Earth Biosphere Biome Ecosystem Community Population Organisms Systems Organs Tissues Cells Organelles Molecules Atoms

8 Living in the
CHAPTER

environment: regulation and control

Chapter 8 Regulation and control

Key knowledge
Structural adaptations: relating major features of organisms to survival value Physiological adaptations: tolerance range of organisms; maintaining equilibrium by detecting and responding to changes in environmental conditions

nerve control in complex multicellular organisms; major sense organs and pathways of transmission of nerve impulses hormonal control in complex multicellular organisms regulating water balance and controlling temperature

Mark Dorrity is a lucky man. In 1988 he set off on what was to be a straightforward 8 km fun run in Wagga Wagga, New South Wales. By the end of the hour-long run the t 28-year-old had collapsed. The locals had cancelled the fun run when the outside temperature reached 42C but Mark and his friends were fooled by the dry heat. Mark did drink several glasses of water just before the start of the race but none during the race an almost fatal mistake. During the race Marks body overheated to 42.8C. In this state a person is delirious and loses judgement. Despite having an honours degree in science and being extremely t, he ignored his bodys warning signals to stop.

Brain damaged Lungs damaged Heart stopped beating, then restarted at a very high rate Leg amputated at buttocks, due to gangrene

Rhabdomyolysis (muscle fatigue) brought on by heat exhaustion and dehydration

Kidney failure due to dying muscles releasing toxic proteins into bloodstream Buttocks and hamstring muscles liquefied All organs affected Body overheated to 42.8C

Thigh muscles overheated, liquefied and ceased operating Blood thickened to honey-like consistency

Figure 8.1 A near-fatal mistake.

Marks thigh muscles had liqueed and died and later one leg had to be amputated at the buttock as a result of gangrene. The dying muscles released toxic proteins into his blood and caused kidney failure; his blood thickened to become like honey. Every organ in his body was affected; his brain was damaged and his lungs could barely function. Buttock and hamstring muscles were also severely affected but not to quite the same extent as his thigh muscles. His heart stopped at least once and when it started again it pounded away at 150 beats per minute instead of his usual 70. For 8 weeks Mark was on a dialysis machine; he could not walk or talk when he regained consciousness after being in a coma for 3 months. Several years of intensive rehabilitation have enabled him to regain some of his abilities.

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Skin evaporation regulates temperature Kidneys regulates water balance

Blood distributes heat

Figure 8. 2 A happier Mark.

What caused the incredible damage to Marks body? No doubt Hypothalamus it was due to heat exhaustion but (in brain) what does that actually mean? The regulates changes to concentration of cells of our bodies need a relatively solutions in cells and constant internal state to be able to body fluids function effectively. The unusually Pancreas regulates high temperature and dehydration blood sugar due to loss of water in sweat made it impossible for Marks body to regulate its temperature and Skeletal muscles maintain water balance. contract and During exercise Marks large release heat muscle groups generated more heat than could be lost from his body. The loss of water in evaporation resulted in thickening of the blood to a point where it could not ow freely in some parts of the body. Mark suffered a rare condition known as rhabdomyolysis. Under normal conditions Marks body systems are able to work together to enable him to function comfortably, but in the extreme environmental conditions his bodys ability to maintain heat balance became impaired. His judgement and his behaviour overrode the warning signs; his urinary, skeletal (muscles and bones) and coordinating systems were unable to regulate his physiological responses to heat. The conditions in his internal environment became intolerable. In this chapter we explore the interactions between the structural, behavioural and physiological adaptations that help Mark and other animals to live in their environment.

Maintaining a balance
Fortunately, few people engage in the kind of activity that Mark did in such extreme conditions, but for many animals and plants these conditions are a feature of their daily lives. How does a desert hopping mouse or an emperor penguin manage? Other complex living things such as reptiles and amphibians have particular strategies and mechanisms that ensure relatively stable internal conditions conditions that are necessary for biochemical processes in cells to be maintained, despite what is happening in the external environment. This maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment is called homeostasis, a term rst used in 1932 in a book called Wisdom of the body. The word is derived from the Greek homoios, meaning similar, and stasis, meaning standing or keeping still. All the mechanisms involved in homeostasis are called homeostatic mechanisms and, in complex organisms, they include most of the systems and organs of the body but particularly the nervous and hormone systems.

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Chapter 8 Regulation and control Much of regulation and control is developmental. Examination of the regulatory systems of newborns indicates that many systems mature at different rates. It takes weeks and even months for effective physiological control. Premature babies are particularly in need of constant monitoring as they have poor temperature control and their brain and breathing functions are undeveloped.

Nervous system Stimuli in the external and internal environments are detected by receptors. Electrical impulses travel to the CNS where coordination takes place. Impulses are sent to effectors that carry out a response. Hormonal (endocrine) system Hormones are released directly into the bloodstream and transported throughout the body. Target tissues involved in regulating cell activities respond. Respiratory system Oxygen from the air diffuses from the lungs into the capillaries and is carried to all cells. Carbon dioxide from the cells is carried to the lungs in the blood and diffuses into the alveoli from where it is exhaled. Removal of CO2 helps regulate pH.

The principle of feedback

Minor uctuations around an optimal Circulatory system Blood distributes warmth, hormones, level occur continually but sometimes O2, nutrients including glucose, fatty considerable disturbances happen in acids and amino acids to cells and the internal environment. Apart from removes wastes including CO2. extremes in the external environment, Digestive system diseases, trauma (injury), inherited The products of digestion simple disorders and toxic substances molecules are absorbed into the blood and lymph vessels in the wall interfere with homeostasis. These of the intestine from where they are disturbances have to be brought under supplied to other parts of the body. Undigested material is eliminated. control as cells can function effectively only at an optimal (best) temperature and concentrations of substances. Excretory system Nitrogenous wastes (urea), excess water How is this achieved? and salts are excreted from the body in Information or signals about these urine. Water balance (osmoregulation) is disturbances are fed to a control regulated in this way. centre. This centre interprets the Integumentary system (skin) Evaporation of sweat from the surface helps signal and coordinates a particular regulate temperature. The skin is a barrier between response that might either counteract the internal and external environments and reduces the chance of entry of micro-organisms. or reinforce the disturbance. Mechanisms like these are referred to as feedback mechanisms. A feedback mechanism is characterised by a stimulus (condition) which is detected by a receptor, a coordinating centre and some part of the organism (effector) which carries out a response. Effectors are usually muscles and glands.

Figure 8.3 Human body systems and regulation.

Negative feedback
If the response by the effector the gland or organ responding to stimulation cancels or counteracts the original disturbance or stimulus, the mechanism is referred to as negative feedback. Negative feedback mechanisms result in returning the changed internal conditions to their optimal level or set point. In terms of the physiology of an organism, the set point lies within the tolerance limits of the organism. For example, if a persons

bio TERMS
receptor a structure that detects (or receives) a stimulus or signal stimulus a condition or signal that causes a response

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receptor

cancels or counteracts the original stimulus

stimulus (input) S (coordination centre) response (output)

effector

temperature rises too far above or below normal (about 37C), then the negative feedback mechanism operates to bring it back to the set point. In Marks case, the feedback mechanism was ineffective it was stretched beyond its ability to return his temperature to the set point.
+

Figure 8.4 Components of a negative feedback mechanism.

2. corrective mechanism comes into play

1. stress 3. return to optimum

steady optimal cellular environment (set value)

Figure 8.5 Maintenance of a set point and optimum conditions by means of negative feedback.

REVIEW
1 Explain the importance of maintaining a relatively constant internal environment. Include simple, annotated diagram(s) in your answer. 2 What can contribute to the failure of homeostasis? Explain. 3 Annotate a simple diagram (model) that illustrates the features of a negative feedback mechanism. 4 Summarise the cause of Marks collapse.

Detecting changing conditions

Without food or water and unable to avoid danger, organisms are unlikely to survive. A lizard on a rock exposed to the erce heat of the day would not last for long if it remained there, nor would a penguin standing on an ice oe unless it had the means of keeping warm. Organisms need to be able to detect changing external and internal conditions and coordinate their responses if they are to survive at least for another day. Two systems in the body, the nervous system and the endocrine system, are responsible for monitoring changes and coordinating responses in complex animals.

