ANCIENTGREECE APolitical,Social,andCulturalHistory SarahB.Pomeroy HunterCollegeand theCityUniversityofNewYork GraduateCenter WalterDonlan Universityof California,Irvine StanleyM.

Burstein CaliforniaStateUniversity, LosAngeles JenniferTolbertRoberts CityCollegeand theCityUniversityofNewYork GraduateCenter

NewYorkOxfordOXFORDUNIVERSITYPRESS1999 iii OxfordUniversityPress OxfordNewYorkAthensAucklandBangkokBogotBuenosAiresCalcuttaCape TownChennaiDaresSalaamDelhiFlorenceHongKongIstanbulKarachiKuala LumpurMadridMelbourneMexicoCityMumbaiNairobiParisSoPauloSingapore TaipeiTokyoTorontoWarsawandassociatedcompaniesinBerlinIbadan Copyright1999bySarahB.Pomeroy,StanleyM.Burstein,WalterDonlan,and JenniferTolbertRoberts PublishedbyOxfordUniversityPress,Inc.198MadisonAvenue,NewYork,New York10016 OxfordisaregisteredtrademarkofOxfordUniversityPress Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedina retrievalsystem,ortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical, photocopying,recording,orotherwise,withoutthepriorpermissionofOxford UniversityPress. LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData AncientGreece:apolitical,social,andculturalhistory/bySarahB.Pomeroy, StanleyM.Burstein,WalterDonlan,JenniferTolbertRoberts. p.cm. Includesindex.

ISBN0195097424(cloth).ISBN0195097432(pbk.) 1.GreeceCivilizationTo146B.C.2.Hellenism.I.Pomeroy,SarahB. DF77.A59519989814544 938dc21CIP Printing(lastdigit):987654 PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmericaonacidfreepaper iv CONTENTS List ofMaps Preface Acknowledgments Time Line IEarlyGreeceandtheBronzeAge TheLandofGreece SourcesforEarlyGreekHistory GreeceintheStoneAges The AncientCivilizationsoftheNearEast Greece intheEarlyBronzeAge(c.30002100BC) Greece intheMiddleBronzeAge(c.21001600BC) TheDiscoveryofAegeanCivilization:Troy,Mycenae, Knossos Minoan SocietyandCulture(c.17001500BC) The Mycenaeans The EarlyMycenaeans(c.16001400BC) The LaterMycenaeans(c.14001200BC) The EndoftheMycenaeanCivilization IITheDarkAgeofGreeceandtheEighthCentury Renaissance(c.1150700BC) SourcesfortheDarkAge Decline andRecovery(c.1150900BC) Society intheEarlyDarkAge vii Revival(c.900750BC) Homer andOralPoetry Late DarkAge(Homeric)Society 50 51 53 xi xiii xvii xix 1 1 4 5 6 8 9 11 12 18 21 22 37 41 42 42 46

Community,Household,andEconomyintheLateDark Age The EndoftheDarkAge(c.750700BC) IIIArchaicGreece(c.700500BC) SourcesfortheSeventhandSixthCenturies TheFormationoftheCityState(Polis) The Ethnos Government intheEarlyCityStates The ColonizingMovement Economic andSocialDivisionsintheEarlyPoleis Hesiod: TheViewfromBelow The HopliteArmy The ArchaicAgeTyrants Art andArchitecture Lyric Poetry Philosophy andScience Relations BetweenStates Panhellenic Institutions IVSparta SourcesforSpartanHistoryandInstitutions The DarkAgeandtheArchaicPeriod The SpartanSystem Demography andtheSpartanEconomy Spartan Government SpartaandGreece HistoricalChangeinSparta TheSpartanMirage Sources forEarlyAthens Athens fromtheBronzeAgetotheEarlyArchaicAge The ReformsofSolon Peisistratus andHisSons The ReformsofCleisthenes viii

66 71 82 83 84 86 87 90 95 99 103 106 109 116 121 124 127 131 131 134 138 146 149 153 154 155 159 160 164 169 174

TheRiseofPersia The WarsBetweenGreeceandPersia VITheRivalriesoftheGreekCityStatesandtheGrowthof AthenianDemocracy SourcesfortheDecadesAfterthePersianWars TheAftermathofthePersianWarsandtheFoundationof the DelianLeague The First(Undeclared)PeloponnesianWar(460445BC)

178 181 201 202 203 212

PericlesandtheGrowthofAthenianDemocracy Literature andArt Oikos andPolis The GreekEconomy VIIGreeceontheEveofthePeloponnesianWar SourcesforGreeceontheEveoftheWar Greece AftertheThirtyYearsPeace The BreakdownofthePeace Resources forWar Intellectual LifeinFifthcenturyGreece The LiteratureoftheFifthCentury Currents inGreekThoughtandEducation The PhysicalSpaceofthePolis:AthensontheEveofWar VIIIThePeloponnesianWar SourcesforGreeceDuringthePeloponnesianWar The ArchidamianWar(431421BC) Between PeaceandWar The InvasionofSicily(415413BC) TheWarintheAegeanandtheOligarchicCoupatAthens (413411BC) Fallout fromtheLongWar The WarinRetrospect IXTheCrisisofthePolisandtheAgeofShiftingHegemonies SourcesforFourthcenturyGreece PostwarGreeceandtheStruggleforHegemony ix

215 219 233 240 246 246 247 250 254 255 260 267 274 287 287 289 303 305 311 319 326 330 331 332

LawandDemocracyinAthens The FourthcenturyPolis Philosophy andthePolis XPhillipIIandtheRiseofMacedon SourcesforMacedonianHistory Early Macedonia Macedonian SocietyandKingship The ReignofPhilipII Macedonian DominationofGreece XIAlexandertheGreat SourcesfortheReignofAlexander Consolidating Power FromIssustoEgypt:ConquestoftheEastern Mediterranean (332331BC) FromAlexandriatoPersepolis:TheKingofAsia(331330

343 349 353 371 371 372 373 377 388 395 398 399 408 410

BC) TheHighRoadtoIndia:AlexanderinCentralAsia414 India andtheEndoftheDream Return totheWest XIIAlexandersSuccessorsandtheCosmopolis ANewWorld Sources fortheHellenisticPeriod The StrugglefortheSuccession The RegencyofPerdiccas The PrimacyofAntigonustheOneEyed Birth PangsoftheNewOrder(301276BC) The PlaceofthePolisintheCosmopolis The MacedonianKingdoms Hellenistic Society Alexandria andHellenisticCulture Social RelationsintheHellenisticWorld Epilogue Glossary Art andIllustrationCredits Index x LISTOFMAPSANDBATTLEPLANS GreeceandtheAegeanWorld MycenaeansitesinthethirteenthcenturyBC Greek Colonization:750500BC TheAgoraintheArchaicperiod,c.500BC,showingthe earliestbuildings Peloponnesus Attica The PersianEmpireintheReignofDarius The PersianWars The AthenianEmpire Sicily andsouthernItaly AlliancesattheoutsetofthePeloponnesianWar Theaters ofoperationduringthePeloponnesianWar Diagram ofSyracuseandEpipolae Macedonia anditsNeighbors AlexandersCampaign Plan oftheBattleofIssus Plan oftheBattleofGaugamela The Greekviewoftheinhabitedworld

419 422 427 427 429 431 432 436 441 446 450 453 455 463 471 476 490 494

xxviiixxix 26 91 115 135 177 183 195 206 248 256257 290 308 374 396397 406 413 419

TheHellenisticWorld xi PREFACE

444445

Thisbookisdesignedtosharewithreadersarichandcomplexvisionofancient Greecethathasbeenforgedbythecollaborationoffourscholarswithdifferent backgroundsandvaryinginterests.Weundertookitbecauseofourfrustrationinthe searchforasinglevolumethatprovidedreaderswithacomprehensivehistoryof GreekcivilizationfromitsfirstbeginningsinthesecondmillenniumBCthroughthe Hellenisticera.Ithasbeenmorethanaquarterofacenturysincethelastattemptto tellthisstoryindepth;allrecenttextbookshaveeitherfocusedonpoliticaland militarydevelopmentsoromittedtheHellenisticera.Wehopethatwhatwehave writtenwillbeusefulandwillgivepleasurebothtothegeneralreaderandtothe studentwhoisaskedtoreaditincollege.Wehavestrivedforapaceandalength thataresuitableforacourselastingforasemesteroraquarterdevotedtothehistory andcivilizationofGreecelongenoughtoprovidedepthanddetail,andshort enoughtoenabletheinstructortoassignprimarysourcesthatwillexpandthe studentsunderstandingofaworldthatisbothfamiliarandalien.Incorporatingthe fruitsofthemostrecentscholarship,wehaveaimedforabalancebetweenpolitical, military,social,cultural,andeconomichistory.TheAthenianlawgiverSolon,who soughttoreconcilethefeudingpoliticalpartiesofhisday,lamentedthatintryingto pleaseeverybodyheseemedtohavepleasednobody.Weareoptimisticthatwewill notbedriventosuchlamentationsbythechallengeswefacedinourquestto integratethevariousaspectsofGreekcivilization. GreekculturewasforgedinthecrucibleoftheBronzeAgecivilizationsthatcropped upinworldsasdiverseasunifiedEgyptandfragmentedMesopotamia.Absorbing keyskillsfromthesehighlydevelopedneighborsmetallurgy,forexample,and writingtheGreeksbuiltadistinctiveculturemarkedbyastonishingcreativity, versatility,andresilience.IntheendthisworlddissolvedasGreekcivilization, havingreachedfromFranceandItalyinthewesttoPakistanintheeast,mergedwith avarietyofotherculturesMacedonian,forexample,Syrian,Iran xiii ian,Egyptian,Roman,andfinallyByzantine.Greekbecamethecommonlanguage throughouttheNearEastandwasthelanguageinwhichthetextscollectedinwhat wecalltheNewTestamentwerewritten.ThroughitsincorporationintotheRoman empireandthefusionofGreekandItalianelementsinmythologyandarchitecture,a hybridcultureknownasClassicalcametoholdanimportantplaceinthetraditions ofEuropeandtheAmericas.

BetweenthedeclineoftheBronzeAgeandthediffusionofGreekculturethroughout theMediterraneanworld,Greekcivilizationattainedanextraordinaryrichness markedbydiversitywithinunity.TheworldoftheHomericepicstheIliadandthe Odysseywasradicallydifferentfromthatofthefifthandfourthcenturies,yetthe epicsremainedthetextsmostcommonlytaughtinschools,andAlexanderwas rumoredtohavecarriedacopyofHomersworkashetraveled,andlamentedthat hehadnogreatpoettoimmortalizehimasHomerhadimmortalizedAchilles. Thoughreligioninspiredmuchofarchitecture,literature,andevenathletic competitions,whichwereheldtohonorthegods,Greekgovernmentandsociety oftenseemedtofunctioninanentirelysecularmanner.Marriage,forexample,wasa purelysecularaffair,anddivorcewasnotbelievedtodistressthegodsatall.The godswerenowhereandeverywhere.Idealsofequalitywerepreachedbymenwho usuallyownedslavesandbelievedintheinferiorityofwomen.Stolid,warlikeSparta andcultivated,intellectualAthensconsideredthemselvespolaropposites; ThucydidesencapsulatedmanyofthedifferencesseenfromtheAthenianpointof viewinthefuneralorationforthewardeadheputinthemouthoftheAthenian statesmanPericles.Yetpeopleinbothcitieslivedbyagriculture,worshippedZeus andtheotherOlympiangods,subjectedwomentomen,believedfirmlyinslavery (providedtheywerenotslavesthemselves!),sacrificedanimals,consideredwara constantinhumanlife,preachedanethicofequityamongmalecitizens,cherished athleticsanddelightedintheOlympicsandothercompetitions,enjoyedpraisingthe ruleoflaw,consideredGreekssuperiortononGreeks,andacceptedasaxiomaticthe primacyofthestateovertheindividual. ThehistoryoftheancientGreeksisoneofthemostimprobablesuccessstoriesinall ofworldhistory.Asmallpeopleinhabitingapoorcountryontheperipheryofthe civilizationsofEgyptandtheNearEast,theGreekscreatedoneoftheworldsmost remarkablecultures.Inalmosteveryareaoftheartsandsciencestheymade fundamentalcontributions,andtheirlegacyisstillaliveinwesternandIslamic civilizations.ThroughouttheRenaissanceandtheeighteenthcentury,Spartawas cherishedasthemodelofamixedandthereforestableconstitution.Inthenineteenth andtwentiethcenturies,moreattentionhasfocusedonAthens,whereitispossibleto witnessthegradualerosionofprivilegebasedonwealthandlineageandthegrowth ofdemocraticmachinerylawcodesandcourts,proceduresforselectingofficialsand holdingthemaccountable,andpublicdebatesandvotesonmattersofdomesticand foreignpolicy.AthensandSpartafoughtruinouswarswithoneanother,andthe propensityoftheGreekstatesforfightingoneanothershapedmuchoftheirhistory. ThedevastatingGreekworldwarof431404knownasthePeloponnesianWar (becauseofSpartas xiv

locationonthepeninsulaofthePeloponnesus)placedadamperontheextraordinary burstofcreativitythathadmarkedthefifthcenturythetragediesofAeschylus, Sophocles,andEuripides;thecomediesofAristophanes;thebuildingofthe ParthenonatAthensandthetempleofZeusatOlympia.Throughoutthispainfulera andthedecadesthatfollowed,thinkerscontinuedtoexplorethequestionsthathad intriguedGreekintellectualsatleastasfarbackasthesixthcenturytheoriginsof theuniverseandthemechanismsbywhichitfunctioned;therelationbetween physis,nature,andnomos,customorlaw;howandwhatmortalscanknow aboutthegods;whatthesegodsmightwantfrompeople;whetherindeedtrue knowledgewaspossibleforhumans;whatthebestrulesmightbebywhichpeople couldlivetogetherinsociety;whatthebestformofeducationwaswhowasmost qualifiedtodirectit,andhowmanycouldprofitfromit;underwhatcircumstances theruleofasinglewisemanmightafterallbebest.Newquestionswerealsoposed whetherinvolvementinpoliticsoughtreallytobethefocusofamanslife;whether theindividualmightfindidentityseparatefromthestate;whetherwarwasworth thesacrificesitentailed;andevenwhetherslaveryandthedisfranchisementof womenwerenecessary(thoughthoseradicalspeculationsdidnotresultinsocial change).Inevitably,theconquestsofAlexander,themassmarriageshecelebrated betweenMacedoniansoldiersandwomenfromPersiaandMediain324BC,andthe hybridculturethatwasforgedthroughoutwesternAsiaandEuropechallenged conventionalGreekassumptionsabouttheclearlinethatdividedGreeksfromthe nonGreekpeoplestheycalledbarbarianspeoplewhoselanguagesoundedlike bar,bar,bar.InsomeofthelandsincorporatedintothenewMacedonianempires, womenenjoyedhigherstatusthaninmostoftheGreekworld,andthissometimes rubbedoffonthecolonialMacedonianaristocracy,changinglongentrenchedmores. ThecountrythatthepoetByronlabeledthelandoflostgodscontinuestoliveonin themodernimagination.Itisourhopethatthisbookwillfleshouttheseromantic imageswithhistoricalrealities.Duringthepastdecadesourunderstandingof ancientGreecehasvastlyexpanded.Thankstotheworkofagenerationoftalented scholars,ourknowledgeofnumerousaspectsofGreekhistoryandlifehasbeen transformedandisstillbeingtransformedtoday.Archaeologyhasrevealedthe criticalimportanceoftheDarkAges,whilecomparativeanthropologyhas illuminatedthenatureofArchaicsocietyandmadecleartheoralcharacterofearly Greekculture.Atthesametime,socialhistorianshaveveeredawayfromthe traditionalpreoccupationwiththeelite,wholeftwrittenrecordsoftheirdoings,and havebeentirelessinferretingoutevidencethatthrowslightonthelivesofthose whodonotgenerallyspeakforthemselveswomen,forexample,andslaves. Synthesizingtheresultsofthisscholarshiphasbeenanexcitingandchallengingtask madepossibleonlybythehelpofmanypeople.Wehave,ofcourse,profited enormouslyfromtheworkofinnumerablescholarswhosenamesneverappearin ourvolume;thatisthenatureofhistoricalwriting.Wearealsogreatlyindebtedto

RobertMilleroftheOxfordUniversityPressandhisenergeticstaffwhodraggedus throughaseriesofseeminglyimpossibledeadlines,andtothe xv readerswhotooktimeoutfrombusyschedulestoexamineourworkandmake numeroususefulcriticismsandsuggestions.BethCohenandH.AlanShapirogave carefulscrutinytothevisualimagespresentedherebutareinnowayresponsiblefor anyerrorsofjudgmenttheauthorsmayhaveexercised.Wearegratefulalsoto JrgenMejerforhisadviceonthePresocraticsandtoMargaretMilesforbringingup todatetheplanoftheArchaicagoraofAthens. Finally,wemustthankGailDavis,whoseeditorialsagacityhassmoothedtherough edgesfromseveralofthesechapters;RobertLejeune,whoofferedcomputer assistancewhenitwasmostneededandenduredourassortedtechnoflubswith remarkablepatience;andMiriamBurstein,whonotonlyundertooktoobtainthe necessarypermissionsfromvariouspublishersbutalsohandledwithgraceand firmnessthechallengingtaskofremindingusthatwewerewritingforordinary mortals,notomniscientdeities. Weacknowledgewiththanksthepublisherswhohavegrantedpermissiontoquote translations.Unattributedtranslationsinthetextarebytheauthors. Theauthorswouldalsoliketocallthereadersattentiontotheextensiveglossaryat theend,whichprovidescapsuledescriptionsofmanyofthetermsthatoccurinthe book. JenniferRoberts,NewYorkCityWalterDonlan,Irvine,California StanleyBurstein,LosAlamitos,CaliforniaSarahPomeroy,NewYorkCity xvi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Theauthorswishtoacknowledgethefollowingpublishersfortheirkindpermission toreprintmaterialfromtheirpublications. AmericanHistoricalAssociation:FromTheHellenisticPeriodinWorldHistory,by StanleyM.Burstein.Copyright1996. Aris&Phillips,Ltd.:FromPlato:Phaedrus,editedandtranslatedbyC.J.Rowe. Copyright1988. CambridgeUniversityPress:FromTheHellenisticAgefromthebattleofIpsostothe deathofKleopatraVII,editedandtranslatedbyStanleyM.Burstein.Copyright 1985. ColumbiaUniversityPress:FromZenonPapyri.BusinessPapersoftheThird

CenturyB.C.DealingwithPalestineandEgypt,vol.2,editedbyW.L.Westermann, C.W.Keyes,andH.Liebesny.Copyright1940. HarvardUniversityPressandtheLoebClassicalLibrary:FromIsocrates,vol.1, translatedbyGeorgeNorlin.Copyright1928. JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress:FromHesiod:WorksandDays,translatedby ApostolosN.Athanassakis.Copyright1983.FromPindarsVictorySongs, translatedbyFrankNisetich.Copyright1980. OxfordUniversityPress:FromTheRepublicofPlato,translatedbyFrancis MacDonaldCornford.Copyright1945.FromThePoliticsofAristotle,translated byErnestBarker.Copyright1946.FromXenophon:Oeconomicus:Asocialand historicalcommentary,editedandtranslatedbySarahB.Pomeroy.Copyright 1994. PenguinBooks:FromPlutarch:TheAgeofAlexander,translatedbyIanScottKilvert. Copyright1973.From:PlutarchonSparta,translatedbyRichardTalbert. Copyright1988. SchockenBooks:FromGreekLyricPoetry,translatedbyWillisBarnstone. Copyright1972. UniversityofCaliforniaPress:FromSapphosLyre,translatedbyDianeJ.Rayor. Copyright1991. UniversityofChicagoPress:FromAeschylus:ThePersians,translatedbyS. BernardeteandAeschylus:TheOresteia,translatedbyR.LattimoreinTheComplete GreekTragedies, xvii

vol.1,editedbyD.GreneandR.Lattimore.Copyright1959.FromAntigone, translatedbyElizabethWyckoffinGreekTragedies,Vol.1,editedbyDavidGrene andRichmondLattimore.FromTheHistoryofHerodotus,translatedbyDavid Grene.Copyright1987.FromTheIliadofHomer,translatedbyR.Lattimore. Copyright1951. UniversityofOklahomaPress:FromAlexandertheGreatandtheGreeksbyA.J. Heisserer.Copyright1980. W.W.NortonandCompany,Inc.:FromHerodotus:TheHistories,editedby WalterBlancoandJenniferTolbertRoberts,translatedbyWalterBlanco. Copyright1992.FromThucydides:ThePeloponnesianWar,editedbyWalter BlancoandJenniferTolbertRoberts,translatedbyWalterBlanco.Copyright 1998. YaleUniversityPress:FromRoyalCorrespondenceintheHellenisticPeriod:AStudy inGreekEpigraphy,editedandtranslatedbyC.B.Welles.Copyright1934. xviii TIMELINE

 Period 65003000 Neolithic 30002100Early BronzeAge (EarlyHelladic 28001900)

MilitaryEvents Permanentfarming villages Socialranking emerges; villagesand districts ruledbyhereditary chiefs

Political/ SocialEvents

Cultural Development

Domesticationofplants andanimals;pottery

21001600 MiddleBronze Age (Middle Helladic 19001580)

2500Widespreaduseofbronzeandother metalsinAegean

21001900 21001900Lerna Incursionsof and IndoEuropean othersites speakers destroyed intoGreece

21001900Indo Europeangodsintroduced intoGreece

2000Firstpalacesin Crete 1900Mainlandcontacts withCreteandtheNear East 1800Cretansdevelop LinearAwriting

16001150LateBronze Age(LateHelladic 15801150)

1600Mycenaeandother sitesbecomepower centers;smallkingdoms emerge

1600Shaftgraves

continued xix Political/ SocialEvents Cultural Development 1500Tholostombs 1450LinearBwriting

Period

MilitaryEvents

15001450Mycenaeans takeoverCrete

Period

MilitaryEvents

Political/ SocialEvents 14001200Heightof Mycenaeanpower andprosperity 12001100Palace systemcollapses

Cultural Development 1400Newpalacesin Greece 1200Culturaldecline

1375Knossosdestroyed 12501225TheTrojanWar 1200Invaderslootand burnthepalacecenters 1150900EarlyDarkAge (Submycenaean11251050) (Protogeometric1050900)

1050Smallchiefdoms established;migrations ofmainlandGreeksto Ionia 1000DorianGreeks settledinthemainland andtheislands 900Population increases;newsettle mentsestablished; tradeandmanufacture expand 800Rapidpopulation growth

1050Irontechnology

900750LateDarkAge (EarlyGeometric900850) (MiddleGeometric850750)

1000Monumentalbuild ingatLefkandi

800Greeksdevelopan alphabet;earliest templesbuilt 776Traditionaldate offirstOlympian games

750490Archaic 730700First Period 750700Citystates 750720Iliadand Messenian emerge Odysseycomposed (LateGeometric750 War;LelantineWar 700) 750Overseas coloniza tiontotheWest begins 720Orientalizing pe riodinartbegins continued xx

Period

MilitaryEvents

Political/ SocialEvents

Cultural Development 700Hesiod;periodof lyricpoetrybegins 650Templesbuiltof stoneandmarble; Corinthianblack figure technique

700650Evolutionof hoplitearmorand tactics 669BattleofHysiae

670500Tyrantsrule inmanycitystates

650ColonizationofBlack Seaareabegins;earliest 650SecondMessenian knownstoneinscription War ofalaw;Lycurgan ReformsatSparta;the GreatRhetra(?)

632Cylonfailsinattemptattyranny inAthens 620LawcodeofDracoin Athens 600Lydiansbeginto mintcoins 600Beginningsof sci enceandphilosophy (thePresocratics) 582573Pythian, Isth mian,Nemean games inaugurated Peisistratusexpands religiousfestivalsat Athens 530Athenianred figure technique

560514Peisistratusand hissonstyrantsofAthens 550Spartadominantin thePeloponnesus 507Cleisthenesinstitutes politicalreformsin Athens

499IonianGreeks rebel fromPersianEmpire

Period

MilitaryEvents

Political/ SocialEvents

Cultural Development continued

xxi Political/ SocialEvents Cultural Development

Period

MilitaryEvents

494DefeatofArgosby PeloponnesianLeague inBattleofSepea 490323 Classical Period

5thcenturyrationalists andscientists;Hippo crates;advancesin medicine;increasein literacy 489TrialofMiltiades 486Decisiontochoose Athenianarchonsby lot 483OstracismofAristides Classicalstyle insculp ture

490Battleof Marathon

480479Battlesof Thermopylae, Artemisium, Salamis, Plataea,Mycale; Xerxesdrivenfrom Greece 477FoundationofDelian League

470456 Constructionof templeofZeus at Olympia

GrowthofdemocracyinAthens; Themistoclesdrivenoutof Athens,fleestoPersia

463Helotrebellion 460sProminenceofCimon inSparta 461ReformsofEphialtesat

Period

MilitaryEvents

Political/ SocialEvents Athens;Periclesrisesto prominence

Cultural Development

460445First PeloponnesianWar xxii Political/ SocialEvents 454Atheniansmovetreasury fromDelostoAthens

458Aeschylus Oresteia continued

Period

MilitaryEvents

Cultural Development

451Pericles carrieslaw FlourishingofGreektrade limiting andmanufacture citizenshipat Athens Herodotusat workon hisHistories 447432 Constructionof Parthenonat Athens Sophistsactivein Athens Thucydides beginshis History 428Sophocles Oedipus Tyrannus 425Aristophanes Acharnians

431404Peloponnesian War

429DeathofPericles

423Thucydidesexiled fromAthens 422DeathsofBrasidas, Cleon

Period

MilitaryEvents

Political/ SocialEvents 421PeaceofNicias

Cultural Development 415Euripides Trojan Women

415413Siciliancampaign

411410Oligarchiccoupin 411Aristophanes Athens;establishmentof Lysis Councilof400;regimeof trata the5000 407AscendanceofDionysus IatSyracuse 404403Regimeofthe ThirtyTyrantsinAthens 399347Dialogues of Plato;foundation ofthe Academy

403377Spartathemost powerfulstateinGreece

399Trialandexecutionof Socrates

xxiii Political/ SocialEvents Fourthcentury:Riseof class ofrhetoresatAthens; eco nomicinequalitiesand social stasisthroughout Greece Cultural Development

Period

MilitaryEvents

395387CorinthianWar

377Establishmentof SecondAthenianNaval Confederacy 377371Athensthemost powerfulstateinGreece 371Thebanvictoryover SpartansatLeuctra

371362Thebesthemostpowerful

Period

MilitaryEvents stateinGreece

Political/ SocialEvents Seriouspopulation decline inSparta; impoverished classofInferiorsat Sparta; increasingamountof property inhandsofSpartan women

Cultural Development

359DefeatofPerdiccasIII

359AccessionofPhilip II 357MarriageofPhilip IIto Olympias 357355SocialWar 356BirthofAlexander 356PhilipIIs the Olympic Great;outbreakof victory ThirdSacredWar 346EndofThird Sacred War;Peaceof Philocrates xxiv Political/ SocialEvents Cultural Development 355Demosthenes first speech 347DeathofPlato 346Isocrates Philippus

357SiegeofAmphipolis

352BattleofCrocusField 348CaptureofOlynthus

Period

MilitaryEvents 340Athensand Macedon

Period

MilitaryEvents atwar

Political/ SocialEvents

Cultural Development

338Battleof Chaeronea

338Assassinationof ArtaxerxesIII; foundation 338Deathof ofCorinthianLeague; Isocrates marriageofPhilipIIand Cleopatra 338325Administration of LycurgusatAthens

336AccessionofDarius 336InvasionofAsia III; by assassinationofPhilipII; PhilipII accessionofAlexander III 335Destructionof Thebes 335Aristotlereturns to Athens;foundingof Lyceum 331VisittoSiwah byAlexander

335RevoltofThebes

334BattleofGranicus 333BattleofIssus 331Battleof Gaugamela 330327Warin Bactria andSogdiana 333Alexanderat Gordium 331Foundationof Alexandria 330Destructionof Persepolis;deathof Philotas 329Assassinationof DariusIII 328MurderofClitus

327Marriageof 327325Alexanders Alexander invasionofIndia andRoxane 326Battleofthe Hydaspes 324ExilesDecress

32330 Hellenistic

323DeathofAlexander III;

Period Period

MilitaryEvents

Political/ SocialEvents accessionofPhilipIII and AlexanderIV xxv Political/ SocialEvents

Cultural Development

Period

MilitaryEvents

Cultural Development 322Deathsof Aristotle andDemosthenes 321292Careerof Menander

322Dissolutionofthe 323322LamianWar CorinthianLeague 321InvasionofEgypt 318316Revolt against Polyperchon 315311Fouryear war againstAntigonus 307Demetrius invadesGreece 321DeathofPerdiccas; Antipaterbecomesregent 317DemetriusofPhaleron becomestyrantofAthens 315FreedomofGreeks proclaimedbyAntigonus theOneEyed 311Peacebetween Antigonusandhisrivals

307283 307EndoftyrannyofDemetriusof Foundationof PhalerumatAthens theMuseum 306Epicurus founds Garden 301Zenofounds Stoa 300246 Construction ofthePharos

306Antigonusand 306BattleofSalamis Demetriusacclaimedkings 305304Siegeof Rhodes 301BattleofIpsus 305Ptolemy,Seleucus, Lysimachus,andCassander declarethemselveskings 301DeathofAntigonus; divisionofhisempire 283DeathofPtolemyI;

Period

MilitaryEvents 281Battleof Corupedium

Political/ SocialEvents accessionofPtolemyII 281DeathsofLysimachus andSeleucus 237222Reignof CleomenesIIIatSparta xxvi Political/ SocialEvents 222ExileofCleomenesIII; endofhisreformsatSparta 196Flamininusproclaims freedomoftheGreeksat Isthmiangames

Cultural Development

279InvasionofGauls

Period

MilitaryEvents

Cultural Development

222BattleofSellasia 200197Second Macedonian War 171168Third Macedonian War

167Polybiuscomes to Rome

167EndoftheMacedonian monarchy

146SackofCorinth 31BattleofActium

146RomeannexesMacedonand Greece 30SuicideofCleopatraVII; RomeannexesEgypt xxvii GreeceandTheAegeanWorld xxviii

1 EARLYGREECEANDTHEBRONZEAGE OneofthegreatestoftheGreekculturalheroeswasOdysseus,amanwhosawthe townsofmanymenandlearnedtheirminds,andsufferedinhisheartmanygriefs uponthesea...(Odyssey1.34).Liketheirlegendaryhero,theGreekswere irresistiblydrawntodistantshores.Fromearlyintheirhistoryandcontinually throughoutantiquitytheyventuredovertheseastoforeignlandsseekingtheir fortunesastraders,colonizers,andmercenarysoldiers.Theirlimitednatural resourcesforcedtheGreekstolookoutward,andtheywerefortunateinbeingwithin easyreachoftheMediterraneanshoresofAsia,Africa,andEurope.Bythefifth centuryBC,theyhadplantedcoloniesfromSpaintothewestcoastofAsiaandfrom northAfricatotheBlackSea.ThephilosopherPlato(c.429347BC)likenedthe hundredsofGreekcitiesandtownsthatringedthecoastsoftheMediterraneanand Blackseastofrogsaroundapond(Phaedo109b).ThosefarflungGreekslefta pricelesslegacyofachievementsinart,literature,politics,philosophy,mathematics, science,andwar.Theirstoryisalongandfascinatingone. THELANDOFGREECE AhistoryoftheGreeks(Hellnes)mustbeginwiththeland,forthenatural environmentofapeoplethelandscape,theclimate,andthenaturalresourcesisa majorfactorindeterminingthewaytheyliveandhowtheydevelopsocially.Greece (Hellas)occupiesthesouthernportionoftheBalkanpeninsula,whichjutsfarintothe easternMediterraneanSea.ItsreachwasfurtherextendedbytheGreekislandstothe westandeastofthemainland,embracingthelargeislandsofCreteandRhodesto thesouth. GreeceisaboutthesizeofEnglandinGreatBritainorthestateofAlabamainthe UnitedStates.Thelandscapeisveryrugged,withmountainscoveringalmost75 percentoftheland.Onlyabout30percentofthelandcanbecultivatedatall, 1 andonlyabout20percentisclassifiedasgoodagriculturalland.Exceptinthe northernmainland,wherethereareextensiveplainlands,themountainsandlower hillscutthelandintomanynarrowcoastalplains,anduplandplainsandvalleys. Themountainranges,whicharenotterriblyhigh(30008000feet)butquitesteepand craggy,madeoverlandtravelverydifficultinantiquity,andsomewhatisolatedthe smallvalleysandtheirpeoplefromoneanother.Byfartheeasiestwaytotravelwas bysea,especiallyintheislandsandthesouthernmainland,wherethecoastisnever morethan40milesaway.ThechainsofislandsintheAegeanSeafacilitatedsea voyages.Itistruethattheruggedcoastlinesofferrelativelyfewgoodharbors,and thosechoicelocationswerecontinuouslyoccupiedfromearliesttimes.Yetsailors

wereseldomfarfromsafelandfalls,wheretheycouldbeachtheirboatsforthenight orfindhavenfromathreateningstorm.Throughoutantiquity,thenarrowAegean tiedtheGreekstotheNearEastandEgypt,commercially,culturally,politically,and militarily.Thecommercialcontactswerevital,for,withtheexceptionofbuilding stoneandclay,Greeceisnotwellendowedwithrawmaterials.Thenecessitytotrade overseasforrawmaterials,especiallyforbronze,destinedtheGreeksveryearlyin theirhistorytotaketotheseaandminglewithpeoplefromtheother,older civilizationstotheeastandsouth. TheMediterraneanclimateissemiarid,withlong,hot,drysummersandshort,cool, moistwinters,whenmostoftherainfalls.Thisgeneralpatternvariesfromregionto regioninGreece.NorthernGreecehasamorecontinentalclimate,withmuchcolder andwetterwintersthanthesouth.MorerainfallsonthewesternsideoftheGreek mainlandthanontheeasternside,whiletheAegeanislandsreceiveevenless.The generallymildweatherpermittedoutdooractivityformostoftheyear.Thesoilin Greecethoughrockyisfairlyrich,themostfertileplowlandbeinginthesmallplains where,overtheages,earthwasheddownfromthehillshasformeddeepdeposits. Thelowerhillsides,whicharerockier,canbecultivatedthroughterracing,which preventsthesoilfromwashingfurtherdowntheslopeandcapturessoilfromabove. Themountains,withtheirjaggedlimestonepeaksandsteepcliffs,supportonlywild vegetation,butsomeenclosemountainvalleyssuitableforfarmingandforgrazing animals.Wood,essentialforfuelandconstruction,especiallyshipbuilding,was originallyabundantinthehighlandareas.Astimewenton,however,forestsbecame depletedandbythefifthcenturyBCthemorepopulousregionswereforcedto importtimber.Water,themostpreciousnaturalresource,isscarceinGreece,because thereareveryfewriversthatflowyearroundandfewlakes,ponds,andsprings. UnlikeinthehugerivervalleysofEgyptandMesopotamia,irrigationonalarge scalewasnotpossible;farmingdependedonthelimitedannualrainfall. ItshouldbeemphasizedthatthisdescriptionofthelandandresourcesofGreeceisa generalizedone.Thoughsmallinarea,Greecehasavarietyoflocallandscapesand microclimatesinwhichtherainfall,thequantityandqualityoffarmland,thepasture land,andrawmaterialsaredecidedlydifferent.Onthewhole,however,theland, whichtheGreekscalledGaia(MotherEarth),allowedthemajorityofthefarmersa decentthoughmodestliving.Butsheoffered 2 noguarantees.Drought,especiallyinthemoreandregions,wasaconstantand dreadedthreat.Adrywintermeantaleanyear,andaprolongeddroughtmeant hungerandpovertyforentirevillagesanddistricts.Torrentialrainstorms,onthe otherhand,couldsendwaterrushingdownthehillsidesandthroughthedrygullies, suddenlywipingouttheterraces,floodingthefields,anddestroyingthecrops.Life

ontheseawasequallyunpredictable.TheAegean,thoughoftencalmwithfavoring winds,couldjustassuddenlyboilupintoferociousstormssendingships,cargo,and sailorstothebottom.(Drowningatsea,unburied,wasahatefuldeathforthe Greeks.)Itisnowonder,consideringtheextenttowhichtheGreekswereatthe mercyoftheland,sky,andsea,thatthegodstheyworshippedwerepersonifications oftheelementsandforcesofnature. FoodandLivestock Ingeneral,thesoilandclimateamplysupportedtheMediterraneantriadofgrain, grapes,andolives.Bread,wine,andoliveoilwerethestaplesoftheGreekdiet throughoutantiquityandforlongafterward.Grainswheat,barley,andoatsgrow wellinGreeksoil,havingbeencultivatedfromnativewildgrasses.Olivetreesand grapevines,alsoindigenoustoGreece,flourishedintheircultivatedstate.Legumes (peasandbeans)andseveralkindsofvegetables,fruits(especiallyfigs),andnuts, roundedoutandvariedthebasiccomponentsofbread,porridges,andoliveoil. Cheese,meat,andfish,whicharerichinproteinsandfat,supplementedthediet; however,meatprovidedaverysmallpartoftheaveragefamilysdailyfoodintake, andbecausefisharenotabundantintheMediterranean,theywereusuallyeatenasa smallrelishwiththemeal.TheGreeksdidnotlikebutteranddranklittlemilk. Theirbeverageswerewaterorwine(usuallydilutedwithwater).Honeywasused forsweetening,andvariousspicesenhancedtheflavoroffood.Thoughitmight appearmonotonoustomoderntastes,theGreekdietwashealthfulandnourishing. Thepasturingofsmallanimalsdidnotinterferewithagriculture.Flocksofsheepand goatsgrazedonhillylandthatcouldnotbefarmedandonthefallowfields, providingmanureinreturn.Assuppliersofwool,cheese,meat,andskins,theyhad greateconomicimportance.TheGreeksalsokeptpigs,relishedfortheirmeat,and fowl.Thetwolargestdomesticatedanimals,horsesandcattle,occupiedaspecial nicheintheeconomyandthesociety.Oxen(castratedbulls)ormules(hybridsofthe horseanddonkey)werenecessaryforplowingandfordrawingheavyloads.A farmerwithoutreadyaccesstoayokeofoxenorapairofmuleswouldbeclassified aspoor.Herdsofcattleandhorsesdidcompetewithagriculture,sincethestretches ofgoodgrazinglandtheyrequiredwerealsoprimefarmland.Practicallyspeaking, therecouldbelargescaleranchingofcattleandhorses(exceptinthenorthernplains) onlyintimesoflowpopulationdensity.Becausetheyweresuchcostlyluxuries, cattleandhorseswereastatussymbolfortherich.Cattlewereraisedmainlyfortheir meatandhides.Horsesweretheprimarymarkersofhighsocialstatus:beautiful creatures,veryexpensivetomaintain,andusefulonlyforridingandforpullinglight chariots. 3

Thisagriculturalandpastoralwayofliferemainedessentiallyunchanged throughoutGreekhistory.ThefundamentaleconomicfactthatancientGreecewas essentiallyalandofsmallscalefarmers(mostofwhomlivedinfarmingvillagesand smalltowns)governedeveryaspectofGreeksociety,frompoliticstowartoreligion. IthasbeenestimatedthateveninthefifthtothirdcenturiesBC,thepeakpopulation period,upto90percentofthecitizensofacitystatewereengagedinagriculture. OneofthemajorunifyingforceswithintheGreekcitystateswasthecitizenfarmers devotiontotheirsmallagriculturalplainanditssurroundinghillsides,andtheir willingnesstodiedefendingtheirancestralearth,asthepoetHomercalledit.And theprimarydisunifyingforcethroughoutGreekhistorywastheperpetualtension betweenthosecitizenswhohadmuchlandandthosewhohadlittleornone. SOURCESFOREARLYGREEKHISTORY Truehistoryinthesenseofspecificeventsinvolvingspecificpersonswouldnot beginuntiltheseventhcenturyBC,whenwritingmadeitpossibletorecordwhat washappeningintheGreekworld.Knowledgeofwhathadhappenedearliercame intheformofancientmythoi(stories),whichweretransmittedorallyfrom generationtogenerationforhundredsofyears.TheancientGreekhistorians acceptedthesemyths,manyofwhichhadbeencommittedtowriting,ashistorical factandusedthemtoreconstructtheearlyhistoryoftheGreeks.Modernhistorians, however,realizinghowmucholdstoriescanchangeintheircountlessretellings,are generallyskepticaloftheirhistoricalvalue,althoughitispossiblethatsomeofthem containelementsoftruth. TheprimarylegendoftheGreekpastwasthestoryoftheTrojanWar,atenyear assaultagainstthelargefortifiedcityofTroyinnorthwestAnatolia(modernTurkey) byahugearmadaofGreeksledbyAgamemnon,kingofMycenae,alargecityinthe Peloponnesus.Ifsuchawarhadactuallyoccurred(modernhistoriansaredividedon thequestion),itwouldhavetakenplaceduringthethirteenthcenturyBC,atthe heightofBronzeAgeprosperityandmilitarymight.ForlaterGreeks,thechief repositoriesofknowledgeconcerningtheworldoftheTrojanWarweretheIliadand theOdyssey,twolongnarrativepoemsattributedtoHomer,thepoetwhomthey regardedasthegreatestofall.Thepoems,however,werecomposedfivecenturies afterthetimeoftheTrojanWar,around750to700BC.Theycorrectlyportrayedthe eraoftheTrojanWarasoneofgreatwealthandarchitecturalsplendor,butinthe longprocessoforaltransmissiontheactualsocietyoftheLateBronzeAgewas completelyforgotten.Thetypeofsocietyreflectedinthepoemsisinfactmuchcloser intimetothatofthepoet. ThediscrepancybetweenthewaytheeighthcenturyGreeksimaginedtheworldof theBronzeAgeandwhatthatworldwasreallylikehasbeenrevealedby archaeologicaldiscoveries.AlmosteverythingweknowofearlyGreecehascome

fromthestudyoftheexcavatedremains.Scientificorsystematicarchaeology(the studyofarchaia,ancientthings)goesbackalittlemorethanacentury. 4 Beforethelatenineteenthcenturyantiquarianshadtunneledandduginancient gravesandsettlements,buttheywereprimarilyinterestedinuncoveringpreciousart objects,notinusingtheartifactsandotherfindstoreconstructthenatureandhistory oftheexcavatedsite.Today,archaeologyisascience,whichemployshighly sophisticatedmethodsandequipmenttowringeverybitofinformationfromthe materialremains.Ithascomealongwayfromtheearlyorganizedexpeditions, whosetechniquesappearcrudebytodaysstandards.Yet,wemustadmirethe achievementsofthosepioneerarchaeologistswho,inventingthedisciplineasthey wentalong,werethefirsttouncoveranddescribetheancientcivilizationsofthe NearEast,Egypt,andGreece. Thankstothescienceofarchaeology,scholarstodayknowinfinitelymoreaboutthe societyandcultureofearlyGreecethandidtheancientGreeksthemselves,who knewitonlythroughthemythsandlegends.Evenso,manyquestionsremain unansweredoronlypartiallyanswered.Prehistoricarchaeologyhasonlythesilent fragmentsofancientcivilizations.Thesitesareburieddeepunderthesurface,each levelofhabitationcrushedundertheenormouspressureofthesucceedinglayers anderodedbytimeandtheforcesofnature.Bypiecingtogethertheevidence(in manycasesliterally),archaeologistscanreconstructwithfairaccuracythematerial aspectsoflifeandsociety.Itismuchmoredifficult,however,tomakeinferences aboutsocialbehaviorandbeliefsfromthearchaeologicalremains.Inthisrespect, Aegeanarchaeologistsarefortunate,fortheyhavenotonlyalargeamountbutalsoa widevarietyofmaterialfromwhichtoreconstructthesociety,includingpainted pottery,murals,engravings,sculptures,and,mostimportant,writtenrecords, preservedonclaytablets.Thosekindsofevidencehaveaddedimmeasurablytoour understandingoftheearlyGreekculture. GREECEINTHESTONEAGES ThearchaeologyofprimitiveGreecehasmadegreatstridesinthiscentury; nevertheless,thesparselypopulatedStoneAgesremainveryobscure.Humanshave livedinGreecesinceatleasttheMiddlePaleolithic(OldStone)Age(c.55,00030,000 BC).Theseearliestinhabitantslivedmainlybyhuntingandsomegatheringofwild plants,usingfinelycraftedtoolsandweaponsofstone,wood,andbone.Attheend oftheIceAge,whentheglaciersthathadcoveredmuchofEuropewerereceding (c.12,000BC),theclimateofGreecewarmedconsiderably;intheprocessthe landscapeanditsplantsandanimalswerealteredintotheirpresentforms.Evidence fromacaveinsouthernGreece,ataplacecalledFranchthi,showsthatthe

inhabitantsattheendoftheIceAgehunteddeerandsmallergame,caughtfishin thecoastalwaters,andgatheredwildcereals,wildpeasandbeans,andnuts.They probablyalsohadsomeexperiencewithgoingtoseainsmallboatsmadeofreeds andskins. EarlyintheNeolithic(NewStone)Age(c.65003000BC)thepeoplelearnedto cultivatethewildcerealsandotherplantsandtodomesticateanimals,beginning 5 thefarmingandherdingeconomythatwastobethemainstayofGreeklifeuntilthe modernera.Thisnewwayoflife,whichrepeatedaprocessthathadbeguninthe NearEastnearlytwothousandyearsearlier,mayhavebeenintroducedby newcomersfromwesternAnatolia.Thecultivationofplantsisawatershedeventin thelivesofapeople.Itallowspopulationtoincreaseandforcesthemtosettledown permanently.TheNeolithicAgesawthefirstappearanceofsmall,permanent farmingvillages,madeupofoneroomhousessimilarinconstructiontothoseofthe NearEast.Houseswerebuiltofsundriedmudbrickslaidoverlowstone foundations,withfloorsofstampedearthandflatorpitchedroofsmadeofthatchor brush.TheNeolithichousestyleandthecustomofclusteringhousestogetherin smallcommunitieswouldpersistwithlittlechangeformillenniainGreeceandthe NearEast.InthefavorableconditionsofthewarmNewStoneAge,villagesgrew largerandnewvillagecommunitieswereformed. ThesocialorganizationofthesmallStoneAgevillageswasprobablyverysimple. Familiescooperatedandsharedwiththeirneighbors,mostofwhomwerealsotheir kinfolk.Wemayassumethatbythistimedivisionoflaborbygenderandageand thedominanceofmalesoverfemaleshadbecomeestablished,andalthoughnoone individualorfamilyheldadominantposition,temporaryleadershipwasprobably assumednowbythisman,nowbyanother,astheneedarose.Atacertainpointin thegrowthofpopulation,however,leadershiprolesemergedthatweremoreformal andmorelasting.Thissemipermanentpositionofleadershipwasheldbyatypeof personanthropologistscallthebigmanortheheadman,onewhoisbetterat gettingthingsdone.Hisforceofcharacter,senseofresponsibility,wisdomin solvingdisputes,courageinthefaceofdanger,andlikequalitiespropelhimtothe frontandkeephimthere.Intimethispositionbecomesasortofoffice,intowhicha newman,havingdemonstratedthatheisbettersuitedthantheotherwouldbe leaders,stepswhentheoldheadmanretiresordies(orispushedout).Thatthiskind ofpoliticalandsocialrankingoccurredintheNeolithicperiodisalmostcertain. Thereafter,thedivisionintotwogroups,theverysmallgroupofthosewholedand thelargegroupofthosewhowereled,wouldbeapermanentfeatureofGreek politicallife.

THEANCIENTCIVILIZATIONSOFTHENEAREAST WhileranksocietieswereevolvinginGreeceandelsewhereontheEuropean continent,anewkindofsocietywasforminginwesternAsiaandnorthernAfrica: thestateandcivilization.WhentheGreeksattainedahighcivilization(around 1600BC),thecivilizedculturesoftheNearEastandEgyptwerealready1500years old.ThedirectteachersoftheGreekswouldbetheCretans,whohadattainedthis levelbyabout2000BC,butthegrowthofcivilizationonCretewasitselfaproductof contactwiththeoldercivilizations.ThehistoryofancientGreekcivilizationis entwinedwiththecivilizationsoftheEast. 6 TheregionwheretheearliestcivilizationemergedwascalledbylaterGreeks Mesopotamia,thelandbetweentheriversTigrisandEuphrates.Inthatwide, fertileriverplaintheabilitytoorganizeandcontrolthenaturalandsocial environmentswasadvancingtoahigherlevelaround3500BC.Thereappeared,for thefirsttimeinthehistoryoftheworld,largescaleirrigation,metaltechnology, largecities,bureaucraticadministration,complextradenetworks,andwriting. MostofthesenewfeatureshadtheirrootsinearlierMesopotamianculture.The progressiontocivilizationwastheresultoftheconcurrentadvancementand interactionofcertainfeatures,whichcreatedaspiralingeffect.Advancementsinthe technologyofirrigationincreasedfoodproduction,whichenabledpopulationto increasefurther.Theresponsibilityoftheleaderstomobilizelaborandresourcesfor increasinglyambitiousirrigationprojectsgavethemmorepowerandturnedthem intoaprivilegedrulingclass,sharplydifferentiatedfromthemassofthepeople.The growingappetiteofthegoverningelitesforluxurygoodsbefittingtheirhighstatus increasedthequantityandqualityofmanufactureathomeandledtotherapid expansionoflongdistancetradeforrawmaterialsandexoticitems.Thesegoods werepaidforwitheverincreasingsurplusesfromtheland,moreandmoreofwhich cameunderthecontroloftherulers. TheEgyptiancivilization,whichemergedaround3200BCalongthelong,narrow valleyoftheNile,followedthesametrajectoryascivilizationsoftheNearEast, exceptthatveryearlyonEgyptbecameaunitedkingdomunderasinglepharaoh (king).TheAegeancivilizationsofCreteandGreecewouldpatternthemselveson theNearEasternmodelofseparatecitystatesandkingdoms. CityStatesandKingdoms InMesopotamia,asadvancesweremadeinagriculturalproduction,townswith hundredsofpeoplegrewintocitieswiththousands,andeventensofthousands,of inhabitants.Inthefertileirrigatedareas,thelargestandmostpowerfulcity

dominatedthetownsandvillagesanddrewthemintoasinglepoliticalunit, administeredfromthecapital.Theterritoriesofthoseearliestcitystates,astheyare called,werefairlysmall,usuallynomorethanafewhundredsquaremiles;yetthe stepfromaloosecommunityoftownsandvillagesintoacentralizedstatechanged thecourseofhumanhistory. Withcivilization,societybecamehighlystratified.Theleaderandhisimmediate subordinatesmadeallthedecisions,whichwerecarriedoutbylowerstatusofficials andtheirassistants.Thewidebaseofthesocialpyramidwasmadeupoftheprimary producers,freefarmersandherdsmen,whowererequiredtogivetothestate(i.e., thepalace)aportionoftheirannualproduction,contributetheirlabortoirrigation andconstructionprojects,andserveinthearmy.Manyofthemweredependentsof therulingclass,workingastenantsonlandthatbelongedtothepalaceandtothe templesofthegods.Somecraftsmenalsoworkeddirectlyforthestate.Atthevery bottom,belowthefreebutdependentpopulation,wereslaves.Althoughslavery predatedtheadventofciviliza 7 tion,itwasonlyaftertheformationofthestatethatitbecameeconomically importantandpracticedonalargescale. TheformationofstatestransformedMesopotamiansocietyinallsortsofways. Artistryandcraftsmanshipmadegiganticstrides,writingwasinvented,architecture tookonamonumentalcharacter.Alloftheseculturalrefinementsservedtheelitesas toolsofsocialcontrol.Thekingsandthehighnobles,usingahugeportionofthe surpluswealthfromagriculture,manufacture,andtrade,aswellasmillionsofhours ofhumanlabor,builtmassivedefensivewallsandtemples,andluxuriouspalaces andelaboratetombsforthemselvesandtheirfamilies.Architectureespeciallyserved religion,whichbecamethemostimportantmeansofcontrol,foritidentifiedthewill oftherulerwiththewillofthegods.Vastwealthandincreasedpopulationallowed battlestobefoughtonalargescalebywellorganizedarmies;andwarprogressed fromspontaneousactionsinspiredbyrevengeorgreedforbootyintodeliberate campaignsofpunishmentorconquestbyoneruleragainstanother. Thenaturalreflexofstatesthatborderononeanotheristotrytogaindominion.In earlyMesopotamia,apowerfulcitystatewouldintimidateandconqueritsweaker neighbors,becomingthecapitalcity.Itsrulerwouldthenbecomethegreatkingover anumberofvassalstates.Thesekingdomswereinherentlyunstable,bothbecause thecorecitystateitselfwascontinuallybesetbyinternalstrugglesforpower,and becausethesubjectcitieswereconstantlyassertingtheirindependence.Moreover, therewasanongoingthreatofraidsfrompeopleonthefringesofcivilization.Large groupsofwarriorswouldsometimesmoveenmasseoutofthemountainsordeserts

totakeovercitiesandkingdoms.Suchwasthegeopoliticalworldinwhichthe civilizationsofCreteandthenofGreeceemergedinthesecondmillenniumBC. GREECEINTHEEARLYBRONZEAGE(c.30002100BC) Thetechnologyofsmeltingandcastingcopperappearstohaveoriginated independentlyinbothwesternAsiaandsoutheasternEuropebefore6000BC.The crucialnextstep,ofadding10percentoftintothecoppertoproducebronze,amuch hardermetal,wastakenintheNearEastduringthefourthmillennium.The techniquecametoGreecearound3000BC;byabout2500,theuseofbronzeaswell asothermetalssuchaslead,silver,andgoldbecamewidespreadthroughoutGreece andtheAegean. Theintroductionofmetallurgywasamajortechnologicaladvance,fortoolsand weaponsofbronzewereconsiderablymoreefficientthanthosemadeofstone,bone, orcopper.Theimpactwasnotjustutilitarian,however;themovementintothe BronzeAgemarkedaturningpointinGreeksocialandeconomicrelations,justasit hadintheEast.Itwasthehighrankedindividualsandfamilies,thosewithgreater surplusesofwealth,whohadthemostaccesstobronzeandscarcemetalproducts. Possessionoftheseandotherprestigeitemssetthemfurtherapartfromthemassof thepopulation.Theirincreasingdemandformetal 8 goodsgaverisetolocalspecialistsandworkshopsandacceleratedtradeforcopper andtinandothermetals,notonlywiththeEast,butalsowiththepeoplesofcentral andwesternEurope.EarlyBronzeAgeGreecewasedgingitswayintothewider economyandcultureoftheMediterraneanworld.Andastheeconomyexpanded andthesettlementsgrewlarger,sodidthewealth,power,andauthorityoftheir leaders,nowestablishedashereditarychiefswhoruledforlifeandwereaccorded exceptionalhonorsandprivileges. AmajorEarlyBronzeAgesettlementwasthetownofLernainArgolis,wherethe remainsofstrongstonefortificationsandsomemonumentalbuildingshavebeen found,thelargestofwhichmayhavebeenthehouseoftherulingchief.The sophisticationofthearchitectureandthequalityoftheartifactsbetokenafairly complexpoliticalandeconomicsystem,thoughfarlessadvancedthanthoseofthe NearEastandEgypt.Lernaflourishedfromabout3000toabout2100,whenitwas destroyedalongwithanumberofothertownsandvillagesinArgolis,Attica,and Laconia.SimilardevastationofsettlementsoccurredthroughoutmuchofEuropeat thistime. GREECEINTHEMIDDLEBRONZEAGE(c.21001600BC)

Afterthedestructions,Greeceenteredwhatappearstohavebeenaperiodofcultural stagnation.Duringthenextfivehundredyearsthearchaeologicalrecordisboth sparseandgenerallyunimpressive.Mosthistoriansconnectboththedestructionsof thesitesandtheensuingculturallagtotheincursionofanewpeopleintothecentral andsouthernmainlandofGreece.Thearrivalofthesenewcomers,whospokeavery earlyformofGreek,markedadecisiveturningpointinthehistoryandcultureof GreeceandtheAegean. Asisusualwitheventsthatoccurredsoearlyinprehistory,thereisuncertainty aboutwhenthespeakersofprotoGreekenteredGreece.Itmayhavebeenasearlyas 2100BC,ortwocenturieslater,whenthereisevidenceofanewtypeofpotteryand otherpossiblynewculturalfeatures.Onthebasisofsuchmaterial,archaeologists havelabeledthisintermediateculturalstagetheMiddleHelladicperiod(c.1900 1580).Thepictureisconfusedbyathirdtheory,whichplacesthearrivalofthe GreekspeakersattheendoftheMiddleHelladicperiod,around1600BC.Despite theongoingcontroversyaboutwhentheyentered,however,itisunanimously agreedthatthenewcomerswerepartofahugewaveofmigratinggroupsfromthe northandeastknowncollectivelyastheIndoEuropeans.Thisknowledgewasthe resultofmodernlinguisticdiscoveries. TheIndoEuropeans IntheeighteenthcenturyAD,scholarsbegantorecognizethatancientGreekbore manysimilaritiestootherdeadlanguages,suchasLatin,OldPersian,andSanskrit (thelanguageofancientIndia),aswellastoentirefamiliesof 9 spokenlanguages,suchastheGermanicandSlavic.Theyobserved,forexample,a strikingsimilarityinwordssuchasmother:Sanskritmtar,Greekmtr,Latin mater,AngloSaxonmdor,OldIrishmathir,Lithuanianmote,Russianmat.Theclose likenessesinvocabularyandgrammaticalstructureamongancientlanguagesand theirdescendantssoonledtotheinsightthattheyhadallsprungfromacommon linguisticancestor,whichwastermedProtoIndoEuropean.Itwasreasonedthat therehadoncebeenasingleIndoEuropeanhomeland,locatedperhapsinthevast steppesnorthoftheBlackandCaspianseas(oneofseveralsuggestedhomelands), andthattheseparatelanguagesdevelopedinthecourseofemigrationsfromthe homelandintodistantplaces.ThespeakersofprotoGreekwerethusapartofagreat andlengthyancientexodusofpeoples,whichgraduallyoverthecenturiesspread theIndoEuropeanlanguagesacrossEuropeandAsia,fromIrelandtoChinese Turkestan. TheFirstGreekSpeakers

Eventually,thelanguageoftheGreekspeakingnewcomersreplacedthenonIndo EuropeanAegeanlanguages,whichsurvivedinGreekprimarilyinplacenames (e.g.,Korinthos)andinnamesforindigenousanimalsandplants,suchashyakinthos, (hyacinth).ThiswouldseemtoindicatethattheGreekspeakerswerethedominant groupwithinthesociety,butonelanguagemaydisplaceanotherforreasonsother thanconquestanddominance.Atanyrate,theprocessofdisplacementwasprobably alongone,withbothGreekandindigenouslanguagesexistingsidebysidefor centuries. Duringthenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies,therewasconsiderable conjectureaboutthenatureofthesocialorganizationandcultureoftheseearliest Greekspeakers.ItwasassumedthattheIndoEuropeanswereasuperiorraceof northernhorseridingAryanwarriors,whosweptdownintosouthernEuropeand violentlyimposedtheirlanguagesandcustomsontheweaker,unwarlike,agrarian natives.SuchsuppositionsweretheproductsofaraciallybiasedEurocentrism.No scholartodayacceptsanypartofthisAryanmyth,whichwasthepretextforso manycrimesagainsthumanityinthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies, culminatinginthehorrorsperpetratedbytheNazisandFascistsinthe1930sand 40s. ThemostwecansafelysayabouttheseincomingIndoEuropeanGreekspeakersis thatforsubsistencetheypracticedherdingandagriculture,andtheyknew metallurgyandothercrafts,suchaspotteryandclothmaking.Oftheirsociety,we cansurmiseonlythattheywereorganizedinfamiliesandlargergroups(clansand tribes)thatwerepatriarchal(thefatherwasthesupremeauthorityfigure)and patrilineal(descentwasreckonedinthemaleline).TheirprimarydivinitywasZeus, apowerfulmalegod;andtheywereawarlikepeoplewithahierarchicalleadership system.TheoncecommonnotionthatthepreIndoEuropeansocietiesofGreece around2000BCwerepolaroppositespeaceful,nonhierarchical,andmatriarchal (wheredescent, 10 inheritance,andauthoritycamedownthroughthemother)isnowdiscredited.In mostrespects,exceptforlanguage,religion,andsomerelativelyminorfeatures(such asarchitectureandpottery),thetwopeopleswereprobablyverysimilar. ThedropintheculturallevelduringthearchaeologicalMiddleHelladicperiod(c. 19001580BC)isbestexplainedasalongstageofadjustment,duringwhichthe nativepeopleandthenewcomersgraduallymergedintoasinglepeoplethrough generationsofintermarriage,andtheirtwoculturesfusedintoasingleGreek speakingculturethatcontainedelementsofboth.NorinfactwastheMiddleBronze (MiddleHelladic)periodtotallystatic.Populationincreased,newsettlementsgrew

up,therewereadvancesinmetallurgy,andcontactswiththecivilizationsofCrete andtheNearEastbegan.Thesewouldlead,towardtheendoftheperiod,toa suddenculturalquickeningthatusheredinthehighcivilizationoftheLateBronze (LateHelladic)period. THEDISCOVERYOFAEGEANCIVILIZATION:TROY,MYCENAE,KNOSSOS ThatadvancedcivilizationshadexistedintheAegeanduringtheBronzeAgewas notknownuntiltheunearthinginthelatenineteenthcenturyofthreefamouscities fromthemythicalAgeofHeroes.First,in1870,HeinrichSchliemann,awealthy Germanbusinessmanturnedarchaeologist,discoveredthecityofTroy.In Schliemannsday,mosthistoriansdismissedtheMycenaeanswaragainstTroy(the centraleventoftheGreeksancientpast)asjustanothermythicaltale.Schliemann, however,wasconvincedthattheTrojanWarhadhappenedexactlyasitwastoldin theearlyepicpoems,theIliadandtheOdyssey.UsinghisbelovedHomerasaguide, hedugataplacecalledHissarlikonthenortheastcoastofAnatoliaandrevealedthe massiveruinsofaBronzeAgecity,whichheidentifiedasthefabledTroy.Thenews electrifiedthescholarlyworldandcapturedthepublicsimagination.Therereally hadbeenaTroy,foundwhereHomersaiditwaslocated! Fouryearslater,SchliemannbeganhisexcavationsofBronzeAgeMycenaeitself. Thoughasmall,ratherinsignificanttownthroughoutrecordedGreekhistory, prehistoricMycenaeturnedouttobemorethanworthyofthelegendaryhero Agamemnon,itskingandtheleaderoftheGreekinvasionofTroy.Although Schliemannsdiscoveriesarenotconclusiveevidenceofalargescalewarbetween TroyandMycenae,theimpressiveruinsunearthedatbothsites,withtheirimmense wealthingoldandothercostlythings,doprovecorrecttheGreeksremembranceof theirHeroicAge(i.e.,theLateBronzeAge)asatimeoffabulouswealthand splendor.BecauseMycenaewastherichest(aswellasthefirst)siteexploredin mainlandGreece,archaeologistsrefertotheentirecultureofGreeceintheLate Bronze(LateHelladic)period(c.15801150BC)astheMycenaeanAge. 11 MINOANSOCIETYANDCULTURE(c.17001500BC) Nolessspectacularwasthediscoveryin1899ofthethirdfabledsite,thepalace complexofKnossosonCrete,bytheEnglisharchaeologistArthurEvans.Evans calledthecivilizationonCreteMinoan,afterthemythicalkingMinosofKnossos, wholived,accordingtoHomer,threegenerationsbeforetheTrojanWar.IntheIliad andtheOdysseyKnossosisthedominantcityofarichandpopulousland.Odysseus, theherooftheOdyssey,describesitasfollows:

ThereisalandcalledCrete,inthemiddleofthewinedarksea, beautifulandfertile,surroundedbywater;andinit therearemanypeople,countless,andninetycities.... andamongthemisKnossos,thegreatcity,whereMinos wasking...andconversedwithgreatZeus. (Odyssey19.172179) Verylittleisknownabouttheearlyhistoryofthislarge,mountainousisland(3400 squaremiles).Around7000BC,theearliestinhabitants,peopleofunknownlanguage andorigin,settledinthecentralandeasternparts,wheretherewerefairlylarge fertileplains,andpracticedfarmingandstockraising.Duringthefourthmillennium, newsettlementssprangupandsomeofthesmallfarmingvillagesgrewinto substantialtowns.Withpopulationgrowthandincreasingproduction,thechiefs gainedconsiderablygreaterpowersintheirtownsandvillages.Andjustasinthe NearEast,thechiefsofthemajorsettlementsemergedasthesinglerulersoverthe otherchiefsandpeopleinthevariousdistricts.ThusCretebecamealandofsmall citykingdoms. ThefirstroyalpalaceinCretewasbuiltabout2000BcatKnossos,whichbythenwas alargetownwithseveralthousandinhabitants.Othermajorpalaces,thoughnotas bigorasmagnificentasKnossos,followedatPhaistos,Mallia,Zakro,andelsewhere, eachcentercontrollinganareaofafewhundredsquaremiles.Thepoliticaland culturalfloweringinCrete(andonotherAegeanislandsaswell)probablycanbe attributedtotheirinclusionintheinternationaltrade,whichwasamajorcomponent ofthestateeconomiesoftheEast.CretancontactwithEgyptandwesternAsiawas bothheavyanddirect,becausetheislandslocationandnaturalharborsmadeitan importantcrossroadinthetraderoutesacrosstheMediterraneanSea.Thepalace centeredeconomiesthatemergedinCrete,accordingly,werereplicas,onamuch smallerscale,ofthestateeconomiesoftheNearEast. WhetherthesmallMinoankingdomswereconsolidatedintolargerpoliticalunits,as happenedintheNearEast,remainsanopenquestion.Oneopinionisthatbythe sixteenthcenturyBCtheisland,ormostofit,wasaunifiedkingdom,ruledbythe kingofKnossos.OtherssuggestthatKnossoswasthedominantcenterofalooser federationofselfrulingstates,whichseemsmorelikely. 12 TheMinoanPalaceEconomy ThepalacecomplexthatweseetodayatKnossoswasbegunaround1700BC,after thefirstpalacewasdestroyedbyanearthquake.Duringitsexistenceitunderwent numerousrestorationsandadditionsuntilitsfinaldestructionaround1375.Knossos

andtheothersmallerCretanpalacesconsistedofamazeofroomsresidential quarters,workshops,andstoreroomsclusteredaroundalargecentralcourtyard.As intheEast,thepalacewasthecentralplaceoftheentiresociety.Theimpressive residenceoftherulerandhishighrankingsubordinatesappearstohavebeenthe politicalandadministrativecenterandthefocalpointofeconomicactivity,state ceremony,andreligiousritualfortheentirekingdom. ThetypeofeconomythatdevelopedaroundKnossosandtheotherCretancentersis calledaredistributiveeconomy.Thecenterthekingandthepalaceprobablyhad considerablecontrolovertheallocationanduseofthesurroundingland,muchof whichbelongeddirectlytothepalace.Producefromthepalaceslandsalongwith producefromprivatefarmsandherds,paidastaxes,wasfunneledintothepalace, whereitwasstored.Thekingcoulddistributetheseashewilled.Theinfluxoffood andrawmaterialsprovidedhisfamilyandhisentouragewithaluxuriouslifestyle andalsosuppliedtheneedsofthelowstatusworkersinthepalacecomplex.In addition,thegreatquantitiesofgrainandoliveoilstoredinthepalaceformeda reservefordistributiontothepopulaceintimesoffamineorothercalamity. Thekingsmainuseofhissurplus,however,wasfortrade.Thelargeareasofthe palacedevotedtostorageandworkshopsindicatethatasignificantportionofwhat wasproducedwasmeanttobesentoutinexchangeforotherthings.Thepalaces workshopswerekeptbusyturningrawmaterialsfromthecountryside,suchas wool,flax,andhides,aswellasbronze,gold,ivory,andamberfromabroad,into materialgoods.Nodoubtsomeoftheseweretradedinternally,amongthecity kingdoms.Throughouttheisland,traceshavebeenfoundofnetworksofgoodroads, alongwhichfood,animals,andgoodswouldhavepassedbetweenthecentersand intothesmallertownsandvillages.Itwastheexchangeofmaterialsandgoodson theMediterraneanwidemarket,however,thatmadeKnossosandtheotherCretan centerssorich. TheincreasingdiversityandcomplexityoftheCretanpalaceeconomiesisshownby theiradoptionofwritingforthepurposeofmanagement.About1900BCtheCretans developedpictographicwriting,perhapsinspiredbyEgyptianhieroglyphics,in whichapicturesymbolizesanobjectoridea(asinI[heartsymbol]NewYork).This evolvedaround1800BCintoamorestylizedlinearscriptmadeupofspecificsigns thatstoodforsyllablesandwerejoinedtogethertoformthesoundofthewords themselves.Althoughthisscript(calledLinearAbyarchaeologists),preservedon smallclaytablets,remainslargelyundeciphered,itisclearthatitwasusedfor keepingtheeconomicrecordsinthepalaces. 13 TheSocialClassesofCrete

Evidenceofaclasssocietyshowsuparchaeologicallyasahugedifferenceinthe livingstandards,lifestyles,andsocialstatusoftheprivilegedfewandtherestofthe people.ThearchitectureandthefindsatKnossosandothercentersgiveusagood ideaoftheenormousluxuryenjoyedbytheroyalfamilyandthenobility. Archaeologistshavealsofoundintownsoutsidethepalacescomfortabletwoand threestoryhouses,whichindicatetheexistenceofalowertierofelitefamilies.This groupofwellofftownspeopleprobablyformedaverysmallsegmentofthefree population,andwaspossiblypartoftheadministrativeandcommercialsectors.On theotherhand,thethousandsofordinaryfarmersandcraftsworkershaveleft almostnotraceinthearchaeologicalrecord.Whatlittleevidencethereisindicates thattheylivedinsmall,sparselyfurnishedhousesinsmallvillagesandwereburied withmeagerfunerarygiftsinsimplegraves.Inotherwords,theylivedmuchastheir ancestorshad.Itwasonlythehighrankedfamiliesthatenjoyedvastlyincreased wealthandmoreluxuriouslifestyles,benefitsderivedfromthetaxesandlabor extractedfromthepeople. Inallprobability,ordinaryCretanpeople,likethecommonpeopleinEgyptandin theNearEast,acceptedtheirrolesasexploitedsubjectswillingly,inthebeliefthat therigidlyhierarchicalarrangementwasquiteproper.Itistruethatpeoplereceived benefitintheformofprotectionfromfamineandfromoutsideaggressors.Still,their willingacceptanceoftheheavyinterferenceintheirlivesbythecenterindicates somethingmoretheirpositiveidentificationwiththecenter,thatis,theking.In Crete,asinallancientkingdoms,thekingwasasymbolaswellastheactualruler. Hewastheembodimentofthestate:supremewarleader,lawgiverandjudge,and, mostimportant,therepresentativeofthelandandpeopletothegods. Thisenlargementoftherulerspriestlyfunction,culturalhistoriansbelieve,wasone ofthekeyfactorsintheriseofmonarchicalpower.Certainlythekingsofancient EgyptandtheNearEastderivedmuchoftheirlegitimacyfromtheofficialequation ofroyalpowerwiththewillofthegods.TheEgyptiansexpandedthisprincipleby identifyingeachnewpharaohasthehumanincarnationofthegodHorus.Some MediterraneanscholarsbelievethattheMinoankingsruledaspriestkingslikethe Mesopotamiankings.Amajordifference,though,isthatBronzeAgeCretelackedthe hugetemplecomplexesoftheNearEast;ratherthepalacesthemselvesappearto havebeenthereligiouscentersofthesociety. Slavery Occupyinganeconomicandsociallevelbelowthefreefarmersandpalace dependentsweretheslaves.Whatdifferentiatestrueslavesfromotherswhoworkby compulsionisnotsomuchhowtheyaretreatedasthefactthattheyarepossessions, notpersons.Thoughtheyliveinacommunity,theyarenotmembersofitandthus

lackeventhemostrudimentaryprotectionsagainstarbitraryuseoftheirbodies. Becausemostslavesintheancientworldwerewarcaptives,thatis, 14 outsiders,itwaseasytosetthemapartasnonpersons.Althoughthepracticeof capturingpeopleandmakingthemslavesundoubtedlywentbacktotheStoneAges, itwasonlywiththeemergenceofcivilizationandthestateinthefourthmillennium thatenslavementoccurredonalargescaleasamatterofpolicyandeconomic necessity.Wehavenowayofestimatingtheproportionofslavestotherestofthe populationintheAegeansocieties.Itisprobable,however,thatthemajorityofthem belongedtothepalaces. MinoanCulture MinoanartandarchitectureowedalargedebttothecivilizationsoftheNearEast, andespeciallyEgypt.TheCretansdevelopedextensivecommercialanddiplomatic relationswithEgyptandthestatesalongtheSyrianandPhoeniciancoasts,andthey adoptedboththetechniquesandstylesoftheoldercivilizations.ThespiritofMinoan artandarchitecture,however,wasverydifferent.Thepredominantfunctionof palaceartintheEastwastoglorifytheroyalhousehold.Thekingsweredepictedas mightyconquerorsandpowerfulrulers.InMinoanart,ontheotherhand,thereare noscenesthatshowthekingasaconqueringwarriorandindeedveryfew,ifany, imagesofroyalpomp.Thesubjectsandmotifsofthewallpaintingsaremuchthe sameasthoseinthemiddleclass,villas.Naturemotifsareeverywhere.Thespirit ofMinoanpalaceartissereneandhappy,evenplayfulattimes.Itwasmeantto makethepalaceaplaceofbeautyandcharm. VisitorstotheruinsofKnossos,whichwasgreatlyrestoredbyArthurEvansinthe earlytwentiethcentury,aredazzledbyitssizeandcomplexity(itcovered3.2acres withperhapsthreehundredrooms)andtheeleganceofitsarchitecture.Thepalace waswellconstructedofstoneandmudbrick,reinforcedwithtimbers(tohelp withstandearthquakes);itstoodtwoandthreestorieshighwithbasementsbeneath. Porticoes(withcolumnsthatseemupsidedowntous)andnumerousbalconiesand loggias,allbrightlypainted,gavetheexterioratheatricallook.Lightwellsbrought daylightandfreshairintotheinteriorofthepalace.Asystemofconduitsanddrains providedmanyoftheroomswithrunningwaterandwastedisposal.Wallsand passagewayswereadornedwithbrilliantlycoloredpaintingsofplantandanimallife andwithscenesofhumanactivity,oftenreligiousprocessionsorrituals. Minoanpaintingsaremuchadmiredtodayfortheirsophistication,vitality,and exuberanceandstandcomparisonwiththebestofcontemporaryancientart. AlthoughEgyptianscenepaintingsweremoreaccurateindetail,Cretanpainters weremoreskillfulatconveyingasenseofmovementandlife.Minoanpottery,

jewelry,andmetalandivoryworkdisplayequaltechnicalandartisticskill.Minoan frescoesandsmallsculptureshavepreservedavisualimageofwhatthepeople lookedlike,thatistosaytherichandpowerfulinhabitantsofthepalacesand villas.Menandwomenbotharedepictedasyoung,slender,andgraceful.Themen aresmoothshavenandwearonlyashortkilt,similartotheEgyptianmaledress.The womenwearelaborateflouncedskirtsandatight,sleevedbodice 15 ThePalaceatKnossos.1WestPorch2CorridoroftheProcession3PalaceShrine 4Steppedporch5ThroneRoom6GrandStaircase7HalloftheDoubleAxes8 QueensMegaron9PillarHall10Storerooms11RoyalRoad,toLittlePalaceFigure 1.1a.GroundplanoftheMinoanpalaceatKnossos,Crete.Figure1.1b.Viewofthe ruinsoftheMinoanpalaceatPhaistos,Crete. 16 17 thatexposestheirbreasts.Bothmenandwomenhavelonghair,stylishlycurled,and weargoldbraceletsandnecklaces. TheplacidandcarefreeoutlookofMinoanart,thefactthatnoneoftheCretan palacecomplexeswaswalled,andthelaterGreektraditionthatKnossosunderking Minoshadbeenamightyseapower,ledearliergenerationsofscholarstopicture Creteasapeaceful,secureisland,untouchedbyinternalandexternalconflict. However,morerecentdiscoveriesofdepictionsoflandandnavalbattlesandsome remainsoffortificationwallshavelargelydispelledthatromanticview. MinoanInfluenceintheAegean:Thera ThattheCretansexercisedactualpoliticalcontroloutsideofCreteisdoubtful.They did,however,exertconsiderableeconomicandculturalinfluenceintheCycladic islands.AremarkableexampleofMinoanculturalhegemonywasdiscoveredonthe islandofThera(modernSantorini),80milesnorthofCrete.In1967,theGreek archaeologistSpyridonMarinatosbeganexcavationofathrivingcityofseveral thousandinhabitants,whichlayburiedunder50yardsofvolcanicash.Theexplosion thattoreapartthetinyislandconsideredthemostpowerfulvolcaniceruptioninall ofhistoryoccurred,accordingtothelatestscientificdating,around1630BC.Asin Pompeii(theRomanprovincialcityburiedbyaneruptionofMountVesuviusin79 AD),thehardenedashformedaprotectiveenvelope,allowingustodayadetailed

pictureoftownlifeattheheightoftheMinoancivilization.Thefrescoesthatadorn thewallsofanumberofhousesareverysimilarinstyleandalsoequalin imaginationandexecutiontothefinestpaintingsfromCrete.Lessspectacularfinds fromotherCycladicislandsshowasimilarMinoanizationinsuchthingsasart, religion,dress,andlifestyles.Nevertheless,severaldistinctlylocalfeaturesamong theislandculturesindicatethatthoseprosperousislandswereindependentsocieties, tradingpartners,notcolonialoutpostsofaCretanempire. THEMYCENAEANS AboutthetimeTherawasdestroyed,theGreekswerejustemergingintotheir civilizationalstage.TheytoowereheavilyinfluencedbytheCretansandeven adoptedthemodeloftheMinoanstate.AcenturyorsolaterMinoanizedGreeks fromthemainland,theMycenaeans,ungratefullyrepaidtheirteachersbyinvading Creteandtakingovertheirpowercenters. Aswasnotedearlier,MycenaeanreferstotheentirecivilizationofGreeceduring theLateBronze(LateHelladic)period(c.15801150BC).Theemergenceinmainland Greeceofahierarchicalpoliticalandsocialsystem,basedoncentralizedcontrolof theeconomy,recapitulatedtheprocessofstateformationintheNearEastandCrete. Before1600Greecehadgonethroughthepreparatorysteps:riseinpopulation, increasedproductivity,expansionoftradewiththeout 18 Figure1.2.FrescoofafishermanfromThera. side,andthestrengtheningoftheeconomicandpoliticalpoweroftheleaders.Asthe southernmainlandGreekstatesbecamefullparticipantsintheMediterranean tradingeconomy,theyputonthereadymadecloakofMinoanadministration. ContactsbetweenmainlandGreeceandCretehadbegunasearlyas2000BCand increasedsteadilythereafter.TheevidenceofMinoaninfluenceoverGreecewasso overwhelmingthatArthurEvans,theexcavatorofKnossos,wasconvincedthatthe mainlandGreekpalacesofthefourteenthandthirteenthcenturyhadbeenoccupied byCretankings,loyalsubjectsofthekingofKnossos,whosemightyseapowerhad conqueredGreece.Evansreasonableconclusionturnedouttobejusttheoppositeof whathappened:itwastheMycenaeanswhodidtheconquering.WealthyCretemust haveseemedajuicyprizetothewarlikeMycenaeans,whohadintimateknowledge oftheislandanditsdefenses.Yet,theMycenaeanswerecertainlynotouttodestroy Crete.Oncetheyhadbeatenthe 19

Cretanforces,sackedsomepalacesandtowns,andkilledtheleaders,the mainlanderstookoverKnossosandothercentersandruledinplaceoftheoldrulers. TheMycenaeantakeoverisdatedtoaround1500to1450.Aboutthattime,anumber ofimportantCretansiteswerebadlydamaged,thoughKnossositselfsufferedlittle harm.Therearealsosignsthatabout1500BcMinoanexportstoplacesaroundthe Aegeandeclined,whileMycenaeanexportsrose;andonseveralCycladicislands Mycenaeanculturalinfluencesappearmoreprominently.Cretansocietyandculture undertheruleofthealreadyMinoanizedMycenaeaninvadersdidnotchangemuch, however.Forthemassofthepeoplelifewentonasbefore,althoughtheynowpaid theirtaxestokingswhospokeGreek.Andthenewkingsruledandlivedinthe mannerofCretankings,althoughtheydidkeeptocertainmainlandways(inburial rites,forexample).FromthefifteenthcenturyonwardwecanspeakofaMinoan Mycenaeanculture,adynamicfusionofthetwocultures,whichwasfurther enrichedbycontinuinginfluencesfromtheNearEastandEgypt. ThereissomereasontobelievethatunderMycenaeanruleKnossoscontrolledmuch ofcentralandwesternCrete(anareaofperhaps1500squaremiles),having incorporatedtheterritoriesoftheformerlyindependentorsemiindependentpalace centers.Buttheirsuccesswasrelativelyshortlived.Around1375,Knossoswas burnedandlooted,andalthoughtheruinedpalacecontinuedtobeoccupied, MycenaeanCretesankinimportancewhileMycenaeandtheothermainlandcenters reachedthezenithoftheirprosperityandinfluenceintheAegean.Itisnotknown whodestroyedKnossosandsetofftheirreversibledeclineoftheentireCretan economyandculture.ThemostlikelysuspectsaremainlandMycenaeanstempted bytherichesoftheCretanpalacesandperhapseagertogetridoftheirbiggestrival intheMediterraneantrade. TheFamousClayTablets Aswesawearlier,theMinoanshaddevelopedapictographicwritingsystemtokeep recordsoftheirpalaceeconomies,whichwasinusefromabout1900Bc.The pictographsweremostlyincisedonsmallstonesusedasseals(whenpressedonwax orclaytheyleaveanimpressionofthesymbols)andwereprobablyusedaslabels andmarksofownership.Thispicturewriting,whichcouldconveyonlyminimal information,wasreplacedbyasyllabicwritingsystemincisedonsmallclaytablets, usedfromabout1800.ArthurEvansfoundafewtabletswiththiswritinginKnossos; smallquantitieswerelaterdiscoveredatPhaistos,Mallia,andothersitesinCrete andtheCycladicislands,showingthatitwaswidelyusedintheareaduringthe eighteenthtofifteenthcenturiesBC. InthedestructionlevelatKnossos,Evansfoundahugenumber(aroundthree thousand)ofclaytabletsinscribedwithamoreelaborateversionofthelinearscript.

EvansnamedtheearlierscriptLinearAandthislateroneLinearB.Heassumed withoutquestionthatthelanguageofbothwasCretan.Thediscoveryin1939of manyhundredsoftheLinearBtabletsatthepalacecomplexofPylosonthe southwesternGreekmainlandseemedtostrengthenhistheorythatmainlandGreece wascontrolledbytheMinoans. 20 Therewasnowasufficientamountofmaterialtoallowseriousattemptsat deciphermentoftheLinearBtablets.Evenso,thetabletspresentedanenormous challenge,becausethescriptwastotallyunlikeanyoftheotherwritingsystemsin useamongtheLateBronzeAgecivilizations,andnooneknewwhattheunderlying languagewas.Relativelylittleprogresswasmadeuntiltheearlyfifties,whena youngBritishamateur,MichaelVentris,brokethecode.Workingfromthe hypothesisthatthesignsstoodforwholesyllablesratherthansinglelettersandthat thelanguagemightpossiblybeGreek(andnotMinoan,afterall),Ventriswas graduallyabletoobtainthephoneticvaluesofsomeofthesigns.Forexample,a combinationofthreesignstiripoyieldsthesyllabicequivalentoftheGreekword tripous(tripod). In1953,Ventrisandacollaborator,JohnChadwickofCambridgeUniversity,jointly publishedtheirfindingsinafamousarticlethathascompletelychangedourpicture oftheBronzeAgeAegean.Itisnowcertainbeyondanydoubtthat(1)Greekwasthe languageoftheMycenaeanculture,(2)theMycenaeanshadadaptedtheCretan LinearAscripttotheirownGreeklanguageanduseditforthesamepurposeas LinearA,tokeeppalacerecords,and(3)MycenaeanswererulinginCretebyatleast thefifteenthcenturyBC. MorerecentfindsofLinearBtabletsatPylos(in1952)andatMycenae,Tiryns,and Thebesonthemainland,aswellasatChaniaonCretehaveincreasedthefundof texts.Today,mostofthemorethanfivethousandLinearBinscriptionshaveyielded upmostoftheirsecrets.Despitesomesuccesses,however,LinearA,thescriptofthe unknownCretanlanguage,hasnotyetbeendeciphered. THEEARLYMYCENAEANS(c.16001400BC) HundredsofBronzeAgehabitationsiteshavebeenfoundinmainlandandisland Greece,manyofwhichcanbeidentifiedbynamefromtheancientlegends. Archaeologyhasconfirmedthatthefamousmainlandcitiesofepicpoetry,suchas Mycenae,Tiryns,Pylos,Thebes,andAthens,wereinfactthemajorBronzeAge centers.Theirgrandpalaces,however,werebuiltinthefourteenthandthirteenth centuries,overtheremainsoftheolder,lessimposingstructuresoftheearly Mycenaeans.Accordingly,whatweknowoftheearlystageoftheMycenaean

civilization,roughly1600to1400,isrevealedchieflythroughgravesandthe offeringsinterredwiththebodiesofthedeceasedmen,women,andchildren. TheRiseofMycenaeanPower: TheShaftGravesandTombs Thecontentsoftwocircularburialgrounds,reservedfortheelitefamilies,haveshed muchlightonMycenaesearlydevelopment.Theolderofthetwogravecircles, whichwasdiscoveredoutsidethecitadelin1952,wasusedfromthelateseventeenth century(MiddleHelladic)toabout1500.Itoverlapsintimewiththelatergravecircle locatedattheedgeofthecitadel,discoveredbySchliemann. 21 Thislater,richergroupwasinusefromtheearlysixteenthcenturyuntilafter1500. Thegravesinthetwocircularburialgroundsarecalledshaftgraves,becausethe bodieswereloweredintodeeprectangularpitscutintothesoftbedrock.Theearlier circlecontainedmanybronzeweapons(swords,daggers,spearheads,andknives) andquantitiesoflocalpottery,butlittlegoldorjewelry.Bycomparison,asingleone ofthegravesfromthelatercemetery,containingthebodiesofthreemenandtwo women,heldnotonlyanarsenalofweapons(43swords,forexample),butalso hundredsofotherexpensiveobjects,includingexquisitegoldjewelryadorningthe bodiesofthewomen.Theseburialgiftsexhibitsuperbworkmanshipandaremade ofpreciousmaterials,suchasgold,silver,bronze,ivory,alabaster,faence,and amber,importedfromCrete,Cyprus,Egypt,Mesopotamia,Syria,Anatolia,and westernEurope.ThestylesandtechniquesareaneclecticmixoftraditionalHelladic andforeignelements. Theincreasingwealthoftheshaftgravesrevealstheevolvingpoweroftheruling classinMycenaeoverroughly150years.BurialgoodsshowthatduringtheMiddle Helladicperiodwarriorchiefsandtheirclosesupporterswerealreadyincontrolof thelocaleconomyandwereincontactwiththeestablishedcivilizations.Their grandsonsandgreatgrandsonsbecamepowerfulwarlordswho,withthehelpof theirclosesubordinates,tightlyorganizedandexpandedtheirlocaleconomies, becomingsignificantplayersinthepanMediterraneaneconomy. Shortlybefore1500,theMycenaeanelitesadoptedadifferenttypeoftomb,calleda tholos,whichprovidesfurtherevidenceoftheirgrowingpowerandresources.The tholoi(plural),whichhavebeenfoundthroughoutGreece,werethehighest achievementofMycenaeanengineering.Theywereverylargestonechambers, shapedlikebeehives,cuthorizontallyintoahillside.Thehighvaultedburialand ceremonialchamberwasapproachedthroughalongstonelinedpassagewayand hugebronzedoorsandwascoveredoverbyanearthenmound.Thetholos,

representstheheightofMycenaeanupperclassostentation.Wemayseeitasa conspicuousstatementoftheirarrivalonthewiderMediterraneanscene. Unfortunately,mostofthetholoiwererobbedcenturiesago,butthefewthat remainedunplunderedhaveyieldedburialgiftsevenmorenumerousandbeautiful thanthoseoftheshaftgraves.Theroyalandnoblefamiliesthatownedthosetombs appearjustaswarlikeastheirforebears,butfarricherandmorethoroughly Minoanized.Manyofthelaterburialsinthetholoioverlapintimewiththe constructionofthegreatpalacesinthefourteenthandthirteenthcenturies,whose ruinsweseetoday. THELATERMYCENAEANS(c.14001200BC) WiththenewpalacestheMycenaeansenteredthefinalphaseoftheirwealthand power.ThearchitectureanddecorationoftheMycenaeanpalacescloselyfollowed theMinoanstyle,thoughwithsomenotabledifferences.Forone,theMycenaean centersweremuchsmallerandwereusuallylocatedonacommandinghilland 22 a b c dFigure1.3a.Abronzedaggerinlaidwithasceneofalionhunt, fromalatershaftgraveatMycenae.Figure1.3b.Planandcrosssectionofatholos tombfromMycenae.Figure1.3c.InteriorvaultofatholostombatMycenae(theso calledTreasuryofAtreus).Figure1.3d.Goldmaskfromoneoftheearlyshaftgraves atMycenae. 23 fortifiedbyhigh,thickwalls.WhereastheMinoanpalaceshadhadlittledefensive function,defenseseemstohavebeentheparamountconsiderationintheGreek palaces.TheimmenselystrongfortificationwarsofMycenaeandTiryns,builtof enormousstoneblocks,areanimpressivesightevenintheirruinedstate.Thelater GreeksreferredtothemasCyclopeanwalls,somassivethattheycouldonlyhave beenbuiltbythemythicalraceofgiantCyclopes.Thefortificationswerewell engineered,takingfulladvantageofthenaturalslopes,withrefinementsthat alloweddefenderstofiredownontwosidesatattackersstormingthegates. Toconstruct,maintain,andrepairthedefensescalledforhugeexpendituresof materialresourcesandthemobilizedlaborofmanyhundredsofpeople.Thewalled citadelprovidednotonlyprotectionforthepalace,butalsoaplaceofrefugeforthe inhabitantsoftheunfortifiedtownbelow.ButtheseMycenaeanfortificationswereas muchaboastbythekingofhiswealthandmilitarymightastheywereadefensefor hispalaceandpeople.Suchhugewalls,20feetthickinmanyplaces,weremuch morethanwasnecessarytostaveoffanenemyassault.Thecitywallsthatwerebuilt

inthelaterperiodswerefarlessimmense,yetremainedimpregnableuntilthe adventofworkablesiegemachineryinthefourthcenturyBC. TheMycenaeansalsoutilizedspacewithinthepalacesinonenotablydifferentway fromtheMinoans.InplaceoftheopenpavedcourtyardoftheCretancomplexes, theymadethefocusoftheirpalacesthemegaron,alargerectangularhall,witha smalleranteroom,andaporticointhefront,openingontoacourtyard.Inthemiddle ofthegreathallstoodalarge,raisedcircularhearth,flankedbyfourcolumnsthat supportedabalcony;akindofchimneywasbuiltintotheroofabovethehearthto drawoffthesmoke.FortheMycenaeansthemegaronwasclearlytheceremonial centerofthepalace;theyuseditforfeasts,councils,andreceptionsofvisitors.The megaronroomwouldsurviveintheformofachieftainshouseduringthelongDark Agethatfollowed,andastheessentialplanoftheGreektemple,thegodshouse, fromtheeighthcenturyonward. ThefinalMycenaeanpalacesprovidedtheirinhabitantsastandardofluxury, refinement,andbeautyalmostashighasthatoftheMinoans.Althoughtheyhad fewerroomsandlackedsomeofthearchitecturalembellishmentsoftheirCretan models,theMycenaeanpalacesboastedsuchMinoanrefinementsasindoor plumbingandbeautifulwallpaintings.ThefrescoesarecompletelyMinoaninstyle, thoughreproducedinamoreformalizedmanner,andshowapreferenceformartial themes,suchaspersonalcombats,sieges,andhuntingscenes.Inthewallpaintings, womenandmenareusuallyshownwearingthetraditionalMinoancostume,but otherdepictions,asonpaintedvases,revealthatmainlandmennormallyworea loosewoolenorlinentunic,cinchedbyabelt,andwomenworealongerversionof thesametunic. RelationsAmongthePalaceCenters ScholarsnolongerbelieveinaunitedKingdomofGreece,ruledbythekingof Mycenae.TheextentofpoliticalormilitaryexpansioninGreecewastheformationof smallregionalkingdomsunderasinglecenter;thekingdomofPylosin 24 Messeniapresentsaclearexample.Thepictureislesscertaininthoseregionswhere majorcenterswereclosetogether,asinArgolis,whichheldtenimportanttowns includingtheimpregnablefortressesofMycenaeandTiryns,onlyafewmilesapart. ItispossiblethatthekingofMycenaewasthesoleandabsoluteruleroftheregion, justasthekingofPyloswasofMessenia.Inthatcase,weshouldseethepalaceat TirynsasanoutpostofthepalaceatMycenae.Wemustnotassume,however,that allMycenaeankingdomswerestructuredalike.ItisequallypossiblethatTirynsand theotherstrongholdsweresemiindependentsettlementswhoseleaders acknowledgedtherulerofMycenaeastheirsuperiorandpledgedtheirloyaltyto

him.ThepalacetownsofAthensandThebesmayhavehadsimilardominant positionsintheregionsofAtticaandBoeotia. Itappears,atanyrate,thatfrom1600until1200,relationsbothwithinandbetween regionsweregenerallystable.Undoubtedlytherewerebattlesbetweenrivalpalace townsastheyfeudedandfoughtforhegemonyintheirregion,butarchaeology revealsveryfewexamplesofalloutwarfare.TheburningofThebesearlyinthe thirteenthcenturymayhavebeentheworkofaneighboringcenter,possibly Orchomenus,whichwasarichandpopuloussiteandwouldlaterbeThebes perennialrivalduringtheClassicalperiod. MycenaeanInfluenceintheMediterranean Intheirheyday,around1300,Mycenaeankingdomswereactivelytradingallacross theMediterranean,fromSardinia,southernItaly,andSicilyinthewesttoTroydown toEgyptintheeast,aswellastoMacedoniainthenorth.Mycenaeansettlementsand tradingpostswerestrungalongtheAsiancoastlineandthroughouttheislands, includingRhodesandCyprus.AcrossthiswideexpansetheMycenaeanculture exhibitsaremarkableuniformity;eventheexpertsfinditdifficulttodetermine whetheravaseoradaggerfound,say,inMiletusinAnatoliawasmadelocallyor camefromapalaceworkshopinGreeceorCrete. TheimmensewealthoftheMycenaeankingsandnoblescamenotonlyfrom peacefultradebutalsofrominternationalpiracy.Thegenerationsofwarriorsburied intheweaponladengravesandtombsoftheLateHelladicperiodwerewealthy marauderswhocouldeasilyaffordtomountlargeseaborneexpeditionsforbooty. ThoughtheywerefewinnumberscomparedwiththevastpopulationsoftheEast, andweredividedintosmallstates,theMycenaeanGreekswerethethirdpowerin theMediterranean,afterthehugeHittiteempire,whichcoveredAnatoliaandSyria, andthebrilliantandaggressiveNewKingdomofEgypt.Hittitearchivesofthe fourteenthandthirteenthcenturiesmentionapeopletheycalledAhhiyawan,which manybelieveisthecuneiformversionofMycenaeanAkhaiwoi,thatis,Achaeans, aninclusivetermforGreeksintheeighthcenturyBCepicpoems.Inaletter,the kingoftheHittitesaddresseshisbrother,thekingofAhhiyawa(Achaea).Other recordsspeakofanexchangeofgiftsbetweenthekingofHattiandthekingof Ahhiyawa;AhhiyawansaresenttoHattitolearnchariotwarfare;agodofthe AhhiyawansissummonedtocureaHittiteking.Relationswerenotalwayspeaceful; inthethirteenthcenturyamanfrom 25 a

26 b cFigure1.4a.(facingpage)MycenaeansitesinthethirteenthcenturyBC. Figure1.4b.ViewoftheruinsofthemegaronhalloftheMycenaeanpalaceatPylos. Figure1.4c.TheLionGateentrancetothecitadelofMycenae. 27 AhhiyawawasinvadingHittiteterritoryinwesternAnatolia.Thesereferenceswere probablynottomainlandGreeksbuttooneormoreofthenearerMycenaean kingdoms,locatedintheislandsorontheAsiancoast.Nevertheless,thementionsof GreeksintheHittiterecords(andpossiblyalsoinEgyptianrecords)supplementthe archaeologicalevidencethatMycenaeanswereasignificantpresenceintheworldof thefourteenthandthirteenthcentury. TheAdministrationofaMycenaeanKingdom OneoftheimportantleadersintheTrojanWar,astoldintheIliadandOdyssey,was Nestor,who,Homertellsus,livedinamagnificentmanyroomedhouseinatown calledPylos,fromwhichheruledoveralargekingdominMessenia.Thediscovery ofthepalaceofNestorbytheAmericanarchaeologistCarlBlegenin1939wasas momentousastheearlierdiscoveriesofTroy,Mycenae,andKnossos.Itnotonly confirmedthataBronzeAgecenterknownonlyinlegendhadactuallyexisted,butit alsorevealedthatacenterfarawayfromthegreatpalacesofeasternandcentral Greececouldbejustasrichandimportant. ThefertileandwellwateredregionofMesseniainthesouthwestcornerofthe PeloponnesuswasoneofthemostheavilypopulatedpartsofMycenaeanGreece. Accordingtoarecentsurvey,populationthererosefromabout4000inEarly Helladicto10,000inMiddleHelladicandsurgedtowellover50,000inLateHelladic. Someestimatesputthefigureashighas100,000.Pylos(writtenPurointheLinearB script)becamearegionalcenterofpoweraroundthetimeMycenaeandtheother centersdid,reachingitsheightduringtheLateHelladicIIIAandIIIBperiods (roughly14001200BC).Thepalace,locatedonahill5milesfromthesea,wasbuilt around1300BContheruinsofanearlier,smallercomplexofbuildings. Blegensmeticulousexcavationofthesite,whichhadlainundisturbedsinceits destructionaround1200BC,andthehugenumbersofLinearBtabletsfoundinthe archiverooms,provideourclearestpictureoftheorganizationandworkingsofa Mycenaeankingdom.ThePylostablets,togetherwiththosefromMycenaean Knossos,revealmuchofthedaytodayadministrativedetailsofthehighly regimentedproductionanddistributionsystemofMycenaeanpalaces.

