstruationislessapreludetocreativityandaffectivitythanafrighteningsignofvulnerability.Body andfoodarethussymbolsofthefailureofoureffortstocontrolourselves. Bodyandfoodhavebecomesuchsymbols,ofcourse,becauseweareinmanywaysabletocontrolbasicaspectsofbodilyexperienceespeciallyfertilityandpain.I wouldnotwanttosuggestthatwerelinquishthatcontrol.Ithasbroughtanestheticsandantisepticstostillbodilysuffering,reproductivefreedomtoopenwomen's livesandthoseofmenandchildrentonewformsofcreativityandfulfillment,advancesinnutritionandfertilizerstomakehungerlessacuteinatleastaportionof theglobe.Butourmodernimagesoffoodandbody,particularlyfemalebody,asallthatthreatensmasteryseemtomeunattractiveandevendangerousintwovery differentways. First,ourmodernassumptionsobscurethefactthatfoodisfoodandbodyisbody.Twentiethcenturydiscussionsofanorexianervosa,forexample,seemtohave assumed,whenFreudian,thatbodymeans

Page301

sexuality10and,whennonFreudian,thateatingmeanscontrol.Theseassumptionsarenotcompletelyunhelpful.Yettherefusaloffemaleteenagerstoeatseemsmost obviouslyrelatedbothtothephysiologicalchangesofpuberty,whichsignalthepossibilityofmotherhood,andtothebasicassumptioninourculturethatwomenare foodpreparers,notfoodconsumers.ThemethodIhavefollowedinthisbook,ofrelatingvariousfoodpracticesandsymbolswithinasocietytoeachother,suggests thatmodernanalystsmightgainimportantinsightsintomodernbehaviorpatternsbyseeingfoodasfoodandplacingitinitsculturalcontext. Second,ourmodernuseoffoodandbodyassymbolsofallthatweseektocontrolseemstomeavainefforttohidefromourselvesthefactthatourcontrolisnot cannotbetotal.AndIdonotreferheremerelytotheobviousfailuresofoursocialpoliciesandourtechnologythatarerepresentedbythestarvationofpartsofthe ThirdWorld.Imeanthatthesortofcontrolweappeartowantisimpossibleunlesswecancontroldeathitself.Forunlessweconquerdeath,sufferingmustalwaysbe areminderofitaforetasteofourowndeathandofthelossofthosewelove.Unlessweconquerdeath,fertility(howeverfrighteningitmaybe)willbenecessaryfor oursurvival:newlife,issuingfromwomen'sbodies,willbeourcollectiveimmortality. Butwehavenotconquereddeath.Thereisthusbravado,tragicandpatheticbravado,intheassumptionthatmentalhealthandhappinessdependuponsuppressing fertilityandsufferingthebasicremindersthatdeathiseverinourmidst.Perhaps,then,ourculturecannotaffordtoconsidertheissueofwomenandfoodmerelyasa casestudyinhealthyandunhealthycontrol.Perhapswecannotaffordtoseebody,especiallyfemalebody,andnourishmentmerelyasthreatstohumanmastery. Indeed,ourverytendencytothinkintermsofcontrolmayencourageviolencetowardfemalebodiesandcallousnesstowardanypainwecannotmanagetoassuage. Thuswemay,morethanwerealize,needpositivesymbolsforgenerativityandsuffering.Ourculturemayfinallyneedsomethingofthemedievalsense,reflectedso clearlyintheuseofbirthingandnursingassymbolsforsalvation,thatgenerativityandsufferingcanbesynonymous.11Perhapsweshouldnotturnourbacksso resolutelyaswehaverecentlydoneeitheronthepossibilitythatsufferingcanbefruitfuloronfoodandfemalebodyaspositive,complex,resonantsymbolsofloveand generosity.

Page302

Isaidabovethatmedievallivesandrhetorichavenodirectrelevancetoours.Butevenmedievalsymbolsarenosolutiontomodernwoes.Wecannotadoptsuch symbolsasananswertotheimpoverishmentoftwentiethcenturyimages.ThatiswhyIhaverelegatedthoughtsonthemodernworldtoanepiloguethatisinnowaya conclusion.Butadeeperunderstandingofwhattheideasandlivesofmedievalwomenreallymeantnotonlyhelpsusexplainwhytheywereastheywere,italso rescuesthemfromoblivionandilluminatestheirhumanity.Andsuchilluminationgivesusmuchtoadmireaswellasmuchtoabhor.Bycomparison,wemaythusseea littlemoreclearlywhattoadmireandabhoraboutourselves.Inthissense,then,thefemalelivesIhavechronicledherearerelevanttoourown.Iftheirimagesand valuescannotbecomeouranswers,theycannonethelessteachusthatweneedricherimagesandvalues.Perhapsalsotheycanpointthedirectioninwhichweshould search.

Page303

ABBREVIATIONS
Sourcesfrequentlycitedinthisworkarereferredtobytheabbreviationslistedbelow.TheIndexofSecondaryAuthorsdirectsthereadertothefirst,full,bibliographic citationofeachoftheotherworksmentionedintheNotes. AASSJ.BollandusandG.Henschenius,Actasanctorum...editionovissima,ed.J.Carnandetetal.(Paris:Palm,etc.,1863).Notallthevolumesinthisseries areintheirthirdedition,buttheseriesasawholeisthethirdedition. ABAnalectaBollandiana(Brussels:SocitdesBollandistes,1882). AFTheFathersofSt.Bonaventure'sCollege,eds.,Analectafranciscana,siveChronicaaliaquevariadocumentaadhistoriamFratrumminorumspectantia (Quaracchi:CollegiumS.Bonaventurae,1885). AngelaofFoligno,ed.FerrandBaudryAngelaofFoligno,LeLivredel'expriencedesvraisfidles:Textelatinpublid'aprslemanuscritd'Assise,ed.and trans.M.J.FerrandL.Baudry(Paris:Droz,1927). Aquinas,STThomasAquinas,Summatheologiae,Blackfriarsed.,61vols.(NewYork:McGrawHill,19641981). Baker,MWDerekBaker,ed.,MedievalWomen:DedicatedandPresentedtoProfessorRosalindM.T.Hill...,StudiesinChurchHistory,Subsidia1(Oxford: Blackwell,1978). Braun,AltarJosephBraun,DerchristlicheAltarinseinergeschichtlichenEntwicklung,2vols.(Munich:Koch,1924). Browe,DieWunderPeterBrowe,DieEucharistischenWunderdesMittelalters,BreslauerStudienzurhistorischenTheologie,NF4(Breslau:MllerundSeiffert, 1938). BSBibliothecasanctorum,12vols.(Rome:IstitutoGiovanniXXIIIdellaPontificiaUniversitLateranense,19611969). Bynum,JMCarolineWalkerBynum,JesusasMother:StudiesintheSpiritualityoftheHighMiddleAges,PublicationsoftheCenterforMedievaland RenaissanceStudies,UCLA,16(BerkeleyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1982).

Page304

Bynum,"WomenMystics"CarolineWalkerBynum,"WomenMysticsandEucharisticDevotionintheThirteenthCentury,"Women'sStudies11(1984):179214. Caesarius,DialogusCaesariusofHeisterbach,Dialogusmiraculorum,ed.JosephStrange,2vols.(Cologne:Heberle,1851). CatherineofGenoa,Edizionecritica,ed.UmileBonziUmileBonzidaGenova,ed.,S.CaterinaFieschiAdorno,vol.2:Edizionecriticadeimanoscritti cateriniani(Turin:Marietti,1962). CatherineofSiena,Dialogue,ed.CavalliniCatherineofSiena,IlDialogodellaDivinaProvvidenzaovveroLibradellaDivinoDottrina,ed.GiulianaCavallini (Rome:EdizioniCateriniane,1968). CatherineofSiena,Letters,ed.MisciattelliCatherineofSiena,LeLetteredeS.CaterinadaSiena,ridotteamigliorlezione,einordinenuovodisposteconnote diNiccolTommaseoacuradiPieroMisciattelli,6vols.(Siena:GiuntiniyBentivoglio,19131922). DHGEDictionnaired'histoireetdegographieecclsiastiques(Paris:LetouzeyetAn,1912). DMADictionaryoftheMiddleAges,ed.JosephStrayer(NewYork:Scribner's,1982). Dronke,WWPeterDronke,WomenWritersoftheMiddleAges:ACriticalStudyofTextsfromPerpetua(+203)toMargueritePorete(+1310)(Cambridge: CambridgeUniversityPress,1984). DSDictionnairedespiritualit,asctiqueetmystique,doctrineethistoire,ed.M.Villeretal.(Paris:Beauchesne,1932). DTCDictionnairedethologiecatholique,ed.A.Vacantetal.,15vols.andTablesgnrales(Paris:LetouzeyetAn,19091950). Dumoutet,CDEdouardDumoutet,CorpusDomini:Auxsourcesdelapiteucharistiquemdivale(Paris:Beauchesne,1942). EngelthalKarlSchrder,ed.,DerNonnenvonEngelthalBchleinvonderGenadenberlast,BibliothekdesliterarischenVereinsinStuttgart108(Tbingen: LiterarischerVereininStuttgart,1871). Goodich,VPMichaelGoodich,VitaPerfecta:TheIdealofSainthoodintheThirteenthCentury,MonographienzurGeschichtedesMittelalters25(Stuttgart: Hiersemann,1982). Gougaud,DAPLouisGougaud,DevotionalandAsceticPracticesintheMiddleAges,trans.G.C.Bateman(London:BurnsOatesandWashbourne,1927). Grundmann,BewegungenHerbertGrundmann,ReligiseBewegungenimMittelalter:UntersuchungenberdiegeschichtlichenZusammenhngezwischender Ketzerei,denBettelordenundderreligisenFrauenbewegungim12.und13.Jahrhundert...(1935repr.withadditions,Hildesheim:Olms,1961). ImbertGourbeyre,StigmatisationAntoineImbertGourbeyre,LaStigmatisa

Page305

tion:L'ExtasedivineetlesmiraclesdeLourdes:Rponseauxlibrespenseurs,2vols.(ClermontFerrand:LibrairieCatholique,1894). JohnMarienwerder,Vitalatina,ed.WestpfahlJohnMarienwerder,VitaDorotheaeMontoviensisMagistriJohannisMarienwerder,ed.HansWestpfahl, ForschungenundQuellenzurKirchenundKulturgeschichteOstdeutschlands1(Cologne:Bhlau,1964). Julian,BookofShowings,ed.ColledgeandWalshJulianofNorwich,ABookofShowingstotheAnchoressJulianofNorwich,ed.EdmundColledgeandJames Walsh,StudiesandTexts35,2parts(part1containstheShortText,part2theLongText)(Toronto:PontificalInstituteofMedievalStudies,1978). Kieckhefer,UnSRichardKieckhefer,UnquietSouls:FourteenthCenturySaintsandTheirReligiousMilieu(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1984). McDonnell,BeguinesErnestW.McDonnell,TheBeguinesandBeghardsinMedievalCulture,withSpecialEmphasisontheBelgianScene(NewBrunswick, N.J.:RutgersUniversityPress,1954repr.ed.1969). MGH.SSMonumentaGermaniaehistorica.ScriptoresrerumgermanicarumandScriptores...novaser.(Hannover:HahnscheBuchhandlung,etc.1826). MGH.SSRMMonumentaGermaniaehistorica.Scriptoresrerummerovingicarum(Hannover:HahnscheBuchhandlung,1885). OBBernardofClairvaux,SanctiBernardiopera,ed.J.Leclercq,C.H.Talbot,andH.M.Rochais(Rome:EditionesCistercienses,1957). OeuvresdeMargueriteMargaretofOingt,LesOeuvresdeMarguerited'Oingt,ed.andtrans.AntoninDuraffour,PierreGardette,andPauletteDurdilly, Publicationsdel'InstitutdeLinguistiqueRomanedeLyon21(Paris:BellesLettres,1965). OmnibusMarionA.Habig,ed.,St.FrancisofAssisi:WritingsandEarlyBiographies:EnglishOmnibusofSources,3ded.(Chicago:FranciscanHeraldPress, 1973). Pater,MAThomasPater,MiraculousAbstinence:AStudyofOneoftheExtraordinaryMysticalPhenomena,CatholicUniversityofAmericaStudiesinSacred Theology100(Washington,D.C.:CatholicUniversityofAmericaPress,1946). PGJ.P.Migne,ed.,Patrologiaecursuscompletus:seriesgraeca,162vols.(Paris:Migne,18571866). PLJ.P.Migne,ed.,Patrologiaecursuscompletus:serieslatina,221vols.(Paris:Migne,etc.,18411864). Roisin,L'HagiographieSimoneRoisin,L'HagiographiecisterciennedanslediocsedeLigeauXIII'sicle(Louvain:Bibliothquedel'Universit,1947).

Page306

SC,Sr.mon.Sourceschrtiennes(Paris:EditionsduCerf,1941),Sriedestextesmonastiquesd'Occident(Paris:EditionsduCerf,1958). Schiller,IconographyGertrudSchiller,IconographyofChristianArt,trans.JanetSeligman,2vols.[thefirsttwovols.ofIkonographie](London:Humphries, 19711972). Schiller,IkonographieGertrudSchiller,IkonographiederchristlichenKunst,4vols.(Gtersloh:Mohn,19661980). Suso,DeutscheSchriftenHenrySuso,HeinrichSeuse:DeutscheSchriftenimAuftragderWrttembergischenKommissionfrLandesgeschichte,ed.Karl Bihlmeyer(Stuttgart:Kohlhammer,1907). Tauler,DiePredigtenJohnTauler,DiePredigtenTaulers:AusderEngelbergerundderFreiburgerHandschriftsowieausSchmidtsAbschriftender ehemaligenStrassburgerHandschriften,ed.FerdinandVetter(Berlin:WeidmannscheBuchhandlung,1910). Thurston,PPHerbertThurston,ThePhysicalPhenomenaofMysticism(Chicago:Regnery,1952). TssElsbetStagel,DasLebenderSchwesternzuTssbeschriebenvonElsbetStagel,ed.FerdinandVetter,DeutscheTextedesMittelalters6(Berlin: WeidmannscheBuchhandlung,1906). Tubach,IndexFredericC.Tubach,Indexexemplorum:AHandbookofMedievalReligiousTales,FFCommunications204(Helsinki:FinnishAcademyof SciencesandLetters,1969). "Unterlinden"JeanneAnceletHustache,ed.,"Les'VitaeSororum'd'Unterlinden.EditioncritiqueduManuscrit508delaBibliothquedeColmar,"Archives d'histoiredoctrinaleetlittrairedumoyenge5(1930):317509. Vauchez,LaSaintetAndrVauchez,LaSaintetenOccidentauxdernierssiclesdumoyenged'aprslesprocsdecanonisationetlesdocuments hagiographiques,Bibliothquedestudesfranaisesd'AthnesetdeRome241(Rome:EcoleFranaisedeRome,1981). ViedeDoucelineJ.H.Albans,ed.andtrans.,LaViedeDouceline,fondatricedesbguinesdeMarseille(Marseilles:Camoin,1879). VitaBeatricisL.Reypens,ed.,VitaBeatricis:DeAutobiografievandeZ.BeatrijsvanTienenO.Cist.12001268(Antwerp:RuusbroecGenootschap,1964). WeinsteinandBell,SSDonaldWeinsteinandRudolphM.Bell,SaintsandSociety:TheTwoWorldsofWesternChristendom,10001700(Chicago:University ofChicagoPress,1982).

Page307

NOTES
Introduction 1.JohnTauler,Sermon31,SecondSermonforCorpusChristi,inTauler,DiePredigten,p.310E.ColledgeandSisterM.Jane,trans.,SpiritualConferences(St. Louis:Herder,1961),p.258. 2.Forexample,MalcolmDavidLambert,FranciscanPoverty:TheDoctrineoftheAbsolutePovertyofChristandtheApostlesintheFranciscanOrder, 12101323(London:SPCK,1961)andLesterK.Little,ReligiousPovertyandtheProfitEconomyinMedievalEurope(Ithaca:CornellUniversityPress, 1978).SeealsoJohnV.Fleming,AnIntroductiontotheFranciscanLiteratureoftheMiddleAges(Chicago:FranciscanHeraldPress,1977),pp.73109and below,chap.3n.159. 3.Forrecentexamples,seeJohnBugge,Virginitas:AnEssayintheHistoryofaMedievalIdeal,Archivesinternationalesd'histoiredesides,sriesminor17(The Hague:Nijhoff,1975)andWeinsteinandBell,SS,pp.7399.LeoSteinberg,"TheSexualityofChristinRenaissanceArtandinModernOblivion,"October25 (Summer1983):1222(publishedinbookform,NewYork:Pantheon,1983),providesafascinatingcounterpointtotheargumentinthisbook.Steinbergsees Christ'ssexuality(bywhichhereallymeansChrist'sgenitality)asabasicsymbolofhishumanity.HethereforestressesthemalenessofChristinfifteenthcenturyart andpiety,whereasI,beginningwithfoodsymbolism,findaChristwhosehumanityissymbolizedinfemaleaswellasmaleimages. 4.PeterBrown,"Response"toRobertM.Grant,"TheProblemofMiraculousFeedingsintheGraecoRomanWorld,"CenterforHermeneuticalStudies:Protocol oftheFortySecondColloquy(Berkeley:GraduateTheologicalUnionandUniversityofCalifornia,1982),p.23. 5.AsFernandBraudelpointsout,povertywasattheheartofthelongcourseofMediterraneanhistory,andfaminewasrecurrent,thenaturaloutcomeofageneral shortageofresources.SeeFernandBraudel,TheMediterraneanandtheMediterraneanWorldintheAgeofPhilipII,trans.SinReynolds,2vols.(NewYork: HarperandRow,197273),vol.1,esp.pp.24156.Onlatermedievaleconomichistory,seeTheCambridgeEconomicHistoryofEurope,vol.1,2ded.,ed. M.M.Postan(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1966),andvols.2and3,ed.M.M.Postanetal.(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1952,1963) RobertBoutruche,LaCrised'unesocit:SeigneursetpaysansduBordelaispendantlaguerredecentans(1947Paris:BellesLettres,1963)Robert

Page308

Brenner,''AgrarianClassStructureandEconomicDevelopmentinPreIndustrialEurope,"PastandPresent70(February1976):3075andthesymposium articlesonBrenner'sworkinPastandPresent7897(February1978November1982).Theextentoftheeconomiccrisisoftheearly(i.e.,preplague) fourteenthcenturyhasbeengreatlydebated,especiallyforEnglandseethesummaryofthedebateinIanKershaw,"TheGreatFamineandAgrarianCrisisin England13151322,"inR.H.Hilton,ed.,Peasants,KnightsandHeretics:StudiesinMedievalEnglishSocialHistory(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity Press,1976),pp.85132(repr.fromPastandPresent59[May1973]). 6.See,forexample,FritzCurschmann,HungersnteimMittelalter:EinBeitragzurdeutschenWirtschaftsgeschichtedes8.bis13.Jahrhunderts(Leipzig: Teubner,1900),esp.pp.5960,110,112,142WilhelmAbel,AgrarkrisenundAgrarkonjunkturinMitteleuropa,3ded.(Hamburg:Parey,1978)Marie JospheLarenaudie,"LesFaminesenLanguedocauxXIVeetXVesicles,"AnnalesduMidi64(1952):2739ElisabethCarpentier,"Autourdelapestenoire: Faminesetpidmiesdansl'histoireduXIVesicle,"Annales:Economies,socits,civilisations17.5(1962):106292H.S.Lucas,"TheGreatEuropeanFamine of1315,1316and1317,"inE.M.CarusWilson,ed.,EssaysinEconomicHistory,vol.2(London:Arnold,1962),pp.4972(repr.fromSpeculum5[1930]) andKershaw,"GreatFamine."Salimbene'schroniclefor1286givesagraphicexampleofathirteenthcenturymanwhobecameobsessedwithfearoffamineand hoardedfood.Children,angeredbyhisgreedandhypocrisy,exactedrevengeonhiscorpse.SeetheexcerptfromSalimbene'schronicleinG.G.Coulton,FromSt. FrancistoDante:TranslationsfromtheChronicleoftheFranciscanSalimbene...,2ded.(1907repr.Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,1972), pp.16364seealsoibid.,pp.19091.ThomasofCelano'ssecondLifeofFrancisofAssisispeaksofanearlythirteenthcenturyfaminesobadthatbreadwasmade fromthebarkoftreesanddeadchildrenwereeatenseeThomasofCelano,SecondLifeofFrancis,bk.2,chap.23,par.53,inAF,vol.10,pp.16364.Twosaints discussedinchap.4,below,providefurtherexamplesofhardship.Alpas'sparents,attheurgingofherbrothers,lefthertostarvebecauseshewastooilltocart manureMargaretofCittdiCastello,bornweakandblind,wasabandonedbyherfamily. 7.Foranextraordinaryexampleofdifferencesindietbasedonclassorstatusdifferences,seethepassagefromLeDespitauvillainquotedinRobertGottfried,The BlackDeath:NaturalandHumanDisasterinMedievalEurope(NewYork:FreePress,1983),pp.99100.Onthispoint,seealsoConstanceB.Hieattand SharonButler,eds.,IntroductiontoCuryeonInglysh:EnglishCulinaryManuscriptsoftheFourteenthCentury(Includingthe"FormeofCury"),EarlyEnglish TextSociety(London:OxfordUniversityPress,1984),pp.56andJackGoody,Cooking,CuisineandClass:AStudyinComparativeSociology(Cambridge: CambridgeUniversityPress,1982),pp.13844. 8.See,forexample,MikhailM.Bakhtin,RabelaisandHisWorld,trans.H.Iswolsky(Cambridge:M.I.T.Press,1968)andPieroCamporesi,IlPaneselvaggio (Bologna:IlMulino,1980),esp.pp.2544. 9.See,forexample,C.H.Talbot,ed.andtrans.,TheLifeofChristinaofMarkyate:ATwelfthCenturyRecluse(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1959),pp.18289, whereChristinaandacertainMargaretfeedamysteriouspilgrim(i.e.,Christ).Oneofthesignsofhisholinessisthathe"tastesratherthaneats."Forasimilarstoryof feedingamysterious

Page309

strangerwhoseextraordinarinessisprovenbythefactthathedoesnotreallyeat,seeViedeDouceline,chap.8,pars.69,pp.6669. 10.LifeofMargaretofCortona,chap.3,par.51,AASSFebruary,vol.3(Paris,1865),p.313.ReadersshouldnotethatIgivedateofdeathandidentifying informationthefirsttimeanindividualismentioned.SeetheGeneralIndexforthepagewherethatfirstreferenceoccurs. 11.GuntherofPairis,Deoratione,jejunioeteleemosynalibritredecim,bk.12:Dejejunio,chap.3,PL212,col.210.OnGunther,seeDictionnairedes auteurscisterciens,ed.EmileBrouette,AnselmeDimier,andEugneManning,LaDocumentationcistercienne16(Rochefort,Belgium:AbbayeNotreDamedeSt. Remy,197578),vol.1,fasc.3,cols.32425. 12.LifeofCatherineofSweden,chap.1,par.4,AASSMarch,vol.3(Paris,1865),p.504. 13.TractatusbeatiGregoriipapecontrareligionissimulatores,chap.69,inMarvinColker,ed.,AnalectaDublinensia:ThreeMedievalLatinTextsinthe LibraryofTrinityCollegeDublin(Cambridge:MedievalAcademyofAmerica,1975),p.47seealsop.6forthedating. 14.Foradiscussionofrecentanthropologicalstudiesoffoodpractices,seeGillianFeeleyHarnik,TheLord'sTable:EucharistandPassoverinEarlyChristianity (Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,1981),pp.618andGoody,Cooking,CuisineandClass,pp.1039.Forapsychoanalyticinterpretationoffood ritual,seeMaryEllenRossandChery1LynnRoss,"Mothers,Infants,andthePsychoanalyticStudyofRitual,"Signs:JournalofWomeninCultureandSociety9.1 (1983):2639.AlthoughausefulcorrectivetoFreud,thisarticledoesnottakeusveryfarinunderstandingthemass. 15.MechtildofMagdeburg,OffenbarungenderSchwesterMechtildvonMagdeburgoderDasFliessendeLichtderGottheit,ed.GallMorel(Regensburg: Manz,1869repr.Darmstadt,1963),bk.2,chap.22,p.43trans.LucyMenzies,TheRevelationsofMechtildofMagdeburg(12101297)orTheFlowing LightoftheGodhead(London:Longmans,1953),p.48.OnMechtild'sdeathdate,seeHansNeumann,"BeitrgezurTextgeschichtedes'FliessendenLichtsder Gottheit'undzurLebensgeschichteMechtildsvonMagdeburg,"NachrichtenderAkademiederWissenschafteninGttingen,PhilologischhistorischeKlasse (1954),p.70. 16.Hadewijch,Mengeldichten,ed.J.VanMierlo,LeuvenseStudinenTekstuitgaven(Antwerp:N.V.StandaardBoekhandel,1954),poem16,p.79trans. ColumbaHart,Hadewijch:TheCompleteWorks(NewYork:PaulistPress,1980),p.353. 17.JohnTauler,Sermon30,FirstSermonforCorpusChristi,inTauler,DiePredigten,p.293trans.ColledgeandSisterM.Jane,SpiritualConferences,p.100. Inthissermon,TauleractuallymovesquicklyawayfromoureatingGodasanimageofuniontoadiscussionofGod'seatingus("gnawingatourconsciences")asan imageofpunishment(DiePredigten,pp.29495). 18.WilliamofSt.Thierry,ExpossurleCantiquedescantiques,ed.J.M.Dchanet,SC82,Sr.mon.8(1962),chap.38,p.122trans.ColumbaHart,The WorksofWilliamofSt.Thierry,vol.2:ExpositionontheSongofSongs,CistercianFathersSeries6(Spencer,Mass.:CistercianPublications,1970),p.30.

Page310

19.WilliamofSt.Thierry,Meditativaeorationes,chap.10,PL180,col.236trans.SisterPenelope,TheWorksofWilliamofSt.Thierry,vol.1:On ContemplatingGod...,CistercianFathersSeries3(Spencer,Mass.:CistercianPublications,1971),pp.15253.Forotherexamplesoffoodimagery,seeJ. Huizinga,TheWiningoftheMiddleAges:AStudyoftheFormsofLife,ThoughtandArtinFranceandtheNetherlandsintheXIVthandXVthCenturies, trans.F.Hopman(1924repr.GardenCity:Doubleday,1956),pp.197200. 20.Allfiveoftheimportantrecentworksonmedievalsaintsdealwiththisissue.SeePierreDelooz,SociologieetCanonisations(Lige:Facultdedroit,1969), whichissummarizedinidem,"TowardsaSociologicalStudyofCanonizedSainthoodintheCatholicChurch,"inStephenWilson,ed.,SaintsandTheirCults: StudiesinReligiousSociology,FolkloreandHistory(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1983),pp.189216Vauchez,LaSaintetWeinsteinandBell, SSGoodich,VPandKieckhefer,UnS.Onthewayinwhichaholypersonservesasanexemplarormodelforasociety,seealsoPeterBrown,"TheSaintas ExemplarinLateAntiquity,"Representations1.2(Spring1983):125.Forabibliographyofrecentworksonsanctityandhagiography,seeWilson,Saintsand TheirCults,pp.309417.Forbasicbiographicalandbibliographicalinformationonindividualsaints,thebestreferenceworkisnowBibliothecasanctorum.The standardguidetoeditionsistheBollandists,eds.,Bibliothecahagiographicalatinaantiquaeetmediaeaetatis,Subsidiahagiographica6,2vols.(18981901 repr.Brussels:SocitdesBollandistes,1949). 21.Hagiography,byitsnature,ismorereliableasevidenceforwhatpeoplebelievedthanasevidenceforthedetails(especiallythechronology)ofindividuallives. Indeed,theprocessofapplyingmodernpsychologicalormedicalmodelstomedievallivesoftentemptshistorianstotrusttheparticularsofmedievalaccountsmore thaniswise.Understandingthisshouldnot,however,leadonetofallintotheoppositeerrorofignoringthedistinctionbetweenclearlylegendarymaterial,ontheone hand,andfairlytrustworthycontemporaryaccounts,ontheother.Seebelow,chap.6n.82.Forasplendiddiscussionofthesemethodologicalproblems,see SiegfriedRingler,"DieRezeptionmittelalterlicherFrauenmystikalswissenschaftlichesProblem,dargestelltamWerkderChristineEbner,"inPeterDinzelbacherand DieterR.Bauer,eds.,FrauenmystikimMittelalter,WissenschaftlicheStudientagungderAkademiederDizeseRottenburgStuttgart,22.25.Februar1984,in Weingarten(OstfildernbeiStuttgart:Schwabcnverlag,1985),pp.178200. 22.Afewminordetailsofformatfollowfromthisapproach.First,inordertoaidscholarswhowishtotrackdownreferencesandmayhavetoresorttodifferent editionsfromthoseIuse,Icitemedievalworksbychapterandparagraph(wheretheseareavailable)aswellasbypagenumber.Second,whenIgiveadditional materialinthefootnotes,Iusuallycitethetextsintheoriginallanguage.Thesefurtherexamplesareintendedforscholars,butitmayinterestthegeneralreaderaswell toseethevarietyofvernacularlanguagesinwhichwomen'sideassurvive.Third,Iprovideinthenotessomehistoriographicalcommentonthedifferencesbetweenmy interpretationsandthoseofotherscholars,somediscussionofmethodology,andanoccasionalsuggestionforfurtherresearch.Exceptforthetreatmentofanorexia nervosainchapter6,however,Ihaverefrainedfromclutteringthetextwithdiscussionofmoderninterpretations.Oneother

Page311

matterofformatisalsoworthmentioning.Ioccasionallyrepeatanexamplewhenitservestodemonstratetwoverydifferentanalyticalpoints.Insuchcases,Ido notrepeatthedocumentation,butreaderscanfindthefirstoccurrenceoftheexamplebyusingtheGeneralIndex.Incrossreferences,anotenumberstanding alonereferstothesamechapterwhenacrossreferenceistoadifferentchapter,thechapternumberisgivenaswell. 1 ReligiousWomenintheLaterMiddleAges 1.JamesofVitry,LifeofMaryofOignies,prologue,pars.68,AASSJune,vol.5(Paris,1867),p.548translationadaptedinpartfromtranslationsbyHenry OsbornTaylor,TheMedievalMind:AHistoryoftheDevelopmentofThoughtandEmotionintheMiddleAges,2vols.,4thed.(London:Macmillan,1925), vol.1,pp.47778andMcDonnell,Beguines,p.330. 2.Muchofchapter1willappearunderthesametitlebutinsomewhatdifferentforminTheEncyclopediaofWorldSpirituality,vol.17:ChristianSpirituality: HighMiddleAgesandReformation,ed.JillRaitt(NewYork:Crossroad,1987).ItappearsherewithpermissionoftheCrossroadPublishingCompany. 3.SuzanneF.Wemple,WomeninFrankishSociety:MarriageandtheCloister,500to900(Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,1981). 4.RichardW.Southern,WesternSocietyandtheChurchintheMiddleAges,PelicanHistoryoftheChurch2(Harmondsworth:Penguin,1970),pp.31831. 5.SeeRosalindB.BrookeandChristopherN.L.Brooke,"St.Clare,"inBaker,MW,p.276ChristopherN.L.BrookeandWimSwaan,TheMonasticWorld (London:Elek,1974),pp.167,17778,254n.2. 6.Inthemodernworldthereareroughlythreewomeninreligiousorderstoeveryman(BrookeandBrooke,"St.Clare,"p.276),thoughrecentlythenumberofnuns intheUnitedStateshassharplydeclined(see"VowsofDefiance,"Newsweek,19March1984,pp.97100).Thechangefromwomenasaminorityofthosein religiousorderstoalargefemalemajorityseemstohavecomeinthelaterMiddleAges. 7.Onreligiouswomen,thebasicworksareKarlBcher,DieFrauenfrageimMittelalter,2ded.(Tbingen:Laupp,1910)JosephGreven,DieAnfngeder Beginen:EinBeitragzurGeschichtederVolksfrmmigkeitunddesOrdenswesensimHochmittelalter,VorreformationsgeschichtlicheForschungen8(Mnster: Aschendorff,1912)Grundmann,BewegungenPhilibertSchmitz,HistoiredeI'ordredesaintBenot,7vols.(Maredsous:EditionsdeMaredsous,19421956), vol.7:LesMonialesStephanusHilpisch,DieDoppelklster:EnstehungundOrganisation(Mnster:Aschendorff,1928)idem,Geschichteder Benediktinerinnen,BenediktinischesGeistesleben3(St.Ottilien:EosVerlagderErzabtei,1951)MichelinePontenaydeFontette,LesReligieusesl'geclassque dudroitcanon:Recherchessurlesstructuresjuridiquesdesbranchesfmininesdesordres(Paris:Vrin,1967)andRobertE.Lerner,"BeguinesandBeghards," DMA,vol.2(1983),pp.15762.Forfurtherbibliography,seeC.EricksonandK.Casey,"WomenintheMiddleAges:A

Page312

WorkingBibliography,"MedievalStudies37(1975):34059andBynum,JM,pp.916,182n.33. 8.SeeAASSMarch,vol.3(Paris,1865),pp.36163theBenedictinesofParis,Viesdessaintsetdesbienheureux...,vol.3forMarch(Paris:LetouzeyetAn, 1941),p.481. 9.Forotherexamplesofwomenwhofoundedorders,seeGoodich,VP,p.174. 10.TheConradofMarchtaltextisquotedbySouthern,WesternSocietyandtheChurch,p.314andbyA.Erens,"LesSoeursdansI'ordredePrmontr,' AnalectaPraemonstratensia5(1929):10n.20.Thereisnomanuscriptcopyofthiscondemnation,whichfirstappearsinasixteenthcenturyworkofdubious reliability.SeeNorbertBackmund,MonasticonPraemonstratenseidest,HistoriacircariarumatquecanoniarumcandidietcanoniciOrdinis Praemonstratensis,3vols.(Straubing:Attenkofer,19491956),vol.1,p.85n.5andCarolNeel,"Women'sRolesinMedievalMonasticLife:DoubleMonasteries andtheTwelfthCenturyReform,"paperdeliveredtotheSixthBerkshireConferenceontheHistoryofWomen,13June1984,n.4oftypescript.Forthequotation fromBernard,seeSermonessuperCanticacanticorum,Sermon65,par.4,inOB,vol.2(1958),pp.17475.(Bernardoften,however,wrotetoindividual womenwithtactandgraciousness.)SeealsoGilesConstable,"AelredofRievaulxandtheNunofWatton:AnEpisodeintheEarlyHistoryoftheGilbertineOrder,"in Baker,MW,pp.20526. 11.JohnB.Freed,"UrbanDevelopmentandthe'CuraMonialium'inThirteenthCenturyGermany,"Viator3(1972)31127idem,TheFriarsandGerman SocietyintheThirteenthCentury,MedievalAcademyofAmericaPublications86(Cambridge:MedievalAcademyofAmerica,1977)andFrederickStein,"The ReligiousWomenofCologne,11201320"(Ph.D.dissertation,YaleUniversity,1977).SeealsomapsandindextoFrdricVanderMeer,Atlasdel'ordre cistercien(Amsterdam:Elsevier,1965)andBrookeandBrooke,"St.Clare,"p.276n.2. 12.SeeNeel,"DoubleMonasteries."Premonstratensiandoublehousesdid,however,disappearinwesternEurope. 13.Freed,"UrbanDevelopment." 14.MichaelGoodich,"ContoursofFemalePietyinLaterMedievalHagiography,"ChurchHistory50(1981):2032idem,VP,pp.17385BrendaM.Bolton, "VitaeMatrum:AFurtherAspectoftheFrauenfrage,"inBaker,MW,pp.25373Roisin,L'Hagiographie,pp.113,129. 15.See,forexample,RichardC.Trexler,"LeClibatlafindumoyenge:LesReligieusesdeFlorence,"Annales:Economies,socits,civilisations27(1972): 132950Freed,"UrbanDevelopment."Regionalvariationsinthetypesofreligiousstructuresavailabletowomenarecurrentlybeingexploredinamajorresearch projectconductedbyMaryMartinMcLaughlinandSuzanneWempleatBarnardCollege.Astudyoftheextenttowhichwomenwereoverrepresentedaswitnesses andadherentsincanonizationproceedings,regardlessofthesexofthesaint,wouldbeinstructiveasanotherindexoffemalereligiosity.Someofthematerialin Goodich,VP(esp.pp.163,209)suggeststhattheywereinfactoverrepresented,althoughGoodichdoesnotpursuethepoint. 16.GottfriedKoch,FrauenfrageundKetzertumimMittelalter:DieFrauenbewegungimRahmendesKatharismusunddesWaldensertumsundihresozialen Wurzeln:12.14.Jahrhundert,ForschungenzurmittelalterlichenGeschichte9(Berlin:AkademieVerlag,1962)EleanorC.McLaughlin,"LesFemmesetl'hrsie mdivale:UnProblmedans

Page313

l'histoiredelaspiritualit,"Concilium111(1976):7390RichardAbelsandEllenHarrison,"ThePositionofWomeninLanguedocianCatharism,"Medieval Studies41(1979):21551. 17.Thereisaverylargeliteratureontwelfthandthirteenthcenturyheresy.Fortworecentinterpretations,seeMalcolmLambert,MedievalHeresy:Popular MovementsfromBogomiltoHus(NewYork:HolmesandMeier,1977)andR.I.Moore,TheOriginsofEuropeanDissent(NewYork:St.Martin'sPress, 1977). 18.SeeRobertE.Lerner,TheHeresyoftheFreeSpiritintheLaterMiddleAges(BerkeleyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1972)EleanorC. McLaughlin,"TheHeresyoftheFreeSpiritandLateMedievalMysticism,"MedievaliaetHumanistican.s.4(1973):3754. 19.ThiswasbasicallyGrundmann'sinterpretationseeBewegungen. 20.Inadditiontotheworkscitedinn.11above,seeMcDonnell,BeguinesBrendaM.Bolton,"Mulieressanctae,"inStudiesinChurchHistory,vol.10:Derek Baker,ed.,SanctityandSecularity:TheChurchandtheWorld(1973),pp.7795andKasparElm,"DieStellungderFrauinOrdenswesen,Semireligiosentum undHresiezurZeitderheiligenElisabeth,"inUniversityofMarburg,ed.,SanktElisabeth:Frstin,Dienerin,Heilige:Aufstze,Dokumentation,Katalog (Sigmaringen:Thorbecke,1981),pp.728. 21.Lerner,"BeguinesandBeghards,"p.160Stein,"ReligiousWomenofCologne." 22.SeeBcher,FrauenfrageandGreven'ssummaryofearlierliteratureinAnfnge,pp.127.Formorerecenteconomicandsocialinterpretations,seeDayton Phillips,BeguinesinMedievalStrasburg:AStudyoftheSocialAspectofBeguineLife(Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress,1941)andErnstWernerandMartin Erbstsser,IdeologischeProblemedesmittelalterlichenPlebejertums.DiefreigeistigeHresieundihresozialenWurzeln(Berlin:AkademieVerlag,1960). 23.SeeWernerandErbstsser,IdeologischeProblemeEvaG.Neumann,RheinischesBeginenundBegardenwesen:EinMainzerBeitragzurreligisen BewegungamRhein,MainzerAbhandlungenzurmittlerenundneuerenGeschichte4(MeisenheimamGlan:Hain,1960)Freed,"UrbanDevelopment."Seealso Lerner,HeresyoftheFreeSpirit,p.231. 24.See,forexample,Bcher,FrauenfrageandDavidHerlihy,"WomeninMedievalSociety,"repr.inTheSocialHistoryofItalyandWesternEurope,700 1500,Variorumreprints(London,1978). 25.Forthereligioussurplusexplanation,seeGreven,AnfngeGrundmann,BewegungenSouthern,WesternSocietyandtheChurch,pp.31831Bolton, "Mulieressanctae." 26.Ghentmemorialof1328,inPaulFredericq,CorpusdocumentorumInquisitionishaereticaepravitatisNeerlandicae,vol.1(Ghent:Nijhoff,1889),p.176 trans.adaptedinpartfromMcDonnell,Beguines,p.83. 27.Seeabove,n.10.Onmisogynygenerally,seeDianeBornstein,"Antifeminism,"DMA,vol.1(1982),pp.32225. 28.Freed,"UrbanDevelopment"idem,FriarsandGermanSocietyStein,"ReligiousWomenofCologne." 29.AliceA.Hentsch,Delalittraturedidactiquedumoyenges'adressantspcialementauxfemmes(Cahors:Coueslant,1903)andMatthusBernards, SpeculumVirginum:GeistigkeitundSeelenlebenderFrauimHochmittelalter(Cologne:Bhlau,1955).Seealso

Page314

ClarissaAtkinson,"'PreciousBalsaminaFragileGlass':TheIdeologyofVirginityintheLaterMiddleAges,"JournalofFamilyHistory8.2(Summer1983): 13143andPeterBrown,VirginityandSociety:Men,WomenandRenunciationinLateAntiquity,forthcoming. 30.Vauchez,LaSaintet,pp.21618.Ifoneconsidersallkindsofsaintstogether,menaccountfor81.7percentoftheproceedingsand85.7percentofthe canonizationswomenaccountfor18.3percentoftheproceedingsand14.3percentofthecanonizations.Onlyinthecategoryoflaysaintsdidwomenfareslightly betterthanmen.Between1198and1431,womenaccountfor41.2percentoftheproceedingsand44.5percentofthecanonizations,menfor58.8percentofthe proceedingsand55.5percentofthecanonizations. 31.WeinsteinandBell,SS,pp.22021.SeealsoVauchez,LaSaintet,pp.24349,31618,40210JaneTibbettsSchulenberg,"SexismandtheCelestial Gynaeceumfrom500to1200,"JournalofMedievalHistory4(1978):11733andGoodich,VP,p.173.Schulenberg,usingtheBibliothecasanctorum, estimates15percentby1250,24percentby1300.Vauchez,usingcanonizationproceedings,calculatesthat16.3percentofsaintsinthethirteenthcenturyand27.3 percentintheperiodfrom1305to1431werewomen. 32.MarcGlasser,"MarriageinMedievalHagiography,"StudiesinMedievalandRenaissanceHistoryn.s.4(1981):334,esp.p.32n.58Vauchez,LaSaintet, p.442.WeinsteinandBell'stables(SS,pp.12337)indicatethatahigherpercentageoffemalethanofmalesaintsweremarriedafactthatpartlyexplainsthelarger percentageofholywomenwhoexperiencedconflictarisingfromtheirsexuallives(ibid.,p.97). 33.WeinsteinandBell,SS,pp.9799,22527Vauchez,LaSaintet,p.44045. 34.WeinsteinandBell,SS,pp.194219,221(table)Vauchez,LaSaintet,pp.24349,317.AccordingtoVauchez,womenaccountfor21.4percentofthe proceedingsamongmendicantsbutforonly12.5percentofthecanonizations. 35.Vauchez,LaSaintet,p.317. 36.IhavediscussedthistrendinBynum,JM,pp.921,25054.Vauchez,LaSaintet,pp.24360,40210,discussesthefeminizationoflaypiety,especially undermendicantauspices,andtheclericalizationofmalepiety. 37.SeeBynum,JM,p.15JeanLeclercq,"MedievalFeminineMonasticism:Realityvs.RomanticImages,"Benedictus:StudiesinHonorofSt.Benedictof Nursia,StudiesinMedievalCistercianHistory8(Kalamazoo:CistercianPublications,1981),p.61andJosefJungmann,TheMassoftheRomanRite:ItsOrigins andDevelopment(MissarumSollemnia),trans.F.A.Brunner,2vols.(NewYork:Benziger,1951,1955),vol.2,p.386n.95. 38.QuotedinFrancineCardman,"TheMedievalQuestionofWomenandOrders,"TheThomist42(1978):596.SeealsoIdaRaming,TheExclusionofWomen fromthePriesthood:DivineLaworSexDiscrimination?trans.N.R.Adams(Metuchen,N.J.:ScarecrowPress,1976),pp.8182. 39.AccordingtothetablesinGoodich,VP,pp.21140,144of518saintswhoflourishedbetween1215and1334werewomen.Ofthesefemalesaints,mostwere religiousorquasireligious.(Goodichlists131asbeingaffiliatedwithanorder,butthisnumberisprobablytoohigh[seeatn.48below].)Only36,however,arelisted aseitherabbessesorprioressesanother5aredescribedasfoundersoforders.SeealsoBynum,

Page315

JM,pp.24762,esp.p.249WeinsteinandBell,SS,pp.22138.Themostextravagantpractitionersofpenitentialasceticismandecstasieswerealmostby definitiondisqualifiedfrommajoradministrativepositions. 40.SeeEileenPower,"ThePositionofWomen,"inG.C.CrumpandE.F.Jacobs,eds.,TheLegacyoftheMiddleAges(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1926),pp. 40134JoAnnMcNamaraandSuzanneWemple,"ThePowerofWomenthroughtheFamilyinMedievalEurope,5001100,"FeministStudies1(1973):126 41idem,"SanctityandPower:TheDualPursuitofMedievalWomen,"inRenateBridenthalandC.Koonz,eds.,BecomingVisible:WomeninEuropeanHistory (Boston:HoughtonMifflin,1977),pp.90118andthevariousarticlesinHerlihy,SocialHistoryofItaly. 41.Forrecent,convincingcritiquesofthenotionofa"status"ofwomen,seeMartinKingWhyte,TheStatusofWomeninPreindustrialSocieties(Princeton: PrincetonUniversityPress,1978),esp.pp.11617MichelleZimbalistRosaldo,"TheUseandAbuseofAnthropology:ReflectionsonFeminismandCrossCultural Understanding,"Signs:JournalofWomeninCultureandSociety5(1980):401NaomiQuinn,"AnthropologicalStudiesonWomen'sStatus,"AnnualReviewof Anthropology6(1977):18183andPennySchineGold,TheLadyandtheVirgin:Image,AttitudeandExperienceinTwelfthCenturyFrance(Chicago: UniversityofChicagoPress,1985),preface. 42.Forexamplesofthesecollectivebiographies,see"Unterlinden"TssEngelthalAnnavonMunzingen,"ChronikdesKlostersAdelhausen,"ed.J.Knig, FreiburgerDizesanArchiv13(1880):13193A.Birlinger,ed.,"LebenheiligeralemannischerFrauendes14./15.Jahrhunderts,4:DieNonnenvonKirchbergbei Hagerloch,"Alemannia11(1883):120F.W.E.Roth,ed.,''AufzeichnungenberdasmystischeLebenderNonnenvonKirchbergbeiSulz,"Alemannia21(1893): 10348H.ZeIlerWerdmllerandJ.Bchtold,eds.,"DieStiftungdesKlosterstenbachunddasLebenderseligenSchwesterndaselbst,"ZrcherTaschenbuch N.F.12(1889):21376A.Birlinger,ed.,"LebenheiligeralemannischerFrauendes14./15.Jahrhunderts,5:DieNonnenvonSt.KatharinenthalbeiDieszenhofen," Alemannia15(1887):15084andKarlBihlmeyer,ed.,"MystischesLebenindemDominikanerinnenklosterWeilerbeiEsslingenim13.und14.Jahrhundert," WrttembergischeVierteljahrsheftefrLandesgeschichteN.F.25(1916):6193.SomeoftheseworksarecitedanddiscussedinBrowe,DieWunderWalter Muschg,DieMystikinderSchweiz,12001500(Frauenfeld:Huber,1935),pp.20541andLouisCognet,Introductionauxmystiquesrhnoflamands(Paris: DescledeBrouwer,1968),pp.196201andpassim. 43.Dumoutet,CD,p.125.Gerson,acentralfigureinthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturydebateoverwomen'svisions,wassuspiciousofBridgetofSwedenbut sympathetictoJoanofArc.Ingeneral,hefeltthatwomen'sreligiousenthusiasmwasexcessiveandsuspectseeJohnGerson,Deexaminationedoctrinarum,pt.1. considerations2aand3a,inJohnGerson,JoannisGersonii...omniaopera,ed.LouisElliesDupin,5vols.(Antwerp,1706),vol.1,pp.1426quotedinJulian, BookofShowings,ed.ColledgeandWalsh,vol.1,p.151.ButGerson'sDeprobationsspiritumprovidedtestsforauthenticatingvisions. 44.Lerner,HeresyoftheFreeSpiritVauchez,LaSaintet,pp.43948WeinsteinandBell,SS,pp.22832.Onmalesuspicionofvisionarywomen,seealso OttoLanger,"ZurdominikanischenFrauenmystikimsptmittelalterlichenDeutschland,"andDieter

Page316

R.Bauer,"Diskussionberblick,"inDinzelbacherandBauer,Frauenmystik,pp.34146,373. 45.OnmedievalmisogynyseeHentsch,LaLittraturedidactiqueAugustWulff,DiefrauenfeindlichenDichtungenindenRomanischenLiteraturendes MittelaltersbiszumEndedesXIII.Jahrhunderts,RomanischeArbeiten,ed.CarlVoretzsch,vol.4(Halle:Niemeyer,1914)VernL.Bullough,"MedievalMedical andScientificViewsofWomen,"Viator4(1973):48793EleanorC.McLaughlin,"EqualityofSouls,InequalityofSexes:WomeninMedievalTheology,"in RosemaryRuether,ed.,ReligionandSexism:ImagesofWomenintheJewishandChristianTraditions(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,1974),pp.21366 MarieThrsed'Alverny,"Commentlesthologiensetlesphilosophesvoientlafemme?"LaFemmedanslescivilisationsdesXeXIIIesicles:Actesducolloque tenuPoitiersles2325septembre1976,Cahiersdecivilisationmdivale20(1977):10529andBornstein,''Antifeminism."Therecentbibliographyon witchcraftisenormous:seeH.C.ErikMidelfort,"Witchcraft,MagicandtheOccult,"inStephenOzment,ed.,ReformationEurope:AGuidetoResearch(St. Louis:CenterforReformationResearch,1982),pp.183209.Forthetheorythattheromanticizationofwomen(inthecultoftheVirginandincourtlylove)maybe causallylinkedtothepersecutionofwomen,seeJeffreyB.Russell,WitchcraftintheMiddleAges(Ithaca:CornellUniversityPress,1972),p.284butseealsoE. W.Monter,"ThePedestalandtheStake:CourtlyLoveandWitchcraft,"inBridenthalandKoonz,BecomingVisible,pp.11936.Foradiscussionofthewitchasan imageofdisorderor"misrule"(i.e.,aninversionofordinarysocialstructuresandvalues),seeStuartClark,"Inversion,MisruleandtheMeaningofWitchcraft,"Past andPresent87(May1980):98127.Responsiblescholarshiponwitchcrafthaspaidsurprisinglylittleattentiontotheimagesofwomanentailedinbothwitchbelief andwitchpersecution.Fortwoworksthatdotreatthistopic,seeThomasForbes,TheMidwifeandtheWitch(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1966)and ChristinaLarner,EnemiesofGod:TheWitchHuntinScotland(London:ChattoandWindus,1981),esp.pp.34.OntheMalleusmaleficarumitself,themost extremeexampleofmedievalmisogyny,seeSydneyAnglo,"EvidentAuthorityandAuthoritativeEvidence:TheMalleusMaleficarum,"inS.Anglo,ed.,The DamnedArt:EssaysintheLiteratureofWitchcraft(London:RoutledgeandKeganPaul,1977),pp.131. 46.Anumberofwomensaintsweresuspectedofwitchcraftordemonicpossessione.g.,CatherineofSiena,LidwinaofSchiedam,andColumbaofRieti,all discussedinchapters4and5below. 47.Twentiethcenturyscholarshiphasbeeninagreementonthebasiccharacteristicsofwomen'sspirituality.See,forexample,Taylor,MedievalMind,vol.1,pp. 45886Leclercq,"MedievalFeminineMonasticism,"pp.6566andtheworkscitedinBynum,JM,pp.1419,17073,24762.Thequantitativeworkof Vauchez,LaSaintet,andWeinsteinandBell,SS,pp.22038,basicallysupportstheseearlierinterpretations.WeinsteinandBellargue(SS,p.237)thattherewas a"masculinetype"ofsaint(aholderoftemporalorecclesiasticalpower,amissionaryorpreacher,aheroicpublicfigure),calledmasculinebecausesuchapattern waslimitedtomen.Buttheycallthecontrastingtypeofsaint(characterizedbypenitentialasceticism,mysticalecstasy,andsupernaturalsigns,especiallyvisionsand miraculousbodilychanges)"androgynous"ratherthan"feminine"becausesuchspiritualconcerns,althoughmoreprominentinwomen'slives,arefound

Page317

inmen'salso.If,however,apietycanbecharacteristicofwomenonlyifitislimitedtothembycanonlaworsocialconvention,therecanbenopietycharacteristic ofwomenbecausethereisnoreligiousroleexclusivetothem(nunbeingonlyafemaleversionofmonkandbeguinehavingamalecounterpart,beghard).Itseems better,therefore,tospeakofawomen'spietywhenwefind,aswedointhethirteenthtothefifteenthcentury,certaindevotionalemphases(forexample,suffering) significantlymorepopularwithwomen,especiallyiftheseemphasesare(asIargueinchapter9below)closelytiedtoculturalstereotypesof"thefemale."The compositepictureofwomenmysticsinElizabethPetroff,ConsolationoftheBlessed(NewYork:AltaGaiaSociety,1979),pp.182,overinterpretsthe evidenceinitstheoryof"sevenstages"andoveremphasizesthe"feminine"elementinvisions,butithasbrilliantinsights.Onthegeneralquestion,seethewise wordsofDronke,WW,pp.xxi.SeealsoPeterDinzelbacher,''EuropischeFrauenmystikdesMittelalters.Einberblick,"inDinzelbacherandBauer, Frauenmystik,pp.1123. 48.Boltonmakesthispointin"VitaeMatrum,"p.260. 49.Seebelow,chap.4andSimoneRoisin,"LaMthodehagiographiquedeThomasdeCantimpr,"MiscellaneahistoricainhonoremAlbertideMeyer,2vols. (Louvain:BibliothquedeI'Universit,1946),vol.1,p.552. 50.WeinsteinandBell,SS,pp.1947.Thetablesonpp.12337indicatethatofthe646malesaintssurveyed,357(55percent)convertedasteenagersandonly96 (15percent)aschildrenof172femalesaints,55(31percent)convertedaschildrenand58(34percent)asadolescents.Ihavediscussedthesignificanceofthis findingatgreaterlengthinCarolineW.Bynum,"Women'sStories,Women'sSymbols:ACritiqueofVictorTurner'sTheoryofLiminality,"inFrankReynoldsand RobertMoore,eds.,AnthropologyandtheStudyofReligion(Chicago:CenterfortheScientificStudyofReligion,1984),pp.10525.Seealsobelow,chap.10n. 51. 51.Seebelow,chap.4.OnUmilianadeiCerchi,seeVauchez,LaSaintet,p.244. 52.See,forexample,thecaseofFrancescade'PonzianiofRome,inWeinsteinandBell,SS,pp.3940. 53.SeeBynum,"Women'sStories,Women'sSymbols." 54.WeinsteinandBell,SS,pp.22038Vauchez,LaSaintet,pp.24356. 55.Seebelow,pp.7677,200201,and21011. 56.AttheprayersofTiedalaofNivelles,amonkofVillersreceivedtheChristchildathisbreastseeMcDonnell,Beguines,p.328andBrowe,DieWunder,p. 106.ElizabethPetroff(Consolation,p.74)pointsoutthattheItalianwomensaintsshehasstudiednursedonlyfromChrist,neverfromMary,intheirvisions.Anun ofTss,however,receivedthe"pure,tenderbreast"ofMaryintohermouthtosuckbecauseshehelpedMaryreartheChristchild(Tss,pp.5455).AndLukardis ofOberweimarhadavisionofMarynursingJesusuponasking,shereceivedMary'sbreasttodrinkfromandtasted"greatdelightbeyondhumansweetness"(Lifeof Lukardis,AB18[1899]:31819).FormenwhonursedfromMary,seebelow,chap.9n.56. 57.Seeabove,n.47ErnstBenz,DieVision:ErfahrungsformenundBilderwelt(Stuttgart:Klett,1969)andPeterDinzelbacher,VisionundVisionsliteraturim Mittelalter(Stuttgart:Hiersemann,1981),pp.22628.Onthebasisofthetablesonpp.12337ofWeinsteinandBell,SS,itappearsthatwomensaints,whowere about18percentof

Page318

thosecanonized,accountforabouthalfofthesaintswhowereespeciallydevotedtoJesusbutforonlyaboutathirdofthesaintscharacterizedbydevotionto Mary.Suchastatisticdoesnotsupportthenotionthatwomenturnedespeciallytofemalefiguresasmediators.Insofarasthesewomendiddisplaysomewhat moreattachmenttoMarythandidmen,thefactseemsaccountedforbythegreateraffectivityoffemalepietygenerally:womenweremoreinterestedinall membersoftheHolyFamily(includingJoseph,Anne,andJoachim)thanweremen.Roisin,L'Hagiographie,pp.108,111120,hasfoundthatinthirteenth centuryCistercianvisionsfromthenorthofEurope,theVirginismoreimportanttomen.ThehumanityofChristis,however,moreimportanttowomen. 58.WeinsteinandBell,SS,p.216. 59.Vauchez,LaSaintetWeinsteinandBell,SSKieckhefer,UnSGoodich,"ContoursofFemalePiety."Onreclusesandtheeremiticallife,seeLouisGougaud, Ermitesetreclus:Etudessurd'anciennesformesdeviereligieuse(Ligug:AbbayeSaintMartindeLigug,1928),andL'EremitismoinOccidenteneiSecoliXI eXII,Pubblicazionidell'UniversitcattolicadelSacroCuore,MiscellaneadelCentrodiStudiMedioevali4Contributi3ser.,Varia4(Milan:SocietEditriceVitae Pensiero,1965). 60.OnAngela,seebelow,chap.4onMechtild,seeBynum,JM,pp.22847onChristina,seeTalbot,LifeofChristinaofMarkyate,andChristopherJ. Holdsworth,"ChristinaofMarkyate,"inBaker,MW,pp.185204onCatherineofSiena,seebelow,chap.5. 61.SeeBynum,JM,pp.24047,25255Goodich,"ContoursofFemalePiety"Roisin,L'Hagiographie,pp.113,129. 62.SeeColumbaHart,IntroductiontoHart,Hadewijch:Works,p.4.OnHadewijch,seebelow,chap.5. 63.Vauchezindeedadmitsthis(LaSaintet,pp.25556). 64.Seebelow,chap.4,fortheFlemishsaints,especiallyLidwinaofSchiedam,andchap.5forthetwoItalianCatherines,ofSienaandofGenoa,andforBeatriceof Nazareth. 65.Homeyimagesareverycommoninwomen'svisions.See,forexample,mydiscussionofthenunsofHelftainBynum,JM,pp.170262ElsbetStagel'saccount ofthevisionsofthenunsofTssinTssthevisionsofthelaywomanMargeryKempe,inS.B.MeechandHopeEmilyAllen,eds.,TheBookofMargeryKempe, EarlyEnglishTextSociety212(London:OxfordUniversityPress,1940)andPetroff'sdiscussionofItaliannunsandtertiariesinConsolation.Forexamplesof women'svisionsofJesusasbaby,seeBynum,"WomenMystics,"p.189.Menalsousedhomeyimagerysee,forexample,thediscussionofSusoinchap.3below. 66.OnGertrudeofHelfta,seeBynum,JM,pp.186209onGertrudevanOosten,seebelow,chap.3,andonMargeryKempe,below,chap.7. 67.Seebelow,pp.26367and29093. 68.Forexamplesofmalewriterswhosawwomenasweakandurgedthemtospiritualvirility,seeJohnTauler,Sermon33,FourthSermonforCorpusChristi,in Tauler,DiePredigten,pp.12930LifeofIdaofLouvain,AASSApril,vol.2(Paris,1865),p.159,wheretheanonymous(almostcertainlymale)compiler, workingfrommaterialprovidedbyIda'sconfessor,saysthatIda"wasnotawomanorlazybutlikea

Page319

strongmaninconstancy"andthatthedevilwasfrustratedbyher"manlyboldness"LifeofJulianaofCornillon,AASSApril,vol.1(Paris,1866),p.442,wherea maleauthorwritesthatJulianahastenedtoperfection,"hersexforgotten,"althoughshe"hadcorporealfragilitybehindwhichmanyhidetheircowardiceand lukewarmness''LifeofIdaofLau,AASSOctober,vol.13(Paris,1883),p.112,whereamaleauthorsaysIda"waslikeamanseizingweapons"andfoughtthe devil"virilely,notinawomanlyway."ThomasofCelano,inhisprefatoryletter(addressedtoPopeAlexanderIV)totheLifeofClareofAssisi(inFrancesco Pennacchi,ed.,LegendasanctaeClaraevirginis,SocietinternazionaledistudiFrancescaniinAssisi[Assisi:Tipografiametastasio,1910],pp.13),callsClare a"modelfortheweakersex"andstressesherimitatioMarine(incontrasttoFrancis'simitationofJesus),althoughClare'sownwritings,editedinthesame volume,stressimitatioChristi.Seealsochap.5belowonCatherineofSienaandUmbertoMattioli,"LaTipologia'virile'nellabiografiaenellaletteratura cateriniana,"Atti,CongressoInternazionalediStudiCateriniani,SienaRoma,2429Aprile1980(Rome:CuriaGeneraliziaO.P.,1981),pp.198222. 69.Caesarius,Dialogus,Distinctio8,chaps.7178,vol.2,pp.14148,areonconfessorsDist.8,chaps.7989,vol.2,pp.14856,areaboutvirgins. 70.Seeabove,n.1,andbelow,chap.2atn.119. 71.Seeabove,n.68andWeinsteinandBell,SS,pp.23536. 72.JohnAnson,"TheFemaleTransvestiteinEarlyMonasticism:TheOriginandDevelopmentofaMotif,"Viator5(1974):132. 73.See,forexample,theworksonthequestionofordinationcitedinn.38aboveMcNamaraandWemple,"PowerofWomen"idem,"SanctityandPower"E. McLaughlin,"EqualityofSouls"RosemaryRuether,"MisogynismandVirginalFeminismintheFathersoftheChurch,"inRuether,ReligionandSexism,pp.15083 MarinaWarner,AloneofAllHerSex:TheMythandtheCultoftheVirginMary(NewYork:Knopf,1976)idem,JoanofArc:TheImageofFemaleHeroism (NewYork:Knopf,1981)CarolP.Christ,"HereticsandOutsiders:TheStruggleoverFemalePowerinWesternReligion,"Soundings61.3(1978):26080and Petroff,Consolation. 74.Arelatedproblemisthetendencyofrecentwritersonspiritualitytoignorewomen'sperspective.Vauchez,LaSaintet,andWeinsteinandBell,SS,forexample, treatthenotionofwomanassexualtemptation,foundinmisogynistwriting,asthekeyreligiousconcernbearingdownonwomen.GeorgesDuby,TheKnight,the LadyandthePriest:TheMakingofModernMarriageinMedievalFrance,trans.BarbaraBray(NewYork:Pantheon,1983),treatsmarriageastheexchangeof womenbymen.Allthreeauthors,althoughanimatedbyarhetoricallyheightenedconcernforwomen'ssuffering,treatwomanasobject,viewedby,manipulatedby, subjugatedby,oradmiredbymen,ratherthanassubject,generatingherownspirituality. 75.Forapsychoanalyticinterpretationofwhyfoodisasymbolofmutilationandaggression,seeLillianMalcove,"BodilyMutilationandLearningtoEat," PsychoanalyticQuarterly2(1933):55761.SeealsoPeggyReevesSanday,DivineHungerandCannibalMonsters:CannibalismasaCulturalSystem (Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,forthcoming).Sandayshowstheconnection,inanumberofcultures,betweencannibalism(actualormetaphorical)and widespreaduseofsymbolstakenfromphysiological