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The nervous system

Recognisable components make up the nervous system. The brain and the spinal cord form the central nervous system (CNS), which is responsible for processing, storing and coordinating information at a far more sophisticated level than any computer you can imagine. All the other parts of the nervous system make up the peripheral (towards the edge) nervous system (PNS). Nerve impulses travel along dened pathways, the sensory neurones, to the CNS from the source of stimulation, and motor neurones from the CNS to the effectors along different pathways.
a cerebrum cerebellum thoracic nerves (12 pairs) supplying trunk and arms spinal cord b Central nervous system brain

Figure 8.6 The nervous system: (a) general view of the nervous system and (b) main divisions of the nervous system.

cervical nerves (8 pairs) supplying neck, shoulders and arms

sensory nerves

motor nerves

lumbar nerves (5 pairs) supplying legs and lower back

Motor functions The somatic nerves carry signals to and from skeletal muscles, tendons and skin

spinal cord sacral nerves (5 pairs) supplying legs and genitals coccygeal nerves (1 pair) supplying vestigial tail

Visceral functions The autonomic nerves carry signals to and from internal organs (gut, heart, glands, etc.)

parasympathetic nerves

sympathetic nerves

Peripheral nervous system

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nerve endings in spinal cord dendrites nucleus axon cell body dendron axon nerve impulses insulating sheath nerve impulses cell body nerve fibres cell body dendrites axon synapses on dendrites and cell body

motor end-plate sense organ (touch receptor) muscle fibre Sensory neurone Motor neurone

connective tissue tube

Figure 8.7 (a) Structure of a neurone (b) Structure of a nerve.

back of body

epidural space (cushions the spinal cord and contains a network of nerve fibres and blood vessels) spinal cord

sensory nerve root

motor nerve root

spinal nerve nerve root sheath

vertebral body front of body

Neurones constitute the basic units of the nervous system and their structure is directly related to their function. They have extensions called bres along which nerve impulses travel. A bundle of nerve bres comprises a nerve and each nerve is wrapped in a tube of connective tissue. Nerve bres can be over a metre in length and between 0.004 mm and 0.02 mm in thickness. The peripheral nerves that connect directly to the brain are the cranial nerves, and spinal nerves are those that connect to the spinal cord. Peripheral nerve bres are enclosed in a sheath of whitish-looking fatty material called myelin. This is produced in the cytoplasm of thin cells which wrap around the bre, leaving small gaps or nodes where adjacent myelin cells meet. The myelin sheath assists the transmission of electrical impulses along the neurone. Many important nerves in babies remain unmyelinated for up to a year hence their seeming lack of coordination as messages can leak out before they get to where they should be going.
Figure 8.8 Cross-section of a vertebra, showing how it protects the spinal cord.

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Chapter 8 Regulation and control Damage to the myelin sheath, as occurs in multiple sclerosis, hinders the transmission of the nerve impulses. Eye problems, loss of coordination and balance, loss of bladder or bowel control, slurring of speech, numbness and even paralysis are some of the symptoms, depending on the part of the nervous system affected. Symptoms of multiple sclerosis usually appear between the ages of 20 and 50 and Victoria has the highest incidence of any state in Australia. Damage to myelin from whatever cause can affect the functioning and therefore survival of organisms that have complex nervous systems. Much like a connecting service between one train or tram station and another, interconnecting or association neurones, located in the CNS, relay the electrical impulses from sensory neurones to the appropriate motor neurones. It is logical that such important centres of control are protected by the bony cranium and parts of the vertebrae of the spine.

bio TERMS
cranium bony skull

REVIEW
5 Why is it important for an organism to be able to detect changes in its external environment? Use a named animal in your explanation. 6 Which systems of the body are largely responsible for monitoring and coordinating response mechanisms? 7 Distinguish between nerve, neurone and nerve bre. 8 a Draw up and complete a table that summarises the different kinds of neurones. Use the following headings: Type of neurone; Simple labelled diagram; Function. b In what way(s) is the structure of a neurone related to its function?

Beginning the pathway receptors detect stimuli

Specialised nerve cells called sensory cells or receptors are able to detect disturbances in the environment. The receptors can be single and distributed fairly evenly over the body as in Hydra (a coelenterate), or located in specialised areas such as in muscles and joints, taste buds on the tongue, and smell (olfactory) receptors in the nasal passage; they may be concentrated in sense organs such as the eye and the ear.

bio BYTE
Not so long ago there were thought to be only four tastes: sweetness, saltiness, sourness and bitterness. In 2002 scientists recognised a fth umami. The story began in 1907 when a Japanese professor believed that there was a distinctive taste (common to asparagus, tomatoes, cheese and meat) that did not t into the four categories. He knew that the taste was present in a seaweed called kombu. After a series of experiments with kombu he isolated crystals of glutamate (glutamic acid), an amino acid that gave the distinctive taste. He commercialised his discovery, manufacturing a seasoning we now know as MSG monosodium glutamate. As it has no smell or texture of its own it can be used to enhance the natural avour of food; our umami receptors detect its presence. Scientists think that there are other amino acid receptors on the tongue too.

pain receptor cold receptor warmth receptor touch receptor hair erection motor neuron pressure receptor erector papillary muscle

Figure 8.9 Specialist sense organs: the skin.

STU

sensory nerve endings

DE

NT C D

Neurones

Access the animation activities from the main menu of the student CD-ROM

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semi-circular canals (contain fluid)

Figure 8.10 Specialist sense organs: ear.

pinna ear ossicles hammer anvil stirrup auditory nerve

ear canal

sound waves eardrum oval window round window cochlea (partly uncoiled) is filled with fluid bone Eustachian tube Outer ear Middle ear to throat Inner ear

bio BYTE
The platypus will feed only in water. When it dives and delves along stream bottoms, it shuts down its senses eyes, ears and nares (nostrils) close, leaving only the sense of touch and perhaps taste. How does it manage to catch half its own bodyweight of live invertebrates every night? Investigation revealed that the platypus could detect very faint electric currents emitted by a battery; a at battery elicited no response. Scientists found the sensory nerve supply to the bill involved about a million nerve bres equivalent to the optic nerve of one of our eyes and that a huge area of the brain was devoted to receiving signals from the bill. This area was far greater than those for sensory input from the rest of the body. An examination of the bill itself showed strips of pores running from the top to the bottom of the bill; these are the electroreceptors and interestingly, apart from sharks and rays, are found only in the platypuss close relative, the echidna.

There is controversy about how we classify sensory systems. Do the traditional ve senses, an idea rst put forward by Aristotle, account for all our sensory input? What about pain and heat? If we classify our senses in terms of the nature of the stimulus, we have three: chemical (tastes, smells, chemical conditions in cells and tissues), mechanical (touch and hearing) and light (vision). If we classify sensory systems according to the kinds of receptors there are, scientists now suggest we have 21! We can classify them by their location: a snake detects the presence of its prey by exteroceptors, and interoceptors detect changes in its internal environment when the swallowed prey passes down its digestive tract.

Figure 8.11 A snake and its prey.

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Chapter 8 Regulation and control Crowding round a tram stop to catch a plane, train, ambulance Some people, once thought of as living in a or bus just does not work. Its no different for receptors. No single fantasy land, are subject to a mixing of their senses receptor is able to detect every kind of stimulus a receptor is synaesthesia. They can experience words, specialised to detect a particular kind of stimulus and to pass the sounds, letters and numbers as colours. Imagine message on. But there is evidence that some people interpret and hearing a taste or feeling a colour! It seems quite beyond our understanding but scientists perceive messages reaching the brain in a very mixed way. are making more sense of these experiences. Five general types of receptors provide information: 1 Chemoreceptors are stimulated by molecules of substances that have to do with smell (olfactory receptors), taste and concentration of substances such as carbon dioxide, oxygen and glucose in the blood. 2 Mechanoreceptors detect pressure, touch, tension, sound vibrations and, internally, position and posture of the body (balance). 3 Photoreceptors are stimulated by light such as in the retina of eyes, and light-sensitive cells in body surfaces of, for example, invertebrates including worms and some crustaceans. 4 Thermoreceptors are stimulated by heat and cold; they are located in mammalian skin, and in the hypothalamus of the brain in complex vertebrates. 5 Pain receptors are free nerve endings in the skin. The sensitivity of some receptors is amazing. For example, the hair-like mechanoreceptors of certain insects detect disturbances of 3.6 nm, making them extremely sensitive to airborne vibrations. Chemoreceptors on the antennae of moths can detect single molecules of scent. Those of the Chinese saturnid moth can locate females about 10 km away, and the ability of sniffer dogs in drug detection is renowned. Pythons and boa constrictors have thermoreceptors in pits along their lips which work with vision to help them hunt their prey.