ThesundriedtabletsfromPylosandKnossosweretemporaryrecords,meanttolast onlyuntiltheinformationonthemwastransferredontolarger,permanentrecords. Theywerepreservedonlybecausetheywerebakedhardinthefiresthatdestroyed thepalaces.Whatwehave,inotherwords,arepalacescribesnotesonpersonneland productionwhichpertaintoonlyasmallpartofthelastyearofthepalaceswhere theywerefound.Nevertheless,theyarerepresentativeofpalaceadministration throughoutthetimespanofthelaterpalaceperiod. ThetabletsgiveussomeideaoftheMycenaeanrulinghierarchy.Atthetopwasthe wanax,whichperhapsmeantlordormaster.Nextinrank,apparently,wasaman calledlawagetas,whichseemstobeacombinationofthewordsforpeopleand leader,andiscommonlybelievedtohavedesignatedthecommanderofthearmy. Therewasalsoahighrankinggroupcalledtelestai,whoreceivedthesameallotment oflandasthelawagetas.Theirfunctionisunknown; 28 a bFigure1.5a.ALinearBtabletfromMycenaeanKnossos.Figure1.5b. DrawingofachariottabletfromKnossos.

somebelievetheywerepriests.Otherindividuals,withthetitlehequetas(possibly meaningfollower),mayhavebeenhighrankingmilitaryofficers. Belowthistopechelonwerelesserofficials,whoappeartohavebeeninchargeofthe outlyingareas.ThekingdomofPyloswasabout1400squaremilesinextentand containedovertwohundredvillagesandtowns.Itwasdividedadministrativelyinto twoprovinces,eachsubdividedintoseveraldistricts,namedaftertheprincipal towninthedistrict.Thetitleskoreteandprokoretefoundonthetabletsmayhave belongedtothegovernorofadistrictandhisdeputy.Finally,therewasan apparentlylargegroupofofficialswiththetitlepasireu,whoseemtohavebeenin chargeofaffairsatthetownandvillagelevel.Theofficialsandmilitaryofficers namedinthetabletsrepresentonlythetipofalargebureaucracy.Subordinateto themwerenumerouslowlevelfunctionaries,whowerejustasdependentonthem astheythemselvesweredependentonthewanax.Thetabletsrevealthatthehigher officialsreceivedlandfromthewanaxinreturnfortheirservicetothepalaceanda shareoftheircrops;asimilarrelationshipundoubtedlyexistedbetweensuchofficials andtheirsubordinates. Thehighestofficials,andperhapssomeportionofthelowerrankingones,occupied substantialprivatehouses,somequitelarge,foundonthecitadels,inthelower towns,andalsooutinsmallcountrytowns.Onlythehighestrankingfamiliescould afford(or,perhaps,werepermitted)tobeburiedintheostentatioustholoi.The familiesofthelesserelitewerelaidtorestinsmaller,simplertombs,rectangular

cryptscutintothesoftrock.Likethetholoi,someofthesechambertombswere granderthanothersandtheycontainedgreaterorlesseramounts 29 ofexpensivegravegoods.Itispossiblethatsomeoftheinhabitantsoftherichhouses andchambertombswereprivatemerchantsandtraders,actingasagentsofthe palace. However,thegreatmajorityofthepeople,asusual,livedinsmall,modestly furnishedhouseswithfewamenities,andtheywereburiedinsimplegraveswith onlyacoupleofvasesorothersmallitems.Theirstandardoflivingwasmuchthe sameastheirancestors,nobetterorworse.Infact,throughoutlaterantiquity,the majorityofGreekswouldliveatessentiallythesamemateriallevelastheinhabitants oftheBronzeAge,andlikethemwouldmaketheirlivingasfarmers,herders,and artisans.IntheMycenaeanAge,aslater,mostofthefarmersandherderslivedin ruralvillages,whilemostofthecraftsspecialistswereconcentratedintheregional centersandthelargersettlements.Itappearsfromthetabletsthatmanyfamilies farmedastenantsonlandbelongingtothenobles,someofwhoseholdingswere verylarge.Othernonelitefamiliesheldplotsoflandintheirownnames;craftsmen andherdersarelistedasownersofprivateland.Itappearsthatthefiftytoseventy fivefamiliesthatmadeupatypicalMycenaeanvillageeitherhadsharesinthe villageslandorelserentedlandthatwasallocatedtohighofficials. Thepalacessupervisionoverthepeoplewasverythorough.Officialsweresentout intothecountrysideonregularinspections,andthetaxesinproduceandanimals leviedonindividualsandvillagesweremeticulouslyrecorded,includingdeficiencies intheassessments.OnetabletfromKnossosreports:MenofLyktos246.7unitsof wheat;menofTylisos261unitsofwheat;menofLato30.5unitsofwheat.Although estimationsofwhatconstitutedaunit,areuncertainitdoesappearthatthefarmers fromthosevillageswerenottooheavilytaxedAllinall,theevidenceofthetablets doesnotsupporttheoncecommonviewthatthemassofthepopulationwere oppressedpeasants,toilinginmiseryontheestatesoftheirnoblemasters.Themen ofthevillagefarmedtheirplotsandtendedtotheirtrees,vines,andlivestock;they paidtheirtaxes,contributedsomelabortothepalace,andservedinthearmy.The womenprobablyhelpedwiththefarmchoresandperformedthedomestictasksof spinningandweaving,foodpreparation,andchildcare.Anumberofthevillage womenwerealsoengagedastextileworkersforthepalace,forwhichtheyreceived rationsofwoolandflax. AsinMinoansociety,slaveswereatthebottom.Referencestocaptivesand boughtshowthattheMycenaeanwarrioraristocratswereactiveintheslavery business.Thenumbersofslaveswerehigh,verymanyofwhomwerefemale.Tablets

fromPylos,forexample,recordoversixhundredslavewomen,andaboutthesame numberofchildren.Thewomennamedonthetabletsworkedasgrindersofgrain, bathattendants,flaxworkers,weavers,andsoon.Mostofthewomenlistedwere attachedtothepalace;somelivedinothertownsinthekingdomandreceived rationsoffoodfromthepalace.Highrankingindividualsalsoownedslaves,though infarfewernumbersthanthewanax.Slaveswerevaluablepossessions,bothas producersandascommoditiestosellforprofit.Somealsoservedasdomesticslaves, freeingtheirownersfromeverysortofmeniallabor.ThroughoutantiquityGreeks wouldfindthiscombinationofbenefitsirre 30 sistible.Indeed,itiscommonlysaidthatGreekcivilizationwasbasedonslavery. Whilethisisanoversimplification,itistruenonethelessthatslaverywasacentral institution,andwithfewexceptionsitsmoralityremainedunquestioned.Itwas practicedeverywhereintheGreekworldandatallperiods.Thepracticeofslavery onareallymassivescale,however,wouldnotcomeuntilaboutthesixthcenturyBC. Itisalsopossiblethatsomeoftheloweststatusworkerslistedonthetabletwerenot trueslaves,thatis,foreignerscapturedorbought,butwerenativeindividualsand familieswhowerereducedtoastateofpermanentdependenceonthepalace.Ifso, theywouldberecognizedaspersons,notchattels,yettheirconditionwouldbe hardlydifferentfromthatofslaves.InlaterGreekhistorysuchsemislaveswerenot uncommon,themostfamousbeingthehelotsofLaconiaandMesseniaownedby thestateofSparta. ManufacturingandCommerce TheLinearBtabletsalsodemonstratethesizeandcomplexityofthemanufacturing operationsofMycenaeankingdoms.Awidearrayofspecialistsislistedforthe palacesandotherlocations.Menwereengagedascarpenters,masons,bronze smiths,goldsmiths,bowmakers,armorers,leatherworkers,perfumemakers,and more.Ononetabletaphysicianismentioned.Womenworkedmostlyinthetextile sector,ascarders,spinners,weavers,andembroiderers.Theworkshopareasofthe palacemusthavebeennoisy,bustlingplaceswithinterestingsmells.Thewanaxkept acloseeyeontheworkshops,andhisscribesscrupulouslywrotedownhowmuch rawmaterialwasprovidedtothecraftsspecialists,theobjectstheyproduced,and therationsoffoodtheyreceivedinreturn.Thetabletsattestbothtotheskillsofthe specialistsandthecarefulaccountingbythescribes.Dozensofentriesgolikethis: oneebonyfootstoolinlaidwithfiguresofmenandlioninivory.Mostkindsof laborintensiveobjects,suchasthisone,madeofexpensiveimportedmaterial,are knownonlyfromtheirdescriptionsinthetablets;theobjectsthemselveslongago crumbledintodust.Theinventoriesareexhaustive.Forexample,individualchariot

wheelsarelisted,andtheircondition(serviceable,unfitforuse)isnoted.Even damagedbronzecauldronswereinventoried. Severalindustrieswereonalargescale.AboutathirdoftheKnossostabletsare concernedwithsheepandwool.Thequantitiesofsheepareimpressive;19,000are recordedfromonedistrictalone.Andlargenumbersofwomenwereemployedat Knossosandthesurroundingtownsinspinningyarnandweavinganddecorating thewoolencloth.ThewanaxofPylosalsocontrolledalargetextileindustry,bothin woolandinlinen.MetalworkingwasanotherimportantindustryatPylos,wherethe largenumberofbronzesmiths(estimatedat400)receivingrationsofbronze indicatesthattheproductionofbronzemanufactures,includingweapons,far exceededlocalconsumptionneeds. Thesizeofthesemanufacturingoperationsrevealsthattextilesandmetalworkwere thetwoleadingexportsofthepalaceeconomy.Tothesewemayaddolive 31 oil(bothplainandperfumed),wine,hides,leather,andleatherproducts. Highqualitymanufactures,suchaspaintedceramics,jewelry,andothercostlyitems (likethedecoratedfootstoolmentionedabove),competedwellintheinternational luxurytrade.Itismainlyceramics(whicharevirtuallyindestructible),thathavebeen foundindistantlocales.Butthepresenceofthoseitemsmeansthatother,more perishablegoodsalsoreachedthetradingcentersaroundtheMediterranean.In return,thepalacesimportedthingslackinginGreece,suchascopper,tin,gold,ivory, amber,dyes,andspices,aswellasforeignvarietiesofthingsthattheydidhave,such aswine,textiles,ceramics,jewelry,andotherexoticluxuryitems.Needlesstosay, veryfewluxurygoodsmadetheirwayintothehousesandgravesofthecommon people. Religion Thebeliefinsupernaturalforcesandbeingsthatcontrolthenaturalworldis probablyasoldashumankind.Nearlyasoldasthebeliefingodsarethepracticesof religion:cultandritual,whicharetheworshipandactsofdevotionperformedbythe worshippers,andreligiousmyths,thesuppositionsaboutthegodstoldinstoryform aspartofritualactivity.Thespecificcontentofcultandritualdevelopsandchanges throughtheages,buttheessenceandpurposeremainthesame:tomaintain harmoniousrelationsbetweenhumansocietyandthegods. Amongagriculturalpeople,therelationshipofmortalstoimmortalsrevolvesaround thecontinuationofthefertilityofthelandandanimals.Toappeasethegods,who canbestowortakeawaytheblessingsofnatureatwill,thepeoplemakecommunal displaysofrespect,includingsacrificesoffoodandanimalsand,insomecultures,

evenhumans.Thelargerandmorecomplexthesocietybecomes,themoreelaborate thedisplays.ArchaeologyrevealsthattheBronzeAgepeoplesofCrete,theother islands,andtheGreekmainlandwerenodifferentfromotheragrariancultures.They honoredtheirgodswithprocessions,music,anddance,andpropitiatedthemwith giftsandsacrifices.Theslaughterandbutcheringofanimalsonoutdooraltarswas themostsolemnritual.Theremaypossiblyhavebeenhumansacrificeamongthe earlyMinoans. TheprincipalrecipientofworshipdepictedinMinoanartisagoddess,picturedasa womandressedintheMinoanstyleandplacedinoutdoorsettingsthatfeaturetrees andothervegetation,andanimals.Thesamekindsofscenesofworshipwere reproducedinMycenaeanfrescoesandongoldandsilverrings.Minoanreligious symbols(whosemeaningisnotwellunderstood)alsorecurinmainlandandisland art:snakes,birds,bulls,stylizedbullhorns,andaxeswithdoubleheads.However muchthesesimilaritiesshowMinoaninfluenceonMycenaeanreligion,therewere significantdifferencesinritualsandpractices.Forexample,muchoftheMinoan worshipofgodstookplaceincavesandinsanctuariesbuiltonmountainpeaks, whilethemainlandMycenaeansdidnotconstructshrinesoutsideofthecenters. Moreover,Cretanpalacescontainedmoreshrines,andmoreelaborateones,thanthe Mycenaeanpalaces,wherethemegaroncomplexappearstohavebeenthemain placeforreligiousceremony. 32 Figure1.6a.StatuetteofagoddessfigurefromKnossos,Crete.Figure1.6b. GoldringfromKnossosshowingwomenworshipingagoddess. 33 TheubiquitousgoddessfiguresdepictedinMinoanMycenaeanartwereoriginally identifiedasrepresentationsofasingle,panAegeanmothergoddess,whoruled overallofnature.Itnowappearsmorelikelythattheywererepresentationsof differentgoddesses,someofwhomwerelocaldeities.Theymayhaveexercised specializedfertilityfunctionswithinthecommunityofworshippers,orpresidedover otheraspectsoflifebesidesfertility.Thetabletsassignthetitlepotnia(ladyor mistress)tothefemaledeities.Theyalsorevealthatmalegodswerealmostas numerousandequallyimportantasthefemalegods,althoughtheywereveryrarely depictedinart.Thereisnoexplanationforthiscuriousfact. Namesofaroundthirtygodsandgoddesseshavebeenfirmlyortentatively recognizedonthetabletsfromMycenaeanKnossosandPylos.Manyofthesewere unknowninlatertimes,butquiteafewarethenamesofthemajorgodsoflater Greekreligion:Zeus,Hera,Poseidon,Hermes,Athena,Artemis,andpossibly

Apollo,Ares,andDionysus,aswellassomeminordivinities.Zeus,thesupremegod ofthelaterGreekreligion,isplainlytheIndoEuropeanskyfather,andwasbrought inbytheearliestGreekspeakers.Zeuspatr(Zeusthefather)isthesamedeityas theIndicDyauspitar,RomanIuppiter,andGermanicTiew(whogivesusTuesday). ThenamesofHera,Poseidon,andAresarealsoformedfromIndoEuropeanroots. ItisgenerallybelievedthatsomeofthegodstheMycenaeansworshipped,in particulartheladygoddesses,werepreGreek(i.e.,notIndoEuropean)inorigin, andthatthedeities,rituals,andbeliefsoftheMycenaeansweretheresultofafusion oftheAegeanfertilityandmotherreligionsandtheIndoEuropeanworshipofsky andweathergods.Ofcourse,theMycenaeanreligioustraditionthatwenowobserve hadevolvedoveraspanofsevencenturies,muchtoolongforustosayforcertain whatelementsinthethirteenthcenturyMycenaeanreligionwereoriginallyIndo European,orAegean,orCretan,or,forthatmatter,NearEastern. Itiscertain,however,thatthepalacecontrolledthereligiousorganizationofthe kingdom.Thetabletslistthegiftsofland,animals,preciousobjects,andhumanlabor fromthepalacetothegodstobeusedforthemaintenanceoftheirsanctuariesandof thepriestsandpriestesses.Thetighteconomicandpoliticalcontrolexercisedbythe kingoverthesanctuariesandthepriesthoodsisanindicationthathewasableto claimdivinesanctiontoruleastheundisputedsovereign.Whenthekingofficiated atreligiousceremoniesandsacrifices,hedidsoasthespecialrepresentativeofthe communitytothegods.Thereisnothinginthewrittenormaterialevidence, however,tosuggestthatthewanaxwasconsidereddivinehimselfeitherinhis lifetimeorafterdeath,orthathefunctionedasapriestkingoveratheocraticstate. Warfare ThattheMycenaeankingswerethecommandersinchiefoftheirmilitaryforcesis beyonddoubt.Byanalogywithothersmallwarriorstates,thewanaxandhis militarycommander(lawagetas)wouldhavebeenpresentonthefieldinmajor 34 battles,andwouldprobablyhavetakenpartinthefightingalongwithhis subordinatecommanders.Themilitarywassociallystratified;theofficerscamefrom thenobilitywhiletherankswereleviedfromamongthefarmersandcraftsmen.The palacedirectedallmilitaryoperations.Troopmovementsofrowersand[coastal] watchers,andthedisbursementsofweaponsandrationsforthesoldiersare recordedonthetablets.Theactualorganizationofthemilitaryisbeyondour knowledge,thoughitappearsthatitwasmadeupofunitsfromalloverthe kingdom.

Weaponsandarmorarefairlywellknownfromthematerialevidence,depictions, andtheLinearBtablets.Afullyequippedsoldierwasprotectedbyaleatherhelmet withbronzestripssewedon,bodyarmorofleatherorpaddedlinen,andalarge shieldmadeofoxhidestretchedoverawoodenframe.Officersworemoreelaborate bodyarmor:helmetsmadeofbronzeorofboarstusks, Figure1.7.BronzeplatearmorandboarstuskhelmetfromDendrainArgolis,c. 1400BC. 35 corseletsofbronzeplates,andbronzegreaves(kneeandshinprotectors).The weaponryconsistedofbronzeswordsanddaggers;heavy,bronzetippedthrusting spearsandshorter,lighterthrowingspears;andbowsandarrows.Howthese weaponswerecombinedinbattle,andthetacticsemployedbythecommanders,are poorlyunderstood.Thegreatestpuzzle,however,isthemilitaryuseofthechariotby theMycenaeans. TheChariot Thechariotwasinventedearlyinthesecondmillennium(justwhereisuncertain), and,becauseofitsspeed,itsoonbecameverypopularinthecivilizationsof Mesopotamia,Anatolia,Syria,andEgypt.Asmallplatformsetatoptwohigh, spokedwheels,andpulledbytwohorses,thechariotwasamagnificentinnovation inwheeledtransport.Horsescouldnotpulltheheavyfourwheeledcartsthathad beeninuseforcenturies,becausetheharnessesconstrictedtheirnecksandchests(a problemnotsolveduntiltheinventionofthehorsecollarintheMiddleAges). Becausethechariotwasextremelylight(onemancouldeasilyliftit),apairofhorses coulddrawitandtwopassengersformanymilesatapacepreviouslyunknownon land.Ahorseandridercouldgofaster,butonlyforashortdistance.Usedatfirstby thenobilityonlyforfastcommunication,hunting,ceremony,andracing,thechariot acquiredamilitaryfunctionintheseventeenthcenturyBC,andeventuallythe chariotcorpsbecametheprimarymilitaryarmthroughouttheNearEast.The essentialmaneuverwasthemassedchariotchargeagainstanenemyschariots,one mandrivingandtheothershootingarrows.Cavalry,mountedwarriorsfightingin formation,wasnotknownintheBronzeAge. ChariotsappearedinGreecearound1600BC,afterthedifficultartofchariotryhad alreadybeenperfectedamongtheHittitesandothermajorstates.Fromtheveryfirst, theMycenaeansuseditinbattleaswellasforthewholerangeofpeacefulpurposes. Itisgenerallybelieved,however,thatitsmilitaryusewasrestrictedtoconveying heavilyarmoredelitewarriorstoandfromthefighting.Thatisthesolefunction ascribedtothewarchariotintheeighthcenturyHomericepics.Indeed,itishardto

imaginemassformationsofchariotschargingacrossthebrokenterrainofGreece. Yet,whileitistruethatGreecewasnotlikethevastplainscountriesoftheEast,itis conceivablethatminiversionsofeasternchariotwarfaretookplaceontheplains thatlaybelowtheMycenaeanfortresses.ThewanaxofKnossoshadachariotcorps withperhaps200chariots,andPylosmayhavehadnearlyasmany.Thesenumbers aresmallcomparedwiththe3500HittitechariotsthatthepharaohRamesesII(1298 1232BC)claimedtohavedefeatedinasinglebattle,buttheyfitthescaleofthesmall Mycenaeankingdoms. Inanycase,thesignificanceofthechariotwasnotitsuseinbattle,butratheritshigh prestigevalue.Likethegrandpalacesandthetholostombswiththeirrichburial offerings,theadoptionofchariotryproclaimedthatthesemibarbarouswarriorchiefs ofLateBronzeAgeGreeceweretheculturalequalsofthegreatkingsofAsiaand Egypt.Thechariot,themostintricateandcostlyitemofman 36 ufactureknowntotheGreeks,wouldretainitsimportanceasaprestigesymbolfor manycenturiesafteritceasedtohaveanymilitaryfunction. THEENDOFTHEMYCENAEANCIVILIZATION Attheheightofitsprosperity,theMycenaeancivilizationsufferedafatalblow.Over thecourseofafewdecadesaround1200Bc,almosteverycenter,majorandminor, fromIolcusinThessalytothesouthernPeloponnesus,wasattacked,plundered,and burnedbyinvaders.Thisdevastationbeganarapiddownwardspiralsoseverethat bytheendofthetwelfthcenturythereisscarcelyatraceinthearchaeologicalrecord ofthegreatMycenaeancivilizationandculture. Someofthecenters,Pylosamongthem,wereneverreinhabitedaftertheinitial onslaught.Others,suchasMycenaeandTiryns,werequicklyreoccupiedandeven enjoyedabriefresurgence,buttherevivalswereshortlived.Mycenaesuccumbedto newattacksaround1150,fromwhichitdidnotrecover.Tirynsactuallygrew considerablyinsizeandpopulationinthetwelfthcentury(probablybyaninfluxof refugees),butby1100ittoohaddeclinedintoagroupofsmallvillagessurrounding theacropolis.Theplacesthatwerenotdestroyedwereeitherabandonedcompletely orshrankdrasticallyinsize.AnotableexampleisthemajorBronzeAgecenterof AthensinAttica,whichlapsedintoacollectionofsmallvillageswithinsightofthe acropolis,eventhoughitspalaceandtownhadescapeddestruction.The destructionsalsocausedlargemovementsofpeopletoother,presumablysafer, areas,suchaseasternAttica,southernArgolis,Achaea(whichpreservedthe MycenaeannameofAchaeans),thewesternislandofCephallenia,andfaroff Cyprus.

ThecollapseofLateBronzeAgeGreekcivilizationwasactuallypartofawider catastrophethatoverwhelmedtheentireeasternMediterraneanregionandwasfelt eveninthewest,inItaly,Sicily,andtheadjacentislands.Around1200themighty Hittiteempirefellapart;itscapitalHattusasandmanyofthecitiesandtownsin AnatoliaandSyriawerecrushed.Theinvaderswereapparentlybarbariantribes fromnorthandeastofAnatoliaandanothergroupofmarauderswhomEgyptian inscriptionsrefertoasthelandandseapeoples,andnorthernersfromalllands. Thislattergroup,commonlyreferredtotodayastheSeaPeoples,attackedEgyptin 1232andagainearlyinthetwelfthcentury,bothtimesrepelledatgreatcost.The KingdomofEgyptsurvivedbutneverfullyrecovereditsformerpower.InAnatolia civilizationlanguishedforalmostfourcenturies.AmongthecasualtieswasTroy, whichwasbesiegedandburnedbetweenabout1250and1200.Thereisnowayof knowingwhetherthedestroyerswerereallytheMycenaeanGreeks,asthelegendof theTrojanWarsaid,thoughthereissomeevidencethatMycenaeansdidtakepartin thegeneralhavocthatengulfedtheMediterraneaninthelatethirteenthandearly twelfthcenturies. Egyptianinscriptionsrecordedthenamesoftheraidingandmigratingwarrior bandsfromaroundtheMediterraneanwhomadeuptheattackingSea 37 Peoples.AmongthepeoplesthathavebeententativelyidentifiedwereLibyansfrom NorthAfrica;Philistines,whogavetheirnametoPalestine;andgroupsfrom Anatolia,Sicily,andSardinia.AlsolistedwereapeoplecalledEkwesh,whowere possiblytheAchaioi(thenamebywhichtheMycenaeanswereknown).Thus, althoughthepictureishopelesslyconfused,thedestructionsintheMediterranean mayhavebeenlinkedtomigrationsofnorthernpopulationswhodisplaced populationsfurthertothesouth,settingoffconvulsiveraidsamongthelatterand sparkingmigrationsthatendedcenturiesofrelativestabilityintheregion. TheDorianInvasionandOtherGuesses Startinginthemidthirteenthcentury,theMycenaeankingdomsshowapparent signsofanxietyconcerningthethreatofattack.Thereisagreatincreasein fortificationbuildinginGreece,withpreviouslyunwalledcentersconstructing defenses.Mycenae,Tiryns,andAthensconsiderablystrengthenedtheircircuitwalls, andalsotookelaboratemeasurestoensureawatersupplywithinthecitadelsby sinkingnewwells.Afortificationwallwasevenconstructedacrossthenarrow IsthmusofCorinth,presumablytodefendthePeloponnesusfrominvasionfromthe north.CentersthroughoutGreeceweretakingprecautions,whichwouldprovetobe ofnoavail.

Theidentityoftheattackersof1200Bcremainsoneofthegreatunsolvedmysteries ofGreekhistory.Untilfairlyrecentlytherewasunanimousagreement:theywere Dorians,tribesofGreekspeakerswholivedinnorthernGreeceintheareaofthe PindusMountainsinEpirusandThessaly.SituatedonthefringesoftheMycenaean world,butnotreallypartofit,thewarlikeDorians,accordingtothetheory,came southinaseriesofmigrations,firstplunderingthepalacesandthensettlingdownin richplainsofthePeloponnesus. ThemodernDorianinvasiontheoryislargelybasedontheclaimsoflaterDorians inantiquity.DoricwasoneofthethreemaindialectsofGreek,spokeninthe Peloponnesus,fromwhereithadspreadtoCrete,Rhodes,andotherAegeanislands andtothesouthwesterncoastofAnatolia.TheseDorianspeakersclaimedthattheir ancestorsweretheHerachds,descendantsofHeracles,sonofZeusandamortal, Alcmene,andthegreatestofthemythicalGreekheroes.AfterHeraclesdeath,sothe storywent,hissonswereexpelledfromthePeloponnesusandwentnorth.Then, severalgenerationsaftertheTrojanWar,hisdescendantsreturnedsouthtoreclaim byforcetheirrightfulownershipofthePeloponnesus,assertingthattheywerethe trueAchaeans.ThelegendsoflaterGreeksfromIoniaandAtticalendadditional credencetotheDorianinvasiontheory.Theytoldthatthedesiretoescapethe ReturnsoftheHeraclidshadcausedsomeoftheirancestorstorelocateintoremoter partsofthemainland(forexampleintoAchaea,whichpreservedtheirname),while othergroupsforexample,fugitivesfromthekingdomofPylosfledtoAthens, whichwasspareddestruction,andfromtheremigratedacrosstheAegeantosettle thecentralcoastofAnatolia,whichtheycalledIonia.Thesemigrationscorrespondto thedialectmap, 38 whichsituatesspeakersoftheIoniandialectinAttica,theAegeanislands,andonthe Anatoliancoast,inanorthsouthbandfromSmyrnadowntoMiletus.Archaeology confirmsthatmigrationstoIoniaoccurredaround1050BC. Archaeologistshavefound,however,thatthefeaturesthatwereoncethoughtto havebeenbroughtinbytheinvadingDorians(suchasiron,cremation,andnew typesofweapons)wereinfactnotintroducedbynewpeopleduringasingle circumscribedperiod;andtheonlymaterialsignsofDoriansarenowdatedmuch laterthanthedestructionperiod,toaround1000BCorlater.Othertheorieshave beenbroughtforthtoaccountforthedestructionsoftheMycenaeancenters: devastatingearthquakes,maraudingbandsofthesortthatmadeuptheSeaPeoples, fiercewarsamongthekingdomsthatresultedinmutualdestruction,orrevoltsofthe Mycenaeanpeasantsandslaveswhoroseupagainsttheiroppressivemasters.

AmorelikelyexplanationisthattheMycenaeans,andotherMediterranean civilizationsaswell,experiencedsystemcollapse,abreakdownoftheireconomic andsocialsystems.These,itissuggested,weretriggeredbyproblemssuchas prolongeddrought,overpopulation,soilexhaustion,relianceontoofewcrops,and similarinternaldifficulties,whichtheponderousbureaucracieswereunableto correct.Asoneareaofthegovernmentalsystemfaltered,otherareaswereaffected, untiltheentirerulingstructurebrokedownandthestrongholdsbecameeasyprey forvariousinvaders.Compoundinginternalproblemswasthealmosttotal interruptionofMediterraneancommerceduringandafterthegeneralupsetofthe latethirteenthcentury.Thecessationofforeigntradeandthelucrative opportunitiesforbootyitofferedmightaloneaccountfortheinabilityofthe Mycenaeaneconomytorecoverandalsomayexplainwhythecentersand subcentersthatdidnotsufferphysicaldamagedeclinedandstagnatedjustthesame asthosethathadbeenburnedtotheground. ThecomingoftheDorians,then,wasperhapsnotreallyaninvasionbutanintrusion intoapoliticalvacuumcreatedbytheobliterationoftheMycenaeankingdoms. GroupsofDoricspeakersfromthenorthmayhavefilteredinoveralongperiodand takenoverthePeloponnesusandsomeoftheislands,includingCrete,usingforceto subjugatetheremnantsoftheMycenaeanpopulations. FromtheNewStoneAgeuntiltheLateBronzeAge.,Greecewasastatelesssocietyof farmersandshepherdsledbylocalchieftains,whilethecivilizationsoftheEast emergedandbecamemighty.PropelledbycontactwithCrete,Greecemadea suddenleapintocivilizationandstatehoodaround1600BC.TheMycenaeanstates reachedtheirheightofpowerandsophisticationaround1300.Forabriefperiodthey wereanimportantpresenceintheeasternMediterraneanandattainedalevelof culturalrefinementapproachingthatoftheoldercivilizations.Thenaround1200the Mycenaeancivilizationdisintegratedcompletely. Withthedestructionofthepalaces,theNearEasterntypeofsocialandeconomic organizationwoulddisappearforeverfromGreece.Yet,inEgyptandtheNearEast, whichalsosufferedsevereshocksinthelatethirteenthcentury,theancientpatternof highlycentralized,rigidlyhierarchical,monarchicalstatescon 39 tinued.Thisisagoodindicationthatunderneaththeveneerofgreatwealthand stabilitytheMycenaeaneconomyandgovernmentwereshallowlyrooted,essentially fragilesystems. WewillprobablyneverknowforcertainwhytheMycenaeancivilizationendedso abruptlyandwithsuchfinality.Thiswedoknow:withtheendofthefirststageof Greekcivilizationcamethebeginningofanewera,sodifferentthatwhentheGreeks

lookedbackupontheirLateBronzeAgepasttheycouldonlyimagineitasakindof mythicaldreamworld,atimewhengodsandhumansmingledtogether. SUGGESTEDREADINGS Barber,ElizabethWayland.1994.WomensWork:TheFirst20,000Years.Women,Cloth, andSocietyinEarlyTimes.NewYorkandLondon:Norton.Thehistoryoftextile manufactureaswomensworkandartfromthePaleolithicthroughtheIronAge, includingweavingtechniquesandmythsaboutweaving.Amajorstudyofwomens principalcontributiontotheancienteconomy. Chadwick,John.1967.TheDeciphermentofLinearB.2nded.Cambridge,Eng.: CambridgeUniversityPress.ThestoryofhowtheLinearBtabletsweredeciphered toldbyoneoftheprincipalinvestigators. Chadwick,John.TheMycenaeanWorld.1976.Cambridge,Eng.:CambridgeUniversity Press.Alavishlyillustrateddescriptionoftheworkingsofthepalacesocietiesof MycenaeanGreece,withemphasisonthekingdomofPylos. Dickinson,Oliver.1994.TheAegeanBronzeAge.Cambridge,Eng.:Cambridge UniversityPress.Ascholarly,butaccessible,surveyofallaspectsoftheprehistoric AegeanculturesfromtheEarlyBronzeAgetothecollapseofMycenaeancivilization. Drews,Robert.1993.TheEndoftheBronzeAge:ChangesinWarfareandtheCatastrophe ca.1200B.C.Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress.Anoverviewanddetailed analysisofthelatesttheoriesofthefallofthegreatcivilizationsoftheLateBronze Age. Hooker,J.T.MycenaeanGreece.1976.London:Routledge.Agoodgeneral introductiontotheancientAegeansocieties. McDonald,WilliamA.andCarolG.Thomas.1990.ProgressintothePast.The RediscoveryofMycenaeanCivilization.Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress.An accountofthemajorandminordiscoveriesoftheMinoanandMycenaean civilizationswrittenfromthepointofviewofthearchaeologiststhemselves,from EvansandSchliemanntothepresent. vanTjerdAndelandCurtisRunnels.1987.BeyondtheAcropolis:ARuralGreekPast. Stanford,Calif.:StanfordUniversityPress.Adescriptionofthetopography,floraand fauna,andsubsistencestrategiesofancientGreekfarminglife. Vermeule,Emily.1972.GreeceintheBronzeAge.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress. OneoftheforemostexpertsofearlyGreekculturedescribestheland,art,culture, andlifeofprehistoricGreecefromtheStoneAgetotheendoftheBronzeAge.

40 2 THEDARKAGEOFGREECEANDTHEEIGHTHCENTURYRENAISSANCE (c.1150700BC) Thearchaeologicalremainsfromthelatetwelfthcenturygivetheimpressionthata gianthandhadsuddenlysweptawaythesplendidMycenaeancivilization,leaving initswakeonlyisolationandpoverty.By1100BCthepalacecenterswereinruinsor uninhabited;sowerethescoresofoncebustlingtownsandvillagesacrosstheentire Greekworld.Theculturallosseswerecatastrophicandlonglasting.Forthenext450 yearsnomonumentalstonestructureswouldbebuiltinGreece.Theartofwriting wasforgotten,andwouldnotreturnuntiltheeighthcentury.Suppliesofbronzeand othermetalsdwindledtoatrickle,asvitaltradelinkswerebroken.Itwouldbetwo hundredyearsbeforeGreekcraftsmenagainturnedoutobjectsandjewelryofgold, silver,andivory.AndthekindsofluxurygoodsandweaponsthattheMycenaean elitehadtakenwiththemintotheeartharenotfoundinthegravesofthe postdestructionperiod.Bycontrasttothebrilliantagethathadgonebefore,Greece hadtrulydescendedintoadarkage.Yetduringthoseobscurecenturies,anew Greecewasrising,radicallydifferentfromboththeoldGreeceandtheothersocieties oftheancientMediterranean.Thepatternsofsocialandpoliticalintegrationthat emergedfromtheshatteredpalacestateswouldsetthepathtoanewkindofstate governmentinGreece,thecitystate(polis),whicharoseintheeighthcenturyBC. TherootsoftheGreekcitystate,consideredbymanytohavebeenthecradleof westerndemocracyandlegalequality,werefirmlyplantedintheDarkAge. IttookmanyyearsforGreecetorecuperatefullyfromtheshocksofthedestructions andtheiraftermath.IntheearlypartoftheDarkAge,fromabout1150toabout900 BC,Greecewasdisturbedbysporadicincursionsandmovementsofpeople.Yetitis duringthisperiodofdislocationandturbulencethatevidenceof 41 recoveryandmaterialprogressappears.ThelaterpartoftheDarkAge,fromabout 900toabout750BC,sawaslowlyacceleratingrevival,culminatingintheremarkable culturalleapoftheeighthcenturyrenaissance(c.750700). SOURCESFORTHEDARKAGE Theprincipalreasonforcallingthisadarkageisnotsomuchforculturaldeclineas forarchaeologicalobscurity.TherichmaterialrecordoftheLateBronzeAgeturns nearlyblankintheeleventhandtenthcenturies.Andthoughthematerialfinds increaseafter900BC,theyarestillrelativelymeageruntilabout700.Evenso,the archaeologyoftheDarkAgehasmadesignificantprogresssincethe1960s.A

numberofnewDarkAgesettlementshavebeendiscovered.Atechniquecalled surveyarchaeology,inwhichateamofinvestigatorssystematicallywalkslargeareas oftheterrain,isprovidingapictureofthesparselypopulatedDarkAgecountryside. Moreover,theincreasinguseofthecomparativemethodsofanthropologyand sociologytoanalyzethematerialevidencehasfurtheredourknowledgeofhowthese societiesfunctioned. AveryrichsourceofinformationaboutthelaterpartoftheDarkAgearethe Homericpoems,theIliadandtheOdyssey(c.750720BC).AswesawinChapter1, althoughtheytakeplaceintheglorydaysoftheMycenaeanperiod,thepoemsdo notdescribethesocietyrevealedbythematerialremainsandtheLinearBtablets. ThesocialbackgroundoftheHomericnarrativesfitsinsteadthearchaeological pictureofthelateDarkAge.Thequestionofwhereintheperiodfrom1100to700BC toplaceHomericsocietyisfarfromsettled,butthereisagrowingbeliefthatit largelyreflectstheactualsocietyofthelateninthandearlyeighthcenturyBC. ThetwopoemsofHesiodofferawealthofinformationaboutGreeklifeandthought around700BC,thetimeoftheircomposition.TheTheogony,inconjunctionwiththe Homericepics,providesacomprehensivepictureofearlyGreekreligiousbeliefs. Hesiodsotherpoem,WorksandDays,whichreflectsthesocialandeconomic relationsofhisownday,willbeanimportantsourceforthenextchapter. DECLINEANDRECOVERY(c.1150900BC) Theneartotalabsenceoffinelymadeandexpensiveartifactsisthestrongest evidenceforthedeclineofGreekcivilizationafter1200.Throughpaintedpottery, however,whichisrelativelyabundant,wecanchartthegeneralcourseofdecline andrecovery.TheperiodsoftheDarkAgeinfactarenamedafterthestagesof potteryshapesandornamentation.Luckilyforhistorians,theGreekscontinuedto taketheartofmakingandpaintingvasesveryseriously,andsotheirclaycontainers furnishareliableindextothegeneralstateofculture. Thepotterydatingfromabout1125toabout1050,thelowpointintheaftermathof thedestructions,iscalledSubmycenaean,sinceitisstillrecognizablyMycenaeanyet ismuchinferiorinquality.Ithasbeenaptlycalledastyleofex 42 haustion.Potterswerecontenttoreplicateamerehandfulofthelargerepertoireof shapesanddecorativeelementsthathadbeenavailabletotheirgrandparents.The clayisoftenpoorlyprepared.Thevesselsaresmaller,lesswellformed,andpoorly fired.Theexecutionofthetraditionalmotifsanddecorationsisclumsyandirregular. Yetthesevases,wretchedbycomparisonwiththoseofthethirteenthcenturyand feebleevenbytheloweredstandardsofthedestructionperiod,arethemainwealth

oftheSubmycenaeangravesinwhichtheywerefound.Nothingelseofvaluewas buriedexceptforanoccasionalgoldringorbronzedresspin,andeventhepottery wasnotabundant.(Forexample,only160vaseswerefoundin220gravesinAthens andSalamis,placesthatwerenotdestroyedorabandoned.)Theevidencebothfrom thegravesandfromabovegroundrevealsasocietyinadeepdepression,both economicandcultural. AcrosstheGreekworld,populationlevelshaddroppedprecipitously.Estimatesof thedecreasevary,accordingtoregion,from60to90percent,apictureofalmost inconceivabledepopulation.TheAegeanislandofMelos,forexample,heavily populatedintheLateBronzeAge,appearstohavebeenvirtuallyemptyforthenext twohundredyears.EveninAttica,whichwasnotinvadedsuccessfully,thenumber ofsettlementsdroppedby50percent.ThepopulationofGreeceattheendofthe eleventhcenturywasprobablythelowestithadbeeninathousandyears. Thecauseofthedramaticdropinpopulationisnotfullyunderstood,butitseemsto havebeenconnectedtothecollapseoftheredistributivesystemandthegeneral economiclethargythatgrippedGreeceatthebeginningoftheDarkAge.The insecureconditionscausedbylargemovementsofpeoples,oftenaccompaniedby violence,mayalsohavebeenafactor.Atthesametime,however,movementsand relocationsofpeoplecangiveanexaggeratedimpressionofoveralldepopulation. ThedesertionsofsomeofthesmallerBronzeAgesettlementsweretheresultoftheir inhabitantsmovingtoanother,moresecure,village.RecentexcavationsatTiryns,for example,haverevealedthatitspopulationactuallyincreasedafter1200.Inaddition, substantialnumbersfledtoAchaeaandArcadiaandotherregionsnotheavily populatedearlier,whileothersrelocatedoverseas. Whatsurvivedfromtheworldofthethirteenthcenturyintotheworldofthe eleventh,andwhatwaslost?Plainly,thecentralizedeconomicandpolitical organizationhaddisappearedalongwiththepalaces.Thepowerfulwanax(king) andhissmallarmiesofofficials,scribes,andworkersthathadsupportedthe elaborateredistributivesystemweregoneforever.Withinafewgenerationsall knowledgeofthosethingsdisappeared,leavingonlythememoryoflegendary warriorchiefs,powerfulrulersofoncelargeandprosperouskingdoms,imaginedas bettermenineverywaythantheirpunydescendants. Thedisappearanceofthepoliticalandeconomicsystemsandthehighculturethat accompanieditdoesnotmean,however,thatGreecehadlapsedintoaprimitive state.Despitethecollapseofthepalaceorganization,everythingthatmatteredin dailylifeatthelevelofthehouseholdandthevillagecontinuedwithout interruption.AstheyhadintheMycenaeanAge,theDarkAgeGreeksgrewwheat andbarley,olives,figs,andgrapes;theymadewineandcheese,tannedhides,

shearedtheirsheep,spunandwovetheirwoolandflax,usingthesamemethodsand equipmentasbefore.Sotoo,thebasictechnicalcraftsofthepotter, 43 weaver,metalworker,andcarpenterbuildersurvived,thoughatalowerlevelofskill andrefinement.Tobesure,therewasnolongeranydemandformetalinlayorblue glasspasteorfrescopaintings,which,liketheartofwriting,haddisappearedwith thepalaces.Forcentralmanufacturing,storage,anddistributionhadbeen eliminated,alongwithluxurygoods,trade,andthetaxcollector.Yetthetimeless rhythmandactivitiesoftheagriculturalyearandthefarmingvillagewenton unchangedandwouldremainconstantoverthefollowingcenturies. Similarly,intherealmofreligion,theDarkAgewasaperiodofbothcontinuityand discontinuity.ThenamesofsixorsevenofthelatertwelveOlympiangodsare foundintheLinearBtablets.Ontheotherhand,manyofthosenamedinthetablets didnotsurvive,suchasDrimios,sonofZeus,andDia,afeminineformofZeus, presumablyhisconsort.Thegeneralmannerofworshippingandplacatingthegods throughprayerandsacrificeandgiftsremainedmuchthesame.IntheDarkAge, however,religiousworshipwasnolongercenteredinthepalacesbutwasdiffused amongthevillages,andmanyofthecultsandfestivalsforspecificdeitieswere foundedthen.Ideasaboutthenatureandpersonalitiesofthegodsprobablyalso changed.Thoughmanyofthestories(mythoi)aboutgodsandheroesthatformedthe coreoflaterliteratureandartoriginatedinthefourteenthandthirteenthcenturies BCanddidsurvivemoreorlessintactthroughthedestructionperiod,otherswere probablymadeuporborrowedfromtheEastduringtheDarkAge. Paradoxically,signsofrecoveryappearatatimewhenthematerialculturewasatits lowestebb.Beginningaround1050,differentdialectgroupsfromthemainland beganmigratingtotheAegeanislandsandtothecoastofAsiaMinor,settlingina northsouthbandfromtheHellesponttoRhodes.AswesawinChapter1,according tothelegendsthesettlersofthecentralportion,theIonians,wereAchaeanrefugees fromthePeloponnesuswho,toescapetheDorians,fledfirsttoAtticaandlaterset outacrosstheAegean.Doriansalsoparticipatedinthemovements,takingoverthe southernAegeanislandsandthesouthwestcoastofAsiaMinor.Thenumerous coastalandislandtownscreated,forthefirsttimeinhistory,alargepermanent GreekpresenceinAsiaMinorandensuredthattheAegeanSeawouldonedaybe knownastheGreekSea. Anotherindicationofrecoverywasthemasteryofthedifficultprocessofsmelting andworkingiron,whichproducedweaponsandtoolsthatwereharderthanthose madeofbronzeandkepttheiredgebetter.AlthoughGreeceisfairlyrichinironore, andthetechnologyforexploitingitwaslongknownintheEast,theMycenaean

Greekshadpreferredtoimportfromabroadcopperandtin(resourceslargely lackinginGreece)tomakebronze.Butwhenthecollapseoftradecutoffthesupply ofbronze,necessityprovedthemotherofinvention.From1050on,smalllocaliron industriessprangupallacrossthemainlandandtheislands.Archaeologyshowsthat by950mostoftheweaponsandtoolsweremadeofiron,notbronze.TheIronAge haddawnedinGreece. RenewedenergyisrevealedinanewstyleofpotterycalledProtogeometric(1050 900),whichseemstohaveoriginatedinAtticaandveryquicklyspreadintoother regions.AlthoughProtogeometricbearsclearaffinitiestothedecadent Submycenaeanstylefromwhichitevolved,thereareremarkabledifferences.The 44 a

b Figure2.1a.ASubmycenaeanvasefromtheKerameikuscemeteryinAthens.Note thebarelyrecognizableoctopus,whichhadbeenastandardmotifon MinoanMycenaeanvases.Figure2.1b.ALateProtogeometricvasefromthesame cemetery,foreshadowingtheGeometricstyle. 45 vasesbecomebetterproportioned,slimmerandlesssquat.Newvarietiesofshapes appear.TheabstractdecorativedesignsinheritedfromSubmycenaeanhorizontal linesandbands,arcs,halfcircles,andconcentriccirclesarenowcrisplydrawnand fittheshapesofthevasesmorepleasingly.Theoveralleffectisoneofbalance,order, andsymmetry. Theaestheticrefinementwaspartlyaresultofadvancesintechnique.Pottershad developedafasterwheel,whichallowedthemtoimprovetheshapesofthevases. Andtheynolongerdrewtheirlinesandcirclesfreehand.Forlinesandbandsthey usedaruler;forcirclestheyinventedamultiplebrushandcompass(severalbrushes onasinglearmaffixedtoapairofdividers).Moreovertheypreparedtheclaybetter andachievedafiner,morelustrousglazebyfiringatahighertemperature. Beginningaround1000BC,populationslowlybegantoinchupward,althougheven attheendoftheProtogeometricperiod(c.900BC)populationlevelswerestillquite lowandthenumberofsettlementshadincreasedonlyslightly.Archaeologistslabel asprominentanytenthorninthcenturysitethatheldmorethantwohundred people;thesmallersitesweremerehamletscontainingahandfuloffamilies,atotal oftwentytofortypeople.Manyofthesesiteshadbeenflourishingtownsand

villagesintheLateBronzeAge.Theyweredestroyedorabandonedinthetwelfth centuryandlefttotallyornearlyuninhabitedforseveralgenerations,andthenwere reinhabited(thoughnotalwaysontheexactsite)onamuchsmallerscaleinthe Protogeometricperiod.AfewmajorsettlementslikeAthensorCorinthmayhave hadpopulationsofathousandorevensubstantiallymoreatthistime.However, becausesuchplaceshavebeencontinuouslyinhabitedandbuiltover,thereisnoway tojudgetheirsizeorgrowthintheDarkAgewithoutstrippingawaythemodern buildingsordemolishingtheexcavatedClassicalstructures. Althoughrecoverywasslowanditspacevariedfromregiontoregion,progresswas steady.AbandonedMycenaeanvillagescamebacktolife,and,thoughfewand small,newsettlementsappeared.Communicationimprovedaswell,bothbetween thevariousregionsofGreeceandbetweentheGreeksandtheEast.Foreigntrade, whichhadvirtuallyceasedbytheendofthetwelfthcentury,resumed,thoughat muchreducedlevels.Bytheendofthetenthcentury,themajormovementsof peopleintoandwithinGreecehadslackened.Greecehadachievedastabilityithad notknownsincethedestructionphase.In900Greekcivilizationstoodatthe thresholdofanewera. SOCIETYINTHEEARLYDARKAGE MaterialandsocialconditionsintheearlyDarkAgewerevastlydifferentfromwhat theyhadbeeninthehighlypopulatedandhighlyregulatedregimesofthe MycenaeanAge.Withthedissolutionoftheintricatetiesthathadboundtheoutlying settlementstothepalacecomplexesandtooneanother,theformercentersand peripheralvillagesfoundthemselveslargelyontheirownpoliticallyand 46 economically.Withthedeclineofpopulation,landwasplentiful.Thefertileplains weremorethansufficientfortheinhabitantsofthesmallfarmingcommunities.The lessfertilefarmlandprovidedareserve.Distantuplandplainsandmountainvalleys layuntouchedorweregivenovertograzing.Game,birds,wildfoods,andother naturalresources,liketimber,wereplentifulandreadilyavailable. Leadershipandgovernmentalrolesintheseselfsufficientcommunitiesweresimple andoperatedfacetoface.AfterthecollapseoftheMycenaeansystemGreecemost likelyrevertedtoagovernmentoflocalchiefs,similartothetypeoforganizationthat hadexistedintheMiddleBronzeAgebeforetheconsolidationofpowerbyasingle chief.Thegravesandbuildingremainsfromtheeleventhandtenthcenturiesshow littlesocialdifferentiation.Thechiefsandtheirfamiliesseemnottohavelivedmuch differentlyfromtherest. TheBasileus

TheMycenaeanLinearBtabletsprovideanimportantcluetotheprocessof decentralization.AswesawinChapter1,thereoccursonthetabletsthetitlepasireu, whichseemstohavebelongedtoaminorofficial,thelocalrepresentativeofthewanax,who functionedasakindofmayorofatownorvillage.ThetitlepasireusurvivedintotheDark Age,writteninthelaterGreekalphabetasbasileus.IntheHomericsociety,however,the basileusisthepoliticalandmilitaryleaderofasettlementanditsadjacentland.Itappears thatwhentheMycenaeankingdomsfellapart,theirseparatecomponentsthevillages,with theirsurroundingfarmlandsandpasturescontinuedtobeheadedbymencalledbasileis (plural).Thedifference,ofcourse,wasthatabasileusnolongerreportedtoorcarriedoutthe instructionsofacentralwanax.Thisscenarioisborneoutbythefactthatthetitlewanax doesactuallyappearinHomerbutisusedonlyasanhonorificequivalentofbasileus,andas thetitleofZeus,thesupremegod,whoiscalled(w)anaxofgodsandmen.Clearly,afterthe destructionsofthepalaces,nosuchfigureasthewanaxexistedinreallife,onlythenameand avaguememoryofhisexaltedstatus. TheGreekwordbasileusisusuallytranslatedaskingwhereveritappearsinliterature, includingintheIliadandOdyssey.Itwouldbemisleading,however,tocalltheDarkAge leaderskings,atitlethatconjuresupinthemodernmindvisionsofmonarchswith autocraticpowers.AmoreappropriatenamefortheDarkAgebasileusistheanthropological termchief,whichsuggestsamanwithfarlesspowerthanaking.Thebasileus, nevertheless,wasamanofgreatstatureandimportanceinhiscommunity. EvidenceofanearlyDarkAgebasileuswasrecentlydiscoveredatthesiteofLefkandionthe islandofEuboea.AbustlingMycenaeantown,Lefkandihaddeclinedduringthecollapseand thenrevivedintheSubmycenaeanperiod,enjoyinganexceptionalprosperity(byDarkAge standards)until700,whenitwasabandoned.In1981,theexcavatorsmadeasurprising discovery:thelargestDarkAgebuildingyetfound,measuring30by146feet,constructed around1000BC.A 47 burialbeneaththefloorofthemainroomheldabronzeamphoracontainingthe crematedremainsofamanandbesideitanironsword,spearhead,andwhetstone. Nexttotheamphoralaytheskeletonofawoman,presumablythemanswife,buried withgoldornaments.Nearbywasanotherburialcontainingtheskeletonsoffour horses.Soonafterthefuneralthewholebuildingwasapparentlydeliberately demolishedandcoveredoverwithahugemoundofearthandstones.Scholars remainpuzzledaboutthebuildingsfunction:Wasitthecoupleshouseora deliberatelydesignedmassivetomb?Ineithercase,themanwhoreceivedthis elaboratewarriorsburial(andmayhavebeengivenculthonorsafterhisdeath),was plainlythebasileusofLefkandianditssurroundingarea,amanwhohadbeenthe focalpointofthesocietyinhislifeandwasequallyhonoredindeath.

RecentexcavationshaverevealedotherearlyDarkAgechieftainsandtheirsocieties. EspeciallynoteworthyisthesiteofNichoria,locatedinthesouthwestPeloponnesus, apoorerandlessprogressiveregionthanEuboea,whichhadmaintainedsteady contactwiththeNearEast.Nichoriahadbeenanimportantsubsidiarytownofthe kingdomofPylosandwasabandonedaround1200,whenthemarauderscame.It camebacktolifearound1050asamuchsmallervillageactuallyseveralseparate hamletsstrungalongtheridgetopwhosepopulationreachedabouttwohundred earlyintheninthcenturyBC.Nichoriawasfairlyprosperousinahumbleway, supportingitselfbyfarmingandherding,especiallycattle. Inthemainpopulationcluster,locatedatthecenteroftheridge,archaeologists uncoveredalargetenthcenturybuilding,about35feetlongand23feetwide, consistingofonelargeroomandasmallporch(room2).Theyidentifieditasthe villagechieftainshouse.Althoughmuchlargerandbetterconstructedthanthe ordinaryhousesontheridge,itwasthesameshapeandmadeofthesamematerials. Itsfloorwaspackedearthanditswallswereofmudbrick,supportingasteep thatchedroofthatextendedovertheshallowfrontporch.Aremodelingearlyinthe ninthcenturyaddedasecond,smallerroomattherear(room3)andalarge courtyardinfront,lengtheningthebuildingtoanimpressive52feet.Thehousewas abandonedinthelateninthcentury;butrightnexttoitanewtworoomhousewas erected,builtevenbetterandboastingamuchlongercourtyard.Aroundthistime, however,thepopulationofNichoriawasdeclining.Finally,thewholesitewas abandonedabout750BC,perhapsthevictimofSpartanaggressioninMessenia. TheresidencesofDarkAgebasileisrevealthattheywereimportantpersonagesin theirvillagesandthesurroundingarea.Theconstructionandrenovationsofthe chieftainshomesrequiredthetimeandlaborofasubstantialnumberofpersons, unliketheordinaryhouses,whichcouldbebuiltbytheoccupantsthemselves.The chiefshousesmayalsohavehadsomecommunalfunctions.Theexcavatorssuggest thatthechiefshouseatNichoria,forexample,servedasthereligiouscenterofthe settlementandperhapsasacommunalstorehouse.Yet,althoughthechiefsheldthe higheststatusinthecommunity,itisclearthattheylivedinastylethatwashardly differentfromthatoftheirneighbors. 48 a

b Figure2.2a.Artistsplananddrawingoftheninthcenturyvillagechieftainshouse atNichoria.Figure2.2b.ArtistsconceptionofanordinaryDarkAgehouse. 49

NichoriaandotherDarkAgesitesalsotellusthattheeconomy,thegovernment,and othersocialinstitutionsunderwentnobasicchangesduringtheDarkAge.New generationscouldexpecttolivethesamekindoflifeastheirparents,sharingthe samebeliefs,andunderthesameformofgovernment.Suchastaticexistencein smallvillagecommunitieswasnotabadthingatall,foritcreatedandpreserved triedandtruerulesforsocialconduct.ThroughouttheirhistorytheGreekswould clingtotheirancienttraditionsofrightandwrongbehavior,evenamidstchanging conditions.Thispersistentreferencetotheancientwayswasoneofthebinding forcesofHellenicculture. REVIVAL(c.900750BC) Thoughsocialinstitutionsremainedconstant,thepaceofmaterialprogress quickenedaround900BC.Asusual,vasesfoundingravesprovidethemainindexof changeanddevelopment.TheProtogeometricpottersandpaintersofthetenth centurywerestillveryconservativeanddidnotinnovateorexperimentmuch,but theycontinuedtorefineandperfecttheirtechniques.However,around900,asthe lateProtogeometricstyleevolvesintotheGeometricstyle,anewartisticand aestheticspiritbecomesevident.Thereisnodramaticbreakwiththetradition,andin someregionstheoldstylecontinuesforsometime.Nevertheless,aremarkable proliferationofgeometricdesignsmarkstheGeometricasadistinctlynewperiod. TheGeometricstyle(c.900700)isconventionallydividedintothreearthistorical phases,Early(c.900850),Middle(c.850750),andLate(c.750700).IntheEarly Geometricperiod,thevasemakersaddednewshapesandnewdecorativemotifsto theirrepertoires.Thecirclesandsemicirclesthathadbeenthestapledesignsofthe Protogeometricvaseswerelargelyreplacedbymorelinearandangularmotifs,such asthemeanderpattern(alsocalledtheGreekkeydesign),zigzags,triangles,and crosshatching,setintoclearlydefinedzonesandbands.TheMiddleGeometric pottersdisplayagrowingcommandofincreasinglyelaboratelineardecoration, graduallyfillingtheentiresurfaceofthevase.Thevasesbecomelargerandmore ambitious,showoffpiecesforartistsandcostlytrophiesforbuyers. Intheearlyeighthcentury,thevasepaintersbegantodepictlivingcreaturesonce again,revivingamotifthathadvirtuallydisappearedafter1200.Atfirsttheydrew onlyanimalsandbirds,reproducingthemcookiecutterstyleonfriezesacrossthe vase.Humanfiguresreappeararound760to750,andsoonthepictorialelements begintodominate,untilrepresentationaldrawingtakesovermostofthesurfaceand geometricdesignrecedesintothebackground.LateGeometric(c.750700)islinked tothepast,buthasunmistakablybrokenwithit.Accordingly,LateGeometricvase paintingandotherculturalinnovationsoftheeighthcenturyrenaissancewillbe treatedlaterinthischapter.

Otherindicationsofmaterialprogress,consistentwiththedevelopmentsinthe pottersart,becomevisibleatthebeginningoftheGeometricperiod.Ninthcentury Greekcraftsmenwerenowproducingluxuryitemslikefinegoldjewelryandivory carvingsfordomesticconsumption.Thisdevelopmentattestsnotonlytotherevival ofcraftskillsandamarketforthem,butalsotoarenewedavailabilityof 50 rawmaterialsfromabroad,includingbronze,whichbegintoappearinlarger quantitiesasaresultofincreasingtradewiththeNearEast.Thesedomesticluxury items,aswellasimportedones,turnupwithincreasingfrequencyinninthand eighthcenturyburials.Withveryfewexceptions,gravegoodsfrombeforeabout900 reveallittledisparityinwealthorsocialstatus.Intheninthcentury,itispossiblefor thefirsttimetospeakofrichandostentatiousgraves,althoughthedistinctionsof wealtharegenerallyslightuntiltheLateGeometric(c.750700). Housesalsowereforthemostpartbetterbuiltintheninthcentury,reflectingthe generalriseinprosperity.Buttherewerenomajorchangesinbuildingstyleand materials,andthetopfamilieswereonlyalittlemorecomfortablyhousedthanthe rest.Therearestillnosignsofcommunalbuildings.Theearliestofthese,thefree standingtempleofagod,wouldnotappearuntilabout800. HOMERANDORALPOETRY Thetwogreatepicpoems,theIliadandtheOdyssey,werenotproduceduntiltheLate Geometricperiod,buttheyareintroducedherebecausethetextsaswehavethem arereallytheculminationofalongoraltraditiongoingbackcenturiesbe Figure2.3.GoldjewelryfromthecremationgraveofawealthyAthenianwoman, around850BC.Inadditiontothejewelry,shewasburiedwithalargenumberoffine vases,bronzeandironpins,ivoryseals,afaiencenecklace,andalargeceramicchest, surmountedwithfivemodelgranaries,attestingtotheagriculturalwealthofher family. 51 foretheeighthcentury.Epicpoemsarelongnarrativetales;theytellastoryinverse andaresungorrecitedinfrontofanaudience.TheHomericepicsaretheoldest knownliteratureofEurope,thoughtheyarequiteyoungcomparedwiththeepic poetryoftheNearEast,whichgoesbackatleasttothethirdmillenniumBC. AlthoughthelaterGreeksreveredHomerastheirfirstandgreatestpoet,theyknew nothingabouthim.TraditionhaditthathewasanIonian,fromSmyrnaorChios;

somesaidthathewasblind.Andtheygavewidelydifferentdatesforhislifetime, mostofthembefore700BCaccordingtoourreckoningoftime. ModernlinguisticanalysisoftheHomericpoemsplacestheircompositionbetween about750and720,theIliadseveraldecadesearlierthantheOdyssey.Thetime differentialhasledmanyscholarstoquestionwhethertheIliadandtheOdysseywere theworkofasinglepoetoroftwoseparatepoets.Themethodoftheircomposition hasalsobeenamatterofcontroversy.AsearlyastheeighteenthcenturyAD, suspicionshadarisenthatthepoemswerecomposedorally,andnotwrittendown, becausesomuchofthenarrativeconsistsoffrequentlyrepeatedcombinationsof stockphrases.Butthecompositionofextremelylongandcomplexpoemswithout writingtheIliadisaroundsixteenthousandlinesandtheOdysseytwelvethousand seemedimpossible.Atheorythusarosethatthepoemsaswenowhavethemwere stitchedtogethercenturieslater,outofshortlaysorballadsthattoldaboutthe deedsofoldenheroes.TherealauthorsoftheIliadandOdyssey,accordingtothis theory,werethegenerationsofanonymous,literatepoeteditorswhocollected, expanded,andelaboratedonthetraditionaloralsongs. Amajorshiftinopinionoccurredwhenitwasshownthatilliteratepoetscouldin factcomposelongpoemsthathadthecomplexityandstylisticexcellenceofwritten poetry.Intheearly1930s,ayoungclassicalscholar,MilmanParry,andhisco worker,AlbertLord,madephonographrecordsofilliterateBosniansingerpoets singingatraditionaltypeofsouthSlavicepicheroicpoetry.Comparingrecordings ofthesamepoemssomeover10,000linesmadeatdifferenttimes,ParryandLord discoveredthatnotwoperformanceswereexactlythesame.Itturnedoutthatthe singerhadnotlearnedandmemorizedhispoem,butwasrathercomposing,or, morecorrectly,recomposingitashewentalong.Thiswaspossiblebecausethe storycontentwastraditionalandwassunginahighlyformalizedstyle. ParryconcludedthattheHomericpoemshadbeencreatedinasimilarmanner. Homer,hebelieved,wasthegreatestinalongsuccessionoforalsingerpoets,who hadlearnedthedifficultcraftoforalcompositionfromthepreviousgenerationof poets,whointurnhadlearneditfromtheirelders.Inretellingtheancientstories, whichwerefamiliartotheaudiences,Homerdrewonaninheritedstockof traditionalformulas(fixedphrases,lines,andblocksoftext)andthemes(typical scenes,storypatterns)thathehadmemorizedandcouldvaryastheoccasion demanded.Overalifetimeofprivaterehearsals,writingthepoetryinhismind, andpublicperformances,Homercraftedandperfectedthepoemsthatborehis personalsignature.Theoralformulaictheory,asitiscalled,isnowuniversally acceptedandinfacthasgreatlyinfluencedtheworldwidestudyofotheroral literaturesofthepastandpresent. 52

OnthequestionofwhentheHomericpoemswerecommittedtowriting,andthus fossilized,sotospeak,theprevailingviewtodayisthattheywerewrittendownvery nearthetimeoftheircomposition.Itwasduringthistimethattheartofwriting returnedtoGreece.LordarguedthattheilliterateHomerdictatedhisepicsto personswhocouldwrite.Otherscholars,however,believethatthepoemsaswe havethemwerememorizedandtransmittedorallybyprofessionalreciterscalled rhapsodesforsomegenerationsbeforetheywerewrittendown,perhapsaslateas thesixthcentury.StillothersmaintainthatHomerwastrainedintheoraltradition buthadlearnedtowrite,andwasthereforeawritingpoet.Whatevertheactualrole ofwritinginthefinalcompositionofthetwogreatepics,itisagreedthatthey representtheculminationofaverylongoralepictradition,whichceasedtoevolve withtheadventofwriting. InthewordsofaBosniansinger,epicpoetryisthesongoftheoldentime,ofthe deedsofthegreatmenofoldandtheheroesovertheearth.Suchsongshadbeen sungandresunginGreececontinuouslysincetheBronzeAge;intheintervening centuries,storiesandthemesfromtheheroicliteraturesoftheancientNearEastalso foundtheirwayintotheslowlyevolvingGreekoralepictradition.FortheGreeksof theDarkAgeandlater,theoldentimewasanAgeofHeroes,arelativelybrief periodthatencompassedagenerationortwobefore,andonegenerationafter,the TrojanWar;this,inourtimereckoningwasapproximatelythethirteenthcenturyBC. ThestoryoftheTrojanWarisaclassicallysimplefolksaga.Paris,thesonofKing PriamofTroy,seducedandbroughtbacktoTroythebeautifulHelen,thewifeof Menelaus,ruleroftheSpartans.Toavengetheinsult,Menelausandhisbrother, Agamemnon,anax(wanax)ofMycenae,gatheredahugearmyofAchaeanwarriors, whosailedtoTroyanddestroyedthecityafteratenyearsiege.Whethersuchan expeditionactuallyoccurredisunimportant;fortheGreeksthemselvestheTrojan Warwasthepivotaleventoftheirearlyhistory. TheIliadandOdysseydonotnarratetheentireTrojanWar.TheIliadcompressesthe actionintoaboutfortydaysinthetenthyearoftheWar,andtheOdysseytellsabout thereturnhomeofonewarriorchief,Odysseus.Thepoemsassumethattheeighth centuryaudiencesknewtherestoftheplotsandactions.Intheseventhandintothe sixthcentury,anEpicCycleofseparate,andshorter,poemswasconstructed aroundthetwogreatpoems,completingthestoryofTroy.Theselesserepics, sometimesattributedtoHomerhimself,narratedtheeventsleadinguptothewar, eventsduringthewar,includingtheSackingofTroy,andthereturnsofother Greekchiefs. LATEDARKAGE(HOMERIC)SOCIETY

Notsurprisingly,consideringthevastremoveintime,theHomericpoemspreserve almostnothingaboutLateBronzeAgesociety.Nordotheyrevealmuchaboutthe poetsowntime,thelateeighthcentury.Thepoemsdo,however,provideawealthof detailaboutDarkAgesocietyafewgenerationsearlier,some 53 wherearound800BC.Thetimelagisnotsurprising.Duringthepoetslifetime, fundamentalchangesweretakingplaceinthesociety,andthesecouldnoteasilybe fittedintothetraditionalnarrativebackgroundthathadevolvedduringthecenturies oforalcomposition.Thesocietydepictedintheepics,therefore,musthavebeen earlierthanthetimeoftheircomposition,yetwithinlivingmemoryofthepoetand hisaudiences.Homericsocietyresemblesbothinitsgeneralstructureandinmanyof itsdetailsthetypeofsocialorganizationthatanthropologistscallachiefdom.Such warriorsocietieshaveexistedthroughouttheworldandinallperiodsofhistory. HomericsocietyisnaturallyadistortionofthelateDarkAgesocietyonwhichitwas based.Theoralpoetswererecreatinganimaginarypastworldthatwasineveryway betterandgranderthantheircontemporaryworld.Forexample,theTrojanleader Hectorpicksup,foruseasaweapon,astone whichtwomen,thebestintheland,couldnoteasilyliftfromthegroundontoa wagon,mensuchasmortalsaretoday;buthebrandisheditlightly,allbyhimself. (Iliad12.445449) Nevertheless,aspectsofthatimaginedworld,especiallyitssocialinstitutionsand ideologies,musthavebeenbasedontheaudiencesreallifeexperienceinorderfor themtomakesenseoftheactionandtorelatetothecharactersandtheirmotivations. Amodernanalogyissciencefiction,whichhastoreflectthereadersownworldto someextentnomatterhowfantasticorsurrealthesettingandtheplot.Similarly,the Homericpoemsarefullofsheerfantasyandexaggeration,yetstuddedwithtelltale signsofpresentdayreality.So,forexample,thefrontcourtyardofOdysseus splendidresidencecontainsalargepileofmanure,aswellasthefamilysgeeseand ewesatmilkingtime.Inside,thefloorsaremadeofpackedearth,andthegreathall (megaron)isblackenedwithsootfromthesmokycentralhearth.Infact,Odysseus palaceisfarmorelikethehouseofthebasileusofDarkAgeNichoriathanthe excavatedpalaceofthekingofBronzeAgePylos. TheHomericChiefdoms ThegeographicalandpoliticalmapoftheHomericworldconsistsofdistinctregions andpeoples.Forexample,intheCatalogueoftheShipsintheIliad(2.484759),

whichliststhecontingentsthatmadeuptheGreekarmyatTroytheentryforthe largeregionofAetoliareads: Thoas,sonofAndraemonledtheAetolians,thosewhodwelledinPleuronand OlenosandPyleneandChalcisbythesea,androckyCalydonandwithhim followedfortyblackships. (Iliad2.638644) 54 ThoasistheparamountchiefinAetolia,superiorinauthoritytothelocalchiefsof thevillageslistedhereandtheacknowledgedleaderofallwhocallthemselves Aetolians.ElsewhereintheIliadheisdescribedasThoas,whointhewholeof PleuronandsteepCalydonruledovertheAetolians,andwashonoredlikeagodby thepeople(Iliad13.216218).Thepeopleisthedmos(therootofmanyEnglish wordssuchasdemocracy,demographics,andepidemic).Dmos,whichonthe LinearBtablets(intheformdamo)apparentlyreferredtoavillagecommunity, signifies,fromHomeron,bothaterritorialunitandthepeoplewholiveinit.Thus, dmosinthispassageindicatesbothAetolia,theregion,andtheAetolians,the people. TheregionalchiefdomsintowhichHomericsocietywasdividedweresimpler versionsoftheMycenaeankingdomsfromwhichtheydevolved.Theessential differencewasthattheparamountchief,unliketheBronzeAgewanax,hadonly limitedcontroloverthelocaldistrictsofthedemos.Thelocalchiefs,though subordinatetohim,wereessentiallyindependentofhim.Oneindicationofthe loosenessofthepowerstructureisthattheparamountchiefiscalledsimplybasileus, withnoothertitletodistinguishhimfromtheotherbasileiswhorankbelowhim.In fact,therearenootherofficialtitlesofrankinHomer. ChiefsandFollowers Becauseepicpoetryconcentratesalmostexclusivelyontheactivitiesofbasileisand theirfamilies(largelyignoringthemassoftheordinarypeople),theIliadandthe Odysseyprovideafairlydetaileddescriptionofchieftainship.Asiscommonamong chiefdomsocietieseverywhere,theofficeandtitleofbasileuspassfromfathertoson. Butinheritancealoneisnotenough;theyoungchiefmustalsobecompetenttofulfill hisrole,whichistoleadhispeopleinwarandpeace.Forthesuccessorofthe paramountbasileus,thereisanadditionalchallengetosecurethecomplianceofthe localchiefsinthedemos.Aparamountbasileusshouldhavethecapabilitiesofaman likeThoas,whowas

byfarthebestoftheAetolians,skilledwiththethrowingspear,andagoodmanin thecloseinfighting;andintheassemblyfewoftheAchaeanssurpassedhim, whenevertheyoungmencompetedindebate. (Iliad15.282284) Thetwoprimerequisitesofleadership,skillinbattleandtheabilitytopersuade,are encapsulatedintheadvicethatthebasileusPeleusgivestohisyoungsonAchillesas hesendshimofftotheTrojanWar:Bebothaspeakerofwordsandadoerofdeeds. Aboveall,itisthedeeds,theworksofwar,thatmakeamantheleader.InHomer, asinmanychieftainsocietiesworldwide,achiefsstatusismeasuredbythenumber ofwarriorswhofollowhim.Achiefwhodoesnotshowhimselfagoodwarriorwill findfewwhoarewillingtofollowhislead.Forexample,intheCatalogueofthe Ships,wearetoldthatNireus,thesonofthe 55 basileusoftheislandofSyme,ledonlythreeshipstotheTrojanWar.Althoughhe wasthehandsomestoftheGreeksatTroy(nexttoAchilles),Nireuswasaweak man,andfewpeoplefollowedhim(Iliad2.671675).Bycontrast,Agamemnonwas acknowledgedastheleaderoftheentireGreekarmyatTroy,because,asthe commanderofonehundredshipsfromtheregionaroundMycenae,heledbyfar themosttroops. Allbasileis,bothlocalchiefsandtheparamount,havetheirownpersonalfollowings. Themenwhofollowachiefarecalledbyhimandcalleachotherhetairoi (companions),awordthatconveysadeepfeelingofmutualloyalty.Thusthe armyofademosiscomposedofseveralindividualhetairoibands,eachunderthe commandofitsownbasileus,andallunderthecommandoftheparamount. However,theentirefightingforceofthedemosismusteredtogetherunderthe paramountbasileusonlywhenthereisanalloutwar,usuallyfordefenseofthe demoswhenanoutsideenemyhasattackedinforce.Otherwise,alocalora paramountchiefisfreetoraisehisownfollowingandgoonraidingexpeditions againstvillagesofanotherdemos,eithertoeventhescoreinsomeongoingquarrelor justtostealorplundertheirlivestock,valuables,andwomen.Commonly,achief recruitshisfollowerswithalargefeast,showingthatheisagenerousleaderand therebybindinghisfollowerstohim.Forinstance,Odysseus(posingasawarrior leaderfromCrete),describeshowhemadearaidingexpeditionintoEgypt.Having fittedoutnineships,hesays,hegatheredafollowing, andforsixdaysmytrustycompanions(hetairoi)feasted,andIgavethemmany animalvictimsbothtosacrificetothegodsandtomakeafeastforthemselves,and ontheseventhwegotonboardandsetsailfrombroadCrete....

(Odyssey14.247252) RaidingisawayoflifeinHomericsociety.Bootyraidsnotonlyenrichtheraid leaderandhismen,butalsoserveasatestoftheirmanliness,skill,andcourage,and thusbringhonorandglory.Whetheronaraidorinawar,thebasileusistheone mostseverelytested,forheisliterallytheleader,stationinghimselfamongthe frontfighters.Theleaderisobligedtoriskhislifefightingatthefrontofhisarmy(a customthatpersistedthroughoutancientGreekhistory).Inreturnforhisleadership, thedemosisunderobligationtoprovidethebasileuswithhonorsandmaterialgifts. Document2.1Sarpedon,leaderoftheLycianalliesoftheTrojans,addressesGlaucus,his closehetairosandsecondincomandoftheLycians,onthereciprocalobligationsbetween chiefsandthepeople. Glaukos,whyisityouandIarehonoredbeforeotherswithprideofplace,thechoice meatsandthefilledwinecupsinLykia,andallthemenlookonusasifwewere immortals, 56 andweareappointedagreatpieceoflandbythebanksofXanthos,goodland, orchardandvineyard,andploughlandfortheplantingofwheat? ThereforeitisourdutyintheforefrontoftheLykianstotakeourstand,andbearour partoftheblazingofbattle,sothatamanoftheclosearmouredLykiansmaysayof us:Indeed,thesearenoignoblemenwhoarelordsofLykia,thesebasileisofours, whofeedonthefatsheepappointedanddrinktheexquisitesweetwine,since indeedthereisstrengthofvalourinthem,sincetheyfightintheforefrontofthe Lykians. Iliad12.310321;translatedbyRichmondLattimore,TheIliadofHomer.Chicago: UniversityofChicagoPress,1951,p.266. Reciprocitymutualandfairexchangewhichgovernsallsocialrelationshipsinthe Homericworld,isthecoreoftheleaderpeoplerelationship.Thegivingandthe receivingshouldideallybalanceoneanother.So,too,fairnessistheruleinthe apportionmentofthespoilsofwar.Followingaraid,thebootyisgatheredtogether. Firsttheleadertakeshisshare(andsomethingextraastheleadersprize)and, underhissupervision,specialrewardsforvaloraregivenout.Therestisthengiven tothementodivideup,sothatnoonemaygocheatedofanequalshare. Aleaderwhokeepsmorethanhedeservesordistributesprizesunfairlyriskslosing therespectofhisfollowers.Toachief,beingcalledgreedyisalmostasdevastating aninsultasbeingcalledcowardly.Inshort,abasileuscannotaffordnottoappear

generousandopenhanded.Similarly,Homericchiefsengageinaconstantexchange ofgiftsandfeastswithotherchiefsandimportantmen.Thisisbothawayof showingofftheirwealthandameanstocementfriendships,winnewfriends,and collectobligationsthroughadisplayofgenerosity. Despitethegreatauthoritygivenhimbyhisposition,abasileushaslimitedabilityto coerceotherstofollowhislead.Heisonlyachief,notaking.ThusintheOdyssey, thereareseveraloccasionswhenOdysseushetairoisimplyrefusetoobeyhim.Once, whenhisfollowersdecidetodoexactlytheoppositeofwhathehasorderedthem, Odysseuscanonlysaythatasonemanalonehemustabidebythewillofthe many.Odysseushelplessnessillustratesthefundamentalfragilityofleadership authorityinthistypeoflowlevelchieftainship. Rightfulinheritancetothepositionofparamountbasileusisnotanabsolute guaranteeofsuccession.Inasocietyinwhichperformanceismoreimportantthan descent,aweaksuccessorwillbechallengedbyrivalbasileiswhowishtoreplace himasheadchief.TheproblemofsuccessionisaddressedatlengthintheOdyssey. Odysseus,theparamountchiefofIthacaanditsneighboringislands,hasbeengone fortwentyyears(tenatTroy,tenonhisreturnhome),andhaslongbeenpresumed dead.Odysseusagedfather,Laertes,thepreviouschief,retiredyearsagotothe countryside.Odysseusson,Telemachus,whoisbarely20yearsold,withno experienceofleadershipandfewsupporters(hisfathersfol 57 lowershadgonetoTroywithhim),findshimselfinadesperatesituation.Agroupof youngchiefsorsonsofchiefs(mostlyfromtheotherislandsofthechiefdom),are wooingTelemachusmother,Penelope,presumedawidow.Theyarecampedoutin hiscourtyard,feastingonhislivestockandseducingtheslavegirls.Theymeanto overthrowthelineageofLaertes,byallowingtheonewhosucceedsinwinningover Penelopetobecomeparamountbasileus.Marryingthewidowofthedeadchief wouldgiveanewleadersomelegitimacy.Eventhoughthesuitorsagreethatthe chiefshipbelongstoTelemachusbyyourpaternalbirthright,theyhavenoscruples abouttakingitawayfromhim. Theusurpersuseforceandthethreatofforce.WhenTelemachuscallsanassemblyof thepeopletocomplainabouttheoutrageagainsthishousehold,theythreatenthe fewoldmenwhostandupfortheyoungheir,cowtherestoftheIthacans,and declaretheassemblydissolved.LatertheytrytoambushandkillTelemachus himself.LikeOdysseus,Penelopecanbecunningandresourceful;sheusesherguile tothwarttheambitionsofthesuitors.Sheholdsthesuitorsatbayforseveralyears, bysayingthatshewillmarryoneofthemonlywhenshehascompletedaburial shroudforherfatherinlawLaertes.HarboringahopethatOdysseuswillreturn,she

weavesbyday,andatnightsecretlyunravelstheshroud.Eventually,Odysseus returns,killsthesuitors,andassumeshisrightfulplaceasparamountbasileusof Ithacaandtheotherislands.Inmostinstances,however,weakenedrulingdynasties wouldnothavefaredaswellasthehouseandlineageofLaertes. GovernmentintheLateDarkAge GovernmentalinstitutionsintheDarkAgewerefewandsimple,asHomer illustratesandthematerialremainsofthelateninthandearlyeighthcenturies corroborate.Acouncil,calledtheboul,wasmadeupofthelocalchiefsandthe paramountchief,inwhosegreathall(megaron)theymettoformulatepolicyforthe wholedemos.Theparamountbasileuspresidedandhadthedeterminingvoicein thediscussions,butusuallyheededtheadviceandcounseloftheelders,asthe boulememberswerecalled(thoughmanywereactuallyyoungermen).Their decisionwaspresentedattheassemblyofthepeople,calledtheagoraorgathering, whichcomprisedthemenoffightingageandolder.SometimesinHomer,however, oneoranotherofthechiefsorrespectedelderscallsanassemblywithoutconsulting theotherleaders.Thenthereisanopendebate,whichgenerallyleadstoan agreement.Althoughtheoreticallyanymanmayaddresstheassembly,customarily onlythechiefsandotheroutstandingmenspeakout.Ateachproposal,themenof thedemosmaketheirwillknownbyshouting,bymuttering,orbyremainingsilent. Intheend,iftheassemblyhasbeensuccessful,thedemosshoutsitscollective approvalofthepolicy.Theaimoftheassemblyistoachieveconsensus,bothamong theleadersandbetweenleadersandpeople. Inadditiontohisfunctionsasthemilitaryandpoliticalleader,thebasileusalsohada religiousandjudicialroleinthelifeofthecommunity.Hissole,but 58 veryimportant,religiousdutywastopresideatpublicsacrificestothegods.When heprayedtothegodsatasacrificehewasthespokesmanforthepeople,similarto thefathersacrificingonbehalfofhisfamily.Thebasileuswasnot,however,oneof thepriestsofthegods,nordidheclaimtohaveaspecialpersonalrelationshipwith thegods,althoughHomerfirmlyemphasizesthatZeusupholdsandfostersthe rulingauthorityoftheofficeofbasileus. DuringtheDarkAge,chiefsprobablyplayedalesserroleinjudicialmatters,because thejudicialprocesswasinanearlystageofdevelopment.Theonlylawwascustom, thatis,thecommunitystraditionsregardingrightandwronginparticularsituations. (Asystemofformalandwrittenlawswouldnotemergeuntiltheseventhcentury.) Muchofthiscustomlawinvolvedproceduresforsettlingdifferencesprivately.Even themostantisocialact,murderwithinthedemos,wasnotacrimeinthesensethatit requiredarrestandtrialoftheallegedmurdererbythesocietyatlarge.Itwasthe

custom,rather,thatthefamiliesofthekillerandthevictimshouldcometoan agreementonamaterialpenaltyascompensation,thusavoidingasocially destabilizingfeudbetweenthefamilies.Thesameprocedurewasfollowedfor anothersensitiveoffense,adultery.Whenthepartiescouldnotreachaprivate agreement,thedisputewasbroughtbeforeacourt.Homerdescribesadisputeover thepaymentofthemurdercompensation,whichisheardanddecidedbyagroupof elders(probablychiefs),oneofwhomwillreceivearewardofgoldforspeaking thestraightestjudgement.Thelawsuittakesplaceinanassembly,withthepeople pushingandshovingandshoutingencouragementtoonepartyortheother(Iliad 18.497508).Thecouncil,assembly,andlawcourtareallthereisofgovernmentin Homer,buttheyweresufficient.Theywouldremaintheessentialorgansof government,inamorehighlyevolvedform,inthelatercitystates. ForeignRelations IntheDarkAge,diplomaticrelationsbetweenonechiefdomandanotherwere conductedbythechiefsthemselvesorbyatrustedcompanion.Aspartofhis training,OdysseuswassentatayoungagetoMesseniabyhisfatherandtheother eldersonanembassytocollectadebtowedtotheIthacans.Thiswasaserious affair,fortheMessenianshadraidedIthacaandstolenthreehundredsheepandtheir shepherds.Ifnegotiationsfailed,theIthacanswouldstagearevengeraid,andthe badfeelingswouldlikelyescalateintoanalloutwar. WhilehewasinMessenia,youngOdysseusstayedatthehouseofaguestfriend (xenos;pluralxenoi).Guestfriendship(xenia)wasareciprocalrelationshipinwhich xenoiwerepledgedtoofferoneanotherprotection,lodging,andassistance whenevertheytraveledtoeachothersdemos.Therelationshipwashandeddown fromgenerationtogenerationbetweenthefamiliesofxenoi.WhileinMessenia, OdysseusstayedatthehouseofOrtilochus,animportantmaninhisdemos,though notthechief.Manyyearslater,OdysseussonTelemachuswouldstayovernight withthesonofOrtilochus,onhiswaytovisitMenelausinSpartaandagainonhis returntrip.Thehospitalityoftenincludedalavishfeastand 59 sometimesmusicalentertainment.Attheendofthevisit,thehostguestfriendgave hisguestavaluablepartinggift(e.g.,aswordoragoldcup).Thegiftwasthe materialtokenoftheirbondofclosefriendship,giventoensurethatwheneverhe visitedthedemosofhisfriend,hewouldreceiveinreturnthesameprotection, hospitality,andagiftofatleastthesameworth. GuestfriendshipwasanindispensabledeviceforforeignrelationsintheDarkAge, forwhenastrangercametoanotherdemoshehadnorightsandcouldbemistreated andevenkilled.Thecustomwasparticularlyusefulinsensitivesituations.For

example,whenAgamemnonandMenelausmadealongvisittoIthacatopersuade OdysseustojoinintheexpeditionagainstTroy,theydidnotstaywithhimbutwith amannamedMelaneus,aguestfriendofAgamemnon.Theyusedthehospitalityof Melaneus,notbecausetheydidnothaveafriendlyrelationshipwithOdysseus,but becausethedelicatetaskofrecruitingforeignalliesrequiredaneutralbase.Xenia wouldcontinue,inasomewhatdifferentform,asameansofdiplomaticrelations intotheArchaicAgeandbeyond. SocialValuesandEthics Inallsocieties,thenotionsofgoodandbad,rightandwrong,arelargelydetermined bytheirownpeculiarconditionsoflife.ThecodesofbehaviorforHomericmales centeraroundwar.TheGreekadjectiveagathos(good)whenusedofmenin Homer,isalmostalwaysrestrictedtothequalitiesofbraveryandskillinfighting andathletics.Theoppositeword,kakos(bad),meanscowardly,orunskilledand uselessinbattle.Inasocietyinwhicheveryablebodiedmanfightstodefendhis community,allmenareunderconstrainttobehavebravely.Theleadersareexpected tobeespeciallyvaliant,andinaddition,toexcelinpublicspeakingandcounsel. Othertraditionalrulesofconductdictatethatagoodmanshouldhonorthegods, keeppromisesandoaths,andbeloyaltofriendsandfellowwarriors.Heshould exhibitselfcontrol,behospitable,andrespectwomenandelders.Pityshouldbe showntobeggarsandsuppliantstrangers.Itispropertoshowpityeventoward capturedwarriorsandtorefrainfromdefilingthecorpsesoftheenemy.These gentlerqualitiesaredesirable,buttheyarenotrequired;thesolecriterionforbeing calledagathosisgoodwarriorship. Awarriorsocietyisforcedtobreedintoitsfuturewarriorsasavagejoyinthegrim worksofAres,alusttoannihilatetheenemy.Attheendofapoignantfamilyscene intheIliad,theTrojanheroHectorliftsuphisbabysonandpraystothegodsthathe maygrowuptobeabetterwarriorthanhisfatherandbringbackthebloodyspoils ofadeadenemyandmakehismothersheartglad(Iliad6.479481).HomericGreeks arenotonlyfierceinwarbutalsosavageinvictory:theylootandburncaptured villages,slaughterthemalesurvivorsincludinginfants,andrapeandenslavethe womenandgirls. AstrongcompetitivespiritwasanimportantpartoftheGreekmaleethos.Homeric charactersconstantlycomparethemselves,orarecomparedwith,one 60 another.Menaredriventowinandtobecalledaristos(best).Onemanissaidtobe bestoftheAchaeansinbowmanship,whileanothersurpassedalltheyoungmen inrunning,orinspearthrowing,orchariotracing,orspeaking.Thistypeof

extracompetitivesocietyiscalledagonistic,fromtheGreekwordagn(contest, struggle).Theinstincttocompeteandwinpermeatesthesociety.Apoorfarmeris rousedtoworkhardwhenheseeshisneighborgettingrich,saysHesiod(c.700);and potterresentspotterandcarpenterresentscarpenter,andbeggarisjealousofbeggar andpoetofpoet(WorksandDays2026). Thesoleobjectofcompetingandstrivingistowintim(honorandrespect).Tim isalwayspublicrecognitionofonesskillsandachievements.Italwaysinvolves somevisiblemarkofrespect:theseatofhonorandanextrashareofmeatatafeast, oranadditionalshareofbooty,orvaluableprizesandgifts,includingland.To modernreaders,Homericwarriorchiefsmayappearoverlygreedyformaterial things,buttheirpurposeinacquiringandpossessingmanyanimalsandprecious objectswasmainlytoincreasetheirfameandglory.Nottobehonoredwhenhonor isdue,orworse,tobedishonored,areunbearableinsults.Thus,whenAgamemnon intheIliadgrievouslydishonoredAchillesbytakingbackthecaptivegirlBriseis,a prizeofhonorawardedtoAchillesbythearmy,agreatquarrelarosebetween themthatledtodisasterforalltheGreeks. Adherencetothecompetitiveethic(summedupinthemottoalwaysbethebestand bepreeminentovertheothers)spurredmenontoaccomplishgreatthingsandkept thequalityofleadershiphigh.Ontheotherhand,therelentlesspursuitofpersonal andfamilyhonorandobsessionwithavengingdishonorcouldcauseenormous politicalinstability.Forbetterorworse,theHomericcodesofmalebehaviorwould endurethroughoutantiquity,andlatergenerationsofGreekwriterswouldcontinue tolooktotheIliadandOdysseyformodelsofrightandwrongconduct. Valuationsofgoodandbadinrespecttowomenandthebehaviorexpectedofthem aredeterminedbythemaleethic.Withintheircommunities,womenareregarded withgreatrespectbymen.Thereislittletraceinepicofthemisogyny(frommiso gynia,hatredofwomen)thatoftenappearsinlaterliterature.InHomer,womenare notreviledortreatedcontemptuously,andalsoappeartohavemoresocialfreedom thanthoseoflaterperiods.Womengofreelyaboutthevillageandcountrysideand participateinfestiveandreligiousevents.Andthoughtheyhavenopoliticalvoice, womenareneverthelesspartofpublicopinion.Thoseofhighstatushouseholds jointhecompanyoftheirhusbandsandtheothermeninthegreathallaftersupper andtakepartintheconversation.Thewifeofachief,especiallyaparamountchief,is heldinhighesteem,andmayevenpartakeofherhusbandsauthority,asdoesArete, thewifeofAlcinous,thebasileusofthePhaeacians,intheOdyssey.Odysseus, disguisedasawanderingbeggar,flattersPenelope(whodoesnotrecognizeher husband),sayingthatherfamegoesuptobroadheaven,asofsomeblameless basileus.

ThequalitiesthatdefineagoodwomaninHomerarenarrowlycircumscribedby theirdomesticassignmentashousewifeandmother.Theyarehon 61 oredfortheirbeauty,skillanddiligenceinweaving,carefulhouseholdmanagement, andgoodpracticalsense.Likemen,womenarealsocomparedwithoneanother, thoughonlywithinthefewareasofexcellenceallowedthem;forexample,thisoneor thatone,surpassedheragematesinbeautyandwork[i.e.,weaving]and intelligence.Theyareexpectedtoactmodestlyinpublicandinthecompanyof men,andabovealltobechaste.Althoughmenarepermittedtohaveconcubines, adulterouswomenbringgreatdisgraceanddishonoruponthemselvesandtheir families. AsinlaterGreece,womenareunderthestrictcontroloftheirmalerelativesand husbandsfrombirthtodeath.Theyarethemostvaluableprizesofraidandwar,not onlybecauseoftheirintrinsicvalueasworkersorconcubines,orasgoodstobe barteredorgivenawaybutalsobecausecapturinganenemysmother,wife, daughter,sisteristheultimateinsult. Document2.2Intheirmeetingduringalullinthebattle,Hectorsaysthesewordsto Andromache,hiswife.Althoughtheoutcomeofthewarisstillindoubt,bothsharea premonitionthattheTrojanswilllose. ForIknowthisthingwellinmyheart,andmymindknowsit: therewillcomeadaywhensacredIlionshallperish, andPriam,andthepeopleofPriamofthestrongashspear. ButitisnotsomuchthepaintocomeoftheTrojans thattroublesme,notevenofPriamthekingnorHekabe, northethoughtofmybrotherswhointheirnumbersandvalour shalldropinthedustunderthehandsofmenwhohatethem, astroublesmethethoughtofyou,whensomebronzearmoured Achaianleadsyouoff,takingawayyourdayofliberty, intears;andinArgosyoumustworktheloomofanother, andcarrywaterfromthespringMesseisorHypereia, allunwilling,butstrongwillbethenecessityuponyou; andsomedayseeingyousheddingtearsamanwillsayofyou: ThisisthewifeofHektor,whowaseverthebravestfighter oftheTrojans,breakersofhorses,inthedayswhentheyfought aboutIlion. Soonewillspeakofyou;andforyouitwillbeyetafreshgrief, tobewidowedofsuchamanwhocouldfightoffthedayofyour slavery.

ButmayIbedeadandthepiledearthhidemeunderbeforeI hearyoucryingandknowbythisthattheydragyoucaptive. Iliad6.447465;translatedbyRichmondLattimore,TheIliadofHomer.Chicago: LlniversityofChicagoPress,1951,p.165. 62 Slavery SlaverydidnotcomeundertheheadingofwrongfortheGreeks.Enslavementwas notevendiscussedasamoralissueuntilthelatefifthcenturyBC;andeventhough someexpressedrepugnanceforit,theinstitutionflourishedinGreecethroughout paganantiquityandforcenturiesaftertheestablishmentofChristianity.Theancient Greekattitudetowardslaverywassimple.Itwasaterriblethingtobecomeaslave butagoodthingtoownaslave.Slaverywasabyproductofwarandraid.One becameaslavebybeingcapturedorkidnappedhumanbooty.Greeksdidnotbreed slavesonalargescale,andindeedfeltsomequalmsaboutenslavingotherGreeks (althoughtheydidit),preferringtobuyandsellnonGreeks.Eumaeus,Odysseus swineherd,whohadbeenkidnappedasachildbyPhoeniciantradersandsoldto Odysseusfather,sumsupthedegradationofslaveryinasentence:Zeustakesaway halfofamansworthwhenthedayofenslavementcomesuponhim(Odyssey 17.322323). Religion Bytheeighthcentury,Greekreligionhadattainedessentiallytheformitwastohave throughouttherestofpaganantiquity.Yetlittleelseisknownabouttheevolutionof religionafterthecollapseoftheMycenaeansocietyexceptthatsomeofthegods whosenamesappearontheLinearBtabletsdisappeared,andpossiblyoneortwo godswereaddedtothegroupofmajorgods.Forexample,Aphrodite,theGreek goddessoferoticlove,mayhavebeenapostMycenaeanimportfromtheNearEast, modeledontheSemiticlovegoddessAstarte/Ishtar;andoneofAphroditeslovers, Adonis(Semiticadon,lord),isclearlyNearEastern.Inthecenturiesafter700the GreeksdidadoptorassimilateafewothergodsfromtheNearEastandEgypt.There werealsoimportantlaterdevelopmentsinreligiousethics.Inallessentials,however, Greekreligionwouldremainforthenextthousandyearsexactlyasitwas representedinHomerandHesiod. ThetwobasicfeaturesofHomericworshipgobacktotheoldMycenaeanMinoan religion.Thesearepolytheism,theworshipofmanygodsandgoddesses(singular theos;pluraltheoi);andtheritualwaysofhonoringthegods:withsacrificesand prayers,processions,music,dancing,andhymnsinging.Liketheother Mediterraneanreligions,Greekreligionwasformal,ritualistic,andcommunal,not

privateandmeditative.Butunlikesome,itneverdevelopedanofficialsetof doctrinesorcompulsorybeliefs.Differentandcontradictoryideasaboutthegods coexistedcomfortablyinGreece. EverythinglaterGreeksunderstoodabouttheoriginsoftheworldandofthegods theylearnedfromlateeighthcenturyepicpoetry.Thefifthcenturyhistorian Herodotuswrote Whereeachofthegodscamefrom,whethertheyhavealwaysexisted,whatthey looklikethesethingswereunknownuntilonlyyesterday,sotospeak,ortheday before....[HomerandHesiod]aretheoneswhocreatedatheogonyfor 63 theGreeks.Theygavenamestothegods,decidedwhattheirspecialskillswereand whathonorstheyshouldbegiven,anddescribedtheirappearance. (Herodotus2.53;Blanco1992) Hesiodepicpoem,titledTheogony(thegenealogyofthegods),providedthe authoritativeaccountofthebeginningsoftheuniverseandthehistoryofthegodsup tothesupremacyofZeusandtheotherOlympiangods.AccordingtoHesiod,the Olympianswereathirdgenerationofgods,descendedfromtheprimalpairof cosmicdivinitiesGaia(Earth)andOuranus(Sky).Thestorycloselyparallelsmuch olderMesopotamianaccountsandisclearlyinfluencedbythem. Therewereviolentconflictsbetweeneachgeneration.Skywouldnotallowhis childrentobeborn,andhidthemwithintheirmotherEarth.Earthpersuadedher imprisonedsonCronustocutoffOuranusgenitalswithasickle,freeinghisbrothers andsisters,whomadeupthenextgenerationofgods,theTitans.Cronus,inhisturn, triedtopreventhischildrenbyhisTitanwifeRheafromcomingintobeing,by swallowingthemastheywereborn.ButRheadeceivedCronusintoswallowinga stoneinsteadofherlastborn,Zeus,causinghimtovomituptheothers.ThenZeus, withthehelpofthemightythunderboltandthepowerfulmonstersonsofOuranus, ledhisbrothersandsistersinaviolenttenyearwaragainsttheTitansfromtheir strongholdatopMountOlympus.Successfulinthebattle,theOlympiansimprisoned theTitansdeepintheearth.Afterovercomingafinalchallengebythemonster Typhoeus,OlympianZeusreignedforeverovertheuniverse.Aftertheirvictory,the godsdividedupcontrolovertheuniverse.Zeusreceivedcommandoftheheavens andthesky,Poseidontheseas,andHadestheUnderworld,wherethesoulsof humansgowhentheydie;andalltheOlympianssharedcontroloftheir grandmotherEarthandthecreaturesonEarth,includinghumans.