Page320

processes.Forastartlingevocationoftheeucharistascannibalism,seeFrancineduPlessixGray,WorldwithoutEnd(NewYork:PBJ,1982),pp.13637. 2 FastandFeast: TheHistoricalBackground 1.PopeLeotheGreat,Sermon20,NinthSermonfortheDecemberFast,pars.23,PL54,cols.18990.OnLeo'snotionoffasting,seeAlexandreGuillaume, JeneetcharitdansI'gliselatinedesoriginesauXIIesicleenparticulierchezsaintLonleGrand(Paris:EditionsS.O.S.,1954).Forthesamesentiment, seePeterChrysologus(d.450),Sermon41,PL52,col.317:"Fratres,sintdeliciaepauperumnostrajejunia,uttemporalejejuniumnostruminaeternaspossitnobis deliciasimmutari." 2.Seeabove,pp.1and34. 3.Augustine,CityofGod,bk.10,chap.6,PL41,col.284CHilary,TractatusinCXXVpsalmum,par.6,PL9,col.688BCidem,DeTrinitate,bk.8,chaps. 1314,PL10,cols.24647,esp.col.246:"Eosnunc,quiinterPatremetFiliumvoluntatisingeruntunitatem,interrogoutrumnepernaturaeveritatemhodieChristus innobissit,anperconcordiamvoluntatis?SienimvereVerbumcarofactumest,etverenosVerbumcarnemcibodominicosumimusquomodononnaturaliter manereinnobisexistimandusest,quietnaturamcarnisnostraejaminseparabilemsibihomonatusassumpsit,etnaturamcarnissuaeadnaturamaeternitatissub sacramentonobiscommunicandaecarnisadmiscuit?Itaenimomnesunumsumus,quiaetinChristoPaterest,etChristusinnobisest.QuisquisergonaturaliterPatrem inChristonegabit,negetpriusnonnaturalitervelseinChristo,velChristumsibiinessequiainChristoPater,etChristusinnobis,unuminhisessenosfaciunt.Sivere igiturcarnemcorporisnostriChristusassumpsit,etverohomoille,quiexMarianatusfuit,Christusest,nosqueveresubmysteriocarnemcorporissuisumimus(etper hocunumerimus,quiaPaterineoest,etilleinnobis)quomodovoluntatisunitasasseritur,cumnaturalispersacramentumproprietas,perfectaesacramentumsit unitatis." 4.AlanofLille,Summadeartepraedicatoria,chap.34:Dejejunio,PL210,col.177D. 5.Aquinas,ST,II,IIae,q.148:Degula,art.3,vol.43,pp.12224.ForthepatristicnotionthatAdam'ssinwasgluttony,seeHerbertMusurillo,"TheProblemof AsceticalFastingintheGreekPatristicWriters,"Traditio12(1956)17n.43. 6.Ambrose,Hymn3:Splendorpaternaegloriae,inA.S.Walpole,EarlyLatinHymns(London:CambridgeUniversityPress,1922),p.38.BecauseLatinhymns losesomuchinliteraltranslationandmaybefamiliartomanyreaders,Ihavecitedthemintheoriginal. 7.ClemensBlume,ed.,Analectahymnicamediiaevi,vol.54(Leipzig:Reisland,1915),p.257trans.adaptedfromJosephConnelly,HymnsoftheRoman Liturgy(Westminster,Md.:NewmanPress,1957),p.130.Forothereucharisticsequencesofthethirteenthandfourteenthcenturies,seeBlume,Analectahymnica, vol.54,pp.258ff. 8.Cyprian,Letter63,PL4,cols.37289,esp.384B:"Quoetipsosacramentopopulusnosterostendituradunatusut,quemadmodumgranamultainunumcollecta etcommolitaetcommistapanemunumfaciunt,sicinChristo,quiestpaniscoelestis,unum

Page321

sciamusessecorpus,cuiconjunctussitnosternumerusetadunatus."SeealsoAdalbertHamman,"Mystreeucharistique,"inDS,vol.4,pt.2(1961),cols.1570 71. 9.ForCyprian,seeabove,n.8GregorytheGreat,40homiliaruminEvangelia,Homily15,par.5,PL76,col.1137.AquinasquotesGregoryinST,II,IIae,q. 147,art.2,vol.43,p.94. 10.ForLeo,seeabove,n.1andseeGuillaume,Jene,p.83. 11.SeeJ.A.MacCullough,"Fasting,"EncyclopediaofReligionandEthics,ed.JamesHastingsetal.,13vols.(NewYork:Scribner's,19081927),vol.5,pp. 75965HenriLeclercq,"Jenes,"Dictionnaired'archologiechrtienneetdeliturgie,ed.FernandCabrolandHenriLeclercq,vol.7,pt.2(Paris:Letouzeyet An,1927),cols.2481504A.Villien,''Abstinence,"inDictionnairededroitcanonique,vol.1(Paris:LetouzeyetAn,1935),cols.12935PlacideDeseille, "Jene,"inDS,vol.8,pt.2(1974),cols.116479F.Mugnier,"Abstinence,"inDS,vol.1,cols.11233RudolphArbesmann,"FastingandProphecyinPaganand ChristianAntiquity,"Traditio7(19491951):172Goody,Cooking,CuisineandClass,pp.11619andEricN.Rogers,Fasting:ThePhenomenonofSelf Denial(Nashville:Nelson,1976),aninterestingpopularaccountthat,unfortunately,lacksadequatedocumentation. 12.MacCullough,"Fasting,"p.760Deseille,"Jene,"col.1165Arbesmann,"FastingandProphecy,"pp.78. 13.Seeworkscitedinn.11above,andMusurillo,"AsceticalFasting,"pp.164. 14.Seeesp.Musurillo,"AsceticalFasting,"p.62.Ofcourse,theearlyChristianswerealsoreactingagainstJewishfoodprohibitionsand,therefore,againstfood prohibitionsasameansofgroupdefinition.MarcelSimon("Del'observancerituellel'ascse,"RevuedeI'histoiredesreligions193[1978]:77)suggeststhatfree accesstofoodwasboughtbytherenunciationofmarriage.ButcompareGoody,Cooking,CuisineandClass,pp.14445. 15.Augustine,Sermon207,ThirdSermonforLent,par.1,PL38,col.1043. 16.Augustine,Sermon210,SixthSermonforLent,chap.10,par.12,PL38,col.1053.Onthenewawarenessofthepoorinthelateantiqueworld,seeEvelyne Patlagean,PauvretconomiqueetpauvretsocialeByzance:4e7esicles(Paris:Mouton,1977). 17.Maximus,Sermon50a,par.3,ed.AlmutMutzenbecher,Corpuschristianorum,serieslatina23(Turnhout:Brepols,1962),p.203. 18.Walpole,Hymns,pp.32021. 19.IsidoreofSeville,Deecclesiasticisofficiis,bk.1,chap.44,PL83,col.776B. 20.Arbesmann,"FastingandProphecy,"p.3. 21.ClementofAlexandria,Eclogaepropheticae,14.2,ClemensAlexandrinus,ed.OttoSthlin,vol.3,DiegriechischenchristlichenSchriftstellerderersten Jahrhunderte17(Berlin:AkademieVerlag,1970),p.140quotedandtrans.byMusurillo,"AsceticalFasting,"p.13. 22.AbbotNilus,Tractatusdeoctospiritibusmalitiae,chap.1,PG79,col.1145Bquotedandtrans.byMusurillo,"AsceticalFasting,"p.16. 23.[Pseudo]Athanasius,Devirginitate,chap.7,ed.EduardF.vonderGoltz,TexteundUntersuchungenzurGeschichtederaltchristlichenLiteraturN.F.14 (Leipzig:Hinrichs,1905),p.41quotedandtrans.byMusurillo,"AsceticalFasting,"p.17. 24.AlineRousselle,"AbstinenceetcontinencedanslesmonastresdeGaulemri

Page322

dionalelafindeI'antiquitetaudbutdumoyenge:Etuded'unrgimealimentaireetdesafonction,"HommageAndrDupont:Etudesmdivales languedociennes(Montpellier:FdrationHistoriqueduLanguedocMediterranenetduRousillon,UniversitPaulValery,1974),pp.23954. 25.JohnCassian,Institutionscnobitiques,bk.5,chap.11,ed.JeanClaudeGuy,SC109,Sr.mon.17(1965),p.206.CassianevenattributedSodom'sfallto gluttonyseeJohnBoswell,Christianity,SocialToleranceandHomosexuality:GayPeopleinWesternEuropefromtheBeginningsoftheChristianErato theFourteenthCentury(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1980),p.98. 26.Jerome,Letter54,par.9,SanctiEusebiiHieronymiepistulae,pt.1,ed.IsidoreHilberg,Corpusscriptorumecclesiasticorumlatinorum54(Vienna:Tempsky undFreytag,1910),p.476. 27.Seeworkscitedabove,n.11,andF.Cabrol,"Carme,"inDictionnairededroitcanonique,vol.2(1937),cols.134554. 28.EmberDayswereWednesday,Friday,andSaturdayfasts,observedinthefourth,seventh,andtenthmonthsoftheyear.SeeArbesmann,"Fastingand Prophecy,"p.44. 29.Arbesmann,"FastingandProphecy,"pp.35,3437. 30.SeeMugnier,"Abstinence."OnIrishpractice,seeLouisGougaud,ChristianityinCelticLands:AHistoryoftheChurchesoftheCelts,TheirOrigin,Their Development...,trans.MaudJoynt(London:SheedandWard,1932),pp.9699andJohnRyan,IrishMonasticism:OriginsandEarlyDevelopment(London: Longmans,Green,1931),pp.38697.Ryan(p.392)tellsofthreeIrishmonkswhodiedfromfasting. 31.RuleofSt.Benedict,chaps.3941,43,49,inTimothyFryetal.,eds.,RB1980(Collegeville,Minn.:LiturgicalPress,1981),pp.23840,24244,252.(See alsop.433.)Inadditiontothefastsprescribedbythechurch,Benedictalsoprescribesfastsi.e.,daysonwhichthebrothersdonoteatuntilafterNone(about3:00 P.M.)onWednesdaysandFridaysfromPentecosttoSeptember14andoneveryweekdaythereafteruntilLent.SeeDavidKnowles,"TheDietofBlackMonks," DownsideReview52,n.s.33(1934):27390,esp.p.276reprintedinidem,TheMonasticOrderinEngland:AHistoryof1tsDevelopmentfromtheTimesof St.DunstantotheFourthLateranCouncil,9401216(19402ded.,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1963),pp.45665.Thedietaryregimeof WesternmonksbeforeBenedictwasmoresevere:seeRousselle,"Abstinence,"p.246. 32.Mugnier,"Abstinence,"col.122. 33.JohnChrysostom,HomilyonMatthew4647,PG58,col.480quotedandtrans.byMusurillo,"AsceticalFasting,"p.41.Johngoesontosaythathedoesnot wishtodenigrateortrivializefastingbut,rather,topointoutthatfastingisnotsufficientforsalvationifotherpracticesandvirtuesareneglected. 34.GregoryofNyssa,Devirginitate,chap.21,PG46,col.401CquotedbyMusurillo,"AsceticalFasting,"p.40. 35.Musurillo,"AsceticalFasting,"pp.5051. 36.CuthbertButler,ed.,TheLausiacHistoryofPalladius...,2vols.(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,18981904),vol.2,p.52.SeeArbesmann, "FastingandProphecy,"p.34 37.JohnChrysostom,Destudiopraesentium,Homily5,PG63,col.489quotedand

Page323

trans.byMusurillo,"AsceticalFasting,"p.7.Chrysostomgoesontopointoutthatthesewomencaredforthesickandpreparedfoodforothers.Womenalso advisedfoodasceticism.IntheSayingsoftheFathers,acertainSyncleticaisreportedasurgingherfollowersnottobeseducedbythedelightsoftheworld.She admonishes:"Othersholdasvaluabletheartofcookingbutyou,throughfastsandvilefood,gobeyondtheminabundanceofnourishment"(Apopththegmata Patrum,sayingsofSyncletica,par.5[87],PG65,col.422C). 38.RomanosMelodes,Hymnes,ed.JosGrosdidierdeMatons,5vols.,SC99,110,114,128,283(19641981),vol.1,pp.32837. 39.Ibid.,pp.364403. 40.Ibid.,p.390. 41.Ibid.,pp.39294. 42.Ibid.,vol.3,pp.11031. 43.Ibid.,vol.4,p.550. 44.Ibid.,p.556. 45.Ibid.,vol.3,p.168. 46.Foramodernstatementofthissensibility,seeAlexandreSchmemann,"Jeneetliturgie,"Irenikon27(1954):292301. 47.Ingeneral,WesternChristiansthroughouttheMiddleAgeswererequiredbothtofast(thatis,torefrainfromeatinguntileveningormidafternoon)andtoabstain frommeatand,usually,fromotherfoodofanimaloriginonallFridaysandSaturdays,onthequarterdays,onthevigilsofafewgreatfeasts(e.g.,Christmas),andon allthedaysofLentexceptSundays.Completefastwasrequiredbeforereceptionofcommunion.Forabriefdiscussion,seeP.M.J.Clancy,"FastandAbstinence," NewCatholicEncyclopedia(NewYork:McGrawHill,1967),vol.5,pp.84650.Onabstinence,seeAquinas,ST,II,IIae,q.147,art.8,vol.43,pp.11416. AsAquinasnotes,therewaslocalvariationinwhetherabstinencefromeggs,milk,andmilkproductswasrequired. 48.Lambert,HistoryoftheCountsofGuines,chap.113,MGH.SS,vol.24(1879repr.ed.NewYork:KrausReprint,1964),p.615citedinDuby,The Knight,theLadyandthePriest,p.263. 49.BarbaraKetchamWheaton,SavoringthePast:TheFrenchKitchenandTablefrom1300to1789(Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,1983),pp. 1214andBridgetAnnHenisch,FastandFeast:FoodinMedievalSociety(UniversityPark:PennsylvaniaStateUniversityPress,1976),pp.2858.Fora descriptionofmedievaltreatmentsoffoodfromamedicalpointofview,seeLynnThorndike,"ThreeTractsonFoodinBaselManuscripts,"BulletinoftheHistory ofMedicine8(1940):35556. 50.Mugnier,"Abstinence,"cols.12329E.Vacandard,"Carme,jenede,"inDTC,vol.2,cols.173744Guillaume,Jene,pp.15563GerdZimmermann, OrdenslebenundLebensstandard.Die"CuraCorporis''indenOrdensvorschriftendesabendlndischenHochmittelalters,BeitrgezurGeschichtedesalten MnchtumsunddesBenediktinerordens32(Mnster:Aschendorff,1973),pp.4051. 51.Aquinas,ST,II,IIae,q.147,art.4,vol.43,pp.98104. 52.Wheaton,SavoringthePast,p.12.Seealsobelow,n.124. 53.SeeColker,AnalectaDublinensia,p.57andKnowles,"Diet,"pp.28082. 54.Aquinas,ST,II,IIae,q.148,arts.46,vol.43,pp.12434.

Page324

55.Zimmermann,Ordensleben,pp.4041. 56.Mugnier,"Abstinence,"cols.12329.SeealsoPeterDamian'saccountsofSaintsRomuald,Venerius,andRudolph,PL144,cols.96162,97475,1011and idem,DeQuadragesimaetQuadragintaduabusHebraeorummansionibus,PL145,cols.54345. 57.OnthispointseeGilesConstable,AttitudestowardSelfInflictedSufferingintheMiddleAges,NinthStephenJ.Brademas,Sr.,Lecture(Brookline,Mass.: HellenicCollegePress,1982),pp.2122. 58.Bonaventure,Vitismystica,additamentum5,chap.42,par.135,Operaomnia,vol.8(Quaracchi:CollegiumS.Bonaventurae,1898),pp.21617.Theconcern for"circumstances"herereflectsadesiretoavoidscandalizingothers. 59.PeterofCelle,Sermon15,PL202,col.681CD.SeealsotheLentenSermonsofIsaacofStella,PL194,cols.1787f.,esp.col.1791. 60.PetertheChanter,Verbumabbreviatum:Opusmorale,chap.133,PL205,col.328. 61.BernardofClairvaux,Sermon3forLent,pars.24,PL183,cols.175C76C. 62.QuotedfromSuso'slettertoElsbetStagelinLifeofSuso,inSuso,DeutscheSchriften,p.107trans.M.AnnEdwardinTheExemplar:LifeandWritingsof BlessedHenrySuso,O.P.,ed.NicholasHeller,2vols.(Dubuque:PrioryPress,1962),vol.1,p.103. 63.AlanofLille,Summa,chap.34,PL210,cols.17678quotedpassagesat176D77A,178AC. 64.Aquinas,ST,II,IIae,qq.14647,vol.43,pp.82117,esp.pp.92,106. 65.Seebelowatnn.1034. 66.Quoted,respectively,fromthe"Pange,lingua":"Observatalegeplene/Cibusinlegalibus,/Cibumturbaeduodenae/Sedatsuismanibus"(AquinasByrnes,ed.,The HymnsoftheDominicanMissalandBreviary[St.Louis:Herder,1943],p.168)and"Sacrissolemniis":"Noctisrecolitur/Cenanovissima,/QuaChristus creditur/Agnumetazyma/Dedissefratribus/Juxtalegitima/Priscisindultapatribus"(ibid.,p.172). 67.Ibid.,p.174.Seealso"Lauda,Sion,Salvatorem"inibid.,pp.18088. 68.Tubach,Index.Seeentriesfor"abstinence,""fasting,""bread,""loavesandfishes,"''meat,""host,"and"chalice." 69.Onearlymonasticism,seeDerwasJ.Chitty,TheDesertaCity:AnIntroductiontotheStudyofEgyptianandPalestinianMonasticismundertheChristian Empire(1966repr.London:Mowbray,1977).Forapsychoanalyticinterpretationofmonasticismasasubstituteformartyrdom,seeCarlA.Mounter,"Guilt, MartyrdomandMonasticism,"JournalofPsychohistory:AQuarterlyJournalofChildhoodandPsychohistory,9.2(Fall1981):14571. 70.SeeP.Brown,"ResponsetoGrant." 71.SeeVictorSaxer,Morts,martyrs,reliquesenAfriquechrtienneauxpremierssicles:LesTmoignagesdeTertullien,CyprienetAugustinlalumire deI'archologieafricaine,Thologiehistorique55(Paris:Beauchesne,1980),pp.14149. 72.See,forexample,Bede'saccountofPopeGregory'sletterof601tothemissionaryMellitusBede,AHistoryoftheEnglishChurchandPeople,bk.1,chap. 30,trans.LeoSherleyPriceandR.E.Latham(rev.ed.,Harmondsworth:Penguin,1968),p.87.SeealsoRonaldC.Finucane,MiraclesandPilgrims:Popular BeliefsinMedievalEngland(Totowa:RowmanandLittlefield,1977),pp.3132.

Page325

73.WayneA.Meeks(TheFirstUrbanChristians:TheSocialWorldoftheApostlePaul[NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1983],p.158)pointsoutthat festivemealswerecommoninthevoluntaryassociationsoftheMediterraneanworldandthatourearliestevidenceaboutChristianitysuggeststhatoutsiderssawthe eucharistinthisway. 74.A.Hamman,E.Longpr,E.Bertaud,etal.,"Eucharistie,"inDS,vol.4,pt.2(1961),cols.15531648,esp.cols.156896. 75.RobertMurray,SymbolsofChurchandKingdom:AStudyinEarlySyriacTradition(London:CambridgeUniversityPress,1975),pp.7679,quoted passagesonpp.77and76,respectively.OnCyprianandRomanos,seeabove,nn.8,3845. 76.FeeleyHarnik,Lord'sTable,pp.13964.Meeks(FirstUrbanChristians,pp.15763)alsostressestheextenttowhich"thesingleloafusedintheritual symbolizestheunity...ofthecommunity."Heemphasizesthat"PaulusesthesymbolismoftheSupperritualnotonlytoenhancetheinternalcoherence,unity,and equalityoftheChristiangroup,butalsotoprotectitsboundariesvisvisotherkindsofculticassociation"(p.159). 77.SeeHamman,"Mystreeucharistique,"cols.155386,andJ.H.Strawley,"Eucharist,"EncyclopediaofReligionandEthics,vol.5,pp.54063. 78.Walpole,Hymns,pp.35051. 79.Ibid.,pp.34546.The"Sancti,uenite"istheoldesteucharistichymninexistence. 80.Dumoutet,CDF.BaixandC.Lambot,LaDvotionl'eucharistieetIeVIIecentenairedelaFteDieu(Gembloux:Duculot,1964)PeterBrowe,Die VerehrungderEucharistieimMittelalter(Munich:Hueber,1933)JulesCorblet,Histoiredogmatique,liturgiqueetarchologiquedusacrementde l'eucharistie,2vols.(Paris:SocitGnraledeLibrairieCatholique,18851886). 81.DecreesoftheFourthLateranCouncil,inHenryDenzinger,Enchiridionsymbolorum:Definitionumetdeclarationumderebusfideietmorum,34thed.,ed. A.Schnmetzer(Freiburg:Herder,1967),document802,p.260.Notethecloseconnectionbetweenthenotionoftheunityandexclusivityofthechurchandthe doctrinethattheeucharistisGod'sbodyandblood. 82.SeeBrowe,DieWunderDumoutet,CD.SeealsoEdouardDumoutet,LeDsirdevoirI'hostieetlesoriginesdeladvotionauSaintSacrement,Universit deStrasbourg(Paris:Beauchesne,1926). 83.Dumoutet,CD,pp.10910. 84.SeeAquinas,ST,III,qq.7576,vol.58,pp.52122.SeealsoDumoutet,CD. 85."Pange,lingua"inStephenGaselee,ed.,TheOxfordBookofMedievalLatinVerse(repr.Oxford:ClarendonPress,1937),p.144andByrnes,Hymns,p. 168trans.adaptedfromConnelly,Hymns,p.120.InwritingtheofficeforCorpusChristi,Thomasborrowedfromanearlieroffice.Theextentofhis"authorship"of thesehymnsisindoubtseeBaixandLambot,LaDvotion,pp.8991.SeealsoF.T.E.Raby,AHistoryofChristianLatinPoetryfromtheBeginningstothe CloseoftheMiddleAges,2ded.(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1953),pp.40214. 86."Sacrissolemniis,"inByrnes,Hymns,p.172trans.adaptedfromConnelly,Hymns,pp.12123. 87."Verbumsupernumprodiens,"inGaselee,MedievalLatinVerse,p.145trans.adaptedfromConnelly,Hymns,p.123.

Page326

88."Lauda,Sion,Salvatorem,"inGaselee,MedievalLatinVerse,pp.14647andByrnes,Hymns,pp.18088trans.adaptedfromConnelly,Hymns,p.126. 89.Dumoutet,CD,pp.150. 90.Seetheworkscitedinnn.74and80,above,esp.EmileBertaud,"Dvotioneucharistique:Esquissehistorique,"DS,vol.4,pt.2,cols.1621ff. 91.LionelRothkrug,"PopularReligionandHolyShrines:TheirInfluenceontheOriginsoftheGermanReformationandTheirRoleinGermanCulturalDevelopment," inJamesObelkevich,ed.,ReligionandthePeople,8001700(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1979),pp.3032. 92.LouisGougaud,"Etudesurlarclusionreligieuse,"RevueMabillon13(1923):8687. 93.SeeBaixandLambot,LaDvotion,p.67.Inhissynodalstatutes,OdoofSully,bishopofParis(11961208),requiredhisprieststoelevatethehost.The practiceexistedintheCistercianorderbefore1210seeMcDonnell,Beguines,p.311.SeealsoBrowe,DieVerehrung,p.35M.CamilleHontoir,"LaDvotionau saintSacrementchezlespremierscisterciens(XIIeXIIIesicles),"StudiaeucharisticaDCCanniaconditofestosanctissimiCorporisChristi(Antwerp:De NederlandscheBoekhandel,1946),pp.13256andAntonL.Mayer,"DieheilbringendeSchauinSitteundKult,"inOdoCasel,ed.,Heiligeberlieferung: AusschnitteausderGeschichtedesMnchtumsunddesheiligenKultes:...[fr]IldefonsHerwegen,BeitrgezurGeschichtedesAltenMnchtumsunddes Benediktinerordens,Supplementband(Mnster:Aschendorff,1938). 94.Browe,DieVerehrungJungmann,MassoftheRomanRite,vol.1,pp.11921,andvol.2,pp.206ff. 95.TheincidentiscitedbyRothkrug,"PopularReligion,"p.36,andbyAntonMayer,DieLiturgieindereuropaischenGeistesgeschichte:GesammelteAufstze, ed.E.vonSeverus(Darmstadt:WissenschaftlicheBuchgesellschaft,1971),p.45,referringtoEdouardDumoutet,L'lconographiedeI'introitduIerdimanchede I'avent...(1925),pp.3436,whichIhavebeenunabletoconsult. 96.SeeJohnMarienwerder,SeptililiumB.Dorotheae,treatise3:Deeucharistia,chap.2,ed.FranciscusHipler,inAB3(1884):409.Inhisworkonthelifeof Christ,LudolfofSaxonyassimilated"eating"to"seeing":''VeniasetnihilominusquotidieutvideasJesusinpraesepiospiritual,scilicetinaltari,utcarnissuaefrumento mereariscumanimalibussanctisrefici"(quotedinMaryImmaculateBodenstedt,The"VitaChristi"ofLudolphustheCarthusian,CatholicUniversityofAmerica StudiesinMedievalandRenaissanceLatinLanguageandLiterature16[Washington,D.C.:CatholicUniversityofAmericaPress,1944],p.133n.94). 97.Seeesp.BaixandLambot,LaDvotion,pp.75ff.andBertaud,"Dvotioneucharistique,"cols.162137. 98.Bertaud,"Dvotioneucharistique,"col.1632. 99.BaixandLambot,LaDvotion,pp.11323Gougaud,DAP,pp.75130andBynum,JM,pp.13233,173n.12,19193. 100.TheodorKlauser,AShortHistoryoftheWesternLiturgy:AnAccountandSomeReflections,trans.JohnHalliburton(2ded.,Oxford:OxfordUniversity Press,1979),pp.98103,120Jungmann,MassoftheRomanRite,vol.2,pp.37480C.N.L.Brooke,

Page327

"ReligiousSentimentandChurchDesignintheLaterMiddleAges,"BulletinoftheJohnRylandsLibrary,50.1(Autumn1967):1333. 101.Klauser,WesternLiturgy,p.110Jungmann,MassoftheRomanRite,vol.2,pp.38182BaixandLambot,LaDvotion,pp.4041Corblet,Histoire dogmatique,vol.1,pp.18891Browe,DieWunder,pp.9798. 102.Jungmann,MassoftheRomanRite,vol.2,pp.38185,41214.AmongCisterciansandDominicans,anablutionscupwasgiventocommunicants(usually aftermasswasover),anditsusecontinuedafterthechalicewaswithdrawninthelaterthirteenthcentury.SeeArchdaleKing,LiturgiesoftheReligiousOrders (London:Longmans,1955),pp.12930,372. 103.Aquinas,ST,III,q.80,art.12,replyobj.3,vol.59,pp.8485.SeealsoIII,q.76,art.2,vol.58,pp.96100. 104.Jungmann,MassoftheRomanRite,vol.2,p.364. 105.QuotedinYvesCongar,"ModlemonastiqueetmodlesacerdotalenOccidentdeGrgoireVII(10731085)InnocentIII(1198),"Etudesdecivilisation mdivale(IXeXIIesicles):MlangesoffertsEdmondRenLabande(Poitiers:C.E.S.C.M.,1973),p.159. 106.Quotedinibid. 107.FrancisofAssisi,"LettertoaGeneralChapter,"inFrancis,OpusculasanctipatrisFrancisciAssisiensis,ed.theFathersofSt.Bonaventure'sCollege, BibliothecaFranciscanaAsceticaMediiAevi1,2ded.(Quaracchi:CollegiumS.Bonaventurae,1949),pp.1023trans.B.FahyinOmnibus,p.105. 108.Brooke,"ReligiousSentiment." 109.JosephDuhr,"Communionfrquente,"DS,vol.2(1953),cols.123492,esp.cols.123671. 110.AlberttheGreat,CommentariiinIVSententiarum,dist.13,art.27,inAlbert,Operaomnia,ed.AugustBorgnet,vol.29(Paris:LudovicusVivs,1894),pp. 37880andLiberdesacramentoEucharistiae,Dist.4,tract.4,chap.3,inOperaomnia,vol.38(1899),p.432:"Dehisautemquimulieresomnidie communicant,videturmihiquodacriterreprehendendisunt:quianimiousuvilescerefaciuntsacramentum,velpotiusexlevitatemulierumputaturessedesideriumquam exdevotionecausatum."SeealsoDuhr,"Communionfrquente,"col.1260. 111.ThecrucialtextfromAugustine,quotedoverandoverinthediscussionsoffrequentcommunion,is"Credeetmanducasti,"Tractate25ontheGospelofJohn, chap.12,PL35,col.1602.AlberttheGreat,forexample,citesitinhiscommentaryontheFourthBookoftheSentences,Dist.9,Operaomnia,vol.29,p.212.In theMiddleAges,itwasoftenusedtoargueforsubstituting"spiritualcommunion"(i.e.,innermeditation)forreception.SeeDuhr,"Communionfrquente,"col.1246. 112.LifeofMargaretofCortona,AASSFebruary,vol.3,pp.341,344.Desirefortheeucharistandobsessivefearofreceivingitunworthilyarethemesthroughout Margaret'svita(seepp.30463passim). 113.GertrudetheGreat,Oeuvresspirituelles,ed.PierreDoyere,vol.2:LeHraut,SC139,Sr.mon.25(1968),pp.3037. 114.Ibid. 115.Seebelow,chap.4,forthecasesofMargaretofCortona,IdaofLouvain,Lid

Page328

winaofSchiedam,DorothyofMontau,AlpisofCudot,andColetteofCorbie.SeealsoDuhr,"Communionfrquente,"cols.126263,1268,forexamplesof latemedievalwomenwhoobtainedfrequentcommunionorweredeniedit. 116.IdaofLauwasdeniedthecupwhentheCistercianspassedlegislationforbiddingittonunswhowentintoecstasyatcommunion(LifeofIdaofLau,AASS October,vol.13,pp.11314)seeMcDonnell,Beguines,p.315n.140.SeealsoLifeofJulianaofCornillon,AASSApril,vol.1,pp.44546. 117.SeethecaseofDorothyofMontau,discussedbyKieckhefer,UnS,pp.2223. 118.JohnMarienwerdercommentsthatDorothyofMontau'shungerfortheeucharistwassovastthat,ifshehadbeenpermitted,shewouldhavesnatchedthehost fromthehandsofthepriestwithherteeth(SeptililiumB.Dorotheae,treatise3,chap.2,inAB3,p.409). 119.JamesofVitry,LifeofMaryofOignies,AASSJune,vol.5,p.568.Seealsoepigraphtochap.1andBynum,"WomenMystics." 120.Browe,DieWunderBynum,"WomenMystics." 121.Thenewemphasison"seeing"Godisreflectedintheincreasingnumberofmiraclesconnectedwithelevationratherthanreception.Inorders(e.g.,Franciscan nunsortertiaries)wherecommunionwasinfrequent,ecstasiestendedtocomeattheelevation.Eucharisticmiraclescouldeveninvolveknowingwhether"Christ"(i.e., theconsecratedhost)waspresentonthealtar,orbeingtransported,whentherewasnoservice,intothetabernacletotasteChrist.SeeLifeofJulianaofCornillon, AASSApril,vol.1,p.450ViedeDouceline,pp.13335LifeofIdaofLouvain,AASSApril,vol.2,p.172.Idaalsoknewmiraculouslytheexactmomentof consecration,eveniftheelementswerenotelevated(ibid.,p.173). 122.Wheaton,SavoringthePast,pp.126ReayTannahill,FoodinHistory(NewYork:SteinandDay,1973),pp.20933. 123.Wheaton,SavoringthePast,pp.12,1516,21.Onsotelties,seealsoConstanceB.HieattandSharonButler,PleynDelit:MedievalCookeryforModern Cooks(Toronto:UniversityofTorontoPress,1976),p.156Henisch,FastandFeast,pp.20636.ForexamplesofmedievalfoodsandfeastsseeLynnThorndike, "AMedievalSauceBook,"Speculum9(1934):18390andHieattandButler,CuryeonInglysch. 124.Wheaton,SavoringthePast,p.13Henisch,FastandFeast,pp.4849.ABaselmanuscriptinafifteenthcenturyhand,describedbyThorndike("Three TractsonFood,"p.364),givesadescriptionoffoodforFridaysandLentthatmakesitclearthattheabsenceoffleshmeatdidnotnecessarilymeanareductioninthe varietyoreleganceofmeals.Foracatalogueofmiraclesinwhichonekindoffoodturnsintoanother,seeC.GrantLoomis,WhiteMagic:AnIntroductionofthe FolkloreofChristianLegend,MedievalAcademyofAmericaPublication52(Cambridge:MedievalAcademyofAmerica,1948),p.57. 125.See,forexample,Duhr,"Communionfrquente,"cols.125459C.W.Dugmore,TheMassandtheEnglishReformers(London:Macmillan,1958)Strawley, "Eucharist"Brooke,"ReligiousSentiment." 126.OnHildegard'svision,seebelow,pp.26465andplate12. 127.RupertofDeutz,Dedivinisofficiis,bk.2,chap.11,PL170,col.43.OnRupert'seucharisticteachinggenerally,seeUrsmerBerlire,L'Ascsebndictine desoriginesla

Page329

finduXII sicle:Essaihistorique(Paris:DescledeBrouwer,1927),pp.8691.SeealsoJohnH.VanEngen,RupertofDeutz(BerkeleyandLosAngeles: UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1983). 128.RevelationesGertrudianaeacMechtildianae,vol.2:MechtildofHackeborn,SanctaeMechtildisvirginisordinissanctiBenedictiLiberspecialisgratiae (Paris:Oudin,1877),bk.1,chap.1,pp.710. 129.RevelationesGertrudianaeacMechtildianae,vol.1:GertrudetheGreat,SanctaeGertrudismagnaevirginisordinissanctiBenedictiLegatusdivinae pietatis...(Paris:Oudin,1875),bk.4,chap.1,p.286.Butthisspiritualityisalsoveryindividualistic:weareassuredthateachsisterwhoreposedonChrist'sbreast enjoyedhimsofullythathemighthavebeengiventoheralone(ibid.,p.287). 130.SeeHontoir,"LaDvotion,"pp.13435,137.SeealsoRothkrug,"PopularReligion,"p.41. 131.JeanLeclercq,"LesMditationseucharisriquesd'ArnaulddeBonneval,"Recherchesdethologieancienneetmdivale13(1946):53. 132.Tubach,Index,pp.59,7576,20712,4012. 133.Browe,DieWunder,p.104.Onbodysymbolismgenerally,seeMaryDouglas,NaturalSymbols:ExplorationsinCosmology,withnewintro.(NewYork: Pantheon,1982). 134.Browe,DieWunder,p.124. 135.Ibid.,p.119.Foranother,somewhatthreateningbloodmiracle,seeAdamofEynsham,TheLifeofSt.HughofLincoln,ed.andtrans.DecimaL.Douieand HughFarmer,2vols.(London:Nelson,1961),bk.5,chap.4,vol.2,pp.9394.InthiscaseapriestrecountstoHughhow,whenhecelebratedaftercommittinga mortalsin,thehostturnedintofleshandblood,freezinghimwithfear.OtherboundaryreinforcingbloodmiraclescanbefoundinCorblet,Histoiredogmatique,vol. 1,pp.447515passim. 136.CaesariusofHeisterbach,DieFragmentederLibriVIIIMiraculorumdesCaesariusvonHeisterbach,bk.1,chap.1,ed.AloysMeister,Rmische QuartalschriftfrchristlicheAlterthumskundeundfrKirchengeschichte,Supplement,vol.13(Rome:Spithver,1901),pp.46.Fortheuseofthehostasamagical charm,seePeterBrowe,"DieEucharistiealsZaubermittelimMittelalter,"ArchivfrKulturgeschichte20(1930):13454. 137.Rothkrug,"PopularReligion,"p.29.SeealsoBrowe,DieWunder,pp.128ff. 138.Browe,DieWunder,pp.11516Jungmann,MassoftheRomanRite,vol.1,pp.119ff.,andvol.2,p.210.Foranotherexampleofbloodavenging desecration,seeHenryofHuntingdon'schronicle,bk.8,chap.22,HenriciArchidiaconiHuntendunensisHistoriaAnglorum,ed.ThomasArnold,Rerum BritannicarumMediiAeviScriptores74(London:Longman,1879),p.277,wherehereportsthatbloodbubbledoutofthewallsofachurchbeingheldasacastle andsaysthathesawthephenomenonwithhisowneyes.YetanotherexampleoccursinastoryaddedtotheLittleFlowersofSt.Francis,pt.3,chap.5,trans. RaphaelBrown,inOmnibus,pp.148182.AwellknownpassagefromFroissart'schroniclethatdescribestheflagellantsandassociatesthecollectingoftheir "miraculousblood"with"foolishwomen"isquotedinGottfried,BlackDeath,p.70. 139.SeeJamesofVitry,LifeofMaryofOignies,AASSJune,vol.5,pp.54750,56263,56566.Foreucharisticdevotionasacountertoheresy,see McDonnell,Beguines,pp.310,315,330,415andBolton,"VitaeMatrum,"pp.26768.

Page330

140.ThomasofCantimpr,LifeofLutgardofAywires,AASSJune,vol.4(Paris,1867),pp.196,197,205. 141.GertrudetheGreat,Oeuvres,vol.3:LeHraut,SC143,Sr.mon.27,bk.3,chap.18,pp.1024.Seealsoaboveatnn.11314. 142.ThomasofCelano,SecondLifeofFrancis,bk.2,chap.159,par.209,AF10,pp.25051.Breadissometimessimplyasymbolofblessingandunity(seeibid., chap.163,par.217,p.255). 143.OnCatherine,seebelow,pp.17580. 144.Onmedievalmedicaltheory,whicharguedthatbreastmilkisprocessedblood,seeMaryM.McLaughlin,"SurvivorsandSurrogates:ChildrenandParentsfrom theNinthtotheThirteenthCenturies,"inL.DeMause,ed.,TheHistoryofChildhood(NewYork:PsychohistoryPress,1974),pp.11518MichaelGoodich, "BartholomaeusAnglicusonChildRearing,"HistoryofChildhoodQuarterly:TheJournalofPsychohistory3(1975):80andCharlesT.Wood,"TheDoctors' Dilemma:Sin,SalvationandtheMenstrualCycleinMedievalThought,"Speculum56.4(October1981):719. 145.GertrudetheGreat,Oeuvres,3:LeHraut,bk.3,chap.30,p.142. 146."DulcisJesumemoria,"inGaselee,MedievalLatinVerse,pp.11113.OnthishymnseeAndrWilmart,"Le'Jubilus'surlenomdeJsusditdesaintBernard," Ephemeridesliturgicae:Analectahistoricoascetica57,n.s.27(1943):3285,whichgivesaslightlydifferentversionofsomelines.SeealsoRaby,Christian LatinPoetry,pp.32631. 147.Ivo,letter,chap.2,pars.1415,inIves:EptreSverinsurlacharit.RicharddesaintVictor:Lesquatredegrsdelaviolentecharit,ed.Gervais Dumeige,Textesphilosophiquesdumoyenge3(Paris:Vrin,1955),pp.6163. 148.Seebelow,chap.5n.30. 149.PeterofVaux,LifeofColetteofCorbie,trans.StephenJuliacus,chap.10,par.84,AASSMarch,vol.1(Paris,1865),p.558. 150.LifeofIdaofLouvain,chap.4,pars.2324,AASSApril,vol.2,p.164. 151.Onthesemetaphorsinmonastictexts,seeJeanLeclercq,Etudessurlevocabulairemonastiquedumoyenge,StudiaAnselmiana48(Rome:Herder,1961), pp.13438andidem,TheLoveofLearningandtheDesireforGod:AStudyofMonasticCulture,3ded.,trans.CatherineMisrahi(NewYork:Fordham UniversityPress,1982),p.73. 152.SeeSchiller,Ikonographie,vol.4,pt.1:DieKirche(1976),p.62.ThismotifisrelatedtothemotifofChristinthewinepress.Forexample,inplate5,asilk embroideryfromtheearlyfifteenthcentury,weseeJesuswithhisbreastbareandhiswoundbleedingunderhisclothesintothepress.Akneelingnunreceivesthe bloodinachalice.SeeSchiller,Iconography(1972),vol.2:ThePassionofJesusChrist,pp.22829.AsJamesH.Marrowpointsout,medievaldepictionsofthe winepressshiftedfromthetwelfthcenturyimageofChristtreadingthegrapesinthepresstothefourteenthandfifteenthcenturymotifofChristasvictimpressed beneaththecrossbeam(PassionIconographyinNorthernEuropeanArtoftheLateMiddleAgesandEarlyRenaissance:AStudyoftheTransformationof SacredMetaphorintoDescriptiveNarrative[Kortrijk:VanGhemmert,1979],p.85).Similarly,earlydepictionsofthemysticalmillshowChristorGodasmiller: Schiller,Ikonographie,vol.4,pt.1:DieKirche,p.62.SeealsoBraun,Altar,vol.2,plate336.

Page331

153.ForamedievalvisionthatparallelsthemassofSt.Gregoryandmakesitperfectlyclearthatthebloodisfood,seethevisionofJohnofAlvernadiscussedbelow, chap.7n.49.SeealsoSchiller,Iconography,vol.2:Passion,pp.22628andBraun,Altar,vol.2,plate269. 154.Schiller,Iconography,vol.2:Passion,p.206. 155.Itisnotcertainthatthereare,inpatristicwritings,anyclaimstoreceiveChrist'sbodysensuallyseeE.Longpr,"Eucharistieetexpriencemystique...,"DS, vol.4,pt.2,col.1596. 3 FoodAsaFemaleConcern: TheComplexityoftheEvidence 1.LifeofAlpasofCudot,bk.1,chaps.23,AASSNovember,vol.2,pt.1(Brussels,1894),pp.178,180seebelow,n.77. 2.SeeE.CobhamBrewer,ADictionaryofMiracles:Imitative,RealisticandDogmatic(Philadelphia:Lippincott[1896]),pp.14550Tubach,Index,entries 76667,1732,2566,pp.6364,141,202andThurston,PP,pp.385ff. 3.BernardofClairvauxwassupposedlynursedbyMaryinavisionseeLonDewezandAlbertvanIterson,"LaLactationdesaintBernard:Lgendeet iconographie,"CteauxindeNederlanden7(1956):16589.ClareofAssisisupposedlynursedfromFrancis'sbreastinavisionseebelowatn.186.Forother lactationvisions,seebelow,chap.9n.56.ForlegendsthatbothPaulandCatherineofAlexandriabledmilkwhenbeheaded,seeBynum,JM,p.132n.76. 4.Forlistsofcasesof"miraculous"orextendedinedia,seeThurston,PP,passim,esp.pp.363ff.Pater,MAW.B.Gerish,intro.toTheHartfordshireWonderor StrangeNewsfromWare:BeinganExactandTrueRelationofoneJaneStretton...,HertfordshireFolklore5(London:J.Clark,1669repr.withGerish's intro.,Bishop'sStortford,1908),pp.58HyderE.Rollins,"NotesonSomeEnglishAccountsofMiraculousFasts,"JournalofAmericanFolklore34.134 (OctoberDecember1921):35776Rogers,Fasting,pp.932andH.Schadewaldt,"MedizingeschichtlicheBetrachtungenzumAnorexieProblem,"Anorexia Nervosa:Symposium24./25.April1965inGttingen,ed.J.E.MeyerandH.Feldmann(Stuttgart:Thieme,1965),pp.114. 5.BenedictXIV,DeservorumDeibeatificationeetbeatorumcanonizatione,bk.4,pt.1,chap.26,andapp.byJ.B.Beccaritobk.4,pt.1(newed.,Naples: JohannisFranciscusPacus,17731775),vol.8,pp.21929,andvol.15,pp.89127. 6.SeeJrmeRibet,LaMystiquedivine,distinguedescontrefaonsdiaboliquesetdesanalogieshumaines,2vols.,newed.(Paris:Poussielgue,1895),esp. vol.2,p.510andImbertGourbeyre,Stigmatisation. 7.SeeThurston,PPandPater,MA. 8.WilliamA.Hammond,FastingGirls:TheirPhysiologyandPathology(NewYork:Putnam,1876)RobertFowler,ACompleteHistoryoftheCaseofthe WelshFastingGirl(SarahJacob)with...ObservationsonDeathfromStarvation(London:Renshaw,1871).OnthisliteratureseeJoanJ.Brumberg,"'Fasting Girls':ReflectionsonWritingtheHistoryofAnorexiaNervosa,"inHistoryandResearchinChildDevelopment,ed.Alice

Page332

B.SmutsandJohnW.Hagen,MonographsoftheSocietyforResearchinChildDevelopment(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1986),pp.93104. 9.Rogers,Fasting,pp.10732. 10.Seebelow,chap.6. 11.See,forexample,Duhr,"Communionfrquente,"cols.125668andGougaud,DAP,pp.11314.SeealsomydiscussioninBynum,JM,pp.17072,193n. 58,257. 12.Hontoir,"LaDvotion,"pp.13256idem,"LeSeptimeCentenairedelaFteDieu:SainteJulienneetlescisterciennes,"CollectaneaordinisCisterciensis reformatorum8(1946):10916Browe,DieWunder,passim,esp.pp.2324Rothkrug,"PopularReligion,"p.28. 13.Seetheworkscitedabove,n.12McDonnell,Beguines,pp.299330andRoisin,L'Hagiographie,pp.10622. 14.SeeBaixandLambot,LaDvotion,p.70Bertaud,"Dvotioneucharistique,"cols.162324,fortheclaimthateucharisticdevotionappealedespeciallytonuns andrecluses.Fortheclaimthatitappealedtobeguines,seeGreven,Anfnge,p.69HerbertGrundmann,"ZurGeschichtederBeginenim13.Jahrhundert,"Archiv frKulturgeschichte21(1931):314E.Neumann,BeginenundBegardenwesen,p.91.Bolton("VitaeMatrum,"p.267)haspointedoutthatthedevotion cannotbeidentifiedwithanyparticularstyleoflife,andVauchez(LaSaintet,p.427)pointstolayinterestintheeucharist. 15.Onthispoint,seeAndrVauchez,LaSpiritualitdumoyengeoccidentalVIIIeXIIesicles,CollectionSUP(Paris:PressesUniversitairesdeFrance,1975), pp.58andBynum,JM,p.4. 16.ThisistrueofKieckhefer,UnS,and,toalesserextent,ofVauchez,LaSaintetWeinsteinandBell,SSandGoodich,VP. 17.Kieckhefer'sUnquietSouls,whichemphasizesreligiousconcerns,isawelcomecorrectivetothistendency. 18.WeinsteinandBell,SS,table18,p.234. 19.Kieckhefer,UnS,p.172.Ruysbroeckalsoreceivedecstasies(ifnotactualvisions)whilecelebratingseebelow,nn.24and240.Allsortsofvisionsweremore commonwithwomenthanwithmeninthisperiodseeDinzelbacher,VisionundVisionsliteratur,pp.15155,22628. 20.Vauchez,LaSaintet,pp.22426,34748,4056,45051. 21.Thurston,PP,pp.38591.Thurston,whoincludesmodernsaintsaswell,liststwentythreemenandtwentywomen.Onthecommonhagiographicalmotifof women'sdistributionofbreadthatturnsintoroses,seebelow,chap.7n.13. 22.ThefollowingparagraphisbasedonBrowe,DieWunder.Forothermiracles,seeCorblet,Histoiredogmatique,vol.1,pp.447515. 23.Browe,DieWunderp.23. 24.Foranearlyexampleofthekindofeucharisticmiraclethatsupportspriestlyauthority,seetheearlyninthcenturyLifeofEvurtiusinCataloguscodicum hagiographicorumlatinorumBibliothecanationaliParrisiensi,Subsidiahagiographica2,vol.2(Brussels:TheBollandists,1890),pp.31718andthelater versionintheLibersanctiJacobi,ed.JeanneVielliard,inLeGuideduplerindeSaintJacquesdeCompostelle(Mcon:Protat,1938),pp.5860.Inthismiracle thehandofGodappearedovertheheadofthecelebratingpriest,imitatinghisactions(andtherebydemonstratingthatChristoffersthe

Page333

sacrificeineverymass).Forafourteenthcenturyexample,seetheLifeofJanvanRuysbroeckbyHenryUtenBoghaerde(HenryPomer),whichisbk.2of"De originemonasteriiViridisvallisunacumvitisB.JoannisRusbrochiiprimipriorishujusmonasteriietaliquotcoaetaneorumejus"(AB4[1885],chap.28,pp.302 3).InthisaccountwearetoldthatRuysbroeck,oldandblind,wasforbiddenbyhissuperiortocelebratebecauseofhisfeebleness.Ruysbroekdefendedhimself, claimingthatthefeeblenesswasecstasyandthatJesushadcometohimtosay,"Tuesmeusetegotuus." 25.SeeMcDonnell,Beguines,pp.30515Hontoir,"SainteJulienne"BaixandLambot,LaDvotion,pp.7580andtheLifeofJulianaofCornillon,AASSApril, vol.1,pp.44275. 26.CyprienVagaggini,"LaDvotionauSacrCoeurchezsainteMechtildeetsainteGertrude,"CorJesu:CommentationesinlitterasencyclicasPiiPP.XII 'Haurietisaquas,'2vols.(Rome:Herder,1959),vol.2,pp.3148UrsmerBerlire,LaDvotionauSacrCoeurdansl'ordredesaintBenot,CollectionPax 10(Paris:Lethielleux,1923)Gougaud,DAP,pp.75130. 27.McDonnell,Beguines,p.313.OnAgnesBlannbekinandthescandalcausedbythepublicationofherrevelationsin1731,seeG.Allmang,"AgnsBlannbekin," DHGE,vol.1(1912),col.977andPeterDinzelbacher,"Die'VitaetRevelationes'derWienerBegineAgnesBlannbekin(&dagger1315)imRahmenderVitenund OffenbarungsliteraturihrerZeit,"inDinzelbacherandBauer,Frauenmystik,pp.15277. 28.Jungmann,MassoftheRomanRite,vol.2,pp.2021Vauchez,LaSaintet,pp.43132Duhr,"Communionfrquence,"cols.125668. 29.ImbertGourbeyre,Stigmatisation,vol.2,pp.183,4089.ForcriticismsofImbertGourbeyre,seePierreDebongnie,"EssaicritiquesurI'histoiredes stigmatisationsaumoyenge,"Etudescarmlitaines,21.2(October1936):2259andE.Amann,"Stigmatisation,"DTC,vol.14,pt.1(1939),cols.261719. 30.Caesarius,Dialogus.Bk.11concernsdyingbk.12concernsthepunishmentofthedead.Inbk.8(visions),therearethreeappearancesoftheChristchildto women(chaps.3,7,8)andtwotomen(chaps.2,5)eightappearancesofthecrucifixtomen(chaps.11,13,14,17,18,20,21,23)andfourtowomen(chaps10, 15,16,22onemightalsocountchap.9).Theopeningandclosingchaptersofbk.9(ontheeucharist)dealwithcelebrantsandtheproofoftransubstantiationandare aboutmaleschaps.3351(whichdealwiththelaity)haveninevisionstowomen(chaps.33,34,35,36,39,40,46,47,50)andtentomen(chaps.37,38,41,42, 43,44,45,48,49,51)ofthescatteredremainingchaptersonrecipients,threeareaboutmales(chaps.24,63,64)andoneaboutafemale(chap.25). 31.ConradofEberbach,Exordiummagnumcisterciense,ed.BrunoGriesser,Seriesscriptorums.ordiniscisterciensis2(Rome:EditionesCistercienses,1961) PetertheVenerable,Liberdemiraculis,PL189,cols.851954GeraldofWales,GemmaecclesiasticainGeraldofWales,Opera,ed.J.S.Brewer,vol.2 (London:Longman,1862). 32.SeeJamesofVitry,TheHistoriaoccidentalisofJacquesdeVitry:ACriticalEdition,ed.JohnF.Hinnebusch,SpicilegiumFriburgense17(Fribourg, Switzerland:UniversityPress,1972)andThomasofCantimpr,Liberquidiciturbonumuniversaledeproprietatibusapum(Cologne:JohanKoelhoff,ca.1479). Theeucharistis,however,unimportantinJames'ssermonesvulgaresseeJamesofVitry,TheExemplaorIllustrativeStories

Page334

fromtheSermonesVulgaresofJacquesdeVitry,ed.ThomasF.Crane,PublicationsoftheFolkloreSociety26(London:Nutt,1890). 33.Tubach,Index,pp.20712. 34.Women'sstoriesareahigherpercentageofthoseaboutcloisteredreligious.Of252storiesconcerningmonksandnuns,61(or24percent)areaboutwomen. 35.Tubach,Index:storiesofmalesaretoldinentries3237,2058storiesoffemalesinentries33,38,40(twostories). 36.Ibid.Entries33and38urgemoderation.Entry40concernstwowomentrickedbythedevil. 37.Ibid.Women'sstoriesaretoldinentries1176,1983,1990,3198,3718. 38.Ibid.Entry1983tellsofawomanwhofastedthreeyears.Entry3198saysMaryMagdalenfastedthirtyyears.Themonkinentry1982fastedseventyeight weeks. 39.Ibid.,entries1990,3718. 40.Jerome,Letter54,AdFuriadeviduitateservanda,inSanctiEusebiiHieronymiepistulae,pt.1,ed.Hilberg,pp.46685andidem,Letter22,Ad Eustochium,chaps.1718,PL22,cols.4045.Jerome'sothermajordiscussionoffasting,food,andlustisinContraJovinianum,bk.2,chaps.517,PL23, cols.290312.JeromealsourgedwomentoavoidexcessiveabstinenceseeArbesmann,"FastingandProphecy,"pp.3839. 41.FulgentiusofRuspe,Letter3,chap.13,PL65,col.332.SeealsoPL65,col.132. 42.PetertheChanter,chapteronfastingfromVerbumabbreviatum,PL205,cols.32728. 43.SeeA.GeorgeRigg,"'MetradeMonachisCarnalibus':TheThreeVersions,"MittellateinischesJahrbuch15(1980):13442. 44.SeeColker,AnalectaDublinensia,pp.47,57,andthepassagecitedinn.13ofmyintro.ThetwelfthcenturymonkofEvesham,whoreceivedavisionofthose sufferinginpurgatory,showednospecialconcernwithfoodabuses,however.Seebelow,n.130. 45.SeeKnowles,"Diet,"andabove,chap.2n.53. 46.EileenPower,MedievalEnglishNunneries,c.1275to1535,CambridgeStudiesinMedievalLifeandThought(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress, 1922),pp.161236. 47.Seeabove,chap.2nn.110,139andBrowe,DieWunder,pp.11011. 48.JohnGerson,CollectoriumsuperMagnificat,Treatise9,inJohnGerson,Oeuvrescompltes,ed.PalmonGlorieux,vol.8:L'Oeuvrespirituelleetpastorale (Paris:Descle,1971),pp.39798andseeLongpr,"Eucharistieetexpriencemystique,"cols.16024. 49.RichardRolle'sFormofLiving,likehistwootherEnglishepistles,waswrittenforawoman.HenrySuso'sLittleBookofEternalWisdom,theheartofwhichis meditationsonChrist'sdeath,isaddressedchieflytonuns,asishisBookofLetters.ThesecondpartofRuysbroeck'sMirrorofEternalSalvationisatreatiseon theeucharistthatwasprobablywrittenforMargaretofMeerbeke.HealsoaddressedhisBookoftheSevenCloisterstoher.DionysiustheCarthusianwrotesix sermonsontheeucharistforMechtildofNimgueandotherecstatics. 50.OnGuiard,seeP.C.Boeren,LaVieetlesoeuvresdeGuiarddeLaon,1170env.1248(TheHague:Nijhoff,1956),pp.15758.Taulerpreachedmostofhis sermons,whichstressmysticismandfrequentcommunion,inGermantonunsseeKarlBoeckl,EucharistieLehrederdeutschenMystikerdesMittelalters (Freiburg:Herder,1924),pp.74122.

Page335

51.BaixandLambot,LaDvotion,pp.4852. 52.Corblet,Histoiredogmatique,vol.2,passim,esp.pp.51351. 53.Dumoutet,CD,pp.7780.Agnes,Catherine,andDorothywerealsocommonfiguresonretablesseeBraun,Altar,vol.2,p.493. 54.Dumoutet,CD,p.80andCorblet,Histoiredogmatique,vol.2,p.550. 55.VictorSaxer,LeCultedeMarieMadeleineenOccidentdesorigineslafindumoyenge,Cahiersd'archologieetd'histoire3,2vols.(Auxerre:Socit desFouillesArchologiquesetdesMonumentsHistoriquesdel'Yonne,1959). 56.Hontoir,"LaDvotion,"p.152andCorblet,Histoiredogmatique,vol.1,pp.557,563.SeealsoBraun,Altar,vol.2,p.624,foraneleventhcenturyminiature fromPraguethatassociatestheAnnunciationwithapyx,thussuggestingthatreservationofthesacramentrecapitulatesthemomentoftheIncarnation. 57.Dumoutet,CD,p.79. 58.WilliamDurandustheElder,Rationaledivinorumofficiorum,bk.1,chap.3,sect.25(Venice:MattheusValentinus,1580),fol.11rseealsoplate13. 59.Dumoutet,CD,p.79. 60.SeeBraun,Altar,vol.2,plates329,333,334,336,346,360,361.OntheMaryAltarinplate7seeCarlGeorgHeise,LbeckerPlastik(Bonn:Cohen, 1926),pp.1112. 61.Seeabove,p.68,andbelow,pp.27172and285. 62.Seeabove,nn.4041,andchap.2nn.2526andMusurillo,"AsceticalFasting,"pp.1319. 63.Musurillo,"AsceticalFasting,"pp.2539Arbesmann,"FastingandProphecy,"pp.3438Browe,DieWunder,pp.4950. 64.Seeabove,chap.2n.56. 65.JamesofVitry(LifeofMaryofOignies,bk.1,chap.5,AASSJune,vol.5,p.552),says,speakingofMary'sstigmataandfasting,thatthosewhoadmireSimeon StylitesandAnthonyshouldadmiresuchasceticismin"theweakersex."RaymondofCapua(LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.1,chap.3,pars.6365,AASSApril [Paris,1866],vol.3,pp.87778)mentionsPaul,Anthony,andotherfasters,andsaysthatalthoughCatherinelivedinherownhome,notinamonasteryorinthe desert,shenonethelesssurpassedthesesaints"inthematterofabstinence."SeealsoRaymond,LifeofCatherine,pt.2,chap.5,p.905. 66.PeterofVaux(LifeofColetteofCorbie,chap.17,par.166,AASSMarch,vol.1,p.573)comparesColettetotheFatherswho"livedincavesandpracticed austerities."But,headds,Colette"wentbeyondtheFathers." 67.LifeofSuso,chaps.20,35inSuso,DeutscheSchriften,pp.60,1037.AmongtheaphorismsincludedbySusoare:"Thefirstdutyofaspiritualbeginneristo showhimselffirminthefightagainstgluttony(Anthony)""Palefeatures,aleanbodyandahumblebearingarethebestornamentsofaspiritualperson(Helias)""An unchastebody,likeanunrulyhorse,mustbetamedbydeprivingitoffood(Hilarion)."Trans.Edward,Exemplar,vol.1,pp.1003. 68.Vauchez,LaSaintet,pp.347413andT.E.Bridgett,HistoryoftheHolyEucharistinGreatBritain,2vols.(London:KeganPaul,1881),vol.2,pp.177ff. 69.Seebelow,pp.1079. 70.Vauchez,LaSaintet,pp.34748. 71.RaymondofCapua,LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.2,chap.5,par.170,AASS

Page336

April,vol.3,p.905LetterofStefanoMaconiinCatherineofSiena,L'OperedellaseraficasantaCaterinadaSiena,ed.GirolamoGigli,vol.1(Siena:Bonetti, 1707),pp.46089,esp.p.473andAugustaTheodosiaDrane,TheHistoryofSt.CatherineofSienaandHerCompanions...,4thed.,2vols.(London: Burns,OatesandWashbourne,1915),vol.1,pp.199202,forasummaryofvariouscontemporaryaccountsofhereatingandvomiting. 72.Seetheepigraphtothischapter. 73.Inmanycultures''noteating"ismoreadescriptionofanemotionalstatethanafactualclaim.AnthropologistKarenBrownofDrewUniversitytellsme,for example,thatinHaiti"Ihaven'teatentoday"means"Iamdepressed"andthatinbothHaitiandNigeria"Haveyoueaten?"isagreetingthatmeans"Howareyou?" 74.ForwhatfollowsseeGoodich,"ContoursofFemalePiety"Roisin,L'Hagiographie,pp.113,129andabove,chap.1n.42. 75.FelixVernet,MedievalSpirituality,trans.theBenedictinesofTalacre(London:SandsandCo.,1930),p.61. 76.TheLifeofColumbaofRieti,writtenbyherconfessor,SebastianPerusinus,suggestsboththatColumbaconsciouslyimitatedCatherineofSienafromchildhood andthatherbiographerunderlinedparallelstoCatherineashewroteColumba'svita.See,forexample,AASSMay,vol.5(Paris,1866),pp.155*59*.Onfemale saintswhomodeledthemselvesonCatherineofSiena,seeGabriellaZarri,"LeSanteVive.Perunatipologiadellasantitfemminilenelprimocinquecento,"Annali dell'IstitutoStoricoItaloGermanicoinTrento6(1980):371445. 77.Alpas'svitawaswrittenafter1180byaCistercianofEcharlissheisalsomentionedbyRobertofAuxerre,RalphCoggeshall,CaesariusofHeisterbach,James ofVitry,andStephenofBourbon.TheselatterreferencesallfocusonthemiraculousinediaJamesandCaesariusbothassociateherwithothercasesofmiraculous abstinence.SeeJamesofVitry,Historiaoccidentalis,ed.Hinnebusch,pp.8788Caesarius,Dialogus,bk.7,chap.20,andbk.9,chap.47,vol.2,pp.25,201 2andAASSNovember,vol.2,pt.1(Brussels,1894),pp.167209,whichprintsalltheearlyreferences. 78.SeeBynum,JM,pp.199201. 79.Roisin,L'Hagiographie. 80.See,forexample,Constable,SelfInflictedSuffering. 81.Kieckhefer,UnS,pp.1214. 82.JamesofVitry(LifeofMaryofOignies,bk.1,chap.1,AASSJune,vol.5,p.550)saysthatweshould"admirethefervornotimitatetheworks."Theauthorof theLifeofJamesofPorto(inAF,vol.3[1897],p.620)saysJames'sausterelifeis"magisadmirandamquamimitandam."RaymondofCapua(intheLifeof CatherineofSiena,pt.2,chap.16,par.310,p.939)underlinesthesamecontrast.SpeakingofamiracleinwhichGodfirstmultipliedwineandthenturneditsour,he saysthefirsteventshowshowhighlyGodthoughtofCatherine,thesecondhowhumblyshethoughtofherself.Thefirstteachesustohonorher,thesecondtoimitate her:"inprimodeditnobismateriamipsamhonorandi,insecundoipsamimitandi."Itwasmorecommon,however,forbiographerstourgereaderstoimitatethesaints. See,forexample,LifeofJulianaofCornillon,prologue,AASSApril,vol.1,p.442andbelow,chap.8n.43.Bonaventure'sLifeofFrancisofAssisigivesan interestingtwisttothetheme.Bonaventuresuggests

Page337

thatspectatorsatoneofFrancis'sextravagantdisplaysofselfabasementdismissedhisbehavioras"magisadmirabilemquamimitabilem"(Bonaventure,Legenda maior,pt.1,chap.6,par.2,inAF,vol.10,p.583). 83.Legatus,bk.5,chap.7,RevelationesGertrudianaeacMechtildianae,vol.1,p.543. 84.OnAbelard'sviewofwomen,seeMaryM.McLaughlin,"PeterAbelardandtheDignityofWomen:TwelfthCentury'Feminism'inTheoryandPractice,"in PierreAbelard,PierreleVenerable:Lescourants...,ColloquesinternationauxduCentreNationaldelaRechercheScientifique546(Paris:EditionsduCentre NationaldelaRechercheScientifique,1975),pp.287333JohnBenton,"Fraud,FictionandBorrowingintheCorrespondenceofAbelardandHeloise,"inibid.,pp. 469506andd'Alverny,"Commentlesthologiens...voientlafemme." 85.LifeofSuso,chap.35,inSuso,DeutscheSchriften,p.107trans.Edward,Exemplar,vol.1,pp.xxxiv,103.PresumablySusoisnotimplyingthatmensch refersonlytomalesbutsuggestingthatdifferentindividualshavedifferentcrossestobear. 86.ThomasofCelano,LifeofClareofAssisi,chap.11,par.18,inPennacchi,Legenda,pp.2627. 87.Seeabove,chap.2n.110andGrundmann,Bewegungen,p.414.AlbertsaidthattheclaimofanuntonurseJesus"fatuitasestverbrribuspotiusquamverbis corrigenda"(ibid.,p.414n.128). 88.Ibid,p.413. 89.Forexample,PeterofLuxembourg,whotriedtoliveonbreadandwateraloneandtositattablewithouteating,wasononeoccasioncommandedbythepopeto eatanddidsoobediently.(Hishealthwas,however,alreadyruined.)SeeLifeofPeter,chap.4,pars.2223,AASSJuly,vol.1(Paris,1867),p.451Processof canonization,chap.4,inibid.,pp.47075. 90.WeinsteinandBell,SS,pp.23536. 91.WalterSeton,ed.,"TheLettersfromSaintClaretoBlessedAgnesofBohemia,"ArchivumFranciscanumhistoricum17(1924):51617. 92.AngelaofFoligno,ed.FerrandBaudry,par.21,p.24:"PosteahabuisentimentaDei,ethabebamtantamdelectationeminoratione,quodnonrecordabarde comestione.Etvoluissemquodnonopportuissetmecomedere,utpossemstareinillaoratione.Etintermiscebatsehicquedamtemptatio,scilicetquodnon comederem,vel,sicomedebam,quodcomedereminparvoponderevaldesetcognoviessetemptationem."SeealsotheinadequateeditioninAASSJanuary,vol.1 (Paris,1863),chap.1,par.34,p.190.ChristhimselfsupposedlytoldAngelathatsleeping,eating,anddrinkingareacceptableifdoneinloveforhim:"Etdixerat michiperviamineundoA[s]sisiumita:'Totavitatua,comedereetbibere,dormireetomnetuumviveremichiplacet'"(AngelaofFoligno,ed.FerrandBaudry,par. 35,p.54).Angelaherselfwrotethatahumbleheartwasmoreimportantthanfastingorpoverty(ibid.,par.180,p.418). 93.VitaBeatricis,bk.2,chap.15,pp.1034.LifeofColumbaofRieti,chap.5,par.31,AASSMay,vol.5,p.162*. 94.ThomasofCantimpr,LifeofLutgard,bk.2,chap.14,AASSJune,vol.4,p.198.RaymondofCapua,LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.2,chap.5.pars.16869, AASSApril,vol.3,p.904allofpt.2,chap.5,dealswithCatherine'sdetractors. 95.Seeabove,chap.2n.112.