bio BYTE

Generation and transmission

How are the impulses generated and how are they transmitted along neurones? Just like any cell, nerve cells of whatever kind contain positively charged ions (charged atoms), of sodium and potassium for example, and negatively charged protein molecules. This means that they can become excited electrically they can produce electrical impulses on receiving a stimulus. The receptor nerve cell is either resting or stimulated an all or nothing situation and stimulation must reach a threshold level before impulses are generated. It would not do for impulses to be generated at the slightest stimulation it would be a very excitable condition to be in permanently! The electrical impulses move along the nerve, rather like a series of Mexican waves. This is due to the way the ions move in and out across the membrane that separates the nerve cell from the tissue uids surrounding it. How this is achieved is explored in a later chapter. A strong stimulus, such as a loud sound, can generate up to 100 impulses per second travelling from the ears to the brain. The speed an impulse travels depends on the kind of animal and the type of neurone, as well as the diameter of the axon the larger the diameter, the faster the speed. The slowest transmission rate is about 0.5 metres per second and the fastest over 100 metres per second. It takes only about one hundredth of a second for the pain impulse generated in the big toe you stubbed to register in the appropriate part of the brain, and this involves navigating a complex pathway from neurone to neurone.

bio TERMS
impulses electrical signals that pass along a nerve

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BIOBOX 8.1
DIFFERENT WAYS OF DOING IT: NERVE
SYSTEMS OF ORGANISMS
a

a network of nerve cells

nerve strands

cerebral ganglia

Figure 8.12 Nerve systems of (a) Hydra and (b) atworm.

Some invertebrates, such as earthworms and lobsters, do not have any myelinated nerves and are relatively slow moving. What they lack in myelin they make up for in bulk they rely on giant axons for high-speed transmission of impulses for rapid escape. A wriggling worm is testament to that.
BIO
LIN

Doing it without thinking reex arcs

Reflex arc

Blinking, knee jerking and changing the size of the pupil of the eye in different light conditions do not require much thought if any at all. These are examples of automatic responses known as reexes. A reex action is the simplest kind of pathway an impulse travels: from the receptor to the bio BYTE coordinating centre (usually the spinal cord), Squid can evade their predators to the effector, the part of the body that by moving at almost 11 kilometres responds. The pathway is called a reex arc per hour not bad for an ocean mollusc whose relatives include and usually involves only a few neurones.
snails and slugs.

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BIOBOX 8.2
DO INSECTS HAVE THE ANSWER?
Figure 8.13 Flying insect robot.

Creative biologists and roboticists are working together to design intriguing, biologically designed, remote-controlled robots. These are inspired by the way insects detect their environment through their senses and control their ight responses. Micro-unpiloted aerial vehicles (UAVs) are incorporating sensors for panoramic vision based on the compound eyes of insects, and ways of maintaining balance based on the halteres (structures) that insects use to detect the way their body is positioned. Controlling the ight path of a UAV or the course of a vehicle with legs is based on the way insects sense directional patterns of polarised light, on directional hearing and on the way they detect heat (infra-red reception). Examining the way insects use their antennae to detect odours (chemicals) in the atmosphere has helped develop sensory components that could be signicant in detecting foreign chemicals. Why do it? Machines like these can be used in the exploration of planets, in response to disasters, in defence and in security activities.

a grey matter (neurone cell bodies) white matter (nerve fibres) central canal

dorsal root ganglion

cell body of sensory nerve

ganglion

to brain from bra in

receptor (nerve endings in skin)

fibre of connector neurone

fibre of sensory nerve

spinal cord

spinal nerve

fibre of effector neurone

b stimulus receptor

transmission

coordinating centre

relay

effector (e.g. biceps muscle)

response

effector transmission

Figure 8.14 (a) A reex action: treading on a nail/touching a hot object (b) Stimulusresponse model.

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BIO

LIN

Synapses

The reex arc is an example of a simple stimulusresponse model. The advantage of having this kind of mechanism is that individuals can immediately respond to a potentially harmful stimulus: touching something hot, a possum being able to see its predator quickly in poor light, a dingo scratching its eas or a rabbit responding to an unwelcome nip by its foxy predator.

bio TERMS
synapses gaps between the nerve endings neurotransmitters chemicals that transmit or carry a nerve impulse across the synapse
Figure 8.15 Neurones connect with each other by synapses (a) The structure of a synapse (b) Scanning electron micrograph of synaptic knobs.

Crossing the gap synapses

Reex arcs are like catching express trains a direct route with few or no stops. But transmission of impulses can involve many interconnecting neurones, rather like changing trains or trams to get to different places. Gaps or synapses occur between many kinds of sensory receptors and sensory neurones, between interconnecting neurones, and between motor neurones and the end-plates of effectors such as muscles. Synapses not only allow a variety of interconnections to be made but also ensure that impulses are transmitted in one direction only. How do impulses cross the gap between one neurone and another?
a terminal branch of axon mitochondrion b

synaptic knob

synaptic vesicle synaptic cleft neurotransmitter molecules postsynaptic membrane with receptors

At the end of each axon branch there is a knob, which contains numerous mitochondria and bubbles called synaptic vesicles, clues that indicate that something is going on that needs containers for storage and considerable energy. These knobs secrete chemicals called neurotransmitters, which carry the impulse across the gap (cleft). As soon as the neurotransmitters have done their job, enzymes in the synaptic cleft deactivate them, switching them off so that the synaptic knob does not continue to re. Some neurotransmitters inhibit (prevent or slow down) rather than stimulate neurones or effectors. This means that the nervous system is able to control very nely any adjustments that need to be made to maintain homeostasis. A gland, for example, can be stimulated to secrete more of a substance and, when balance is restored, be stimulated to stop production.

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BIOBOX 8.3
BOASTING AND THE BRAIN
Australian researchers are leaders in neuroscience. The late Sir John Eccles was awarded the Nobel Laureate in 1963 for research that explained how nerve impulses were transmitted from one neurone to the next, including those in the CNS. This discovery opened up a whole new eld of investigation with many implications for understanding the nature of signalling and control. Since Eccles led the way, Australian research into neurotransmitters has increased the understanding of neurological disorders and the way they can be treated.

Figure 8.16 Sir John Eccles.

REVIEW
9 Distinguish between exteroceptors and interoceptors. 10 Explain the function of the myelin sheath. 11 Draw a simple diagram to show a stimulusresponse model of transmission of impulses. Include the words effector, transmission, stimulus, coordinating centre and receptor in the appropriate sequence. 12 Choose one of the examples of a reex action given in the text. Draw a simple representation (model) of the action.

Brain power
What decides which connections are made, which pathways are taken and which synapses open or close to allow the message through? It is the brain. The human brain is soft and wobbly and has the appearance of a wrinkly walnut. 1 It weighs about 1 2 kilograms and consists of an estimated 100 billion neurones, each connected to as many as 25 000 other neurones. The total number of possible connections is, therefore, astronomical. It makes an amazing coordinating centre for regulating and controlling incredible numbers of homeostatic adjustments and behaviours. The brain interprets the myriad of messages or impulses it receives and coordinates the pathways impulses are relayed along to the effectors. The grey matter of the brain (and the spinal cord) is distinguished from the white matter by not being myelinated. Why is this? The absence of myelin makes it easier for the grey matter to direct transmission of impulses along a variety of interconnections.

white matter of spinal cord

grey matter of spinal cord

central canal

spinal cord white matter of brain grey matter of brain

Figure 8.17 Grey and white matter.

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Learning and repetition establish particular connections and pathways so that often thought is no longer required. Think of the way you learnt to tie your shoelaces or manipulate a computer game! It might have been awkward at rst before you became hard wired. No wonder some habits are difcult to break.
Figure 8.18 Brain power taking responsibility. The sensory and motor cortex areas of the brain can be mapped according to their function.
sensory cortex central sulcus motor cortex

torso and leg arm hand face lips tongue parietal lobe occipital lobe

torso and leg arm hand fingers eyes face lips tongue

frontal lobe primary visual cortex temporal lobe primary auditory cortex medulla oblongata spinal cord cord spinal

cerebellum

BIO

LIN

Brain

Figure 8.19 Left and right parts of the brain.