TheOlympiangods,therefore,werenotthecreatorsoftheuniverse,butratherthe offspringofthreeandfourgenerationsofsexualunions,beginningwithEarthand Sky.Asthedescendantsofthephysicaluniversethegodsembodiedtheforcesof nature;Zeusineffectwastheskyandallitsphenomena.ButtheGreeks anthropomorphizedtheirdeities,portrayingthemasidealizedmenandwomenwith specialpowerstocontrolanddirectnature.ThuspaintingsandstatuesdepictZeus asahumanholdingorhurlingthethunderbolt.Allaspectsofnaturewereendowed withhumanform;woods,mountains,sea,rivers,andspringswereinhabitedby countlessspirits,imaginedasbeautifulmaidensoryouths.Evenemotionsand behaviorsfear,pity,hate,prayers,rumor,andsoonwereallperceivedasdivinities inhumanform,who,liketherestofthecosmos,hadcomeintobeingthrough procreation. Intheirtotality,thegods,naturespirits,andabstractionsrepresentthewholeof being.ThediversityofthesupernaturalrealmofferedtheGreeksasatisfactoryway oforderingandexplainingthebafflingcomplexityofhumanexperience,fromthe vastmysteriousuniverseofstarsandplanets,tothebenignandhostileworldof nature,totheconfusinginnerworldofthehumanpsyche.Thedivineworldmirrors thehumancondition.So,forexample,Ares,thegodofwar,isthe 64 spiritofbloodlustthatentersawarriorandmakeshimeagertokillanddestroy. Aphrodite,thegoddessoflove,istheirresistibleforceofsexualdesire.Athena representsthesphereofpracticalwisdom(weaving,carpentry,metalworking, technologyingeneral),whileApolloswisdomextendstomusic,poetry,and philosophy.Artemis,likeAthena,isaperpetualvirgin,butwhereasAthenaisa friendandhelperofwarriorheroes,Artemisshunsallcontactwithmales,andlives intheforestsasbothhunterandprotectorofanimals. InHomerandinHesiod,thesepowerfuldivinitieslookandthinkexactlylike humans;theiractionsarejustasunpredictable.Buttheirinfinitelysuperiorpowers andthefactthattheyareimmortalandagelessandneversubjecttopain, unbridgeablysetthegodsapartfrommortalbeings.Mortals(hoithntoi,theones whodie)areplaythingsofthegods(hoiathanatoi,thedeathlessones),who squabbleamongthemselvesoverthefateofthisorthatpersonorgroup.The complexintersectionoftheeternaldivineandephemeralmortalitylayatthebaseof alllaterGreekphilosophicalandscientificspeculationabouttheorderandstructure oftheuniverseandthehumancondition. TheGreeksworshipedthegodsoutofawefortheirpowertodothemgoodorharm. Thegodsdemandedthattheirpowerbeacknowledgedthroughgiftgivingandother marksofrespect.Mortalsgavethesewillinglyandinabundancebecauseoftheir

fundamentalconvictionthatthegodsweredisposedtohelpandprotectthosewho honoredthem,thoughrealizingatthesametimethatcapriciousdeitiesmightdojust theopposite.Everycommunityhaditsspecialprotectinggodorgodsandsparedno expenseoreffortinhonoringtheminordertokeeptheirfavor.AftertheDarkAge, theGreekcitystateswouldlavishonthegodsgiftsofpublicland,hugetemples, expensiveprivatededications,festivalsintheirhonor,andthousandsofsacrificed animals. InHomer,thegodsinsistontheirproperhonorsbutnotmuchelse.Theirconcern withmoralityaswenowunderstanditislimited.Certainacts,suchasincestor homicide,werethoughttopollutetheperpetrator,whomustberituallypurified beforebeingreadmittedintothesociety.Therewerealsodozensofotherminor taboos(suchastouchingacorpse)thatpollutedforafewhoursordays.Butmost deedsthatarecondemnedbythemajormodernreligionsassinsagainstGod,such asstealing,adultery,andrape,werenottheconcernofthegods.Asfaras interpersonalbehaviorisconcerned,thegodsinHomerprimarilycondemnonly oathbreakingandmistreatingofstrangers,suppliants,andbeggars.Oaths,which weretakeninthenamesofthewitnessinggods,wereespeciallyimportant,because theysealedthecontractsbetweenindividualsandbetweencommunities.Afew times,however,thegodsinHomerdoshowsomeconcernforfairnessandjustice withinthesociety.Thus,Zeusissaidtosendseverewindandrainstormsagainst thosewhomakecrookeddecrees,usingforce,intheassembly,anddriveoutjustice, heedlessofwatchfulnessofthegods(Iliad16.384388).BeginningwithHesiod,the ideaofZeusastheupholderofjustice(dik)wouldbecomeanincreasinglycommon themeinliterature. Inmanyreligions,earthlysorrowandsufferingareeasedbythepromiseofa paradiseafterdeathforthosewhohavelivedrighteously.TheGreeksdidnot 65 havethisconsolation.Theirconceptionsofapersonalafterliferemainedvagueand undevelopedthroughouttheArchaicandClassicalperiods.FormostGreeks, existenceinanymeaningfulsenseendedwhenthesoul(psych)leftthebodyand fluttereddowntoHades.ThereissomepunishmentofsinnersinHades,butitis reservedforthosewhohaveinsultedortriedtotrickthegods.Later,however, throughtheinfluenceofmysterycults(suchastheworshipofDemeteratEleusis), andofphilosophicalspeculation,ideasofablissfulafterlifeforthemorallygoodand eternaltormentforthebadwouldbecomemorehighlydeveloped. Olympianreligionwasmuchmoreconcernedwiththehereandnowand propitiationofthegodsforspecialfavorsthroughformalrituals.Asinthe MycenaeanAge,therewerespecialpriestsandpriestesses,whohadcareofthe

specialprayersandritualsandsacredobjectsthatmadeupthecultofagod.There wasnever,however,aprofessionalpriestlyclassorcaste,setapartfromtherestof thepeople,asintheNearEastandEgypt.Greekpriestsandseersdidnotdressor livedifferentlyfromothercitizens;theirofficialdutiesgenerallytookupverylittle timeandrequiredlittleinthewayofpreparationandtraining.Priestsand priestessescamealmostexclusivelyfromtheupperranksofsociety,andalarge numberofpriesthoodswerehereditarywithinasinglelineage.Priesthoodsincreased theprestigeoftheleadingfamiliesandthusbuttressedtheirclaimtoleadership positions,buttheofficeitselfheldlittlepoliticalauthorityoreconomicgain. COMMUNITY,HOUSEHOLD,ANDECONOMYINTHELATEDARKAGE In800BCMostGreeksettlementswerestillquitesmall,containingafewdozen families.Ahandfulofmajorsettlements,suchasArgos,Athens,Corinth,Knossos, andSparta,probablyheldseveralhundredormorefamilies.Alltheimportantsites andmostofthesmalleroneshadbeencontinuouslyoccupiedsincetheBronzeAge, fortheobviousreasonthattheyweregoodplacesforpeopletolive.Withtheir surroundingfieldsandpastures,theywereforthemostparteconomicallyself sufficient. Thefarmerslifeandeventheherdsmanslifewasvillagelife.Theisolatedfarmstead outinthecountrysidewasrareinearlyGreece;farmerslivedinthevillagesand walkedouteachmorningtotheirplots,astheystilldotodayinruralareasofGreece. Greekvillageswereenduring,closeknitcommunities.Familieslivedinthemfor innumerablegenerations,intermarryingwithotherfamiliesinthevillageandin othervillagesofthedemos.Thesmallvillagemaybelikenedtoanextendedfamily, withthevillagechiefasasortoffather.Aswehaveseen,lawwascustomarylaw;on thewhole,publicdisapprovalsufficedtodeterantisocialbehavior.Difficultdisputes wereresolvedbythechiefandthesimplecourtofthevillageelders.Survivalofthe villagedependeduponcooperationamongthefamilies;theycouldnotaffordtolet badfeelingbetweenneighborsandrelativesdestroythesolidarityofthecommunity. Socialrelationshipsweresome 66 whatmorecomplexinthelargersettlementsofseveralthousandinhabitants,but theywerenotqualitativelydifferent. Theseparatesettlementswithinaterritorialdemoswerelikewiselinkedtogetherby bondsofkinshipandinterdependence.Villagesmightquarrelwithoneanother,and theinhabitantsevencometoblows,buttheywereunifiedagainstthreatfrom outside.Odysseusdescribeshowheandhismen,ontheirwayhomefromtheTrojan War,attackedandpillagedaseacoasttownofapeoplecalledtheCicones.Insteadof sailingoffimmediately,asOdysseusordered,themenstayedallnight,feastingon

theplunderedcattle,sheep,andwine.Butinthemeantime,theCiconeswentand calledtheotherCicones,whoweretheirneighbors...dwellinginland.Thenext morningthesemenfromtheneighboringvillagescounterattackedandkilleda numberofOdysseusmenbeforetheycouldescapeintheirships(Odyssey9.3961). Insidetheboundaryformedbythesettlementsthatsharedthedemosname,aperson orfamilycouldliveandmovesafely.AlltheCiconesconsideredthemselvesakinto oneanother,asdidIthacansorAthenians:theyallbelonged.Onceoutsidethe hometerritoryonewasinthedmosofothers,inanaliencountry,sotospeak, wheretheprotectionoftribaltiesendedandonewasastranger,withoutrights.The largestsocialcommunitythataGreekexperiencedwasthedemos. Thesmallest,andthefundamental,socialunitwasthehousehold(oikos).Theoikos, nottheindividual,wastheatomofGreeksociety.Thehouseholdwasthecenterofa personsexistence;theoverridingconcernofeverymemberwasitspreservation, economicindependence,andsocialstanding.Theprimarymeaningofoikosis house,whichtotheGreekssignifiednotonlythedwellingitselfbutalsothefamily, theland,thelivestock,andallotherpropertyandgoods,includingslaves. TheancientGreeksweremonogamous,andthecoreoftheoikoswasthenuclear familyoffather,mother,andchildren.Greeksocietywaspatrilinealandpatriarchal. Thefatherwassupremeinthehouseholdbycustomandlaterbylaw.Descentwas throughthefather,andonhisdeaththepropertywasdividedequallyamonghis sons.Althoughdaughtersdidnotinheritdirectly,theyreceivedashareoftheir parentswealthasaweddingdowry.Anewbridetookupresidenceinthehouseof herhusband;thustheirchildrenbelongedtothehusbandsoikos,nottohers. InHomericsociety,theoikoi(plural)oftheleadingfamilieswhicharetheonlyones describedareresidentiallycompactunits.ThefivemarriedsonsofNestor,basileus ofthePylians,continuetoresideinthepaternaloikoswiththeirwivesandchildren, occupyingseparateroomssetofffromthemaindwelling.Moreover,Nestors marrieddaughtersalsoliveinthefamilycompoundwiththeirhusbands.Itisa commonpracticeforachieforimportantmantobringhisdaughtershusbandinto hishouseholdincontradictionofthenormalcustom.Inthisway,thedaughters birthfamilyretainsherlabor,andalsogainsamanandthechildren.Theclear purposeofthesepostnuptialresidencecustomsinDarkAgeGreecewastomaximize thefightingforceandtheworkforceoftheoikos.Inlatertimes,sonswould normallyleavethehouseandsetuptheirownoikos 67 aftertheymarried,andalldaughterswouldbecomepartoftheirhusbandsoikos. AnothercommonstrategyforincreasingmanpowerinHomericsocietywasforthe oikosheadtobegetchildrenbyslavewomeneventhoughthiscouldcausefrictionin

thehousebetweenhusbandandwife.(Laertes,Odysseusfather,didnotsleepwith theboughtslaveEurycleianursemaidtoOdysseusandthentohissonandso avoidedhiswifesanger.)Althoughthemalechildrenofslavewomenwereinferior tothelegitimatesonswithrespecttoinheritancerights,theywereotherwisefull membersofthefamilyandwerepartofitsfightingandworkforce.Illegitimate femaleshadthesamestatusastheirlegitimatehalfsisters.Forexample,Priam marriedoneofhisdaughtersbyaslavewomantoayoungwarriornamedImbrius, sonofarichman.Tofulfillhisobligationsasasoninlaw,ImbriuswenttoTroy whenthewarbegan,andwasoutstandingamongtheTrojansandlivedwithPriam, whohonoredhimequaltohisownchildren(Iliad13.170176).Achiefalso strengthenedhisoikosbyrecruitingnonkin(ordistantlyrelated)menasretainers, whoservedthehouseholdinvariouscapacitiesinpeaceandasfightersinwar.Some ofthesebecame,ineffect,adoptedmembersofthefamily. FortheelitehouseholdsoftheDarkAgetheaimwastohavethelargestpossible numberofmembers,eitherbybirth,marriage,oraffiliation.Malesoffightingage wereespeciallysought.Telemachus,Odysseusson,washelplessagainsthis motherssuitorsbecausetherewerenokinsmentobackhimup.Astheonlysonof anonlyson,hehadnobrothers,brothersinlaw,uncles,orcousins;inaddition,the familysretainersweregoneofftowarwithhisfather. Allmembersofanoikosdidashareofthework.Thesonsofbasileistendedthe flocksandherds,themainwealthofthefamily,andalsodidfarmworkandother householdjobs.Odysseus,Homertellsus,builthisandPenelopesbedroomandbed byhimselfandnooneelse.Thewivesanddaughtersofbasileisworkedalongside thewomenslavesinthetasksofspinningandweaving,themostimportantdomestic activities.Thelaborinputofelitewomeninclothproductionamountedtonearlya fulltimeoccupation.Thedaughtersdidothertasks,suchasfetchingwaterfromthe communalfountainorwashingclothesbytheriver.Penelopehasaflockofgeese thatshetakescareofpersonally. Mostofthelaborofawealthyoikos,however,wasprovidedbyfemaleandmale slaves(eitherboughtorcaptured),andbyhiredworkerscalledthtes(singularths), poorfreemenwhodidhardworkforlowpay.Poorfreewomen,usuallywidows withoutclosekinfolk,alsoworkedforwages,asspinnersandweaversoras nursemaids.Homerreferstothiscategoryofworkersasthosewholaborunder necessity.Themaineconomicresourceforeachofthefamiliesinavillageortown wasitsancestralplotoffarmlandcalledaklros(pluralklroi).Itisnotknownhow thesewereoriginallyacquired.BothHomerandearlyhistoricalsourcesindicatethat inbrandnewsettlements,suchasoverseascolonies,thefounderbasileusdistributed theklroiamongthenewinhabitantsonamoreorlessequalbasis.Yet,howeverfair theoriginaldivisionoflandmayhavebeen,inequitiessooncreptin.InHomersome familiesownmanyklroi,whileoth

68 ersinthedemosarelotlessmen(aklroi).Althoughthereisnowayofdetermining thepercentagesofeitherthelandrichorthelandlesswithinthepopulations,most likelybothgroupswereproportionallysmall.Beforearound750,whenlandwas becomingscarcer,itishighlyprobablethatmostfamiliesownedaklerosthatgave themasufficientliving. Theminoritywithoutakleroshadtohireonasthetes,agallinglifenotonlybecause ofthehardworkforverylittlepay(essentiallytheirkeep),butalsobecauseofthe indignityofworkingforanothermansfamily,aconditionthatallGreeksabhorred. ToexpressthedismalnessofexistenceinHades,theghostofAchillestellsOdysseus thathewouldprefertheindignityoflivingasthehiredhand(ths)ofanotherman, amanwithoutaklros,whodidnothavemuchofaliving,thantoruleoverallthe deadwhohaveperished(Odyssey11.489491).Alotlessman,whateverthereasons forhissituation,wouldekeoutaprecariousexistenceonapoorpatchofunclaimed marginalland,farfromthedeepsoiledplainlandsandgentlerslopeswherethe kleroiwerelocated.Aftertheeighthcentury,theshortageofavailablelandwould becomewidespreadandwouldbeaseriouspointoftensionbetweenthewealthy fewandagrowingmassofpoorcitizens. TheeconomiesofordinaryandelitehouseholdsintheDarkAgedifferedprimarily inscale.Theprominentoikoihadlargeworkforces,whereasaveragehouseholds hadonlyoneorperhapstwoslavesorhiredhandstosharetheworkload.High rankingfamiliesalsofarmedproportionatelymoreland,neededtofeedtheirlarger householdsandtosupplybreadandwineforthefeaststheyprovidedtofriends, followers,andthecommunityatlarge.AHomericchiefsometimesreceivedasizable pieceofprimefarmland,calledatemenos,awardedtohimbythepeoplein recognitionofhisservicestothecommunity.Theagriculturalsurplusesoftheelite, however,wouldnothaverisenmuchabovetheirownincreasedconsumptionneeds, sinceatthattimetherewaslittleopportunityfortradeinfoodstuff. Themajoreconomicdifferencebetweenrichandpoorhouseholdsseemstohave beeninthenumberofanimalsowned.Odysseuschiefswineherd,Eumaeus,gives anaccountofhismastersunspeakablygreatlivelihood: Notwentymentogether havesomuchwealth;andIwillcountitoffforyou. Twelveherdsofcattleonthemainland;asmanyflocksofsheep, asmanydrovesofswine,asmanyrovingherdsofgoats, bothstrangersandhisownherdsmenpasturethem. Andhererovingherdsofgoats,eleveninall, grazeinthebacklands,andgoodmenwatchoverthem.

(Odyssey14.96104) TothesefiftynineflocksandherdswemayaddthethousandpigsthatEumaeusand fiveotherswineherdsmanagedonIthaca.Suchlargenumbersareperhapsepic exaggerations,buttherealityneednothavebeensofaroff,inviewofthe 69 verylargeamountofavailablegrazingland.Anordinaryfarmerwouldhavehada yokeofoxenforplowing,perhapsamule;nodoubthepasturedsomesheepand goatsforhisfamilyswool,cheese,andmanure.Buthisoikos,evenwithaslaveor two,wastoosmalltoherdlargenumbersofanimalsortobuildandmaintainthe manyhutsandpensrequired. Onlytheelitecouldcommandthelaborforceforlargescalestockraising.Asa consequence,theirfamiliesenjoyedanabundanceofthepreferredproteinfrom meat,aswellasalargesurplusofwool,hides,andfertilizer.Infact,itwasprobably woolengoodsandleather,producedwithintheoikos,thatpaidfortheimported metalgoodsandornamentstheDarkAgeelitesvaluedastreasureandusedforgift exchangesamongthemselves.Themainvalue,however,oflivestockwasasmeatfor feasts,somethingonlythefewcouldprovideinquantity. Animalwealthwasthereforeprestigewealth.Theverysightoflargeherdsroving thepasturesandhillsideswasevidenceoftheownersrankandstatus.Itwasalso proofofhisprowessasawarrior,sincethemostprestigiouswayofacquiring animals(aswellastreasure)wasbyraiding.Therewasacertaincircularityinthis animaleconomy.Chiefsslaughteredlargenumbersoftheiranimalsinorderto recruitwarriorsforraidsthatwereconductedprimarilyforthepurposeofacquiring animalsforslaughter.Itwasnotefficientinpurelyeconomicterms,but,asinall archaicranksocieties,theaimofacquiringwealthwasnottokeepitbuttoexchange itforinfluenceandgoodreputation. Thefactthatcattlearetheregularmeasurementoftheworthofotherkindsofobjects isproofofthehighvalueplacedontheminHomericsociety.Forexample,thefirst prizeinawrestlingcontestisalargebronzetripod,whichtheAchaeansvaluedat twelvecattlesworth(Iliad23.702705).Thisdoesnotmean,ofcourse,thatcows, bulls,andoxenwereusedasactualpayment;rather,inanexchangeofgoodsthe transactingpartiesmentallyconvertedthevalueoftheobjectsinvolvedintocattleas thestandardofvalue,apracticecommoninpremonetarysocieties.(InLatin,theroot ofthewordformoney,pecunia,ispecus,livestock.) Therefore,thearchaeologicallyvisiblewealthinthetenthandninthcenturies valuablesmallobjectsdepositedingravesdoesnotbegintomeasurethetrueextent ofelitewealthanditssocialpower.Nevertheless,theeconomicandsocialgulf

betweenthetopstratumandthemassofsmallfarmerswasnotnearlysowidein800 asithadbeenintheLateBronzeAge.Ifanything,wewouldexpectHomerto exaggeratethedifferencesinthelifestylesofthechiefsandtheordinaryfolk,but insteadheshowstheelitelivingnotthatmuchmoreluxuriously. Thoughtheelitedohavesomethingstheotherscannotafford,suchashorsesand chariotsandpreciousmetalitems,mostofthedistinctionsaremerelyrelativemore ofthis,betterofthat.ThedailylivesofHomericchiefsandtheirfamiliesareeasier andmorepleasant;theyhavemoreservants,and,mostimportant,moreleisuretime. Yet,allinall,theirwayoflifeismorelikethanunlikethekindoflifeledbythosein theaveragehouseholds.TheHomericpoemsandthematerialrecordconcurthat socialclassdistinctionsbetweenthenoblesandthe 70 commonershadnotprogressedveryfarinthecourseofthetenthandninth centuries. THEENDOFTHEDARKAGE(c.750700BC) ItwasintheeighthcenturythatGreeksocietyunderwentrapidchanges.Someof these,suchasdevelopmentsinartandculture,weretheresultofanaccelerationof theexistingpatternsofgrowth.Other,deeper,changesreflectaradicalbreakwith thepast,particularlyineconomicandpoliticalrelationships.Therapid developmentsthatmarktheendoftheDarkAgehaveearneditthetitleofthe eighthcenturyrenaissance.Thelasthalfoftheeighthcenturyisalsoviewedby manyasthebeginningoftheArchaicAge(c.750490BC),theperiodinwhichthe socialandculturalmovementsthatstartedearlyintheeighthcenturywouldreach maturity. PopulationGrowth,LandShortage,andtheRiseofaLandowningAristocracy Amajorfactorofchangewasawidespreadriseinpopulationintheearlyeighth century,aftercenturiesofveryslowgrowth.Thereissomedisagreementaboutthe rateofpopulationgrowth,butthereisgeneralconcurrencethattherewere considerablymorepeopleinGreeceinthelateeighthcenturyBCthanatanytime withintheprecedingfourcenturies.Populationwouldcontinuetoriseinmost regionsforthenexttwohundredyears.Thereasonforthisincreaseremainsoneof manyunsolvedquestionsofearlyGreekhistory.Asharpupturninpopulationafter alongperiodofslowgrowthisnotanuncommonhistoricalphenomenon.Certainly thematerialandsocialconditionsattheendoftheninthcenturywerefavorablefor populationincrease.

Thepresenceofmanypeoplewheretherehadbeenbutfewagenerationortwo beforewasboundtohaveagreatimpactonGreeksociety.Apopulartheoryisthat populationrisewasrelatedtoashiftfromapredominantlyanimaleconomytoa predominantlyagriculturaleconomy.Tofeedagrowingpopulation,landthathad traditionallybeenpasturewasconvertedtotheproductionofgrain,amuchmore effectiveuseoflandintermsofsustenanceyieldperacre.Extensionoffarmlandwas accompaniedbymoreintensivemethodsoffarmingtoincreaseyieldandvarietyof crops.Bytheearlyseventhcentury,atanyrate,anagrarianeconomywasinplace, anditwasdominatedbyanaristocracyoflargelandowners. Laterwrittensourcesdonotmentionhowtheclassoflargeproprietorscameinto being,butitisnotdifficulttopiecetogetherwhatmighthavehappened.Itwasmost certainlytheleadinghouseholdsthatweremostactiveinconvertingpastureland intoagriculturalland.Althoughgrazinglandwasnominallyopentoalltouse,in realitythechieftainfamilieshadlongbeforeappropriatedthebestforthemselves,in particularthemoistgrassymeadows,wheretheircattleand 71 horsesgrazed,whichwerepotentiallythefinestgrainlands.Generationsofusehad giventhemwhatamountedtoexclusivegrazingrights.Nodoubtthisprior occupancygavetheleadingfamiliessomelegalrighttoplowandplantthe traditionalpasturelands.Inanycase,asarablelandbecamemoreprecious,thechiefs andotherprominentfamilyheadscametoownadisproportionateamountofit.In thespanoftwoorthreegenerationstheytransformedthemselvesintolargescale farmers,withsmallerflocksandherds.Therestofthepopulationcontinuedtolive offtheirsmalltomediumsizefarmplotsandfew(perhapsnowfewer)sheepand goats. Thegrowingdisparityinlanddistributionbegantohaveasevereeffectasrising populationsandthecustomofdividingtheklerosequallyamongsonsmadefamily plotssmaller.Oneearlysignoflandhungerwastheemigration,startinginthe secondhalfoftheeighthcentury,ofsubstantialnumbersofpeoplefrommainland andislandGreeceintosouthernItalyandSicily,beginningalongwaveof colonizationthatwouldeventuallyplantscoresofnewGreekcommunitiesfrom SpaintotheshoresoftheBlackSeaandbeyond.Tradeandtheprofitsthatcouldbe earnedattractedsome,butformostitwasthepromiseofagoodsizedkleroson goodsoil.Amongthesenodoubtwerelandlessmen;more,however,wereseekinga betterlivelihoodthantheirlandathomecouldgivethem. Althoughscarcityoflandwascertainlytheprimarymotivationforemigration,this scarcitymustbeputintoperspective.NowhereineighthcenturyGreecedidthe populationapproachthecarryingcapacityoftheland.Infact,thefillinginofthe

countrysidecontinuedthroughtheseventhandintothesixthcentury.Theproblem wasnotthattherewasnoland,butratherthatthemostproductivelandwas concentratedinthehandsofaminorityofthefamilies.Sonswhoseinheritedshareof theirpaternalkleroswasinsufficientforadecentlivelihoodwereforcedeitherto seekmarginallandinthedemosortoemigrateoverseas.Colonizationandthe tremendousimpactitwouldhaveonthepolitical,economic,andcultural developmentofthehomelandduringtheseventhandsixthcenturieswillbe discussedinthenextchapter. TradeandCommerce EarlycolonizationwasconnectedtowideningcontactswiththeNearEastand westernEurope.Longdistanceseabornetrade,bothamongGreeksandbetween Greeksandforeigners,hadbeenincreasingslowlyinthetenthandninthcenturies, butitexpandedconsiderablyintheeighth.TheearliestevidenceforseriousGreek involvementinoverseastradeisasettlementofEuboeanGreeks,around825,atan internationaltradingpostofAlMinainnorthernSyria.AGreektradingcolonywas foundedshortlyafter800atPithecusaeinsouthernItaly.Bytheearlyseventh century,GreekshadonceagainbecomeimportantparticipantsintheAegeanandin thewiderMediterraneantrade,andwerecompetingwiththePhoenicians,whohad longbeentheleadingseamerchantsintheMediterranean. 72 AsithadintheLateBronzeAge,theneedforrawmaterials,especiallymetal,drove longdistancetrade.Importsofcopperandtin,iron,andgoldincreasedconsiderably fromthelatereighthcenturyon,aswellasofrareandexpensivematerialssuchas ivory,amber,dyes,andobjectsmadeofthese.Inreturn,Greekswereexporting largerquantitiesoffinepotteryandmetalworkabroadandprobablyalsofine woolengoods,cattlehides,andleather.Productionofoliveoilandwineforoverseas marketswouldbegininthelaterseventhcentury,followedstilllaterbyexportsof buildingstoneandmarble,forwhichGreecewasfamous,andsilver,whichwas abundantinregionssuchasAtticaandThrace. TradeatthelocalorregionallevelwithinGreecewaslargelycontainedwithinafew hundredsquaremiles.Craftsgoodswouldhaveconsistedmainlyofplainpottery andutilitarianmetalmanufactures,suchasironaxesandspearpoints,aswellas somelocallymadeluxuryitemsforthewealthy.Alargevarietyoflocalproduce wouldhavebeenexchanged.Besidesthestaplesofgrain,wine,andoliveoil, producerswouldhavebarteredhoney,fruit,andcheeses;acoworgoat;acatchof fish;oraloadoflumber.Aswithforeigntrade,theprimarymeansoftransportwas bysea.Hesiod,forexample,assumesthatafarmerwillputpartofhissurplus productioninaboatandsailafairdistanceforprofit.Goodswerealsohauledon

land,alongroughwagontracksorbysteepmuleandfootpathsthroughrugged passes.Inthisway,localandregionaleconomieswereabletoproduceandto distributebythemselvesallthatwasnecessarytosatisfythewantsandneedsof ordinarypeople. Farmers,craftsmen,sailors,shipbuildersandoutfitters,andcarterswereamong thosewhofoundneweconomicopportunitiesinthesteadyincreaseofcommerce andtradeintheeighthandseventhcenturies.Themainbeneficiaries,however,were thebiglandholders,whocouldproducelargesurplusesforthemarketandcould subsidizethecostsandbearthelossesoflongseavoyages.Forthesewealthy families,costlyforeignanddomesticmanufacturescontinuedtobeemblemsof status,whosefunctionwasalmostexclusivelytoimpressandtobegivenaway,just asintheninthandearliercenturies.Goldcupsandsilverplates,bronzetripods,and horsesweretheritualcoinageofelitesocialrelationshipsandwouldremainsoeven aftertheintroductionofsilvercoinsaround600. TheAlphabetandWriting TheincreasedcontactswiththeEastwereresponsibleforthemostsignificant culturalachievementofthelateDarkAge,theGreekalphabet.Greeksborrowed lettersfromthePhoenicianalphabet,anorthernSemiticscript,torepresentthe consonantsoundsofGreek.TheyusedotherPhoenicianletterstorepresentthe vowelsounds,whichthePhoenicianalphabetdidnothave,andthuscreatedthefirst trulyphoneticalphabet.BecausetheearliestmaterialevidencefortheGreekalphabet comesfromtheeighthcentury,itisgenerallybelievedthatitwasdevelopedaround 800.ThereasonstheGreeksdecidedtohaveawritingsystematthistimeandnot earlierarestilldebated.Someproposethatthealphabetwasadoptedfortheexpress purposeofwritingdownepicpoetry,whereasothers 73 clingtotheolderexplanationthatitwasfirstusedforcommercialandother utilitarianpurposes.Eithertheoryisplausible,althoughsofarnospecimenof eighthcenturycommercialwritinghasbeenfound. TheearliestknownexamplesofconnectedGreekwordsarebitsofepictypeverse scratchedonvasesanddatedtothesecondhalfoftheeighthcentury.Thesegraffiti donotprovethatthealphabetwasdesignedforpreservingoralpoetry,although theydoshowthattheepicsofHomercouldhavebeenwrittendownataboutthe sametimeastheircomposition.Whatevertheinitialmotive,oncewritingwas establisheditwasusedtorecordnotonlypoetrybutmanyotherthingsbesides.The earliestspecimenofthecivicuseofwritingisastoneinscriptionoflawsfromDreros inCrete,carvedaround650BC.WritingspreadquicklythroughouttheGreek speakingworld,notasonestandardalphabetbutasnumerouslocalscripts,with

variationsinletterformamongneighboringlocales.TheGreekalphabetoftwenty fourletterswasahugeadvanceoverthecumbersomeLinearBsyllabicsystemof eightysevensigns.Becauseeachletterrepresentedasinglespokensound,itwas fairlysimpletolearntoreadandeventowriteGreek.Sincereadingandwriting wereaccessibletoallandfairlyeasilylearned,literacycouldnotbecomean instrumentofpowerandcontrolbytherulersoverthepeople,asitwasinEgyptand othercontemporaryempires,whereliteracywasanarcaneskillconfinedtoanelite groupofofficials,priests,andscribes. TheimpactofliteracyonGreekculturaldevelopmentwasenormous.Manyofthe achievementsforwhichtheGreeksaremostfamoushistory,drama,philosophy, mathematics,science,medicine,law,andscholarshipcouldnothaveevolved withoutwriting.LaterGreeksreverentlypreservedthewritingsofearlierGreeksand heldconstantdialoguewiththemindsofthepast.Progresstowardgeneralliteracy, however,wasslow.Greeceintheeighthandmuchoftheseventhcenturywas almostascompletelyoralauralasithadbeenintheearlierDarkAge.Infact,onlya smallpercentageofancientGreekswouldeverreadorwritetoanygreatextent. OralitycoexistedwithliteracythroughoutGreekhistory;evenintheClassicaland Hellenisticperiods,whenliteracywasmostwidespread,mostinformationpassed frommouthtoear. ArtandArchitecture Developmentinartisticexpression,ofwhichpotteryisthebestexample,asusual,is anotherindexofthecreativeenergyoftheLateGeometricperiod.Thestylistic transitionfromMiddleGeometricpottery(c.850750)toLateGeometric(c.750700) wassmooth,butclearlyrepresentsanewdirectioninvasepainting.Aswehave seen,asidefromshowinganoccasionalhorseorabird,or,evenrarer,ahuman figure,Greekvaseswereessentiallywithoutimagesfromtheeleventhtotheeighth century.Picturesofanimalsandhumanssuddenlybecamefrequentafter800BC. Themajordecorativeinnovation,however,wasthereappearance,afteranabsenceof fourhundredyears,ofgroupscenesthattoldakindofstory,suchasbattles, shipwrecks,funerals,andchariotprocessions. 74 a b c Figure2.4a.Examplesofgraffitioneighthcenturyvases. Inscription(c)reads:IamthedrinkingcupofNestor,goodtodrinkfrom.Whoever drinksthiscup,immediatelythedesirewillseizehimofbeautifulcrowned Aphrodite.Thereadableportionofinscription(a)says:Hewho,ofallthedancers, nowdancesmostgracefully[?willwinthispot?].Inscription(b)simplyidentifies theowner:IamthecupofQoraqos.Figure2.4b.LateGeometricvase,c.740BC, fromAthens,onwhichexample(a)wasinscribed.

75 InAtticpottery,whichhadlongbeenthestylesetter,thisdevelopmentoccurredjust astheGeometricstylereachedapeakofcomplexity.Onamassiveamphorafrom about750BC,commissionedasagravemarkerforawealthywoman,asceneofthe womanlyinginstateoccupiestheprominentareaofthebellyofthemonumental vase,whiletherestofthesurfaceiscoveredbyamasterfulcompositionofabstract geometricdesigns.Thesilhouettefiguresofthecorpseandmournersarethemselves geometricinexecution,asarethebandsofrepeating,identicaldeerandbirdsonthe neck(seeFig.2.5).YetitiscleareveninthisbravuradisplayoftheGeometricstyle thatthepictureisthefocalelement.Inevitably,staticgeometricshapesbecamemere decorativebordersforthepictorialnarrative,whichsooncoveredmostofthepottery surface.Astherepertoireofsubjectsandscenesexpanded,thefiguresofanimals, humans,andobjectsbecameincreasinglymorenaturalistic.Anotherartistic innovationwasthedepictionofscenesfromGreeklegends,paintedonvasesand engravedonmetalwork.Thesescenesinauguratedtherichandlastingtraditionof pictorialnarrativeinpaintingandsculpture.Theunrestrainedexuberance(ifnot alwaysexcellence)ofthisnewartisticspiritisalsoevidentintheincreaseof distinctiveregional,local,andevenindividualstyles,ascraftsmenfromallover Greeceexperimentedwith,mixed,copied,adapted,andabandoned,inrapid successionbothhomegrownandimportedstylesandtechniques.NearEastern influenceonartappearsespeciallyprominentfromaround730or720BCandfor aboutacenturythereafter.Liketheborrowingofthealphabet,theorientalizing periodofGreekartexemplifiestheimportanceofNearEasternmodelsinthe developmentofGreekculture.Asinthecaseofwriting,whattheGreekslearned fromtheEasttheyincreasinglytransformedintoadistinctivelyHellenicexpression. Themonumentaltemple,whichisthesignatureGreekarchitecturalform,emerged intheeighthcentury.Theearliestknownexamplesfromaround800BCweresmall, withmudbrickwalls,woodencolumns,andthatchedroofs,andlookedverymuch likeregularhouses.ArectangulartempletoHeraontheislandofSamos,constructed afewdecadeslater,wasthefirsttomakeacleardistinctionbetweendivineand humanhouses.Althoughstillmadeofthesamematerialsasearliermodels,itwas severaltimeslarger:100feetlongcomparedwith25feet.When,sometimelaterin thecentury,awoodencolonnadeorperistylewasbuiltallaroundthelongbut narrowshell,thebuildingassumedtheformoftheGreektempleasweknowit.By 700thereweredozensofmajorandminortemples,builtalongsimilarlines,inall partsoftheGreekworld. Theappearanceoflargetemplesshowsthatpeoplewantedtoandwereableto spendtheirwealth,time,andlaboronprojectsthatgavehonortothewhole community.InAthensatthistime,expensivevotiveofferingsplacedinthetemples ofthegodsmostnotablybronzetripodsandcauldrons,figurines,andbronzedress

pinsgreatlyexceedtheamountofmetalwealthfoundinupperclassburials.Giving tothecommunityratherthanexpressingfamilyprideinthetraditionalmannerwas anewwayofconspicuousdisplaybytheelite;apatternwasestablishedthatwasto holdthroughoutthelifeoftheGreekcitystate. Anumberofthesanctuarieswerelocatedinthecountrysideawayfromthe populationcenters.Manyseethisasasignofgrowingcivicunity,adeliberate 76 a bFigure2.5a.LargeLateGeometricgraveamphorafromtheDipylon cemeteryatAthens.Figure2.5b.Thefuneralscenefromthesamevase. 77 Figure2.6.AsmallbronzestatuettefromthemideighthcenturyBC,depictinga manandacentaurfighting;verypossiblyarepresentationofthemythofHeracles andthecentaurNessus. strengtheningofthereligiousbondsforthepurposeofmorefirmlyunitingthe demos.Religiousprocessionsfromthecentraltowntotheruralsanctuaries symbolicallyconnecteditsinhabitantswiththeinhabitantsoftheoutlyingvillages andhamlets.Thetemplesatthebordersoftheterritoryalsoservedtostakeoutthe territoryofthedemosagainstanyterritorialclaimsfromaneighboringdemos. Thickbrickandstonedefensivewalls,anothermajorarchitecturalfeatureofGreek towns,firstappearinGreekAsiaMinorandtheAegeanislands.OldSmyrna(later Izmir)hadanimpressivecircuitwallbyaround850;Iasus,downthecoastinCaria, waswalledbefore800.AnumberofCycladicislandsiteswerealsofortifiedinthe ninthcentury.Onthemainland,however,theearliestcircuitwallsdatetoalittle before700.Theincreasingnumbersofdefensivewallspossiblyindicatethatallout warfarebetweencommunities,asopposedtoraidingexpeditions,wasgrowingmore frequent,andalsoattesttothegrowingwealthandcommunalprideofthe communities. Panhellenism Theeighthcenturyalsosawtheriseofreligioussanctuariesandfestivalsthatwere notmerelylocalbutwerePanhellenic(pan=all),attractingworshippersfromall overtheGreekworld.Panhellenicshrinesandfestivalscelebratedandreinforcedthe ideathatGreekseverywherebelongedtoasinglecultural 78

groupsharingthesameheritage,language,customs,andreligion.Themostfamous earlyPanhellenicsanctuarieswerethoseofZeusandHeraatOlympia,ofApolloand ArtemisatDelos,andtheoracles(placesofdivineprophecy)attheshrinesofZeusat DodonaandofApolloatDelphi.Allthesesites,aswellasothers,showevidenceof intermittentcultactivityfromtheLateBronzeAgeon,buttheyemergedas Panhelleniccentersonlyintheeighthcentury.Eventuallytheywouldbecomelarge complexesoftemples,treasurehouses(forthedepositingofgifts),andholy precincts. TheworshiperswhocametothePanhellenicfestivalsparticipatedincommonrituals andsacrificestothegods,andatsomesanctuariestheytookpartinathleticcontests aswell.Thefirstandthemostprestigiousoftheseathleticgameswerethoseheld everyfouryearsatthegreatfestivalofZeusatOlympia,aratherremotesitein northwesternPeloponnesus.Thegameswereinaugurated,accordingtolaterGreek computations,in776BC.Atfirst,OlympiaandtheOlympiangamesattracted contestantsandvisitorsonlyfromthevicinity,butbytheendofthecenturycostly dedicationswerebeingdepositedinthesanctuariesofZeusandHerabySpartans, Athenians,Corinthians,andArgives.Bythesixthcentury,contestantsandspectators wouldbedrawnfromallovertheGreekworld. TheriseofPanhellenismcoincidedwithincreasedcontactwiththeEasternworld, whichmadetheGreeksmoreconsciousoftheculturaldifferencesbetween themselvesandnonGreeks.WhenHomerdescribestheCarians,alliesoftheTrojans, hecallsthembarbarophnoi(strangespeaking),indicatingtheoddsoundofforeign languagestoGreekears.Thisisthefirstoccurrenceofthewordbarbaros,whichthe Greekslateremployedasthegeneraltermforforeigner.ContrastbetweenGreeks andbarbarianswouldbemoststronglyexpressedintheearlyfifthcentury,when theGreeksunitedtofightagainstthePersianempire. TheHeroicRevival CloselyrelatedtoPanhellenismwereactivities,atboththelocalandnationallevels, thatcenteredaroundtherecoveryoftheworldoftheBronzeAgeancestors.Quite suddenly,around750,Greekseverywherebegantoexpresstheirconnectiontothe heroicpastinnewanddramaticways.Numerousancienttombs(mostlyMycenaean) thathadbeenignoredthroughouttheDarkAgebegantoreceivevotiveofferings,an indicationthattheiranonymousinhabitantswerenowworshipedasheroes.Other kindsofherocultscameintobeingduringthelateeighthcentury.Theywere celebratednotatgraves,butatnewshrinessetupinhonoroflegendaryheroic figures,forexample,theprecinctssacredtoAgamemnonatMycenaeandto MenelausandHelennearSparta.Theimpetusbehindherocultswasthebeliefthat thegreatmenandwomenoftheHeroicAgehadpowerindeathtoprotectandto

helpthepeople.Likegods,theyweregivenanimalsacrificesandotherdivine honors,thoughonasmallerscale. WealthyGreeksofthelatereighthcenturyalsoexpressedanurgetoconnectwiththe pastthroughheroicstyleburials,mostnotablyinAttica,Euboea,and 79 Cyprus.Theseburialssomewhatresemblethefuneralsofheroesinepicpoetry.Asin thefuneralofPatroclus(theclosehetairosofAchilles)intheIliad,thecorpsewas crematedandthebonesputinabronzeurn;weaponswereplacedinthegrave,and occasionallysacrificedhorses.Alsoaroundthistimevasesdepictingeventsfromthe HeroicAgebegintoturnupinthesegraves.Thereisadditionalevidencefrom Athensthatwealthyfamilieshadbeguntogrouptheirgravesinenclosuresthatnot onlyheldcontemporarygravesbutalsotookinMycenaeangraves,asiftoconvert theinhabitantsoftheancientburialsintofamilyancestors.Allthissuggeststhatthe leadingfamilieswereproclaimingdescentfromtheheroesofold. *** Astheeleventhtotheeighthcenturiescomemoreclearlyintoview,itbecomes increasinglyapparentthattheDarkAgewasthecradleofthecitystatesocietyand culturethatwastofollow.ThebasicstructuresandinstitutionsoflaterGreeksociety werefirmlyinplacewellbefore800BC.Andso,theemergenceofGreece,duringthe eighthcentury,fromtheDarkAgeintotherenaisssanceoftheArchaicperiod,which notsolongagowasseenasasuddenandrevolutionaryphenomenon,appearsnow morelikearapidevolutioninresponsetorapidlychangingconditions.Theswift transformationofthetraditionalchieftaingovernmentintothecitystategovernment andtheturbulenthistoryoftheearlycitystatesarethesubjectsofthenextchapter. TRANSLATIONS Blanco,Walter.1992.TheHistories,fromHerodotus:TheHistories,WalterBlancoand JenniferRoberts,eds.NewYork:W.W.Norton. Lattimore,Richmond.1951.TheIliadofHomer.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress. Lattimore,Richmond.1965.TheOdysseyofHomer.NewYork:Harper&Row. LattimorestranslationsarefaithfultotheoriginalGreek,andcapturethestyleand rhythmoftheGreekepicinsimple,straightforwardEnglish. SUGGESTEDREADINGS

Burkert,Walter.1985.GreekReligion.Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress.A classichistoryofancientGreekreligionfromtheMinoanMycenaeanAgetothe Hellenisticperiod. Coldstream,J.N.1977.GeometricGreece.NewYork:St.MartinsPress.A comprehensivepresentationandanalysisofthearchaeologicalevidencefrom900to 700BC. Edwards,MarkW.1987.Homer,PoetoftheIliad.BaltimoreandLondon:Johns HopkinsUniversityPress.Areliable,uptodategeneraltreatmentofHomericpoetry andtheepicstyle,withcommentariesonselectedbooksoftheIliad. 80 Finley,MosesI.1978.TheWorldofOdysseus.2nded.NewYork:VikingPress.First publishedin1954,thisbookrevolutionizedthestudyofDarkAgesocietyand institutions. Hurwit,JeffreyM.1985.TheArtandCultureofEarlyGreece,1100480B.C.Ithaca,N.Y.: CornellUniverityPress,chaps.13.Ahighlyreadableandinsighfuldiscussionof DarkAgeartinrelationtothechangingsocialscene.Chapters4to6arealso recommendedreadingforartandcultureintheArchaicperiod. Lord,AlbertBates.1991.EpicSingersandOralTradition.Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell UniversityPress.Acollectionofarticlesandpapers(somenotpublishedbefore), offeringanoverviewoforaltraditionalepicsongsandsingers,spanningthelong careerofoneofthefoundersoforalformulaictheory. Morris,IanandBarryPowell,eds.1997.ANewCompaniontoHomer.Leiden:Brill.A valuablecollectionofthirtynewarticles,coveringallareasofHomericstudies, literaryandhistorical,writtenbyspecialistsforanonspecialistaudience. Snodgrass,A.M.1971.TheDarkAgeofGreece:AnArchaeologicalSurveyoftheEleventh totheEighthCenturies.Edinburgh:UniversityofEdinburghPress.Remainsthe standardtreatmentofthearchaeologicalevidenceforthewholeoftheDarkAge. 81 ARCHAICGREECE(c.700500BC) TheseventhandsixthcenturiesbelongtotheperiodcalledtheArchaicAge(c.750 490BC).Duringthosetwohundredyearsthepaceofchangeanddevelopment acceleratedrapidly,continuingandsurpassingtheprogressmadeintheeighth centuryasGreeceemergedfromitsDarkAge.Onceratherneglectedbyhistoriansas

beingmerelythepreludetothegloriousandtragicfifthandfourthcenturiesthe ClassicalperiodtheArchaicperiodisseennowasthedecisiveformativetimeofthe intellectual,cultural,andpoliticalachievementsofGreecesGoldenAge. Thecitystateformofgovernment,whichcameintobeingwiththedemographicand economicchangesoftheeighthcentury,grewtomaturityduringtheseventhand sixth.Asteadymovementofoverseascolonization,startinginthelatereighth centuryandcontinuingintothesixth,spreadtheGreeklanguageandcultureacross thelandsoftheMediterraneanandBlackseas.Trade,helpedbycolonization, dispersedGreekgoodsfarbeyondthelimitsknowntotheBronzeAgetraders. Literatureandartflourished;newgenresofartisticandintellectualexpressionwere invented.ThegreatPanhellenicshrines,festivals,andoraclesgrewinimportance, furthernourishingtheidealoftheculturalunityofallGreeksevenastheGreek worldexpandedtofardistantshores.WithintheGreekcitystates,newideasbegan toform,twoofwhichwouldshapethehistoryofthewesternworld:arationalview oftheuniverse,whicheliminatedsupernaturalcausesfornaturaleventsand replacedthemwithscientificexplanations,andtheconceptofdemocratic government,inwhichallmemberswereequalunderthelawsandthelawswere madebythepeopledirectlybymajorityrule. TheArchaicperiodalsohaditsdarkside.Warsofonedemosagainstanother becamemuchmorefrequent,andwarfareitselfbecamemuchmorelethal.Worse, civilstrifewithinademosbecamecommonplace.Theleaders,withtheirarmed followers,continuallyquarreledandfoughtamongstthemselves.Widening economicinequalitycausedmuchhumanmiseryandproducedserioustensions betweenthefewrichandthemanypoor,whichoccasionallyeruptedinactualclass 82 warfare.Politicalinstabilitygaverisetoanewtypeofleader,thetyrant,whose rulershipinturnledtofurtherturmoil.Allinall,however,thegoodoutweighedthe bad.Forallitsproblems,theArchaicperiodwasoneofgrowingconfidenceand prosperity;byitsendtheGreekstateshadmadeprogresstowardsolvingtheir internalproblemsandtheircitizenswerelivingtogetherinrelativeharmony. SOURCESFORTHESEVENTHANDSIXTHCENTURIES EventhoughweareseparatedfromtheArchaicAgeby2700years,wecan apprehendwhatwashappeningallacrosstheGreekworldastheeighthcentury renaissanceturnedintotheGreekmiracle,asithasbeencalled,oftheseventhand sixthcenturies.Forthefirsttimewecanspeakofactualevents,withdatesand names,andevenconnecteventsintoacoherenthistoricalnarrative.Thatispossible becausebeginningintheseventhcenturytheGreeksproducedcopiousamountsof textswrittenonpapyrus(thepaperofantiquity),whichwerelaboriouslycopied

andrecopiedbyhanduntiltheinventionoftheprintingpressinthefifteenthcentury AD. OnlyasmallfractionofwhattheancientGreekswrotehassurvivedthecenturiesof selectionandchance.Thatasmuchsurvivedasitdid(enoughtofillseverallibrary shelves)istheultimatetestimonyofthecontinuingvalueofGreekliteraturetothe westernworld.ThewritingsoftheArchaicAgedidnotfareaswellastheliterature ofthelaterperiods.OtherthantheworksofHomerandHesiod,onlybitsandpieces ofthevolumesofpoetryandphilosophicaltreatisesfromtheseventhandsixth centurieshavecomedowntous.Someofthefragmentsarepreservedasquotations intheextantwritingsoflaterGreeks,whogreatlyadmiredthepoetsandthinkersof theArchaicperiod.OtherfragmentscomefrompapyrioftheHellenisticandRoman periodsluckilypreservedinthehotsandsofEgypt.Thoughpitifullyfew,the preciousremnantsofArchaicliteratureprovidevaluableinsightsintocontemporary lifeandthoughtduringtheseventhandsixthcenturies. Mostofourinformationabouttheeventsoftheperiodisfoundintheworksofthe laterhistorians,whohadsomeaccesstoearlierwritingsandrecords.Theywrote manyyearslater,however,andtheiraccountsareoftenuntrustworthybecausemuch oftheirknowledgewasbasedonorallytransmittedlegends.Publicandprivate inscriptionscarvedonstoneandtheimagesandlettersoncoins,whichwerefirst mintedinthesixthcenturyBC,supplementtheevidencegivenbytheancient historians.Theamountofinscriptionalmaterial,however,issmallbeforethefifth century. ThearchaeologicalevidencefollowstheupwardtrajectorybegunintheGeometric period.Thereisasizableincreaseinthenumberofmanufactureditemsfound,a naturalresultofthegrowthinpopulationandwealth.Architecturalfindsarealso muchmorenumerous.Moreover,becausethetemplesandothermonumental buildingswerenowconstructedentirelyofstone,muchmorecan 83 belearnedfromtheirruins.Animportantnewsourceofevidenceissculpture:life sizeandlargerfiguresinstoneandbronze. BycomparisonwiththeClassicalperiod,theevidencefortheseventhandsixth centuriesisingeneralrathermeager.Despitethelargegapsinourknowledge, however,itispossibletoputtogetherareasonablyclearpictureofGreeksocietyand cultureintheearlycitystates. THEFORMATIONOFTHECITYSTATE(POLIS)

Thecitystateformofgovernmentcameintoexistenceduringtheeighthcentury.By theearlyseventhcenturydozensofGreekcommunitiesallacrosstheGreekworld, fromIoniaintheeasttoSicilyandsouthernItalyinthewest,hadformedthemselves intocitystates.Thepolis,astheGreekscalledit,servedasthecharacteristicsocial andpoliticalorganizationforGreeksuntilatleasttheRomanperiod.Asanideal,the polishashadenormoussignificanceinthehistoryoflaternations.Theverywords politicalandpoliticsarederiveddirectlyfrompolis. Whatisacitystate?Asimplifieddefinitionis:ageographicalareacomprisingacity anditsadjacentterritory,whichtogethermakeupasingle,selfgoverningpolitical unit.TheessentialelementsofthecitystateswereinplaceduringthelaterDarkAge. ThecapitalcitiesofwhatbecamecitystatesexistedallthroughtheDarkAge,and mostofthemhadbeenthemajorcentersoftheirregionsduringtheMycenaean period.Theterritorialcommunity,thedmos,appearsfullyevolvedintheHomeric epics,andthereforetheunitaryconceptofthelandandthepeoplemustgoback generationsbeforeHomer.Withinthedemostherewasacollectiveidentification theIthacans,thePyliansandacommunalworshipofthesamegods.Thetwo primarygovernmentalorgansofthecitystate,theassemblyofmenoffightingage andthecouncilofelders,appearfirmlyestablishedintheHomericchiefdoms.All thatwaslackingtomakethedmoscommunitiesof800BCintothepolisstatesof700 BCwerecertainnecessaryformalities:formalpoliticalunificationofthedemosand thecreationofacentralgovernment. PoliticalUnification(Synoecism) Inallcitystates,fromancientMesopotamiatoRenaissanceEurope,thecapitalcityis thefocalpointofthestate.TheoriginalmeaningoftheGreekwordpolis(plural poleis),wastownorcity,andthatishowitisusedintheHomericepics.Tothe Greeksofthecitystateperiod,however,thepoliscomprisednotonlythecapitalcity ortown(polis)butitsadjacentterritoryaswell.Allthemembersofthatterritory, boththosewholivedinthecapitalandthosewholivedinthecountryside,were calledpolitai(membersofthepolis)asiftheyalllivedtogetherinthepolis(city). LaterGreeksreferredtotheprocessofpoliticalunificationofstatesassynoikismos, whichmaybelooselytranslatedascomingtolivetogether,ormorelit 84 erally,havingtheoikoitogether.Synoecism,tousetheanglicizedterm,wasthe processbywhicheverytown,village,andhamletofademosacceptedasingle politicalcenter.Whateverlocalautonomytheyhadformerlyenjoyed,whatever freedomofactiontheyhadexercisedseparatefromthecapitalandtheother settlements,wasgivenup.Moreover,theyidentifiedthemselvesbythenameofthe capitalcity.Thus,allthosewholivedintheterritoryofAttica,ofwhichAthenswas

thecapitalcity,referredtothemselves(andwerereferredtobyothers)asthe Athenians,eveniftheylived25milesfromthecityofAthens. Synoecismtookdifferentforms,dependingonthesizeoftheterritory.Synoecismof asmalldemosmadeupofasinglemaintownanditsadjacentplain,holdinga coupleofsubsidiaryvillages,wasaverysimpleprocess.Inthosecases,polis(the state)andpolis(thetown)werealmostidenticalentities.Forexample,thepolis(city state)ofSicyonoccupiedasmallplainsregion(Sicyonia)ofabout140squaremiles, whicheveninthefifthcenturycontainedonlyafewvillagesinadditiontothemain towncalledSicyon.Becauseeveryonelivedwithinafewmilesofeveryoneelse,and mostofthefewhundredfamiliesinthedemoswereinterrelated,drawingthem togetherasasinglepoliticalunitwasmerelyamatterofmakingformaltheancient tiesofkinshipandneighborlinessandpreciselydefiningtheterritorialboundariesof thedemos.Mostoftheseveralhundredcitystatesthatcameintoexistenceduring theArchaicperiodwereoftheSicyonvariety,asingletownanditssmallplain;the majority,infact,wereevensmallerinterritorythanSicyon. Synoecismoftheregionalterritories,thosethatcontainedseveralimportanttowns andvillagesbesidesthecentraltown,wasamorecomplexprocessandisnotwell understood.Scholarlyopinionisthattheunificationoftheregionalstateswasa drawnoutdevelopment,beginningpossiblyintheninthcenturyandcrystallizing betweenabout750and700.Archaeologyprovidesahintofhowreligionmayhave beenusedtopromoteunitywithinregions.AswesawinChapter2,itisthoughtthat duringtheeighthcenturytemplesandshrinestothegodsandheroesofaregional demoswerebuiltinthecountrysidetoconnectthecentersymbolicallytothe outlyingvillages;religiousprocessionsfromthemainpolistotheoutersanctuaries wouldhavefosteredandstrengthenedthesenseofbeingasinglenation. Insomeregions,unificationwasvoluntaryandpeaceful,asinMegarisunderthe leadershipofMegaraandofCorinthiaunderCorinth.Thereisevidence,however, thatinothermainlandregionsintimidationandevenforcewasusedtointegratethe townsandvillagesintoasinglepolis.TheoriginalfourvillagesofSpartaabsorbed thevillageofAmyclae,3milessouth,intotheunifiedSpartanpolisagainstitswill, andreducedthemoredistantsettlementsofLaconiatoadependentstatus. Synoecismwasalsoincompleteinsomeregions.Argos,forexample,neverfully succeededinunifyingthewholeofthelargeregionofArgolis,andanumberof small,separate,independentcitystatescontinuedtoexistintheplainsoutsideofthe Argiveplain.EvenwithintheplainofArgositselfsomevillagesretainedagooddeal oflocalautonomy.Otherregionswereneverunitedintoasinglepolis.Although Thebeshadbeentheprincipalsettlementinthelarge 85

fertileregionofBoeotiasincetheEarlyBronzeAge,theThebanscontrolledonlytheir localareaandhadtodealonmoreorlessequaltermswithtenotherdistrictpoleis. Asthisbriefsketchshows,therewasnosinglemodelofsynoecism.Eachregion experienceditsownkindofcitystatedevelopmentwhichwasdeterminedbylocal factorsthatarehiddenfromus.Theimportantfactisthatbyaround700BCthe permanentboundariesoftheGreekpoleiswereprettywellestablished.Ofcourse adjustmentscontinuedtobemadehereandthereasmallpolisabsorbedbyalarger neighboringpolisbutthepoliticalmapof700BCremainedmuchthesame throughouttheArchaicperiodandbeyond. THEETHNOS ThehistoryofGreecebetween700and400BCwasprimarilythehistoryofcitystates, fortheywerethemainmakersofGreekhistory.TherewerehugeareasofGreece, however,thathadadifferentformofpoliticalorganization.TheGreeknamefor theseregionswasethnos,variouslytranslatedastribe,nation,orpeople.An ethnoswasaregionalterritoryandpeople(admos)withoutasingleurbancenterora centralgovernmentorformalpoliticalunion. ThecitystateGreekstendedtoregardtheethn(plural)aspoliticallyandculturally backward.Infact,theethnoftheseventhandevensixthcenturieswereatastage verymuchlikethatoftheregionaldmoiintheDarkAge.Eachethnoshadastrong senseofbeingasinglepeopleoccupyingaspecificterritory.Thepeoplewereunited inworshipofthegodsoftheethnos.Theyhadinstitutionsforreachingcommon decisionsandforactingasaunit.Nosingletown,however,wastheofficialcapitalof theethnos;and,asinHomericsociety,unitedactionoccurredinfrequently,mostlyin situationsofcommondefenseagainstanoutsideenemy.Withinthisgeneral description,however,theethnevariedconsiderably.Boeotia,forexample,wasa singleethnicregionwithseparatesmallcitystates.Itdifferedfromthesynoecized regionofAtticainonesignificantway:alltheinhabitantsofallthetownsand villagesofAtticaconsideredthemselvesAthenians,whereasinBoeotiathey identifiedthemselvesasThebans,orPlataeans,orOrchomeniansfirst,andonly secondarilyasBoeotians. WhatreallymatteredinancientGreecewascohesivemilitaryforce.TheAthenians couldcallonthemanpowerof1000squaremiles,whereastheThebanshadonlythe menwholivedinthecityofThebesanditsfewsquaremilesofadjoiningplainland. TobemilitarilypowerfultheThebanshadtoformallianceswiththeirneighboring poleis,whomightormightnotcontributetroopstosomemilitaryenterpriseorseeit throughtototheend.TheethneofthePeloponnesusArcadia,Achaea,andElis weresimilarlydividedintoseparate,smallpoleisandweresimilarlysecondrank powersuntiltheyformedeffectivealliancesamongtheirconstituentcitystates.

ApurerformoftheethnosexistednorthofthePeloponnesus.Thoseregions containednolargeurbancenters;thepopulationlivedmostlyinsmallvillages 86 spreadthinlyacrosstheterritory.Thedistrictswerenotsynoecizedintopoleis,but rathereachvillagewasindependentandautonomous.Evenanethnosofthistype, however,hadsomekindofcommunalgovernmentthroughwhichitcouldtake concertedactionintimesofnationalcrisis.ThefifthcenturyhistorianThucydides givesarevealingglimpseofhowwellalargeethnoscouldrespondasaunit.In426 BCtheAthenians,whowereagreatpoweratthetime,werecampaigningincentral Greece.Theyweretoldthat,TheethnosoftheAetolianswasindeedlargeand warlike,butastheylivedinunwalledvillageswhichwerewidelydispersed,and werealsolightlyarmed,theycouldbeeasilycrushedbeforetheycouldgathertheir forces(3.94.4;Blanco1998,adapted).Countingonthisfragmentation,theAthenians plannedtoattackanddefeatthevillagesonebyone.Afewdaysintothecampaign, however,Aetolianwarriorsassembledfromeverypartoftheterritoryanddrovethe Atheniansoutwithheavylosses. GOVERNMENTINTHEEARLYCITYSTATES Thestepsthatledtotheestablishmentofacitystateweretheworkofthe landowningaristocracythataroseintheeighthcentury.Politicalunioncouldnot haveoccurredunlessthelocalbasileis,theleadersofthedistricts,towns,andvillages ofthedemos,wishedit.Thesamesmallgroupbecametheplannersandarchitectsof thenewcentralgovernments.Thegovernmentalstructuresoftheindividualcity states,aswefirstglimpsethemintheearlyseventhcentury,differedinspecifics,yet allfollowedasimilarpattern:(1)Theofficeofparamountbasileuswaseither abolishedcompletelyorwasgreatlyreducedinpower.(2)Thegoverningfunctions formerlyexercisedbythebasileusweredistributedamongseveralofficials.(3)The importanceofthecouncilofaristocraticeldersincreased,whilethatoftheassembly ofthepeopledecreased.Ofcourse,thesedecisionswerenotarrivedatinasingle yearorevenasinglegeneration.Thesourcesmakeitclear,however,thattheprocess ofdeterminingwhichvillagesanddistrictsweretobeincludedinthepolisandwhat kindofgovernmentitwouldhavetooknomorethantwoorthreegenerations. Foraunifiedpolistobestrongandtocompetesuccessfullyagainstotherunified poleisithadtocreateamorepowerfulandmoreintrusivecentralgovernmentthanit hadpossessedbeforeunification.Amorecomplexsystemoforganizationandsocial controlwasanecessaryresponsetothenewconditionsofrapidlygrowing populations,greaterexploitationofthelandandresources,increasingproductivity andwealth,expandingtrade,andmorecomplicatedrelationshipswithneighboring states.Especiallypressingwastheneedforwaystomobilizemanpowerand

resourcesefficientlyforwarfare,foraspopulationincreasedandlandbecame scarcer,poleisfoughteachotheroverterritory,amoreseriousbusinessthantheraids andcounterraidsforanimalsandbootythatcharacterizedwarintheDarkAge. Firmcontrolfromthecenterwasthereforebothnecessaryandgoodforapolisasa whole. 87 Thecentralcontrol,however,wasinthehandsofthelargelandownerswho,likeall dominantgroupsinhumanhistory,werehighlymotivatedtopreservetheir economicandpoliticalpower.Thekeydecisionmadebythebasileiswastoeliminate thepositionoftheparamountbasileusandrulecollectively.Thiswasaneasymatter, becausethebasileushadnopowerovertheotherchiefs.Itwasobvioustothe collectivearistocraticfamilieswhysuchadrasticactionwasnecessary. Ifabasileusweregivenformalheadshipovertheunitedpolishewouldbea legitimatemonarchrulingoverastate,aleaderwithpower,notthetraditionalfirst amongequals.Thepowerfulfamiliesoptedtoretaintheirindependentstatusby makingacooperativearrangementtosubdividethespheresofauthority administrative,military,religious,andjudicialamongmagistraciesthatwerenot hereditaryandhadlimitedtermsofoffice.ThelaterGreekscalledthiskindof governmentanoligarchy(oligoi=few).Therulingoligarchsreferredtothemselves asaristoi,thebestmen;hencethetermaristocracy.Althoughthetermsoligarchia (oligarchy)andaristokratia(aristocracy)donotoccurinliteratureorinscriptions beforethefifthcentury,theideathatthefewbestwerethefittesttorulewas certainlypromotedassiduouslybythewealthy,wellbornfamilieswhocontrolled theArchaiccitystates. Eachofthecitystatesdevelopeditsownsystemofmagistraciesaccordingtoitsown needsandcircumstances.Largerstates,suchasAthens,requiredmoreofficers,while smallcitystatesneededfew.Aspoleisgrewinpopulationandcomplexity,they addedmoreofficials,withmorespecializedfunctions,suchastreasurersand supervisorsofpublicworks.BytheendofthesixthcenturyinAthens,forexample, therewereseveraldozenofficeholders;bytheendofthefifththenumberhadgrown toaroundsevenhundred.Thenumberofmajormagistracies,however,remained small. Ingeneraltherewasnohierarchyamongthemajoroffices,althoughmanystatesdid haveaprincipalofficialwhowasregardedasthechiefadministrator.The commonestnamesforthechiefofficerwerearchon(e.g.,atAthensandelsewherein centralGreece)andprytanis(e.g.,atCorinthandpoleisinIonia).Bothareverygeneral titles:archn(likearchos)meanssimplyleaderandprytanismeanssomethinglike presidingofficer.Amorespecificallynamedearlyofficer(e.g.,atAthensand

Megara)wasthepolemarchos(warleader).Manyothercitystates,especiallythe smallerones,weregovernedbysmallboardsorcollegesofmagistrates,whodivided thefunctionsofgovernmentamongthemwithoutstipulatingthespecificduties.In moststates,bythemiddleoftheseventhcenturytermofofficewaslimitedtoa singleyearandcouldnotbeheldagainuntilastipulatednumberofyearshad passed.Thesemeasureshadthedualpurposeofcurbingthepowerofanysingle magistrateandofdistributinghonorsamongthewholeofthearistocratic community. Thetruecenterofpowerinthegovernmentoftheearlycitystates,however,wasnot themagistraciesandboardsbutthecouncil.IntheArchaicpoleisthecouncilhad evenmorepowerthantheboulfinHomericsociety.Thememberswerenormally recruitedfromthehighestmagistrates,whoenteredthecouncil 88 aftertheirtermsofoffice.Membershipinthecouncilmightbeforalongtermor evenforlife.Thecouncilthushadanaturalsupremacyoverthearchonsandother magistrateswhohadlimitedtermsandwouldhesitatetoopposetheaugustbodyof prominentmenwhoserankstheywishedsomedaytojoin.Thearistocraticcouncil metmorefrequentlythanintheprestateperiodandassumedforitselfthetaskof makingpoliciesanddraftinglawsforthepolis. Correspondingtotheincreasedpowerofthecouncil,thelimitedpowerofthe assemblyofadultmalecitizenstoinfluencepolicywasfurtherreducedinthe oligarchiccitystate.Somestatesexcludedthepoorestcitizensfrommembershipin theassemblybyimposingapropertyqualification.Somerestrictedthenumberof assemblymeetingsandthebusinesstobebroughtbeforeit,ortheycurtailedfree discussionoftheissues.Thetotalsovereigntyofthearistocraticcouncil,however, wasshortlived;astimewentontheinclusivenessandauthorityoftheassemblyto decidepolicyincreased.Infact,beforetheendofthesixthcentury,eveninoligarchic citystates,theassemblyhadgainedtheultimatedecisionmakingpower. TheSurvivalofBasileisintheArchaicPeriod AlthoughthepositionofparamountbasileusceasedtoexistinitstraditionalDark Ageform,itsurvivedinotherformsthroughouttheArchaicandClassicalperiods. Usually,thetitleofbasileuswasreservedforanannualmagistrateoramemberofa boardofmagistrates.Theresponsibilitiesofthebasileusorboardofbasileisvaried fromstatetostate.Insomestates,thechiefmagistrateborethetitleofbasileus;afew appeartohavebeenmilitaryofficials,equivalenttothepolemarch.Thelarge majority,however,wereinchargeofreligiousmattersandalsohadjudicialduties, especiallyincaseshavingtodowithreligion,suchashomicides(whichpollutedthe community).Thewidespreaddesignationofthetitlebasileusforreligiousofficials

signalshowgreatareverencewasstillattachedtothename;theGreeksfeltaneedto keeptheveryimportantreligioussphereofpolislifeconnectedtothebasileisofold, theancestralheroesofthedemos. Therewereevenexceptionalcasesofstates,mostlyofDorianorigin,keepingalivea formofthetraditionalchiefdom.InArgos,adynastyofhereditarybasileisretained authorityintotheseventhcentury,resistingtheattemptsofthearistocratsto establisholigarchicrule.Oneofthem,Pheidon,usinghispositionoftraditional basileusasaspringboard,managedtomakehimselfintoatyrantwithabsolute powers. TheSpartansretainedthechiefsystemthelongest,thoughinauniqueform.Inthe Spartansystemofgovernmentthereweretwohereditary,lifelongbasileiswhoruled jointly,acustomthatcontinuedunbrokenuntilthethirdcenturyBC.Still,the powersoftheSpartanbasileiswerefarfromabsolute.Theydidretainconsiderable authorityasmilitarycommanders;buttocurbtheirpowertheSpartanschosean annualboardoffivemagistrates,ephoroi(overseers),whosejobitwastomakesure thatthebasileisruledlawfullyandtoprosecutethemiftheydidnot.Continuanceof hereditarykingships,thoughseverelylimitedinpower, 89 isalsoattestedforseveralotherpoleis,someofwhichlasteduntilthefifthcentury andbeyond. Thepowerandauthorityofthebasileuswerealsoperpetuatedthroughsocalled royalclans.TheBacchiadsofCorinthareagoodexample.AlegendaryCorinthian basileusnamedBacchisfoundedanewlineofchiefscalledtheBacchiads,the descendantsofBacchis.Accordingtothetradition,theBacchiadbasileisruledin successionforseveralgenerationsuntil747BC,whenthelastofthemwaskilledby hisownkinsmen.ThesecollectivelytookovertheleadershipofCorinth,retaining thefamilynameBacchiads.TheBacchiads,saidtonumbermorethantwohundred, choseoneamongthemeveryyeartobeprytanisanddistributedamongthemselves otherofficesaswell.TheirassertionofcommondescentfromBacchiswasapure fiction,butwasveryusefulasawayoflegitimizingtheircontrolofthegovernment. Inactuality,theywereanarrowoligarchyofprominent,wealthyoikoi.Toensure theirexclusivityasaclan,thefamiliesmarriedonlyamongthemselves.Theirrule lastedthreegenerationsuntil657,whentheywereoverthrownbythetyrant Cypselus. Similarroyalclansappearedinmanyotherpoleis,especiallyintheeasternAegean. Aroundthemideighthcentury,asmallgroupofaristocraticfamilieswhocalled themselvesthePenthilidstookoverthegovernmentofMytilene,themainpolisof Lesbos,andruledforaboutacentury.Theyderivedtheirnameandclaimtorule

fromPenthilus,grandsonofAgamemnonandsonofOrestes,themythicalfounder ofMytilene.Inlikemanner,theIonianpolisofMiletuswasruledforatimebythe Neleids,whoclaimeddescentfromNeleus,thefatherofNestorofPylos.Inseveral othercitystatestherulingfamiliessimplyassignedthemselvesthegenericname, theBasilids,thatis,thedescendantsofthebasileus.Alltheseroyalclans,which appropriatedforthemselvestheauthorityandpowerofthebasileisonthebasisof theirdirectdescentfromthem,weredeeplyresentedbytheotherwealthyfamilies. Bythemiddleoftheseventhcenturymostofthemhadbeendisplaced,eitherbya broaderoligarchyorbyatyrant. THECOLONIZINGMOVEMENT TheemergenceofthepolissysteminGreececoincidedwiththebeginningofan extraordinaryemigrationofGreeksfromtheAegeanhomeland.Thisemigration beganaboutthemiddleoftheeighthcenturyBcandcontinuedforovertwo centuries.Whenitendedaround500BCtheGreekworldextendedfromeastern SpaininthewesttoColchisintheeast.AswaspointedoutinChapter2,theprimary causesofthisremarkableexpansionweretwofold:thesearchforsourcesofmetalto satisfytheGreeksgrowingneedandthehopeofacquiringthelandrequiredtolive thelifeofacitizeninthenewpoleis,asopportunitiesforlandathomedwindled. Thedecisiontofoundacolonywasoneoftheearliestandmostdifficultpolitical actionstakenbyapolis,andonethathelpeddetermineitsfutureidentity. 90 Figure3.1Greekcolonization:750500BC. 91 Amothercity(mtropolis)hadtochooseasiteforthecolony,obtaindivineapproval forit,makeplansforthenewsettlement,andchooseitsoikists(founder).Moreover, asthefoundationoathforCyrenereveals,thedecisiontofoundacolonyinvolved thewholecommunityandwasbackedbycommunalsanctions.Foundingacolony alsoindirectlydefinedametropoliscitizenbody,sincethosewhojoinedacolony gaveuptheircitizenshipinthemothercity. Document3.1FoundationOathofCyrene,Libya(lateseventhcenturyBC) InscriptionfromCyrenecontainingtheoathswornbytheTheraeansandthe colonistsofCyrene. ResolvedbytheAssembly.SinceApollospontaneouslytoldBattusandthe TheraeanstofoundacolonyinCyrene,theTheraeansdecidedtodispatchBattusas

thefounderofthecolonyandbasileus.TheTheraeansshallsailashiscomrades.They shallsailonequalterms;andonesonshallbeenrolledfromeachfamily.Thosewho sailshallbeadults,andanyfreemanfromtheTheraeanswhowishesmayalsosail. Ifthecolonistssecurethesettlement,anycolonistwhosailslatertoLibyashallhave ashareinthecitizenshipandhonors.Healsoshallreceivealotfromtheunassigned land.Butiftheydonotmakethesettlementsecure,andtheTheraeanscannotcome totheiraidandtheysuffertroublesforfiveyears,thecolonistsmayreturnwithout feartoThera.TheymayreturntotheirownpropertyandbecomecitizensofThera. Ifanyoneisunwillingtosailwhensentbythecity,lethimbesubjecttothedeath penaltyandlethispropertybeconfiscated.Whoeverreceivesorprotectssucha personwhetherafatherhissonorabrotherhisbrothershallsufferthesame punishmentasthepersonwhorefusedtosail.Onthesetermsoathswereswornby thoseremainingatTheraandthosesailingtofoundthecolony.Theyalsocursed thosewhotransgressedtheseconditionsanddidnotabidebythem,boththose settlinginLibyaandthosestayinghere. Theyformedwaximagesandburnedthemwhiletheyutteredthesecurses,allof themtogether,menandwomen,boysandgirls.Thepersonwhodoesnotabideby theseoaths,buttransgresses,shallmeltandflowawayjustastheseimages,heand hisdescendantsandhisproperty.Butmaytherebemanythingsandthosegoodones tothosewhoabidebytheseoaths,boththosesailingtoLibyaandthoseremainingin Thera,tothemselvesandtheirdescendants. SupplementumEpigraphicumGraecum9.3;translatedbyStanleyM.Burstein. 92 Oncethedecisiontofoundacolonyhadbeenmade,itwastheoikistwhowas responsibleforitssuccess.Homer(Odyssey6.710)clearlydescribedhistask:lead thecoloniststotheirnewhome,layoutthecolonysdefenses,locatethesanctuaries ofthegods,andassignhouseplotsandfarmlandtothesettlers.Iftheoikistfulfilled hisdutieswisely,hewouldbecometherulerofanewpolisanditsguardianhero afterhisdeath.Thecolonyitselfwouldremainlinkedtoitsmetropolisbybondsof kinshipandcultsymbolizedbythefiretheoikistbroughtfromthemetropolis hearthtokindlethehearthofthenewpolis.Sothatthecultsofthegodswouldbe properlyobservedinthecolony,priestsandpriestessesalsomigratedfromthe metropolis.Otherwise,however,thecolonywasanewandcompletelyindependent polis,astheGreektermforacolony,apoikia,indicates:ahomeaway[fromtheirold home]forthecolonists. Reconstructionofthehistoryofthecolonizingmovementisdifficult.Theliterary traditionconcerningGreekcolonizationisencumberedwithlegendsintendedto

connectvariouscoloniestotheHeroicAgeandtoestablishdivinesanctionfortheir foundation.Strippedoftheselegendaryaccretions,theGreeksourcespreservelittle morethanabareskeletonofdatesofcolonialfoundations,namesoffoundingcities, and,sometimes,ofoikistsaswell. Archaeologyhasmadeitpossibleforhistorianstoovercomethelimitationsofthe writtensourcesbyconfirmingthegeneralchronologyofcolonialfoundations, revealingthedetailsofcolonialcityplanning,andprovidingevidenceforrelations betweenthecolonistsandtheirnonGreekneighborsandthetraderoutesthatlinked thecoloniestotheGreekhomeland.Archaeologicalevidencealsoindicatesthatthe colonizingmovementhadtwophases,eachlastingalittleoveracentury.Thefirst beganaboutthemideighthcenturyBCandwasdirectedtoItalyandthewestern Mediterranean;thesecondstartedaboutacenturylaterandwasconcentratedonthe northAegeanandtheBlackSea. ThepioneersinthecolonizationofItalywereEuboeansfromChalcisandEretria,the samepeopleswhohadhelpedmaintaincontactbetweenGreeceandtheNearEast duringtheDarkAge.FollowingroutesthatprobablyhadbeenblazedbyPhoenician traders,theyfoundedtheirfirstsettlementontheislandofPithecusaeintheBayof NaplesintheearlyeighthcenturyBC.Pithecusaeconformedtothepictureofan idealcolonialsitedescribedintheOdyssey(9.116141):adesertedisland,with meadows,wellwateredandsoft;thegrapevineswouldgrowthereendlessly;and thereislevelplowland...andthesoilisdeepandrich.Thereisalsoaharborgiving safeanchoragewithnoneedformooringcablesoranchorstones....Pithecusaewas alsowelllocatedtoexploittheirondepositsonthenearbyislandofElbaandtotrade withtheItalicpopulationsofthemainland.Thesettlementgrewrapidly,attracting settlersnotonlyfromtheAegeanbutevenfromPhoenicia.TheEuboeansfollowed uptheirsuccessatPithecusaewithadditionalsettlementsbothontheItalian mainlandatCumae(757BC),nearmodernNaples,andinnortheasternSicily,where theyfoundedNaxus(734)Leontini(729),Catana(729),andRhegium(712). Meanwhile,ItalyandSicilyalsoattractedtheattentionoftheDorianpoleisofthe Peloponnesus.Wrackedbytheproblemsofunequaldistributionoflandat 93 home,thesecitiessoughtoutsitesfortheircoloniesthathadgoodagricultural potential.TheAchaeansmovedfirst,foundinginthelateeighthcenturySybarisand CrotonontheinstepofItaly.Spartaquicklyfollowed,establishingitsonlycolony, Taras(712BC)inthecorneroftheheeloftheItalianpeninsula.TheBacchiadrulers ofCorinthalsosoughtasolutiontotheirinternalproblemsinthewest,founding CorcyrainthesouthernAdriaticSea(c.734BC)and,mostimportantly,Syracuse( 733),whichwouldultimatelydominatethewholeofsoutheasternSicilyandplaya

majorroleinthestruggleforpowerinthecentralMediterraneanbetweenRomeand Carthage. GreekcolonialactivityintheMediterraneanwasnotlimitedtoItalyandSicily.Thera foundedCyreneinLibyainthelateseventhcenturyBC(c.630),butitwasthefar westthatofferedthegreatestpossibilities.AccordingtoHerodotus,Greeksfirst learnedoftheopportunitiesofferedbythewesternMediterraneanwhenaSamian merchantnamedColaeusreturnedfromthekingdomofTartessusinsouthwestern Spainwithafabulouslyrichcargo.ItwasnotSamos,however,butthewest AnatoliancityofPhocaeathattookadvantageofColaeusdiscovery,foundingabout 600BCMassilia(modernMarseilles)atthemouthoftheRhoneRiver. Massiliaquicklyexploiteditssuperblocation,tradingwiththeCelticinhabitantsof theupperRhonevalleyandestablishingaseriesoftradingpostsalongthe northeasterncoastofSpain.Bytheearlysixthcentury,however,opportunitiesfor furtherGreekexpansioninthecentralandwesternMediterraneanwere disappearing.ThepowerfulPhoeniciancolonyofCarthageinmodernTunisia probablyfoundedinthelateninthcenturyBCalsohadambitionsintheregionand establisheditsowncolonialempireinwesternSicily,Corsica,Sardinia,andsouthern Spain.WhentheCarthaginiansandtheirEtruscanalliesforcedthePhocaeansto evacuatetheircolonyatAlaliaonCorsicainthemidsixthcenturyBC,Greek colonizationinthecentralandwesternMediterraneancametoanend. AscolonizingopportunitiesshrankintheMediterranean,Greeksturnedtothe northeastfornewareastosettle.Attractedbytherichfishingandagriculturalwealth oftheHellespontandBlackSearegion,variousIonianandAeolianstatesfounded coloniesinthearea.ThemostactiveofthesewasMiletus,creditedbytheancient sourceswithseventycolonies,thoughtheactualnumberwasprobablymuch smaller.AmongMiletusnumerouscoloniesweresuchimportantcitiesasCyzicus( 675BC)neartheentranceoftheHellespont,Sinope(lateseventhcentury)onthe northcoastofAnatolia,Olbia(c.550)atthemouthoftheBugRiverinsouthwestern Ukraine,andPanticapaeum(c.600)intheCrimea.Megaraalsocolonizedinthisarea, occupyingtheimportantsitesofByzantiumandChalcedononbothsidesofthe DardanellesaswellasfoundingthecityofHeracleaPontica(560BC)innorthwest AnatolianearoneofthereputedentrancestoHades.Becausetheyhadnorivalsin thisarea,unlikeintheMediterraneanbasin,theGreekswereabletoestablishnew coloniesthroughouttheArchaicandClassicalperiodsuntiltheBlackSeawasalmost entirelyringedbyGreekpoleis. Thecolonizingmovementisoftenviewedprimarilyasthestoryofthespreadof Greeklifeandculture.Supportforsuchreconstructionsexistsintheancient 94

sources.ThenewpoleisproudlyproclaimedtheirGreeknessbybuilding monumentaltemples,patronizingPanhellenicinstitutionssuchastheDelphicoracle andtheOlympicgames,andeagerlytryingtokeepabreastofculturaldevelopments intheAegean.TheearliestexamplesoftheGreekalphabetandhexameterversein factcomefromPithecusae.Nevertheless,thecreationofnewpoleisisonlypartofthe storyofGreekcolonization. Everywherethesmallcolonialexpeditionssettled,theyencounteredbarbarians,the nonGreekinhabitantsoftheshoresoftheMediterraneanandBlackseas.Afew cities,suchasSyracuse,Byzantium,andHeracleaPontica,ultimatelysucceededin expellingorenslavingtheirnonGreekneighbors.Theirlocalchroniclerslater celebratedthesevictorieswithchauvinisticstoriesofhowGreekclevernessovercame barbariansimplicity.Mostcolonies,however,werenotsofortunateandhadtofind accommodationswiththeirnonGreekneighbors,tradingandintermarryingwith them,andsometimesevensharingtheirterritory.Therewererisksonbothsides; HerodotustellsatragicstoryofaScythiankingwhomarriedaGreekwomanand becameadevoteeofDionysus,onlytobeassassinatedbyhisoutragedsubjects.More often,however,asthediscoveryofGreekmanufacturesinsouthernFranceandthe spreadoftheGreekalphabet,art,andcultsamongtheEtruscansindicate,the coloniesbecamegatewaysthroughwhichthepeoplesofsouthernEuropeandthe BlackSeaobtainedaccesstotheproductsandcultureoftheMediterranean.Norwas theculturalexchangeallinonedirection,ascultssuchasthoseoftheThracian goddessBendisandthedivinemusicianOrpheusspreadthroughouttheAegeanand beyond. ECONOMICANDSOCIALDIVISIONSINTHEEARLYPOLEIS Thosewholefttheirhomestoemigrateabroadinthelateeighthcenturywerechiefly luredbytheprospectoftheequallotoffarmland(klros)promisedtonewsettlers. Thecolonizingmovementwasboththesignofinequalityinlandownershipin Greeceandapartialremedy.Noteveryfamilycouldemigrate,however,and meanwhileaspopulationcontinuedtogrowlandbecamescarcer.Theresultwasa wideningofthesocialandeconomicdistancebetweenthetopfamiliesandtherestof thepeople. Therichlandownerscultivatedanimageofthemselvesasatruearistocracy,far superiortoallthegroupsbelowthem.Theyclaimedexclusiveentitlementtothe termhoiagathoi,thegood,purelyonthebasisoftheirbirthintoillustriousand wealthyfamilies,andlabeledashoikakoi,thebad,thosewhowerenotbornintothe landednobility.Thispresumptuousarrogancewasalargeleapfromthejustified selfesteemofthewarriorchiefswhomthearistocratsboastedastheirancestors.For Homericheroes,descentfromgreatwarriors,thoughamatterofpride,wasnot automaticproofofpersonalexcellence,andtheydidnotdemandhonorsor

privilegesonthatbasis.Theirclaimstobecalledgood(agathos)andbest(aristos) weremeasuredsolelybytheirperformanceaswarriorsandlead 95 ers.Inthesameway,thetermkakosalsoacquiredsocialconnotationsintheseventh century.InHomerkakoshadmeantunskilledinwarcraftorcowardly;inthe aristocraticlexiconitreferredtoanyonewhowasnotamemberoftheclosedgroup ofthewealthyandwellborn.Similarly,theysignaledtheirseparatenessfromthe restofthecommunitybynarrowingthetermdmosfromitsinclusiveusageasthe wholepeopletomeanthemassesorthepoor,whomtheyalsoreferredto disparaginglyashoipolloi,themany. TheRich,thePoor,andtheMiddle Thearroganceofthepowerfularistocratswasrootedintheirhereditarycontrolof theland.Thegenerationsofaristocratichouseshadinheritedadisproportionate shareofthetotalagriculturallandinthedemosandanevengreatershareofthe goodland.Theybecameevenricherthroughimprovedfarmingtechniquesthat increasedcropyieldsandthroughconcentrationoncashcrops,suchaswineand oliveoil.Mostsignificantfortheirprofitswastheirabilitytoexploitthelaborofthe poorestfarmerswhowereekingoutaprecariousexistenceonsmallplotsoflandor onmarginalland.Someofthosepoorfamiliesrentedlandfromtherichas sharecroppersinreturnforaportionoftheharvest,whileothersmortgagedtheir landtotherichandwerecompelledtopayastipulatedamountofthecropsas paymentonthedebt.Smallfarmersfelleasilyintodebt.Onebadyearmeant borrowingnextyearsseedfromawealthyneighbor;arunofleanyearscouldputa familysodeeplyintodebtthatitlostitsland.Wemayassumealsothatthenumber ofthtesthosewhocontractedtoworkashiredhandsinreturnforfood,clothing, andshelterincreasedconsiderably.Theattitudeofthelandowningclasstoward thosewhomtheyexploitedcombinedcontempt,mistrust,anddislike. Conjecturesaboutthesizeofthenobleclassdefinedasthosewhoselandholdings providedthemaleisuredlifestylerangebetween12and20percentofthefamilies; forthelowerclassthosewithinsufficientlandtosupportthemselvesestimatesare ontheorderof20to30percent.(Ofcourse,thepercentageswouldhavevariedfrom polistopolis.)Thesefiguresallowforatleast50percentofthefamiliestohavebeen neitherrichnordependentupontherich.ThefourthcenturyphilosopherAristotlein hisPoliticscallsthisgroupthemiddle(hoimesoi),theportionofthepolisthatwas betweentheveryrichandtheverypoor,andpossessedamoderateamountof wealth. Thesethreedivisionswerenotmonolithic,ofcourse;withineachtherewasa gradationofwealthandsocialrank.Thesmallnumberofaristocratichouseholds

wasdominatedbyasmallernumberoffamiliesthatwerepreeminentbecauseof theirnoblerbloodlinesandgreaterwealth:anaristocracywithinanaristocracy. Moreover,thehierarchywasnaturallysubjecttochange;onefamilymightriseinto theranksoftheuppernobilitywhileanothermightdropdownintothelesser nobilty.Nevertheless,thepropertiedclassasawholeremainedclearlymarkedoff fromthegroupsbelowthem.Theagathoiprotectedandprotractedtheireconomic andsocialexclusivenessbymarryingonlywithinthegroup.Theidealwasto maintainclasssolidarityandatleastthefacadeofequalityamongthefamilies. 96 Withinthelowestgroup,gradationswouldhavebeenonlyinthedegreeof abjectness.Thechancesforeconomicbettermentforpoorfarmerswereslight.The increaseintrade,whichrosesteadilyintheArchaicperiod,offeredsome opportunitiesforemployment,butonlyassailorsandinotherlowwageand lowstatusoccupations.Andtheskilledcraftsweremostlyclosedtothepoorbecause craftswerefamilyaffairsandfewapprenticeshipswereavailabletopooroutsiders. Itwasthemiddlegroupthathadthegreatesteconomicandsocialgradation.Some nonnobleoikoisharedintherisingprosperityoftheArchaicAgeandwerefairly welloff;attheotherendofthescalewerethosebarelykeepingoutofdebt.The wealthdifferences,andthereforethesocialdifferences,betweentheextremeswere largeenoughsothatthetopdidnotmakemarriageswiththebottom.Accordingly, thewholegroupofindependentfarmersandcraftsmenwasnotconsciousofitselfas aclasswithspecificclassinterestsasweretherichlandowners.Upwardmobility, thoughnotimpossible,wasnoteasy.Aristocraciesresistassaultsontheir exclusiveness;yet,ifacommonerfamilybecamewealthyenough,itcouldmarryinto thenobility.ThesixthcenturyaristocraticpoetTheogniscomplainsthatalthough mentakepainstomaketheiranimalswellbornbycarefulbreeding,agoodman willnothesitatetomarrythedaughterofakakosman,ifshebringswithhera gooddowry.Wealth,hesays,corruptsalineage(Theognidea183192).Downward mobility,ontheotherhand,wasmuchmorecommon,astheprecariousfarmers slippedintodependence.Theerosionoftheindependentfarmergroupinthe seventhcenturybecameaseriousproblemwithinthecitystates. Citizenship Althoughallthefamiliesofthethreeeconomicgroupswerecitizens,theywerefar fromequalintheirrightsascitizensintheearlypoleis.Citizenship,whichthelater Greeksdefinedashavingashareinthepubliclifeofthepolis,wasperceivedasa gradedstatus,fixedtoapersonssocialandeconomicconditionaswellastogender. Whilefemalecitizenshadimportantrolesinthereligiousworshipofthecommunity, theywerecompletelybarredfromparticipationinpolitical,judicial,andmilitary

affairs.Thesewereexclusivelythedomainofadult(overage18)malecitizens. Amongthemen,theshareofcivicresponsibilitiesandrightstovoteandspeakin theassembly,holdoffice,serveasjudges,fightinthearmywasdividedunequally alongmainlyeconomiclines.Intheearlycitystates,aswehaveseen,onlytherich andwellbornpossessedthefullrangeofcitizenprivileges.Nonnoblecitizensof moderatemeanswerebarredfromholdingoffice,andthepoorestcitizenshadno voteintheassembly.ThepoliticalhistoryoftheArchaicperiodisthestruggleofthe middleandlowerclassestogainanequalshareinthegovernanceoftheirpoleis.Full participation,however,wouldbeachievedonlyinthedemocraticstates;inoligarchic statesthepoorestmemberswouldremainsecondclasscitizens. Besideswomen,therewereothercategoriesoffreepersonslivinginapolisterritory thatweredeniedcitizenrights,chieflyresidentaliensandexslaves.Andinsome states(mainlyDoric),wholevillagesandtownswereregardedas 97 nonmembersofthedemos,andtheirmembersweregiventhestatusofhalfcitizens. Wewillhavemoretosayabouttheseperioikoi(dwellersroundabout)inthenext chapter.Byfarthelargestgroupsofrightlessinhabitants,however,wereslavesand semislaves. SlavesandSerfs Duringtheseventhcenturytherewassomeincreaseinthenumberofchattelslaves (personscapturedorboughtandlegallyclassedasproperty),butforthemostpart richlandlordsusedthelaboroffarmerswhowereindebtorotherwiseobligatedto them,whichwasinmanyrespectseconomicallybetterforthelandlordsthan keepingmultitudesofslaves.Therealupsurgeinslaveholdingcameinthesixth centurywhenpoliticalreformsandmeasuresinthecitystateslimitedorabolished debtbondage,forcingtherichtouseslavelaborontheirlands. TheSpartanhelotsprovideanexampleofanothercategoryofagriculturallaborers inGreece,whosestatuswascharacterizedasbetweenfreepersonsandslaves.The helotsweretheinhabitantsofpartsofLaconiaandmostofMesseniawhowere conqueredbytheSpartansinwarandthenmadetoworkfortheSpartancitizensas serfsonwhathadbeentheirownland.(TheimportanceofthehelotstotheSpartan wayoflifewillbediscussedinthenextchapter.)Similarserflikegroupsexistedin otherGreekstates,especiallyintheareaswheretheDoricdialectwasspoken.The originsoftheseenserfedpeoplesisveryobscure.Onetheoryisthattheywerethe peopledwellinginthelandsthatweretakenoverbytheDorianimmigrantsinthe earlyDarkAge.Becausetheywereethnicallydifferentfromthenewcomers,they couldbetreatedasaninferiorsubclass,permanentlystigmatizedasother.They werecompelledtoworkthelandassharecroppersandprovideotherlabor

(includingsomemilitaryservice),inreturnforwhichtheyweregrantedcertain minimalprotections,suchastherighttomarryandraiseafamily,andtheguarantee thattheywouldnotbeexpelledfromthelandtheyfarmed. Thessalyalsohadahugepopulationofunfreeagriculturalworkerscalledthe toilers,and,aswesawearlier,afewofthecolonialcitystatesinthewestand aroundtheBlackSeareducedthenearbynativepopulationstoforcedlabor.Itisnot certain,however,whetherotherimpoverishedandexploitedgroupsthatwearetold ofweresubjugatedserfsorjustthepoorestclassofcitizens.Thattheyweresocially andeconomicallyinferior,however,iscertainfromtheslangtermsforthem:the nakedones(Argos),dustyfeet(Epidaurus),wearersofsheepskinsandclub carriers(Sicyon),wearersofdogskinhelmets(Corinth). ResentmentfromBelowandtheBeginningsofSocialChange Intheseventhcenturyalltheeconomicgroupsbelowthetightlyclosedcircleofself styledagathoihadreasontoresenttheirpowerandarrogance.Thefamiliesatthe bottomoftheeconomicladder,boththedependentoikoiandthoseonthe 98 brinkofimpoverishmentanddebt,hadthemostreasonsforhatingtherich.They werenotonlystrugglingtomakeendsmeet,theyalsohadtoendurethestigma(or thethreat)ofworkingforothers,aconditionGreeksequatedwithlossoffreedom, thatis,slavery.Thesloganredistributionofthelandbecametherallyingcryofthe havenotsthroughoutGreeceintheArchaicperiod. Theeconomicallysecurefamiliesthosethatproducedenoughtoliveonandthose producingenoughandsomeextraalsohadcauseforresentment,eventhoughthey werenotdirectlyexploited.Thebestfarmlandwasheldbyaristocratichouseholds, whoweresuccessfulinkeepingitintheirgroup.Mostoftheremainingdecent farmlandwasalsoalreadytaken.Theiralternativesweretoemigrateabroad,which manydid,ortoseekmarginallandfarfromtheirvillages.Yet,tomakemarginal landproductiverequiredextratraveltime,labor,andequipment,resourcesthat weremuchmoreavailabletotherichoikoi.Themiddlegroupalsochafedatbeing shutoutofpositionsofpowerandprestigebytheoligarchyslockonthe magistracies,boards,andparticularlythecouncil,wherethepoliticaldecisionswere formulated.Thewellofffarmerswerejustasliabletobecheatedinthelawcourtsas thepooreronesandwerejustashelplessagainstcrookeddecisions.Inthe assembly,theoneorganofgovernmenttowhichtheywereadmitted,thepeoples voicecarriedlittleweightagainsttheconcentratedpoweroftherich. Yet,inspiteofthestrengthoftherulingoligarchsandtheapparentweaknessofthe restofthedemos,theabsolutedominationbytheformerwasdestinedtobeshort

lived.Bytheearlysixthcentury,oligarchicalrulershiphadbroadenedtoinclude numerousfamiliesoutsidetheexclusiveclubofhereditaryagathoi,andinsome statesevenbroadergovernmentswereemergingthatwouldeventuallygivepolitical powertothemassofpeople,includingthepoor.Thekeyelementintheprotest againstaristocraticexcesswasthemiddlegroupofindependentfarmers,overwhom theoligarchshadtheleastcontrol.Wearefortunatetohaveaveryearlyspokesman forthisgroup,Hesiod,whospeakstousaboutlifeandsocietyintheemergingpolis fromthepointofviewoftheordinarycitizen. HESIOD:THEVIEWFROMBELOW InadditiontotheTheogony,Hesiodiscreditedwithanotherlongepicpoem(828 lines)aboutfarming,calledWorksandDays.UnliketheHomericepics,whichwere setinadistantAgeofHeroesandtoldofthetriumphsandtragediesofgreatwarrior chiefs,theWorksandDayswassetinthepresentandtoldaboutordinarypeopleand theirordinarylives.IntheIliadandOdysseycommonfolkarevisibleonlyaspartof thesocialbackground.Theyaregivencollectiverolesasthemassofsoldiersor citizensintheassembliesortheyappearinvignettesaboutfarmers,housewives, shepherds,andcraftsmen.TheseHesiodputsintheforeground. HesiodalsodiffersfromHomerandtheotherepicpoetsinthathepurportstobe tellingofhisownexperiences:I,Hesiod.Manyscholarsmaintainthatthe 99 poethasadoptedapersonaorpoeticcharacterandthatthedetailsheprovidesabout hisownlifearefictitious.WhetherHesiodwasarealpersonandwasgivinghis ownautobiographymatterslittle.Noonedoubtsthathisaccountofrurallifeinthe earlyArchaicperiodisaccurate. HesiodtellsusthatheandhisbrotherPerseslivedinthesmallBoeotianvillageof Askra(partofthepolisofThespiae3milesaway),andwhentheirfatherdieda disputearoseoverthedivisionofthekleros.PersesdefraudedHesiodofaportionof theinheritancebybribingthejudges(basileis).Afterthejudgment,Hesiodintimates, Persesbecamealoaferandaspendthriftandreducedhimselftosuchpovertythathe founditnecessarytogotohisbrotherforhelp.Whetherthisistheliteraltruthora fiction,suchfamilysituationsmusthavebeencommon. Thequarrelprovidesthepretextforthepoemsformasermontohiserringbrother. Sermonizingpoetry,sodifferentfromthatoftheHomericnarrative,wasclearly influencedbytheancientgenreofNearEasternwisdomliterature,whichconsisted ofexhortations,instructions,andadmonitionsaddressedtoasonorotherrelative,or eventoaking,andwasspicedwithstoriesandproverbsaboutrightandwrong. ThoughPerseswasostensiblytheonewhomHesiodwasadvising,therealaudience

wasthewholegrouptowhichheandPersesbelonged,namelytheupperlevelofthe independentfarmers.Atotherpointsinthepoem,however,hespeaksontheir behalfanddirectshissermonizingtotherulinggroup,whomhecallsbasileis.This mighthavebeentheiractualtitleasaboardofmagistratesorjudgesinthecitystate ofThespiae,butitismorelikelythatHesiodwasusingtheterminthegenericepic senseoftheleadersofanycommunity. Hesiodaddressesthebasileisverysternly,notatalldeferentially.Hecallsthem bribeswallowingbasileisandaccusesthemstraightoutofhabituallyrendering theirverdictswithcrookedjudgments.HetellsthemthatZeushimselfiswatching overhisdaughter,Dike,Justice,andavengesunjustactsagainsthercommittedby thoseinpower.Thus,thebasiccivicmoralthatjusticethroughlawisthefoundation ofgoodgovernment,appearsalreadyfullyformedinHesiod. Document3.2Hesiodlecturesthearistocrats. Basileis,givethisverdictnolittlethought,fortheimmortalsareeverpresentamong men,andtheyseethosewhowithcrookedverdictsspurndivineretributionand grinddownoneanotherslives.UponthisearththatnurturesmanyZeuscanlevy thirtythousanddeathlessguardiansofmortalmen,whokeepawatchfuleyeover verdictsandcruelactsastheyrovethewholeearth,clothedinmist. 100 JusticeisamaidenandadaughterofZeus; thegodsofOlymposrespecthernobletitle, andwhenevermenmistreatherthroughfalsecharges sherushestositatthefeetofZeusKronion andshedenouncesthedesignsofmenwhoarenotjust, sothatthepeoplepayfortherecklessdeedsandevilplans ofbasileiswhoseslantedwordstwistherstraightpath. Keephercommands,giftdevouringbasileis,andlet verdictsbestraight;yes,layyourcrookedwaysaside! Hethatwrongsanothermanwrongs,aboveall,himself, andevilschemesbringmoreharmonthosewhoplotthem. TheeyeofZeusseesall,noticesall; itseesthis,too,ifitwishes,andknowsexactly whatsortofhostthispolisistojustice. Asmattersstand,mayneitherInormyson bejustmeninthisworld,becauseitisabadthing tobejustifwrongdoerswinthecourtdecisions. ButIdonotbelieveyetthatZeusswisdomwillallowthis.

