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Maksudnya:
Demi masa
Tafsiran kepada ayat di atas ialah:
1141
Menurut Yahya adalah sebahagian daripada
(c) Firman Allah ayat 11-12 dalam Surah al-Triq,
Maksudnya:
" Demi langit yang berulang-ulang mencurahkan hujan..demi bumi yang merkah mengeluarkan
tumbuh-tumbuhan.
Tafsiran kepada ayat di atas ialah:
1142
Menurut Mujahid membawa maksud hujan, manakala membawa
maksud tumbuh-tumbuhan.
Tafsir dengan bahasa
Imam Al-Bukhari juga mengemukakan tafsiran ayat-ayat al-Quran dengan
menggunakan kaedah bahasa. Antara contoh ayat yang ditafsir oleh Imam Al-Bukhari dengan
menggunakan kaedah bahasa ialah:
(a) Firman Allah dalam Surah al-Humazah ayat 4:
1140
al-Al-Bukhari, Kitab al-Tafsir al-Quran, Jilid 6, hlm. 218
1141
Ibid.
1142
Ibid, hlm. 208
762 / ISoIT 2004
Maksudnya:
Sesungguhnya dia benar-benar akan dilemparkan ke dalam Hutamah
Perkataan atau kalimah yang ditafsir oleh Imam Al-Bukhari ialah . Beliau
mengatakan bahawa adalah salah satu daripada nama-nama neraka.
1143
(b) Firman Allah ayat 1 dalam Surah al-Qadr,
Maksudnya:
Sesungguhnya Kami telah menurunkannya pada malam kemuliaan
Menurut Imam Al-Bukhari huruf al-Ha ( ) dalam ayat di atas adalah kata ganti nama yang
dimaksudkan kepada al-Quran al-Karim.
1144
Mentafsir ayat hukum
(a) Ayat hukum
Firman Allah dalam Surah al-Nisa ayat 11,
...........................
Maksudnya:
Allah perintahkan kepada kamu mengenai pembahagian harta pusaka kepada anak-anak
kamuhingga ke akhir ayat
Hadith yang mentafsir ayat di atas ialah:
1145
Hadith yang dikemikakan oleh Imam Al-Bukhari daripada Ibnu
c
Abbas bahawa dahulu
kala harta warisan adalah hanya untuk anak lelaki dan yang berhak mendapat wasiat hanyalah
kedua-dua orang tua. Maka dihapuskan oleh Allah hukum itu dan diberi hak kepada anak
lelaki menerima dua kali ganda bahagian anak perempuan dan bagi ibubapa masing-masing
menerima seperenam dan sepertiga, bagi isteri seperlapan dan seperempat serta bagi suami
separuh dan seperempat.
Firman Allah dalam Surah al-Maidah ayat 90,
Maksudnya:
Wahai orang-orang yang beriman! Sesungguhnya arak, judi, pemujaan berhala dan menenung nasib
dengan batang-batang anak panah adalah daripada perbuatan syaitan.
Hadith yang mentafsir ayat di atas ialah:
1146
Hadith yang dikemukakan oleh Imam Al-Bukhari daripada Ibnu Umar bahawa aku
mendengar Umar al-Khattab r.a ketika berkhutbah di atas mimbar Nabi s.a.w berkata: Wahai
1143
al-Al-Bukhari, Kitab al-Tafsir al-Quran, Jilid 6, hlm. 218
1144
Ibid, hlm. 216
1145
al-Al-Bukhari, Kitab al-Tafsir al-Quran, Jilid 6, hlm.55
1146
al-Al-Bukhari, Kitab al-Tafsir al-Quran, Jilid 6, hlm. 101
Mohd Najib b. Abdul Kadir & Mazlan b. Ibrahim / 763
manusia! Diharamkan arak kerana lima perkara iaitu anggur, kurma, madu, gandum dan syair
dan perkara yang memabukkan itu ialah yang merosakkan akal.
Kesimpulan
Berdasarkan kepada huraian-huraian yang dikemukakan berkenaan dengan metod tafsir
Imam Al-Bukhari, dengan ini dapatlah difahami bahawa sumber tafsir Imam Al-Bukhari
ialah terdiri daripada hadith-hadith Rasulullah s.a.w yang diriwayatkan oleh para sahabat
baginda, para Tbi
c
in dan juga Atb
c
al- Tbi
c
in. Selain daripada itu, dapat juga difahami
bahawa Imam Al-Bukhari mempunyai metod yang tersendiri dalam mentafsir al-Quran.
Penulisan Imam Al-Bukhari dalam tafsir al-Quran sebagaimana yang terdapat dalam
Kitab al-Tafsir al-Quran , adalah tidak meliputi keseluruhan ayat-ayat yang terkandung di
dalam kitab suci al-Quran. Beliau hanya memberi penekanan kepada beberapa sudut ayat
atau membuat tafsiran terhadap beberapa ayat yang tertentu sahaja pada setiap surah yang
bermula daripada surah al-Ftihah hinggalah kepada surah al-Ns.
Jika dibandingkan metod tafsir Imam Al-Bukhari dengan ulama-ulama tafsir yang lain,
sememangnya nampak perbezaan dari segi metod pentafsiran al-Quran. Walaupun wujud
perbezaan, namun pada hakikatnya metod tafsir Imam Al-Bukhari adalah merupakan satu
metod yang selamat dan bersih daripada sebarang kelemahan. Ini kerana tafsiran Imam Al-
Bukhari adalah berbentuk tafsiran ayat-ayat al-Quran dengan hadith dan hadith-hadith yang
dijadikan tafsiran adalah hadith-hadith yang sahih belaka.
Bibliografi
Al-Quran dan terjemahannya. Tafsir pimpinan al-Rahman kepada pengertian al-Qur'an, edisi keenam,
( Kuala Lumpur : Bahagian Hal Ehwal Islam, Jabatan Perdana Menteri, 1987 ).
Abd. Wahab Abd. Al-Latif. 1385H / 1966M. Tadrib al-Rwi. Misr : Dar al-Kutub al-Hadith.
Ali Yusuf Ali, terj. Datin Sohair Addel Moneim Sery. 1989. Silsilah Ulama Hadith. Kuala Lumpur :
Penerbitan Pustaka Antara.
al-Azami, Muhammad Mustafa. 1977. Studies in Hadith Methodology and Literature. Indiana :
American Trust Publication.
al-Al-Bukhari, Muhammad bin Ismail. 1387H / 1971M. al-
c
Arabiyyah al-Muttahidah. Qahirah :
Qahirah al-Jauhariyyah al-
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al-Al-Bukhari, terj. Muhammad Muhsin Khan. 1976. The Translation of the Meaning of Sahih Al-
Bukhari. Chicago : t.pt.
al-Dhahabi, Muhammad Hussain. t.th. Tazkirah al-Huffaz. Cairo : t.pt.
al-Dhahabi, Muhammad Hussain. 1396H / 1976M. al-Tafsir wa al-Mufassirn. Cairo : t.pt.
al-Hafiz abi al-Fadl Muhammad bin Tahir al-Muqaddisi. 1357H / 1938M. al-Muqaddisi Sharh al-
Aimmat al-Sittah. Qahirah : Maktabah al-Qudsi.
Huda Muhsin. 1985. Hadith al-Sunan al-Sittah. Kuala Lumpur : Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
al-Husaini, Abd. Majid Hasyim. 1966. al-Imam al-Al-Bukhari Muhadditha Wa Faqha. Qahirah : Dar
al-Qawmiyyah.
Ibnu. Hajar al-Asqalni. 1378H / 1959M. Fath al-Bri bi Sharh al-Al-Bukhari. Misr : Matba
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al-Halabi.
Ibnu. Hajar al-Asqalani, Ahmad b. Ali. 1963. Hady al-Sri. Misr: Matba
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Ibnu. Khalikan. t.th. Wafyat al-A
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yan Wa Anbat al-Zaman. Bayrut : Dar al- Thaqafah.
Ibnu al-Solah. 1984. Ulum al-Hadith. Dimashq : Dar al-Fikr.
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Mat Saat Abd. Rahman, Dr. 1982. Ilmu Tafsir, Perkembangan dan Tokohnya. Selangor : t.pt.
Muhammad Abu Syuhbah, Dr. t.th.
c
Alam al-Muhaddithin. Misr : Dar al-kutub al-
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Arabi.
al-Subki, Abd. Wahab bin Ali. 1384H / 1964M. Tabaqt al-Kubra. Misr : Matba
c
ah al-Bb al-Halabi.
Syakh Badr. Al-Din Mahmud b. Ahmad al-
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Ayni al-Ha Rafi. 1399H / 1989M.
c
Umdah al-Qri Sharh
Sahih Al-Bukhari. Dimashq : Dar al-Fikr.
Mohd Najib b. Abdul Kadir
Jabatan al-Quran Dan al-Sunnah.
Fakulti Pengajian Islam.UKM
Mazlan b. Ibrahim
Jabatan Usuluddin Dan Falsafah.
Fakulti Pengajian Islam.UKM.
E-learning in Islamic Studies: Possibilities and Challenges
in Malaysia
Nik Salida Suhaila bt Nik Saleh & Syahirah bt Abdul Shukor
Abstract
The development of information and communication technology (ICT) has allowed
learners and educators to explore new approaches to learning and instruction. This paper
explores the possibilities of applying E-learning in Islamic studies particularly Syariah which
is based on the Malaysian scenario. The burden of being a student is tremendous. Hence,
with the progress of Information and Communication Technology, the writers believe that E-
learning could be the suitable tool in assisting the process of learning. Thus, it would create
an interesting environment in learning the recent challenges in the field of syariah. The fast
development of technologies and in particular of the information and communication
technology (ICT) needs to be learned and mastered by the educational management for
optimal capability in the utilization of the development of technologies in a timely and
accurate decision making process. In this paper, the writers employ the method of library
based to analyse the current situation of Islamic educations available in the Higher Learning
Institutions in Malaysia. The objectives of this paper are to explore the existing methods of
teaching syariah and the possibilities of the implementation of E-learning as supplementary
to the traditional teaching studies. Role of E-learning will still be as complimentary
educational media within a certain period in the future. The development of E-syariah by the
Malaysian government indicates the seriousness of the government in improving the Syariah
court system in Malaysia. Hence, this paper will try to examine the importance of E-learning
in preparing the young generation Syariah students in facing the challenges of ICT. This
paper suggests that the methods of teaching and learning in the era of technology will
support the success of programme like E-syariah in Malaysia.
Introduction
Educational problems, both in the conventional and non-conventional system become
more and more complex. This is because of the increasing number of population to be
educationally served and the limited available resources to fulfil the need for education.
Islamic studies are considered as one of the oldest course offered in education system. In the
early years, Islamic education can be seen in madrasah or pondok classes which were located
at the suraus and mosques. Islamic education at the Institutions of Higher Learning started in
the early 1960s, with the establishment of the Department of Islamic Studies at the University
of Malaya. (Muhamad Muda: 45). Islamic studies are currently being offered in the Higher
Learning Institutions in Malaysia such as the University of Malaya in Academic of Islamic
Studies, the National University of Malaysia in the Faculty of Islamic Studies, the
International Islamic University of Malaysia and the Islamic College University of Malaysia.
The existing method of teaching Islamic studies is based on the traditional teachings, which
are lectures and tutorials. With the advance of Information and Communication Technology
766 / ISoIT 2004
(hereinafter known as ICT), technologies have been used to foster learning and education.
Islam has stressed on the importance of knowledge and this can be seen in the first srah
revealed to the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) (Srah Al-Alaq). In the advance of ICT, new and
more sophisticated technologies are being introduced today. ICT is said to reshape the
existing practices of business, education, information and technology of this modern society
(Ghauth Jasmon: 2004). The advance of technology such as Internet has made life easier and
creates a borderless society. In this era of globalisation, Islamic studies are not exceptional to
face with the challenges of globalisation. As a Muslim, we should be prepared in facing the
changes which occurred surround us. Whether we like it or not, ICT has effected the way we
live today. This paper would further explore on the possibilities of applying ICT in teaching
Islamic studies and the challenges awaits for this newly method of teaching. Besides that, this
paper will try to explore the issues that might arise in the application of E-learning in Islamic
studies such as the recognition of E-learning method, the challenges in introducing E-learning
and the suggestions to implement E-learning in the areas of Islamic studies. Furthermore, the
seriousness of the Malaysian government to develop the usage of ICT can be seen from the
efforts in the development of Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC). ICT has penetrated the
education sectors and it is best if we could outline the possibilities of applying ICT in
teaching Islamic studies in our local universities, which offer Islamic studies. At the moment,
virtual education is still in its infancy in Malaysia, several smart schools have been set up by
the government besides Unitar, the first ever private university which promote virtual study.
It is hoped that we can see the progress and development of using ICT in Islamic studies.
What is E-learning?
Before we go further, it is best if we could refer to the actual meaning of the words E-
learning. According to Ruth Colvin Clark & Richard E.Mayer (2002) E-learning is defined as
training delivered on a computer (including CR-ROM, Internet or Intranet) that is designed to
support individual learning or organizational performance course. Based on the definition, it
is understood that it is a method of learning by using the computer as the medium of learning
for an individual or group study. The academicians have critically addressed the recent
development on the growth of online learning. There are various issues need to be tackled
such as the issue of ownership of the course, intellectual property the outcome of E-learning
and governance (Rena M.Palloff & Keith Pratt. 2001). This paper would explore on the
possibilities of E-learning in the education of Islamic studies and the challenges that would be
faced by the academicians, students and the university in adapting the new method of
teaching i.e. E-learning. It is submitted that E-learning should be seen as a tool to assist the
learning process and not to replace the whole method of teaching Islamic studies. The term E-
Learning also refers to the use of Internet to deliver course materials and facilitate teacher-
students interactions. Students use computers to connect to online classrooms which often
provide message boards, chat rooms, audio, video and multimedia technologies, in addition to
text content. Online learning is also known as E-Learning or virtual education. Distance
learning technology is education's future and an important step to bridge the digital divide or
a waste of time that removes from teaching the crucial human touch. This paper examines the
current methodology applied in teaching Islamic studies in Malaysia, it furthers explore on
the possibilities of E-learning in Islamic studies.
Nik Salida Suhaila bt Nik Saleh & Syahirah bt Abdul Shukor / 767
Methodology of teaching Islamic studies.
Television, video, computer, radio, newspaper and books can be regarded as teaching
assistant tools. The creation of modern technology has assisted us in delivering our teaching
effectively. The current methods of teaching Islamic studies in local universities are lectures
and tutorials. With the advance of Information and Communication Technology, it is believed
that the methods of teaching can be diversified to several methods with the assistance of the
technology. This is because we believe that education involves more than lectures and class
discussion. Due to the nature of the modern society, the problems faced by the society have
become so complex that traditional leanings tools in Islamic studies such as lecture, tutorial
and printed book should be enhanced with the assistance of technologies. The process of
learning has become more complex in the sense that the traditional teaching cannot cope well
with the tremendous change in the technology. The great reliance of Muslims society to the
western sources for various information is the reality of today's Muslims society. In teaching
and learning Islamic studies, it is best if we the Muslims could develop the methods rather
than being a follower. The use of ICT will bring an innovative and competitive knowledge-
based because ICT promotes accessibility, democratisation, transparency, empowerment and
decentralisation. (Ghauth Jasmon: 2004). We need to refine the current method of teaching
and learning in Islamic studies to adapt with the current changes in the society. There is an
increasing numbers of ICT usages at the workplace. In addition to that, Malaysia is moving
towards electronic government which means a multimedia networked paperless
administration. (Anuar Maarof: 2000). Hence, it is best if we could expose the usage of ICT
in delivering our learning and education. In Europe and United States, E-learning is seen as a
flexible and cost-effective way to not only train employees, but also to dramatically build the
knowledge capital of an organization.(Chandra Devi: 2003)
The education system in Malaysia today is burdened by a dualism that segregates
Islamic and modern academic subjects. (M.B. Muda: 2004) Islamic teachings cannot be
separated from the modern subjects as Islam embraces all aspects of our life. This can be seen
in the development of Islamic banking, Islamic Insurance, Islamic capital market and food
technology which promote halal food industry. Universities in all over the world seem to
accept the new paradigm offered by electronic learning with much enthusiasm. However, this
does not seem to be the case in Malaysia. (New Straits Times: 2003) In our view, the
education system needs time to change to this new method. In imposing E- learning, we
should determine the outcome and the products of the method used if we introduce E-
learning. It is submitted that E-learning is a good approach in diversify the method of
teaching by an academic but we still believe we need a human interaction rather than through
the computer most of the time. The arrival of E-learning could not be more timely. To keep
up with the demands of careers in which dimensions change at breakneck speed, it has
become increasingly important that learning not stop with a high school or university degree.
Graduates of Islamic studies must continue to push forward in their quest for knowledge to
ensure that they keep pace with today's complex society.
It is believed that ICT provides four types of learning resource including information
(particularly as hyperlinked datasets) interactive techniques (as typified by multimedia
interactive courseware); communication (whether in terms of email interaction between
teacher and student or group interaction on the form of video-conferencing) and clinical
learning (which is in the main as an aspect of communication)(Abdul Paliwala: 2001). Many
changes have to take place in order for the virtual learning environment to be effective. The
commitment and the effort of the institution are imperative in supporting E-learning.
Professor Dr Khairuddin Hashim, dean of the Faculty of Information Technology at Tun
Abdul Razak University (Unitar), believes that it is due mainly to the resistance to change
among faculty members. These include the setting up of new infrastructure, changes in the
768 / ISoIT 2004
teaching and learning model, training for academics to become online facilitators,
development of new courseware and student orientation (New Straits Times: 2003). In
applying ICT as a supplementary to our old method of teaching and learning, it is undeniable
that we need a strong monetary support to develop the new infrastructure to enhance E-
learning in a higher learning institution. The readiness of a higher learning institution to
practice E-learning depends on the management of the university itself as the working
environment can drive the institution towards the environment of E-learning. A strong
support from the management is useless without the strong support from the academicians to
adapt and change the old method of teaching and learning model to the newly model of E-
learning. Definitely, these changes need a lot of sacrifices from the academicians in term of
time and energy. Developing new software for teaching and learning is a time-consuming but
in the long-term it could generate income to the university itself. Besides the issue of training
the academicians, it is vital to look from the students' perspective on their capability to adjust
and adopt E-learning as a new method of learning.
Looking at the current development, the government has introduced E-Syariah which is
the product of the government in ICT policies. Technically, E-Syariah is a system which
enable the Syariah courts to conduct management and administration through electronic
means. (Najib Abdullah: 2004). By implementing a computerized system in the Syariah
court, it is imperative to train and exposed to the Syariah students while their study in the
university on Information Communication Technology. The development of E-Syariah means
the new educational techniques in teaching syariah such as active learning would be difficult
without the assistance of ICT. Ignoring ICT in the education of Syariah would not enhance
the development of E-Syariah as it needs a full commitment from the existing syariah
officers. Hence, exposing the importance of ICT in learning Islamic studies subjects
especially Syariah student would benefit the project of E-Syariah in long term. Instilling on
the importance and practice of ICT among the Syariah students would create an awareness on
the importance of technology in today's society. Introduction to digital culture in the studies
of Islam need to be implemented with care. Although the effectiveness on the new learning
theories of applying ICT has not been proven, such new method should not be ignored totally.
According to Strommen, an expert in learning said: "We have allowed our schools to remain
in the past, while our children have born in the future". (Shaharom TM Sulaiman. 2004).
Teaching our new generation for the future is necessary to ensure that they are ready to adjust
with the new method of teaching and learning. The current problem faced by Syariah students
is the judgements decided by the Syariah Courts in Malaysia are seldom reported. Very few
cases related to Muslims matters are reported in several law reports, however, there are some
Muslims matters which are reported by the civil courts as the decision was made by the civil
courts. Eventhough there was effort to compile all judgements of Syariah courts in a journal
named Journal Hukum. Hence, it is submitted that the judgment of Syariah courts should be
reported and published for easier reference and it would assist the documentation of cases for
the future programme of E-syariah.
Challenges of E-Learning in Islamic Education
It is not impossible to introduce E-learning in Islamic studies. E-learning should be seen
as a supportive method to enrich the learning experience not only for the student and the
academician. However, it is undeniable that the traditional method of teaching should not be
ignored fully as we need time to adjust to the new method of teaching. Hence, it is proposed
that some research and in-depth study should be done in order to see the effectiveness of E-
learning in Malaysia, particularly in the area of Islamic studies. Islamic studies cover various
specialisations such as Syariah, Dakwah, Islamic History and Civilisation. It is submitted that
Nik Salida Suhaila bt Nik Saleh & Syahirah bt Abdul Shukor / 769
Islamic studies cannot be separated with the modern subjects. Isolating Islamic studies from
the modern subjects will make the subjects meaningless as we need to balance our spiritual
needs. In this paper, we have identified several obstacles or challenges in E-learning with
specialisation in Islamic studies such as the issue of recognition, infrastructure, student's
capability and the outcome in implementing E-learning.
In any type of learning, the issue of recognition is the cornerstone of the study. In Islamic
studies, the primary references will be Al-Quran and Al-Hadith during the course of study.
Only computers with a Microsoft Arabic word are able to read the Arabic texts. Hence, in
introducing Al-Quran or Al-Hadith through the usage of ICT such as through VCD or online,
the issue of recognition from the authorized body is important to ensure the authorities
referred are certified by the authority. Hence, the issue of translation comes to surface as
whether it is suffice to have the translated texts in the websites for the process of teaching and
learning? It is important to safeguard the integrity of translated verses or Hadith for the
purpose of teaching and learning. The issue of recognition can be seen in two ways; whether
the course of Islamic Studies supplemented by E-learning would be recognized and
acceptable by the Muslims scholars and secondly, academics need to know that time invested
in development of E-learning materials will be recognized preferably not just in the allocation
of other duties but in appointment tenure and promotion decisions in wider reputation. (Nick
Jackson: 2003).
Until now, no governmental sites provide a comprehensive database of Islamic law on
the web. (Noor Inayah: 2000). There are increasing number of academicians who use Internet
and e-mail for their academic works. Academicians should be proactive in applying the
advance of technology to enrich the learning method. For instance, the University of Science
of Malaysia has come up with computer software that makes it easier and faster to calculate
the amount of inheritance due to each of the inheritor of an estate that is left by a deceased
person. The program, known as e-Faraid, is the creation of three of the university's
academicians, Dr. Ahmed Abdul Majeed, Prof. Abdul Rahman Muhammad Fiyadh and Prof.
Abdullah Ambung, with the help of Yusuf Tshiteh, head of the Shariah Court, Pulau Pinang,
Malaysia. Work on the software was sponsored by the Ministry of Science, Technology and
Environment in Malaysia.(http://www.islamicvoice.com/june.2002%5Cnews.htm) Such
effort is appreciated, as Faraid is an essential topic for a syariah student. Besides learning the
theories in distribution of wealth according to faraid, such programme would expedite the
process of learning and understanding the subject itself.
We need to consider the whole environment of learning including the university students
and staff culture. Lecturers sometimes are not well verse in ICT knowledge and experience,
that is why they refuse to use this method of teaching in which it would cause a waste of time
and energy according to them. They indeed, need to make a preparation of using ICT, but if
they use the old method, students are to make an extra effort in dictation and reading.
Lecturers also are not very certain about the value of E learning, whether ICT can prove the
value and provides fact that show just how effective E learning is over traditional classroom
based instruction. Besides the issue of willingness of the educators, one should not ignore that
Muslims in most of the Muslims countries are lagged behind the advanced nations in term of
the usage of Internet. Shift of paradigm in mind setting of Muslims is important and in some
situation the Muslims should avoid fear of technologies. If academicians endure comfortable
using the manual classroom and tutorials as the only mode of teaching Islamic studies, the
potential for computers to play a comprehensive role in Islamic studies especially Islamic
legal education process will never be accomplished. (Noor Inayah:3)
It is said that the costs involved in developing the software or resource of E-learning
would be very expensive. It should be noted that not all students can afford the costs of
computers and Internet access. Although the current economic climates aren't conducive to
provide top quality E learning and there are mixed opinions about the success of this type of
770 / ISoIT 2004
training. Universities are also to provide mechanisms of E-learning and also expertise to be
consulted and give advise on the usage of the ICT. The question is whether the local higher
learning institutions are willing and ready for this kind of management since students need to
be entertained and classes should be proceeded during which lecturers have to attend ICT
courses.
In implementing E-learning, the contents are more crucial than the technology; the
quality and the presentations of the technology should be friendly-user to the students. The
technology referred to by the students should be convenient and do not mislead the students.
Internet has become the new method of communication in today's society. Nowadays, we can
access the Internet from our mobile phone and this means virtual classes are possible.
However, it must be noted that capability of the students should also taken into consideration
as E-learning might involve a lot of costs which a student cannot bear. Hence, the effects of
implementing E-learning should not be a burdensome to the prospective students but it should
promote flexibility.
Possibilities of E- Learning in Islamic Studies.
Many aid agencies working to improve the technology recognize that aids needs to be
appropriate. To be sustainable it needs to use local skills and in tune with the environment,
therefore it is possible to use ICT in Islamic education with less cost. E learning in Islamic
studies is possible provided that it is reasonable and affordable to provide E-learning, the
readiness of the academicians and the support of the institution itself. The students need not
to be a computer expert to use the E- Learning platform, however, they should have some
familiarity with basic word processing, a sound knowledge of the procedures for sending or
receiving e mail, a fundamental awareness of common computing terms and general
familiarity with hardware, software and operating system. Coordination from the existing
Islamic studies Faculties can expedite the implementation of E-learning. For a beginning,
development of websites for the exclusive excess of the students can be developed with the
support from the management of the university. Coordination among the local public
universities which offer Islamic studies to come out with soft wares on Islamic studies
subjects should be promoted to enhance the teachings and learning in E-learning. The new
technology in Information technology and Internet give us a great opportunity to upgrade our
Islamic missionary.
Among the benefits of E-Learning is flexibility. With online learning, students can set
their own schedule, although they will still have assignment deadlines and their course may
have set online chat times or other synchronous elements. Convenience is another benefit.
Lecture notes are often available online as recordings and transcripts of class chats and
discussions. E-Learning allows the users to learn at their own place and it is accessible 24
hours and 7 days a week. E-Learning reduces absenteeism and learners seem keener to ask
questions by e-mail. The E teacher has a new role, as he becomes more a moderator, a coach
and an expert all together. It is flexible and interactive, as it enables students to learn
anywhere and anytime. Definitely, there are numerous advantages of implementing E-
learning.
In short, the implementation of E-learning in Islamic studies is possible with the
consideration of the following issues:
1. The possibilities of coordination among the local public universities in developing
E-learning method in the area of Islamic studies.
2. Readiness of the local universities especially those in the area of Islamic studies to
make E-learning as a supplementary method of teaching and learning
3. E-Syariah is on the progress, what should be done? Islamic institutions should not
ignored fully the usage of technology, we are not IT specialists, and venues to work
Nik Salida Suhaila bt Nik Saleh & Syahirah bt Abdul Shukor / 771
together at the advice of the Muslims scholars and expertise are essential. We should
be aware on the opportunities and challenges ahead in implementing E-learning.
Conclusion
The current development of Multimedia Super Corridor has opened a vast opportunity to
the future's education. Islamic studies should not be seen as lagged behind but must well-
embraced to the current changes in the society without ignoring the tradition to uphold the
teachings of Islam based on Quran and Sunnah. The efforts to improve the existing web
resources in Islamic studies should be joint effort taken by the local universities, government
bodies and non-government sectors. E-learning in Islamic studies is possible with the strong
support from all parties. E-learning will support the policies and strategies arranged by the
government to practise electronic government in Malaysia.
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Nik Salida Suhaila bt Nik Saleh and Syahirah bt Abdul Shukor
Faculty of Syariah and Law
Islamic College University of Malaysia.
KUALA LUMPUR
E-Fiqh: Foundations for ICT-Supported Fiqh
Abdulmajid H. Mohamed
Abstract
The recent information and communication technology (ICT) provides a broad platform
for huge data integration and information exchange among human groups. And, as a result of
the rapid penetration of ICT into everyday patterns of life, new ways to implement group-
based tasks are emerged. These include domains such as education, medical treatment,
remote maintenance, eCommerce, etc. We believe that the time has come to also substantially
improve the practices and activities in the domain of Islamic Fiqh. Although Islam is
portrayed as a global religion, but the enabling infrastructure in regard to strategies and
frameworks for Islamic knowledge sharing and dissemination is lacking. This paper intends
to propose an environment for computer-supported Fiqh or E-Fiqh. The idea of E-Fiqh is not
to make computers issue Fatwas, but to provide an infrastructure and a framework for
Muslim Ulama to make Fatwas collaboratively. This paper discusses the potentials of ICT for
the development and E-Fiqh.
Introduction
Islam as a religion is introduced as a complete way of life. It provides Muslims guidance
in all sorts of life. Therefore, any Muslim is supposed to be guided by teachings of Islam in
all his/her life-deeds, sayings, behaviours and work. For this reason Muslims always refer to
the main sources of Islamic knowledge namely Quran and the Sunnah. The Quran is the
word of God as it is revealed to Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), While the Sunnah
is the prophets sayings, actions and what his Companions did, to which he showed no
objection (El-Geyoushi, 1991). The Sunnah-based knowledge is documented after Prophet
Muhammads death in the form of ahadith (prophet sayings)
Basically, Fatwa (i.e Islamic verdicts) is a ruling on a point of Islamic law that is given
by a recognized authority (Hyperdictionary,2004). It is one of the most important means by
which Islam adapts to circumstances in a changing world (Dacey, 2004). But , unlike legal
verdicts , the inquirer is not restricted or bound by the law arising from the Muftis Fatwa (al-
Gharyani , 2004). All Fatwas have to be based on the main resources of Islamic knowledge.
Any Fatwa is traditionally issued by Muslim scholars called Ulama. Fatwas are usually
issued as answers to contemporary Islamic issues. However, one of the main problems of
Fatwas issuance is the variety and different interpretations of the religious resource (Quran
and Sunnah). While Quranic knowledge is a unique resource the Sunnah has many different
resources. Sunnah resources can be classified under main four schools of Fiqh. These schools
are named after their founders as Hanbeli, Hanefi, Shafii and Maliki sect. The reference of
Fatwas to any of these respective schools is widely practiced by followers of these sects. In
the paper, we argue that, the main reason for the emergence of these different Fiqh sects is
not political issues as many emphasis. We believe that each of the founders of these Fiqh
schools concluded their Fatwas based on the Islamic knowledge they have at their disposal.
Abdulmajid H. Mohamed / 773
The lack of communication between those Imams has also contributed to issuing variant
Fatwas to similar issues. In other words the main cause of their variant Fatwas was the result
of what we might call in today's jargon, a lack of knowledge management practices.
Traditional Fatwas Issuance: Process And Difficulties
The process of issuing Fatwas is usually carried out by people who are knowledgeable
about Islamic knowledge. Some intellectuals also consider the mastering Arabic language as
a condition for the qualification of Fatwa issuance. Having the basic qualifications of issuing
Fatwas, the Fatwa issuers seek the Islamic decree by reasoning through different resources of
Islamic knowledge. Perhaps the process of issuing Fatwas is best described through the
famous Hadith of Muaz bin Jabal, when he had the conversation with the Prophet before
leaving for his appointment as governor of Yemen. The Prophet asked him as to how would
he administer? Muaz replied: I will judge everything according to the provisions in the
Quran. The Prophet again asked: If thou do not find the provision therein? The newly
appointed governor said: Then according to what the Prophet of Allah did. The Prophet
continued: Even if thou find no tradition in that? Muaz answered: I will then apply my
wisdom and sense of reason. Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) patted his back and concluded as
saying," Let it be the model for all the rulers (and the judges) of the world.
Though the mechanism of issuing Fatwas is very obvious according to the previous
Hadith, but sometimes Fatwas do vary based on the referred school of Fiqh. Therefore, one
can easily reach false conclusions in regard to why there many existing schools of Fiqh? Was
it really due to different interpretations of religious scripture in the form of the Quran and the
Sunna or was it due early political conflicts where each faction developed its way of
interpretation of the religious text. Probably many historians believe that the second option is
the most influential factor. But, we believe that this option might have deepened the
differences, but it is not the main cause of having various schools of Fiqh. We believe that
main causes of this phenomenon are: firstly the poor communication between Muslim
scholars at that time, and secondly the lack of unified authentic ahadith. The geographical
distances between early Ulamas must have prevented them from exchanging information to
conclude consensus Fatwas. For example Shafii school is rooted in Iraq and Egypt while
Imam Malik established the Maliki sect in Madina of Arabia.
The lack of a unified authentic ahadith can also be justified by the message sent by Imam
Shafii to Imam Ahmed Bin Hanbel (founder of Hanbeli sect). According to Ibn Kathir,
Imam Safi addressed Imam Ahmed by saying, Send us any Hadith you authenticate recently
so that we can act upon it (Ibn Kathir,N.D.) . Imam Shafi also once said Be guided with
any authentic Hadith even it contradicts with what Fatwas I issued earlier. This gives clear
indication of the reality of why there different Fiqh sects. Each of the Imams has concluded
his Fatwas based on what he was aware of Islamic knowledge.
ICT Potentialities
ICT is defined as the study of the technology used to handle information and aid
communication (Hyperdictionary, 2004). It involves the use of various communication
facilities such as mobile phones, TV, and networked PCs to support information generation
and dissemination among various groups of people who are not necessarily sharing the same
place. Many ICT applications can be used to secure the communication between respective
participants such as Email, chatting systems, and videoconferencing. We foresee the potential
of ICT to enable the introduction of a computer-supported Fiqh which we call E-Fiqh.
774 / ISoIT 2004
However, E-Fiqh is not meant to marginalise certain Fiqh schools or to introduce unique
solutions to different Fiqh cases, the aim of E-Fiqh framework is to enable scholars to draw
their Fatwas form extensive resources of Islamic knowledge. Moreover, ICT can even
provide Muslim scholars the infrastructure to make collaborative Fatwas where Fatwas are
issued based on multiple views of many scholars. According to (Bashir ,N.D.) in (Suyanta,
1998) Fatwas are better issued collaboratively because there certain issues are very complex
and it become beyond the abilities of individual scholars or Imams.
Proposed Framework For E-Fiqh
This framework sets up the ICT infrastructure through which E-Fiqh approach is realised.
The framework success is based on the availability and the right configuration of two aspects
namely the communication technology and information processing abilities. While the
communication technology provides the digital connectivity between different participants,
the information processing abilities provide E-Fiqh users powerful computing services to
access, criticise and share Islamic knowledge.
E-Fiqh Users
E-Fiqh users are grouped as: public users, individual Ulamas and Ulamas assigned to
Islamic institutions. Public users are individuals who seek Fatwas; they are usually unaware
of depth Islamic knowledge and do not have the skills to issue Fatwas for themselves. This
category of users can be described as Muqaledin (followers). Individual Ulamas are
independent freelance Ulamas; they are not attached to any Islamic research or educational
institution. This users category includes competent Masjid Imams and retired scholars. The
last users category is Ulama communities; those Ulamas are attached to research and
educational Islamic institutions where regular fact-to-face discussions about Fatwas are
usually carried out.
E-Fiqh Technical Infrastructure
The technical infrastructure represents software, hardware and communication
technology through which E-Fiqh approach is realised. The communication technologies
include the use of Internet, Intranet, Extranet, and wireless web. These technologies represent
the super information highway of information systems. The software technologies provide the
needed computing services to target users. The computing services that depend on computer-
mediated communications are realized through adopting CSCW (Computer Supported
Collaborative Work) practices. CSCW has emerged as an area of inquiry to help us better
understand and design systems for group use (Schuler, 1998). CSCW can be regarded as a
technology to facilitate communications between communities of practice. As a CSCW
application, E-Fiqh is expected to play a major role in Fatwa issuance by offering Ulamas
capabilities for group and one-to-one discussions. These group discussions can be
synchronous through online threaded discussions or video conferencing. Group discussions
can also be asynchronous through Email for example.
What is also very important in setting up E-Fiqh is the mass of knowledge and
information being communicated. A huge source of Islamic knowledge needs to be made
easily available to E-Fiqh users. Islamic knowledge is immense and has to be codified and
digitised to form vast integrated resources for Muslim individuals, groups and institutions.
Our approach seeks the move from isolated Islamic knowledge dictated by scattered Fiqh
schools that were initially justified by geographical and even political boundaries, to the
Abdulmajid H. Mohamed / 775
establishment of a borderless and transparent Islamic knowledge. As shown in Figure 1, a
huge database is proposed, this database holds all authentic sources of Islamic knowledge. All
Ulama argumentations are stored in this database as well. This type of knowledge gives the
reasoning history of stored Fatwas.
Since, no one tool supports the full spectrum of KM processes (Tsui, 2000). A suite of
CSCW applications are expected to support the work of E-Fiqh users. These applications
include search engines, Email systems and synchronous/asynchronous collaboration
environments. Search engines shall provide searching capabilities that range from simple
keyword match, attribute-based input to context-sensitive search. In addition to enabling
collaborative Fatwas, ICT facilities such as email could be used to establish one-to-one
contact between the askers and scholars who may be at the other side of the world.
Potential Hurdles And Remedies
It is not surprising that ICT literacy is prevalent among Muslim scholars, but the existing
sophisticated user interfaces would make the learning curve of necessary ICT skills very
short. Moreover, the next generation of Muslim scholars cannot afford to be ICT illiterate as
this technology is progressing and developing at an unprecedented rate. In addition, ICT
skills are now a mandatory topic alongside other religious topics in many Islamic educational
institutes. The experience of equipping Malaysian Islamic academies, institutes and even
Mosques with state-of-the-are ICT equipments could be regarded as a model in this regard.
Of course, it should be pointed out that many traditionalists might appose such a
contemporary way of collaborative Fatwas issuance. We believe that the understanding of E-
Fiqh as a "computer-supported" rather than a "computer-directed" Fiqh is a key factor to
encourage traditionalist to endorse this contemporary approach. According to Bashir [7] in
[8], Fatwas are better issued collaboratively because there are certain complex issues which
beyond the abilities of individual scholars or Imams. For this reason we believe that, in
comparison with Fatwas issued by individual scholars, collaborative Fatwas carry heavier
weight in regard to its rightness.
776 / ISoIT 2004
Conclusion
ICT continues its penetration into all patterns of everyday life. Unfortunately, efforts in
regard to the application of ICT in the domain of Islamic knowledge management are still
lacking. This paper argues that the time has come to substantially improve the process of
Islamic knowledge management as well. This paper proposes the E-Fiqh approach which is
specifically introduced to support the process of Fatwas issuance by adopting ICT and CSCW
practices in this domain. The main objective of E-Fiqh is to enable Muslim scholars in all
over the world to improve their dialog through the use of the Internet facilities. Indeed these
facilities would enable the participation of a scholars form different Islamic schools and
collaborative Fatwas would then be tackled more effectively.
University/ institute
Islamic
knowledge base
&
Knowledge Map
(ontologies)
Application Server
Internet
Individual enquirer
Masjid Imams
Islamic research centre
http
Peer Ulamas/scholars
Intelligent
Search
Engines
Collaboration
& Workflow
Platforms
Email
Figure 1: Layout of E-Fiqh Environment
Abdulmajid H. Mohamed / 777
Bibliography
(Hyperdictionary ,2004) Hyperdictionary,
http://www.hyperdictionary.com/dictionary/Information+and+Communication+Technology
(El-Geyoushi, 1991) El-Geyoushi, M. I.; the Meaning of Islam, Islamic Dawah Center, Brunei
Darulsalam, 1991.
(al-Gharyani , 2004) 4- al-Gharyani, A. M. A. The Historical Development Of Fatwa: Part I; World
Fatwa management Institute and Research Institute, Islamic University College of Malaysia,
URL:http://infad.kuim.edu.my/modules.php?op=modload&name=Sections&file=index&req=view
article&artid=1&page=1], Accessed on 15/03/04.
(Ibn Kathir ,N.D.) Ibn Kathir, Al-Bidaya wal Nihaya fil Fitan wal Malahim, Vol. 10, http://history.al-
islam.com/display.asp?f=bdy02348.htm, , Accessed on 20/02/04.
(Schuler ,1998) Schuler, D. Computer-Supported Community Work: CSCW for the "Real World."
CSCW 98 Tutorial, New York, ACM,1998.
(Bashir ,N.D.) -Bashir, A. A., Ijtihad Dalam Sortan (Kumpulan Karangan), Mizan, pp. 62 , N. D.
(Suyanta, 1998) Suyanta, S. , Hasan Bandng: al-Mufakir al-Faqh al-Muthr li Jidal, Studia Islamika,
vol. 5, no. 3, 1998.
(Tsui, 2000) Tsui, S.,Exploring the KM toolbox, Knowledge Management, Vol. 4, No. 2, October,
2000, p11-14.
(Dacey, 2004) Dacey J. The force of a fatwa,Cairo Times, 2004, Issue 3 vol 8,
http://www.cairotimes.com/content/archive08/fatwas0803.html, , Accessed on 10/04/2004.
Abdulmajid H. Mohamed
Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology
University of Malaya, Lembah Pantai, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
abdlmajid@perdana.um.edu.my
Aplikasi Teknologi Multimedia Interaktif dalam
Pendidikan Islam: Pakej Kisah Luqman Al-Hakim
Zurina Muda, Amnah Arifin dan Robiatul Adawiah Jamaluddin
Abstrak
Pendidikan Islam memainkan peranan penting dalam pembangunan insan demi
kepentingan dan kemajuan sesebuah masyarakat dan negara. Pendidikan Islam telah
melakukan satu reformasi dengan premis ilmu yang bersifat sepadu di antara ilmu akal dan
wahyu dengan berteraskan kepada tauhid yang mantap bagi melahirkan individu Muslim
yang seimbang dalam aspek ruhani, jasmani dan intelektual. Selaras dengan perkembangan
Teknologi Maklumat masa kini, maka Teknologi Multimedia Interaktif dengan pendekatan
penceritaan telah diaplikasikan dalam pembangunan Pakej Kisah Luqman Al-Hakim. Kisah
yang dipilih adalah bertajuk Luqman dengan telatah manusia yang diselitkan dengan
banyak nasihat dan nilai moral Islamik dengan cara yang menarik dan interaktif. Selain itu,
pakej ini turut dilengkapkan dengan modul bacaan, modul kuiz, modul nyanyian dan
permainan. Objektif pembangunan ialah sebagai alat bantu mengajar khasnya untuk pelajar
sekolah rendah dalam lingkunagn umur 5 hingga 9 tahun. Pakej ini juga boleh digunakan
oleh ibubapa sebagai satu media pembelajaran alternatif dalam memberikan pendidikan
awal tentang Islam kepada anak mereka. Pengalaman belajar dengan menggunakan
multimedia yang interaktif mampu menjadikan persekitaran pembelajaran lebih menarik dan
efektif. Adalah diharapkan pembangunan pakej ini dapat menarik minat pelajar terhadap
mata pelajaran pendidikan Islam disamping membantu mereka mendalami dan
mempraktikkan pengetahuan Islam dalam kehidupan dan masyarakat ke arah pembentukan
individu Muslim dan masyarakat madani yang cemerlang, gemilang dan terbilang.
Abstract
Islamic education plays an important role in human development for the sake of one
society and country. Islamic education has made a reformation with the premise of integrated
knowledge between thoughts and wahyu that based on strong Tauheed to produce a balanced
Muslim in term of mental, physical and intellectual. Due to the rapid development of current
information technology, an interactive multimedia technology that used storytelling approach
has been applied in the development of Kisah Luqman Al-Hakim package. The story that has
been chosen is entitled Luqman dan telatah manusia comprised a lot of advices and
Islamic moral values in an interesting and interactive way. Besides that, the package also
incorporated with reading module, quiz module and singing module. The courseware
objective is to act as a learning aid for primary school students in the range of ages from 5 to
9 years old. This package also could be use by the parents as an alternative learning media
to educate their children about Islam. Learning experience using interactive multimedia
could create an interesting and effective learning environment. It is hoped that the
development of the package could attract students toward an Islamic education besides
Zurina Muda / 779
helping them to learn and practice Islamic knowledge in life and society towards the
development of excellent individual Muslim and Islamic knowledge society.
Pendahuluan
Takrif pendidikan ialah pendidikan yang bersumberkan Al-Quran dan Hadis, serta
integrasi disiplin dan Ilmu Akal yang boleh membina akidah masyarakat. (Tajul Ariffin
Noordin 1988). Manakala Mohd. Kamal Hassan (1986) merujuk istilah pendidikan dari
perspektif Islam yang total iaitu berdasarkan falsafah kesepaduan di antara iman dan ilmu;
jasad dan roh; dunia dan din; fikiran dan hati; akal dan wahyu. Menerusi falsafah kesepaduan
ini maka dapatlah dididik manusia supaya tunduk kepada tuntutan aqidah, syariah dan akhlak
Islam.
Era teknologi maklumat membawa dunia pendidikan ke satu tahap yang lebih tinggi.
Media yang digunakan untuk menyampaikan ilmu berubah daripada zaman pengenalan
tulisan yang menggunakan kulit binatang dan helaian papirus sehingga ke tahap yang lebih
mudah dan canggih yang menggunakan storan cakera padat yang kompak pada masa kini.
Maklumat bukan sahaja lebih selamat tetapi dapat disimpan dalam jumlah yang lebih banyak
dengan menggunakan ruang yang sedikit.
Sekolah Bestari akan mendorong murid mengamalkan pembelajaran akses kendiri, serta
mengikut kadar pembelajaran sendiri (Shahriza Sidin 1999). Sekolah bestari menggunakan
teknologi dalam sistem pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang menggunakan perisian yang
disimpan dalam cakera padat. Malangnya perisian berkaitan dengan pendidikan Islam sukar
untuk diperolehi berbanding perisian kursus pelajaran lain seperti matematik dan sains yang
boleh didapati dengan banyak dan mudah. Ini menyebabkan perisian kursus untuk pendidikan
Islam jauh ketinggalan berbanding perisian-perisian lain.
Objektif Dan Skop
Matlamat utama kajian ini ialah menghasilkan sebuah pakej pendidikan akhlak kanak-
kanak yang berdasarkan kepada ayat Al-Quran: Juz 21 Surah Luqman yang menceritakan
perihal Luqman mendidik anaknya ke arah pembentukan akhlak yang terpuji.
Objektif-objektif lain yang dikenalpasti dalam pembangunan pakej Kisah Luqman Al-
Hakim adalah seperti berikut:
Merekabentuk dan membangunkan model konsepsi pakej.
Membangunkan modul penceritaan yang bersumberkan Al-Quran untuk menarik minat
kanak-kanak terhadap Al-Quran dan Hadith.
Menyediakan modul bacaan untuk memperkemaskan tahap dan keberkesanan membaca
di kalangan kanak-kanak.
Menyediakan modul permainan dan nyanyian sebagai hiburan disamping mendedahkan
kanak-kanak terhadap penggunaan komputer.
Pakej Kisah Luqman Al-Hakim dibangunkan berdasarkan kepada Falsafah Pendidikan
Negara dan Falsafah Pendidikan Islam. Sasaran utama pakej adalah kanak-kanak yang
berumur dalam lingkungan 5 hingga 9 tahun. Mereka boleh menjelajah pakej ini sambil
mendengar cerita dan berhibur sama ada secara bersendirian ataupun dengan bimbingan
penjaga ataupun guru. Pakej ini menggunakan pendekatan penceritaan yang mengandungi
sebuah kisah Luqman yang menceritakan tentang telatah manusia.
780 / ISoIT 2004
Metodologi Pembangunan Pakej
Metodologi pembangunan pakej Kisah Luqman Al-Hakim ini adalah model reka bentuk
berarahan yang mengandungi dua fasa utama iaitu fasa teoritikal dan fasa teknikal seperti
yang ditunjukkan dalam Rajah 1. Pembangunan pakej ini turut mempertimbangkan teori dan
pendekatan terkini dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran.
Rajah 1 Fasa Pembangunan Perisian
Fasa Teoritikal
Aktiviti Teoritikal dibahagikan kepada dua bahagian iaitu fasa perancangan dan fasa
analisis keperluan. Di bawah fasa perancangan, bahan pembelajaran dan rujukan seperti nota
diubahsuai supaya sesuai dengan keadaan persekitaran yang mudah difahami oleh kanak-
kanak manakala di bawah fasa analisis Keperluan pula penilaian semula semua tugas yang
bakal dilakukan iaitu berkaitan dengan data, kandungan dan aliran maklumat, kekangan, ciri
antara muka sistem dan aspek lain yang menerangkan tentang masalah yang harus
diselesaikan.
Fasa Teknikal
Fasa Teknikal terbahagi kepada tiga bahagian iaitu Fasa Rekabentuk, Implementasi dan
Ujian. Fasa Rekabentuk menjelaskan pandangan keseluruhan mengenai rupa bentuk, struktur,
pendekatan pengajaran, teori pembelajaran, jenis media dan teknologi yang terlibat.
Seterusnya pembangunan pakej akan dilakukan berdasarkan rekabentuk yang telah
ditetapkan. Dalam Fasa Implementasi, kesemua media yang telah dihasilkan akan
diintegrasikan ke dalam pakej dengan sempurna. Fasa Ujian adalah untuk menguji
keberkesanan pakej perisian tersebut. Penyelengaraan terhadap pakej akan dilakukan
berdasarkan maklumbalas ujian tersebut.
Rekabentuk Dan Implementasi Pakej
Dalam fasa rekabentuk, Model Konsepsi pakej dibangunkan bagi menggambarkan
keseluruhan Pakej Kisah Luqman Al-Hakim. Model Konsepsi dibangunkan bagi
memudahkan pembaca mendapat gambaran keseluruhan pakej yang dibangunkan. Model
konsepsi bagi pakej Kisah Luqman Al-Hakim ditunjukkan dalam Rajah 2.
Fasa Pembangunan
Perisian
Fasa Teoritikal Fasa Teknikal
Fasa
Perancangan
Fasa Analisis
Keperluan
Fasa Reka
bentuk
Fasa
Implementasi
Fasa
Ujian
Zurina Muda / 781
Rajah 2 Model Konsepsi Perisian Multimedia Luqman Al-Hakim
Teknik capaian pakej Luqman Al-Hakim ini ialah secara capaian paparan interaktif.
Kanak-kanak boleh memilih kunci yang terdapat pada paparan semasa. Kunci ini berfungsi
sebagai hiperlink kepada paparan seterusnya. Antara muka pakej juga dibina dengan sifat
mesra pengguna supaya mudah digunakan dan difahami. Elemen tarikan seperti animasi,
grafik dan kesan bunyi juga disertakan pada setiap antaramuka. Model Hierarki dalam Rajah
3 menunjukkan navigasi antara muka dan pembahagian modul yang terdapat dalam pakej
Luqman Al-Hakim iaitu terdiri daripada Modul Penceritaan, Bacaan, Nyanyian, Uji Minda
dan Bantuan. Navigasi paparan antara muka turut menyediakan butang-butang yang seragam
dan piawai bagi memudahkan pengguna semasa menjelajahi pakej tersebut.
Perisian Multimedia
Luqman Al-Hakim
Skop
Memperkenalkan kaedah pembacaan
multimedia interaktif kepada kanak-
kanak berumur 5-7 tahun.
Teori dan
Pendekatan
- Teori Gagne
- Pendekatan Fonologi,
Semantik dan Sinteks.
Modul
- Modul Cerita
- Modul Bacaan
- Modul Uji Minda
- Modul Nyanyian
- Modul Bantuan
Media
- Teks
- Animasi
- Audio
- Video
- Komputer
- Multimedia
Objektif
- Menghasilkan sebuah perisian kanak-kanak yang berdasarkan Al-Quran.
- Menggalakkan minat kanak-kanak terhadap Al -Quran.
- menyahut seruan Falsafah Pendidikan Negara.
- Memperkemaskan tahap dan keberkesanan membaca di kalangan kanak-
kanak.
- Menyediakan persekitaran pembelajaran yang menarik dan menyeronokkan.
782 / ISoIT 2004
Rajah 3 Model Hierarki Perisian Multimedia Luqman Al-Hakim
Penutup
Komputer merupakan alat yang sangat berpotensi untuk digunakan di dalam bidang
pendidikan. Pakej pembelajaran-permainan Luqman Al-Hakim dibina dengan ciri multimedia
interaktif dengan tujuan menggalakkan kanak-kanak mempelajari akhlak yang baik melalui
nilai-nilai murni yang diserapkan secara tidak langsung melalui cerita dan permainan yang
terdapat di dalam pakej ini. Cara pembelajaran praktikal sebegini diharap dapat menarik
perhatian kanak-kanak sejajar dengan era teknologi maklumat masa kini, diharap pakej
seumpama ini akan membantu pelajar, guru dan ibubapa dalam proses pembelajaran dan
pengajaran tauhid samaada di dalam atau di luar bilik darjah.
Pakej Kisah
Luqman Al-Hakim
Menu Utama
Modul 1
Penceritaan
Modul 2
Bacaan
Modul 4
Pengujian
Modul 5
Bantuan
Wasiat
Luqman
Doa-Doa
Luqman
Kuiz
Tahap 1
Tahap 2
Modul 3
Nyanyian
Lagu 1 Lagu 2
Padankan
gambar
Latarbelakang
Luqman
Tahap 1
Tahap 2
Zurina Muda / 783
Bibliografi
Mohd Kamal Hassan. 1986. Penyerapan Unsur Islam Melalui Sistem Pendidikan Negara Dalam
Reformasi Pendidikan Dalam Menghadapi Cabaran 2020. Kuala Lumpur. Penerbit Nurin
Enterprise
Tajul Ariffin bin Noordin. 1988. Konsep Asas Pendidikan Sepadu. Kuala Lumpur. Penerbit Nurin
Enterprise
Shahriza Sidin. 1999. Sekolah Bestari Sekolah Impian. Dewan Siswa. Okt: 8 10
Zurina Muda
Amnah Arifin
Fakulti Teknologi & Sains Maklumat
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
43600 Bangi
Selangor
(zurina@sun1.ftsm.ukm.my)
Robiatul Adawiah Jamaludin
School of Information Technology, Ikram Education Sdn Bhd.
Boss-Subordinate Relation: An Islamic Paradigm
Abu Bakr Rafique Ahmad
Abstract
Human beings are created as a social creature. They can not leave alone. They must
leave in a group under some systematic order. The more the rights, responsibility, role and
obligation of each individual is well defined in a society, the more advanced such a society is
to be considered. These principles can equally be applied for each and every organization,
whether it is social, commercial, economic, political, religious, spiritual or mundane. Islam is
the most complete code of life it must have a set of rules and regulations and guidelines for
leading an organized life under the Islamic system which will ensure the welfare of this life
and the life hereafter.
This study will try to find out the principles and guidelines laid down by Islam for
the bosses and their subordinates or for the authority and the work force, for the employers
and the employees and for the leaders and their followers in a greater sense of the term.
Who is Boss?
Literally a boss means : master, a person who controls or gives orders to workman.
1
Practically it is used to denote a leader of the community, or the coordinator and superior
in position in any organization, like the manager, the supervisor and proprietor etc.
Importance Of Leadership In Islam
Leadership is considered very important in Islam. The Muslims are not allowed to live
without having a leader for them in any situation. And, as such, they are urged to appoint a
leader for them in all circumstances even if they are on a trip and a few in number or even
they are in a desert. The primary duties of a leader are to lead the prayers for the Muslims, to
look after their affairs and to run their activities in a disciplined and systematic way.
There is a very well-known proverb in Arabic which means that leader is the servant of
his nation
"
The idea of a leader as a servant has been a part of Islam since its beginning and has
only recently been developed by Robert Green leaf.
2
Islam always tried to give the leaders, the authority and the bosses an impression that
they are not only the leaders but they are the servants first, so they are not supposed to seek
obedience from their followers and the sub-ordinates, rather they must render services to
them, look after their well-being and find out their potentialities to nurture them to grow as
future leaders.
Abu Bakr Rafique Ahmad / 785
A Boss Shall Be Either of The Following
(a) A person in command over a group of people organized with a same objective.
(b) He may be a religious leader i.e. Imam or Ameer of a group of people united for
implementing some essential or voluntary religious programs.
(c) He may be a political leader, chosen by a group of people voluntarily for
implementing some political agenda.
(d) He may be a commanding officer on an army or a group thereof.
(e) He may be an executive in a commercial firm an Industry having some controlling
power over the whole organization or a part thereof.
Usually the word boss is more suitable to denote the last one, but here we shall try to
consider this as synonym to the supervisor in position whatever the case may be.
A general characteristic of Islam in this regard may be summarized as follows:
It has been the main characteristic of Islam that while addressing to each of the
administrative and the subordinate, it reminds everyone of them about the responsibilities
which are related to them, and which should be exercised by them in different situations.
Hence when the leader of the community or the authority of an organization or the Boss of a
business is addressed, it has been emphasized to them how to deal with their subordinates and
when the subordinates or the followers are addressed they are emphasized on how to respect
the authority and show obedience to their leaders.
Here we shall try to cite some guidelines given by Islam to the leaders of a community in
particular and to the authority in general :
Acceptability Of An Imam Must Be Ensured.
The prophet (sm.) has emphasized upon acceptability of a leader to the people. He is
reported to have said :
There are three persons whose prayers wont be accepted by Allah (swt.) ... A person
who takes over the leadership over a community while they are disliking him.
3
Seeking Position Of Leadership Is Discouraged.
According to Islam leadership is not something to be obtained through candidature,
it is rather an amanah (trust) which comes from Allah from which he will be accountable
before Allah (swt). The prophet (saw) is reported to have said :
) (
Translation Dont ask for a leadership (position) if you are entrusted with it without
asking for it. You will be helped (i.e. assisted by by Allah).
4
The Subordinates Are Amanah:
According to Islam all the subordinates and the subjects are considered as amanah (trust)
in the hands of the Bosses or leaders and, as such, the Bosses are responsible for ensuring
their basic needs and welfare, failing which they are accountable to Allah (swt.)
Consultation (Shura) :
Consultation with the subordinates in all important issues is a religious duty upon the
bosses and the leaders, which is called in the modern administration as participatory
management. This concept was not known to the people until the recent time, while this has
786 / ISoIT 2004
got its origin 1400 years ago through the prophet (saw). The pious caliphs and the Muslim
rulers later on during their reign.
The Quranic injunctions in this respect are as follows :
(a) ) : 159 (
Translation: And consult them in Affairs (of moment) then when thou lastly taken a decision put thy
trust in Allah.
5
(b) ) : 38 (
Translation: Who (conduct) their affairs by mutual consultation.
6
The history witnesses that the prophet (saw) used to consult the people with him before
taking decision on every important issue. Before the battle of Badr he had changed the camp
side upon the proposal of a companion, before the battle of Uhud he had consulted the
people on the matter whether they should fight the anemy on the city outskirts or should
remain within the city and take a defensive policy. The prophet himself was in favour of the
2nd opinion but he decided to follow the majority opinion though he had to pay very high
price for this.
Caliph Umar (R.) is reported to have said : That one mans ideas are like a string, and
two mens ideas are like two strings joined together, and three ideas are like three strings put
together, they can never be easily broken.
7
Justice :
It is a religious duty upon the Boss and the leader of a community to ensure upholding
the policy of justice with his subordinates in any situation and all circumstances, even in case
the personal relation between him and his subordinate is not pleasant and healthy due to some
personal dislikings.
Allah (swt.) says :
) : 8 (
Transaltion: [And let not the hatred of others to make you swerve to wrong and depart from justice]8
) : 90 (
Transaltion: [Allah commands justice, the doing of good.]
9
The principle of justice demands that selection, recruitment and promotion should be
done on the basis of merit and merit alone. The Quran says :
) : 32 (
Transaltion: [Truly the best of men for thee to employ is the man who is strong and trustworthy.]
10
Here the word strong corresponds to the qualification and expertise that the job
requires, and the power to apply them, and trustworthy applies to the sense of
responsibility, piety and commitment to the welfare of the organization.
Politeness, Soft Heartedness And Humility :
Politeness, soft heartedness and humility are the virtues in every Muslim which are
considered very much sought after specially for the leaders of the community, the authority
and executives of an organization. The people will be more obedient to those who are gifted
with these qualities. So doubtlessly they will be the most successful leaders and the
executives. The Prophet (saw), the most successful leader in the whole history of mankind
had been adorned with these God gifted qualities. Allah (swt.) reminds him about these
special qualities in the following verse with which Allah (swt) had shown His favour to him.
Abu Bakr Rafique Ahmad / 787
) : 156 (
Transaltion: [It is part of the mercy of Allah that thou dost deal gently with them wert thou severe or
harsh hearted they would have broken away from about thee: so pass over (their faults) and ask for
Allahs forgiveness for them and consult them in affairs of moment...]
11
Allah (swt) says in another verse :
Transaltion: [And surely thou hast sublime morals.]12
Setting The Example Through Practicing :
According to Islam the leader and the boss is not a person who commands the other to
do things according to his directives without considering whether is he doing it or not? Rather
the leader and the boss is required in the first place to practise this himself, then commanding
the others for practising that.
If a manager of an organization wants that the employees of that organization should be
punctual then he should better attend his office before schedule, and at least in time.
Otherwise the subordinates will be disrespectful to him.
This has been emphasized in an article by Ibnomer Mohammad Sharfuddin. He writes :
Administrative leadership in Islam is supposed to be a role model for subordinates.
Leaders are expected to comply fully with prescribed Islamic behavior before asking their
subordinates to obey them... It should not in any case be oppressive, exploitative or
authoritarian.13
Practising Taqwa Or God Fearing
God fearing is the combination of three things; i.e;
1. To believe that none is beyond the knowledge of All-knowing Allah (swt), who even
knows the inner intention of every body.
2. To believe that there is a day of judgement when each and every body has to give
full account of his deeds and face either reward for his good deeds or punishment for
bad deeds.
3. That beliefs, deeds and rewards are integrally linked in each ones life in this world
and in the life hereafter.
In the height of the above discussion we can come to a conclusion that doing a good job
with the sense of God fearing (taqwa) and with an expectation of good reward in the hereafter
is a religious commitment in Islam, and, as such, the authority are required to motivate their
subordinates about this matter, in the same time the authority should ensure and guarantee
full justice and job satisfaction for their employees. Taqwa will prevent a leader, boss or an
authority from behaving unjustly whether to the community or the employees etc.
Not To Impose Any Duty Beyond The Capacity Of The Employees
It is a religious obligation upon the authority of any Islamic organization not to impose
any duty or responsibility upon the employees and subordinates which is beyond his capacity
or burdensome for them. Allah (swt.) says :
) : 152 (
788 / ISoIT 2004
Translation: [Give measure and weight with full justice : no burden do We place on any soul, but that
which it can bear, whenever you speak, speak justly, even if a near relation is concerned.]
14
Transparency
It is very much important for a successful organization and its management to ensure
transparency in its rules, regulations and implementation policy of these rules; so that no
scope for any kind of exploitation remains therein. In this situation everyone will be
convinced that he is getting his rights as per rule and a conducive work environment will
prevail, which has prime importance for success of a program or a project.
Transparency is the safeguard against exploitation which is completely prohibited in
Islam.
Promise Keeping
It is a religious duty for every Muslim-whether he is a boss, leader or a subordinate- to
keep their promises. Breaking a promise is tantamount to hypocrisy. Fulfilment of
commitment and promise has been emphasized in many places of the Quran. To cite an
example here :
) : 34 (
Translation: [And fulfill (every) engagement, for every engagement will be enquired into (in the Day of
Judgement]
15
The prophet (saw) said :
:
Translation: [The signs of a hypocrite are three : when he speaks, tells a lie, when he makes a promise
he breaks this, and when he is trusted with something he shows distrust.]16
Ensuring Conductive Work Environment
This is one of the most important responsibilities of the management to ensure conducive
work environment and provide job satisfaction for the employees. The conducive
environment can only be ensured if every body considers that he is the integral part of the
organization, playing an important role in his place. The importance of none can be denied
like each part of a structure has its own value in strengthening the whole structure. The
prophet (saw.) has said :
Translation: The relation of a believer with other is like that of a building each part of its do strengthen
then the other.
Fellow Feeling
The management in an Islamic organization is not just an authority which should keep
themselves aloof from the subordinates and should not mix with them, but rather they must
have a sense of fellow feeling for their employees, they should share in the sorrows and
happiness of their sub ordinates.
The prophet (saw) has said that the parable of relationship between one mumin and the
other is like the organs of a single body, whenever any of these organs is affected the whole
body should respond to that in ailment and sufferings :
17
Abu Bakr Rafique Ahmad / 789
).... (
Some Guidelines for The Subordinates
As we had discussed earlier that this is a characteristic of Islam that while it addresses
any of the parties of a society it reminds their duties and responsibilities towards the other
party. And as such, Islam when addresses the subordinates, it advises them how to be
obedient, respectful, sincere and trustworthy etc. to their leaders, the bosses and the authority
in general. Here in this chapter we shall try to high light on this aspect of the issue.
Obedience to The Authority
The subjects of a country, the followers of a leader and the sub ordinates of an
organization are advised to show sincere obedience to their leaders who is called according to
Islamic terminology as Ulul Amr or The men of affairs
Allah (swt.) says :
Translation: And obey Allah and obey the apostle and those who are at your affairs.
18
However, according to Islam the obedience is not unconditional. The subordinate should
follow the instructions, given to them, provided they do not contradict the obedience to Allah
(swt.) and His apostle.
The prophet of Allah declares :
No obedience is acceptable disobeying the Creator.
19
Even every citizen of a country has the right to protest the opinion of the leader or Imam
and every employee of an organization reserves the right to disagree with the opinion of the
authority or a boss if it contradicts the injunctions of the Quran or the Sunnah. History of
Islam is full of many splendid examples of this kind. To cite one example from Umar b. al
Khattab the 2nd Caliph of the prophet (saw) that on one occasion Umar (R) was criticizing
the fixation of dowry at high rate at the time of marriage. A lady from amongst the audience
stood up immediately and said : O Umar! fear God. While Allah has permitted us to receive
a bullion as dowry who are you to prevent us from this right? And she cited the following
verse from the Quran in support of her argument.
) : 20 (
Translation: [Even if ye had given the latter a whole treasure for dower, take not the least fit of it
back.
20
Umar (R) realized his mistake and said : The lady is right and he himself is wrong.
21
Sense Of Accountability
According to Islam each and every one of the members of society or members of a
family or even staff members of an organization is like a leader and important in his position.
He is accountable to the God for his performance. The prophet (saw) has said :
.........
Translation: Everyone of you is a leader and every one of you is accountable for his responsibility. For
example the husband is the leader in his house and is responsible for his family. Likewise the wife is a
790 / ISoIT 2004
guardian in her husbands home and is responsible and accountable for her family, and the servant is a
guardian in his masters home and is accountable for performing his responsibility.22
You can hardly find such a clear and comprehensive guideline in determining the
responsibilities of each one in other systems except Islam.
Sense Of Cooperation
It is a religious duty on every member of an Islamic society to cooperate each other on
any matter which is considered good, useful and beneficial to the community and / or an
organization, unless it leads to sin and transgression. Allah (swt) says:
) : 7 (
Translation: [Help ye one another in righteous and piety, but help ye not one another in sin and
rancour.]
23
In the light of this verse each and every employee of an organization is required to render
sincere cooperation to the administration for the interest of his organization as long as it plays
positive role to the advancement of the country or the society. On the other hand if the agenda
of an organization is against the interest of the people or it is contrary to the obedience to
Allah and His apostle then they can not even get an employment there.
Sense Of Amanah
Islam considers that the duties and responsibilities which have been prescribed to each
one, whether it may be due to some social, political, commercial, economic or even job
responsibilities to the salaried persons, are considered as an amanah (trust). Each one is
must protect this amanah and perform his responsibilities with the sense of amanah in
full sincerity which is called according Islamic principle to return the amanah to its owner
and which has been emphasized in the Quran as follows :
) : 58 (
Translation: Allah doth command you to render back your trusts to those to whom they are due.24
Sense Of Nasihah (Good Advice Or Well Wishing)
Good advise is considered an indispensable factor for a condusive social order. It is
equally true and applicable in ensuring the strong relationship between the management and
the employees of an organization. The importance of nasihah has been depicted clearly in the
following hadith of the prophet (saw) :
:
Translation: The prophet (saw) said : The religion is advice (nasihah). We said : to whom? He said :
To Allah, His messenger His Book to the leader of the believers and to the common Muslims.25
The word nasiha is similarly applicable to denote loyalty and well wishing. And, as such,
each and very employee should have a sense of loyalty and well wishing to their bosses, to
the administration and to the welfare of the organization. Whenever he feels that something
shall serve the interest of the organization better he should come forward to the
administration with his sincere advice.
Here one thing is to be remembered that nasiha must be sincere and honest, otherwise it
will not be considered to be directed to Allah. And the following principles should be
followed before giving some advices :
Abu Bakr Rafique Ahmad / 791
(a) That one should not advise someone in an accusing tune.
(b) One should not expect others to comply instantly or expect result very quickly.
(c) One should not advise others to do what he is not practising himself.
(d) Advice should be given at the right time and in a decent manner.
(e) Setting a personal example to be followed is always a preferred method of advice.
26
Conclusion
We can conclude this study with this remark that in spite of advancement of management
and behavioral descriptions in modern day the principles which have been laid down by Islam
1400 years ago is so complete, so comprehensive and such a guarantee for the welfare of both
the management and the employees, so responsive to the mandane development and spiritual
requirements that no other system of administration which has been invented and implement
by any society in the world after that of Islam can be compared with.
One again it has been proved that Islam is the most complete code of life surpassing the
boundaries of race, region, time and trend.
Bibliography
1. See, A.S. Shornby, The Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English, (London, Oxford
University Press) under the said word.
2. Rafik beekun and J. Badawi, The Leadership Process in Islam from an unpublished working paper
prepared in 1999.
3. Ibn-Khuzaimah from Anas b. Malik.
4. Hadith, Muslim Sharif.
5. Al-Quran, 3:159 (Translation by Abdullah Yousuf Ali, published by King Fahad Holy Quran
Printing Complex, K.S.A.)
6. Al-Quran, 42:38 (Ditto)
7. Sharfuddin Ibnomer Muhammad, Toward an Islamic Administrative theory. The American journal of
Islamic Social Sciences Vol. 4, No. 2, 1987, P. 230
8. Al Quran: 5 : 8 (tr. M. Yousuf Ali)
9. Al Quran, 16:90 (tr. M Yousuf Ali)
10. Al Quran : 28: 26 (Tr. M. Yousuf Ali)
11. Al-Quran, 3 : 159 (Tr. A. Yousuf Ali)
12. Al-Quran : 68:4 (Tr. Ditto)
13. See, American journal of Islamic Social Sciences, Op.Cit. PP. 238-39.
14. Al-Quran : 6:152 (Tr. A. Yousuf Ali)
15. Al-Quran : 17:34 (Tr. A. Yousuf Ali)
16. Bukari & Muslim, This hadith is narrated by Abu Hurayrah (R.)
17. Al-Hadith, Muslim
18. Al-Quran
19. Al-Hadith
20. Al-Quran: 4:20 (Tr. By A. Yousuf Ali)
21. See Shibli Numani, Umar the Great : The 2
nd
Caliph of Islam. Translated by Moulana Zafar Ali
Khan, (Shah Muhammad Ashraf, Lahore, 1957) 2
nd
edition.
22. Al-Hadith : Sahih Bukhari,
792 / ISoIT 2004
23. Al-Quran; 5:2 (Tr. A. Yousuf Ali)
24. Al-Quran, 4:58 (tran. Ibid)
25. Riyadus Salehin, Yahya bin Sharad, (Beirut, Darul Qalam, P. 88
26. See, Ibnomer Muhammad Sharfuddin; Toward an Islamic Administrative Theory (Op.Cit, P,.231)
Prof. Dr. Abu Bakr Rafique Ahmad
Pro Vice-Chancellor
International Islamic University Chittagong
Bangladesh, former Associate Professor, IIUM.
email: abrafique@hotmail.com
Negligence and Indulgence from Viewpoint of Mowlana
and Abousaeid Abolkhair
Mohammad Ali Khaledian
Before humanity glooms and humanness tree is fertile, upon God's will a number of elite
and superior men with sense and foresight beyond ordinary men have emerged by the name
of prophets and saints. Despite their low numbers they have been torchbearers of the world
culture and civilization and have guided it to the stage of their attainment. Since, as flowers
flourishing out of their place and time to marvel the world, they have been pioneer and
superior to others in respect to thought, sense, power of mind and creativity. That's why they
have been welcomed by the ignorant and populace with repulsion and unpleasantness. We see
that history of science has been written by blood, dagger, iron, and fire. Just like a bat that
can not behold the sun, the negligent could not comprehend their thoughts and ideas and the
result was that all the prophets and saints and scientists were not deprived of vindictiveness of
the common people. Since, everything, every thought, every idea is scarcely accepted before
its time, but it will be altered to an ordinary subject and that's why Noah is stoned, our holy
prophet was too much disturbed, and Jesus was crucified. This is predestination of all
innovators of the globe, God has introduced as eternal and martyr of its own path:
"Do not think that those who have been killed for God's sake have died. But, they are alive and receive
their portion from God"
1
Sheikh Sa'di has translated this verse in a very good manner:
As long as world has existed,
The flowers have been harmed by amour of thorns
The people see the lovers killed,
Hear it from Sa'di that they have fosters souls
2
Purpose of creation is selection of perfect men who have directed the people toward the
correct path in each era and at each time and who have motivated great movement of
humanity toward perfectionism by their enlightenment and prophetic mission. Mowlana
states:
They are the lion-hearted men, who succor in the world,
Wherever there is heard wail of an oppressed.
3
In this way, these great men of history of humanism, these superior men and perfect
mystics who are famous as prophets and saints in the lexicon of gnosis, have by their wide
foresight comprehended a piece of absolute truth to present it to the people of the world.
Messiah, Mowlavi taught lesson of kindness and passion, Plato taught benevolence and
fonding reality, Mohammed promoted cooperation and wise nobility and goodness,
Zarathustra propagated purgation of soul and reclamation of universe and others propagated
science and helped the men. Interpreting the verse "Obey God and obey his prophet and
holders of divine order".
4
Some believe that after God and prophet, holders of order are those
who issue an order. They mean noble men and those who serve humanity, inventors and
discoverers, issuance of order of whom advances civilization and develops knowledge and
reclamation of the globe. In this respect, we may name Pasteur whose scientific discoveries
have brought about welfare of men. He is a guardian. This guardian could not issue even the
least impact or service without enjoying divine assistance and will. For this reason, they say
794 / ISoIT 2004
superior men are leaders who are themselves selected by foreordination and have mission to
perform great works in this world. Prophets and saints have been effective in movement of
humanity in the course of thought and have promoted humanity from barbarism to the peak of
civilization. Great inventors and discoverers like Edison and Einstein have served humanity
in the field of science and technology. So, manhood is a single frame, united in nature and
character. Taking this description into account, it should be said that under shadow of unity of
saints humanity should reach in evolution, cooperation, and philanthropy and exchange of
ideas and communication a stage that everybody knows problems of others as those of
himself and takes action for uprooting social inconveniences and spatters seeds of honesty
and purity, service, faith, and idea within the furrows of men's body, and avoids evil
consequences of difference and mess, prejudice, defending inspired and imitated thoughts,
otherwise the future men will wonder how could we, despite all the expanded material and
spiritual possibilities change the world by our pride and negligence to a hell of injustice,
oppression, and aggression. And they will reply: "out of some billion men staying on the
earth, most of them were resting at nights with hunger, though they were profiting from much
advanced technology. Even owing to their false pride or for defending an artificial reputation
and respectability, the most developed countries and civilizations of that day were treating
weak nations who owned nothing but destitution and desolation with blood and fire. They
were spending billions of their capital and money for manufacturing of all types of bombs
and fatal weapons, to destroy the people in poor and weak countries who had committed no
guilt but self-assertion and protection of life. While, if they intended, they could with the
same means and tools nourish and assist ten times the population of that time and let
everybody enjoy welfare by utilizing all the capabilities of land, air, sun, seas, and oceans.
Such perturbations might have been caused by false social relations and they might not have
known that sons of Adam are members of one body, but according to sufficient researches
and documents this verse seams to be special slogan of their United Nations. So, they could
comprehend it, without observing it. Therefore, all those wars and struggles have not been
anything but a result of short-sightedness."
Today, all of us know that most of the human disagreements and frays during the past
century have been due to difference of viewpoints and ideas resulted by contradictory
interpretations of religion. Deductions, acute consequences of which have been registered and
kept in history and have caused different massacres and adversities. While, we believe that
monotheist and revelation religions have a unique reality and back bone of all of them is
worship and release of man from slavery of bondmen, avoiding toghoot and looking toward
truth, because monotheist religions is a definitions comprising different stages as the term is
used in logic. Like light that is a unique reality. But, its stages and manifestations are diverse
in respect to weak, strong, and intensive points. Like the light, religions have all a unique
reality and have out broken out of one origin and for one target that is development of
monotheism and establishment of a full-scale justice. But, due to lapse of time,
misapprehension and misunderstanding they have stood against each other and followers of
monotheism have used sword against each other. Christians kill Jews and Jews kill Moslems.
Now, it should be told what is the root of such strife and fatal and formidable wars,
papers of history are ashamed of reflecting them and are still continued.
Certainly, difference of men in shape and face such as: color, short or long stature,
adiposity, attenuation neither links them together nor separates them from each other. What
links them is similarity of religious ideas, customs and common traditions, clash of profits
and other spiritual affairs, just as their difference and clash is a cause of separation and
remoteness. We see the people who are of one progeny and ancestry, but owing to difference
of religion their hands are smeary with blood of each other. What is the source of such
struggles? All these calamities brought about by followers of religions, from wars of Jews
Mohammad Ali Khaledian / 795
and Christians to struggles of Moslems, Ash'arian, Motazalaina, Shafei, and Hanfei, Shia and
Sunni are all resulted by lack of knowledge about religion and as a result lack of dialogue.
Almighty God orders in several verses the great prophet to discuss with his dissidents and
to end the struggles through dialogue. Prophet himself was inviting Quraish tribes to
conversation. He corresponded with kings and empires at his own time and invited them to
discussions and negotiations. He guided to monotheism heads of infedility and Abou Sofian
through dialogue. He made the people comprehend principles of religion and logic of
monotheism through talks and exchange of ideas, since God has ordered his prophet to make
the people understand reality. Some verses can be mentioned that express principles of
exchange of ideas and background for dialogue as follows:
Guide the people to your God by high philosophy, admonition, and advice and talk to them in a fine
way. Evidently your God knows who are the aberrants and who are the guided ones.
5
Do not be among those who made disagreements and became scattered as a result.
They will encounter a great agony.
Thus, dialogue and peaceful coexistence are among thought principles in Islam. Based on
the same fact, God has ordered his prophet to guide the people to the right path with
knowledge, logic, reasoning, and high advice. Invitation to wisdom, logic, reasoning is a way
to guide the dissenters and logical conflicts of leaders is an effective method for direction of
the misled. For the same reason, Islam has as the latest prophetic mission presented to the
human society message of peace and law of coexistence and has announced global unity and
total peace based on ethical principles, fundamentals of justice and common grounds as an
essential and vital matter.
There are many evidences of Quran verses in this respect:
O, prophet tell: O, followers of book come toward the speech which is the same between we and you
that not worship anyone but Almighty God and not consider anyone his counterpart. Do not accept
others as God, except the unique God. When they disobey this invitation, tell them witness that we are
Moslems.
6
Religious coexistence is a noble Islamic thought suggested in many verses of Quran in
different forms, with complete emphasis and explicitness. Holy prophet knew with complete
frankness definition of religious coexistence fourteen years ago when it was totally unknown
to man and invited Moslem nation to it. There is no religious war in Islam in the form which
is shown in other religions like Christian crusades. It is prohibited to show invidiousness and
animosity toward followers of other religions. Taking offensive actions against them does not
serve as an appropriate religious method.
Different ways have been observed in Islam for foundation of coexistence with opposite
religions. Three categories of Quran verses are hereby mentioned:
1
st
Category: Lack of compulsion in change of idea. Quran states:
There is no compulsion, no duress in religion. The path of felicity and attainment has
been known from depravity and aberration.
7
2
nd
Category: Affection and benefaction with non-Moslems. These types of verses
specify treatment and conduct of Moslems with followers of other religions. It has been
stipulated in these verses that not only we should not look at non-Moslems with animosity,
but also we should treat them with beneficence and charity.
God does not prohibit you from friendship of those who have not treated you with
animosity and hostility and have not dislodged you from your place, so that you may
disgust them. But, treat them with justice and equity since, God likes the people who
show justice and impartiality. He merely interdicts you from amity of those who have
killed you and have dislodged you from your place and have accompliced to expel you.
Beware! Not make friend with them. Those of you, who are comrade for them and assist
them, are really iniquitous and tyrannical.
8
796 / ISoIT 2004
3
rd
category: Emphasis on coexistence with other religions. There are other verses in
Quran dealing with discussion and debate with followers of scriptural religions (Jews,
Christians, Zoroastrians). Such verses make the basis of discussion with them on ratiocination
and logical way. It aims at their inner and conscientious contentment in the best and the most
effective way without appealing to violence and severity resulted by religious bigotry. Quran
orders:
Do not discuss and debate with followers of scriptural religions, except in the best and the most
effective ways.
9
The invitation which is together with light and logical attractiveness, far from threat and
menace, will not have any result, but more separation and difference. Due to the same reason,
Islam has left this way for ever. Also, in tradition and method of life of prophet (peace be
upon him and his progeny) peaceful conduct and human behavior with non-Moslems is
totally tangible. The treaty of prophet of Islam with Nazarin Christians guarantees their
religious freedom: "No priest or pious man shall be expatriated from his church or his clime,
there shall be nothing imposed on them and no belittlement, their lands shall by no means be
occupied by our troops. Those who request for justice, it will be granted to them." It has been
quoted that when Nazarin's Christians came to meet him; he put his gown for them as a rug
and asked them to sit on it. Jaber ibn Abdullah says:
A corpse was carried beside us. Prophet of Islam stood up to respect it. We stood up
too. Then we asked him: O! prophet, was not that corpse belonging to a Jew? He
prescribed: yes, is not a Jew, a human being? I stood up to respect humanity.
10
Imitating prophet, Rashedin caliphs had also a peaceful behavior and coexistence with
non-Moslems. For instance, Imam Ali's (peace be upon him) assisting a Christian disabled
old man. When Imam Ali (p.b.u.h.) was passing a bystander, he saw a disabled humble old
man who had opened his hands to beg. He asked who the old man was. They answered: "O
Commander of the Faithful! He is a Christian." When he was severely frantic he prescribed:
"you have made him work much and now that he has become old and disabled, no one refers
to him for work! You should provide his living costs out of Moslems' Public Treasury.
11
The
other example is freedom of action of Ilea Christian. Second Caliphs' treaty with people of
Ilea, the concord the second Caliph of Moslems (Omar ibn Khatab) had concluded with Ilea
people (the Holy House in Jerusalem) assets principle of religious coexistence in this way:
In The Name Of God
This is the letter of security that Omar, God's slave, head of government of Moslems has granted to
people of Ilea. He has secured their lives, property, synagogue, and crosses. He has secured their
patients, their healthy men and their other nations. By virtue of this concord, their synagogue shall not
be occupied and nothing will be obtained from those synagogue, surrounding areas, crosses, and the
people's property. None of the Jews will inhabit with the people of Ilea. According to this concord, the
people of Ilea shall pay tribute just as other people of the other cities and they should expel Romans and
robbers. So, any of them who goes out of the city will be secured in soul and property until he reaches
his destination. Any of Ilea inhabitants who wants to go with Romans and to bring his property and
cross, will be secure in soul and property and cross until he reaches the destination.
12
In other treaties, the prophet concluded with heads of government of his own time, it was
stipulated to have freedom of thought, freedom of religious ceremonies, having sanctuaries,
and their repair and maintenance. The treaty, prophet of Islam concluded in the second year
of exile for Christians of Sina land with hand writing of Ali ibn Abitaleb (p.b.u.h.) and
coexistence is observed clearly reads:
I undertake not to change the priest and the friar and not to drive the monks from abbey and not to hold
the passenger from travel and not to take anything out of their church for any construction and
mosque.
13
Mohammad Ali Khaledian / 797
Seyed Ghotb, the great Islamic thinker states about behavior and conduct of Omar ibn
Khatab, the second Caliph about the Jew:
The second Caliph saw an agitated old man who was begging. It was known that he was a Jew. The
second Caliph asked: what has made you do this? He answered: to pay tribute, to be in need, to be old.
The second Caliph took his hand and brought him to his home. He granted him some money so that he
could remove his needs. Then sent him to cashier of Public Treasury and ordered him to observe status
of this man and the people who were like him. He said:
I take oath to God, if we use them when they are young and release them when they are old, we have
not observed justice and equity toward them.
14
Therefore, religion of Islam is religion of mercy, compassion, reasoning, and logic, not
the religion of sword and force, except when logic and conception does no more work and
there is no other choice but to fight. Thus, it should be told that religion of Islam which is the
most radiant and the most advanced divine religion suggests two ways in treating enemies of
reality and detractors of truth. One is to fight with sword; the other is discussion and
exchange of ideas, logical encounter against logic. The first way was practical at olden times
in the traditional world, where there was no culture, no civilization, no scientific and human
relation. The first type of struggle was efficient in advent of general peace and circulation of
truth at surface and section.
The ideology and thoughts imposed on other people by swords and sharp lances has
never had any impact on awakening the nation, their social conscience and their training. It
has never created aptitude and ingenuity, but it has kept the people at the level of imitating
obedience. Definitely, Imams and Islamic scientists have been great torchbearers of
knowledge and enlightenment during the history of Islam and in the prophetic agleam path
they presented educative interpretations of divine verses and difficult definitions of religion.
In this regard, we may name scientific debate of different religions with Imam Reza. The best
sample in this field is dispute of Omran Sabi, the great speaker of that time with Imam Reza
(p.b.u.h.) who ultimately converted to Islam and uniqueness of God after much discussion.
Today, our society is full of questions, the main part of which is about thoughts and
beliefs. Our mind is like a main road from which the flood of new doubts and views and new
and old questions pass and some of them engage a piece of mind. It seams that the only way
possible to answer the existing questions and doubts is scientific and persuasive defense
based on stable logic of Quran and Islamic Sciences. Through discussion and dialogue every
person thirsty for reality can be slaked and every thirst can be removed.
But, the second type of fight is effective in developing the people and motivating genius
and hope for life, birth of art, and conception of civilization. History is a devoted evidence for
this claim. At present time, which is era of relations and technology and all discuss about
global village, the obstinate should be treated with logic, peacefully, and for exchange of
throughs. Mystics were among the people who manifested the second type of fight.
Two heroes of this type of fight are Sheikh Abousaeid Abulkhair and Hazrat Mowlana
Jalaleddin Roomi. In the book: Asrar-ol Towhid written about Sheikh Abousaeid Abulkhair it
has been stated:
Sheikh Abousaeid Abulkhair went to the church of Christians and they were influenced by his
spirituality. When he came out, a group of followers said: If Sheikh had ordered, they would open all
their girdles (it means that they would convert to Islam). Bousaeid answered: We had not made them
wear it, to make them open it.
15
Such a charity and freedom of class and religious bigotry and this type of expecting the
men solely to be human are among the accomplishments of great men of Sofia. If this type of
thought had prevailed in the world, history of humanity would not drown in mire of blood
and bilge and millions of people were not victimized by frothy prejudice.
798 / ISoIT 2004
Victor Hugo says: O! Human beings do not axe each other's souls. Let humanity glooms
out of horizon of life to present you light and hope.
After Sheikh Abousaeid Abulkhair, Hazrat Mowlana, is the great hero of this enormous
era of man's thought. Mowlavi is one of the architects of revival of religious life and
restorative of human prestige who has considered definitions such as humanism, knowledge,
peace, love as central nucleus and axis of his thought. Mowlavi believes that until man has
not released himself from chain of mind's bondage and suggestive and imitative thoughts and
illusory fancies, he can not attain human freedom. From Mowlana's viewpoint and in his
mysticism it is man who is important, not his beliefs or his situation. Because, man is central
point and existence philosophy of cosmos. After originality of man, he considers knowledge
of man, because knowledge is a ladder for evolution of human being and makes man a
symbol for manifestation of Almighty God. Men possessing knowledge and great men of
history of humanity were standard bearers of evolution movement and scattered in furrows of
people's soul, seeds of honesty, affection, sacrifice, love, and fonding truth. Thus, Mowlana
and Abousaeid Abulkhair believe that there are different factors which affect on dialogue of
religions. First of all two jewels of knowledge and freedom can be mentioned.
Since, relationship of knowledge and freedom is like the relation of sun and sunflower
and the sunflower always looks at sun. Knowledge turns toward freedom too. Mowlana
states:
Doubtlessly, action comes after foresight
So, there is no people but the pupil
16
The main target of all the human actions is to receive foresight and knowledge under the
light of guidance provided by the old who make the center for foresight and intuition. The
priors in being are like pupil in the body of man. Of course, knowledge is the queen and jewel
which will be fulfilled by destruction of characteristics. Just like water that its steam potential
will not be materialized until it loses actuality of water. The man holding knowledge who has
attained the level of self-knowledge has released itself from chains of mind slavery and
inspired and imitative ideas and has gained both inner and outer freedom. Creation means
selection of such perfect men who have provoked caravan of humanity to reach perfection in
every era and at any time with their mission and guidance. Such men have removed foam of
pluralism and have reached pure water of unity and monotheism. They have put aside
fundamentalism and have regained the nucleus of being, absolute existence and soul of the
universe and the world of soul. That's when Ein-ol Ghozat Hamedani states:
The one who composed thousands of world out of colors,
How will buy our colors, O thou unbeknown
That color is either desire or assumption
He is colorless; one should have his own color
17
Thus, Mowlana has terminated the war of viewpoints and religions with the same
reflection and believes that such wars are resulted by lack of knowledge and superficiality
that might be seen in thoughts in a jurist, a mystic, a philosopher, Such differences are
owing to rudiments and primary status of mystic deportment and gaining philosophy and
wisdom. But, in fact if we take care, the essence of philosophical wisdom and proof is itself a
ray of heart intuition and inner mysticism. In the path of evolution and promotion of degrees
of knowledge, man reaches the situation where dialectical theorems are linked with
conscientious evidences; school experiences are united with monastery learned things in the
essence of the main goal and wish. That's when there is no more any conflict or discord
between mystic and philosopher, except that one talks about definite ideas and the other talks
about perceived things. As, the same discrepancy exists between mystic and jurist in our view
which is free of any prejudice and motive that one talks about perceived things and one about
matters heard. Furthermore, in scientific and spiritual evolution, man reaches a situation
where for him conception book of existence complies with religious book of prophets and
Mohammad Ali Khaledian / 799
divine appointed men in every sentence and every letter. It is in the same position and status
where not only mystic, jurist, and philosopher reconcile, but all the wars, hostilities, and
duplicities are altered to peace, pleasantness, sincerity, and comradeship
18
. Mowlana remarks
that:
His wine cask has been colorated by God
All the marks become monochrome in this cask
19
It refers to Quran verse:
It is God's coloration that has granted us color of faith and monotheism nature. There is no color better
more pleasant than faith to God and we worship him.
20
Sheikh Abousaeid Abulkhair has the same outlook in this respect and believes that this
discrepancy is resulted by lack of knowledge and information. Because, each of them reaches
its desirable destination, he will be able to know that truth is merely one and accordingly
scuffles and arguments between the priors and saints and religions can be changed to one by
knowledge of unification.
And in this field, hear this nice research. If you perfectly comprehend the research, there
will remain no doubt that all the real priors and jurists are the same and they are not distinct
even in one characteristic. And beware that all the religions are in full harmony and it is
obvious for all sages that there is only one God and one object of worship [and that's God, the
grandeur, whose names are sacred] He is the only one and of course there will occur no
duality. If there is any dissonance in followers, when they reach the destination, the discord
will be removed and they all will attain oneness. When there are characteristics of the
follower, he has not reached the objective yet. Moodiness will occur for the follower when he
is in the way. When he reaches the goal, there will remain none of the oscillations and all that
will be altered to oneness. It is here that one of the elders observes:
I am the truth. The other says: I am divine. And our Sheikh states: there is nothing in my dress but
God.
21
The other factor which may be effective in the dialogue of religions and have already
been mentioned is freedom. In mysticism of Mowlana, where man has a God rank, no one is
by any means is entitled to hinder freedom of thought and ideas with illusory excuses and
under different titles. It is for this reason that you sea he utters: "There is no obstruction in
thought. There is freedom in the world." And states: man weaves for himself some lids by the
name of social contracts or honor of tribe and name support of these conventional contracts,
duty and affects discipline in performing them completely. Because, in this way he can not
respect others' contracts or ideas. Suddenly, you sea a Jew is fighting with a Jew, while
prejudice and fastidiousness is nothing but a means of bloodshed.
Prejudice and pertinacity are owing to immaturity
As long as you are an embryo, you should suck blood
22
For the same reason, mysticism has considered war of 72 nations, pointless and has
negated it.
Consider an excuse for the seventy two- nations war
When they did not sea the reality, they utilized legend
23
Then, he throws away every dry and empty and fundamentalist prejudice and regards
sons of Adam as a body and calls baseless war of nations: Yes, all these fights and
disagreements are resulted by low-mindedness. In Mowlana's opinion, all the divine religions
have a common idea in monotheism, eternity of soul after death, fraternization, methods, and
resurrection. Albeit, due to some considerations they have always been altercating during the
history, while, each of the prophets has shown and described a piece of truth and all of them
were praising God.
Name of Ahmed is the name for all prophets
When hundred has come, ninety is also with us
24
800 / ISoIT 2004
Jalaleddin Roomi believed in freedom of religion and has respected all the religions.
Defining the immaculate in Quran, God mentions that the immaculate are those who believe
in absent world and are faithful to what has been descended to you and to the prophets before
you. Again He prescribes: "There is no difference between any of the prophetic missions"
Thus, the wars and bloodsheds has no means, no basis, but discord, ignorance, avarice, and
snobbery. They should be removed out of the path of men. That's why in the ethics of
mystics, public peace, equality of human beings, and unity of prophets play a major role.
World is my country. My religion is kindness, whether a pagan, or Moslem, whether an Asian
or a European. For mystics country and nation have no specified definition. In general, in
prophets' opinion and from mysticism's point of view, country means perpetuation, where
soul will travel after being released of body.
We are from above and we will arise
We are from sea and we will go to sea
We are not from here, or from there
We are from nowhere and will go there
You have said: you are from me and will come back to me
That's for you to know where we will go.
25
That is with the same view that mysticism does not consider race, epithet, class, and
religion privileges and in monastery, king and beggar, Jew and Christian all sit beside each
other and there exists no class or sectarian distinction.
Thus, it should be mentioned that one of the factors of dialogue is to be released of
bondage of religious bigotry. In Mowlana's opion these conflicts and religious colors are
produced by human society and in other words by doctrines of contingency. They are made
by notions of low minded petty people. In the world of God where there is oneness, there is
no color and God of this world is neither Christian, nor Zorotustrian, nor Buddhist. Either
jurist or any other human being as long as he lives in the world of colors and while he has not
cleaned the color of indoctrination and imitation, ought to be prejudiced and has to
contaminate his hands with blood of his homogeneous. The religion he has learned through
imitation and ignorance adds to his heinousness and fierceness instead of purifying his inner.
He considers this aggression and brutalization the means for closeness to God and ladder of
attainment, but when he exceeds these colors, he will clean blemish and will reach divine
world and colorless universe. When he beholds the creatures by divine clairvoyant eyes, he
will not feel dualities and discrepancies and will not consider it, because, God's world is
thoroughly oneness and solidarity. At this stage Moses and Pharaoh reconcile. Mowlana
talked about this high liberally meaning, the fruit of which is freedom of religion and excuse
of a group of society in acceptance of a special creed and a recognized ceremony when
absolute majority of society of human beings were drowned in whirlpool of religious
prejudices. Crusades had not terminated and Islamic communions were killing each other.
Any communion would destroy schools of the other, if it could. Followers of other religions
considered inferior non-Moslems and were plundering their houses whenever possible. They
regarded this evil act as a means for afterlife award. This is enormity of soul and hugeness of
thought of a man who was superior to his own environment and most of the men of present
world.
One of the other factors for dialogue of religions is love. When lover is purified of his
own characteristics, he will be released of hardships and limits of his will and his being will
be expanded to the extent suitable with existence of real beloved, the elevated God. As he
seas everything in himself and out of himself or he drowns in existence of beloved so that
quarrel and favor disappear in the sea of his felicity and their difference removes. It can be
said that when jurist reaches attainment of God, he will sea himself in everything and will sea
everything in himself. For this reason, he will love every manifestation, whether tangible or
sensed. Since, love of oneself is a natural order and a divine tradition, love of himself will
Mohammad Ali Khaledian / 801
begin from God and thus a perfect man loves everything because he seas everything in
himself and seas himself in everything and loves all. In this respect he is the entire world. It
should be added that in Mowlana's opinion, the real dervish is one who considers good and
evil parts of himself and just as man loves his patient part, he will have a special kindness
toward it. In the area of his being, good and evil will be drowned. Prophets are well-known
for their particular of generality. That's why Hazrat Rasoul (peace be upon him and his
progeny) has prescribed that all are parts and elements of his sacred soul. Mowlana remarks:
Are parts of dervish both good and evil
One who is not like this, is not a dervish
26
Anyway, Mowlana believes that Love and affection of soul is a means for love and
oneness and this difference of nations, distinction of views, and discord of religions is
nothing but a superficial veil on the face of an oneness. What necessitated a covered oneness
beyond all these differences, was love, specially love toward the unique beloved, Sheikh of
monastery. In Mowlana's opinion, love in each form would remove the distance that created
duality and discord between two bodies, two amorous souls.
27
One of the other factors of
dialogue and global peace was paying attention to humanity. Differences and dualities of men
in their beliefs and religions are not in agreement with human nature and principles of
invitation of prophets. Human truth is colorless and the common point among men is the
principle of humanity. It is better to come back to the same reality, because human nature is
far from any color and religion and all the faiths and religions have been created for discipline
of society and their color is that of contingency. Among the followers of knowledge, only
mystics and saints have comprehended this great truth and look at all the religions in the same
way and feel no animosity toward any of them. Mowlana states in this respect:
It is in the viewpoints, O nucleolus of being,
The difference between faithful, gabber, and Jew.
Where were Moses and Jesus, when the sunlight
Was making all the creatures enjoy it.
Where were Adam and Eve at that time,
When God put this gut in the bow
28
Again he states:
We were all expansive and had one essence
We had no head, no foot, only the head
We had only one jewel like sunlight
We had no tie and were pure like water
When that fine light appeared
Number became like the shades of crenate
We will destroy crenate by catapult
Until difference is removed from among these different things.
29
Therefore, in the principle of humanity we were not more than one. If we feel any
difference between us and others, the result is Satan inside us who has kept us far from
reality, because:
Difference exists in the animal soul
The single soul is spirit of man
30
Interpreting this term, Ein-ol Ghozat Hamedani states:
O, dear! There are many conditions for one who seeks in the path of God
and all the researchers have mentioned it. Briefly, there are seventy three
groups of religions which are famous. Firstly, in the path of wayfarer, it is one
in the first visit and looks one and if it is different, he does not seek but makes
difference. Hossein Mansour was asked: what is your religion? He answered: I
believe in religion of God. Differences and hostilities are in the world of
creation. In the world of God there is no animosity and the wayfarer who has
802 / ISoIT 2004
put his steps on the road of oneness, looks at all the religions in the same way
and is enemy of no one.
31
Ezzedin Nasafi states in the book of Perfect Man:
The condition to be wayfarer is to reconcile with everyone.
32
Humanism and respecting the principle of humanity, without paying any attention to his
religion and idea is what jurists and mystics have taught. Ellaborating story of Moses and
Shepherd, allegory of Elephant, Faith of Moses and Pharaoh, and other stories Mowlavi
explains that reality of humanity is one. Religion and beliefs should not create difference and
argument. The religion which causes argument is prejudice and instinct of seeking privileges
which appears in the men in the form of religion. Such tribal colors occur out of their "self"
and are decompositions of divine expansive light. While, color of monotheism and
knowledge of God cleans self from prejudices and boredoms and polishes self for
manifestation of heavenly will and high characteristics. This principle of mysticism can also
be effective in fulfillment of global peace which is one of the aims of civilizations dialogue.
Because, saints had no strife. They all were flames of one lamp. They brought massage of
peace and friendship and unity for the people of the world. All the arguments and hostilities
are created by limited and selfish foresight of man. By method of allegory, Mowlana
mentions that these people, despite apparent differences are like the spores of grapes. Prophet
was able to receive from them by the bounty of his faith, the selfishness of their beings which
created plurality in them, to squeeze them and to blend them and make a unique soul out of
them. It is here that creation of dissention and disharmony among the followers of faith is
attributed to inspiration of Satan. In the scope of mysticism, after Hazrat Mowlana Jalaleddin
the other person who has thought about humanism and oneness of men is Sheikh Abousaeid
Abulkhair. He had a strange character and is worth studying in the sense that a race of an
Iranian tribe can be seen in him in its nice aspect. He was discriminating, flexible, diplomat,
generous, and possessed contradictory aspects: liberal and moving above all beliefs and at the
same time appealing to religion in coordination with society's status, replying to his inner
bounces and observing masters of power and preserving his freedom, both respecting material
blessing and honoring spiritual gifts.
34
Bousaeid moves like Mowlavi on top of the logical
thoughts. Because, owing to continuous social experiences so much abnormalities and
irregularities have been observed that foot of logic and reason cripples in its consideration. It
can be certainly mentioned that after Socrates and movement of Greece conversation and
after the saints, especially our holy prophet (p.b.u.h.) no one has managed dialogue to extent
Abousaied did. He has discussed with all the tribes and religions and has directed them in the
path of knowledge and guidance and humanity without being prejudiced. Study of books such
as "Asrar-ol Towhid" and "Status and Speeches of Abousaeid" by Jamaleddin Abou Rooh
Lotfollah makes this claim obvious.
One of the other common principles of men is reason and rationalism and paying
attention to wisdom. It can play an important role in establishing peace among the religions.
Wisdom, distinction among the men, is divided into theoretical and practical wisdom by
philosophers. Theoretical wisdom compromises mere identification without paying attention
to practice and quality of performance. Practical wisdom exists in the aspect of practice. It
means that it governs on general knowledge and quality of conduct. If we compare soul of
man with a bird, two forces or theoretical or practical powers serve as two wings of that bird
and without them it is impossible to fly. Mowlavi has criticized the opportunist intellect, but
he has praised the general heavenly mind.
The wise man is one who holds the torch
He is reason and leader of the caravan
Intellect is like the wings for the man
If the intellect is not leading
Mohammad Ali Khaledian / 803
If not through the door of wisdom, this entrance
Is owing to desire not because of advice
35
With regard to faithful and heavenly wisdom he says:
Faithful wisdom is like a just sheriff
It guards and rules on city of heart
Winsome rules on faith in one's body
For fear of this wisdom, self keeps in jail
36
Regarding detailed wisdom he says:
Detailed wisdom is not suitable for deduction
It only accepts me and is in need
Do not take detailed wisdom as you minister
Take the total wisdom as your minister, O Sultan
37
In discourse books among the beliefs of Nasafi it has been mentioned: "There are three
means for appearance of science, firstly, common senses, secondly, valid news (inspiration),
and thirdly, wit"
38
they are common among all the people and serve as a means for gaining
knowledge. Therefore, wise discussion can make one of the axes of dialogue among
religions.
The other principle that can help us in dialogue of prophets is discussion of Prophet
Hood. Of course, followers of the previous religions are not faithful to Hazrat Rasoul while
Moslems believe in all the prophets and holy prophet has confirmed their prophet hood.
Mowlana considers all the prophets as a light that possess unity of essence and regards their
numbers as valid and says that they were all a unit reality:
When you are looking at the form, your eyes are friends
You should behold in the light that emits from eyes
There is no difference between the lights of both eyes
When the man beholds their light
If there are ten lamps in the place
Each of them is different in appearance
But there will be no difference in light of each of them
Certainly, when you use the light
39
In the first verse Mowlana states:
If you look at your face you will see that there are two eyes in your face, but in fact these
two eyes are not separated because they both do the same act which is seeing the objects.
There is the same real unity among the prophets, but they are different in appearance. Those
who respect appearance make difference between Mohammad, Moses, Jesus and start
altercation. They are not aware that reality is the same.
In the second verse he remarks: in appearance, there are two eyes, but the light and vision
is only one. Though eyes are two, but what is seen is one. Moreover, there are several bodies
for prophets, but there is only one light each of them are a ray of it.
In the third verse he says: if there are ten lamps in a place, you will see that though there
are different lamps, their light is one and there is no difference among them. So, the prophets
are a single reality and have one prophet mission.
This world is a pensiveness of general wit
The General wit is king and the forms are crowns.
40
The thought of indulgence due to pacifism is one of the other cases can be effective in
dialogue of religions. Mowlana and Abousaeid are two standard bearers of mysticism and
spirituality who enjoy this specification.
Jami mentions in Nafahat-ol Ons: Mowlana Serajeddin Ghoniavi was a great man of his
time, but he had not a good relation with Mowlavi. Some praised Mowlavi in his presence
and told: "Mowlavai has stated that he is one with seventy three religions" since, he was
spiteful, he decided to disturb Mowlavi and to disrespect him. He asked one of his relatives
804 / ISoIT 2004
who was a great scientist: "in a group of people, ask Mowlana if he has told the same thing. If
he confesses, curse him and bother him". The man came and asked Mowlavi: "Have you
mentioned that you are one with seventy three religions?" Molavi replied: "yes". Then he
abused Mowlana. He smiled and said: "I am also one with what you say!" the man was
shameful and went.
41
Mowlana is a man who is faithful to religion in viewpoint of beginners and is mystic and
man of God. Whatever he does is admissible and no one finds fault with him. Whatever he
does is according to the will of God and the real actor is God. That's why he did not respect
sternness and was faithful to inner instead of outer. He believes that what we should expect
from a mystic is a white heart just like snow obtained by comportment. That's why he says:
Religion is a good leader for the first step, but the other steps of knowledge should be taken
by reality and religious way. In a beautiful allegory he compares religion with step and trace
of deer and compares reality with deer itself and concludes that we are looking for deer itself.
What the scientist produces is effects of pen
What does jurist produce? Traces of step
He looked like a hunter for a prey
He saw steps of deer and considered the trace
Deer's steps are suitable for him for a while
Then, the deer's navel will lead him.
When he graced the steps and went to the path
Consequently, he gained aspirations by those steps
42
Briefly, as Victor Hugo states: O! Human beings do not axe each other's souls. Let
humanity glooms out of horizon of life to present you light and hope.
End Notes
1. Quran Chapter: Al-e Emran, verse: 169
2. Collection of Sa'di works compiled by Mohammad Ali Foroughi, Amirkabir Publications,
1987, p: 492
3. Masnavi Manavi by Mowlana Jalaleddin Balkhi, 2
nd
Volume, verse: 1937
4. Quran Chapter: Nesa, verse : 64
5. Quran Chapter: Nahl, verse: 125
6. Quran Chapter: Al-Emran, verse: 64
7. Quran Chapter: Baghareh, verse: 113
8. Quran Chapter: Momtaheneh, verses: 8-9
9. Quran Chapter: Ankabout, verse: 46
10. Islam and Global Peace, p: 250
11. Vasa-el Olshia, Ketab Aljehad, volume: 19
12. Tarikh Tabari, volume: 5, p: 246
13. Aghd-ol Farid, Ibn Abdorbeh, volume: 1, p: 80
14. History of Civilization of Islam, volume: 4, p: 174
15. Asrar-ol Towhid, corrected by Mohammareza Shafiei Kadkani, volume: 1, pp:82-83
16. Masnavi Manavi, volume 1, verse: 1679]
17. Artifices of Ein-ol Ghozat Hamedani, Manouchehir Publications, 1994, p:22
18. Mowlavi Nameh, by Jalaleddin Homaei, volume: 1, pp: 421-422
Mohammad Ali Khaledian / 805
19. Masnavi Manavi, vlume:2, verse: 1345
20. Quran Chapter: Baghareh, verse: 137
21. Asrar-ol Towhid, corrected by Mohammadreza Shafiei Kadkani, volume: 1, p: 48
22. Masnavi Manavi, volume: 3, verse: 1297
23. Collection of Hafez poems
24. Masnavi Manavi, volume: 3, verse: 1106
Mohammad Ali Khaledian
Faculty Member Of Islamic Azad University,
Gorgan Branch
On Religiosity of Engineering Profession
Abdul Kabir Hussain Solihu
Abstract
In typical classification of sciences, engineering falls within the so-called secular science
which has little to do with religion. Because of its secular character, it has been socially,
politically and economically, but not religiously, motivating. In Islamic culture, however,
where nature is considered as Gods handiwork, an ayah (sign) and another form of
revelation, this classification cannot hold truth. This consequently requires giving
engineering a position conformable with the Islamic outlook of nature. Towards this end, the
paper demonstrates how engineering service has served the fundamental values of Islamic
shariah and, more importantly, how the very impulse of engineering is rooted in the
Quranic term of taskhir (subservience). This concept of taskhir, rather than tamalluk or
tamlik (dominion or transfer of dominion), gives a religious mandate to the natural
exploration in Islam. Thus, the paper concludes that to use or manipulate the natural
resources in order to develop a device that enhances human living conditions or mitigates
and avoids certain harms is a just cause; it should not imply interference in or a violation of
Gods prerogative. To the extent that this paper succeeds in demonstrating the appropriate
place of engineering profession on religious grounds, it bridges the gap between science and
religion and promotes engineering culture within the Muslim Ummah.
Introduction
The impact of engineering work has manifested in many spheres of our environment. As
a result of engineering work, there are marvels of transportation, construction, new materials
and new sources of energy, machinery to save labour and expand production, and highly
integrated communication systems. On this account, it becomes imperative to have an
Islamically directed serviceable insight in an area where the success or failure of its services
is pervasive, affecting the religious and irreligious people, the theists and atheists alike.
On the other hand, engineering is a trendy profession in these days that many people have
strived hard to use the title. It has been socially, economically, and politically rewarding.
However, it has not been religiously so motivating. Very few people are called to be
engineers on religious ground. Certainly, the professional ethics approach is an important
consideration within engineering profession. Yet, it does not squarely address a deeper and
more fundamental point of faith integration that is intrinsic to engineering discipline.
This paper is set out to contribute to the Islamic framework for science and technology. It
will demonstrate how doing engineering could earn a Muslim spiritual rewards. To achieve
this, the paper will first examine how engineering services could serve the main objectives of
Islamic shariah. Then, it will demonstrate how the very engineering impulse is rooted in
Islamic worldview.
According to the Engineers Council for Professional Development (ECPD), engineering
is: the profession in which a knowledge of the mathematical and natural sciences gained by
Abdul Kabir Hussain Solihu / 807
study, experience, and practice is applied with judgement to develop ways to utilize,
economically, the materials and forces of nature for the benefit of mankind.
1147
The word
religiosity is used here to mean the quality of being religious. It is not used to mean
excessive or affected religiousness.
Maqasid Al-Shariah (The Objectives Of Shariah) and Engineering
Service
The main objective of Islamic shariah is to facilitate the conditions of living for
humankind and secure their benefits that pertain to this world as well as to the hereafter, as
stated in several Quranic verses (2:185; 4:-26-28; 22:78). The entire range of this benefit has
been classified into three descending categories of importance. Al-daruriyyat (the essentials)
are defined as absolute requirements to the survival and spiritual well-being of individuals
and societies, to the extent that their destruction or collapse would precipitate chaos and the
demise of normal order in society Values that fall under this category are five, namely
religion, life, progeny, intellect, and property. The second category is al-hajiyyat (the
supporting needs), which are defined as the benefits that seek to remove the severity and
hardship in case where such severity and hardship do not impose a threat to the very survival
of normal order. The third category is known as al-tahsiniyyat (the embellishments), which
are defined as the benefits that seek to attain refinement and perfection in the customs and
conduct of the people at all levels. The second and the third categories are to support the
values that fall under the first category.
1148
Where and how does engineering fit into these categories? Obviously, it cannot be
considered under the essentials, because the lack of engineering product does not directly
threaten the five fundamental values. However, it can fit into any of the last two categories,
depending on the type of engineering services.
Engineering, through its various services, promotes and preserves the value of religion by
facilitating the means that make rituals easy to perform. Through numerous means of
transportation, the journey to Mecca for the purpose of hajj from any corner of the globe has
become faster, safer and more convenient than ever before. It would have been extremely
difficult without the civil engineering service to cope with the growing number of pilgrims
during the hajj month. Electrical engineering provides communication networks that can be
used to convey Islamic call to anyone at any time and place in the world.
Although in genetic engineering, cloning puts a serious challenge to the preservation and
protection of progeny, it has proved to be effective in therapeutic purpose. Further, genetic
engineering can be useful in authentication of kinship and lineage (ithbat al-nasab) through
genetic fingerprint.
On the value of intellect, engineering has been an enlightening profession. To learn about
and learn through the natural intelligence of the physical world in order to discover some
secretes of the universe will enormously enhance our human intellect. Besides that, for an
adequate understanding of the verses related to natural phenomena discussed in the Quran,
one has to know their referent in the natural world, because a superficial knowledge can only
portray a superficial level of Gods handiwork
On the value of property, engineering proves to be profitable. In a technology-driven and
fast-moving world, engineering work is money generating and increasingly becoming
1147
John Dustin Kemper, Engineers and Their Profession, 2
nd
ed. (New York: Holt Rinehart and
Winston, 1975), p. 296.
1148
Mohammad Hashim Kamali, Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence, 2
nd
rev. ed. (Kuala Lumpur:
Ilmiah Publishers, 1999), pp. 397-399.
808 / ISoIT 2004
indispensable for every modern community. It also protects property in the sense that it
optimally utilizes the natural resources with the least possible cost. In fact, some define
engineering simply as the art of doing something well with one dollar what any idiot can do
with two.
1149
Perhaps the life value is categorically accentuated more than any other value.
Engineering work has contributed to the development and refining of life-preserving and life-
protecting devices and technologies Examples of the role of engineering in the improvement
of life are: the activities in the area of sanitary engineering and the design of equipments that
permit earlier diagnosis of illness as cancer and others and that permit microsurgery on
genetically determined diseases.
All this means that engineering is a promising profession that serves the fundamental
values of Islamic shariah.
Engineering Work Within The Parameters Of Taskhir
In the Islamic concept of taskhir, engineering profession finds religious mandate to
explore and manipulate the natural phenomena. Taskhir is a verbal noun of sakhkhara.
Sakhkharahu means he constrained him to do what he did not desire; he made use of him
without compensation; he brought him under, or into subjection; render him subservient,
submissive, tractable, or manageable.
1150
Taskhir, as used in the Quran, then means the
universe and many of its resources, materials and energies being compelled and made
subservient by the Divine Ordain to humankind as Khalifat Allah on earth (Gods vicegerent)
.
The Quranic verses on natural phenomena and objects abound. Nearly 900 verses out of
the total 6226 verses in the Quran deal with various aspects of water resources science and
engineering alone, including water law and management.
1151
Many of these verses draw
attention to the order and grand design in the cosmos and biosphere, and exhort man to
appreciate and make good use of God-given resources. (Quran, 16:10-18; 14:32-34). In
Islamic worldview, these resources did not bring themselves into existence, nor are they there
by chance nor do they have intrinsic, automatic power to act or move on their accord. They
have been created and their behaviours have been pre-programmed by the Divine Decree
(qadar) of Almighty Allah. (s.w.t.). From this, it follows that the services they provide are not
the end in themselves or the ultimate goal of their creation. Made subservient to man, the
physical world is recognized as another ayah (sign) (2:164; 3:190; 6:97, 99; 30:22-25; 41:53;
27:88; 67:3-4) comparable, and even organically linked with the ayat (sign) of the Quran.
Muslim theologians have rightly drawn from this delicate interdependence and order in
the cosmos and biosphere, a proof for the existence of divine and transcendent Intelligence
who has determined the universe to stand as it is. However, theological explanation cannot
exhaust the meaning of taskhir. It remains at abstract, speculative and teleological
parameters. It lies beyond the ambit of theology to practically demonstrate how these
terrestrial and celestial bodies neatly and coherently provide sustenance and nourishment for
humankind.
1149
The Center for Biofilm Engineering. http://www.erc.montana.edu/Res-Lib99-
SW/glossary/geng.html.
1150
Edward William Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon (Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society, 1984), vol.
1, p. 1324.
1151
S. Waqar Ahmad Husaini, Islamic Thought in the Rise and Supremacy of Islamic Technological
Culture: Water Resources and Energy (New Delhi: Goodword Press, 2001), pp. 88-89.
Abdul Kabir Hussain Solihu / 809
This is the dimension that engineering work fulfils. In engineering, those objects of the
natural world are the materials and the primary sources of energy to be converted into
working artefacts. Hundreds of thousand of raw materials are taken from nature to be
manipulated into innumerable artefacts and further converted into manmade materials for the
benefit of humankind.
1152
The vast field of materials and products extracted therein and many
more artefacts that are yet to be developed gives more meaning to the Infinite Divine
Providence expressed in the verse if you would count the bounty of Allah you cannot
exhaust it (14:34; 16:18). This verse would mean very little if one barely refers to the objects
enumerated in the preceding verses (14:32-33; 16:10-17). That is because these objects can be
counted; and even if all related verses in other surahs are combined, they can still be counted
and exhausted. What cannot be exhausted are not simply what have been mentioned, but,
more importantly, what had been compacted in, or what can be extracted and generated from,
what have been mentioned.
For example, the sun is said in the Quran to have been made subservient to man. Modern
researches have proved that the sun is an extremely powerful energy source, and that solar
radiation is by far the largest source of energy received by the Earth. It has been demonstrated
that the supply of solar energy represents an inexhaustible resource, and that if the means to
make efficient use of solar energy could be found, it would reduce our dependence on non-
renewable sources of energy and make our environment cleaner.
1153
Drawing from such
conclusion, engineers have developed numerous devices for convenient utilization of solar
energy, and other devices for energy conservation and energy conversion.
Indeed, taskhir means different things to different people. At least two levels of
understanding taskhir can be sort out. First, it means that many of Gods creations have been
made to render their services to humankind. Humans role in this service is relatively passive.
Secondly, it means the laws or systems regulating these creations are made transparent and
knowable to humankind. Unlike at first level, humans role is here active, with the
interrogative engagement with the universe and its laws.
This can be further illustrated as follows. God, not anyone or anything else, has created
nature and measured the laws by which nature works. For example, God has made certain
laws whereby a sperm fertilizes a female egg and, after due process, a baby matures in the
mothers womb. However, this does not mean that man cannot or should not discover those
laws and apply them to produce a baby in a tube.
1154
It is God who has decreed the laws,
made it transparent and thus discernable to man (taskhir).
The starting point of engineering work is not to make the imperfect nature perfect or to
give an order to an arbitrary universe. On the contrary, it is on the premise of the perfection of
the universe that invites scientists and engineers to explore it. Unless there is a strong
conviction in the existence of an order of things, as particularly an order of nature, as Alfred
North Whitehead observes, there can be no living science.
1155
However, many of these
resources and energies of the natural world remain untapped; some beyond the reach of many
ordinary people; and still others have decayed due to irresponsible human manipulations.
Engineers are called to facilitate the conditions of living, regenerate the decrepit and unused
materials of nature, and give a new design to familiar used artefacts, generally within the
framework of ecosystem. The main goal of engineering, as Samuel C. Florman states, has
1152
Lawrence H. Van Vlack, Elements of Materials Science and Engineering (Reading: Addison-
Wesley Publishing Company, 1989), p. xix.
1153
Kemper, Engineers and Their Profession, pp. 66, 78.
1154
Fazlur Rahman, Major Themes of the Quran, second edition (Minneapols: Bibliotheca Islamica,
1994), p. 13.
1155
Alfred North Whitehead, The Origin of Modern Science, in Science and the Quest for Reality, ed.
Alfred I. Tauber (Macmillan Press, 1997), p. 55.
810 / ISoIT 2004
always been to understand the stuff of the universe, to consider problems based on human
needs (or desires), to propose solutions, to test and select the best solution, and to follow
through to a finished product.
1156
The earliest exemplary engineer among Gods messengers, as reported in the Quran, was
Prophet Nuh, who was divinely ordained to make a ship and be its sailor and captain (11-37-
8,41; 23:27). Prophet Dawud too was an artificer of defensive armour (Quran, 34:10-11) to
be worn by the righteous warriors who were fighting for a just cause. Dhu al-Qarnayn was
also skilled in the working of metals, and could furnish blocks of iron, melt metals with
bellows or blow-pipes, and prepare molten lead (Quran, 18:94-96). Thus, like reformers,
engineers are the ones who have inherited this aspect of prophetic mission.
It is not engineering profession that is on trial. Rather, it is mans choice of action that is
on trial. Enamoured with his vast potentialities and his strategic position in the world, and
gilded to him his material achievements, man has assumed the dominion of the universe.
Such an outlook has been responsible for environmental pollution and irresponsible
subjugation of nature. However, an Islamically minded engineer would know that not all that
can be pursued should be pursued. Only the right course should be pursued.
Conclusion
Nature, in Islam, is a trust reposed in man to be conserved and sustained in the course of
mans servantship as Gods vicegerent on earth. It is a friend to be understood, explored and
customized to meet man changing and increasing desires for knowledge, comfort and
material and spiritual happiness; it is not a foe to be subdued, maltreated and misused in order
to satiate mans unquenchable lust to dominate. The subjugation of the transient world to the
finite human being is intended to guide to the Infinite God.
This paper agreed that engineering is a platform in which engineers engender devices that
can endear or endanger the life of humankind on earth. But it argued that the positive result of
engineering is essential while its negative result is accidental. Engineering impulse was thus
considered as a promising profession to be engaged in, not an act of malevolence to be
shunned or shied away from.
Assistant Professor, Dr. Abdul Kabir Hussain Solihu
Department of General Studies
Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences
International Islamic University Malayisa
Jalan Gombak
53100 Kuala Lumpur
Tel: 03-20565585
email: kabir@iiu.edu.my
1156
Samuel C. Florman, The Existential Pleasures of Engineering (New York: St. Martins Press,
1976), p. 113.
Tahap Pengamalan Tatacara Kehidupan Beradab Dalam
Islam di Kalangan Mahasiswa Islam Tahun Empat, Fakulti
Pendidikan, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai.
Kamarul Azmi B. Jasmi, Norinah bt. Kinan, Siti Fauziyani bt. Md Saleh @ Masrom & Mohd
Ismail b. Mustari
Abstrak
Tatacara kehidupan beradab merupakan tatacara kehidupan harian umat Islam sehari-
hari. Pengamalan tatacara kehidupan beradab bukan sahaja akan memperindah lagi ciri-
ciri kehidupan seorang Islam bahkan memberi manfaat rohani dan jasmani. Kertas kerja ini
menjelaskan kepentingan tatacara kehidupan beradab seperti yang diketengahkan oleh al-
Imam al-Nawawi dan bagaimana pula tahap sebenar pengamalannya di kalangan
Mahasiswa Tahun Akhir, Fakulti Pendidikan, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Pendahuluan
Dewasa ini, sering didengar bahawa remaja Islam jahil mengenai kewajipan-kewajipan
terhadap agama kerana tidak mempunyai pengetahuan agama yang sempurna. Malah ibu
bapa anak-anak muda ini sendiri jahil mengenai al-Quran serta tidak mengambil berat hal-hal
pendidikan agama. Apa yang lebih menyedihkan, ada di antara mereka yang memahami
tentang ajaran agama tetapi masih tidak mengamalkannya (Abdullah Mohd. Zin, 2000).
Terdapat juga remaja yang tidak mendapat pengalaman agama di rumahnya.
Masalah ini disebabkan ibu bapa jarang menjalankan suruhan agama dalam kehidupan
mereka. Kesannya, anak-anak mereka akan mempunyai sikap sambil lewa terhadap agama
(Zawawi Ahmad: 1996). Jika perkara yang wajib sudah tidak dititikberatkan, perkara-perkara
yang sunat sudah tentu semakin disampingkan apatah lagi perkara-perkara yang menyentuh
adab kehidupan. Ini terbukti sebagaimana hasil kajian yang dijalankan oleh Sarijah Abdul
Salim (2002) yang mendapati bahawa remaja masa kini kurang mengamalkan perkara-
perkara sunat dalam kehidupan seharian mereka.
Pembentukan insan soleh dan kamil menurut al-Nawawi (1983) bukanlah hanya
terangkum dalam perkara-perkara wajib dan sunat sahaja bahkan terangkum juga dalam adab
kehidupan yang merangkumi sifat-sifat beradab dan tatacara kehidupan beradab. Jika
ditamsilkan perkara wajib, sunat dan adab kehidupan sebagai sebatang pokok. Wajib dan
sunat mewakili batang dan daunnya. Sedangkan bunga dan buah bagi pokok itulah
merupakan adab kehidupan.
Berdasarkan pandangan tokoh Islam yang terkenal ini, beliau ada menyebutkan bahawa
adab kehidupan merupakan salah satu asas kepada pembangunan insan. Adab ini dituntut
dan digalak untuk diamalkan oleh seluruh umat Islam bagi melahirkan insan yang salih di sisi
Allah S.W.T. kerana kesalihan hanya dapat dicapai jika umat Islam mencontohi Rasulullah
s.a.w dalam setiap tindakan. Sesuai dengan firman Allah S.W.T dalam surah al-Ahzab ayat
812 / ISoIT 2004
21 yang membawa maksud bahawa Rasulullah s.a.w sebagai ikutan yang terbaik yang perlu
diikuti umatnya yang benar-benar beriman kepada-Nya dan hari akhirat.
Tatacara kehidupan beradab dalam Islam ada banyak. Tatacara ini dianjur dan disunatkan
supaya dijadikan kebiasaan hidup umat Islam yang membezakan mereka dengan yang bukan
Islam. Namun dalam tulisan ini skop perbincangan ditumpukan kepada kepentingan tatacara
adab kehidupan yang dikaji disamping melihat tahap pengamalan tersebut di kalangan 180
orang mahasiswa Tahun akhir, Fakulti Pendidikan, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia pada tahun
2004.
Kepentingan Tatacara Beradab Dalam Islam
Kepentingan Tatacara Adab Memberi Salam Dan Meminta Izin Masuk
Rumah
Tatacara adab memberi salam merupakan ciri umum perhubungan umat Islam di tempat
umum. Manakala tatacara adab memberi salam dan meminta izin masuk ke rumah orang lain
pula merupakan satu aturan adab yang diperkenalkan oleh Islam kepada penganutnya untuk
memberikan keutamaan, kelebihan dan pemeliharaan kawasan persendirian kepada penghuni
sesebuah rumah dan ahli keluarganya.
Pensyariatan ucapan salam itu sendiri mempunyai kepentingan dan hikmah yang luas
bagi umat Islam kerana lafaz salam itu sendiri merupakan satu doa kepada pemberi dan
penerima salam supaya sentiasa dalam kesejahteraan. Lagi banyak seseorang mendoakan
kesejahteraan orang lain dan menerima doa kesejahteraan, lagi banyaklah kesejahteraan yang
diperolehinya dalam kehidupan di dunia dan akhirat kerana Allah S.W.T sendiri berfirman:
Berdoalah kamu kepada-Ku nescaya Aku perkenankan doa permohonan kamu.
Sesungguhnya orang-orang yang sombong takbur daripada beribadat dan berdoa kepada-
Ku, akan masuk Neraka Jahanam dalam keadaan hina. (Al-Mumin: 60).
Amalan memberi salam juga dapat melahirkan semangat saling cinta mencintai dan
hormat menghormati di kalangan umat Islam (Al-Nawawi, 1983). Dalam sebuah hadis ada
menjelaskan bahawa dengan memberi salam, cinta kepada saudara seislam dapat diwujudkan
sebagaimana sabda Rasulullah s.a.w,
Daripada Abi Hurairah katanya, Rasulullah s.a.w bersabda, Kamu semua tidak akan masuk syurga
sehinggalah kamu beriman. Tidak beriman kamu semua sehinggalah kamu semua saling cinta
mencintai. Adakah kamu semua suka jika aku menunjukkan kepada kamu sesuatu perkara yang mana
jika kamu lakukan perkara tersebut tentu kamu semua dapat berkasih sayang dan saling cinta mencintai?
Iaitu hendaklah ucapkan salam di kalangan kamu semua. (Sahih Muslim, t.t: 53/1)
Berdasarkan hadis di atas, tidak sempurna iman seseorang Muslim sehinggalah ia kasih
dan saling cinta mencintai terhadap saudaranya yang lain. Kenyataan ini disokong lagi
dengan sebuah hadis yang bermaksud bahawa tidak beriman seseorang kamu sehingga ia
mengasihi saudaranya sepertimana ia mengasihi dirinya (Al-Tarmidzi, 1994: 231/4). Hadis
ini menunjukkan bahawa cinta kepada saudara seislam merupakan bukti kesempurnaan iman
dan untuk menyemai perasaan cinta itu, amalan salam perlu diamalkan.
Agama Islam sangat mementingkan hubungan silaturahim sebagaimana firman Allah
S.W.T dalam Surah al-Nisa ayat satu, dan hubungan itu boleh dipereratkan dengan rajin
memberi salam kerana salam itu akan mengikat kasih sayang.
Kepentingan kasih sayang, hubungan keimanan dan silaturahim inilah yang menjadi
dasar pensyariatan ucapan salam. Sebab itu, pensyariatannya dianjur untuk diamalkan antara
sesama Muslim samada Muslim itu dikenali ataupun tidak. Oleh sebab tidak mempunyai
kepentingan tersebut kepada bukan Islam, Islam tidak mensyariatkan ucapan dan jawapan
Kamarul Azmi B. Jasmi et.al. / 813
salam itu untuk dan dari mereka kecuali dengan lafaz waalaikum jika mereka memberi
salam.
Ucapan salam bagi yang memberi dan menjawab juga dapat menghasilkan ganjaran
pahala di akhirat. Sebuah hadis Nabi s.a.w (Abi Daud, 1994: 524/2; Al-Tarmidzi, 1994:
313/4) menjelaskan bahawa ganjaran yang berlipat ganda akan diberikan kepada setiap
tambahan ucapan salam. Ganjaran sepuluh kebaikan terhadap ucapan al-salamu
c
alaikum,
ganjaran 20 kebaikan terhadap ucapan al-salamu
c
alaikum wa-rahmatullah dan ganjaran 30
kebaikan daripada ucapan al-salamu
c
alaikum wa-rahmatullahi wa-barakatuh.
Dari segi tatacara memberi salam dan meminta izin masuk ke rumah pula, tatacara ini
disyariatkan dalam Islam menerusi banyak hadis dan firman Allah S.W.T. Antaranya firman-
Nya, Wahai orang-orang yang beriman, janganlah kamu masuk ke dalam mana-mana
rumah yang bukan rumah kamu, sehingga kamu lebih dahulu meminta izin serta memberi
salam kepada penduduknya. (Al-Nur: 27.) Rasulullah s.a.w. pula dalam satu hadis
menyuruh orang yang memberi salam mestilah berada di kiri atau kanan pintu (Abi Daud,
1994: 522/2). Tatacara dalam firman Allah S.W.T. ini mempunyai tujuan tersendiri iaitu
untuk memberi keutamaan kepada tuan rumah dan ahli keluarganya kerana mungkin mereka
ketika itu tidak bersedia untuk menerima tetamu kerana penat atau mempunyai tugas lain.
Sedangkan tatacara adab dalam hadis pula mempunyai kepentingan supaya seseorang itu
tidak melihat keaiban dan aurat yang tidak sepatutnya dilihat dan tidak mendengar apa yang
sepatutnya tidak didengar dari rumah saudaranya (Manshur Ali Nashif, 1996).
Jelaslah memberi salam dan meminta izin masuk ke rumah memberikan banyak faedah
kepada umat Islam. Ucapan salam boleh mengiratkan hubungan silaturrahim sesama Islam
selain boleh menanamkan benih kasih sayang dan cinta menyintai sesama Islam yang
menjadi lambang keimanan mereka dan syarat untuk masuk ke syurga. Manakala memberi
salam dan meminta izin masuk ke Rumah saudara, kerabat dan umat Islam yang lainnya
memberikan faedah kepada pemiliknya kerana rumah merupakan tempat perlindungan dan
tempat rehat untuk individu dan keluarganya. Oleh itu, dengan mensyariatkan memberi
salam dan meminta keizinan masuk kepada orang luar boleh menjaga kepentingan dan
peranan rumah dalam Islam.
Tatacara Adab Makan dan Minum
Kehidupan manusia sebagai makhluk Allah S.W.T tidak dapat terpisah dengan makan
dan minum dalam kehidupan seharian. Sesuai dengan perutusan Nabi s.a.w sebagai
pembawa pedoman hidup kepada manusia yang berpandukan kepada al-Quran dan hadis,
baginda bukan sahaja menekankan aspek pemilihan makanan, bahkan juga tatacara dan adab
makan serta minum.
Antara kepentingan mengamalkan tatacara adab makan dan minum dalam Islam ialah
menjauhi cara makan syaitan dan menghindari syaitan daripada berkongsi makanan dengan
orang yang sedang makan (Al-Nawawi, 1983). Syaitan menggunakan tangan kiri ketika
makan dan minum sebagaimana yang dijelaskan dalam sebuah hadis (Muslim). Manakala
makanan secara hakikatnya akan dimakan oleh syaitan jika dimakan tanpa mengingati Allah
S.W.T. Nabi s.a.w menyebutkan,
Daripada Jabir bin
c
Abdillah, Aku mendengar Rasulullah s.a.w bersabda, Apabila seseorang
membaca bismillah ketika masuk ke rumah dan ketika makan, maka syaitan berkata kepada sahabatnya,
Kamu semua tidak dapat bermalam di rumah tersebut dan tidak boleh makan malam bersama mereka.
Apabila seseorang itu tidak membaca bismillah ketika masuk ke rumah, syaitan akan berkata, Kamu
semua akan dapat bermalam di rumah tersebut. Apabila seseorang tidak membaca bismillah ketika
makan, syaitan akan berkata, Kamu semua dapat bermalam dan dapat makan bersama mereka.
(Muslim, t.t: 108/6)
814 / ISoIT 2004
Hadis di atas menceritakan bahawa syaitan akan makan bersama mereka yang tidak
menyebut nama Allah pada permulaan makan. Oleh itu, dengan membaca bismillah ketika
hendak makan dapat menghindarkan syaitan daripada berkongsi makanan dengan orang yang
makan itu.
Di samping itu, pengamalan adab makan juga dapat mengelakkan pembaziran,
kehilangan berkat dan juga menjaga kebersihan sebagaimana yang ditunjukkan dalam
aplikasi menyisip jari setelah selesai makan (Al-Nawawi, 1983). Sabda Rasulullah s.a.w,
Daripada Jabir bin Abdillah al-Ansari r.a bahawa Rasulullah s.a.w menyuruh menyisip
jari dan pinggan sambil baginda bersabda, Sesungguhnya kamu tidak mengetahui makanan
manakah yang mempunyai keberkatan. (Muslim, t.t: 114/6)
Menyisip sisa makanan pada jari bukan sahaja bertujuan mengelakkan sisa-sisa makanan
yang terdapat pada jari terbuang begitu sahaja malahan untuk mendapat keberkatan daripada
Allah S.W.T di samping menjaga kebersihan jari dan bekas makanan.
Islam sangat mementingkan hubungan sesama umatnya. Dengan pengamalan adab-adab
juga mampu mengundang sifat belas kasihan, persamaan dan pemurah dalam jiwa umatnya.
Di antara adab yang boleh memupuk sifat-sifat ini ialah adab berkongsi atau berjamaah di
dalam satu bekas makanan. Selain itu, adab berjamaah ini boleh menambahkan keberkatan
kepada makanan yang dimakan (Al-Nawawi, 1983). Hadis Nabi s.a.w menyebutkan,
Daripada Abi Hurairah r.a katanya, Rasulullah s.a.w bersabda, Makanan dua orang
mencukupi untuk tiga orang, dan makanan tiga orang dapat mencukupi untuk empat orang.
(Al-Bukhari, 1991: 1736/4; Muslim, t.t: 132/6).
Hadis ini menjelaskan bahawa makanan untuk dua orang jika dimakan secara berjamaah
akan memberi keberkatan sehingga boleh dimakan tiga orang dan begitu juga makanan tiga
orang yang dimakan secara berjamaah akan diberkati Allah S.W.T sehingga boleh dimakan
empat orang.
Memupuk semangat menghargai orang lain juga merupakan sesuatu yang diutamakan
dalam tatacara adab makan. Rasulullah s.a.w. menunjukkan contoh terbaik dalam menghargai
orang lain ketika makan dengan memuji-muji makanan yang sedap dan sebaliknya Baginda
tidak pula merungut jika sesuatu makanan tidak sesuai dengan citarasanya (Al-Bukhari, 1991:
1741/4; Muslim, t.t: 134/6). Penghargaan yang ditunjukkan oleh baginda ini satu contoh budi
dan akhlak tinggi baginda dalam menghargai susah payah orang yang menyediakan makanan.
Jelaslah bahawa adab-adab makan dan minum dalam Islam memberi kepentingan dan
hikmah yang besar kepada umat Islam yang mengamalkannya dalam kehidupan seharian
mereka.
Tatacara Adab Tidur dan Bermimpi
Tatacara adab tidur dan bermimpi yang digariskan dalam Islam juga mempunyai banyak
kepentingan di sebalik pengamalannya. Antaranya ialah menjaga kebersihan zahir dan batin
sebelum seseorang itu tidur. Penjagaan kedua-dua kebersihan ini dianjurkan untuk
dipraktikkan ketika hendak tidur iaitu melalui berwuduk. Sebagaimana sabda Rasulullah
s.a.w.: Daripada Al-Barai bin
c
Azib katanya, Rasulullah s.a.w bersabda, Jika engkau
duduk di tempat tidur, maka hendaklah kamu berwuduk dahulu sepertimana kamu berwuduk
kerana hendak sembahyang. (Al-Bukhari, 1991: 1985/4; Muslim, t.t: 77/8)
Adab ini disukai oleh Allah S.W.T sebagaimana firmannya, Sesungguh-Nya Allah
mengasihi orang-orang yang banyak bertaubat, dan mengasihi orang-orang yang sentiasa
mensucikan diri. (Al-Baqarah: 222). Ayat ini menjelaskan bahawa Allah suka hamba-Nya
yang bertaubat dan menyucikan diri. Kedua-dua aspek taubat dan pembersihan batin ini boleh
diperolehi melalui wuduk sebelum tidur. Ini terbukti melalui hadis Nabi s.a.w,
Daripada Abi Hurairah r.a sesungguhnya Rasulullah s.a.w bersabda, Apabila seorang
hamba yang Muslim atau mukmin berwuduk, tatkala ia membasuh mukanya keluarlah semua
Kamarul Azmi B. Jasmi et.al. / 815
dosanya daripada mukanya yang dia melihat dengan matanya bersama-sama air atau
bersama-sama titisan terakhir air. Apabila dia membasuh kedua tangannya keluarlah segala
dosanya daripada tangannya yang dia memandangnya dengan tangannya bersama-sama air
atau titisan terakhir air. Apabila dia membasuh kedua kakinya keluarlah semua dosa daripada
kakinya yang dia berjalan bersama-sama air atau bersama-sama titisan terakhir air
sehinggalah dia keluar dalam keadaan yang bersih daripada dosa. (Muslim, t.t: 148/1)
Hadis di atas menunjukkan bahawa pengamalan wuduk mampu membersihkan dosa-dosa
kecil orang yang beriman.
Pengamalan Zikir Fatimah juga menjanjikan kepentingan kerohanian dan fizikal kepada
pengamalnya. Kepentingan ini dapat dilihat sebagaimana yang dijelaskan oleh baginda
bahawa dengan mengamalkan Zikir Fatimah, Allah S.W.T. akan memberi kekuatan yang
lebih baik daripada seorang pembantu pada keesokkan harinya (Al-Bukhari, 1991: 1988/4;
Muslim, t.t: 84/8). Selain itu amalan ini memberikan ganjaran yang sangat besar pahalanya
sepertimana yang disebutkan dalam hadis baginda,
Dari Abi Malik al-Ash
c
ari katanya, Rasulullah s.a.w bersabda, Bersuci itu adalah
separuh keimanan, bacaan al-hamdulillah itu pahalanya memenuhi beratnya timbangan di
akhirat, sedang subhanallah dan al-hamdulillah itu memenuhi apa yang ada di antara langit
dan bumi. (Muslim, t.t: 140/1)
Disebutkan juga bahawa berzikir ini mampu mengelakkan pengamalnya daripada
memikirkan kesukaran dan masalah-masalah yang dihadapinya pada siang hari (Marwan
Ibrahim al-Kaysi, 1991).
Menurut Syamsul Rijal Hamid (2000), zikir yang dilakukan dgn niat ingin memperolehi
keredaan Allah S.W.T akan membawa faedah seperti; semakin dekat hubungannya dengan
Allah S.W.T., memperkukuhkan keimanan kepada Allah S.W.T, menghindar diri dari
gangguan syaitan, menjauhi diri dari segala bentuk kemaksiatan dan dijauhkan dari segala
musibah. Oleh itu, wajarlah zikir diamalkan sebelum tidur kerana banyak kepentingannya
kepada umat Islam.
Kepentingan tatacara adab tidur yang lain pula kepada pengamalnya ialah memelihara
pengamalnya daripada sihir dan gangguan syaitan yang dijalankan pada waktu malam.
Antaranya ialah melalui perlaksanaan adab membaca Surah al-Ikhlas, Surah al-Falaq dan
Surah al-Nas lalu disemburkan air ludah di kedua tapak tangan dan disapu ke seluruh badan
(Ibn al-Kathir, 1993).
Mimpi-mimpi buruk dianggap datang daripada syaitan (Al-Bukhari, 1994 : 88/8; Muslim,
t.t: 51/7). Oleh itu, jika telah diganggu oleh syaitan dengan ganguan yang berupa mimpi-
mimpi yang ngeri atau mimpi-mimpi yang tidak baik berlaku kepada diri sendiri atau orang
lain, sekali lagi Rasulullah s.a.w. mengajar membaca a
c
udzu billahi min al-shaitan al-rajim
supaya menjaga kepentingan pengamalnya agar tidak ditimpa perkara buruk yang disebabkan
oleh ganguan dan bahana yang dibawakan syaitan melalui mimpi tersebut.
Akhir sekali, kepentingan tidur dengan cara berbaring pada lambung sebelah kanan
sebagaimana yang diajar oleh Nabi s.a.w akan memudahkan pengamalnya mudah untuk tidur
dan mudah pula untuk sedar daripada tidurnya (Syekh Mansur Ali Nashif,1996). Amalan
Nabi s.a.w ini dijelaskan dalam sebuah hadis, Daripada Al-Barai bin
c
Azib katanya, Apabila
Rasulullah s.a.w pergi ke tempat tidur baginda akan berbaring pada lambungnya yang di
sebelah kanan. (Sahih Al-Bukhari, 1991: 1987/4)
Sebagai satu kesimpulan bahawa tatacara adab tidur ini penting untuk diamalkan oleh
seluruh umat Islam memandangkan kepentingan dan faedah yang besar yang diberikan,
dirahmatkan dan dianugerahkan oleh Allah S.W.T. kepada umat Islam yang
mengamalkannya.
816 / ISoIT 2004
Hasil Kajian Tatacara Kehidupan Beradab
Latar belakang responden
Sebanyak 200 set soal selidik telah diedarkan kepada populasi kajian melalui kaedah
rawak mudah di kalangan pelajar-pelajar Islam Tahun Empat, Fakulti Pendidikan di UTM,
Skudai. Walau bagaimanapun, hanya 180 set soal selidik sahaja yang dapat dianalisis kerana
terdapat soal selidik yang tidak dikembalikan dan set soal selidik yang tidak dijawab dengan
lengkap. Jumlah 180 orang ini meliputi 30.3 peratus daripada populasi. Segala maklumat
lengkap latar belakang responden adalah seperti di bawah.
RESPONDENMENGIKUT JANTINA TABURANPELAJAR MENGIKUT KURSUS
Jantina Kekerapan Peratus
(%)
Bil. Kursus Kekerapan Peratus
(%)
Lelaki 59 32.8 1. SPC 11 6.1
Perempuan 121 67.2 2. SPG 12 6.7
Jumlah 180 100.0 3. SPH 20 11.1
4. SPI 33 18.3
5. SPK 1 0.6
TABURANRESPONDENMENGIKUT UMUR 6. SPL 21 11.7
Umur Kekerapan Peratus
(%)
7. SPM 15 8.3
19 20 1 0.6 8. SPN 15 8.3
21 22 169 93.9 9. SPS 22 12.2
23 24 10 5.6 10. SPT 30 16.7
Jumlah 180 100.0 Jumlah 180 100.0
(Data dari sumber Norinah bt. Kinan, 2004)
Dapatan tahap tatacara kehidupan beradab
Terdapat 30 item yang berkaitan dengan tatacara kehidupan beradab yang dikaji. Adab
pertama (Adab 1) menyentuh tentang adab memberi salam dan meminta izin masuk ke
rumah. Adab kedua (Adab 2) menyentuh tentang adab makan dan minum dan adab ketiga
(Adab 3) menyentuh tentang adab tidur dan bermimpi. Kajian ditumpukan kepada tahap
pengamalan adab tersebut samada dalam tahap Sangat Amalkan (SA), atau Kadang-kadang
Tidak Amalkan (KTA), Kadang-kadang Amalkan (KA) dan Tidak Pernah Amalkan (TPA).
Hasil dapatan adalah seperti di bawah:
Item Adab 1 SA KTA KA TPA Jumlah Min
Kkrp 62 32 86 0 180
1. Saya memberi salam kepada orang yang saya kenal.
(%) 34.4 17.8 47.8 00.0 100.0
2.87
Kkrp 17 27 102 34 180
2.
Saya memberi salam kepada orang yang tidak saya
kenal. (%) 9.4 15.0 56.7 18.9 100.0
2.15
Kkrp 124 9 45 2 180
3.
Saya menjawab salam dengan lafaz wa-
c
alaikumal-
salam. (%) 68.9 5.0 25.0 1.1 100.0
3.42
Kkrp 28 37 102 13 180
4.
Saya menjawab salam dengan lafaz wa-
c
alaikumal-
salamwa-rahmatullah. (%) 15.6 20.6 56.7 7.2 100.0
2.44
5. Saya menjawab salam yang diberikan oleh orang bukan Kkrp 24 10 32 114 180 1.69
Kamarul Azmi B. Jasmi et.al. / 817
Islam dengan lafaz wa-
c
alaikum. (%) 13.3 5.6 17.8 63.3 100.0
Kkrp 24 10 32 114 180
6.
Saya menjawab salam yang diberikan oleh orang bukan
Islam dengan lafaz wa-
c
alaikum. (%) 13.3 5.6 17.8 63.3 100.0
1.69
Kkrp 137 13 28 2 180
7.
Saya meminta izin daripada tuan rumah sebelum masuk
ke rumahnya. (%) 76.1 7.2 15.6 1.1 100.0
3.58
Kkrp 140 19 21 0 180
8.
Saya memberi salam sebelum masuk ke mana-mana
rumah. (%) 77.8 10.6 11.7 00.0 100.0
3.66
Kkrp 78 35 50 17 180
9.
Saya beredar dari rumah yang tidak memberi jawapan
keizinan untuk masuk setelah diminta sehingga tiga kali. (%) 43.3 19.4 27.8 9.4 100.0
2.97
Kkrp 22 21 53 84 180
10.
Saya akan memberi salam di kiri atau kanan pintu
rumah. (%) 12.2 11.7 29.4 46.7 100.0
1.89
Item Adab 2 SA KTA KA TPA Jumlah Min
Kkrp 145 29 6 0 180
11. Saya membaca bismillahpada permulaan makan
(%) 80.6 16.1 3.3 00.0 100.0
3.77
Kkrp 12 23 120 25 180
12.
Saya makan beramai-ramai/berjamaah dalam satu
bekas makanan. (%) 6.7 12.8 66.7 13.9 100.0
2.12
Kkrp 149 17 13 1 180
13. Saya hanya menggunakan tangan kanan ketika makan.
(%) 82.8 9.4 7.2 0.6 100.0
3.74
Kkrp 122 15 42 1 180
14. Saya memuji makanan yang sedap.
(%) 67.8 8.3 23.3 0.6 100.0
3.43
Kkrp 33 97 29 21 180
15.
Saya tidak mengeluh terhadap makanan yang tidak
sedap. (%) 18.3 53.9 16.1 11.7 100.0
2.79
Kkrp 24 43 58 55 180
16. Saya makan roti/ kuih/ buah menggunakan tiga jari.
(%) 13.3 23.9 32.2 30.6 100.0
2.20
Kkrp 87 36 53 4 180
17. Saya menyisip sisa makanan pada jari selepas makan.
(%) 48.3 20.0 29.4 2.2 100.0
3.14
Kkrp 84 60 32 4 180
18. Saya tidak makan sambil bersandar.
(%) 46.7 33.3 17.8 2.2 100.0
3.24
Kkrp 91 64 23 2 180
19. Saya tidak bernafas di dalam cawan ketika minum.
(%) 50.6 35.6 12.8 1.1 100.0
3.36
Kkrp 18 139 23 0 180
20. Saya hanya minum secara duduk.
(%) 10.0 77.2 12.8 00.0 100.0
2.97
Item Adab 3 SA KTA KA TPA Jumlah Min
Kkrp 14 32 113 21 180
21. Saya berwuduk sebelum tidur.
(%) 7.8 17.8 62.8 11.7 100.0
2.22
Kkrp 62 28 67 23 180
22. Saya mengibas tempat tidur sebelum baring untuk tidur.
(%) 34.4 15.6 37.2 12.8 100.0
2.72
Kkrp 14 35 97 34 180
23.
Saya menghembuskan bacaan Surah al-Ikhlas, Surah
al-Falaq dan Surah al-Nas ke tangan kemudian
menyapukan ke seluruh badan sebelum tidur.
(%) 7.8 19.4 53.9 18.9 100.0 2.16
Kkrp 4 40 84 52 180
24.
Saya membaca tasbih (33x), tahmid (33x) dan takbir
(34x) sebelum tidur. (%) 2.2 22.2 46.7 28.9 100.0
1.98
Kkrp 46 54 73 7 180
25.
Saya berbaring pada lambung (rusuk) sebelah kanan
apabila tidur. (%) 25.6 30.0 40.6 3.9 100.0
2.77
Kkrp 77 20 74 9 180
26. Saya berdoa sebelum tidur dengan doa tidur.
(%) 42.8 11.1 41.1 5.0 100.0
2.92
Kkrp 25 42 74 39 180
27.
Saya berdoa ketika bangun tidur dengan doa bangun
tidur. (%) 13.9 23.3 41.1 21.7 100.0
2.29
818 / ISoIT 2004
Kkrp 47 89 29 15 180
28.
Saya tidak menceritakan mimpi yang saya tidak sukai
kepada orang lain. (%) 26.1 49.4 16.1 8.3 100.0
2.93
Kkrp 53 26 65 36 180
29.
Saya mengucapkan a
c
udzu billahi min al-shaitan al-rajim
apabila mengalami mimpi yang saya tidak sukai. (%) 29.4 14.4 36.1 20.0 100.0
2.53
Kkrp 138 27 15 0 180
30.
Saya tidak menceritakan mimpi yang tidak saya alami
kepada orang lain. (%) 76.7 15.0 8.3 0.0 100.0
3.68
(Data dari sumber Norinah bt. Kinan, 2004)
Dapatan min perbezaan tahap pengamalan tatacara kehidupan
beradab antara pelajar Pengajian Islam dan yang bukan Pengajian
Islam
Sarjana Muda Pendidikan (Pengajian Islam) merupakan satu-satunya kursus pengajian
Islam (SPI) yang ditawarkan di UTM. Bilangan pelajar SPI yang menjadi sampel sebanyak
33 orang berbanding kursus-kursus lain sebanyak 147 orang. Pengkaji membuat
perbandingan min tahap pengamalan tatacara kehidupan beradab antara mahasiswa Pengajian
Islam (SPI) dengan kursus-kursus lain bagi memberi petunjuk tentang kepentingan ilmu
pengetahuan Islam dalam pembentukan adab kehidupan Islam. Hasil dapatan adalah seperti
berikut:
ADAB 1 SPI (33) BUKANSPI (147) ADAB 2 SPI (33)
BUKANSPI
(147)
ADAB 3 SPI (33)
BUKANSPI
(147)
Item1 3.18 2.8 Item11 3.67 3.8 Item21 2.42 2.17
Item2 2.24 2.13 Item12 2.7 1.99 Item22 2.94 2.67
Item3 3.39 3.42 Item13 3.71 3.75 Item23 2.52 2.08
Item4 2.88 2.35 Item14 3.24 3.48 Item24 2.39 1.88
Item5 2.76 2.24 Item15 2.82 2.78 Item25 2.76 2.78
Item6 1.61 1.71 Item16 2.3 2.18 Item26 3.27 2.84
Item7 3.67 3.56 Item17 3.39 3.09 Item27 2.76 2.19
Item8 3.7 3.65 Item18 3.03 3.29 Item28 2.94 2.93
Item9 3.12 2.93 Item19 3.3 3.37 Item29 2.67 2.5
Item10 2.45 1.77 Item20 2.97 2.97 Item30 3.55 3.71
(Data dari sumber Norinah bt. Kinan, 2004 yang diproses semula melalui SPSS)
Rumusan dapatan kajian
Berdasarkan dapatan menunjukkan bahawa mahasiswa mengamalkan tatacara kehidupan
beradab dengan istiqamah. Walaupun demikian, terdapat juga tatacara adab kehidupan
seharian yang tidak diamalkan dengan konsisten. Fenomena ini menunjukkan masyarakat
pelajar memahami secara umum tatacara kehidupan beradab dalam Islam tetapi tidak
mengambil pendekatan mendalami dan memperincikan adab tersebut kerana kebarangkalian
faktor keluarga, pendidikan, pergaulan dan pendekatan yang diperolehi dalam kehidupan
seharian.
Tidak dinafikan bahawa mahasiswa Islam Tahun Empat mengamalkan adab memberi
salam dengan istiqamah, tetapi lebih diaplikasikan kepada orang yang mereka kenali sahaja.
Kamarul Azmi B. Jasmi et.al. / 819
Tatacara adab memberi salam dan meminta izin sebelum masuk ke mana-mana rumah juga
begitu dititikberatkan oleh majoriti daripada responden kajian ini. Namun begitu, mereka
kurang faham tatacara memberi salam yang digariskan Islam memandangkan mereka jarang
memberi salam di kiri atau kanan pintu rumah yang dikunjungi. Patut disebutkan juga
bahawa mereka kurang faham bahawa memberi salam dan meminta izin untuk masuk ke
rumah orang lain hanyalah dilakukan sehingga tiga kali dan hendaklah beredar dari rumah
tersebut jika tidak ada respon dari tuan rumah. Jawapan salam yang lebih afdal adalah lafaz
salam yang lebih banyak penambahan perkataannya, tetapi lafaz yang paling pendek
perkataannya lebih sering diaplikasikan. Penggunaan lafaz wa-
c
alaikum bagi menjawab
salam orang bukan Islam juga kurang diketahui memandangkan pengamalan adab ini sangat
rendah. Nampaknya para pelajar hanya tahu secara umum bahawa salam itu satu adab yang
perlu diamalkan dalam konteks adab bermasyarakat tetapi kurang mengetahui tatacara salam
yang lebih mendalam yang sebenarnya mempunyai kepentingan yang besar terhadap umat
Islam seluruhnya di sebalik pengamalannya.
Pengamalan tatacara adab makan dan minum di kalangan mahasiswa Islam Tahun
Empat, Fakulti Pendidikan di UTM juga adalah pada tahap yang istiqamah dalam
mengamalkan tatacara ini. Tatacara adab makan dan minum dalam kajian ini adalah yang
paling tinggi tahap keistiqamahan pengamalannya di kalangan sampel. Kedudukan ini
berlaku mungkin disebabkan responden telah diberikan pendedahan awal di rumah oleh ibu
bapa mereka tentang tatacara adab makan dan minum ketika makan di rumah. Misalnya,
makan secara berjamaah bersama keluarga dapat mengajar anak-anak secara tidak langsung
melalui pengaplikasian tatacara adab makan dan minum di samping penerangan mengenai
kepentingan pengamalannya. Selain itu, pendedahan adab makan yang diterapkan sejak dari
pra sekolah lagi mungkin menjadi penyumbang kepada pengetahuan mahasiswa tentang
adab-adab makan dan minum. Misalnya, adalah menjadi kebiasaan di pra sekolah kanak-
kanak membaca doa makan dan makan secara berjamaah. Tambahan lagi, makan dan minum
merupakan keperluan untuk hidup. Walau bagaimanapun, makan secara berjamaah dan
penggunaan tiga jari apabila makan makanan yang menyamai ciri-ciri seperti buah, kuih atau
kurma adalah kurang diamalkan oleh mahasiswa Tahun Empat. Mungkin faktor kesibukan
terhadap tugasan pelajaran menyebabkan mereka tidak memberi tumpuan terhadap amalan
adab tersebut. Gaya hidup kampus yang independent juga mungkin mempengaruhi
pengamalan adab ini yang mana pelajar lebih suka membuat aktiviti mereka secara
bersendirian.
Walaupun kajian mendapati pengamalan tatacara adab tidur dan bermimpi berada di
tahap istiqamah, masih terdapat banyak lagi tatacara adab tersebut kurang diamalkan. Adab-
adab tidur dan bermimpi yang seringkali diamalkan juga merupakan adab yang mudah dan
ringkas sahaja. Kebarangkalian yang dapat dikatakan kepada mahasiswa pada hari ini ialah
mereka masuk tidur apabila benar-benar mengantuk dan penat sehinggakan lupa untuk
mengamalkan adab-adab tidur.
Terdapat perhubungan di antara tahap pengamalan tatacara kehidupan beradab dengan
pendidikan agama. Hasil dapatan menunjukkan bahawa min tahap pengamalan adab
kehidupan mahasiswa yang berpendidikan agama mengatasi sebanyak 22 tatacara jika
dibandingkan dengan mahasiswa yang mengambil jurusan lain. Ini menunjukkan bahawa
pendidikan agama yang mendalam boleh membantu untuk meningkatkan tahap kebiasaan
tatacara kehidupan beradab Islam.