Different areas of the brain have different functions, for example receiving input from different receptors to do with physical actions, monitoring and coordinating different physiological functions of the body and processing and storing information. The various parts of the brain are coordinated so that all components work together; this ensures efcient functioning and therefore improves the chance of survival of the animal.

Left, right, left, right

The human brain is clearly divided into two parts or hemispheres that communicate with each other by a thick band of nerve bres called the corpus callosum. People are sometimes described as being right brained or left brained. Studies have shown that the two sides of the brain are generally responsible for different functions. Nowadays brain functioning can be monitored by a variety of advanced medical technologies which have the advantage of being able to be used on the living, conscious brain. Apart from learning more about the normal functioning of the brain these technologies are used to detect abnormalities to brain functioning caused by disease, injury or impaired development.

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BIOBOX 8.4
TARGETING CATS, PETS AND OTHERS
Developments in imaging techniques and technologies have enabled neuroscientists to discover much about the activity of the brain and what leads to disorders.
Table 8.1 Imaging technologies.

EEG

Electroencephalograph

Electrodes taped to the head produce electrical signals (waves) and the brains response is recorded.

Abnormalities in wave patterns help to diagnose brain tumours, epilepsy, stroke. Used to analyse sleep patterns.

CAT

Computerised axial tomography

Computers combine X-rays of the brain taken from various angles, to produce a 3-D image of a cross-section.

Images of internal structures of organs and tissues can be examined.

PET

Positron emission topography

A scanner detects the location of sugar (energy source), tagged with radio isotopes, that has been injected into the bloodstream, hence the activity of areas of the brain.

Identies dysfunction of neurones in, for example, midbrain that leads to Parkinsons disease; cerebral cortex that leads to Alzheimers disease; parts of the brain affected by seizures as in epilepsy.

MRI

Magnetic resonance imaging

Detects protons indicators of areas of oxygen-rich blood which respond to a magnetic eld; detects areas of reduced or over-activity.

Diagnoses strokes (due to blocking of blood), shows up brain tumours; parts of the brain affected by seizures as in epilepsy.

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BIOBOX 8.5
A VARIETY OF EFFECTS
u re Fig
tophor hroma C 0 8.2

es, camouage an d the c

hame leon .

Colour change
Muscles and glands are the most widespread effectors the parts of the organism carrying out the response to the initial stimulus. But there are others. The chameleon is noted for its ability to change its colour according to its background. Its skin, and that of many animals such as octopuses, amphibians and reptiles, contains chromatophores or pigment cells. These produce shades of colour that help the animal to be camouaged. Apart from serving as camouage, a burst of colour can be a warning signal to others.

Figure 8.21 (above and bottom right) Danger!

Some animals, like the chameleon, can change their pigmentation depending on the circumstances. The chromatophores are stimulated to vary the concentration of the various coloured pigments they contain, including yellow, green, red and black. In crustaceans and amphibians, the chromatophores have a xed shape and the colour change is due to the spreading out or concentrating of pigment granules in the cell. This is under the control of hormones.

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Let there be light

Fireies, glow-worms and many marine organisms produce light, a physiological effect called bioluminescence. In these animals light is produced by cells and organs under nervous control. Some organs are quite complex. Certain species of shrimp, for example, have light-producing cells that are backed by a reective layer and they have a lens to concentrate the rays. In some single-celled organisms other mechanisms come into play and though not entirely understood are thought to be due to changes in the cell surface.

Figure 8.22 Dinoagellates demonstrating bioluminescence.

There are several ideas about the value of bioluminescence: light to see by in the depths where light does not penetrate, light to attract (to bring sexes together in spawning in the ocean) and light as a warning.

The electric effect

Electric eels, elephant sh and electric rays are among a number of organisms that send out electric impulses. Rather than contract when stimulated some of their muscles are adapted to sending out impulses. It is thought that the sh respond to disturbances in the electric eld surrounding them. The amount of electrical discharge can be enough to immobilise prey or to shed some light in the murky water that they live in. The elephant sh gives out electric impulses and this has been made use of as an indicator of the health of the waterway in which it lives. The rate of emission changes in the presence of chemical pollutants in the water.

Figure 8.23 Electric example: the elephant sh.

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Two systems in one

Most of us live our lives at a faster pace than the sloth or koala, which seem to be in a permanent state of slow motion. Our nervous system is responsible for rapid responses to changes in the environment, and adjusts to changed conditions quickly or we suffer the consequences. Some of these responses are under voluntary control; we can decide what to do. Nerves involved in this kind of response, such as those going to the skeletal muscles, make up the somatic system (soma means body). Other responses are involuntary they happen without us thinking about them. These belong to the autonomic system.

bio TERMS
somatic system the part of the peripheral nervous system associated with voluntary control autonomic system part of the peripheral nervous system that deals with involuntary control

nervous system

central nervous system

peripheral nervous system

brain

spinal cord

somatic nerves (somatic nervous system)

autonomic nerves (autonomic nervous system)

voluntary sensory motor sympathetic

involuntary parasympathetic

Figure 8.24 Two systems in one: the somatic and autonomic systems.

Flexing your arm is easy but can you control the iris muscle of your eye or slow the beating of your heart just by thinking about it? Imagine having to think about every breath before you can take it. There would be little opportunity for thinking about anything else. The autonomic system plays a signicant role in controlling those activities we are normally unaware of. Nerves of the autonomic system transmit impulses to glands and heart, gut and artery muscles. They cause involuntary responses such as breathing, secretion of hormones such as adrenaline, the movement of food along the gut and sweating. All these are essential to homeostasis but we are aware of them only if something goes wrong, as when we suffer from stomach ache or chest pains.

REVIEW
13 Explain the signicance of the arrangement of white matter and grey matter in the brain and spinal cord. Include a diagram to show their distribution. 14 Distinguish between the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.

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Slow control the endocrine system

Not all changes in an organisms internal and external environment require an immediate, quick-re response. Some can take time and these are under the control of hormones produced by the endocrine system. The word hormone is derived from the Greek hormon meaning to excite or set in motion an apt description of their function. Hormones are chemical substances, such as proteins, steroids, fatty acids or amino acids, which in vertebrates such as ourselves are secreted by glands directly into the bloodstream. They target and excite particular cells and organs which respond in some way. Because the endocrine glands secrete their hormones directly into the bloodstream they are called ductless glands.
BIO
LIN

Endocrine system

Figure 8.25 Location of the main endocrine organs in the human body.
hypothalamus pineal gland pituitary gland

thyroid gland

parathyroid gland

adrenal glands pancreas

ovaries (in females)

testes (in males)

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A target tissue or organ may be a long way from the gland that secretes the hormone. For example, antidiuretic hormone (ADH), secreted from part of the pituitary gland at the base of the brain, has its effect in the kidneys. It stimulates the reabsorption of water, therefore helping to maintain an appropriate water balance in the blood and tissues. Although only minute quantities of a hormone are produced, they have a considerable impact. Some effects are temporary, such as when we experience symptoms of ght or ight; adrenaline signals the release of glucose from the liver and the quickening of the heartbeat. Regulatory mechanisms can, however, have an effect over a longer period of time even years as in the case of the effect of particular hormones on growth and development in animals such as ourselves. Just as there is the need for coordination of activities under the control of the nervous system, there is the need for some kind of coordination of activities associated with the endocrine system. The pituitary gland is often referred to as the master gland as it produces many hormones that affect hormone production by other endocrine glands.
Table 8.2 Some glands and hormones of the human endocrine system.