Page338

96.Legatus,bk.4,chap.14,pp.34344. 97.Seebelow,chap.5. 98.RaymondofCapua,(LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.2,chap.5,par.173,p.905),mentionsMaryMagdalenandtheFathersasexamplesofextremefasting, addingthat"sanctitydependsoncharitynotfasting."ForRaymond'sowndifficultieswithfasting,seeDrane,HistoryofSt.Catherine,vol.1,p.223Hyacinthe MarieCormier,LeBienheureuxRaymonddeCapoue...savie,sesvirtues,sonaction,2ded.(Rome:ImprimerieVaticane,1902),pp.11316andConeth Kearns,trans.,TheLifeofCatherineofSiena(Wilmington,Del.:Glazier,1980),p.xv.InalettertoPhilipofAlenon,CardinalofOstia,Raymondsomewhat guiltilydefendedhimselffromthechargethathewasahypocritebecauseheurgedotherstofastbutfailedtofasthimself.Hisshortcoming,heargued,wasdueto physicalincapacityatleast,headded,heassistedthesaintswhoprovidedmanyworthyexamples.Healsosuggestedthatthecriticismofhiseatingwasdeflectingthe unfairattacksthathadbeenmadeonabstainers(H.M.Cormier,B.RaymundiCapuani...opusculaetlitterae[Rome:ExTypographiaPolyglottaS.C.de PropagandaFide,1899],pp.6668).ForRaymond'sLifeofCatherineaspropagandaforObservantreform,seeRobertFawtier,SainteCatherinedeSienne: Essaidecritiquedessources:Sourceshagiographiques,BibliothquedesEcolesFranaisesd'AthnesetdeRome121(Paris:deBoccard,1921),pp.11830. AlthoughFawtierisexcessivelyskepticalaboutsomeofthedetailsinRaymond'saccount,hispictureofRaymond'smotivesisuseful.Onthecontroversyoverthe CatherinelegendgeneratedbyFawtier,seeKearnsinLifeofCatherineofSiena,pp.lxlxx. 99.SeeJohnofMantua,Processofcanonization,AASSOctober,vol.9(Brussels,1858),pp.816,840. 100.LifeofColumbaofRieti,chap.12,par.110,AASSMay,vol.5,p.184*. 101.SeeGregoryofTours,LibervitaePatrum,prologue,MGH.SSRM,vol.1,pt.2,ed.W.ArndtandB.Krusch(1885),pp.66263.Onthispoint,seeH. Delehaye,TheLegendsoftheSaints:AnIntroductiontoHagiography,trans.Mrs.V.M.Crawford(London:Longmans,1907)andRenAigrain, L'Hagiographie:SesSources,sesmthodes,sonhistoire(Paris:BloudetGay,1953).Plate9aboveillustratesthepointbyshowinghowartiststransferred iconographicalmotifsfromonesainttoanothersimplybychangingthename. 102.WeinsteinandBell,SS,p.46. 103.AelredofRievaulx,GenealogiaregumAnglorum,PL195,col.715.Susolearnedpenitentialasceticismfromhismother(LifeofSuso,chap.42,inSuso, DeutscheSchriften,pp.14243).IdaofLouvainwastakentomassbyhermother(Life,bk.1,chap.1,AASSApril,vol.2,p.159).Herhagiographer,who workedfromrecordskeptbyherconfessor,stressesherreactionagainstherfather'swealth. 104.PeterofLuxembourg,Processofcanonization,chap.1,arts.210,andchap.4,andLifeofPeter,chap.3,par.19,andchap.4,par.29,AASSJuly,vol.1, pp.46465,47075,457,459.Peter'sfatherfastedandgaveawaymoneyhismothergaveawayfood.BothparentsdiedwhenPeterwasquiteyoung. 105.PeterofVaux,LifeofColette,chap.1,par.10,AASSMarch,vol.1,p.542. 106.JohnMarienwerder,VitaLindana,chap.1,pars.15,17,AASSOctober,vol.13(Paris,1883),pp.5056seealsochap.2,par.44,p.515.SeeKieckhefer, UnS,pp.2526.

Page339

LidwinaofSchiedam,however,hadamodeloffastinginhergrandfatherseeVitaprior,chap.1,par.5,AASSApril,vol.2(Paris,1865),p.271. 107.LifeofJuliana,bk.1,chap.1,AASSApril,vol.1,pp.44344. 108.AccordingtoAnceletHustache,thereisnoreasontobelievethetraditionthatSophia,whowaspious,persecutedElizabeth(seeJeanneAnceletHustache, SainteElisabethdeHongrie[Paris:Editionsfranciscaines,1946],pp.12324). 109.RaymondofCapua,LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.1,chap.1,par.25,AASSApril,vol.3,p.869. 110.Seebelow,epigraphtochap.7. 111.Browe,DieWunder,p.50. 112.Einhard,Annalesfor825,inMGH.SS,vol.1,ed.G.H.Pertz(1826repr.NewYork:KrausReprint,1963),p.214.CitedinSigibert,Chronica,foryear823, inMGH.SS,vol.6,ed.Pertz(1844),p.338andinHugh,Chroniconforyear823,inMGH.SS,vol.8,ed.Pertz(1848),p.353. 113.AASSFebruary,vol.3(Paris,1865),pp.52977,givessixshortvitaeofWalburgathatbyWolfhardisonpp.52948.SeealsoFrancescaM.Steele,The LifeofSt.Walburga(London:HeathCranton,1921). 114.Wolfhard,LifeofWalburga,chap.1,pars.34,p.530. 115.Steele,LifeofWalburga,pp.13336.OneofWalburga'slaterhagiographers,BishopPhilipofEichsttt,claimed(in1306)tohavebeencuredbytheoiland alsoassertedthatitflowedmorecopiouslyduringmassseePhilip,LifeofWalburga,chap.7,pars.3738,AASSFebruary,vol.3(Paris,1865),pp.56768. 116.SeeSteele,LifeofWalburga,p.151andHerbertThurston,ed.,Butler'sLivesoftheSaints,vol.2(London:Burns,OatesandWashbourne,1930),pp. 33839. 117.ThestoriesofIrchinbaldandFrideradearefoundinWolfhard,LifeofWalburga,bk.1,chap.6,par.23,p.534andbk.4,chap.3,pp.54648,respectively. 118.SeeAgnesB.C.Dunbar,ADictionaryofSaintlyWomen,vol.1(London:Bell,1904),pp.13235.(Dunbar'swork,thoughquiteuncritical,isusefulfor summarizinglegends.) 119.LawrenceofDurham,LifeofBridgetofKildare,chap.3,par.14,AASSFebruary,vol.1(Paris,1863),p.174. 120.MatthewParis,HistoriamajorjuxtaexemplarLondinense1571verbatimrecusa,ed.WilliamWats(London:RichardHodgkinson,1640),p.327.Forthis period,MatthewdrawsmostlyfromRogerofWendover'sFlowersofHistory. 121.JamesofVitry,Historiaoccidentalis,ed.Hinnebusch,pp.8788. 122.Caesarius,Dialogus,bk.9,chap.47,vol.2,pp.2012cf.bk.7,chap.20,vol.2,pp.2528. 123.RogerBacon,Opusminor,inFr.RogeriBaconoperaquaedamhactenusinedita,ed.J.S.Brewer,vol.1(London:Longman,Green,LongmanandRoberts, 1859),pp.37374. 124.ThomasNetter[Waldensis],Opusdesacramentis,inquodoctrinaeantiquitatumfideiEcclesiaecatholicaecontraWitclevistas,Hussitaseteorum asseclasLutheranosaliosquehaereticoscontinentur(Salamanca:ApudIoannemMariamdaTerranovaetIacobumArcharium,1557),fols.111v112r.Thestory ofJoanisfollowedbyanaccountofLidwinaofSchiedamthatemphasizesherinediaandseveremedicalproblems.

Page340

125.Forthefraudulentfaster,seeFlaminioMariaAnnibalidaLatere,VitadellaVergineSantaColeta...(Rome:AntonioFulgoni,1805),p.87.Forthecure,see Miracula(compiled1471),par.7,AASSMarch,vol.1(Paris,1865),p.594. 126.SeePater,MARollins,"NotesonSomeEnglishAccounts"Schadewaldt,"MedizingeschichtlicheBetrachtungen"andGerish,intro.toTheHartfordshire Wonder,p.6. 127.Schadewaldt,"MedizingeschichtlicheBetrachtungen,"p.7andGregoryZilboorgwithGeorgeM.Henry,AHistoryofMedicalPsychology(NewYork: Norton,1941),pp.20710. 128.SeeBrowe,DieWunder,p.50.Thestoryofahermitwholivedinatreeandwasfedonmannafromheaven,toldinthevitaofLidwinaofSchiedam,isso clearlyabitofromanticfictionthatIhavenotcounteditseebelow,p.126.NorhaveIcountedthefourteenthcenturystoryofFrancisofAssisifastingforfortydays seebelow,n.140. 129.OnPeterofLuxembourg,seeabove,n.89.LifeofJamesOldo,chap.2,pars.1415,AASSApril,vol.2(Paris,1865),p.6034. 130.EdwardArber,ed.,TheRevelationtotheMonkofEvesham:1196,CarefullyEditedfromtheUniqueCopynowintheBritishMuseumoftheEdition [of]...WilliamdeMachliniaabout1482(London:5QueenSquare,Bloomsbury,n.d.),pp.19,27modernEnglishtrans.byValerianPaget,TheRevelationto theMonkofEveshamAbbey(NewYork:JohnMcBride,1909),pp.35,61.Themonk'srefusaltoeatistreatedasillnessratherthanasceticism.Itisalsopertinent tonotethatthemonk'sownvisionofsoulsinpurgatoryshowsnointerestinfoodabuses.Greedismentionedinpassingasoneofthesinsofreligiousmen (Revelation,ed.Arber,chap.3,p.73). 131.SeeWalterDaniel,LifeofAelred,inTheLifeofAelredofRievaulxbyWalterDaniel,ed.andtrans.F.M.Powicke(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress, 1951),pp.48ff.WalterstressesAelred'sfoodasceticismforthefouryearsbeforehisdeath:"Necmirum,siquidemparumcomedensetminusbibensciborum appetitumabstinencieinediaincredibilisextinxitomninoinseipso."HealsosaysthatAelredtookmedicinesoutofhismouthandthrewthemontheground(p.48)and atenofoodatallforseveraldaysbeforehisdeath(p.59).Thisdoesnotquiteamounttoaclaimtomiraculousabstinence. 132.ChronicapontificumetimperatorumMantuanaforyear1256,MGH.SS,vol.24(Hannover,1879),p.216.OnFacioofCremona,seeAndrVauchez, "SaintetlaqueauXIIIesicle:LaViedubienheureuxFaciodeCrmone(v.11961272),"Mlangesdel'EcoleFranaisedeRome:Moyengetemps modernes84.1(1972):1353. 133.SeeGerish,introductiontoTheHartfordshireWonder,p.5. 134.See,forexample,RaymondofCapua,LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.1,chap.1,pars.27,31,33,38(asachild,CatherineimitatedtheFathersbyretreatingto acave,andthoughtofimitatingEuphrosyne,oneofthetransvestitesaints)chap.3,pars.57,6364(sheimitatedDominicbyscourgingherself,andtheDesert Fathersbyfasting)chap.7,pars.11417(JesusmarriedherwitharingtheparalleltoCatherineofAlexandriaisexplicitlydrawn)pt.2,chap.5,pars.17273(her fastingisseenasparalleltobothMaryMagdalen'sandthatoftheDesertFathers)(AASSApril,vol.3,pp.86972,87678,89091,905).Seealsoabove,nn.65 67andchap.1n.68. 135.Bynum,JM,pp.126,128. 136.Ibid.,pp.11325.

Page341

137.SeeBernardofClairvaux,SermonessuperCanticaCanticorum,Sermon71,OB,vol.2(1958),pp.21424.WolfgangRiehle(TheMiddleEnglishMystics, trans.B.Standring[London:RoutledgeandKeganPaul,1981],pp.10710)seemstosuggestthatsuchmetaphorsfiguremoreprominentlyinwomen'swritings. 138.SeeVauchez,LaSaintet,pp.38183andKieckhefer,UnS,pp.4041,141.OnPeterofLuxembourgandJamesOldo,seeabove,n.129.Seealso Constable,SelfInflictedSuffering. 139.Franciscallshimselfa"mother"inhislettertoLeoseeTheFathersofSt.Bonaventure'sCollege,ed.,OpusculasanctipatrisFrancisciAssisiensis,Bibliotheca FranciscanaAsceticaMediiAevi1,2d.ed.,(Quaracchi:CollegiumS.Bonaventurae,1949),p.116trans.FahyinOmnibus,p.118.ForexamplesofFrancis's repeateddescriptionofthegoodfriarasmother,seebelow,chap.10,nn.1819.ThomasofCelanoalsoquotesbothFrancishimselfandhisfriarsascallingFrancis "mother"seeThomas,SecondLifeofFrancis,bk.2,par.137,inAF,vol.10,p.209andchap.136,par.180,inibid.,p.233.Francisdoesnotseemtoreferto himselfas"father,"althoughThomasdoessorepeatedly.BonaventurealsodescribesFrancisas"mother"seeLegendaminor,chap.3,seventhandeighthlessons,in AF,vol.10,pp.66465.OdoofCheriton,inasermonrecordedin1219,attributedtoFrancistheclaimthat"hewasawomanwhomtheLordimpregnatedbyhis wordandthushebroughtforthspiritualchildren''seeCajetanEsser,OriginsoftheFranciscanOrder,trans.AcedanDalyandI.Lynch(Chicago:Franciscan HeraldPress,1970),pp.11,208. 140.Ihavenothereconsideredthefourteenthcenturymaterial,butitisworthnotingthattheLittleFlowersofSt.Francis(chap.7)claimsthatFrancispassedone Lenteatingonlyhalfaloaf.TheFlowersalsoattributes(chap.33)afoodmiracletoClareandtells(chap.15)ofamealClareandFrancissharedatwhichneitherone ate(IFiorettidiSanFrancesco,ed.FaustaCasolini[Milan:GiacomoAgnelli,1926],pp.2932,13334,5659).Seebelow,chap.10n.7.Thereisauseful concordanceoftheearlyFrancismaterial,compiledbyT.DesbonnetsandD.Vorreuxandtrans.byM.A.HabiginOmnibus,pp.161965. 141.OnFrancis'sfoodasceticism,seeThomasofCelano,FirstLifeofFrancisofAssisi,bk.1,chap.19,par.51,AF,vol.10,pp.3940Bonaventure,Legenda maior,pt.1,chap.5,par.1,p.577andidem,Legendaminor,chap.3,firstlesson,p.662.SeealsoJordanJosephSullivan,FastandAbstinenceintheFirst OrderofSt.Francis:AHistoricalSynopsisandaCommentary,CatholicUniversityofAmericaCanonLawSeries374(Washington,D.C.:CatholicUniversityof AmericaPress,1957). 142.LifeofFrancisofFabriano,chap.1,par.6,AASSApril,vol.3(Paris,1866),p.993seealsoibid.,p.90. 143.See,forexample,ThomasofCelano,SecondLifeofFrancis,bk.2,chap.80,par.114,p.198,andchap.160,pp.25152.SeealsotheLeomaterial,chaps. 3and9,inRosalindB.Brooke,ScriptaLeonis,RufinietAngeliSociorumS.Francisci:TheWritingsofLeo...(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1970),pp.92,102. 144.ThomasofCelano,FirstLifeofFrancis,bk.1,chap.19,par.51,pp.3940. 145.FrancisofAssisi,Ruleof1223,chap.3,Opuscula,p.66trans.Fahy,Omnibus,pp.5960. 146.FrancisofAssisi,Ruleof1221,chap.9,Opuscula,pp.3638trans.Fahy,Omnibus,pp.3940.

Page342

147.FrancisofAssisi,Ruleof1221,chap.9,Opuscula,p.38,andRuleof1223,chap.3,Opuscula,p.67,respectively. 148.FrancisofAssisi,LettertoAlltheFaithful,Opuscula,p.91trans.Fahy,Omnibus,p.95.Sullivan(FastintheFirstOrderofFrancis,p.6)pointsoutthat fastingwasrelaxedintheorderduringFrancis'slifetime. 149.Brooke,ScriptaLeonis,chap.2,p.90.Sullivan(FastintheFirstOrderofFrancis,p.6)commentsthatFrancisrequiredmuchlessfastingthandidmany contemporaryreligiousorders. 150.Brooke,ScriptaLeonis,chap.1,pp.8890.SeealsoBonaventure,Legendamaior,pt.1,chap.5,par.7,pp.57980. 151.Brooke,ScriptaLeonis,chap.5,p.94ThomasofCelano,SecondLifeofFrancis,bk.2,chap.133,par.176,p.231. 152.Brooke,ScriptaLeonis,chap.26,pp.13436ThomasofCelano,SecondLifeofFrancis,bk.2,chap.15,par.44,p.158. 153.Brooke,ScriptaLeonis,chaps.29,101,pp.140,26668seealsostory4inBrooke'sappendix,pp.29698.ThomasofCelano,SecondLifeofFrancis,bk. 2,chap.23,pp.16264andTreatiseontheMiraclesofFrancis,chap.5,AF,vol.10,pp.28486.Bonaventure,Legendamaior,pt.1,chap.5,par.10,p.581, andpt.1,chap.7,par.12,ibid.,p.591. 154.Brooke,ScriptaLeonis,chaps.3940,pp.15660.ThomasofCelano,FirstLifeofFrancis,bk.1,chap.19,par.52,p.40Thomas,SecondLifeofFrancis, bk.2,chaps.48,94,pp.17778,207.Bonaventure,Legendamaior,pt.1,chap.6,par.2,pp.58283. 155.ThomasofCelano,SecondLifeofFrancis,bk.2,chap.138,par.183,p.235trans.PlacidHermann,Omnibus,p.508.SeealsoThomas,SecondLifeof Francis,bk.2,chap.139,par.186,pp.23637. 156.ThomasofCelano,SecondLifeofFrancis,bk.2,chap.151,par.199,p.244. 157.Seeabove,n.154andBonaventure,Legendamaior,pt.1,chap.4,par.8,pp.57475. 158.Bonaventure,Legendamaior,pt.1,chap.4,par.11,p.576,andchap.4,par.1,pp.57172. 159.SeeLambert,FranciscanPovertyFleming,IntroductiontoFranciscanLiteratureandLittle,ReligiousPoverty.Lambertisespeciallyusefulforexplaining howFrancisthoughtinimagesorstories,notlegalcategories.Muchrecentwork,emanatingfromM.Mollat'sseminarattheSorbonne,hasstressedtheimportanceof povertyasareligiousconcernagainstitssocialbackgroundsee,forexample,MichelMollat,ed.,Etudessurl'histoiredelapauvret(moyengeXVIesicle),2 vols.(Paris:PublicationsdelaSorbonne,1974). 160.ThomasofCelano,SecondLifeofFrancis,bk.2,chap.60,par.93,pp.18586Bonaventure,Legendamaior,pt.1,chap.7,par.6,p.589. 161.SeeThomasofCelano,FirstLifeofFrancis,bk.1,chap.6,par.15,pp.1415SecondLifeofFrancis,bk.2,chaps.16263,pp.25356.Bonaventure, Legendamaior,pt.1,chap.2,par.4,andchap.14,par.3,pp.56465,62122. 162.Brooke,ScriptaLeonis,chap.39andappendix,chap.3,pp.15658,29496. 163.ThomasofCelano,SecondLifeofFrancis,bk.2,chap.137,par.181,pp.23334.

Page343

164.ThomasofCelano,FirstLifeofFrancis,bk.3,chap.2,pars.12750,pp.10414.Onlyinpar.133(p.106)isfoodaninstrumentofhealing. 165.ThomasofCelano,SecondLifeofFrancis,bk.2,chaps.5357,59,137,pp.18285,23334. 166.Inearlyaccounts,Francissimplykissesaleper,ashamedbecausehehasearlierscornedtheirfoulsmell(ThomasofCelano,FirstLifeofFrancis,bk.1,chap.7, par.17,p.16),oreatswiththem(Brooke,ScriptaLeonis,chap.22,pp.12426).InThomas'sSecondLifeofFrancis(bk.1,chap.5,par.9,pp.13536),Francis kissestheleperandgiveshimalms.InBonaventure'sLegendamaior(pt.1,chap.1,pars.56,pp.56263),Franciskissesandgivesalmstolepersandtearsoffhis clothesforbeggars.OnlyinBonaventure'sLegendaminordowebegintofindanemphasisontheplacingofthemouthonthepusoflepers'sores(chap.1,eighth lesson,pp.65758)theaspectofFrancis'sasceticismthatItalianwomenwouldlaternotonlyechobutalsoheightenconsiderably. 167.Bonaventure,Legendamaior,pt.1,chap.1,par.6,pp.56263trans.Fahy,Omnibus,p.639. 168.ThomasofCelano,SecondLifeofFrancis,bk.2,chap.152,par.201,p.245Bonaventure,Legendamaior,pt.1,chap.9,par.2,p.598.Francis's eucharisticdevotionisnotstressedintheearliestmaterial. 169.FrancisofAssisi,Admonitions,number1ontheBodyofChrist,Opuscula,pp.35andLetter2,Opuscula,p.103. 170.Seeabove,n.169alsoFrancisofAssisi,ConcerningReverencefortheBodyofChristandCleanlinessoftheAltar,Opuscula,pp.2223andLetter5toAll SuperiorsoftheFriarsMinor,Opuscula,pp.11315.Franciswrites:"Et,siinaliquolocosanctissimumcorpusDominifueritpauperrimecollocatum,iuxtamandatum Ecclesiaeinlocopretiosoabeisponaturetconsigneturetcummagnavenerationeporteturetcumdiscretionealiisministretur.NominaetiametverbaDominiscripta, ubicumqueinvenianturinlocisimmundis,colliganturetinlocohonestodebeantcollocari"(p.114).SuchanattitudemakesthehostandtheBibleparallelandtreats bothasholyobjectsthestancereflectsnosensitivitytoeucharistasfood. 171.P.Hilarion,"S.Francisetl'eucharistie,"EtudesFranciscaines34(1922):52037. 172.OntheearlydocumentsconcerningClare,seeMariaFassbinder,"UntersuchungenberdieQuellenzumLebenderhl.KlaravonAssisi,"Franziskanische Studien23.3(1936):296335. 173.ThomasofCelano,LifeofClareofAssisi,chap.11,par.18,inPennacchi,Legenda,pp.2627trans.inTheLegendandWritingsofSaintClareofAssisi (St.Bonaventure,N.Y.:FranciscanInstitute,1953),pp.3132.SeealsoBullofcanonization,pars.5354,AASSAugust,vol.2(Paris,1867),p.750,andThomas, FirstLifeofFrancis,bk.1,chap.8,pars.1920,pp.1718Thomaslistspoorfoodandclothing,andabstinencefromfoodandspeech,astwoofthesixvirtuesof Clare'sfollowers. 174.ClareofAssisi,Rule,chap.3,par.10,inSeraphicaelegislationistextusoriginales...(Quaracchi:CollegiumS.Bonaventurae,1897),p.56. 175.ClareofAssisi,ThirdLettertoAgnes,inSeton,"LettersfromSaintClare,"p.517. 176.ClareofAssisi,Rule,chap.3,par.6,Seraphicaelegislationistextus,p.56. 177.Clare,ThirdLettertoAgnesinSeton,"LettersfromSaintClare,"p.517.

Page344

178.Ibid. 179.ThomasofCelano,LifeofClareofAssisi,chap.17,par.28,inPennacchi,Legenda,pp.3940. 180.Ibid.,chap.13,par.21,pp.3031. 181.DonaldAttwater,ed.,ThePenguinDictionaryofSaints(Harmondsworth:Penguin,1965),p.87andCorblet,Histoiredogmatique,vol.2,p.551. 182.ThomasofCelano,LifeofClareofAssist,chaps.910,pars.1516,inPennacchi,Legenda,pp.2326.SeealsoBullofcanonization,par.56,p.750. 183.ThomasofCelano,LifeofClareofAssisi,chap.7,par.12,pp.1920.Seealsoibid.,chap.24,par.38,pp.5253. 184.Ibid.,chap.8,par.14,p.23. 185.Ibid.,chap.23,par.37,pp.5052. 186.ZeffirinoLazzeri,ed.,"IlProcessodicanonizzazionediS.Chiarad'Assisi,"inArchivumFranciscanumHistoricum13(1920),3dwitness,par.29,p.458. Seealso6thwitness,par.13,p.466. 187.SeeBynum,JM,pp.11069andabove,n.139. 188.AlbertHuyskens,QuellenstudienzurGeschichtederhl.ElisabethLandgrfinvonThringen(Marburg:Elwert,1908),p.70n.3. 189.Seeabove,n.19. 190.HenrySuso,BchleinderEwigenWeisheit,chap.13,inSuso,DeutscheSchriften,pp.25152. 191.LifeofSuso,chap.42,inSuso,DeutscheSchriften,pp.14243.Susoborehismother'snameratherthanhisfather'stheprologueofthe1512editionofhis workssuggeststhathemadethischoiceinordertoimitatehervirtuesmoreeasily.SeeHeller,introductiontoEdward,trans.,Exemplar,vol.1,pp.xxxviixxxviii. 192.Suso'svitaseemstohavebeencompiledbysomeonewhoreworkedElsbetStagel'snotesitincorporatessomeofSuso'scorrespondence,butthatalsocanbe demonstratedtohavebeenreworkedseeHeller,intro.toEdward,trans.,Exemplar,vol.1,pp.xviiixliandAigrain,L'Hagiographie,p.314. 193.See,forexample,LifeofSuso,chaps.28,3738,inSuso,DeutscheSchriften,pp.8283,11430. 194.Ibid.,chap.29,pp.8485trans.Edward,Exemplar,vol.1,pp.8081.LifeofSuso(chap.22,p.63)reportsthatacertainAnnareceivedavisionofSuso withchildrenhangingontohisclothingchap.33(p.99)reportsElsbet'sownwordstoSuso,comparinghimtoapelicanwhofeedsheryoungwithherownblood. WhilethesetwopassagesmightindicatethatSuso'stwofemalefollowerssuggestedthefemininemetaphorsinthevita,Suso'sownvisionscontainother,farmore explicitlymaternalimages. 195.Ibid.,chap.20,pp.5556.Suso,meditatingonJob7:1,sawavisionofayoungmanofferinghimknightlygarb.Onceclothedinthismilitaryattire,Suso complained:"Wafengot!wieistesmirergangen,wazistussmirworden!Solichnuritensin?Ichpflegehinnanfrvillieberminsgemaches."Heagreedtoacceptthe knightlyrolewhenheunderstoodthatitmeantstruggleandpain,notglory. 196.Suso,Bchlein,chap.2,inDeutscheSchriften,p.204trans.Edward,Exemplar,vol.2,p.9.

Page345

197.LifeofSuso,chap.20,pp.5859. 198.Suso,Bchlein,chap.5,pp.21112trans.Edward,Exemplar,vol.2,pp.1718.InLifeofSuso(chap.10,p.30)hereceivestheChristchildtocuddlefrom MarybutisdescribedasSimeon. 199.LifeofSuso,chap.3,p.15andSuso,Bchlein,chap.6,p.216.Inthelatterpassage,Susospeaksofthesoulasafawnthathasleftthemotherdoe. 200.LifeofSuso,chap.3,p.15trans.Edward,Exemplar,vol.1,p.12.SusoratherlikedtheimageofGodasmotherseeSuso,Sermon1inSuso,Deutsche Schriften,p.498. 201.LifeofSuso,chap.18,pp.4950.AlthoughthepassagedoesnotexplicitlysaySusonursed,itdrawsananalogybothtoasickclericdescribedbyVincentof BeauvaisandtoJohnChrysostom,whodid. 202.Ibid.,chap.35,p.107.Seealsoabove,n.85. 203.Indeed,Susoonceusedwomanasatermofdisapprobationwhendescribinghimselfseeibid.,chap.44,pp.14952. 204.Suso,Briefbchlein,Letter4inSuso,DeutscheSchriften,p.369.WeshouldnotforgetthatthecompileroftheExemplarperhapsanunreworkedthese letters. 205.Ibid.,p.370.Susoalsousedfemaleimagesfortheholysoulwhenheaddressedwomen.See,forexample,Suso,Letter14(GrossesBriefbuch,inSuso, DeutscheSchriften,pp.44748),whereSusosaysGodhastaughtustopracticeausterityandhasraisedusfromkitchenservantsintoqueens. 206.Seeesp.LifeofSuso,chaps.4,1318,29,31,pp.1517,3453,8486,9092. 207.Suso'sfoodvisionsandmetaphorsmostlyinvolvefruit.Seeibid.,chaps.7,11,pp.2425,3132.InBchlein(chap.23,p.303),headdressestheeucharistas fruit,jewel,pomegranate,andgrapeinchap.19(p.276)heseesChristlyingdeadunderthecrossasfruit:"Herr,...alleminsinnewerdentgespisetvondiesersuzen *vruhtunderdisemlebendenbome*desKrzes."TheprominenceoffruitasanimagereflectsnotonlySuso'spersonaltastebutalsohisawarenessthathumankind firstfellthrougheatingfruitseeibid.,chap.16,pp.26566,whereMary,thesecondEve,isseenasaparadiseinwhichthesavingfruitgrows. 208.LifeofSuso,chap.20,p.61.Chap.7(p.25)alsopointsoutthathishungerandthirstsometimesgotoutofcontrol. 209.Ibid.,pp.2425. 210.ToSuso,foodwasjustoneofmanyimagesofGod'sgoodness.Forexample,inBchlein(chap.5,pp.21116),Wisdomsaystosoul:"IamyourBrother, yourSpouse....Batheyourselfinmyblood....Iwillgiveyoutheringofbetrothalandnewgarments....Iwillgiveyoumedicine,"etc.Inchap.23(pp.290303), whereeucharistandthereforefoodisemphasized,thesoulisseenasbathedandcladaswellasfed. 211.Suso,Briefbchlein,Letter8,pp.38586. 212.LifeofSuso,chap.7,pp.2425.SeeHuizinga,Waning,p.152. 213.SeeMaryFelicitasMadigan,The"PassioDomini"ThemeintheWorksofRichardRolle:HisPersonalContributioninitsReligious,Cultural,and LiteraryContext,SalzburgStudiesinEnglishLiterature,ElizabethanandRenaissanceStudies79(Salzburg:Institut

Page346

frenglischeSpracheundLiteratur,UniversittSalzburg,1978)andKieckhefer,UnS,pp.89121. 214.HenryPomer,LifeofJanvanRuysbroeck,"DeoriginemonasteriiViridisvallis...,"bk.2,chap.3,AB4,28485. 215.Seeabove,n.50andEricColledge,intro.toColledgeandM.Jane,SpiritualConferences,pp.412. 216.OnRolle,seeHopeEmilyAllen,WritingsAscribedtoRichardRolle,HermitofHampole,andMaterialsforHisBiography,ModernLanguageAssociation ofAmericamonographseries3(NewYork:Heath,1927)FrancesM.M.Comper,TheLifeofRichardRolleTogetherwithanEditionofHisEnglishLyrics (London:Dent,1928)andNicoleMarzac,RichardRolledeHampole(13001349):Vieetoeuvresetditioncritique...duTractatussuperApocalypsim, Thsepour...UniversitdeParis:FacultdesLettresetSciencesHumaines(Paris:Vrin,1968).TheOfficepreparedforRolleisinS.W.Lawley,ed.,Breviarium adusuminsignisecclesieEboracensis,vol.2,PublicationsoftheSurteesSociety75(Durham:Andrews,1883),cols.785820.Onthemiracles,seethetablein Comper,LifeofRolle,pp.31114.Allthemiraclesarecures.Ofthoseforadults,13areforwomen,7formen.Ofthesevenmiraclesconcerningchildren,sixare formalechildrenandoneforafemalechild,butsomeofthoseforboysareperformedatamother'sbehest. 217.DavidKnowles,TheEnglishMysticalTradition(London:BurnsandOates,1961),p.62.TheconjectureaboutthereasonforRolle'smisogynyisKnowles'. 218.JohnTauler,Sermon12forTuesdayinPassionWeek,inTauler,DiePredigten,p.58trans.ColledgeandM.Jane,SpiritualConferences,p.64.(The variouseditionsofTaulernumberthesermonsdifferently.IhaveusedVetter'snumbering.ThereisaconcordancetotheeditionsinGeorgHofmann,ed.,Johannes Tauler:Predigten[Freiburg:Herder,1961],pp.62834). 219.Tauler,Sermon49fortheNativityofMary,inTauler,DiePredigten,p.220.InSermon37(p.142),commentingonLuke15:8,heseesthewomanwho searchesforalostkidasasymbolofGod'sdivinityandthelampsheholdsasChrist'shumanity. 220.Tauler,Sermon31:SecondSermonforCorpusChristi,inTauler,DiePredigten,pp.31011foratranslationseebelow,p.111. 221.Tauler,Sermon33:FourthSermonforCorpusChristi,inTauler,DiePredigten,p.130trans.ColledgeandM.Jane,SpiritualConferences,p.274. 222.Tauler,Sermon81:FirstSermonforTriduumofSt.Cordula,DiePredigten,pp.43132. 223.Tauler,Sermon27:ThirdSermonforPentecost,inTauler,DiePredigten,pp.11014.Forharsherimages,seetheendofSermon37(pp.14447),where TaulerseesGodasastiffbroomthreshingusandscrubbingusclean(cf.n.219above).InSermon11forMondayinPassionWeek(ibid.,pp.5354),Taulerspeaks ofGodasafatherthrashinghischildrenwithagoodstoutstick. 224.SeeTauler,Sermon9forSecondSundayinLent,inTauler,DiePredigten,pp.4046.Ishallreturntothesignificanceofthissermonbelow,pp.24243. 225.OfficeofRolle,Reading5,inBreviarium,vol.2,cols.79596trans.Comper,LifeofRolle,p.304. 226.RichardRolle,LeChantd'amour(Melosamoris),ed.E.J.F.Arnouldandtrans.

Page347

thenunsofWisques,2vols.,SC16869,Srmon.3233(1971),chap.34,vol.2,pp.2426.Seealsoibid.,chap.42,pp.92100. 227.RichardRolle,Incendiumamoris,chap.11,inRichardRolle,The"IncendiumAmoris"ofRichardRolleofHampole,ed.,MargaretDeanesly,Publications oftheUniversityofManchester,HistoricalSeries26(Manchester:UniversityPress,1915),p.175trans.anded.byF.ComperfromRichardMisyn'stextinThe FireofLoveorMelodyofLoveandtheMendingofLife...translatedbyRichardMisyn...(London:Methuen,1914),pp.5354.SeealsoE.J.Arnould, "RichardRolleofHampole,"inJamesWalsh,ed.,PreReformationEnglishSpirituality(Bronx,N.Y.:FordhamUniversityPress,n.d.),p.143andthetableof themescitedbelow,n.248. 228.Rolle,Incendiumamoris,chap.39,pp.26566trans.ComperfromMisyninFireofLove,p.176. 229.Rolle,Chantd'amour,chap.40,vol.2,pp.7880. 230.Tauler,Sermon3forEpiphany,inTauler,DiePredigten,pp.1819trans.ColledgeandM.Jane,SpiritualConferences,pp.8283. 231.Tauler,Sermon31:SecondSermonforCorpusChristi,inTauler,DiePredigten,p.313:"Unddisewise,wiemansichallecreaturensollossenjagenunddaz lidenrechtergelossenheitundswiglicheit,dasgotberalleubunge*,vastenoderwachenoderbettenoderhalsbergetragenodertusentruten*ufdirzerslagen." 232.Tauler,Sermon27:ThirdSermonforPentecost,inTauler,DiePredigten,p.112. 233.Tauler,Sermon65:FourthSermonfortheExaltationoftheHolyCross,inTauler,DiePredigten,p.355trans.ColledgeandM.Jane,SpiritualConferences, p.104. 234.Tauler,Sermon49fortheNativityoftheVirgin,inTauler,DiePredigten,pp.22021trans.ColledgeandM.Jane,SpiritualConferences,p.170. 235.SeeTauler,Sermon40:FirstSermonfortheNativityofJohntheBaptist,inTauler,DiePredigten,p.166. 236.Tauler,Sermon21:FourthSermonforAscension,inTauler,DiePredigten,pp.8687trans.ColledgeandM.Jane,SpiritualConferences,pp.9798. 237.SeeJanvanRuysbroeck,TheSpiritualEspousals,trans.EricColledge,ClassicsoftheContemplativeLife(NewYork:Harper,n.d.),bk.2,chap.17,p.135, andchap.43,pp.17172.ThestandardeditionsofRuysbroeckareJanvanRuusbroec:WerkennaarhetstandaardhandschriftvanGroenendaal,ed.J.B. Poukensetal.,4vols.,HetRuusbroecGenootschapteAntwerpen(AmsterdamandMechlin:DeSpieghelandHetKompas,1932),andJanvanRuysbroeck,Opera omnia,ed.J.Alaertsetal.,10vols.,Studinentekstuitgavenvanonsgeestelijkerf20(Tielt:Lannoo,1981).SeealsoStephenAxters,LaSpiritualitdesPays Bas:L'Evolutiond'unedoctrinemystique,BibliothecaMechliniensis,2dser.,vol.1(LouvainandParis:NauwelaertsandVrin,1948),pp.4160. 238.JanvanRuysbroeck,"LesSeptCltures,"chap.8,OeuvresdeRuysbroeckl'Admirable,trans.theBenedictinesofSt.PauldeWisques,vol.3,3ded. (Brussels:Vromant,1921),pp.16972. 239.HenryPomer(inhisLifeofRuysbroeck,chap.22,p.299)citesasevidenceofRuysbroeck'sgreatobediencehisacceptanceofhissuperior'scommandthathe notdrinkwhilegravelyill.Onthisoccasionheclearlycravedadrink,andthereisnosuggestionthathenormallypracticedfoodasceticism.ThestatementofLoomis (inWhiteMagic,pp.23,141n.102)thatRuysbroeckfastedfromthebreastasachildisamistake.The

Page348

parallelPomerdrawstoSt.Nicholas(inchap.1,p.283)isnottofastingbuttoanothermiracle. 240.LifeofRuysbroeck,chap.29,pp.3034.Ruysbroeckmadeapointofcelebratingmassdailyhewasloathtorelinquishthispracticeeveninillhealthandold age(chaps.2728,pp.3023). 241.SeeJeanBaptistePorion,"Hadewijch,mystiqueflamandeetpotesse,13esicle,"DS,vol.7,pt.1(1969),cols.1822EricColledge,intro.toRuysbroeck, SpiritualEspousals,pp.1011andColumbaHart,intro.toHadewijch:Works,pp.1416. 242.Seeesp.Ruysbroeck,SpiritualEspousals(bk.2,chaps.920,pp.96143)forimagesofwaterandheat.Chap.17(pp.12634)discussesthesacrament, withverylittleeatingimagery.Inbk.2(chap.21,pp.13942)Ruysbroeckusesunquenchablehungerasanimageofdesire,butthepassagequicklyreturnstoimages oftouchandfire.RuysbroeckdoesstresstheimportanceofChrist'shumanityastheredemptionofourown,andheusuallysymbolizesthishumanityinfemaleimages (seeprologue,p.43). 243.Ruysbroeck,"LeMiroirdusalutternel,"chap.3,Oeuvres,pp.6566. 244.Ibid.,chap.7,pp.7980. 245.Ruysbroeck,LeLivredesXIIbguines,trans.PaulCuylits(Brussels:LibrairieSpcialedesBeauxArts,1900),pp.7576,99. 246.Ibid.,p.80. 247.SeeRuusbroec:Werken,vol.4,p.4nn.2,7,andp.5n.6.InRuysbroeck'sfirstwork,TheKingdomofLovers,heborrowedoneofHadewijch'smost extendedfoodmetaphors(PoemsinCouplets,number16,lines3140seeHartinHadewijch:Works,p.14. 248.SeeFranoisVandenbroucke,Tableofthemes,inRolle,Chantd'amour,vol.2,pp.277321,esp.pp.287,295,3079.Riehle(Mystics,pp.1078)has pointedouttheabsenceofaeucharisticemphasisinRolle,ashasVandenbrouckeinChantd'amour,vol.2,p.308. 249.Rolle,Incendiumamoris,chap.32,p.237.Foranextendedexampleofeatingimagerybecomingimageryofsong,seeRolle,Chantd'amour,chap.43,p. 110.SeealsoVandenbroucke(Chantd'amour,vol.2,p.285),whopointsoutthatsensoryexperiencesareinterchangeableinRolle'svocabularyandRiehle, Mystics,p.120. 250.SeeTauler,Sermons3033forCorpusChristi,inTauler,DiePredigten,pp.11831,29298,31016.Forquotationsseeabove,pp.1and4. 251.Tauler,Sermon30:FirstSermonforCorpusChristi,inTauler,DiePredigten,p.293trans.ColledgeandM.Jane,SpiritualConferences,p.258. 252.Tauler,Sermon32:ThirdSermonforCorpusChristi,inTauler,DiePredigten,p.118trans.ColledgeandM.Jane,SpiritualConferences,p.264. 253.Tauler,Sermon32,p.119,trans.ColledgeandM.Jane,SpiritualConferences,p.265. 254.Tauler,Sermon11forMondayinPassionWeek,inTauler,DiePredigten,pp.5056. 255.Tauler,Sermon24:SecondSermonfortheSundayafterAscension,inTauler,DiePredigten,pp.97101andSermon7forSeptuagesima,pp.3031. 256.Tauler,Sermon31:SecondSermonforCorpusChristi,inTauler,DiePredigten,pp.31011trans.ColledgeandM.Jane,SpiritualConferences,p.259. SeealsoSermon

Page349

33(pp.12526),whereTaulerwarnsthatspiritualcommunionmaybepreferabletoactualreceptionifthereceptionisautomaticorhurried. 257.Suso,atleastonce,callstears"womanly"whenhemeanssomethingnegativebytearsi.e.,whiningandweaknessseeLifeofSuso,chap.44,inSuso, DeutscheSchriftenpp.14952. 258.Cf.RaymondofCapua,whowasmoreunambiguousinadmiringanasceticisminwomenthathewasunabletoattainseeabove,n.98. 4 FoodintheLivesofWomenSaints 1.LifeofLukardisofOberweimar,AB18,pp.33738. 2.Bolton,"Mulieressanctae,"pp.7795idem,"Vitaematrum,"pp.25373McDonnell,BeguinesRoisin,L'Hagiographieidem,"L'Efflorescencecistercienne etlecourantfminindepitauXIIIesicle,"Revued'histoireecclsiastique39(1943):34278R.DeGanck,"TheCistercianNunsofBelgiumintheThirteenth Century,"CistercianStudies5(1970):16987andBynum,''WomenMystics."TothegroupofLowCountrywomenItreatbelowonemightaddYvetteofHuy(d. 1228)seeAlbertD'Haenens,"Ivetta,"BS,vol.7,cols.99293. 3.Thereisreasontothinkthathagiographers,inrevisingearliermaterialorwritinguptheirpersonalknowledgeofasubject,wereespeciallycarefultopreservethe sayings,orlogia,ofholypeopleexactlyastheyheardorreadthem.Thereforethewordsattributedtowomenmaybeespeciallytrustworthyevidence.SeeMartinus Cawley,"TheLifeandJournalofLutgardofAywires...,"VoxBenedictina1.1(January1984):2022.TheauthoroftheLifeofIdaofLau,forexample, preservessomeofherphrasesinthevernaculartheVitapriorofLidwinaofSchiedamalsopreservesafewvernacularwords. 4.JamesofVitry,LifeofMaryofOignies,bk.1,chap.4(AASSJune,vol.5,p.556)saysthatMarysometimesheardthewordsofothers"asifhoneywasinher mouth"sheoncereceivedsuchconsolationfromspiritualadvicethatshecouldnoteatmaterialfoodforawholeday.Bk.2,chap.10(p.566)speaksofMary's spiritualcommunionas"eating,""drinking,"and"beingfilled."Seealsop.59above. 5.Ibid.,bk.1,chap.1,p.551.Jameswasawarethatfastingnormallyproducesheadachesseeibid.,chap.2,p.552. 6.ThomasofCantimpr,LifeofLutgardofAywires,bk.1,chap.1,AASSJune,vol.4,p.192.Thestoryisagraphicone.AlthoughLutgardmanagedtoescape, theman'sservantsaccusedhimofrapeandLutgardwasjeeredasarapevictimwhensherodeintothetownofSt.Trond.ForearlierversionsofthelifeofLutgard, seeG.Hendrix,"PrimitiveVersionsofThomasofCantimpr'sVitaLutgardis,"Cteaux:Commentariicistercienses29(1978):153206.(Thisincidentis recordedonpp.16263and17778.)HendrixarguesconvincinglythatboththeshorterLatintext(VA)andasecondLatintextonwhichtheFrenchtext(FL)is basedareolderthanThomas'slife.Ontheotherhand,MartinusCawley("LifeandJournalofLutgard,"pp.2022)hasarguedthatThomas'stextgivesusbetter accesstoLutgard'slifebecauseVAtendstoomitany

Page350

referencestosurvivors.IhavecitedThomas'svitabelowunlessdifferencesamongthetextsmakeitnecessarytociteallthree. 7.ThomasofCantimpr,LifeofLutgard,bk.1,chap.1,p.191. 8.Ibid.,bk.3,chap.6,p.205. 9.LifeofIdaofLouvain,bk.1,chap.4,AASSApril,vol.2,pp.16465.Thepassagenotonlycallsreading"eating,"italsodrawsaparallelbetweeneatingand beingpregnant.ThevitaofIda,ofuncertaindateandwrittenbyananonymousauthorwhoclaimstobedrawingonearliermanuscripts,isnotaveryreliablehistorical account.Forexactlythisreason,itisausefulindicationofwhatmiraclesandbodilymanifestationsconfessorsandchurchofficialsconsideredtypicalofand appropriatetofemalesaints.Seebelow,n.32. 10.Ibid.,bk.1,chap.6,p.168. 11.LifeofJulianaofCornillon,bk.1,chap.2,AASSApril,vol.1,p.445.AccordingtoJuliana'shagiographer,sheatesolittlematerialfoodthathersistersinsisted nohumancreaturecouldsubsistonsolittle,butshelivedfromthesweetnessofprayerandeucharisticdesire.OnthevitaofJuliana,seeC.Lambot,"UnPrcieux ManuscritdelaviedesainteJulienneduMontCornillon,"inMiscellaneahistoricainhonoremAlbertideMeyer,UniversitdeLouvain,Recueildetravaux d'histoireetdephilologie,3esr.,22fasc.,vol.1(Louvain:Bibliothquedel'Universit,1946),pp.60312. 12.JamesofVitry,LifeofMaryofOignies,bk.2,chap.10,pp.56668. 13.LifeofMargaretofYpres,chap.24,ed.G.G.Meersseman,in"FrresprcheursetmouvementdvotenFlandreauXIIIesicle,"ArchivumFratrum Praedicatorum18(1948):11819. 14.LifeofAliceofSchaerbeke,chap.2,pars.911,AASSJune,vol.2(Paris,1867),pp.47374. 15.Ibid.,chap.2,par.12,p.474. 16.LifeofGertrudevanOosten("oftheWest")orofDelft,chap.2,par.7,AASSJanuary,vol.1(Paris,1863),p.350.OnGertrude'sfoodasceticism,seeibid., par.9,p.350. 17.JamesofVitry,LifeofMaryofOignies,bk.2,chap.12,p.571.Cf.JamesofVitry,Historiaoccidentalis,ed.Hinnebusch,chap.38,p.207,whichreferstothe sameincident. 18.LifeofIdaofLau,chap.2,pars.1920,pp.11314. 19.Ibid.,chap.2,par.18throughchap.3,par.26,pp.11215. 20.LifeofMargaretofYpres,chap.40,inMeersseman,"Frresprcheurs,"p.122. 21.LifeofIdaofLouvain,bk.1,chap.3,AASSApril,vol.2,pp.16263.LifeofChristinatheAstonishing,chap.2,par.17,AASSJuly,vol.5(Paris,1868),p. 653. 22.LifeofIdaofLouvain,bk.1,chap.6,p.163. 23.Insomecaseseucharisticdevotionbeganveryyoung.MargaretofYpresexperiencedextraordinarydesireforthehostandsweetsmellsaccompanyingitatage fiveseeherLife,chap.2,inMeersseman,"Frresprcheurs,"p.107.Amalechildsaintfromthesameperiodandgeographicalareaalsoexpressedextraordinary eucharisticpiety:Acher(orArchas)ofTurnhout(d.ca.1222)seeThomasofCantimpr,BonumUniversale,bk.2,chap.27(notfoliated). 24.LifeofAlice,chap.2,pars.910,AASSJune,vol.2,47374LifeofIdaof

Page351

Lau,chap.2,pars.1920,AASSOctober,vol.13,pp.11314.SeealsoLifeofJuliana,chap.2,AASSApril,vol.1,pp.44546. 25.LifeofIdaofLouvain,bk.1,chap.4,andbk.3,chap.1,AASSApril,vol.2,pp.164,18283. 26.ThomasofCantimpr,LifeofLutgard,bk.2,chap.1,par.14,AASSJune,vol.4,pp.19899cf.VAinHendrix,"PrimitiveVersions,"p.168.Thevindictive noteinthestorymaynotbealateradditionbyBrotherBernard,astheBollandistssuggest:seeHendrix,"PrimitiveVersions,"p.161.Accordingtoalltheearlylives, Lutgardsaid,"Ishallobey...butChristwillvindicatethisinjuryinyourbody."Theabbesswasafflictedwithpainuntilsherelaxedtheprohibition. 27.LifeofIdaofLouvain,bk.2,chap.3,p.173ThomasofCantimpr,LifeofLutgard,bk.1,chaps.12,pp.19294. 28.ThomasofCantimpr,LifeofLutgard,bk.1,chaps.12,pp.19294.TheFrenchvita(ed.Hendrix,"PrimitiveVersions,"p.181)hasLutgardsuckingthesong fromthelamb'slips.Theseexperiencesofcomforttendedtocomeafterperiodsoftrial.Lutgard'snursingvisionscameaftershehadexperiencedattemptedrapeand humiliation.IdaofLouvainreceivedanextendedvisionofChristasababyaftershewasaccusedofhavingbeenmadepregnantbyalocalfriarseeLifeofIda,bk.2, chaps.45,pp.17577. 29.ThomasofCantimpr,LifeofLutgard,bk.1,chap.2,par.15,p.194.TheFrenchlifedescribesthevisionmoregraphicallyseeHendrix,"PrimitiveVersions,"p. 180.Ontheimportanceofthemouthinthisvita,seeCawley,"LifeandJournalofLutgard,"pp.4044. 30.LifeofIdaofLau,chap.2,par.20,AASSOctober,vol.13,pp.11314. 31.LifeofMaryofOignies,bk.1,chap.2,pp.55152. 32.LifeofIdaofLouvain,bk.1,chap.3,pp.16263.AlaterLowCountrywoman,GertrudevanOosten,supposedlyreceivedallfivestigmatain1340whenshe prayedbeforeacrucifix.ThewoundsbledseventimesadaywhileGertrudeexperiencedecstasy.ShelateraskedGodtotakeawaythebleeding,butthescars remained.SeeLifeofGertrudevanOosten,AASSJanuary,vol.1,pp.34953andViesdessaintsetdesbienheureux...,vol.1(1935),pp.12830.For doubts,partlyhistoricalandpartlytheological,aboutthesecases,seeDebongnie,"Stigmatisations,"pp.34,4950. 33.PhilipofClairvaux,LifeofElizabeth[ofSpalbeek],"nunofHerkenrode,"intheBollandists,eds.,CataloguscodicumhagiographicorumBibliothecaeregiae Bruxellensis,Subsidiahagiographica1,vol.1,pt.1(Brussels:TypisPolleunis,CeuterickandLefbure,1886),pp.363,378.Despitethereferencetoherasanun, Elizabethappearstohavebeenarecluseinherpaternalhome:seeDebongnie,"Stigmatisations,"pp.3031. 34.OnLutgard'sthreesevenyearfastsforthesakeofothers,seeThomasofCantimpr,LifeofLutgard,bk.2,chap.1,pars.1,9,andbk.3,chap.4,pp.196, 198,205.TherearereferencestoLutgard'sfoodasceticismthroughoutthevita.OnthesavingeffectsofAlice'ssuffering,seeLifeofAlice,AASSJune,vol.2,pp. 47177. 35.LifeofMaryofOignies,bk.1,chaps.24,pp.55156LifeofIdaofLouvain,bk.1,chap.2,pp.16062LifeofJuliana,bk.1,chaps.13,pp.44347Life ofIdaofLau,chap.4,par.136,andchap.6,par.54,pp.118,123andLifeofMargaretofYpres,chaps.3,16,40,inMeersseman,"Frresprcheurs,"pp.108, 114,122.Juliana'sbiogra

Page352

pherreportsthatonce,inanefforttoachievepeacewithhersisters,sheputfoodintohermouth,toreitwithherteeth,andturneditoverinhermouth,but"she wasnotabletoswallowamorselofit"(bk.1,chap.3,p.447). 36.ThomasofCantimpr,LifeofLutgard,bk.2,chap.1,par.2,p.196.TheauthoroftheLifeofIdaofLauexplainedsuchphenomenathus:"Shouldwemarvel that,tosomeonewhowasfedbyprayerandmeditation,eatingearthlyfoodintherefectorywouldbeodious?"(chap.3,par.26,p.115). 37.PhilipofClairvaux,LifeofElizabeth[ofSpalbeek],Cat.cod.hag.Bruxellensis,vol.1,pt.1,p.378.SeeDebongnie,"Stigmatisations,"p.33n.1. 38.LifeofChristina,chap.2,par.22,AASSJuly,vol.5,p.654. 39.Seeabove,chap.3n.65. 40.LifeofMargaretofYpres,chaps.43,48,inMeersseman,"Frresprcheurs,"pp.123,125. 41.ThomasofCantimpr,LifeofLutgard,bk.3,chap.1,p.204. 42.LifeofAlice,chap.2,pars.2223,andchap.3,par.27,pp.47576. 43.Seeabove,n.34. 44.LifeofMaryofOignies,bk.1,chap.3,p.553. 45.LifeofAlice,chap.3,par.26,p.476. 46.LifeofMaryofOignies,bk.1,chap.4,p.555.SeealsoBolton,"VitaeMatrum,"pp.25759. 47.LifeofChristina,chap.2,par.22,p.654. 48.LifeofJuliana,bk.1,chap.1,pp.44445. 49.LifeofIdaofLouvain,bk.1,chap.5,p.167.Wecanoftensee,inaccountsoffastingwomen,thatfoodwasreadilyavailableifthewomanwantedit. 50.Ibid.,bk.1,chap.5,pp.16566,andbk.2,chap.5,p.178. 51.ThomasofCantimpr,LifeofLutgard,bk.2,chap.2,pars.1920,25,pp.200201. 52.LifeofJuliana,bk.1,chap.6,p.451. 53.ThomasofCantimpr,LifeofLutgard,bk.2,chap.2,par.21,p.200.Theearlierversionsspeakmerelyofahemorrhagefromwhichshesuffered. 54.Ibid.,bk.1,chap.1,par.23,p.193. 55.PhilipofClairvaux,LifeofElizabeth[ofSpalbeek],Cat.cod.hag.Bruxellensis,vol.1,pt.1,p.378:"deoreipsiusnecsalivanecsputum,necdenaribusejus aliqueemunctionismateriaauthumoraliquisemanavit." 56.Theconcernisnot,however,apeculiarityofThomas's,foritisalreadypresentintheearlierversionorversionsofLutgard'svita.SeethetextsinHendrix, "PrimitiveVersions." 57.LifeofChristina,chap.1,par.9,andchap.2,par.19,pp.652,65354. 58.ThomasofCantimpr,LifeofLutgard,bk.1,chap.1,par.13throughchap.2,par.19,pp.19394. 59.Ibid.,bk.1,chap.1,par.12,p.193. 60.LifeofMaryofOignies,bk.2,chap.10,p.567.OnNicholas,seeCharlesW.Jones,SaintNicolasofMyra,Bari,andManhattan:BiographyofaLegend (Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1978). 61.LifeofGertrudevanOosten,chap.3,par.14,p.350thelactationsupposedly

Page353

lastedfromChristmastothefeastofthePurification(Feb.2).Forherloveofchildrenandhertemptationbythedevilintheformofababy,seechap.2,par.11, p.350. 62.ThomasofCantimpr,LifeofLutgard,bk.2,chap.2,par.23,p.200. 63.LifeofMaryofOignies,bk.2,chap.12,p.572. 64.LifeofJuliana,bk.2,chap.9,p.475. 65.ThomasofCantimpr,forexample,emphasizestheimportanceofLutgardas"motherandnurseofthefriars."Butmanyofhermiraclesduringlifeandallofher miraclesafterdeathwereperformedforwomenseeThomas,LifeofLutgard,pp.189210. 66.Asherhagiographerspointout,Lidwina'sveryname,takenfromlydandwyt(i.e.,paterelate)meant"tosufferprofusely." 67.JohnGerlach,Lidwina'srelativeandsacristanofthemonasteryatWindesheim,wrotehervitainDutch.AsecondLife(theVitaprior)inLatinisbasedon Gerlach'sandaugmentedwithinformationfurnishedbyJohnWalterofLeiden,Lidwina'slastconfessor,andothers.Thisvita,withtheadditionsindicatedinbrackets, isgiveninAASSApril,vol.2(Paris,1865),pp.271301,alongwithasecond,longerLifebyJohnBrugman(Vitaposterior),ibid.,pp.30260.TheBollandists attributedboththeVitapriorandtheVitaposteriortoBrugman,butthemorerecenteditoroftheVitaposteriordisagrees,basinghisargumentonthedivergences ofstylebetweenthetwoaccounts.SeeJohnBrugman,IohannisBrugmanO.F.M.VitaAlmeVirginisLidwine,ed.A.deMeijer,RijksuniversiteitteUtrecht tekstenendocumenten2(Groningen:Wolters,1963),pp.vxiii.Afourthvita,byThomasKempis,isanabridgementofBrugmanwithsomeaddeddetailsthat ThomasculledatSchiedamseeThomasKempis,LifeofLidwina,inThomasKempis,Opereomnia,ed.H.Sommalius,vol.3(16001601newed.Cologne: Krakamp,1759),pp.11464.SeealsoJ.K.Huysmans,SainteLydwinedeSchiedam,16thed.(Paris:Plon,1909),whichmustbeusedwithcautionand Debongnie,"Stigmatisations,"pp.5556.MuchofthefollowingdiscussionhasappearedinCarolineBynum,"Fast,Feast,andFlesh:TheReligiousSignificanceof FoodtoMedievalWomen,"Representations11(August1985):125.IhavecitedtheVitaposteriorinboththeAASSeditionandthedeMeijeredition. 68.Forthedocument,seeAASSApril,vol.2(Paris,1865),pp.3045. 69.Brugman,Vitaposterior,pt.3,chap.6,pars.22526,AASSApril,vol.2,pp.34748(deMeijered.,pp.13135). 70.Brugman,Vitaposterior,pt.3,chap.6,pars.21821,p.346(deMeijered.,pp.13031). 71.Brugman,Vitaposterior,pt.1,chap.2,par.19,p.308(deMeijered.,pp.2021).Cf.ThomasKempis,LifeofLidwina,pt.1,chap.5,pp.11819. 72.Vitaprior,chap.1,par.9,AASSApril,vol.2,p.272seealsoThomasKempis,LifeofLidwina,pt.1,chap.2,pp.11617. 73.Vitaprior,chaps.12,pp.27275Brugman,Vitaposterior,pt.1,chaps.12,pp.3059(deMeijered.,pp.1221).Seealsoplate10,anearlyillustrationof Lidwina'slife,whichmaybethefirstpictureofskatesfromtheNetherlands. 74.Seethedocumentcitedinn.68aboveandVitaprior,chaps.23,pp.27377,andchap.7,par.76,p.286.TheauthorsofboththeVitapriorandVita posteriorgiveextensiveandhorrifyingmedicaldetails.

Page354

75.Brugman,Vitaposterior,pt.2,chap.1,par.72,p.319seealsoibid.,pt.1,chap.4,par.33,p.311(deMeijered.,pp.29,52).Itisalsoimportanttonotethat LidwinaatfirstrespondedtoherterribleillnesswithangeranddespairandhadtobeconvincedthatitwasasavingimitationofthePassionseeVitaprior,chap.5, pp.27981andThomasKempis,LifeofLidwina,pt.2,chap.1,pp.13233. 76.Vitaprior,chap.9,pars.99103,pp.29091. 77.Brugman,Vitaposterior,pt.3,chap.1,par.152,p.334(deMeijered.,p.97). 78.Vitaprior,chap.7,par.77,p.286:"usqueadmortem,neculloutebaturvelcibovelpotuvelsomno,sednecnaturaliasuperfluacorporisemittebat,praeterquam pervomitum." 79.Vitaprior,chap.11,pars.12122,pp.29495Brugman,Vitaposterior,pt.2,chap.8,pp.32931(deMeijered.,pp.8285)seealsobelow,n.94. 80.Brugman,Vitaposterior,pt.2,chap.10,par.146,p.133(deMeijered.,pp.9293).Brugman(Vitaposterior,pt.3,chap.1,par.157,p.335deMeijered., p.99)pointsoutthatachildwashealedmerelybybeingplacedonLidwina'sbed. 81.Vitaprior,chap.10,pars.1079,p.292. 82.Brugman(Vitaposterior,pt.3,chap.4,par.194,p.342deMeijered.,p.118)underlinesthepowerofdevotiontoMarythatbringssweetmilkfromarotting bodyandfoodfromavirgin. 83.Vitaprior,chap.6,pars.5860,p.282Brugman,Vitaposterior,pt.3,chap.4,pars.19394,pp.34142(deMeijered.,pp.11718)ThomasKempis, LifeofLidwina,pt.2,chap.4,pp.13536.BoththeauthoroftheVitapriorandThomasKempiscommentthatthelactatingmeansthatallthevirginswereworthy tonursethebabyJesus. 84.Brugman,Vitaposterior,pt.3,chap.4,par.194,p.342(deMeijered.,p.118).Cf.theothertwoaccountscitedinn.83,above.Itmaybethattwodifferent confessorsarereferredto. 85.SeeThomasKempis,LifeofLidwina,pt.1,chaps.19,22,pp.128,13031. 86.Vitaprior,chap.7,par.74,p.285,andchap.8,pars.8086,pp.28788Brugman,Vitaposterior,pt.2,chaps.23,pp.32023(deMeijered.,pp.55 63)ThomasKempis,LifeofLidwina,pt.1,chaps.1923,pp.12831. 87.ThomasKempis,LifeofLidwina,pt.1,chap.23,p.131. 88.Brugman,Vitaposterior,pt.2,chaps.8,10,pp.32931,33334(deMeijered.,pp.8285,9194).SeeDebongnie,"Stigmatisations,"pp.5556.The referencetostigmata,whichseemstobeBrugman'sembroideryonthestory,shouldnotbetakenliterally.Butitisimportantasareflectionofwhatsome contemporariesexpectedofholywomen. 89.Brugman,Vitaposterior,pt.2,chap.10,par.145,p.333(deMeijered.,p.92). 90.Vitaprior,chap.3,par.29,p.276,andchap.11,par.128,p.296.Wearetoldthatherrelativesandfriendsespeciallybenefited.Theauthorsaysexplicitly(p. 296):"Abhinc[1421]autemusqueadmortemsuam[1433],communiterpatiebaturfebresquartanas,etinterdumquotidianas,prosublevationeanimarumin purgatorio." 91.Brugman,Vitaposterior,pt.3,chap.1,pars.15355,pp.33435(deMeijered.,pp.9799). 92.Brugman,Vitaposterior,pt.3,chap.1,par.156,p.335(deMeijered.,p.99).