Penutup
Ketiga-tiga tatacara kehidupan beradab dalam Islam yang dibincangkan merupakan
sebilangan kecil daripada tatacara kehidupan Islam yang menyeluruh. Semua tatacara
820 / ISoIT 2004
kehidupan beradab ini merupakan amalan sunat dalam Islam yang diberikan pahala kepada
pengamalnya. Di samping pahala, kepentingan dan faedah yang banyak juga telah dijanjikan
kepada sesiapa yang membiasakan tatacara ini dalam kehidupan mereka.
Hasil dapatan kajian ini pula menjelaskan tahap penguasaan pelajar-pelajar yang
dipraktikkan dalam kehidupan seharian. Ini mengundang pihak yang bertanggungjawab
seperti ibu bapa, masyarakat dan media massa serta kerajaan untuk menekankan lebih
terperinci tatacara kehidupan beradab tersebut terutamanya dengan meningkatkan
pengetahuan Islam. Ini adalah kerana dengan melaksanakan tatacara adab tersebut secara
keseluruhan atau ke arah kesempurnaan akan mampu mengangkat martabat insan mukmin
terhadap al-falah yang sebenar.
Bibliografi
Abdullah al-Qari Hj. Salleh (1996). Adab Makan Minum. Kuala Lumpur: Al-Hidayah Publishers.
Abdullah Mohd. Zin (2000). Pendidikan Dakwah Islamiah di Malaysia: Masalah dan Prospek.
Bengkel Pendidikan Islam Malaysia.
Ani Hayati Husin (1999). Pendidikan Keluarga dan Kaitannya Dengan Akhlak Remaja Masa Kini.
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia: Projek Sarjana Muda.
Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka (1989). Kamus Dewan. Edisi Pertama. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa
dan Pustaka.
Ibn al-Kathir (1993). Tafsir al-Quran al-Azim. Jil. 1 4. Al-Azhar: Dar al-Hadis.
Ibrahim Mamat (2000). Etika Untuk Mahasiswa. Kuala Lumpur: Kumpulan Budiman.
Imam Abi Daud (1994). Sunan Abi Daud. Jil. 1 4. Beirut: Dar al-Fikr. Tahqiq: Sadqi Mohd. Jamil.
Imam Al-Bukhari (1987). Sahih Al-Bukhari. Jil.9. Kaherah: Dar al-Riyan Li al-Turath
Imam Al-Bukhari (1991). Sahih Al-Bukhari. Jil. 24 . Beirut: Dar al-Namuzajiah. Tahqiq: Mohd. Ali
Al-Qutb.
Imam Al-Bukhari (1994). Sahih Al-Bukhari. Beirut: Jil. 1-4. Beirut: Dar al-Fikr. Tahqiq: Syekh Abd.
Aziz Abdullah.
Imam al-Nawawi (1983). Riyad al-Salihin. Beirut: Dar al-Fikr al-Mu
c
asir.
Imam al-Tarmidzi (1994). Sunan al-Tarmidzi. Beirut: Dar al-Fikr.
Imam Muslim (t.t). Sahih Muslim. Jil. 1 4. Beirut: Dar al-Fikr.
Kamarul Azmi Jasmi (2002). Paradigma Al-Imam al-Nawawi Dalam Pembangunan Insan: Satu
Kajian Teks Terhadap Kitab Riyad al-Solihin. Universiti Malaya: Projek Sarjana.
Kamarul Azmi Jasmi, Azmi Shah Suratman, Aminudin Ruskam, Ahmad Kilani Muhamad dan Zulkefli
Harun (2003). Pengaruh Pemikiran Al-Imam al-Nawawi di Kalangan Guru-guru Takmir Di
Negeri Johor. Pusat Pengajian Islan dan Pembangunan Sosial: Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Kamarul Bahariyah Salleh (1999). Persepsi Terhadap Pendidikan Islam (Akhlak Islamiah) dan
Kaitannya Dalam Pembentukan Akhlak Remaja. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia: Projek Sarjana
Muda.
Marwan Ibrahim al-Kaysi (1991). Morals and Manners in Islam: A Guide To Islamic Adab. United
Kingdom: The Islamic Foundation.
Mohd. Idris Abd. Rauf al-Marbawi (1998). Kamus Idris al-Marbawi. Kuala Lumpur: Darul Numan.
Mohd. Najib Abd. Ghafar (1999). Penyelidikan Pendidikan. Skudai: Penerbit Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia.
Norinah bt. Kinan (2004). Tahap Pengamalan Tatacara Kehidupan Beradab Dalam Islam Di
Kalangan Mahasiswa Islam. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia: Thesis di bawah penyeliaan Kamarul
Azmi b. Jasmi.
Rohi Baalbaki (1999). Al-Mawrid. Edisi 11. Beirut: Dar al-Ilm Li al-Malayin.
Samsudin Samudi (2002). Keruntuhan Akhlak di Kalangan Pelajar Masa Kini. Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia: Projek Sarjana Muda.
Sarijah Abdul Salim (2003). Faktor-Faktor Pembentukan Akhlak Dalam Peribadi Remaja: Satu
Kajian ke Atas Pelajar Muslim Tahun Satu, Kolej Tun Razak, UTM. Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia: Projek Sarjana Muda.
Syeikh Abdullah Basmeih (1982). Tafsir Pimpinan Al-Rahman Kepada Pengertian al-Quran. Kuala
Lumpur: Jabatan Perdana Menteri.
Kamarul Azmi B. Jasmi et.al. / 821
Syekh Mansur Ali Nashif (1996). Mahkota Pokok-Pokok Hadis Rasulullah. Jil. 4-5. Bandung:
Sinar Baru Algensindo.
Zawawi Ahmad (1996). Sains dalam Pendidikan Islam. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Kamarul Azmi B. Jasmi
Norinah bt. Kinan
Siti Fauziyani bt. Md Saleh @ Masrom
Mohd Ismail b. Mustari
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
81300 Johor
Malaysia
Pembentukan Generasi Melalui Seni
Mujani Tarimin & Fairuz el-Basri
Abstrak
Pembentukan generasi sesuatu bangsa terlaksana melalui saluran yang berbagai-bagai.
Salah satu salurannya ialah seni. Seni bermaksud sesuatu yang halus, murni, cantik dan
indah. Dari maksud ini, seni meliputi banyak aspek iaitu seni sastera, seni ukir, seni lukis,
seni muzik dan persembahan. Pembentukan generasi melalui seni telah lama wujud dalam
masyarakat Islam, khususnya di rantau alam Melayu. Ia berjalan seiring dengan kedatangan
Islam. Ajaran Islam telah mendorong kelahiran karya seni sastera, sama ada dalam bentuk
prosa mahupun puisi. Terdapat banyak contoh hasil karya seni sastera di kalangan bangsa
Melayu. Demikian juga hasil seni ukir yang dikaitkan dengan Islam. Seni khat menjadi salah
satu motif seni ukir, di samping motif tumbuh-tumbuhan dan geometri. Seni muzik pula telah
menjadi satu metod pendekatan dakwah di kalangan Wali Songo. Semua cabang seni ini
bermatlamat untuk membentuk generasi Melayu muslim yang berpegang teguh kepada
agama tanpa mengenepikan budaya bangsa.
Seni terus berkembang subur pada masa kini dan menjadi forum golongan muda mudi
untuk meluahkan apa yang terpendam dihati. Walau bagaimanapun, falsafah seni hari ini
jauh berbeza dengan falsafah seni pada zaman silam. Seni hari ini telah menampakkan
dampak seni Barat yang begitu kuat. Akhirnya seni hanya mempunyai satu matlamat, iaitu
hedonistik, seni untuk hiburan semata-mata. Matlamat ini tidak akan dapat mencapai objektif
pembentukan generasi akan datang yang mewarisi budaya dan adat yang berpegang kepada
nilai agama sesuatu bangsa. Oleh itu, kertas ini bertujuan membentangkan konsep seni dan
peranan seni dalam pembentukan generasi Melayu muslim.
Pendahuluan
Seni telah lama menjadi topik perbincangan masyarakat. Seni merupakan naluri manusia
yang dicipta oleh Allah s.w.t. Ia wujud dalam budaya setiap masyarakat, tanpa mengira warna
kulit, geografi, bahasa, budaya dan agama. Dari situasi ini, seni tidak boleh dipisahkan dari
manusia sejagat. Ia akan terus wujud dan berkembang pada setiap zaman. Seni meliputi
cabang seni yang berbagai. Dari jumlah seni yang banyak, seni suara, muzik dan seni
persembahan memainkan peranan paling utama untuk menarik peminat dan pendengar.
Secara tidak langsung seni mudah memberi impak yang besar kepada pembentukan budaya
bangsa.
Pada tahun 1970an, masyarakat Islam di Malaysia dikejutkan dengan kemunculan
kumpulan nasyid El-Suraya dari Medan, Indonesia yang menjadikan nasyid sebagai media
penyebaran dakwah Islam. Kemunculannya menimbulkan satu polimik dan perdebatan di
kalangan masyarakat Islam Malaysia. Walau bagaimanapun, pada masa kini, seni
persembahan nasyid yang melibatkan seni suara dan seni muzik telah diterima sepenuhnya
oleh masyarakat Islam di Malaysia dan Alam Melayu. Kumpulan-kumpulan nasyid telah
muncul bagai cendawan yang tumbuh selepas hujan. Kemunculannya juga mendapat
Mujani Tarimin & Fairuz el-Basri / 823
sambutan dari kalangan masyarakat Islam di Malaysia. Kumpulan-kumpulan ini mampu
berdiri sama tinggi dan duduk sama rendah dengan penyanyi-penyanyi lain. Oleh itu, boleh
dianggap kumpulan El-Suraya dari Medan menjadi pelupor kelahiran nasyid di rantau Alam
Melayu. Kertas kerja ini akan menyentuh seni secara menyeluruh yang dijelaskan dalam
konsep seni, Islam dan seni dan seterusnya menjurus kepada persoalan, bagaimana seni boleh
menjadi agen pembentukan generasi masa kini dan akan datang.
Konsep Seni
Seni yang dikenal sebagai art dalam bahasa Inggeris dan al-fan dalam bahasa Arab
bermaksud sesuatu yang halus, murni, cantik, indah dan permai.
1157
Menurut Plato, seni ialah
kemahiran menghasilkan sesuatu karya dengan melakukan peniruan semula dari alam.
1158
Menurut Sidi Gazalba, seni adalah usaha mencipta bentuk-bentuk yang menyenangkan
(pleasure). Bentuk-bentuk ini mampu melahirkan penghayatan terhadap keindahan sehingga
manusia mampu mengapresiasi (menghargai) hubungan antara persepsi dan penghayatan. Ia
berkait rapat dengan keindahan.
1159
Oleh itu, seni melahirkan keindahan atau estetika,
kebahagiaan, ketenangan dan kesenangan.
Seni wujud dalam setiap aspek kehidupan. Ia dapat dilihat pada seni sastera, seni ukir,
seni lukis, seni halus, seni bina, seni muzik, seni persembahan dan lain-lain. Seni sastera
meliputi sastera prosa dan puisi yang melibatkan syair, pantun, gurindam, seloka, dan sajak.
Seni ukir merangkumi ukiran kayu, batu, seramik, logam, dan kaca. Seni lukis menyentuh
lukisan kanvas, tekstil, dan kertas. Seni persembahan merangkumi seni lakon melalui drama,
teater, bangsawan, filem dan lain-lain. Oleh itu, seni harus difaham secara luas. Dari
keluasana skop seni menunjukkan ia mempunyai fungsi dan nilai sosial. Ia bukan satu aspek
yang kecil atau sempit sebagaimana yang difaham oleh sebahagian besar masyarakat hari ini.
Mereka memahami seni hanya sebagai seni hiburan semata-mata yang melibatkan muzik dan
seni suara (nyanyian).
Konsep Seni Islam
Islam mengakui keperluan seni dalam hidup manusia kerana seni merupakan fitrah atau
tabii semulajadi manusia. Seni juga merupakan anugerah Allah yang amat berharga kepada
manusia yang diciptakan oleh-Nya.
1160
Terdapat beberapa firman Allah dan Hadith
Rasulullah s.a.w. yang menjadi dalil secara langsung mengenai seni atau dalil secara tidak
langsung. Di antara dalil dari al-Quran ialah seperti firman Allah dalam surah al-A
c
raf 7:23
yang bermaksud:
Katakanlah, siapakah yang mengharamkan perhiasan
(keindahan seni) kurniaan Allah kepada hamba-hamba-Nya
dan menikmati rezeki-rezeki-Nya yang baik!
1157
Kamus Dewan, Kuala Lumpur, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Lihat juga Abdul Ghani Shamsuddin,
Ishak Hj. Sulaiman dan Engku Ibrahim Ismail, Seni dalam Islam, Petaling Jaya, Intel MULTIMEDIA
and PUBLICATION, 2001, hal. 3.
1158
The Encyclopedia Americana, 1993, vol. I, hal. 235
1159
Sidi Gazalba, 1977, Pandangan Islam tentang Kesenian, Kuala Lumpur, Pustaka Antara, hal. 10.
1160
Shafie Abu Bakar, Keindahan dalam Kesenian Islam, dalam Kesenian Islam diselenggarakan oleh
Ahmad Kamal Abdullah, 1990, Kuala Lumpur, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, hal. 90.
824 / ISoIT 2004
Dalil dari Hadith Nabi s.a.w. pula, sebagaimana yang diriwayatkan oleh Imam al-Muslim
bermaksud:
Sesungguhnya Allah itu indah. Dia sukakan kepada keindahan.
Di samping itu, para sahabat Rasulullah dan ulama-ulama kemudian juga merupakan
penyair dan pemuisi, seperti
c
AbduLlah ibn al-Mubarak dan Imam Shafi
c
i radiyaLlah
c
anhuma. Demikian juga Imam al-Ghazali, turut memberi ulasan terhadap seni yang
dibahaskan dalam bab keindahan. Menurut beliau, puncak keindahan ialah nur (cahaya) yang
boleh dicapai apabila hati dan jiwa manusia telah bersih, suci dan berjaya memahami hakikat
kebenaran. Pada tahap ini, keindahan dilihat bukan semata-mata melalui mata dan
pengalaman indera lahir, tetapi melalui mata batin, iaitu melalui akal dan jiwa yang dapat
menikmati keindahan hakiki. Tanggapan ini adalah saluran yang boleh membawa kepada
hidayah Allah dan memahami bahawa keindahan itu adalah realiti sifat Allah yang hakiki.
1161
Oleh itu, manusia yang berjiwa seni akan mudah tersentuh dengan situasi persekitaran.
Sentuhan jiwa ini mendorong seseorang memikirkan fenomena sekitar yang dialami dan
meluahkan sentuhan jiwa kreativiti, imaginasi dan fantasi walau pun perkara yang ingin
dipaparkan adalah realiti. Sentuhan jiwa yang disertai iman dan Islam akan memancarkan nur
(cahaya) dalam hati yang mendorong seseorang mendekati Tuhan yang Maha Mencipta.
Menurut Muhammad Abdul Jabbar Beg, seni Islam ialah kesenian yang melambangkan
peribadatan kepada Allah (s.w.t.) yang dihasilkan oleh umat Islam dari semua keturunan di
dalam lingkungan masyarakat Islam.
1162
Menurut al-Faruqi pula, seni Islam ialah kesenian
yang seimbang antara bentuk dan isi. Ia juga merupakan pertemuan antara al-Jamal
(keindahan) dan al-Haq (kebenaran).
1163
Keindahan adalah hakikat alam tercipta dan
kebenaran adalah puncak keindahan. Nilai estetika dalam kesenian Islam mestilah bersepadu,
mengambil kira semua dimensi, peringkat dan manifestasi keindahan. Ia hendaklah bermula
dengan keindahan jasmani dan berakhir dengan Yang Maha Indah, iaitu Allah (s.w.t.). Oleh
itu, keindahan menurut Islam ialah keindahan yang terpancar dari nilai tauhid, syariat dan
akhlak yang membawa kepada kebaikan dan kebenaran.
1164
Prof. Dr. Yusuf al-Qaradawi
1165
juga menyentuh aspek seni dalam tulisan beliau bertajuk al-Halal wa al-haram fi al-Islam.
Beliau telah menghuraikan dengan panjang lebar mengenai isi-isu yang berkaitan dengan seni
seperti kedudukan hukum seni dalam Islam dalam satu tulisan khusus mengenai seni bertajuk
Seni Dalam Islam.
1166
Boleh dikatakan kebanyakan sarjana muslim bersetuju memasukkan
seni sebahagian daripada Islam. Walau bagaimanapun, seni mestilah mempunyai kriteria baik
dan bersesuaian dengan syariat Islam. Kriteria baik dan buruk menjadi penentu kepada
kelahiran hukum halal dan haram sesuatu seni dalam Islam. Seni yang terangkum dalam
kriteria baik dan bersesuaian dengan syariat Islam adalah halal dan yang sebaliknya adalah
haram.
1167
1161
Ibid, hal. 92.
1162
M.A.J. Beg, t.th. Fine art ini Islamic civilization, Bangi, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, hal. 7.
1163
Al-Faruqi, IsmailR. & Lois Lamya al-Faruqi, 1992, The cultural atlas of Islam, USA, International
Institute of Islamic Thought, hal. 18.
1164
Norain Ishak, Falsafah seni Islam, Kertas kerja Bengkel Pengajaran Kursus Pendidikan Islam
Semester 03, Pusat Pendidikan Islam, Universiti Teknologi Mara, Shah Alam.
1165
Dr. Yususf Qaradawi telah membahas isu-isu berkaitan seni dalam buku beliau bertajuk al-Halal wa
al-Haram fi al-Islam.
1166
Yusuf al-Qaradawi,1999, Seni dalam Islam, (terjemahan Mohd Nazri Dollah), Kuala Lumpur,
JAKIM.
1167
Abdul Ghani Shamsuddin, Ishak Hj. Ismail & Engku Ibrahim Ismail, Seni Dalam Islam, Petaling
Jaya, Intel MULTIMEDIA AND PUBLICATION, 2001, hal 22.
Mujani Tarimin & Fairuz el-Basri / 825
Seni Dan Peranannya Pada Zaman Rasulullah (S.A.W.)
Pada zaman Rasulullah (s.a.w), seni turut berperanan membentuk masyarakat yang
berpegang kepada ajaran Islam, berakhlak mulia dan berjuang menyebarkan Islam. Tunggak
utama seni pada zaman Rasulullah s.a.w. ialah mukjizat al-Quran al-Karim. Al-Quran
merupakan kalamuLlah yang merangkumi unsur-unsur seni yang jelas, khususnya pada
surah-surah Makkiyyah. Mukjizat ini dianugerahkan kepada Nabi Muhammad (s.a.w.) kerana
pada masa itu masyarakat Arab merupakan masyarakat yang memiliki daya kreativiti seni
sastera yang tinggi. Ini terbukti dari kewujudan pasar
c
Ukaz di Mekah yang diisi dengan
kegiatan mendeklamasikan syair, sajak dan puisi. Syair, sajak dan puisi yang mendapat
sambutan ramai akan digantung di Kaabah yang dikenal sebagai mu
c
allaqat.
Dalam situasi ini, Nabi Muhammad (s.a.w) merestui tindakan para sahabat yang
menggunakan metod seni sebagai juru bicara kepada masyarakat Arab. Di antara tokoh yang
terkenal menggunakan seni untuk menyatakan kebenaran Islam yang dibawa oleh
Muhammad (s.a.w.) seperti ialah Hasan Ibn Thabit dan Ka
c
ab ibn Zuhayr. Para penyair ini
berperanan menampilkan bentuk dan ketinggian syair Islam, khususnya kepada penyair kafir
pada zaman tersebut.
1168
Peranan Seni Dalam Masyarakat Melayu Silam
Seni telah dimanfaatkan oleh masyarakat Melayu silam untuk berbagai tujuan. Di
antaranya untuk menyebarkan ajaran Islam, untuk memberi nasihat, untuk menaikkan
semangat masyarakat semasa mempertahankan negara dari ancaman musuh, penjajah dan
sebagai hiburan. Wali Songo (wali yang tujuh) di Pulau Jawa dalam mendidik masyarakat
supaya melakukan perkara yang bermanfaat untuk diri, keluarga, masyarakat dan berpegang
teguh kepada agama. Sunan Bonang telah mencipta seperangkat gamelan yang disebut
Bonang. Bonang adalah sejenis logam kuning (tembaga) yang ditonjolkan dibahagian tengah.
Apabila benjolan ini dipalu dengan kayu lunak maka terdengar suaranya yang merdu. Sunan
Bonang bukan sahaja mencipta gamelan, malah beliau juga mencipta lagu yang berunsurkan
agama Islam. Apabila beliau mendendangkan lagu ciptaannya dan diiringi dengan alunan
gamelan, tanpa disedari telah memikat penduduk disekitarnya mempelajari Islam.
1169
Selain
itu, Sunan Bonang juga telah mencipta karya sastera yang disebut Suluk. Hasil karya ini
sekarang masih tersimpan di Perpustakaan Universiti Leiden, Belanda.
1170
Tujuan seni juga dapat dilihat pada hasil-hasil seni sastera yang tersebar secara meluas
dalam masyarakat Melayu di abad ke 17, 18 dan 19. Peranan seni sebagai media nasihat
merangkumi tujuan untuk membimbing masyarakat ke arah berilmu, beriman dan budi
pekerti mulia. Genre prosa dan puisi begitu popular di kalangan bangsa Melayu di rantau
Asia Tenggara sehingga ia menjadi identiti bangsa di rantau ini. Genre puisi meliputi pantun,
gurindam, syair, seloka dan sajak kesemuanya menjadi alat mendidik masyarakat. Sebagai
contoh sayir nasihat yang terkandung dalam naskhah manuskrip MSS 2264 yang terdapat
dalam koleksi Pusat Manuskrip Melayu, Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia. Di antara lain syair
ini berbunyi :
Jika tuan mencari harta
1168
Zainal Abidin Abdul Kadir, Mudhakirah fi tarikh al-adab al-cArabi, Kuala Lumpur, Dewan Bahasa
dan Pustaka, hal. 67.
1169
MB. Rahimsyah AR., Perjuangan Wali songo dalam Dakwah Islam, 2000, (terjemahan ke Bahasa
Malaysia oleh Mohd Azman Sastro) Kuala Lumpur, Pustaka Syuhada, hal. 123.
1170
Ibid, hal. 125.
826 / ISoIT 2004
Lima waktu bawa beserta
Supaya jangan sesalnya kita
Di akhirat kelak tak dapat dicita
Pantun empat kerat yang terkenal sebagai nasihat dan peringatan kepada masyarakat
berbunyi:
Pulau pandan jauh ke tengah
Gunung daik bercabang tiga
Hancur badan di kandung tanah
Budi yang baik dikenang juga
Pantun di atas jelas mengingatkan masyarakat mengenai orang yang akan dikenang ialah
orang yang suka berbudi dan melakukan kebajikan kepada orang lain. Budi adalah jasa baik
yang dilakukan oleh seseorang sama ada untuk dirinya sendiri atau kepada orang lain.
Berbudi juga disebut sebagai beretika atau berakhlak
Seni khat pula telah menjadi identiti masyarakat Islam diseluruh dunia. Seni ini
menjadikan ayat-ayat suci al-Quran al-Karim sebagai bahan tulisan yang dilakar dan diukir
pada kayu, logam, seramik dan tekstil. Firman Allah s.w.t. ini sudah pasti akan mengingatkan
penulis, pengukir dan pembaca kepada ayat yang diabadikan dan maksud yang terkandung di
dalamnya.
Seni Sebagai Pembentuk Generasi
Seni secara luas berperanan mendidik masyarakat secara beradab dan teratur indah.
Pendidikan berbentuk seni akan menggunakan pendekatan yang indah, manis dan halus yang
dapat menarik minat masyarakat. Menurut Mohammad Affandi Hassan, seni yang
mempunyai nilai estetika wajar dijadikan satu saluran pendidikan tauhid melalui tiga perkara
pokok, iaitu hakikat insan (the nature of man), hakikat ilmu (the nature of knowledge) dan
hakikat serta fungsi sastera (the nature and functions of literature).
1171
Seterusnya, beliau
menegaskan seni sastera khususnya perlu menggunakan pendekatan kalimah tayyibah atau
didaktik, iaitu menyampaikan sesuatu yang benar, indah, harmonis, sempurna dan membuat
manusia mengenal diri dan mengenal Allah. Oleh itu, isi kaya sastera tidak melanggar batas-
batas syariah.
Kemunculan kumpulan-kumpulan nasyid di Malaysia dan penyanyi solo yang
bernafaskan Islam pada masa kini mengisi ruang-ruang seni hiburan dan ia mendapat
sambutan yang hangat terutamanya dari golongan remaja. Kelahiran kumpulan ini yang
begitu banyak memberi impak baru kepada indusrti muzik tanah air. Sambutan yang hangat
terhadap kumpulan nasyid dan seni suara yang bernafaskan Islam boleh menjadi agen
penghibur yang bermoral dan mampu membentuk sikap serta etika generasi kini jika
menekankan langkah-langkah berikut:
1. Memahami maksud seni yang sebenar sebagaimana yang telah dijelaskan di atas.
2. Memahami seni dalam pengertian yang luas, seperti seni sastera, seni khat, seni lukis,
seni suara, seni muzik dan lain-lain. Setiap seniman yang mewakili satu aspek seni
sewajarnya memahami aspek seni yang dikuasainya hanya sebahagian kecil dari
keseluruhan seni yang luas. Pemisahan yang berlaku antara setiap aspek seni menjadikan
seniman hanya berlegar di dalam ruang seni yang sempit. Keadaan ini menjadi faktor
kegagalan ke arah pembentukan generasi melalui seni. Bahaya konsep pemisihan
sebenarnya berlaku dalam semua kehidupan umat Islam kerana bertentangan dengan
konsep syumul yang menjadi sebahagian ciri agama Islam.
1171
Mohd Affandi Hassan, Pendidikan Estetika Daripada Pendekatan Tauhid, 1992, Kuala Lumpur,
Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, hal. 4.
Mujani Tarimin & Fairuz el-Basri / 827
3. Menghubungkan seni dengan Islam sebagai satu agama yang menjadi sumber seni. Islam
adalah pencetus seni sebagaimana yang diakui oleh Barat, kesenian Islam mempengaruhi
kelahiran seni barat.
1172
4. Menjelaskan seni adalah sebahagian daripada media, pesanan dan cita-cita bangsa dalam
bentuk yang berhemah, beretika dan mempunyai nilai-nilai estetika. Dalam hal ini, seni
dalam Islam adalah seni untuk masyarakat. Ia merupakan salah satu kaedah untuk
mencapai hasrat dan wawasan bangsa yang cemerlang dan menjana peradaban yang
tinggi.
5. Seni adalah hiburan yang mempunyai matlamat, bukan hiburan yang dikenali sebagai
hedonistik yang diistilahkan oleh Dr. Ismail Ibrahim sebagai hiburan murahan. Menurut
beliau, hiburan yang mementingkan seks dan keganasan yang dipersembahkan dalam
bentuk murahan, haruslah dijauhkan. Menurut beliau lagi, peranan media eletronik yang
bermatlamatkan hiburan, penerangan dan pendidikan haruslah disepadukan di dalam
keseluruhan rancangan dan persembahannya. Atau dalam kata lain, segala program
hiburan TV haruslah juga mengandungi nilai yang tinggi dalam memberi pendidikan dan
maklumat serta ilmu yang bermutu kepada jiwa dan rohani penonton.
1173
Dalam hal ini,
Dr. Ismail Ibrahim menekankan peranan media eletronik amat penting, terutamanya
televisyen dalam menjana generasi berperadaban tinggi. Oleh itu, seni hiburan yang
banyak dicetuskan dari seni suara, seni muzik dan lain-lain yang dianggap sebagai alat
hiburan semata-mata akan bermakna seandainya ia diisi dengan nilai-nilai murni sama
ada semasa persembahan dijalankan mahupun pada isi karya yang dialunkan.
6. Pendidikan yang dilakukan adalah melalui konsep tashji
c
, iaitu pendidikan menerusi
galakan, dorongan dan insentif, bukan melalui konsep ta
c
qib (menghukum). Kepada
golongan pemerhati atau yang tidak terlibat secara langsung dengan seni sepatutnya
memberi saranan dan pandangan membina dalam perkembangan seni. Untuk mencapai
hasrat ini, sesi dailog terbuka antara seniman, ilmuan dan masyarakat umum perlu
diadakan.
Penutup
Seni mampu menjadi satu kaedah yang penting dalam membentuk genarasi kini dan akan
datang. Seni mempunyai pengaruh yang besar dalam perkembangan manusia sejagat.
Langkah yang telah dibentangkan di atas akan tercapai jika pendedahan ilmu secara sepadu
kepada golongan seniman dan pencinta seni, sama ada melalui seminar, bengkel, kolokium
dan lain-lain secara bersiri. Insyallah, dengan pengisian ilmu yang sepadu, para seniman
berupaya menjana generasi yang berakhlak dan bertakwa.
Prof. Madya Dr. Mujani Tarimin
Fairuz Hj. Basri
CITU UiTM Shah Alam
1172
Sila lihat Mohd Affandi Hassan, op. cit., hal. 4.
1173
Rujuk tulisan beliau dalam Mingguan Malaysia, 18 April 2004 Ahad.
Dakwah Dalam Menangani Isu-Isu Sosial di Kalangan
Remaja
Ab. Halim bin Tamuri & Khadijah Abdul Razak
Abstrak
Dakwah adalah satu program yang terancang dan boleh membawa kepada pengamalan
dan penghayatan Islam dalam diri seseorang individu. Dalam Islam, dakwah adalah satu
tanggungjawab yang perlu dilaksanakan oleh setiap orang Islam sama ada secara individu
atau secara kolektif. Dalam menangani isu gejala sosial di kalangan remaja masa kini,
peranan pendakwah adalah amat penting untuk membuktikan bahawa Islam mampu dan
boleh menyelesaikan pelbagai masalah sosial yang melanda negara kita. Penumpuan utama
kertas ini adalah untuk melihat peranan dakwah dalam menangani gelaja sosial di kalangan
umat Islam. Kertas ini mencadangkan agak setiap pendakwah mempunyai pelbagai
kemahiran yang sesuai dengan perkembangan semasa. Antaranya ialah kemahiran dan
pendekatan, pengetahuan dalam bidang psikologi dan kemahiran komunikasi.
Pendahuluan
Secara umumnya, masyarakat telah mengetahui tentang gejala sosial atau masalah-
masalah keruntuhan akhlak yang sedang wujud di kalangan umat Islam di negara ini.
Walaupun gejala sosial ini juga wujud di kalangan masyarakat bukan Islam, tetapi apa yang
lebih menonjol ialah permasalahan di kalangan umat Islam. Permasalahan ini tidak boleh
dikesampingkan begitu sahaja dan perlu dihadapi dan ditangani oleh masyarakat Islam
dengan penuh hikmah dan bijaksana. Peranan setiap individu Muslim adalah sangat penting
dalam menangani isu gejala sosial dan tugas ini adalah tanggungjawab dakwah yang perlu
dilaksanakan bersama. Umumnya, gejala sosial ini boleh berlaku akibat dari kesalahfahaman,
ketidakfahaman, kejahilan dan keangkuhan terhadap perintah Allah SWT dan Rasullullah
saw. Di samping itu, faktor-faktor persekitaran juga turut memberikan sumbangan terhadap
gejala sosial yang berlaku. Tugas untuk membetulkan semula keadaan ini adalah satu
tuntutan Islam dan ia selaras dengan perutusan Rasulullah saw yang membawa risalah
dakwah Islam bagi membimbing umat manusia ke arah kebenaran. Maka, kertas kerja ini
akan cuba membicarakan peranan setiap Muslim sebagai pendakwah khususnya dalam
menanggani masalah gejala sosial yang sedang berlaku. Kertas ini sebenarnya adalah satu
usaha kesinambungan dari beberapa kertas kerja, laporan kajian dan penyelidikan-
penyelidikan yang telah dijalankan oleh ramai ilmuan sebelum ini.
Gejala Sosial Di Kalangan Umat Islam: Satu Analisa Ringkas
Gejala sosial boleh kita huraikan sebagai satu keadaan atau cara hidup yang berlaku di
dalam sesuatu masyarakat yang mana ia bertentangan atau berlawanan dengan ciri-ciri atau
nilai budaya dan juga nilai-nilai keagamaan sesebuah masyarakat. Permasalahan ini wujud
Ab. Halim bin Tamuri & Khadijah Abdul Razak / 829
apabila suasana yang tidak bermoral dan berakhlak wujud dalam pelbagai aspek kehidupan
dan dalam lapisan masyarakat bermula dari hubungan dan pergaulan dalam keluarga,
masyarakat hinggalah kepada aspek kepercayaan dan pegangan hidup. Gejala sosial tidak
terbatas kepada satu golongan atau lapisan masyarakat sahaja, tetapi ia berlaku di semua
peringkat masyarakat, yang muda, tua, kaya, miskin, berpendidikan tinggi, tiada pendidikan,
berpendidikan agama, kurang pendidikan agama, rakyat, pemerintah, ketua dan pekerja.
Aktiviti-aktiviti gejala sosial yang dilakukan oleh mereka itu bertentangan dengan perintah
Allah SWT dan Rasulullah saw serta nilai-nilai ketimuran. Gejala sosial yang berlaku di
kalangan umat Islam pada masa kini tidak hanya tertumpu kepada remaja sahaja malahan
turut melibatkan orang dewasa. Antara contoh-contoh adalah seperti berikut :
a) Remaja ponteng sekolah, melawan guru, membuli pelajar, gangsterisme, dadah, pil
dan ubat khayal, VCD lucah, seks bebas (bohsia, bohjan, homoseksual, hetroseksual dan
lesbian), lepak, vandalisme, rogol, mencabul kehormatan, lari dari rumah, sumbang mahram,
rokok, minum arak, mencuri, khalwat, mengunjungi kelab malam, disko dan karaoke, budaya
dan muzik liar, dan pergaulan bebas
b) Dewasa mendera anak dan isteri, dadah, berjudi, minum arak, seks bebas, sumbang
mahram, mencabul kehormatan, rogol, mencuri, menipu, pukul, buang bayi, melacur,
khalwat, mengunjungi kelab malam, disko dan karaoke, menyimpan perempuan atau lelaki
simpanan, pergaulan bebas, bersekedudukan, dan rasuah
Di kalangan remaja, masalah lepak adalah faktor yang memudahkan lagi mereka terlibat
dengan pelbagai lagi jenis gejala sosial. Kajian-kajian menunjukkan antara kesan-kesan
negatif daripada amalan budaya melepak ialah meningkatkan salah laku pelajar,
meningkatkan kadar jenayah, menambah kes remaja lari dari rumah, menggalakkan remaja
terlibat dengan penyalahgunaan dadah, menggalakkan seks bebas, menjejaskan prestasi
akademik dan juga merosakkan sistem kekeluargaan.
Terdapat beberapa faktor utama menyumbangkan kepada gejala sosial berlaku di
kalangan masyarakat Islam iaitu:
Faktor Perkembangan Diri
Faktor semulajadi perkembangan diri khususnya di kalangan remaja turut mempengaruhi
berlaku gejala sosial. Kita seharusnya mengetahui dan mengkaji kenapa masalah sosial ini
terus berlaku di kalangan remaja. Menurut ahli psikologi barat, zaman remaja adalah satu
tempoh yang sangat kritikal dalam perkembangan diri kerana zaman ini dikenali zaman yang
penuh dengan cabaran dan tekanan storming period. Pada zaman ini mereka sering
mencuba dan perlakuan mereka kadangkala mencetuskan konflik sosial dan anti sosial.
Dengan itu mereka berpandangan remaja seharusnya diberi kebebasan bagi memastikan
mereka dalam mendalami dan mencari pengalaman sesuai dengan perkembangan diri mereka
(Eggen & Kauchak 1997; Zanden 2000). Ada juga pandang ahli psikologi barat yang
mengatakan bahawa kematangan seorang individu akan berlaku selepas mereka melakukan
hubungan seks pertama (Leffert & Peterson 1995). Kefahaman barat sebegini turut menjadi
faktor penyumbang kepada gejala sosial yang berlaku sekarang ini.
Di dalam Islam, zaman remaja adalah satu masa yang sangat penting kerana pada waktu
tersebut mereka telah mula ditaklifkan dengan hukum-hukum Islam. Remaja Muslim tidak
boleh disamakan dengan remaja barat. Maka, para remaja Islam perlu disosialisasikan dengan
nilai-nilai ketimuran dan juga akhlak Islam. Mereka perlu diberikan pengetahuan dan juga
maklumat bagi memastikan mereka mempunyai perkembangan jasmani, emosi, rohani dan
intelektual yang mantap yang boleh membezakan perlakuan yang halal atau haram.
Pendekatan positif dan suasana kondusif perlu diwujudkan agar mereka dapat menerima
maklumat dan pendidikan dengan lebih berkesan. Ciri-ciri semulajadi perkembangan kendiri
830 / ISoIT 2004
remaja tidak boleh dipersalahkan dan aspek ini seharusnya diarahkan ke arah yang baik dan
positif.
Pengaruh Rakan Sebaya
Kajian menunjukkan bahawa rakan sebaya adalah faktor utama yang boleh
mempengaruhi remaja dari melakukan kebaikan malah boleh mempengaruhi mereka
melakukan perkara-perkara negatif, kemaksiatan dan kemungkaran (Rathus 1988; Bradley&
Dubinsky 1994; Bee 1995; Ab. Halim Tamuri 2000). Malahan pengaruh rakan juga boleh
mempengaruhi orang dewasa terjerumus ke lembah maksiat. Rakan sebaya kini telah banyak
mengambil tugas yang disepatutnya dimainkan oleh keluarga. Kajian-kajian banyak
membuktikan bahawa remaja mudah untuk melakukan sesuatu perkara selepas menerima
`nasihat dari rakan-rakan sebaya mereka. Ini bergantung kepada jenis rakan sebaya mereka
jika mereka mendapat rakan yang baik maka mereka akan terarah kepada kebaikan dan begitu
juga sebaliknya.
Kelemahan-Kelemahan Dalam Sistem Pendidikan
Kepincangan yang wujud dalam sistem pendidikan juga turut menjadi faktor berlakunya
gejala sosial. Sebagai contoh, Jabatan Pendidikan Negeri Selangor (2000) telah
mengenalpasti beberapa faktor sekolah yang menyebabkan salah laku pelajar:
guru garang
guru menghadiri mesyuarat dan hal-hal lain di luar sekolah
lokasi/persekitaran sekolah yang tidak menggalakkan
terdapatnya kelas-kelas terapung
teknik P&P guru yang membosankan
bilangan murid yang terlalu ramai dalam satu kelas
bilangan waktu mengajar guru yang terlalu banyak
pertukaran guru
peraturan sekolah terlalu ketat
guru memegang berbagai-bagai jawatan di sekolah
kekurangan guru-guru kaunseling yang terlatih
tugas displin diserah kepada guru disiplin sahaja
Hubungan yang tegang antara pentadbir-guru-murid mewujudkan suasana dan iklim yang
tidak sihat di sekolah tersebut. Keadaan ini akan mengurangkan motivasi pelajar dan
seterusnya menggalakkan berlakunya salah laku pelajar yang berterusan. Maka, hubungan
antara guru dan murid perlu dipertingkatkan untuk memahami dan seterusnya mengurangkan
masalah di kalangan pelajar-pelajar. Program-program yang dilaksanakan di sekolah
seharusnya dapat menarik minat pelajar dan memberikan keseimbangan dari aspek akademik
dan pembangunan diri. Sikap sebahagian pentadbir sekolah dan guru-guru yang hanya
menumpukan kepada kecemerlangan akademik semata-mata harus diperbetulkan. Aspek
pembangunan insan dan penerapan nilai harus diberikan perhatian bagi melahirkan pelajar
yang cemerlang dan bersahsiah tinggi. Namun begitu, berdasarkan kajian yang dijalankan
(rujuk Jadual 1), masih ramai guru yang tidak dapat menerapkan nilai-nilai murni semasa
P&P (Ab. Halim Tamuri 2000).
Ab. Halim bin Tamuri & Khadijah Abdul Razak / 831
Jadual 1 : Kekerapan pengajaran/penerapan nilai dalam P&P KBSM
PERATUS
(N=932)
No ITEM
Tidak
pernah
Jarang-
jarang
Kadang-
kadang
Kerap Sentiasa
a) Bahasa Malaysia
0.2
(2)
17.2
(160)
24.7
(230)
40.0
(373)
17.6
(164)
b) Bahasa Inggeris
4.9
(46)
38.0
(354)
28.9
(269)
22.9
(213)
5.3
(49)
c) Matematik
20.7
(193)
35.3
(329)
21.4
(199)
15.3
(143)
7.2
(67)
d) Sains
7.5
(70)
32.0
(298)
26.1
(243)
25.6
(239)
8.6
(80)
e) Sejarah
2.0
(19)
21.4
(199)
25.3
(236)
36.2
(337)
15.1
(141)
f) Geografi
19.6
(183)
35.3
(329)
24.5
(228)
14.4
(134)
5.0
(47)
g) PJK
6.7
(62)
24.7
(230)
20.8
(194)
29.4
(274)
18.2
(170)
f) Pendidikan Seni
25.9
(241)
38.0
(354)
18.6
(173)
12.6
(117)
4.3
(40)
h) Kemahiran Hidup
8.2
(76)
25.6
(239)
26.6
(248)
25.6
(239)
12.6
(117)
i) Ko-Kurrikulum
7.2
(67)
25.9
(241)
23.6
(220)
26.9
(251)
15.9
(148)
Sikap Negatif Orang Dewasa
Hashim Abdullah (1996) telah mengkritik sikap orang dewasa kerana merekalah
sebenarnya yang mencari penyebab gelaja sosial berlaku khususnya di kalangan remaja.
Dalam aspek peminuman arak di kalangan remaja beberapa soalan telah diutarakan iaitu:
-Di mana mereka mendapat bekalan arak?
-Siapa yang menjualnya?
-Siapa yang membekal dan mengedar?
-Siapa yang membuka kilang arak?
Begitu juga dengan masalah perjudian, konsert hiburan, kelab-kelab malam, disko yang
menjadi bunga dan asas maksiat, siapakah yang menganjurkannya, tuan punya premis dan
siapakah yang memberi kelulusan? Adakah remaja sendiri? Orang dewasa seharusnya
menjadi contoh yang baik kepada remaja dan tidak sepatutnya membuka kelab malam, kedai
judi dan ekor, menganjur konsert dan funfair dan apa juga bentuk pesta-pestaan yang dilarang
oleh Islam. Mengapa kita terus menyalahkan remaja bila berlaku gejala sosial sedangkan
orang dewasa yang tidak bertanggungjawab yang menjadi punca utamanya. Orang dewasa
seperti ini adalah warganegara yang tidak bertanggungjawab dan hanya mementingkan
kekayaan dan keuntungan diri sendiri tanpa memikir kesan dan akibat jangka masa panjang
dari perbuatan yang mereka lakukan kepada generasi muda negara. Contoh lain pula ialah
rasuah yang dilakukan oleh orang dewasa di dalam masyarakat, pemimpin dan ketua yang
tidak bertanggungjawab.
Keadaan ini ditambah dengan kurangnya aktiviti-aktiviti yang menarik yang dianjurkan
oleh persatuan atau pertubuhan belia. Banyak persatuan belia yang hidup segan mati tak
832 / ISoIT 2004
mahu dan ditadbir dengan tradisional management. Di tambah pula dengan kewujudan ramai
pimpinan belia yang berumur lebih dari 30 tahun dan malahan terdapat pertubuhan belia yang
dipimpin oleh belia yang hampir pencen. Tentunya, cita rasa kepimpinan belia seperti
bertentangan dengan kemahuan belia masa kini. Kita seharusnya bersimpati dengan generasi
muda masa kini kerana mereka telah dilahirkan dalam suasana yang penuh dengan cabaran
dan dugaan yang kita sendiri belum tentu akan mampu untuk mengatasinya jika kita
dilahirkan di zaman ini juga. Jangan terlalu mudah untuk menuding jari kepada remaja atau
generasi ke atas masalah yang berlaku sedangkan masalah itu berpunca dari kelemahan dan
kesalahan yang dilakukan oleh generasi dewasa.
Kelemahan Sistem Kawalan Sosial
Sikap tidak ambil peduli oleh ahli masyarakat turut menjadi faktor berlakunya masalah
sosial di negara kita. Dalam masyarakat tradisi, setiap anggota masyarakat menjadi mata
dan ibu bapa kepada anak-anak muda. Sikap tolong menolong dan saling kenal mengenali
serta mengambil berat telah mewujudkan sistem kawalan sosial yang kukuh. Namun
wujudnya sikap individualistik dan materialistik menjadikan sistem kawalan sosial kita
menjadi semakin lemah. Kehidupan di apartment, kondominium mewah, rumah pangsa dan
rumah berpagar menjadikan keadaan ini semakin lemah ditambah pula dengan kesibukan
bekerja. Fungsi masjid dan surau juga semakin longgar dengan kekurangan jemaah. Sistem
ini perlu dipulihkan semula dengan mengimarahkan surau dan masjid dan menjadikan
institusi-instutisi ini sebagai pusat ibadah dan sosial.
Konsep jangan jaga tepi kain orang perlu ditafsir dan diberi penjelasan semula kepada
masyarakat agar mereka boleh berfungsi sebagai ahli-ahli masyarakat yang prihatin dengan
masalah dan keadaan masyarakat di sekitarnya. Dapatan kajian dibawah menunjukkan
bahawa peranan jiran dalam memberikan nasihat kepada generasi muda amat
membimbangkan di mana 28.9% dari responden mengatakan mereka tidak pernah menerima
nasihat daripada jiran mereka dan 54.3% menyatakan mereka jarang-jarang menerima nasihat
daripada jiran tetangga mereka.
Jadual 2: Kekerapan memberi nasihat
No. ITEM
PERATUS
(N=932)
Tidak
penah
Jarang-
jarang
Kadang-
kadang
Kerap Sentiasa
a) Ibu bapa/Penjaga
0.2
(2)
3.4
(32)
6.9
(64)
22.4
(209)
66.8
(623)
b) Adikberadik
7.0
(65)
43.6
(406)
23.1
(215)
20.2
(188)
6.2
(58)
c) Rakan
3.3
(31)
45.1
(420)
27.7
(258)
17.7
(165)
6.2
(58)
d) Jiran
28.9
(269)
54.3
(506)
9.7
(90)
6.2
(58)
1.0
(9)
Keluarga Yang Tidak Berfungsi
Kajian telah banyak menunjukkan bahawa ibu bapa/penjaga mempunyai yang penting
dalam perkembangan seseorang remaja. Kajian yang dijalankan oleh Fariza Md. Sham (1998)
telah menunjukkan bahawa corak tingkah laku keibubapaan adalah paling penting dan
berkesan bagi perkembangan psikologi remaja Muslim. Beliau menegaskan bahawa sikap ibu
bapa terhadap remaja harus dinyatakan dalam tingkah laku yang dapat dipersepsi dan
Ab. Halim bin Tamuri & Khadijah Abdul Razak / 833
diinterpretasi oleh remaja sebagai sumber maklumat dalam pembentukan akhlak dan nilai
peribadi yang berasaskan kepada Islam. Kajian oleh Norhaslinda Ahmad (1999) juga
mendapati bahawa perpecahan atau perpisahan keluarga adalah faktor utama yang mendorong
remaja melakukan kesalahan juvana. Dengan kata lain, ada keluarga yang tidak dapat
berfungsi dengan baik. Remaja yang kurang mendapat tumpuan dari ibu bapa akan
mengalami kekosongan jiwa dan tidak mempunyai tempat pergantungan yang sebenar.
Sehubungan dengan itu, kita harus mengenal pasti apakah yang dikatakan sebagai keluarga
yang tidak berfungsi. Mohd Amin (1998) telah menggariskan lima ciri keluarga yang tidak
berfungsi:
Perjalanan keluarga yang menyeleweng dari matlamat hidup berkeluarga
Gagal menjalankan tugas keibu bapaan
Suasana kekeluargaan yang tidak selesa
Setiap ahli keluarga mempunyai masalah
Gejala psikologi dapat dilihat
Persekitaran Yang Menggalakkan Maksiat Dan Jenayah
Kewujudan pusat rekreasi dan taman-taman bunga adalah untuk tujuan berehat, berkelah
dan program kemasyarakatan. Namun begitu, kemudahan awam ini telah disalahgunakan oleh
orang yang tidak bertanggungjawab sebagai pusat maksiat. Tempat peranginan yang sunyi
serta kondominium yang eksklusif disalahgunakan untuk tempat maksiat tanpa gangguan dari
masyarakat luar dan pihak berkuasa. Jenayah seperti merompak dan merogol juga mudah
berlaku di kawasan seperti ini jika kurang pengawasan dari orang ramai dan pihak yang
berkuasa. Kemunculan pusat hiburan, kompleks membeli belah di bandar dan kotaraya telah
memberikan peluang yang sangat luas kepada para remaja untuk melepak, berpeleseran,
dating dan membuang masa. Ini ditambah dengan konsert-konsert yang dianjurkan oleh
pusat-pusat membeli belah bagi menarik pelanggan. Bagi memburukkan situasi, terdapat
pihak tertentu menganjurkan funfair, dan konsert-konsert mega. Malah kebanjiran bahan-
bahan negatif dari majalah hiburan (dari dalam atau luar negeri), suratkhabar hiburan, VCD,
TV, radio serta internet telah menimbulkan masalah yang begitu serius kepada perkembangan
sahsiah remaja masa kini. Remaja dan orang dewasa mudah terjebak, mencuba dan
menggalakkan mereka terjerumus ke lembah maksiat disebabkan pendedahan mereka kepada
bahan-bahan lucah. Kesibukan keluarga menyebabkan mereka tidak dapat memberikan
tumpuan kepada pendidikan anak-anak dan membiarkan anak-anak mereka secara bebas
menonton TV, VCD dan melayari laman-laman web tanpa pemantauan, bimbingan dan
tunjuk ajar daripada ibu bapa.
Peranan Pendakwah Dalam Menangani Gejala Sosial
Dalam menangani gejala sosial yang berlaku di dalam masyarakat, peranan setiap
individu Muslim adalah amat penting. Maka, kefahaman terhadap konsep dan pelaksanaan
dakwah adalah amat diperlukan. Perkembangan negatif yang melibatkan remaja dan orang
dewasa Muslim perlu ditangani dengan lebih serius dan bijaksana. Kelambatan dalam
memberikan perhatian kepada mereka boleh merosakkan masa hadapan negara. Perlaksanaan
undang-undang yang ada pada masa kini tidak akan mampu menyelesaikan masalah sosial
yang berlaku kerana kesalahan yang diperuntukkan dalam Enakmen Pentadbiran Undang-
undang Islam adalah terlalu kecil berbanding dengan jenis kesalahan-kesalahan dalam Islam
(Mohd Daud Bakar 1995).
Maka, peranan pendakwah adalah amat penting dalam memberikan kesedaran kepada
masyarakat tentang ajaran Islam dan pelaksanaannya dalam kehidupan seharian. Konsep
834 / ISoIT 2004
Tauhid perlu diterapkan dalam setiap aspek kehidupan individu Muslim. Metode dan
pendekatan perlu dipelbagaikan bagi memaksimum keberkesanan dakwah. Peranan
pendakwah dalam menangani gejala sosial boleh dilihat dari beberapa aspek seperti berikut:
Kemahiran Dan Pendekatan
Dakwah merupakan suatu proses yang berterusan dengan matlamat untuk mengubah
sasaran dakwah agar bersedia menuju ke jalan Allah, dan secara berperingkat mengarah
kepada kehidupan yang Islami. Suatu proses berterusan memerlukan perancangan dan
pendekatan yang sistematik yang boleh dilaksanakan dan dinilai secara terus-menerus agar ia
dapat mengubah tingkah laku madu sesuai dengan matlamat yang telah dirumus (Syamsul
Bahri 2003).
Sebagaimana yang telah difahami, pendekatan secara hikmah dan nasihat yang baik dan
bijaksana adalah amat penting dalam menjalankan tugas dakwah, khususnya di kalangan
remaja dan generasi muda. Bagi mendekati mereka, kita harus menggunakan strategi yang
berhemah dengan penuh kasih sayang dan sopan santun. Madu perlu melihat pendakwah
sebagai individu yang boleh diajak berbincang dan dipercayai. Dengan itu, mereka dapat
meluahkan perasaan mereka tanpa wujud rasa segan dan malu. Tugas kita menyampaikan
dengan cara yang terbaik dan bukan memaksa dengan keras dan berhujah sehingga
menimbulkan kemarahan dan ketegangan antara dai dan madunya. Metode kita harus dapat
membawa mesej dakwah yang dapat memberikan keuntungan. Ramai remaja Muslim yang
melakukan kesalahan disebabkan kejahilan atau disebabkan pengaruh luaran. Seharusnya kita
perlu bijak untuk memilih pendekatan yang paling baik dan sesuai terhadap madu bagi
memastikan mereka memahami ajaran Islam itu sendiri.
Madu yang menjadi sasaran dakwah tidak boleh dianggap sebagai individu yang statik
dan tidak berkembang. Oleh itu, dakwah tidak boleh diarahkan hanya kepada penyampaian
ceramah dalam pengertian yang sempit dan berkisar kepada perkara-perkara bersifat ibadah
semata-mata. Setting masyarakat masa kini dengan pelbagai corak dan keadaannya perlu
dianalisis bagi mendapatkan input dalam rangka penyempurnaan serta menentukan
kemahiran dan pendekatan dakwah yang efektif.
Sirah Nabawiyyah adalah contoh yang terbaik yang perlu kita ikuti. Persoalannya
sejauhmanakah kefahaman dan penghayatan terhadap konsep hikmah ini? Apakah benar dan
tepat kefahaman kita terhadap konsep hikmah? Atau hikmah yang kita fahami itu
sememangnya hikmah atau pun sebaliknya. Maka, setiap pendakwah perlu mempunyai
kemahiran atau metode dakwah yang berasaskan kepada Firman Allah dalam Surah Al-Nahl:
125
Maksudnya: Serulah (manusia hai Muhammad) kepada jalan Tuhanmu dengan hikmat
dan mauizah (nasihat) yang baik, dan berbahaslah dengan mereka dengan cara yang lebih
baik.
Selain itu pendakwah perlu mencari role model kepada setiap individu Muslim kerana
kebanyakan remaja kini tidak mempunyai role model yang baik. Ibu bapa kadangkala tidak
dilihat sebagai role model disebabkan kekurangan dan kelemahan yang ada pada ibu bapa
sendiri. Organisasi dakwah perlu memperbanyakkan lagi forum, perbincangan serta usrah dan
juga Islamic peer-group counseling, yang boleh menarik minat ahli masyarakat yang
bermasalah.
Pendakwah perlu menjadi sebuah pohon yang rendang bagi melindungi individu yang
bermasalah dalam masyarakat. Metode ceramah kadangkala kurang berkesan kerana mesej
yang disampaikan kurang sesuai dengan tahap ilmu pendengar serta tidak wujud interaksi dua
hala antara mereka. Pada pandangan Syamsul Bahri (2003), dakwah sering disalahertikan
sebagai suatu pesanan yang datang dari luar. Oleh itu, pendekatan dakwah lebih diwarnai
dengan pendekatan interventif dan dai pula meletakkan diri mereka sebagai orang asing yang
Ab. Halim bin Tamuri & Khadijah Abdul Razak / 835
tidak berkait langsung dengan apa yang dirasakan dan diperlukan oleh masyarakat sebagai
madunya.
Selain itu, metode tradisional penyampaian ilmu yang sering digunakan pada masa kini
perlu disepadukan dan disesuaikan dengan pemikiran generasi muda. Kajian mendapati
pendekatan yang tidak formal seperti sukan, khidmat atau perkhemahan lebih menarik minat
golongan remaja berbanding orientasi dakwah berbentuk ceramah dalam pengertian yang
sempit.
Fungsi dan peranan institusi masjid perlu dimaksimakan dan ia dapat memenuhi minat
dan kegemaran remaja yang sememangnya fobia dengan masjid. Fizikal, tataatur dan
persekitaran masjid seharusnya dapat merangsang kehadiran remaja. Kemudahan
kemasyarakatan perlu dipertingkatkan lagi bagi memenuhi hasrat dan kesesuaian generasi
muda masa kini. Pendakwah juga harus mempunyai kemahiran dalam penggunaan alat-alat
komunikasi terkini terutama komputer. Mereka harus berkemahiran dalam melayari laman-
laman web dan membina laman web mereka sendiri. Laman-laman web on-line untuk
kaunseling Islam perlu ditambah dan penggunaannya perlu dipopularkan.
Pengetahuan Dalam Bidang Psikologi
Pendakwah juga perlu mempunyai kemahiran psikologi kerana perkembangan seseorang
individu banyak dipengaruhi oleh perkembangan sosio-budaya, sosio-ekonomi, psiko-sosial,
kognitif, moral dan latar belakang keagamaan. Tentunya kita tidak boleh mengambil secara
total idea atau pandangan dari barat seperti Kholberg, Ericsson dan Piaget akan tetapi boleh
dijadikan maklumat tambahan dan perbandingan kepada perdakwah. Ini disebabkan wujud
sebahagian ahli masyarakat kita menerima secara total, secara sedar atau tidak sedar,
pandangan-pandangan barat tanpa menyesuaikan dengan suasana dan biah masyarakat kita.
Seharusnya, pendakwah merujuk kepada metodologi pendidikan dan psikologi yang telah
diasaskan oleh Rasulullah saw yang kemudiannya dikembangkan oleh al-Farabi, Ibnu Sina,
Abu Hassan Al-Mawardi, Al-Ghazali dan Ibnu Khaldun (Hassan Langgung 1981).
Tujuan utama dakwah ialah untuk memberikan bimbingan kepada manusia untuk
mendapat keredhaan Allah SWT. Tentunya dakwah memerlukan metode yang berkesan
kerana ia melibatkan aspek perkembangan jiwa, hati dan perasaan. Ab Aziz (1999) telah
merumuskan pandangan Al-Qardawi bahawa antara ilmu yang paling berguna untuk seorang
dai ialah ilmu psikologi kerana ia:
Menerangkan tanda-tanda dan hasil-hasil yang berfaedah kepada iman dan penghayatan
agama seseorang
Menolong untuk memahami dalil-dalil agama dan tafsir-tafsir yang sesuai dengan akal
semasa
Boleh menambahkan maklumat untuk memahami rahsia hukum syarak yang boleh
membawa penambahan iman
Menolong pendakwah memahami jiwa sasaran, penumpuan sasaran dan cara
mempengaruhi jiwa mereka dengan lebih mudah
Pendakwah yang mempunyai ilmu psikologi akan mendapat kelebihan kerana ilmu
psikologi membantu seorang dai mengkaji faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi perkembangan
seseorang individu khususnya yang berkaitan dengan perubahan sikap dan personaliti. Di
samping itu, pendakwah juga akan dapat menganalisa proses, pendekatan dan keberkesanan
dakwah yang disampaikan.
Kemahiran Interaksi Dan Komuniskasi
Proses dakwah boleh dihubungkaitkan dengan proses pendidikan yang memerlukan
interaksi yang berkesan antara dai dan madu. Malah, untuk menjadi lebih efektif lagi,
836 / ISoIT 2004
dakwah boleh dihubungkaitkan dengan kemahiran bimbingan dan kaunseling. Dalam
dakwah, kemahiran interaksi adalah penting bagi memaksimumkan keberkesanan dakwah
yang diberikan. Dalam kaunseling, suasana yang membolehkan seseorang merasa bebas,
tidak tertekan dan bertanggunjawab terhadap diri sendiri dikenali sebagai suasana teraputik.
Dr. Zuria Mahmud dan Salleh Amat dari Fakulti Pendidikan, Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia (2000) telah memperkenalkan model interaksi teraputik dalam pendidikan.
Pendekatan ini boleh disesuaikan dan diaplikasikan dalam proses menyampaikan dakwah.
Dalam dakwah, langkah-langkah interaksi teraputik boleh disesuaikan seperti berikut:
Langkah 1 Membina Hubungan. Dalam langkah pertama ini, pendakwah berusaha
mewujudkan suasana kondusif yang membolehkan interaksi dengan madu. Beberapa
kemahiran perlu dilaksanakan iaitu:
Ekspektasi yang sihat pendakwah perlu mengenali latar belakang dai sebelum beliau
menyampaikan mesejnya
Membina imej yang kongruen pendakwah perlu mempamerkan imej diri sebagai insan
yang boleh dicontohi melalui tingkah laku lisan dan bukan lisan
Membina peraturan Pendakwah perlu memberi kefahaman adab-adab, nilai-nilai akhlak
serta batasan-batasan halal dan haram dalam komunikasi dan hubungan.
Langkah 2 Mengenali Masalah. Pendakwah cuba mengenal pasti permasalahan yang
dihadapi oleh madu. Kemahiran yang perlu ialah:
Soalan yang boleh dijawab Memberikan peluang kepada madu menerangkan masalah
yang dihadapi
Mesej saya Pendakwah memberikan pandang beliau
Mesej anda Memahami yang apa yang tersirat dalam diri madu dan cuba membantu
beliau
Langkah 3 Mencari Penyelesaian. Mencari beberapa alternatif dalam menyelesaikan
masalah yang timbul. Masalah yang timbul mungkin tidak dapat diselesaikan dengan satu
cara sahaja. Ini boleh mengajak mad`u berfikir tentang cara menyelesaikan masalahnya. Dua
kemahiran boleh dilakukan:
Apa yang kita mahu Pendakwah menerangkan apakah hasrat atau harapan yang mahu
dilihat oleh beliau.
Apa yang kita boleh buat Pendakwah akan bertanya langkah-langkah seterusnya untuk
memperbaiki masalah atau meningkat keadaan
Langkah 4 Pelaksanaan. Mad`u melaksanakan apa yang telah diperbincangkan antara
mereka.
Langkah 5 Penilaian. Ia dilakukan untuk menilai sejauhmanakah keberkesanan kaedah,
pendekatan dan proses dakwah yang dijalankan.
Interaksi teraputik dapat meningkatkan lagi keberkesanan proses dakwah khususnya di
kalangan remaja dan belia kerana mereka diberi peluang untuk berkongsi pandangan dalam
menyelesaikan permasalahan yang mereka hadapi. Mereka tidak akan merasa diketepikan
malah dihargai oleh masyarakat. Adalah lebih baik lagi jika setiap ibu dan bapa dapat
didedahkan kemahiran-kemahiran ini bagi memantapkan lagi pengurusan kekeluargaan
mereka. Pendekatan bimbingan dan kaunseling dapat digunakan dalam dakwah kerana apa
juga bentuk pendekatan boleh digunakan dalam dakwah asalkan tidak bercanggah dengan
syarak.
Di dalam era globalisasi, di samping peperangan fizikal, kita turut menyaksikan
pertembungan dan pertempuran ideologi dan pemikiran yang memerlukan pelbagai bentuk
strategi. Strategi yang digunakan tentunya berbeza antara satu zaman dengan zaman yang lain
dan sesuai dengan perkembangan semasa. Pengalaman yang telah dilalui oleh generasi
terdahulu seharusnya dijadikan panduan dan iktibar oleh para pendakwah di dalam
melaksanakan tugas mereka.
Ab. Halim bin Tamuri & Khadijah Abdul Razak / 837
Penutup
Gejala sosial yang melanda masyarakat Islam masa kini perlu ditanggani dengan lebih
bersungguh-sungguh lagi. Keberkesanan dakwah berkait rapat dengan pelbagai faktor
antaranya psikologi manusia. Pengetahuan tentang perkembangan manusia akan dapat
membantu dan memudahkan lagi para dai dalam menyampaikan mesejnya. Pendakwah perlu
memainkan peranan dalam menghapuskan gejala sosial atau sekurang-kurang mengurangkan
gejala sosial yang berlaku di kalangan umat Islam. Metodologi dan kemahiran para
pendakwah adalah amat penting dalam usaha menyampaikan Islam kepada masyarakat. Di
samping itu, penyelidikan-penyelidikan perlu diperbanyakkan untuk memastikan pendakwah
mendapat maklumat yang tepat dan tidak bergantung kepada maklumat secondary atau
andaian-andaian tanpa sebarang sokongan atau fakta tepat. Kini sudah tiba masanya pakej-
pakej dakwah disusun dengan mengambil kira sasaran dakwah mengikut stratafikasi madu
sama ada berasaskan usia, tahap pendidikan, sosio ekonomi dan juga persekitaran sosial.
Para pendakwah perlu mempunyai kemahiran serta pengetahuan yang terkini bagi
memaksimumkan keberkesanan dakwah yang dilaksanakan. Pendakwah perlu juga
memberikan kesedaran kepada masyarakat bahawa tugas dakwah adalah tugas yang perlu
dilaksanakan secara kolektif kerana mereka adalah saling lengkap melengkapi. Setiap lapisan
pemimpin dan ahli masyarakat harus diberi kefahaman tentang peranan mereka untuk
mencegah gejala sosial di dalam masyarakat. Mereka perlu melihat tanggungjawab ini
sebagai tugas dakwah dan amanah dari Allah SWT. Di samping itu, fungsi yang dimainkan
oleh masyarakat harus mendapat sokongan yang sepenuhnya daripada semua pihak
khususnya daripada pihak pemerintah.
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838 / ISoIT 2004
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al (pnyt). Intelektualisme & dakwah masa kini. Kuala Lumpur: KUIM, pp 37-50.
Seyyed Hossein Nasr. 1993. A young Muslims guide to the modern worl., Cambridge: The Islamic
Texts Society.
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Dr. Ab. Halim Bin Tamuri
Jabatan Perkaedahan dan Amalan Pendidikan
Fakulti Pendidikan
Khadijah Abdul Razak
Jabatan Asas Pendidikan
Fakulti Pendidikan
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
43600 Bangi
Selangor
Malaysia.
Reviewing The Solid Waste (Huwac) As Alternative Fuel
in Brick Production Toward Rationality and Islam
Soeparjono
Abstract
It was necessary to find alternative fuel with low price because diminishing of petroleum
stock and the difficulties to found wood with cheap price as the fuel for small industry of
brick production. This research has purposed to know the combustion heating value of
HuWAC waste as alternative fuel for brick production, and the review on rationality and
religion. The objective was HuWAC waste of monosodium glutamat plant AJINOMOTO
Mojokerto with random sample that dried by sun heating. The research used quantitative
approach of descriptive plan. The substances that combusted in sample were being corrected.
The data collected directly by calorimeter device. The research result point out that the
combustion heating value which calculated by Dulong Formula, LVH=2614 kcal/kg and
HHV = 2745 kcal/kg, while with calorimeter device Hgr = 2728 kcal/kg. It indicated that
HuWAC could be used as the alternative fuel for small industry of brick production. As
alternative fuel, so the HuWAC waste did not deviate from rationality and religion aspects.
Introduction
The fuel is one component or material that consumed to produce energy. In the small
industri such as brick production, the fuel used to burn the raw brick to be the finished brick.
This kind of small industry could be found in the Wates Umpak Village, Trowulan Sub
Regency and Mojokerto Regency. The craftsman previously always using used teak as the
fuel, used woods from the port unloading and husk and berambut. The field survey shown
that for three fuel above, the craftsman spends equal cost to burn the same amount of bricks.
While the berambut volume that needed for combustion was higher than wood fuel. The
scarceness of wood fuel and the expensiveness wood price caused the brick craftsman still
using berambut as the fuel. This choice was rational because berambut was easy to found in
Mojokerto area. But the combustion time was longer than using wood fuel. The using of
berambut continuously was one kind of exploitation. This energy exploitation make some
craftsman that depend on one kind of energy source realized that they need conversion,
conservation and development and also to find new energy sources. The searching,
developing and excavating effort of new sources was the responsibility of the scientist
(Sitompul, 1985:2).
Therefore, it was necessary to do any searching, excavating effort of new sources as the
alternative that have substitution nature or supporting the berambut fuel. Considering that the
industry scale which involved the craftsman have little capital, so the attention to the new
sources must oriented to the closeness and the price cheapness. In the area around the
craftsman (Mojokerto) there were HuWAC solid waste from the producing of monosodium
glutamat in PT. AJINOMOTO Indonesia that during this time have been thrown to disposal
area (Hasyim, 2000:3).
840 / ISoIT 2004
About the fuel Nursuhut (1987:28) suggested the importance of combusting heating
value for the combustion needs. Refer to this statement whether the waste has combustion
value that reasonable to use, therefore it was need any research. The determination of
HuWAC combustion heating value can be done by calorimeter device and finished by using
the formula:
Hgr =
m
e e e txw ) (
3 2 1
calorie/gr (P3GL, 1978: 10), to calculated the heat value.
While Silalahi (1985:45) showing the Dulong formula: HHV= 81xc + 344(H-0/8) + 25 x S
and LHV = 21xc + 290 (H-0/8) + 25 x S 6 x H
2
O to determine the amount of combustion
heating value of fuel.
This HuWAC was come from the making process of monosodium glutamat chemically,
so this waste still contain chemical substances that presumed have potential as thermal
energy. If the energy released in one reaction so the reacting called exothermic reaction and
expressed in the Btu or Kcal (Nursuhut, 1987:7). Therefore, to obtain the certainty about the
substances contained in the waste, especially the carbon substance it was necessary to make
laboratory test. Carbon was one substance that can be burned and the important part of
hydrocarbon substance. According to the purpose above so the laboratory test has been done
to obtained the kind and the substance content in the waste.
Laboratory testing as scientist responsibility in searching indication proof about HuWac
waste properly potential as fuel. Without testing process did not obtained empirical prove on
carbon level content from waste. Empirical evidence is thinking and also action which have
short term and length term goal. In testing process also given a short term and length term
thinking need physically employing. In employing physical working instinct, intellect and
also emotion.
From the kind of substance content in the waste will be find. The description about the
existence or not existence of chemical substances that generally contained in the fuel.
Generally the chemical substances that contain in the fuel: Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H) and
Sulfur (S) (Sitompul, 1985). These three substances were the indicators that HuWAC waste
has potential as the fuel. Beside the chemical content, especially carbon also become the
measuring rod whether the waste suitable to use as the fuel. Each fuel contain different degree
of chemical substances, for instance carbon substance (C) for the fuel of cane sugar waste
28%-30%, wood 35%, coal 81%, coke 87%, and residual oil 87% (Hasyim, 2000:22).
Empirically the heating value of such fuel from some kind of fuel with the content of carbon
substance can be saw in the Table 1 that adapted from (Abel, 1982: 47)
Table 1. Low Combustion Value
Chemical substance content in % The kind of fuel
C H O N S H
2
O Ash
Low combustion value kcal/kg
1. Baggase 30 3 20 - - 47 2 2375
2. Melasse 32 - - - - - - 4000
3. Wood 35 5 30 0,5 0,5 25 4 4000
4. Coal 40 5 25 0,5 0,5 25 4 8000
This research generally was to know the heating value of HuWAC waste, both purely or
mixed with berambut as the alternative fuel in the brick production
Method
This research was descriptive research because the researcher has purpose to know
(Kunto, 1998: 29) whether the HuWAC solid waste can be used as alternative fuel for
Soeparjono / 841
substituting wood dan oil. The object was the waste of HuWAC from monosodium glutamat
that discarded in the waste disposal area PT. AJINOMOTO Indonesia, with using perfect
random sample. The test treatment by 5 times experiments with 5 samples that for each
sample provided 2 package of solid waste mass that have been dried in the sun heating until
dry for 4 days.
The experiments done according to the procedure that have determined in the research
laboratory and industry consultation Surabaya with used calorimeter device Oxygen
Combustion Bomb kind to collect data. Data that have collected were being tabulated and
analyzed used technical of descriptive statistic analysis. For sample 1 until 5 the occurring
combustion heat calculated with formula Hgr. Beside that, sample 1 until 5 that known for
their chemical substances composition calculated for combustion heating value with Dulong
formula namely HHV= 81xc + 344(H-0/8) + 25 x S and LHV = 21xc + 290 (H-0/8) + 25 x S
6 x H
2
O. This analysis then compared with fuel value result that empirically exists.
Result
Based on the sample that have been prepared for doing chemical substance composition
test from HuWAC waste in the LPKI Laboratorium Surabaya, obtained data as presented in
the Table 2.
Table 2. Chemical Substances Content from HuWAC (in %)
Sample
Number
H
2
O/
Moist
H O FC C S
Ppm
TS Fe
1 8,02 4,30 23,68 9,60 28,00 4,60 0,061 0,0019
2 7,98 4,35 22,45 8,30 27,35 5,10 0,059 0,0020
3 8,11 4,60 24,15 9,40 27,10 6,10 0,062 0,0019
4 8,08 4,32 23,60 9,10 27,55 5,70 0,061 0,0019
5 8,06 4,33 23,35 8,80 27,72 5,30 0,063 0,0021
The content of Table 2 point out that HuWAC as the solid waste has potential for its
high carbon (C) content that was quantitatively-27,1 28,01.
The experiment with calorimeter device that completed with supporting materials on
sample 1 until sample 5 for the determination of combustion heating value presented in Table
3, Table 4, Table 5, Table 6 and Table 7.
Sample 1 until sample 5 as the research object that have been known their chemical
substance contents above, then determined for combustion heating value to each with Dulong
formula and the result were as follows:
Sample 1 : HHV = 2728,97 kcal/kg
LHV = 2608, 50 kcal/kg
Sample 2 : HHV = 2745,12 kcal/kg
LHV = 2614, 10 kcal/kg
Sample 3 : HHV = 2738,64 kcal/kg
LHV = 2604, 65 kcal/kg
Sample 4 : HHV = 2702,84 kcal/kg
LHV = 2580, 38 kcal/kg
Sample 5 : HHV = 2730,71 kcal/kg
LHV = 2606, 16 kcal/kg
Table 3. The Experiment Result of Sample 1
842 / ISoIT 2004
Minutes TC The increasing of
temperature per minutes
Average of increasing (C)
0 28,380 0,000
1 28,420 0,040
2 28,435 0,015 0,06625
3 28,445 0,010
4 28,650 0,205
5 28,650 0,000
6 29,010 0,360
7 29,420 0,410
8 29,585 0,165
9 29,658 0,073
10 29,718 0,060 0,14000
11 29,735 0,017
12 29,739 0,004
13 29,730 0,009
14 29,730 0,000
Hgr = 2723 cal/gr
For sample 1 prepared two mass package, namely mass = 0,9997 gr and mass = 0,885 gr
dried with sun heating for 3 4 days that used for experiment on calorimeter. With Hgr
formula obtained the combustion heating value by Hgr = 2723 cal/gr.
For sample 2 prepared two mass package of HuWAC solid waste that have been dried in
the sun heating 3 4 days namely mass = 0,998 gr and mass = 0,880 gr, that used for
experiment in calorimeter. With Hgr formula obtained the combustion heating value by Hgr =
2731,2 cal/gr.
Table 4. The Experiment Result of Sample 2
Minutes TC The increasing of
temperature per minutes
Average of increasing (C)
0 28,375 0,000
1 28,400 0,025
2 28,435 0,035 0,06875
3 28,445 0,020
4 28,650 0,195
5 28,650 0,000
6 29,975 0,325
7 29,310 0,335
8 29,605 0,295
9 29,670 0,065
10 29,715 0,045 0,15643
11 29,735 0,020
12 29,745 0,010
13 29,745 0,000
14 29,745 0,000
Hgr = 2731, 2 cal/gr
Table 5. The Experiment Result of Sample 3
Minutes TC The increasing of Average of increasing (C)
Soeparjono / 843
temperature per minutes
0 28,380 0,000
1 28,425 0,045
2 28,440 0,015 0,06875
3 28,445 0,015
4 28,655 0,200
5 28,655 0,000
6 29,885 0,230
7 29,185 0,230
8 29,415 0,230
9 29,505 0,090
10 29,535 0,030 0,115625
11 29,550 0,015
12 29, 565 0,015
13 29,580 0,015
14 29,580 0,000
15 29,580 0,000
Hgr = 2708 cal/gr
For this sample 3 prepared two mass package of HuWAC solid waste that have been
dried in the sun heating for 3 4 days namely mass = 0,9992 gr and mass = 0,765 gr, that
used for experiment in calorimeter. With Hgr formula obtained the combustion heating value
by Hgr = 2708 cal/gr.
Table 6. The Experiment Result of Sample 4
Minutes TC The increasing of
temperature per minutes
Average of increasing (C)
0 28,385 0,000
1 28,400 0,015
2 28,450 0,050 0,06625
3 28,500 0,050
4 28,650 0,150
5 28,650 0,000
6 29,900 0,250
7 29,210 0,310
8 29,315 0,105
9 29,510 0,195
10 29,625 0,115 0,15214
11 29,685 0,060
12 29, 715 0,030
13 29,715 0,000
Hgr = 2700, 87 cal/gr
For sample 4 prepared two mass package of HuWAC solid waste that have been dried in
the sun heating for 3 4 days namely mass = 0,9993 gr and mass = 0,870 gr, that used for
experiment in calorimeter. With Hgr formula obtained the combustion heating value by Hgr =
2700,87 cal/gr.
For sample 5 prepared two mass package of HuWAC solid waste that have been dried in
the sun heating for 3 4 days that was mass = 0,9990 gr and mass = 0,810 gr, that used for
844 / ISoIT 2004
experiment in calorimeter. With Hgr formula obtained the combustion heating value by Hgr =
2728,5 cal/gr.
Table 7. The Experiment Result of Sample 5
Minutes TC The increasing of
temperature per minutes
Average of increasing (C)
1 28,380 0,000
2 28,425 0,045 0,0675
3 28,445 0,020
4 28,530 0,850
5 28,650 0,120
6 29,650 0,000
7 29,905 0,255
8 29,200 0,295
9 29,325 0,125
10 29,415 0,090 0,1206
11 29,575 0,160
12 29, 600 0,060
13 29,635 0,025
14 29,640 0,005
15 29,640 0,000
Hgr = 2728,5 cal/gr
Discussion
Based on the chemical substance testing toward the HuWAC solid waste in LPKI
Surabaya that shown in Table 2 indicated that those waste still contain carbon substance (C)
that is the prime substance in the process combustion of fuel. In that combustion process,
such fuel could be determined for combustion heating value through several formulations.
The chemical substance composition from sample 1 until sample 5 indicated average carbon
content (C) in the amount 27,5% that still under the carbon content (C) for Baggase namely
30% with combustion heat value 2375 kcal/kg. From calculation that used Dulong formula to
determine the total combustion heating value for HuWAC waste obtained as follows: (1) For
average higher heating value HHV = 2729,25 kcal/kg and; (2) for average lower combustion
heating value LHV = 2602, 75 kcal/kg.
The combustion heat value of alternative fuel also could be determined with Hgr formula
after the test data from calorimeter device obtained. The result of the fifth experiment
samples after entered into formula obtained the average combustion heating value namely
Hgr = 2718, 31 kcal/kg or Hgr = 2781, 31 kcal/kg. Observed from the amount of lower
combustion heating value from Dulong formula LHV = 2602,75 kcal/kg and combustion
heating value Hgr = 2781,31 kcal/kg and compared with bagasse that have combustion
heating value 2375 kcal/kg. So it was indicated that HuWAC solid waste could be chosen as
alternative fuel because it has combustion heating value that can be equalized or even better
than bagasse. Bagasse was the solid waste of cane sugar that has been through milling
process and has been introduced as fuel in cane sugar plane. The obtained of slightly higher
combustion heating value of HuWAC waste than bagasse combustion heating value was one
responsibility effort of scientists toward the searching and excavating of new energy sources.
A scientists comprise group of people who has highly rationality in thinking and action
that could be responsibility. Their thought and action reached short term and length term with
Soeparjono / 845
considered any effect that would be rise in their environment. According to Indriati Ismail
(2004 : 1) said that healthy Minda is mover harmonious between Religion and Nation. Then
if healthy thought was obtained, scientists become mover congeniality between religion and
nation. Regarding with scientist responsibility, the writer attempt to present preceding topic
to lead healthy rationality. Study conducting have HuWaC potential to be low-price
alternative fuel for brick craftsman comprise thought which have healthy rationality? In this
study found that carbon element contained by HuWac indicate to be fuel material. This
indication showed by waste testing result contain average carbon level 27% with combustion
heating value align with Bagasse.
From above statement show about rationality and responsibility of scientist to proved it.
So review from rationality aspect toward solid waste HuWac as alternative fuel can be
fulfilled. Meanwhile scientists in conduct their activities searching and digging new energy
resources not only involved physically but get along with instinct working, intellectuality and
emotion. Instinct without intellectual and emotion result out of work at all. Despite of
intellect without instinct and emotion would not result creation. According to Indriati Ismail
(2004 : 2) stated : right understanding on religion coped three of human physic element
(Instinct, intellect, and emotion) altogether. From above review, solid waste HuWac as
alternative fuel did not deviate from religion taught.
Conclusion
Based on this research result about combustion heating value of HuWAC solid waste that
discarded in the disposal area of PT. AJINOMOTO Indonesia Mojokerto, can be concluded
that combustion heating value was Hgr=2781,31 kcal/kg, which obtained from the
experiment process with calorimeter. And combustion heating value was LHV = 2602, 75
kcal/kg through Dulong Formula could use to be alternative fuel. But, the using of HuWAC
waste as the fuel for brick production in the community still need further development and
empirical testing.
Bibliography
Hasyim, L. 2000. Studi Pemanfaatan Limbah HuWAC Sebagai Bahan Bakar Alternatif, Tugas Akhir
tidak diterbitkan. Surabaya : Fakultas Teknologi Jurusan Mesin UNTAG 1945 Surabaya.
Indriati Ismail. 2004. Minda yang Sehat : Penggerak Keharmonisan Agama dan Negara. Makalah
Disajikan Dalam Seminar Internasional : Agama Sebagai Wadah Pemersatu Masyarakat, Bangsa
dan Negara, Surabaya : UNTAG 1945 Surabaya
Kunto, S.A, 1998. Prosedur Penelitian. Jakarta: Aneka Cipta
Nursuhut, J. 1987. Konversi Energi. Surabaya: Fakultas Teknologi Industri ITS
Sastrawijaya, A.T, 1991. Pencemaran Lingkungan. Jakarta: Rineka Cipta
Silalahi, A. 1985. Steam Boiler. Malang, ITN
Silalahi, A. 1985 Teknik Energi I. Malang, ITN
Sitompul, D. 1985. Prinsip-Prinsip Konversi Energi. Jakarta: Erlangga
Soeparjono
Faculty of Technique
17 Agustus 1945 Surabaya University
Indonesia
Puisi Islam dalam Minda Raja al-Nasir Dawud
Hajah Salmah Ahmad
Abstrak
Kajian ini memeperlihatkan riwayat hidup Raja al-Nsir Dwud dari kelahirannya pada
tahun 603 H sehingga baginda mangkat pada tuhun 656 H di bawah kerajaan Ayybiyyah.
Kajian ini juga membahaskan sebilangan syair Islam yang memfokuskan tentang ketuhanan,
zuhud, tasawuf, pujian, celaan yang diiringi teguran dan nasihat yang membena. Objektif
utama kajian ini ialah menonjolkan gambara Islam dalam minda seorang yang terkandung
dalam syairnya. Ia juga memperlihatkan corak kehidupan masyarakat golongan atasan dan
masyarakat umum pada kurun 7 Hijrah. Kajian ini memperlihatkan semua ungkapan
syairnya ini adalah berlandaskan syariat Islam.
Pendahuluan
Puisi Islam ialah. Puisipuisi Islam yang dimaksudkan di sini adalah hasil cetusan minda
seorang raja yang setaraf dengan penyair-penyair Arab yang terkemuka. Beliau ialah Raja al-
Nsir Dwud bin
c
Is, dilahirkan pada tahun 603 H. Baginda mula ditabal sebagai raja kepada
beberapa wilayah di bawah kerajaan Ayybyah seperti Damsyik dan Karak pada tahun 624
H hingga baginda mangkat pada tahun 656 H. Baginda merupakan cucu saudara kepada Salh
al-Dn al-Ayyb. Baginda seorang yang alim dalam pelbagai ilmu pengetahuan dan
mencintainya.
Di samping tugas baginda sebagai raja baginda juga dikenali sebagai seorang sasterawan
yang berjaya menghasilkan banyak puisi dan prosa pada era kerajaan Ayybiyyah. Semua
puisi dan prosanya dikumpul menjadi sebuah antologi yang dikenali sebagai al-Fawaid al-
jaliyah fi al-faraid al-Nasiriyah. Bilangan puisinya sebanyak 83 qasidahnya.
Dalam era kehidupan Raja al-Nsir Dwud yang mengambil masa 53 tahun kerajaan
Ayybiyyah telah menyaksikan pelbagai pergolakan dan polemik agama. Keadaan ini telah
mempengaruhi pembentukan kehidupan Raj al-Nsir Dwud dan pemikirannya sehingga
tercetuslah puisi-puisi Islamnya.
Oleh itu, pembahasan di sini akan tertumpu kepada puisi Islam tersebut. Susur galur puisi
dan pemikirannya kususnya puisi Islam sehingga ini belum ditemui dalam bentuk perbahasan
secara khusus, sedangkan ia dinilai sebagai suatu sumbangan yang sangat penting dalam
khazanah akademik sastera Arab. Hasil kertasa kerja ini selain diharapkan mengandungi ilmu
pengetahuan juga memberi informasi tambahan pengetahuan pemikiran Islam yang tersimpan
dalam lipatan puisi.
Sebelum mendalami pemukiran Islam yang terserlah dalam puisi Raja al-Nsir Dwud
wajrlah digambarkan dengan rengkas riwayat hidup baginda yang mempengaruhi mindanya
sehingga terungkap puisi tersebut.
Hajah Salmah Ahmad / 847
Riwayat Hidup Raja al-Nasir Dawud
Nama lengkap Raja al-Nsir Dwud ialah Dwud bin
c
s bin Ab Bakr Muhamad bin
Ayyb bin Shdh.dikenali dengan panggilan al-Nsir Salh al-Dn.
1174
Baginda dilahirkan di
Damsyik pada 19 Jamadilakhir, tahun 603 H seperti diriwayatkan oleh anaknya Raja al-
Amjad Hasan dalam manuskrip al-Fawaid al-jaliyyah fi al-faraid al-Nasiriyyah.
1175
Baginda berkturunan Kurdish disebabkan datuknya Ayyb (m. 568 H) yang
dinamakan Dinasti Ayybiyyah sempena dengan namanya itu adalah daripada keturunan
Kurdish.
1176
Meskipun mereka berasal dari keturunan Kurdish, mereka dikatakan telah lama lupa
bahasa Kurdish disebabkan oleh faktor gaya kehidupan, percampuran dan kebudayaan yang
diamalkan di negara yang mereka duduki itu. Menurut Sayyid al-Ahl bahawa Sultan Salh al-
Dn tidak mengetahui bahasa selain dari bahasa Arab, hal yang sama berlaku pada ahli
keluarganya.
1177
Keluarganya
Raja al-Nsir Dwud dibesarkan dalam keluarga yang terkenal dengan ilmu pengetahuan.
Ayahnya Raja al-Mu
c
azzam
c
s (m. 624 H) adalah raja yang berpengetahuan luas di
kalangan orang-orang Ayybyah. Beliau juga seorang fakih dan penyair yang terkemuka di
zamannya.
1178
Antara bapa saudaranya ialah Raja al-Kmil Muhammad (m. 635 H), dan Raja al-
Ashraf Ms (m. 635 H), merupakan penyair yang terkenal.
1179
Datuk baginda Raja al-
c
dil
Ab Bakr (m. 615 H) adalah seorang yang berpengetahuan luas, berbudi pekerti yang baik
dan cenderung berdamping dengan para ulama.
1180
Ibunya
c
Azzat al-Dn Khtn berasal dari Turki. Beliau hilang penglihatan pada akhir
hayatnya dan meninggal dunia pada tahun 672 H.
1181
Pendidikannya
Raja al-Nsir Dwud dibesarkan di Damsyik. Seperti anak-anak raja yang lain, baginda
hidup dengan kemewahan dan kepahlawanan, dalam suasana ilmu dan sastera. Baginda
mendapat bimbingan pertama daripada bapanya sendiri sehingga dapat menghafaz beberapa
1174
Al-Ynn, Ms bin Muhammad, Dhayl mirat al-zaman, Majlis al-Ma
c
rif al-
c
Uthmnyah, India,
1955, jil. 1, hlm. 126; Ibn Khallikn, Shams al-Dn Ahmad bin Muhammad, , Wafiyat al-a
c
yan, Dr
Sdir, Beirut, 1972, jil. 3, hlm. 496.
1175
Manuskrip al-Fawaid al-jaliyyah fi al-faraid al-Nasiriyyah terdapat dua naskhah. Naskhah
pertama ditulis pada tahun 719 H, terdapat di Istanbul dan dibuat salinan oleh Dr al-Kutub al-
Misriyyah, Kaherah di bawah no: 2293 Adab, mikrofilem no: 3326, dinamakan sebagai naskhah A hlm.
23; Naskhah kedua mempunyai judul yang sama, ditulis pada tahun 1358 H, terdapat di Ma
c
had al-
Makhttt al-
c
Arabiyyah, Kaherah, di bawah huruf 13159, mikrofilem no: 23337, dijadikan sebagai
naskhah B hlm. 14.
1176
Ibn Khallikn, Wafiyat al-a
c
yan, jil. 7, hlm. 139.
1177
Sayyid al-Ahl, Ayyam Salah al-Din, Matba
c
at Dr al-Kutub, Beirut, 1961, hlm. 140.
1178
Ahmad Badaw, Mamun bani Ayyub, Matba
c
at al-Bayn al-
c
Arab, Kaherah, hlm. 20.
1179
Ibn Wsil, Muhammad bin Slim, Mufarrij al-kurub fi akhbar bani Ayyub, Jami
c
at al-Fuad al-
Awwal, Kaherah, 1951, jil. 5, hlm.168; a-Ynn, jil. 8, hlm. 769.
1180
al-Ynn, jil. 3, hlm. 272; Ibn Khallikn, jil. 5, hlm. 76.
1181
Ibn Wsil, jil. 4, hlm. 219.
848 / ISoIT 2004
matan dari kitab bahasa Arab, fikah dan puisi Arab yang masyhur dalam usia yang belum
menjangkau sepuluh tahun serta mampu menyusun rangkap-rangkap puisi.
1182
Kemudian baginda mempelajari ilmu-ilmu Islam dan sastera Arab di sebuah sekolah
yang masyhur di Damsyik untuk. Baginda mempelajari ilmu hadith daripada al-Muayyad bin
Muhammad al-Ts,
1183
dan Ab Rawh
c
Abd al-Mu
c
iz bin Muhammad al-Harawiyyi (m. 619
H) sehingga baginda memperoleh ijazah daripada kedua-dua mereka.
1184
Dalam ilmu fikah, baginda mempelajari fikah Hanafi daripada Jaml al-Dn al-Hasr,
1185
Di samping itu baginda juga mempelajari tata bahasa Arab daripada
c
Uthmn bin Ab Bakr
yang dikenali dengan Ibn Hjib.
1186
Raja al-Nsir Dwud mementingkan juga ilmu falsafah yang berkembang luas pada
zamannya. Ilmu falsafah ini mendapat tentangan daripada Raja Ayybyah yang lain, di
antara mereka ialah Salh al-Dn al-Ayyb dan Raja al-Ashraf Ms. Menurut Salh al-Dn
al-Ayyb bahawa falsafah itu menyesatkan akal, memecahkan kesatuan umat, boleh
menggoncangkan akidah.
1187
Di antara sarjana falsafah yang menjadi guru baginda ialah Ab Mansr bin Ab al-Fadl
seorang yang mahir dalam pelbagai jenis ubat-ubatan. Awhad al-Dn
c
Imrn bin Sadaqah ahli
perubatan terkenal dan Muwaffaq al-Dn Ya
c
qb yang berpengetahuan luas mengenai
kandungan buku-buku Jalins.
1188
Sifat dan Peribadinya
Raja al-Nsir Dwud seorang yang berilmu, bijak dan pencipta sajak yang mudah.
1189
Kerana sifat yang mulia baginda ditabal sebagai pemerintah Damsyik Setelah kemangkatan
ayahnya pada tahun 624 H. Hal ini menimbulkan kecemburuan kaum kerabatnya golongan
Ban Ayyb terutama sekali bapa saudaranya Raja al-Kmil pemerintah Mesir dan Raja al-
Ashraf Ms pemerintah Rah. Mereka berpendapat bahawa Raja al-Nsir Dwud belum
layak untuk menduduki takhta pemerintahan kerana kekurangan pengalaman dan umur
baginda yang masih muda. Penentangan ini turut disokong oleh para fuqaha dengan alasan
pendekatan baginda berdasarkan ilmu falsafah. Hasilnya mereka berjaya dalam penentangan
1182
Al-Maqrz, Taq al-Dn, al-Dhahab al-masbuk, Matba
c
at Lujnat al-Talf wa al-Tarjamah, Kaherah,
1955, hlm.81.
1183
al-Muayyad bin Muhammad bin
c
Al al-Ts, yang kepadanya berakhir sandaran hadith.
Meninggal pada tahun 617 H (Ibn Khallikn, jil. 5, hlm. 345).
1184
Al-Dhahab Shams al-Dn Muhammad bin Ahmad, Siyar a
c
lam al-nubala, Muassasat al-Rislah,
Beirut, 1985, jil. 23, hlm. 377.
1185
Jaml al-Dn al-Hasr, nama beliau Mahmd bin Ahmad, dilahirkan di Bukhara. Beliau seorang
ahli hadih dan fikah. Beliau meninggal di Damsyik dan dikebumikan di perkuburan para sufi, pada
tahun 636 H (Kahhlah,
c
Umar Rid, Mu
c
jam al-mullifin, Mussasat al-Rislah, Beirut, 1993, jil. 3,
hlm. 796).
1186
Ibn Wsil, jil. 5, hlm. 303. Ibn al-Hjib dilahirkan di Mesir. Beliau mengikut mazhab Maliki. Beliau
mendalami pelbagai ilmu pengetahuan, antaranya usul fikah, tatabahasa Arab, saraf,
c
ard, dan tafsir.
Beliau seorang yang cerdik, pemalu, rendah diri, pemaaf, mencintai ilmu dan para ulama, meninggal
pada tahun 646 H (Ibn Kathr, Ab al-Fid al-Hfiz, al-Bidayah wa al- nihayah, Dr al-Kutub al-
c
Ilmiyyah, Beirut, jil. 13, hlm. 188).
1187
Sm al-Kayyl, al-Sahrwardi,, Dr al-Ma
c
rif, Kaherah, 1966, hlm. 11.
1188
Ibn Ab Usaybi
c
ah, Ahmad bin al-Qsim,
c
Uyun al-anba, Matbacat al-Iqbl, Beirut, 1956, jil. 3,
hlm. 350, 352, dan 355.
1189
al-Dhahab, Shams al-Dn Muhammad bin Ahmad, al-
c
Ibar fi khbar man ghabar, Matba
c
at
Hukmat al-Kuwayt, 1966, jil. 5, hlm. 229.
Hajah Salmah Ahmad / 849
ini dan Raja al-Nsir Dwud dilucutkan daripada jawatan pemerintah Damsyik dan dibuang
daripada wilayah tersebut.
Kehidupan Raja al-Nsir Dwud seterusnya dilanda kepahitan, jauh dari ketenangan dan
ketenteraman, hidup dalam keadaan merana dan berpindah-randah..
1190
Raja al-Nsir Dwud pada usia mudanya dihabiskan dengan berpoya-poya kemudian
baginda kembali ke jalan yang diredai Allah sehingga Ibn Shkir al-Katb
1191
dalam
karyanya
1192
memuji pegangan baginda yang teguh terhadap agama khususnya mazhab
Hanaf, berakhlak mulia, dan sebagai pemidato yang cerdik.
Hasil daripada akhlaknya yang mulia itu telah memberi kesan terhadap pemikirannya
sehingga mencetuskan ungkapan puisi yang menggambarkan agama.
Puisi agamanya diabadikan dalam tema , ,
.. Deskriptif-deskriptif yang diungkapkan oleh baginda
dalam setiap tema tersebut adalah seperti berikut.
(Al-Ilahiyat wa al-Zuhdiyat)
Al-Ilahiyat wa al-zuhdiyat bermaksud ketuhanan dan kezuhudan. Dalam antologi Raja al-
Nsir Dwud, bahagian tema ini terdapat sebanyak 17 qasidah (Q),
1193
satu maqtu
c
ah
(MQ),
1194
satu nutfah (N)
1195
dan satu muwashshahah (MSH).
1196
Puisi al-Ilahiyat ( ) ialah puisi yang bertujuan mengenal Allah (s.w.t) dan
memuji-Nya serta menggambarkan keagungan-Nya.
Mengenal Allah menurut Raja al-Nsir Dwud ialah mengetahui bahawa Allah Maha Esa
dan Tunggal, serta tiada yang sama seperti-Nya. Ini yang dimaksudkan dalam puisinya:
1197
_ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _
Wahai yang Maha Esa dalam kerajaan-Nya (kekuasaan-Nya)
Ia tidak memerlukan seorang teman berbual pada waktu malam.
Ia tiada bersekutu
dan tiada yang menyerupai-Nya.
Dalam qasidah yang lain penyair menunjukan ilham yang sama:
1198
_ _ _ _ _ _
Wahai Maha Esa yang Kekal, tidak ada
yang menyerupai-Nya dan bersekutu bagi-Nya.
1190
Ibn Hujjah al-Hamaw, Thamarat al-awraq, Matba
c
at al-Sa
c
dah, Kaherah, 1971, hlm. 24.
1191
Ibn Shkir al-Katb, nama beliau Muhammad bin Shkir, bermazhab Shfie, seorang sejarawan dan
sasterawan, meninggal pada tahun 764 H (Kahhlah, jil. 3, hlm. 339).
1192
al- Katb, Muhammad bin Shkir, Fawat al-wafiyat, Dr Sdir, Beirut, 1973, jil. 1, hlm. 428.
1193
Qasidah ialah puisi yang terdiri daripada tujuh bait ke atas (Amn
c
Al al-Sayyid, Fi
c
ilmay al-
c
arud
wa al-qafiyah, Dr al- Ma
c
rif, Kaherah, 1984, hlm. 28).
1194
Maqtu
c
ah: ialah puisi yang terdiri daripada tiga hingga enam rangkap (Ibid).
1195
Nutfah: Ialah puisi yang terdiri daripada dua bait (Ibid).
1196
Muashshahah: ialah puisi yang terdiri daripada aqfal dan abyat. Aqfal ialah ungkapan yang
mempunyai kesamaan matra, rima dan bilangan rangkap puisi. Manakala abyat, ungkapan yang
mempunyai kesamaan matra dan bilangan rangkap puisi tetapi tidak terikat dengan rima yang sama
(Majd Wahbah, Mu
c
jam al-mustalahat al-
c
Arabiyah fi al-lughah wa al-adab, Maktabat Lubnn, Beirut,
1984, hlm. 396).
1197
Puisi yang ke- 14 (Q), rangkap 36 dan 37.
1198
Puisi yang pertama (Q), rangkap 14.
850 / ISoIT 2004
Setelah tersemat keyakinan tentang keesaan Allah s.w.t baginda menggambarkan
keindahan ciptaan Tuhan seperti bait berikut:
1199
_ _ _ _ _ _ _
Siapa sahaja apabila ia mencipta sesuatu memperlihatkan keindahannya
setiap ciptaan yang anda lihat, Dialah penciptanya.
Selain pujian ke atas ciptaan Allah (s.w.t), Raja al-Nsir Dwud turut
memperlihatkan pujiannya terhadap sifat Allah ( Maha Pemaaf ) dan
( Pengampun ). Baginda menegaskan.
1200
_ _ _ _
Allah Pemilik Tunggal lagi Maha Pengurnia
memaafkan hamba-hamba-Nya.
Puisi al-Ilahiyat ini merupakan daya penarik ke arah zuhud, iaitu meninggalkan kelazatan
dunia, menjauhkan diri dari keinginan hawa nafsu dan memadai dengan apa yang ada
padanya. Konsep ini mempengaruhi Raja al-Nsir Dwud. Oleh itu, puisi-puisi mengenainya
diungkapkan.
Antara faktor yang menyebabkan pemikiran zuhud berkembang luas pada masa hayat
Raja al-Nsir Dwud. ialah: galakan dan dorongan yang diberi oleh para raja Ayybyah
terhadap pemikiran zuhud dan seterusnya tasawuf, dengan membuka pelbagai pusat kegiatan
amalan tasawuf di setiap wilayah pemerintahan mereka seperti di Mesir, Shm dan Hijz dan
membelanjakan wang yang banyak ke arah itu untuk menghindari masyarakat daripada
terikut dengan ajaran Ism
c
lyah.
1201
Tema zuhud ini diolah oleh Raja al-Nsir Dwud pada akhir hayatnya sesudah baginda
menjauhkan diri daripada kehidupan yang tenggelam dalam arus kepeleseran dan
membersihkan dirinya daripada segala perbuatan noda dan maksiat. Lalu dipuisikannya:
1202
_ _ _
Dosa-dosa bertimbun membebankan daku
umur makin berlalu, maut semakin hampir.
Kemudian diikuti dengan rasa kesal atas perbuatannya yang silam, yang
dihabiskan dengan berpoya-poya dan bersuka ria. Antara lain baginda merakamkan:
1203
_ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _
Maafkanlah, bagaimana usia berlalu
tanpa kelakuan baik dan rasa malu?
Usia muda penuh keseronokan telah berlalu
yang tinggal hanyalah kesalan terhadap dosa di hari tua.
Keluhan perasaan sesal bercampur malu kepada Allah (s.w.t) mendorong baginda
menadah tangan memohon keampunan daripada Yang Maha Esa. Doanya serangkum
puisi:
1204
- __ - _ _ _ _ _
1199
Puisi yang ke- 17 (N), rangkap pertama.
1200
Puisi yang ke- 18 (MSH), rangkap 4.
1201
Muhammad Kmil, Dirasah fi al-shi
c
r, Dr al-Kitb al-Misr, Kaherah, 1957, hlm. 65.
1202
Puisi yang ke- 16 (MQ), rangkap pertama.
1203
Puisi yang ke- 15 (Q), rangkap 5, 6 dan 7.
1204
Puisi yang ke- 12 (Q), rangkap 6, 9 dan 10.
Hajah Salmah Ahmad / 851
Tuhanku! Masukkanlah daku pintu keredaan-Mu
lapangkanlah setiap kesempitan bagiku.
Dalam tema zuhud Raja al-Nsir Dwud juga menggambarkan masyarakat Ayybyah
golongan atasan yang menikmati kehidupan peleseran dan gejala maksiat khususnya di istana
mereka. Antara ungkapan baginda:
1205
_ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Duhai yang tinggal di istana tersadai
dikelilingi singa-singa mengganas.
Menduduki takhta berpakaian mahkota
menambahkan seri puncak takhta.
Setelah itu, baginda menasihati golongan ini supaya menjauhkan diri daripada gejala
maksiat serta tidak tertipu dengan kemewahan hidup yang sementara:
1206
_ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _
Dunia bukanlah tempat tinggal
bagi yang mulia, baik dan tajam mata hati.
Janganlah kamu tertipu dengan tipu dayanya
kamu tidak akan kekal di dunia ini.
Baginda juga mengingatkan manusia akan hakikat kematian supaya tidak hanyut dalam
mengejar keduniaan dan kemewahan hidup. Bagi yang ingin mengetahui kematian dan tanda-
tandanya, ikutilah penjelasan baginda dalam ungkapan bait ini:
1207
_ _ _
_ _ _ _ _
_ _
Ketahuilah! usia tua menunjukkan
kematian pasti mendatang.
Maut satu ketentuan perkara yang lazim
terletak pada kehendak yang Maha Berkuasa.
Ia sebenarnya jalan menuju
ke syurga atau ke neraka Sa
c
ir.
Puisi zuhud Raja al-Nsir Dwud juga menekankan beberapa perkara yang harus dipatuhi
oleh orang mukmin yang ingin mencapai kebahagiaan ukhrawi baik dari aspek perkataan
mahupun perbuatan. Misalnya:
1208
_ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _
Usahalah, dan singsingkan lengan bajumu
memperoleh impianmu di Hari Akhirat.
Tinggalkanlah dosa walaupun kecil
1205
Puisi yang ke- 14 (Q), rangkap 1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 9 dan 10.
1206
Ibid, rangkap 15- 20.
1207
Puisi yang ke- 14 (Q), rangkap 24, 25 dan 27.
1208
Ibid, rangkap 28, 30 dan 31 .
852 / ISoIT 2004
sebagaimana kamu meninggalkan dosa besar.
Kembalilah kepada Tuhan Maha Mulia
sebelum dadamu menyesak.
Dari zuhud ini tecetus pula pemikiran tasawuf yang diungkap dalam bentuk puisi. Puisi
sufi ialah yang memuatkan idea-idea tentang pelbagai cabang ilmu tasawuf seperti sikap
mencintai Allah (s.w.t) dan Rasulnya serta mengamalkan sifat
mahmudah.
1209
Antara unsur-unsur tasawuf yang dipuisikan oleh Raja al-Nsir Dwud ialah: martabat
tasawuf ( ), makrifat Ilahi ( ), cinta Ilahi ( ) yang
berdasarkan al-Qurn dan hadith Rasulullah (s.a.w).
Martabat tasawuf bermaksud peringkat-peringkat perjalanan di alam kerohanian untuk
menuju kepada Allah (s.w.t).
1210
Taubat ialah peringkat yang pertama dalam perjalanan ahli sufi. Ia bermaksud
menyucikan hati daripada dosa.
1211
Penyucian jiwa telah ditegaskan oleh al-Quran, seperti
firman Allah (s.w.t):
1212
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Maksudnya:
Dan bertaubatlah kamu sekalian kepada Allah, wahai orang-orang yang beriman, supaya
kamu berjaya.
Sabda Rasulullah (s.a.w):
1213
" _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _
_ _ _ "
Maksudnya:
Sesungguhnya Allah (s.w.t) membuka tangan-Nya pada waktu malam untuk
mengampuni orang yang melakukan dosa pada waktu siang. Dan membuka tangan-Nya pada
waktu siang untuk mengampuni orang yang melakukan dosa pada waktu malam, sehingga
naik matahari dari sebelah barat.
Oleh itu, dengan rasa penuh keinsafan Raja al-Nsir Dwud memohon keampunan
kepada Yang Maha Pengampun dan mengakui kesilapannya melalui puisinya:
1214
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _
Ku mengakui dosa dan kejahilanku
serta kecuaianku pada amalan yang boleh
mendekatkan diriku pada-Mu.
Kuharap setiap dosa besar
1209
Khafj, jil, 1, hlm. 97; jil. 2, hlm. 141.
1210
c
Abd al- Halm Mahmd, Qadiyat al-tasawwuf, Dr al-Ma
c
rif , Kaherah, t.th, hlm. 48.
1211
al-Ghazl, Muhammad bin Muhammad, Minhaj al-
c
abidin, Maktabat al-Jund, Kaherah, 1972,
hlm. 31.
1212
Surah al- Nr, 25: 31.
1213
Ab Muslim, Muslim bin al-Hajjj, Sahih Muslim, Matba
c
at Dr Ihy al-Kutub al-
c
Arabyah, t.th,
jil. 4, hlm. 2113.
1214
Puisi yang pertama (Q), rangkap 3 dan 4.
Hajah Salmah Ahmad / 853
mendapat keampunan-Mu. Sesungguhnya kemaafan-Mu
sangatlah agung.
Penyesalan terhadap perbuatan yang lalu dilahirkan oleh Raja al-Nsir Dwud dengan
curahan air mata. Ini jelas digambarkan dalam muwashshahahnya:
1215
_ _ _ _ _
_ _ _
Kudatang pada-Mu, memulakan
jalan yang membahagiakan itu.
Airmataku mencurah-curah
menyesali apa yang kulakukan.
Untuk memperoleh makrifat yang hakiki, Raja al-Nsir Dwud terpaksa menempuh
berbagai-bagai rintangan dengan berbekalkan kesabaran seperti
ungkapkannya:
1216
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _
Ku menunggang unta tua yang masih bertenaga dan cekal
merentasi padang pasir yang ditiup angin dengan penuh
keredaan.
Kesabaran Raja al-Nsir Dwud akhirnya ditemukan dengan makrifat yang hakiki, iaitu
Allah (s.w.t) yang Maha Esa. Ini menjadi unsur sufi yang kedua dalam puisi baginda.
Makrifat ini dikesan dengan cahaya Allah yang menerangi hati insan yang terpilih.
Rakaman Raja al-Nsir Dwud dalam puisinya:
1217
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _
Wahai pemerintah! Kerana keagungan-Nya sinaran hatiku
yang malap menjadi bercahaya.
Lalu mencari Cahaya Segala Cahaya, berpandukan
cahaya yang dilimpahkan oleh yang Maha Bercahaya.
Kerana hati menjadi tempat pancaran cahaya Ilahi, maka Raja al-Nsir Dwud berusaha
menyingkir setiap keinginan hawa nafsu yang jahat itu dan menyeru hatinya mentaati Allah
(s.w.t), dengan serangkai bait ini:
1218
_ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _
Ku berusaha menyelamatkan hati daripada hawa nafsu
dengan mengorbankan seluruh fikiran.
Hatiku! Jika kau patuh padaku
ku akan selamat dan memperoleh kemuliaan pada Hari
Perhimpunan.
Dengan sinaran cahaya Ilahi lahirlah perasaan cinta kepada-Nya. Cinta Ilahi ini
merupakan unsur terakhir dalam puisi sufi Raja al-Nsir Dwud. Fahaman cinta Ilahi
ditegaskan dalam al-Qurn dan hadith Rasulullah (s.a.w). Seperti firman Allah (s.w.t):
1219
1215
Puisi yang ke- 18 (MSH), rangkap 15 dan 16.
1216
Puisi yang ke- 12 (Q), rangkap 3.
1217
Puisi yang ke- 5 (Q), rangkap 1 dan 2.
1218
Puisi yang ke- 13 (Q), Rangkap 35 dan 38.
1219
al-Midah, 5: 54.
854 / ISoIT 2004
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Maksudnya:
Maka Allah akan mendatangkan suatu kaum yang Ia kasihkan mereka dan mereka juga
kasihkan Dia.
Sabda Rasulullah (s.a.w):
1220
" _ _ _ _ _
"
Maksudnya:
Tiga perkara sesiapa yang memilikinya nescaya ia memperoleh kemanisan iman: orang
yang mencintai Allah dan Rasul-Nya melebihi daripada yang lain dan ia mencintai seseorang
semata-mata kerana Allah.
Raja al-Nsir Dwud pula melahirkan rasa cinta Ilahi dengan madahnya:
1221
_ _ _ _ _
Engkaulah yang membuatkan hatiku menyintai-Nya
hatiku tidak akan berpaling kepada sesiapa pun.
Daripada perasaan cinta Ilahi timbul pula rasa rindu kepada al-Khaliq (s.w.t).
1222
Kerinduan ini mengubah pandangan Raja al-Nsir Dwud, seperti yang ditegaskan oleh
baginda:
1223
_ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _
Siang hari tanpa rahmat-Mu (Ilahi) menjadi gelap gelita
malamku dengan sinaran-Mu menjadi terang.
Kurindui rahmat-Mu (Ilahi), tiada yang lain
ketika ada di kalangan kaum yang merindui taman-taman hijau.
Perasaan cinta sejati dan rindu kepada Allah (s.w.t) menanamkan sifat al-Uns di hati Raja
al-Nsir Dwud, iaitu penumpuan penuh terhadap Allah (s.w.t). Menurut al-Wsit
1224
(m.
274 H): tidak akan sampai ke martabat al-Uns, sesiapa yang tidak menjauhi segala yang ada
di alam ini. Oleh itu, Raja al-Nsir Dwud sanggup meninggalkan sanak saudara serta
negara, semata-mata kerana yang dicintai-Nya:
1225
_ _ _ _ _ _ _
Wahai Yang ku tinggalkan demi-Nya keluarga dan negara
kerana cinta kepada-Nya kedua mataku tidak mengantuk.
Demi cinta kepada Allah juga Raja al-Nsir Dwud sanggup mengorbankan harta benda,
anak-anak dan keluarga serta takhta kerajaan yang dimilikinya:
1226
_ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _
Kan kutinggalkan segala yang diingini hawa nafsu
1220
Ab Muslim, Sahih Muslim, jil. 1, hlm. 66.
1221
Puisi yang ke- 7 (MQ), rangkap 2.
1222
al-Qushayr,
c
Abd al-Karm bin Hawzin, Ab al-Qsim, al-Risalah al-Qushayriyah, Matba
c
at
c
Is
al-Bb al-Halab, t.th, hlm. 388-389.
1223
Puisi yang pertama (Q), rangkap 9-10.
1224
al-Suhraward,
c
Umar bin Muhammad,
c
Awarif al-ma
c
arif,
c
lam al-Kutub, jil. 5, hlm. 246.
1225
Rangkap pertama dari puisi yang ke- 4 (MQ).
1226
Puisi yang ke- 13 (Q), rangkap 39 dan 40.
Hajah Salmah Ahmad / 855
harta, anak, bapa saudara sebelah ibu dan menantu.
Kutinggalkan takhta kerajaan yang tidak kekal itu
demi menghubungi kuasa yang tidak binasa selamanya.
Keadaan begini boleh disingkap dalam kehidupan para zahid dan ahli sufi yang
terdahulu, seperti kenyataan Ibn Khaff (m. 331 H): Tanda orang zahid ialah wujudnya
ketenangan hidup ketika meninggalkan takhta kerajaan.
1227
Hal yang sama juga berlaku
kepada Ibrhm bin Adham (m. 161 H). Beliau hidup dalam kemewahan, kenikmatan pangkat
dan harta, namun setelah mengetahui hakikat hidup yang penuh tipu daya,
beliau berpaling ke jalan Allah dan mendapat ketenangan serta keamanan hidup.
1228
(al-Madih wafih al-Hamasah wa al-Fakhr)
Selain daripada tema al-Ilahiyyat dan al-zuhdiyyat yang menggambarkan pemikiran
Islam Raja al-Nsir Dwud terdapat juga tema al-Madih wafihi al-hamasah wa al-fakhr yang
bermaksud: (pujian dan mengandungi semangat perjuangan serta kebanggaan).
Antara pujian yang diungkapkan oleh Raja al-Nsir dwud di sini ialah pujian Rasulullah
s.a.w. Puisi jenis ini disebarkan oleh orang-orang sufi, lahir daripada hati yang ikhlas dan
benar.
1229
Puisi pujian Raja al-Nsir Dwud terhadap Rasulullah (s.a.w) hanya menunjukkan
gambaran tentang perjalanan Raja al-Nsir Dwud serta kumpulannya yang menunggang unta
dalam keadaan keletihan menuju ke maqam Rasulullah (s.a.w). Apabila berdiri di hadapan
maqam Rasulullah (s.a.w), Raja al-Nsir Dwud berasa gementar dan lidah menjadi kelu
melalui rakamannya:
1230
_ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _
Kami menunggang unta yang gagah, menuju padamu Rasulullah
mengharungi padang pasir antara bukit Radw dan bukit Yadhbul.
Menemui sebaik-baik insan terpuji
kebenarannya diakui oleh nas al-Quran yang diturunkan.
Ketinggian- martabatmu menjadikan lidahku kelu untuk
mengungkap pujian
hatiku merasa takut dan tubuhku bergementar.
Selepas memuji Rasulullah s.a.w. baginda memuji para khalifah antara mereka Khalifah
al-Musta
c
sim biLlh, di atas kejayaannya menentang tentera Tatar pada tahun 642 H. dengan
sifat keperkasaan dan keazaman yang teguh setanding dengan keazaman Rasulullah (s.a.w)
dalam peperangan Badar, dinyatakan dengan rangkap berikut:
1231
_ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
1227
al-Qushayr
, hlm. 61.
1228
Taha
c
Abd al-Bq Surr, A
c
lam al-tasawwuf al-Islami, Matba
c
at Nahdat Masr, Kaherah, 1956, jil.
2, hlm. 86.
1229
Zak Mubrak, al-Madaih al-Nabawiyah, Matb
c
t al-Sha
c
b, Kaherah, t. th, hlm. 14; Khafj,
Dirasat fi al-tasawwuf al-Islami, jil. 2, hlm. 49.
1230
Puisi yang ke- 19 (Q), rangkap 2, 3 dan 6.
1231
Puisi yang ke- 22 (Q), rangkap 7 dan 8.
856 / ISoIT 2004
Kamu menghadapi mereka penuh keazaman, ketika mereka
berdepan denganmu
seperti keazaman Rasulullah berada di tempat tinggi dalam
peperangan Badar.
Kamu memerangi mereka bagaikan kekuatan Ban Hshim
merasakan mereka kepahitan melebihi jadam.
Raja al-Nsir Dwud tidak lupa menyampaikan tahniah dan pujian kepada para pejuang
jalan Allah serta melahirkan keinginannya untuk menyertai barisan para pejuang tersebut,
dengan catatan puisinya:
1232
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _
Bahagialah mereka yang terkena hembusan angin panas kini
akan terselamat pada hari pembentangan daripada bahang panas
(akhirat)
Alangkah bertuah andainya daku berada di antara barisannya
nescaya akan dihebahkan pengalamanku di medan peperangan.
Selain itu, baginda juga memuji orang yang berilmu. Kelebihan orang yang berilmu ini
telah ditegaskan oleh Allah s.w.t. dalam al-Quran seperti firman-Nya:
] _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ [
1233
Maksudnya:
Allah mengaangkat mereka yang beriman di kalangan kamu dan mereka yang menuntut
ilmu beberapa darjat.
Maka dengan gaya bahasa umpama prosa.baginda memuji al-Shaykh Shams al-Dn al-
Khusr Shh yang terserlah dalam Ilmu al-Kalm, al-sl, al-
c
Aqlyt dan Fikah.
Madahnya:
1234
_ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Tuhan pemilik Arash mengurniakannya kelebihan
kurniaan Tuhan tidak terhitung.
Berapa ramai yang telah berkubur di lembah kejahilan
namun ilmu dapat memandunya hidup semula.
Si buta dicelikkan oleh kelebihannya
tanpa keraguan si buta celik kambali.
Disamping memuji orang lain Raja al-Nsir Dwud juga memuji dirinya sendiri dengan
sifat berani, cekal dan bersemangat tinggi ketika menentang musuh musuh Islam. di medan
peperangan Hal ini dituntut oleh al-Quran sepeerti firman-Nya:
] _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ [
1235
Maksudnya:
Sediakan bagi (menghadapi) mereka itu segala kekuatan yang termampu..
1232
Ibid, rangkap 14 dan 15.
1233
Surah al-Mujdalah, ayat 11.
1234
Puisi yang ke- 29 (Q), rangkap 2, 4, dan 5.
1235
Surah al-Anfl, ayat 60.
Hajah Salmah Ahmad / 857
Semangat perjuangan ini dapat dilihat dengan jelasnya ketika baginda berperang dengan
orang-orang Salib di Baitulmuqaddis dan berjaya mengembalikan negeri itu semula ke tangan
orang Islam. Antara ungkapannya
1236
_ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ __ _ _ _ _
Berani menghadapi yang gagah dengan dada terbuka
tanpa rasa lemah dan takut.
Sentiasa menghunus pedang buatan India
bercahaya di malam gelap gelita.
Badannya bermandikan darah mereka
berwarna kehitaman sebagai inai di tapak tangan tentera berkuda.
(Fi
c
Itab al-Ikhwan wa al-Istinsar
c
Alayhim biLlah Ta
c
ala)
Tema ini bermaksud mencela kesalahan sanak saudara serta sahabat handai dengan
tujuan memperbetulkan kesalahan mereka.
Celaaan baginda di atas kesalahan kaum kerabatnya disebabkan tindakkan mereka yang
enggan menolongnya ketika susah dan memutuskan tali persaudaraan dengannya.. Situasi ini,
baginda hadapinya dengan penuh kesabaran dan bermunajat kepada Allah (s.w.t) tempat
mengadu, hanya Allah yang Maha Melihat, Maha Mendengar, Mengetahui dan Maha
Menolong. Inilah yang diungkap oleh Raja al-Nsir Dwud dalam serangkai bait:
1237
_ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Tuhanku! sanak saudara saling menjauhi
sehingga daku ditinggalkan sendirian.
Setiap orang menutup pintunya untukku
padahal kubuka pintuku untuk melindungi mereka.
Tuhanku! Engkaulah Maha Melihat, Mendengar
dan Maha Mengetahui segala yang tersembunyi dan nyata.
Tuhanku! Ku mengharapkan pertolongan-Mu
Engkaulah yang paling mampu memberi kemenangan
yang dicita-citakan.
Semasa Raja al-Nsir Ysuf memegang teraju pemerintahan Damsyik baginda menahan
Raja al-Nsir Dwud di sebuah kubu di Hims selama tiga tahun tiga bulan. Dalam keadaan
ini tiada temapat baginda mengadu melainkan Allahs.w.t. Lalu baginda bermunajat kepada-
Nya melalui rangkaian qasidah berikut :
1238
_ _ _ _ _ _
1236
Puisi yang ke- 31 (Q), rangkap 5, 6 dan 8.
1237
Puisi yang ke- 34 (Q), rangkap 1, 3, 6 dan 9.
1238
Puisi yang ke- 36 (Q), rangkap 1- 4.
858 / ISoIT 2004
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ __ _ _ _ _ _
Tuhanku, Tuhanku! Engkaulah Maha Tinggi lagi Mengetahui
hakku yang zahir atau yang tersembunyi di dada.
Engkaulah harapan bagi setiap dosa
dan ditakuti, Engkaulah hakim yang bijak.
Maha Mengetahui! Kepada-Mu kumengadu kesempitan
tiada selainmu dapat berlaku adil kepada yang dizalimi.
Untuk menguatkan kedudukan dirinya yang sanggup menahan kesabaran, akibat
perbuatan keji kaum kerabatnya baginda membawa cerita para nabi yang diutus untuk
menyebarkan agama Allah (s.w.t) yang menerima berbagai seksaan daripada kaumnya. Oleh
kerana kesabaran para nabi maka mereka mendapat perlindungan Allah (s.w.t). Antara cerita
nabi yang dipaparkan oleh Raja al-Nsir Dwud ialah perdebatan di antara Nabi Ibrhm (a.s)
dengan Raja Nimrd yang kejam dan zalim serta mendakwa dirinya sebagai nabi. Raja
Nimrd memberi arahan kepada kaumnya supaya Nabi Ibrhm dicampak ke dalam api.
Tetapi dengan kehendak Tuhan, ia terselamat. Seperti firman Allah (s.w.t):
1239
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ * _ ]
.[ _ _ _ _ * _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _
Maksudnya:
(Setelah tidak dapat berhujjah lagi, ketua-ketua) mereka berkata: Bakarlah dia dan
belalah tuhan- tuhan kamu, jika betul kamu mahu bertindak membelanya. Kami berfirman:
Hai api, jadilah engkau sejuk serta selamat sejahtera kepada Ibrhm. Dan mereka (dengan
perbuatan membakarnya itu) hendak melakukan angkara yang menyakitinya, lalu Kami
jadikan mereka orang-orang yang amat rugi (kalah dengan hinanya).
Ungkapan puisi Raja al-Nsir Dwud yang menggambarkan cerita Nabi Ibrhm ini
berbunyi:
1240
__ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _
_ : _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Bukankah Engkau yang telah berlindung oleh al-Khall
(Nabi Ibrhm) dengan kelembutan.
dan Nimrd dengan kekejamannya adalah pengecut.
Kekuasaan (Nimrd) mencampakkannya (Ibrhm) ke dalam api
bara apinya bernyala di udara dengan marak sekali.
Engkau kata padanya: Jadilah sejuk; maka panasnya pun sejuk
perintah-Mu kepada alam ini berlaku dan terlaksana.
Selain daripada cerita Nabi Ibrhm, Raja al-Nsir Dwud memaparkan juga cerita Nabi
Ynus (a.s) yang ditelan tanpa dimamah oleh ikan paus. Baginda berada dalam keadaan gelap
gelita dan ketakutan, menyebabkan baginda sentiasa memohon doa kepada Allah. Akhirnya
dengan perintah Allah, baginda (Nabi Ynus) tercampak ke pantai. Inilah puisi yang
digambarkan oleh Raja al-Nsir Dwud:
1241
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
1239
Surah al-Anbiy, 21: 68- 70.
1240
Puisi yang ke- 36 (Q), rangkap 19- 21.
1241
Ibid, rangkap 22- 24.
Hajah Salmah Ahmad / 859
__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Ynus (a.s) berdoa dengan penuh harapan dan ketakutan
dalam perut ikan paus yang diselubungi kegelapan.
Ia terselamat daripada dugaan tersebut
Daripada dugaan yang menimpa, adanya sejahtera.
Kemudian Raja al-Nsir Dwud mengungkapkan cerita nabi Ysuf (a.s) yang dipisahkan
dari saudaranya dan dipinjarakan namun akhirnya dapat besatu semula dengan
keluarganya:
1242
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Ysuf dalam penjara Engkau tentukan kekuasaannya
maruahnya dikembalikan suci dan mulia.
Engkau pertemukan kembali kedua ibubapa
dan saudara- saudaranya. Dengan itu tercantum semula
keluarganya.
Cerita Nabi Ms (a.s) juga menjadi sumber ilham kepada Raja al-Nsir Dwud dalam
puisinya. Baginda menggambarkan kisah Nabi Mus yang berada di tepi laut ketika dikejar
oleh Firaun, lalu Allah (s.w.t) mewahyukan kepadanya seperti dalam firman-Nya:
1243
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Maksudnya:
Pukullah laut itu dengan tongkatmu. (Setelah dipukul) maka terbelahlah laut itu (kepada
beberapa bahagian), lalu menjadilah air tiap-tiap bahagian yang terbelah itu terangkat seperti
gunung yang besar.
Nabi Ms terselamat, sementara Firaun serta kaumnya tenggelam. Inilah yang
digambarkan oleh Raja al-Nsir dalam tiga rangkap puisinya:
1244
__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Ms berpagi-pagi di tepi lautan yang bergelombang
ombaknya mampu meruntuhkan bukit dan memecahnya.
Engkau tenteramkannya setelah ia dalam ketakutan
setiap yang susah di sisi-Mu engkau kurniakan kesenangan.
Kemudian Raja al-Nsir Dwud mengakhiri cerita baginda dengan kisah Rasulullah
(s.a.w) sebagai nabi terakhir yang diutuskan untuk memberi hidayah dan sebagai ikutan
sekelian manusia:
1245
_ __ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Ia datang membawa cahaya petunjuk penuh kemuliaan.
ia dikurniakan kepada orang yang mulia.
Dengan cahaya itulah orang yang menyeru-Mu mendapat petunjuk
1242
Puisi yang ke- 36 (Q), rangkap 29 - 30.
1243
Surah al- Shu
c
ar, 26: 63.
1244
Puisi yang ke- 36 (Q), rangkap 31- 33.
1245
Ibid, rangkap 38, 39 dan 41.
860 / ISoIT 2004
petunjuk hidayah dapat menunjukkan jalan yang lurus.
Tuhanku! Engkau menentukan Ahmad selepas mereka (para nabi)
dengan petunjuk-Mu. Dialah Rasul terakhir sebagai pilihan.
Kesemua kisah yang dipaparkan oleh Raja al-Nsir Dwud menjadi contoh teladan dan
pengajaran kepada baginda. Sifat kesabaran yang ada pada para nabi akhirnya telah
membawa kejayaan dan kesenangan. Hal ini menjadikan baginda terus bersabar disamping
memohon pertolongan Allah (s.w.t) akhirnya baginda dibebaskan.
Jelas di sini bahawa Raja al-Nsir Dwud banyak membaca buku-buku Islam terutama
al-Quran, akidah dan taswuf yang terdahulu, menyunting buah fikiran mereka. Ini terbukti
melalui penggunaan istilah-istilah sufi dan akidah disamping pemahaman yang mendalam
terhadap cirita-cerita al-Quran.dalam puisinya.
Kesemua pemikiran Islam yang diungkapkan oleh Raja al-Nsir Dwud menunjukkan
baginda sependapat dengan para ulama sezamannya khususnya pemikiran tasawuf.kerana
baginda hidup sezaman dengan para ahli sufi yang terkenal, seperti
c
Umar bin al-Frid (m.
632 H); Ibn
c
Arab (m.638 H); dan Jall al-Dn al-Rm (m. 672 H).
1246
Selain itu, semua pemikiran dan gambaran yang dicernakan oleh Raja al-Nsir Dwud
dalam puisinya yang lalu berlandaskan al-Quran dan hadth Rasulullah s.a.w. Ia dapat
memberi iktibar kepada ahli pemikir masa kini kususnya para sastwrawan tanah air dan
menjadi peduman serta panduan untuk jenerasi akan datang.
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Dr. Hajah Salmah Ahmad
Jabatan Pengajian Arab dan Tamadun Islam
Fakulti Pengajian Islam
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
43600 Bangi
Selangor.
Islamic Education and Akhlak Key to Academic
Excellence
Che Zuina Binti Ismail
Abstract
Islamic Education and Akhlak are very relevant topics to be discussed seriously in this
century. There are so many signs and early warnings about the moral decadents among our
students due to the moral crisis in the society. The negligence of Islamic Education and
character building (akhlak) is an unforgivable mistake. Therefore, Islamic Education that
produces students who possess self-genuineness as servants of Allah needs to be considered
an important agenda in this globalization era. In this paper, the writer tries to depict the
importance of lectures on Islamic Education which produces descent akhlak and personality
among students at higher tertiary level. It begins with the justification of the concept of
Islamic Education, the aims are to create descent akhlak among human beings and to ensure
the National Education Philosophy incorporates the importance of descent akhlak. The
library research done by the writer and also the experience teaching at UiTM Johor Branch
show that there is a correalation between students academic excellence and their akhlak
which includes their attitudes. The writer had also interviewed the Deputy Director of
Students Affair and the Deputy Director of Academic Affair. Analysis had been made on a
few records and some imformation was disclosed by the Students Affair and Academic Affair.
It signifies that students who were imposed disciplinary actions by the Students Affair were
those who possess very low academic achievement. This fact leads us to think that only an
individual who possesses descent akhlak will be blessed in searching for ilmu. Eventually,
some suggestion have been made to produce future professionals who are physically,
spiritually, intellectually and emotionally harmony. This kind of Muslim Professionals will
not only benefit themselves but also in leading the society, nation, country and world as a
whole.
Pendahuluan
Akhlak mempunyai pengaruh yang besar ke atas diri individu muslim dan umat. Manusia
membentuk dan mengolah gerak laku perbuatan dan amalannya mengikut bentuk dan acuan
sistem akhlak tersebut (Haron 1988 :141). Akhlak yang mulia dapat menyempurnakan
keperluan masyarakat manusia, iaitu kebahagiaan. Jika setiap individu muslim berakhlak
mulia, maka sudah pasti masyarakat itu akan dipenuhi dengan keadilan, keamanan dan
kesejahteraan dan terselamat dari keadaan huru-hara, perpecahan dan sebagainya. Akhlak
mulia merupakan tunggak kekuatan masyarakat dan negara. Oleh itu setiap individu wajib
berjuang menegakkan akhlak mulia dan berusaha mencegah dan memerangi apa sahaja gejala
kerusakan akhlak dalam masyarakat (W. Abdullah dan Dra Wista 1997 : 27).
Dalam konteks kemajuan dan pembinaan tamadun Islam, seseorang individu sangat
diutamakan mengiltizamkan diri terlebih dahulu dengan budi pekerti yang luhur, kemudian
merealisasikannya pula kepada orang lain supaya mampu membentuk generasi akan datang
Che Zuina Binti Ismail / 863
sebagai asas kekuatan ummah sejagat. Budi pekerti yang luhur adalah salah satu sifat yang
dimiliki Rasulullah s.a.w. dan telah menjadi amalan harian baginya kerana akhlak itu
termasuk setengah daripada iman.
Konsep
Pendidikan diertikan sebagai tunjukajar dan latihan yang tersusun serta terencana bagi
membentuk akhlak, kemampuan akal, pembentukan disiplin dan lain-lain lagi (Abu Urwah
1986 : 181). Pendidikan Islam juga diertikan sebagai proses untuk membentuk keperibadian
manusia ke arah melahirkan manusia yang menyedari tanggunjawab dan janji mereka
terhadap Allah yakni menjadi hamba kepada Allah (A. Ghani 1984 : 1 )
Al-Khulq dari segi bahasa bererti sifat dan tabiat. Sementara menurut istilah ia diertikan
sebagai kumpulan sifat yang bersemadi di dalam jiwa dan berdasarkan dorongan dan
pertimbangan sifat tersebut sesuatu perbuatan itu dikatakan baik atau buruk (Abu Urwah
1989 : 45).Istilah akhlak adalah suatu istilah yang bersifat rabbani kerana ia bersumberkan
daripada Allah. Firman Allah bermaksud,
Dan bahawa sesungguhnya engkau mempunyai akhlak yang sangat mulia (al-Qalam 68 : 4)
Usamah ibn Syarik menceritakan bahawa dia dengan teman-temannya pada suatu hari
duduk dekat Nabi dan mendengar seorang di antara yang hadir bertanya kepada baginda,
Siapakah di antara hamba Allah yang sangat disayangi oleh Tuhannya?Nabi
menjawab,Mereka yang terbaik akhlaknya. (Tabrani)
Akhlak meliputi segala lapangan hidup baik rohani mahupun jasmani, meliputi dunia dan
akhirat (Ahmad Ibrahim 1992 : 94 ). Firman Allah bermaksud,
Demi sesungguhnya, adalah bagi kamu pada diri Rasulullah s.a.w. itu contoh ikutan yang baik, iaitu
bagi orang yang sentiasa mengharapkan (keredaan) Allah s.w.t. dan (balasan baik) hari akhirat, serta ia
pula menyebut dan memperingati Allah banyak-banyak (dalam masa susah dan senang) (al-Ahzab 33
: 21 )
Akhlak al-Quran merupakan satu fitrah semulajadi manusia yang tidak bercanggah
sedikitpun dengan akal pada setiap masa dan tempat. Kembali kepada al-Quran bererti
mengembalikan manusia kepasda jalan akhlak yang benar-benar diperlukan dan dicari oleh
setiap manusia ( Mustafa Haji Daud 1991 : 70 ).
Pendidikan/Tarbiyah Islam
Pendidikan adalah aspek penting dalam kehidupan manusia semenjak muncul dan
tersebarnya Islam yang dibawa oleh Nabi Muhammad s.a.w. yang diutuskan Allah untuk
disampaikan kepada seluruh manusia. Pendidikan menjadi satu bidang perjuangan baginda.
Dalam sirah, tugas pertama Rasulullah memberi pendidikan kepada pengikutnya. Ini boleh
dilihat daripada ayat pertama yang diturunkan oleh Allah yang mana di dalamnya
mengandungi unsur-unsur pendidikan (al-Ahwani t.th. : 20). Firman Allah yang bermaksud,
Bacalah (wahai Muhammad) dengan nama Tuhanmu yang menciptakan (sekalian makhluk). Ia
menciptakan manusia dari sebuku darah beku: bacalah dan Tuhanmu yang amat pemurah yang
mengajar manusia melalui pena dan tulisan. Ia mengajar manusia apa yang tidak diketahuinya. (al-Alaq
96 : 1 5)
Ayat ini menyebut Qalam dan Ilmu bagi membuka akal dan pemikiran kepada
kebenaran dan mengangkat martabat manusia (Hijazi 1969, juz. 30 : 64). Kemunculan Islam
dengan turunnya wahyu di atas yang memerintahkan Nabi Muhammad membaca Iqra dari
psikologinya melibatkan keseluruhan struktur mental manusia (Hasan 1976 : 8).
864 / ISoIT 2004
Islam memandang bahawa pendidikan adalah satu proses penting bagi semua peringkat
manusia samada kecil atau besar, tua atau muda. Ia begitu menekankan pendidikan yang
membawa kesejahteraan kepada seluruh umat Islam, dunia dan akhirat. Pendidikan yang
perlu diutamakan ialah yang berkaitan dengan agama kerana ia adalah cara yang paling baik
untuk mencegah manusia dari keburukan dan membawa mereka kepada ketinggian kerana
pendidikan agama adalah hidayah dan petunjuk. (Ali Fadl al-Lah t.th. : 161)
Pendidikan Islam menjadikan matlamat mengenal Tuhan, memahami Islam dan diri
sendiri serta menghayati cara hidup yang baik sebagai terasnya. Berasaskan matlamat ini
Rasulullah s.a.w. telah berjaya mendidik generasi umat Islam yang pertama dahulu,
mengangkat mereka dari jurang keruntuhan akhlak zaman jahiliyyah kepada kecemerlangan
akhlak Islam yang menakjubkan (Mustaffa 1994 : 94)
Pendidikan dalam Islam adalah memberikan penekanan kepada pembangunan seluruh
potensi manusia (ruh, akal dan jasad) secara bersepadu sekaligus untuk menyampaikan dua
fungsi manusia iaitu sebagai hamba Allah dan sebagai khalifah yang ditugaskan untuk
memakmurkan seluruh alam di atas dasar kesepaduan dan kesempurnaan iman, ilmu dan
amal soleh demi mencapai kebahagiaan di dunia dan di akhirat (Syed M.Naquib 1978 : 1 ).
Maka tujuan pokok dan utama dari pendidikan Islam adalah mendidik budi pekerti dan
pendidikan jiwa. Dalam masa yang sama bidang-bidang lain seperti pendidikan mental,
jasmani, matematik, ilmu sosial dan sebagainya tidak diabaikan ( al-Abrashi 1974 : 15 ) (al-
Abrasyi 1969 : 71).
Pembentukan Akhlak Mulia
Pembangunan negara tidak bermakna sekiranya insan itu runtuh akhlaknya. Justeru itu
ahli pendidikan bermuafakat bahawa pendidikan akhlak paling perlu dalam kehidupan
manusia. Kemuliaan dan kebahagiaan, aman dan tenteram bergantung kepada sejauhmana
kejayaan dalam pendidikan akhlak. Manusia sempurna (insan kamil) ialah manusia yang
berilmu dan berakhlak mulia. Maka seseorang yang jahil tetapi berakhlak mulia lebih baik
dari seseorang yang berilmu tetapi tidak berakhlak. Ia lebih banyak membawa kemudaratan
dari yang pertama. Oleh itu mendidik anak-anak dengan pelajaran tinggi tanpa mendidik
sama akhlak bererti kita mendidik para penjenayah professional yang boleh menjual negara,
bangsa dan agama.
Akhlak merupakan manifestasi yang dirangkaikan bersama hati dan budi yang bersifat
rohani, dipamerkan melalui gaya dan tindakan. Lantaran itu untuk membina dan membentuk
akhlak individu dan masyarakat ia haruslah terlebih dahulu melalui pembentukan yang
bersifat rohani (Che Kamarudin, Nik Aminah, Rukiah, Siti Fatimah dan Sulaiman 1996 : 68).
Insan yang runtuh akhlaknya ialah insan yang kabur tentang hakikat dan tujuan hidup serta
membentuk gaya hidup yang bebas daripada nilai dan norma keagamaan ( Che Zuina 1998 :
51 ).
Pembangunan akhlak Islam ini ialah manifestasi lansung daripada keimanan dan
pemikiran Islam yang mengadunkan sahsiah muslim di dalam diri dan masyarakat generasi
awalan Islam. Ia lahir daripada model akhlak yang hidup dan praktis iaitu akhlak Rasulullah
s.a.w. Dari sumber inilah pemahaman generasi awalan Islam mengenai amanah, jujur, taat,
beradab dan lain-lain itu difahami dan dipraktikan. Muslim sebegini berjaya membentuk
hubungan yang harmoni dengan Allah, dirinya dan dengan alam (M. Nakhaie 1994 : 31)
Che Zuina Binti Ismail / 865
Falsafah Pendidikan Negara Dan Cabaran Globalisasi
Falsafah pendidikan negara menekankan,
Pendidikan di Malaysia adalah suatu usaha berterusan ke arah memperkembangkan lagi potensi
individu secara menyeluruh dan bersepadu untuk mewujudkan insan yang harmonis dan seimbang
daripada segi intelek, rohani, emosi dan jasmani berdasarkan kepercayaan dan kepatuhan kepada Tuhan.
Usaha ini adalah bagi melahirkan rakyat Malaysia yang berilmu pengetahuan, berakhlak mulia,
bertanggungjawab dan berkeupayaan mencapai kesejahteraan diri serta memberi sumbangan terhadap
keharmonian dan kemakmuran masyarakat dan negara
Sesuai dengan struktur masyarakat Malaysia yang berbilang kaum dan agama, falsafah
pendidikan setakat ini adalah tidak bercanggah dengan falsafah pendidikan Islam itu
sendiri.(Hasan 1995 : 128 129)
Malaysia sedang pesat membangun dari segi kemajuan kebendaan. Perubahan yang
pantas akan meninggalkan kesan-kesan yang tidak stabil atau mengelirukan. Ini disebabkan
kegagalan anggota masyarakat mengorientasikan diri mereka ke arah perubahan tadi ( Tajul
Ariffin 1990 : 35 ). Kekeliruan ini akan menyebabkan golongan muda khususnya tenggelam
dalam arus pembangunan. Mereka telah mengamalkan perlakuan yang ganjil dan tidak
normal. Begitu juga pelajar kita telah berada di antara dua persimpangan. Perlakuan yang
baik, berakhlak dan berdisiplin yang sesuai dengan budaya dan ajaran agama. Manakala
tarikan kedua pula menuju ke alam mimpi, angan-angan dan kerosakan yang dicetuskan oleh
pembangunan yang terlalu pantas. Oleh kerana pembangunan fizikal lebih pantas daripada
proses pembinaan akhlak, maka para pelajar akan terarah kepada keruntuhan akhlak.
Pengabaian bimbingan, asuhan dan pendidikan terhadap remaja mengakibatkan kelahiran
pelbagai gejala sosial seperti gejala lepak, tidak minat belajar, tidak kisah, lari dari rumah,
penyalahgunaan dadah, pil ekstasi, penagihan arak, homoseksual/lesbian, AIDS/HIV positif,
bohsia, bohjan, pengguguran anak, pembuangan anak, gejala punk, skin head, berjudi, lumba
haram, samseng sekolah, vandalisme dan pelbagai jenayah juvana.
Kesan gejala sosial kepada agama, bangsa dan negara begitu besar sekali. Masyarakat
menjadi kacau bilau, porak-peranda dan sengsara. Remaja menjadi tidak berharga dan hilang
nilai individu. Kestabilan negara implikasi dari gejala sosial semestinya menggugat masa
depan agama, bangsa dan negara (Mustafa 1998 : 98)
Diri pelajar mestilah diperkukuhkan dengan unsur kerohanian yang mantap sehingga
berupaya melakukan jihad menanggani segala cabaran masa hadapan yang lebih
hebat.Rohani pelajar seharusnya dibajai dengan sifat al-hikmah iaitu memiliki pegangan
yang benar, tidak bertaqlid buta dan berjihad di atas landasan kebenaran. Ia
bertanggungjawab meneguhkan keimanan, budi pekerti yang tinggi dan berakhlak mulia.
Mereka semestinya mencintai agama, bangsa dan tanah air. Sifat adil dan asy syajaah iaitu
berani kerana benar begitu penting yang bertanggungjawab menjadikan pelajar mempunyai
daya tahan samada dari segi fizikal dan mental atau jasmani dan rohani untuk merealisasikan
segala suruhan Allah s.w.t. dan menjauhkan segala larangannya. Sifat iffah iaitu waja diri
dan kawalan diri yang ampuh perlu dimiliki oleh remaja. Ia berfungsi untuk mengawal
perasaan, emosi dan nafsu yang sering menjerumuskan remaja ke lembah gejala sosial. Hal
ini disebabkan sifat bertanggungjawab melahirkan sifat al-haya (malu melakukan perkara
mungkar dan keji), warak dan sabar. Sabar merupakan kekuatan yang dapat menentang
runtunan hawa nafsu dan syahwat, seterusnya mendorong seseorang mentaati Allah. Beradab
dan bersopan santun juga penting bagi menjadikan seseorang remaja. Seseorang remaja
866 / ISoIT 2004
mestilah menghormati diri sendiri dengan maruah, tuturkata dan kelakuan. Remaja mestilah
bersyukur kepada Allah s.w.t. dengan segala nikmat dari Allah.
Pembentukan Akhlak Mulia di Kalangan Pelajar
Akhlak Islam bertunjangkan akidah. Sebab itulah ia mempunyai asas yang kukuh kepada
keimanan, kekuasaan Allah s.w.t., qada dan qadar, dosa dan pahala, ganjaran baik dan
balasan jahat di akhirat dan sebagainya. Akhlak yang baik yang disarankan oleh al-Quran
banyak sekali seperti iman, takwa, amal salih, ikhlas, sabar, amanah, zuhud, adil, suka
menolong, suka memaafkan, pemurah dan sebagainya.( al-Maududi 1967 : 30 34 )
Hujah-hujah pembentukan diri dari sudut akhlak dan keterampilan diri dunia dan akhirat
juga telah ditekankan oleh Nahlawy (1963 : 67) dan al Jammali (1966 : 82). Para pemikir ini
telah menekankan betapa dengan sikap, adab atau akhlak baik yang ada pada seseorang
pelajar akan menjamin kejayaan di dunia dan di akhirat. Ini bermakna dengan memiliki
akhlak mulia seseorang pelajar akan mencipta kejayaan demi kejayaan dalam bidang
akademik, perhubungan dengan masyarakat, memahami alam sekitar, cemerlang dalam
kerjaya dan membawa kebahagiaan di akhirat.
Gabungan pengetahuan, keterampilan, pola-pola tingkahlaku, sikap, nilai-nilai dan
kebiasaan yang terkandung dalam tujuan umum pendidikan Islam akan dapat menumbuhkan
semangat agama dan akhlak ( Hasan 1986 : 63) iaitu,
Memperkenalkan kepada generasi muda akan akidah Islam, dasar-dasarnya, asal usul
ibadat dan cara-cara melaksanakannya dengan betul, dengan membiasakan mereka
berhati-hati mematuhi akidah agama, menjalankan dan menghormati syiar-syiar
agama.
Menumbuhkan kesedaran yang betul pada diri pelajar terhadap agama termasuk
prinsip-prinsip dan dasar-dasar akhlak yang mulia.
Menanam keimanan kepada Allah pencipta alam dan kepada Malaikat, Rasul-rasul,
Kitab-kitab dan Hari Akhirat.
Menumbuh minat pada generasi muda untuk menambah pengetahuan dalam adab
dan pengetahuan keagamaan dan untuk mengikuti hukum-hukum agama dengan
kecintaan dan kerelaan.
Menanam rasa cinta dan penghargaan kepada al-Quran, membacanya dengan baik,
memahaminya dan mengamalkan ajaran-ajarannya.
Menumbuhkan rasa bangga terhadap sejarah dan kebudayaan Islam.
Menumbuhkan rasa rela, optimis, kepercayaan diri, tanggungjawab, menghargai
kewajiban, tolong menolong atas kebaikan dan taqwa, kasih saying, cinta kebaikan,
sabar dan berjuang untuk kebaikan.
Mendidik naluri, motivasi dan keinginan generasi muda dan menguatkanya dengan
akidah dan nilai-nilai.
Menanamkan iman yang kuat kepada Allah, perasaan keagamaan dan akhlak pada
diri mereka.
Membersikan hati mereka dari rasa dengki, hasad, iri hati, benci, kezaliman, keegoan
dan perselisihan.
Imam al-Ghazali telah menggariskan beberapa adab yang perlu diamalkan oleh
pelajar. Di antaranya, (Hussein Bahreisj 1980 : 81 )
Setiap pelajar haruslah menyemaikan niat yang baik selama mana ia menuntut ilmu.
Ini bagi menghindari daripada akhlak yang buruk
Memberi perhatian yang serius atau komited dengan proses pembelajaran
Menghormati segala ajaran guru
Mendahulukan mempelajari ilmu yang lebih memberi manfaat
Che Zuina Binti Ismail / 867
Akhlak Mulia Asas Kecemerlangan Akademik
Sebagai seorang pensyarah (pendidik) di Pusat Pemikiran dan Kefahaman Islam (CITU)
UiTM cawangan Johor selama 14 tahun, saya berkeyakinan penuh dan dengan pastinya
mendapati bahawa pelajar-pelajar yang mendapat keputusan yang cemerlang dalam akademik
adalah terdiri daripada mereka yang mempunyai akhlak yang terpuji. Sikap, adab atau akhlak
yang baik ini adalah samada pendidikan awal yang mereka terima daripada ibubapa,
pendidikan awal di sekolah rendah dan menengah, melalui media atau persekitaran. Di UiTM
siswa dan siswi peringkat diploma dimestikan lulus dalam matapelajaran yang ditawarkan
oleh Pusat Pemikiran dan Kefahaman Islam iaitu dari semester I, II dan III.Begitu juga
dengan siswa dan siswi bukan Islam ( dari Sabah, Sarawak dan orang asli di Semenanjung).
Usaha-usaha ini juga ditambahbaikkan lagi oleh pihak Hal Ehwal Pelajar dengan aktiviti-
aktiviti ko-kurikulum, aktiviti-aktiviti anjuran Perwakilan Pelajar atau apa-apa program yang
disusun oleh pihak HEP.
Di sini saya mengambil keputusan peperiksaan Oktober 2003 yang lepas sebagai sample
yang menunjukkan pencapaian pelajar dalam matapelajaran IMK 102 secara keseluruhan
(matapelajaran ini ditawarkan oleh Pusat Pemikiran dan Kefahaman Islam kepada semua
pelajar bahagian 01 iaitu di semester I, kursus Diploma Perakaunan, Diploma Pengurusan
Perniagaan, Diploma Perbankan, Diploma Analisis Pelaburan dan Diploma Teknologi
Maklumat). Kursus ini adalah kursus wajib universiti. Saya merupakan salah seorang
pensyarah bagi matapelajaran ini. Keputusannya adalah,
LULUS GAGAL
A+ % A % A- % B+ % B % B- % C+ % C % C- % D+ % D % E %
F % JUMLAH
4 0.5 218 26 232 28 188 22 80 10 50 6 22 3 16 2 5 0.6 6 0.7 5 0.6 3 0.4
8 1 837
Meneliti kepada keputusan ini, daripada 837 pelajar yang mengambil matapelajaran ini,
826 (98.6%) orang telah lulus dan hanya 11 orang (1.4%)yang gagal. Hampir keseluruhan
pencapaian pelajar yang lulus terutama lulus dengan cemerlang merupakan pelajar-pelajar
yang berdisiplin dalam melaksanakan tanggungjawab sebagai siswa dan siswi di IPT. Sebab-
sebab kegagalan dalam pencapaian akademik ialah faktor sikap. Mereka yang gagal didapati
tidak dapat menyiapkan tugasan, ponteng kelas, lewat hadir ke kelas, kerap balik kampung,
tidak dapat menyesuaikan diri dengan suasana IPT. Kenyataan ini disokong oleh Timbalan
Pengarah Hal Ehwal Akademik, UiTM cawangan Johor (Rohaya binti Haji Atan 2003).
Menurut beliau terdapat segelintir daripada pelajar yang bermasalah, tidak tahu atau sengaja
tidak mematuhi peraturan akademik atau dalam tindakan sebagai pelajar di IPT. Beliau
menyokong pendapat yang mengatakan bahawa faktor sikap dan akhlak mulia memainkan
peranan penting kepada pencapaian akademik seseorang pelajar.
Timbalan Pengarah Hal Ehwal Pelajar UiTM Cawangan Johor turut menyokong
pendapat yang mengatakan bahawa sikap atau akhlak siswa dan siswi sememangnya memberi
pengaruh yang besar dalam pencapaian akademik seseorang (Zaluddin bin Sulaiman 2003).
Menurut beliau lagi, 99% daripada pelajar yang terlibat dengan tindakan tata-tertib oleh pihak
HEP di UiTM cawangan Johor adalah mereka yang sama bermasalah dalam akademik. Pun
begitu bilangan yang bermasalah ini tidaklah ramai. Memandangkan bilangan siswa dan siswi
pada tahun 2003 berada lebih kurang 4000 pelajar, setakat ini pencapaian akademik di UiTM
cawangan Johor berada di tahap yang membanggakan.
Fakta ini dapat diperjelaskan lagi melalui senarai nama pelajar-pelajar yang telah
dikenakan tindakan tatatertib disebabkan tidak menghadiri 80% daripada kuliah yang
sepatutnya dihadiri. Sampel yang dianalisa ialah 88 orang pelajar yang telah dikenakan
868 / ISoIT 2004
tindakan tatatertib kerana tidak menghadiri kuliah. Purata pencapaian CGPA mereka pada
tahun 2003 ialah 2.09. Pencapaian ini adalah rendah dan akan menggagalkan mereka untuk
meneruskan pengajian di peringkat ijazah (sekurang-kurangnya CGPA 2.7). Nampaknya
sikap dan akhlak yang kurang baik adalah sinonim dengan pencapaian akademik yang
rendah.
Beberapa contoh yang telah diambil daripada keputusan peperiksaan akhir selama
penulis bertugas di UiTM cawangan Johor sememangnya membuktikan bahawa siswa dan
siswi yang mendapat A bagi matapelajaran yang ditawarkan oleh CITU adalah terdiri
daripada pelajar-pelajar yang mempunyai sikap dan adab yang baik. Akhlak baik ini terserlah
dalam hubungan mereka dengan para pensyarah, sesama rakan pelajar, kakitangan di UiTM
cawangan Johor dan masyarakat luar. Rata-ratanya pelajar ini menonjolkan penampilan
sahsiah rupadiri yang sopan dan kemas, samada siswa mahupun siswi. Ia ditambah-baikan
lagi dengan,
Skema pengajaran (silibus) yang digunakan oleh CITU adalah bertepatan dan selari
dengan proses mewujudkan siswa dan siswi yang terbangun mental, emosi, fizikal dan
spiritualnya
Isi kandungan, penghuraian kreativiti persembahan dan bahan-bahan bacaan rujukan
yang bertepatan dengan skema pengajaran adalah di antara faktor kefahaman ilmu dan
membuka minda ke arah perubahan tindakan dan perilaku pelajar. Ini adalah kerana ia ditulis
oleh sekumpulan pensyarah yang terlatih dan berpengalaman dengan aspek-aspek pengajaran
dan pendidikan matapelajaran berkenaan.
Keterampilan tenaga akademik yang disokong dengan alat bantuan mengajar adalah di
antara faktor yang boleh membangkitkan perubahan minda di kalangan siswa dan siswi,
seterusnya membawa perubahan dalam perilaku mereka.
Walaupun ada pendapat yang mengatakan bahawa faktor baka membawa kecemerlangan
dalam pembelajaran tetapi mutakhir ini kajian membuktikan ia bukanlah satu asas yang
penting. Ia hanyalah sebagai acuan sahaja. (M. Saleh 1999 : 95) Contohnya ibu bapa yang
berpendidikan tinggi tidak semestinya mempunyai anak-anak yang pintar seperti mereka.
Peluang anak-anak untuk berkembang maju bergantung kepada faktor persekitaran seperti
kemudahan pembelajaran, galakan, pemakanan, rakan sebaya, sikap dan sebagainya.
Kejayaan anak-anak banyak ditentukan oleh pengaruh pendidikan yang boleh membentuk
akhlak mulia atau sikap untuk maju ke hadapan.
Apabila usaha-usaha ini dilaksanakan, ternyata pencapaian akademik siswa dan siswi
dalam semua bidang akan cemerlang. Cemerlang dari sudut sikap, adab atau akhlak mereka,
sahsiah rupa diri, tahap pencapaian akademik dan sebagainya. Cemerlang dari sudut
pembangunan insan dan pembangunan material. Hubungan baik dengan Allah dan hubungan
baik dengan manusia telah melahirkan ketenangan pemikiran dan kestabilan emosi kepada
pelajar. Gembira di dunia dan bahagia di alam abadi.
Hasil dari pendidikan Islam ini telah melahirkan ramai di kalangan siswa dan siswi yang
mempunyai ketrampilan sebagai bakal golongan professional muslim yang mempunyai nilai-
nilai jatidiri sebagai professional Melayu Muslim.
Ke Arah Kemantapan Pendidikan dan Sahsiah Cemerlang
Sebagai penanaman modal jangka panjang yang paling berguna kepada kesejahteraan
ummah beberapa langkah boleh difikirkan iaitu,
Semua institusi pengajian tinggi hendaklah menjadikan kurikulum pendidikan Islam
sebagai bahagian yang integral dan penting
Jam kuliah atau waktu pertemuan antara pelajar dengan pensyarah pendidikan Islam
dan dalam aktiviti kerohanian hendaklah ditambah supaya pengajaran akhlak,
Che Zuina Binti Ismail / 869
ibadah, akidah dan syariah dapat diajar secara praktis iaitu dengan penghayatannya
sekali sehingga ke peringkat kekal dan memberi kesan mendalam kepada diri siswa
dan siswi
Semua aktiviti pelajar hendaklah berteraskan atau tidak mengabaikan akhlak, moral,
akidah, ibadah dan syariah Islam. Faktor ini harus diambil-kira oleh pihak yang
bertanggungjawab meluluskan sesuatu aktiviti
Gerakan sepadu dari semua pihak dalam konteks menyeru kepada kebaikan dan
dalam masa yang sama mencegah kerosakan
Akhirnya lahirlah,
individu yang mempunyai komitmen yang kuat kepada agama
individu yang mempunyai rasa tanggungjawab sosial dan moral yang tinggi
individu yang mempunyai kemantapan ilmu dan kecerdasan intelek
individu yang mempunyai kemahiran dalam bidang-bidang pekerjaan yang berguna
kepada manusia
Penutup
Pendidikan Islam dan akhlak mulia akan melahirkan professional Muslim yang bekerja
keras memanfaatkan kepakarannya kepada kesejahteraan umat manusia dan tidak akan
meyelewengkan dasar ini walaupun ketika jauh daripada pandangan mata manusia lantaran
kesedaran tauhid yang tertanam kukuh dalam diri.Usaha ke arah menggarapkan ilmu
akademik dan bukan akademik secara teori dan amali perlu diambil perhatian serius oleh
pihak pengurusan di mana-mana pusat pengajian tinggi. Ini bagi memastikan graduan yang
lahir dapat meninggikan martabat ummah bukannya meruntuh dan merosakkan ketamadunan
yang telah dibina.