Endocrine gland Parathyroid Anterior pituitary

Hormone secreted Parathyroid hormone Growth hormone Prolactin Luteinising hormone

Target tissue/ organ Bone Most tissues, especially muscles Mammary glands Ovaries and testes Kidney Uterus Kidneys, liver, blood vessels Many tissues Nearly all tissues Anterior pituitary Many tissues Uterus

Function related to homeostasis Controls levels of calcium and phosphate ions in the blood Stimulates general growth Stimulates secretion of milk Stimulates ovulation in females; sperm production in males Stimulates reabsorption of water Controls contraction of uterus at birth Constricts blood vessels in kidney and liver; stimulates liver to release more glucose; prepares for ght or ight Prevents excessive immune response Increases metabolic rate, therefore increases oxygen consumption and heat release Stimulates release of prolactin Stimulates development of secondary sexual characteristics (muscle build, etc.); needed for maturation of sperm Regulates menstrual cycle and pregnancy Promotes development of ovaries and secondary sexual characteristics; regulates menstrual cycle and pregnancy

Posterior pituitary

Antidiuretic hormone Oxytocin

Adrenal

Adrenaline Cortisol

Thyroid Hypothalamus Testes Ovaries

Thyroxine Prolactin-releasing hormone Testosterone Progesterone Oestrogen

Beta cells of pancreas Alpha cells of pancreas Pineal

Insulin Glucagon Melatonin

Most body cells Liver Indirectly affects reproductive organs and skin

Lowers blood sugar level, increases glycogen storage by liver, stimulates protein synthesis Stimulates conversion of glycogen to glucose and its release Regulates circadian rhythms; promotes sexual development in mammals; concentrates melanin in skin of frogs; inuences skin pigmentation

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Chapter 8 Regulation and control Hormones and hormone-like substances occur in many other organisms, including plants, all essential in regulating a variety of activities. Female ring doves, for example, coo during male courtship but they actually coo to themselves, stimulating the release of hormones that result in the development of eggs.

REVIEW
15 Choose an example of a hormone from Table 8.2. Devise a simple annotated diagram to summarise its regulatory effect.
Table 8.3 Nervous and hormonal control.

16 Copy and complete Table 8.3, comparing nervous and hormonal control mechanisms in vertebrates such as humans.

Feature Similarity Medium of transmission Speed of travel

Nervous system Involves chemical transmission (e.g. at synapses and neuromuscular junctions)

Endocrine system Involves chemical transmission Hormones in the general circulation of the blood

Fast Specic location muscles and glands Tissues/glands

Duration of response Example

Short

Keeping in the comfort zone thermoregulation

Different kinds of animals have slightly different set points or normal temperatures. Birds have a normal temperature of about 41C and cats of about 39C. No wonder they can keep you warm on a cold day. These are the temperatures (set points) at which their enzymes work best. If body temperatures rise much above the set point the enzymes are denatured, metabolic processes fail to function properly and the individual suffers from hyperthermia. One of the rst organs to be affected is the brain and as this organ controls a range of other systems, the functioning of these systems is impaired too.

Endotherms and ectotherms

Maybe on a cold day you have apped your arms or stamped your feet to keep warm. Some moths and beetles do the equivalent. They can raise their body temperature for short periods by vigorous apping of their wings, generating heat by muscular activity. This kind of regulation depends on apping (the behaviour), wings (structures) and the ability to contract and relax muscles (physiology or metabolic activity).

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These moths and beetles and other animals such as mammals, birds and fastswimming sh like tuna retain the heat generated by metabolic activity within their bodies. They are described as endotherms (within heat). Animals such as sh and reptiles depend on absorbing heat from external sources; they are described as ectotherms (outside heat). Some ectotherms are able to maintain a relatively constant temperature by means of different kinds of behaviour. Any animal that can maintain a relatively constant temperature is described as homeothermic. Why would photographers put insects in the fridge before photographing them? Many animals, such as sh and most invertebrates, cannot control their body temperature; it therefore changes with that of their surroundings they are described as poikilothermic. Their metabolic rate slows down as temperature drops.

Its a question of balance

To understand how organisms regulate their temperature it is necessary to understand how heat is transferred. It is a question of balance; if something is too hot, it has to lose heat. If something is too cold, it has to gain heat. This can be difcult for organisms as heat transfer depends on the temperature gradient between the internal and external environments. Organisms manage in different ways but it usually involves the interaction of the structures they have to facilitate the process, their behaviour and their physiology (metabolic rate and tolerance range for temperature). When there is a balance between heat gain and heat loss, the organism is said to be in heat balance, which is the purpose of thermoregulation. In humans, the balance results in a core body temperature of about 37C the set point. Any body hotter than its surroundings may lose heat energy in a combination of four possible ways, and any body cooler than its surroundings will gain heat in these ways: 1 Conduction is the transfer of heat energy from a hotter object to a cooler object with which it is in contact. If you are cold, to get warmer you may like to snuggle up to someone who is warm. 2 Convection is the transfer of heat by means of warmed air, or water, rising and being replaced by cooler air or water. Air and water movements help distribute heat energy and speed up loss of heat by conduction and evaporation. 3 Evaporation is the process by which water changes from liquid to vapour. For this to occur, heat is required. It is the heat of the object or body which enables evaporation to take place, resulting in a cooling effect. 4 Radiation is the transfer of heat from a bio BYTE hot body or object to Butteries can teach technology a thing or two. Scientists are studying how butteries use their a cooler one by means wings to disperse heat and scatter light. They hope to of infra-red waves. As copy the thermoregulatory mechanisms of the buttery much as 25 per cent to manage the heat produced by the ever-increasing of the heat lost by a number of components of the silicon microchip. Butteries bask in the sunlight and are able to person sitting in a distribute the heat they absorb because of their wing room at 21C may be structure. The wings can warm the air owing over caused by radiation. them or conduct heat directly to the butterys body.
By mimicking the ne, powdery scales and the ridges of the wings, researchers hope to be able to channel off heat in a chip or disperse it over a wide area.

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Managing it together temperature regulation by nerves and hormones

Dingoes live in a variety of different habitats and experience a range of different conditions. Sometimes they have to hunt in the heat of the day. How do they prevent overheating? The negative feedback model can help us understand. Both the nervous system and the endocrine system are involved in thermoregulation in vertebrates a delicate but sometimes complex integration of two systems.
Stimulus: The dingo is overactive on a hot, dry day and its body surface temperature rises.

Figure 8.26 Temperature regulation in a dingo on a hot day.

Receptors in skin and elsewhere detect the temperature change.

A coordinating centre, the hypothalamus, compares input from the receptors against a set point.

Some effectors (pituitary gland and thyroid gland) trigger widespread adjustments.

Response: Temperature of circulating blood starts decreasing.

Many effectors carry out specific responses: Skeletal muscles Dingo rests, starts to pant (behavioural changes). Smooth muscle in blood vessels Blood carrying metabolically generated heat shunted to skin, some heat lost to surroundings. Salivary glands Salivary secretions increase, evaporation from tongue has cooling effect. Adrenal glands Output drops, dingo is less stimulated.

Activity of the body in general slows down (behavioural change).

The overall slowdown in activities results in less metabolically generated heat.

temperature receptors in skin sensory nerves

temperature of blood

Figure 8.27 Mechanisms of controlling body temperature in a mammal.

Thermoregulatory centre in hypothalamus of brain

Pituitary gland

E f f e c t o r

n e r v e s

arterioles in skin

arrectores pili muscles of hairs

sweat glands

skeletal muscles

brown fat

adrenal medulla

thyroid gland

adrenaline Physical methods of controlling body temperature Metabolic methods of controlling body temperature

thyroxine

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REVIEW
17 Various terms are used to describe animals in relation to their temperature. Distinguish between the following and use named examples for each: ectotherm, endotherm, homeotherm, poikilotherm. 18 Do you think the terms warm-blooded and cold-blooded are appropriate descriptions for organisms? Justify your answer. 19 Distinguish between hypothermia and hyperthermia. 20 Apply the negative feedback model to explain thermoregulation in mammals. a Draw a simple annotated diagram to help with your explanation. b Which organs and systems are involved in this control? Summarise by means of a table that includes the organ/system and its function in thermoregulation. 21 Refer to the diagram showing the thermoregulatory mechanisms of the dingo (Figure 8.26) to answer the following questions. You may also need to refer to the table of the endocrine system (Table 8.2). a What is the stimulus or signal? b How is the stimulus detected? c Which structure coordinates the response? d Which responses are under hormonal control and which under nervous control?

Adaptations and thermoregulation

For endotherms living in high temperatures, the problem is one of reducing heat gain and increasing heat loss. In low temperatures, how to increase heat gain and reduce heat loss is the problem. Apart from homeostatic mechanisms that involve the physiology of the animal, there are behaviours and structures that contribute to maintaining a relatively stable body temperature.