Page355

93.SeeVitaprior,chap.11,par.128,p.296.Seealsoibid.,chap.5,pars.4245,pp.27980andThomasKempis,LifeofLidwina,pt.2,chap.22,pp.155 56. 94.Vitaprior,chap.11,pp.29497Brugman,Vitaposterior,pt.2,chaps.710,pp.32834(deMeijered.,pp.7794)ThomasKempis,LifeofLidwina,pt. 2,chap.22,pp.15556.Thomasgivesaveryshortversion,inwhichLidwinafirstseesacrucifiedboy,thenawoundedhostthehostdescends,andfinallyLidwina receivesitfromthepriest.SeealsoHuysmans,Lydwine,chap.7. 95.Differentpeoplesupposedlysawdifferentpatternsinthehost,dependingontheirdegreeofholiness. 96.Brugman,Vitaposterior,pt.2,chap.7,par.121,p.328(deMeijered.,p.79). 97.Vitaprior,chap.10,pars.1079,p.292Brugman,Vitaposterior,pt.2,chap.5,pars.1067,andnotec,pp.32526(deMeijered.,pp.7071). 98.SeeVitaprior,chaps.910and12passim,pp.28998Brugman,Vitaposterior,pt.2,chaps.46,pp.32327,andpt.3,chap.2,pp.33638(deMeijer ed.,pp.6477,1017).ShewasalsoabletospothypocrisyinreligiouswomenseeBrugman,Vitaposterior,pt.2,chap.3,pars.9293,pp.32223(deMeijer ed.,pp.6263). 99.Vitaprior,chap.7,par.73,p.285ThomasKempis,LifeofLidwina,pt.1,chap.18,p.128. 100.AlthoughLidwina'ssmallgroupoffollowersdoesnotseemtohavebeenpredominantlyfemale,shedidperformmiraclesforotherwomen,someofthempathetic victimsofcruelhusbandsorgrindingpoverty.SeeVitaprior,chap.9,par.106,pp.29192.Seeesp.Brugman,Vitaposterior,pt.3,chap.5,pars.200201,p. 343(deMeijered.,pp.12122),whereLidwinapersuadesawoman,marriedtoabruteofaman,nottocommitsuicidefromdespairandconvertsthemanto tendernessbyherprayers. 101.MargaretofOingt,LifeofBeatriceofOrnacieux,esp.chaps.67,inOeuvresdeMarguerite,pp.11823.Thebiographertellsusthatforalongperiod BeatricesawthebodyofChrist"likealittlechild"everydayattheelevationofthehost. 102.Ibid.,chap.7,pars.8998,pp.12023.OnanotheroccasionBeatriceprayedbeforeapyxorportabletabernacleand,inheranguish,askedGodfordeath.A voicespoketoherfromthetabernacleandsherealizedthatherillness,particularlytheterribleheadachesfromwhichshesuffered,couldcontributetoherserviceof Christ(ibid.,chap.3,pars.6266,pp.11011). 103.Tss,pp.32,5354.AgnesBlannbekinofViennaspokeofdrinkinga"refreshingspiritualdrink"fromthewoundinJesus'sideseeGougaud,DAP,p.107. 104."Unterlinden,"p.440.AnothernunwasgivenawhitelambbyJohntheBaptistwhenshehadtointerruptherdevotionsandleavethechoironconventbusiness, andshereceivedtheeucharistdirectlyfromChristwhenshewasill(ibid.,pp.44950).Thissamenuninflictedgreatcrossshapedwoundsonherchestwithapiece ofwood"inordertoretainamemoryofChrist'spassion."ThenunsalsoreceivedmanyvisionsofChristasableedingyoungmanorasababy.Inoneparticularly touchingcase,awomanwhohadabandonedhertwoyoungchildren"scarcelyoutofthecradle"toenterthemonasteryhadavisionofChristasanewbornbaby cryingbeforeher(ibid.,p.403). 105.Engelthal,p.36:"Undhetichdich,ichgezdichvorrehterlieb!" 106.AdelheidLangmann,DieOffenbarungenderAdelheidLangmann,Klosterfrauzu

Page356

Engelthal,ed.PhilippStrauch,QuellenundForschungenzurSprachundKulturgeschichtedergermanischenVlker26(Strasbourg:Trbner,1878),pp.11 12. 107.Ibid.,pp.26,47:"deinmuntsmektnochrosenunddeinleipnochviol""meinzukersezzezundmeinhonigsezzezlip,meinzarte,meinreine,dupistmeinund ichpindein."CitedbyBrowe,DieWunder,pp.10910.TheimagerycomesfromtheSongofSongs. 108.LifeofJaneMaryofMaillbyherconfessor,MartinofBoscoGualteri,chap.2,par.14,andchap.4,esp.par.28,AASSMarch,vol.3(Paris,1865),pp. 737,73940.AwitnessinthecanonizationproceedingstestifiedthatJaneMary'sbodywaslikeskinandbonesfrommortificationwhenshedied,butthenbecame beautiful(Processofcanonization,chap.2,par.14,ibid.,p.747). 109.LifeofFloraofBeaulieu,chap.2,par.24,AASSJune,vol.2(Paris,1867),app.p.46*.SeealsoC.Brunel,ed.,"VidaemiraclesdeSanctaFlor,"AB64 (1946),Vida,chap.8,pp.1920. 110.LifeofFlora,chap.2,par.25,AASSJune,vol.2,p.46*,andchap.3,par.47,p.50*,andpassim.SeealsoVida,ed.Brunel,chaps.9,19,pp.20,27. 111.LifeofFlora,chap.3,par.48,AASSJune,vol.2,p.50*ProcessofcanonizationforJaneMaryofMaill,chap.5,par.54,AASSMarch,vol.3,pp.754 55.ChristinaEbnerreceivedavisionduringmassinwhichshesuckedfromthewoundsinChrist'sdivineheartasabeesucksfromflowers(Kieckhefer,UnS,p. 173). 112.LifeofLukardis,chap.6,AB18,p.313.Cf.chap.45,p.334,wheresheexperiencestheeucharistasasweetsmell. 113.Ibid.,chap.16,pp.31819. 114.Ibid.,chap.28,p.324. 115.Ibid.,chap.29,p.324.Ontwootheroccasions(chap.19,p.320,andchap.26,p.323),wearetold,LukardisrecoveredonEasterfromacondition resemblinghystericalparalysis,inordertotaketheeucharist. 116.Ibid.,chap.14,p.317. 117.Ibid.,chap.51,pp.33738. 118.Ibid.,chap.88,p.360.OnceLukardiscomfortedthesister,hersadnessleftandshedidnotfeelitnecessarytoreturntoherconfessor. 119.Ibid.,chaps.712,pp.31315.AfteroneofthenunsaskedLukardiswhyshedidnothavethewoundsofthecrownofthorns,sheacquiredthem(ibid.,chap. 72,p.353). 120.Ibid.,chap.55,p.340.Inasimilarincident,anunataconventfivemilesawayhadavisionofChristwithasternface.Hetoldherthatheexhibitedthisstern facetoallthosewhodidnotbelieveinthemiracleshedidthroughLukardis,whomhehadsignedwithstigmata(ibid.,chap.63,p.347). 121.Gertrude,Oeuvres:vol.2:LeHraut,bk.2,chap.6,pp.25658ibid.,chap.16,pp.29096passim.SeealsoBynum,JM,p.192n.57Gertrude,Oeuvres: vol.3:LeHraut,bk.3,chaps.18,73pp.1024,302andLegatus,bk.4,chap.21,pp.36164.AnotherHelftanun,MechtildofHackeborn,receivedChrist's heartasacupatcommunionandfeltherselfurgednotonlytodrinkbutalsotoofferthesavingdrafttohersisternunsseeMechtildofHackeborn,Liberspecialis gratiae,bk.1,chap.1,pp.710. 122.MechtildofMagdeburg,Licht,bk.6,chap.36,p.210trans.Menzies,Light,p.

Page357

199.Onthisvision,seeBynum,JM,p.237.ThereareexcerptsfromMechtild,welltranslatedbyJohnHoward,inKatharinaM.Wilson,ed.,MedievalWomen Writers(Athens,Ga.:UniversityofGeorgiaPress,1984),pp.15385. 123."Dassintdennegotessenmag"(quotedinRiehle,Mystics,p.107).SeealsoMechtildofMagdeburg,Licht,bk.2,chap.4,pp.3033,andbk.2,chap.22, p.43. 124.MechtildofMagdeburg,Licht,bk.1,chap.44,pp.2122. 125.Ibid.,bk.5,chap.8,p.136trans.Menzies,Light,p.133.SeealsoMechtildofMagdeburg,Licht,bk.3,chap.10,p.72andBynum,JM,p.236. 126."Unterlinden,"chap.5,pp.34142.Thedescriptionalsoreferstoflagellationandotherausterities. 127.ViedeDouceline,chap.9,pp.8591,onherecstasieschap.10,pp.13334,ontastingGodinthetabernaclechaps.6,9,pp.57,71,101,105onher inabilitytoeat.InDouceline'scase,thenoteating,thefearoftouch,andtheecstasieswerealsopreparationforhealingmiracles.Forafoodmultiplicationmiracleby thesaint,seeibid.,chap.12,p.183. 128.LifeofJaneMary,AASSMarch,vol.3,pp.73444andProcessofcanonization,pp.74462passim.LifeofJaneMary(chap.2,par.13,p.736)contains thestoryoftheangel,whoisidentifiedassuchbytheeditorsofthevitabutnotinthetext. 129.ForaccountsofAlpas,seeabove,chap.3n.77. 130.Seeabove,epigraphtochap.3. 131.LifeofAlpas,bk.4,chap.2,AASSNovember,vol.2,pt.1,p.200.Onhereatingdifficulties,seealsobk.2,chap.1,pp.18283. 132.AtleasttwiceAlpassawthedevilinavisionasadoctorofferingmedicine.Hetoldherthatifshewouldtakeit"likeordinarywomen"shewouldbecuredand wouldbeabletoeatordinaryfood(seeibid.,bk.3,chap.4,pp.19697,andbk.4,chap.1,p.198). 133.See,forexample,theaccountinthechronicleofRobertofAuxerre(AASSNovember,vol.2,pt.1,p.167),whichemphasizestheemptinessofAlpas's intestines,andtheaccountbyRalphCoggeshall(ibid.,p.168),whichstressesproofofherinedia. 134.Addenda,chap.4,AASSNovember,vol.2,pt.1,p.208. 135.SeethediscussionsofColumbaofRietiandCatherineofSienabelow,pp.147and16770.TheclearestcaseoffoodstealingbyamiraculousfasterisElsbet Achler.Elsbet'svitaiseditedbyKarlBihlmeyerin"DieSchwbischeMystikerinElsbethAchlervonReute(&dagger1420)unddieberlieferungihrerVita,"in GeorgBaeseckeandFerdinandJosephSchneider,eds.,FestgabePhilippStrauchzum80.Geburtstagam23.September1932,HermaeaAusgewhlteArbeiten ausdemDeutschenSeminarzuHalle31(Halle:Niemeyer,1932),pp.88109andbyAntonBirlingerin"LebenheiligeralemannischerFrauendesXIVXV Jahrhunderts,1:DiterstBchlynistvonderSeligenKlusenerynvonRthy,diegenantwazElizabeth,"Alemannia9(1881):27592.SeealsoC.Schmitt,"Elisabeth deReute,"DHGE,vol.15(1963),cols.22021.Proddedbyherconfessorintoadolescentselfrighteousness,Elsbetbecamearecluseafterconflictwithherparents, whodisownedher.Givenpermissionbothbyherconfessorhagiographerandbyanelderlyfemalerecluse,Elsbetpassedthreeyears"withouteating."Ifweread betweenthelinesofhervita,itseemslikelythatshebecameacompulsivesecreteater,vomitingupstolenfood.Asisterwhoworkedinthekitchenevenjoked,when meatdisappeared:

Page358

"Itwasstolenbythecatwithtwolegs."Severalincidentssuggestsurreptitiousgorging.Wearetold,forexample,thatthedevildisguisedhimselfasherspiritual motherandgaveherfoodthatmadeherviolentlyill.Onanotheroccasionthedevilsupposedlyhidmeatandsaltunderherbed,makingitlookasifshehad secretedthemthere(seeesp.LifeofElsbetinBirlinger,"KlusenerynvonRthy,"p.280). 136.ThebasictextsareinHuyskens,Quellenstudien.SeeAnceletHustache,Elisabeth,pp.1729,andPaulG.Schmidt,"Diezeitgenssischeberlieferungzum LebenundzurHeiligsprechungderheiligenElisabeth,"inUniversityofMarburg,SanktElisabeth,pp.16.ForanexcellentsurveyofthebackgroundtoElizabeth's experience,seeKasparElm,"DieStellungderFrau,"pp.728. 137.AnceletHustache,Elisabeth,passim,esp.pp.2016,31418andMattiasWerner,"DieheiligeElisabethundKonradvonMarburg,"inUniversityof Marburg,SanktElisabeth,pp.4569.ItwasConradwhoorderedhernottoeatfoodgainedbyexploitationofthepoorattimeshealso,tobreakherwill,forbade hertodistributealmsorbread. 138.Seethedepositionsof1235inHuyskens,Quellenstudien,pp.11240,esp.pp.11516,11921,12729,137andConradofMarburg'sletter(1233) concerningherlife,inibid.,pp.15560. 139.Huyskens,Quellenstudien,pp.5152.Elizabeth,NicholasofMyra,andCatherineofAlexandriawerethethreemostfamousmyroblytes(oilexudingsaints).It isalsoworthnotingthatawomandreamedofoilflowingfromDoucelineofMarseilles,althoughDoucelinedidnotactuallybecomeamyroblyteseeViede Douceline,p.131. 140.Huyskens,Quellenstudien,p.70n.3andseebelow,chap.7n.13. 141.GarinofGuyl'Evque,LifeofMargaretofHungary(writtenin1340),chap.4,AASSJanuary,vol.3(Paris,1866),p.518.SeealsoProcessofcanonizationof 1276inVilmosFrakni,ed.,MonumentaRomanaepiscopatusvesprimiensis(11031526),vol.1(Budapest:CollegiumHistoricorumHungarorumRomanum, 1896),pp.214,220,247. 142.LifeofMargaretofHungary,chaps.14,pp.51618Processofcanonization,ed.Frakni,passim,esp.pp.16768,219,240. 143.LifeofMargaretofHungary,chap.3,p.517Processofcanonization,ed.Frakni,p.227. 144.Processofcanonization,ed.Frakni,p.171LifeofMargaretofHungarychap.3,p.517.Onesisterdeposed(ed.Frakni,p.263)thatMargaretgaveher foodtoothersandrose,fasting,fromthetable. 145.LifeofMargaretofHungary,chap.3,p.517. 146.Ibid.,chap.1,p.516Processofcanonization,ed.Frakni,pp.213,260,264. 147.Inoneveryinterestingdeposition,asisterclaimedthatshewashealedfromaseriousillnesswhenMargaretappearedbyherbedandsaid,"Getup,sister,and eatsomething."ShealsoclaimedtohavebenefitedwhenwashwaterfromMargaret'shairwasplacedinhermouth(Processofcanonization,ed.Frakni,pp.237 38).Cf.ibid.,pp.267,288,whichsuggeststhatwaterfromMargaret'shairwasregularlyusedforhealing.Itsefficacymayhavebeenperceivedasderivedfromthe factthatMargaretrefusedtowasheitherherhairorherbodyfrequently,saying"Iwantthewormstopunishmybody"(ibid.,p.266). 148.Seeabove,chap.3n.106.ForadiscussionofthevoluminousmaterialonDor

Page359

othy,perhapsthebestdocumentedsaintofthethirteenthandfourteenthcenturies,seeKieckhefer,UnS,p.210n.2. 149.SeeJohnMarienwerder,VitaLindana,chap.1,par.15chap.2,par.44chap.3,par.72andchap.4passim,AASSOctober,vol.13,pp.505,515,527, 53543JohnMarienwerder,Vitalatina,ed.Westpfahl,bk.5,chaps.1621,pp.23645. 150.SeeRichardStachniketal.,eds.,AktendesKanonisationsprozessesDorotheasvonMontauvon1394bis1521,ForschungenundQuellenzurKirchenund KulturgeschichteOstdeutschlands15(Cologne:Bhlau,1978),pp.214,277andJohnMarienwerder,Vitalatina,ed.Westpfahl,bk.6,chap.21,pp.31820.I havebeeninfluencedbyafineunpublishedpaper(''ACultoftheMaternal:DorothyofPrussia[134794],")byStephenP.BenschoftheUniversityofCaliforniaat Berkeley.BenschstressesnotonlyDorothy'sspiritualpregnancybutalsotheimportanceofpregnancyandbirthingasimagestoher. 151.JohnMarienwerder,VitaLindana,chap.2,par.40,andchap.3,par.69,AASSOctober,vol.13,pp.514,52526. 152.Ibid.,chap.3,par.63,p.523.Forafullerdiscussion,seeKieckhefer,UnS,pp.2728. 153.SeptililiumB.Dorotheae,treatise3:Deeucharistia,chaps.2526,AB3,pp.43941. 154.Ibid.,chap.6,p.418. 155.Ibid.,chap.3,pp.41011. 156.Ibid.,chap.10,p.425.ChristclearlyunderstoodDorothy.Hetoldher,"Idon'twantyoutoabstain,forifyouabstainyouwilljustbemoreanxiousthanbefore." Onherfrenzyfortheeucharistatdeath,seeJohnMarienwerder,Vitalatina,ed.Westpfahl,bk.7,chaps.2627,pp.36468. 157.AASSMarch,vol.1(Paris,1865),givesaLatintranslationofthevitaebyPeterofVaux(pp.53888),andPetrinaofBalme(pp.600618).Ihavebeen unabletoconsultUbaldd'Alenon,LesViesdeSteColetteBoyletdeCorbie...critesparsescontemporainsleP.PierredeReims,ditdeVaux,etSoeur PerrinedelaRocheetdeBaume,Archivesfranciscaines4(Paris:Picard,1911). 158.Inneithercase,forexample,istheclaimtostigmatawelldocumented. 159.PeterofVaux,LifeofColette,chap.17,par.166,p.573. 160.TherearealsoparallelsbetweenColetteandanotherexactcontemporary,ElsbetAchler,whodiedin1420attheageofthirtyfour(seeabove,n.135).After Elsbet'sthreeyearsoftotalfast,shewasunabletokeepfoodinherstomach.Asshebecamesickandbedridden,herbodybrokeoutinsoresthatparalleledChrist's wounds.ThewoundsoozedbloodeveryFriday.SeeLifeofElsbetinBirlinger,"KlusenerynvonRthy,"pp.28183. 161.Colette'sexhortationisinapp.2toE.SainteMariePerrin,LaBelleViedesainteColettedeCorbie(13811447)(Paris:Plon,1921),pp.27477.Abrief letterofColette'sisinibid.,pp.27374. 162.PeterofVaux,LifeofColette,chap.13,pp.56365seealsochap.11,par.105,p.562,andchap.17,par.166,p.573. 163.Ibid.,chap.20("Demiraculis"),par.232,p.584,andchap.11,par.104,p.562.Seealsochap.20,addenda,par.257,p.587. 164.Ontheleper,seeibid.,chap.20,par.228,p.584.OntheVirgin'skiss,which

Page360

curedColetteofseverepaininthetongue,seechap.14,par.127,pp.56667.Onthesicknun'svision,seechap.20,par.227,p.584. 165.Ibid.,chap.20,par.233,p.584. 166.Ibid.,chap.17,par.175,p.575. 167.AccountofmiraclesperformedafterherdeathintheconventofGhent,pars.810,AASSMarch,vol.1,pp.59394. 168.PeterofVaux,LifeofColette,chap.9,par.61,pp.55455.PetertellsusthatbadsmellsbotheredColettegreatlybecauseofherpurity,butthatsheborethem patiently,asChristhaddone.Healsotellsusthatshewentforayearwithoutsleep(chap.17,p.573)andwasgreatlyafflictedbyheatandcold(chap.14,par.123, pp.56566). 169.Ibid.,chap.12,pp.56263PetrinaofBalme,LifeofColette,chap.6,pars.6162,p.612. 170.SeePeterofVaux,LifeofColette,chap.12,pars.109,113,pp.56563andUbaldd'Alenon,Miniaturesetdocumentsartistiquesdumoyengerelatifs SainteColettedeCorbie,Archivesfranciscaines5(Paris:Picard,1912),plate13(reproducedaboveasplate11c).Forapaintingwithasimilariconographic motif,seePeterMeller,"LaBeataColombadaRietiinunDipintodiBernardinodiMariotto,"AntichitViva2.910(1963):2430. 171.PeterofVaux,LifeofColette,chap.10,par.84,p.558. 172.Ibid.,chap.11,pp.56062PetrinaofBalme,LifeofColette,chap.4,pars.38,42,pp.6078. 173.Seeabove,n.121. 174.ForGherardesca'svisionsconcerningtheeucharist,seeLifeofGherardescaofPisa,chap.3,par.27chap.4,par.36andchap.6,par.57,AASSMay,vol.7 (Paris,1867),pp.16667,169,173.HerhagiographerreportsavisionofwaterflowingfromChrist'sbreast(chap.7,par.66,p.175).Thereisonevisionthat stressesbloodandmouths(chap.6,par.56,p.173):GherardescawantedtopullthenailfromChrist'sbleedingfootwithherteethandputitintoherownbody.For Umilt'seucharisticpiety,whichisnotmuchemphasized,seeLifeofUmiltofFaenza,chap.1,par.10,AASSMay,vol.5(Paris,1866),pp.2089.Her hagiographerreportsthathercellwasconstructedsothatshecouldlookintothechurchandseeandreceivethesacrament.WefindanemphasisonseeingChristin thepatheticlifeoftheblindgirlMargaretofCittdiCastello,whosupposedly"saw"Christincarnatequiteclearly(asababywithhisparents)wheneverthehostwas elevatedseehervita,chap.6,AB19(1900),p.26AASSApril,vol.2(Paris,1865),p.191andM.H.Laurent,"LaPlusAncienneLgendedelaB.Marguerite deCittdiCastello,"ArchivumFratrumPraedicatorum10(1940):12526. 175.OnColumba,seebelow,pp.14648CatherineofSienaandCatherineofGenoaaretreatedinchapter5below.ThelivesandthefoodpracticesofMargaret ofCortonaandAngelaofFolignohavenowbeentreatedinmuchgreaterdetailthanIattemptherebyRudolphBellinHolyAnorexia(Chicago:Universityof ChicagoPress,1985).HistreatmentofItalianwomenisfullerthanmineandinsomecasesbasedoneditionsnotavailabletomeIreferreaderstoit.Idiscussthe differencesbetweenBell'smethodandmineinchap.6,below. 176.LifeofMargaretofCortona,byherconfessor,JunctaBevegnati,AASSFebruary,vol.3,pp.30463,esp.chap.7,pp.33845.Inansweringherneedfor reassurance,

Page361

Christsupposedlysaidtoher(chap.4,par.63,p.315):"Tuesfiliamea,quiamihiobedis:tuessponsamea,quiamesolumdiligis:tuesmatermea,quiavolutatem Patrismei,inquantumviressufficiunt,imples."SouncertainwasMargaretthatshefearedevenhereucharisticcravingmightoffendChrist(seechap.4,par.65,p. 316):"Etquiafervoremsaepecommunicandipraereverentiailliusinaccessibilislucisinterponerenecretardarevalebat,dixit:Offendote,Dominemi,inillasiti avidissima,quamdefrequenticommunioneCorporisetSanguinistuiconcepi.ResponditDominusdicens:...valdemihideipsaplaces."AngelaofFolignoalso fearedcommunionseeAngeloofFoligno,ed.FerrandBaudry,par.63,p.126. 177.LifeofMargaretofCortona,chap.7,par.179,p.340. 178.Inibid.,chap.7,par.187,p.341,Margaretseesavisionofapriestwithblack(i.e.,sinful)handsholdingababyboy.Inpar.197,p.343,sherecognizesan unconsecratedhostbecauseshefeelsnosweetnessuponreceiving. 179.Ibid.,chap.5,par.135,p.330,andpar.106,p.325,respectively. 180.Ibid.,chap.7passim,esp.pp.339,342,345.OnMargaretseealsoJohnMoorman,AHistoryoftheFranciscanOrderfromItsOriginstotheYear1517 (Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1968),p.223FatherCuthbert,ATuscanPenitent:TheLifeandLegendofMargaretofCortona(London:BurnsandOates, n.d.)andthesomewhatfullerversionofJunctaBevegnati'sLifeofMargaretgiveninLodovicodaPelago,ed.,LeggendadellavitaedeimiracolidiS.Margherita diCortonascrittainlingualatinadaldileiconfessoreFr.GiuntaBevegnati...etraduzioneItaliana...(Rome:TipografiaMonaldi,1858). 181.AngelaofFoligno,ed.FerrandBaudry,par.80,p.166seealsoAngelaofFoligno,L'AutobiografiaegliscrittidellabeataAngeladaFoligno,ed.and trans.M.FalociPulignaniandMariaC.Humani(CittdiCastello:"IlSolco,"1932),pp.14042.Adifferentversionofthepassageisfoundinpar.118oftheLifeof AngelaofFolignoinAASSJanuary,vol.1(Paris,1863)p.205.Inpar.50(pp.9094oftheFerrandBaudryedition),Angeladescribesherecstasyatthe elevationofthehostandsaysthatherjointsbecameunstrung(cf.LifeofAngela,AASS,p.205).Inpar.41(FerrandBaudryedition,pp.6466),sheexplainshow shesawChristinthehostandwasunabletokneel.Sogreatwasherdelightthatshedidnotknowwhethersheranforwardorremainedstill(cf.LifeofAngela, AASS,p.204).Pars.16671(FerrandBaudryedition,pp.38092)givewhatpurportstobeAngela'steachingontheeucharist,preservedinItalian(Angela'sown language)intheAssisiandSubiacomanuscriptsbutpresentedinascholasticmodeunlikelytobehers.Thepassagestressestherealpresenceofthephysicalhuman Christandrefersseveraltimestothepowerofthehandsofthepriest.Pars.11316(FerrandBaudryedition,pp.22426)reportmoreeucharisticvisions.Thereis nocriticaleditionofAngela'swritings,whichshedictatedtoherconfessorbutwhichoftenseemtoretainherownwords.IhaveusedtheFerrandBaudryandthe PulignaniandHumanieditions.TheAASSeditionisunreliable,butwheretherelevantpassagesarepresent,Ihavegivenreferencestothemtoaidreaderswhodonot haveaccesstotherarereditions.IhavebeenunabletoconsulttheeditionbyPaulDoncoeur,LeLivredelaBienheureuseAngledeFoligno:TexteLatin(Paris: ArtCatholique,1925).MaryG.SteegmanhaspublishedanextremelymisleadingEnglishtranslationofasixteenthcenturyItaliantranslationofAngela'slife,titledThe BookofDivineConsolationoftheBlessedAngelaofFoligno(repr.ed.,NewYork:CooperSquarePublishers,1966).

Page362

182.Par.135,ed.FerrandBaudry,pp.29094(cf.LifeofAngela,par.127,AASS,p.206)seealsopar.147,FerrandBaudryed.,pp.32022andpars.51 52,ibid.,pp.96102.AfragmentcitedinthePulignaniandHumaniedition(par.204[3],pp.33032)says:"Deushabensamoremevisceratumanimae,datei blanditias,idestdulcedines,sentimentaethuiusmodi,quaeegovocoblanditias,quasanimanondeberetappetere:nontamensuntspernendaequiafaciuntanimam currere,etsuntcibuseius:etexhiisanimaascenditadamandumDeum,etinnititurtransformariinAmatum"(emphasisadded). 183.Par.17,ed.FerrandBaudry,p.16:"ettunc[Christus]vocavitmeetdixitmichiquodegoponeremosmeuminplagamlaterissui.Etvidebaturmichiquodego videremetbiberemsanguinemejusfluentemrecenterexlateresuo....EtrogaviDominumquodfaceretmetotumsanguinemmeumpropteramoremsuum,sicut feceretipseprome,spargere.Etdisposuimepropteramoremsuumquodvolebamquodomniamembrameapaterenturmortemaliampassionesua,scilicetmagis vilem."Cf.PulignaniandHumaniedition,p.16,andpar.28,AASS,p.189.Seealsopar.66,FerrandBaudryedition,p.138:"EttotaletitiaestmodoinistoDeo hominepassionato.Etaliquandovideturanime,quodcumtantaletitiaetdelectationeintretintusinilludlatusChristietcumtantaletitiavaditintusinlatusChristi,quod nullomodopossetdicivelnarrari." 184.LifeofAldaofSiena,chap.2,par.21,AASSApril,vol.3(Paris,1866),p.474.Inanotherincident,whichrevealsasimilardevotiontoChrist'sblood,Alda sawapriestspilladropof"thesacredbloodofChrist"ontothepaten.Whenshescreamedouttohim,"Lickitup,"itbegantoglowandcuredaneyeinfectionshe hadsufferedfrom(chap.2,par.15,p.474).Forothereucharisticecstasiesseechap.2,par.14,p.474.(TheLatintextinAASSistranslatedfromasixteenth centuryItalianlifebasedonthirteenthcenturydocuments.) 185.LifeofMargaretofCortona,chaps.23,AASSFebruary,vol.3,pp.30513.Seeesp.chap.3,par.51,whereMargaret'sconfessorquotesherassaying: "Patermi,cumfoeduspacisinteranimammeametcorpushabituranonsim,necunquamsibiparcerevelim,sinatismesineciborummutationeipsumatterere,quiatoto temporevitaemeae,donecdeficiat,nonquiescam:necipsumcredatisitamortificatumetdebile,utapparet:quiahocagit,utextinguamdebitum,quodcontraxitin seculo,dumvacavitdelicisetvoluptatibussuis." 186.Ibid.,chap.5,par.82,pp.31920.Therearemanyotherexamplesofsuchbehavior.UmiltofFaenzaateonlyonemealadayandlimitedthattowaterand threeouncesofbread(LifeofUmilt,chap.1,par.11,AASSMay,vol.5,p.209).(Onfeastdayssheexpandedherdiettoincludeafewcookedbitterherbs.) AgnesofMontepulcianodeprivedherselfoffoodandsleepforyearsandreceivedcommunionfromanangel(seeRaymondofCapua,LifeofAgnesof Montepulciano,chap.2,par.17chap.3,par.26andchap.6,par.54,AASSApril,vol.2[Paris,1865],pp.793,795,801).AldaofSienaateonlyonceaday, sometimestakingonlygrassesandbeansandabstainingevenfrombreadshedrankonlywater.OnFridaysshesometimesateonlyvinegarandgallormyrrhto imitateChrist.Herbiographerattributesthisasceticismtoremorseforsexualtemptation.SeeLifeofAlda,chap.2,pars.1012,p.473.ClareofMontefalco(d. 1308)carriedoutprolongedfasts(seeVauchez,LaSaintet,p.405).MargaretofCittdiCastelloalsopunishedherselfwithfasts(seeLifeofMargaretofCitt

Page363

diCastello,chap.2,AB19,p.24andLaurent,"LgendedelaB.Marguerite,"p.121).AndseeLifeofGherardesca,chap.1,par.2,AASSMay,vol.7,p. 162. 187.LifeofVillanade'Botti,chap.1,pars.3,8,AASSAugust,vol.5(Paris,1868),pp.86566.Shesupposedlysaidtoherconfessor:"EgocumepistolasPauli lego,autdivinisassistoeloquiis,mentesicreficior,utomnisillicodiffugiatcibicorporalisappetitus:itaChristicrucifiximeditationeabsorbeor,utnullaomninosit asperitastamdura,quaenonmihiamoenissimavideatur."SeealsoStefanoOrlandi,LaBeataVillana,terziariadomenicanafiorentinadelsec.XIV(Florence:"Il Rosario,"1955).Andcf.AngelaofFoligno,par.21,ed.FerrandBaudry,p.24(LifeofAngela,par.34,AASS,p.190). 188.NocontemporaryvitaofRitasurvives.SeeLifeofRitaofCascia,AASSMay,vol.5(Paris,1866),pp.22628. 189.LifeofClareGambacortaofPisa,chap.1,par.3,AASSApril,vol.2(Paris,1865),p.507.Clareimposedsuchstrictfastingonherselfthatsherefusedfruit evenwhenitwasinabundantsupply(ibid.,par.5,p.507)sheatethegarbageleftoverfrommealsand,likeFrancis,sprinkledashesonherfood(ibid.,chap.2,par. 21,p.510).Clare'svitawaswrittenbyasisterofherconvent. 190.ForeditionsofAngela'sbook,seeabove,n.181.WeknowfewdetailsofAngela'sbiographysheseemstohaveundergoneaconversionataboutageforty afteralifeasamarriedwomanandmother.SeeM.J.Ferr,"LesPrincipalesDatesdelavied'AngledeFoligno,"Revued'histoirefranciscaine2(1925):2134 PaulDoncoeur,"AngledeFoligno(Bienheureuse),"DS,vol.1(1932),cols.57071Dronke,WW,pp.21517andchap.7n.11,below. 191.Thirdletter,inAngelaofFoligno,ed.FerrandBaudry,pp.49498:"Istaestquedamhumilitasinquasuminabyssata....Setgaudebamimaginarialiquem modumuteassimulationesetiniquitatesetpeccatameapossemmanifestare.Etvellemireperplateasetcivitatesnuda,etappendereadcollummeumpiscesetcarnes dicendo:'Hecestillavilissimamulier.'"Seealsoibid.,par.101,p.200,whereAngeladescribesaperiodduringwhichshewastorturedbyfeelingsofunworthiness andwasunabletoeat. 192.SeeAngelaofFoligno,par.21,ed.FerrandBaudry,p.24,andpar.108,p.218. 193.Seeabove,chap.3n.92. 194.Thirdletter,inAngelaofFoligno,ed.FerrandBaudry,p.498. 195.Seeibid.,par.180,pp.41820,andpar.35,p.54. 196.Seeibid.,par.35,pp.5254:AngelawishedtoremainwithChristinecstasybuthewithdrew,andshefeltterriblepain.Sohegaveherasignofhislovethe crosswhichshefeltbothinherbodyasarealcrossandinhersoul.Seealsothepassagescitedinnn.18182above. 197.Ibid.,par.66,pp.13840.ButAngelaalsostressesChrist'ssufferingseeibid.,pars.12729,pp.25060par.140,pp.31214andpar.179,pp.41216. 198.Ibid.,par.151,p.326. 199.Ibid.,par.53,pp.1046seealsoPulignaniandHumaniedition,pp.9092andLifeofAngela,par.137,AASS,p.208. 200.AngelaofFoligno,par.53,ed.FerrandBaudry,p.106:"etbibimusdeillalotura.Ettantamdulcedinemsensimusquodpertotamviamvenimusinmagna suavitateacsicommunicavissemus.Etvidebaturmichirectequodegocommunicassemquia

Page364

sauvitatemmaximamsentiebam,sicutsicummunicassem[sic].Etquiaquedamscarpulaillarumplagarumeratinterpositaingutture,egoconabaradglutiendum eam,etreprehendebatmeconscientiaexpueresicutsicommunicassem,quamvisnonexpueremadej[i]ciendumsetaddeponendumeamdegutture."Theshock valueofsuchbehaviormayhavebeenincreasedbythefactthateatingblood,scabs,etc.,wastabooseeBurchardofWorms,Decretum,bk.19,chaps.84,91, PL140,cols.10023. 201.See,forexample,LifeofMargaretofCortona,chap.9,par.226,241,AASSFebruary,vol.3,pp.349,352. 202.Seeabove,n.178,andLifeofMargaretofCortona,chap.9,AASS,pp.34956. 203.LifeofMargaretofCortona,chap.7,par.190,AASS,p.342.ChristcalledMargareta"motherofsinners"anda"ladderforsinners":''CuiChristusdixit: 'Scalampeccatorumtefeci,utperexemplavitaetuaepergantadme.'EtMargaritarespondit:'Inquovirtutisexemplopeccatoresimitarimepossunt?'EtDominusad eam:'Imitabunturabstinentiastuas,jejuniatua,humilitatem,ettribulationes,quasamoremeialacriterrecepisti.'" 204.LifeofUmilt,chap.3,par.24,AASSMay,vol.5,pp.21213.Accordingtothehagiographer,piecesofaloafofbreadmultipliedinthenuns'mouthsafter Umiltblessedit,andmorepieceswereleftoverthanhadoriginallybeenplacedinfrontofthesisters. 205.JohnofFaenza,RevelationsandMiraclesofMargaretofFaenza,chap.2,par.7(xiixiii),AASSAugust,vol.5(Paris,1868),p.853.BothvitaeofMargaret usefoodmetaphorstodescribeherecstasies.John(Revelations,chap.1,par.3[v],p.852)describesJesustouchinghertonguewiththekissofpeace.Inthevitaby PetertheFlorentine(chap.2,pars.810[xiixiv],p.849),sheisdescribedasreceivinginvisiblestigmata. 206.LifeofAlda,chap.2,par.16,p.474,andchap.3,pp.47476. 207.RaymondofCapua,LifeofAgnesofMontepulciano,chap.2,pars.1718,andchap.6,pars.5657,pp.79394,8012.OnRaymond'sdescriptionofAgnes inhisLifeofCatherineofSiena,seechap.5n.68,below. 208.RaymondofCapua,LifeofAgnesofMontepulciano,chap.3chap.4,par.38andchap.7,pars.6061,pp.79598,802. 209.CatherineofSiena,Dialogue,ed.Cavallini,chap.149,pp.42829seealsoLetter58,inCatherineofSiena,Letters,ed.Misciattelli,vol.1(1913),pp.265 67,whichdiscussesAgnesasanexampletoothernuns. 210.RaymondofCapua,LifeofAgnesofMontepulciano,chap.9,pars.7881,p.806. 211.OnRitaseeabove,n.188. 212.LifeofMargaretofCittdiCastello,chap.8,AB19,pp.2728seealsoM.H.Laurent,"LgendedelaB.Marguerite,"pp.12728.Itisinterestingtonote thatthenailAldaofSienahadcarvedasadevotionalobjectsupposedlyexudedsapthreehundredyearsafteritwascarved(LifeofAlda,chap.2,par.17,p.474). 213.LifeofRoseofViterbo,AASSSeptember,vol.2(Paris,1868),pp.43339.ForarecentcriticalexaminationofRose'slife,seeGiuseppeAbate,"S.Rosada Viterbo,terziariaFrancescana(12331251):Fontistorichedellavitaelororevisionecritica,"MiscellaneaFrancescana52,fasc.12(JanuaryJune1952):112 278.ThevitainAASS,

Page365

composedtwocenturiesafterRose'sdeathaspartoftheProcessofcanonization,isacompendiumoffeedingthemesborrowedinsomeinstancesexplicitly fromthelivesofothersaints.OflittlevalueasasourceofinformationaboutRoseherself,itisanimportantindexoffifteenthcenturysensibility.Wearetoldthat babyRosefastedfromthebreastfortwodayseachweek(likeNicholasofMyra),thatwhilestillachild,shebegantomacerateherbodyinseverefastsinorder togivefoodtothepoor,thatthebreadinherapronturned(likeElizabethofHungary's)intoroseswhenherfatheraccusedherofwastingfamilygoods,thatshe fedthebirdswithherownhands(likeFrancisofAssisi),andthatherbody(likeElizabeth'sandAgnes's)producedmanna.Seealsoplates8and9. 214.IntheLifeofColumbaofRietibyherconfessor,SebastianPerusinus(chap.13,par.128,AASSMay,vol.5,p.190*),Sebastiandrawsparallelsnotonly betweenColumbaandCatherineofSienawhomshewasobviouslyawareofimitating(seeibid.,chap.1,par.8,p.155*)butalsobetweenColumbaand MargaretofHungary,AgnesofMontepulciano,JoanofOrvieto,andMargaretofCittdiCastello.Allthewomen,hesays,experiencedecstasiesinwhichtheyleft theirsenses,levitated,andmirroredintheirbodiesthePassionofChrist,withtheirarmsstretchedoutandtheirnecksextended.OnJoanofOrvieto,seeAntonino Silli,"Giovanna(Vanna)diOrvieto,"BS,vol.6(1965),cols.55657.OnCatherineofSienaasmodel,seeabove,chap.3n.76. 215.LifeofColumbaofRieti,chap.1,par.1,p.153*,andpar.6,p.154*.Herhagiographersays:"TemporeauteminfantilisinnocentiaepiaColumba,Spiritus Sanctidonasortita,adversumcarnemindicitbellum,etpugnumaggreditur."OnColumba,seealsoBaleoneusAstur[AstorreBaglioni],ColombadaRieti:"La secondaCaterinadaSiena"14671501(Rome:EdizioniCateriniane,1967),whichusesavernacularversionofSebastian'slifeofColumba. 216.SebastianPerusinus,LifeofColumba,chap.1,par.7,p.154*.TheexcerptsfromtheProcessofcanonization(par.2,AASSMay,vol.5[Paris,1866],p. 223*)alsoemphasizeherpenitence,herextendedabstinence,andhereucharisticfervor. 217.LifeofColumbaofRieti,chaps.14,pp.153*61*.Itisinterestingtonotethatthehagiographersaysthestruggleturnedhermotherintoa"harshmotherin law"andleftColumba"anorphan"(par.14,p.157*). 218.Ibid.,chap.2,pars.10,12,p.156*. 219.Ibid.,chap.4,par.27,p.161*. 220.Ibid.,par.28,p.161*. 221.Ibid.,chap.17,par.162,p.200*. 222.Ibid.,chap.4,pars.2122,p.159*:herhagiographerpointsoutthatshetriedtogiveupallfoodbutgreenfruit,breadandwater(andsometimesevenbread), butsheyearnedavidlyfor"thattruebread,theeucharist,"whichsustainscelibacy,comfortsthesoul,excitesustowar,repelsdemons,andgivesusaforetasteof glory.Seealsochap.5,pp.162*64*,andchap.13,par.119,p.187*. 223.Ibid.,chap.20,par.189,p.208*. 224.Ibid.,chap.5,par.31,p.162*.Seealsochap.3,pars.1920,p.159*. 225.Ibid.,chap.5,par.31,p.162*.Seealsochap.20,pars.18789,p.208*. 226.Ibid.,chap.5,par.32,p.162*. 227.Ibid.,chap.13,pp.186*90*,andchap.15,pars.15152,p.197*.

Page366

228.Ibid.,chap.8,par.71,p.171*. 229.Ibid.,chap.12,par.110,p.184*andchap.20,pars.191ff.,pp.209*12*. 230.Ibid.,chap.17,par.163,p.200*andchap.7,pars.49and51,p.167*. 231.Ibid.,chap.13,par.122,p.188*. 232.Ibid.,chap.22,par.217,p.217*. 5 FoodintheWritingsofWomenMystics 1.Seeabove,chap.2nn.13840,151,155. 2.SeeRiehle,Mystics,pp.10410andpassim.Riehlesays(pp.10910):"Forthemysticaffectivecontemplationimpliesreceivingwisdomandsavouringdivinelove atthesametime.Theideaofknowledgeandwisdomwhicharesensualandwhichcanbesavouredwaswidelyacceptedandcompletelytakenforgranteduntilthe seventeenthcentury,andissomethingwhichwetoday,whoaresousedtotheideaofthe'dissociationofsensibility'touseEliot'sfamousphrasehavelongsince lost."Forausefulwarningagainstreadingliteraryimagesasdirectevidenceoflifesituation,seeLillianHerlandsHornstein,"AnalysisofImagery:ACritiqueofLiterary Method,"PublicationsoftheModernLanguageAssociationofAmerica57.3(1942):63853. 3.WilliamofSt.Thierry,Denaturaetdignitateamoris,chap.10,par.31,PL184,col.399:"Haecest,inquit,vitaaeterna,utcognoscanttesolumverum Deum...(John17:3).Beatascientia,inquacontineturvitaaeterna.Vitaistaexillogustuest,quiagustare,hocestintelligere.Exhocgustuperhuncsaporeminhac sapientiaminimusilleApostolorumsatiatus,exhilaratus,confirmatus,Mihi,inquit,...dataesthaecgratia...(Ephes.3:818)."Andseeabove,chap.2atnn.146 47. 4.SeeBynum,JM,pp.186209,esp.p.200n.91. 5.SeeRiehle,Mystics,passim,andabove,pp.10212. 6.RosemaryHerde,"DasHoheliedinderlateinischenLiteraturdesMittelaltersbiszum12.Jahrhundert,"Studimedievali3.8.2(1967):9571073JeanLeclercq, MonksandLoveinTwelfthCenturyFrance:PsychoHistoricalEssays(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1979). 7.SeeBynum,JM,pp.17074. 8.Forexceptions,seebelow,chap.10nn.3638. 9.ThereisverylittlegoodrecentworkonHadewijchexceptinDutch.ThebestdiscussionsinotherlanguagesareJ.VanMierlo,"Hadewijch,unemystiqueflamande du13esicle,"Revued'asctiqueetdemystique5(1924):26989,380404Porion,"Hadewijch,"DS,vol.7,cols.1323PaulMommaers,Preface,and ColumbaHart,introductiontoHart,Hadewijch:Works,pp.xiii42.ForrecentDutchbibliography,seeHart,Hadewijch:Works,andJ.Reynaert,DeBeeldspraak vanHadewijch,Studinentekstuitgavenvanonsgeestelijkerf21(Tielt:RuusbroecGenootschap,1981). 10.SeeLetter17inHart,Hadewijch:Works,pp.8284. 11.Letter15inHart,Hadewijch:Works,11.7581,p.79:"Thefourthpoint[ofninepointsforthepilgrimtravelingtowardGod]is:Youmustkeepyourselffrom gluttony,

Page367

thatis,fromanyworldlyselfsatisfaction:letnothingoutsideofGodeversufficeyouorhaveanytasteforyou,beforeyouhavetastedhowwonderfullysweetheis (Ps.33:9).Oh,rememberthis,andbearitalwaysinmind:Whateveranyonetakespleasurein,otherthanGodAlone,isallgluttony."SeeHadewijch,Brieven,ed. JanVanMierlo,vol.1(Antwerp:N.V.StandaardBoekhandel,1947),p.127.Hadewijchclearlyusesgluttonyprimarilymetaphorically. 12.Hart,Hadewijch:Works,pp.263305.Vision1comeswhenthesacramentisbroughttoherbedsidevision3comesafterreception(Hadewijch'scharacteristic wayofexpressingthisis"IhadgonetoGod")vision4comesatmass,duringtheepistlevision6comesasshefeelsgreatdesiretoreceiveinvision7she experiencesfullphysicalunionwithChristwhenhegiveshercommunioninbothkindsinavision(thevision,however,comesatMatins)vision12comesduringmass. 13.Forrecentdebateoverwhatexactlyminne(love)meanstoHadewijch,seeNorbertDePaepe,HadewijchStrofischeGedichten:Eenstudievandeminnein hetkaderder12een13eeeuwsemystiekenprofaneminnelyriek(Ghent:KoninklijkeVlaamseAcademie,1967),andHart,IntroductiontoHart,Hadewijch: Works,p.8.Forimagesoftasting,hungering,andinnersweetnessinHadewijch,seeReynaert,Beeldspraak,pp.20220. 14.SeeReynaert,Beeldspraak,pp.20810,andMommaers,Preface,inHart,Hadewijch:Works,pp.xxiiixiv.Mommaers'stranslationdifferssomewhatfrom Hart'sseeibid.,p.303.Forthetext,seePaulMommaers,ed.,DeVisioenenvanHadewijch:Middelnederlandsetekst...,Spiritualiteit15,supplement (Nijmegen:B.Gottmer,1979),vision14,11.7273:"inerenaturensmakeonghescedenmettergheheelregodheit"(editionnotpaginated). 15.Vision14,Hart,Hadewijch:Works,p.305Mommaers,DeVisioenen,supplement,vision14,11.14143. 16.See,forexample,Letter6inHart,Hadewijch:Works,11.22735,p.61:"NowadaysthisisthewayeveryoneloveshimselfpeoplewishtolivewithGodin consolationandrepose,inwealthandpower,andtosharethefruitionofhisglory.WeallindeedwishtobeGodwithGod,butGodknowstherearefewofuswho wanttoliveasmenwithhisHumanity,orwanttocarryhiscross."SeeVanMierlo,Brieven,vol.1,p.64.SeealsoHart,Hadewijch:Works,vision1,11.288ff.and 341ff.,pp.268and269:"He[Christ]continued:'...IfyouwishtobelikemeinmyHumanity,asyoudesiretopossessmewhollyinmyDivinityandHumanity,you shalldesiretobepoor,miserableanddespisedbyallmenandallgriefswilltastesweetertoyouthanallearthlypleasures....''Since,then,youareahumanbeing, liveinmiseryasman....Feelyourselfasmaninallthehardshipspropertothehumancondition,exceptsinalone.'"SeeMommaers,DeVisioenen,supplement, vision1,11.25460and31118. 17.PoemsInCouplets,poem16:Love'sSevenNames,Hart,Hadewijch:Works,p.356Hadewijch,Mengeldichten,p.83. 18.Letter18,pp.10311,inHart,Hadewijch:Works,p.87andinVanMierlo,Brieven,vol.1,p.156.Seeibid.,vol.2,pp.2225,fortheborrowingsfrom WilliamofSt.Thierry. 19.PoemsinStanzas,poem39:Love'sBlows,1.18,Hart,Hadewijch:Works,p.240seeE.RombautsandN.DePaepe,eds.,Hadewijch:Strofische Gedichten:Middelneder

Page368

landsetekstenmodernebewerking...,KlassiekenuitdeNederlandseLetterkunde...(Zwolle:W.E.J.TjeenkWillink,1961),p.274.SeealsoLetter22,in Hart,Hadewijch:Works,11.22426,p.99. 20.Letter11,inHart,Hadewijch:Works,11.1045,p.69VanMierlo,Brieven,vol.1,pp.9395. 21.Letter22,inHart,Hadewijch:Works,11.14359,p.97VanMierlo,Brieven,vol.1,19394.Bothhereandat11.25163,HadewijchquotesSongof Songs1:12. 22.Letter9,inHart,Hadewijch:Works,11.711,p.66VanMierlo,Brieven,vol.1,pp.7980. 23.PoemsinCouplets,poem16:Love'sSevenNames,Hart,Hadewijch:Works,11.3740,p.353Hadewijch,Mengeldichten,p.79.Butseebelow,nn.28and 29. 24.Vision7,inHart,Hadewijch:Works,pp.28182seeMommaers,DeVisioenen,supplement. 25.PoemsinCouplets,poem15,Hart,Hadewijch:Works,11.12,33,3740,pp.35052Hadewijch,Mengeldichten,pp.7274. 26.PoemsinCouplets,poem14,esp.11.13234,Hart,Hadewijch:Works,pp.34550Hadewijch,Mengeldichten,pp.6571. 27.Letter17,Hart,Hadewijch:Works,p.84VanMierlo,Brieven,vol.1,pp.14344. 28.PoemsinCouplets,poem16,Hart,Hadewijch:Works,11.4048,p.353Hadewijch,Mengeldichten,p.79. 29.PoemsinCouplets,poem16,Hart,Hadewijch:Works,11.16568,p.357Hadewijch,Mengeldichten,pp.8384. 30.PoemsinCouplets,poem13:TheParadoxesofLove,Hart,Hadewijch:Works,11.12,47,27,29,p.344Hadewijch,Mengeldichten,pp.6162. 31.Seen.16above. 32.Vision1,Hart,Hadewijch:Works,p.266. 33.Ibid.,p.269Mommaers,DeVisioenen,supplement,vision1,11.30910:"NadiendattumenschebestSoeleveellendechalsmensche." 34.Seevision5,Hart,Hadewijch:Works,pp.27677. 35.Vision11,ibid.,pp.29192.Thereremainsthroughout,however,astrongemphasisonHadewijch'sserviceofothers.Invision13,ibid.,p.301,Christtellsher hesendsherbackintoherbodyafterfruition"forthesakeofthosewhomyouhavechosentobecomefullgrownwithyouinthis,butwhoarenotyetfullgrown." 36.PoemsinStanzas,poem39:Love'sBlows,Hart,Hadewijch:Works,verses9and10,p.242RombautsandDePaepe,StrofischeGedichten,p.280. 37.SheevenhadavisioninwhichChrist,asayoungchild,gaveher"hisBody"(i.e.,thehost)toeat:vision7,Hart,Hadewijch:Works,p.281thevisionoccursjust beforethevisionofChristasamandescribedinn.24above. 38.Letter18,ibid.,11.110,p.85VanMierlo,Brieven,vol.1,pp.15152. 39.Seen.16above. 40.PoemsinStanzas,poem33,Hart,Hadewijch:Works,pp.22123RombautsandDePaepe,StrofischeGedichten,pp.23438. 41.OnBeatrice,seeJanVanMierlo,"BatricedeNazareth,"DS,vol.1(1932),cols.131014,andVitaBeatricis,LatinsummaryofDutchintro.,pp.39.

Page369

42.VitaBeatricis,pp.15779,givesaliteralLatintranslationofBeatrice'svernaculartextoftheSevenStepsofLovealongsidehertranslator'sversionofit.Forthe vernaculartextseeL.ReypensandJ.VanMierlo,eds.,BeatrijsvanNazarethsevenmanierenvanMinne(Louvain:VlaamscheBooekenhalle,1926). 43.Onherasceticism,seeVitaBeatricis,bk.1,chaps.47,pp.2635onhereucharisticdevotion,seebk.1,chaps.1314,18,bk.2,chaps.1516,andbk.3, chaps.2,5,pp.5257,6364,1037,12627,13334. 44.SeeVanMierlo,"Batrice,"col.1311andVitaBeatricis,bk.1,chap.11,p.48,bk.3,chap.6,pp.13436,bk.3,chap.14(whichgivesBeatrice'sown treatiseonthesevensteps),pp.16870.Inthislastpassage,Beatricesays,speakingofthefifthstepoflove:"Hocipsumquodmagiseamcruciatatquevulnerat, idipsummagisintegratetlenit,etquodeamprofundisvulnerat,hocsolumdateisanitatem."Inbk.3,chap.6,p.136,Beatriceiscalledinsanaorfatua(foolish)for love.Hadewijchalsospeaksofecstasyasinsanity(orewoet)seeabove,n.25.PhilipofClairvauxintheLifeofElizabethofSpalbeek(Cat.cod.hag.Bruxellensis, vol.1,pt.1,p.364)callsElizabeth'secstasyimbecillitas. 45.Beatrice'sbiographercommentsattheendofbk.1,chap.18,pp.6364,thatinearlylifeshewasliquifiedandmadeillbythedelightsofthesacramentbutlater shewascuredfromallsicknessbyit,andthisshouldnot,hesays,surprisethereader,forthesamesacramentis"milkandmeat." 46.InVitaBeatricis,bk.3,chap.15,pp.18083,thebiographeremphasizesherloveandserviceofothersthroughprayer,advice,andcompassion. 47.Seeabove,pp.58,13839,and14142.InVitaBeatricis,bk.2,chap.15,pp.1034,thehagiographerprovidesatheologicalglossonthesubjectoffrequent communion,sayingbothdevotion[spiritualisaffectio]andfear[timor]arenecessary.HealsoreportstheeffortsofthedeviltoconvinceBeatricethatbecauseof hersordidthoughtssheisunworthytoreceivefrequently. 48.VitaBeatricis,bk.3,chap.2,pp.12627.Thereisasimilardescriptioninbk.3,chap.5,p.133. 49.Ibid.,bk.2,chap.16,pp.1057. 50.Ibid.,bk.3,chap.13,pp.15455. 51.Ibid.,bk.1,chap.11,pp.4549.Thepreviouschaptermakesitperfectlyclearthatthesistersdiscussedsuchexperiencestogetheranddesiredthemandthat oldernunstaughtyoungersisterstoexpectthem.ThehagiographerfrequentlydescribesBeatrice'sreactionstothevisitationofthespiritasimmoderatelaughter(as wellasimmoderateweeping)seebk.1,chap.18,11.1617,p.63,andbk.2,chap.13,1.54,p.99. 52.Ibid.,bk.2,chap.6,pp.13436.Heradvisertoldherthathedidnot,however,thinkitwasasuggestionofthedevil. 53.Ibid.,bk.3,chap.15,pp.18083. 54.Ibid.,bk.3,chap.14,pp.15779. 55.Ibid.,p.174.Theparadoxicallanguage,especiallythenotionof"healthywounding,"ismoreprominentinBeatrice'sowntextthaninhertranslator'sversion. Similarlanguageisusedtodescribestepfive,p.170seebelow. 56.Ibid.,the"secondstepoflove,"p.161,andthe"sixthstep,"p.171. 57.Ibid.,p.166.

Page370

58.Ibid.,pp.16970. 59.Ibid.,bk.3,chap.12,pp.15253. 60.Ibid.,bk.3,chap.7,pp.13740. 61.ThebasicsourceforCatherineistheLegendamaiorbyherconfessor,RaymondofCapua,inAASSApril,vol.3,pp.861967.ThereisarecentEnglish translationbyConlethKearns,LifeofCatherine.AcontemporaryaccountwhichRaymondprobablydidnotknowistheanonymousIMiracolidiCaterinadi JacopodaSienadiAnonimoFiorentineacuradiFrancesoValli(Siena:R.UniversitdiSiena,CattedraCateriniana,1936).Othermajorsources,whichwere influencedbyRaymond'swork,aretheLegendaminor(anabridgmentofRaymond)andtheSupplementum,byThomasAntoniideSenis(alsocalledCaffariniand TommasoNaccidaSiena),andtheProcessofcanonization,begunin1411,knownastheCastellanoProcessortheProcessofVenice.SeeThomasAntoniide Senis,LeggendaminorediS.CaterinadaSiena(eletteredeisuoidiscepoli),ed.FrancescoGrottanelli(Bologna:PressoGaetanoRomagnoli,1868)idem, Libellusdesupplemento:LegendeprolixeVirginisBeateCatherinedeSenis,ed.GiulianaCavalliniandImeldaForalosso(Rome:EdizioniCateriniane,1974)and M.HyacintheLaurent,ed.,IlProcessoCastellano...conappendicedidocumenti...,FontesvitaeS.CatharinaeSenensishistorici9(Milan:FratelliBocca Editori,1942).ThecontroversylaunchedbyRobertFawtierin1921overthereliabilityofthesurvivingsourcesonCatherinehasproducedafloodofpainstaking researchseeRobertFawtier,SainteCatherine:Essaidecritique:Sourceshagiographiques,andidem,SainteCatherine:Essaidecritique:Lesoeuvres, BibliothquedesEcolesFranaisesd'AthnesetdeRome121and135(Paris:deBoccard,1921and1930)and,onthecontroversy,seeKearns,Lifeof Catherine,pp.IxIxx,andBell,HolyAnorexia,chap.2n.3.ForafairlyrecentbibliographyseeLinaZanini,BibliografiaanaliticadiS.CaterinadaSiena, 19011950(Rome:EdizioniCateriniane,1971).ForafullertreatmentofthechronologyofCatherine's"eatingdisorders,"seeBell,HolyAnorexia,pp.2353. WhereBellhasbeeninterestedinCatherine'sbehavior,IhavebeenmoreinterestedinCatherine'ssymbolsandtheology.Neitherofushastreatedatmuchlengthher importantpublicroletowardtheendofherlife.UsefulbiographiesofCatherineincludeInnocenzoM.Taurisano,SantaCaterinadaSiena:Patronad'Italia(Rome: F.Ferrari,1940),andArrigoLevasti,MyServant,Catherine,trans.DorothyM.White(London:Blackfriars,1954),unfortunatelywithoutfootnotes. 62.CatherineofSiena,Dialogue,ed.CavalliniEngl.trans.SuzanneNoffke,CatherineofSiena:TheDialogue(NewYork:PaulistPress,1980).Fortheletters, seetheincompleteeditionbyEugenioDuprTheseider,EpistolariodiSantaCaterinadaSiena,vol.1,Fontiperlastoriad'Italia,pubblicatedalR.IstitutoStorico ItalianoperilMedioEvo(Epistolari:SecoloXIV)(Rome:Sededell'Istituto,1940),andCatherineofSiena,Letters,ed.Misciattelli(Siena,19131922)(theFlorence 193940reprinthasdifferentpagination).Fortheprayers,seeCatherineofSiena,LeOrazioni,ed.GiulianaCavallini(Rome:EdizioniCateriniane,1978)translated bySuzanneNoffkeasThePrayersofCatherineofSiena(NewYork:PaulistPress,1983). 63.SeeFrancescoValli,L'InfanziaelapueriziadisantaCaterinadaSiena:esamecriticodellefonti,Bibliotecadi"StudiCateriniani"(Siena:IstitutodiStudi CaterinianinellaRegiaUniversitdiSiena,1931).Ihavebeenunabletoconsultidem,L'AdolescenzadiSantaCaterinadaSiena:esamecriticodellefonti(Siena, 1934).

Page371

64.ForCatherine'sinedia,seeespeciallyRaymondofCapua,LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.1,chap.3,par.38,p.872,andchap.6,pars.5860,pp.87677pt. 2,chap.4,par.164,p.903pt.2,chap.5,pars.16577,pp.9037pt.3,chap.6,par.400,p.960andIMiracoli,chaps.49,2829,pp.59,2325.Onher eucharisticdevotion,seeRaymond,LifeofCatherine,pt.2,chap.5,pars.17071,pp.9045,andpt.2,chap.6,pars.181,18792,pp.907,909ThomasAntonii deSenis,Libellusdesupplemento,pt.2,tract.6,pp.75120andIMiracoli,chaps12,13,pp.1112. 65.RudolphBellhascollectedanumberofcontemporaryreferencestoCatherine'sinediaseeHolyAnorexia,p.195n.10. 66.Seeabove,chap.3n.98.IntheLifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.1,chap.6,par.60,p.877,Raymondseemsalsotobereflectingonhisownexperiencewith fasting. 67.Seeabove,chap.4nn.186,207,208,and210. 68.Raymond,LifeofCatherine,pt.2,chap.12,pars.32428,pp.94244.RaymondreportsthatwhenCatherinevisitedAgnes'sbody,shereceivedarainof mannaasamiracle,and,hesays,"therewasareasonwhythisparticularkindofmiracleshouldhappenthere.ForwhileAgneswasalive,arainofmannafallingonher wasausualthing." 69.Seeabove,chap.4n.209. 70.RaymondofCapua,LifeofCatherine,pt.1,chap.3,par.64,pp.87778pt.2,chap.5,par.173,pp.9056pt.2,chap.6,pars.18384,p.908. 71.See,forexample,Letter61,CatherineofSiena,Letters,ed.Misciattelli,vol.1,pp.27477,andLetter163,ibid.,vol.3,p.43.OnthispointseeKearns,Lifeof Catherine,p.177n.23. 72.RaymondofCapua,LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.2,chap.4,pars.16263,pp.9023andpt.3,chap.6,par.414,p.963IMiracoli,chap.29,pp.2425. Fawtier,Catherine:Sourceshagiographiques,p.97,pointsoutthatvisionsofChristortheangelsfeedingCatherinearelesscommoninIMiracolithanin Raymond'saccount.ItisalsoworthnotingthatRaymondismoreapttocallthewoundinChrist'ssidea"fountain"whereasCatherine'sownwordsstressitasa "breast"cf.pars.163and191.SeealsoRobertFawtierandLouisCanet,LaDoubleExpriencedeCatherineBenincasa(sainteCatherinedeSienne)(Paris: Gallimard,1948),p.38. 73.IMiracoliandRaymondofCapua'sLifeofCatherineofSienagiveindependentaccountsofherincreasinginedia(seen.64above)andanumberofher contemporariesnoticedit(seen.65above).Thepapalbullof1461authorizinghercanonizationmakesexplicitmentionofherextraordinaryfastingseeAASSApril, vol.3(Paris,1866),p.983. 74.RaymondofCapua,LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.1,chap.1,par.25,p.869.Theincidentismentionedonlyinpassing. 75.Ibid.,pt.1,chap.4,pars.4145,pp.87374.SeealsoBell,HolyAnorexia,chap.2. 76.Bell,HolyAnorexia,pp.3852,makesaconvincingcaseforCatherine'ssenseofguiltasasurvivorformingamajor(subconscious)motiveforhertheologyof sufferingandherincreasingselfstarvation. 77.IMiracoli,chap.6,p.6cf.RaymondofCapua,LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.1,chap.4,par.46,p.874. 78.RaymondofCapua,LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.1,chap.3,par.38,p.872.

Page372

79.Ibid.,pt.1,chap.2,pars.3334,pp.87071IMiracoli,chap.3,pp.34seealsoValli,L'Infanzia,pp.4849,7376.Oneshouldperhapspointoutthat manyoftheincidentsofchildishpietythatRaymondreportsstrikethemodernreaderasexactlythesortofplayandfantasizingchildrendoengagein. 80.RaymondofCapua,LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.1,chap.9,pars.89ff.,pp.884ff.ThomasAntoniideSenis,Libellusdesupplemento,pt.1,tract.1,sect.5, pp.1415. 81.RaymondofCapua,LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.2,chap.1,pars.11924,pp.89293,andpt.2,chap.5,pp.9037. 82.Ibid.,pt.2,chap.5,par.177,pp.9067. 83.Seebelow,n.85,andseeLifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.2,chap.12,par.315,p.940,whereCatherinecriesouttoRaymond(aboutherdesirefortheeucharist): "OsisciretisPaterquantumesurio!" 84.IMiracoli,chaps.49,2829,pp.59,2325LetterofStefanoMaconicitedabove,chap.3n.71ThomasAntoniideSenis,Libellusdesupplemento,pt.2, tract.2,sect.6,pp.3435,andpt.2,tract.6,sects.42,43,pp.1013Bell,HolyAnorexia,chap.2andDrane,HistoryofSt.Catherine,vol.1,pp.199ff. 85.RaymondofCapua,LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.2,chap.5,pars.16667,171,pp.9034,905trans.Kearns,LifeofCatherine,pp.16061and164.In CatherineofSiena,Dialogue,ed.Cavallini,chap.142,pp.39499,Catherinewritesofdesirefortheeucharistasintensehunger. 86.Letter19(number92inTommaseonumbering),DuprTheseider,Epistolario,vol.1,pp.8082.SeealsoRaymondofCapua,LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.2, chap.5,par.174,p.906,wherehereportsthatCatherinesaid:"Deuspropterpeccatameapercussitmesingulariquadampassionesiveinfirmitate,perquamacibi sumptionesumtotaliterimpedita:etegolibentissimevellemcomedere,sednonpossum"(emphasisadded). 87.Letter19,DuprTheseider,Epistolario,vol.1,pp.8182:"MandastimidicendochesingularmenteiopregassiDioch'iomangiassi.Eiovidico,padremio,e dicovelonelcospettodiDio,cheintuttiquantie'modich'iopotutitenere,sempremiso'sforzata,unavoltaodueeld,diprendareelciboepregato continovamenteepregoDioepregarchemidiagratia,cheinquestoattodelmangiareiovivacomel'altrecreature,s'eglisuavolont&grave,perchelamiaci. Edicovicheassaivolte,quand'iofattocich'iopotuto,eioentrodentrodameaconosciarelamiainfermiteIdio,chepersingularissimagratiam'abifatto correggiareelvitiodellagola,dogliomimoltoch'io,perlamiamiseria,nonI'correttaperamore." 88.Bell,HolyAnorexia,chap.2.InLifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.2,chap.12,par.311,p.939,RaymondreportsthatsomesaidCatherinecommunicateddailyand livedontheeucharistalonebutthiswas"notquitetrue." 89.Seeabove,nn.85,87IMiracoli,chap.8,p.9andRaymondofCapua,LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.2,chap.3,par.137,p.896. 90.See,forexample,Letter267,CatherineofSiena,Letters,ed.Misciattelli,vol.4,pp.17884,andLetter214,vol.3,pp.28892.SeealsoRaymondofCapua, LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.2,chap.4,par.149,pp.899900,wherewefindherblamingonherownsinsthepettinessofthesickwomanPalmerina.

