a Consider light of free-space wavelength 1300 nm traveling in pure silica medium.

Calculate the phase velocity and group velocity of light in this medium. Is the group velocity ever greater than the phase velocity? b What is the Brewster angle (the polarization angle p) and the critical angle (c) for total internal reflection when the light wave traveling in this silica medium is incident on a silica/air interface. What happens at the polarization angle? c What is the reflection coefficient and reflectance at normal incidence when the light beam traveling in the silica medium is incident on a silica/air interface? d What is the reflection coefficient and reflectance at normal incidence when a light beam traveling in air is incident on an air/silica interface? How do these compare with part (c) and what is your conclusion? Solution a From n and Ng vs. curves, at = 1300 nm n = 1.447 and Ng = 1.462 Phase velocity : Group velocity: v = c/n = (3108 m s-1) / 1.447 = 2.073108 m s-1 vg = c/Ng = (3108 m s-1) / 1.462 = 2.052108 m s-1

For glasses, dn/d is negative so that Ng > n and hence vg < v. Note that vg > v in a medium that will have a positive dn/d. For example, PbS, PbTe, PbSe in the region = 1 3.5 m. b The polarization (the Brewster) angle is

p = arctan(n2/n1) = arctan(1/ 1.447) = 34. 65

At this angle of incidence, r// = 0, the reflected wave has an E-field only perpendicular to the plane of incidence. The critical angle for TIR is,

c = arcsin(n2/n1) = arcsin(1/ 1.447) = 43.72

c For light traveling in glass incident on the glass-air interface at normal incidence, n n 1.447 1 r = r // = r = 1 2 = = 0.183 n1 + n2 1.447 + 1

Thus,
d

R = r2 = (0.183)2 = 0.0335

For light traveling in air incident on the air-glass interface at normal incidence, n n 1 1.447 r = r // = r = 1 2 = = 0.183 n1 + n2 1 + 1.447 R = r2 = (0.183)2 = 0.0335

i.e.

There is a 180 phase change as r is negative. Notice that in both cases the amount of reflection (3.35%) is the same.
_____________________________________________________________________ 1.3 The Sellmeier dispersion coefficient for pure silica (SiO2) and 86.5%SiO2-13.5 mol.% GeO2 re given in Table 1.2 Write a program on your computer or calculator, or use a math software package or even a spread sheet program (e.g. Excel) to obtain the refractive index n as a function of from 0.5 m to 1.8 m for both pure silica and 86.5%SiO2-13.5%GeO2. Obtain the group index, Ng, vs. wavelength for both materials and plot it on the same graph. Find the wavelength at which the material dispersion becomes zero in each material.

Solution Excel program to plot n and differentiate and find Ng

Figure 1Q8-1 Refractive index n and the group index Ng of pure SiO2 (silica) glass as a function of wavelength (Excel). The minimum in Ng is around 1.3 m. Note that the smooth line option used in Excel to pass a continuous smooth line through the data points. Data points are exactly on the line and are not shown for clarity.

Refractive index n and the group index Ng of 86.5%SiO213.5%GeO as a function of wavelength (Excel). The minimum in Ng is around 1.4 m. Note that the smooth line option used in Excel to pass a continuous smooth line through the data points. Data points are exactly on the line and are not shown for clarity.

Material dispersion is proportional to derivative of group velocity over wavelength. The corresponding values are close to 1.3 and 1.4 m.
1.15 (a) Suppose that frequency spectrum of a radiation emitted from a source has a central frequency o and a spectral width . The spectrum of this radiation in terms of wavelength will have a central wavelength o and a spectral width . Clearly, o = c/o. Since << o and << o, using = c/, show that the line width and hence the coherence length lc are

o 2 = o o c

and

l c = c t =

2 o

(b) Calculate for a lasing emission from a He-Ne laser that has o = 632.8 nm and 1.5 GHz. Find its coherence time and length. Solution (a) See Example 1.9.3 (b) Consider the width in wavelength, = ( 2/c) = (1.5109 s-1 (632/810-9 m)2/(3108 m s-1) = 3.1610-6 m. The coherence time is t 1/ = 1/(1.5109 Hz) = 0.66610-9 s The coherence length is lc = ct = (3108 m s-1)(0.66610-9 s) = 0.20 m = 20 cm 2.2 Consider two parallel rays 1 and 2 interfering in the guide as in Figure 2.52. Given the phase difference

 m = m ( y ) = m

y (m + m ) a

between the waves at C, distance y above the guide center, find the electric field pattern E (y) in the guide. Recall that the field at C can be written as E ( y ) = A cos(t ) + A cos[t + m ( y )] . Plot the field pattern for the first three modes taking a planar dielectric guide with a core thickness 20 m, n1 = 1.455 n2 = 1.440, light wavelength of 1.3 m.

Rays 1 and 2 are initially in phase as they belong to the same wavefront. Ray 1 experiences total internal reflection at A. 1 and 2 interfere at C. There is a phase difference between the two

Solution

The two waves interfering at C are out phase by , E ( y ) = A cos(t ) + A cos[t + m ( y )] where A is an arbitrary amplitude. Thus,
1 1 E = 2 A cos t + m ( y ) cos m ( y ) 2 2 or 1 E = 2 A cos m ( y ) cos(t + ) = Eocos(t + ) 2

in which = m/2, and cos(t + ) is the time dependent part that represents the wave phenomenon, and the curly brackets contain the effective amplitude. Thus, the amplitude Eo is y m (m + m ) Eo = 2 A cos 2a 2 To plot Eo as a function of y, we need to find m for m = 0, 1 and 2 , the first three modes. From Example 2.1.1 in the textbook, the waveguide condition is (2a)k1 cos m m = m we can now substitute for m which has different forms for TE and TM waves to find,

TE waves

2 n2 2 sin m n 1 tan ak1 cos m m = 2 cos m

1/ 2

= f TE ( m )
1/ 2

TM waves

2 n2 2 sin m n 1 tan ak1 cos m m = 2 2 n2 n cos m 1

= f TM ( m )

The above two equations can be solved graphically as in Example 2.1.1 to find m for each choice of m. Alternatively one can use a computer program for finding the roots of a function. The above equations are functions of m only for each m. Using a = 10 m, = 1.3 m, n1 = 1.455 n2 = 1.440, the results are: TE Modes m=0 88.84 163.75 m=0 88.84 164.08 m=1 87.67 147.02 m=1 87.67 147.66 m=2 86.51 129.69 m=2 86.51 130.60

m (degrees) m (degrees)
TM Modes

m (degrees) m (degrees)

There is no significant difference between the TE and TM modes (the reason is that n1 and n2 are very close).

Field distribution across the core of a planar dielectric waveguide

We can set A = 1 and plot Eo vs. y using

y m Eo = 2 cos (m + m ) 2a 2 with the m and m values in the table above. This is shown in Figure 2Q4-1. 2.7 Consider a planar dielectric waveguide with a core thickness 10 m, n1 = 1.4446, n2 = 1.4440. Calculate the V-number, the mode angle m for m = 0 (use a graphical solution, if necessary), penetration depth, and mode field width, MFW = 2a + 2, for light wavelengths of 1.0 m and 1.5 m. What is your conclusion? Compare your MFW calculation with 2wo = 2a(V+1)/V. The mode angle 0, is given as 0 = 88.85 for = 1 m and 0 = 88.72 for = 1.5 m for the fundamental mode m = 0.
Solution

= 1 m, n1 = 1.4446, n2 = 1.4440, a = 5 m. Apply

V=
to obtain

2a

(n

2 1

2 n2

1/ 2

V = 1.3079
2 n2 2 sin m n 1 tan ak1 cos m m = 2 cos m 1/ 2

Solve the waveguide condition

= f ( m )

graphically as in Example 2.1.1 to find: c = 88.35 and the mode angle (for m = 0) is o = 88.85. Then use n 2 2 1 2n2 sin 1 m n 1 2 = m =
1/ 2

to calculate the penetration depth:

= 1/ = 5.33 m.
MFW = 2a + 2 = 20.65 m MFW = 2a(V+1)/V = 2(5 m)(1.3079+1)/(1.3079) = 17.6 m (Difference = 15%) We can also calculate MFW from

= 1.5 m, V = 0.872, single mode. Solve waveguide condition graphically that the mode angle is o = 88.72. = 1/ = 9.08 m.

MFW = 2a + 2 = 28.15 m.

Compare with MFW = 2a(V+1)/V = 2(5 m)(0.872+1)/(0.872) = 21.5 m (Difference = 24%) Notice that the MFW from 2a(V+1)/V gets worse as V decreases. The reason for using MFW = 2a(V+1)/V, is that this equation provides a single step calculation of MFW. The calculation of the penetration depth requires the calculation of the incidence angle and . Author's Note: Consider a more extreme case

= 5 m, V = 0.262, single mode. Solve waveguide condition graphically to find that the mode angle is o = 88.40. = 1/ = 77.22 m.
MFW = 2a + 2 = 164.4 m. Compare with MFW = 2a(V+1)/V = 2(5 m)(0.262 + 1)/(0.262) = 48.2 m (Very large difference.)

2.8 Consider a multimode fiber with a core diameter of 100 m, core refractive index of 1.4750, and a cladding refractive index of 1.4550 both at 850 nm. Consider operating this fiber at = 850 nm. (a) Calculate the V-number for the fiber and estimate the number of Calculate the wavelength beyond which the fiber becomes single mode. modes. (b) (c) Calculate the numerical aperture. (d) Calculate the maximum acceptance angle. (e) Calculate the modal dispersion and hence the bit rate distance product.
Solution

Given n1 = 1.475, n2 = 1.455, 2a = 10010-6 m or a = 50 m and = 0.850 m. The Vnumber is,

V =

2a

(n

2 1

2 n2

1/ 2

2 (50 m)(1.4752 1.4552 )1/2 = 89.47 (0.850 m)

Number of modes M,

V 2 89.47 2 M = = 4002 2 2
The fiber becomes monomode when,

V=
or

2a

(n

2 1

2 ) n2

1/ 2

< 2.405
= 2 (50 m)(1.4752 1.4552 )1 / 2 = 31.6 m 2.405

2 ) 2a (n12 n2 > 2.405

1/ 2

For wavelengths longer than 31.6 m, the fiber is a single mode waveguide.