Too hot for comfort

Think about what happens to you in hot conditions. Perhaps you sprawl out in the shade, exposing a large surface area from which heat is lost. Your skin may look redder than usual and feel warm, and you may feel thirsty. Why is this? Nerve impulses stimulate the arterioles to dilate (vasodilation), increasing the ow of warm blood to the surface, allowing heat to be lost by radiation. Sweat glands are very active, so evaporation helps cooling.
Table 8.4 Simple stimulusresponse mechanisms involved in thermoregulation.

Stimulus Increase in temperature Decrease in temperature

Physiological response Dilation of blood vessels on the skin Hairs atten on skin trapping less air Constriction of blood vessels on the skin Hairs rise and trap air Shivering

Effect More heat lost through radiation Increase in heat loss through conduction then convection Less heat lost through radiation Less heat loss through conduction Heat gained from increase in metabolic activity

The dingo would normally shelter when temperatures are high, thereby reducing heat gain. Snakes, lizards and rock wallabies seek the shade too and emerge to feed only in the relative cool of dawn or dusk. Birds are generally inactive in the heat of the day and desert hopping mice and other animals that burrow retreat underground to the coolness.

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Chapter 8 Regulation and control Some kinds of wallaby lick their wrists where the blood vessels form a dense network close to the surface. Even though this means loss of precious water, its evaporation has a cooling effect. Some tortoises salivate over their neck and front legs to achieve the same effect!

Figure 8.28 Chilling out.

During cool seasons crocodiles along the waterways of the Northern Territory have to bask in the Sun before they get hot enough to be able to digest their meals. When it is really hot, they shelter in the cool vegetation lining the banks or submerge themselves in the water. They also open their mouths or gape, enabling evaporation from internal surfaces. In the early morning, snakes and sluggish lizards atten themselves on warming rocks and expose a large surface area to the rays of the low Sun. As the day progresses, the lizards posture changes. It stands more upright and its contact with the ground is by its feet only sometimes by only two of them.
Sun Heat energy gains Environment warmer than body sky radiation

Heat energy losses environment colder than body convection to air evaporation

36C convection (wind) 60C conduction from ground

36C reflection conduction to ground 20C conduction and radiation to ground

Figure 8.29 How do animals cope? A lizard basking on a rock absorbs radiant heat from the Sun and, by conduction, from the warm rock.

The so-called magnetic termites build their giant nests in such a way that the larger surface faces the morning Sun and after the cool of the night can absorb the heat. The edge of the nest faces north, where the Sun is at midday, the hottest part of the day. The other expansive side faces west, where the Sun begins to go down.

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The termites are able to detect local variations in temperature conditions and align their nests appropriately; their nest is less likely to overheat. During the hottest part of the day, honeybees cool their hives by transporting water to them and then fanning with their wings to promote evaporation and convection and hence regulate the temperature of the hive.
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Fur, feathers and fat the insulating effect

Consider the emperor penguins, which have to cope with standing on ice for long periods. There is no place to shelter from the erce winds and freezing temperatures. How do they withstand such extreme conditions? Penguins, like other birds, have feathers but these are of more value in keeping their skin dry than as insulators. The hair of seals has this function too. But the feathers of mutton-birds and the fur of polar bears help to trap a thick insulating layer of air. The hair of polar bears looks white but is colourless; when photographed with lm sensitive to ultraviolet light they appear black. The hollow shaft scatters and reects visible light, much like ice and snow does. The hollow shaft led some to believe that the hair acts like an optic bre, conducting ultraviolet light to the black skin beneath. Experimentation proved this long-standing idea to be wrong; instead it is thought that the keratin of the hair absorbs the light energy. Though our hair can stand on end when we shiver, it does not trap enough air to have an insulating effect we tend to rely on the wool of sheep or synthetic bres to do that for us. In hot climates, fur can insulate animals from radiant heat or the hot air around them; the hair on the top of the camels hump, for example, reects heat.

8.1

Figure 8.30 A good hair day.

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Variation in thickness of fur over the body surface and periods of moulting of fur and feathers are other adaptations that assist regulation of temperature in challenging environmental conditions. Penguins, seals and whales rely on a thick layer of fat (blubber) to insulate them from the cold and the layer of fat of polar bears can be up to 12 cm thick. No wonder whalers and sealers hunted some species almost to extinction. A polar bear is so well insulated that heat loss is practically nil and adult males cannot run far because they overheat quickly. When a scientist took a photograph of a bear with an infra-red lm, nothing showed up except the puff of warm air that it exhaled.

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Countercurrent heat exchanger

By a variety of adaptations, penguins cope with the conditions in their external environment well enough to maintain homeostasis. In common with many aquatic birds, penguins have a very convenient system of keeping their extremities warm the countercurrent heat exchanger. Blood travelling in the arteries to the foot, warms the blood returning to the body in the adjacent veins. The outgoing blood to the foot is cooled in the process a but not enough to affect cell activities. Because the gradient of temperature difference between the foot and the surroundings is reduced, less heat is lost a very efcient mechanism which has been copied by engineers. For aquatic mammals such as dolphins, seals and whales the problem of maintaining a stable core temperature is considerable as water is able to transfer heat away more effectively than air does and hair or fur has no effect. These mammals have a countercurrent system too, in their ippers and tails.

b artery vein

30C

29C

25C

24C

20C

19C

15C

14C

10C

9C

Shape and size

Even the shape of the penguin helps to reduce heat loss as there is a relatively small surface area to volume ratio. By huddling together, a group of penguins presents a smaller surface area to the elements than the combined surface area of individuals.
Figure 8.31 (a) Emperor penguins use a variety of strategies to maintain homeostasis in extreme conditions (b) Countercurrent heat exchange.

Figure 8.32 The Arctic fox (far left) and its relatives.

Birds of some species in Tasmania tend to be larger on average than their counterparts on the mainland. Arctic foxes have more rounded ears and limbs than their relatives elsewhere. Whales and seals have large body size adaptations that reduce their surface area to volume ratio, thereby reducing heat loss and elephants ears are well designed for increasing heat loss!

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When all else fails shut down

Sometimes the behaviours and physical features of animals are inadequate in stabilising temperature. At a particular external temperature the metabolic rate of an animal begins to rise, increasing heat output. But in very cold conditions, the increase in metabolic rate may be insufcient to maintain body temperature within tolerance limits. The external temperature at which the metabolic rate begins to rise is the lower critical temperature and it varies according to species. The increase in metabolic activity requires a supply of energy which for some animals proves difcult as food is scarce.
Figure 8.33 The effect of environmental temperature on the metabolic rate of a generalised mammal.
Metabolic rate

upper critical temperature lower critical temperature

basal metabolic rate

bio TERMS
hibernate undergo a period of dormancy over long periods of cold conditions
10 20 30 40 Temperature (C)

Figure 8.34 Metabolic rate and body temperature of a ground squirrel before, during and after hibernation.

Many animals hibernate in these conditions, stimulated by the cold. The metabolic rate falls to a level that just sustains life; the set point is lowered considerably too an excellent mechanism for conserving energy. The upper critical temperature is the external temperature at which the bodys cooling mechanisms fail to keep the body temperature stable and the metabolic rate increases with the rise in external temperature.

120 100 80 60 40 20 7 0

onset of hibernation

steady hibernation

onset of arousal Body temperature (C)

Metabolic rate (percentage of BMR)

40 30 body temperature 20 10 0

metabolic rate

6 Hours

12

18

Weeks Time

6 Hours

12

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Chapter 8 Regulation and control Bats actually switch off their feedback mechanism or thermostat and their temperature adjusts to that of the environment, which could be risky. Species of small hummingbirds have developed another strategy; their surface area to volume ratio is so large that the bird loses heat rapidly and it cannot supply itself with enough food to keep it going. It passes into a state of hibernation every night and it switches back on in the morning! Hiberna is Latin for winter. Another kind of seasonal dormancy is aestivation, from aestas meaning summer; the term describes what some animals do in very dry conditions, not necessarily in summer. The garden snail retreats into its shell and seals itself off; some earthworms coil into balls wrapped in mucus that dries out. Lungsh burrow in mud that hardens, and there they remain until the next rainy season some months later.

bio TERMS
aestivation dormancy in some animals during periods of drought diapause temporary suspension of bodily development and growth in response to adverse conditions; common in the development of embryos of kangaroos

Where do ies go in the winter?

