2 MODERN POWER STATION PRACTICE

'1

tSA'
w
II::
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~
W
IL.
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...

t2

ENTROPY .
a. b - CONVERSla-I OF HEAT ENERGY TO KINETIC ENERGY
b.c - 'REABSORPTla-I OF KINETIC ENERGY TO HEAT
ENERGY

WATER

,\ SUPERHEATED>
STEAM
:- Pl fI
i
W I'
I
VAPOUR

P,I-
9

SPEOFIC VOLUME V

e
SUPERHEATED
ST'EAM

x
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<C
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Z
W

.!7',,~'~J~;-~.'~~, I -

.
ENTROPY
b.c.d.e.. HEATING AT CONST~T PRESSURE
e.f.g. . IDEAL EXPANSIONAT CONST"NT ENTROPY,

g.o. . EXTRACTION OF LATENT HEAT INCONDEH5Fk

o.b. . IDEALPRESSURE INCREASEAT COHsrAlft
ENTROPY INFEED PUMP

FIG. 1.1.1A.Basic routine cycle with superheating

 TURBINES' 3

proportionately smaller. Further, unlesshigh~density high condition steam is used at

a high rate of flow, the high-pressure blades become very small and inefficient.
A lower exhaust pressure lowers the temperature at which heat is rejected, thus in-
creasing the cycle efficiency. For condensing turbines the vacuum obtainable is determined
primarily by the temperature of the cooling water at the site chosen. Any possible im.
provement in vacuum is very effective in increasing the work done, since a narrow but
large addition is made to the T/cJ>area (see Chapter 4).

e g
e g
SUPERHEATED
StEAM

w
cr
:J
I-
«
cr
w
Do
~
W
I-

ENTROPY ~ ENTROPY ~

AVERAGE TEMPERATURE OF
b.c.d.e. AND Lg. HAS INCREASED,
DUE TO REHEATING

b.e.d.e. - HEATING AT CONSTANT PRESSURE

e.f. -IDEAL EXPANSION AT CONSTANT ENTROPY
BEFORE REHEATING
f.g. - REHEATING AT CONSTANT PRESSURE
g.h.i. -IDEAL EXPANSION AT CONSTANT ENTROPY
AfTER REHEATING
i.a. - EXTRACTION OF LATENT HEAT IN CONDENSER
a.b. -IDEAL PRESSURE INCREASE AT CONSTANT
ENTROPY IN FEED PUMP

FIG. 1.1.1B. Effect of reheating

On large turbines (i.e. 100 MW and over) it becomes economic to increase the cycle
efficiency by using reheat, which is a way of partially overcoming temperature limitations.
By returning partially expanded steam to a reheater, the average temperature at which
heat is added is increased and, by expanding this reheated steam through the remaining
stages of the turbine, the exhaust wetness is considerably less than it would otherwise
be (Fig. 1.1.IB). Conversely, if the maximum tolerable wetness is allowed, the initial
pressure of the steam can be appreciably increased.
Regenerative heating of the boiler feed-water is widely used in modern power plant.
the effect being to increase the average temperature at which heat is added to the cycle,
thus improving the cycle efficiency (see Chapter 3).
 -
4 MODERN POWER STATION PRACTICE

1.1.2. The Nozzle

When steam is-allowed to expand through a narrow orifice, it assumes kinetic energy
at the expense of its enthalpy. When this kinetic energy is extracted by turbine blades,
the result is an isentropic expansion, modified by the effect of frictional reheating (Fig.
1.1.2A(a».
If, however, the steam expands into a chamber, the whole of the generated kinetic
energy will be reabsorbed as frictional reheat and the final enthalpy wHl be the same as
the original (Fig. 1.1.2A(b». This process is known as throttling and is inherently wasteful