The numerical aperture NA is

2 1/ 2 NA = (n12 n2 ) = (1.475 2 1.455 2 )1 / 2 = 0.242

If max is the maximum acceptance angle, then,

max = arcsin
Modal dispersion is given by

NA = arcsin(0.242 / 1) = 14 n o

intermode n1 n2 1.475 1.455 = = L c 3 108 m s -1

= 66.7 ps m-1 or 67.6 ns per km Given that 0.29, maximum bit-rate is BL = i.e. 0.25L 0.25L 0.25 (0.29)(66.7 ns km -1 )

total

intermode

BL = 13 Mb s-1 km (only an estimate)

We neglected material dispersion at this wavelength which would further decrease BL. Material dispersion and modal dispersion must be combined by
2 2 t2 otal = intermode + material

For example, assuming an LED with a spectral rms deviation of about 20 nm, and a Dm 200 ps km-1 nm-1 (at about 850 nm)we would find the material dispersion as

material = (200 ps km-1 nm-1)(20 nm)(1 km) 4000 ps km-1 or 4 ns km-1,

which is substantially smaller than the intermode dispersion and can be neglected. ________________________________________________________________________ 2.9) Consider a fiber with a 86.5%SiO2-13.5%GeO2 core of diameter of 8 m and refractive index of 1.468 and a cladding refractive index of 1.464 both refractive indices at 1300 nm where the fiber is to be operated using a laser source with a half maximum Calculate the V-number for the fiber. Is this a single mode fiber? width of 2 nm. (a) (b) Calculate the wavelength below which the fiber becomes multimode. (c) Calculate the numerical aperture. (d) Calculate the maximum acceptance angle. (e) Obtain the material dispersion and waveguide dispersion and hence estimate the bit rate distance product (BL) of the fiber.
Solution (a) Given n1 = 1.475, n2 = 1.455, 2a = 810-6 m or a = 4 m and =1.3 m. The Vnumber is,

V=

2a

(n

2 1

2 1/ 2 2

2 (4 m)(1.4682 1.464 2 )1 / 2 = = 2.094 (1.3 m)

(b)

Since V < 2.405, this is a single mode fiber. The fiber becomes multimode when

V=
or

2a

2 1/ 2 (n12 n2 ) > 2.405 1/ 2

2 ) 2a (n12 n2 < 2.405

2 (4 m)(1.4682 1.464 2 ) = 2.405

1/ 2

=1.13 m

For wavelengths shorter than 1.13 m, the fiber is a multi-mode waveguide.

(c)

The numerical aperture NA is

2 NA = n12 n2

1/ 2

= (1.4682 1.4642 )1/ 2 = 0.108

(d)

If max is the maximum acceptance angle, then,

max = arcsin

NA = arcsin(0.108 / 1) = 6.2 no

so that the total acceptance angle is 12.4.

1

(e) At =1.3 m, from D vs. , Figure 2.22, Dm 7.5 ps km-1 nm-1, Dw 5 ps km-1 nm .

1/ 2 = Dm + Dw 1 / 2 L
= |7.55 ps km-1 nm-1|(2 nm) = 15 ps km-1 + 10 ps km-1 = 0.025 ns km-1 Obviously material dispersion is 15 ps km-1 and waveguide dispersion is 10 ps km-1 The maximum bit-rate distance product is then BL 0.59 L 0.59 = 23.6 Gb s-1 km. = -1 1 / 2 0.025 ns km

2.10) According to Question 1.3 (Ch.1), the Sellmeier dispersion equation provides n vs. for pure SiO2 and SiO2-13.5 mol.%GeO2. The refractive index increases linearly with addition of GeO2 to SiO2 from 0 to 13.5 mol.%. A single mode step index fiber for use at 1300 nm is required to have the following properties: NA = 0.1, core diameter of 9 m and a core of SiO2-13.5% GeO2. What should be the cladding composition? Solution

Given 2a = 910-6 m or a = 4.5 m. From Ch 1, Question 1.3, the Sellmeier equation is,
n2 1 = G1 2 G2 2 G3 2

2 2 1

2 2 2

2 23

where G1, G2, G3 and 1, 2 and 3 are constants given below where 1, 2, 3 are in m.

Sellmeier constants SiO2-13.5%GeO2

G1 0.711040

G2 0.451885

G3 0.704048

1
0.0642700

2
0.129408

3
9.425478

The fiber is to operate at =1.3 m, thus, using the Sellmeier equation above with the constants in the table we find n1 = 1.4682 The V-number is, V= Apply or to obtain Apply 2 a 2 (4.5 m) (0.1) = 2.175 (1.3 m)
(2n1 )
2
1 /2

NA =

NA = (n1 n2 )

2 1 /2

1/ 2

0.1 [2(1.4682)2 ]

= 0.002320 = n1 n2 , n1 i.e. 0.0232 = 1.4681 n2 1.4681

Thus, the required cladding refractive index is n2 = 1.4648 Pure silica has n = 1.4473, SiO2-13.5 mol.%GeO2 has n1 = 1.4682, by linear interpolation the composition corresponding to n2 = 1.4648 is 11.3 mol.% GeO2. Note, the refractive index n(x) of SiO2-x mol.%GeO2, assuming a linear relationship, can be written as x x + n (13.5) n( x ) = n(0) 1 13.5 13.5 where n(0) = 1.4473; n(13.5) = n1 = 1.4682. Substituting n(x) = 1.4648 gives x = 11.3 . ________________________________________________________________________ 2.12) Waveguide dispersion arises as a result of the dependence of the propagation constant on the V-number, which depends on the wavelength. It is present even when the refractive index is constant; no material dispersion. Let us suppose that n1 and n2 are wavelength (or k) independent. Suppose that is the propagation constant of mode lm and k = 2/ in which is the free space wavelength. Then the normalized propagation constant b and propagation constant are related by

= n2k[1 + b]
The group velocity is defined and given by

(1)

vg =

d dk =c d d

Show that the propagation time, or the group delay time, of the mode is

=
Given the definition of V,

L Ln2 Ln2 d (kb) = + vg c c dk

(2)

2 1/ 2 V = ka[n12 n2 ] kan2 (2)1/ 2

(3)

and

d (Vb) d d = bkan2 (2)1/ 2 = an2 (2)1/ 2 (bk ) dV dV dV

Show that

(4)

d Ln d 2 (Vb) = 2 V d c dV 2
and that the waveguide dispersion coefficient is

(5)

Dw =

d n d 2 (Vb) = 2 V Ld c dV 2

(6)

Figure 2.53 shows the dependence of V[d2(Vb)/dV2] on the V-number. In the range 1.5 < V < 2.4,

V
Show that,

d 2 (Vb) 1.984 dV 2 V2 n2 1.984 (n n2 ) 1.984 = 1 2 c V c V2

1.984 c ( 2a ) 2 2n 2 83.76 (m ) [ a (m )]2 n2
Waveguide dispersion

Dw
which simplifies to
Dw

(7)

(8)

i.e.
coefficient

Dw ( ps nm 1 km 1 )

(9)

Consider a fiber with a core of diameter of 8 m and refractive index of 1.468 and a cladding refractive index of 1.464, both refractive indices at 1300 nm. Suppose that a 1.3 m laser diode with a spectral linewidth of 2 nm is used to provide the input light pulses. Estimate the waveguide dispersion per kilometer of fiber using Eqs. (6) and (8).

1.5

1 V[d2(Vb)/dV2] 0.5

0 0 1 V-number 2 3

Figure 2.53 d2(Vb)/dV2 vs V-number for a step index fiber. (Data extracted from W. A. Gambling et al.
The Radio and Electronics Engineer, 51, 313, 1981.)

Solution

Waveguide dispersion arises as a result of the dependence of the propagation constant on the V-number which depends on the wavelength. It is present even when the refractive index is constant; no material dispersion. Let us suppose that n1 and n2 are wavelength (or k) independent. Suppose that is the propagation constant of mode lm and k = 2/ where is the free space wavelength. Then the normalized propagation constant b is defined as, b=
2 ( / k ) 2 n2 2 n12 n2

(1)

Show that for small normalized index difference = (n1 n2)/n1, Eq. (1) approximates to b= which gives as, ( / k ) n2 n1 n2 (2)

= n2k[1 + b]
The group velocity is defined and given by

(3)

vg =

d dk =c d d
Ln2 Ln2 d (kb) + = c c dk

Thus, the propagation time of the mode is

L L d = vg c dk

(4)

where we assumed constant (does not depend on the wavelength). Given the definition of V,

2 1/ 2 V = ka[n12 n2 ] = ka[(n1 + n2 )(n1 n2 )]1/ 2

n1 n2 ka (n1 + n2 )n1 n 1 1/ 2 ka[2n2 n1] kan2 (2)1/ 2 From Eq. (5),

1/ 2

(5)

d (Vb) d d = bkan2 ( 2 )1 / 2 = an2 (2 )1 / 2 (bk ) dV dV dV

This means that depends on V as,

Ln2 Ln2 d (Vb) + c c dV

(6)

Dispersion, that is, spread in due to a spread can be found by differentiating Eq. (6) to obtain, d Ln2 dV d d (Vb) Ln2 V d 2 (Vb) = = d c d dV dV c dV 2 Ln d 2 (Vb) = 2 V c dV 2 The waveguide dispersion coefficient is defined as

(7)

n2 d 2 (Vb) d = Dw = V Ld c dV 2
Figure 2.53 shows the dependence of V[d2(Vb)/dV2] on the V-number. In the range 2 < V < 2.4,

(8)

d 2 (Vb) 1.984 dV 2 V2 n2 1.984 (n n2 ) 1.984 = 1 2 c V c V2

1/ 2

so that Eq. (8) becomes,

Dw

(9)

We can simplify this further by using

n 1.984 1.984n2 Dw 2 2 1/ 2 c V c 2an2 (2) Dw 1.984 c ( 2 a ) 2 2 n 2

(10)

Equation (6) should really have Ng2 instead of n2 in which case Eq. (10) would be

Dw

1.984 N g 2
2 c(2a) 2 2n2

(11)

Consider a fiber with a core of diameter of 8 m and refractive index of 1.468 and a cladding refractive index of 1.464 both refractive indices at 1300 nm. Suppose that a1.3 m laser diode with a spectral linewidth of 2 nm is used to provide the input light pulses. Estimate the waveguide dispersion per kilometer of fiber using Eqs. (8) and (11).

V=
and

2a

(n

2 1

2 n2

1/ 2

2 (4 m)(1.4682 1.464 2 )1/ 2 = 2.094 (1.3 m)

= (n1 n2)/n1 = (1.4681.464)/1.468 = 0.00273.