WorksandDays248272;translatedbyApostolosN.Athanassakis,Hesiod.Baltimoreand London:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1983,p.73(adapted). Themoralistictonepervadestheentirepoem.Hesiodhasawholelitanyofproverbial dosanddontsthatwecouldfindinanypeasantsocietyintheworld.Hecounselsa strictreciprocityinalldealings.Whenyouborrowfromaneighbor,hesays,pay backfairly,thesameamount,ormoreifyoucan,sothatwhenyouneedsomething lateryoucancountonhim(349351). AtthecoreofHesiodsmoralprogramistheethicofwork,arduousmanuallabor: Throughworkmengrowwealthyandrichinflocks, andbyworkingtheybecomemuchdearertothegods. Workisnodisgrace;idlenessisthedisgrace. Andifyouwork,theidlemanwillsoonenvyyou asyougrowrich,becausefameandrenownfollowwealth. (WorksandDays308313) Hesiodisassertingthatthroughworktheordinaryfarmermaywinthethreeprizes thatintheHomericepicscouldonlybeattainedbyheroes:wealth,thespecialfavor ofthegods,andglory.Thusunremittingtoilinthefarmfieldsbecomesavirtue equivalenttogreatdeedsonthebattlefields.Ofcourse,theprizesarepareddownto suitthehumblelifeofaruralvillage.ToHesiodandhisneighborswealthmeant havingtheirgranariesfullofthesustenanceoflifeatharvesttimeandnothaving toborrow;renownwasbeingadmiredandrespectedbyallthefolkinthevillage. Thispragmaticandnonaristocraticsystemofvalues, 101 themottoofwhichwasworkwithworkuponwork,canbedetectedthroughout theArchaicperiod. Asasocialdocumentofthepeasantfarmersvalues,theWorksandDaysalsoallows ustoappreciateclassdifferencesinoutlooktowardinstitutionssuchasmarriage. Amongtheupperclass,marriagewasprimarilyameansofestablishingalliancesand enhancingfamilyprestige.Noblefamiliesoftensoughtadvantageousmatches outsideoftheirpolis,and,asinHomer,suitorscompetedagainstoneanotherwith expensivegiftsandshowsofmanlinessinathleticcontests.Aristocraticwomen, thoughtheylivedhighlycircumscribedlives,hadahighstatusandweretreated withgreatrespectbythemen.Thedifferent,muchnarrowerview,ofthefarmerclass showsthroughinHesiodsadviceonmarriage:

Marryavirginsothatyoucanteachherproperhabits, andespeciallymarryonewholivesnearyou; andcheckallaroundsothatyourmarriagewillnotbeajoke toyourneighbors,fornothingisbetterforamanthanagoodwife andnothingmorehorriblethanabadone.... (WorksandDays699703) Prestige,thoughjustasimportantasinanaristocraticmarriage,ishereconfinedto thevillageandexpressedinnegativeterms.Itisnotawifewhowillbringhim advantageousconnectionsthatthefarmerseeks,butonewhowillnotcausehimto loserespectifsheshouldturnouttobeagluttonorlazyorunfaithfultypicalfaults thatHesiodattributestowomen. ThemisogynyexpressedinHesiodwasacommonattitudeduringtheArchaic periodandcontinuedthroughoutGreekantiquity.Thebestknownillustrationof thiswayofthinkingisthemythofPandora,thefirstwoman,asitistoldinboththe Theogony(571612)andtheWorksandDays(60105).Zeus,Hesiodsays,commanded thisbeautifuleviltobecreatedasapunishmentforthecrimeofPrometheus(one oftheTitans)whostolefirefromthegodsandgaveittohumans.Pandoraopened thelidofajarcontainingalltheplaguesanddiseasesoftheworldandletthemout. AllwomankindinheritedPandorasshamelessmindanddeceitfulnature,herlies andcoaxingwords.Women,thepoetsays,liveoffmenlikethedronesamongthe bees.Donotletawomanwigglingherbehinddeceiveyouwithherwheedling words.Sheisafteryourgranary.Themanwhotrustsawomantruststhieves( WorksandDays373375). ThemembersofHesiodseconomicclassresembledthewealthyclassinonerespect: theyexploitedthelaborofothers.Thedifferencewasthattheordinaryfarmerhad onlyafewworkersandlaboredalongsidethem.Hesiodtakesforgrantedthatthe farmersheisaddressingcanaffordtoownatleastoneslavewomanorman,takeon ahiredhand(thes),andemploydayworkersatbusytimes.Thefarmerkeepshiseye onthebottomline.Thedaysfoodforahiredplowmaniscarefullymeasuredout justenoughtokeepuphisenergylevel.Headviseshiringathesthathasnooikos (hewillworkcheaper)andachildlessfemaleworker(aworkerwithachildather breastisabother). 102 Howevermuchherailedagainstthewealthyandpowerful,Hesiod,then,wasnota championoftheoppressed,assomehistorianshavecalledhim.Ratherhiswasthe voiceofmiddleclassindignation.Underpinningallthathesaysisthefirmbeliefthat Zeusandtheothergodswilllookfavorablyonthosewhoarepious,hardworking, andrighteousandwillpunishintheendthosewhoarenot.Ahundredyearslaterin

Athensanotherthunderousvoicewouldberaisedagainsttheevilgreedandviolent actionsofthearistocratsthistimenotfrombelowbutfromamemberofthe aristocracy,thestatesmanSolon,whosereformswouldpavethewayforAthenian democracy. THEHOPLITEARMY WarfaretookonadifferentcharacterintheArchaicperiod.Betweenabout725and 650theGreeksmademajorchangesinmilitaryequipmentandtactics.Henceforthall Greekbattleswerefoughtbyheavilyarmoredfootsoldierscalledhoplites,arranged inatightlypackedformationcalledthephalanx.Thephalanx,manynowbelieve, evolvedfromanearlierloosertypeofmassformation.Inthisprotophalanx,asitis sometimescalled,thefightingmenweregroupedinregularunitsarrangedin straightrowsorranks.TheprotophalanxisdepictedintheIliad,thoughfordramatic effectthepoetconcentratesonencountersbetweenindividualwarriorheroes,largely ignoringthemassofsoldierswhofoughtaroundthem.Thiscloudsour understandingoftheactualdeploymentoftheformationinbattle.Itappears, however,thatthehostileranksinHomermoveintospearrange,hurltheirpairof shortthrowingspears,andthenfighthandtohandwiththeirlongswords. Asthephalanxevolved,itbecameprogressivelymorecompact,withthesoldiers linedupalmostshouldertoshoulderandeachrankalmosttreadingontheheelsof theoneinfrontofit.Phalanxfightingwassimpleintheextreme:thetwoclose packedphalanxeschargedatoneanotherandcollided.Themoreranksthemore effectivethecharge.Initsdevelopedform(by650atthelatest),thephalanxwas normallyeightrowsdeep.Weaponsandarmorevolvedintandemwiththecompact phalanx,tomakeitmoreeffective.Thehoplitesmainweaponwashislongheavy spear,whichheusedasathrustingweapon.Aftertheinitialcollisionwhenthere wasnoroomtojabwiththespear,thehopliteusedhissecondaryweapon,ashort slashingsword.Inahoplitebattlethesoldiersneededbetterprotectionthantheyhad hadearlier.Helmets,upperbodyarmor(breastplates),andshinandkneeprotectors (greaves),allofwhichhadbeenusedinearlierwarfare,wereredesignedtobe thickerandstronger(bronzereplacedothermaterials,suchaspaddedlinen)andto coverlargerareasofthebody. Themostinnovativeitemofequipmentwasanewtypeofshieldcalledthehoplon, afterwhichthehoplitewasnamed.Designedspecificallyforthephalanxformation, itwasround,madeofwoodcoveredwithathinsheetofbronze.Itwasthehoplon thatmadethephalanxaneffectivefightingforce.Largerthanallpreviousround shields(about3feetindiameter),itwasheldbyinsertingtheleft 103

armthroughacentralbandandgrippingastrapattherim.Thehoplonwaslarge enoughtocoverthemanontheleft,allowinghoplitestofightshouldertoshoulder withhalfoftheirbodyprotectedbythenextmansshield.Seenfromthefront,a phalanxpresentednearlyasolidwallofshields,helmetedheads,andspears. Ahoplitebattlewasaferociousaffair.Atasignalfromatrumpet,thephalanx advancedatafastwalk,sometimesatatrot;whentheycameclose,thefrontranks raisedtheirspears,stabbingoverhandattheenemy,aimingatvulnerablespots unprotectedbyarmor.Meanwhile,theranksbehindliterallyshovedagainstthosein frontthemaneuverwascalledthepushingusingtheirweighttobreakthe enemysranks.Enormouscouragewasrequiredofeverysinglewarrior,forsuccess dependedoneverymanholdinghisplaceintheformation.Tofleethefightbrought thecontemptofthewholedemos;thusmenasarulestoodtheirground,bitingtheir lipwiththeirteeth,astheSpartanpoetTyrtaeus(c.650BC)says. Theconditionsofhoplitebattlewereawful.Theequipmentweighedabout70 pounds,almosthalftheweightofanaverageman.Itwasunbearablyhotinsidethe armor;visionwasrestrictedbythedustandthehelmet;thenoisewasdeafening. Everyonewasspatteredwithblood;woundedmenweretrampledunderfoot. Tyrtaeusdescribesanoldhoplitebreathingouthisbravespiritinthedust,holding hisbloodygenitalsinhishands.Thebattleswerefairlybrief,however,seldommore thananhour.Casualtieswererelativelylightforthelosersaswellasthevictors, seldomover15percent.Oncetheenemybrokeranksandfled, Figure3.2.Theearliestdepictionofahoplitebattle;fromaCorinthianvase(c.640 BC). 104 therewasnotmuchpursuit,sothatmassacresofthedefeatedarmywererare. Moreover,campaignswereshort;usually,asinglesetbattleendedthefightingfor thesummer.Bothsidesburiedtheirdeadandwentbackhometoworktheirlandsor practicetheircrafts,nottodontheirarmoruntilthepolisneededthemagain. Notallcitizensfoughtinthephalanx,however.Becausehopliteshadtofurnishtheir ownarmsandarmor,whichwerefairlyexpensive,thepoorestmenwere disqualifiedandservedinsteadaslightarmedtroops.Modernestimatesofthose whodidqualifyvaryconsiderably.Giventheimportanceofthephalanxtothe survivalofthepolis,andtakingintoconsiderationthatcapturedarmorwouldbe distributedandthatitemsofequipmentwouldbedonated,areasonableestimateis thatatleasthalfofthebroadgroupofmesoiwereabletoserve.Thus60percentor moreofatypicalhoplitearmywouldhavecomefromthenonaristocraticfamiliesof thepolis.

TheHopliteArmyandthePolis Itisinthehoplitearmythatwemostclearlyobservethepolisideologythatthe citizenistheslaveofthecommongood.ThepoemsofTyrtaeusofSpartaand CallinusofEphesus,bothfromaroundthemidseventhcentury,revealashiftin valuesfromtheindividualtothepolis.AlthoughHomericwarriorsfaceddeath willinglyasthepriceoftheirglory,theyneverthelesssawitasanunmitigatedevil. InTyrtaeus,dyinginbattlehadacquiredapositivevalue.Itisanoblethingfora goodmantodie,fallingamongthefrontranks,fightingforhisfatherland,hetells hisfellowSpartans,andagain,Makelifeyourenemy,andtheblackspiritsofdeath dearastheraysofthesun.Braveryinbattlewasstillthehighestvirtue,butittoo hadbecomeacooperativevaluenottheheroicsofindividualchampionsbutsimply keepingyourplaceinthephalanx. Thisisthecommongood,forthepolisandthewholedmos, whenamanstandsfirminthefrontranks withoutflinchingandputsdisgracefulflightcompletelyfromhismind, makinghissoulandspiritendure andwithhiswordsencouragesthemanstationednexttohim. (Tyrtaeusfr.12.1519West) Similarly,honor,glory,andfamearesoughtjustaseagerlybythecitizensoldieras theywerebytheHomerichero,butthesecouldbeearnedonlyinservicetothepolis. Distinctionsofwealthandbirthvanishintheranksofthephalanx.Thus,Callinus says,thoughamanmayhaveimmortalgodsashisancestors,heisdespisedbythe demosifhefleesthethudofspears,whilethestoutheartedmanwhodiesinbattle ismournedbyboththegreatandthesmall;indeathheismissedbythewhole peopleandinlifeheistreatedasademigod(i.e.,asanepichero).Tyrtaeus,too, showshowthehopliteidealwaserodingtheHomeric 105 notionsofexcellencethatthearistocratslaidclaimtoasproofoftheirexclusive worth.Intheelegycitedabove,helistsallthethingsthattheagathoivaluedskillin athletics,strengthandbeauty,greatwealth,politicalpower,eloquenceinspeaking andsaysthathewouldnotevenmentioninhispoemsamanthathadeverykindof fameexceptafightingspirit. Therealityofstrictequalityintheranks,wherearistocratsandnonaristocratsfought sidebyside,wasmakingitincreasinglydifficultfortheagathoitomaintaintheir exclusivityandtheirholdonpoliticalpower.AlreadyinHesiodandTyrtaeuswesee theconcomitantgrowthofanantielitistideologythatchallengedelitistpretensionsof

naturalsuperiorityandsubstitutedthelevelingnotionthatnonaristocratswereequal toaristocratsoffthefieldofbattleaswellason.ThroughouttheArchaicand Classicalperiodsthenonaristocratichopliteswouldplayakeyroleasthe independentvariableinthepowerrelationswithinthecitystate. Thisclass,comprisingfairlywellofffarmersandcraftsmen,wasthepivotalgroupin determiningwhereapolisstoodonthecontinuumfromnarrowoligarchiestofull democracies.Iftheywerecontentwithanunevendistributionofpowerandagreed toorabettedtheexploitationoftheweak,oligarchicalregimesreignedsecure.If,on theotherhand,theyopposedthestatusquoandsympathizedwiththebottomhalf ofthecitizenry,thebalanceofpowershiftedfromtheelitetothemass.Becausethe wellofffarmerstendedtowardconservatism,mostGreekpoleisintheArchaicand Classicalperiodsweremoderatelyoligarchical,grantingcitizenrightsinaccordance witheconomicstatus.Butinthosecitystateswheretheupperlevelofthemiddle groupcamedownfirmlyonthesideofthepoor,therewascompletelegaland politicalequalitybetweentheclasses.Therapidswingsfromoligarchytodemocracy (andviceversa)thatoccurredsofrequentlyinthehistoryofapolisarebest explainedbytheshiftsinattitudeofthenonaristocratichoplites.Theyalsoplayeda majorroleinthepoliticalphenomenontheGreekscalledtyranny(tyrannis). THEARCHAICAGETYRANTS Hardlyhadthearistocratsridthemselvesofthepositionofbasileuswhenanewtype ofonemanrulearoseintheformofthetyrannos(tyrant).Betweenabout670and500 BCagreatnumberofcitystatesthroughouttheGreekworldwentthroughaphase oftyranny.ThewordstyrannosandtyranniswereborrowedintotheGreeklanguage (perhapsfromLydiainAsiaMinor)todescribeaformofgovernmentforwhichthe Greekshadnoword:rulebyamanwhoseizescontrolofthestatebyacoupand governsillegally.TheArchaicAgetyrantwaswhatwecalltodayadictatoror strongman.Atfirstthewordtyrannoshadnorealnegativeconnotation.Iteventually cametomeanawickedandoppressivedespot,inpartbecauseofpropagandaspread bythearistocrats,whonaturallyhatedthemenwhohadoverthrowntheirregimes, butalsobecauselatergenerationsperceivedthatdictatorialrulebyonemannot accountabletothedemosthreatened 106 thefreedomofall.Yetthereareampleindicationsthatthenonaristocratic contemporariesoftheearlytyrantsviewedtheminamorefavorablelight. Unfortunately,onlyafewofthedozensoftyrantswhograbbedpowerintheirpoleis areknowninanydetail.Still,wecanseeageneralpatternintheirriseandfall. Tyrannieswereshortlived.Althoughallthetyrantstriedtoformdynastiesby passingontheirruletotheirsons,notyrannylastedmorethanthreegenerationsand

mostcollapsedafteroneortwo.Despitearistocratichatepropagandathatdescribed sometyrantsaslowborn,itappearsthatallweremembersofthearistocracy.For example,PheidonofArgoswasthehereditarybasileusbeforeheturnedhimselfinto atyrannos.Notalltyrants,however,werefromthetoprankedfamilies.Cypselusof Corinth,forinstance(c.657627),wasmarginalizedwithintheroyalclanofthe Bacchiads,becausehismother,aBacchiad,hadmarriedoutsidetheclan. Inadditiontotheirmembershipintheelite,wouldbetyrantsweredistinguishedin theirpoleisfortheirindividualachievements.Cypselus,priortobecomingatyrant, hadheldthepostofpolemarch(militarycommander).OrthagorasofSicyon(mid seventhcentury)hadalsobeenpolemarchandhadcompiledanoutstandingbattle record.CylonofAthens,whoseattemptedcoupin632failed,hadwonfameasa victorintheOlympicgames. Viciousinfightingamongthearistocraticfamiliesinthepolisforhonorand precedencewasamajorfactorcontributingtotheemergenceofthetyrants.Rivalry amongthearistocrats,thoughitwaschanneledtosomeextentintocompetitionfor officesandcontrolwithinthecouncil,wasparticularlynastyintheseventhandsixth centuriesbecausethestrugglesforpowerwerewagedamongclans(genos;plural gen).Liketheroyalclan,anaristocraticgenosthewordmeantessentiallya lineagewascomposedofapreeminentfamilythatextendedtheumbrellaoffictive kinshipoverlessprestigiousnobleoikoi,whosememberssupportedtheleader familyinitspoliticalambitions.Disputesamongthesefactionsgangsofhotheaded youngaristocratsfrequentlyeruptedinboutsofviolenceandbloodshed. TheGreekscalledformalconflictbetweengroupswithinthecitystatestasis(taking astand).OppositionofthissortwasintegraltotheGreekpoliticalprocessofevery period.ThestasisbetweenaristocraticfactionsintheArchaicperiod,however,was muchmorefrequentlyviolentthanafterward(whenthepowerofthegenehad declined),andwashighlydisruptiveofthesociety.Worse,becausemembershipina genoswashereditary,thiskindofcivilwarcouldkeepflaringupforgenerations. Theinterventionofastrongmanwhocouldstop,oratleastcheck,thefeudsofthe noblefamilies,thoughanathematothenobles,waswelcometotherestofthepeople. Toclimbtopowertheserenegadearistocrats,assomecallthem,neededresources andmanpower.Onepotentialsourcewasdisaffectedaristocratswithinthepoliswho werefrozenoutoftherulingcircle.Thisbandoffollowersmightbesupplemented byamercenaryforcefromoutsidethepolis.Suchaidwassometimessuppliedbya friendlytyrant(forhisabortivecoup,Cylonreceivedsometroopsfromhisfatherin lawTheagenes,tyrantofMegara),or,inthecase 107

ofmanyoftheIoniantyrantsinthelatesixthcentury,bythePersianempire.The bestknowntyrant,PeisistratusofAthens(whomadethreeattemptsbefore succeeding),availedhimselfofavarietyofresources,includinglocalbodyguards, mercenaries,andtroopsdonatedbypowerfuloutsiders.Hisstorywillbetoldat greaterlengthinChapter5. Notyrant,however,nomatterwhathisresources,couldhavesucceededwithout supportofthecitizensthemselves,particularlythefarmerhoplites.Thereisno evidencethatanytyrantcametopowerattheheadofahoplitearmy,butsuchactive interventionwouldnothavebeennecessary.Anoligarchycouldnothavebeen overthrownifithadtheloyaltyofthenonaristocratichoplites,whereasallthata wouldbetyrantneededwastheirpassiverefusaltodefendthenobles.Amongthe manyreasonsforthehoplitesdisaffectionwitholigarchicalrule,nottheleastwas thattheincessantinfightingamongthearistocraticfamilieswasharmfultothegood orderofthestate.Asforthelowestcitizens,theynaturallywouldhavebeenvery supportiveofacoupagainstthegroupthatwasexploitingthem. Thatthetyrantswereviewedaschampionsofthedemosagainsttheoligarchswas thejudgmentofallthelaterwriters.Aristotleinthefourthcenturyputitconcisely: Atyrantissetupfromamongthedemosandthemultitudetoopposethenotablesso thatthepeoplemaysuffernoinjusticefromthem.Thisisclearfromthefactsof history.Foralmostallthetyrantshavearisenfrombeingleadersofthepeople [dmaggoi;hencedemagogue],sotospeak,havinggainedtheirconfidenceby slanderingthenotables. (Politics1310b1217;Rackham1977,adapted) Theseizureofpowerwasoftenfollowedbyviolenceagainsttherich.Cypseluskilled orbanishedmanyoftheBacchiadaristocratsandconfiscatedtheirlands (presumablysomeofitwenttopoorerCorinthians),andothertyrantsdidthesame. Tyrantsmadelawstolimitaristocraticpowerandprivilege,includingsumptuary laws,whichcurbedaristocraticluxuryandostentation.Theyalsoprotectedthe existinginstitutions;AristotlesaidoftheOrthagoriddynastyofSicyonthatinmany waystheywereslavestothelaws. Undertyranny,manypoleisthrivedandreachednewheights.Extensivebuilding andimprovementprojectsstonetemplesandothermajorbuildings,harborsand fortifications,andurbanamenitieslikethewatersupply,streets,anddrainage systemsturnedthecapitaltownsintorealcities(andalsogaveworktopoor citizens). Moreover,trade,commerce,andcraftswereencouragedandsupportedunderthe tyrants.Pheidon,forexample,standardizedweightsandmeasuresforthe

Peloponnesus,anenormouslyimportantadvanceinthecommercialeconomyofthe area.AndCypselussonandsuccessor,Periander,builtastonetrackwayacrossthe narrowIsthmusofCorinth(whereacanalrunstoday)allowingshipsandcargoesto behauledbetweentheSaronicandCorinthiangulfs.(Itwasstillinuseaslateas883 AD.)Tyrantsalsoinstitutednewreligiouscultsandfestivals 108 thatcelebratedandstrengthenedtheunityofthepolis,andtheysupportedall culturalactivities,competingtoattractthebestartists,architects,poets,andthinkers inGreecetostayattheircity. Thesonsofdictatorsareseldomassuccessfulastheirfathers.TheArchaictyrants hadgainedpopularsupportfortheirtakeoverbecauseoftheirpersonalcharisma andachievements.Theirsons,however,wereheirstoanonexistentoffice,andso wereextremelyvulnerable.Afewsucceededontheirownmerits,butmostfound themselvesresortingtoincreasinglytyrannicalmeasurestorepressopposition, whichnaturallyexacerbatedresentmentagainstthem.Tyrantswereoverthrown,and theyandtheirfamilieswereexiledorkilled.Usually,thearistocratswhohadbeen banishedbythetyrantsreturnedandreestablishedanoligarchy.Aristocraticrule wasneverthesame,however,afteratyranny.Thefarmerhopliteswerenolonger willingmerelytovotefortheirleaderswithoutbeingabletoholdthemaccountable. Norcouldthenoblesnowrefusetheirinclusionintheprocessofpublicdecisons,or takeawayfromthepoorthebenefitsthatthetyrantshadbestowedonthemtomake theirliveseasier. ARTANDARCHITECTURE ManyhistoriansofarthavemaintainedthatArchaicartwassuperioreventothatof theClassicalperiod.Thereisnodoubtatanyratethatinartaswellasinliterature, philosophy,andscienceArchaicGreeceexperiencedaburstofcreativeenergy unsurpassedinanycomparabletimeperiodoftheancientworld. BuildingontheachievementsoftheLateGeometricperiod,thecraftsmenofthe seventhandsixthcenturiesattainednewheightsofexcellenceinalltheformsof visualart.Withthedevelopmentofthecitystate,differencesinstylebetweenthe variouspoleisbecamemoredistinct.Thisismostevidentinthepottery,which continuesintheArchaicperiodtobethemostamplesourceformeasuringartistic evolution.Theorientalizingtendenciesoftheeighthcenturyreachedapeakinthe seventh,withavarietyofnewmotifsborrowedfromtheNearEastfloraldesigns andfriezesofrealandfantasticanimalsreplacingtheearliergeometricpatterns.The Corinthianswerethemostreceptivetotheseinfluencesandproducedavery distinctivetypeofpottery.

UndertheleadershipofthetyrantCypselus(c.657627),Corinthemergedasthe leadingcommercialcenterofGreeceanddominatedthetradeinfinelypainted pottery.Corinthianpottersspecializedinexquisitelydecoratedperfumeflasks,2to3 incheshigh,whichtheyfilledwithscentedoliveoilandexportedinhugequantities throughouttheGreekworld.Theyinventedanewtechniquecalledblackfigure, whichpermittedthemtorenderminutedetails.Theartistfirstpaintedablack silhouetteonthereddishclay,andthenwithasharppointhecutintheanatomical anddecorativedetails,sometimesfillingtheseinwithredorwhitepaint.Corinthian blackfigurewasenormouslypopular,butasoftenhappens,successledtomass productionandinferiorvases,onwhichtheirfamousanimalmotifswere monotonouslyandcarelesslyrepeated. 109 SoonAthenianpottersmasteredCorinthiantechniques,andby550Athenianblack figurepottery,featuringavarietyofnewandlargervessels,haddrivenCorinthian vasesfromtheexportmarket.Around530theAtheniansinturninventedanewstyle calledredfigure,whichreversedtheblackfiguretechnique.Here,theartistfirst drewoutlinesandthenpaintedthebackgoundblack,keepingtheoutlineinthe reddishcoloroftheclayitself.Hethenpaintedthedetailsinblackwithafinebrush. Thisallowedamoresubtleandrefinedrenderingofdetailthantheincisedblack figuretechnique. Seventhandsixthcenturyvasepaintingsmostcommonlydepictedepisodesfrom mythologyandtheheroicsagas.Inthelatersixthcenturyimagesfromcontemporary lifewereadded,mostofwhichfocusedontheactivitiesofyoungupperclassmales. Typicallyportrayedwereathletics,horsemanship,anddrinkingparties(very rowdy),aswellasschoolscenes,musiclessons,andhomosexualwooing.Womenare representedlessoftenthanmen.Theyappeareitherasservantsandflutegirlsoras welldressedupperclasswomenaccompaniedbytheirfemaleslavesinadomestic setting.TheArchaicpotterswereproudoftheirwork,frequentlysigningtheirvases (Aristonothosmademe)andoccasionallyincludingataunttoarivalpotter. Vasepaintinggivesussomeideaofamajorartisticgenre,largescalerepresentations ofmythologicalandpatrioticsubjectspaintedontemplesandother Figure3.3a.TwosidesofanAthenianamphora(c.525520BC)decoratedin boththeredfigureandtheblackfiguretechnique. 110

Figure3.3b.Asymposion(drinkingparty)sceneonanAthenianredfigurecalyx krater(mixingbowlforwineandwater),showingamanandayouthrecliningona couch,andaflutegirl. publicbuildings.Thoughthepaintingsarealmostentirelylosttous,theartistswho paintedthemwererenownedbeyondtheirpoleisandtheirnameswerestill rememberedcenturieslater. TheartisticgenreforwhichtheancientGreeksweremostfamouswasmonumental (lifesizeorlarger)marbleandbronzesculpture.Thiswasaninnovationofthe Archaicperiod.Largebronzestatueswerefirstproducedinthesixthcenturybutdid notbecamecommonuntilthefifth,afterwhichtheyfaroutnumberedthosemadeof marbleandotherstone.Thefirstlargemarblestatuesappeararound650.Egyptwas thesourcebothofinspirationandtechnique. TheGreekstatueswereoftwotypes,anakedkouros(youngmale)andaclothed female(kor,youngmaiden).ThroughouttheArchaicperiodthefiguresretained theoriginalrigidEgyptianstance,armspressedagainstthesides,onefootstepping forward,butastimewentontheybecameincreasinglylessblocklike.Byabout500, thekouroi(plural)hadcometoresemblerealyouths,withpreciselydefined anatomicaldetailsandaccuratebodilyproportions.Thekorai(plural)hadalso becomemorenaturallooking.Thebodyunderneaththedraperywasmoreclearly indicatedandthefacialfeaturesmoredistinctlyfemale.Inbothtypesofstatues Archaicelementswerestillnotable,suchastheblissfularchaicsmileandthehighly conventionalizedtreatmentofthehair,yetthestatuesclearlyanticipatetheClassical idealofthehumanform.Thekouroiandkoraiweresetupbywealthyfamilieseither asgravemonumentsorasofferingstothesanctuaryofagodorgoddess.Because theynormallyboreaninscriptionwiththededicatorsname,theywerehighlypublic advertisementsofthefamilysstatusinthecommunity. 111 Figure3.4StatueofanEgyptiannobleman(earlyseventhcentury). Figure3.5ColossalmarblekourosfromAttica(c.600BC).Thestatueimitatesthe stylizedstanceofEgyptiansculpture. AnothertypeofArchaicsculpturewasreliefsdepictingmythologicalscenes,carved onthetriangularpedimentsandalongtheentablaturesoflatesixthcenturytemples. Reliefsculpturewasincreasinglysuccessfulatshowingfiguresinmovementand action.Bycontrast,thestylizedfreestandingkouroiandkoraimusthaveappeared ratheroldfashionedbytheendofthecentury.

112 Inarchitecture,thetemplecontinuedtobethemainfocus.Thesmall,modest prototypesoftheearlyeighthcentury,aswehaveseen,hadachievedmonumental dimensionsbyitsend.Butthebigstepoccurredaroundthemiddleoftheseventh, whenlimestoneandmarblereplacedmudbrickandwood.Again,theGreek builderslearnedfromtheEgyptianstheskillsofquarrying,transporting,positioning, anddressinghugestoneblocks.Thetempleplan,however,wasacontinuationofthe GreekGeometricmodel,andmostofthearchitecturalfeaturessuchasthelow pitchedroofcoveredwithterrracottatiles(replacingthe Figure3.6.Thismarblekouros(c.510500BC),wassetatopthegraveof AristodikosinAttica;itshowsthegrowthofnaturalisminsculpture. Figure3.7.LateArchaickorfromtheacropolisofAthens(c.490),dedicatedby Euthydikos. 113 Figure3.8.ReliefsculpturefromtheSiphnianTreasuryatDelphi(c.530525) depictingtheBattleoftheGodsandtheGiants.ApolloandArtemisarestridinginto battle(left)againsttheGiants(equippedascontemporaryhoplites). oldthatchedroof)werepurelyGreek.Bytheearlysixthcenturythetwomaintypes orordersofcolumns,theDoricandtheIonic,werewellestablished.Greektemples lookedmuchastheywouldforthenextfivehundredyearsbuttheextantstructures aresomewhatdeceptive.PortionsoftheGreektemplesandtheirsculpturedreliefs, aswellasstandingmarblestatues,wereactuallypaintedinstrongbrightcolors, presentinganimpressionquiteunlikethatgivenbythebare,gleamingstonewe observetoday. Duringthesixthcenturyothercarefullybuiltpermanentstructuresappearedinthe maincities.Mostofthesewerebuiltinandaroundtheagora,thegatheringplace,a largeopenspaceatornearthecenterofthecity.TheDarkAgeagorahadbeenonly theplacewheretheassemblymet;intheArchaicperioditbecamethemarketplace andpublicspaceofthecityandthereforeofthewholecitystate.Everyonegathered theretobarter,exchangenewsandgossip,orconductofficialbusiness.Byabout500 BCtheagoracontainedoneormoreopencollonadedpassagewayscalledstoas, whichprovidedshadeandshelterandspace 114

formarketstalls.Enhancingitsdignityandimportancewereofficialbuildingssuch asthecouncilhouseandoffices.Sanctuaries,fountainhouses,andpublic monumentsalsogracedtheagora.Inadditiontotheagora,Archaicpoleiscontained openspaces,withspecifiedfunctions:thegymnasion,wheremenexercised,andthe palaistra,awrestlingground. Theagoraandotherpublicspaceswouldnotreceivenumerousorsplendidpublic buildingsuntilthefifthandfourthcenturies.Nevertheless,byabout550allthe capitalpoleis(exceptSparta)meritedthetitleoftrueurbancenters.Anaerialviewof CorinthorAthensoranyothermajorcenterwouldhaverevealed Figure3.9PlanoftheAthenianagoraasitlookedattheendoftheArchaicperiod (c.500BC),showingtheearliestpublicbuildings(afterJ.Travlos1974). 115 denseconcentrationofbuildings,mostofthemprivatehouses,connectedinblocks alongnarrowstreets,brokenupbypatchesofgardenplots.Thehouseswerelarger thanthoseoftheDarkAgethreeorfourroomsratherthanoneortwobutstill quitemodest.Eventhehomesandfurnishingsoftheelites,includingthetyrants, remainedunpretentiousthroughouttheArchaicandmostoftheClassicalperiod. Themodestyofprivatehomesandtherelativemodestyevenofsecularcivic buildingsunderscoresthebasicfactthateffortstowardarchitecturalandsculptural distinctioninancientGreeceweredirectedprimarilytowardsanctuaries:thegods receivedthelionsshareofacitystatessurpluswealth,bothathomeandinthe panhellenicsanctuaries. LYRICPOETRY Inliteraryexpression,aswell,theArchaicperiodwasoneofinnovation.Archaic poetryismarkedlydifferentfromthepoetryofHomerandHesiod.Manypoetsdid continuetocomposelengthyepicnarratives(thesocalledEpicCycleofheroicsagas andtheHomerichymnsdescribedinChapter2areexamples).Butthemostoriginal ArchaicpoetschosenottofollowinthegiantfootstepsofHomer,alreadycanonized asthesupremepoetofalltimebytheearlyseventhcentury.Theyturnedtheir talentsinsteadtoothergenresofpoetry,whichwelumptogetherundertherubricof lyricpoetry. Therootsoflyricpoetryextendfarbackintimetofolksongscreatedforspecific occasionssuchasharvests,weddings,funerals,andcomingofagerituals,orto hymns,fables,drinkingsongs,andlovesongseverything,inotherwords,that pertainedtocommunalandprivatelife.Withtheadventofliteracysuchpoems

couldbepreservedandcirculated;poetscouldattainnotmerelylocalbut Panhellenicfame,bycompetingwiththeirmorecarefullycraftedsongscomposed andpolishedinwriting. Eachoftheseveralgenrescommonlygroupedunderthenamelyrichaditsown metricalpattern,subjectmatter,occasion,tone(elevatedandseriousorlowand scurrilous),andmusicalaccompaniment.Likeepicpoetry,lyricpoetrywassong andwaspresentedinperformance.Sometypeswereaccompaniedbythelyre(lyra; hencethenamelyric),othersbyaflutelikeinstrument.Andsomeweresimply recitedorchantedwithoutmusicalaccompaniment. Amajordistinctionwasmadebetweensolosongsandsongsperformedbyachorus ofyoungmenorwomen,whosanganddancedtothemusicofthelyre.Choral poetryandsomekindsofsolopoetrywerepresentedbeforelargepublicaudiences atfestivals,whereasotherswereperformedinsmallprivategatherings,usuallya drinkingparty(symposion).UnliketheArchaicepics,whichoftenrantosixorseven thousandlines,lyricpoemswereshortfromafewlinestoseveralhundredlines(in thecaseofchoralsongs). 116 Mostlyricpoetrywaspersonal,sometimesextremelyso,insubjectandtone.The poetssangaboutdrinking,friendsandenemies,sexuallove,oldageanddeath, politics,war,andmorality.Thepoetstonecouldvaryfromlightheartedtobitterto contemplative.AswesawearlierwithHesiod,personalneednotmean autobiographical.YetthelyricpoetswentfarbeyondHesiodinrevealingtheirown (ortheirpersonas)emotionalandmentalstates.Theythereforenotonlygiveusrare insightsintofeelingsaboutprivatemattersbutalso,becauseprivatelifeandpolislife weresocloselyintertwined,theyreflectsentimentsandattitudesabouttheirsociety. Further,thepoetrypresents(fromastrictlymalepointofview)thesocialattitudesof boththeeliteandthemiddlestrata.Althoughwehavefragmentsfromabouttwo dozenlyricpoetsofthisperiod,wecansampleonlyafewofthemhere.Threemajor lyricpoets,Simonides,Bacchylides,andPindar,whosecareersweremainlyinthe fifthcentury,willbediscussedinChapter6. SomeLyricPoetsandTheirSocialAttitudes ArchilochusofParos(earlyseventhcentury)wasparticularlyknownforhismordant wit,whichheoftendirectedagainsttheoldheroicideal.Accordingtotradition, Archilochuswasthesonofanoblemanandaslavemother.Likeotherlyricpoets,his voiceishighlypersonalandpassionate.Hispoemsareaboutdrinkingand carousing,hissexualadventures,thepainoflosingcomradesinshipwrecks,hatred ofhisenemies,theuncertaintiesoflifeinalternatingtonesoftendernessand cruelty,deepseriousnessandobscenelevity.Hestresseshistwofoldrole:soldierof

fortuneaswellasinspiredpoet.Iamthesquireofthelordofwar,Enyalios[another nameforAres],andIunderstandthelovelygiftoftheMuses(fr.1West).And again,Inmyspearismykneadedbarleybread,inmyspearmyIsmarianwine.I drinkleaningonmyspear(fr.2West). WhereTyrtaeusandCallinustransvaluetheepicheroicconventions,Archilochus pokesfunatthem.TheSpartansfoundthefollowingmockcomplaintsooutrageous thattheyforbadetherecitationofArchilochuspoetryatSparta. Well,someThracianisenjoyingtheshieldwhichIleftI didntwantto,anditwasaperfectlygoodonebesideabush. ButIsavedmyself.WhatdoIcareaboutthatshield? Tohellwithit;Illgetanotheronejustasgood. (fr.5West) ThisisnottheboastofaHomerichero.Theironyandthehumorlieinthe incongruitybetweenthepoetscynicalstanceandtheHomericideal.Archilochus alsouseshumortopuncturethepretentiousnessofthearistocraticequationof physicalbeautyandmanlyexcellence. 117 Idontlikeageneralwhoisbigandwalkswithaswagger, orwhogloriesinhiscurlyhairandshavesoffhismoustache. Givemeamanwhoslittle,bandylegged, feetfirmontheground,fullofheart. (fr.114West) Theostentatiousdisplayofluxurybythearistocratswasanotherthingthatmetwith thecensureofpoetswhoreflectedthesentimentsoftheordinaryyeomanfarmers. Forexample,theIonianphilosophicalpoetXenophanes(c.550BC)criticizedthe upperclassofhisnativeColophonwhowenttotheassemblyintheirallpurple cloaks,gloryingintheirwelldressedlonghair,drenchedwiththeperfumeof elaboratescents(fr.3West).Anearliercontemporary,AsiusofSamos,registered similardispleasureattheeliteswhosweptintotheprecinctofHeraintheirsnow whiterobes,theirlonghairtiedupingoldenclaspsandfancybraceletsontheir arms. Atthesametimeasitdeploresostentation,thepopularpoetrypromotesthepractical wisdomandcommonsensevaluesheldbytheordinarycitizenofmoderatemeans.A collectionofhomespunmaximsfromthefirsthalfofthesixthcentury,attributedto PhocylidesofMiletus,ismadeupofsayingssuchas,Manythingsarebestinthe

middle;Iwanttobemiddle(mesos)inthepolis;andWhatgoodisnoblebirthfor thosewholackgraceinwordsandcounsel?Inasimilarvein,Xenophanesdevalues thearistocraticpursuitofhonorandprestigethroughathleticcompetition(onlythe wealthycouldaffordtocompete),assertingthatitissmalljoyforthepoliswhen athleteswinattheOlympicgames,forthesethingsdonotfattenthetreasuryofthe polis(fr.2West). PerhapsthemostcolorfulrepresentativeofthenoneliteperspectivewasHipponaxof Ephesus(sixthcentury),whoadoptedthepersonaofanurbanhustler,alwaysbroke andengagingindrunkenbrawlsandescapades.Hipponaxwroteinavernacularfull ofstreetslangandobscenity,savagelylampooninghisenemiesandmakingfunof himselfandhispoverty.Ploutos(thegodofwealth),hesays,nevercametomy houseforhesquiteblindandsaidtome,Hipponax,Imgivingyouthirtyminas ofsilver,andlotselsebesides.No,hestoofeeblewitted(fr.36West). Otherpoetspresenttheworldfromanelitistperspective.Theirpoemsaredirectedto anaudiencethathadwealthandleisure.Mostofthispoetrywascomposed specificallyforrecitationatsymposia,maledrinkingparties,whichwerean exclusivelyaristocraticformofentertainment.Symposiasticpoetry,asitiscalled, coveredarangeofsubjects,fromthelofty(patrioticsongsandretellingsofancient myths)totheplayful(riddlesandjokes).Partisanpoliticswasafavoritetopic.The commonestthemes,however,werepersonalmusingsonthepleasuresofwineand love(bothheterosexualandhomosexual)andthesadnecessitythatthesejoysmust fadewitholdage. TypicalisthisshortpoembytheseventhcenturyIonianpoetMimnermus(from SmyrnaorColophon). 118 WhatlifeisthereapartfromGoldenAphrodite? Whatjoycantherebe?MayIdiewhenI Nolongercareforsecretloveandtendergifts andbed,thealluringblossomsofyouthformen andwomentoo.Andwhenmiserableoldage comesonthatmakesamanbothuglyanduseless, thentroublesomeworriesforeverwearandtearathiswits, norcanheenjoythesightofthesunsrays. Boysfindhimhateful,womencontemptible. Sosorrowfulathinghasthegodmadeoldage. (fr.1West;Fowler1992,adapted)

AnotherIonianpoetwasAnacreonofTeos(midsixthcentury),whowasinvitedto SamosbythetyrantPolycrates,andafterPolycratesmurderjoinedthecourtofthe PeisistratidtyrantsofAthens.Theconsummatearistocraticcourtpoet,he particularlycelebratesthepleasuresofwineandlove.ForAnacreonthesearethe propertopicsforsymposia,notthewornthemesofwarandbloodshed: Idontlikethemanwho,whiledrinkingwinebesidesthefullmixingbowl, talksaboutquarrelsandwarfarewithitstears, butratheronewhominglestheMusesandAphroditessplendidgifts togetherandsokeepsthecharmsoffestivityinmind. (Elegy2;Miller1996) SimilarinstyleandtonetoAnacreonwashiscontemporaryIbycus,fromRhegiumin Italy,whoalsospentyearsatPolycratescourt.SomeofIbycuspoemsarelong choralnarrativesinlyricmeters,ontraditionalepicandmythologicalthemes.Most ofhisextantwork,however,ishomoeroticpoetry,fullofsensuousimagery.Inone poem,Eros(Love)comeslikethenorthwindfromThrace,andwithparching madness,darkandfearless,shakesmetothebottomofmyheartwithhismight(fr. 286Page).Inanotherpoem,onfallinginloveagain,hecompareshimselftoanold championracehorsethatunwillinglydragshischariottothecontest(fr.386Page). Mytilene,thedominantpolisofLesbos,producedtwoprominentpoets,Sapphoand Alcaeus,attheendoftheseventhcentury.Bothwerefromleadingaristocratic families.SapphoistheonlyknownwomanpoetfromtheArchaicperiod,infact,one ofthefewinallancientGreekliterature(womenwerenotencouragedtowrite).Her poetrywasgreatlyadmiredthroughoutantiquityshewashailedasthetenth Muse.Unfortunately,verylittleofSapphospoetryhassurvived.Mostofwhatwe haveissolosongs,highlypersonalintone,whosemainthemeiseroticlovebetween women.ItappearsthatSapphowastheleaderofacloseknitcircleofyoungupper classwomeninLesbos(hencethenineteenthcenturyeuphemismlesbian),who sharedtheirlivesforabriefperiodbefore 119 marriage.Sapphoalsowroteweddingssongs(epithalamia)performedbychoruses ofyounggirls. Document3.3Ninebooks(i.e.,papyrusrolls)ofSapphospoetrywerecollectedin theAlexandrianperiod,ofwhichonlyonecompletepoemsurvives,alongwith severalsubstantialportionsofpoemsandanumberofveryshortfragments.Hereis aselectionofshorterfragments.

Isimplywishtodie. Weepingsheleftme andsaidthistoo: Wevesufferedterribly SapphoIleaveyouagainstmywill. Ianswered,gohappily andrememberme, youknowhowwecaredforyou, ifnot,letmeremindyou ...thelovelytimesweshared...(fr.94LP) Ihaveabeautifulchild,herform likeagoldenflower,belovedKleis, whomIwouldnottradeforallofLydia orlovely....(fr.132LP) EveningStarwhogatherseverything shiningdawnscattered youbringthesheepandthegoats, youbringthechildbacktoitsmother.(fr.104LP) Thesweetapplereddensonahighbranch highuponhighest,missedbytheapplepickers: no,theydidntmiss,somuchascouldnttouch.(fr.105LP) IlovedyouAtthisoncelongago... Youseemedtomeasmallchildandwithoutcharm.(fr.49LP) Atthis,foryouthethoughtofmehasbecomehateful, andyouflyofftoAndromeda.(fr.131LP) TranslatedbyDianeJ.Rayor,SapphosLyre.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress, 1991,pp.60,72,74,68. AllthenoblefamiliesofLesbos,duringthelifetimesofSapphoandAlcaeus,were embroiledinviciouspowerstruggles.ItwouldhavebeenunthinkableforSappho,a woman,towriteofthisstasisinherpolis.Alcaeus,however,putsusinthecenterof thecomplicatedintrigues,thepoliticaldealsandbetrayals,andthepartisanhatreds andviolence,whichherelatesingreatdetail.Alcaeus 120 venomwasdirectedprimarilyatanotheraristocratnamedPittacus,abitterenemy whohadbeenaformerally.Predictably,AlcaeuslevelsatPittacustheworstinsults

anaristocratcouldmuster:baseborn(kakopatrids;literallysonofakakosfather) andtyrant(hehadbeenelectedbythepeopletoserveasatemporarydictatorto endtheincessantaristocraticfeuding).Alcaeusisbestknownforthisinvective poetry,buttheothersymposiasticthemessuchaslove,legend,andwineoccupied hisversesjustasmuch.Indeed,hestressesthatlove,wine,andthepleasuresofthe drinkingpartyofferedhimandhiscompanionswelcomereposefromfactionalstrife. ThefourteenhundredlinesofpoetrythathavebeenattributedtoTheognisof Megara(c.550BC)areprobablyalatercompilationofpoemswrittenbymany differentauthors,datingfromthelateseventhtotheearlyfifthcentury.This anthology,calledtheTheognidea,includestheusualaristocraticthemes;butitgoes furtherinrevealingtheclassprejudicesandantagonismsoftheelitetowardthe lowerclasses.Thecollectionreadslikeamoralhandbookforaristocrats,praisingthe valuesofthewellbornagathoiandvilifyingthebasebornkakoi,whoare representedasincapableofanysortofexcellence.Thisintensifiedcontemptisthe reactionofafrustratedaristocracy,whorealizedthattheywerelosingtheirstatus andprivilegewhileasignificantnumberofnonelitesweremakingeconomicand politicalgains. Conveyedagainandagaininversessuchasthese(addressedtotheyoungloverof Theognis)isasenseofhelplessnessmingledwithbitterresentmentatthe intolerablereversalofstation: Cyrnus,thosewhowereagathoioncearenowkakoi,andthosewhowerekakoibefore arenowagathoi.Whocouldbearseeingthis,theagathoidishonoredandthekakoi gettinghonor? (Theognidea11091112) Althougharistocratswouldcontinuetoproclaimtheirinnatesuperiority,the movementtowardpoliticallevelingthathadbegunintheseventhcenturywas essentiallycompletedbytheearlydecadesofthefifth. PHILOSOPHYANDSCIENCE Likelyricpoetry,philosophy(literallytheloveofwisdom)arosewiththe awakeningoftheGreekworldintheArchaicperiod.TheearliestGreek philosophers,someofwhomwerethefirsttowriteinprose,arecalledthe PresocraticstodistinguishthemfromthedisciplesofSocrateswholivedinAthensin theClassicalperiod.ThePresocraticsarealsoclearlydifferentiatedfromtheSocratics inthattheformerconcentratedtheirattentiononthestructureanddevelopmentof thephysicaluniversewhilethelatterweremoreinterestedinethics,intherole humanbeingsplayinrelationshiptooneanotherandtothelargersociety.

121 Cosmos:TheVisibleSky Becausetheydidnothavetelescopes,theGreeksknewonlythestarsandthefive planetstheycouldseewiththenakedeye.Buttheyweremuchmorefamiliarwith thenightskythanmostcitydwellersarenowadays.Sincetherewerenostreetlights, smog,ortallbuildings,theirnightswerefilledwithstars.Theynamedtheplanets andconstellationsaftertheirgodsandcharactersintheirmyths,likeOrionthe hunterandthegirlshepursuedandnevercaught,thePleiades.IntheWorksand DaysHesiodsagriculturalcalendarisaddressedtofarmerswholearnedwhenitwas timetoperformtheirseasonalchoresbythepositionoftheconstellations.When Greekssailed,theyplottedtheirlocationbythepositionofcelestialobjects. IntheArchaicperiod,colonization,travel,andthedevelopmentoftradeand commercespurredthegrowthofastronomicalthinking.Contactwithother civilizationsinAsia,especiallyBabylonia,whereastronomicalrecordsofphenomena suchaseclipseshadbeenkeptforcenturiesfromasearlyas1600BC,showedthere wassomeregularityandpredictabilityinthemovementsofthestarsandplanets. TheSearchforOrigins UnliketheBabylonianrecordkeepers,earlyGreekastronomerstriedtofind explanationsforthecelestialmotions.Theyattemptedtodevelopscientificmodels thatnotonlywouldexplainwhathadbeenobservedbutwouldpredictfuture observations.Thenasnow,thesamescientistswhowereinterestedinunderstanding theuniversesearchedforitsorigins.Thenasnow,thesearchoftentookasitsfirst axiomthatatthebeginningtherewasonlyonesubstance,orveryfew,outofwhich allmatterevolved. TheearliestGreekscientistsweknowoflivedinMiletusinthesixthcentury.Their thoughtshavebeentransmittedtousbecausetheywerequotedbylaterGreek philosophersandscientistssuchasAristotle.TheMilesianswerethefirsttoabandon supernaturalorreligiousexplanationsfornaturalphenomenaandinsteadtoseek purelyphysicalcauses.Thales,traditionallythefirstofthethreegreatMilesians,was abletopredictasolareclipseandthesolstices,therebydemonstratingthat occultationofthesunandthelengthofdayswerenotdeterminedbydivinewhim. Healsobelievedthatthesingleoriginofmatterwaswater(foritcouldbe transformedintobothgasandsolidforms),andthattheearthwasflatandfloatedon water.Incontrast,hisfellowMilesian,Anaximander,calledtheoriginalprinciple TheBoundless,orTheIndefinite;thislimitlessentitycontainedallmatter, includingsuchoppositesaswetanddryandcoldandhot.Hepostulatedthatthe earliestcreaturesarosefromslimewarmedbythesunsheat,andhewasalsothe firstGreektodrawageographicalmap.AnotherMilesian,Anaximenes,thoughtthat

everythinghadevolvedfromair:itbecamefirewhenitwasrarefied,couldchangeto windandcloud,andwhencondensedwastransformedintosolidsubstances.Like Thales,Anaximenesbelievedthattheearthwasflat,buthethoughtthatitfloatedon air. 122 Pythagoras,oneofthemostinfluentialcosmologists,isfamiliartousbecauseofhis discoveryofthetheoremthatbearshisname.HewasborninSamos,butleftaround 531BCbecauseofthetyrannyofPolycrates.PythagorassettledinsouthernItalyand livedwithagroupofdisciples.TheoriginalPythagoreansandtheirsuccessors followedstrictrulesintheirdailylives.WomenwereincludedinthePythagorean communitiesandwereimbuedwiththephilosophicaldoctrinesthatregulatedthe conductofdailylife.Forexample,thePythagoreansobservedmanyfoodtaboos. Theywerestrictvegetarians,fortheybelievedintransmigrationofthesoul. Nevertheless,theywereinterestedinworldlymatterslikepoliticsandgeometry. Geometry(literallytakingthemeasureoftheearth)wasatheoreticalandpractical scienceofspecialimportanceintheancientworldwherelandwasthemostvaluable commodity:thefoundingofnewcitiesincludedthecarefulmeasurementofland intoplotsofequalsizeanditsdistributiontocolonists. Pythagorasbelievedthatarithmeticalsoheldthekeytounderstandingtheuniverse. Hepostulatedthattheearthwasasphereinthecenterofaseriesofhollowspheres. Thestarswerefixedontheoutersphericalshell,andtheplanetsonsmallershells within.Eachdaythestellarsphererotatedfromeasttowestwhiletheplanetary spheresrotatedfromwesttoeastatvariousrates.Theirmovementcreatedasound, butsincethesoundisalwayswithus,weareunabletohearit.ThePythagorean theoryofthemusicalharmonyoftheheavenlyspheresisanexampleofanattempt tofind,oreventoimpose,anaestheticallypleasingmathematicalexplanationforthe movementofcelestialbodies.MorethanacenturylaterPlato,whowasmuch influencedbyPythagoreanism,alsosoughttoexplaintheuniverseintermsof arithmeticalabstractionsandassertedthatallcelestialbodiesmoveatthesamerate inacircularpath. Document3.4 Mortalsmadetheirgods,andfurnishedthem withtheirownbody,voice,andgarments. Ifahorseorlionoraslowox hadagilehandsforpaintandsculpture, thehorsewouldmakehisgodahorse, theoxwouldsculptanox.

Ourgodshaveflatnosesandblackskins saytheEthiopians.TheThracianssay ourgodshaveredhairandhazeleyes. Xenophanesfr.1214Diehl;translatedbyWillisBarnstone,GreekLyricPoetry.New York:Schocken,1972,p.131adapted. 123 LikePythagoras,XenophanesofColophon(c.550BC)movedfromtheeastern MediterraneantoMagnaGraeciawherehetraveledaboutasanexile.Fragmentsof hispoemscriticizingconventionalreligiousandethicalbeliefsareextant. Xenophanesideasaboutthedevelopmentofthecosmoswerebasedonpersonal observation.Forexample,whenhenoticedfossilimprintsofmarinelifeandseaweed inthreedifferentlocationsinland,hetheorizedthattheywereproducedlongago whentheearthwascoveredwiththemudproducedbyamixtureofseawaterand earth.AnimportantcharacteristicofearlyGreekscienceisthatideascirculated widelythroughthewritingofbooks.Becausethecitystateswerenontheocratic,the earlyphilosopherscouldfreelycriticizeeachotherstheories.Heraclitus,wholived inEphesusinthesecondhalfofthesixthcentury,wasafiercecriticofPythagoras andXenophanes.RejectingPythagorasworldviewthatemphasizedregularityand order,Heraclitusmaintainedthateverythingwasconstantlychanginglikeariver: youcannotstepintothesamerivertwice.Theworldconsistsnotofoneormore materialsubstancesbutofprocessesgovernedbyaprincipleHeraclituscallslogos: arationalprincipleorstatementthatpeoplemustunderstandinordertounderstand theworldinwhichtheylive.Theworldisnotwhatitappearstobe.Thesameidea wasatthecoreofParmenidesphilosophy.HelivedintheGreekcolonyEleain southernItalyandwroteapoeminwhichhetriedtoanalyzewhatitmeanstosay thatsomethingisorexists.AccordingtoParmenides,allyoucansayandthinkis thatbeingexistsbutthatnonbeingdoesnotexist.Changeislogicallyimpossible becauseifsomethingchangesitisnolongerthesameanddoesnotexist.Fortherest ofantiquityGreekphilosophystruggledwiththesequestions:Whatdowemean whenwesaythatsomethingexists,andwhatistherelationshipbetweentheworld asweexperienceitandwhatitreallyis? SomeofthespeculationsofthePresocraticsappeartobeuncannilyconsistentwith thehypothesesofmoderncosmology.Aswenowadayssearchdistantplanetsfor signsoflifeasweknowitanddeludeourselvesthatearthisthecenterofour galaxywhenweviewthepageantofthestarsoverhead,wecanbetterunderstand theanthropocentricandgeocentricarroganceoftheGreeksandappreciatethese earlyscientistswhohadnotoolsforexplorationexcepttheirownintelligence. RELATIONSBETWEENSTATES

Withtheemergenceofthecitystate,theexternalproblemofcoexistencebecame muchmorecomplicatedanddifficultthanithadbeenintheprestateperiod.Despite manygapsinthehistoricalrecord,itisevidentthatperiodicwarfarebetween neighboringstateswascommoneverywhereduringtheseventhandsixthcenturies. Asweshallsee,solutionsweresoughttoalleviatethetensionsamongstates,and thesewerepartiallysuccessful. Therewereseveralreasonsfortheheightenedtensions.Asstatesbegantorunoutof unoccupiedland,theyattemptedtoextendtheirboundaries.Thiscauseddisputes, usuallyoverborderlandsthathadnotrequiredstrictdefinitionwhenpopulations werestillsmall.Moreover,existingtensionsbetweenpoleisinthe 124 motherlandwereextendedtotheircoloniesandwerecomplicatedbyincreasing tradingcompetition.Asaresult,enmitieswereformedbetweencitystateshundreds ofmilesapart.Relationswereapttobefurtherstrainedbecauseofthetransferenceto thecoloniesofancientantagonismsbetweenlargeethniclinguisticgroupings, especiallytheIoniansandDorians.LegendarygrievancesgoingbacktotheHeroic Agefrequentlyprovidedconvenientpretextsforstartingaquarrel. Onthemainland,wheretheimpactoflandscarcitywasfeltfirst,territorialwars beganasearlyasthelateeighthcentury.Atthattime,ChalcisandEretriainEuboea foughtoverpossessionoftherichLelantosRiverplainthatlaybetweenthem.Inthe LelantineWar,asitiscalled,bothsidesweresaidtohavehadalliesfrommuch furtheraway,apossibleindicationthatitinvolvedrivalcolonialnetworks. HowcomplexinterstaterelationscouldbeismostclearlyseeninthePeloponnesus, whichcontainedthreeofthemajorGreekcitystatesSparta,Argos,andCorinth. AftertheirconquestofMesseniainthelateeighthcentury,theSpartansturnedtheir attentiontotheirotherneighbors,theethnosofArcadiaandthepolisofArgos.In Arcadiatheyhadlittlesuccess;inArgostheydidgainterritorybutagainstfierce resistance.TheywerebadlybeatenbytheArgives,underthecommandofPheidon, inabattleatHysiaeintheArgolisin669.(IthasbeensuggestedthattheArgive victoryencouragedtherevoltofthehelotizedMesseniansintheSecondMessenian War.)TheArgivesinthemeantimeweretryingtoexpandtheirownlandholdings andinfluencewithinthePeloponnesus,particularlyintheCorinthiansphere;the CorinthiansweredoingthesametotheirsmallerneighborstatesofMegaraand Sicyon.Thetwomostpowerfulstates,ArgosandSparta,continuedtofightover territoryuntil547,whenSpartamadeitslastbiglandgainatArgosexpense,alarge disputedborderareaeastoftheParnonrange.ThereafterSpartanpolicywasto foregoconquestandusediplomacyandalliancesasameansofkeepingtheir acknowledgedsupremacyinthePeloponnesus.

DiplomacyandAlliances ItwasonlyinthesixthcenturythatGreekstatesbeganinearnesttoestablishformal mechanismsdesignedtoavoidwarandpromotecooperationandunderstanding amongthemselves.Almostallofthesecooperativeinstitutionshadhadtheirgenesis intheprestateperiod,buttheywererefinedandregularizedduringthelaterArchaic Age. Atthesametimethatformalmeanswerebeinginstituted,diplomaticrelationswere stillbeingconductedmuchastheyhadbeenintheDarkAge,throughpersonal relationshipsamongtheleadingmen.Thiswasespeciallysointhetyrannies.Tyrants conductedforeignpolicyassovereigns,makingpactsoffriendshipormarriage allianceswithothertyrantsorwiththetoparistocrats.Forexample,Periander(c. 627587),whosucceededhisfatherCypselusastyrantofCorinth,developeda politicalfriendshipwithThrasybulus,tyrantofMiletus,which 125 endedanoldenmitybetweenthetwopoleisgoingbacktotheLelantineWar.Their pactaidedCorinthiantradersinEgyptandtheBlackSeaandMilesiantradersinthe West.PerianderwasalsoaskedbyAthensandMytilenetoarbitrateadisputeover controlofSigeum,animportantwaystationontheroutetotheBlackSea. Personaldiplomacybecameinstitutionalizedintheformofproxeny,wherebya residentofonecitystateactedasasemiofficialrepresentativeoftheinterestsof another.ProxenywasaformalizedversionoftheDarkAgeinstitutionofguest friendship(xenia),observedinHomer.AswesawinChapter2,whenAgamemnon andMenelauscametoIthacatorecruitOdysseusandhisfollowersfortheTrojan War,theystayedatthehouseoftheirxenos,orguestfriend,atIthacawhilethey conductedtheirembassy.IntheArchaicversion,whenanAthenian,say,cameto Corinthonsomepublicorprivatebusiness,theproxenosoftheAtheniansatCorinth wouldaidhiminhismission. Temporarymilitaryalliancesbetweencommunities,bothoffensiveanddefensive, wereasoldaswar.IntheArchaicperiodtheybecamemoreformalandlonger lasting.Statesbegantomakewrittentreaties,pledgingfriendshipandnonaggression forastipulatedtime.Theearliestformalpactweknowofisonaninscriptiondating toaround550,betweenthepolisofSybarisinsouthernItaly,itsallies,andanother polis.Itreads:TheSybaritesandtheiralliesandtheSerdaioimadeanagreementfor friendship,faithfulandwithoutguile,forever.Guarantors,Zeus,Apollo,andthe othergods,andthepolisofPoseidonia(MeiggsandLewis,1989,p.10). Therealsocameintoexistenceseveraltypesofmultistatealliancesorleagues.One wastheamphictyonyorassociationsofneighbors,inwhichseveralindependent

citystatescooperatedtomaintainandprotectacommonsanctuaryofagod.These associationsmayhavegonefarbackintime,althoughweknowofthemonlyfrom thesixthcenturyon,whentheyhadtakenonamorepoliticalcharacterthanmerely protectingthecommonsanctuary.Althoughanamphictyonydidnotpreventits membersfromwarringagainstoneanother,atleastitmitigatedhostility.Member statesmightpledge,forexample,nottodestroyeachotherscitiesorcutofftheir watersupply. Itwasalsointhesixthcenturythatethnbegantoformlooseunionsoftheirseparate townsandvillagesforthepurposesofforeignrelationsandwarfare.Thesediffered fromtheamphictyoniesinthattheyhadanoverarchinggoverningbodyfor coordinatingcommunalaction.Nevertheless,theauthorityofcentralgovernments overtheindependententitieswouldremainrelativelyfeebleuntilthecreationinthe fourthcenturyoftruefederalstates. OneofthemostsuccessfulfederationsintheArchaicperiodwasthatoftheethnosof Thessaly.Asearlyastheseventhcenturythisvast,richnorthernregionwasloosely unitedformilitaryactionundertheheadshipofawarleader,calledeitherarchon (leader)ortagos(militarycommander).Thessalianunityallowedthemtobecome themajorpowerofnorthernGreeceforaperiodoftimeinthesixthcentury,untilthe confederacywasweakenedbyquarrelsamongthelocalchiefs.Theethnosofthe Phocians,underpressurefromtheunifiedThes 126 salians,quicklydevelopedafederalunionoftheirowninthesixthcentury,complete withtheirownfederationcoinageandarmy.Similarly,theneedforsomeunity againstbothThessalianandAthenianpressureatthistimepromptedtherivalpoleis ofBoeotiatoformaconfederacyundertheleadershipofThebes.ThisearlyBoeotian league,too,provedfractiousandunstable,becauseofoppositionbytheothercity statestoThebanhegemony. Themidsixthcenturyalsosawthefirstofthemegaalliances,thePeloponnesian LeaguecreatedbySparta.Thehistoryofthefifthcenturywouldbeshapedbythe rivalryandthenthehatredbetweentheSpartansandtheAthenians.Theywould conducttheirwarsanddiplomaticskirmishesasthehegemonsoftwohugealliances, thePeloponnesianandDelianleaguesrespectively,whichtogethercomprisedmost oftheGreekworld. PANHELLENICINSTITUTIONS Theeasewithwhichpoets,thinkers,artists,andideasmovedfromcitytocityacross thewideexpanseofGreekoccupationisatokenofhowculturallyunifiedtheGreek

worldwasevenasitremainedpoliticallydivided.ThePanhellenicgatheringsplayed amostimportantroleinshapingtheconceptoftheculturalunityofallGreeks. AllthePanhellenicsanctuariesincreasedgreatlyinpopularityandprestigeinthe seventhandsixthcenturies.Evergreaternumbersofpeoplecametoworship, consultoracles,andparticipateinorattendmusicalandathleticcompetitions.The twobiggestattractionswerethesanctuariesofZeusatOlympiaandofApolloat Delphi.Bytheendoftheseventhcentury,thequadrennialgamesinhonorofZeus weredrawingspectatorsandcontestantstoOlympiafromtheentireGreekworld. ShortlythereafterthreenewPanhellenicgameswereinstitutedatothersanctuaries: thePythiangamesforApolloatDelphi(582BC),theIsthmiangamesforPoseidon nearCorinth(581),andtheNemeangamesforZeusatArgos(573).Thenewgames wereintegratedintothefouryearOlympiadsoastoformanathleticcircuit (periodos).Thefestivalswerestaggeredsothattherewouldbeonemajorgame everyyear,twoinalternateyears,withtheOlympicsremainingthepremierevent. WellbeforetheinaugurationofthePythiangames,theoracleofApolloatDelphi wasfarfamed,drawingbothGreeksandnonGreeksfromalloverthe Mediterraneanworld.Forafairlyheftycostinobligatorysacrificesanindividual couldconsultApolloforadviceonpersonalmatters(marriage,careers,voyages, divinefavor,etc.).Citystatesalsoconsultedthegod,seekinghisguidanceand sanctiononimportantquestionssuchascolonizing,religion,andlaws.Apollos answerscamethroughapriestess,calledthePythia,whobecamepossessedbythe godandinatranceutteredthemessagesshereceivedfromApollo.Thesewereput intocoherent(thoughfrequentlyambiguous)formbyinterpreters(prophtai),who gavetheirresponsesinhexameterverse.Becausesomanytyrants,foreignkings,and aristocraticleadersconsultedtheoracle,thesanctuarybecameastorehouseof informationaboutpoliticalconditionsinthewideworld. 127 ThePanhelleniccontestsandritualsfosteredtheideaofGreekness,ofsharingthe samelanguage,religion,customs,andvalues.Indeed,theyhadtheavowedpurpose ofknittingtogethertheGreeksinpeacefulcelebration.DuringtheOlympicgames, forexample,asacredtrucebanningwarthroughouttheGreekworldwasdeclared forthemonthinwhichthegameswereheld.Ontheotherhand,theathleticcontests, theagnes(fromwhichwederiveagonisticandantagonist)wereviewedas competitionsnotonlybetweenindividualsbutalsobetweenstates,muchastheyare today.Thesacredprecinctsthemselvesbecameplacesforpoleistoboastoftheir wealthandachievementswithdedicationsofstatuesandcostlystoneandmarble treasuriesincommemorationofcontestwinnersorofmilitaryvictoriesbythe polis.

Therewerenoteamevents,onlyindividualcontests.Thus,thegameskeptalivethe ancientidealoftheindividualhero:tobedeclaredbest(aristos)bygainingvictory overaworthyopponent.ThecontentandspiritofthePanhellenicgameshad changedlittlefromthegamesdescribedintheIliad.Theeventsstilltestedspeed, strength,dexterity,andendurance,preciselythequalitiesdesiredinaHomeric warrior. Oftheseveralfootracesthemostprestigiouswastheshortsprint,calledthestade (stadion,hencestadium)adistanceofabout210yards;atOlympiathewinnerofthe staderacewaslistedfirstinthesummaryofallvictors.Attheendofthesixth centuryanewracerunbycontestantsinfullarmorwasinaugurated,inrecognition ofhoplitefighting.Otherstandardeventsatthegameswerewrestling,boxing,and thepankration,aviciouscombinationofboxingandwrestlingwithnoholdsbarred exceptbitingandeyegouging.Therewasalsoatrackandfieldevent,thepentathlon, combiningfivecontests:thestade,javelinanddiscusthrows,thelongjump,and wrestling.Inadditiontherewereequestrianevents,themostspectacularofwhich wasthefourhorsechariotrace,acontestdatingbacktotheLateBronzeAge.The winnerofthechariotracesandthehorseraceswasnotthecharioteerorthejockey butthewealthyhorseowner. Separatesetsofcontestswereheldforboys(underage20)andformen.Womendid notcompeteatthemajorgames,norprobablyweretheypermittedtoattendas spectators,althoughlateratOlympiatherewasastaderaceforgirlsinhonorof Hera.Theprizeswerejusttokensofglory,wreathsoffoliage:atOlympiaolive leaves,atPythialaurel,atNemeawildcelery,andatIsthmiapine.(Muchmore substantialprizeswereofferedattheseverallessprestigiousPanhellenicgamesthat sprangupduringthesixthcenturyatAthens,Thebes,andelsewhere.)Ontheir returnhome,however,victorsreapedlavishrewards:triumphalprocessions,civic honors,statues,andevenprizesofmoney.AtthePythiangamesandanumberof otherfestivalstherewerealsocompetitionsandprizesinchoralandsolopoetryand inmusicalperformances. *** AtthebeginningoftheArchaicperiod(c.750BC)theGreekswerestillarelatively isolatedandeconomicallybackwardpeople,organizedpoliticallyintolowlevel chiefdoms.Bythelatesixthcenturytheyhadaculturallyadvancedstate 128 societythatspreadacrosstheentireMediterraneanzoneandweremajorplayersin thecomplexinternationalmarketeconomy.

ThesupremepoliticalachievementoftheArchaicAgeGreekswasthepolis,whichin thecourseoftheperiodevolvedfromnarrowoligarchytotyrannytoamorebroadly basedpolityinwhichthemajorityofitsmembersparticipatedinitsgovernance. Becausethepeopleandnotjusttheelitehadastakeinthepolis,thesenseofloyalty anddedicationtothecommonalityofcitizens,asAristotlecalledthepolis,was profound.ItwasthispoliscitizenbondthatmadetheGreekcitystateunlikeany otherformofstateintheancientworld.Thisfierceloyaltytranslatedintoadeep convictionthatnopersonsfromoutsidethestatecouldbeallowedtoviolateits independence. Civicpridewasthecementofthecitystateandwaslargelyresponsibleforthe culturalfloweringoftheArchaicperiod.TheGreekspassionforautarchy,however, wasapermanentlydivisiveforce,whichinthesecondhalfofthefifthcenturywould causethepoleistoexhaustthemselvesinthegreatPeloponnesianWarbetweenthe SpartansandtheAtheniansandtheirallies.Thatwouldbethestartoftheslow declineofthepolisasanautonomouspoliticalunit.Butatthebeginningofthefifth century,theGreekstateswereattheheightoftheirpridefulindependenceandhad noinklingthattheirunyieldingselfinterestwoulddrivethemintosuchacalamitous war. Yet,inaseemingparadox,thegrowingawarenessduringtheArchaicperiodofa sharedGreekness(whatthehistorianHerodotuscalledtohellnikon,theGreek thing)alsogaverisetoastrongculturalidentityandsenseofkinship.Theshining momentofPanhellenicsolidaritywouldcomeintheearlyfifthcenturywhenthe Greekpoleissubordinatedtheirindividualloyaltiestouniteagainsttheattemptsof thePersianempiretoconquerGreece.InthePersianwars(490479)theGreeks wouldequatethefreedomoftheirindividualcitystateswiththefreedomofthe GreeksagainsttheslaveryofthePersiantyrant. TheglowofPanhellenicunitywouldsoonfade,however,andforthenextcentury andahalfthepoleisandethneofGreecewouldcontinueintheiroldways,despitea growingrealizationamongmanyobserversthatwarsofGreeksagainstGreekswere tantamounttocivilwarwithinacitystate.Formostofthatperioddiplomaticand militaryactivitywouldcenteronthetwogreatpowersofSpartaandAthens. TRANSLATIONS Barnstone,Willis.1972.GreekLyricPoetry.NewYork:Schocken. Blanco,Walter.1998.ThePeloponnesianWar,fromThucydides:ThePeloponnesianWar, WalterBlancoandJenniferRoberts,eds.NewYork:W.W.Norton. Fowler,BarbaraHughes.1992.ArchaicGreekPoetry.Madison:Universityof WisconsinPress.

129 Meiggs,RussellandDavidLewis.1989.ASelectionofGreekHistoricalInscriptionstothe EndoftheFifthCenturyBC.Oxford:ClarendonPress. Miller,AndrewM.1996.GreekLyric.Indianapolis:Hackett. Rackham,H.1977.Aristotle:Politics.LoebClassicalLibrary.Cambridge,Mass.and London:HarvardUniversityPress. SUGGESTEDREADINGS Andrewes,A.1956.TheGreekTyrants.NewYork:Harper&Row.Thoughwritten morethanagenerationago,itremainsthebestintroductiontothetyrannoi. Boardman,John.1974.AthenianBlackFigureVases.London:OxfordUniversityPress. Boardman,John.1975.AthenianRedFigureVases:TheArchaicPeriod.London:Oxford UniversityPress. Boardman,John.1978.GreekSculpture:TheArchaicPeriod.London:OxfordUniversity Press.ThesethreevolumesmakeupavaluablesetofhandbooksonGreekartofthe Archaicperiod,lavishlyillustrated,withconciseandinformativecommentary. Easterling,P.E.andB.M.W.Knox(eds.).1985.TheCambridgeHistoryofClassical Literature.VolumeI,Part1:EarlyGreekPoetry.Cambridge,Eng.:Cambridge UniversityPress.UptodatearticlesonHesiodandthelyricpoets,withabundant bibliography. Hanson,VictorDavis.1995.TheOtherGreeks:TheFamilyFarmandtheAgrarianRootsof WesternCivilization.NewYork:TheFreePress.Awideranging,meticulously detailedstudyoftheyeomanfarmerhopliteandhisroleintheformationofthe citystate. Mitchell,LynetteG.andP.J.Rhodes(eds.).1997.TheDevelopmentofthePolisin ArchaicGreece.LondonandNewYork:Routledge.Anuptodatecollectionofarticles onvariousaspectsofthedevelopmentoftheGreekcitystate. Snodgrass,Anthony.1980.ArchaicGreece.TheAgeofExperiment.BerkeleyandLos Angeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.ThefirstmajorbookonArchaicGreece writtenbyanarchaeologist,andanimportantreappraisaloftheimportanceofthe ArchaicperiodtoGreekhistory. Staff,ChesterG.1977.TheEconomicandSocialGrowthofEarlyGreece:800500B.C. NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.Acomprehensivestudyoftheeconomicand

socialevolutionoftheGreekcitystatesintheArchaicperiod,whichpaysspecial attentiontotheclassdivisionsandtensionsofthetimes. Tandy,DavidW.andWalterC.Neale(eds.).1996.HesiodsWorksandDays.A TranslationandCommentaryfortheSocialSciences.BerkeleyandLosAngeles: UniversityofCaliforniaPress.Aspecializedcommentaryincorporatingthe perspectivesofsociologists,anthropologists,andsocialeconomists. 130 4 SPARTA Admiredinpeaceanddreadedinwar,formuchoftheArchaicandClassicalperiods SpartawasthemostpowerfulcityintheGreekworld.Itwasalsodifferentfrom otherpoleis.Tobesure,theSpartanssharedmanybasicinstitutionswithother Greeks:theirsocietywaspatriarchalandpolytheistic,servilelaborplayedakeyrole, andagricultureformedthebasisoftheeconomy.AselsewhereinGreece,lawwas reveredandmartialvalorprized.Nonetheless,Spartawasuniqueinmanyimportant ways.NootherGreekstateeverdefineditsgoalsasclearlyasSpartaorexpendedso mucheffortintryingtoattainthem.Whiletheintrusionofthestateintothelivesof individualswassubstantialinallGreekstates,nostatesurpassedSpartainthe invasiveroleitplayedinthedailylivesofitscitizens.Spartanstookenormouspride intheirpolis,andotherGreekswereimpressedbytherigorouspatriotismand selflessnesstheSpartansystementailed.TheSpartansextremedenialof individualityfosteredapowerfulsenseofbelongingthatotherGreeksenvied,and Spartacontinuestocastaneeriespelloverhistorians,philosophers,andpolitical scientistseveninanagethattendstorecoilfromtotalitarianism. SOURCESFORSPARTANHISTORYANDINSTITUTIONS DespitetheinteresttheSpartanssparkedintheircontemporaries,itissurprisingly difficulttowritethehistoryofSpartaAndofitssurroundingterritory,Laconia.The problemisnotlackofsources.Thoughunfortunatelyallthesourcesconcentrateon upperclassandroyalSpartiatesandprovidelittleinformationaboutthemajorityof thepopulationoftheterritoryofLaconiatheservilemassesknownashelotsandthe largedisfranchisedfreeclassknownasperioikoistillthevolumeofancientwriting onSpartaislarge.InthecourseoftheirnarrativesonGreekhistory,thetwogreatest Greekhistorians,HerodotusandThucydides,revealagreatdealaboutSpartan history,butthebulkofourinfor 131

mationcomesfromtwoauthorswhowroteworksfocusingspecificallyonArchaic andClassicalSparta:XenophonandPlutarch. XenophonwasborninAthensaround430BC,andheknewtheSpartansatfirst hand.WithotheryoungmenXenophonleftGreecein401toserveasamercenaryin thearmyofCyrustheYounger,pretendertothePersianthrone.Inthecourseofthis expeditionandsubsequentcampaignsinAsiahebecameacquaintedwithmany SpartansincludingthekingAgesilausII,whomhecamegreatlytoadmire.Inthelate 390s,withAthensandSpartaatwar,XenophonwasexiledbytheAtheniansfor havingfavoredtheSpartans.RelocatinginthePeloponnesus,hewroteatreatise calledtheSpartanConstitution.SinceXenophonwasaneyewitnessandknewmany leadingSpartanspersonally,hisworkisourbestsourceforSpartansocial,political, andmilitaryinstitutions,althoughhisadmirationofSpartaninstitutionsasthey weresaidtohavebeenbeforehistimemayhaveinfluencedhisaccount. AsimilarenthusiasmmarksthewritingsofPlutarch,wholivedfrom46to120AD,a thousandyearsaftertheearliesteventsatSpartathathedescribes.HewasaGreek livinginaRomanworld,sincebyhisdayhisnativeBoeotiahadbeenincorporated intotheRomanempire.PlutarchswritingsonSparta,morethanthoseofanyother ancientauthor,haveshapedlaterviewsofSparta,butPlutarchwasabiographerand aphilosopherofethics,notahistorian.HisworksonSpartaincludefivebiographies: thelivesofLycurgus,Lysander,Agesilaus,Agis,andCleomenes(thelattertwo combinedinasingleessay).TheSayingsofSpartansandtheSayingsofSpartanWomen arealsoincludedamongPlutarchsworks.Despitethecenturiesthatseparatedhim fromthepeoplehedepicted,PlutarchsworkisofvaluesincehevisitedSpartaand alsoreadbooksthatarenowlostorsurviveonlyinfragments.Althoughhiswritings containlargequantitiesofinformation,Plutarchwasinfluencedbyhistorieswritten afterthedeclineofSpartaandmarkedbynostalgiaforahappierpast,realor imagined. Theproblem,therefore,isnotsomuchthequantityofinformationaboutSpartaas thefactthatoursourcesaretaintedbytheiracceptanceofanidealizedimageof SpartathathistorianscalltheSpartanmirage.ThisideaofSpartawasavisionofan egalitarianandorderlysocietycharacterizedbyselflesspatriotism,superhuman tolerancefordeprivation,andboundlesscourageinbattle.(Suchpropaganda,which hadanimportantcoreoftruth,alsowonSpartaapositionofleadershipamongthe Greeks.)AsSpartansdidnotwritehistoricalliteraturebeforetheHellenisticperiod, thisviewofSpartaninvincibilitymusthavebeendisseminatedorallyatfirstandin literaturewrittenbynonSpartans.EvenSpartaslawswerepreservedinmemory ratherthancommittedtowriting.Exceptforsomefragmentarylyricversebythe seventhcenturypoetsAlcmanandTyrtaeus,ourliteraryevidenceforSpartawas createdbyoutsiderswhowrotewellaftermanyoftheeventstheydescribedand whoseworkwastosomeextentshapedbytheirenormousadmirationforSparta.In

manywaysthefictionsthatsurroundedtheSpartansareasinterestingasthereality theysoughttorepresent,butthoughfictionandrealityaredifficulttoseparate,they shouldnotbeconfused. 132 Unfortunately,archaeologicalevidencehasonlylimitedabilitytoremedythe deficienciesofourwrittensources.Incommentingontheneedforhistoriansnotto bedeceivedbysuperficialimpressions,theAthenianhistorianThucydidesobserved that: If,forexample,Spartaweretobedesertedandonlythetemplesandthefoundations ofthebuildingsremained,Iimaginethatpeopleinthedistantfuturewouldseriously doubtthatSpartaspowereverapproacheditsfame....TheSpartansnever developedonemetropolitanareaorbuiltlavishtemplesandbuildingsbutratherlive inscatteredsettlementsintheoldfashionedGreekway. (Thuc.1.10;Blanco1998) ThecalculatedausterityofSpartanlifemeantthatdomesticdwellingswere extremelysimple,evenbyGreekstandards.Thisisbadnewsforarchaeologists. Furthermore,modernSpartahasnotbeenthesubjectofextensiveexcavationashas Athens,wheretheeffortsofscholarsaswellashaphazardfindsduetothe constructionofsubwaysandtheexpansionofthecapitalcityofGreecehaveledto majordiscoveries.InSparta,publicconstructionwaslimitedtoafewgovernment buildings,gymnasiums,andtemples,andforourknowledgeofmostoftheseweare currentlydependentlessonexcavationsthanonthedescriptionsofPausanias,who wroteaguidetoGreeceinthesecondcenturyAD.Inscriptionsconcerningpublicor privatemattersarelikewisescarce.Eventombstones,whichareubiquitousinthe restoftheGreekworld,arerare;atSpartaonlymenwhohaddiedinbattleor womenwhohaddiedinchildbirthwerepermittedtohaveinscribedepitaphs. Becauselavishgraveofferingswerealsoforbidden,archaeologistshavenot unearthedthequantitiesofpottery,mirrors,weapons,andpersonalitemsthathave beendiscoveredinotherpartsoftheGreekworldandexploitedinhistorical research.Theonlyexceptionisalargenumberofvotiveofferingsmadeofclay, amber,lead,bronze,gold,silver,andivorydatingfromasearlyastheearlyseventh centuryandcontinuingthroughRomantimes.Thesehavebeenfoundatthesiteof thetempleofArtemisOrthia(UprightorProtectoroftheorderingofthelife cycle).Understandably,theserichfindsfromtheearliestperiodofthesanctuaryare importantfortheevaluationofSpartanculture,fortheyproveconclusivelythatin theearlyArchaicperiodtheSpartanswereonaparartisticallyandcommercially withtheirneighborstatesinthePeloponnesus.Itwasonlylater,inthecourseofthe

sixthcentury,thatthefamedSpartanausteritymadeartandothercultural refinementsaverylowpriority. ThenumberofofferingstoArtemiswasenormous:over100,000separateitemshave beenrecovered.Thismaterialrecordiswitnesstothecentralroleofhercultin religiousandciviclife.RitualceremoniesenactedintheprecinctofArtemisOrthia appeartohaverevolvedaroundthepassageofSpartanmenandwomenthroughthe keystagesoftheirlives.Chorusesofgirlssanganddancedatthepresentationofa newrobeforthestatueofArtemis,anoccasionthatprobablyalsocelebratedthe passageoftheiragegroupfromgirlhoodtowomanhood.Plaquesdepictingtextiles maylikewisehavebeendedicatedatthetimewhen 133 womenpassedfromonelifestagetoanother.Therewerealsodedicationsto Eileithyia,thespiritofchildbirthandprotectorofyoungboysandgirls.Themany leadfigurinesofhoplitesoldiersprobablymarkedthegraduationofyoungmento thestatusofwarriors. THEDARKAGEANDTHEARCHAICPERIOD Despitealltheseobstacles,painstakingresearchthroughoutthepasttwocenturies hasmadeitpossibletotracethebroadoutlinesofSpartanhistory.Laconiawasan importantcenterintheBronzeAge.Archaeologicalevidenceindicatesthattherewas alargesettlementatTherapneeastoftheEurotas,withshrinestoKingMenelausand hiswifeHelen.LikemuchoftherestofGreece,Laconiaexperiencedasharpdropin populationattheendoftheMycenaeanperiod.Mostofthesettlementsthathad beeninhabitedduringthesecondmillenniumBCwereabandoned,andthe popularityofcattleandsheepfigurinesasdedicationsinsanctuariesintheregion suggestthatstockraisingbecameamainstayofthelocaleconomy.Sometimeinthe tenthcenturyBCDoriannewcomersenteredtheterritory.BytheeighthcenturyBC trendssimilartothosedocumentedelsewhereinGreecehadbeguntoappearin Laconiaaswell.Newvillageswerefoundedaspopulationgraduallyincreased,and fourofthosevillagesneartheEurotasRiverinthecenteroftheLaconianplain unitedtoformthecityofSparta.EarlyintheeighthcenturythetownofAmyclae,3 milesfromtheoriginalfourvillages,wasaddedtothecity.ThustheSpartanpolis wasthecitycenterplustheterritoryoftheplain.Increasedcontactswiththerestof GreecewerereflectedintheemergenceofadistinctiveSpartanversionofgeometric art. LikeotherearlyGreekpoleis,Sparta(orLacedaemon,asitwasoftencalledin antiquity)begantoexperiencedifficultiesinsatisfyingitsneedsfromitsown territory.Spartawaslocatedinland,withthenearestport,Gythium,27milestothe south.Thisatypicallocationencouragedthecitytoseekanovelsolutiontotheneed

forlandtofeedagrowingpopulation,asolutionthatwoulddeterminethecourseof futureSpartandevelopment.UnlikeotherArchaicGreekcities,whichrepeatedly foundedcoloniesoverseasinanefforttoalleviatethepressureonresourcescaused bypopulationexpansion,theSpartansfoundedonlyonecolony,Tarasinsouthern Italy.Insteadoflookingabroadforasolutiontotheirdifficulties,theSpartanssought amilitaryanswertotheirproblemthroughconquestoftheirneighbors,andbythe endoftheeighthcentury,theyhadgainedcontrolofthewholeoftheLaconianplain. Thedetailsofhowthiswasaccomplishedarelost,buttheresultscanbedetectedin thesocialstructureofhistoricalSparta. HelotsandtheSocialHierarchy Spartaprimarilyneededtosupportitspopulation.Consequently,toensurecontrol oftheLaconianplain,itsinhabitantswerereducedtothestatusofhelots,hereditary subjectsoftheSpartanstate.Therestoftheinhabitantsof 134 Figure4.1.Peloponnesus. Laconia,whooccupiedtheareasurroundingthecityofSparta,becameperioikoi (thosewhodwellaround[Sparta],orneighbors).Littlewaswrittenaboutthem inantiquity.Unlikethehelots,whowereinessenceslaves,theperioikoiremained free.DespitethefactthattheywereobligatedtoserveintheSpartanarmyintheir ownunitsunderaSpartancommander,anddidsoinlargenumbers,theywerenot permittedtoparticipateintheSpartangovernment.Theydidenjoysomelocal autonomy,however,andinmanywayslivedlikethemajorityofGreekswhowere notSpartans,workingasfarmers,craftsmen,andmerchants.Thus,despitetheir name,whichimpliesthattheperi 135 oikoiwereperipheral,theyconstitutedanessentialpartoftheSpartaneconomic system. SuccessonlywhettedSpartasappetiteforexpansion,andthisexpansioninturn increasedtheinstitutionofhelotrysignificantly.Asaresult,earlyintheconquestof neighboringregionsthehelotsoutnumberedSpartancitizensbyaratiothatmay havebeenatleastashighasseventoone.Thisphenomenonwouldplayadramatic roleintheevolutionoftheSpartanwayoflife.AsaresultoftheconquestofLaconia, thewesternreachesofSpartanterritoryabuttedonthoseofanotheremergingDorian state,Messenia.DoriansolidarityprovedtobeanidealinvokedbytheSpartansonly whenitsuitedtheirinterests.TheSpartanscovetedthefertileMessenianlowlands,

andatsometimeinthethirdquarteroftheeighthcenturytheyinvadedMessenia, beginningwhatmodernhistorianscalltheFirstMessenianWar.Thefighting centeredaroundtheformidablenaturalfortressofMountIthomeinnorthern Messenia.Thedetailsofthewaritselfarelost.Tradition,however,madethewarlast twentyyearsandplaceditsconclusionabout720BC.Thisdatingiscorroboratedby thedisappearanceofMesseniansfromtheOlympicvictorlistaboutthattime.Ifthe courseoftheFirstMessenianWarisunclear,itsresultsarenot:Messeniabecame subjecttoSparta.LiketheLaconians,someoftheMesseniansbecameperioikoi,but mostbecamehelots,boundtotheirlandandobligedtoworkitfortheirSpartan masterswithnoconsolationbutthepromisethattheywouldnotbesoldoutof Messenia.TheSpartanpoetTyrtaeusgloatinglydescribedthemasburdenedlike asses,bringingtotheirmastersunderharshcompulsiononehalf...ofthefruitsof theland(fr.6West). TheconquestofLaconiaandMesseniamadeSpartaoneofthelargestofallArchaic Greekstates,controllinganempireofover3000squaremiles(aboutthreetimesthe sizeoftheAthenianstate).ComparedwithAthensSpartawasneverdensely populated,andsomecentersofhabitationwerequiteremote.Spartawasalsooneof thericheststates.SpartanpotteryandmetalworkwereamongthefinestinGreece. ThebeautyofSpartanwomenwaswidelycelebrated,andSpartasfemalechoruses werefamous.AvividimpressionofthewealthandeleganceofSpartanlifeis providedbyafewsurvivingfragmentsoftheworksoftheseventhcenturyBCpoet Alcman,whosehymns,writtenforchorusesofunmarriedSpartangirlstosingon ceremonialoccasions,mentionluxuryitemsincludingracehorses,purpletextiles, andgoldjewelryintheshapeofserpents. ... Forallthepurpledyewehave wonthelpatall, noradazzlingserpent allofgold,norLydiancap,thepride oftenderglancinggirls, noreventhelocksofNanno, norgodlikeAreta, norThylakis,norKleesithera, 136 andnolongercomingtoAinesimbrotashousewillyousay: ifonlyAstaphisweremine, orPhilyllawouldlookmyway, orDemareta,orlovelyVianthemis butHagesichorawearsmeoutwithdesire.

(fr.1.6578Alcman;BingandCohen1991) Spartanprosperity,however,restedoninsecurefoundations.Intheimmediate aftermathoftheFirstMessenianWar,thoughcivilunrestwasprobablyaserious probleminthelateeighthandearlyseventhcenturies,civilwaroverthedivisionof theconqueredterritorywasavoidedbyexilingthedissidents,whofoundedSpartas onlycolony,Taras.ThegrowingdesperationoftheMessenianswasamoreserious threat.Greekpoliticaltheoristsconsidereditamistaketoenslavepeopleintheirown hometerritory,especiallywhentheenslavedsignificantlyoutnumberedtheir masters,astheMesseniansdidtheSpartans.Notsurprisingly,theMessenians rebelledinthewakeofamajorSpartanmilitarydefeatbytheArgivesattheBattleof Hysiaeintheearly660sBC. AsistrueoftheFirstMessenianWar,littleisknownofthedetailsoftheSecond MessenianWar.ThepoemsTyrtaeuswrotecelebratingSpartancourageinthewar becameSpartasclassics: Hereisamanwhoproveshimselftobevaliantinwar. Withasuddenrushheturnstoflighttheruggedbattalions oftheenemy,andsustainsthebeatingwavesofassault. Andhewhosofallsamongthechampionsandloseshissweetlife, soblessingwithhonorhiscity,hisfather,andallhispeople, withwoundsinhischest,wherethespearthathewasfacinghas transfixed thatmassiveguardofhisshield,andgonethroughhisbreastplate aswell, why,suchamanislamentedalikebytheyoungandtheelders, andallhiscitygoesintomourningandgrievesforhisloss. (Tyrtaeusfr.9Diehl;Lattimore1960) IntheendSpartaprevailed,andthesurvivingMessenianrebelswereexiledtoSicily. TheretheyeventuallygainedcontrolofthecityofZancle,whichtheyrenamed Messene.AsfortherestoftheMessenians,theyhadnochoicebuttoresign themselvestotherigorsoftheirformerhelotstatus. TheSecondMessenianWarhadbeenaterrifyingrevelationofthepotentialrisksof thehelotsystem,andthepossibilityofarepetitionhauntedtheimaginationsof Spartansandtheirenemies.Onecertainwayofavoidingsuchacatastrophe, abandoningMessenia,wasunthinkable.Consequently,theSpartanswereforcedto findanotherwaytopreservetheirdominationovertheirhelotsandtheprosperityit brought.Thesolutiontheyfoundwasdrastic,anditsimplementationgradually transformedSpartaandeventuallycreatedtheuniqueregimentedsocietyknownto usfromtheClassicalsources.Simplystated,the

137 Spartansrealizedthatifallpotentialhoplitescouldbemobilizedandtrainedtothe highestdegreeofskillpossible,Spartawouldenjoyanoverwhelmingmilitary advantageoveritshelotsandotherenemies.ThereforetheSpartansreformedtheir institutionswithaviewtowardachievingtwogoals:freeingmalecitizensofthefive villagesthatconstitutedthepolisofSpartafromallbutmilitaryobligations,and socializingthemtoaccepttheextraordinaryregimentationanddisciplinerequiredof aSpartansoldier.UntilthefourthcenturyandtheHellenisticperiod,theSpartans weretheonlyrealprofessionalsoldiers.Ineffecttheywagedaperpetualwaragainst thehelotsandwereconsequentlyalwayspreparedtoengageinotheractsof aggressionwhennecessary. THESPARTANSYSTEM LittleisknownabouttheactualdevelopmentoftheSpartansystem.Greekhistorians followedSpartantraditionandascribeditscreationtoLycurgus,ashadowyfigure whomayormaynotreallyhavelived.ThucydidesdatesLycurgusreformstothe endoftheninthcenturyBC;otherGreekhistoriansplacehimasearlyasthetenth.In thatcase,hewouldhavelivedbeforetheconquestofMesseniaandhisreformscould nothavebeenanattempttodealwiththeproblemsthataroseintheeighthand seventhcenturies.Scholarstodayareagreedthatmanyoftheinstitutionswhose creationGreekscreditedtoLycurgus,suchasmensdininggroups,organizationof thepopulationbyagecohorts,andtheuseofironmoney,had,infact,onceexistedin otherGreekcommunities.TheysurvivedatSpartabecausetheirplaceinSpartanlife hadbeenredefinedtoaidintheproductionoftheidealSpartanhoplite. Howeverthisevolutionoccurred,theevidenceindicatesthatthemainfeaturesofthe SpartansystemwereinplacebytheendoftheseventhortheearlysixthcenturyBC. AccordingtoPlutarch,Lycurgusfoundthemodelformanyofthesefeatureswhen hevisitedCrete.TheGreatRhetra(Statement),saidtohavebeengiventoLycurgus bytheDelphicoracle,wasinexistenceearlyintheArchaicperiod,perhapsbythe eighthorthebeginningoftheseventhcentury.ThisRhetraatleastaspreservedin Plutarchdealsonlywithmilitaryandpoliticalissues,suchasthemeetingsand sovereigntyofthecitizensassembly.TheRhetraincludesthefollowingprovisions: AfterdedicatingatempletoZeus...andAthenaformingphylai[tribes]andcreating obai[divisionsrelatingtothedistinctionbetweenthefivevillages],andinstitutinga Gerousiaofthirtyincludingthekings,thenholdanApellafromtimetotime.Thus bringinandsetaside[proposals].Thepeoplearetohavetherighttorespond,and power....Butifthepeoplespeakcrookedly,theeldersandkingsaretobesetters aside.

TheSpartanregimemaybecalledtotalitarian,forittouchedonalmosteveryaspect oflife,includingthoseweinmodernwesternsocietyconsiderprivate:how 138 towearourhair,thechoiceofwhetherandwhentomarry,theconditionsof conjugalintercourse,andthedecisionwhethertorearachild. TheEducationandUpbringingofBoys AsthepoetryofTyrtaeusmadePlain,theSpartanidealforamanwastobeskilled andcourageousinbattle,neithertorunawaynorsurrenderbuttostandhisground andgiveuphislifeforhiscity.Trainingwasdesignedtoproducemenwho conformedtothispatternalone.TheSpartanwasliableformilitaryservicetotheage of60andneededtostayfit;henceheneverwastrainedforanyotherprofessionor wayoflife.Theeducationalsystem,likemuchelsethatwasuniquetoSparta, receivedlegitimacyfromtheinsistencethatitwascreatedbyLycurgus. Theprocessofcreatinginvinciblewarriorsbeganatbirth,forthestatetookupon itselftherighttodetermineanewbabysviability.WhereasotherGreekpoleisleft thechoicetothefather,atSpartaofficialsappointedbythegovernmentexamined thenewborns.Thevitalityofmaleinfantsandtheirpotentialassoldiersdetermined whethertheywouldberaised,orabandonedinaplacenearMountTaygetus designatedforthatpurpose.(Femalebabies,apparently,werenotsubjectedto officialscrutiny,fortheirphysicalprowessdidnotdirectlyaffecttheoutcomeof battles.)Fathersdidnotdecidehowtoraisetheirsons.Rather,allboysreceivedthe sameeducationunderstatesupervision.EducationinSparta,aselsewhere,was organizedbyagegroups:children,boys,youths(ephebes),youngmen,andadults. Fromtheageof7,boyslefthometobetrainedingroupscalledherdsaccordingto principlesdesignedtoencourageconformity,obedience,groupsolidarity,and militaryskills. Theemphasisintheboyseducationwasnotonreading,writing,andtheliberalarts, butratheronpracticingtoendurehardshipsandtofendforthemselvesaswouldbe necessarywhentheybecamehoplitesoldiers.Totoughentheirfeet,theywent barefoot,andtheyoftenwentnakedaswell.Whentheywere12,theirhairwascut short.Theyneverworeatunicandwereeachallocatedonlyonecloakyearlytowear inallkindsofweather.UnliketherestoftheGreeks,whomadewaronlyinthe summer,theSpartanswereperpetuallyatwarwiththehelotsandthereforeneeded tobepreparedtofightyearround.Magistratescalledephors(overseers)inspected theboysdailyandexaminedtheminthenudeeverytendays.Theboyssleptin groupsonroughmatsthattheyhadmadethemselves.Todevelopcunningandself reliance,theywereencouragedtosupplementtheirfoodrationsbystealing. Whippingawaitedanyonewhorevealedhislackofskillbygettingcaught.

TheharshtougheningprocesswasrituallyenactedatthealtarofArtemisOrthia everyyear.Onegroupofyouthswouldtrytostealcheeseofftheoutdooraltarwhich wasdefendedbyagroupofolderyouthswithwhips;bloodwassupposedto splatteronthealtar.Itisasadironyofhistorythatwhatbeganasasolemntestof manliness,witnessedonlybythegoddessandthecommunity,attractedtouristsin Romantimes.TheshowwassopopularthatinthethirdcenturyADastonetheater wasbuiltinthesacredprecinct.Sightseerscouldviewthe 139 spectacleofSpartanyouthsexhibitingtheirlegendaryenduranceofpainwithout flinchingorcryingoutastheywerebrutallyflogged,sometimestodeath,infrontof thealtar,eggedonbythepriestessofArtemisholdingastatueofthegoddess.Inold Sparta,competitionwasalsoencouragedintheformofathleticcontestsandother publicdisplaysofprowess,butaspiritofcooperationwasconsideredessentialas well,anditwasinstilledbyforminggroupsofboysandcreatingrivalriesbetween them. Thesegroupactivitiesservedtoidentifythemosttalentedamongtheyouthsandto preparethemtobecomeleadersinthearmy.Fromtheagesof14to20theephebes performedtheirpreliminarymilitaryservice.At20theygrewtheirhairlong(unlike meninotherpartsoftheGreekworld)andshavedthemselvesinthedistinctive Spartanstylealongbeardandnomoustache.Betweenages20and30theywere permittedtomarrybuthadtocontinuetolivewiththeirarmygroupsuntiltheage of30. Acceptanceintoasyssition(dininggroup,messes)wasanessentialstagein reachingadulthood.TheSpartanmanatehismealswithaboutfifteenmembersof hisarmygroup,anexperiencethatfosteredtheloyalty,solidarity,and cooperativenessessentialtosuccessfulhoplitewarfare.Eachmemberofthesyssition wasobligedtocontributeafixedquantityoffoodanddrink,butthewealthier soldierscouldsupplementthemenubyprovidingsuchitemsasbettergrainthan wasrequired,ormeatfromanimalstheyhadhuntedorsacrificed.TheSpartanideal ofausteritydictatedthatthecuisinebenutritiousandservedinportionsthatwere adequatebuthardlygenerous.Insomecases,smallportionsmayhavebeena blessing.Thestapleofthecommonmessappearstohavebeenadishknownasblack broth.Composedofporkcookedinbloodandseasonedwithvinegarandsalt,black brothwasapparentlyanacquiredtaste,andthefewforeignerswhomadetheirway toSpartawererepelledbyit. Figure4.2.LaconianRider.Cupdepictingrideronhorseback,waterbirds,anda wingeddemonorfigureofVictory.