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Shah Alam
Temubual dengan Timbalan Pengarah Hal Ehwal Akademik, Prof. Madya Dr. Rohaya binti Haji Atan
dan Timbalan Pengarah Hal Ehwal Pelajar, Prof. Madya Zaluddin bin Sulaiman, UiTM Cawangan
Johor pada 16 Disember 2003
Maklumat tahun 2003 dari Bahagian Hal Ehwal Pelajar dan Bahagian Akademik UiTM Cawangan
Johor
Che Zuina Binti ismail
Centre for Islamic thought and Understanding
Universiti Teknologi MARA
85009 Segamat
Johor, Malaysia
Just Retribution (Qisas) Versus Forgiveness (Afw)
Muhammad Amanullah
Abstract
Unlawful intentional homicide (qatl `amd) is considered as one of the gravest offenses.
The basic remedy to it is just retribution (qisas). The Sunni Islamic Schools of Law define a
number of options to qisas, one of which is forgiving (`afw) the offender. Modern Scholars
discuss the option of qisas in detail, but they only briefly treat the subject of `afw and issue of
what is preferable: qisas or `afw. This research focuses on investigating what is preferable as
remedy to unlawful intentional homicide (qatl `amd): just retribution or forgiveness. In order
to reach this purpose, this study discusses severity of this offense, wisdom of just retribution
and forgiveness, and comparison between them. Analyzing the arguments of the Quran and
Sunnah and opinions of jurists, this study concludes that no consensus exists in Islamic law to
prefer `afw over qisas, or vice versa. Rather, in this regard Islam has a balanced system
where rights of all different parties are simultaneously considered and preserved.
Introduction
Homicide and bodily harm are called jinayah in Islamic fiqh literature. Of these, unlawful
intentional homicide (qatl amd) is considered as the gravest sin after polytheism (shirk).
1247
The basic sanction against this kind of homicide is just retribution (qisas), which is well-
established in Islamic law and has occupied a special position because its implementation
depends almost entirely upon the decision of the victim or his or her nearest of kin. The Sunni
Islamic Schools of law define a number of alternatives to qisas, one of which is to forgive
(afw) the offender. Both qisas and afw, therefore, are remedies for unlawful intentional
homicide.
The purpose of this research is to investigate which is preferable as a remedy to unlawful
intentional homicide (qatl amd): just retribution or forgiveness. In order to reach this goal,
this study is divided into four sections: severity of the offense of unlawful intentional
homicide, wisdom of just retribution, wisdom of forgiveness, and finally a comparison
between just retribution and forgiveness. The textual evidences from the Quran and hadith
and opinions of jurists are thoroughly examined and analyzed in the research by using
1247
In a hadith narrated by Abd Allah ibn Masud, a man asked: O Messenger of Allah, what is the
gravest sin in the sight of Allah? The Prophet replied: To call a counterpart of Allah who created
you The man again asked: Then what? The Messenger replied: Killing of your son fearing that he
will eat with you The narrator confirms that supporting this statement of the Prophet (p. b. u. h.), a
verse of the Quran (about the attributes of believers) was revealed by Allah, saying, And those who
do not call any other god beside Allah and do not kill that person, killing of whom Allah has forbidden
except if it is lawful (25:68). (Bukhari and Muslim). See Wali al-Din Muhammad ibn Abd Allah al-
Khatib al-Tabrizi, Mishkat al-Masabih (Lahore: Maktabai Mustafai, n.d.).
872 / ISoIT 2004
classical Islamic fiqh, tafsir and hadith literature as primary sources, and the writings of
modern jurists as secondary sources.
Severity of the Offense of Unlawful Intentional Homicide
Unlawful intentional homicide (qatl amd) is considered as the most heinous type of
killing. This killing requires a hidden and internal motive, which cannot be determined except
by identifying the types of means that are used to kill a victim. Hence, according to Muslim
jurists, intentional homicide is killing someone with a weapon, such as sword, knife, spear,
bullet, etc., or with something that works as a weapon, such as a sharp piece of wood, a big
stone, fire, etc.
1248
In order to consider this killing as a major sin, it also should reflect
injustice, i.e., the life of someone being taken away without any legal reason. If someone is
intentionally killed for a legal reason, such as adultery, or murder, this killing is not
considered as a sin. Rather, it is a duty that has to be performed. Likewise, if someone
commits homicide with means other than what is mentioned above, the killing is not
considered as an intentional homicide, albeit it is still considered as a sin. This type of killing
is deemed to be semi-intentional homicide (qatl shibh amd). In addition, killing by mistake
(qatl khata) is also not considered as an intentional homicide.
Human life is sacred. Nobody has the right to destroy the life of a fellow human being
without a legal reason. Killing someone without a valid reason leads to interference in the
work of Allah, who has the sole right to cause someone to die. This crime is a threat against
the safety and lives of all members of a society. Unlawful intentional homicide, therefore, is
considered to be a major sin and the gravest offense after polytheism (shirk). This homicide is
strictly prohibited by Islamic Shariah. Both the Quran and Sunnah vividly and repeatedly
mentioned this prohibition. In the Quran Allah said, Do not kill a person whose killing
Allah has forbidden.
1249
Describing the attributes of the believers, Allah also said, They
(believers) do not kill a person whose killing Allah has forbidden.
1250
In another verse the
prohibition of intentional killing has also been mentioned. Allah says: A believer should not
kill another believer except by mistake.
1251
According to al-Qurtubi, a Maliki jurist and a
commentator of the Quran, this verse contains a prohibition of unjust intentional killing.
1252
Like the Quran, the Sunnah of the Prophet (Peace be upon him [p. b. u. h.) also
mentioned the prohibition and severity of intentional killing in a number of ahadith as given
below:
First, prohibiting the killing, the Prophet (p. b. u. h.) said in his speech at Arafah:
Indeed your blood and souls are sacred like the sacredness of this day of this month at this
place.
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It means that nobody is allowed to kill others.
Second, when Muhallam ibn Janamah killed a man of the people of jahiliyyah, the
Prophet (p. b. u. h.) said: May Allah have no mercy upon him (Muhallam). It is reported
that when Muhallam died, he was buried but the earth threw him out. When he was reburied,
the earth threw him out again. Then the Prophet said: Indeed the earth accepts those who are
1248
Wahbah al-Zuhayli, Al-Fiqh al-Islami wa Adillatuh, revised 4
th
ed. (Damascus: Dar al-Fikr, 1987),
7: 5617.
1249
Al-Isra, 17:33.
1250
Al-Furqan, 25: 68.
1251
Al-Nisa, 4: 92.
1252
Abu Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Abi Bakr ibn Faraj al-Qurtubi, Tafsir al-Qurtubi, ed.
Ahmad Abd al-`Alim al-Barduni, 2
nd
print (Cairo: Dar al-Shab, A.H. 1372), 5: 311.
1253
Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, al-Naysaburi, Sahih Muslim, ed. Muhammad Fuad Abd al-Baqi (Beirut: Dar
Ihya al-Turath al-Arabi, no date), hadith no. 1679, 3: 1305.
Muhammad Amanullah / 873
more criminal than him, but Allah wants to show you the sanctity and prohibition of
killing.
1254
The Wisdom of Just Retribution
Implementation of just retribution (qisas) against an unlawful intentional killer has
numerous benefits and wisdom as mentioned in the Quran and Sunnah, and discussed by
Muslim jurists.
The first and most important wisdom is that it would ensure the survival of human lives,
which is considered to be an important objective of the Shariah. Allah said O people of
intelligence, there is life for you in implementing just retribution (qisas).
1255
How does this
implementation of qisas cause the survival of life? According to Mujahid, a famous
commentator of the Quran, implementation of just retribution is considered to be a warning
(nakal). According to Qatadah, qisas is a warning and admonition (nakal wa ibrah) for those
ignorant persons who may harbor the intention of killing other people but because of this
warning, they are restrained from doing so. Thus, implementation of qisas would prevent us
from killing each other and would enable the survival of our lives. On the other hand, if all
unlawful killers are always forgiven and no just retribution is implemented at all, the theory
of qisas would not be a warning for those who intend to kill others because these intenders
might think that since they can be exempted from qisas, they should not be afraid to commit
this sin.
Implementation of just retribution also enables the survival of mankind because it
prevents well-known oppressors from further killing people. Qatadah maintained that qisas is
also a warning for this type of oppressors, who, remembering this warning, restrain
themselves from committing this sin.
Thus, qisas leads to the survival of people other than the killer himself because this
Islamic rule does not kill other people, as was a practice of the Arabs in the pre-Islamic
period. Rather, this rule only orders the killing of the culprit justly.
1256
A Hanafi jurist, Sarakhsi has views similar to that of Mujahid and Qatadah. Sarakhsi said
that just retribution leads to survival of lives in two ways: first, this retribution is considered
to be a deterrence (zajr) because once the one who intends to kill his enemy knows that he
would be killed for his deed, he restrains himself from doing so. Thus, both of these two
persons would survive by virtue of this rule. Second, qisas leads to survival of lives through
eradicating the cause of destruction of lives. This is because an unlawful killer becomes a
threat for the kin of the victim. In order to remove the fear of being killed by them, he wants
to kill them instead. Islamic Shariah prevents people like this from committing further
destruction of lives through the implementation of qisas.
1257
1254
Abu al-Fadl Ahmad ibn Ali ibn Hajar, al-Asqalani al-Shafii, Fath al-Bari bi-Sharh al-Bukhari, ed.
Muhammad Fuad `Abd al-Baqi and Muhibb al-Din al-Khatib (Beirut: Dar al-Ma`rifah, A.H. 1379),
hadith no. 6476, 12:195.
1255
Al-Baqarah, 2: 179.
1256
Abu Ja`far Muhammad ibn Yazid ibn Khalid al-Tabari, Tafsir al-Tabari (Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, A.H.
1405), 2: 114-115.
1257
Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Abi Sahl al-Sarakhsi, al-Mabsut (Beirut: Dar al-Ma`rifah, A.H. 1406), 26:
60; also see `Abd al-Rahman ibn `Ali ibn Muhammad al-Jawzi, Zad al-Musayyar, 3
rd
print (Beirut: al-
Maktab al-Islami, A.H. 14004), 1: 181; also see Abu `Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Abi Bakr
ibn Faraj al-Qurtubi, Tafsir al-Qurtubi, ed. Ahmad `Abd al-`Alim al-Barduni, 2
nd
print (Cairo: Dar al-
Sha`b, A.H. 1372), 2: 256; also see Abu al-Fida Isma`il ibn `Umar Ibn Kathir, Tafsir ibn Khathir
874 / ISoIT 2004
If the rule of qisas is never implemented, the above threat would remain not only for the
relatives of the victim, but also for other members of society. In order to fulfill an important
objective of the Shariah, i.e., the safety of human life, qisas, from time to time, must be
implemented. A well-known case in point is the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, where the rule of
qisas is upheld. Because of the implementation of this rule, compared to other Muslim
countries, Saudi Arabia has less number of intentional and unjust homicides. Likewise,
because of this implementation, this country has been able to ensure the safety of the public
more than any other Muslim country. On the other hand, according to statistical evidence,
during a ten-year period (from 1961 to 1971) crimes that required just retribution in Egypt
reached to more than 50% of the whole number of crimes committed in the country. If the
rule of qisas had been established in this country, this percentage could have been reduced.
Consequently, it could be a better and safe place to live in.
1258
The second wisdom of qisas is that through its implementation, it is possible to establish
another important objective of the Shariah, i.e., justice for an unjust act, because the one
who kills someone unjustly deserves the same pain and punishment that he inflicted upon his
victim. It is an injustice that a wife loses her husband, or a father loses his son, or a brother
loses his brother, but the criminal remains alive. Removal of this injustice and establishment
of justice occur through the establishing of equality between the culprit and the victim. This
equality cannot be achieved except through just retribution, which is the meaning of the word
qisas itself.
1259
Justice is also deemed to have taken place because the next of kin of the
victim become free from their anger and achieve satisfaction through qisas. Once they
become satisfied, they abandon their intention to take further retaliation.
1260
If an unlawful
intentional killer is forgiven, complete justice is not possible to be established because
forgiveness usually comes from the legal guardian of the victim, not from the victim himself,
whose soul might not forgive the criminal.
The third wisdom of the implementation of qisas is that it may lead to stop the blood feud
among the rival groups of society. The history of the Arabs indicates that before the advent of
Islam, many of them used to oppressively kill each other. The consequences of such killings
sometimes continued for a long period of time in the shape of blood feud among different
rival tribes of the pre-Islamic Arab peninsula. However, once Islam implemented the rule of
just retribution against unlawful intentional killers, Arab Muslims abandoned their blood
feud.
1261
Obviously, forgiveness might not always lead rival groups of people to abandon
unlawful homicide and blood feud, particularly in a tribal set up.
Fourth, although we have already discussed the matter of safety for a society, the same
could be seen from a different perspective. According to Sarakhsi, one of the two types of
rights that must be honored regarding human life is the right of Allah, which is considered to
be the right of a society. A society has the right to be free from the threat of a criminal who
unlawfully kills someone. If this criminal is forgiven, he may not abandon his practice of
killing others and may remain a troublemaker for the society. On the other hand, if qisas is
implemented against him, the society remains safe from the possibility of his further
(Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, A.H. 1401), 1: 212; also see Abu `Abd Allah Muhammad ibn `Abd al-Rahman al-
Maghribi, Mawahib al-Jalil, 2
nd
print (Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, A.H. 1398), 6: 231.
1258
See Abu al-Muati Hafiz Abu al-Futuh, Al-Nizam al-Islami al-Iqabi: Dirasah Muqaranah (Cairo:
Muassasat Dar al-Taawun lil-Tab` wa al-Nashr, 1976), 409-412.
1259
See al-Sarakhsi, 26: 60, 63, 127-128; Abd al-Fattah `Abd Allah al-Barshumi, Al-Qisas al-Fiqh al-
Islami (Cairo: Dar al-Tiba`ah al-Muhammadiyyah, 1987), 62-63.
1260
See Ahmad al-Sharabasi, Al-Qisas fi al-Islam (Egypt: Matabi Dar al-Kitab al-Arabi bi-Misr, 1954),
22.
1261
See al-Qurtubi, 2: 256.
Muhammad Amanullah / 875
crimes.
1262
A contemporary scholar, Ahmad al-Sharbasi said: Just retribution in Islam is
considered not only as a deterrent and obstacle (from killing again); rather it is also a way of
establishing safety and stability (in a society).
1263
Another contemporary scholar Awdah said:
No punishment was available in the ancient world or is found in the modern world, which
could be considered better than the punishment of qisas. This is the most just punishment
because through this a criminal is not inflicted except what is similar to his crime. This is also
the best way to establish safety and discipline because once a criminal knows that he would
be punished with the punishment similar to his crime, he generally refrains from committing
this crime.
1264
A third contemporary scholar Shaykh Hasanayn Muhammad Makhluf said: Although
the punishment of qisas apparently seems to be harsh, this is the punishment that compels
people not to be hostile against life, and it is a way to establish general safety for the
ummah.
1265
If a criminal, who has committed unlawful intentional homicide, is forgiven and
he does not refrain and repent from his crime, the right of Allah, i.e., the right of society,
remains unfulfilled.
According to Sarakhsi, another type of right that should be honored regarding human life
is the right of individuals, such as the victim and his next of kin, who have the right to be safe
from the threat of an unjust killer, and also to retaliate against this criminal. Implementation
of qisas against a killer also leads to the achievement of this individual right.
1266
If a killer
had been forgiven, it would not be able to attain this individual right.
The fifth wisdom of qisas is that it may remove the sins of a criminal (kaffarah).
Regarding this issue, two different opinions are available. According to Imam Shafi`i, and the
majority of jurists, all punishments including qisas remove the sins of the offenders. Prophet
(p. b. u. h.) said:
You should make a pledge with me that you would not have any association with Allah;
you would not steal; you would not commit adultery, and you would not kill any person
whose killing is prohibited by Allah, except if it is legal. The one who would fulfill this
pledge, Allah would reward him, while the one who would commit any one of these sins, he
will be punished for it. This punishment would be considered as an expiation (kaffarah) for
him.
1267
Citing this hadith, al-Shafii said: Probably punishments are sent as kaffarah for
sins.
1268
However, according to the Hanafi School of law, punishments, including qisas are not
considered to be kaffarah for sins. Rather, repentance on the part of the offender causes the
removal of his sins. They argued citing the verse regarding highway robbery (hirabah) where
after mentioning the worldly punishment for it, Allah said: That is humiliation for them in
this world, and they will also have severe punishment in the life hereafter.
1269
This verse
indicates that the worldly punishment will not absolve the sin of the above crime.
1262
See al-Sarakhsi, 26: 64.
1263
Ahmad al-Sharabasi, al-Qisas fi al-Islam (Egypt: Matabi` Dar al-`Arabi bi-Misr, 1954), 49.
1264
Abd al-Qadir Awdah, Al-Tashri al-Jinai al-Islami Muqaranan bil-Qanun al- Wadi (Beirut:
Muassasat al-Risalah, 1986), 1: 664.
1265
See al-Sharabasi, 108.
1266
See al-Sarakhsi, 26: 64.
1267
Al-Naysaburi, hadith no. 1709, 3:1333.
1268
Al-Shafii, in Abu al-Futuh, 158; also see al-Zuhayli, 7: 5662.
1269
Al-Maidah, 5: 33.
876 / ISoIT 2004
The hadith cited by al-Shafii is sound and accepted by all. A compromise between it and
the verse cited by Hanafis, therefore, would be that the hirabah is a special case for which the
worldly punishment is not considered as kaffarah. But all other punishments are considered
to be kaffarah for the relevant sins. This opinion is preferable because no proof has been
found for other punishments which say that they will not be kaffarah for the relevant sins.
1270
If an intentional killer is forgiven in this world and qisas is not implemented against him, his
sins will not be absolved. Rather, according to the view of the majority, it is the sins of the
forgiver that will be removed.
The Islamic law of just retribution is sometimes labeled by the West as severe. However,
in the light of above wisdoms, it can be seen as progressive law. As modern Western
scholars, such as Lippman, McConville, and Yerushalmi remark: Although the Koranic law
of retaliation is sometimes thought in the West to be cruel and severe, it was, at its inception,
a progressive law that sought to limit retaliation to the harm actually suffered, and to stop the
then pervasive and unending blood-feuds.
1271
The Wisdom of Forgiveness
Before discussing the wisdom of forgiveness, I would like to clarify that certain types of
unlawful intentional killing do not fall under the scope of forgiveness. One such killing is that
which occurs during highway robberies (hirabah) because the right of punishment against
such crime belongs to the whole society or to Allah, for which forgiveness is unanimously
not permitted if the culprit is caught by the authority before his repentance. According to
Imam Malik, political assassination (qatl al-ghaylah) is considered to be another type of
hirabah, for which forgiveness is not allowed, for instance, Umar and Ali were assassinated
but their killers were not forgiven because this killing falls within the scope of hirabah.
1272
Although other Imams did not accept this view, looking at the public interest (maslahah
mursalah), I would consider Imam Maliks opinion as an appropriate solution for
contemporary societies where the number of assassination cases is constantly on the rise.
Assassins, therefore, should not be forgiven, except if they repent for their crimes before the
authority catches them. All other unlawful homicides fall within the scope of forgiveness, for
which, as in the case of qisas, a number of wisdoms are discernible. These are discussed
bellow.
First and the most important wisdom of forgiveness is that it is merciful for both the
killer and the next of kin of a victim if the latter were to accept blood money.
1273
Explaining
the verse That (forgiveness from just retribution) is a reduced rule and mercy of your
Lord,
1274
Al-Tabari said that Allah prohibited acceptance of blood money for ancient
nations. This prohibition was a difficult rule for them. However, He bestowed His mercy
upon Muslims by allowing them to forgive the killer and to receive blood money instead, as
1270
See Abu al-Futuh, 160-161.
1271
Matthew Lipman, Sean McConville, and Mordechai Yerushalmi, Islamic Criminal Law and
Procedure: An Introduction (New York: Praeger, 1988), 85.
1272
Kamal Jawdah Abu al-Muati Mustafa, Uqubat al-Jinayah ala al-Nafs fi al-Shariah al-
Islamiyyah (Cairo: Dar al-Huda li al-Tibaah, 1987), 125-126.
1273
Forgiveness is mercy for the killer because it spares his life. The same forgiveness also is considered
to be mercy for the forgiver, i.e., for the guardian and relatives of a victim. This is because they will be
benefited from the blood money.
1274
Al-Baqarah, 2: 178.
Muhammad Amanullah / 877
mentioned in this verse.
1275
However, this forgiveness might not be considered as mercy for
the general public because the cause of threat for the safety of their lives has not been
eliminated.
A practical example of this mercy through forgiveness is when sometimes a brother kills
his own brother, for whom their father becomes the guardian and claimant for just retribution
against the criminal. But the interest (maslahah) of the father is that both of his sons should
not be killed. Forgiving the son who killed, therefore, is the only way to keep him alive. He
would then bear the sins of the victim and would carry the pain of losing his brother until
Allah would cause him to die. Thus, forgiveness would become the mercy and grace of Allah
for the whole family.
1276
The second wisdom of forgiveness is that it increases honor and prestige of the one who
practices it. Forgiveness is never considered to be a sign of weakness, humiliation or
dishonor. A legal guardian, who sometimes exercises his power of forgiving, possesses the
upper hand in the case of a homicide because he has the full right to kill the criminal. Once
the former, despite having the right to kill the latter, willingly abandons his right, the
abandonment, i.e., forgiveness, is considered to be a charity (this will be discussed later).
Like any other charity, the forgiveness increases the prestige of the one who gives it, both
among the people and in Allahs eyes. The Prophet (p. b. u. h.) said: Allah does not increase
anything through forgiveness of his servant except his honor.
1277
This hadith indicates that
all types of forgiveness, including forgiving an unlawful intentional killer, increase honor of
the forgiver. In the case of homicide, the forgiver is a guardian whose honor would be
increased. In another hadith the Prophet (p. b. u. h.) said: No person forgives an oppression
except Allah increases his honor because of it.
1278
This hadith also indicates that forgiveness
for all kinds of oppression, including the oppression of unlawful intentional killing, increases
the honor of the forgiver. Both of these ahadith have the general meaning that honor can be
achieved in this world as well as in the hereafter.
One aspect of the above honor is that forgiveness enables a forgiver to enter Paradise.
The Prophet (p. b. u. h.) said: The one who forgives [an offender] of homicide will not have
any reward except Paradise.
1279
Another aspect of this honor is that forgiveness increases the
rank of the forgiver in the eyes of Allah. The Prophet (p. b. u. h.) said: If any Muslim whose
body is inflicted by an injury excuses it, Allah will surely raise a rank for him.
1280
It means
that the forgiver will receive an extra honor on the Day of Judgment because of his
forgiveness. However, this hadith does not relate directly to the forgiveness by a legal
guardian of an unlawful intentional killing. But since forgiving an injury causes the increase
of ranks, forgiving an unlawful intentional killing also will increase the ranks because killing
is more harmful than an injury. However, the right of the society will not be attained through
this forgiveness because the culprit may continue with his crime of unlawful killing if he
were to remain alive.
The third wisdom of forgiveness is that according to some scholars, such as al-Tabari,
and al-Qurtubi, forgiveness is considered as expiation (kaffarah) for the forgiver (injured
person, or the legal guardian of a victim), i.e., the sins he has committed which are considered
1275
Al-Tabari, 2: 110-111; al-Qurtubi, 2: 255.
1276
See Mustafa, 125.
1277
Naysaburi, Muslim, hadith no. 2588, vol. 4:2001.
1278
Muhammad ibn `Ali ibn Muhammad al-Shawkani, Nayl al-Awtar (Beirut: Dar al-Jabal, 1973), 7:
177.
1279
Abu Hanifah, Musnad al-Imam Abi Hanifah (Cairo: Maktabat al-Adab wa Matbaatuha, 1981), 169.
1280
Al-Tabari, 6: 260; al-Qurtubi, 6: 208; Ibn Kathir, 2: 65; al-Shawkani, 7: 177; Muhammad ibn `Isa al-
Sulami al-Tirmidhi, Sunan al-Tirmidhi, ed. Ahmad Shakir and others (Beirut: Dar Liya al-Turath al-
`Arabi, n. d.), hadith no. 1393, 4: 14.
878 / ISoIT 2004
equivalent to the forgiveness he has extended are absolved from him, not from the criminal.
This is because Allah said, His (victims or guardians) excuse of the criminal is considered
to be an expiation for him.
1281
According to al-Tabari, for him means for the one who
forgives. In addition, he argues that this excuse is considered to be a kind of charity. Since all
other deeds of charity (sadaqat) cause removal of the sins of the one who carries them out, in
the case of qisas, forgiveness should also be the cause of removal of the sins of the forgiver,
not of the criminal.
1282
This is also the view of Ibn Masud, Abd Allah ibn Amr ibn al-As,
Hasan, and Shabi.
1283
According to Ibn al-Tin, forgiveness instead of just retribution would
cause the forgiver to receive a huge reward, which is equivalent to providing life to the whole
of mankind.
1284
Opposing the above view, some scholars, such as Ibn Abbas, Mujahid, and Muqatil,
maintained that forgiveness from qisas is considered to be an expiation for the criminal
whose sins would be removed, just as the implementation of qisas removes his sins. These
commentators maintained that the phrase for him in the verse mentioned in the previous
paragraph refers to the criminal, i.e., forgiveness is considered to be expiation for him [the
criminal]. However, according to these scholars, a forgiver will also benefit for his
forgiveness by receiving reward from Allah on the Day of Judgment. Allah said: The one
who forgives and makes settlement, Allah would give him reward for it.
1285
Abd al-Rahman
al-Jawzi added that forgiveness is considered as an expiation for the sins of the criminal if he
makes repentance (tawbah) before Allah and abstains from committing further sins.
However, if he continues to commit them, it would not be considered as an expiation for
him.
1286
Ibn Kathir mentioned both of the above views but supported the first view strongly by
mentioning a number of ahadith in favor of it.
1287
Both views, however, are considered to
support the wisdom of forgiveness. But again the benefit of forgiveness is available to either
the forgiver alone, or to him and the criminal as well, but not to the general public.
The fourth wisdom of forgiving an unlawful intentional killer is to spare his life.
Whenever a case of such nature came to the Prophet (p. b. u. h.), he advised the guardian to
forgive the killer.
1288
A companion of the Prophet (p. b. u. h.) named Abd Allah ibn Masud
maintained that the next of kin of a victim have the right to kill an unlawful intentional killer,
but if they forgive him, their forgiveness would lead to the survival of his life.
1289
A few
years ago, the legal guardian of a victim forgave a Filipino maid, who killed her employer in
the United Arab Emirates, and instead she had to pay the blood money. Thus although
forgiveness enabled the killer to survive, it may not ensure the survival of the lives of the
public because killer may continue with his crime of unlawful homicide if he does not repent
1281
Al-Maidah, 5:45.
1282
Al-Tabari, 6: 262- 263; al-Qurtubi, 6: 208.
1283
Al-Jawzi, 2: 369.
1284
Al-Asqalani, 12: 192.
1285
Al-Tabari, 6: 260-262.
1286
Al-Jawzi, 2: 369.
1287
Ibn Kathir, 2: 64-65. Some of the ahadith mentioned by Ibn Kathir are: Any person whose body is
inflicted by an injury, then he forgives it, Allah removes from him sins equivalent to what he forgives;
The one whose body is inflicted by any (injury), then he abandons it (and does not retaliate it) for the
sake of Allah, it becomes expiation for him. These ahadith are collected by Ahmad ibn Hanbal al-
Shaybani, Musnad al-Imam Ahmad (Egypt: Muassasat Qurtubah, no date), hadith no. 22753, 5: 316
and hadith no. 23541, 5: 412.
1288
See al-Shawkani, 7: 148.
1289
Abu `Abd Allah Muhammad ibn al-Hasan al-Shaybani, Al-Hujjah, Ed. Mahdi Hasan al-Kilani al-
Qadiri, 3
rd
print (Beirut: `Alam al-Kutub, A.H. 1403), 4:384.
Muhammad Amanullah / 879
and refrain from such acts. Abu Zahrah remarks that since the offender, by virtue of
forgiveness, is exempted from being killed, his facing just retribution would cause him to
learn a lesson that would prevent him from committing further crime.
1290
However, this point
is related to the culprits repentance, i.e., if he repents and determines not to commit the crime
again, only then would he refrain himself from doing so in the future.
The fifth wisdom is that forgiveness is considered to be closer to the fear of Allah, for He
said: Forgiveness is closer to taqwa (fear of Allah).
1291
. This verse indicates that all types
of forgiveness, including forgiving an unlawful intentional killer, have a strong relationship
with the fear of Allah. In other words, forgiveness is a result of taqwa, or it is an important
quality of God-fearing people.
1292
If someone fears that on the Day of Judgment he would be
punished by Allah for his shortcomings, he would try to forgive others because his
forgiveness will beget forgiveness from Allah for him. Thus the benefit of forgiveness again
goes back to the forgiver, not to other members of the society because the culprit may remain
a threat to their lives if he is forgiven.
Comparison Between Just Retribution and Forgiveness
Based on the above discussion, a comparison can be drawn between just retribution and
forgiveness with the view of highlighting their similarities and differences. Likewise, it can
also be determined which is preferable: just retribution or forgiveness.
Similarities Between Just Retribution and Forgiveness
In terms of similarities between just retribution and forgiveness, it may be said that the
Book of Allah and Sunnah of His Messenger prescribed both of them. Likewise, both have a
number of wisdoms and objectives as discussed earlier. Moreover, the victim
1293
or his legal
guardian has the full right to implement any one of them. In addition, both could be
considered a way of atonement or expiation for some individuals. Furthermore, both of them
more or less lead to the continuance of lives.
Differences Between Just Retribution and Forgiveness
The first point of difference is to determine whether there is any agreement among the
jurists about just retribution and forgiveness. It may be confirmed that all jurists agreed that
forgiveness is permissible because a victim or his or her legal guardian has been given a
choice between forgiveness and just retribution. The verse: If the one (the killer) for whom
something is forgiven by his brother (guardian of the victim), he (the guardian), in order to
get his right back, should follow him (killer) nicely and he (the killer) should pay it (blood
1290
Muhammad Abu Zahrah, Falsafat al-Uqubah fi al-Fiqh al-Islami (Cairo: Mahad al-Dirasat al-
Arabiyyah al-liyyah, 1963), 2: 398.
1291
Al-Baqarah, 2: 237.
1292
Al Imran, 3: 133-134.
1293
It may be questioned as to how the victim can implement either just retribution or forgiveness when
he or she is already dead. The answer is that although in most cases the victim is dead, sometimes he or
she remains alive for a while before the death, when he or she can suggest either forgiveness or just
retribution, such as what happened to the second caliph `Umar and fourth caliph `Ali, who were able to
guide their heirs about what to do with their assassinations before their death.
880 / ISoIT 2004
money) to him (guardian) nicely
1294
proves this permissibility. A number of ahadith
discussed earlier also proves this permissibility.
1295
On the other hand, there is no agreement among the jurists regarding the just retribution
because some of them, like Jassas and other Hanafi scholars, maintained that the
implementation of just retribution against an unlawful intentional killer is considered to be
obligatory.
1296
Other scholars, like Ahmad, al-Shafii, etc., maintained that just retribution is
permissible. Based on this difference, according to the first group, acceptance of blood money
is not permitted except with the consent of the offender, while according to the second group,
it is allowed even without the consent of the offender.
The second point of difference between just retribution and forgiveness is that the
wisdom of forgiveness is almost entirely limited to individuals, such as the victim, his legal
guardian, the offender, etc. On the other hand, while some of the wisdoms of just retribution
are related to individuals, others are also related to the rights of Allah or society.
The third point of difference is that although both of them more or less lead to the
survival of human lives, just retribution causes the survival of the lives of the public, while
forgiveness causes the survival of only the life of an individual, i.e., the offender, if there is
no payment of blood money (diyyah). However, if forgiveness occurs based on the payment
of diyyah or settlement between the culprit and the legal guardian, it also may contribute
towards protecting the lives of the public. This is because the amount of diyyah, i.e., one
hundred camels, is so high and burdensome to the killer that its payment should deter him or
her from perpetuating this crime further.
The fourth point of difference is that while the jurists discussed a large number of
different rules regarding just retribution, they only discussed a few rules for forgiveness in
their fiqh books.
Which is Preferable - Just Retribution or Forgiveness?
At the end of this comparison, it should be determined which is preferable: forgiveness or
just retribution. Our earlier discussion has indicated that Islam has given the guardian equal
choices between just retribution and forgiveness without preferring one to another. Our
discussion about the wisdom of just retribution and forgiveness and comparison between
them also has placed both these options almost on an equal footing.
However, in order to determine further about the issue of preference, we need to
investigate whether there is any consensus regarding the preference of forgiveness to just
retribution. Some classical scholars, such as al-Mardawi said that forgiveness is better
without any disagreement.
1297
His statement indicates a form of agreement among the
scholars regarding the preference of forgiveness over just retribution because he said that
forgiveness is better without disagreement. However, he did not state clearly that there was a
consensus among the jurists regarding this issue. Despite that, some contemporary scholars,
1294
Al-Baqarah, 2: 178.
1295
See Abu Bakr Ahmad ibn `Ali al-Razi al-Jassas, Ahkam al-Quran (Beirut: Dar al-KItab al-`Arabi,
A.H. 1970), 3: 220; see also Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Muhammad ibn Abd Allah Ibn Muflih al-Hanbali,
Al-Mubdi (Beirut: Al-Maktab al-Islami, A.H. 1400), 8: 296, 298; See also al-Shawkani, 7: 178.
1296
Al-Jassas, 1: 1449-150.
1297
Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Sulayman al-Mardawi, Al-Insaf, ed. Muhammad Hamid al-Fiqqi (Beirut: Dar
Ihya al-Turath al-Arabi, n. d.), 10: 3.
Muhammad Amanullah / 881
such as al-Sharabasi and al-Barshumi maintain that there was a consensus among the jurists
that forgiveness is better than just retribution.
1298
This claim of consensus regarding the preference of forgiveness to just retribution,
however, has not been proven. Ibrahim, a Hanbali scholar, claimed that jurists had a
consensus about the permissibility of forgiveness from just retribution. According to him, the
verse: If the one (the killer) for whom something is forgiven by his brother (guardian of the
victim) he (the guardian), in order to get his right back, should follow him (killer) nicely and
he (the killer) should pay it (blood money) to him (guardian) nicely
1299
proves this
permissibility. He also maintained that according to this verse, forgiveness without any
compensation is better.
1300
He, however, did not say that there was a consensus among the
jurists regarding the preference of forgiveness to just retribution.
Although another contemporary scholar, Bassiouni, said that forgiveness is better than
just retribution, he did not try to prove it. Moreover, he did not cite any consensus on this
issue.
1301
Another modern scholar, Awdah, stated that the jurists had consensus on the legality of
forgiveness. He also said that forgiveness is better than just retribution, but he did not say
clearly that there was a consensus about the preference of forgiveness to just retribution.
Although he was able to prove the legality of forgiveness by mentioning a number of verses
and ahadith, which I have discussed earlier, he was unable to provide adequate proof to
confirm preference of forgiveness over just retribution.
1302
Another contemporary scholar, Zuhayli, said that forgiveness is permitted and it is better
than the implementation of just retribution. He cited a number of verses of the Quran and
ahadith of the Prophet, which I have discussed earlier in different contexts, to support this
permissibility and preference. He, however, did not mention any consensus about this issue.
1303
According to a modern independent mujtahid, al-Shawkani, no such consensus is
available. He maintained that there is a difference of opinion regarding what is preferable:
forgiving the criminal, or not forgiving him. Those who preferred forgiveness said that it is
better because there is benefit for the forgiver, such as the reward he would receive for it, or
his sins would be removed, which is better than demanding justice for an injustice. On the
other hand, those who preferred the second option said that they did not know which is better
for the victim: compensation for injustice, or reward of forgiveness. For this reason, it is not
possible to confirm the preference of forgiveness over the second option. Countering the
second view, Shawkani said that the argument of the second group did not confirm the
preference of the second option either. Furthermore, according to him, texts of the Quran and
ahadith indicate preference of forgiveness to the second option because these texts said that
forgiveness would not only increase the ranks of the forgiver, it would also remove his sins,
and would increase his honor.
1304
1298
See al-Sharabasi, 74; Al-Barshumi, 140.
1299
Al-Baqarah, 2: 178.
1300
Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Muhammad ibn `Abd Allah ibn Muflih al-Hanbali, al-Mubdi` (Beirut: al-
Maktab al-Islami, A.H. 1400), 8: 296, 298.
1301
M. Cherif Bassiouni, Sources of Islamic Law and the Protection of Human Rights in the Islamic
Criminal Justice System, in The Islamic Criminal Justice System, ed. M. Cherif Bassiouni (London:
Oceana Publications, Inc., 1982), 205.
1302
Awdah, 2: 157.
1303
Al-Zuhayli, 7:5689.
1304
Al-Shawkani, 7: 178.
882 / ISoIT 2004
Based on the above discussion, therefore, it could be said that since there is dispute
regarding preference of forgiveness over just retribution, no consensus is available on this
issue. However, the existence of a consensus regarding the legality of forgiveness is
acceptable because the jurists did not cite any disputes about this issue. Moreover, it could be
stated safely that the majority of the jurists maintained that forgiveness is preferable to the
implementation of just retribution.
The view of the majority of the jurists, however, is very general and vague. They did not
elaborate on their viewpoints and also did not make any distinction between the rights of
individuals and rights of society. Although some Quranic verses praised forgiveness,
1305
they
did not specify with certainty that forgiveness is better than just retribution. Rather, some of
the verses provided a general encouragement for all types of forgiveness.
1306
The verses that
mentioned forgiveness from just retribution did not clearly say that forgiveness is better than
just retribution.
1307
Some ahadith of the Prophet (p. b. u. h.) indicated that forgiveness is
better. But no hadith says that forgiveness is better than just retribution in all situations and
for all different parties.
Our earlier discussion about the wisdom of just retribution and forgiveness has proved
that if a killer is forgiven, different types of benefits of forgiveness will go back to some
individuals, such as the victim, his legal guardian, and the criminal. In other words, only
through forgiveness are the rights of some individuals fulfilled. The rights of Allah, i.e., the
rights of society, cannot be fulfilled through mere forgiveness. Society has the right to be safe
from any threat against the lives of its members. If a killer remains alive, he may pose a
continuous threat to them unless he repents and refrains from committing his crime again. On
the other hand, forgiveness cannot fulfill all the rights of individuals either, such as full
justice and sense of comfort may not be realized for a victim and his legal guardian through
it. Likewise, existence of a criminal can also be a threat to the legal guardian and other
relatives of a victim. For these reasons, the preference of forgiveness should be qualified, i.e.,
we should say that forgiveness is preferable compared to just retribution for some individuals
in most situations; while it is not preferable to just retribution for a society, if the culprit does
not make repentance, and it is also not preferable for some individuals in some particular
cases.
Conclusion
Unlawful intentional homicide is considered to be the most severe crime after
polytheism. Among the remedies to this type of homicide are just retribution and forgiveness,
both of which have a number of wisdoms that do not allow for a preference of one over the
other.
This research strongly suggests that there was no consensus among the jurists regarding
preference of forgiveness to just retribution. Although most of the jurists said that forgiveness
is better than qisas, it should not be taken as a general theory. Rather, this theory should be
qualified in a number of ways: first, killing during a highway robbery, which falls under
hudud penalty, should not be forgiven unless the offender makes repentance before being
captured. Secondly, regarding assassination, the view of the Maliki School of law should be
preferable, i.e., an assassin should not be forgiven. Rather, considering the interest of
societywhere nowadays assassination is widely being committedjust retribution must be
1305
One such verse is: Your forgiveness is closer to God fearing (taqwa), Al-Baqarah, 2: 237.
1306
Such as: Forgive and pardon (fafu wa asfahu), al-Baqarah, 2: 109; Consider forgiveness and
enjoin with good deeds (khudh al-afwa wamur bi al-urf), al-Araf, 7: 199.
1307
See the meaning of the verse no. 178 of Surat al-Baqarah on page 13.
Muhammad Amanullah / 883
implemented against an assassin. Thirdly, in cases like killing of a father by his son, or vice
versa, forgiveness is considered better than just retribution because this forgiveness causes
benefits to the whole family including the killer and the next of kin of the victim. Fourthly,
the right of qisas belongs to both Allah or society and to individuals. On the part of these
individuals, forgiveness is better than not forgiving the killer because they will receive much
benefit out of it, as mentioned in the verses of the Quran and Sunnah. But this forgiveness
should not be considered better for the public because their right to be safe is not fulfilled.
Rather, threat of being killed and terrified by the culprit remains intact for them unless he
repents and decides for himself not to commit similar crime again.
In order to fulfill this right of the public, the Maliki and Hanafi Schools of law suggested
that a culprit should be discretionarily punished. The Maliki School clearly fixed this
punishment and said that a culprit must be whipped with one hundred lashes and imprisoned
for one year. Considering the gravity of the problem of homicide all over the world currently,
and in order to achieve an important objective of the Shariah, i.e., continuous protection and
safety of the lives of the public, a government should have the right to imprison such culprits
for a longer time or for the whole of their lives or fine them a huge amount of money, if it is
deemed necessary. Thus, it may be confirmed that the Islamic criminal law regarding
homicide is considered to be a balanced system where rights of all different parties are
simultaneously considered.
Dr. Muhammad Amanullah
Department of Fiqh and Usul al-Fiqh
Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences
International Islamic University Malaysia
Jalan Gombak, 53100 Kuala Lumpur
Malaysia
Email: amanullah@iiu.edu.my
The Psychological Significance of Dream Messages: An
Islamic Perspective
Sulayiti D. Kabali
Abstract
Allah in His Wisdom created man and molded him in such a way that no perfect
comprehension of his physiology is possible to man himself. He is composed of billions of
biological cells manifested in different ways, fashions and types, each of which performs a
particular function. Some of these cells are, by the grace of Allah, known to mankind while
others are yet to be deciphered. Of all the various components that constitute a human being,
the brain is the most complex entity. Among its various functions is the retention of incidents
and memories that may occur from time to time and even sometimes it can receive, in a
flickering manner, pointers to incidents that may happen in future. The proper definite and
comprehensive functioning of the brain is yet to be perfectly known. Allah referred to the
wonders and mysteries of man in one of the shortest verses of the Quran, and in your
selves, do you not see? Quran al-Dhariyat (51: 21). One of the contemprary
commententors of the Qur'an when commenting on the above verse observed that: Man is the
greatest wonder of this world. Whenever man contemplates himself, he is faced with
astonishing and bewildering mysteries: the formation of his organs, their positions and
functions; the way the functions are executed; the mysteries of his soul, and its known and
unknown energies; how he forms his concepts and the way they are stored and remembered.
All these imageswhen and how are they stored?
1308
When Allah calls man to look into
himself so that he can understand his Lord and worship him properly, He is referring to such
facts. Dreaming is one of such wonders that characterize human being; an aspect that
requires investigation in respect of its nature, origin and significance in our daily lives. The
purpose of this paper is to study the psychological importance of dream messages with
special emphasis on Islamic perspective .
Dream Perception in the Western Tradition
Dreaming is a very difficult phenomenon to understand due to the fact that it is not
repeatable and its nature is not clearly known in addition to the numerous ways and types in
which dreams occur. Some dreams are scaring, others are thrilling while others are ordinary
and others are not and the messages they carry are sometimes difficult to understand while at
others the message is completely incomprehensible. Dreams are not direct and therefore are
not easy to interpret by anyone. This explains why some western philosophers and
psychologists do not pay any attention to them. They doubt a lot of the messages imbedded in
1308
Sayyid Qut}b, Fi> Z{ila>l al-Qura>n, 6 Vols. (Cairo: Da>r al-Shuru>q, 1410/1990) 6: 3378-
3380; Malik Badri, Contemplation: An Islamic Psychospiritual Study (Kuala Lumpur: Medeena
Books,
1420/2000) 62-63 cited hereafter as Contemplation..
Sulayiti D. Kabali / 885
dreams on one hand, and on another these philosophers and psychologists do not want to
admit the spiritual and divine nature of the soul, which is established by some dreams.
The Western traditions perception of dreams is so much influenced by secularism
and so they generally approach dreams from a materialistic point of view. To them dreams do
not represent but purely material meanings and the characteristics of dream life is not but a
disconnected activity of separated organs or groups of cells in a sleeping mind.
1309
Sigmund Freud
1310
the man who has influenced many western and pro-western
psychologists especially by his theory of psychoanalysis and his way of dream interpretations
takes the dreams to be like phobias and obsessions. The reason for this is because the latter
are as alien to normal consciousness as dreams are to waking consciousness
1311
. Another
reason is because the origin of phobias and obsessions is unknown to consciousness as that
of the dream
1312
. His confession that the origin of the dreams is, at least to him, not known is
a good indication, which was supposed to inspire in him a spirit of looking further and trying
to discover the dreams originality instead of baseless interpretations that he used in his
psychoanalysis theory in which he classified dreams into wishful thinking and aggressive or
sexual and considered most of the symbols that appear in dreams to be sexual, which
represent the male or female sexual organs. He also he pretended that the Emperor and
Empress in our dreams represent the parents who are always unhelpful of their children as far
as achieving of their wishes is concerned.
1313
To emphasize this point he had to accept that
most of the symbols and materials of our dreams are meaningful and that are representing
other things that carry a lot of meanings. He observed that these symbols are a sort of
substitute for the thought process, full of meaning and emotion. Though we agree with him
that these symbols carry a lot of meanings but we also disagree with him on the kind of the
meaning that they carry. It is not true that all of the symbols could carry the same message of
aggressiveness and sexuality of man.
Looking at our normal life and the dreams that we get from time to time it is not true that
all of them fall under these categories as claimed by Freud. Some dreams, as we shall see,
reveal more important messages to an individual or to society. Logically speaking, human
beings are different and so they think differently, therefore, even their dreams, which may be
representing another world of creation must be of different kinds and each dream by necessity
must have a different message that it carries to the one gets it. Therefore, Freuds allegation
that all dreams are sexual is not acceptable.
Nevertheless, his division of dreams into simple and complex is acceptable. Our
disagreement with him lies in, among other things, the way he describes the simple dreams,
which he called wish fulfillments category. In his words he elaborated this category by
saying these are connected with day time life. The wishes, which are fulfilled in them are
carried over from daytime and as a rule from the day before, and in waking life they have
1309
Wilse B. Webb, Dreams and Dreaming. 27: 305
1310
Freud was born on May 6, 1856, in Freiberg, Moravia (now Prbor, Czech.), then part of the
Habsburg Empire. His father, Jakob Freud, was a Jewish wool merchant who had been married
once before he wed Freud's mother, Amalie Nathansohn. The father, 40 years old at Freud's birth,
seems to have been a relatively remote and authoritarian figure, while his mother appears to have
been more nurturant and emotionally available. (M. Evan Jay, Sigmund Freud, Britanica, 1998).
This short history of Freud to a certain extent explains the reason of Freuds extreme interpretation
of some facts in life. For example, he considers the Emperors in dreams to be a symbol of
autocracy fathers. In such a case, he is definitely referring to the authoritarian figure of his own
father.
1311
Sigmund Freud, Dreams, op. cit. 16.
1312
Ibid
1313
Ibid 105-112
886 / ISoIT 2004
been accompanied by intense emotion
1314
. It is also no true that all the simple dreams are
carried over from daytime and it therefore follows that not all of them are wish fulfillments of
a dreamer. Further more, his rule of such dreams coming from the day preceding the dream is
also not true to all the dreams of this kind. Another dream analyst who was sent to Africa on
a government mission confirms this in his dream analysis. As much as he wished in his trip to
East Africa to have a dream on Africans he was not successful in the period of some months
he spent with them
1315
.
Among the Western scholars, Scott Peck, though doubtful of whether God is male or
female, was the only one who looked at dreams as one of the means of Gods communication
to mankind. He said, one of the ways God speaks to us attempts to nurture us - is through
some of our dreams.
1316
This is a remarkable observation to be made by a man who does not
know the nature of God as suggested by his way of attributing gender to him. Nevertheless,
through interpretation and analysis of his own dreams he reached an interesting conclusion
that dreams are an indicator that God speaks to man from time to time; that He talked to him
since his adolescence mainly through his dreams and other means.
1317
His observation that
God speaks to human beings from the age of adolescence is another important point to note.
This because it is this time, according to Islam, when a person becomes responsible to God of
all his acts. It is the age when one attains legal capacity.
Dream Perception in the Islamic Tradition
In Islam dreams are taken to be of great significance. They are not merely a matter of
wild recollections of ones activities in his wakefulness that may reappear to someone in his
sleep, rather they are a form of connection of the soul in its spirituality with the other unseen
world. This can be easily observed in our daily activities, which have spiritual connotations.
For example, a good Muslim who is used to praying at a certain time of the day or night will
be awakened from sleep, if that time finds him asleep, by way of a dream which may either
remind him of the prayer. This could be by way of either seeing people who are praying or by
hearing adhan or by seeing himself praying. This may mean that while he is in a state of sleep
his soul meets other souls in a spiritual world which is different from the world of physical
bodies; and because those souls know that he is always praying at such a time they come to
him and awake him for the same purpose. This could be taken as evidence that a person does
not make his dreams and that the surroundings or his prior day experiences have, if any, very
little influence on them. Therefore, the question remains where are they coming from?
This question would be very difficult to be answered in a secular understanding of a
human being who is thought to be like a machine or an animal. However, for a man like Ibn
Qayyim who believes in the un-seen world, it was easy for him to observe that the world of
spirits arwah [the origin of most of our dreams] is completely another world, which is greater
than the universe of the bodies and that the principles ahkam and impersonations athar of that
world are more astonishing than those ones of the bodily universe
1318
.
The holy Quran mentions some dreams of the Prophets. It reports in detail the story of
Ibrahims dream in which he had a vision of sacrificing his son and the end result of the story
1314
Ibid., 36
1315
William McGuire, (ed), Dream Analysis op. cit.3-4
1316
M. Scott Peck, Denial of the Soul: Spiritual and Medical Perspectives on Euthanasia and
Mortality (London: Simon Schuster Ltd, 1997), 137 cited hereafter as M. Scott Peck, Denial of the
Soul.
1317
Ibid 137-144
1318
Ibn Qayyim, al-Ru>h}, op. cit. 214-215
Sulayiti D. Kabali / 887
when Allah called out to him Oh Ibrahim, you have already fulfilled the vision, thus indeed
do We reward those who do right. For this was obviously a trial and We ransomed him with a
momentous sacrifice and We left (this blessing) for him among generations (to come) in later
times.
1319
Another important dream mentioned by Allah in the Quran is that of Prophet
Muhammad when he was about to face his enemies in the battle of Badr that separated
between kufr and Islam. The significant part of that dream in relation to our discussion, is
when Allah showed the Prophet his enemies as a small group incapable of having victory
over Muslims on one hand, while on the other Allah showed the mushrikin to the Muslims as
few in their eyes and made the Muslims appear as contemptible in the eyes of mushrikin
when they met for the actual combat
1320
.
The majority of Muslim scholars agree that dreams carry significant messages and play a
big role in our lives. The Sunnah makes several references, which reveal the significance of
dreams especially when the soul is in a state of righteousness. Calling of people to prayer
(adhan) was prescribed the way it is done by way of dream.
1321
The story of one companion who was martyred in battles of apostasy is another indicator
for the significance of dreams among Muslims. Ibn Qayyim reports
that a companion of the Prophet, called Qays b. Thabit was martyred in one of the battles
against apostasy in Yamamah and after his burial another man got a dream in which he was
told by Qays that after his martyrdom a man in such and such a place
took his shield, and that he should ask Khalid, the commander to recover it from him. He
also told him that he was indebted to so and so and directed him to a place where he could
find his will. The following morning, the man went to Khalid who after listening to the story
ordered the recovery of the shield from the man who took it as per the description of Qayss
dream. The dreamer also went to a described place and found the will exactly as described in
his dream. Then man who had the dream was in a dilemma of whether he should go ahead to
implement the will or not. He remembered that Qays in the dream told him to go to the
Khalifah Abubakr and consult him on the matter. After the Khalifah listened to him carefully,
he ordered him to implement Qaysis will and the man abided by the order of the
Khalifah.
1322
All the above indicate that some dream messages should not be ignored. In addition it
explains how sometimes man can be spiritually connected with his Lord even during his
sleep. In this state, his soul can penetrate and communicate with the other intelligible
universe and receive and retain facts that would ordinarily be beyond his own imagination.
The significance of dreams is also supported by various ahadith, for instance the Prophet was
reported to have said that dreaming is [considered to be] part of prophethood and that no
prophet will be coming after him
1323
. This hadith indicates that dreams should not be
regarded as a useless communications to man and that not everyone that can interprete them
1319
See (37: 100- 107) for the whole story of Ibra>hi>m and his only son by then.
1320
Surat al-Anfa>l (8: 43,4).
1321
Ah}mad b. H{ambal,Musnad Ah}madb. H{anbal, (Beirut: Da>r Ihya> al-Tura>th al-Arabi>,
1991), h}adi>th no. 15881&15882; Muh}ammad b. Yazi>d b. Ma>jah Sunan, 2vols ed. by
M.F.Abd al-Ba>qi> hadi>th no. 698-9; Abu> Da>wu>d, Sunan, 4 Vols. Ed. by M. M. abdul
H{ami>d, hadi>th no.421& 423;Muh}ammad b. Isa> al-Tirmidhi>, Sunan, hadi>th no 174 Ibn
Hisha>m, al-Si>rat al-Nabawiyyah, 2 vols. edited by al-Saqa> Must}afa> et al (Beirut:Da>r al-
Qalam,n.d.) 2: 111.
1322
Ibn Qayyim al Jawziyyah, Al-Ru>h op. cit. 15
1323
Ibn al-Athi>r, Majd al-Din al-Mubarak Ibn Muhammad Jami al-Us}u>l Fi> ah}a>di>th al-
Rasu>l, h}adi>th no. 989, Ibn H{anbal, Musnad, hadi>th no. 2744, Al-Bukha>ri>, al-
Ja>mi S{ah}I>h} h}adi>th no. 6468 and 6475; Muslim, Ibn H{ajja>j, Sah}I>h} Muslim, h}adi>th
no 738.
888 / ISoIT 2004
correctly. Therefore he used to ask his companions frequently after the Morning Prayer
whether anyone of them had a dream so that the Prophet himself could play the role of
interpreting the meaning and messages therein.
1324
He would ask one of them to
interprete a dream of another companion and the Prophet would correct him where
necessary. Ibn Abbas reported that one man came to the Prophet and mentioned his dream to
him. The Prophet asked Abu Bakr to interpret it for him. The Prophet listened very well to the
interpretation of Abu Bakr and corrected him where he went wrong.
1325
This means that the
Prophet did not leave the interpretation of his companions dreams to individuals, which
somehow indicates that he did not like them to give wrong interpretations of them when he
could do it with Allahs guidance.
Basing on such incidents and others the Muslim scholars emphasize that someone who is
knowledgeable should do the interpretation of dreams. The science of dream interpretation,
according to Ibn Khaldun, is one of the sciences of the religious law
1326
. Malik b. Anas was
one time asked whether anyone could interpret dreams and he said: no one is allowed to
interpret dreams other than those who know their meanings very well. The reason he gave to
this was that dreams are part of prophethood. He then remarked: how can the prophethood
be played around with!
1327
Al-Qurtubi in his interpretation of Prophet Yusufs dream
asserted that it works as a principle of not telling dreams to people who are not someones
sympathizers or counselors and that dreams should not be interpreted by people who are not
well informed in that field.
1328
However, not whatever a dreamer claims to have dreamed about must be taken seriously
otherwise he may falsely claim to have dreamt things that are in contradiction with religious
teachings. For this reason, the Prophet himself had divided the dreams into three categories.
Hadith al-Nafs, adghath ahlam, and al-Ruyat al-Salihah or prophetic dreams
1329
The prophetic dreams, are those in which one sees future incidents which later become
true. It was reported that Imam al-Shafii, may Allah have his mercy on him (R. A.), had a
dream in which he saw Imam Ahmad ibn Hambal (R.A.) facing a lot of problems in his future
days and he (al-Shafii) was ccommanded to tell Ahmad to be patient. The kind of message in
such a dream must be coming from an authentic source, who knows the secrets of this world.
Because the majority of Muslims believe that there is no expected true prophethood after the
death of the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, it could only come in a way that is not
common to many.
1324
Al-Bukha>ri>,h}adi>th no. 6510.
1325
H{assa>n Shesi> Basha>, al-Nawm wal Araq wal Ah}la>m Bayna al-T{ibb wa al-Qura>n,
(Jeddah: Da>r al-Mana>rah, 1991) 186-7.
1326
Ibn Khaldu>n, al-Muqaddimah, Transleted into English by F. Rosenthal, 3Vols. (New York:
princeton University Press, 1980), 3:103; M. J. L. Young et. al.,(Eds.) The Cambridge History of
Arabic Literature: Religion, Learning, and Science in the Abbasid Period (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1990), 174
1327
Muhammad b. Ah}mad al-Qurt}ubi>,al-Jami li ah}ka>m al-Qura>n. 30 vols, edited by Ah}mad
Abd al-Ali>m al-Bardu>ni>. (Cairo: Da>r al-Shab, 1372H), 18:215 cited hereafter as al-Ja>mi.
1328
Ibid.
1329
Most Muslim psychologists would not have any problem to accept that dreams are
categorized into simple and complex. They agree with the prophetic division of the
dreams into three categories. For details see Muh}ammad Ali> al-S{a>bu>ni>, Qabasun
min Nur al-Qura>n al-Kari>m, (Damuscuss: Da>r al-Qalam, 1998) 5: 106 as cited by
H{assa>n Shesi> Basha>, al-Nawm wal Araq wal Ah}la>m Bayna al-T{ibb wa al-
Qura>n, (Jeddah: Da>r al-Mana>rah, 1991) 167; Muh}ammad b. Si>ri>n, Muntakhab
al-Kalam. Op. cit. 1-2. The Prophetic h}adi>th is narrated in S{ah}I>h} al-Ja>mi al-
S{aghi>r as no. 3533 and 3534.
Sulayiti D. Kabali / 889
The second category is the dreams from a devil, which are normally scaring and tells the
dreamer false things. The Prophet taught his ummah some of the precautions, which can
guard them against the dreams from the devil and from having bad dreams. For example, he
taught his followers to sleep on the right side and recite some prayers before they sleep
1330
.
He also taught his followers that when they see a scaring dream they should seek protection
from Allah by reciting certain supplications like audhu billahi min al-Shaytan al-rajim,
meaning that Oh Allah I am in search of your protection against Satan
1331
. He also directed
them to perform ablution when they are going to bed. He said in another hadith that ablution
is a weapon of a Muslim and that Satan cannot harm one who is equipped with that weapon.
This assurance includes being guarded even in the state of consciousness during daytime and
during ones unconsciousness when one is sleeping.
The third category is Hadith al-Nafs, ones soul telling or soul-searching. This category
is what may be referred to as the wish fulfillment of Freud and it normally comes as a result
of some thing that is being thought about at a given time.
Though Islam values and consider dreams as important it also warns Muslims to beware
of people who claim to habitually have dreams. One of those measures is that a dream can
neither legalize anything that is known to be illegal in Islam nor make the unlawful lawful. La
yuhillu haraman wala yuharrimu halalan. Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, the great muhaddith,
narrates that one righteous and poor man saw the Prophet, peace be upon him, in a dream and
he told him that in such and such a place there existed buried treasures of the earth (rikaz),
and ordered him, on one hand, to go and dig it so that he benefits from it and on the other that
he should not pay its due of one fifth as zakah, in the morning the man to the place and
removed the rikaz as directed by the Prophet but went to one shaykh by the names of Abd al-
Aziz Ibn Abd al-Salam and to inquire from him about the condition of not paying the one
fifth to the bait al-mal as directed by the Prophet in the dream. The Shaykh told him that he
must pay the one fifth to the bayt al-mal following the teachings of the Prophet during his
wakeful condition. He confirmed it by saying that his verdict (fatwa) in the condition of
wakefulness was better and had to be given priority to his fatwa in a dream.
1332
The second measure is the repetition of the true and correct dream. It is reported that
Ibrahim, peace be upon him, was reluctant to implement the dream of slaughtering his only
son by then and until he saw the same dream three times in different nights
1333
.
The the significance of repetition of a dream is surprisingly asserted in Western
scholarship by Scott Peck, who realized the importance of the soul in his writings and who
was disgusted by the secularist continuous denial of it. While discussing the second method
that he believed God uses to talk to mankind, namely the still small voice he said: There
are some guidelines for discernment. First, take time (unless if you are in an emergency
situation) to do a reality test to determine whether this voice might be that of Holy Spirit or
1330
Muh}ammad b. Abu> Bakr, Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyyah, Al-T{ibbu al-Nabawi>, (Beirut: Da>r al-
Fikr, n.d.) 189-190; Ibid., Za>d al-Maa>d Min Kala>m khayr al-Iba>d 5vols. (Beirut:
Muassasat al-Risa>lah, 1407/1986) 4:244
1331
The Prophet emphasized the recitation of a>yat al-Kursiyy (2:255) and said that whoever recites it
at the time of his sleep Allah will send him special guards to guard him until he wakes up. See al-
Bukha>ri>, Sah}I>h} al-BuKa>ri>, h}adi>th no. 3033 and 4624.
1332
Ibn H{ajar al-Asqala>ni>, al-Rua> wa al-Ah]la>m Fi> D{w al-Kita>b wa al-Sunnah, (Cairo:
Maktabat al-tura>th al-isla.mi) as cited by H{assa>n Shesi> Basha>, al-Nawm wal Araq wal
Ah}la>m Bayna al-T{ibb wa al-Qura>n, (Jeddah: Da>r al-Mana>rah, 1991) 171. The author
mentions that the incident was reported by Kha.lid b. Ali> b. Muh}ammad in his book titled
Kita>b al-Rua> wa al-Ah}la>m fi> Mi>za>n al-Isla>m without giving details of the book and
my efforts to get the mentioned book were fruitless..
1333
Muhammad b. Ah}mad al-Qurt}ubi>,al-Jami op.cit. 15: 101; al-Bayd}a>wi>, Tafsi>r al-
Bayd}a>wi>, 5 vols edited by Abd al-Qa>dir Arafa>t (Beirut: Da>r al-Fikr, 1996) 5: 20
890 / ISoIT 2004
merely your own thought. He goes on and affirms that Indeed, if you disregarded the voice
at first, it will almost always repeat itself
1334
.
The third measure is that dreams of non-believers, heretics and the liars though some of
them turn up to be true and correct, they cannot be taken as originating from revelation or
prophethood. Al-Qurtubi, when was asked about the dreams of such people such as the
dream of the king who saw the seven cows and that of the two young men who were with
Yusuf in a jail and that of the aunt of the Prophet called A<tikah b. Abd Muttalib he gave
the above answer and remarked that not all the correct things about the un-seen constitute
prophethood
1335
. This answer, however, does not mean in any way that dreams of non-
believers and heretics are not to be taken seriously, it rather means that we should always be
very careful when analyzing their dreams because they do not have anything barring them
from telling lies.
Conclusion
Our major argument from the above disucssion is that dreams have not been given their
due significance and importance in Western scholarship, which is in many instances guided
by secularism. Most of the western scholars look at dreams as impulses of the brain, which
must not be paid attention to while majority of Muslim scholars would agree that dreams
sometimes are connected to spirituality. The spirit al-Ruh has the capability of connecting to
other universe and get instructions from there, which should be interpreted by a
knowledgeable person. This is surely one of Allahs signs in a human being, which He calls
us to look into as we have seen at the beginning of this paper. The more we know ourselves,
the more we discover our weakness and worship Him as our Creator.
May He guide us to His true path. Amin.
Sulayiti D. Kabali
Islamic University In Uganda
Faculty of Islamic Studies and Arabic Language
Department of Arabic Studies
P. O. Box 2555,
Mbale Uganda
Email: sulaitkabali@yahoo.com
Tel. No. +256 77 498060
1334
M. Scott Peck, Denial of the Soul, op. cit. 140
1335
Al-Qurt}ubi>, al-Jami op. cit. 9: 124
Educating the Pillar of the Home: The Role of
Community-based Institution in Enhancing Non-Formal
Learning Among Muslim Women
Maznah Hj Ibrahim
Abstract
Non-formal education program in Malaysia basically includes community education
program, pre-service vocational skill training and training at the workplace. Community-
based learning as classified by Brookfield (1983) comes in three groups namely: the
autonomous learning group, community development group and community action group.
The autonomous learning group is a group of people who voluntarily comes together for the
purpose of mutual improvement through community study, which in the case of Malaysia
mostly relates to adult learners engaging in religious study. A preliminary qualitative-based
study was conducted to investigate the role of community-based program conducted by
community institution in educating the Muslim women regarding social and religious issue.
Four themes were identified by the respondents, which are, the main reasons for attending
the program, preferred methods of learning, motivational factor and future implementations
of the program. These preliminary findings are pertinent and relevant in designing effective
non-formal education program in the endeavors of combating social issues and problems in
the society.
Introduction
People in general, continuous to evaluate and be evaluated everyday in their life. This is
referred as informal evaluation by Rahim (2003). A formal evaluation as defined by Patton
(1990) is any effort to increase human effectiveness through systematic data-based inquiry.
Patton (1990) emphasized that in the process of making the world a better place to live and
work, people engage in constant efforts to make improvements. Thus, the continuous
individual or collective efforts to improve human living situation such as: assessing needs,
formulating policies, passing laws, delivering programs, managing people and resources,
developing communities, educating children and adults, solving problems and many others
are examples of the different form of activities of making evaluation.
Background: Non-formal Islamic Religious Program in Malaysia
Islam was originally brought to Malaysia through the Muslim traders from the Arab
countries and India (Mazanah and Associates, 2001). Islam was later adopted by the majority
soon after an important event when the Sultan of Malacca converted to Islam in 1414 (Haris,
1990). This auspicious event marked the initial introduction of a non-formal Islamic
education in the Malay Peninsular. According to Haris (1990) and a later study by Suffian
892 / ISoIT 2004
(1996), the Malays educational activities during that period revolved mainly to matters
improving their knowledge in Islam, especially the reading and the understanding of the
Quran. The learning of the Quran then was mainly concentrated at the mosque, the surau or
the teachers home.
The learning of the Quran and Islamic religious knowledge activity mark the beginning
era of non-formal Islamic educational program. The concept of non-formal education is
very much similar to formal education, except that it refers to organized learning activities
that take place outside the formal educational system. Mazanah and Associates (2001)
elaborated as time passed, the non-formal educational activities are more specific clienteles.
These activities are normally initiated, conducted and sponsored by community-based,
private, or non-governmental organizations (NGOs). More often than not these non- formal
education activities take place in community meeting places and other informal settings.
Significance of the Present Study
In spite of the early introduction of non-formal learning program in Malaysia, research
work regarding evaluation of a non-formal adult learning program especially relating to
Islamic program is still very minimal. Nevertheless, there were other local studies related to
adult learning such as by Mazanah and Adanan (2001). In affiliation with Unesco, they did a
research to identify learners participation and learners learning pattern in community-based
adult learning in Malaysia. Community-based learning as Brookfield (1983) classified comes
in three groups namely; autonomous learning group, community development group and
community action group. The autonomous learning group is a group of people who
voluntarily gets together to learn to improve their knowledge. Mazanah and Adanans (2001)
work identified Muslim Malay as the largest group that participated in community-based
study program for autonomous learning.
Mazanah and Norhayati (2003) discovered important information regarding the
participation in adult learning. They showed that poor participation in adult education
program is mainly associated with problems with time and program not meeting the learners
needs and interests. This somewhat interrelated with a study by Tisdell and Maher (in
Merriam and Caffarella, 2002) that revealed female involvement in adult education program
is comparatively low to their male counterparts.
The studies mentioned earlier have identified the gap for more empirical-based studies to
be explored regarding non-formal adult learning programs in Malaysia. Adult learning
programmers as well as non-formal learning organizers may want to look at the various
factors that would inculcate effective learning as well as motivate the participation of women
learners in Malaysia. Since program evaluation on non-formal Islamic studies organized by
community institution in Malaysia is still lacking, there is a need to study the contribution
and role of community-based learning in Islamic knowledge. The significance of this present
study will contribute to the gap of information and to the literature regarding the role of
community-based institution in enhancing non-formal Islamic learning among Muslim
women in Malaysia.
The Objectives of the Study
Based on the existing gap in the literature of evaluation with regards to community-based
religious program in Malaysia, the present study was undertaken to achieve that aim. The
setting selected in this study is a weekly Islamic religious program conducted in one of the
districts in Selangor. A qualitative approach was opted for this evaluative study to gain
Maznah Hj Ibrahim / 893
insights and perspectives from the women learners. The main objectives of this research
were twofold:
1. to identify the womens respondents main purposes of attending the women
weekly Islamic program and;
2. to evaluate the effectiveness of the program from the perceptive of the women
informants.
The Limitations of Study
The scope of this evaluation study is limited to the views, perceptions, ideas, and bias of
four women informants. As such, the findings illustrated from this evaluation program were
confined to a certain extent and cannot to be generalized to other programs conducted in other
vicinities.
Literature Review
Program Evaluation in Malaysia
Evaluation in formal education system has yielded many perspectives and has been very
dynamic. Gipps (1994 in Ecclestone, 1996) pointed out the history of evaluation in the formal
educational setting showed that political and social tensions as well as educational ones had
always characterized aspirations for what evaluation can do for learners and society as a
whole. Gipps (1994:3) elaborated the connotations of evaluation in formal education system,
Evaluation is a powerful tool: it shapes curriculum, teaching and learning, it can effect how
(student) come to see themselves both as learners and in a more general sense as competent or not;
through labeling and sorting(certificating and selecting), it affects how (students) are viewed by
others; it controls access to further education and high status career. Evaluation and assessment has
become increasingly widespread and significant in our education system
In Malaysias context, although there have been some studies done in program
evaluation; the majority of them focused more on evaluation work done in the training. For
example, Zulkarnain and Mazanah (1998) did a study to identify the factors that contribute to
the effectiveness of a training program. Another recent survey research is by Tan and Gill
(2000). They revealed interesting facts regarding training scenario in Malaysia. They
discovered that most Malaysian firms do not provide their workers with formal training
instead these workers were relied exclusively on their informal on-the-job training. Formal
training is common only with large firms. Tan and Gill (2000) confirmed that formal training
was only done by large companies due to their bigger allocation of fund compared to the
smaller companies.
Other evaluation studies for adult learner program were more focused to extension
program such as vocational education by Rahim et al (1992) on reorienting extension
education program for rural Malaysian. There was also substantial literature based on some
discussion on the various aspects of monitoring, evaluation and feedback also by Rahim
(1989).
894 / ISoIT 2004
Responsive Evaluation
Responsive evaluation is an emergence form of evaluation that takes as its organizer the
concerns and issues of the stockholding audiences the interest of its effects in relation to the
interests of relevant publics. According to Stake (1975), there are different ways to evaluate
programs and there is no exactly one right way. Stake (1975) also advocated that evaluation
should perform a service and be useful to specific persons. For an evaluation to be useful, the
evaluator should know the interests and the language of his audiences. During an
evaluation study, substantial amount of time may well be spent in learning about the
information needs of the persons for whom the evaluation is being done. The evaluator
should have a good sense of which audience he is working for and what are their concerns.
Responsive evaluation orients more directly to program activities than to program intents,
responds to audience requirements for information; and if the different value perspectives
present are referred to in reporting the success and failure of the program. The proper
organizer for such evaluation is thus focused on the concerns and issues that are gathered in
conversations with persons in and around the program for example; program sponsors,
program staff, students, parents, teachers, administrators and others who are directly or
indirectly involved in the program. Stake (1975) suggests a number of steps for conducting a
responsive evaluation. Although the guides portrayed in Table 1 is in a linear concept, it is
imperative to note that there is a continuing movement back and forth as the evaluation
proceeds. Table 1 tabulates the procedures of a responsive evaluation.
Table 1: The Procedure of Responsive Evaluation adopted from Stake (1975).
Detailed Description Evaluator/Researcher Action
1.
The evaluator talks with identified clients, program
staff and audiences - to gain a sense of their posture
with respect to the evaluation and the purpose of the
evaluation
Eliciting information from
intended audience
2.
The evaluator set the scope of the program. The limits
are also set because the inputs from other sources such
as the program proposal, documents emanating from
program personnel, official records and the like
Set the scope of the
evaluation
3.
The evaluator makes personal observations of what
goes on. He later verifies the program existence and
can note deviations from his sense of the program
Make own personal
observation
4.
As a result of the preceding activities, the evaluator
begins to discover, the purpose of the project, both
stated and real and the concerns that various audiences
may have with it and/or the evaluation.
Identify the problems or
concern
5.
With the preliminary data, the evaluator begins to
conceptualize the issues and problems that the
evaluation should address.
Focus on the area of
evaluation
6.
Once the issue and problems have been identified, the
evaluator has to think about the design of the
evaluation.
Decision on the design of the
evaluation
7.
Relevant to the data needs, the evaluator selects the
necessary approach and instruments appropriate. Most
likely, the instruments will be human instruments
Identify necessary approach
and instrument for data
gathering
Maznah Hj Ibrahim / 895
8.
The evaluator proceeds to carry out the data collection
procedure.
Proceed with data collection
9.
The evaluator then shifts to an information-reporting
mode. The information is organized into themes, and
the evaluator prepares to communicate in a natural.
Prepare report
10.
The report can be taken in the form of written
statements, discussion sessions, round-table
discussion, newspapers articles, etc.
Decide report presentation
The Methodology of the Study
The Method
The researcher adopted a semi responsive evaluation approach in conducting this
preliminary evaluative research. Qualitative methodology using in-depth interviews and
participant observation were done with four women informants to elicit their insights and
perspectives. The interviews with the informants were done at the office, the house and at the
program venue. Due to the multiple constraints of time, workforce, and commitments on the
part of the researcher as well as the informants, the interviews for all informants are done
once except twice with one informant.
Participant observations were conducted at the venue of the program. There were five
observations conducted for the whole program evaluation. The five participant observations
were conducted from January to February 2004. After the fifth, the observation was stopped
when the researcher convinced that the data gathering process was saturated. The researcher
participated in the Islamic learning program and took the role as a participant observer. Data
derived are both tabulated and presented in a qualitative manner.
The Profile of the Respondents
Majority of the women participants in this Islamic educational program were in the age
range of 20s to 50s. This indicated that age is not a major hindrance for women learners to
equip themselves with Islamic knowledge. Most of the women learners of this program come
from the housing area but there were also those who come as far as 40 or 50 kilometers away
to attend this weekly Islamic program.
Four women adult learners were selected to participate in this study. Pseudonyms were
used to respect confidentiality of the four informants. Two informants are in their mid 30s;
Puan Melor, a schoolteacher and Puan Dalia, a university lecturer. The other two, Puan Siti is
in her early 50s works as university office administrator. Puan Siti is also the committee
member of the organization that handles the program. Another respondent is Puan Fauziah, a
widower is in her mid 50s. The criteria for choosing these four informants were based from
their deep interest and diligence attendance of the program and on their voluntary
participation in the research.
896 / ISoIT 2004
Findings and Discussion
There are two main purposes of conducting this evaluative research: first, to identify the
women learners main purposes of attending the Islamic talks program and second, to
evaluate the effectiveness of the program from the point of view of the womens respondents.
Based from the data analysis gathered from interviews and observations conducted four major
themes emerged. The themes were:
1. Reasons for attending the Islamic program
2. Preferred methods of learning Islamic knowledge
3. Motivational factors for attending the program
4. Recommendations for the program improvement.
Reasons for Attending Islamic Talks
All four informants indicated that the main reasons for their constant and diligent
presence for the religious program was due to their own self-interest and self development to
known more about Islamic knowledge. Their exact motives in attending the program were
tabulated in Table 2.
Table2: Reasons for Attending Islamic Talks
Reasons for Attending Talks Puan
Melor
Puan
Dalia
Puan
Siti
Puan
Fauziah
Enhancement of Islamic knowledge / / / /
Personal enrichment and betterment of
oneself
/ / / /
Able to practice Islamic teachings
knowledgably
/ / /
Role model to children / / /
Puan Melor explained that her main reason for attending the Islamic educational program
was for her personal enrichment and to establish her Islamic responsibility as in prioritizing
knowledge seeking. She made the effort to attend the talks even though she shouldered
multiple responsibilities and were quite preoccupied with her family and her profession.
However her seriousness in gaining Islamic knowledge was reflected in her special allocation
of her time for this activity.
Each and everyone of us is given 24 hours a day, time management is very important and as an adult
we should plan and put priority in seeking knowledge, its the matter of mindset and believes, think
positively and you will get what you want by working hard to get it
Both Puan Siti and Puan Fauziah have grown up children; hence they have more time for
personal endeavors. Although as a homemaker, Puan Fauziah also allocated and organized
her housework so that she can spend quality time for her family and her learning endeavors.
Puan Fauziah confessed that,
I dont do housework on Sundays. It can be done on other days. Sundays are reserved for me to
attend talks at the surau, family visits and spending time with my children. It has become sort like a
routine in my life. .
Preferred Methods of Learning Islamic Knowledge
All the four informants exhibit characteristics of self-directedness and are
autonomous in their decisions to attend the learning program. They however, elaborated on
Maznah Hj Ibrahim / 897
the various other ways in which the program can be diversified. As adult learners, they prefer
a more lively and interactive methods of acquiring the Islamic knowledge besides the usual
formal structure style. Summary of the findings in this respect is tabulated in Table 3.
Table 3: Preferred Methods of Learning Islamic Knowledge
Learning Methods Puan Melor Puan Dalia Puan Siti Puan Fauziah
Attending class/lectures/talks / / / /
Discussion groups / / /
Forums and Seminar / /
Question and answer session / / /
Self-directed learning / / / /
Printed material / / / /
Television and radio / / / /
Internet / /
Based on from the interviews and observations, all the informants agreed that specific
religious knowledge like performing the ibadat must be taught in a formal manner. Normally
Islamic knowledge is delivered via the didactic manner by an expert and subsequently
followed by active question and answer sessions where learning is reinforced and new
knowledge is created. This indicated that experience plays a part in learning when questions,
comments and doubts are presented.
In relation to the assumptions mentioned, Puan Fauziah explained that by only attending
formal classes is not sufficient and she also acknowledged that her discussions with the ustaz
or ustazah benefited her well. Based on her experience in overcoming the challenges of
performing ibadat, for example, the Haj in Mekah, she needed to be mentally and physically
prepared. She elaborated that performing Islamic ibadat was not viable only through ones
experience because it might be inadequate. Similar to the learning, interpreting and relating
to the Quran and the Hadith, it is advisable for learners to be under the tutelage of experts
like the ustaz or ustazah. It was therefore; in her opinion attending Islamic program can
enhanced further her understanding of the concepts of ibadat in Islam.
Puan Melor and Puan Dalia preferred method of acquiring knowledge from the
combination of attending and participating in talks, forums and discussion sessions to
broaden their Islamic knowledge. Comprehending religious matters for Puan Melor are
enhanced through questioning. She emphasized that,
Getting quick response to inquiries is what I prefer in learning. I cant stand being in doubt and
require clear explanations from some credible source
All the four respondents use additional resources such as the audiovisual media to learn.
They watch religious programs on television and listen to radio programs for further
enhancement of their religious knowledge. In addition to reading religious peripherals as her
source of knowledge, Puan Melor cites the audio and visual resources as her favorites. She
highlighted that,
The radio and television are important tools in learning as it keeps me updated with current events,
besides, learning through music and various stimulations are somehow fun and it keeps you going.
Both Puan Melor and Puan Dalia used the Internet to gain more information regarding
the Islamic knowledge. Being in the academia, Puan Melor as well as Puan Dalia also
attended more formal Islamic seminars or talks. Such a forum engaged more interaction and
participation where individuals interacted and discussed the issues academically.
898 / ISoIT 2004
Motivational Factors for Attending the Islamic Program
In general all four women informants in this study were very self-directed, self-motivated
and demonstrated high-level readiness in acquiring Islamic knowledge. As derived from
Table 4, all of the respondents attended the talks mainly due to their own personal drive as
well as additional support from the spouses, family members and close friends.
Table 4: Motivational Factors for Learning
Motivational Factors Puan Melor Puan Dalia Puan Siti Puan Fauziah
Intrinsic motivation: Personal drive / / / /
Extrinsic motivation
Spouse /
Family members / / / /
Friends / /
Puan Melor, shared her quest for learning by acquiring the religious knowledge with her
husband, who is also an active member of the program organizing community. Her spouse
encouraged her to participate in the community activities. Her deep sense of interest in
religious matters was also stemmed from her childhood experiences with her grandfather as
her main motivator to learn. Thus for her, both of her husband and her late grandfather
already instilled her the continuous need to acquire the knowledge and attending the religious
talks to manifest her motivation to learn Islamic knowledge. To quote her response,
I was inspired by my late grandfather who is an Ustaz back home. He uses to teach both children
and adults in reciting the Quran. Watching him inspires me and Im always awed by his abilities
Puan Siti regarded learning religious matters in the program as part of her tranformative
learning. She related her experience of managing work, home and her voluntary work as the
secretariat of the program as part of her ibadat and learning processes. Her active
participation in the community activities was due to the overwhelming encouragement from
her family members especially her grownup children. With her retired husband and grown-
up children, she felt that her time can be usefully contributed to voluntarily work in the
committee.
Recommendations for the Program Improvement.
All the informants made similar comments regarding the focus of the talks. Most of the
participants of this Islamic program were women adult learners. Being adult learners, they
were more critical because they were experienced and they can make better judgments. They
were more able to select and sieve information. They were quick to know if the presenter
deviated from main aims or the focus of the program. They can also identify if the learning
matters were afflicted with political connotations. Puan Melor, Puan Dina and Puan Fauziah
stated that the loss of focus in program were detrimental as it deviated from the wish of the
women learners who came to learn more about Islamic knowledge. It will kill their interest in
learning. Political issues, they said, should be dealt in another forum or platform. Puan
Fauziah elaborated,
We come here to listen and to gain more knowledge about Islam. I suppose the speakers can get
carried away with those political affiliation talks. But we know what or whom we would like to
choose
Similar comments were by Puan Siti as the secretariat of the program. She admitted that
she received some complaints from other women participants regarding the discussions of
political issues in the program.
Maznah Hj Ibrahim / 899
In addition to the concern of the focus of talks, Puan Melor and Puan Dina also make
some suggestions regarding the delivery of the talks or lectures. They suggested that the main
objectives or the main aims of the program should be clearly specified and communicated
well to the participants at the beginning of the program. Since both of them are familiar in the
teaching and learning pedagogy and were also experts in educational instructions, they
recommended the use of more handouts or notes. Simple notes and handouts were necessary
as they provide additional information as well as references to the women learners. Although
this was a non-formal Islamic studies program, the participants of this program made serious
efforts to come and participate. Thus the organizers of the program should look at these
matters adequately so that the knowledge received was more lasting and meaningful.
Conclusion
Educating the pillars of the home such as the women learners should be the main
priorities of community learning program. Non-formal Islamic education program organized
by community institution plays a very important role in distributing knowledge and
inculcating positives values to the society. Although the nature of the instruction, the setting,
and the environment are non-formal but the contributions from the learning program to the
building of Islamic knowledge and Islamic values is enormous. Most of the learners of non-
formal Islamic learning program as identified in this study were self-directed, highly
motivated, articulate, and critical all in the cause of seeking Islamic knowledge. Thus, non-
formal Islamic program for women learners should be supported morally and financially; the
structure of the program should be well designed, the main aim and the objectives should be
specifically described to appropriately meet the needs of the women adult learners.
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Maznah Hj Ibrahim
Institusi Masjid Dan Peranannya Ke Arah Membina
Toleransi Beragama Dalam Masyarakat Majmuk
Ahmad Nawawi Yaakob, Sidek Abdullah & Zaluddin Sulaiman
Abstrak
Umat Islam sering sahaja dikaitkan dengan keganasan dan perang, dan tragedi 911
dijadikan alasan besar oleh kuasa barat untuk menghentam kita. Persoalannya, apakah imej
yang perlu kita tonjolkan dalam kegawatan ini? Masihkah kekal dengan sifat ganas,
intoleranse, sukakan perang dan nilai-nilai yang berlawanan dengan hikmah ajaran
Islam? Dilihat kepada institusi masjid, ia menjadi syiar utama kehebatan Islam dan umatnya.
Soalnya, bagaimana peranan institusi ini dalam realiti masyarakat majmuk di Malaysia, dan
bagaimana pula respond masyarakat bukan Islam yang berjiran dengan masjid, lantas
bagaimana seharusnya masjid boleh berperanan ke arah membina keharmonian masyarakat,
menyerlahkan ketinggian agama Islam dan menyempurnakan tanggungjawab sosialnya
dalam masyarakat majmuk. Kajian berbantu soal selidik ini mendapati masyarakat non-
muslim umumnya berbangga tinggal dalam masyarakat majmuk, sedia memahami perlunya
toleransi yang saling memberi dan menerima, menghormati antara agama, dan tidak menjadi
masalah atas gangguan kebisingan dan aktiviti institusi masjid. Hanya masalah kesesakan
(jalan raya) menunjukkan min tidak gembira yang tinggi di kalangan tetangga masjid
masyarakat non-muslim. Penyelidik mencadangkan masjid perlu menyediakan ruang letak
kereta yang lebih selesa, mengemaskini aktiviti masjid di samping melibatkan aktiviti sosial
bersama masyarakat non-muslim ke arah mewujudkan perpaduan sejati dalam negara
Malaysia.
Pendahuluan
Masjid merupakan institusi pertama dibina Rasulullah s.a.w. bagi menampakkan
kepentingannya sebagai asas pembinaan tamadun insan. Hari ini sungguhpun masjid bukan
lagi pusat pemerintahan dan pengurusan negara, tetapi peranannya tetap kekal sebagai
institusi sosial pusat khidmat setempat- kepada penduduk sekitar. Dalam persekitaran
masyarakat majmuk, institusi masjid tentunya perlu membuka ruang yang lebih luas,
menghulurkan sumbangan dan peranan sesuai dengan keperluan persekitaran. Apakah wajar
masjid terus kekal sebagai milik peribadi umat Islam semata-mata tanpa boleh dikongsi sama
oleh orang lain? Persoalan lain yang turut pentingnya ialah sejauh mana masjid prihatin
dengan lingkungan dan persekitaran masyarakat majmuk yang menghuni di persekitarannya?
902 / ISoIT 2004
Matlamat Kajian
Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengenalpasti keprihatinan masjid kepada masyarakat
majmuk, khasnya dari perspektif masyarakat non-muslim. Oleh itu matlamat utama kajian
seperti berikut:
1. Mengenalpasti penerimaan non-muslim terhadap kepelbagaian agama dan
budaya dalam masyarakat Malaysia
2. Mengenalpasti persediaan non-muslim menanggapi isu-isu keagamaan secara
terbuka dan toleren
3. Mengenalpasti persepsi mereka terhadap aktiviti masjid dan masyarakat muslim
sekitar
4. Mengenalpasti gangguan yang sering kali dilalui oleh mereka yang tinggal
berdekatan pusat ibadah umat Islam.
Persoalan Kajian
Berpandukan matlamat kajian di atas, maka persoalan kajian yang hendak dijawab dalam
kajian ini ialah;
1. Apakah persepsi masyarakat non-muslim terhadap kepelbagaian agama dan
budaya yang sedia wujud dalam masyarakat Malaysia?
2. Sejauh mana pula masyarakat non muslim bersedia menanggapi isu-isu
keagamaan secara terbuka dan toleran, sedia memberi dan menerima?
3. Apakah pula persepsi mereka terhadap aktiviti yang dijalankan di masjid dan
pandangan umum masyarakat muslim terhadap mereka
4. Apakah bentuk gangguan yang sering dihadapi oleh mereka yang tinggal
berdekatan pusat ibadah umat Islam dan bagaimana perkara ini boleh ditangani?
Metodologi Kajian
Kajian dijalankan berbantu soal selidik yang diedarkan kepada masyarakat non-muslim
yang tinggal berdekatan (berjiran) dengan masjid atau surau yang menjadi pusat ibadah umat
Islam. Oleh kerana aktiviti masjid dan lokasi yang berbagai ragam, tentunya rasa
kebersamaan dan keresahan masyarakat non-muslim berbeza antara satu tempat dengan
tempat yang lain. Kajian awal ini dijalankan di beberapa lokasi berbeza dengan mengambil
kira latar tempat dan aktiviti masjid (surau) berdekatan. Lokasi yang dipilih termasuklah di
Kuala Lumpur (Flat Sri Sabah), Johor Bahru (Taman Pelangi), Batu Pahat, Gombak, Shah
Alam, Subang Jaya, GreenWood, Kota Tinggi, Larkin, Port Dickson, Pontian, Beranang,
Selayang, Bukit Katil, Kangkar Tebrau dan Kuala Pilah. Kawasan kajian bertaburan di serata
tempat bagi mendapatkan kepelbagaian reaksi responden mengikut kawasan penempatan
masing-masing.
Data kajian dianalisa menggunakan perisian SPSS vision 12.0 bagi menganalisa
frekuansi, min, purata, sisihan piawai dan sebagainya.
Jiran
Siapakah jiran? Jiran ialah mereka atau tetangga yang berada berhampiran dengan rumah
kita. Allah memerintahkan supaya kita berbuat baik dengan mereka. Firman Allah dalam
surah al-Nisa : 36 bermaksud;
Ahmad Nawawi Yaakob et.al. / 903
Hendaklah kamu beribadat kepada Allah janganlah kamu sekutukan Dia dengan sesuatu apa pun, dan
hendaklah kamu berbuat baik kepada ibu bapa, kerabat, anak-anak yatim, orang-orang miskin, jiran
tetangga yang dekat dan yang jauh, rakan sejawat dan orang musafir yang terlantar
Rasulullah s.a.w. memerintahkan pula menghormati jiran dalam sabdanya
bermaksud;
Jibril selalu datang menemuiku dan berpesan supaya melakukan kebaikan kepada jiran sehingga aku
menyangka jiranberhak mewarisi pusaka. (Bukhari dan Muslim dalam Ibn Kathir, Jilid 1, hlm.388)
Jiran ada tiga. Jiran yang mempunyai satu hak, jiran yang mempunyai dua hak, dan jiran yang
mempunyai tiga hak. Jiran yang mempunyai satu hak ialah orang bukan Islam,(iaitu hak jiran) yang
mempunyai dua hak ialah jiran Islam dan jiran yang mempunyai tiga hak ialah jiran Islam dan
mempunyai pertalian darah. (Dalam Ibn Kathir: J.1 hlm 388)
Perintah berbuat baik dengan jiran dalam ayat di atas datang selepas menunaikan hak
Allah, hak ibu bapa, anak yatim dan orang miskin. Jiran dibahagikan sama ada mempunyai
pertalian darah atau tidak. Ibn Abbas mengatakan Jar al-Qurba merujuk kepada jiran yang
merupakan kaum keluarga iaitu yang mempunyai pertalian darah, dan Jaral-Junubi, ialah
yang tidak mempunyai pertalian darah. Pendapat lain mengatakan jiran yang dekat ialah jiran
sesama Islam sementara jiran yang jauh ialah jiran yang bukan Islam (Ibn Kathir, Jilid 1,
hlm.388). Kebanyakan ulama bersetuju bahawa setiap jiran mempunyai hak yang sama, baik
mempunyai pertalian saudara atau tidak, Islam dan bukan Islam.
Sementara itu ketika mentafsirkan kalimah al-maaun dalam surah al-Maaun ulama
berpendapat al-maaun ialah barang keperluan hidup seharian. Ibn Abbas mengatakan al-
maaun ialah barang keperluan harian rumah tangga. Pendapat lain mengatakan adalah
menjadi hak jiran untuk mendapatkan keperluan rumah apabila mereka tidak mempunyai
keperluan tersebut seperti perkakas rumah, bekas menyimpan makanan dan juga bekas
menyimpan air. (Ibn Kathir, jilid III, hlm.682)
Kewajipan Terhadap Jiran
1. Melayan mereka dengan baik
2. Melakukan kebaikan dan tidak mencederakan mereka atau mendatangkan
kemudaratan kepada mereka.
3. Menghulurkan sebarang bentuk pertolongan dan pemberian yang diperlukan.
Perkara tersebut dinyatakan oleh hadis Rasulullah saw, yang bermaksud:
Suatu haru Rasulullah saw. bertanya kepada para sahabatnya, adakah kamu tahu tentang hak jiran?
Selanjutnya Baginda menjelaskan; Berilah pertolongan sekiranya mereka memerlukan pertolongan.
Berilah bantuan sekiranya mereka memerlukan bantuan. Berilah pinjaman sekiranya mereka
memerlukan pinjaman. Berilah bantuan sekiranya mereka miskin. Rawatlah mereka sekiranya mereka
sakit .Iringilah jenazah mereka sekiranya mereka meninggal dunia.Gembirakanlah mereka sekiranya
mereka mendapat sesuatu kebaikan. Hulurkanlah simpati kepada mereka sekirannya mereka ditimpa
bencana. Janganlah tinggikan bangunan (rumah) kamu tanpa meminta kebenarannya, kerana ia akan
menghalang udara (masuk ke rumahnya), janganlah menganggunya; apabila kamu membeli buah-
buahan, berilah beberapa biji kepadanya, sekiranya kamu tidak mahu memberikan buah itu kepadanya,
simpanlah secara rahsia iaitu sembunyikanlah. Dan janganlah biarkan anak kamu menunjuk-nunjuk
kerana ia akan mendatangkan kemarahan anaknya (jiran kamu) (Dalam Afzalur, Jilid II, hlm: 1228
1229)
4. Keutamaan membeli, atau hak syufaah iaitu memberi hak kepada jiran untuk
membeli harta jirannya sebelum dibeli oleh orang lain. (Afzalur, Jilid II,
hlm.1229)
904 / ISoIT 2004
Fungsi Masjid
Masjid merupakan institusi ibadah yang pertama dibina oleh Rasulullah s.a.w. di
Madinah iaitu masjid Quba. Institusi ini menjadi agenda penting Rasulullah saw. semasa
baginda berhijrah ke Madinah (Ibn Khaldun, 1995, hlm. 404). Kenapa Rasulullah saw.
mengutamakan pembinaan masjid berbanding binaan lain? Kenapa tidak didirikan kubu
pertahanan, tempat perniagaan, rumah tempat tinggal. Ternyata itu semua kurang penting
berbanding masjid, kerana agenda Rasulullah saw. iaitu menyemai benih keimanan dengan
membina kubu pertahanan dalam diri manusia terlebih dahulu.
Fungsi masjid tidak hanya terbatas untuk melakukan ritual ibadah semata-mata tetapi ia
menjadi pusat masyarakat (the centre of society) bagi menjalankan sebarang aktiviti. Oleh itu
boleh dikatakan fungsi masjid terbahagi dua iaitu fungsi keagamaan dan fungsi sosial. Pada
zaman Rasulullah s.a.w., ia berfungsi sebagai tempat menjelaskan wahyu, mengeratkan
hubungan masyarakat, menyelesaikan masalah rakyat, memberikan fatwa, mengajarkan
agama, tempat bermusyawarah, menyelesaikan perselisihan, mengatur strategi ketenteraan
dan juga menerima perutusan dari luar (Mahayudin & Ahmad Jelani. 1996, hlm.79 80)
Dalam konteks masyarakat majmuk di Malaysia, masjid kurang berperanan mengajak
dan mendekati masyarakat bukan Islam agar mereka tertarik dengan Islam. Masjid dianggap
terlalu suci hingga kita menganggap orang-orang bukan Islam dilarang sama sekali
melewatinya atau mengambil bahagian di dalamnya. Suatu perancangan perlu dilakukan
kerana pendekatan dakwah pada bukan Islam sekarang tidak berlaku dalam institusi Islam.
Pada peringkat awal mungkin beberapa perkara yang berhubung dengan hukum perlu
difahami. Halangan pemikiran (mental block) dan cara berfikir lama perlu diganti dengan
cara berfikir baru yang progresif dan sesuai dengan tuntutan semasa.
Rasulullah s.a.w. menerima tetamu asing sama ada muslim atau tidak untuk datang
berbincang di masjid. Rasulullah saw. juga telah memberi kebenaran kepada ketua negara
Najran untuk menunaikan sembahyang mereka di masjid al-Rasul ketika dalam satu sesi
pertemuan mereka dengan Rasulullah saw. Ketika itu Rasulullah saw. baru sahaja selesai
menunaikan solat Asar. (Al-Qasim. 1984, hlm.55)
Khalid al-Walid telah mengadakan perjanjian dengan penduduk Anat setelah berjaya
mengalahkan mereka. Khalid al-Walid telah memberi keizinan kepada mereka meniup naqus
pada bila-bila masa siang atau malam kecuali pada lima waktu orang-orang Islam
menunaikan sembahyang (Abu Yusuf. 1382H, hlm.146). Apa yang dapat disimpulkan di sini
ialah semangat toleransi beragama diamalkan oleh orang-orang Islam di samping hubungan
timbal balik antara orang-orang bukan Islam dan Islam dalam mengenali cara hidup masing-
masing.
Seperti yang dijelaskan masjid mempunyai dua fungsi, satu keagamaan dan satu lagi
sosial. Perkara yang menyentuh tentang hukum masjid antara Islam dan bukan Islam adalah
muktamad dan perlu ada garis sempadan. Tetapi perkara yang berhubung dengan aktiviti
sosial, ia perlu dikembangkan supaya masjid menjadi medan dakwah terbaik kepada pelbagai
masyarakat. Aktiviti yang telah dilakukan selama ini yang khusus kepada orang Islam boleh
dikembangkan kepada masyarakat bukan Islam. Perkhidmatan kesihatan dan rawatan
percuma yang selama ini hanya untuk orang Islam boleh diluaskan kepada penduduk bukan
Islam.
Selain itu, aspek lain yang boleh diberikan penekanan ialah menjadikan masjid sebagai
pusat rekreasi dan sukan, pusat khidmat masyarakat bagi yang kurang upaya, anak-anak
yatim, orang tua, janda, warga terbiar dan muallaf. Masjid juga boleh berperanan sebagai
pusat komunikasi dan hubungan antara kaum, medan pendidikan, motivasi dan
seumpamanya. Mungkin bukan semua masjid mampu mengendalikan program seumpama ini,
tetapi sekiranya masjid berjaya dirancang dengan baik ia akan menjadi kenyataan. Sebagai
Ahmad Nawawi Yaakob et.al. / 905
contohnya Masjid Bandar Baru Uda Johor Bahru, berjaya mengadakan khidmat homodiliasis
percuma kepada masyarakat yang mengidap penyakit buah pinggang. Setiap daerah terdapat
banyak masjid, mungkin kita boleh ketengahkan masjid terbaik setiap daerah mengendalikan
satu-satu program dengan masyarakat bukan Islam.
Masyarakat Majmuk
Perbincangan mengenai masyarakat majmuk tidak dapat dipisahkan dari menyentuh
masyarakat bukan Islam. Perbincangan tentang masyarakat bukan Islam pula tidak dapat
dipisahkan dari menyentuh konsep negara Islam. Ini kerana kedudukan rakyat dan
masyarakat menjadi pra syarat dan komposisi penting kepada penubuhan negara Islam.
Kedudukan negara Islam selalunya dirujuk kepada pembentukan negara Islam Madinah.
Ini kerana negara Islam tersebut menjadi model kepada semua bentuk penubuhan negara
bangsa yang ada. Aspek penting kepada penubuhan negara Islam Madinah ialah adanya
pemimpin iaitu nabi Muhammad saw., ada wilayah atau negara iaitu Madinah, adanya
perlembagaan iaitu perlembagaan Madinah dan ada rakyat yang terdiri dari orang-orang
Yahudi, orang Arab Madinah Aus dan Khazraj dan golongan Muhajirin yang berhijrah ke
Madinah. Di samping itu ada juga suku kaum yang lain yang terdiri dari Kristian, dan puak-
puak serta qabilah Arab badawi yang lain (Mahayudin & Ahmad Jelani, 1996 hlm. 82-84).
Dalam Perlembagaan Madinah dicirikan tentang pembentukan dan pengkelasan
masyarakat berdasarkan agama. Umat Islam dikenali sebagai warga negara Madinah yang
mempunyai hak dan tanggungjawab yang telah ditentukan. Sementara itu golongan bukan
Islam dikenali sebagai ahli al-zimmi iaitu golongan bukan Islam yang bersedia untuk berada
di bawah pemerintahan Islam dengan mempunyai hak dan kewajiban yang tertentu.
Islam mengiktiraf akan kewujudan masayarakat bukan Islam kerana ia menjadi suatu
sunnah alam dari keindahan kejadian Allah. Al-Quran menjelaskan bahawa Allah menjadikan
manusia bersuku-suku dan berbangsa-bangsa untuk saling kenal mengenal sesama sendiri,
seperti dinyatakan dalam ayat al-Hujurat: 13. Al-Faruqi (dalam Abdul Halim, 2002)
mengiktiraf bukan Islam berdasarkan sifat kemanusiaan sejagat kerana Islam adalah untuk
umat manusia. (rujuk maksud firman Allah surah al-Fathir 35:24). Al-Nadwi pula
mengatakan persoalan perbezaan manusia dalam bahasa dan cara hidup membantu
mewujudkan pola dan budaya hidup yang boleh mengindahkan lagi hidup ini.
Masyarakat Bukan Islam di Malaysia
Malaysia terdiri dari tiga bangsa utama iaitu Melayu, Cina dan India, selain Kadazan,
Iban, Murut, Melanau, Dayak dan Bajau di Sabah dan Sarawak, dengan tiga agama utama
iaitu Islam, Buddha dan Hindu. Masyarakat majmuk ialah masyarakat yang berbilang kaum,
kebudayaan, agama dan bahasa. Mengikut J. S. Furnivall (1948) ianya merupakan satu
keadaan di mana pelbagai kaum dalam sesebuah negara itu bercampur tapi tidak bersatu.
Ulama Islam membahagikan masyarakat bukan Islam kepada enam kategori, iaitu ahlu
al-kitab, al-Saibah, Majusi, al-Dahriyah, Musyrikun dan murtad. Bagi orang bukan Islam
yang tinggal dalam negara Islam pula ulama Islam membahagikan kepada Zimmi, Mustamin,
Muaahad dan kafir harbi (Zaydan, 1976, hlm 15).
Mengikut mufti Terengganu, Yusuf al-Zawawi (1971) yang pernah mengeluarkan fatwa,
orang-orang bukan Islam yang terdapat di Malaysia ialah kafir zimmi. Dan mengikut mufti
Kelantan, Ismail Yusof (1981) orang-orang bukan Islam yang tinggal di Malaysia ialah bukan
kafir harbi. Oleh itu boleh dibuat kesimpulan bahawa golongan bukan Islam yang terdapat di
negara ini dikenali sebagai kafir zimmi kerana mereka menghormati dan patuh pada
perlembagaan negara, membayar cukai-cukai yang dikenakan dan tidak melakukan
906 / ISoIT 2004
penentangan kepada kerajaan. Kafir zimmi ialah golongan bukan Islam yang telah membuat
perjanjian dengan ketua negara Islam atau naibnya untuk tinggal selama-lamanya di dalam
negara Islam (Al-Jawziyyah, 1961).
Dapatan Kajian
Jadual 1: Jantina.
Jantina Flat Sri Sabah/ Tmn
Pelangi, Johor Bahru
Damansara Utama/
Tmn Maju Cheras
Subang Jaya/
Greenwood/ Gombak
Lelaki 15 (50 %) 18 (60 %) 29 (58%)
Perempuan 15 (50%) 12 (40 %) 21 (42%)
Jumlah 30 30 50
Jadual di atas menunjukkan jumlah dan peratusan responden yang terlibat dalam kajian
ini yang dijalankan di beberapa tempat berbeza di Kuala Lumpur, Johor Bahru, Damansara
Utama, Cheras, Subang Jaya dan Gombak. Seramai 110 responden terlibat dengan
persampelan jantina yang agak seimbang.
Jadual 2: Umur
Umur Flat Sri Sabah/ Tmn
Pelangi, Johor Bahru
Damansara Utama/
Tmn Maju Cheras
Subang Jaya/
Greenwood/ Gombak
Bawah 30 11 (36.7 %) 12 (40 %) 20 (40%)
31 40 thn 9 (30%) 8 (26 %) 15 (30%)
41 - 50 thn 5 (16%) 6 (20%) 13 (26%)
51- ke atas 5 (16%) 4 (13 %) 2 (4%)
Jadual 2 menunjukkan pecahan umur responden kajian yang menunjukkan pecahan yang
ketara meliputi kesegenap lapisan umur. Walau bagaimanapun responden lebih ramai di
kalangan generasi muda berumur bawah 30 tahun pada tiga kategori kawasan berkenaan
mewakili 36.7 %, 40% dan 40 %.
Jadual 3: Bilangan anak
Anak Flat Sri Sabah/ Tmn
Pelangi, Johor Bahru
Damansara Utama/
Tmn Maju Cheras
Subang Jaya/
Greenwood/ Gombak
Tiada 5 (16.7%) 4 (13 %) 5 (10%)
1 3 orang 14 (46%) 12 (40 %) 25 (50%)
4-6 orang 10 (33%) 9 (30%) 11 (22%)
7-9 orang 1 (3.3%) 5 (16.7) 5 (10%)
10- 12 org
13 lebih 1 (2%)
Jadual 3 menunjukkan bilangan anak responden yang majoritinya menunjukkan famili
berkenaan memliki anak pada 1 hingga 3 orang, berbanding bilangan yang lain.
Ahmad Nawawi Yaakob et.al. / 907
Jadual 4:Agama
Agama Flat Sri Sabah/ Tmn
Pelangi, Johor Bahru
Damansara Utama/
Tmn Maju Cheras
Subang Jaya/
Greenwood/ Gombak
Buddha 8 (26.7%) 12 (40 %) 14 (28%)
Kristian 12 (40%) 9 (30 %) 13 (26%)
Hindu 7 (23%) 6 (20%) 21 (42%)
Lain-lain 3 (10) 2 (6.7)
Jadual 4 menunjukkan bilangan dan peratusan agama responden yang terlibat yang
menjelaskan taburan agama agak setara antara tiga agama terbesar di Malaysia, selain Islam;
Buddha, Kristian dan Hindu.
Jadual 5: Min keterbukaan sikap non-muslim
Flat Sri Sabah/
Tmn Pelangi, JB
Damansara Utama/
Tmn Maju Cheras
Subang Jaya/
Greenwood/
Gombak
ITEM BERKAITAN MIN SD(SP MIN SD(SP) MIN SD(SP)
Saya bangga tinggal
dlm masyarakat
majmuk
4.33 .844 3.8 .761 4.3 .9313
Semangat toleransi
perlu dlm masyarakat
majmuk
4.366 .8087 3.7 .8366 4.34 .6263
Ada ketikanya
kepentingan peribadi
perlu diketepikan
3.33 .711 3.4 .932 3.68 1.57
Skala 1 - 5, 1 sangat tidak setuju, 2 tidak setuju, 3 tidak pasti, 4 setuju & 5
sangat setuju
Jadual 5 di atas menunjukkan min respondent tentang sikap dan pendirian mereka hidup
dan tinggal bersama dalam masyarakat majmuk. Min pada tiga kategori kumpulan nampak
tidak jauh berbeza. Kategori 1 (Flat Sri Sabah/Tmn Pelangi,JB) dan 3 (Subang Jaya/
Greenwood & Gombak) menunjukkan kesediaan responden yang tinggi menerima realiti
masyarakat majmuk dan tinggal bersama rakyat Malaysia yang lain. Sedangkan pada lokasi
Kategori 2 (Damansara Utama & Taman Maju) kesediaan ini agak kurang walaupun minnya
lebih ke arah positif (3.8)
Responden mengakui mereka perlu bertoleransi dalam menimbangkira segala perkara
dalam memenuhi kehendak dan keperluan masyarakat majmuk. Namun adakah semangat
toleransi perlu teruskan hingga mengenepikan kepetingan peribadi? Persoalan ini nyata tidak
mendapat maklum balas positif pada min yang sederhana (tidak pasti 3.33, 3.4 & 3.6) .
908 / ISoIT 2004
Jadual 6: Kesesuaian Islam diterima oleh masyarakat majmuk
Flat Sri Sabah/
Tmn Pelangi, JB
Damansara Utama/
Tmn Maju Cheras
Subang Jaya/
Greenwood/
Gombak
ITEM BERKAITAN MIN SD(SP MIN SD(SP) MIN SD(SP)
Agama Islam praktikal
diamalkan dlm msykt
majmuk
3.26 .449 3.2 .846 3.2 .701
Aktiviti di masjid kadang
kala menarik minat saya
untuk mengenali Islam
3.43 .971 2.79 .8185 2.66 1.02
Jadual 6 menunjukkan min penerimaan masyarakat non-muslim terhadap agama Islam
sebagai agama yang praktikal diamalkan dalam masyarakat majmuk. Min mendapati
responden tidak pasti (dari tiga kategori kajian) sama ada Islam menjadi agama yang
praktikal atau tidak diamalkan dalam masyarakat majmuk. Begitu juga aktiviti di masjid
yang menunjukkan mereka tidak pasti atau mungkin juga kurang berminat untuk mengikuti
program berkenaan.
Jadual 7: Penghayatan Islam di kalangan masyarakat Melayu dari persepsi non-muslim
Flat Sri Sabah/
Tmn Pelangi, JB
Damansara Utama/
Tmn Maju Cheras
Subang Jaya/
Greenwood/ Gombak
ITEM BERKAITAN MIN SD(SP SD(SP) MIN SD(SP)
Masyarakat Melayu
menghayati ajaran Islam
sebenar
3.63 .85 2.9 .884 3.2 .783
Masyarakat muslim
menghormati kami di sini
3.6 1.27 3.166 .9128 3.92 1.3
Jadual 8: Gangguan dari aktiviti masjid
Flat Sri Sabah/
Tmn Pelangi, JB
Damansara Utama/
Tmn Maju Cheras
Subang Jaya/
Greenwood/ Gombak
ITEM BERKAITAN MIN SD(SP MIN SD(SP) MIN SD(SP)
Suara azan di masjid
berdekatan sering
mengganggu saya
2.6 1.00 3.7 .65 2.8 1.525
Aktiviti ceramah
mengganggu kami
(kebisingan)
2.4 .773 3.7 .794 2.76 1.5
Aktiviti masjid mengganggu
lalu lintas
2.76 .817 3.7 .794 3.7 1.488
Tarhim mengganggu tidur
(bacaan sblm azan Subuh)
2.46 .819 3.26 .827 2.7 1.58
Khutbah Jumaat menganggu
ketenteraman
2.5 .82 3.5 .7768 2.82 1.7577
Jadual 8 menunjukkan pendapat responden tentang gangguan yang kebiasaannya datang
dari aktiviti masjid. Min mendapati pada kategori 1 dan 2, azan tidaklah mengganggu sama
sekali situasi mereka. Begitu juga dengan aktiviti ceramah, tarhim dan khutbah Jumaat.
Ahmad Nawawi Yaakob et.al. / 909
Namun min berada pada tahap tidak pasti (yang lebih dekat kepada setuju) pada kategori 2
di Damansara Utama dan Taman Maju pada gangguan azan, ceramah dan khutbah Jumaat,
tetapi minnya agak rendah (3.26) pada aktiviti tarhim.
Namun apa yang ketara gangguan lalu lintas agak ketara berlaku pada setiap aktiviti
masjid (terutamanya solat Jumaat) dari tiga kategori menunjukkan tidak pasti tetapi lebih
dekat kepada setuju (min 3.7 & 2.76)
Jadual 9: Adakah gangguan hingga mereka mahu berpindah?
Anda akan berpindah? Flat Sri Sabah/
Tmn Pelangi, JB
Damansara Utama/
Tmn Maju Cheras
Subang Jaya/
Greenwood/ Gombak
ITEM BERKAITAN YA TIDAK YA TIDAK YA TIDAK
Pindah 5 (16.7) 17
(56.7)
2
(6.7%)
15
(50%)
21 (42%) 22 (44%)
Jadual 9 menunjukkan pendirian responden sama ada mereka akan berpindah atau tidak.
Dapatan ini menjelaskan mereka tidak akan berpindah dengan sedikit gangguan yang
biasanya terbit dari aktiviti di masjid.
Rumusan dan Cadangan
Hasil kajian ringkas yang dijalankan, penyelidik membuat rumusan kajian seperti
berikut;
Masyarakat non-muslim umumnya berbangga tinggal dalam masyarakat majmuk di
Malaysia. Ia dijelaskan daripada dapatan kajian yang menunjukkan min kesediaan
mereka bernaung sama dalam kemajmukan masyarakat adalah tinggi. Namun tidak
dinafikan dari aspek sejarah, kemajmukan ini berlaku kerana penghijrahan mereka ke
Tanah Melayu dan pastinya di sinilah tanah tumpah darah yang perlu dipertahankan,
kerana di mana bumi dipijak, di situ langit dijunjung.
Semangat toleransi juga ditunjukkan begitu baik di kalangan responden walaupun
mungkin ada kalanya kepentingan peribadi mereka tidak sanggup dinafikan dengan
mudah.
Aktiviti di masjid nyata tidak membuka ruang kepada non-muslim dan mungkin kerana
itu mereka tidak terdedah langsung dengan sebarang aktiviti di masjid biarpun mereka
berjiran dengan pusat ibadah kita. Responden menunjukkan mereka kurang tertarik untuk
mengikuti aktiviti di pusat ibadah orang Islam.
Masyarakat non muslim tidak pasti sama ada agama Islam praktikal diamalkan dalam
masyarakat majmuk berpandukan dapatan kajian ini. Ia memberi gambaran besar
bagaimana mereka kurang memahami dengan selok belok agama Islam dan pelaksanaan
sebenar Islam Hadhari yang kita pertahankan.
Hubungan masyarakat muslim dan non-muslim berjalan baik, saling hormat
menghormati walaupun mungkin ada kalanya isu-isu keagamaan menjadi jurang pemisah
sesama mereka. Min kajian mendapati responden tidak pasti sama ada mereka
dihormati atau tidak biarpun mereka berdekatan masjid atau surau.
Persoalan adakah azan, ceramah, tarhim dan khutbah mengganggu mereka jelas dapat
dijawab dalam kajian ini. Mereka umumnya bersetuju bahawa aktiviti di masjid tidak
mengganggu mereka dengan kedudukan min yang rendah pada 2.6 2.8 sahaja. Isu yang
pernah dibangkitkan oleh Majlis Peguam Malaysia melalui lidah rasminya Infoline
ternyata tidak benar, walaupun tidak dinafikan seorang dua mungkin terganggu ketika
mendengar azan!!!
910 / ISoIT 2004
Gangguan lalu lintas agak ketara dikesan daripada kajian ini terutamanya waktu solat
Jumaat yang ada ketikanya jemaah meletakkan kenderaan di hadapan pintu rumah
mereka, atau menghalang laluan yang tentunya menimbulkan keresahan di kalangan
masyarakat non-muslim, malah sesiapa sahaja pengguna jalan raya.
Sedikit kesusahan itu bukanlah alasan kepada responden untuk berpindah ke tempat baru.
Dan inilah hakikat toleransi yang perlu difahami dan dihayati oleh masyarakat majmuk
di Malaysia.
Cadangan
Setelah beberapa generasi imagran berteduh di tanah ini, sikap mereka berkiblatkan
tempat asal mulai pudar dan menyedari bahawa inilah tanah tumpah mereka yang perlu
dipertahankan bersama. Bagi memperkukuhkan lagi patriotisme di kalangan warga non-
muslim (bukan Melayu juga) dasar pendidikan sejarah hendaklah diterapkan dengan baik
dan berkesan. Pengkajian sejarah bukan sekadar memahami jatuh bangun sesebuah
kerajaan, tetapi yang lebih utama ialah penghayatan dan pemahaman (iktibar) daripada
sejarah silam. Dicadangkan supaya elemen sejarah dipertingkatkan dalam sistem
pendidikan negara bagi menanamkan cinta kasih semua warga kepada negara tercinta.
Perkongsian pintar hendaklah dilaksanakan sepenuhnya dalam pelbagai aspek,
kemunculan dan kehebatan dalam sesuatu arena bukan hanya diserlahkan oleh bangsa
tertentu, malah ia dikongsi sama oleh semua bangsa dan agama yang wujud di Malaysia.
Konsep Kontrak Sosial yang sedia difahami perlu dijelaskan kepada awam, bukan
hanya menjadi kepentingan kalangan politik tertentu sahaja.
Masjid dan pusat ibadah muslim lain, perlu berperanan lebih luas sebagai pusat sosial
setempat yang boleh dimanfaatkan oleh umat Islam mahupun jiran-jiran bukan Islam
yang berdekatan. Tidak ada salahnya jika masjid menganjurkan pertandingan nasyid atau
sambutan maulid Rasulullah s.a.w. dengan menjemput sama warga non muslim
berdekatan sebagai tetamu. Hari ini telah ramai ahli politik dan pemimpin masyarakat
non-muslim yang sanggup bersama menjayakan aktiviti tertentu di masjid, dan perkara
ini perlu diperluaskan lagi kepada seluruh anggota masyarakat.
Dialog antara agama perlu diperluaskan. Namun ia bukannya sebagai medan untuk
mempersoalkan ketuhanan dan keimanan orang lain, tetapi sebagai tempat untuk
memupuk kebersamaan dan rasa tanggungjawab yang besar bagi mewujudkan
keharmonian dalam masyarakat. Penyelidk bersetuju dengan pendapat Bishoy yang
mengatakan umat Kristian dan muslim sepatutnya lebih menumpukan kepada hubungan
kasih sayang sesama manusia daripada memperdebatkan soal perbezaan dan isu
ketuhanan (keimanan) (NST, 31 Julai 2004)
Aktiviti routin masjid seperti azan, ceramah, khutbah dan lain-lain tidaklah mengganggu
ketenteraman awam dan ia sebenarnya membantu semua masyarakat menghargai masa
dengan setiap kali berkumandangnya azan. Namun begitu penyelidik mencadangkan agar
tidak memanjangkan tarhim sebelum azan Subuh. Memadailah lima minit digunakan
bertarhim bagi membangunkan umat Islam di sekitar masjid. (Soalnya, adakah amalan
ini suatu sunnah yang diamalkan umat Islam di seluruh dunia?)
Pihak pengurusan masjid dan surau perlu menyediakan kawasan letak kereta yang lebih
luas dan tersusun bagi mengelak kesesakan di waktu program tertentu seperti solat
Jumaat. Pihak berkuasa tempatan juga perlu memainkan peranan dalam menentukan
pembinaan pusat ibadah di lokasi yang sesuai dan kemudahan yang secukupnya.
Ahmad Nawawi Yaakob et.al. / 911
Penutup
Isu keagamaan antara isu yang paling sensitif dalam masyarakat majmuk. Pun begitu,
sampai bila masyarakat Malaysia memerangkap diri dalam ketakutan untuk membicarakan
persoalan ini dengan lebih terbuka dan dengan hati yang ikhlas bagi mencari jawapan kepada
realiti yang kita hadapi. Kajian kecil ini paling tidak berjaya mengungkapkan rasa hati
sebahagian kecil masyarakat non-muslim dari apa yang kita lakukan setiap hari.
Keluh kesah dan kerisauan mereka paling tidak terubat apabila kita berani meminta
pandangan mereka mengenai agama Islam. Namun ia tidak semestinya semua kehendak
mereka dipenuhi kerana noktah toleransi itu masih terlalu luas untuk diterjemahkan dalam
kehidupan bermasyarakat dan bernegara pada zaman global ini.
Bibliografi
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Lumpur: Dewan bahasa dan Pustaka.
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al-Karim.
Furnivall, J.S. (1948) Colonial policy and pratice, A Comparative StudyOf Burma and Netherland India.
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hlm.10-14.
Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddimah, Terjemahan. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
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Kelantan.
Mahayudin Hj Yahya & Ahmad Jelani Halimi (1996) Sejarah Islam.Cet.ke 5. Shah Alam: Penerbit
Fajar Bakti.
New Strait Times, 31 Julai 2004.
Yusuf al-Zawawi (1971) Dalam Fatwa-fatwa mufti kerajaan Terengganu, Kuala Terengganu, Jabatan
Hal Ehwal Agama Islam.
Zaydan, Abdul Karim (1976) Ahkam al-dhimmiyyin wa al-mustaminin fi dar al-Islami. Cet. 2.
Baghdad: Maktabah al-Quds. Lihat juga Shams al-Din Abi Abdullah Muhammad bin Abi Bakr Ibn
Qayyim al-Jawziyyah, Ahkam Ahli al-Zimmah, 2 bhg., Damsyik, 1961, bhg. 2, hlm.475-476. Dan
lihat juga Muhammad al-Sharbini al-Katib, (1377H) Mughni al-Muhtaj. Mesir: Mustafa al-Babi al-
Halabi, Juz 4. hlm 244.
Ahmad Nawawi Yaakob
Pensyarah
Centre for Islamic Thought and Understanding (CITU),
UiTM Cawangan Johor
Beg Berkunci 527
85009 Segamat, Johor.
Faks: 07-9352277/88
Ahmad414@johor.uitm.edu.my
hanyrad@hotmail.com
HP: 013-7759965
Civilization in the Western and Islamic Cultural
Traditions: A Conceptual Historical approach
Badrane Benlahcene
Abstract
This paper discuses the concept of civilization within the Islamic and Western cultural
traditions. It uses the conceptual historical approach to analyze the various meanings
assigned to civilization in both different cultural contexts and various historical eras.
The paper found that civilization as concept witnessed historical development and
changing vocabulary from one context to another. However that diversity does not prevent
that concept from having common elements regardless the cultural differences or fields
variety.
It found also that civilization is a complex concept of complex phenomenon which needs
an interdisciplinary approach to tackle its various aspects.
Introduction
The purpose of this paper is to present a conceptual historical approach to civilization
within the Western and Islamic cultural traditions. It tries to find out some definition of what
we mean by civilization as well as what we mean by being civilized.
The paper argues that an investigation into the development of the concept of
civilization throughout history seems to be of great importance and can help to develop
sound approach to world civilization in order to understand their genesis and characteristics.
However, to undertake such a task, two difficulties face the researcher to present the
development of the conceptualizations of civilization.
First, there is a problem in determining the concept of civilization which arises from the
diversity of cultural and linguistic traditions in various civilizations, especially those of the
Western and Muslim traditions.
The second difficulty is the controversies between the various definitions assigned to
civilization by different writers. For instance, historians, sociologists, psychologists,
anthropologists and others define civilization in different ways with respect to their areas of
concentration (Brinton et al, 1984: 3). Therefore, they differ on the concept, the essential
ingredients of civilization and its course in history. Hence, it is useful to provide a general
overview of the different perspectives used to approach civilization in different fields of
research (Huntington: 1996).
Taking those mentioned difficulties into consideration, the following sections are an
attempt to elaborate on the changing vocabulary of the concept of civilization.
Badrane Benlahcene / 913
The Concept of Civilization: A Changing Vocabulary
It would be pleasant, as Braudel (1986) asserts, to be able to define the word
civilization simply and precisely, as one defines a straight line, a triangle or a chemical
element. However, the term "civilization" is widely used by historians, anthropologists, and
other workers in the social sciences, but it has no single, fixed meaning. Thus, any discussion
of the concept must begin with the question of definition.
Unfortunately, the humanities and the social sciences have yet to define their terms and
concepts as precisely as the natural sciences. Not because the humanities and social sciences
are not yet sciences, but because of the complexity of the social phenomena which the social
sciences, in particular, take as the subject matter for their investigation (Bennabi, 1986: 9 &
Braudel, 1986: 3). Furthermore, within the Social Sciences there are wide and frequent
variations in the meaning of the simplest words, according to the thought that uses and
informs them.
The previous passage suggests that an investigation into the meaning assigned to
"civilization" within the Western and Muslim scientific traditions may contribute to
specifying what is meant by civilization.
Civilization in the Western Scientific Tradition
The Literal Definition of Civilization
Literally speaking, the root of civilization in Greek is to lie, lie outstretched, and be
located. A city is thus a lier, in which the citizen makes his bed on which he must lie down.
The term civilization is also derived from the Latin word civites which means a city and Civis
which means the inhabitant of a city, or Civilis that means civility or what is related to the
inhabitant of a city. It means also a citizen (Weinner, 1973: 613 & Edwards, 1967: 273 &
Coomaraswamy, 1989:1).
Despite its literal Greek-Latin origins, the word civilization is relatively new. It
emerged late, and unobtrusively, in eighteenth-century France. It was formed from civilized
and to civilize, which had long existed and were in general use in sixteenth century Europe
(Braudel, 1986: 3).
In modern English, it derived its meanings from its Greek-Latin roots as well as the
cultural traditions of the West. In this regard, The Oxford English Dictionary gives a wide
range of meanings for the term "civilization" and its derivations.
Accordingly, civilization is "a developed or advanced state of human society; a particular
stage or a particular type of this". It is also the humanization of man in society to civilize
is to bring out of a state of barbarism, to instruct in the arts of life and thus elevate in the scale
of humanity; to enlighten, refine, and polish. In another instance, to civilize is to domesticate.
It is the act of domestication.
Furthermore, civilization is the action or process of civilizing or being civilized. Another
term which is derived from civilization is civility. The latter has many meanings; such as
conformity to the principles of social order, behaviour befitting a citizen; a good citizenship.
Civility also means behaviour proper to the interaction of civilized people; ordinary courtesy
or politeness, as opposed to rudeness of behaviour (Simpson & Weinner, 1989: 3/ 256-258).
Moreover, The Oxford Thesaurus helps in clarifying the meanings of civilization in
English usage. In this book, five terms are interlinked; first, the city which is the metropolis,
the municipality, the town. Second is the citizen who is the resident, the inhabitant and the
dweller of the city or the town. Third is civility which means courtesy, politeness, respect,
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urbanity, amiability fourth is civilization which has two meanings; on the one hand, it is
refinement, cultivation, enlightenment, edification, sophistication, polished. On the other
hand, it is culture, mores, customs. Fifth, is the verb "civilize" which means enlightened,
refined, polished, edified, educated and acculturate on the one side. On the other side, it
means to tame, domesticate, broaden, elevate, and acculturate (Urdang, 1992: 62).
From the linguistic analysis of the term civilization presented previously, it is clear that
those various meanings revolve around a few concepts such as the city, the dwelling,
politeness and refinement, cultured and the elevation of the human condition as well as the
existence of a group of people who are involved in acquiring such characteristics to enable
them to be at a higher stage of development according to such social order or customs.
The inherited meanings were, however, joined by others. Indeed, since the Eighteenth
century the term civilization has been accompanied by different and broader connotations.
Those connotations, acquired throughout the last two centuries in the civilizational history of
the West, have influenced peoples' conception of civilization in Europe, in particular, and in
the West, in general (Wiener, 1973: 1/613 & Clough, N.D:3).
The Terminological Definition of Civilization:
From the number of definitions that have been given of civilization in the Oxford English
Dictionary and Oxford Thesaurus, it is obvious that those definitions reflect the impact of the
cultural traditions and the civilizational history of the West on the formulation of the various
definitions of civilization. In this regard, the researcher is of the view that a historical
conceptual analysis may help us to understand the historical development of the term within
European history.
In the same context, the main meanings assigned to civilization since the eighteenth
century in Europe revolve around a few meanings.
Civilization as possession of good manners and advanced stage of growth
The idea of civilization was, first, conceived and developed by the eighteenth century
French writers as the opposite of the concept of "barbarism" (Huntington, 1996: 41).
Civilized society is the society which possesses good manners and an advanced stage of
development. The idea of civilization, here, refers to the state of being civilized, that is, to the
possession of good manners, politeness courtesy and mores which are signs of an advanced
stage of the human condition. That is opposite to barbarity or barbarism and in accordance
with civility. This conception, in fact, was firstly introduced by the French writers of the
eighteenth century such as Voltaire and Merabeau, and then borrowed by English writers
(Elias, 1994: 32).
It was during the zeal of European expansion over the world during the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries that the Western powers promoted the civilization of the West as the
standard of human development. In this context, civilization used to refer to achievements in
such aesthetic and intellectual pursuits as architecture, painting, literature, sculpture, music,
philosophy, and science and to the success which a people has in establishing control over
their human and physical environment (Clough, N.D.: 3).
However, the degree of civilization, according to Clough, is related to the extent to which
a group of people provides physical and social security for its members. If a group of people
produces aesthetic and intellectual works of high merit and provides physical and social
security for its members, then they can be considered as civilized. And conversely, the less a
group of people realizes either quality or quantity as tenets of civilization, the less civilized it
is (Clough: 3). Accordingly, Clough introduces the concept of physical and social security as
two main factors playing an important role in the civilizing process.
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In other words, "the concept of civilization provided a standard by which to judge
societies, and during the nineteenth century, Europeans devoted much intellectual,
diplomatic, and political energy to elaborating the criteria by which non-European societies
might be judged" (Huntington, 1996: 41).
In line with the previous definitions, Taylor has defined civilization as a "degree of
advanced culture, in which the arts and sciences, as well as political life are well developed"
(Taylor, 1974: 1). In Taylors definition, civilization is accompanied by another word,
culture, which was first introduced to English by Taylor who used culture and
civilization virtually as equivalent terms (Edwards, 1967: 2/274).
Another protagonist of the modernist anthropologists who provided concept to
civilization in accordance to the progressive thought of the nineteenth century was Childe.
He, for instance, sees the essential characteristics of civilization as internal social hierarchies,
specialization, cities and large populations and the growth of mathematics and writing
(Childe, 1978: 117).
The eighteenth and nineteenth century thought in Europe confined civilization to Europe.
That is to say, the civilization conceived as "the ideal" rather than "an ideal" for human
development. In line with this, Europe promoted itself as the civilization in contrast to pre-
civilized societies outside Europe. Therefore, civilization was used in its singular form
because in the European modernist thought of that time, Europe was synonymous to
civilization and vise versa (Huntington, 1996: 41).
Aware of its bias, the Western intellectuals tried to avoid the use of civilization in its
singular form, especially after the development of cultural anthropological studies on various
peoples and societies of the world outside Europe. Hence, the singular use of civilization had
given way to the plural use of the term.
Accordingly, civilization lost its prestige and the recognition of the existence of many
civilizations paved the way for two notions regarding the understanding of civilization; first,
Europe moved from being "the ideal" to be "an ideal", among many ideals, for civilization
side by side with other civilizations. Second, the use of civilization as an advanced stage of
human development gave way to the conception of civilization as a cultural identity which
distinguishes such society from another and denotes a way of organizing that society. In other
words, civilization acquired two meanings; On the one hand, it was a specific way of
organizing human society, a socioeconomic system. On the other, it was a way of thinking
about reality, a cognitive structure (Chandler, 1992: 1).
It is worth noting, here, that the assumption provided by Chandler was the hallmark of
the debate of the late nineteenth century upon the realization that Europe was not the ideal of
civilization. Rather, it was one of the civilizations of the world. Therefore, civilization began
to be understood on two levels; if used in its singular sense, it denotes the conception of a
universal framework for understanding the human conditions and the course of historical
transformations witnessed by humankind since the dawn of history. However, when used in
its plural sense it denotes the identities of various societies or cultures (Abdel-Malek, 2000:
571-572).
The development of the eighteenth and nineteenth century conception of civilization in
Europe was partly due to the development of cultural anthropological studies on various
societies outside Europe by European scientists. It was partly also due to another European
tradition which contributed to the development of the term "civilization", that was the
German intellectual traditions and the German intellectuals who brought new meanings to
"civilization". Therefore, the following section is a discussion of the German contribution to
the development of the concept of civilization in Western cultural traditions.
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The German influence on the development of the concept
While French and English writers developed the conception of civilization that means an
advanced stage of development and standard for other societies to follow, German thinkers
distinguished between two terms. They drew a sharp distinction between civilization and
Kultur (culture). Thus, they influenced English usage of the word. In fact, the German writers
and thinkers as well as philosophers and historians stressed the uniqueness of the German
culture, and thus, they consider that every nation has its own civilization and culture.
Therefore, they contributed to the plural usage of civilizations. In other words, from that
German input, civilization becomes plural (Wiener, 1973: 1/616).
In this regard, many writers began to write about the courses of different civilizations;
German, Roman, Hebrew, American, Japanese, Chinese, Arabic, or Egyptian civilizations,
instead of talking about the universal process of civilization as in the French and English
traditions of the Eighteenth century.
Among the thinkers who undertook an investigation of the concept of civilization in both
traditions within the Western scientific traditions, Norbert Elias, in his The Civilizing
Process, stood as one of the most prominent thinkers. For Elias, the concept of civilization
refers to a wide variety of facts. It includes the level of technology, the type of manners, the
development of scientific knowledge, the religious ideas and customs. It can refer to the type
of dwelling or the manner in which men and women live together, to the form of judicial
punishment, or to the way in which food is prepared (Elias, 1994: 3). In other words, for
Elias, it is somewhat difficult to summarize in a few words everything that can be described
as civilization.
Although he developed his concept of civilization throughout his study of the French
society during the age of the revolution, he undertook a comparative study of the term
civilization in the two European traditions. He examined the genesis of the term that has
been developed in the German traditions on one side, and in the French-English traditions on
the other side.
The German concept of Kultur, according to Elias, refers essentially to intellectual,
artistic, and religious facts, and has a tendency to draw a sharp dividing line between facts of
this sort, on the one hand, and political, economic, and social facts, on the other. Civilization
in French and English usage describes a process or at least the result of process. It refers to
something which is constantly in motion, constantly moving forward. The German concept of
Kultur has a different relation to motion. It refers to human products which are like flowers
of the field to works of art, books, religious or philosophical systems, in which the
individuality of a people expresses itself (Elias, 1994: 4-5).
Within the differences between the two concepts, there is a common meaning, which
indicates the social dimension of both concepts. The two concepts bear the stamp not of sects
or families but of whole peoples, or perhaps only of certain classes of these peoples (Elias,
1994: 6). This denotes that civilization is the accomplishment of the society while the
previous refers to the dynamic character of civilization and intellectuality of Kultur.
In line with Eliass conception of civilization, Huntington, in his article, The Clash of
Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order, sees a civilization as a cultural entity on a
higher level. He considers that civilization is the highest cultural grouping of people and the
broadest level of cultural identity people have short of that which distinguishes humans from
other species (Huntington, 1996: 43). Not only that, but throughout history, civilizations have
provided the broadest identifications for people (Huntington, 1996: 40).
As an expert in international politics with close connections with the United States
Department of Foreign Affairs, his aim seems to be the shift in the international relations into
the use of civilizations as units of analysis and entities instead of nation- states and
ideological blocks.
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He speaks of levels of identity because, as he claims, villages, regions, ethnic groups,
nationalities, religious groups, all have distinct cultures at different levels of cultural
heterogeneity. But a civilization is the broadest cultural entity (p.43). The deal with the
nation-state seems to be outdated according to Huntington, and there must be a shift in the
concern to a broad concept that can help the policy makers to deal with it.
For Huntington, there is a broad agreement among students of civilization about the
existence of central propositions concerning the nature, identity, and dynamics of
civilizations. Thus, most researchers agree that civilizations are the broadest cultural entities.
They are comprehensive, that is, none of their constituent units can be fully understood
without reference to the encompassing civilization. Civilizations are mortal but also long-
lived; they evolve, adapt, and are the most enduring of human associations. They are
dynamic; they rise and fall; they merge and divide; they also disappear. Finally, scholars
generally agree on their identification of the major civilizations in history and on those that
exist in the modern world (Huntington, 1996: 40-44).
What is important in Huntingtons conception is that he puts civilization in the context of
history and development throughout time. He also combines civilization with religion. For
him, religion is a central defining characteristic of civilization (Huntington, 1996: 47).
Historically speaking, he asserts that of all the objective elements which define
civilizations, however, the most important usually is religion to a very large degree, the
major civilizations in human history have been closely identified with the worlds great
religions (Huntington, 1996: 42). In fact, in his view about the distinctive place of religion in
the formation and development of civilizations, he shares the views of Ibn Khaldun, Toynbee,
Bennabi, and other scholars of civilization.
To sum up Huntingtons conception, one could say that civilization is a cultural entity
based mainly on religion, historical process, and has space-time location. The latter helps
distinguish between many civilizations throughout history.
Before concluding the discussion of the various connotations of the term "civilization" in
the Western traditions, it is important to mention here that there are a number of meanings in
common use today. Accordingly, that diversity in meanings shows the dynamism of
civilization, the complexity of the phenomenon and the wide range of connotations which
civilization may have within one cultural tradition. Thus, the discussion, in the next section,
of the meanings of civilization in another tradition (Muslim) may help to understand
civilization from another point of view.
Civilization in the Muslim Scientific Tradition
After discussing the changing vocabulary of the term civilization in the West, the
researcher suggests a discussion of the term in the Islamic scientific traditions. In this context,
literal and terminological definitions are discussed in order to follow the line of development
in the usage of terms which denote civilization.
The Literal Meaning of Civilization:
To begin with, in Arabic, the current usage of the term hadharah is used as a synonym of
the English word "civilization". In the famous traditional dictionary of the Arabic language
Lisan al-Arab, it means presence as opposed to absenceSedentary vis-a-vis Bedouin. It has
a relationship with the term hadhirah which means a city or big community (Ibn Manzur,
1968: 4/196-197). It also means staying in a city as opposed to Bedouin...also the inhabitant
of the cities and villages (Bustani, 1970: 175).
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In his An Arabic English Lexicon, Lane mentioned that the Arabic term hadharah is used
to mean a land or house inhabited, peopled, and well peopled. It means a land in a flourishing
state, in a state contrary to desolation, waste or ruin. Another meaning is a land colonized and
cultivated or well cultivated. In addition, it means a house in a state of repair (Lane, 1968:
2155). This definition denotes two aspects of civilization in the Arabic context. First,
stabilizing or settling in a place or land or house. Second, civilization is a state of
development and richness.
Hadharah means also a building, a structure, an edifice; or perhaps the act of building"
(Lane, 1968: 2156). This definition emphasizes the significance of the structuring and the act
of building. In other words, civilization can be a process of constructing and an act of
establishing a prosperous life for mankind.
That is to say, when men no longer have to submit to brute necessity but begin instead to
dominate their environment, they are at last in a position to remould their patterns of living
and to transmit a common social heritage. When this process continues to the point where
men exert a wide control over nature and have developed a highly complex culture pattern
including an urban structure superimposed upon an agricultural base they can be said to
possess a civilization
In the Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic, the reader finds a thorough
analysis of the word hadharah and its related derived words (Cowan, 1974: 183-185, 898-
899). In this book, six terms are interlinked and may help in clarifying the meanings of
civilization in Arabic usage; first, hadhara (verb) which means to be present or be in the
presence. The second term is hadharah (noun) which means to be settled, sedentary (in a
civilized region, as opposed to leading a nomadic existence). Third, hadhar (noun) which
means a civilized region with towns and villages and a settled population (as opposed to
desert. Steppe); settled population, town dwellers. Fourth is hadhari (adj) which means
settled, sedentary, resident, not nomadic, non-Bedouin, urban, and town dweller. Fifth is
hadharah (noun) which means a civilization; culture; settledness, sedentariness. Sixth is
hadhirah (noun), which means a capital city, metropolis; city (as a centre of civilization)
(Cowan, 1974: 183-185).
Furthermore, other terms which have close links with hadharah are madaniyah,
tamaddun and tamdin. In fact, the word Tamaddun is derived from the Arabic word Madinah
(literally, city or town) and Tamaddun (literally, urbanization). Close to the latter terms,
there is also the term Madaniyah which, literally, means urbanism (Beg, 1985: 28 & Cowan,
1974: 899). The three interrelated terms of city, urbanization, and urbanism denote that the
city is the starting point of the urbanization process to achieve the state of urbanism. In the
same context, madinah and hadhirah are identical, and both mean a city and a town.
However, regarding the modern usage of the terms in the Muslim traditions, there are
some differences. Since the late nineteenth century, modern thinkers and writers in the
Muslim world have been using certain terms in contrast with the term civilization used by the
Europeans. They used a variety of terms such as umran, hadharah, madaniyah, nahdhah,
tamaddun, and madaniyat (Byle, 1949: 44-150). Despite the different terms used to denote
the English-French term of civilization, the most famous and popularly used term in Arabic is
Hadharah. However, the researcher agrees with Begs note that the popular term for
civilization in some Muslim countries is not Hadharah but Tamaddun or Tamadun. The latter
is widely used in Malay culture and language (Beg, 1982).
Historically speaking, one could mention the first changes brought to the Arab society by
the coming of Islam, especially by the migration (Hijrah) of the prophet Mohammed (P.U.H)
from Mecca to Madinah. He changed the name of the city of Yathrib to Madinah (a city).
Furthermore, he made changes in the basis of the social relationships. Instead of the tribal
based relationships, he based it on an idea. It is the religious idea of brotherhood that brought
together different people from a different social status and different ethnic groups to form a
Badrane Benlahcene / 919
new web of social relationships. This later transformed the culture of people from Bedouin,
tribal paganism into a civil ideational Islamic culture, which made the input for a new
civilizing process and new civilizational entity.
In other words, the city is the starting point of any civilizing process, and there are
arguments amongst archaeologists, pre-historians, ancient historians and sociologists over the
origins of civilization and the place of cities within the civilizing process (Holton, 1986: 2).
Thus, the Prophet (P.U.H), as the founder of a new society and a new civilization, realized
that there must be some development of urban society. That is, of city life, so that the culture
is not nomadic, tribal, dispersed, and thus unable to leave significant and surviving physical
remains of its presence. In this regard, he established the city of Madinah since his first day
of migration, for Madinah was meant to be the nucleus for the civilizational transformation
that took place after the advent of Islam.
In cultural terms, it is evident that the notion of city, as being indicative of a discrete
way of life, was available throughout the history in the Muslim world since the establishment
of Madinah. In this regard, there can be little doubt that Islamic as well as all civilizations in
world history have developed significant central places in which key social functions are
located and where the population have congregated. For example, we can mention the
establishment of Koufah, Basrah, Damascus, Baghdad, Cairo, Bukhara and other cities in the
Muslim world, for these cities to be centers of civilized sedentary life. Furthermore, it is clear
also that many Islamic traditions are focused on the city (or Madinah) with its mosque,
bathhouse, and markets as the locality wherein a devout life could be achieved (Holton, 1986:
120-121).
The Terminological Definition of Civilization:
The terminological definition of the term "civilization" within the Muslim cultural
traditions witnessed two stages in its definition. It was first conceived by Ibn Khaldun in the
early fourteenth century. The second stage started as early as the late nineteenth. The
following two sections are a discussion of both stages.
A. The First Stage:
The term civilization was first conceived in the Muslim world as early as the fourteenth
century AD/ eighth century of the Muslim era by Ibn Khaldun. In addition, Ibn Khaldun
introduced three terms; the first two terms are Hadharah and Umran, comparable with the
Western term civilization, the third term is Ilm Al-Umran which could be translated as
the science of civilization. He considered civilization as a quality peculiar to man. This
means that human beings have to dwell and settle together in cities and hamlets for the
comforts of companionship and for the satisfaction of human needs (Ibn Khaldun, 1986:
1/84). He also gave another meaning to the term civilization as "the necessary character of
human social organization (Ibn Khaldun, 1986: 1/89). In this definition, Ibn Khaldun
focused on the social dimension of the term. However, in the previous definition, he focused
on the settlement in cities in a collective manner. Thus, Ibn Khalduns conception underlies
the social dimension as well as the dynamic character of the phenomenon of civilization in
the course of human development.
In mentioning Ibn Khaldun, one must not, however, neglect the contributions of other
Muslim historians and philosophers who came both before and after him. Names like al-
Farabi (259-339 A.H), Tabari (224-310 A.H), Al-Masudi (D. 346 A.H), Ibn Hazm (D. 456
A.H), and others were of great importance for Ibn Khaldun in developing his theory of
civilization. However, unlike him they did not develop theories regarding the subject matter
of the present study. Indeed, Ibn Khaldun is an outstanding figure to be dealt with in matters
920 / ISoIT 2004
of civilization and its rise and fall, and could be classified as representing the first stage in the
development of the Islamic concept of civilization (Beg, 1985: 30).
B. The Second Stage:
The second stage in the development of the concept of civilization among Muslim
scientists, scholars, academicians, activists, and intellectuals in general began in the late
nineteenth century with the first confrontations with modern Europe and the emergence of
Islamic revivalism.
In this second stage, two trends in the Arab world emerged to translate the term
civilization into two terms. On the one hand, we find writers of the early nineteenth century
translating civilization into the Arabic term Madaniyah and its synonym Tamaddun,
including among others, Rifaah al-Tahtawi (1801-1873), Mohammad Abduh (1849-1905)
and Rashid Redha (1865-1935). These and other writers have used the terms Madaniyah and
Tamaddun to mean civilization (Arif, 1994: 42-45& Beg, 1985: 28). On the other hand, as
early as the second quarter of the twentieth century, the term Hadharah had been used to
mean civilization. It became the popular term among different scientific and intellectual
circles in the Arab world. In this line, Bennabi was a pioneer in choosing the term Hadharah
to denote the term civilization since the early days of his intellectual career which began with
the publication of The Qur'anic Phenomenon in 1947. Furthermore, Bennabi gave the series
the title Mushkilat al-Hadharah (the problems of civilization) with a specific title for each
book of the series.
In other languages of the Muslim world, the term used is Madaniyah or its derivations. In
this regard, Beg notes:
The Persian intellectuals have coined two terms for civilization, namely, madaniyat and tamadun the
Turks, on the other hand, use the term medeniyet and also medeniyeti in the meaning of civilization in
East Africa, the speakers of the Swahili language have been using the term Utamaduni (derived from
Arabic tamadun) as the term for civilization in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh there is no universally
accepted term for civilization. The speakers of Urdu and Bengali have been using two words
(sometimes interchangeably) to express the sense of culture and civilization, viz., tahzib (tahdhib) and
tamadun. Some Pakistani Urdu lexicographers use the term tahzib in the dual sense of culture and
civilization, but they restrict the use of tamadun in the sense of civilization Bangali Muslim
intellectuals have used the word tamadun in the sense of culture. They also use the word tahzib in the
sense of civilization on the other hand, the Malays of Malaysia and Indonesia unanimously use the
word tamaddun (popularly spelt as tamadun) as the term for civilization (Beg, 1982: 20).
Taking into consideration the different terms used to mean civilization in the Muslim
cultural traditions, it is important to mention that all the terms used are derived from Arabic.
However, despite the differences in the use of the terms, their meanings tend to converge to
denote civilization, with a specific focus for each term on certain aspects of civilization.
It is also worth mentioning that, at first, the modern usage was tamadun and madaniyat,
but after rediscovering the Muqaddimah of Ibn Khaldun, the Arabs used to prefer the term
hadharah, being influenced by Ibn Khaldun's usage. However, other non-Arab Muslims
preferred the use of madaniyat and tamadun which are close in meaning to the term
hadharah, which is used by Arabs.
In the quest for an appropriate term for civilization in the Muslim scientific and cultural
traditions, hadharah, tamadun or tamadun are the various terms used. However, Ibn
Khalduns term hadharah is the most appropriate one to express the concept of civilization in
its modern sense. Linguistically speaking, hadharah is related to the civilizing and
urbanization processes. It is also related to the city and its spirit. It has social content, as well
as the connotations of the presence, the sedentary and the inhabitation, which means if people
inhabit and stay in such a place, some sort of social relationships and interchange will be
developed. So, they cooperate and organize themselves, and build cities and institutions.
Badrane Benlahcene / 921
Thus, hadharah, in its linguistic usage, focuses upon the social aspect. Furthermore, it means
that civilization cannot emerge unless there are social relationships among people resulting in
the cooperation, organization and order in a specific place, which is the city.
It is also clear that both usages, namely the Muslim and Western, agree on certain
rudimentary elements of civilization, that is, the presence of the city, the order or organization
and the sedentary life of its inhabitants. This is because the human being, using Ibn Khaldun's
term, is a social being by its nature (Ibn Khaldun, 1986). In other words, he has the desire to
live in an organized and orderly community. This is part of the human instinct that governs
human behaviour in its social and civilizational sphere. This has always been a human
objective throughout the history of mankind.
Conclusion: the complexity of civilization and the need for an
interdisciplinary approach
To sum up the different definitions attributed to civilization, it is important to mention
that various definitions agree on certain fundamental elements of civilization. They agree that
civilization involves the presence of several (though not necessarily all) conditions within
society or group of independent societies. And there are some conditions which could be
given as criteria for any society entitled to be called a civilization (Outhwait & Bottomore,
1993: 77; Brinton, 1984: 3; Armillas, 1972: 16/ 218).
The various definitions and conceptions within both cultural traditions agree about the
very basic elements of civilization which are the followings;
First, there will be some development of urban society, that is, of city life, so that the
culture is not nomadic, dispersed, and thus unable to leave significant and surviving physical
remnants of its presence.
Second, there will be some forms of government by which people administer their
political needs and responsibilities.
Third, a form of literacy will develop, so that one group may communicate with another,
and more importantly, one generation may communicate with another generation in writing.
Fourth, human beings will become toolmakers, able to transform, however modestly,
their physical environment, and thus, their social, intellectual, economic, political, moral, as
well as spiritual lives.
Fifth, some degree of specialization of functions will have begun, usually at the work
place, so that pride, place, and purpose function as cohesive elements in the society.
Sixth, a network of social relationships will have emerged to transform the spiritual
values into social values.
Last, there will be a belief system and concept of God or a higher being, though not
necessarily through revealed religion, from which people obtain the authenticity and the
reason dtre for their existence, as well as the vision which leads them beyond everyday life.
In other words, there will be a worldview based on the religious idea in its broadest sense, i.e.
revealed religion, human-made religion, or ideologies.
However, it is evident that although the various definitions agree that certain features or
conditions must be available to call such a phenomenon a civilization, they gave way to many
approaches to civilization. Therefore, many attempts by many scholars and fields of research
have tried to develop different approaches according to their perspectives and paradigms they
used to study civilization.
922 / ISoIT 2004
Bibliography
Abdel-Malek, Anouar. (2000). The Civilizational Orientation in The Making of The New World. Journal
of World-Systems Research. V1, 3, Fall/Winter, pp. 564-579.
Armillas, Pedro. (1972). The Concept of Civilization. In Sills, David L. International Encyclopedia of
the Social Scineces. New York: The MacMillan Company & The free Press.
Beg, Muhammad Abdul Jabbar. (1982). Islamic and Western Concepts of Civilization. Kuala Lumpur:
The University of Malaya Press.
(1985). Perspectives of Civilization. Kuala Lumpur: The University of Malaya Press.
Bennabi, Malek. (1986). Milad Mujtama (Birth of Society). Damascus: Dar al-Fikr.
Braudel, Fernand. (1986). A History of Civilizations. Trans: Richard Mayne. London: Penguin Books.
Brinton, Crane & al (1984). A History of Civilization. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc.
Bustani, Butrus. (1970). Kitab Muhit al-Muhit. Beirut: Maktabah Lubnan.
Byle, J.A. (1949). A Practical Dictionary of the Persian Language. London.
Childe, Gordon. (1978). What Happened in History. London: Penguin Books.
Chandler, Keith (1992). Beyond Civilization. USA: Rivendell Publishing Company, inc.
Clough, Sheppard. B. (N. D.). The rise and fall of Civilization: An inquiry into the Relationship
between Economic Development and Civilization. New York: Columbia University Press.
Coomaraswamy, Ananda K. (1989). What is Civilization? Great Barrington: Lindisfarne Press.
Cowan, J. Milton. (1974). Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic. Beirut: Librairie Du Liban
& London: MacDonald and Evans Ltd.
Edwards, Paul (Editor in Chief). (1967). Encyclopedia of Philosophy. New York: Macmillan Publishing
Co.
Elias, Norbert. (1994). The Civilizing Process. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
Holton, R. J. (1986). Cities, Capitalism and Civilization. London: Allen & Unwin Publishers Ltd.
Huntington, Samuel P. (1996). The Clash of Civilizations and The Remaking of World Order. New
York: Simon & Schuster.
Ibn Khaldun, Abd al-Rahman. (1986). The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History. Translated from
arabic by: Franz Rosenthal. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Ibn Manzur, Abu al-Faraj. (1968). Lisan al-Arab (The Arabs Language). Beirut: Dar Sadir.
Lane, Edward William. (1968). An Arabic English Lexicon. Lahore: Islamic Book Center.
Simpson, J. A & Weinner, E. S. (1989). The Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Outhwait, William & Bottomore, Tom (Eds). (1993). The Blackwell Dictionary of Twentieth Century
Social Thought. Oxford: Balckwell Reference.
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Weinner, Philip P. (1973). Dictionary of the History of Ideas. New York: Charles Scribers sons
Publishers.
Dr. Badrane Benlahcene
Muzium Kesenian Islam
Kuala Lumpur
The Origin of the Medicine of the Prophet (al-Tibb al-
Nabawi)
Nurdeen Deuraseh, Zaid Ahmad & Zarina Muhammad
Abstract
In order to appreciate the value of al-tibb al-nabawi, it is essential to know its origin
since it is directly connected with the religious command to preserve health and seeking
medical treatment when one falls into disease. In the history, there was a medical system
known to us today as al-tibb al-nabaw (medicine of the Prophet). It is an alternative method
of preserving health and healing disease, which originally and initially practiced by the
Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) and his companions. The question is whether all of his medical
practices were originally based on the revelation of Allah (s.w.t) or just his own ijtihad and
experiences become controversial issue. There are two major views in regard to this issue.
The first school of thought was of the opinion that the medical advices of the Prophet (s.a.w)
were worldly affairs, but others opinion was otherwise. This paper is an attempt to find out
the answer.
What is al-Tibb al-Nabawi (Medicine of the Prophet)?
In any attempt to understand the origin of the medicine of the Prophet (al-tibb al-
nabawi), one of the central questions, that call for our special attention and that need to be
thoroughly treated and resolved, is the question what is al-tibb al-nabawi? One needs to
clarify the views of Muslim scholars of the meaning of al-tibb al-nabawi. In our customary
way of understanding, we define the medicine of the Prophet (al-Tibb al-Nabawi) as medical
treatments, prescriptions of diseases, prevention, health promotion and spiritual aspects that
were recommended by Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) to his companions, and what does not
come from the Prophet (s.a.w) is, therefore, not considered as medicine of the Prophet. It is
because of this understanding and attitude that practicing al-Tibb al-Nabawi, according to this
school of thought, is part of following the sunnah of Prophet (s.a.w) and those who follow
other methods of healing are, therefore, not truly following the sunnah of Prophet and
probably Islamic teaching too.
1336
1336
al-Sunnah or al-Hadith (its plural is ahadith), according to Muhaddithin, is divided into three parts:
al-qawliyah, the traditions which are statements and sayings of the Prophet; the second is al-filiyah that
is the traditions that is derived from the deeds of the holy Prophet, and third, al-taqririyyah (the
traditions of the tacit approval), is taken from the Prophets silence or tacit approval regarding deeds
which had occurred with his knowledge. The collections of ahadith were officially began with Umayyad
Caliph Umar Ibn Abdul `Aziz (d. 101/720)s instruction, for the first time to Abu Bakr b. Muhammad
b. Amr b. Hazm, al-Zuhri and others to collect ahadith of Prophet (s.a.w). al-Zuhri was the first who
recorded them. Later, in the third century of Hijrah, scholars of hadith devoted their life and energy in
shifting the hadith examining the narrators and ensuring their authenticity for preserving the ahadith of
924 / ISoIT 2004
On the other hand, we found significantly a comprehensive scope of the medicine of the
Prophet in the very well known commentaries of Sahih of al-Bukhari namely Fath al-Bari
Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari of Ahmad b. Ali Ibn Hajr al-Asqalani (d. 852/1449) and Umdat al-
Qari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari of Abu Muhammad Mahmud Ahmad al-`Ayni (d. 855/1452),
both were living in the era when medical literature over flows with all sorts of medical
disciplines. It was probably in consequence of reading those literatures that Ibn Hajr and Ibn
Ahmad al-Ayni were very concerned in giving the scope of medicine of the Prophet in broad
sense especially when they found that Imam Bukhari was in favor to name one of his chapters
(kutub, its singular is kitab) as kitab al-tibb (the book of medicine) rather than kitab al-tibb
al-nabawi (the book of the medicine of the Prophet).
1337
Having this in mind, they clarified
the word al-tibb in the linguistic and medical perspectives. Ibn Hajr, for example, held that
the word tibb in Arabic language was used to denote al-hadhaq bi al-shay` (perfect
knowledge of thing and skill in doing it). Those who possess the skill of treatment and
healing are called Tabib.
1338
It also carries other meanings such as to amend, restore, adjust,
improve, correct, as well as kindness, expertise, judiciousness, skillfulness, resourcefulness,
competence, maturity, habit, regular practice, perspicacity, intelligence, sophistication,
cleverness, efficiency, ability to negotiate, mastering with consummate skills, finesses, along
with aspiration and glad tidings. After understanding this, Ibn Ahmad al-`Ayni defined
medicine as the knowledge of the states of human body (Ahwal Badn al-Insan) in health and
decline in health (disease); its purpose is preserving health and adopting suitable measures for
restoring health whenever lost (al-tibb huwa `ilm yu`raf bihi ahwal al-badn al-insan min
jihhat ma yasihhu wa yazul `anhu al-sihhat li tahfizu al-sihhah hasiluhu wa tastariddu
raza`iluhu).
1339
This notion reveals to us that medicine may be divided into three major areas:
promotion of health, prevention of illness, and restoration of disease.
The above has many implications and significances. One of the interesting significances
that came from reading Ibn al-`Aynis definition of al-Tibb, was his emphasis upon health
over disease. Meaning that preservation of health should be the primary object of medicine in
which a physician has to give, and not the disease. Throughout Islamic civilization, the
primary goal of the medical system is to maintain health rather than to cure the disease or
restore it whenever lost. This is in harmony with the objective of Islamic law that keeping
Prophet (s.a.w). From the middle until the end of third century, there was a serious collection of ahadith.
These collections were well-known with the successful compiled six textual collections of the ahadith
namely of Imam Bukhari (d. 256/ 870), Imam Muslim (d. 261/875), Abu Daud (d. 275/888), al-
Tirmidhi (d. 279/892), al-Nasai (d. 303/915), Ibn Majah (d. 273/886) etc. (For details, see M.M.
Azami, Studies in Early Hadith Literature (Indiana: American Trust Publications, 1978); M.