Po
Po
o

>- >-
CL
<1
ENERGY
CL
..J ..J DISSIPATED
~ ~
F ~ BY INTERNAL
REHEAT
z
w i5

LOSSOF
LOSSOF AVAILABILITY
AVAILABILITY

ENTROPY ~ ENTROPY ~

(0) (b)

USEFUL EXTRACTION OF KINETIC ENERGY COMPLETE DISSIPATION OF KINETIC ENERGY

(TURBINE BLADING) (1:HROTTLING)

a-b - CONVERSION OF HEAT ENERGY TO KINETIC ENERGY

b-c - REABSORPTIONOF KINETIC ENERGY TO t fA
ENERGY
FIG. 1.1.2A. Extraction and dissipation of kinetic energy

since the kinetic energy is irretrievably thrown away; this is reflected by the large rise in
e..ntropy.(Rise in entropy may be regarded as loss of availability of the energy.) Throttling
is used where it is necessary to dispose of energy in the form of enthalpy~ e.g. in governing
valves at partial loads, labyrinth glands and blade tip seals.
Figure 1.1.2B(a) illustrates the expansion process. Two chambers are connected by a
small orifice or nozzle of cross-sectional area a ft2; the left-hand chamber A is supplied
with steam at pressure Pa and temperature fa; the right chamber B is fitted with an exhaust
pipe and valve, to enable its pressure Pb to be varied.
When the valve is closed
Pb = Pa
and the flow G=O

As the valve is opened, Pb will fall and the pressure difference (Pa-Pb) will cause a flow
through the nozzle, the steam assuming kinetic energy at the expense of its enthalpy.
 TURBINES 5
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1#

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(;

VALVE

(0) EXPANSIONPROCESS

CONVERGENT CONVERGENT. DIVERGENT

NOZZLE NOZZLE

CONVERGENT - DIVERGENTNOZZLES
FOR TURBINE FIRST STAGE

(b) NOZZLE PROFILES

FIG. 1.1.2B.Flow through nozzles

6 MODERN POWER STATION PRACTICE

If there were no friction, the expansion through the nozzle would be isentropic, in
which case the drop in enthalpy Ho could be measured on the Mollier chart from the
vertical line between the point (Pata) and Ph'
The corresponding kinetic energy would be
-~C2
2gJ
where Co is the ideal or isentropic exit velocity
Therefore Co = y'(2gJlJHo) = 223'7 y'lJHo ft/sec
where lJHois in Btu/lb,
and J is the mechanical equivalent.
In fact there is friction, and the actual velocity
C1 = cpCo
where cpis the nozzle coefficient, experimentally determined.
C2
2g~ = lJH1,the actual heat drop
so that lJH1 = cp2lJHo
a
The flow G = C1X- V
where v is the specific volume after expansion, in ft3/1b, obtained from the Mollier chart.
As the pressure Ph falls, so the velocity C1 and the flow G increase. When Ph reaches a
certain value~the velocity C1 will reach the acoustic velocity (Ca) appropriate to the exit
pressure and temperature. A fall in pressure beyond this will not be transmitted upstream
(since pressure variations travel at acoustic velocity) and hence no additional velocity
and flow will be induced.
At exit pressures lower than the above value, it is necessary to design the nozzle with a
divergent portion beyond the throat, in order to avoid severe shock losses (Fig. 1.1.2B(b)).
This permits a smooth pressure gradient between throat and exit, and the development
of a supersonic exit velocity.
It can be shown that, for superheated steam, acoustic velocity is reached when the
pressure ratio Ph = 0'547 (termed the critical value). For saturated or wet steam, the
Pa
P
critical pressure ratio -.!!...= O'580.
Pa
The maximum flow G which can pass through a nozzle, the pressure ratio across which
is critical or less, is given by
Pa
G = 0'309A - lb/sec
V Va
which is obviously independent of the pressure P beyond the nozzle.
Pa = pressure before
the nozzle in Ib/in2 absolute,
va = specific volume
before the nozzle in ft3/1b,
A = throat area of nozzle in in2.
 TURBINES 7