From the graph, Vd2(Vb)/dV2 = 0.45,

n2 d 2 (Vb) (1.464)(2.73 10 3 ) Dw = V = (0.45) c dV 2 (3 108 m s -1 )(1300 10 9 m)

Using Eq. (10) Dw 1.984 1.984(1300 10 9 m) = c(2a) 2 2n2 (3 108 m s -1 )[2 4 10 6 m]2 2(1.464)] Dw 4.610-6 s m-2 or 4.6 ps km-1 nm-1

Dw 4.610-6 s m-2 or 4.6 ps km-1 nm-1 1/2 = |Dw|L 1/2 = (4.6 ps km-1 nm-1)(2 nm) = 9.2 ps/km

For 1/2 = 2 nm we have, 2.14) Consider an optimal graded index fiber with a core diameter of 30 m and a refractive index of 1.4740 at the center of the core and a cladding refractive index of 1.4530. Find the number of modes at 1300 nm operation. What is its NA at the fiber axis, and its effective NA? Suppose that the fiber is coupled to a laser diode emitter at 1300 nm and a spectral linewidth (FWHM) of 3 nm. The material dispersion coefficient at this wavelength is about 5 ps km-1 nm-1. Calculate the total dispersion and estimate the bit rate distance product of the fiber. How does this compare with the performance of a multimode fiber with same core radius, and n1 and n2? What would the total dispersion and maximum bit rate be if an LED source of spectral width (FWHM) 1/2 80 nm is used?
Solution

The normalized refractive index difference = (n1 n2)/n1 = (1.4740 1.453)/1.474 = 0.01425 Modal dispersion for 1 km of graded index fiber is

intermode

Ln1 2 (1000)(1.474) = (0.01425) 2 = 2.910-11 s or 0.029 ns 8 20 3c 20 3 (3 10 )

The material dispersion (FWHM) is

m (1/ 2 ) = LDm 1 / 2 = (1000 m)(5 ps ns 1 km 1 )(3 nm) = 0.015 ns

Assuming a Gaussian output light pulse shape, rms material dispersion is,

m = 0.4251/2 = (0.425)(0.015 ns) = 0.00638 ns

Total dispersion is
2 2 total = intermode +m = 0.029 2 + 0.006382 = 0.0295 ns.

so that

B = 0.25/total = 8.5 Gb

If this were a multimode step-index fiber with the same n1 and n2, then the rms dispersion would roughly be

n1 n2 1.474 1.453 = = 70 ps m-1 or 70 ns per km 8 -1 L c 3 10 m s

Maximum bit-rate is BL i.e. 0.25L 0.25L 0.25 = (0.28) (0.28)(70 ns km -1 )

intermode

BL = 12.8 Mb s-1 km (only an estimate!)

The corresponding B for 1 km would be around 13 Mb s-1 With LED excitation, again assuming a Gaussian output light pulse shape, rms material dispersion is

m = (0.425) m (1/ 2 ) = (0.425) LDm 1/ 2

= (0.425)(1000 m)(5 ps ns 1 km 1 )(80 nm)

= 0.17 ns

Total dispersion is
2 2 total = intermode +m = 0.0292 + 0.17 2 = 0.172 ns

so that

B = 0.25/total = 1.45 Gb

The effect of material dispersion now dominates intermode dispersion. _______________________________________________________________________ 3.3) Consider a GaAs pn junction which has the following properties. Na = 1016 cm-3 (pside), Nd = 1016 cm-3 (n-side), B = 7.2110-16 m3 s-1, cross sectional area A = 0.1 mm2. What is the diode current due to diffusion in the neutral regions at 300 K when the forward voltage across the diode is 1 V? See Question 3.2 and Table 3Q2 for GaAs properties.
Solution

De = kTe/e (0.0259 V)(700010-4 m2 V-1 s-1) = 0.01813 m2 s-1

and

Dh = kTh/e (0.0259 V)( 31010-4 m2 V-1 s-1) = 0.000803 m2 s-1 Recombination time of electrons diffusing in the p-region is 1 1 e = = = 138.7 ns 16 3 1 m s )(1 1016 10 6 m 3 ) BNa (7.21 10 Recombination time of holes diffusing in the n-region is 1 1 h = = = 138.7 ns 16 3 1 BN d (7.21 10 m s )(1 1016 106 m 3 )

The diffusion lengths are then: m and 10.56 m Le = [Dee] = [0.01813 m2 s-1)(138.7 10-9 s)] = 5.02 10-5 m, or 50.2 Lh = [Dhh] = [0.000803 m2 s-1)(138.7 10-9 s)] =1.056 10-5 m, or

The diffusion component of the current is V) where Thus Iso I = Idiff = so[exp(eV/(kT)) 1] soexp(eV/(kT)) for V >> kT/e ( 0.02586

so = AJso = Aeni2[(Dh/(LhNd)) + (De/(LeNa))]

Given ni = 1.81012 m-3, A = 0.110-6 m2,

(0.1 10 =

m 2 )( 1.602 1019 C)( 1.8 1012 m3 ) (0.000803 m2 s1 )

2 6

(0.1 10 +

(1.056 10 m)(1 10 m ) m )( 1.602 10 C)( 1.8 10 m ) (0.01813 m (5.02 10 m)(1 10 m )

5 22 3 2 19 12 3 2 3 5 22

s1 )

Iso = 2.27 10-21 A. The forward current due to diffusion is Idiff = Isoexp[(eV/(kT)] = (2.27 10-21 A)exp[(1 V)/(0.0259 V)]

Idiff = 0.00013 A or 0.13 mA

________________________________________________________________________ 3.5) An AlGaAs LED emitter for use in a local optical fiber network has the output spectrum shown in Figure 3.32 (b). It is designed for peak emission at about 820 nm at 25C. (a) Why does the peak emission wavelength increase with temperature? (c) What is the bandgap of AlGaAs in this LED? (d) The bandgap, Eg, of the ternary AlxGa1-xAs alloys follows the empirical expression, Eg(eV) = 1.424 + 1.266x + 0.266x2. What is the composition of the AlxGa1-xAs in this LED?

Solution

Figure 3.32 (a) A typical output spectrum (relative intensity vs. wavelength) from an IR (infrared)
AlGaAs LED. (b) The output spectrum of the LED in (a) at 3 temperatures: 25 C, 40 C and 85 C. Values normalized to peak emission at 25 C. The spectral widths are FWHM.

(a) (b)

The bandgap decreases with temperature Use the peak emission wavelength to find Eg as follows: At 40 C (233 K), peak = 804 nm. At 25 C (298 K), peak = 820 nm. At 85 C (358 K), peak = 837 nm.

We first note that we need the required bandgap Eg at the wavelength of interest. The photon energy at peak emission is hc/peak = Eg + (1/2)kBT. Then,

E g ho 1 2 k BT
and at peak = 820109 m, taking T = 25 + 273K,

Eg
(c)

hc

1 2 k BT = 1.499 eV

The bandgap Eg of the ternary alloys AlxGa1-xAs follows the empirical expression, Eg(eV) = 1.424+1.266x+0.266x2. Eg(eV) = 1.499 = 1.424 + 1.266x + 0.266x2.

Solving for x we find, x = 0.05 or Al0.05Ga0.95As 3.6) Figure 3.52 represents the bandgap Eg and the lattice parameter a in a quarternary III-V alloy system. A line joining two points represents the changes in Eg and a with composition in a ternary alloy composed of the compounds at the ends of that line. For example, starting at GaAs point, Eg = 1.42 eV and a = 0.565 nm, Eg decreases and a increases as GaAs is alloyed with InAs, as we move along the line joining GaAs to InAs. Eventually at InAs, Eg = 0.35 eV and a = 0.606 nm. Point X in Figure 3.52 is composed

of InAs and GaAs and it is the ternary alloy In1-xGaxAs. At X, In0.53Ga0.47As (often called "in-gas" in telecom) has Eg = 0.73 eV and a = 0.587 nm, which is the same a as that for InP. In1-xGaxAs at X is therefore lattice matched to InP and can hence be grown on an InP substrate without creating defects at the interface. Further, In1-xGaxAs at X can be alloyed with InP to obtain a quaternary alloy1 In1-xGaxAs1-yPy whose properties lie on the line joining X and InP and therefore all have the same lattice parameter as InP but different bandgap. Layers of In1-xGaxAs1-yPy with composition between X and InP can be grown epitaxially on an InP substrate by various techniques such as liquid phase epitaxy (LPE) or molecular beam epitaxy (MBE). The grey shaded area between the solid lines represents the possible values of Eg and a for the quarternary III-V alloy system in which the bandgap is direct and hence suitable for direct recombination. The compositions of the quaternary alloy lattice matched to InP follow the line from X to InP.
(a) Given that the In1-xGaxAs at X is In0.53Ga0.47As show that quaternary alloys In1xGaxAs1-yPy are lattice matched to InP when y = 12.13x. (b) The bandgap energy Eg, in eV for In1-xGaxAs1-yPy lattice matched to InP is given by the empirical relation, Eg (eV) = 0.75 + 0.46y + 0.14 y2. Find the composition of the quaternary alloy suitable for an LED emitter operating at 1.30 m. Figure 3.52 Bandgap energy Eg and lattice constant a for various III-V alloys of GaP, GaAs, InP and InAs. A line represents a ternary alloy formed with compounds from the end points of the line. Solid lines are for direct bandgap alloys whereas dashed lines for indirect bandgap alloys. Regions between lines represent quaternary alloys. The line from X to InP represents quaternary alloys In1-xGaxAs1-yPy made from In0.53Ga0.47As and InP which are lattice matched to InP.

Solution (a) The IIIV quaternary alloy is made of (In0.53Ga0.47As) alloyed with InP. Suppose that 1z fraction of In0.53Ga0.47As is alloyed with z fraction of InP, which means that z = 0
1

xGaxAs1-yPy

Some books other formats for the chemical composition e.g. GaxIn1-xAsyP1-y. The present notation In1was chosen to reflect the common vernacular for InGaAs ("in-gas").

for In0.53Ga0.47As, and z = 1 for InP. The formula for the quaternary alloy is In1xGaxAs1yPy. Thus, (1z)(In0.53Ga0.47As) + zInP = In1xGaxAs1-yPy This equation of course must hold at point X where we have (In0.53Ga0.47As). We can now balance the contents for each element in Equation (1): For P For Ga For In For As
(b) z=y

(1)

(1 z)(0.47) = x (1 z)(0.53) + z = 1 x 1z=1y Eg = 1.24/ = 0.954 eV

y = 1 2.13x z = 1 2.13x or y = 1 2.13x z=y

Consider a lattice matched InGaAsP to InP. Given = 1.30 m. Eg (eV) = 0.75 + 0.46y + 0.14 y2 = 0.954 eV y = 0.39, and hence x = 0.47(1y) = 0.28

Thus,

Solving the quadratic equation, In0.72Ga0.28As0.61P0.39

3.8) Experiments carried out on various direct bandgap semiconductor LEDs give the output spectral linewidth (between half intensity points as in listed in Table 3.5. From Figure 3.31 we know that a spread in the wavelength is related to a spread in the photon 2 energy, (hc / Eph )Eph where Eph = h is the photon energy. Suppose that we write

Eph = hc/ and Eph = (h) mkBT where m is a numerical constant. Therefore, (mk BT / hc)2 . By appropriately plotting the data in Table 3.5, and assuming T = 300 K, find m. Table 3.6 gives the linewidth 1/2 for various visible LEDs based on GaAsP. Radiative recombination is obtained by appropriately doping the material. Using m = 3.0 in Eq. (1), T = 300 K, calculate the expected spectral width for each and compare with the experimental value. What is your conclusion?
Table 3.5 Linewidth 1/2 between half points in the output spectrum (intensity vs. wavelength) of four
LEDs using direct bandgap semiconductors. 810 36 AlGaAs 820 40 AlGaAs 890 50 GaAs 950 55 GaAs Peak wavelength of emission () nm 1/2 nm Material (Direct Eg) 650 22 AlGaAs 1150 90 InGaAsP 1270 110 InGaAsP 1500 150 InGaAsP

(1)

Table 3.6 Linewidth 1/2 between half points in the output spectrum (intensity vs. wavelength) of
various visible LEDs using GaAsP

Peak wavelength of emission () nm 1/2 nm Color Material

565 28 Green GaP(N)

583 36 Yellow GaAsP(N)

600 40 Orange GaAs (N)

635 40 Red GaAsP

Solution

160
InGaAsP

140 120
InGaAsP

100

1/2 (nm)

InGaAsP

80 60 40 20 0 0 1000000 2000000 3000000

GaAs GaAs AlGaAs AlGaAs AlGaAs

2 (nm)2
Figure 3Q32-1 Plot of 1/2 vs. 2. The data can be fitted with a straight line.