Hamidullah, Early Compilation of Hadith, Islamic Review, May, 1949).
1337
The book of medicine (kitab al-tibb) of Sahih Bukhari by Imam Bukhari (194-256/ 810-870)
appears in the book 76, which consists of 58 chapters with 104 traditions. The titles of each chapter
depicted the picture and the content of traditions regarding the medicine and what was related to it. This
manifests Imams Bukhari vast knowledge of health and medicine as practiced in the time of Prophet
(s.a.w) and even after. Thus, we understand that it is not merely its authenticity that makes this
particular collection arose interest by Muslim scholars, but also the vital role it played in developing the
concept of health, medicine, prevention and treatment of disease relevance to this age.
1338
Ibn Hajr, Fath al-Bari Sahrh Sahih al-Bukhari, 13 vols. (Beirut: Dar al-kutub al-`ilmiyyah, 1989),
10: 165; Al-Ayni, Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari, 25 vols. (Beirut: Dar Ihya al-Turath al-
`Arabi, n.d), 21: 229.
1339
Al-`Ayni, Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari, 21: 229.
Nurdeen Deuraseh, Zaid Ahmad & Zarina Muhammad / 925
health is better than the treatment of disease. In other words, the real purpose of medicine is
to save human life and to improve the sufferings of living beings.
1340
This does not mean that therapeutic medicine is not importance. According to Ibn al-
`Aynis definition of Tibb, the restoration of lost health is the second aim of Islamic
medicine. Basically, the restoration of health in Islamic traditional system consists of a
number of different therapies or treatments, notably using a gulp of honey, cupping and
cauterization. Later on, medicaments, psycho-spiritual healing, and surgical intervention were
introduced when many Muslims had learnt from other civilization. As in Greek medicine,
Islamic medicine gives very clear distinction between mufradah (simple) and murakkabah
(compound) drugs. In this regard, physicians are advised, if possible, to avoid treating
diseases with compound drugs if it effects the weakening of the body. This was an extremely
attractive theory, which actually provided valuable prevention of diseases because the
compound medicines are likely to have more side effects. Those people whose foods are, for
the most part, simple have very few ailments, and their treatment also consists of simple
medicines. But for city dwellers that are used to compound foods need compound medicine
as well.
1341
It was Originally Based on the Prophets Ijtihad and Customarily
Practice of Ancient People
It seems that the attempt to distinguish between Prophets medical teachings, which were
revealed by Allah (s.w.t) and his medical teaching in his capacity as a human being living in
Arabia at a particular historical period is not easy. This leads Ibn Khaldun (d.806/1406), the
great Arab historian, to view that the mission of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) was the
teaching of divine laws and the saving of the soul and not the treatment of disease. He
supported his view by citing the hadith of the Prophet (s.a.w) who reminded us that: if an
issue concerns worldly affairs, you may have more knowledge than myself. If it is concerned
with religious affairs, I know more (than you).
1342
Since the science of medicine is worldly
affairs, therefore, Ibn Khaldun understood that the medicine of the Prophet was mainly based
on the result of Prophets observations and experience. This implies that what people know
on how to preserve health and on how to treat a disease, if they fall ill, and what are the
relevant verses of the Quran for healing of a particular disease, are actually acquired by
experiences rather than by revelation.
1343
This means that although the Prophet (s.a.w)
1340
It would be interesting to mention in relation to this discussion that Ibn Jazlah (d. 493/1100) drew a
parallel between the strength or health of the body and the supplies of the traveler. The wise person
must prepare his supplies for traveling according to the distance intended, for if the supplies end before
the destination is reached, the traveler perishes. However, if the supplies are sufficient for the entire
journey, he is safe. This is parallel to the health of human being. If the body has sufficient strength, it
will be able to overcome an illness, however, if strength is not sufficient and the body weakens before
the end of the illness, the person is in danger and requires treatment together with the care of a
physician. See, Joseph Salvatore, Tabulated Compendium in the Eleventh Century as Represented in the
Works of Ibn Jazlah, 55.
1341
Ibn al-Qayyim, al-Tibb al-Nabawi (Beirut: Muassasah al-Risalah, 1985), 146.
1342
Muslim, Sahih Muslim, kitab al-Manaqib, hadith no. 2363.
1343
In relation to this, it had often been said that the science of medicine emerged as a result of mans
reason with the culmination of efforts of people from one generation to another and from one country to
another, some are known to us and others not. They argued that man has the ability to apply analogy to
926 / ISoIT 2004
practiced medicine but we have to understand that his main mission was not to teach the
worldly affairs i.e., medicine because his knowledge of the worldly affairs as other common
human beings is very limited. In his Muqaddimah, Ibn Khaldun (732-808 A.H/1332-1406
C.E) clearly states:
Civilized Bedouins have a kind of medicine which is mainly based on experience restricted to a few
patients only, and which they have inherited from their tribal leaders and old women. In some cases it is
correct, but it is not founded on natural laws, nor is it tested against (scientific accounts) natural
constitution (of peoples). Now the Arabs had a great deal of this type of Medicine before the advent of
Islam and there were among them well known doctors like al-Harith b. Kaladah and others. Their
Medicine that has been transmitted in the Islamic religious works (as opposed to those works which
were considered scientific works) belong to this genre. It is definitely no part of divine revelation (to the
Prophet Mohammad (s.a.w) but was something customarily practiced by the Arabs. This type of
Medicine thus is included in his biographies, just as are other multitudinous of matters of sociological
importance like the natural life and customs of the Arabs, but forms no part of religion of Islam to be
practiced in the same way.
1344
The above quotation shows us that the medical advice, as mentioned in ahadith of the
Prophet, has nothing to do with revelations. It does not have the status of divine word and it is
experiential and experimental
1345
-meaning that al-Tibb al-Nabawi as reported to us did not
cover every possible disease at the time of Prophet (s.a.w) neither can it cover all ailments
today or in the future in the various parts of the world. After having this idea, many Muslim
scholars, who were influenced by Ibn Khalduns thought, supported their argument by
objects he sees. This view is reasonable in the sense that, the experimenters and researchers are capable
of interpreting the events by referring to the method of enema (huqnah, insertion of a liquid into the
body). In this event, the bird used to fill its beaks with sea water and insert it into itself through the beak.
Based on this event, man was able to create certain medical instrument. Another event occurred at the
beginning of human life when the practice of burying the dead was not known. When a man was
pondering over this problem, a fortunate incident helped him to find the answer in a significant act in
which a raven was able to bury its dead through inspiration. Al-Biruni made a chart listing the names of
physicians that began with Asclepious I, Gurus, Mimos, Parmenides, Plato, Asclepious II, Hippocrtaes
and Galen. All these physicians and practitioners helped to bring great progress to the science of
medicine. They introduced the laws to preserve the science of medicine to the following generations.
However, little is known about these physicians, with the exception of Hippocrates and Galen. Chiefly
because their instructions were taught orally to their offspring and not by means of books until
Hippocrates, who was afraid that medicine might disappear, composed this art in the book form. (see,
al-Biruni, Risalah al-Biruni fi Fihrsit kutub al-Razi, ed. Mehdi Mohaghegh (Tehran: Tehran University,
1973).
1344
Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddimah Ibn Khaldun, 3 vols., ed. `Ali `Abd al-Wahid Wafi (Cairo: Dar Nahdah
Misr li al-Tab` wa al-Nashr), 1142-4 {trans. Franz Rosenthal,The Muqaddimah,, 3 vols. (New York:
Princeton University Press, 1958), 3: 150-151}.
1345
Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddimah Ibn Khaldun, 3 vols., ed. `Ali `Abd al-Wahid Wafi (Cairo: Dar Nah\ah
Mir li al-tab` wa al-Nashr), 1142-4 {trans. Franz Rosenthal,The Muqaddimah,, 3 vols. (New York:
Princeton University Press, 1958), 3: 150-151}; Ibn al-Qayyim, Zad al-Maad fi Hady Khayr al-`Ibad,
ed. Shuaib al-Arnaut and Abd al-Qadir al-Arnaut. 5 vols. (Beirut: Mu`assasah al-Risalat, 1988), 4:
10-11. It should be noted that, there are two famous pioneer physicians in early Islam: Zaynab who
belonged to the tribe of Awd. She was the first female physician who, specialize in surgery and optic.
The second physician was Harith ibn Kaladah. He was a contemporary of the Prophet and had studied
medicine at Jundishabur. See, Muhammad Shams al-Din al-Haqq Abadi, Awn al-Mabud Sharh Sunan
Abi Dawud, 14 vols. (Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 1979), 10: 356-357, hadith no: 3857; Hamarneh, Tarikh
Turath al-Ulum al-Tibiyyah ind al-Arab wa al-Muslimin (Amman: The National Press, 1986), 116-
119; G.R. Hawting, The Development of the Biography of al-Harith ibn Kaladah and the Relationship
Between Medicine and Islam, in The Classical and Medieval Islamic World, ed. C.B. Bosworth, 127-
140.
Nurdeen Deuraseh, Zaid Ahmad & Zarina Muhammad / 927
quoting the hadith in Sahih Bukhari saying ma anzala Allah Da illa anzala lahu shifa,
which means there is no disease that Allah has created except that He also has created its
treatment.
1346
In other version, the Prophet said: inna Allah lam yanzil da` illa lahu shifa
fatadawu (there is no disease that Allah has created except that He also has created its
treatment, so seek treatment). Clearly, the hadith stressed not only that every disease has a
treatment and humankind are encouraged to seek treatment but also the fact that the search of
medical treatment does not stop at only by collection of medical teachings of the Prophet
(s.a.w) made by Muhaddithin and others but goes beyond to what has been discovered by the
researchers at all time. This implies among other things that medicine of the Prophet is not
static which is only based on the collection of ahadith, which some of them were revealed,
but on the other hands, there is room for development and growth. Therefore, the personal
experience of the Prophet (s.a.w) had also came from some medical knowledge of other
communities including Arab and non-Arab. This reveals to us that part of medicine in the
time of Prophet known as al-tibb al-nabawi is also based on his ijtihad and personal
experience through Arab and non-Arab medicine and culture.
If we accept the above, thus, it is true to say that al-tibb al-nabawi did not cover every
possible treatment of disease at the time of Prophet (s.a.w). Neither can it cover all ailments
today or in the future in the various parts of the world. That is why the Prophet had said:
fatadawu (seek treatment!), which implies that the proper way to get proper knowledge of
treatment is through research and looking for signs of Allah (s.w.t) in the universe. In order to
make sure that the Muslim may acquire enough medical experience through seeking
knowledge and not waiting the inspiration, the Prophet (s.a.w) had encouraged Muslims to
seek medical science wherever one could find it and similarly a patient was advised to consult
a qualified physician. The patient was instructed to seek relief and healing from any physical
or mental ailment by means of medical assistance and treatment, and not only by putting
ones trust in Gods power and mercy. It was regrettable, even though the Prophet (s.a.w)
strongly encouraged Muslims to seek medical knowledge wherever one could find it,
however, as far as the historical sources which are available to us today are concerned, only a
few of the Prophets companions went to Jundishabur medical school in Persia, where the
families of Bukhtishu` produced eminent physicians, pharmacists, and medical translators.
Ibn Abi Usaybi`ah, a great Muslim historian, told us that that Harith b. Kaladah, an early
Arab physician who belonged to the Prophetic period, had received regular education in
medicine at Jundishabur medical school in Persia.
1347
That is why the Prophet (s.a.w) used to
ask the sick people during his time to consult Harith b. Kaladah.
Lastly, in order to prove that medicine of the Prophet is not purely based on revelation
rather than experience and observation, many Muslim scholars quoted hadith of the Prophet
(s.a.w) narrated by Judamah binti Wahb al-Asadiyyah (sister of Ukkashah) who said: I was
among others in the Prophets audience when he said: I almost prohibited al-ghila
1348
but
then I considered the Romans and the Persians and found that pregnant mothers suckle their
children without ill effects.
1349
From this it is clear according to the hadith, that the Prophet
(s.a.w) knew the medical aspect of having sexual intercourse with pregnant wife from
foreigners like al-Rum and Persia that were considered as the most developed and civilized
1346
Imam Bukhari, Sahih Bukhari, Kitab al-Tibb, bab Ma Anzala Allah Da illa anzala lahu shifa.
1347
For detail, see S.K. Hamarneh, Tarikh Turath al-`Ulum al-Tibiyyah `ind al-Arab wa al-Muslimin
(Amman: The National Press, 1986), 109-122; Encyclopaedia of Islam, new ed., tibb by F. Klein-
Franke, X: 452.
1348
Al-Ghila is the act of sexual intercourse with a woman in lactation.
1349
Muslim, Sahih Muslim, Kitab al-Nikah, Bab Jawaz al-Ghilah wahiya wat al-Mardi wa karahah al-
`azl.
928 / ISoIT 2004
countries in medical science of the time. With these concerns in mind, the Prophet (s.a.w)
kept his desire and willingness to keep alongside of the knowledge of developed countries
especially if something related to medical health and care. He learnt that al-ghilah was
prevalent in those countries without any adverse effect on health. So, when the Prophet learnt
that the pregnant mothers suckle their children without ill effects, he, therefore, did not make
any unnecessary restriction for the husband. On the other hand, the Prophet permitted the
Muslim to have sexual intercourse with their pregnant wife.
It was Originally from the Divine Revelation
The other school of thought, led by Ibn al-Qayyim (d. 750/1350), was of the opinion that
the medicine of the Prophet was originally based on the divine revelation because the Prophet
(s.a.w), in several times, said: God sent down (anzala) no illness without sending down
healing for it. This indicates that the medical art is revealed knowledge because the word
sending down, which is more specific than creation (khalq) or placing (wadaa), implies that
disease was sent down from above to the world beneath. In this regard, the medicine of the
prophet was sent down to the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) through the angel who is entrusted
with the affairs of this world and of the human. Meaning that the medicine of the Prophet was
primarily based on what has been transmitted from the Prophet as inspired by Allah (s.a.w).
So that everything would come through inspiration and revelation, should be considered as
divine, and therefore, no alteration and change are needed. This conclusion was essentially in
accordance with the Quranic verse: We reveal of the Quran what is healing and merciful
for the believers,
1350
Similarly, in regard to the hadith of the Prophet (s.a.w), Ibn Majah
reported a Prophetic tradition as related by `Ali b. Abi Talib (May God bless his soul) that
Allahs Messenger (s.a.w) once said: The best medicine is the Quran.
1351
If we accept the
theory according to which al-Quran is al-Shafi (the Healer) and ahadith of the Prophet is
not only considered as the original source of Islamic law, from which the principles of Islam
are drawn, but also the source of medical science, then we must accept the fact that the
science of medicine was also transmitted from one generation to other generations.
Consequently, those who believed that medicine was inspired by God must also believe that
the medicine of the Prophet (al-tibb al-nabawi) is divine medicine. Because, an exalted art,
that is medicine, could not have been perceived by the intellect of man, but by God who is the
Creator of all. This belief was accepted by many Muslim medical authorities and historians
such as al-Qifti (d. 645 A.H/1248 C.E) and Sa`id al-Andalusi as well as by religious scholars
including al-Ghazali. In the introduction to his Tarikh al-Hukama, al-Qifti believed that the
art of medicine was originally revealed through the Prophet Idris (identified with Enoch).
1352
It is clear from the above that the essential outline of the philosophical tradition of
Islamic healing was illuminated by revelation. It is by virtue of its nature, some Shiah
believe that medicine is not based on scientific experiment, but rests only on the authority of
tradition. Al-Shaykh al-Mufid (d. 413/1023), one of the foremost Twelve Shiite theologians
1350
Al-Isra(17): 82. The term shifa which occurs in many verses of the Holy Quran is one of the
names of the Holy Quran. It means, that which heals, the restore of health. Significantly, the shifa
or healing encompasses spiritual, intellectual, psychological and physical health. On the other hand,
illness and diseases are frequently mentioned in the Quran; for example, see Hanna E. Kassim, A
Concordance of the Qur`an (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), s.v. ghawl, marid,
marida, marad and saqim.
1351
Ibn Majah, Sunan Ibn Majah, fi al-Tibb, Bab al-Istishfa bi al-Quran, hadith no 3501.
1352
Cf. al-Dhahabi, al-Tibb al-Nabawi (Istanbul: Hakikat Kitabevi, 1990), 125-126; Osman Bakr,
Tawhid and Science (Kuala Lumpur: Secretariat for Islamic Philosophy and Science, 1991), 108.
Nurdeen Deuraseh, Zaid Ahmad & Zarina Muhammad / 929
and religious authorities, is of the opinion that the science of medicine is correct and its
knowledge is attested through revelation. Scholars learned this from the Prophet. For this
reason, there is no way to have the knowledge of diseases, except on the basis of traditional
authority, and there is no way to have knowledge of a cure except through divine assistance.
It seems, the acquisition to learn medicine is acquired through listening from one who knows
hidden things. This belief was very common in medieval Islam that all arts and cultures were
first revealed to Prophets or discovered through intuition.
1353
Lastly, they, the scholars who were of the opinion that medicine of the Prophet
(s.a.w) was mainly based on divine revelation, also argued that since the primary sources of
Islamic law (Shari`ah) are the Quran and the Ahadith of the Prophet (s.a.w), therefore, the
ahadith of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) regardless what subject matters they are, should be
considered as divine. The knowledge of unlawful method of healing i.e., healing by magic,
was inspired by God rather than through experience and observation. The medical knowledge
that Islam strongly against the practice of pre-Islamic Arabs who used to treat their patients
by al-sihr (magic) and also by offering unlawful sacrifices to the idols around the Ka`bah, in
the belief that these sacrifices and idols would bring about the cure of a disease or a
protection against a disease, are known through revelation rather than through experience or
observation.
1354
1353
Ibna Bastam, Tibb al-Aimmah (Beirut: Dar al-Rasul al-Akram, 1994), 16-17. Cf. Al-Sayyid `Abd
Allah Shibar, Tibb al-Aimmah (Kuwait: Maktabah al-Alfayn, 1990), 25-34.
1354
Throughout human history, we found that belief in superstitions, in supernatural as well as
depending on the position of the stars had been considered as the meant to know cause of illness.
Sometime, amulets and magic formulae rank equally with herbs and materia medica. In this condition,
it was reported that the Prophet (s.a.w) had forbidden magic and all talismans knowing that they
contained certain words that contradicted the belief in the Oneness of God (tawhid), by supplicating
spirits and other powers. In fact, Islam condemns al-sihr, black magic and those who practice it. The
avoidance of the use of black magic and charms to cure the patient, Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) gave
new methods of treatment based on his strong belief in the efficiency of the revelations in providing true
answers to all situations instead of the use of al-sihr, black magic. The solution that he offered to
prevent physical and spiritual diseases was simple. He repeatedly advised that a Muslim has to show
concern for his heart by saying: Truly, in the body there is a morsel of flesh, and when it is corrupt the
body is corrupt, and when it is sound the body is sound. Truly, it is the qalb (heart). From here, it is
clear that the heart is considered as the main cause, not only for spiritual diseases, but also for physical
illnesses. Ibn Qayyim (d. 750 A.H/1350 C.E), in order to explain the role of heart in regards to spiritual
and physical diseases, quotes the Quranic verse: In their hearts is a disease, and Allah has increased
their disease; and O consorts of the Prophet ! Ye are not like any of the other women, if ye do fear
(Allah), be not too complaisant of speech, least one in whose heart is a disease should be moved with
desire. Ibn al-Qayyim interprets these verses as meaning that the diseases of the heart occur when there
is suspicion and doubt about Allah (s.w.t). Thus, as for treating the heart, he advises that for the hearts
to be righteous, it must know its Creator, the Creators names, the Creators Attributes and follow the
commands of the Creator as there is no way of purifying the heart except by doing these. Another more
affective measure for the preservation of the disease of the heart, is suggested by al-Ghazali (d. 504
A.H/1111 C.E). He explains, in his Ihya `Ulum al-Din, that each element of the body has been created
to discharge a particular function, and when that part falls ill, its function is no longer able to perform its
duty. The hand is sick when it can no longer strike, and the eye is sick when it can no longer see. Thus,
it is with the heart, which falls ill when it becomes incapable of performing the activities properly for
which it was created i.e., the acquisition of knowledge, wisdom, gnosis, worship and love of Allah
(s.w.t), and taking delight in remembering Him, preferring these deeds to every other desire, and using
all of ones works for the sake of His remembrance.
930 / ISoIT 2004
Conclusion
The above discussion leads us to understand that the medicine of Prophet (al-Tibb al-
Nabawi), in real sense, is so broad. It does not only refer to what had been said and practiced
in the time of Prophet but it reaches and includes as it does into every field of human medical
research, activity and thought at all time. This leads to another conclusion that medicine of
Prophet, as other rational disciplines, is not static but it could grow and develop according to
the time and circumstance, which needs experience and new knowledge so that it could
develop. This kind of medicine is called by Ibn Hajr al-Asqalani the knowledge which is
based on al-`fikr wa nazar.
By Dr. Nurdeen Deuraseh
Dr. Zaid Ahmad
Pn. Zarina Muhammad
Department of Government and Civilization Studies
Faculty of Human Ecology
Universiti Putra Malaysia
Praktis Perbelanjaan Masyarakat Islam Bandaraya Masa
Kini
Ezani Yaakub & Mohd Nor Mamat
Abstract
This paper discusses the basic Islamic concept, principles, objectives and alternative
practices on consumption as the best solution for muslim society. This paper is actually based
on a research done by the writers on muslim city society and their comsumption practice,
with comparison to their expenses in Ramadhan and other months. Besides, this paper
suggests a very effective guidelines and suggestions to be practiced by muslims; adopted from
literatural reading and contemporary scholars such as muftis and so on. The model practice
which is recommended here is basically based on current relality of the society with guided
by the understading of Quranic and Prophetic principles.
Abstrak
Kertas ini secara umumnya membincangkan aspek-aspek asas berhubung praktis
perbelanjaan; prinsip, objektif dan kaedah perbelanjaan sebenar sebagai solusi kepada
kecelaruan budaya belanja masyarakat muslim masa kini. Kertas kerja ini adalah
berdasarkan kepada penyelidikan yang mensasarkan bulan Ramadhan sebagai sampel dan
dianalisa secara perbandingan dengan bulan-bulan yang lain yang dijalankan di pusat
bandaraya Shah Alam sebagai mewakili penyelidikan praktis perbelanjaan masyarakat
majoriti Islam kota yang bersifat multi level dalam konteks negara kita. Di samping itu, ia
juga menyediakan satu garis panduan penting dan bakal menghasilkan penyelidikan susulan
ke arah mewujudkan model praktis perbelanjaan muslim yang ideal dengan keperluan dan
tuntutan semasa berteraskan prinsip Al Quran dan As Sunnah.
Pendahuluan
Praktis perbelanjaan individu muslim sebenarnya berkait rapat dengan aspek
penghayatan akidah, syariah dan juga akhlak. Masyarakat Islam sejak zaman awal sehingga
melewati era kemuncak kegemilangannya, mengaitkan gaya perbelanjaan harta secara
langsung sebagai ibadah kepada Allah. Garis panduan syariat yang telah dijadikan asas dalam
peribadatan mereka bagi menghasilkan aplikasi metodologi prioriti ialah pengklasifikasian
kepada konsep dharuriyyat, hajiyyat, tahsiniyyat, kamaliyyat dan tarfihiyyat dalam
perbelanjaan. Metodologi perbelanjaan yang bertunjangkan akidah ini telah berjaya
menghasilkan generasi pengguna muslim yang berhemah dan beretika tinggi. Namun
932 / ISoIT 2004
disebabkan kelemahan umat Islam dan kemunculan faham moden khususnya yang
mendominasi sistem ekonomi konvensional sejak tiga abad lalu, aspek perbelanjaan tidak lagi
dianggap sebagai satu ibadah sebaliknya dijustifikasikan sebagai satu keperluan ekonomi
yang berpaksikan kepada perbelanjaan utiliti semata-mata tanpa perlu dirujuk kepada
panduan syariat Islam.
Praktis perbelanjaan masyarakat yang tidak terancang bukan sahaja bersifat tidak
ekonomik dan menguntungkan dalam konteks keluarga malah boleh menjadi elemen
gangguan dalam pertumbuhan ekonomi negara secara umum. Dalam aspek kemasyarakatan
pula, praktis perbelanjaan di kota atau di bandaraya lebih mudah terdedah kepada gaya hidup
yang berasaskan kemewahan atau pembaziran. Ini memungkinkan berlakunya praktis
perbelanjaan yang tidak terancang ataupun membelakangkan nilai-nilai tuntutan agama yang
sudah tentu sangat prihatin terhadap soal ekonomi individu dan masyarakat muslim.
Penyelidikan ini adalah ke arah mengenalpasti suasana dan praktis perbelanjaan masyarakat
muslim terutamanya di bandaraya dan mencari solusi terbaik bagi menerapkan penghayatan
kehidupan Islam.
Konsep Perbelanjaan Islam
Perbelanjaan merupakan satu tuntutan dalam kehidupan manusia. Ia merupakan salah
satu proses perekonomian yang sangat penting. Tanpa perbelanjaan, proses perekonomian
yang lain seperti pengeluaran akan terjejas dan terbantut. Keadaan ini juga akan
mempengaruhi pertumbuhan ekonomi dan menimbulkan mudharat serta implikasi kepada
masyarakat. Begitu juga apabila perbelanjaan yang melampau wujud dalam sesebuah
masyarakat. Apabila ia telah menjadi satu masalah umum, maka keadaan ekonomi juga akan
terjejas. Panduan dan kawalan yang sistematik adalah amat diperlukan dalam memastikan
perbelanjaan ini berlaku dalam rentak yang positif dan dapat membantu keadaan ekonomi
individu, masyarakat atau sesebuah negara secara efektif.
1355
Para fuqaha (ahli fiqh) sejak dari zaman awal lagi telah mengemukakan cara-cara
perbelanjaan yang sepatutnya dilakukan dalam menjamin aktiviti ekonomi agar sentiasa
seimbang. Walaupun perbincangan yang dikemukakan oleh mereka dalam bentuk yang
umum, namun ianya adalah sistematik dan terbaik sekiranya dinisbahkan dengan zaman itu.
Walaubagaimanapun penerusan perbincangan atau hasil tulisan yang lebih khusus tidak
berlaku secara mantap khususnya oleh generasi berikutnya. Dengan ini, ilmu fiqh yang
membincangan tentang nafaqah ini pada asasnya tidak berkembang selari dengan kesesuaian
bagi keperluan keadaan dan zaman. Sedangkan ia sepatutnya menjadi satu disiplin ilmu yang
sangat penting dan wajib dipelajari oleh individu muslim. Ini adalah kerana perbelanjaan
sememangnya mempunyai perkaitan yang rapat dengan tuntutan zakat, haji dan ibadah-
ibadah berbentuk kehartaan yang lain. Umpamanya, tuntutan berzakat, kewajipan ini
memerlukan ilmu yang menerangkan secara terperinci tentang asas-asas perbelanjaan yang
dituntut dan perbelanjaan yang seharusnya tidak diambilkira atau ditolak dalam pengiraan
zakat. Lebih penting lagi pengiraan zakat peribadi adalah bergantung sepenuhnya kepada
maklumat tepat berkenaan pendapatan dan perbelanjaan yang sebenar bagi setiap individu
untuk menentukan sama ada ia layak membayar zakat atau tidak pada tahun berkenaan. Ia
juga penting untuk menentukan kadar zakat yang perlu dibayar sekiranya ia layak
membayarnya. Keadaan ini tidak akan menjadi satu kenyataan sekiranya ia hanya bergantung
kepada formula-formula umum pengiraan zakat seperti yang sedang berlaku pada masa kini.
Pembayaran zakat yang dilakukan umumnya adalah dalam bentuk anggaran dan bukan yang
1355
Perbincangan tentang peranan akhlak dalam ekonomi telah dianalisis oleh ulama semasa
seperti Prof. Dr Yusuf Al Qardhawi tulisannya Peran Nilai dan Moral dalam Perekonomian Islam.
Ezani Yaakub & Mohd Nor Mamat / 933
setepatnya. Di sini jelas kemahiran dan kefahaman cara perbelanjaan peribadi adalah asas
utama dalam perkiraan perakaunan zakat yang menjadi rukun Islam yang wajib ke atas semua
individu muslim. Dalam hal ini kaedah fiqh (perundangan Islam) menggunapakai satu kaedah
iaitu:
"Sesuatu yang menjadikan kewajipan itu sempurna kerananya, maka ia juga adalah wajib."
Jelasnya, ilmu berkaitan dengan perbelanjaan merupakan satu ilmu yang wajib dipelajari
oleh semua individu muslim berdasarkan kepada keperluan kefahaman tentangnya bagi
pengiraan perakaunan zakat yang hukumnya adalah wajib. Untuk memahami pengiraan zakat
yang diwajibkan, ia memerlukan kepada asas kefahaman perbelanjaan yang betul. Sebab
itulah, pengetahuan tentang perbelanjaan yang selari dengan tuntutan Islam dianggap wajib
bagi menyempurnakan urusan fardhu (wajib) yang lain, iaitu zakat.
Prinsip Perbelanjaan Islam
Islam sebagai satu sistem hidup yang lengkap telah menyediakan satu sistem yang
tersendiri dan unik dalam membincangkan persoalan ekonomi. Dan dalam sistem ini
terkandung di dalamnya aspek muamalah yang menerangkan tentang perbelanjaan. Setiap
perkara yang digariskan oleh Islam mesti mempunyai kaedah-kaedah yang berdasarkan
syariat. Tidak ada perkara yang tidak ada kaedah dalam syariat Islam termasuklah aspek
perbelanjaan. Dasar yang dikemukakan oleh Islam bukan sahaja mengatur corak
perbelanjaan, bahkan juga memastikan agar perbelanjaan mesti berlaku dan mengambikira
kedua-dua kepentingan duniawi dan ukhrawi.
Dari segi nas yang terkandung di dalam Al Quran, jelas dari perintah Allah di dalam Al
Quran yang menghendaki orang-orang yang beriman melakukan perbelanjaan. Perintah ini
adalah merupakan satu kewajipan yang perlu dilaksanakan dan bukan hanya sekadar galakan
atau bimbingan. Fakta ini membuktikan betapa Islam menuntut agar wujudnya kitaran
ekonomi bagi menjamin pertumbuhan ekonomi. Pelbagai ayat Al Quran dan Al Hadis yang
mengemukakan persoalan perbelanjaan dari sudut yang berbeza. Firman Allah:
Apakah kemudaratan bagi mereka, sekiranya mereka beriman kepada Allah dan hari kemudian dan
menafkahkan sebahagian rezeki yang telah diberikan Allah kepada mereka? Dan Allah Maha
Mengetahui keadaan mereka.
(Al Nisa: 39)
Firman Allah lagi:
934 / ISoIT 2004
Wahai orang-orang yang beriman! Belanjakanlah (pada jalan Allah) sebahagian daripada hasil usaha
kamu yang baik-baik, dan sebahagian daripada apa-apa yang Kami keluarkan daripada bumi untuk
kamu. (Al Baqarah: 267)
Dalam ayat yang lain pula Allah telah berfirman:
Dan mereka (yang diredhai Allah) apabila berbelanja, tidaklah melampaui batas (boros) dan tidak
bakhil, sebaliknya perbelanjaan yang sederhana di antara kedua-duanya. (Al Furqan: 67)
Dari segi prinsip asal, hukum perbelanjaan adalah sesuatu yang diharuskan. Ini
berdasarkan kaedah fiqh yang menyatakan bahawa 'asal sesuatu perkara itu adalah harus'. Ia
seterusnya telah menjadi satu kewajipan yang perlu dilakukan oleh setiap manusia demi
memenuhi tuntutan keperluan kehidupan. Sejak beberapa lama dulu, perbelanjaan telah
menjadi satu tonggak dalam memenuhi keperluan kehidupan. Sehingga kini, tanpa
perbelanjaan seolah-olah membayangkan betapa kehidupan itu mustahil dapat
disempurnakan. Dalam kaedah fiqh, ianya boleh disandarkan kepada kaedah 'sesuatu yang
menjadikan kewajipan sempurna kerananya, maka ia juga adalah wajib'. Wajibnya sesuatu
kewajipan ini adalah dipengaruhi oleh beberapa sebab dan syarat. Maka wajibnya
perbelanjaan adalah kerana bagi memenuhi keperluan kehidupan. Ia juga berdasarkan bukti
naqli, aqli dan `adi.
Berdasarkan keadaan ini, maka perbelanjaan adalah satu tanggungjawab yang perlu
dipenuhi demi meneruskan kehidupan. Dalam semua sistem ekonomi termasuklah sistem
ekonomi Islam, perbelanjaan memainkan peranan yang sangat penting dalam menggerakkan
aktiviti ekonomi. Perbelanjaan yang terancang dan terarah akan menjamin wujudnya
keseimbangan, keadilan dan kemakmuran dalam sesebuah masyarakat dan negara. Perkara ini
adalah sesuatu yang sangat penting dalam menjamin kehidupan ekonomi individu,
masyarakat dan negara. Masalah inflasi yang menjadi iguan ngeri ekonomi dapat dikawal dan
kestabilan ekonomi negara dapat diwujudkan.
Justeru itu, kaedah perbelanjaan yang berhemah sememangnya sangat penting dan selari
dengan objektif syariat. Ini adalah kerana syariat Islam menghendaki sesuatu perkara dalam
kehidupan itu dipertimbangkan dengan kebijaksanaan yang berpaksikan wahyu. Ibn Qayyim
dalam hal ini menegaskan perkara-perkara yang menjadi asas di dalam syariah ialah
kebijaksanaan dan kebajikan manusia sama ada di dunia dan akhirat. Kebajikan manusia
hanya terletak pada keadilan, belas ihsan, kemanusiaan dan kebijaksanaan. Sesuatu yang
bertukar dari keadilan kepada penindasan, belas ihsan kepada kekerasan, kebajikan kepada
kesengsaraan dan kebijaksanaan kepada kebodohan tidak ada kaitan dengan syariah.
1356
Berdasarkan realiti di atas, maka sesuatu tindakan dan praktis pengguna muslim dalam
perbelanjaan mestilah sentiasa berada dalam panduan dan sempadan yang digariskan. Ini
adalah bagi menjamin perbelanjaan itu sentiasa berada dalam lingkungan syariat,
kebijaksanaan dan kesejahteraan. Sehubungan ini, satu kaedah perbelanjaan telah
dikemukakan oleh para ulama dan ahli ekonomi Islam dalam merealisasikan objektif syariat
Islam. Ia merupakan panduan yang sistematik dalam pengurusan perbelanjaan. Perbelanjaan
yang mengikut kaedah dan kriteria yang dikemukakan ini akan menjadikannya satu ibadat
yang sepatutnya diikuti dalam setiap aktiviti perbelanjaan.
1356
Ibn Qayyim Al Jawziyyah, A`lam al-Muwaqqi`in: Hal. 14.
Ezani Yaakub & Mohd Nor Mamat / 935
Objektif Perbelanjaan dalam Islam
Syariat dan sistem ekonomi Islam telah menggariskan panduan yang khusus dalam
perbelanjaan. Garis panduan ini adalah meragkumi semua aspek perbelanjaan termasuk
perbelanjaan di bulan Ramadhan. Melalui garis panduan ini, seseorang muslim sepatutnya
berbelanja mengikut langkah-langkah yang telah ditetapkan ini. Oleh itu skop dan objektif
perbelanjaan seseorang pengguna muslim semestinya di dalam ruang lingkup yang digariskan
seperti berikut:
Berobjektifkan Sebagai Ibadat
Objektif ini adalah asas bagi semua perkara bagi kehidupan seseorang muslim dan tidak
terkecuali bagi perbelanjaan. Oleh itu sebagai memenuhi syarat ibadat, perbelanjaan yang
dilakukan mestilah mengikuti prosedur-prosedur tertentu yang menjadi syarat kepada ibadat
berkenaan. Perbelanjaan perlu mengikuti susunan keutamaan yang digariskan oleh syarak
sebagai syarat mengesahkan amalan itu sebagai ibadat.
Penghindaran daripada Hutang
Setiap perbelanjaan mestilah berasaskan kemampuan dari segi kuasa beli. Ini adalah
perkara asas dalam perbelanjaan yang dikehendaki dan dituntut oleh Islam. Oleh itu
berhutang dalam perbelanjaan adalah merupakan sesuatu yang tidak digalakkan walaupun
diharuskan. Pengharusan oleh Islam adalah dalam konteks yang tertentu khususnya dalam
keadaan kesempitan yang dibenarkan. Adalah tidak wajar seseorang itu berhutang semata-
mata bagi memenuhi tuntutan nafsu dan bukan keperluan yang sepatutnya dipenuhi.
Berkonsepkan Keseimbangan dan Kesederhanaan
Objektif ini merujuk kepada keseimbangan dan kesederhanaan dari segi pendapatan
dengan perbelanjaan, perbelanjaan dan manfaat, perbelanjaan dan tabungan serta larangan
pembaziran dan kekikiran. Kesemua perkara ini perlu seimbang agar kehidupan itu dapat
dilalui dengan sederhana. Melalui keseimbangan dan kesederhanaan akan dapat
menghasilkan beberapa kepentingan lain iaitu lebihan pendapatan, penwujudan tabungan dan
pengawalan sumber.
Berasaskan Prioriti
Dari segi pelaksanaan, objektif ini merupakan dasar yang sangat penting bagi menjamin
apa jua perbelanjaan yang dilakukan itu merangkumi objektif-objektif yang lain sama ada
sebagai ibadat, menghindari hutang dan mencapai keseimbangan. Setiap perbelanjaan perlu
berasaskan perbelanjaan prioriti dan bukan perbelanjaan yang berasaskan utiliti.
Umum mengetahui bahawa dalam Islam, setiap sesuatu kebaikan yang dilakukan itu
sepatutnya menjadi ibadat. Maka begitu juga dengan persoalan perbelanjaan. Oleh itu dalam
fiqh perbelanjaan ini, individu muslim yang membelanjakan hartanya akan memperolehi dua
ganjaran iaitu ganjaran serta merta dan ganjaran tertangguh.
Ganjaran serta merta adalah merujuk kepada barangan yang dibeli atau perolehi. Ini
meliputi dua perkara iaitu yang bersifat aini atau fizikal dan juga yang bersifat perkhidmatan.
Umpamanya seseorang yang berbelanja membeli beras, gula atau buku. Sudah pasti secara
fizikalnya, dia akan mendapat semua barang yang dibelinya itu berdasarkan nilai harga
barang yang telah dibayar. Mereka yang berbelanja secara pastinya adalah untuk mendapat
pulangan dalam bentuk barang yang dihajati dan dibelinya. Manakala secara bukan fizikal
pula, akibat dari perbelanjaan yang dilakukan seseorang itu akan mendapat khidmat atau
servis seperti khidmat membaiki, mengawal dan menghantar. Keadaan dan faktor ini akan
meneruskan kitaran aktiviti ekonomi. Oleh itu Islam menghendaki bahawa setiap
perbelanjaan itu akan mendapat pulangan secara langsung sama ada berbentuk fizikal seperti
beras dan kereta atau bersifat bukan fizikal seperti bentuk perkhidmatan dan sebagainya.
936 / ISoIT 2004
Dari segi hukum, keperluan yang dihajati ini mestilah yang terdiri dari barangan yang
dibenarkan oleh syarak. Kesan dari perbelanjaan yang tidak diiktiraf oleh syarak ialah
barangan tersebut tidak diiktiraf dari segi pemilikan.
Ganjaran tertangguh pula merujuk kepada pahala di sisi Allah kerana telah melaksanakan
tuntutan ibadat perbelanjaan. Keperluan dan tuntutan ini akan menjadi ibadat sekiranya
dilaksanakan berdasarkan kaedah dan peraturan yang ditetapkan. Oleh itu dengan
melaksanakan kewajipan ini mengikut kaedah-kaedah yang berdasarkan panduan dan
peraturan tertentu, ganjaran pahala adalah merupakan pulangan yang diperolehi oleh setiap
individu yang berbelanja.
Firman Allah:
Dan tidak pula mereka membelanjakan sesuatu perbelanjaan yang kecil atau yang besar, dan tidak pula
mereka melintas sesuatu lembah, melainkan dituliskan untuk mereka (pahala), kerana Allah hendak
memberikan kepada mereka pembalasan terhadap apa yang mereka lakukan dengan sebaik-baiknya.(Al
Taubah: 121)
Perbelanjaan dari segi syarak adalah salah satu perkara yang terkandung dalam
pengertian ibadat. Ini bererti setiap harta atau wang yang dikeluarkan akan mendapat pahala
di sisi Allah di samping juga akan mendapat sesuatu barang atau keperluan yang dikehendaki
itu. Sehubungan itu bagi memenuhi syarat ibadat beberapa perkara berikut perlu diambilkira
terlebih dahulu:
Asal Harta Yang Halal
Harta ini mestilah terdiri dari harta yang dibenarkan pemilikannya oleh syarak. Oleh itu
harta yang haram seperti arak atau babi adalah suatu yang jelas ditegah. Walau apa jua
perolehan yang melibatkan harta seumpama ini ia tetap tidak diiktiraf.
Diperolehi Secara Sah Disisi Syarak
Terdapat kaedah-kaedah yang tertentu dikemukakan oleh syarak dalam usaha
mendapatkan harta yang diiktiraf pemilikannya. Ini merangkumi:
A. Penguasaan Harta Yang Belum Dimiliki
Ini termasuklah umpamanya:
Penerokaan tanah
Penguasaan bahan galian dan harta karun
Penguasaan ke atas binatang
Penguasaan ke atas pokok hutan dan rumput
B. Akad-akad Pemindahan Milik
Semua proses pemindahan hak milik dari segi hukum Islam perlu melalui kontrak-
kontrak yang tertentu. Setiap kontrak terangkum dalam batas hukum syarak. Pelbagai kontrak
yang terkandung dalam muamalat Islam. Ini termasuklah kontrak jual beli, murabahah, ijarah,
musyarakah, al rahnu, mudarabah dan lain-lain lagi.
1357
C. Pusaka atau Faraid
1357
Lihat perbincangan terperinci oleh Ala `Eddin Kharofa dalam karyanya Transactions in
Islamic Law.
Ezani Yaakub & Mohd Nor Mamat / 937
Satu penetapan oleh syarak berhubung dengan harta yang diwarisi oleh ahli waris apabila
berlaku kematian. Kadar pembahagiannya adalah ditentukan oleh Al Quran dan Al Sunnah.
Syuf`ah
Satu hak pemilikan ke atas sesuatu harta disebabkan berlakunya perkongsian berhubung
dengan harta berkenaan.
1358
Tujuan Yang Syarie
Objektif sesuatu perbelanjaan mestilah selari dengan syariat dan tidak bertentangan
dengan apa yang telah ditetapkan. Oleh itu bagi mengesahkan sesuatu perbelanjaan, tujuan
perbelanjaan perlu diberi perhatian. Walaupun sesuatu perbelanjaan itu dari sumber yang
halal tetapi motifnya tidak syar`ie, maka perbelanjaan itu dianggap tidak sah.
Cara Yang Syar`ie
Proses pelaksanaan sesuatu perbelanjaan juga menjadi syarat kepada kesahihan kepada
amalan ini sama ada menjadi satu ibadat atau sebaliknya. Sebahagian ulama menggariskan
bahawa pengesahan apa jua perbuatan atau sesuatu perkara itu menjadi ibadat atau bukan
perlu berdasarkan ciri-ciri berikut:
1. Akidah
2. Niat
3. Pekerjaan
4. Cara Kerja
5. Natijah
6. Tidak meninggalkan ibadat wajib yang khusus
Praktis Perbelanjaan Semasa Masyarakat Islam
Budaya perbelanjaan atau budaya konsumer telah sekian lama mempengaruhi minda
masyarakat dunia termasuk masyakat Islam. Budaya ini sering dikaitkan dengan corak
budaya materialistik.
1359
Penyebaran dan pengaruh ini telah berjaya mempengaruhi pelbagai
lapisan masyarakat, khususnya generasi muda. Idea-idea ini yang menggambarkan kehidupan
yang ekspresif dan bergaya telah disalurkan menerusi kemudahan dan kemajuan teknologi
maklumat dan komunikasi (ICT) secara berterusan menyerap ke dalam pemikiran golongan
ini sebagai satu indoktrinasi yang membentuk identiti yang dianggap hebat, moden dan maju
berasaskan perkembangan semasa. Keadaan ini sangat jelas dan begitu dominan dalam
masyarakat dunia kini. Segala-galanya adalah hasil dari perbelanjaan yang bermotifkan
kehebatan, kemajuan dan kepuasan.
Menurut satu kajian yang telah dilakukan terhadap responden yang 100% terdiri daripada
operator pengeluaran, iaitu golongan yang berpendapatan bulanan antara RM450 - RM550,
mereka masih lagi membeli produk alat solek yang berjenama seperti Avon 42.6%, Loreal
20%, Maybelline 14.3%, Nutri Metics 5.7%, Za dan Revlon sebanyak 2.9%.
1360
Fakta ini
jelas menunjukkan praktis pengguna yang masih mengamalkan budaya berbelanja secara
mewah dan melampau dengan risiko yang tinggi, malah ia dilihat sebagai corak perbelanjaan
yang tidak realistik.
Dalam satu lagi laporan, praktis perbelanjaan masyarakat umum telah mendedahkan
fakta-fakta berikut:
1358
Lihat Md Akhir Haji Yaacob, Undang-Undang Sivil Islam: Hal. 329-310.
1359
Lihat perbincangan pengaruh pengguna oleh Nabsiah Abdul Majid dan Ishak Ismail dalam
tulisan mereka Perlakuan Pengguna: Hal. 215.
1360
Marsitah Mohd Radzi, Budaya Konsumer dan Pembentukan Indentiti Migran: 3
rd
International Malaysian Studies Confrence: 6-8 Ogos 2002.
938 / ISoIT 2004
1. Hampir 70% bahan makanan dibeli secara mendadak (spontan) atau tanpa sebarang
perancangan yang berasaskan keperluan sebenar.
2. Hampir 95% pengguna di Malaysia terlibat dengan jenis perbelanjaan mendesak.
Manakala hanya kurang dari 20% sahaja yang dikategorikan sebagai pengguna yang
berbelanja dengan bantuan senarai belian.
3. Pengguna yang mempunyai kad kredit didapati berbelanja tiga kali ganda lebih
banyak daripada mereka yang tidak memiliki kad kredit.
4. Pengguna lebih cenderung membeli perabot dan perkakas rumah melalui bayaran
ansuran dan tidak secara tunai, meskipun kadangkala ia di luar kemampuan
pendapatan.
5. Tidak ramai pengguna yang membaca label produk yang hendak dibeli terlebih
dahulu sebelum membelinya.
6. Majoriti pengguna mudah tertarik dengan iklan dan pujuk rayu penjual dan
kebanyakan mereka gagal mengelakkan diri mereka dari pujukan ini.
1361
Daripada fakta di atas jelas membuktikan praktis perbelanjaan masyarakat yang
berasaskan utiliti semata-mata. Mereka mengenepikan perkara-perkara yang berkaitan dengan
prioriti perbelanjaan dalam kehidupan. Pada perspektif sejarah, setelah berlakunya kejatuhan
negara-negara Islam khususnya kejatuhan Empayar Uthmaniyyah pada 1582 oleh tentera
Mongul, secara umumnya umat Islam mulai ketinggalan dalam pelbagai aspek kehidupan.
Dominasi sistem Islam dalam kehidupan yang telah menyinari kehidupan benua Asia dan
Eropah selama berabad-abad mulai pudar. Dengan bangkitnya Eropah dan berlakunya
penjajahan ke atas negara-negara Islam dalam jangka waktu yang lama telah meninggalkan
kesan yang mendalam. Hampir keseluruhan sistem hidup telah dipengaruhi oleh nilai-nilai
barat. Gaya hidup masyarakat Islam adalah lebih mirip kepada acuan yang di bawa oleh barat
termasuklah dalam aspek kepenggunaan atau perbelanjaan.
Pendekatan yang dikemukakan oleh barat melalui pelbagai sistem dan teori khususnya
kapitalis yang lebih menumpukan kepada praktis pengguna bagi memaksimakan kepuasan
dalam perspektif yang terhad. Penggunaan dan perbelanjaan merupakan satu tahap yang
paling akhir dalam proses ekonomi, akhirnya telah berjaya membentuk satu pola yang asing
dari kacamata Islam. Dalam sistem kapitalis, wang adalah merupakan perangsang tunggal
kepenggunaan atau perbelanjaan yang terhasil menerusi peningkatan pendapatan hasil dari
peningkatan daya pengeluaran. Sistem ekonomi ini digerakkan melalui kuasa beli yang
dimanifestasikan oleh wang.
1362
Kesan amalan kuasa beli dalam sistem ekonomi ini adalah
amat mendalam dan telah mempengaruhi hampir semua masyarakat manusia termasuklah
masyarakat Islam sendiri dengan mengenepikan kewujudan kaedah dan garis panduan
perbelanjaan dalam Islam.
Aspek perbelanjaan pada hari ini dilihat dari sudut yang terasing dan bersifat peribadi
tanpa merujuk kepada ilmu fiqh atau ekonomi Islam. Tidak ada keperluan atau kaitan dengan
soal-soal ibadat dalam perbelanjaan. Gejala ini menjadi lebih serius apabila faham sekular
yang telah tercetus di barat telah menyerap masuk ke dalam sistem ekonomi terutama sekali
dalam era moden yang kini didominasi oleh pemikiran barat khususnya faham kapitalis,
menyebabkan corak atau 'kaedah' perbelanjaan bertunjangkan kepada konsep utiliti. Dengan
fahaman ini, perbelanjaan adalah diukur dengan tingkat kepuasan individu yang berbelanja.
Seterusnya aliran ini telah membentuk satu bentuk isme yang berpengaruh iaitu dikenali
sebagai golongan yang berfahaman utilitirianisme. Dengan pelbagai faktor yang ada
khususnya dalam dunia pendidikan dan ekonomi yang berpusat di barat, aliran ini telah
merebak di seluruh dunia dan menjadi sebati dalam pemikiran dan tingkah laku masyarakat.
1361
Norhasliza Mohd Shafi, Ketahui Tabiat Anda Ketika Membeli-Belah: Mingguan Wanita: Hal. 44.
1362
Muhamad Syukri Salleh, Konsep Dan Pembangunan Berteraskan Islam: Hal. 39.
Ezani Yaakub & Mohd Nor Mamat / 939
Lebih menyedihkan lagi masyarakat yang dinamakan muslim telah turut sama
dipengaruhi aliran ini walaupun ianya tidak sealiran dengan apa yang ada dalam ajaran Islam
yang bersumberkan wahyu. Individu muslim secara realiti dan praktis tidak lagi beramal
dengan kaedah-kaedah yang digariskan. Bahkan lebih memilukan lagi, mereka pada
umumnya tidak mengetahui adanya kaedah-kaedah atau panduan-panduan yang telah
termaktub dalam khazanah Islam. Perbelanjaan seolah-olah suatu yang terasing dan terpisah
daripada amalan dan ilmu Islam. Mereka hanya berpandangan bahawa apabila seseorang itu
telah berkemampuan atau baligh, maka bolehlah dia melakukan perbelanjaan. Ini boleh
diistilahkan dengan pengurusan perbelanjaan automatik. Cara atau kaedah dia berbelanja
adalah terpulang kepada cita rasa dan kemampuan yang ada. Tidak pernah diajar suatu
kaedah yang menerangkan tahap-tahap perbelanjaan. Sekiranya diajar, paling maksimun ialah
jangan membazir dan boros. Apa itu pemborosan dan apa itu pembaziran secara lebih
mendalam tidak dipelajari. Amalan berhutang misalnya telah menjadi sesuatu yang sangat
sebati dengan kebanyakan masyarakat. Hutang dilihat sebagai suatu peluang yang positif.
Adalah terlalu sukar untuk mencari individu yang tidak berhutang kerana kurangnya
kefahaman tentang perbelanjaan dalam Islam. Keharusan berhutang dalam amalan hari ini
tidak lagi diukur mengikut ukuran yang ditetapkan dalam Islam. Seringkali budaya telah
membentuk pola perbelanjaan masyarakat.
Idea kesederhanaan adalah satu topik umum yang popular di kalangan masyarakat,
khususnya masyarakat Islam. Namun, apakah ukuran kesederhanaan dan garis panduan
terhadap prinsip ini tidak pernah diperjelaskan secara terperinci. Dalam hal ini masyarakat
muslim atau bukan Islam tidak ada perbezaan kerana perbelanjaan dilhat sebagai suatu yang
lumrah dan semulajadi serta tidak memerlukan kepada kaedah. Ia seolah-olah melampaui
batas mana-mana ajaran agama. Oleh sebab itu, tidak hairanlah suatu kajian mendapati gaya
hidup masyarakat Malaysia yang sebegini telah membuka peluang kepada pemasar untuk
memasarkan produk-produk mereka di sini secara mudah dan terbuka.
1363
Aspek di atas bukan sahaja dilihat berlaku pada bulan-bulan tertentu sahaja sebaliknya ia
berlaku sepanjang tahun termasuk bulan Ramadhan. Sepatutnya pada bulan ini corak
perbelanjaan umat Islam akan berubah. Sekurang-kurangnya pada tahap yang sederhana
dalam ertikata sebenar menurut perspektif ekonomi Islam dan bukan menurut perspektif lain.
Lebih serius lagi bulan Ramadhan kini seolah-olah menjadi bulan perbelanjaan secara besar-
besaran masyarakat Islam di Malaysia. Kita dapati secara jelas telah terbentuk satu
kefahaman atau budaya yang menyaksikan bahawa Ramadhan adalah waktu kewujudan bazar
jualan pelbagai jenis fesyen pakaian untuk menyambut hari raya dan pesta makanan. Tanpa
adanya jualan kuih-muih, lauk-pauk dan pelbagai lagi keperluan hajiyyat dan tahsiniyyat,
maka bulan Ramadhan seolah-olah tidak sempurna atau menimbulkan keanehan di kalangan
masyarakat hari ini.
Bagi pihak peniaga, bulan ini sangat dinanti-nantikan kerana ia dianggap bulan yang
akan melimpahkan peluang untuk menambahkan pendapatan. Usaha-usaha yang produktif
dan inovatif telah dilakukan oleh pihak peniaga bagi menarik para pelanggan yang sedang
menunaikan ibadat puasa untuk membeli barangan mereka dengan pelbagai cara dan gaya.
Berdasarkan kepada analisa penyelidikan ke atas perbelanjaan Ramadhan sebagai fokus
dengan perbandingan kepada bulan-bulan lain, sebanyak 500 responden yang telah menjawab
soalan-soalan yang disediakan dengan lengkap (Rujuk Jadual 1).
Berdasarkan kepada 500 responden warga Bandaraya Shah Alam
Perbelanjaan Kurang RM251- RM501- RM751- Lebih
1363
Op Cit, Perlakuan Pengguna: Hal. 209.
940 / ISoIT 2004
Sebulan RM250 500 750 1000 RM10
00
Makanan 177 198 68 23 24
Pakaian 375 69 28 19 9
Lain-lain 247 147 45 25 36
Berdasarkan kepada 500 responden warga Bandaraya Shah Alam
Perbelanjaan
Ramadhan
Kurang
RM250
RM251-
500
RM501-
750
RM751-
1000
Lebih
RM10
00
Makanan 180 189 76 33 22
Pakaian 200 178 65 34 23
Lain-lain 258 133 47 34 28
Jadual 1
Gaya Perbelanjaan Bulanan Vs Ramadhan
Daripada data tersebut secara berbading antara perbelanjaan bulanan dan bulan
Ramadhan, jelas menunjukkan hanya wujud peningkatan dan penyusutan yang sangat
minima. Tidak berlaku perbelanjaan yang ketara samada di bulan-bulan biasa atau pada bulan
Ramadhan. Bahkan perbelanjaan makanan antara RM751-RM1000 sebulan kekal pada kadar
6.6%. Secara keseluruhannya, responden tidak memberikan tindak balas yang berbeza dalam
perbelanjaan mereka. Oleh itu fakta ini membuktikan bahawa masyarakat Islam dari segi pola
perbelanjaan makanan secara berterusan mengekalkan jumlah perbelanjaan mereka sepanjang
tahun walaupun di bulan Ramadhan. Keadaan ini adalan neutral dan hakikat perbelanjaan
makanan Ramadhan nampaknya tidak berkurangan atau kurang menepati sasaran makna serta
aspirasi Ramadhan.
Dalam aspek perbelanjaan untuk pakaian, dibandingkan perbelanjaan pada bulan-bulan
biasa dengan bulan Ramadhan, telah berlaku peningkatan perbelanjaan bagi sejumlah besar
responden. Semua kategori perbelanjaan telah meningkat kecuali kumpulan yang pertama
telah menyusut dengan ketara. Fakta ini jelas mendedahkan bahawa pengguna-pengguna
muslim telah berbelanja pada kadar yang lebih tinggi daripada bulan-bulan biasa.
Peningkatan yang paling besar sekali terjadi pada mereka berbelanja untuk pakaian pada
kadar RM250-RM500 sebulan iaitu 21.8%. Dapatan ini membuktikan bahawa masyarakat
Islam telah mengubah pola perbelanjaan pakaian mereka pada bulan Ramadhan. Faktor ini
mungkin ada kewajarannya iaitu bagi persediaan mereka membeli pakaian untuk menyambut
Idul Fitri.
Bagi perbelanjaan-perbelanjaan lain, disimpulkan bahawa tidak berlaku perbezaan yang
ketara pada corak perbelanjaan. Terdapat sedikit peningkatan pada kadar yang minima di
antara kedua-dua musim ini. Kadar peningkatan dan penyusutannya adalah berada dalam
jajaran 0.5%-3% sahaja. Ini membukti sikap pengguna muslim yang masih terus dengan gaya
hidup biasa mereka iaitu terus mengekalkan corak perbelanjaan mereka walaupun pada bulan
Ramadhan sekalipun. Secara berterusan mereka masih mengekalkan jumlah perbelanjaan
mereka sepanjang tahun walaupun di bulan Ramadhan dan ini kurang menepati serta
menghayati makna Ramadhan.
Sebanyak 45.8% responden mengatakan bahawa mereka berbelanja secara terancang.
28.8% pula menyatakan bahawa perbelanjaan mereka tidak terancang. Manakala 25.4% tidak
pasti tentang corak perbelanjaan yang mereka lakukan. Dari hasil dapatan ini dan dengan
Ezani Yaakub & Mohd Nor Mamat / 941
GAYA PERBELANJAAN
46%
29%
25%
Terancang Tidak Terancang Tidak Pasti
TAHAP KEFAHAMAN PERBELANJAAN PRIORITI (ISLAM)
29%
71%
Faham Tidak Faham
andaian bahawa mereka yang tidak pasti juga dikategorikan sebagai tidak terancang, dapat
disimpulkan bahawa 54.2% responden tidak melakukan perbelanjaan mereka secara objektif.
Keadaan ini mendedahkan kepada risiko berhutang.
Carta 1
Berhubung dengan kefahaman pengguna muslim tentang prinsip perbelanjaan Islam,
hanya 29% responden yang menyatakan bahawa mereka memahami tentang prinsip
perbelanjaan Islam. Selebihnya iaitu 71% responden tidak memahami tentang prinsip Islam.
Carta 2
942 / ISoIT 2004
Ini bererti lebih dari 2/3 daripada mereka tidak berbelanja mengikut kaedah yang
digariskan dalam Islam, walaupun 45% daripada mereka mengatakan telah berbelanja secara
terancang. Dapatan ini jelas memerlukan satu pendekatan yang menyeluruh agar prinsip
perbelanjaan dalam Islam dipelajari dan dihayati oleh umat Islam sebagai suatu ibadah.
Dari segi faktor berbelanja lebih pada bulan Ramadhan, 24.6% mengatakan terpengaruh
dengan promosi yang dijalankan. 41.8% mengatakan ia berlaku disebabkan tiada perancangan
dalam perbelanjaan. 11.4% pula berbelanja kerana desakan nafsu membeli. 11% berbelanja
lebih kerana pertambahan keperluan. 6.2% pula terpaksa berbelanja lebih kerana berlaku
kenaikan harga. 5% pula tidak pasti sebab mereka berbelanja lebih.
Berdasarkan kepada 500 responden warga Bandaraya Shah Alam
Faktor Utama Mendorong Perbelanjaan Lebih Peratus
Tiada Perancangan Belanja 41.8%
Pengaruh Promosi 24.6%
Desakan Nafsu Membeli 11.4%
Pertambahan Keperluan 11%
Kenaikan Harga 6.2%
Tidak Pasti 5%
Carta 2
Faktor Utama Mendorong Perbelanjaan Lebih
Dari dapatan ini jelas menunjukkan hanya 17.2% responden yang benar-benar
mempunyai sikap objektif dalam perbelanjaan Ramadhan mereka. Selebihnya 82.8% tidak
mempunyai sikap objektif dalam perbelanjaan Ramadhan mereka dan jelas lebih terdorong
kepada perbelanjaan utiliti. Angka ini adalah merupakan sesuatu yang besar dan serius
kepada umat Islam.
Kesimpulan dan Cadangan
Purata masyarakat awam Islam di bandaraya tidak begitu didedahkan dengan konsep
perbelanjaan menurut tuntutan perekonomian Islam ataupun kefahaman konsep pengurusan
harta secara adil dan berhikmah. Data maklumbalas yang diperolehi amat jelas menunjukkan
berlaku kekeliruan di kalangan masyarakat Islam berkaitan konsep perbelanjaan sebenar.
Hanya kurang 1/3 daripada keseluruhan responden yang memahami tentang prinsip
perbelanjaan menurut Islam.
Tokoh ilmuan semasa merumuskan konsep perbelanjaan yang yang dianggap asasi
menurut definisi dharuriyyat bagi masyarakat Islam secara umumnya adalah merangkumi
aspek makanan dan minuman, pakaian dan tempat tinggal. Manakala sebahagian ilmuan
semasa meletakkan aspek kenderaan juga sebagai asas dharuriyyat untuk tujuan pencarian
nafkah, menuntut ilmu dan urusan-urusan fardhu ain yang lain. Menurut garis panduan yang
dikemukakan oleh Sahibus Samahah Dato Haji Noh Gadot, apsek lain yang turut menjadi
keperluan asas ialah pendidikan fardhu ain dan penjagaan kesihatan secara umum. Dengan
penyesuaian kehidupan di bandaraya, aspek simpanan asas dan insurans tertentu juga
dianggap sebagai keperluan yang diletakkan pada tahap hajiyyat.
Ezani Yaakub & Mohd Nor Mamat / 943
Khusus bagi bulan Ramadhan, tokoh ilmuan Islam semasa merumuskan praktis
pemakanan yang berdasarkan definisi dharuriyyat sebagai makanan ringan untuk bersahur,
makanan berat untuk berbuka dan makanan ringan untuk minum malam ataupun moreh.
Begitu juga, garis panduan yang dikemukakan oleh Sahibus Samahah Dato Hj Hassan Hj
Ahmad perlu diberi perhatian iaitu pakaian hari raya yang menjadi tuntutan (sekiranya
mampu) adalah bersederhana; sepasang pakaian Melayu dan sepasang pakaian kasual yang
sesuai bagi masyarakat Melayu. Ini adalah garis panduan kesederhanaan agar budaya
perbelanjaan kita tidak melampaui batas.
Begitu juga, modul pendidikan ke arah perbelanjaan berhemah menurut tuntutan Islam
adalah sesuatu yang sangat diperlukan oleh masyarakat Islam hari ini. Dapatan yang
diperolehi amat signifikan dan jelas menunjukkan ketandusan kefahaman di kalangan
masyarakat Islam serta permintaan dan minat ke arah mengguna pakai modul perbelanjaan
Islam.
Pada masa yang sama, garis panduan atau templat perancangan kewangan keluarga,
perancangan perbelanjaan, plan bajet dan sebagainya tidak mengambilkira hirarki
perbelanjaan yang dituntut oleh Islam. Dalam konteks ini, konsep ibadah dalam Islam akan
terjejas sekiranya amalan yang dilakukan tidak berdasarkan hirarki ataupun meninggalkan
aspek yang lebih afdhal; berdasarkan konsep fiqh al aulawiyyat. Pada bulan Ramadhan
khususnya, terdapat praktis yang tidak bersesuaian dan keterlaluan berlaku dalam masyarakat
Islam di negara kita terutamanya di bandaraya seperti sambutan budaya beli belah, sambutan
pesta pelbagai makanan dan minuman, malah konsep bersedekah untuk majlis berbuka puasa
dan moreh juga membawa lebih banyak kepada pembaziran secara tidak munasabah.
Bagi memenuhi maksud ibadat, perbelanjaan mestilah berasaskan panduan yang telah
dinyatakan dalam Al Quran dan Al Hadis iaitu secara sederhana. Sederhana yang dikehendaki
ialah berasaskan keadah-kaedah fiqh iaitu berbelanja berdasarkan empat tahap keperluan
yang dibenarkan oleh syarak. Ini adalah selari dengan objektif utama syariah iaitu
mempertingkatkan kebajikan manusia dengan memelihara akidah, akal, nyawa, zuriat dan
harta. Sesuatu yang boleh menjamin pemeliharaan kelima-lima perkara itu akan memenuhi
kepentingan awam dan sesuatu yang amat dikehendaki. Oleh itu dalam aspek perbelanjaan
bagi keperluan penggunaan (consumption) Islam telah mengatur sistem keutamaan (prioriti).
Keutamaan (prioriti) yang dimaksudkan dalam konteks ini ialah mendahulukan atau
mementingkan apa yang lebih utama. Di samping itu tujuannya ialah untuk memenuhi
keperluan hidup dengan melihat tuntutan yang mana satu yang mesti didahulukan. Terdapat
beberapa peringkat keutamaan (prioriti) yang dimaksudkan, iaitu dharuriyyat, hajiyyat,
tahsiniyyat, kamaliyyat dan tarfihiyyat.
Oleh itu setiap mukallaf dikehendaki memahami dan mengikuti tahap-tahap perbelanjaan
seperti berikut:
Tahap Dharuriyyat - Bermaksud keperluan asas yang mesti dipenuhi. Sekiranya
keperluan pada tahap ini tiada, adalah mustahil dan terlalu sukar bagi manusia untuk
meneruskan kehidupannya. Asas kepada perkara ini ialah tujuan syariat iaitu bagi menjaga
agama, melindungi jiwa, akal, keturunan dan harta. Sehubungan telah digariskan enam
perkara yang mesti diberikan penumpuan iaitu:
1. Makanan/ Minuman
2. Pakaian
3. Tempat Tinggal
4. Pendidikan
5. Kesihatan
6. Keselamatan
Keperluan yang tidak mencukupi bagi memenuhi aspek-aspek ini diharuskan oleh syarak
untuk berhutang. Bahkan dalam keadaan yang terdesak, para fuqaha juga mengharuskan
944 / ISoIT 2004
hutang yang mengandungi riba. Ini adalah kerana kemaslahatan. Di antara hujjah yang
dikemukakan oleh para ulama ialah ayat Al Quran :
Barangsiapa yang berada dalam keadaan terpaksa sedangkan ia tidak menginginkan dan tidak pula
melampui batas, maka tidak ada dosa baginya. (Al Baqarah: 173)
Selepas semua perbelanjaan asasi ini berjaya dipenuhi secara stabil, maka perbelanjaan
untuk melakukan ibadat haji wajib diberikan keutamaan. Ini adalah kerana ianya merupakan
rukun Islam yang wajib ditunaikan apabila cukup syarat-syaratnya. Sebagai seorang muslim
yang mukmin, sudah pasti tahap perbelanjaan mesti ditumpukan pada tahap ini terlebih
dahulu demi melaksanakan kewajipan yang telah diperintahkan oleh Allah SWT.
Dalam sebuah hadis Qudsi, Abu Darda RA berkata bahawa Nabi SAW bersabda:
Allah telah berfirman: Sesungguhnya seorang hamba yang Aku beri kesihatan badannya dan diluaskan
rezekinya, kemudian sehingga empat tahun tidak datang berkunjung kepadaKu (melaksanakan haji),
sesungguhnya orang itu sangat rugi.
Apabila keenam-enam perkara di atas telah berjaya dipenuhi secara lengkap dan stabil
serta telah menunaikan rukun Islam yang kelima iaitu haji, maka barulah fokus perbelanjaan
boleh ditumpukan pada tahap yang kedua iaitu Hajjiyat.
Tahap Hajjiyyat - Keperluan yang lebih sempurna dan memberi kesan kepada mutu
kehidupan dan kerja. Setelah keperluan pada tahap dharuriyat berjaya dipenuhi secara
berterusan barulah peringkat ini boleh difokuskan. Kebanyakan keperluan pada peringkat ini
berupa peralatan yang memberi kesan kepada mutu kehidupan. Ciri utama keperluan pada
peringkat ini ialah cepat, tepat dan berkesan. Umpamanya kenderaan yang sudah pasti akan
mempercepatkan perjalanan seseorang itu ke mana-mana destinasi. Dalam tahap ini
seseorang itu perlu memokuskan perbelanjaannya pada tahap memenuhi keperluan-keperluan
yang bersangkutan dengan aspek-aspek ini. Pada tahap ini, berhutang dalam beberapa perkara
masih lagi dianggap keperluan yang diharuskan.
Tahap Tahsiniyat - Keperluan yang memperelokkan dan tahap kehidupan semakin baik.
Tahap ini adalah hampir sama seperti peringkat sebelumnya tetapi mengandungi unsur
keselesaan. Umpamanya dari segi kenderaan pada tahap hajiyat adalah motosikal tetapi
kenderaan pada tahap tahsiniyyah adalah motokar yang sesuai dengan kuasa beli seseorang
muslim itu. Pada tahap ini juga berhutang masih lagi diharuskan dalam keadaan batas
sempadan kuasa beli yang sesuai dengan pendapatan.
Tahap Kamaliyyat - Ini adalah peringkat kemewahan dan merupakan peringkat terakhir
yang dibenarkan oleh Islam. Firman Allah:
Wahai orang-orang yang beriman, janganlah kamu haramkan apa-apa yang baik yang telah Allah
halalkan kepada kamu, dan janganlah kamu melampui batas. (Al Maidah: 87)
Semua keperluan mewah yang diingini dan dihajati oleh manusia diizinkan oleh Allah
SWT kepada hambanya. Keizinan ini jelas berasaskan keupayaan dan kuasa beli yang telah
dimiliki oleh individu muslim itu. Sesiapa pun yang berada dalam tahap ini boleh menikmati
rezeki yang dimilikinya itu sesuai dengan apa yang ada. Islam tidak pernah menyekat naluri
manusia yang sememangnya sukakan kemewahan dan keselesaan. Keperluan ini termasuklah
Ezani Yaakub & Mohd Nor Mamat / 945
kenderaan, tempat tinggal, pakaian, bangunan, peralatan dan lain-lain lagi. Oleh itu
pandangan bahawa Islam tidak boleh bermewah adalah kurang tepat jika dirujuk kepada nas
di atas. Asas yang penting dalam tahap ini untuk menikmati kurniaan Allah dan bukan untuk
melakukan perkara yang ditegah oleh Islam seperti riak, sombong, membazir, melampau dan
lain-lain perkara yang negatif. Pada tahap ini juga berhutang tidak lagi digalakkan kerana
tiada lagi keperluan pada seseorang yang berada pada tahap ini. Namun ia bukanlah sampai
kepada peringkat haram untuk berhutang. Jika dia melakukan juga, sebenarnya perbuatan itu
telah menutup peluang pihak lain yang benar-benar memerlukannya. Sedangkan apa yang
telah dimiliki itu tidak sepatutnya lagi memerlukan kepada hutang.
Inilah keempat-empat tahap yang telah disusun oleh para ulamak dalam menentukan
keutamaan perbelanjaan. Hanya empat tahap ini sahaja yang dibenarkan. Manakala peringkat
yang kelima adalah tahap yang diharamkan sama sekali, iaitu tahap tarfihiyyat.
Tahap Tarfihiyyat - Pada tahap ini, perbelanjaan diharamkan sama sekali. Ini adalah
kerana ianya membawa kepada kemudaratan kepada kepentingan manusia seluruhnya.
Pengharaman ini juga kerana berlakunya pemborosan, pembaziran serta tidak munasabah
atau tidak rasional. Ini berdasarkan firman Allah:
Dan makanlah serta minumlah, dan janganlah melampui batas. Sesungguhnya Allah tidak suka orang
melampui batas. (Al Araf: 31)
Sesungguhnya orang-orang yang membazir adalah saudara syaitan (Al Isra: 27)
Kelima-lima keutamaan (prioriti) yang disebutkan ini perlulah dibezakan supaya setiap
orang dapat menentukan keutamaan (prioriti) yang mana satu yang harus didahulukan atau
diutamakan. Keutamaan al dharuriyyat mestilah didahulukan daripada keutamaan al hajiyyat,
dan keutamaan al hajiyyat mestilah didahulukan daripada keutamaan al tahsiniyyat.
Apabila setiap muslim mengetahui dan menghayati akan peringkat-peringkat keutamaan
(prioriti) ini, maka cara berbelanja akan lebih terfokus dan mendatangkan banyak manfaat
pada diri sendiri, orang lain yang mempunyai hak terhadapnya dan juga pada masyarakat
serta negara keseluruhannya.
Berhati-hati dan berhemah dalam perbelanjaan adalah amat penting. Apabila hendak
berbelanja, perlu difikirkan terlebih dahulu tahap kewajarannya. Adakah telah tertunai hak
orang lain dalam harta yang dimiliki, adakah sudah tertunai kewajipan zakat atau tanggung
jawab yang lain? Semua ini memerlukan pertimbangan yang wajar dan terperinci.
Pertimbangan ini perlu berdasarkan perbelanjaan yang seimbang dengan kadar
pendapatan. Namun berdasarkan realiti masyarakat, tidak dapat dinafikan wujudnya
golongan orang yang terpaksa berbelanja melebihi daripada kadar pendapatannya. Keadaan
ini bukan disebabkan pemborosan tetapi kerana desakan memenuhi keperluan asasi. Antara
faktornya disebabkan terpaksa menyara keperluan anggota keluarga yang mempunyai
bilangan yang ramai sedangkan pendapatannya adalah kecil. Keadaan ini tidaklah
dikategorikan sebagai berlebih-lebihan dalam berbelanja atau tidak mengikuti kaedah prioriti.
Golongan seumpama ini ialah terdiri dari orang-orang fakir atau miskin. Di sinilah peranan
946 / ISoIT 2004
Baitulmal melalui pelbagai sumbernya seperti zakat, sedekah dan wakaf membantu golongan
ini. Dalam konteks ini, pembelaan terhadap golongan ini merupakan suatu kewajipan sosial
dan tanggungjawab pemerintah.
Berdasarkan realiti ini, setiap anggota masyarakat yang mempunyai lebihan atau
tambahan daripada keperluan yang ada perlu menunaikan hak hartanya ke atas pihak lain
seperti kepada fakir atau miskin di atas. Tanggungjawab ini sangat relevan dengan satu hadis
yang diriwayatkan daripada Abu Said Al-Khudriy, beliau berkata: Ketika kami dalam
perjalanan bersama-sama Nabi SAW, tiba-tiba datang seorang lelaki menunggang
kenderaannya, lalu dia memalingkan pandangannya ke kanan dan ke kiri. Maka Nabi SAW
bersabda yang mafhumnya:
Barangsiapa membawa tunggangan (kenderaan) tambahan, maka hendaklah dia memberikan tambahan
itu kepada orang yang tidak mempunyai tunggangan, dan barangsiapa memiliki lebihan bekalan, maka
hendaklah dia memberikan lebihan itu kepada orang yang tidak mempunyai bekalan.
Abu Said berkata lagi:
Selanjutnya Rasulullah SAW menyebutkan berbagai jenis harta, hingga kami melihat bahawa tidak ada
seorang pun di antara kami yang mempunyai hak untuk memiliki apa-apa lebihan (atau tambahan).
(Riwayat Muslim)
Dengan mengikuti tahap-tahap keutamaan yang digariskan dalam fiqh muamalah ini,
maka setiap muslim akan dapat melaksanakan perbelanjaan berdasarkan kesederhanaan,
mengelakkan daripada berhutang, mengelakkan dari riba serta memenuhi syarat ibadah.
Penutup
Corak perbelanjaan masyarakat Islam kini lebih cenderung kepada bentuk perbelanjaan
utiliti. Ia bermaksud, perbelanjaan yang dilakukan tidak berdasarkan hirarki keperluan atau
kaedah yang sepatutnya diikuti. Kita dapati berlaku banyak kelemahan dan pembaziran dalam
konsep serta budaya berbelanja sama ada di bulan Ramadhan ataupun juga pada bulan-bulan
yang lain. Sedangkan dari segi tuntutan sebenar, adalah suatu yang tidak wajar dilakukan
demi menghayati semangat Ramadhan sebagai bulan keinsafan, bulan jimat cermat dan bulan
kesyukuran. Kehidupan setiap muslim perlulah sentiasa dalam sempadan syariat, termasuklah
dari segi perbelanjaan. Kesimpulannya, perbelanjaan prioriti mestilah menjadi asas dalam
setiap perbelanjaan yang dilakukan.
Bibliografi
Abu Zuhrah, Al Imam Muhammad (1958). Usul Al Fiqh. Kaherah: Dar Al Fikri Al Arabi.
___________, (1995). Peran Nilai dan Moral dalam Perekonomian Islam. Jakarta: Robbani Press.
BNM (2003). Buku Perancangan dan Penyata Kewangan Keluarga. Kuala Lumpur: Bank Negara
Malaysia.
H. M. Tuah Iskandar Al Haj (2000). Panduan Kenduri Untuk Keluarga dan Kariah. Kuala Lumpur:
Karya Bistari Sdn Bhd.
______________________ (1998). Jimat Cara Islam. Kuala Lumpur: Karya Bistari Sdn Bhd.
http://www.kpdnhq.gov.my/kpdn/hep/BPD/ [Kurangkan Lemak dalam Belanjawan Anda: Buletin
Perlindungan Pengguna. 7 Jun 2002.
http://www.tv3.com.my/news/local/ekonomi/ [Meransang Ekonomi Domestik: Local Highlights. 7
Jun 2002.
http://www.sabah.org.my/bm/konsumer/panduan_pengguna/inflasi.htm [Inflasi: Panduan Pengguna
(Edisi Kedua) KPDNDHEP. 7 Jun 2002.
Jabatan Mufti Kerajaan (2000). Isu-isu Kewangan. Brunei: Jabatan Mufti Kerajaan Negara Brunei
Darussalam.
Lokman Ab. Rahman (1999). Halal dan Kepenggunaan. Melaka: Jabatan Agama Islam Melaka.
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MALAYSIA. Belanjawan Isi Rumah [Siri 1]. Kuala Lumpur: Kementerian Perdagangan dalam Negeri
dan Hal Ehwal Pengguna.
MALAYSIA. Perancangan Ekonomi Isi Rumah [Siri 2]. Kuala Lumpur: Kementerian Perdagangan
dalam Negeri dan Hal Ehwal Pengguna.
Mannan, M. A. (1987). Islamic Economics Theory and Practice. Lahore: SH Muhamad Ashraf.
Marsitah Mohd Radzi (2001). Budaya Konsumer dan Pembentukan Identiti Migran: 3
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International
Malaysian Studies Conference. Bangi: 6-8 Ogos 2001.
Mohd Hamdan Adnan (1990). Ilmu Pengguna. Shah Alam: Institut Teknologi Mara.
Monzer Kahf (1995). Ekonomi Islam. Yogyakarta : Pustaka Pelajar.
Muhammad A. Shahbudin (1997). Peringatan dan Perkhabaran Untuk Si Miskin dan Si Kaya. Johor
Baharu: Perniagaan Jahabersa.
Muhammad Nejjatullah Siddiqi (1989). Pemikiran Ekonomi Islam. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan
Pustaka.
Nabsiah Abdul Majid dan Ishak Ismail (2000). Perlakuan Pengguna. Petaling Jaya: Prentice Hall.
Norhasliza Mohd Shafi (2002). Ketahui Tabiat Anda Ketika Membeli Belah: Mingguan Wanita, April
2002.
Surathman Kastin Hasan (1995). Ekonomi Islam. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Ezani Yaakub & Mohd Nor Mamat
Universiti Teknologi Mara
Shah Alam
40450 Selangor
Mohdnoor@Salam.Uitm.Edu.My
Menjambatkan Masyarakat Majmuk di Malaysia Melalui
Sikap Toleransi
Arena Bt Kasim, Muda @ Ismail Ab Rahman, Jaffary Awang, Rofizah Mohammad @
Mohammad Noor, Tengku Ghani Tengku Jusoh & Mohammad Khatim Hasan
Abstrak
Malaysia sebagai sebuah negara majmuk memiliki pelbagai agama, budaya dan adat
resam dari pelbagai bangsa yang ada. Pelbagai kepercayaan ini memungkin wujudnya
perbezaan pemahaman dan prasangka terhadap satu sama lain. Sikap sebegini pasti akan
menyebabkan berlakunya rusuhan dan pergaduhan yang boleh mengancam kemakmuran
negara. Kertas kerja ini cuba melihat dan membincangkan pelbagai pendekatan yang
dijalankan diperingkat kerjaan, pusat-pusat pengajian tinggi dan sekolah. Kajian
menunjukkan bahawa wujudnya toleransi di kalangan masyarakat di Malaysia terutamanya
dalam aspek kebudayaan, perayaan dan hubungan seharian. Walau bagaimanapun, sikap
toleransi masih lagi kurang berlaku dalam aspek toleransi beragama. Namun adalah
diharapkan usaha murni yang dijalankan oleh pihak kerjaan dan IPTA ini akan membantu
menjana sikap toleransi yang lebih baik lagi di kalangan masyarakat terutamanya yang
melibatkan keagamaan.
Pengenalan
Arab mengutuk penyembelihan rakyat Palestin oleh Israel (Berita Harian 6 Oktober
2004), Israel terus mengganas, bunuh pejuang Palestin (Berita Harian 19 Oktober 2004),
tahanan Islam dedah kezaliman tentera Thailand (Berita Harian 3 November 2004),
pergaduhan antara penduduk minoriti Muslim dan Hindu di India adalah antara tajuk berita
yang sering dipaparkan oleh media massa seperti akhbar dan televisyen. Perkara sebegini
bukan sekali atau sehari dua berlaku namun ia adalah suasana kacau bilau yang berterusan
dan berleluasa berlaku di setiap penjuru dunia setiap detik dan ketika. Fenomena sebegini
sememangnya amat menakutkan kerana ia boleh terjadi di mana-mana dan bila-bila masa
sahaja.
Malaysia sebagai sebuah negara yang mempunyai penduduk berbilang bangsa juga tidak
terkecuali daripada mengalami keadaan ini di mana pada 13 Mei 1969 telah berlaku rusuhan
kaum. Pergaduhan ini telah mengorbankan sejumlah nyawa yang tidak berdosa. Rentetan
dari peristiwa itu, pihak kerjaan telah melancarkan pelbagai program bercorak integrasi, dasar
dan polisi yang lebih toleran demi memastikan peristiwa berdarah tersebut tidak berulang
lagi.
Syamsul Amri Baharuddin (2004) telah membincangkan tentang sejauhmana
berlangsungnya amalan toleransi beragama di Malaysia. Sungguhpun Islam merupakan
agama rasmi dalam peruntukan Perlembagaan Malaysia, namun kebebasan beragama tetap
terpelihara. Beliau juga turut menyentuh mengenai senario yang berlaku di luar negara
Arena Bt Kasim et. al. / 949
berhubung toleransi agama yang semakin menipis. Penganut agama Islam di Barat ketika ini
didiskriminasikan dalam pelbagai cara.
Namun begitu menurut penulis ini lagi, amalan toleransi beragama begitu menonjol di
kalangan masyarakat di Malaysia. Contohnya ketika perayaan sesuatu agama, diadakan acara
rumah terbuka, ketika itu pemimpin dan rakyat semua kaum dan agama dapat berkumpul
dalam suasana penuh harmoni. Bagi memberi kefahaman yang lebih mendalam berkenaan
toleransi agama, diadakan pelbagai seminar antara ketua agama (Islam, Kristian, Hindu dan
Buddha) serta diwujudkan Pusat Dialog Peradaban di Universiti Malaya (UM) bagi mencapai
tujuan tersebut. Namun begitu, toleransi agama yang diamalkan di Malaysia kadangkala
tercabar dengan isu murtad di kalangan umat Islam yang semakin ketara dan berleluasa
sekarang ini.
Cheu Hock Tong (1984), dalam tulisannya menumpukan kepada beberapa aspek penting
seperti konsep nilai dan perkaitannya dengan norma, ciri nilai umum dan khusus dalam
agama bukan Islam serta perkaitannya dengan agama Islam. Nilai-nilai lain seperti nilai
bersama dan asas perumusan nilai-nilai yang dikongsi bersama oleh rakyat Malaysia, strategi
dan saluran yang boleh digunakan untuk amalan nilai bersama demi kepentingan integrasi
nasional. Penulis menegaskan bahawa agama berfungsi sebagai suatu institusi sosial yang
mana ia merupakan satu keperluan asas yang disusun secara formal dan berterusan. Keadaan
ini bukan sahaja tertakluk kepada agama Islam, tetapi juga agama keturunan Cina, India,
Serani, dan anamisme rakyat peribumi dan Orang Asli di Semenanjung, Kadazan dan Murut
di Sabah serta Iban dan Kayan di Sarawak. Beliau juga menyatakan nilai bukan Islam seperti
juga nilai Islam boleh berfungsi sebagai satu kuasa kesepaduan yang kuat dalam mencapai
kesefahaman.
Berdasarkan situasi ini maka, penulisan ini dibuat untuk melihat bagaimanakah sikap
toleransi mampu menjadi pemangkin perpaduan di kalangan rakyat berbilang bangsa di
negara ini.
Definisi Agama, Budaya, Masyarakat, Kaum dan Toleransi
Agama yang disebut sebagai ad-din dalam Islam membawa maksud menguasai,
menduduki, patuh, balasan atau kebiasaan. Ia juga membawa maksud peraturan-peraturan
yang berupa hukuman yang harus dipatuhi baik dalam bentuk perintah yang wajib
dilaksanakan ataupun berupa larangan yang harus ditinggalkan dan pembalasannya. Menurut
The New Websters International Encyclopedia (1996): Religion- system of belief to which a
social group is committed, in which there is a supernatural object of awe, worship and
service. It generally provides a system of ethics and a worldwide that supply a stable context
within which each person can relate to others and to the world and can understand his or her
own significance (hal 912).
Menurut Kamus Dewan (1996) pula, agama merupakan kepercayaan tuhan dan sifat-
sifatnya serta kekuasaan tuhan dan penerimaan ajaran dan perintahNya , kepercayaan pada
Yang Maha Kuasa. Ensiklopedi Agama untuk pelajar (2001) pula mentafsirkan agama dari
sudut bahasa berasal dari bahasa Sanskerta yang membawa maksud tidak pergi, tetap di
tempat, diwarisi turun temurun. (Inggeris- religion, Perancis- la religion, Belanda- de religie,
Jerman- die religion)
Agama dari sudut istilah pula ialah pegangan yang diiktikadkan oleh orang-orang yang
beragama untuk mensucikannya dan lawannya adalah orang-orang zindik (atheis) dan
950 / ISoIT 2004
golongan munafik yang mana mereka mneyembunyikan kekufuran dan menzahirkan
keislaman (Muhammad Jawad Mughniyyah t.th).
Secara umumnya perkataan agama itu mengandungi beberapa agama peghuni bumi
semua sekali dan ianya terdiri daripada dua jenis yang bertentang mengikut sumber dan
puncanya. Namun sejumlah ahli agama mengklasifikasikan agama dari sudut etnografi-
linguistik iaitu memiliki asal kebudayaan dan bahasa yang sama. Agama ketuhanan (adyan
ilahiyyah), semitik atau samawi iaitu berasal dari langit yang dibawa turun ke bumi melalui
wahyu daripada Allah kepada RasulNya dengan perantaraan Jibrail sebagai penyampainya
(Islam, Kristian dan Yahudi).
Agama-agama buatan di bumi atau ardhi dan diasaskan atau berdasarkan pemikiran
manusia dan kecenderungan mereka (Muhammad Jawad Mughniyyah t.th). Agama ini
dipecahkan kepada dua iaitu agama aryan yang merangkumi Hindu, Buddha, Jainisme, Sikh
dan Zoroaster. Manakala agama Mongol pula meliputi agama-agama seperti Konfucinisme,
Taoisme dan Shintoisme (Ensiklopedi Agama untuk pelajar 2001).
Walau bagaimanapun wujud juga sinkretisme agama dimana ia merupakan fahaman atau
aliran baru yang merupakan paduan di antara beberapa agama yang berbeza bertujuan untuk
mencari keserasian dan keseimbangan. Fahaman ini muncul kerana wujudnya usaha untuk
membuat sintaksis atas prinsip-prinsip bertentangan dan sintesis atas peradaban yang
memiliki hakikat yang berlainan.
Manakala budaya pula umumnya kerap ditakrifkan sebagai gaya hidup sesuatu
masyarakat (http://www.kpdnhq.gov.my/kpdn/hep/BPD/10_2001/10_2001_3.htm). Definisi
budaya tertua dari E.B. Taylor misalnya, menyatakan bahawa budaya adalah keseluruhan hal
yang kompleks termasuk pengetahuan, kepercayaan, seni, moral, hukum, adat istiadat, dan
kemampuan serta kebiasaan lain yang diperoleh manusia sebagai anggota masyarakat
(http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/0503/08/khazanah/lainnya06.htm). Kamus Dewan
(1996) pula mendefinisikan budaya sebagai tamadun, peradaban, kemajuan fikiran, akal budi
atau cara berfikir, berkelakuan dan sebagainya. The New Websters International
Encyclopedia (1996) seterusnya mentakrifkan budaya sebagai: term for the generally way of
life a human society, including ways of thinking, beliefs, customs, language, technology, art,
music, literature and traditions (hal 282).
Apabila kita memperkatakan tentang kebudayaan sesuatu bangsa, maka perkara yang
biasanya akan timbul dalam pemikiran kita, bahawa budaya itu adalah segala perkara yang
berkaitan dengan segala bentuk kegiatan seni, sama ada seni lukis, seni muzik ataupun seni
tarian dan sebagainya. Tetapi sebenarnya maksud budaya adalah lebih daripada itu. Budaya
sebenarnya adalah cara hidup sesuatu masyarakat serta kemajuan keseluruhan cara hidup
manusia yang melibatkan akal, akhlak dan daya usaha mereka. Jadi secara tidak langsung,
budaya itu mencerminkan taraf pencapaian serta perilaku kehidupan sesebuah masyarakat. Ia
meliputi beberapa perkara penting seperti peningkatan ilmu, cara kita berfikir, cara kita
bertindak dan juga cara kita mengurus serta mentadbir kehidupan seharian
(http://www.muis.gov.sg/rservices/oom_files/K1289.doc).
Istilah masyarakat hanya digunakan dalam peristilahan dunia Melayu seperti di Malaysia,
Indonesia, Brunei, Singapura dan Selatan Thailand yang secara leksikal (asal kata) di ambil
dari bahasa Arab iaitu syaraka yang bermaksud bersyarikat atau bersekutu dengan
pengertian berhubungan dan pembentukan satu kelompok, golongan dan atau kumpulan.
Istilah masyarakat ini juga dinamakan sebagai pergaulan hidup. Dalam bahasa Arab sendiri
kata yang digunakan untuk menunjukkan pengertian masyarakat atau pergaulan hidup itu
ialah al-mujtama, dan bukannya syaraka. Manakala dalam bahasa Inggeris masyarakat
diungkap dengan istilah society yang diambil dari kata social. Istilah ini menunjukkan erti
pergaulan, hubungan manusia dengan kehidupan kelompok manusia dengan aturan hidup
yang lebih kompleks dan tersusun (Sidi Gazalba 1976).
Arena Bt Kasim et. al. / 951
Adapun secara terminologi menurut B.J. Bouman, masyarakat ialah kerjasama dan
kehidupan bersama dengan segala bentuk yang timbul dari hubungan antara manusia.
Menurut Kuncaraningrat pula masyarakat ialah kelompok terbesar dari makhluk-makhluk
manusia dan hidup terjaring dalam satu kebudayaan. Manakala bagi Ralph Linton,
masyarakat ialah kelompok manusia yang telah cukup lama hidup dan bekerjasama sehingga
dapat mengorganisasikan dirinya dan berfikir mengenai dirinya sebagai satu kesatuan sosial
yang mempunyai batas-batas tertentu (Sidi Gazalba 1976).
Berdasarkan kepada beberapa pengertian di atas, terdapat banyak lagi pengertian yang
lain mengenai masyarakat ini. Terdapat beberapa prinsip yang menjadi asas terbinanya
sesebuah masyarakat, di antaranya ialah wujudnya kehidupan secara berkelompok yang
teratur rapi, adanya perhubungan melalui kerjasama serta munculnya kebudayaan. Asas
yang paling utama terbinanya masyarakat adalah dengan adanya kesatuan dan kesamaan
(common platform atau kalimatun sawa), dari segi bahasa, adat resam atau kebudayaan,
geografik, ideologi, agama, politik, ekonomi, sosial, bangsa dan sebagainya yang sekaligus
menjadi kekuatan yang menyatukan semua manusia sehingga terbinanya masyarakat.
Kaum, bangsa dan ras merupakan istilah yang sering digunapakai secara bersilih ganti
untuk menunjukkan perbezaan atau keisitimewaaan yang dimilki oleh manusia. Menurut
Kamus Dewan (1996), kaum membawa maksud puak atau suku bangsa atau jenis bangsa atau
keluarga dan sanak saudara. Manakala ras pula merujuk kepada kaum atau keturunan.
Seterusnya perkataan bangsa menunjuk kepada jenis manusia daripada satu asal keturunan
atau juga kumpulan manusia dalam satu ikatan ketatatnegaraan.
Pada umumnya toleransi diertikan sebagai pemberian kebebasan kepada sesama manusia
atau kepada sesama warga masyarakat untuk menjalankan keyakinannya atau mengaturkan
hidupnya dan menentukan nasibnya masing-masing, selama di dalam menjalankan dan
menentukan sikapnya itu tidak melanggar dan tidak bertentangan dengan syarat-syarat asas
terciptanya ketertiban dan perdamaian dalam masyarakat. Toleransi dalam bahasa Arab biasa
dikatakan ikhtimal, tasaamukh yang bermaksud sikap membiarkan, lapang dada (Umar
Hasyim 1979). Kamus Dewan (1996) merujuk toleransi sebagai sifat atau sikap toleran
(sedia menghormati atau menerima pendapat atau pendirian atau sebagainya orang lain yang
berbeza daripada pendirian atau pendapat atau sebagainya sendiri).
Menurut Websters New American Dictionary erti toleransi ialah memberikan kebebsan
(membiarkan) terhadap pendapat orang lain, dan berlaku sabar menghadapi orang lain (dalam
M. Yunan Nasution 1971). Sikap toleransi mengkehendaki bahawa perbezaan agama,
kepercayaan, keyakinan dan pendirian, pahaman dan penilaian serta yang seerti dengannnya
tidak boleh mmebuat satu garis pemisah mmepengaruhi hubungan di segala bidang
kehidupan. Hubungan yang harmoni, menjauhkan sikap yang kaku dan konfrantasi
hendaklah sentiasa ditanamkan dalam jiwa semua manusia. Toleransi itu boleh membentuk
watak manusia supaya bersikap menahan diri, lapang dada dan luwes (M. Yunan Nasution
1971).
Perbincangan
Pada hakikatnya toleransi ini tidak hanya berlaku pada masa sekarang sahaja bahkan ia
telahpun dilakukan di zaman Rasulullah S.A.W. lagi. Banyak peristiwa dan kisah yang
menunjukkan sikap toleransi yang ada pada Rasulullah S.A.W dalam menangani dan
menyelesaikan banyak masalah yang berlaku di dalam pemerintahan beliau. Sikap toleransi
ini seterusnya diwarisi oleh para sahabat dan pemerintah Islam yang lain semasa zaman
kegemilangan pemerintahan Islam di seluruh dunia.
Dalam sejarah peradaban dunia, sudah wujud agama-agama yang terpesong daripada
mesej sebenar yang berpegang kepada Tuhan yang satu. Kedatangan Islam merupakan satu
952 / ISoIT 2004
transisi peradaban yang membawa perubahan besar terhadap kehidupan manusia yang
bertujuan untuk membawa umat manusia kembali ke jalan yang sebenar. Bangsa yang
terdahulu tinggal dalam zaman kegelapan dan kemunduran dari segi akidah dan sistem
kerohanian yang berpaksikan kepada kewujudan Tuhan yang satu. Fenomena ini tidak pernah
dipinggirkan oleh Islam, seperti mana nabi Muhammad s.a.w. menghormati dan melayani
agama-agama lain yang sudah lama wujud dengan penuh keadilan
(http://www.ikim.gov.my/bm/artikel/2002/a02-2.htm).
Toleransi adalah salah satu soko-guru keadilan dan gagasan tentang konsepsi Islam
mengenai toleransi dapat dilihat dari penelitian asas-asas dasar Islam seperti berikut (Kurshid
Ahmad 1968):
1. Islam agama persamaan. Hakikat ideologi Islam adalah Tauhid, asas keEsaan
Tuhan. Inilah yang menjadi asas dasar di atas mana dibangunkan seluruh sistem
kehidupan Islam. Tauhid bererti bahawa hanya Satu Tuhan dari seluruh alam. Dia
Maha Berkuasa, Pemberi Kekuatan kepada alam dan manusia, Dia Maha Pencipta
dunia, Tuhan seru sekelian alam. Tauhid bukanlah sekadar konsep metafizik, tetapi
suatu keyakian yang dinamis, suatu doktrin yang revolusioner, daya penggerak
sejarah dan kesatuan nasib. Islam mengajarkan semua mkhluk adalah ciptaan Tuhan
Yang Maha Esa dan merek adalah sama. Perbezaan warna, golongan atau daerah
hanya satu ilusi yang kabur dan ideologi yang didasarkan atas perbezaan yang
demikian adalah ancaman terbesar. Orang harus dihormati bukan kerana
kekayaannya, kekuasaannya atau kerana termasuk salah satu ras, kasta atau daerah
tetapi, adalah kerana dia seorang manusia.
2. Menghormati sesama manusia adalah prinsip persamaan dan berhasilnya
menjauhkan perbezaan yang tidak rasional dari ras, warna kulit dan daerah
merupakan ajaran pokok dalam Islam. Sir C. P. Ramaswamy Aiyer, seorang ahli
fikir Hindu yang terkemuka menulis: .. Agama sahaja sendiri tidak berhasil,
kendatipun filsafat dasarnya dalam melaksanakan dalam praktek ketunggalan
kemanusiaan (the oneness of humanity). Tak ada agama lain, bagaimanapun juga
teorinya , dapat membawakan dalam praktik gagasan hakiki tentang ketunggalan
manusia di hadapan tuhan sebagaimana Islam mengajarkannya.
3. Arnold Toynbee pula mengutarakan pandangan yang sama dalam Civilization on
Trial dan ia mengangkatkan penghargaan yang tinggi terhadap Islam dalam
menangani masalah kebejatan di zaman moden: ..Menghilangkan kesedaran ras
di anatra kaum Muslimin adalah merupakan hasil moral Islam yang luarbiasa, dan
pada dunia dewasa ini, sebagaiman terjadi, sangatlah diperlukan untuk menyebar
luaskan kebajikan Islam ini..Dapatlah dimengertikan bahawa semangat Islam
mungkin merupakan bantuan rohani yang datang pada waktunya akan menentukan
persoalan ini bagi kemenangan toleransi dan perdamaian.
4. Kesucian hidup. Islam tidak sahaja berjuang untuk ketunggalan kemanusiaan dan
persamaan di antara sesama manusia, ia juga melantunkan kepentingan yang utama
bagi kesucian hidup manusia. Kehiudpan manusia telah dijadikan suci dan darah
manusia tidak dapat disia-siakan begitu sahaja tanpa sebab.
5. Keadilan dan the true of law. Islam menganjurkan kepada penganutnya untuk
memutuskan sesuatu persoalan dengan rasa keadilan walau apapun juga yang
menjadi akibatnya. Dalam hal hukum, semua orang adalah sama dan tidak
diperkenankan mengadakan perbezaan dalam melaksanakan keadilan. Rule of law
adalah yang paling tinggi dan pelaksanaan keadilan adalah di atas segala-galanya.
Dalam masalah hukum dan keadilan, Islam tidak membeza-bezakan anatara Muslim
dan bukan Muslim sebagaimanan firman Allah:Dan apabila engkau menghakimi
orang lawan orang, hakimilah dengan adil (IV: 58).
Arena Bt Kasim et. al. / 953
6. Di zaman khalifah Umar al-Khattab, seorang warga suku Bakr bin Wail telah
membunuh seorang bukan Muslim di Hirah. Khalifah mememrintahkan supaya
pembunuh diserahkan kepada keluarga pihak yang dibunuh. Perintah ini
dilaksanakan dan ahli waris yang dibunuh menjatuhkan hukumannya.
7. Tidak ada paksaan dalam agama. Islam adalah tugas kepercayaan dan kaum
Muslimin dianjurkan mengajarkan agamanya serta mengeakkan Dunia Allah di atas
bumiNya. Ada dua aspek menegnai hal ini; melarang kejahatan dan penindasan
serta menegakkan hak dan kebajikan. Perintah dalam Islam tidak ada paksaan dalam
agama dan orang-orang dari kepercayaan laintidak boleh dipaksa mengubah
kepercayaannya kepada Islam. Tetapi kekerasan dapat dan seharusnya diperguankan
untuk membasmi permusushan, serangan dan pelanggaran yang merupakan sebab
utama dari pengejaran, penindasan dan intoleransi. Islam tidak mengizinkan
toleransi terhadap intoleransi dan penindasan.
8. Tujuan tidak menghalalkan cara. Islam menyuruh penganutnya untuk
menyebarluaskan kepercayaannya dalam bentuk yang sebaik-baiknya dengan jalan
yang baik, halal dan terhormat. Islam menolak isyarat yang mengatakan tujuan
menghalalkan cara. Ajaran al-Quran daalam hal ini adalah sebagaimana berikut:
Tidaklah sama perbuatan yang jahat dan yang baik. Tolaklah kejahatan denagn
perbuatan yang baik dan sekoyong-koyong orang yang bermusuhan anatar engkau
dengan dia menjadi sahabat baik (XLI: 34).
Penulis sejarah yang masyhur Wale dalam pembahasannya tentang ajaran-ajaran Islam
mengatakan; Sesungguhnya ajaran Islam didirikan di dunia sebagai tradisi besar untuk
perlakuan yang adil dan mulia, dan ia meniupkan kepada manusia ruh kemurahan dan
kemudahan sebagaimana ia memiliki watak manusiawi dan mudah untuk dipraktikkan.
Ajaran-ajaran Islam menciptakan masyarakat manusiawi yang jarang terdapat kebengisan dan
kezaliman sosial dibandingkan dengan masyarakat mana pun yang mendahuluinya..hingga
ia berkata tentang Islam; sesungguhnya ia (Islam) penuh dengan jiwa keramahan, kemurahan,
dan persaudaraan. Arnold berkata tentang mazhab-mazhab agama di antara golongan-
golongan Kristian bahawa; ...Akan tetapi prinsip-prinsip toleransi Islam mengharamkan
perbuatan-perbuatan seperti ini yang mengandungi kezaliman, bahkan terhadap kaum
muslimin berlainan dengan mereka, kerana kita melihat bahawa mereka berusaha sekuat
tenaga melayani dan memperlakukan rakyat-rakyat mereka yang beragama Kristian dengan
adil dan bijaksana (http://www.ikim.gov.my/bm/artikel/2002/a02-2.htm).
Berdasarkan kepada toleransi agama yang dituntut dalam Islam dan hujah-hujah oleh
sarjana Barat sendiri mengenai toleransi seperti ini, jelaslah bahawa sumbangan peradaban
Islam terhadap peradaban dunia amat besar yang mengandungi nilai-nilai keamanan dan
keharmonian sejagat. Oleh itu tidak sewajarnya umat Islam dilabelkan sebagai suatu bangsa
yang cenderung kepada kebengisan dan keganasan. Anggapan dan tuduhan yang fanatik
sebegini terhadap agama Islam adalah tidak berasas. Dunia Barat harus membuka fikiran
lebih terbuka dan harus belajar dari kesilapan mereka dalam fanatisme agama memerangi
umat Islam dalam perang-perang Salib, peperangan di Sepanyol dan lain-lain
(http://www.ikim.gov.my/bm/artikel/2002/a02-2.htm).
Toleransi dalam sirah Rasulullah S.A.W.
Budaya bertoleransi dan bertolak-ansur amat digalakkan dalam budaya dan agama kita.
Ia adalah simbol kepada terwujudnya ikatan erat tali persaudaraan kita dengan orang lain.
Kita juga dituntut supaya sering berkelakuan baik termasuk kepada musuh kita. Tetapi
toleransi ini tidak sampai menyangkut kepada persoalan prinsip, maruah dan kedaulatan
negara. Sebarang perlanggaran perjanjian yang telah dimeterai dan disepakati bersama, tidak
boleh ditoleransi.
Sebenarnya tidak ada sebab kenapa orang Islam dan orang bukan Islam bermusuh-
musuhan. Jika kita mengambil iktibar daripada Sunnah Nabi sudah tentu orang Islamlah yang
954 / ISoIT 2004
perlu dipercayai oleh bukan Islam. Malah ditegaskan juga bahawa sekiranya anak memeluk
Islam dan ibubapanya masih beragama lain, maka anak ini tidak boleh memutuskan
hubungan dengan ibubapanya. Ia mestilah menunaikan tugasnya sebagai anak kepada
ibubapanya itu walaupun mereka masih berlainan agama. Ditakdirkan umat Islam
mempunyai tawanan perang dan sebagainya, Islam melarang umatnya daripada berlaku zalim
dan kejam terhadap tawanan ini. Allah Subhanahu Wa Ta'ala berfirman dalam Surah Al-
Insaan, ayat 8 :
"Dan mereka (iaitu orang yang beriman) memberi makanan yang disukainya kepada
orang miskin, anak yatim dan orang yang ditawan".
Al-Quran juga mengajar kita supaya jangan terikut-ikut dengan emosi liar. Kejahatan
musuh kita tidak sepatutnya disusuli dengan kejahatan daripada pihak umat Islam. Jika kita
ingin membalas kejahatan dan kezaliman, cara yang kita gunakan itu tidak sepatutnya
sehingga menjatuhkan kredibiliti kita sebagai umat yang mulia, adil dan saksama, walaupun
dalam ketegasan. Dalam Surah Al-Maa-idah, ayat 8, Allah berfirman :
"....... dan janganlah sekali-kali kebencianmu terhadap sesuatu kaum mendorong
kamu untuk tidak berlaku adil....."
Perjanjian Hudaibaiyah telah menyaksikan satu rundingan yang dilihat oleh para sahabat
pada awalnya sebagai berat sebelah yang pada aadsarnya adalah menunjukkan kepada sikap
toleransi yang begitu hebat ada dalam diri Rsulullah SAW. Anatara isi perjanjian tersebut
ialah;
1. kedua belah pihak tidak akan saling serang menyerang selama 10 tahun.
2. Tahun tersebut Muhammad berserta rombongan harus ke Madinah dan tidak
memasuki Mekah. Tahun hadapan mereka boleh datang ke Mekah untuk
menunaikan haji dan umrah
Yathrib sebelum Peristiwa Hijrah (16 Julai 622 M) adalah sebuah negara yang tidak
aman dua puak yang sering bermusuhan adalah Bani Aus dan Khazraj. Permusuhan mereka
adalah turun-temurun. Yathrib mempunyai masyarakat berbilang agama dan kaum. Selepas
peristiwa penghijrahan Rasullullah barulah masyarakat Yathrib bersatu dan mula
dibangunkan. Bani Aus dan Khazraj telah bersatu dan dikenali sebagai orang-orang Ansar.
Orang-orang Islam yang baru berhijrah pula dikenali sebagai Muhajirin. Maka bermulalah
sebuah tamadun yang dinamakan Tamadun Islam. Dari aspek politik, selepas Rasullullah
s.a.w berjaya menyatukan penduduk Yathrib (Madinah) baginda telah merangka Piagam
Madinah atau dikenali juga sebagai Sahifah Madinah. Piagam Madinah dirangka oleh
baginda Rasullullah s.a.w telah memberi kebebasan beragama, berfikir, mendaulatkan
kesucian Kota Madinah dan jaminan keselamatan kepada penduduknya. Piagam ini turut
menekankan perpaduan semua penduduk Madinah tidak kira agama dan bangsa. Piagam
Madinah mengandungi 47 fasal, 23 fasal menyentuh tentang hubungan dan tanggungjawab
sesama Islam manakala 24 fasal membabitkan membabitkan kaum Yahudi dan
tanggungjawab mereka terhadap negara. Piagam Madinah yang dirangka oleh Rasullullah
merupakan langkah seterusnya Rasullullah untuk memastikan Kota Madinah terus aman.
Piagam Madinah merupakan perlembagaan untuk Kerajaan Madinah yang diketuai oleh
Rasullullah s.a.w. Rasullullah s.a.w adalah pemimpin yang berjiwa rakyat. Baginda telah
hidup susah senang dengan umat Islam dan semua penduduk Madinah
(http://members.tripod.com/dunia_siber/Kermadi.html).
Rasulullah s.a.w. pula mengajar umat Islam supaya tidak menjadikan dendam sebagai
penghalang bagi kita melakukan kebaikan. Sewaktu kaum kafir Quraish menghadapi
kemarau, Rasulullah s.a.w. memberi pertolongan kepada yang miskin di kalangan mereka
dalam bentuk wang. Asma' binti Abu Bakar pula menceritakan bagaimana Rasulullah s.a.w.
menasihati beliau supaya berbuat baik dengan ibunya yang musyrik ketika itu. Teladan
toleransi Rasulullah s.a.w. juga disaksikan dalam bentuk sikap Rasulullah s.a.w. apabila
Arena Bt Kasim et. al. / 955
Baginda menziarahi mereka yang sakit tanpa mengira agama mereka. Daripada segi
prinsipnya Baginda tidak membezakan di antara Muslim ataupun tidak. Pernah sutu ketika,
Baginda berdiri menghormati jenazah seorang Yahudi yang lalu. Bagi Baginda, Yahudi itu
juga adalah seorang makhluk Allah Subhanahu wa Ta'ala yang mempunyai jiwa manusia.
Pada masa yang lain pula, apabila sebuah rombongan Kristian Najran ingin berjumpa dengan
Rasulullah s.a.w., mereka memasuki masjid Baginda dan ingin melaksanakan sembahyang
mereka sebab waktu sudahpun masuk bagi mereka. Walaupun ada sahabat menghalang
mereka, Rasulullah s.a.w. bersabda : "Biarkan mereka sembahyang". Lalu, mereka pun
sembahyang dengan menghadap ke arah timur.
Contoh toleransi Rasulullah S.A.W yang paling mengesankan kepada pihak musuh ialah
sikap lapang dada yang beliau tunjukkan ketika Pembukaan Mekah, iaitu pada tahun ke-10
Hijrah. Rasulullah SAW pada ketika itu dalam keadaan berkuasa penuh. Pada mulanya
pihak kaum Quraisy menjangkakan bahawa pasukan Islam tentu akan melakukan pembalasan
atas kekejaman dan penganiayaan yang telah mereka lakukan selama ini. Prasangka mereka
hilang apabila mendengar pidato Rasulullah SAW yang diucapkan oleh beliau di pintu
Kaabah ketika baru saja sampai di kota Mekah (M. Yunan Nasution 1971).
Teladan Rasulullah s.a.w. ditanam ke dalam hati dan jiwa umat Islam selepas kewafatan
Baginda. Khalifah Abu Bakar As-Siddiq telah mewasiatkan kepada Panglima Usamah bin
Zaid ketika mengutuskan beliau ke medan perang Ubna di sebelah timur kota Syam amat
tersohor mengandungi ajaran toleransi yang tiada tandingan iaitu; Jangan kamu berkhianat,
jangan kamu berlakus erong, janganlah kamu berlaku curang, janganlah kamu merusakkan
badan orang yang telah mati, janganlah kamu mebunuh anak-ank kecil, perempuan dan orang
tua, janganlah kamu menebang atau membakar pohon kurma, jangan mennebang pohon yang
sedang berbuah atau pohon buah-buahan, jangan menyembelih binatang ternakan kecuali bila
perlu kerana kehabisan makanan dan jangan mengusik orang-orang yang beribadat dalam
gereja-gereja dan yang sedang menjalankan upacara ibadatnya, hendaklah kamu biarkan
mereka itu berbakti kepada Tuhan dalam rumah-rumah suci mereka, selanjutnya jika
dibawakan orang hidangan, makanlah sedikit-sedikit dengan menyebut nama Allah
(Abubakar Aceh 1984; Umar Hasyim 1979; M. Yunan Nasution 1971).
Sayidina Umar Al-Khattab pernah memberi pendapatan tetap daripada Baitulmal untuk
seorang Yahudi serta keluarganya. Beliau juga pernah memberi bantuan kewangan daripada
sumber yang sama kepada sekumpulan Kristian yang berpenyakit kusta. Keprihatinan beliau
terhadap nasib masyarakat bukan Islam berterusan sehingga beliau menghadapi saat-saat
kematian. Sayidina Umar berpesan kepada bakal penggantinya supaya berlaku adil kepada
yang bukan Islam, sempurnakan janji di antara umat Islam, berjuang untuk melindungi
masyarakat bukan Islam di bawah jagaan kerajaan Islam dan elakkan daripada terlalu
membebankan mereka. Jika semua orang Islam tahu dan faham akan ajaran Islam daripada
Al-Quran, hadith dan Sunnah, kitab-kitab dan sejarah maka bukan sahaja perhubungan di
antara orang Islam dengan bukan Islam akan menjadi baik, tetapi bukan Islam akan
memahami ajaran dan prinsip agama Islam yang tepat dan benar. Dengan itu akan terbuktilah
toleransi Islam dalam hubungan dengan semua pihak
(http://www.ikim.gov.my/bm/pm4/pm3.htm).
Keadilan dan toleransi yang berprinsip ini dicatat dalam sejarah bagaimana masyarakat
Kristian dan Yahudi ketika Sepanyol di bawah Bani Umaiyyah dan Baghdad di bawah Bani
Abassiyah mendapat peluang yang saksama untuk belajar bersama-sama penuntut Muslim di
madrasah, pusat pengajian tinggi dan juga asrama yang dibiayai oleh kerajaan Muslim ketika
itu. Tidak ada inquisition di bawah pemerintahan Islam
(http://www.ikim.gov.my/bm/pm4/pm3.htm). Sikap toleransi juga dapat dilihat ketika zaman
pemerintahan Islam di Sepanyol di mana ia memperlihatkan kebebasan agama ketika itu telah
menimbulkan asimilasi dalam masyarakat terutamanya melalui perkahwinan campur (Mohd
Ridhuan Tee Abdullah 1996).
956 / ISoIT 2004
Sikap toleransi ini jelas wujud semenjak di zaman rasul S.A.W. lagi, maka itu tidak ada
alasan masyarakat dunia terutamanya Barat memandang Islam sebagai sebuah agama yang
menggalakkan keganasan, kekacauan, huru hara dan permusuhan. Islam hanya
menganjurkan supaya masyarakatnya mempertahankan maruah dan kehormatan mereka
apatah lagi apabila melibatkan agama jika sekiranya pihak musuh cuba untuk mengkhianati
dan melakukan kezaliman ke atas mereka dan bukan sebaliknya seperti yang digembar
gemburkan masyarkat Barat.
Toleransi Kaum di Malaysia
Abd Rahim Abd Rashid (2001), membincangkan tentang integrasi nasional dan nilai-
nilai asas yang wujud dalam masyarakat Malaysia. Ketika berlakunya rusuhan 13 Mei 1969,
isu perkauman dilihat masih lagi mempengaruhi pemikiran, nilai dan masyarakat Malaysia.
Maka itu, bagi mewujudkan integrasi nasional, Dasar Pendidikan Kebangsaan, Dasar
Ekonomi Baru dan Pembangunan Sosial telah digubal bagi membina masyarakat Malaysia
yang bersatu padu.
Siti Fatimah Abd Rahman (1996) membincangkan mengenai amalan ziarah menziarahi di
bulan Syawal dalam usaha memupuk perpaduan di kalangan masyarakat Islam khasnya dan
bukan Islam amnya. Amalan kunjung mengunjung dapat melahirkan masyarakat majmuk
Malaysia yang bersatu padu dan harmoni. Secara umumnya penulisan ini hanya memberikan
tumpuan kepada amalan kunjung mengunjung sempena musim perayaan sebagai salah satu
cara untuk memupuk perpaduan dalam masyarakat.
Kewujudan jarak sosial antara kaum merupakan satu fenomena sosial yang semula jadi
yang ada di mana-mana masyarakat majmuk. Ini adalah kerana daripada hubungan etnik
wujud ethnocentrism, prasangka stereotaip dan diskriminasi antara kaum. Kewujudan
masalah perkauman adalah kerana persaingan dan kekecewaan orang Melayu dan Cina dalam
kelas menengah. Selain itu, struktur parti politik perkauman mengancam perpaduan nasional
dan persefahaman antara kaum. Pengaruh barat terhadap sosio budaya setempat juga
mempengaruhi masalah perpaduan nasional (Chew Hock Thye 1979).
Mohamad Abu Bakar (1984) membincangkan mengenai Islam sebagai formula bagi
mewujudkan perpaduan antara kaum di Malaysia. Sungguhpun begitu, peranan agama
umumnya terhad kepada pemupukan perpaduan di kalangan anggota kaum itu sahaja. Islam
berpotensi sebagai alat menyatupadukan rakyat berbilang kaum dan nilai-nilai di dalam Islam
diterapkan ke dalam masyarakat Malaysia keseluruhannya.
Inisiatif berterusan telah diambil oleh pihak kerajaan dalam usaha mewujudkan
perpaduan antara kaum yang mana program perpaduan masyarakat dimulakan dengan
mewujudkan program Integrasi Nasional di mana usaha berterusan dari pihak kerjaaan untuk
meningkatkan integrasi kaum antara penduduk di Semenanjung Malaysia (Malaysia Barat)
dengan rakyat di Sabah dan Sarawak atau Malaysia Timur.
Seterusnya di peringkat sekolah pada tahun 1986, Datuk Seri Abdullah Ahmad
Badawi sebagai Menteri Pendidikan pada ketika itu, telah meminta pelaksanaan Rancangan
Integrasi Murid-Murid Untuk Perpaduan. Sekolah masih sama, tidak berpindah tetapi ia
lebih banyak menekankan perlunya lebih banyak aktiviti berbentuk perpaduan dilaksanakan
di sekolah yang berbeza aliran. Sebelum itu pada tahun 1985, kerajaan telah bercadang untuk
melaksanakan program Sekolah Integrasi (http://www.cikgu.net.my/malay/isu/
sekolahwawasan.php3). Seterusnya pada tahun 2000, kerajaan cuba pula untuk
memperkenalkan konsep Sekolah Wawasan iaitu meletakkan sekolah kebangsaan, sekolah
rendah Cina dan Tamil dalam satu kawasan. Namun cadangan tersebut mendapat tentangan
keras dari Dong Jiao Zong atau gabungan Persekutuan Persatuan-Persatuan Lembaga
Pengurus Sekolah Cina dan Persekutuan Guru-Guru Sekolah Cina. Gagasan idea murni yang
cuba direalisasikan tidak dapat dilaksanakan dengan jayanya disebabkan oleh tentangan ini.
Kerajaan secara berterusan mencuba untuk meningkatkan integrasi dan toleransi kaum di
negara ini di mana pada tahun 2002, telah membuka permohonan dan kemasukan pelajar
Arena Bt Kasim et. al. / 957
bukan Bumiputera ke Maktab Rendah Sains Mara yang selama ini hanya dikhaskan kepada
kaum Melayu dan Bumiputera sahaja. Begitu juga dengan kemasukan pelajar bukan
Bumiputera sebanyak 10 peratus ke Pusat Pengajian Matrikulasi yang selama ini didominsai
oleh kaum Melayu dan Bumiputera.
Walaupun pada dasarnya toleransi kaum di negara ini belum lagi mencapai tahap yang
membanggakan namun kesungguhan pihak kerajaan mewujudkan pelbagai dasar dan
program ke arah itu amatlah disanjung. Apa yang paling penting ialah tidak wujud masalah
pergaduhan dan pertelingkahan kaum yang serius di negara ini dengan langkah-langkah bijak
yang telah diatur oleh pihak kerajaan.
iii. Toleransi Kaum di Institut Pengajian Tinggi Awam (IPTA)
Hasil dari temubual awal yang dibuat di enam buah IPTA di seluruh negara didapati
bahawa peratus toleransi antara kaum adalah berada di tahap minima (antara 4 - 6 dalam
skala 10 poin). Di kebanyakan IPTA penempatan pelajar di asrama atau kolej-kolej mengikut
percampuran pelajar adalah amat kurang walaupun pihak berkenaan menggalakkan pelajar
duduk berkongsi bilik berlainan agama dan bangsa. Permasalahan aurat di kalangan pelajar
Islam terutamanya pelajar perempuan antara isu paling ketara yang telah dibaw aoleh pelajar.
Pihak universiti telah cuba menjalinkan hubungan toleransi antara kaum di IPTA iaitu dengan
mewajibkan percampuran berlaku dengan penempatan pelajar pelbagai agama di satu blok
penginapan atau kolej. Di sesetengah IPTA pula mereka akan menempatkan pelajar
mengikut permintaan dan jika pelajar boleh tinggal bersama maka pihak universiti akan
membenarkan mereka tinggal sebilik walaupun berlainan agama dan bangsa.
Kesemua IPTA bersetuju bahawa kuliah dan kegiatan ko kurikulum merupakan wadah
utama yang menggalakkan percampuran pelajar pelbagai kaum dan pihak universiti juga
menjadikan program ini sebagai salah satu cara untuk mengeratkan toleransi dan hubungan
baik antara pelajar yang berbilang agama dan bangsa ini. Kursus pengajian yang diikuti
dirasakan tidak sangat membantu dalam usaha menyatupadukan pelajar yang berbilang
bangsa ini. Mewajibkan pelajar menjalankan aktiviti mereka dengan mempunyai ahli
jawatankuasa yang berbilang bangsa oleh pihak pengurusan universiti merupakan satu
langkah yang bijak untuk memupuk semangat toleransi ini. Walau bagaimanapun yang pasti
ialah penempatan para pelajar mengikut negeri adalah tidak dibenarkan sama sekali.
Di kebanyakan IPTA juga, pihak universiti telah turut menganjurkan pelbagai program
termasuk debat antara agama dalam usaha untuk memberikan kefahaman pelbagai agama
yang lebih baik kepada para pelajar. Walau bagaimanapun matapelajaran Tamadun Islam
dan Ketatanegaraan (TITAS) dilihat sebagai tidak lebih dari kewajiban pelajar mengambilnya
dan lulus tetapi bukan sebagai salah satu wadah yang dapat menyemai dan meningkatkan
sikap serta sifat toleransi di kalangan pelajar berbilang kaum di IPTA.
Menurut pelajar yang ditemubual program yang melibatkan percampuran kaum adalah
lebih berjaya berbanding program yang didominasi oleh satu-satu kaum sahaja. Ini mungkin
kerana program yang tidak didominasi oleh sesuatu kaum lebih digemari oleh para pelajar
berbanding program yang dimonopoli oleh satu-satu kaum sahaja.
Penutup
Pada hakikatnya, Islam telah membentuk peradaban dunia baru tanpa meminggirkan
agama-agama lain yang lampau dan tidak pula fanatik terhadap pendapat-pendapat dan
mazhab-mazhab yang lain. Apa yang ingin disampaikan oleh Islam ialah sepertimana firman
Allah swt. dalam surah az-Zumar ayat yang ke 17 dan 18 yang bermaksud; Berikanlah
khabar gembira kepada hamba-hambaKu yang mendengarkan perkataan lalu mengikuti yang
terbaik daripadanya
958 / ISoIT 2004
Oleh yang demikian, di antara prinsip-prinsip peradaban Islam dalam konteks toleransi
agama dapat ditakrifkan seperti berikut (http://www.ikim.gov.my/bm/artikel/2002/a02-
2.htm);
1. Sumber yang satu di mana agama-agama langit seluruhnya berasal dari satu sumber.
Allah berfirman; Allah telah menetapkan agama bagimu sebagaimana yang telah
diwasiatkanNya kepada Nuh, dan apa yang kami wahyukan kepada engkau dan kami
wasiatkan kepada Ibrahim, Musa, dan Isa, iaitu; Dirikanlah agama itu dan janganlah
berpecah belah di dalamnya (as-Syura :13)
2. Para Nabi Adalah Bersaudara Tidak ada sebarang perbezaan di antara para nabi
samaada dari segi kelebihan dan kekurangan di antara satu sama lain kecuali
memiliki satu risalah atau mesej yang sama. Sepertimana firman Allah yang
bermaksud; katakanlah: kami beriman kepada Allah dan Kitab yang diturunkan
kepada kami (al-Quran) dan kitab-kitab yang diturunkan kepada Ibrahim, Ismail,
Ishak, Yaqub dan anak-anaknya, begitu juga kami percaya kepada kitab yang
diturunkan kepada Musa dan Isa dan kitab-kitab yang diturunkan kepada seluruh
nabi dengan tidak kami bedahkan di antara salah seorang dari mereka dan kami
semua tunduk kepadaNya (beragama Islam) (al-Baqarah:136).
3. Tidak ada paksaan dalam agama. Aqidah tidak boleh dipaksa, tetapi harus ada
penerimaan dan keredaan dalam aqidah itu, sepertimana yang difirmankan oleh
Allah swt. yang bermaksud; Tiada paksaan dalam agama (al-Baqarah:256) dan
dalam ayat yang lain , Allah berfirman yang bermaksud; Patutkah engkau memaksa
manusia sampai mereka beriman? (Yunus:99).
4. Penghormatan terhadap agama yang lain. Tempat-tempat ibadah bagi agama-agama
Ilahi dihormati dan harus dibela serta dilindungi seperti perlindungan terhadap
masjid-masjid kaum muslimin. Allah berfirman yang bermaksud; Apabila Allah
tidak mempertahankan manusia antara satu sama lain, nescaya robohlah gereja orang
Nasrani, Yahudi dan masjid orang Islam yang di dalamnya banyak disebut nama
Allah (al-Hajj:40)
5. Kerjasama dalam Melaksanakan Kebaikan dan Memerangi Kejahatan. Perbedaan di
antara sesama manusia dalam agama mereka tidak patut menyebabkan sebahagian
mereka membunuh sebahagian yang lainnya, atau sebahagian mereka mengganggu
sebahagian yang lain, tetapi haruslah mereka saling menolong dalam kebaikan dan
memerangi kejahatan. Allah berfirman yang bermaksud; hendaklah kamu saling
menolong di atas kebaikan dan ketaqwaan dan jangan saling menolong di atas dosa
dan permusuhan (al-Maidah:2).
6. Kepastian dan Hukum Hanya Datang daripada Allah swt. Adapun pemutusan di
antara mereka dalam perkara yang mereka perselisihkan, maka Allah sajalah yang
menghukum di antara mereka di hari Kiamat nanti. Sepertimana yang difirmankan
oleh Allah swt. yang bermaksud; Orang Yahudi berkata: Tidaklah orang Nasrani
berada dalam kebenaran sedang mereka membaca Al-Kitab. Begitu pula orang-orang
yang tidak mengetahui berkata seperti perkataan mereka, Allah menghukum di
antara mereka pada hari kiamat dalam perkara yang mereka perselisihkan (al-
Baqarah:113)
7. Kepelbagaian Agama Memupuk Keharmonian Hubungan Sosial Umat Manusia.
Perbedaan dalam agama-agama tidak seharusnya menghalang daripada melakukan
kebaikan, hubungan kekeluargaan dan penghormatan. Allah berfirman yang
bermaksud; Hari ini kami halalkan bagi kamu makan-makanan yang baik dan
makanan orang-orang yang diberi al-Kitab (Yahudi dan Nasrani) halal bagimu
sedang makananmu halal bagi mereka dan boleh kamu mengahwini orang-orang
perempuan terpelihara dari ahlil kitab sebelum kamu (al-Maidah:4).
Arena Bt Kasim et. al. / 959
8. Penyelesaian Perbedaan Pendapat dalam Agama Berlunaskan Keharmonian. Jika
manusia berselisih mengenai agama-agama mereka, maka mereka boleh berdebat
dengan cara yang baik, dalam batas-batas sopan santun, hujah-hujah, dan keupayaan
dalam menimbulkan keyakinan. Allah berfirman yang bermaksud; Janganlah kamu
berdebat Ahlil-Kitab, kecuali dengan perkataan yang lebih baik (al-Ankabut:46)
Di samping itu, tidak boleh berkata buruk kepada lawan, dan tidak boleh mencaci
maki aqidah-aqidah mereka, meskipun mereka penyembah berhala. Sepertimana
yang difirmankan oleh Allah swt. yang bermaksud; Janganlah kamu mencaci maki
orang-orang yang menyeru kepada selain daripada Allah sehingga mereka memaki
Allah secara aniaya tanpa pengetahuan (al-Anam:108).
9. Perlindungan Aqidah dan Penolakan Fitnah. Apabila umat diganggu akidahnya,
wajiblah serangan itu dibalas untuk melindungi aqidah dan menolak fitnah. Allah
swt. berfirman yang bermaksud; Perangilah mereka sampai tidak terjadi fitnah dan
hingga agama dikhususkan bagi Allah (al-Baqarah:193) Dan dalam ayat yang lain,
Allah berfirman yang bermaksud; Sesungguhnya Allah melarangmu mengangkat
pemimpin (pemerintah) dari orang-orang yang memerangi kamu lantaran agamamu
dan mengusir kamu dari tanah airmu dan membantu mengusir kamu (al-
Muntahinah:9).
10. Sifat Belas Kasihan dan Ihsan. Apabila ummat menang terhadap mereka yang
menyerangnya dalam agama, atau ingin merampas kemerdekaannya, maka tidak
boleh membalas mereka dengan memaksa mereka agar meninggalkan agama
mereka, atau menindas mereka dalam aqidah mereka, dan cukuplah mereka
mengakui kekuasaan negara dan bersikap ikhlas kepadanya hingga menjadi hak
mereka adalah hak kita dan kewajipan mereka adalah kewajipan kita.
Prinsip-prinsip peradaban Islam sepertimana yang tersebut di atas telah dipraktikkan
sepenuhnya sepanjang kehidupan Rasullullah. Kemudiannya para khalifah selepas kewafatan
Nabi saw. mengikut petunjuk Rasul yang mulia dalam toleransi agamanya yang memiliki
kecenderungan manusiawi yang tinggi. Toleransi agama dalam peradaban Islam diakui oleh
beberapa tokoh sejarah dan cendekiawan Barat, di mana terdapat tiada tandingannya dalam
sejarah masa-masa silam. Mr. Draper, orang Amerika yang masyhur berkata; Sesungguhnya
orang-orang Muslim terdahulu di zaman khalifah tidak hanya memperlakukan para ahli ilmu
dari kaum Nasarani Nasthuriyyun dan orang-orang Yahudi dengan sekadar penghormatan
bahkan mereka menyerahkan banyak pekerjaan besar kepada orang-orang Nasrani dan
Yahudi itu dan menaikkan mereka ke jabatan-jabatan negara, hingga Harun Ar-Rasyid
meletakkan seluruh sekolah di bawah pengawasan Hanna bin Masuwaih tanpa memandang
negeri di mana orang alim itu hidup mahupun agama asalnya, akan tetapi hanya memandang
kepada kedudukannya dalam ilmu pengetahuan (http://www.ikim.gov.my/bm/
artikel/2002/a02-2.htm).
Walaupun sikap toleransi sememangnya berlaku dengan pesat di Malaysia, namun apa
yang dapat disimpulkan ialah toleransi ini dapat diterima selama mana ia tidak melibatkan
perkara pokok dan aqidah dalam agama masing-masing. Toleransi dalam berpakaian
sememnagnya sudah pun berlaku di mana semua masyarakat Melayu, Cina dan India sudah
boleh menerima dan memakai baju kurung, baju melayu, kain sarung, baju punjabi dan
ceongsam. Begitu juga dengan makanan di mana rori canai, tosai, nasi lemak, lontong, mee
kari, kue teow, vadai dan bermacam lagi jenis masakan dan menu pelbagai kaum yang boleh
dinikmati dengan mudah dan sememangnya diminati oleh semua kaum di negara ini.
Adalah menjadi harapan kerajaan agar sikap toleransi yang wujud di kalangan
masyarakat ini akan berterusan dan semakin menebal jika sekiranya masyarakat pelbagai
kaum di negara ini menjadi lebih peka lagi terutamanya apabila melibatkan perkara-perkara
berbentuk keagamaan. Diharapkan masyarakat majmuk ini mampu bertolak ansur dan cuba
memahami apa sahaja yang berkaitan dengan perayaaan budaya dan agama dalam semua
960 / ISoIT 2004
perkara dan pemahaman ini sudah pasti dapat menghindari perasaan dengki, khianat dan syak
wasangka di antara satu sama lain. Semoga peristiwa berdarah 13 Mei 1969 tidak akan
kembali melakari sejarah dalam negara Malaysia yang cemerlang, gemilang dan terbilang.
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Arena Che Kasim
Pusat Pengajian Psikologi Dan Pembangunan Manusia
Fakulti Sains Sosial Dan Kemanusiaan
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
43600 Bangi
Selangor
Tel: 03-89213121
Profesor Dr. Muda @ Ismail Ab Rahman
Prof. Madya Dr. Tengku Ghani Tengku Jusoh
Dr. Jaffary Awang
Fakulti Pengajian Islam
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
43600 Bangi
Selangor
Tel: 03-89215520/3535/3659
Mohammad Khatim Hasan
Jabatan Komputeran Industri
Fakulti Teknologi Dan Sains Maklumat
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
43600 Bangi
Selangor
Tel: 03-89216757
Rofizah Mohammad @ Mohammad Noor
Pusat Pengajian Sains Matematik
Fakulti Sains Dan Teknologi
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
43600 Bangi
Selangor
Tel: 03-89213424
Krisis Identiti Masyarakat Islam: Sorotan Wacana
Intelektual Muslim Malaysia
Jaffary Awang
Abstrak
Isu bagaimana masyarakat Melayu seharusnya berdepan dengan cabaran semasa
khususnya pengaruh Barat sentiasa mendapat perhatian kalangan intelektual Melayu-
Muslim di Malaysia semenjak zaman sebelum merdeka hingga kini. Ini menunjukkan
masyarakat Melayu tidak boleh terpisah dari perkembangan semasa. Pada waktu yang sama
masyarakat Melayu perlu menjalani kehidupan berasaskan kepada nilai-nilai Islam. Dengan
itu, perbincangan ini akan meneliti apakah yang dikatakan sebagai krisis identiti di kalangan
masyarakat Melayu. Kedua bagaimana menurut intelektual Melayu kaedah untuk
mengembalikan jatidiri Melayu agar selari dengan tuntutan Islam. Ketiga apakah elemen-
elemen yang dianggap sebagai penyebab utama berlakunya apa yang diistilahkan sebagai
krisis identiti. Diakhir perbincangan dirumuskan bahawa masyarakat Melayu perlu
memperkasakan diri dengan ajaran Islam jika ingin memastikan kewibawaan dan
maruahnya terpelihara.
Pendahuluan
Persoalan mengenai pembinaan watak dan pemikiran umat Islam bukanlah sesuatu yang
baru. Malah isu boleh dianggap sebagai perkara yang sifatnya berterusan di kalangan
intelektual Muslim samada di Malaysia
1364
mahupun di luar. Ini kerana sifat masyarakat itu
sendiri yang sentiasa berubah dan inginkan pembaharuan selari dengan perkembangan
semasa. Dalam keghairahan untuk membuat perubahan masyarakat Islam sentiasa terdedah
dengan pelbagai hambatan dan cabaran khususnya untuk mempertahankan identiti Muslim.
Pelbagai pandangan dan gagasan yang dikemukakan oleh intelek Muslim dalam usaha
mempertahankan jatidiri umat Islam. Terdapat pandangan yang melihat bahawa untuk
mengembalikan maruah umat Islam maka proses pemurnian ilmu pengetahuan agar selaras
dengan nilai-nilai yang terkandung dalam ajaran Islam diberi penekanan serius (al-Attas,
1979a; al-Faruqi). Di samping itu ada juga kalangan intelektual Muslim yang memberi
penekanan kepada aspek kekalutan pemikiran hingga mengakibatkan umat Islam merasa
kurang yakin untuk menjadikan Islam sebagai asas pembinaan identiti diri (al-Attas, 1979b;
Abdul Hamid Abu Sulayman, 1993). Tidak terkecuali terdapat juga kalangan intelektual
1364
Lihat umpamanya peristiwa pertembungan antara 'Kaum Tua' dan 'Kaum Muda' yang
memperlihatkan bagaimanakah sikap kritis golongan 'Kaum Muda' terhadap beberapa amalan dan
kegiatan orang Melayu yang dianggap sebagai tidak menepati ajaran Islam. Perkembangan lanjut
mengenai peristiwa ini sila lihat W. Roff, "Kaum Muda-Kaum Tua: Innovation and Reaction amongts
the Malays 1900-41", 1985.
Jaffary Awang / 963
Muslim yang menganalisis kelemahan umat Islam adalah akibat kesan penjajahan dari pihak
kolonial Barat (Abdullah al-Ahsan, 1992).
Dalam membincangkan isu krisis identiti seperti yang diungkapkan oleh intelektual
Muslim di Malaysia, justeru beberapa sahaja yang akan menjadi fokus perbincangan. Tema-
tema tersebut akan dinilai berasaskan kepada penulisan oleh kalangan intelektual Muslim
Malaysia. Untuk membataskan skop, kertas kerja ini menumpukan kepada tema sekularisma,
pendidikan Islam dan gerakan dakwah. Namun sebelum itu secara ringkas dijelaskan istilah
intelektual dalam konteks perbincangan ini.
Intelektual Dari Sudut Etimologi
Dalam konteks perbincangan ini, intelektual adalah merujuk kepada mereka yang bergiat
dan menyebarkan idea-idea untuk pembangunan masyarakat dalam pelbagai bidang. Konsep
ini adalah seperti apa yang pernah dijelaskan oleh Max Beloff iaitu,
persons whose role is to deal with the advancement and propagation of knowledge, and with the
articulation of the values of their particular society.(1996: 418)
Ini bererti bahawa antara tugasan dan peranan intelektual adalah untuk menyebarkan
pemikiran dan pengetahuan kepada khalayak umum. Ini memberi maksud bahawa antara
tugasa intelektual juga adalah memupuk nilai-nilai yang mereka perjuang dan yakini untuk
dikongsi bersama dengan masyarakat.
Secara lebih jelas, seperti yang dinukilkan dalam A Modern Dictionary of Sociology
menyebut antara lain tugasan serta peranan intelektual adalah,
Those members of a society who are devoted to the development of original ideas and are engaged in
creative intellectual pursuits. The intellectuals constitute a small-creative segment of the intelligentsia.
They provide the Intellectual leadership for the remainder of theintelligentsia.(G.A Theodorson and
A.G.Theodorson 1969: 210)
Dari penjelasan definisi yang kedua ini menggambarkan bahawa kalangan intelektual
merupakan kelompok yang bersifat proaktif dan sentiasa response terhadap perkembangan
semasa. Malahan yang lebih utama sikap golongan intelektual ini adalah untuk
mempertingkatkan minda masyarakat.
Berdasarkan kepada penjelasan ringkas berkaitan dengan kelompok intelektual maka
rumusan ringkas mengenai intelektual dapat dikatakan sebagai kelompok yang sentiasa
menghargai nilai-nilai keilmuan, berusaha mencari kebenaran, sentiasa menganjurkan kepada
masyarakat sesuatu yang baik demi kesejahteraan masyarakat.(Jaffary dan Kamaruddin,
2003: 77)
Berasaskan kepada kriteria tersebut dirasakan bahawa pemilihan beberapa orang tokoh
intelektual Melayu Muslim dalam konteks menganalisis tema pemikiran mereka mengenai
krisis identiti di kalangan masyarakat Melayu adalah menepati. Ini kerana dari apa yang akan
dibincangkan nanti menggambarkan sebahagian daripada apa yang telah dijelaskan dalam
definisi di atas. Perbincangan selanjutnya adalah mengenai sekularisma dan bagaimana
pandangan intelektual Melayu-Muslim di Malaysia melihat kedudukan dan pengaruh
fahaman ini dalam konteks pengukuhan identiti Melayu-Muslim. Sebelum dibincangkan
hubungan dan perkaitan antara fahaman sekularisme dengan kedudukan identiti Melayu-
Muslim di Malaysia, terlebih dahulu dikemukakan secara ringkas definisi sekularisme.
964 / ISoIT 2004
Sekularisma
Sekularism merupakan satu isu utama yang menyentuh secara langsung umat Islam di
mana-mana tempat jua. Ideologi ini dilihat sebagai satu cabaran besar terhadap umat Islam
dalam usaha membina identiti berasaskan ajaran Islam. Dari sudut yang lain penularan
elemen sekularisma adalah akibat langsung daripada pengaruh dari kesan kolonialisme.
Persoalannya apakah yang dimaksudkan dengan sekularisma? Menurut definisi dari Collins
Dictionary of English Language, sekularismathe attitude that religion should have no
place in civil affairs.(Patrick Hanks, 1981:1319)
Sekularisma adalah merujuk kepada satu sistem yang memisahkan antara `religious
matter dan `worldly affairs. Pemisahan ini mengakibatkan wujudnya skeptikism terhadap
agama. Dalam hubungan ini, Oxford Illustrated Dictionary menjelaskan sekularisma
sebagai,(J.Coulson et.al, 1970: 751)
concerned with the affairs of this world, worldly; not sacred; not monastic or ecclesiastical,
temporal, profane, lay; sceptical of religious truth or opposed to religious education.
Berasaskan kepada definisi tersebut maka seluruh aktiviti manusia tidak dinilai
berdasarkan kepada agama. Dalam lain pengertian sekularisma ialah (Cross and Livingstone,
1974: 1255)
a system which seeks to interpret and order life on principles taken solely from this world, without
recourse to belief in God and a future life.
Sekular merupakan perkataan yang berasal dari istilah latin "Saeculum" yang merujuk
kepada pengertiaan masa dan tempat. Konotasai masa dan tempat itu pula memberi erti masa
kini sementara temapt pula adalah merujuk kepada "dunia" atau "hal ehwal dunia". Dalam
hubungan ini al-Attas`merumuskan bahawa "Saeculum" lebih merujuk kepada konteks terkini
dan semasa.(1978: 14) Dari sudut definisi yang dikemukakan oleh al-Attas`jelas
memperlihatkan bagaimana pengertiaan saeculum yang menjadi kata dasar kepada perkataan
atau istilah sekularisma ternyata membataskan skop hanya kepada perkara-perkara atau
kegiatan-kegiatan yang bersifat keduniaan.
Sekiranya definisi di atas dinilai dari konteks pandangan masyarakat Muslim ternyata
ianya bercanggah dengan nilai-nilai serta ajaran Islam. Ini kerana ajaran Islam tidak
menjadikan urusan keduniaan sebagai sesuatu yang terpisah dari nilai-nilai agama atau Islam.
Malah nilai-nilai yang terkandung dalam ajaran Islam itulah yang menjadi garis panduan bagi
kehidupan seharian. Dalam lain perkataan konsep dualisma antara urusan hal ehwal dunia dan
hal ehwal agama tidak wujud dalam konteks ajaran Islam.
Isu Sekularisme di Malaysia
Dalam konteks Malaysia, wacana sekularisme telah bermula semenjak sekitar tahun
1970-an hingga kini
1365
. Ini ditandai dengan kemunculan buku yang hasilkan oleh al-Attas
berjudul Islam and Secularism, yang menjadi bacaan utama di kalangan masyarakat pelajar
khususnya yang berada di universiti. Bertolak dari itu penulisan ini cuba menganalisis
1365
Lihat umpamanya, Muhammad Abu Bakar, Penghayatan Sebuah Ideal: Satu Tafsiran Tentang
Islam Semasa, 1987, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa Dan Pustaka, M.Kamal Hassan, Towards
Actualizing Islamic Ethical and Educational Principles In Malaysia Society: Some Critical
Observations, 1996, Petaling Jaya, Selangor: Muslim Youth Movement of Malaysia, Mahmood Zuhdi,
"Sekularisme dan Islamisme: Kemunduran dan Kemajuan Umat" dalam Isu dan Proses Pembukaan
Minda Umat Melayu Islam, 2003, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa Dan Pustaka.
Jaffary Awang / 965
pandangan tokoh-tokoh intelektual Muslim di Malaysia berhubung dengan persoalan
pembentukan identiti di kalangan masyarakat Islam. Untuk itu beberapa orang intelektual
Muslim akan dinilai pemikiran mereka khususnya dalam konteks pembinaan identiti serta
cabaran-cabaran terkini.
Sekitar awal tahun 1970-an agak sukar ditemui buku berkaitan dengan kebangkitan Islam
yang dihasilkan oleh al-Attas. Walau bagaimanapun al-Attas telah membincangkan mengenai
pengaruh Islam terhadap kehidupan masyarakat Melayu khususnya dalam konteks
pembentukan budaya Melayu-Islam. Analisis al-Attas berhubung dengan identiti Melayu-
Islam menjelaskan bagaimana pengaruh Hindu turut mempengaruhi budaya hidup Melayu.
Ini jelas dalam urusan perkahwinan masyarakat Melayu yang memperlihatkan pengaruh
Hindu meskipun telah berlaku sedikit perubahan bagi disesuaikan dengan ajaran Islam.
Namun bagi al-Attas kesan Islam yang paling besar adalah terhadap aspek penulisan dalam
bidang kesusasteraan Melayu. Bagi beliau aspek penulisan merupakan penunjuk utama
pemikiran Melayu di samping bentuk-bentuk arca tampak seperti bentuk pembinaan
bangunan dan nilai arkitek. Apa pun bagi al-Attas ajaran dan nilai Islam memberi kesan yang
penting dalam kehidupan masyarakat Melayu khasnya dalam merubah pola kehidupan yang
banyak dipengaruhi oleh Hindu-Buddha kepada nilai-nilai Islam.(al-Attas, 1969: 24)
Untuk memahami pola pemikiran al-Attas maka penulisan ini akan menumpukan
perhatian kepada buku beliau yang popular iaitu Islam and Secularism. Buku ini
dianggap sebagai sumber inspirasi utama kepada masyarakat Melayu-Islam dalam
membentuk kesedaran Islam khususnya di kalangan para pelajar di pusat pengajian
tinggi ketika sekitar 1970-an. Terdapat beberapa justifikasi mengapa buku ini
dijadikan sebagai teras dalam perbincangan ini iaitu pertama, tema utama yag
dibincangkan dalam buku ini memberi kekuatan dan inspirasi kepada para pelajar
universiti ketika itu khususnya kelompok pelajar yang bergiat dalam pertubuhan
ABIM. Kedua, buku al-Attas ini tidak hanya dirujuk oleh masyarakat Islam di
Malaysia malah ianya mencapai ke tahap antarabangsa apabila bukunya turut
diterjemahkan ke dalam beberapa bahasa utama seperti Perancis di samping Bahasa
Inggeris. Ini untuk memastikan agar perbincangannnya mengenai sekulaisme dapat
diikuti oleh masyarakat luar Malaysia. Ketiga, tema perbincangan al-Attas dalam
buku tersohor beliau ini menyentuh dan menjadi permasalahan utama di kalangan
masyarakat Islam Islam dan negara-negara umat Islam. Akhirnya berasaskan kepada
buku ini belau kemudiannya terus menganalisis dan membuat kajian dari sudut
membebaskan ilmu dari pengaruh elemen sekularisma. Atau dalam lain perkataan
beliau cuba "mengislamisasikan" ilmu menerusi kajian yang berterusan. Hasilnya
beliau telah menghasilkan beberapa buah buku yang cuba mengemukakan satu
bentuk pendekatan baru terhadap beberapa cabang ilmu semasa seperti psikologi dan
pendidikan.(al-Attas, 1993: xi-xvii)
Seperti yang dijelaskan, bahawa tema utama karya al-Attas adalah Islam dan
sekularisma. Beliau memulakan analisa dengan membincangkan polemik dan kekacauan
pemikiran yang berlaku di kalangan pemikir Barat akibat kemelut yang berlaku di sana.
Dalam menganalisis kekacauan tersebut, beliau mendapati bahawa pemikiran Barat
mempunyai kesan langsung daripada Kristian. Dari sudut metodologi, al-Attas menggunakan
pendekatan falsafah pada satu-satu tempat. Namun pada umumnya perbahasan beliau
mengenai perkembangan sekularisma dari dunia Barat ke dunia Islam tidak sukar untuk
diikuti.(al-Attas, 1978: 1-13) Kekacauan serta kekeliruan ini adalah akibat daripada
pendekatan intelektual Barat yang ttelah memisahkan ilmu dari aspek agama. Kenyataan ini
mungkin dapat difahami dari petikan berikut:
Dalam sejarah kebudayaan Barat, apa yang dikenalinya sebagai `masalah Tuhan adalah sebab
pengetahuan sains telah dipisahkan daripada hal keagamaan sebagai satu-satunya ilmu yang dapat
membimbing ke arah pencapaian kebenaran yang muktamad.(al-Attas, 2003: 12)
966 / ISoIT 2004
Dalam buku tersebut juga al-Attas membincangkan mengenai persoalan etika dan moral.
Beliau berhujah bahawa teminologi "din" dalam konteks perbincangan mengenai ajaran Islam
menggambarkan dinamikanya. Yang jelas perbincangan al-Attas berhubung dengan keunikan
dan keindahan Islam sebagai satu pendekatan bagi memperlihatkan kesempurnaan Islam.(al-
Attas, 1978: 47) Seterusnya dalam bahagian kedua buku tersebut, al-Attas menganalisis
mengenai kelemahan umat Islam terhadap budaya dan pola pemikiran Barat.
Dalam menganalisis mengenai Islam dan sekularisme, al-Attas`terlebih dahulu
mengenalpasti kelemahan dan kekurangan sekularisma hingga mengakibatkan minda umat
Islam terjajah termasuk masyarakat Islam di Malaysia. Ini ditambah pula kebanyakan
pentadbir yang memegang jawatan utama pentadbiran adalah terdiri dari mereka yang
berpendidikan Barat. Hingga menyebabkan majoriti masyarakat Islam di Malaysia
menganggap bahawa apa juga yang datang dari Barat ianya dianggap sebagai baik dan wajar
dilaksanakan dalam masyarakat. Fenomena ini menjadi sebati dalam jiwa umat Islam hingga
timbul di kalangan umat Islam yang mula mempersoalkan kemurniaan Islam.
Atas kemelut yang mula timbul di kalangan sebahagian umat Islam terhadap Islam itulah
barangkali al-Attas membincangkan mengenai potensi Islam sebagai asas kepada
pembangunan umat Islam. Beliau cuba mendedahkan bagaimana Islam dapat memenuhi
kehendak dan keperluan umat Islam. Menurutnya moral umat Islam merupakan sebagai teras
kepada pembangunan seluruhnya. Dalam hubungan ini W.M.Nor W.Daud
menjelaskan,(1997: 8)
the important of the individual and his soul as the substratum of human intellectual and societal
development. That is why al-Attas' life long Islamic activities have been centred on the improvement
and development of the individual: his intellect, psychology, ethics and happiness.
Al-Attas cuba mengenalpasti punca kelemahan umat Islam. Asas utama yang
menyebabkan kelemahan umat Islam ialah kerana kegagalan mereka memperaktikkan ajaran
Islam sebenar. Seterusnya beliau mendapati terdapat dua faktor lain yang menyebabkan umat
gagal untuk bersaing dengan lain-lain bangsa dalam usaha membangunkan jatidiri dan harga
diri umat iaitu, pertama apa yang diistilahkan oleh beliau sebagai faktor dalaman, iaitu
pertembungan yang berterusan antara dunia Barat. Sementara faktor dalaman merujuk kepada
kekeliruan dan salahfaham umat Islam terhadap Islam, kehilangan adab di kalangan umat
Islam dan akhirnya ketiadaan kredebiliti pimpinan di kalangan umat Islam.(al-Attas, 1978:
99-100)
Pembinaan jatidiri umat Islam Malaysia sentiasa mendapat perhatian dan penelitian
kalangan intelektual Muslim di Malaysia. Di samping al-Attas, tokoh lain yang turut memberi
perhatian terhadap kemelut umat Islam Malaysia ialah Kamal Hassan. Perhatian beliau
banyak ditumpukan kepada aspek pembinaan pemikiran umat Islam, kritikal terhadap
pemikiran Barat di samping melihat bahawa pendidikan sebagai teras pembangunan umat.
Sebagai seorang yang komited terhadap nilai-nilai Islam, Kamal Hassan sentiasa memulakan
penulisan beliau dengan memetik ayat-ayat al-Quran. Pendekatan ini digunakan sekiranya isu
yang dibincangkan adalah berkait rapat dengan persoalan nilai dan umat Islam. Apabila isu
yang dibincangkan mengenai ancaman dan pengaruh Barat terhadap umat Islam atau manusia
secara amnya, beliau akan memulakan dengan memetik kenyataan tokoh-tokoh pemikir
Barat. Ini juga menggambarkan bagaimana beliau seorang yang peka terhadap perkembangan
dunia pemikiran di Barat.
Sekiranya al-Attas membincangkan secara agak global kesan sekularisma terhadap
identiti umat Islam, Kamal Hassan pula menganalisis ideologi tersebut di kalangan umat
Islam di Malaysia. Kamal Hassan melihat bahawa pendokong fahaman sekularisma telah
mencorakkan polisi negara sejajar dengan fahaman mereka. Ini menurut beliau terpancar
Jaffary Awang / 967
dalam segenap aspek kehidupan masyarakat Malaysia. Menurut beliau,(M.Kamal Hassan,
1980: 2-3)
In most developing Muslim countries including Malaysia, the operating principle in national
development is still the principle of separation of religious values and norms from educational, social,
economic, political and cultural development. From the Quranic perspective, this separation lies at the
root of many of the socio-economic and political problems in the history of human civilisation. This
deliberate policy of separation and also containment of Islam is being pursued mainly by a generation of
Muslim elites clinging tenaciouly to what they deem to be the path to progress and prosperity, i.e. a
liberal and secular`world view which usually accommodates the ritualistic aspects of Islam and is often
mellowed by humanistic tendencies. Unaware of the Quranic world-wide., the system of Islam, the
history of Islamic civilisation and the epistemology of Islam, this generation of Muslims fail to gauge
the seriousness of Islamic concern over the separation of Allah's values and norms from educational,
social, cultural, eceonomic and political development.
Dalam konteks yang lain, Kamal Hassan mengkritik golongan birokrat berhubung
dengan persepsi mereka terhadap nilai-nilai Islam. Beliau mendapati telah wujud
kecenderungan di kalangan golongan ini yang membataskan penghayatan nilai-nilai Islam
hanya terhadap individu. Ini seolah-olahnya konsep penghayatan nilai-niali Islam hanya
terbatas atau terhad kepada individu semata-mata. Ini jelas apabila beliau menegaskan
bahawa majoriti masyarakat Islam melihat "spiritual development" sekadar dalam aspek-
aspek seperti yang diungkapkan oleh beliau, (1980: 2-3)
the inclusion of "religious subjects" in secular schools, the development of religious schools,
constructing of places of worship, setting up of Islamic centres and ministries of religion, holding of
religion festivals and celebrations on a regular basis, the Muslims in position of authority in many
Muslim countries, are consciously or unconsciouly allowing the other aspects of national development
and the practical affairs of the nation to human ingenuity alone, to be carried out under the aegis of alien
value systems, approaches and philosophies, which often contain many elements that are in open
defience of Allah's commandments, laws, values and norms.
Dalam pemikiran Kamal Hassan, bahawa konsep pembangunan yang ingin dikemukakan
perlulah menggabungkan dengan nilai-nilai Islam. Ini kerana Islam tidak membezakan antara
kehidupan dunia dan kehidupan akhirat atau soal-soal agama. Berasaskan kepada pendekatan
tersebut maka konsep pembangunan yang ingin dikemukakan juga perlulah mengambil kira
aspek nilai Islam.
Malah menurut beliau lagi bahawa soal kepatuhan juga perlu dipusatkan kepada Allah.
Ini selaras dengan konsep pembangunan yang berasaskan kepada ajaran Islam iaitu yang
berteraskan kepada tauhid atau mengesakan Allah. Ini bermaksud bahawa segala
perancangan yang ingin dilakukan perlulah dipastikan agar tidak bertentangan dengan ajaran
Islam. Ini jelas dari pernyataan Kamal Hassan,(1980: 4-5)
The spiritual, the physical, the rational, the moral and the aesthetically dimensions of human
personality, and activity relating to all the dimensions should be persuade in a balanced and integrated
manner, in order that human personality may evovle and function in a healthy form on the basis of the
unity of iman or faith and amal or action.
Pendidikan Islam dan Identiti
Pendidikan Islam merupakan salah satu saluran terpenting dalam membentuk identiti
masyarakat Muslim. Konsep pendidikan Islam dikatakan sebagai gabungan antara apa yang
disebut sebagai "the revealed knowledge" dan "the acquired knowledge". Perlaksanaan
konsep pendidikan ini dikatakan mampu untuk membentuk kesedaran masyarakat Islam
mengenai peranan mereka di dunia dan akhirat. Malahan pendidikan Islam juga merupakan
968 / ISoIT 2004
satu saluran untuk menjelaskan dan memindahkan nilai-nilai ummah dalam kehidupan
masyarakat Islam.
Soal kepentingan dan keperluan pendidikan Islam di tengah-tengah masyarakat berbilang
kaum seperti di Malaysia turut mendapat perhatian yang serius di kalangan intelektual
Melayu-Muslim. Dalam konteks ini sumbangan al-Attas terhadap pembangunan pendidikan
Islam tidak dinafikan, khususnya mengenai wacana epistemologi.(1979b; 1989; Yusuf
Waghib, 1996: 32-38) Antara isu utama yang dibincangkan oleh al-Attas adalah berkaitan
dengan permasalahan dan masadepan pendidikan Islam. Dalam hubungan ini menurut
W.M.Nor W.Daud bahawa,(1994: 1-14)
Al-Attas was among the founders and certainly the key Islamic conceptualist
behind the
establishment of the first university in Malaysia after independence, namely
the National
University of Malaysia in 1970.