140 Thesyssitia(plural)wereinsomewaysanalogoustothesymposia(drinkingparties) enjoyedbyGreekselsewhere,butthefactthattheSpartanwaspurposelyschooledto drinkinmoderationpointstoanimportantdifference.ThoughGreeksusuallymixed theirwinewithwater,helotswerebroughtinandforcedtoconsumeundilutedwine andtoperformvulgarandridiculoussongsanddances.YoungSpartans,whowere invitedtothesyssitiaaspartoftheireducation,wereencouragedtolaughatthe spectacleofthedrunkenhelots.Thelessonwasadoubleone:fromthisexperience youthswereexpectedtolearnbothtobewaryofdrinkingtoexcessforinebriation couldleadtodeathinconditionsofperpetualwarfareandtoviewthehelotsas patheticcreatures,patentlyinferiortotheSpartansoldiery.Inthiswaytheolder Spartansreinforcedtheyoungintheirsenseofayawninggulfbetweenthemselves andthehelots,andheadedoffanyqualmsabouttreatinghelotsassubhuman. Inevitably,thesuccessrateinforgingsoldiersaccordingtotheprescribedmoldwas lessthan100percent.Thoughtheharshtreatmentofthoseperceivedascowards discouragedfailure,thesystemdidnotworkoneveryone,andsomeboysfailedto developasexpected.Sincemartialvalorofferedthesolepathtothehonorand respectofonespeers,lifewaswretchedforboyswhowereunabletocopewiththe rigorsofmilitarylife.Whencowardswereidentifiedtheywerestigmatizedand calledtremblers.Theirridiculousappearanceannouncedtheirdisgrace:theywere obligedtowearcloakswithcoloredpatchesandtoshaveonlyhalftheirbeards. Mockedandhumiliatedinpublic,theyweredespisedevenbytheirownkinsmen, whomtheywerebelievedtohavedishonored.Theycouldnotholdpublicoffice,nor wasitlikelythatawomanwouldbegiventotheminmarriageorthatanyonewould marrytheirsisters. BecomingaSpartanWoman Spartasmilitaryethoshadimplicationsforfemalesaswellasmales.Justasboys werebroughtuptobecomebravefighters,girlswereraisedtobearstalwartsoldiers tobe.SpartansweretheonlyGreekwomenwhoseupbringingwasprescribedbythe stateandwhowereeducatedatstateexpense.UnlikeotherGreekfemales,who spentmostoftheirtimeindoorsandwereregularlygivenlessfoodthanmen, Spartanfemalesexercisedoutsideandwerewellnourished.Childbearingwastheir onlysocialobligation.Though,likeallGreekwomen,theydidknowhowtoweave, likeSpartanmentheywerefreefromtheobligationtoengageinanyformof domesticormoneymakinglabor. SpecificlinesofdevelopmentwereprescribedforSpartangirlsmuchastheywere forboys.Theeducationalsystemforgirlswasalsoorganizedaccordingtoage classes.Weareawareoffewerstagesthanmarkedthecorrespondingsystemwe

havedescribedforboys;perhapstherereallywerefeweror,asisusuallythecasein thestudyofancienthistory,perhapswesimplyhavelessinformationaboutfemale activities.Girlsweredividedintothecategoriesofchildren,young 141 Figure4.3.BronzestatuetteofaseminudeSpartangirlrunning,wearingaracing dress(c.500BC). girls,maidenswhohadreachedpuberty,andmarriedwomen.Hairstyles distinguishedmaidensfromthenewlymarriedwomen,forthelatter(unlikeadult womeninotherpartsoftheGreekworld)woretheirhairshort.Aswithsomuchelse intheirwayoflife,SpartansascribedthecustomaryupbringingofSpartangirlsto Lycurgus: Document4.1ExcerptfromPlutarchsLifeofLygurgusPlutarchsadmirationfor Spartaisrevealedinhisaccountoftheinstitutionstraditionallyassociatedwith Lycurgus. Firsthetoughenedthegirlsphysicallybymakingthemrunandwrestleandthrow thediscusandjavelin.Therebytheirchildreninembryowouldmakeastrongstartin strongbodiesandwoulddevelopbetter,whilethewomenthemselveswouldalso beartheirpregnancieswithvigorandwouldmeetthechallengeofchildbirthina successful,relaxedway.Hedidawaywithprudery,shelteredupbringing,and effeminacyofanykind.Hemadeyounggirlsnolessthanyoungmengrowusedto walkingnudeinprocessions,aswellastodancingandsingingatcertainfestivals withtheyoungmenpresentandlookingon.Onsomeoccasionsthegirlswould makefunofeachoftheyoungmen,helpfullycriticizingtheirmistakes.Onother occasionstheywouldrehearseinsongthepraiseswhichtheyhadcomposedabout thosemeritingthem,sothattheyfilledtheyoungsterswithagreatsenseofambition andrivalry.... 142 Therewasnothingdisreputableaboutthegirlsnudity.Itwasaltogethermodest,and therewasnohintofimmorality.Insteaditencouragedsimplehabitsandan enthusiasmforphysicalfitness,aswellasgivingthefemalesexatasteofmasculine gallantry,sinceittoowasgrantedequalparticipationinbothexcellenceand ambition.Asaresultthewomencametotalkaswellastothinkinthewaythat LeonidaswifeGorgoissaidtohavedone.Forwhensomewoman,evidentlya foreigner,saidtoherYouLaconianwomenaretheonlyoneswhocanrulemen, sherepliedThatisbecausewearetheonlyoneswhogivebirthtomen.

1415;translatedbyR.TalbertPlutarchonSparta.NewYork:Penguin,1988,pp.2426. Asisthecaseinmanywarlikesocieties,theperpetualabsenceofmenonmilitary dutycreatedadivisionoflaborinwhichwomenmanageddomesticaffairs.Aristotle, writinginthefourthcenturyBCandconsideringsomefourhundredyearsof Spartanhistory,complainedthatforthisreasonSpartanwomenenjoyedaltogether toomuchfreedom,power,andprestige.TheconstitutionofLycurgus,hebelieved, wasflawedfromthestartbecauseonlymenconformedtoit,whilewomenescaped itsregulations.HewasconvincedthatSpartanwomenindulgedineverykindof luxuryandintemperance,promotinggreedandanattendantdegenerationofthe Spartanidealofequalityamongmalecitizens.HealsomaintainedthattheSpartans freedomtobequeaththeirlandastheywishedandthesizeofdowriesledtotwo fifthsofthelandinhisowntimehavingfallenintothehandsofwomen;thetruthof thisstatisticisimpossibletodetermine.YetitdoesseemtobethecasethatSpartan daughtersreceivedasdowriesonehalftheamountoftheirparentspropertythat theirbrothersreceivedasinheritance.(Incontrast,atAthensdaughtersreceived approximatelyonesixththeamountthattheirbrothersinherited.)YetAristotleno doubtexaggerateswhenhecomplainsthatSpartawasruledbywomen,fortheyhad noshareinthegovernment.Clearly,however,theirownershipandcontrolof propertygaveSpartanwomenfarmoreauthoritythantheircounterpartsintherest ofGreece. SinceAristotlesstrongconvictionsabouttheneedformentocontrolwomenplainly playedaroleinshapinghisperceptionsofSpartansociety,itishardtoknowjust whattomakeofhiscomplaints.Itisdifficulttoevaluatethestatusofwomenin antiquity,especiallyinthecaseofSparta.Opinionsvaryaccordingtowhetherone believesthatSpartanwomenenjoyedagoodlifewithinatotalitarian,militaristic state. SexandMarriage AselsewhereinGreece,marriagesinSpartamightormightnotentailaclose emotionalattachmentbetweenhusbandandwife.TheSpartanrequirementthat marriedmencontinuetoliveinbarracksuntiltheageof30meantthatyoung couplesdidnotlivetogethereveninpeacetime. 143 Nevertheless,heterosexualintercourseinmarriagewasessentialtotheproductionof Spartanwarriorcitizens.Sincewomenmarriedatabouttheageof18andmenbefore theageof30,SpartanspouseswerecloserinagethantheircounterpartsatAthens, whereitwascommonfora14yearoldgirltomarrya30yearoldman.Plutarch mentionsthatSpartanmenwerereluctanttomarryandthatthestateprovided

incentivesformarriageandtheproductionofchildren.Anarrayofuniquewedding customsareattributedtotheSpartans,includingmarriagebycapture. Document4.2ExcerptfromPlutarchsLifeofLycurgusIfwearetobelievePlutarch, Spartanmarriagesoftentookonastrikinglyclandestinecharacterthatseemsbizarre bymodernstandardsandthatplainlystrucktheancientsasworthyofcomment. Thecustom,hewrites, wastocapturewomenformarriagenotwhentheywereslightorimmature,but whentheywereintheirprimeandripeforit.Thesocalledbridesmaidtookcharge ofthecapturedgirl.Shefirstshavedherhairtothescalp,thendressedherinamans cloakandsandals,andlaidherdownaloneonamattressinthedark.The bridegroomwhowasnotdrunkandthusnotimpotent,butwassoberasalways firsthaddinnerinthemesses,thenwouldslipin,undoherbelt,liftherandcarryher tothebed.Afterspendingonlyashorttimewithher,hewoulddepartdiscreetlyso astosleepwhereverheusuallydidalongwiththeotheryoungmen.Andthis continuedtobehispracticethereafter:whilespendingthedayswithhis contemporaries,andgoingtosleepwiththem,hewouldwarilyvisithisbridein secret,ashamedandapprehensiveincasesomeoneinthehousemightnoticehim. Hisbrideatthesametimedevisedschemesandhelpedplanhowtheymightmeet eachotherunobservedatsuitablemoments.Itwasnotjustforashortperiodthat youngmenwoulddothis,butforlongenoughthatsomemightevenhavechildren beforetheysawtheirownwivesindaylight.Suchintercoursewasnotonlyan exerciseinselfcontrolandmoderation,butalsomeantthatpartnerswerefertile physically,alwaysfreshforlove,andreadyforintercourseratherthanbeingsated andpalefromunrestrictedsexualactivity.Moreoversomelingeringglowofdesire andaffectionwasalwaysleftinboth.... 1415;translatedbyR.Talbert,PlutarchonSparta.NewYork:Penguin,1988,pp.2426 (adapted). Inadditiontothesecretmarriage,otherreportedcustomsincludetherandom selectionofspousesbycohortsofpotentialbridesandbridegroomsgropinginadark room.Inasystemofaristocraticendogamy(i.e.,marriagewithinthegroup), 144 thehaphazardselectionofspousesisasymptomofequality,foronespouseisas goodasthenext.Sincethesolepurposeofmarriageisreproduction,thesecret,or trial,marriagepermitsthecoupletofindotherspousesiftheirunionprovestobe infertile.Ifthesecustomswereeverpracticed,theyapparentlyhaddiedoutbythe Classicalperiod.TheabsenceofadulteryatSparta,however,continuedtoevoke commentamongnonSpartans.Xenophonalsomentionsacombinationofpractices

thatsatisfiedboththeprivatedesiresofindividualwomenandmenaswellasthe stateseugenicgoalsandinsatiableneedforcitizens: Itmighthappen,however,thatanoldmanhadayoungwife;andhe[i.e.,Lycurgus] observedthatoldmenkeepaveryjealouswatchovertheiryoungwives.Tomeet thesecasesheinstitutedanentirelydifferentsystembyrequiringtheelderly husbandtointroduceintohishousesomemanwhosephysicalandmoralqualities headmired,inordertobegetchildren.Ontheotherhand,incaseamandidnot wanttocohabitwithhiswifeandneverthelessdesiredchildrenofwhomhecouldbe proud,hemadeitlawfulforhimtochooseawomanwhowasthemotherofafine familyandofhighbirth,andifheobtainedherhusbandsconsent,tomakeherthe motherofhischildren. Hegavehissanctiontomanysimilararrangements.Forthewiveswanttotake chargeoftwohouseholds,andthehusbandswanttogetbrothersfortheirsons, brotherswhoaremembersofthefamilyandshareinitsinfluence,butclaimnopart oftheproperty. (Xenophon,SpartanConstitution1.710;Marchant1971,adapted) HomosexualityandPederasty AncientGreekslackedthebinarydivisionmodernsocietytendstoimposebetween peoplewhoareconsideredhomosexualandthosewhoareviewedasheterosexual, andsamesexeroticrelationshipsdidnotprecludetheirparticipantsenteringinto heterosexualmarriages,withwhichthehomosexualrelationshipwouldoftenexist simultaneously.Ancienthomosexualitydiffersfromthemodernversioninseveral respects.Theoriginsofmanysamesexrelationshipslayintheeducationalsystem. Eroticrelationshipsbetweenmembersofthesamesexwereconsideredpotentially educationalforbothwomenandmenaslongastheelementofphysicalattraction wasnotprimary.SinglesexeducationwasthenormintheGreekworld,andolder menandwomenoftenfunctionedasteachersorinformalguidestoyounger membersofsociety.Thedisapprovalthatattachestodaytoromanticconnections betweenteachersandstudentsorbetweenoldandyoungwouldhavepuzzledthe ancientGreeks,whoviewedtheeroticelementintheteacherpupilrelationshipasa constructivebuildingblockintheeducationandupbringingoftheyoung.The attractionofteacherstotheiryouthful,beautifulpupilswasconsideredtohavesocial utility,encouragingtheenamoredteachertoworkhardateducatingthestudent, whointurnwasofferedaninspiringrolemodelinanolder,wiser,more accomplishedsuitor.Thepupilsinquestionweregenerallyinearlyadolescence. Theiragewouldcausethemtodaytobeconsideredchildrenandhenceentirelyunfit fortheeroticattentionofadults,buttheGreekssawthingsdifferently.Thispattern ofsamesexrelation

145 shipswasevidentnotonlyinthecontextofeducationbutinlifeasawhole.How muchphysicalsexualactivityactuallywasinvolvedisunclear,sincemanyGreek intellectualswholeftwrittenrecordsofsocialcustomstendedtobeembarrassed aboutsexandwereeagertostressthecerebralelementinsamesexromantic connections.Xenophon,whilemakingplainthefrequencyofhomosexual relationshipswithaphysicaldimension,insistedthatthiswasnotacceptedinSparta. IthinkIoughttosaysomethingaboutlovingboys,hewrote, sincethisalsohasabearingoneducation.InotherGreekstatesmanandboylive togetherlikemarriedpeople;elsewheretheybecomeintimatewithyouthsbygiving themgifts.Some,ontheotherhand,entirelyforbidsuitorstotalkwithboys.The customsinstitutedbyLycurgusweretheoppositeofallthese.Ifsomeone,being himselfanhonestman,admiredaboyssoulandtriedtomakehimablameless friendandtoassociatewithhim,heapproved,andbelievedintheexcellenceofthis kindofeducation.Butifitwasclearthattheattractionlayintheboysbody,he consideredthismostshameful.Thushecausedloverstoabstainfromsexual intercoursewithboysnolessthanparentsabstainfromtheirchildrenandbrothers fromtheirsisters.Iamnotsurprised,however,thatsomepeoplerefusetobelieve this.Forinmanystatesthelawsdonotopposedesireforboys. (Xenophon,SpartanConstitution2.1213;Marchant1971) Weknowlessaboutthehomoeroticbondsbetweenwomen,butPlutarchinhisLifeof Lycurgusreportedthatsexualrelationshipsofthistypeweresohighlyvaluedthat respectablewomenwouldinfacthaveloveaffairswithunmarriedgirls,andthe eroticelementinthesongsoffemalechoruses(likethepoemofAlcmanquoted above),isnothidden. Formalesandfemalesalike,liaisonswithmembersofthesamesexprovidedmuch ofthecompanionship,sexualpleasure,andsenseofspiritualwellbeingthatmany peopleinmodernWesternsocietynowadaysassociatewithmarriage. Homosexualitywasintegratedintothesystem.Theidealizedmodelofthesamesex relationshipinvolvedanolderpersonandanadolescentandconsequentlywastime limited.Withboysitwasconsideredinappropriatetocontinuetherelationshipafter theteenagersbeardbegantogrow.Nevertheless,somerelationshipsdiddevelop betweencompanionsofthesameageandendurethroughoutlife. DEMOGRAPHYANDTHESPARTANECONOMY BytheirconquestsofLaconiaandMessenia,theSpartanscreatedasituationwhere theyneverconstitutedmorethanasmallfractionperhapsatwentiethofthetotal populationoftheirterritory.Hence,asisoftenthecasewithrulingaristocracies,their

numberswereneverdeemedtobesufficient.Furthermore,unlikeotherGreekstates, attheverystartthelackoftradeandcolonizationlimitedthegrowthofSpartas population,forithadnocoloniestowhichitmightsome 146 timeinthefutureexportapopulationthatcouldnolongerbesupportedathome. XenophobiaalsorestrictedSpartasnumbers.UnliketheAthenians,forexample,at notimedidSpartansmarryforeigners,nordidtheyrecruitlargenumbersofnew citizensofnonSpartanorigin,thoughthedesperationoccasionedbythelongwar withAthensduringthefifthcenturyknownasthePeloponnesianWardidmove themtotakesomeexceptionalmeasures.Inthisemergency,theyallowedsomenon SpartiateboyslivinginSpartatobetrainedforserviceintheSpartanarmy,freed somehelotsformilitaryservice,andappointedperioikoitosomepositionsof command.Someofthesepracticescontinuedaftertheendofthewarandintothe Hellenisticperiodwhenthepopulationproblemwasevenmoreacute. SpartasShrinkingPopulation TheSpartanlifestyleexacerbatedthepopulationdecline.SpartawastheonlyGreek stateinwhichmaleinfanticidewasinstitutionalized.Moreover,manydeathscanbe explainedbytheSpartansoldiersobligationtostandhisgroundandgivehislifefor hiscountry,ratherthansurrenderwhenhissituationwaspatentlyhopeless.This idealwasreinforcedbypeerpressure,epitomizedbystatementsattributedto Spartanwomensuchasthatofthemotherwhotoldhersonasshehandedhimhis shieldtocomehomeeitherwiththisoronthis.(Spartansoldierswhowerenot buriedonthebattlefieldwerecarriedhomeontheirshields.) ThereductioninthenumberofSpartanswasgradual.Inadditiontothehighrateof infantandjuvenilemortalityfoundthroughouttheancientworld,theSpartan problemwasaggravatedbytheirunusualmarriagepractices.Womenmarriedonly severalyearsaftertheybecamefertile;opportunitiesforconjugalintercoursewere limited;husbandswerecontinuouslyabsentatwarorsleepingwiththeirarmy groupswhenwiveswereintheirpeakchildbearingyears;andbothsexesengagedin acertainamountofhomosexual,nonprocreativesex.Asiftheseobstaclesto maintainingthepopulationwerenotsufficient,somewomenalsodeclinedtobear children.Therisksofmaternitywereconsideredequaltothosesoldiersfacedonthe battlefield:aswehavesaid,theonlySpartanswhoearnedthedistinctionofhaving theirnamesinscribedontombstoneswerethosewhohaddiedinchildbirthorin battle.Spartans,likeotherGreekwomen,probablyhadaccesstocontraceptives includingtheuseofherbs,douchesofvinegarorwater,andmechanicalbarriers madeofwadsofwoolsoakedinhoneyoroliveoil.Controloverfertilityisoften indicativeofhighstatusforwomen,andAristotlemayhavebeencorrectin

contendingthatSpartanwomencontrolleddomesticmatters,managinghouseholds thatconstitutedasignificantportionofthefamilysfortune.Spartaspopulation problemwasalsoacceleratedattimesbynaturaldisaster,economicproblems,and theemigrationofmen.TherewereninethousandmaleSpartansintheArchaic period.In479therewereeightthousandmalecitizens,fivethousandofwhom servedatthebattleofPlataea.There,accordingto 147 Herodotus,eachSpartanhoplitewasaccompaniedbysevenhelotswhoservedas lightarmedforcesandperformedthemenialjobs.Thoughthesefiguresareprobably notexact,theydogiveanideaoftheproportionofSpartanstohelotsnthearmy.In 464adevastatingearthquakekilledmanySpartans.Theentirecohortofephebeswas amongthefatalities.Earlyinthefourthcenturyanunknownnumberofmenleft SpartatoserveasmercenariesinAsiaMinor;someneverreturned.In371 approximatelysevenhundredSpartansfoughtagainstThebesatLeuctra,andof thesefourhundredperished.In330AristotlereckonedthenumberofSpartansat onethousand.By244therewerenomorethansevenhundred.ByRomantimesvery fewSpartanswerelefttoperformtheirhoaryritualsandtestsofendurancefor tourists.WehavenoinformationeitherontheabsolutenumberoffemaleSpartansor ontheirnumbersrelativetothenumberofmales. HelotsandtheSpartanSystem TheSpartaneconomicsystemwasdesignedtoenablecitizenstodevotealltheirtime andenergytothedefenseandwelfareofthepolis.Thestatesawtoitthatthey alwayshadeverythingtheyneededasmeasuredbyastandardofausterity,not luxury.Thoughtheperioikoi,whoconductedbusinesswiththerestoftheGreek world,usedsilverandgoldcoins,Spartansthemselveswerepermittedtouseonly ironmoney:thesesmallbarsorspitsmadeofironhadoriginallybeenused throughoutGreecebeforetheinventionofcoinage.TheSpartansusedironuntilthe endofthefifthcentury,whentherewasavastinfluxofgoldandsilveraftertheir victoryinthePeloponnesianWar. Thegoalformenwaseconomicequality,whichwas,inreality,aminimumincome forallthatwouldallowthemtofollowtheSpartanwayoflife.TheSpartansreferred tothemselvesashomoioi(Peers,ormenofequalstatus).Asweshallseebelow, however,economicequalitywasanillusoryideal.WhenMesseniawasconquered, theterritorywasdividedupintoninethousandequalkleroi(Portions).Atbirth, eachboywasallocatedashareofthislandbythestate,andagrouporfamilyof helotscamewiththeland.Theinstitutionofhelotrywasinextricablytiedupwiththe Spartansystem,essentialasitwastoreleasingSpartanmenandwomenfromthe needtoproduceorpurchasetheirownfood.

Theownerofeachkleroswasentitledtoreceiveaspecifiedamountofproduce annuallyfromthehelotswhoworkedit.Thehelotsburdenseemstohavevaried overthecenturies.Tyrtaeusdescribesthemassharecroppers,forcedtogivetheir mastershalftheiryield,butPlutarchmentionsafixedrentof70bushelsofbarleyfor eachSpartanmanand12forhiswife,inadditiontooilandwine.Thoughtheywere notfree,helotswerenotthesameasslaveselsewhereinGreece.Theybelongedto thestate,nottoindividuals.Theylivedinstablefamilygroupsonafarmassignedto them,andcouldnotbesoldabroad.Asidefromtheobligationtoprovidesustenance fortheowneroftheplotofland,toserveasauxiliariesinthearmy,andtomournat thedeathofkingsandmagistrates,thehelotshadnospecificobligationstotheir masters.Theywerepermittedtosellexcesscropsinthemarketandtoaccumulate somemoneyinthatway. 148 Sothattheyshouldneverforgetthattheywereenslaved,thehelotsweresubjectedto anannualbeating.Theywerealsoobligedtowearaprimitiveandhumiliating costumethatidentifiedthemimmediately,includinganimalskinsandaleathercap. Submittingtotheruleofothersbutlivingintheirownterritory,thehelotsdidnot losetheirdesireforfreedom.TheservicetheyperformedintheSpartanarmy, moreover,providedthemwithusefulknowledgeintheirongoingstruggleagainst theirmasters.In464someofthemtookadvantageoftheearthquakethathad devastatedSpartaandstagedarebellionatIthomethatlastedtenyears.In455the Spartansagreedtolettherebelsdepartonconditionthattheyshouldneverreturnto thePeloponnesus.TheAthenianssettledmanyofthematNaupactus,onthe northernsideoftheCorinthianGulf.Finally,in369,Messeniaregainedits independencewiththeaidofThebesandotherBoeotianenemiesofSparta. ThesystemofhelotrydistinguishedSpartasharplyfromotherGreekstates,making ittheonlypoliswithaneconomicsystemtotallydependentupongeographicaland socialdistancebetweenlandownersandworkersontheland.Despitetheprevalence ofslaveryintheGreekworld,nowhereelsewasthelaborofthelowestclassso essentialtosurvival.Inotherstatesinhabitantswerelocatedatmanypointsona slidingscaleofprivilege;inSparta,aclearlineofdemarcationseparatedhavesfrom havenots.AsPlatosrelativeCritiasobserved,nowhereelsewerethefreesofreeor theenslavedsoenslaved.Furthermore,thoughagricultureremainedthebasisofthe domesticeconomythroughouttheGreekworld,othersourcesofgainingalivelihood werecustomarilydeveloped;atSpartaaloneamongmajorstatesagriculture remainedthesolebasisofthecitizenseconomy. TheSpartansystemwasaremarkablysuccessfulexperimentinwhatisnowcalled socialengineering.Tobesure,despitetheideologyofequalityamongcitizensthat wasassociatedwiththeirpolis,disparitiesofwealthdidnotdisappear.Many

Spartanshadonlytheirklerostosupportthem,whereasrichSpartanswhoowned additionallandcouldafford,forexample,toenterchariotsintheOlympicgames. ExceptforthemembersoftheroyalfamilyandthetinygroupelectedtotheCouncil ofElders,however,theroleplayedbydifferentialwealthindeterminingstatusand powerwasfarsmallerinSpartathaninotherGreekpoleis.TheSpartanscalled themselvestheMenofEqualStatusforgoodreason.Richorpoor,theyallhad survivedthesamejudgmentatbirth,theyhadenduredthesametraining,andthey worethesameuniformandfoughtsidebysidewiththesameweaponsinthe phalanx. SPARTANGOVERNMENT LikeSpartassocialandeducationalsystem,itsgovernmentwasmuchadmiredby contemporaries.Itconsistedofmonarchical,oligarchical,anddemocraticelements: theseconstitutedthekindofsystempoliticaltheoristslikeAristotlecalledamixed constitution.Spartanconservatismmadeforareluctancetoabandontraditional institutionslikethemonarchyandthecouncilofelderswhenother 149 Greekpoleishadabolishedtheseinstitutionsandhaddecreasedtheimportanceof hereditarypoweringovernment.AslateronintheRomanrepublic,thevarious organsofgovernmentandsharedofficesweredesignedtoserveaschecksand balancestooneanother,minimizingthedangerthatthegovernmentwouldtaketoo rapid,radicalaction. DualKingship Theexecutiveofficewasdilutedbydividingitbetweentwomen.Twokings(basileis) servedastheheadofgovernment.Oneeachwasdrawnfromtheprominentfamilies oftheAgiadsandtheEurypontids.Thissystemprobablyreflectsanefforttoresolve thetensionsthatarosewhenthevillagesunitedtoformthetownofSparta;perhaps thesekingshadoriginallybeenchiefsofthetwomostpowerfulvillages.The successionwashereditaryandusuallypassedtotheoldestsonbornafterthekings accession.Whenakingsmarriagehadnotproducedason,thekingwasurgedto takeasecondwifetohelpensurethecontinuityofthemaleline.Despitethese exceptions,anddespitethereportaboutwifesharingforreproductivepurposes,the Spartans,likeotherGreeks,weremonogamous.Nowherewasthevalueofthe Spartandualideologyofcompetitionandcooperationmoreapparentthaninthe kingship.Thetwokings,whowerebothcooperativeandcompetitivewithone another,andwhowereequalinauthority,servedasamutualcheckonthepowerof themonarchy.Sparta,moreover,wasneverwithoutaleader,andthusavoidedwhat theGreekscalledanarchy(absenceofleadershiporofgovernment).

LiketheDarkAgebasileis,theSpartankingsexercisedmilitary,religious,and judicialpowers;inmanywaystheirmannerofruleresembledthatoftheHomeric chiefs.Onekingservedascommanderinchiefofthearmedforces,whiletheother superviseddomesticmattersathomeandbecameinchargeifhiscokingwaskilled inaction.(ThisdivisionoflaborcameaboutwhenhistorytaughttheSpartansthe harshlessonthatitwasriskytosendtwokingsoutincommandofasingle campaign.Herodotustellsofthecrisisthataroseshortlybefore500BC.,whenKing DemaratuschangedhismindaboutattackingtheAtheniansandabandonedhisco kingCleomenesjustasbattlewasabouttobejoined.ForthisreasontheSpartans passedthelawmandatingthatonekingremaininSpartawhilehiscolleaguewas awayoncampaign.)Thekingswerenotmerefigureheadsbutwereimportant leaderswhocontributedtothemilitaryeffectivenessofthecountry.Considered descendantsofZeusthroughhissonHeracles,thekingsfunctionedasthechief priestsandconductedallthepublicsacrificesinbehalfofSparta.Their interpretationsofthesacrificialomensinfluencedtheirdecisionsinmilitarymatters. Theroyalcompensationforfulfillingtheofficeofpriestincludedasupplyofanimals forabimonthlysacrificetoApolloandconsequentlythespecialfavorofthegod.The kingsweregiventheskinsofanimalsthatweresacrificed,anddoubleportionsofthe meatthatwasdistributed.Theydidnotconsumetheextrameatthemselves,but gaveitawayasgifts,apracticethatreflectsthecommonGreekaristocraticsystemof 150 demonstratingandconsolidatingonespowerbyshowingsignsofgenerosity.They werealsoexpectedtoserveasmoralexemplars.Thus,thecourageandselfsacrificeof KingLeonidasandhistroops,whoobeyedthecommandoftheSpartanstofightat Thermopylaein480BCagainstalloddsinthewaragainstthePersians,became legendaryandenhancedtheimageoftheinvincibleSpartans,althoughmanyother Greeksfoughtbravelyatthesamebattle. Gerousia Thekingssharedtheirjudicialfunctionswiththeothermembersofthegerousia,the CouncilofGerontes(Elders).Inadditiontothetwokings,thegerousiawas composedoftwentyeightmenovertheageof60whoservedfortherestoftheir lives.Sixtywasalsotheageatwhichmilitaryserviceterminated.Thoughallmale citizenswereeligible,gerousiamemberswereusuallywealthy,influentialmen. Consequently,thegerousiaconstitutedanaristocratic,oligarchiccomponent. ElectiontothegerousiawasthehighesthonortowhichaSpartancouldaspire. Candidatesappearedinanorderdeterminedbylot.Thewinnerswerechosenby acclamationintheassembly.Thosewhoreceivedtheloudestshoutswereconsidered elected,aprocedureAristotlelatercriticizedaschildish.Thegerousiapossessedthe crucialrightoflegislativeinitiative:nobillcouldbebroughtbeforetheassembly

untilithadfirstbeendiscussedbythegerousia,andthegerousiacoulddeclineto acceptadecisionoftheassemblybysummarilydeclaringanadjournment.Italso servedasacriminalcourtforcasesofhomicide,treason,andotherseriousoffenses thatcarriedthepenaltyofdisenfranchisement,exile,ordeath. Ephors EveryyeartheSpartanselectedfiveephorsbyacclamationfromcandidatesoverthe ageof30.Theephors(overseers)supervisedthekingsandrepresentedthe principleoflaw,precioustotheSpartansasitwastomanyGreeks.SinceSpartan lawswereunwritten,itwasparticularlyusefultohaveofficialswhoserolewasto serveasjudicialwatchdogs.Whentheofficeofephorcameintobeingisunclear:itis notmentionedintheGreatRhetra. Theephorstookamonthlyoathtoupholdtheofficeofthekingsaslongasthey behavedinaccordancewiththelaws,andtheysharedsomeofthekingsexecutive powers;buttheywerealsoempoweredtoimpeachkingsanddeposethem.Ephors monitoredthekingsinSparta,andtwoofthemalwaysaccompaniedakingwhowas oncampaign.Theephorspresidedoverthegerousiaandassembly,anddealtwith foreignembassies.Theyalsoexercisedjudicialpowersincivicmattersandincases involvingperioikoi. Oneephorwasalwayseponymous,thatis,hisnamewasusedatSpartatosignify theyear.Forexample,Thucydidesdatesatreatyof421asfollows:Thetreatyis effectivefromthe27thdayofthemonthofArtemisiumatSparta,whenPleistolasis anephor;andatAthensfromthe25thdayofthemonthofElaphe 151 bolium,whenAlcaeusisanarchon(519).Asacheckontheephorspower,they servedforonlyoneyear,couldnotbereelected,andweresubjecttoanauditbytheir successors.Thus,theywerebothademocraticandanoligarchicconstituentof government. Theephorsexercisedtotalcontrolovertheeducationoftheyoungandenforcedthe irondisciplineofSparta.Theywereinchargeofthekrypteia(secretpolice),aforce recruitedfromtheyounganddesignedtocontrolthehelots.Thisfeatureof governmentwasuniquetoSpartaamongGreekcities,thoughthePersianempire alsohadanelaboratespysystem.Someofthemosttalentedyoungmenweresent outforayeartospyonthehelotsandwereencouragedtokillanyhelotsthey caught,especiallythebestofthemwhomightbemostpronetorebel.Theephors declaredwaragainstthehelotsannually,thusmakingitpossiblefortheSpartansto killthemwithoutincurringthereligiouspollutionthatusuallyaccompaniedactsof

homicide.Plutarchgivesavividpictureofthedoingsofthekrypteia.The magistrates,hewrote, woulddespatchintothecountrysideindifferentdirectionstheoneswhoappearedto beparticularlyintelligent;theywereequippedwithdaggersandbattlerations,but nothingelse.Bydaytheywoulddispersetoobscurespotsinordertohideandrest. Atnighttheymadetheirwaytoroadsandmurderedanyhelotwhomtheycaught. Frequently,too,theymadetheirwaythroughthefields,killingthehelotswhostood outfortheirphysiqueandstrength. (Plutarch,Lycurgus28;Talbert1988) Assembly Intermsofitsmembership,theassemblywasthemostdemocraticorganofSpartan government,foritincludedallmalecitizensovertheageof30.Itmetonceamonth atfullmoon,outdoors.UnliketheassemblythatevolvedatAthens,however,the Spartanassemblydidnotdebate;citizenslistenedtoaproposalmadebythe gerousiaandsimplyvotedtoacceptorrejectit,withoutdiscussion.TheSpartanwas trainedtoobeyhissuperiorsandtoconform,nottotakesidesinpublicdebate. Lycurguswassaidtohaveoutlawedrhetoricteachers.Thisethosgaverisetothe Englishwordlaconic(derivedfromLaconia),whichisusedtodescribeaspare styleofspeechorsomeonewhotalksverylittle. TheMixedConstitutionofAncientSparta Sinceantiquity,manypoliticaltheoristshaveadmiredSpartasgovernment, believingittoconfirmthebasicprinciplethatthebestguaranteeofstabilityliesina blendofmonarchic,oligarchic,anddemocraticelements.CertainlySpartahadkings, andthestrongideologyofeconomicequalityamongmalecitizensfosteredan egalitarianspirit.Inreality,however,theoligarchicelementconsiderably outweighedtheothertwo.Powerlaypredominantlywiththegerousia.Astimewent by,moreover,thefiveephorsalsogainedincreasingpoweroverthekings 152 andfrequentlytooktheleadinframingforeignpolicy.Evenifwediscountthe95 percentorsoofdisfranchisedresidentsofLaconiaperioikoi,helots,andSpartan womenthetruthisthatevenwithinthesubgroupofmalecitizens,participationin governmentwaslimitedtoaverysmallgroupofmen,mostofthemrich. SPARTAANDGREECE

Inthesixthcentury,SpartarepeatedlybecameinvolvedinthepoliticsofotherGreek states,ofteninordertosuppresstyrannies.Philosophically,thishostilityoriginated inanaversiontoanygovernmentthatwasinnovativeandextraconstitutional. Tyrants,moreover,weregenerallysupportedbythepoor,andinreturnforthis supporttheyexpandedthenonagriculturaleconomiesofcitiesandadornedthem withpublicworks.Thispowerstructureandurbanstyleoflivingweretheprecise inverseoftheSpartanethos,anditwasunderstandablethattheSpartans,whonever developedanurbancenter,shouldlookforalliesinotherstatesamongmenwho werelandedaristocratslikethemselves.Fromtimetotime,ofcourse,selfinterest overrodeprinciple:notlongafterhelpingtheAtheniansexpeltheirtyrantHippiasin 510BC,theSpartanstriedunsuccessfullytosetupanotherpolitician,Isagoras,as headofanoligarchywhowouldbefriendlytothem.(Itwasatthisjuncturethat DemaratusabandonedCleomenes.) ThePeloponnesianLeague UntiltheRomanconquestofGreece,Spartaitselfwasneversubjecttotheongoing ruleofnonSpartans.Intheseventhcentury,Spartatriedtoexpandnorthward againstArcadiaandArgos,withvaryingresults.AfterthedefeatofArgosin546BC, SpartahadbecomethemostpowerfulstatenotonlyinthePeloponnesus,butinall Greece.WithPeloponnesianstatesotherthanMessenia,Spartaadoptedapolicyof alliance,ratherthanconquest.Spartahadgraduallyassumedapositionof leadership.SpartasfirstimportantallywasnearbyElis;thisalliancehadbeengained inreturnforsupportingElissbidtogaincontroloftheinfluentialandlucrative Olympicgamesaround570.Eventually,around510500Spartaanditsallies,or thePeloponnesianLeagueashistorianstodaycalltheSpartanalliance,was organized.TheLeagueincludedallthestatesinthePeloponnesusexceptArgosand Achaea,aswellaskeypoleisthatlayoutsidethePeloponnesus,suchasThebes.One ofthefirstunitedactionsoftheLeaguewasitsdefeatofArgosattheBattleofSepea in494.BecauseSpartadependedonitshoplites,themembershipofcitieslike Corinth,Aegina,andSicyon,whichhadfleets,wasofparticularvaluetoitsdefense. SuchanallianceprotectedSpartaagainstforeigninvaderswhonotonlyposeda threattoSpartaitselfbutmightalsofomentrebellionamongstthehelots.The purposeoftheLeaguewasmutualprotection.Eachstatepledgedtocontributeforces incaseofwarandsworeanoathtohavethesamefriendsandenemies,andto followtheSpartanswherever 153 theylead.TheLeaguewasnotanempire,butanalliance;notributewaspaidexcept inwartime.Furthermore,SpartadidnotdictatethepolicyoftheLeague,and,for example,couldnotforcetheLeaguetogotowariftheallieswereopposedtoit.

ThegovernmentoftheLeaguewasbicameral,consistingoftheassemblyofSpartans andthecongressofalliesinwhicheachstatehadonevote.OnlySpartacould conveneameetingoftheLeagueandonlySpartansservedascommandersofits armedforces.Spartasownreputationfordistinctioninmilitarymatters,alongwith theexistenceoftheLeaguethemostpowerfulmilitaryallianceintheGreekworld intheearlyfifthcenturymadeSpartathenaturalleaderoftheGreeksintheirwar againstthePersians.Foreigners,includingLydians,Scythians,andGreeksinIonia soughttheSpartansasalliesintheirstrugglesagainstthePersians.TheLeague remainedinexistenceuntilthe360s,whenCorinthandothermemberstateswere obligedtoquititafterSpartasdefeatbyThebes. LeaguememberswereboundbytreatyonlytoSparta,andtheyhadnobondswith oneanother.Althoughtheymightrisetotheoccasionandbandtogetherformutual defenseinacrisis,aswasthecasewhenPersiainvadedGreeceshortlyafter500BC, ingeneralGreekstateshaddifficultydevelopingreallywarmties.Thestatesinthe PeloponnesianLeague,consequently,werenotespeciallyconcernedaboutone anotherswellbeing;theSpartanswantedassistanceintheeventofahelotuprising andbackingintheirongoingquarrelwithArgos,andtheotherstateswereinterested intheguaranteeofprotectionbySparta.JusthowmuchpowerLeaguemembers otherthanSpartareallyenjoyeddependedlargelyonhowmuchSpartaneeded them.ThusforexampleCorinthwasacherishedallybecauseofitsfleet,and CorinthianrageatAthenswouldplayalargeroleintheLeaguesfatefuldecisionto declarewaronAthensin432BC. HISTORICALCHANGEINSPARTA SincetherearenowitnessestothefulloperationoftheSpartancommunityas describedbyPlutarch,andXenophonstatesthatthelawsofLycurguswereno longerenforcedinhisowntime,wemustadmitthepossibilitythatsomefeaturesof theLycurganlegislationwereobservedonlybriefly,orpartially,ornotatall.There aretwentiethcenturyparallelsforthefailureofsimilartotalitariandystopiasor utopias.OnereasonitisdifficulttotracehistoricaldevelopmentinSpartaisthe Greeksessentiallynegativeviewofchange.ManyGreekssharedtheSpartandislike ofchangeandassociateditnotwithprogressbutwithdecline.Consequently,much ofwhathascomedowntousaboutchangesinSpartansocietyconsistsoflaments aboutthefallingofffromthevirtuousdaysofLycurgus,alternatingwiththe insistencethatSpartaremainedunchangedforcenturies.Naturally,thissortof evidenceishighlysuspect.Modernhistoriansfollowthegeneralmodeltracedby AristotleofdrasticchangeovertimeinSpartansociety,datingthenormalization, orlossofdistinctiveness,tothelaterfifthcentury.Suchachangemaybeobservedin thepublicbehaviorofmaleSpartiates,butit 154

isnotatallclearthatwomensliveshadbeenfundamentallyaltered,for,asAristotle pointedout,womenhadnevercompletelysubmittedtotheLycurgansystem. Somechange,however,isplainlydiscernible.Oneareainwhichdevelopmentis apparentisthatoflandtenure.Landwasthemostvaluablecommodityinthe ancientworld.Twosystemsoflandtenure,apubliconeandaprivateone,existedin Sparta.Whenamandied,hisklerosrevertedtothestateandthenwasallocatedto anotherSpartanbaby,whowasnotnecessarilyrelatedtothepreviousowner.Atthe endofthefifthcenturyorearlyinthefourth,acertainEpitadeusmadeaproposalto abolishtheLycurgansystemregulatingpublicproperty.Thenceforthamancould givehisklerosandhishousetoanyonehewished,orbequeaththembytestament. Thischangeunderminedtheidealofeconomicequalityandeventuallyledtothe concentrationofgreatwealthinthehandsofaminority.Thisshiftcreatedan impoverishedunderclasswhofailedtomeettheeconomicrequirementsforfull citizenship,fortheycouldnotmakethenecessarycontributiontoasyssition.They werenolongerMenofEqualStatusbutknownasInferiors. BytheClassicalperiod(ifnotearlier),inadditiontothelanddesignatedfor distributionaskleroi,somelandwasheldasprivateproperty.Thoughwomenhad probablybeenexcludedfromthedistributionofkleroi,theyownedalargerportion oftheprivatelandthanwomeninanyotherGreekcity.Landcameintowomens possessionasdowryandinheritance.Itseemslikelythatbeforethefreebequestof landwasintroduced,daughtersautomaticallyinheritedhalfasmuchassons.Some families,ofcourse,haddaughtersbutnosons.Spartawasalwaysplaguedbyalack ofmen,formenwerecontinuallylostinbattle,leftSpartaformercenaryservice,or failedtomeetthecensusrequirementsforfullcitizenship.Moreover,thoughmale infanticidewassystematicallypracticed,itseemsunlikelythatfemalebabieswere eliminatedinthisway.Plutarch,whosuppliesdetailsabouttheofficialelimination ofmaleinfants,saysnothingaboutgirls,thoughhisinterestintherearingofgirlsis noteworthy.Ifthisdeductioniscorrect,thenthesefactorsprobablycreateda substantialimbalanceinthesexratio.Awomancouldinheritallherfathersland, andmanywomenbecameextremelywealthybythismeans.ThusAristotles statementthatinhisdaywomenownedtwofifthsofthelandofSpartaiscredible. THESPARTANMIRAGE TheadmirationwriterslikeXenophonandPlutarchfeltforSpartansocietyledthem toexaggerateitsmonolithicnature,minimizingdeparturesfromidealsofequality andobscuringpatternsofhistoricalchange.ThisperspectiveinturnmadeSparta veryattractivetosubsequentthinkers,forwhomastaticsocietyseemedtoofferthe stabilitylackinginamoredynamicstate(suchasdemocraticAthens).Luminariesof theItalianRenaissancelikeNiccolMacchiavellipreferredseeminglystableSpartato changeableAthens.ThecultofSpartareached

155 itspeakintheeighteenthcentury,whichwasanera,notcoincidentally,whenthe popularityofPlutarchwasatanalltimehigh.Thephilosopherandeducational theoristJeanJacquesRousseaurapturouslylabeledSpartaaRepublicofdemiGods ratherthanofmen,andmanyofthepatriotscaughtupintheFrenchRevolution modeledthemselvesselfconsciouslyontheSpartansofantiquity,emulatingtheir readinesstogivetheirlivesinagoodcause. TheidealizationofSpartainmodernpoliticalthoughtalsoowesmuchtoPlato. AlreadyinantiquitySpartaservedastheothervisvisAthensanditsdemocracy, asintellectualsunsympathetictoAthensexaggeratedthedifferencesbetweenthe twosocieties.IntheirwritingsSpartabecameavirtualutopia,aparadiseofeunomia aGreekwordmeaninggovernedbygoodlaws.Themostdramaticinstanceofthis conceptisprobablyfoundintheblueprintfortheutopianstateinPlatoRepublic, wheremanyfeaturesofthisidealizedSpartaappear.Theyareevident,forexample, inPlatosdescriptionofthelifeofhisphilosopherrulers,theguardians.Centralto bothsocialsystemsarecommonalityandtotalitariancontrol.Womenandmenofthe topclassaregiventhesameeducation,includingphysicaltraining.Theprivate family,withitsemphasisonwomensmonogamyandthetransmissionofproperty tolegitimatemaleheirs,iseliminatedamongPlatosguardians.Sexualintercourse Figure4.4.HilaireGermainEdgarDegaspainting,YoungSpartans. 156 isguidedsolelybyeugenicconsiderations.Femaleguardianswillnothaveto performdomesticlabor,formembersofthelowerclassesperformtheworkusually accomplishedbyGreekwomen.Theironlygenderrelatedtaskisthatofgivingbirth tochildren.Marriageisdispensedwith,sincethestateeducatesallchildren.Private propertyandmoneyarelikewiseoutlawedtominimizetheenvyandclassconflict thatperpetuallythreatenedtodissolvethefabricofGreeksociety. *** ThecontroversyaboutSpartaanditscritics,bothancientandmodern,continuesto thepresentday.Forthepast2400years,historiansandphilosophershaveput forwardviewsthatvaryradically,thoughtheyarebasedonreadingsofpreciselythe sametexts.Readershavewidelydifferingreactionstotheveritablefountainof anecdotesthathassurvivedfromantiquityembodyingtheunderpinningsofthe Spartanethos.SeveralofthesearecollectedinPlutarchSayingsofSpartanWomen.A Spartanmotherburyingherson,Plutarchreports,receivedcondolencesfromanold womanwhocommentedonherbadluck.No,bytheheavens,themotherreplied,

butrathergoodluck,forIborehimsothathecoulddieforSparta,andthisis preciselywhathashappened.Anotherwoman,seeinghersoncomingtowardher afterabattleandhearingfromhimthateveryoneelsehaddied,pickedupatileand, hurlingitathim,struckhimdead,sayingAndsotheysentyoutotellusthebad news? Thenotionofapeoplewhoseresponsetostimuliistheveryoppositeofwhathuman naturewouldseemtodictatehasexercisedquiteaholdonthehumanimagination. Aslateasthetwentiethcentury,criticsofwesterncapitalistsocietyhaveidealized theSpartansashighlyvirtuous,patrioticpeopleproducedbyastablenoncapitalistic society.Inrecentyears,however,thosewhocherishindividualfreedomandsocial mobilityhavecometoseeinSpartaaforerunneroftotalitarianregimessuchasNazi Germany,andinfactsomeNazisdididentifywithSparta.Furthermoretheblueprint fortwentiethcenturyCommunismhadmanyaffinitieswiththeSpartanutopia.Even today,however,theoldidealizationofSpartahasreappearedintheworksofsome feministtheorists,whohavenotedthatthelivesofwomeninaristocraticSparta appeartohavebeenmoreenjoyableandinmanywayspreferabletothoseofwomen indemocraticAthens. AlthoughAthenswasnomoreatypicalGreekpolisthanwasSparta,examining AthensandSpartatogetherisausefulwayofunderstandingtheancientGreekview oflife.ItistoAthensthatwenowturn. TRANSLATIONS Bing,PeterandRipCohen.1991.GamesofVenus.NewYork:Routledge. Blanco,Walter.1998.ThePeloponnesianWar,fromThucydides:ThePeloponnesianWar, WalterBlancoandJenniferRoberts,eds.NewYork:W.W.Norton. Lattimore,Richmond.1960.GreekLyrics.2nded.Chicago:UniversityofChicago Press. 157 Marchant,E.C.1971.XenophoninSevenVolumes,VII:ScriptaMinora.LoebClassical Library.Cambridge,Mass.andLondon:HarvardUniversityPress. Talbert,R.1988.PlutarchonSparta.NewYork:Penguin. SUGGESTEDREADINGS Calame,Claude.1997.ChorusesofYoungWomeninAncientGreece:TheirMorphology, ReligiousandSocialFunctions.TranslatedbyJaniceOrionandDerekCollins.Lanham,

Md:Rowman&Littlefield.FromLeschoeursdejeunesfillesenGracearchaique.1977. Rome:Ateneo&Bizzarri.AninfluentialstudyofAlcmanspoemsforfemale chorusesincludingdiscussionofagegroupsandtheeducationalpurposesofthe choruses. Cartledge,P.A.1979.SpartaandLakonia.ARegionalHistory1300362BC.London, Henley,andBoston:Routledge.OneofthestandardsurveysofSpartanpoliticaland militaryhistory. Cartledge,P.A.andAntonySpawforth.1989.HellenisticandRomanSparta.ATaleof TwoCities.LondonandNewYork:Routledge.Clearlywrittendescriptionofthe social,political,andeconomicconditionsofpostclassicalSparta. Dawkins,R.M.1929.TheSanctuaryofArtemisOrthiaatSparta.London:Societyforthe PromotionofHellenicStudies.Descriptionandphotographsoftheexcavationand findsatthemajorSpartansanctuary. Oliva,P.1971.SpartaandHerSocialProblems.Amsterdam:Hakkert.Lengthybut interestingexaminationbyaCzechscholarofmajorproblemsinSpartanhistory. Page,DenysL.1951,1979.Alcman.ThePartheneion.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress, 1951;repr.NewYork,Arno,1979.Ascholarlyedition,essentialforunderstanding thisfragmentarypoem. Powell,A.,ed.1989.ClassicalSparta.TechniquesBehindHerSuccess.Londonand Norman,Okla.:UniversityofOklahomaPress.Acollectionofessaysincluding EphraimDavid,LaughterinSpartanSociety,andStephenHodkinson, Inheritance,MarriageandDemography:PerspectivesupontheSuccessandDecline ofClassicalSparta. Rawson,Elizabeth.1969.TheSpartanTraditioninEuropeanThought.Oxford:Oxford UniversityPress.ThehistoryoftheideaofSpartafromClassicalGreecethroughthe Renaissance,WhigEngland,andNaziGermany,withashortnoteontheUnited States. 158 5 THEGROWTHOFATHENSANDTHEPERSIANWARS DuringtheArchaicperiod,theAtheniansstruggledwiththesameproblemsthat besetothercitystatesofGreecefactionalquarrelsamongthearistocraticfamilies, tensionbetweenthearistocratsandthepeople,andtyranny.By500BC,these problemshadbeenlargelyresolved.Thelasttyranthadbeenexpelled,Athenshada

democraticgovernment,andaristocraticstasiswaslargelyconfinedtocompetition forofficeandpersuadingthedemocraticassembly.Becauseoftheirrelative harmony,wealth,andgreatnumbers,theAthenianshadbecomethesecondmost powerfulGreekpolisandwerepoisedtoplayamajorroleinthegreatwarthatwas abouttobegin.ForwhiletheGreekcitystateswereevolving,thePersianempirewas growingintoanambitiouspowerthatwouldthreatentoengulftheHellenicworld. AstrongAthenswouldbevitaltothedefenseofGreeceagainsttheinvasions mountedbythePersiankingsDariusandXerxes. SOURCESFOREARLYATHENS WrittensourcesforearlyAthenianhistoryarealmostasmeagerastheyarefor SpartaandtheotherGreekstates.ThefirstmantocommitthehistoryofAthensto writingseemstohavebeenHellanicusofLesbos,whowasbornaround500Bcand wastheearliestinaseriesofchroniclersknownasAtthidographers,thatis,people whowroteaboutAthens.(TheotherAtthidographerswereAthenians,andthey wroteduringthefourthandthirdcenturiesBC.)Tothesurvivingfragmentsofthe Atthidographerswecanaddthevaluabletreatise,TheAthenianConstitution, writtenbyAristotle(384322BC)orbyoneofhisstudents,aswellasPlutarchslives ofearlyfiguressuchasTheseusandSolon,whichmadeuseofsourcesthatarenow lost.Aristotle,Plutarch,andotherlaterauthorsalsopreservesubstantialfragments ofthepoetryofSolon,thegreatAthenianstatesmanandlawgiver.Solonspoems, writtenaroundthebeginningofthesixthcentury,constituteourearliestdirect evidenceforAtheniansocietyatacrucialtimeinits 159 development.ThehistoriesofHerodotusandThucydides,thoughdealingmainly withfifthcenturyevents,alsocontainsomevaluableinformationaboutearly Athens. ATHENSFROMTHEBRONZEAGETOTHEEARLYARCHAICAGE LiteraryevidenceandphysicalremainscombinetoshowthatduringtheLateBronze AgeAthenswasthelargestandmostimportantsettlementontheAtticpeninsula andoneofthemajorpalacecentersoftheMycenaeanworld.Itisprobablethat AthenswasthepremierpowerinAttica,exercisingaloosecontrolovertheother fortifiedpalacecentersintheregion,whichremained,however,largelyindependent ofthewanaxandhispalaceonthesteephillcalledtheAcropolis.Thetraditionthat theinvasionsattheendofthethirteenthcenturyBcbypassedAthensisconfirmedby archaeology.PerhapsthemountainsthatcutAtticaofffromcentralGreeceMount Cithaeron,MountParnes,andothersdiscouragedtheinvaderswhospread throughouttherestofsouthernGreece.AswesawinChapter1,thelegendstoldthat AtticaservedasthesafehavenandpointofdeparturetoIoniaforrefugeesfrom

southernGreece.IfthestoryabouttheAchaeanrefugeesistrue(modernopinionis divided),theywouldhavefoundinAtticathesamecollapseofthecentralizedruling structure,drasticdepopulation,anddispersalintosmallvillagecommunitiesasin theregionsfromwhichtheyhadfled. Recoveryfromthepostinvasionslumpisheraldedbytheappearanceof Protogeometricpottery,apparentlyanAthenianinvention,around1050BC. AthenianpotterywouldcontinuetosetthestyleinGreecethroughouttherestofthe DarkAge.DarkAgeAthens,thoughreducedtoaclusterofvillagesaroundthe Acropolis,continuedwithoutinterruptionasthecentralplaceofAttica.Itislikely thatby900BC,ifnotearlier,thebasileusofAthenswastheparamountbasileusof theregionaldemosofAttica.Theappearanceofrichgravesintheninthcentury revealsasignificantgrowthinwealthandoverseastradeduringthelaterDarkAge. ThepopulationaroundAthensrosesharplyduringtheeighthcentury,andnew settlementsappearedthroughoutthesparselypopulatedcountrysideofAttica, perhapsthroughinternalcolonizationfromtheplainofAthens. Significantly,Athensdidnottakepartintheoverseascolonizingmovementofthe lateeighthcentury.ThesynoecismofthetownsandvillagesofAtticaintoapolitical unityundertheleadershipofAthensmayhavebeenagradualprocessgiventhe extentofAttica(roughly1000squaremiles)beginningperhapsinthelateninth century,andcompletedaroundthemiddleoftheeighth.TheAtheniansascribedthe unificationofAtticatotheirgreatesthero,Theseus,whommythlinkedwithhis companion,theDorianheroHeracles(laterknowntotheRomansasHercules). TheseusadventureswithHeracles,andhissoloexploits,suchasdefeatingthe MinotaurinCreteandtheAmazons(mythicalwomenwarriorsfromAsia)in Athens,wereenshrinedinAthenianartandliterature.IntheAthen 160 ianaccountofsynoecism,Theseus,thebasileusofAthensandparamountchiefof Attica,createdapoliticalunitybyproclamation,abolishingthegovernmentsofthe othertownsandvillagesandmakingasinglegovernmentinAthens.Lateron,the unificationofAtticawascelebratedinafestivalcalledtheSynoikia,believedtohave beeninstitutedbyTheseus.Democraticpropagandaalsocreditedhimwith establishinganearlyformofdemocracyinthenewlyunifiedpolisoftheAthenians. InmakingTheseusthefounderofthepolis,theAtheniansfollowedthecommon Greekpracticeofattributingimportanteventsofthepreliterateperiodtosomegreat figurefromthelegendarypast.(TheSpartans,aswesaw,creditedtheirlawsand militaryandpoliticalinstitutionstothesemimythicalearlylawgiverLycurgus.)Yet thetraditionthattheformalunificationwasvoluntaryandcooperativewasprobably correct.FortheinhabitantsofAtticacherishedabeliefthattheywereautochthonous

(i.e.,sprungfromtheland),andthushadalwayslivedinAttica,andshareda commonkinship. Itiscertain,atanyrate,thatbytheendoftheeighthcenturyeverytown,village,and hamletinAtticaconsidereditselfAthenian,andtherewasneveranyattemptby anyoneofthemtodeclareitselfaseparatepolis,ashappenedintheArgolisand otherregions.NorwasthereeverinAttica,asintheDoricstates,asubjugated populationofhelots,orcommunitieswithsecondclasscitizenship,suchasthe perioikoi.TheexerciseofcitizenshipinaregionaslargeasAtticapresented difficultiesoftimeandtravelthatcitizensofsmallerregionalcitystatesdidnot encounter.ForalthoughanycitizenofanyAttictowncouldparticipateinthe governmentofAthensonthesamefootingasresidentsofAthensitself,inreality peoplewhosecommunitieswereclosesttoAthenswouldfinditeasiertovotethan thosewholivedfartheraway.Afarmerwholived,say,10milesoutoftowncould expecttoloseaboutthreehoursofhisdaywalkingintoAthensandanotherthree walkingback,whileamanwhosehomewas15or20milesawaywouldprobably havetoarrangetostayovernight.Althoughsomepeoplepreferredthestimulationof livingdirectlyinAthens,mostcontinuedtoliveonthelandthathadbeenintheir familyforgenerations.WhenthePeloponnesianWarbeganin431BCandPericles urgedthepopulationofAtticatowithdrawinitsentiretywithinthewarsofAthens, mostpeople,Thucydidesreports(2.16),werestillaccustomedtotheirlivesinthe countryandfoundthemoveintenselypainful. TheearlygovernmentoftheAtheniancitystatewasstrictlyaristocratic.Its beginnings,however,areveryobscure.Itwasprobablyduringthelatereighth centurythatthechiefsofAtticareplacedthepositionofparamountbasileuswith threecivicofficialswhodividedtheleadershiprolesamongthemselvesandwere calledcollectivelythearchons,thatis,theleaders.Incommonwithothercitystates, theoldtitleofbasileuswasretained;hisofficialdutiesweretoadministerthecultsof thepolisandtojudgelawsuitspertainingtocultpropertyandotherreligious matters.Thepolemarch(polemarchos)commandedtheAthenianarmy,whichwas composedofunitsfromalloverAttica.Theleadingoffice,whichcarriedthemost prestigeandpower,wasthatofthearchun,whohadoverallsupervisionofpublic affairs,includingthedutiesofpresidingoverthecounciland 161 theassemblyandjudgingnonreligiouscases.Hewasknownastheeponymous archon,becausehegavehisnametotheyear:Atheniansidentifiedagivenyearas thearchonshipofsoandso.Subsequently(perhapsearlyintheseventhcentury), sixjudicialofficialscalledthesmothetai(layersdownoftherules)wereadded, makingupthegoverningbodyoftheninearchons.Theninearchonswereelected

foratermofoneyearfromcandidateswhocamefromthesmallcircleofwealthy andwellknownfamiliesknownastheEupatrids(peoplewithgoodfathers). Thearchonsdidnotrulealone.Rathertheyworkedinconcertwiththecouncilthat metonthehill(pagos)sacredtothewargodAresandwascalledforthatreasonthe CounciloftheAreopagus.Becauseformerarchonsmadeupthemembershipofthe council,sittingarchonswhoseshorttermsinofficewouldbefollowedbyalifetime ofcouncilmembershipwouldthinktwicebeforefloutingitswishes.Inaddition, citizenmalesparticipatedinthepublicassembly,butthepreciseroleoftheassembly inthegovernmentandthepartthattheordinarymenofthepolisplayedinitare unknown;AristotleinhisPoliticsclaimedthattheassemblyelectedthearchons (2.1274a12and1517).Whatisclearisthatpolicywasmadeprimarilyinthecouncil bymembersofthearistocraticEupatridfamilies. Alongsidetheseofficialstateinstitutionswereotherformsofsocialorganizationthat directedthelivesofthecitizens.InAttica,asintherestofGreece,thebasicsocial unitstheindividualhouseholds(oikoi)weregroupedintolargerkinlike associations:tribes,phratries,andclans.Unfortunately,verylittleisknownabout them,especiallyintheirearlyform.OurbestevidencecomesfromAthens.Every citizenfamilyinAtticabelongedtooneoffourphylai(tribes)andtoanothersmaller groupwithintheirtribe,calledaphratry(brotherhood).SincealltheIonianpeoples hadthesamefourtribes,itisassumedthattheseoriginatedveryearlyintheDark Age.Itisprobablethatintheearlycitystatetheyservedaspoliticalandmilitary divisionseachtribe,forexample,beingresponsibleforfurnishingacontingentto thearmy.Thephratrymayoriginallyhavedesignatedabrotherhoodofwarriors, anothernameforthewarriorbandsledbyDarkAgechieftainsthatweseeinHomer. Bytheseventhcentury,however,thephratrieshadbecomequasiofficialsocial groupsconcernedwithmattersoffamilyandofdescent.Membershipinaphratry, forexample,wasthenecessaryproofthatamanwasacitizenofAthens;incasesof unintentionalhomicide,themembersofthevictimsphratrywereobligatedto supportthefamilyofthevictim,or,ifthevictimhadnofamily,totaketheplaceof thefamilyinpursuingthecase.Theclans(gen),aswesawinChapter3,were associationsofseveralnoblehouseholdsdominatedbyatopoikosandclaiming descentfromacommonancestor.Itispossiblethatsomenonnoblefamiliesalso belongedtoagenos,assubordinatemembers.Thesearistocraticclanswerepolitically verypowerfulinArchaicAthens.Manyscholarsbelievethatintheearlycitystate eachofthephratrieswasinfactcontrolledbyoneormoregene.Itwaswithinthis frameworkofoligarchiccontrolofthepolisthattheeventsoftheseventhandsixth centuryunfolded. 162 TheConspiracyofCylon

FewspecificeventsinearlyAthenianhistoryleapoutfromthesparserecords,but twodramaticdevelopmentspunctuatedthelatterhalfoftheseventhcentury,both plainlyconnectedwithunrestofsomekind.Inoraround632BC,anOlympicvictor namedCylontookadvantageofhisconnectionwithTheagenes,thetyrantofnearby Megara(whosedaughterhehadmarried),toseizetheAcropolisandattemptto becometyrantofAthens.CylonandhisbackersbothMegarianandAtheniansoon foundthemselvesbesiegedintheAcropolisbythedeterminedhoplitefarmersof Attica,andtheydecidedtotakerefugeatthealtarofAthena.Cylonandhisbrother escaped,butwhenhissupporterssawthattheywererunningoutoffoodandwater theysurrenderedtotheninearchonsonthepromisethattheirliveswouldbespared. Notentirelyconfidentthatthearchonswouldkeeptheirpromise,theconspirators tiedathreadtothestatueofAthena,sothestorygoes,anddescendedwhileholding ontoit;inthiswaytheyhopedtoretaintheprotectionofthegoddess.Whenthe threadfinallysnapped,thearchonMegaclesandhissupporterskilledthem.Many peoplebelievedthatMegacleshadcommittedsacrilege,andbeforelongallmembers ofhisfamilygrouphadbeenexiled,includingdeadrelativeswhosebodieswere exhumedandcastbeyondtheAtticfrontier. AlthoughCylonscoupwasunsuccessfulandhispoliticalprogramremains unknown,theepisodewastoplayaninterestingroleinfutureAthenianhistory becauseoftheprominentfamilytowhichMegaclesbelonged.TheAlcmaeonidgenos wouldcontributeimportantpoliticianstoAthens,includingPericles,themost prominentAthenianstatesmanofthelaterfifthcentury.Thedemandsusually politicallymotivatedthatsurfacedperiodicallyfortheexpulsionofallwho belongedtothecursedclancouldbecountedontosendshockwavesthroughthe bodypolitic.Plainlymanypeoplefeltthatthefamilysharedresponsibilityforthe actionofoneofitsmembersandthatthestatemightbecalledtoaccountbythe godsfortheimpiousactofanindividual.Thisbeliefingroupresponsibilitywas characteristicofGreekthought,butalthoughgenuinereligiousfeelingandfearof pollutionprobablyplayedalargeroleintheoriginalexileoftheAlcmaeonids, subsequentattacksarosemorefromfactionalrivalriesamongAthensaristocratic familiesthanfromsincereburstsofpiety. DracoandEarlyAthenianLaw Muchmoreisknownaboutthenextdrama,theformulationofacomplexoflawsby anotherwiseunknownmannamedDracoaround620BC.BecausedraknisGreek forsnakeandtheAtheniansworshippedasacredsnakeontheAcropolis,ithas periodicallybeensuggestedthatthelawsofDracowereinfactlawsformulatedby thepriestsontheAcropolisandpromulgatedontheauthorityofthelocalserpent.It seemsmorelikely,however,thatDracowasthenameofarealperson;ifBritaincan accommodatepoliticiansnamedMr.Fox,whydenyAthensMr.Snake?

163 MostofwhatisknownaboutDracoslawsconcernshomicide.Theirthrustwasto replacethefamilyandkinwiththestateasthearbiterofjusticeincasesofboth intentionalandunintentionalkillings.(WhereaspreviouslymanyAtheniansviewed intentionalandunintentionalkillingsasidenticalwithrespecttothebloodguilt theyentailed,Dracodistinguishedbetweenthem.)BeforeDracowascommissioned (wearenotsurejusthow)tooverhaulthelaws,bereavedfamilymembers customarilytookituponthemselvestoavengethedeathsoftheirslainrelatives. Atticacontainedsanctuariestowhichthosebelievedresponsibleforadeathcould takerefugewhilearrangingtermswiththekinsmenoftheslain.Frequentlythese termsentailedmonetarycompensation.Dracotransferredtheadjudicationofthese disagreementstothegovernment;thenextofkincouldstillprosecute,backedbyhis phratry,butitwouldbebodiesofmagistratesthatwoulddeterminetheappropriate outcome. MostcasesthatcamebeforeAthenianjudgesdidnotconcernhomicide,andabout Dracosotherlawslittleisknownexceptthattheyweresevere,namingdeathasthe penaltyevenforminoroffensesthattodaywouldbeclassedasmisdemeanors.The fourthcenturyAthenianoratorDemadesquippedthatDracoslawswerewrittennot ininkbutinblood.WhatwassignificantaboutDracoslawswastheirroleinthe processofdevelopingtheauthorityofthestateattheexpenseofthatofthefamily,a processthatwouldcontinueforwelloveracentury. JustasDracoslawslimitedtheauthorityofthefamily,theyalsocurtailedthe opportunitiesofindividualmagistratestoshapetheirdecisionsinaccordwiththeir socialandprofessionaltiestoparticularlitigants.Altogether,Dracoresembledother earlylawgiversinhisdesiretoestablishfixedprinciplesofjusticethatwould overridethepersonalpreferencesofjudges.Sincejudgesallcamefromthewealthy families,Dracossystemhadsomethingofanequalizingeffect,althoughtherich haveneverentirelylosttheadvantageswealthaffordsinmattersoflaw.The inequitiesthatwerecausingunrestinAthens,however,werebotheconomicand political,andreformsthatfocusedentirelyonthejusticesystemcouldnotsoothethe tensionsthatseemedtobeinvitingtyranny.Besides,Dracoslawscontinuedto permitenslavementfordebt,apracticethatbythenhadbecomeaprincipal grievanceofthepoor. THEREFORMSOFSOLON Thebestevidencefortheproblemsthatwerecausingunrestintheseventhcenturyis thelegislationofSolonearlyinthesixth.Solonsreformsrevealhisdesireto strengthenthefragileagriculturalbaseoftheAthenianeconomy,graftingontoita thrivingcommerce.TheAthenianswerepredominantlyfarmers,butthedefining

characteristicsoftheAtticpeninsulacalledforinnovativestrategies.Thesoilof Atticawassimplytoothintoraiseenoughgraintofeeditsincreasedpopulation.The Athenians,consequently,grewwhattheycouldolives,vines,figs, 164 barleyandbartereditabroadforwheat.Theyalsoraisedlivestockforlocal consumptionandfortheproductionofmilkandcheese.Oliveoilwastheirmost significantcontributiontothemarket,anditwasexportedinbeautifulvasesmade fromtheexcellentclayofAttica.Itschiefdestinationwaswhatisnowsouthern RussiaaroundtheBlackSea,thesourceofmostofthewheatconsumedinAttica.just asinRomantimes,ItalywouldbedependentforitsgrainonSicilyandthenNorth AfricaandEgypt,sothepeopleofAtticadependedontheBlackSeaarea.Athens foughtfiercelytodefendtheroutesthatledtotheBlackSea.ThecaptureofSigeum attheentrancetotheHellespontaround600BCwasAthensfirstoverseasventure, anditwasbyclosingoffthatroutethattheSpartansfinallyendedthelong PeloponnesianWarofthefifthcentury.Sellingoil,wine,andpotterywasonlyone meansofobtainingwheat.TheAtheniansalsohadattheirdisposalthesilverthey hadfoundintheminesatLauriuminsoutheastAttica.MountPentelicuminthe northeastprovidedanadditionalresourceintheformofmarble. TheAthenianstateof600,therefore,containedenormouspotentialinadditiontoa hostoftensions:manypoorsharecropperswerelosingthestruggletosurvive,but therewasmuchhopefortheeconomyinaregionwithvaluablenaturalresources andinhabitedbypeoplewithmanygiftsincludingatalentforpottery.Forasecond timetheAtheniansstavedoffcivilwarbycommissioningarespectedindividualto addresstheproblemsthatthreatenedtosparkviolence.Perhapsin594thoughsome scholarswouldputitsometwentyyearslatertheAtheniansempoweredSolon,an aristocratwithareputationforwisdom,todrawuplawsthatwoulddevelopthis potentialbyalleviatingthesufferingsofthepoormajoritywithoutentirely destroyingtheprivilegesoftherichminority.Ineconomicterms,whatthepoor wantedwastheabolitionofdebtandtheredistributionofland;whattheygotwas theabolitionofdebtslavery.Itishardertosaywhattheywantedinthepolitical arena.ProbablyAtticaspoorerinhabitantswereopentoanynumberofstrategiesfor looseningthestrangleholdoftherich.Solondidinfactdevisenumerousinnovative andeffectivewaysofunderminingthedivisionofAtticaintohavesandhavenots. Hisreformscreatedaslidingscaleofprivilegethatcontainedsomethingfor everyoneandensuredthathisworkwouldnotberejectedoutofhand. Soloncomposednumerousversesthatstillsurvivetodayandrevealsomethingof therationaleforhiswork.Decryingboththeselfishnessoftherichandtheleveling revolutionaryinclinationsofthepoor,hefrequentlyidentifieddesireforwealthasa problematicforceinhumanaffairsandwasquicktoremindlisteners(forearlypoets

hadmorelistenersthanreaders)ofthetransienceofriches:Therearemanybadrich men,hewrote,whilemanygoodmenarepoor;but,hewenton,hewouldnot exchangehisvirtue(aret)fortherichesofthewealthy,forvirtueendures,while wealthbelongsnowtooneman,nowtoanother(citedinPlutarch,Solon3).Inhis emphasisonthemutabilityofhumanaffairshelookedaheadtothewritingsofthe fifthcenturyhistorianHerodotus,whowouldusehimasamouthpieceforhisown ideas.Althoughheurgedjusticeforthepeo 165 ple,hewasalsocommittedtodefendingtherightsoftheelitebothtotheirlandand tothelionsshareofinputintogovernment: Igavethedmossuchprivilegeasissufficienttothem,neitheraddingnortaking away;andasforthosewhohadpowerandwereadmiredfortheirwealth,Ialso providedthattheyshouldnotsufferunduewrong.Istoodwithastoutshield thrownoverbothparties,notallowingeitheronetoprevailunjustlyovertheother. (CitedinPlutarch,Solon18.4;ScottKilvert1960,andinTheAthenianConstitution,12) Solonsviewofthedemosasineffectalobby,aspecialinterestgroupsimilartothat oftherich,reflectedtheorientationofearlyGreekpoliticalthinking.LaterinGreek historychampionsofdemocracywouldidentifythedemosasallthevoters; antidemocrats,however,continuedtoidentifythedemosasthepoor. Inlargethings,Solonwroteabouthisendeavors,itishardtopleaseeverybody. Hisruefullamentthatintryingtopleaseeveryonehepleasednooneisironicin viewofthecultthatdevelopedafterhisdeath,whenhewouldbecomethebeloved GeorgeWashingtonofClassicalAthens.Becausepoliticiansofallstripessoughtto coopthimintotheircamps,Soloncameintimetobecreditedwithawidevarietyof programs:democratsandantidemocratsalikeclaimedhimastheirideological ancestor.AlthoughtheearliestsurvivingsourcesforSolonsreformsasidefromhis ownpoemswerewrittenmanygenerationsafterhisdeath,itispossibleto reconstructtheoutlinesofhisthoughtfulandoriginalprograms. Solonsfirstactwasdesignedtoaddressthesufferingsofthepoorestpeopleof Attica.Theseincludedsharecropperswhowerecalledhektmoroi(sixthparters), presumablybecausetheyowedasixthoftheirproducetoawealthylandownerto whomtheywereindebt,andalsothosewhohadfallensodeeplyindebtthatthey hadbecometheslavesoftheircreditors.Solonnotonlymadeitillegalforloanstobe securedbyanyonespropertyorperson;healsofreedthosewhohadalreadyfallen intoslaverythroughdebtandcanceledthedebtsofthehektemoroi.Thisbold measurewasknownastheseisachtheia,theshakingoffofburdens,andformany generationswascommemoratedbyafestivalofthesamename.Toredresstheevils

perpetratedbydebtslaveryinthepast,SolontrackeddownasmanyAtheniansashe couldwho,becausetheycouldnotpaytheirdebts,hadbeensoldasslavesoutside Attica.Hethenboughtthemback,settingthemupasfreeAtheniansoncemore. Noneofthisshouldbeconstruedasanattackonslaveryperse.Solonhadno problemwithAtheniansenslavingnonAthenians. Solonsothereconomicmeasureswerelessdramaticbutequallyimportant.Revising theweightsandmeasuresofAttica,hefacilitatedtradewithotherstatesby switchingfromtheAeginetanstandardtotheEuboic.ThenceforthanAtticcoin wouldbeworthhalfagainasmuch.SeeingthatthefutureofthinsoiledAttica wouldlieinoilandincrafts,heencouragedthecultivationoftheoliveand 166 madeitillegaltoexportgrain,whichwasneededathome.Toattractcraftspeople fromotherregions,moreover,Solonofferedthemcitizenshipiftheywouldmoveto Atticaandsettlepermanentlytherewiththeirfamilies.SincetheGreekviewof citizenshipwasanarrowonecloselyboundupwithreligiousassociationsand membershipinphratries,thismeasurewasaradicalone.(Lateron,inthefifth century,whenthestateandtheeconomyhadundergonealongandsuccessful processofdevelopment,theAtheniansreversedSolonsliberalpolicyandrevertedto restrictingcitizenship.)Solonwasalsocreditedwithdemandingthatallsonsbe taughtatrade;sonswhoseparentshadneglectedtoinstructtheminthisregardhe freedfromanyobligationtolookaftertheirmothersandfathersinoldage.Hewas alsosaidtohaveempoweredtheCounciloftheAreopagustoinquireintoevery mansmeansofsupportinghimselfandtopunishthosewhocouldshownone. Solonsinsistencethatcitizensearntheirlivingmakesadramaticcontrastwiththe Spartanethos,whichdefinedthecitizenasamanwhoseonlyworkwassoldiering. Easingthesufferingsofthepooraddressedonlyonesourceoftension.Solonhad alsotoreckonwiththeoutrageofthehoplitemiddleclass,whichresentedthe Eupatridmonopolyonprivilege.Hissolutiontothisdifficultywastoestablisha constitutioninwhichinputintothepoliticalprocesswasallottedinaccordwith income.Propertyclassesthathadbeeninbeingforsometimewereusedtodivide thecitizensintotiers,withtheadditionofaspecialclassattheverytop.Classeswere rankedaccordingtoagriculturalwealth.Thenewclass,thepentakosiomedimnoi,or 500measuremen,consistedofthosewhoseestatesproducedatleast500medimnoi (bushels)ofproduce;anycombinationofoil,wine,orgrainwoulddo.Belowthem camethehippeis(horsemen,sincetheywerethemenwhocouldaffordtokeepa horseforthecavalry),whoseincomewasbetween300and499medimnoi;followed bythezeugitai,menwhocouldaffordtoownateamofoxen,with200to299,and finallythethtes,poorpeoplesomefarmersandsomelandlessworkerswho producedfewerthan200medimnoi.Membersofthefirstclasswereeligibletofillthe

officeoftamias(statetreasurer);archonshipsandtheotherhighermagistracieswere restrictedtomembersofthetwoupperclasses;zeugitaicouldcompetewiththetwo higherclassestofilltheloweroffices;andthethetescouldjointheothersinthe assembly(theekklsia),whichwastomeetregularly.Thezeugitaimadeenoughofa livingtopurchasehoplitearmsandconstitutedthemajorityofthephalanx.Mostof thethetesservedaslightarmedtroopsorassailorsintheAthenianfleet.Three categoriesofpersonswereexcludedfromthesystem.ManyresidentsofAtticawere slaves,andmanyweretheresidentalienscalledmetics.Aboutathirdofthecitizens, moreover,werewomen,forwomenslifeexpectancywasabouttenyearsshorter thanmens. Citizenmenfromallclassescouldserveinthehliaia,abodyofprospectivejurors. Thesepeoplewouldserveincourtssetuptoreceiveappealsfromthejudicial decisionsofthearchonsandtrythecasesofmagistrateswhomsomeonewishedto accuseofmisconductinoffice.OneofSolonsmostrevolutionarycontributionstothe Athenianjusticesystemwashisinsistencethatanymale 167 citizennotjustthevictimorthevictimsrelativescouldbringanindictmentifhe believedacrimehadbeencommitted.Oncetheconcernoffamilies,justicewasnow thebusinessofthecommunityofmalecitizensasawhole. Filledasitwaswithformerarchons,theCounciloftheAreopagusremainedan aristocraticbodyunsympathetictotheconcernsofthepoor,andalthough magistrateswereresponsibletothepeopleandcouldbeprosecutedformalfeasance, membersoftheAreopagiteCouncilcouldnot.ItseemslikelythatSoloncreateda counterweightintheformoftheCouncilofFourHundred,composedofone hundredmenfromeachAthenianphyl.Thisbodyservedaprobouleuticfunction, thatis,itpreparedbusinessfortheassembly.ThisCouncilisevidentinAthensnot longafterSolonstime,anditprobablydatesfromhisreforms. SolonleftDracoshomicidelawsmoreorlessashefoundthem,buthereducedthe penaltiesforothercrimesanddecreedanamnestytoeveryonewhohadbeenexiled forcrimesotherthanhomicideorattemptedtyranny.Itwasprobablyunderthis amnestythatmembersofthenotoriousAlcmaeonidfamilyreturnedtoresumetheir involvementinfactionalpolitics.LikeDraco,Solonwasconcernedthattoomuch powerinthehandsoffamilieswasantitheticaltotheprogramofstatebuilding.It wasprobablyforthisreasonthathemadealawpermittingmenwithnochildren (likehimself)tobequeaththeirpropertyastheywished;previouslythepropertyofa childlessdecedentwouldautomaticallyreverttohisrelatives.(DespiteSolonslaw, juriesfrequentlyawardedpropertytofamilieswhocontestedwills.)

Ingeneral,Solonsnumerouslawsregardingsexandmarriagereflectastrongsense ofthestateasaconglomerationofproperlyregulatedoikoiwhoseorderlinesswas verymuchtheconcernofthegovernment.Someoftheselawsseemaimedatgiving meningovernmentpoweroverwomeninprivatelife,butsinceSolonwas concernedtounderminethepowerofthewealthiestaristocraticfamilygroups,many ofhismoreintrusiveprovisionssuchastherestrictionsonwomensbehaviorcan probablybeputdowntohisapprehensionabouttheprestigeofrichfamiliesrather thantodirectinterestinmonitoringwomensactivities.Solon,Plutarchreports, madealawwhichregulatedwomensappearancesinpublic,aswellastheir mourningandtheirfestivals,andputanendtowildanddisorderlybehavior.When womenwentoutofdoors,theywerenotallowedtowearmorethanthreecloaks,or tocarrymorethananobolsworthoffoodordrink,orabasketmorethaneighteen incheshigh,ortotravelatnightexceptinawagonwithalampinfrontofit. (Solon21;ScottKilvert1960) Theselawsseemaimedatcurbingtheostentationoftherich.SeveralofSolons policies,however,hadasignificantimpactonwomenslivesovermanygenerations. Thoughhehadabolisheddebtslaveryandhadforbiddenfathersasaruletosell theirchildrenintoslavery,hemadeanexceptionforamanwhodiscoveredhis unmarrieddaughterwasnotavirgin.Atthesametimeheestablished 168 stateownedbrothelsstaffedbyslaves,andhisencouragementofimmigrationfor commercialpurposeshadtheeffectofsignificantlyincreasingthenumberof prostitutesinAthens.Thedichotomybetweenrespectablewomenandsexually availableoneswouldbecomeanimportantbuildingblockofAtheniansociety. Solonsworkstandsoutacrosstheagesastrulyremarkableforitsrichnessand creativity.LiketheLycurgusofSpartanimagination,withwhomhewouldbe comparedthroughoutEuropeanhistory,Solonwasgivenanunusualopportunityto thinklongandhardaboutwhatacommunityis.Hislawsestablishedtheprinciple thattheAthenianstatewouldbeguidedbyallcitizensworkingtogether.Indeed,in manyrespectsheestablishedthenotionofcitizenshipitself.Hislawdemandingthat inatimeofcivilstrifeeverymanhadtotakeastandononesideoranother demonstrateshisdeterminationtoinvolveallmalecitizensinaffairsofstate,infact todefineacitizenassomeonewhoisinvolvedinpublicconcerns.Hislawsalso madeplainthatwhiletheregulationofwomensbehaviorwasessentialtoawell orderedsociety,nonethelesstheirrolewastobeconfinedtoprivatelife,thus excludingthemeffectivelyfromthebodypolitic.

Solonslawswereinscribedonwoodentabletscalledaxnesandputupintheagora whereeveryonecouldseethemthoughnoteveryonecouldreadthem,sinceliteracy wasnotwidespreadinearlysixthcenturyGreece.WhentheAthenianshadagreed tokeephislawsineffectforahundredyearsandeacharchonhadbeencompelledto swearthathewoulddedicateagoldstatueatDelphiifeverheviolatedanyofthem, SolonleftAtticaandbegantraveling,partlyfromadesiretoseetheworldandpartly toforestallanyattemptstopersuadehimtoalterhislegislation. Solonwasnotademocratnordidheintendthathisreformsshouldalterthe relationshipamongtheclassesinAthens.Therewassomejustice,however,inthe claimsmadeinfifthandfourthcenturyAthensthatSolonwasthefatherofthe democracy.Forbyabolishingthehectemorage(sixthpart)systemanddebtslavery, Solonnotonlyhelpedcreatethefreepeasantrythatformedthebasisofthe democracy;healsoestablishedthedistinctionbetweenfreedomandslaverythatwas tobecentraltotheAthenianconceptofcitizenship. PEISISTRATUSANDHISSONS SolonsreformsalleviatedconsiderablesufferinginAttica.Byintensifyingthe competitionforpoliticaloffice,however,theyprobablyplayedaroleinfosteringthe civilstrifethatledtothetyrannyofPeisistratus,whichmustbeplacedinthecontext ofthetensionsthatsurvivedSolonslaborsandofthespreadofpoliticalthinking inevitableinanageofexperiment.TheinhabitantsofsixthcenturyAtticawere looselydividedintothreefactionsknownastheMenofthePlain,theMenofthe Coast,andtheMenoftheHill.Historiansarestillpuzzledaboutexactlywho comprisedeachgroup.Itmaybethatthemenoftheplainwereprimarilylarge landownerswhilethemenofthecoastwerefishermenandcrafts 169 menandthepoorerinhabitantsoftheAttichighlandsmadeupthemenofthehill; perhapsthecitydwellerswereinthislastgroupaswell. PeisistratusSeizureofPower Around560,asuccessfulcoupwascarriedoutbyPeisistratus,adistantrelativeof SolonfromnorthernAtticawhohadmadeanameforhimselfbycapturingtheport ofNisaeainnearbyMegaraearlierinthecentury.Peisistratusbackersincludednot onlytheMenoftheHillbutalsosomeofthepoorercitydwellers.Herodotustells howPeisistratuswoundedhimselfandhismulesandthenappearedintheagora demandingabodyguardtoprotecthimselffromhismadeupenemies.Backfromhis travels,sothestorygoes,SolontriedtowarntheAtheniansagainstbeingdupedby hiskinsman,buttonoavail:packedwithhissupporters,theassemblyvoted

Peisistratushisbodyguard,whereuponPeisistratusseizedtheAcropolisandwithit thereinsofgovernment. Afteraboutfiveyears,thepartiesoftheplainandthecoastunitedagainst Peisistratusanddrovehimout,butwhenMegacles,theleaderofthecoastalparty, quarrelednotonlywiththepartyoftheplainbutalsowithhisownfaction,he decidedtoallywithPeisistratusandagreedtoreestablishhiminAthensprovidedhe consenttomarryhisdaughter.Herodotusmarveledatthetalethatwascirculatingin hisdayabouthowPeisistratusreturntoAthenswasaccomplished.Peisistratusand Megacles,hereported, cameupwithwhatisfarandawaythemostsimplemindedplottoputhimbackin powerthatIhaveeverheardof,consideringthatfromtheveryearliesttimesthe Greekshavebeendistinguishedfromthebarbariansbytheirintelligenceand freedomfromsimplemindedfoolishnessif,thatis,thesetwoactuallydidplaythis trickontheAthenians,whoaresaidtobetheforemostoftheGreekswhenitcomes tobrains. TherewasawomaninthevillageofPaeaniawhosenamewasPhya.Shewastall aboutfivetenandgoodlookinginotherwaysalso.Theydeckedthiswomanoutin fullbattlegear,andaftershowingherhowsheshouldposetoseemthemost beautiful,theyputherinachariotanddrovetowardthecitywithheraldssent runningonahead.Astheyapproachedthecity,thecriers,asordered,shouted, Athenians!GiveawarmwelcometoPeisistratus!Athenahashonoredhimaboveall othermenandisherselfbringinghimbacktoherownacropolis!Theheraldswent fromplacetoplacesayingthis.Wordimmediatelyspreadfromvillagetovillagethat AthenawasbringingPeisistratusback,andeventhecitydwellers,inthebeliefthat thiswomanwasthegoddessherself,worshipedahumanbeingandwelcomed Peisistratus. (TheHistories1.61:Blanco1992) Whateverthetruthofthetale,Peisistratusalliancewithhisnewfatherinlawdid notendure.Byapreviousmarriage,Peisistratushadtwogrownsons.Notwishingto underminetheirpositionbyfatheringanychildrenwithMegaclesdaughter(whom inaccordwithGreekcustomHerodotusdeclinestoname),he 170 hadintercoursewithhiswifeoukatanomonnotaccordingtotheacceptednorm.( HerodotusishardputtoexplainjusthowMegaclesfoundout;hesuggeststhat perhapsthebridesmotherhadaskedhersomepointedquestions.)Outraged, MegaclesmadecommoncausewithPeisistratusenemies,andtogetherthey succeededindrivinghimoutasecondtime.

PeisistratusnextreturntoAthenswasnotaspicturesqueashisfirst.Duringtheexile thatlastedfromabout555to546BC,heputtogetheraforceofmercenarysoldiers withwealthdrawnfromthegoldandsilverminesofMountPangaeusinnorthern Greece.SupportedbythewealthyLygdamisofNaxosandthecavalryofEretria,he landedatMarathonanddefeatedtheoppositioninabattleatPallene.Hethen governedAthensforovertenyearsuntilhediedofnaturalcausesin527.Although SolonhadnotsucceededinsparingAthensfromtyranny,hisreformsplayedalarge roleindeterminingwhatformthattyrannywouldtake.Solonssystemcontinuedto functionwhilePeisistratusguidedthecitythroughaperiodofenormousgrowthand development.ThoughPeisistratusregimehassometimesbeendescribedasalaw abidingtyranny,itshouldberememberedthatPeisistratuspackedthearchonships withhisfriendsandrelations,keptastandingforceofmercenariesforhispersonal use,andheldthechildrenofpotentialopponentshostage.Whenthelastof Peisistratussonswasexpelledin510,thewaylayopenforthedevelopmentofthe democraticinstitutionsthatarestillassociatedwiththecityofAthens.Althoughit mightseematfirstthatthecreationofagoverningdynastywouldrollbackallthe workDracoandSolonhaddonetounderminethepoweroffamilies,inrealitywhen theascendancyofthePeisistratidshadpassedintohistorythedevelopmentof democracywasservedbythetyrannysequalizingeffect:undertheruleofasingle family,allnonPeisistratids,richandpoor,foundthemselvesinsurprisinglysimilar circumstances. PeisistratusPolicies StrengtheningtheeconomywasamajorfocusofPeisistratusprogram,andinthis regardtoohecarriedforwardmuchofSolonswork,thoughthismaynothavebeen hisintention.LikeSolon,hewasconcernedaboutbothagricultureandcommerce. Heofferedlandandloanstotheneedy.Heencouragedthecultivationoftheolive, andthegrowthofAtheniantradesparkedbySolonspoliciesbecameyetmore conspicuousunderhisregime.AlreadyduringtheseventhcenturysomeAthenian potteryhadfounditswaytotheBlackSeaandeventoItalyandFrance,but quantitieswerequitesmall.Duringthefirsthalfofthesixthcentury,however, AthenianexportsbegintoshowupinforcethroughouttheMediterraneanand Aegean,anditisdifficulttobelievethatthisexplosionwasnotdueatleastinpartto Solon.UnderPeisistratusfineAtticpotterytraveledevenfartherthanithadin SolonsdaytoIonia,Cyprus,andSyriaintheeastandasfarwestasSpain.Black figurepaintingreacheditsapogeeshortlyafterthemiddleofthecentury,and around530pottersbegantoexperimentwiththemoreversatileredfigurestyle. 171 Thegrowthofcommercewenthandinhandwithanambitiousforeignpolicy. BuildinganetworkofalliancesinthecentralAegean,Peisistratusinstalledhisfriend

LygdamisastyrantatNaxos;LygdamisinturninstalledPolycratesinSamos. Sigeum,whichatsomepointafteritsfoundationhadslippedfromAthenianhands, wasrecaptured,andoneofPeisistratussonswassenttogovernit.Peisistratusalso establishedafootholdintheThracianChersonese(theGallipolipeninsulainwestern Turkey),sendingMiltiades,whobelongedtotherivalPhilaidclan,toestablish Athenianpowerthere.UndereitherPeisistratusorhissons,Athensissuedthefirstof itssilvercoins,knownasowlsfromthebirdwithwhoseimagetheywerestamped. Theowlsymbolizedthegoddessofwisdom,Athena,andtheAthenianowl immediatelybecamethesoundestcurrencyintheAegean. InAthens,Peisistratuspublicbuildingprojectsservedseveralendsatonce.They providedjobstopeoplewhobadlyneededthemwhileatthesametimefocusing energyonthecityasaculturalcenter.Replacingtheprivatewellsguardedby aristocratswithpublicfountainhousesnotonlymeantconstructionjobsfortheshort termbutalsosignaledalongtermshiftfromprivatetopublicpatronage.With expandedopportunitiesforjobsandhousinginthecity,morepeoplecouldlivein thecitycenter;andthosewholivedintheurbanareafounditeasiertovote.Under PeisistratusregimetheAtheniansrebuiltthetempleofAthenaontheAcropolisand beganahugetempletoOlympianZeuswhichwasleftunfinishedathisdeathand completedonlysevencenturieslaterbytheRomanemperorHadrian. Peisistratussupportofthegodsandtheartsenhancedbothhisownreputationand thatofthecityofAthens.HecommissionedadefinitiveeditionofHomerIliadand OdysseyandmadeHomericrecitationsaregularpartofthePanathenaicfestival, whichwascelebratedatAthenseveryfouryearsingreatpompandannuallyona smallerscale.Peisistratusalsoinstitutednewfestivals,thegreaterandlesser Dionysia.StatefestivalssuchastheDionysiaandthePanathenaeawerelavishly celebrated,andaround534BCcompetitionintragicdramabecamepartofthe Dionysia.TheworshipofDionysusflourishedinPeisistratid Figure5.1.Thissilvercoinworthfourdrachmasandthusknownasthe tetradrachmwasmintedatAthensshortlyafterPeisistratusdeath.Asiftheimageof Athenaandhersymboltheowldidnotmakethecoinsoriginplain,thefirstthree lettersofthewordAthensalsoappear. 172 Figure5.2.DetailofAtticredfigurepsyktr(winecooler)attributedtoOltos, ArmedWarriorsRidingonDolphins,c.520510BC.Thisvesselprobablyrepresents thechorusofanearlytheatricalproduction.Itwasmadeforuseatthedrinkingparty knownasasymposionand,therefore,alsodepictsotherwinevasesasdevicesonthe warriorsshields.