Page373

91.SeeRaymondofCapua,LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.2,chap.5,par.171,p.905. 92.Seeibid.,pt.2,chap.5,par.170,pp.9045,andDrane,HistoryofSt.Catherine,vol.1,p.203. 93.RaymondofCapua,LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.2,chap.5,par.167,p.904.Itispertinenttonotethat,withamoresympatheticconfessoroneinfactinawe ofherprowessatfastingCatherinebecamesomewhatmoretractable,morewillingatleasttomakeapretenseofeatingseeibid.,pt.2,chap.5,pars.17677,pp. 9067.Inotherwords,shewassomewhatmorewillingtomodifyherbehavior(atleastsuperficially)iftheinterpretationofitssignificanceremainedinhercontrol,but shestillmanagedthingssothatshereceivedlittlerealnourishment. 94.SeeCanet,pt.2,inFawtierandCanet,DoubleExprience,pp.31112,comparingherlettersoftheearly1370swithherlettersof1378to1380.See especiallyLetter64tothehermitWilliamFlete,CatherineofSiena,Letters,ed.Misciattelli,vol.1,pp.28694,whereshesays:"Prdonoloromedesimi, spogliandosi,dell'uomovecchio,ciodellapropriasensualitevestonsidell'uomonuovoCristodolceGesseguitandolovirilmente.Questisonochesipasconoalla mensadelsantodesiderio,echehannopostopilasollicitudineinucciderelapropriavolont,cheinuccidereoinmortificareilcorpo"(pp.29192). 95.CatherineofSiena,Dialogue,ed.Cavallini,chap.149,pp.42629. 96.Thesourcesseemtodiffersomewhataboutthelengthofherretreat.IMiracoli,chap.6,p.7,sayssevenyears(probably13621370)RaymondofCapua,Life ofCatherineofSiena,pt.1,chap.6,pars,5763,pp.87677,andchap.9,pars.8283,pp.88283,suggestsitwasthreeyears.Buttheremaybenoconflictin fact,fortheretreatwasnottotal,andRaymondissimplygivingamoredetailedaccountofitsvariousaspects. 97.Wecanseesomethingoftheproblemherbehaviorposedforherfamilyinpt.2,chap.2,pars.13537,pp.89697,wherewehaveastoryofCatherinegiving awayotherpeople'sclothesandthepassingremarkthatherfamilyhadtokeepeverythinglockeduptopreventherfromgivingitaway. 98.DepositionofBrotherBartholomewDominiciinLaurent,IlProcesso,pp.29092.AnotherversionofthestoryoranotherstoryistoldbyRaymondofCapuain LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.2,chap.3,pars.14041,pp.89798.Drane,HistoryofSt.Catherine,vol.1,p.82,reportsthatcitizensofSienastillcallsomething thatnevercomestoanend"acaskofSt.Catherine."SeealsoRaymond,LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.2,chap.16,pars.298310,pp.93639,onmiraculousfood multiplications. 99.Catherinebecameatertiaryinherlateteens(probablyin1364or65).HerfatherdiedinAugust,1368,andafterthisthefamilyhomeasCatherinehadknownit cametoanendandthefamilyfortunesdeclined.Catherine,asiswellknown,tookonanincreasinglypublicroleasadviserandexhorterofecclesiasticshistorians havedifferedintheirestimatesofhersuccess. 100.RaymondofCapua,LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.2,chaps.24,617,pp.895903,90739. 101.Ibid.,pt.2,chap.16,par.303,p.937. 102.Ibid.,pt.2,chap.16,pars.29899,p.936. 103.CatherineofSiena,Dialogue,ed.Cavallini,chap.149,pp.42529.Raymond

Page374

himselfdrawstheparallelbetweenDominic'sfoodmultiplicationmiraclesandCatherine'sLifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.2,chap.16,par.305,pp.93738. 104.ThomasAntoniideSenis,Libellusdesupplemento,pt.2,tract.4,sects.1314,pp.6264. 105.SeedepositionofFrancescoMalavoltiinLaurent,IlProcesso,pp.39496andDrane,HistoryofSt.Catherine,vol.2,pp.6164.SeealsoRaymondof Capua,LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.2,chap.13,par.276,p.930. 106.RaymondofCapua,LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.3,chap.4,pars.37076,pp.95456.Semia,forwhomCatherineperformsthemiracle,criesout:''Omater meadilecta!Venistiaddomummeamclausisjanuisadfaciendummihicoquinam.Nuncscioverequiasanctaes."ItisworthnotingthatCatherinesometimesherself escapeddomesticchoresthroughecstasies,althoughatothertimessheinsistedondoingmorethanhershareofthehousework.SeeLifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.2, chap.2,pars.12627,pp.89394,wherehersisterinlawLisafindsherinecstasywhensheoughttobeturningthespittoroastmeat."Quodadvertens... Lysa...sciensmodumvirginis,coepitipsavertereveru,etpermisiteamcoelestissponsifruiamplexibus.Cumquecoctiscarnibusillisetfactacoenacunctorum domesticorum,adhuciliainextasipermaneretLysapraefata,perfectiscunctisquaevirgosacrafaceresolebatservitiis,ipsampermisitadlibitumdivinispotirisolatiis." 107.Ibid.,pt.2,chap.16,par.308,p.938trans.Kearns,LifeofCatherine,p.285. 108.RaymondofCapua,LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.2,chap.16,par.300,pp.93637trans.Kearns,LifeofCatherine,pp.27879,withmychanges. 109.RaymondofCapua,LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.2,chap.8,pars.21218,pp.91416IMiracoli,chap.27,pp.2223andseeCanetinFawtierand Canet,DoubleExprience,pp.337ff.,esp.pp.35455. 110.RaymondofCapua,LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.2,chap.9,pars.22023,pp.91617pt.3,chap.7,par.417,p.964. 111.Ibid.,pt.2,chap.11,pars.24144,pp.92223seealsoFawtier,Catherine:Sourceshagiographiques,p.135. 112.See,forexample,above,n.108LetterofStefanoMaconiinCatherineofSiena,Letters,ed.Misciattelli,vol.6,Lettersofdisciples.Letter12,p.81("per ch'iocredoveramenteecosconfesso,chelaMammanostrabenignissimamammaefermasperanzacheognidconpichiarolumecredareconfessarcon maggioreefficacia,leiesseremamma")andthepanegyricofWilliamFlete,quotedinDrane,HistoryofSt.Catherine,vol.2,p.214,andvol.1,pp.17679.(On WilliamFleteseealsoFawtier,Catherine:Sourceshagiographiques,pp.5381.)SeealsoBell,HolyAnwexia,chap.2. 113.RaymondofCapua,LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.2,chap.4,pars.155,16263,pp.901,9023,andpt.3,chap.7,pars.412,414,p.963IMiracoli, chaps.3233,pp.2829ThomasAntoniideSenis,Libellusdesupplemento,pt.2,tract.2,sect.4,p.34. 114.RaymondofCapua,LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.2,chap.4,par.162,p.902. 115.Ibid.,par.163,p.903trans.Kearns,LifeofCatherine,pp.15556. 116.RaymondofCapua,LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.3,chap.7,par.414,p.963. 117.CatherinealsoexperiencedwhatRaymondcallsanexchangeofheartswithChrist,andfromthenceforthshefeltasifshelivedwithoutherheartseeibid.,pt.2,

Page375

chap.6,par.179,p.907.(LutgardofAywiresinthethirteenthcenturysupposedlyexperiencedasimilarsensation.). 118.Seeabove,nn.64,72,85,88. 119.DepositionofBrotherFrancesoofLuccainLaurent,IlProcesso,pp.36869.ForCatherine'srespectforpriests,whomshecalls"christs,"seeCatherineof Siena,Dialogue,ed.Cavallini,chaps.14,23,11318,pp.3742,5154,27486andpassim,andThomasAntoniideSenis,Libellusdesupplemento,pt.2,tract. 6,sects.126passim,pp.7688. 120.ForthethemeofdrinkingfromChrist'ssideinRaymond'saccount,seeLifeofCatherineofSiena,pars.16263(thevisiondiscussedabove),pp.9023par. 187(anothervisionofdrinkingfromChrist'sbreast),p.909par.191(visiondiscussedbelow,n.121),p.909andpar.199(avisionsupposedlyreportedbyher earlierconfessor,ThomasdellaFonte,ofCatherinenursedatthebreastsoftheVirgin),p.911.Seealsoabove,n.72. 121.RaymondofCapua,LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.2,chap.6,pars.18891,p.909trans.GeorgeLamb,TheLifeofSt.CatherineofSienabyBlessed RaymondofCapua(London:HarvillPress,1960),p.173,withminorchanges.(Lamb'stranslationismuchhardertoobtainthanKearns'butisoftenmoreliteraland accurate.)Forthehistoryofthemetaphor,seeAndrCabassut,"UneDvotionmdivalepeuconnue:Ladvotion'JsusnotreMre,'"MlangesMarcelViller, Revued'asctiqueetdemystique25(1949):23445Bynum,JM,pp.11069EleanorC.McLaughlin,"'ChristMyMother':FeminineNamingandMetaphorin MedievalSpirituality,"NashotaReview15(1975):22648Julian,BookofShowings,ed.ColledgeandWalshprefaceandintro.toJulianofNorwich: Showings,trans.ColledgeandWalsh,introductionbyJeanLeclercq(NewYork:PaulistPress,1978)andValerieLagorio,"VariationsontheThemeofGod's MotherhoodinMedievalEnglishMysticalandDevotionalWritings,"Studiamystica8(1985):1537.SeealsoGabriellaAnadol,''LeImmaginidellinguaggio caterinianoelelorefonti:LaMadre,"Rassegnadiasceticaemistica22(1971):33743.InhispsychologicalportraitofCatherine,RudolphBell(HolyAnorexia, chapter2)makesmuchofherpictureofnursingandweaningasincludingbitternessandpain.HecitesthispassageandespeciallyLetter81(Tommaseonumber239) toPopeGregoryXI(DuprTheseider,Epistolario,pp.33233)andcallsattentiontoLapa'sinexperienceatweaning,whichhedocumentsbyreferenceto Raymond,LifeofCatherineofSiena,par.26,p.869.ItmaybethatCatherine'spersonalexperienceofweaningwasapainfulone(althoughonemustpointoutthat wehavenoevidenceofthis),butweshouldalsonotethatmanymedievalwritersspeakofmothersasteasinganddiscipliningtheirbabies. 122.SeeCatherineofSiena,Dialogue,ed.Cavallini,chaps.14(bothpriestsandChristseenasnursingmothers),96(Christasnursingmother),141(theHolySpirit asmothernotanextendedimage),and151(Godspeaksasanursingmother),pp.3742,22530,39293,440andseeLetter1*,CatherineofSiena,Letters, ed.Misciattelli,vol.6,pp.14(charityisamotherwhonursesherchildrensheisalsoafoodthatnurturesthesoul)Letter86,ibid.,vol.2,pp.8188(wemust nurseatthebreastofcharitythesoulmustfeedonthepainsofthecross,whicharesweet)Letter260,ibid.,vol.4,pp.13741,esp.13940(Christisthenurse whodrinksbittermedicineinordertofeedthechild)andLetter2*,ibid.,vol.6,pp.59(Christisthenurseofthesoul).Seealsothe

Page376

lettertoGregoryXIcitedabove,n.121,inwhichthepopeisurgednottoturnawayfromthebreastbecausethemilkisbitter(i.e,becausethevirtuouspathisa painfulone).BecauseCatherine'slettersinLetters,ed.Misciattelli,vol.6,arenumberedseparately,Ihaveusedastar(*)afterthenumberingforthatseries. 123.CanetinFawtierandCanet,DoubleExprience,pp.3046,makesthispoint. 124.Letter86,CatherineofSiena,Letters,ed.Misciattelli,vol.2,pp.8182.IntranslatingCatherine'sItalianIhavebeenaidedbytheFrenchtranslationofE. Cartier,LettresdesainteCatherinedeSienne,4vols.,BibliothqueDominicaine,2ded.(Paris:EditionsTqui,1886).IamalsogratefultoRachelJacoffof WellesleyCollegeforassistance. 125.SeeLetter81,DuprTheseider,Epistolario,pp.33233CatherineofSiena,Dialogue,ed.Cavallini,chap.96,pp.22530,andchap.151,p.440Canetin FawtierandCanet,DoubleExprience,pp.332,3046andabove,n.122. 126.CatherineofSiena,Dialogue,ed.Cavallini,chap.14,pp.4041,trans.Noffke,Catherine:TheDialogue,p.52. 127.See,forexample,Letter184,CatherineofSiena,Letters,ed.Misciattelli,vol.3,p.146(hereshedescribesChristonthecrossas"arrostitoinsulacroceal fuocodell'ardentissimacarit")Letter358,vol.5,p.284. 128.CatherineofSiena,Dialogue,ed.Cavallini,chap.124,p.314trans.Noffke,Catherine:TheDialogue,p.239. 129.CatherineofSiena,Dialogue,ed.Cavallini,chap.142,pp.394400,esp.p.394seealsochaps.12829,pp.33245,whereCatherinediscussespriestswho onlypretendtoconsecrateorwhosaythewordsofconsecrationincorrectly. 130.Ibid.,chap.142,pp.39699. 131.SeeRaymondofCapua,LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.2,chap.6,pars.17982(CatherineandChristexchangehearts),pp.9078,andpt.2,chap.2,pars. 13537,pp.89697(ChristclothesCatherinewithatunictakenoutofhissidetokeepherwarm).Andseeabove,n.120,forvisionsinwhichCatherinejoinswith Christ'sbodybynursingathisbreast. 132.IntheDialogueoneofCatherine'sdominantimagesisChrist'sbodyasabridgeupwhichweclimb.WhenshespeaksofthesoulreachingChrist'smouth, however,sheimpliesnotprimarilythatwereposethereinakiss(astheSongofSongssuggests)butthatweeatwithChristwebecomehismouthandwhatwe eatissuffering(i.e.,rejectionofourphysicalityandsalvationofourneighborsbyvicarioussuffering).See,forexample,CatherineofSiena,Dialogue,ed.Cavallini, chaps.26,5155,andesp.76,pp.5759,11425,16871seebelow,n.141,foraquotation. 133.ItissignificantthatCatherineherselfchoosestoreporttwokindsoffoodmiraclesintheDialoguetheeucharisticmiraclesreferredtoabove,n.130,andthe foodmultiplicationmiraclesmentionedabove,n.103althoughshedoesnotreportothermiracles. 134.IMiracoli,chaps.36,29,pp.37,2425RaymondofCapua,LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.1,chap.1,par.29,p.870,andchap.7,pars.11417,pp. 89091.SeealsoFawtierinFawtierandCanet,DoubleExprience,p.38. 135.Letter221,CatherineofSiena,Letters,ed.Misciattelli,vol.3,p.337:"Benvedituchetuseisposa,echeeglit'hasposata,eteeognicreaturaenonconanello d'argento,

Page377

maconanellodellacarnesua."Letter50,vol.1,p.236:"Vedibene,cheilFigliuolodiDiotutticisposnellacirconcisione,quandositaglilacarnesua,dandoci quantounastremitd'anello,insegnochevolevasposarel'umanagenerazione."Letter261,vol.4,p.146:"Equestofal'animache,essendoliberatadalla servitudinedeldimonio,ricomperatadelsanguediCristocrocifisso,nond'oroned'argento,madisangue...e,avendolaDiofattasposadelVerbodelsuo Figliuolo,ilqualedolceGeslasposconlacarnesua(perocch,quand'eglifucirconciso,tantacarnesilevnellacirconcisionequantaunaestremitd'uno anello,insegnochecomesposovolevasposarel'umanagenerazione)edellaamandoalcunacosafuoradilui,opadreomadre,osorellaofratelliocongiuntio ricchezzeostatidelmondo,diventaadultera,enonsposalealenfedelealspososuo.''AndseeLetter143,vol.2,pp.33738.SeealsoPrayer25:"you[God] espouseoursoulstoyouwiththeringofyourflesh[orcharity]."Noffke,Prayers,11.5052,pp.215,219n.8theItaliantexthas"charity,"theLatinhas"flesh." OnRaymond'sbowdlerization,seeCanetinFawtierandCanet,DoubleExprience,pp.24546,whopointsoutthatCatherine,likeBridgetofSweden,was devotedtotherelicoftheCircumcision.TheViennesebeguineAgnesBlannbekinwasalsodevotedtotheforeskin,afactthatcreatedscandalwhenher revelationswerepublishedintheeighteenthcenturyseeAllmang,"AgnsBlannbekin,"col.977. 136.SeeCatherineofSiena,Dialogue,ed.Cavallini,chap.13,p.37(trans.Noffke,Catherine:TheDialogue,p.50),whereshesaysGod'sIncarnationis"veiling" hisdivinityin"thewretcheddungheapofAdam."Seealsochap.98,p.234,andchap.123,p.307,whereshespeaksofsensualityas"filth." 137.CatherineofSiena,Dialogue,ed.Cavallini,chap.96,p.226trans.Noffke,Catherine:TheDialogue,p.179:"Thesoulwhohasreachedthisfinalstage[of unionwithGod]restsonthebreastofmy[i.e.,God's]divinecharityandtakesintothemouthofherholydesirethefleshofChristcrucified.Inotherwords,she followshisteachingandhisfootsteps,becauseshehadlearnedinthethirdstagethatshecouldnotfollowafterme,theFather.Fornopaincanbefallme,theeternal Father,butitcanbefallmybelovedSon....Andyoucannotwalkwithoutpain,butmustachieveprovenvirtuethroughsuffering."Seealsobelow,n.142. 138.Seethepassagesquotedabove,n.135. 139.CatherinealsolaysmuchemphasisonourcreationintheimageofGodandstressesthatthisimageisthebasisofourpossibilityofreturningtoGodCatherineof Siena,Dialogue,Cavallini,chap.12,pp.3133.Moreover,theimageisinsomesensehumanity,becausethatiswhatweandChristhaveincommon."I[God]gifted youwithmyimageandlikeness.Andwhenyoulostthelifeofgracethroughsin,torestoreittoyouIunitedmynaturewithyou,hidingitinyourhumanity.Ihadmade youinmyimagenowItookyourimagebyassuminghumanform"(trans.Noffke,Catherine:TheDialogue,p.46). 140.Vomiting,forexample,istoCatherinenotonlyabasicimageforpurgingoremptyingbutapositiveimageaswell,forthesoulthatvomitsisreadyagaintohunger for(desire)God.SeeCatherineofSiena,Dialogue,ed.Cavallini,chaps.95,151,pp.22223,437andLetter208,CatherineofSiena,Letters,ed.Misciattelli,vol. 3,p.256:"Adempiteilmiodesiderioinvoi,sicchiofaccialaPasqua,comedetto.Efatecomecoluichemoltobevecheinebbriaeperdesmedesimo,enonsi vede.Ese'lvinomolto

Page378

glidiletta,anconebevepiintantoche,riscaldatolostomacodalvino,nolputenere,esi'lvomicafuore.Veramente,figliuolo,cheinsuquestamensanoi troviamoquestovinociol'costatoapertodelFigliuolodiDio."TheletteralsocallsChrist"food,table,andservant,"discusseshungerforChristasinsatiable, andconcludesthat,byeatingChrist,wetoobecomefoodandbleedforothers. 141.See,forexample,CatherineofSiena,Dialogue,ed.Cavallini,chap.76,pp.16869trans.Noffke,Catherine:TheDialogue,p.140:"[Thesoul]runsontothe thirdstair[ofChrist],thatis,tohismouth,whereitisclearthatshehasarrivedatperfection....Nowshehasarrivedathismouth,andsheshowsthisbyfulfillingthe mouth'sfunctions.Themouthspeakswithitstongueandtastesflavors.Themouthtakeswhatisofferedtothestomach,andtheteethchewit....Soitiswiththe soul.Firstshespeakstomewiththetongueofholyandconstantprayerthatisinthemouthofherholydesire.Thistonguehasanexternalandaninteriorlanguage. Interiorly,thesouloffersmetenderlovingdesiresforthesalvationofsouls.Externally,sheproclaimstheteachingofmyTruth....Sheeatsthefoodofsoulsformy honoratthetableofthemostholycross....Andshechewsit...withhatredandlove,thetworowsofteethinthemouthofholydesire.Thereshetakesthisfood andchewsitwithhatredforherselfandloveforvirtueinherselfandinothers."SeealsoLetter208,CatherineofSiena,Letters,ed.Misciattelli,vol.3,pp.25558 Letter11,vol.1,p.44Letter340,vol.5,pp.15866andbelowatnn.146,150. 142.See,forexample,CatherineofSiena,Dialogue,ed.Cavallini,chap.92,p.213trans.Noffke,Catherine:TheDialogue,p.170:"Themoreshe[thesoul] hungers,themoresheisfilled,andthemoresheissated,themoreshehungers."AndCatherineofSiena,Dialogue,ed.Cavallini,chap.101,pp.24445trans. Noffke,Catherine:TheDialogue,pp.19293:"Thesoul[whichhasbeenofferedthepledgeofeternallife]beginstohungerfor...God...Andbecausesheis hungryshefeastsonthatcharityforherneighborswhichshesohungersandlongsfor....Sheremainsinsatiablyandcontinuallyhungry.Thus,likeapledge,this hungerisabeginningofthecertaintyIgivethesoul....WhenIsaythatthispledgeisnotperfect,Imeanthatthesoulwhoenjoysithasnotyetreachedthesortof perfectionthatwillknownosufferinginherselforinothers....Myservants[inthislife]findtheirnourishmentatthetableofholydesire,andtheyareatonceboth happyandsorrowful,justasmyonlybegottonSonwasonthewoodofthemostholycross." 143.SeeLetter208,CatherineofSiena,Letters,ed.Misciattelli,vol.3,pp.25558Letter34,vol.1,p.157Letter8,pp.3438andLetter75,vol.2,pp.2124, whichmakesitclearthat,toCatherine,hungerandthirstareinfiniteandinsatiableandthattheyrepresentreachingoutandgrasping,notwaitingpassively. 144.See,forexample,Letter227,ibid.,vol.3,p.364. 145.InCatherineofSiena,Dialogue,ed.Cavallini,chap.131,p.352,Catherinesaysexplicitlythattoeatistoserve,explainingthatpriestsadministerthebloodand takecareofsoulsandthisis"thetaskofeatingsouls." 146.Letter329,CatherineofSiena,Letters,ed.Misciattelli,vol.5,pp.1067. 147.Letter87,ibid.,vol.2,pp.9092. 148.Letter2*,ibid.,vol.6,pp.56. 149.See,forexample,CatherineofSiena,Dialogue,ed.Cavallini,chaps.14,23,

Page379

113ff.,pp.3742,5154,274ff.SeealsoLetter270,CatherineofSiena,Letters,ed.Misciattelli,vol.4,pp.19293,inwhichsheurgesthepopetobeamother tosouls. 150.Letter11,CatherineofSiena,Letters,ed.Misciattelli,vol.1,p.44. 151.Letter293,ibid.,vol.4,pp.29192. 152.SeeLetter242,ibid.,vol.4,pp.5051,andLetter296,vol.4,pp.30510.Thislatterletteractuallyusesthemetaphorofcannibalismtodescribehungerfor souls:"Epregovichepigliatequestifigliuoli,morti,insulamensadellasantissimacroce,einemangiatequestocibo,bagnatinelsanguediCristocrocifisso"(p.309). 153.Letter273,ibid.,vol.4,pp.21718:"Dolcissimopadre,l'animavostra,laqualemis'fattacibo(enonpassapuntoditempo,cheiononprendaquestocibo allamensadeldolceAgnellosvenatocontantoardentissimoamore)."Thislettergoesontomixtogetherimagesofwashinganddrinking(oreating)asdescriptionsof theeffectsofChrist'ssacrifice. 154.See,forexample,Letter262,ibid.,vol.4,p.148,andCatherineofSiena,Dialogue,ed.Cavallini,chap.110,p.265trans.Noffke,Catherine:TheDialogue, p.206:"ThepersonoftheIncarnateWordwaspenetratedandkneadedintoonedoughwiththelightofmyGodhead....AndtowhomhaveIentrustedit?Tomy ministers...sothatyoumighthavelifewhentheygiveyouhisbodyasfoodandhisbloodasdrink."SeealsoCatherineofSiena,Dialogue,ed.Cavallini,chap.135, p.373. 155.Letter266,CatherineofSiena,Letters,ed.Misciattelli,vol.4,p.175,andLetter52,ibid.,vol.1,pp.24243.Thephrasealsooccursinaletterfrom FrancescoMalavoltitoNeridiLandoccioaproofboththatCatherine'slanguageinfluencedothersandthatsuchgraphicdescriptionswerenotoffensiveto fourteenthcenturyreadersseeCanetinFawtierandCanet,DoubleExprience,p.244,andLetter40,CatherineofSiena,Letters,ed.Misciattelli,vol.6,Lettersof disciples,p.145("Pace,gaudioeletizianelSignore,condesideriodilavarelemaculcdellenostreiniquitnelsanguedelloisvenatoAgnello,arrostitopernoisullegno dellasantissimacroce").HuizingacitesasimilarphraseinaworkbyoneJeanBerthelemyseeJ.Huizinga,HerfsttijderMiddeleeuwen...(Haarlem:TjeenkWillink andZoon,1921),p.293,citingamanuscriptwork(1912)byCh.Oulmont. 156.Letter75,CatherineofSiena,Letters,ed.Misciattelli,vol.2,p.23andLetter73,p.14.AndseeCatherineofSiena,Dialogue,ed.Cavallini,chap.78,p.177. 157.SeeDrane,HistoryofSt.Catherine,vol.2,p.271andFawtierandCanet,DoubleExprience,pp.23032,268. 158.FawtierandCanet,DoubleExprience,pp.26873Gougaud,DAP,pp.75130andM.D.Chenu,"SangduChrist,"DTC,vol.14(1939),cols.109497. 159.See,forexample,Letter143,CatherineofSiena,Letters,ed.Misciattelli,vol.2,pp.33738,whereChristmarrieshumankindwiththeringoffleshofthe Circumcision,andthebloodChristshedonthecrossissaidbothtowashawaysinandtoprovideaweddingfeastfromGod'sownbody.Seealsoabove,n.153. 160.Seeabove,n.119Letter28,CatherineofSiena,Letters,ed.Misciattelli,vol.1,pp.11524andLetter2,ibid.,vol.1,pp.511. 161.Forexample,CatherineofSiena,Dialogue,ed.Cavallini,chap.14,pp.3738(ministersdrinkfromthebreastsofthechurchandserveup"themilkandblood ofthebride")chap.23,pp.5153(theyshepherdsoulsbyadministeringtheblood)chap.115,

Page380

pp.27678(thechurchisthewinecellar,whichcontainstheblood,andfromthebloodallthesacramentsderive)chap.131,pp.35254(priestsareespecially entrustedwiththetaskof"eatingsouls"becausetheyhavethe"ministryoftheblood").Drane,HistoryofSt.Catherine,vol.1,p.261,pointsouthowoftenshe referstopriestsas"chalices.'' 162.Forexample,CatherineofSiena,Dialogue,ed.Cavallini,chap.115,p.278,whereshesays:"Christonearth[i.e.,thepope],then,hasthekeystothe blood"(trans.Noffke,Catherine:TheDialogue,p.215).AndseeLetter346(toUrbanVI),CatherineofSiena,Letters,ed.Misciattelli,vol.5,p.202. 163.CatherineofSiena,Dialogue,ed.Cavallini,chap.124,pp.31314.Herlongdiscussioninchap.110,pp.26369,ofthedoctrineofconcomitanceappearsto revealsomeanxietyaboutthecrumblinessofthehost.Herinterestinthedoctrineseemstostemfromherdesiretobesureshereceivestheblood(whichisdenied her)alongwiththewafersheisregularlygiven. 164.See,forexample,ibid.,chaps.2324,pp.5156. 165.CatherineherselfdescribestheincidentinalettertoRaymondLetter273,CatherineofSiena,Letters,ed.Misciattelli,vol.4,pp.21723.SeealsoThomas AntoniideSenis,Legendaminore,pt.2,chap.7,p.94. 166.SeeBynum,JM,p.18n.25. 167.Letter215,CatherineofSiena,Letters,ed.Misciattelli,vol.3,pp.29297Letter54,vol.1,pp.24951Letter262,vol.4,pp.14550(seeesp.p.148, wherethenuptialchamberisthewoundinChrist'sside).WeshouldalsonotethatinLetter112(vol.2,pp.197202),wheresheoffersChristasasubstitutetoa marriedwomanwhohaslosttwohusbands,sheoffershimnotasbridegroombutasfood. 168.Seeabove,nn.122,125,141,143. 169.Seeabove,n.135. 170.Seeabove,n.136. 171.See,forexample,Letter205,CatherineofSiena,Letters,ed.Misciattelli,vol.3,pp.24243,andNoffke,introductiontoCatherine:TheDialogue,p.21.See alsobelow,pp.21617and26169.WeshouldnotforgetthatalthoughCatherinethinksfemininemeansweak,andvirile,strong,sheappliesbothadjectivesto bothsexesandexhortswomenaswellasmentoboldness(clearlyassumingittobeattainable).InLetter215,Catherine,Letters,ed.Misciattelli,vol.3,p.296,for example,sheexhortswomentobe"knights"instrengthanddetermination. 172.Letter30,CatherineofSiena,Letters,ed.Misciattelli,vol.1,pp.13542seealsoLetter144,vol.2,pp.34142. 173.Seeabove,atnn.12426. 174.Seebelow,pp.265,270. 175.Letter18,CatherineofSiena,Letters,ed.Misciattelli,vol.1,p.75. 176.Letter1*,ibid.,vol.6,pp.12. 177.Letter342,ibid.,vol.3,p.174. 178.Letter145,ibid.,vol.2,pp.34849. 179.Manycommentatorsnotethissee,forexample,Noffke,Catherine:TheDialogue,p.206n.3. 180.Letter208,CatherineofSiena,Letters,ed.Misciattelli,vol.3,pp.25557:"QuestalaPasquach'iovogliochenoifacciamociodivederciallamensa dell'Agnello

Page381

immancolato,ilqualecibo,mensaeservitore.Insuquestamensasonoe'fruttidellevereerealivirt....Questaunamensaforata,pienadiveneche germinanosangueetraglialtrivihaunocanale,chegittasangueeacquamescolatoconfuoco....OfigliuolodolcissimoinCristoGes,corriamocon sollicitudineaquestamensa....Equandoeglihabenebevutoedegli'lgittasopra'lcapode'fratellisuoi:edhaimparatodacoluichecontinuamenteinmensa versanonpersuautilit,mapernostra.Noidunque,chemangiamoallamensapredetta,conformandocicolcibo,facciamoquellomedesimononpernostrautilit, maperonorediDio,eperlasalutedelprossimo."Forafullertranslationofthepassageseebelow,epigraphtochapter8,andseeabove,n.140. 181.ThefundamentalworkonCatherineofGenoaremainsFriedrichvonHgel,TheMysticalElementofReligionasStudiedinSaintCatherineofGenoaand HerFriends,2vols.(London:Dent,1908),althoughvonHgelwasmisledbyhisopinionthatthe1551edition(ofManuscriptAplusadditions)ofthesaint'sworks wasthemosttrustworthytext.FormanuscriptsDandD*,todayconsideredthebestmanuscripts,seeUmileBonzidaGenova,S.CaterinaFieschiAdorno,vol.1: TeologiamisticadeS.CaterinadaGenovaandvol.2:Edizionecriticadeimanoscritticateriniani(Turin:Marietti,19611962).OnCatherine'slifeandonthe controversysurroundingtheauthorshipofherworks,seealsoUmileBonzidaGenova,"L'OpusCatharinianumetsesauteurs.Etudecritiquesurlabiographieetles critsdesainteCatherinedeGnes,"Revued'asctiqueetdemystique16(1935):35180P.Debongnie,"CatherinedeGnes(sainte),"DHGE,vol.11(1949), cols.150615idem,"SainteCatherinedeGnes,vieetdoctrine,d'aprsdestravauxrcents,"Revued'asctiqueetdemystique38(1962):40946UmileBonzi daGenovaandMarcelViller,"CatherinedeGnes(sainte),"DS,vol.2(1953),cols.290325andBenedictGroeschel,introductiontoCatherineofGenoa: PurgationandPurgatory...,trans.SergeHughes(NewYork:PaulistPress,1979),pp.167. 182.ThemostIclaimbelowthereforeisthattheimageofCatherineheldbythoseclosetoherincludedbothextravagantfoodpracticesandtheologicalsayingsin whichmetaphorsoffoodandhungerwereprominent.Theearlyprintedvita,whichIhavecitedinthe1568Florenceedition(seebelow,n.189),differsgreatlyfrom thevariousmanuscripts(seeCatherineofGenoa,ed.UmileBonzi,Edizionecritica)onthecorrelationsandlacunaeofthevariousversions,seevonHgel,Mystical Element,vol.1,pp.38890,44951. 183.Vita,chaps.15,CatherineofGenoa,Edizionecritica,ed.UmileBonzi,pp.10720onherconversion,fasts,andeucharisticdevotion,seevonHgel, MysticalElement,vol.1,pp.1049,11316,13537,andvol.2,pp.2840.SeealsoDebongnie,"SainteCatherine,"pp.42728. 184.ScholarshavedifferedsomewhatonthebeginningandenddatesofthisperiodoffastinganddailycommunionseeGroeschel,intro.,inHughes,Catherineof GenoaPurgation,pp.57Debongnie,"SainteCatherine,"pp.43133vonHgel,MysticalElement,vol.1,pp.10913,13537UmileBonzi,S.Caterina, vol.1:Teologia,pp.3033.Itisimportanttonotethat,whetherCatherinewastwentysixortwentynineattheonsetofthisbehaviorpattern,itwasnotan adolescentdevelopment. 185.Itissignificantthatsheexperiencedspontaneousremissionofherextravagantinedia(i.e.,ofhereffortsatextraordinarycontrolofbody)ataboutthesametime assheacceptedaspiritualdirector(i.e.,spiritualcontrolexercisedbyanotherego).

Page382

186.Debongnie,"SainteCatherine,"pp.44041,discusseswhethertheillnesswas"supernatural,"psychosomatic,orsomekindofcancer.Adiagnosisisnotpossible atthisdistance.Contemporarieswere,however,fascinatedbythefactthatshecouldswallowonlytheeucharistseeIlDialogospirituale,inCatherineofGenoa, Edizionecritica,ed.UmileBonzi,pp.43367. 187.InVita,chap.5,CatherineofGenoa,Edizionecritica,ed.UmileBonzi,p.120,thereislanguagethatsuggeststhatCatherinejoinedwithChrist'sbreastand mouthinavision.Debongnie,"SainteCatherine,"pp.43031,suggeststhatthisisnotCatherine'sspirituality,forsheordinarilyinsistsonbypassingthe"humanity"of Christ,exceptforreceptionoftheeucharist.VanHgel(MysticalElement,vol.2,pp.3940)makesasimilarpointwhenhesuggeststhatCatherinedidnotreceive stigmata,despiteherpsychologicaldispositiontowardparamysticalphenomena,becauseshedidnotdisplaygreatdevotiontothehumanityofChrist. 188.SeeIlDialogosprituale,inCatherineofGenoa,Edizionecritica,ed.UmileBonzi,pp.42227trans.Hughes,CatherineofGenoa:Purgation,pp.12932. AndVita,chap.12,CatherineofGenoa,Edizionecritica,ed.UmileBonzi,pp.14041. 189.VitamirabileetdoctrinasantadellabeataCaterinadaGenova...[hereafterVitamirabile](Florence:Giunti,1568repr.1580),chap.41,p.137(this editionreproducesthe1551Genoeseeditionexceptforcorrectingcertaindialectforms).Inreplyherconfessorcriticizedherforworryingaboutpracticesandmotives andurgedhertosurrendercompletelytoGod:"Chiequello,chesiimpaccia,etparladimangiare,ononmangiaresottospeciedistimolotaci,taci,cheticonosco,et nonmipuoiingannare." 190.Vita,chaps.711,CatherineofGenoa,Edizionecritica,ed.UmileBonzi,pp.12240,andIlDialogospirituale,inibid.,pp.400,4023,40611. 191.Vitamirabile,chap.42,p.143. 192.SeeVita,chap.5,CatherineofGenoa,Edizionecritica,ed.UmileBonzi,p.119,andbelow,n.196. 193.SeeVita,chap.10,CatherineofGenoa,Edizionecritica,p.135,andIlDialogospirituale,inibid.,pp.4023.Onherfamousstatement"inDioilmio essere,ilmioME,"usuallyrendered"MyMeisGod,"seebelow,chap.10n.2. 194.IlDialogospirituale,CatherineofGenoa,Edizionecritica,ed.UmileBonzi,p.389. 195.Vitamirabile,chap.3,p.11trans.byMrs.G.Ripley,LifeandDoctrineofSaintCatherineofGenoa(NewYork:CatholicPublicationSociety,1875),p. 31.ButseeVita,CatherineofGenoa,Edizionecritica,ed.UmileBonzi,pp.6263,12122. 196.IlDialogospirituale,CatherineofGenoa,Edizionecritica,ed.UmileBonzi,p.432,describingherlastillness("equandoessanonsicommunicava,restava tuttoquelgiornoaffamata,eparevachenonpotesseviveresenzaquestosacramento"),andpp.40611,wherewehaveadescription,indialogueform,ofher responsetothevisionofthebleedingJesus.Hereshestopseating,acquiresafranticneedforcommunion,andbegsGodtotakeawayallfeelings.Butatthereception ofcommunion,herhumanitycriesout:"Horaquestomodoiopotrviver!" 197.TheSpiritualDialogue,pt.2,inHughes,CatherineofGenoa:Purgation,pp.11533.HereCatherine'sdepressionbeforeherconversionisdescribedasa periodinwhichshecouldnoteatafterherconversionsheisdescribedashavingnotastefor

Page383

anythingbutloveofGod.Inthisconditionherhumanitycriesoutthatitmusthavefood,butithastroublefindingnourishmentinthatwhichsatisfiesthesoul.The communioncomesasfoodforboth,althoughSoulisworriedabouttheblissthataccompaniesitandasksGodtotake"feelings"away."OSignore,oSignore,io nonvoglioprovaalcunadite,perchnoncercosentimenti,malifuggocomedemonij,perchsonocosemoltoimpeditivealpuroamoreperchl'huomoselepu attachareconlospiritoeconl'humanitasottospeciediperfettione.Eperchl'amoredeveesserenudo,percitiprego,oSignore,anonmidarepisimilcose, perchnonfannoperme"(IlDialogospirituale,CatherineofGenoa,Edizionecritica,ed.UmileBonzi,p.411). 198.IlDialogospirituale,CatherineofGenoa,Edizionecritica,ed.UmileBonzi,pp.42021:"Ecosfufatto,perchlamiseintantapovert,chenonpotcva vivereseDiononlehavesseprovedutoperviadielemosine.Eledisse:Acciochtutipossiesercitare,tulavoreraipervivere....Nonvogliochetumaihabbia propriaelettione,masemprefarailavolutd'altri." 199.SpiritualDialogue,pt.2,inHughes,CatherineofGenoa:Purgation,p.130IlDialogospirituale,CatherineofGenoa,EdizioneCritica,ed.UmileBonzi,p. 424. 200.Seeabove,n.188. 201.OnCatherine'suseofumanit,seeHughes,"Notesonthetranslation,"CatherineofGenoa:Purgation,p.49,andPierreDebongnie,trans.,LaGrande Damedupuramour:SainteCatherinedeGenes.14471510,vieetdoctrine...,LesEtudesCarmlitaines(Paris:DescledeBrouwer,1960),p.xxii.Forher closeassociationoffoodandbody,seeIlDialogospirituale,CatherineofGenoa,Edizionecritica,ed.UmileBonzi,p.370,whereshedescribesthecapitulationof BodytoSoulasturningtothefoodofpigsandotheranimals:"esiandavaancoraleipascendodecibideporciebestiali,comeilcorpo." 202.Seeabove,n.196.ItisalsoworthnotingthatintheopeningpagesoftheDialoguefoodisCatherine'sordinarywordforgoal,i.e.,forthatwhichisdesired,and hungerortasteherusualsynonymfordesireIlDialogospirituale,CatherineofGenoa,Edizionecritica,ed.UmileBonzi,pp.35575.See,forexample,p.357 (SoultoBody:"Setrovassemocibochecipascessetuttidue,comefaremo?"AndBodytoSoul:"Masarebbetroppograncosachesitrovassecibochecontentasse duechehavesserogusticontrarij")andp.363(SoultoBody:"perchgustandoquestecoseterrene,dubitochemialenterilgustodellecosespirituali"). 203.Hughes,CatherineofGenoa:Purgation,pp.8182TrattatodelPurgatorio,inCatherineofGenoa,Edizionecritica,ed.UmileBonzi,pp.34344: "L'amorediDiocheridondanell'anima(secondocheiovedo),leduncontentochenonsipuesprimeremaquestocontentoaquell'animechesononelPurgatorio, nonlevaunastilladipenamapiprestoquestoamorechesitrovaritardato,quellochelefalapena,tantograndequantolaperfettionediessoamore,delquale Diol'hafattacapace.Schel'animenelPurgatoriohannocontentograndissimoepenagrandissima,el'unononimpediscel'altro." 204.Hughes,CatherineofGenoa:Purgation,pp.8283TrattatodelPurgatorio,inCatherineofGenoa,Edizionecritica,ed.UmileBonzi,pp.34445. 205.Hughes,CatherineofGenoa:Purgation,pp.7677TrattatodelPurgatorio,inCatherineofGenoa,Edizionecritica,ed.UmileBonzi,pp.33233. 206.Vitamirabile,chap.32,pp.1067trans.Ripley,LifeandDoctrine,chap.28,pp.

Page384

12930.VonHgelsaysofthischapter:"[it]isnowonelongDiscoursewhichincorporatessomeshortbutimportantauthenticsayings"(VonHgel,Mystical Element,vol.1,p.450).Thelengthydiscourseisnotintheearliestmanuscript.ItisimpossibletoknowhowmuchofitisCatherine'sownlanguage,butthe evidenceoftheTrattatodelPurgatorio(above,nn.203205)suggeststhatthebasicmetaphorisauthentic. 207.Vita,chap.27,CatherineofGenoa,Edizionecritica,ed.UmileBonzi,p.297,andinVitamirabile,chap.43,pp.14647trans.Ripley,LifeandDoctrine, chap.33,pp.14344. 208.Itistrue,asvonHgelsuggests(seeabove,n.187),thatCatherineofGenoashowednospecialdevotiontoChrist'shumanityeitheraneroticattachmenttohis body(likeHadewijch's)orasentimentalidentificationwithhislifestory(likeMargaretofOingt's)butherattachmenttotheeucharistwasadevotiontoGod encounteredthroughphysicality:bodyandblood,breadandwine.AndshewasdeeplydevotedtothesufferingofChrist'searthlybody.Moreover,someofthemost affectiveofwomenmystics(likeHadewijch)sawclearlythedangersofmeresentimentality.ThedarksideofthespiritualityofaHadewijchoraCatherineofGenoa i.e.,itsemphasisonsufferingisinpartanefforttokeeptheapproachtodivinitythroughhumanityfrombecomingmereindulgenceinpleasantfeelings. 209.EvenMargaretPorete,inrejectingthisspirituality,nonethelessdescribesitaccurately.Elaboratinga"freedom"beyondallcategoriesinsanityandwisdom, illnessandhealth,fastandfeast,loveandlossMargaretdescribesasalowerway(thereligiosityofthe"marred")aspiritualityofaffectivityanderoticism,fastingand works,prayersandeucharist.SeeRomanaGuarnieri,"II'Miroirdessimplesmes'diMargheritaPorete,"Archivioitalianoperlastoriadellapiet4(1965):513 635. 210.Formalewritinginwhich"eating"isanimportantimage,seeabove,pp.1,4,6667,74,andn.155,andGuigoIItheCarthusian,Epistoladevita contemplativa(Scalaclaustralium),chap.13,andMeditatio4,inE.ColledgeandJ.Walsh,eds.,Lettresurlaviecontemplative...DouzeMditations,SC 163,Sr.mon.29(1970),pp.11012,14246. 6 FoodAsControlofSelf 1.HildeBruch,EatingDisorders:Obesity,AnorexiaNervosaandthePersonWithin(NewYork:BasicBooks,1973),p.304. 2.SeePeggyReevesSanday,FemalePowerandMaleDominance:OntheOriginsofSexualInequality(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1981), passim,esp.pp.7677,andGoody,Cooking,CuisineandClass,p.193. 3.Wheaton,SavoringthePast,p.22. 4.Ibid. 5.Ibid.,pp.95111,124,163,209.OnthispointseealsoPhilippaPullar,ConsumingPassions:BeinganHistoricInquiryintoCertainEnglishAppetites (Boston:Little,Brown,1970),pp.13640.Forcookbooksaddressedtowomenbefore1746,seeWheaton,SavoringthePast,p.299n.49. 6.Duby,TheKnight,theLadyandthePriest,pp.7072,106.

Page385

7.Seeibid.andBurchardofWorms,Decretum,bk.20,chap.152,PL140,cols.101213. 8.EliasCanetti,CrowdsandPower,trans.CarolStewart(NewYork:Viking,1962),p.221.Canettigoesontostressthemother'sfeedingaspower,whichhecalls "domination." 9.Wheaton,SavoringthePast,p.2. 10.NicolasdeBonnefous,LeJardinierfranois(1651),suggeststhatwomenareparticularlydrawntofruitseeWheaton,SavoringthePast,p.123.Rousseauin Emilelistsas"tastesproperfor[thefemale]sex"dairyproductsandsweets,especiallydesserts,butnotmeat,wine,orstrongliquorsseeWheaton,Savoringthe Past,p.226. 11.Forthisviewofmeat,seeJohnChrysostom,Homily27onActs,par.2,PG60,col.207(whichwarnswomenagainstwineandmeat)Aquinas,ST,II,IIae,q. 147,art.8,vol.43,pp.11417andabove,chap.2nn.2426andchap.3n.40.Itmayactuallybetruethat,forreasonsofdifferencesinmetabolism,womenneed morecarbohydratesandmenmoreproteinseebelow,n.36. 12.SeeLauraShapiro,PerfectionSalad:WomenandCookingattheTurnoftheCentury(NewYork:Farrar,StrausandGiroux,1986). 13.JoanJacobsBrumberg,"ChloroticGirls,18701920:AHistoricalPerspectiveonFemaleAdolescence,"ChildDevelopment53.6(December1982):146877. 14.Iamingeneralsuspiciousoftheoriesofreligionthatseeitasevolvingthroughvariousstages,butonesuchevolutionaryinterpretation,RobertN.Bellah's "ReligiousEvolution"(AmericanSociologicalReview29[1964]:35874),isusefulinpresentingabriefandclearstatementoftheideathattheMiddleAgeswasthe periodofWesternreligioninwhichworldrejectionasavaluewasatitsheight. 15.MacCullough,"Fasting,"p.763. 16.SeeBarronHolland,comp.,PopularHinduismandHinduMythology:AnAnnotatedBibliography(Westport,Conn.:Greenwood,1979),pp.12021.Iam gratefultoJohnS.HawleyoftheUniversityofWashingtonforthisinformationandreference. 17.Rogers,Fasting,p.77.Goody,Cooking,CuisineandClass,p.118,says,"whereasmen'sfastsaremostlydirectedtowardimprovingorupholdingtheirown purityandspiritualstatus,thefastsofwomenarelargelyaimedatenhancingandmaintainingauspiciousnessfor'thesocialcollective,'thatis,forthefamily." 18.Gougaud,DAP,pp.14758Loomis,WhiteMagic,p.130FredNorrisRobinson,"NotesontheIrishPracticeofFastingasaMeansofDistraint,"Putnam AnniversaryVolume(CedarRapids,Iowa:TorchPress,1909),pp.56783(cataloguedseparatelyinWidenerLibrary).TheIrishtraditionalsoshowscasesof fasting"upon"or"against"bothGodanddevilseeibid.,pp.57880. 19.Rogers,Fasting,passim,esp.pp.7176. 20.Thefastingofthesuffragettes(seeibid.,pp.8388)was,ofcourse,aselfconscioususeofthehungerstrikebywomenforpoliticalgoals.Butbeforethemodern periodorganized,selfconsciousgroupstarvationbywomenseemsnottohavebeenusedasaweapontogainpoweroverothers.Thesources,however,doprovide occasionalsuggestionsofrebellionagainstauthoritiesbyrefusaltoeat.See,forexample,ClareofAssisi'sthreatthatsheandhersisterswillnoteatifthepoperefuses toprovidepreaching(above,chap.3atn.185)andthecaseofCecilyRidgeway,whoin1357fastedand

Page386

remainedmuteforfortydaystoavoidpleadinginamurdertrialGerish,introductiontoTheHartfordshireWonder,p.5,andRollins,"NotesonSomeEnglish Accounts,"p.360.AparticularlyinterestingexampleoccursintheLifeofUmilt,chap.2,par.13,AASSMay,vol.5,p.210,whereUmiltimprisonsoneofher nunsfornotdoingherassignedjobproperly,andthewomanrefusestoeat. 21.OnMary,seeBolton,"VitaeMatrum,"pp.25759onClare,seeBrookeandBrooke,"St.Clare,"pp.27587.AndonthispointgenerallyseeBynum, "Women'sStories,Women'sSymbols." 22.LifeofChristinatheAstonishing,chap.2,par.22,AASSJuly,vol.5,p.654. 23.MuchoftheevidencetowhichIshallmakepassingreferenceinchapters6to8hasbeenextensivelyexploredinchapters3to5aboveIhavenotrepeated documentationthathasbeenprovidedelsewhere.Hence,ifnofootnoteisgiven,thereadermayexpecttofindspecificreferencesbyturningtotheearlierdiscussionof thesaintinquestionorbyusingtheindex.OnMargeryKempe,seebelow,chap.7n.1. 24.Schadewaldt,"MedizingeschichtlicheBetrachtungen,"pp.114,esp.p.10.Themodernclinicaldefinitionofanorexianervosawasframedinthenineteenth centuryseeBrumberg,"'FastingGirls.'"SchadewaldtdiscussesearlierGermanliteratureonthehistoryofextendedinediathatisnotreadilyavailableinthiscountry. 25.JohnPutnamDemos,EntertainingSatan:WitchcraftandtheCultureofEarlyNewEngland(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1982),pp.16465,has arguedthatsomewitches'victimsatSalemwereanorectic.Thurston,PP,passim,suggestsmodernpsychiatricdiagnosesofanumberofearlymiraculousabstainers, stigmatics,etc.WeinsteinandBell,SS,p.235,callthesixteenthcenturyFlorentinevisionaryMaryMagdalende'Pazziananorectic. 26.J.HubertLacey,"AnorexiaNervosaandaBeardedFemaleSaint,"BritishMedicalJournal285(1825December1982):181617.SeealsoDelehaye, Legends,pp.10910. 27.Seeabove,chap.3atnn.410.Thurston,whodefendsasatleastpossiblysupernaturallycausedcertainverybizarrephenomena,says(PP,p.365):"JustasI shouldliketohearofastigmaticwhohadnobadfamilyhistoryandhadalwaysherselfbeenathoroughlyhealthysubject,freefromneurosesofanykind,sointhe considerablelistofthoseholypeoplewhoarereportedtohavelivedforlongperiodswithnoothernourishmentbuttheBlessedSacrament,onelooks,butlooksin vain,forthenameofonewhowasfreefromstrangeinhibitionsinthematterofdietandwhomtheneuropathspecialistwouldhavepronouncedtobeperfectlysound andnormal." 28.See,forexample,BenedictJ.Groeschel,introductiontoHughes,CatherineofGenoa:Purgation,p.11,andPetroff,Consolation,p.41.RudolphBell,Holy Anorexia,arguesforananorectictypeoffemalesaintinthelaterMiddleAgesBellusesmodernpsychologicalmodels,althoughheiscarefultopointoutdifferences betweenthelateMiddleAgesandthetwentiethcentury.Seeabove.Prefaceandchap.5n.61. 29.Brumberg,"'FastingGirls,'"andZilboorg,MedicalPsychology. 30.IlzaVeith,Hysteria:TheHistoryofaDisease(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1965),passim,esp.pp.5675GregoryZilboorg,TheMedicalManand theWitchduringtheRenaissance(Baltimore:JohnsHopkins,1935),p.58ThomasS.Szasz,TheManufactureofMadness:AComparativeStudyofthe InquisitionandtheMentalHealthMovement(NewYork:HarperandRow,1970),pp.68ff.

Page387

31.Seebelow,Epilogue. 32.TheoppositekindofcaseispresentedinthevitaeofLutgardofAywiresandJulianaofCornillon,wherethesaintscurewomenwhocannotfastseeThomasof Cantimpr,LifeofLutgard,bk.2,chap.2,pars.1920,25,AASSJune,vol.4,pp.200201LifeofJuliana,bk.2,chap.9,AASSApril,vol.1,p.475. 33.Seeabove,chap.4nn.135,160. 34.Seeabove,chap.3atnn.12527.Browe,DieWunder,p.54n.23,describesawomaninthedioceseofMetzinthemidthirteenthcenturywhoclaimed stigmataandmiraculousinediaandwasunmaskedasafraud. 35.SeeHarrisonG.PopeandJamesHudson,NewHopeforBingeEaters:AdvancesintheUnderstandingandTreatmentofBulimia(NewYork:Harperand Row,1984).Foragoodsummaryofthevarioustheories,seeElissaEly,"RxforBulimia,"HarvardMagazine(NovemberDecember1983):53ff.Recentpopular booksonanorexianervosaincludeKimChernin,TheObsession:ReflectionsontheTyrannyofSlenderness(NewYork:HarperandRow,1981)Janice Cauwels,Bulimia:TheBingePurgeCompulsion(GardenCity,N.Y.:Doubleday,1983)MarleneBoskindWhiteandWilliamC.White,Jr.,Bulimarexia:The BingePurgeCycle(NewYork:Norton,1983)R.L.Palmer,AnorexiaNervosa(NewYork:Pelican,1981)andSusieOrbach,FatIsaFeministIssue(New York:Berkley,1980). 36.See"AppendixB:SexDifferencesinDeath,DiseaseandDiet,"inKatharineB.HoyengaandK.T.Hoyenga,TheQuestionofSexDifferences:Psychological, CulturalandBiologicalIssues(Boston:Little,Brown,1979),pp.37290,andAnneScottBeller,FatandThin:ANaturalHistoryofObesity(NewYork: Farrar,StrausandGiroux,1977).Alreadyinthetwelfthcentury,Heloisearguedthat"Natureherselfhasprotectedoursexwithagreaterpowerofsobriety.Itis indeedknownthatwomencanbesustainedwithlessnourishment,andatmuchlessexpense,thanmen."SeeDronke,WW,p.132. 37.AnneWaltneroftheUniversityofUtah,inherunpublishedpaper"T'anYangtzu:AMingDynastyAvataroftheQueenMotheroftheWest,"hasuncovered importantevidenceofanorexialikebehaviorinsixteenthcenturyChina.AndpresentdayIndiapresentsparallelcasesseebelow,n.101.Isuspectthatasmore workisdoneonfemalepietyinvariousreligioustraditions,crossculturalevidenceforthegreaterpropensityofwomenforselfstarvationwillgrow.Suchevidence strengthensthecaseforsomephysiologicalbasistoeatingbehaviorbutdoesnotproveit,becausecertainpredisposingculturalfactorsarealsopresentinthesocieties inquestion,especiallytheassumptionthatwomanisfoodpreparerandnurturer. 38.Onthespreadofanorexia,seeA.H.Crispetal."HowCommonIsAnorexiaNervosa?APrevalenceStudy,"BritishJournalofPsychiatry128(1976):549 54MayDuddle,"AnIncreaseinAnorexiaNervosaintheUniversityPopulation,"BritishJournalofPsychiatry123(1973):71112HildeBruch,"Anorexia Nervosa:TherapyandTheory,"AmericanJournalofPsychiatry139.12(December1982):153138.Recentjournalisticaccountsinclude"Anorexia:TheStarving DiseaseEpidemic,"U.S.NewsandWorldReport(August30,1982):4748and"ADeadlyFeastandFamine,''Newsweek(March7,1983):59ff.Seealsobelow, Epilogue,n.5.Forfurtherdiscussion,seeBrumberg,"'FastingGirls.'" 39.TheculturalinterpretationpresentedbyrecentauthorssuchasCherninand

Page388

Orbach(seeabove,n.35)is,however,muchtoolimited,focusingasitdoesalmostexclusivelyonmessagesprovidedbythemediaandonculturalnotionsof femalethinnessasbeautyratherthanonbroadervaluessuchasnotionsofwomen'sroleandoffamily.Seebelow,n.51. 40.Seeabove,chap.3atnn.128133. 41.WeinsteinandBell,SS,pp.23435Benz,DieVision,pp.1734. 42.LifeofSerafinaorFinaofSanGimignano,AASSMarch,vol.2(Paris,1865),pp.23238seealsoAdoneTerziariol,"FinadiSanGimignano,"BS,vol.5,cols. 81011. 43.LifeofVillana,AASSAugust,vol.5,chap.1,pars.1112,pp.86667VitaBeatricis,passim,esp.p.64LifeofMargaretofYpres,inMeersseman,"Frres prcheurs,"pp.12526.OnGertrude,seeBynum,JM,pp.192,253n.295.SeealsoLifeofMaryofOignies,bk.1,chap.4,par.40,AASSJune,vol.5,p.556, andbelow,n.72.ForMargaretofOingt'soffertobecomealeperifGodsowilled,seebelow,chap.8n.31.Onthepatientbearingofillnessbymaleandfemale saintsinthefourteenthcentury,seeKieckhefer,UnS,pp.5758. 44.Processofcanonization,art.33,inJacquesCambell,ed.,EnqutepourleprocsdecanonisationdeDauphinedePuimichel,comtessed'Ariano (&dagger26XI1360)(Turin:Erasmo,1978),p.52:"aceciamdicebat,etdicereconsuevit,quodsigenteshuiusmundiconsiderarentquantumcorporalesinfirmitates suntutilesetquantumseparantanimumabamoreterrenorum,ipsasinfirmitatescorporeas,siessetpossibile,inforoemerentsicutemuntresaliasnecessariasad vivendum."OnDauphine,seealsoJacquesCambell,ed.,ViesoccitanesdesaintAuziasetdesainteDauphine,avectraductionfranaise,introductionetnotes (Rome:PontificiumAthenaeumAntonianum,1963)andKieckhefer,UnS. 45.Julian,longtext,chaps.24,BookofShowings,ed.ColledgeandWalsh,vol.2,pp.28598trans.ColledgeandWalsh,JulianofNorwich:Showings,p. 181. 46.Seebelowatnn.8190. 47.Thurston,PP,pp.69,9599,123. 48.Ibid.,pp.13539,202,22232.Onmyroblytes,seebelow,n.85,andchap.9n.75. 49.Fortheemergenceofanorexianervosaasadiagnosisinthenineteenthcentury,seeBrumberg,"'FastingGirls.'"Forasophisticateddiscussionofdisease categoriesasculturalconstructs,seeCherylRitenbaugh,"ObesityasaCultureBoundSyndrome,"Culture,MedicineandPsychiatry6(1982):2336,esp.27. 50.Foranorexianervosaasthe"relentlesspursuitofthinness,"seeHildeBruch,"ThePsychiatricDifferentialDiagnosisofAnorexiaNervosa,"inMeyerand Feldmann,eds.,Anorexianervosa,pp.70,75,andBruch,EatingDisorders,pp.238,267. 51.Thinnessandpalenessweresometimesvaluedassignsofasceticpractice(seeVauchez,LaSaintet,p.226,andabove,chap.3n.67),althoughhagiographers werealsosometimesconcernedtodemonstratethatthebodiesofsaintswerenotemaciatedbecausetheyweretrulyfedbytheeucharist(seeabove,chap.4atn. 108).Inanycase,suchreferencestobodysizeandskincolorhadnothingtodowithnormsofbeauty.See,forexample,RobertofAuxerre'sdescriptionofAlpasof Cudotinhischronicleaccountfortheyear1180,whichsaysthatherbodywas"witheredandthin""butshewasstillfatandbeautifulinherface"(AASSNovember, vol.2,pt.1[Brussels,1894],p.167).ThusSchadewaldt,"MedizingeschichtlicheBetrachtungen,"p.11,seemstooversimplifywhenhesuggeststhatlatemedieval peopledesiredtobethinasasignofsanctity.