Malah ketika membincangkan mengenai kemelut sekularisma, beliau turut membahaskan
mengenai dualisma ilmu yang sedang dihadapi oleh masyarakat Islam di bawah tajuk "The
Dewesternisation of Knowledge". Bagi beliau sekiranya umat Islam ingin membebaskan atau
menyelesaikan isu dualisme dalam pendidikan maka jalan keluarnya adalah dengan
melaksanakan sepenuhnya sistem pendidikan Islam yang menjadikan al-Quran dan as-Sunnah
sebagai sumber rujukan utama.(Khadijah Zon, 1988: Rosnani Hashim, 1996)
Tidak terhenti di situ malah al-Attas telah menjelaskan secara etimologi konsep dan
pengertian pendidikan Islam yang antara lain iaitu,(1980: 22)
recognition and acknowledgement, progressively instilled into man, of the
proper
places of things in the order of creation, such that it leads to the recognition
and
acknowledgement of the proper places of God in the order of being and
existence.
Berdasarkan definisi tersebut memperlihatkan penekanan al-Attas dalam membentuk
identiti Muslim adalah melalui proses intelektual dan pembinaan karakter atau watak. Dalam
membincangkan mengenai kepentingan dan keperluan pendidikan Islam, beliau turut
mengkritik sikap dan pandangan majoriti masyarakat Islam yang merasa rendah diri dan tidak
yakin dengan konsep pendidikan Islam. Malah beliau turut mengkritik sikap segelintir
masyarakat Islam yang lebih senang menerima dan melaksanakan apa yang telah sedia
berlaku di Barat. Untuk mengubah pandangan ini, bagi al-Attas hanyalah melalui proses
pemantapan sistem pendidikan Islam sepenuhnya di Malaysia.(1978: 157ff)
Menurut beliau lagi keadaan ini berlaku di kalangan umat Islam termasuk masyarakat
Melayu di Malaysia adalah akibat penjajahan pemikiran. Penjajahan ini berlaku dan
disebarkan secara lebih sistematik melalui penubuhan institusi pendidikan yang diwujudkan
oleh pihak penjajah Barat. Melalui institusi pendidikan inilah konsep pendidikan yang
bersifat sekular itu disebarkan kepada masyarakat tempatan. Akibatnya sistem pendidikan
yang dipelopori oleh kalangan ulama di institusi pondok semakin dipinggirkan. Ditambah
pula dengan corak pendidikan dan penekanan sistem pengajian tradisional yang hanya
membataskan kepada persoalan aspek perundangan semata-mata menyebabkan wujudnya
kegagalan dari aspek pendidikan. Atas alasan tersebutlah juga beliau menggesa agar sistem
pendidikan yang diwarisi dari Barat disemak semula.(al-Attas, 1979)
Jaffary Awang / 969
Perkara asas yang perlu menurut al-Attas ialah memberi kefahaman mengenai Allah swt.
Beliau menyentuh mengenai peranan manusia sebagai khalifah Allah yang bertanggungjawab
melaksanakan segala perintah dan kehendak Allah. Konsep din dan khalifah ini dihuraikan
secara panjang lebar dalam bukunya Islam and Secularism. Inilah yang dijelaskan dalam
kenyataan berikut,(al-Attas, 1989: 1-2)
The ultimate aim of religion is for man to return to the state in which he was
before he existed
and (this returning) involves the pursuit of knowledge, the understanding of
God's signs and
symbols in the pages of the book of nature by means of the guiding light of
His words and
interpreted in the sacred person of His messenger. It also involves the
applications of the
sound senses to the experience of reality, and the application of sound
reason to the
apprehension of truth.
Penjelasan di atas menunjukkan bagi al-Attas proses mendalami pengetahuan berhubung
dengan kepercayaan kepada Allah swt dan penggunaan potensi manusia adalah dua perkara
yang tidak terpisah. Menurut beliau sumber utama ilmu adalah "to our affirmation of
Revelation and the Tradition deriving from it as source of true knowledge of ultimate
reality."(al-Attas, 1989: 34) Ini kerana "the Holy Qur'an is the complete and final
Revelation, so that it suffices for man's guidance and salvation except based upon it and
pointing to it that can guide and save man."(al-Attas, 1979: 30) Manakala Hadis atau as-
Sunnah merupakan sebahagian daripada sumber ilmu yang merupakan "the most excellent
and perfect interpretation of the Holy Qur'an."(al-Attas, 1979: 30)
Seterusnya dalam konteks pembinaan identiti pelajar secara khusus dan masyarakat Islam
secara umumnya, intellektual Melayu-Muslim mendapati bahawa tumpuan Pendidikan Islam
seharusnya diperluaskan skop cakupannya. Silabusnya perlu menggabungkan antara konsep
teoretikal dan praktikal. Yang paling utama isu yang diketengahkan dalam sesi pembelajaran
perlulah relevan dengan keperluan semasa. Ditambah pula dengan pengetahuan berhubung
dengan ideologi-ideologi semasa kini khususnya pengajian di peringkat institusi pengajian
tinggi.(M.Kamal Hassan, 1996: 56) Ini kerana kalangan intelektual Melayu-Muslim
menyedari bahawa Pendidikan Islam tidak seharusnya terlalu menumpukan kepada
pengetahuan berhubung dengan persoalan-persoalan yang bersifat tradisional sebaliknya
mengintegrasikan dengan pengetahuan-pengetahuan terkini sebagai asas persediaan bagi para
pelajar berdepan dengan fenomena masyarakat terkini. Inilah gagasan yang tersirat dalam
pernyataan Kamal Hassan seperti yang dinukilkan iaitu kurikulum seharusnya,(1996: 57)
beyond the familiar traditional limits and establish the linkages with the
discipline of
economics, political science, sociology, anthropology, psychology, and the
humanities.
Gagasan serta luahan pandangan intelektual Melayu-Muslim Malaysia berhubung dengan
kemampuan lulusan Pendidikan Islam untuk berdepan dengan arus perkembangan semasa
kelihatannya semakin lantang apabila satu kedudukan sekolah Agama Rakyat diberhentikan
seketika bantuan kewangan dari pihak berwajib. Ini kerana kebanyakan pendokong kepada
sekolah Agama Rakyat beranggapan bahawa kedudukan sekolah ini seharusnya
dipertingkatkan tahap serta prestasinya dan bukannya dihalang atau direncatkan
perkembangannya. Dalam suasana tersebut, pihak berwajib memberi jaminan bahawa
bantuan tersebut akan disambung semula selepas satu kajian dibuat untuk mengenalpasti
tahap keperluan dan hala tuju sekolah Agama Rakyat.
970 / ISoIT 2004
Kebimbangan yang timbul ekoran peristiwa ini menggambarkan keprihatinan masyarakat
umum dan khususnya intelektual Muslim terhadap masadepan Pendidikan Islam dan
persediaan watak serta citra pelajar lulusan agama. Atas kebimbangan tersebutlah mengapa
terdapat pandangan intelektual Melayu-Muslim di Malaysia yang menggesa secara serius dan
berterusan agar sistem pendidikan diintegrasikan dengan nilai-nilai kehidupan semasa supaya
kelak lahirnya golongan pelajar yang tidak terpinggir dalam arus perkembangan masyarakat
kini. Perkara yang paling pokok dalam pembinaan identiti pelajar dalam hubungan
Pendidikan Islam adalah persoalan akhlak. Elemen akhlak yang menjadi sebahagian daripada
komponen silabus Pendidikan Islam seharusnya menjadi teras kepada pembinaan sahksiah
pelajar.(Anwar, 1990: 68)
Sejarah tidak menafikan bahawa kesungguhan kalangan intelektual Melayu-Muslim di
Malaysia yang begitu lantang mengkritik kelemahan sistem pendidikan sedikit sebanyak
terpengaruh dengan gelombang kebangkitan Islam yang berlaku sekitar 1970-an. Kalangan
pelajar universiti yang menuntut di luar negara ketika itu dikatakan berpeluang samada
berinteraksi bersama pendokong gerakan Islam antarabangsa khususnya mereka yang
berpeluang melanjutkan pelajaran di luar negara. Yang kemudiannya sekembali mereka ke
Malaysia telah memainkan peranan penting dalam meniupkan kesedaran di kalangan
masyarakat Melayu mengenai keperluan untuk menjadikan Islam sebagai satu panduan
hidup(Fred Von der Mehden, 1980: 169).
Gerakan Dakwah dan Pengukuhan Identiti Melayu
Gerakan dakwah di Malaysia sebetulnya telah bermula semenjak masyarakat Melayu
mengenali dan menerima Islam sebagai kepercayaan hidup. Semenjak itu telah berlaku proses
pertembungan antara budaya yang silam dengan budaya yang serasi dengan Islam. Proses
mengadaptasi dan menghayati nilai-nilai ajaran Islam sentiasa berlaku dan sifatnya
berterusan. Sifat kritikal masyarakat Melayu terhadap amalan-amalan yang bercanggah
dengan Islam sentiasa berlaku dengan kemunculan beberapa orang tokoh Melayu Islam yang
berusaha membetulkan segala bentuk perkara yang dilihat bertentangan dengan ajaran Islam.
Walau bagaimana pun perbincangan yang akan ditumpukan dalam kertas kerja ini adalah
peristiwa-peristiwa yang berlaku di sekitar awal 1970-an. Peristiwa-peristiwa yang hingga
memunculkan apa yang disebut sebagai gerakan dakwah di Malaysia.
Dalam konteks Malaysia gerakan dakwah yang berlaku sekitar 1970-an dikaitkan dengan
era kebangkitan Islam yang berlaku di hampir seluruh dunia Islam. Gerakan kebangkitan
Islam ini dilihat sebagai satu pendekatan untuk "increase in Islamic activism"(Daniel Pipes,
1982: 35). Ini kerana dalam konteks Malaysia arus kebangkitan Islam yang pada ketika itu
dipelopori oleh kalangan generasi muda, telah cuba membuat beberapa perubahan dan
kejutan serta tekanan terhadap sistem nilai yang sedia diamalkan oleh masyarakat ketika itu.
Antara isu yang menjadi fokus gerakan Islam di Malaysia ketika itu dapat dirumuskan seperti
berikut:
Pertama, menuntut agar sistem perundangan disesuaikan dengan ajaran Islam. Dengan itu
mereka mempersoalkan pengekalan dan penerusan sistem perundangan yang dikatakan
diwarisi dari tinggalan pihak penjajah;(Jean-Claude Vatin, 1982: 225)
Kedua, mendesak agar masyarakat Islam agar menghayati nilai-nilai agama Islam
khususnya dari sudut pemakaian. Ini sebagai satu lambang atau simbol terhadap komitmen
masyarakat terhadap Islam;(Daniel Pipes, 1982: 35; Muhammad Abu Bakar, 1987: 73,
Chandra Muzaffar, 1988)
Ketiga, dari sudut pendidikan kalangan pendokong kebangkitan Islam di Malaysia
mendesak agar sistem pendidikan perlu mengambil kira aspek rohani dan jasmani. Golongan
ini mengkritik pihak pemerintah kerana dikatakan terlalu menekankan aspek pembangunan
Jaffary Awang / 971
fizikal hingga mengabaikan kepentingan pembangunan aspek moral dan etika.(M.N. Monutti,
1989: 262)
Dalam konteks gerakan dakwah di Malaysia adalah jelas bertujuan untuk membentuk dan
mewujudkan masyarakat Muslim yang bercirikan nilai-nilai Islam. Gerakan ini yang
dikatakan pada peringkat awal 1970-an dipelopori oleh Angkatan Belia Islam (ABIM)
berkeyakinan bahawa Islam mampu menjadi pemangkin dan kekuatan untuk umat Melayu
bersaing dengan bangsa-bangsa lain. Bagi kalangan pendokong gerakan Islam melihat
bahawa perlaksanaan Islam di tengah-tengah masyarakat majmuk seperti Malaysia bukanlah
satu masalah yang besar(Anwar, 1976:52). Malah yang paling utama perlunya ruang agar
masyarakat majmuk seperti Malaysia diberi ruang untuk memahami konsep Islam yang
sebenar.
Penutup
Perbincangan di atas menjelaskan bahawa isu identiti masyarakat Muslim di Malaysia
merupakan persoalan yang sentiasa mendapat perhatian intelektual. Persoalan ini akan terus
diperdebatkan khususnya pada ketika mana masyarakat Melayu Islam sering terdedah kepada
pengaruh luar. Walau bagaimanapun mereka berkeyakinan bahawa asas kepada kekuatan
jatidiri masyarakat Melayu Muslim adalah persediaan dari sudut keilmuan. Justeru
kemantapan ilmu menjadi elemen terpenting dalam menapis segala maklumat yang
diperolehi. Seperkara lagi juga jelas, bahawa persoalan Islam sebagai pemangkin kepada
kekuatan umat Melayu juga menjadi isu utama para intelektual di Malaysia. Ini memberi erti
bahawa antara Islam dan masyarakat Melayu adalah sesuatu yang tidak dapat dipisahkan.
Bibliografi
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Virginia: The International Institute of Islamic Thought.
Al-Ahsan, Abdullah. 1992. Ummah or Nation? Identity Crisis in Contemporary Muslim Society,
Liecester: The Islamic Foundation.
Al-Attas, S.M.N. 1979a. Islam and Secularism, Kuala Lumpur: Muslim Youth of Malaysia.
Al-Attas, S.M.N. 1979b. Aims and Objectives of Islamic Education, London/Jeddah: Hodder and
Stoughton/King Abdul Aziz University.
Al-Attas, S.M.N. 1980. The Concept of Education in Islam, Kuala Lumpur: Muslim Youth Movement
of Malaysia.
Al-Attas, S.M.N. 2003. Tinjauan Ringkas Peri Ilmu dan Pandangan Alam, dalam Isu dan Proses
Pembukaan Minda Umat Melayu Islam, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa Dan Pustaka, hlm. 10-26.
Al-Faruqi, Ismail R., 1988. Islamization of Knowledge: Problems, Principles, and Prospective, dalam
Islam: Source and Purpose of Knowledge, Herndon, Virginia: International Institute of Islamic
Thought, hlm.13-64.
Chandra Muzaffar, 1988. Kebangkitan Semula Islam Di Malaysia, Petaling Jaya: Penerbit Fajar Bakti
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George A. Theodorson and Achilles G. Theodorson, 1969. A Modern Dictionary of Sociology, New
York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company.
Khadijah Zon, 1988. Pendidikan Dualistik Di Kalangan Orang-Orang Melayu: Satu Kajian
Perbandingan Mengenai Matlamat, Falsafah Serta Masalah-Masalah Intrinsik Dalam Pendidikan,
Tesis Ph.D, Fakulti Pendidikan, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
Jaffary Awang dan Kamaruddin Salleh, 2003. Toleransi Agama Dan Perpaduan Kaum: Response
Intelek Malaysia: Satu Observasi Ringkas, dalam Jaffary Awang, Mohd Nasir Omar dan Muda @
Ismail Ab Rahman (pnyt.), Agama Dan Perpaduan Kaum Di Malaysia, Bangi: Fakulti Pengajian
Islam, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, hlm. 76-93.
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Jean-Claude Vatin, 1982. Revival in Maghreb: Islam as an Alternative Political Language, dalam Ali
E. Hillal Dessouki (ed.), Islamic Resurgence in the Arab World, New York: Praeger Publishers.
Mahmood Zuhdi, 2003. "Sekularisme dan Islamisme: Kemunduran dan Kemajuan Umat" dalam Isu dan
Proses Pembukaan Minda Umat Melayu Islam, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa Dan Pustaka.
M.Nor Monutti, 1989. Perception of Social Change in Contemporary Malaysia: A Critical Analysis of
ABIMs Role and Its Impact among Muslim Youth, Tesis Ph.D, Temple University.
M.Kamal Hassan, 1996. Towards Actualizing Islamic Ethical And Educational Principles In Malaysia
Society: Some Critical Observations, Petaling Jaya, Selangor: Muslim Youth Movement of
Malaysia.
Max Beloff, 1996. Intellectuals. Dalam Adam Kuper and Jessica Kuper (eds.), The Social Science
Encyclopedia, Edisi ke-2, London: Routledge.
Muhammad Abu Bakar, 1987. Penghayatan Sebuah Ideal: Satu Tafsiran Tentang Islam Semasa, Kuala
Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa Dan Pustaka.
Roff, W. 1985. "Kaum Muda-Kaum Tua: Innovation and Reaction amongts the Malays, 1900-41",
dalam Ahmad Ibrahim, Sharon Siddique and Yasmin Hussain, Readings on Islam in Southeast
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Dr. Jaffary Awang
Jabatan Usuluddin dan Falsafah
Fakulti Pengajian Islam
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
43600 Bangi
Selangor Darul Ehsan
Tel: 03-89213659
E-mail: jaffaryawang@hotmail.com
The development of the Health Sciences and Related
Institutions During the First Six Centuries of Islam
Haji Hasbullah Haji Abdul Rahman
Abstract
It is said, Medicine was born; Hippocrates created it. It was dead; Galen revived it. It
was scattered; Rhazes (Razi) reassembled it. It was imperfect; Avicenna (Ibn Sina) perfected
it. Muslim endeavours in the areas of medicine, hospital, pharmacy and other disciplines
clearly manifest the stages stipulated in the above statement. Human civilization is like a
mountain, people come generation after generation, each with their own endeavours, they
carve steps on this rocky mountain and facilitate others to ascend.
Our aim in presenting a few glimpses of Islam as a vehicle of scientific and intellectual
progress to provide a background to readers for the scientific and intellectual pursuits of
Muslims during the Dark Ages from 7
th
to 13 to 13
th
centuries C.E., enabling them to
comprehend the remarkable contributions Muslims have made to the development of
hospitals, Medicine and Pharmacy. These contributions are fairly advanced and these
achievements are not possible without considerable progress in different disciplines of
civilization. It is essential to present these because many here in the West are completely
unaware of Muslims heritage.
Muslim contribution to development of the health sciences are immense. They fully
recognized the goal and role of the health sciences in society and therefore awarded them
generous emolument and high status. Let me discuss three institutions related to health
sciences during the first six centuries of Islam. That three institutions are Medicine,
Hospitals, Pharmacy.
Medicine
The goal and role of medical science in early of Islam
The general aim of medical science, according to Muslim physicians, is to secure and
adopt suitable measures which, with Gods permission, help to preserve or restore the health
of the human body. The normal state of the human body is the state of health. This the state in
which all the functions of the body are carried on normally, and which is characterized by the
harmony, balance, and equilibrium of all when one or more functions or forms of the bodily
organs are at fault. The role of medical science and the physician is to find and employ
suitable means for the preservation of that normal state of disease.
1366
1366
Osman Bakar, Tawhid and Science, p. 107.
974 / ISoIT 2004
The preservation of health brings into focus the importance of preventive medicine or
prophylaxis. The restoration of health on the hand pertains primarily to the task of therapeutic
medicine. Thus, there are two main areas of concern of Islamic medical science: preventive
medicine and therapeutic medicine.
1367
In Islam, the human body, its faculties and functions, and its consequent health and
welfare, were object of wonder and appreciation. The Quran referred to them on many
occasions and declared them areas where the patterns of God obtain (23: 14). The Prophet, in
pursuit of that spirit, affirmed: Do take medicines for your ills. God created no ailment but
established for it an antidote except old age. When the antidote is applied, the patient will
recover with Gods permission.
1368
These directives provided the positive impetus necessary
for the development of a science of medicine built upon empirical laws tested in everyday
experience. The condemnation by the Quran and the Hadith of magic and its practices
alinated the Muslim against those pursuits, and oriented them toward genuine medicine and
public health care. The faith that every disease has its antidote urged the Muslims to scan the
world of minerals, plants, and animals in search of an antidote, to develop a sophisticated
science of pharmacology. This was an accasion in which religion became allied to an exact
and empirical science of the body, encouraged its development, and condemned all previous
practices that were not scientific.
1369
The general pursuit of scientific knowledge which Islam highly recommended found in
medicine an extremely attractive field, partly because of the immediate benefits of which it
was capable, and partly on account of the veneration with which the medical knowledge and
profession had been held in the past. In number of centers such as Ruha, al Hirah,
Jundishapur, and Harran, Christian and Sabaean doctors, many of whom had run away from
Church persecution and found refuge in the buffer states between Persia and Byzantium, had
built a viable tradition of medical knowledge. The Muslims employed them, sat at their feet
to learn from them, and commissioned them to translate their books and records into
Arabic.
1370
Jurji bin Bakhtishu (d.215/830) was employed by al Mansur as court physician.
Taught by their father, Baktishus sons continued in the same employment. Yuhanna ibn
Masawayh (d.243/857) was asked to teach his profession to Muslims. Hunayn ibn Ishaq
(d.260/873) was appointed by al Mamum as head of Dar al Hikmah (The House of Wisdom),
and was commissioned with his colleagues and pupils to procure and translate the whole
legacy of medical and scientific knowledge into Arabic.
1371
Thus Islamic medicine was born and began to grew rapidly. Its first achievement was the
general assessment and review of the legacy of classical antiquity, and of Persian and Hindu
scientific writings. This legacy was researched and proofed, systematized and translated, and
given new categories agreeing with the general principles of Islamic religion and culture.
1372
The art of diagnosis consisted of three parts: history of case, which included the health
situation of the household and all its members; investigation of the patients urine (al
tafsirah) , body temperature, smell, and other apparent conditions; examination of the
pulse.
1373
1367
Ibid
1368
Bukhari, Vol. VII LXXI 582.
1369
Dr. Fuad Hasan, Muslim Contribution to the Development of Medicine, in AL MIZAN, Vol 1, Issue
2, 1996, p. 47-52.
1370
Ismail R. Al-Faruqi & Lois Lamya, The cultural Atlas of Islam, p.324.
1371
ibid
1372
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Science & Civilization in Islam, p.212-218. See also Sami K. Hamarneh,
Health Sciences in Early Islam, Volume 1, p.42
1373
F.H. Garrison, History of Medicine, 4th Edition, W.B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, 1929, p. 134.
Haji Hasbullah Haji Abdul Rahman / 975
Outstanding Muslim Scientist and their contribution on sciences
of medicine.
Thanks to the scholarly efforts of several prominent Muslim physicians, most notably
Ibn Sina,
1374
the whole body of medical knowledge known to the Muslims was put into
systematic writing in works which have been widely acknowledged as among the greatest
medical encyclopedias of all time. Especially with the help of classifications and the novel
features of diagrams and illustrations, these medical encyclopedias facilitated learning and
instructions, and consequently served as popular textbooks not only in the medical schools of
the Islamic world but also in those of the West until as late as the nineteenth century.
1375
The
materia of his al-Qanun (The Canon) which contains some seven hundred and sixty drugs is
the epitome of Islamic medicine.
1376
It provided the main guidance from the 12th to 17th
centuries. It is a careful classifications and systemization of all the medical knowledge known
to the Muslims in the 11th century C.E. The Canon distinguishes mediastinitis from pleurisy;
recognizes the contagious nature of diseases and the spreading of diseases by water and soil.
It provides a scientific diagnosis of ankylostomiasis and attributes it to an intestinal worm
1377
.
Al-Qanun is divided into five parts. The first deals with principles of the art of healing,
natural matters, causes and symptoms of diseases. It also includes hygiene and laws of
therapeutics. The second part contains simple drugs, their properties and uses,in alphabetical
order which includes section on antidotes, cosmetology and fevers. The anatomy and
physiology of the organs in the body are also provided. The fourth part includes a special
discussion on the diseases which are not confined to a particular organ of the body.
1378
The
fifth part deals extensively with compound drugs, serving as a medical formulary of how they
are best utilized.
Ibn Sina discovered the caused of many diseases such as meningitis, the manner of
spread of epidemics, the contagious nature of tuberculosis etc. He foreshadowed the 20th
century theory of brain localization. He believed that the external senses of sight, hearing,
tongue, taste and smell were centered in the brain.
His al-Urjuzah fi al-Tib (Medical Poems), which he composed for medical students in
oder for them to memorize medical principles on different aspects of medicine, became very
popular among medical students.
1379
Mohammed ibn Zakaria al-Razi (Rhazes, 850-923 C.E.) was one of three great
physicians. His internationally famous works al-Hawi (Continents) published in twenty
volumes
1380
is a monumental inventory of most of the facts and details connected with
medicine. For each disease he provides references to Greek, Iranian, Arabic and Indian
authors, and then gives his own opinion. He was a celebrated psychologist. His three works
The Moralities of Perception, Mental Equilibrium and Instinct of Enjoyment are self
explanatory on this branch of knowledge. He very successfully practiced and developed
1374
Ibn-Sinas full name is Abul-Ali Husayn Ibn-Abdullah Ibn-Sina (980-1037), his titles were Al-
Shaykh Al-Rais (The Chief Master) or Al-Muallim Al-Thani (The Second Teacher) second to Aristotle,
known in the Western World as the prince of physicians.
1375
Ismail R. al-Faruqi, The Cultural Atlas of Islam, p. 324.
1376
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Reflection on Methodology in the Islamic Sciences, in Hamdard Islamicus,
Vol. 111. No.3 (Autumn) 1980, p. 7.
1377
Muhammad Ibrahim H I Surty, Muslims Contribution to the Development of Hospital, p.24
1378
Ibid
1379
Ibid
1380
especially its 9th volume on pharmacology, was used as one of the main text books in the madical
school of Paris.
976 / ISoIT 2004
psychotherapy, introduced therapeutic methods and invented set on in surgery.
1381
His
greatest contribution was his monograph on smallpox and measles, Kitab al-Judari wal
Hasbah (Book on Smallpox and Measles) was reprinted more than forty times between 1498
and 1866 C.E. His Kitabal-Asar became the chief source of chemistry. His works on stones in
the bladder and kidney, his description of the eye, the nose, the ear, and heart are famous.
1382
Ali bin Abbas al-Mujusi (Hally Abbas) (d. 1009 C.E.); was a great physician. His two
important works Kamil al-sinaah (The Perfection of Art), famous in Latin as Liber regius
brought him universal fame. He discussed very frankly the merits and shortcomings of the
physicians who preceded him.
During the 5th century AH / 11th century C.E., Arib ibn Sa d al-Katib of Cordova
composed a well-known treatise on gynaecology. He was followed by Abul Qasim al-
Zahrawi (d.1036 C.E.) who was the greatest Muslim figure in surgery.
1383
. He authored four
main works. One of these is Al-Tasrif Liman Ajiz an Al-Talif which was the best
medieval surgical enclopedia and was used in Europe until the 17th century.
1384
Ibn Baytar (d.1248 C.E.) in his work al-Jami li-Mufradat al-Adwiyah wal-Aghdhiyah
(The compendium on Simple Drugs and Diets) on his own observations and scores of others
he has provided in alphabetical order over 1400 simple drugs.
1385
Tadhkirat al-Kahhalin (The
Momento of Ophthalmologist) by Ali ibn Isa
1386
was an epoch-making treatise on
ophthalmology.
Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) (d.1039 C.E.) contributed Kitab al-Manazir (The book of
Optics)
1387
. He pointed out the role of conjunctiva iris, cornea and lens in vision after
providing their meticulous description.
1388
Ibn Nafis (d.1413 C.E.) explained the minor
circulation of blood while his disciple Ibn al-Quff pointed out clearly the existence of
capillaries which were seen three centuries later under the microscope.
1389
Shams al-Din Kasha was the first physician to contribute an excellent work on first aid.
Ibn Zuhar (d.1161 C.E.) was the first physician recommend the opening of the rectum after
failure of the gullet. He was the first parasitologist. His original works, Al-Taysir fil-Mudawat
wal-Tadbir (Practical Treatments and Precautionary Measures) supersedes all previous
works. Ibn Bajjah (d.1139 C.E) in his famous work Kitab al-Nafs provides a complete survey
of peripatetic psychology.
1390
Abu Bakr al-Baytar (d.1340 A.C.) was the celebrated veterinary surgeon. His famous
work Kamil al-Sinaatayn al-Baytara wal Zartaqa (The Complete Compendium on the Two
Arts : Veterinary and Horse Training) provides comprehensive treatment in both disciplines.
1391
1381
Ibid, See also Ezzat Abouleish, Contribution of Islam to Medicine edt. by Shahid Athar, Islamic
Perspectives in Medicine, p.28-29., Haider Bammate, Muslim Contribution to Civilization, p.29-32,
1382
Ibid
1383
Ibid , Abul-Al-Qasim Khalaf Ibn Abbas Al-Zahrawi, He is known in the Western World as
Abulcasis, Bucasis or Alzahravius. Born in Al-Zahra, a suburb of Cordova. He attended the University
of Cordova which had been established for one and half centuries.
1384
Ezzat Abouleish, Contribution of Islam to Medicine, edt by Shahid Athar, Islamic Perspectives in
Medicine, p. 30.
1385
Muhamamad Ibrahim H I Surty, Muslims Contribution to the Development of Hospital, p.25
1386
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Science & Civilization in Islam, p. 213
1387
N.A. Baloch, Great Books of Islamic Civilazation, p. 165.
1388
Ibid, p. 128-132
1389
See Ezzat Abouleish, Contribution of Islam to Medicine, edt. by Shahid Athar, Islamic Perspectives
in Medicine, p. 36-38.
1390
Muhammad Ibrahim H I Surty, Muslims Contribution to the Delopment of Hospitals, p.25.
1391
Ibid
Haji Hasbullah Haji Abdul Rahman / 977
The Scope and Divisions of Islamic Medical Science - Islamic medicine was divided into
two main parts; theory and practice. Under physiology seven constituents of the human body
were recognized, each of which became the subject of a specialized discipline. The practice
part was divided into therapeutics or the science of curing disease, and hygiene or preventive
medicine.
1392
The former was divided into surgery, drug therapy, and dietary therapy and
regimental therapy, which included such measures as cauterization, diaphoresis, vomiting,
leeching, massage, physical exercise, fomentation, purging, venesection, cupping, etceteras.
To these, the Muslims added in the following century the specializations of dentistry,
obstetrics and gynecology, ophthalmology, pediatrics, and psychiatry. Their practice was
governed by an expanded Hippocratic oath which combined medical service with devotion to
God.
1393
Prevention of ill health was regarded as requiring balance and harmony between six pairs
of opposites: Excretion and retention, psychic movement and rest, bodily movement and rest,
sleep and wakefulness, too much and too little food and drink, and too much and too little air.
The Muslims devoted a great deal of their medical talent to preventive medicine, in the faith
that it was more important than the science of therapeutics.
1394
Hospitals
The foundation development of hospital in early of Islam
The Prophets mosque in the capital city of Madinah served many practical purposes and
acted as nucleus for a number of Islamic institutions which are essential for public welfare.
This great center accommodated the first Muslim hospital service in its courtyard. In the
battle of the Ditch when the Prophet came across some wounded soldiers he ordered that a
special tent be erected in the courtyard of the mosque and these soldiers be accommodated in
the tent for medical aid. A lady nurse was also attached to the tent to look after these
soldiers.
1395
During the early Islamic period, attempts were made by the Muslim to provide
appropriate facilities and assistance to sick people. The ten years (13/634 - 23/644) under the
rule of the second Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab saw many public welfare works in the Islamic
State. The Caliph was so concerned for the welfare of ailing people, that he accompanied a
team of physicians with the army proceeding towards Persia.
1396
During the Umayyad period (86/705 -96/715), Walid ibn Abd al-Malik founded a
hospital for the blind, lepers and other disabled people. He himself laid the foundation stone.
In his hospital lepers were not permitted to mix with other people. He took the lead in
establishing a dispensary which was well equipped in respect of both physicians, surgeons
and drugs. This dispensary served as a model and on its pattern several dispensaries were
established in the Muslim world during the Umayyad period.
1397
During the Abbasid period the city of Baghdad had already built its medical schools
and attached to them hospitals and outpatient clinics in which the students practiced, and the
teachers taught and did research. Muslim hospitals divided into those dealing with either
1392
Osman Bakar, Tawhid and Science p.110-130, see also Ismail Faruqi, The Cultural Atlas of Islam,
p.325
1393
Ibid
1394
Ibid
1395
Ibrahim H I Surty, Muslims Contribution to the Development of Hospitals , p.57
1396
Ibid, p.58
1397
Ibid
978 / ISoIT 2004
mental or physical diseases, the latter being divided between contagious and noncontagious
diseases. The Muslims also invented the ambulant hospital: a hospital carried on camelback
in caravan style complete with bes, food, water, medicines, operating and isolation rooms,
and a crew of doctors, nurses, attendants, officers, and servants. The ambulant hospital
traveled from city to city or village to village, to attend to epidemics and the victims of
natural catastrophes. Muslim hospitals were also equipped with recreational materials and
some employed musicians. The ambulant hospital had the privilege to set up camp within the
prisons as well, in order to attend to prisoners and guards. Whenever it came to a town that
did not have a permanent hospital, the poor, the handicapped, the wayfarer, the miserable,
and the outcast all enjoyed its benefits.
1398
Characteristic feature of Hospitals in the Islamic Civilization
During the Islamic civilization, hospital had developed and attained specific
characteristics:
a. Secular: Hospitals served all peoples irrespective of color, religion, or background. In
hospitals, physicians of all faiths worked together with one aim in common: the well-being of
patients.
b. Separate wards: Patients of different sexes occupied separate wards. Also different
diseases especially infectious ones, were allocated different wards.
c. Separate nurses: Male nurses were to take care of male patients, and vice-versa.
d. Baths and water supplies: Praying five times a day is an important pillar of Islam. Sick
or healthy, it is an Islamic obligation. In either case one must offer prayer, but if one is sick
one may pray lying in bed. Ablution is obligatory, therefore, these hospitals had to provide
the patients and employees with plenty of water and adequate bathing facilities.
d. Practicing physicians: Only qualified physicians were allowed by law to practice
medicine. In 931 A.D., the Abbasid Caliph Al-Muqtadir, ordered his Chief Court-Physician
Sinan Ibn-Thabit to screen the 860 physicians of Baghdad and to grant licenses to practice
only to the ones who were qualified
e. Medical schools: The hospital was not only a place for treating patients, but it also
served as a school to educate and train medical students, imparting medical knowledge, and
developing medicine as a whole.
f. Proper records of patients: These hospitals were the first in history that kept regular
records of patients and their medical treatment.
h. Pharmacy: During the Islamic era, the science and the profession of pharmacy had
developed to an outstanding degree.
1399
The Reasons for the high standard of Islamic Hospitals
In the Islamic Empire, the hospitals reached their golden era unsurpassed in previous
history. The reasons for this unprecedented progress may briefly be summed up as follows;
a. Being part of an ascendant civilization: The people were prosperous, and they were
capable of taking care of their health seeking treatment of every disease. The Prophet says
For every disease God has created a cure. The sciences related to a good medical care
system were fairly advanced, e.g., the Arabs were very advanced in chemistry, mathematics,
administrations, pharmacy, medicine, etc. They gave the world a counting system which
1398
Ismail R. Faruqi & Lois Lamya, The Cultural Atlas of Islam, p. 325.
1399
Shahid Athar, Islamic Perspectives in Medicine, p.19-20
Haji Hasbullah Haji Abdul Rahman / 979
replaced the cumbersome Roman numerals. The world also owes to them to knowledge of
many important chemical process and reactions, namely, sublimation, precipitation, filtration,
distillations, etc. Fielding H. Garrison, the author of the well-known work on the
1400
History
of Medicine said:......... The Saracens themselves were the originators not only of algebra,
chemistry, and geology, but of many of the so-called improvements or refinements of
civilization, such as street lamps, window-panes, fireworks, stringed instruments, cultivated
fruits, perfumes, spices, etc.....
b. High prestige of physicians: The physicians in this era enjoyed high prestige. Although
anyone, irrespective of his social status, could study medicine, the route was long and
tedious. Before embarking upon his medical studies a student first had to study Islamic,
philosophy, astronomy, art, chemistry for admitted into a medical school. A physician was
thus a highly cultured person who had wisdom and knowledge. In fact, the Arabic term for a
physician is hakim
1401
could easily obtain generous funds for their hospitals. or a sage. In the
9th and 10th centuries , the Court Physician was placed above the Chief Justice. Many
eminent physicians, as we will see later, had enough talent, social knowledge, political ability
and wisdom to be appointed by the caliphs as their prime ministers (viziers). With their high
position and social connections physicians
c. High standard equipment and facilities: The health institutions and hospitals were
provided with relevant equipment to facilitate the work of health workers. Similarly, drugs
and prescriptions were readily available. To ensure that drugs to be administered were not
adulterated a special official of the Caliphate was charged with the responsibility of drug
administration. An example of a hospital with the feature described above is al-Mansur
hospital in Cairo. This hospital had separate wards for important diseases, separate wards for
men and women, convalescent, lecture rooms, an extensive library, out-patient clinics, diet-
kitchen, an orphan asylum and a prayer room. In fact treatment and drugs were given free of
charge in this hospital.
d. Rulers involvement in public services: The caliphs of the Islamic empire built
magnificent hospitals for reason; religion, eternity or politics.
e. Adequate financing to run the hospitals: The rulers set aside generous funds for
running these hospitals. Also there were many philanthropists, who like their rulers, followed
their religious beliefs and spent generously an charitable causes like building hospitals, etc. In
Islam, there is a special system called Al-Waqf. One may donate part or all of his wealth to an
endowment, for any charitable cause. Usually the government takes care of such
endowments, and the resultant revenues are used in maintaining and building mosques,
hospital, and schools. Another important source of funds and an important pillar of Islam is
what is known as Zakah or poor-due which is collected annually from prosperous people at a
rate of two and half percent of their surplus wealth. All funds thus collected go to the state
treasury which uses them for well-defined charitable purposes. Very few hospitals in the
Islamic era were private. In other words, income from patients fees constituted a relatively
unimportant source of funding.
1402
f. As motivation to health-worker and to maintain a high standard, substantial amount of
money were bestowed on health-workers by the Caliphs. In the reign of Harun al-Rashid (786
CE) the court physician is reported to have received a regular monthly salary of about $2500,
a new year bonus of $6250, and about $1500 per anumm for bleeding and purging the Caliph.
This physician also received $125,000 on treatment of Caliph al-Mamum. The total fortune
1400
Fielding H. Garrison, An Introduction to the Histort of Medicine with Medical Chronology,
Suggestions for Study and Biblographic Data, p. 86.
1401
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Science & Civilization, p.184.
1402
Ibid, p.20-21
980 / ISoIT 2004
of this physician in fees is estimated at $10,000,000 which is a substantial an amount both
then now for an individual.
1403
Example hospitals in early centuries of Islam
Old Hospital - Caliph al-Mansur (136-158/754-575), regarded as the founder of the round
city of Baghdad, constructed a Bimaristan, hospital in an old suburb of great impotence
known as Karkh which was situated south-west of the original walled city. The city was
beautiful having in front of great Karkhaya canal, a branch of the Isa Canal, which joined the
waters of the Euphrates to those of the Tigris. An arched stone bridge over the canal was
known as the Qantrarab al-Bimaristan, Hospital Bridge.
The hospital proved to be the cradle of the Baghdad school of medicine. Here physicians
from the time of Bakhtishu to Razi lived, lectured and practiced. It was later known as the
Old Hospital until the appearance of the Adudi hospital in the tenth century. This hospital
served as the chief center of clinical teaching and practise.
1404
Rashidi Hospital - Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid (170/780-193/809) established a
hospital in Baghdad in 190/805 and provided the necessary facilities for this hospital. He
recruited the chief physician of the famous medical centre of Persia, Jundishapur, Jibrail ibn
Bakhtishu who was appointed as the provost of the Baghdad hospital. Other physicians of
Jundishapur were also attracted towards Baghdad and soon the reputation of Jundishapur
diminished. The hospital at Baghdad became a centre for medical activities in the Muslim
world. Five more hospitals were established on its pattern.
1405
So much so that the minister of
the Caliph Harun al-Rashid, Yahya ibn Khalid Barmaki constructed a hospital on the pattern
of the Rashidi hospital in Baghdad with his own funds.
1406
Bimaristan al-Sayyidah - In Muharram 306/918, Caliph Muqtadirs court physician
Sinan bin Thabit persuaded the Caliph to construct a hospital in the famous market of Suq
Yahya on the bank of the river Tigris, which was known as Bimaristan al-sayyidah. Caliph
al-Muqtadir also asked the famous physician Abu Uthman bin Ya qub from Damascus to
supervise the hospitals in Baghdad, Makkah and Madinah and commissioned several new
hospital to which he endowed large funds.
1407
The Caliphs mother left a pious endowment for the hospital al-Badri. Once when its
director Abu al-Saqr failed to send the funds, Sinan bin Thabir complained to Ali ibn Isa the
finance minister. Ali ibn Isa informed hin that due to the winter weather, patients were
experiencing hardship without coal and woollen garments. Abu al-Saqr was asked to
explain.
1408
This reflects the concern for the welfare of the patients in the hospital. Every
attempt was made to provide the patients necessary facilities.
In 319/931 physicians made some mistakes in their treatment of a patient a result of
which the patient died. Immediately the Caliph ordered Sinan ibn Thabit who was the
Inspector General of Health of the Islamic State, to examine the proficiency of all physicians.
1403
Yahya Oyewole Imann, Islamic Health Care Services in the Contemporary world ,in Islamic
Querterly, 1995/1416, p. 239. See also Fielding H. Garrison, An Introduction to the History of Medicine,
4th ed. (Philadelphia and London: W.B. Saunders Company, 1929), p.136.
1404
Muhammad Ibrahim H I Surty, Muslims Contribution to the Development of Hospitals, p. 59. See
also C. Elgood., A Medical History of Persia, p. 70.
1405
Mayerhofmax, Von Alexandien nach Baghdad. Translated by A.R. Badwi. al-Turath al-Yunani
Hadarat al-Islamiyah, p.57 in Muhammad Ibrahim H I Surty op. cit.
1406
Muhammad Ibrahim H I Surty, op.cit. p. 60, See also Ibn Nadim, al-Fihrist, p. 245.
1407
Ibid., See also al-Qifti, Ikhar al- Ulama bi Akhbar al-Hukama, p. 133.
1408
Ibid., See also Ibn Abi Usaybiah Abu Dawud Sulayman bin Hassan, Tabaqat al-Atibba wal
Hukama, p.133.
Haji Hasbullah Haji Abdul Rahman / 981
Arrangements were made for practical instruction. Ophthalmologists were examined to
ascertain whether they were forbidden to practice unless they knew the anatomy of the eye-
ball. Physicians were not allowed officially to start practicing before obtaining a proficiency
diploma. Sinan granted diplomas to eight hundred and sixty physicians in Baghdad. This in
itself clearly manifests the concern for life and the popularity of the practice of medicine in
the city of Baghdad alone. This practice is common in this modern age, especially in
developed countries.
Ibn Tulun Hospital in Egypt - Ibn Tulun, Governor of Cairo in 259/872, established a
hospital on the pattern of the leading hospital at Baghdad.
1409
He spent 60,000 dinars on this
project alone. He set aside a hand some endowment fund for the maintenance of the hospital
and the welfare of sick people without discrimination. This enabled the management of the
hospital to provide free accommodation, treatment and food to patients. Admitted patients
were granted a special hospital apparel. Attempts were also made to provide excellent
medical care by recruiting renowned physicians who examined the patients twice daily. The
hospital was well equipped with all available medical facilities and drugs.
1410
This hospital was divided into two main sections: male and female. These were further
divided into a number of halls. These large halls were divided into small rooms to
accommodate patients suffering from different diseases so that full attention could be given to
their care. In addition, various separate wards were constructed for eye diseases, orthopedic
and surgical cases. There were two principle sections of the hospital; an outpatient and an in-
patient section. Ibn Tulun took a personal interest in the welfare of the hospital. It was his
habit to visit the hospital every Friday to inspect the progress of the patients. A separate
section of the hospital building was used for the treatment of the insane.
1411
This hospital had a huge library containing around one hundred thousand volumes. As
these volumes were kept in the hospital, most were likely to be in the field of medicine and
the health sciences. This reflects the enthusiasm and scholarship in these fields.
1412
Pharmacy
The foundation development of pharmacy in early centuries of Islam
In a book on pharmacy, as-Saydanah fit-Tibb, al-Biruni defined the Pharmacist (as-
Saydanani) as the professional who is specialized in the collection of all drugs, choosing the
very best of each simple or compound, and in the preparation of good remedies from them
following the most accurate methods and techniques as recommended by experts in the
healing arts. As part of the health profession, pharmacy became independent of medicine,
Pharmacy (Saydanah) as a profession with a separate entity from medicine was recognized
by the beginning of the third/ ninth century.
1413
. Pharmacy, therefore, provides the tools to
help in the healing art but is not a part of ( or a unit with) medicine. Unfortunately, al-Biruni
lamented that many so-called pharmacists were not worthy of the name. All they knew was a
tradition copied from hearing what others had to say about making remedies; not realizing
1409
Hakim Mohammed Said, Tibb and Tibbi Institution in Turkey ( A Historical Survey), in Hamdard
Islamicus, Vol X Number 1 (Spring) 1987, p.7.
1410
Ezzat Abouleish, Contribution of Islam to Medicine, edt by Shahid Athar, Islamic Perspective in
Medicine, p. 23. See also Muhammad Ibrahim S I Surty, p. 62, Ismail R. Faruqi, p. 325.
1411
Tib al-Arab, translation of Arabian Medicine by E.G. Brown by N.A.A. Wasti with explanation
and criticism, p. 448.
1412
F.S. Haddad, Leb. Med. J. 26, 331-346, (1973).
1413
Sami K. Harmaneh, Health Sciences in early Islam, Volume 11, p.89.
982 / ISoIT 2004
that pharmaceutical progress resulted only from training academically oriented discilles of
experiences with drugs. As a result, these trainees would become more and more familiar
with the shapes, physical properties, and kinds of drugs. They would then be able to
differentiate one from the other and would possess the know-how, a knowledge that could not
be taken away from them.
1414
This century not only saw the founding and an increase in the number of privately owned
pharmacy shops in Baghdad and its vicinity, but in other Muslim cities as well. Many of the
pharmacists who managed them were skilled in the apothecarys art and quite knowledgeable
in the compounding, storing, and preserving of drugs. State-sponsored hospitals also had their
own dispensaries attached to manufacturing laboratories where syrups, electuaries, ointments,
and other pharmaceutical preparations were prepared on a relatively large scale. The
pharmacists and their shops were periodically inspected by a government appointed official,
al-Muhtasib, and his aides. These officials were to check for accuracy the weights and
measures as well as the use of deteriorating compounded drugs and syrups, and to safeguard
then public.
1415
This growth process started in the first century A.H., when the Umawi Khalid ibn Yazid
learned and adopted the medicinal preparations of the Greek School of Alexandria. Ja far al
Sadiq (d.140/757) learned this Greek tradition from Khalid. Jabir ibn Hayyan, al Kindi, and al
Razi all contributed significantly to the discipline, which was perfected and established as an
autonomous science by al Biruni (d.443/1051),
1416
who defined the discipline, established its
methods and principles, and wrote the most complete text for it.
1417
Until then, Muslim
pharmacists depended upon two pharmacopoeia by the same title, Al Aqrabadhin, , written by
Sabur ibn Sahl (d.255/868) and Ibn Tilmidh (d.560/1164). The Muslim prepared nitric acid,
sulfuric acid, nitro-hydrochloric acid; they discovered potassium and prepared its nitrate, as
well as that of silver. They also prepared mercury chloride and oxide, as well as iron sulfate,
boric acid, and a large number of new chemical products.
1418
As far as vegetal pharmacology is concerned, Muslim pharmacists began with the
Materia Medica , of Dioscorides and soon absorbed the knowledge of India, Persia, and the
Mediterranean world. They gave Arabic names to those plants or medicines which they came
to know for the first time, and many are still known by Arabic names. The work of
Dioscorides, supplemented by the additions of Muslim researchers, remained unchallenged in
its authority until Ibn al Baytar of Malaga, who lived in the middle of the seventh/thirteenth
century. After completing his own researches, which included visits to Byzantium, Greece
and Italy, and other European regions, Ibn al Baytar produced his Al Mughni fi al Adwiyah,
which he presented to king Salih al Ayyubi in Cairo. He followed this two other works - Jami
Mufradat al Adwiyah wal Aghdhiyah and Mizan al Tabib.
1419
This early rise and development of professional pharmacy in Islam - over four centuries
before such development took place in Europe - was the result of three major occurrences; the
great increase in the demand for drugs and their availability on the market; professional
maturity; and the outgrowth of intellectual responsibility by qualified pharmacists.
1420
1414
Ibid,
1415
Guigues, Bull.d. Sc. Pharm. Paris, XXIII, 107-118,(1916).
1416
Nazir Ahmad, An Historical Account of the use of Khatami in a Battle ( A Study based al-Biruis
kitab al-Saydana) in Hamdard Islamicus, No 3 Autumn 1984, p. 51-55.
1417
Ismail R. al-Faruqi, The Cultural Atlas of Islam, p.326-327.
1418
Ibrahim B. Syed, Medicine and Medical Education in Islamic History, edt. by Shahid Athar, Islamic
Perspectives in Medicine, p. 54.
1419
Ismail R.al-Faruqi, The Cultural Atlas of Islam, p.327.
1420
Sami K. Hamarneh, Health Sciences in Early Islam, Volume II, p. 73.
Haji Hasbullah Haji Abdul Rahman / 983
The third/ninth century in Muslim lands witnessed the richest period thus far in literary
productivity insofar as pharmacy and the healing arts were concerned. This prolific
intellectual activity paved the way for still a greater harvest in the mercy, manuals on materia
medica and for instructing the pharmacist concerning the work and management of his shop
were circulating in increasing numbers.
1421
Outstanding Muslim Scientist and their contribution on Pharmacology
One of the contributors to Arabic pharmacy in the third/ninth century was the Nestorian
physician, Yuhanna b. Masawayh (Latin Mesue, 160-242/777-857), the son of an apothecary.
In his book on aromatic simples, Ibn Masawayh lists about thirty aromatics, their physical
properties, methods of detecting adulteration, and pharmacological effects. On ambergris, for
example, he explains that there are many types, the best among them the blue or gray (gray-
amber) fatty as-salahiti is used mixed with the choicest of aromated mixtures
(ghaliyyahs, perfumes, or medical cosmetics), and in geriatric electuaries. Only vaguely did
Ibn Masawayh know that the ambergris is affected from certain seafish (a concreation from
the intestinal tract of the sperm whale, physeteridae, found in tropical seas or on the
shores).
1422
Another great Muslim pharmacologist, who was a contemporary of Ibn al Baytar, was
Rashid al Din Ibn al Suri (d.639/1241), who lived in the eastern provinces. He was so
meticulous in his research that he took with him an experienced painter and went to the fields
and mountains recording every important species of medicinal plant by having the painter
paint it for inclusion in his book.
1423
Jabir Ibn Hayyan (d.193/808) led the life of an ascetic Sufi and spent most of it at his
home in Damascus, where he also had his laboratory. He contributed so much to chemistry
that the discipline was itself nicknamed the craft of Jabir. He wrote more than 200 books of
which eighty were in chemistry; of these only a few are extant.
1424
Pharmacy as a new practices and institutions remain to this day a part and parcel of the
very organization of the modern medical system. In the word of Cyril Elgood, a noted
contemporary historian of medicine,
1425
so soundly did the Arabs establish their materia
medica that their pharmacy has survived longer than any other section of their whole system.
Their method of distribution of drugs is virtually unchanged today. The pharmacy is still a
most part of the hospital.
Conclusion
Medicine, as it stands today, did not develop overnight. It is the culmination of efforts of
millions of people, some we know and other we do not. The flame of civilization, including
medicine, started thousands of years ago, was passed on from one generation, and from one
country to other. Between the ancient civilization, namely the Egyptians, Greek, Roman,
Persian, Indian, and Chinese, and the Renaissance era in Europe, Muslims handled their
responsibility towards mankind. They not only preserved, but also added to earlier
achievements and development the health sciences and institutions related. They have
1421
Ibid,
1422
Ibid,
1423
Ismail R. Faruqi, The Cultural Atlas of Islam, p.328
1424
Ibid,
1425
C. Elgood, Safavid Medical Practice (The Practice of Medicine, Surgery and Gynaecology in
Persia Between 1500 A.D. and 1750 A.D.), p. 30.
984 / ISoIT 2004
kindled the flame of civilization, made it brighter, and handed it over to Europe in the best
possible condition.
Haji Hasbullah Haji Abdul Rahman
Lecturer in Islamic Studies
MARA University of Technology, Perak Branch,
Bandar Baru of Sri Iskandar,
32600 Bota, Perak.
Pendidikan Islam dan Pembentukan Identiti Pelajar:
Analisis dari Perspektif Kaunseling
Norazani Ahmad, Jaffary Awang & Hapizoh Talib
Abstrak
Pendidikan Islam merupakan satu bidang ilmu yang meliputi aspek teori dan praktikal.
Skopnya yang menyentuh tiga komponen utama iaitu aqidah, syariah dan akhlak merupakan
kerangka pambinaan diri yang mantap. Malah mereka yang benar-benar memahami konsep
dan hala tujunya mampu menjadikan pengetahuan Pendidikan Islam sebagai tapisan dalam
menerima apa juga maklumat. Dalam konteks pembinaan peribadi Muslim, Pendidikan Islam
sebagai kerangka utama perlu diolah dengan menggunakan beberapa pendekatan agar
hasilnya nanti benar-benar mampu menjadikan pelajar sebagai insan yang sempurna. Dalam
konteks ini, perbincangan akan ditumpukan kepada tiga aspek utama iaitu pertama, konsep
dan Falsafah Pendidikan Islam seperti yang terdapat dalam sistem pendidikan kini. Kedua,
teori pembentukan peribadi serta identiti pelajar yang diolah bersama dengan epistemologi
Pendidikan Islam. Ketiga, membincangkan pendekatan kaunseling sebagai salah satu kaedah
dalam membentuk kefahaman serta keperibadian pelajar. Kertas kerja ini merumuskan
bahawa Pendidikan Islam sebenarnya berupaya membentuk kefahaman serta keperibadian
pelajar.
PENDAHULUAN
Pendidikan Islam merupakan salah satu saluran terpenting dalam membina watak dan
pemikiran para pelajar khasnya dan masyarakat secara umumnya. Ini berkait rapat dengan
soal pembentukan identiti pelajar agar selaras dengan nilai-nilai Islam. Pembentukan identiti
pelajar ini melibatkan banyak faktor yang secara umum dapat dikategorikan kepada dua iaitu
yang berlaku secara formal dan keduanya secara tidak formal. Dalam konteks formal boleh
dirujuk kepada pembentukan yang berlaku semasa di sekolah atau aktiviti-aktiviti yang
bersifat terancang. Sementara pembentukan secara tidak formal lazimnya merujuk kepada
interaksi pelajar yang berlaku samada semasa di rumah, sesama rakan sebaya dan yang lebih
luas penglibatan mereka dalam masyarakat.
Oleh kerana sekolah dianggap sebagai penggerak utama dalam mencorakkan pemikiran
dan tingkahlaku pelajar, maka pendekatan guru dalam menyampaikan subjek tertentu serta
interaksi yang berlaku banyak mempengaruhi personaliti pelajar. Atas asas tersebut kertas
kerja ini akan membincangkan konsep pendidikan Islam dari sudut epistemologi dan
pendekatannya dalam membentuk identiti pelajar dengan menggabungkan beberapa teknik
dan kaedah kaunseling. Perbincangan ini juga akan mengenalpasti beberapa teknik
kaunseling yang dirasakan dapat dimanfaatkan oleh kalangan pendidik dalam menyampaikan
subjek Pendidikan Islam. Sehubungan dengan itu, kertas kerja ini akan membincangkan
pertama konsep pendidikan Islam secara umum. Keduanya membincangkan aspek
pembentukan identiti pelajar melalui pendidikan Islam. Ketiga membincangkan pendekatan
kaunseling dengan beberapa kaedah yang dikenalpasti sebagai pemangkin kepada
986 / ISoIT 2004
pembentukan identiti pelajar. Akhirnya, perbincangan ini merumuskan bahawa pendidikan
Islam mampu menjadi saluran kepada pembentukan syakhsiah pelajar yang berkesan jika
kaedahnya dipelbagaikan.
Konsep dan Falsafah Pendidikan Islam
Pendidikan Islam adalah satu usaha berterusan untuk menyampaikan ilmu, kemahiran
dan penghayatan Islam berdasarkan al-Quran dan as-Sunnah, bagi membentuk sikap
kemahiran, keperibadian dan pandangan hidup sebagai hamba Allah yang mempunyai
tanggungjawab untuk membangunkan diri, masyarakat, alam sekitar dan negara ke arah
mencapai kebaikan di dunia dan kesejahteraan di akhirat.
Dalam hubungan ini, al-Attas mendefinisikan konsep pendidikan dalam Islam
sebagai,(1980: 22)
recognition and acknowledgement, progressively instilled into man, of the proper places of things in
the order of creation, such that it leads to the recognition and acknowledgement of the proper place of
God in the order of being and existence.
Berasaskan kepada definisi tersebut memberi erti bahawa konsep pendidikan dalam Islam
meletakkan asas utama kepada pengabdian kepada Allah swt. Konsep pendidikan dalam
Islam dihuraikan secara lebih jelas melalui The First World Conference on Muslim Education
yang diadakan di Makkah pada tahun 1977. Rumusan yang dicapai mengenai konsep
Pendidikan dalam Islam ialah;
Education should aim at the balanced growth of the total personality of Man through the
training of Man's spirit, intellect, rational self, feelings and bodily senses. The training imparted to a
Muslim must be such that faith is infused into the whole of his personality and creates in him an
emotional attachment to Islam and enables him to follow the Quran and the Sunnah and be governed by
the Islamic system of values willingly and joyfully so that he may proceed to the realization of his status
as Khalifatullah to whom Allah has promised the authority of the universe.(al-Attas, 1979: 158-9)
Kedua-dua penjelasan berhubung dengan peranan dan halatuju pendidikan dalam Islam
memperlihatkan bahawa matlamatnya adalah untuk membentuk personaliti Muslim yang
mencakupi aspek rohani, jasmani, intelek serta juga emosi. Yang lebih utama lagi segala
perlakuan samada yang bersifat zahir mahupun batin atau dalaman seharusnya selari dengan
ajaran Islam seperti yang terkandung dalam al-Quran dan as-Sunnah.
Ini juga memberi erti bahawa pendidikan dalam Islam tidak sekadar memindahkan
maklumat kepada para pelajar malah peranannya adalah lebih luas dan bersifat holistik. Jika
demikian, bagaimana pula dengan konsep pendidikan Islam? Apakah ianya mempunyai nilai
tambah yang berbeza atau lanjutan dari apa yang dibincangkan di atas? Dalam hubungan ini,
menurut Abdullah Ishak (1995), matlamat Pendidikan Islam adalah untuk membentuk serta
mengembangkan aspek-aspek kesempurnaan manusia yang mencakupi fizikal, spritual,
mental dan sosial menurut pembentukan rabbani bagi melahirkan insan kamil dan mukmin
yang bertakwa untuk mengabdikan diri kepada-Nya.
Penjelasan Abdullah Ishak memberi gambaran bahawa Pendidikan Islam dari sudut
konsepnya adalah seiring dengan peranan pendidikan dalam Islam. Malah perkara yang
tersirat dari huraian tersebut memberi erti bahawa seseorang pelajar pada waktu yang sama
juga perlu memahami ajaran Islam(Hassan Langgulung, 1991).
Daripada perbincangan ringkas di atas menunjukkan pendidikan dalam Islam mempunyai
mesej yang luas mencakupi soal keduniaan dan akhirat. Manakala dalam konteks Pendidikan
Islam yang bolehlah dianggap sebagai lebih khusus juga menjurus kepada pembentukan
indentiti pelajar meliputi aspek rohani, jasmani, emosi dan intelek. Dalam pengertian yang
lebih luas, pendidikan yang baik memberi sumbangan kepada semua bidang pertumbuhan
Norazani Ahmad et. al. / 987
individu samada yang menyentuh aspek fizikal, akal, psikologi, spritual dan moral serta
sosial.
Teori Pembentukan Peribadi Serta Identiti Pelajar Yang Diolah
Bersama dengan Epistemologi Pendidikan Islam
Pendidikan Islam yang berteraskan akidah, syariah dan akhlak dalam amalannya
yang sepadu , menonjolkan kesan yang positif bagi melahirkan generasi muslim kamil dalam
semua aspek sama ada dari segi jasmani maupun rohani. Dakwah Rasul S.A.W selama 23
tahun di Mekah dan Madinah yang berteraskan kepada tiga asas tersebut secara sepadu,
berpandukan ilmu dan perkaedahan rabbani-Nya, berjaya menghasilkan masyarakat Islam
yang berilmu, beriman dan bertakwa (Abdullah Ishak). Masyarakat yang mendapat didikan
dan tarbiah daripada rasul S.A.W juga disebut sebagai generasi Rabbani atau pewaris nabi
yang terdiri daripada para sahabat dan tabiin memiliki kemantapan ilmu dan ketakwaan yang
tinggi, membolehkan ilmu Islam tersebar luas. Bukan itu sahaja, sifat-sifat dan keperibadian
para pewaris nabi jelas memperlihatkan kepatuhan mereka kepada Allah.
Teori Psikoanalitik melihat bahawa kesepaduan antara id,ego dan superego akan
melahirkan pelajar yang seimbang dalam memenuhi tuntutan hidup. Walau bagaimanapun
persoalan hidayah atau petunjuk dari Allah swt merupakan satu perkara yang tidak boleh
dikesampingkan dalam membincangkan mengenai pembentukan identiti pelajar dan remaja.
Ini kerana, hidayah Allah adalah juga faktor yang penting dalam mempengaruhi pemulihan
dan kemurnian akhlak seseorang. Nabi Nuh a.s. umpamanya seperti yang dijelaskan dalam al-
Quran gagal memujuk isteri dan anaknya memeluk Islam. Begitu juga Rasulullah s.a.w. gagal
memujuk bapa saudaranya Abu Talib kembali ke pangkuan Islam. Allah berfirman:
Maksudnya:
Sesungguhnya engkau (Wahai Muhammad) tidak berkuasa memberi hidayah petunjuk kepada sesiapa
yang engkau kasihi (supaya ia menerima Islam) tetapi Allah jualah yang berkuasa memberi hidayah
petunjuk kepada sesiapa yang dikehendakinya, dan dialah jua yang lebih mengetahui orang-orang yang
mendapat hidayah petunjuk.(Surah Al-Qasas: 56)
Walaubagaimanapun kita melihat Saidina Umar berjaya memeluk Islam apabila
mendengar ayat-ayat al-Quran, walhal Umar sebelumnya terkenal dengan perangai
jahiliyahnya. Manusia adalah sebaik-baik kejadian, berakal, selalu berfikir, menyelidik dan
menetukan keputusan pemikiran baik, maka baiklah perbuatannya. Tetapi bila jalan
pemikirannya salah, maka akan salahlah perbuatannya. Orang yang baik dan benar jalan
pemikirannya maka orang itu dikatakan mendapat hidayah dari Allah. Maka apabila salah
jalan pemikirannya hingga melakukan kejahatan maka ia tidak mendapat petunjuk Allah.
Oleh yang demikian, pembentukan peribadi ibu bapa hendaklah selalu berdoa kepada Allah
untuk mendapatkan petunjuk Allah selain daripada mengamalkan suruhan Allah yang lain.
Pendekatan Kaunseling Sebagai Salah Satu Kaedah dalam
Membentuk Kefahaman Serta Keperibadian Pelajar
Kaunseling merupakan suatu hubungan bersemuka di antara kaunselor dengan klien
untuk membantu perkembangan diri klien. Hubungan kaunseling mempunyai ciri-ciri tertentu
yang membezakannya daripada hubungan-hubungan yang lain. Ini termasuklah aspek prinsip,
personaliti orang-orang yang terlibat dalam proses kaunseling dan juga kemahiran-kemahiran
yang perlu dikuasai oleh kaunselor untuk membolehkan proses kaunseling berjalan.
988 / ISoIT 2004
Hubungan kaunseling juga merupakan hubungan membantu yang bertumpu kepada
perubahan diri klien. Kaunselor hanya bertindak sebagai pembimbing dan memandu klien
mendapat celik akal. Klien merupakan orang yang dibantu bertanggungjawab terhadap diri
sendiri. Kesungguhan diri klien untuk berubah amat penting dalam mencapai kejayaan dalam
proses kaunseling.
Begitu juga dalam aspek pengajaran dan pembelajaran di sekolah, pendekatan
kaunseling seringkali digunakan untuk membantu perkembangan diri pelajar sama ada dalam
akademik, sahsiah dan psikososial. Kaunselor di sekolah dilihat sebagai seseorang yang dapat
membantu pelajar melihat setiap masalah secara holistik dan mampu meningkatkan
keupayaan pelajar dalam menghadapi permasalahan hidup. Tidak semua pelajar sanggup
berjumpa kaunselor secara bersemuka untuk menceritakan segala masalah yang dihadapi.
Oleh itu, adalah menjadi tanggungjawab kaunselor dan pendidik di sekolah untuk
mengenalpasti para pelajar yang bermasalah sama ada dari aspek pembelajaran maupun
akhlak.
Sungguhpun begitu, dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran , para pendidik di
sekolah juga merupakan co-counselor yang bertindak dalam membentuk kefahaman dan
keperibadian pelajar. Para pendidik di sekolah telah memberikan ilmu Pendidikan Islam yang
menyeluruh mengikut kurikulum yang telah ditetapkan. Namun persoalan yang timbul ialah
sejauhmanakah hasrat untuk menjadikan Islam sebagai satu cara hidup dapat dicapai melalui
kurikulum Pendidikan Islam di sekolah-sekolah? Sejauhmanakah pelajar-pelajar menghayati
ajaran Islam yang telah dipelajari di sekolah dalam kehidupan seharian mereka? Penghayatan
Islam yang diingini ialah yang dapat melahirkan pelajar yang mempunyai akidah yang
mantap yang memberi pengaruh kepada pandangan hidup, tingkahlaku dan perbuatan sehari-
hari.
Pendekatan Kaunseling dalam Proses Pengajaran dan
Pembelajaran (P&P)
Di alam persekolahan, pelajar tidak dapat tidak akan melalui proses pengajaran dan
pembelajaran. Proses ini penting bagi membentuk kefahaman dan keperibadian pelajar.
Proses P&P yang sempurna dan berkesan pula secara tidak langsung akan mempengaruhi
perubahan tingkahlaku positif pelajar. Perubahan tingkahlaku pelajar terhasil apabila segala
yang dipelajari dan dirasainya semasa proses ini diaplikasikan sepenuhnya. Sungguhpun
begitu, ada kalanya apa yang diharapkan oleh para pendidik maupun ibubapa berlaku
sebaliknya, sebagai contohnya pelajar yang mempelajari mata pelajaran Pendidikan Islam
atau moral yang banyak didedahkan dengan dengan nilai-nilai murni dan contoh-contoh
akhlak yang mulia, namun apa yang berlaku adalah sebaliknya. Pelajar masih berkelakuan
tidak senonoh, mencuri, menyakiti orang lain dan sebagainya. Adakah ilmu yang diperolehi
dalam proses P&P ini tidak menepati kehendak pelajar atau mungkin ketahanan diri pelajar
terlalu ampuh untuk berhadapan dengan cabaran dan rintangan semasa? Bagi mengupas
persoalan ini, kita teliti terlebih dahulu maksud pengajaran dan pembelajaran.
Pengajaran merupakan satu proses yang merangkumi aktiviti-aktiviti perancangan,
pelaksanaan, penilaian dan maklumbalas. Tujuannya adalah untuk menyebarkan ilmu
pengetahuan atau kemahiran-kemahiran tertentu. Namun corak pengajaran sentiasa berubah
dan akan terus berubah mengikut perkembangan pendidikan dari semasa ke semasa. Ianya
bermatlamat untuk melahirkan insan yang seimbang dan harmonis, berilmu pengetahuan serta
berakhlak mulia. Keberkesanan pengajaran diukur berdasarkan sejauhmana hasil objektif
pelajaran telah dicapai melalui proses pengajaran yang dirancang dan dilaksanakan.
Norazani Ahmad et. al. / 989
Manakala pembelajaran pula merupakan aktiviti mental, fizikal atau rohani diri pelajar
itu sendiri. Ianya merupakan proses di mana individu dapat mengubah sikap dan tingkahlaku
mereka untuk berkembang secara berterusan dan tekal serta mampu menggunakan ilmu dan
kemahiran yang diperolehi untuk kemajauan diri sendiri khususnya dan masyarakat amnya.
Kesimpulannya, sewaktu merancang sesuatu sesi pengajaran dan pembelajaran, banyak
perkara yang perlu diberi perhatian oleh pendidik supaya dapat menghasilkan perubahan
tingkahlaku yang positif di kalangan pelajar. Semua elemen prinsip pembelajaran perlulah
diteliti supaya pelajar dapat menyerap pelajaran dengan lebih mudah dan memberi makna
dalam kehidupan mereka.
Selain daripada prinsip pembelajaran di atas, pendekatan kaunseling juga dilihat antara
alternatif yang berkesan untuk membentuk kefahaman dan keperibadian pelajar terutama
melibatkan kefahaman terhadap matapelajaran Pendidikan Islam. Sepertimana yang disentuh
sebelum ini, Pendidikan Islam amat penting kepada semua pelajar Islam memandangkan
Pendidikan Islam yang mengajarkan aspek-aspek fardu ain dan fardhu Kifayah yang menjadi
asas kepada pembentukan peribadi muslim yang sempurna. Oleh yang demikian, kefahaman
yang jelas tentang Islam perlulah ditekankan kepada pelajar agar amalan yang baik dapat
dilakukan.
Pendekatan kaunseling terdiri daripada beberapa kategori umum seperti afektif, kognitif
dan tingkahlaku.
Secara umumnya, kaunseling merupakan hubungan membantu yang memberi fokus
kepada perkembangan manusia dalam semua aspek iaitu jasmani, emosi, rohani dan intelek.
Oleh kerana manusia mempunyai kepelbagaian dalam cara mereka bertindak, berfikir dan
berperasaan, maka kaunselor perlulah memainkan peranan dengan menggunakan cara dan
pendekatan yang sesuai untuk memenuhi keperluan pelajar yang pelbagai.
Pendidikan Islam dan Pendekatan Psikoanalitik
Pendidikan Islam seperti yang dihuraikan sebelum ini berperanan untuk membentuk
personaliti pelajar melalui silibus dan kandungan pengajaran. Antara kandungan utama
Pendidikan Islam ialah berkaitan dengan pengajaran ayat-ayat al-Quran dan as-Sunnah.
Bahagian ini tidak sekadar membantu pelajar dalam mempertingkatkan mutu bacaan melalui
amalan praktis pembacaan akan tetapi setiap ayat diberi pengertian dan dibuat ulasan bagi
memantapkan kefahaman pelajar. Melalui pendekatan ini juga para pelajar akan diperjelaskan
kaitan dan hubungan akidah dalam kehidupan mereka seharian melalui kefahaman terhadap
ayat-ayat al-Quran dan aplikasi Sunnah. Malah kefahaman al-Quran merupakan perkara asas
sebelum pendedahan ilmu-ilmu lain diberikan kepada para pelajar. Ini selari dengan
kenyataan Ibn Khaldun ketika membincangkan konsep dan peranan pendidikan dalam Islam.
Menurutnya,
Ketahuilah bahawa pengajaran al-Quran terhadap kanak-kanak termasuk daripada syiar-syiar agama
yang dipegang oleh para pendokong agamakerana dalam pengajaran al-Quran terdapat beberapa
perkara yang cepat meresap ke dalam hati seperti keteguhan iman dan aqidah iman daripada ayat-ayat
al-Quran(Abdullah al-Amin, 1994: 77)
Ini kerana seseorang pelajar yang membaca dan menghayati isi kandungan al-Quran
pastinya dapat membentuk jiwa ke arah berperibadi mulia. Apabila jiwa mereka mempunyai
nilai ketaqwaan yang tinggi tentunya dapat melahirkan watak yang yakin dan berketrampilan
khususnya bila berdepan dengan permasalahan semasa.
Dalam hubungan ini peranan pendidik Pendidikan Islam tidak kurang pentingnya malah
mereka bertindak sebagai seorang kaunselor dalam erti kata memupuk keyakinan diri para
pelajar dan seterusnya memastikan tingkahlaku agar selari dengan ajaran Islam.
990 / ISoIT 2004
Pendekatan psikoanalisis memberi penekanan terhadap pengaruh hati, libido dan sejarah
perkembangan psikoseksual dan psikososial seseorang ke atas pembinaan personaliti dan
punca tingkahlaku yang di bawah sedar dan tidak rasional. Mengikut Frued (1949) yang
mempelopori pendekatan psikoanalisis, manusia bermasalah kerana sentiasa terdapatnya
pertentangan antara motivasi mereka untuk memenuhi keperluan gerak hati dengan keperluan
mengawal diri dalam realiti-realiti kehidupan. Tiga komponen personaliti manusia yang
sentiasa bertarung untuk menguasai ialah id, ego dan superego. Id ialah gerak hati yang
sentiasa mahu dipenuhkan. Ego pula berfungsi untuk menjaga hubungan manusia tersebut
dengan alam nyatanya. Ego sentiasa membantu manusia tersebut memenuhi keperluannya
dengan cara yang selamat, logik dan sesuai dengan persekitarannya. Superego adalah etika
yang mengawal perlakuan seseorang supaya dia sentiasa membuat yang terbaik ataupun yang
ideal.
Untuk menangani konflik di antara ketiga-tiga komponen personaliti ini, manusia
selalu menggunakan ego defense mechanism (mekanisma helah bela diri). Mekanisma helah
bela diri ialah usaha manusia mengaburi niat sebenarnya dalam bertingkahlaku supaya
tindakannya lebih lebih merupakan sesuatu yang dapat diterima oleh dirinya dan
masyarakatnya. Adakalanya mekanisma helah bela diri baik untuk manusia dalam usaha
menyesuaikan diri dengan persekitaran. Mekanisma ini juga penting untuk membantu
manusia menangani keadaan-keadaan yang memberi tekanan kesan daripada perasaan dan
pemikirannya. Walaubagaimanapun, jika selalu sering digunakan, mekanisma helah bela diri
akan bercanggah dengan kemahuan sebenar manusia tersebut sehinga membuatkan dia
sentiasa hidup dalam kepura-puraan. Matlamat utama pendekatan kaunseling ini ialah untuk
menyedarkan klien tentang tingkahlaku di bawah sedar mereka.Pendidik atau kaunselor
membantu klien menguatkan ego mereka supaya tingkahlaku lebih berasaskan kenyataan-
kenyataan terutama daripada wahyu Ilahi dan bukannya keinginan semata-mata.
Pendidikan Islam dan Pendekatan Person Centered
Pendekatan Person Centered yang berpusatkan klien ( Client Centered) yang
diperkenalkan oleh Carl Rogers (1951) melihat bahawa semua manusia dilahirkan dengan
segala macam potensi untuk berkembang. Semua manusia secara fitrahnya adalah baik,
positif, boleh dipercayai dan mampu mengendalikan kehidupannya sendiri. Matlamat utama
pendekatan ini ialah untuk menjadikan individu berdikari dan bertanggungjawab ke atas diri
mereka sendiri. Pendekatan ini menyediakan diri mereka sendiri sebagai agen perubahan
yang memberi semangat dan ruang untuk klien menjadi lebih baik. Dengan bersikap mesra,
mengambil berat, menghormati, positif, menerima tanpa syarat dan memahami,
membolehkan klien mengalami satu keadaan yang teraputik dan bebas untuk meneroka
kehidupan mereka yang selama ini tidak dipedulikan ataupun cuba dipendamkan sahaja.
Merujuk kepada para pelajar di sekolah terutamanya yang mengalami masalah
pembelajaran seperti berpencapaian rendah, masalah akhlak seperti melawan guru, mencuri,
melanggar disiplin sekolah dan sebagainya, para pelajar ini pada pandangan kebanyakan
masyarakat merupakan golongan pelajar yang kurang berjaya dan sentiasa mendatangkan
masalah kepada pihak sekolah. Namun perlu disedari bahawa para pelajar ini amat
memerlukan perhatian dan sokongan daripada semua pihak terutamanya para pendidik untuk
mendidik dan mendorong mereka untuk bertindak dengan lebih baik. Walaupun kita ketahui
bahawa mereka telah mempelajari ilmu pendidikan Islam dan pendidikan moral di sekolah,
akan tetapi kurangnya penghayatan dan kesedaran dalam diri menyebabkan mereka tidak
mengamalkan apa yang dipelajari. Sebagai pendidik di sekolah, kita haruslah sedar bahawa
setiap pelajar mempunyai potensi untuk berubah dan berupaya untuk memperbaiki kelemahan
diri sendiri.
Norazani Ahmad et. al. / 991
Oleh itu, melalui pendekatan ini, kaunselor ataupun pendidik hendaklah cuba
menimbulkan situasi bahawa mereka menerima pelajar dengan penuh mesra dan tanpa syarat.
Menerima tanpa syarat bermaksud menerima pelajar seadanya, tidak meletakkan tanggapan
yang buruk kepada mereka dan dengan perasaan ikhlas menerima pelajar. Dengan ini, pelajar
akan mempunyai persepsi yang positif terhadap dirinya sendiri. Menurut Aziz Salleh (1993),
pendekatan berpusatkan klien ini berasaskan kepada keyakinan bahawa setiap orang mampu
menyelesaikan masalah sekiranya diberi bimbingan dan bimbingan yang sesuai oleh
kaunselor atau pendidik. Keyakinan seumpama ini merupakan keselarasan tanggapan klien
kepada dirinya sendiri. Sekiranya tidak berlaku keselarasan aspirasi dan kesedaran klien
dengan tingkahlakunya, ini akan mewujudkan keraguan atau ketidakpastian dalam diri klien.
Keraguan dan ketidakpastian ini boleh menggagalkan matlamat yang hendak dicapai.
Pendidikan Islam dan Pendekatan Tingkahlaku
Pendekatan tingkahlaku adalah berasaskan idea Pavlov berkenaan pembentukan
tingkahlaku pelaziman klasik dan pelaziman operan. Pelaziman klasik merujuk kepada
beberapa jenis tingkahlaku respon badan yang terjadi secara semulajadi seperti gencatan lutut
dan lelehan air liur. Pelaziman operan pula merujuk kepada tindakan-tindakan yang kita
selalu lakukan setiap hari seperti memandu kereta, menulis, makan dengan menggunakan
sudu dan garpu, memasak dan sebagainya. Berdasarkan kedua-dua pelaziman ini, tingkahlaku
berlaku dan terus berulang oleh kerana digalakkan oleh ganjaran maupun rangsangan.
Oleh itu, pendekatan tingkahlaku menyatakan bahawa setiap tingkahlaku boleh
dipelajari, dibentuk dan diubahsuai. Ia merupakan satu pendekatan mendidik seseorang
mengawal tingkahlaku sendiri. Matlamat utama kaunseling ialah untuk mewujudkan
keadaan-keadaan yang sesuai untuk pembelajaran sesuatu tingkahlaku baru.
Bagi membincangkan pendekatan kaunseling sebagai salah satu kaedah dalam
membentuk kefahaman serta keperibadian pelajar, pendekatan tingkahlaku dilihat sebagai
salah satu cara yang sesuai bagi mencapai tujuan tersebut. Sebagai contoh, di dalam kelas,
para pelajar didedahkan dengan pelbagai ilmu mengenai Islam temasuklah aspek teori,
konsep dan amali. Namun, amalan dan tindakan yang ditonjolkan oleh pelajar tidak menepati
sebagaimana yang dipelajari di dalam kelas. Melalui pendekatan ini, pelaziman klasik dan
pelaziman operan digunakan untuk menggalakkan amalan dan perubahan tingkahlaku,
sebagaimana solat lima waktu, kebanyakan pelajar telah mempelajari secara teori dan amali,
akan tetapi amalan masih kurang. Pendidik atau ibubapa bolehlah memberi rangsangan
maupun ganjaran agar amalan solat dapat dilakukan secara konsisten. Antara rangsangan
yang diberikan adalah seperti solat secara berjemaah di rumah, ibubapa sebagai model dalam
membentuk tingkahlaku pelajar mengajak pelajar menyertai solat berjemaah di rumah.
Begitu juga di sekolah, pendidik berperanan meletakkan peraturan untuk solat secara
berjemaah, secara tidak langsung amalan solat menjadi amalan yang konsisten kepada para
pelajar.
Pendidikan Islam tidak sekadar sebagai satu subjek yang disampaikan kepada para
pelajar untuk memenuhi kehendak silibus. Malah lebih dari itu bertindak sebagai panduan
kepada para pelajar dalam mengharungi kehidupan seharian. Dalam hubungan ini pendidikan
akhlak umpamanya yang merupakan sebahagian daripada kandungan Pendidikan Islam tidak
hanya bersifat teori malah menekankan kepada aspek amali. Cabang akhlak ini juga
merupakan bahagian terpenting dalam membentuk peribadi pelajar.
Untuk memastikan agar segala kandungan akhlak yang terkandung dalam Pendidikan
Islam, maka aspek contoh daripada para pendidik dan ibu bapa memainkan peranan yang
cukup penting. Dalam sebuah keluarga ibu bapa merupakan contoh utama agar sesuatu nilai
atau tingkahlaku itu menjadi satu kebiasaan dan membentuk watak pelajar. Manakala di
992 / ISoIT 2004
sekolah pula para pendidik bertindak sebagai pendorong kepada pembentukan peribadi dan
tingkahlaku melalui contoh tauladan yang dipamerkan oleh para pendidik. Hakikat ini selari
dengan hadis Rasulullah saw yang bermaksud:
Setiap kelahiran dilahirkan di atas fitrah (suci), maka ibubapanya yang menjadikannya Yahudi
atau Majusi.
Ini bererti bahawa tanggungjawab untuk membentuk diri pelajar dan golongan remaja
bukan sahaja terletak kepada ibubapa malah turut dipikul oleh kalangan para pendidik.
Pendidikan Islam dan Pendekatan Rational Emotive
Ahli-ahli falsafah dan tokoh-tokoh pendidikan telah menyentuh tentang tabiat manusia
daripada pelbagai aspek. Ada yang menggambarkan manusia mempunyai kecenderungan
untuk melakukan kebaikan. Pada waktu yang sama manusia juga mempunyai potensi untuk
melakukan kejahatan. Terdapat pula berpendapat bahawa manusia mempunyai potensi untuk
perbuatan baik mahupun jahat. Kemungkinan-kemungkinan ini adalah ekoran suasana
persekitaran yang boleh mempengaruhi watak seseorang individu.(Abdullah al-
Amin,1994:97-99) Malah faktor pengaruh persekitaran terhadap tingkahlaku masyarakat
telah diakui bukan sahaja oleh kalangan moralis Muslim malah turut diakui oleh ahli
sosiologi semasa.(Rokiah, 1995: 86)
Jika demikian sifatnya watak dan potensi seseorang individu pelajar atau remaja, maka
bagaimanakah pendekatan Rational Emotive dapat dimanfaatkan? Untuk itu terlebih dahulu
perlu diketahui bahawa pendekatan rational emotive merupakan satu pendekatan yang
berasaskan andaian bahawa manusia dilahirkan dengan potensi untuk bertindak secara
rasional ataupun sebaliknya. Menurut konsep ini manusia berkeupayaan untuk mencari
kebahagiaan, berfikir dan menyatakan isi hatinya, berkasih sayang, bersekutu dengan orang
lain, membina diri dan mencapai self actualization. Pada masa yang sama, manusia juga
boleh merosakkan diri, tidak menghiraukan pemikiran, melambat-lambatkan sesuatu, terus-
menerus mengulangi kesalahan yang sama, mempunyai pemikiran yang karut marut,
menyalahkan diri sendiri dan terlalu mementingkan kesempurnaan.
Dalam konteks pendidikan Islam, peranan pendidik adalah untuk menyuburkan potensi
baik yang ada pada diri pelajar. Pada waktu yang sama berusaha untuk menghapuskan atau
menjauhkan diri pelajar terbabit dengan potensi kejahatan yang ada pada mereka melalui
proses kefahaman dan aktiviti-aktiviti luar kelas. Dari sudut memberi kefahaman, pendidikan
Islam yang merangkumi aspek akidah, akhlak dan syariah, pendidik akan memastikan agar
segala tema-tema dan kandungan dalam ketiga-tiga aspek itu tadi benar-benar difahami
dengan baik oleh para pelajar. Pada waktu yang sama para pendidik perlu menganjurkan
aktiviti-aktiviti luar kelas seperti mengadakan majlis Asyura, Maulidur Rasul dan Isra miraj
sebagai satu platform untuk pelajar menghayati kepentingan peristiwa tersebut dalam kontek
kehidupan mereka. Ini bererti tanggungjawab pendidik apatah lagi pendidikan Islam adalah
cukup besar di samping mempunyai minat yang mendalam terhadap bidang pendidikan.
Hakikat inilah yang pernah diungkapkan oleh Ibn Sina ketika membincangkan soal kualiti
seorang pendidik. Menurutnya seorang pendidik perlulah terdiri dari seorang yang bijak,
berakhlak baik, mempunyai minat yang mendalam terhadap tugasan, bersifat tenang, suka
membantu, mudah mesra dan sentiasa memberi perhatian terhadap perkara-perkara yang
menyangkut soal adab.(Ibn Sina, 1982: 80-109)
Norazani Ahmad et. al. / 993
Penutup
Mendidik dan membimbing seseorang manusia bukanlah perkara mudah. Ibu bapa dan
para pendidik hendaklah terus menerus tanpa berputus asa dalam membentuk akhlak dan
peribadi pelajar. Langkah penting bagi mencapai hasrat ini dalam meneruskan
kesinambungan fitrah akhlak pelajar ialah dengan memberi pendidikan agama bermula sejak
kecil lagi. Langkah ini bagi menjamin supaya penerusan akhlak fitrah tidak terencat apabila ia
menempuhi alam remaja. Walaupun terdapat sedikit kelemahan dalam menguasai kemahiran
mendidik tetapi dengan adanya didikan agama yang kukuh, maka anak itu mampu menepis
naluri kehaiwanan yang cuba mempengaruhinya atau sekurang-kurangnya boleh menjauhi
anak dari menjadi jahat tabiatnya. Oleh itu, pendidik dan ibubapa perlu kembali kepada
tradisi asal dalam membentuk peribadi anak seperti yang diamalkan oleh Rasul-rasul, Nabi-
nabi dan para Wali di mana mementingkan pendidikan agama sebagai penerus
kesinambungan fitrah kejadian manusia. Ibu bapa tidak boleh menyalahkan kerajaan,
masyarakat dan sekolah semata-mata sebagai helah membela diri apabila anak menjadi jahat
tabiatnya. Ibu bapa perlu menyalahkan diri sendiri kerana ini adalah langkah positif untuk
menilai semula peranannya bagaimana untuk menjadi ibu bapa yang cemerlang.
Pendidikan Islam sebenarnya berupaya membentuk kefahaman serta keperibadian
pelajar. Elemen-elemen yang diajar dalam pendidikan Islam yang merangkumi akidah, ibadah
dan akhlak amat selari dengan fitrah manusia itu sendiri sebagai khalifah Allah di bumi ini.
Semua manusia inginkan kebaikan, kejayaan dan kecemerlangan dalam hidup, namun
keinginan ini tidak membuahkan hasil sekiranya diri manusia itu tidak disuburkan dengan
amalan dan usaha pemurniaan yang berterusan. Manusia sentiasa lupa dan lalai jika
kurangnya peringatan atau dibiarkan hidup tanpa panduan daripada al-Quran dan as-Sunnah
sebagai asas hidup. Keperluan diri manusia yang terdiri daripada aspek jasmani, emosi,
pemikiran dan rohani perlu dipenuhi bagi mewujudkan keseimbangan. Sekiranya tidak
dipenuhi, seseorang itu akan merasa tidak stabil dan menimbulkan masalah dalam hidup.
Oleh itu, pendekatan kaunseling dilihat sebagai salah satu usaha untuk mewujudkan
keseimbangan antara kesemua keperluan manusia. Pendekatan kaunseling melihat kepada
kenapa sesuatu masalah itu wujud, apakah keperluan yang belum dipenuhi serta bagaimana
seseorang itu melihat dirinya sendiri.
Apabila merujuk kepada Pendidikan Islam sebagai asas pembentukan keperibadian dan
kefahaman pelajar, kaunseling mempunyai peranan dalam Keberkesanan akan wujud hasil
daripada inisiatif diri pelajar itu sendiri untuk memahami diri, memperbaiki kekurangan serta
meningkatkan keupayaan diri.
Bibliografi
Abdullah al-Amin al-Na'miy, 1994. Kaedah Dan Teknik Pengajaran Menurut Ibn Khaldun dan Al-
Qabisi, terj. Mohd Ramzi Omar, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa Dan Pustaka.
Al-Attas, S.M.N. (ed.) 1979. Aims and Objectives of Islamic Education, Jeddah: King Abdulaziz
University.
Al-Attas, S.M.N. 1980. The Concept of Education in Islam, Kuala Lumpur: Muslim Youth Movement
of Malaysia.
Aziz salleh. 1993. Kaunseling Islam. Kuala Lumpur: Utusan Publications & Distributors Sdn. Bhd.
Corey, G. 1995. Theory and Practice of group counseling. Ed. ke-4. Pasific Grove. California:
Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.
Ibn Sina, 1982. Kitab al-Siyasa, ed. Fuad A. Mun`im Ahmad, Alexandria: Muassasah Shahab al-
Jamiah.
Rogers, C. 1951. Client-centered therapy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Rokiah Haji Ismail, 1995. Perilaku Non-konformis Golongan Remaja Malaysia: Satu Perenungan
Sosiologikal, Jurnal Antropologi dan Sosiologi, vol.22: 73-95.
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Myrick, Robert D. 2001. Bimbingan dan kaunseling perkembangan: pendekatan yang praktis. Terj.
Zuraidah Abd. Rahman. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Ibrahim Ahmad. 2002. Perkhidmatan Bimbingan dan kaunseling di sekolah rendah. Kuala Lumpur:
Utusan Publications & Distributors Sdn. Bhd.
Abdullah Ishak. 1995. Pendidikan Islam dan pengaruhnya di Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa
dan Pustaka
Hasan Langgulung. 1991. Asas-asas Pendidikan Islam. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Ghazali Darusalam. 2001. Pedagogi Pendidikan Islam.Utusan Publications & Distributors Sdn. Bhd:
Kuala Lumpur.
Prosiding seminar Kebangsaan profesion Perguruan 2002: Fakulti Pendidikan UKM: Bangi, 2002:
Pengukuran Penghayatan Pendidikan Islam pelajar: satu keperluan ke arah penilaian holistik
matapelajaran pendidikan Islam. Azma Mahmod et.al
Shahabuddin Hashim & Rohizani Yaakub.2003. Psikologi Pembelajaran dan Personaliti. PTS
Publications & Distributors Sdn. Bhd.: Pahang
Norazani Ahmad
Jabatan Bimbingan dan Kaunseling
Fakulti Sains Kognitif dan Pembangunan
Universiti Perguruan Sultan Idris
35900 Tanjung Malim
Perak
Malaysia
Tel: 05-4506772
Dr Jaffary Awang
Jabatan Usuluddin dan Falsafah
Fakulti Pengajian Islam
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
43600 Bangi
Selangor Darul Ehsan
Malaysia
TEL: 03-89213659
E-mail: jaffaryawang@hotmail.com
Hapizoh bt Talib
Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Dengkil
Jalan Air Itam
43800 Dengkil
Selangor Darul Ehsan
Malaysia
TEL: 03-87686226
The Pre-Islamic Beliefs in Bugis Society: A Study on The
I La Galigo
Suraya Sintang
Abstract
The Bugis are Southeast Asian people who were formerly well-known with their
reputation as pirates. Yet, the Bugis display many fascinating features as delivered through
oral traditions and written manuscripts such as I La Galigo. Most Bugis believe that the
events described in I La Galigo really did occurred in the seventh to tenth century. The I La
Galigo is an exposition of the ancient Bugis religious system which relate to the beliefs of
Attuwong Lino (the earthly life), Dewatae (the deities), Tau tenrita (the invisible creatures),
tau rioloe (the ancestors worship), Makarre (magics) and Sangiang Serri (the rice deity).
Thus, this study tries to discuss some of the religious system of Bugis as described in I La
Galigo. It focuses the impact of those beliefs and practices in the social and cultural life of
Bugis during that particular period and carried on till today. Traces of these beliefs and
practices can still be seen in their daily lives. The study also highlights the changes in the
belief system of Bugis after the conversion to Islam. Hence, the study draws attentions to the
the acceptance of Islam by the seventeenth century, which also brings light to most of the
Bugis applying shariah law, forbidding superstitious practices, expelling transvestite priest
and abolishing any other beliefs which are incompatible with Islam.
Pendahuluan
Kepercayaan pra-Islam dalam masyarakat Bugis adalah gambaran awal budaya dan corak
pemikiran orang Bugis sebelum Islam diterima sebagai satu pegangan agama. Warisan
budaya dan tata nilai yang diperturunkan dari orang tua dahulu diakui sebagai satu bentuk
kepercayaan yang tidak boleh dipertikaikan kebenarannya. Hampir kesemua bentuk
kepercayaan itu dimuatkan dalam naskhah Bugis kuno yang dikenali dengan nama I La
Galigo ataupun Sureq Galigo. Kepercayaan pra-Islam sangat kuat dipertahankan sehingga
Sulawesi Selatan yang merupakan wilayah kediaman orang Bugis menjadi kawasan yang
terakhir menerima Islam berbanding dengan kawasan sekitarnya seperti Maluku, Kalimantan
Selatan dan utara Jawa. Agama Islam hanya diterima oleh orang Bugis (dibawah kerajaan
Gowa Tallo) setelah wujudnya hubungan dagang selama 120 tahun dengan kerajaan-kerajaan
Islam seperti Melaka dan Acheh. Suriadi Mappangara dan Irwan Abbas (2003:9) menukilkan
pendapat dua sarjana barat menegenai faktor kelewatan penerimaan Islam di kalangan orang
Bugis. Pertama, D.G.E. Hall menyatakan kelewetan itu disebabkan taat setia rakyat yang kuat
terhadap adat dan keyakinan terhadap kepercayaan yang berbeza dengan ajaran Islam.
Sekiranya Islam diterima, nescaya akan memberi implikasi terhadap perubahan budaya yang
telah mendarah daging dalam kehidupan mereka.
Kedua, pendapat yang dikemukakan oleh Christian Pelras yang menegaskan kesetiaan
terhadap kebudayaan merupakan satu faktor yang mendorong orang Bugis pada mulanya
menolak agama Islam di samping faktor-faktor lain. Situasi ini dapat dilihat semasa Islam
996 / ISoIT 2004
mula diperkenalkan dimana kedatangan Islam dianggap sebagai ancaman terhadap kekuasaan
pemimpin Bugis kerana membahayakan aturan adat yang keramat dan sakral yang dinamakan
sebagai pangaddereng
1426
. Bahkan salah satu fenomena yang harus dianalisa untuk melihat
mengapa Islam sukar diterima oleh pemimpin Bugis di Sulawesi Selatan adalah kerana
kepercayaan terhadap mitos to manurung yang berasal dari dewa-dewa yang merupakan jalur
keturunan para pemerintah Bugis. Bertitik tolak dari kepercayaan terhadap mitos to
manurung, muncul beberapa kepercayaan pra-Islam lain yang turut diyakini benar oleh orang
Bugis. Atas dasar itu, penulisan ini dihasilkan untuk memaparkan unsur keagamaan yang
berhubung dengan sistem kepercayaan orang Bugis zaman pra-Islam yang meliputi
kepercayaan tentang; Attuwong Lino (kehidupan duniawi), Dewatae (para dewa-dewa) atau
Toani tolotang, Tau Tenrita (makhluk halus ), Tau rioloe (leluhur nenek-moyang), Makerre
(keramat dan sakti) dan Sangiang Serri (kesaktian wanita).
Konsep Kepercayaan Dalam Masyarakat Melayu di Nusantara
Kepercayaan pada dasarnya merupakan satu keupayaan manusia untuk mendapatkan
ketenangan batin dari pelbagai ancaman yang tidak dapat dijelaskan oleh kemampuan
manusia. Sumber kepercayaan berasal dari ketidakmampuan manusia menjelaskan fenomena
alam yang berdasarkan hukum causality (sebab dan akibat) (Hasyimisyah Nasution
2003:263). Dengan kata lain, kepercayaan ialah sesuatu yang dianggap benar oleh seseorang
individu ataupun masyarakatnya. Kajian terhadap kepercayaan sesuatu bangsa atau etnik
merupakan kajian terhadap kosmologi iaitu satu kajian yang meneliti bagaimana sesuatu
kelompok manusia itu memandang alam natural dan alam supernatural, serta masyarakatnya
dan juga diri mereka sendiri (Abdul Rahman Abdullah 1999: 1). Kajian kosmologi asli
(indigenous) sesuatu bangsa lazimnya bertolak daripada kisah-kisah yang diistilahkan sebagai
mitos dan lagenda yang berasaskan tradisi lisan (oral tradition) (Abdul Rahman Abdullah
1999: 11). Berdasarkan sejarah, tidak ada satupun kebudayaan besar di dunia yang tidak
didominasi dan diliputi oleh unsur-unsur mitos seperti yang terdapat dalam tamadun Babilon,
Mesir, Cina, India, Yunani dan tamadun lain. Menurut Ernest Cassier, mitos adalah
pengalaman sosial manusia dan bukan pengalaman individu. Tentang persoalan apakah mitos
mengandungi kebenaran, Maclver seperti yang dinukilkan oleh Rahman Rahim (2003: 425)
menyatakan mitos tidak mungkin dapat dipisahkan dari nilai sosial dan nilai kebudayaan.
1426
Pangadereng adalah sumber kekuatan semokrasi kerakyatan yang berasal dari konsep kekuatan
kepimpinan to manurung, dimulai oleh Simpurusiang di iLuwu abad 13, to manurung ri Butta Gowa
Takabassia abad 14, to manurung ri Matajang Tana Bone MatasilompoE abad 14 dan variasi model
presiden (kekuatan atau Arung Matoa) di Tana Wajo abad 15 dan di negeri-negeri lain yang kemudian
merujuk kepada konsepsi (Arung Matoa). Masing-masing memiliki ciri yang tersendiri dan memberikan
variasi dan model kerakyatan. Kesannya to manurung telah menyebabkan terbentuknya dua pihak iaitu
pihak to manurung yang didatangkan untuk diberikan tugas pemerintahan ke atas negeri-negeri yang
terbentuk atas kesepakatan beberapa buah kelompok persekutuan kaum. Pihak kedua ialah pemimpin
kaum (Matoa Ulu-Anang) yang diberikan kepada rakyat yang menjadi pemilik asli negeri dan
peraturan-peraturan yang terdapat di negeri itu yang disebut ade. Kedua-dua pihak melakukan
kesepakatan atau perjanjian pemerintahan seperti ulu-ade, ade pura onro, ulu kana, ade maraja yang
kesemua itu bererti ketentuan-ketentuan umum yang menjadi dasar pemerintahan. Isi perjanjian itu pada
dasarnya menyebut tentang hak-hak dasar dan kewajipan utama kedua belah pihak dalam melakukan
pemerintahan dan melakukan tanggungjawab kenegaraan. Perjanjian itu dianggap sebagai konstitusi
awal (early constitution) iaitu peraturan bertulis yang menentukan prinsip tentang kekuatan, tata
kehidupan negeri dan hak milik kedua pihak (Mattulada t.t. : 32-33).
Suraya Sintang / 997
Dalam kosmologi Melayu asli, umumnya ia bertolak daripada premis dualisme
kosmik antara alam atas dan alam bawah yang dilambangkan pada matahari dan bumi dan
sebagainya. Melalui perkahwinan suci (hierogami) atau pertarungan suci (teomakhi) antara
simbol-simbol alam atas dan alam bawah, maka timbul mitos-mitos yang berkaitan dengan
asal usul alam semesta (kosmogoni), asal usul dewa dewi (teogoni), asal usul manusia
(antropogoni), binatang, tumbuh-tumbuhan dan lain-lainnya (etiologi). Sebagai contoh
perbandingan, dapat dilihat perbezaan pasangan suami isteri atau ibu bapa dunia di pelbagai
daerah Indonesia seperti di Ambon pasangan Upatanite (dewa langit) dengan Upatana (dewi
bumi); di Batak Toba, pasangan Raja odap-Odap dengan Si Boru Deak Parujar; di Jawa
pasangan Betara Guru dengan Tisnawati; di Sikka pasangan Lero Wulang dengan Niang
Tanu; di Solor pasangan Rewulan dengan Tana Ekan. Demikian juga dengan orang Bugis di
Sulawesi Selatan yang mempercayai pasangan Sawerigading dengan We Cudai, pasangan
Patotoq dengan Datu Palangi dan pasangan To Manurung dengan To Matuna/to tompoq
(Abdul Rahman Abdullah 1999: 12):
Walaupun premisnya bermula dengan idea dualisme alam atas dan alam bawah,
namun kedua-duanya lalu bersatu dan menumbuhkan kejadian-kejadian lain kemudiannya.
Gambaran kosmologi sedemikian dianggap bersifat asli. Namun beberapa kajian lain
mendapati kemungkinan sistem kosmologi tersebut turut dicampuri dengan pengaruh asing
terutama daripada tradisi Hindu-Buddha (Abdul Rahman Abdullah 1999: 16).
I La Galigo
1427
Sebagai Sumber Kepercayaan Pra-Islam Bugis
Kepercayaan pra-Islam yang menggambarkan budaya Bugis kuno adalah bersumberkan
catatan dari beberapa naskhah lama yang ditulis dengan menggunakan huruf lontara
1428
.
Antara naskhah tersebut ialah paseng yang mengandungi amanat nenek moyang yang
memaparkan tata kelakuan kehidupan orang tua dahulu dan tidak boleh dilanggar; rapang
iaitu himpunan keputusan-keputusan pemimpin adat; atturiolong iaitu kumpulan naskhah
yang mengandungi nilai sejarah tentang silsilah raja-raja; naskhah ade alloping loping yang
mengandungi peraturan pelayaran dengan perahu dan beberapa naskhah lain (Suriadi
Mappangara dan Irwan Abbas 2003: 29). Kesemua isi kandungan dari naskhah tersebut ada
dinyatakan dalam himpunan naskhah I La Galigo. Namun, beberapa mitos yang diberi
penekanan dalam naskhah I La Galigo adalah berkaitan dengan mitos asal usul alam semesta
(kosmogoni), asal usul dewa dewi (teogoni) dan asal usul manusia (antropogoni). I La Galigo
turut menjelaskan tentang ritual agama seperti tatacara pengorbanan dan persembahan sajian
(Pelras 1996: 84). Di samping itu, I La Galigo turut membicarakan tentang peraturan
(hukum) adat yang harus dilaksanakan di bawah kekuasaan keturunanan Sawerigading
1429
(Mattulada t.t.: 28).
1427
Kata I La Galigo terdiri dari tiga perkataan. dimana I berfungsi sebagai pelengkap jumlah suku
kata pada setiap pangkal prasa yang tidak cukup jumlah 5 suku kata. Misalnya, nama La Bacoci menjadi
I La Bacoci, La Sinampe menjadi I La Sinampe dan We Cimpau menjadi I We Cimpau. Manakala La
sebagai tanda yang menunjukkan jantina lelaki (Muhammad Salim 2003: 44).
1428
Tulisan lontara adalah berasaskan aksara Bugis-Makasar yang disebut urupu sulapa eppa iaitu
huruf empat segi. Sebelum orang Bugis di Sulawesi Selatan menggunakan kertas, daun lontara
digunakan dan alat tulis dari lidi pokok enau dan dakwat dari air perahan daun ciping (sejenis
kekacang). Tulisan-tulisan ini menceritakan perihal orang-orang dahulu kala yang pada mulanya disebut
sure atturiolong yang digulung-gulung dan kemudiannya disimpan. Daun-daun yang digulung itulah
yang kemudian dikenali sebagai lontara (Andi Zainal Abidin Farid 1970: 14)
1429
Sawerigading dianggap memiliki separuh unsur kedewaan yang memiliki kekuatan supra natural,
pernah mengakui dirinya sebagai anak Tuhan (Sang Pencipta). Sawerigading terkenal di dalam cerita
998 / ISoIT 2004
I La Galigo mempunyai dua dimensi makna dengan pengertian yang berbeza iaitu;
pertama, I La Galigo sebagai satu nama dari putera pasangan Sawerigading dan I We Cudaiq;
kedua, I La Galigo sebagai naskhah yang di dalamnya dimuatkan ringkasan cerita I La
Galigo ataupun juga merujuk kepada kumpulan 12 jilid naskhah yang tersimpan di
Perpustakaan Leiden, salinan tangan dari Colliq Pujie Arung Pancana Toa ataupun yang
tersimpan serpihan-serpihan episodnya di kalangan sebahagian orang Bugis yang masih setia
memeliharanya (Muhammad Salim 2003: 44). Meskipun I La Galigo telah ditulis setelah
orang Bugis mengenal aksara (huruf), namun fungsi I La Galigo tetap sama iaitu untuk
dibacakan di hadapan khalayak ramai agar terhindar dari kepunahan (Nurhayati Rahman
2003: xx).
Usaha pengumpulan naskhah I La Galigo turut dijalankan oleh tiga ahli linguistik barat
iaitu Dr. B.F.Matthes, Dr. J.C.G. Jonker dan Dr. A.A.Cense. Sebanyak 26 naskhah telah
dikumpulkan oleh Matthes (1818-1908), 67 naskhah dikumpulkan oleh Jonker dan
kebanyakannya dalam bentuk salinan sahaja. Kedua-dua kumpulan naskhah ini disimpan
dengan baik sehingga kini di perpustakaan Universiti of Leiden. Manakala hasil pengumpulan
yang dilakukan oleh Cense sebelum perang dunia kedua pada tahun 1930an berjumlah 42
naskhah yang kesemuanya disimpan di perpustakaan Yayasan Matthes yang kini dikenali
dengan nama Yayasan Kebudayaan Sulawesi Selatan di Ujung Pandang (Kern R.A.1989: ix).
Demikian juga dengan usaha yang dijalankan oleh sarjana Belanda, R.A. Kern sehingga
berjaya menerbitkan kesemua manuskrip I La Galigo yang kini berada di perpustakaan-
perpustakaan Eropah dan Yayasan Matthes. Pengumpulan naskhah yang pada mulanya
berjumlah sebanyak 113 manuskrip dengan 31,500 muka surat telah disunting sehingga
berjumlah 1,356 muka surat yang mengandungi ringkasan terperinci tentang isi kandungan I
La Galigo (Pelras 1996: 34). Justeru itu, R.A. Kern (1939: 1) menempatkan teks I La Galigo
sebagai karya sastera terpanjang di dunia yang setaraf dengan Mahabarata dan Ramayana
serta sajak-sajak Homerus di India.
I La Galigo atau Sureq Galigo adalah kitab Bugis kuno yang memaparkan kisah orang
Bugis yang sezaman dengan perkembangan kerajaan Hindu di Nusantara (Mattulada 1985:
402). Ada juga yang mengatakan zaman ini berlaku pada abad ke-7 hingga ke-10 (Pelras
1983: 78). Kisah Sureq Galigo kemudian berkembang menjadi kepercayaan yang dipegang
oleh masyarakat Bugis sebelum datangnya Islam di Sulawesi Selatan pada abad ke-16
(Fachruddin 1983: 26). Ada juga yang memahami sureq Galigo sebagai pencerminan
pelaksanaan adat istiadat Bugis sehingga dianggap sakral (suci) (Rahman Rahim 2003: 426).
Misalnya, masyarakat Bugis di Sidenreng, Sulawesi Selatan, mereka menjadikan syair I La
Galigo untuk mengharapkan kekuasaan ghaib bagi merawat orang sakit (H.M. Atho Mudzhar
1985: 19). R.A. Kern menyatakan Sureq Galigo adalah sejarah tentang asal-usul manusia
yang ditulis dalam bentuk prosa yang dimulai dengan seorang manurung, yang turun ke
bumi pada suatu waktu dan berlanjutan sehingga kini. Setelah to manurung ini membina
dinasti di Luwuq, akhirnya iapun lenyap secara tiba-tiba (Kern 1989: 3). ). Ringkasnya, I La
Galigo memuatkan kisah nenek-moyang orang Bugis yang menjelaskan kedudukan kaum
lelaki dan wanita serta peranan mereka dalam menentukan mekasnisme kehidupan
(Nurnaningsih 2003: 319).
Kebanyakan sarjana Barat berpendapat I La Galigo adalah mitos yang asli dan teks yang
menggambarkan ketamadunan Bugis sebelum wujud sumber sejarah. Literatur ini
menunjukkan orang Bugis sememangnya mempunyai potret masa lampau. Walaupun I La
Galigo dianggap sebagai mitos tetapi kawasan yang dinyatakan dalam teks ini merujuk
kepada lokasi geografi yang benar-benar wujud di Sulawesi Selatan dan bukan kawasan
rakyat sebagai perintis dasar peradaban dan leluhur yang menghimpun segala sumber kekuatan dalam
kejadian yang berlaku di Sulawesi Selatan (Juraid Abd. Latief 2003: 190).
Suraya Sintang / 999
khayalan seperti lazimnya digambarkan dalam mitos-mitos lain. Kawasan yang disebutkan itu
termasuklah Luwuq, La Muru, Soppeng, Tempeq, Sidenreng dan Suppa (Pelras 1996: 47
Rumusan awal dapat dikatakan bahawa I La Galigo bukan sahaja menjadi sumber
kepercayaan pra-Islam Bugis, malah zaman itu turut melukiskan satu perubahan dalam
pemikiran orang Bugis dimana sejak itu, lahirlah peraturan-peraturan baru seperti peraturan
masyarakat dengan tingkat sosial, mitos dengan susunan dewa-dewa, bahasa khusus yag
disebut basa to riolo dan basa to rilangiq, tatacara keagamaan dengan pendeta Bissu yang
terikat dengan golongan bangsawan (Gilbert Albert Hamonic 2003:496).
Kepercayaan Pra-Islam Dalam Masyarakat Bugis
Unsur keagamaan yang berhubung dengan sistem kepercayaan orang Bugis zaman pra-
Islam pada dasarnya dapat dilihat dari segi kepercayaan yang meliputi kepercayaan tentang;
Attuwong Lino (kehidupan duniawi), Dewatae (para dewa-dewa) atau Toani tolotang, Tau
Tenrita (makhluk halus ), Tau rioloe (leluhur nenek-moyang), Makerre (keramat dan sakti)
dan Sangiang Serri (kesaktian wanita) (Halilintar Lathief 2003: 523). Kepercayaan pra-Islam
Bugis yang dinyatakan di atas menjadi fokus perbincangan dalam makalah ini. Namun tidak
dinafikan sememangnya terdapat beberapa kepercayaan pra-Islam lain yang masih diakui
benar oleh orang Bugis seperti Esso ri Munri atau Pammasareng (akhirat), Lasa na Amateng
(penyakit dan kematian), Simakna Ulawu (azimat atau tangkal), Massompa (persembahan
atau sajian)dan beberapa kepercayaan lain.
Attuwong Lino (kehidupan duniawi)
Alam dunia dimulai dengan keputusan sepasang dewata terpenting yang memerintah di
dunia atas (Datu Patotoq dan Datu Palingeq) dan sepasang dewata terpenting yang berkuasa
di dunia bawah (Guru ri Selleng dan Sinauq Toja) untuk menghuni dunia tengah iaitu bumi
agar manusia dapat menyembah dan melayan kehendak para dewata. Maka Batara Guru,
putera sulung Datu Patotoq dimasukkan ke dalam bambu emas. Sebagai to manurung
pertama, Batara Guru turun ke bumi, memberinya bentuk dan menyebarkan jenis tumbuhan
dan haiwan pertama. Ketika turun ke Luwuq, dia segera berpuasa dan bertapa. Kemudian
para permaisuri, rakyat dan hamba-hamba diturunkan dari dunia atas. Lalu, sebagaimana
yang telah dijanjikan kepada Batara Guru yang beliau akan dikahwinkan dengan sepupunya
We Nyiliq Timoq iaitu puteri Guru ri Selleng yang muncul dari air yang dipercayai to tompoq
pertama. Sejak itu, pelbagai peristiwa berlaku sehingga tujuh keturunan (Halilintar Lathief
2003: 522-523).
Rentetan dari peristiwa itu, bumi yang kosong telah diisi dengan kerabat warga dunia
langit dan dunia bawah laut yang menjelma ke bumi sehingga kini. Pewaris dari penguasa
bumi itu adalah berasal dari keturunan yang disebut To manurung dan To Tompoq. To
Manurung berasal dari bahasa Bugis yang terdiri dari dua perkataan iaitu to yang bererti
orang dan manurung bererti turun. Berdasarkan kepercayaan Bugis, To Manurung ialah
manusia pertama yang diturunkan dari langit untuk menjadi pemerintah di bumi. Manakala
To Tompoq ialah keturunan dewa dari bawah laut yang dijelmakan ke bumi menjadi
pasangan Batara Guru iaitu To manurung pertama di bumi (Anhar Gonggong 2003:xi).
Penciptaan manusia di dunia bumi diperlukan kerana manusia kelak akan melakukan upacara
pengucapan doa memohon pertolongan kepada para dewata (To Palaroe atau Datu Patotoq)
apabila manusia ditimpa malapetaka. Demikian juga, manusia akan melakukan upacara
pengucapan syukur apabila manusia memperoleh rahmat dan anugerah dari To Palanroe.
Dalam naskhah I La Galigo disebutkan (Kern 1989 terjemahan La Side) Tidaklah sempurna
ketuhananmu wahai Tuanku sebelum ada orang yang menyembah di bumi . Justeru
1000 / ISoIT 2004
penciptaan manusia diperlukan agar kekuasaan To Palanroe dapat dibuktikan melalui
pengucapan doa yang dipohon oleh manusia kepada baginda.
Berdasarkan naskhah I La Galigo adalah dipercayai, To Palanroe beserta To manurung
dan keturunannya (para penguasa adat tradisional) memiliki darah putih (maddara takku)
yang berbeza dengan manusia biasa yang berdarah merah (Andi Anton Pangerang 2003:
452). Manusia berdarah putih adalah dari kalangan golongan bangsawan (divine ancestory)
dan manusia berdarah merah adalah dari kalangan orang biasa. Justeru perkahwinan antara
kedua-dua keturunan yang berbeza adalah ditegah. Keturunan bangsawan dihantar ke dunia
untuk menjadi manusia disebabkan tidak ada tuhan apabila tidak ada manusia. Adalah
dipercayai asal keturunan bangsawan ini bermula dari mitos Sawerigading yang berkahwin
dengan We Cudai Daeng Ri Sompa yang telah menghasilkan silsilah kebangsawanan di
Gowa, Bone, Luwu, Kajang, Selayar dan sebagainya (KMA.M.Usop 1985: 99). Pada
kelazimannya apabila upacara perkahwinan dilangsungkan dari kalangan golongan
bangsawan, jari mereka akan dipotong sebagai bukti yang menunjukkan darah keturunan
orang tersebut benar-benar putih seperti yang berlaku ke atas raja Luwuq pada abad ke-16.
Perkahwinan berlainan keturunan akan menyebabkan seseorang itu akan kehilangan darah
kebangsawanannya. Situasi ini menunjukkan mitos I La Galigo digunakan sebagai model
politik dan kepentingan sosial yang menjelaskan keturunan dan asal-usul golongan
bangsawan serta hak keistimewaan yang mereka perolehi untuk memerintah dan
membezakan mereka dari rakyat biasa (Pelras 1996). Mitos ini menjadi dasar tegaknya
kekuasaan raja-raja di Sulawesi Selatan dan sangat kuat dipercayai. Keyakinan terhadap
mitos ini bertentangan dengan ajaran Islam yang menekankan prinsip tauhid yang
menyatakan Tuhan itu esa, tidak beranak dan tidak diperanakkan dan Islam tidak
membezakan manusia berdasarkan darah keturunan (Suriadi Mappangara dan Irwan Abbas
2003: 9).
Dewatae (para dewa)
Kepercayaan terhadap dewa-dewa (dewata) pada asasnya bermula dari kepercayaan
terhadap satu dewa yang tunggal yang disebut dengan beberapa nama atau istilah seperti
patotoq (penentu nasib), dewata seuwae (dewa tunggal), turie arana (kehendak yang
tertinggi). Kepercayaan ini masih wujud di kalangan masyarakat To Lotang di daerah
Sidenreng-Rappang dan orang Amma-Towa di daerah Bulumkumba, Sulawesi Selatan
(Mattulada 1975: 271). Penggunaan istilah ini dapat diperhatikan di dalam lontara-lontara
Bugis yang menjelaskan tentang perjanjian antara raja dan rakyatnya dimana pada
kelazimannya perjanjian itu dipersaksikan Dewata Seuwae. Demikian juga perjanjian antara
kerajaan biasanya ditutup dengan perkataan yang sama dengan menyatakan bahawa sesuaoa
yang melanggar perjanjian itu akan dikutuk oleh Dewata Seuwae (Suriadi Mappanggara &
Irwan Abbas 2003: 139).
Di samping itu, kepecayaan terhadap dewa-dewa turut menekankan kepada dua bentuk
kepercayaan yang dinamakan Toani tolotang dan patuntung. Bagi kepercayaan Toani
tolotang, terdapat tiga jenis dewa yang dipercayai mempunyai kuasa sesuai dengan wilayah
kekuasaan mereka seperti dewata langie, dewata mallinoe dan dewata sauwae. Dewata
langie iaitu dewa yang menghuni langit diharapkan dapat menurunkan hujan dan memberi
kemakmuran kepada manusia. Di samping itu, dewata langie juga boleh mendatangkan
bencana dengan menurunkan petir atau mendatangkan kemarau panjang. Sebagai tanda
kesyukuran dan perlindungan dari segala malapetaka, manusia dikehendaki
mempersembahkan sajian yang berupa empat warna makanan dari sokko (nasi pulut) yang
diletakkan pada sebuah tempat khas di bahagian atas rumah (loteng) (Suriadi Mappangara &
Irwan Abbas 2003: 31).
Suraya Sintang / 1001
Dewata mallinoe iaitu dewa yang dipercayai banyak menghuni kawasan tertentu di dunia
ini seperti simpang jalan, pokok besar dan tempat-tempat keramat. Manusia lazimnya
memberikan sajian dengan meletakkan dan menggantung pelbagai jenis buah-buahan,
makanan, lauk pauk dan binatang sebagai satu bentuk persembahan agar tidak mengganggu
ketenteraman manusia. Manakala Dewata Sauwae ialah dewa air yang tinggal di lautan,
sungai dan danau. Untuk memberikan sajian kepada dewa air ini, manusia biasanya membuat
sebuah rumah-rumah kecil atau bekas yang di dalamnya diletakkan daun-daunan, makanan
dan beras warna-warni yang kemudiannya dilabuhkan di laut (Suriadi Mappangara & Irwan
Abbas 2003: 32).
Kepercayaan Patuntung pula mengakui adanya tiga dewa yang disebut karaeng
ampatama iaitu pencipta alam dan tinggal di langit, karaeng kannuang kammaya sebagai
pemelihara alam yang tinggal di tompo tika iaitu puncak gunung Bawakaraeng di Sulawesi
Selatan dan karaeng patanna lino sebagai pembantu karaeng kannuang kammaya untuk
memelihara manusia di bumi yang dikenali sebagai pattakok (paksi). Selain itu , patuntung
mempercayai puang loheta (tuhan yang banyak) yang terdapat pada setiap keluarga, rumah
dan kerajaan. Walaupun pada masa kini, kebanyakan orang Bugis tidak mengakui
kepercayaan Patuntung, namun banda-banda keramat iaitu arajang masih dipelihara dengan
sebaiknya dan demikian juga dengan anja-anjaan yang terdapat di rumah iaitu tempat tidur
kecil yang dilengkapi dengan tilam, bantal dan kelambu serta segala jenis makanan dan
keperluan dapur yang diletakkan di loteng rumah (pammakang), bukan sahaja
menggambarkan kepecayaan terhadap roh nenek moyang tetapi juga merupakan sebahagian
daripada kepercayaan patuntung (Nurhayati Djamas 1985: 288).
Namun fahaman ini mula ditinggalkan setelah Islam diterima oleh masyarakat Bugis dan
perubahan budaya berlaku atas usaha dakwah yang dibawa oleh tiga orang datuk yang
menekankan bidang keahlian masing-masing dan metod penyebaran Islam yang sesuai
dengan kehendak masyarakat. Misalnya, Sulaiman Khatib Sulung Dato Patimang
menjalankan pendekatan Ilmu Kalam yang menekankan pengajaran tauhid iaitu pemahaman
tentang sifat-sifat Allah s.w.t. untuk menggantikan kepercayaan lama yang menganggap
Tuhan yang esa adakah Dewata Seuwae dengan kepercayaan kepada Allah s.w.t. yang
tercermin dalam syahadatain sebagai ucapan pertama bagi seseorang yang memeluk Islam.
Manakala, Abdul Jawad Khatib Bungsu Dato ri Tiro menjalankan pendekatan tasawuf untuk
merebut hati masyrakat Bugis yang kuat berpegang kepada kebatinan dan ilmu sihir. Amalan
masyarakat yang ketika itu menggunakan ilmu sihir yang merupakan sebahagian dari
sistedm kepercayaan patuntung yang berpusat di Gunung Bawakaraeng telah diadaptasikan
dengan pendekatan tasawuf yang kedua-duanya bersifat msitik namun mempunyai matlamat
pengabdian yang berbeza. Dato Ri Bandang memperkenalkan ilmu fiqh dengan memberi
penekanan terhadap hukum-hukum syariat Islam di kalangan masyarakat Bugis yang gemar
melakukan perbuatan berjudi, minum ballo (sejenis tuak atau minuman keras) dan
mengamalkan riba (Suriadi Mappanggara & Irwan Abbas 2003: 148).
Aluk Todolo atau Tau rioloe (leluhur nenek-moyang)
Aluk Todolo adalah satu bentuk kepercayaan terhadap roh leluhur nenek-moyang. Aluk
Todolo mempunyai asas kepercayaannya yang disebut aluk tallu otona yang bererti
mempunyai tiga prinsip utama iaitu:
1. Percaya dan memuja puang matua sebagai pencipta alam semesta.
2. Percaya dan memuja dewa-dewa iaitu pemelihara alam semesta yang diciptakan oleh
puang matua.
3. Percaya dan memuja to membali puang yang dikenali dengan nama todolo iaitu
arwah leluhur yang berperanan memerhati dan memberi berkat kepada keturunannya
(Suriadi Mappangara & Irwan Abbas 2003: 34).
1002 / ISoIT 2004
Ketiga-tiga unsur kepercayaan tersebut dipuja dan disembah menurut ajaran aluk todolo
yang mengkehendaki persembahan dalam bentuk sajian korban binatang yang berbeza antara
satu keluarga dengan keluarga yang lain mengikut kedudukan dan martabat keturunan
keluarga tersebut. Roh nenek-moyang dipercayai mempunyai tempat pemukiman khusus
seperti tanah perkuburan dan batu-batu besar yang mempunyai keramat. Kawasan tanah
perkuburan misalnya, akan dilengkapi dengan lasuji (pagar), payung, bekas sirih (alannota)
dan rokok. Setelah menerima Islam, kebiasaan menyembah roh nenek moyang ini digantikan
dengan upacara-upacara memperingati hari kematian (kamateang) mereka mengikut
ketetapan bilangan hari-hari tertentu seperti hari ketujuh, keempat puluh dan keseratus
(Supriadi Mappanggara & Irwan Abbas 2003: 144).
Tau Tenrita (makhluk halus )
Orang Bugis mempercayai dunia terdiri dari dunia nyata dan dunia ghaib (tidak nyata).
Dunia yang tidak nyata adalah dunia di luar jangkauan panca indera yang dipercayai dihuni
oleh makhluk halus dan kekuatan alam yang tidak dapat dikuasai oleh manusia secara biasa
melainkan dengan cara yang luar biasa. Untuk menghadapi kemurkaan makhluk dan kekuatan
alam persembahan yang berbentuk sajian hendaklah diberikan kepada makhluk tersebut.
Lazimnya sajian yang dipersembahkan untuk tau tenrita ialah sokko petanrupa iaitu nasi
pulut yang terdiri dari empat jenis warna; hitam, putih, kuning dan merah, disertai dengan
benno, (bertih jagung), alannota (sirih yang telah dibentuk) dan beberapa makanan lain yang
terdiri dari lauk-pauk. Walaupun sajian ini bertujuan untuk mernjamu orang ramai melalui
majlis kenduri yang diadakan, namun roh makhluk halus dipercayai turut menjamah makanan
dengan cara menghidunya sehingga kenyang (Lineton, Jacqueline Andrew 1975: 67).
Tindakan sedemikian merupakan tanda permohonan maaf kepada dewa-dewa atau nenek-
moyang yang disebut angnganro. Upacara angnganro dapat dibahagikan kepada jenis
berikut:
a). Angnganro bosi, memohon kepada dewa atau leluhur agar turun hujan
b). Angnganro karaeng lohe, memohon agar diberikan rezeki dan terhindar dari
bencana
c). Angnganro ri pajukukang iaitu memohon agar dilimpahkan rezeki khususnya
tangkapan ikan dan hasil pertanian (Suriadi Mappangara & Irwan Abbas 2003: 36).
Di samping itu, terdapat juga kepercayaan terhadap makhlus halus lain yang
dianggap kerana suka mengganggu dan menimbulkan malapetaka kepada manusia iaitu
parakan, tujua dan patiro kanja. Parakan sebenarnya adalah dari kalangan manusia yang
tidak menyedari atau tidak mengetahui yang dirinya adalah parakan kerana hanya rohnya
sahaja yang berubah menjadi binatang. Parakan mengganggu manusia dengan memakan
organ dalam tubuh manusia seperti usus, hati dan jantung. Orang yang dimakan parakan
akan didapati hujung jarinya menjadi biru dan mengalami ceret-beret yang bercampur dengan
darah. Kesakitan yang dialami akibat dimakan parakan boleh membawa maut melainkan
sekiranya dapat diubati oleh dukun atau sanro. Lazimnya, wanita yang baru bersalin akan
meletakkan penyapu lidi berhampiran tempat tidurnya agar tidak mudah diganggu parakan.
Manakala, tujua ialah tujuh makhluk halus yang merupakan roh-roh dan jelmaan dari tujuh
orang gadis yang dibunuh oleh ayahnya kerana salah seorang daripadanya hamil di luar
nikah. Roh-roh gadis itu tetap berkeliaran sebagai makhluk jahat yang mengganggu manusia.
Adalah dipercayai bahawa makhluk tersebut dipelihara oleh sanro tujua dan akan mengutus
makhluk tersebut kepada orang-orang tertentu untuk mendatangkan penyakit kepadanya.
Penyakit yang biasanya ditimbulkan oleh tujua ialah penyakit histeria dan gila (Nurhayati
Djamas 1985: 289-290).
Makhluk lain yang sering menimbulkan gangguan ialah patiro kanja iaitu sejenis
toyol yang dimiliki atau dipelihara oleh seseorang untuk mencuri wang dan harta benda dari
Suraya Sintang / 1003
orang lain. Pemilik patiro kanja biasanya dari kalangan orang kaya kerana kekayaan mereka
dipercayai datangnya dari makhluk yang dipelihara. Kepercayaan terhadap makhluk tersebut
merupakan sebahagian daripada kepercayaan yang berfungsi untuk menjelaskan pelbagai
peristiwa, musibah atau penyakit aneh yang menimpa anggota masyarakat. Orang Bugis
percaya terdapat penyakit yang disebabkan oleh kemurkaan roh-roh nenek-moyang dan ada
juga penyakit yang datangnya dari gangguan roh dan makhluk halus yang jahat. Pada
kelazimannya, rawatan terhadap penyakit tersebut akan diselenggarakan oleh sanro (dukun
atau bomoh) dan setelah pesakit itu sembuh, upacara ritual tolak bala akan diadakan agar
penyakit itu tidak datang semula (Nurhayati Djamas 1985: 291-292).
Makerre (keramat dan sakti)
Kepercayaan Makerre merujuk kepada satu bentuk kepercayaan terhadap benda yang
dianggap keramat dan sakti yang lazim dimiliki oleh raja yang memerintah sesebuah negeri.
Adapun benda yang dipercayai mempunyai keramat dan sakti ialah seperti tombak, keris,
badik, perisai, payung, patung dari emas dan perak, kalung, pinggan, jala ikan dan
sebagainya. Kesemua alat atau benda yang disebutkan di atas dikenali sebagai arajang atau
kalompoang (ornament) ataupun saukang
1430
(Halilintar Lathief 2003: 521-522). Menurut
Mattulada (t.t. 44), istilah arajang bererti alat-alat kebesaran sesuatu negara ataupun tana .
(tanah) atau butta iaitu kerajaan yang dikuasai oleh seorang raja. Perkataan arajang berasal
dari kata raja yang bererti besar. Arajang harus dipelihara dengan cermat kerana
keselamatan dan kesejahteraan manusia bergantung kepada makhluk-makhluk yang telah
memberikan benda-benda keramat tersebut (Halilintar Lathief 2003: 521-522).
Pemujaan terhadap arajang sebagai salah satu cara pemujaan terhadap arwah nenek
moyang dijalankan oleh Bissu (Puang Matoa) iaitu pendeta agama Bugis kuno zaman pra-
Islam. Bissu diberi mandat untuk menjaga arajang kerana Bissu mempunyai gabungan
kekuatan lelaki dan wanita dan sifat ketuhanan dan kemanusiaan. Naskhah I La Galigo
banyak mengungkapkan kehadiran Bissu dalam budaya Bugis yang berperanan sebagai
sanro mengubati orang sakit, menelek nasib, pasabo orang yang menyanyi untuk dewa dan
memahami bahasa Bugis kuno yang dikenali dengna nama basa toriolo dan basa to ri langiq
(Gilbert Albert Hamonic 2003: 489). Adalah dipercayai asal-usul arajang seperti yang
disampaikan melalui tradisi lisan dan peranan Bissu sebagai penjaga arajang berdasarkan
cerita tentang seorang puteri Luwuq yang bernama WeTama Cina yang belum dan
berkahwin berhajat untuk mandi di tasik tetapi dilarang. Puteri itu menangis sehingga
airmatanya bertukar menjadi darah. Lama kelamaan dia tenggelam ke dalam kolam sehingga
sampai ke dasar dunia bawah. Puteri itu terperangkap di sana selama tujuh hari yang akhirnya
muncul dengan ditemani oleh dua orang Bissu yang membawa bersama arajang (Sharyn
Graham 2003: 508).
1430
Saukang adalah bahasa Bugis kuno yang bererti api. Ini diberikan kerana fungsi dari arajang
tersebut bagaikan api kehidupan yang harus dipelihara dengan sebaik-baiknya demi keselamatan dan
kemaslahatan mereka. Mereka yakini bahawa kehidupan dan kesejahteraan sangat bergantung kepada
makhluk-makhluk yang telah memberikan benda-benda keramat tersebut. Pada hakikatnya saukang itu
sendiri hanyalah berfungsi sebagai monumen atau simbol tentang adanya ikatan antara makhluk ghaib
dengan kelompok keluarga tertentu melalui salah seorang anggotanya, yang dalam hal ini adalah
Matowa. Selama benda-benda tersebut dipelihara dengan baik, selama itu kelompok keluarga tersebut
akan dilindungi dan dibimbing oleh makhluk-makhluk tersebut. Sebaliknya, jika tidak dipedulikan,
maka makhluk ghaib tersebut tidak akan menghiraukan mereka lagi (Halilintar Lathief 2003: 522).
1004 / ISoIT 2004
Di kalangan rakyat biasa mereka turut mempunyai benda yang dianggap sakti dan
keramat yang dikenali dengan nama pantasa. Pantasa semacam katil atau seperti rumah-
rumah yang bertiang dengan ketinggian kira-kira 70 hingga 100cm yang dilengkapi dengan
kelambu yang berwarna kuning (lambang dewa) dan memiliki tangga (sapana). Dalam
pantasa terdapat bantal kecil dan sehelai tikar kecil dan kelengkapan dapur. Pemujaan
pantasa biasanya dilakukan pada malam jumaat setelah terbenamnya matahari dimana lilin
yang diperbuat dari buah keras akan dinyalakan di dalam benda tersebut. Adalah dipercayai
bahawa hanya pada malam jumaat sahaja leluhur nenek moyang itu turun ke dalam pantasa
tersebut.
Setelah agama Islam dianuti oleh orang Bugis, peranan Bissu digantikan oleh Puang Kali
(Kadhi) yang mengendalikan upacara-upacara keagamaan yang dahulunya dikendalikan oleh
Bissu. Di samping itu, gerakan pemurniaan ajaran Islam dilaksanakan melalui gerakan
Operasi Tobaq (operasi taubat) yang berlaku pada tahun 1966. Para Bissu dan mereka yang
percaya akan kesaktian arajang dituduh sebagai komunis (anggota Partai Komunis
Indonesi/PKI). Mereka dianggap tidak beragama dan melakukan perbuatan syirik. Sejak itu,
peranan Bissu tidak lagi dianggap penting dalam masyarakat (Halilintar Lathief 2003: 524).
Sangiang Serri (Kesaktian Wanita)
Sangiang Serri yang bermaksud padi yang sedang menguning adalah sebenarnya berasal
dari We Oddang Riuq iaitu puteri pertama Batara Guru dengan isterinya We Sessung Riuq.
Ketika berusia 3 hari, We Oddang Riuq meniggal dunia. Selepas hari ketujuh kematiannya,
ibu bapa We Oddang Riuq menziarah kubur anaknya. Namun setibanya mereka di kubur We
oddang Riuq, pelbagai jenis padi yang sedang menguning tumbuh di atas kubur tesebut
(Nurnaningsih 2003: 327). Batara Guru diperintahkan oleh ayahnya, Datu Patotoq supaya
tidak memakan padi tersebut kerana anaknya telah diberikan kepada manusia dalam bentuk
Sangiang Serri iaitu jelmaan We Oddang Riuq (Pelras 1996: 86). Sangiang Serri adalah
nama yang diberikan kepada Tuhan padi dan merupakan wanita muda yang cantik. Adalah
dipercayai kematian We Oddang Riuq sejurus dilahirkan merupakan kematian pertama yang
berlaku di bumi. Kenyataan ini boleh dilihat dalam I La Galigo yang disunting oleh Salim
Muhammad (et al. 1995: 180):
La na ritu anaq riaseng Sangiang Serri,
Anaqmu ritu mencari ase,
Nonnoq mua no ri Ale Lino, Batara Guru,
Le muala i mupaenreq ri langkanae,
Le ajaq sana muajjelleq i,
Naia sana ritu mujelleq le wettengne, le bataqe,
Mempeq tinio tudang ri Kawaq.
Anak itu bernama Sangiang Serri
Anakmu telah menjadi padi,
Turunlah ke bumi, Batara Guru,
Ambillah dan bawa ke istanamu,
Jangan sekali-kali memakannya,
Makan jagung sahaja,
Agar rohmu hidup selama kau tinggal di dunia.
Versi lain mengenai cerita Sangiang Serri dipercayai badan Sangiang Serri kekal di bumi
manakala rohnya yang dinamakan banappati memerintah di dunia selepasnya (afterworld) ke
atas kanak-kanak yang mati semasa bayi itu dilahirkan. Versi yang lain juga menceritakan
Suraya Sintang / 1005
kejadian ini pada mulanya berlaku di syurga sebelum tuhan mengambil keputusan mencipta
manusia di bumi. Ramai yang terpikat dengan kecantikan Sangiang Serri, maka Datu Patotoq
mengambil keputusan untuk membentuk badan Sangiang Serri menjadi padi supaya setiap
orang bebas untuk mencintainya. Adalah dipercayai bahawa badannya telah dipotong dan
diletakkan di dalam bekas. Selepas 70 hari 70 malam bekas tersebut dibuka dan didapati
jarinya menjadi ikan, rambutnya menjadi kelapa dan airmatanya menjadi sayur (Pelras 1996:
90-91). Mitos Sangiang Seri ini menjelaskan tentang kesaktian wanita yang digambarkan
oleh We Oddang Riuq dimana selepas kematiannya anggota badannya telah menjadi tumbuh-
tumbuhan sebagai makanan manusia.
Mitos ini telah meninggalkan kesan yang sangat mendalam terhadap kehidupan
kaum tani di kalangan orang Bugis. Proses penanaman padi dilakukan secara tertib dengan
mengadakan upacara ritual sebagai tanda penghormatan kepada Sangiang Serri. Pada
peringkat pertama diadakan upacara tudang paddiuma iaitu berbincang tentang waktu yang
sesuai memulakan kerja-kerja di sawah yang berkaitan dengan pembersihan saluran air,
persiapan peralatan dan penentuan jenis padi yang akan ditanam di kawasan tertentu.
Kemudian diadakan upacara maddoja bine (merendam benih padi) yang biasanya dijalankan
selama dua hari dua malam. Selanjutnya diadakan upacara mangampe bine iaitu menabur
benih padi di tapak semaian yang disertai dengan upacara doa dan mantera tolak bala
memohon keselamatan padi dan terhindar dari segala macam gangguan. Kemudian diikuti
dengan upacara maduppa ase iaitu menyambut kedatangan kembali Sangiang Serri dan
diakhiri dengan upacara mappamula iaitu menuai padi (Fahruddin Ambo Enre 2003: 313). Di
samping itu, kepercayaan terhadap Sangiang Serri meninggalkan kesan mendalam bukan
hanya di kalangan kaum tani tetapi turut mempengaruhi masyarkat Bugis lain dimana
sehingga kini tempat menyimpan beras (pabbaresseng) tidak boleh dikosongkan dan
demikian juga dengan periuk nasi harus ditinggalkan sedikit nasi.
Penutup
I La Galigo merupakan sebuah literatur yang menunjukkan orang Bugis mempunyai
potret masa lampau. Gambaran kehidupan yang dipaparkan pada zaman La Galigo telah
melukiskan satu perubahan dalam pemikiran orang Bugis yang memperlihatkan tata nilai dan
identiti budaya yang tersendiri. Misalnya, konsep penciptaan makhluk di alam dunia seperti
yang digambarkan dalam kepercayaan Attuwong Lino (kehidupan duniawi) adalag dimulai
dengan penciptaan penguasa bumi yang berasal dari keturunan To manurung dan To
Tompoq dimana keturunannya (para penguasa adat tradisional) memiliki darah putih
(maddara takku) yang berbeza dengan manusia biasa yang berdarah merah. Keyakinan
terhadap mitos ini bertentangan dengan ajaran Islam yang menekankan prinsip tauhid dan
Islam menilai ketinggian darjat manusia di sisi tuhannya dari nilai ketaqwaannya dan bukan
dari warna darah keturunannya. Manakala, kepercayaan terhadap Dewatae (para dewa-dewa)
dan Tau Tenrita (makhluk halus ) yang kedua-duanya melibatkan pemujaan roh nenek
moyang dilaksanakan dengan mempersembahkan sajian yang berupa makanan dan bacaan
mantera telah disesuaikan dengan ajaran Islam melalui majlis kenduri dan doa selamat.
Demikian juga kepercayaan Makerre (keramat dan sakti) yang dikendalikan oleh Bissu, kini
semakin lenyap rentetan dari gerakan operasi pemurnian Islam. Sementara itu, kepercayaan
terhadap Sangiang Serri dianggap hanya sebahagian daripada cerita dongeng yang banyak
terdapat di Asia Tenggara yang berkaitan dengan asal-usul padi dari badan seorang wanita.
Segala bentuk kepercayaan pra-Islam tersebut telah disesuaikan dengan ajaran Islam kerana
orang Bugis menjadikan agama Islam padu dalam kehidupan sosialnya sehingga seorang
Bugis yang tidak Islam dipandang sebagai bukan orang Bugis.
1006 / ISoIT 2004
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Publications & Distributors Sdn Bhd.
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Nurhayati Rahman (et al.). La Galigo Menelusuri Jejak Warisan Sastra Dunia. Makassar:
Universitas Hasanuddin.
Andi Zainal Abidin Farid. 1970. Lontara Sebagai Sumber Sedjarah Terpendam (Masa 1500-1800).
Makasar: Lembaga Penelitian Hukum UNHAS.
Anhar Gonggong. 2003. Interpretasi Kelampauan: Mencari Makna untuk Melanjutkan Hidup Bersama
(Sebuah Pengantar Imaji). (Dlm). Nurhayati Rahman (et al.). La Galigo Menelusuri Jejak Warisan
Sastra Dunia. Makassar: Universitas Hasanuddin.
Fahruddin Ambo Enre. 2003. Budidaya Padi Berdasarkan Naskhah La Galigo. (Dlm). Nurhayati
Rahman (et al.). La Galigo Menelusuri Jejak Warisan Sastra Dunia. Makassar: Universitas
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H.M. Atho Mudzhar. 1985. Mesjid dan Bakul Keramat: Konflik dan Integrasi dalam Masyarakat Bugis
Amparita. Mukhlis & Kathryn Robinson (pynt). Agama dan Realitas Sosial. Sulawesi Selatan:
Lembaga Penerbitan Universitas Hasanuddin.
Halilintar Lathief. 2003. Bissu: Imam yang Menghibur. (Dlm). Nurhayati Rahman (et al.). La Galigo
Menelusuri Jejak Warisan Sastra Dunia. Makassar: Universitas Hasanuddin.
Hamonic, Gilbert Albert. 2003. Kepercayaan dan Upacara dari Budaya Bugis Kuno: Pujaan Pendeta
Bissu dalam Mitos La Galigo. (Dlm). Nurhayati Rahman (et al.). La Galigo Menelusuri Jejak
Warisan Sastra Dunia. Makassar: Universitas Hasanuddin.
Hasyimisyah Nasution. 2003. Hegemonitas Adat Terhadap Perkembangan Dakwah Masyarakat Batak
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Lineton, Jacquelin Andrew. 1975. An Indonesian Society and Its Universe : A Study of The Bugis and
South Sulawesi (Celebes) and Their Role Within A Wider Social and Economic System. Tesis
Phd. Universiti London (Tidak Diterbitkan).
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Selatan. Makassar: A.Mappasissi Petta Awang Pone & A. Muhammad Opu Daeng Masalle.
Mattulada. 1975. Kebudayaan Bugis-Makasar. (Dlm). Koentjaraningrat (pynt.). Manusia dan
Kebudayaan di Indonesia. Djambatan.
_______________. 1985. Latoa: Satu Lukisan Analitis Terhadap Antropologi Politik Orang Bugis.
Gadjah Mada Universiti Press.
Muhammad Salim. 2003. Transliterasi dan Terjemahan Sureq Galigo. (Dlm). Nurhayati Rahman (et al.).
La Galigo Menelusuri Jejak Warisan Sastra Dunia. Makassar: Universitas Hasanuddin.
Nurhayati Djamas. 1985. Varian Keagamaan Orang Bugis-Makasar. (Dlm). Mukhlis & Kathryn
Robinson (pynt). Agama dan Realitas Sosial. Sulawesi Selatan: Lembaga Penerbitan Universitas
Hasanuddin.
Nurnaningsih. 2003. Perspektif Gender dalam Naskhah Galigo. (Dlm). Nurhayati Rahman (et al.). La
Galigo Menelusuri Jejak Warisan Sastra Dunia. Makassar: Universitas Hasanuddin.
Pelras, Christian. 1996. The Bugis. Oxford : Blackwell Publishers.
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Rahman Rahim. 2003. Nilai-Nilai Utama Kebudayaan Bugis Dalam La Galigo. (Dlm). Nurhayati
Rahman (et al.). La Galigo Menelusuri Jejak Warisan Sastra Dunia. Makassar: Universitas
Hasanuddin.
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Suraya Sintang
Pusat Penataran Ilmu dan Bahasa
Universiti Malaysia Sabah
Beg Berkunci 2073,88999
Kota Kinabalu, Sabah
E-mail: surayasintang@hotmail.com
Tel.: 088320000 ext. 5277
Fax : 088435708
The Experience of Islam and Politics in Indonesia
Kazi Shahdat Kabir
Abstract
The paper examines the struggle between Islamic and nationalist or secular-nationalist
force in Indonesia during the Sukarno and Suharto era. Generally, the level of personal
religious devotion of Muslims in Indonesia is high. Besides, it is the largest Muslim country
in the world. However, it is neither an Islamic state, nor a secular state. In Indonesia the first
Islamic organization Muhammaddyah was established in 1912. The Sarekat Islam (Islamic
Federation) appeared in the same year as well; later on it was divided and Islamic part was
called Indonesian Islamic Federation (PSII). In 1926 a Muslim organization the Nahdatul
Ulama (Revival of Islam) was appeared of much greater significance, in response to the
increasing influence of the reformist movement. In 1943, the Japanese brought together all
existing Muslim organizations under an umbrella organization called Masyumi [Consultative
Council of Indonesian Muslims]. Although, all the parties played a significant role in the
Indonesian politics during and after colonial era, yet it was only the secular-nationalist
group, which got the opportunity to study in Holland, gave the direction to the independence
movements and defined its goals. The capture of power by the secularist in independent
Indonesia considered by Islamists as a bitter defeat and therefore, movement called Darul
Islam (Domain of Islam/Islamic State) during the Sukarno era emerged. However, due to the
failure of Islamic Political movement at the national level in regional based darul Islam
movement became popular and increasingly made pre-eminent during the Suharto era due to
lack of unity within the proIslamic groups and regimes antidemocratic and hostile attitude
towards Islam.
Introduction
The main concern of this paper is to show the struggle between the so-called politicized
Islam or Islamic Political Movement and the de-Islamization of politics or nationalist or
secular-nationalist force in Indonesia. In the pre-modern Islamic paradigm the relationship
between religion and politics was conceived to be the mutual and reciprocal.
1431
However, the
western colonization to the Muslim world created a cultural interaction and dichotomy among
the Muslim elites by introducing western political thought and ideas. Another dichotomy has
also emerged within the Islamic political movement that is, Islamists are divided between into
so called reformist and traditionalist. This paper begins with a brief history of political
Islam in Indonesia; and then this examines how Islam has played an important role in the
Indonesian politics as well as regime-Islam relationship throughout Sukarno and Suharto era.
1431
M. Sirajuddin Syamsuddin, Religion and Politics in Islam: The Case of Muhammaduyah in
Indonesias New Order, Los Angeles: University Of California, 1991, pp. 7-8.
Kazi Shahdat Kabir / 1009
Islam as Ideology
Ideologically in Islam there is an integration between religion and politics. Muhammad
Asad begins his book by posing question about whether Islam under all circumstances
requires that Muslim should strive to create an Islamic state or whether, like other religion,
this opposed to the mixing of religion and politics.
1432
According to him, Islam requires this
realization of the supreme purpose of all creation- to establish divine will on earth- dependent
in an essential sense on the existence of an Islamic state. The Islamic state is intrinsic to the
purpose of creating a society based on complete submission to the will of God.
1433
The
realization of this purpose requires that submission to the will of God is not confined to
general rules but to the code of life embodied in the Quran and Sunnah. From this he
concludes: this responsibility can be discharged only by a coordinating agency invested with
the powers of command (amr) and prohibition (nahy): that is, the state. It follows therefore,
that the organization of an Islamic state or states is an indispensable condition of Islamic life
in the true sense of the word.
1434
For him religion can only provide a universal code of
morality. Islam fulfills this function admirably, which is a religion meant for the good of all
mankind.
1435
According to Iqbal, the individual ethical and moral behavior prescribed in the Sharia
applies to the entire community and it is the responsibility of the state to enforce and
implement such behavior.
1436
Similarly, Esposito Observed, the traditional Islamic world
view provided a holistic approach towards life, a life in which religion was intimately and
organically related to politics, law and society.
1437
Allah (SWT) says in the Holy Quran,
Whoso does not establish and decide by that which Allah has revealed, such as
disbeliever.
1438
Therefore, it is common in the Muslim world that the Islam based political parties had
been struggling for a state based on the Islamic shariah. On the other hand, the regimes,
which have been trained and educated in the west or western values try to separate religion
from politics. But sometimes it accommodates Islam at the state level in order to buy the
mass support. According Guednter Lewy, the leaders of many developing countries live in
the two worlds of religion and politics simultaneously. In order to rise their countries from
poverty they seek to modernize and acquire for their societies education and the advanced
technical knowledge depend on the west. At the same time to establish rapport with their
traditional-bound people, they have to appeal to native pride, communal and ethnic
sentiments as well as religion.
1439
1432
Asad, Muhammad, The Principles of State and Government in Islam, (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1961) p. 2
1433
Ibid. pp. 2-3
1434
Ibid. p. 4
1435
Ibid. 4-10
1436
Syed Abul Ala Mawdudi, Islamic Law and Constitution, trans, & ed. Khurshid Ahamad (Lahore:
Islamic Publications Ltd. 1960), pp. 153-54
1437
J. L. Esposito, Introduction: Islam and Muslim Politics, in J. L. Esposito (ed.), Voices of
Resurgent Islam, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983), p. 5
1438
Al Quran, Surah Al Maidah (5) : 44
1439
Guenter Lewy, Nasserism and Islam: A Revolution in Search of Ideology, in Donald Eugene
Smith (ed.), Religion and political Modernization ( New Haven and London: Yale University Press,
1974), p.274
1010 / ISoIT 2004
A Brief History of Islam-State Relations in Indonesia
For Muslims in Indonesia, the level of personal religious devotion is high in general. The
daily ritual prayers and the Friday congregational prayer are well observed. The fast of
Ramadan is widely kept as well. However, in Indonesia the first Islamic organization
established called Muhammaddyah in 1912. It was directly inspired by the reformist ideas of
Muhammad Abduh and Rashid Rida in Cairo. Another Muslim organization, Sarekat Islam
(Islamic Federation) appeared in the same year. It was a political organization, developed into
Indonesias first mass movement. By 1920, it had a membership of over a million. But
continuing so called dialectic in thinking of Indonesian Muslims (rigorously scripruralist
and accomodationist understanding of Islam) that in 1922 Sarekat Islam broke into two
parts: a left wing and an Islamic wing.
1440
The left wing became Indonesias first political
party, Indonesian Communist Party [PKI], and the Islamic wing became the first Islamic
political; party called Indonesian Islamic Federation [PSII].
Despite the largest Muslim country in the world, Indonesia is not an Islamic state. On the
other hand, it is not a secular state either. Constitutionally it is a unitary state that embodies
and exemplifies a state philosophy called the Pancasila (Five Principles). The first of these is
belief in one God. This principle when formulated and agreed upon in 1945, was inspired by
the teachings of Islam (as the dominant religion in the country) and is accepted by Muslims
as a clear statement of Tawhid, the divine unity.
1441
Followers of the other creeds have been
free to interpret the principle in terms of their own religion. The other principles enshrined in
the Pancasila humanitarianism, national unity, democracy and social justice- are entirely
acceptable to the Muslim population as well as the other communities in Indonesia.
In 1926, a Muslim organization was appeared of much greater significance, the Nahdatul
Ulama (Revival of the Ulama which was born in response to the increasing influence of the
reformist movement. It was a party that played a significant role in the 1950s and 1960s. Both
reformist Indonesian Islamic Federation [PSII] and the traditionalist Nahdatul Ulama
[NU] had maintained an independent political profile, until 1973, when their political
activities were merged into the United Development Party [PPP].
In early 1920s, the term Indonesia began to establish itself the as indigenous name for
the territories of the Dutch East Indies.
1442
The term Indonesia and Indonesian continued to
grow in popular when the idea and ideal of modern state was formulated and proclaimed at an
all Indies Youth Conference in 1928. In that occasion, delegates represented some five
hundred members of regional organizations made a pledge of loyalty to one fatherland
Indonesia. It is based on European style of secular nationalism based on one language Bhasha
Indonesia, land and people, without regard to ethnic origin or religious allegiance.
1443
That
nationalist movement was elitist, since it was kept firmly under control of the Dutch
government, through some of the leaders like Sukarno was exiled.
When invaded the area, Japan set a long-term plan towards the Greater East Asia Co-
prosperity Sphere, where it invaded the Southeast Asia during second world war Japanese
tried to unite the people of Indonesia, through of Bhasa-Indonesia. They felt that it was
impractical to teach the Japanese language to a large numbers of the population. Accordingly,
they brought Sukarno and other nationalist leaders from exile, which paved the way Sukarno
1440
Anthony H. Johns, Indonesia: Islam and Pluralism, Esposito, John L. Islam in Asia: Religion,
Politics and society, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987) p. 207
1441
Khaidir Anwar, Islam in Indonesia Today, The Islamic Quarterly, vol. 23, No. 2, 1979. p. 99
1442
Anthony H. Johns, Indonesia: Islam and Pluralism, Esposito, John L. Islam in Asia: Religion,
Politics and society, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987) p. 107
1443
Ibid. p. 208
Kazi Shahdat Kabir / 1011
to become a secular-nationalist leader. On the other hand, Japanese also envisaged a role for
Islam in gaining the popular support its needed. It is known that for several years prior to
their invasion, they had made a study of Islam and presented themselves as liberators of
Islam, taking care to exploit Muslim anti-Dutch feelings. They cultivated Islamic leaders
encouraged them aspiration for an eventual Islamic state of Indonesia.
1444
In 1943, they
brought together all existing Islamic organizations into a single federation to be known
acronym Masyumi [Consultative Council of Indonesian Muslims]. This federation in one
hand gave the Japanese central authority they required, on the other hand, it gave to the
Muslim groups a unity and national stature that they had not previously enjoyed.
1445
Islam and Politics during Sukarno Era
Sukarno and Hatta jointly proclaimed Indonesias independence on August 17 but made
no reference to Islam, though the Jakarta Charter, which was produced in June 22 said,
The constitution of the Indonesian state which is to exist in the form of the Republic of Indonesia, and
to be based upon the sovereignty of the people, is founded on the following principles: Belief in God,
with the obligation for adherents of Islam to practice Islamic Law, the principle of righteous and moral
humanitarianism; the unity of Indonesia, and democracy led by the mutual deliberations of a
representative body which will lead to social justice for the entire people.
1446
For Muslim Members of the subcommittee, the crucial phrase was, with the obligation
for adherents of Islam to practice Islamic Law in Bahasa Indonesia this phrase consists of
seven words. Although Christian representatives were not happy about the seven words, yet
it was the Western educated Muslims who expressed openly the dissatisfaction. For instance,
Hoesein Djajadiningrat, a distinguished scholar and the first Indonesian head of the Office for
Religious Affairs, objected to these seven words saying: They may well create fanaticism,
because it seems that Muslims will be forced to keep the Shariah.
1447
Therefore, after
independence when committee met to discuss the constitution, came into conclusion that
Indonesia could only be and remain a unitary state if its constitution made no reference to
Islam. Thus, both the seven words and the provision that the President be a Muslim were
omitted. The expression belief in God was expanded to belief in the one and only God,
but to avoid any identification of the state with Islam, the Arabic word for preamble,
muqaddima was replaced by pembukaan (preface), and at the suggestion of a representative
from Bali, the word Allah in the expression Grace of Almighty God, was replaced by
Tuhan.
1448
Within a day of the proclamation of independence, the Jakarta Charter had been
abandoned.
Darul Islam Movements
The above incident was seen a bitter defeat for Islamists, as a result within three years,
led to the outbreak of civil war and the proclamation of a dar al Islam (domain of
1444
Ibid.
1445
B. J. Boland, The Struggle of Islam in Modern Indonesia, (The Hague: Marinuas Nijhoff, 1971) pp.
18-39
1446
John L. Esposito. (ed.) Islam in Asia: Religion, Politics and Society, (New York/Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1987) p. 210
1447
Ibid.
1448
Ibid. p 211
1012 / ISoIT 2004
Islam/Islamic State) in three provinces. The first movement stated in the mountains of West
Java, under the leadership of Kartosuwirjo as leader of a dissident group of Muslims. After a
serious of skirmishes, on 7 August, 1949, he proclaimed an Islamic state of Indonesia at war
with the Republic of Indonesia. For him the government of the republic, by rejecting Islam as
the sole foundation of the state, had made itself as evil an enemy as the Dutch. This
movement did lots of causalities to the governement. The Constitution promulgated by
Kartosuwirjo stipulated that Islamic law would be applied to Muslims, while adherents of
other religions would be free to perform their own religious duties (Art. 1). The highest
authority in the Islamic State would be Parliament (Majlis Sjuro, that is, the Council for
mutual Deliberation), but in case of emergency the ultimate power would be in the hands of
the Imam (art. 3). He would have to be a born Indonesian, a Muslim and obedient to God and
His Prophet (art. 12).
1449
Kartosuwirjos movement however, gradually disintegrated after the
mid-1950s; by the time that he was captured and executed in 1962.
1450
In South Sulawesi, the second movement known to be under the leadership of Kahar
Muzakkar, an army officer, as commander of what was styled the Fourth Division of the
Islamic Army of Indonesia, led an Islamic group in favor of Dar ul Islam. It was stated in
1952. The third movement, known to be the more serious for the republic, in September
1953, an Acehnese leader, Daud Beureuah, proclaimed an Islamic state of Aceh as part of
the Islamic state of Indonesia and headed by Kartosuwirj, who appointed him Vice-President.
The ideological foundation of all Dar al Islam movements in Indonesia may be understood
by looking at Daud Beureuahs writings:
In the name of Allah we the people of Aceh have made new history, for se wish to set up an Islamic
state here on our native soilFor many long years we have been hoping and yearning for a state based
on Islam, but it has become increasingly evident that some Indonesian leaders are trying to steer us
onto the wrong path The basic principles of the Republic state do not guarantee freedom of religion;
freedom to have a religion in the real sense of the word the Islamic religion which makes the life of
society complete cannot be split up. For us, the mention of principle of belief in One god [ in the
Pancasila] is nothing more than a political manoevre. Belief in the One God is for us the very source of
social life, and every single one of its directives to apply while others do not, be this in criminal or civil
affairs, in the question of religious worship, or in matters of everyday life. If the Law of God does not
apply (in its entirely), this means we are deviating from belief in the One God.