Athens,anddionysiacscenesofdrinkingandunrestrainedmerrymakingwere popularsubjectsofvasepainting.AttheDionysia,thegodwashonoredbyachoirof satyrswearinggoatskinsandholdingconversationwiththeirleaderintheformof agoatsongortragdiathatevolvedintothegreatAttictragediesofthefifth century.AnexpandedPanathenaicfestivalwascelebratedwithgreatfanfare, culminatinginthegreatprocessioncarryingtoAthenastempletherobewovenfor herbyyoungAthenianwomen.IronicallytheprocessionuptheAcropolisatthe PanathenaeawouldserveastheoccasionforthemurderofPeisistratusson Hipparchusin514. TheCollapseoftheTyranny PatronageoftheartsbecamestillmoreconspicuousafterPeisistratusdeathin527. ThehistorianThucydidesbelievedthatPeisistratussonHippiasruledalone,buthe complainsofmanyotherswhoclaimedthatHippiasbrotherHipparchuswasan equalpartnerinthegovernment.Inanyevent,HippiasandHipparchusadorned theircourtwithcelebratedwritersSimonidesofCeos,whosechoralodeswere famous;thelovepoetAnacreonofTeos;andLasusofHermione, 173 knownforcomposingnovelhisslesshymns,thatis,poemsinwhichthesounds wasneverheard.Buttheprestigeoftheirglitteringcourtdidnotkeepthehereditary tyrantssecureintheirposition.In514,Hipparchus,soitseems,findinghimself rejectedinhisromanticattentionstoayoungmanbythenameofHarmodius, slightedHarmodiussisterbyforbiddinghertocarryabasketinthePanathenaic procession.HarmodiusandhisloverAristogitonthenformedaplottomurderboth HippiasandHipparchusonthedayoftheprocession.Whenoneoftheconspirators wasobservedchattingwithHippias,theothers,wronglybelievingtheplothadbeen betrayed,panickedandimmediatelykilledHipparchus.Theresultsweredevastating forAthens:afundamentallybenigngovernmentoftwoaristocratsnowgavewayto theoverbearingandparanoidautocracyofHippias. WhatmotivatedHarmodiusandAristogitonsfellowconspiratorswewillnever know,butwedoknowthatthefallofHippiasfouryearslaterin510wasinlarge measuretheworkoftheexiledAlcmaeonids.DeterminedtoreturntoAthens,they dideverythingintheirpowertofostergoodrelationswithDelphi,wheretheold sanctuaryofApollohadrecentlyburnedtotheground.TheAlcmaeonids underwrotethecontracttorebuildthetemple,andinadditiontohonoringitsterms alsothrewinafrontageoffirstclassParianmarblewherethetermshadcalledonly forordinarystone.Afterthis,whenevertheSpartanswenttoDelphiforadviceabout futureprojectstheyalwaysreceivedtheresponse:FirstfreeAthens.Asthe Spartansenjoyedtheirreputationastheenemyoftyranny,theywerereceptiveto

thissuggestion,andin510KingCleomenesblockadedHippiasontheAcropolis. WhenHippiaschildrenwerecaptured,thetyrantcapitulatedinordertogetthem backanddepartedwithhisfamilytoSigeum.ApillarwassetupintheAcropolis recordingthecondemnationofthePeisistratidstoatimia(lossofcivicrights). TheAthenianschosetoremembertheheroismofHarmodiusandAristogitonmore vividlythantheSpartanintervention.Drinkingsongsbeganmakingtheroundsin aristocraticcirclesliketheonethatwent Iwillcarrymyswordinaboughofmyrtle ThewayHarmodiusandAristogitondid Whentheykilledthetyrants AndrestoredequallawstoAthens. ButtheSpartaninterventionof510hadaprice:Athenswascompelledtojointhe PeloponnesianLeague,adevelopmentthatwouldhaveimportantconsequencesfor thefuture. THEREFORMSOFCLEISTHENES TheAtheniansdidnothavelongtowaitfortheSpartanstointerveneintheir domesticaffairsagain.Predictably,thedepartureofthePeisistratidsfromAthens wasfollowedbyaresurgenceoffactionalstrife.ThearistocratIsagorasfirst 174 gainedtheupperhandwhenhewaselectedarchonin508BC.Hispopularitywas dueinparttohisplatformofrevokingthecitizenshipofthosewhoseancestorshad receiveditunderSolonandPeisistratus.HisrivalCleisthenesprudentlyopposedthe plan,thusbringingthemassesovertohisside.BecauseCleisthenesbelongedtothe Alcmaeonidclan,Isagoras,whohadthebackingofSparta,dredgeduptheancestral cursethathadoriginatedatthetimeofCylonsconspiracy,andCleisthenes withdrewfromAthens.InhiseffortstoaidIsagoras,however, Figure5.3.ThetyrannicidesHarmodiusandAristogitonwerecommemoratedinthis statueofabout500BC.ItsurvivesinthisRomancopy. 175 CleomeneswasnotabletorepeatthesuccesshehadachievedonhislastAthenian campaign,whenhehadhelpedtodriveoutHippias.Thistimeheoverplayedhis hand.ReturningtoAttica,heexpelledsevenhundredfamiliespointedouttohimby Isagorasandtriedtoestablishanoligarchy.Nowitwashisturntobeblockadedin

theAcropolis.TheindignantAtheniansroseupenmasse,forcedthecapitulationof CleomenesandIsagoras,andwelcomedCleisthenesandhissupportersbackto Athens.ThiswouldnotbethelasttimethatAthenianoligarchsalliedthemselves withSparta. Seeingclearlythattherivalriesofthewealthyfamiliescouldnotcontinuewithout periltothestate,CleisthenesresolvedtooverhaultheAthenianconstitutioninsucha wayastobreakthepowerofrichfamilies(otherthanhisown)onceandforall.His methodswereingenious.Abolishingforallpracticalpurposesthefourancient Ionianphylaitheyremainedinexistenceforceremonialpurposesonlyhe establishedtennewtribesonanextraordinarybasis.FirsthedividedAtticainto threegeographicalareasthecity,theshore,andtheinland(overlappingonly partiallywiththeolddivisionsofthehill,thecoast,andtheplain.)Hethen subdividedeachareaintotentrittyes,orthirds(thoughactuallytheywere thirtieths),composedofanumberoftheexistingunitsknownasdemesvillagesor townshipsofAttica.Sincethedemeswereofunequalsizetherewereovera hundredinallthenumberofdemesineachtrittysvaried.Hethentookonetrittys fromeachgeographicalareaandputthethreetogethertomakeatribe:onetribe,in otherwords,wouldcontainthreetrittyes,onefromeachofthethreeareas,madeup ofanirregularnumberofdemes.Tosignaltheweakeningoffamilyloyaltiesinfavor ofpoliticalones,menweretobeginidentifyingthemselvesbytheirdemotic,thatis, thenameoftheirdeme,ratherthanbytheirpatronymic,thenameoftheirfather.It maybethatCleisthenesdesignedthisshiftinparttoconcealthenonAthenian originsofsomeofhissupporters,butitslongtermpurposewastoweakentheforce ofprestigiouslineageinpolitics.Generationsoftraditionwerenotsoeasilycast aside,however,andthecustomwasemployedonlyintermittently:westillthinkof PericlesasthesonofXanthippusandthehistorianThucydidesasthesonofOlorus. Thenewbaseoftentribessparkedthecreationofanewbody,theCouncil(boul)of FiveHundred,withfiftymemberschosenannuallybylotfromeachofthetentribes. Recognizingtheprincipleofproportionalrepresentation,thefiftyslotsfortheboule weredistributedamongthedemesinaccordancewiththepopulationofeach.The useofthelotindeterminingthecompositionofeachyearsboulewasakey democraticfeatureoftheCleisthenicsystem.TheboulereplacedtheoldCouncilof FourHundred,takingoveritsprobouleuticfunctionsofpreparingbusinessforthe ekklsia(theassembly)andalsomanagingfinancialandforeignaffairs.Becausefive hundredwasanunwieldynumber,eachtribewouldbeinchargeforatenthofthe year.Duringitsperiodofservicethefiftypresidingmembersofthecouncilwere calledprytaneis,andtheprytanycametobeusedasameasureoftime,ratherlikea month.Thechairandsecretaryeachchangedeveryday. 176

Figure5.4.Attica. Thearchonsretainedtheiradministrativeduties,butanewboardofexecutiveswas createdwhichthoughCleisthenesmaynothaveanticipateditwouldeventually surpasstheminimportance.Thearmywasreorganizedonthebasisofthetentribes, eachtribeelectingataxiarchos(infantrycommander),hipparchos(cavalry 177 commander),and,mostimportant,astratgos,orchiefgeneral.Unlikearchons, stratgoicouldserveasmanyconsecutivetermsastheyliked.Intimetheboardoften strategoibecamethemostprestigiousexecutivebodyinAthens. BecauseCleistheneswasnotgrantedextraordinarypowerssuchasthosewithwhich Solonhadbeeninvested,hismeasuresneededtobepassedintheassembly.His reforms,consequently,wereinthemselvestheproductofdemocraticaction.Around 500BCameetingplacefortheekklesiawascarvedoutoftherockonthehillcalled thePnyx,andfromthenontheassemblymetthereonaregularbasisandframed policyforthestate. ThenewCleisthenictribeswereconstitutedoneminentlyartificiallines.Itwastheir veryartificialitythatmadethemwork,fortamperingwiththeoldtiesofsentiment andobligationopenedthedoortoframinganewnetworkofalliances.Somenoble families,however,remainedincontrolofimportant(andprofitable)cultssuchas thatofDemeterandPersephoneatEleusis.WhetherCleisthenesactuallysteeled himselftobreakthepowerofhisownfamilyalongwiththatoftheotherfamiliesis unclear;itshouldoccasionnosurprisethattheAlcmaeonidpowerbaseseemsto havesurvivedhiselaborateredistrictingofAtticawhereasthoseofotherfamilies wereundermined. THERISEOFPERSIA WhiletheGreekswerestrugglingtocreateworkablegovernmentsintheirnumerous smallcitystates,arichandpowerfulstateofadifferentcharacterwastakingshape totheeast,wherethePersiansunitedthelargestempireknowntothattime. SourcesforPersianHistory ThesourcesforPersianhistoryareprincipallyPersianandGreek,thoughthereare somerecordsinElamitic,Akkadian,Aramaic,Egyptian,Hebrew,andBabylonian. ThePersiansourcesincludeinscriptionswritteninOldPersianfoundinmajor archaeologicalsitessuchasPersepolisandSusa.Inaddition,scholarshavebeenable todetectaPersianoraltraditionglorifyingthekings.Archaeologicalevidence

includesmonumentalbuildingswithreliefsculpturedepictinghistoricaleventsand sealspicturingawiderangeofactivitiesyieldinginformationonmilitary,athletic, agricultural,andreligiouspracticesandoftenshowingthefloraandfaunaofthe empire.ThehistoricalsourcesemanatingfromPersiaare,ofcourse,biasedinfavor ofthekingsandtheirgovernment.InscriptionswritteninOldPersianareallofficial documents,andgiveapictureofprosperity,fertility,andsecurity.TheGreeksources includethehistoricalwritingsofHerodotusandXenophon.Theworksoftheformer, inparticular,tendtostressdifferencesbetweenGreeksandPersians,betweenEast andWest.TheGreekwordforthePersians,andforallpeopleswhodidnotspeak Greek,wasbarbaroi,fortheyseemedtobetalkinggibberish,saying 178 barbar,barbar.ThePersians,however,shouldnotbeconsideredbarbariansinthe modernsense,fortheirpoliticalandartisticachievementswereadmirablebyany standard. PersiaBeforeDarius LiketheGreeks,thePersianswereoriginallyanIndoEuropeanpeoplewhocame fromthenorth.BytheDarkAgetheyhadoccupiedtheterritorynowknownasthe Iranianplateau,aplacerichinnaturalresourcesincludinggold,silver,copper, minerals,andsemipreciousstones.NotmuchisknownofPersianhistorybeforethe seventhcenturyBC.AfterastrugglefordominationbetweenthePersiansandpeople relatedtothemknownastheMedes,thetwogroupscametobeunified,perhaps underthekingCyaxareswhosecapitalwasatEcbatana. AtatimewhenmostGreekstateshadeliminatedhereditarybasileisfromtheir governmentsandwerewaryofonemanrule,whichtheyequatedwithtyranny, Persiawasruledbykingseachofwhom,withtheexceptionofDarius,inheritedhis roledirectlyfromhisfather.Becausethekingsoftenhadmorethanonewife,there wasneveralackofcandidates.AtfirstthePersiansweresubjecttotheMedes,but aroundthemiddleofthesixthcenturyCyrusIIofPersia(ruled559530BC),a memberoftheAchaemenidfamily,tookcontrolandmadeMediathefirstofmany satrapies(provinces)ofthePersianempire.HenceforththePersiandynastyknown astheAchaemenidsweretoruletheMedes,thoughtheGreeksconsideredMedes andPersiansthesameanddescribedtheactoffavoringthePersiansasmedizing. Cyrusconquestin546oftheLydiankingCroesusbroughtAsiaMinorintothe empireandwasoneoftheeventsthatledultimatelytothewarbetweentheGreeks andPersiansinthefifthcentury.CroesushadbroughttheGreekcitiesinIoniaunder hisdominationin560.Hiswealthwasproverbial;thefirstcoins,whichweremadeof electrum,weresaidtohavebeenmintedinLydia.Croesusprosperousempire providedanAsianoutletontheMediterraneanandHellespontthatwas

indispensablefortradewiththeWest.HerodotusportrayshimasaphilHellene(a loverofthingsGreek),whoenjoyedentertainingGreekphilosopherssuchasSolon andwhosoughttheadviceofGreekoracles,sendingenvoysladenwithgifts;buthe alsoenjoystellinghowCroesusvanityandselfabsorptionledhimtomisconstrue whathewastold.PleasedtohearfromtheoracleatDelphithatifhemadewaron thePersianshewoulddestroyamightyempire,CroesusproceededagainstCyrus. Apollospokethetruth,ofcourse,butCroesushadmisunderstood.Thegreatempire hedestroyedwashisown.In546BCCyrusconqueredLydia,andtheLydiancapital SardisbecamethechiefadministrativecenterinAsiaMinorforthePersians.Viathe citiesofIonia,CyrusconquestbroughtaboutthefirstofficialcontactbetweenGreeks andPersians.CyrusalsoconqueredBabylonia,Assyria,Syria,andPalestine.These landsandtheirpeoplewereheterogeneous:differencesbetweenGreeksofvarious citystatespaleincomparisonwithdifferencesbetweenpartsofthePersianempire. Thevarietyoflanguages,customs,laws,re 179 ligions,andmannerofwagingwarwasvast.Cyrusgreatachievementwasthathe managedtounifytheempire.Communicationwasfacilitatedbyconstructingroads andcreatingapostalsystemstaffedbyroyalmessengersonhorseback.Herodotus reportedthatNeitherrain,norsnow,norsleet,norhailstaysthesecouriersfromthe swiftcompletionoftheirappointedrounds(8.98;Blanco1992).Cyrusalso permittedhissubjectstopracticetheirownreligions. CyruswaspraisedbyGreekandAsiansourcesalikeasabenevolentandtalented ruler.WhereastheprecedingNeoAssyrianandNeoBabylonianempireshad deportedentirepopulationsandhadsownconqueredterritorywithsaltsothatit couldneveragainbecomefertile,Cyruspoliciesenhancedtheprosperityofhis empireandthewellbeingofitsinhabitants.CyruswashailedbytheJewsfor allowingthemtoreturnfromexileinMesopotamiaundertheBabyloniancaptivityto Jerusalemandtorebuildtheirtemplethereandworshipfreely.TheOldTestament recordsthedeclarationoftheHebrewprophetIsaiahtotheJews: ThussaysYahwehtohisanointed,toCyruswhomhegraspsbyhisrighthand, Thathemightsubduenationsbeforehim,andungirdtheloinsofkings, Toopendoorsbeforehim,thatgatesshallnotbeclosed: Iwillgobeforeyou,andIwillleveltheroads; Iwillshattergatesofbronze,andIwillhewbarsofirontopieces. Iwilldeliverburiedtreasurestoyou,andhiddenriches.... (IsaiahII,45:13)

CyrussonCambysessucceededhimaskingandreignedfrom530to522BC.In525, afterfightingagainstanarmythatincludedGreekmercenaries,headdedEgyptto theempire.Alwaysfascinatedbythedangersattendantonwealthandpower, Herodotustakescaretodepicthisdegenerationfromacapablerulerintoadespotic madman. TheAchievementsofDarius DariusIseizedpowerin521BCandreigneduntil486.Hecreatedanadministrative andfinancialstructurethatremainedunchangedfortwohundredyears.He centralizedthegovernmentandmovedthecapitaltoPersepolis.Theimperial buildingsbeguntherewerecompletedbyhisson,Xerxes.Buildinginscriptions recordthatGreekswereamongtheworkmendrawnfromallcornersoftheempire tobuildtheroyalbuildings.Dariusfacilitatedtravelforcommercialpurposesin manyways,buildingacanallinkingtheNileandtheRedSea,Thiscanalmadethe newlyconqueredterritoryofEgyptmoreprosperousthanithadbeenundernative Egyptianrule.DariuswasthefirstPersiankingtominthisowncoinsofsilverand gold.Thegoldcoins,Daricstatersordarics,demonstratedthekingstalentat archery,askillhighlyprizedbythePersians,who, 180 Herodotusreported,weretaughtthreethingstoride,toshootstraight,andtotell thetruth. Theempirewasdividedintoprovincesorsatrapies.Thesesometimesconsistedof peopleofthesameethnicitiesorofthoseinasingleregionwhohadbeenconquered atthesametime.Withineachsatrapyauthoritywasdividedbetweenciviland militaryofficials:thecivilauthorityfurnishedsuppliestothemilitaryandthe militaryprovidedprotectioninreturn.Eachprovincewasobligedtopayanannual tributetotheking.ThePersianmonarchswiselyrefrainedfromimposingauniform systemofadministrationthroughouttheempireanddeclinedtouprootexisting governorsandproceduresthatfunctionedwell.Insomeareas,forexampleLydia, satrapsgovernedfairlyindependently.Rebellionswerediscouragedthrougha systemofspiesknownastheEyesandEarsoftheKing.Supremepoliticalpower wasunifiedonlyinthepersonoftheking.Theking,ascommanderinchief, defendedhissubjectsagainstintrudersandinreturntheypaidhimtaxes,gavehim gifts,andpaidhimtribute.Hisincomewasstoredintheroyaltreasuryandmuchof itwaslavishedonmonumentalbuildingprojects.Thelaborofthesubjectsofthe empirewasexploitedonalargescalethroughtaxation,forcedlabor,andmandatory militaryservice.Thekingexercisedabsoluteauthorityandwieldedthepoweroflife anddeathoverhissubjects,whokneltorevenlayprostrateinobeisance.Ratherthan

envyingthePersiansforenjoyinghundredsofyearsofpeace,theGreekspitiedthe subjectsofthePersianking,consideringthemhisslaves. THEWARSBETWEENGREECEANDPERSIA DariuscampaignedagainsttheEuropeanScythsandthusbecamethefirstPersian kingtoenterEurope.AlthoughhefailedtoconquerScythia,Thracewassubdued andbecameasatrapy.Dariuswestwardexpeditionspiquedhiscuriosityaboutthe mainlandGreeks,andarebellioninhisempirebroughthimintodirectcontactwith them. TheIonianRebellion In499BCrevoltbrokeoutamongtheIonianGreeks.DiscontentinIoniawas considerable;taxeshadgoneupwhentheGreekcitiesweretransferredfromLydian toPersianhands,andtheGreeksresentedthesystemofpuppettyrantsthePersians hadimposed.Violencemightnothaveerupted,however,haditnotbeenforthe ambitionofAristagoras,thetyrantofMiletus.HopingtoaddNaxostohisdomain, AristagorashadpersuadedthePersianstojoinhiminalargerefforttosubduethe wholechainoftheCycladesislandsintheAegeanandperhapsmoveontomainland Greece.Whentheplanfailed,Aristagoras,noticingtherestlessnessofthelonians, decidedtorecouphisfailingfortunesbyunitingtheminrevolt. 181 Figure5.5.DelegationsbringingtributetoPersepolis.ThePersiankingreceiveda widevarietyofgoodsfromthroughouttheNearEastintheformoftribute. 182 Figure5.6.ThePersianempireinthereignofDarius. Afterresigninghistyrannyandacceptingaconstitutionalofficeinstead,hesetabout overthrowingtyrantsintheotherIoniancities.Mostofthisseemstohavebeen accomplishedwithoutbloodshed,butthetyrantofMytilenewassounpopularthat hewasstonedtodeath.Therebelliouscitiesshowedtheirunitybyissuingcoinage onacommonstandard.HerodotusaccountofAristagorasattemptstogainsupport fromKingCleomeneswasgearedtodemonstratingtheSpartancharacterasmost Greeksimagineditcautious,conservative,andleeryofforeignadventures;thetale alsoillustratestheassertivenessofSpartanwomenandtherespectinwhichthey wereheld.Aristagoras,Herodotusmaintains,carriedwithhimabronzemapofthe wholeworldprobablytheworkofthecelebratedMilesiangeographerHecataeus. HepointedouttoCleomenesthepeoplewhosewealthwouldfallintoGreekhands

intheeventofavictoryandheexhortedthekingtoliberatetheGreeksofIonia. CapitalizingontheSpartansdislikeofforeigncustoms,hesuggestedthattheycould easilydefeatmenwhofoughtintrousersandworepeakedcapsontheirheads,so easyaretheyforthebeating.Cleomenesaskedforacoupleofdaysinwhichto makeuphismind.Whenthetwodayswereup,Herodotussays, 183 CleomenesaskedAristagorashowmanydaysjourneyitwasfromtheIonianseato wheretheGreatKing[i.e.,thekingofPersia]was.IneverythingelseAristagoras wasverycleverandhadtrickedCleomenessuccessfully,butherehetrippedup.He oughtnottohavetoldthetruthifhewantedtobringtheSpartansintoAsia. However,hedidtellit,sayingthatthejourneyfromtheseauptoSusawasamatter ofthreemonths.CleomenescutoffalltherestofthestorythatAristagoraswassetto givehimaboutthejourneyandsaid,MyfriendfromMiletus,awaywithyoufrom Spartabeforethesunsets!Thereisnoargumentofsucheloquencethatyoucanuse ontheLacedaemoniansifyouwanttobringthemthreemonthsjourneyfromthe sea. (TheHistory5.50;Grene1987) Notyetwillingtoabandonhisquest,AristagorasfollowedCleomenestohishouse, carryingwithhimthecustomarysignofsupplicationanolivebranch,coveredwith woolandashesatinCleomeneshomeasasupplianthenoticedyoungGorgo,who was8or9yearsold,standingbyherfather.HeaskedthatCleomenessendhis daughteraway,but Cleomenesbadehimsaywhateverhelikedandnottoholdbackbecauseofthechild. ThenAristagorasbeganwithanopeningpromiseoftentalentsifthekingwoulddo whatheasked.AsCleomenesrefused,Aristagorasraisedhisbids,littlebylittle,till hemadeanofferoffiftytalents.Atthisthechildcriedoutandsaid,Father,this strangerwillcorruptyouifyoudonottakeyourselfaway.Cleomeneswas delightedbyhisdaughtersadviceandwentintoanotherroom,andAristagorasleft Spartaaltogetherandnevergotanotherchancetogiveanymoreinformationabout thejourneyfromIoniainlandtothedwellingoftheGreatKing. (TheHistory5.51;Grene1987) TheAtheniansweremorereceptivetoAristagorasdesigns.Amoreadventurous peoplethantheSpartans,theywerenotconstrainedbyfearofaslaverebellionin theirabsence.TheyweremadenervousbythePersiansconnectionwithHippias, whohadfoundhiswaytoPersia,fortheyrightlyfearedthathewasplanningto returnwithPersianbacking.Finally,accesstograinandotherresourcesintheBlack

Seaareawaspreciousanddeservingofprotection.Theyagreedtosendtwenty ships;theEretrianstothenorthwerewillingtosendfive. TheunsuccessfulrebellionoftheIonianGreeksendedinamajornavaldefeatoffthe islandofLadenearMiletusin494BC.Greekmoralehadfallen;thetyrantswhom AristagorashadexpelledwerespreadingproPersianpropaganda;andbeforethe battlewasovertheSamiansandLesbianshaddeserted.Miletuswasdefeated,its womenandchildrenenslaved,andthemenrelocatedtothemouthoftheTigris.In thecourseoftherebellion,however,thecapitalcityofthewesternPersianempire, Sardis,wasburnt,whetheraccidentallyoronpurpose. DariuswouldnotforgettheburningofSardis,butneitherwouldtheGreeksforget theannihilationofMiletus.HomeofthephilosophersThales,Anaximan 184 der,andAnaximenes,andmorerecentlyofthegeographerHecataeus(whohad warnedAristagorasofPersiasoverwhelmingsuperiority),Miletushadbeenoneof themostculturedcitiesintheGreekworld.WhenthepoetPhrynichusproduceda tragedyonitsfallentitledTheCaptureofMiletus,theAtheniansfinedhimone thousanddrachmasforremindingthemoftheirmisfortune.Thestoryofthe AtheniansoutragerevealsagrowingsenseofidentityamongtheIoniansand perhapsamongtheGreeksmorebroadly.TheAthenianshadwithdrawnfromthe rebellioninitsearlystages,aftertheburningofSardis,sothatAtheniansoldiershad notbeeninvolvedinthecollapseofMiletus;yettheyidentifiedpassionatelywithit initsfinalhour. TherewasreasontobelievethatthefateofMiletuscouldsoonbethatofcitiesin mainlandGreece.UndertheleadershipofarisingpoliticiannamedThemistocles, whohadjustbeenelectedarchon,theAtheniansbegantofortifythethreerocky harborsofPiraeusandconvertthemintoanavalandcommercialbase.Unlikemost Athenianpoliticians,Themistocleslackedfamilyconnectionsbeyondthosehehad garneredbyaprudentmarriage,andunlikemostpreviouspoliticians,whohad drawnsupportfromtheleisuredlandowningclass,heseemstohaveenjoyedthe backingofthosewhomadetheirlivingbytrade.AcutelysensibletothePersian threatThucydidespraisedhimforhisabilitytoforeseewhatthefutureheld(1.138) ThemistoclesservedGreecewellatthiscriticaltime. DariusInvasionofGreece DariushadbeeninterestedinGreeceforsomeyearsbeforetheIonianrebellion,and thedesiretoavengetheburningofSardishadaddedanadditionalspurtohis ambition.In492BChesenthissoninlawMardoniuswestattheheadofalarge force.ThoughMardoniussuccessfullyrestoredPersianprestigeinnorthernGreece,

conqueringThrace,Thasos,andMacedonia,thefleetwaswreckedoffMountAthos ontheChalcidicpeninsula,andMardoniuswasforcedtoturnback.Dariuspromptly beganmobilizingforanotherexpedition,onethatwouldsailstraightacrossthe Aegean,avoidingthetreacherouspromontoriesofthenorth.Mindfulofthefateof Miletus,manyGreekcitiesyieldedtothedemandofDariusheraldsforearthand water,theproverbialtokensofsubmissionthatsignaledrecognitionofthekings supremacyonlandandsea.Theislandersfelttheyhadlittlechoice,andonthe mainlandArgosandThebeswentovertothePersians.SpartaandAthens,however, remainedsteadfastintheiropposition. DariusfirstorderofbusinesswastopunishAthensandEretriafortheirroleinthe Ionianrebellion.Infact,itmayhavebeentheprimarypurposeofhisexpedition.In thesummerof490hisfleetarrivedinGreece,commandedbyhisnephew ArtaphernesandDatis,aMede.ThefiguregivenbyHerodotusofsixhundredships isprobablyexaggerated,butDatisandArtaphernesmayhavehadtwentythousand menwiththem,oneofwhomwastheagingHippias,theexiledrulerofAthens whomtheyhopedtoreinstallasbothAtheniantyrantandPersianvassal.Enroute thePersiansburntthetownandtemplesofNaxos,deport 185 Figure5.7.HermofThemistocles.ThisRomancopywasprobablymodeledona bronzestatueofThemistocleserectedabout460BC.Withitsthickneckandcoarse features,theheadreflectstheearliestknownexampleofindividualportraiturein Greekart.Weshouldperhapsassociatetheunusualphysiognomywiththetradition thatThemistoclesmotherwasnotGreek. ingtheircaptives;elsewheretheypressedmenintoserviceandseizedchildrenas hostages.Afterasiegeoflessthanaweek,Eretriawasbetrayedfromwithin.The PersiansburnttheEretrianstemplesinrevengeforthosedestroyedatSardisand deportedthepopulationinaccordancewithDariusorders.(Severalcenturieslater theperipateticprophetoftheRomanempireApolloniusofTyanareportedfinding thedescendantsofthedeportedEretriansatArdericcainCissia,stillspeakingtheir nativeGreek.)FromEretriathePersiansmoveddownonMarathonintheold PeisistratidstompinggroundofnorthernAttica. TheAthenianassemblyimmediatelyvotedtodispatchtheirforcestoMarathon,and arunner,Pheidippides(orperhapsPhilippides)wassenttoSparta,covering,sothe storywent,fully140milesbythenextday.TheSpartans,however,couldnottake advantageofthespeedwithwhichthemessagewasdelivered,for,theyexplainedto thebreathlessPheidippides,theywerecelebratingafestivalofApollo,theCarnea, andwereforbiddentomarchuntilthefullmoon.AstheSpartansweredeeply religiousandnocowardsinwar,theirexplanationmayhavebeensincere.

186 TheBattleofMarathon Herodotusfiguresareprobablyerroneous,butitislikelythattheAthenianswere outnumbered,ifnotasoutrageouslyashesuggeststhenatleastbyafactoroftwoto one.ThePersianshadthemoreversatileforce,withcavalry,archers,andskirmishing troops,buttheAthenianforceconsistingessentiallyofhopliteswasmoreheavily armed.ThemostseriousproblemfacedbytheAthenianswasthelackofa commander,foralldecisionslaywiththetenstrategoi(theboardofexecutives createdbyCleisthenes)deliberatingasabody.Assomewantedtowaitforthe Spartanreinforcementsexpectedafterthefullmoonandothersthoughtdelayrisky, therewasdangerthatadeadlockintheAtheniancampwouldthrowthevictoryto thePersiansandGreecewouldbeoverrun.WhentheAthenianslearnedthatsomeof thePersiantroopsandcavalryweremissingandsuspectedthatpartofthePersian forceswereheadingforPhaleron,itseemedtoseveralgeneralsthatthemomentto strikehadcome,eventhoughthemoonwasfullandtheSpartanscouldbeexpected shortly;anydelaycouldbefatal.ThestrategosMiltiadesseemstohaveplayedakey roleinsavingGreece. AnephewoftheMiltiadeswhomPeisistratushaddispatchedtoprotectAthenian interestsintheChersonese(thusconvenientlydisposingofapotentialrival), Miltiadestheyoungerhadinheritedhisunclespowerandhadspentmuchofhislife intheremoteoutpost.InpartbecausehewasamemberoftheprominentPhilaid clanandindeedadistantrelativeofPeisistratushimself,hebecamethevictimof AthenianfactionalpoliticsonhisreturntoAthensin493BCwhenhewasprosecuted forallegedtyrannyintheChersonese.SinceitisimpossibletoseewhytheAthenians wouldworryaboutoneoftheirowncitizenstyrannizingabroad,Herodotusissurely righttoascribethetrialtothemachinationsofMiltiadesenemies(6.104);alternative rumorsascribedtheattacktoThemistoclesortheAlcmaeonids.Inanyevent, MiltiadeswasacquittedandwentontotaketheleadintheGreekvictoryover Darius,persuadingthepolemarchCallimachusandseveraloftheotherstrategoito lethimdirectAthenianstrategy.Herodotusoffersastirringrenditionofhisspeech: Callimachus,itisuptoyou,rightnow,toenslaveAthensortomakeherfree,andto leaveforallfuturegenerationsofhumanityamemorialtoyourselfsuchasnoteven HarmodiusandAristogitonhaveleft.Rightnow,Athensisinthemostperilous momentofherhistory.Hippiashasalreadyshownherwhatshewillsufferifshe bowsdowntotheMedes,butifthiscitysurvives,shecanbecometheforemostcity inallGreece.Now,Illtellyoujusthowthisispossible,andhowitisuptoyouand onlyyoutodeterminethecourseofevents.Wetengeneralsaresplitrightintwo, withhalfsayingfightandtheotherhalfnot.Ifwedontfightnow,Iamafraidthata stormofcivilstrifewillsoshakethetimberoftheAthenianpeoplethattheywillgo

overtotheMedes.Butifwefightnow,beforethecrackscanshowinsomeofthe Athenians,andprovidedthatthegodstakenosides,whythenwecansurvivethis battle.Allthisdependsonyou.Ithangsonyourdecisionnow.Ifyouvotewithme, yourfatherlandwillbefreeandyourcitywillbefirstinallofHellas,butifyou choosethesideofthosewhourgeusnottofight,thentheoppositeofallthegood Ivespokenofwillfalltoyou. (TheHistories6.109;Blanco1992) 187 Andso,earlyonemorninginlateSeptemberof490,underMiltiadescommand,the Athenians,flankedbysomePlataeans,randownthehillonwhichtheyhad encamped,coveringthemileorsothatdividedthemfromthePersiansatdouble speeddespitetheweightoftheirhoplitearmor.AristidesandThemistocles commandedtheirtribalcontingentsinthecenter,whileCanimachuscommandedon therightwingandthePlataeansheldtheleft.Knowingtheywereoutnumbered,the Athenianspackedtheirwingsastightlyastheycould,concentratingasmanymenas possibleontheouterendsoftheirformation,eventhoughitmeantleavingthecenter thin.DespitetheirnumericalsuperioritythePersianswereunabletowithstandthe disciplinedanddeterminedhoplitesfightingindefenseoftheirfreedom.(The Greeksalsohadbetterarmorandlongerspears.)Intheflighttotheirships,manyof thePersianswereboggeddowninthemarshes. Arrivingtoolatetoparticipateinthefighting,theSpartansvisitedthebattlefieldand surveyedthePersiancorpses.HerodotusmaintainedthattheAthenianslost192 men,thePersians6400.TheGreekstatisticisprobablycorrect,forthenameswere inscribedonthebattlefield;theyincludedCallimachus.Thedeadwerecremated wheretheyhadfallen,andamonumentwassubsequentlyerectedonthesite.Some PlataeansandsomeAthenianslavesalsodied,buttheirnumbersareunknown.The playwrightAeschylushimselffoughtatMarathon.Theepitaphhecomposedfor himselfmakesnomentionofhisstupendousachievementsasatragicdramatistbut speaksonlyofhisserviceinthisbattleforfreedom:Thegloriousgroveof Marathon,hewrote,cantellofhisvalorascanthelonghairedPersian,whowell remembersit.Throughoutthenextdecades,theMarathonomachoimenwhohad foughtatMarathonenjoyedsingularprestigeinAthensandcameastimewentby torepresentthesimplevirtuesoftheoldergenerationinanincreasinglyluxurious andcomplexsociety.Aboutaquartercenturyafterthebattleitwasmemorializedin apaintingintheStoaPoikil(paintedportico)atthenorthendoftheAthenian agora;Callimachus,Miltiades,Datis,andArtaphernescouldallbeidentified,aswell asAeschylusbrotherCynegirushangingontothePersianship,towhichheclung intrepidlyuntilhisarmwascutoffbyanaxe.Godsandheroeswerepresentatthe

battleaswellHeracles,Athena,andTheseus,whomanybelievedhadoffered phantomaidonthebattlefieldasHomericgodshaddoneatTroy. NotallGreeksrejoicedinthedefeatofPersia.Ashieldsignalwasapparentlyflashed fromAthensafterthebattleadvisingthePersiansthatthecitywaspreparedto surrender.AnyconnectionbetweentheAlcmaeonidsandthesignalwasindignantly deniedbyHerodotus,whotendedtofavortheAlcmaeonidsandseemstohaveused Alcmaeonidsourcesinhiswriting,butjustsuchaconnectionwascommongossipat thetime.Inanyevent,someoneatAthenswishedthePersianswell.Overtheyears, accusationsofPersiansympathieswoulddogaspiringAthenianpoliticiansandoffer aneasyroutetodamagingacontroversialfiguresreputation. 188 GreekLeadersandTheirMisadventures:Miltiades,Cleomenes,andDemaratus Atheniansheldtheirleaderstohighstandards.Althoughthehistoryofthefifthand fourthcenturieswouldprovidenumerousexamplesoftheexactingtemperamentof thedemos,theearliestareamongthemostinteresting.Shortlyafterthebattleof Marathon,Miltiadeswasimpeachedintheassemblyandcondemnedtopayastiff fine.Hediedindisgracebeforehecouldpay,andhissonCimondischargedthe debt.Thecircumstanceswerecurious.Becauseofhisheroicstandingafterthevictory ofMarathon,theAthenianswereagreeabletograntingMiltiadesshipsonhis promisethathewouldmakethemrich.WhenhisattackontheislandofParosended infailureandembarrassmentHerodotusclaimsthewoundthateventuallykilled himwassustainedwhileviolatingthesanctuaryofDemeterhewasimpeachedat Athensandhadtoattendhistrialonastretcher,ashiswoundwasbeginningto gangrene.TheAtheniansconsideredputtinghimtodeath.Althoughitisimpossible toknowjusthowmuchthevotersintheassemblyhadknownabouttheobjectof Miltiadesexpeditionsecurityconsiderationswouldhavearguedagainstopenly namingParos,whichhadsidedwiththePersiansduringthewarwhatisclearis thatthedemoshaddevelopedtheconfidencetoholditsleadersaccountable. Throughoutthedecadesthatfollowed,interactionbetweenthedemosanditsleaders wouldbecharacterizedbyachangingdynamicthathelpeddefinethenatureofthe democracyasitunfolded. ItwasnotonlyinAthensthatpoliticalleaderstendedtocometobadends.Spartan kingshadahabitofgettingintodifficultiesaswell.Afterwinningadecisivevictory overSpartasinveterateenemyArgosatSepeia,Cleomeneswasaccusedbythe Spartansofsparingthecityasaconsequenceofbribes.Acoupleofyearslater,when hehadenlistedtheDelphicoracleinmachinationstoengineerthedepositionofhis fellowkingDemaratus,furtheraccusationsofbriberyfollowed.Cleomenesfledto Arcadia,wherehestirreduptheinhabitantsagainstSparta.ThoughtheSpartans

chosetopardonandrecallhim,heapparentlylosthismind.IfHerodotussources arecorrect,heperishedhorriblywhiledisplayingtheSpartansproverbialendurance ofphysicalpain.Whenhecamehome,Herodotusmaintains, hewasimmediatelyseizedbysomefrenzyofmadness(evenearlierhehadbeen somewhatdisturbedinhismind).WhenhemetanyoftheSpartiates,hewould strikeattheminthefacewithhisstick.Forsodoing,andbecauseofhisdistraction, hisrelativesconfinedhiminapillory.Butbeingsoaprisoner.,assoonashesawhis guardalonefromtherest,heaskedhimforaknife.Atfirsttheguardrefusedtogive himone,butthekingkeptthreateninghimwithwhathewoulddotohim afterwards,untiltheguard,whowasjustoneofthehelots,finallygavehimaknife. Cleomenestooktheknifeandstartedmutilatinghimselffromthe 189 shinsup.Hecutthefleshlengthwiseandwentupfromshinstothighsandfromthe thighstothehipandtheflanks,untilhegottothebelly.Andhemademincemeatof thebellytooandsodied. (TheHistory6.75;Grene1987) TheexiledDemaratusfaredbetter.AssomeofhisconflictwithCleomeneshadbeen overhissympathywiththeproPersianpartyatAegina,hefoundawarmwelcome inPersia,servedasanadviserinthewarswithGreece,andwasrewardedforhis serviceswiththegrantoffourcitiesinAsiaMinor. AthensAfterMarathon ThenatureofpoliticalleadershipinAthenschangedshortlyaftertheBattleof Marathoninaveryspecificmanner.Eventssurroundingthecampaignhad impressedontheAthenianstheimportanceofsoundmilitaryleadership.Shortly afterwardtheysignaledthisawarenessbyachangeinthemethodofselecting archons,whoasprimarilyjudicialofficialshadcometoseemlessimportantin comparisonwiththestrategoi,whohadlifeanddeathmilitaryresponsibilities.In487 theybeganchoosingarchonsbylotfromalargepool(perhapsahundredmenin total?)contributedbythevariousdemesthemethodalreadyusedforselecting membersoftheCouncilofFiveHundred.Thisshiftensuredthatmenofambition wouldstandnotforthearchonship,anonrenewableoffice,butforthestrategia (generalship).Italsoservedgraduallytounderminethestatusofthevenerable CounciloftheAreopagus.Becauseitwascomposedofformerarchons,astimewent byitcamemoreandmoretobefilledbymenwhohadbeenchosenbylot.Itseems likelythattheoriginatorofthismovewasthefeistyThemistocles.Notonlywas Themistocleshostiletothearistocraticethosthatgrantedspecialpowerandprestige totheAreopagites;asamanwhohadalreadyservedhisarchonshipandwaseligible

torepeatonlyhisgeneralship,hehadamoreimmediateinterestinenhancingthe roleofthestrategoiatthearchonsexpense.Selectionbylotwasaprocedure commonlyassociatedwithdemocracyinGreece.Itworkedtodiscouragethe machinationsofspecialinterestgroupsandensurethatasignificantproportionof themeneligibleforeachofficewouldparticipateinpolitics,anditseemedtooffer thegodsaroleinchoosingofficials.TheAthenianswerenofools,however.They subjectedallwouldbeofficeholderstoaninterrogationknownasdokimasia,andthey declinedtoemploythelottoselectcommandersforthestatesarmedforces.Asa consequence,thegeneralshipbecamethemostprestigiousofficeinthegovernment, andthetenstrategoioutrankedallotherAtheniansinauthority. Atthesametime,theAtheniansbegandeployinganunusualprocedurefor preventinganyoneindividualfromtakingoverthestate,althoughtherapid disappearanceofseveralofThemistoclesopponentsservesasareminderthatthe 190 methodwasnotfoolproof.Oneoftheinnovationssometimesattributedtothe reformerCleistheneswasostracism,asystemwherebyeveryspringtheAthenians hadtheoptionofvotingtosendoneoftheirfellowcitizensintoexilefortenyears. Thepeculiarprocesstookitsnamefromthebrokenpiecesofpotteryknownas ostrakaonwhichthevotersinscribedthenameofthemantheywantedtobanish.No accusationwaslodged;noshameattachedtothedeparture;theexilescitizenrights andmaterialpossessionswouldbewaitingforhimuponhisreturn.Buttheman whowasidentifiedasdangerousbyreceivingthemostvoteswouldbecompelledto withdrawfromAtticaforatenyearcoolingoffperiod.Inevitablyhistorianshave wonderedwhy,ifthisprocedurewasreallydevelopedbyCleisthenes,thefirstman tobeexiledinthisfashionaPeisistratidnamedHipparchuswasnotostracized until487,fullytwentyyearsafterCleisthenesascendancy.Theanswermaylieinthe minimumofsixthousandvotesthattheAtheniansdemandedbecast;perhapsthe ostracismofHipparchuswasnotthefirstattemptedostracismbutjustthefirstonein whichthequorumwasmet,thefirstthattook.Perhaps,however,ostracismwas simplyinventedlater.Itisprobablynocoincidencethatthefirstmanknowntobe ostracizedboresuchanunfortunatename;onecommonexplanationofostracism wasthatitwasdesignedtowardofftyranny.Wheneverostracismwasfirstdevised, itshouldperhapsbeseenasameansofreplacingtheexpulsionofwholefamily groups,liketheAlcmaeonids,withthelesssweepingexileofafearedindividual. Severalprominentmenwereostracizedinthe480sMegacles,leaderofthe Alcmaeonids,in486;Xanthippus,thefatherofPericles,in484;andThemistocles greatrivalAristides,in482. WhatroleThemistoclesplayedinthefirstthreeostracismsisamatterofspeculation, buthisconflictwithAristidesisindisputable,andtheostracismof482compelledthe

Athenianstochoosebetweentwodistinctpolicies.Civilwarmightbeavertedbythe safetyvalveofostracism,butthedangerofanothercontestwithPersiaalsohadtobe addressed.Dariusraisedtaxesinthesummerof486,thusarousingsuspicionthathe wasgatheringresourcestofinanceanewinvasionofGreece.Hewouldprobably havesomesupportinnorthernGreeceThessaly,forexampleandnodoubtinthe southaswell.BythistimethePersianswerewell Figure5.8.NumerousostrakahavebeendiscoveredintheAthenianagora.These bearthenamesofArtistides,sonofLysimachus,andThemistocles,sonofNeocles. 191 awarehowdividedGreekcitieswereamongthemselvestheyknewoftherivalryof ArgoswithSparta,AeginawithAthensandhowrackedbyinternalconflict.Inthe event,Thessaly,Locris,andallofBoeotiaexceptPlataeaandThespiaewouldinfact givetherequisiteearthandwatertothePersiansaftertheylearnedPersianforces hadcrossedtheHellespont.Dariusprojecthadtobedelayed,however,becauseofa rebellioninEgyptsparkedbytheincreaseintaxes.Inthefallof486BChefellilland died. TheInvasionofXerxesandtheBuildingofTriremesatAthens Dariussonandsuccessor,Xerxes(Cyrusgrandsononhismothersside)wasatfirst ambivalentaboutcarryingouttheinvasion,butby484BChehadmadehisdecision, andtheGreekslearnedthatshipswerebeingbuiltinlargenumbersthroughoutthe portsoftheextensivePersianempirefromEgypttotheBlackSea.Engineersand laborersweredispatchedtotheHellespont,wheretheybridgedthecrossingwith boats,andtonorthernGreecewheretheycutacanalacrossAthossothatthe shipwreckMardoniushadsufferedin492couldbeavoided. Fortuitously,atthisverytimetheAtheniansworkingthesilverminesofLauriumin southeasternAtticafortheirmodestyieldhituponanextraordinarylodeofsilver previouslyundiscovered.Thenewveinwassorichthatityieldedwellover2tons thefirstyearalone.InAthens,votersweredividedaboutwhattodowithit. Aristidesledthosewhowantedtopartitionitamongthecitizens,butThemistocles advocatedbuildingships.Wellawarethatgloomyprognosticationsofwarwith Persiawerelikelytomakehimunpopular,heremindedtheAtheniansoftheir constantwarfarewiththeneighboringislandofAegina,whichhadjustinflicteda serioussetbackonPiraeustradebyamajornavaldefeat.Theostracismof482 decidedtheissue;AristidesleftAthens,andthefleetthatwouldsaveGreecewas built.Itisdifficulttoimaginehowhistorymighthaveturnedouthadthevoteinthat ostracismbeendifferent.

TheshipstheAtheniansbuiltwiththeirwindfallfromLauriumweretriremes,light, fast,maneuverablewarshipswiththreebanksofoars.Althoughthefirsttriremes hadbeenbuilt,probablyinCorinth,asearlyastheseventhcentury,theywere expensivevesselstoconstruct,andittooksometimeforthetriremetoreplaceolder, lessefficientmodelsastheGreekwarshipparexcellence.Bythefifthcentury, however,thetriremehadestablisheditselfasanindispensabletoolofwar.Along, slendervessel,thetriremewasaboutninetimesaslongasitwaswide,about120feet by15feet,andwaspoweredby170rowers.WhereasGreekoaredshipshad originallybeendesignedsimplytotransportsoldierstothetheaterofwar,bythe fifthcenturynavalwarfarehadevolvedtomakerammingtacticscrucialtosuccess, andforthisthetriremewasideal.ItwastriremesthatwoulddefeatthePersians,and thetriremeswouldcomefromAthens.AstheAtheniannavygrewinpowerand 192 Figure5.9.Photographofatriremeatsea.WorkinginEnglandandGreece, twentiethcenturyscholarsandnavalarchitectsreconstructedtheAtheniantriremeof theClassicalperiod. prestige,thetriremecametobeidentifiedwithAthens;inAristophanesplayThe Birds,anAtheniantraveler,askedforhispolisoforigin,replies,Wherethefine triremescomefrom. WhiletheAtheniansbusiedthemselvesconstructingwarships,Xerxesheralds arrivedinGreeceseekingearthandwater,andmanystatescomplied.Thessaly, Thebes,andSpartasinveterateenemyArgoscouldnotbecountedon.Athensand thePeloponnesianLeaguewouldhavetotakethelead,andinconcerttheycalleda congressofdelegatesatCorinthin481BCtoplanthedefenseofGreece.Therethe thirtyonestatesthatweredeterminedtoresistthePersiansformedthemselvesintoa leaguehistoriansgenerallycalltheHellenicLeague.InthecrisisAeginaandAthens werereconciledandAristideswasrecalledalongwithotherAthenianexiles.The highcommandonbothlandandseawasconferredonSparta.Troopswouldbesent north,thoughnotsofarnorthastobeinterritoryboundtogoovertoPersia,butthe Greeksprobablyplacedtheirgreatesthopeintheirfleet.Afteranabortiveexpedition toThessaly,theyestablishedtheirground 193 forcesatthepassofThermopylaeontheMalianGulfwhilethefleetsettledinat nearbyArtemisiumoffnorthernEuboea.AttheinstigationofThemistocles,the AtheniansprobablyvotedtoevacuateAtticaandwaitoutthewarontheislandof SalamisandinnearbyTroezeninthePeloponnesus.Athirdcenturycopyofthe

decreediscoveredonTroezenin1959isprobablyareasonablefacsimileofthe originaltext: TheGodsResolvedbytheCouncilandPeopleThemistocles,sonofNeocles,of Phrearri,madethemotionToentrustthecitytoAthenatheMistressofAthensand toalltheotherGodstoguardanddefendfromtheBarbarianforthesakeoftheland. TheAtheniansthemselvesandtheforeignerswholiveinAthensaretosendtheir childrenandwomentosafetyinTroezen,theirprotectorbeingPittheus,the foundingherooftheland.Theyaretosendtheoldmenandtheirmoveable possessionstosafetyonSalamis.Thetreasurersandpriestessesaretoremainonthe Acropolisguardingthepropertyofthegods. AlltheotherAtheniansandforeignersofmilitaryagearetoembarkonthe200ships thatarereadyanddefendagainsttheBarbarianforthesakeoftheirownfreedom andthatoftherestoftheGreeksalongwiththeLacedaemonians,theCorinthians, theAeginetans,andallotherswhowishtosharethedanger. (Jameson1970,p.98) TheinformationcenteroftheGreekworld,theDelphicoracleknewenoughabout Persianmighttodiscourageresistancethecombinedforcesoftherichking containedmanythousandsofmen,perhapsasmanyasaquartermillionandboth theSpartansandtheAthenianshadreceivedglumoracles.Themistoclesarguedthat thewoodenwallthatDelphiconcededmightsaveAthenswasinfactthenavy; Spartansweretoldthattheironlychancelayinthedeathofaking.Theoraclemayin partexplainKingLeonidastenacityinholdingtheThermopylaepassagainstall odds.Itisalsotrue,however,thathardcalculationcalledforalandoperation, howeverunpromising,tobuytimeforGreecewhilethefleetoffArtemisiumcould cripplethePersiannavy.Asluckwouldhaveit,astormdidmuchoftheGreeks workforthem,andevenbeforetheindecisivefightingatArtemisiumthePersians hadlostmanyships. TheBattleofThermopylae LeonidasmarchedintoThermopylaewithaboutseventhousandmen,afairlysmall force;possiblytheSpartanswereambivalentabouttakingastandsofarnorth.But fortheirdependenceontheAthenianfleet,someofthemmighthavebeencontentto limittheirdefensetothePeloponnesus.ThePhociancontingent,whichwasmost familiarwiththelocalterrain,waschargedwithdefendingthehiddenroadoverthe mountainsagainstthechancethatXerxeswouldbeluckyenoughtofindit.Luckyhe was:aGreektraitorrevealedtheexistenceoftheroad 194

Figure5.10.ThePersianWars. andledXerxescommanderHydarnesupitwiththecracktroopsknownasthe Immortals.ForsomereasonLeonidasdismissedthebulkofhisforces.Hemayhave doubtedtheirloyalty,orperhapsheknewhispositionwashopelessandwishedto saveasmanysoldiersashecouldforfuturebattleswhilestillinflictingdamageand delayontheenemy.OnlytheThebans,Thespians,andthreehundredSpartans remained.Leonidasandhismendefendedthepassheroicallyandfellfighting, havingslainmanyImmortalsincludingtwobrothersofXerxes.OnXerxesorders thebodyofLeonidaswasdecapitatedanddisplayedonacross. TheholdingoperationatThermopylaenotonlyboughttimebutwentdownin historyasanextraordinaryactofheroism.ThedefenseoftheAlamoin1846was commemoratedasofferingamodernparallel;GermanrecruitsinWorldWarIIwere encouragedtoemulateLeonidasSpartans;andintheseventiesthechal 195 lengesofthefutilewarinVietnamwerecapturedinthefilmGoTelltheSpartans, whichtookitstitlefromtheepitaphcomposedfortheThermopylaedeadattributed toSimonides: GotelltheSpartans,strangerpassingby, Thathere,obeyingtheircommands,welie. TheBattleofSalamis TheirvictoryatThermopylaeopenedcentralGreecetothePersians,whose confidencewasboostedbytheknowledgethattheyhadkilledaSpartanking. SwiftlytheymovedtheirlandforcesdownonAthens.FromSalamisjustoffthe westerncoastofAttica,wheretheopposingfleetshadtakenuptheirposition,the AthenianscouldseethesmokeoftheburningAcropolisalltooeasily,andthosewho hadregardedthefortificationsonthehillasthesavingwoodenwalltoutedby Delphiwereforcedtoadmittheirmistake.Dissentrackedthenavy.Someofthe Peloponnesianswantedtocutbacktotheisthmus,whiletheAthenianswere determinedtostaywheretheywereandfightinthenarrows.Xerxeswasapparently trickedintotakingactionbyamessagefromThemistocles,whopurportedtobeon hissideandurgedimmediateattackbeforethedemoralizedGreekscoulddisperseto theirvarioushomes.Inreality,manyGreekswerethinkingofdoingjustthat,and Xerxesdecisiontoattackwasafoolishone.Herodotus,whocamefrom HalicarnassusinIonia,tookdelightintellinghowXerxesprudentadviserArtemisia, queenofHalicarnassus,counseledhiminvainagainstengagingbattlewhenallthe evidencesuggestedhecouldwinbydefault.Byarrangingforthecontesttobe

decidedinthenarrows,Themistoclesmaximizedthechancesthatthelighter,more maneuverableGreekshipscouldworsttheheavierPersianvessels.Fromhishigh perchontheshoreXerxeswatchedthecourseofthebattle,inwhichtheGreekshad theadditionaladvantagethat,asnearlyallofthemhadgrownupnearwater,they couldswim;manyofXerxessailorscouldnot.BysundownthePersianshadlosttwo hundredshipsandthebattle.Ratherthanconfrontthefoolishnessofhisdecisionto fight,XerxesreactedtothedefeatbyexecutinghisPhoeniciancaptainsforalleged cowardiceinthebattle,thusdeprivinghimselfofPhoeniciannavalsupportforthe future. RetreatingwithhisnavytoPersiainordertosecuretheHellespont,Xerxesleft MardoniusinGreece,whereinthespringof479hefacedthelargestGreekarmyever tohavetakenthefield.ThebansupportbolsteredthePersiancause,butitwas insufficienttoensurevictory.AtthetownofPlataeaneartheborderbetweenAttica andBoeotia,MardoniusendedhislongyearsofservicetoPersia.LedbytheSpartan Pausanias,nephewofLeonidasandregentforhisinfantson,theGreeksmanagedto winthehardfoughtbattle,andinthefightingMardoniusfell.TheThebanleaders whohadmedized,thatis,goneovertothePersians,weresubsequentlyexecuted withouttrial.Aroundthesametimetraditionclaimed 196 thatitwastheverysamedayasthebattleatPlataeatheGreekfleetthathad pursuedthePersianseastwarddefeatedtheirnavyattheBattleofMycaleoffthe coastofAsiaMinor,inpartbecausetheIonianGreeksdesertedfromthePersianside. TheWarThroughGreekEyes Victorsusuallyrecordthehistoryoftheirtriumphs.Thevanquishedreducethesame eventstotrivial,easilyforgottenincidents.UntiltheworkofIranologistsinthe twentiethcenturyfollowingthedeciphermentofOldPersianinthenineteenthand theexcavationofarchaeologicalsites,ourviewsofthePersianempirewereshaped largelybyGreekhistoricalsourcesandbyscholarswhopreferredthewestern, EuropeandemocratictraditiontowhattheysawasOrientaldespotism.Inother words,thesourceshavebeenoverwhelminglyHellenocentric.Foremostamongthe ancientliterarysourcesthatestablishedthisperspectivehasbeentheHistoriesof Herodotus,whohighlightedtheunexpectednessoftheGreekvictoryagainstall oddsandsearchedforthecausesinthefundamentalinstitutionsofGreekand Persiansocietyandgovernment.AlthoughHerodotusportraystheearly Achaemenidsasvirtuousandconstructive,hedepictsXerxesasanimpiousmadman whowasresponsibleforinitiatingthedeclineofPersia.Xerxeschiefcharacterflaw, inHerodotusview,washybris(arrogance).LikeCroesus,Xerxesimaginedhimself onthesamelevelasthegods.HedaredtobridgetheformidableHellespont.Thus

thegodswerethoughttohaveaidedtheGreeksindefeatingXerxes,andhewas thoughttohaveearnedhishumiliation.TheplaywrightAeschylus,whofoughtat SalamisaswellasMarathon,alsoportraysXerxesasresponsibleforthedeathof manynoblePersiansbecauseofhisfolly.In472BCheproducedatragedy,The Persians,inwhichheremindedtheAtheniansoftheirroleindefeatingthePersians andcelebratedthevaluesforwhichtheyhadfoughtlibertyasopposedtoslavery, responsibledemocraticgovernmentasopposedtocapriciousautocracyand monarchy. Theplayalsocontainsavividdescriptionofthebattleitself.Inreconstructingthe eventsofthePersianwars,PlutarchslivesofAristidesandThemistoclesarealsoof somevalue,dependentastheywereonsourcesnowlosttous.Byfarthebulkofour knowledge,however,comesfromHerodotussweepingHistories.Thefirst continuousextantprosenarrativeintheGreeklanguage,Herodotuswork,richin detailandresonantwithmanyimportantthemes,tracedtheconflictbetweenEast andWesttobeforetheTrojanWar.Theauthorsresearchesextendedfarinbothtime andspace,dealingindepthwiththeconsolidationofPersia,thegrowthofGreece, andeventhecustomsofEgypt(whichmayoriginallyhavebeencontainedina separatework).BornofthemarriageofIonianinquisitivenesswiththecreativityof theAthenianenlightenment,HerodotusHistorieswasonlyonereflectionofthe extraordinaryburstofenergythateruptedamongtheGreeksaftertheirsurprising victoryoverthewealthyandpowerfulempirethathadsoughttobringthemintoits orbit. 197 Document5.1ThechorusfromAeschylussPersians(472BC) AeschylustooktheoccasionofhisdramaaboutSalamistostressthedifferences betweeneasterndespotismandwhatheconceivedasGreekfreedom.Herethe chorusofPersianelderslamentsPersiasdefeatbyGreece: TheythroughouttheAsianland NolongerPersianlawsobey, Nolongerlordlytributeyield, Exactedbynecessity; Norsufferruleassuppliants, Toearthobeisancenevermake: Lostisthekinglypower. Nay,nolongeristhetongue Imprisonedkept,butloosearemen, Whenloosetheyokeofpowersbound, Tobawltheirliberty. ButAjaxisle,spilledwithblood

Itsearth,andwashedroundbysea, HoldstheremainsofPersia. ThePersians584596;translatedbySethBenardete,inDavidGreneandRichmond Lattimore,eds.,TheCompleteGreekTragedies,vol.1,Aeschylus.Chicago:University ofChicagoPress,1959. TheAthenianslatercelebratedtheirtriumphoverthePersiansinthereliefsculptures oftheParthenon,thetemplebuilttohonortheirgoddessAthena.Thereliefsonthe foursidesofthebuildingshowedbattles:thegodsagainstthegiants;theGreeks againsttheAmazons;theLapiths(aGreekpeople)againstthehalfhuman,half horsemalesknownasCentaurs;andtheGreeksagainsttheTrojans,areferenceto thestruggleagainstthePersians,whoalsolivedintheeast.ThustheAthenians elevatedtheirvictorytomythicalstatus,perhapsbecomingguiltyofhybris themselves. *** AlthoughGreekhistoricalsourcestendtodepictPersianhistoryasthegradual degenerationofthemightyempireestablishedbyCyrustheGreat,asweshallsee, thePersianswerenotdecisivelydefeatedbyEuropeanforcesuntiltheirconquestby AlexandertheGreat(from334323BC).Theycontinuedtoplayaninfluentialrolein Greekpolitics,bothincivicdisputesandinrivalriesbetweenGreekstates,favoring nowoneside,nowanother,providingrefugeforexilesandsoldiersoffortune includingtheAtheniansHippias,Themistocles,Alcibiades,andXenophonandthe SpartansDemaratus,Pausanias,Lysander,andAgesilaus. 198 TheSpartanvictoryinthePeloponnesianWarofthelatefifthcenturywouldhave beenimpossiblewithoutPersianbacking,andtherelationsofthepoleisduringthe fourthcenturyareimpossibletounderstandwithoutawatchfuleyeonPersian involvementinGreekaffairs.Persiaheldspecialattractionsfordisaffected,greedy, orexiledSpartans,notonlybecauseitofferedaluxuriouswayoflife,butbecauseof somesimilaritiesinsocialstructure.BothPersiaandSpartawerestable,hierarchical, classsocietiesinwhichsocialmobilitywasvirtuallyimpossible.Bothsocieties dependeduponeconomicexploitationofvastnumbersofpeoplebytherelatively fewmembersoftheupperclass,who,inturn,wereforcedintoamilitaristicwayof lifeinordertoperpetuatethesystem.Thiswayoflife,however,wasanathematothe volatile,mercurialIonians. Theunanticipatedsuccessofthelittlecitystatesoverthemonolithicempirehadlittle impactinPersia,butinGreeceitwouldgivebirthtoacivilizationofextraordinary brillianceandoriginality.TheunitythePersianempirehadsparked,however,would

proveshortlived,anditsfragilitywouldplacelimitsonhowlongthiscivilization couldendure. TRANSLATIONS Blanco,Walter.1992.TheHistories,fromHerodotus:TheHistories,WalterBlancoand JenniferRoberts,eds.NewYork:W.W.Norton. Grene,David.1987.TheHistory:Herodotus.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress. JamesonM.,ADecreeofThemistoclesfromTroizen,Hesperia29(1960)200201, modifiedbyP.Green.1970.XerxesatSalamis.NewYorkandLondon:Praeger. ScottKilvert,Ian.1960.TheRiseandFallofAthens:NineGreekLivesbyPlutarch. Harmondsworth,England:Penguin. SUGGESTEDREADING Bonner,R.J.andGertrudeSmith.1968.TheAdministrationofJusticefromHomerto Aristotle.ReprintedNewYork:GreenwoodPress.Aclassicstudyofthelegalsystems ofancientGreece. Cook,J.M.ThePersianEmpire.1983.London:J.M.Dent.Ahistorythatprovidesvital backgroundinunderstandingfifthcenturyPersia. Fornara,Charles.1971.Herodotus:AnInterpretiveEssay.Oxford:Clarendon.A thoughtfulstudyofthefirstsurvivinghistorianofGreece. Forrest,W.G.1966.TheEmergenceofGreekDemocracy.NewYorkandToronto: McGrawHill.AlivelyandreadableanalysisofthegovernmentsoftheGreekcity states. Green,Peter.1970.XerxesatSalamis.NewYorkandLondon:Praeger(alsoreleasedas TheYearofSalamis).AdramaticaccountofXerxesinvasionbyaneminentscholar whohasdonemuchtobringGreekhistoryaliveforthegeneralreadingpublic. 199 Hignett,Charles.1963.XerxesInvasionofGreece.Oxford:Clarendon.Ananalysisof GreekandPersianstrategy. Lenardon,Robert.1978.TheSagaofThemistocles.London:ThamesandHudson.The lifeoftheinnovativeandirreverentpolitician.

Stanton,G.R.1990.AthenianPoliticsc.800500BC:ASourcebook.LondonandNew York:Routledge.Averyusefulcollectionofsourcesthattracestheevolutionofthe Athenianstate. 200 6 THERIVALRIESOFTHEGREEKCITYSTATESANDTHEGROWTHOF ATHENIANDEMOCRACY InthestruggletopreventaPersiantakeoverofGreece,apowerfulsenseofHellenic identitywasforged.Eagertopreventathirdinvasion,anumberofGreekstates enteredintoanalliance,theDelianLeague,ledbytheAthenians,whosenaval strengthhadbeeninstrumentalinwinningthewar.BecausetheAthenians controlledtheLeaguestreasury,theriseinAthensprestigeandselfassurance occasionedbythewarwasnowcompoundedbyasharpincreaseinthecityswealth. TributefromtheLeaguefacilitatedstatepayforpublicservicesuchasjuryduty, thusexpandingthenumberofmenwhocouldaffordtoparticipateingovernment. Thefactthatthelowerclasscitizenswhorowedthetriremeswerebecoming increasinglypivotaltothecityswellbeingalsomadeitdifficultfortherichand wellborntomaintaintheirtraditionalmonopolyonpoliticalpower.Democratic reformsconsequentlyunderminedtheedgewealthyaristocratsenjoyedinpolitics, thoughnothingwhateverwasdonetoremovethecivicdisabilitiesofwomenorto abolishslavery.Indeed,Athensimperialventuresprobablyincreasedthenumberof slavesinAttica,andthestatusofwomenseemstohavedeclinedwiththegrowthof equalityamongcitizenmales. DuringthedecadesthatfollowedXerxesdefeat,moreover,Athensbecameamajor culturalcenter.TouristscamefromalloverGreecetoobservethetragedies performedinhonorofthegodDionysus,andsomeofthemoneyAthensreceivedto policetheseaswasdivertedtothecelebrationofreligiousfestivalsandtothe erectionofmagnificentpublicbuildingssuchasthetempletoAthenacalledthe Parthenon;fortheGreeksdeliverancefromPersianautocracythegodsreceived amplethanks.ThetragediansAeschylus,Euripides,andSophocleswereallbornin Athens,aswasthecomicdramatistAristophanes,thesculp 201 torPhidias,andthehistorianThucydides.ManyGreekthinkerslikethehistorian HerodotusandthephilosopherAnaxagorascamefromelsewheretoenjoyand enhancewhatAthenshadtooffer. Althoughitexertedamagneticforceonmanyoftheartistsandintellectualsof Greece,Athenswasfarfromtheonlysitethatcouldboastmajorattractions.At

Delphi,forexample,donorsgratefulfordeliverancefromPersiasetupsplendid monumentsandcommissionedsuperbworksofart.Olympiaremainedavital religiouscenteraswell;thegameswereextendedtofivedays,andafterits completionin456participantscouldalsoworshipattheimposingtempleofZeus. DemocraciessimilartothatevolvingatAthensdevelopedinanumberofplaces, mostprominentlySyracuseinSicily,andthroughouttheGreekworldintellectuals couldbefoundbringingnewideastobirth.WhileSocrateswasaskingquestions aboutjusticeandthehumancommunityinthestreetsofAthens,ontheislandofCos Hippocrateswasinvestigatingmedicineandthehumanbody. SOURCESFORTHEDECADESAFTERTHEPERSIANWARS WhileGreekcultureflourishedthroughouttheAegean,however,tensionsbetween AthensandSpartamarredthescene.NoSpartanwritersoftheClassicalperiodhave leftusrecordsoftheirviewoftheworldorevenofthehistoryandhabitsoftheir country.ForfourthcenturySpartatheAthenianexpatriateXenophonprovides considerableinformation,sincehisnaturalaffinitieswereinmanywaysSpartan ratherthanAthenianandhelivedformanyyearsinthePeloponnesusafterbeing exiledfromAthens.OfcoursesomeofwhathehadtosayaboutSpartansocietyis applicabletothefifthcenturyaswell.Butintermsofforeignpolicyanddomestic development,fifthcenturySpartaremainsanenigmawhosestorycanbe reconstructedonlyinpart,usingsnatchesfromcontemporaryAthenianssuchas ThucydidesorfrommuchlaterwriterslikePlutarch.EvenPlutarchwithhis penchantforbiographydidnotwritethelivesoffifthcenturySpartans(withthe exceptionofLysander,whospannedthefifthandfourthcenturies),andmuchof whathehastosayaboutSpartaisembeddedinhislivesofAthenianstatesmen. SourcesforAthensarefuller.Thoughthereisnodetailedhistoryofthedecadesthat followedthedefeatofPersia,awealthofinscriptionssurvivethatilluminateboth domesticandforeignpolicy,andthesectionsdealingwiththisperiodinthefirst bookofThucydidesHistory,thoughsketchy,areenormouslyuseful.Herodotus shedslightonthefirstmonthsaftertheendofthePersianinvasion.Some informationcanalsobegleanedfromtheLibraryofHistorycomposedbyDiodorusof Sicily,wholivedshortlybeforethebirthofChristandmadeuseofthefourth centuryGreekhistorianEphorus,whoseworkisnowlost.Factspreservedinthe workofEphorusandofotherlosthistorianswhowroteduringthe 202 fifthandfourthcenturiesandhadmarkedbiasessometimespopupinPlutarchs livesofAthenianpoliticians.PlutarchwrotethelivesofThemistocles,Aristides, Cimon,andPericles.

Literarysourcesfordaytodaylifeandpopularcultureduringthefifthcenturyare meagerindeed.Muchofwhatweknowhasbeeninferredfromthecomediesof Aristophanesandtheancientcommentariesonthembyeditorsknownasscholiasts. Artandarchaeologyalsoofferinsightsintohowpeoplelivedandwhatthey cherished;vasepainting,forexample,depictednotonlymythologicalepisodesbut scenesfromdailylife.Theorganizationofpublicandprivatespacerevealsagreat dealaboutcivicandfamilylife.Muchofwhatweknowofcustomsandnormsinthe fifthcentury,however,hastobeextrapolatedfromtheratherricherevidenceforthe fourth.Aboutthelivesofwomen,slaves,andpoorpeopleweknowmuchlessthan wewouldlike.NoAthenianwoman,forexample,hasleftusawrittenrecordofher thoughtsordoings. THEAFTERMATHOFTHEPERSIANWARSANDTHEFOUNDATIONOFTHE DELIANLEAGUE WeknowfromHerodotusthataftertheirvictoryoverthePersiansatPlataeain479 BCtheGreekalliessetupamonumentatDelphimadeofthreeintertwinedbronze serpents.CenturieslatertheRomanemperorConstantinemovedthisimportant monumenttoConstantinople,whereitstillstandstodayprominentlydisplayedin thecentralsquarecalledtheHippodromeinIstanbul.Onitscoilswereinscribedthe nameofthethirtyoneGreekstatesthathadstoodfastagainstthePersians.The GreeksagreedthatPlataeashouldhenceforthbeconsideredsacredland,dedicated toZeustheLiberatoringratitudeforthevictoryoverPersia. FirstamongthethirtyonestateslistedontheserpentcolumnwereSpartaand Athens.TheroleoftheAtheniannavyinbeatingbackthePersianshadradically alteredthebalanceofpowerinGreece,anditwasuncertainhowtheSpartanswould accommodatethisshift.ThucydidesreportsthatwhentheAtheniansbeganto rebuildthewallsthatthePersianshaddemolished,Spartasallies,madenervousby thesizeoftheAtheniansnavyandbythedaringtheyhadshownduringthewar, pressuredtheSpartanstosendanembassytoAthenstodissuadetheAtheniansfrom fortifyingtheircity.Puttingforwardthebizarreargumentthatawalledcitycouldbe usedasabasebythePersiansshouldtheyreturn,theSpartansarguedthatnocity outsidethePeloponnesusshouldhavewalls,andindeedinvitedtheAtheniansto jointheminrazingthewallsofanynonPeloponnesiancityinordertoprotect GreecemoreeffectivelyagainstPersia.Notsurprisingly,theAtheniansfoundthis lineofreasoningunpersuasive,andworkonthewallscontinued,withThemistocles reportedlydeceivingthequerulousSpartanswithfalsedenialsuntilthefortifications werefirmlyinplace. 203 TheContinuingPersianThreat:ConflictsoverGreekLeadership

AsiftheAthenianswerenotenjoyingasufficientriseinprestigeaftertheroletheir navyhadplayedinrepellingthePersianinvasion,developmentsintheHellespont sooncatapultedthemtostillgreaterheights.DespitethepreponderanceofAthenian ships,bycustomaSpartanstillcommandedthefleetoftheHellenicLeague.While theLeaguesfleetwasatByzantiumin478seekingtoconsolidateGreekpowerinthe east,theGreeksunderhiscommandbegantocomplainbitterlyaboutPausanias, regentforLeonidasunderagesonPleistarchus.Heconductedhimself,theyalleged, likeaneasternpotentate,dressinglikeaPersianandfortifyinghispositionwitha bodyguardofMedesandEgyptians.Hewasalsoaccusedofexchangingtreacherous letterswithKingXerxes.(Thucydidesactuallyquotesthesupposedtext,butitis difficulttoseehowtheletterswouldhavebeenavailabletohimoranyotherGreek.) Pausaniasmayhavebeenguiltyoftreasonorhemaynot;whatiscertainisthathis lackoftactalienatedtheGreeksservingunderhim,particularlytheIonians,whohad onlyrecentlybeenfreedfromthePersiankingandwereespeciallysensitivetothe trappingsofdespotism.HavingappealedtoAthenstotakeovertheleadershipofthe fleet,theGreekswereunmovedbythearrivalofDorcis,whomtheSpartanshad optimisticallysentouttoreplacethedisgracedPausanias.Inthiswaytheleadership ofthefleetpassedintowillingAthenianhandsadevelopmentmanypeopleinthe alliedstateswouldcometoregret. InevitablytheSpartansweredividedaboutthisturnofevents.Tosomenodoubtthe containmentofPersiawithoutundueSpartanexertionwasanappealingprospect. ThroughoutClassicalhistory,theunderlyingthreatofahelotrebellioninhibited Spartanambitionsintheeast.Others,however,werestungbytheblowtoSpartan prestigeandfoundtheAtheniansgrowingpowerominousandunsettling. InAthens,ontheotherhand,therewaslittlecauseforambivalence.Becausea shortageoffertilelandmadetheAthenianeconomydependentongrainfrom Ukraine,safeguardingtheHellespontandthenorthernAegeanfromPersiawasof supremeimportance.Inaddition,theAtheniansenjoyedapowerfulsentimental attachmenttotheircousinstheIonianGreeks,andabandoningthemtoPersianrule wouldbothfeelbadandlookbad.Athens,moreover,hadseenitsterritoryravaged bythePersians,anexperienceSpartahadbeenspared.Forallthesereasonsthe Atheniansconsidereditintheirinteresttoassumeleadershipofthenavalforces. TheDelianLeague Analliancewasconsequentlyformedwhich,thoughithadnonameatthetime,later cametobecalledtheDelianLeaguebecauseitstreasurywasoriginallylocatedon theislandofDelosintheAegean.In477representativesfromAthensanddozensof otherstatesmetatDelosandtookoathsbindingthemselvesinto 204

anorganizationdesignedtofightthePersians.Thealliedstatesenteredintoatreaty withAthens,whichagreedinexchangeforannualcontributionsinshipsormoneyto leadtheleagueinmilitaryoperationsagainstPersiawhilesimultaneouslyrespecting theinternalautonomyofeachpolisinthealliance.Policywastobeestablishedbya leagueassembly(inwhicheachstatehadonevoteregardlessofitssize).Itwouldbe executed,however,byanAthenianhighcommandthatwouldalsocontrolthe treasury.Thusfromthebeginning,powerintheleaguewasconcentratedin Athenianhands.ThesmallsizeofGreekstatesisreflectedinthenumberofpoleis whoenrolledintheallianceprobablyabout150.Numerousstatesalsodeclinedto join,particularlythosewhosefearoftheAtheniansoutweighedanyapprehension aboutPersia,andthosethatdecidedtorelyfortheirsecurityontheirmembershipin thePeloponnesianLeague.AswascustomaryinGreekalliances,allstatessworeto havethesamefriendsandenemies.Theassociation,moreover,wasconceivedas permanent.WhereasthegoalsofthePeloponnesianLeaguehadneverbeendefined, thoseoftheDelianLeaguewerefairlyclearcontainmentofPersia,thegatheringof bootyascompensationfordamagesdonetoGreeceduringthewar,andsimple revenge. InviewofthepersonalityproblemsthathadbroughtdownPausanias(andwithhim Spartannavalleadership),itwasparticularlyfortunatefortheAtheniansthatthey hadattheirdisposalamanasfamousforhisprobityandaffabilityasAristides.It washewhowaschargedwithassessingeachstatesappropriatecontributiontothe leaguetreasury.SomeofthelargerstatessuchasLesbos,Samos,Chios,Naxos,and Thasoschosetomaketheircontributionsinships;mostpreferredtopaycashdirectly tothetempleofApolloatDelos.Astimepassed,someofthebiggerpoleisconverted tocashpayments,andperiodicallythetributeassessmentwasrevised.Fundswere inthecareoftenAthenianmagistratesknownashellnotamiai(treasurersofthe Greeks).Althoughrecordsofthetributepaidintheleaguesfirstyearsarelacking,it ispossibletotrackthehistoryofpaymentsbeginningin454throughthe compendiumthatsurvivestodaycalledtheAthenianTributeLists,actuallylistsofthe onesixtiethofeachcontributionthatwasdedicatedtothegoddessAthena;these figuresmultipliedby60givethesizeofeachstatescontributioninagivenyear. FromDelianLeaguetoAthenianEmpire ThoughitwasThemistoclesfarseeingnavalpolicythatprovidedthebaseonwhich theDelianLeaguewasbuilt,itsheroeswerehisrivals,thereveredAristidesand MiltiadesamiablesonCimon,whoprovedhimselfanestimablegeneral.Forovera quartercenturyuntilCimonsdeathin450theLeaguefoughtagainstPersiaand, underCimonsleadership,expelledthePersiansfromEuropeandmadeitimpossible forthemtoestablishnavalbasesinIonia.In476CimonsetoutwiththeLeagues navyforthenortheast.HisaimsweretoexpelthePersiansfromallThrace,banish troublesomepiratesfromtheislandofScyros,andcleartheroutetotheHellespont

ofanyobstacles.ThefortressofEionontheStrymonRiverwastakenwithlittle difficulty.TheAtheniansthenmovedagainst 205 Figure6.1.TheAthenianempireatitsheight. Scyros,arockyislandeastofEuboeainhabitedbypirates.Enslavingthepiratesand theirfamilies,theyestablishedontheislandthekindofcolonythatwasknownasa cleruchy.UnlikemostGreekcolonies,whichwerefullyautonomousand independentofthemothercity,cleruchieswereineffectpartofAthenianterritory, foralltheirinhabitants(calledcleruchs)retainedtheirAtheniancitizenship. GenerallychosenbythegovernmentfromamongpoorAthenians,eachcleruchwas grantedaparcelofland(aklros,hencethewordcleruch)adequatetomaintainhim inSolonsthirdclass,thatofthezeugitai,andhencequalifyhimforserviceasa hopliteinfantryman.Cleruchiesfilledadoublefunction:theyprovidedanoutletfor thedisaffectedandpotentiallydangerouspoor,andtheyoperatedasgarrisonsinthe empiretodiscouragerebellionfromAthens. WhileinScyrosCimonalsoorganizedasearchforthebonesofKingTheseus,who accordingtoGreektraditionhaddiedthere,fortheDelphicoraclehadcom 206 Figure6.2.SectionofAthenianTributeListinscriptionshowingpaymentsfor 433432BC.ThecitizensofMykonos,Andros,Siphnos,Syros,Styra,Eretria, Grynches,andRheneiaarelistedhere. mandedthattheAtheniansretrievetheseremainsandhonorthemassacredrelics. Histriumphantannouncementthathehadindeedmanagedtofindthekings remainswonhimenormouspopularityinAthens.Plutarchtellsthetaleinhislifeof Theseus: [Cimon]caughtsightofaneagle,ataplacewhichhadtheappearanceofamound, peckingatthegroundwithitsbeakandtearingitupwithitstalons,andbysome divineinspirationheconcludedthattheyshoulddigatthisplace.Theretheyfounda coffinofamanofgiganticsizeand,lyingbesideit,abronzespearandasword. WhenCimonbroughttheserelicshomeonboardhistrireme,theAthenianswere overjoyedandwelcomedthemwithmagnificentprocessionsandsacrifices,as thoughtheherohimselfwerereturningtohiscity. (Theseus36;ScottKilvert1960)

Theseusbecametheobjectofathrivingherocult,andfromthenonCimonmadea pointofboastingofhisconnectiontohimwheneverpossible. ShortlyafterwardtheAtheniansandtheiralliessailedagainstCarystusin southwesternEuboea,compellingthecitytojointheDelianLeague.Sometimelater whentheislandofNaxosdecidedtoleavetheLeague,theAtheniansforcibly preventeditswithdrawal.DefeatedbythesuperiorforcesoftheLeague,theNaxians sawtheirwallsdismantledandtheirfleetconfiscated.Henceforththeirtributewould bepaidinmoney,notships.Thesetwodevelopmentshighlighttheproblematic natureoftheDelianLeague.Astrongcasecouldbemadeandwasmadethatsince allGreekstatesbenefitedfromtheexistenceoftheLeague,allshouldpaytributeand supportitsfleet.Againstthisargument,however,resentfulpoleisadducedtheir righttomaketheirowndeterminationsabouttheextentofthePersianperil. 207 BecausetheLeaguesexistencewasjustifiedonlybytheneedforcontinued protectionofGreecefromthePersians,moreover,aproblemwouldbecreatedforthe AtheniansifCimonandhisnavydidtoogoodajobofsquelchinganydesignsPersia mighthaveonGreece,fordramaticsuccessinthisendeavorwouldeliminatethe needforanexpensiveantiPersianalliance.SuspicionsthatthecostlyLeaguemight haveoutliveditsusefulnessmountedwhenaround467thePersianforceswerebadly beatenbythoseofCimonatthemouthoftheEurymedonRiverinsouthernAsia Minor.AfterdestroyingthetwohundredPhoenicianshipsfightingonthePersian side,CimonsmenlandedanddefeatedthePersianarmy;theythencapturedeighty shipsthatwerecomingfromCyprusasreinforcements.Cimonwasnowtheheroof thehour,andhissupportersinAthenswerequicktoidentifyhisexploitsatthe BattleoftheEurymedonasyetanotherchapterintheconflictbetweenEastandWest thathadbegunwiththeTrojanWaranothercontestthathadculminatedinaGreek victoryinAsia. GreekLeadersinTroubleAgain:ThemistoclesandPausanias ThoughhisstunningvictoryattheEurymedondidmuchforCimonspopularityin Athens,italsoencourageddefectionsfromtheLeague.Cimonssuccessprobably playedaroleintherevoltin465oftheimportantislandofThasos,locatedjustoff Thrace,buteconomicconsiderationsalsocontributedtotensionsbetweenthe ThasiansandtheAthenians,forbothhopedtocontroltheminesofThrace.After forcingtheThracianChersoneseintotheLeague,Cimonhadattemptedtofounda colonyontheStrymonataplaceknownasEnneaHodoi(TheNineWays),an importantlinkontheroutetotheminesonMountPangaeusandindeedtothe Bosporusitself.TheThracians,however,setuponthecolonistsandkilledthem.The subsequentrevoltofThasoswasquelledonlyafterasiegeoftwoyears.Whenthe

ThasiansfinallysurrenderedtoCimon,theywerecompelledtoyieldtheminesand theirships,payingtributehenceforthincashcashthatcouldnotberaisedfromthe mines,whichwerenowbackinAthenianhands.AthenianactivitiesinThasosalso gaverisetoaninterestingpoliticaltrialinAthens.Despitehisreputationfor incorruptibility,Cimonwasimpeachedbyhisenemiesonthegroundsthatbribes fromKingAlexanderofMacedonwereresponsibleforhisdecisionnottousehis baseinthenorthtoinvadeMacedonia.Cimonwasapparentlyacquitted,butoneof thepublicprosecutorschosentoarguethecaseagainstthepopularadmiralwas Pericles,ayoungmanwhowouldbecomethemostdistinguishedstatesmanof ClassicalAthens. TheAtheniansrefusaltopermitstatestoremainalooffromtheLeague,combined withthegradualconversionoftributepaymentsfromshipstomoney,sentan increasinglyclearmessagethatAthensruledtheseaandwasconvertingthenaval allianceintoanempire.AlthoughAthenianleadersseemtohavebeenlargelyofone mindaboutthemeritsofnavalimperialism,however,theyweredividedabout AthensproperrelationshiptoSparta.Theseconflicts,moreover, 208 weretiedtodisagreementsaboutthefurtherdemocratizationofAthenianpolitical life.AlthoughsourcesforAthenianpoliticsduringthesedecadesaresparse,some underlyingfaultlinesarediscernible:Themistoclesencouragedcompetitionwith Spartaandthedevelopmentofdemocracy,wheresCimonfavoredSpartaand opposedanyfurtherdemocratization. SpartahadhelpedIsagorasinhisbattlewithCleisthenesfortheprivilegeof redefiningtheAthenianbodypolitic,plottingtodisbandtheboul(theCouncilof FiveHundred)andentrustthegovernmenttoanoligarchyofthreehundred.But SpartahadalsodrivenoutthePeisistratids,andmanyAtheniansviewedSpartaas theirnaturalallySparta,whosekingLeonidasandhissteadfastmenatarmshad boughttimeforAtticaatThermopylae,layingdowntheirlivessothatGreecemight remainfree.Inbothfactandmemory,theunionofAthensandSpartahadplayedan importantpartinthedefeatofPersia(thoughnaturallythingslookeddifferentto Themistocles,whosechiefinvolvementinthewarwasatSalamis,fromwhichthe Peloponnesianshadsoughttoflee,abandoningAtticatoitsfate).Theforcesin AthensfavoringwarmrelationswithSpartaandopposingtheincreasingly democratictrendinthegovernmentwerestrong.SowasThemistoclespersonality: hissharptongueandquicknesstoclaimcreditforhisachievementsplayedintothe handsofhisenemies,anditseemsthathewasostracizedaround471BC.Probably heusedhisenforcedabsencefromAthenstofomentdiscontentandperhapssome democratizationinthePeloponnesus,hopingtounderminethepositionofSparta.In the460stheSpartansandAtheniansunitedagainsthim:theSpartansprovided

evidencethatpurportedtoshowthatheandPausaniaswereengagedintreasonable correspondencewiththePersianking.InalllikelihoodPausaniaswasguiltyand Themistoclesinnocent,butwhentheAtheniansrecalledhimfromArgostostand trialandhefoundnoplaceinGreecethatwouldharborhim,Themistoclesfledto XerxessuccessorArtaxerxes.HediedinPersiaabouttenyearslater,substantially outlivingPausanias,whowaswalledupbyhisenragedcountrymeninashrinein whichhehadtakenrefuge,anddiedofstarvation. Document6.1ThucydidesrecountsthestoryofPausaniasdeathinhishistoryofthe PeloponnesianWar.Theephors,hewrites,intendedtoarrestPausaniasinthecity: ThestorycontinuesthatasPausaniaswasabouttobearrestedonthestreethesaw theexpressiononthefaceofoneoftheephorscomingtowardhimandknewwhy theywerecoming,whileanother,sympathetic,ephorgaveitawaywithaslightnod. HethenescapedtosafetybyrunningtotheTempleoftheGoddessoftheBrass House,thegroundsofwhichwerenearby.Toavoidexposuretotheweather,he wentintoasmallbuildingwhichformedapartofthetempleandstayedthere.The ephorsweretoolateto 209 catchhimjustthen,buttheyafterwardtoretheroofoffthebuildingand,making surethathewasinside,theyremovedthedoors,walledhimin,encircledtheplace andproceededtostarvehimtodeath.Whentheyfoundoutthathewasabouttodie inthatroom,theystartedtoleadhimoutofthetemplewhiletherewasstillsome breathinhim.Assoonashewasout,hedied. ThePeloponnesianWar1.134;translatedbyWalterBlanco,inWalterBlancoand JenniferRoberts,eds.,Thucydides:ThePeloponnesianWar.NewYork: W.W.Norton,1998. FurtherConflictsatAthens:TheFallofCimonandtheReformsofEphialtes HavingridthemselvesofakeenandcolorfulpoliticianinThemistocles,the AthenianswereleftwiththegenialandgentlemanlyCimon.Themistoclesand Cimonwereoppositesineveryway.TheconventionalCimonnamedhisson LacedaemoniuswhileThemistoclescasthiseyesfartherwestwardandnamedhis daughtersSybarisandItalia.SlowwhereThemistocleshadbeenquick,and courteouswhereThemistocleshadbeeninsolent,Cimonwasnointellectual,buthe hadaflairforgeneralship.Becauseofhismilitaryreputation,hecontinuedto commandagooddealofrespectintheAthenianassemblyevenafterthe developmentofacalculatinganddeterminedcoalitionledbyEphialtes,whose purposewastobreakwithSpartaandfurtherthegrowthofdemocracy.

ForsomeyearsEphialtesandhisassociateshadbeenmakingattacksonindividual membersofthevenerableandaristocraticCounciloftheAreopagus;Cimonstrial needstobeplacedinthiscontext.In462,notlongafterCimonsreturnfromThasos andimpeachmentbyPericles,matterscametoahead.Twoyearsearlier,whenan earthquakeinSpartakilledthousandsofpeopleanddestroyedmosthouses,the helotshadseizedthemomentandrevolted.Unabletodislodgetherebelsfromtheir strongholdonMountIthome,theSpartansappealedforaidtothecitieswithwhich theywerestilltechnicallyalliedbythetermsoftheHellenicLeagueformedin481 forthedefenseofGreeceduringthePersianwars.TheAthenianslookedlike promisingassociates,fortheywerereputedtobebetterthanmostatsiegewarfare, thoughstandardsofexcellenceinthisbranchoftacticswerelowinClassicalGreece, wheresiegesweregenerallyprolongedandtedious. SpartasrequesttouchedoffavigorousdebateintheAthenianassembly.Cimon,it seems,defendedthetimehonoredalliancebetweenAthensandSparta,imploring theAtheniansnottoallowGreecetogolame,ortheirowncitybedeprivedofits yokefellow,whileEphialtesexhortedhisfellowcitizenstolet 210 Spartaspridebetrampledunderfoot(PlutarchCimon16.8;ScottKilvert1960). Cimoncarriedtheday,andhemarchedofftoSpartabackedbyfourthousand hoplites.ButsomethingaboutthewaytheAtheniansoldiersconductedthemselves inSpartasparkedpanicintheconservativeandfundamentallyxenophobicpeople theyhadcometohelp.Aloneamongtheallies,theAtheniansweresenthome.Their abruptdismissalimperiledwhatharmonyhadbeenachievedamongtheGreek states.AthensnowmadeanalliancewithSpartasenemyArgos;Cimon,moreover, wasostracizedforhismiscalculation,leavinganopenhighwayforEphialtesandhis associates.IftheSpartanswerealarmedbytheAtheniansinnovativeandforward lookingwaysofconstruingtheworld,theydidabadjobofsquelchingthese.The endofCimonsascendancymarkedthebeginninginAthensoffullblown democracy,takingdemocracyintheGreeksenseofdiffusingpoliticalpower throughoutthemalecitizenbody,withnovotesforwomen,nocitizenshipfor immigrants,andslavesinabundance.Ironically,moreover,thenavalascendancy thatCimonhaddonesomuchtodevelopplayedalargeroleinfosteringthe democraticreformsheopposed.Cimonseemstohavesupportedamoderatehoplite democracy,thatis,governmentbythosewhocouldaffordtoprovidetheirown weaponsandarmor.Thesuccessofhisnavaloperations,however,underlinedthe increasingimportancetothestateofthemenwhorowedthetriremes(some moderatelypoor,someindigent),adevelopmentthatservedtounderminetheold fashionedsystemofpowerfollowingpropertyandcontributedtoitsreplacementby amorebroadlybasedformofgovernment.

EphialteswasabletoseizeonthediscreditingofCimonspoliciesbypassingsome significantdemocraticreforms.Thoughthedetailsremainobscure,weknowina generalsensethathesubstantiallydiminishedthepowerandprestigeoftheancient CounciloftheAreopagus.TimehadalreadydonesomeofEphialtesworkforhim: sincetheAreopagusconsistedofexarchons,ithadbeengrowinglessandless aristocraticwitheachyearthathadpassedsince486whentheAthenianshadbegun selectingarchonsbylot.Itsmembers,however,heldpowerforlife,andthenewer, poorerAreopagitesmaywellhavebeencooptedintothevaluesystemoftheir aristocraticelders.AttheinstigationofEphialtes,theassemblypassedmeasures constrictingthejurisdictionofthisbody,transferringmanyofitsfunctionstothe boul,theekklsia,andthebodyofprospectivejurorsknownasthehliaia.Ephialtes wascareful,however,toshowrespectforitsvenerablehistoryandlongtraditionsby leavingitwithjurisdictionoverhomicideandsomereligiousmatters. Shortlyafterthesereformswereenacted,menwhopresumablydislikedtheturnthe governmentwastakingarrangedforEphialtesassassination.WithEphialtesdeath, hisassociatePericlesseemstohaveassumedleadershipofthelooselyorganized politicalgrouptowhichwegivethesomewhatmisleadingtermparty.Withthe exceptionoftwoyears,PericlesremainedtheleadingpoliticianinAthensfrom roughly461tohisdeathin429,beingelectedrepeatedlyasoneofthetenstrategoi. 211 THEFIRST(UNDECLARED)PELOPONNESIANWAR(460445BC) PericlestooktheleadinshapingAthenianpolicythroughoutthedecadeduring whichAthenschosetowagewarwithboththePersianempireandthe PeloponnesianLeague.HostilitieswithPersiasurvivedCimonsostracism,while tensionswithSpartaanditsalliesescalated.Theperiodfrom460to445BCis sometimesknownastheFirstPeloponnesianWar,anundeclaredwarbetweenthe AthenianandSpartanleaguesthatreallyconsistedofaseriesofbattlesoften punctuatedbyconsiderableintervalsofpeace.(ThefamousPeloponnesianWar, whichwasfoughtfairlysteadilyfortwentysevenyearsfrom431to404,wasreally theSecondPeloponnesianWar.)Thefactthathistorianshavelabeledthewaras PeloponnesianreflectsthefactthattheprincipalsourcesareAthenian;justaswe knowtheTrojanWarandthePersianwarsfromtheGreekstandpointanddonot normallycallthemtheGrecoTrojanorGrecoPersianWars,theAthenoSpartanWar hascometobeknownasthePeloponnesianWar,thoughThucydideshimselfcalled itthewaroftheAtheniansandthePeloponnesians. AthensConflictswithItsNeighbors AthensneighborMegaraplayedanimportantroleinbothPeloponnesianwars Atticashareditswesternborderwiththissmallbutpivotalpolisthatseparatedit

fromCorinth.Acommercialstatepoorinagriculturalresources,Megarawasatrade rivalofAthens.Megaraspositionmadeitvulnerable,butitalsogaveitpower. AthensandCorinthdidnotalwaysgetalong,andCorinthwithitssubstantialnavy wasanindispensableallyoflandlockedSparta.ThevacillationsofMegarawould haveseriousrepercussionsforallGreeksthroughoutthefifthcentury.Controlledby aprodemocraticfaction,aroundthetimeofEphialtesdeathMegaradecidedtoally itselfwithAthenstoobtainprotectionfromthedesignsofCorinth.Alarmedbythe AthenianspossessionoftheMegarianportofPegaeontheCorinthianGulf,from whichitwaseasytosailtothewest,theCorinthiansbecamestillmoreagitatedatthe upshotofthehelotrebellionthathadfollowedtheearthquakeinthePeloponnesus. ForwhenthehelotsonMountIthomefinallysurrenderedonconditionthattheybe permittedtoleavethePeloponnesus,theAthenianssettledthematNaupactusnear themouthoftheGulf,onthenorthernshore.ThisboldactiongavetheAtheniansyet anotherfootholdforwestwardpenetrationanddroveanadditionalwedgeintothe Corinthianssphereofinfluence.Withthetwostateslockedincommercialrivalry, movesthatpromisedtoexpandtheterritoryeasilyaccessibletoAthenianshipping wereboundtosparkhostilityinCorinth,anditwaspredictablethatCorinthwould seekthehelpofitspowerfulallySpartainconflictswithAthens.Thetension betweenAthensandCorinthwasboundtoplayalargeroleindeterminingthe diplomaticrelationsoftheGreekstates,anditoftenledtooutrightwar. 212 In459CorinthandAeginacombinedagainstAthens.TheAtheniansnotonly repelledaCorinthianinvasionofMegarabutalsobuiltformidablewalls,thesocalled LongWalls,linkingAthenstotheportofPiraeus.Thisprudentstrategyhadthe effectofmakingthewholetowncompleximpossibletobesiegebyland,since suppliescouldalwaysbebroughtinbyboat.Aroundthesametimetheyengaged Hippodamus,anativeofMiletoswhoapparentlywroteatreatiseontownplanning, todesigntheportarea,whichhelaidoutonagridpatternsimilartothatofhishome stateinIonia. TheSpartansdecisiontoenterthewaragainstAthensin457didmoreharmtothem thantotheirdesignatedenemy.FightingtheAtheniansinBoeotia,whattheSpartans chieflyaccomplishedwastodrawAthensintoBoeotianaffairs.By456theAthenians hadcometocontrolthewholeregionwiththeexceptionofThebes,andAthenian influence(orpressure)hadmadedemocraticgovernmentsthenormintheBoeotian poleis.WestofBoeotia,PhocisandLocrisjoinedtheDelianLeague,asdidthe vanquishedislandofAegina,andAthensalsogainedtwostatesonthePeloponnesus itself,TroezenontheeastcoastandAchaeaontheCorinthianGulf. Figure6.3.AerialviewofPiraeus.

213 AthenianInvolvementinEgyptandtheTransferoftheLeagueTreasurytoAthens Athenslandempirenowstoodatitsmaximumextent.Determinedtocontinue operationsagainstPersia,PericlespersuadedtheAthenianstosendshipsbothto Cyprus,wheretheyhopedtoinflictdamageonthePhoenicianfleet,andtoEgypt, whichhadrebelledfromKingArtaxerxes.TheEgyptiancampaigndraggedonfor years,endinginawretcheddebaclein453whenArtaxerxesgeneralMegabazus pennedintheAtheniansontheislandofProsopitisandbesiegedthemforeighteen months.UltimatelyMegabazusdrainedthechannelsaroundtheisland,leavingthe shipshighanddry,andmarchedacrossonfoottocapturetheAtheniansailors. ThucydidesreportsthatnearlyalltheAthenianswerekilled.Inaddition,arelief forceoffiftyshipsthatarrivedignorantofthedisasterwasattackedbythePersian infantryandthePhoenicianfleet,andonlyasmallnumberoftheseshipsescaped. AlthoughthesizeoftheoriginalforceisuncertainThucydidessaystwohundred ships,thePersianhistorianCtesiasonlyfortystillthelossinmoralewasenormous, surpassedonlybythelossinlife. In454,meanwhile,theAthenianstransferredthetreasuryoftheDelianLeaguefrom theislandofDelos,vulnerabletopiratesandPersiansalike,toAthensitself.Though theirostensiblepurposewassecurity,Deloswasprobablynomoreendangeredthan ithadbeenpreviously,andtheAtheniansdecisiontomovethetreasurywas primarilyapowerplaydesignedtodemonstratetheirsupremacy.Historians thereforehavetaken454asaconvenientdatetostopreferringtotheDelianLeague andbeginspeakingoftheAthenianempire,thoughinrealityofcoursethe transformationhadbeengoingonforsometime. ABriefHiatus:AthensatPeacewithPersiaandSparta Returningfromhistenyearsexilein451,Cimonseemstohavecometoan understandingwithhisrivalPericles;hewouldresumehiseffortstomakewaron PersiaandpeacewithSpartabutwouldnotinterferewithanydomesticpolicies Periclesmightwishtoimplement.In451Cimonnegotiatedatruceoffiveyears betweenAthensandSpartaandabandonedAthensalliancewithArgos.Argosin turnsignedathirtyyeartreatywithSparta;theexpirationofthistreatyin420,eleven yearsafterthebeginningofthe(Second)PeloponnesianWar,wouldcreateavolatile situationinmainlandGreece.WhenCimondiedcampaigninginCyprusin450,the AtheniansseemtohavemadepeacewithPersia.Wedonot,however,havethetext ofthisagreement,thesocalledPeaceofCallias,namedafterCimonsformerbrother inlaw,whowaslatersaidtohavenegotiatedit.Becausetheonlysourcesforthe treatydatetothefourthcentury,somescholarshavedoubteditsreality,whileothers

placeitconsiderablyearlierorsubstantiallylater.WhatiscertainisthatAthensand Persiaceasedfightingatthistime,treatyornotreaty. 214 PeacewithSpartafollowedin445whentheAthenianlandempirecollapsedvirtually overnight.AftersixteenyearsofimperialismwithinmainlandGreece,theAthenians hadlosthundredsoflivesandhadnomoreterritorythantheyhadpossessedin461 whenfightinghadbegun.JustasthefiveyeartrucebetweenAthensandSparta expiredin446,Euboearevolted,probablybecauseofresentmentatthecleruchiesthe Athenianswereestablishingthere.WhileAthenswasfranticallytryingtoputdown theEuboeanrebellion,theMegarianstooktheoccasiontodefect,slaughteringtheir Atheniangarrison.WhenPericlesreturnedfromEuboeatoAttica,thelandhad alreadybeeninvadedbyKingPleistoanaxofSparta.Delicatediplomacyand probablydownrightbriberyaswellenabledPericlestopersuadePleistoanaxto returnhome,butterrorhadbeenstruckintheAthenianshearts.Thoughintime PericleshimselfsubduedEuboea,MegararevertedtothePeloponnesianLeague,and AthenianinfluenceinBoeotiacrashedtoacloseasThebesassumedleadershipofan antidemocraticBoeotianLeague. TheThirtyYearsPeace ThepeacetheAtheniansmadewithSpartain445wasoptimisticallynamedthe ThirtyYearsPeace,thoughitwouldnotlastevenhalfthatlong.TheAthenianshad overextendedthemselvesbyfightingatthesametimewiththePersianempireand thePeloponnesianLeague,andtheirnakedimperialismhadalsomadethem unpopular.Theywereinnopositiontodictateterms,andinfactthepeacecompelled themtosurrendertheirwholelandempire,retainingonlyNaupactusandPlataea. (ThoughtheyalsoheldontoAegina,thisinfactviolatedthepeace.)Theirmaritime empire,however,remainedsecurefromSpartaninterference,andthetreatyalso specifiedthatneitherstatewastointerferewiththealliesoftheother;neutralswere freetojoineitherside;anddisagreementsweretobesettledbyarbitration.Noallies werepermittedtoswitchsides,andeachhegemonwasfreetouseforcetoresolve conflictswithinitsownalliance. PERICLESANDTHEGROWTHOFATHENIANDEMOCRACY TheguidingspiritofAthenianimperialismwasPericles,whoowedhispositionat Athensinparttohisrepeatedelectiontothepostofstrategosandinparttothehigh regardinwhichtheAtheniansheldhim.Thoughhealwaysservedconcurrentlywith nineotherstrategoieveryyear,noneoftheothergeneralsexercisedaparallel influenceintheekklesia.Itwastheoutdoorassemblymeetingthatmadepolicyin fifthcenturyAthens,backedbythelargejuriesofhundredsofcitizensthatwere selectedfromtheheliaia.AlthoughPericlesoccasionallycampaignedcommanding,

forexample,thetroopsthatregainedrebelliousEuboeahisskillslayprimarilyin formulatingpolicyandinpersuadingmembersoftheekklesiatovotehisproposals intolaw. 215 TheAthenianAssemby TheassemblymetintheopenaironthehillknownasthePnyxhotinsummer,cold inwinter,andoftenwet,butstillamagnetforthemanymenofAtticawhowishedto playaroleindeterminingthepeninsulasfuture.Intheearlydecadesofthefifth centurytheassemblymetonlyaboutadozentimesayear,butthenumberof meetingssoonexpanded,andinPericlestimetendaysrarelywentbywithoutat leastonemeeting.Assembliesthatpromiseddiscussionofseriousproblemswere likelytobeattendedbyaboutsixthousandthequorumforcertainimportant actionssuchasostracism.Thisnumberwasprobablyaboutaneighthorsoofall adultcitizenmalesinAtticaduringPericlescareer;whenthepopulationdropped lateron,inpartasaconsequenceoftheruinousPeloponnesianWarof431404,the quorumofsixthousandaccountedforahigherproportionofthepopulace.During thefirsthalfofthefifthcentury,childrenwithatleastoneAthenianparentwouldbe enrolledintheirdemesascitizensattheageof18,butin451Periclespersuadedthe AthenianstolimitcitizenshiptothosewhoseparentswerebothAthenians.Thiswas evidentlyanantiaristocraticmeasureaimedataffluentmenwhomademarriage allianceswithnoblefamiliesfromotherstates,followingtheexampleofCleisthenes, forinstance,whosewifewasthedaughterofthetyrantofSicyoninmainland Greece.Thecitizenshiplawwasnotentirelyretroactive,butprobablychildrenwho hadnotyetreachedtheageof18wereexcludedfromcitizenship.Citizenshipwas importantforgirlsaswellasboys:thoughAthenianwomencouldnotvoteorhold offices,theywerenowtheonlywomenwhocouldbearAthenianchildren. Theconsequencesofthislegislationwerebothwideanddeep.ThroughoutGreece, thediscouragementofmarriagebetweencitizensandaliensincreasedthejingoistic tendenciesofthepolis.Theinsistencethatpeoplemarrycitizensoftheirownstate eliminatedapowerfulsourceofconnectednessamongpoleisandfosteredasenseof separatenessthatfrequentlyledtowar.Socialproblemswerealsocreatedwithinthe polis.LimitedintheirchoiceofmarriagepartnerstoAthenianwomen,married Athenianmenfrequentlyopenedthedoortodomestictensionsbymaintaining sexualrelationshipswiththeexoticforeignwomenwhomtheycouldnotmarryif theywantedcivicrightsfortheirsonsandgrandsons.Adoubleironyawaited Periclesinhisownfamilylife:unhappyinhismarriage,hedivorcedthemotherof hislegitimatechildrenandlivedinsteadwithAspasia,ahighlyintelligentimmigrant fromMiletuswhowasoneofthemostcultivatedwomenofthecentury.Whenhis legitimatesonsdied,heimploredtheassemblytoconfercitizenshiponthesonhe

hadwithAspasiabyaspecialdecree.Admittedtocitizenship,Periclestheyounger servedasstrategosin406andwasoneofthesixgeneralsexecutedaftertheyfailedto pickupsailorsinastormofftheArginusaeislandsinIonia. Theprytaneisalonethefiftymembersoftheboulewhoseturnitwastobeincharge forthemonthhadtheprivilegeofcallingameetingofthecitizensassembly, thoughsometimestheydidsoatthebehestofthestrategoi.Theoretically,nomotion couldbeputattheassemblythathadnotbeendraftedbytheboule 216 andpostedatleastfivedaysbeforethedayofthemeeting,butthisrestrictiondid notmeanthatonlycouncilmemberscouldframelegislation.Sometimestheboules motionwasdeliberatelycouchedinsuchvaguetermsthatitwasinevitablethat someprivatecitizenwouldreframeitattheassemblymeeting;frequently amendmentswounduprevisinganoriginalmotionbeyondrecognition.Besides, mostpeoplewhoburnedtoputmotionscouldsuggestthemtosomeneighbor, relation,orfriendofafriendwhohappenedtobeservingontheboule. Thosewhoattendedtheassemblymightbelifelongadvocatesofcertainpoliciesand couldwellbefollowersofapopularpolitician,buttheywerenotmembersof politicalpartiesasweknowthemtoday,fortherewasnosuchthinginAthens. ClassicalGreekevenlacksawordforapoliticalparty;writersusedexpressionslike thosearoundGeneralSoandSotoidentifypoliticalgroups.Evenamongthose whoelectedtoattendmeetingsoftheassembly,thedegreetowhichcitizenschoseto participatevariedwidely.Asatgatheringsofacademicfacultiestoday(ortown meetingsinNewEngland),someneverspoke,somespokeoccasionally,ahardcore ofengagedcitizensspokefrequentlyandnodoubttherewereafewwhoseemedto speakincessantly.Generalshadtheprivilegeofspeakingfirst,inorderofage; amongprivatecitizens,originallythoseoverage50tookprecedenceoveryounger men.Somepeoplespokeextemporaneously;othersbroughtnotesorevenatext. Speakershadtobepreparedfortheirremarkstobeinterruptedperiodicallyby laughter,applause,orhecklingofvarioussorts.Oncethedebatewasconcluded assemblymeetingsrarelywentpastearlyafternoon,forsometimehadtobe reservedbeforesupperforthedailymeetingoftheboulevotingwasconductedby showofhands. Whoattendedthemeetingsoftheassembly?Commonsensewouldsuggestthat thosewholivedinthecitycenterweremorelikelytoturnupthanthosewholived faraway,andnodoubtthewalkinfromdistantvillagesdiscouragedsomecitizens, especiallyonrainydays.Nonethelessitseemsthatpeopledidtakethetroubleto makethetripwhenvitalmatters(likewhetherornottogotowar)wereslatedfor discussion.