From this it can be seen that for the steam conditions given by Pa and va' the maximum
flow through the turbine, and hen~e the maximum power output, is limited by the throat
area of the first row of nozzles.
In a nozzle-governed turbine, the area A may be reduced in stops by "blanking off"
groups of nozzles. Thus there are several loads where those nozzles in use are running
full, known as "control points"; these are the more economical points at which to run,
since in between them a certain amount of throttling takes place at one of the control
valves.
In a throttle-governed turbine, the flow is controlled at all partial loads by varying
the pressure in front of the nozzles. This method simplifies the control valve gear, but is
less efficient at partial loads.
1.1.3. Moving Blades
In blading designed on the impulse principle, steam from the nozzles impinges on
moving blades, which bend the steam path through an angle as near 1800as is practicable.
The change of momentum of the steam produces a force on the blades which drives the
rotor, and in this way the kinetic energy of the steam is absorbed. Figure 1.1.3A(a) shows
the velocity diagram for this type of blading. This is a vector djagram of steam velocities
relating the absolute steam velocity C1leaving the stationary blades to the velocity of the
steam relative to the moving blades W 1, U being the tangential velocity of the moving
blades. Similarly for the steam leaving the moving blades, the diagram relates the velocity
of the steam leaving the moving blades W2 with the absolute leaving velocity C2. The

efficiency depends on the ratio~ termed the velocity ratio, as shown in Figure 1.1.3B.
Typical design velocity ratios for impulse blading lie between 0.45 and 0.55.
(Note: It is common practice to use the theoretical velocity ratio ~.
Co
Since C1 = rpCo,

~~ is smaller than the corresponding ratio Cu .

1 )
The other principle used in turbine blading is that of reaction, whereby there is some
heat drop in the moving blades, so that they act as nozzles. The jets of steam issuing
from the moving blades exert a propulsive force on the blades, as in Hero's first turbine.
A pure reaction turbine would use all its heat drop in this way; but such a machine has
been found to be impracticable. The 50 % impulse-reaction turbine (in which half the
heat drop takes place in the fixed blades and half in the moving blades) is, however, very
successful and Figure 1.1.3A(b) shows the velocity diagram.
Figure 1.1.3B also shows the shape of the efficiency curve for this type of blading.
Being comparatively flat, velocity ratios from 0.55 to 0.75 may be used without much
change in efficiency, i.e. a high efficiency is maintained over a wide range of load.
Nowadays most impulse type turbines are designed for pure impulse at the blade roots
only, and a varying degree of reaction up the blades, depending on their length (see
section 1.5).
8 MODERN POWER STATION PRACTICE

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/
J.I.
/
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" "",-,,""

(0) IMPULSE(W2< Wl~

IJ. J.I.

(b) 50% REACTION (W2 > Wl)

KEY W t = RELATIVE STEAM VELOCITY

Ct = ACTUAL STEAM VELOCITY
LEAVING STATIONARY BLADES
ex= ANGLE BETWEEN THE PATHS
OF THE MOVING BLADES AND
THE STEAM LEAVING THE
STATIONARY BLADES
I.l = VELOCITY OF MOVING BLADES
ENTERING MOVING BLADES
{J = ANGLE BETWEEN THE PATH
OF THE MOVING BLADES AND
THE RELATIVE PATH OF THE
STEAM LEAVING THE MOVING
BLADES
C2 = ACTUAL STEAM VELOCITY
LEAVING MOVING BLADES

FIG. 1.1.3A. Velocity diagrams for blading

 TURBINES 9

100

80

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z
60
1&1
U
ii:
:; 40

20

o
o 0.2 004 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
. VELOCITYRATIO

FIG. 1.1.38. Efficiency curves for blading

1.1.4. Stage Efficiency

The efficiency of a turbine state (Le. a nozzle-blade combination) is the product of the
following:
Kinetic energy produced/lb of steam
(a) The expansion efficiency {,= Enthalpy supplied fib of steam }