1451
The above Islamic state had its own constitution, explicitly based on shariah, and a
judiciary where ulama delivered Islamic justice (as opposed to the republic, which had
adopted a secular legal system). According to Bruinessen, the Darul Islam remained a
military and political embarrassment to the Jakarta government until Kartosuwirjos capture
and the surrender of the other West Javanese leaders in 1962. In south Sulawesi, the rebellion
lasted even longer, until its local leader, Kahar Muzakkar, was finally shot in early 1965.
1452
The common response of the committed Muslims, however, was to strive for gradual changes
in the nature of the state, attempting to Islamize it from within, as it were.
1453
At the same
time, connected efforts were undertaken religious awareness and to improve ritual
1449
, B. J. Boland, The struggle of Islam in Modern Indonesia, Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk
Institut voor Taal-, Land-, en Volkenkunde, No. 59 (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. 1982) P. 59
1450
Ibid. p.212 also see M. Van Bruinessen, State-Islam Relations in Contemporary Indonesia: 1915-
1990 in C. Van Dijk and A. H. De Groot (eds.) State and Islam,( The Netherlands: The Research
School CNWS< Leiden University, 1995) p. 97
1451
H. Feith and L. Castles (eds.), Indonesian Political Thinking 1945-65 (Ithaca and London: Cornell
University Press, 1970), p. 21
1452
M. Van Bruinessen, State-Islam Relationsop. cit. p. 98
1453
Ibid.
Kazi Shahdat Kabir / 1013
performance among the Muslim masses. In both aspects, they have made considerable
progress.
Islamic Political Parties
In Indonesia since independence two major institutions by which the state exerts its
control over Islam are the ministry of Religion and the Council of Ulama. The two
institutions have gradually been strengthened, while the role of Muslim political parties has
shown consistent decline over the four decades of independence. Besides, the divisions
within the Islamic parities also responsible for the decline of political Islam in Indonesia.
During the independence the Masyumi party was in a strong position in Indonesia. I have
mentioned earlier that it was a federation of Islamic parties. Late in 1945, it had reconstructed
itself as apolitical organization and its leader, Mohammad Natsir, was for a time Prime
Minister. But in 1948, the Party Sarekat Islam withdraw from Masyumi, and organized
themselves under its own umbrella. In 1952, the traditionalist Nadratul Ulama (NU) broke
away from it not over matters of religious principle but over the division of important posts
among the components organization, since both held the principle that the Shariah should be
the supreme source of law.
1454
Although this division was highlighted as the division of
reformists and traditionalist. However, the main difference between the two was that the
NU culturally closer to the Javanese value system of the ruling elite was always
accommodative towards the government of the day, while the Masyumi was always open
confrontation with Sukarno government of the day.
The 1955 Election Result:
Political Party Valid votes Valid votes (%) Parliamentary
Seats
Parliamentary
Seats (%)
PNI 8 434 653 22.3 57 22.2
Masyumi 7 903 886 20.9 57 22.2
NU 6 955 141 18.4 45 17.5
PKI 6 176 914 16.4 39 15.2
PSII 1 091 160 2.9 8 3.1
Parkindo 1 003 325 2.6 8 3.1
Partai Katholik 770 740 2.0 6 2.3
PSI 753 191 2.0 5 1.9
Murba 199 588 0.5 2 0.8
1454
Ibid. p. 99, and Ibid. Footnote. 9
1014 / ISoIT 2004
Others 4 496 701 12.0 30 11.7
Total 37 785 299 100.0 257 100.0
Source: Ricklefs, M. C., A History of Modern Indonesia since c. 1200 (3rd edition).
Standford, CA: Standford University Press, 2001.
The Masyumi party had highly effective public relations machine. It created the
impression of openness and tolerance, and it had a variety of well-produced brochures and
pamphlets. Nevertheless, the Masyumi which in the provincial parliament had forty four
seats, was expected to do well and perhaps win an outright majority in the first general
elections in 1955. But there was a general astonishment then, when Masyumi won only fifty-
seven seats and the underrated Nahdatul Ulama, which in the provisional parliament only
eight seats, won a totally unexpected forty-five seats.
The NU ulama continued legitimizing Sukarnas presidency. Since all Ministers of
religion during the Sukarno period belonged to the NU and turned the ministry into a NU
fortress, it was in this respect quite successful. In1958, several of its top leaders took part in
an abroptive attempt by local military commanders at establishing a counter-government in
Sumatra. The rebellion was easily suppressed and the Masyumi leaders involved were
imprisoned without trial. It was in this time that Sukarno put into practice his theory of
Guided Democracy, with support of many prominent politicians, including some of the
leaders of the powerful Nahdatul Ulama Party.
1455
In 1960 The Masymi party was banned.
Therefore, many scholars views that from 1960 onwards the influence of Islamic political
parties in the opposition as well as government decline, due to Sukarnos hostile attitude
towards Islamic political parties as well as his attachment to the communists.
Islam & Politics During Suhartos Era
After the abortive coup in 1965, the Masyumi Party and some followers of NU took
active parts in the suppression of communist party and the demonstration leading to
Sukarnos fall. It seems that a new opportunity had come for Islam, as represented by
Masyumi, to have major role in the government and to ensure for Islam the place that it
deserved as the religion of the vast majority of the population, by restoring the seven words
to the pride of place they deserved in the Constitution.
1456
As a result in December 1965 a
federation was formed of sixteen organizations that had been associated with the Masyumi.
This federation set up a committee to revive the party. Before it could submit any proposal
however, the government with armys backing issued a warning that would take action
against any individual or group disloyal either Pancasila as state ideology or the Constitution
of 1945. It mentioned by name such bodies as the darul Islam movement, the Islamic
Indonesian army, the Indonesian Communist Party and the Masyumi. In January 1967,
General Suharto himself saw Masyumi as a danger to the nation and refused to consider and
representatives on behalf of Masyumi.
1457
According to Suharto, Islam was to have full
expression as a religious, cultural and social complex of ideas and values, but not as a
political ideology.
1458
Besides government further steps towards regimentation of Islamic
political parties consisted in the simplification of the party system: all Islamic parties were
1455
Khaidir Anwar, Islam in Indonesia Today, The Islamic Quarterly, Vol. 23, No. 2, 1879, p. 100
1456
John L. Esposito. (ed.) Islam in Asiaop. cit. p. 215
1457
B. J. Boland, The struggle of Islamop. cit. p. 151
1458
John L. Esposito. (ed.) Islam in Asiaop. cit. p. 216
Kazi Shahdat Kabir / 1015
forced to fuse into one new body, the Partai Persatuan Pembangunan (United Development
Party) [PPP] and the Nationalist and Christian parties were fused into one new body, the
Indonesian Democratic Party (PDI).
1459
But again the NU in 1983 withdraw from the PPP,
due to disagreement on distribution of seats in 1982 election. Therefore, although in 1982
elections NU ulama had issued fatwas obliging their followers to vote for PPP, in 1987
election the NU has withdrawn from active politics and announced that it will be neutral in
the next elections in so far as the voting preferences pf its individual members are concerned.
But most of the ulama of NU campaigned for GOLKAR
1460
with which they had established
profitable links. Therefore, PPPs electoral showing drastically declined. Whereas in 1977
and 1982 of had received 29% and 28% of the vote, respectively (i.e. marginally higher than
the Islamic Parties combined vote in 1971), it was reduced to 16% in 1987.
1461
The PPPs decline was not due to internal conflicts and the departure of NU alone. Many
voters had shifted from PPP to Golkar, due to governments policies such as subsidies for
mosques and schools, free tickets to Mecca for locally influential Muslims, promises of local
development funds and other forms of patronage, but also pressure. Besides, governments
formation of two important institutions in 1975 a National council of ulama and the Majlis
Ulama Indonesia (MUI) also played vital role towards de-Islamization political parties. In
practice the MUI is often called upon to provide religious legitimation of government
politics. In several cases it has been obliged to issue fatwas reflected the views of a liberal
and enlightened majority among ulama with whom easy to sympathize and they are
subservient to the government rather than independent thought.
Another important development of Suharto government was the so-called
Pancasilaization Islam as opposed to Islamic Political Parties. By mid-1970s the
government made public its plans for mass indoctrination in (its own interpretation of)
Pancasila, through training courses and its obligatory integration in the school curriculum.
This program was to be formally approved by the 1978 session of the National Assembly (a
super-parliament, meeting once every five years to approve the basic Guidelines for State
Policy, the political five year plan).
1462
It created more suspicion to the Muslims that it
aimed at undermining Islam along with other ideologies. Government spokesmen insisted
that it was not Islam but its deviant forms like the Darul Islam movement that they
considered as incompatible with Pancasila values.
1463
At an army commanders meeting in
1980, suharto lashed out against all rival ideologies to Pancasila: Marxism, Leninism,
communism, socialism, national and religion. Since there were still people who did not
accept Pancasila as an ideology he said, the armed Forces had to remain vigilant and protect
the state ideology by force if necessary.
1464
It was a war against the rest of Pancasila. In
February 1985, the political parties bill was passed requiring that all political parties espouse
only the state ideology as their principle. PPP strongly resented since the new law allowed
parties to differ only in their programs, not in the principles. The opposition parties no longer
vehicles for opposition in a competitive party system. The PPP would formally stop being an
Islamic party and the only Islamic organization that did not comply; the PPI (the Masyumi-
affiliated student organization) was banned in 1988.
1459
M. Van Bruinessen, State-Islam Relationsop. cit. p. 101
1460
The Political Party formed by Suharto
1461
M. Van Bruinessen, State-Islam Relationsop. cit. p. 101
1462
Daid Reeve, Golkar of Indonesia: An Alternative to the Party System, (Singapore: Oxford
University Press, 1985) p. 36
1463
M. Van Bruinessen, State-Islam Relationsop. cit. p. 105
1464
David Jenkins, Suharto and his generals: Indonesian military politics 1975-1983, (Ithaca, New
York: Cornell Modern Indonesia Project, 1984) pp. 157-73
1016 / ISoIT 2004
Conclusion
Political Islam in Indonesia viewed mainly in terms of dichotomy between Islam based
political parties and secular-nationalist rulers in throughout the history of independent
Indonesia. The system of education established during the period of Dutch rule, whether
under government or Christian missionary, important were those institutions that catered to
the elite and provided some the opportunity to study in Holland. The graduates from the
system grew up with view that there was a natural distinction between church and state, a
distinction that what they experienced that facilitated good government in a religiously plural
society. This explains the commitment to secular nationalism to Sukarno and Hatta. It also
explains why, although, there was a strong Islamic elements to the struggle against colonial
government as well as in the war of independence, it was secular nationalist who gave
direction to the struggle and defined its goals. Secondly, if we look at the main three
significant Darul Islam movements after the independence, it was more on regional, which
contradicts with one the principles of Islam that is Ummah. The ethnic Javanese of Central
Java and the Achenese are a string example of such differences in self-perception. Thirdly,
after independence the split of Sarikatul Islam and Nahdatul Ulama (NU), led the failure of
most significant and free and fair election of political Islam in 1995. Beside this, all Darul
Islam Movements as well as Masyumis active participation on 1958 unsuccessful coup
against Sukarno government contributed Sukarno to take shelter under the communist
umbrella. As a result the Masyumi party was banned in 1960 and the NU who was the ally of
Government lost governments faith, and influenced of the Islamic political parties or NU
declined. The explanation lies rather in the Communist parties tactical importance for the
President in his struggle with the army and the Islamic groups.
1465
Fourthly, the fall of
Sukarno and the crash of the attempted communist coup brought Suharto to the power. It is
known that the Islamic groups particularly Masyumi party contributed tremendously towards
the fall of Sukarno. Therefore, there was a high expectation from the Masyumi and other
Islamic groups that they could be rehabited under this new order government. But Suharto
became the ally of Military and took all types of measures under the banner of Pancasila in
order to de-Islamize the political parties. Therefore, all the factors contributed the failure of
political Islam in Indonesia.
Bibliography
Anwar, Khaidir. Islam in Indonesia Today, The Islamic Quarterly, vol. 23, No.2, 1979. pp. 99-102
Ahmad, Ishtiaq, The Concept of an Islamic State: An Analysis of the Ideological Controversy in
Pakistan, London: Frances Printer (Publishers) Limited, 1987
Asad, Muhammad, The Principles of State and Government in Islam, Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1961
Boland, B. J. 1982. The struggle of Islam in Modern Indonesia, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.
Dijik, C. Van and A. H. De Groot. (eds.) 1995. State and Islam, The Research School CNWS, The
Netherlands: Leiden University
Denny, Frederick M. Another Islam: Contemporary Indonesia, in Spencer J. Palmer (ed). 1983.
Mormons and Muslims: Spiritual foundations and Modern Manifestation, Brigham Young
University: Religious Studies Center.
Esposito, john L. 1987. Islam and Politics, New York: Syracuse University Press.
Federspiel, Howard M., Islam and Development in the Nations of ASEAN, Asian
Survey, Vol. XXV, No. 8, August 1985.
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George McTurnan Kahin, (ed.) Government and Politics of Southeast Asia, (Ithaca and London:
Cornell University Press, 1964 (2
nd
Edition) P. 245
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Grover, Verinder. 2000. Government and Politics of Asian Countries, Vol. 6, (Indonesia), New Delhi:
Deep & Deep Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
Hefner, Robert W. Civil Islam: Muslims and Democratization in Indonesia, UK: Princeton University
Press, 2000.
Johns, Anthony H., Indonesia: Islam and Pluralism, Esposito, John L. Islam in Asia: Religion, Politics
and society, New York: Oxford University Press, 1987
Kahin, George McTurnan Kahin, (ed.) Government and Politics of Southeast Asia, (Ithaca and London:
Cornell University Press, 1964 (2
nd
Edition)
Kausar, Zeenath ed. 2000. Political development: An Islamic Perspective, Malaysia: International
Islamic University Malaysia
Mehden, Fred R. Vonder, Malaysia and Indonesia, in Shireen T. Hunter (ed.) The Politics of Islamic
Revivalism: Diversity and Unity, Bloomington and Indianapolis, Indiana University Press, 1988.
Mutalib, Hussain, & Taj ul Islam Hashmi, Islam. 1994. Muslims and the Modern State: Case Studies of
Muslims in Thirteen Countries. London: The Macmillan Press.
Peacock, James L. 1978. Purifying The Faith: The Muhammadiyah Movement in Indonesian Islam,
Philippines: The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company.
Suryadinata, Leo. 2002. Elections and Politics in Indonesia, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian
Studies
Syamduddin, M. Sirajuddin. 1991. Religion and politics in Islam: The Case of Muhammadiyah in
Indonesias New Order, Los Angeles: University of California
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Translated by Jan Steenbrink and Henry Jansen. Amsterdam: Rodopi
Kazi Shahdat Kabir
Department of Political Science
International Islamic University Malaysia
E-mail: kazirimon@yahoo.com
Insan: The Analysis and Design of a New System
Development Life Cycle Methodology Based on the
Islamic Concept of Human Life Development
Ibrahim Mohamed
Abstract
The most popular computer system development methodology is structured analysis, and
a new method called object-oriented (O-O) analysis and design getting interest. It is agreed
that no single methodolgy is the best. System development life cycle (SDLC) methodologies
have been recently gone on a diet in order to better meet the requirements of many software
projects. The study of human development should be used to design a new methodology of
SDLC. Islam makes no distinction between the spiritual and the secular in life. The Islamic
way of life is based on a unique concept, guided by al-Quran. Islamic principles of the Al-
Quran and Hadith underline the supremacy of human beings and human development. They
also explain why and how to achieve it. Islam has its own concept of human personality and
its ingredients. In response to this problem, INSAN methodology is needed to assist SDLC
processes that more human-environment friendly. INSAN is considered friendly because it
follow human development as the process of SDLC. What we need is matching the human
development and the SDLC.
Introduction
Information Technology (IT) refers to the combination of hardware and software
products and services that companies use to manage, access, communicate, and share
information (Shelly et al. 2003). Successful firms treat IT as a vital asset that must be used
effectively, updated constantly, and safeguarded carefully. IT gives a great impact to
businesses.
In a report titled Digital Economy 2000, the U.S. Department of Commerce stated that
the IT industry was responsible for half of all productivity growth and a third of all economic
growth between 1995 and 1999 (Shelly et al. 2003). The report pointed out that IT has
created a new economy, where advances in hardware, software, and connectivity provide
unprecedented benefits to businesses and individuals around the world. More than ever,
business success depends on IT.
Although economic trends affect IT spending levels, most businesses give IT budgets a
high priority, in good times or bad (Shelly et al. 2003). The reason is simple, during periods
of growth, companies cannot afford to lag behind the IT curve. Conversely, when the
economy is weak, many firms depend on IT to improve efficiency and reduce operating costs.
Ibrahim Mohamed / 1019
Research Background
Systems analysis and design (SAD) is a step-by-step process for developing high-quality
information systems (Shelly et al. 2003). An information system (IS) combines IT, people,
and data to support business requirements. For example, IS handle daily business
transactions, improve company productivity, and help managers make sound decisions. The
IT department team includes systems analysts who plan, develop, and maintain IS.
There are various methods for developing IS. The most popular is structured analysis,
and a new method called object-oriented (O-O) analysis and design getting interest. It is
agreed that no single methodolgy is the best.
Structured analysis is a traditional systems development technique that is time-tested and
easy to understand (Shelly et al. 2003). It uses a series of phases, called the systems
development life cycle (SDLC), to plan, analyse, design, implement, and support an IS.
Whereas structured analysis treats processes and data as separate components, object-oriented
analysis combines data and the processes that act on the data into things called objects.
System analysts use O-O to model real-world business processes and operations, resulting a
set of software objects that represent actual people, things, transactions, and events. Using O-
O programming language, a programmer then writes the code that creates the objects.
SDLC methodologies have been recently gone on a diet in order to better meet the
requirements of many software projects (Wolak 2001).
Fundamental Knowledge
Islam makes no distinction between the spiritual and the secular in life. The Islamic way
of life is based on a unique concept, guided by al-Quran:
These are Verses of the Book that makes (things) clear. (al-Quran, al-Qasas 28:2)
The Word Mubin here has a great means. This Book is among the most beautiful that it is
the privilege of mankind to read. We must practising what stated in al-Quran, thus we are
able to make things clear, to distinguish the true from the false.
Islamic principles of the Al-Quran and Hadith underline the supremacy of human beings
and human development (Mohd. Muzammil 2002). They also explain why and how to
achieve it. Islam has its own concept of human personality and its ingredients.
Islam signifies a complete way of life which cannot be splitted up into separate part. Al-
Quran deals in many passages with mans relationship to Allah, and the concept of life
which naturally follows from that relationship. The following verse clarify the relationship:
Allah hath purchased of the Believers their persons and their goods; for theirs (in return) is the Garden
(of Paradise): they fight in His Cause, and slay and are slain: a promise binding on Him in Truth,
through the Torah, the Gospel, and the Quran: and who is more faithful to his Covenant than Allah?
Then rejoice in the bargain which ye have concluded: that is the achievement supreme. (al-Quran, al-
Tawbah 9:111)
Ghazzali states (Yasien Mohamed 2001):
Part of Gods compassion towards his devotees, is that He combined within the person of man, despite
his relatively small size, the wonders of the world which could be described to be almost parallel to his
own wonders, to the extent that he is like a small copy (nuskhah mukhtasarah) of the form of the world,
so that man can reach by contemplating them (the wonders of his individuality), knowledge of God, the
most powerful, the illustrious.
1020 / ISoIT 2004
Life begins at the moment when a male sperm penetrates a female ovum and become
united with it (IOMS 1985). The impregnated ovum constitutes the first cell that contains a
full genetic record of the human kind in general and of the individual faotus itself that will
distinguish it from any other being at any point of time. The first cell will then start
reproducing itself throughout the various developing stages of the conception period until the
moment of birth.
The study of human development should be used to design a new methodology of SDLC.
Problem Statement
Todays large-scale, highly distributed, networked systems improve the efficiency and
effectiveness of organisations by permitting whole new levels of organisational integration
(Mead et al. 2000). Current software development life-cycle models are not focused on
creating survivable systems, and often exhibit shortcomings in developing systems with a
high degree of assurance of survivability (Marmor-Squires 1988). Separate threads of
activities are expensive and labour-intensive, often resulting in duplication of effort in design
and documentation.
The IT department team includes systems analysts who plan, develop, and maintain IS. It
is argued that most businesses will not follow exactly the SAD SDLC. What we need is a
methodology that easy and practical to follow.
In response to this problem, INSAN methodology is needed to assist SDLC processes
that more human-environment friendly. INSAN is considered friendly because it follow
human development as the process of SDLC. What we need is matching the human
development and the SDLC.
Research Objectives
The main objective of this research is to design and develop a new system development
life cycle (SDLC) methodology based on the Islamic concept of human life development
(called INSAN). Other objectives are:
1. to implement the INSAN methodology in real case study.
2. to compare the INSAN methodology with other metodologies.
Research Question
The important issues need to be considered is matching the human development and the
SDLC. Can we modify or match the human development to SDLC? Is human same as IT?
How can we implement the model? Is it costly and timely?
The Importance of Research
We must accept everything in the Al-Quran, even we do not understand the logic of it.
The understanding of Al-Quran grows with each passing generation. Allah said, meaning:
He it is Who has sent down to thee the Book: in it are verses basic or fundamental clear (in meaning);
They are the foundation of the Book: others are not entirely clear. But those in whose hearts is
perversity follow the part thereof that is not entirely clear. Seeking discord, and searching for its
Ibrahim Mohamed / 1021
interpretation, but no one knows its true meaning except Allah. And those who are firmly grounded in
knowledge say: We believe in it, the whole of it is from our Lord: and none will grasp the Message
except men of understanding. (al-Quran, Ali Imran 3:7)
As SDLC itself need overhaul, what else can be used to design the new or altered SDLC?
For muslim, the Islamic concept is the solution. Although the INSAN use Islamic concept,
but this can be applied by others, as Islam is for mankind.
It is about time that a new SDLC methodology that acceptable and easily understood
being modelled. SDLC can enjoy a new better methodology. At the same time, Islamic
concept of human development can be manipulated for the benefit of mankind.
Conclusion
In summary, this paper is a research-based study. More research and collaboration of
Islamic knowledge, human biology and psychology, and IT. It is hope that the INSAN
methodology will be of interest to the IT community, especially in Malaysia.
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Ibrahim Mohamed
Faculty of Information Science and Technology
UKM
Moral Epistemology in Islamic Theology
Mohsen Javadi
Abstract
In this paper I will discuss two main approaches to moral epistemology in Muslim ethics.
At first, the rationalism of the Mutazila will be discussed and compared with the intuitionism
of Western ethics. Secondly Asharite voluntarism is discussed.
Introduction
Moral epistemology is simply applying epistemology to substantive moral claims; and
discussing the possibility and justification of moral knowledge. Knowledge according to
Muslim scholars was true belief. They were not engaged in the debate on the sufficiency of
justification for knowledge, which is of much interest for contemporary philosophers.
Although they sometimes seemed to recognize the necessity of some sort of justification for
knowledge, they provided no detailed and separated discussion of it. Here we discuss the
Muslim scholars reply to two questions; is moral knowledge possible and if the answer is
positive, then how we can grasp moral knowledge.
The major sects of Islamic theology are the Mutazilah and Shiite, who formulated
rationalistic ethical systems and the Asharites, who developed a voluntaristic system of
morality.
Ethical Rationalism
As we know, the main question for moral epistemology is the possibility of moral
knowledge. The Mutazila and the Shiites were the first important groups in the Muslim
world that tried to answer this question. But they saw that answering this question required at
first an ontological investigation of the character of moral properties.
This led them to accept an objectivistic view in ethics. According to them some actions
as such and in themselves have a good character and others have a bad character regardless of
being willed by someone. It is not the case that God, a person or a society confers these
properties on them by their wills or commands. In other words, these attributes are essential
(dhati) and inherent in acts or their properties so that one's will plays no part in their
designation as good or bad. They didnt say more about the categories of these properties,
because their primary interest is not in ethics, but in theology; particularly, they wanted to
know the relation between reason and revelation in morality. They tried to show that we have
some moral obligations that are known independently of revelation, and that we even have an
obligation to submit to the revelation itself. They hold that not only do such obligations exist,
Mohsen Javadi / 1023
but also, we can recognize them through the intellect. Shahrestani, the famous expert on the
sects of Islam, says:
They (the Mutazilah ) were agreed that the principles of knowledge and gratitude for benefaction are
obligatory, prior to the advent of revelation, and similarly, that right and wrong ought to be known
through reason, and that the adoption of right and the avoidance of wrong is likewise obligatory. The
advent of religious obligation is a grace from God Almighty that He imparted to mankind through the
Prophets to test and prove them
Before explaining theological rationalism in ethics, I must refer to a little deference
between two usages of the term rationalism in Muslim theological ethics and modern moral
philosophy. In both usages it refers to the objectivity of the values of acts called good and
obligatory and also the ability of reason to recognize good and obligatory actions. But the
emphasis on this ability in the West is in contrast to ethical naturalism, the idea that we can
know ethical properties by the same methods as are used to know other natural properties,
while the Muslim theological rationalism is opposed to the voluntaristic theory developed by
the Ashariah . This is because in Muslim ethics there wasnt any (and still isnt any)
remarkable empirical or naturalistic theory to speak of.
Muslim theologians consider good and bad as the important terms of morality. They
think that other moral terms are definable by them; obligation is just a special form of good
that results in blame for failure to produce it, and so on. So, they focused on the discussion of
good or bad.
All the controversies in Muslim theology are about where this property of actions, that is
to say, being deserved of approval or blame, comes from. Rationalists hold that it comes not
from Gods revelation, but is in the very essence of the act (say injustice) or is a real property
of that (say inflicting pain). So, we have two forms of ethical propositions: the first, such as
'injustice is evil', is absolutely true, and the other, such as 'pain is evil', is true only when it
has a special property, say, useless suffering, that is, when it is not a necessary step to future
benefits and is not a just punishment for wrongdoing. Despite their apparent differences,
moral properties in these cases are real and the propositions that assert them assert facts.
Moral knowledge, like other branches of knowledge, has some self-evident propositions and
other inferential ones. The self-evident propositions have the status of axioms of reason and
are known intuitively without any argumentation.
Here we must refer to the reasons given for accepting rationalism in ethics. We can find
two forms of reasons in their works: independent reasons and reasons derived from Quran
itself. We find the following reasons in one the earliest books (third/ninth century) in Shiite
theology, and they are repeated in the later tradition: (1) these moral principles are evident
and knowledge of them is found among those who do not accept any divine revelation; (2) by
a thought experiment we can find that we judge injustice as evil only by grasping it without
any other considerations; (3) if what is good is whatever God commands, then we would have
no independent means to assert the goodness of God.
Before explaining theses three arguments I refer to another good argument that was
offered by another Shiite theologian. Tusi (d.1274) says that if good and evil are entirely
dependent on revelation, the good of the revelation itself is undermined, for we would not
have any means independent of the revelation to reject the moral possibility of the lying of
the prophet that is necessary to provide a justified reason to accept the religion.
According to the first argument, knowing the goodness and badness of some actions is
self-evident and hence does not belong only to the believers. All rational human beings self-
evidently know that justice is good and wrongdoing is bad. Allamah Hilli explains this by
using a thought experiment that shows the self-evident character of basic moral principles. He
claims that even a person who lived outside of any civilization and who had no knowledge of
revealed truth would still prefer truth telling to lying. It is assumed here that there is no other
incentive that could interfere with the judgment, such as a monetary enticement.
1024 / ISoIT 2004
Critics respond by saying that if we accept that reason is capable of knowing the
goodness of telling the truth or badness of lying, goodness and badness here will not have the
moral sense of deserving approval or blame, but the sense of coherence with our desires, or as
being perfections or imperfections. According to the third argument, if we make moral
goodness dependent on God's will, the moral character of God will be arbitrary. The
goodness of God will be rendered indistinguishable from His acting on His desires and not
accordance with rules known by our reason. According to the fourth argument, if we don't
know the goodness of truth independently of revelation, how can we trust the prophets to be
sure of the revelation itself? Furthermore, how can we be certain that God did not intend to
mislead us by revelation? These questions lead rationalists to affirm the capability of
knowing basic moral principles.
With regard to Quranic reasons, they appeal to some verses that presuppose a realistic
and also a rationalistic conception of morality. As an example, consider the verse: and
whenever they commit an indecency they say, we found our fathers practicing it, and God has
commanded us to do it. Say: God does not command indecency; what, do you say concerning
God such things as you know not?(7:28)
Comparing the ideas of the Mutazilah with those of David Ross, Hourani has rightly
remarked that:
It (This form of Islamic ethical rationalism) will be of interest to Western philosophers because of its
many anticipations of modern intuitionist ethics.
Voluntarism
Voluntarism is an ethical theory that denies that goodness and badness are intrinsic
properties of things, asserting instead that they are relational properties founded in the
positive and negative attitudes of conscious beings. There are different versions of
voluntarism depending on whose will is considered. The will of individuals, experts, society
and God are four candidates for being the sources of moral value. The way in which moral
judgments are justified differs in each case. For example, if you take the will of God as
conferring goodness and badness on things, the natural way (and not necessarily the only one
way) to justify moral judgment would be by revelation.
We do not find any sign of individual voluntarism in the Muslim world, because this is in
explicit contradiction to the teachings of the Noble Quran. Morality cannot depend on the
human will and cannot be limited to the realm of human desires and will. Instead, it aims at
transcending his desires and improving his will. Sometimes human desires are not in
accordance with real goodness of the act.
You may hate something when it is good for you, and you may like something when it is bad for you.
God knows and you dont know (2:116)
And what of him, the evil of whose deeds has been decked out fair to him so that he thinks it is good?
God leads astray whomsoever He will, and whomsoever He wills He guides (35:8)
Social voluntarism, i.e., the position that the will of the majority of a people is the source
of ethical value, also has not been accepted for the same reason.
The third candidate, that is, expert voluntarism, while it has more appeal than the
previous ones, also was not given attention by Muslims scholars. But this form of
voluntarism, as Becker remarks, has a problem of internal incoherency, because the concept
of experts or rational persons is more appropriate to rationalism than voluntarism.
Mohsen Javadi / 1025
Theological Voluntarism (Divine command theory)
This is one of two common views in Islamic theology. It has had and continues to have
the strongest influence among Muslims. Different forms of this view can be found in the
writings of followers of Ashari (d.935). His successors developed this idea and defended it
against the rationalism of the Mutazila. They also were concerned originally with the moral
concept of goodness and badness and took the concept of obligation as a special
qualification of them.
We must consider where the moral sense of the good comes from. According to Muslim
theological voluntarism it comes from the will or the command of God. According to them
moral properties are not essential or objective, instead they are related to Gods will (ilahi)
and the only proper way to know the good and bad is by relying on Gods revelation (shari)
not on reason (aqli). They believe that no action deserves approval (rewards) or blame
(punishment) in itself, because goodness is not something distinct from revelation so as to be
discovered by reason or even by revelation itself. It is merely the announcement of God's
approval of some act. Lahiji reports that the Asharites hold: There is no action that deserves
approval or blame as such. Only Gods commands and prohibitions make them demand such
feelings Our idea that goodness and badness are shari means that reason cannot and has no
right to understand the good or bad and also the respect by virtue of which a good or bad
thing is good or bad, neither prior to nor after the arrival of revelation..
The Asharites do not have much in the way of argument to provide positive support for
their position, and they concentrate their efforts on rebutting other views. First, they argue
that allegedly self-evident moral propositions are not self-evident, because people disagree
about them. Second, in response to those who claim that we would have no reason to trust the
prophets if we did not have prior knowledge of their moral stature, Juwayni argues that
miracles could be used to establish reputability independently of moral considerations. Third,
he argues that moral qualities cannot be inherent in acts because there are extenuating
circumstances under which the act is excused of moral evil, as, for example, when performed
by one who is mentally deranged, or by a small child.
Rationalistic theologians reject this ethical voluntarism. They refer to the existence of
many people who have moral knowledge without having any religious knowledge. Al-Hilli in
this regard refers to atheists of his age in India to defeat theological voluntarism
At any rate, theological voluntarism is one of the main trends in Islamic ethics and is
wholly comparable to divine command theory in western ethics. I think the main motivation
for theological voluntarism is the attempt to retain the will of God as a source of moral
guidance. The voluntarists seem to have been worried about the place and significance of
revelation and the prophets that would result if rationalism in ethics gained wide acceptance.
They believed that this sort of view is needed to preserve the ability of God to act as He
wills
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, but this pious motive leads them to accept some beliefs that are not only contrary to
reason, but also contrary to revelation itself, as we mentioned above in discussing
rationalism.
References
Majid Fakhri, Ethical theories in Islam (Leiden: Brill, 1991).
Tom Regan Moore, G.E. in the Encyclopedia of Ethics, eds. Lawrence C. Becker and Charlotte B. B.
Becker,( New York: Rout ledge, 2001)
George Hourani, Reason and Tradition in Islamic Ethics, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1985).
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As in the verses of Quran (11:107), (3:40).
1026 / ISoIT 2004
John Skropeski, Ethics, in The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy, eds. Nichols Bunnin and
E.P.Tsui James, 2003
Modaresi, Falsafea Akhlaq, (Tehran: Sorush,)
Abd al-Jabbar, al- Mughni, V.6.
George F. Hourani, Islamic Rationalism,(Oxford: Clarendon press,1971)
Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Nawbakht, Al-Yaqut (Qom: Bidar, 1363).
W. S. Armstrong, Intuitionism, in the Encyclopedia of Ethics.
William E. Man, Voluntarism, in The Encyclopedia of Ethics.
Lahiji, Sarmayeh Iman, (Qom: al-Zahra,1982)
Juwayni, Kitab al-Irshad, ed., Ahmad Tamim (Beirut, 1985).
Allamah Hilli, Kashf al-Murad fi Sharh Tajrid al-Itiqad (Qom: A.H. 1407).
Assistant Professor Mohsen Javadi
The University of Qom
Akar Pemikiran Islam Liberal
Khalif Muammar A. Harris & Adibah Muhtar Abdul Aziz
Abstract
This study is an attempt to trace the ideological roots of the Liberal Islam as well as to
explain the controversial issues raised by this movement from a moderate Muslim
perspective. The hypothesis of this study is that there is a sequence and a chain of thoughts
between secular humanism, orientalism, postmodernism, Islamic modernism and Liberal
Islam. It is evident that Western modernism has its impact on Islamic modernism, some even
tried to equate Liberal Islam as the protestant movement in 16-17 Century Europe.
Modernism in Europe was founded upon philosophies of secularism, liberalism humanism,
rationalism and positivism. The enlightenment humanism upholds the idea that man is the
center-point of being thus man is the measure of all things. In addition, logical positivism
entails a rejection of metaphysics, whereas modernization in Western history entails
secularization. Furthermore, postmodern influence is also evident in liberal Islams
discourse. Postmodernism, which is another form of modernism -driven to its extremes-,
attempted to deconstruct modernism itself and by its arrogant denial of tradition and
anything absolute and permanent. The influence of Western modernism is evident by
analyzing the methodology and thought of the contemporary Islamic modernism i.e., liberal
Islam. With some modifications, modernist Islam does not reject tradition and religion
altogether. However, the similarity lies on the fact that the modernist Islam emphasizes
rationality and human freedom. The modernist sought to reconcile Islamic Faith and modern
values, between tradition and modernity, between revelation and reason. In sum they try to
make a synthesis between Islam and modernity by resorting to rationality. Modernists a
priori conclude that Islamic worldview is compatible with Western worldview, thus the
synthesis between these two worldviews is consequently possible. In the case of Liberal Islam
the worldview of Islam is intended to be subordinate to the Western one. Islamic modernism
focuses its agenda on the freedom of religious interpretation (ijtiha>d), by this the
modernists seek to breach the monopoly of traditional religious scholars over Islamic
interpretation. Moreover, Islamic liberalism resists altogether religious ('ulama>') authority
in the name of freedom of opinion. In addition The Orientalists legacy is evident in liberal
discourses such as the question of the authenticity of the Quran, Quranic hermeneutics,
religious pluralism and freedom of religious interpretation. Therefore, these issues are as old
as the history of Orientalism and now they are propagated in a more sophisticated yet still
confusing manner.
Mukaddimah
Di akhir abad keduapuluh Masehi, Umat Islam dikejutkan dengan fenomena baru dalam
pemikiran Islam. Golongan yang memperkenalkan diri dengan nama Islam Liberal telah
menggemparkan dunia Islam dengan isu-isu yang kontroversial dan ide-ide yang berani.
Gerakan Islam Liberal cukup popular di Indonesia, namun begitu tidak ramai yang menyedari
1028 / ISoIT 2004
sebenarnya gerakan ini mempunyai jaringan yang luas bukan sahaja di dunia Islam bahkan
juga hampir di serata dunia: Mesir, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Amerika, Perancis,
Malaysia, Turki, Jordan, Sudan, Syria, Moroko, Tunisia, Lebanon, Algeria, Nigeria dll.
1467
Pada dasarnya, Islam Liberal merupakan produk baru untuk menjelmakan kembali
modenisme di Abad ke-21. Modenisme Islam telah lama muncul di kalangan intelektual
Muslim dan menjadi satu tren pemikiran yang berpengaruh dalam dunia Islam sejak Abad
ke-19M. Tulisan ini bertujuan untuk melacak dan mencari penjelasan tentang akar ideologis
gerakan Islam Liberal sekaligus menyorot perkembangan terbaru yang berlaku kepada tren
pemikiran ini yang cukup banyak diperdebatkan dalam perbahasan ilmiah dewasa ini.
Hipotesis kajian ini adalah bahawa adanya kesinambungan dan pengaruh yang kuat antara
sekularisme, orientalisme, modenisme Islam dengan Islam Liberal.
Kemunculan Modenisme Islam adalah akibat dari pertemuan yang tidak seimbang
daripada dua dunia: Islam dan Barat. Penjajahan yang berlaku lebih 400 tahun terhadap umat
Islam sedikit sebanyak menyebabkan sikap rendah diri atau inferiority-complex apabila
berhadapan dengan peradaban yang canggih dan hebat. Perlu digarisbawahi di sini bahawa
modenisme Islam bukanlah aliran pemikiran yang tunggal dan jelas, tetapi ia mencakupi
beberapa aliran pemikiran sesuai dengan istilah modenisme itu sendiri yang kabur. Gerakan
modenisme telah mengalami banyak perubahan setelah kemunculan Fazlur Rahman (1919-
1988) yang telah merangka framework pemikiran neomodenisme pada awal 80an. Usaha
beliau walaubagaimanapun telah dimanfaatkan oleh orang-orang yang berkepentingan,
1468
untuk menjustifikasikan lahirnya pemikiran yang lebih radikal, liberal dan berani. Golongan
ini kemudian diberi nama Islam Liberal.
1469
Modenisme Islam mengambil semangat pembaharuan dan reformasi. Dengan melihat
model pembaharuan (modenisasi) yang telah berjaya merubah masyarakat di Barat.
Modenisme di Barat telah menghasilkan apa yang dinamakan enlightenment, revolusi industri
dan akhirnya telah meletakkan Barat sebagai negara yang maju dan pemimpin dunia.
Menyedari kemunduran dan keterbelakangan Umat Islam, dan setelah mereka mengkaji
faktor kemajuan Barat maka golongan modenis mengambil kesimpulan bahawa Umat Islam
perlu bersikap terbuka terhadap tamadun Barat untuk menguasai sains Barat dan seterusnya
mengikuti rentak kemajuan. Sikap keterbukaan ini didasari oleh pendirian bahawa ilmu itu
bersifat bebas nilai atau neutral tidak diwarnai oleh ideologi pembawanya dan terserah
sepenuhnya kepada pengguna sains tersebut untuk dapat digunakan sesuai kehendaknya.
Apabila telah terbukti bahawa sains yang sama telah berjaya memberi kemajuan kepada
masyarakat Barat, maka tentunya apabila digunakan oleh Umat Islam ianya juga akan dapat
menjanjikan kemajuan.
1470
1467
Gerakan ini mempunyai kesatuan visi dan misi walaupun menggunakan nama yang berbeza.Untuk
informasi lanjut tentang senarai tokoh dan pendukung Islam Liberal di seluruh dunia sila lihat:
http://www.unc.edu/~kurzman/LiberalIslamLinks.htm
1468
Lihat Abd A'la. Dari Neomodernisme ke Islam Liberal: Jejak Fazlur Rahman dalam Wacana Islam
di Indonesia. (Jakarta: Paramadina, 2003).
1469
Lihat Charles Kurzman, ed. Modernist Islam (London: Oxford University Press, 2002), hlm.3;
Leornard Binder. 1998. Islamic Liberalism: A Critique of Development Ideologies. Chicago dan
London: University of Chicago Press. hlm. 16-25. Binder telah berkerjasama dengan tokoh-tokoh Islam
modernist, diantaranya Fazlur Rahman sendiri dan Nurcholish Madjid. Dengan tujuan membuat
penyelidikan terhadap pemikiran Islam kontemporer.
1470
Untuk penjelasan kemunculan modernisme dan reaksi mereka terhadap sains Barat sila rujuk Aziz
al-Azmeh Muslim Modernism and the Text of the Past dalam Islam and The Challenge of Modernity.
International Symposium at ISTAC, Kuala Lumpur,1994. ed. Sharifah Shifa al-Attas.
Khalif Muammar A. Harris & Adibah Muhtar Abdul Aziz / 1029
Modenisme Islam dan Modenisme Barat.
Oleh kerana modenisme Islam sangat berkait rapat dengan modenisme Barat, maka
sebelum membicarakan tentang modenisme Islam, sangat penting sekali untuk memahami
konsep modenisme dan modenisasi dan kemunculannya di Barat. Perlu digaris bawahi di sini
bahawa kemunculan modenisme Islam hanya berlaku sebagai satu konsekuensi daripada
interaksi dunia Islam dengan tamadun Barat. Satu fakta yang perlu diingat adalah bahawa
Umat Islam sejak abad ke 16/17M telah dijajah dan diinfiltrasi oleh pemikiran dan budaya
yang asing daripada pemikiran, budaya dan agama mereka. Reaksi dari diri Umat pada ketika
itu adalah di antara penolakan dan penerimaan. Golongan tradisionalis lebih cenderung untuk
menentang dan mengasingkan diri dari segala bentuk pembaratan (Westernization). Adapun
golongan modenis yang pada masa itu mempunyai latarbelakang pendidikan Barat, melihat
segala kebaikan berada dalam tamadun Barat, dan adalah satu kerugian besar bahkan
dianggap kekolotan berfikir apabila umat Islam tidak tampil untuk memperolehinya.
Modenisme di Barat digerakkan oleh falsafah enlightenment-humanism yang berhasil
mempengaruhi pemikiran sebagian masyarakat Barat dan majoriti intelektual mereka.
Kemunculan ahli-ahli falsafah seperti Immanuel Kant, David Hume, Nietzsche dan lain-lain
telah memberikan penekanan terhadap rasionalisme dan kebebasan (liberalisme) atau
pembebasan manusia daripada tradisi dan dogma. Gerakan keintelektualan ini semakin kuat
dengan munculnya falsafah eksistensialisme oleh Sartre dan logical-positivism oleh
kelompok yang dikenali dengan Vienna Circle. Pada hari ini gerakan humanisme dipelopori
oleh Council for Secular Humanism. Menurut mereka secular humanism bermaksud:
A way of thinking and living that aims to bring out the best in people so that all people can have the best
in life. Secular humanism rejects supernatural and authoritarian belief. They affirm that we must take
responsibility for our own lives and the communities and world in which we live. Secular humanism
emphasizes reason and scientific inquiry, individual freedom and responsibility, human values and
campassion and the need for tolerance and cooperation.
1471
Terlepas daripada elemen-elemen yang baik yang terdapat dalam pemikiran ini,
penumpuan kepada kerasionalan, penolakan terhadap agama, dan kebebasan individu dalam
menentukan segala sesuatu, pastinya memberi kesan negatif khususnya bagi seorang Muslim.
Oleh kerana itu, penilaian perlu dilakukan secara menyeluruh dan sebaiknya penjelasan
tentang modenisme dilakukan dari dua sudut pandang yang berbeza: Barat dan Islam.
Seorang penulis Muslim berasal dari Perancis dan menetap di Mesir, Ren Guenon,
menjelaskan bahawa modenisme pada intinya adalah penolakan terhadap segala apa yang
berbentuk divine, transcendent dan supernatural. Ia adalah penolakan yang dilakukan oleh
enlightment-humanist terhadap tradisi dan otoriti, demi kepentingan akal dan sains tabi'i. Ia
dicipta atas dasar perkiraan bahawa kuasa individu yang menjadi satu-satunya sumber bagi
makna dan kebenaran:
The enlightenment-humanist rejection of tradition and authority in favour of reason and natural science.
This is founded upon the assumption of the autonomous individual as the sole source of meaning and
truth.
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Demikianlah dapat disimpulkan bahawa pengaruh humanisme Barat sangat kuat dalam
kerangka atau framework pemikiran modenisme Islam. Dalam menjelaskan hakikat
liberalisme Islam, Leonard Binder menegaskan bahawa perbahasan rasional menjadi tonggak
utama golongan Islam Liberal ini.
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Dalam mendefinisikan modenisme Islam Charles
1471
Council for Secular Humanism, www. secularhumanism.org/: 22 May 2004
1472
Seperti dikutip oleh Omar K.N. dalam Modernism and Post-Modern Thought dalam www.living-
islam.com dari tulisan Rene Guenon, The Crisis of the Modern World.
1473
Leonard Binder . Halaman 5-9.
1030 / ISoIT 2004
Kurzman, seorang lagi ideolog Islam Liberal, dalam bukunya Modernist Islam mengatakan
bahawa seorang modenis bukan sahaja menerima nilai-nilai moden dari Barat sebagai sesuatu
yang benar melainkan juga usaha untuk memperjuangkan modenisme Barat:
One defining characteristic of this movement was the self-conscious adoption of "modern" values that
is, values that authors explicitly associated with the modern world, especially rationality, science,
constitutionalism, and certain forms of human equality. Thus this movement was not simply "modern"
but also "modernist" (a proponent of modernity).
1474
Bahkan peranan seorang modenis menurut beliau bukan sahaja dalam mencari persamaan
di antara nilai-nilai moden dengan nilai-nilai atau ajaran Islam. Lebih dari itu, seorang
modenis mesti berusaha untuk memperkasakan dan membangunkan teori yang kukuh yang
dapat membuktikan adanya persamaan dan kesesuaian tersebut:
This movement sought to reconcile Islamic faith and modern values such as constitutionalism, as well
as cultural revival, nationalism, freedom of religious interpretation, scientific investigation, modern-
style education, women's rightAccepting modern values as modern is only the first step in
reconciliation. The second step is to theorize the compatibility of such values with Islamic faith.
1475
Late in the twentieth century, the combination of modernist and Islamic discourses were revived in
a subset of modernist Islam that I have labeled "Liberal Islam," which sought to resuscitate the
reputation and accomplishments of earlier modernists.
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Tentang tema-tema Islam Liberal, mengikut tulisan mereka sendiri, dapat dilihat
sebenarnya tidak jauh berbeda dengan modernist Islam:
This anthology presents the translated work of 32 Muslims who are concerned with the separation of
church and state, democracy, the condition of women, the rights of minorities, freedom of thought, and
the future of human progress.
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Tema-tema di atas tampak menarik dan segar, tetapi ini berbeda dengan tema-tema yang
selalu menjadi perdebatan hangat di kalangan umat Islam. Isu-isu seperti penolakan Syari'at,
pluralisme agama, kebebasan berijtihad, penolakan otoriti agama dan hermeneutik sebenarya
yang menjadi perbahasan utama gerakan ini.
Pandangan bahawa perlunya penyesuaian di antara Islam dan nilai-nilai Barat, di antara
wahyu dan kemodenan, adalah dengan andaian bahawa keduanya tidak bertentangan dan
sesuai (compatible). Atas andaian inilah maka peranan menyesuaikan di antara keduanya
bukan perkara yang rumit. Persoalannya adalah adakah andaian ini betul? Apakah tidak ada
pertembungan nilai/ prinsip di antara worldview Islam dan worldview Barat. Pemikir Islam
seperti Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas menyatakan bahawa Islam mempunyai pandangan
hidup yang jauh berbeza dengan pandangan hidup Barat. Pandangan hidup Barat meletakkan
falsafah humanisme, rasionalisme, sekularisme sebagai asas peradaban mereka.
1478
Sedangkan falsafah-falsafah ini amat asing dan tidak perlu dalam konteks umat yang
beragama Islam. Isma'il al-Faruqi mengatakan bahawa humanisme Barat sekarang banyak
dipengaruhi oleh humanisme Greco-Roman, yang terlalu mendewakan manusia dan sebagai
reaksi kepada tradisi Kristian yang sebenarnya merendahkan nilai-nilai kemanusiaan.
sebaliknya Islam telah dengan secara tidak langsung meninggikan martabat manusia, maka
1474
Charles Kurzman. Ed. 2002. Modernist Islam. London: Oxford University Press. ms.4
1475
Ibid., 27
1476
Kurzman.3. Lihat juga laman web. Jaringan Islam Liberal: www: Islamlib.com.
1477
Charles Kurzman. Liberal Islam: A Source Book. (London: Oxford University Press, 1998), 2-4;
Charles Kurzman. Liberal Islam: Prospects and Challenges. MERIA, vol. 3, no. 3, September, 1999;
http://www.unc.edu/~kurzman/LiberalIslamLinks.htm
1478
Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas. The Worldview of Islam: An Outline, dalam Islam and the
Challenge of Modernity: Historical and Contemporary Contexts. Ed. Sharifah Shifa al-Attas. (Kuala
Lumpur: ISTAC, 1994).
Khalif Muammar A. Harris & Adibah Muhtar Abdul Aziz / 1031
dari itu, al-Fa>ru>qi> menyimpulkan bahawa humanisme dalam Islam adalah satu-satunya
yang asli dan terbaik.
1479
Dengan alasan kuatnya pengaruh sekularisme dan humanisme
dalam tamadun Barat, al-Attas menekankan perlunya ilmu-ilmu Barat diIslamisasikan
terlebih dahulu sebelum ianya diterima oleh umat Islam untuk mengelakkan berlakunya
dikotomi dalam diri umat Islam dan wujudnya dilema atau krisis minda yang menjadikan
umat Islam keliru, lemah dan berpecah belah.
Untuk melihat sejauh manakah kesan dan pengaruh secular humanisme dan
postmodenisme terhadap pemikiran Islam Liberal kita dapat lihat dalam tema-tema yang
dibangkitkan oleh ideolog-ideolog Islam Liberal seperti Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd ( ),
Muhammad Said al-Ashmawi (lahir 1932), Muhammed Arkoun (lahir 1928), Abdullahi
Ahmed al-Nai'im (lahir 1946) dan Asghar 'Ali Engineer ( ). Abu Zayd misalnya mengatakan
bahawa Islam adalah agama sekular (al-di>n al-ilma>ni>) dan hanya diskursus sekularisme
('ilma>niyyah), yang menurut beliau berasal dari perkataan ilmu ('ilm), yang dapat membawa
Umat Islam kepada pemodenan dan kemajuan dan menyelamatkannya daripada kekolotan
berfikir.
1480
Adapun Muhammad Arkoun, beliau banyak terpengaruh dengan pemikiran
postmodenisme khususnya Jacques Derrida. Amat jelas terlihat metode deconstruct dan no
truth-claim dalam pemikiran Arkoun. Robert D. Lee dalam kata pengantarnya terhadap buku
Arkoun, Rethinking Islam, mengatakan: "In the world Arkoun proposes, there would be no
margins and no center, no marginalized groups and no dominant ones, no inferior beliefs and
no superior, truth-producing logic."
1481
Muhammad Said Ashmawi seperti pendahulunya 'Ali Abd al-Raziq, Wahid Ra'fat dan
Faraj Fawdah menentang konsep Islam syumul (way of life), baginya permasalahan politik
terpisah daripada agama. Beliau juga menolak keras pelaksanaan Syari'at Islam dengan alasan
bahawa ia akan memberikan kuasa politik kepada golongan agama dan mengakibatkan
lahirnya negara teokrasi.
1482
Jelas sekali argumentasi yang digunakan adalah sama dengan
argumentasi kaum sekular dalam menentang gerakan Islam. Konflik antara keduanya jelas
digambarkan oleh John L. Esposito:
As a result, from a modern secular perspective, the mixing of religion and politics is regarded as
necessarily abnormal, irrational, dangerous and extremist. .Thus when secular-minded people in the
West encounter Muslim individuals and groups who speaks of Islam as a comprehensive way of life,
they immediately dub them 'fundamentalist' with the connotation that these are backward-looking
individuals, zealots who are threat. The attitude of many governments and secular elites in the Muslim
world is often similar.
1483
Dalam bukunya The Islamic State, Bagi Asghar Ali Engineer Hukum Islam adalah
ciptaan fuqaha, pelaksanaan Shari'at Islam bermakna pemerintahan teokrasi.
1484
Dan beliau
juga menyokong sepenuhnya pemerintahan sekular:
Secularism is highly necessary if India has to survive as a nation. But apart from survival of Indian
nationalism and Indian unity, secularism is necessary for modern democratic polity. And this need for
secular polity becomes much greater if the country happens to be as diverse and plural as India.
1479
Isma>'i>l Ra>ji> al-Fa>ru>qi>.(1982). Tawh}i>d: Its Implication for Thought and Life. Virginia:
IIIT. hlm.71-73
1480
Abu Zayd. Naqd al-Khit}a>b al-Di>ni>. (Kaherah: Sina li al-Nashr, 1994), hlm. 37
1481
Muhammad Arkoun. Rethinking Islam. trans. Robert D. Lee. (Boulder: Westview press, 1994), 9.
1482
Muhammad Said al-'Ashmawi. Al-Isla>m al-Siya>si> (Kaherah: Sina li al-Nashr, 1987), 26-34.
1483
Azzam Tamimi and John L. Esposito, ed. Islam and Secularism in the Middle East. (London: Hurst
and Company, 2000), 9-10.
1484
Asghar Ali Engineer. The Islamic State. Ed ke-2 (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1996), 134-
135.
1032 / ISoIT 2004
Secularism is a great need for democratic pluralism. The most Orthodox Muslim 'Ulama of Deobandi
school preferred secular India to Muslim homeland or theocratic Pakistan. They outright rejected the
idea of Pakistan when mooted by Jinnah. They denounced two nation theory on the basis of religion.
1485
Radwan Masmoudi, seorang presiden Center for the Study of Islam and Democracy
(CSID) yang merupakan sebuah pertubuhan yang berpengaruh di Amerika dan baru-baru ini
menjelaskan pendiriannya terhadap Islam Liberal, menjelaskan:
Islamic liberalism places emphasis on limited government, individual liberty, human dignity, and
human rights. "Moderate Islam" is another description often used for the ideas and people that I have in
mind..the good news is that liberal Islam represents the overwhelming majority within the Muslim
world today.
Tentunya anggapan bahawa golongan Islam Liberal adalah golongan majoriti umat Islam
tidak berasas dan boleh dipertikaikan. Ini kerana imej liberal yang mereka ketengahkan
berbesa dengan apa yang mereka maksudkan. Dalam hal ini istilah yang tepat bagi golongan
yang mereka sebutkan adalah progressif, bukan liberal. Jelas sekali istilah Islam Liberal itu
sendiri sangat kabur dan kontradiktif. Bahkan tokoh-tokoh yang disebutkan oleh Masmoudi,
yang mengikut kategorisasi Kurzman, seperti Muhammad Sali>m al-'Awwa>, Anwar
Ibrahim dan Fathi Osman tidak pernah dikategorikan sebagai Islam Liberal, tidak ada indikasi
yang dapat mengaitkan pemikiran mereka dengan pemikiran Islam Liberal. Tokoh-tokoh
yang lain yang juga disebutkan seperti T}a>riq al-Bishri>, Abdul Karim Soroush, Abdulaziz
Sachedina lebih dikenal sebagai modenis. Mungkin ada yang bertanya mengapa tokoh-tokoh
seperti Muhammad Iqbal, Yu>suf al-Qarad}a>wi, Muhammad Natsir, Rashid Ghannouchi,
Anwar Ibrahim disebut sebagai tokoh-tokoh dan pendukung Islam Liberal?
1486
Terlepas
daripada samada ia adalah satu kesilapan yang disengajakan ataupun tidak, tentunya ia
bertujuan untuk menarik perhatian umat Islam agar mudah terpengaruh. Ironisnya, kenyataan
Kurzman tersebut disangkal oleh kalangan Barat sendiri yang majoritinya mengkategorikan
al-Qaradawi sebagai fundamentalis.
Agama dan Akal
Islam Liberal beranggapan bahawa gerakan yang mereka lakukan adalah satu-satunya
alternatif yang melakukan usaha penyatuan di antara agama (faith) dan akal fikiran
(reason).
1487
Mereka melihat majoriti umat Islam mengikut aliran tradisionalis konservatif
yang jumud dan tidak memberi ruang kepada akal fikiran untuk berperanan dan berijtihad.
Lebih dari itu, golongan fundamentalis dikatakan telah berusaha untuk memonopoli
pemahaman Islam,
1488
sehingga apa sahaja pandangan yang tidak sesuai dengan kerangka
berfikir mereka akan dicap sebagai tidak Islamik. Kalau dilihat daripada sejarah pemikiran
dan perundangan Islam, penyatuan agama dan akal bukan perkara yang baru, ia
sememangnya telah ada dalam tradisi Islam. Terlalu banyak ayat al-Qur'an dan Hadith yang
memberikan perhatian kepada penggunaan akal fikiran.
1489
Bahkan melihat kepada
1485
Asghar Ali Engineer. Future of Secularism in India. di alamat : http://ecumene.org/IIS/csss115.htm
1486
Lihat http://www.unc.edu/~kurzman/LiberalIslamLinks.htm
1487
Radwan Masmoudi. The Silenced Majority, dalam Journal of Democracy April 2003, vol 14:
no:2 hlm.2
1488
Ibid.,2
1489
Banyak hadith yang menggambarkan keutamaan bagi al-'aqil (berakal, berilmu-faham) daripada al-
'abid (kuat beribadah-literal). Di antaranya sabda Rasulullah: "Kelebihan seorang 'alim (ilmuwan)
dengan seorang 'abid (yang kuat beribadah) adalah seperti kelebihan yang ada padaku berbanding
yang paling rendah di kalangan kalian". (Ibn Majah dan al-Tirmizi)
Khalif Muammar A. Harris & Adibah Muhtar Abdul Aziz / 1033
pelaksanaan Rasulullah s.a.w. terhadap text, dan pemahaman dan pelaksanaan para Sahabat
tidak pernah membelakangi akal fikiran. Akal berfungsi dengan baik sebagai penterjemah dan
memikirkan cara terbaik dalam melaksanakan tuntutan agama. Imam-imam mazhab
mengenal dan mencipta istilah-istilah seperti qiya>s, istih}sa>n, mas}a>lih} al-mursalah dan
maqa>s}id al-shari>ah yang merupakan sumber perundangan Islam yang diakui dalam
tradisi Islam. Apabila adanya kecenderungan ulama masa kini yang kolot dan jumud dalam
berfikir, ia tidak bermakna tradisi atau Islam sendiri yang menyebabkan perkara tersebut
terjadi. Justeru, ajaran Islam menggalakkan penggunaan optimum akal fikiran dalam
kerangka yang dibenarkan oleh syariah itu sendiri. Oleh sebab itu sebenarnya tidak timbul
istilah literal Islam versus liberal Islam dalam memahami agama.
Di sini dapat dikesan kecenderungan Islam Liberal dalam melihat agama dan akal
sebagai dua entiti yang otonom dan independen. Agama ataupun shariah, kerana dilihat
amat terbatas jumlah teksnya, bergerak dalam ruanglingkupnya yang tersendiri dan akal
mempunyai peranan dalam kerangka yang lebih luas yang dapat memastikan kerelevanan
agama dalam dunia masa kini. Oleh kerana itu kontradiksi berlaku di antara dua aliran
pemikiran modenis atau Islam Liberal dan ramai ulama dan pemikir Islam yang meletakkan
syarat penggunaan akal fikiran agar tidak bertentangan dengan mana-mana teks al-Quran
dan al-Sunnah. Bagi Islam Liberal apabila pertentangan di antara keduanya berlaku, maka
teks al-Quran ini perlu ditafsirkan melalui kaedah hermeneutik ataupun melalui pemahaman
substantif agar tidak lagi terpaku kepada pemahaman literal terhadap shariah, akan tetapi
pemahaman yang Liberal. Berangkat dari metodologi dan cara berfikir inilah, tidak sedikit
daripada mereka yang hanya melihat daripada shariah itu nilai-nilai universal yang juga ada
dalam tamadun Barat bahkan juga dikongsi bersama oleh mana-mana agama di dunia ini.
Penolakan Terhadap Otoriti Agama.
Liberalisme dan modernisme Islam menolak otoriti agama.
1490
Dalam wacana Islam
Liberal banyak penekanan diberikan kepada kebebasan berpendapat oleh siapa saja tentang
apapun permasalahan agama.
1491
Metodologi yang digunakan adalah relativisme, iaitu dengan
mengatakan bahwa kebenaran itu relatif tidak boleh didakwa oleh mana-mana pihak.
Penolakan otoriti agama ini penting agar kebebasan berpendapat/ ijtihad dapat dilakukan dan
hanya dengan inilah liberalisasi Islam akan berhasil. Atas dasar kebebasan berpendapat dan
berijtihad inilah maka Islam Liberal banyak merujuk kepada karya-karya orientalis-kristian
kerana melihat mereka adalah otoriti yang cukup kritis dan telah dapat mengemukakan
pendekatan yang lebih rasional dan berlainan.
Islam menetapkan bahawa otoriti dalam ilmu pengetahuan sangat penting. Cukup banyak
ayat dan hadis yang menuntut umatnya menghormati ilmuwan dan berpegang kepada disiplin
ilmu.
1492
Disiplin ilmu apapun memerlukan otoriti. Islam adalah subjek ilmu yang cukup
ketat dalam menentukan siapa yang layak dijadikan guru. Tanpa adanya kriteria-kriteria
tertentu dalam pemilihan guru maka penyelewengan terhadap agama sangat mudah sekali
berlaku. Setiap disiplin ilmu ada otoriti masing-masing. Kalau dalam bidang perubatan,
1490
Kurzman. 13
1491
Kurzman. 13; Masmoudi.1
1492
Sebagai contoh adanya ayat yang menyuruh umat Islam agar bertanya kepada orang yang berilmu
apabila tidak tahu tentang suatu perkara. (al-Nah}l:43; al-Anbiya>':7) dan ayat yang melarang
memperkatakan sesuatu bagi yang tidak mempunyai ilmu tentangnya.(al-Isra>:36). Bahkan system
syura dalam Islam sebenarnya mengukuhkan disiplin ilmu, kerana ahli syura perlu terdiri daripada
pakar-pakar dalam sesuatu perkara yang dibincangkan.
1034 / ISoIT 2004
kejuruteraan dsb. seseorang itu perlu merujuk kepada otoriti dan pakar-pakarnya maka
sebenarnya tidak ada bezanya dengan agama Islam: shari>'ah, aqi>dah, tafsi>r, hadi>th,
masing-masing cabang ilmu ini memerlukan kepakaran yang juga memakan energi dan masa
yang tidak kurang daripada keperluan seseorang menguasai bidang perubatan dan sains.
Bahkan dari ribuan orang yang berusaha menguasai cabang keilmuan Islam hanya segelintir
saja yang diakui sebagai pakar dan otoriti yang menjadi rujukan.
Golongan Islam Liberal melihat bahawa otoriti agama hanya akan memberi kesan
negatif. Ini kerana ulama akan memonopoli kebenaran dan menghukum pandangan selain
daripada ulama sebagai tidak islami, sesat dan sebagainya. Kekeliruan ini timbul akibat salah
faham atau distorsi yang disengajakan. Wujudnya otoriti ilmu ini tidak mengisyaratkan
wujudnya hirarki dalam Islam. Islam sama sekali tidak pernah meletakkan ulama sebagai
wakil Tuhan atau pemegang kuasa menggantikan Tuhan sepertimana berlaku dalam tradisi
Nasrani dan pemerintahan gereja di zaman kegelapan (Dark Ages). Dalam Islam ijtihad
ulama tidak mutlak kebenarannya. Oleh itu pandangan ulama tidak semestinya benar.
Pandangan ulama hanya boleh diterima sekiranya terbukti sesuai dengan kehendak syariah
dan dipersetujui kebenarannya. Di sinilah dalam tradisi Islam kita mengenal konsep qawl al-
jumhu>r (pandangan majoriti), dan ijma>' (kesepakatan ilmuwan) dan konsep ini sangat
penting dalam tradisi keilmuan Islam.
Penolakan terhadap otoriti agama memberi ruang yang luas kepada golongan Islam
Liberal untuk berijtihad dengan bebas. Kurzman menggunakan istilah yang berlainan agar
tampak sophisticated iaitu freedom of thought dan freedom of religious interpretation.
Bertolak dari premis inilah golongan ini melihat perlunya umat Islam mempertimbangkan
hermeneutika al-Quran di samping tafsir al-Quran yang dianggap tidak sesuai lagi pada
zaman modern ini. Nasr Hamid Abu Zaid disebut sebagai tokoh hermeneutik Islam Liberal
saat ini. Walaubagaimanapun buku beliau, Mafhu>m al-Nas}
1493
mendapat tentangan yang
keras dari para sarjana Muslim.
1494
Konsep Pluralisme Agama
Perdebatan tentang pluralime agama baru-baru ini cukup hangat di Indonesia. Aliran
modenisme dan Islam Liberal mendukung kuat ide ini dan promosi besar-besaran telah
dilakukan. Banyak buku-buku telah diterbitkan dan diseminarkan. Di antara tokoh utama
dalam hal ini adalah Alwi Shihab yang telah menulis buku yang bertajuk: Islam Inklusif:
Menuju Sikap Terbuka dalam Beragama. Alwi mengatakan bahawa pluralisme agama adalah
tuntutan penting untuk mencapai kerukunan hidup beragama. Atas dasar ini seorang pluralis
berusaha untuk tidak bersikap eksklusif dan tidak mengklaim kebenaran hanya terletak pada
agama yang dianutnya. Setelah itu barulah dialog dan toleransi beragama dapat dilaksanakan
dengan jayanya.
1495
Penulis melihat adanya pra-asumsi bahawa yang menyebabkan
permusuhan antara agama berlaku adalah semata-mata kerana wujudnya sikap ekslusif dalam
beragama.
Alwi menafikan bahawa syari'at yang diturunkan kepada nabi Muhammad s.a.w. adalah
penghapus bagi syari'at-syari'at yang telah diturunkan sebelumnya. Alwi juga mengatakan
1493
Nasr Hamid Abu Zaid. Mafhu>m al-Nas} Dira>sah fi Ulu>m al-Qura>n (Beirut: al-Markaz al-
Thaqafi al-Arabi, 1994).
1494
Untuk perbincangan yang mendalam tentang konsep hermeneutika al-Quran sila lihat Ugi Suharto.
Apakah al-Quran memerlukan Hermeneutika? ISLAMIA, thn. 1 no.1 Muharram 1425/March 2004
(46-50).
1495
Alwi Shihab. Islam Inklusif , 39-45.
Khalif Muammar A. Harris & Adibah Muhtar Abdul Aziz / 1035
bahwa ayat al-Quran yang selalu digunakan untuk mengklaim eksklusivisme Islam yang
bermaksud: Barangsiapa yang mencari selain daripada Islam sebagai agama (di>nan)
mereka maka tidak akan diterima (oleh Allah) daripadanya dalam penjelasan terhadap ayat
ini beliau mengatakan bahawa: hal itu (Islam) tidak hanya diperuntukkan bagi Muslim
sahaja, tetapi bagi segenap mereka yang percaya kepada Tuhan sepanjang sejarah umat
manusia.
1496
Alasan Alwi adalah bahawa Islam bermakna berserah diri, maka sesiapa sahaja
yang dapat melaksanakan tuntutan iman ini dengan menyerahkan diri terhadap kehendak
Tuhan adalah termasuk orang yang berserah diri.
Kekeliruan timbul akibat daripada pemikiran bahawa kebenaran tidak bersifat mutlak,
kebenaran tidak boleh dimiliki oleh mana-mana pihak lalu menafikan hak orang lain.
Pemikiran relativisme ini yang menjadi dasar falsafah pluralisme beragama. Terdapat
beberapa tokoh falsafah Barat dan Islam yang bertanggungjawab memperkenalkan ide ini
antaranya adalah Frithjof Schuon dan Syed Husein Nasr. Apa yang mereka ketengahkan
adalah lebih kepada ide kesatuan agama pada hakikatnya (the transcendent unity of religions)
dan penekanan kepada agama Ibrahimiyyah. Akan tetapi, pendekatan yang digunakan oleh
Alwi Shihab cukup berani dan radikal. Kerana beliau bukan sahaja bercakap dari segi
pemikiran dan falsafah akan tetapi cuba untuk mengambil pendekatan dari dalam, dengan
mempergunakan tradisi Islam khususnya teks-teks al-Quran dan mentafsirkannya dengan
sewenang-wenang.
Alasan yang dianggap oleh pluralis cukup kuat dan dapat menyokong pandangannya
bahawa al-Quran mengakui keimanan komunitas beragama selain daripada umat Islam
bahkan amalan mereka juga akan diterima sebagaimana umat Islam. Dengan bersandarkan
kepada ayat al-Quran (al-Baqarah: 62 dan al-Ma>idah: 69), Alwi menterjemahkan ayat
tersebut sebagai berikut: Sesungguhnya mereka telah beriman, Yahudi, Kristen, dan Kaum
Shabiin; Mereka yang percaya pada tuhan dan hari akhir dan berbuat kebaikan, akan
menerima pahala dari Tuhan mereka. Mereka tidak akan merugi dan tidak akan berduka
cita. Sekilas pandang ayat ini seolah menjustifikasikan pandangan beliau, akan tetapi sesiapa
yang faham bahasa Arab akan sedar adanya kalimat yang sengaja ditambah dan tidak sesuai
dengan kehendak ayat. Ayat tersebut bermula dengan Innallazi>na a>manu> wallazi>na
ha>du wannas}a>ra> was}s}}a>bii>na man a>mana billa>h, jelas sekali ayat ini tidak
mengatakan bahawa semua golongan yang dinyatakan adalah dianggap beriman, ayat tersebut
hanya menyatakan bahawa ada kemungkinan di antara penganut agama tersebut ada orang-
orang yang mempunyai keimanan (yang belum tercemari oleh kesesatan) terhadap Allah dan
hari akhirat. Al-Qurtubi menjelaskan bahawa pendapat yang kuat berdasarkan pendapat Ibn
Abbas mengatakan bahawa ayat ini telah dimansuhkan dengan ayat waman yabtaghi ghayr
al-Isla>mi di>nanAdapun pendapat yang mengatakan ia tidak dimansuhkan mengatakan
bahawa terdapat syarat implisit bagi ayat tersebut iaitu beriman kepada kerasulan Nabi
Muhammad s.a.w. Bahkan ulama dan ramai mufassir mengatakan bahawa ayat ini perlu
difahami sebagai satu seruan agar ahlul Kitab yang masih mempunyai secebis keimanan
tersebut hendaklah menyempurnakannya dengan beriman kepada nabi Muhammad s.a.w.
kerana keimanan terhadap Allah tidak sempurna dan tidak akan diterima tanpa keimanan
terhadap Rasulullah begitu juga amalan mereka tidak akan diterima sebagai amal saleh
apabila mereka enggan mengikuti syariat Rasulullah s.a.w.
1497
Pentafsiran seperti inilah yang
sesuai dengan mesej keseluruhan dan objektif al-Quran. Ini kerana seorang mufassir
dikehendaki melihat satu-satu ayat selari dengan ayat-ayat yang lain bukan mengasingkannya
dan menutup mata dari melihat kepada nas}-nas} (teks) yang justeru bertentangan dengan
1496
Ibid., 103.
1497
Lihat Tafsir al-Qurt}ubi>. Muhammad ibn Ah}mad al-Qurt}ubi>. Al-Ja>mi' li Ahka>m al-Qura>n
(Beirut: Da>r al-Kutub al-'Ilmiyyah,2000). Vol. 1:296.
1036 / ISoIT 2004
pemahamannya. Mengenai kedudukan orang kafir baik Ahlul Kitab maupun Musyrikin
terdapat banyak ayat-ayat al-Quran yang menjelaskan tentang kesesatan dan kekufuran
mereka.
1498
Konsep pluralisme agama adalah selari dengan misi sekularisasi dan liberalisasi. Di
Barat, masyarakat pada umumnya sudah hilang kepercayaan pada agama. Agama Kristian
tidak lagi menjadi rujukan dalam masalah kemoralan apalagi masalah politik, dan sosial.
Falsafah eksistensialisme dan pragmatisme telah mengambil alih peranan dalam menentukan
nilai-nilai moral masyarakat Barat. Ini kerana agama secara umum telah disepakati
merupakan produk manusia tidak luput daripada silap dan salah. Bahkan banyak ajaran Injil
hanya dianggap mitos yang tidak rasional dan perlu ditinggalkan oleh orang yang telah
bertamadun dan maju. Apabila telah menjadi kesepakatan umum bahawa 'all religions are
human inventions' maka tidak ada lagi kebenaran mutlak, yang ada adalah kebenaran yang
relatif, terserah kepada masing-masing individu untuk memilih sesuai dengan 'selera'nya.
Penolakan terhadap Shari'at Islam
Islam Liberal menolak pelaksanaan syariat Islam, di Amerika al-Naim pengikut setia
tokoh kontroversial Mahmud Muhammad Taha dari Sudan, menulis buku beliau pada tahun
1990 berjudul Toward an Islamic Reformation yang intinya adalah merombak pemahaman
orang Islam terhadap syariat Islam. Menurut beliau syariat Islam itu tidak suci (divine).
1499
Beliau menyuarakan perlunya syariat Islam khususnya Islamic public law dirubah karena
teks agama tidak perlu diikuti secara literal. Bahkan beliau mengatakan bahwa pelaksanaan
hukum Islam pada saat ini hanya akan memberi kesan counter-productive. Karena
pelaksanaannya sangat bertentangan dengan hak-hak asasi manusia dan tidak sesuai dengan
perkembangan zaman.
1500
Al-Na'im menjelaskan:
I have shown that Shari'a was in fact constructed by Muslim jurists over the first three centuries of
Islam. Although derived from the fundamental divine sources of Islam, the Qur'an and Sunna, Shari'a is
not divine because it is the product of human interpretation of those sources. Moreover, this process of
construction through human interpretation took place within a specific historical context which is
drastically different from our own. It should therefore be possible for contemporary Muslims to
undertake a similar process of interpretation and application of the Qur'an and Sunna in the present
historical context to develop an alternative public law of Islam which is appropriate for implementation
today.
1501
Di sini dapat dilihat pengaruh kajian Orientalist terhadap al-Na'im. Berasaskan kepada
kajian orientalis seperti Goldziher, Schacht
1502
dan Coulson
1503
yang mengatakan bahawa
Syariat Islam adalah hasil ciptaan ulama dan fuqaha selama tiga ratus tahun. Malangnya
amat kurang sekali tulisan-tulisan ilmiah yang dapat mendongkrak idea-idea seperti ini,
kecuali beberapa tulisan yang masih perlu dilanjutkan seperti M. Mustafa al-Azami yang
1498
Surah al-Maidah: 72-73; al-Tawbah: 29-31; Ali Imran: 86. Pandangan al-Quran ini dijelaskan
dengan cukup baik dalam Kuliah Tafsir oleh Dato Dr Siddiq Fadzil berjudul Pluralisme Agama:
Perspektif Qurani pada 6 November 2004, Kolej Dar al-Hikmah dan Akademi Kajian Ketamadunan
(AKK), Kajang.
1499
Abdullahi Ahmed Al-Naim. Toward an Islamic Reformation. (New York: Syracuse University
Press, 1989), 186.
1500
Ibid., 177.
1501
Ibid., 185.
1502
Joseph Schacht, The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence (Oxford: Clarendon, 1950)
1503
N. J. Coulson. A History of Islamic Law (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press,1964)
Khalif Muammar A. Harris & Adibah Muhtar Abdul Aziz / 1037
telahpun membatalkan premis-premis Schacht tentang Shari'ah.
1504
Kajian mendalam
orientalis terhadap hukum Islam membuahkan hasil dengan diterimanya premis-premis
mereka sebagai sandaran untuk menolak hukum Islam.
Penolakan hukum Islam sebenarnya berakar daripada keengganan meletakkan agama
sebagai dasar kehidupan masyarakat. Oleh kerana itu penolakan syari'at Islam sebenarnya
merupakan kesinambungan daripada pemikiran sekularisme dan bahkan juga diakui oleh al-
Naim sendiri.
1505
Di Indonesia mesej penolakan Shari'at dikemukakan Jaringan Islam
Liberal.
1506
Anggapan bahawa syariat Islam tidak divine adalah disandarkan kepada kajian-kajian
orientalis yang mengatakan bahwa formulasi syariat Islam berlaku selama 300 tahun setelah
kewafatan Rasulullah s.a.w. Oleh itu mereka menyimpulkan bahwa syariah adalah produk
ulama dan pemerintah yang tentunya bernuansa politik dan kekuasaan. Di sini sangat jelas
kekeliruan mereka karena tidak membezakan Syariah dengan Fiqh, di antara thawabit dan
mutaghayyirat, di antara perkara-perkara yang disepakati atau qatiyyat dan perkara-perkara
ijtihadi. Tanpa melihat perkara-perkara seperti ini maka tentunya kekeliruan tersebut timbul.
Penutup
Terdapat perbezaan yang ketara di antara teori yang dikemukakan oleh Kurzman dan
Binder dan kenyataan lapangan. Teori Kurzman membawa mesej untuk mempopularkan
gerakan ini dan memberi justifikasi atas setiap ide dan pemikiran Islam Liberal. Untuk tujuan
ini, Kurzman telah berjaya mengelabui mata orang ramai dengan penggunaan istilah dan
terminology yang diterima ramai seperti: progress, freedom of thought, democracy dsb.
Penumpuan pada hal-hal tersebut akan memberi kesan ketidakrelevenan golongan yang
menolak Islam Liberal. Dan menutup mata orang ramai terhadap banyak lagi ide-ide yang
justru menjadi ciri-ciri utama pemikiran Islam Liberal seperti: penolakan otoriti agama,
pluralisme agama, penolakan Syariah dll.
Hubungan dan pengaruh pemikiran Barat: sekularisme, orientalisme dan postmodenisme,
terhadap pemikiran Islam Liberal adalah berdasarkan bukti yang nyata dan tidak dapat
disangkal. Ini jelas dalam buku Kurzman Liberal Islam yang menjadikan tema-tema sekular
sebagai element penting dalam gerakan ini.
Adalah tidak benar jika dikatakan bahawa Islam Liberal tidak mempunyai metodologi
dalam pemikirannya. Hasil kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa ideolog-ideolog Islam Liberal
menggunakan metodologi yang telah tersedia dan disadur daripada pemikiran Barat. Sebuah
framework pemikiran adalah hasil paradigma yang dibentuk oleh pemikir-pemikir yang
berpengaruh dan tentunya ia tidak kelihatan, dalam bentuknya yang original, pada gerakan
ini. Kalau dalam diskursus Islamis banyak menyebut tentang serangan pemikiran (al-Ghazw
1504
Lihat M. Mustafa al-Azami. On Schachts Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence (Oxford:The
Oxford Centre For Islamic Studies and The Islamic Text Society, 1996).
1505
Al-Na'im, 10.
1506
Lihat artikel Ulil Absar Abdalla. Harian Kompas bertarikh: 18/11/2002 dan buku: Ashmawi, Saiful,
Azyumardi Azra et al. Syari'at Islam, Pandangan Muslim Liberal. Jakarta: Jaringan Islam Liberal (JIL)
dan The Asia Foundation, 2003. Websites:
Council For Secular Humanism. www: secularhumanism.com.
Liberal Islam Link: http://www.unc.edu/~kurzman/LiberalIslamLinks.htm
Jaringan Islam Liberal (JIL). www: Islamlib.com
CSID: http://www.islam-democracy.org/
1038 / ISoIT 2004
al-Fikri>) dan memasukkan Orientalisme, sekularisme dan modernisme di dalamnya,
tentunya gerakan Islam Liberal ini merupakan satu jelmaan baru serangan Barat terhadap
Islam.
Khalif Muammar A. Harris & Adibah Muhtar Abdul Aziz / 1039
Pemikir-pemikir Islam seperti Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas telah memberikan
penjelasan tentang worldview Islam dan worldview Barat, dengan tujuan bahawa umat Islam
tidak keliru dan terpengaruh dengan pemikiran Barat yang pada intinya tidak mesra agama
kalau bukan anti-agama. Anggapan bahawa tidak adanya percanggahan di antara keduanya
memberikan isyarat bahawa Islam tidak mempunyai identiti tersendiri dan tidak memberikan
pengaruh yang besar dalam kehidupan manusia, dan anggapan ini tentunya tidak benar sama
sekali.
Khalif Muammar A. Harris
M.A. Islamic Civilization, ISTAC UIAM.
B.A (hons) Syari'ah dan Pengajian Islam, Universiti Mu'tah, Jordan.
Kolej Dar al-Hikmah (KDH)
Kajang, Selangor.
Adibah Muhtar Abdul Aziz
M.A. Usuluddin and Comparative Religion. UIAM.
B.A. Shariah Univiersiti Mutah Jordan
Pensyarah PPIPS, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Skudai.
South African Muslim Thought: Hovering between
Extreme Conservatism and Beyond Progressivism
Muhammed Haron
Abstract
Contemporary South African Muslims are in the midst of transformation. They like their
co-religionists in other parts of the continent and indeed most parts of the Muslim heartlands
have been grappling with change. The main reason for this is because they have been faced
with the onslaught of both secularism and modernity throughout the 20
th
century; this was
further bolstered towards the close of the century by the process of globalization; a
phenomenon that has affected the lives of Muslims in the heartlands and the periphery. Those
who had to deal with these phenomena were those that were in leadership of these majority
and minority communities. In the minority Muslim communities the traditionally trained
Muslim theologians as well as the modern educated Muslim scholars were the ones that were
pushed to the forefront to with these challenges; in the case of the former, they responded by
coming up with either archaic fatwas or devising ways of adapting old ones to suite the new
settings and conditions, and the latter felt that other ways had to be sought to tackle these
issues without in any way adopting apologists positions or remaining dependent upon legal
opinions that had been issued many decades or centuries ago. This paper thus intends to
show to what extent certain groups and individuals within the Muslim community positioned
themselves and articulated their views regarding a number of socio-political developments
towards the latter part of the 20
th
century. However, since this is too broad a canvass to cover
it will zoom in on two specific representatives who in more ways than one impacted upon the
thinking of the South African Muslims. But before looking at these two individuals, it will be
necessary to place them within a specific socio-religious and political context. And in the
process of doing so, the paper also wishes to bring in to focus en passant a few concepts that
are crucial in understanding the intellectual debates and discourses that were prevalent
amongst the South African Muslims.
Introduction
Contemporary South African Muslims are in the midst of transformation. They like their
co-religionists in other parts of the continent and indeed most parts of the Muslim heartlands
have been grappling with change. The main reason for this is because they have been faced
with the onslaught of both secularism and modernity throughout the 20
th
century; this was
further bolstered towards the close of the century by the process of globalization; a
phenomenon that has affected the lives of Muslims in the heartlands and the periphery.
Those who had to deal with these phenomena were those that were in leadership of these
majority and minority communities. In the minority Muslim communities the traditionally
trained Muslim theologians as well as the modern educated Muslim scholars were the ones
that were pushed to the forefront to with these challenges; in the case of the former, they
responded by coming up with either archaic fatwas or devising ways of adapting old ones to
Khalif Muammar A. Harris & Adibah Muhtar Abdul Aziz / 1041
suite the new settings and conditions, and the latter felt that other ways had to be sought to
tackle these issues without in any way adopting apologists positions or remaining dependent
upon legal opinions that had been issued many decades or centuries ago.
This paper thus intends to show to what extent certain groups and individuals within the
Muslim community positioned themselves and articulated their views regarding a number of
socio-political developments towards the latter part of the 20
th
century. However, since this is
too broad a canvass to cover it will zoom in on two specific representatives who in more
ways than one impacted upon the thinking of the South African Muslims. But before looking
at these two individuals, it will be necessary to place them within a specific socio-religious
and political context. And in the process of doing so, the paper also wishes to bring in to
focus en passant a few concepts that are crucial in understanding the intellectual debates and
discourses that were prevalent amongst the South African Muslims.
The Socio-Religious and Political Developments
The South African Muslims were generally quite active and responsive to the socio-
political conditions throughout the 20
th
century. In different parts of the country the Muslims
were involved in the socio-political developments. For example, in the Cape Dr. Abdullah
Abdurahman formed the African Peoples Organization in order to serve the interest of the
disenfranchised communities of which the Muslims formed an integral part. In Durban and
surrounding areas where the Indian Muslims were a growing group, their leaders were in the
vanguard along with the Hindu Indians to fight against the discrimination of the colonialists
and particularly after South Africa became in Union in 1910. However, on the religious front
a fatwa popularly known as the Transvaal fatwa was requested from th Azharite mufti,
Shaykh Muhammad Abdu at the turn of the 20
th
century. This fatwa responded to three
pertinent questions at the time; the first was whether a Shafiite could read behind a Hanafite
trained Imam, the second whether Muslims could consume the meat of the Christians and
Jews of the time and the third was whether one could don the clothing of the westerner. He,
of course, responded positively to these questions, but was also severely reprimanded by one
of his contemporaries who was still part of the conservative clique for issuing such a
modernist interpretation.
For some South African Muslims such as the Cape Malays this was not a major
challenge; it seemed to have been a challenge nay, a problem - for those Indian Muslims
that landed on South African soil fresh from their villages located in different parts of the
South Asian sub-continent where the concerns of modernity have been a needling problem. In
addition to this fatwa, many others followed during different times in the 20
th
century. There
was, for example, the question of performing thur salah after Jumuah that remained on the
theological agenda from the mid 19
th
century into the late 20
th
century. And from the mid 20
th
century onwards the Muslims, who had become slowly economically mobile particularly
those that have been part of the middle and upper classes were embroiled in the debate
regarding the permissibility or non-permissibility of taking interest from their bank
accounts.
The nature of the challenges forced the South African Muslims to look at other
innovative ways of dealing with them in a more collective and coordinated manner. The first
to work towards this was the Indian Muslims of the Transvaal (now Guateng); their
religiously trained members got together to establish the Jamiat ul-Ulama of the Ttansvaal in
1923; however, due to disorganization it was re-established in 1935. This was thus the first
representative Muslim theological body in South Africa. Later it was followed by the Jamiat
ul-Ulama of Natal and by 1945 the Muslim Judicial Council came into being in Cape Town.
These bodies since their respective inceptions played and continue to this day a significant
1042 / ISoIT 2004
religious role. After the middle of the 20
th
century other similar bodies also came onto the
scene to represent their respective theological leanings. In Port Elizabeth where the MJC had
branch, the very conservative Indian theologically trained Maulana Sadeq Desai - of whom
more will be said later in this essay opted to form his own theological body because he did
not trust the theological opinions of the Middle Eastern trained theologians nor did he accept
any of their views. And when the Islamic Council of South Africa was formed in 1975 it had
as its affiliates some of the mentioned theological bodies; but with the passage of time
disagreements emerged and all of these bodies disassociated themselves with ICSA. And
when the 1990s ushered in the Islamic Unity Convention was created as an umbrella body to
challenge the hegemony of ICSA, MJC and other organizations. The IUC saw itself as
proactive and progressive and as an alternative to all the other socio-religious organizations
that became stagnant and irrelevant; and since they reflected a non-progressive stance their
existence had to tackled by those that could deliver the goods and respond to the needs of
the South African Muslims within the new socio-political developments that were taking
place at the beginning of the 1990s.
The emergence and formation of these and many other socio-cultural and religious
organizations demonstrated that the South African Muslim community was very vibrant and
active in dealing with issues on all fronts. It also showed that the community also gave birth
to a number of individuals that played an interesting role in the affairs of the community. At
this juncture mention should be made of a few individuals whose legacy is still felt within the
South African Muslim circles. At the Cape mention should be made of Shaykh Ismail Ganief
(d. 1958) and Imam Abdullah Haron (d. 1969); the latter was active within the socio-political
arena whilst the latter was familiar within the socio-religious sphere. In the cities of Durban
and Johannesburg Abdullah I Kagee (d. 1962?) and Maulana Ahmad Cachalia (d. 2002) loom
large; they were and are known for their progressive thinking and contributions in the socio-
political arena without sacrificing their religious identity. And it should be remembered that
these individuals who provided the necessary leadership to the South African Muslims did so
under very difficult discriminatory circumstances in which they as part of the larger Black
society were disenfranchised, placed in their distinct racial categories, forced to live in
separate areas and had apply through the white authorities to set up shop in other racially
demarcated areas. In any case, since it will be difficult and indeed impossible to assess the
intellectual input of all of these personalities and to record all the social conditions under
which they operated, it will be appropriate at this stage to make reference to only two
individuals whose intellectual contributions have been experienced during the time when
apartheid was in full swing and particularly the 1990s when their ideas were continuously
unfolding and at a time when South Africa underwent a tremendous transformation
The individuals that this essay intends to look at albeit briefly are Maulana Sadeq Desai
who was born and resides in Port Elizabeth , now known as the Neslon Mandela Methropole,
and Maulana Dr. Faried Esack who was born and bred in Cape Town. Both individuals are
theologically trained scholars that represent the conservative and progressive camps within
the Muslim community. Desai has been and continues to be the leading the ultra-conservative
voice whilst Esack has been and continues to be amongst the small coterie of progressive
voices. The essay at this juncture turns to Desai and thereafter moves to examine the views of
Esack.
Maulana Desai and MUSA
The maulana was born in Port Elizabeth in 1939 on the 25
th
of December, and was sent to
Miftah ul-Ulum in Jalalabad to undergo theological training. He completed the Alim Fadil
Khalif Muammar A. Harris & Adibah Muhtar Abdul Aziz / 1043
course and returned to South Africa to establish the Jamiat ul-Ulama of Port Elizabeth
(hereafter JUPE), which subsequently became better known as the Majlis ul-Ulama of South
Africa (hereafter MUSA). This theological body, trained in hanafite theological and
jurisprudential knowledge, saw itself in direct opposition to the Shafii juridico-theological
position represented by the MJC. As a strict, conservative, theological organization it firmly
adhered to its understanding and interpretation of Islamic laws; and in the process
articulated an ultra-conservative discourse via its monthly tabloid, The Majlis. A more fuller
understanding of the nature of conservative discourse can be gauged from Tayobs article
titled Fitnah: The ideology of Conservative Islam and Moosas Muslim Conservatism in
South Africa.
Maulana Desai and members of MUSA considered themselves to be the natural
guardians of traditionalism, and thus the rightful interpreters of what they articulate as a
pure, roohani Islam. And since they perceived themselves to be the gatekeepers of Islam,
the opinions of those who diverged from, or diametrically opposed theirs (such as the Salafis)
were questioned and challenged by them. MUSA acted as a representative theological body,
and attended to Muslim affairs such as marriage, divorce, inheritance etc. MUSA in general
and the maulana in particular were influenced by the ideas of both Maulana Ashraf Ali
Thanwi and Hadrat Mufti Kifayatullah, who were the proponents of traditional Islam.
According to the court hearings in Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh (cf. Online:
http://jihaad.faithweb.com/) where he was apprehended for preparing a blue print to kill the
intellectuals, and for abetting, arming and supporting terrorist activities, it was made known
that he was a prolific writer with more than 60 publications to his credit; publications that
dealt with a variety of themes and issues are Mashaaikh-e-Chist, Islam and Peace for all, The
Pious Wife, Musical Instruments, and Islam and Television. All of these were available
through the publishing wing As-Saadiq Publishers. It was also stated that he was the founder
of various relief organizations for Muslim refugees in different parts of the world; one of
these organizations regularly featured in his tabloid; it was called the Servants of Suffering
Humanity (International) and was established and registered (no. 1223) in December 1997.
This relief organization extended its assistance to the drought-stricken Somalians, flood-
victims of Bangladesh, and the refugees from Afghanistan, Bosnia, Burma, and Iraq. A
project that he initiated via the later relief organization was The Maktab Project that he
continuously wrote about in his tabloid. He formed the project in Bangladesh where he was
arrested (cf. The Majlis 13:10). The main purpose of this project was to create educational
structures in various parts of Bangladesh so that young boys and men, who have been
bombarded by many Christian missionaries, may be educated. In addition to this project, it
was also responsible for (a) relief aid, (b) monetary aid to the destitute, (c) installation of
tube-wells and sanitation, (d) distribution of sacrificial meat and food, and (e) to promote
socio-economic projects. During his detention after the 25th January 1999, his advocate
fought his case and he was eventually released after he denounced any connection with
Harakatul Zihad, Al-Islami Bangladeshi, Al-Markaz ul-Islam of Pakistan and a host of other
similar groups (refer the case on the earlier-mentioned site).
Maulana Desai launched The Majlis at the beginning of the 1980s in order to repel the
emerging modern voices such as the Muslim Youth Movement of South Africa (hereafter
MYM, est. 1970) in the surrounding areas and elsewhere in the country. It may be assumed
that he viewed his contribution as an alternative monthly publication to the Durban-based Al-
Qalam (MYMs mouthpiece) and Cape Town-based Muslim News (later Muslim Views). It
should be borne in mind that the paper did not fall in the same category as monthly, weekly
or daily newspapers; and was, like the two mentioned papers, a religious paper that targeted
the Muslims only. Before closely scrutinizing the Malauna and his mouthpiece, it should not
be forgotten that they operated at the time when the oppressed society - of whom the Muslims
formed an integral part - were not only segregated by the abhorrent apartheid laws but also
1044 / ISoIT 2004
underwent socio-economic and political hardships. The communities were suppressed and
many young (new) Muslims sought opportunities via the existing organizations to show their
rejection of apartheid. The maulana was amongst the lone voices that expressed the ludicrous
notion in the 1980s and 1990s in his paper that Muslims who indulged in contemporary
politics became tainted with - what he termed - kuffaar politics (Desai 1994); refer to
Moosa (1989) who elaborated on the role of the paper towards the end of his article. He
condemned each and everyone who participated in the political activities of the day, and this
reflected, quite clearly throughout his paper, how he perceived the South African society in
general and the Muslims who worked alongside their non-Muslim compatriots; Agherdien et
al (1997), to some extent, capture portions of the Muslim communitys socio-cultural and
political life in their publication on South End, a suburb of the Nelson Mandela metropole.
Although The Majlis might not have had a wide readership over the years, it was able to
influence the minds of those who were generally ignorant or confused about how the Islamic
sources can and may be interpreted. Since it was not classified as a newspaper in the
conventional sense of the word, it did not contain any hard or investigative news nor did it
publish features on the South(ern) African Muslim society or on any societies in the Muslim
heartlands. Virtually all the columns and responses have been prepared and penned by him.
The only exception was the letters-to-the-editor that appeared in the Question & Answer
section, or when the contents of the letter deserved more attention then the editor usually
reprinted it in full, and thereafter responded to it in detail. On very few occasions he reprinted
and lifted articles of other Muslim and non-Muslim writers. He would do so only if it
supported his line of thinking or if the article reflected on health issues that were of
significance to his readers; he, for example, reprinted the article written by Justice Malala,
which dealt with the harmful effects of cigarette smoking (The Majlis 14:1). On the whole,
the maulana and his team adopted a negative view of the public daily/weekly news media. In
one specific issue, they included in their paper two quotes from their mentor, namely
Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanwi; the latter categorically stated that the newspapers spread evil
and that they do not represent the truth (refer to an article on website entitled The
Bangladesh Debacle). This perception of the secular news media demonstrated tangibly that
they remained firm and steadfast in their stand and opposition to any form of modernity.
Earlier reference was made to the Questions and Answers section, which was a regular
feature of the paper; when reading this section, it may be concluded that it was a fairly
popular section. On average, he devoted four to five full pages to it; this, however, depended
upon the amount questions that he received. The contents normally regulated the length of his
response. In some instances, he offered straightforward answers, and in others he answered in
great detail. As far as is known during the time when the paper was a knock-n-drop, he
included many translated verses from the Quran in the earlier issues of the paper, but later
opted to leave them out for fear that the paper will be placed in the rubbish bin after having
been read. However, now that he only sends copies of the paper to subscribers, he reverted to
his old style. One of the papers common features was quotes from different compilations of
Hadith of the prophet, statements attributed to the companions or wise sayings of some well-
known auliyah. Since the papers inception it did not include any adverts, nor did it promote
the sales of any Islam books. Towards the late 1990s, there seemed to have been a slight
change in policy; in more than one issue the editor advertised books that have been prepared
and written by himself and members of MUSA.
The front page usually contained one or more articles, depending upon the items that he
were dealt with. The main article in effect acted as the papers editorial since it did not have
an editorial page. However, when an event or an issue needed a significant reply, then he
devoted a full front page to it; this was the case when he tackled those modernists like Dr.
Farid Esack who chose to enter kuffaar politics (The Majlis 8:8, 9:2, & 9:11), and attacked
Dr. Amina Wadud in particular for delivering the pre-khutbah talk and the Claremont Main
Khalif Muammar A. Harris & Adibah Muhtar Abdul Aziz / 1045
Road Mosque in general for allowing her to do so; the two articles that dealt with her position
at great length were respectively titled The Kufr of Re-Interpretation and The Deception of
Modernists (The Majlis 11:7 & 11:11); the main thought behind his responses was to nib the
modernist trends represented by Dr. Wadud and others in the bud. He, of course, considered
the modernists as the ones who were treading the path of kufr. Since mention was made of
Dr. Wadud, at this juncture it might be appropriate to shift attention to two themes that would
clarify and elaborate on the anti-modernist stance he and his supporters adopted and
relentlessly pursued in their publications. The one is education, and the other is gender; both
were and are, of course, interrelated. Attention will first be given to education, and thereafter
the sensitive issue of gender.
Browsing through the different issues of the paper, he was asked in his Q & A section
about education: Is one allowed to pursue it? And if so, is one permitted to do so at any of the
co-educational secular institutions, or Muslim communities permitted to work towards the
establishment of gendered based madrasahs such as girls madrasahs? The maulana and his
stream of devotees passionately opined the view that only Deeni education is important; by
this he meant that the male (not female) student should only spend his time concentrating on
the studying of the religion; this is of utmost importance for maintaining his imaan, and
building his akhlaaq. He rejected out of hand parents who sent their children to co-ed schools;
as far as he was concerned these institutions impart shaytaani knowledge and approve of
shaytaani activities such as taking drugs and indulging in sex. And along the same lines, he
questioned the viability of Islamic schools (The Majlis 11:9, 11:10, & 14:2), and totally
disapproved of girls schools. He titled the one article The Bane of Public Girls Madrasahs
(The Majlis 8:12), and argued that at these schools they appoint male teachers to teach girls
who should not come into contact with the opposite gender. He not only viewed the gender-
based institutions as unacceptable, but also warned of satanic influences via Deeni channels
and via Ilmi avenues. He made the point that the teachers at these institutions simplify
shaytaans work by introducing methods that would deflect Deeni students from both Ilm
and Islaah through the following methods: (a) debate and lecture sessions, (b) practicing the
art of writings articles!, (c) practicing the art of public speaking, (d) serving as apprentice
teachers at co-ed schools, (e) indulgence in kuffaar sport, and (f) imitating the methods of
secular institutions ( The Majlis 14:6).
One can imagine the manner in which he went on a tirade and attacked all and sundry for
pursuing Islamic education in a non-Islamic environment such as the secular schools and
universities, and for flouting his understanding of Islamic law. Now when it came to the
position of women or educating women, he was in favour of those who chose to remain at
home as was the case with one female doctor who gave up her private practice. In her case, he
was extremely elated that she took that decision and praised her for having done so, and, at
the same time, lambasted those women who went out and seek work. He argued very
emotionally how evil it is (for a woman) to seek education in a kufr environment, and
because of this stated that all such institutions are in conflict with the established practice
of the Ummah (The Majlis 8:12). In one of his Q & A columns the following question
was posed: Is it proper for Muslim girls to become teachers in secular schools? Is it right for
them to attend university if they dress islamically? He responded saying: It is not permitted
for the female to attend secular schools, nor is it permitted for them to become teachers. And
he argued in another issue (The Majlis 14:5) with the article titled Girls from Deeni homes
Madrasah is not for them. Since he held desperately to the notion that women should not
socialize, he reprinted the lectures of Mufti Kifayatullah who made the point that women are
prohibited from attending public lectures (The Majlis 13:8), and therefore made a similar
point when he severely criticised the Muslim community radios stations that employed
Female Broadcasters (The Majlis 13:13). In the latter article, he categorically stated like his
counterparts at Radio Islam in Lenasia that the voice of the woman was her aurah! In contrast
1046 / ISoIT 2004
to his ultra-conservative views on women, attention is now turned to Esack who is one of the
leading progressive voices of the South African community.
Malaulana Professor Dr. Faried Esack & The Call of Islam
Farid Esack was born and raised in Cape Town, Coming from the Cape Malay
community he schooled in racially classified coloured community school on the Cape Flats.
His exposure to the racial policies caused him to be outspoken from young age. However, in
the early 1970s he went through a religious transformation by being inducted into the Jamaat
Tabligh and under its spell went to pursue religious studies in Pakistan in Newtown, Pakistan.
Upon his return from his theological studies, he was lured by the MYMSA (est. 1970)
leadership to join their ranks; this he did and he went to teach at As-Salam for a short period.
However, he became disillusioned with the MYMSA leadership and decided to break rank
and went on to form the Call of Islam in 1984. The main reason for its formation was that it
openly gave support to the objectives of the African National Congress (est. 1912) and also
could not accept a centrist position withion the political arena. As a trained theologian he
tried to make sense of his theology within a socio-politically active society. He thus adopted a
liberation theologian position in re-interpreting a number of theological issues; this is borne
out by his detailed discussion if these concepts in his thesis turned book entitled Quran,
Liberation & Pluralism as well as in his On Being a Muslim printed by the same publishers.
As a free and independent thinker he has written widely and commented upon many issues
from theology to gender etc. Omad Safis 2003 publication lumped him together with Dr.
Ebrahim Moosa and Ms. Sadiyya Shaik both from South Africa - as being part of the
progressive Muslim camp.
It was through the good offices of the Call of Islam that he was able to articulate a
somewhat differe4nt but relevant islam. Theologically he could not accept the interpretation
of the MJC of which he was a member when he returned from Pakistan. He disagreed with
them on a number of issues particularly on the political issues, the question of gender, and the
Muslim theologians understanding of Islamic law with special reference to the
implementation of Muslim Personal Law. In his outlook he was very much of a pluralist in
that he accommodated everyones opinion and interpretation as opposed to the exclusivist
position of Maulana Desai. Esacks passion to realize the equality of gender within the South
African Muslim community in particular and the South African society at large had opened
the way for his appointment as one of South Africas Gender Commissioners during its new
dispensation after 1994. In this position, he actively advocated the equality of the women as
well as those that have other sexual preferences.
Going back to the 1980s, it was noted that the progressive Muslim groups under the
theological leadership of Ebrahim Moosa and Farid Esack respectively kept the position of
Muslim women in constant view with the aim of rectifying the stunted view articulated by
Desai and many other conservative Muslim theologians. It was for this very reason that the
gender question was the most debated issue in the 1990s. In fact, in the Call of Islams 1984
publication entitled Women Arise: The Quran Liberates you! the CoI adopted a consistent
critique of the traditionalist/conservative view of women which was spearheaded by Esack. In
fact, he remained the only bona fide theologian within the CoI and thus the responsibility of
arguing the case on behalf of and for the women was in his fragile hands. He remarked quite
cynically in the mentioned text: for far too long Muslim men have treated women as they
treat their beards; the more control they have over women, the greater they judge their faith to
be. And in the CoIs brochure it stated: We believe in the equality of men and women and
in the liberation of women from [jurisprudential] legacies pertaining to the period of Muslim
Khalif Muammar A. Harris & Adibah Muhtar Abdul Aziz / 1047
decline. We believe that our country will never be free until its women are also free from
oppressive social norms
In his approach to the study of the Quran and scrutinizing the opinions of the classical
and contemporary commentators, he adopted a hermeneutical approach in understanding fully
the meanings and implications of the verses that deal with women. In his earlier mentioned
works, namely Quran Liberation and Pluralism and On being Muslim: Finding a religious
path in the world today; he elaborated upon the gender jihad debate and also made a point .of
raising it in his Desmond Tutu Peace lecture that he delivered on 13 September 1986. It was
entitled The Widening of Horizons.and in another reprint The Unfinished Business of Our
Liberation Struggle and in it he dealt specifically with three issues: the first was the position
of women, the second humans relations with the environment and the third interfaith
relations. Esack thus charted out a pluralist philosophy of understanding the other and also
the problem of co-existence with one another in a majority non-Muslim society; these ideas
are clearly expressed in all of his writings.
Assessment & Conclusion
South African Muslims have undoubtedly carved out a unique niche for themselves
within the Southern African context. Members of this community have delved into many
debates and discoursed about many issues. Both Desai and Esack articulated their views
about politics and society. In each case, they appropriated and interpreted the Quran that
would convey a specific meaning; be it in the exclusivist mold or in the pluralist form. Desai
preferred to remain firmly entrenched in the conservative mold since he saw himself as the
guardian of religious thought and among those that were and are the heirs to the throne of the
prophets. Esack however saw and sees himself as a progressivist; one who fights for the
rights of others and one who accepts that everyone has a God-given space within which
he/she freely and consciously operates. The arguments forwarded by Desai are in stark
contrast to those advocated by Esack when it comes to the gender jihad as well as the political
position of Muslims within the majority non-Muslim society..
Esack is thus aware of the fact that conservatives such as Maulana Desai and MUSA, and
those that are pro-reformation like himself will always be part of those groups that will try
and provide their insights into and understandings of how the Muslim community should deal
with socio-political and religious issues. And according to his philosophy, he will have to
grant them the opportunity to be heard no matter how much he might dislike them articulating
their voices. He will also have to acknowledge the fact that as theologians of which he is a
part - generally see themselves as the rightful interpreters and the ones who are in the position
to give the best advise in the contemporary circumstances. And its is for individuals such as
Desai to realize that his ideas will not go unchallenged by the progressive and reformist
voices; these individuals will persist in raising critical opinions and offer the necessary
guidance to the confused Muslim populace whether they be in majority or minority Muslim
societies.
Both camps have and will continue to compete with one another to influence their
community. The extent of their influence will be gauged not only by their words and actions,
but also by the institutions that they employ to further their respective causes. In the case of
Desai he used his newspaper, despite its limited circulation, to do that; and in thecase of
Esack he has been using the more popular media such as the Muslim controlled radio stations
and the newspapers such as Al-Qalam. However, he and Desai find themselves having to also
deal with the larger influential bodies such as the JUT, JUN (now Jamiat ul-Ulama of
Guateng and KwaZulu Natal respectively) and the MJC who not only have their own tabloids
1048 / ISoIT 2004
but also their own radio stations that reach out to more than 100,000 if not more -listeners
per day. What this means is that the tension between the conservatives and the modernists in
the different parts of South Africa will remain and continue into the distant future.
Bibliography:
Davids, Achmat. Mosques in the Bokaap. Cape Town 1980.
Davids, Achmat. The Early History Islam in Port Elizabeth. In Boorhanul Islam Newsletter. 32(4): 12-
16, 1997.
Desai, Ahmad Sadeq. Muslim Participation in Kufr Politics. MUSA: PE. 1994.
Esack, Farid. Universalizing the Struggle: A Challenge to the South African Anti-Apartheid
Movement. In South African Outlook 118(1408): 141-145, October 1988.
Esack, Farid.Quran, Liberation and Pluralism: An Islamic Perspective of Interreligious solidarity against
oppression. Oxford: One World Press. 1997
Haron, Muhammed. Maulana Desai: An Ultra-Conservative Voice in the Eastern Cape Wilderness. In
Annual Review of Islam in South Africa. 2003.
Moosa, Ebrahim. Muslim Conservatism in South Africa. In Journal of Theology for Southern Africa.
69:73-81, December 1989.
Tayob, Abdul Kader. Fitnah: The Ideology of Conservatism. In Journal of Theology for Southern
Africa. 69:65-71, December 1989.
www.islam.co.za
www.radioislam.co.za
www.vocfm.com
www.imamharon.com
http://jihaad.faithweb.com/
http://uk.geocities.com/faridesack/fedesmondtutulecture.html.
Muhammed Haron
University of Botswana
Interdependence Between Human Rights and Human
Development: A Comparative Study of Indonesia &
Malaysia
Ataul Huq Pramanik
Abstract
This paper examines the interrelationship between human rights and human development
from secular as well as Islamic perspectives. These two concepts are found to be inseparable.
Both human rights concerned with freedom of expression, free will and dignity of a person
and human development concerned with the right to sustain life, have faith, intellect and
property are human centered. Based on lot of commonalities a comparative study is made
between Indonesia and Malaysia to see how better achievements in terms of human
development lagged much behind the poorer achievements in human rights until the sudden
onslaught of East Asian financial crisis in mid 1997. Despite having the draconian law like
Internal security Act in Malaysia and equally oppressive rules in Indonesia, while the former
succeeded by pursuing an unconventional measure the latter failed because of lack of bold
measure to overcome the crisis. This is because the pursuit of regular, free and fair elections
in the presence of unique power sharing technique and conflict resolution management by
Malaysian government made it possible to go for bold measures while the absence of these
techniques failed to provide the legitimacy to the Indonesian government to overcome the
crisis through equally bold measures. The paper concludes that to ensure social, political and
economic stability, equilibrium between HR and HD is a must without which the spectacular
development achieved during the short-run (may be, even for 3-4 decades) is likely to be
jeopardized by the revolutionary forces in the long-run. The revolutions in Indonesia and
Iran are a clear testimony to this hypothesis.
Introduction
Human right without human development is meaningless as much as human development
without human rights does from long-run perspective. One cannot be separated from the
other since both are human-centered. If the ability to fulfill economic, social and cultural
rights is treated as primary and that to enjoy the civil and political rights as secondary, the
former concerning the very survival of human beings should precede the latter. The former
considered as socio-economic rights (SER) is highly interwined with the latter i.e., civil
political rights (CPR). Human being as an individual entity requires both to attain a balanced
development through physical, mental, psychological and meta- physical changes. Thus, to
grow into a complete human personality human being needs to satisfy both in a very ordered
way. But these prerequisites are guided by internally and externally induced forces that
normally follow gradual i.e., evolutionary rather than violent or revolutionary ways. The
externally-induced forces encompassing family, community, society and state have a greater
role in terms of creating an environment that moulds a human personality in the way it likes.
1050 / ISoIT 2004
In this process the state represented by government as an institution imposes certain rules
of behaviour whenever warranted for a desired social order. These set of rules are either
decided through concensus i.e., democratic or shuratic way or through the forceful imposition
of personal dreams and aspirations of a regime having vested interest. The historical
evidences of this century seem to suggest that only the countries having the experience of
democratic decision-making can succeed in respecting both human rights (HR) in terms of
CPR and human development (HD) in terms of SER. The countries resorting to
undemocratic decision-making fail to ensure a social order based on an equilibrium between
HR and HD. However, there also exist countries that promote human development at the
expense of human rights. This brings us to the question of the right mix of HR and HD to
strike a social equilibrium capable of sustaining a balanced as well as stable guided by
democratic values development in the long-run.
The stage of development and the structural composition of that development also
determine the pattern of evolution of a particular type of relationship being developed
between HR and HD. Therefore, the changing state of development also shapes the
relationship between HR and HD. It so happens that relatively higher achievement in HD at
the cost of HR contributes to an unstable environment where revolutionary forces gain
grounds. Likewise, the relatively higher achievement in HR with poor HD is equally
responsible for social disequilibrium. But a strong proponent of development as a prime-
mover of a society towards fulfilling human rights obligations, Mahbubani (1998, pp. 57-80)
strongly argues that the forceful imposition of the concept of HR based on western liberal
values on the third world governments may retard rather than promote economic development
so vital for human development (SER). However, there are contesting views on this thesis as
well
1
. That social disequilibrium is the breeding ground for revolutionary or violent changes
is well substantiated by the two most recent revolutions- one in Iran and the other in
Indonesia.
Another dimension of the relationship between HR and HD is these two are most
vulnerable to forces over which an individual state or regime has little control, whatsoever. It
is also for this reason that social equilibrium is extremely essential for the long-run
sustainable development with peace, harmony and solidarity among the mutually competing
forces operating within an individual nation state. It has also been empirically substantiated
that faster growth with macro-economic stability can have a salutary effect on the survival of
an undemocratic or semi-authoritarian regime with more human development but limited
human rights. This brings to the hypothesis that while a mature or a semi-democratic regime
can survive a crisis with lesser growth, an authoritarian regime cannot survive an economic
crisis as exemplified by the most recent violent i.e. revolutionary changes experienced by
Indonesia and an rather less violent or evolutionary changes in Malaysia. Having understood
the need for a balanced development of human rights and human development the objectives
of this paper are as follows:
Objectives
Firstly, to see how human rights and human development are viewed from Islamic and
secular perspectives; Secondly, to examine the achievements in HR & HD during post-
independence period in Malaysia and Indonesia. Thirdly, to empirically analyze how the
social disequilibrium resulting from imbalances in HR and HD contributed to socio-political
and economic instability manifest through the violation of human rights; Finally, to come up
with policy suggestions to promote stable democratic development taking cognizance of HR
at par with HD, peace and stability.
Ataul Huq Pramanik / 1051
Islamic and secular perceptions of HR and HD
While human development deals mostly with quantitative aspects of human being
measured by certain material-oriented indicators
2
, the human rights are more value-loaded
and concerned with material, moral and spiritual dimensions as well. The secular value-free
approach to HR
3
is evident in the preamble to the UN character among other things, thus
reads; we the peoples of the UN determined to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights,
in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of man and women and the
nations-large or small, and to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger
freedom. Contrary to the secular view of HR, Islam looks at the issue of HR from the
perspective of free-will without which no human person as a vice-gerent of Allah (God) can
perform his divine responsibility. The very essence behind the creation men and women is
that they will play the role of Gods representative on this earth. That role entails every
human being with free will to decide and act responsibly to his fellow-beings (Haquq ul Ibad)
and fulfill his obligation towards Allah-the creator (Haquq-Allah). No man in bondage can
play this role. Thus free-will hinges upon freedom of expressions that, in turn, is
complementary to human dignity.
The essence of character and personality is reflected in a persons opinion and
judgement. Any individual not having the right to give independent opinions and voice their
feelings in matters of their interest can not claim to have any dignity. The holy Quran asserts
that dignity in the most comprehensive sense, is, the natural right of every human being. The
Quran says (al-Asra, 17:70) we bestowed dignity on the progeny of Adam. This transcends
all the racial, social, political and economic barriers that divide the humanity.
There are also numerious references in the Quran relating to the need for freedom and
dignity that is bestowed on the community of believers, such that collective judgment and
consensus stand next to the will of God and are recognized as a source of the Shariah
4
. As a
matter of fact, shariah encourages freedom of expression in a number of ways encompassing
Hisbah (the promotion of good and prevention of evil), Nasihah (sincere advice), Shura
(consultation) and Ijtihad (personal reasoning or judgement).
The Hisba entitles each and every human being to constructively criticize any
government leaders or officials. Therefore, the literal meaning of Hisbah i.e., the
accountability applies to each and every representative of God on this earth (i.e., Khalifah or
vice gerent) regardless of his/her social, political or economic status in the society. Of the
ruler and the ruled, the former is more accountable to the latter than the other way round.
This applies to all those who make decisions on behalf of others. Of course, the subjects i.e.,
the ordinary people are also made accountable to those in authority by way of fulfilling their
obligations and giving loyalty to the former.
Unfortunately, Western critiques view that Islam does not recognize the idea of right and
liberty, fundamental or otherwise that is inherent to the human person. Thus, according to
schact, Islamic law is a system of duties, of ritual, legal and moral obligation, all of which
are sanctioned by the authority of the same religious command (quoted from Kamali, 94 P.
17). Likewise, the other two commentators Hamilton Gibb and Siegman (cited in Kamali,
ibid, P. 17) also blame Islam for not allowing the citizens or individuals any rights or
liberties. All they have is the obligation to pay taxes and submit to the will of the authority.
But these criticisms are not tenable since the Quran states that one of the primary objectives
of the prophet Muhammad (sws) was to release mankind from the burden and chains that
have been imposed upon them (Al-Quran 7:157). Accordingly, no one, not even the state,
has the right to abrogate this freedom and to subject human life to any kind of bondage or
regimentation. It is this teaching that prompted Umar (R.A), the second caliph to ask: since
when have you enslaved people although they were given birth as free individual by their
1052 / ISoIT 2004
mother (Chapra, 1992 P. 208). Besides, the shariah does not distinguish between the dual
concepts of rights and obligations in the same way as the secular modern statutory law does.
It is pertinent here to understand that the primary objective of shariah is to ensure public
interest (i.e., maslahah), which includes daruriyyat (essential interests) hajiyyat
(complementary interests) and tahsiniyat (desirabilities). The areas of Public interests include
six essentials of life namely, life, religion, intellect, property, progeny (lineage) and dignity
(Kamali, ibid, P. 23). Thus, one of the most important obligations of Islamic government or
authority is to protect, promote and improve these essentials further.
As has been hinted above, over and above Hisba i.e., calling for good and for biding
from evil, as an element of human rights, sincere advice (nasihah) consultation (shura) and
personal reasoning (Ijtihad) and the freedom to criticize the wrong-doings of anybody in
authority are also included within shariah. All those elements combined together to form
what can be appropriately called as freedom of expressions. Without freedom of expressions
the key element in the issue of human rights, all the above elements of human rights cannot
function. Having talked about the elements of human rights let us new see the
interdependence between human rights and human development.
The six essentials of life as delineated above are also inseparable components of human
development as has been measured by UNDP (Human Development Report, various issues)
based on three broad elements namely, literacy, longevity and purchasing power proxied by
real per capita GDP. A careful examination of these three elements will suggest that
excepting one out of six elements namely, religion covering ethico-moral dimension, all the
remaining five are fully taken care of by literacy, life expectancy or longevity and purchasing
power used to construct Human Development Index (HDI) by UNDP since 1970. According
to Sen-Nobel laureate (1999), human freedom has two components positive component that
encompasses the ability to sustain life, progeny and protect property being proxied by
purchasing power, while the negative component of freedom implies the ability to protect
one-self from exploitation through the access to education, health, intellect and dignity.
Therefore, human rights, freedom of expression as a part of shariah objectives (three types of
essentials) and human development all are inextricably linked (OConnor, 2002). This is true
regardless of whether we examine the two issues HR and HD from secular or Islamic
perspectives. Only distinguishing element between them is the presence of ethico-moral filter
used in Islamic world view of HR and HD as opposed to secular worldview with little moral
and spiritual constraints.
There has emerged yet another dimension of human rights and human development with
respect to a particular value and culture of the society. Lee Kuan Yew of Singapore and
Mahathir Mohamed of Malaysia the two longest-serving and most committed leaders of
South East Asia are the two champions of Asian values debate (Kamaruddin, 1995).
According them, the collective interest, family and social values, loyalty to the authority
together with the need for ethico-moral values dominate the Asian values while the self-
interest, personal liberty, individualism, egoism, liberal approach to life dominate the secular
thoughts. Therefore, the western liberal democracy built on the western value system and
ethos cannot be conducive to the development of Asian democracy and human rights having
different values to begin with. So, given the conflict between the secular and Islamic
approach to HR, HD, or in other words economic and political democracy, the liberal
democracy was replaced by guided democracy in both Malaysia and Indonesia
5
. The
discussion of the subsequent section will be based on the conflict centering round the state of
liberal democracy and guided democracy with the ultimate aim of achieving the avowed
shariah objectives (maqaside-shariah) as delineated above. While doing this, this paper will
try to examine the need for evolving human rights as a component of economic and political
democracy from within the moral, politico-economic and socio-cultural diversities in a
community.
Ataul Huq Pramanik / 1053
Achievements in HR and HD Since Independence
Under the colonial rules both Malaysia and Indonesia like any other colonies, were
devoid of sovereign power to formulate rules to govern the country. Both the rulers and the
ruled were made subservient to the colonial power. This legacy continued even many years
after the colonial power left. Initially human rights, human freedom and democracy all being
proxied by freedom of expressions were misused by most of the sovereign governments
following independence on the excuse of political consolidation and nation-building for the
sake of development (Drake, 1989). The priorities were obviously put more on ensuring
economic rights based on need fulfillments rather than on political rights based on freedom of
expression and participation in decision-making. Perhaps, the elections in some countries
were held after a regular interval of four or five years but people were given the
understanding that without a powerful state, national sovereignty remains under the constant
threat of communists and internal rivalries. The development of civil society agencies
comprising political parties, the media, professional associations, trade unions, universities
with free-thinkers and the advocates of specific causes was suppressed. As a result, the
streams of constructive ideas, ability to offer alternative views and channels of negotiations
warranted for the formation of a durable social contract were lacking.
In case of Indonesia that declared independence in August 1945 from the Dutch Rule
under the charismatic leadership of Sukarno the first two decades (1945-65) were fraught
with revolutionary period followed by parliamentary democracy and then guided democracy.
This was justified to create an environment of stability so vital for addressing the severe
economic problems of poverty and of poor social services. The political power was highly
concentrated at the center with military holding the spring board of all kinds of decisions.
The people living in distant and resource-rich islands under 25 provinces/regions were
granted little choice to make use of the indigenous resources to their advantage. As such, the
inequalities between ethnic Chinese Visa-vis the pribumi and Jakarta vis--vis the other
outlying areas/provinces became extremely high (Hill, 1996, Chap. 11; Arndt, 1984, Chaps.
4-6). The effects of unequalzing growth have isolated many areas from the beneficial effects
of development and modernization. This contributed to the formation and deepening of
ethno-religious worldview and social discontentment. Such ethno-religious worldview
according to Marx reflects their sighs of the exploitation and oppression experienced at the
hands of powerful elite at the center (Mansor Mohd, 2000 PP. 197-198). Therefore, the
social protest against the continuing regional inequalities taking place in their midst called for
secession in East Timur, Aceh, Ambon, Maluku and Irian Jaya.
In case of Malaysia, the regional inequalities were not as severe as experienced in
Indonesia. This is primarily because of geographical contiguity of the different states.
However, the states lying in close proximity to the federal capital of Kuala Lumpur like,
Malacca, Negeri Sembilan, Pahang together with Johor being close to the fast-growing island
state of Singapore and Penang having easy linkage with the rest of the world through sea-
route were not as isolated as many of the islands of Indonesia. The benefits of modernization
and faster growth have not by-passed other states in the same way as has been experienced by
nearly 13000 far flung islands of Indonesia. This does not, however, deny the unequal
development in Malaysia (Vide App. Table 1, Also see Pramanik, 2002) particularly during
the early years of independence. This contributed to the poor development of four states-
Kedah, Kelantan, Terengganu and Perak. This is no surprise that these four states have the
highest concentration of poverty as well as anti-establishment forces in peninsular Malaysia
1054 / ISoIT 2004
even more than four decades after independence. This is primarily because of the
predominance of primary sector activities in these states.
Apart from these four states the two states of Borneo-Sabah and Sarawak separated by
South China Sea almost resemble the typical cases of poorly developed areas of Indonesia
until 1980s. As far as political rights are concerned, Malaysia did have the advantage of
holding elections as a mechanism for airing the grievances of the people and ensuring a
smooth transition of power. Through the ballot boxes the people could have exercised their
power either to accept or reject a particular government. Hence ethno-religious factors were
never as dominant in Malaysias geographically isolated regions as it was in Indonesia so as
to promote secessionist or divisive forces against the federal government.
Economic achievements in Indonesia & Malaysia
Having realized the background of earlier developments in Indonesia and Malaysia let us
now see their achievements in economic and political dimensions as proxied by human
development and human rights respectively by their sovereign governments. It appears that
despite the substantial difference in the initial state of development as transpired through the
per capita income the quality of life of an average Indonesian was just one-ninth of that of an
average Malaysian in 1960s. Indonesians GDP per capita in terms of US dollar was only 30
in 1960s compared to 320 for Malaysia (World Development Reports). Because of rapid
growth in percapita GNP or GDP (vide Table 1, cols. 5-6) this income gap for Indonesia was
reduced to only one-fourth of Malaysia in 1970s through 1980s. This high growth was
maintained until the beginning of 1970s when anti-nationalist forces based on prolonged
regional inequalities, pressed for growing autonomy in a number of regions but most
particularly in East Timur and Aceh and a few more during 1990s. Of these East Timor
already got independence with the assistance of Western power.
The stark regional differences became quite apparent from two most important
economic indicators of development-one, the level of gross regional product (GRP) percapita
and the other-growth in GRP. It appears that in 1990, percapita GRP in 5 main regions
namely, Sumatra, Java-Bali, Kalimantan, Sulawesi and Eastern Indonesia varies in the range
of Indonesian Rp383,000 lowest for Eastern regime to Rp2481,000 the highest for Java-Bali.
Among the 26 sub-regions including Jakarta, East Kalimantan enjoys the highest percapita
GRP of Rp 5821,000 followed by Riau (Rp4493,000) and Jakarta (Rp 2481,000). In terms of
growth in per capita GRP during 1973-90, the performance varies from the lowest overall
growth of eastern Indonesia (.7 percent for Maluku to 5.1) to the highest growth of Aceh
(12.5 percent) followed by East Java (8 percent) and Bengkulu (7.2 percent). This per capita
GRP growth for one sub-region, Riau seems to be negative 3.2 percent. The Eastern
Indonesia and Sulawesi appear to be the two most depressed of all the regions with relative
overall affluence of Sumatra and Java-Bali. The struggle for autonomy and subsequently
independence by East Timorese having the lowest GRP of Rp 364,000 (only next to East
Nusa Tenggara with Rp 361,000) perhaps explains why political opposition is always
stronger where economic deprivations are severe and very conspicuous. However, Acehs
struggle for autonomy is exacerbated by historical and ethno-religious rather than by
economic factors alone (Hill, 1996, P. 215, Mansor, 2000; McLead, 1998). The
dissatisfactions resulting from poor access to redistributive services like health and education
together with the allocation of development projects not in favour of indigenous
entrepreneurs from mineral-rich three distant provinces namely, Aceh, East Kalimantan and
Irian Jaya are the major contributory factor to their struggle for autonomy.
Ataul Huq Pramanik / 1055
With some exception, the negative association between poverty incidence and level
of per capita GRP seems to hold in 1990 (Hill, 1996, Chap. 11, PP. 218-223) although the
above relationship between per capita growth in GRP and a poverty incidence seems to be
much weaker. This is because the level of per capita GRP (Gross Regional Product) reflects
the economic structure and its composition inherited from the past while growth rate reflects
the effects of recent policy changes. One of the reasons which explain the success in
economic front measured by high per capita growth of GRP, premium of better social
services and keeping poverty incidence low was the ability with which president Suharto
addressed these problems. He had to deal ruthlessly the local political inferences to ensure
socio-political stability, public security, regional administration and effective development
plan. To materialize the specific economic goals in line with the desired national goal of
pancasila namely, just and civilized humanity, nationalism, democracy, social justice with the
belief in one supreme being (SoeMardJan, 1988, P. 106) Suharto resorted to undemocratic
procedures by way of expanding the influence of military as opposed to the civilians, in all
key positions.
Given the small size of population, vast resource-endowments, the continuous socio-
political stability with a few exceptions Malaysias economic achievement in terms of rapid
economic growth with redistribution and poverty reduction (vide Table 1) is even more
spectacular than that of Indonesia. The regional inequalities in Malaysia are not found to be
as diverse as in Indonesia (Pramanik, 2002, P. 8) experiencing geographically diverse
territories / regions separated by poor transportation linkage. This does not, however, suggest
that there exists perfectly balanced regional development with no discontentment among the
regions.
As for economic policy behind project-based development, Malaysia is more successful
in making better use of indigenous resources. Under the objective of restructuring society,
the influence of foreign ownership has been curtailed by encouraging the local enterprises.
Unlike Indonesia the privatization effort as a part of Look East Policy, of Malaysia
following the models of Japan and South Korea, has been able to enhance the participation of
domestic talents. Contrary to this Indonesia after Suhartos New Order has curtailed the
role of private sector. The centralization ratio in Indonesia in 1970s and 1980s increased
quite significantly. Contrary to the success story of cooperative movement in Malaysia,
Indonesia experienced the higher death rate of cooperatives caused by inexperienced,
incapable managers and administrators with little working capital.
The Malaysian government through appropriate fiscal and monetary policies has been
able to disperse industrial activities ventured both by domestic as well private foreign direct
investment. Unlike the Indonesian counterpart, Malaysia groomed well-motivated and
committed civil servants to run the corporate sector. The role of military is, therefore made
redundant in so far as the decision-making of the corporate sector is concerned. All these
speak strongly in favour of the promotion of economic democracy (SER) in Malaysia, which
is so vital for establishing political democracy (CPR) see (Pramanik, 2002).
In order to decentralize the industrial activities, the Indonesian governments efforts to
help small enterprises and weak businesses (SoeMardJan, 1988, P. 117) with soft credits
match with Malaysian governments objective of promoting Bumiputera Commercial and
Industrial enterprises. The overwhelming dominance of state enterprises in Indonesia
compared to Malaysia failed to promote the interest of small enterprises and weak businesses
in Indonesia. All these have implications for the growth of a regional as well as racial
balance in the context of a highly heterogeneous society as that of Indonesia (Mansor, 2000).
While the lack of this balance together with the other failure of the government to ensure
macroeconomic stability (vide Table 1) triggered the cause for social conflicts thereby
expedited the recent revolution in Indonesia after being hit by the East Asian financial crisis
(McLeod, 98). This also explains why despite being vulnerable to the financial crisis of
1056 / ISoIT 2004
mid-1997, Malaysia could survive the economic crisis while Indonesia failed measurably
most particularly to protect basic human rights.
Political Achievements in Indonesia & Malaysia
Indonesia provides the typical case of a pluralistic society that confronted the socio-
political disorders strong-handedly and ruthlessly to ensure needed stability for the cause of
development and well-being of the masses (vide Table 1, cols. 6, 8, 10 &12). In many other
regions of the world most particularly in Asia, Africa and Latin America, the utter failure of
the government to control civil wars consequent from social disorders plunged the country
into complete chaos. This, in turn, had jeopardized both short-run and long-run prospects for
development thereby pulling the country into the quagmire of poverty, under-development
and malnutrition. While the failed cases particularly in Africa were blamed by the critics as
well as the enlightened policy-makes and observers of development for being too weak, the
success cases like that of Indonesia were equally blamed for pursuing oppressive anti-
democratic measures for reestablishing order in the society. Hence these two extreme cases
are blamed for different reasons. The former are blamed primarily because their failure to
ensure needed stability for human development contributed to the deterioration of human
development in particular. The latter are condemned because their success in human
development is marred by the failure to respect human rights as experienced by Indonesia to a
large extent and Malaysia to a lesser extent. This seems to suggest a trade-off between the
respect for human rights and the desire for human development as measured by life
expectancy, literacy and purchasing power as delineated above.
The issue of HR and HD has yet another dimension concerning time element. The
historical evidences seem to substantiate the fact that what appears to be good in the short-run
may not be so in the long-run. This is what exactly warrants a balance between and among
seemingly opposing natural forces interacting with one another. The social conflict since the
beginning of 1990s in Indonesia seems to be the result of a mismatch between HR and HD in
the same way as it happened in Iran before revolution. One finds a lot of striking
resemblances between Shahs reign in Iran of unequal but secularized development with that
of Suhartos period of unequal but, secularized development in Indonesia. Interestingly, the
period of reign in both cases resembles similar and very long stretching over three decades.
But of the three factors strengthening the revolutionary forces-prolonged reign, injustice and
secularism, which one was predominant over the other is difficult to isolate. But the success
case of Malaysia is likely to suggest that prolonged economic and social injustice might have
overriding influence over the ideological preference. Had the government of Malaysia failed
to address the issue of social and economic imbalances immediately after the Race-Riot of
May 1969, the Post-1969 period could have been repeated as experienced by the Iranian and
Indonesian history of change through violent revolution consequent from the abuse of human
rights and utter disregards for aspirations and dignity of human life.
In the light of the above let us see how human rights are abused in Indonesia
(Webpage:http://www.etan.ca/;http://www.usis.usemb.se/human/human1998/indonesia.html)
despite having good record on human development. The index of democratization (ID) can
be used as a proxy for measuring HR. It is calculated by multiplying the percentage of
competition and participation and by dividing the result by 100 (Kurian, 1983, PP. 65-66).
The ID takes into account two political variables namely, the share of the smaller partiers,
and independents in the votes cast, in parliamentary and or presidential elections (i.e.,
competition) and the degree of electoral participation (i.e. participation). By this measure,
Indonesias rank on ID of 3.5 during the 1
st
decade of Suharto is well below many other
countries including Malaysia of 10.1 (Vide App. Table 2). Indonesias ranks on competition
Ataul Huq Pramanik / 1057
and participation among 119 countries under study during 1970-79 are even worse (16.8 and
20.8 respectively for Indonesia compared to 45.3 and 22.4 for Malaysia). The relatively poor
rankings of Indonesia on political rights and civil liberties confirm the extent of abuse of
human rights in Indonesia compared to Malaysia although Malaysias records on HR
relatively worsened in the subsequent decades of 1980s and 1990s (vide App. Table 2).
Having failed to sustain the parliamentary democracy following independence that
resulted into political factionalism and regional rebellions, Sukarno dissolved the constituent
assembly in 1959 (SoemardJan, 1988, PP. 86-87). Under the guided democracy, Sukarnos
government became increasingly centralized while the regional leaders and military
commanders lost power and were removed after their bid for greater autonomy failed. The
extreme instability of the Sukarno government was reflected through the existence of seven
different cabinets between 1950 and 1957. The Martial Law that was declared to curb
political violence paved the military to take active part in the political, social and economic
affairs of the country. The dual function of the military as a defense as well as a social force
coincided with the ban of modernist Islamic party and the socialist party. During 1959-65
when party politics was pushed to the background, Sukarnos increasing reliance on the
communist party for the support of the masses easily identified him with the supporter of the
communist movement. The subsequent failed coup attempt by the communist in 1965 and
what followed afterwards is only a history known to all.
The old order of Sukarnos pancasila democracy was replaced by the New order of
Suharto who assumed power in 1966 after which a case for mono-loyalty towards the state
ideology in every sphere of Indonesian society was established. Under this 9 parties were
amalgamated into two-one, PPP (United Development Party) and the other PDI (Indonesia
Democratic Party). The government employees by virtue of being civil servants are
automatically expected to be supporters of government sponsored Galkar party. Thus, the
entire educational institutions, civil organizations and government servants are forced not to
go against government even if there exist genuine reasons. That the mass-media including
printing and Publishing and broadcasting were thoroughly controlled becomes-evident from a
poor ranking in political and civil rights (vide App. table 2, Cols. 1-4). A score of 4 or 5 is
associated with higher level of oppressions encompassing censorship, political terror and lack
of free association. However, a poor ranking for a country like Indonesia with poor
democratic records does not necessarily reflect true intention of the government. It may
simply reflect real restrictions on liberty and freedom caused by unorganized or non-
governmental terror.
As for the political implications of the massive control through media for economic
activities are concerned none should have the slightest doubt that the change in Sukarno
regime by Suharto in 1966 was not a change from a socialist to a free-market capitalistic
regime. According to late Prof. Panglakin (cited in Hill, 1996, P.93) the mid-1960s might
have experienced the most lassies-faire socialist economy in the world. Thus, in the views of
Prof. Sadli (Hill, ibid, P.93), following the New Order economic ideology after 1966 has
been only half-hearted and ambivalent. This is evident from a 9-fold increase in the state-
owned assets in 1992 over 1979. Besides, the major domestic conglomerates consist entirely
of non-pribumi (i.e., Chinese and other) or politically powerful owners. The unequal
distribution of income-generating assets is evident from a statistics suggesting three million
non-pribumi out of nearly 100 million controlling over 60 percent of the Indonesian economy
(Hill, ibid, P. 106). The close liasson between business and the politics (Gomez, 2002 Intro
and Chap. 7) or the policy-makers also contributed to wide spread corruption in all affairs of
Indonesias life (App. Table 2, Cols. 15-16).
Gomez strongly argues how the process of democratization in Malaysia and Indonesia
has been marred by massive corruption of politics, portending little hope of genuie political
reforms. Based on two case studies one on Malaysia by Gomez (2002, Chap. 3) and the other
1058 / ISoIT 2004
on Indonesia by Eklof (Gomez, 2002, chap 7), One can easily argue that the manner of
funding political parties being influenced by close ties developed between politicians and
businessman has undermined the efforts of the governments in these countries to undertake
appropriate reforms to face the type of economic crisis as experienced after mid-1997.
As Mackie (cited in Hill, P. 118) rightly observes corruption is not just to be associated
with Suhartos New Order Regime rather corruption was becoming almost endemic under
the Sukarno regime. His inflationary budgets eroded civil service salaries to the point where
people simply could not live on them. Financial accountability virtually collapsed because of
administrative deterioration. Therefore, the social contract that was embedded in the
constitution in the form of ensuring social justice is totally disregarded. The economic
freedom of the intellectuals and ordinary masses deteriorated until the onslaught of economic
crisis in July 1997. Despite all these negative effects of authoritarian approach the
Indonesian economy had undergone a rapid structural transformation and a rather spectacular
growth. All these were made possible in the very presence of frequent political turmoils
consequent from heavy dependence on external capital in the form of foreign aid (Cols. 13-
14, App. Table 1) and foreign direct investment (Cols. 15-16)
6
.
As has been discussed above, the spectacular economic achievements both in Indonesia
and Malaysia measured by any standard have more commonalities than differences. If
economic achievement is used as a proxy for human development (SER), their success in
human development is equally praiseworthy compared to many other developing economies
of the Third World (vide App. Table 1, Cols. 9-12). It was always the firm conviction of
Both Suharto Regime (1966-1998) and Mahathir Regime (1981-2003) that the welfare of the
people is more important than the western style liberal democracy where personal liberty gets
overriding priority over collective as well individual economic welfare. As such, we find the
philosophy of guided democracy having predominant influence of central leadership is
equally strongly advocated and pursued by the two regimes.
As argued by another strong advocate of this philosophy, Lee Kwan Yew of Singapore,
the indigenous values encompassing deep-rooted traditions and cultures should determine the
nature of democracy in any country. The late prime minister Indira Gandhi of India - the
largest democracy and a product of politically well-groomed Fabian Socialist father-Nehru,
felt in the same way mid-1970s that given the diverse and pluralistic society, India could not
afford to imitate Western style democracy. Politically speaking, one commonality in these
three countries was the dominant party leadership with some differences in degrees only. In
all these cases, smaller parties have been left with little option without accepting the mandate
taken at the center of power politics i.e., congress in India until 1980s, Golkar in Indonesia
and Barisan Nasional (BN) in Malaysia until late-1990s. There seems to exist a major
difference between the two South East Asian success cases and the failed case of India. The
overwhelming economic success measured by HD both in Malaysia and Indonesia has never
had enough grounds for the critics to question the limited human rights issue in these two
countries until the emergence of 1997 crisis. But the critics of poor economic performance in
India at least measured by HDI have hardly eulogized the success of Indian democracy and
human rights even without having the most controversial Internal Security Act (ISA) of
Malaysia and a thoroughly repressive rule of Suhartos Indonesia.
No one has difficulty to understand that had there been one such law as Internal security
Act (ISA) of Malaysia enabling the authority to detain anybody without any charge with
similar such repressive laws of Indonesia, the socio-political instability manifest through the
hundreds or perhaps thousands of race riots that shattered Indias stability and as such human
development during last more than 5 decades could have been easily minimized for ascending
the ladder of higher human development comparable to that of Malaysia and Indonesia.
Despite this, among many other limitations, India still champions the model of stable
democracy with a mix of western type liberal democracy and human rights and Asian values
Ataul Huq Pramanik / 1059
of collective as opposed to individual self-interest and loyalty to leaders. There is no dearth
of historical evidences to suggest that although with a stable democracy having two vital
components-unrestricted competition and participation, a country like India can succeed crisis
of any magnitude, the countries like Malaysia and Indonesia despite having better records of
HD can become easily vulnerable to economic crisis as evidenced since mid-1997.
It is doubletless true that Malaysias records on human rights have taken a new direction
after the formation of Human Rights Commission (SUHAKAM being Malay Acronym of
HR) after 1997 financial and political crisis
7
. One can observe the growing political
consciousness among the younger generation of Malaysian in the recent period. Both the
self-censorship and the government imposed restrictions on media are being gradually
relaxed in favour of open criticisms by the conscientious individuals and NGOs. Even
peaceful demonstrations subject to seeking permission of the relevant authorities were largely
tolerated for some time before being banned by the fear that what appears to be peaceful at
the beginning can easily turn out to be violent warranting stern police actions by force at the
end to protect larger interest. The recent protests by the Chinese youth organizations to
curtail the privileges so far enjoyed by the Malay majority race-Bumiputeras attests to the
above fact.
Among many other issues raised by the Chinese organizations, the most prominent ones
include, removal of quota at all levels in educational institutions of higher learnings, special
scholarships and subsidies for Bumiputera, quota in public sector jobs including housing and
other benefits together with the restrictions on the ownership of capital in corporate sectors
etc. The persistent critics of New Economic Policy that aimed at improving the dilapidated
conditions of the Malays and creating a new Malay capitalist class along with the privileged
Non-Bumiputeras have also been arguing that the confirmation of Affirmative Action
Programme, has undermined the talents and potentials of Non-Bumiputera as a whole
thereby creating a subsidy and dependent mentality among the Bumiputeras. This holds true
regardless of whether one talks of the corporate world or the intellectual world comprising
institutions of higher learnings. Absence of competitive spirit-the springboard of success is
quite conspicuous at everywhere including the institutions of higher learnings.
The realization of the objective of restructuring society has successfully created a Malay
middle class who having a stake in the state is expected to continue unflinching support for
the administration (Gomez, 2002, Intro & Chap. 3). This was done through the rapid
expansionary Public enterprises from as low as 109 in 1970 to as high as 1149 in 1992
(Gomez & Jomo, 1997, P. 31). It was planned that in the process of gaining control over the
strategic segment of the economy, the new economic projects and businesses could also be
created which could be later divested to Bumiputeras. It has been observed by Gomez and
Jomo (1997, P. 27) that despite the debilitating impact of political patronage on intra-party
politics and the corporate sector, government leaders maintained that such patronage and the
preferential award of government contracts and other government-allocated rents to selected
individuals was necessary to create Malay business. Among the schemes introduced to help
develop Malay capitalism were special privileges such as allowing Malay quotas to be
imposed in the award of business licenses, government employment and educational access.
The government provided assistance schemes for Malays included facilities in the form of
credit, training and business premises and an acquisition strategy to expand Malay ownership
of the corporate economy (Gomez & Jomo, ibid, P. 15). Despite all these generously
awarded government permits, licenses and bank loans to facilitate their entry into business
only a few competent entrepreneurs emerged during last three decades- (Horii, 1991, PP. 290-
1 cited in Gomez & Jomo, 1997, P. 15). In line with the NEP objective of restructuring
society through the creation of Malay middle class and Malay capitalist, privatization policy
was also introduced since mid-1980s to generate enough revenues for the poverty reduction
programmes.
1060 / ISoIT 2004
Like in case of Malaysia patronizing a privileged class as the Indonesian economy
achieved an unprecedented development since 1970s through 1990s (vide App. Table 1 Cols.
5-12) with GDP growth averaging 7 percent and real GDP per capita more than trebling,
president Suhartos and other senior officials patrimonial distribution of favours served to
maintain the regimes dominance at least as much as crude force or attempts at symbolic
legitimation of power (Liddle 1985 cited in Gomez, 2000, P. 216). During the Suhartos
regime the state all along maintained its role as the central actor, and the rise of capital
remained highly dependent on personalized relations with leading members of the
government and the bureaucracy and the senior military officials. Thus, Suhartos period
established three major groups of politically connected companies aimed at controlling most
of the formal economy. These groups that truly represent the triangular power structure
include the Sino-Indonesian conglomerates, state-owned enterprises (SOEs) and the
Indigenous Indonesian, or pri-bumi firms.
Social Disequilibrium from Imbalances in HR and HD
God-The Almighty has created everything in balance. This holds good for every living
and non-living beings in physical and metaphysical world. It is we, the human beings are to
be held responsible for disturbing this balance that contributes to an environment of conflicts
and wars thereby endangering the peace and stability in the long-run.
The human rights (CPR) primarily dealing with economic rights are inseparable and
hence should move hand in hand with the socio economic rights (SER). One can, however,
argue that human rights being human-centered are comprehensive and automatically include
economic rights, i.e., the development aspect of human being although the latter might exist
without the recognition of the former at least temporarily. That the increasing numbers of
countries have been moving towards democracy in terms of recognizing the rights to
participate and compete in economic as well as policy-making activities is a testimony to the
inevitable law of social equilibrium. The violent revolutions that took place in Bangladesh,
Iran, Indonesia and the whole of central Asia through 1990s, among many others demonstrate
the need for social equilibrium. Even the wave of changes taking place in two hard socialist
countries like China and Burma since late-1970s also speak for the inevitable law of the
creator i.e., equilibrium or balance warranted for this material world (Naqvi, 1981, Chap. 2).
Looking at the performance of HR manifest through political and civil rights and HR
through economic rights it appears that both Indonesia and Malaysia have been experiencing
imbalances between these two until the last quarter of 1990s. Since late 1997, the two events
one, internally caused by the economic crisis of 1997 and the other globally caused by the 9
th
Sept. of 2001 have been interacting to reshape the social equilibrium in these countries in
particular and the world in general. Compared to Indonesia, Malaysias record on HR
proxied by political and civil rights looks better until the fag end of 1990s after which the
record on civil society organizations as transpired through press freedom and civil liberties
(compare cols. 4 & 8 with cols. 3 & 7, App Table 2) has improved significantly for Indonesia
compared to Malaysia
8
.
The ratings on press freedom based on broadcasting and printing in terms of laws and
regulations influencing media content, economic influences on media content of repressive
actions to scare anti-establishment broadcasting and printing improved when Suhartos
successor Habibie expressed full support for press freedom. However, press censorship still
continued when violence erupted to reject harsh economic reform measures. Contrary to
Indonesia, the financial crisis in Malaysia being tringgered by political crisis caused by
Anwar Saga by way of provoking riots and street protests prepared the grounds for
government to justify by harsher rules and regulations for those involved in anti-government
Ataul Huq Pramanik / 1061
broad-casting and printing (Freedom House, Country ratings). Although there exists an
overall trade-off relationship between HR and HD in terms of worsening HR and improving
HD for both Indonesian and Malaysia since 1970s, Malaysias relatively better performance
in macro-economic indicators as well as political indicators like political and civil rights
contributed to containing the gap between HR and HD. Within HR, the political rights and
civil liberties based on a number of detailed checklist suggest that unlike the Indonesians,
Malaysians were empowered in 1960s through 1990s with more political rights (compare
cols. 1-2, App. Table 2) to participate freely in the political process. This, in turn, enabled
people to choose authoritative policy-makers and influence the decisions affecting the
national, regional or local community. As such, Malaysias success in creating a viable as
well as priviledged Malay middle class even through crony capitalism makes a difference
with Indonesia as far as the unfavorable effects of imbalances between HR and HD are
concerned. But measured by another criteria of HR i.e., the civil liberties to include the
freedom to develop views, institutions, and personal autonomy independent of the state
Indonesia seems to be more open compared to Malaysia (compare cols. 3-4, Table 2) after
Habibie took over as the president of Indonesia in May 1998 (See Row 5, cols. 7-8, App.
Table 2).
One interesting observation for our case study is, the gap between HR and HD has been
widening much faster in case of Indonesia compared to Malaysia. This becomes evident
from relatively faster growth rate in GDP per capita as has also been transpired through
relatively better performance in HD in Indonesia (Cols. 5-6, App. Table 1). During the last
there decades, while human development index (HDI) for Indonesia showed an increase of 45
percentage point as opposed to only 24 percentage point for Malaysia. This Index increased
from .47 in 1970s to .68 in 1999 in Indonesia compared to .62 in 1975 to .77 in 1999 in
Malaysia. The success in poverty reduction is found to be equally impressive despite having
much lower per capita GDP for an average Indonesia compared to a Malaysian. Our finding,
therefore, suggests that if the civil society institutions do not grow at par with human
development, the growing urge for participating and contesting in decision-making through
regular elections, can create resentment to trigger revolution through violent changes. This is
also equally true that without vibrant civil society institutions, the powers-sharing through
regular elections under the dominant party democratic procedures might fail to ensure full
respect for human rights as well. Our finding also suggests that the ability to sustain higher
as well as sustainable growth might partly compensate the deficit in human rights. This
however, explains why Malaysia despite facing similar financial crisis survived through
quick but bold economic recovery measures pursued by a stable and legitimate government.
But Indonesia for not having similar good records on HR failed to survive through IMF
prescribed quick recovery measures.
Conclusion and Policy Suggestion
Both Malaysia and Indonesia have been pursuing the policy of guided democracy with
highly restricted freedom of press and civil society organizations. The need for national
consolidation, racial harmony, peace and stability and above all collective welfare was used
to justify this polity. As a result of the strong discipline imposed on social, political and
economic dimensions, both countries have been successful in attaining reasonably higher
level of human development compared to many other semi-industrialized countries endowed
with relatively abundant natural and mineral resources. But, the imbalance between HR and
HD created by social and political tensions in terms of limited participations and competition
in socio-political decision-making flared up by externally-induced financial crisis since mid-
1997 thereby triggering unrest in both the countries.
1062 / ISoIT 2004
The severity of the tensions and the harshness of the policy measures to counter them
differed quite significantly in Malaysia and Indonesia. The presence of the following five
policy measures explains the success in case of the former, while the lack of all these the
failure of the latter. Firstly, Malaysia following the Race Riot of May 1963 successfully
pursued New Economic Policy (NEP) having two-pronged objectives of eradicating poverty
and restructuring society. This NEP helped to create a strong Malay middle class through all
kinds of special privileges in educational institutions, higher trainings in abroad, job-quota
and in the allocation of contracts, subsidized capital, housing facilities etc. Indonesia, on the
other hand, based on political connections could create only a handful of strong capitalist and
that, too, from among the Suharto families. Secondly, Malaysia all along has been pursuing
the policy of accommodation and tolerance whenever there arose political tensions with the
opposition. While doing this, the government did take resort to the harsh measures like ISA
(Aliran 22:9, PP.14-16) the Sedition Act, originally designed for countering communist
threats during pre-Independence period. Indonesias policy towards opposition was even
much harsher because of lack of legitimacy of the government in the absence of regular free
and fair elections.
Thirdly, Malaysian government by virtue of having legitimacy could succeed in pursuing
conflict resolution management based on uniquely designed formula of power-sharing among
the primary component parties of Barisan Nasional (BN). Because the absence of power-
sharing policy, the participation of opposition parties was highly restricted in Indonesia thus
widening the gap between the government sponsored Golkar party and the opposition run by
equally genuine and patriotic members. Fourthly, to respond to the demand of the time for
the decentralization of political power structure Malaysian government has been successfully
pursuing the policy of motivating the enlightened younger and much more conscious
generation since the onslaught of economic crisis to comprehend the spirit of Rukun Negara
formation-building. It is being guided by the philosophy of achieving a greater unity,
maintaining a democratic way of life, creating a just society with equitable distribution,
ensuring a liberal approach to diverse cultural traditions and building a progressive society
oriented to modern science and technology. Indonesia despite having similar philosophy of
nation- building such as pancasila failed to operationalize its goals for the lack of the above-
stated reasons caused by highly polarized decision-making.
What has been delineated above to explain the success of Malaysia in minimizing the
abuse of human rights while continuously enhancing human development compared to
Indonesia has undergone a tremendous change most particularly after the tragic Sept. event of
2001 in the citadel of world power - the US. Under the misconstrued campaign of War
against Terrorism launched by the self-assumed super-power on earth, the drive towards
democratization in the undemocratic, authoritarian governments has received a tremendous
set-back. In this process, the abuse of human rights reached its lowest ebb in the entire globe
with Malaysia and Indonesia being no exception. The rising democracies, mature
democracies and transition democracies all have been brain-washed to run after the so-
called terrorist-the invisible entity dismantling the most sacred preamble of Universal
Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 by the champion of Western Democracies. In the face
of all these, Indonesias performance of HR compared to Malaysia since 2000 is quite extra-
ordinary given the low per capita income (Row 8, cols. 7-8, App Table 2; Also see Aliran,
2002, Vol. 29:3, P.21). Based on the ranking of press freedom (Freedom House, 2003)
Indonesias performance seems to have improved quite significantly during the Post-financial
crisis period coinciding with Pro-democracy revolution compared to Malaysia. While
Indonesia with a score of 50.5 enjoys partly free status, Malaysia with 69 enjoys non-free
status. However, immediately before this crisis (1994-97). Malaysias status (61) on press
freedom was little better than that of Indonesia (71). If Indonesia can survive the test of time,
the future of this most populous and diverse Muslim majority country with all the chequered
Ataul Huq Pramanik / 1063
history can set a model for all other Muslim countries regardless of any ideological prejudices
by way of achieving a right balance between human rights and human development in the
New Millennium.
Being one of the two star-performers in the Muslim World, Malaysia can also
significantly contribute to this lofty goal of achieving social equilibrium by gradually doing
away with the special privileges of the Malays in terms of infusing the spirit of competition
among all races for economic gains. The majority Malays who were being treated specially
to be able to compete with others must be given the clear message that nothing is free and
privileges should not be misused for rights for all the time. The recent conflict of interests
among the Chinese Youth organizations, the gradually eroding values and family institutions
and above all the weakening racial integration - all warrant that only a just society based on
meritocracy and not on favouritism, cronyism and nepotism can successfully move towards
the goal of vision 2020. In the light of the above, it would not be an exaggeration to say that
the pursuit of pragmatic and dynamic policy-shifts of the far-sighted leadership beginning
from New Economic Policy to New development Policy and to New Vision Policy towards
achieving Vision 2020 does speak for a step in the right direction.
Endnote
1. Base on cross-sectional evidences Lipset and Coleman (cited in Arat, 1991, P. 53) argue
that economic development is a necessary but not a sufficient condition of democratic
development. While examining the relationship between freedom (CPR) and human
development (SER) Streeten (1993) observes that freedom though not a necessary
condition of HD, is found to be entirely consistent with it even at quite a low level and
that HD, having reached a certain stage leads inevitably to the call for freedom (CPR) by
the people. For contrasting views on the relationship between democracy, human rights,
freedom and development see a number of interesting studies (Sen, 1999; Bhagwati,
1995; Barro, 1991; Pourgerami, 1991; Przeworski, 1993). In this regard Barros finding
(cited in Van Den Berg, 2001, PP. 467-471) is quite interesting. According to him the
positive relationship between political freedom (CPR) and economic growth (SER) holds
for lower levels of political freedom but this relationship might reverse when a nation
approaches full democracy. Barro suggests that, perhaps, in places that have already
achieved a moderate amount of democracy, a further increase in political rights impairs
growth and investment because the dominant effect (of democracy on growth) comes
from the greater concern for improved income distribution. Barro and Dawsons
findings also confirm that prosperity (SER) promotes democracy (CPR). Like most other
East Asian high performing economies already on the path of democracy the growing
urge for further political and economic reforms in China since late-1970s and of political
reform in Singapore since 1990s seems to be consistent with the above finding of wealth
theory of democracy.
2. Human Development Report has shifted its focus from how much is a nation
producing to how are its people fairing. This shift reflects the fundamental moral
orientation of the HD perspective, which makes and common good in a global economy.
This report also articulates an ethic that places a prominent value on the good of the
whole in the face of the many competing interests and dramatic disparities marking
contemporary interdependencies and interactions (O,connor, 2002, P.1). OConnor also
critically examines HD from many other perspectives based on the notion of common
good.
3. Having included the criteria of freedom to homosexuality as a component of human
rights (UNDP, Human development Report 1991 cited in Pramanik, 1997, P. 46) the
west has totally lost the moral and intellectual superiority in advocating human rights for
1064 / ISoIT 2004
the conservative East although none will dispute with many other positive elements of
HR such as freedom of expressions, human aspirations and dignity of human personality.
Also see Mahbubahi (1998) on the limitations of the applications of the concepts of HR
as prescribed by the West for developing countries as a sine-qua-non for development.
4. According to Kamali, Islam provides a balanced view on affirmative evidence in favour
of freedom of expression and the limitations regardless of moral or immoral that Islam
imposes on the exercise of freedom at the individual level. Freedom of expression also
complements human dignity. As such, individual can have little dignity if they are denied
the right to give opinions and voice their feelings in matters concerning them. The
Quran also declares that dignity is the natural right of very human being. The Quran says
(al-Isra, 17:70) we bestowed dignity on the progeny of Adam (Kamali, 1994, Intro).
5. But Gray (cited in Karatnycky, 96, P. 69) contests this view of democracy on Asian
Values. According to Gray, Lee and Mahathir manipulate the values argument to justify
substantial restriction on political rights and civil liberties that contravene 1948 Universal
Declaration of Human Rights. Gray also suggests that East and Southeast Asian success
owes more to hard work than to the political climate. To dispel the notion of Asian
values with respect to the Philippines and India, Gray asserts that while economic growth
in the case of the former suffered because of Marcos dictatorship and abuse of power,
the economic growth of the latter is undermined not by political pluralisms, but by
corruption, opportunistic politicians, stifling bureaucracy and money-loosing state-owned
enterprises, as well as a castes system blocking the opportunities for the less-privileged.
6. Also see Hill, 1996, PP. 78-84; Arndt, 1984, PP. 172-178; Vatikiotis, 1998, PP. 177-78,
Johannen & Gomez, 2001).
7. The commission was established in the midst of massive wave of political liberalization,
where the goals of government were being redefined, and the emphasis was on peoples
rights, democracy, openness, the rule of law and transparency (Maznah, 2002).
8. In a new worldwide press freedom index published by an international media watchdog,
Reporters San Frontiers (RSF), Malaysia secured the 110
th
spot out of 139 countries
surveyed. Indonesia performed the best among Southeast Asian countries, coming in at
57, while Thailand was ranked 65, Cambodia 71 and the Philippines 89. Countries which
performed worse than Malaysia are Brunei, Vietnam, Laos and Burma. Singapore was
not ranked. It is a class of its own? (Aliran, Vol. 29, No. 9, P.21).