Page389

52.Bruch,"DifferentialDiagnosis,"p.70. 53.MaraSelviniPalazzoli,SelfStarvation:FromIndividualtoFamilyTherapyintheTreatmentofAnorexiaNervosa,trans.A.Pomerans(NewYork: Aronson,1978),p.86.SeealsoBruch,EatingDisorders,p.267.ForamoreFreudianapproach,seeHelmutThom,AnorexiaNervosa,trans.G.Brydone(New York:InternationalUniversitiesPress,1967). 54.SeePalazzoli,SelfStarvationBruch,EatingDisordersidem,TheGoldenCage:TheEnigmaofAnorexiaNervosa(Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversity Press,1978)SalvadorMinuchin,BerniceL.Rosman,andLesterBaker,PsychosomaticFamilies:AnorexiaNervosainContext(Cambridge,Mass.:Harvard UniversityPress,1978).Bruchsays,forexample:"Thoughanorexicpatientsmaydiefromtheircondition,itisnotdeaththeyareafterbuttheurgentneedtobein controloftheirownlivesandhaveasenseofidentity"(EatingDisorders,p.269). 55.Veith,Hysteria,esp.p.viiiandWenShingTsengandJohnF.McDermott,Jr.,Culture,MindandTherapy:AnIntroductiontoCulturalPsychiatry(New York:Brunner/Mazel,1981),pp.23,276. 56.Seeabove,chap.4atn.102,chap.5atn.50.OnLukardisofOberweimar,seechap.4atn.115.TheeditorofBeatriceofNazareth'slifepointsouttheparallel (VitaBeatricis,p.154).ThemodernfastinggirlSarahJacobsexperiencedsimilarsensationsseeFowler,WelshFastingGirl,p.32. 57.Thurston,PP,pp.12425Rogers,Fasting,p.15Fowler,WelshFastingGirl,pp.56. 58.Seebelow,chap.8nn.47,48. 59.LifeofIdaofLouvain,bk.2,chap.6,AASSApril,vol.2,p.178.Inbk.2,chap.2,p.172,thehagiographerreportsanoccasiononwhichshegrabbedthehand ofapriestholdingthehostandcovereditwithkisses.Thepriest,saysthehagiographer,fearedshewasinsane,butheacquiesced.IdaofLaushowedsimilar eucharisticmadnesssee,forexample,hervita,chap.4,par.31,AASSOctober,vol.13,pp.11617.Herhagiographercallsherbehaviorinsanityseechap.3,par. 24,p.114.LudolfofSaxony,VitaJesuChristi...,ed.L.M.Rigollot,4vols.(Paris:Palm,1870),pt.2,chap.58,par.1,vol.4,p.456,tellsofanunwhofellto thegroundwheneversheheardthePassionstory.PhilipofClairvauxcallsElizabethofSpalbeek'secstasiesimbecillitasLifeofElizabeth,Cod.cat.hag. Bruxellensis,vol.1,pt.1,p.364. 60.Weshouldnote,however,thatthesewomen,likethetwentiethcenturymysticandanorecticSimoneWeil,oftendevelopedmovingandsophisticatedtheoriesthat gofarbeyondthefoodrelatedandselfabsorbedcasuistryofmodern"patients."MaryofOignies,LutgardofAywires,Hadewijch,BeatriceofNazareth,Angelaof Foligno,MechtildofMagdeburg,CatherineofSiena,andCatherineofGenoaseemtohaveelaboratedoutoftheirownselfdoubtandhungerbothacomplex theologyofsubstitutioninwhichtheirsufferingsredeemedtheevilofaworldforwhichtheyfeltresponsibleandamysticaldoctrineofannihilationofselfintheblinding loveofGod. 61.ThisdiagnosisofDorothy'spersistentsoresissuggestedbyKieckhefer,UnS,p.27n.14,afterconsultationwithDr.AnnJohnston,M.D. 62.OntheCarnegieInstitutetests,seeRogers,Fasting,pp.12532.JoanJacobsBrumberginherunpublishedpaper"NineteenthCenturyMedicineandthePublic Debateover'Anorexia,'"deliveredattheSixthBerkshireConferenceontheHistoryof

Page390

Women,June13,1984,pointedoutthedifficultyofdistinguishing,inearlycasereports,betweenthesecondaryresultsofstarvationorofdiseaseandadisease entityitself. 63.ConsiderationssuchasthesehaveledBrumbergtoargueagainsttheuseofthetermanorexianervosabeforethelatenineteenthcentury,whendoctorsdefinedit asadiagnosticcategory.Shesuggeststhatthemostthehistorianisentitledtospeakofbeforethatdateis"anorexialike"behavior.See"'FastingGirls.'" 64.Individualisticexplanationscan,however,bemisleadingiftheyobscuretheextenttowhichaparticularbehavioriscopiedorlearnedfromothersaspartof appropriateconductratherthanwellingupfrominnerspringsoftrauma.Forexample,HopeWeissman'srecentefforttocharacterizeMargeryKempe'sweepingas "hysteria"seemslessconvincingwhenonerealizeshowverycommon,inthebehaviorofbothmenandwomen,suchweepingwasinthefourteenthcentury"Margery KempeinJerusalem:HysteriaCompassiointheLateMiddleAges,"inM.J.CarruthersandE.D.Kirk,eds.,ActsofInterpretation:TheTextinItsContext, 7001600,Essays...inHonorofE.TalbotDonaldson(Norman,Okla.:Pilgrim,1982),pp.20117.Seealsoabove,chap.5n.121. 65.Seeabove,epigraph. 66.Itishardtothinkofamajorrecentworkthattakeswomen'sexperienceseriouslythatdoesnotassumethis.See,forexample,Vauchez,LaSaintetWeinstein andBell,SS,andDuby,TheKnight,theLadyandthePriest.ReneWatkinsin"TwoWomenVisionariesandDeath:CatherineofSienaandJulianofNorwich," Numen30.2(1983):17498,says,"Itisdisturbingtonoticethat,incontent,thelineofdevelopmenttowhichwomencontributedwasevenmoredualisticandanti intellectualthanmedievalChristianityingeneral"(p.183).Butseebelow,Epiloguen.11. 67.Forexample,suchajudgmentaltonetowardwomen'sspiritualitymarsthefineintroductioninJulian,BookofShowings,ed.ColledgeandWalsh.Even Kieckhefer,UnS,sometimesfeelsimpelledto'judge'hissubjectsasbalancedorunbalanced. 68.Seetheworkscitedinn.30above,esp.Szasz,Manufacture. 69.See,forexample,Koch,FrauenfrageSheilaDelany,"SexualEconomics,Chaucer'sWifeofBath,andTheBookofMargeryKempe,"MinnesotaReviewn.s. 5(Fall1975):10415andabove,chap.2n.72. 70.Forthelattertendency,seeLeclercq,"MedievalFeminineMonasticism,"pp.6566E.McLaughlin,"'ChristMyMother'"andidem,"Women,Powerandthe PursuitofHolinessinMedievalChristianity,"inWomenofSpirit:FemaleLeadershipintheJewishandChristianTraditions,ed.RosemaryRuetherandEleanor McLaughlin(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,1979),pp.10030. 71.Itisnot,ofcourse,merelywomen'sasceticismthathasbeenseenasmasochism.Forexample,CarlMounter("Guilt,Martyrdom,"p.145)claimsthatmartyrsand asceticsgenerallyexhibit"atavisticformsofaggression,exhibitionismandselfhatred." 72.See,forexample,Tss,pp.37,5051.Oneofthesisterscomposedapoemthatsaid:"Iesiecherdubist,ielieberdumirbist"(p.37). 73.Forinsanity,seeabove,n.59.Forselfmutilationseechap.4atnn.35,119,andseebelow,n.77. 74.Onwomen'sasceticismasmorevirulentthanmen's,seeWeinsteinandBell,SS,pp.23335. 75.LifeofAlda,chap.2,AASSApril,vol.3,pp.47374.

Page391

76.JohnMarienwerder,Vitalatina,ed.Westpfahl,bk.2,chap.5,pp.6871seeKieckhefer,UnS,p.26. 77.LifeofJaneMaryofMaill,chap.5,par.34,AASSMarch,vol.3,p.741.ClareofRimini(d.1346)hadherselfboundtoapillarandbeatenonHolyThursday seeVauchez,LaSaintet,p.231.ChristinaofSpoleto(d.1458)perforatedherfootwithanailseeLifeofChristinaofSpoleto,chap.1,par.1415,AASS February,vol.2(Paris,1864),p.801.FortheextremeasceticismandimitatiocrucisofHedwigofSilesia,seeVauchez,LaSaintet,pp.43233. 78.MechtildofHackeborn,Liberspecialisgratiae,bk.5,chap.30,pp.36566. 79.LifeofChristinatheAstonishing,AASSJuly,vol.5,pp.63760andseeBolton,"VitaeMatrum,"p.263. 80.LifeofLukardis,AB18,p.312. 81."Unterlinden,"pp.34042. 82.IdaofLouvain,Lukardis,GertrudevanOosten,andElsbetAchler,forexample,supposedlyreceivedstigmatawhichappearedanddisappearedperiodically.Rita ofCasciareceivedarunningsoreonherforehead(supposedlyimitatingChrist'swoundfromthecrownofthorns)whichhealedwhenshewishedtotraveltoRome andreappearedonherreturn.JaneMaryofMaill'sselfinflictedthornwoundhealedafterlongdurationandleftnoscar.Theseparticularwomenarediscussed above.Onstigmata,seeThurston,PP,passimImbertGourbeyre,StigmatisationDebongnie,"Stigmatisations"andAmann,"Stigmatisation."Thurston,Amann,and DebongniehavebeenverycriticalofImbertGourbeyre,whostandsconvictedofinaccuracyandcredulitybutIammoreinterestedinthetypesofstoriesmedieval peoplewerewillingtotell(towhichImbertGourbeyreisagoodguide)thaninthephysicalorhistoricalbasisofthestory.ThisdoesnotmeanIwishtoignorethe distinction,raisedbyscholarssuchasThurston,betweencaseswelldocumentedenoughtosuggestthatphysicalmarksactuallyappearedandcasesofinterior(or virtuallyundocumented)"stigmata"nordoIignorethedistinctionbetweenthecasesforwhichwecan,atthepresentmoment,suggestaphysicaloremotionalcause (i.e.,selfinducedwoundsorhysteria)andcasesforwhichwecannot.Insomeinstances,however,itseemstomethatscholarshaveintroducedanachronistic categoriesinworryingaboutthedistinctionbetweennaturalandsupernaturalcausation.WhenDebongnie,forexample,expressesscornatDorothyofMontau's stigmatabecauseshewasafflictedwithadiseasethatproducedsoresonherbody,heignoresthefactthatstigmatameantwoundormark.Seeaboveatnn.7481 andseen.61. 83.AredcirclewitharedlozengeinthecenterappearedanddisappearedonthefingerofCatherinedeRicci(d.1589).CatherineofGenoa'sarmwasmiraculously lengthened,andDoucelineofMarseillesfloatedmanyfeetoffthegroundinecstasy.SeeThurston,PP,passim,esp.pp.139,200. 84.OnGertrude,seeBynum,JM,p.192onClare,seebelow,chap.8n.50.Threepreciousstones,withimagesoftheHolyFamilyonthem,weresupposedly foundintheheartofMargaretofCittdiCastelloafterautopsyseeabove,chap.4n.212.AccordingtoWeinsteinandBell,SS,p.229,womenprovide27percent ofwonderworkingrelicsfromthemedievalperiod,althoughonly18percentofthesaintswerefemale. 85.Forlistsofmyroblytes,seeThurston,PP,pp.26870Jones,SaintNicolasofMyra,pp.14453Huysmans,Lydwine,pp.28891(which,however,provides nodocu

Page392

mentation)andNicoleHermannMascard,LesReliquesdessaints:Formationcoutumired'undroit,Socitd'HistoireduDroit:collectiond'histoire institutionnelleetsociale6(Paris:EditionsKlincksieck,1975),pp.6869.(IhavebeenunabletoconsultthelistinM.D.Marchand,"Aspectsconomiquesdu cultedesreliquesduXIeauXIIIesicle,"MmoiredematrisedposlaSorbonneen1969,p.18.)Femalesaintsfrombefore1600whowerebelievedto exudeoilorcuringliquidinlifeorafterdeathare:CatherineofAlexandria,Walburga,LutgardofAywires,ChristinatheAstonishing,HedwigofSilesia,Elizabeth ofHungary,AgnesofMontepulciano,MargaretofCittdiCastello,RoseofViterbo,MatthiaofNazarei(d.1300?),andEustochiaofPadua(d.1469).Male myroblytesare:theapostleAndrew,NicholasofMyra,JohntheAlmoner(d.612),Bercharius(d.685),Willibrord(d.739),Wunebald(d.761),KingRichard (d.722),Gundechar(d.1075),BishopHughofLincoln,WilliamofYork(d.1154),JohnofBeverly(d.721)andRobertGrosseteste.ThetombofLambertof Vence(d.1154)supposedlyexudedcuringwaterseeAASSMay,vol.6(Paris,1866),p.455.AlthoughIcanclaimnocompletenessforthislist,itisinteresting thatwomenarealmost50percent,althoughofcoursewehaveinformationaboutfewerholywomenthanholymen.Itisalsoworthnotingthatmanyofthemale myroblytescomefromanearlyperiod,inwhichvirtuallyallsaintsweremale.Insomecases(forexample,thoseofCatherineofAlexandria,NicolasofMyra,John ofBeverly),theprodigyisreportedforthefirsttimehundredsofyearsafterthedeathdate. 86.SeeThurston,PP,pp.22232.Itappears,however,thatthereisnopreponderanceoffemalesamongsaintswhosebodiesdisplaybloodprodigiesafterdeath: pp.28393.Seealsoabove,n.84.Theinterestoflatemedievalhagiographersinincorruptibilityasasignofsaintlinesswascertainlyheightenedbytheplague pandemicofthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies.Periodicoutburstsofplague(betweenfiveandtwelveyearsapart)meantthateverygenerationexperiencedtimes whenthesmellandsightofrottingcorpseswereubiquitous.Peoplethereforeneededtobeabletogivesomereligioussignificancetothefactofputrefaction,butthey didthisincomplexways.SeeGottfried,BlackDeath,pp.9192,andmybriefdiscussionin"DiseaseandDeathintheMiddleAges,"Culture,Medicineand Psychiatry8(1985):97102. 87.Thelargenumberofcuressupposedlyeffectedbythewashwaterofsaintsisaphenomenoncloselyrelatedtotheseholyexudings.Waterinwhichalivingholy personorasaint'srelicshadbeenwashedwasoftenbothusedasamedicineandheldinawealmostasifitwerearelicitselfseeHermannMascard,LesReliques, p.274n.21.InacaselikethatofMargaretofHungary(seeabove,chap.4n.147),thefactthatthesaint'sskin,dandruff,andlicefloatedinthewatermayhavebeen seenasincreasingitsefficacythiswouldsuggestthatthewaterwasviewedasanextensionofthebody. 88.Seeabove,chap.4n.231. 89.Rollins,"NotesonSomeEnglishAccounts,"pp.36364. 90.LifeofLukardis,chaps.712,27,AB18,pp.31417,353. 91.Seeabove,nn.82,84,85,87. 92.SeeBridgett,HistoryoftheHolyEucharist,vol.1,pp.18182.InGaul,fromtheearlyMiddleAgeson,womenwereprohibitedfromreceivingthehostwith barehandsseeJosephA.Jungmann,TheMassoftheRomanRite:ItsOriginsandDevelopment

Page393

(MissarumSollemnia),trans.BrunnerandRiepe,onevol.abridgeded.(NewYork:Benziger,1959),p.510. 93.Vauchez,LaSaintet,p.406.AndseeWeinsteinandBell,SS,pp.3336. 94.ThomasofCantimpr,LifeofLutgard,bk.1,chap.2,par.21,pp.19495,andbk.1,chap.1,par.12,p.193. 95.See,forexample,ViedeDouceline,chap.9,pars.910,p.76. 96.Inaveryperceptivearticle,ClaudeCarozzi,"Doucelineetlesautres,"LaReligionpopulaireenLanguedocduXIIIesiclelamoitiduXIVesicle,Cahiers deFanjeaux11(Toulouse:Privat,1976),pp.25167,haspointedoutthatpopularpietyandDouceline'sownpsychologytendedbothtomakeherintoabody(i.e., ahealingrelic)whilestillaliveandtoinduceinheranextraordinaryfearofbodiliness. 97.ViedeDouceline,chap.1,par.6,pp.68.Thetextmakesitquiteclearthathismalenessistheproblem:"Elemalautzrequeslipergrannecessitatqueliera,li meneslamanperlascostas.Eilliadoncscanthoauzi,enferezitotadegranvergonhaedegranhonestat,eestetensidelueinh,pensansihofaria:carerahoms." 98.Ibid.,chap.6,pars.45,p.50. 99.McDonnell,Beguines,pp.35455. 100.ItishardlysurprisingthatLutgard,avictimofattemptedrape,shouldfeelanesthetizedwhenkissed,overherprotests,byaman(evenifhewereanabbot).Nor isitsurprisingthatthe"mouth"and"breast"ofChristshouldfigurecentrallyinhervisions,providingpartialhealingforherpainfulexperiencesofthemouthsofmen.On touchinLutgard'sLifeseeCawley,"LifeandJournalofLutgard,"pp.2048.Carozzi,''Douceline,"pointsouthowtouchingChristtransformedDouceline'sfearof bodilycontactintoalmostobsessiveconcernforhealingthesick,towhichactivitysheaggressively(andsometimesrepressively)forcedherfollowers.Foranexample of"erotic"contactwithChristsubstitutingforandcuringordinarylust,seethepassagefromtheLifeofChristinaofMarkyatecitedbelow,chap.8n.7.Columbaof Rieti,likeLutgard,experiencedattemptedrapeandherbodywentrigidinresponseseeLifeofColumba,chap.8,AASSMay,vol.5,pp.169*170*.Shelater experiencedbothtrancesinwhichherbodybecamerigidandacutesexualtemptationseeabove,chap.4n.224,andBell,HolyAnorexia,chap.6. 101.See,forexample,theaccountofthecontemporaryholywoman"SatiMata"byGabrieleVenzky,"WennIndiensFrauenSatimachen,"DieZeit,October29, 1982,p.64. 102.Seeabove,chap.3n.123. 103.ThomasofCantimpr,LifeofLutgard,bk.2,chap.2,par.21,p.200PeterofVaux,LifeofColetteofCorbie,chap.9,par.61,AASSMarch,vol.1,pp. 55455LifeofColumbaofRieti,chap.13,par.122,p.188*.SeealsoPhilipofClairvaux'scommentsonElizabethofSpalbeek,above,chap.4n.55. 104.SeeWood,"Doctors'Dilemma,"pp.71027.Andseebelow,chap.7atnn.6971. 105.AlberttheGreat,DeanimalibuslibriXXVInachderClnerUrschrift,vol.1,BeitrgezurGeschichtederPhilosophiedesMittelalters:Texteund Untersuchungen15(Mnster:Aschendorff,1916),bk.9,tract.1,chap.2,p.682.HildegardofBingen,

Page394

Hildegardiscausaeetcurae,ed.P.Kaiser,BibliothecascriptorumgraecorumetromanorumTeubneriana(Leipzig:Teubner,1903),bk.2,pp.1023, commentsthatthemenstrualflowofvirginsislessthanthatofnonvirgins.Shedoesnotrelatethistodietitmay,however,havebeenanempiricallysound observationbecauseoftheeffectsofrestrictedfoodintakeonthenunssheobserved. 106.Seeabove,chap.2atnn.2126,chap.3atnn.4042,andbelowatnn.11620. 107.LifeofAlda,chap.2,pars.1014,pp.47374. 108.WeinsteinandBell,SS,pp.23436. 109.See,forexample,theSpeculumvirginumdiscussedinMatthusBernards,SpeculumVirginum,p.129. 110.Seeabove,introductionatnn.10,12,andchap.4atn.185. 111.SeeWeinsteinandBell,SS,pp.2425. 112.Vauchez,LaSaintet,p.445,arguesthattheattitudeofhagiographersandprelatestowardmarriagebecamemorenegativeafterthethirteenthcentury. 113.WeinsteinandBell,SS,pp.9394. 114.Ibid.,pp.3940,8889Vauchez,LaSaintet,p.445n.506. 115.WhenClare'ssisterAgnestriedtofleeherfamily,shewasbadlybeatenbyherkinsmen:ThomasofCelano,LifeofClareofAssisi,pars.2426,inPennacchi, Legenda,pp.3337.Theauthorofthenuns'bookofUnterlindentellsanevenmoregruesomestoryofawomantorturedbyherhusband:"Unterlinden,"pp.37475. 116.JohnClimacus,Scalaparadisi,gradus14,PG88,col.869(seealsocols.87172). 117.Seeabove,chap.2n.23. 118.ApophthegmataPatrum,SayingsofDaniel,par.4(95),PG65,col.155bquotedandtrans.Musurillo,"AsceticalFasting,"p.31. 119.JohnChrysostom,Homily27onActs,par.2,PG60,col.207.Andseeabove,n.11. 120.PeterDamian,Opusculum32:DeQuadragesimaetQuadragintaduabusHebraeorummansionibus,PL145,cols.54344PetertheChanter,Verbum abbreviatum,chap.134,PL205,col.329. 121.SeeKariElisabethBrresen,SubordinationandEquivalence:TheNatureandRoleofWomeninAugustineandThomasAquinas,trans.CharlesH. Talbot(Washington,D.C.:UniversityPressofAmerica,1981)JuliaO'FaolainandLauroMartines,eds.,NotinGod'sImage(NewYork:HarperandRow,1973), whichsometimesmisleadsbyquotingoutofcontextBullough,"MedicalandScientificViews"RosemaryRuether,"MisogynyandVirginalFeminism"McLaughlin, ''EqualityofSouls"JoAnnMcNamara,"SexualEqualityandtheCultofVirginityinEarlyChristianThought,"FeministStudies3.3/4(1976):14558M.Th. d'Alverny,"Commentlesthologiens...voientlafemme." 122.SeeDuby,TheKnight,theLadyandthePriest,pp.2329P.Brown,VirginityandSocietyseealsoF.ForresterChurch,"SexandSalvationinTertullian," HarvardTheologicalReview68.2(1975):83101. 123.SeeCardman,"WomenandOrders,"esp.p.596,andBynum,JM,pp.921,14245. 124.SeeNatalieZ.Davis,SocietyandCultureinEarlyModernFrance(Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress,1975),pp.12431.

Page395

7 FoodAsControlofCircumstance 1.MeechandAllen,BookofMargeryKempe,chap.11,pp.2325trans.ButlerBowdon,TheBookofMargeryKempe,1436(London:Cape,1936),pp.48 49.OnMargery,seeAnthonyGoodman,"ThePietyofJohnBrunham'sDaughter,ofLynn,"inBaker,MW,pp.34758ClarissaW.Atkinson,MysticandPilgrim: The"Book"andtheWorldofMargeryKempe(Ithaca:CornellUniversityPress,1983)Kieckhefer,UnS,passim,esp.18290andSusanDickman,"TheDevout Imagination:JulianofNorwichandMargeryKempe,"unpublishedmanuscript. 2.Asinchapter6above,sointhischapterIprovidefootnotesonlytothoseincidentsthathavenotbeenreferredtobefore. 3.LifeofMargaretofCortona,chap.2,pars.1617,AASSFebruary,vol.3,p.307.Margaretwascriticizedfornottalkingwithherson"utnihileicoquerevellet, netempusimpedireturorandi."Shesaidtohim:"Filimi,cumadcellamredieras,sicutcibumcruduminveneris,itasume,tenendosilentiumquiatempusdivinislaudibus impendendum,intenullarationedistribuam."SeealsoCuthbert,TuscanPenitent,pp.2223,9395. 4.Processofcanonization,Monumenta...vesprimiensis,ed.Frakni,pp.214,220. 5.ForChristina,seeTalbot,LifeofChristinaofMarkyate,andHoldsworth,"ChristinaofMarkyate." 6.SeePlacidoTommasoLugano,ed.,IProcessiineditiperFrancescaBussadeiPonziani(SantaFrancescaRomana)14401453(VaticanCity:Biblioteca ApostolicaVaticana,1945),andJohnMattiotti'saccountofherlife,visions,andconflictswithdemonsinAASSMarch,vol.2(Paris,1865),pp.93178.Andsee above,chap.6atn.114. 7.WeinsteinandBell,SS,p.46. 8.Seeabove,chap.1atnn.5053,andbelow,chap.10atnn.5153. 9.DavidHerlihy,"AlienationinMedievalCultureandSociety,"reprintedinSocialHistoryofItalyidem,"TheMakingoftheMedievalFamily:Symmetry,Structure andSentiment,"JournalofFamilyHistory8.2(1983):pp.11630MichaelGoodich,"ChildhoodandAdolescenceamongtheThirteenthCenturySaints,"History ofChildhoodQuarterly1(1974):285309DianeOwenHughes,"FromBridepricetoDowryinMediterraneanEurope,"JournalofFamilyHistory3(1978): 26296WeinsteinandBell,SS,passim,esp.pp.6772andGoodich,VP,pp.82,100123,208. 10.SeeHerlihy,"MakingofMedievalFamily,"p.116. 11.Asceticrenunciationoffamilycouldalsobearejectionofchildrenseeabove,n.3.SeealsothecaseofAngelaofFolignowhosays,attheopeningofherBook, thatsheprayedtoGodthathermother,husband,andchildrenwoulddie,andtookgreatconsolationwhentheydidshesays,however,laterintheBookthattheloss ofhermotherandchildrenwasaterriblesorrow(AngelaofFoligno,ed.FerrandBaudry,par.12,pp.1012par.35,p.54).Notethatthesecondreferencedoes notmentionherhusband.ItseemspermissibletoseesomeofAngela'sgriefforherchildrenappearing,transmuted,bothinherloveforherspiritualsons,thefriars, andinheryearningforthebabyJesus(seepar.154,pp.33436). 12.RaymondofCapua,LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.1,chap.2,pars.3334,AASSApril,vol.3,pp.87071.

Page396

13.SeeSchmidt,"LebenderheiligenElisabeth,"pp.1,5AnceletHustache,Elisabeth,pp.3942andAigrain,L'Hagiographie,p.205.Weowethestorytoan anonymousTuscanFranciscanofthethirteenthcentury.Later,whenElizabethjoinedaconvent,herconfessorforbadehertogiveawaymorethanmorselsofbread andhadherbeatenforurginghersisterstocharityseeAnceletHustache,Elisabeth,pp.31516.ThestoryofbreadandrosesistoldofRoseofViterboand ElizabethofPortugal(seeAnceletHustache,Elisabeth,pp.3942n.1),MargaretofFontana(d.1513)(seeLifeofMargaretofFontana,chap.2,par.9,AASS September,vol.4[Paris,1868],p.137),andFloraofBeaulieu(seeClovisBrunel,"VidadeFlor,"AB64,p.8n.4).Seealsoplates8and9. 14.TheclassicstatementisPhilippeAris,CenturiesofChildhood:ASocialHistoryofFamilyLife,trans.RobertBaldick(NewYork:Knopf,1962)seealso LawrenceStone,TheFamily,SexandMarriageinEngland,15001800,abridgeded.(NewYork:HarperandRow,1977),andPeterLaslett,TheWorldWe HaveLost(London:Methuen,1965),chap.4. 15.Medievalchildhoodhasrecentlybeenthesubjectofmuchresearch,whichhastendedradicallytomodifyAris'spicture.AmongthebestworkisM.M. McLaughlin,"SurvivorsandSurrogates"PierreRich,Del'ducationantiquel'ducationchevaleresque,Questionsd'histoire3(Paris:Flammarion,1968),pp. 3039andDavidHerlihy,"MedievalChildren,"inRichardE.Sullivanetal.,EssaysonMedievalCivilization:TheWalterPrescottWebbMemorialLectures,ed. BedeK.LacknerandKennethR.Philp(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,1978),pp.10941. 16.SeeHerlihy,"MakingofMedievalFamily,"pp.12530WeinsteinandBell,SS,pp.4647andGoodich,VP,passim,esp.p.207. 17.SeeHerlihy,"MakingofMedievalFamily,"andHughes,"BridepricetoDowry."TheworkofGeorgesDubyhasalsocontributedfundamentallytoourchanging conceptionofthemedievalfamily.SeeDuby,TheChivalrousSociety,trans.CynthiaPostan(London:Arnold,1977),chaps.1,3,6,9,10idem,Medieval Marriage:TwoModelsfromTwelfthCenturyFrance,trans.E.Forster(Baltimore:JohnsHopkins,1978)andidem,TheKnight,theLadyandthePriest. 18.SeeDavidHerlihy,"LifeExpectanciesforWomeninMedievalSociety,"p.16,reprintedinSocialHistoryofItaly.Seealsoidem,"TheGenerationinMedieval History,"alsoreprintedinSocialHistoryofItaly,andJ.Hajnal,"EuropeanMarriagePatternsinPerspective,"inD.V.GlassandD.E.C.Eversley,eds., PopulationinHistory:EssaysinHistoricalDemography(London:Arnold,1965),pp.10143. 19.Onthispoint,seeM.M.McLaughlin,"SurvivorsandSurrogates,"pp.12439Hentsch,LittraturedidactiquePhilippeDelhaye,"LeDossierantimatrimonial del'AdversusJovinianumetsoninfluencesurquelquescritslatinsduXIIesicle,"MedievalStudies13(1951):6586Bullough,"MedicalandScientificViews," pp.485501. 20.SeeLittle,ReligiousPovertyandGoodich,VP,passim,esp.pp.123,208. 21.Religiouslifeandreligiouscommunitywerealsoveryimportantsubstitutesforfamily.Petroff,Consolation,pp.6162,pointsthisout,givingasanexamplethe visionsoftheHolyFamilyreceivedbyUmilianadeiCerchi,whoserelationswithherownfamilywereunhappy.(OnUmiliana,seealsoWeinsteinandBell,SS,pp. 5253.)Manyotherexamplescouldbecited.MargeryKempe(seebelow,chap.8nn.4,8)wasexplicitaboutsubstitutingChristforherunsatisfactoryhusband. GertrudevanOosten,who

Page397

yearnedwithadeeplovetowardchildren,inavisionreceivedJesusatherflowingbreasts(seeabove,chap.4n.61).ThehandicappedMargaretofCittdi Castello,abandonedasababybyherparents,wasespeciallyfondofchildrenandsawvisionsoftheHolyFamily,includingJoseph,attheelevationofthehost. AfterdeathshewasfoundtohavethreepreciousstonesinherheartandononeofthemsheandJosephwereetched(seeabove,chap.4nn.174,212).When JaneMaryofMaillwassixyearsoldandwatchingbythebodyofherdeadmother,shereceivedavisionofMaryProcessofcanonization,chap.5,par.56, AASSMarch,vol.3(Paris,1865),p.755.(ItisimportanttonotethatthewitnesssaysnotthatthesaintwashenceforthdevotedtoMarybutthatshewas henceforthdevotedtothePassionofChrist.)Jesuswassometimesachildforthechildless,agoodlovertotheunmarriedortheunhappilymarried.TheHoly Familywassometimesfamilytothoseabandonedorpersecutedbytheirownparents.Seealsoabove,chap.4n.28. 22.ThisisapointIhavediscussedinJM,chapter5,andin"WomenMystics,"pp.19296.Inmyemphasisonthecombinationofservingandasceticisminthelives ofholywomen,IdifferfromBell,whoarguesinhisHolyAnorexiathattheprominenceof"holyanorexia"inwomen'sbehaviorresultedinpartfromtheabsenceof opportunitiesforservice.IalsodifferfromVauchez,LaSaintet,Kieckhefer,UnS,andWeinsteinandBell,SS,allofwhichargueforasharperdichotomybetween contemplativeandactive(serving)rolesthanIfeeltheevidencewarrants. 23.Seeabove,chap.3atn.124. 24.Inaninterestingvariationonthethemeofdetectingimmoralitybytaste,ChristinaofMarkyatewasabletotellbytastingthatasaladhadbeenmadefrom ingredientscollectedfromaforbiddengarden.(Itisworthnotingthatsheprohibitedherservantsfromusingthegardenbecausethemanwhoownedithaddeniedher asprigofgreens.)SeeTalbot,LifeofChristinaofMarkyate,pp.19091. 25.Seeabove,chap.4nn.178,170LifeofMaryofOignies,chap.9,par.86,AASSJune,vol.5,p.566andLifeofIdaofLouvain,chap.6,par.28,AASS April,vol.2,pp.17879.AndseenBrowe,DieWunder,pp.3149.Women'seucharisticmiraclesalsoinvolvedknowingwhethertheconsecratedhostwaspresent inthetabernacle,oridentifyingtheexactmomentoftheconsecrationseeViedeDouceline,pp.13335LifeofJuliana,chap.5,par.22,AASSApril,vol.1,p. 450andLifeofIdaofLouvain,chap.2,par.9,p.173. 26.Browe,DieWunder,p.42. 27.SeeJohnCoakley,"TheRepresentationofSanctityinLateMedievalHagiography:EvidencefromLivesofSaintsoftheDominicanOrder,"Ph.D.diss.,Harvard, 1980,whofinds,infifteenthcenturysaints'lives,thispatternofwomenviewedasinspirationandrefugeformales. 28.SeeVictorTurner,Dramas,FieldsandMetaphors:SymbolicActioninHumanSociety(Ithaca:CornellUniversityPress,1974)idem,"SocialDramasand StoriesaboutThem,"inW.J.T.Mitchell,ed.,OnNarrative(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1981),pp.13764VictorandEdithTurner,Imageand PilgrimageinChristianCulture:AnthropologicalPerspectives(Oxford:Blackwell,1978)andBynum,"Women'sStories,Women'sSymbols." 29.Forexample,ThomasofCantimpr,inhisLifeofLutgard,bk.3,chaps.316,

Page398

AASSJune,vol.4,pp.2048,callsLutgard"motherandnurseofthewholeorderofpreachers"(p.205),describesafriarrelatingtoher"astohisown mother"(p.207),andsaysthathisorderisleft"orphaned"byherdeath(p.208).Hecallsher"mother,"however,onlyinherrelationshipstomales,althoughmany ofhermiraclesareforwomen.(Seeabove,chap.4n.65,andbelow,chap.10n.16.)JamesofVitry,intheLifeofMaryofOignies,bk.2,chap.7,AASSJune, vol.5,pp.56263,seesMaryastheinspirationofpreachersandsaysthat''withtears,prayersandfaststoGod,"sheprayedthat"themeritandofficeof preachingwhichshecouldnotexerciseinherself"wouldbelodgedinothersandthatGodwouldgivetoherapreacher"asagreatgift."ButJamesiscarefulto underlineheracceptanceoflimitation,forhereportsinthesamechapterthatthedeviltemptedherbyappearingtoherasapastorbutshereplied:"Nooneisa pastorsaveourmasterwhopreachesthewordofGodandfeedsoursouls." 30.StephenE.Wessley,"TheThirteenthCenturyGuglielmites:SalvationthroughWomen,"inBaker,MW,pp.289303McDonnell,Beguines,pp.49296 MarjorieReeves,TheInfluenceofProphecyintheLaterMiddleAges:AStudyinJoachimism(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1969),pp.24850WilliamHarold May,"TheConfessionsofProusBoneta,HereticandHeresiarch,"inJ.H.Mundyetal.,eds.,EssaysinMedievalLifeandThoughtPresentedinHonorofAustin PattersonEvans(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1955),pp.330. 31.SeeBynum,JM,pp.24042,245. 32.SeeMarkReuelSilk,"ScientiaRerum:ThePlaceofExampleinLaterMedievalThought,"Ph.D.diss.,Harvard,1982,pp.21342I.M.Lewis,Ecstatic Religion:AnAnthropologicalStudyofSpiritPossessionandShamanism(Harmondsworth:Penguin,1971),pp.8599. 33.SeeDuhr,"Communionfrquente,"andabove,pp.5759. 34.LifeofAlice,chap.2,par.15,AASSJune,vol.2,p.474. 35.ThomasofCantimpr,LifeofLutgard,bk.2,chap.1,par.14,p.199:"ProhibitaestpiaLutgardisaDominaAgnete...sumereomnidieDominico sacramenta....Necmora:invindictamfacti,intantumaDominoperintolerabileminfirmitatemafflictaest,quodecclesiamingredinonvaleretneccessavitdolorper momentaconcrescens,donecreatumindiscretionisagnosceret,etprohibitioneminpiaLutgardepoenitensrelaxaret." 36.Browe,DieWunder,pp.2728. 37.LifeofIdaofLau,chaps.23,AASSOctober,vol.13,pp.11215.AndseeLifeofJuliana,chap.2,AASSApril,vol.1,pp.44546. 38.LifeofIdaofLouvain,bk.3,chap.1,andbk.2,chap.2,pp.18284and17273.ForthemiraculouscommunionsofColetteandColumba,seeabove,chap.4 nn.170,226. 39.Tss,pp.3233.Forotherexamplessee"Unterlinden,"pp.44244. 40.JamesofVitry,Historiaoccidentalis,ed.Hinnebusch,p.88. 41.SeeBynum,JM,pp.2039,andBrowe,DieWunder,pp.2030,ondistributionmiracles. 42.Gertrude,Legatus,bk.4,chap.7,pp.31921.SeealsoBynum,JM,pp.196209. 43.Gertrude,Oeuvres,vol.3:LeHraut,bk.3,chap.60,pp.24446. 44.Gertrude,Legatus,bk.4,chap.32,pp.39495thispassageandtheonecitedinn.45belowaretranslatedatlengthinBynum,JM,pp.2056.

Page399

45.Gertrude,Oeuvres,vol.2:LeHraut,bk.1,chap.14,pp.19698. 46.OnthisprohibitionseeBynum,JM,pp.1516,13536. 47.ForJulianaandLukardis,seeabove,chap.4nn.64,1.ForMechtild,seeMechtildofHackeborn,Liberspecialisgratiae,bk.1,chap.1,pp.710.For Angela,seeAngelaofFoligno,ed.FerrandBaudry,par.151,p.326(cf.AASS,par.113,p.204). 48.LifeofIdaofLouvain,bk.3,chap.1,pp.18284LifeofBenevenutaofBojano,chap.6,par.51,AASSOctober,vol.13(Paris,1883),pp.163Mechtildof Hackeborn,Liberspecialisgratiae,bk.1,chap.27,p.96.FortheiconographicmotifofMaryaspriest,seebelow,chap.9n.41.Itisimportanttonotethatthe themeisnotaclaimtopriestlyofficeforwomenbutasymboloftheparallelismoftheconsecrationandtheIncarnation.ThethemeofthepriesthoodofMaryisan extrapolation,notareversal,ofthenotionofwomanashumanity. 49.OnCatherine'sperceivingofthehostasblood,seeabove,chap.5atn.163.Foravisionreceivedbyaman(indeed,byapriest)inwhichthehostandtheblood areassimilatedtooneanother,seetheLifeofJohnofAlverna(d.1322),inAF,vol.3(1897),p.445.InastrikingparalleltotheiconographicmotifofthemassofSt. Gregory,John,whilecelebratingmass,sawawoundedChristappearandbleedintothechalice.Whentheapparitionfaded,Johnsawtheformofthebread.Seealso ActaandActaalia,inAASSAugust,vol.2(Paris,1867),pp.46667,46974,esp.Acta,chap.4,par.36,p.466. 50.Seeabove,nn.30,48. 51.Seeabove,chap.4atnn.15,24,45. 52.SeeJungmann,MassoftheRomanRite,vol.2,pp.36465andabove,chap.2atn.104. 53.Seeabove,chap.2atn.141. 54.Foreconomicimageryinmalewriting,seeBarbaraH.RosenweinandLesterK.Little,"SocialMeaningintheMonasticandMendicantSpiritualities,"Pastand Present63(May1974):2032andLittle,ReligiousPoverty.Myargumentthatpurgatoryismoreapoolofsufferingthanaplacetakespartialexceptiontothe importantrecentbookbyJacquesLeGoff,LaNaissanceduPurgatoire(Paris:Gallimard,1981).Mypositionimpliesthatthekeyquestiontoconsiderinexplaining theevolutionofthenotionofpurgatoryisnottheoppositionofheavenandhellbut,rather,theroleofsufferinginChristianity. 55.Vision5,Hart,Hadewijch:Works,pp.27677Mommaers,DeVisioenen,supplement,vision5,ll.2745. 56.SeeLifeofJuliana,bk.2,chap.2,pp.45758.OnMechtild,seeBynum,JM,pp.23545,whereIpointoutthatMechtildseesthefemalewhoissubmissive, humble,lowly,andwithoutpowerandlearningasthecomplementtomalepriesthoodandauthority. 57.Gertrude,Oeuvres,vol.3:LeHraut,bk.3,chap.36,p.176.OntherespectforthepriesthoodfeltbyGertrude,MechtildofHackeborn,andMechtildof Magdeburg,seeBynum,JM,p.256n.298. 58.HildegardofBingen,Scivias,ed.AdelgundisFhrktterandAngelaCarlevaris,Corpuschristianorum:continuatiomedievalis43,2vols.(Turnhout:Brepols, 1978),vol.1,pp.1921,14748,29091.IfindtheemphasisinBernhardW.Scholz,"HildegardvonBingenontheNatureofWoman,"AmericanBenedictine Review31(1980):36183,somewhatmisleading.

Page400

59.LifeofGherardesca,chap.4,par.36,AASSMay,vol.7,p.169trans.Petroff,Consolation,p.103. 60.Seebelow,chap.9n.16. 61.Seeabove,chap.2atnn.22,29.Foratypicalmiracleinwhichawholeconventreceives,see"Unterlinden,"p.442. 62.Seeabove,chap.1atn.35,andVauchez,LaSaintet,pp.249,31718,41927.Inasimilarargument,Rothkrug,"PopularReligion,"pp.7079,pointsout that,innorthGermany,womenbecamethemajorrepresentativesoflaypiety. 63.SeeBrowe,DieWunder,pp.2030. 64.LifeofJuliana,chap.5,par.33,p.453Browe,DieWunder,p.34. 65.Ihavediscussedthistrendinmyarticle,"DidtheTwelfthCenturyDiscovertheIndividual?"JournalofEcclesiasticalHistory31(1980):117,whichis reprintedinanexpandedversionaschap.3ofJM,pp.82109.SeealsoYvesCongar,"LesLacsetl'ecclsiologiedes'ordines'chezlesthologiensdesXIeetXIIe sicles,"ILaicinella"societaschristiana''deisecoliXIeXII:AttidellaterzaSettimanaInternazionalediStudio:Mendola,2127agosto1965,Pubblicazioni dell'UniversitCattolicadelSacroCuore3.5,MiscellaneadelCentrodiStudiMedioevali5(Milan,1968),pp.83117GilesConstable,introductiontoConstable andB.Smith,eds.,Libellusdediversisordinibusetprofessionibusquisuntinaecclesia(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1972),pp.xixxviiandGiles Constable,"RenewalandReforminReligiousLife:ConceptsandRealities,"inRobertL.BensonandGilesConstable,eds.,RenaissanceandRenewalinthe TwelfthCentury(Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress,1982),pp.3767. 66.Libellusdediversisordinibus,ed.ConstableandSmith,pp.1517.Theremarkconcernstypesofhermits. 67.JamesofVitry,Historiaoccidentalis,ed.Hinnebusch,chap.34,pp.16566.SeealsoAnselmofHavelberg,Dialogues,ed.GastonSalet,SC118,Sr.mon. 18(1966),bk.1,chaps.12,pp.3435. 68.SeeBynum,JM,pp.9395andAlanE.Bernstein,"PoliticalAnatomy,"UniversityPublishing(Winter1978):pp.89. 69.See,forexample,Vauchez,LaSpiritualitdumoyenge. 70.Duby,TheKnight,theLadyandthePriest,esp.pp.18690.SeealsoPennyS.Gold,"TheMarriageofMaryandJosephintheTwelfthCenturyIdeologyof Marriage,"inVernL.BulloughandJamesBrundage,eds.,SexualPracticesandtheMedievalChurch(Buffalo:PrometheusBooks,1982),pp.10217and Herlihy,"MakingofMedievalFamily,"pp.12628. 71.Wood,"Doctors'Dilemma." 72.Seeabove,chap.2atn.64. 73.Letter28,PL157,col.170.Foranotherexample,seeAdamofEynsham,LifeofHughofLincoln,bk.5,chap.16,vol.2,pp.19597. 74.Seeabove,chap.3atnn.84,85.AgoodexampleofthedoublebindinwhichthisattitudeplacedwomenisdiscussedbyDuby,TheKnight,theLadyandthe Priest,p.161.AcertainErmengarde,repudiatedbyonehusbandanddesiringtohavehersecondmarriageannulled,wastoldbythereformerRobertofArbrisselto beobedientinmarriage.Roberturgedhertopracticemuchalmsgivingbutnottoomuchprayerormortification,sinceherbodyshouldbekepthealthyformarriage.

Page401

75.Duby,TheKnight,theLadyandthePriest,esp.chap.6. 76.Seeabove,chap.3nn.87,88. 77.Seeabove,chap.3atn.256. 78.Onwomenmysticswhowerecondemnedforquietismorantinomianismseetheworkscitedabove,chap.1n.18,andDronke,WW,pp.20228.Seealso below,chap.8n.28. 79.Vision1,Hart,Hadewijch:Works,p.270Mommaers,DeVisioenen,supplement,vision1ll.32733.Godgoesontosaythatsherefusedexteriorgiftsand miracles. 80.Vision14,Hart,Hadewijch:Works,p.305Mommaers,DeVisioenen,supplement,vision14,ll.15057:"dienietenbekindemetghearbeiderminnenende metgheanxenderhoeicgodendemenschebenEndewantducoene.duscoenebestendedusnietnebughessoeheetticoenste.endesoeeestrechtdattumitevollen kins." 81.ImmoderatetooisMechtildofMagdeburg'sconfidencethathersufferingwithChristsaves70,000soulsfrompurgatory.SeeMechtildofMagdeburg,Licht,bk. 2,chap.8,p.35,andbk.3,chap.15,pp.7678.Moreover,HildegardofBingen,despitedisclaimers,sometimesallegesthatsheknowsthefutureorthecondition ofdepartedsoulsseeDronke,WW,pp.19293. 82.Seeabove,chap.2n.113. 83.MechtildofMagdeburg,Licht,bk.3,chaps.10,2122,andbk.5,chap.8,pp.72,8587,13536.Inbk.1,chap.5,p.7,sheofferstogotohellifitwillbring Godpraise.ItisoutofthiskindofanguishthatJulianofNorwichforgesherorganicsensethatallofexistenceisgivenmeaningbyGodseebelow,chap.10nn.37, 40,49. 84.Vision14,Hart,Hadewijch:Works,pp.3023Mommaers,DeVisioenen,supplement,vision14,ll.3237.ForAngelaofFoligno'ssenseofbeingspecialto Christ,seeAngelaofFoligno,ed.FerrandBaudry,par.45,pp.7880. 85.Vision5,Hart,Hadewijch:Works,pp.27677Mommaers,DeVisioenen,supplement,ll.2745. 86.Tauler,Sermon9forSecondSundayinLent,inTauler,DiePredigten,pp.4546trans.ColledgeandM.Jane,SpiritualConferences,pp.8687. 87.OnthispointseeGrundmann,BewegungenE.McLaughlin,"FreeSpirit"andR.Lerner,HeresyoftheFreeSpirit. 88.Tosaythisisnottodenythat,asVauchezhaspointedout(LaSaintet,p.446),hagiographersandpreachersinthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturiescame increasinglytoencouragethoseaspectsofwomen'sspiritualitythatseemtothetwentiethcenturyreadermostpsychologicallydisturbed.Watkins,"TwoWomen Visionaries,"p.187,makesthesamepoint. 8 TheMeaningofFood: FoodAsPhysicality 1.Seeabove,chap.5n.180. 2.Seeabove,pp.15152andbelow,Epilogue.Forotherrecentwriterswhopointoutthatsuchspiritualityis,initsauthors'ownterms,not"morbidsentimentality" but,

Page402

rather,delightinGod'slove,seeMadigan,"PassioDomini"Theme,p.100,andKieckhefer,UnS,chap.4,esp.p.104. 3.Onwomen'sdevotiontothehumanityofChrist,seeKieckhefer,UnS,esp.chap.4,andBynum,"WomenMystics."Paincomesincreasinglytobeemphasizedover pleasureinfourteenthandfifteenthcenturypiety.IconographicevidenceisparticularlyimportantforshowingtheincreasingdevotiontoChrist'spaininthePassion. SeegenerallySchiller,Iconography,vol.2:ThePassionofJesusChristandMarrow,PassionIconography.Browe,DieWunder,pt.2,chaps.13,discusses thefactthatvisionsoftheChristchildintheeucharistaremostcommoninthetwelfthandthirteenthcenturies,withvisionsofthebleedingandtorturedmangaining steadilyinthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies. 4.SeeMeechandAllen,BookofMargeryKempe,passim,esp.chap.35,pp.8689. 5.SeeLifeofMargaretofFaenza,chap.2,par.7(xi),AASSAugust,vol.5(Paris,1868),p.849,andPetroff,Consolation,p.62.Forotherexamples,see Gertrude,Oeuvres,vol.2:LeHraut,bk.2,chaps.6,16,pp.25658,290300idem,Legatus,bk.4,chap.3,pp.300301AngelaofFoligno,ed.Ferrand Baudry,par.154,pp.33234(seealsoPulignaniandHumanied.,par.245,pp.38688,andAASSJanuary,vol.1,pp.2056)andseeFerrandBaudryed., par.41,p.64LifeofMaryofOignies,passim,esp.bk.2,chap.7,par.72,chap.10,par.91,AASSJune,vol.5,pp.563,567MargaretofOingt,LifeofBeatrice ofOrnacieux,inOeuvresdeMarguerite,pp.11921Tss,pp.36,3839,45,47,8788andEngelthal,pp.2627,31,36,39.TheLifeofIdaofLouvain,bk. 2,chap.5,pars.2223,AASSApril,vol.2,p.177,describesavision,whichlastedfromthereadingoftheEpistleuntilthemomentofelevation,inwhichIdabathes theChristchild(withthehelpofElizabeth,motherofJohntheBaptist),hugshimtoherbreast,andatfirstrefusestoreturnhimtoMary. 6.ThomasofCantimpr,LifeofLutgard,bk.1,chap.1,par.2,AASSJune,vol.4,pp.19192(Christshowsthewoundinhissidetowooherawayfromasuitor) LifeofMargaretofYpres,ed.Meersseman,"Frresprcheurs,"pp.1079,11718,120andMargaretofOingt,Speculum,inOeuvresdeMarguerite,pp.98 99.SeealsoLifeofLukardisofOberweimar,AB18,p.324(Christ,asabeautifulyouth,breathesintohermouth)LifeofIdaofLouvain,bk.2,chap.3,par.11, AASSApril,vol.2,pp.17374(IdadrinksasavingdrinkfromChrist'snakedchest)and"Unterlinden,"pp.44244. 7.Talbot,LifeofChristinaofMarkyate,pp.11619. 8.MeechandAllen,BookofMargeryKempe,chap.36,p.90trans.ButlerBowdon,BookofMargeryKempe,pp.35455. 9.AngelaofFoligno,ed.FerrandBaudry,par.11,pp.810:"Setinistacognitionecrucisdabaturmichitantusignis,quodstandojuxtacrucemex[s]poliavime omniavestimentamea,ettotammeoptuliei."(Cf.PulignaniandHumanied.,par.12,p.12,whichtreatsthenuditymoreasametaphorforrenunciationoftheworld.) 10.AngelaofFoligno,ed.FerrandBaudry,par.75,pp.15658(cf.PulignaniandHumanied.,par.75,pp.13234,andAASSJanuary,vol.1,p.196)discussed byPetroff,Consolation,p.68(butonthebasisofaninadequatetext).Notethatthedesireisdescribedashunger.OthereroticpassagesinAngelainclude(Ferr andBaudryed.)par.36,pp.5456(Christgiveshertheringoflove)par.41,pp.6466andpar.45,pp.7880.

Page403

11.Umilt,Analecta,chap.1,par.7,AASSMay,vol.5(Paris,1866),p.216,trans.Petroff,Consolation,p.143,andseealsopp.6682. 12.Petroff(Consolation,pp.6675)makesthispointnicely. 13.Browe,DieWunder,pp.11011.Onthequestionofwomen'sattitudestowardbody,seetheperceptivediscussionofHildegardofBingeninDronke,WW,pp. 17677.Idonotquiteagreethat"Manichean"isthemostusefuldescriptionofHildegard'sdiscussionofsexuality,althoughsheismorenegativeaboutbodythan manywomenwriters.(Herdescriptionofsexualintercourseasthemalepoundingthefemalelikeathreshingfloorandherclearsenseofvirginityasprotectionand evenliberationsuggesttomethatshewaslessconcernedwithbodyastaintingandmoreconcernedwithmalecontrolasworldlycontrolthanDronkesuggests.)I agree,however,withDronkeinseeingmanyofHildegard'sattitudestowardbodyas"naturalistic." 14.LifeofAlice,chap.2,pars.910,AASSJune,vol.2,pp.47374. 15.LifeofJuliana,bk.1,chap.4,par.18,AASSApril,vol.1,p.449. 16.MargaretofOingt,Letters,inOeuvresdeMarguerite,p.139. 17.Ibid.,p.147. 18.Ibid.,pp.14951. 19.Seethediscussionofherpietyinibid.,pp.16466.Foranunfortunatelyjudgmentaltoneonthewholeaffectivetradition,seeColledgeandWalsh,introductionto Julian,BookofShowings,vol.1,pp.153,159,169,172,174,185. 20.AlthoughitislateinthedaytojoinbattlewithaninterpretationasoldasHuizinga'sandungracioustoquarrelwithoneofthegreatbooksofthetwentiethcentury, IshouldpointoutthatmyinterpretationrunscountertothatpresentedinJohanHuizinga,Waning,whereHuizingaseessomethingdecadentaboutthefourteenthand fifteenthcenturyproliferationofsymbolsandallegoriesandholdsthatincreasinglythecategoriessimplygeneratedothercategorieswithoutmuchregardfortheir referentsin"reality."Iseethispietyasdeeplyexperiential. 21.ItshouldhardlybenecessarytopointoutthatinrejectinganachronisticcategorizationsofsuchpietyIamneitheradvocatingareturntomedievalreligiositynor denyingthatsomeelementsofthisspiritualityaredeeplyoffensivetomodernsensibilities(seebelow,Epilogue).Weshould,however,notethatmodernreactions, basedinpostFreudianassumptionsthat"normal"sexualityisgenitalandorientedtowardahuman,adult,heterosexualobject,makeamorepolymorphoussensuality orientedtowardthedivinebydefinition"abnormal."SimoneWeil,inamoderndefenseofsuch"abnormal"sensibility,haswritten:''Toreproachmysticswithloving Godbymeansofthefacultyofsexualloveisasthoughoneweretoreproachapainterwithmakingpicturesbymeansofcolorscomposedofmaterialsubstances.We haven'tanythingelsewithwhichtolove...."(TheNotebooksofSimoneWeil,2vols.,trans.ArthurWills[London:RoutledgeandKeganPaul,1956repr.1976], vol.2,p.472).Andseeabove,chap.5n.208. 22.Foraparticularlyeroticuseofeatingmetaphorsseeabove,chap.4n.107. 23.McDonnell,Beguines,p.310. 24.Ibid.,pp.310,315,330,415Bolton,"VitaeMatrum,"pp.26768Moore,EuropeanDissent,pp.16869.Heresyasthecontextwithinwhichthirteenth centuryideasofsanctitymustbeunderstoodisoneofthethemesofGoodich,VP.

Page404

25.See,forexample,JamesofVitry,LifeofMaryofOignies,prologueandbk.2,chaps.7and9,pp.54750,56263,56566. 26.LifeofJuliana,bk.2,chap.3,pp.46162. 27.Seeabove,chap.2n.138. 28.Somewomenwere,afterall,attractedtotheCatharsandtoantinomianorquietistmysticism,inpartforreasonsIcharacterizedaboveas"therejectionof moderation."AndoneisstruckbythecoincidencethatthefeastofCorpusChristi,forwhichseveraldevoutwomenworkedlongyearswithoutsuccess,wassuddenly promulgatedandpreachedwithgreatenthusiasminexactlythoseyearsaround1317inwhichwomen'squasireligiouscommunitiesandantinomianmysticism(the "FreeSpirit")werecondemned. 29.ThebibliographyonThomasAquinas'sphilosophyismammoth.Onhistheoryoftheperson,thenonspecialistcanconsultFrederickC.Copleston,Aquinas (Harmondsworth:Penguin,1955),orAnthonyJ.P.Kenny,Aquinas(NewYork:HillandWang,1980),twoverydifferentapproaches.Ontheincreasinglypositive senseofbodyinthelaterMiddleAges,seeBernstein,"PoliticalAnatomy."OnthesenseofbodyinFrancisofAssisiseetheexcellentdiscussionbyJaroslavPelikanin JesusthroughtheCenturies:HisPlaceintheHistoryofCulture(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1985),pp.13344,esp.13839. 30."Unterlinden,"p.352. 31.OnthelifeofBeatrice,probablybyMargaret,seeabove,chap.4nn.101,102.InMargaret'sPaginameditationum,pars.5658,inOeuvresdeMarguerite, p.81,shesayssheisreadytosufferanypainorpersecutionforChristhanging,burning,becomingaleper,etc.(Seealsopp.2627.)FortheremarkaboutChrist's humanity,seeMargaret,Speculum,inOeuvresdeMarguerite,p.101.Forasimilarsenseofthegloryofmatter,seeGherardescaofPisa,whoworshipedGod's majestyinapieceofstraw:LifeofGherardesca,chap.7,par.69,AASSMay,vol.7,pp.17576. 32.MechtildofHackeborn,Liberspecialisgratiae,bk.4,chap.3,p.260.Inanothervision,JohntheEvangelisttoldMechtildthatthosewhoaremarriedandown propertyarenofurtherfromChristthanthosewhorenouncesuchthings"becausetheWordismadeflesh"(chap.8,p.265).InBynum,JM,pp.170262passim,I havestressedtheextenttowhichthenunsofHelftauseregalandjoyfulimages,avoidingtheextravagantemphasisonsufferingfoundinLowCountrywomenofthe thirteenthcenturyandinfourteenthcenturymysticsgenerally,bothmaleandfemale. 33.SeePeterBrown,TheCultoftheSaints:ItsRiseandFunctioninLatinChristianity(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1981).Forafascinating discussionofthetwelftandthirteenthcenturypracticeofdividingupthedeadbodysothatpartscouldbeburiedclosetoseveralsaints,seeElizabethA.R.Brown, "DeathandtheHumanBodyintheLaterMiddleAges:TheLegislationofBonifaceVIIIontheDivisionoftheCorpse,"Viator12(1981):22170.Brown comments:"Thebeliefintheimportanceofthedivisionofthebodywasrootedinaprofoundconvictionofthesignificanceofthematerialandanequallyprofound uncertaintyregardingthenatureofthehereafter....Thepracticeofdivisionrevealsageneralunwillingnesstoadmitthat,afterdeath,earthlytieswithfamilyand friendsdidnotendure"(pp.26667). 34.GuibertofNogent,Depignoribussanctorum,PL154,cols.60785.OnGuibert's

Page405

fearofthebody,seeJohnF.Benton,introductiontoSelfandSocietyinMedievalFrance:TheMemoirsofAbbotGuibertofNogent(1064?c.1125)(New York:HarperandRow,1970),pp.733andGeorgesDuby,TheKnight,theLadyandthePriest,pp.14849. 35.Dumoutet,CD,pp.51100,esp.pp.5961,8896E.Bertaud,"Dvotioneucharistique"Finucane,MiraclesandPilgrims,pp.19798BenedictaWard, MiraclesandtheMedievalMind:RecordandEvent,10001215(Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,1982),pp.1518andGaryMacy,The TheologiesoftheEucharistintheEarlyScholasticPeriod:AStudyoftheSalvificFunctionoftheSacramentaccordingtotheTheologians,c.1080c.1220 (Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1984),pp.8795. 36.AdamofEynsham,LifeofHughofLincoln,bk.5,chap.14,vol.2,p.170andseeFinucane,MiraclesandPilgrims,p.28. 37.Onthedistinctionbetweeninner"compassion"andoutward"imitation,"whichisattimesparalleledbythedistinctionbetweenaffectusandeffectus,seeMartin Elze,"DasVerstndnisderPassionJesuimausgehendenMittelalterundbeiLuther,"inHeinzLiebingandKlausScholder,eds.,GeistundGeschichteder Reformation:FestgabeHannsRckertzum65.GeburtstagdargebrachtvonFreunden,KollegenundSchlern(Berlin:deGruyter,1966),pp.12751 Kieckhefer,UnS,p.105andBynum,JM,pp.82109.OnchangesinthenotionofimitatioandexemplarbetweenantiquityandthehighMiddleAges,seeP. Brown,"SaintasExemplar." 38.BernardofClairvaux,Degradibushumilitatis,chap.3,inOB,vol.3,pp.2021. 39.LifeofElizabethofSpalbeek,Cat.cod.hag.Bruxellensis,vol.1,pt.1,pp.36272.Seealsoabove,chap.4n.33. 40.RobertactuallysuspendedhimselffromacrossshapedtreeseeLifeofRobertofSalentino,chap.2,pars.2122,andchap.6,par.64(54),AASSJuly,vol.4 (Paris,1868),pp.499,507. 41.LifeofMargaretofCortona,chap.5,esp.pars.13031,AASSFebruary,vol.3,p.330.LifeofLukardis,AB18,p.314seealsopp.34041. 42.LifeofMargaretofYpres,ed.Meersseman,"Frresprcheurs,"p.108.Foraninstanceinwhichselfmutilationisdescribedasa"memory"ofthePassion,see above,chap.4n.104. 43.VitaBeatricis,pp.13839.TheauthoralsoseesBeatriceasamodeltobe"imprinted"onhersisters(p.185).AndseeLifeofIdaofLouvain,bk.1,chap.3, pars.1317,pp.16263.Throughoutthediscussionthehagiographeremphasizes"nontaminmemoriaretinenda,quaminsuocorporeperferenda." 44.SeeKieckhefer,UnS,chap.4. 45.LudolfofSaxony,VitaJesuChristi...,pt.2,chap.60,par.3,vol.4,p.497.Ludolfsayswemust,first,learnthatChristsufferedsuchindignityforus:second, wemustimitatehimbyhavingpatienceincontumelythird,"quodconsiliaevangelicanonsemperoportetservareadlitteram,sedaliquandosecundumanimi praeparationem,etmaximeubidehocexfactisChristietSanctoruminformationemhabemusetauctoritatem.Adconformandumsehuicarticulo,poterithomosibiipsi darealapammoderatamadrepraesentandumalapamChristi,proomnibusverbissuisotiosis,veletiampravisetmendosis."Ludolfholdsgenerallythatmeditationon theeventsofChrist'slifeshouldleadoneupwardtocontemplation.SeeMaryImmaculateBodenstedt,The"VitaChristi"ofLudolphustheCarthusian,Catholic UniversityofAmericaStudiesinMedievaland

Page406

RenaissanceLatinLanguageandLiterature16(Washington,D.C.:CatholicUniversityofAmericaPress,1944),p.116. 46.LifeofSuso,chap.31,inSuso,DeutscheSchriften,pp.9192trans.Edward,Exemplar,pp.8788. 47.Caesarius,Dialogus,bk.9,chap.32,vol.2,p.189.Andseeabove,chap.2n.105.ForGuerricofIgny'suseofthemetaphorofthesoulasChrist'smother,see Bynum,JM,pp.12022. 48.Seeabove,chap.4nn.9,150.IntheLifeofIdaofLouvain,pp.16465,Ida's"eating"ofbothcommunionandscriptureisdescribedasparalleltoMary's bearingChristinheruterus.OnChristina'sdream,seeGeorgWolfgangKarlLochner,LebenundGeschichtederChristinaEbnerin,KlosterfrauzuEngelthal (Nrnberg:Schmid,1872),pp.1516andKieckhefer,UnS,p.156.Hadewijch,Mengeldichten,pp.6571,trans.Hart,Hadewijch:Works,pp.34549,works outanextendedallegoryofthesoulpregnantwithChrist. 49.Browe,DieWunder,p.30.Thurston,PP,pp.15960,citesanearliermiraculoustaleonwhichthisstorywasbased. 50.Vauchez,LaSaintet,p.408.WeshouldnotethataFranciscanfriarwhohadbeenherconfessordenouncedthediscoveryasafraud(ibid.,p.4). 51.Boeren,GuiarddeLaon,pp.32027. 52.CatherineofSiena,Dialogue,ed.Cavallini,chaps.11011,pp.265,27071trans.Noffke,Catherine:TheDialogue,pp.206,210. 53.ForthispointretheHelftanuns,seeBynum,JM,p.191n.52. 54.Seeabove,chap.5nn.3134. 55.AngelaofFoligno,ed.FerrandBaudry,par.167,pp.38284seealsoPulignaniandHumanied.,par.192,pp.31416,andAASSJanuary,vol.1,par.245, p.231. 9 WomanAsBodyandAsFood 1.From,respectively,HildegardofBingen,Liberdivinorumoperum,bk.1,chap.4,par.100,PL197,col.885bcidem,Libervitaemeritorum,bk.4,chap. 32,inJ.B.Pitra,ed.,Analectasacra,vol.8:AnalectasanctaeHildegardisoperaspicilegioSolesmensiparata(MonteCassino,1882repr.Farnborough:Gregg Press,1966),p.158.SeeBarbaraJaneNewman,"OFemineaForma:GodandWomanintheWorksofSt.Hildegard(10981179),"Ph.D.diss.,Yale,1981, passim,esp.p.132.TheinterpretationinthischapterowesagreatdealtoNewman'ssplendidwork,theimplicationsofwhichextendfarbeyondHildegard.Seealso thehumaneandperceptiveinterpretationofHildegardinDronke,WW,pp.144201,andinElisabethGssmann,"DasMenschenbildderHildegardvonBingenund ElisabethvonSchnauvordemHintergrundderfrhscholastischenAnthropologie,"inDinzelbacherandBauer,Frauenmystik,pp.2447. 2.Seeabove,chap.6n.121. 3.Seeabove,chap.6n.122. 4.See,forexample,E.Friedberg,ed.,Corpusiuriscanonici,2vols.(Leipzig:Tauchnitz,18791881),vol.1,pt.2,causa33,q.5,chaps.1217,cols.125455 ThomasAqui

Page407

nas,ST,I,q.92,arts.12,vol.13,pp.3441,andq.93,art.4,vol.13,pp.5861.Theologiansagreedthat,asAquinasputsit:"taminviroquaminmuliere inveniturDeiimagoquantumadidinquoprincipaliterratioimaginisconsistit,scilicetquantumadintellectualemnaturam"(p.60). 5.OnGertrudetheGreat,seeBynum,JM,p.194n.65.SeealsoMargaretofOingt,Paginameditationum,inOeuvresdeMarguerite,p.73,andidem. Speculum,inOeuvresdeMarguerite,p.101ViedeDouceline,p.91("Quesesarma?SpeculumdivinemajestatisenlaqualDieusapauzatsonsagell")and VitaBeatricis,pp.71,99100,11011. 6.SeeBynum,JM,p.210. 7.CatherineofSiena,Dialogue,ed.Cavallini,chap.167,p.499trans.Noffke,Catherine:TheDialogue,p.365.SeealsoDialogue,chap.1,p.2,whereCatherine writesthatthesoul,createdinGod'simageandlikenessandclothedwiththe"weddinggarmentofcharity,"becomes"anotherChrist,"andchap.13,p.37,where Catherinewrites:"Weareyourimage,andnowbymakingyourselfonewithusyouhavebecomeourimage,veilingyoureternaldivinityinthe...dungheapof Adam"(trans.Noffke,Catherine:TheDialogue,p.50). 8.Bullough,"MedicalandScientificViews,"pp.48793Wood,"Doctors'Dilemma"JohnF.Benton,"ClioandVenus:AnHistoricalViewofMedievalLove,"in F.X.Newman,ed.,TheMeaningofCourtlyLove(Albany:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,1969),p.32JosephNeedham,AHistoryofEmbryology,2d ed.(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1959),pp.3774andAnthonyPreus,"Galen'sCriticismofAristotle'sConceptionTheory,"JournaloftheHistoryof Biology10(1977):6585.IhavelearnedagreatdealfromreadingtheworkinprogressbyThomasLaqueur,TheFemaleOrgasmandtheBodyPolitic. 9.Seeabove,chap.6n.121.Inaveryinfluentialarticle,SherryOrtner("IsFemaletoMaleasNatureIstoCulture?"inMichelleRosaldoandLouiseLamphere, eds.,Women,CultureandSociety[Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress,1974],pp.6787)hassuggestedthattheidentificationofwomenwith"thenatural"or"the physical"existscrossculturallyseebelow,chap.10atnn.14,15. 10.Onthispoint,seeP.Brown,VirginityandSociety. 11.WeinsteinandBell,SS,passim,esp.pp.23536.Formalewriterswhourgedwomento"maleness,"seeabove,chap.1n.68. 12.Onthispoint,seeVauchez,LaSaintet,p.445. 13.Seeabove,chap.3atnn.187,194,197,198,222,andbelow,p.282. 14.Seed'Alverny,"Commentlesthologiens...voientlafemme,"pp.12224Bynum,JM,pp.9194andGssmann,"HildegardundElisabeth,"pp.2447. 15.OnCatherine,seeabove,chap.5n.171,andbelow,n.16onMechtild,seeBynum,JM,p.241.OneofthepointsmadebyPeterDronkeaboutanumberof writersisthatawoman'suseofthetoposoffemaleweaknesscanbeanassertionofself,aslightlyironicyettotallyseriousclaimofauthorialoriginality,effectiveness, andaccomplishmentseeDronke,WW,passim,esp.chap.3. 16.RaymondofCapua,LifeofCatherineofSiena,pt.2,chap.1,pars.12122,AASSApril,vol.3,p.892Catherinetellsusthatasachildshehadbeeninfluenced bystoriesofthetransvestitewomensaintsandhadthoughtmaledresswasnecessary.ItisimportanttocontrastCatherine'sownvisionofaChristwhotellsherthat genderreversalis

Page408

notnecessarywithRaymond'svisionofCatherineasmaleorasChristhimself,ibid.,pt.1,chap.5,par.90,p.884.Ihavediscussedthispointin"Women's Stories,Women'sSymbols." 17.SergeHughes,"NotesontheTranslation,"inHughes,CatherineofGenoa:Purgation,p.49. 18.Seeabove,chap.8n.30. 19.F.W.E.Roth,ed.,DieVisionenderhl.ElisabethunddieSchriftenderAebteEkbertundEmechovonSchnau(Brnn:"StudienausdemBenedictiner undCistercienserOrden,"1884),p.60.SeealsoGssman,"HildegardundElisabeth,"pp.4142. 20.SeeHildegard,Scivias,pt.1,vision2,chaps.1112,vol.1,pp.1921pt.2,vision3,chap.22,vol.1,pp.14748pt.2,vision6,chaps.7677,vol.1,pp. 29091andesp.Gssmann,"HildegardundElisabeth,"pp.3536. 21.SeeHildegard,Scivias,pt.2,vision6,vol.1,pp.225306,esp.p.231.ForthecontextofHildegard'sideaofecclesiaEvaMaria,seeSchiller,Ikonographie, vol.4,pt.1:DieKircheB.Newman,"OFemineaForma"andDronke,WW,pp.169171.ForproblemswiththeCorpuschristianorumtextoftheScivias,see PeterDronke,"ProblemataHildegardiana,"MittellateinischesJahrbuch16(1981):95131. 22.Seeabove,n.8. 23.ForthisinterpretationofMechtild,seeBynum,JM,pp.229,23334,244. 24.Forexample,seeabove,chap.5nn.126,136. 25.CatherineofSiena,Letter30,Letters,ed.Misciattelli,vol.1,p.137.SeealsoLetter144,ibid.,vol.2,pp.34142. 26.MargaretofOingt,Speculum,inOeuvresdeMarguerite,pp.9899.AndseeB.Newman,"OFemineaForma,"pp.13134. 27.SeeDronke,WW,p.214.Dronke'sdiscussionofthefemaleheretics(pp.20215)issuperb. 28.AgreatdealhasbeenwrittenaboutJulianrecentlybyfarthebeststudyisBrantPelphrey,LoveWasHisMeaning:TheTheologyandMysticismofJulianof Norwich,SalzburgStudiesinEnglishLiterature,ElizabethanandRenaissanceStudies92.4(Salzburg:InstitutfrAnglistikundAmerikanistik,UniversittSalzburg, 1982). 29.SeeRitamaryBradley,"TheMotherhoodThemeinJulianofNorwich,"FourteenthCenturyEnglishMysticsNewsletter2.4(1976):2530E.McLaughlin, "'ChristMyMother'"ColledgeandWalsh,introductiontoJulian,BookofShowingsKariElizabethBrresen,"ChristnotreMre,lathologiedeJuliennede Norwich,"MitteilungenundForschungsbeitrgederCusanusGesellschaft13(1978):32029Bynum,JM,chap.4andPaulaS.D.Barker,"TheMotherhood ofGodinJulianofNorwich'sTheology,"DownsideReview100(1982):290304. 30.Julian,BookofShowings,ed.ColledgeandWalsh,TheLongText,chap.58,revelation14pt.2,pp.58586trans.ColledgeandWalsh,JulianofNorwich: Showings,p.294. 31.BookofShowings,ed.ColledgeandWalsh,TheLongText,chap.57,revelation14pt.2,pp.57980trans.ColledgeandWalsh,JulianofNorwich: Showings,p.292. 32.SeeBynum,JM,chap.4,andidem,"'...AndWomanHisHumanity':FemaleImageryintheReligiousWritingoftheLaterMiddleAges,"inC.Bynum,S. Harrell,

Page409

andP.Richman,eds.,GenderandReligion:OntheComplexityofSymbols(Boston:BeaconPress,1986). 33.RobertGrosseteste,Letter57,Epistolae,ed.HenryRichardLuard,RerumBritannicarummediiaeviscriptoresorChroniclesandMemorials...25(London: Longman,Green,Longman,andRoberts,1861),p.178quotedinBridgett,HistoryoftheHolyEucharist,vol.2,p.171. 34.Ruysbroeck,SpiritualEspousals,p.43.Cf.idem,"LeMiroirdusalutternel,"chap.7,inOeuvres,vol.3,pp.8283. 35.ForamalewriterwhoseeshumanityasEve,seeJulianaofCornillon'shagiographer,bk.1,chap.5,par.22,AASSApril,vol.1,p.450,andseebelow,chap. 10n.17. 36.Seeabove,chap.2atnn.5660,andplate6. 37.SeeBarbaraG.Lane,TheAltarandtheAltarpiece:SacramentalThemesinEarlyNetherlandishPainting(NewYork:HarperandRow,1984),pp.12 35,esp.pp.2728seealsoChristophBaumer,"DieSchreinmadonna,"MarianLibraryStudies9(1977):23972. 38.Seeabove,chap.3n.58. 39.FrancisofAssisi,Opuscula,p.123trans.Fahy,Omnibus,pp.13536. 40.HenrySuso,Bchlein,chap.16,inSuso,DeutscheSchriften,p.264:"einenschrin,indemdieEwigWisheitsuzelich*geruwet*hat."Forotherliterarytexts treatingMaryasavesselcontainingChrist,seeLane,AltarandAltarpiece,pp.2732. 41.BernardofClairvaux,Sermon3onthePurificationofMary,par.2,PL183,col.370cquotedinLane,AltarandAltarpiece,p.71.ThenotionofMaryasthe placewheretheenfleshingofChristhappenssuggeststhatMarymaybeasymbolofpriesthoodahighlycontroversialideabutonethatfindssomeiconographic supportseepp.6872.Inplate47,p.72,LanegivesaFrenchpanelof1437(nowattheLouvre)thatdepictsMaryinpriestlygarb.Itshouldbeemphasizedthat thisthemehasnothingtodowithclaimingsacerdotalofficeforwomen.AnothericonographicmotifthatsuggestsMaryascelebrant(becausesheisthevessel,the place,ofIncarnation)istheMysticalMillseeabovechap.2n.152,andplate1.SeealsoCarolJ.Purtle,TheMarianPaintingsofJanvanEyck(Princeton: PrincetonUniversityPress,1982),passim,esp.pp.1315,2729. 42.Seeabove,chap.2atn.105,forafullerquotation. 43.MuchmoreworkneedstobedoneondevotiontotheVirgininthelaterMiddleAges.TheemphasisofMarinaWarner,AloneofAllHerSex,onMaryas primarilyrepresentativewomanandmodelforwomenseemswrong.Foraninterpretationthatagreeswithmyown,seeToreNyberg,"BirgittavonSchwedenDie aktiveGottesschau,"inDinzelbacherandBauer,Frauenmystik,p.283. 44.Roisin,L'Hagiographie,pp.108,11113. 45.AccordingtothetablesinWeinsteinandBell,SS,pp.12337,women(whowereabout18percentofthosecanonized)accountforabouthalfofthesaintswho wereespeciallydevotedtoJesusbutonlyaboutathirdofthesaintsespeciallycharacterizedbydevotiontoMary.Womenare,bythisindex,somewhatmoredevoted toMarythanaremen,butthisfactdoesnotnecessarilyreflectafemaleneedforfemalesaints(althoughitmay).Seeabove,chap.1n.57.