The best line forced through zero is 1/2 = [6.5710-5 (nm)-1]2 and Slope = 6.5710-5 (nm)-1. This slope is mkT/hc; thus m 3.15. Table 3Q23-1 below shows the calculated spectral widths 1/2 using m = 3. The actual observed widths are substantially larger than the expected 1/2 using m = 3, as we found above for the direct bandgap materials. The observed spread is much more than m = 3, and is related to the energy of the localized defect center. It is possible to give a semiquantitative plausible explanation as follows. A captured electron will have a wavefunction that is localized and hence a smaller uncertainty in its position than in the band; i.e. x will be small. That means the uncertainty p in its momentum will be higher and hence the uncertainly in its energy will also be higher. We would expect that the spread of photon energies will be more than from that in band to band recombinations

Table 3Q23-1 Linewidth 1/2 between half points in the output spectrum (intensity vs. wavelength) of various visible LEDs using GaAsP
Peak wavelength of emission () nm 1/2 nm Expected 1/2 nm using m = 3 Color Material 565 28 20.0 Green GaP(N) 583 36 21.3 Yellow GaAsP(N) 600 40 22.5 Orange GaAs (N) 635 40 25.2 Red GaAsP

3.10) a) It is found that approximately 200 W is coupled into a multimode step index fiber from a surface emitting LED when the current is 75 mA and the voltage across the LED is about 1.5 V. What is the overall efficiency of operation? (b) Experiments are carried out on coupling light from a 1310 nm ELED (edge emitting LED) into multimode and single mode fibers. (i) At room temperature, when the ELED current is 120 mA, the voltage is 1.3 V and light power coupled into a 50 m multimode fiber with NA (numerical aperture) = 0.2 is 48 W. What is the overall efficiency? (ii) At room temperature, when the ELED current is 120 mA, the voltage is 1.3 V and light power coupled into a 9 m single mode fiber is 7 W. What is the overall efficiency? Solution (a) (b) (i) (ii)
Po 200 10 6 W = 1.810-3 = 0.18 % = 3 IV (75 10 A)(1.5 V) Po 48 10 6 W = 0.0307% = 3 IV (120 10 A)(1.3 V)
Po 7 10 6 W = = 0.0045% 3 IV (120 10 A)(1.3 V)

overall = overall =
overall =

3.11) For a particular AlGaAs LED emitting at 850 nm, the nonradiative recombination lifetime is nr = 50 ns. The recombination occurs in the active region, which has been doped with acceptors of concentration 1017 cm-3, and the direct recombination coefficient B is 210-16 m3 s-1. What is the internal optical power generated at a current of 100 mA? Solution

The radiative lifetime r = 1/BNa = 1/(210-16 m3 s-1)(11023 m-3) = 5.0 10-8 s or 50 ns. IQE is,

 IQE
Equation (3) gives IQE =

r1 (50ns) 1 = 1 = = 0.50 = 50% 1 (50 ns) 1 + (50 ns) 1 r + nr

Photons emitted per second ph Po (int) / h = = where Po(int) is Total carriers lost per second I / e I /e the optical power generated internally (not yet extracted). Therefore,

I Po (int) = IQE h = 72.9 mW e

(h) is the energy of the electromagnetic radiation per unit volume per unit frequency due to photons with energy h = E2 E1. Suppose that there are nph photons per unit volume. Each has an energy h. The frequency range of emission is . Then, n h (h ) = ph
Consider the Ar ion laser system. Given that the emission wavelength is at 488 nm and the linewidth in the output spectrum is 5109 Hz (between half intensity points, that is = 25109 Hz), estimate the photon concentration necessary to achieve more stimulated emission than spontaneous emission.
Solution

Suppose that there are nph photons per unit volume. Each has an energy h. The frequency range of emission is as is the linewidth between half intensity points. Then, n h (h ) = ph Now, c3 R21 (stim) = ( h) > 1 R21 (spon) 8h 3

( h ) >

8 h 3 8h 8(6.62 10 34 J s) = 1.4310-13 J s m-3 = 3 = 3 9 3 (488 10 m) c

(h ) (2 5 10 9 s-1 )(1.43 10 13 J s m-3 ) n ph = = 3 10 8 m s-1 h ) (6.62 10 34 J s)( 433 10 9 m nph =3.51015 Photons m-3.

Note that this represents the critical photon concentration for stimulated emission to just exceed spontaneous emission in the absence of any photon losses. It does not represent the photon concentration for laser operation. In practice, the photon concentration is much greater during laser operation. ________________________________________________________________________

Consider the energy diagram of a forward biased GaAs laser diode as in Figure 4Q9 For simplicity we assume a symmetrical device (n = p) and we assume that population inversion has been just reached by A and B overlapping as illustrated in Error! Reference source not found. which results in EFn EFp = Eg. Estimate the minimum carrier concentration n = p for population inversion in GaAs at 300K. The intrinsic carrier concentration in GaAs is of the order of 107 cm-3. Assume for simplicity that n = niexp[(EFn EFi)/kBT)] and p = niexp[(EFi EFn)/kBT)] (Note: The analysis will only be an order of magnitude as the above equations do not hold in degenerate semiconductors. A better approach is to use the Joyce-Dixon equations as can be found in advanced textbooks)
p+
Ec Eg EFp Ev B A e

n+
Ec EFn

h+

Ev

V The energy band diagram of a degenerately doped p-n junction with a sufficiently large forward bias to just cause population inversion where A and B overlap.
Figure 4Q9 Solution

From Figure 4Q9, the potential barrier from Ec(n-side) to Ec(p-side) is Ec. Similarly, Ev(p-side) Ev(n-side) = Ec. It can be seen that to get any population inversion, the Fermi level EFp must be at least /2Ec below Ev(p-side) or 1/2Ec above EFv(n-side) and EFn must be at least 1/2Ec above Ec(n-side).
1

Thus population inversion occurs when, EFn EFp = [Ec(n-side)+ 1/2Ec] [Ev(n-side) + 1/2Ec] = Eg. have (1) Now, if EFi is the Fermi-level in the intrinsic material, then for n = p, we must EFn EFi = EFi EFp. Substituting for EFp = EFn Eg from Eq. (1) into (2) we find, (2)

EFn EFi = EFi (EFn Eg) 2EFn 2EFi = Eg, giving From, we have EFn EFi = Eg/2 = (1.43 eV)/2 = 0.715 eV. n/ni = exp[(EFn EFi)/kT)] n = (107 cm-3)exp(0.715/0.0259) =1019 cm-3. This confirms degenerate doping. Author's note: EFn and EFp are quasi-Fermi levels or imrefs, and are not the true Fermi levels - hence the estimation. (3)

4.10 a Consider the rate equations and their results in Section 4.10 It takes t = nL/c second for photons to cross the laser cavity length L, where n is the refractive index. If Nph is the coherent radiation photon concentration, then only half of the photons, 1/2Nph, in the cavity would be moving towards the output face of the crystal at any instant. Given that the active layer has a length L, width W and thickness d, show that the coherent optical output power and intensity are

hc 2 N phdW Po = (1 R) 2n

and

hc2 N ph I= (1 R) 2n

where R is the reflectance of the semiconductor crystal face.

b If is the attenuation coefficient for the coherent radiation within the semiconductor active layer due to various loss processes such as scattering and R is the reflectance of the crystal ends then the total attenuation coefficient t is,

t = +

1 1 ln 2 L R2

Consider a double heterostructure InGaAsP semiconductor laser operating at 1310 nm. The cavity length L 60 m, width W 10 m, and d 0.25 m. The refractive index n 3.5. The loss coefficient 10 cm-1. Find t, ph.
c For the above device, threshold current density Jth 500 A cm-2 and sp 10 ps. What is the threshold electron concentration? Calculate the lasing optical power and intensity when the current is 5 mA. Solution a If Nph is the coherent radiation photon concentration, then only half of the photons, 1/2Nph, in the cavity would be moving towards the output face of the crystal at any instant. It takes t = nL/c seconds for photons to cross the laser cavity length L.

Po = Energy flow per unit time in cavity towards face Transmittance hc 1 (dWL) ( 2 N ph ) Transmittance = t hc 1 (dWL) ( 2 Nph ) 1 R = ( ) L n c = hc 2 Nph dW (1 R) 2n

and

hc 2 Nph Optical Power Po I= = = (1 R) dW Area 2n

where R is the reflectance of the crystal face.

b Consider one round trip through the cavity. The length L is traversed twice and there is one reflection at each end. The overall attenuation of the coherent radiation after one-round trip is RRexp[(2L)]

where R is the reflectance of the crystal end. Equivalently we can represent this reduction by an effective or a total loss coefficient t such that after one round trip, the reduction factor is exp[t(2L)] Equating the two,
RRexp[(2L)] = exp[t(2L)]

and rearranging,

t = +
c

1 1 ln 2 L R2
2 2

The reflectance is
R=

n 1 3.5 1 = = 0.309 n + 1 3.5 + 1

The total loss coefficient is

t = +
m-1.