Many species of insect show a kind of dormancy called diapause. This pause can take place at any stage in the life cycle and typically occurs during winter. Diapause seems to be the response to an inadequate amount of growth-promoting hormone that is the response to reduction in length of daylight. Growth resumes when day length increases but in many insects a cold snap is required rst. Who has the record? The larva of a beetle, Buprestis aurulenta, was in a dormant state for 40 years before reviving, and the pupa of the gall midge for 18 years.

REVIEW
22 Use a graphic organiser to summarise some thermoregulatory structures and strategies of animals. Include examples.

Water balance
bio BYTE In our everyday life, we tend to take water for granted, but in times of drought and in times of ood, we become very aware of Our lifestyle can affect our water balance. If we do not take in enough water in our food its signicance. As long as there is a balance between supply and or drink, or if we eat a lot of salty food, our blood demand we dont often think about where water comes from. volume falls and the release of the hormone At a cellular level, this balance is critical for the wellbeing of ADH is stimulated, concentrating our urine. living things. Conversely, high alcohol consumption reduces the amount of ADH secreted. Less water is About 66 per cent of our body mass is water. The uid in reabsorbed by the kidney so we produce a more cells, blood and tissue uids contains a variety of solutes dissolved dilute urine in greater amounts. in water. This uid is the medium in which everything happens chemical reactions, transport of nutrients, gases and wastes. Water is lost continually from the body in urine and faeces, through our sweat glands and tear ducts. If you breathe against a cold window pane, ne droplets of water condense from the exhaled breath.

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If the supply of water does not meet what is lost, the relative concentrations of solute and solvent in tissue uids become difcult to regulate and many bodily functions are affected. In humans, for example, with loss in volume of blood, blood pressure can drop, toxic wastes cannot be excreted effectively and enzyme activity is interfered with. Severe dehydration can lead to death. In plants, loss of water can mean collapse of shoot systems (wilting) and interference in cellular functioning.

Maintaining balance osmoregulation

Living things have evolved diverse ways of regulating their water balance. In vertebrates including frogs, lizards and humans, the kidneys are the main organs of excretion. Urea and excess salts leave the body in the watery uid, urine. By controlling how much water leaves in the urine, the water balance in the uids of the body can be maintained. This regulation of water is described as osmoregulation, a feedback mechanism that is under the control of hormones. How concentrated or dilute the blood is affects the diffusion of water molecules across membranes of capillaries and the cells and tissue uid the capillaries are in contact with. A relatively low concentration of water in the blood and tubule tissue uids, due to excessive loss of uids or increased salt concentration, affects their functioning. Fortunately sensitive osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus at the base of the pituitary gland detect such changes in the blood. If blood concentration increases, the pituitary, stimulated by nerves from the hypothalamus, produces ADH. This in turn causes the kidneys to reabsorb more water. The amount of water reabsorbed from what has been ltered by the glomerulus (glomerular ltrate) is matched to the bodys needs. However, urination still results in a net loss of water from the body and this has to be made up somehow.
cortex medulla

glomerulus

branch of renal artery nephron

renal artery

Bowmans capsule renal vein branch of renal vein

cortex ureter medulla increasing salt concentration loop of Henle

Thirsty work
Dingoes pant, losing water vapour from air passages and the lining of the mouth, and euros, a kind of wallaby, lick their wrists where the blood vessels are close to the surface. Other collecting animals have high densities of sweat pores in certain parts of tubule their skin, which they expose as their body temperature rises. These are effective cooling behaviours but involve water loss by evaporation. Fortunately, a thirst response is experienced as the concentration of the blood increases and animals, including mammals, birds and reptiles, respond by seeking water to drink. Mark Dorrity ignored his feeling of thirst. Thermoregulation and osmoregulation are intricately bound up with each other. For many terrestrial organisms, a water supply is not always readily available. Terrestrial animals living in dry areas, whether in hot or in cooler conditions, have a range of adaptations that reduce water loss or increase water gain and reduce heat loss or increase heat gain. These adaptations involve structures and particular behaviours interacting in maintaining physiological functioning.

Figure 8.35 Kidneys at work.

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Some have it
A waterproof or impermeable outer layer (integument) can reduce water loss. The scales of reptiles, the hair of mammals, the feathers of birds and the upper part of the epidermis or skin contain keratin, a protein that not only hardens the body surface structures but proofs them too. Many insects have a hard chitinous exoskeleton with a waxy, impervious coating. Some arthropods, such as slaters, are not protected in this way and seek damp places to live. The breathing tubes of insects open to the exterior through spiracles, but for those living in dry conditions, evaporative water loss is reduced by ne hairs or valves guarding the openings.

Figure 8.36 Controlling water loss.

Some do it
Insects reabsorb water from the rectum, leaving dry faeces to be eliminated. Many reptiles and birds reabsorb water from their cloaca, the cavity into which their rectum and ureter open. Excreting nitrogenous waste as insoluble, white uric acid makes an effective saving of water for reptiles, birds and most insects. In many terrestrial vertebrates, such as the Australian desert frog, the production of urine is slowed down by reducing the rate of glomerular ltration in the kidneys. The frog, swelling up like a ball, also retains urine in its bladder for use in the dry season. These frogs are a water source for desert-dwelling Australian Aboriginals. Other desert frogs have interesting adaptations, ranging from producing highly concentrated urine to burrowing in the desert sands for several months at a time.
Figure 8.37 A desert frog, Cyclorana platycephalus, breaking from its cocoon after rain.

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Figure 8.38 The desert hopping mouse, Notomys alexis.

ACTICA PR

CTIVITY LA

Cyclorana tucks itself in the water-conserving position under the ground and encases itself in a cocoon of layer upon layer of shed skin, which accumulates in moister conditions. This layer is eaten by the frog; nothing goes to waste. The cocoon completely surrounds the frog except for its nostrils, and the little space between the body and the cocoon becomes humid. The frogs metabolic rate slows as it enters aestivation, the summer equivalent of winter hibernation. It can survive in this way for many months. Some species of earthworm can go through a similar process. They curl up in air pockets and secrete mucus that dries around their body until softened when water becomes available once more. Many other desert animals spend a large part of their time in burrows where temperatures are lower. Burrows also have higher humidity so water loss is reduced. The desert or spinifex hopping mouse, Notomys alexis, has a bushy end to its tail. It wraps its tail around its face, trapping its exhaled air, which contains water vapour. This interesting strategy reduces water loss by saturating the air between the hairs at its body surface and the air in the burrow. Some desert arthropods such as the fog drinking beetle, are able to absorb water from the atmosphere at dusk. They position themselves in such a way that the condensing vapour is channelled to parts of their body that can absorb the moisture collected.

REVIEW
23 By means of an annotated diagram or other graphic organiser, summarise the structures and strategies that enable animals to live in dry conditions.

8.2

Some do without
Apart from tail wrapping and burrowing, Notomys has other strategies involved in regulating water balance. It can concentrate its urine more than any other known rodent and, though it will drink water if available, it can survive without drinking any water at all. Water may be in the food an animal eats but Notomys feeds on dry seeds what good are they? In cellular respiration a gram of carbohydrate yields about 0.56 g of water. It is by this means that the desert hopping mouse produces enough metabolic water to supply its needs. Camels are renowned for their ability to go for several weeks without drinking. About twice as much water is produced by 1 g of fat than the equivalent mass of carbohydrate. Camels metabolise the fat in their hump, which gradually shrinks as the fat is used up. Even so, the camel cannot produce more metabolic water than it loses by evaporation, so how does it survive? Its tolerance for water loss (dehydration) is extraordinary; it can lose up to 30 per cent of its body mass. As water is lost, the body uids become more concentrated but the camels tissues are extremely tolerant of this condition. A camels tolerance range for temperature is quite considerable: at night it will fall to 35C and in the day it will not lose water by sweating until its body temperature reaches 41C. Once water is available, camels rehydrate by consuming large volumes of water, up to 40 L, in a matter of minutes.

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Water, water everywhere

One would think that aquatic animals would have few problems with maintaining water balance in their tissues. This is the case for many marine invertebrates, such as jellysh, sea anemones and crabs. They have body uids of the same concentration as sea water and are described as being isotonic with sea water. As long as they remain in the sea, there is no overall gain or loss of water as the internal concentration of solutions is equal to the external concentration. These organisms are called osmoconformers.

bio BYTE
Marine reptiles such as turtles help solve their water and salt problems by shedding salty tears from their salt-secreting glands. Others sneeze periodically to shed the salty uid that passes from the glands into their nasal cavity. In penguins, cormorants and gulls, the salty uid just trickles from their nasal openings.