Page410

46.ViedeDouceline,passim,esp.pp.19and43.MargaretofOingtidentifieswithbothChristandhismotherseePaginameditationuminOeuvresde Marguerite,passim,esp.p.77.FordevotiontoMaryinItalianwomensaints,seePetroff,Consolation,pp.5966. 47.ForThomasofCelano'snotionofClareasamodelforwomen,seeabove,chap.1n.68.Similarly,theauthoroftheLifeofBeatriceofNazarethseesBeatriceas amodelforhersistersseeabove,chap.8n.43.WomenwriterstendedtoassumethatsaintsofbothgendersweremodelsforbothgendersseeMechtildof Magdeburg,Licht,bk.5,chap.34,pp.16667,whoassociatesvariousmaleandfemalesaintswithvariousreligiousstatuses.Andseebelow,chap.10n.22. 48.Indeed,asCatherineofSienamakesperfectlyclear,insufferingwithMarywearesufferingwithChrist,forthehumanityMarybearsisChrist'sseethepassage quotedatn.25above.Seealsoabove,chap.7n.21,whereJaneMaryofMaill,receivingavisionoftheVirginuponthedeathofherownmother,becomes devotedforlifetothePassionofChrist. 49.Brresen,"ChristnotreMre,"pointsoutthatneithernuptialmysticismnordevotiontoMaryiscentraltoJulianColledgeandWalsh,introductioninBookof Showings,ed.ColledgeandWalsh,pt.1,p.155,suggestthesameconclusionwhentheycommentperceptivelythatMariancommentariesontheSongofSongsin thelaterMiddleAgesprobablycompetedwithratherthanenhancedatheologyofGod'smotherhood.ForaninterpretationofHadewijchthatseesMaryaspivotalin hervisions,seeC.Hart,introductiontoHadewijch:Works,pp.2728,3839. 50.AdolphedeCeuleneer,"LaCharitromainedanslalittratureetdansl'art,"Annalesdel'AcadmieRoyaled'archologiedeBelgique67(Antwerp,1919),pp. 175206. 51.P.V.Btrous,"Aproposd'unedeslgendesmarialeslesplusrpandues:le'laitdelaVierge,'"Bulltindel'AssociationGuillaumeBud4(1975):40311. 52.ForrepresentationsofCharitydistributingbreadoracup,seeAdolfKatzenellenbogen,AllegoriesoftheVirtuesandVicesinMedievalArt(1939repr.with newbibliographicalreferences,NewYork:Norton,1964),p.48n.2,p.56,andfigure53. 53.Schiller,Ikonographie,vol.4,pt.1:DieKirche,pp.8489,27678. 54.Veith,Hysteria,pp.6571. 55.SeeBynum,JM,chap.4andBynum,"'...AndWomanHisHumanity.'" 56.OnSuso,seeabove,chap.3n.201.OnBernard,seeE.Vacandard,ViedesaintBernardabbdeClairvaux,2vols.(1895repr.Paris:LibrairieVictor Lecoffre,1920),vol.2,p.78DewezandvanIterson,"LaLactation"and,fortheiconography,RafaelM.Durn,IconografiespaoladeSanBernardo (MonasteriodePoblet,1953),passim.AlanusdeRupeorAlandelaRoche(d.1475),founderofmodernrosarydevotion,tellsasimilarstoryofhimselfinhis Revelations:"Postmultadivinacolloquia,VirgoLactesuopurissimolethaliadaemonumvulneraplurimaperfuditetmoxintegerrimeconsanavit"(quotedinHeribert Holzapfel,St.DominikusundderRosenkranz[Munich:LentnerischeBuchhandlung,1903],p.21).VincentofBeauvais,Speculumhistoriale,bk.7,chap.84 (Venice,1494),fol.80r,tellsofasickclericwhonursedfromtheVirgin.SeealsoAlb.Poncelet,"IndexmiraculorumB.V.Mariaequaesaec.VIXVlatine conscriptasunt,"AB21(1902),p.359,whichlistsfourstories(numbers184,461,514,and667)ofsickmenhealedbytheVirgin'smilk.Bytheseventeenth century,lactationlegendswere

Page411

attachedaswelltoDominic(d.1221),founderoftheDominicans,andtoPeterNolasco(d.ca.1256),oneofthefoundersoftheMercedarians. 57.ThemostimportantbiblicalrootsareSongofSongs1:2,1Cor.3:12,Heb.5:12,and1Peter2:2.SeealsoIsa.49:1,49:15,and66:1113,Ecclus.24:2426, andMatt.23:37. 58.M.McLaughlin,"SurvivorsandSurrogates,"pp.11518andMichaelGoodich,"BatholomaeusAnglicus,"p.80. 59.ClementofAlexandria,Paedagogus,bk.1,chap.6,OttoSthlin,ed.,ClemensAlexandrinus,2vols.,DiegriechischenchristlichenSchriftstellerdererstendrei Jahrhunderte12and15(Leipzig:Hinrichs,19361939),vol.1,pp.10421. 60.SeeBynum,JM,pp.15154. 61.MechtildofMagdeburg,Licht,bk.1,chap.22,andbk.2,chap.3,pp.1113,2930,treatsMaryandChristasparallelfigures,eachnursingthesoul(withmilk andblood,respectively).Inbk.1,chap.44,p.21,shetreatsMary'ssuccorasalowerkindofnurture.Inbk.5,chap.8,p.136,Mechtildspeaksofherselfas mothertosoulsinpurgatoryandsays:"Imustgivethemmyheart'sbloodtodrink.IfIprayforthembecauseoftheirgreatneedandseethebitterfatetheymustsuffer foreverysin,thenIsufferasamother"(trans.Menzies,Light,p.133). 62.SeealsoJulian,BookofShowings,ed.ColledgeandWalsh,TheLongText,chap.60,revelation14pt.2,pp.59698:"Themodermaygeueherchyldesucke hyrmylke,butoureprecyousmoderJhesu,hemayfedevswithhymselfe,anddothfullcurteslyandfulltendyrlywiththeblessydsacrament....Themodermayley hyrchyldetenderlytohyrbrest,butouretendermotherJhesu,hemayhomelyledevsintohisblessydbrestbyhisswetopynsyde." 63.E.JamesMundy,"GerardDavid'sRestontheFlightintoEgypt:FurtherAdditionstoGrapeSymbolism,"Simiolus:NetherlandsQuarterlyfortheHistoryof Art12.4(19811982):21122andLane,AltarandAltarpiece,passim,esp.pp.2123. 64.Lane,AltarandAltarpiece,p.6.SeealsoherdiscussionoftheCampinMadonna,pp.28(plate14above).AndseeCarraFergusonO'Meara,"'IntheHearth oftheVirginalWomb':TheIconographyoftheHolocaustinLateMedievalArt,"ArtBulletin63.1(1981):7588andPurtle,MarianPaintings,pp.98126. 65.Gougaud,DAP,pp.10410.ThestudyoftheiconographictraditionofafemaleChristbyRudolphBerliner,"GodIsLove,"inE.Gombrich,J.S.Held,andO. Kurz,eds.,EssaysinHonorofHansTietze18801954(Paris:GazettedesBeauxArts,1958),pp.14360,doesnot,unfortunately,contributeanythingnewtothe question. 66.OnQuirizio,seeLuigiColetti,PitturaVenetadelQuattrocento(Novara:IstitutoGeograficoDeAgostini,1953),pp.xlviixlix,100101SandraMoschini Marconi,ed.,Galleriedell'Accademia,Opered'ArtedeiSecoliXIVeXV(Rome:IstitutoPoligraficodelloStato,LibreriadelloStato,1955),p.148Laudedeo Testi,LaStoriadellaPitturaVeneziana,pt.2:IlDivenire(Bergamo:IstitutoItalianod'ArtiGrafiche,1915),pp.52124andGougaud,DAP,pp.10410. 67.OnthisthemeseeSchiller,Iconography,vol.2:Passion,pp.2056.Andseeabove,chap.3atn.61,andesp.plate5,whereakneelingnunreceivesChrist's bloodfromthewinepress.SeealsoKatzenellenbogen,VirtuesandVices,figure41. 68.Forthepassageseeabove,chap.4n.184. 69.SeeBarbaraLane,"The'SymbolicCrucifixion'intheHoursofCatherineof

Page412

Cleves,"OudHolland86(1973):426,esp.pp.1011idem,AltarandAltarpiece,pp.78. 70.SeeMaxJ.Friedlnder,EarlyNetherlandishPainting,vol.9,pt.2,trans.H.NordenwithnotesbyH.PauwelsandM.Gierts(Leyden:Sijthoff,1973),plate 156.Foranotherexample,seeSchiller,Iconography,vol.2:Passion,p.225andplate802.Inthispaintingof1508byHansHolbeintheElder,thethemeof intercessionisrepresentedinwordsaswellaspictures.AboveChristastheManofSorrowsiswritten:"Father,seemyredwounds,helpmenintheirneed,through mybitterdeath."AndaboveMary:"Lord,sheathethyswordthatthouhasdrawn,andseemybreast,wheretheSonhassucked."Otherexamplescanbefoundin RichardC.Trexler,PublicLifeinRenaissanceFlorence,StudiesinSocialDiscontinuity(NewYork:AcademicPress,1980),plate8,p.26,andintheHereford MappaMundiseeA.L.MoirandMalcolmLetts,TheWorldMapinHerefordCathedralandthePicturesintheHerefordMappaMundi(7thed.Hereford: TheCathedral,1975),pp.11,19. 71.DewezandvanIterson,"LaLactation."Plate30isatriptychmadeforabbotAntoniusTsgrootenofTongerloobyGoswynvanderWeydenandauthenticatedby adocumentof1507seeFriedlnder,EarlyNetherlandishPainting,vol.11,p.107,andA.Monballieu,"HetAntoniusTsgrootentriptiekje(1507)uitTongerloo vanGoossenvanderWeyden,"JaarboekvanhetKoninklijkMuseumvoorSchoneKunstenAntwerpen(1967):1336. 72.LifeofMargaretofFaenza,chap.3,par.15(xx),AASSAugust,vol.5,p.851:"et,hisdictis,Christusamplexatusesteam,etsibideditosculumpacis,ubitantae suavitatissaporemgustavit,utputaretsebeatitudinisseculumcommutasse."Forotherexamplesofsuchkisses,seePetroff,Consolation,pp.7073. 73.LifeofBenevenuta,chap.10,par.82,AASSOct.,vol.13,p.172. 74.Seeabove,chap.6,nn.8589. 75.Walburgasupposedlycured"fooddisorders,"anddetailsofhercultareborrowedfromanearlierfertilitygoddess.AgnesofMontepulcianomiraculously multipliedfood,practicedextendedabstinence,andwasblessedbymarvelousrainsofmannafromheaven.EventhegreatmalemyroblyteNicholasofMyraissaidto havefastedasababybyregularlyrefusingthebreastandisreveredasthepatronsaintofchildren.DoucelineofMarseilles,whowasnotinfactamyroblyte, nonethelessdisplayedextraordinaryemanationswhilealive(coupledwithanextraordinaryconcernforavoidingbodilycontact).Andacountesswhoadmired Doucelinedreamedofoilflowingfromher.SeeCarozzi,"Douceline,"andViedeDouceline,p.131.OnMaryMagdalende'Pazzi,miraculousabstainerand myroblytewhodiedin1607,seeWeinsteinandBell,SS,p.235,andBell,HolyAnorexia,pp.17175. 76.Itisstrikingtonotethatnotonlydidhostsandbodilyrelicsoozeoil,blood,ormilkassignsoftheirsacrality,otherdevotionalobjectsdidsoaswell.ThenailAlda ofSienahadcarvedtoaidhermeditationsoozedsapthreehundredyearslaterseeabove,chap.4n.212.WhenJaneMaryofMaillhadarelicofthetruecrosscut intwo,bloodflowedoutProcessofcanonization,chap.3,par.24,AASSMarch,vol.3,p.749. 77.TheprocessofbecomingGodbyeatingGodthatIdiscusshereis,ofcourse,asortofcannibalism,anditisworthnotingthatanthropologicalstudiesof cannibalismregularlystressitasawayofincorporatingthepowerofwhatiseaten.PeggyReeves

Page413

Sanday(DivineHunger)showsthatinmanyculturesthereisaconnectionbetweencannibalismandtheuseofthefemalebodyassymbol.Heranalysisindicates thattheremaybeanintrinsicconnectionbetweenthecomingtotheforeoffemalebodilyimagesforChristinthelaterMiddleAgesandthegreateremphasisinthe sameperiodonthecannibalisticaspectsofthemass. 78.Petroff,Consolation,seemstometohavegonetoofarinthisdirection. 79.SeethewarningofNatalieZ.Davis,''AnthropologyandHistoryinthe1980s,"JournalofInterdisciplinaryHistory12.2(1981):26775. 10 Women'sSymbols 1.MargaretPorete,"'Miroir,'"ed.Guarnieri,chap.117,pp.6089trans.Dronke,WW,pp.22122.Onthehistoricalbackgroundofthetext,theauthor,andthe translationsofthetext,seeKurtRuh,"LeMiroirdesSimplesAmesderMargueritePorete,"VerbumetSignum2(1975):36587. 2."InDioilmioessere,ilmioME,"Vita,chap.15,CatherineofGenoa,EdizioneCritica,ed.UmileBonzi,p.171.SeealsoD.C.Nugent,"TheAnnihilationofSt. CatherineofGenoa,"MysticsQuarterly10.4(1984):185. 3.Seebelow,n.23. 4.Seeabove,chap.9n.41. 5.Seeabove,chap.7n.28. 6.SeeDavis,"AnthropologyandHistory"idem,SocietyandCulture,pp.97151.Forwhatfollows,seealsoBynum,"Women'sStories,Women'sSymbols." 7.Suchareversalisclearlyreflectedinthestory,toldinchap.33oftheLittleFlowersofSt.Francis,ofthepopecommandingClaretoblessbreadinhispresence (Casolini,IFioretti,pp.13334).Clarerefused,sayinga"vilewoman"shouldnotblessbreadinthepresenceofthepope,butthepopeinsisteduponClare'sact, crossesappearedontheloaves.AlthoughsomemanuscriptsinterpolatethisstoryintotheLifeofClare(seeAASSAugust,vol.2[Paris,1867],p.763),thereisno evidencethatitisearlyoremanatesfromClareherself. 8.Letter116,fromabbessT[engswindis]toHildegard,PL197,col.336c.Onthis,seeDronke,WW,pp.16571.Anobviousparallelexistsbetweenrenouncing marriageinordertobecomea"brideofChrist"andrenouncingfoodinordertoeatGod. 9.Seeabove,chap.3n.48.Weshouldalsonotethatwomenoftencarriedthematernalrolesofsecularsocietyoverintotheliturgy,usinglifesizeddollsandcradles intheirChristmasworshipseeElisabethVavra,"BildmotivundFrauenmystikFunktionundRezeption,"inDinzelbacherandBauer,Frauenmystik,pp.20130, esp.thereproductionsonpp.212,213,215. 10.Onthispoint,seeBynum,"TheComplexityofSymbols,"inBynumetal.,GenderandReligion,andStephenN.Dunning,"HistoryandPhenomenology: DialecticalStructureinRicoeur'sTheSymbolismofEvil,"HarvardTheologicalReview76.3(1983):121. 11.GuerricofIgny,SecondSermonforSSPeterandPaul,chap.2,inSermons,vol.2,ed.J.MorsonandH.Costello,SC202,Sr.mon.43(1973),p.384trans. themonks

Page414

ofMountSt.BernardAbbey,inGuerricofIgny,LiturgicalSermons,vol.1,CistercianFathersSeries32(Spencer,Mass.:CistercianPublications,1971),p. 155.SeealsoBynum,JM,p.122. 12.Seeabove,chap.3n.188.ItisworthnotingthattheonlypassageinwhichHadewijchemploysacleardistinctionbetweenfatherasanimageofauthorityand disciplineandmotherasanimageofnurtureandaffectionisonethatborrowsthedichotomyinquestionfromamaleauthor,WilliamofSt.Thierry.Seeabove,chap. 5n.18. 13.IhavedemonstratedthisintwelfthcenturyCistercianwritinginBynum,JM,chap.4.Ihavesuggestedthatthepatternextendsintothethirteenthandfourteenth centuriesin"'...AndWomanHisHumanity.'"Someoftheevidencegivenabove,chap.3,pp.94112,furthersupportsthegeneralization. 14.Ortner,"FemaletoMale."Forasomewhatsimilarargument,seeEdwinArdener,"BeliefandtheProblemofWomen,"and"TheProblemRevisited,"inShirley Ardener,ed.,PerceivingWomen(NewYork:Wiley,1975),pp.128.SeealsoMichelleRosaldo,introductionand"Women,CultureandSociety:ATheoretical Overview,''inRosaldoandLamphere,Women,CultureandSociety,pp.142andEricWolf,"SocietyandSymbolsinLatinEuropeandintheIslamicNearEast," AnthropologicalQuarterly42(July1968):287301. 15.SeeEleanorLeacockandJuneNash,"IdeologiesofSex:ArchetypesandStereotypes,"IssuesinCrossCulturalResearch,AnnalsoftheNewYorkAcademy ofSciences285(NewYork:NewYorkAcademyofSciences,1977),pp.61845CarolP.MacCormackandM.Strathern,eds.,Nature,CultureandGender (Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1980)andJudithShapiro,"AnthropologyandtheStudyofGender,"Soundings64.4(1981):44665.Ortnerhas attemptedtodealwithsomeofthiscriticisminSherryOrtnerandHarrietWhitehead,introductiontoOrtnerandWhitehead,eds.,SexualMeanings:TheCultural ConstructionofGenderandSexuality(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1981),pp.127seeesp.preface,p.x.SeealsoBynum,"Complexityof Symbols." 16.Seeabove,pp.2223,22930,chap.4n.65,andchap.7n.29andVauchez,LaSaintet,pp.43941.ThomasofCantimpr'sLifeofLutgardisa particularlygoodexampleofmalerecoursetovisionarywomen.ThomasrepeatedlydescribesLutgardas"mother"and"nurse"tohimself,tosecularmen,andtofriars (AASSJune,vol.4,pp.2023,205,207).HereportsthatLutgard,afrequentrecipientofvisions,enablesapriesttohaveavisionbyprayingthathebegrantedone (p.202).HealsoreportsthatacertainmanbroughttoLutgardbytheabbotofAfflighemwasstruckwithhorrorathissinwhenhelookedintoherface"asifintothe faceofGod'smajesty"(p.201). 17.SeeHelinandofFroidmont,Sermon27,PL212,col.622b.SeealsoSermon20,cols.64652,andHelinandofFroidmont,EpistolaadGalterum,col.753b. Forothermalewriterswhousewomantomeanphysicallyormorallyweak,seeBynum,JM,pp.14849,andDuby,TheKnight,theLadyandthePriest,passim, esp.pp.22,4546. 18.FrancisofAssisi,"LettertoAlltheFaithful,"Opuscula,pp.9394trans.Fahy,Omnibus,p.96,withmychanges.Theconcernforgivingbirthtoothersby exampleistypicallyFranciscanseeBynum,JM,pp.1056. 19.FrancisofAssisi,"ReligiousLifeinHermitages,"Opuscula,pp.8384trans.

Page415

Fahy,Omnibus,pp.7172.Francisrepeatedlyreferstotheloveoffriarsforeachotherasmaternal.See,forexample,Ruleof1221,chap.9:"Beggingalms,"in Opuscula,p.38:"Etquilibetdiligatetnutriatfratremsuum,sicutmaterdiligitetnutritfiliumsuum." 20.Seeabove,chap.3nn.197,200,andchap.9n.34. 21.SeeVauchez,LaSaintet,p.446n.511andEckhart,Sermon2,inMeisterEckhart:TheEssentialSermons,Commentaries,Treatises,andDefense,trans. EdmundColledgeandBernardMcGinn(NewYork:PaulistPress,1981),pp.17779. 22.Tauler,Sermon9forSecondSundayinLent,inTauler,DiePredigten,pp.4046.Foralengthyquotationofthispassage,seeabove,chap.7n.86.Menalso tookfemalesaintsasmodelsofpenitenceseeActaalia,chap.2,ofJohnofAlverna,AASSAugust,vol.2(Paris,1867),pp.47172,whereJohnisseenasanother Magdalen. 23.Cardman,"WomenandOrders"J.Rzette,"LeSacerdoceetlafemmechezsaintBonaventure,"Antonianum51(1976):52027. 24.Seeabove,chap.8n.47andchap.2n.105. 25.SeeWeinsteinandBell,SS,pp.11419seealsoGiovanniBattistaProja,"Colombini,Giovanni,daSiena,"BS,vol.4,cols.12223. 26.See,forexample,VictorandEdithTurner,ImageandPilgrimage,pp.161,199. 27.GeorgesDuby,TheThreeOrders:FeudalSocietyImagined,trans.Goldhammer(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1980),pp.89,95,13133,145,209. 28.Forexample,whenFrancisofAssisiinchap.23ofhisRuleof1221lists"everyone"whoshouldpersevereinfaithandpenance,hewritesasfollows:"We beseech...allthosewhoserveourLordandGodwithintheholy,catholic,andapostolicChurch,togetherwiththewholehierarchy,priests,deacons,subdeacons, acolytes,exorcists,lectors,porters,andallclericsandreligious,maleorfemalewebegallchildren,bigorsmall,thepoorandneedy,kingsandprinces,labourersand farmers,servantsandmasterswebegallvirginsandallotherwomen,marriedorunmarriedwebegalllayfolk,menandwomen,infantsandadolescents,youngand old,thehealthyandthesick,thelittleandthegreat,allpeople,tribes,families,andlanguages,allnationsandallmeneverywhere,presentandtocome"(Opuscula, pp.5960trans.Fahy,Omnibus,p.51).Althoughitissometimesunclearhowgenericthecategoriesare,itisclearthatallreligiouswomenarelumpedintothe category"religious,''thatthestatusesthatreflectoccupationsaremale(kings,princes,laborers,farmers,masters,possiblyevenservants),thatwomenarecategorized bysexualormaritalstatuswhereasmenarenot,andthatonly"layfolk"includesmaleandfemaleequally. 29.NancyChodorow,TheReproductionofMothering:PsychoanalysisandtheSociologyofGender(BerkeleyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress, 1978).SeealsoCarolGilligan,InaDifferentVoice:PsychologicalTheoryandWomen'sDevelopment(Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress,1982), chaps.1,2,6.Chodorow'stheorieshavebeencreativelyappliedtowomensaintsinIndiainA.K.Ramanujan,"OnWomenSaints,"J.HawleyandD.M.Wulff,eds., TheDivineConsort:Radha*andtheGoddessesofIndia(Berkeley:BerkeleyReligiousStudiesSeries,1982),pp.31624.Foradifferentversionofthis argument,foundintheresearchofJohnandBeatriceWhiting,seeSanday,FemalePowerandMaleDominance,pp.18285.Therehasbeenmuchcriticismofthe essentialistovertonesofGilligan'swork,however.SeeJudyAuerbachetal.,"CommentaryonGilligan'sInaDifferentVoice,"FeministStudies11.1(Spring1985): 14961

Page416

DebraNailsetal.,eds.,WomenandMorality,specialissueofSocialResearch50.3(Autumn1983)JoanW.Scott,"IsGenderaUsefulCategoryofHistorical Analysis?"AmericanHistoricalReview(forthcoming). 30.ForNewTestamentpassagesthatrequirereversal,see,amongothers,1Cor.1:20("HathnotGodmadefoolishthewisdomofthisworld?")andMark10:31 ("Butmanythatarefirstshallbelast"). 31.Seeabove,chap.1n.68.Forsecularhistoriesbymaleauthorsthatdepictvirtuouswomenas"virile,"seeDuby,TheKnight,theLadyandthePriest,pp.234 35.Evenmalebiographersdonotalwaysseethespiritualprogressofwomenasincreasing"virility"thehagiographerofUmiltofFaenzasays(chap.1,par.5, AASSMay,vol.5,p.208),thatafterherconversionshewastransformedinto"anotherwoman.'' 32.Anson,"FemaleTransvestite."SeealsoVernBullough,"TransvestitesintheMiddleAges,"AmericanJournalofSociology79(1974):138194. 33.Seeabove,chap.3nn.85,204,andchap.1n.68.Needlesstosay,womenwritersdidnotgeneralizeaboutthenatureof"man"(usednongenerically),although theydidbothrevereandcastigatetheclergyasagroupseeabove,chap.7atn.56. 34.Iconographicevidencesupportsthispoint,butambiguously.Ofthefourplatesabovethat(perhaps)illustratewomen'svisions(whetherornottheywerepainted bywomen),alldepictwomanasrecipient:Colette'svision(plate11c)Hildegard'svisionofwomanashumanitas(plate12)thepictureofChristwithcharity,which mayrepresentavisionreceivedbyGertrudeofHelfta(plate26)andQuirizio'sdepictionofChristfeedinganun,whichGougaudfeltmustrepresentawoman'svision (plate25,andseeabove,chap.9n.65).Evenhere,however,theemphasisonwoman'sreceivingundoubtedlyarisesmorefromherstatusaslay(asopposedto clerical)thanfromanyreversalofhersocialroleascook. 35.Seeaboveatn.10.AlthoughFrenchfeministwritinghasbeendeterminedlyatheisticalandsomeFrenchfeministswillnodoubtrejectthesubjectofthisbookas uninteresting,whatIsuggestaboutthecontinuityofwoman'ssenseofselfintohersymboliclanguageinmedievaltextscouldbeexplainedverymuchasLuceIrigaray hasexplainedpresentfeministdiscoursein"TheSexWhichIsNotOne,"trans.ClaudiaReeder,inElaineMarksandIsabelledeCourtivron,eds.,NewFrench Feminisms:AnAnthology(Amherst:UniversityofMassachusettsPress,1980),pp.99106. 36.VonHgel,MysticalElement,vol.1,p.238seealsoNugent,"AnnihilationofCatherineofGenoa,"p.185.OnparadoxinBeatriceofNazareth,seeabove, chap.5n.55. 37.BrantPelphrey,LoveWasHisMeaning.ThisreadingofJulianmakesherShowingsamoreconceptuallyandtheologicallysubtlestatementofthekindof "continuityofself"Ifindinotherwomen'swritingfromtheperiod.OnthispointseealsoSusanDickman,"DevoutImagination." 38.SeeDronke,WW,p.x.ForfurthercommentsonthesignificanceofDronke'sobservations,seemyreviewofhisbookinModernLanguageQuarterly (forthcoming). 39.ButFrancis,ofcourse,achievessuchanemphasisonhisselfashumanthroughaseriesofextravagantreversals,seeinghimselfaspoor,naked,female,leprous, etc. 40.Julian,BookofShowings,ed.ColledgeandWalsh,TheLongText,chap.5,revelation1pt.2,p.299.

Page417

41.TheFrenchfeministJuliaKristeva,inabrilliantdiscussionofwomen'sdiscourse,suggeststhatwomen'slanguage"traverses"itexpressesprocesswhereas man'sbifurcatesandopposes.Shealsowritesofwoman'smovementbeyond"I"inlanguagehersenseofselfasa"subjectinthemaking''inwaysthatecho CatherineofGenoa'srejectionofthe"I"(forverydifferentreasons).SeeinterviewwithKristevabyXavireGauthier,"Oscillationdu'pouvoir'au'refus,'"trans. MarilynAugust,inMarksanddeCourtivron,NewFrenchFeminisms,pp.16567. 42.JoAnnMcNamara,"SexualEquality"Ruether,"Misogyny"MarieDelcourt,"LeComplexedeDianedansl'hagiographiechrtienne,"Revuedel'histoiredes religions153(1958):133andWarner,JoanofArc.Forasensitivecriticismoftheapproachofthesearticles,seeEvelynePatlagean,"L'Histoiredelafemme dguiseenmoineetl'volutiondelasaintetfminineByzance,"Studimedievali,3rdser.,17,fasc.2(1976):597623.BothDelcourtandPatlageancontain referencestotheimportantearlyworkbyUsenerandDelehayeontransvestitesaints. 43.Bullough,"Transvestites."JohnBoswell,ChristianityandHomosexuality,haslittletosayaboutcrossdressing.ThefifthcenturytranslatorofSoranus,Caelius Aurelianus,seesmalecrossdressingasasignofhomosexualityseeHelenR.Lemay,"WilliamofSalicetoonHumanSexuality,"Viator12(1981):179. 44.CaesariusofHeisterbachtellsafewsuchstoriesfromthelatetwelfthcentury,buttheyareimitatedfrompatristictales.SeeCaesarius,Dialogus,Distinctio1, chaps.4043,vol.1,pp.4754.Forthreeotherexamples,seeGoodich,"ContoursofFemalePiety,"p.25,andMatthewParis,Historiamajor,fortheyear1225, pp.32527(adaptedfromthechronicleofRogerofWendover).OtherexamplesareChristinaofMarkyate,whoescapedherfamilyinmalegarb,andMargery Kempe,whoworemaleclothesonpilgrimage.ThegirldescribedbyMatthewParis,whotookrefugewiththefriars,usedtheopportunityprovidedbymaleclothing topreach:"etEvangeliumpacispercivitatesetcastella,etpraecipuesexuimuliebripraedicarestuduerat"(p.326).Forafifteenthcenturystoryofawomanwho disguisedherselfasamaninordertoattenduniversity,seeMartinofLeibitz(orofZips)(d.1461?),"SenatoriumsivedialogushistoricusMartiniabbatisScotorum ViennaeAustriae,"inHieronymusPez,ed.,ScriptoresrerumAustriacarumveteresacgenuini...,2vols.(Leipzig,1725),vol.2,col.629ff.,citedinMichaelH. Shank,"AFemaleUniversityStudentinMedievalCracow,"Signs(forthcoming). 45.InthepopularfestivalsoflatemedievalEurope,mensometimesmasqueradedaswomen(seeDavis,SocietyandCulture,pp.12431),andsuchpracticeswere frequentlydisapprovedofbymoralistsandtheologians.(Foranexampleofdisapproval,seeSalimbene'schronicleinCoulton,FrancistoDante,p.220.)Moreover, theideaoffemalecrossdressingwasathreateningsymboltomenandthereisreasontosuspectthatthetalesoftransvestitewomenthatcirculatedinmonasticcircles weresometimesexpressionsofmaleanxietyandpruriencewithoutbasisinhistoricalfact(seeAnson,"FemaleTransvestite"). 46.Seeabove,n.8,chap.8atn.8,chap.9atn.15. 47.Seeabove,chap.9n.16.WeshouldnotforgetthatalthoughCatherinespokeofmenascourageousandwomenasweak,sheappliedtheadjectivesmanlyand womanlytopeopleofbothgendersseeabove,chap.5n.171. 48.Dronke,WW,passim,esp.pp.66,82.

Page418

49.Julian,BookofShowings,ed.ColledgeandWalsh,TheShortText,chap.6pt.1,p.222thereferenceisdeletedinTheLongText. 50.Seeabove,pp.179,26167,chap.5n.171,andBynum,JM,chap.5. 51.Seeabove,pp.2425.Dinzelbacher,VisionundVisionsliteratur,p.229,sumsupdifferencesbetweenearlymedievalvisions,characteristicofmen,andlater visions,characteristicofwomen,inawaythatunderlinesthispoint.Women'svisionswereexpectedandsoughtformen'soccurredsuddenly.Women'svisions confirmedtheminanalreadychosenwayoflifemen'smarkedtheonsetofanewlife. 52.Seeabove,n.29.SeealsoJudithVanHerik,"TheFeministCritiqueofClassicalPsychoanalysis,"inDavidTracyandStevenKepnes,eds.,TheChallengeof PsychologytoFaith[Concilium:Revueinternationaledethologie156](Edinborough:Clark,1982),pp.8386. 53.Seeabove,nn.14,15. 54.IfIamcorrectinthisadmittedlycontroversialinterpretation,theinsightshouldhelpusseehowChristianityisdifferentfromtheotherworldreligionsnoneof whichhasquitethisemphasisonthegloryandsalvificpotentialofsufferingflesh(bothoursandGod's).Myinterpretationcallsattentiontothecharacteristically Christianideathatthebodilysufferingofonepersoncanbesubstitutedforthesufferingofanotherthroughprayer,purgatory,vicariouscommunion,etc.,andsuggests thatthisideashouldnotbetakenforgrantedasanimplicationoftheCrucifixion.Rather,itshouldbeexploredasoneofthemostpuzzling,characteristic,glorious,and horrifyingfeaturesofChristianity.Seeabove,chap.7n.54. Epilogue 1.Thequotationscome,respectively,from"FormsoftheImplicitLoveofGod,"inSimoneWeil,WaitingforGod,trans.EmmaCraufurd(NewYork:Harperand Rowreprintof1951Putnamed.),p.166,andidem,FirstandLastNotebooks,trans.RichardRees(London:OxfordUniversityPress,1970),p.96.OnWeil,see ElizabethHardwick,"ReflectionsonSimoneWeil,"Signs1.1(Autumn1975):8391,andJudithVanHerik,"Looking,EatingandWaitinginSimoneWeil,''inT.A. IdinopulosandJ.Z.Knopp,eds.,Mysticism,Nihilism,Feminism:NewCriticalEssaysontheAntiTheologyofSimoneWeil(JohnsonCity,Tenn.:Instituteof SocialSciencesandtheArts,1984),pp.5790. 2.RuthBenedict,PatternsofCulture(Boston:HoughtonMifflin,1934),p.26quotedinSheilaMcLeod,TheArtofStarvation:AStoryofAnorexiaand Survival(NewYork:Schocken,1982),p.39.McLeod,whosebookis,inmyopinion,thebestoftherecentspateofconfessionalliteratureaboutanorexia,states thatshewas"horrifiedanddisgusted"bymenstruation,thatshefeltherselftobea"sourceofpollution,"andthatshe"perhapssensed"thesecrecysurrounding menstruationas"anindicationoftheinferiorstatusofwomen"(pp.3940).Forotherautobiographicalaccountsofanorexia,seeCherryBooneO'Neill,Starvingfor Attention(NewYork:Continuum,1982)AimeeLiu,Solitaire:ANarrative(NewYork:HarperandRow,1979)andKatherineHavekamp,LoveComesin Buckets(London:M.Boyars,1978).

Page419

3.See"Neumann,Theresa,"inNewCatholicEncyclopedia,vol.10(NewYork:McGrawHill,1967),pp.36566.ThereismuchdiscussionofTheresaNeumann andothernineteenthcenturyCatholiccases,especiallyLouiseLateau(d.1883)andDomenicaLazzari(d.1848),inThurston,PP. 4.Seeabove,chap.6n.38. 5.Ms.magazine(October1983):4146,92ff.ThesensationalistheadlinetoSusanSquire's"IstheBingePurgeCycleCatching?"reads:"Atleasthalfofthewomen oncampustodaysufferfromsomekindofeatingdisorder." 6.Seeabove,chap.6atnn.3537. 7.ThefirstEnglishlanguagedefinitionofanorexianervosawasprovidedbySirWilliamGullin1874seeBrumberg,"'FastingGirls.'" 8.OnthispointseeRachelJacoff,"GodasMother:JulianofNorwich'sTheologyofLove,"DenverQuarterly18.4(Winter1984),pp.13439. 9.Seeabove,pp.2012andchap.6n.8,forrecentapproachesto"eating"thatconcentrateon"control."Foramodern,unorthodox,andverybeautifulevocationof themedievalsenseofbodyGod'sbodyandoursseetheshortstorybyAndreDubus,"Adultery,"inDubus,AdulteryandOtherChoices(Boston:Godine, 1979),pp.12978. 10.SeeThom,Anorexianervosa.ThepointagainsttheFreudiansismadenicelyinamodernnovelaboutJungiananalysisbyRobertsonDavies,TheManticore (Harmondsworth:Penguin,1976),pp.7071.Thewordsareputintothemouthofafemalepsychoanalystspeakingtoamalepatient:"Sexisveryimportant,butifit werethesinglemostimportantthinginlifeitwouldallbemuchsimpler....Itisapopulardelusion,youknow,thatpeoplewholiveveryclosetonaturearegreatones forsex.Notabit.Youlivewithprimitives...andyoufindoutthetruth.Peoplewanderaroundnakedandnobodycares....Theirimportantdailyconcerniswith food.Youknow,youcangoforalifetimewithoutsexandcometonospecialharm.Hundredsofpeopledoso.Butyougoforadaywithoutfoodandthematter becomesimperative.Inoursocietyfoodisjustastartforourcraving.Wewantallkindsofthingsmoney,abigplaceintheworld,objectsofbeauty,learning, sainthood,oh,averylonglist." 11.ArecentbookthatsuggeststhatIamnotaloneinmyconcernisElaineScarry,TheBodyinPain:TheMakingandUnmakinngoftheWorld(Oxford:Oxford UniversityPress,1985).WhileScarry'sargumentisverydifferentfrommyown,herconcernwiththerelationshipbetweencreativity,ontheonehand,andpainas experiencedinthebody,ontheother,treatsbodynotasthatwhichweshouldrejectorcontrolbutasthatofwhichwemusttakeaccount.

PLATESI
Imagenotavailable
1&2. InthisSwabianretableofabout1440theemphasis ontheeucharistasfoodisclear.Thecentralpaneldepicts thesocalledmysticalmill.Inastunningreversalofordinary Christianroles,Mary(withtheassistanceofthefourevangelists) servesasmillerorcelebrant,pouringintheflour, whileatthebottomtheassembledprelateshumblyreceive thewaferthatisChrist.

Imagenotavailable
Ontheclosedwings,Christasservantdistributesfood andwashesthefeetoftheapostles.Asitoftendoes inmedievalmiraclestories,thewaferitselfseparates theperfidiousfromthevirtuous: asmalldemonleapsfromthemouthofJudas whenhereceivestheholyfood.UlmMuseum.

Imagenotavailable
3. Accordingtolegend,Christasbleedingvictim appearedtoPopeGregorytheGreat(d.604) whilehewassayingmass.Aseucharisticmiracles proliferatedinthelaterMiddleAges,thestory becameapopulariconographictheme.InthisMass ofSt.Gregoryfrom1486,bytheMasteroftheHolyKinship, Christbleedsintothechalice.MuseumoftheCatherineconvent, Utrecht.CopyrightStichtingHetCatharijneconvent.

Imagenotavailable
4. This1469paintingfromthestudioofFriedrichHerlinisastriking illustrationofthemedievalconceptionofChristasfood.Fromthe woundinChrist'srightfootastalkofwheatgrowsandpierces hislefthand.Agrapevinegrowsfromhisleftfoot. Stadtmuseum,Nrdlingen.

Imagenotavailable
5. Thissilkembroidery,recentlyrestoredandredatedtotheearlyfifteenthcentury, depictstheiconographicmotifofChristinthewinepress.Pressedunderthe crossbeam,Christpointswithhisbleedinghandtothewoundinhisside. Anuncollectstheblood/wineinachalice.Theembroideryillustrates boththecloseassociationofbloodandwineinmiracleandinartand themedievaltendencytoemphasizewomenasrecipientsofeucharisticfavors. GermanischesNationalmuseum,Nrnberg. CopyrightGermanischesNationalmuseum.

Imagenotavailable
6. Accordingtomedievallore,onlyafemalevirgincouldcapturethefabledunicorn, whowouldcomeandlayhisheadinherlap.Inthisretableof1506, thebeastliesinMary'slap,whichisdepictedasparalleltoacentralthronelike altarthatholdsacrucifix.Thewoodcarving,whichwoulditselfhave beenthebackdropagainstwhichapriestelevatedthehost, thuscomesascloseasamedievalartistcouldcometodepictingthe verymomentoftheconceptionofChrist.Themomentofconceptionillustratedhere, likethemomentoftransubstantiationthatoccurredonthealtarinfrontoftheretable, wasthemomentoftheenfleshingofGod.TheCathedral,Lbeck.

Imagenotavailable
7. Medievalartistsoftenassociatedtheeucharistwithfemalesaints. Inthiswoodcarvingfrom15201530,wefindtheVirginandchild flankedbythemartyrsCatherineandBarbara.Barbara,heredepicted withchaliceaswellassword,wasthemedievalsaintmostcommonly linkedtotheeucharist,forpopularopinionheldthatherdevoteeswould notdiewithoutachancetoreceivethesacramentatlife'send. HolyGhostHospital,Lbeck.

PLATESII
Imagenotavailable
8. Givingfoodtothepoorwasapopularcharitywithfemalesaints andonetowhichmalerelativessometimesobjected.Thisfourteenthcentury pictureofthesocalledMiracleofSt.ElizabethshowsElizabeth ofHungaryaccostedbyherhusband,whosupposedlydisapprovedofher practiceofdistributingfood.Whenshedefendedherself byclaimingthatherapronheldonlyroses,amiraclechangedthebread shewashidingintoflowers.Thestoryisnotfoundintheearly sourcesconcerningElizabeth,butitwasattachedtoherandtoanumberofother femalesaintsthroughoutthelaterMiddleAges. Pinacoteca,Perugia.

Imagenotavailable
9. ArtistsandwritersintheMiddleAgesfrequentlytransferredstoriesfrom onesainttoanother.Hereanartistaccomplishesthetransferbythesimple expedientofpaintingS.RosaoverthenameofElizabethinafifteenthcentury paintingbyBenozzodiLese,calledGozzoli.Thewomanwithanapronful ofrosesthusbecomesRoseofViterbo,asaintwhoacquiredwhatwas, evenbymedievalstandards,alargenumberofborrowedmiracles. MuseodiS.Francesco,Montefalco.

Imagenotavailable
10. Inthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies,medievalwomenwereoften reveredfortheirpatientsufferingofillnessandinjury.Onesuchsuffering saintwasLidwinaofSchiedam,whoselongperiodofparalysisandinediabegan withtheskatingaccidentdepictedhere.Thiswoodcutfromthe1498editionofJohn Brugman'svitaofLidwinaisprobablythefirstsurvivingpictureofskates. MuseumoftheCatherineconvent,Utrecht. CopyrightStichtingHetCatharijneconvent.

Imagenotavailable
11. TheseminiaturesfromafifteenthcenturymanuscriptoftheLifeofColette ofCorbiemadeforMargaretofYork,wifeofCharlestheBold,depictmiracles typicaloffemalesaints. (a)Colettemiraculouslyfillsacaskthathasbecomeemptythroughthe carelessnessofSisterjeanneRavardelle. (b)ColettereceivesvisionsofthesufferingsofChrist. (c)ChristhimselfcomestoadministerthehosttoColettewhilethepriest, HenryofBaume,saysmass.

Imagenotavailable
12. Paintedunderthevisionary'sowndirection,thisminiature ofthesixthvisionfromthesecondpartofHildegard ofBingen'sSciviasshowswhatHildegard callsthe"imageofwoman"(thatis,ChurchorHumanity) marryingChrist

Imagenotavailable
13. Thisdevotionalobjectfromlatethirteenthorearlyfourteenthcentury Germany(above)isasmallnursingMadonna,madeofwoodcovered withlinen,gesso,andgilt.Itopens(below)toshowtheHolyTrinityinside. (Thebodyhasbeenbrokenoffthecrucifix.)Suchobjectsdepictedfor medievalChristianstheideathatMaryisthetabernaclethathousesGod. TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,giftofJ.PierpontMorgan,1917. Allrightsreserved,TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt.

Imagenotavailable
14. LatemedievalartemphasizedMarybothasprovideroffoodtoherson JesusandasproviderofJesusasfoodtoallChristians.Inthispaintingby RobertCampin(d.1444),Maryoffersherbreasttotheviewer,whilethechild glancestowardusaswell.Shepresentsthebabyinfrontofafireandfirescreen, thussuggestingaparallelbetweenJesusandbread.RobertCampin,Madonna andChildbeforeaFirescreen.TheNationalGallery,London. ReproducedbycourtesyoftheTrustees,TheNationalGallery,London.

Imagenotavailable
15. Inmedievalartanddevotionalliterature,lactationwasapopularsymbol ofnourishment,generosity,andlove.Thissmallpanel,attributedtoLucas CranachtheElder(14721553),depictsCharityandherchildren.Theemphasison breastasfoodisunderlinedbythefruit,whichparallelsthebreastinshape aswellasfunction.Similarorvirtuallyidenticalpaintingscanbefound inmanyEuropeanmuseums. Mused'Histoireetd'Art,Luxembourg.

Imagenotavailable
16. InthissixteenthcenturyFountainoftheVirtuesinNrnberg,allseven allegoricalfigureslactateasasymbolofthefertilityofvirtue.Several ofthefiguresalsoprovidenurtureinotherways,byofferingfruit, achalice,orajug.

Imagenotavailable
17. Thechurchwasfrequentlydepictedbymedievalwritersandartistsasa lactatingmother.InthisdetailfromamarblepulpitinthecathedralatPisa, GiovanniPisano(d.1314)showsasternfacedecclesianursingtwotiny Christiansatherbreasts.Thefiguresbelowrepresentthe fourcardinalvirtues.TheCathedral,Pisa.

Imagenotavailable
18. ThelegendthatBernardofClairvauxwasnursedbytheVirginwastold throughoutEuropeinthelaterMiddleAges.Itseemstohavefirst becomepopularasaniconographicmotifinSpain.Thisdetailfromthe RetableofSt.Bernard,paintedabout1290bytheMasterofPalma, isanearlydepictionofthemiracle. SociedadArqueolgicaLuliana,PalmadeMallorca.

Imagenotavailable
19. Morethanonehundredandfiftyyearslaterthanthepreviouspicture, thisLactationofSt.BernardfromtheRetableofSt.Ildefonso, paintedabout1460bytheMasterofOsma,showsmoresentimentalized figuresbutthesamemiracle. TheCathedral,ElBurgodeOsma,Soria.

Imagenotavailable
20. InthisFlemishpaintingfromabout1510,MayfeedstheChrist childgrapes,symbolbothofthebreastandofeucharistic wine.NGA#1937.1.43.TheRestontheFlightintoEgypt,GerardDavid. NationalGalleryofArt,Washington,AndrewW.MellonCollection. CopyrightNationalGalleryofArt.

Imagenotavailable
21. Inthispaintingfrom1544,VirginandChildinaLandscape,JanvanHemessen emphasizestheparallelismofbreastandgrapes(acommoneucharisticsymbol) byplacingthelactatingVirgininagrapearbor.Thefoodthemeisalsounderlined bythefruitinthechild'shand. NationalMuseum,Stockholm.

Imagenotavailable
22. InMaertendeVos'sTheHolyKinshipfrom1585,maternalfeeding isemphasizedinamultitudeofsymbols.AtthecenterMary holdsagrapeclusterinfrontofherbreastwhiletheChrist childplucksagrape.Ontherightawomansucklesa babywhileasecondwomanpointstoherownbreast withonehandandtowardMarywiththeother.Ontheleftanother womanfeedsmilksouptoachild.Malefiguresarerelegated toarathershadowybackground. MuseumofFineArts,Ghent.

Imagenotavailable
23. InVirginandChild,aminiatureofabout13801385fromtheMilan sectionoftheTurinMilanBookofHours,Marypressesfromherbreasta tinystreamofmilk,whichshedirectstowardakneelingpetitioner. Somewhatcoyly,theChristchildturnsaside.Thereaderofthislavish devotionalbookwasnodoubtintendedtoidentifywiththesuppliant. MuseoCivicodiTorino.

Imagenotavailable
24. InJanvanEyck'sfamousLuccaMadonnaofabout1436,Maryholdsher sucklinginfantinasettingrepletewitheucharisticassociations.Arthistorians havesuggestedthatMary'slapisanaltaronwhichChristisdisplayed. Thebasininthenichetotherightmaybeintendedtoevoketheniche southofthealtarwhereapriestwasheshishandsatmass. StdelschesKunstinstitut,Frankfurt.

Imagenotavailable
25. TheSavior,byQuiriziodaMurano(fl.14601478),showsasweetfaced Christliftingupthewoundinhisside(positionedwhereanipplewouldbefound). Withhisrighthandheoffersaeucharisticwafer,whichmightalmosthave beentakenfromthewound,toakneelingnunoftheorderofPoorClares. AngelscarrybannersbearingthosephrasesfromtheSongofSongsthat hadlongbeeninterpretedasreferringtothewineoftheeucharist.Thepainting illustratesboththemedievaltendencytoassociateChrist'sfeedingwithfemale recipientsandthecloselinkingofwineandwaferinthedoctrineofconcomitance. ItalsoevokesthemotherJesussopopularindevotionalliterature. Accademia,Venice.

Imagenotavailable
26. ThispictureoftheEucharisticManofSorrowswiththeallegoricalfigure Charitywaspaintedabout1470byanorthwestGermanmasterandmay depictavisionreceivedbyGertrudeofHelfta.Boththepurposefulmannerin whichChristfillsthecupfromhisbreastandthevividnessoftheblooditself aretypicalofsucheucharisticpaintings. WallrafRichartzMuseum,Cologne.

Imagenotavailable
27. Thepiousinthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturiesfeltapassionateyearning forthebloodofChrist,perhapsinpartbecausethecommunioncupwasnow withheldfromthelaity.Artistsfoundavarietyofwaysofemphasizingthissaving bloodbothassufferingandasfood.InTheManofSorrows,paintedabout1510by JacobCornelisz,asorrowingChristpoursforthhisownlifefrompalmandbreast intoaeucharisticchaliceinordertofeedhumankind.MayervandenBerghMuseum, Antwerp. CopyrightA.C.L.,Brussels.

Imagenotavailable
28. ThismidfifteenthcenturyminiaturefromtheTurinMilanBookof HoursdepictsthesocalledDoubleIntercession.Pleadingwith GodtheFather,whohereappearsenthronedasrulerandjudge, MaryliftsupherbreastandChristexposeshiswound. Theparallelismofwoundandbreastisclearlyunderlined. CabinetdesDessins,MuseduLouvre,Paris.

Imagenotavailable
29. EvenwhenhandlingmotifsotherthantheDoubleIntercession,latemedievalartists emphasizedtheparallelbetweenChrist'swoundandMary'sbreast.InthisLast Judgmentof1525byJanProvost,Christappearsasjudgeandavenger, beforewhomMarypetitionsforsouls.ThemodestmotionbywhichMary'sfingers liftupherbreastclearlyrecapitulatesChrist'salmostcradling gesturetowardthewoundthatsavestheworld. Groeningemuseum,Bruges.