AthenianOfficials Athenshadnopresidentorprimeminister;thegeneralsexercisedpowerinpolitics onlybyvirtueoftheesteeminwhichtheywereheld.UntilPericlesdeath,menwho lackedmilitaryreputationsdidnotgenerallybecomedistinguishedpoliticians.The conversetendedtobetrueaswellmilitaryheroesexpectedtoberewardedwith politicalcareers.Inaddition,thoughanymanfromtheuppertwoclassesof pentakosiomedimnoi(500measuremen)andhippeis(horsemen)mightstandfor office,theAtheniansusuallyvotedforfairlyrichmenfromprominentfamilies.All thischangedafterPericlesdeath,whenpoliticsandthemilitarybegantodivergeas careersanditbecamesomewhatmorecustomaryforamantobejustageneralor justapolitician;concomitantlythegovernmentceasedtobedominatedentirelyby thescionsoffamousclans.ThroughoutAthenianhistory, 217 however,wealthandlineageremainedimportantfactors,andgeneralscontinuedto involvethemselvesinpoliticsmorethantheydoinmanycountriestoday. TheboardoftengeneralsonwhichPericlesservedwasonlyoneofmanybodiesthe Atheniansestablished.Includingjobsentailedbytheadministrationoftheempire, theremayhavebeenasmanyassevenhundredofficialpositionsalltoldinClassical Athens,andmostofficeswereheld,likethestrategia,byboardsofseveralmen,all servingoneyearterms.Many,likethearchons,wereselectedbylot.Mostcitizen malesbythetimetheydiedhadheldsomepublicofficeatonetimeoranother,anda goodnumberhadheldseveral.Bydilutingpowerinthisway,Athenianvoters believedtheycouldinhibitthegrowthofanidentifiableclassofpermanentofficials (whatwemightcallbureaucrats)withinterestsdifferentfromthoseofthepopulace atlarge.Theinterestsofthedisfranchisedofwomen,metics,andslavesdidnot strikethemasmaterialtothebodypolitic.Thefruitsofempire,fifthcenturyvoters believed,werebeingsharedbyall. TheJudicialSystemandStatePayforStateService Intheabsenceofachiefexecutive,theAtheniansconsideredsovereigntytobevested inthepeople.BythetimeofPericles,theyhadcometocalltheirformofgovernment dmokratia,agovernmentinwhichthekratos(power),wasinthehandsofthedmos (thepeople),bywhichtheymeantthemalecitizensintheircapacityasvotersinthe assemblyandasjurorsinthecourts.ThelargesizeofAthenianjuriesseveral hundred,sometimesasmanyas1501facilitatedthelegalfictionthatadecisionofa jurywasadecisionofthedemos,andconsequentlytherecouldbenoappealfroma verdictinanAtheniancourtroom.TheAthenianswereanotoriouslylitigiouspeople. InAristophanesClouds,alivelycomedywhosedepictionofSocratescontributed substantiallytothehostilityagainstthephilosopher,oneofSocratespupilspoints

outAthensonamaptothecrotchetyStrepsiades,butStrepsiadesisnotpersuaded. Whatsthatyouresaying?heasks;Imnotconvinced,sinceIdontseeanycourts insession.(208)Theparticipationoflargenumbersofcitizensinthejudicialsystem wasconsideredtobeahallmarkofAtheniandemocracy. Toensurethattheprivilegeofservingonjurieswouldbespreadaswidely throughoutthecitizenbodyaspossible,notlongafterEphialtesdeathPericles introducedameasureprovidingpayforjuryservice.Itwasasmallamount,lessthan adayswagesforanaveragelaborer,butnottrivial,andnodoubtthislegislation bolsteredPericlespopularityatthepolls.IntimeAthenianscametobepaidfor servingonthebouleandevenforattendingtheassembly;formanyyearsduringthe fifthcenturymagistrateswerealsopaidfortheirtime.AselsewhereinGreece,voters gainedsomefreetimeasaconsequenceofthelabordonebywomenandslaves,but evenacitizenwithawifeandacoupleofslavesgenerallyhadtoworkhardto survive,andthesumsmenreceivedforparticipatingingovernmentmadea difference.Todayitseemsnaturaltocompensatepeopleforthetimespentserving thecommunity,andstatepayforstateserviceisnowthenorm.ButmanyAthenians mostlyaffluentmenwhocouldaffordtoserve 218 withoutremunerationviewedthissystemasadiscreditableattemptonthepartof democraticpoliticianstobuypopularityandvotes.Inthearistocraticvaluesystem,it wasacceptableforCimontocourtpopularitybyinvitingpassersbytopickfruitfrom hisorchardsandbyholdingbanquetsforthehungryathishome,butitwas manipulativeandunderhandedofPericlestointroducemeasuresintheassembly providingforcompensationtothosewhoservedthestate. Despiteavarietyofconstitutionalreformsandcreativeinnovationsdesignedto maximizepopularparticipationinciviclife,richAthenianscontinuedtoenjoy substantialprestige.Democraticpoliticianscleverlyharnessedthewealthoftheelite intotheserviceofthestatebyestablishinganetworkofpublicservicesknownas liturgies.Eventhoughthesepoliticiansthemselvesbelongedtotheeliteandhence werecreatingasystemthatwouldobligethemtospendtheirownmoney,they consideredtheseliturgiestobegoodinvestmentsinpublicrelationsbothfor themselvesandfordemocraticprinciples.Liturgiesincludedmajoroutlayssuchas maintainingatriremeandtrainingitscrew(theliturgyknownasthetrierarchy), leadingandfinancingadelegationtoareligiousfestivalinanotherGreekstate, payingandtrainingateamofrunnersfortheintertribaltorchracesatfestivals withinAthens,orofferingabanquettoallmembersofonestribeontheoccasionofa religiousfestival.Someofthemostelaborate(thoughnotasexpensiveasthe trierarchy,whichremainedthecostliestliturgy)involvedtrainingchorusesfor performancesatAtticfestivalsinhonorofAthenaorDionysus.Thefifteenmembers

ofatragicchorus,thetwentyfourmembersofacomicchorus,andthefiftymembers ofachorusthatwouldrecitetheversesknownasdithyrambsallneededtobe selected,paid,andtrained.Oftentherehearsalperiodextendedformonths.The citizenwhoperformedthisliturgymightormightnotknowanythingaboutsailing, running,orpoetry;oftenheprovidedthefundsanddelegatedtheworktoskilled experts.Inadditiontodozensoftrierarchies,aboutahundredcivilianliturgieswere performedeachyear.Everyoneprofitedfromthissystem.Thosewholackedthe meanstooffersuchservicesbenefitedfromthegenerosityofthosewhoprovided them,andtherichcouldgarnertremendousprestigewhilesimultaneously performingvitalmilitary,cultural,religious,andcivicfunctionsforthecommunity. Acompetitiveelementalsofosteredexcellence,forprizesatcontestswenttothe victoriouschoregistaswellastothesuccessfulpoet. LITERATUREANDART InnearlyeveryrespectweknowmoreaboutlifeinthebustlingcityofAthensthan wedoabouthowpeoplelivedintheotherGreekpoleis,butenergyandtalentwere dispersedwidelythroughouttheGreekworld,andmuchofitwentintoliterature andthearts.Thewordmostcommonlyattachedtotheartandliteratureofthe earlierfifthcenturyisgrandeur.Duringthisvigorouseraoftransition,talented poets,painters,architects,andsculptorscarriedthetraditionsofthesixthcentury throughoutthewiderGreekworld,whileinAthensthedefeatofPersiawasmarked byinnovationsintragicdramasostrikingastoconstituteanewartform. 219 LyricPoetry Lyricwasanecessaryprecursoroftragedy,anditspractitionerswereamongthe mostdistinguishedwritersofthefifthcentury.Simonides(c.556468BC)is rememberedchieflyastheunofficialpoetlaureateofthePersianwars.Bornonthe IonianislandofCeos,hespenttimeatthecourtofHipparchusinAthens,amongthe royalfamiliesofThessaly,andinSicily,wherehewasesteemedbythewarring tyrantsHieroandTheronandwasabletoeffectatleastabriefpeacebetweenthem. HewasprobablyinAthensduringthewarswithPersia,andhisepitaphsforthewar dead(suchastheonecitedinChapter5)becametoGreekliteraturewhatthe DeclarationofIndependenceandtheGettysburgAddressaretoAmericans(only easiertoremember,sincetheywereinverse). Siciliantyrantswerefamedfortheirinterestinculture,andSimonidesnephew Bacchylides,whowasalsoapoet,accompaniedhimtoSicily.Bacchylidessharedhis unclesinterestinthegenreknownasepinicianodes,thatis,poemswrittenepinik (upon[anathletic]victory),andhecomposedapoemforHierosvictoryinthe chariotraceattheOlympicsin476.Hehadagiftforgrippingnarrative,andHiero

wasdrawntohiswork,buttheverdictofposteritywenttohisrivalPindar,who competedwithhimforthefavoroftheSicilianrulers. BornintoanaristocraticfamilyinBoeotia,Pindartraveledwidelyandenjoyedthe patronageofthepowerfulthroughouttheGreekworld;someofhismostmemorable poemshonoredhisfriendstheSiciliantyrantsHieroandTheron.Pindarsworld viewwasdiametricallyopposedtothatofdemocratsinAthensandelsewhere.Like Theognis,Pindartookitasaxiomaticthatmeritwasinherited.Hismanyodes,richin allusionandsoaringinlanguage,shareadeeplyheldbeliefinanoldfashioned heroismanexcellencethattakesasitsstartingpointtheassumptionthatmenof worthspringfromillustriousfamiliesthatcantracetheiroriginsultimatelytodivine ancestors.Writingnumerousepinicianodes,hewasalsodisposedtoconnect physicalprowesswithallaroundvirtue.Byconnectingrecentachievementswith divinebloodandtracingtheancestryofhissubjects,hewasabletoelaboratehis poemswithpowerfulmythsaboutgodsandancientheroes.Hisconcernwiththe notionofexcellencelentaloftyandinspirationalqualitytohisverse,whichwas oftenquotedbyPlatoinhisspeculationsaboutthehighesthumanvirtue. Document6.2ExcerptfromPindarssixthNemeanodeTheoccasionofthispoem wasthevictoryofAlkimidasofAeginaintheboyswrestlingcontestatNemea, perhapsin465BC.Characteristically,PindarusesAlkimidassuccessasatakingoff pointforadiscussionoflargerissues. Thereisoneraceofmen, oneraceofgods. Yetfromonemother webothtakeourbreath. 220 Thedifference isintheallotment ofallpower, fortheoneisnothing whilethebronzeskyexistsforever, asureabode. Andyet,somehow, weresembletheimmortals, whetheringreatnessofmind ornature,thoughweknownot towhatmeasure daybydayandinthewatchesofthenight fatehaswrittenthatweshouldrun.

AndnowAlkimidas givesclearproof thatthepower bornintheblood islike thefruitbearingfields thatnow,inalternation, yieldmankind yearlysustenancefromtheground andnow,again,resting withholdtheirstrength treadinginthefootprintsofhisfathersfather, Praxidamas forhe,victoriousatOlympia, firstbroughttheAiakidaigarlandsfromAlpheos; ... come,Muse,direct uponthisclan thegloriousbreathofsong forwhenmenhavepassedoutofourmidst poemsandlegends conveytheirnobledeeds.... 125;translatedbyFrankNisetich,PindarsVictorySongs.BaltimoreandLondon:Johns HopkinsUniversityPress,1980. ItisimportantthatsomuchofPindarsworkhassurvived,notonlybecauseofthe beautyofhisversebutasareminderofthediversityofhighlydevelopedculturesin alltimesandplaces.Sincethesepoemscelebratethevaluesandachievementsof aristocrats,manymodernreaderscomingtothemassumetheymusthavebeen writtenduringthesixthcentury,beforetheriseofdemocracyin 221 Greece,butinfacttheywerenot;Pindardiedafewyearsbeforetheoutbreakofthe PeloponnesianWar,andhisworkwascontemporarywiththatofEphialtesand Pericles. TheBirthofTragedy:Aeschylus AtleastonepoetwhoenjoyedthepatronageofHieroremainedforeverassociated withhisnativepolis.TheAtheniantragedianAeschylus(525456)diedinSicilyafter alonglifeduringwhichhewroteperhapsseventyplays.Unfortunatelyonlya handfulofthesesurvive.AfterhisdeaththeAthenianspaidhomagetothegreatness

ofhisworkbydecreeingthatthearchonshouldgrantachorustoanyonewho wantedtoproduceoneofhisplays.Aeschyluswasthefirstofthefamoustragedians offifthcenturyAthens.AlreadyinthetimeofPeisistratusThespishadexpandedthe rangeofthechoruseshonoringDionysusbyaddinganactorwhocouldcarryona dialoguewiththechorus;nowAeschylusaddedasecondactor.Thisinnovation madepossiblerealconflictandmovedtragedybeyondtableauintotherealmof drama.Atthesametime,dramaremainedfirmlygroundedinpoetry,andverse remainedthevehicleforbothtragedyandcomedythroughoutantiquity.The tragedyofAeschylusretainedapowerfulanchorinthepiercingbeautyofthe choruses,whichcelebratedtheawesomepowerofthegodswhilealsoexploringthe natureofthehumancondition.Singsorrow,sorrow,thechoruschantstowardthe openingofhisplayAgamemnon,butgoodwinoutintheend: Zeus:whateverhemaybe,ifthisname pleaseshimininvocation, thusIcalluponhim. Ihaveponderedeverything yetIcannotfindaway, onlyZeus,tocastthisdeadweightofignorance finallyfromoutmybrain. Zeus,whoguidedmentothink, whohaslaiditdownthatwisdom comesalonethroughsuffering. Stilltheredripsinsleepagainsttheheart griefofmemory;against ourpleasurewearetemperate. Fromthegodswhositingrandeur gracecomessomehowviolent. (Agamemnon16066,176183;Lattimore1959) Tragedyperformedacentralroleinthespiritualandintellectuallifeofthepolis. Wealthycitizensviedforhonorandacclaimbyundertakingtheexpenseoftraining choruses,andduringthefestivalofDionysusinMarchactorsandaudi 222 encealikeneededenormousstamina.Groupsofactorsperformedfourdramasina day,andspectatorshadnotonlytofollowtheintricatepoetryofthechorusesbutto turnupthenextdayandthedayafterthattocomparetheworkofeachplaywright, tohelpdeterminewhoshouldreceivetheprize.Asignificantproportionofmen andperhapswomenaswell,thoughthisisuncertainattendedtheplaysandno doubtcontinuedamongthemselvesalivelydialogueaboutthepainfulissuesthe

dramashadraised.Eveninerasofcomparativelyhighliteracy,ancientcultures remainoraltoaconsiderabledegree,andabsorbingthecompleximageryofGreek tragicchoruseswasnotasdifficultforpeopletrainedtolistenandrememberasit wouldbeformostpeopletoday.Nonetheless,thepopularityofperformancesthat demandedseriousintellectualworkonthepartoftheaudiencetellsussomething abouttherichnessofGreekculture.Overthirtytragedieshavesurvived;whatis missing,however,isanyrecord(beyondthejokesinAristophanes)ofthe discussionstheperformancesmusthaveinspiredamongfriendsandneighborswho hadenjoyedthissharedtreasureofthecommunity. Allpartsintragedywereplayedbymen;masksfacilitatedthedeception.Theywere shapedatthemouthratherlikemegaphones,andtheymadeforgoodacoustics.To besure,theydiscouragedthenuancedportrayalofpersonality.Thiswasnot, however,consideredagreatloss,forGreektragedywasneverintendedtobe naturalistic.CharactersinGreektragedywerenotlikecharactersinmodernfilmsor novels,whomonemightexpecttorecognizewalkingdownthestreet,orwhose subtlertraitsmightappearinonesfriendsorneighbors.Theyrepresented humankindinallitsaspirationandfrailty.Theyarenoteasytolikeordislike,for theywerenotintendedtobelifelike,fleshandbloodindividuals. Norwasthematerialoftragedyanythingonecouldcallasliceoflife.Tragedywas meanttobeheroicandgrand,farremovedfromthetrivialandthemundane.Plots weregenerallytakenfromtherichmythsoftheHeroicAge,butaswehaveseen exceptionscouldbemadeformajoreventssuchasthePersianwars.(Evenhere, though,AeschylusachievedacertainremotenessbysettingtheactionofhisPersians infarawayAsia,wherepeopledressedexotically.)Formalitiesofseveralkinds limitedthedramatistinhischoiceofmaterial.Noviolencewaspermittedonstage, andallactionhadtotakeplacewithinatwentyfourhourperiod.Finally,theauthor hadtocontendwiththechallengeposedbytheintricatemetersoftragicverse. Thestruggleofplaywrightstomolddramawithintheseconstraintsconstituteda formofheroisminitself.Aeschylusgreatestsurvivingachievementisthetrilogy knownastheOresteia,whichtreatsthesupremedifficultyofunderstandingand obtainingajustsocialandreligiousorder.Apparentlythesetsoffourdramasthat playwrightsenteredinthecompetitiongenerallyinvolvedthreetragediesfollowed byalighterworkknownasasatyrplay,butthethreetragediesdidnotneedtotreat thesametheme,andfrequentlytheydidnt.InthecaseoftheOresteia,however,the threeplayscompriseonegrandandcomplexdrama,andthisworkistheonlyAttic trilogythatescapeddestructiontobeenjoyedtoday. 223 TheOresteia

ThepointofdeparturefortheOresteiawasevidentlyEphialtescurtailmentofthe powersoftheAreopagiteCouncil,forthetrilogyculminatesinpreciselythesortof trialthatremainedwithintheCouncilspurviewamurdertrial.Itseemslikelythat Aeschylussupportedthereformsandchosethisaugustdramaasavehiclebywhich toreassureconservativeAtheniansthatthetryingofhomicidecases,theprivilege withwhichEphialteshadconspicuouslynottampered,wasinfacttheancient missionofthisvenerablebody.Inthiswayhecoulddrawattentionawayfromthe significantlimitationsthathadbeenplacedonitsjurisdiction.Thematerialwith whichAeschyluschosetoconveyhismessagewasthefamiliartaleofthecursed houseoftheancientheroPelopsandhisdescendantAgamemnon,commanderin chiefofthelegendaryexpeditionagainstTroy. Thefirstplay,Agamemnon,portraystheGreekgeneralsmurderuponhisvictorious returnfromtheTrojanWarinaplothatchedbyhisfaithlesswifeClytemnestraand hiscousinAegisthus,whohasbecomeClytemnestraslover.Agamemnonsmurder posesanagonizingdilemmaforhischildrenOrestesandElectra,fortheyarefaced withachoicebetweenkillingtheirmotherandallowingtheirfathersdeathtogo unavenged.TheirpainandOresteseventualmurderofClytemnestraandAegisthus formthesubjectmatterofthesecondplay,TheLibationBearers.Astheplaycloses, OrestesfindshimselfpursuedbytheavengingearthgoddessesknownastheFuries. Hissufferingendsinthefinalplay,TheEumenides.ThisplayissetinAthens,where Oresteshastakenrefuge,hopingthataresponsiblegovernmentwillaffordhimafair trial.AthenaschargetothejuryproclaimsthegloriesoftheAreopagus,the importanceofjustice,andthecentralityoflaw. Document6.3AtthecloseofTheEumenides,thelastplayofAeschylusOresteia trilogy,AeschylusprojectsbackontoAthenaablueprintforAtheniangovernment, foundedonprinciplesofresponsiblegovernmentandtrialbyjury. Ifitpleaseyou,menofAttica,hearmydecree.... HereistheHillofAres,heretheAmazonsencampedandbuilttheirshel terswhentheycameinarms forspiteofTheseus,heretheypiledtheirrivaltowers torise,newcity,anddarehiscitylongago, andslewtheirbeastsforAres.Sothisrockisnamed fromthentheHillofAres.Herethereverence ofcitizens,theirfearandkindreddonowrong shallholdbydayandintheblessingofnightalike allwhilethepeopledonotmuddytheirownlaws withfoulinfusions.Butifbrightwateryoustain withmud,younevermorewillfinditfittodrink. 224

Noanarchy,noruleofasinglemaster.Thus Iadvisemycitizenstogovernandtograce, andnottocastfearutterlyfromyourcity.What manwhofearsnothingatalliseverrighteous?Such beyourjustterrors,andyoumaydeserveandhave salvationforyourcitadel,yourlandsdefence, suchasisnowhereelsefoundamongmen,neither amongtheScythians,northelandthatPelopsheld. Iestablishthistribunal.Itshallbeuntouched bymoneymaking,gravebutquicktowrath,watchful toprotectthosewhosleep,asentryontheland. ThesewordsIhaveunreeledareformycitizens, adviceintothefuture. TheEumenides681708;translatedbyRichmondLattimoreinDavidGreneandRichmond Lattimore,eds.,TheCompleteGreekTragedies.Vol.1,Aeschylus.Chicago:Universityof ChicagoPress,1959. Athenabreaksthedeadlockedjurystie,andhergroundsarerevealing.Following Apollosproclamationthatitisthemaleandnotthefemalewhoisthetrueparent, andbearinginmindherownbirth(fullydevelopedfromtheheadofherfather Zeus),shedecidesthattheclaimsofthefathertrumpthoseofthemother,justifying Clytemnestrasdeath.Nowtamed,theFuriesaregivenanewname,theEumenides (KindlyOnes).PlainlyAeschylusconceivesthecreationofresponsiblegovernment inAthensastheantithesisnotonlyoftyrannybutalsoofadisorderedchaotic universeinwhichemotionalandfemaleforcesofvengeancewereparamount.The newworldwillbegovernedbyorderly,rationalinstitutionsplannedandstaffedby men,withvengeancereplacedbyjustice. ThegenreestablishedbyAeschyluswouldbecomeoneofthedefiningartformsof Greekcivilization.Tragicdrama,asitevolvedthroughoutAeschyluscareerandin thehandsofhissuccessorsSophoclesandEuripides,wasinmanywaysthehallmark ofAtheniangreatness.ThroughShakespeareandothergreattragediansofEurope, thisremarkabletestamenttotheheroicstruggleagainsthumanlimitationsformsan importantpartofalegacythathasenduredtoourowntime. TheVisualArts Greekpaintersandsculptorssharedthetragediansfascinationwithboththehuman andthedivine.Throughoutthedecadesofchangeandgrowththatmarkthefifth century,bothdramaandtheplasticartsrevealapowerfuldrivetoorganizethe worldinaccordwithharmony,balance,andproportion.Duringthefourthcentury,

Plato,intheblueprintfortheidealsocietyhedescribedinhisdialogueTheRepublic, wouldidentifyjusticeastheconditionthatobtainedwhenallparts 225 ofthesoulandstateareinbalance.TheconnectionsPlatopositedbetweenbeauty andtruthunderlaymuchoftheGreekviewoftheworldthroughouttheClassical period. Liketragedy,Greekpaintingandsculptureachievedwhattheydidwithinthe constraintsposedbyavarietyofconventions.Onepopularvehicleforpaintingwas thevase,whichcameinawidevarietyofsizesandshapes,eachaffordingdistinctive challengesandopportunities.Thesmallervesselscalledforparticularingenuityand skill.Bronzeandmarble,however,thecustomarymaterialsforsculpture,were difficulttoworkwithanddidnotlendthemselvestonaturalism.Thetwo generationsorsothatfollowedthePersianwarsmarkaperiodoftransitionduring whichGreekartistsbegintoemancipatethemselvesfromthecanonsoftheArchaic period,asaspareausteritycomestodistinguishClassicalstylesfromthosethathad gonebefore.Someofthechangemayhavehadtodowitharejectionofeastern influencesinthewakeofthebitterconflictwithPersia;thetieswiththeNearEast thatweresoconspicuousinArchaicstylesnowseemmoretenuous.Astragedy becamemoredramaticwiththeadditionofasecondactor,sothevisualartsgrew lessstaticduringthesedecades,andactionbecameimportant.Conveyingastrong senseofmovementinastillmediumisnosmallachievement.Someofthemost outstandingartistsofthesedecadesmanageddespitetheconstraintsoftheircraftto buildasenseofanticipationandexcitement. Tobesure,thetranquilityofArchaicsculpturepersistsinsomeoftheworkofthis period.Itisevident,forexample,inthebronzecharioteerdedicatedatDelphiinthe 470sbyHierosbrotherPolyzalusafterhisvictoryinthechariotracesatthePythian games.Theeeriestillnessofthebodyandthegarmentthatfallsfromitinperfect foldsshowpreciselythedisciplineandselfcontrolthatPindarcelebratedinthe aristocratswhocarriedoffprizesintheseevents. Probablythefreestandingsculpturethatconveysthemostdramaticsenseof movementtocomewasthesocalleddiskobolos(discusthrower)oftheAthenian sculptorMyron,whowasknownforhisstrikingrealism:admirerscommentedthata bronzecowofhisontheAcropoliscouldeasilybemistakenfortherealthing. ThoughthebronzediskobolosMyronmadearound460doesnotsurvive,avarietyof Romancopiesenableustoappreciatethepentupenergytheathleteisaboutto unleashashehurlshisarmforwardleaningintothethrow. ThereliefsculpturewithwhichGreeksadornedtheirtemplesofferedstillgreater opportunitiesforstorytelling.Liketragedy,reliefsculpturefocusedonmythological

themesgroundedinpainfulconflictsembroilinggodsandmortalsintortuous scenarios.Talesinvolvinganimallikefiguresalsoofferedwonderfulopportunitiesto visualartists.Thusthehalfhorse,halfhumanraceofCentaursfiguredinthe sculpturalprogramsoftwoofthemostremarkableGreektemplesofthefifth century,theParthenonatAthens,tobediscussedinChapter7,andthetempleof ZeusatOlympia. ThetempleofZeusatOlympiawasthefirsttobecompleted,between470and456 BC,justwhenthedramasofAeschylusweredefiningtheAtticstage.Beginningin 1876,excavationsbroughttolightremarkablesculpturalgroupsontheportionsof thetempleknownasthepedimentstheelongatedtriangularspaces 226 Figure6.4.ThisbronzecharioteerfromtheDelphiMuseum(c.475BC)originally stoodinthecarofafourhorsechariot;ithassurvivedbecauseanearthquakecastit intoanancientdrain. Figure6.5.Romancopyofthediskobolosordiscusthrower,byMyron.Scholars recognizedMyronsstatueasthemodelfortheRomancopiesbecauseofapassagein thesecondcenturyADauthorLucian,whodescribestheoriginalworkindetail. thatsatatopthecolumnsandcriedoutfordecoration.InthetempleofZeus,each pedimentextendedforover80feetfromlefttorightandroseinthecentertoaheight of10feet.Libonwasthechiefarchitectfortheproject,althoughplainlymany artisanslaboredtocreatetheelaboratesculptures.Thewestpedimentcelebratedthe triumphoforderandcivilizationovertheanimallikebarbarismrepresentedbythe Centaurs,whointheircharacteristicdrunkennesshadsoughtto 227 Figure6.6a.Usingsurvivingfragments,scholarshavedevelopedanumberof differentreconstructionsforthesculpturalcompositionoftheeastpedimentofthe templeofZeusatOlympia(c.460BC)thattellsthestoryofPelopschariotrace. Thesetwomodelsareamongthemostrecent. Figure6.6b.Thismarblestatueofanelderlyseerfromtheeastpedimentofthe templeofZeusatOlympia(thirdfigurefromrightinthedesignsin6.6a)isa dramaticblendofnaturalisticandstylizedelements. 228

disrupttheweddingoftheheroPeirithoostoDeidameiaonlytofindthemselves worstedinthemeleebyPeirithoosandhisfriendTheseus.Inthecenteroftherelief standsafigurewhommostscholarsidentifyasApolloupholdingtheprinciplesof civility. Theeastpedimentportrayedamorecomplicatedstoryanepisodeinthelifeof AgamemnonsancestorPelops,whowonhisbrideHippodameiainachariotrace arrangedbyherfatherOenomaus.Itisnosurprisethatthecircumstances surroundingthisraceshouldhavebeendepictedonthetempleatOlympia,sincethe eventwasassociatedwiththebeginningoftheOlympicgames.Motivatedbya greaterthannormalattachmenttohisdaughter,Oenomauswasaccustomedto defeatinghersuitorsinsuchraceswiththespecialequipmenthehadobtainedfrom thegodAres.Hippodameia,however,fellinlovewithPelopsandarrangedforthe charioteerMyrtilustosabotageherfatherschariotbysubstitutingwaxlinchpinsfor itsmetalones.Intheensuingaccident,Oenomauswaskilled.ThoughPelopswon therace,marriedHippodameia,andfatheredseveralchildren,Myrtilus,whowas alsoinlovewithHippodameia,placedacurseonhimthatGreeksconnectedwith thesubsequentmisfortunesofhisdescendants,includingAgamemnonandhis family.Numerousfiguresinthescenedepictedonthetemplehavesurvived, includingoneofthemostremarkableindividualsdepictedinreliefsculpture,a pensiveseerwhoevenbeforetheracehasbegunknowswhatisgoingtohappen( Figure6.6b). Gravestelaialsoprovidedanimportantvenueforreliefsculpture.Althoughmost commemoratedthedeathsofmen,womenandgirlsweredepictedontheir tombstonesaswell.Oneofthebestpreservedfuneraryreliefsofthefifthcentury offeredatenderportrayalofalittlegirlholdingherpetdoves.Thispoignant reflectionofthedeadchildmakesclearthatforalltheirpreoccupationwithwarand civicengagementtheGreekscouldalsofeelprivatelossesdeeply. OurinsightintotheprivatelivesoftheGreeksowesmuchtothescenesthatappear onsurvivingvases.Unlikesculpture,paintingwasaslikelytotreatmundanescenes ofdailyactivitiesasitwastoportraydeedsofepicproportions.Inpaintingasin sculpture,weareoftenignorantoftheidentityoftheartistwhoseworkstandsbefore us.Paintersareoftenknownsimplybythesubjectmatteroftheirmostmemorable worksortheplacestheywereorcanbefound(e.g.,thePanpainter,theBerlin painter).GreekwallpaintingoftheClassicalperiodhasnotsurvivedtobeplaced besidethevividfrescoesofEgypt,Italy,orBronzeAgeCrete;whatwehaveare hundredsuponhundredsofvases.AsintheArchaicperiod,thesefrequentlytook theirsubjectmatterfrommythology,asinthefinevaseintheMuseumofFineArts inBostondepictingononesidethemurderofAgamemnonandontheotherthatof Aegisthus.

Dailylife,however,mightalsoberepresented,andscenesdepictedonvasesprovide socialhistorianswithawealthofinformationabouthowpeoplespenttheirtimeat workandatplay,showingwomenandmeninavarietyofactivities;shoemakers, blacksmiths,agriculturalworkers,andotherlaborersareportrayedgoingabouttheir tasks.Weareindebtedtovasesfornumerousscenesfromwomenslivesandimages ofdomesticspace. 229 Figure6.7.Thismarblegraverelief,probablyfromParos,datesfromabout450 BCandstandstodayintheMetropolitanMuseumofArt. Likesculpture,vasepaintingoftheearlierfifthcenturywasfocusedonthehuman figure,towhichthecurvingsurfacesofthevesselslentasenseofmovementand grace.Evenmorethanindrama,thepossibilitiesoffacialexpressionarelimitedby themedium,andcharacterportrayalisweak;weareoftengivenaclearsenseof whatthedramatispersonaeofthevaseareexperiencingatthemomentintimethe artisthaschosentocapture,butlittleunderstandingofwhotheyhavebeenover theirlifetimes,whattheirdrivinganxietiesorconcerns.ThefiguresonGreekvases areportrayedinaction,notcontemplationtheyalmostneverappeartobeposingfor theartistandweaskourselvesnotonly,Whataretheythinking?Whatarethey feeling?,butalso,Whathasjusthappened,andwhatwillhappennext?Butthe focusalwaysremainsthehumanbeing.Landscapesarerarelydevelopedinany substantiveway,andthoughanimalsoftenappearasthecompanionsofhumans, theyarerarelythecenterofattentionastheyhadoncebeen. 230 Figure6.8.ThisAtticvaseintheBostonMuseumofFineArtswasprobably paintedaround470BC,shortlybeforetheproductionofAeschylusOresteia. 231 Figure6.9.Vasesfrequentlydepictedcraftspeopleatwork,suchasthisAttic blackfigureneckamphorashowingshoesbeingmadeandablacksmithforging. 232 AlthoughGreekwallpaintinghasnotsurvivedtheravagesoftime,ancientcritics suggestthatfacialexpressionwasrathermorevariedinthismedium,particularly afterCimonsfriendPolygnotusofThasosliberateditfromtraditionalArchaic constraintsdepicting,forexample,openmouthsandeventeeth.Polygnotuswas

muchadmiredinantiquityforthecharacterportrayalinhisvividandcomplex muralstheRomanrhetoricianQuintilianadvisedseriousstudentsofpaintingto beginwithPolygnotusbutwhatweknowofhisworkcomeslargelyfrom descriptionsbyPausanias,atravelerofthesecondcenturyAD,whoseDescriptionof Greeceistheprincipalsourceformanyartworksthatnolongersurvivetoday; Polygnotuspaintingsarelost.TheRomanpolymathPlinytheElderreportedthat Polygnotuswasthefirsttoportraywomendrapedintransparentclothing,thewet Tshirtlook. OtherpaintersactiveatAthensinthefirsthalfofthefifthcenturyincludedMicon, whoalsoseemstohaveenjoyedCimonspatronage.PlinytheElderrecordsthat MiconsdaughterTimaretewasalsoanartistandpaintedanimageofDianaona muralinEphesus.Miconwasoneamongseveralartistswhoweredrawntothe themeofTheseusfightingtheAmazons,placingitinthecontextoftheongoing conflictbetweenWestandEast,Greekandalien.Theseuswasalsodepictedaround thesametimefightingthemythicalcreaturesknownasCentaurs,whosported humantorsosonthebodiesofhorses.Theassociationofwomenwithforeignersand animalsandthenotionthatGreekmaleidentitycouldandshouldbeassertedby settingoneselfagainstthemwouldberepeatedinGreekartandthoughtthroughout theClassicalperiod.BecauseGreekwriterswereoftenreticentindiscussingwomen, visualimagesprovideimportantcluestohowwomenwerethoughtofinancient Greece.Vasepaintingsdepictwomenofallsocialclasses.Vasesthatwereusedat drinkingpartiesformixinganddrinkingwinefrequentlyshowprostitutes entertainingmen.Somewomenareshownplayingflutesothersareengagedin variousstagesofflirtation,andsomescenesarefranklypornographic.Common prostituteswereoftenslaves.Awomanofhigherstatuswhoneverthelessmingled withmenandreceivedpayforherserviceswasknownasahetaira.Suchwomen werelikelytobemetics,eitherexslavesorfreeborn,wholikemalemetics gravitatedtoAthensbecauseitwasacommercialcenter.Afewofthesewomen,like Aspasia,themistressofPericlesandthemostfamoushetairaofall,participated activelyintheintellectuallifeoftheirmaleassociates.Incontrast,manypaintingson vasesusedbyrespectablewomendepictweddingscenes,orwomenvisitingtombs orsittingathomespinningwooloradorningthemselves,ofteninthecompanyof otherwomen. OIKOSANDPOLIS Asinmostcultures,thefamilywastheprimarylocusoftimeandenergyforwomen inGreece.WehavemuchmoreinformationaboutfamilylifeinAthensthaninany otherGreekpolis.Thewiderangeofevidenceincludesnotonlyvasepaintingbut tombsculptureandepitaphs,lawsandcourtroomspeechesdeliveredincasesof familydisputes,andportrayalsoffamilylifeincomedyand

233 tragedy.Thematerialfromdrama,however,mustbeusedwithspecialcaution.In anysociety,comedy,whilerevealingmuchaboutsocialnorms,distortsforthesake ofhumor.TragedyposesproblemspeculiartoAthens:thoughtheauthorswerefifth centuryAthenians,theyshowmythologicalcharactersandplotsinheritedfromthe BronzeAge,whenvaluesweredifferent.Allthismaterial,moreover,wasfiltered throughtheimaginationofthemalepoet.Sometimestheresultseemsmisogynistic, asinAeschylusOresteia;laterinthefifthcenturyauthorslikeSophoclesand EuripidesappearsympathetictowomensplightinAtheniansociety.Onethingis clear:daring,outspokenwomenlikeClytemnestrawerenotnormallyfoundin ClassicalAthens,whereinitiative(nottomentionviolence)wasamaleprerogative, andpoliticalpowernevershiftedintofemalehands.Wemustalwayskeepinmind thatwehavenoideawhatwomenwerethinking.Allthehistoricalevidencefrom ClassicalAthenswascreatedbymenand(atleastintheimmediatesense)financed bythem.So,forexample,evenvasesdesignedforwomensuseanddepicting womensdailyactivitieswerepaintedbymen,thenboughtbymenandgivenasgifts towomen.Greeksocietywasmaledominated,inaword,patriarchal. TheGreekpoliscomprisedoikoi(families,estates,orhouseholds).Theoikoswas theprimaryunitofproduction,consumption,andreproduction.Citizensbecame membersofthepolisnotdirectlyasindividuals,astheydoinmostmodernstates; rather,theyfirsthadtobeacceptedasmembersofanoikos. FamilyMembership WhenababywasborninAtticathefatherdecidedwhethertoraiseorexposeit.He doubtlessevaluatedthenewbornshealthaswellasthefinancialimpactofraising anotherchild.Mostsonswereraised,becausemaleheirswerethenormalmeansof perpetuatingthelineage,anditwasofgreatimportancethatfamiliesnotdieout.The offspringofadaughterwasconsideredtobelongtoherhusbandsfamily,nother fathers.Asboysgrewup,theirlaborwasconsideredvaluable.Moreover,theywere expectedtosupporttheiragedparents,burythem,andlookaftertheirtombs.Atthe scrutinyforpublicofficeknownasthedokimasia,theareasinvestigatedincluded propertreatmentofparentsandofthefamilytomb.Inastateinwhichthe governmenttookminimalresponsibilityforthosewhomageorotherinfirmity preventedfromworking,properbearingtowardparentswascrucialforthesmooth functioningofsociety.Parentsplacedlessvalueongirls,wholackedearningpower andwhosechildrenwouldbelongtoadifferentfamily.Thoughtheeldestchildwas normallyraisedregardlessofitssex,somehistorianshaveconjecturedthatasmany as20percentofnewbornAtheniangirlswereabandonedinplaceslikethelocal garbagedump.Slavedealerscollectedafewoftheexposedinfantsandturnedthem

overtowetnursestoberaisedandsoldasslaves.Mostexposedinfants,however, died,andexposurequicklybecameinfanticide. InAthens,afterababyboywasacceptedasamemberofhisfathersfamilyhe neededtobeapprovedbyhisfathersquasiorpseudofamily:aboyinherited 234 membershipinhisphratry(brotherhood,)anddeme(citywardorcountry village)fromhisfather.Enrollmentinthefathersphratrywasadesirable,ifnot essential,steptowardbecomingafullfledgedAtheniancitizen.Thefather introducedandenrolledhisbabyinhisphratryandvouchedforhimasbeing legitimateandhisown,bornofanAthenianmother. Names Namesrevealedfamilymembership.Childrenwereidentifiedbytheirownnames andpatronymics;itwasusualtonamethefirstsonafterhispaternalgrandfather, andthesecondafterhismaternalgrandfather.Becauserulesofetiquetterequiredthe suppressionofrespectablewomensnames,atleastwhiletheywereliving,the quantityofevidenceavailableforthestudyoftheirnamesisfarlessthanformens names.Nevertheless,thedataindicatethat,likeaboy,agirlwasgivenanamethat wasderivedfromthoseinherfathersfamily,skippingageneration.Thusthefirst daughterwouldbenamedafterherpaternalgrandmother. DemographyandtheLifeCycle TheaverageageatdeathinClassicalAthensforadultfemaleswas36.2yearsandfor adultmales45years.Theaveragewomanbore4.3children,2.7ofwhomsurvived infancy.Thedeathratioforinfantswas500per1000adults.Athenianmenmarriedat approximatelytheageof30andwomenaroundtheageof15.Womenwereoften widowedasaconsequenceofwar,andtheagedifferenceheightenedthelikelihood ofwidowhoodovertakingawomanbeforeoldage;menlostyoungwivesin childbirth.Marriagescouldalsobeendedbydivorce,whichwasnotstigmatized unlesssomescandalwereinvolved.Widowedanddivorcedpeopleoftenremarried, andchildrenofdivorcedparentsgenerallylivedwiththeirfathers,towhoseoikos theybelonged.Onlyaminorityofchildrenreachedadolescencelivingwithboth theirnaturalparents;mosthadlostoneorbothparentsatanearlyageandlivedwith distantrelativesorinhomeswithasuccessionofstepparentsandhalfsiblings.The intactnuclearfamilywastheexception,nottherule. Marriage

Marriagewasthesocialinstitutionthatsustainedtheoikos,anditsprincipalpurpose wasreproduction.Atthetimeofbetrothalthebridesfatherorotherguardian declaredinthepresenceofwitnesses,Igiveyoumydaughtertosowforthe purposeofproducinglegitimatechildren.Afterthebridegroomagreed,Itakeher, heandhisfiancesfatheragreedtothesizeofherdowry.Forrespectablegirlsthere wasnoalternativetomarriage,andtheobligationtodowereachdaughterdoubtless wasaprimemotivatorinfemaleinfanticide. Greekscouldbemarriedonlytoonespouseatatime,althoughtherewasadouble standardforsexualconductandhusbandsmighthaveadditionalsexual 235 Figure6.10.ThefamilyofMegacles,abranchoftheAlcmaeonids. 236 partnersofeithergender.Marriagesbetweencloserelativessuchasfirstcousinsor uncleandniecewerecommon.Inafamilywithnoson,theobligationtoperpetuate theoikosfellonadaughter,calledanepiklros(someoneattachedtotheestate, sometimestranslatedheiressforconvenience,thoughsheherselfinherited nothing).Theepikleroswasrequiredtomarrytheclosestofherfathersmale relativeswhowascapableofprocreation,usuallyheruncleorfirstcousin.Ifthetwo weremarriedtootherspouses,theyhadtodivorcethem.Asonbornoftheunion withtheepikleroswouldbeconsideredhisgrandfathersheir.Menwithoutany childrenatallwouldtrytoadoptamalerelativesothattheirlineagewouldnotdie out. Thewifesdowryplusthehusbandscontributionconstitutedtheeconomic foundationoftheoikosatthestartofamarriage.AtAthensdowriesconsistedof cashandmovableproperty.Thehusbandprovidedthelandandthehousewithmost ofitscontents.Theideal,atleastforthosewhofarmedtheirownland,wastofurnish mostofthebasicnecessitiesoflifeforthefamilywithoutneedingto Figure6.11.DetailofAtticredfigurelebsgamikos(weddingbowl)bythe WashingPainter,lastquarterofthefifthcentury.Abridedisplaysababyboy,the hopedforresultofhermarriage.Astandingwomantowardtherightisholdinga loutrophoros,aweddingvaseusedfortransportingwaterfortheprenuptialbath.The womanonthefarrightholdsavaseforperfumedointment,oroil. 237

dependonpurchasingsuppliesatthemarket.Thedivisionoflaborwasbygender: womensworkwasindoorsandmensoutdoors.Thehusbandbroughtintothe houseagriculturalproductssuchasfruit,vegetables,grain,andrawwool,andthe wifeanddomesticslavestransformedtheseproductsintotextilesandediblefood. Wiveswerealsoresponsibleforstoringthehouseholdcontentssafely,sothatthere wouldalwaysbeenoughtoeatandwear,andeventosellifthefamilyfellonhard times. Document6.4Thecustomarydivisionoflaborintheoikosisspelledoutin XenophonsSocraticdialoguetheOeconomicus,inwhichSocratesfriendIschomachus explainstohimhowhetaughthis14yearoldbridetomanagethehousehold. Hetoldmehesaidtoher:Wife,thegodsseemtohaveshownmuchdiscernmentin yokingtogetherfemaleandmale,aswecallthem,sothatthecouplemightconstitute apartnershipthatismostbeneficialtoeachofthem.... Thosewhointendtoobtainproducetobringintotheshelterneedsomeonetowork attheoutdoorjobs.Forplowing,sowing,planting,andherdingisallworkthatis performedoutdoors,anditisfromthesethatouressentialprovisionsareobtained. Assoonasthesearebroughtintotheshelter,thensomeoneelseisneededtolook afterthemandtoperformtheworkthatrequiresshelters.Thenursingofnewborn childrenrequiresshelters,andsodoesthepreparationofbreadfromgrain,and likewise,makingclothingoutofwool.Becauseboththeindoorandtheoutdoortasks requireworkandconcern,hesaid,Ithinkthegod,fromtheverybeginning, designedthenatureofwomenfortheindoorworkandconcernsandthenatureof manfortheoutdoorwork.... Forthewomanitismorehonorabletoremainindoorsthantobeoutside;fortheman itismoredisgracefultoremainindoorsthantoattendtobusinessoutside. .... Andhowdidyouarrangethingsforher,Ischomachus? Well,Ithoughtitwasbesttoshowherthepossibilitiesofourhousefirst.Itisnot elaboratelydecorated,Socrates,buttheroomsareconstructedinsuchawaythat theywillserveasthemostconvenientplacestocontainthethingsthatwillbekeptin them.Sotheroomsthemselvesinvitedwhatwassuitableforeachofthem.Thusthe bedroom,becauseitwasinthesafestpossibleplace,invitedthemostvaluable beddingandfurniture.Thedrystoreroomscalledforgrain,thecoolonesforwine, andthebrightonesforthoseproductsandutensilswhichneedlight.Icontinuedby showing 238

herlivingroomsfortheoccupants,decoratedsoastobecoolinsummerandwarm inwinter.Ipointedouttoherthattheentirehousehasitsfacadefacingsouth,sothat itwasobviouslysunnyinwinterandshadyinsummer.Ialsoshowedherthe womensquarters,separatedfromthemensquartersbyabolteddoor,sothat nothingmightberemovedfromthemthatshouldnotbe,andsothattheslaves wouldnotbreedwithoutourpermission.For,generally,honestslavesbecomemore loyalwhentheyhaveproducedchildren,butwhenbadonesmate,theybecome moretroublesome. Xenophon,Oeconomicus7.18,2022,30,9.25;translatedbySarahB.Pomeroy, XenophonOeconomicus,aSocialandHistoricalCommentary.Oxford:ClarendonPress, 1994,pp.141,143,155. Thefundamentaldivisionofdomesticspacewasbetweenmenandwomen.Evenin asmallhousewithonlytworooms,oneupstairsandoneonthegroundfloor,the upperroomwasnormallythewomensquartersandthelowerroomthemens. Entertainmenttookplaceinthemensquarters,andsoavisitortotheGreekhome wouldmeetonlymalemembersofthefamily;whenstrangerswereinthehouse womenandgirlswouldwithdrawtothesecludedpartsofthehomeandnotevenbe mentionedbyname.Thefemalesinthehousehold,bothfreeandslave,sleptinthe womensquarters.Theyalsoproducedtextilesthere,thoughinwarmweatherthey mightmovetheirloomsintoaninteriorcourtyardandworkoutdoors,protectedby thesurroundingwalls. Unlessextremepovertycompelledthemtowork,citizenwomenrarelyventuredfar fromthehouseexceptforfestivalsandfunerals.Inthiswaytheyavoidedencounters withstrangemenwhowerenottheirrelativesandwhomightcompromisetheir respectabilityeitherbyactualsexualcontactorbytherumorofit.Onlywomenin straitenedcircumstanceswouldshopforgroceriesorhouseholditemsthemselves; whereverpossible,slavesandhusbandsdidthemarketingandothererrandsthat requiredleavingtheimmediateenvironsofthehome. Theprevalenceofslavery,infact,shapedgenderrolesinavarietyofways.The availabilityofslavesevenforfamiliesoffairlymodestmeanswasvital,forexample, inperpetuatingthesocialidealofthevirtuouswomanwhoneverleftthehouse. Thoughsomepooroikoihadtorelyonthelaboroffamilymembers,mostoikoihad atleastoneortwofemaleslaves.Thedivisionoflaboramongtheverypoorand amongslaveswasnotsostrictlygenderbasedasitwasforthemiddleandupper classes.Underthewifessupervisionslavesperformeddomesticlabor,workingat foodpreparation,childcare,andtextilemanufacture.Theywerealsocompelledto providesexualservicestotheirmasters.Thereissomeevidencethatthispractice causedstraininGreekhouseholdsandthattactfulhusbandsrestrictedtheir extramaritaldalliancestolocationsoutsidetheirownhomes.

239 Figure6.12.Atticblackfigurelekythos,sixthcentury,attributedtotheAmasis Painter,showingtextileproduction.Left:Womanspinning.Center:Womenweaving ataverticalloom.Right:Womanweighingwool. THEGREEKECONOMY Theworkofslavesdidnotalwaystakeplaceinthecontextoftheoikos.Theextentto whichslaveswereengagedinagriculturallaboriscontroversial.Somescholars believethatlargenumbersofmaleslavesworkedonfarms,especiallywhena wealthyownerhadlargeplotsoflandthatwerenotcontiguousbutscatteredabout Attica.Othersstressthegroundingoftheagriculturaleconomyinthesmallfamily farmworkedbytheindependentpeasantfarmer.Likewomen,slaveswereamuted group;althoughtheywerenumerous,theirnamesandthoughtswerenotrecorded, andfewhavelefttheirmarkonthehistoricalrecord. Thereisnodoubtthatlargenumbersofslaveswereemployedinthecraftindustries, someworkingfortheirownersandothersrentedoutbythem.Theirjobstendedto begenderspecific.Menworkedinfactoriesmakingswords, 240 shields,furniture,pottery,andotheritems,whilewomenoftenworkedin textilerelatedindustries.Inscriptionsrecordingexpensesincurredinconstructionon theAthenianAcropolisshowthatslaveswerepaidthesameasfreeworkers.Of course,thewagesofslaveswhowererentedoutwerepaidtotheirmasters. Bynomeansallcraftspeoplewereslaves;Aristotleinfactcontendedthatmost craftsmenwererich.Greekswhoseeconomicstatusallowedthemsomechoice shunnedworkthatmadethemsubjecttothecommandsofanotherperson,andthis includedmostcraftfields.Suchalife,theybelieved,wasdemeaningtoafreemale citizen.Unlikefarming,towhichacertainnobilityalwaysattached,manualwork performedindoorswasdespisedbymanywealthierGreeksandknownbythename banausiclabor,whichmeansliterallyworkperformedoverahotfurnace,and distinctionsbetweenskilledandunskilledlaborwereoftenignored.Itmaybethat theleisuredclassesdisdainedindoorworkbecauseofitsconnectionwithslavesand women.LitigantsinAtheniancourtroomsenjoyedmakingsnideremarksabouttheir opponents(ortheiropponentsrelatives)everhavingheldanykindofjoboreven havingrunabusiness,andpoliticaltheoristswhoalwayscamefromtheupper classescontendedoftenthatstrenuousindoorworkoughttodisqualifypeoplefrom votingonthegroundsthatitdamagedthemindassurelyasitcompromisedthe body.MostGreeks,however,hadlimitedchoicesabouthowtosupportthemselves andtheirfamilies,andthereisnoreasontobelievethatthosewhoworkedforothers

orperformedindoormanuallaborwereembarrassedabouttheirprofessions.Some craftspeople,bothcitizensandmetics,achievedhighstatusasaconsequenceoftheir technicalabilitiesandeconomicsuccess.Tombstonesfrequentlyboastedoftheir occupantscraftskills;survivingexamplesincludeepitaphsofawoodcutteranda miner.Aselsewhere,theideologyofliterateeliteswasatoddswiththedailypractice ofordinarypeople. ThedisdainwithwhichsomeGreeksregardedpaidlabordidnotpreventagreat dealofworkfromgettingdoneoragoodbitofmoneyfrombeingmade.Sometimes, however,revenuewastheproductofimperialismandotherformsofexploitation.It mightcomeaswarbooty(slavesincluded),oritcouldtaketheformoftribute.The sizeandwealthoftheAthenianempireplayedalargeroleindefiningthecharacter ofthefifthcentury.Withoutthetributefromsubjectalliesitwouldhavebeen difficultfortheAthenianstoinitiatethesystemofstatepayforstateserviceandthus significantlyexpandtheproportionofcitizensabletoparticipateinthebusinessof government.Democracywasnotentirelydependentonempire;theAthenianslost theirempirein404BCbutcontinuedtohavedemocraticgovernmentforseveral generationsuntiltheirconquestbyPhilipofMacedonin338(andinmanyrespects democracypersistedevenafterthat).Butitcertainlyseemstohavereceivedits impetusfromthesurplusfundsgeneratedbyimperialtribute.Thesplendid buildingswithwhichtheAtheniansbeganadorningtheAcropolisshortlyafter relocatingthetreasuryinAthenscertainlyowedtheirexistencetoimperialrevenues; noempire,noParthenon.Inaddition,theempiresmaritimenaturemeantthatit servedastheorganizingprincipleofGreektrade.ThecentralityoftheAthenian empiretocommerciallifebecameabundantlyplaininthelate430swhenthe AtheniansbannedMegarianmer 241 chantsfromtradinginimperialports,claimingtheyweresimplymakingrulesfor theirownsphereofinfluenceasstipulatedbytheThirtyYearsPeace.The consequencesofthismovewerefataltoMegariantrade,andoutrageoverthis prohibitionwasonecauseofthelongPeloponnesianWarof431404.Especiallyafter thedefeatofAeginain457,AthensmostformidablecommercialrivalwasCorinth. PossessingportsbothontheSaronicGulfthatdividedAtticafromthePeloponnesus andontheCorinthianGulftothenorthwest,theCorinthianshauledshipsoverland fromtheoneharbortotheotherandthusenjoyedauniquepositioninGreek commerce. AgricultureandTrade BeforethenineteenthcenturyADMostpeopleintheworldmadetheirlivingby agriculture,andfifthcenturyGreekswerenoexception.Itwastrade,however,that

unitedthefarflungstatesthatringedtheseas,andtheroutesoverwhichmaterial goodstraveledalsoservedasvitalconduitsfortheexchangeofideas.Traderivalries likethatbetweenAthensandCorinthaccountedforagooddealoftensionamong Greekpoleis.Mosttradewentbyboat,landtrafficbeingaslowandexpensive businessoverrockyroads;thecostofcartingheavygoodsbylandmightwellexceed thepriceofthegoodsthemselves.Fewroadswerereallysuitedforwheeledvehicles, andsomepartsofGreece(includingAttica)lackedsufficientoxentodrawthem. Boeotia,however,didabriskbusinessintransport,providingpackanimalsinlarge numbers. Lackingsophisticatednavigationalinstruments,Greekvesselsavoidedtheopenseas whenpossible,preferringtohugtheshore.Marinerspreferredtolimitlongvoyages tospringandsummer,thoughsomedeterminedspeculatorsinsistedonwinterruns aswell.Speeds,however,hadincreasedconsiderablysinceHomerictimes,and traveltimeshadbeencutinhalforbetter.Merchantvesselsaslargeas250tons rangedtheoceanpropelledbyoarsandsail,andAtheniandeterminationclearedthe watersofthepiracythathadbeensuchanimportantfactorinGreeklife;forthis,at least,Athenssubjectalliesweregrateful(thoughthepirates,presumably,werenot). Thewidespreaduseofcoinage,mostlysilver,facilitatedtrade,andAthenspressured itsalliestoadoptitsowncurrency.Litigationarisingfromseatradewasso widespreadthattheAtheniansestablishedaspecialcourtofnautodikai,ormarine judges,tohandlecasesbroughttoAthens,butonthewholetheembryonicstateof internationallawofferedlittlehopetovictimsofdishonestbusinesspractices. Thediversityofnaturalresourcesintheancientworldmadetradeanecessity;no polishadeverything,andsomepoleishadverylittleindeed.Atheniancommerce especiallywasdrivenlargelybytheneedforgraintofeedalargepopulation.Grain mightcomefromnorthorsouth.OnecrucialsourcewastheBlackSearegion,which alsoprovidedhides,cattle,fish,hemp,wax,chestnuts,iron,andslaves.Forthisthe Atheniansexchangedwineandoil,sometimesindecoratedvases.Theseexports werethemselvesoftenresoldelsewhere;thePhoeniciansoftensentAtticvasesto Egypt,andagooddealofsecondhandpottery 242 fromAthenshasbeendiscoveredinEtruriainItaly.Italiansalsoboughtagooddeal ofAtticpotteryfirsthand.AnotherkeygranarylayinEgypt,whereAtticoliveoil wasalsotradedforpapyrus,ivory,glasswork,slaves,andexoticanimals.Carthage providedtextiles;Etruriafinebronzeworkandboots;Sicilypigs,cheese,andgrain; Phoeniciapurpledyeanddates.Corinthexporteditsownwaresaswellasservingas anintermediarybetweeneastandwest,sendingouttilesandmetalwork.Alreadyin thefifthcenturyitseemsthatsomesilksfromChinamadetheirwaytoGreecevia Scythianintermediaries.Arabiaexportedperfumes,andPersiacarpets.Important

sourcesofmetalswereidentifiedearly:Cyprusforcopper,Spainfortin,Laconiaas wellastheBlackSeaforiron,ThasosandMountPangaeusinnorthernGreecefor gold.AllthesegoodsflowedthroughouttheGreekworld,butmostofallthey flowedintoPiraeus. ThroughoutGreece,however,agricultureremainedthemostcommonsourceof income.Athenswasbyfarthelargestcity,withapopulationthatnormallyvaried between300,000and400,000.MostpeopleinAtticawhoparticipatedinpoliticallife wereindependentfarmerswhoworkedfairlysmallplotsofland.Generallyunaware ofthevalueofrotatingcropstomaximizetheproductivityofthesoil,farmersoften allowedtheirlandtoliefallowinalternateyears,sothepoorestwereindeedquite poor;thosewhoweredoingalittlebetterwereabletobuyafemaleslaveortwoto helpoutaroundthehouse.Some,ofcourse,ownedagreatdealoflandanddidvery well.Becauseonlycitizenscouldownland,eventheneediestfarmerstookpridein theirwayoflife. MeticsinFifthcenturyAthens ManyrichresidentsofAthens,however,didnotownland,sinceitwasillegalfor themtodosowithoutspecialdispensation.Theseweretheresidentaliensknownas metics,andtheyplayedakeyroleintheeconomy.Craftspeopleandentrepreneurs whohadcomefromallovertheGreekworldtoconductbusinessinAthens,metics accountedforasignificantproportionoftheAthenianpopulation.Theycouldnot voteorholdoffice;neithercouldtheirchildrenortheirchildrenschildren.They wereforcedtoliveinrentedhomes.Buttheysufferednosocialdisabilities,and meticfamiliesmingledcomfortablywithfamiliesofcitizens.Anumberofthecentral charactersinPlatosworksweremetics,andthemostfamousPlatonicdialogue,The Republic,wassetatthehomeoftherichmeticCephalus,whomPericleshadinvited toAthensfromSyracuse.Citizens,metics,andslavesoftenworkedsidebyside, sometimesforthesamepay;alistofworkersatoneconstructionsiteincluded eightysixlaborerswhosestatuscanbedeterminedtwentyfourcitizens,fortytwo metics,andtwentyslaves.Inacrisis,meticscouldbedraftedintothearmedforces. ManyofAthensmostdistinguishedintellectualsweremetics,suchasthe philosopherAnaxagorasfromAsiaMinorandtherhetoricianGorgiasfromSicily. PericlescommonlawwifeAspasiabelongedtothemeticclass,anditwasforthis reasonthatherequiredadecreeoftheassemblytograntcitizenshiptotheirchildren. TheinabilityofmeticwomentoproducesonswhocouldenjoyAthen 243 iancitizenshipplayedalargeroleinshapingthecontoursofAtheniansociety, creatingtwoclassesofwomenavailableaslongtermpartnerstocitizenmenmetic mistressesandcitizenwives.(Inaddition,avarietyofprostitutes,bothslaveand

free,wereavailableforbrieferencounters,andownersenjoyedtheprivilegeof sexualaccesstotheirslaves.)Mostmeticwomen,ofcourse,werehousewives marriedtometicmen.Slaveswhoweregrantedtheirfreedombecamemeticsrather thancitizens.MeticslivedinmanyotherpoleisbesidesAthens,butalmostnothingis knownofmeticsinotherpartsofGreece.***Theculturalachievementsofsixthand earlyfifthcenturyGreeceweresubstantial,butthedifficultiesthecitystates experiencedingettingalongwithoneanother(andtheiraversiontounitingintoa singlepoliticalunit)wouldhaveaprofoundimpactonthedirectionGreek civilizationwouldtake.TheThirtyYearsPeaceheldagreatdealofpromise,butit wasproblematicinmanyways.DividingtheGreekworldopenlyintotwospheresof influenceaSpartanlandempireinmainlandGreeceandanAtheniannavalonein theAegeanwasadubiousenterprise.Fromonestandpoint,bydrawinglinesclearly theagreementseemedtoholdoutthehopeofpeace;butitalsofosteredapotentially dangerousbipolarity.Thenotionofsubmittingdisputestoarbitrationwasallvery civilizedintheabstract,butwitheverystateofanyreputationalliedwithonesideor theother,justwhowasgoingtoactasmediator?Notreaty,moreover,couldchange thefactthatMegarastillsatuneasilyontheAtticborder,orcoulddiminishthe commercialrivalrybetweenAthensandCorinth.In445itwasimpossibletopredict whetherthepeacewouldlast. TRANSLATIONS Lattimore,Richmond.1959.Agamemnon,fromTheCompleteTragedies,David GreneandRichmondLattimore,eds.Vol.1,Aeschylus.Chicago:Universityof ChicagoPress. Pomeroy,Sarah.1994.XenophonOeconomicus,aSocialandHistoricalCommentary. Oxford:ClarendonPress. ScottKilvert,Ian.1960.TheRiseandFallofAthens:NineGreekLivesbyPlutarch. Harmondsworth,England:Penguin. SUGGESTEDREADINGS Cohen,David.1991.Law,Sexuality,andSociety:TheEnforcementofMoralsin ClassicalAthens.Cambridge,Eng.:CambridgeUniversityPress.Whatthe framingandapplicationoflawrevealaboutsexualvaluesandpractices. Ehrenberg,Victor.1973.FromSolontoSocrates.2nded.London:Methuen.This remainsasensitiveandthoughtfulstudyoftheevolutionofGreekculture duringthesixthandfifthcenturies. 244 Fantham,Elaine,HeleneFoley,NatalieKampen,SarahB.Pomeroy,andH.A. Shapiro.1994.WomenintheClassicalWorld:ImageandText.NewYorkand Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.Anexaminationofthewrittenandvisual evidenceforthelivesofancientwomen,placedwithintheirhistoricaland culturalcontext. Hanson,Victor.1989.TheWesternWayofWar:InfantryBattleinClassicalGreece.

NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf.Agrippingaccountoftheexperienceofhoplite battle. Hignett,Charles.1952.AHistoryoftheAthenianConstitutiontotheEndoftheFifth CenturyB.C.Oxford:ClarendonPress.Aclosestudyoftheevolutionofthe constitutionatAthens. Just,Roger.1989.WomeninAthenianLawandLife.LondonandNewYork: Routledge.AstudyofhowAthenianmensoughttodefineandlocatewomen. Meiggs,Russell.1972.TheAthenianEmpire.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.A richlydetailedexaminationofAthenianimperialismandtheworldthatcame underitssway. Pollitt,JeromeJ.1972.ArtandExperienceinClassicalGreece.Cambridge,Eng.: CambridgeUniversityPress.AsensitivesurveyofGreekartthatgroundsit firmlyinitshistoricalcontext. Pomeroy,SarahB.1998.FamiliesinClassicalandHellenisticGreece:Representations andRealities.Oxford:ClarendonPress.AnaccountoftheGreekfamilyasa productive,reproductive,andsocialunit. 245 7 GREECEONTHEEVEOFTHEPELOPONNESIANWAR

AvoidingwarwasparticularlyimportantwhentheGreekshadsuchprecious achievementstoprotectinsomanyareas.FromSicilytoAnatolia,remarkable templestothegodsproclaimedthegrandeurofHelleniccivilizationundertheopen sky.Greekshipspliedtheseasinalldirections,enablingmenandwomenhundreds ofmilesawaytoexchangetheirwaresandprofitfromawidevarietyofresources andskills.Novelexperimentsingovernmentwereinprogress.Thesamediversity thatfosteredthedynamiccreativityoftheGreeks,however,alsofragmentedtheir world.Theworldofthepolis,moreover,wasinmanywaysanarrowone.Despite thegrowthofwhattheGreekscalleddemocracy,ultimatelyeachpoliswasgrounded intheruleofaneliteoffreemenovereveryoneelse;andtheinabilityofthepoleisto getalongbodedillforthefutureofGreece.Inevitably,prospectsforthefuturewere cloudedbyintermittentsuspicionsthatthepeacebetweentheAthenianandSpartan campsmightnotendure. SOURCESFORGREECEONTHEEVEOFTHEWAR Theprincipalsourceforthedecadesthatprecededtheoutbreakofthegreatwar betweenAthensandSpartaisThucydidesHistory.Thucydidesservedasageneralin thewarandwrotethehistoryoftheperiodfrom479to411BC,thoughhisaccountof theyearsbefore433isnotasdetailedashisnarrativeofthewaritselfandthe tensionsthatimmediatelyprecededit.Agoodnumberofinscriptionssurvive,

althoughnowherenearasmanyaswewouldlike.DiodorusLibraryofHistory remainsuseful.Thoughhewasnotagreathistoriananddoesnotaddtoour understandingofthewarwhenheisusingThucydidesashisonlysource,Diodorus didsometimesdrawinformationfromotherwriters.Plutarchishelpfulaswell; biographieslikethatofPericlesincorporateagreatdealofinformationfromfifth andfourthcenturyhistorianswhoseworkislost.Alltheintellectualswhohaveleft recordsoftheirthoughts,fromthehistorianHerodotusto 246 thephysicianHippocrates,havecontributedtoourunderstandingofhowGreeks viewedtheirworldatthisfertileperiodintheirculturalhistory.Finally,agreatdebt isowedtothevisualartistswholeftusawidearrayofpottery,sculpture, tombstones,andarchitecture.Unfortunately,however,Greekwriterswerehardly representativeofthewholepopulation.Inmanystatesartistsworkedatthebehestof elites.Tobesure,insomedemocraticpoleislikeAthenssuccessfuldramaticpoets hadtospeaktothepeople,butitisimportanttorememberthatwhatwecallhistory isinfactanimageoftheworldreconstructedprimarilyfromwhatseemedworthyof creationortransmissiontothemindsofthattinyfractionofthehumanracewho wereurban,literatemales. GREECEAFTERTHETHIRTYYEARSPEACE In445,rightafterthesigningofthepeace,manyGreekswereoptimistic,convinced thatAthensandSpartahadputtheirdifferencesbehindthem.Thefactthattheir optimismwasmisplacedmakesithardforhistorianstoavoidseeingtheyearsbefore thePeloponnesianWarof431404asanythingbutapreludetohostilities.Thoughit isimportanttotrytounderstandeventsastheyunfoldratherthanassessingthem onlyintermsoftheirconsequences,hindsightalsohassomevalue.Lookingback fromthevantagepointofthewarthatfollowed,certaineventsofthe440sand430s takeonparticularsignificance. DuringthisperiodtheAtheniansshowedamarkedinterestinthewestandinthe northeast.AthenshadmultiplemotivesforacceptingMegaraintoitsalliancein460, butthedesireforaccesstotheportofPegaeontheCorinthianGulfwascertainlyone factor,andthesettlementoftheMesseniansatNaupactusseveralyearslater providedaconvenientstoppingplaceforshipsheadingwest.Itwasprobablyalsoin the450sthatAthenscontractedanalliancewithEgestainnorthwestSicily.Alliances withRhegiuminthetoeofItalyandwithanotherSiciliancity,Leontini,followed shortlyafterward;itmaybesignificantthattensionsmarkedtherelationshipof LeontiniwithSyracuse,acolonyandallyofAthenstraderivalCorinth.Commerce withthewesternGreeksplayedakeyroleintheAthenianeconomy.Largequantities ofredfigurepotterywereexportedtoEtruria,andAthenianshipsreturnedfrom

ItalyladenwithgrainandcheesefromSicilyandmetalworkfromthemainland. GraduallytheGreekcitiesofSicilyadoptedAtheniancurrency. ThatAthenshadagrowinginterestintherichlandstothewestisconfirmedby PericlesdecisiontofoundacolonyintheinstepofsouthernItalyin443.Thurii, however,wastobenoordinaryestablishment,fortheAtheniansinvitedtheother GreekstatestoshareinfoundingaPanhelleniccolony,thusdemonstratingtheir commitmenttoaspiritofcooperationandgoodwill.Thecolonywassentoutunder theguidanceofPericlesgoodfriendLampontheseer,whommanypeoplebelieved tohaveaspecialrelationshipswiththegods.Lamponobtainedoraclesregardingthe citysfoundingfromDelphithatcouldguidethecolonistsinselectingpreciselythe rightsiteforthetown.Laidoutaccordingto 247 Figure7.1.SicilyandsouthernItaly. theplansofthesameHippodamuswhohaddesignedthePiraeus,Thuriibecame hometoanumberofnonAtheniansincludingthehistorianHerodotus.Although theconstitutionofThuriiwasdemocraticandthelocalcoinswerestampedwiththe headofAthena,thecityadoptedthelawsofZaleucus,anesteemedlawgiverfrom Locris,andwhenadisagreementledthecolonistssomeyearslatertogotoDelphito asktowhomtheybelonged,theDelphicoracleclaimedthemforApollo,notAthens. PericlesintentionsforThuriiremainuncertain.Washisdeterminationtocastthe colonyasPanhellenicasinceredisclaimerofAthenianmeddlinginthewest,orwas hesimplyhopingtoheadoffCorinthianresentmentbycloakingwesternimperialism inPanhellenism?Inanyevent,theAtticelementinthepopulationwasgreatly dilutedwiththepassingoftime,andtheCorinthiansdonotappeartohavetaken offense. Athensimmediateinterest,however,layintheareaaroundThraceandtheBlackSea region.FromheretheAtheniansimportedhides,dyes,and,moreim 248 portantly,grainandtimber,andtheroutestothispartoftheworldalsogaveaccess tothecaravanroutethroughtheUralMountainstoCentralAsiaandultimatelyto theChinesefrontier,whencetheWestcouldexpectfurs,gold,andperhapsevensilk. Around445theAtheniansfoundedtheThraciancolonyofBrea,andsometenyears laterPericleshimselfsailedwithanAtheniansquadrontotheBlackSea.

WhiletheAthenianswereengagedinexpandingtheirsphereofinteresttothenorth andthewest,analarmingrevoltbrokeoutintheeast.In440,Samosrebelled. SpreadingtoByzantium,theuprisingthrewterrorintotheAthenians,foritseemed tothreatentheverycontinuationoftheirAegeanempire.Yearslater,accordingto Thucydides,GreekslookedbackandobservedthatSamoshadalmostmanagedto wrestfromtheAthenianstheircontrolofthesea.(8.76.4)Anoligarchy,Samoshad quarreledwiththedemocraticgovernmenttheAthenianshadrecentlyestablishedin neighboringMiletus,andtheMilesianswhocomplainedtoAthenswerejoinedby someSamianswhowishedtooverthrowtheirgovernment.Oneofthreeprivileged allies(alongwithLesbosandChios)whowerestillcontributingshipsratherthan tributemoneytotheAthenianleague,SamostookumbrageattheAtheniandirective tosubmitthemattertoarbitration,whereupontheAthenianssentfortyshipsto deposethegovernmentandreplaceitwithademocracy.Itwasatthisjuncturethat theSamianoligarchsseizedcontrolofthegovernmentbyforceandrevoltedfrom Athens.InthisventuretheywereassistedbyPissuthnes,thesatrapofSardis. ThespreadoftheconflagrationtoByzantiumimperiledAthenianaccesstotheBlack Seaandraisedthespecterofageneralrevoltalongthecoastoreventhroughoutthe empire.ThedeterminedcampaignthatfollowedinvolvedalltenoftheAthenian strategoiandover200ships160fromAthensand55fromtheremainingalliesinthe navy,LesbosandChios.ThesiegeofSamoslastedninemonths.Whenthecityfell, theAtheniansconfiscatedtheSamiannavyandestablishedademocracy.Aheavy indemnitywasimposedandhostagestaken.Plutarchreportsthatalocalhistorian, Duris,claimedthatPericlesboundtheSamiancommandersandmarinestopostsin themarketplaceandleftthemtherefortendays;hethengaveordersthattheirheads bebeateninwithclubsandtheirbodiestossedonthegroundtorot(Pericles28). Mostscholarsdoubttheaccuracyofthisclaim,buttheexistenceofthestoryreflects theextremebitternessofthefeelingsonbothsides.Aboutthesubjugationof ByzantiumweknownothingexceptthattheByzantinesagreedtoreturntothe empire. MeanwhileAthenskeptitsgazefixedonthenortheast,plantingacolonyata strategicpointontheStrymonRiverbytheborderofMacedoniaandThrace.Tothe samesiteinabendoftheriverwhereCimonswouldbecolonistshadbeen murderedbyangryThracianssomethirtyyearsbefore,theAthenianssentthe generalHagnonin437tofoundthecolonyofAmphipolis,sonamedbecausethe riverflowedaround(amphi)thecityonthreesides.Thistimethecolonyflourished. InadditiontoprotectingAthensaccesstograin,timber,andminerals,Amphipolis helpedtheAtheniansmonitoractivitiesintherecentlyorganizedkingdomofthe ThracianOdrysianstothenorthandeastaswellasinMacedo 249

niatothewest.Butthefactthatthetowndrewmuchofitspopulationfrom neighboringtownsundermineditsidentificationwithAthens,andduringthewar withSpartaitfailedtoserveasarallyingpointforAthenianloyaltiesinthenorth. Withinlessthanfifteenyearsofitsfounding,AmphipoliswasinSpartanhands. WeknownexttonothingabouthowSpartanslookedattheworldduringtheyears betweenthesigningoftheThirtyYearsPeacein445andtheirdeclarationofwaron Athensin432.TheonetantalizingtidbitthatleapsoutfromthepagesofThucydides istheCorinthiansclaimthattheydissuadedtheSpartansfromattackingAthensat thetimeoftheSamianrebellion:Wedidnotcastthedecidingvoteagainstyou, theyreport,whenSamosrevoltedfromyou,andwhenthePeloponnesianswere evenlydividedoverwhethertohelpthem.Weopenlyopposedit,sayingthatany citycouldpunishitsownallies.(1.40)Ifthestoryistrueandnotfabricatedforthe purposeofscoringpointswiththeAthenians,thensomeGreekswhoparticipatedin meetingsofthePeloponnesianLeaguesawmeritinattackingAthensin440,and Spartansmaywellhavebeenamongthem. TheCorinthiansclaimalsosuggeststhatmany,indeedmost,peopleinCorinthwere untroubledbythefoundationofThurii,oratleastnotsotroubledthattheywished tomakewaronAthens.Thechancesforpeace,therefore,wereprobablystillfairly reasonableduringtheearly430s.Aseriesofinterrelatedcriseslaterinthedecade, however,broughtthepeacetoanend,andinthesecrisesCorinthplayedalargepart. THEBREAKDOWNOFTHEPEACE Intheabsenceofastrongcommitmenttoamicablecoexistence,thetermsofthe ThirtyYearsPeacecontainedwithinthemtheseedsofwar.Arbitrationwas meaninglesswhenallthemajorstateswerelinedupononesideoranother;rules madeinonesphereofinfluencemightwellhaveanimpactontheother;andsome statesenjoyedanambiguousstatus,withonefootineachcamp.Onallthesefronts thepeacewasvulnerable,astheeventsthatbeganin435inaremotecornerofthe Greekworldweretoprove. TroubleatEpidamnus ThecityofEpidamnus,Thucydideswrites,isontherightasyousailintotheIonic Gulf.NonGreekspeakingTaulantiansanIllyrianpeoplelivenearby.The Corcyraeanscolonizedthecity,althoughtheoikists,summonedaccordingtothe ancientcustomfromthemothercity,wasaCorinthian(1.24;Blanco,adapted). PlainlyThucydidesassumesthatreadersmayneedtobetoldthelocationofthis littleknowntown.IntheCorcyreancolonyofEpidamnus,heexplains,acivilwar brokeoutbetweenthedemocratsandtheoligarchs,movingthedemocratstoseek assistancefromCorcyra.Whentheirmothercityturnedthemdownforreasonswe donotknow,theywereencouragedbyDelphito

250 handthemselvesovertotheirgrandmotherCorinthinstead.Sincecoloniesthat establishedcoloniesoftheirowntookanoikists(founder)fromtheoriginalfounding city,aCorinthian,Phalius,wasthetechnicalfounderofEpidamnus,andthe CorinthiansagreedtoassisttheEpidamniandemocrats,inpartbecauseofalong standingfeudwithCorcyra.TheCorcyreans,however,scoredaconspicuousvictory overtheCorinthianfleetthatsailedtotheaidofEpidamnus.Theappalled Corinthianssetaboutbuildingamoresubstantialfleetwithwhichtohumble Corcyraandretaintheirpredominanceinwesternwaters. TheAllianceofCorcyraandAthens BecausetheCorcyreansbelongedtoneitherthePeloponnesianLeaguenorthe Athenianalliance,theyhadmuchtofearfromthegrowingCorinthiannavy.With theprospectsofaSpartanalliancecutoffbySpartasrelationshiptoCorinth,they determinedtoseekalliancewiththeAthenians,sendingambassadorstoAthensin thesummerof433.ThoughtheThirtyYearsPeacespecifiedthatneutralsmightjoin eitherside,theAthenianswereunderstandablynervousaboutallyingwithCorcyra, theenemyofthemostpowerfulnavalstateinthePeloponnesianLeague;butthey wereevenmoreapprehensiveaboutwhatwouldhappenifmightyCorinthdefeated andabsorbedCorcyrassubstantialfleet.Better,theydecided,togainthoseshipsfor Athens,andso,afteradebatethatextendedovertwodays,theyvotedtomakean alliancewithCorcyra.PresumablyPericleswasoneofthosewhoarguedinfavorof thealliance.ThoughtheAthenianssoughttoavoidprovokingthePeloponnesiansby makingthealliancemerelyadefensiveone,thistechnicalityfoolednobody.Itwas plainthatCorinthwasabouttoattackCorcyraandthatAtheniansandCorinthians wouldsoonbefighting. ItwasprobablyintheslimhopeofnotprovokingtheSpartansthattheAthenians sentonlytenshipstoCorcyrasassistanceandchoseasoneoftheircommandersthe sonCimonhadnamed,ofallthings,Lacedaemonius.Theirinstructions,Thucydides writes,weretoavoidbattlewiththeCorinthiansifatallpossible,andtoengageonly iftheCorinthianswereactuallyonthepointoflandingonCorcyreanterritory.Inthe latesummerof433,theCorinthiansattackedtheCorcyreanfleetof110shipsoffthe islandchainknownasSybota.ThePeloponnesianforceconsistedofninety CorinthianshipsandsixtymoresuppliedbyElis,Ambracia,Anactorium,Leucas, andsignificantlyAthensneighborMegara.ThoughatfirsttheAthenianshung backcautiously,whenitwasclearthattheCorcyreansweregettingtheworstofit theybegantogivethemincreasingsupport.Thus,Thucydidespointsout,asituation inevitablycameaboutinwhichCorinthiansandAthenianswereopenlyfighting withoneanother.

AmisunderstandingrescuedtheCorcyreansfromcompletedestruction.Toward evening,whentheCorinthianshaddisabledoverhalftheCorcyreanfleetand seemedtobeonthevergeofannihilatingtheirowncolony,theastonishedCorcyrean sailorsnoticedthattheCorinthianshipshadsuddenlybeguntoretreat.Investigation provedthattheyhadsightedshipssailingupfromthesouthandhadconjectured thatperhapsAthenshaddecidedtoaidCorcyrainfullforce. 251 Theywereonlypartiallycorrect.TheshipswereindeedfromAthens,wherethe Athenians,whowereplainlydividedabouttheexpedition,hadthoughtbetterof dispatchingameretenshipsandhaddecidedtoaddtwentymore.Mostdecidedly, however,itwasnottheentireAthenianarmadathatwasapproaching,andthe Corinthianspaidheavilyfortheirmomentofpanic. TheProblemofPotidaea ChancesofawarbetweentheAtheniansandthePeloponnesianshadnowincreased, andinthemonthsfollowingtheBattleofSybotaAthensissuedproblematicdecrees againsttwomembersofthePeloponnesianLeague.ThecityofPotidaeaonthe ChalcidicpeninsulaoccupiedtwopositionsintheGreekworldsimultaneously:it wasbothaCorinthiancolonyandamemberoftheAthenianalliance.BecauseGreek colonieswerefullyautonomous,therewasnothingillegalaboutthis,butinaclimate ofescalatingtensions,Potidaeasambiguousidentificationwaslikelytobeasource ofstrain.ThepotentialdifficultieswereaggravatedbythefactthatPotidaeas relationshiptoitsmothercitywaseverythingthatCorcyraswasnot.Corcyrawas theproverbialbadcolony,actingindependentlyfromCorinthinallthings excludingtheCorinthiansfromthecustomaryprivilegesatpublicfestivalsand boastingofitsfinancialandmilitarysuperioritytoitsmothercity.Potidaea,onthe otherhand,wasexceptionallyattachedtoitsmothercityandevenwentsofarasto acceptitsannualmagistratesfromCorinth.Duringthewinterof433432,the AtheniansorderedthePotidaeanstodismisstheirCorinthianmagistrates,rejectany futureofficialsfromCorinth,teardowntheirseawarddefenses,andgivehostages. Theirmotiveswereprobablymixedandincludedthedesiretotakevengeanceon CorinthandfearofCorinthianinterferenceintheAtheniansphereofinfluence.The proximityofPotidaeatoMacedoniacomplicatedanalreadydifficultsituation,for MacedoniawasavaluablesourceoftimberforshipbuildingnotonlyforAthenian shipsbutforCorinthianonesaswell. AfterunsuccessfulattemptstonegotiatewiththeAthenians,thePotidaeanssent envoystothePeloponnesus.ThucydidesreportsthatCorinthianenvoyshelpedthem extractapromisefromatleastsomeSpartansthatSpartacouldinvadeAtticaif Potidaeawereattacked.ThefirsttoinvolvethemselvesinthePotidaeanaffair,

however,werenottheSpartansbuttheMacedonians.OnceanAthenianally, MacedoniaskingPerdiccashadbeenalienatedbyAthenssupportoftworelatives whochallengedhisrighttothethrone.PerdiccasnotonlyencouragedtheSpartans tomoveagainstAthensandurgedtheCorinthianstoraisearevoltinPotidaea;he alsopersuadedthepeoplesofChalcidiceandBottiaeatojoinwithPotidaeainrevolt againstAthens.AthensthenattackedMacedonia,whileCorinthenteredasecret alliancewiththeBottiaeanandChalcidianstates.Twothousandmencalled volunteerssomeCorinthians,somePeloponnesianmercenariesenteredPotidaea. TheAtheniansdefeatedthisforceandlaidsiegetoPotidaea.Thesiegewouldlastfor twoyearsandcosttheAtheniansmuchinmenandmoney. 252 AthenianDecreesAgainstMegara Aroundthesametime,theAthenianstookactionagainstMegara.Because ThucydidesdidnotdiscussthedecreesrelatingtoMegarainanydetail,we understandmuchlessaboutthisthirdcrisisthanwedoabouttheCorcyreanalliance andtheconflictwithPotidaea.Thetimeframeisuncertainandthecausesofthe frictionvague.Borderingpoleisoftenquarreled.TheAtheniansaccusedthe Megariansofharboringescapedslavesandofcultivatingsomesacredandundefined landthatlaybetweenEleusisandMegara.Theywereprobablyangrytooatthe assistanceMegarahadgivenCorinthattheBattleofSybota.Atleastonedecree againstMegara,passedprobablyin432,excludedMegarianmerchantsfromallports oftheAthenianempire.ThisdecreeenabledtheAthenianstoinflictconsiderable harmonamemberofthePeloponnesianLeaguewithouttechnicallyinfringingthe termsoftheThirtyYearsPeace.SincetherewerefewGreekportsoutsidethe Athenianempire,theirclaimthattheyweresimplyregulatingtheirownsphereof influencewasdisingenuous.PlainlytheMegarianeconomywouldbedevastatedby theseeconomicsanctions,andtheAthenianscouldhardlyhaveexpectedthe Spartanstositidlybywhiletheirallysufferedsoconspicuously. EvenmorethantheotheractionstakenbytheAthenianassemblyduringtheyears thatprecededtheoutbreakofthePeloponnesianWar,thesanctionsagainstMegara (andthesubsequentrefusaltorevokethem)areassociatedwiththenameofPericles. TheplaysofAristophanesandPlutarchsbiographyofPericlesmakeitplainthat somepeopleconsideredthefrictionwithMegarapivotalinbringingonthewarand blamedPericlesfortheoutbreakofhostilities.ScatteredreferencesinThucydides confirmthis.Intheautumnof432theCorinthiansdenouncedtheAtheniansbefore theSpartanassembly.ThoughtheSpartankingArchidamusurgedcautionandtried toconvincehisfellowSpartanstopostponetakinganyactionuntiltheycouldbuild uptheirresourcesforwar,hisargumentsdidnotprevail,andtheSpartansvotedthat

theAthenianshadviolatedtheThirtyYearsPeace.Theythensummoneddelegates fromthePeloponnesianLeaguewhodulyvotedtogotowarwithAthens. LastDitchAttemptstoAvertWar ArchidamuswasanoldfamilyfriendofPericles,buthewasbynomeanstheonly SpartanhesitanttofightAthens,andforseveralmonthsaftertheformaldecisionfor warhadbeentakentheSpartanssentembassiestotheAtheniansdemanding concessionsthatcouldpreservepeacefulrelations.Theseincludedfreeingthe Greeks(abandoningtheempire),expellinganycursedAlcmaeonidsinthecity( PericleswasanAlcmaeonidonhismothersside),andrescindingtheMegarian decree.TheAtheniansrespondedwithdemandsoftheirown.Theyrequested,for example,thattheSpartanspurifythecurseofthegoddessoftheBrassHouse,a referencetotheimpietiesinvolvedinthedeathbystarvationdecadesearlierof Pausanias,whoaswehaveseenhadtakenrefugeinthegoddessstemple.Though someoftheseexchangesinvolvednothingmorethanpi 253 ousposturing,otherswereplainlysincere,particularlyonSpartasbehalf.Whatthese interchangesmakeclearare,first,thatPericleswasfirmlyentrenchedastheleaderof theAtheniansandastheframerofAthenianpolicy;second,thattheMegariandecree wasofconsiderableimportancetotheSpartans;andthird,thatbothAthensand Spartaweresplitaboutthedesirabilityofwar.Whennegotiationshadbeengoingon forseveralmonths,theimpatientThebansforcedambivalentSpartashandby attackingAthensallyPlataea.BecausePlataeaenjoyedaspecialpositioninGreeceas thesiteofagreatvictoryagainstPersiain478,thisassaultwasconsidered particularlyheinous.AfterwardnobodycouldquestionthatthePeloponnesiansand theAthenianswereatwar. RESOURCESFORWAR ThusendedtheperiodofahalfcenturybetweenthePersianandPeloponnesianwars towhichThucydidesgavethenamethePentakontaetia(theFiftyYears) (technicallyfortysevenyears).Inthejockeyingforpositionthatwentonduringthe monthsleadinguptotheThebanattackonPlataea,theSpartansseemtohavecome outahead.Thoughitwastheywhohaddeclaredwar,theGreekworldwasinclined toseeimperialistAthensastheaggressorandsomeAtheniansagreed,censuring PericlesforhiscombativestanceandadvocatingthenullificationoftheMegarian decrees.SpartadidnotkeepastightaholdonthemembersofthePeloponnesian LeagueasdidAthensonthoseofitsempire.Inaculturethatprizedautonomyas muchasGreeksdid,consequently,itwaspossibleforSpartatoputitselfforwardin oppositiontoAthensasthechampionoffreedomasthestatethathadneveritself

enduredatyrantandthatopposedtyrannythroughoutGreece.Whenwarbrokeout, Thucydideswrites, PopularopinionshapedupinfavoroftheSpartansbyfar,especiallysincetheyhad proclaimedthattheyweregoingtoliberateGreece.Everywhere,cityandcitizen alikewereeager,ifatallpossible,tojoinwiththeminwordanddeed,andeveryone feltthatanyplanwouldcometoastandstillifhehimselfcouldnottakepartinit. ThatishowangrymostpeoplewereatAthenssomebecausetheywantedtorid themselvesofAthenianrule,andothersbecausetheywerefrightenedlesttheyfall underthatrule. (ThePeloponnesianWar2.8;Blanco1998) ThucydidesalsoliststheprincipalcombatantsatthetimeoftheattackonPlataeain 431.OnthePeloponnesiansidewereCorinth,Boeotia,Megara,Locris,Phocis, Ambracia,Leucas,Anactoria,andallstatesinthePeloponnesusitselfexceptfor ArgosandAchaea(thoughinAchaeathestateofPellenedidjointheSpartans). RangedontheAtheniansidewereanassortmentofallies,somenodoubt enthusiasticbutmanyreluctant,expectingtogainnothingfromthewarand imaginingthattheywouldenjoyautonomyifSpartacouldbringanendtoAthens imperialpretensions.(Thosewhobelievedthisweremistaken.TheSpartanhege 254 monythatfollowedthewarprovedsodistastefulthatnumerousstateswereeagerto jointhenavalconfederacytheAtheniansestablishedinthefourthcentury.)The AtheniansalliesatthetimewarbrokeoutwereChios,Lesbos,Plataea,Zacynthus, theMesseniansofNaupactus,mostofAcarnania,Corcyra,andsomecitiesthatpaid tributeontheCariancoast(includingthenearbyDoriancities),inIonia,inthe Hellespont,inThrace,amongtheCyclades(exceptforMelosandThera),andamong whatThucydidescallstheislandsthatliebetweenthePeloponnesusandCrete towardtheeast. Thebelligerentsdifferednotonlyintemperamentbutalsointhenatureoftheir militarystrengths.TheAthenianshadagreatdealmoremoneythanthe Peloponnesians,andtheirnavywasincomparablysuperior.Athensitselfpossessed overthreehundredshipsandcouldcountonahundredorsomorefromitsallies Chios,Lesbos,and,ofcourse,Corcyra.ThePeloponnesiansreliedprincipallyonthe Corinthiannavyandcouldnotputmanymorethanahundredshipsinthewater. Theircrews,moreover,couldnotcompareinskillandexperiencewiththoseofthe Athenians.ButthePeloponnesianinfantrywasformidable.Anadvancingphalanxof SpartanhopliteswearingtheirdistinctiveredtunicsandsportingthedreadedLfor LacedaemonontheirshieldsthrewterrorintoSpartasenemies.Thecombined infantryofthePeloponnesiansoutnumberedthatoftheAthenians.Moreover,agood

numberoftheirsoldierswereSpartanswhohadspenttheirentirelivestrainingfor thiswarwhilehelotsandperioikoiattendedtotheotherbusinessoflife.Forthese, thecitizenfarmersoldiersoftheaverageGreekstatewereadubiousmatch. Accordingly,Athenshopedtoconductasmuchofthewaraspossibleatsea,while theSpartanswouldfocusontheland.TheAthenianswerefightingessentiallya defensivewar,whosegoalwastopreservetheempiretheSpartanssoughtto destroy.ForAthensastalematewouldamounttovictory.Spartaneededsomething more. INTELLECTUALLIFEINFIFTHCENTURYGREECE AsPericleslaydying,Plutarchmaintains,hespokewithprideofwhatheconsidered hisgreatestachievementthatnolivingAthenianeverputonmourningbecauseof me.Theinaccuracyofthispeculiarboastbecameincreasinglyclearwithevery passingyear.ThewarPericleshadencouragedhisfellowAthenianstofightwiththe PeloponnesianLeaguewouldsapthestrengthofoneofthemostextraordinary civilizationstheworldhaseverseen.LookingatthevibrantcivilizationofGreecein themiddleofthefifthcentury,itwouldhavebeenhardforanyonealiveatthetime tobelievethehorrorsthatlayahead.Magnificenttemplestothegodsdottedthe landscape,deckedoutwithfriezesthatcelebratedhumananddivine accomplishment.Shipspliedtheseasmoreorlessunharriedbypirates,transporting bothrawmaterialsliketimber(tobuildmoreships)andartifactssuchassuperb paintedpottery.AndthroughouttheGreekcitiespeoplehadbeguntoexplorenew ideasabouttheuniverseandhumanitysplaceinit. 255 Figure7.2.AlliancesattheoutsetofthePeloponnesianWar. 256 257 SpeculatingAbouttheNaturalWorld GreeksofHesiodsdayhadviewedtheearlieststateoftheuniverseasaformless voidtheycalledchaos.Outofchaos,theybelieved,theorderoftheirownworldhad emergedkosmos,aGreekwordmeaningbothorderandbeauty(hencetheword cosmeticsformakeup,orcosmeticsurgerytoimproveappearance).Mythology servedtheimportantfunctionofgroundingthegrowthofcosmosfromchaosin variousactionstakenbythegods.ThegreatcontributionofthesixthcenturyGreek

thinkersofIoniahadlainintheirdeterminationtoabandonthismythologicaland religiousframeworkandattemptinsteadtoexplaintheworldbymaterialprocesses alone. AswehaveseeninChapter3,theIonianrationalistshadfocusedonthenatural worldratherthanonthevaluesofthehumancommunity.LikethoseofCharles Darwininthenineteenthcentury,however,theirspeculationsraisedinevitable questionsaboutrelationsbetweengodsandmortals,fortheysoughttoenthrone humanreasonasthetoolforunderstandingtheuniverseandtoreplacedivineplan (orcaprice)withmaterialforces.AnaxagorasfromClazomenaeinAsiaMinor(c.500 428BC)wasoneofmanyintellectualswhowasdrawntotheglitteringcityof Athens.TherehebecameatrustedfriendofPericles,whomheservedasamentorfor manyyears.Anaxagorasviewedmaterialobjectsascomposedofinfinitelydivisible particlesandconceivedoftheirorganizationastheworkofaforcehecalledNous (intellect);fromthiscamehisnicknameNous(theBrain).Thesun,heclaimed, wasnotadeitybutratherawhitehotstonealittlelargerthanthePeloponnesus. WhenPericlespoliticalenemiessoughttounderminehispositioninthe430sby bringinghisknownassociatestotrial,Anaxagorasprovidedaneasytargetandwas forcedtofleeforhislife. Theworkingsoftheuniversealsointriguedotherfifthcenturythinkersthroughout thebreadthoftheGreekworld.Empedocles(c.493c.433BC),wholivedinAcragas inSicily,propoundedacosmogonybasedontheideaoffourprimaryelements earth,air,fire,andwater.Physicalsubstances,heargued,wereproducedwhenthe twinforcesofattractionandrepulsionthathecalledloveandstrifeactedupon theseelements,combiningtheminvariousproportions.Maintainingthatthese combinationswererandomlyproduced,Empedoclesconjecturedthatmonstrous formshadprobablybeencreatedearlyinhistorybuthadperishedthroughtheir failuretoadapt. AnalternativeviewofhowtheworldismadewasputforwardbyLeucippusand Democritus.LikeAnaxagoras,Leucippus,whoseemstohavebeenactivearoundthe middleofthefifthcentury,believedthatmatterwascreatedoftinyparticles,andhis ideaswerefurtherdevelopedbyhispupilDemocritusfromAbderainThrace(c.460 370BC).Intheirview,moreover,thetinyparticleswereatoma(uncuttable). Ironically,then,thewordforatom,whichhasbeensplitinourownagewithsuch devastatingconsequences,originallymeantthatwhichcannotbedivided.In additiontoatoms,sothetheoryhadit,therewasvoid;fallingthroughvoid,atoms collidedinavarietyofwaystoformvisiblematter.Whatdeterminedthemannerof thesecollisionswasalittleuncertainLeucip 258

pusinsisteditwasnecessityandnotchance,thoughotheratomistsdisagreedbutthe atomictheoristsagreedononething:whateverwasactiveinshapingtheformof matterwasanaturalforceandnodivinebeing. Thoughtheycertainlylookedaroundthemformodelsandparadigms,thinkerslike Anaxagoras,Empedocles,Leucippus,andDemocrituswereessentiallyphilosophers, notscientists.Amixofobservationandsystematicthinkingformedthebasisof Greekmedicine.ThoughprayerprobablyremainedthemostcommonGreek responsetoillnessinantiquity,duringthesixthcenturyBCGreeksinAsiaMinor beganlearningaboutanatomyfromtheobservationsMesopotamianshadmadeon animalentrailsusedindivination.By500BC,medicalcentershadbeenestablished ontheislandofCosoffthecoastofAsiaMinorandonthenearbypeninsulaof Cnidos.Someinstructionalsotookplacewithinthefamily;oftenthemedical professionwaspasseddownfromfathertoson.Womenwereprohibitedfrom practicingasdoctors,buttheyfrequentlyfunctionedasmidwives. CasestudiesformedthebasisofthedoctrinesofHippocratesofCos(c.460c.377 BC).ThebodyofwritingsassociatedwithHippocratesschoolincludedovera hundredworkscomposedoveralongperiod,andthereisnowaytoknowwhichof thesemighthavebeenwrittenbyHippocrateshimself.Greeksdidnotdevelopmany curesfordiseases.TheprincipalcontributionoftheHippocraticslaynotinany specificdiscoveriesaboutmedicinebutratherintheircommitmenttoseeking rationalexplanationsofnaturalphenomena.Epilepsy,forexample,hadbeenlabeled thesacreddiseasebytheGreeks;intheirtreatiseOntheSacredDisease,the Hippocraticstookadifferentview,claimingthatthisnotionwasputforwardby anxiouscharlatanswho,havingnoideawhattodoandhavingnothingtoofferthe sick...labelledthediseasesacredinordertoconcealtheirignorance.(OntheSacred Disease2)Anothertreatise,Airs,Waters,Places,examinedtheimpactofclimateon health,layingthefoundationsforepidemiology. ThelargestgroupofHippocratictextsdealswithgynecology.Alongwiththegeneral devaluationofwomeninGreekculture,womensreticenceaboutspeakingtomale physicianssometimescutdoctorsofffrominformationvitaltounderstandingfemale reproductiveprocesses.Intheabsenceofrealdataconcerningsymptomsandsexual practices,wherewomenwereconcernedspeculationoftensubstitutedforthecareful observationonwhichtheHippocraticspridedthemselves: Ifsuffocationoccurssuddenly,itwillhappenespeciallytowomenwhodonothave intercourseandtoolderwomenratherthantoyoungones,fortheirwombsare lighter.Itusuallyoccursbecauseofthefollowing:whenawomanisemptyand worksharderthaninherpreviousexperience,herwomb,becomingheatedfromthe hardwork,turnsbecauseitisemptyandlight.Thereis,infact,emptyspaceforitto turninbecausethebellyisempty.Nowwhenthewombturns,ithitstheliverand

theygotogetherandstrikeagainsttheabdomenforthewombrushesandgoes upwardstowardsthemoisture,becauseithasbeendriedoutbyhardwork,andthe liveris,afterall,moist.Whenthewombhitstheliver,itproducessuddensuffocation asitoccupiesthebreathingpassagesaroundthebelly. (DiseasesofWomen1.7;Hanson1975) 259 THELITERATUREOFTHEFIFTHCENTURY Intheverbalrealm,theprincipalachievementsoftheAtheniansduringthisperiod layinhistoryandintragedy.Dozensoftragedianswereactiveinfifthcentury Athens,thoughonlytheworksofAeschylus,Sophocles,andEuripideshave survived,andoftheseonlyafractionoftheiroutputseveneachofAeschylusand Sophocles,andnineteenofEuripides.Historywasthelesscommongenre,butthe twoworksthatsurvivedintheirentiretywereremarkableintheirscopeanddepth HerodotushistoryofthePersianwarsandThucydideshistoryofthePeloponnesian War.Betweenthem,HerodotusandThucydidesenshrinedinhistoricalwritingthe modelofthewarmonographthathasremainedpopulartothisday. Herodotus LikeAnaxagoras,PericlesfriendsHerodotusandSophoclesalsosoughttochallenge traditionalwaysoflookingattheworld.BorninHalicarnassusinIonia,Herodotus washeirtoallthetraditionsofIonianrationalismandhadapassionatecuriosity aboutcausesandorigins.WhythePersiansandtheGreeksfought,whataccounted fortheGreekvictory,howDariuscametorulePersia,wheretheNilebegan,howthe priestessesatDodonacametobethoughtofasbirdswithhumanvoices,wherethe GreeksgottheirgodsHerodotususedtheGreekwordhistoria(inquiry)todescribe hisquestforunderstanding,andthiswordhasgivenEnglishandnumerous romancelanguagestheirwordfortheinvestigationandanalysisofthepast: history.Hehassetforththeresultsofhisinquiry,hereportsintheopening sentenceofhiswork,sothattheactionsofpeopleshallnotfadewithtime,sothat thegreatandadmirablemonumentsproducedbybothGreeksandbarbariansshall notgounrenowned,and,amongotherthings,tosetforththereasonswhythey wagedwaroneachother(TheHistories1.1;Blanco1992). BornprobablyshortlybeforeXerxesinvasionofGreecein480,Herodotuswasnot oldenoughtorememberthePersianwars,buthewasabletointerrogateinformants ofhisparentsgenerationclosely.Hisinterestswerenotconfinedtoaparticular seriesofhistoricalevents;likehissomewhatyoungercontemporaryThucydides,he wasfascinatedbywhathistoryrevealedabouthumannatureandthewaytheworld works.Whathelearnedfromhisstudyofhistorywasthatpowergoestopeoples

heads,andthatthemightyrarelymeditateontheirconditionwithsufficient judiciousnessandreflectionthatrulershearwhattheywanttohear,andrush headlongtotheirowndestruction. Thisparadigmappearsearlyinhishistoryinhisimaginativereconstructionofa conversationbetweenSolon,theAthenianlawgiver,andCroesus,thefabulously wealthykingofLydiawhohasgivenhisnametotheexpressionstillcurrenttoday, richasCroesus.Duringhistravels,Herodotusmaintains,SoloncametoCroesus palace,wherethekingmadeapointofhavingattendantsgiveSolonatourthat wouldhighlightCroesusprosperityateveryturn.Afterward,CroesusaskedSolonif therewasanyoneintheworldwhostruckhimaspartic 260 ularlyfortunate.FeigninginnocenceofCroesuspurposeinaskingthisquestion, SolonnamedalittleknownGreekmanwhohaddiedfightingforhiscity,leaving childrenbehindhim,andwasburiedwithhonors.WhenCroesuswasdissatisfied withthisresponse,Solonofferedanalternativeexample.TwoyoungArgives,he related,whentheirmotherneededtoattendafeastofHeraandtheoxenhadnotyet returnedfromthefield,yokedthemselvestothefamilywagonandpulleditseveral milestothetemple.Amidstthegreatwordsofpraiselavishedupontheyoungmen andonherforhavingsuchfinesons,theirmotherprayedtothegoddesstobestow onherchildrenwhateverwasbestforhumankind.Lyingdowntosleepinthe temple,theyouthsneverawoke,andtheArgivesdedicatedstatuestothematDelphi incommemorationoftheirexcellence. Resentfulatnotbeingnamedthemostfortunateofmen,Croesusspokeharshlyto Solon,voicinghisindignationatthenotionthattheAthenianshouldconsider ordinarycitizensmorefortunatethanarichkinglikehim.Soloninturncounseled himtothinkharderaboutwhatitmeanstobetrulyfortunate,cautioninghimnotto makefacilejudgmentswithoutwaitingtoseehowthingsturnoutintheend.To me,hetellsCroesus, itisclearthatyouareveryrich,andclearthatyouarethekingofmanymen;butthe thingthatyouaskedmeIcannotsayofyouyet,untilIhearthatyouhavebrought yourlifetoanendwell.Forhethatisgreatlyrichisnotmoreblessedthanhethat hasenoughforthedayunlessfortunesoattenduponhimthatheendshislifewell, havingallthosefinethingsstillwithhim....Onemustlookalwaysattheendof everythinghowitwillcomeoutfinally.Fortomanythegodhasshownaglimpse ofblessednessonlytoextirpatethemintheend. (TheHistory1.32;Grene1987)