1 1 1 1 4 ln 2 = 1000 m 1 + 6 1 ln 2 = 2.0610 R 2L 60 10 m 0.309

ph =

c t

3.5 -13 s (0.57 ps) 8 1 = 5.710 (3 10 m s )(2.06 10 m )

8

Coherent radiation is lost from the cavity after, on average, 0.57 ps. For the above device, threshold current density Jth 500 A cm-2 and sp 10 ps, d 0.25 m, n ed From Jth = th

sp

we have,
cm-3

nth

Jth sp (500 10 4 A m -2 )(10 109 s) 1.251024 m-3 or 1.21018 19 6 ed (1.6 10 C)(0.25 10 m)

Now, the current density corresponding to I = 30 mA is J = I/(WL) = (0.05 A)/[106010-610-6 m2)] = 833104 A m-2. And, N ph

ph
ed

(J J th )

(5.7 1013 s) (833 500) 104 A m-2 (1.6 1019 C)(0.25 106 m)

4.71019 photons m-3

The optical power is hc 2 N dW ph (1 R) Po = 2n
= (6.62 1034 J s)(3 108 m s-1) 2 (4.7 1019 m-3 )(0.25 106 m)(10 106 m) (1 0.309) 2(3.5)(1310 109 m)

0.00053 W or 0.53 mW.

Intensity = Optical Power / Area = Po / (dW) = (0.00053)/[0.251010-310-3 mm2)] = 223 W mm-2. This intensity is right at the crystal face over the optical cavity cross section. As the beam diverges, the intensity decreases away from the laser diode.
4.11)Consider a InGaAsP-InP laser diode which has an optical cavity of length 250 microns. The peak radiation is at 1550 nm and the refractive index of InGaAsP is 4. The optical gain bandwidth (as measured between half intensity points) will normally depend on the pumping current (diode current) but for this problem assume that it is 2 nm. a b c

What is the mode integer m of the peak radiation? What is the separation between the modes of the cavity? How many modes are there in the cavity?

d What is the reflection coefficient and reflectance at the ends of the optical cavity (faces of the InGaAsP crystal)? e What determines the angular divergence of the laser beam emerging from the optical cavity? Solution a

The wavelength of a cavity mode and length L are related by

m

2n

=L = 2(4)(250 10 6 ) = 1290.3 . 9 (1550 10 )

so that

m=

2n L

When m = 1290, = 2nL/m = 1550.39 nm so that the peak radiation has m = 1290.
b

Mode separation is given by,

m =

2
2nL

(1550 109 )2 6 = 1.20 nm 2(4)(250 10 )

The linewidth is 2 nm

Let the optical linewidth be between 1 and 2. Then 1 = (1/2) = 1549 nm and 2 = + (1/2) = 1551 nm and the mode numbers corresponding to these are m1 = m2 = 2nL

1
2nL

= =

2(4)(250 106 ) = 1291.15 (1549 109 ) 2(4)(250 106 ) = 1289.49 (1551 10 9 )

Now m must be an integer and the corresponding wavelength must fit into the optical gain curve. Taking m = 1290, gives = 2nL/m = 1550.39 nm; within optical gain 1549 1551 nm Taking m = 1291, gives = 2nL/m = 1549.18 nm; within optical gain 1549 1551 nm Taking m = 1289, gives = 2nL/m = 1551.59 nm; just outside optical gain 1549 1551 nm There are 2 modes.
d e r = (n 1)/(n + 1) = (4 1)/(4 + 1) = 0.6 R = r2 = 0.36 or 36%.

Diffraction at the active region cavity end.

4.12 a

There are several laser diode efficiency definitions as follows: The external quantum efficiency EQE, of a laser diode is defined as Number of output photons from the diode (per unit second ) Number of injected electrons into diode (per unit second )

EQE =
as

The external differential quantum efficiency, EDQE, of a laser diode is defined Increase in number of output photons from diode (per unit second ) Increase in number of injected electrons into diode ( per unit second)

EDQE =

The external power efficiency, EPE, of the laser diode is defined by Optical output power EPE = Electical input power If Po is the emitted optical power, show that eP EQE = o Eg I

EDQE =

e dP o Eg dI Eg eV

EPE = EQE

b A commercial laser diode with an emission wavelength of 670 nm (red) has the following characteristics. The threshold current at 25C is 76 mA. At I = 80 mA, the output optical power is 2 mW and the voltage across the diode is 2.3 V. If the diode current is increased to 82 mA, the optical output power increases to 3 mW. Calculate the external QE, external differential QE and the external power efficiency of the laser diode. c Consider an InGaAsP laser diode operating at = 1310 nm for optical communications. At I = 40 mA, the output optical power is 3 mW and the voltage across the diode is 1.4 V. If the diode current is increased to 45 mA, the optical output power increases to 4 mW. Calculate external quantum efficiency (QE), external differential QE, external power efficiency of the laser diode. Solution a

The external quantum efficiency EQE, of a laser diode is defined as

EQE =

Number of output photons from the diode (per unit second ) Number of injected electrons into diode (per unit second ) Optical Power / h Po /Eg ePo = = Diode Current / e I /e IEg

EQE =

as

The external differential quantum efficiency, EDQE, of a laser diode is defined Increase in number of output photons from diode (per unit second) Number of injected electrons into diode ( per unit second ) (Change in Optical Power) / h Po /Eg e dPo = = (Change Diode Current) / e I / e Eg dI

EDQE =

EDQE =

The external power efficiency, EPE, of the laser diode is defined by

EPE =

Eg Optical ouput power P P eEg eP = o = o = o Electical input power IV IV eEg IEg eV eP Eg Eg o = EQE eV IEg eV

EPE =

670 nm laser diode

so that

Eg hc/ = (6.62610-34)(3108)/[(67010-9)(1.610-19)] = 1.85 eV, eP EQE = o Eg I

EQE

(1.6 10 19 C)(2 10 3 Js 1 ) = 0.0135 or 1.35% = 3 19 (80 10 A)(1.85 eV 1.6 10 eV/J) 3 10 3 2 10 3 Js1 e dPo (1.6 10 19 C) = 19 3 3 Eg dI (1.85 eV 1.6 10 C) 82 10 80 10 A

EDQE =

= 0.270 or 27%.

EPE =
c

Po 2 103 W = 0.009 or 1.09% = 3 IV (80 10 A )(2.3 V)

1310 nm laser diode

Eg hc/ = (6.62610-34)(3108)/[(131010-9)(1.610-19)] = 0.9464 eV,

so that

EQE =

(1.6 1019 C)(3 103 Js 1 ) = 0.079 or 7.9% 3 19 (40 10 A)(0.9464 eV 1.6 10 J/eV)

EDQE =

4 103 3 10 3 Js 1 e dPo (1.6 10 19 C) = 19 3 3 C) 45 10 40 10 A Eg dI (0.9464 eV 1.6 10

= 0.211 or 21%. and

EPE =

Po 3 103 W = 0.0535 or 5.3% = 3 IV (40 10 A )(1.4 V)

4.15) Consider a SQW (single quantum well) laser which has an ultrathin active InGaAs of bandgap 0.70 eV and thickness 10 nm between two layers of InAlAs which has a bandgap of 1.45 eV. Effective mass of conduction electrons in InGaAs is about 0.04me and that of the holes in the valence band is 0.44me where me is the mass of the electron in vacuum. Calculate the first and second electron energy levels above Ec and the first hole energy level below Ev in the QW. What is the lasing emission wavelength for this SQW laser? What is this wavelength if the transition were to occur in bulk InGaAs with the same bandgap?
Solution

The lowest energy levels with respect to the CB edge Ec in InGaAs are determined by the energy of an electron in a one-dimensional potential energy well

n =

h2 n 2 2 8m* ed

where n is a quantum number 1, 2, , n is the electron energy with respect to Ec in InGaAs, or n = En Ec. Using d = 1010-9 m, me* = 0.04me and n = 1 and 2, we find the following electron energy levels n =1

n =

h2 n 2 (6.626 1034 )2 (1)2 -20 = J = 0.094 eV * 2 31 9 2 = 1.5110 8me d 8(0.04 9.11 10 )(10 10 )

1 = 0.094 eV
n=2

2 = 0.376 eV
h2 n 2 (6.626 1034 )2 (1)2 -21 n = J = 0.00855 * 2 = 31 9 2 = 1.3710 8mh d 8(0.44 9.11 10 )(10 10 )

Using d = 1010-9 m, mh* = 0.44me and n = 1, the hole energy levels below Ev is n =1 eV

The wavelength light emission from the QW laser with Eg = 1.45 eV is

QW =

hc (6.626 1034 )(3 108 ) = (0.70 + 0.094 + 0.00855)(1.602 1019 ) E g + 1 + 1

= 154510 -9 m (1545 nm) The wavelength of emission from bulk InGaAs with Eg = 1.45 eV is
hc (6.626 1034 )(3 10 8 ) = 177110 -9 m (1771 nm) = 19 (0.70)(1.602 10 ) Eg

g =

The difference is g QW = 1771 - 1545 = 226 nm.

4.16 Effective mass of conduction electrons in GaAs is 0.07me where me is the electron mass in vacuum. Calculate the first three electron energy levels for a quantum well of thickness 8 nm. What is the hole energy below Ev if the effective mass of the hole is 0.47me? What is the change in the emission wavelength with respect to bulk GaAs which has an energy bandgap of 1.42 eV. Solution

The lowest energy levels with respect to the CB edge Ec in GaAs are determined by the energy of an electron in a one-dimensional potential energy well

n =

h2 n 2 2 8m* ed

where n is a quantum number 1, 2, , n is the electron energy with respect to Ec in GaAs, or n = En Ec. Thus, n =1

n =

h 2n 2 (6.626 1034 )2 (1)2 = = 0.0839 eV 2 8m* 8(0.07 9.11 1031)(8 109 )2 ed

1 = 0.0839 eV
n=2 n=3

2 = 0336 eV 3 = 0.755 eV

Note: Whether 3 is allowed depends on the depth of the QW and hence on the bandgap of the sandwiching semiconductor. The hole energy levels below Ev is h 2n 2 (6.626 1034 ) 2 (1)2 = * 2 31 9 2 = 0.0125 eV 8mh d 8(0.47 9.11 10 )(8 10 )

n =

The wavelength of emission from bulk GaAs with Eg = 1.42 eV is

g =

hc (6.626 1034 )(3 108 ) = = 87410 -9 m or 874 nm. Eg (1.42)(1.602 10 19 )

hc (6.626 1034 )(3 108 ) = (1.42 + 0.0839 + 0.0125)(1.602 1019 ) E g + 1 + 1

Whereas from the GaAs QW, the wavelength is,

QW =

= 81810 -9 m or 818 nm. The difference is g QW = 874 818 =56 nm.

5.1 Bandgap and photodetection

(a) Determine the maximum value of the energy gap which a semiconductor, used as a photoconductor, can have if it is to be sensitive to yellow light (600nm). (b) A photodetector whose area is 510-2 cm2 is irradiated with yellow light whose intensity is 2 mW cm2. Assuming that each photon generates one electron-hole pair, calculate the number of pairs generated per second. (c) From the known energy gap of the semiconductor GaAs (Eg = 1.42 eV), calculate the primary wavelength of photons emitted from this crystal as a result of electron-hole recombination. Is this wavelength in the visible? (d) Will a silicon photodetector be sensitive to the radiation from a GaAs laser? Why? Solution (a)

Given, = 600 nm, we need Eph = h = Eg so that, Eg = hc/ = (6.62610-34 J s)(3108 m s-1)/(60010-9 m) = 2.07 eV

(b)

A = 510-2 cm2 and Ilight = 2010-3 W/cm2. The received optical power is Po = AIlight = (510-2 cm2)(2010-3 W/cm2) = 10-3 W Nph = number of photons arriving per second = Po/Eph = (10-3 W)/(2.071.60218 10-19 J/eV) = 2.981015 Photons s-1. = 2.981015 EHP s-1.

and

(c)

For GaAs, Eg = 1.42 eV and the corresponding wavelength is

g = hc/ Eg = (6.62610-34 J s)(3108 m s-1)/(1.42 eV 1.6 10-19 J/eV)

= 873 nm The wavelength of emitted radiation due to EHP recombination is therefore 873 nm. It is not in the visible region (it is in the IR).