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Prof. Ataul Huq Pramanik
Department of Economics
International Islamic University Malaysia
53100 Kuala Lumpur
E-mail: ataul_huq@yahoo.com
Tel: 603-77297012
Fax: 603-20564058
Kitab Siyar al-Salikin oleh Abdul Samad al-Falimbani
Mengelirukan
Abdulfatah Haron Ibrahim
Perhatian khusus kepada kitab Siyar al-Salikin oleh Abdul Samad al-Falimbani yang
mendakwa terjemah daripada Ihya' Ulumuddin oleh Imam Ghazali. Abdul Samad al-
Falimbani menggunakan Martabat Tujuh bagi menjelaskan bagaimana seorang sufi boleh
mencapai fana' dalam tauhid. Perkara seperti ini tidak dilakukan oleh Ghazali.
Beza di antara Ghazali dengan al-Palimbani
Pertama
Ghazali tidak menerima fahaman wahdat al-wujud tetapi al-Falimbani terima.
Kata Ghazali Tiada tuhan selain Allah Yang Tiada Sekutu
bagiNya,
1507
kata Ghazali ini menunjukkan ada yang lain selain Allah sebenar ada tetapi tiada
sekutu dengan Allah Ta'ala. Ghazalai berfaham ithnainiyat al-wujud ( wujud Allah sebagai
Khaliq dan wujud alam semesta sebagai makhluk yang terjadi daripada tiada kepada ada ).
Kata al-Palimbani Tiada tuhan selain Allah ya'ni tiada
maujud itu melainkan wujud Allah sahaja. Kata al-Falimbani ini menunjukkan wujud selain
Allah sebenarnya tidak ada yang ada hanya Allah. Al-Falimbani berfaham wahdat al-wujud.
Wujud Allah sebagai Khaliq dan wujud selain Allah adalah hasil tajalli Allah yang
berterusan selama-lamanya sebagai wujud wahmi atau bayangan bagi Allah sedangkan
pada hakikatnya tiada berwujud, wujud sebenar hanya Allah. Kata al-Falimbani, "tauhid
keempat ini Ilmu Hakikat dan Ilmu Ma'rifat dan wahdat al-wujud".
1508
Dari kata-katanya ini
jelaslah bahawa al-Falimbani menyebarkan fahaman wahdat al-wujud Martabat Tujuh dalam
kitab Siyar al-Salikin ini. Sedangkan Ghazali tidak melakukan perkara seperti ini.
Menurut fahaman wahdat al-wujud Allah Ta'ala mengadakan alam semesta ini bukan
daripada tiada kepada ada ( ex nihilo ) seperti itiqad Ahli Sunnah wa al-Jamaah, tetapi
daripada ada kepada ada. Yang mula-mula ada ialah Allah Yang Tiada Awal bagi Ada-Nya
dan ada makhluk termasuklah manusia terbit, nampak jelas dan nyata (tajalli, manifestations)
daripada Allah seperti ombak laut tajalli daripada laut , atau cahaya matahari tajalli daripada
matahari sebagaimana kata Hamzah Fansuri,
Katakan ana al-Haqq jangan takut!
Itulah ombak menjadi laut.
1509
Katanya lagi, Adapun Wujud Allah dengan Dzat Allah mithal matahari dengan
cahayanya; Pada kami Dzat Allah dengan Wujud Allah esa hukumnya, Wujud Allah
1507
245 4 . .
1508
: . . 4 95
1509
Hamzah Fansuri, Syair, petikan H. Hadiwijono dalam Man in the Present Javanese Mysticism,
Bosch & Keuning, N.V. Baarn, 1967, p.90
Abdulfatah Haron Ibrahim / 1069
dengan wujud alam esa; wujud alam dengan alam esa hukumnya. Seperti cahayannya
(matahari) namanya jua lain, pada haqiqatnya tiada lain. Pada penglihatan mata esa, pada
penglihatan hati pun esa. Wujud alam pun demikian lagi dengan wujud Allah - esa; kerana
alam tiada berwujud sendirinya.
1510
Bagi penganut wahdat al-wujud Allah ialah segala-galanya menapikan
ada yang sebenar selain dari Allah: bagi mereka inilah erti . Manakala Ahli
Sunnah erti ialah tiada yang diibadatkan dengan sebenrnya selain Allah.
llmu Martabat Tujuh ialah mengenai seluruh alam semesta atau al-maujudat daripada ada
kepada ada. Maksudnya ialah bahawa Allah Yang Maha Esa mentajalli (menampakkan)
pada pandangannya- dalam rupa segala yang ada dalam alam semesta ini.
1511
Selain dari
Allah yang terdiri daripada segala al-maujudat ini sebenarnya wujud bayangan atau wahaman
semata pada hakikatnya tiada berwujud dan inilah maksud pengertian oleh al-
Falimbani seperti tersebut di atas.
Allah Maha Esa, maka tiada terbit daripada Esa melainkan esa. Sungguhpun esa tetapi
berlapis-lapis. Lapisan ini dalam Bahasa Arab digelar martabat. Di antara mereka ada yang
mengatakan tujuh lapis, lalu terkenallah dengan sebutan Martabat Tujuh.
Pengertian yang kelima tersebut terkandung penjelasan Martabat Tujuh
kepada dua bahagain: Ahadiah, Wahdah, Wahidiah aspek batin bagi Allah dan Alam Arwah,
Alam Mithal, Alam Ajsam dan Alam Insan aspek zahir bagi Allah. Dengan ini bererti " Tiada
wujud sebenar selain Allah, Allah terbahagi kepada aspek batin dan zahir".
Apakah sebab Allah metajallikan Diri-Nya?
Dan nilai hadith tajalli
Allah mentajallikan Diri-Nya kerana mahu dikenal, seperti tersebut kata mereka hadith
qudsi:
Terjemahan: Aku adalah perbendeharaan yang tersembunyi, maka Aku ingin supaya dikenal, lalu Aku
jadikan makhluk supaya mereka kenalkan Aku. Nilai hadith ini amat lemah. Menurut al-Zarkasyi, ibn-
Hajar, ibn-Taimiah dan lain bahawa ini bukan hadith sekali-kali kerana sanadnya tiada diketahui sama
ada sahih atau dhaif.
1512
Menurut mananya juga salah kerana ungkapan ini menunjukkan Allah itu
berhajat. Maka ini menyalahi ayat Quran yang berbunyi:
Terjemah: Sesungguhnya Allah itu bener-benar Maha Kaya (tidak memerlukan sesuatu) dari semesta
alam.
1513
1514
1510
Hamzah Fansuri, AsrarL-Arifin dlm S.M.N. Al-Attas, the Mysticism of Hamzah Fansuri, Kuala
Lumpur, University of Malaya Press, 1970, p. 242.
1511
244 . .
1512
: 1324 152
: 1399 - 1979 327
: 1391 - 1971 273
1513
6:29
1514
: 1345 : . . 4 103 - 104
1070 / ISoIT 2004
Isu Martabat Tujuh
Tersebarnya Wahdat al-wujud Martabat Tujuh di Alam Nusantara
Saya cuba cari tarikh kemasukan Islam ke alam Nusantara, didapati semuanya
penerkaan dan andaian belaka tiada jelas tercatat dalam buku sejarah. Saya cuba cari jawaban
di bawah pertanyaan, apakah nama kitab yang berkaintan dengan ajaran agama Islam (tauhid,
fiqh dan tasawuf atau apa sahaja ) mula dibaca dan diperkenalkan kepada umat nusantara?
Tiada jawaban. Tetapi saya dapati dalam abad 17 ada lima nama semuanya tokoh wahdat al-
wujud yang menulis ajaran tasawuf dalam bahasa Melayu. Mereka ini ialah tiga anak
bumiputra Sumatra dan dua daripada Gugerat India. Tiga dari Sumatra ialah:
1. Shamsu 'l-Din Pasai (1630),
2. 'Abdul Rauf Singkil (1690)
3. dan Hamzah Fansuri ( agak sezaman dengan Shamsu 'l-Din Pasai) , dua dari
Gujerat India bernama:
4. Nuruddin al-Raniri ( 1029H 1619M ), dan seorang lagi dari Gugerat India juga
bernama
5. Muhammad bin Fadhlullah Burhanpuri ( 1029H 1619M) dengan bukunya
dalam bahasa Arab bertajuk al-Tuhfah al-Mursalah yang diterjemahkan ke
dalam bahasa Jawa.
1515
Di antara lima orang semuanya dalam abad 17, kelihatan Muhammad bin Fadhlullah
Burhanpurilah yang agak terawal dan jelas bukunya menyebarkan ilmu Martabat Tujuh
ditulis dalam bahasa Arab, manakala empat yang lain itu ditulis dalam bahasa Melayu.
Teori Tajalli Martabat Tujuh Mendapat Sambutan
Sebab itu barangkali tidak hairanlah jika didapati bitapa luasnya sebaran tawawuf
walaupun, seperti tersebut dalam bab lima , tasawuf wahdat al-wujud tidak ada asal daripada
Quran dan Sunnah yang sahih. Maka bercanggahlah dengan Ahli Sunnah yang berpegang
dengan Quran dan Sunnah iaitu menurut cara Nabi s.a.w. dan para Sahabat. Bagi Ahli
Sunnah, hakikat wujud ialah ithnainiyat al-wujud (Dua Wujud, Wujud Allah Pencipta Yang
Qadim dan wujud makahluk yang baru dijadikan daripada tiada kepada ada). Maka masalah
Allah mula ada 13-14 bilion tahun yang lalu, tidak timbul di antaranya kerana ini adalah
penemuan sains terkini, hampir tidak ada orang yang menyedarinya barangkali. Allah Maha
Qadim tiada awal bagi wujudNya. Maka inilah pegangan Ahli Sunnah wa al-Jamaah.
Wahdat al-wujud dan ithnainiyat al-wujud adalah dua doktrin yang bercanggahan.
Tasawuf tajalli wahdat al-wujud sama ada menggunakan istilah Ahadiah, Wahdah,
Wahidiah, ... atau La tayyun, Tayyun awal ... seperti yang dilakukan oleh Hamzah Fansuri
dan seterusnya sudah lama ada iaitu sejak dari abab 17 seperti tersebut di atas dipelupori oleh
lima orang penyebar. Maka mulai dari abad itu berlumba-lumbalah orang yang pandai
menulis, menulis kitab-kitab tasawuf yang tidak selesa dan tidak sempurna barangkali kalau
mereka tidak masukkan doktrin ilmu Martabat Tujuh. Di mana-mana alam Nusantara terdapat
1515
Lihat Dr. A.H. Johns, The Gift Adressed to the Spirit of thr Prophet,Canberra, The Australian
National.
Abdulfatah Haron Ibrahim / 1071
kitab-kitab dan buku-buku tasawuf yang tidak sunyi daripada perbilangan Martabat Tujuh
yang mereka gelar tanazzulat ( menurun) atau tajalli Dzat Allah, sila lihat kitab-kitab yang
masih diperolehi seperti:
1516
1517
1518
1519
1520
1521
-
1522
1523
1524
-
The Secret of Anal Haqq oleh K.S.K. Khan,
1525
dan terjemahannya Ana al-Haq oleh Abdul Majid Haji Khatib.
1526
Martabat Alam Tujuh dalam Warisan Intelektual Islam,
1527
Wirid Hidayat Jati oleh Raden Ranggawarsita,
1528
dan banyak lagi.
Seperti tersebut di atas bahawa di antara lima orang penyebar wahdat al-wujud semuanya
dalam abad 17, kelihatan Muhammad bin Fadhlullah Burhanpurilah yang agak terawal dari
empat yang lain itu dan amat jelas ia menyebarkan ilmu Martabat Tujuh melalui sebaran
kitabnya yang diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa Jawa dan disyarahkan oleh
bertajuk
1529
( Perkataan "tauhid" yang dimaksudkan dalam tajuk kitab ini bukan ilmu tauhid
Sifat Dua Puluh tetapi "tauhid" dengan erti wahdat al-wujud. ) Penulis tidak temui
ilmu Martabat Tujuh dalam bahasa Arab selain daripada kitab ini, tetapi kata-kata istilah
Martabat 40 Abdul Karim al-Jili terdapat ada banyak persamaan dengan kata-kata istilah
Martabat Tujuh Burhanpuri. Ada kemungkinan Martabat Tujuh Burhanpuri ini adalah petikan
atau ringkasan daripada kata-kata istilah Martabat Empat Puluh (40) al-Jili yang akan
dibentangkan sebagai perbandingan dalam kertas ini.
1516
Dalam S.M.N.al-Attas, The Mysticism of Hamzah Fansuri, Kula Lumpur, University of
Malaya Press, 1970, pp. 233-526. Hamzah hidup dalam masa Sultan Alaiddin Riayat Syah 997 - 1011H.
(1589 - 1604M.) sampai kepermulaan zaman Sultan Iskandar Muda Mahkota Alam 1016 - 1045H.
(1607 - 1636M.) Lihat A. Hasymy, Ssyiah Dan Ahlussunnah, Surabaya: Bina Ilmu, 1983, hlm. 71
1517
Nieuwenhuijze, C.O.A. Saml-Din Van Pasai, Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1945. p.245-266. Syams al-Din
meninggal dalam tahun 1039H. - 1630M. Lihat A. Hasymy, ibid. hlm. 86
1518
Dalam Dr. A.H. Johns, The Gift Adressed to the Spirit of thr Prophet,Canberra, The Australian
National University, 1965, pp. 128 - 148. Al-Burhanpuri meninggal dalam tahun 1029H. - 1619M.
1519
: 1372 - 1953 100 - 106 1203 - 1788
1520
: . . 1200 - 1785
1521
: 1369
1522
Munuskrip ini dari Petani, selesai ditulis tangan huruf Jawi tahun 1383 Hijrah.
1523
Kelantan, Penerbit PAP 1395H. - 1975M.
1524
Di tepi kitab : . . 36
1525
Lahore: Sh.S. Ashraf, reprinted 1987.
1526
Kota Bharu: Pustaka Aman Press, 1989.
1527
Bandung: Penerbit Mizan, 1408H. - 1987M. hlm. 104 - 129.
1528
Simuh, Satu Studi Terhadap Serat Wirid Hidayat Jati, Pnerbit Universitas Indonesia, 1988.
1529
: . .
1072 / ISoIT 2004
Kerana luasnya sebaran Martabat Tujuh maka dalam kajian ini akan dilihat adanya
persamaan, atau hampir-hampir adanya persamaan, di antaranya dengan teori kosmologi
menurut emanation Neo-Platonism dan tajalli ibn-Arabi dan al-Jili. Tidakkah penulis kagum
dengan sambutan yang diberikan begitu besar sekali? Tidak kagum sekali-kali kerana
spekulalsi falsafah yang bercanggah dengan Qur'an dan sains terkini ( kemungkinan teori
sians berubah-ubah), perkara ini mengingatkan saya kepada kata-kata Imam Ghazali yang
dikatakan bahawa ini adalah asal daripada kata-kata Ali bin Abu Talib berbunyi:
Terjemah: Janganlah kamu kenali kebenaran ( ) itu dengan mengenali orangnya,
tetapi kenalilah kebenaran itu dahulu kemudian barulah dapat dikenali siapakan ahlinya.
1530
Abdul Samad al-Palimbani dalam menyebarkan
ilmu Martabat Tujuh melalui kitabnya yang didakwa terjemah dari kitab
Ihya' Ulumuddin. Sedangkan dalam Ihya' tidak ada Martabat Tujuh
Berkenaan dengan kitab : oleh Abdul Samad al-Falimbani. Kata beliau
"Aku terjemahkan kitab ini dengan bahasa Jawi serta aku tambah"
1531
. Beliau tidak sebut
ditambah itu daripada sumber mana?
Cetakan: Beliau mendakwa kitabnya ini terjemah daripada kitab:
atau
Pertama, Menurut cetakan Makkah
1330 ) 1911 (
tanpa ada kalimah
Kedua, cetakan Mesir tahun 1373 Hijrah dan tahun 1375 Hijrah ada
perkataan jadi
1. Cetakan offset Dar al-Ma'arif Penang, tanpa tarikh, terdapat pada akhir isi kitab ini
tertera cop
1372 - 1953
Cetakan offset Syarikat Piramid, Surabaya, Indonesia, terdapat pada akhir isi kitab
ini tertera cop
1345
Dua cetakan ini ditambah perkataan :
Isi:
Kitab sama ada cetakan Makkah atau cetakan Mesir, isinya adalah sama.
Bila dibandingkan kitab dengan kitab dalam bahasa Arab
didapati:
a. dari segi juzu'nya sama iaitu empat juzu': seperempat pertama mengenai al-'Ibadat,
seperempat kedua al-'Adat, seperempat ketiga al-muhlikat (pembinasaan) dan seperempat
keempat al-munjiyat (pelepasan).
b. dari segi muka surat bagi empat juzu' kitab 368+392+418+553=1731.
Muka surat bagi empat juzu' kitb 224+251+208+272=955. 1731 955 = 776
lebih muka surat Ihya'. Ini bererti kitab mengaku menterjemahkan kitab
tidak menterjemahkan semua tetapi sebanyak 776 halaman muka surat Ihya'
ditinggalkannya. Al-Falimbani tidak menterjemah semua isi kitab sebab itulah
1530
: 1979 110
1531
Lihat atau juzuk 1 halaman 3.
Abdulfatah Haron Ibrahim / 1073
barangkali pencetak penerbit terkemudian menambahkan perkataan berbunyi
c.Tetapi kitab yang sebenar sudah ada bernama:
- -
Kitab ini ditulis oleh Imam Ghazali sendiri dengan katanya:
1532
Maksud:
Semasa aku dalam pengembaraan timbullah idea aku mahu keluarkan inti pati
kitabku Ihya' 'Ulum al-Din.
1533
Perbandingan juzu' dan muka surat:
a. Kitab sama ada cetakan Makkah atau cetakan Mesir, isinya
adalah sama.
b. Bila dibandingkan kitab dengan kitab
dalam bahasa Arab didapati:
Dari segi juzu'nya sama iaitu empat juzu': seperempat pertama mengenai al-'Ibdat,
seperempat kedua al-'Adat, seperempat ketiga al-muhlikat (pembinasaan) dan seperempat
keempat al-munjiyat (pelepasan).
Dari segi muka surat bagi empat juzu' kitab:
368+392+418+553=1731.
224+251+208+272=955. 1731 955 = 776 lebih muka surat Ihya'.
Ini bererti kitab tidak mengandungi semua isi
kerana terbukti kurang sebanyak 776 halaman.
Perbandingan di antara isi 4 juzu' kitab dengan 4 juzu' isi kitab
didapati seperti berikut:
2 60
3 15
60 - 141
15 22
142 - 189
22 48
189 - 243
48 92
243 - 293
92 - 110
293 - 361
110 - 130
361 - 392
130 148
393 - 422
148 - 160
423 - 448
160 - 164
448 - 547
164 247
Ukuran sais kitab sama iaitu 26x18 cm Siyar al-Salikin dan Ihya' 27.5 x 20.
1532
1375 - 1956
1533
1375 - 1956 tebal 300 halaman, ukuran 22x15 cm.
1074 / ISoIT 2004
Tebal isi jilid 4 Siyar al-Salikin ini 252 halaman, manakala isi jilid 4 Ihya' 552
halaman.
Beza menunjukkan Ihya' lebih 300 halaman daripada Siyar al-Salikin. Ini menunjukkan
al-Falimbani banyak meninggalkan isi Ihya' tiada diterjemah dan tanpa memberi tahu. Dia
tidak beritahu perkara ini dalam kata-kata penduhuluan hlm. 3 jlid satu. "Aku terjemah
daripada kitab Ihya' ( atau Lubab Ihya'). Contohnya sila ikuti perbincangan berikut:
Isu kegelisahan orang ramai seperti yang dilaporkan oleh Syaikh Ahmad Khatibnya Al-
Shumus al-Lami'ah,
1534
di antara lain ialah kerana Martabat Tujuh itu adalah dari ajaran Imam
Ghazali. Syaikh Ahmad Khatib menapikan Ghazali ada terlibat dengan ajaran Martabat
Tujuh. Ada kemungkinan sangkaan orang bahawa Martabat Tujuh itu adalah dari ajaran
Imam Ghazali kerana tersiar dalam kitab Siyar al-Salikin oleh Abdul Samad al-Palimbani
yang mengatakan bahawa beliau "terjemah daripada kitab (Lubab) Ihya' Ulum al-Din,
karangan Imam Ghazali serta "aku tambah", kata al-Palimbani. Sila lihat awal halaman 3
jilid pertama. Dalam jilid 4 halaman 100 106 cetakan al-Halabi, 1372H 1953M, atau
cetakan Syarikat Piramid, Indonesia ( al-Halabi 1345H) jilid 4 halaman 92 98, terdapat
perbincangan mengenai Martabat Tujuh.
Mutu penulisan atau terjemahan al-Palimbani ini amat mengelirukan. Dakwaannya
seperti di atas bahawa aku terjemah daripada kitab Ihya' Ulumuddin oleh Imam Ghazali serta
aku tambah, katanya. Saya cuba bandingkan dengan kitab Ihya' Ulumuddin dalam bahasa
Arab
1535
saya dapati bukan sahaja ada tambahan tetapi banyak yang kurang kerana al-
Palimbani banyak meninggalkan teks kitab Ihya' Ulumuddin asal dalam bahasa Arab.
Contohnya, dalam bab Bayan al-Tauhid wa al-Tawakkal, Ghazali sebut 10 ayat Qur'an tetapi
al-Palimbani sebut 3 ayat terawal sahaja. Juga dengan riwayat hadith dan athar didapati ada
kurang dan ada tokok tambah yang menunjukkan adanya perbezaan di antara al-Palimbani
dengan Ghazali. Didapati dalam halaman 245 kitab Ihya' Ulumuddin jilid 4 ada persamaan
dengan apa yang didapati dalam Siyar al-Salikin juzu' 4 halaman 92- 93 bab Hakikat al-
Tauhid dan Tawakkal pada peringkat permulaan tetapi tiada tersusun dengan baik walaupun
isinya hampir ada persamaan hinggalah sampai kempada pembahagian tingkatan tauhid
kepada empat bermulalah kacau bilau. Dalam muka surat 245 kitab Ihya' Ulumuddin yang
sama kira-kira 17 baris di bawah bab tersebut, Ghazali terus dengan perbincangannya tetapi
al-Palimbani sudah mula menyimpang kepada ilmu Martabat Tujuh, yang tidak dikatakan
oleh Ghazali. Dalam Siyar al-Salikih dari halaman 95 hingga 98 cetakan Piramid atau 103
hingga 106 cetakan Penang, al-Falimbani membicarakan ilmu Martabat Tujuh. Habis
Martabat Tujuh al-Palimbani terus masuk fasal Darajat al-Tawakkal. Sedangkan dalam kitab
Ihya' Ulumuddin Ghazali mengambil ruang dari halam 245 hingga 261 barulah didapati fasal
Darajat al-Tawakkal tetapi al-Palimbani tanpa diselangi oleh apa-apa, isi kitab Ihya'
Ulumuddin dari halaman 245 hingga 261 tidak ada dalam kitab Siyar al-Salikin. Inilah
contoh seperti penulis janjikan di atas bahawa al-Falimbalni sengaja meniggalkan sebahagian
isi kitab Ihya' Ulumuddin tiada diterjemahkannya, ini terbuktilah sudah bahawa sesudah
penulis membuat perbandingann di antara dua kitab ini seperti tersebut di atas. ( Sebab
ketinggalan seperti inilah barangkali perkataan Lubab Ihya' 'Ulum al-Din sengaja ditokok
tambah oleh penerbit pencetak Mesir yang dioffset dan diedar oleh Dar al-Ma'arif Pulau
Pinang dan Syarikat Piramid Surbaya, sedangkan cetakan terawal di Makkah tidak ada
perkataan Lubab Ihya' 'Ulum al-Din tetapi Ihya' 'Ulum al-Din sahaja tanpa ada perkataan
Lubab).
Dengan ini jelaslah bahawa Ghazali tidak tulis dalam Ihya' nya ilmu Martabat Tujuh
tetapi tambahan yang sengaja dibuat oleh al-Falimbani. Dalam perbincangan ilmu Martabat
1534
1331 .
1535
:
Abdulfatah Haron Ibrahim / 1075
Tujuh dalam fasal ini al-Falimbani ada sebut nama kitab al-Tuhfah al-Mursalah karangan
Muhammad Fadhlullah al-Burhanpuri dari Gujerat, India. Kitab al-Tuhfah al-Mursalah ini
khusus mengenai ilmu Martabat Tujuh sahaja. Tersebut di atas: Perkara ke lima daripada 10
al-Munjiyat ialah
243 - 293
92 110
Beza di antara Ghazali dengan al-Palimbani
Kedua
Masalah Fana' Dalam Tauhid. Beza di antara Ghazali dengan al-Palimbani.
Kata Ghazali Tiada tuhan selain Allah Yang Tiada
Sekutu bagiNya, Kata al-Palimbani Tiada tuhan selain
Allah ya'ni tiada maujud yang sebenar-benarnya itu melainkan wujud Allah.
Kata Ghazali ini menunjukkan ada yang lain selain Allah sebenar ada tetapi tiada sekutu
dengan Allah. Ghazalai berfaham ithnainiyat al-wujud ( wujud Allah sebagai Khaliq dan
wujud alam semesta sebagai makhluk ). Kata al-Falimbani ini menunjukkan wujud selain
Allah sebenarnya tidak ada yang ada hanya Allah. Al-Falimbani berfaham wahdat al-wujud.
Wujud Allah sebagai Khaliq dan wujud selain Allah adalah hasil tajalli Allah semata pada
hakikatnya tiada berwujud. Kata al-Falimbani, "tahuhid keempat ini Ilmu Hakikat dan Ilmu
Ma'rifat dan wahdat al-wujud".
1536
Ghazali mengatakan bahawa erti tauhid yang mana itulah asal tawakkal adalah huraian
daripada katamu Tiada tuhan selain Allah Yang Tiada Sekutu
bagiNya, beriman dengan QudrahNya yang terkandung dalam katamu baginyalah Kerajaan,
beriman dengan kemurahan dan kebijakan yang terserlah dalam katamu bagiNyalah Pujian.
Sesiapa yang dapat semayamkan segala pengertian ini dalam singgahsana hatinya, jadilah dia
orang yang bertawakkal. Tauhid itu ada empat susunan.
Pertama dengan ucapan lidah semata, iman kulit tanpa isi. Inilah iman munafiq.
Kedua,tasdiq di hati erti kalimah itu. Umumnya inilah iman kebanyakan orang Islam.
Ketiga, dia dapat lihat secara kasyaf, ini iman orang muqarrabin dan
keempat:
) ( :
)
.(
1537
Ayat dari kitab Ihya' dalam kurungan seperti berikut:
) (
ini tidak ada dalam Siyar al-Salikin sebaliknya ditukar dengan ayat berikut:
) " ("
Terjemah: (Martabat tauhid) keempat: Dia tidak lihat dalam alam wujud ini kecuali Esa,
itulah musyahadat para siddiqin. Orang sufi menamakan fana' dalam tauhid, ( sudah tentu
perkataan tauhid di sini bukan ilmu Tauhid dalam 'Aqidah ). Kerana tiada yang dia lihat
kecuali Satu sehingga dirinya sendiripun dia tidak lihat. Apabila dia tidak lihat dirinya sendiri
disebabkan oleh tenggelam dirinya (dengan tauhid bererti dia fana' lebur dirinya
dalam tauhidnya. Dengan erti kata, dia fana' lebur daripada melihat dirinya dan
seluruh makhluk).
1536
: . . 4 95
1537
245 4 . .
1076 / ISoIT 2004
Ayat dari kitab Ihya' huruf bold dalam kurungan ini tidak ada dalam Siyar al-Salikin
sebaliknya ditukar dengan ayat berikut:
( {tiada melihat ia akan dirinya} kerana batinnya itu karam ia dengan syuhud akan Tuhan
Yang Esa yang benar-benarnya dan iaitu murad dengan kata abu Yazid al-Bistami kemudian
daripada syuhud akan zat Tuhan yang asa maka mulupa akandaku mengaku akan diriku ).
Ghazali terus menerangkan maksud fana' dalam tauhid dengan erti kata dia tiada melihat
apa-apa kecuali Yang Maha Satu sehingga dirinya sendiripun tiada dilihatnya. Apabila dia
tiada melihat dirinya kerana tenggelam dalam tauhid, dirinya sendiripun lebur dalam tauhid
Allah. Ghazali mengandaikan ada orang membantah dengan mengatakan bagaimana kau lihat
hanya SATU sedangkan kau lihat langit dan bumi serta segala jisim yang boleh ditanggap
dengan indera deria yang lima. Bagaimana kamu boleh kata satu? Ghazali jawab bahawa
ini adalah penghujungan ilmu-ilmu mukasyafat (tersingkap pelindung). Rahsia ilmu ini
tidak harus ditulis dalam kitab kerana kata orang-orang 'arifin:
Terjemah: Mendedahkan rahsia ketuhanan itu kufur.
1538
Seterusnya Ghazali
menjelaskan pengertian fana' dalam tauhid ini dengan panjang lebar mengambil ruang 15
halaman tanpa menyentuh teori emanasi atau tajalli.
1539
{ Malah teori emanasi seperti yang
dibawa oleh al-Farabi itu melibatkan fahaman alam semesta ini qadim. Ghazali mengkafirka
al-Farabi dan ibn Sina kerana membawa fahaman ini.
1540
} Tentunya Abdul Samad al-
Falimbani baca keterangan dan penjelasan Ghazali mengenai "fana' dalam tauhid dalam kitab
Ihya' tetapi semuanya ini dia tinggalkan dan ruangan ini diisi ganti dengan ilmu wahdat al-
wujud Martabat Tujuh yang mula dicpta oleh ibn 'Arabi ( 638 H ) selang 133 tahun daripada
Ghazali (505 H). Ilmu wahdat al-wujud Martabat Tujuh berasaskan teori tajalli. Kalau teori
emansi atau al-faidh menyeret kepada i'tiqad alam semesta ini qadim azali, teori tajalli
menyeret kepada i'tiqad alam semesta ini bukan sahaja qadim azali tetapi juga baqa' kekal
abadi. Berasaskan fakta ini, kalau al-Farabi dan ibn Sina itu membawa teori al-faidh atau
emanasi maka al-Ghazali menjatuhkan hukum kafir kerana mengandungi pengertian alam
semesta ini qadim, entah bagaimana pula dengan ibn 'Arabi adakah lebih kafir dari al-Farabi
dan ibn Sina kerana membawa teori tajalli yang mendorong kepada mengatakan alam
semesta ini bukan sahaja qadim azali tetapi juga kekal baqa' abadi.
Beza di antara Ghazali dengan al-Palimbani
Ketiga
Al-Falimbani Menambah Martabat Tujuh
Yang Tidak Ada Dalam Kitab Ihya'
Dari sinilah bermulanya titik perpisahan dalam masalah ini yang al-Falimbani tambah
dari sumber lain bukan Ihya' tetapi orang ramai yang membaca kitab Siyar al-Salikin
barangkali masih menyangka ini adalah sebahagian dari kitab Ihya' 'Ulum al-Din oleh
Ghazali. Lalu mereka menyangka, " Imam Ghazalipun ada mengajar ilmu Martabat Tujuh
wahdat al-wujud melalui kitabnya Ihya' 'Ulum al-Din. Sila rujuk ke atas di bawah tajuk
Hanya Sedikit Martabat Tujuh Mendapat Tentangan yang menceritakan bahawa orang
ramai gelisah kerana "sesiapa tidak tahu Martabat Tujuh ditakuti di atasnya mati kafir
kerana ini adalah ajaran Imam Ghazali" seperti tersebut di atas. Seterusnya kata Al-
Falimbani,
1538
- 246 245 4 . .
1539
Ibid.245- 259
1540
: . . 27 - 28
Abdulfatah Haron Ibrahim / 1077
Dan inilah sehingga-hingga orang yang mentauhidkan Allah T'a'ala dan dinamakan
tauhid keempat itu tahuhid khawas al-khawas dan inilah ma'na kalimah
ya'ni tiada maujud yang sebenar-benarnya itu melainkan wujud Allah
Ta'ala yang esa
1541
yang tiada baginya seumpama suatu yang berdiri ia dengan sendirinya
seperti tersebut dalam hadith Nabi
Ertinya "Adalah Allah Ta'ala itu dan tiada suatu sertaNya". Al-Falimbani mengatakan
bahawa "tahuhid keempat ini Ilmu Hakikat dan Ilmu Ma'rifat dan wahdat al-wujud ".
Seterusnya al-Falimbani mengatakan Allah tiada suatu seumpamanya dan Dia diketahui
dengan Tujuh Martabat. ( Di sini al-Falimbani menggunakan perkataan Martabat Tujuh
wahdat al-wujud, Ghazali tidak. )
( Perhatian khas: ungkapan tersebut di atas iaitu "tahuhid keempat ini Ilmu Hakikat dan
Ilmu Ma'rifat dan wahdat al-wujud". Kalimah wahdat al-wujud sudah dikatakan oleh al-
Falimbani, Ghazali tidak kata ).
Al-Falimbani kata wahdat al-wujud Martabat Tujuh itu benar
1. Hadith seperti tersebut di atas itu tidak dapat dikesani, kata-kata
ini menunjukkan Allah sahaja yang ada, selain Allah tidak ada. Tetapi kata-kata ini tidak
lengkap dan tidak terhenti setakat ini malah yang lengkap berbunyi:
Terjemah: Ada Allah dan tiada sesuatupun bersamaNya kemudian ada Allah dan sesuatu
ada bersama dengannya. Kata-kata ini bagi menolak orang yang mengatakan alam ini Allah
juga dalam bentuk tajalliNya. Ini bererti alam ini qadim. Ghazali adalah di antara orang yang
membantah keras malah mengkufurkan orang yang mengatakan alam ini qadim.
1542
Dalam
masalah ini al-Falimbani bukan sahaja terpisah dari Ghazali tetapi mengatakan sesuatu yang
ditentang olehnya. Al-Falimbani pun menjurus ke arah wahdat al-wujud Martabat Tujuh.
Ghazali (505H) tidak kata Martabat Tujuh, tidak kata wahdat al-wujud. Tetapi di sini, di atas
nama terjemah kitab Ihya' Ulumuddin karangan Ghazali, al-Falimbani membawa wahdat al-
wujud Martabat Tujuh.
Ghazali (505H) tidak kata Martabat Tujuh, Ghazali tidak menganut fikrah kejadian alam
semesta ini hasil daripada fikrah tajalli Allah. Tetapi Ghazali tetap berpegang dengan
'Aqidah Ahli Sunnah bahawa alam semesta ini terjadi daripada tiada kepada ada. Al-
Falimbani, barangkali kurang hati-hati, menerima apa sahaja kitab yang sampai kepadanya
termasuk kitab al-Tuhfah al-Mursalah mengandungi ajaran wahdat al-wujud Martabat Tujuh,
lalu al-Falimbani dengan senang hati menerima ajaran wahdat al-Wujud dalam Islam yang
dipelupori oleh ibn-'Arabi ( 638 H ) yang datang 133 tahun selepas Ghazali dan di antara
pengembangnya Burhanpuri ( 1029H ), lalu disambut oleh al-Falimbani yang selesai menulis
kitab Siyar al-Salikin yang dikaji ini dalam tahun 1203 H.
Al-Falimbani membuat dua penjelasan mengenai kata-kata istilah Martabat Tujuh.
Anda tidak perlu bersusah payah jika terdapat kata-katanya yang kabur. Yang penting
anda dapat menanggap Martabat Tujuhnya: Tujuh dalam satu Satu dalam tujuh. Satu dalam
banyak banyak dalam satu inilah wahdah al-wujud.
Berikut intisari Martabat Tujuh seperti yang tercatat dalam kitab Siyar al-Salikin oleh al-
Falimbani juzu' 4 halaman 95 98 (Perkataan Ahadiah, Wahdah dan Wahidiah berasal
daripada ertinya satu tetapi tiada dapat diterjemahkan entah apa maksud sebenar. Sebab
itu dikekalkan tiga perkataan ini begitu hatta dalam buku-buku bahasa Ingeris tiada
diterjemahkan. Kelimah maksud sebenar tiga perkataan ini ialah hurain berikutnya. Lihat
sepreti :
1541
Iaitu erti kelima dari tujuh tafsiran kalaimah seperti tersebut di atas.
1542
: . . 20 - 29
1078 / ISoIT 2004
Pertama, Martabat Ahadiah, erti atau maksudnya ialah dinamakan juga (Allah) La
Ta'yyun dan Martabat al-Itlaq juga Dzat al-Baht ertinya Dzat semata tanpa maksudnya Allah
tanpa sifat dan asma'. Al-Falimbani menggalakkan berbanyak-bayak zikir Dzat semata ini
dengan membawa dua ayat Qur'an dan dua ungkapan yang dikatakan hadith Nabi yang
menyuruh berzikir tetapi bukan suruh menganut Martabat Tujuh.
Kedua, Martabat Wahdah, dinamakan juga (Allah) Ta'yyun Awal (Nyata Pertama) dan
Haqiqah Muhammadiyah. Pada tahap ini Allah Tahu segala dzat dan sifatNya secara ijmal
sahaja tanpa boleh dibezakan.
Ketiga, Martabat Wahidiah dinamakan juga (Allah) Haqiqat Insan. Pada martabat ini
barulah Allah tahu segala sifat dan asma'Nya secara terperinci satu persatu.
Tiga Martabat ini qadim lagi azali ( jadi, Haqiqat Muhammadiah termasuk dalam
wahdah dan Haqiqah Insan termasuk dalam Wahidiah hakikat ketuhanan yang qadim lagi
azali). Tiga Matabat ini ada serentak tanpa zaman dahulu kemudian tetapi disebut dahulu
kemudian menurut kerja akal semata.
1543
Ahadiah, Wahdah dan Wahidiah itu ditamthilkan
seperti mangga kunci, anak kunci dan tangan memulasnya, kunci terbuka dengan tiga perkara
tersebut bergerak serentak.
Keempat, Martabat Alam Arwah, dinamakan juga Nur Muhammad
Nur Muhammad ini dimaksudkan benda halus semata tiada bersusun dan berbeza.
Kelima, Martabat Alam Mithal. Alam Mithal ini dimaksudkan benda halus yang
sudah boleh bersusun dan berbeza.
Keenam, Martabat Alam Ajsam. Alam Ajsam segala benda berceraian yang terdiri
daripada tanah, air, angin dan api termasuklah tumbuhan, binatang, jin dan manusia.
Ketujuh, Martabat Alam Insan iaitu Martabat Jami'ah ya'ni martabat yang
menghimpunkan semua enam martabat terdahulu yang dinama Martabat Alam Insan.
Dinamakan juga martabat Tajalli al-Akhir ertinya Martabat Tajalli (penampakan) Allah yang
terakhir sekali.
Kesimpulan daripada fahaman penulis: Perhatikan kata al-Falimbani,
" Martabat yang ketujuh iaitu Martabat al-Jami'ah ya'ni martabat yang menghimpunkan
sekalian martabat yang enam dahulu iaitu Martabat al-Insan namanya dan dinamakan juga
Martabat yang Ketujuh ini Martabat al-Tajalli al-Akhir ya'ni kenyataan zahir Allah Ta'ala
yang terkemudian sekali".
1544
( Dalam diri insan lengakap segala gala yang ada termasuk Allah dan selain Allah
adalah Allah juga kerana itulah maksud Martabat Tujuh: Martabat pertama, kedua dan ketiga
aspek batin bagi Allah dan martabat empat hingga tujuh aspek zahir bagi Allah menepati
firman Allah:
Terjemah: Dia Yang Awal dan Yang Akhir dan Yang Zahir dan Yang Batin- : 3 .
Maka Martabat Tujuh bererti Allah terbahagi kepada zahir dan batin. Batin ialah Martabat
Ahadiah, Martabat al-Wahdah dan Martabat Wahidiyah manakala zahir Allah pula ialah
Alam Arwah, Alam Mithal, Alam Ajsam dan Alam Insan. Cantuman daripada zahir dan batin
ini ialah segala-gala, Allah ialah segala-gala. Inilah maksud wahdat al-wujud Martabat Tujuh.
Seterusnya al-Falimbani menyebut sekali lagi:
Martabat Ahadiah dinamakan Martabat al-Zuhur maksudnya semata-mata wujud Dzat
Allah, digelar juga Ghaib Mutlaq kerana tiada tercapai oleh akal dan deria yang lima, tetapi
dapat dicapai dengan zauq dan fana' tidak nampak satu apapun selain Dzat Allah.
1543
A.H. Johns, The Gift Addressed to the Spirit of the Prophet
Muhammad,Canbbeerra: The Australian National University, 1965, p. 131.
1544
: . . 4 96
Abdulfatah Haron Ibrahim / 1079
Martabat al-whadah dinamakan Haqiqah Muhammadiah, al-Ta'ayun al-Awal ( Nyata
Pertama ).
Martabat Wahidiyah dinamakan Hakikat Insan, al-Ta'yun al-Thani ( Nyata Kedua).
Tiga Martabat ini wajib lagi qadim, tiga Martabat ini sebenarnya ada serentak seperti
tangan memulas anak kunci, anak kunci, dan mangga kunci, bila dipulas, tiga ini bergerak
serentak lalu terbukalah mangga kunci. Manakala empat yang baki iaitu dikatakan hadith
tetapi sudah terkandung dalam Alam Insan yang degelar Martabat Tajalli Terakhir terkumpul
enam Martabat terdahulu. Mengatakan empat hadith ( baharu ) dimaksudkan dengan aspek
zahir manakalah tiga terawal tersebut dikatakan aspek batin, itulah Allah Batin dan Zahir.
Yang dikatakan kononnya "zahir atau hadith" ialah:
Alam Arwah,
Alam Mithal,
Alam Ajsam dan
Alam Insan ( Sila lihat rajah yang tertera di atas ).
telah zahir mumkin pada kharij di luar atau alam nyata, manakala tiga terdahulu batin
wajib (wajib lawan mumkin). Di sini nampak bercanggah kerana di atas tadi dikatakan
bahawa "Alam Insan itu martabat ( lapisan ) jami'ah ertinya mengumpulkan enam Martabat
terdahulu iaitu Martabat Ahadiah, Martabat Wahdah, Martabat Wahidiyah, Martabat
Alam Arwah, Martabat Alam Mithal dan Martabat Alam Ajsam.
Dengan kata lain, kata al-Falimbani:
Ada dalam Ta'ayun Awal Martabat al-Wahdah , ada dalam Ilmu Allah secara ijmal
yang dinamakan wujud saluhi dan wujud taqdiri, juga dinamakan shu'un sperti firman Allah
Ertinya, Bermula setiap hari Ia ( Allah ) dalam memperbuat perbuatannya. Wujud alam
pada Martabat ini adalah wujud tekdiri jua dalam ilmu Allah belum wujud pada kharij ( di
luar ) ertinya 'adam ( tiada ) dan belum zahir pada khariji (di luar ) tapi semata dalam ilmu
Allah semata-mata.
Wujud takdiri dalam Ta'ayun Thani Martabat Wahidiyah dalam ilmu Allah tafsili
(terperinci ) dinamakan wujud saluhi dan wujud takdiri, juga dinamakan 'Ayan Thabitah
etinya telah tetap takdir segala alam itu dalam ilmu Allah dengan terperinci dan boleh
membezakan di antara satu sama lain.
Wujud segala alam di alam nyata yang dinamakan tanjizi, atau A'yan Kharijah,
atau alam hadith, atau mumkin yang hadith atau makhluk seperti tersebut ( kata mereka )
hadith qudsi:
Ertinya: Adalah Aku seperti perbendaharaan yang tersembunyi maka Aku Kasih bahawa
Aku dikenal oleh hambaKu maka Aku jadikan akan makhluk maka mengenal ia akandaKu.
Alam wujud pada kharij ini ( alam nyata ) ada empat jenis ( daripada Martabat Empat {4}
hingga Martabat Tujuh { 7 }):
( Pertama ) Alam Arwah pun namanya, Nur Muhammadpun namanya seperti sabda
Nabi s.a.w.
Ertinya, Bermula permulaan yang dijadikan oleh Allah Ta'ala iaitu nurku danpada
NurNya dan inilah asal roh sekalian makhluk sama ada manusia atau lain-lain.
( Kedua ) Alam Mithal namanya. Dalam Alam ini segala roh yang bertangkup itu
sekarang sudah ada identity masing-masing. Kaum sufi mithalkan Alam Roh itu seperti laut
dan Alam Mithal itu seperti ombak di dalam laut itu. Ombak berbeza-beza tetapi laut satu jua.
Tetapi tegas al-Falimbani, Alam Roh dan Alam Mithal ini tidak boleh dicapai dengan
pancaindera ( yang boleh dicapai oleh pancaindera ialah Alam Ajsam ), tetapi dicapai dengan
hati kerana Alam Roh dan Alam Mithal itu daripada Nur. Alam Roh dan Alam Mithal ini
dinamakan juga Alam Malakut dan Alam Ghaib. Dengan Alam ini boleh sampai kepada Tiga
1080 / ISoIT 2004
Martabat Yang Qadim yang terawal disebut dalam perbilangan Martabat Tujuh ini. Maka
dengan ini sampailah kepada ma'rifat Allah.
( Ketiga ) Alam Ajsam pun namanya, Alam al-Mulk pun namanya dan Alam Shahadah
(nyata) pun namanya. Alam ini boleh dicapai dengan pancaindera yang lima itu.
Abdulfatah Haron Ibrahim / 1081
( Keempat ) Alam Insan ya'ni manusia. Firman Allah,
Ertinya: Dan sesunguhnya telah Kami jadikan manusia itu terlebih baik kejadiannya lagi terlebih mulia
seperti firmanNya,
Ertinya: Dan sesungguhnya telah Kami beri kemuliaan akan anak Adam iaitu apabila sempurna ma'rifat
insan akan segala Martabat tersebut. Lalu mereka dinamakan Insan Kamil maqam bagi segala nabi
dan para wali terutama sekali Nabi Muhammad, manakala nabi-nabi dan wali-walai lain berbeza-beza
martabat mereka.
1545
Penutup
1. Martabat Tujuh Satu Teori Falsafah Ketinggalan Zaman.
Mafhum teori emanasi atau tajalli menyeret kepada ukuran kewujudan Allah dengan
kewujudan alam adalah wujud yang serentak. Jika demikian, Allah berumur 13-14 billion
tahun yang lalu kerana Alam Semesta ( The universe ) mula ada di sekitar 13-14 bilion tahun
yang lalu, kata sekumpulan ahli sains. Inilah kesimpulannya kalau diikuti fahaman wahdat al-
wujud yang mengatakan bahawa alam keluar dari Allah seperti cahaya matahari keluar
daripada matahari atau alam semesta seperti ombak dan Allah seperti laut. Inilah yang
diistilahkan dengan perkataan tajalli Allah ( tajalli , atau emansi
juga digunakan tetapi tidak tepat ). Menurut teori tajalli ini, "ada Allah, alam
semestapun ikut serta ada". Alam semesta terjadi 13-14 bilion tahun yang lalu, kata sains,
jadi Allah pun ada kira-kira sejak 13-14 bilion tahun yang lalulah juga. Kalau anda tidak
percaya kepada hasil penemuan sains, ahli sains kata kami bukan suruh anda percaya tetapi
hasil daripada kajian kami, kami tahu, bukan kami percaya. Amat jauh bezanya di antara tahu
dengan percaya. Kalau anda mahu lepaskan diri daripada perangkap kufur ini, buangkan teori
emansi atau tajalli yang mengatakan alam semesta ini qadim, dan berpeganglah dengan
Qur'an yang mengatakan alam ini baharu, Allah sahaja Yang Qadim. Hakikat ketuhanan di
luar bidang kajian sains. Tetapi falsafah tajalli tasawuf mengatakan ada Allah serentak seperti
matahari dengan cahayanya. Tasawuf tajalli ini ciptaan orang zaman dahulu. Zaman itu
sains tidak maju seperti sekarang. Dengan kemajuan sains seperti sekarang, urusan kehidupan
sehari-hari serba cepat serba dekat, falsafah emanasi atau tajalli sudah tidak sesuai lagi
dengan zaman sekarang. Kalau berpegang juga, dari sudut 'Aqidah Islam dihukum kufur.
Penemuan sains tidak mutlak. Mungkin ia berubah jika ada teori lain yang membatalkannya.
Tetapi bagi kita sekarang jelaslah bahawa sains menolak falsafah tajalli dan memihak kepada
Islam yang mengatakan bahawa alam semesta ini seluruhnya adalah terjadi bukan daripada
ada kepada ada tetapi daripada tiada kepada ada, sainspun juga kata begitu.
2. Ghayah tasawuf ialah wusul fana' ( sampai dan lebur diri ) dalam Allah dengan
manhaj zuq. Tidak cukup dengan zuq, falsafah digunakan. Ini bukanlah satu kerja yang alang-
alang dan bukanlah sebarang orang boleh melakukannya. Sebab itu penulis mencadangkan
kepada pihak yang berkenaan jangan terlalu melulu mengrecruit sesiapa sahaja masuk tariqat
tasawuf. Wusul fana' tidak ada dalam Qur'an dan Sunnah yang sahih, yang ada dalam
Qur'an dan Sunnah yang sahih ialah taqwa. Taqwa mudah difaham dan senang diamalkan
"kalau mahu" oleh setiap mukallaf segenap peringkat umur dan ilmu. Tasawuf ke arah "wusul
wa al-fana' fil'Lah " adalah laluan yang amat sukar. Mengapa tidak sempurnakan taqwa lebih
dahulu sebelum berfikir mengajak orang ke laluan sukar tasawuf. Sesiapa mengamalkan
1545
: 4 95 - 98
1082 / ISoIT 2004
taqwa menurut Sunnah Rasulullah tiada ruang bagi "laluan sukar itu" dapat
datang mencelahinya. Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari, beliau tidak dikenali sebagai tokoh sufi,
bersembahayang Subuh dengan wudhu' 'atamah (gelap bermula setelah hilangnya sinar
cahaya matahari tenggelam) berturut-turut selama dua puluh tahun.
Prof. Dr. Abdulfatah Haron Ibrahim
Jabatan Usuludin dan Falsafah
Fakulti Pengajian Islam
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
43600 Bangi
Selangor
The Concept of the Muhammadan Light in Malay-Islamic
Discourse in the Context of Sunni Sacred Narrative: An
Early Observation
Muhammad 'Uthman El-Muhammady
Abstract
God willing, this note will deal with the concept of the Muhammadan Light ("Nur
Muhammad") as explained in a number of Malay-Islamic works of Nur al-din al-Raniri, Zain
al-'Abidin al-Fatani, Nawawi al-Bantani (in Arabic), and a number of others . These
explanations will be seen in the context of the Sunni sources like Qur'anic exegesis and the
Prophetic traditions. The intention is to locate the sources of the discourse in the Sunni
narrative in the light of the intention of the hadith 'al-din al-nasihah" as explained, among
others, by Imam al-Nawawi rh. It is hoped that the inclination to label such a discourse as
deviationist or not authentic under the influence of of the so-called 'Salafi' inclination will be
tempered by a sense of moderation in the light of Sunni integrated intellectual narrative. This
is also something which is demanded by the Prophetic nature which is not merely "bashar" in
the ordinary sense. Positive criticisms are forthcoming and welcomed by the writer who sees
himself not as an expert in this field.
*The present writer is grateful to Encik Aman Hj Hassan of the Pustaka Aman Press of
Kota Bharu and also Encik 'Abd al-'Aziz bin Hj Hassan and their staff jazakumullahu
khairan kathira-for giving permission to the writer to avail himself of the works in their
library while preparing for this essay. The present writer is also aware of the fact that the data
from Qur'anic exegesis, hadith, shama'il and khasa'is al-nubuwwah or dala'il al-nubuwwah ,
another category of Sunni narrative, must be taken into consideration.Then there is another
aspect to the subject, namely the aspect of the narrative in the form of"stories" which may
contain some difficulties. However, the 'adab' towards the scholars have to be respected. I
am grateful to our friend Zaidi Mohd Hassan for his views.
The Text of Shaikh Nur al-Din al-Raniri rh
Shaikh Nur al-Din al-Raniri rh has written on this topic of the Muhammadan Light in his
work Bad' Khalq al-Samawat wa al-Ard which is printed in the margin of the work Taj al-
Muluk (n.d.) (1)Among the sources mentioned therein is the of-cited sacred tradition which
means " I was a sacred treasure , and I loved to be known, so I created the world so that I
will be known" oe "so that they will know Me" (2)Another tradition is cited which is to the
effect :"Truly Aallah created the spirit of The Prophet from His essence and He created the
whole universe from the Spirit of Muhammad (Ruh Muhammad".(3). This means that He
created the Spirit of the Prophet s.a.w. from non-existence in to existence from His Own
Presence, not in the sense that the Spirit of the Prophet is created from a part of the essence of
God. Another tradition is also cited to the effect "I (the Prophet (s.a.w.) is from Allah , and
1084 / ISoIT 2004
the believers are from me" (4).This means, as explained by the author himself, that the
Prophet is the first creation created by God and the believers are created by Him from him
(that is from his light) (5). He also cited another tradition to the effect :"I (Allah) created all
things because of you (O Muhammad) and I created you because of Me" (ibid.10). He also
cited the tradition to the effect :"Had it not been for you I would not have created the
spheres".(6) Another tradition is also cited to the effect :"I have created the Prophet whereas
Adam was between water and clay". (7)
Other traditions cited by Shakik Nur al-Din rh are the following which are to the effect
:"The earliest thing created by Allah is the intellect" (8) ; "The earliest thing created by Allah
is the Heavenly Pen (al-Qalam)"(9); "The earliest thing creaqted by Allah are the spirits"(10);
then he explains that the intellect, the heavenly Pen, and the spirits are from the
Muhammadan Light (Nur Muhammad) as is clear from another tradition cited by him to the
effect :"The earliest thing created by Al;lah is my light" (11) .Also cited is the tradition to the
effect :The earliest thing created by Allah is my spirit"(12)
According to Shaikh Nur al-Din, Allah created the Light of Muhammad from the Light
of His Ahadiah.He has cited this based on the statement in the text of al-Manzum which is to
the effect "The Attributes of Divine Majesty and Divine Beauty have come together, so Divine
Beauty has got the upper hand on Divine Majesty, so God created from the two [from His
Will-uem] the Spirit of Muhammad, from non-existence into existence.(13).We have to
observe that all that which was created are the creations of Allah , not that they are
contenuous with the Divine Essence, otherwise there will be two eternal entities, and this is
polytheism.
Shaikh Nur al-Din says that after Allah has created the Muhammadan Light or the
Muhammadan Spirit, He looks at it [with Divine Compassion uem] , with love , so the
Light feels bashful, and it sweats, from its sweat are created the spirits of the prophets , the
saints, and the believers who are pious, and from the spirits of the pious believers are3 created
the spirits of the believers who are wrong-doers, and from the spirits of the believers who are
wrong-doers are created the spirits of the unbelievers.(14)
He states that from the spirit of mankind is created the spirits of the angels, and from the
apirits of the angels are created the spirits of the jinns, from them the spirits of satans, ferom
them the spirit of the animals, amnd from them the spirit of the plant kingdom, some of them
having degrees [in the scale of being-uem] above that of the others; and from these plants
there emerge elements, namely the atmosphere, fire, water, and the wind (ibid.13). Then he
mentions that Allah looks at nall this with the look of Majesty, then it melts, and becomes
water, , some of it becoming fire, then there emerges smoke going into the atmosphere, and
from this Allah created the seven heavens.After this there is some remainder, and from it
Allah created the sun, the moon, and the stars, and so on.(15)
He cites another famous narration to the effect that Allah created a Tree with four
branches, named the Tree of Certainty,then He created the Light of Muhammad in the form
of a Peacock, and He placed it on the Tree.The Peacock blessed the Infinite Glory of God
for seventy-thousand years.When the Peacock sees that it has so beautiful feathers and other
beautiful features, it falls down in prostration five times, that becoming the five daily
prayers for the Muhammadan community.
He also cites the narration about God making a lamp from the red 'aqiq (16) .
The Kashf al-Ghaibiyyah oleh Zain al-Abidin al-Fatani rh:
Among the popular Jawi texts on this topic is the work b Shaikh Zain al-'Abidin al-
fatani, by the title of Kashf al-Ghaibiyyah (lit."The Unveiling of the Unseen". .
Muhammad 'Uthman El-Muhammady / 1085
The Kashf al-Ghaibiyyah is based on the original Arabic of Daqaiq al-Akhbar fi
Dhikr al-Jannah wa al-Nar karangan Imam Abd al-Rahim bin Ahmad al-Qadhi, and the
work Durar al-Hisan by Imam al-Suyuti, and the Mashariq al-Anwar by Shaikh Hasan
al-Adawi by Shaikh Zain al-Abidin al-Fatani rh (Maktabah wa Matbaah dar al-Maarif,
Pulau Pinang , t.t.)
This work was composed in the year 130 A.H. On page 3 and the following pages there
is the first Chapter abou the creation of the greatest Spirit (al-Ruh al-A'zam) , namely the
Light of Muhammad salla'Llahu 'alaihi wa sallam. He states:
Truly there has come the narration that Allah the most High created a Tree With four branches, and
He called it the Tree of the Muttaqin (The Tree Of the Pious Ones), and in one narration it is The Tree
of Certainty (Sha-Jarah al-Yaqin); then He created the Light of Muhammad in a veil of a very White
Diamond, like the form of a Peacock, and He placed it on that Tree, and that Light blessed the Infinite
Majesty of God for seventy-thousand years, then He created a Mirror of Bashfulness and placed it in
front of the Light, when the Peacock sees it, and observes its beautiful appearance full of
ornamentation, it becomes bashful in front of the Divine Presence, and it sweats in six droplets, from
the droplets Allah created, the first, the spirit of Abu Bakar, Allah be pleased with him, from the
second droplet Allah created the spirit of Umar God be pleased with him, and from the third droplet,
He created the spirit of 'Uthman , and from the fourth droplet He created the spirit of Ali God be
pleased with him, from the fifth droplet the rose tree and from the sixth droplet the paddy.(17)
Then the narration goes on to mention how the Muhammadan Light prostrated five times,
thereby making the five obl,igatory prostrations , hence the obligation of the five daily
canonical prayers on Muhammad and his Community. Then the Light becomes bashful and
sweats; from the sweat of its nose Allah created the angels, from the sewat of its face, God
created the Throne, The Footstool, the Preserved Tablet, the Heavenly Pen, the sun, the
moon, the veil, the stars, and things in the heavens.From the sweat of its breast God created
the Prophets, the Messengers, the religious scholars, the martyrs, and the pious ones.From the
sweat of its back God created the Heavenly Frequented Fane, the Bait al-maqdis, and all the
locations of mosques in the whole world. (18)
There is the mention of other aspects of the creation from the sweat.
From the sweat of its eye-brows are created the believers, men and women from the
Muhammadan Community. From the sweat of its ears are created the souls of the Jews and
the Christians and the Magians, then the heretics, the unbelievers, those who reject the Truth,
and the hypocrites.From the sweat of its feet are created the earth from the east to the West
and all that it contains.(19)
Then Allah commands the Light to look in front, in its front there is light, in its right and
left there is light. They are Abu Bakar, 'Umar, 'Uthman and 'Ali. Then the light blesses the
Infinite Majesty of Allah for seventy-thousand years.
The writes of the work states that : the light of the prophets is created from the Light of
Muhammad s.a.w.; it means the souls of the prophets are created from the sweat of the
Muhammadan Spirit, and the souls of the Communities of the various prophets are from the
sweat of the souls of the respective prophets.
Then there is the narration to the effect that Allah created a lamp from red 'aqiq , its
inside can be seen from the outside, then the Muhammadan Form as is in this world isw
created by God, and placed in that Lamp, and he stands therein praying, as he can be seen
praying in this world.Then the souls of all prophets and others go around the lamp of the
Muhammadan light s.a.w. , blessing the Infinite Majesty of God, celebrating His oneness,
for one hundred thousand years.Then Allah commands all the souls to see the light.Those
who see it at the head will be caliphs among mankind; those who see it at the forehead will
become a just ruler; those who see it at the eyes wilol become the memorizers of the sacred
Speech of God; those who see it at the eye brows will become painters; those who see at the
ears will become those who listen and accept [good teachings and lessons]; those seeing the
1086 / ISoIT 2004
cheeks will be intelligent doers of good; those seeing the mouth will be the great ones among
the kings and rulers. Those seeing the nose will be judges, physicians and perfumers.Those
seeing the mouth will be those who fast.And son on; those seeing certain parts of the body
will be possessing certain qualities in their earthly existence. For example those seeing the
breast will be scholars, noble and those capable of sound disciplined judgment in their life
(20). Those not seeing anything will claim divinity like the case of the pharaoh and those like
him (21).
He cites the sacred tradition of-quoted: (
) : I am a sacred treasure ang I love to be known so I created the universe aso that I am
known [by My creation] (22)..
He also cites the tradition of the Prophet s.a.w.:
( ):
The earliest created by God the most High is my light. In one narration it is mentioned
:my spirit (ruhi).
The writer of the work comments: The whole world is created by God the Infinitely
Exalted because of ("daripada sebab") the light of Muhammad s.a.w. as already mentioned
.Then he mentions the sacred tradition :
:( )
I created all things because of you (O Muhammad) and I created you for Me.That means
The Light of Muhammad is created without intermediary (23).
Through this well known work the concept of the Muhammadan Light is spread among
Muslims of this region through the medium of the jawi text.
Bab yang berikutnya ialah tentang penciptaan Adam a.s. (hal 6 dst).
The ' al-Kaukab al-Durri fi al-Nur al-Muhammadi' by Shaikh
Muhammad bin Ismail Daud al-Fatani rh:
Thiks text is recently published by the Khazanah al-Faththaniyyah , Kuala Lumpur,2001.
This is composed by its author in 1304 A.H. in Makkah. It deals with the Muhammadan
Lighjt from page 2-page 7. The contents are from the narration of Ka'b al-Akhbar , the same
data as found in the previous text Kash al-Ghaibiyyah of Shaikh Zain al-'Abidin al-Fatani.
Among the data: Allah takes a Grasp of light from His Light , He commands It to become
Muhammad, so it becomes Muhammad; then it becomes a pillar of Light, it prostrates
towards Allah.Then that Light is divided into four: the first part becomes the Preservbed
tablet, the second becomes Heavenly Pen, command is given to the Pen to write, up to the
communities of the prophets, those who are obedient and those who are disobedient, with the
consequences. Then there is the mention about those seeing the Light at the various parts
possessing various attributes. All creatures are created from this light. This ends with the
mention of the creation praying in the image of the letters of the name Ahmad or
Muhammad; the standing is the equivalent of alif, the bowing down is equivalent to the letter
ha', the prostration is like the letter mim, and the sitting down is like the letter dal. It is also
mentioned that the creation is made in the image of the name Muhammad , the head is like
the mim, the two hands like the ha', the stomach like the mim, the two feet like the dal.
Muhammad 'Uthman El-Muhammady / 1087
The Daqaiq al-Akhbar fi Dhikr al-Jannah wa al-Nar translated
into Malay by Shaikh Ahmad ibn Muhammad Yunus Langka
This text is translated by him in 1312 A.H. in Makkah ; previously it was published by
the Dar Ihya' al-Kutub al-'Arabiyyah , Egypt.Then it was published by the Maktabah wa
Matba'ah al-Ma'arif of Pulau Pinang, undated.
This work deals with the Light of Muhammad s.a.w as the origin of all the creation, as elucidated in the
work of Zain al-'Abidin al-Fatani in his Kash al-Ghaibiyyah which has made this text as one of its
sources, as mentioned in its introduction.The first chapter has the same contents as what is in the
translation of the text.
The Madarij al-Suud oleh Nawawi al-Bantani rh
This work Maqdarij al-Su'ud ila 'ktisa' al-Burud , in Arabic, is the commentary of the
famous text Maulid al-Barzanji .In giving the commentary upon the statement in the al-
Barzanji text (24)
Segala puji-pujian bagi Allah yang membuka (seluruh) wujud ini dengan Nur Muhammad (al-Nur al-
Muhammadi) yang mengalir dalam tiap-tiap perkara (perkara yang ditakdirkannya oleh Allah taala
sebelum daripada Ia menjadikan langit-langit dan bumi selama lima puluh ribu tahun" That is: 'All
praise is for Allah Who has opened (the whole of) existence with The Light of Muhammad (al-Nur al-
Muhammadi) which flows in everything determined by Divine Pre-Measurement from God the Exalted
before creating the heavens and the earth for fifty thousand years:
Then Shaikh Nawawi al-Bantani rh says, citing the narration of Ka'b al-Akhbar , may
Allah be pleased with him: "When Allah wants to create all the creation and to spread out the
earth and put up the heavens, He takes a Grasp of the His Light and gives the command :
You become Muhammad, and so it becomes as a pillar of light shining brilliantly, until it
comes to the veil of darkness; then it falls in prostration, while saying : All praise be for
Allah.Thenj Allah commands: Because of this I created you, and name you Muhammad [the
One Praised], from you I begin the creation and [with you] I complete the seal of the
messengers; then Allah the Most High divides the light into four parts, from the first part He
created the Preserved Tablet, from the second the heavenly Pen, then Allah commands the
pen: You write, then the Pen for a thousand years because of the awe towards the Divine
Command; then the Pen says: Whast shall I write?God says: You write : 'There is no deity
except Allah and Muhammad is the envoy of Allah' So the pen writes what is commanded'
then it becomes directed to the Knowledge of God among the creation; then it writes about
the children of Adam as to those who are obedient to God and they are brought into Paradise
and those who are disobedient and they are brought into Hell.
Then (it writes) about the Community of Nuh , those who are obedient to God who are
brought into Paradise, and those who are disobedient and brought into Hell
The text goes on with the mention of the Communities of Prophet IbrahimMusa, of
'Isa, up to the Community of Prophet Muhammad s.a.w. Then when the Heavenly Pen
wants to write about those who are disobedient among the Community of Muhammad who
are to be placed in Hell, Voice is heard from The Most High: ' O Pen, be appropriate in your
conduct, then the Pen breaks because of the awe towards the DivineThis is followed by the
mention of the third part of the light being made into the Throne,and the fourth part being
subdivided again into four, from the first part is made the in tellect, from the second is created
gnosis, from the third the light of the Throne, and the light of the eye, the light of the
daylight, and all these lights are from the Light of Muhammad.
1088 / ISoIT 2004
Then the fourth part is placed under the Throne until Allah has created Adam, a.s., then
Allah placed the light in his back, and the angels are made to prostrate toewards him [as a
mark of respect] then he is placed in Paradise, while the angels are in rows behind him
looking at the Muhammadan Light. When Adam on him be peace asks why are the angels
standing behind him in rows, Allah answers : they are looking at the light of His beloved one
Muhammad who is the seal of the messengers and the prophets.Then when Adam requested
that the light be placed in front, it is placed on his forehead. So the angels face him in front of
him. Then Adam requested that it be placed on his forefinger so that he can look at it; the
light becomes all the more resplendent. Then it is mentioned that the light is transferred to
Hawwa' , then to Shith, and so on. Then the light is transferred from one pure womb to
another, until it is placed in the loins of 'Abdullah the father of the Prophet s.a.w., then finally
he is brought forth into the world through the womb of his mother Aminah. (25).
The Muhammadan Light in the "Sejarah Melayu"
In the famous work in Malay Classical Literature the Sejarah Melayu or the Sulalatus-
Salatin (Shellabear edition, Penerbit fajar Bakti, Kuala Lumpur, 1989 p.1 aqnd the Yayasan
Karyawan Edition , Kuala Lumpur, 2001 p. ) it is stated in relation to this Muhammadan
Light in the introduction:
Al-hamdulillahi 'Lladhi la ilaha illah huwa , wa kana fil-azali wa la shai'a ma'ahu. Segala puji-pujian
bagi Allah Tuhan yang tiada Tuhan hanya Ia, dan adalah ia pada azal , tiada suatu juapun sertaNya.Wa
huwa 'l-Abadiyyu 's-Samadiyyu wa la shay'a ba'daHu.Thumma khalaqa'l-khala'iqa wa la hajata
lahu.dan Ialah Tuhan Yang Abadi , laqgi senantiasa adaNya, dan tiada suatu juapun kemudianNya;
maka dijadikanNya sekelian makhluk, dan tiada hajat baginya.. Walamma arada izhara RububiyyatiHi
fa khalaqa nura habibiHi ; wa min dhalika'l-Nuri khalaqal-anbiya'a wa rafa'a rutbatahu.Maka tatkala ia
hendak menyatakan ketahuannya , maka dijadikan Nur kekasihNya , dan daripada nur itulah dijadikan
segala anbiya' , dan diperangkatkan martabatnya. Wa'stafa minhum Adama liyuzhira Nurahu falidhalika
sajadal-mala'ikatu kulluhum lahu.Daripada anbiya' itu nabi Allah Adam supaya menyatakan njur
kekasihNya; maka dari kerana itulah sujud sekelian malaikat akan dia
In the above quotation there are a number of statements in this important text:
-when Allah wants to manifest His Lordship He creates the light of His beloved one
-the light is then created
-from that light the prophets are created
-that light is raised in its degree of excellence among the created
-from that light is chosen Adam to carry that l.ight within him
-becxause of the existence of the resplendent Muhammadan light in him the angels
prostrated to him
Discussion Concerning the Sources of the Concept of
Muhammadan Light In Sunni sacred narrative:
Among the sources of the concept of the Muhammadan Light in Sunni sacred narrative
are the Qur'an and the Sunnah.
In the Qur'an there is the mention of the "nur" (light) in the verse which means: "Truly
there has come to you :Light and a Book manifest" (5.15).In the tafsir al-Jalalain by al-
Suyuti rh it is stated that the "nur" or light is "the Messenger of Allah" s.a.w.. The verse is as
follows:
Muhammad 'Uthman El-Muhammady / 1089
" _ _ _ _ _ _ " _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ " _ _ _ " _ " _ " _ _ _
In the "tafsir of al-Qurtubi" it is stated :
" _ _ _ _ _ _ " _ _ _ ; _ : _ , _ _ : _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ; _ _ _ _ .
"There has come to from Allah light , it is said that it is Islam,and it is also said that it is Muhammad
s.a.w. , from al-zajjaj. And the book is the Qur'an.
In the Tafsir al-Tabari nur :there has come to you o the people of trhe Taurat and the
Injil Light from Allah, that is the 'Nur' or Light is Muhammad s.a.w. through him the truth of
Islam is illuminated and thrtougfh him poilytheoism is abolished. The sentence is :
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ , _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ , _ _ _ _
_ _ , _ _ _ _ _ , _ _ _ _ _ _ _
In the Tafsir ibn Kathir concerning the verse (5.15) it is stated:
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ " _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
There has come to you from Allah light and a Book maniufest, Allah gives news from
Himself about Him sending His Messenger Muhammad with guidance and the religion of
Truth to all mankind .
Then in the Qur'an in verse 119 of Surah al-Shu'ara' colncerning the statement :
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ And about your movement among those who prostrate themselves it
is stated:
_ _ _ _ _ _ : _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ : _ _ _ _ , _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ __ _ _ _ . _ _ _ : _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ; _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
That is:Mujahid and Qatadah says: among those who perform their prayers. Ibn 'Abbas rd says: that is
in the loins of [his ] ancestors, Adam, Nuh and Ibrahim until God brings him forth as a prophet
[through the womb of his mother Aminah ].'Ikrimah says: He sees you standing, bowing down and
prostrating. Ibn 'Abbas also says this.
It is to be noted that in the view of Ibn 'Abbas there is the interpretation that the Prophet
is understood to have been transferred in the generations from Adam in the loins and wombs
of pious personalities until his emergence in Arabia in his prophetic history to perform his
function as is clear from the Sirah.
In the Tafsir Ibn Kathir in relation to the verse above, there is the statement:
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ " _ _ _ _ _ _ " _ _ " _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ " _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ " _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ " _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ .
The statement of Allah the Most High: "And your movement among those who prostrate themselves"
Qatadah says: He Who sees you when you stand and your movement among those who prostrate
themselves" in their prayers. He sees you alone and in congregation.This is the view of 'Ikrimah and
'Ata' al-Khurasani and also Hasan al-basri.
1090 / ISoIT 2004
Mujahid says: The messenger of Allah s.a.w. is used to seeingwhat is behind him just like what he sees
in front of him.And that which can be witness for this is what is sound in the tradition meaning 'You
straighten tour rows truly I see you behind me'.And al-Bazzar and ibn Abi Hatim narrate from two ways
on the authority of ibn 'Abbas that he is of the opinion that concerning this verse the Prophet moves
from the loins of one prophet to that of another until he is brought froth [by God] as a prophet [in this
world].
In the Tafsir Ruh al-maani of al-Alusi rh,(men. 1170 A.H.)concerning the
interpretation of the verse 5.15 it is stated:
} _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ {
:
: } _ _ _ _ _ _ {
: : : } _ _ _ {
: :
_
(26)
(27)
[Concerning the explanation of the verse meaning : 'There has come to you from Allah
light and an Book' ] a great light ('azim) , he is light of all lights (nur al-anwar) , the chosen
prophet s.a.w. .And Qatadah is of this view , and also (the well. Known linguist holds this
same view) al-zajjajAnd this is not far [from the truth] in my view bcause the clear Book
is[also] nabi s.a.w. and the 'ataf (the conjunction 'and') on it said by al-Jubba'I [that is to al-
Jubba'I the Mu'tazilite the nur and the book both refer to the Qur'an][hence for Alusi , both
refer to the Prophet s.a.w], and there is no doubt in the matter that the mention of each one the
two is meant the prophet s.a.w., and if there is hesitation to accept it from the point of view
of expressionthen let that be acceptable to you from the point of view of indication.(28)
Dalam hubungan dengan ayat yang bermaksud :Tidaklah Kami mengutus engkau(wahai
Muhammad) melainkan sebagai rahmat untuk sekelian alam, al-Alusi dalam Tafsir Ruh al-
Maani (29) menyatakan seperti berikut:
In relation with the verse to the effect :"And We have not sent you (O Muhammad) except
as amercy to the worlds", al-Alusi mentions in his 'tafsir':
"
" " " (30)
(All these are after taking into consideration the reality of the Prophet as a mediator [wasilah] fro the
overflowing of the Divine Mercy [al-faid al-Ilahi] on all the creatures since the beginning; because of
this his light is the first thing creaqted by God ; in the tradition there is the saying 'The first thing created
by God is the light of your Prophet O Jabir' and the tradition 'Allah Most High is the Bestower ,and I
am the Distributer (Allaqh ta'ala al-Muti' wa ana al-Qasim)'
Then al-Alusi cites the opinion of Ibn al-Qayyim al-jauziyyah in his Miftah al-sa'adah
about prophethood and its cosmic function:
Muhammad 'Uthman El-Muhammady / 1091
"In the 'Miftah al-Sa'adah' by ibn al-Qayyim [it is stated]:Had it not been because of proiphethood, then
there would be nothing at all in this world of useful knowledge, or good act, and real welfare in human
life , and there is no foundation for government, and mankind will be in the position like animals and
beasts of prey and dogs causing harm, some being at enmity with others.
"Every thing which is good in this world is from the effects of prophethood, and every evil thing
happening in it or which is to happen are all because of the effects of the overshadowing of the effects
of prophecy and its studies.Then the world is like aq body and prophecy is like its soul, and there is no
body [alive and well] without the soul giving it life. Hence, [when there are no more the effects of
prophecy and its studies] when the sun of prophecy is eclipsed in this world, then there will remain no
more of its impact, and then the skies will be rent asunder, its stars will be scattered, its sun will be
folded up, its moon will be no more, its hills will be flattened, its earth will be convulsed, and the
creatures therein will be destroyed, and there is no more support for the universe except through
prophecy. (31)
In the same context, in relation to the meaning of the verse "your movements among
those who prostrate" (al-Shu'ara'.217-219) , apart from the explanation that the Prophet
moves among the believers who perform their prayers, performing his mission of spreading
the faith, and other like duties, the writer of the Ruh al-ma'ani (32)
From ibn Jubair : the meaning is that 'they aqre the prophets' and 'seeing your movements just as the
movements of those other than you from among the prophets in spreading what is commanded of them,
as what you can see, ' and 'those who prostrate themselves' are the prophets, then there is narrated by
one group [of scholars] among them al-Tabanari, al-Bazzar and Abu Nu'aim on the authority of Ibn
'Abbas , that he God be pleased with him- interpreted 'your movements among those who prostrate
themselves' as to mean the movements of the Prophet [in the form of the Light of Muhammad] in the
loins[of the prophets] until his mother delivered him-on him be blessings and peace. - (33)
In the Tafsir al-wajiz fi Tafsir al-Qur'an alo-'Aziz by Imam Abul-Hasan 'Ali Ahmad al-
Wahidi (d.468 A.H.) concerning the verse "There has come to you from Allah light and a
Book manifest" , it is stated that 'light' (nur) is the Prophet s.a.w. and the Book manifest is the
Qur'an.(34).
In the Tafsir al-Munir li Ma'alim al-tanzil al-Musamma Mirah Labid li Kashfi Ma'na
Qur'an Majid by Shaikh Nawawi al-Bantani rh , on the margin of which is the Tafsir al-
Wahidi , it is stated (35):
The verse to the effect :There has come (from God to you light)that is the Messenger of Allah,
Muhammad s.a.w. and a Bookman ifest, namely the Qur'an
In the same tafsir in relation to the explanation of the verse to the effect :and your
movements among thoise who prostrate themselves; that is Allah sees your movements in
prayer in your standing and your bowing down and sujud and your staying with them who
1092 / ISoIT 2004
pray and you becoming their imam.It is said that He sees you moving in the loins of the
believers men and women,from Adam and Hawwa until Abdullah and Aminah, all the
ancestors of the Prophet are not guilty of polytheism as long as the Muhammadan light is in
them, and when the Muhammadan light moves out from them, among the men and women, to
another person, then it is possible that that person worships that which is other than Allah,
and Azar (the father of Ibrahim) did not worship idols except after the Light was transferred
to Ibrahim, before its transfer (to Ibrahim) he did not worship iidols(36)
In the Tafsir Tafsir Al-Durr al-manthur fi tafsir al-Mathur of Imam al-Suyuti rh
volume V page 98 concerning the verse to the effect :Your movements among those who
prostrate themselves, there is the mention of the following narration:
(Apart from the mention of the Prophet being with the believers , and he following the rules of the
religion in all matters, he praying with them in congregation, and he being able to see them from
behind him) there is the narration from ibn Abi Hatim and ibn Marduyah on the authority of Ibn 'Abbas
namely :The Prophet s.a.w. continuously moves in the loins of the prophets until his mother givbes
birth to him .And it is brought out in the narration by ibn Marduyah from ibn 'Abbas he said :' I asked
the Messenger s.a.w , by my father who will be sacrifice to you O Prophet, where were you when
Adam was in paradise? The Messenger smiled until his canine teeth become clear.He replied: 'Truly I
was in his loins and when he comes down to the earth I was in his loins, I was in the boat of Nuh, I was
thrown in the fire , I was in the loins of my father Ibrahim, and my father and mother are not smeared by
the enormity of adyltery, and I continuously move in the loins of the chaste into the wombs of the pure
(until he is born to his mother Aminah) (37)
In the Tafsir al-Sawi,(38) there is found an explanation about the Muhammadan Light.
He says:
There has come to you from Allah light and a Book manifest (namely the Light of the Prophet s.a.w.)-
the Prophet is called 'nur', light, because he is light which illuminates the heart (basirah) and guides it to
the path of truth, and also because he himself is the origin of all and every light, the sensible light and
also the light of figurative meaning'
In the Tafsir al-Nasafi-bi Hamish Tafsir al-Khazin(39) there is an explanation:
Nur, is Muhammad alaihis-salam because he brings the light of guidance, just as he is called a lamp
bringing forth light.
The same explanation is found in the Tafsir al-Khazin vol. I page 725 concerning the nur
in 5:15.
In the tafsir al-Asas fi al-tafsir by Said Hawwa (40) concerning the 'nur' in 5.15 there
is the explanation from Allah is nur, nur here is Muhammad sallaLlahu alaihi wa sallam
because he affects true guidance and he brings an excellent example to be followed.
In the same tafsir (41) in relation to the verse to the effect "and your movements among
those who prostrate themselves" [al-Syuara 217-219] that is you moving from the loins of
one prophet to another until finally he is born as a prophet [born to his mother] (This is apart
from the explanation about the Prophet praying together with the believers in congregation
and him living in accordance with the rules of the religion in the society together with
them)..
Now we can discuss the position of the Muhammadan Light in the Tradition of the
Prophet s.a.w.
Traditions Concerning the Nur
Among the traditions which can be examined are the following:
In the work Kashf al-Khafa wa Muzil al-Ilbas Amman Ishtahara min al-Ahadith Ala
Alsinatin-Nas of al-Ajluni (died.1162 A.H.):
Muhammad 'Uthman El-Muhammady / 1093
(827 _ _
:
. :
_ _ :
_ _ :
_
. . . (
Meaning: The first thing created by Allah is the light of your prophet O Jabir"This is related by 'Abd
al-Razzahis sanad from Juabir bin 'Abd Allah with the wording: He said: I said, O Messenger of Allah,
may my father and mother be ransom for you, tell me about the earliest thing created by Allah before
everything else. The Messenger replied: O Jabir, truly Allah created before anything else the Light of
your Prophet, from His Light, then he created that light to turn round and round, with the power willed
by Him, while at that instant there is no (Preserved) tablet, no Heavenly Pen, no Paradise, and Hell, no
angels, the heavens , the earth, the sun , the moon, the jinns and mankind. Then God divided that Light
into four parts, from the first part He created the Heavenly Pen, from the second He created the
(Preserved) tablet, from the third He created the Throne, then He divided the fourth part into four parts
.From the first part He created the angels bearing the Throne, from the second the Footstool, from the
third the remainder of the angels, then He divided the fourth part into four.From the first He created the
heavens, from the second the earths, from the third Paradise and Hell, then He divided the fourth part
into four. From the first He created the light of the vision of the believers; from the second he created
the light of their hearts, namely the gnosis of God; from the third He created the light of their intimacy,
that is tauhid (or the Oneness of God), there is no god but Allah and Muhammad is t5he Envoy of Allah.
This is from the 'Mawahib ' of al-Qastallani).
The narration goes on:
: _ _ :
_ :
... > "
" .
He explains about the issue: There is difference of views [about the matter] among men of learning.Is
the heavenly Pen the first of the creation after the Muhammadan Light or not? Al-hafiz Abu Ya'la al-
Hamadani is of the view: The most sound view is that the 'Arsh is before the Heavenly Pen, because
this is established in sound narration on the authority of ibn 'Umar.He said: The Messenger of Allah
said: Allah determined the decrees[ of the] creation before creating the heavens and the earth by fifty
thousand years, and His Throne was upon water. It is clear that the decree is after the creation of the
Throne. And the determinmation of the decree is at the first instant of the creation of the Heavenly
PenThen on the authority of 'Ubadah bin al-samit: marfu', 'The earliest thing created by God is the
Heavenly Pen, and He commanded it 'Write' The pen said: O Lord what shall I write?He replied : Write
the decrees of all the creatures.' Related by Ahmad and al-Tirmidhi, al-Tirmidhi saying it a sound
tradition.
1094 / ISoIT 2004
The narration goes on with the following:
:
And Ahmad and Tirmidhi narrated it, the latter saying it as sound tradition, from the
tradition of Abu Razin al-'Uqaili, marfu', : "Truly water is created before the Throne".
And al-Sindi related with a number of sanads, that "Allah has not created anything
before creating water"; and combining this with the previous one can be done by taking the
position that the primacy of the creation of the Pen is in relation to what is other than the
Muhammadan Light, water and the Throne.
Concerning the creation of the Heavenly Pen, there is the
narration:
824 .
"The first thing created by Allah is the Heavenly Pen".Ahmad related it, and Tirmidhi pronounces it as
sound, on the authority of 'Ubadah bin al-Samit, marfu' with the addition: 'He said to it, Write! It said:
O Lord what shall I write? He replied: Write the decree of all things.
The narration goes on :
:
Ibn Hajar says in his al-Fatawi al-Hadithah: It has come to be narrated [namely this tradition] that it is
sound from a number of ways [of transmission].In one narration : Truly Allah has created the Throne,
then He is established on it [in Power and authority], then He created the heavenly pen, then He
commanded it to flow in accordance with His Permission, then it asks: O Lord with what I shall flow?
He replied: With all that of which I am the Creator, that which is in my creation, from the rain,
vegetation, or soul, or effect, or sustenance, or term of life, then the Pen flows with what is to exist until
the Day of Judgment. His narrators are trustworthy except al-Dahhak bin Muzahim, but ibn Hibban says
he is trustworthy.And he said: He has not heard from ibn 'Abbas, and a group of scholars considers him
weak. There has come a narration on the authority of ibn 'Abbas God be pleased with both of them,
mauquf on him [to the effect that] The first thing God created is the pen, then He created the ink-
container (nun), it is the ink. Then He said to it: Write what will be in existence or what exists-
tradition.:
The narration goes on:
Muhammad 'Uthman El-Muhammady / 1095
} ) ) ( ) ( ( {
It is related by ibn Jarir that the messenger s.a.w. sais: Nun. In the origin it is 'nun' in place of 'letter nun'
by the pen and what they write, he said: The Taqblet is from nur, the pen is from nur, it flows with what
is in existence until the day of Judgment.
And in the narration of ibn 'Asakir, marfu', : the earliest thing created by God is the Pen, then "Nun" the
Ink pot, then He says'Write what exists and will exist'.
In the same text there is the narration as follows:.
}
{
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ < 309 > ) ) ( (
: _
.
In the 'al-Najm' , al-Hakim al-Tirmidhi has narrated on the authority of Abu Hurairah : that the first
thing God created was the pen, then the ink-container, it is the ink, then He commanded: Write, It said :
What shall I write? He sais: Write what was, what is and will be until the Day of Judgment; that is [in
relation to the commentary of] the statement of Allah the Most High: "Nun.By the Pen and what they
write. "Then He places a seal on the mouth of the Pen and the pen does not utter anything and it shall
not utter until the Day of Judgment.Then God created the intellect.He said: By my Majesty and Power,
I will truly perfect you in any person whom I love. And I will decrease you in the person with whom I
am in anger.Al-laqqani says (in the original al-Laqani)) in the commentary of his 'Jauharah' : 'The Pen
is a body of spiritual light (jism nujrani) created by God, and He commanded it to write what has
existed, and what exists and will exist until the day of Judgment.And he refrains from determining its
reality , and in some narration of hadith about the creation of first thing, created by God is the Pen,and
He command ed it to write about everything, and in some n arration : Truly God created the Yara (like
al-Qalam) or 'al-Qasab, and from it He created the Pen.' (42)
In the work Nazm al-Mutanathir min al-Hadith al-Mutawatir by Imam Muhammad
bin Jafar al-Kattani rh,in the chapter kitab al-iman up to kitab al-manaqib, no.194 under the
caption of the tradition :awwalu ma khalaqaLlah, there is found the explanation as follows:
194-
- _ .
) ( ) 1 ( ) 2 (
) 3 ( ) 4 ( ) 5 (
) 6 ( ) 7 (
) 8 ( *
1096 / ISoIT 2004
Al-Amir in the discussion about existence from his marginal notes on the Jauharah of al-Laqqani that
the narrations are 'mutawatir' in nature.
(I said) [says al-'Ajluni]: In some traditions 'truly the earliest thing created by God (1) is the
Muhammadan Light, in some others it is(2) the Throne, in some others it is (3) the Yaqra' (like the
Pen), that is the Qasab (from which Pen is made-uem). It is sound narration that 'the fikrst thing created
by God is (4) The Pen, and in other narration 'the first thing created by God' is (5) the Preserved Tablet,
and then there are a number of isnads [mentioning] (6) that it is water, and God has nbot created
anything before it, and in some traditions (7) truly the first thing created by God is Spirit (al-Ruh), and
in some others it is (8) the intellect, except that in the tradition about the intellect , in connection with it,
some of the imams of hadith hold the view that it is fabricated, and some others just say that it is weak
only.
I would like to say [in resolving the issue of] the contradiction in the matter:that the primacy of the
Muhammadan Light is in reality, and the primacy of the other things [the water, intellect, the pen,
throne etc] are in relation to others [not in reality] and everything belonging to its kind being created the
first is the Throne. So the Throne is created first before gross bodies ; the intellect being the first of the
subtle bodies; yara' is the first from among the vegetable nature (nabatiah), and Allah is Most
Knowing. (43).
In the work Al-Mawahib al-Ladunniyyah bil-Minah al-Muhammadiyyah (2 volumes),
by Shaikh Ahmad bin Muhammad bin Abu Bakr al-Khatib al-Qastallani (died.923 A.H.) , in
the first volume page 5 he states:
Know O reader of sound mind and having qualities of perfection and com pleteness may Allah grant
me and you His taufiq -with the guidance to the Path of Truth that truly when there occurs The
Divine Will to create the creation and determine their sustenance, He manifested the reality of
Muhammad from the lights of Samadiyyah in the Presence of the Ahadiyyah, then He created all the
worlds, all of them, the upper and the lower realms, in the form of His Drterminations as existing in
pre-eternity in His Will and Divine Knowledge, then He makes known about his prophethood and the
good tidings of his messengership, while Adam was in non-existence, as stated that Adam was in
between soul and body.
Then there poured forth from him- blessings and peace be upon him- all the various spirits, there
emerged the Exalted Assembly with the manifestation i.n the most majestic way, and for them there is
the sweetest of way, and he is peace and blessings be upon him- the most exalted kind, over all the
other creation, He is The Greatest father for all that exists and mankind (all together).
Then when the time is complete for him to be in the inner name, in relation to the Prophet peace and
blessings be upon him (to) exist in the physical form,and [for the] spirit to combine with the body, then
the determination of time is transferred to the external name, then Muhammad peace and blessings be
upon him- is manifested with his total physical body and spirit, even though he is the latest to appear
physically , and you know his value, namely, he is the treasure of the secret and the locus of the
occurance of the Command; then the command cannot come through except through him; goodness
does not come except from himNarration of the tradition of the Prophet from Imam Muslim in his
'sahih', from the narration of 'Abd Allah bin 'Umar from the Messenger s.a.w. that he said: 'Truly Allah
has determined the decrees of alol the creatures before He created the heavens and the earth for fifty
thousand year, and the Throne was upon water."
From Irbad b inm Sariyah from the Prophet s.a.w. "Truly I was in the Presence of Allah as the seal of
the Prophets whereas Adam was stretched out in his earthly body [not yet alive with the breathing of
the spirit in him]'.narrated by Imam Ahmad and al-Baihaqi, also al-Hakim, to al-hakim it is sound
narration.
Further he states : From Maisarah al-Dabbi, he said: 'I asked: O Messengerof Allah, when did you
become prophet? He replied: 'When Adam was between soul and body'. This is the wording in the
narration of Ahmad and al-Bukhari in his 'Tarikh', and Abu Nu'aim in his "al-Hilyah".Al-Hakim says it
is sound (sahih).
Muhammad 'Uthman El-Muhammady / 1097
After mentioning a number of traditions concerning the topic of the exiustence of
Muhammad before his earthly appearance, Qastallani gives explanations about the meanings
of the traditions cited.
He states::
It can be supposed that the tradition (about Muhammad being a prophet while Adam was still in
between body and soul) together with the narration of al- Irbad bin Sariyah about the fact of being
prophet is obligatory and established for him, then this appears on the physical plain [in history]. Truly
writing ('al-kitabah') is used in relation to something which obligatory , like the verse ' fasting has been
made obligatory upon you (lit.'it has been written [as obligatory] upon you) and the usage in 'Allah has
made obligatory (lit.Allah has written) that I will truly be victorious ' And in the tradition of Abu
Hurairah (it is stated) that thay (the Companions) asked: When was prophethood made obligatory on
you? The Prophet s.a.w. replied : (At the time when ) Adam was still in between soul and body'.Related
by al-Tirm idhi , he says it is hasan sahih.
Then al-Qastallani mentions the tradition in 'Amali ibn Sahal al-Qattan' from Sahal ibn
salih al-Hamadhani he said: I aswked Ab u Ja'far Muhammad ibn 'Ali how Prophet M
uhammad became prophet coming before other prophets whereas he is the last to have been
sent. He replied: 'Truly Allah the Most High when He took the children of Adam from their
progeny from their backs, making them witnesses for themselves, 'Am I not your Lord? ' and
prophet Muhammad [then in the realm of spirits] was the first to have replied :'Yes' because
of that he becomes the foremost among the prophets while he is the last [historically] to be
sent [in worled history]. If you say that 'prophecy' is a quality whiuch must be present in a
person so qualified, then how come he has that quality only when he was forty years old, then
how is that the attribute is there already whereas he is still not yet in existence? Then the
explanation which can be given is the one found in Imam al-Ghazali in his 'Kitab al-Nafkh
wa al-Taswiyah' concerning this matter and concerning the the tradition :'I am the earliest
prophet from the point of creation and the last from the point of being sent [in history]',
[namely], the meaning of creating 9al-khalq) here is determining and not bringing into being
('al-taqdir duna al-ijad); so the messenger before his mother giving birth to him was not in
existence as a creation of Allah, but he existed in the form of objective goals and aspects of
perfection ('al-ghayar wa al-kamalat') which precede in the decree which follow suit in
existence [in history later when the time comes-uem].this is meaning of the statement: [of the
wise ones]: 'The first point of thought is the last point in action'and the last point in action is
the first point in thought' ('awwalu al-fikrah akhir al-'amal, wa akhir al-'amal awwal al-
fikrah).
In giving the explanations on this issue the scholar mentions the point of the the engineer
who has the concept and the image (surah) of the building to be built in his mind, in perfect
form (dar kamilah); that is in existence in the 'taqdir' or determination, and that is what will
exist subsequently as a result of the action done. The complete building is the earliest in the
determination (taqdir) and that is the last in terms of its physical existence. That is the
analogy about the Prophet- 'I am a prophet' indicating what is expressed , namely the prophet
in the determination ( or taqdir) , and that is the last to exist physically. Hence, that is the
analogy about the Prophet s.a.w. 'I am a prophet' , namely in the determination before the
p.erfecting of the creation of Adam, because Adam is not created except for bringing out
from him his progeny, Muhammad s.a.w.
Then he goes on to explain : namely that this reality cannot be un derstood except by knowing that the
house or the building has two modes of existence (lit. two existences), one its existence in the mind of
the engineer and his brain, and he sees the shape and form of the house outside of the mind in the
essences (a'yan) and the ecxistence in the mind is the cause for the existence outside the mind, which
can be seen by the eyes, and that must come first.Hence- you should know, that God has determined the
taqdir , then He brings into existence [those determined] in accordance with the decree(44).
1098 / ISoIT 2004
After this he cites traditions about the early creation of the Muhammadan Light and how
other things are brought into being from it..(45)
As for the position of 'Abd al-Razzaq rh as a source for the tradition on the Muhammadan
Light being the source of all creation, there seems to be no issue worthy of note.This is ,
among others, clear from the authority granted bya al-Bukhari to his narration.Al-Bukhari has
taken from him 120 narrations and Imam Muslim has taken 400 .(46)
Concerning 'Abd al-Razzaq, there is an observation about him in the work
Al-Risalah al-Mustatrafah li Bayan Mashhur Kutub al-Sunnah al-Musharrafah, by
Maulana al-Imam al-Sayyid Muhammad Jafar al-Kattani (Maktab al-Kulliyat al-Azhariyyah-
Qahiran, undated) on page 13 namely that the: Musannaf Abi Bakr Abd al-Razzaq bin
Humam bin Nafi al-Himyari died in the year 211 of the Hijrah is smaller than the Musannaf
ibn Abi Shaibah,arranged in accordance with the books and chapters [on the sub jects
concerned]. And the Jami Abd al-Razzaq apart from the Musannaf is a well. known and
large jami work and most of his traditions are brought out by the two shaiks (Bukhari dan
Muslim) and the four imams of traditions. This author accepts 'Abd al-Razzaq as a good
authority in hadith.
Concerning the position of 'Abd al-Razzaq bin Humam bin Nafi' al-Himyari this seems to
be clear, among others, from thhe confidence given by al-Suyuti in his text of the tafsir Al-
Durr al-Manthur .In volume one of the work he cites the narration of 'Abd al-Razzaq in the
first fifty pages of the work at least fourteen times. Among these on page 42 :it is related by
'Abd al-Razzaq, 'Abd bin Himaid, ibn Jarir, and ibn Abi Hatim and Abu Shaikh in 'al-
'azamah' from Mujahid about the saying [of Allah]: to the effect:'He created what is in the
earth for you all ' and 'He has subjected to you all that is in the earth
On page 43 : And it is related by 'Abd al-Razzaq , ibn Abi Hatim from Sufyan al-Thauri , he said: under
the earth is rock
In the same page: And Waki' , 'Abd al-Razzaq, 'Abd bin Humaid , ibn al-Mundhir and ibn 'Asakir has
related from ibn 'Abbas , he said: Truly Allah has brought Adam out of Paradise
On page 52 : 'Abd al-Razzaq,. Ibn al-Mundhir, ibn Marduwah and al-Baihaqi in the 'al-Asma' was-Sifat'
has related together with ibn 'Asakir from ibn 'Abbas
That he said: 'Allah has created Adam from from the outer crust of the earth (adim al-ard) on Friday
after 'Asar, and named h im Adam, then he had a covenant with him, then he forgot it, hence he is called
'insan' (from the verb 'nasiya', to forget-uem)
On page 39:And 'Abd al-Razzaq, 'Abd bin Humaid, and ibn Jarir related from Qatadah, concerning the
saying of Allah (to the effect):' And for them there will be wives pure' he said: 'Allah h as purified them
from urine and stool
And so on all of which indicate the position of 'Abd al-Razzaq as a source for accepting
traditions in a trustworthy manner.
In the text al-Shifa' of Qadi 'Iyad rh there is found explanation from ibn 'Abbas rd that
the Prophet s.a.w. was present in the Divine Presence in his spirit before He created Adam
for two thousand years, his light blessing the infinite Majesty of God just like the angels,
from him [his light] is created Adam a.s.
When Adam was created the [Muhammadan light] was placed in his loins.The Prophet
said: Then Allah brought me down to the earth, in Adam's loins, then I was made to be in the
loins of Nuh, Ibrahim, and continuously Allah has made me move in the loins of the noble
ones and the wombs o,f pure women , until He brought me forth through my parents to the
world, and they are untouched in the slightest by shameful deeds.The poem of ibn 'Abbas
praising the Prophet and his virtues bears testimony to the soundness of the narrative.(47).
In connection with the explaqnation of the meaning of the verse :'And [He] knows about
your movements among those who prostrate themselves" , ibn 'Abbas says that this means :
Muhammad 'Uthman El-Muhammady / 1099
from one prophet to another prophet until I brought you out as a prophet (at the time you
were sent)"(48) .
In relation to the explanation of the verse to the effect Allah is the light of the heavens
and the earth , Ka'b al-Akhbar and ibn Jubair hold the view that the meaning of the second
light , namely, the swimilitude of his light , is Muhammad s.a.w. . So the similitude of his
light is the Light of Muhammad s.a.w..He is placed in the loins of the Prophets just like a
niche ( ka mishkat), its attribute is such, and the lamp (al-misbah) is his heart, the glass (al-
zujajah) is his breast , namely it is like a star because of what it contains, consisting of faith
and wisdom, being lighted from the blessed tree, namely the Light of Ibrahim on him be
peace, it is like a blessed tree; its oil almost burns like fire, namely the prophethood of
Muhammad is clear to mankind even before his speech, like oil (49). :
Concerning the light of the Prophet s.a.w. in the Shifa' there is a statement (50)
Among these are the emergance of the signs during the birth of the Prophet s.a.w. and what has been
told by his mother and wh at has been seen of the wonders of the moment; how he raised his head
during the birth, his face looking at the heavens, and what was seen by the mother of the light comin g
out during that birth; also what was observed by Umm 'Uthman ibn al-'As about the coming down of
the stars and the emergance of light at birth which made nothing perseptible except that light only, and
then the remarks of al-Shafa Umm 'Abd al-Rahman bin 'Auf : When the Messenger s.a.w. was
bornthe Messenger he heard the voice: 'Allah gives mercy to thee and the whole of the East and
the West was illuminated for me until I could see the palaces of Rum"(51).
Then in the work al-Madkhal of ibn al-Hajj there are a number of narrations concern ing
the light of the Prophet s.a.w. Among these there is the narration :
It is related by Imam 'Abd al-Rahman al-Siqilli rahimahullahu ta'ala in the work 'al-Dalalat' by him,
with the wording: 'Truly Allah has not created a creation more beloved to Him than this community;
and there is nothing more noble than His prophet s.a.w., then other prophets after him, then the truthful
ones, then the chosen saints.And (in relation to ) this truly Allah has created the Light of Muhammad
s.a.w. before creating Adam by two thousand years, creating it in the form of a pillar in front of the
Throne, and it blesses the infinite majesty of God and sanctifies Him.Then He created Adam on him be
peace from that Light of Muhammad sw.a.w. and He created from that lightof Adam the light of the
prophets on them blessings and peace.(52).
Further in the al-Madkhal II.29 there is the narration:
Al-Faqih al-Khatib Abu al-Rabi gives the indication in his work 'Shifa' al-Sudur' to a
number of matters which are of immense importance; among these is the narration , namely,
that when Allah the Most Wise wanted to create the essence of the Prophet s.a.w. which is
blessed, He ordered Jibril on him be peace to descend to the earth, and bring with him earth
which is going to be the heart of the earth, with its glory and light(until the narration about
the creation of the Light of Muhammad and the Light of Muhammad shines at the back of
Adam, the angels stand behind Adam to see the light of Muhammad s.a.w.Then Adam
asked so that the light is placed where he himself can see it, so God placed it where Adam
could see it, with the indication of the 'la ilaha illa'Llah Muhammadun Rasulullah' and in the
prayer (by looking at his forefinger)then the light is placed on Adam's forehead it looks
like the sun in ikts orbit or the moon in the night of its fullness (53).
In the same text is mentioned the narration about the first thing creted by God being the
Lighjt of Muhammad and from it is created all other things.,
Concerning the Light of Muhammad narrations can also be found in the work entitled
HujjatuLlah alal-Alamin fi Mujizati Sayyidil-Mursalin by Syaikh Yusuf al-Nabhani.(54)
He says :
Nobility and excellence ('karamah' and' fadilah') has not been grant ed among them [among the
prophets] except the same is granted to him salla'Llahu 'alaihi wa sallam.Adam on him be peace has
been granted a boon from God, namely He is created by the [Creative] Hands of God , and so Allah
granted H is Boon to Muhammad peace and blessings be upon him by opening for him his breast, and
1100 / ISoIT 2004
taking him close to His Divine Self, making his breast for Him, placing in it faith and wisdom, and the
prophetic morals; so the boon for Adam was the creation of existence (wujud) and for the Prophet
Muhammad s.a.w. the grant of the prophetic morals, even as the creation of Adam was for the creation
of the Prophet in his loins; so our prophet Muhammad s.a.w. is the objective and Adam on him be
peace is the means for that, and the objective has precedence over the means.As for the prostration of
the angels for Adam on him be peace , says Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, in h is commentary of the Qur'an :
the angels are commanded to prostrate themselves because of the presence of the Muhammadan light on
his forehead.
In the al-Mustadrak of al-Hakim rh there are a number of narrations concerning the light
of the Prophet s.a.w.Among these are the following :
(It is related to us) by 'Ali bin Hamshad al-'Adl by imla' , Harun bin 'Abbas al-Hashimi has related to us
, Jundul bin Waliq has related to us (and so on reaching up to al-'Abbas rd) that the Proophet said: Allah
has revealed to 'Isa on him be peace , O 'Isa, have faith in Muhammad and command anybody from
among your community who happens to come across him to have faith in him, and had it not been for
Muhammad I would not have created Adam, and had it not been for Muhammad I would not have
created Paradise, Hell; I created the Throne on water, then it shook, so 'la ilaha illa'Lllah Muhammadun
rasulullah ' was written on it, so it became calm.
(Al-Hakim says this hadith is sound) and it is not related by Bukhari and Muslim)(55)
From Maysarah al-fakhr, he says that he asked the Messenger of Allah, "O Messenger of Allah, when
were you a prophet?" He replied: "While Adam was still in between soul and body"(56)
From Maysarah al-fakhr also, he says, that he had asked the Messenger of Allah when he was a
prophet.He replied : "When Adam was still between soul and body." (57)
From Irbad bin Sariyah he says: nI heard the Messenger of Allah s.a.w. saying"Truly I was in the
Presence of God in the early part of the Book as the seal of the Prophets, while Adam was stretched in
his body , I will inform you abou the interpretation of this, (I am) the prayer of my father Ibrahim , the
glad tidings of my brother 'Isa to his community, and I am the vision of my mother , which she saw light
coming out from her body [during my birth] illuminating clearly for her the castles of Syria"(58)
Concerning the matter there is narration from Khalid bin Ma'dan , from a number of the
Companions of the Prophet s.a.w. that is they asked him about himself. Tell us about
yourself .He replied: I am the prayer of my father Ibrahim , the glad tidings of 'Isa [to his
community about my coming in future], and my mother saw at my birth light coming out from
her, illuminatingt clearly for her Busra, and Busra is in Syria. Al-Hakim says that Khalid bin
Ma'dan is from among the best of the Tabi'in, and he was the friend of Mu'adh bin Jabal(59).
In the text entitled Jam al-Wasail fi Sharh al-Shamail (lit-Tirmidhi) of Mulla Ali bin
Sultan Muhammad al-Qari rh (died in1014 H.) there are a number of explanations about the
matter.Among them are the following:
Concerning the statement in the Shamail of Tirmidhi that people seeing the Prophet without having
known of him previously feeling so awed by him , to Mulla 'Ali Qari this is in reference to his majesty
and dignity, he says: because there in him the attribute of majesty and with it the the awsomeness of the
personality coming from the Divine Presence, and being outpouring from the celestial realm (sifah al-
jalal wa alaihi al-haibah al-ilahiyyah wal-fuyud al-samawiyyah)(60).
And in the same text there is the statement concerning 'shama'il', namely he is more
beautiful than the moon-ahsan minal-qamar-The writer explains this in this way: concerning
him emerging on the horizons (in the world of the sensible) and the world of souls (of men)
with the additional perfection in the tangible and intellectual form, in fact, in reality every
light is created from his light (maa ziyadah al-kamalat al-suwariyyah wal-manawiyyah, bal
fil-haqiqah kullu nurin khuliqa min nurih).
And in relation to the meaning of the verse to the effect:Allah is the light of the heavens
and the earth, and the analogy of his light that is the Light of Muhammad-the nur of his
countenance s.a.w., the real, in essence, is inseparable from him even for a moment day and
Muhammad 'Uthman El-Muhammady / 1101
night, whereas the light of the moon is acquired, borrowed [from the sun] sometimes
decresing and sometimes overshadowed [by something else](61)
In the explanations of al-Munawi rh concerning the Prophet s.a.w. being more beautiful
than the moon as clear from the text Shama'il al-Tirmidhi , it is stated: That is his
countenance to every person; and in the narration of ibn al-Jauzi and others and also Jabir, 'in
my eyes' as sunstitute for 'to me' ('indi') ; in the narration of Abu Nu'aim from Abu Bakr , his
countenance is like the circle around the moon ('daratul-qamar') and in the narration of
Darimi from rabi' bint al-Mu'awwidh she says:When I saw him I saw the sun rising in its
glory.In the narration of al-Mubarak and ibn al-Jauzi from ibn 'Abbas[it is mentioned that] he
has no shadow (lam yakun lahu zill), and he did not stand in the sun except his light
overcomes the light of the sun, as is clear from Baijuri (62)
Also in the explanations of al-Munawi in relation to the statement: just like light coming
out from in between his teeth, it is stated: it is unnecessary to add ('like') ('ka') like that which
is done by the commentator (of the Shama'il) , how can that be so, [this is] because (what
comes out from in between nhis teeth) is the light of the sensible (the physical light , not
light in the abstract, intellectual sense) and he says if that is not physical light how come the
wording is 'ru'iya": being seen [so]. This means that the light is not ma'nawi or abstract [but
really physical light].(63)
In relation to the statement in the Shama'il : when the Prophet s.a.w. came to Madinah
(everything) became illuminated, Mulla 'Ali Qari says: every part of the city of Madinah
became illuminated with the sensible light or physical light discernable with the physical
eyes-or it can also mean tha light in the abstract because by the entry of the Prophet then the
light of guidance in general and through it various kinds of darkness are lifted, with the
linguistic indication showing excessiveness (al-mubalaghah), in which, on that day,
everything in this world take s its light from Madinah.Or the illumination is figurative
indicating the extreme joy for the inhab itants of the city together with them not caring (in
the situation) for those at enmity with them . The author also mentions the opinion of al-Tibbi
who sees it as physical light [emanating from the light of Muhammad in the Prophet s.a.w.-
uem]..(64)
In the commentary of al-Munawi on the passage in Shama'il of Tirmidhi it is stated: The
most sound view [al-asahh] is that every part of the city of Madinah became illuminated by
the light in reality (not as figurative usage only) not tajrid (not in the abstract) , how can it
otherwise, when he himself in essence in totality is light ('wa qad kanat dhatuhu kullaha
nuran') , and Allah the Most High has said: [to the effect] : There has come to from God light
and a Book Manifest' and he is light, illuminating the whole cosmos, and he is a lamp giving
light . (65)
In the al-Mawahib al-ladunniyyah Hashiah Shama'ilal-Tirmidi of Shaikh Ibrahim al-
Bajuri (d.1276 A.H.) there are illuminating comments too. In relation to the passage :those
who see him badihah (without seeing him before) will feel extremely awed by him- that is
seeing him before observing his so exalted morals and his so precious life , will feel
extremely awed by him, this is because there isw in him the attribute of majesty and
awsomeness which emanate from the awsomeness of the Divine Himself (sifat al-Jalal al-
rabbaniyyah ) (lima 'alaihi minal-haibah al-ilahiyyah).
Then he cites the view of ibn al-Qayyim about the matter: namely: The difference
between the sense of majesty and conceit (in a person) is this: that majesy is the many effects
in the heart of the person because of his sense of the awsomeness of God (bi'azamati al-Rabb)
and love for Him, as well as a sense of His Divine Majesty.When the heart of a person is full
with such experience, then there will descend into him the feeling of serenity (al-sakinah),
and he is invested with the attire of majesty; and (because of this) his speech becomes as it
were light,his knowledge is light, and if he is silent, there is that majesty in him, and grandeur
(al-waqar) and when he speaks he attracts the hearts of men, and their attention.
1102 / ISoIT 2004
As for conceit or arrogance, it is the effect of so many influences in the heart, of
ignorance, injustice, conceit, or self-vanity.When the heart of a person is full with such
experience, there will depart from him sense of servitude [to God] and there will descend on
him darkness, anger, him going about among men with arrogance, his relations with them
full of arrogance, not initiating the greeting of peace, (66)
In the same text (p.19) concerning the statement of the 'shama'il' to the effect :The
Propeht's contenance was full of light like the the moon on the night of the full-moon-lailat
al-badr- the night of its fullness, because the Prophet obliterated the darkness of disbelief, just
as the moon obliterates the darkness of the night; and truly there has come the narration about
the Prophet being like the sun by looking at the sun in its glory and light, and the illumination
with light is also available in that he is like both [the sun and the moon] seeing the fact that
the Prophet s.a.w. combining in himself every aspect of perfection, and that analogy is just
to facilitate the understanding, otherwise there is nothing which is analogous which can
portray his attributes.
In the same text (p.24) in relation to the statement of Jabir that he saw the Messenger of
Allah s.a.w. on the night of the full moonand I looked at him and to me he is more
beautiful than the moon (ahsan minal-qamar).Al-Bajuri says:
That is so for anyone looking at the Messenger s.a.w. Only that the Messenger ismore beautiful because
his light dominates over the light of the moon (li'anna dau'ahu yaghlibu 'ala dau'I al-qamar), in fact it
domiknates over the light of the sun (bal wa 'ala dau'I al-shamsi); in fact in one narration of ibn
Mubarak and ibn al-jauzi he had no shadow, and when he stood in thr light of the sun, his light
dominates over that of the sun, and when he stood in the light of the lamp, his light dominates over that
of the lamp.
Concerning the light coming out from in between his teeth, al-Baijuri explains that as
meaning sensible physical light and not merely in the abstract, because the verb ru'iya refers
to actual seeing with the eyes (67)
Concerning the statement of the city of Madinah illuminated by light with the arrival of
the Prophet s.a.w. the writer understands this as meaning discernable physical light apart
from the figurative implication of it. (ibid. p..196).
In relation to the tradition with strong sanad in Tirmidhi of God bestowing His light on
the creation and some being touched by it while some others are not touched by it , the text is
asa follows:
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
It is related to us by al-Hasan bin 'Arafah, Isma'il bin 'Iyash related to us from Yahya bin Ab I 'Amr al-
Shaibani, from 'Abd Allah bin al-Dailami, he said: I heard 'Abd Allah bin 'Amru saying: I heard the
Messenger of Allah saying: Truly Allah has created all creation in darkness, then He throws on them
His Light, whoever is touched by it will get guidance, and whoever is not touched by the Light is
misguyided.With this I say: The Pen has dried concerning the Knowledge of God. Abu 'isa (Tirmidhi)
says: hadith hasan. (68)
This tradition concerns the Divine decree and the degrees of the creation getting the light
from God in their life and religion .With this can be understood that the life of the believer is
founded on the reality of His Light, and the Prophet s.a.w. is a believer being the first in
Muhammad 'Uthman El-Muhammady / 1103
getting this light, and he is the most predominant person in the matter of this light, and the
more so he himself is being from light.Thus the Prophet is the first of thecreation getting this
light even more predominant than the angels and others among the creation.
In the nwork entitled Al-Anwar al-Muhammadiyyah min al-Mawahib al-laduniyyah by
Shaikh Yusuf bin Ismail al-Nabhani (Dar al-Fikr, undated)(69) useful informations are found
concerning the Light of Muhammad. Among then are the following:
The first objective (in the work 'Akl-Anwar al-Muhammadiyyah) : Then know that when the Divine
Will has determined the creation of His creation [the universe] He manifested the Muhammadan Reality
from His Lights (with His Power and Divine Willing-uem) , then He created from [that light] all the
worlds, the upper and the lower realms all together,then He proclaimed the prophethood of the Prophet
while Adam was in non-existence,except in the state as said by him s.a.w. [him being] in between soul
and body [not yet having physical existence in the world of the sensible], then from him [as the
Muhammadan light-uem] there poured forth the spirits, and he is the of the highest being over all other
kinds, aqnd he is the greatest father (al-abb al-akbar) for all that exists (li jami' al-maujudat) ; and
when the cycle of time becomes complete with the Name of the Hidden in relation to him s .a.w. (to be
transferred) to the existence of the body in combination with the spirit, then the determination of time
is transferred to that of the Name of the Manifest, [at that instant-uem] there emerged Muhammad
s.a.w. with the totality [of his person and reality] , with the body and spirit altogether.The meaning of
[all] this is found ) in the (narration) of Sahih Muslim , that is he said: 'Truly Allah the Most High has
determined the Decree of all creation (maqadir al-khalq) before the creation of the heavens and the
earth by fifty thousand years (symbolizing extremely immense span of time beyond the calculation of
man-uem) and the Throne was upon water. And included into the total of that which has been
determined [in that manner] is the fact that Prophet Muhammad is the seal of all the prophets (khatam
al-nabiyyin) .[So in relation to such category of reality there are narrations like the one ] from 'Irbad
bin Sariyah from the Prophet s.a.w. that he said: 'I was in the Presence of God as the seal of the
prophets while Adam was stretched in his body, without the b reathing in of the spirit in him.' And in
the narration of Maysarah al-Dabbi (there is the tradition) he said: 'I asked him: O Messenger of Allah,
when were you a prophet?' He replied: 'When Adam wasd in between soul and body').
In the 'Sahih of Muslim' from the Prophet s.a.w. that he said: Truly Allah azzawa jalla
has determined the Decree of all creation before the creation of the heavens and earth for fifty
thousand years and the Throne was on water, and included into this totality written in the
Mother of the Book is that Muhammad is the seal of the prophets.(70)
And from al-'Irbad bin Sariyah from the Prophet s.a.w. that he said; Truly I was in the
Presence of Allah as the seal of the prophets while Adam was stretched in his body before the
breathing in of the spirit in him.(ibid.pp.9-10).
The traditions cited indicate the position and reality of the Prophet salla'Llahu 'alaihi wa
sallam .And Imam al-Suyuti (d.911 A.H.) deals with such traditions(71) in his Al-Hawi lil-
Fatawi (dar al-Kutub al-'Ilmiyyah, Beirut, 1421/2000 ) in volume 2 pp.136 ff. He writes ,
among others, as follows:
The traditions from 'Umar bin al-Khattab , Anas, jabir, ibn 'Abbas , ibn 'Umar, Abid-Darda', Abu
Hurairah and others [narrate] that the Prophet salla'llahu 'alaihi wa sallam has informed that his [name]
is written on the Throne and on every heaven, on every door of paradise, on the leaves in the garden of
Paradise, [in the formula] 'La ilaha illa'Llah Muhammadun Rasulullah'.And such name is not written in
the kingdom of the invisible except that it is above the name of all the other prophets [and that is for no
other reason than that] so as to make the angels witness it, and [so that they come3 to know] the position
of him being sent to them [apart from the fact that he is sent to humanity].
And ibn 'Asakir has related the narration from Ka'b al-Akhbar that Adam has given the
counsel to his son Shith saying: Every time you mention the name of Allah then you mention
also the name of Muhammad; truly I saw his name written on the pillar of the Throne,
whereas I was in between soul and body, then I glanced to see tjhat there is no place in the
heavens except the name of Muhammad is written therein.And I did not see in Pradise a
1104 / ISoIT 2004
Palace and Room except the name of Muhammad is written therein, and I saw his name
written on the necks of the damsels of paradise(pp.136-137 of al-Hawi).
Imam al-Suyuti goes on to make the foll.owing remarks:
Imam al-Subki has stated in the chapter in his book that the Prophet s.a.w. was sent to all the prophets
Adam and the succeeding prophets , and that the Prophet is prophet and messenger to all of them, and
therefore this can be deduced from the tradition that he was prophet while Adam was [still] in between
oul and body, and the hadith 'I was sent to all mankind ' (bu'ithtu ilannas kaffatan) ' He said [that is
Subki] ; Because of this Allah has taken a covenant from all the prophets for Prophet Muhammad , just
as in the saying of God 'And Allah has taken a covenant will you acknowledge and take covcenant
with Me , they said: We acknowledge , He said: Bear witness, I am together with you as Witness' (Ali
'Imrah.81). [Imam Suyuti says] :Tradition is related by ibn Abi Hatim from al-Suddi about this verse ,
saying: No prophet is sent since Adam except Allah has taken a covenant from him so that he will have
faith in Muhammad.And ibn 'Asakir has related a tradition from ibn 'Abbas saying: Continuously Allah
has given primacy and precedence to Muhammad s.a.w. in relation to Adam and the prophets after
him(72)
And al-Hakim has related the tradition from ibn 'Abbas saying: Allah has revealed to 'Isa ; 'You have
faith in Muhammad nd command whoever meets him of your community to havefaith ini him , and had
it not been for Muhammad I would not have created Adam,Paradise, and Hell'.
Al-Subki says: We know from sound tradition about his resulting perfection- for our Prophet s.a.w.
from the Presence of God ,before Adam was created and God has bestowed on him prophethood from
that time [at the time when Adam was non-existent], then Allah took a covenant from all the prophets
making them promise that they will have faith in Muhammad, informing that he has precedance over
them and he is foremost among them, and that he is a prophet and messenger to all of them, and in them
making the covcenant there is the meaning of istikhlaf [namely that they all are acting under the name
of Muhammad as his khalifah in their times] , because of this there is therein [in the statement of the
covenant] the lam al-qasam the lam of making covenant- 'latu'minunna bihi' and wa latansurunnahu'
[meanin g that you will really have faith in him and will really help him when the time comes] (73)
Then Imam Suyuti mentions the excellence of the Prophet, ghow the covenant is taken
for him, how the other prophets became his followers in prayer on the night of the Isra' and
Mi'raj, then how in the heavens he had his two wazirs Jibril and Mika'il, and in the earth he
had his two wazirs, Abu bakar and 'Umar, based on the tradition related by ibn al-Mundhir ,
ibn Abi Hatim, al-tabarani, ibn Marduyah, and Abu Nu'aim in the al-Dalail.
At this stage the present writer would like to mention the important note of Dr GF
Haddad in his article The Light of Muhammad(74)
Among those scholars mentioned by him who discuss the concept of the Light of
Muhammad are:
1. Qadi Iyad famed for his important kitab al-Shifa,
2. Imam al-Suyuti in his Tafsir Jalalainnya
3. Firuzabadi in Tanwir al-Miqbasnya or tafsir ibn Abbasnya
4. Imam Fakhrud-Din al-Razi , the reviver of the 6
th
century of the Hijrah,with his
'Tafsir Mafatih al-Ghaib'
5. Qadi al-Baidawi with his Tafsir al-Baidawi
6. Al-Baghwi with his Maalim al-Tanzilnya
7. The writer of Tafsir Abi Suud with his explanations
8. Al-Tabari with his Tafsir at-Tabari
9. The author of Tafsir al-Khazin with his explanations .
10. Al-Nasafi with his Tafsir al-Madarik
11. Al-Sawi with his commentary on the al-jalalain
12. Al-Alusi with his Ruh al-maani
13. Ismail Haqqi with his commentary on the Tafsir Ruh al-Maani
14. Al-Qari with his Sharah al-Shifa
15. Suyuti with his al-Riyad al-Aniqa
Muhammad 'Uthman El-Muhammady / 1105
16. Ibn Kathir with his Tafsir
17. Qadi Iyad with his al-Shifa
18. Al-Nisaburi with his Gharaib al-Quran
19. Al-Zarqani with his Sharah al-Mawahib al-Laduniyyah
20. Ibn Hajar with his al-Isabah
21. Tirmidhi with his Sunan
22. Baihaqi with his Dalail al-Nubuwwah
23. Ibn Hajar Haitami with his D alail al-Nubuwwah
24. Bukhari, Muslim and Imam Ahmad with compilations of the hadith with portrayal
of the Prophet.
25. Al-Hakim with his al-Mustadrak
26. Ibn Kathir with his Tafsir and Maulid Rasul Allah
27. Ibn Ishaq with his Sirah
28. Dhahabi with his Mizan al-Itidal
29. Al-Tabari with his al-Riyad al-Nadira
30. Al-Shahrastani with his al-Milal wan-Nihal
31. Abd al-Haq al-Dihlawi with his Madarij al-Nubuwwahnya ( Persian)
32. Abd al-Hayy al-Lucknowi with his al-Athar al-marfu fi al-akhbar al-maudua
33. Abd al-Razzaq with his Musnad
34. Abidin (Ahmad al-Shami) died.1320 H. with his commentary on the poem by ibn
Hajar al-Haitami Haitami al-Ni;matul-Kubra alal-Alamin
35. Al-Ajluni (Ismail bin Muhammad, d.1162) with his Kashf al-Khafa'
36. Bakri (Sayyid Abu al-hasan Ahmad ibn Abd Allah d.in 3
rd
century H) with his al-
Anwar fi Maulid al-Nabi Muhammad sallaLlahu alaihi wa sallam.
37. Diyarbakri (Husain bin Muhammad, died 966 A.H..) who begins his work Tarikh al-
Khamis fi Ahwal Anfasi Nafisa with the words : All praise is fro Allah Who has
created the Light of His Prophet before everything else"
38. Fasi (Muhammad ibn Ahmad died.1052 H.) with his work Matali al-Masarrat
39. Shaikh Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani died .561 A.H. with his work Sirr al-Asrar fi Ma
Yuhtahu ilaihi al-Abrar (hal.12-14 edisi Lahore) who says : Who gives th evidence
that the prophet is the source of all that exists, and Allah knows Best..
40. Haqqi (Ismail , died in.1137 A.H.) citin g traditions in his tafsir Ruh al-Bayan
41. Ibn Hajar al-Haitami (d..974 A.H>) with his Fatawa Hadithiyyah
42. Shaikh Ismail al-Dihlawi (d.1246 H>) with his tract Yek Rauzah in which he says:
As indicated by narration: The first thing created by Allah is my Light.
43. Sulaiman al-Jamal (died.1204 A.H) who cites traditions concerning the Light of
Muhammad as the first thing created by God, in his commentary of the poem of al-
Busiri , in the work entitled al-Futuhat al-Ahmadiyyah bi al-Minah al-
Muhammadiyyah.
44. Abd al-Qadir al-Jili in the Namus al-Azam wa al.-Qamus al-Aqdam fi Marifat
Qadar al-Bani sallkalahu alaihi wa sallam mentions traditions about nur
Muhammad.
1106 / ISoIT 2004
45. Kharputi (Umar bin Ahmad, died .1299 A.H. ) in his commentary on al-Busiri
mentions the Light of Muhammad..
46. Maliki al-Hasani (Muhammad ibn Alawi ) mentions in his commentary of the work
by al-Qari Hasyiyah Al-Maurid al-Rawi fi Maulid al-Nabi.On page 40 he
says:Sanad Jabir is sound without controversy, but scholars have different views
about the text, because of its speciality; Baihaqi also cites the tradition with a
number of variations".
The above are among the several texts mentioned by him in the article.
Conclusion
From the presentation of the sources of the narrations above based on the writings of the
mufasasirin and the traditionists and others who are imams in their field, a number of
conclusions can be drawn. Among them: that Prophet Muhammafd s.a.w. has his reality
before the creation of the cosmic order, and his light was created before the creation of
everything else.His light was the first created by Allah, as His beloved.This is also the source
for the creation of everything in the cosmic order with all its levels and hierarchy, with the
upper and lower realms, the sensible and that which immediately above the sensible.He is the
first in terms of creation but the last in terms of physical appearance in sacred history, raised
with soul and body among the prophets.
His existence as a prophet and messenger is known by all the previous prophets and
messengers in the whole of sacred h istory , among the evidences of which can be mentioned
the sound narrations of the Isra' and Mi'raj, so many of which are cited in the 'Tafsir ' of ibn
Kathir in relation to the commentary of the early verses of Surah Bani Isra'il.
There seems to be no necessity for anyone to have the inclination to suggest that the
scholars of tafsir, hadith, sirah and shama'il and others have discussed that reality about the
Prophetic light based on their borrowing ofv the idea from any external sources; there seems
to be no evidence that 'borrowing' has taken place, unless objective reasearch can prove
otherwise, and not just based on the inclination to jump at the idea of borrowing with the
slightest seemed similarity between certain things. Established and authoritative Sunni
sources are clear about this.This is clear also from the fact that the prophets and messengers
have entered into a primordial covenant with God to have faith in him and help him in his
struggle, and in fact they perform their various prophetic functions as representing him in
their various 'worlds', The reality of his existence as light in the generations of prophets in
sacred history is accepted by authoritative Sunni scholars in Islamic intellectual traditrion..
If this appears unlikely from the rational pointn of view of the modernist mentality, then
we can cite many things which are unlikely in that sense, thinking in the 'ordinary' way, for
instance the quantum theory about the universe not being solid in any way but in reality in the
form of waves or poarticles, indeterminate in nature, but this is acceptable to the authorities
in quantum physics.What appears as solid is only sensation of the seeing with the eyes. Then,
again, thinking in the 'ordinary' way will not make anyone accept e=mc2; but to the
authorities in the field this is very clear and evident with the backing of research and scrutiny
as well as calculationof the forces involved in the process and the system. Or just look at the
human seed in the womb which after nine months and ten days becoming a baby, alive, and
later speaking and so on. This is the 'sunnah' of God. From here we can go to the reality of the
Muhammadan Light mentioned in sacred narrative of our Tradition. The first example relates
to the 'sunnah' of God in terms of sub-atomic level, the second in relation to the same in
Relativity, and the third His 'sunnah' in relation to emergance of the cosmic manifestation
with its various levels in the scale of being.
Muhammad 'Uthman El-Muhammady / 1107
If it is suggested that such an idea is contradictory to the reality of the human make-up,
from the elements of the earth, even the prophet in terms of the physical body, then in
response it can be stated that in the cosmic perspective even the elements of the earth are
finally reductable to pure energy or light, as is clear from quantum theory, or pure energy,
then to us this is the Muhammadan Light. It is the Muhammadan light manifested at its level
in the form of the elements of the earth, transmuted into the elements of the human body, in
which is the spiritual substance of the spirit. And this is no contradiction to the reality that is.
In this order of ideas, the light of the Prophet is not only a ,manner of epaeking, in the
figurative and as analogy, but evgen more, it is in reality light, going beyond all other lights,
from it are created other lights and other things and beings and essences.
If at present people talk about the universe from the point of view of the electron, proton,
neutron, quarks, photon, black holes and others, including the discussion on the ultimate
nature being in terms of particles or waves, or pure energy, for us, the ultimate groun d of all
these is the 'light' or 'nur' of the Prophet s.a.w. As for the other things, if they are sound from
the scientific and objective points of view, in accordance with the established principles of
knowledge, then they are acceptable. If we say that present-day physicist may speak of the
world as ultimately from 'pure energy' or whatever that may be, the reality of which is
difficulkt to be grasped by the lay-man, say just like what is discussed by Frithjof Capra in
The tao of Physics; for us that may not pose a problem.We can still relate that to the concept
of the light of the Prophat as the ground of all existence, either material or the non-material as
our Tradition tells us.
If it comes to any one's mind that this view about the Light of Muhammad smacks of
pantheism, then the response to this is that this should not arise at all, because pantheism is a
school of philosophy which developed in the West in the 19
th
century and it has no
connection whatsoever with sacred teachings of any order. It teaches the philosophical
position that everything is God, whereas this concept of the Muhammadan Light does not
take that position. It teaches that before the creation of the cosmic order and its details God
first created the Light of Muhammad which becomes the source of creating other things in
the cosmic order.It does not teache that everything is God.Neither does it teach that every
thing is Muhammad in that literal horizontal sense. It teaches that Muhammad is the light
and from that light other things are created.
It is possible there our mind will reflect, that, if the Prophet is really that Light, then why
should he pray for light in his night prayer, in the formula "Allahumma'j'al li nuran" until
the end of the famous prayer, so that Allah gives him light in his heart, tongue, on his right,
left, front and back, above and below him? Possibly, in this order of ideas we can reflect on
what has been said by Imam al-Ghazali rd concerning the Prophet s.a.w. asking for
forgiveness from Allah for so many times a day, whereas he is already sinless, and forgiven
beforehand what is going to be done in the future apart from b eing forgiven of his past.
Al-Ghazali rd says that even though he is sinless (ma'sum) he asks for forgiveness; this is
because he is continuously ascending on the path of perfection, and because of the ascent he
sees the previous state as imperfect compared to the present one, so he asks for forgiveness;
and because of that he ascends further on the path of perfection and so on continuously. In the
same way, the present writer feels that the Prophet sees his present state in terms of spiritual
luminosity ("nuraniyyah") is less than what it should be in terms of spiritual perfection, so he
prays for more light even though he himself is light, because of course, the ultimate light is
God, 'al-Nur", so he asks for the "nur" from the "al-Nur".
These are the remarks of this humble writer citing narrations from the sources of the
sacred narrative from this grand narrative of Sunni intellectuality- so as to show that the
reality of the Muhammadan Light mentioned in the writings of some traditional scholars in
the Malay World have their substance and backing in classical sacred scholarship, and not in
1108 / ISoIT 2004
anyway a borrowing, it seems, from any outside sources, to make up for any thing missing
in their narrative. May Allah make us benefit from this scholarship, amin. Wallahu a'lam.
Notes
(1) See the writer's "Kosmologi para Fuqaha & Ulama Sufiah EDalam pemikiran Melayu" in
Kosmologi Melayu, edited by Yaacob Harun, Akademi Pengajian Melayu, Universiti Malaya,
Kuala Lumpur, 2001, pp 10-22.
(2) in the chapter Khalq al-samawat waq al-ard p.10.
(3) p.10.
(4)ibid.10
(5)ibid. 10
(6) ibid.11
(7)ibid.11
(8) ibid.11
(9) ibid.11
(10) ibid.11
(11) ibid.11
(12) ibid.11.
(13) Bab bad' Khalq al-samawat wa al-Ard.12
(14) ibid.13.
(15) ibid.13.
(16) ibid. p.15 .
(17) The Kash al-Ghaibiyyah p.3
(18)ibid.pp.3-4.
(19) ibid.p.4.
(20)ibid. p.5
(21)ibid.p.5.
22)ibid.p.6
(23)p.6
(24)Surabaya, undated, and Singapore, undated.
(25) Shaikh Nawawi al-Bantani, Madarij al-Su'ud p.3 .
(26)Cf.http://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp
(27) cf with http://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?Page=2&Size=1
(28) volume III.369.
(29)volume IX.hal.99-100
(30)cf http://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?Page=2&Size=1
Ruh al-Maanivol.IX, p..100).
vol. X.135
(33)ibid.X.135
(34)al-Wahidi al-Nisaburi, Tafsir al-Wajiz vol.II.p.196.
(35) vol.II.p.196
(36)ibid. II.119
(37)al-Durr al-Manthur, 5,p. 98.
(38) Tafsir al-Sawi, hashiyah al-'Allamah al-Sawi 'ala al-Jalalain, volume I p.275
(39) Tafsir al-Nasafi-bi Hamish Tafsir al-Khazin volume I page 477
(40) In al-Asas fi al-tafsir by Said Hawwavol. III, page 1349
(41) volume VII page 3970
(42)al-Ajluni, in Kashf al-Khafa wa Muzil al-Ilbas,
http://www.alelman.com/Islamlib/viewchp.asp?BID=143&CID=22#s1)
(43). From Nazm al-Mutanathir min al-hadith al-Mutawatir, from the book of faith until the book of
the manaqib, -491 in http://www.al-eman.com/Islamlib/viewchp.asp?BID=144&CID=10#s7 )
(44)In al-Mawahib al-Laduniyyah, vol.I p.7).
(45)Al-Mawahib al-laduniyyah,juz I ppl 7 ff
Muhammad 'Uthman El-Muhammady / 1109
(46)See for example GF Haddad, "Light of the Full Moon" in
http://www.abc.se/~m9783/fiqhi/fiqha_e30.html).
(47)(Kitab al-Shifa by Qadi 'Iyad, I, p.83).
(48) Qadi 'Iyad. Al-Shifa'. I.15-16.
(49)al-Shifa. I.p.17-18. :
(50)Al-Shifa.I.366
(51) ibid
(52)(al-Madkhal of Ibn al-Hajj.II.28).
(53)al-madkhal of ibn al-Hajj II.30
(54)HujjatuLlah alal-Alamin fi Mujizati Sayyidil-Mursalin by Syaikh Yusuf al-Nabhani. P.15.
(55)al-Mustadrak al-Hakim II.614-615.
(56) (al-Mustadrak.II.608-609. Sound narration according to al-Hakim..
(57)Sound tradition according to al-Hakim in al-Mustadrak.II.609).
(58)Sound tradition according to al-Hakim in the al-Mustadrak.II.600.
(59)al-Mustadrak.II.600
(60).Jam al-wasail.p..28
(61) Jam'a al-wasa'il Sharah al-Shama'il of Tirmidhi, p.47.
(62)Sharah al-Muhaddith al-Shaikh al-Munawi to the Shama'il of Tirmidhi, I.p.47).
(63) ibid. I.55-56.
(64) Mulla Ali al-Qari, Sharah al-Shamail al-Tirmidhi, II.209.
(65)Sharah al-Munawi on the al-Shamail of Tirmidhi, on the margin syharah Mulla Ali al-Qari, II.55.
(66)from al-Mawahib al-Laduniyyah hashiyah al-Shaikh Ibrahim al-Bajuri ala al-Shamail al-
Muhammadiyyah lit-Tirmidhi-p..16).
(67)ibid.p.27.:
(68)(http://www.hadith.al-islam.com/Display/Displayasp?Doc=2&ID=41787&SearchText)
(69)Al-Anwar al-Muhammadiyyah min al-Mawahib al-laduniyyah by Shaikh Yusuf bin Ismail al-
Nabhani (Dar al-Fikr, undated).p.9.
.(70)ibid.p.9
(71)Imam al-Suyuti in his Al-Hawi lil-Fatawi (Dar al-Kutub al-'Ilmiyyah, Beirut, 1421/2000 ) in
volume 2 pp.136 ff.
(72)ibid.II.137
(73)ibid.II 137...
(74) Dr Haddad in http://www.abc.se/~m9783/nurn_e.html and in the article The First Thing that
Allah created was my nur in http://www.abc.sel/~m9783/fiqhi/fiqha_e30.html;
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Muhammad 'Uthman El-Muhammady
The present writer is currently Very Distinguished Academic Fellow of ISTAC IIUM
Pemikiran Kritis Islam Sebagai Pendekatan dalam
Membangun Pemikiran Melayu Masa Kini
Mohd Fauzi Hamat
Pendahuluan
Sebagai sebuah agama yang menawarkan satu set ajaran lengkap bagi kehidupan
manusia, Islam turut menekankan aspek pembangunan pemikiran manusia agar mereka dapat
berfikir dengan cara yang betul dan seterusnya bertindak berasaskan pemikiran yang betul
tersebut sesuai dengan fungsinya sebagai khalifah di atas muka bumi. Manusia yang dapat
berfikir secara kritis dilihat sebagai manusia yang mampu memainkan fungsi tersebut secara
berkesan. Jika persoalan ini dilihat dari sudut pembinaan bangsa Melayu dan pembangunan
pemikiran mereka, persoalan yang timbul ialah bagaimana cara untuk melahirkan bangsa
Melayu yang berfikiran kritis ?, dan jika dilihat dari sudut kedudukan bangsa Melayu yang
beragama Islam dan telah menerima ajaran tauhid sejak sekian lama, apakah sesuai idea-idea
tokoh sarjana Barat mengenai pemikiran kritis boleh dijadikan manual lengkap bagi membina
pemikiran Melayu ?, apakah yang dimaksudkan dengan pemikiran kritis berasaskan ajaran
tauhid atau pemikiran kritis Islam ? dan sejauh mana pemikiran kritis Islam boleh dijadikan
alternatif bagi membangun pemikiran Melayu masa kini. Kertas ini akan cuba menjelaskan
persoalan-persoalan yang dikemukakan di atas bersandarkan penelitian terhadap sumber-
sumber rujukan berautoriti dalam tradisi Islam dan melihat ruang-ruang aplikasinya dalam
masyarakat Melayu agar masyarakat kita dapat menjadi masyarakat yang terhormat dan
terunggul dari aspek pemikiran mereka.
Menelusuri konsep pemikiran kritis Islam
Istilah pemikiran kritis adalah suatu istilah yang banyak disebut oleh para ilmuwan
sejak mutakhir ini. Banyak kursus pengajian di Universiti tempatan yang memasukkan
subjek-subjek pemikiran kritis dengan tujuan untuk melahirkan graduan universiti yang
mampu berfikir secara kritis. Istilah pemikiran kritis telah diberikan beberapa definisi oleh
pelbagai pihak, khususnya tokoh-tokoh sarjana Barat. Berfikir secara kritis dari segi
konsepnya melibatkan jaringan makna seperti berfikir secara serius, berfikir secara mendalam
bagi membuat sebarang pertimbangan, membuat analisis, sintesis dan penilaian teliti
terhadap sesuatu, pemikiran reflektif untuk memutuskan sama ada sesuatu itu patut diterima
atau ditolak, berfikir secara holistik dengan melihat masalah dari berbagai-bagai dimensi,
juga berfikir secara cekap bagi menilai kemunasabahan dan kewajaran sesuatu idea (Mohd
Azhar, 2001; Mohd Michael 1995).
Usaha untuk melakukan analisis terhadap sesuatu fenomena, pernyataan, keputusan dan
sebab secara sedalam mungkin, seradikal mungkin dan sesistematik mungkin untuk
menghasilkan sesuatu keputusan yang cukup kuat, yang dapat dipertahankan kewibawaannya
untuk mencapai kebenaran juga dikaitkan dengan konsep ini (Jaafar, 1997). Begitu juga
dengan usaha untuk memahami sesuatu isu atau perkara yang dibincangkan atau dihadapi,
mencari jalan-jalan penyelesaian, menilai beberapa jalan penyelesaian itu dan memilih yang
1112 / ISoIT 2004
terbaik, membuat rancangan untuk melaksanakannya seterusnya melaksanakan perancangan
itu dan akhirnya menilai sama ada ianya berkesan atau tidak. Selepas itu penelitian semula
harus dilakukan dengan berdasarkan pengalaman lampau(Senu, 1971). Dalam bahasa Arab
terdapat istilah al-fikr al-naqdi yang boleh dikaitkan dengan konsep ini. Istilah ini
bermaksud pemikiran yang mampu melihat kekurangan, kesilapan dan keaiban yang
terdapat pada sesuatu amalan, kalaupun pemikir tersebut tidak mampu mengemukakan
pandangan alternatif bagi menggantikan pandangan yang dikritiknya (al-Qarni, 1418H).
Ringkasnya pemikiran kritis adalah kecekapan, kecerdasan dan keupayaan minda
manusia untuk menilai sesuatu gugusan idea, hujah, pemikiran dan pendapat yang diterima
oleh seseorang. Seseorang pemikir kritis bukan secara mudah menerima sesuatu perkara,
tanpa melalui proses tapisan, penyaringan dan pertimbangan-pertimbangan yang antaranya
mengambil kira persoalan benar atau salahnya fakta yang melatari semua yang disebut itu.
Bila dibicarakan budaya berfikir kritis ini dalam persekitaran hidup masyarakat dunia
Melayu-Islam, suatu persoalan yang perlu ditanyakan oleh kita semua, apakah konsep dan
budaya berfikir secara kritis ini adalah suatu konsep yang baru, yang ingin dibudayakan
dalam masyarakat atau pun asas-asasnya memang telah wujud dalam tradisi Islam itu sendiri,
namun kita sebenarnya tidak mengetahui tentang asas-asas tersebut dek keterpukauan kita
dengan teori-teori pemikiran Barat atau kesan dari kedatangan disiplin-disiplin ilmu Barat
yang dibangunkan di negara mereka pada zaman berlakunya pensekularan ilmu ? Adalah
wajar sekali misalnya pandangan Mohd Yusof Othman yang mengaitkan konsep pemikiran
kritis dengan kegiatan penaakulan akal manusia yang bertitik tolak dari asas-asas ajaran
ketuhanan, bukannya yang berasaskan kepada kebebasan akal semata-mata dalam melakukan
kerja-kerja analisis terhadap fakta atau maklumat yang ada diteliti dalam konteks
perbincangan ini, kalaupun diakui istilah kritis umumnya didefinisikan sebagai suatu sifat
yang dimiliki oleh seseorang untuk berhujah, membuat kesimpulan dan juga mendatangkan
suatu keputusan berdasarkan fakta atau maklumat yang telah dianalisis(Mohd Yusof,1998).
Keterangan mengenai tasawwur pemikiran kritis yang dikemukakan sebagai mukadimah
tulisan ini sebenarnya boleh dijadikan sebahagian dari asas binaan pemikiran kritis Islam
yang tentunya amat bersesuaian dengan imej dan citra Melayu masa kini. Ini kerana Islam
menerusi panduan al-Quran dan al-Hadith amat menitikberatkan semua elemen yang
ditekankan dalam tasawwur pemikiran kritis Barat. Dalam erti kata yang lain Muslim dari
satu sudut pandangan, tidak bermasalah untuk menerima sebahagian dari tasawwur pemikiran
kritis tersebut. Walaubagimanapun, dari aspek yang lain iaitu aspek yang lebih penting, Islam
tidak menyerahkan kepada manusia sebebasnya untuk membuat kerja-kerja mental berkait
dengan pendefinisian, penghujahan dan penilaian terhadap sesuatu dengan bekalan akalnya
semata-mata kerana kekuatan akalnya adalah terbatas dan Muslim diajar bahawa Allah SWT
itu mempunyai ilmu yang mengatasi semua ilmu yang dimiliki oleh makhluk manusia.
Lantaran itu, al-Quran dan al-Sunnah turut terlibat secara langsung dalam mentakrifkan
sesuatu, menghujahkan sesuatu dan menilai sesuatu, khususnya yang melibatkan isu-isu
utama kehidupan manusia.Tulisan ini tidak akan mengulas panjang lebar berkait dengan isu
bersifat kefalsafahan ini kerana penulis berkeyakinan bahawa Muslim memahami hal ini
dengan cara yang sebaiknya.
Ringkasnya konsep pemikiran kritis Islam boleh didefinisikan sebagai pemikiran yang
menekankan beberapa aspek kemahiran dan kesenian (fann) berfikir bagi maksud
membolehkan seseorang mendefinisi, menghujah, mengkategori dan menilai sesuatu perkara
sama ada ia baik, wajar dan sesuai diterima, dipertahan dan dilegitimasikan dalam sesuatu
masyarakat berdasarkan panduan wahyu yang disampaikan oleh para rasul a.s. Andaikata
seorang pemikir kritis yang dirujuk kepada seseorang yang bersifat analitikal, pragmatik,
objektif-ketepatan, proaktif, tidak bias, konsisten, berdisiplin dan beretika (Mohd Azhar,
2001), maka asas atau kriteria untuk menilai semua ciri tersebut haruslah berpandukan
kepada pertimbangan wahyu selain dari pertimbangan akal manusia.
Mohd Fauzi Hamat / 1113
Beberapa Panduan Al-Quran dan al-Sunnah Mengenai Pemikiran
Kritis
Walaupun manusia dianugerahkan akal oleh Allah SWT untuk memikirkan secara kritis
mana yang baik dan yang buruk dalam kehidupan ini, namun sebagai manusia biasa, mereka
tidak terlepas dari melakukan kesilapan dalam berfikir. al-Quran mengemukakan beberapa
panduan kepada manusia agar mereka dapat menggunakan akalnya dengan cara yang
sebaiknya agar mereka berjaya menemui kebenaran. Ringkasan panduan al-Quran ini
terkandung dalam gesaan al-Quran agar umat Islam menolak keraguan dalam perkara yang
pasti, tidak mengikut hawa nafsu dan emosi, menolak taklid buta kepada nenek moyang dan
menolak sifat taksub kepada pemimpin (al-Qaradawi, 1998). Panduan al-Quran juga boleh
diteliti pada keterangan berikut:
a) Tuntutan al-Quran agar umat Islam berfikir dan bertindak berasaskan keterangan yang
jelas seperti yang ternyata dari kisah Nabi Sulaiman a.s. yang meminta burung belatuk
membawa alasan kukuh atas kegagalannya berada dalam kumpulan burung-burung yang
berada di bawah pimpinannya. Begitu juga tindakan al-`Aziz, Raja Mesir yang tidak
menerima dakwaan isteriya Zulaikha kononnya Nabi Yusuf a.s berusaha menggodanya tanpa
bukti yang kukuh ( al-Naml : 25-29 & Yusuf : 20-22). Paparan ini tersebut jelas menunjukkan
pentingnya seorang pemimpin mendapat keterangan yang meyakinkan sebelum dia
memutuskan apa-apa tindakan ke atas orang bawahannya. Paparan kisah nabi Yusuf a.s. juga
menjelaskan pentingnya individu Muslim agar tidak mudah menerima maklumat yang
disampaikan oleh orang yang dikasihinya, melainkan setelah maklumat tersebut dapat
disahkan berdasarkan bukti-bukti yang meyakinkan.
b) Tuntutan agar Mukmin menyelidiki sumber maklumat dan tidak mudah menerima apa
yang ada dalam masyarakat. al-Quran amat menekankan kepentingan menyelidik sesuatu
perkara sebelum membuat keputusan mengenainya. Keputusan yang ingin dibuat hendaklah
berasaskan kefahaman yang jelas terhadap sesuatu, bukannya berasaskan kejahilan, agakan
dan andaian liar semata-mata, khususnya dalam hal-hal yang penting. Ini terkandung dalam
firman Allah SWT yang meminta Mukmin agar tidak mudah menerima berita yang dibawa
oleh orang fasik, tanpa menyelidikinya terlebih dahulu kerana tindakan tersebut kemungkinan
akan menyebabkan mereka menjatuhkan sesuatu hukuman terhadap seseorang berasaskan
kejahilan dan mereka akan menyesal di atas tindakan tersebut di kemudian hari (al-
Hujurat:6). Atas dasar yang sama, al-Quran menempelak golongan yang cenderung untuk
menuruti segala pemikiran, amalan dan gagasan idea yang ditinggalkan oleh nenek moyang
mereka tanpa menyelidikinya terlebih dahulu sejauh mana sesuatu amalan tersebut
bertentangan dengan tuntutan al-Quran dan al-Sunnah serta bercanggah dengan akal manusia
yang waras. ( al-Maidah: 104, al-A`raf: 28, Yunus: 78).
c) Al-Quran turut menempelak kalangan yang cenderung menuruti pandangan atau
amalan majoriti ahli sesebuah masyarakat yang tidak selaras dengan nilai-nilai kebenaran. Ini
kerana apa yang diturutinya itu hanyalah bersandarkan sangkaan semata-mata, bukannya
berasaskan dalil-dalil kebenaran yang nyata. Antaranya firman Allah SWT yang bermaksud:
Janganlah engkau menurut kebanyakan orang yang ada di muka bumi, nescaya mereka
akan menyesatkanmu dari jalan Allah; tiadalah yang mereka turut melainkan sangkaan
semata-mata, dan mereka tidak lain hanyalah berdusta (Al-An`am: 116).
Penelitian terhadap sumber-sumber al-Sunnah mendedahkan bahawa memang terdapat
keterangan al-Sunnah yang menyentuh beberapa sub-bidang pemikiran kritis, sebagaimana
yang dinyatakan di atas. Ini kerana Rasulullah s.a.w. telah berusaha membudayakan
pemikiran kritis dalam masyarakat Arab setelah baginda dibangkitkan sebagai utusan Allah
SWT. Ibn Khaldun menyebut di dalam Muqaddimahnya, bangsa Arab Jahiliah amat sukar
untuk bersatu dan tunduk di bawah satu sistem melainkan dengan peranan agama yang
1114 / ISoIT 2004
dikaitkan dengan fungsi kenabian (Ibn Khaldun, t.t.; Ahmed M. Raba, 2001). Di antara
peranan yang telah dimainkan secara berkesan oleh Rasulullah s.a.w. adalah memperkenalkan
kepada mereka satu sistem berfikir yang mengambil asas-asas kerasional dan kelogikan.
Usaha baginda telah menyebabkan lahirnya sebuah masyarakat madani yang sentiasa
melandaskan perancangan dan kelangsungan hidup mereka berasaskan budaya berfikir
mithali yang terunggul pernah dirakamkan oleh sejarah dunia.
Jika diteliti hadis-hadis Rasulullah s.a.w. , ternyata baginda s.a.w banyak menyentuk
asas-asas pemikiran kritis berdasarkan medan makna yang dihuraikan sebelum ini. Beberapa
panduan al-Sunnah juga boleh diteliti pada keterangan berikut:
1) Rasulullah s.a.w. memasukkan larangan supaya orang-orang Arab yang ingin
bersumpah setia dengannya menerusi perjanjian `Aqabah agar meninggalkan amalan
bertaklid kepada nenek moyang mereka yang akan membunuh anak-anak mereka, khususnya
anak perempuan kerana mereka dipercayai boleh membawa sial kepada keluarga mereka.
Baginda juga melarang mereka agar membudayakan dalam masyarakat amalan suka
membuat tuduhan sembrono terhadap seseorang sebagai melakukan perkara keji, kalau
penuduh tidak boleh mengemukakan bukti-bukti yang kukuh (Riwayat al-Bukhari), misalnya
di mahkamah di atas tuduhannya. Tindakan Rasulullah s.a.w. memasukkan kedua larangan
ini dalam butiran perjanjian `Aqabah membuktikan corak atau bentuk masyarakat yang bakal
dibentuknya sekiranya baginda s.a.w. diberi kekuasaan untuk memimpin masyarakat Arab
suatu masa kelak. Baginda mahu anggota masyarakat pimpinannya terdiri dari ahli-ahli yang
berfikiran kritis dan menyuburkan budaya berfikir kritis dalam menjalani kehidupan mereka.
Mereka tidak dengan mudah bertaklid kepada gagasan pemikiran nenek moyang dan budaya
negatif yang menjadi amalan biasa masyarakat Arab sebelum kedatangan Islam.
2) Rasulullah s.a.w juga menolak andaian liar para sahabatnya yang cuba mengaitkan
kejadian gerhana matahari (kasuf) yang secara kebetulan berlaku serentak dengan kematian
puteranya, Ibrahim kerana kejadian gerhana adalah suatu sunnah Allah yang berlaku secara
tabi`i dan tiada kaitan dengan kematian atau kehidupan seseorang (Riwayat al-Bukhari).
3) Rasulullah s.a.w. juga melarang Muslim dari amalan suka memuji seseorang secara
berlebih-lebihan (Riwayat al-Bukhari) dan meyarankan mereka hanya menyebut sekadar apa
yang diketahuinya sahaja mengenai keperibadian seseorang. Jikalau amalan buruk seperti ini
dibiarkan merebak dalam masyarakat atau sesuatu institusi, ia dibimbangi akan menyebabkan
lahirnya dalam sesebuah masyarakat golongan bersikap hipokrit dan pembodet yang
sikapnya suka mengampu ke sana dan ke sini dengan memuji individu yang diampunya. Dari
sudut pemikiran kritis, perbuatan seperti ini sama ada yang dilakukan menerusi ucapan lisan,
penulisan artikel, penghasilan buku dan sebagainya boleh menghalang wujudnya ahli
masyarakat yang berfikiran kritis, di mana mereka dibimbangi tidak akan dapat melihat
secara kritis unsur-unsur keburukan yang terdapat pada seseorang yang diampunya, malahan
situasi akan menjadi lebih buruk lagi kalau ia terus memejamkan mata dari melihat keaiban
yang terdapat padanya. Dari sudut pandangan yang lain, individu yang diampu juga
berkemungkinan tidak akan dapat melihat secara kritis kelemahan-kelemahan yang ada pada
dirinya kerana ia mungkin terpukau atau terpesona dengan kata-kata pujian berlebih-lebihan
atau pujian palsu yang diucapkan kepadanya. Ia mungkin boleh melihat kuman yang berada
di seberang laut, tetapi tidak mampu melihat gajah yang berada di depan matanya. Tindakan
Rasulullah s.a.w. melarang umat Islam mengamalkan tabiat suka memuji seseorang secara
berlebih-lebihan adalah suatu tindakan yang bijak agar masyarakat Islam dapat membudayai
budaya berfikir secara kritis dalam masyarakat. Keterangan hadis-hadis tersebut adalah
contoh yang jelas bagaimana Rasulullah s.a.w. cuba menghalang tersebarnya pandangan yang
tidak berasaskan penilaian kritis terhadap sesuatu dalam sesebuah masyarakat. Baginda cuba
menutup jalan-jalan yang boleh boleh menyuburkan budaya pemikiran yang anti-tesis kepada
pemikiran kritis.
Mohd Fauzi Hamat / 1115
Pemikiran Kritis Islam Sebagai Pendekatan dalam Membina
Pemikiran Melayu
Apabila dibincangkan konsep pemikiran kritis dari sudut pandangan Islam atau dalam
ertian pemikiran kritis Islam dan kepentingannya bagi maksud membina pemikiran Melayu
masa kini, maka isu yang perlu diberi penekanan di sini ialah sejaun mana budaya pemikiran
kritis berteraskan ajaran tauhid ini mampu melonjakkan bangsa Melayu menjadi bangsa
terhormat dan mempunyai identiti, integriti dan jatidirinya yang tersendiri dan dengan
bekalan ciri-ciri tersebut mereka diharapkan berjaya membina sebuah peradaban yang unggul
dan gemilang. Kemunculan era Islam di Alam Melayu telah menyaksikan lahirnya idea dan
gagasan intelektual serta pemikiran kritis di kalangan orang Melayu dan pupusnya gagasan
kepercayaan yang bersifat anti-tesis kepada pemikiran kritis. Kedatangannya menurut al-
Attas, membawa zaman baru yang menayangkan pandangan hidup yang berbeza daripada
yang lampau, zaman yang menubuhkan bukan sahaja rupa baru bahkan juga jiwa baru (al-
Attas, 1999, h. 3). Menurutnya lagi:
Kedatangan agama Hindu dan Budha ke Alam Melayu tiada berhasil mempengaruhi intelek
Melayu untuk dapat melahirkan ahli fikir failasuf dari kalangan bumiputera, baik di Jawa mahupun di
Sumatera, tetapi kedatangan Islam mampu menggerakkan proses merevolusikan pandangan hidup
masyarakat Melayu-Indonesia, memalingkannya dari alam seni dan mitos yang khayal, yang sudah
mulai gugur dari singgahsananya, dan mematuhi serta menetapkannya pada alam akal dan budi yang
menuntut cara-gaya tertib teratur (al-Attas, 1999, h. 12-13.)
Apabila orang Melayu menerima Islam yang didatangkan ke negara ini oleh para
pendakwah Islam dari luar yang terdiri dari para pedagang, sebahagian besar dari elemen-
elemen pemikiran yang bersifat anti-pemikiran kritis seperti kepercayaan animisme,
dinamisme, tahyul, khurafat dan amalan-amalan karut marut telah berjaya dihapuskan dari
masyarakat, kalaupun sebahagiannya masih lagi cuba dipertahankan oleh sebilangan ahli
masyarakat. Islam telah mengubah kepercayaan orang Melayu terhadap daripada menyembah
cakerawala dan patung kepada menyembah Allah SWT. (Mahayudin, 2001). Kedatangan
agama Hindu/Budha kira-kira pada abad pertama ke rantau Asia Tenggara tidak berupaya
mengubah kepercayaan masyarakat Melayu primitif itu, malah ia memperkukuhkan lagi
kepercayaan yang sedia ada dengan menambah beberapa doktrin baru yang tidak bercanggah
dengan kepercayaan tradisi orang Melayu.