Imagenotavailable
30. InthislittletriptychmadeforAntoniusTsgrootenofTongerlooin1507bytheFlemishartistGoswyn vanderWeyden,aparallelisclearlydrawnbetweenthelactatingofMaryandthebleedingofJesus. ThecentralpanelshowsChristwiththeinstrumentsofthePassion.Aboveonthecrossasmallheartwith itsownvividwoundrecapitulatesthebleedingwoundofthemanbelow.Totheright, inagesturethatmimicsChrist's,Marydisplaysherbreast,whichtheviewercannotmistakefora symbolofpityandintercessionalone.Itisclearlyasymboloffoodaswell,sincebesideherstandsBernard ofClairvaux,whomshenursed. KoninklijkMuseum

Page421

GENERALINDEX
A Abelard,Peter,85,240 Abstinence,3738,41,46,78,140,323n.47(seealsoFasting)miraculousabstinence,seeFasting,extendedormiraculous Accidia,181,203 AcherofTurnhout,350n.23 Adelhausen,315n.42 AdelheidLangmannofEngelthal,130,246 AdelheidofKatharinental,77 Adorno,Giuliano,181 AelredofRievaulx,8788,92 Affectivepiety,105,112,255 eroticthemesin,seeMysticism,nuptialoreroticthemesin importancetowomen,26,105,15361,24651,26196 AgnesBlannbekin,77,237,333n.27,355n.103,377n.135 AgnesofMontepulciano,246,273,365n.213 CatherineofSienawritesabout,169,170,241,243 eucharisticpietyof,140,362n.186 fasting,169,241,243,362n.186 myroblyte,211,274,392n.85 rainsofmanna,74,145,166,234,273,371n.68,412n.75 RaymondofCapua'slifeof,166 AgnesofOberweimar,11314 AgnesofPrague,86,100 AlandelaRoche,410n.56 AlanofLille,31,44,45,64,253 AlberttheGreat,58,80,85,214,327n.111 Albigensians.SeeHeresy,dualist Alda(Aldobrandesca)ofSiena,140,142,145,209,214,272,362n.186,364n.212,412n.76 AliceofSchaerbeke,115,116,117,119,121,130,230,234,248,275,351n.34 Almsgiving,31,33,35 AlpasofCudot,91,146,168,213,275,299 abstinence,73,83,84,200 fooddistributionandservice,13435 hagiographers'descriptionsofher,73,84,148,388n.51 illness,196,198,200,205,308n.6 Ambrose,32 Anchoresses,15,75,255.SeealsoRecluses AncreneRiwle,172 AndrewtheApostle,392n.85 Androgynousimagery,28,236,263,291,292 AngelaofFoligno,146,148,152,186 eucharisticpietyof,140,14142,232,246,361nn.176,181 fasting,86,142,14344,203,337n.92,363n.187 foodassymbol,86,14345,186 onthehumanityofChrist,232,246,24748,258 as"mother"tofriars,27,229 relationtoherfamily,24,206,215,363n.190,395n.11 senseofself,14345,206,401n.84 serviceofsick,14445,182,204 AnnavonMunzingen,315n.42 AnnaVorchtlin,250

Page422

Anne,motheroftheVirginMary,318n.57 iconographyof,ii,81 Anorexianervosa,5,7475,189,194207,29899,300301,387n.38,388n.49,418n.2,419nn.5,7,10.SeealsoFasting,asanorexianervosa? AnselmofBec,94 AnselmofHavelberg,400n.67 Anthony,82,335nn.65,67 Antinomianism,17,243,252.SeealsoFreeSpirit Aquinas,Thomas: CorpusChristihymnsof,4446,5152 oncupwithheldfromlaity,56 doctrineofhylomorphism,254 onfasting,41,84,239,321n.9,323n.47,385n.11 ongluttony,31,41,385n.11 onpriesthood,56,217,407n.4 ArnoldofBonneval,63 Asceticism,76,1079,114,20818,24651,27576,28081,29496,299 inearlymonasticism,3839 asreactiontomoderation,47,8485,218,23744,404n.28 recentinterpretationsof,6,2930,2089,21617,237,29496,390nn.66,71 suspicionoffemaleasceticism,82,8487,1034,112,240,288 AudeofMontaillou,266 AugustineofHippo,31,48,113 onfastingandalmsgiving,35,109 onmarriageandsex,217,261,262 onspiritualcommunion,58,327n.111 onwomanassymbolofirrationality,216,261,262 B Bacon,Roger,91,196,214,274 Balam,Jane,211 BaldwinofFord,63 Barbara,saint,81,plate7 Baret,John,92 Beatas,18 BeatriceofNazareth,86,115,152,186,204,214,246,273,275,410n.47,416n.36 asceticism,161 eucharisticpietyof,123,16163,164 illnessof,16163,171,200,203,209 onimagoDei,261 onimitationofChrist,16264,256 service,16364 BeatriceofOrnacieux,130,203,204,212,254,295 Bede,324n.72 Beguines,14,1720,22,24,27,223,332n.14 BenedictXIV,pope,74 BenevenutaofBojano,232,273 BernardofClairvaux,151,288 ontheeucharist,1,31,94,110,113 onfasting,43,84 onmeditation,255 nursedbytheVirginMary,270,272,331n.3,plates18,19,30 ontheVirginMary,268 onwomen,1516 BernardofParma,21 BertholdofRegensburg,57,65 Bevegnati,Juncta,360n.176 Biberach,Rudolph,151 Birthing.SeePregnancy Bloemardine,229,233 Blood: ofChrist,devotionto,4,5556,16465,17580,27074,280 assymbol,6465,68,74,123,133,142,144,152,16180,185,206,209,214,329nn.135,138,399n.49,plates3,5,26,27,30 Bodilychanges,miraculous,7,8,25,12223,126,192,200201,21012,26869,27375,296,391nn.8285,392nn.8687 Bonaventura,sisterofCatherineofSiena,167,221 Bonaventure: LifeofFrancis,9599,284,336n.82,341n.139 onthepriesthood,217,285 Vitismystica,42,47 BridgetofKildare,90 BridgetofSweden,23,27,213,214,315n.43,377n.135 Brugman,John,127,353n.67 Bulimia.SeeAnorexianervosa

Page423

BurchardofWorms,190,364n.200 C CaesariusofHeisterbach,28,64,78,91,257,268,336n.77,417n.44 Cannibalism,2,308n.6,319n.75,412n.77 Canonesses,14,18 Caritas.SeeCharity,allegoricalfigureof CarnegieInstitutefoodresearch,74,205,389n.62 Carnival,48,217 Carthusians,fastingpracticesof,42 Cassian,John,37,82 Cathars.SeeHeresy,dualist CatherinedeRicci,391n.83 CatherineofAlexandria,81,94,211,331n.3,340n.134,358n.139,392n.85,plate7 CatherineofGenoa,144,18086,221,223,226,227,250,277,279,391n.83 anorectic?194,203,2056 depressionovermarriage,181,203 doctrineofpurgatory,180,18384 eucharisticpietyof,140,181,18283 fastingandotherausterities,142,18183,204,214,215 ideaofhumanity,264 imagery,18485 senseofparadox,289,290,417n.41 service,181,183,275 themeofsuffering,180,18384,235,279,289,297 CatherineofSiena,7,23,28,16580,196,200,204,233,279,316n.46,410n.48 onAgnesofMontepulciano,145,169,170,241,243 anorectic?194,203,2056,207 bloodasdominantsymbol,166,17580,186,23233,271,292 oncrossdressing,236,291 devotiontotheCircumcision,175,176,178,377n.135 drinkingpus,144,17172,180 eucharisticpietyof,140,168,17274,25758 fasting,83,8687,88,135,142,16672,193,196,214,241 foodmultiplicationmiracles,74,170,22122 imagery,65,106,110,17380,250,263,278,279 onJesusasmother,166,17280,250,266,27273,292 asmodelforotherwomen,84 mysticalmarriage,17475,178,246,340n.134 rebellionagainstfamily,16768,221,222,22324 service,17072,173,178,245 stigmata,212,274 sufferingasaspiritualtheme,171,17580,234,245,292 theology,17580,261,264,265 visions,166,168,17273,17475,25758 CatherineofSweden,3,21415 CelestineV,pope,94 Chalice: elevationof,55 withheldfromlaity,45,5657,60,65,118,123,17778,230,23233,280,327n.102 Charcot,JeanMartin,202 Charismaticauthorityofwomen,2123,26,22737,27879,282,285,288 Charity,allegoricalfigureof,81,179,270,272,plates15,16 CharlestheBoldofBurgundy,139 Chastity,20,2425,227,253,291 recentscholarshipon,1 ChristinaEbner,83,257,356n.111 ChristinaMirabilis.SeeChristinatheAstonishing ChristinaofMarkyate,27,222,247,281,308n.9,393n.100,397n.24,417n.44 ChristinaofSpoleto,391n.77 ChristinaofStommeln,213 ChristinatheAstonishing,24,115,117,120,121,193,203,223,274,391n.79,392n.85 lactationmiracles,12223,211,234,273,274 ChristintheWinepress,iconographicthemeof,81,330n.152,plate5 Christopher,saint,81 Church,asiconographictheme,26465,270,408n.21,plate17 Cistercians,255 attitudestowardwomen,1516,19,20,318n.57 eucharisticdevotion,75,81,326n.93,

Page424

327n.102,328n.116 fastingpracticesof,42 nuns,1516,18,20.SeealsoBernardofClairvaux ClareGambacortaofPisa,142,363n.189 ClareofAssisi,15,24,74,85,86,146,193,215,319n.68,331n.3,394n.115,410n.47 comparedtoFrancisofAssist,1012 foodpracticesof,99101,341n.140,385n.20,413n.7 ClareofMontefalco,211,213,257,362n.186 ClareofRimini,391n.77 ClementofAlexandria,36,94,27071 Clericalauthority,bypassingofasathemeinwomen'spiety,17,11718,12324,12829,139,147,174,22737,280 Cluny,14 ColetteofCorbie,88,196,199,204,416n.34,plate11 abstinence,82,138,196 bodilyclosure,138,393n.103 curesandservice,92,138,197,234,273 eucharisticdevotionandmiracles,13839,229,398n.38 asreformer,15,16 visionofChristasfood,67 ColumbaofRieti,196,197,204,214,221,316n.46,393n.100 abstinence,86,87,142,14648,203,213,241 desiretoavoidmarriage,14647,222 eucharisticpietyof,86,147,213,398n.38 foodmultiplicationandservice,146,148,223 gorging,135,147,213 hagiographer'sinterestinherphysiology,148,197,211,393n.103 reverenceforpriests,147,233 Communion,miraculous.SeeMiracles,ofeucharisticdistribution Concomitance,5153,63,65,177,233,380n.163 ConradofEberbach,78 ConradofMarburg,135,358nn.137,138 ConradofMarchtal,15 Cookbooks,41,6061,190,191,384n.5 Cooking,41,6061,18992,22122,27779,282,289,292,298,301 CorpusChristi: devotionto,253 feastof,45,51,55,77,93,111,115,253,404n.28 officefor,325n.85 Cyprian,33,48,65 D DauphineofPuimichel,200 DavidofAugsburg,80,85,241,248 DavidofScotland,88 Demographicfactorsinreligioushistory,1920,22526 Demonachiscarnalibus,79 DesertFathers,3839,47,82,94,96,120,138,167,198,216,243,335nn.6567,338n.98,340n.134 Diet,relatedtoclass,2,308n.7 DionysiustheCarthusian,80,334n.49 DodoofHascha,94 Dominic,74,148,170,241,340n.134,411n.56 Dominicans: eucharisticdevotion,75,327n.102 fastingpractices,42 Observantreformof,87 assupervisorsofwomen'shouses,16 DorothyofMontau,253,275,389n.61 abstinence,88,136,205 eucharisticpietyof,55,13637,328nn.117,118 literalimitationofChrist,112,210,256,295,391n.82 mysticalpregnancy,136,2034,257 rebellionagainstfamily,136,221 trances,221 DoubleIntercession,iconographicthemeof,272,412n.70,plates2830 Doublemonasteries,15,22 DoucelineofMarseilles,77,13334,174,204,261,269,309n.9,328n.121,358n.139,397n.25,412n.75 fearoftouch,213,250,357n.127 Dowry,224 riseinsizeof,19,226 Dryeating,38 Dualism,absolute.Seeheresy,dualist Dualismofbodyandspirit,6,120,

Page425

20818,246,29496.SeealsoAsceticism,recentinterpretationsof E Eatingdisorders.SeeAnorexianervosa EckbertofSchnau,64,253 Eckhart,110,186,284,288 Einhard,89 Elias,39 ElizabethofHerkenrode.SeeElizabethofSpalbeek ElizabethofHungary,7,102,282,365n.213 attitudetowardmarriage,135,193,215,224,226 fasting,88,135,193,203,274 fooddistributionandservice,13536,204,224,233,275,396n.13,plates8,9 myroblyte,136,211,273,274,392n.85 ElizabethofPortugal,396n.13 ElizabethofSchnau,185,264 ElizabethofSpalbeek,119,120,122,209,256,369n.44,389n.59,393n.103 EllenofUdine,215 ElsbetAchlerofReute,357n.135,359n.160 abstinence,196,203,274,359n.160 foodhoarding,19697,204 gorging,135,204,213 lifestory,146,196,222,357n.135 stigmata,274,359n.160 visions,146 ElsbetStagel,85,1034,105,318n.65,344nn.192,194 EmberDays.SeeQuarterdays Engelthal,27,84,13031,229,315n.42,402n.5 EphremofNisibis,48 Epimenides,36 Esther,36,192 Eucharist: aseatingGod,3,30,54,5961,65,67,114,11719,131,133,142,144,15461,2067,236,25051,25558,27475,289(seealsoMiracles,of eucharisticdistributionandMiracles,concerningnatureofeucharist) historicaldevelopment,4869 iconographyof,ii,6768,81,27172,285,plates17,11,12,14,2427,(seealsoGodasfood,iconographicmotif) asunionwithfellowChristians,3,33,4849,6165,251,325nn.73,76,81 Eucharisticelements: consecrationof,45,5060,76,141,328n.121,plate6 receptionof,45,4850,5354,56,5761,8081,137,141,161,236,328n.121.SeealsoBloodofChrist,devotiontoChaliceConcomitanceCorpus ChristiHostTransubstantiation EucharisticManofSorrows,iconographicmotif,81,272,plates26,27,30 Euphrosyne,340n.134 EustochiaofPadua,392n.85 EvaofSt.Martin,55 Evesham,themonkof,92,334n.44,340n.130 Evurtius,332n.24 Exempla,28,4647,63,78,82 F FacioofCremona,92 Family: recentresearchon,22526,286 women'srebellionagainst,22027,261,280,293,298,396n.21 Famine,2,6869,294,301,308n.6 Farne,themonkof,266 Fasting: asanorexianervosa?4,5,194207,298,397n.22 ascorporatepractice,34,37,38,3940,192,321n.14,323n.47 asdemonicpossession,8,125,138,195,196 "todestrain,"192 dispensationfrom,32,41,42,23940 extendedormiraculous,7879,84,8687,8893,195207,29798 asfraud,8,86,92,195,19697,387n.34 historicaldevelopmentof,3147 hypocrisyin,3,4647,97,125,143,338n.98 inmonasticorders,38,41,42,332n.31 nonChristian,192,387n.37,393n.101 penitentialorpropitiatory,34,35,142,212,21516,218 public,192

Page426

asselfdiscipline,2,6,34,3637,120,142,21418,29496 "Fastinggirls,"7,7475,92,203,206,274,339n.112 Feministscholarship,xv,29,209,290,293,415n.29,416n.35,417n.41 FloraofBeaulieu,131,139,396n.13 Food: asaresource,13,19193 assymbolofbody,5,30,34,6168,14344,15460,17580,183,24546,25051,26976,27879,289,29293,295,299302,319n.75 assymboloffecundity,5,30,34,17580,27075,27879,289,29293,300302 Fooddistribution,charitable,2,31,35,74,19093,22122,23334,27576,396n.13,plates2,8,9 asafemalemeansofcontrolorrebellion,19093,22127 Foodpreparation.SeeCooking FourthLateranCouncil,50,58 FrancescaRomanade'Ponziani,215,222,226,317n.52 FrancisofAssisi,64,85,102,105,115,282,285,290,365n.213,415n.28 attitudetowardmatter,254 comparedtoClareofAssisi,seeClareofAssisi eucharisticpietyof,64,99,117 andfeminineimages,74,95,98,99,101,284,341n.139,415n.28 foodpractices,85,95100,340n.128,341n.140 reverenceforMary,268 reverenceforpriests,57,99 stigmata,200,212,255 theologyofsuffering,295 Franciscannuns,15,99102 Franciscanspirituality,253.SeealsoFrancisofAssisi FrancisofFabriano,95 FreeSpirit,17,18,22,404n.28 Frequentcommunion,5759,80,117,12829,138,142,161,168,172,174,230,238,253,369n.47.SeealsoEucharisticelements,receptionof Freud,Sigmund,202 Freudianinterpretation,300,309n.14,403n.21 Friars,attitudetowardwomen,16,19 Friderade,89,199 Froissart,329n.138 FulgentiusofRuspe,79 G Gandhi,192 GarinofGuyl'Evque,358n.141 GeoffroyofVendme,240 GeraldofWales,78 GerardofCologne,126,19899,340n.128 GerardSegarelli,17 Gerasimus,82 Gerlach,John,353n.67 Gerson,John,22,80,113,241,281,288,315n.43 GertrudeofDelft.SeeGertrudevanOosten GertrudeofHelfta,28,185,200,402n.5,plate26 eucharisticpietyof,58,64,65,234,242 imagesforGod,58,172 imagesforself,23132,236,261,263,292 onmysticalunion,84 visions,62,85,86,133,151,23132,416n.34 woundoflove,211,212 GertrudetheGreat.SeeGertrudeofHelfta GertrudevanOosten,28,117,123,211,351n.32,396n.21 GherardescaofPisa,140,236,360n.174,363n.186,404n.31 Globushystericus,203 Gluttony,32,36,41,7980,82,13435,169,174,199,213,216,322n.25 Godasfood,iconographicmotif,ii,6768,27075,285,411n.67,412nn.7071,plates1,3,4,5,14,25,26,27,30 GoldenLegend,81 GoswynvanderWeyden,412n.71,plate30 Grapes,asiconographicsymbol,271,plates4,20,21,22 GrayPenitentsofAvignon,55

Page427

GregoryItheGreat,pope,33,35,216,324n.72,plate3 GregoryVII,pope,81 GregoryIX,pope,101,376n.122 GregoryofNyssa,38 GregoryofTours,87 Groenendael,106 Grosseteste,Robert,267,392n.85 GuerricofIgny,94,266,406n.47 Guglielma,233 Guglielmites,229 GuiardofLaon,80,257 GuibertofNogent,255 GuigoIItheCarthusian,384n.210 GuntherofPairis,2,309n.11 GuyofOrchelles,53 H Hadewijch,27,186,263,299,369n.44,406n.48,414n.12 audacityofherpiety,241,279 emphasisonhumanityofChrist,1056,15354,156,15960,258,269,384n.208 eroticismofimagery,15457 eucharisticpietyof,15361 foodmetaphors,34,31,67,15361,250 heterodoxtendencies,243 paradoxin,15354,15861,290,292,296 savesfourfromhell,235,241,242,279 theologyofsuffering,15760,171,183,205,209,235,242 Hagiography,7,22,2425,75,8788,149,310n.21,349n.3 HansHolbeintheElder,412n.70 HedwigofSilesia,77,211,391n.77,392n.85 Helfta,77,83,13233,231,233,258,318n.65 HelinandofFroidmont,283 Heloise,387n.36 HenryofHuntingdon,329n.135 Heresy,294 antisacerdotal,1617 dualist,16,64,243,25253,266 assimilartoorthodoxy,1718,243,253 womenin,1620 Hilarion,82,335n.67 HilaryofPoitiers,31 HildegardofBingen,111,185,252,281,291,401n.81,406n.1 onthenatureofwomen,62,236,260,263,26465,279,291 physiologicaltheories,236,263,393n.105,403n.13 ontheVirginMary,265 visions,62,26465,292,416n.34,plate12 HolyFamily: devotionto,239,318n.57,396n.21,413n.9 asiconographictheme,ii,plate22 Host: devotionto,5455,6364,255 elevationof,ii,5455,130,22829,328n.121,plate6 asmagicalcharm,329n.136 reservationof,54,255,335n.56 violationof,6365,329nn.135,136 HughofLincoln,bishop,91,255,329n.135,392n.85,400n.73 HumanityofChrist,6568,25159,26369,282,287,384n.208 asiconographictheme,26465,plate12 importancetowomen,26,78,80,24651,25859,26367,29293,296,318n.57 Humiliati,16.SeealsoHeresy,antisacerdotal Hylomorphism,254 Hymns,32,35,3940,4546,4950,5152,66 Aveverumcorpus,32 DulcisJesumemoria,66 Sanctivenite,50,325n.79 Splendorpaternaegloriae,32.SeealsoAquinas,Thomas,CorpusChristihymnsof Hysteria,161,16263,195,356n.115 asamoderndiagnosticcategory,5,194,2023,390n.64 I IdaofLau,115,117,118,119,123,124,203,230,319n.68,328n.116,349n.3,351n.35,352n.36,389n.59 IdaofLouvain,124,250,288,318n.68,351n.28,389n.59,405n.43,406n.48 abstinence,119,12122,213,225 eucharisticpietyof,117,118,123,204,225,229,230,231,328n.121,338n.103,397n.25

Page428

fooddistributionandservice,119,12122,225,233 foodmultiplicationmiracles,122,225,234 stigmata,119,127,203,214,405n.43 strugglewithfamily,119,120,12122,193,221,225,281,338n.103 visions,67,116,12122,230,231,232,246,270 IdaofNivelles,77,115 Illness,asspiritualtheme,76,114,120,16165,17172,182,196,199200,209,222,355n.102369nn.44,45,382n.186,392n.86 ImagoDei,261,296,377n.139,407nn.4,5 ImeldaLambertini,230 ImitatioChristi,119,133,164,183,200,207,21112,245,246,248,254,25559,27475,285,296,319n.68,405nn.3745.SeealsoImitatiocrucis Imitatiocrucis,67,114,11819,20910,294,365n.214,391n.77,402n.3 ImitatioMariae,269,319n.68 Inedia,miraculous.SeeFasting,extendedormiraculous InnocentIV,pope,32 Insanity,asspiritualtheme,137,15758,16065,209,249,369n.44,389n.59 Irchinbald,89,199 IsaacofStella,324n.59 IsabelleofHuy,55 IsidoreofSeville,36 Italy,femalesaintsin,26,28,14048 Ivo,66 J Jacobs,Sarah,203 JamesofPorto,336n.82 JamesofVitry: hagiographerofMaryofOignies,59,82,85,115,116,117,123,124,229,336n.82 Historiaoccidentalis,78,91,230,238,336n.77,350n.17 propagandistforholywomen,13,29,64,77,80,85,229,253,335n.82 sermonesvulgares,333n.32 JaneMaryofMaill,131,133,134,203,210,212,215,233,391n.82,397n.21,410n.48,412n.76 JeanBerthelemy,379n.155 Jerome,37,44,47,79,82,214,216 JoanofArc,23,27,29091,315n.43 JoanofOrvieto,365n.214 JoantheMeatless,9192,196,228 JohnChrysostom,33,38,39,113,216,345n.201,385n.11 JohnClimacus,216,394n.116 JohnColombini,285 JohnMarienwerder,55,136,137,328n.118 JohnofAlverna,331n.153,399n.49,415n.22 JohnofFaenza,364n.205 JohnofFcamp,80 JohntheBaptist,133 JohntheEvangelist,118,134,236,248 JohntheGoodofMantua,87,94,196 JudasIscariot,285,plate2 Judith,36,192 JulianaFalconieri,257 JulianaofCornillon,24,124,204,232,23536,237,249,319n.68,336n.82,351n.24,387n.32,409n.35 abstinence,88,116,119,120,203,214,225 eucharisticpietyof,116,328nn.116,121,397n.25,398n.37 andthefeastofCorpusChristi,55,77,55,253 foodmultiplicationmiracles,121,122 JulianofNorwich,185,200,235,256,264,26667,269,28990,292,401n.83,411n.62 K KatharinenthalbeiDieszenhofen,315n.42 KirchbergbeiHagerloch,315n.42 KirchbergbeiSulz,315n.42 Kremers,Barbara,92 L Lactation,30,139,19091,254,270,277,289,292,293,375n.121 asiconographicmotif,ii,81,27072,plates1419,2124,2830 miraculous,93,

Page429

114,122,123,126,211,234,27375 visionsof,25,74,101,103,116,118,122,126,131,132,133,142,166,172,173,231,246,247,270,273,317n.56,331n.3,345n.201,plates18,19.See alsoNursing,asaspiritualtheme LambertofVence,392n.85 Lapa,motherofCatherineofSiena,167,171,179 Lateau,Louise,419n.3 LawrenceofDurham,90 LawrenceofSubiaco,94 Laystatus,asimportantinwomen'sreligiosity,2124,235,23637,27879,282,286,416n.34 Lazarus,40 Lazzari,Domenica,419n.3 Lau,161 Lent,37,40,182,216 foodobservancein,41,95,100 Leo,companionofFrancisofAssisi,96,98 LeotheGreat,pope,31,33,45,47 Levitation,8,23,204,211,391n.83 Libellusdediversisordinibus,238 LidwinaofSchiedam,25,130,222,223,316n.46,339nn.106,124,349n.3,plate10 abstinence,12425,196,222,274,297 eucharisticpietyof,12729 foodmiracles,12627 illness,25,198,200,205,222 miraculoushost,12829,228,280 miraculouslactation,126,211,234,273 service,12627,233,234 sleepdeprivation,204 stigmata?127,128,297 LittleflowersofSt.Francis,329n.138,341n.140,413n.7 Lollards,17,91.SeealsoHeresy,antisacerdotal LouisofThuringia,224 LowCountries,thewomen'smovementin,17,19,27,75,11529,140,253,273 LudolfofSaxony,57,256,326n.96,389n.59 LukardisofOberweimar,11314,232,256,273,295 abstinence,132 eucharisticpietyof,132,232 praysupsidedown,391n.80 spasms,203 stigmata,132,212,214,295 visions,113,13132,317n.56,402n.6 LutgardofAywires,115,116,222,375n.117 abstinenceandfasts,64,120,121,234,274,351n.34 bodilyclosure,122,148,393n.103 cures,122,123,211,273,387n.32 devotiontoSacredHeart,77 eucharisticpietyof,86,119,230 fearoftouch,174,213,250,349n.6,393n.100 foodimagery,116,118 as''motheroffriars,"353n.65,398n.29,414n.16 nursingvisions,118,122,123,174,247,351n.28 oilflowsfromfingers,211,234,274,392n.85 theologyofsuffering,121,171,212 M MacariusofAlexandria,38 Maconi,Stefano,374n.112 Malavolti,Francesco,379n.155 Manna,145,166,211,371n.68,412n.75 Marabotto,180 MargaretofCittdiCastello,145,273,308n.6,360n.174,362n.186,391n.84,392n.85,397n.21 MargaretofCortona,24,171,204,214,221,229,253,256 abstinenceandfasts,2,140,141,145,214 eucharisticpietyof,58,86,140,146 foodimagery,141 reverenceforpriests,141,147,172,177,233 service,145 testspriests,141,172 visions,2,141 MargaretofFaenza,145,234,246,273,412n.72 MargaretofFontana,396n.13 MargaretofHungary,135,136,146,203,204,222,275,392n.87 MargaretofMeerbeke,106,334n.49 MargaretofOingt,130,185,247,249,254,261,265,266,384n.208,388n.43,402n.5,410n.46 MargaretofYork,139

Page430

MargaretofYpres,24,115,116,117,119,120,200,203,214,247,256,351n.35 MargaretPorete,22,18586,277,279,290,296,384n.208 MargeryKempe,7,206,221,280,291,318n.65,390n.64,417n.44 eroticormaternalyearningstowardChrist,28,246,247,263,396n.21 fasting,88,193,219 identificationwithVirginMary,269,270 relationshiptohusband,88,193,206,215,219,221,396n.21 Marriage,19,20,120,125,136,167,203,21416,220,22223,22627,237,394n.112 ofMaryandJoseph,239 mystical,131,17475,246,248 asathemeinsaints'lives,2425,181,226,395n.11 theologyof,238,254 women'srebellionagainst,22226,261,293,395n.11 Martha,134,284 MartinofBoscoGualteri,356n.108 MartinofLeibitz,417n.44 Mary,motherofJesus.SeeVirginMary MaryMagdalen,81,94,166,255,284,334n.38,338n.98,340n.134,415n.22 MaryMagdalende'Pazzi,273,386n.25,412n.75 MaryofOignies,7,112,124,199,250,388n.43,398n.29 concernwithfluids,123,274 desireforpoverty,24,121,193 ecstasies,11516,209,255,402n.5 eucharisticpietyof,59,119,228 fastingandotherausterities,117,110,121,203,204,213,214,234,274 JamesofVitry'streatmentofher,seeJamesofVitry service,121,124,130,221,275 stigmata,119,274 strugglewithfamily,120,193,215,227 tears,115 testspriests,117,228,229 MarytheEgyptian,81 MassofSt.Gregory,iconographictheme,68,331n.153,399n.40,plate3 MatthewParis,90,417n.44 MatthiaofNazarei,392n.85 Mattiotti,John,395n.6 MaximusofTurin,35 MechtildofHackeborn,62,139,185,232,254,261,356n.121,391n.78,404n.32 MechtildofMagdeburg,209,222,263,279,291,401n.81,410n.47 criticizesclergy,27,229,23536 eatingmetaphors,3,31,106,133,186,250,271 eucharisticpietyof,3,133 onevil,242,290 ontheVirginMary,133,265 visions,133 MechtildofNimgue,334n.49 Menstruation,122,123,138,148,190,202,211,214,217,239,274,283,300,394n.105,418n.2 Miracles: antiSemiticovertonesof,64 ofblood,329nn.135,138 asdenunciationofheresyorsuperstition,6364,253 ofeucharisticdistribution,77,78,11719,12729,13032,14042,230,23637,398nn.37,38,41,400n.61,plate11 offoodmultiplicationorfeeding,76,90,122,12627,138,145,146,148,170,192,23334,357n.127,396n.13,plates8,9(seealsoLactation,miraculous) interpretationof,8,82,8384,87,151,194,391n.82 concerningnatureofeucharist,51,5960,6364,7677,78,14042,22833,27475,328n.121,332n.24,397n.25 MirrorsforVirgins,214 Misogyny,6,15,2223,27,86,2089,214,21617,23738,26263,288,295,313n.27,315nn.4344,316n.45,319n.74.SeealsoQuasiclericalrolesof women,declineof Monstrance,55,101 Montaillou,266,290 Ms.Magazine,298 Myroblytes,89,93,123,136,14546,211,274,339n.115,358n.139,391n.85

Page431

MysticalMill,iconographicmotif,68,81,285,330n.152,409n.41,plate1 Mysticism,23,26,84,15052,24044,253,366n.2 nuptialoreroticthemesin,26,28,29,8586,15052,15361,162,178,24650 oppositionto,2223,8586,25253.SeealsoParamysticalphenomena N Netter,Thomas,91,196,228 Neumann,Theresa,ofKonnersreuth,74,195,297,299,419n.3 NicholasofCusa,290 NicholasofFle,92,195 NicholasofMyra,44,123,273,348n.239,358n.139,365n.213,392n.85,412n.75 NicolasdeBonnefous,385n.10 Nilus,36 Nonnenbcher.SeeNuns'Books NorbertofXanten,14,57 Nuns,14,27,28,130,140,286,332n.14 increaseinnumbersof,1416,1820,311n.6 Nuns'Books,16,22,83,114,130,133,209,315n.42 Nursing,asaspiritualtheme,105,156,288,301 thebreastsoftheVirginMary,103,126,13132,27075,317n.56,331n.3,345n.201,375nn.120,122 GodorChristasnursingmother,94,116,118,122,142,155,16667,17280,249,266,27075,278,282,317n.56,355n.103,375n.122 nursingasimageforspiritualcounseling,101,150,156,171,27273,282,331n.3 O OdoofCheriton,341n.139 OdoofSully,326n.93 tenbach,315n.42 Oldo,James,92,94,210 Opisthotonos,203 Origen,38,290 OttoofBamberg,57 P Pachomius,38 PadrePio,200 Palladius,38 Paramysticalphenomena,8,26,93,200201,2034,21012,26869,27375,296,391nn.8285,392nn.8687.SeealsoBodilychanges,miraculousFasting, extendedormiraculousLactation,miraculousLevitationMiraclesPregnancy,mysticalStigmataVisions Passover,45,49,251 PaultheApostle,74,96,331n.3 PaultheHermit,82,335n.65 Perusinus,Sebastian,336n.76,365n.214 Peterborough,267 PeterChrysologus,320n.1 PeterDamian,42,63,64,81,82,216,253 PeterNolasco,411n.56 PeterofCelle,43 PeterofLuxembourg,7,88,92,94,210,337n.89 PeterofOstia,176 PeterofPoitiers,51 PeterofVaux,82,138 PetertheChanter,43,51,53,79,84,216 PetertheFlorentine,364n.205 PetertheVenerable,78 PetrinaofBalme,359n.157 PhilipofAlenon,338n.98 PhilipofBourges,82 PhilipofBurgundy,124 PhilipofClairvaux,120,122,256,369n.44,389n.59 PhilipofEichsttt,339n.115 Physiologicaltheory,medieval,179,217,262,265,27071,330n.144 Pilgrimage,18,23,291 Pomer,Henry,109,333n.24 PoorClares.SeeFranciscannuns Poverty,asareligioustheme,1,14,2930,9699,143,193,269,288 recentscholarshipon,1,98

Page432

Pregnancy,146,167,226,281,289,300,301 mystical,136,154,157,2034,257,26869,278 Premonstratensians: attitudetowardwomen,1516,19 fastingpracticesof,42 Priest: feminineimagesfor,57,65,257,26869,278,285(seealsoVirginMary,aspriest) increasedemphasison,inlaterMiddleAges,45,5660,65,77,17778,217,253 receivesforpeopleinmass,45,5657 Provost,Jan,272,plate29 PseudoAthanasius,36,216 Purgatory,252,418n.54 CatherineofGenoa'sdoctrineof,seeCatherineofGenoa recentscholarshipon,399n.54 women'ssufferingreleasessoulsfrom,127,129,133,171,227,234,242,281 women'stheologyof,12021,13637,175,207,235 Pus,drinkingof,93,98,114,14445,17172,180,182,209,246,343n.166 Pythagoras,36 Q Quarterdays,37,45,322n.28 Quasiclericalrolesofwomen,declineof,21,123,217,278 QuiriziodaMurano,27172,411n.66,416n.34,plate25 R RalphCoggeshall,336n.77,357n.133 Ramey,83 Raweating,38 RaymondofCapua,82,83,87,16675,177,221,336n.82,340n.134,349n.258,370n.61,371n.72,373nn.93,103,377n.135 difficultieswithfasting,166,338n.98 Recluses,54,75,318n.59,332n.14 Relics,cultof,255,391n.84,393n.96,412n.76 Rhineland,thewomen'smovementin,18,26,27,83,12940 RichardofChicester,74 Ridgeway,Cecily,385n.20 RitaofCascia,140,142,145,146,203,212,214,215,221,256,363n.188,391n.82 RobertofArbrissel,15,400n.74 RobertofAuxerre,336n.7,357n.133,388n.51 RobertofSalentino,356 RogerofWendover,90,417n.44 Rolle,Richard,80,82,102,105,106,112,152,285,288 andfasting,1078 attitudetowardwomen,106 useofimagery,11011,284 RomanostheMelodist,3940,48 RoseofViterbo,145,146,273,364n.213,392n.85,396n.13,plate9 Rousseau,JeanJacques,385n.10 RupertofDeutz,62 Ruysbroeck,Janvan,80,102,105,106,112,152,186 andfasting,10910 imagery,11011,26768,284 ontheeucharist,110,117,332nn.19,24 S SacredHeartofChrist,devotionto,4,55,77,93,278 Saints: female,increaseinnumbersof,13,2021 female,lifepatternsof,2428,83,87,181,28586,293,317n.50 female,regionaldifferencesamong,2628,12930,312n.15 male,lifepatternsof,28588,317n.50 asmodels,78,82,84,85,94,19899,243,310n.20,335nn.6567,336nn.76,82,338n.98,340n.134,415n.22 quantitativeworkon,2021,26,75,76,87,93,293,310n.20,312n.15,316n.47,317n.50 saintlywivesasmodelstohusbands,221,227 saints'livesasagenre,seeHagiography Salimbene,308n.6,417n.45 Salzinnes,83 SanDamiano,83 SantucciaCarabotti,15,16 Sarah,192

Page433

SayingsoftheFathers,216,323n.37,394n.118 SerafinaofSanGimignano,200,295 SimeonStylites,37,82,335n.65 Stations,37 Statusofwomen,recentscholarshipon,22 StephenofBourbon,336n.77 Stigmata,8,74,214,216,257,382n.187,391n.82 casesof,119,123,128,132,139,180,210,254,25556,297,335n.65,351n.32,354n.88,359nn.158,160,364n.205,387n.34,391n.82 asfemalephenomenon,23,25,200201,203,210,27375 Suffering,245,24651,28990,301,418n.54 asdesireforGod,6667,15361,24649 asimitatioChristi,132,144,17580,18384,207,24649,251,27475,29495,296,384n.208 asservice,127,129,133,171,17580,250,27576,389n.60,399n.54,418n.54.SeealsoPurgatory Suffragettes,fastingof,385n.20 Superpositio,37,38 Suso,Henry,43,76,80,1025,107,117,152,210,256,268,288,318n.65 attitudetowardwomen,85,1024,106,240,288,338n.103,344n.191,345n.207 andfasting,82,1045,338n.103 nursedbyMary,270 useoffeminineimages,1023,284 SybilofGages,116 Symbols: men'suseof,94112,28288 natureof,15052,27576,281,287,293,299302,403n.20,414nn.14,15 women'suseof,6,2526,206,208,27781,28896,416nn.33,34,418n.51.SeealsoWoman,assymboltomen Syncletica,323n.37 T Tabennisi,38 Tabernacles,eucharistic: developmentof,54,255 iconographyof,81,26869 Tauler,John,102,105,112,186,288 attitudetowardwomen,106,111,229,241,242,284,318n.68 ontheeucharist,1,4,5,31,80,94,106,111,113 andfoodasceticism,82,107,1089 useofimagery,107,11011,284,309n.17 Terence,37 Tertiaries,1718,19,27,28,223,291 Tertullian,261,262 ThomasKempis,353n.67 ThomasAntoniideSenis,168,170,370n.61 ThomasdellaFonte,375n.120 ThomasofCantilupe,8283 ThomasofCantimpr,64,78,80,115,116,118,122,123,193,229,253,317n.49,333n.32,350n.23 ThomasofCelano,95101,308n.6,319n.68,341n.139 TiedalaofNivelles,317n.56 Tss,27,13031,135,230,315n.42,317n.56,318n.65,390n.72,402n.5 Transubstantiation,5053,61,147,195,228,253,25657,27475 Transvestitesaints,29,28788,29091,340n.134,407n.16,417nn.4445 Trappists,42 Trent,Councilof,195 TurinMilanBookofHours,271,plates23,28 U UmilianadeiCerchi,24,396n.21 UmiltofFaenza,140,145,215,234,248,360n.174,362n.186,386n.20,416n.31 Unterlinden,13031,133,210,246,254,264,315n.42,394n.115,398n.39,400n.61,402n.6 UrbanVI,pope,380n.162 Utraquists,65 V Vernazza,Ettore,180 Viandier,190

Page434

Vicariouscommunion,56,57,234,418n.54 Vienne,Councilof,22 Viergesouvrantes,268,plate13 Villanade'Botti,142,200 Villers,317n.56 VincentFerrer,74 VincentofBeauvais,345n.201,410n.56 Virginity,20,29,223,261,293.SeealsoChastity VirginMary,40,80,254,26265,26768 appearsinvisions,25,103,121,13132,133,134,171,232,236,242,397n.21 devotionto,26,105,125,239,269,278,318n.57,397n.21,409n.43,410nn.4649 iconographyof,11,81,142,265,26869,27072,plates1,6,7,13,14,1824,2830 aspriest,278,399n.48,409n.41 Visions: bypassclericalauthority,68,11719,131,132,139,147,174,17778,22737 eucharisticvisions,60,62,7677 eucharisticvisions,casesof,105,111,128,13031,132,13637,13839,141,142,144,147,15556,158,16164,172,174,22737,24650,254, 355n.104 interpretationof,8,151,269,315n.43,418n.51 asmeansoftestingpriests,128,139,141,22830 W Walborg,goddess,89 Walburga,8990,196,197,211,273,392n.85,412n.75 Waldensians,16.SeealsoHeresy,antisacerdotal Walter,John,ofLeiden,126,353n.67 WalterDaniel,340n.131 Weil,Simone,195,297,389n.60 WeilerbeiEsslingen,315n.42 Weis,Margaret,203 Weyer,John,92 Wilburgis,63 Wilgefortis,194 WilliamDurandustheElder,57,65,81,268 WilliamFlete,171,373n.94 WilliamofSt.Thierry,4,62,94,151,154,414n.12 WilliamofYork,392n.85 Witches,23,195,196,262,270,273,316nn.45,46,386n.25 WolfhardofEichsttt,8990 Woman,assymboltomen,22930,26076,28288,29394,295,316n.45,318n.68,353n.65,414nn.1619,415nn.2028,416nn.31,33 WoundsofChrist,devotionto,4,249,27172 Y YvetteofHuy,215,349n.2

Page435

INDEXOFSECONDARYAUTHORS
Editorsareindexedforthefirstcitationoftheirnamesonly,unlesstheyareauthorsaswell. A Abate,Giuseppe,364n.213 Abel,Wilhelm,308n.6 Abels,Richard,313n.16 Aigrain,Ren,338n.101,344n.192,396n.13 Alaerts,J.,347n.237 Albans,J.H.,306 Allen,HopeEmily,318n.65,346n.216 Allmang,G.,333n.27 Amann,E.,333n.29,391n.82 Anadol,Gabriella,375n.121 AnceletHustache,Jeanne,306,339n.108,358nn.136,137,396n.13 Anglo,Sydney,316n.45 AnnibalidaLatere,FlaminioMaria,340n.125 Anson,John,29,319n.72,416n.32,417n.45 Arber,Edward,340n.130 Arbesmann,Rudolph,36,321nn.11,12,20,322nn.28,29,36,334n.40,335n.63 Ardener,Edwin,414n.14 Ardener,Shirley,414n.14 Aris,Philippe,225,396nn.14,15 Arndt,W.,338n.101 Arnold,Thomas,329n.138 Arnould,E.J.F.,346n.226,347n.227 Astur,Baleoneus,365n.215 Atkinson,Clarissa,314n.29,395n.1 Attwater,Donald,344n.181 Auerbach,Judy,415n.29 Axters,Stephen,347n.237 B Backmund,Norbert,312n.10 Baix,F.,325nn.80,85,326nn.93,97,99,327n.101,332n.14,332n.25,335n.51 Baker,Derek,312n.10,313n.20 Baker,Lester,389n.54 Bakhtin,Mikhail,308n.8 Barker,PaulaS.D.,408n.29 Baudry,L.,303,337n.92 Bauer,DieterR.,310n.21,316n.44 Baumer,Christoph,409n.37 Beccari,J.B.,331n.5 Bell,RudolphM.,xivxv,20,21,26,28,76,86,140,169,194,199200,214,262,269,293,310n.20,314nn.3134,315nn.39,44,316n.47,317nn.50,52,54, 57,319nn.71,74,337n.90,338n.102,360n.175,370n.61,371nn.65,75,76,84,372n.88,374n.112,375n.121,286nn.25,28,388n.41,390nn.66,74,391n.84, 393nn.93,100,394nn.108,111,113,395n.7,397n.22,407n.11,409n.45,412n.75 Bellah,RobertN.,385n.14 Beller,AnneScott,387n.36 Benedict,Ruth,297,418n.2 Bensch,StephenP.,359n.150 Benson,RobertL.,400n.65 Benton,John,337n.84,405n.34,407n.8 Benz,Ernst,200,317n.57,388n.41 Berlire,Ursmer,328n.127,333n.26 Berliner,Rudolph,411n.65

Page436

Bernards,Matthus,313n.29,394n.109 Bernstein,AlanE.,400n.68 Bertaud,Emile,326nn.90,97,98,332n.14,405n.35 Btrous,P.V.,410n.51 Bihlmeyer,Karl,306,315n.42,357n.135 Birlinger,A.,315n.42,357n.135 Blume,Clemens,320n.7 Bodenstedt,MaryImmaculate,326n.96,405n.45 Boeckl,Karl,334n.50 Boeren,P.C.,334n.50,406n.51 Bolton,BrendaM.,312n.14,313nn.20,25,317n.48,329n.139,332n.14,349n.2,352n.46,386n.21,391n.80,403n.24 BonzidaGenova,Umile,304,381nn.181,182,184 Borgnet,August,327n.110 Bornstein,Diane,313n.27,316n.45 Brresen,KariElisabeth,394n.121,408n.29,410n.49 BoskindWhite,Marlene,387n.35 Boswell,John,322n.25,417n.43 Boutruche,Robert,307n.5 Bradley,Ritamary,408n.29 Braudel,Fernand,307n.5 Braun,Joseph,330n.152,331n.153,335nn.53,56,60 Brenner,Robert,308n.5 Brewer,E.Cobham,331n.2 Brewer,J.S.,333n.31,339n.123 Bridenthal,Renate,315n.40 Bridgett,T.E.,335n.68,392n.92,409n.32 Brooke,ChristopherN.L.,311nn.5,6,312n.11,326n.100,327n.108,328n.125,386n.21 Brooke,RosalindB.,311nn.5,6,312n.11,341n.143,386n.21 Browe,Peter,7677,315n.42,317n.56,325n.80,81,326nn.93,94,327n.101,328n.120,329nn.13338,332nn.12,22,23,334n.47,335n.63,339n.111, 340n.128,356n.107,387n.34,397nn.25,26,398nn.36,41,400nn.63,64,403n.13,406n.49 Brown,ElizabethA.R.,404n.33 Brown,Karen,336n.73 Brown,Peter,2,307n.4,310n.20,314n.29,324n.70,394n.122,404n.33,405n.37,407n.10 Brown,Raphael,329n.138 Bruch,Hilde,189,201,384n.1,387n.38,388n.50,389nn.5254 Brumberg,JoanJ.,331n.8,385n.13,386nn.24,29,387n.38,388n.49,389n.62,390n.63,419n.7 Brundage,James,400n.70 Brunel,C.,356n.109,396n.13 Bcher,Karl,311n.7,313nn.22,24 Bugge,John,307n.3 Bullough,VernL.,316n.45,394n.121,396n.19,400n.70,407n.8,416n.32,417n.43 Butler,Cuthbert,322n.36 Butler,Sharon,308n.7,328n.123 ButlerBowdon,W.,395n.1 Bynum,CarolineW.,312n.7,314nn.36,37,39,316n.47,317nn.50,53,318nn.60,61,65,66,326n.99,328nn.119,120,331n.3,332nn.11,15,336n.78, 340nn.135,136,344nn.187,349n.2,353n.67,356nn.121,122,357n.125,366nn.4,7,375n.121,380n.166386n.21388n.43391n.84,392n.86,394n.123, 397nn.22,28,398nn.31,41,42,44,399nn.46,57,400nn.65,68,402n.3,404n.32,405n.37,406nn.47,53,407nn.6,14,15,408nn.16,23,32,410n.55, 411n.60,413nn.6,10,11,414nn.13,15,17,18,416n.38 Byrnes,Ambrose,324nn.66,67,325n.85,86,326n.88 C Cabassut,Andr,375n.121 Cabrol,F.,322n.27 Cambell,Jacques,388n.44 Camporesi,Piero,308n.8

Page437

Canet,Louis,371n.72,373n.94,374n.109,376nn.123,125,377n.135,379nn.155,157,158 Canetti,Elias,19091,277,385n.8 Cardman,Francine,314n.38,394n.123,415n.23 Carlevaris,Angela,399n.58 Carozzi,Claude,393nn.96,100,412n.75 Carruthers,M.J.,390n.64 Cartier,E.,376n.124 CarusWilson,E.M.,308n.6 Casey,K.,311n.7 Casolini,Fausta,341n.140 Cauwels,Janice,387n.35 Cavallini,Giuliana,304,370n.62 Cawley,Martinus,349nn.3,6,351n.29,393n.100 Chenu,M.D.,379n.158 Chernin,Kim,387nn.35,39 Chitty,DerwasJ.,324n.69 Chodorow,Nancy,415n.29 Christ,CarolP.,319n.73 Church,F.Forrester,394n.122 Clancy,P.M.J.,323n.47 Clark,Stuart,316n.45 Coakley,John,397n.27 Cognet,Louis,315n.42 Coletti,Luigi,411n.66 Colker,Marvin,309n.13,323n.53,334n.44 Colledge,Edmund(Eric),305,307n.1,315n.43,346n.215,347n.237,348n.241,375n.121,384n.210,390n.67,403n.19,410n.49,415n.21 Comper,FrancesM.M.,346n.216,347n.227 Congar,Yves,327nn.105,106,400n.65 Connelly,Joseph,320n.7,325nn.8587,326n.88 Constable,Giles,312n.10,324n.57,336n.80,341n.138,400nn.65,66 Copleston,FrederickC.,404n.29 Corblet,Jules,325n.80,326n.101,329n.135,335nn.52,54,56,344n.181 Cormier,HyacintheMarie,338n.98 Costello,H.,413n.11 Coulton,G.G.,308n.6,417n.45 Crane,ThomasF.,334n.32 Crisp,A.H.,387n.38 Crump,G.C.,315n.40 Curschmann,Fritz,308n.6 Cuthbert,Father,361n.180,395n.3 Cuylits,Paul,348n.245 D d'Alenon,Ubald,359n.157,360n.170 d'Alverny,MarieThrse,316n.45,394n.121,407n.14 daPelago,Lodovico,361n.180 Davies,Robertson,419n.10 Davis,NatalieZ.,280,394n.124,413nn.6,79,417n.45 Deanesly,Margaret,347n.227 Debongnie,Pierre,333n.29,351nn.32,33,352n.37,353n.67,354n.88,381nn.181,183,184,382nn.186,187,383n.201,391n.82 deCeuleneer,Adolphe,410n.50 Dchanet,J.M.,309n.18 deCourtivron,Isabelle,416n.35 deFontette,MichelinePontenay,311n.7 DeGanck,R.,349n.2 Delany,Sheila,390n.69 Delcourt,Marie,290,417n.42 Delehaye,Hippolyte,194,338n.101,386n.26,417n.42 Delhaye,Philippe,396n.19 Delooz,Pierre,310n.20 deMatons,JosGrosdidier,323n.38 DeMause,L.,330n.144 deMeijer,A.,353n.67 Demos,JohnPutnam,386n.25 Denzinger,Henry,325n.81 DePaepe,Norbert,367nn.13,19 Desbonnets,T.,341n.140 Deseille,Placide,321nn.11,12 Dewez,Lon,331n.3,410n.56,412n.71 D'Haenens,A.,349n.2 Dickman,Susan,395n.1,416n.37 Dinzelbacher,Peter,310n.21,317nn.47,57,333n.27,418n.51

Page438

Doncoeur,Paul,361n.181,363n.190 Douglas,Mary,329n.133 Doyere,Pierre,327n.113 Drane,AugustaTheodosia,336n.71,372n.84,373nn.92,98,378nn.105,112,379n.157,380n.161 Dronke,Peter,290,292,317n.47,363n.190,387n.36,401nn.78,81,403n.13,407n.15,408nn.21,27,413nn.1,8,416n.38,417n.48 Dubus,Andre,419n.9 Duby,Georges,239,240,286,319n.74,323n.48,384n.6,390n.66,394n.122,395n.17,400nn.70,74,401n.75,414n.17,415n.27,416n.31 Duddle,May,387n.38 Dugmore,C.W.,328n.125 Duhr,Joseph,327nn.10911,328nn.115,125,332n.11,333n.28,398n.33 Dumeige,Gervais,330n.147 Dumoutet,Edouard,81,268,315n.43,325nn.8084,326nn.89,95335nn.53,54,57,59405n.35 Dunbar,AgnesB.C.,339n.118 Dunning,StephenN.,413n.10 DuprTheseider,Eugenio,370n.62 Duraffour,Antonin,305,403n.19 Durn,RafaelM.,410n.56 Durdilly,Paulette,305,403n.19 E Edward,M.Ann,324n.62 Elm,Kaspar,313n.20,358n.137 Ely,Elissa,387n.35 Elze,Martin,405n.37 Erbstsser,Martin,313nn.22,23 Erens,A.,312n.10 Erickson,C.,311n.7 Esser,Cajetan,341n.139 F Fahy,B.,327n.107 Fassbinder,Maria,343n.172 Fawtier,Robert,338n.98,370n.61,371n.72,374nn.111,112,376n.134,379nn.157,158 FeeleyHarnik,Gillian,49,309n.14,325n.76 Feldmann,H.,331n.4 Ferr,M.J.,303,337n.92,363n.190 Finucane,Ronald,324n.72,405nn.35,36 Fleming,JohnV.,307n.2,342n.159 Foralosso,Imelda,370n.61 Forbes,Thomas,316n.45 Fowler,Robert,74,331n.8,389nn.56,57 Frakni,Vilmos,358n.141 Fredericq,Paul,313n.26 Freed,JohnB.,312nn.11,13,15,313nn.23,28 Friedberg,E.,406n.4 Friedlnder,MaxJ.,412n.70 Fry,Timothy,322n.31 Fhrktter,Adelgundis,399n.58 G Gardette,Pierre,305,403n.19 Gaselee,Stephen,325nn.85,87,326n.88,330n.146 Gauthier,Xavire,417n.41 Gerish,W.B.,331n.4,340nn.126,133,386n.20 Gigli,Girolamo,336n.71 Gilligan,Carol,415n.29 Glass,D.V.,396n.18 Glasser,Marc,314n.32 Glorieux,Palmon,334n.48 Gssmann,Elisabeth,406n.1,407n.14,408nn.19,20 Gold,PennySchine,315n.41,400n.70 Gombrich,E.,411n.65 Goodich,Michael,27,83,310n.20,312nn.9,14,15,314nn.31,39,318nn.59,61,330n.144,336n.74,395n.9,396nn.16,20,403n.24,411n.58,417n.44 Goodman,Anthony,395n.1 Goody,Jack,308n.7,309n.14,321nn.11,14,384n.2,385n.17 Gottfried,Robert,308n.7,329n.138,392n.86 Gougaud,Louis,271,318n.59,322n.30,326nn.92,99,332n.11,333n.26,

Page439

379n.158,385n.18,411nn.65,66,416n.34 Grant,RobertM.,307n.4 Gray,FrancineduPlessix,320n.75 Greven,Joseph,311n.7,313nn.22,25,332n.14 Griesser,Bruno,333n.31 Groeschel,Benedict,381nn.181,184,386n.28 Grottanelli,Francesco,370n.61 Grundmann,Herbert,18,243,311n.7,313nn.19,25,332n.14,337n.87,401n.87 Guarnieri,Romana,384n.209 Guillaume,Alexandre,320n.1,321n.10,323n.50 Guy,JeanClaude,322n.25 H Habig,MarionA.,305 Hajnal,J.,396n.18 Hamman,Adalbert,321n.8,325nn.74,77 Hammond,WilliamA.,74,331n.8 Hardwick,Elizabeth,418n.1 Harrison,Ellen,313n.16 Hart,Columba,309nn.16,18,318n.62,348nn.241,247,366n.9,367n.13,410n.49 Hastings,James,321n.11 Havekamp,Katherine,418n.2 Hawley,JohnS.,415n.29 Heise,CarlGeorg,335n.60 Heller,Nicholas,324n.62,344nn.191,192 Hendrix,G.,349n.6,351n.26 Henisch,BridgetAnn,323n.49,328nn.123,124 Hentsch,AliceA.,313n.29,316n.45,396n.19 Herde,Rosemary,366n.6 Herlihy,David,223,313n.24,315n.40,395nn.9,10,396nn.1518,400n.70 Hermann,Placid,342n.155 HermannMascard,Nicole,392nn.85,87 Hieatt,ConstanceB.,308n.7,328n.123 Hilarion,P.,343n.171 Hilberg,Isidore,322n.26 Hilpisch,Stephanus,311n.7 Hilton,R.H.,308n.5 Hinnebusch,JohnF.,333n.32 Hipler,Franciscus,326n.96 Hofmann,Georg,346n.218 Holdsworth,ChristopherJ.,318n.60,395n.5 Holland,Barron,385n.16 Holzapfel,Heribert,410n.56 Hontoir,M.Camille,326n.93,329n.130,332n.12,333n.25,335n.56 Hornstein,LillianHerlands,366n.2 Howard,John,357n.122 Hoyenga,KatharineB.,387n.36 Hudson,James,387n.35 Hughes,DianeO.,395n.9,396n.17 Hughes,Serge,381n.181,383n.201,408n.17 Huizinga,Johan,105,310n.19,345n.212,379n.155,403n.20 Humani,MariaC.,361n.181 Huyskens,Albert,344n.188,358n.136 Huysmans,J.K.,353n.67,391n.85 I ImbertGourbeyre,Antoine,7778,331n.6,333n.29,391n.82 Irigaray,Luce,416n.35 J Jacobs,E.F.,315n.40 Jacoff,Rachel,419n.8 Jane,SisterM.,309n.17 Jones,CharlesW.,352n.60,391n.85 Jungmann,Josef,314n.37,326nn.94,100,327nn.101,102,104,329n.138,333n.28,392n.92,399n.52 K Katzenellenbogen,Adolf,410n.52,411n.67 Kearns,Coneth,338n.98,370n.61,371n.71 Kenny,AnthonyJ.P.,404n.29 Kershaw,Ian,308nn.5,6

Page440

Kieckhefer,Richard,26,76,85,94,310n.20,318n.59,328n.117,332nn.16,17,336n.81,338n.106,341n.138,346n.213,356n.111,359nn.148,152,388nn.43, 44,389n.61,390n.67,391n.76,395n.1,402nn.2,3,405nn.37,44,406n.48 King,Archdale,327n.102 Klauser,Theodor,326n.100,327n.101 Knowles,David,106,322n.31,323n.53,334n.45,346n.217 Koch,Gottfried,312n.16,390n.69 Knig,J.,315n.42 Koonz,C.,315n.40 Kristeva,Julia,417n.41 Krusch,B.,338n.101 L Lacey,J.Hubert,386n.26 Lackner,BedeK.,396n.15 Lagorio,Valerie,375n.121 Lamb,George,375n.121 Lambert,MalcolmDavid,98,307n.2,313n.17,342n.159 Lambot,C.,325nn.80,85,326nn.93,97,99,327n.101,332n.14,333n.25,335n.51,350n.11 Lamphere,Louise,407n.9 Lane,Barbara,271,409nn.37,40,41,411nn.63,64,69 Langer,Otto,315n.44 Laqueur,Thomas,407n.8 Larenaudie,MarieJosphe,308n.6 Larner,Christina,316n.45 Laslett,Peter,225,396n.14 Laurent,M.H.,360n.174,370n.61 Lawley,S.W.,346n.216 Lazzeri,Zeffirino,344n.186 Leacock,Eleanor,414n.15 Leclercq,Henri,321n.11 Leclercq,Jean,305,312n.10,314n.37,316n.47,329n.131,330n.151,366n.6,375n.121,390n.70 LeGoff,Jacques,399n.54 Lemay,HelenR.,417n.43 Lerner,Robert,311n.7,313nn.18,21,23,315n.44,401n.87 Letts,Malcolm,412n.70 Levasti,Arrigo,370n.61 Lewis,I.M.,398n.32 Liebing,Hans,405n.37 Little,LesterK.,98,307n.2,342n.159,396n.20,399n.54 Liu,Aimee,418n.2 Lochner,GeorgWolfgangK.,406n.48 Longpr,E.,331n.155,334n.48 Loomis,C.Grant,328n.124,347n.239,385n.18 Luard,HenryRichard,409n.32 Lucas,H.S.,308n.6 Lugano,PlacidoTommaso,395n.6 M MacCormack,Carol,414n.15 MacCullough,J.A.,321nn.11,12,385n.15 McDermott,JohnF.,Jr.,389n.55 McDonnell,ErnestW.,311n.1,313nn.20,26,317n.56,326n.93,328n.116,329n.139,332n.13,333nn.25,27,349n.2,393n.99,398n.30,403n.23 McGinn,Bernard,415n.21 McLaughlin,EleanorC.,312n.16,313n.18,315n.45,319n.73,375n.121,390n.70,394n.121,401n.87,408n.29 McLaughlin,MaryMartin,312n.15,330n.144,337n.84,396nn.15,19,411n.58 McLeod,Sheila,297,418n.2 Mcnamara,JoAnn,290,315n.40,319n.73,394n.121,417n.42 Macy,Gary,405n.35 Madigan,MaryFelicitas,345n.213,402n.2 Malcove,Lillian,319n.75 Marchand,M.D.,392n.85 Marconi,SandraMoschini,411n.66 Marks,Elaine,416n.35 Marrow,JamesH.,330n.152,402n.3 Martines,Lauro,394n.121

Page441

Marzac,Nicole,346n.216 Mattioli,Umberto,319n.68 May,WilliamHarold,398n.30 Mayer,AntonL.,326nn.93,95 Meech,S.B.,318n.65 Meeks,WayneA.,325n.73,76 Meersseman,G.G.,350n.13 Meister,Aloys,329n.136 Meller,Peter,360n.170 Menzies,Lucy,309n.15 Meyer,J.E.,331n.4 Midelfort,H.C.Eric,316n.45 Minuchin,Salvador,389n.54 Misciattelli,Piero,304,370n.62 Mitchell,W.J.T.,397n.28 Moir,A.L.,412n.70 Mollat,Michel,98,342n.159 Mommaers,Paul,153,366n.9,367n.14 Monballieu,A.,412n.71 Monter,E.W.,316n.45 Moore,R.I.,313n.17,403n.24 Moore,Robert,317n.50 Moorman,John,361n.180 Morel,Gall,309n.15 Morson,J.,413n.11 Mounter,CarlA.,324n.69,390n.71 Mugnier,F.,321n.11,322nn.30,32,323n.50,324n.56 Mundy,E.James,411n.63 Mundy,J.H.,398n.30 Murray,Robert,325n.75 Muschg,Walter,315n.42 Musurillo,Herbert,320n.5,321nn.13,14,2123,322nn.3335,37,335nn.62,63,394n.118 Mutzenbecher,Almut,321n.17 N Nails,Debra,416n.29 Nash,June,414n.15 Needham,Joseph,407n.8 Neel,Carol,312nn.10,12 Neumann,EvaG.,313n.23,332n.14 Neumann,Hans,309n.15 Newman,BarbaraJane,406n.1,408nn.21,26 Newman,F.X.,407n.8 Noffke,Suzanne,370n.62,380nn.171,179 Nugent,D.C.,413n.2,416n.36 Nyberg,Tore,409n.43 O O'Faolain,Julia,394n.121 O'Meara,CarraFerguson,411n.64 O'Neill,CherryBoone,418n.2 Orbach,Susie,387n.35,388n.39 Orlandi,Stefano,363n.187 Ortner,Sherry,283,407n.9,414nn.14,15 Ozment,Stephen,316n.45 P Paget,Valerian,340n.130 Palazzoli,MaraSelvini,201,389nn.53,54 Palmer,R.L.,387n.35 Pater,Thomas,194,331nn.4,7,340n.126 Patlagean,Evelyne,321n.16,417n.42 Pelikan,Jaroslav,404n.29 Pelphrey,Brant,289,408n.28,416n.37 Penelope,Sister,310n.19 Pennacchi,Francesco,319n.68 Perrin,E.SainteMarie,359n.161 Pertz,G.H.,339n.112 Petroff,Elizabeth,140,317nn.47,56,318n.65,319n.73,386n.28,396n.21,402nn.5,10,403nn.11,12,410n.46,412n.72,413n.78 Pez,Hieronymus,417n.44 Phillips,Dayton,313n.22 Poncelet,Alb.,410n.56 Pope,HarrisonG.,387n.35 Porion,JeanBaptiste,348n.241,366n.9 Postan,M.M.,307n.5 Power,Eileen,315n.40,334n.46 Powicke,F.M.,340n.131 Preus,Anthony,407n.8 Proja,GiovanniBattista,415n.25 Pulignani,M.Faloci,361n.181 Pullar,Philippa,384n.5 Purtle,CarolJ.,409n.41,411n.64 Q Quinn,Naomi,315n.41

Page442

R Raby,F.T.E.,325n.85,330n.146 Raitt,Jill,311n.2 Ramanujan,A.K.,415n.29 Raming,Ida,314n.38 Reeves,Marjorie,398n.30 Reynaert,J.,153,366n.9,367n.14 Reynolds,Frank,317n.50 Reypens,L.,306,368n.41,369n.42 Rzette,J.,415n.23 Ribet,Jrme,331n.6 Rich,Pierre,396n.15 Riehle,Wolfgang,341n.137,348nn.248,249,357n.123,366nn.2,5 Rigg,A.George,334n.43 Ringler,Siegfried,310n.21 Ripley,Mrs.G.,382n.195 Ritenbaugh,Cheryl,388n.49 Robinson,FredNorris,385n.18 Rogers,EricN.,321n.11,331n.4,332n.9,385nn.17,19,20,389nn.57,62 Roisin,Simone,83,84,269,312n.14,317n.49,318nn.57,61,332n.13,336nn.74,79,349n.2,409n.44 Rollins,HyderE.,331n.4,340n.126,386n.20,392n.89 Rombauts,E.,367n.19 Rosaldo,MichelleZimbalist,315n.41,407n.9,414n.14 Rosenwein,Barbara,399n.54 Rosman,BerniceL.,389n.54 Ross,CherylLynn,309n.14 Ross,MaryEllen,309n.14 Roth,F.W.E.,315n.42,408n.19 Rothkrug,Lionel,64,326nn.91,95,329nn.130,137,332n.12,400n.62 Rousselle,Aline,321n.24,322n.31 Ruether,Rosemary,290,315n.45,319n.73,390n.70,394n.121,417n.42 Ruh,Kurt,413n.1 Russell,JeffreyB.,316n.45 Ryan,John,322n.30 S Sanday,PeggyReeves,319n.75,384n.2,413n.77 Saxer,Victor,324n.71,335n.55 Scarry,Elaine,419n.11 Schadewaldt,H.,331n.4,340nn.126,127,386n.24,388n.51 Schiller,Gertrud,330n.152,331nn.153,154,402n.3,408n.21,410n.53,411n.67,412n.70 Schmemann,Alexandre,323n.46 Schmidt,Paul,358n.136,396n.13 Schmitt,C.,357n.135 Schmitz,Philibert,311n.7 Scholz,BernhardW.,399n.58 Schrder,Karl,304 Schulenberg,JaneTibbetts,314n.31 Scott,JoanW.,416n.29 Seton,Walter,337n.91 Shank,MichaelH.,417n.44 Shapiro,Judith,414n.15 Shapiro,Laura,385n.12 SherleyPrice,Leo,324n.72 Silk,MarkReuel,398n.32 Silli,Antonino,365n.214 Simon,Marcel,321n.14 Smith,B.,400n.65 Smuts,AliceB.,331n.8 Sommalius,H.,353n.67 Southern,RichardW.,15,311n.4,312n.10,313n.25 Squire,Susan,419n.5 Stachnik,Richard,359n.150 Sthlin,Otto,321n.21 Steegman,MaryG.,361n.181 Steele,FrancescaM.,339nn.113,115,116 Stein,Frederick,312n.11,313nn.21,28 Steinberg,Leo,307n.3 Stone,Lawrence,225,396n.14 Strange,Joseph,304,333n.30 Strathern,M.,414n.15 Strauch,Philipp,356n.106 Strawley,J.H.,325n.77,328n.125 Sullivan,JordanJoseph,341n.141,342nn.148,149 Swaan,Wim,311n.5

Page443

Szasz,ThomasS.,386n.30,390n.68 T Talbot,C.H.,308n.9 Tannahill,Reay,328n.121 Taurisano,InnocenzoM.,370n.61 Taylor,HenryOsborn,311n.1,316n.47 Terziariol,Adone,388n.42 Testi,Laudedeo,411n.66 Thom,Helmut,389n.53 Thorndike,Lynn,323n.49,328nn.123,124 Thurston,Herbert,76,194,331nn.2,4,7,332n.21,339n.116,386nn.25,27,388n.47,389n.57,391nn.82,85,392n.86,406n.49,419n.3 Tommaseo,Niccol,304,372n.86 Tracy,David,418n.52 Trexler,RichardC.,312n.15,412n.70 Tseng,WenShing,389n.55 Tubach,FredericC.,46,63,78,329n.132,331n.2,334nn.3339 Turner,Edith,397n.28,415n.26 Turner,Victor,229,397n.28,415n.26 U Usener,H.,417n.42 V Vacandard,E.,323n.50,410n.56 Vagaggini,Cyprien,333n.26 Valli,Francesco,370n.63,372n.79 Vandenbroucke,Franois,348nn.248,249 VanderMeer,Frdric,312n.11 VanEngen,JohnH.,329n.127 VanHerik,Judith,418nn.52,1 VanIterson,Albert,331n.3,410n.56,412n.71 VanMierlo,J.,309n.16,366n.9,367n.11,368n.41,369nn.42,44 Vauchez,Andr,21,26,28,76,82,94,140,310n.20,314nn.3036,315n.44,316n.47,317n.54,318nn.59,63,319n.74,332nn.1416,20,333n.28,335nn.68, 70,341n.138,362n.186,388n.51,390n.66,391n.77,393n.93,394nn.112,114,397n.22,400nn.62,69,401n.88,406n.50,407n.12,414n.16,415n.21 Vavra,Elisabeth,413n.9 Veith,Ilza,386n.30,389n.55,410n.54 Venzky,Gabriele,393n.101 Vernet,Felix,336n.75 Vetter,Ferdinand,306,346n.218 Vielliard,Jeanne,332n.24 Viller,Marcel,381n.181 Villien,A.,321n.11 vonderGoltz,EduardF.,321n.23 vonHgel,Friedrich,289,381nn.18184,382n.187,384nn.206,208,416n.36 Vorreux,D.,341n.140 W Walpole,A.S.,320n.6,321n.18,325nn.78,79 Walsh,James,305,347n.227,375n.121,384n.210,390n.67,403n.19,410n.49 Waltner,Anne,387n.37 Ward,Benedicta,405n.35 Warner,Marina,290,319n.73,409n.43,417n.42 Watkins,Rene,390n.66,401n.88 Wats,William,339n.120 Weil,Simone,297,403n.21,418n.1 Weinstein,Donald,20,21,26,28,76,86,140,199200,214,262,269,293,307n.2,310n.20,314nn.3134,315nn.39,44,316n.47,317nn.50,52,54,57, 318nn.58,59,319nn.71,74,337n.90,338n.102,386n.25,388n.41,390nn.66,74,391n.84,393n.93,394nn.108,111,113,395n.7,396n.16,397n.22,407n.11, 409n.45 Weissman,Hope,390n.64 Wemple,SuzanneF.,311n.3,312n.15,315n.40,319n.73 Werner,Ernst,313nn.22,23 Werner,Mattias,358n.137 Wessley,Stephen,398n.30 Westpfahl,Hans,305

Page444

Wheaton,BarbaraKetcham,323nn.49,51,328nn.12224384nn.35,385nn.9,10 White,WilliamC.,Jr.,387n.35 Whitehead,Harriet,414n.15 Whiting,Beatrice,415n.29 Whiting,John,415n.29 Whyte,MartinKing,315n.41 Wilmart,Andr,330n.146 Wilson,KatharinaM.,357n.122 Wilson,Stephen,310n.20 Wolf,Eric,414n.14 Wood,CharlesT.,330n.144,393n.104,400n.71 Wulff,August,316n.45 Z Zanini,Lina,370n.61 Zarri,Gabriella,336n.76 ZelerWerdmller,H.,315n.42 Zilboorg,Gregory,340n.127,386nn.29,30 Zimmermann,Gerd,323n.50,324n.55

Page445

Designer: SandyDrooker Compositor: Wilsted&Taylor Text: 11/13Granjon Display: Granjon Printer: MapleVailBookMfg.Group Binder: MapleVailBookMfg.Group