(d)

For Si, Eg = 1.1 eV and the corresponding cut-off wavelength is,

g = hc/ Eg = (6.62610-34 J s)(3108 m s-1)/(1.1 eV 1.6 10-19 J/eV)

= 1120 nm Since the 873 nm wavelength is shorter than the cut-off wavelength of 1120 nm, the Si photodetector can detect the 873 nm radiation (Put differently, the photon energy corresponding to 873 nm, 1.42 eV, is larger than the Eg, 1.1 eV, of Si which mean that the Si photodetector can indeed detect the 873 nm radiation)

5.2

Absorption coefficient

If d is the thickness of a photodetector material, Io is the intensity of the incoming (a) radiation, show that the number of photons absorbed per unit volume of sample is nph =

Io [1 exp( d )] dh

(b) What is the thickness of a Ge and In0.53Ga0.47As crystal layer that is needed for absorbing 90% of the incident radiation at 1.5 m? (c) Suppose that each absorbed photon liberates one electron (or electron hole pair) in a unity quantum efficiency photodetector and that the photogenerated electrons are immediately collected. Thus, the rate of charge collection is limited by rate of photon generation. What is the external photocurrent density for the photodetectors in (b) if the incident radiation is 100 W mm-2? Solution (a) If Io is the intensity of incoming radiation (energy flowing per unit area per second), Ioexp(d) is the transmitted intensity through the specimen with thickness d (Figure 5.26) and thus Io[1 exp(d)] is the absorbed intensity. If ph is the number of photons arriving per unit area per unit second (the photon flux), then ph = Io/h where h is the energy per photon. Thus the number of photons absorbed per unit volume per unit second of sample is

Aph nph = = Ad
(b)

Io [1 exp( d )] I [1 exp( d )] h = o d dh

For Ge, 5 105 m-1 at 1.5 m incident radiation (from Figure 5.5). 1 exp(d) = 0.9 d= 1 1 1 6 ln ln = = 4.60 10 m = 4.60 m. 5 1 0.9 5 10 1 0.9 1 1 1 6 ln = 3.07 10 m = 3.07 m. 5 7.5 10 1 0.9

For In0.53Ga0.47As, 7.5 105 m-1 at 1.5 m incident radiation (Figure 5.5). d=

(c) The quantum efficiency is unity. Therefore the collected electrons per unit area per unit second is equal to the absorbed photons per unit area per unit second. So, the current density (current per unit area),

J ph =

eIo [1 exp( d )] eIo [1 exp( d )] = h hc

Given, Io = 100 W mm-2 = 100 10-6 106 W m-2 = 100 W m-2, J ph = 1.60218 1019 100 1.5 106 0.9 = 108.8 A m-2 =10.9 mA cm-2. 34 8 6.626 10 3.0 10

Note: We neglected any light reflection from the surface of the semiconductor crystal (100% efficient AR coating assumed).
5.5 Ge Photodiode Consider a commercial Ge pn junction photodiode which has the responsivity shown in Figure 5.47. Its photosensitive area is 0.008 mm2. It is used under a reverse bias of 10 V when the dark current is 0.3 A and the junction capacitance is 4 pF. The rise time of the photodiode is 0.5 ns. (a)

Calculate its quantum efficiency at 850, 1300 and 1550 nm.

(b) What is the light intensity of light at 1.55 m that gives a photocurrent equal to the dark current. (c)

What would be the effect of lowering the temperature on the responsivity curve?

(d) Given that the dark current is in the range of microamperes, what would be the advantage in reducing the temperature? (e) Suppose that the photodiode is used with a 100 resistance to sample the photocurrent. What limits the speed of response?

Figure 5.47 The responsivity of a commercial G pn junction photodiode Solution

Responsivity(A/W) 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0.5 1 1.5 Wavelength (m) 2

Figure 5Q05-1 Responsivity vs. wavelength for a commercial Ge photodiode (a) At = 85010-9 m, from the responsivity vs. wavelength curve we have R = 0.275 A/W as shown in Figure 5Q05-1. From the definitions of quantum efficiency (QE) and responsivity we have,

hcR (6.626 10 34 Js) (3 10 8 ms 1 ) (0.275A/W ) = = 40.1% e (1.60218 10 19 C) (850 10 9 m)

Similarly, we can calculate quantum efficiency at other wavelengths. The results are summarized in Table 5Q05.
Table 5Q05

Wavelength, (nm) Responsivity R, (A/W) Quantum efficiency , (%)

850 0.275
40.1

1300 0.57
54.3

1550 0.73
58.4

Given, photocurrent Iph = Id = 0.3 A = 0.310-6 A and area, A = 810-3 mm2 = (b) 810-9 m2, the incident optical power, Po = Iph/R = (0.310-6 A)/(0.73 A W-1) = 4.12 10-7 W
cm .
-2

Light intensity, Io = Po/A = (4.12 10-7 W)/(810-9 m2) = 51.5 W m-2 or 5.15 mW

(c) From Chapter 3, we know that dEg/dT is negative, that is, Eg increases with decreasing temperature.

Stated differently, vs. curve shifts towards shorter with decreasing T.

The change in with T means that the amount of optical power absorbed in the depletion region and hence the quantum efficiency will change with temperature. The peak responsivity will shift to lower wavelengths with decreasing temperature. If maximum photogeneration requires a certain absorption depth 1/max, corresponding to some max, will occur at a shorter wavelength at lower temperatures. In Figure 5Q05-2, the maximum responsivity corresponds to max which occurs at max at high T and at max at lower T. Clearly the peak responsivity shifts to lower wavelengths as the temperature decreases. (See Figure 5.50)
Absorption coefficient

Low T

High T

max

max
2

max

Figure 5Q05-2 The absorption coefficient depends on the temperature (d) Dark current ( ni exp(Eg/kT)) will be drastically reduced if we decrease the temperature. Reduction of dark current improves SNR. (e) The RC time constant = 100 (410-12 F) = 400 ps, neglecting stray capacitances. The rise time, 0.5 ns or 500 ps. The manufacturer does not state whether the rise time is and RC limitation or intrinsic device limitation (e.g. carrier diffusion and drift). It is likely to be an intrinsic limitation. The speed of response will depend on both the rise time and RC time constant. (It is not simply 400 ps + 500 ps) 5.7 InGaAs pin Photodiodes Consider a commercial InGaAs pin photodiode whose responsivity is shown in Figure 5.49. Its dark current is 5 nA. (a) What optical power at a wavelength of 1.55 m would give a photocurrent that is twice the dark current? What is the QE of the photodetector at 1.55 m? (b) What would be the photocurrent if the incident power in (a) was at 1.3 m? What is the QE at 1.3 m operation?

Figure 5.49 The responsivity of an InGaAs pin photodiode Solution (a) At = 1.5510-6 m, from the responsivity vs. wavelength curve we have R 0.87 A/W as in Figure 5Q07-1. From the definition of responsivity,

R=
we have nW.

I ph Photocurrent (A) = Incident Optical Power (W) Po

Po = Iph/R = 2Idark/R = (2510-9 A)/(0.87 A W-1) = 1.1510-8 W or 11.5

From the definitions of quantum efficiency (QE) e and responsivity we have

R = e

e e = e h hc

e =

hcR (6.62 1034 J s)(3 108 m s-1 )(0.87 A W -1 ) = 0.70 (70%) e (1.6 1019 C)(1.55 106 m)

Note the following dimensional identities: A = C s-1 and W = J s-1 so that A W-1 = C J-1. Thus, responsivity in terms of photocurrent per unit incident optical power is also charge collected per unit incident energy.

Figure 5Q17-1 Responsivity of InGaAs photodiode at two wavelengths (b) At = 1.310-6 m, from the responsivity vs. wavelength curve we have R = 0.82 A/W as in Figure 5Q07-1. Since Po is the same and 11.5 nW as in (a),

Iph = R Po = (0.82 A W-1)(1.1510-8 W) = 9.4310-9 A or 9.43 nA. The QE at = 1.3 m is

hcR (6.62 1034 J s)(3 108 m s-1 )(0.82 A W -1 ) e = = 0.78 (78%) e (1.6 1019 C)(1.3 106 m)

5.13 Transient photocurrents in a pin photodiode Consider a reverse biased Si pin photodiode As shown in Figure 5.51. It is appropriately reverse biased so that the field in the depletion region (i-Si layer) is E = Vr/W is the saturation field. Thus, photogenerated electrons and holes in this layer drift at saturation velocities vde and vdh . Assume that the field E is uniform and that the thickness of the p+ is negligible. A very short light pulse (infinitesimally short) photogenerates EHPs in the depletion layer as shown in Figure 5.51 which results in an exponentially decaying EHP concentrations across W. Figure 5.51 shows the photogenerated electron concentration at time t = 0 and also at a later time t when the electrons have drifted a distance x = vdet. Those that reach the back electrode B become collected. The electron distribution shifts at a constant velocity until the initial electrons at A reach B which represents the longest transit time e = W/vde. Similar argument apply to holes but they drift in the opposite direction and their transit time h = W/vdh where vdh is their saturation velocity. The photocurrent density at any instant is

j ph = je (t ) + jh (t ) = eN ev de + eN hv dh where Ne and Nh are the overall electron and hole concentration in the sample at time t. Assume for convenience that the cross sectional area A = 1 below (derivations are not affected as we are interested in the photocurrent current densities).
(a)

Sketch the hole distribution at time h > t > 0 where h = hole drift time = W/vdh.

(b) The electron concentration distribution n(x) at time t corresponds to that at t = 0 shifted by vdet. Thus the total electrons in W is proportional to integrating this distribution n(x) from A at x = vdet to B at x = W.

Given n(x) = noexp(x) at t = 0, where no is the electron concentration at x = 0 at t = 0 we have

W

Total number electrons at time t =

v det

exp[ ( x v de t )]dx

and Then

N e (t ) =

Total number electrons at time t Volume

N e (t ) = =

1 no exp[ ( x v de t )]dx W v t de no t 1 1 exp W W e

W n 1 no exp(x)dx = o [1 exp(W )] W 0 W

Ne(0) is the initial overall electron concentration at time t = 0, that is,

N e (0) =

We note that no depends on the intensity I of the light pulse so that no I. Show that for holes,

N h (t ) =

no exp(W ) t 1 expW 1 W h

(c) Given W = 40 m, = 5104 m-1, vde = 105 m s-1, vdh = 0.8105 m s-1, no = 1013 -3 cm , calculate the electron and hole transit time, sketch the photocurrent densities je(t) and jh(t) and hence jph(t) = as a function of time, and calculate the initial photocurrent. What is your conclusion? Solution (a)

The hole distribution is shown in Figure 5Q13-1.