Work done on rotor fib of steam

(b) The diagram efficiency { = Kinetic energy produced fib of steam }

(c) The fixed blading leakage factor

(d) The moving blading leakage factor
(e) The dryness fraction
(In the wet region it is found in practice that for each additional 1 %moisture there
is about 1 %loss of efficiency. Hence the dryness fraction is included in the product.)
The efficiency of a well-designed stage in a modern turbine is about 85 %of the remain-
ing 15% of the available energy; some is dissipated as heat due to friction and some is
rejected in the form of kinetic energy. The latter may be partially or wholly reclaimed
by the nozzles of a subsequent similar stage, if carefully designed, and this is known as
"carry-over" .
The kinetic energy leaving the last stage in the turbine cannot be reclaimed and is
termed the "leaving loss". To minimise this loss it is important that the velocity of the
steam leaving the last wheel should be small and for this reason the annular area (Le.
nXthe blade heightXmean diameter) of the last row of blading is made as large as
economically practicable.

.
10 MODERN POWER STATION PRACTICE

1.1.5. The Condition Line

The condition line for the turbine is the locus of the condition of the steam as it flows
through the blading, plotted on the Mollier or Hj(/>diagram (Fig. 1.1.5). An ideal state
line would be isentropic (vertical on this diagram) but frictional reheating in the stationary
and moving blades gives the condition line an increase of entropy at each stage.

STOP VALVE
CONDITION

. Po P1
to

~ FIRST STAGE MAY BE

LESS EFFIOENT DUE
TO LOW VELOOTY RATIO

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>-
n.
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Z
W

FINAL CONDITION
OF STEAM IF BROUGHT
LESS
EFFICIENT
DUETO TTST
WETNESS WASTED KINETIC
. ENERGY (LEAVING
LOSS)
I
.
I ,'
,' \
FINAL CONDITION
OF MOVING STEAM
I ,' (LEAVING LAST ROW)

',' ,
ENTROPY .
FIG. 1.1.5. Turbine condition line

For a typical stage, the work done or useful heat drop is represented by lJH1 Btujlb
and the isentropic heat drop by lJHoBtujlb.
. lJH1
The stage e fficlency =-
{)Ho
For the whole turbine the useful heat drop is represented by LlH1 Btujlb and the
isentropic heat drop by LlHo Btujlb.
.. . LlH1
Th e tur b me InternaI efficlency =-
LlHo
The lines of constant pressure on the chart diverge as the entropy is increased and
hence the sum of the stage isentropic heat drops is greater than the turbine isentropic
 -
TURBINES 11

heat drop, the ratio being known as the "reheat factor" R.

MHo = };{)Ho
Since LJH1 = };{)H1
Turbine internal efficiency = R X stage efficiency.

1.1.6. Output and Specific Heat Consumption

To calculate the output of any regenerative turbine, with or without reheat, it is necess-
ary to divide the turbine into groups of stages between tapping points.

Gross group output E = GGXLJHG kW

G 3412
where GG = steam flow through group (lbjh),
LJHG = useful heat drop for group (Btujlb).
Net generator output
where em = mechanical efficiency,
ee = electrical efficiency.
Specific steam consumption = GA IbjkWh
'E

where GA = steam flow at stop valve (lbjh).

For a turbine generator without reheat
GAH1-GJih,
Specific heat consumption E
GA
= E (HI -hi) BtujkWh
where HI = initial steam enthalpy at stop valve (Btujlb),
hi = final feed water enthalpy after feed train (Btu/lb).
or a turbine generator with single reheat
GAH1+ GBH3-GBH2 -GAhl
pecific heat consumption E

where H2 = steam enthalpy before reheater (Btujlb),

H3 = steam enthalpy after reheater (Btujlb).
fhe additional second term represents the specific heat input from the reheater.
I For a dual pressure steam turbine without reheat