Walau bagaimapaun harus diakui bahawa di Alam Melayu, pengaruh kepercayaan
agama-agama ini turut mempengaruhi kehidupan masyarakat tempatan, bukan sahaja dalam
bidang agama dan sosial, tetapi juga dalam bidang politik dan pentadbiran (Mahayudin,
2001). Konsep daulat raja misalnya adalah suatu konsep yang lahir dari sistem kepercayaan
yang berasaskan ajaran Hindu/Budha dan unsur-unsur tempatan. Ia lahir dari konsep
Dewaraja iaitu raja dianggap sebagai keturunan dewa Siva-Budha. Dengan kepercayaan raja
sebagai inkarnasi dewa itu lahirlah konsep daulat raja yang akhirnya menimbulkan ketaatan
melulu rakyat jelata kepada raja. Pengaruh Hindu juga boleh dilihat dalam upacara istana
yang masih dikekalkan (Mahayudin 2001).
Ketika itu, tokoh-tokoh ulama Islam dari aliran tradisional cuba menyebarkan ilmu-ilmu
Islam menerusi penyebaran ilmu-ilmu Islam berteraskan ilmu syariah yang amat menentang
elemen-elemen negatif yang disebutkan tadi. Manuskrip Melayu yang membincangkan Islam
telah memainkan peranan yang begitu aktif dan berpengaruh dalam pembentukan sikap dan
pemikiran agama orang Melayu pada abad ke-9. Pengajaran ilmu tauhid yang menekankan
kepentingan umat Islam menerima akidah berasaskan dalil-dalil meyakinkan misalnya,
banyak menyumbang dalam usaha ini. Kitab akidah yang terkenal bertajuk Umm al-Barahin
yang dikarang oleh al-Sanusi (895 H/149 M) pada kurun ke-9 Hijrah telah diterjemahkan ke
dalam bahasa Melayu pada abad ke 15 dan buku ini menurut Sejarah Melayu dan Hikayat
1116 / ISoIT 2004
Abdullah telah diajar di Melaka, Aceh dan Riau (Mahayudin, 2001). Kemunculan golongan
reformis yang turut berusaha menghapuskan semua elemen tersebut yang turut menyumbang
keterhapusannya dari masyarakat. Ini kerana mereka melihat keterikatan orang Melayu
dengan semua hal tersebut sebagai cabaran dalaman bagi mereka.
Kedatangan penjajah, khususnya British yang membawa virus sekularsime sehingga
menjangkiti seluruh sistem kehidupan masyarakat telah menyebabkan orang Melayu sekali
lagi terdedah dengan beberapa budaya khurafat moden yang dalam hal-hal tertentu mereka
menjadi pentaklid dan pengguna bukannya sahaja produk barangan dan teknologi mereka,
tetapi juga produk pemikiran falsafah dan budaya hidup. Pihak Barat mengkaji pemikiran
dan budaya serta cara hidup orang Melayu untuk memudahkan mereka merangka dasar
pemerintahan di Tanah Melayu. Usaha pengkajian mereka boleh dilihat pada kajian yang
mereka buat terhadap manuskrip-manuskrip Melayu. Sejarawan mencatatkan bahawa
pemindahan manuskrip Melayu ke Eropah telah dibuat sejak ketibaan Portugis pada abad ke-
16 hinggalah berakhir pemerintahan Inggeris pada abad ke 20 (Mahayudin, 2001).
Ibn Khaldun pernah menyebutkan bahawa lazimnya sesuatu bangsa yang telah
dikalahkan/dikuasai oleh sesuatu bangsa lain akan sentiasa menggemari dan bergantung
dengan bangsa yang mengalahkannya sama ada dari segi syiar, gaya berpakaian, aliran
pemikiran dan identiti dan semua perkara yang didatangkan oleh mereka. anna al-maghlub
muli`un abadan bi al-iqtida bi al-ghalib fi syi`arih wa zayyih wa nahlatih wa sair ahwalih
wa `awaidih . Ini kerana mereka menyangka bahawa bangsa pengalah mereka adalah satu
bagsa yang sempurna (Ibn Khaldun, t.t.). Adalah tidak menjadi kesalahan kepada orang
Timur meniru sebahagian dari unsur-unsur budaya Barat yang tidak bertentangan dengan
asas-asas ajaran Islam, misalnya dalam soal berpakaian dan sebahagian dari gaya hidup
mereka yang baik, namun apa yang dikesalkan ialah terdapat sebilangan ahli masyarakat yang
terpengaruh dengan gaya berfikir ala Barat yang tidak bersandarkan kepada kayu ukur yang
jelas berasaskan `ilm al-yaqin, tetapi berasaskan kemampuan akal manusia yang terbatas
kerana manusia memangnya dikurniakan ilmu yang sedikit oleh Allah SWT dan terkadang
mereka memutuskan sesuatu berasaskan hawa nafsu dan kejahilan mereka terhadap asas
rujukan utama Islam dalam berfikir dan bertindak..
Umat Islam di mana sahaja perlu melandaskan gaya berfikiri dan seluruh falsafah
hidupnya sejajar dengan tuntutan dan nilai al-Quran dan al-Sunnah, bukannya berasaskan
akal fikiran semata-mata. Penilaian sama ada sesuatu amalan itu salah atau tidak perlu
didasarkan kepada ajaran-ajaran sumber wahyu tersebut, bukannya berdasarkan pertimbangan
akal manusia yang terbatas. Terkadang terdapat masyarakat manusia yang cuba menggunakan
slogan perjuangan hak asasi manusia bagi menghalalkan sesuatu yang telah diharamkan oleh
Allah SWT. Sebagai contoh, pernah dilaporkan PBB mahu menghukum negara yang
melarang kegiatan homoseksual dan lesbian menerusi ketetapan baru hak asasi manusia.
Langkah ini amat disokong oleh Suruhanjaya Hak Asasi Manusia Gay dan Lesbian
Antarabangsa (IGLHRC) yang beribu pejabat di San Francisco (Berita Minggu, 8 Feb. 2004).
Inilah antara contoh bagaimana manusia menggunakan hak asasi kononnya untuk merungkai
al-thawabit yang telah ditetapkan oleh Allah SWT. Falsafah hidup yang terkandung dalam
ungkapan berikut, juga misalnya tidak sepatutnya menjadi landasan hidup orang Melayu:
Tidak-lah timbul sa-barang bahaya jika kita bertaroh wang dengan sa-chara kechil ka-atas sa-
ekor kuda untok dapat keseronokan melihat kuda itu menang. Tidak siapa pun menjadi kaya dengan
berjudi; sa-balek-nya pula jangan-lah dengan berjudi itu sa-orang itu menjadi papa. Kira-nya ia boleh
mendapatkan hiboran dari permainan itu, dan mendapat keuntongan sadikit maka tentu-lah permainan
itu boleh mendatangkan kebaikan kapada-nya (Tunku Abdul Rahman, 1969)
Bagaimana dengan situasi kini? Adalah diakui bahawa terdapat sebilangan ahli
masyarakat yang dalam aspek-aspek tertentu telah meningkatkan tahap penghayatan mereka
terhadap ajaran Islam dan melandaskan gaya berfikir mereka berasaskan ajaran wahyu dan
menggunakan pendekatan yang disarankan oleh wahyu, namun dalam hal-hal tertentu, masih
Mohd Fauzi Hamat / 1117
lagi terdapat kelemahan yang agak ketara dan membimbangkan. Terkadang mereka
melakukan sesuatu amalan berdasarkan ikutan budaya asing atau berdasarkan kehendak
berasaskan nafsu kebendaan. Sambutan Hari Kekasih misalnya, masih disambut oleh umat
Melayu walaupun amalan tersebut pernah ditegur oleh seorang Mufti di Malaysia. Amalan itu
ditegur apabila ia dikaitkan sebagai usaha untuk memperingati kematian seorang paderi yang
dibunuh seperti mengikut sejarah purba Rom (Utusan Malaysia, 12 Feb. 2004). Dalam kes
terbaru, media massa tempatan begitu ghairah melaporkan kes pembunuhan Norrita
Shamsudin yang begitu mengaibkan sehingga ia terpaksa ditegur oleh Menteri Penerangan
Malaysia (Utusan Malaysia, 31 Mei 2004). Walaupun teguran telah dibuat kerana pada
asasnya ia bertentangan dengan arahan Allah SWT dalam surah al-Nur, ayat 19, namun
nampaknya teguran tersebut tidak begitu diendahkan.
Penulis akan mengemukakan sebahagian dari kepentingan menghapuskan budaya
negatif dalam masyarakat berasaskan pemikiran kritis Islam.
Kepentingan Menghindarkan Kecenderungan untuk Menjadi Pak
Turut
Islam amat menekankan peri pentingnya umat Islam bersifat analitikal dalam
kehidupannya dan tidak menjadi pak turut. Ini kerana faktor akan mencenderungkan
masyarakat mengiakan keburukan yang tersebar dalam masyarakat tersebut. Al-Quran dan al-
Sunnah menggesa umat Islam agar tidak mudah menerima bulat-bulat sesuatu perkara tanpa
diteliti terlebih dahulu; tidak mudah terpengaruh dengan amalan buruk dan budaya negatif
yang diamalkan oleh orang-orang terdahulu, khususnya orang Yahudi dan Kristian yang
sentiasa berusaha untuk mempastikan umat Islam menuruti jejak langkah mereka; tidak
menjadi pak turut kepada nenek moyang dan tidak mempercayai perkara-perkara khurafat
yang diwarisi oleh ahli masyarakat sejak zaman berzaman dan terpengaruh dengan budaya
tidak bermoral, khususnya budaya hedonisme yang bertentangan dengan ajaran tauhid.
Terdapat beberapa hadis yang menyentuh hal ini, antaranya:
1) Sabda Rasulullah s.a.w. : Janganlah kamu jadi pak turut, kamu kata (berpandangan)
kalau manusia (orang ramai) berbuat baik, kamupun akan turut berbuat baik, kalau mereka
melakukan kezaliman, kamupun akan turut berbuat zalim, tetapi tetapkanlah [dan
persiapkanlah ] diri kamu, kalau manusia melakukan kebaikan, kamu akan turut berbuat
kebaikan dan kalau mereka melakukan kejahatan, maka janganlah kamu turut melakukan
kezaliman [sebagaimana yang dilakukan oleh khalayak masyarakat].
(Riwayat al-Tirmidhi)
2) Sabda Rasulullah s.a.w. : kamu akan mengikut sunah [jejak langkah] orang-orang
sebelum dari kamu sejengkal demi sejengkal, sehasta demi sehasta, sehingga sekiranya
mereka masuk ke lubang dhab [biawak] sekalipun, nescaya kamu akan mengikuti mereka.
Lalu sahabat bertanya, adakah ianya orang Yahudi dan Nasrani (Kristian) ? Rasulullah s.a.w.
menjawab, siapa lagi kalau bukan mereka.
(Riwayat Bukhari dan Muslim)
Banyak tulisan para sarjana yang mengenengahkan budaya negatif amalan ahli
masyarakat yang ditaklidkan sejak zaman berzaman, walaupun ia bertentangan dengan nilai-
nilai agama, misalnya tulisan Ismail Hamid (1985 ), Mohd Kamal Hassan (1996) dan lain-
lain lagi. Sebahagian dari kepercayaan dan amalan tersebut telah dibentangkan oleh penulis
dalam huraian sebelum ini. Terdapat pandangan dari sarjana yang mengusulkan agar orang
Melayu mempelajari ilmu-ilmu seperti sains, matematik, perubatan, geografi, sejarah dan
ekonomi agar dengan pengetahuan tersebut mereka dapat menghindarkan dari unsur-unsur
khurafat dan kepercayaan karut yang selalu membelenggu kehidupan Melayu sejak dahulu
1118 / ISoIT 2004
hingga kini kerana ketiadaan ilmu-ilmu tersebut, orang Melayu terperangkap dengan unsur-
unsur mitos dan khurafat, kemudian ilmu tersebut perlu disepadukan dengan ilmu-ilmu Islam
agar tidak berlaku dikotomi dalam bidang ilmu (Mahayudin, 2001). Adalah tidak
dipertikaikan bahawa cadangan tersebut adalah sesuatu cadangan yang baik. Namun terdapat
beberapa persoalan yang perlu ditimbulkan di sini, apakah sekiranya orang Melayu memiliki
ilmu-ilmu tersebut mereka terjamin tidak akan terlibat dengan amalan-amalan khurafat,
sedangkan ramai orang berpelajaran dan graduan universiti misalnya, yang bukan sedikit
bilangannya turut mempercayai bomoh?, apakah para sahabat Rasulullah s.a.w. yang tidak
banyak mengetahui tentang ilmu-ilmu sains masih mempercayai perkara khurafat ? . Pada
penulis usaha terbaik untuk menghapuskan semua elemen negatif ini hendaklah bermula
dengan usaha memberi penjelasan tentang budaya berfikir Islam yang mempunyai sumber
epistemologi, metodologi dan perkaedahannya yang tersendiri sebagaimana yang
diterangkan oleh sumber-sumber Islam.
Dari sudut persoalan budaya pula, terdapat dua kecenderungan besar di kalangan orang
Melayu yang menjadi pak turut kepada seni hiburan yang tidak selaras dengan tuntutan al-
Quran dan al-Sunnah. Golongan pertama berusaha menghidupkan kembali tradisi dan gaya
hidup syirik zaman Hindu-Budhis dan golongan kedua pula ialah yang menjadi pak turut
kepada budaya hiburan ala-Barat, misalnya budaya pop yang juga tidak selaras dengan ajaran
Islam (Zakaria, 1994, h. 88). Seni hiburan pertama, misalnya persembahan mak yong dan
wayang kulit adalah seni hiburan yang berdasarkan kepada sastera rakyat. Kesenian ini dari
segi susur galurnya pada penulis boleh dikaitkan dengan sastera klasik yang dinyatakan oleh
al-Attas sebagai berasaskan sastera roman, sastera epik dan sastera campuran dongeng dan
sejarah, yang kesemuanya masih membayangkan kesan-kesan pandangan hidup lampau yang
diserapi dengan konsep-konsep Animisme-Hindu-Buddha (al-Attas, 1999, h. 46). Menurut
Mohamad Abu Bakar, pengaliran arus kebangkitan Islam yang berlaku pada dekad 70an dan
80an tidak berjaya menembusi langsung dunia cerita-rakyat (folk-tales) dan drama rakyat
(folk-dramas) seperti wayang kulit, menora dan makyong yang berhubung kait dengan
kepercayaan kepada semangat dan menunggu (Mohamad, 2004). Pada hemat penulis,
seandainya terdapat kalangan penggiat kesenian ini yang ingin meneruskan keberlangsungan
seni ini dalam masyarakat, ia harus disesuaikan dengan ajaran Islam itu sendiri yang bukan
sahaja cukup sekadar memasukkan beberapa patah selawat ke atas Nabi s.a.w. dan bacaan al-
Fatihah, tetapi perlu mempastikan ungkapan kata yang digunakan di dalamnya tidak tersirat
unsur-unsur syirik atau jahiliah yang berasaskan world view ajaran-ajaran sesat yang
disebutkan tadi.
Sementara seni hiburan kedua pula, ia kelihatan begitu mendapat tempat dalam
masyarakat kini. Pihak media massa dan media elektronik memainkan peranan besar dalam
mengenegahkan bentuk-bentuk hiburan ala Barat yang menampulkan artis-artis berpakaian
separuh lucah dan menjolok mata menerusi klip-klip videa, filem-filem lakonan mereka dan
juga yang terbaru menerusi iklan-iklan barangan. Terdapat juga pihak-pihak tertentu yang
menaja pertunjukan pentas artis Barat secara live akhir-akhir ini, misalnya Konsert Mariah
Carrey yang dianjurkan di Melaka baru-baru ini. Kenapa semua ini boleh berlangsung dalam
masyaralat ? Jawapannya ialah kerana tarikan faktor kedunian, khususnya tarikan
materialisme. Masyarakat kita sanggup melakukan apa sahaja walaupun bertentangan dengan
nilai-nilai Islam asalkan apa yang dilakukannya boleh menghasilkan pulangan kewangan.
Mereka tidak membuat penilaian secara kritis terhadap semua ini kerana faktor yang
disebutkan tadi.
Faktor persekitaran juga banyak mempengaruhi sikap seseorang individu untuk
menerima atau menolak sesuatu amalan. Apa yang dimaksud dengan faktor persekitaran
adalah faktor-faktor persekitaran sosial (biah ijtima`iyyah) seperti persekitaran rumah,
sekolah, rakan-rakan, persatuan-persatuan yang bergiat di sekelilingnya, sistem pemerintahan,
adat warisan yang mendominasi masyarakat, surat khabar, majalah dan sebagainya
Mohd Fauzi Hamat / 1119
(Muhammad Baysar, 1973). Menurut Ibn Khaldun, kalangan orang bandar amat
berkecenderungan untuk melakukan maksiat dan berperilaku buruk kerana mereka banyak
terdedah dengan macam-macam bentuk keseronokan dan tarikan keduniaan yang terdapat di
sekelilingnya (Ibn Khaldun, t.t.). Lantaran itu, mereka perlu menilai secara kritis amalan-
amalan yang cuba dibudayakan oleh ahli masyarakat di sekitarnya agar ia tidak turut terikut-
ikut melakukan amalan yang sama, sebagaimana yang diperingatkan oleh Rasulullah s.a.w. di
atas.
Sebilangan ahli masyarakat juga cenderung untuk bertaklid kepada para pemimpin
secara membabi buta, tanpa menilai sejauh mana kepimpinan yang dibawanya menepati nilai-
nilai kebenaran. Al-Quran dan al-sunnah amat menekankan pentingnya penilaian secara kritis
dibuat terhadap keseluruhan modul kepimpinan dan corak kepemimpinan yang ada dalam
sesebuah masyarakat agar mereka tidak terdedah kepada kekecewaan hidup di dunia dan
akhirat (al-Baqarah: 166-167). Rasulullah s.a.w. juga memperingatkan seseorang Muslim
agar mereka mentaati pemimpin setiap masa melainkan dia diperintah melakukan perkara
maksiat atau kekufuran (Riwayat al-Bukhari).
Sebahagian lagi pula cenderung untuk bertaklid terhadap pemikiran dan amalan tinggalan
penjajah yang tentunya berteraskan pandangan alam atau world viewnya tersendiri berasaskan
kerangka pemikiran sekular. Kalaupun negara ini telah mencapai kemerdekaan sejak puluhan
tahun, namun penjajahan secara mental dan budaya tetap berlaku hingga kini. Ini realiti yang
terpaksa diterima oleh sesuatu bangsa yang dijajah. Ibn Khaldun pernah menyebut bahawa
bangsa yang dijajah akan terikut-ikut dengan budaya bangsa yang menjajahnya kerana
mereka percaya bangsa tersebut adalah bangsa yang memiliki kesempurnaan (Ibn Khaldun,
t.t.). Apakah penjajah yang pernah menjajah negara ini tiada kaitan dengan agama Nasrani
sebagaimana yang dinyatakan oleh hadis Rasululullah s.a.w. di atas ?. Jawapannya ialah
memang mereka terdiri dari kalangan dua pendokong agama tersebut atau mereka. Seperkara
lagi, apakah misi penjajahan ke atas dunia Islam tiada kaitan dengan misi untuk meruntuhkan
seluruh sistem kehidupan yang dipertahankan oleh ummah sejak zaman berzaman lagi ?
Kalau begitu, apakah umat Islam tidak perlu menilai secara kritis apa yang datang dari
mereka?
Kecenderungan untuk Bersikap Bias dan Tidak Objektif
Islam menerusi keterangan hadisnya amat menekankan kepentingan seseorang bersikap
objektif dalam menilai sesuatu perkara. Andaikata terdapat kalangan ahli masyarakat yang
bersikap bias dan mengutamakan kepentingan diri, kaum keluarga dan bangsanya, sikap ini
akan menghalang terbudayanya pemikiran kritis dalam masyarakat. Kecenderungan untuk
tidak bersikap objektif juga sebenarnya ada kaitan dengan faktor hawa nafsu dan emosi yang
ada dalam diri manusia. Lantaran itu, adalah sesuatu yang wajar seorang hakim, bahkan
seorang mufti diperingatkan agar mereka tidak memutuskan sesuatu hukuman atau fatwa
ketika mereka berada dalam keadaan marah, lapar, dahaga, dukacita, terlalu gembira, sakit
dan sebagainya. Ini kerana faktor-faktor tersebut, sebagaimana yang dinayatakan oleh Ibn al-
Solah (1986) dan al-Nawawi (1980) boleh memalingkan hati dan jiwa raganya ke arah
perkara lain dan menghalang dirinya untuk meneliti sesuatu perkara berasaskan keterangan-
keterangan yang ada. Rasulullah s.a.w. seperti berikut yang bermaksud:
Hafs ibn `Umar telah menceritakan kepada kami [kata Abu Dawud], katanya: Sulayman ibn Musa [telah
meriwayatkan] dari `Amr ibn Syu`ayb [yang meriwayatkan] dari bapanya [yang meriwayatkan] dari
datuknya bahawa Rasulullah s.a.w menolak penyaksian lelaki yang bersifat khianat, wanita bersifat
khianat, orang yang memusuhi saudaranya dan menolak penyaksian orang yang diberi nafkah [oleh
mereka yang disaksikan] dalam sesuatu rumah, [misalnya khadam dan orang gaji] dan
membenarkannya untuk orang lain (iaitu bukan ahli keluarganya). (Riwayat Abu Dawud)
1120 / ISoIT 2004
Hadis ini menjelaskan bahawa keterangan yang diberikan oleh seseorang saksi yang
bermusuh dengan orang disaksikan tidak boleh diterima sama ada saksi tersebut terdiri dari
adik beradiknya atau orang asing. Begitu juga dengan kes seorang saksi yang diberi nafkah
oleh orang yang disaksikan, misalnya khadamnya sendiri. Dalam kes pertama, saksi tersebut
tidak akan dapat membuat penilaian secara kritis terhadap kes bicara dan tidak akan bersikap
objektif kerana orang yang disaksikan (dibicarakan dalam sesuatu kes) adalah musuhnya.
Begitu dalam kes yang kedua, di mana kemungkinan besar saksi tersebut akan memberi
keterangan yang boleh menyokong atau membela orang yang diminta penyaksian ke atasnya
kerana jikalau ia memenangi sesuatu kes, manfaat kemenangan tersebut akan turut dirasainya
kerana dia sendiri dinafkahi oleh orang yang dibicarakan itu.
Adalah disedarai bahawa memang manusia secara fitrahnya amat mengasihi anak pihak,
saudara mara dan kaum keluarga masing-masing. Begitu juga dengan rakan taulan dan anak
bangsa mereka sendiri. Lantaran itu, mereka akan cukup terasa apabila kaum kerabat mereka
dizalimi atau disakiti (Ibn Khaldun, t.t.). dan tentunya mereka akan bergembiri andaikata ahli
keluarga mereka mendapat nikmat yang melimpah ruah. Namun perasaan emosi ini, kalaupun
ianya wujud dalam naluri manusia secara fitrah, namun ia tidak sepatutnya mempengaruhi
seseorang untuk bertindak secara bias, tidak professional dan objektif dalam memutuskan
sesuatu perkara. Ini kerana naluri tersebut perlu dipandu oleh agama yang dibawa oleh para
nabi a.s.
Individu-individu yang terlibat dalam profesion yang melibatkan orang ramai, misalnya
pemimpin, para pegawai, hakim, saksi mahkamah, mufti dan sebagainya hendaklah
mengambil panduan dari keterangan hadis yang dinyatakan di atas. Seorang hakim misalnya
diingatkan agar jangan mengambil sesuatu keputusan mengenai sesuatu kes sebelum ia
sendiri berpuas hati dengan bukti-bukti yang dikemukakan di hadapannya (O.K. Rahmat,
1994). Ibn al-Salah, seorang tokoh ulama hadis terkenal misalnya, pernah memberi
peringatan kepada para mufti agar mereka tidak terpengaruh dengan faktor kekerabatan atau
perseteruan, dan tidak terpengaruh untuk mendapat sesuatu manfaat dan menolak sesuatu
kemudharatan bagi dirinya dalam mengeluarkan sesuatu fatwa (al-Nawawi, 1980)
Catatan sejarah silam turut merakamkan terdapat sebilangan ahli masyarakat yang
memutuskan sesuatu perkara berdasarkan kepentingan peribadi, misalnya untuk mendapat
kuasa politik dan pentadbiran. Sebagai contohnya ketika perang antara Aceh dengan portugis
dan antara Aceh dengan Belanda, terdapat pemimpin-pemimpin Melayu memihak tentera
Portugis dan Belanda dan sebagai balasannya, mereka dianugerahi gelaran sultan.
(Mahayudin, 2001). Walaupun penduduk Aceh pada abad yang lalu dan kini adalah terdiri
dari orang-orang Islam yang dikira saudara mereka kerana semua orang Mukmin adalah
bersaudara, namun demi untuk mendapat sedikit habuan kedunian, mereka sanggup membuat
keputusan yang tidak sejajar dengan ajaran Islam. Dalam dunia moden kinipun, didapat
banyak juga negara Islam yang bersekongkol dengan Amerika Syarikat dalam membuat
keputusan-keputusan penting yang banyak merugikan umat Islam.
Dalam konteks masyarakat Melayu kini adalah diperhatikan terdapat sebilangan ahli
masyarakat yang cenderung untuk bersikap bias dalam memutuskan sesesuatu perkara kerana
faktor-faktor seperti untuk menjaga kepentingan diri, kaum keluarga dan faktor fahaman
politik kepartian serta sebab-sebab yang lain. Ini menyebabkan sebahagian ahli masyarakat
telah dinafikan hak mereka, dianaktirikan dan diketepikan untuk mendapat sesuatu perkara
walaupun dari segi hak dan meritnya mereka ada golongan yang berkelayakan. Sekiranya hal-
hal seperti ini dapat diatasi, tentu sekali masyarakat Melayu akan muncul sebagai sebuah
bangsa yang terhormat lebih dari apa yang dapat dicapai hari ini. Ini kerana bibit-bibit
perpecahan dan persengketaan akan dapat dihindarkan dari terus tercetus dalam masyarakat
Islam.
Mohd Fauzi Hamat / 1121
Kecenderungan untuk Menjadi Seorang Hipokrit dan Tidak
Konsisten dalam Mempertahankan Kebenaran
Jika halangan ini ingin dinilai dari sudut pandangan al-sunnah, ternyata al-sunnah banyak
menyentuh mengenai kepentingan menegakkan kebenaran dalam masyarakat dalam apa
keadaan sekalipun. Individu yang memiliki sifat ini akan menilai secara bijaksana persoalan
nilai benar dan salah, halal dan haram serta nilai kemanfaatan dan kerosakan yang terdapat
pada sesuatu perkara. Seorang pemikir kritis akan turut memperhitungkan semua asas
pertimbangan tersebut, seterusnya akan bersikap konsisten dalam mempertahankan asas-asas
tersebut. Dia bukan sahaja seorang yang bersikap hipokrit, umpama seperti lalang yang akan
condong ke arah Timur atau Barat apabila ditiup oleh angin atau mudah dipengaruhi oleh
orang lain dalam memutuskan sesuatu perkara, tetapi juga akan menentang pembudayaan
corak berfikir tidak beretika seperti itu dalam masyarakat.
Andaikata wujud dalam sesuatu masyarakat, kalangan yang bersifat hipokrit dan tidak
bersikap konsisten dalam mempertahankan kebenaran, maka masyarakat akan menjadi haru
biru dan tentu sekali faktor ini lambat laun akan meruntuhkan struktur masyarakat itu sendiri.
Lantaran itu, umat Islam perlu mempastikan diri mereka termasuk dalam golongan yang
sentiasa mempertahankan nilai-nilai kebenaran di sepanjang zaman. Ini kerana kewujudan
golongan ini dalam mana-mana masyarakat boleh mengukuhkan strukutur masyarakat
tersebut. Al-Imam al-Bukhari menyatakan bahawa golongan ini ialah terdiri dari kalangan
ahli ilmu (al-Bukhari, 1999), iaitu yang berfikir dan bertindak berasaskan asas-asas ilmu
pengetahuan.
Selain dari gesaan al-Quran agar manusia tetap beriltizam di atas jalan kebenaran,
berfikir dan bertindak berdasarkan landasan kebenaran (al-Hijr : 94, al-Isra : 81, al-Maidah :
67, Ali-`Imran : 104, al-A`raf : 170 dan al-Zukhruf :43)., terdapat hadis Rasulullah s.a.w.
yang turut membuat gesaan yang sama. Antaranya sabda Rasulullah s.a.w. seperti berikut
(maksudnya):
Dari Buraydah katanya: Rasulullah s.a.w. telah bersabda bahawasanya, hakim terdiri daripada tiga
golongan. Dua golongan hakim masuk neraka dan satu golongan akan masuk syurga. Hakim yang
masuk syurga ialah hakim yang mengetahui kebenaran dan memutuskan [sesuatu hukuman] dengan
kebenaran. Manakala lelaki [hakim] yang mengetahui kebenaran, tetapi tidak memutuskan sesuatu
perkara dengan kebanaran dan berlaku zalim dalam menghukumkan sesuatu, ia masuk neraka dan lelaki
[hakim] yang tidak mengetahui dengan kebenaran, lantas ia menghukum manusia berasaskan kejahilan,
maka ia [juga] akan masuk neraka. (Riwayat Abu Dawud)
Selain dari hadis ini, terdapat banyak lagi hadis yang diriwayatkan dari Rasulullah s.a.w.
mengenai pentingnya umat Islam berpegang kepada pandangan yang benar dan menolak
kebatilan dan kepalsuan, misalnya hadis yang menceritakan mengenai perihal ashab al-
ukhdud dan umat terdahulu yang sanggup mati syahid demi mempertahankan nilai-nilai
kebenaran. Ramai dari kalangan para nabi terdahulu dan juga di kalangan para sahabat yang
sanggup menghadapi berbagai bentuk penyiksaan yang dilakukan oleh orang kafir terhadap
mereka bagi mengembalikan semula mereka kepada agama yang batil. Jika hal ini dilihat dari
aspek pemikiran kritis, suatu rumusan penting yang boleh dibuat ialah seorang pemikir kritis
akan tetap berpegang dengan asas kebenaran dalam apa keadaan sekalipun, kalaupun sikap
mulia seperti itu secara lahiriahnya, mungkin sekali pandang tidak banyak membawa manfaat
kepada kehidupan dunianya. Lantaran itu, ramai berkecenderungan untuk memilih sikap ini
bagi mempastikan dirinya memperolehi habuan-habuan berbentuk keduniaannya kalaupun
dia mengetahui perkara yang benar. Andaikata masyarakat Melayu boleh menghindari sikap
seperti ini, mereka tentunya akan dapat meningkatkan tahap integirti dan kredebilitinya
sebagai bangsa berperadaban unggul yang termanifestasi pada pola berfikirnya yang beradab.
1122 / ISoIT 2004
Kecenderungan Menerima Sesuatu Pandangan Berdasarkan
Keterangan Yang Tidak Jelas dan Meragukan
Islam menerusi keterangan al-Quran, misalnya menerusi ayat 43, surah al-Nahl dan al-
Sunnah cuba mengemukakan kepada manusia satu pola berfikir yang berteraskan nilai-nilai
yang sihat dalam menentukan sesuatu keputusan atau menyimpulkan sesuatu perkara. Mereka
tidak akan mudah mengambil keputusan berdasarkan sangkaan, agakan, dan pandangan yang
tidak diperkukuhkan dengan bukti atau yang dikeluarkan oleh orang yang tidak mempunyai
pengetahuan yang jelas tentang sesuatu perkara. Keputusan yang dibuat hendaklah
berdasarkan ilmu yang sebenar, bukannya secara agakan atau tekaan.
Andaikata umat Islam cenderung untuk menerima sesuatu perkhabaran, berita dan
maklumat yang disampaikan kepadanya berdasarkan keterangan yang meragukan, ini akan
menyebabkan selamanya masyarakat tidak akan berfikir secara kritis. Rasulullah s.a.w.
meminta orang yang mendakwa memiliki sesuatu harta atau sesuatu benda bernilai,
hendaklah mengemukakan keterangan atau bukti pemilikannya terhadapnya. Semasa
hayatnya Rasulullah s.a.w tidak pernah bersikap bias dalam menyelesaikan kes yang
melibatkan orang Islam dan orang bukan Islam, kalaupun ia melibatkan bangsa Yahudi yang
sememangnya mempunyai perasaan hasad dengki terhadap orang-orang Islam (Hadith
Riwayat Abu Dawud). Tindakan ini selaras dengan tuntutan firman Allah SWT dalam al-
Quran yang meminta umat Islam, khususnya para pemimpin agar berlaku adil terhadap
musuh mereka walaupun mereka membenci kekufuran mereka (Al-Maidah: 8)
Rasulullah s.a.w. juga pernah mengingatkan bahawa sekiranya seseorang diberikan
sesuatu yang didakwa sebagai miliknya, tanpa perlu dia mengemukakan bukti pemilikannya
ke atas sesuatu, nescaya ramai orang akan mendakwa mempunyai hak ke atas darah yang
ditumpahkan kerana perbuatan orang lain dan harta yang dimiliki oleh orang lain. Lantaran
itu, Islam mensyaratkan agar individu tersebut mengemukakan keterangan (bayyinah) atas
dakwaannya atau ia bersumpah kalau sekiranya dia gagal mengemukakan sebarang saksi
(Riwayat Abu Dawud). Menurut Shah Wali Allah al-Dihlawi, apabila timbul kes
dakwaan terhadap sesuatu oleh seseorang, maka pengadilan atau penghukuman (al-
qada) untuk menentukan kedudukan perkara yang didakwa tersebut wajib
dikendalikan oleh individu hakim yang bersifat `adil dan bersih dari sifat zalim serta
sifat bias. Semua sifat mulia tersebut yang dimiliki mereka telah diketahui [oleh
masyarakat umum] (annahu la yastawjab al-qada illa man kana `adlan bari`an min al-jur
wa al-mayl qad `urifa minhu dhalik). (al-Dihlawi, 1355 H. & al-Nadwi, 1991).
Dalam konteks perbincangan ini, wajar juga disebutkan di sini bahawa terdapat ajaran
dari Rasulullah s.a.w. yang meminta umat Islam agar mendapatkan maklumat atau keterangan
tentang sesuatu berdasarkan sumber yang jelas dan bukan meragukan. Kemunculan satu
disiplin khusus dalam tradisi Islam dikenali sebagai `Ilm Mustalah al-Hadith yang amat
menekankan syarat `adalah al-rawi dalam penerimaan suatu hadith (Mohd Fauzi, 2004)
adalah manifestasi penghayatan ulama silam terhadap tunjuk ajar Rasulullah s.a.w. mengenai
hal ini.Rasulullah s.a.w. pernah memperingatkan bahawa sesiapa yang diminta fatwa tentang
sesuatu, lalu ia memberi fatwa tanpa berdasarkan ilmu, maka ia akan menanggung dosanya di
hari akhirat kelak (Riwayat Abu Dawud). Menurut Sulayman al-Mahri, sesiapa yang
mengisyaratkan [menunjukkan] kepada saudaranya [untuk ditanya/diminta fatwa mengenai]
sesuatu perkara [yang tidak diketahuinya], sedangkan dia mengetahui bahawa kecerdikan
adalah dimiliki oleh orang lain [yang diketahuinya memiliki ilmu tentang perkara tersebut],
maka dia [sebenarnya] telah melakukan pengkhianatan terhadap saudara [yang menanyainya
untuk mendapat kepastian tentang sesuatu perkara] (Riwayat Abu Dawud).
Kecenderungan ahli masyarakat untuk cenderung menerima sesuatu maklumat atau ilmu
pengetahuan bukan berdasarkan sumber meyakinkan dan boleh dipertanggungjawabkan dari
Mohd Fauzi Hamat / 1123
segi kebolehpercayaannya, boleh menghalang mereka dari berfikir secara kritis. Seruan para
ulama hadis seperti Al-Imam al-Bukhari dan al-Nawawi agar umat Islam segera mempelajari
sesuatu ilmu dari kalangan individu yang berkeahlian dalam sesuatu bidang ilmu, lagi bersifat
warak, sebelum mereka tiada dan sebelum peranan mereka dalam penyebaran ilmu diambil
alih oleh kalangan yang tidak berkelayakan sehingga sanggup memperkatakan sesuatu
berdasarkan hawa nafsu dan agakan mereka yang tidak bersandarkan dalil-dalil syarak (al-
Nawawi, 1980), adalah bertujuan untuk menghalang orang ramai dari menerima sesuatu yang
bersumberkan keterangan yang tidak jelas. Adalah diperhatikan bahawa terdapat kalangan
pengamal media yang gemar melontarkan berita-berita sensasi walaupun ia tidak diambil dari
sumber yang menyakinkan. Ungkapan-ungkapan seperti menurut sumber yang dipercayai,
menurut sumber yang kuat kadangkala menghidangkan cerita-cerita yang tidak jelas dan
meragukan.
Kesimpulan
Keterangan di atas menerangkan konsep pemikiran kritis Islam yang berasaskan panduan
wahyu Allah SWT, sebagaimana yang tersirat dalam ayat-ayat yang dikemukakan di atas.
Keterangan yang dikemukakan dalam makalah ini cukup membuktikan betapa perlunya umat
Melayu-Islam menolak budaya berfikir yang bersifat anti-tesis kepada pemikiran kritis. Kalau
sudah diperakui sejak zaman-zaman penyahan halangan-halangan ini menyebabkan lahirnya
ummah yang dapat berfikir secara kritis berdasarkan bimbingan ajaran kenabian, adalah
disarankan agar umat Melayu-Islam cuba mengorak langkah yang bijaksana untuk
membudayakan dalam masyarakat pemikiran kritis Islam yang bukan sahaja telah berjaya
membentuk budaya berfikir yang berkesan di kalangan para sahabat Rasulullah s.a.w. dan al-
salaf al-salih, tetapi juga telah mampu melahirkan tokoh-tokoh besar Islam yang mampu
mengkritik, menilai dan menganalisis secara kritis gagasan pemikiran manusia sejagat
berpandukan asas-asas al-Quran dan al-Sunnah.
Sekiranya masyarakat Melayu menjadikan panduan di atas dalam membina pola berfikir
mereka, tentu sekali masyarakat Melayu-Islam akan dapat melonjakkan dirinya sebagai suatu
bangsa terhormat yang mempunyai pola berfikirnya tersendiri yang berinspirasikan ajaran
wahyu. Impian mereka untuk menjadi bangsa yang berfikiran tinggi, saintifik dan kritis
dalam kehidupan di alam maya ini sukar dicapai andaikata pemikiran mereka tidak dibina
berasaskan pendekatan pemikiran kritis Islam sebagaimana yang dibentangkan dalam
makalah ini.
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Dr. Mohd Fauzi Hamat
Jabatan Akidah Dan Pemikiran Islam
Akademi Pengajian Islam,
Universiti Malaya, 50603,
Kuala Lumpur.
mfhamat@um.edu.my
An Islamic Response to Herzbergs Two-Factor
Motivation Theory
Yusof Ismail & Suhaimi Mhd Sarif
Introduction
This paper attempts to assess the underlying assumptions of motivation-hygiene theory
proposed by Frederick Herzberg (Herzberg, 1973 [1966], 32-51). Herzberg contends that man
was created with pains and hardship and strives to get rid of them. The author labels the
factors that produce job satisfaction as motivators, while those that lead to job dissatisfaction
as hygienes. Motivators are intrinsic to the job and include achievement, recognition, and
responsibility (Bernoux, 1998a, 892-898). Hygienes are extrinsic to the job and include
security, salary and working conditions that make individual worker feels better. According
to Herzberg, hygienes produce a temporary impact, are costly, and lack motivational value
(Herzberg, 1973[1966]; Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959).
Herzberg expounded that employees motivation can be attributed to two factors,
actualization (called satisfaction) and atmosphere (called hygiene) (Herzberg, 1973[1966],
92-95). These factors were based on Christian myths of Prophets Adam and Abraham.
Abraham myth is attributed to actualization; while Adam myth is ascribed to atmosphere
factor. The actualization factor (AC) refers to individual employee accomplishment of work,
recognition of his accomplishments, and change of work responsibility. AC has a tendency to
influence employee behavior to increase satisfaction. The atmosphere factor (AT) refers to
increase in salaries, change in management, alteration of human resource practice, and
improvement in work condition. It has a tendency to reduce tension, but unable to modify
employee behavior.
Bernoux (1998a, 892-898) attributed Herzbergs two factors to Biblical origin in the
latters Work and the Nature of Man (Herzberg, 1973[1966], 35-36) in an attempt to focus on
the welfare of individual employee in organizations. According to the two-factor theory,
financial incentive alone was inadequate to motivate employees to work harder.
Quranic perspective (Malik, 1997) offers a holistic view about work and the nature of
man, which transcends the two factors. In fact, the notions of work and the nature of man are
often related to trust and responsibility. Work is a trust from Allah to man who is a vicegerent
of Allah on earth; his work constitutes an act of worship (ibadah for) Allah. Therefore, there
is no room for man to feel work as a burden, rather as a responsibility and trust.
While the Quranic reference offers holistic view about work and the nature of man, the
Biblical reference offers contradictory role and nature of man. The Quran views man as a
being created with perfection with responsibility to be discharged, while the Bible (Bernoux,
1998a, 892-898) views man as a being created with pains, and without a clear vision of
integration between this worldly and the other worldly concerns.
On the one hand, man was created with perfection (physically) but without knowledge
until Adam ate the forbidden tree that he became knowledgeable [Old Testament, Genenis
2:16 quoted from (Herzberg, 1973[1966], 35)]. On the other hand, man was created in the
image of God with perfection and intellectual capability in order to be Gods emissary on
earth [Old Testament, Genenis 17:1 quoted from (Herzberg, 1973[1966], 35)]. There are two
1126 / ISoIT 2004
types of man, the industrialist and the laborer. The industrialist required the laborer to be
productive to enable him to maximize profit for his company as this is suitable to the latters
nature as a slave. The essence of slave is to produce good results for others and not for him or
her (Herzberg, 1973[1966], 44-45).
Theoretical Foundations
Herzbergs two-factor motivation (TFM) theory was derived from the theory of human
needs. This theory was based on three sources: human is comparable to animals in terms of
basic need such as food, shelter, sexuality desire and protection; human and animal are
comparable except that human lives in hierarchical order; and, according to the Christian
myths, human has motivation to fulfill his or her needs which is common to humanity
(Bernoux, 1998a).
The Old Testament mentioned about two sides of human nature: the creation of Adam
and the covenant of Abraham. The first gives negative, the second positive connotations to
man. The myths of the two Prophets explain the reason for motivation. In Adam myth, the
first man was created with perfection but without knowledge. Herzbergs works
(see1973[1966], 35; Herzberg et al., 1959) cited the following:
And the Lord of God commanded the man, saying Of every tree of the garden thou
mayest eat, but of the tree of knowledge of good and evil, thou shalt not eat of it; for in the
day that thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die (quoted from Herzberg, 1973 [1966], p.35,
Genesis 2:16).
As a result of the violation of the Commandment, Adam and Eve were punished to leave
Paradise and settle on the earth to suffer. As a metaphor, this situation has motivated human
to flee from the heavenly suffering of pains. The semblance of suffering in the workplace is
reflected in the employees continuous attempt to secure a conducive work environment.
In Abraham myth, human is considered a perfect and resourceful being. Perfection is
reflected in terms of physical ability to carry out any activity, while resourcefulness is
represented by knowledge to choose. These attributes qualify man to be the messenger on
earth.
At the workplace, the nature of Adam makes individual employee improve work
performance but does not experience prolonged employee satisfaction. This concept reflects
the atmosphere or hygiene factors: changes in management policy to improve work condition,
salary increment, friendly work condition, harmonious relations between workers, and job
security.
The nature of Abraham motivates individual employee to perform his job. His job
satisfaction can be obtained through better work performance, recognition on the
accomplishment, the job itself, responsibility given, and personal growth. These are called
actualization or satisfaction factors and able to modify employee behavior.
The discussions on HMT may be condensed into the following table:
Adams myth Original
sin
Perfect without
knowledge
Atmosphere Hygiene Not modifying
behavior
Abrahams
myth
Virtuous Perfect &
resourceful
Actualization Satisfaction Modifying
behavior
In summary, man has the tendency to be pessimistic on the one hand, and optimistic on
the other. The former is related to the original sins inherited from Adam, thus man always
needs supervision. However, the latter (Abraham) is related to the creation of human being
from the image of God, thus bestowed with virtues and resources.
Yusof Ismail & Suhaimi Mhd Sarif / 1127
Criticisms on Hertzbergs Two-Factor Motivation Theory
Herzbergs TFM theory claimed that hygiene factors (e.g., fringe benefits, job security,
and status) could produce uneasiness in man if these are lacking, whereas if motivational
factors (e.g., recognition, responsibility, and personal growth) are not present these will cause
employee dissatisfaction. However, Berl et al. (1984) found no concrete support for
Herzbergs proposition based on a series of interviews with 200 accountants and engineers.
Cummings (1974) contends that one tends to achieve high level of satisfaction as he
moves upward in an organization hierarchy. Phillipchuk and Whittaker (1996) argue that
Herzbergs theory appears to be inapplicable in the dynamic and turbulent situation. This is
contrasted with stable environment of high employment and rapid industrial expansion in the
United States upon which Herzbergs original work in 1959 was based. The current dynamic
environment of downsizing, restructuring and reengineering has slowly reduced the satisfiers
(recognition, advancement and responsibility) and made standard motivators (salary and work
conditions) disappear.
Gordon and Pryor (1974) discover that the TFM theory was constructed upon a very
biased experiment, that is, on 266 industrial sales force who responded to check lists that
contained both negative and positive performance measures. The results obtained from the
administration of a similar instrument also failed to support Herzbergs TFM theory.
Shipley and Kiely (1988; 1986) administered Herbergs TFM questionnaire developed by
Herzberg, Mausner and Snyderman on 114 UK industrial salespersons, and found that the
items did not clearly separate motivators from hygienes (i.e. dissatisfiers). The findings
diverged from the TFM in relation to the job content (motivator)-job context (dissatisfier)
dichotomy (Shipley & Kiely, 1988; 1986).
Herzbergs motivation theory has influenced human resource management practices. For
instance, employers implemented job enrichment, job enlargement, and job rotation to
motivate their employees. Despite these, employees still demand for high salary instead of
improved work condition (Bernoux, 1998b; Herzberg, 1973[1966]).
TFM theory is more concerned with job satisfaction than motivation; and motivation
itself seems to be linked to organizational structure rather than human nature. While
Herzbergs theory attempts to look at the individuals perspective, other works such as March
and Simon (1958), Aoki (1984), and Mintzberg (1979) focus on managerial perspectives of
employee motivation.
Motivation cannot be confined to partial aspects of man, such as job satisfaction because
his action is always guided by his faith (Lee, McCann, & Ching, 2003).
The Islamic Perspective
Herzbergs explanation of human needs is simplistic. Needs are not direct products of the
work place. An employee brings with him a package of needs when he joins the workplace.
He is first a person, then employee. While serving as employee, he does not discard his
individuality and values. Human needs encompass the spiritual and material.
According to Islam, a person should acquire its values and these shape his vision for his
entire life, within and outside the workplace. The concept of man, his position, his mission,
and his success and failure are defined within a broad framework (al Haj 22:5; al Zariyat 51
56; Ali Imran 3: 110;al Najm 53: 42,44). Work values and work motivations are an
extension of this broad framework. The values of his faith provide the basic formula. Work is
ibadah (an act of worship). Drawing motivation from ones faith, and maintaining its
connection with work and the work place are inseparable.
1128 / ISoIT 2004
The basic principles of faith, and mans mission and nature suggest what constitutes his
motivation anywhere. The next section discusses these, to be followed by an analysis of
underlying thesis of Herzbergs TFM from an Islamic perspective.
The unique creation of human (al-Sajdah 32:7; al-Baqarah 2:31; al-Hijr 15:29) has been
consistent with Allahs plan to create human and then appoint him as His vicegerent on earth
(al-Baqarah 2:30). Mans vicegerency is not a punishment, or related to pains and suffering,
or sins of Adam and Eve. In fact, Adam received a pardon from Allah. His sin is a lesson for
him and the entire mankind (Badawi, n.d.). Man is prone to make and has the ability to avoid
making mistakes (al-Nisa 4:110).
Unlike other creatures, man is a servant of Allah, and given Guidance (the Quran and Al
Sunnah of His Last Messenger), intellectual capacity, and freedom of choice. He is endowed
with the inclinations of good and evil, and will be responsible for his actions. The contrasting
perspectives of Islam and Christianity toward the foundations of human nature (Saal, 1991)
are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1 A Comparison of Selected Concepts in Christianity and Islam
Doctrine Christianity Islam
Before the Fall, humanity's relationship to
God was one of unbroken fellowship.
People have always been, and always will
be, the bondslaves of God.
Human
Condition
Humankind fell from a spiritual state of
innocence to one of guilt, condemnation,
and broken fellowship with the Creator.
Humanity's Fall was physical, from a
paradise in the material heavens down to
this earth.
Adam's sinful nature and judgment is
transmitted to all people; Jesus alone was
born sinless and holy.
Our nature remains unchanged by the Fall.
Every descendant of Adam is sinless at
birth.
All are constitutionally affected by sin.
Human behavior gives evidence of sin's
impact on every aspect of our nature and
personality.
We are created weak. Our tendency to sin
results from an act of God. There is no
sinful nature. Although this weakness is
serious, it is not insurmountable.
Sin
The Bible clearly distinguishes between
sinful nature, personal sin, guilt, and
judgment.
Each sin is an individual act. At worst, a sin
is part of a series of sinful acts.
God is absolutely holy and righteous. All
sin is condemned by His holiness and must
be punished.
God guides or leads astray whomever He
pleases. He is free to condemn or condone at
will. Sins are classified as greater or lesser.
Judgment
Good works cannot gain God's favor,
dispose Him to forgive wrong, cover sin,
remove guilt and condemnation, blot out
our past, or guarantee status in the future.
If God will, good works can gain His favor,
encourage forgiveness, remove guilt, etc.
Salvation
Jesus Christ alone has rendered complete
obedience to God. His sinlessness enables
Him to render the perfect sacrifice.
God has made humanity's burden light. We
can accumulate merit and gain rewards. We
can save ourselves. All we need is guidance
from God to live in submission to Him.
Eternity Heaven is a state of eternal and unbroken Paradise is the ultimate perfection of the
Yusof Ismail & Suhaimi Mhd Sarif / 1129
fellowship with God. We will receive a new
body, free of sin.
pleasures of this world. Fellowship with
God is not the ideal to be attained.
Source: Saal, W.J. (1991)
Man and Original Sin
The belief in original sin is inconsistent with the nature of human creation of the image of
Allah. If Christianity could accept the uniqueness of human creation (Herzberg, 1973[1966],
34-35), then how could the unique human be inherited with sins?
In terms of physical body, human and animal share some similarities, but human is
unique compared to the other creatures (including animal) due to the three components: body,
soul and mind. However, human is also given divine guidance to control the animal-like
behavior (Family Federation of World Peace and Unification, n.d.).
Quinn (1998) divides the concept of sin into actual sin and Augustian original sin. Actual
sins are wrongdoings of human actions that offended God, while Augustian original sin is
derived from the sin of the Fall of Adam and Eve. But Quinn insists that the sin of Adam and
Eve does not necessarily extend to, nor inherited by the humanity.
Locke (1740 [1632-1704]; 1924 [1632-1704]) and Kant (1873 [1788]; 1960 [1724-1804])
had been critical of the Augustinian sin. Locke contends that Augustine has misrepresented
the concept of original sin, while Kant proposed that Augustines doctrine of original sin
should be replaced with the doctrine of radical evil, i.e. the tendency of human to evil.
Christian philosophers like Swinburne (1979; 1994; 1997; 2003) and Wainwright (1981;
1995) also criticized the Augustinian doctrine of innate guilt. Swinburne contends that human
tends to commit sin but one cannot bear the sins of others. However, he insists that human
still inherits Adams original sins by way of divine imputation. Wainwright adds that this is
due to Adams representation of human being, and thus allows for transfer of liability instead
of sins.
Response from Islamic Perspective
The Biblical myths expressed through Adam and Abraham metaphors produce two
extreme opposites. The myths are contrary to human nature, and clearly de-motivating in the
work place context. It would be disgraceful for one to work to get rid of the sins that he did
not commit.
The paper does not intend to critique the authenticity of the Biblical myths attributed to
the underlying motivation theory, rather it attempts to compare the myths in relation to the
fundamental values in Islam.
According to Islam, Prophet Adam transgressed the disciplinary rules of Paradise (i.e.
Allahs Commandment), and was dismissed from the company (i.e. Paradise). He repented
and was forgiven (al-Baqarah 2:36-37). He was sent to a different organization (i.e. the
world) with the same mission, i.e. to establish, maintain, defend, and disseminate the
Commandments of Allah in all contexts.
Prophet Adam left Paradise in a pure state (al-Teen 95: 4-6):
We (Allah) have indeed created man in the best stature; then We (Allah) abase him to the lowest of the
low, except those who believe and do good deeds for they shall have never-ending rewards.
This shows that man has been blessed with such excellent capabilities that he/she can
attain the highest position, which has not been attained by any other creature.
1130 / ISoIT 2004
He is given the mission (Commandment) to obey/worship Allah (al-Araf 7:19-25). The
mission of man is to worship Allah, as stated in al-Zariyat 51: 56-57:
We have not created jinns and mankind except to worship me. I require no sustenance
from them, nor do I ask that they should feed me.
Worship (ibadah) refers to every aspect of a mans life, within and outside the work
place.
Man is a vicegerent (emissary) (al-Baqarah 2: 30). He is given Guidance, knowledge (al-
Baqarah 2: 34-35), and mental faculty. He is expected to keep balance in the nourishment of
body and soul, following the guidance received from his Creator, and not associating any
being with Him. His performance will be evaluated based on his actions (al-Ankabut 29: 6).
Conclusion
In conclusion, Herzbergs two-factor motivation (TFM) theory does not provide a
comprehensive view of work place motivation. Its origin lies with, among others, its faulty
and negative assumptions of man imprisoned by inherited sin, and motivated by
materialism, such as position. Both motivators and hygienes are materialistic in nature. While
TFM makes motivation related to getting rid of pain, Islam makes work motivation natural
and part of mans faith, and the employee should be as enthusiastic in his work as outside his
work place. An employee is firstly a Muslim, and these two are inseparable. A man is a
servant and vicegerent of Allah.
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Yusof Ismail
yusof@iiu.edu.my
yusof_iiu@yahoo.com
Suhaimi Mhd Sarif
albanjari@yahoo.com
Department of Business Administration, KENMS
International Islamic University Malaysia
Jalan Gombak
53100 KUALA LUMPUR
Malaysia
Falsafah Occultisme dalam Kitab Melayu Klasik Taj Al-
Mulk
Indriaty Ismail
Abstrak
Occultisme merupakan suatu bentuk falsafah kebatinan yang merangkumi pelbagai
cabang ilmu yang cuba menerokai perkara-perkara misteri yang sukar diketahui oleh
pancaindera dan pengalaman manusia. Kajian ini bertujuan untuk membincangkan
mengenai elemen occultisme yang terdapat di dalam kitab Melayu klasik Taj al-Mulk.
Metodologi yang digunakan di dalam kajian ini ialah bersifat kajian kepustakaan. Hasil
kajian menemui bahawa sebahagian besar dari kitab ini mengandungi elemen falsafah
occultisme yang antaranya ialah seperti numerologi, astrologi, divinasi, ilmu tangkal azimat
dan lain-lain.
Pengenalan
Perkembangan occultisme secara formal di dalam dunia Islam dapat dilihat paling awal
dalam pemikiran aliran Ikhwan al-Safa` dan kemudiannya dipraktikkan oleh ahli-ahli
falsafah Islam yang juga merupakan saintis Islam terkenal, seperti Jbir ibn Hayyn, al-Rzi,
al-Tughri, al-Majriti dan lain-lain. Occultisme secara tidak formal terus berkembang dan
mendapat tempat di kalangan orang awam yang tidak mengetahui hujung pangkal ilmu ini.
Occultisme menjadi suatu budaya dan adat tradisi masyarakat Islam sejak beberapa lama. Ia
juga kelihatan terlalu sebati dalam kehidupan masyarakat Islam Malaysia khususnya di
kalangan orang-orang Melayu. Amalan-amalan ini dipelihara oleh golongan tua dari semasa
ke semasa sehingga mereka dikenali sebagai orang yang berilmu dan luas pengalaman di
kalangan generasi muda. Occultisme kemudiannya diwarisi oleh golongan generasi muda
yang terus menjadi pendokong utama yang mempertahankannya daripada pupus di telan
zaman. Baik secara individu atau kolektif, masyarakat Melayu sebenarnya belum benar-
benar mengenali apakah occultisme yang selama ini menjadi kepercayaan dan pakaian harian
mereka. Penerokaan terhadap occultisme sebagaimana tersurat di dalam penulisan-penulisan
tinggalan masyarakat dan yang tersirat di dalam dada dan amalan masyarakat akan
membuahkan hasil perbandingan yang kritis dengan ciri-ciri occultisme yang telah menjadi
elemen terpenting dalam berbagai agama lain selain Islam. Penganalisisan ini juga
bermatlamatkan untuk melihat sedekat mungkin keserasian occultisme atau sejauhmana
perjalanannya bertunjangkan kepada pendekatan yang dibawa oleh syiar Islam.
Falsafah Occultisme Dan Kitab-Kitab Masyarakat Melayu
The Living Webster Encyclopedia Dictionary menghuraikan occult sebagai sains awal
yang menumpukan kepada kualiti fizikal yang terdapat pada benda-benda di alam yang sukar
diketahui melalui kefahaman fikiran tetapi dapat disingkap melalui pengalaman. Ia juga
Indriaty Ismail / 1133
merupakan suatu sains yang berkaitan dengan unsur-unsur magik, astrologi dan penggunaan
agen-agen misteri dan ghaib. Webster Encyclopedia menyimpulkan occultisme sebagai
suatu doktrin, kajian dan kepercayaan terhadap unsur-unsur ghaib dan berkomunikasi
dengannya. Manakala occultist ialah orang yang mengamalkan occultisme dan mengabdikan
diri dengan ilmu-ilmunya (The Living Webster Encyclopedia Dictionary t.th.,1:655).
Menurut The Encyclopedia Americana, occultisme ialah falsafah yang berkaitan dengan
perkara-perkara misteri atau tersembunyi; The philosophy of hidden matters. Istilah ini
merangkumi amalan-amalan yang didasarkan kepada teori-teori dan kepercayaan-
kepercayaan yang kemudiannya membentuk falsafah ini. Dalam kata lain, occultisme pada
kebiasaannya mengandungi kepercayaan mistik dan amalan magik rahsia (The Encyclopedia
Americana 1972,20:609).
Pengumpulan data-data mengenai occultisme dalam masyarakat Islam Malaysia
diperolehi melalui dua sumber utama iaitu sumber-sumber bertulis dan tidak bertulis. Kajian
ke atas sumber-sumber bertulis dikategorikan kepada dua bahagian iaitu kitab-kitab agama
bertulisan Arab dan Jawi dan buku-buku berunsur agama bertulisan rumi. Sumber-sumber
occultisme yang tidak bertulis pula terdiri daripada kajian-kajian ke atas amalan, pegangan
dan kepercayaan individu dan masyarakat yang diwarisi secara tradisi lisan sejak turun-
temurun.
Kitab-kitab bertulisan Jawi yang memuatkan beberapa bahagian ilmu occultisme
sebagaimana yang ditemui oleh pengkaji ialah seperti berikut: Kitab Bintang Dua Belas (Abi
Ma
c
syar al-Falaki:1957), Kitab Pati Rahsia (Haji Nik Mahmud bin Ismail:1946) dan Kitab
Taj al-Mulk (Tuan Hassan ibn Tuan Ishak Fatani:t.th.). Kitab-kitab di atas merupakan kitab-
kitab terbitan dan cetakan tempatan yang banyak mengandungi unsur-unsur occultisme.
Manakala kitab-kitab berbahasa Arab yang diterbitkan di Timur Tengah yang banyak
memuatkan ilmu-ilmu occultisme dan terkenal di kalangan masyarakat Melayu ialah seperti
berikut: Syams al-Ma
c
arif al-Kubra (Ahmad ibn
c
Ali al-Bayyuni:1970), Manba
c
Usul al-
Hikmah (Ahmad ibn
c
Ali al-Bayyuni:t.th.), Sir al-Asrr wa Kanzu al-Anwr (Daud al-Antaki
al-Darir:1928), Kitab Mujarobat (Al-Syaykh Ahmad al-Dairabi al-Kabir:t.th.) dan Kitb
Mujarrobat al-Iman (Al-Syaykh Abi
c
Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Yusuf al-Sanusi al-Husni).
Kitab-kitab bahasa Arab tersebut di atas ini amat hebat pengaruhnya di kalangan
masyarakat Melayu. Selain itu, terdapat ratusan buah buku-buku bahasa Melayu dan
Indonesia yang dikesan oleh pengkaji mengandungi elemen-elemen occultisme yang begitu
sebati di dalam masyarakat Islam. Buku-buku tersebut dapat disenaraikan seperti berikut:
Hikmat Ayatul Kursi (Ali Zulfakar:t.th.), Dunia Hikmat (Ali Zulfakar:1955), Intisari Ilmu
Ghaib (Imam Ghazali:t.th.,Terj.), Rahasia Mujarobat Lengkap (MS Mariyah:1994),
Mengenal Lelaki (Ibnu Yusof:1993), Kitab Mujarabat (M.A. Romdon: 1986), Mujarrobat
Madiinatul Asroor (t.p:t.th.), Buku Primbon Lengkap Kunci Keselamatan (t.p:t.th.),
Miftahusy Syifa Primbon Lengkap Kunci Kesembuhan (Ahmad Thoha Abdul Ghani:t.th.),
Kunci Mencari Rezeki (K.H. Zahwan Anwar:1988) dan berbagai nama kitab lagi.
Pengkaji juga menemui beberapa buah buku berbahasa Inggeris yang pada hemat
pengkaji turut menyelitkan fahaman occultisme. Kemungkinan besar buku-buku ini
mendapat tempat utama di kalangan para intelek Melayu meskipun kedudukannya di
kalangan orang awam dipercayai adalah terhad. Buku-buku bahasa Inggeris yang
dikenalpasti itu ialah: The Book of Sufi Healing (Kitab al-Tibb al-Rauhi as-Sufi) (Shaykh
Hakim Abu Abdullah Ghulam Moinuddin:1985) dan Sufi Expressions of The Mystic Quest
(Laleh Bakhtiar:1976).
Perbincangan mengenai occultisme di dalam kitab-kitab tersebut dapat diselami menerusi
ilmu-ilmu occultisme yang terdiri daripada numerologi, astrologi, divinasi, palmistry dan
lain-lain. Di dalam kajian ini pengkaji hanya akan menumpukan kepada sebuah kitab sahaja
iaitu Taj al-Mulk. Pemilihan ini dibuat memandangkan kitab ini amat popular di kalangan
orang Melayu dan kandungan falsafah kebatinannya juga hampir merangkumi sebahagian
1134 / ISoIT 2004
besar cabang falsasah occultisme. Pengkaji akan memuatkan fakta-fakta dan contoh-contoh
yang ditemui sepanjang kajian sebagai membuktikan penampilan ilmu-ilmu occultisme di
dalam kitab ini.
Elemen Occultisme Di Dalam Kitab Taj Al-Mulk
Setelah membuat analisis ke atas data-data yang dikumpulkan dari kitab agama klasik
masyarakat Melayu ini, pengkaji merumuskan untuk membentangkan tiga unsur occultisme
yang utama dan terbanyak dihuraikan di dalam kitab tersebut dan juga masih diamalkan di
kalangan masyarakat. Unsur-unsur tersebut terdiri dari Numerologi, Astrologi dan Divinasi.
Numerologi
Numerologi merupakan ilmu dalam occultisme yang paling popular di kalangan
masyarakat Islam di Tanah Melayu di mana ia telah diamalkan dan diperturunkan sejak dari
zaman silam lagi. Ilmu numerologi ini di dalam bahasa Arab disebut sebagai
c
Ilm al-Huruf.
Pengkaji melihat bagi kebanyakan penulis kitab-kitab occultisme baik berbahasa Melayu atau
Arab, mereka beranggapan bahawa huruf-huruf samada secara bersendirian atau tersusun
mempunyai keistimewaannya yang tersendiri. Huruf-huruf hijaiah ini dijadikan wifiq dan
bentuknya yang tersusun dijadikan sebagai azimat. Setiap huruf dipercayai mempunyai
tabiat-tabiat tertentu yang membolehkan seseorang memahami ciri-ciri, kaifiyat, darjat dan
martabat kerohanian sesuatu benda.
Penggunaan ilmu huruf di kalangan ulamak occultisme di dalam kitab Taj al-Mulk dan
kebiasaannya di dalam kitab-kitab yang sealiran dimulai dengan memberi nilai kepada huruf-
huruf hijaiah tersebut. Menurut kajian pengkaji sistem nilai abjad yang dipraktikkan ini tidak
mempunyai sedikit perbezaan pun dengan yang digunakan oleh masyarakat Chaldean,
masyarakat Yahudi dan falsafah aliran Pythagorean.
Berikut ialah nilai abjad huruf-huruf hijaiah yang diambil dari kitab Melayu yang lain
dan diperturunkan di sini disebabkan kitab Taj al-Mulk sendiri tidak mencatatkan huraian
nilaiannya:
JADUAL 3.1: Angka-Angka Menurut Hitungan (Hisab) Abjad
Alif
Baa`
Jim
Daal
Haa
Wawu
Zay
Haa`
Thoo
Qoof
Roo
Syiin
Taa`
Tsaa
Ng
G
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
N
-
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
100
200
300
400
500
=
=
=
Yaa
Kaaf
Laam
Miim
Nuun
Siin
Ain
Faa
Shood
Khoo`
Dzaal
Dhood
Zhoo
Ghoin
50
100
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
600
700
800
900
1000
Indriaty Ismail / 1135
Ny = Y =
=
10
Sumber: Mujarobat Madiinatul Asroor:t.th., 2:35-37
Para numerologis dan occultis Melayu Islam amat fanatik dengan ilmu huruf atau sistem
nilai abjad ini kerana ia menjadi asas yang paling penting dalam segala pekerjaan yang lain.
Sebagai contoh, ilmu hitungan diperlukan dalam menentukan jumlah nama seseorang, sifat
dan karakter peribadinya, keserasian seseorang dengan pasangannya, mengetahui hal manusia
dan bintangnya, mengetahui kiraan orang yang akan bermusafir, mengetahui hajat tercapai
atau penyakit sembuh, mengetahui punca sesuatu penyakit, mengetahui menang atau kalah,
menentukan jantina bayi yang dikandung dan lain-lain.
Mengetahui Keserasian antara Dua Sahabat atau Pasangan Suami Isteri
Bab yang paling laris di dalam pegangan ilmu numerologi ialah penentuan keserasian di
antara lelaki dan perempuan sebelum mendirikan rumahtangga atau antara dua sahabat
sebelum memulakan sesuatu perkongsian kerja. Banyak kitab-kitab Melayu lama dan moden
tidak ketinggalan memuatkan perbincangan khusus mengenai aspek ini. Dalam analisis
pengkaji, perincian terhadap ilmu keserasian ini dapat ditemui di dalam Kitab Pati Rahsia
(Nik Mahmud 1946:145), Bintang Dua Belas (Abi Ma
c
syar al-Falaki 1957: 3), Taj al-Mulk
(Tuan Hassan t.th.:25), Buku Mengenal Lelaki (Ibnu Yusof 1993,45-46) dan lain-lain lagi.
Kitab Taj al-Mulk secara khusus telah mencatatkan hal ini dengan;
Jika engkau kehendaki kenal hal laki-laki dan perempuan adakah muafakat antara keduanya atau
berbantah antara keduanya atau jadi bercerai kemudiannya atau adakah mati satu seorang daripada
keduanya maka hendaklah engkau hisab akan nama laki-laki dan nama ibunya dan bilangan hari bulan
dan esa
iaitu dua puluh tiga
c
adad
hari maka buang majmuk tiga puluh tiga puluh seperti kaedah yang
tersebut dan dihisab akan nama perempuan dan ibunya dan
c
adad hari dan bilangan haribulan dan
esanya iaitu dua puluh maka buang tiga puluh tiga puluh seperti kaedah yang tersebut jua kemudian
maka dilihat pada dua Luh maka jika jatuh
c
adad laki-laki dan perempuan dalam Luh al-Hayt maka
dua orang itu muafakat dan apabila seorang dalam Luh al-Hayt dan seorang lagi dalam Luh al-Mamt
maka dua orang itu bercerai kemudiannya atau yang jatuh dalam Luh al-Mamt itu mati dan yang jatuh
dalam Luh al-Hayt itu hidup dan qiyas olehmu atas demikian itu segala pekerjaan yang lain-lain.
Demikian lagi jika engkau kehendaki kenal akan dua orang yang berkehendak bersahabat antara
keduanya atau berkehendak bersyarikat pada berniaga umpamanya maka hendaklah engkau hisab antara
dua nama orang itu dan
c
adadnya hari dan bilangan haribulan dan esa bermula esa itu dua puluh jua
tiada lebih tiada kurang selama-lamanya dan qiyas olehmu akan segala pekerjaan yang lain-lain (Tuan
Hasan t.th.:25-26).
Pengkaji melihat terdapat kelainan pada jumlah pengiraan nilai-nilai nama yang
dilakukan oleh pengarang Kitab Taj al-Mulk ini dengan kitab-kitab Melayu yang lain kerana
jumlah pengurangan angka agak besar iaitu dibuang 30, 30. Pengarang juga mengamalkan
kaifiyat mengenali sesuatu hajat dan mengetahui sesuatu dengan berdasarkan kaedah yang
beliau namakan Luh al-Hayt dan Luh al-Mamt (Tuan Hasan t.th.:25). Jadual Luh al-Hayt
dan Luh al-Mamt yang digunakan oleh pengarang kitab ini ialah seperti berikut:
JADUAL 3.1.1: Luh al-Hayat dan Luh al-Mamat Kitab Taj al-Mulk
1136 / ISoIT 2004
Sumber: Tuan Hasan t.th.:26
Pengarang kitab ini menjelaskan lagi bagaimana menentukan bilangan hari dengan
katanya:
Adapun
c
adad hari itu maka Ahad itu 1
c
adadnya, Isnin itu 2
c
adadnya dan Selasa itu 3
c
adadnya dan
Rabu itu 4
c
adadnya dan Khamis itu 5
c
adadnya dan Jumaat itu 6
c
adadnya dan Sabtu itu 7
c
adadnya
(Tuan Hasan t.th.:26).
Jadual Luh al-Hayt dan Luh al-Mamt tersebut di atas digunakan oleh pengarang
sebagai asas numerologi di dalam kitabnya dan disarankan kepada orang ramai sebagai
rujukan dalam pengiraan mereka untuk menentukan berbagai perkara selain muafakat dua
sahabat atau keserasian suami isteri seperti menentukan kalah menang seseorang dengan
lawannya, menentukan orang yang sakit sembuh atau tidak, mengenalpasti punca sesuatu
penyakit, mengetahui keadaan orang yang musafir atau ghaib, mengetahui hajat akan tercapai
atau tidak, mengenali pekerjaan yang musykil, mengetahui jantina anak dalam kandungan
dan hidup atau mati anak itu dan lain-lain lagi (Tuan Hasan t.th.:24-27).
Mengetahui Kalah Menang Seseorang Dengan Musuhnya
Kitab Taj al-Mulk telah mengemukakan dua bentuk pengiraan kalah menang dengan
berpandukan mazhab Imam Ja
c
far al-Sadiq r.a. (Tuan Hasan t.th.:23) dan mengikut kaedah
mazhab Abi Ma
c
syar al-Falaki (Tuan Hasan t.th.:24).
Pengarang kitab ini menyebutkan di dalam Fasal kepada menyatakan ghalib dan
maghlub atas mazhab Imam Ja
c
afar al-Sidiq r.a.,
Adapun kaifiyat mengenal itu maka hendaklah dihisab huruf antara dua nama yang berbantah atau
berbetulan dengan huruf abjad dengan hisab jumal kabir. Dan murad dengan jumal kabir itu seperti
hisab seseorang yang bernama Ahmad, maka hisab dengan jumal kabir itu: ( ) itu satu
c
adadnya dan (
) itu 8
c
adadnya dan ( ) itu 40
c
adadnya dan ( ) itu 4
c
adadnya maka jadi jumlah itu 53
c
adad
bakinya. Adapun hisab jumal saghir itu maka diiktibar ( ) itu 3 huruf makhraj iaitu ( ), maka ( )
itu satu
c
adad, ( ) itu 30
c
adad, dan ( ) itu 80
c
adad. Dan ( ) itu 2 huruf iaitu ( ) dan ( ) itu 8
c
adad dan ( ) itu satu
c
adad. Dan ( ) itu 3 huruf ( ), maka ( ) itu 40
c
adadnya, dan ( ) itu 10
c
adadnya, dan ( ) yang kedua itu 40
c
adadnya jua . Dan ( ) itu 3 huruf asalnya iaitu ( ), maka
iaitu 4
c
adad dan ( ) itu satu
c
adadnya, dan ( ) itu 30
c
adadnya. Maka jadi jumlah lafaz Ahmad ( )
dengan hisab jumal saghir itu 245
c
adadnya. Maka qiyas olehmu akan nama yang lain daripada
Ahmad (Tuan Hasan t.th.:23).
Setelah sudah maklum akan dua nama orang yang berkehendak berkelahi bantah umpamanya maka
dihisab huruf bagi nama masing-masing orang itu maka dibuang masing-masing nama orang akan 9, 9.
Adapun jika bersamaan pada nama keduanya maka kita lihat pada ilmunya dan sya`n
dan warna
kulitnya dan bangsanya dan sifat kejadiannya. Maka barang yang lebih ilmu atau tua umur atau lebih
warna kulit bangsa atau lebih sifat kejadiannya maka iaitulah menang. Bermula warna hitam itu keras
Indriaty Ismail / 1137
daripada warna yang lain dan warna merah itu keras daripada warna yang putih dan qiyas olehmu akan
lainnya (Tuan Hasan t.th.: 23).
Adapun jika tinggal esa dengan 9, ghalib esa maghlub 9. Dan jika esa dengan 8, ghalib 8 maghlub esa
. Dan jika esa dengan 7, ghalib esa maghlub 7. Dan jika esa dengan 6, maka ghalib 6 maghlub esa.
Dan jika esa dengan 5, maka iaitu ghalib esa maghlub 5. Dan jika esa dengan 4, maka iaitu ghalib 4
maghlub esa. Jika dengan 3, maka iaitu ghalib esa maghlub 3. Dan jika esa dengan 2, maka iaitu
ghalib 2 maghlub esa. Dan jika esa dengan esa, maka barang yang mendatang itu ghalib dan yang
didatang itu maghlub (Tuan Hasan t.th.:23).
Pengarang kitab ini seterusnya membincangkan lebih panjang bilangan angka tunggal di
antara dua nama iaitu 2 dengan 9, 3 dengan 9, 4 dengan 9, 5 dengan 9, 6 dengan 9, 7 dengan
9, 8 dengan 9 dan terakhir 9 dengan 9 (Tuan Hasan t.th.:23-24). Perbincangan tersebut
mengkhususkan kepada pengiraan mengikut mazhab Abi Ja
c
afar al-Sadiq. Manakala
perbincangan seterusnya ialah dikhususkan kepada `Fasal pada menyatakan satu kaedah lagi
pada mengenal ghalib dan maghlub atas mazhab Abi Ma
c
syar al-Falaki (Tuan Hasan
t.th.:24-25). Pengarang mencatatkan,
Dan adalah kaedah ini tersebut dalam dua bait dalam Kitab Abu Ma
c
syar al-Falaki jua. Maka
kaifiyatnya hendaklah dihisabkan antara dua nama orang yang berkelahi bantah atau lainnya dengan
hisab jumal kabir. Setelah sudah dihisab maka nyatalah maksudnya dalam dua bait syair Arab yang
bermaksud: Yakni ghaliblah matlub ertinya ghaliblah yang datang kepadanya dan maghlub yang
mendatang apabila bersamaan antara dua nama pada genapnya. Dan ghaliblah talib ertinya ghaliblah
yang mendatang dan maghlub yang datang tatkala bersamaan antara dua nama pada kasalnya. Dan
jadilah ghaliblah yang terkurang
c
adadnya pada tatkala seorang genap
c
adadnya dan seorang kasal
yakni pada tatkala seorang genap dan seorang kasal itu ghalib yang terkurang
c
adadnya dan jadi
maghlub yang banyak
c
adadnya dan ghaliblah yang banyak
c
adadnya pada tatkala bersalah-salahan ia
(Tuan Hasan t.th.:24).
Pengkaji mendapati terdapat kesukaran dalam memahami kaedah mengenali ghalib
maghlub mengikut mazhab Abi Ma
c
syar al-Falaki seperti keterangan di atas. Walau
bagaimanapun pengarang telah menghuraikan kenyataannya itu dengan memberikan contoh-
contoh bagi setiap bentuk nilai abjad. Pengarang menerangkan,
Adapun kehasilan surah dalam dua bait syair itu empat, pertama, surah bersamaan antara nama pada
genapnya maka adalah surah enam ghaliblah yang didatang kepadanya dan maghlub yang mendatang,
misal, seorang Muhammad namanya seorang lagi namanya pun Muhammad jua maka Muhammad itu
92
c
adadnya. Maka yang mendatang itu maghlub dan yang datang itu ghalib. Kedua, surah bersamaan
antara dua nama pada kasal maka adalah surah ini ghaliblah yang mendatang dan maghlub yang
didatang, misal, seorang namanya Salam dan seorang lagi namanya Salim, maka Salam itu 131
c
adadnya jua maka adalah surah ini ghalib yang mendatang dan maghlub yang didatang. Ketiga, surah
seorang genap dan seorang kasal, misal seorang bernama Ahmad dan seorang bernama Husin maka
Ahmad itu 53
c
adadnya dan Husin itu 128
c
adadnya maka surah ini memanglah yang terkurang
c
adadnya daripada yang banyak yakni ghalib Ahmad dan maghlub Husin. Keempat, surah ghalib yang
banyak tatkala bersalah-salahan
c
adadnya pada genap antara dua nama atau kasal antara dua namanya,
misalnya, bersalahan pada genap itu seorang bernama Ali dan seorang lagi bernama Yusof, maka Ali itu
110 banyak
c
adadnya dan Yusof itu 156
c
adadnya maka Yusof itu ghalib dan Ali itu maghlub kerana
banyak
c
adadnya daripada
c
adad Ali dan missal bersalah-salahan pada kasal itu seorang bernama
Ibrahim dan seorang lagi bernama Sulaiman, maka Ibrahim itu 259
c
adadnya dan Sulaiman itu 191
c
adadnya maka Sulaiman itu maghlub dan Ibrahim itu ghalib kerana banyak
c
adad Ibrahim daripada
c
adad Sulaiman dan qiyaskan olehmu akan yang lain-lain daripadanya. Wallahua
c
lam (Tuan Hasan
t.th.:23-24).
Mengetahui Jantina Anak di Dalam Kandungan
Numerologi juga digunakan untuk penentuan jantina bayi yang dikandung. Kitab Taj al-
Mulk mempunyai persepsi yang berbeza dari kitab-kitab lain kerana membuat pengiraan ke
1138 / ISoIT 2004
atas sesuatu perkara dengan meletakkan sesuatu di atas kaedah Luh al-Hayat dan Luh al-
Mamat. Pengarang menegaskan,
Jika dikehendaki kenal orang yang bunting dan budak adakah laki-laki atau perempuan dan adakah
mati budak itu atau hidup atau adakah orang yang bunting itu mati dalam hal wiladah atau tiada, maka
iaitu bahawa engkau hisab akan nama perempuan dan nama ibunya dan
c
adad hari dan bilangan
haribulan dan ditambah atasnya esa iaitu dua puluh kemudian maka dibuang 30, 30 hingga tinggal 30
atau kurang maka jatuh dalam Luh al-Hayat pada
c
adad yang kasal adalah perempuan itu beranak
perempuan dan jika jatuh dalam Luh al-Hayat pada
c
adad yang genap adalah perempuan itu beranak
laki-laki. Dan jika jatuh dalam Luh al-Mamat maka bahawasanya anak itu tiada hidup sekali-kali. Dan
demikian lagi ibunya jika jatuh dalam Luh al-Mamat maka adalah ia mati dan hal beranak jatuh dalam
Luh al-Hayat itu maka adalah ia hidup, InsyaAllah (Tuan Hasan t.th.:26).
Jadual abjad dalam kedua-dua Luh al-Hayat dan al-Mamat adalah seperti yang
dibincangkan di dalam bahagian keserasian antara lelaki dan perempuan atau dua sahabat.
Mengetahui Keadaan Orang Yang Bermusafir atau Ghaib
Kitab Taj al-Mulk telah membincangkan fasal ini berdasarkan kaedah Luh al-Hayat dan
Luh al-Mamat seperti yang telah diperkenalkannya. Pengarangnya juga telah menggabungkan
perbincangan dan pengiraan dua perkara serentak iaitu keadaan-keadaan orang yang musafir
atau ghaib dengan hal keadaan orang yang sakit. Beliau menyatakan,
Tersebut di dalam Syams al-Ma
c
arif al-Kubra, Apabila engkau kehendak ketahui hal orang sakit dan
yang ghaib dan yang musafir dan barang yang hasil atas keduanya maka kenal olehmu akan nama hari
yang datang penyakit atas orang sakit itu, nama hari pergi orang yang musafir yang sudah ghaib dan
hisab olehmu akan nama orang itu dan nama ibunya dengan hisab jumal kabir yang termazkur dan
c
adad hari dan murad dengan esa itu dua puluh banyaknya. Setelah sudah engkau himpun sekeliannya
maka buang olehmu 30, 30 hingga tinggal 30 atau kurang daripada 30. Setelah itu maka engkau lihat
akan
c
adad yang tinggal mana Luh yang tempat jatuh
c
adad yang tinggal itu. Maka jika jatuh dalam
Luh al-Hayat maka adalah orang sakit itu hidup dan orang yang musafir itu selamat dan orang ghaib
pun selamat, InsyaAllahTaala. Dan jika jatuh dalam Luh al-Mamat maka adalah orang yang sakit itu
mati dan orang yang musafir itu kesukaran dan orang yang ghaib itu kesakitan atau lambat kembali
(Tuan Hasan t.th.:25).
Pengarang kitab ini seterusnya membawakan contoh,
Misal orang yang sakit atau kedagangan umpamanya itu Ibrahim dan nama ibunya Hajar dan nama
hari itu Ahad dan bilangan hari bulan Arab masa ditanyai itu 6 haribulan umpamanya. Maka kita hisab
Ibrahim itu 259 dan Hajar itu 208
c
adadnya maka jadi majmuk itu 417 (Pengkaji mendapati kiraan ini
salah kerana 259 + 208 = 467). Maka kita tambah pula 1 iaitu
c
adad hari dan kita tambah pula 6 iaitu
bilangan haribulan yang sudah lalu maka jadi majmuk 424
c
adadnya. Kemudian maka kita tambah
pula esa hari bulan iaitu 20
c
adadnya maka jadi majmuk, semuanya 444
c
adadnya. Kemudian maka kita
buang akan dia 30, 30 maka jadi tinggalnya itu 24 maka kita dapat 24
c
adadnya itu dalam Luh al-
Mamat maka nyatalah bagi kita orang itu mati dalam kedagangan (Tuan Hasan t.th.:25).
Mengetahuai Hal Pekerjaan Yang Sangat Musykil
Kitab Taj al-Mulk membincangkan,
Jika dikehendaki kenal pekerjaan yang sangat musykil maka hendaklah dihisab seperti kaedah yang
tersebut. Maka jika jatuh dalam Luh al-Hayat maka adalah pekerjaan itu jadi mudah dan jika jatuh
dalam Luh al-Mamat maka adalah pekerjaan itu bertambah-tambah kesukaran dan qiyas olehmu akan
tiap-tiap pekerjaan atas pekerjaan ini maka adalah kaedah mengetahui akan pekerjaan suatu kaedah Luh
al-Hayat dan Luh al-Mamat itu betul lagi sahih sudah dicoba-coba akan dia dan sedikit tersalah.
Wallahua
c
lam (Tuan Hasan t.th.:26).
Pengarangnya menjelaskan lagi sambil menasihatkan,
Indriaty Ismail / 1139
Tak dapat tiada bagi orang yang berkehendak kenal pekerjaan yang musykil atas kaedah Luh al-Hayat
dan Luh al-Mamat itu dengan hisab yang sahih jua dan diketahui haribulan pun dengan sahih jua maka
apabila jatuh pekerjaan yang dikehendaki kenal dalam Luh al-Hayat maka kerjakan olehmu serta
engkau tawakkal kepada Allah Taala dan jika jatuh dalam Luh al-Mamat maka sabar olehmu maka
Allah Taala serta orang yang sabar. Wallahua
c
lam (Tuan Hasan t.th.:26-27).
Astrologi
Astrologi adalah elemen kedua terbanyak yang ditemui oleh pengkaji menjadi kegunaan
orang-orang Melayu di dalam kehidupan mereka. Kebanyakan pengarang dan penyusun-
penyusun kitab-kitab Melayu membicarakan hal-hal yang berkaitan dengan astrologi secara
terang-terangan dan meluas tanpa sedikitpun menunjukkan keraguan terhadapnya. Dengan
tidak membicarakan mengenai asal usul astrologi, pengarang-pengarang kitab tersebut terus
memulakan perbincangan mengenai kelebihan-kelebihan dan kegunaan astrologi kepada
kehidupan harian selepas mengenali pembahagian bintang-bintang kepada 12 buruj. Antara
kegunaan astrologi ialah tertumpu kepada mengaplikasikannya dalam beberapa perkara
seperti menghurai tabiat seseorang, mengetahui maksud bintang tujuh, mengetahui maksud
hari-hari yang menjadi awal tahun, mengenali waktu yang baik untuk mencari rezeki,
mengenali hari yang baik dan hari yang nahas, mengetahui waktu yang baik dan waktu yang
nahas dalam sehari, mengenali jadual waktu yang baik atau nahas dalam sebulan dan lain-lain
lagi.
Mengetahui Tafsiran Bintang Tujuh
Pengkaji melihat hanya kitab Taj al-Mulk membincangkan mengenai huraian pengaruh
Bintang Tujuh ini dalam kehidupan seseorang. Di dalam `Fasal Pada Menyatakan Syarah
Bintang Tujuh yang telah tersebut di dalam jadual, pengarang menyatakan,
Adapun pada ketika Syams barang kehendak kita kerjakan nescaya beroleh sentosa jika berjalan
bertemu dengan orang berbangsa dan beroleh nikmat diperjamu orang akan dikauAdapun saat Zuhrah
maka barang kerjanya baik atau beristeri atau bertemu dengan kekasih atau memakai kain itu
baikAdapun saat Utarid maka barang kerjanya baik dan jika mengambil upahan atau menyurat atau
mesyuarat suatu pekerjaan atau mengadap raja-raja atau menanam sesuatu maka iaitu baik. Adapun
saat Qamar maka barang kerjanya terlalu baik tetapi pekerjaan yang jahat jangan dikerja dalam saat ini.
Adapun saat Zuhal itu maka barang kerjanya terlalu jahat kerana Zuhal itu nahas akbar dan jika
berperang tiada menang jika pergi kepada suatu nescaya kesukaran dan terkadang bertemu orang
jahatAdapun saat Musytari itu barang kerjanya terlalu baik kerana Musytari itu sa
c
ad akbar jika
dikehendaki mengadap raja-raja atau berjual beli maka iaitu pun baikAdapun saat Marikh itu maka
barang pekerjaannya tiada baik kerana Marikh itu nahas asghar. Wallahua
c
lam. (Tuan Hasan t.th:15-
16).
Mengetahui Saat Dalam Setiap Hari Yang Tujuh
Pengkaji mendapati pengaruh astrologi amat ketara dalam pemikiran pengarang Taj al-
Mulk yang berusaha membahagikan saat dalam setiap tujuh hari dalam seminggu, mengikut
buruj-buruj dalam sistem astrologi. Di dalam `Fasal Pada Menyatakan Saat Dalam Tiap-tiap
Hari Yang Tujuh, pengarang menyebut,
Kata setengah hukamak adalah dalam satu qaus hari itu dibahagi tujuh saat. Inilah jadual mengenal
saat yang tujuh dalam qaus tiap-tiap hari yang tujuh dan murad dengan qaus hari itu daripada waktu
terbit matahari hingga masuk matahari. Inilah jadual. Wallahua
c
lam (Tuan Hasan t.th.:12-13).
1140 / ISoIT 2004
JADUAL 3.2.2 : Saat Dalam Tiap-tiap Hari Yang Tujuh
Sumber: Tuan Hasan t.th.:13
Pengarang Taj al-Mulk seterusnya membahagikan satu hari dalam seminggu itu kepada
dua puluh empat saat. Pengkaji melihat usaha beliau ini tidak lain darpada mengembangkan
cabang-cabang astrologi di dalam analisis hari. Beliau mencatatkan,
Kata setengah hukamak seperti yang tersebut di dalam Syams al-Ma
c
arif al-Kubra adalah dalam sehari
semalam itu dua puluh empat saat maka jadilah dalam satu qaus hari itu dua belas saat dan dalam satu
malam itupun dua belas saat jua. Inilah jadual mengenal saat yang dua belas dalam satu qaus hari itu
dua belas saat dan dalam satu malam itupun dua belas saat jua. Inilah jadual mengenal saat yang dua
belas dalam satu qaus bagi tiap-tiap hari bermula jadual ini (Tuan Hasan t.th.:13). (Pengkaji tidak
membawakan di sini contoh jadual yang dimaksudkan demi untuk menjimatkan ruangan).
Mengetahui Keadaan Baik Atau Buruk Menerusi Hari Yang Jadi Awal
Permulaan Sesuatu Tahun
Huraian astrologi hari yang menjadi awal tahun mengikut kitab Taj al-Mulk pula pada
fikiran pengkaji merupakan huraian yang paling ringkas dan padat di antara semua kitab. Di
dalam `Fasal pada menyatakan Hari Awal Tahun Yakni Sehari Bulan Muharram, pengarang
telah mencatatkan,
Kata Syeikh Muhammad al-Marzuqi dalam Syarh Natijah al-Miqat, maka apabila masuk awal tahun
itu hari Ahad, maka tali
c
nya itu bintang Syams. Adalah tahun itu menunjukkan atas wujud zalim pada
segala raja-raja dan orang besar-besar dan sedikit hujan. Adapun jika adalah Muharam itu hari Isnin
maka tali
c
nya bintang Qamar maka tahun itu menunjuk atas wujud baik segala raja-raja dan hulubalang
dan adalah hujan itu banyak. Adapun jika awal tahun itu hari Selasa maka tali
c
nya bintang Marikh
maka adalah tahun itu menunjukkan atas mati segala orang yang besar-besar dan banyak orang
bertumpah darah dan sangat mahal dagangan dan mahal makanan dan sedikit hujan. Adapun jika
adalah awal Muharram itu hari Arbi
c
a maka tali
c
nya itu bintang Utarid maka adalah tahun itu menunjuk
atas pertengahan hal pada segala waktu dan rakyat dan hujan. Adapun jika adalah awal Muharram itu
hari Khamis maka tali
c
nya Musytari maka adalah tahun itu menunjuk atas wujud adil segala raja-raja
dan hulubalang dan baiklah hal segala qadi dan fuqahak dan banyaklah kebajikan dan rezeki dan hujan.
Adapun jika adalah awal Muharram itu hari Jumaat maka tali
c
nya bintang Zuhrah maka adalah tahun itu
menunjuk atas wujud zalim raja-raja dan hulubalang dan segala orang besar-besar dan bersalahan antara
segala manusia pada bicara dan pekerjaan dan sedikit hujan. Adapun jika adalah awal Muharram itu
hari Sabtu maka tali
c
nya bintang Zuhal maka adalah tahun itu menunjuk atas kesukaran manusia pada
segala pekerjaan mereka itu dan kehidupan mereka itu dan jadi kekerasan hamba orang dan orang supih
dan orang fasik banyak ketakutan dalam tahun itu. Wallahua
c
lam (Tuan Hasan t.th.:21).
Indriaty Ismail / 1141
Pengkaji melihat kelainan yang terdapat pada huraian dalam kitab ini ialah
penumpuannya pada aktiviti raja-raja, pembesar-pembesar dan hulubalang-hulubalang secara
khusus. Kemungkinan huraian ini adalah bersesuaian dengan jodol kitabnya iaitu Taj al-
Mulk. Oleh itu huraian tentang baik buruk aktiviti rakyat jelata kurang diberi penekanan
khusus.
Mengetahui Waktu Yang Baik Atau Nahas Dalam Sehari
Perbincangan mengenai kegunaan astrologi dalam aspek ini banyak ditemui di dalam
kitab Bintang Dua Belas (Abi Ma
c
syar al-Falaki 1957:6-8), kitab Sir al-Asrar wa Kanzu al-
Anwar (Daud al-Antaki 1928:23-24), kitab Taj al-Mulk (t.th.:19) dan Kitab Pati Rahsia (Nik
Mahmud 1946:99-107). Kitab Taj al-Mulk turut membicarakan hal ini di dalam `Fasal Pada
Menyatakan Saat Yang Baik Dan Yang Jahat Dalam Tiap-tiap Hari Yang Tujuh. Kitab ini
menyatakan,
Dengan peperangan atau berkelahi bantah atas mazhab setengah hukamak inilah jadual saat baik dan
jahat atas mazhab setengah hukamak dalam hari yang tujuh dengan nisbah bagi peperangan dan adalah
dalam qaus hari lima saat. Wallahua
c
lam (Tuan Hasan t.th.:19).
JADUAL 3.2.4: Waktu Yang Baik Atau Nahas Dalam Sehari
Sumber: Tuan Hasan t.th.:19
Kitab ini menghuraikan,
Adapun syarah huruf rumuz yang tersebut maka () itu alamat ghalib dan ( ) itu alamat ghalib jua
tetapi ada merbahaya sedikit dan ( ) itu alamat bagi maghlub dan ( ) itu alamat saat itu tiada ghalib
dan tiada maghlub. Adapun mengadap tatkala mendatang akan musuh atau menahan akan musuh
dengan nisbah bagi saat lima bagi tiap-tiap hari yang tersebut maka iaitu jika pada hari Ahad atau Isnin
maka hendaklah mengadap dari Selatan ke Utara atau dari Timur mengadap ke barat jati. Dan jika pada
hari Selasa maka hendaklah mengadap dari masyriq ke maghrib atau dari utara ke selatan. Dan jika hari
Arbi
c
a mengadap dari barat laut ke selatan atau dari barat laut ke timur pedang nescaya menanglah ia
dan jika pada hari Khamis maka hendaklah tatkala berang mengadap dari timur pedang ke utara atau
dari utara ke selatan nescaya menanglah ia. Dan jika pada hari Jumaat, maka hendaklah mengadap dari
Timur Laut ke Barat Daya atau Timur Jati ke maghrib nescaya menanglah ia. Dan jika pada hari Sabtu
maka hendaklah tatkala berperang mengadap dari maghrib ke masyriq atau dari utara mengadap ke
selatan nescaya menanglah ia (Tuan Hasan t.th.:19).
Pengkaji melihat terdapat keistimewaan di dalam huraian hari yang baik atau nahas
seperti yang dibuat oleh kitab Taj al-Mulk di atas. Selain daripada memaparkan saat yang
1142 / ISoIT 2004
baik atau buruk dalam sehari, pembaca kitab ini ditunjukkan panduan bagaimana untuk
mengekalkan kemenangan di dalam perbalahan atau peperangan dengan mengikut strategi
bertindak yang terancang dan mengelak dari kekalahan menurut jadual nahas tersebut.
Mengetahui Nahas Dalam Sebulan
Pengkaji menemui satu fungsi astrologi yang tidak kurang pentingnya iaitu untuk
mengetahui nahas dalam satu bulan. Fungsi ini didapati huraiannya di dalam kitab Taj al-
Mulk di dalam `Fasal Pada Menyatakan Nahas di dalam Sebulan Atas Mazhab Jaafar al-Sadiq
r.a.. Pengarang telah mencatatkan,
Dan telah berhimpunlah dalam satu bait syair yang bermaksud : Yakni maka barang yang ada ia huruf
bertitik maka iaitu nyatalah nahasnya hasil dan barang yang tiada bertitik maka iaitu bahagia yang
dapat ia dan tersebut dalam Syams al-Ma
c
arif al-Kubra bermula nahas dan bahagia yang tersebut dalam
bait syair itu khusus atau qaul itu jua. (Inilah jadual) mengenal haribulan yang nahas dalam sebulan atas
mazhab Jaafar al-Sadiq seperti yang tersebut dalam Syams al-Ma
c
arif al-Kubra dan Irsyad al-Sari dan
maksud kami perbuat jadual ini supaya segera mudah faham bagi mubtadi, InsyaAllah (Tuan Hasan
t.th.:18-19).
Mengetahui Saat Yang Baik Atau Buruk Dalam Tiap-Tiap Haribulan Yang
Tiga Puluh Hari
Ini merupakan peranan astrologi yang terakhir menurut hemat pengkaji dapat dilihat di
dalam kitab Taj al-Mulk. Di dalam `Fasal Pada menyatakan Saat Yang Baik dan Jahat Dalam
Tiap-tiap Hari Bulan yang Tiga Puluh Hari, pengarang menyatakan,
Ketahui olehmu adalah hukamak membahagi akan qaus tiap-tiap haribulan itu lima saat. Inilah
jadual lima saat di dalam satu qaus haribulan. Wallahua
c
lam. (Tuan Hasan t.th.:20) (Pengkaji tidak
membawakan jadual yang dimaksudkan di ruangan ini).
Pengarang menghuraikan,
Dan apabila sudah sampai lima haribulan maka kembali kepada enam hari bulan hingga sepuluh hari
bulan. Demikianlah hingga genap tiga haribulan (Adapun) saat maisuri maka barang kerjanya baik jika
engkau perang nescaya menang engkau, InsyaAllah Taala. Dan jadilah alah musuh jika engkau pergi
kepada suatu tempat nescaya bertemu dengan orang baik parasnya. Jika mengadap raja-raja itu baik.
(Adapun) saat kal itu maka barang kerjanya itu jahat jika pergi-pergian itu jahat bertemu dengan orang
dusta atau berkelahi bantah jika berperang nescaya tiada menang. (Adapun) saat sirri maka barang
kerjanya baik jika engkau perang musuh baik jika engkau diperang akan dikau tiada baik. (Adapun)
saat berham itu maka barang kerjanya tiada baik dan pada satu qaul pada saat itu jika diperang akan
musuh baik jika diperang orang akan dikau tiada baik. (Adapun) saat bisan maka barang kerjanya tiada
baik jika ber-jalan bertemu dengan orang berkelahi bantah jika bertanaman tiada baik dan pada suatu
qaul jika berperang tiada menang pada saat itu dan pada satu qaul lagi jika diperang musuh menang
engkau dan jika diperang orang akan dikau tiada baik (Tuan Hasan t.th.:20-21).
Divinasi
Elemen occultisme yang seterusnya ditemui di dalam persekitaran masyarakat Melayu
ialah divinasi. Divinasi boleh difahami sebagai ilmu untuk mengetahui, menilik dan
meramalkan sesuatu atau tentang masa depan. Pengkaji melihat walaupun ilmu divinasi ini
kurang popular sebagaimana ilmu huruf (numerologi) dan ilmu bintang (astrologi), namun ia
merupakan antara yang terbanyak diajarkan di dalam kitab-kitab Melayu. Aspek-aspek ilmu
divinasi yang berbagai jenis telah dikupas di dalam banyak bahagian kitab-kitab tersebut
tetapi tidak menggunakan istilah divinasi yang khusus. Antara ilmu-ilmu divinasi yang telah
Indriaty Ismail / 1143
dikumpulkan dan dianalisis oleh pengkaji ialah seperti berikut: Palmistry, Phrenology, Empat
unsur alam: Air, Api, Tanah, Angin, Dowsing, Ilmu Tilik/Ramalan, Ilmu Gerakan Anggota
Badan, Ilmu Menta
c
bir Mimpi, Ilmu Tubuh Badan Manusia, Ilmu Pal Kalam Allah S.W.T.,
Wifiq dan Ilmu Tangkal Azimat.
Empat Unsur Alam: Air, Api, Tanah Dan Angin
Menurut analisis pengkaji Air, Api, Tanah dan Angin merupakan empat elemen alam
yang sering digandingkan di dalam perbincangan falsafah terutama di dalam memberi
penerangan mengenai asal usul sesuatu perkara. Pergandingan unsur ini dikesan wujud
paling awal dalam falsafah bangsa Chaldean dan tersebar penggunaannya di dalam pemikiran
bangsa-bangsa lain di seluruh dunia. Pengkaji melihat empat unsur alam ini juga amat laris
di dalam perbincangan kitab-kitab Melayu. Kitab Taj al-Mulk turut membincangkan sedikit
mengenai empat unsur alam ini. Di dalam fasal Pada menyatakan segala ubat yang dimakan
akan menghilangkan segala penyakit dan membaik pada segala anggota, pengarang kitab
menyebut,
(Sebermula) dan dijadikan Allah Taala tanah itu akan gunanya tempat air dan api itu akan gunanya
tatkala ubat sangat maraknya. Air memadamkan api itu pun demikian dengan airnya. (Adapun) angin
itu akan gunanya menyerapkan air dan api itu maka tiada dapat angin itu lalu. Maka jadilah lemah
segala a
c
dha.
Inilah kita ini sebutnya (Tuan Hasan t.th.:85).
Dowsing
Kitab Taj al-Mulk merupakan kitab Melayu yang paling banyak membicarakan tentang
aspek dowsing. Dowsing ialah cara lama untuk mencari benda-benda tersembunyi seperti air,
galian berharga dan lain-lain dengan menggunakan satu daripada pancaindera yang mana
kebanyakan daripada kita tidak sedar mereka memiliki keistimewaan tersebut iaitu keupayaan
untuk mengesan benda-benda yang tidak boleh ditanggapi oleh orang lain. Dowsing
digunakan untuk tujuan-tujuan yang bermanfaat seperti mengesan mata air di bawah tanah
atau tempat yang kurang baik supaya dapat berhati-hati sebelum membina bangunan atau
rumah di atasnya.
Kitab Taj al-Mulk di dalam `Bab Pada Menyatakan bumi Yang Baik dan Yang Jahat,
telah mencatatkan,
Hendaklah kita ketahui akan dia dan jika bumi itu tinggi ke maghrib dan rendahnya ke masyriq maka
iaitu yang afdal dan jikalau ada bumi itu tinggi ke masyriq dan rendahnya ke maghrib maka janganlah
engkau diam di sana tiada baik padahnya dan jikalau ada dalam bumi itu tinggi ke selatan rendah ke
utara beroleh laba yang duduk dan jikalau ada bumi itu samaratanya maka iaitu pertengahan dan jikalau
ada bumi tiu tinggi ke masyriq dan warnanya pun putih rasa manis baunya harum maka iaitu afdal dan
jika ada bumi itu merah rasanya kelat baunya pedas atau manis beroleh laba yang diam di sana dan jika
ada bumi itu hitam airnya masam-masam baunya busuk janganlah diam di sana kerana beroleh
kesakitan dan papa (Wallahua
c
alam bi al-Sawab) (Tuan Hasan t.th.:71).
Pengarang menjelaskan lagi,
(Adapun) bumi yang baik pertama warnanya putih kedua kuning ketiga hitam keempat bersih kelima
hijau itulah yang amat baik faedahnya. (Adapun) bumi yang jahat itu pertama warnanya hitam kedua
berjul ketiga baunya busuk keempat berbulu kelima berdekat-dekat keenam berlubang-lubang ketujuh
terban.
Itulah bumi yang jahat janganlah diam di sana (Wallahua
c
alam bi al-Sawab) (Tuan Hasan
t.th.:71).
Pengarang menjelaskan lagi,
Bermula jika bumi itu ditepi sungai ada bukit besar atau kayu tiada baik diam di sana perolehnya
dukacita dan kematian dan kesakitan kerana itu tempat jin dan jika kau diam di sana hendaklah dipindah
pintunya pada pihak maghrib (Wallahua
c
alam bi al-Sawab) (Tuan Hasan t.th.:71).
1144 / ISoIT 2004
Terdapat beberapa bahagian lain dalam kitab ini yang memokuskan kepada amalan
dowsing yang sama tujuannya seperti di atas. Ini dapat dilihat pada perbincangan pengarang
berkenaan `Fasal Pada Menyatakan Bekas Rumah atau Dusun atau negeri adakalanya baik
dan adakalanya jahat (Tuan Hasan t.th.:87), `tempat bumi bekas rumah (t.th.:87), `Syarat
berbuat tempat bekas rumah, `memilih bumi akan tempat rumah duduk segala manusia
(t.th.:93-94), `Syarat melantai rumah itu (t.th.:94), `bumi yang jahat dan nahas dan `tanah
yang baik dan jahat (t.th.:95).
Sebagai contoh terakhir, pengkaji memetik tulisan pengarang di dalam `Fasal ini Pada
Mengetahuikan Memilih Bumi akan Tempat Rumah Duduk Segala Manusia. Penulis
mencatatkan,
Ketahui olehmu hai talib (Adapun) jika bumi itu rendah ke masyriq itulah yang beroleh baik dan jika
ada bumi itu senget ke utara itulah yang maha utamanya. (Jika) ada bumi itu sama rata tinggi
rendahnya naik jika bumi itu senget ke masyriq warnanya putih rasanya manis baunya harum itulah
yang terlebih utama rahmatnya (Jika) bumi itu hijau warnanya lagi kuning meseri warnanya manis
rasanya pedas barangsiapa diam di sana alamat beroleh isteri baik bangsawan dan hartawan datang
kepada anak cucunya selamat diam di sana (Jika) bumi perak pertamanya putih kedua merah ketiga
kuning keempat kelabu kelima hijau keenam hungan ketujuh mesrinya warnanya itulah yang maha
utama tempat kita diam di sananya InsyaAllah Taala yang memberi berkat. Adapun tiga perkara yang
nahas itu pertamanya yang berbukit-bukit tinggi rendah barangsiapa diam di sana alamat segala hamba
sahayanya dan anak cucunya derhaka kepada ibubapanya dan lari segala hamba sahaya
padahnya..hingga akhir (Tuan Hasan t.th.:93-94).
Pengkaji mendapat terdapat sedikit kelainan di dalam huraian pengarang di atas dengan
huraian beliau yang lain mengenai klasifikasi tanah yang baik atau sesuai dengan yang tidak
sesuai untuk didiami. Dalam huraian di atas, beliau telah memasukkan kriteria warna, bau
dan rasa dalam menentukan jenis bumi tersebut. Terdapat juga beberapa perkataan yang
tidak dapat difahami oleh pengkaji seperti hungan, mesrinya dan mesri. Walau
bagaimanapun yang dapat dipastikan di sini, pengarang telah mengaplikasikan metode
(dowsing) di sini.
Ilmu Gerakan Anggota Badan
Berdasarkan analisis pengkaji, kitab Taj al-Mulk memberi tumpuan yang agak meluas
dalam menghuraikan ilmu gerakan anggota badan. Hampir seluruh anggota badan manusia
dari hujung rambut hingga ke tapak kaki yang mengalami gerakan dihurai dan ditafsirkan.
Sebagai contoh, di dalam `Bab ini pada Menyatakan Seni Kaf dinamai Gerak, pengarang
menyatakan,
Jika sebuah kepala bergerak-gerak dari kanan, alamat sakit hati. Jika pihak kepala dari kiri bergerak-
gerak alamat beroleh kebesaran. Jika tendon bergerak alamat dukacita jika perempuan alamat segera
bersuami. Jika kening kanan bergerak-gerak alamat yaman tetapi ada sedikit bahaya. Jika kening kiri
bergerak-gerak alamat melihat perempuan. Jika bibir mata dari bawah bergerak akan menangis. Jika
pohon mata kanan bergerak-gerak alamat luput daripada penyakit. Jika ekor mata kanan bergerak-
gerak, alamat melihat orang datang dari jauh (Tuan Hasan t.th.:59).
Pengarang memberi tafsiran tentang pergerakan anggota badan ini yang merangkumi
kepala, kening, mata, biji mata, hidung, telinga, muka, bibir, lidah, leher, bahu, belikat,
lengan, siku, jari jemari, tapak tangan, dada, lembing, tubuh, pinggang, pusat, peha, lutut,
kaki, tapak kaki dan lain-lain (Tuan Hasan t.th.:60-67).
Antara contoh tafsiran gerakan anggota badan yang dikupas oleh pengarang kitab ini
ialah,
Jika paha kanan bergerak alamat sakit, jika paha kiri bergerak alamat sukacita, jika lutut kanan
bergerak alamat pergi-pergian barang ke mana segera datang, jika betis kira bergerak alamat sukacita,
jika pergelangan kaki kanan bergerak alamat orang dengki, jika pergelangan kaki kiri bergerak alamat
Indriaty Ismail / 1145
kebesaran, jika kura-kura kaki kanan bergerak alamat berlaba, jika kura kaki kiri bergerak alamat sakit,
jika tapak kaki kanan bergerak alamat mendengar khabar keluarga sakit, jika telunjuk kaki kanan
bergerak alamat berhati suci, jika telunjuk kaki kiri bergerak alamat yaman hati . (Tuan Hasan
t.th.:60-61).
Di dalam bahagian lain bukunya ini, pengarang sekali lagi telah menyentuh tentang ilmu
gerakan anggota badan. Di dalam `Bab ini Peri Menyatakan Segala Seri Gempa di dalam
Besar Kita, pengarang telah menghuraikan dengan panjang lebar tentang,
Alamat baik dan jahat supaya diketahui pada barang yang pada badan kita daripada gerak Allah jua
maka ia bergerak. Bermula jikalau sekelian tubuh kita bergerak kanak kiri atas alamat melihat indah-
indah sesuatu pula hampir ajal atau keruh. Jika tengah kepala bergerak alamat beroleh kebajikan. Jika
ubun-ubun alamat menjadi menteri atau raja-raja atau beroleh harta banyak orang pun kasih akan dia.
Jika kepala kanan alamat barang pekerjaannya beroleh laba. Jika semua kepalanya alamat beroleh
sukacita. Jika dahinya alamat beroleh ilmu lagi beroleh harta yang halal. Jika tengkuk bergerak alamat
banyak orang kaya-kaya kasih akan dia. Jika kening kanan alamat berbahagia akan datang. Jika kening
yasar ma man mati lagi bertemu dengan kekasihnya (Tuan Hasan t.th.:108).
Dalam pengamatan pengkaji seterusnya mendapati pengarang telah mentafsirkan alamat-
alamat bagi anggota-anggota badan yang lain yang bergerak. Ini terdiri dari kelopak mata,
hidung, pelipis, telinga, pipi, bibir, dagu, leher, bahu, lengan, siku, lidah, bahu, belikat,
lambung, belakang, perut, pinggang, dubur, hati, pusat, paha, lutut, pergelangan kaki, kura-
kura kaki, mata kaki dan terakhir, ibu kaki (Tuan Hasan t.th.:108-110).
Ilmu Menta
c
bir Mimpi
Ilmu menta
c
bir mimpi merupakan suatu ilmu dan kemahiran manusia yang paling lama di
warisi sejak zaman berzaman. Banyak kitab-kitab Melayu membincangkan mengenai ilmu
ini. Pengarang Taj al-Mulk telah mengkhususkan Fasal Pada Menyatakan Ta
c
bir Mimpi
Baiknya dan Jahat ditunjukkan Allah Taala untuk membicarakan tentang ilmu ini.
Pengarang menyebut,
Telah berkata syaikhuna wa ustazuna wa
c
azizuna wa qudwatuna Sayyidi al-Syaykh Muhammad ibn
al-Syaykh
c
Abd al-Karim al-Samani al-Madani. (Adapun) mimpi orang yang awam itu dita
c
birkan dan
mimpi yang khawas tidak dita
c
birkan seperti mimpi itulah. (Adapun) mimpi orang yang awam itu
lihatlah olehmu apa hurufnya yang pertamanya jika huruf () maka sambut dengan ayat:
( ). Alamatnya segala dukacitanya telah diluputkan oleh Allah Taala
(Dan jika) mimpi awalnya huruf ( ) maka disambut dengan ayat ( ). Alamatnya
barang citanya diberi Allah Taala hendak berbuat jahat tiada akan menjadinya (Dan jika) awalnya huruf
( ) maka disambut dengan ayat ( ) alamatnya akan datang gaduh dan gendala segala
pekerjaan ingat-ingat malam dan siang (Tuan Hasan t.th.:71-72).
Pengarang menghuraikan metode menta
c
bir mimpi ini dengan mendasarkannya kepada
huruf-huruf hijaiyah dan mengaitkannya dengan ayat-ayat al-Quran yang bermula dengan
setiap satu daripada huruf-huruf hijaiyah tersebut. Dalam pengamatan pengkaji metode yang
digunakan oleh pengarang seperti di atas merupakan salah satu metode yang digunakan oleh
pengarang untuk menta
c
bir mimpi di dalam bukunya ini. Metode ini belum pernah ditemui
oleh pengkaji diaplikasikan oleh kitab-kitab Melayu yang lain. Manakala metode menta
c
bir
mimpi dalam bahagian lain dalam bukunya ini adalah lebih kurang sama sahaja dengan
pengarang-pengarang kitab-kitab lain di mana ta
c
biran sesebuah mimpi tidak lagi dikaitkan
dengan mana-mana ayat al-Quran tetapi dihuraikan dengan maksud-maksud tertentu tanpa
dinyatakan sumber daripada mana makna maksud-maksud mimpi tersebut diperolehi.
Antara contoh-contoh lain ta
c
biran mimpi oleh pengarang yang boleh dirujuk oleh orang
yang ingin mengetahui tentang maksud mimpi mereka ialah merangkumi bermimpi melihat
titian sirat, melihat Luh Mahfuz, berjumpa empat sahabat Nabi, sepuluh sahabat Nabi,
melihat hari qiyamat, melihat matahari dan bulan sujud kepadanya, matahari atau bintang
1146 / ISoIT 2004
turun ke rumahnya, naik ke atas udara, matahari terbelah dua, mimpi hujan lebat, puting
beliung, angin keras, mimpi mandi, air sungai jernih, minum air sungai, perahu karam,
melimpah sungai besar, air laut menjadi najis, mimpi makan nasi, berkata-kata dengan orang
mati, mimpi minum arak dan lain-lain (Tuan Hasan t.th.:73-74).
Oleh kerana perbincangan mengenai huraian mimpi ini terlalu meluas pengarang telah
mengkategorikannya mengikut fasal-fasal tertentu. Misalnya di dalam fasal yang berkaitan
dengan manusia, pengarang telah menyenaraikan mimpi-mimpi berkenaan melihat Rasulullah
s.a.w., melihat qadhi yang adil, pendeta, faqir, Abu Bakar, Uthman
c
Umar,
c
Ali, ulamak,
hukamak, lelaki atau perempuan banyak, kanak-kanak, melihat kubur, mimpi dibunuh, mimpi
belayar, berniaga, berkahwin, gigi patah, mata buta dan sebagainya lagi (Tuan Hasan t.th.:76-
78). Di dalam fasal yang berkaitan dengan binatang pula disenaraikan mimpi-mimpi seperti
makan daging kambing, melihat gajah, harimau, membunuh binatang, menaiki kuda,
membunuh tikus, babi, menyembelih biri-biri, pelanduk dan lain-lain (Tuan Hasan t.th.:78)
Kategori-kategori mimpi yang lain yang boleh dirujuk di dalam kitab ini ialah mimpi-
mimpi yang berkaitan dengan tumbuh-tumbuhan, bukit, manusia, pakaian yang mulia, intan
permata, emas perak, sungai, laut, tanah, binatang-binatang yang melata, hal-hal yang
berkaitan dengan api dan kebakaran, makanan, makan gula, makan pisang, minuman, minum
susu, amalan-amalan yang baik, sembahyang, sujud, memberi sedekah, sesuatu yang
berkenaan dengan najis, peralatan menangkap ikan, buah-buahan, batu-batu bumi dan lain-
lain lagi. Semua jenis mimpi-mimpi yang dinuqilkan oleh pengarang telah diberi tafsiran dan
makna-makna tertentu sama ada baik atau buruk (Tuan Hasan t.th.:79-84).
Ilmu Tubuh Badan Manusia
Pengkaji mendapati pengarang kitab Taj al-Mulk turut membincangkan mengenai ahwal
segala tubuh badan manusia dan tafsirannya dalam rangka untuk mengenali peribadi
seseorang manusia. Dengan berpandukan kepada sebuah hadith pengarang menyatakan;
Sabda Nabi s.a.w. yang bermaksud : Ketakut olehmu daripada firasat segala mukmin bahawa sanya
ia menilik dengan cahaya Allah Taala. (Syahdan) kembalilah faqir pada menyatakan perkataan firasat
hukumnya yang tersebut iaitu mengambil dalil dan qiyas daripada melihat ahwal segala tubuh manusia
daripada perkataan dan warnanya. (Adapun) tubuh yang merah lagi halus tanda melawan dan tubuh
seperti warna api tanda malang pada segala kerjanya dan amanah lagi kurang akal dan tubuh warna
hijau bercampur hitam tanda jahat perangai dan warna tubuh bercampur merah tanda segera pada segala
pekerjaan dan tubuh sangat putih tanda tiada baik (Tuan Hasan t.th.:64-65).
Huraian pengarang di atas adalah mengenai warna tubuh manusia. Beliau juga turut
menghuraikan berkenaan rambut manusia sebagaimana katanya,
Rambut yang ikal lagi hitam berkilat tanda
c
aqil lagi sempurna kelakuan dan rambut antara merah dan
hitam tanda kebajikan dan rambut yang sederhana tanda baik dan rambut yang sangat hitam tanda
berakal dan rambut yang lemah tanah penyakit sejuk otak lagi kurang bebal lagi tamak dan rambut yang
kuning tanda kurang akal lagi segera marah dan rambut yang sangat lebat tanda kurang akal (Tuan
Hasan t.th.:65).
Aspek-aspek tubuh badan manusia yang lain yang diberi tafsiran dan maknanya oleh
kitab ini merangkumi kepala; kepala yang besar, yang sederhana, yang pipih, dahi; dahi yang
besar lagi luas, yang sederhana, yang bujur, kening; yang lurus, sederhana lagi hitam, kening
panjang lagi jarang, kening yang bertemu, mata; mata sederhana, mata jarang terkelip-kelip,
mata yang sangat hitam, mata yang merah, mata yang kecil, warna mata; yang sangat biru
hampir kepada putih, yang biru hampir kepada kuning, yang merah bercampur kuning,
hidung; yang panjang lagi mancung, yang pendek hujungnya, mulut, bibir, lidah, suara, nafas,
pipi, tahi lalat, janggut, warna muka, telinga; yang besar, yang kecil, yang lekat cuping,
telinga yang lembut, muka, leher, pinggang, hasta, tapak tangan; dengan anak jari yang
panjang, tangan yang lembut, yang tipis, tapak tangan dengan anak jari yang pendek, dada,
Indriaty Ismail / 1147
perut, punggung, betis, kaki; yang kecil lagi lembut, tumit; yang besar, langkah; yang jarang
dan akhir tembon yang sederhana (Tuan Hasan t.th.:65-68).
Pengkaji akan memperincikan di sini berkenaan dengan tahi lalat yang ada di tubuh
badan manusia. Ilmu mengenai tahi lalat ini sangat digemari oleh masyarakat Melayu
sehingga terdapat buku-buku khusus yang diterbitkan mengenai tafsiran tahi lalat sahaja. Di
dalam zaman teknologi moden kini ilmu tafsiran tahi lalat Taj al-Mulk boleh diakses melalui
SMS (Short Message Services) atau dial ke pusat servis telefon yang tertentu. Pengarang
kitab Taj al-Mulk menghuraikan,
(Adapun) tahi lalat pada kesudahan kepala atau di atas tanda tiada hasil segala maksudnya dan tahi
lalat antara kedua mata tanda hasil segala maksudnya dan tahi lalat pada kelopak mata dan pada kening
tanda kesukaan dan tahi lalat yang pada bibir tanda sir sir dan tahi lalat pada batang leher tanda
permulia orang dan tahi lalat pada lengan tanda ada tolong segala manusia barang hajat dan tahi lalat
pada belakang tapak tangan tanda kikir dan jika pada tapak tangan kanan tanda tiada tetap padanya harta
dan tahi lalat pada zakar tanda kuat jima
c
dan tahi lalat pada punggung tanda sentiasa dalam suruhan
orang dan tahi lalat pada lidah tanda ia mancut darah dan tahi lalat pada muka yang tiada dinyatakan
tanda tuma, demikianlah lagi tahi lalat pada batang hidung (Tuan Hasan t.th.:67).
Dalam kenyataan di atas terdapat beberapa perkataan tulisan jawi yang tidak dapat
difahami dengan baik oleh pengkaji seperti sir sir , mancut dan tuma. Dalam hal ini
pengkaji serahkan sendiri kepada sesiapa yang berminat untuk mengetahui huraian makna
tanda-tanda tahi lalat ini supaya merujuk kepada kitab asal tersebut dan bertanyalah kepada
orang yang lebih mengetahui dan yang sentiasa mempraktikkan tafsiran ilmu ini.
Ilmu Pal Kalam Allah S.W.T.
Salah satu aspek divinasi yang tidak kurang popularnya ialah bibliomancy. Bibliomancy
bermaksud meneka tentang sesuatu perkara dengan berpandukan kepada kitab suci. Amalan
ini pada asalnya ditemui di dalam masyarakat Kristian di mana mereka membuka lembaran
kitab Bible dan menunjuk kepada bahagian-bahagian tertentu untuk diramalkan maksudnya
sama ada baik atau buruk.
Pengarang kitab Taj al-Mulk di dalam fasal `Inilah Pal Kalam Allah S.W.T telah
menghuraikan,
Barangsiapa hendak mengerjakan sesuatu pekerjaan yang besar-besar hendaklah dahulunya itu melihat
Pal Kalam Allah. Jika baik padanya nescaya dikerjakannya dan jika palnya jahat maka disabarkan
dahulu supaya sempurna sekelian pekerjaan dengan berkat kalam Allah. Adapun syarat membukakan
pal ini dengan mengambil air sembahyang dahulu. Maka diambil mashaf dan adab serta merendahkan
dirinya kepada hadrat Allah Taala dengan dibaikkan niat serta ikhlas hatinya. Setelah itu maka
membaca surah sekali dan ( ) tiga kali dan membaca mu
c
awwizatayn
sekali. Maka
membaca doa ini:
Maka membaca salawat sepuluh kali maka dicitanya barang yang dikehendak. Maka
tatkala sudah dicita maka dibukakan mashaf maka dibilang, tujuh warq maka dibilang
pula tujuh satr yang dikanan. Maka jika bertemu dengan huruf ( ) nescaya adalah pal
itu terlalu baik lagi sempurna pekerjaan itu.
( ). Dan jika bertemu dengan huruf ( ) nescaya
adalah yang empunya pal itu barang pekerjaan kebajikan maka barang yang dipintanya
diperoleh dengan kurnia Allah Taala
( ).. (Tuan Hasan t.th.:31-32).
Demikianlah seterusnya keterangan pengarang iaitu bermula dari bertemu dengan huruf (
) sehingga huruf hijaiyah terakhir ( ). Setiap satu huruf diiringi dengan sepotong ayat al-
Quran yang bermula dengan huruf-huruf hijaiyah tersebut. Pengkaji mendapati ayat-ayat
1148 / ISoIT 2004
tersebut menjadi penguat atau penentu kepada huraian atau tafsiran pengarang. Sebagai
contoh, ayat-ayat yang bermaksud ketinggian, kemuliaan atau kegembiraan yang dijanjikan
Allah Taala maka ia menandakan kemenangan, kebahagiaan dan kebaikan bagi seseorang.
Begitu juga ayat-ayat yang bermaksud kecelakaan, penyesalan atau janji-janji buruk Allah
Taala kepada hamba-Nya di dalam al-Quran telah ditafsirkan oleh pengarang sebagai
menandakan hal-hal yang tidak baik yang harus dielakkan oleh seseorang.
Sebenarnya terdapat banyak lagi unsur-unsur occultisme di dalam kitab klasik Taj al-
Mulk ini yang tidak dapat dipertontonkan di sini memandangkan keluasan ilmu tersebut.
Bagi individu yang berminat untuk mengkaji selanjutnya mereka akan bertemu dengan lain-
lain ilmu occultisme seperti ilmu-ilmu wifiq, ilmu azimat dan tangkal. Ilmu-ilmu ini
menggunakan berbagai bentuk gambarajah yang ganjil, bahasa yang janggal dan simbol yang
pelik yang sudah tentu bukannya simbol bahasa Arab yang digunakan di dalam al-Quran atau
bahasa Arab yang mudah difahami.
Penutup
Kitab Taj al-Mulk adalah di antara kitab-kitab lama yang kaya dengan perbendaharaan
ilmu di dalamnya. Ilmu-ilmu yang tidak terusik di dalam kitab ini setelah dianalisis
memaparkan kepada kita bahawa ianya banyak diselitkan dengan ilmu-ilmu falsafah
kebatinan atau occultisme. Tiga bentuk ilmu yang paling banyak digunapakai dan dihuraikan
ialah Numerologi, Astrologi dan Divinasi. Numerologi membantu seseorang untuk
mengenali seseorang yang lain menerusi jumlah nama, mengenalpasti keserasian antara dua
sahabat atau pasangan suami isteri, mengesan punca-punca penyakit dan lain-lain. Manakala
Astrologi membolehkan kita mengetahui tabiat seseorang, mengetahui waktu yang baik atau
buruk dalam sehari, seminggu, sebulan atau setahun dan lain-lain. Divinasi pula
memperkenalkan ilmu-ilmu yang merangkumi ilmu tafsiran tapak tangan, tengkorak kepala,
ilmu ramalan, ilmu menta
c
bir mimpi, ilmu menafsir tahi lalat, ilmu gerakan anggota badan,
azimat, wifiq dan lain-lain. Kepelbagaian dan keluasan ilmu yang terkandung di dalam kitab-
kitab Melayu ini menampakkan pembangunan fikiran orang-orang Melayu yang amat tinggi
sejak zaman silam dalam memahami dan menyelesaikan persoalan kehidupan mereka. Ilmu-
ilmu mereka adalah lambang sains dan teknologi mereka yang tentunya berbeza sekali
dengan sains dan teknologi moden dan terkini. Tetapi persoalannya adakah ilmu-ilmu ini
boleh disesuaikan dengan ajaran akidah dan syariat Islam yang sebenar?
Bibliography
Al-Quran al-Karim
The encyclopedia Americana. 1972. USA: Americana Corporation. Vol. 20. International Edition.
The living Webster encyclopedia dictionary of the English language. t.th.. Chicago: Institute of America
Inc. Vol. 1. First Edition.
Tuan Hassan ibn Tuan Ishak Fatani. t.th. Kitab Taj al-mulk. Pulau Pinang : Percetakan al-Ma
c
arif Sdn.
Bhd.
Indriaty Ismail / 1149
Bidang Kepintaran Buatan dari Perspektif Islam: Satu
Kajian Awal
Mohammad Bin Hossin & Zaimuariffudin Shukri Nordin
Abstract
Artificial Intelligence (AI) integrates human intelligence and the machine. It seeks to
imitate human intelligence to create a mind machine. Such a machine is expected to be at par
and even superior to human intelligence. This paper attempts to reveal the secrets of AI from
an Islamic perspective. It begins with a depth discussion in AI definitions and continued with
a detailed history of AI. The paper will end with an attempt to address whether AI opposes
divine providence and the extent to which the field is acceptable to Islam.
Abstrak
Secara amnya, Kepintaran Buatan (KB) merupakan bidang yang menggabungkan
kepintaran manusia dengan mesin. Bidang ini cuba meniru kepintaran manusia untuk
membina mesin berminda. Mesin berminda ini dijangkakan mempunyai kepintaran yang
menyamai kepintaran manusia bahkan dijangka melebihi kepintaran yang dimiliki oleh
manusia. Kertas ini cuba menyingkap rahsia kehebatan bidang KB dari kaca mata Islam.
Kertas ini didahului dengan perbincangan secara mendalam mengenai definisi KB kemudian
dilanjutkan dengan penerangan mengenai sejarah KB. Di akhir seksyen, kertas ini cuba
menjawab adakah bidang KB melanggar hukum Tuhan dan sejauh mana KB boleh diterima
oleh Islam.
Pendahuluan
Bidang Sains dan Teknologi merupakan satu bidang yang tidak boleh dipisahkan dengan
Islam. Sumbangan dalam bidang Sains dan Teknologi banyak mempengaruhi budaya
masyarakat Islam. Ini dapat dibuktikan dengan kegemilangan Empayar Islam pada suatu
masa dahulu. Lahirnya tokoh-tokoh ternama dalam bidang Sains dan Teknologi seperti Ibnu
Sina, Al-Khawarizmi, Ibnu Rusydi, Imam Al-Ghazali telah memperlihatkan betapa
pentingnya bidang Sains dan Teknologi ini terhadap perkembangan Islam pada zaman
tersebut (Shaharir M.Z, 1985). Sekarang kita cuma berbangga dengan tinggalan sejarah itu.
Bidang Sains dan Teknologi telah dikuasai oleh masyarakat bukan Islam mahupun di Barat
ataupun di Timur. Banyak cabang-cabang ilmu baru telah diperkenalkan oleh mereka
semenjak zaman kejatuhan Empayar Islam yang terakhir. Umat Islam sekarang hanya
mampu melihat kejayaan mereka.
Semenjak penguasaan ilmu dipelopori oleh masyarakat bukan Islam, maka ilmu yang
dilahirkan adalah bersifat sekularisme. Dalam kertas ini kami cuba membincangkan satu
cabang ilmu baru dalam dunia teknologi komputer iaitu Kepintaran Buatan (KB). Mungkin
Mohammad Bin Hossin & Zaimuariffudin Shukri Nordin / 1147
bidang ini masih baru bagi masyarakat Malaysia tetapi hakikatnya ia telah wujud sejak lima
dekad yang lalu secara rasminya.
Untuk seksyen-seksyen yang seterusnya kami akan membincangkan topik KB ini dengan
lebih lanjut dari segi definisi KB, sejarah perkembangan KB dan diakhiri dengan
perbincangan mengenai minda dan KB dari perspektif Islam.
Definisi Kepintaran Buatan
Kepintaran Buatan mungkin bukan satu istilah yang biasa didengar oleh umum di
Malaysia. Hakikatnya bidang ini mula mendapat perhatian daripada pelbagai pihak seperti
syarikat-syarikat Teknologi Maklumat dan Komunikasi (TMK) dan universiti-universiti
tempatan di Malaysia. Ini boleh dibuktikan dengan penggunaan kad pintar, bangunan pintar,
aplikasi-aplikasi program pintar yang dibangunkan untuk sekolah pintar dan penawaran
program Kepintaran Buatan di Institusi-institusi Pengajian Tinggi Awam di Malaysia.
Sebaliknya di Eropah, Amerika Syarikat dan Jepun bidang ini telah lama bertapak dan
terdapat banyak aplikasi Kepintaran Buatan yang telah diperkenalkan dan dipasarkan.
Jika ditanya kepada anda, apakah yang dimaksudkan dengan istilah Kepintaran Buatan?
Mungkin ramai yang kurang arif dan mungkin juga ada yang tidak pernah mendengar apa itu
bidang KB. Bidang KB sebenarnya sangat luas atau dengan kata lain ia merupakan satu
bidang yang merangkumi pelbagai disiplin. Antara displin ilmu yang menjadi asas kepada
bidang KB ialah bidang Falsafah, Matematik, Ekonomi, Psikologi, Sains Komputer,
Neurosains, Linguistik dan Control Theory and Cybernatics (Russell & Norvig, 2003).
Walaupun usia KB sudah menjangkau lima dekad tetapi sukar untuk kita mencari definisi
yang tepat dan selaras untuk istilah tersebut. Ini kerana istilah KB membawa pelbagai
maksud bagi setiap orang. Antara definisi yang terawal yang pernah diberikan untuk KB
ialah
mencipta sebuah mesin yang boleh dikatakan mempunyai keupayaan bertingkah laku pintar
menyerupai kepintaran manusia. (Wikipedia, n.d).
Definisi awal ini telah dicetuskan oleh McCarthy pada Konvensyen pertama KB di
Darthmouth pada tahun 1956. Bermula dari saat itu, lahirlah pelbagai definisi yang
dicetuskan oleh ramai cerdik pandai KB yang lain bagi memberikan makna yang tepat bagi
istilah tersebut.
Sebenarnya, definisi KB dapat dibahagikan kepada dua mazhab atau aliran iaitu strong
artificial intelligence (SAI) dan weak artificial intelligence (WAI). Secara amnya, SAI
merupakan satu aliran yang berpaksikan manusia. Matlamat utama aliran SAI adalah untuk
menghasilkan sebuah mesin berminda dengan menjadikan kepintaran manusia sebagai
sandaran utama. Dengan kata lain, matlamat utama SAI cuba meniru kehebatan kepintaran
manusia untuk melahirkan sebuah mesin yang boleh berfikir, menyelesaikan masalah dan
bertindak seakan-akan seperti manusia. Di dalam aliran SAI, definisi KB boleh dibahagikan
kepada dua kategori iaitu sistem yang berfikir seperti manusia dan sistem yang bertindak
seperti manusia (Russell & Norvig, 2001). Berikut adalah beberapa definisi yang dipetik
daripada pelbagai sumber yang boleh diklasifikasikan sebagai penyokong aliran SAI.
Antaranya ialah:
"Merupakan satu usaha yang menakjubkan untuk mencipta sebuah mesin yang berfikir... mesin
berminda, dengan maksud yang sebenar." (Haugeland, 1985)
"Aktiviti automasi yang berhubung kait dengan pemikiran manusia, seperti aktiviti membuat keputusan,
penyelesaian masalah, belajar..." (Bellman, 1978)
"Merupakan seni penciptaan mesin yang boleh melakukan pelbagai fungsi yang memerlukan kepintaran
seperti yang dilakukan oleh manusia." (Kurzweil, 1990)
1148 / ISoIT 2004
"Merupakan kajian untuk mencipta komputer yang boleh melakukan kerja yang sama seperti manusia
tetapi pada masa yang sama manusia adalah lebih baik." (Rich & Knight, 1991)
Sebaliknya WAI merupakan satu aliran yang lebih kepada pendekatan berpaksikan
rasional. Dengan kata lain, WAI lebih menjurus kepada pembinaan mesin yang boleh
bertingkah laku pintar seperti manusia tetapi hakikatnya ia tidak memiliki kepintaran yang
sebenar seperti yang dimiliki oleh manusia. Dengan kata lain ia boleh diistilahkan sebagai
Kepintaran Palsu. Matlamat aliran WAI lebih memberikan penekanan terhadap aplikasi KB
dalam membantu manusia melakukan pekerjaan dengan menjadikan bidang matematik dan
kejuruteraan sebagai asas pembuatan mesin yang pintar. Penyokong-penyokong WAI
mendakwa bahawa penekanan di atas adalah lebih praktikal daripada cuba meniru
sepenuhnya kepintaran manusia kerana mereka percaya bahawa minda buatan tidak dapat
dihasilkan (Searle, 1980; Poole, Mackworth & Goebel, 1998).
Definisi-definisi dalam aliran WAI juga boleh dibahagikan kepada dua kategori iaitu
sistem yang berfikir secara rasional dan sistem yang bertindak secara rasional (Russell &
Norvig, 2003). Berikut adalah beberapa definisi yang telah dicetuskan oleh penyokong-
penyokong WAI yang dipetik daripada pelbagai sumber.
Satu kajian terhadap fungsi minda dengan menggunakan model pengkomputeran(Charniak &
McDermott, 1985)
Satu kajian komputasi yang membolehkan ia melihat, menaakul dan bertindak(Winston, 1992)
Kepintaran Komputasi adalah satu bidang kajian tentang penrekaan Agen Pintar( Poole, Mackworth
& Goebel, 1998)
Walaupun wujudnya 2 aliran utama dalam merealisasikan KB, kita dapat simpulkan
bahawa matlamat utama KB adalah untuk mencipta mesin yang pintar seperti yang dimiliki
oleh manusia. Cuma persoalannya, adakah mesin mampu memiliki kepintaran seperti
manusia atau hanya memiliki kepintaran palsu? Bahagian yang seterusnya akan
membincangkan sejarah KB secara ringkas sebelum kita melihat pandangan Islam terhadap
KB.
Sejarah Bidang Kepintaran Buatan
Pernahkah kita terfikir di manakah susurgalur KB bermula. Kita yakin ramai yang akan
menjawab KB lahir serentak dengan penciptaan komputer yang pertama atau dengan kata lain
seiring dengan penghasilan teknologi komputer. Jika itu jawapan anda maka anda silap.
Hakikatnya asas kelahiran KB bukan bermula seiring dengan penghasilan teknologi
komputer. Sejarah KB telah dikenalpasti bermula sejak ribuan tahun dahulu iaitu sejak zaman
Yunani. Secara ringkasnya, kelahiran KB adalah bermula dengan mitos, kemudian lembaga
ngeri, robot yang memberontak dan robot yang patuh (Hairudin, 1992).
Dengan terciptanya komputer yang pertama pada tahun 1941 ia telah membuka ruang
yang lebih konkrit untuk merealisasikan penghasilan mesin pintar. Walaupun penghasilan
komputer telah membuka ruang kepada bidang KB namun ia hanya mendapat sepenuh
perhatian setelah pertalian di antara kepintaran manusia dan mesin diperkenalkan oleh
Norbert Wiener pada awal tahun 1950-an. Keyakinan ini ditambah pula dengan penghasilan
Teori Logik oleh Newell and Simon pada tahun 1955 dan telah menjadi satu batu loncatan
untuk melahirkan mesin pintar.
Pada tahun 1956, McCarthy telah berjaya menghimpunkan ramai pakar dan cerdik pandai
yang berminat dalam penghasilan mesin pintar di Dartmouth. Hasilnya, istilah KB telah
dipersetujui dan diguna pakai oleh para pengkaji KB pada konvensyen KB yang pertama itu.
Bermula dari saat itu, bidang ini mula mendapat perhatian dan telah mengemukakan pelbagai
konsep dan teori dalam usaha membina mesin pintar seperti yang dimaksudkan. Teori-teori
Mohammad Bin Hossin & Zaimuariffudin Shukri Nordin / 1149
minda seperti dualisme, materialisme, fungsionalisme dan tingkahlaku (behaviourism) telah
digunakan bagi mencapai matlamat menghasilkan mesin pintar ini.
Natijah daripada usaha tersebut banyak percubaan telah dijalankan bagi membina mesin
pintar (Nurfaizatul Akmar, 2003). Antaranya ialah ELIZA, SHRDLU, PARRY, MYCIN dan
CYRUS. Kesemua mesin pintar yang telah dihasilkan belum lagi mencapai tahap seperti
yang digambarkan. Jika dilihat dari sudut logik mesin-mesin di atas berjaya menunjukkan
keupayaan berfikir tetapi belum lagi mencapai tahap yang dikatakan mesin pintar. Ini kerana
banyak kelemahan dan limitasi daripada penghasilan sistem-sistem tersebut. Ketiadaan unsur
common sense, skop pengetahuan yang terhad dan unsur kesedaran (consciousness)
merupakan limitasi yang ketara untuk menidakkan sistem-sistem tersebut sebagai mesin
pintar yang memiliki kepintaran manusia.
Wujudnya cerita-cerita sains fiksyen seperti HAL 9000, A.I., Terminator 1, 2, dan 3, Star
Trek, Star Wars dan yang terbaru I-Robot juga, telah menambahkan lagi kepopularan KB di
kalangan umum. Daripada cerita-cerita sains fiksyen di atas, manusia cuba dibayangi dengan
kehebatan KB. Ia menggambarkan seolah-olah manusia akan dikuasai oleh KB pada suatu
masa kelak. Secara tersiratnya, cerita-cerita ini menggambarkan manusia akan menjadi
hamba kepada KB. Kalau benar mesin ini boleh dihasilkan, adakah kita (manusia) rela
dikuasai dan mengabdikan diri kepada mesin? Tetapi kenapa sehingga ke hari ini kita masih
belum mendengar kejayaan seperti yang digambarkan? Apakah yang menjadi halangan
utama dalam usaha ini? Jika benar ia boleh dicipta apakah pandangan Islam terhadap bidang
ini? Adakah ia boleh disamakan dengan manusia? Apakah manusia yang dianggap sebagai
makhluk yang terpintar di alam maya ini harus berkongsi status keistimewaan itu dengan
mesin pintar yang dicipta oleh manusia sendiri?
Bolehkah Mesin Berfikir?
Pada seksyen ini kita akan membincangkan dengan lebih mendalam tentang bolehkah
mesin berfikir? Persoalan ini telah dijawab oleh Turing dalam membincangkan soal Can
Machines Think?. Namun hakikatnya persoalan ini masih lagi belum mempunyai jawapan
dan kejayaannya. Turing berpendapat untuk mencipta sebuah mesin pintar kita harus
menolak kerangka konseptual (teoritis) tentang makna kepintaran manusia. Beliau lebih
tertarik dengan membuat ujian praktikal dalam menentukan tahap kepintaran mesin. Ini
disandarkan pada satu andaian mudah beliau iaitu sekiranya komputer atau mesin boleh
memberi jawapan seperti manusia dan manusia tidak dapat membezakan bahawa jawapan
tersebut adalah daripada manusia atau komputer maka komputer atau mesin itu wajar
dianggap pintar.
Andaian Turing ini sebenarnya adalah berdasarkan fahaman materialisme beliau. Dalam
fahaman ini minda diklasifikasikan sebagai satu aktiviti pemprosesan maklumat. Otak pula
dianggap sebagai entiti fizikal yang hanya berfungsi mengikut aturan. Dalam fahaman
materialisme otak dinyatakan tidak dipengaruhi oleh apa-apa unsur yang dipanggil roh atau
sebarang unsur akal yang tidak dapat dianalisis dengan kajian eksperimen. Beliau percaya
melalui cara ini mesin yang pintar boleh dibina tanpa perlu mempersoalkan unsur-unsur lain
yang mempengaruhi minda dalam memproses maklumat. Untuk membuktikan andaian yang
dibuatnya sendiri itu benar, Turing telah menjalankan satu eksperimen yang dipanggil Ujian
Turing pada tahun 1950. Dalam hal ini, sistem yang dibina oleh beliau berjaya melepasi
ujian tersebut. Berdasarkan kejayaan itu beliau telah membuat satu rumusan bahawa otak
adalah sama seperti komputer.
Kesimpulan ini dibuat atas andaian komputer tidak membezakan dan terikat kepada
maklumat tertentu kerana ia mampu memproses dan memanipulasikan apa sahaja jenis dan
bentuk maklumat. Di dalam hal ini komputer hanya perlu memenuhi syarat bahawa unsur
1150 / ISoIT 2004
perwakilan di dalamnya adalah sejenis simbol mental dan memastikan manipulasi simbol
dijalankan atas peraturan rasional. Proses ini sama seperti pemprosesan maklumat oleh otak.
Beliau percaya dengan ciri-ciri ini membolehkan komputer atau mesin berpotensi
menyelesaikan masalah manusia.
Jelas sekali hujah Turing itu menolak perlunya perbincangan konseptual tentang minda
dan kepintaran dari sudut kemanusiaan. Jika diteliti tentang Ujian Turing kita dapati ia
mengelirukan. Bukankah kita perlu mengkaji kepintaran itu dari sudut kemanusiaan kerana
kita ingin membuktikan bahawa mesin itu berminda seperti yang dinyatakan. Sebenarnya
percubaan Turing ini hanyalah melarikan diri daripada terperangkap dalam masalah
konseptual dan falsafah yang boleh membantutkan penyelidikan tentang mesin berminda.
Hasil daripada ujian yang dijalankan oleh Turing ini telah memberikan perdebatan hebat
di kalangan ahli cerdik pandai KB dan ahli falsafah. Ada yang menyokong dan ada yang
menolak kejayaan Turing itu. Di kalangan ahli falsafah terdapat beberapa bangkangan utama
yang membantah kejayaan Turing itu.
Pertama, komputer tidak boleh berfikir kerana ia hanya memanipulasikan simbol yang
telah diwakilkan dan tidak sensitif kepada makna simbol tersebut. Ini dibuktikan dengan
Ujian Bilik Cina yang telah dijalankan oleh Searle pada tahun 1980. Hasil daripada ujian ini
beliau membuktikan bahawa komputer atau mesin tidak memahami semantik atau maksud ke
atas data yang di proses. Ini menguatkan lagi hujah beliau bahasa mesin pintar yang lulus
Ujian Turing itu tidak mempunyai apa-apa pemahaman dan beliau semakin yakin bahawa
pendapat aliran SAI adalah tidak benar (Searle, 1980).
Kedua, untuk membina sebuah komputer buatan yang menyamai atau seperti manusia
yang mempunyai minda ia mesti mengandungi keinginan bebas (free will). Ahli falsafah,
berpendapat bahawa mesin atau program yang dicipta oleh manusia tidak mempunyai
keinginan bebas kerana program atau tingkah laku sesuatu mesin itu sudah ditentukan oleh
manusia (Carruthers, 2004). Jadi ini menghalang mesin atau komputer itu mempunyai
kebebasan dalam membuat pilihan. Di samping itu, kenyataan Dreyfrus juga menyokong
pendapat ini dengan mengatakan bahawa komputer mesti mengelakkan peraturan sama ada
algoritma atau heuristik kerana berfikir tidak boleh diterjemah dalam apa bentuk peraturan
sistem yang kompleks sekalipun (Hairudin, 1992). Ini kerana berfikir memerlukan sesuatu
yang aktif dengan kehidupan, mengambil bahagian dalam budaya dan mengetahui sesuatu.
Untuk memastikan mesin itu memiliki minda maka sesebuah program atau mesin yang
dibangunkan hendaklah memiliki unsur keinginan bebas sebelum ia dikatakan mempunyai
minda.
Ketiga, aspek lain yang boleh mempengaruhi minda ialah emosi iaitu perasaan yang
melibatkan kejadian dalaman (Crossley, 2001). Manusia mempunyai emosi yang tidak akan
mampu dicapai oleh komputer. Emosi manusia merupakan perkara dalaman dan merupakan
satu ketakjuban atau keajaiban kepada manusia itu sendiri. Manusia akan terusik perasaannya
jika emosinya terganggu atau terusik. Sebaliknya komputer yang tidak mempunyai kesemua
perkara emosi tersebut dan tidak mungkin akan merasainya jika berlaku sesuatu terhadap
emosinya. Jelas bahawa manusia mempunyai daya sensitiviti terhadap sesuatu perkara. Ini
berlainan dengan komputer yang tidak mempunyai daya sensitiviti. Komputer hanya
mengikut apa yang telah diprogramkan kepadanya dan mungkin tidak mampu memiliki
perasaan. Ia mungkin boleh mengatakan dirinya gembira tetapi mustahil untuk sesebuah
komputer atau mesin yang tidak mempunyai emosi boleh menggambarkan kegembiraan yang
dikatakannya.
Keempat, adalah bangkangan isu pemikiran dari perspektif teologi. Turing cuba menolak
membincangkan isu ini dari sudut teologi kerana beliau percaya teologi akan
mempertahankan bahawa pemikiran manusia adalah unik dan mustahil untuk ditiru.
Golongan ini berpendapat bahawa tidak akan ada makhluk lain yang boleh berfikir melainkan
Mohammad Bin Hossin & Zaimuariffudin Shukri Nordin / 1151
manusia. Ini dinyatakan jelas oleh beliau dalam bukunya Computing Machinery and
Intelligence.
Apa pandangan Islam terhadap KB?
Dalam Sejarah Ketamadunan Islam tiada kajian yang saintifik dan terperinci mengenai
teori minda dan kajian terhadapnya secara empirikal. Kajian-kajian tentang minda ini banyak
dipelopori oleh orang bukan Islam. Sungguhpun begitu terdapat beberapa tokoh-tokoh
ternama Islam yang ada membincangkan akal dari segi falsafah dan kegunaannya. Antara
tokoh-tokoh tersebut ialah Imam Al-Ghazali, Ibnu Khaldun, Ibnu Sina dan Al-Farabi.
Sebelum kita memulakan perbincangan tentang minda dan KB eloklah kita mulakan
dengan definisi minda dan otak terlebih dahulu dari konteks bahasa. Perkataan akal
sebenarnya berasal daripada perkataan Arab iaitu ql yang bermaksud sebagai wahana untuk
menetapkan atau memutuskan keputusan. Dalam perspektif Islam akal dapat disimpulkan
sebagai inteleksi iaitu tindakan taakulan dan pemahaman; dan intelek iaitu kewujudan dalam
bentuk tauhid (Syed Muhamad Dawilah, 1993). Otak pula jika dirujuk pada Al-Quran ia
merujuk kepada perkataan qalb iaitu tempat atau bahagian fizikal manusia yang digunakan
untuk memahami daripada apa yang difikirkan. Ini dijelaskan oleh Al-Quran dalam Surah
Al-Araaf ayat 179 maksudnya, mereka mempunyai hati, tetapi tidak memahami
dengannya.
Berbalik kepada soalan asal tadi, adakah minda atau akal ini boleh ditiru seperti dakwaan
pengkaji KB? Apa pandangan Islam terhadap isu ini? Sebenarnya tiada sumber khas yang
boleh dijadikan rujukan dalam menjawab persoalan ini. Dalam hal itu, kami cuba menjawab
isu ini berdasarkan beberapa nas yang merujuk kepada Al-Quran, Hadis dan pandangan
cerdik pandai Islam.
Pada pandangan kami jawapannya adalah tidak mungkin. Kenapa dan atas alasan apa?
Jika kita kaji daripada sumber-sumber tertentu, akal ini adalah kurniaan tuhan kepada
manusia sahaja (Syed Muhamad Dawilah, 1993; Masirah, 2003). Tidak terdapat mana-mana
bukti yang mengatakan bahawa akal ini dimiliki oleh makhluk lain ciptaan Allah termasuk
haiwan, jin, iblis dan malaikat. Ini untuk membezakan manusia dan makhluk lain yang
diciptakan Allah. Kenyataan ini dikuatkan dengan sabda Nabi Muhammad S.A.W kepada
Ali, maksudnya Allah Taala tidak menjadikan makhluk yang lebih mulia daripada akal.
Ayat-ayat Al-Quran sendiri juga tidak pernah menggunakan perkataan akal ini kepada
makhluk-makhluk lain kecuali ke atas manusia. Terdapat banyak ayat yang menerangkan
perkataan akal ini yang ditujukan kepada manusia. Contohnya:
Sesungguhnya sejahat-jahat makhluk di sisi Allah ialah mereka yang tuli dan kelu yang tidak berakal.
(Surah Al-Anfal ayat 22 )
Kalau kami mendengar atau menggunakan akal tidaklah kami bersama-sama dengan penghuni-
penghuni neraka yang bernyala-nyala. (Surah Al-Mulk ayat 10)
Kenyataan ini juga disokong oleh pandangan Imam Al-Ghazali tentang akal iaitu beliau
mengatakan akal adalah fitrah yang bersifat naluri dan Nur yang asli yang membolehkan
manusia mengetahui sesuatu (Azlan Khalili S., 1991). Nur yang dimaksudkan beliau ialah
cahaya yang lengkap yang tiada kekurangan berbanding dengan cahaya yang dapat dilihat
oleh mata. Daripada penjelasan Imam Al-Ghazali itu jelas bahawa akal itu fitrah manusia
dan bersifat asli yang dimiliki oleh manusia.
Daripada nas-nas dan perbincangan di atas, kesimpulannya adalah jelas iaitu mustahil
untuk kita menandingi kuasa Allah dengan memindahkan atau meniru kurniaan akal atau
minda ini kepada makhluk atau benda ciptaan manusia itu sendiri. Jika perkara ini kita boleh
lakukan bermakna manusia bukan lagi merupakan satu makhluk yang istimewa disebabkan
1152 / ISoIT 2004
makhluk lain mempunyai keistimewaan yang sama iaitu memiliki akal. Sekaligus ia
memberi tanda bahawa mesin atau komputer ini boleh mentadbir alam kerana memiliki
minda yang boleh berfikir seperti manusia. Kita kena ingat kerana akallah manusia diangkat
darjatnya melebihi makhluk-makhluk lain dan diberi kepercayaan oleh Allah untuk menjadi
khalifah di muka bumi ini. Sehubungan dengan itu, jelaslah dakwaan aliran SAI adalah sia-
sia dan perlu ditolak.
Secara tidak langsung hujah ini juga memberi jalan buntu kepada penghasilan KB untuk
mewujudkan mesin berminda. Di sini ingin kami jelaskan bahawa yang dimaksudkan dengan
kemustahilan mencipta mesin berminda ini adalah dari segi pemberian minda atau akal
kepada mesin. Tetapi kami tidak menolak bahawa tidak mustahil untuk kita mencipta mesin
pintar tetapi kepintaran yang dimiliki oleh mesin itu bukan kepintaran yang dimiliki oleh
manusia tetapi merupakan kepintaran palsu. Ini boleh dilakukan dengan menjadikan otak itu
sendiri sebagai sumber untuk dibuat rujukan. Sokongan ini dibuat dengan kejayaan beberapa
sistem pintar yang telah dihasilkan berdasarkan pemodelan otak manusia. Dalam hal ini kita
kena jelas bahawa penciptaan mesin-mesin pintar seperti ini mestilah dibetulkan niat dan
tujuannya. Bagi kami penciptaan dan kewujudan mesin-mesin pintar ini adalah perlu bagi
membantu manusia menjalankan kehidupan yang lebih baik.
Penutup
Jelas sekali dalam perbincangan dalam seksyen sebelum ini kita mendapati bahawa aliran
SAI merupakan satu percubaan atau arah baru dalam menandingi kuasa Tuhan. Telah
dimaklumkan di awal perbincangan bahawa bidang KB ini adalah hasil cabang ilmu fahaman
sekularisme. Kalau kita berbalik kepada sejarah sains dan teknologi di Barat, mereka
membuktikan alam maya ini terjadi dengan sendirinya tanpa diolah oleh sesiapa. Begitu juga
manusia. Ini adalah hasil daripada fahaman mekanisme yang menular di kalangan orang
Barat pada Zaman Pembaharuan. Tidak hairanlah fahaman materialisme yang dibawa oleh
Turing sama sekali menidakkan wujudnya pengaruh akal atau unsur roh dalam
mempengaruhi minda. Ini jelas, bagi fahaman ini, sesuatu perkara yang tidak dapat dianalisis
dengan ujian empirikal perlu ditolak. Walaupun terdapat banyak bangkangan yang dibuat
oleh cerdik pandai yang menentang SAI tetapi fahaman Turing masih lagi diguna pakai di
dalam dunia KB sedangkan kebarangkalian untuk mencipta sesuatu mesin yang berminda itu
adalah mustahil. Ini kerana mereka hanya melihat otak atau minda itu hanya sebagai pusat
memproses maklumat sedangkan terdapat beberapa unsur lain yang perlu dilihat dalam
mempengaruhi minda tidak disentuh
Jika ditinjau dari sudut lain KB mungkin berupaya beroperasi seperti manusia tetapi ia
tidak boleh menyamai atau melebihi manusia dalam beberapa perkara yang kami bentangkan.
Mungkin dari segi fizikal komputer ia lebih berdaya tinggi dan berkuasa daripada manusia
namun dari segi mental iaitu dari aspek emosi ia tidak mampu menyamai apa yang dilakukan
oleh manusia kerana manusia mempunyai daya yang berlainan dengan komputer. Ini boleh
dibuktikan secara jelas tentang bangkangan yang kami utarakan sebelum ini. Dalam hal ini
keupayaan komputer benar-benar tidak dapat menandingi manusia. Adalah lebih baik jika
ahli cerdik pandai KB mengalih perhatian kepada penghasilan komputer pintar yang boleh
membantu manusia menjalankan fungsi seperti manusia. Ini adalah lebih praktikal daripada
berusaha membuktikan bahawa minda buatan itu boleh dicipta. Sama seperti sejarah dalam
penghasilan kapal terbang. Dalam penghasilan kapal terbang ini terdapat dua pendekatan
(Poole, Mackworth & Goebel, 1998) yang telah digunakan iaitu:
Pertama, menjalankan kajian yang mendalam tentang haiwan yang boleh terbang seperti
burung, kelawar, rama-rama dan sebagainya. Cara ini lebih kepada melihat ciri-ciri asal yang
Mohammad Bin Hossin & Zaimuariffudin Shukri Nordin / 1153
menjadi asas kepada punca proses terbang seperti kipasan kepak dan pengaruh bulu serta ciri
lain yang boleh menyumbang kepada penghasilan penerbangan.
Kedua adalah dengan mengkaji kaedah lain yang boleh menyumbang kepada penghasilan
penerbangan tanpa terikat kepada ciri-ciri asas yang dilihat pada burung, kelawar dan rama-
rama. Nampaknya cara ini lebih berkesan, praktikal dan berjaya mencipta kapal terbang yang
boleh terbang dengan penghasilan bidang baru yang dikenali sebagai aerodinamik.
Penghasilan kaedah baru ini menunjukkan kapal terbang itu terbang tetapi sebenarnya tidak
terbang seperti yang dilihat pada burung.
Para pengkaji KB harus melihat kepada kaedah lain dalam menghasilkan mesin pintar
tanpa meniru sepenuhnya minda manusia. Sejak dari zaman Yunani kajian tentang minda
telah dijalankan tetapi sehingga kini ia masih belum membolehkan manusia mencipta
kerangka konseptual tentang bagaimana minda berfungsi dengan sepenuhnya. Kalau
kerangka konseptual tentang minda ini boleh dihasilkan tidak mustahil mesin pintar boleh
dicipta tetapi hakikatnya kepintaran itu tetap hanyalah kepintaran palsu. Kita jelas bahawa
setiap benda ciptaan Khalik itu tidak akan mampu ditandingi oleh manusia hatta mencipta
seekor burung buatan yang boleh terbang seperti burung.
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Mohammad b Hossin
E-mel: hmohamma@fcs.unimas.my
Zaimuariffudin Shukri Nordin
E-mel: nzaim@fcs.unimas.my
Program Sains Kognitif
Fakulti Sains Kognitif dan Pembangunan Manusia
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
94300 Kota Samarahan
Sarawak