Figure 5Q13-1 An infinitesimally short light pulse is absorbed throughout the depletion layer and creates an EHP concentration that decays exponentially (b)

For holes we have

N h (t ) = =

1 W

W v dh t

no exp[ ( x + v dh t )]dx

no [exp( v dh t ) exp( W )] W n exp( W ) t 1 = o exp W 1 W h Having described Ne(t) and Nh(t) we can find the individual transient photocurrent densities as follows, je(t) = eNe(t)vde and je (t ) = enov de W t 1 1 exp W e t < e

jh(t) = eNh(t)vdh jh (t ) = enov de exp( W ) t 1 exp W 1 W h t < e

(c) Given W = 40 m, = 5104 m-1, vde = 105 m s-1, vdh = 0.8105 m s-1, no = 1013 cm-3, we have

e = W/vde = 410-10 s = 400 ps

and

h = W/vdh = 410-10 s = 500 ps

Using these values we can plot the photocurrents as in the figure below. At time t = 0, Ne(0) = Nh(0) N e (0) = no [1 exp( W )] W (1013 cm -3 ) { = 1 exp[ ( 40 10 4 cm )(500 cm -1 )]} 4 -1 ( 40 10 cm)(500 cm ) = 4.31012 cm-3. The initial photocurrent densities are je(0) = eNe(0)vde = (1.610-19 C)(4.31012 cm-3)(1107 cm s-3) = 6.9 A cm-2 or 69 mA/mm2 and, jh(0) = eNh(0)vdh = (1.610-19 C)(4.31012 cm-3)(0.8107 cm s-3) = 5.5 A cm-2 or 55 mA/mm2 so that the total initial photocurrent is 55 + 69 = 124 mA/mm2. The photocurrent densities je(t) and jh(t) are shown in Figure 5Q13-2

Figure 5Q13-2 Transient photocurrent from a pin photodiode pulsed with a very short duration light absorbed throughout the device.

Clearly the response is determined by the slowest transit time. There is a kink in the photocurrent waveform when all the electrons have been swept out at e = 400 ns.
5.14 Fiber attenuation and InGaAs pin Photodiode Consider the commercial InGaAs pin photodiode whose responsivity is shown in Figure 5.49. This is used in a receiver circuit that needs a minimum of 5 nA photocurrent for a discernible output signal (acceptable signal to noise ratio for the customer). Suppose that the InGaAs pin PD is used at 1.3 m operation with a single mode fiber whose attenuation is 0.35 dB km-1. If the laser diode emitter can launch at most 2 mW of power into the fiber, what is the maximum distance for the communication without a repeater? Solution

Figure 5Q14-1 The responsivity of an InGaAs pin photodiode at 1.3 m is 0.81 A/W

Given, photocurrent Iph = 5 nA = 510-9 A.

Responsivity, R = 0.81 A/W at 1.3 m wavelength from Figure 5.49, reproduced in Figure 5Q14-1 Power absorbed by photodiode, Po= Iph/R = (510-9 A)/(0.81 A/W)= 6.17310-9 W. If the maximum distance for the communication without a repeater = L in kilometers, then, from the definition of the attenuation coefficient in dB/km (1/L)10log10(Po/Pin) = dB/km or or, (1/L)10log10(Po/Pin) = ( 0.35 dB/km)
2 103 W 10 10 L= log10 (Pin Po ) = log10 = 157 km 9 0.35 0.35 6.173 10 W

5.21 Photoconductive detector An n-type Si photoconductor has a length L = 100 m and a cross sectional area A = 10-4 mm2. The applied bias voltage to the photoconductor is 10 V. The recombination time is roughly 1 s. [Author's note: The last sentence was missed in the
text and will be included in the reprint.]

(a) What are the transit times, te and th, of an electron and a hole across L? What is the photoconductive gain? (b) It should be apparent that as electrons are much faster than holes, a photogenerated electron leaves the photoconductor very quickly. This leaves behind a drifting hole and therefore a positive charge in the semiconductor. Secondary (i.e. additional electrons) then flow into the photoconductor to maintain neutrality in the sample and the current continues to flow. These events will continue until the hole has disappeared by recombination, which takes on average a time . Thus, more charges flow through the contact per unit time than charges actually photogenerated per unit time. What will happen if the contacts are not ohmic, i.e. they are not injecting ? (c) What can you say about the product and the speed of response which is proportional to 1/. Solution (a)

We are given, length L = 100 m, and applied bias, V = 10 V. The electric field, E = V/L= 10 V/(10010-6 m)= 105 V/m.

From Table 3.1, electron and hole drift nobilities are: e = 1450 cm2 V-1 s-1, and h = 490 cm2 V-1 s-1 (see inside front cover of textbook). Electron and hole transit times are

( L 100 106 m ) te = = = 6.9 ns. e E (1450 104 m 2 V 1s-1 )(105 V/m)

and th =

(100 106 m) L = = 22.4 ns. h E (490 104 m 2 V 1s-1 )(105 V/m)

hole lifetime = 1 s The photoconductive gain,

G=

(e + h )E
L

(1 10 s)(1450 10
6

m 2 V 1s-1 + 490 104 m 2 V 1s-1 )(105 V/m ) = (100 106 m)

194
(b) If the contacts are not ohmic, secondary electrons cannot flow into the photoconductor to maintain neutrality. So, only the photogenerated charges can flow through the external circuit; no excess charge can flow and we will not get photoconductive gain. If the contacts cannot inject carriers, then there will be no photocurrent gain, G = 1. However, there will still be a photocurrent as photogereated carriers will be drifting. The situation is similar to photogeneration inside the i-layer of a reverse biased pin detector. (c)

The expression for is given by, = eI (e + h ) hcd

The speed of response is proportional to 1/. For example, if we suddenly switch off the light, it will take, on average, seconds for the excess (photogenerated) carriers to disappear by recombination. Therefore, the product of and the speed of response is, eI (e + h ) 1 ( )( ) = hcd which is a constant for given light intensity (I) and given device structure (d).
7.1 Polarization Suppose that we write the Ey and Ex components of a light wave generally as:

Ex = Exocos(t kz ) and

Ey = Eyocos(t kz + )

Show that at any instant Ex and Ey satisfy the ellipse equation on the Ey vs Ex coordinate system:
Ex Ey E E + 2 x y cos = sin2 E xo E yo E xo E yo
2 2

Sketch schematically what this ellipse looks like assuming Exo = 2 Eyo. When would this ellipse form an (a) ellipse with its major axis on the x-axis, (b) a linearly polarized light at 45, (c) right and left circularly polarized light ?
Solution

Consider the LHS,

2 Ex Ey E E y + 2 x cos E xo E yo E xo E yo 2 E cos( t kz) E yo cos( t kz + ) E cos(t kz ) E yo cos( t kz + ) + 2 xo cos = xo E xo E xo E yo E yo 2

= cos2 (t kz) + cos2 ( t kz + ) 2cos(t kz)cos(t kz + )cos = cos (t kz) + [cos(t kz)cos sin(t kz )sin ] 2cos(t kz)[cos(t kz)cos sin(t kz)sin ]cos
2 2

= cos2 (t kz) + cos2 ( t kz)cos 2 + sin 2 ( t kz)sin 2 2cos(t kz)sin( t kz)cos sin 2cos2 (t kz )cos2 + 2cos(t kz)sin(t kz)sin cos = cos2 (t kz) cos2 (t kz)cos2 + sin2 (t kz)sin2 = cos2 (t kz)[1 cos2 ] + sin2 (t kz)sin 2 = cos2 (t kz)sin 2 + sin 2 ( t kz)sin 2 = [cos 2 (t kz ) + sin2 (t kz)]sin 2 = sin2 Which is the desired result. Consider the general expression
Ex Ey E E + 2 x y cos = sin2 E xo E yo E xo E yo
2 2

This is a quadratic equation in Ey (or Ex), aE y2 + bE y + c = 0 where 1 a= 2 ; E yo E 1 b = 2 x cos ; E xo E yo E c = x sin 2 E xo

2

Thus, for a given and given Exo and Eyo, we can plot Ey vs. Ex since Ex determines b and c and Ey is given by Ey = b b2 4 ac 2a

Figure 7Q1 shows the plots of Ey vs Ex for various selections of Exo, Eyo and . Note that the angle of the major axis a is not , though related to it. (a). Setting = /2, Eyo = 1 and Exo = 2 we obtain an ellipse with its major axis on the x-axis. (b) Setting = 0, Eyo = 1 and Exo = 1 we obtain a line (linear polarization) at an angle /4 (= 45) to the x-axis.

(c) Setting =/2, Eyo = 1 and Exo = 1 we obtain a circle. If = /2 right circular polarization; = /2 left circular polarization.
= 30 = 90

1
Ey

Eyo = 1

0 -1

Exo = 2

Ey

0 -1

Major axis

Minor axis Major axis

Ex Ex

-2 0 Polarization ellipse for = 30. 1

Ey

-2

Polarization ellipse with major axis on Ex. 1

Ey

=0

Eyo = Exo = 1

= 90
Eyo = Exo = 1

0 -1 -2 0

= 45

0 -1

Ex

Linear polarization at 45 to the x-axis.

1 0 -1 Circular polarization.

Ex

Figure 7Q1

7.2 Linear and circular polarization Show that a linearly polarized light wave can be represented by two circularly polarized light waves with opposite rotations. Consider the simplest case of a wave linearly polarized along the y-axis. What is your conclusion? Solution

As shown in Figure 7Q2, two opposite circular polarizations in (a) and (b), with the same field magnitude, and obviously with the same frequency, can be added to generate the linearly polarized light in (c).

y (a) x E x (b) E

y (c) x

Exo Eyo

=1 =1

Exo Eyo

=1 =1

Exo Eyo

= /2

= /2

=0 =1 =0

Opposite circular polarizations in (a) and (b) add to give the linearly polarized light in (c)

Figure 7Q2

Alternatively, consider the following: We can represent the right circular polarization as
E Rx = cos(t kz ); E Ry = cos(t kz + 1 2 )

and the left circular polarization as

E Lx = cos( t kz); E Ly = cos(t kz 1 2 )

Thus, the total x and y components due to combining these two opposite circular polarizations is E x = 2cos( t kz) E y = cos( t kz + 1 ) + cos(t kz 1 ) 2 2 E x = 2cos( t kz) E y = 2cos( t kz)cos( /2) = 0

which is linear polarization since only Ex exists.