The saltwater problem

It is not as easy for marine vertebrates. Their body uids tend to be hypotonic to their surroundings, meaning their body uids are of a lower concentration compared with the watery medium in which they live. Water is lost by osmosis, largely from the gill surfaces. To replace the water lost, marine sh drink copious amounts of sea water but, in doing so, take in additional salts. The problem that this creates is solved by active removal of salts by special secretory cells in the gills. Slowing the rate of ltration in the kidney and excreting nitrogenous waste in a more concentrated form can help some kinds of marine sh reduce water loss. Other kinds of marine sh, such as sharks and rays, reduce their water loss by being able to tolerate high levels of urea in their body tissues. In this way, the internal solute concentration of their tissues becomes slightly higher, or hypertonic, compared to the surrounding water. The water that consequently passes in by endosmosis is easily removed by the kidneys. Organisms that have specialised mechanisms for dealing with water balance are called osmoregulators.

Figure 8.39 Solving the problem of water balance.

Marine bony fish Problem: tend to lose water by osmosis and to gain salt constantly drink water and salts

Freshwater solutions
Freshwater animals have too much of a good thing. Because they have a concentration of ions in their tissues higher than the surrounding water, water molecules tend to enter. What prevents them from bursting? Freshwater sh have a high kidney ltration rate and produce large amounts of dilute urine. Freshwater sh have various strategies for dealing with the problems of too much water and a loss of salts. Apart from physiological adaptations, sh have scales that reduce exposure of some of their soft tissues to water. Simple unicellular organisms, such as Amoeba, solve the problem of water entry resulting from endosmosis by accumulating the excess water in little bubbles in their cytoplasm. These contractile vacuoles swell to bursting point and the surplus water is expelled as the vesicular membrane contracts suddenly.

excrete small amounts of urine

ions actively pumped out of gills

The best of both worlds

Some organisms such as jellysh, shrimps, phytoplankton and molluscs live in estuaries where the concentration of the surrounding water varies depending on their particular location and reach of the tides. Animals and other organisms living in these conditions have to be able to cope with saline (salty) and freshwater environments. They do this by being able to tolerate a range of body uid concentrations that match (are in equilibrium with) the changing concentration of solutes in their surroundings. Only when the level of tolerance reaches its highest do the osmoregulatory mechanisms of vertebrates start to function. This delay helps to conserve energy as actively controlling water and salt balance requires energy.

Freshwater bony fish Problem: tend to gain water by osmosis and loss salt

rarely drink water

excrete large amounts of dilute urine

actively absorb salts by specialised cells in gills

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REVIEW
24 Distinguish between isotonic, hypotonic and hypertonic. 25 Explain why we should not ignore the feeling of thirst. 26 Predict what would happen if a marine sh were placed in fresh water. Summarise your response by means of a simple annotated diagram.

Putting it together
Particular sets of environmental conditions inuence the distribution of different living things. Animals and other organisms have a remarkable ability to live in equilibrium with their terrestrial and aquatic environments despite, in many cases, extremes in conditions. The variety of structures, physiology and behaviours that they display are adaptations to the conditions they experience. In the next chapter we see how individual and group behaviours of animals contribute to their survival; and how their reproductive adaptations ensure the continuity of species in their particular environments.

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Chapter 8 Regulation and control

Visual summary
chemoreceptors thermoreceptors photoreceptors mechanoreceptors blood

Endocrine Glands receptor pain Negative Feedback

hormones

slow response

target cells

sensory nerves

fast response Endocrine System Detecting Changing Conditions metabolic activity growth and development Feedback Mechanisms Responding conduction

coordinating centre Nervous System motor nerves

Homeostasis
reex arcs

effector organs

Thermoregulation skeletal muscle heart and gut glands heat exchange

convection

increased surface area

radiation

evaporation burrow/shade external temperature increases adaptations insulation external temperature decreases fur, feathers and fat shape and size countercurrent heat exchange

panting/ sweating

shivering

vasodilation

vasoconstriction

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Key terms
aestivation autonomic system conduction convection countercurrent cranium diapause ductless gland ectotherm effector endotherm evaporation feedback mechanism glomerular ltrate hibernate homeostasis homeothermic hypertonic hypotonic impulse isotonic lower critical temperature motor neurone myelin neurotransmitter osmoconformer osmoregulation osmoregulator poikilothermic radiation receptor reex arc saline sensory neurone somatic system stimulus stimulusresponse synapse upper critical temperature vascular

Apply understandings
u Compare the stimulusresponse model of

regulation with the negative feedback model of regulation. Use only annotated diagrams in your answer. Give one named example of each kind ofregulation. v The Tupong sh, soft-bodied burrowing worms, small crustaceans and phytoplankton (microscopic algae) live in estuaries. Explain, in general terms, the mechanisms you would expect each organism to have for maintaining its waterbalance. w Name an animal that lives in conditions of either extreme cold or extreme heat. Draw a concept map, or use another kind of graphic organiser, to summarise the structural,

physiological and behavioural adaptations it has to regulate itstemperature. x Draw up a table to summarise examples of structural, physiological and behavioural adaptations animals have to regulate water balance. Include a brief description of the strategies or mechanismsinvolved. y Refer to the gure of the Arctic fox and its relatives (Figure 8.32). Account for the differences shown in the size and shape of the ears. U The polar bear is a marine mammal. Explain the physical, physiological and behavioural features that it has that are adaptations to life both on land and in thesea.

Investigate and inquire

u There are many neurophysiological disorders

of the brain, spinal cord and peripheral nervous system, including motor neurone disease, Parkinsons disease, post polio syndrome, adult cerebral palsy, epilepsy and the consequence of strokes. The disorders

result in limited to no mobility for the sufferer. Choose one of the disorders and produce a report to include: a the nature of thedisorder b symptoms c treatment

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Unit 2

Chapter 8 Regulation and control d incidence e support services in the community for the sufferer and carers f other information. Decide on the format of your report. It could be an article for a newspaper, a poster or a submission to government to obtain funding for the organisation you represent. A number of disorders can affect proper functioning of the kidney. a Explain the role of the kidneys in maintaining homeostasis. b Investigate and report on a kidneyrelated disorder such as kidney stones or Brights disease (nephritis). Include a brief description of the disorder, its effect and treatment. Decide on an appropriate format and medium for communicating your ndings. Kidney dialysis is used to treat people with severe kidney problems. Work with a partner. a By means of annotated diagrams, distinguish between the procedures of haemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis. b Investigate and report on procedures involved in kidney transplants. Choose an animal, such as a desert hopping mouse, a euro (wallaby), a whale or a desert lizard, and explain how it maintains a relatively constant internal environment in terms of temperature and water balance. Devise focus questions to help with your investigation. Present your ndings as a poster.
Arctic

Figure 8.40 shows the relationship between

environmental temperature and metabolic rate of different animals. The basal metabolic rate (rate at rest) for each animal is given a value of 100%. Any increase in metabolic rate is given in relation to this value. a Explain what is meant by critical temperature. b Distinguish between critical temperature and set point for temperature. c At what external temperature does the metabolic rate of the Eskimo dog pup begin to increase? d At what external temperature does the metabolic rate of the sloth begin to increase? e Which animal represented in the graph has a critical temperature of about 4C? f The gradient of the lines of the graph indicates the rate of increase in metabolic rate. Which animal, the ground squirrel or the polar bear cub, shows the greater rate of increase in metabolic rate? g Analyse the information in the gure and make generalisations about species living in Arctic conditions and species living in tropical conditions. h What strategies do animals employ if they are unable to meet their energy needs?

Figure 8.40 The relationship between environmental temperature and metabolic rate.
Tropical

400

nig

Metabolic rate (standardised)

300

polar

bear p

up

grou

nd sq

lem

uirre

min wea sel g

coa

ma
ti

th slo on co rac ey nk mo an ht hum

rat

rm

os e junt gle

200

eskimo d

og pup white fox

basal metabolic rate

100 observed 0 60 50 40 extrapolated 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40

lowest temperature on Earth

Air temperature (C)

body temperature

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