7.5 Jones Matrices When we represent the state of polarization of a light wave using a matrix, called a Jones matrix2 (or vector) then various operations on the polarization state correspond to multiplying this matrix with another matrix that represents the optical operation. Consider a light wave traveling along z with field components Ex and Ey along x and y. These components are orthogonal and, in general, would be of different magnitude and have a phase difference between them . If we use the exponential notation then

Ex = Exoexp j(t kz + x)

and

Ey = Eyoexpj(t kz + y)

Jones matrix is a column matrix whose elements are Ex and Ey without the common expj(t kz) factor

R. Clark Jones introudced these matrices circa 1941.

 E x E xo exp( j x ) E= = E x Eyo exp( j y )

2 2 1/ 2 Usually Eq. (1) is normalized by dividing the total amplitude Eo = ( Exo + Eyo ) . We can further factor out exp(jx) to further simplify to obtain the Jones matrix:

(1)

J=

Exo 1 Eo E yo exp( j )

(2)

where = y x. We can further arbitrarily set Exo = 1 and adjust the size of Eyo so that the total Eo remains the same.
a Table 7T5 shows Jones vectors for various polarizations. Identify the state of polarization for each matrix. b Passing a wave of given Jones vector Jin through an optical device is represented by multiplying Jin by the transmission matrix T of the device. If Jout is the Jones vector for the output light through the device, then Jout = T Jin. Given

1 0 T= 0 j determine the polarization state of the output wave and the optical operation represented by T.

(3)

Table 7T5
Jones vectors 1 0
1 0 0 0

Jones vector Polarization Transmission matrix Optical operation Solution

Jones vectors

1 2
e j 0

1 1
0 e j

cos sin
1 0 0 j

1 2
1 0

1 j
0 1

1 2
1 0

1 j
0 e j

Jones vector Polarization

1 0
Linear; horizontal E

1 2

1 1

cos sin
Linear; E at

1 2

1 j

1 2

1 j

Linear; E at 45 to x-axis

to x-axis

Right circularly

Left circularly

polarized

polarized

Transmission matrix Optical operation

1 0 0 0
Linear polarizer; horizontal transmission axis

e j 0

0 e j

1 0

0 j

1 0

0 1

1 0

0 e
j

Isotropic phase changer

Quarter-wave plate

Half-wave plate

Wave retarder; fast axis along x

7.11 Glan-Foucault prism Figure 7Q11-1 shows the cross section of a Glan-Foucault prism which is made of two right angle calcite prisms with a prism angle of 38.5. Both have their optic axes parallel to each other and to the block faces as in the figure. Explain the operation of the prisms and show that the o-wave does indeed experience total internal reflection.
Absorber o -ray 38.5 e-ray Calcite Optic axis Air-gap

The Glan-Foucault prism provides linearly polarized light

Figure 7Q11-1 Solution

As shown in Figure 7Q11-1 the light in the left prism travel as o- and e-waves (with field Eo and Ee, with refractive indices no = 1.658 and ne = 1.486. The critical angles for TIR for the o- and e-waves at the calcite/air interface are

c(o-wave) = arcsin(1/no) = 37.1.

and

c(e-wave) = arcsin(1/ne) = 42.3.

If the angle of incidence is at the calcite/air interface then from Figure 7Q11-2, 90 + (90 ) + 38.5 = 180

or but

= 38.5 > c(o-wave) = 38.5< c(e-wave)

Thus, the o-wave suffers TIR while the e-wave does not. Hence the beam that emerges is the e-wave, with a field Ee along the optic axis.

Absorber o-ray

Eo Ee

38.5

e -ray Calcite Optic axis

38.5

Air-gap

The Glan-Foucault prism provides linearly polarized light

Figure 7Q11-2 7.12 Faraday Effect Application of a magnetic field along the direction of propagation of a linearly polarized light wave through a medium results in the rotation of the plane of polarization. The amount of rotation is given by

= BL
where B is the magnetic field (flux density), L is the length of the medium, and is the so-called Verdet constant. It depends on the material and the wavelength. In contrast to optical activity, sense of rotation of the plane of polarization is independent of the direction of light propagation. Given that glass and ZnS have Verdet constants of about 3 and 22 minutes of arc Gauss-1 meter-1 at 589 nm respectively, calculate the necessary magnetic field for a rotation of 1 over a length 10 mm. What is the rotation per unit magnetic field for a 10 mm medium? (Note: 60 minutes of arc = 1 and 1 Gauss = 10-4 Tesla).

Solution
Rotation per unit magnetic field Glass: ZnS:
B= B=

60 = 2000 Gauss = 0.2 Tesla = 1 1 L ( 3 Gauss m )(10 103 m) 60 = = 273 Gauss = 0.027 Tesla 1 1 L (22 Gauss m )(10 103 m)

NOTE: There is a typo in the Verdet constant units, which should have been in Gauss not Tesla. reprint will have this corrected.

7.15 Transverse Pockels cell with LiNbO3 Suppose that instead of the configuration in Figure 7.20, the field is applied along the z-axis of the crystal, the light propagates along the y-axis. The z-axis is the polarization of the ordinary wave and x-axis that of the extraordinary wave. Light propagates through as o- and e-waves. Given that Ea = V/d, where d the crystal length along z, the indices are
3 no no + 1 2 no r 13 Ea

and

3 ne ne + 1 2 ne r 33 Ea

Show that the phase difference between the o- and e-waves emerging from the crystal is, V 2 L 2L 1 3 3 = e o = ne no )+ ne r33 no r ( ( 13 ) 2 d

where L is the crystal length along the y-axis. Explain the first and second terms. How would you use two such Pockels cells to cancel the first terms in the total phase shift for the two cells. If the light beam entering the crystal is linearly polarized in the z-direction, show that = 2 ne L + 2 L ( ne3 r33 ) V 2 d

Consider a nearly monochromatic light beam of the free-space wavelength = 500 nm and polarization along z-axis. Calculate the voltage V needed to change the output phase by given a LiNbO3 crystal with d/L = 0.01 (see table 7.2).
Solution

Consider the phase change between the two electric field components, 2 L 2L 1 3 V 3 = e o = ne no )+ ne r33 no r ( ( 13 ) 2 d

The first term is the natural birefringence of the crystal, just as in the calcite crystal, and occurs all the time, even without an applied field. The second term is the Pockels effect, applied field inducing a change in the refractive indices. Figure 7Q15 shows how two Pockels cells may be used to cancel the first terms in the combined system.
z L z y x y x L Ea Light d Ea d Light

Two tranverse Pockels cell phase modulators together cancel the natural birefringence in each crystal.

Figure 7Q15
If the light beam is linearly polarized with its field along z, we only need to consider the extraordinary ray, thus we can set o = 0.

= e =

2Lne

2L 1 3 V (n r ) 2 e 33 d

The first term does not depend on the voltage. The voltage V that changes the output phase by is
2 L 1 3 V (n r ) = 2 e 33 d

or

V=

500 109 m d = (0.01) 3 3 12 (2.187) (30.8 10 m/V) L n e r33

V = 15.5 V

7.21 Optical Kerr effect Consider a material in which the polarization does not have the second order term:
P = o1E + o3E3

or

P/(oE) = 1 + 3E2

The first term with the electric susceptibility 1 corresponds to the relative permittivity r and hence to the refractive index no of the medium in the absence of the third order term, i.e. under low fields. The E2 term represents the irradiance I of the beam. Thus, the refractive index depends on the intensity of the light beam, a phenomenon called the optical Kerr effect: 3 3 n2 = n = no + n2I and 4n2 o and = (o/o)1/2 = 120 = 377 , is the impedance of free space.

a Typically, for many glasses, 3 10-21 m2/W; for many doped glasses, 3 10-18 2 m /W; for many organic substances, 3 10-17 m2/W; for semiconductors, 3 10-14 m2/W. Calculate n2 and the intensity of light needed to change n by 10-3 for each case. b
The phase at a point z is given by
2 n 2 [n o + n2 I ]

= ot

z = ot

It is clear that the phase depends on the light intensity I and the change in the phase along z due to light intensity alone is
=

2n 2I

As the light intensity modulates the phase, this is called self-phase modulation. Obviously light is controlling light. When the light intensity is small n2I << no, obviously the instantaneous frequency

= /t = o.
Suppose we have an intense beam and the intensity I is time dependent I = I(t). Consider a pulse of light traveling along the z-direction and the light intensity vs. t shape is a Gaussian (this is approximately so when a light pulse propagates in an optical fiber,

for example). Find the instantaneous frequency . Is this still o? How does the frequency change with time, or across the light pulse? The change in the frequency over the pulse is called chirping. Self-phase modulation therefore changes the frequency spectrum of the light pulse during propagation. What is the significance of this result?

c Consider a Gaussian beam in which intensity across the beam cross section falls with radial distance in a Gaussian fashion. Suppose that the beam is made to pass through a plate of nonlinear medium. Explain how the beam can become self-focused? Can you envisage a situation where diffraction effects trying to impose divergence are just balanced by self-focusing effects? Solution a
The fractional change in the refractive index is
n no n2 I 3 3I = = 3 no no 4n o

n =

We need Glasses: Doped glasses: Organics: Semiconductors: Large intensities.

I=

n 4no3 3 3
no 1.5, 3 = 10-21, I = 1.21016 W m-2 no 1.5, 3 = 10-18, I = 1.21013 W m-2 no 1.5, 3 = 10-17, I = 1.21012 W m-2 no 2.5, 3 = 10-14, I = 5.5109 W m-2

n = 10-3 or 0.1%,

The phase at a point z is given by

= ot

2n

z = ot

2 [ no + n2I ]

so that the instantaneous frequency is

( t) =

2 zn2 I = o t t

When the light intensity is small n2I << no, obviously = /t = o. However, suppose we have an intense beam and the intensity I is time dependent I = I(t). Consider a pulse of light traveling along the z-direction and the light intensity vs. t shape is a Gaussian (this is approximately so when a light pulse propagates in an optical fiber, for example). Then the instantaneous frequency is,

( t) =

2 zn2 I = o t t

so that the frequency changes with time, or across the light pulse. Since I/t is rising at the leading edge and falling in the trailing edge, the two ends of the pulse contain

different frequencies! The change in the frequency over the pulse is called chirping. Selfphase modulation therefore changes the frequency spectrum of the light pulse during propagation. The second term above results in the broadening of the frequency spectrum and hence leads to more dispersion for a Gaussian pulse propagating in an optical fiber.

c If an intense Gaussian optical beam is transmitted through a plate of nonlinear medium, it will change the refractive index of the medium with the maximum change of the refractive index in the center of the beam. Therefore the plate will act as a gradedindex medium and change the curvature of the wavefront. Under certain conditions the plate can act as a lens with a power-dependent focal length, producing a co-called selffocusing of the beam. Similarly, if an intense Gaussian beam propagates through a nonlinear medium, the medium can act as a graded-index waveguide. In this case, under certain conditions, the self-focusing effect can compensate the divergence of the beam due to diffraction, and the beam will be confined to its self-created waveguide. Such selfguided beams are called spatial solitons.
y Nonlinear medium

The intensity variation across the beam cross section leads to a similar refractive index variation in the nonlinear medium. Thus, the medium resembles a graded index guide or a GRIN rod and can focus the beam.

Intensity across beam cross section

Figure 7Q21
"If your experiment needs statistics, you ought to have done a better experiment." Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937)