Croesus,however,doesnotlisten.Bycarelesslymisinterpretingaseriesoforacles,he loseshisempireandcomestorecognizeSolonswisdom. ItisnotatalllikelythatSolonandCroesusreallymet.Solonstravelsevidently precededCroesusaccessiontothethronearound560BC.Herodotushascraftedthis vignettetodemonstratethesuperiorityofGreekoverPersianwaysofthinkingof thewesterndependenceonthesolidcitizenovertheeasternreverenceforthe powerfulautocrat.SimilarpointsarescoredinHerodotuscharacterizationofthe overconfidentXerxes.Theimplicationsofthisareplainenough:foralltheirvirtues, thePersians,likeothereasternpeoples,weredraggeddownbytheirhabitof accordingimmensepowertoasingleindividual,theking.Encouraginghiminhis childishselfconfidence,theybecameslavestosomeonewhoexaggeratedhisown importancenotonlyvisvisothermortalsbut,moredangerouslystill,inrelationto thegods.Incomparison,Greekcivilizationheldallthepromisethatinheredinfree institutions,intheruleoflaw,inrespectforgodsandtheacceptanceofhuman limitations. InallthisHerodotuswasatypicalGreek,butinotherrespectshesoughtto underminekneejerkassumptionshesawintheworldaroundhimassumptions 261 abouttheinsignificanceofnonGreekculturesandthelowintellectofwomen.Greek men,inHerodotusview,neededtothinkharderandlongerabouttheirplaceinthe world.Toassisttheminthisproject,heincludedinhishistorymanystoriesabout theintelligenceofcleverqueens(suchasQueenArtemisiaofhisnative Halicarnassus)andadetailedaccountoftheaccomplishmentsoftheEgyptians, stressingthegreaterantiquityofEgyptiancultureinrelationtoGreekand suggestingEgyptianoriginsfortheGreekgods. Sophocles Herodotuswarningsaboutthevicissitudesoffortuneandtheimpossibilityof judgingamanslifeuntilitisoverareechoedinOedipusTyrannus,themostfamous playofantiquity.HerethepoetSophocles(c.496406BC)presentstoustheseeming goodfortuneofOedipus,thehighlyintelligentandrespectedrulerofThebesinthe HeroicAgeonlytoshowushislifedisintegratingbeforeoureyes.Oedipus TyrannuswasproducedintheearlyyearsofthePeloponnesianWar,butSophocles hadalreadymadequiteanameforhimselfduringthe440swhileHerodotuswasin Athens,wherethehistorianlivedforseveralyearsafterhistravelsandbefore movingtoThurii.Sophocleswroteoverahundredplays.LikeAeschylusandother tragicpoets,SophoclesreworkedthefamiliarplotsofGreekmythology,withtheir emphasisonagonizingfamilydiscord,toexpresshisviewoftheworld.justafter HerodotusdepartureforThuriiSophoclesproducedthefirstofthreesurviving

dramasabouttheunfortunatehouseofOedipus,thelegendaryrulerofThebeswho wasfatedtokillhisfatherandmarryhismother. InthefirstofSophoclesThebanplays,Antigone,theplaywrightasksusto contemplatethepainfultensionsthatariseinOedipusfamilyafterhisdeath.Oneof hissons,Polynices,hasdiedfightingtotakethethroneofThebesfromhisbrother; naturallyPolynicessisterAntigonewishestofulfillherreligiousobligationandbury hisbody.ButtheiruncleCreon,nowkingofThebes,forbidsanyonetotakeupthis projectonthegroundsthatPolyniceswasatraitor.LikemanycharactersinGreek tragedy,Antigonenowfindsherselfconfrontedwithapainfulchoice.Shemust decidewhethertohonorherobligationtoherbrotherandtothegods,whichmeans facingdeathherself,ortoobeythelawsofthestateandkeepherselfsafe.Sheis headstronganddefiant;Creonisrigidandinsensitive. ThoughSophoclesisaconventionalAthenianinhisrespectforthegodsandtheir powertoguidehumanlife,inotherregardshechallengedconventionalmores. AntigonessituationparalleledthatoftheAtheniangirlknownasanepiklros,agirl withnosurvivingbrothers,anditishardtodoubtthatSophoclessympathieslie withthefatherless,brotherlessgirlwhoexperiencesallthehelplessnessthatfell uponAthenianwomenwholackedmaleprotectors.Sophocles,ashisotherplays confirm,sympathizedwiththeplightofGreekwomen.Creon,however,makesa goodcasefortheimportanceofalawthatmakesnoexceptionsforfamilymembers, andasanAtheniandemocratSophoclescertainlysawtheneedtoupholdtheruleof law.Butisthedecreeofanautocratreallylaw, 262 especiallywhenthepopulaceisonAntigonesside?Sophoclesfullyrecognizesthe complexityofthetortuouschoicesAntigoneandCreonmustmake,andheseesin theirconfrontationproofofthewondrouscomplexityofhumankindandthe communitieshumanshavestruggledtodevelop. Document7.1Thesoaringpoetryofthechoruscelebratestheachievementsofthe humanraceinamemorablepassage. Manythewondersbutnothingwalksstrangerthanman. Thisthingcrossestheseainthewintersstorm,makinghispaththroughtheroaring waves. Andshe,thegreatestofgods,theearthagelesssheis,andunweariedhewearsher awayastheploughsgoupanddownfromyeartoyearandhismulesturnupthe soil. Gaynationsofbirdshesnaresandleads,wildbeasttribesandthesaltybroodofthe sea,withthetwistedmeshofhisnets,thiscleverman. Hecontrolswithcraftthebeastsoftheopenair,walkersonhills.Thehorsewithhis

shaggymaneheholdsandharnesses,yokedabouttheneck,andthestrongbullof themountain. Language,andthoughtlikethewindandthefeelingsthatmakethetown,hehas taughthimself,andshelteragainstthecold,refugefromrain.Hecanalwayshelp himself. Hefacesnofuturehelpless.Theresonlydeaththathecannotfindanescapefrom. Hehascontrivedrefugefromillnessesoncebeyondallcure. Cleverbeyondalldreamstheinventivecraftthathehaswhichmaydrivehimone timeoranothertowellorill. ExcerptfromSophoclesAntigone.Antigone11.332368,translatedbyElizabeth Wyckoff,inDavidGreneandRichmondLattimore,eds.,TheCompleteGreek Tragedies.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1960,pp.192193. LikeHerodotus,Sophoclescombinedprofoundreverenceforthegodswitha compellinginterestinthehumandimensionoflife.Inhisplays,dialoguethetalking backandforthofhumanswasexpandedattheexpenseofthechorus;healsoadded athirdactorwhereAeschylushadusedonlytwo(notcountingsilentactors,who appearedonthestagebutdidnotspeak). 263 Euripides Inthespringof431Atheniansandforeignvisitorsgatheredinthetheaterof DionysustoseeEuripidesMedea.PlaysbyEuripides(c.485c.406BC)hadbeen producedbefore,sotheplaywrightwasalreadyknowntotheaudience,butthe subjectmatterforthisdramawassingularlyshocking.AlthoughtheplotsofGreek tragedyderivedfromfamiliarmyths,Euripidesenjoyedinnovation,andthereis somereasontobehevethattheendingoftheplaycameasasurprisetothe enthralledonlookers. ThequestionsSophoclesposedaboutthesocietyinwhichhelivedseemtame comparedwiththemoresearchingcritiquesofGreekvaluesthatappearin Euripidesplays.InMedeaEuripidesusedthetaleofJason,thecelebratedleaderof theArgonautsintheirquestfortheGoldenFleece,toundermineconventionalviews ofwhatmakesahero.InhisadventuresJasonhadacquiredawifeMedea,a sorceressfromColchis,atthefarendoftheBlackSea.Hehassuchconfidenceinthe excellenceoftheGreekwayoflifethatevenwhenhehasdecidedtoabandonMedea tomarryaCorinthianprincess,heboastsofthebenefitshehasconferredonherby rescuingherfromabarbarianlandandtransplantinghertoGreece.Predictably, theseargumentsdonotsitwellwithahighlyintelligentwitchwhohasthe advantageofanonGreekperspective.ThebitterlamentsofMedeaenablethe

audiencetoseethingsdifferentlyasshedetailstheconstraintsonherlifeasawoman inaGreekcity: Wewomenarethemostunfortunatecreatures. First,withanexcessofwealthitisrequired Forustobuyahusband,andtakeforourbodies Amaster;fornottotakeoneisevenworse. Andnowthequestionisseriouswhetherwetake Agoodorbadone;forthereisnoeasyescape Forawoman,norcanshesaynotohermarriage. (Medea231238;Warner1959) Jasonsshamefulrationalizationsforhisactions,moreover,raiseseriousquestions aboutasocietythatmakesheroesofsuchmen.Greektragedies,however,werenot moralityplays,andwhenintheplayshorrifyingconclusionMedeadecidestotake vengeanceonJasonbykillingtheirchildren,eventhoseintheaudiencewhowere sympathetictoherplightprobablyshiftedtheirsympathytothebereavedfather.(In thesameway,SophoclesaudiencefeltfortheharshCreonwhenhisactionsledto thedeathnotonlyofAntigonebutofhisownwifeandsonaswell.)Medeawasonly oneoftheplaysinwhichEuripidesexploredthedynamicsoftheconflictbetween reasonandpassionreason,whichcouldjustifyJasonindesertingthewifewhohad riskedherlifeforhiminheryouth,andpassion,whichcouldmoveamothertokill heroffspring.InevitablytheagonizingconflictthatmarkedplayslikeAntigone struckaparticularlyresonantchordwiththeaudienceinMedea,whichwas producedjustaswarwasbreakingoutbetweentwoverydifferentstateswith opposingviewsoftheworld. 264 Thucydides Thiswar,whichtookthousandsoflives,immortalizedthenameofthehistorianwho tolditsstory.ManyintellectualcurrentsofthefifthcenturyflowedthroughAthens asThucydideswascomingtomaturityandduringtheyearswhenhecomposedhis historyofthelongwarinwhichheserved.Somewereplainlyimportanttohim, othersapparentlynot.Cleverspeaking,carefulobservation,rationaldeduction,and atragicviewoftheworldcanallbediscernedinhishistory;unlikethatof Herodotus,Sophocles,andEuripides,however,hiswritingshowsnointerestin women.Likemanythinkersofthelaterfifthcentury,Thucydidesconstruedthe worldasfundamentallyhumancentered.WhereasHerodotus,bornageneration earlier,hadconceivedhistoryasaninteractionofdivineandhumanforces,both vitallyimportant,Thucydidessawtheactionsofpeopleasprettymuchexclusively responsibleforhowthingsturnout.Asimilarprogressioncanbeseenintheextant

tragedians:Sophocleswassomewhatmoreconcernedwiththehumanfactorthan Aeschylus,whowasmoredrawntotheroleandnatureofthegods,andEuripidesin turndespiteconsiderableinterestinreligiongavehumannaturecenterstage. AlmostnothingisknownofThucydideslife.Sinceheservedasageneralin424,he musthavebeenatleast30inthatyear,andhistoriansconjecturehewasbornaround 460.HecamefromanaristocraticfamilywithkinshiptiestotwoofPericlesbest knownrivals,CimonandMelesiassonThucydides,buthehadenormous admirationforPericles.Hisopportunitiesforresearchtookanunexpectedturnwhen hewasexiledafterfailingtokeeptheSpartansfromtakingAmphipolis.Fromthen onhewasabletogatheragreatdealofinformationfromnonAtheniansourcesbut couldnolongerattendmeetingsoftheAthenianassembly.Helivedlongenoughto seeAthenslosethewar.Heclaimstohavebegunwritingasthewarbrokeout, foreseeingitsimportance,andtohavewrittenupeachyearasithappened,buteven ifthisistrueinitsoutlineshecertainlymadesomerevisionsbasedonhindsight;in Book5,forexample,dealingwiththeeventsof421,hereferstothefallofAthensin 404andidentifiesthelengthofthewarastwentysevenyears.Thucydideshimself discusseshismethodologyattheoutsetofhishistory,stressingthelengthstowhich hewentinhisquesttodeterminethetruthandexpressingimpatiencewiththose lesscommittedtothesearchforknowledge.Mostpeople,hecomplains,expend verylittleeffortonthesearchfortruth,andprefertoturntoreadymadeanswers. Hisownapproachwillbedifferent. Document7.2Thucydidesexplainshismethodologyinhishistoryofthe PeloponnesianWar,contrastinghimselfwithlessreliablereportersincluding,it seems,Herodotusaswellasmetoriciansgiventovirtuosopublicdisplays. OnewillnotgowrongifhebelievesthatthefactsweresuchasIhaverelatedthem, basedontheevidence,andnotastheyaresungbythepoetswhoembellishand exaggeratethemorastheyarestrungtogetherbypop 265 ularhistorianswithaviewtomakingthemnotmoretruthfulbutmoreattractiveto theiraudiences;andconsideringthatwearedealingwithancienthistory,whose unverifiedeventshave,overthecourseoftime,madetheirwayintotheincredible realmsofmythology,onewillfindthattheseconclusions,derivedastheyarefrom thebestknownevidence,areaccurateenough.Eventhoughpeoplealwaysthinkthat thewartheyarefightingisthegreatestthereeverwas,andthenreturntomarveling atancientwarsoncetheirshaveended,itwillbeclear,afterweexaminetheevents themselves,thatthisactuallywasthegreatesttherehaseverbeen. Astothestatementstheparticipantsmade,eitherwhentheywereabouttoenterthe waroraftertheywerealreadyinit,ithasbeendifficultformeandforthosewho

reportedtometorememberexactlywhatwassaid.Ihave,therefore,writtenwhatI thoughtthespeakersmusthavesaidgiventhesituationstheywerein,whilekeeping ascloseaspossibletotheconsensusaboutwhatwasactuallysaid.Astotheeventsof thewar,IhavenotwrittenthemdownasIheardthemfromjustanybody,norasI thoughttheymusthaveoccurred,buthaveconsistentlydescribedwhatImyselfsaw orhavebeenabletolearnfromothersaftergoingovereacheventinasmuchdetail aspossible.Ihavefoundthistasktobeextremelydifficult,sincethosewhowere presentattheseactionsgavevaryingreportsonthesameevent,dependingontheir sympathiesandtheirmemories. Mynarrative,perhaps,willseemlesspleasingtosomelistenersbecauseitlacksan elementoffiction.Those,however,whowanttoseethingsclearlyastheywere,and, givenhumannature,astheywillonedaybeagain,moreorless,mayfindthisbooka usefulbasisforjudgment.Myworkwascomposednotasaprizewinningexercisein elocutionbutasapossessionforalltime. ThePeloponnesianWar1.22;translatedbyWalterBlanco,inWalterBlancoand JenniferRoberts,eds.,ThePeloponnesianWar.NewYork:W.W.Norton,1998. MosttwentiethcenturyreadershaveregardedThucydidesasthefinesthistorianof theGrecoRomanworld.Thisisreasonable.Heislessdisposedtoseedivinejustice asaforceinhistorythanHerodotus,whohadtheluxuryofwritingupawarwhich, inhisview,thegoodguyswon;thePeloponnesianWarwasawarthateveryonelost. HedoesnotmoralizelikePlutarch.Incomparisonwiththefamoushistoriansof Rome,heislessjingoisticthanLivy,andhispartisanshipisbetterconcealedthan thatofTacitus.Hehasoftenbeendescribedastheworldsfirstscientifichistorian, andhisworkhasbeencitedforitsobjectivity.Thischaracterizationrestsona misunderstandingofwhatthewritingofhistoryreallyinvolves.Historyisnota science,anditcannotbeobjective,becauseiten 266 tailshumanswritingaboutotherhumans.Everyomission,everyconnection, requiresajudgmentcall. Oneexamplewillillustratethechoicesallhistoriansmustmake.Inanalyzingthe outbreakofthewar,ThucydidesdownplayedtheMegariandecreetoaremarkable degree,sayingalmostnothingaboutit.Hedidthis,presumably,eitherbecausehe reallybelievedthedecreewasunimportantorbecausehewishedtodeflectcriticism fromPericles,whowascommonlyblamedforthedecreeandthewar.Itwouldbe impossibletoconstruethisdecisionasobjectiveorscientific.Theresultof Thucydideschoiceisthatitisnowverydifficultforstudentsofthepastto reconstructwhatreallyhappened.IftheMegariandecreereallywasunimportant, thenpresumablyThucydidesdidagoodthing,butifhewaswrong,thenhedidhis

readersagreatdisservice.Thereisnolimittothenumberofsimilardecisionsthat confronthistorians.Herodotuswasmoredisposedtoputeverythinginandlethis readerssortitout,butoneconsequenceofthisdecisionisthathehasbeencriticized forbeinglessanalyticalthanThucydides. CURRENTSINGREEKTHOUGHTANDEDUCATION TheconvolutedargumentsthathelppoliticianswhoappearinThucydidesnarrative cloakambitioninfairsoundingwordsandtheversesinwhichEuripidesJason defendshisactionascalculatedtoimprovehischildrenslives(wontitbewonderful forthemtohaveroyalstepsiblings?)showtheinfluenceoftheitinerantintellectuals whogravitatedtoAthensduringthesecondhalfofthefifthcentury,themenwho cametobeknownasthesophists,fromtheGreekwordsophists,whichmeans somethinglikepractitionerofwisdom.Unlikethephilosopherswhosoughtto understandtheworld,thesophistscontentedthemselveswithteachingeager,paying pupilshowtogetbyinit.Manyofthesophistswereimportant,iconoclasticthinkers whosekeenanalysispiercedpretensions.Thoughtheirworksdonotsurviveexcept infragments,itseemsclearthattheyrejectedfacileassumptionsaboutthe connectionsbetweennoblebirthandtruemerit.Becauseofthis,andbecausethey enabledyoungmenfromnewlyrichfamiliestolearntospeakeffectively,they arousedsuspicionamongAthensentrenchedelite. FormalandInformalEducation Theoriginsofthesophisticmovementlieinthehaphazardandinformalnatureof Greekeducation,initsliteraryandaristocraticbias,andinitsultimatelysuperficial andstultifyingnature.SinceHomersday,Greekchildrenhadlearnedprimarilyby watchingtheworldaroundthemandimitatingrespectedelders.Fewpeoplein antiquityorthemiddleagesknewhowtoread,andbooklearningplayedaminor roleintheeducationalsystemofArchaicGreece,wheremostformaleducation involvedlisteningandrecitingfrommemory.Girlswererarely 267 senttoschool.Neitherweremostboys.Theproblemwasnotsimplythatpoverty usuallycompelledchildrentostayhomeandworkonthefarm;thefactisthatGreek statesdidnotprovidepublicschools.Parentsoftheupperclasses,however,paidfor theirsonstobeinstructedinwhatwascalledmousik,asubjectthatincludedthe memorizationofpoetry.Sinceancientpoemsweresung,mousikealsoinvolved learningtoplaythestringedinstrumentknownasthelyrahenceourwordlyrics versesdesignedtoaccompanylyreplayingandofcourseourwordmusicaswell. Beginninginthesixthcentury,moreandmorechildrenalsolearnedtoreadand write.Vasesfromthesixthandfifthcenturiesshowtheseskillsbeingtaughttoboys andoccasionallytogirlsaswell:parentssometimeshaddaughtersinstructedinbasic

readingandwritingskillsincasetheyneededthisknowledgetosupervise householdaccountsortomanagetemplepropertiesiftheybecamepriestesses.Some instructioninmathwasalsoofferedtochildrenbyprivatetutorsandinschools, thoughnotmuchwasofferedinthewayofscience.Thecurriculumincludedlittleof whatwewouldcallsocialstudies,andtheyoungweregenerallythrownbackon familyandfriendsfortheanswertoquestionslike,HowfarisittoSparta?and WhatkindofgovernmentdotheyhaveinCorinth?Bythetimeboysprogressedto theageatwhichadolescentstodaywouldentercollege,moreover,theyhadceased tobestudentsandhadbecomesoldiersandcitizens. Mosteducationwentoninlessformalsettings,however,andthissortofeducation wouldcontinuethroughoutlife.Inchildhood,girlswouldabsorbthenormsof appropriatesocialbehaviorfromtheirmothersandaunts,boysfromtheirfathers anduncles.Asinmanysocieties,theupbringingofthetwosexeswasdesignedto cultivateverydifferentskillsetsformalesandfemales.Thesedifferencesweremost pronouncedintheupperclasses,forpoorchildrenofbothsexeswerelikelytolearn farmingandcraftskillsfromparents.Amongtheelite,however,asharp differentiationoccurredinadolescence,foratthisjuncturegirlsmarriedand reproduced.Theireducationinhomemanagementcontinuedatthehandsofolder relatives,andprobablyolderslavesaswell,whohadconsiderableexperienceof childrearing.Inaddition,husbandssometimestookituponthemselvestogivetheir wivesvocationaltraininginhouseholdmanagement.IntheOeconomicus,writtenin thefourthcenturyintheformofaSocraticdialogue,Xenophondescribeshowa husband,Ischomachus,trainedhisyoungwifetobeasuccessfulestatemanager: [Socrates]said,Iwouldverymuchlikeyoutotellme,Ischomachus,whetheryou yourselftrainedyourwifetobecomethesortofwomanthatsheoughttobe,or whethershealreadyknewhowtocarryoutherdutieswhenyoutookherasyour wifefromherfatherandmother. WhatcouldshehaveknownwhenItookherasmywife,Socrates?Shewasnotyet fifteenwhenshecametome,andhadspentherpreviousyearsundercareful supervisionsothatshemightseeandhearandspeakaslittleaspossible.Dontyou thinkitwasadequateifshecametomeknowingonlyhowtotake 268 woolandproduceacloak,andhadseenhowspinningtasksareallocatedtothe slaves?Andbesides,shehadbeenverywelltrainedtocontrolherappetites, Socrates,hesaid,andIthinkthatsortoftrainingismostimportantformanand womanalike. (Oeconomicus7.45;Pomeroy1994)

Whileteenagedgirlsmightreceivesuchinstructionfromtheirhusbands,adolescent maleswereexposedtoimportantinfluencesofanotherkind.Bookswereexpensive, andthoughliteracyincreasedthroughoutthesixthandparticularlythefifthcentury, learningstillwentonprimarilyintheinteractionbetweentwoormorehuman beings,notintheinteractionofapersonwithawrittentext.Relationshipswith somewhatoldermentorsformedakeyelementintheeducationofteenagedboys. justasyoungerteacherstodayoftenserveasrolemodelsforadolescents,soyoung meninGreeceofferedexamplesofmanhoodtothosewhowerejustdevelopinginto men.Theoneononenatureofthesefriendships,howeveruntrammeledbyany needforateachertobeevenhandedwithanentireclassofstudentscombinedwith differentattitudestosexualitytoproduceasignificantlydifferentdynamic.Thebond betweenaGreekmaleteenagerandhisadultmentorwasoftenprofoundlyerotic. Whatweknowabouttheserelationshipsissomewhatcompromisedbyareticence aboutsexinthewrittensourcesandbytheneedmanyGreeksfelttostressthe intellectualandspiritualbondattheexpenseofthesexualone.Inhisdialogueon love,theSymposium,Platopraisesthisbondforitsvalueinthemoralimprovement ofboththeindividualandsocietyasawhole.Iwouldmaintain,hewrites, thattherecanbenogreaterbenefitforaboythantohaveaworthyloverfromhis earlieryouth,norforaloverthantohaveaworthyobjectforhisaffection.The principlewhichoughttoguidethewholelifeofthosewhointendtolivenobly cannotbeimplantedeitherbyfamilyorbypositionorbywealthorbyanythingelse soeffectivelyasbylove.Whatprinciple?youask.Imeantheprinciplewhich inspiresshameatwhatisdisgracefulandambitionforwhatisnoble;withoutthese feelingsneitherastatenoranindividualcanaccomplishanythinggreatorfine. (Symposium178b;Hamilton1951) Thebondbetweentheolderlover(theerasts)andtheyoungerbeloved(the eromenos)shoredupthestabilityofsocietybyencouragingeachgeneration(orhalf generation)toimitatetheonethathadgonebefore. Finally,participationinthelifeofthecityasawholeaffordedanongoingeducation togrowingmen,andtosomeextenttowomenaswell,particularlythosewhoserved aspriestesses.ThepoetSimonidesputitwell:Polisandradidaskei(thepolisteachesa man).Onlyinmaturelife,howeverbyattendance,forexample,attragicdramas andthethoughtfuldiscussionsthatnodoubtfollowedinprivategatheringsdidthis educationentailanyrealquestioningofconventionalwisdom.Ingeneral,the purposeofGreekeducationwasablendofindoc 269 trinationandsocializationcalculatedtofostertheperpetuationoftraditionalvalues. Poetrywasmorelikelytobememorizedthananalyzed,anddespitetheoriginality

withwhichtheGreeksarerightlycredited,theculturedidnotasawholeprize innovation.WhatGreekyouthwastaughtaboveallwastocopyapprovedmodels. Allthischangedwhenthesophistsburstonthesceneduringthesecondhalfofthe fifthcentury,sparkingpowerfultensionsbetweenthegenerations.Athensactedasa magnetforthephilosophersandteachersofrhetoricwhohadsprungupthroughout theGreekworldasspeculationaboutboththenaturaluniverseandthehuman communitybecameincreasinglypopularamongintellectuals.Democracywas groundedinskillinspeakingandreasoningintheabilitytodissectanddemolish theargumentsofpoliticalopponents.Thesophistsofferedtoteachtheseskills. Sophistsfilledotherneedsaswell,fortheydelightedinexploringtrickyquestions abouttheworkingsoftheworld.Noteveryonehadbeensatisfiedbythe conventionalpietiesabouttheawesomepowersofthegodsandtheconcomitant needtorevereauthoritiesofallkinds,andforthedissatisfiedthesophists speculationsprovidedanopportunitytoflexboththeirintellectsandtheirrhetorical skills.Nocommonbeliefsystemmarkedthethinkingofthevarioussophists,but theysharedanenthusiasmforthekindofexercisesinargumentationthatarecentral tomuchhighereducationtoday. TheSophists Likemuchoftheeducationthathadgonebefore,theinstructionofferedbysophists benefitedonlyafairlysmallclassofaffluentstudentswhocouldaffordtopay.What thesophistshadtooffer,however,differedsharplyfromearliereducation,forthe sophistsquestionedthenotionthatdeferentialemulationofoneseldersandbetters wasthenoblestofachievements.Theychallengedconventionalbeliefsinotherways aswell.Oneobjectoftheirexplorationswasthenotionofnomos. Herodotushadshowninhishistorythecentralityofnomostosociety.TheGreek wordmeantbothlawandcustom;therewerestatesanctionednomoiforbidding burglary,buttherewerealsosocialnomoiregardingwhattowearatyourwedding andreligiousnomoiabouthowtoworshipApollo.Inasocietythathadexistedfor centurieswithoutwrittenlaw,onlyablurrylinedividedalegalnomosanda conventionalnomosbasedontradition.Thetwo,however,begantodivergethe harderpeoplethoughtabouttheproblem.HerodotusHistoriesdemonstratedtwo differentsidesofnomos.Ontheonehand,theGreekshadfoughtthePersiansin ordertolivebynomosratherthanatthewhimofadespot.Ontheotherhand,the multiplicityofnomoiindifferentculturesrevealsadiversitythatsuggeststhatlocal customsaretheproductoftraditionratherthanofabstract,unchangingprinciplesof rightandwrong.Todemonstratetheforceofnomos,Herodotustellsthefollowing tale:

Darius...calledtogethersomeoftheGreekswhowereinattendanceonhimand askedthemwhatwouldtheytaketoeattheirdeadfathers.Theysaidthat 270 nopriceintheworldwouldmakethemdoso.AfterthatDariussummonedthoseof theIndianswhoarecalledCallatians,whodoeattheirparents,and,inthepresence oftheGreeks(whounderstoodtheconversationthroughaninterpreter),askedthem whatpricewouldmakethemburntheirdeadfatherswithfire.Theyshoutedaloud, Dontmentionsuchhorrors! (TheHistory3.38;Grene1987) Eachsociety,heconcludes,considersitsowncustomstobebest. Whenthisideawasassimilatedtothespeculationsofthenaturalphilosophers,an oppositionevolvedinmanymindsbetweentheconceptofphysis(nature),and nomos(convention).Therelationshipbetweenphysisandnomosbecamecentralto GreekthoughtaroundHerodotustime,foritcarriedpowerfulimplicationsforthe legitimacyofauthority.Ifnomoswasnotthenaturaloutgrowthofphysisbut actuallyexistedinoppositiontoit,thenthelawsofthecommunitywerenot necessarilytobeobeyed,fortheymighthavegrownuprandomly,endorsedby generationsofunthinkingtraditionalistswhohadgivennothoughttotheir groundinginphysis. Thisconceptoflawvariedconspicuouslyfromtheusualviewthatlawultimately camefromthegods,andinfactthenewwaysoflookingattheworldhadserious implicationsforrelationsbetweengodsandmortals.Oneofthemostrenownedof thesophistswhocametoteachinAthenswasProtagoras(c.490420BC)ofAbdera innorthernGreece,whomovedtoAthensaround450andspentmostoftherestof hislifethere.Heisbestknownfortwosayingswithreligiousimplications.Each individualpersonisthemeasureofallthingsofthingsthatare,thattheyare,andof thingsthatarenot,thattheyarenot.Nobody,inotherwords,cantellyouwhatis realortruenostateofficial,noparent,andnogod.Anothercontentionwasstill moreprovocative:itisimpossibletoknow,Protagorasissaidtohaveobserved, whetherthegodsexist,orhowtheymightlookiftheydo.Numerousobstacles standintheway,suchastheshortnessoflifeandthedifficultyofthesubjectmatter. Notallsophistshadunconventionalideasaboutpoliticsorsocietyorreligion.Plato representsThrasymachusarguingthatjusticeisnothingbuttheinterestofthe stronger,butPlatoplainlydidnotlikeThrasymachus.Xenophonreportedthat Hippiasmaintainedthatcertainnaturallawswerecommontoallsocieties;ifthisis true,thenHippiasdidnotseeaconflictbetweennomosandphysis.Someofwhat thesophiststaughtwassimplypracticalknowledgethatwouldbeusefultoan

aspiringpolitician;theyprobablydidtellyouhowfaritwasfromAthenstoSparta andwhatsortofgovernmentruledCorinth.Manysophistswerehighlyesteemedin theirbirthplacesandinAthens,wheretheytendedtowindup,buttheyalsosparked hostilityinmanyquarters.Theirideasaboutreligionandauthorityseemed subversive,andpeopletendedtoassociatethemwiththinkerslikeAnaxagoraswho, afterall,hadsaidthatthesunwasnotadivinitybutratheranextremelyhotstone.In fact,thosewhoassociatedthesophistsspeculationsinmoralandsocialphilosophy withdevelopmentsinscientificthoughtwereontosomething,forbehindbothlay thesamecommitmentto 271 openminded,rationalinquiryintobasicstructures,thesameinterestinthe connectionofappearancetoreality,thesamecuriosityabouttherelationship betweentheeternalandthechanging.Parmenidescontentionthatmotionwas illusoryhadsomethingincommonwiththequestionsthesophistAntiphonraised aboutthevalidityofdistinctionsbetweenaristocratandcommoner,Greekand barbarian,andhisconclusionthatallgrewalikebynature.(SimilarlyAlcidamas arguedthatnaturehadmadenobodyaslave.) More,however,laybehindthemistrustthesophistsinspired.Someaffluent Atheniansweresuspiciousofpeoplewhotookfeesforanything,sinceinherited landedwealthwasviewedasthemostrespectableformofincome,followedby wealthearnedbyfarmingonesownland.Someofthosewhowerelesswelloff resentedthesophistspreciselybecausetheycouldnotaffordtopaywhatthe sophistscharged.Itwasunclear,moreover,justwhatskillthesepeoplewere teaching,andbywhatrighttheywerechargingtheirfees.Itwaseasytoseehowan experiencedfluteplayercouldteachfluteplayingorhowagiftedboxercouldteach boxing,butitwashardertounderstandwhowasqualifiedtoofferinstructionin gettingaheadinpoliticsandinlife.Inmanywaysthesophistsweretheconsultants ofancientGreece,inspiringmanypeopletowondergrouchily(andenviously)just whattheyweresellingthatwasmakingthemsorich. Therewasananswer,however,tothequestion,Justwhatdothesepeopleteach, anyway?Thatanswerwasrhetoric,andnoteveryonelikedit.Noparentwhohas evergoneheadtoheadwithasmartaleckyteenagercanfailtosympathizewith middleagedAthenianswhofoundthemselvesconfoundedateveryturnbythe smugnessofanewgenerationthathadstudiedtheartsofargumentationfrom experiencedmasters.Concernthatcleverspeakingwascomingtosubstitutefor seriousthinkingaboutrightandwrong,moreover,wasnotlimitedtothestodgyand thestuffy.EuripidesinhisunsettlingportraitofJasoninMedeaandThucydidesin hisrepresentationofthedynamicsofpowerpoliticsshowapainfulawarenessofthe problemscreatedwhenrhetoricisdeployedtodistractthelistenerfromplainold

fashionedprinciplesoffairness.Protagorashimself,whowonrespectasan honorablemanevenfromtheantisophisticPlato,wasreputedtobethefirstperson towriteatreatiseinthetechniquesofargumentandtoclaimthatheknewhowto maketheweakerargumentthestronger.Worksascribedtohimincluded ContradictionsandTheKnockdownArguments. AnotherpopularsophistwasAlcidamasteacherGorgias(c.485c.380BC),anative ofLeontiniinSicilywhovisitedAthensin427onanembassythatsoughtto persuadetheAthenianstobecomeinvolvedinSicilianaffairs.Gorgiasnameis associatedalmostexclusivelywithrhetoric;itisunclearwhetherhethoughtmuch aboutphilosophy.Oneofhismorefamouspieceswasarhetoricaltourdeforcein whichhedefendedHelenonachargeofcausingtheTrojanWarbyelopingwith Paris.GorgiasliststhreepossiblereasonsforHelensaction,eachofthemworthy: Eithershedidwhatshedidbecauseofthewilloffortuneandtheplanofthegods andthedecreeofnecessity,orshewasseizedbyforce,orper 272 suadedbywords,or,helatersuggests,capturedbylove.Allthesepossible explanations,heargues,exculpateHelen: Ifsheleftforthefirstreason,thenanywhoblameherdeserveblamethemselves,for ahumansanticipationcannotrestrainagodsinclination.Forbynaturethestronger isnotrestrainedbytheweakerbuttheweakerisruledandledbythestronger.... Ifshewasforciblyabductedandunlawfullyviolatedandunjustlyassaulted,itis clearthatherabductor,herassaulter,engagedincrime;butshewhowasabducted andassaultedencounteredmisfortune....itisrighttopityherbuthatehim. Hethentakestheoccasionofdiscussingpersuasiontoexpatiateonthecharmsoffine speaking,arguingthat Ifspeechpersuadedanddeludedhermind,evenagainstthisitisnothardtodefend herorfreeherfromblameasfollows:speechisapowerfulmasterandachievesthe mostdivinefeatswiththesmallestandleastevidentbody.Itcanstopfear,relieve pain,createjoy,andincreasepity.Howthisisso,Ishallshow;andImust demonstratethistomyaudiencetochangetheiropinion.... Howmanymenonhowmanysubjectshavepersuadedanddopersuadehowmany othersbyshapingafalsespeech!...Thepowerofspeechhasthesameeffectonthe dispositionofthesoulasthedispositionofdrugsonthenatureofbodies.Justas differentdrugsdrawforthdifferenthumorsfromthebodysomeputtingastopto disease,otherstolifesotoowithwords:somecausepain,othersjoy,somestrike

fear,somestirtheaudiencetoboldness,somebenumbandbewitchthesoulwithevil persuasion. (EncomiumofHelen;GagarinandWoodruff1995) ManyGreeksbelievedtherewasnolimittowhatsophistswoulduserhetoricto defend.TheanonymoustreatiseknownasDissoiLogoi(DoubleArguments)reveals themoralrelativismthatmanyassociatedwithsophists.Cansicknesseverbegood? Certainly,ifyouareadoctor.Butwhataboutdeath?Deathisgoodforundertakers andgravediggers.Theauthorgoesontoenumeratethemanyexamplesofcultural differencefoundinHerodotusinordertodemonstratethatnoactisintrinsically goodorbad.Amentaluniverseinwhichnothingwaspurelygoodorpatentlyevil wasnotoneinwhichallGreekswishedtodwell. Forallthesereasons,thesophistsdrewtothemselvesaconsiderableamountof odium.Theyfoundthemselvesunderattacknotonlyinconversationbutonthe stage.In423AristophanesproducedtheClouds,inwhichtheintellectualsofAthens theeggheadsarederidedasteachingacorrosiverhetoricthatmadeamockeryof decent,sensiblevalues.ThemanAristophanesidentifiesasrunningthethinkshop wasnot,however,asophist.LikesomeofAristophanesothercharacters,hewasa realperson,butnotonewhotaughtrhetoricoracceptedfees. 273 HewasSocrates,andthedispositiontoidentifyhimwiththesophistscontributedin nosmallmeasuretohisexecutionjustaftertheendofthewar. THEPHYSICALSPACEOFTHEPOLIS:ATHENSONTHEEVEOFWAR TheGreekworldwasbothoneandmany:thoughcommonfeaturestiedthe citystatestogether,eachpoliswasuniqueinculture.Assoofteninattemptsto recovertheworldofClassicalGreece,however,thebulkofourknowledgeaboutthe developmentofthepolisduringthelaterdecadesofthefifthcenturycomesfrom Athens.Evenduringthewar,Atheniantragicdramatistscontinuedtoproduce astonishingmasterpieces.ItwasthewaryearsthatwitnessedthebirthofAttic comedy.SomeofourbestevidenceaboutfifthcenturyAthensisphysicalinnature, fortherevenuesofempirehelpedtoadorntheimperialcitywithsplendidbuildings, manyofwhichstillimpressandintriguevisitorstoday. TheAcropolis ThestructuremostpeopleassociatewithClassicalAthens,theParthenon,stoodwith otherimportantbuildingsonthesteephilloftheAcropolis,whichhadbeenfortified fromearliesttimes.Ahillwasadistinctadvantagetoacitystate.Thoughmost

peopletodayassociatethewordacropoliswiththeAcropolisofAthens,infactit wasafeaturecommontomanypoleis,whichreliedforprotectiononafortified citadelfromwhichonecouldseefarintothedistance;onacleardaytheAcropolisof AthenswasvisiblefromthecorrespondinghighpointofCorinth,Acrocorinth.In Athens,theAcropoliswasthespiritualfocusofthepolis.Becauseofitsheightand steeplyslopedsides,thisnaturallyfortifiedareahadbeentheresidenceofearly rulersandhadalwaysbeenhometothechiefgodsoftheAthenians.Thesixth centurytyrantPeisistratus,likePericleslater,initiatedanambitiousbuildingproject ontheAcropolis,forheunderstoodnotonlythatsuchworkwouldprovidesteady employmenttotherestlessurbanpoor,butalsothatabeautifulcitywouldcreate stillmorejobs,fosterpatriotismamongallcitizens,andattractwealthy,talented metics.Itwouldbe,asPericleswouldlatersayinthepagesofThucydides,the schoolofHellas.ThePersianinvasionof480destroyedthemonumentsandstatues ofPeisistratusstime.Thisrubble,inturn,wasusedasthefoundationofthe buildingsconstructedinPericlesdayontheAcropolis,largelyfinancedbyfunds fromtheDelianLeague. IntheClassicalperiodthetwoprincipalarchitecturalstylesorordersweretheDoric andIonic.(Theornate,floweryCorinthiancapitalsoftenusedtodaydidnotbecome popularuntilRomantimes.)Thoughbothorderswereusedforthesamebuilding purposes,theydifferedindetailssuchastheshapeofthecolumnsandoftheirbases andcapitalsandinthefeaturesoftheentablature,orstructurethatsupportedthe roof.TheIonicappearstallerandmoreslenderthantheDoric.Architectsstroveto designbuildingsaccordingtotheprinciplesofeachorder, 274 Figure7.3.ThismodeloftheAcropolisinPericlesdayshowsthePanathenaic processionproceedingthroughthefrontgates(Propylaea),whichareflankedonthe right(south)bythetempleofAthenaNike(Victory).Thelargestbuildingisthe Parthenon.TheErechtheionisontheleft(north)oftheParthenon. ratherthantoinventneworhighlyindividualizedstyles.Thepleasuretheytookin theirworkwasnotthesortofdelightonemighttaketodayinstrikingoutinoriginal andstartlingdirections.Rather,Greekarchitectstookfromtheirworkthatspecial kindofsatisfactionthatcomesfromexercisingcreativitywithinthelimitsposedby anelaboratecodeofrestraints. ThetempleofAthenaParthenos(thevirgin)knownastheParthenonwasablend ofDoricandIonicelements.Therectangularstructurewitharatioofeightcolumns onthefrontandbackendstoseventeenonthesideswasaestheticallypleasing. Athenianarchitectswerewellawarethatfromadistancetheeyewouldperceive perfectlystraightcolumnsasthininthemiddleandappearingtofalloutward,anda

perfectlyhorizontalfoundationwouldappeartodrooptowardthecenter. Consequentlytheytookpainstocreateopticalillusionsbysubtleswelling(entasis)of themidportionofthecolumns,bytiltingthecolumnstowardtheinteriorlestthey seemtobefallingoutward,andbycurvingthemiddleofthefloorandstepsupward asthoughawindwereblowingunderarug. SculpturewasanimportantfeatureofGreekarchitecture.Thesculptureofthe ParthenondepictedmythsandhistoryofAthenaandAthens.Theeastpediment showedthebirthofAthenawhilethewestpedimentillustratedthecontest 275 Figure7.4.TheDoricandIonicorders.TheDoricorder(left)maybeadirect translationintostoneofbuildingelementsthatwereoriginallymadeofwood.The morecomplexcapitaloftheIonicorderisinaspiraledformknownasavolute. betweenAthenaandPoseidonoverprimacyinAthens.Asculptedfriezerunning aroundthetopoftheexteriorwallofthecellaorinnershrineshowedhuman figures,horses,sacrificialanimals,andthetwelveOlympiangods.Probablythearray ofhumanfiguresandanimalsdepictstheprocessionattheGreaterPanathenaic festivalthatwasheldeveryfouryearsandthepresentationofanewdressforthe goddessbyyounggirlswhohadhelpedtoweaveit. Thetemplewasnotaplacewhereworshipperscongregated,butratherthehomeofa divinitywhoseimagewasplacedinsideandastorehouseforthecultsbelongings. Thus,withinthecellaoftheParthenonwasatallstatueofAthenacoveredwithivory andgold.Lockedinabackroomwerethegoddessspossessions,amongwhichwere thetreasuryofthecityofAthensand,afterthemiddle 276 Figure7.5.GroundplanofParthenonshowingexteriorcolonnadeandcella(main room)within.ThecultstatueofAthenawaskeptinthecellaandthestatetreasury wasstoredinthebackroom. Figure7.6.TheParthenon,built447438BC,photographedinthetwentieth century,seenfromtheeast. 277 Figure7.7.Parthenoneastfrieze,slabV,probablyshowingthepresentationofthe dressknownasthepeplosforAthenaatthePanathenaea.Asectionofthe continuousfriezerunningalongthetopoftheexteriorcellawall.Otherportions

showacavalcadeofhorsemen,religiousofficials,sacrificialanimals,andthe Olympiangods. ofthefifthcentury,thatoftheDelianLeagueaswell.InfrontoftheParthenononthe weststoodahugebronzestatueofAthenatheWarriorwhofightsinthefront( Promachos).Thegoddesswasportrayedstanding,withherlefthandholdingher shieldandherrightarmholdingherspear.Thestatuewasnearly30feettall:sailors roundingCapeSounioncouldseethewelcomeglintofsunlightoffthetipofthe spear.Likethestatueinsidethetemple,itwastheworkofthesculptorPhidias,a friendofPericles.Viewedbyhiscontemporariesasthegreatestsculptorofgods, PhidiasalsocreatedahugegoldandivorystatueofZeusatOlympiathatwas consideredtobeoneofthesevenwondersoftheancientworld. IncontrasttotheDoric,whichwasmassive,solid,andplain,theIonicordergavea slender,graceful,ornateimpression.TheErechtheion,sacredtoPoseidon Erechtheus,wasthechiefpurelyIonicmonumentontheAcropolis.Thesitesof templesandshrineswereselectedbecauseoftheirassociationwithsome 278 legendarydivineactthathadoccurredonthespot.TheplanoftheErechtheionwas irregular,complicatedbyavarietyofreligiousconstraints:itneededtoenclosethe markofPoseidonstridentonAtheniansoilandasaltwellonthenorthernside;to shelterAthenasoriginalolivetreethatstoodnearbyonthewestandtoincludeher shrineintheeasternsection;tocoverthetombofAthensfirstkingCecropsunder thesouthwestcorner;andtohouseothervenerablecultobjects.Thebuilding consistedofthreeIonicporches.ThestrikingsouthporchthatfacedtheParthenon employedsixfiguresofmaidens,calledCaryatids,tosupporttheroof(insteadof columns).Thebuildingwasbegunin421,andbecauseofthePeloponnesianWarthe decorationsmayneverhavebeencompleted.Manyotherbuildings,temples,statues, andvotiveofferingsadornedtheAcropolis.Thoughlittleremainsofthese monumentsnowadaysexceptthebaremarbleframeworkofthemajorones,in antiquitytheyweremuchmorecolorful:someofthearchitecturalandsculptural featureswerepaintedredandblueandwerecoveredwithgoldleaf.Belowthe Acropolis,dramaswerestagedinhonorofthegodDionysus.Spectatorssatinthe openairinasemicircleonthebarehillsidewatchingtheperformancesthattook placebelowintheorchestra(dancingplace). ThestructuresthatcomprisedPericlesbuildingprogramconfirmedmostAthenians intheirsupportfortheempire,forwithoutthetributepouringinfromsubjectstates suchlavishpublicmonumentswouldhavebeendifficulttofinance.Theyalso enhancedPericlespopularity,providingjobsaswellasbeautifyingthe

Figure7.8.UsingsurvivingdescriptionsofthestatueofAthena,sculptorAlan LeQuirecraftedthis43footreplicaforthelifesizeParthenonreplicainCentennial ParkinNashville,Tennessee. 279 Figure7.9.GroundplanofErechtheion(421406BC).Thisgracefultemplewas sacredtoAthena,Poseidon,andthelegendaryAtheniankingErechtheus.The complicatedshapewastheresultofneedingtoskirtAthenassacredolivetreeandto enclosePoseidonstridentmark. 280 Figure7.10.TheErechtheion,built421406BC,photographedinthetwentieth century,showingthePorchoftheMaidens(Caryatids)thatfacestheParthenon. Sincethisphotographwastaken,thestatuesweremovedindoorstoprotectthem frompollutionandwerereplacedwithcopies.

city.Atthesametime,theyprovidedanopeningforPericlesenemiespersonal rivalsorthosewhodislikedthemarchofdemocracytounderminehimbycalling intoquestiontheproprietyofdivertingLeaguefundstotheaestheticimprovement ofthehegemoniccity.TheendresultofthisclashconfirmedPericlespowerand prestigeinAthens.Whenanostracismwasheldin443,thewinnerwasthemost vocalopponentofthebuildingprogramThucydides,thesonofMelesias(probably arelativeofThucydidesthehistorian).ThucydidesdepartureleftPericleswithno seriousrivalinAthenianpolitics. 281 TheAgora Theagorawasprincipallyacenterforsecularhumanactivity,thoughthegods,who wereneverexcludedfromhumanactivities,alsohadtheirplace.Theagoraservedas amarket,asameetingplacefortheexchangeofgoodsandofnews,andasafocusof social,political,andjudicialactivities.Dailylifeforwomenwasideallyindoorsand formenoutdoors.Menwhostayedindoorsweresuspectedofbeingeffeminateand antisocial,andwomenwhoventuredoutdoorswerelikelytohavetheirchastity questioned.IntheLawsPlatonotedthatthegreatestgoodinthepolisisthatthe citizensbeknowntoeachother,asthemen(certainlynotthewomen)wouldbeif theysawoneanothereverydayintheagora.Aristotledistinguishedhumanbeings fromotherlivingcreaturesbytheiruseofspeech(though,again,womenwere

placedinadifferentcategoryandarecharacterizedasideallysilent).Speakingwas essentialfortheactivitiesthattookplaceintheagora. Document7.3AristotleinhisPoliticsexploredthenatureofpoliticalassociationand ofthepolis. Fromtheseconsiderationsitisevidentthatthepolisbelongstotheclassofthings thatexistbynature,andthatmanisbynatureananimalintendedtoliveinapolis. Hewhoiswithoutapolis,byreasonofhisownnatureandnotofsomeaccident,is eitherapoorsortofbeing,orabeinghigherthanman:heislikethemanofwhom Homerwroteindenunciation:Clanlessandlawlessandhearthlessishe.Theman whoissuchbynature[i.e.,unabletojoininthesocietyofapolis]atonceplunges intoapassionforwar;heisinthepositionofasolitaryadvancedpieceinagameof draughts. Thereasonwhymanisabeingmeantforpoliticalassociation,inahigherdegree thanbeesorothergregariousanimalscaneverassociate,isevident.Nature, accordingtoourtheory,makesnothinginvain;andmanaloneoftheanimalsis furnishedwiththefacultyoflanguage.Themeremakingofsoundsservestoindicate pleasureandpain,andisthusafacultythatbelongstoanimalsingeneral:their natureenablesthemtoattainthepointatwhichtheyhaveperceptionsofpleasure andpain,andcansignifythoseperceptionstooneanother.Butlanguageservesto declarewhatisadvantageousandwhatisthereverse,anditthereforeservesto declarewhatisjustandwhatisunjust.Itisthepeculiarityofman,incomparison withtherestoftheanimalworld,thathealonepossessesaperceptionofgoodand evil,ofthejustandtheunjust,andofothersimilarqualities;anditisassociationin[a commonperceptionof]thesethingswhichmakesafamilyandapolis. 282 Wemaynowproceedtoaddthat[thoughtheindividualandthefamilyarepriorin theorderoftime]thepolisispriorintheorderofnaturetothefamilyandthe individual. Politics1253a912,translatedbyErnestBarker,ThePoliticsofAristotle.Oxford:Oxford UniversityPress,1973. TheAthenianagorawasalargelevelspaceatthefootoftheAcropolisontheroad fromthemaincitygate.Theareawasclutteredwithpublicbuildingsofwhichthe mosteasilyidentifiedistheroundstructurecalledtheTholos,whichhousedthe boulandwhereofficialweightsandmeasureswerestored.Theagorawasalsothe siteoflawcourts,altars,shrines,statues,inscriptions,fountains,drains,andtrophies ofwar.OnthewesternborderstoodaDorictemplethatwasdedicatedeitherto Hephaestus,thegodofcrafts,ortoTheseus,alegendaryheroandkingofAthens.It

haswithstoodtheravagesoftimefarbetterthantheParthenonandisstillin remarkablygoodcondition.Roofed,multipurposecolonnadescalledstoasflanked theagora.Sandwichedbetweenthepermanentstructuresandwithinthestoasas wellwereshops,bankerstables,booksellers,wholesalemerchants,schools,and peoplebuyingandsellingthenecessitiesoflife. OneimportantplaceinAthenianlifewasnotabuilding:thehillsideofthePnyx wheretheassemblymettoweredabovethecity.Throughoutthefifthcentury, citizenssateitheroncushionsordirectlyontherockygroundthatslopedfromsouth tonorth,fillinganareaof15,000squarefeet.Around400BCthemeetingplacewas evenedoutandenlarged,andbenchesseemtohavebeenadded.Theadultmale citizensofAtticagatheredinallkindsofweathertolistentospeechesanddebates,to makemotions,andtoholdhighofficialstoaccount.Invoting(whichwasbyshowof hands)theynotonlytookintoconsiderationwhattheyhadheardonthePnyxbut alsomadeuseofalltheinformationtheyhadgarneredintheagora. RuralLifeinAttica Thegrowthoftheurbancenterwasnotattheexpenseofruralareas.Public buildingswerealsolocatedawayfromthecitycenter.Gymnasiumsandstadiums thatrequiredplentyoflevelspacewereoftenfoundinthesuburbs,whichwere coolerandshadierandclosertoplentifulsuppliesofwaterthancouldbefoundin centralAthens.Cultcentersandruralagoras,aswellasfortressesandother structuresfordefense,werescatteredthroughoutAttica.Itwasaneasywalk, moreover,fromcitytocountry. 283 Document7.4PlatodepictsSocratesandPhaedrusenjoyingastrollthroughthe countrysidewhilediscussingphilosophy,rhetoric,andlove. SOCRATES.MydearPhaedrus,whereisityouregoing,andwherehaveyoucome from? PHAEDRUS.FromLysias,thesonofCephalus,Socrates;andImgoingforawalk outsidethewall,becauseIspentalongtimesittingthere,sincesunup.Imdoing whatyourfriendandmine,Acumenus,advises,andtakingmywalksalongthe countryroads;hesaysthatwalkinghereismorerefreshingthaninthecolonnades. SOCRATES.LetsturnoffhereandgoalongtheIlissus;thenwellsitdownquietly whereveryouthinkbest.

PHAEDRUS.ItseemsitsjustaswellIhappenedtobebarefoot;youalwaysare.So wecanveryeasilygoalongthestreamwithourfeetinthewater;anditwillnotbe unpleasant,particularlyatthistimeofyearandatthistimeofday. SOCRATES.Soleadon,andkeepalookoutforaplaceforustositdown. PHAEDRUS.Wellthen,youseethatverytallplanetree? SOCRATES.Idoindeed. PHAEDRUS.Theresshadeandamoderatebreezethere,andgrasstositon,orlie on,ifwelike. SOCRATES.Pleaseleadon. PHAEDRUS.Tellme,Socrates,wasntitfromsomewherejustherethatBoreasissaid tohaveseizedOreithuiafromtheIlissus? SOCRATES.Yes,soitssaid. PHAEDRUS.Well,wasitfromhere?Thewaterofthestreamcertainlylooks attractivelypureandclear,andjustrightforyounggirlstoplaybesideit. SOCRATES.No,itwasfromaplacetwoorthreestadeslowerdown,whereone crossesovertothedistrictofAgra;andtheresomewherethereisanaltarofBoreas. Phaedrus227A229C;translatedbyC.J.Rowe,Plato:Phaedrus.Warminster,England: Aris&Phillips,1986. Inthefifthcenturyprobablythreequartersofthecitizensownedsomerural property.Farmingcouldbeaparttimeoccupationthatproducedenoughfoodto providesustenanceforafamily.Manypeoplestilllivedinvillages,wereloyalto theirruraldemes,anddependedupontheirfamilyfarms.Exceptforthespacesset asideforpublicactivities,Athenswasneitherabeautifulcitynoracomfortableone, andmanypropertiedcitizenswerehappytoleaveittoartisans,to 284 theurbanpoor,andtometics,whowerenotpermittedtoownlandinAttica.The cityhadmerelygrownupintheArchaicandClassicalperiodswithoutconforming toatownplan.Streetswereirregularandnarrow;housinginthecitycenterwas flimsyandsanitationpoor.Theseproblemswereexacerbatedwhentheentire populationwithdrewinsidethecitywallsduringthePeloponnesianWar. ***

Thucydides,aswesawinChapter4,commentedonthelavishnessofAthens monumentalarchitectureandrevealedhissuspicionthatitsphysicalremainsmight leadobserverstoexaggerateitsgreatnessvisvisSparta,wherepublicspacewas filledbyhumblerstructures.Certainlythesubstantialfundstheycollectedin imperialtributemadeitpossiblefortheAthenianstodeckouttheircitywithedifices ofunusualelegance,buttheunderlyingprinciplesgoverningtheallocationofspace obtainedinotherpoleisaswell.ThroughouttheGreekworldfromIoniatoSicily stoodbustlingcitycentersadornedwithtemples,governmentbuildings,andagoras; some,likeOlympia,hadspecialconnectionstoreligion,whereasothers,likeCorinth, weregreatports.Somecities,likeThurii,werecarefullylaidout;mostjustsprangup littlebylittle,withstreetsatoddanglesmakingiteasytogetlost.Everywhere,the cityanditssurroundingcountrysidewereinterdependent,andresidentstraveled backandforthcomfortablybetweenthetwoareas.Commerceandagriculturewere bothcentraltothefunctioningofeachpolis. Althoughcommerceentailedagooddealofspecializedlabor,throughoutGreece onesortofworkwasdiffusedthroughoutthemalepopulation,andthatwas fighting.ExceptinSparta,Greekmengenerallyworkedattheland(or,lessoften,in trade)inthewinterandwereavailableformilitarycampaignsinthesummer, servingintheinfantryiftheybelongedtothepropertiedclassor,inthecaseofpoor men,rowinginthefleet.WhenfightingbrokeoutbetweentheAthenianandSpartan campsin431,warfarebegantoclaimanincreasinglylargeshareofpeoplestime, energy,andworry.Theensuingsocialupheavalcausedwomentoassumesome responsibilitiespreviouslyexercisedbymen.Intimethecomfortabledivisionofthe yearintofightingandnonfightingseasonsevaporated,andduringthelastdecades ofthefifthcenturyGreecefounditselfconsumedbyaprotractedanddebilitating warofunprecedentedscope.Fighting,alwaysanimportantelementinGreek civilization,nowcametobetheorganizingprincipleoflifeinthecitystates. TRANSLATIONS Blanco,Walter.1992.TheHistories,fromHerodotus:TheHistories,WalterBlancoand JenniferRoberts,eds.,NewYork:W.W.Norton. Blanco,Walter.1998.ThePeloponnesianWar,fromThucydides:ThePeloponnesianWar, WalterBlancoandJenniferRoberts,eds.NewYork:W.W.Norton. 285 Gagarin,MichaelandPaulWoodruff,eds.1995.EncomiumofHelen,inEarlyGreek PoliticalThoughtfromHomertotheSophists.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress. Grene,David.1987.TheHistory:Herodotus.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.

Hamilton,Walter.1951.Plato:TheSymposium.Harmondsworth,England:Penguin. Hanson,Ann.1975.Hippocrates:DiseasesoWomeninSigns1. Pomeroy,SarahB.1994.Xenophon:Oeconomicus,ASocialandHistoricalCommentary. Oxford:ClarendonPress. Warner,Rex.1959.Medea,fromTheCompleteGreekTragedies,EuripidesI:Four Tragedies,DavidGreneandRichmondLattimore,eds.Chicago:Universityof ChicagoPress. SUGGESTEDREADINGS Guthrie,W.K.C.1971.TheSophists.Cambridge,Eng.:CambridgeUniversityPress.A brilliantstudyoftheissuesregardingthesophisticmovement,excerptedfromthe authorsthreevolumeHistoryofGreekPhilosophy. Harris,WilliamV.1989.AncientLiteracy.Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversity Press.AsurveyoftheevidenceforliteracyandthelackofitinancientGreeceand Rome. Hill,IdaThallon.1953.TheAncientCityofAthens:ItsTopographyandMonuments. London:Methuen.Aclearlywrittendescriptionwithillustrationsandplansofthe architecturalandsculptedantiquitiesatAthens,beforetherestorationsthatarenow inprogressbeganmaskingmanyofthemajormonuments. Kagan,Donald.1969.TheOutbreakofthePeloponnesianWar.Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell UniversityPress.ThefirstinstallmentinKagansfourvolumehistoryofthewar. Osborne,Robin.1987.ClassicalLandscapewithFigures:TheAncientGreekCityandIts Countryside.London:G.Philip.AnillustrateddiscussionoflifeinruralGreece, naturalfloraandagriculture,writtenbyanauthorwhoplainlyloveshissubject. McGregor,Malcolm.1987.TheAtheniansandTheirEmpire.Vancouver:Universityof BritishColumbiaPress.AhistoryoftheAtheniansdealingswiththeiralliesthat takesasympatheticviewofimperialism. Ste.G.E.M.deCroix1972.TheOriginsofthePeloponnesianWar.Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell UniversityPress.Ananalysisoftheavailablesourcesandanintensivestudyofthe dataconcerningtheMegariandecrees. Vlastos,Gregory.1991.Socrates:IronistandMoralPhilosopher.Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell UniversityPress.Anattempttocapturetheessenceofthephilosopher,byoneofthe foremoststudentsofthePlatonicdialogues.

Wycherley,R.E.1979.TheStonesofAthens.Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversity Press.AdetailedstudyofwhatthephysicalremainsofAthenshavetotellusabout thecity. 286 8 THEPELOPONNESIANWAR WhenwarbrokeoutbetweenAthensandSparta,fewGreeksforesawthatitwould bedifferentfromanywartheyhadeverexperiencedorevenimagined.Thetwenty sevenyearconflictcostthousandsuponthousandsoflivesandprovedastern teacher.ItenhancedmanyoftheworstfeaturesofGreeksocietycompetitiveness, jingoism,lackofcompassion,andgrossdisregardforhumanlife.Atthesametime,a numberofextraordinarythinkerssoughttofocusattentionontheproblemspeople faceintheirattemptstolivetogether:thewritingsofThucydides,Sophocles,and Euripidesshowedvigorandspiritthroughoutthewaryears,andthecomic dramatistAristophanescontinuedtoproduceenchantingplaysthroughthree decadesoffightingandforagenerationafterwardthoughabitingsorrowisoften evidentbeneaththemadcapfacade.ThePeloponnesianWarwouldaltertheworld theGreeksknewinmanyrespects.Comfortableassumptionsaboutthecitizen fighterandhisroleinthepoliswouldbreakdown,andconventionalmoralityand pietywouldfacemanychallenges.Much,however,wouldstaythesamethepolisas apoliticalunit,theprimacyofagriculture,therivalriesofthecitystates,andthe worshipoftheOlympiangods.Thetraumaoccasionedbythewaranditsaftermath wasalsostrikinglyfertile,forthewarsuppliedtheimpetusformanyofthesocial, political,andintellectualchangesweidentifywiththefourthcenturyandtheperiod afterthedeathofAlexanderin323BCthatwecalltheHellenisticAge. SOURCESFORGREECEDURINGTHEPELOPONNESIANWAR Thucydideswriteswithsucheloquenceandcertaintythathistorianshavehadto strugglehardtochallengehisconclusionsandstrikeoutontheirownpaths.His Historyisourprincipalsourceforthewar.AlthoughThucydidestriedtowriteeach yearupasithappened,understandablyhebegantofallbehindasthewar progressed,andatthetimeofhisdeatharound395BChehadgottenonlyasfaras 411.Rumorhaditthathisdaughterpreservedtheunfinishedmanuscriptand 287 gaveittoXenophontoedit.Whateverthetruthofthis,Xenophon,whopickedup whereThucydidesleftoffandwrotethehistoryofGreecedownto362(inthework calledtheHellenica),equaledThucydidesinneitheranalyticalcapacitynornarrative skill.Shortlyafterthewar,however,Xenophondidhavetheadvantageoffriendship

withleadingSpartansincludingtheirkingAgesilaus.Inthecourseofthetrek throughAsiaMinorthathedescribedintheAnabasis,hecertainlywouldhaveheard warstoriesofsoldiersandofficersfromcitiesotherthanAthens.Afterhereturnedto Greece,moreover,hewasexiledfromAthensandwassettledbyAgesilausinScillus nearOlympia.HissonswereapparentlyeducatedaccordingtotheSpartansystem; thusXenophoncertainlyunderstoodtheSpartansmethodsoftrainingsoldiersand wagingwar. TheworkingsofAtheniandemocracywereexploredinapamphletcalledThe ConstitutionoftheAthenians,whoseunknownauthorissometimescalledtheOld Oligarch;heisalsosometimescalledpseudoXenophon,sincebeforethetwentieth centuryhistoriansbelievedhereallywasXenophon.Hostiletodemocracy,theessay makesaninterestingcontrastwiththehappierviewofAtheniangovernmentand societysetforthinthefamousfuneralorationforthewardeadthatThucydides ascribedtoPericles,anditoffersakeenanalysisofthedistinctivedynamicofnaval imperialismanditsrelationshiptoAtheniangovernment. DiodorusandPlutarchcontinuetobeuseful.Diodorustreatmentofthewar survivesintact,andPlutarchwrotethelivesoftheAthenianpoliticiansNiciasand AlcibiadesandoftheSpartancommanderLysander.ThesourcesDiodorusand PlutarchusedincludethefourthcenturyhistoriansTheopompusandEphorus,as wellasTimaeus,wholivedaround300BC,andPhilistus,whohadbeenaboyin SyracuseatthetimeoftheAtheniansiege.Speechesdeliveredincourtoratleast writtenforsuchdeliverythrowconsiderablelightonthelateryearsofthewar. Andocides,whowasimplicatedinthereligiousscandalsof415,describedhis subsequentimprisonmentinhisspeechOntheMysteries.Lysias,whocamefroma wealthymeticfamilyandknewSocrates,wroteanumberofspeechesearlyinthe fourthcenturythattouchedoneventsduringthewaranditsaftermath;one( AgainstAndocides)attackedAndocides,andanother(AgainstEratosthenes) detailedhisownmisfortunesatthehandsoftheThirtyTyrantswhomSpartaset upinAthensattheendofthewar. AlthoughSophoclesproducedOedipusTyrannusduringthefirstyearsofthewar andcontinuedtowriteuntilhisdeathin406,thetwoplaywrightswhorevealmost aboutwhatitwasliketoliveinAthensduringthiswarwerethetragedianEuripides andthecomicdramatistAristophanes.PlayslikeEuripidesTrojanWomendealt withthesufferingsoccasionedbywarthroughthevehicleoftheTrojanWar,and severalofAristophaneswartimecomediesmadeplaintheimmensedeprivationof noncombatantmenandwomenandtheiryearningsforpeace.Someoftheflavorof intellectuallifeinAthenscanbegatheredfromPlatosandXenophonsdialogues, whichofferimaginativereconstructionsofconversationsSocratesheldinAthens duringthewarwithfellowAthenians,withmetics,andwithvisitingluminariessuch astherhetoricianGorgiasofLeontini,orthesophistProtagorasofAbdera.

288 Finally,inscriptionscontinuetoshedlightontheworkingsoftheAthenianempire, andarchaeologicalandtopographicalinvestigationshavebeenofsomeusein illuminatingparticularmilitarycampaignsthat,forexample,atPylosonthewest coastofthePeloponnesusin425.Onthewhole,however,ourabilityfullyto understandthewariscompromisedseverelybythelackofauthenticSpartan sources.TheSpartansaversiontowritingliteraturehasplacedthematagreat disadvantageinhistory.Oneconsequenceoftheirchoicehasbeenthefactthatthe SpartanAthenianWarderivesthenamebywhichitisknownfromtheperspective ofSpartasenemy:thoughmostofthebattleswerefoughtoutsidethePeloponnesus, forAthensitwasthewaragainstthePeloponnesians,andithasbeenknownfor centuriesasthePeloponnesianWar.TheSpartansdecisionnottorecordtheirown storyaboutthewarhasmadeitnecessaryforustoreconstructitforthem,working entirelyfromnonSpartansourcesandlargelyfromthewritingsofThucydides,who mayormaynothaveenjoyedcontactsatSpartaafter(orevenbefore)hisexile. Spartansmiraculouslybroughtbacktolifeinourowntimemightbeverysurprised tolearnhowtheirwartimestrategieshavebeenimagined. THEARCHIDAMIANWAR(431421BC) TomanyGreeksaliveatthetime,thedecadeoffightingthatstretchedfrom431to 421seemedlikeadiscreteentityinitself,andinfactthiswarhasbeengivenitsown nametheArchidamianWar,aftertheSpartancommanderArchidamus.Weowethe conceptofasinglePeloponnesianWarextendingfrom431to404toThucydides. Anotherhistorianmighthaveseenacontinuouswarextendingfrom460to404,or threewarsonefrom460to446,onefrom431to421,andanotherbeginning somewherebetween418and415andcontinuingto404.Studentsofhistoriography (thewritingofhistory)usetheexpressioncolligation,thatis,tyingtogether,to describethewayhistorianscreateaneventoraprocessbylinkingtogether separateeventsinsuchawaythattheyformacoherentwhole.Joiningwhatothers mightconstruedifferently,Thucydides,theearliestandmostimportantsourcefor thehistoryofthisperiod,hasbycolligationsuccessfullypersuadedmostpeopleof therealityofwhatistodaycommonlycalledthePeloponnesianWar,thewarof 431404. ThePericleanStrategyandthePlague Periclesdevisedaningeniousstrategyforwinningawarheconceivedasessentially defensive,anditisameasureofhisinfluenceandeloquencethathewasableto persuadehisfellowAthenianstodosomethingsoconspicuouslyatoddswith humannature.HarassingPeloponnesianterritorywiththeirnavy,theAthenians declinedtoparticipateinhoplitebattlewiththeenemy.AtPericlesinstigation,the

Athenianfarmersabandonedtheirland,takingwiththemwhatfewhousehold goodscouldbeloadedonwagons,andhuddledwiththecitydwellers 289 Figure8.1.TheatersofoperationduringthePeloponnesianWar.

insidetheLongWallsthatlinkedAthenstoPiraeus.Thesewalls,Periclesrightly perceived,madeAthensinessenceanisland.Foodandothernecessarygoodswould continuetobeimportedbyshipfromthroughouttheempire.Theenemy,Pericles calculated,wouldtireofravagingthelandwhennobodycameouttofight.Seeing thatthesuperiortrainingandnumbersoftheirinfantrywoulddothemnogood, theywouldsoonsueforpeace.TheSpartans,meanwhile,conjecturedthatthe Athenianswouldgrowrestivecoopedupintheovercrowdedcitythroughoutthe campaigningseasonand,seeingtheirlandbeingravaged,wouldbeunableto toleratethefrustration.Theyforesawoneoftwoconsequences:eithertheAthenians wouldseekpeaceortheywouldoverrulePericlesandcome 290 outtofight.Inforeseeingthattheenemywouldgiveupafteracoupleofyears,both sidesmiscalculatedbadly,buttherewasnothingintrinsicallyfoolishintheir thinking. ItwaswithreluctanceandapprehensionthattheAtheniansabandonedtheirhomes andthefamiliartemplesnearby,andwhenthefarmersarrivedinAthensonlyafew wereabletofindshelterwithfriendsorrelatives.Mosthadtoseekoutemptyspace inthecityorbunkdownintemplesandshrines.Somewoundupspendingsummers inthetowersalongthewalls.Fortunately,theAtheniansthought,thewarwouldnot lasttoolong;butofcoursetheSpartansknewthiswasjustwhattheywerethinking. Thefirstyearofthewarwasrelativelyuneventful.TheAthenianfleetbusieditself aroundthePeloponnesus.ArchidamusmovedonAtticawithhistroops,butnobody cameouttomeetthem,sotheyhadtocontentthemselveswithcuttingdownolive trees.Inthefall,whenthePeloponnesianshadgonehome,theAthenianarmy ravagedtheterritoryofMegara(somethingtheycontinuedtodoannuallyforseveral years).Thoughthisyearsawfewcasualties,bytraditiontheAtheniansheldapublic funeralforthosewhohaddiedinthewar.Thismuchweknow:Pericleswaschosen tooffertheeulogy.HowcloselythestirringpaeantoAthensthatappearsin ThucydideshistoryapproximateswhatPericlesactuallysaidisanotherquestion.We havenootherversionsofthisspeech.ItcouldrepresentThucydidesaccurate recollectionofwhatwassaid,orafaultyrecollection,oracompositionofhisown; andevenifPericlessaidthesethings,hisspeechcouldhavebeenwrittenbysomeone

else.Inanyevent,thespeechwehavefocusesnotonthedeadthemselvesbutonthe cityofAthensandthewayoflifeitrepresentsawayoflifethatisdefinedasthe antithesisofeverythingSpartan. TheorganizingprincipleofthespeechrevealsmuchaboutGreekviewsofthestate, forPericlesassumesthatawiseformofgovernmentprovidesthecornerstoneforthe goodlifeinallitsmanifestations.Inthisheisincompleteagreementwiththe politicaltheoristsofthefourthcentury,PlatoandAristotle.Thoughtheydisliked democracy,theycertainlysharedPericlesconvictionthatthepoliteia(akindof governmentorconstitution)astatechooseswillhavethewidestramificationsfor thenatureofitscitizensandthespiritofitscommunallife. Thespeechhasamarkedlydefensivetone.Itspurposeseemstobetocounter suggestionsthataneasygoingpolissuchasAthens,withitsloveofwords,ofideas, andofbeauty,couldnotcompetesuccessfullyinwarwithahighlyregulated, militarizedsocietylikeSparta,wherewordsaredespisedasahindrancetoaction, peoplehavelittlechoiceabouthowtheylivetheirlives,andanxioussecrecyisthe orderoftheday.Welovenobilitywithoutostentation,Periclessays, andwehaveavirileloveofknowledge.Furthermore,wealthisforussomethingto use,notsomethingtobragabout.Andastopoverty,thereisnoshameinadmitting toittherealshameisinnottakingactiontoescapefromit.Finally,whilethereare thosewhomanageboththecityandtheirownprivateaffairs, 291 thereareothers,whothoughwrappedupintheirwork,neverthelesshavea thoroughknowledgeofpublicaffairs....Forwearetheonlypeoplewhoregarda manwhotakesnointerestinpoliticstobeleadingnotaquietlifebutauselessone. Wearealsotheonlyoneswhoeithermakethegovernmentaldecisionsoratleast frametheissuescorrectly,becausewedonotthinkthatactionishamperedbypublic discoursebutbynotlearningenoughinadvance,throughdiscourse,aboutwhat actionweneedtotake. *** Tosumup,Itellyouthatthiscity,takenallinall,istheschoolofGreece,andasfar asIamconcerned,anymanamonguswillexhibitamorefullydeveloped personalitythanmenelsewhereandwillbeabletotakecareofhimselfmore gracefullyandwiththequickestofwit. (ThePeloponnesianWar2.4041;Blanco1998)

PericlesconcludingchargetothewomenofAthenssatoddlyonthelipsofaman wholivedwithacompanionfarmorevisibleandrenownedthanmanyofhisfellow politicians: AndsinceImustalsomakesomementionofwomanlyvirtuetothosewhowillnow bewidows,Iwilldefineitinthisbriefadmonition:yourgreatestfameconsistsin beingnoworsethanyournatures,andinhavingtheleastpossiblereputationamong malesforgoodorill. (2.45;Blanco1998) ThisiscertainlystrikingadviceinasocietyasloquaciousastheoneThucydides depictsinAthens.Itispositedonanotionofwomanasineverywaytheoppositeof politicalman,inwhosemindreputation(asPlatowouldsoonlament)countedfor practicallyeverything. Thenextyearsawtwoentirelypredictableeventsandoneunexpecteddevelopment. TheinvasionofAtticabythealliedforcesofthePeloponnesianLeagueandthe harassmentofthePeloponnesiancoastbytheAtheniannavywerebecomingroutine, butnobodycouldhaveforeseenthehorrificplaguethatattackedthepopulationof Athens.Itsoriginisunknown,asisitsprecisenaturetyphus,probably,orperhaps smallpoxormeaslesbutitspreadrapidlyinthecrowded,unsanitaryenvironment ofacitypackedtocapacityandbeyond.Probablyaboutathirdofthepopulacedied. Thucydides,whohimselffellillbutrecovered,tookpainstorecordeverythinghe couldaboutthecourseandsymptomsoftheillnesssothatitwouldbepossiblefor readerstorecognizethedisordershoulditeverreappear. InmanywaysThucydidesmeticulousaccountofthediseaseanditsbehaviorisa microcosmofhishistoryasawhole,revealinghispassionateinterestinchronicling eventsthatseemtohimtohavebroadsignificance,reflectingastheydopatternsin events.Beginningwithadetailedaccountofthesymptomsofthediseasetheoral bleeding,thebadbreath,thepainfulvomiting,theburningskin,theinsomnia,the memoryloss,theoftenfataldiarrheahegoesontode 292 scribethewayinwhichpeoplereactedtothedisease.Thosewhorecoveredfromthe illness,sensingthattheywerenowproofagainstit,notonlynursedthesickbutin thejubilanceofthemomentheldthevainbeliefthattheywouldneverdiefromany otherdiseaseinthefuture,either.Most,however,tookadarkerviewoflife,asthe overwhelmingcatastropheseemedtoobviatethenecessityforobservingcustomary moralandreligiousnorms.Thedisease,Thucydideswrote,initiatedamoregeneral lawlessnessinthecityaspeople

decidedtogoforinstantgratificationsthattendedtosensualitybecausethey regardedthemselvesandtheirpropertyasequallyshortlived.Noonewaswillingto persevereinreceivedideasaboutthegoodbecausetheywereuncertainwhether theywoulddiebeforeachievingit.Whateverwaspleasurable,andwhatever contributedtopleasure,whereveritcamefrom,thatwasnowthegoodandthe useful.Fearofthegods?Thelawsofman?Nooneheldback,concludingthatasto thegods,itmadenodifferencewhetheryouworshippedornotsincetheysawthat allalikeweredying;andastobreakingthelaw,nooneexpectedtolivelongenough togotocourtandpayhispenalty.Thefarmoreterribleverdictwhichhadalready beendeliveredagainstthemwashangingovertheirheadssoitwasonlynaturalto enjoylifealittlebeforeitcamedown. (ThePeloponnesianWar2.53;Blanco1998) Demoralizedbytheplagueandfrustratedbybeingforbiddentomarchoutandoffer battle,someAthenianstriedtoopennegotiationsforpeacewiththeSpartans. Periclesmusteredonelastefforttopersuadethemtoabandonthisproject.Inatough speechmarkedlylessidealisticthanthefuneraloration,hearguedthatthoughthe empiremightbeatyrannyandmighthavebeenwrongtoacquire,stillthe Athenians,havingatigerbythetail,wouldputthemselvesingreatdangerbyletting itgo.ThoughembassiestoSpartadidcease,thecitizenryvotedtodeposePericles (bringingforwardsomechargeagainsthim,aswascommoninAthenswhen politicianshadceasedtopleasetheirconstituency)andindeedtofinehim.Nothing muchhappenedwhenPericleswasoutofofficeexceptthelongawaitedsurrenderof Potidaea.Findingthatotherleadersconductedthewarnobetter,theAthenians returnedPericlestoofficeatthenextelections.Thenhecaughttheplagueanddied. CleonandDiodotus:TheRevoltofMytilene(428427BC) OnemotivefordecreesexcludingtheMegariansfromAthenianportshadprobably beenPericlesdesiretobringonawar,iftherehadtobeone,whilehewasstillthere toconductit;atthetimethedecreeswerepassed,hewasabout60.WithPericles goneandthewarstillraging,theAtheniansneededtoreassessthemeritsofhis strategyandtochooseotherleaders.Atfirsttheystucktotheplanofavoiding infantrycombat,butintimetheyventuredforthandmetthePelo 293 Figure8.2.ThisimageofPericlesbyhisyoungercontemporaryCresilassurvives inaRomancopyoftheheadofabronzeoriginal.Pericleswasrumoredtohaveworn ahelmetinordertoconcealthedeformedshapeofhishead,whichmadehim resemblethetyrantPeisistratus.

ponnesiansonthebattlefield,withmixedsuccess.NoonemanreplacedPericlesas theunquestionedleaderoftheAthenianpeople,butoneofthemostpopularofthe newpoliticianswasCleon(d.422BC). HatedbyThucydidesandpilloriedbyAristophanes,Cleonhascomebeforethe tribunalofhistoryatadesperatedisadvantage.The420ssawachangeinthe characterofAtheniangovernment.Thoughnoformaldistinctionsdividedrichfrom poororseparatedsocialclasses,stilluntilthewarAthenianshadfeltmost comfortablewithpoliticalpowerinthehandsofmenfromold,wealthyfamilies menlikeCimonandPericles.Nowthisceasedtobetrue.Richermenstillhadthe advantageinelectionsforthegeneralship,butincreasinglymenwhosefathersand grandfathershadrecentlymademoneyinbusinessbegantocompetesuccessfully withthosewhosefamilieshadbeenlivingofftheirlandholdingsforgenerations. Newwords,moreover,creptintodiscussionsofAthenianpolitics:dmaggosandits relativedmaggia,whichfirstappearsinthesurvivingliteratureinAristophanes Knights,producedin424BC.Literallyaleaderofthepeoplesurelythereis nothingwronginthatinthehandsofclassconsciouscriticstheworddmaggos cametosignalacalculatingpoliticianwhomanipulatedthevotersforhisownends ratherthanlettinghimselfbeguidedbypatriotismandprinciple.Inreality,however, thereisnowaytobesureofpeoplesmotives,andsometimesthewordjustbetrays theclassprejudiceofthewriterusingit. 294 ThucydidesdescribedPericlesasleadingtheAthenianpeopleratherthanbeingled bythem.DidthismeanPericleswasademagoguetoo? ForemostamongthemenwhocametobeidentifiedasdemagogueswasCleon. Deliberatelycultivatinganantiaristocraticpersona,Cleonwasthebrashand outspokenownerofasuccessfultannery.Hewasthefirstofseveralleading politiciansatAthenswhocommandedrespectintheassemblywithouthavingheld thegeneralship.BeforeCleon,politicianshadalwaysexercisedthestratgiaevenif, likePericles,theyhadnotgreatlydistinguishedthemselvesinthefield.Cleon, however,whowasatalentedpublicspeaker,hadbecomeinfluentialalreadyin PericleslifetimeandwasprobablythemostpowerfulpoliticianinAthensduringthe yearsafterhisdeath(thoughheneverattainedPericlesstatureorexercised comparableauthority). By428,whenthewarhadbeengoingonforthreeyears,itlookedasifAthensmight win.ThoughthesiegeofPotidaeahadbeencostly,atleastitwasover.TheAthenian admiralPhormiohadwonsomenavalvictoriesinthenorthwest,damaging Corinthiantrade.TheSpartansdestroyedPlataea,buttheyweresqueamishabout invadingAtticain429becauseoftheplague,andtheyweredisappointedintheir

hopesofaidfromSicilyorPersia.Perhapstheywouldgiveup.In428,however,the Spartansreceivedsomeverygoodnews.Fourofthefivecitiesontheislandof LesboswererevoltingfromtheAthenianempire.LedbyMytilene,therevoltwas particularlyunexpectedsince,alongwithChios,Lesboswasoneofthetwo remainingsocalledautonomousmembersoftheempire,thatis,amemberthat provideditsownshipsforthenavyratherthanbeingassessedintributemoney. TheuprisingevokedtheimportantrevoltofSamosin440,whichhadspreadto Byzantium.TheAthenianallianceappearedtobecomingapartattheseams,andthe SpartanswerehappytogranttheMytilenaeansrequestforallianceandassistance. Thepromisedaid,however,nevermaterialized;theSpartanswerenotyetreadyfor decisivenavalaction.ThenextyeartheAtheniansiegeachieveditsaim:the Mytilenaeanssurrendered.ThediscussionintheAthenianassemblyaboutwhatto dowiththecapitulatedrebelsfirstbringsCleonaliveinthepagesofThucydides. TheAtheniansinitiallyvotedtoputallthemeninMytilenetodeathandtosellthe womenandchildrenintoslavery,andtheydispatchedaboattobringthenewstothe generalincommandontheisland,Paches.Thenextday,however,somepeopleat leasthadsecondthoughts,andadebateensued.Cleonshowsacockyselfassurance inthedismissivewayheaddresseshisaudience:I,formypart,hebegins,have oftennoticedbeforethatdemocraciescannotruleoverothers,butIseeitespecially nowintheseregretsofyoursaboutMytilene...(3.37).DeridingtheAtheniansfor theiropennessandflexibility,headvocatesapolicyofharshconsistency.Badlaws thatstaythesame,heinsists,arebetterthangoodonesthatchange.Hisstudiedanti intellectualismcontrastspointedlywiththepraiseofdeliberationanddebatein Periclesfuneralorationdeliveredthreeyearsearlier:ordinarypeople,Cleonsays, runtheircitiesfarbetterthanintelligentones,forthesewanttoseemwiserthanthe lawsandtotopwhatevernonsenseissaidinpublicassemblies....Theyarethe downfallof 295 citiesbecauseofthissortofthing(3.37;Blanco1998).Inotherrespects,however, CleonforallhiscrassnessisplainlyPericlesheir.Youdontunderstand,hesays, thatyouholdyourempireasatyrannyandthatyoursubjectsareschemerswhoare governedunwillingly(3.37).ComparePericlesinhislastspeech:Youholdyour empirelikeatyrannybynow.Takingitisthoughttohavebeencriminal;lettingitgo wouldbeextremelydangerous(2.63;Blanco1998). Diodotus,whoisotherwiseunknown,spokeagainstproceedingwiththeoriginal plan,makingamarvelousargumentgroundedinhumanpsychology.Deterrence,he contended,wasnotaseffectiveascommonlybelieved,becausepeoplewho undertakeriskyventuresdosointheexpectationthattheywillsucceed,notfail. Furthermore,heargued,therewasnomeritinkillingpeopleevenwhentheyhad

surrendered,fortodosoremovedanyincentiveforsurrenderinfuturerebellions. Hethenmadeakeyobservationaboutthedynamicsoftheempire.Sofar,he maintained, thepopulaceinallofthecitiesiswellinclinedtowardyou.Eithertheydonotjoinin rebellionwiththeoligarchs,or,iftheyareforcedtodoso,theyquicklyturnagainst them.Thus,whenyougotowaryouhavethepopulaceofthecityyouareattacking onyourside. (ThePeloponnesianWar3.47;Blanco1998) ThoughsomemightdebatetheaccuracyofDiodotuscontention,itcertainlymakes usthinktwiceaboutThucydidesclaimthattheAthenianempirewasuniversally detestedinthesubjectcities. Diodotuswontheday,andasecondboatwassentouttoovertakethefirst.Envoys fromMytileneprovidedextrarationsfortherowersandpromisedalargerewardif theyarrivedintime.Asithappened,therowersontheoriginalboathadbeeninno hurrytoannounceimpendingdoom,andthesecondboatmanagedtoarrivejustas thedeathsentencewasbeingannounced.Insteadofputtingallthementodeathand enslavingallthewomenandchildren,theAtheniansexecutedtheringleadersofthe revoltwhoapparentlyamountedtooverathousandmen. TheWarContinues MeanwhilemiseryanddeathprevailedelsewhereinGreeceaswell.Frustratedin theirattemptstouniteBoeotiaunderThebanleadershipasAthenshadunitedAttica, theThebanshatedthePlataeansbecauseoftheirfriendshipwithAthens.In427they persuadedtheSpartanstodestroyPlataea,killingthosewhohadnotmanagedto escapetoAthens.Atthesametimeaparticularlyviciouscivilwarbrokeoutin Corcyra.Thisconflictwassobloodyandimpassionedthatbothsexestookpart, womenthrowingtilesasthewomenofPlataeahaddoneintryingtopreventa Thebantakeoverin431.AsThucydidespointsout,thewarragingthroughoutGreece intensifiedthelongstandingtensionsbetweentheordinarycitizens,whoresented thewealthoftheelite,andthearistocrats,who 296 consideredalavishlifestyletobetheirbirthright,fortheformercouldexpecthelp fromAthensandthelatterfromSparta.Theresultwasstasis(civilstrife)more frequentandferociousthaneverbefore.Thucydidesdescribestheagonythatensued whenthedemocraticpartygainedtheupperhandand,asalliesofthedemos,the AtheniansundertheiradmiralEurymedonmadenomovetocurtailthebutchery.To avoiddeathatthehandsofthedemocrats,someoligarchicpartisans

hangedthemselvesfromtrees.Otherskilledthemselvesinanywaytheycould. EurymedonremainedatCorcyraforsevendayswithhissixtyships,duringwhich theCorcyraeansceaselesslyslaughteredthoseamongthemwhomtheythoughttobe enemies....Onesaweveryimaginablekindofdeath,andeverythingthatislikelyto takeplaceinsituationslikethisdid,infact,takeplaceandevenmore.Forexample, fatherskilledtheirsons;peopleweredraggedfromthetemplesandslaughteredin frontofthem;somewereevenwalledupinthetempleofDionysusandlefttodie. (ThePeloponnesianWar3.81;Blanco1998) Whileoperatinginthewest,theAthenianssailedtoSicilywithavarietyofmotives toassisttheiralliesthereagainsttheencroachmentsofSyracuse,tocutofftheexport ofgraintothePeloponnesus,andtoexplorethepossibilityofbringingSicilyintothe empire.Theirdesigns,however,werefoiledbythecharismaticSyracusanleader Hermocrates,whopersuadedtheSicilianstopatchuptheirdifferencesinthefaceof apossibleAthenianinvasion.Disappointedthattheyhadnotmanagedtogetmore ofafootholdontheisland,theAthenianspromptlydeposedandfinedEurymedon, reservingthepunishmentofexilefortheothertwostrategoiwhohadparticipatedin theexpedition.MeanwhilethegeneralDemosthenes(nottobeconfusedwiththe fourthcenturyoratorbythesamename)experiencedadisastrousfailurefollowed bygreatsuccessaroundtheAmbracianGulf.ItwasDemostheneswhoconceiveda projectthatdramaticallyalteredthebalanceofthewarandwouldhavebroughtitto anendhadtheAtheniansnotrejectedSpartanpeaceovertures.Badweatheroffthe westernPeloponnesushelpedDemosthenespersuadehiscolleaguestoputintoshore atPylos.ThelegendaryhomeofNestor,thispromontorycombinedwiththenarrow islandofSphacteriatoencloseabodyofwaterknowntodayastheBayofNavarino. ThereDemosthenesandhismenbuiltafort. FearingthatSphacteriamightfallintoAthenianhands,theSpartansrecalledthe armythatwasravagingAtticaandpositioned420hoplitesontheisland.Whenthe AtheniansdefeatedtheSpartansinnavalcombat,effectivelymarooningthehoplites onSphacteria,theSpartangovernmentpanickedandsentenvoystoAthenstoplead foranarmistice.SolimitedwasthenumberofSpartansthattheirgovernmentwas willingtodoanythingtogetthosehoplitesbackevenmakeapeacethattookno accountoftheiralliesinterests.OntheadviceofCleon,theAtheniansrefused, whetheroutofoverconfidenceorbecausetheyfearedthefalloutfromahastypeace thatultimatelyexcludedkeyplayerslikeCorinthandThebes. 297 Figure8.3.PylosandSphacteriaastheyappeartoday.

TheSpartans,then,remainedonSphacteria,andwhenCleonmadedisparaging remarksaboutthefailureofAthensgeneralstocapturethem,hetookforhis particulartargettherespectedstrategosNicias.Awealthyandreligiousman,Nicias hadimpressedmanyAtheniansbythelavishsumshespentonreligiousfestivals, andhisbaseofsupportlaywithAthensricherandmoreconservativevotersthe sortofmenwhodespisedCleon.PointinghisfingeratNicias,Thucydidesreports, Cleonsaidscornfullythatifthegeneralswererealmentheycouldeasilysetoutwith anarmadaandcapturethetroopsontheisland.Ifhewereincommand,he continued,thatwaswhathewoulddo(4.27;Blanco1998).Niciaspromptly suggestedthatCleonhimselfbegivenaspecialcommissiontogotoPylosandget holdofthestrandedhoplites.AgainsttheexpectationofupperclassAthenians,the inexperiencedCleonworkedwellwithDemosthenes,andtotheastonishmentofall Greeksofallsocialclasses,theSpartansoldierssurrenderedratherthanfighttothe death.As128ofthePeloponnesianshadbeenkilledinthefighting,theAthenians nowhad292bargainingchipswithwhichtonegotiateanendtothewar.Ofthese themostvaluablewerethe120fullbloodedSpartiates,equals.Seeingtheirposition strengthenedbythepossessionofhostages,theAtheniansresolvedtokeepfighting ratherthantomakepeace.Thiswasprobablyamistake,foranypeacethatSparta madeinordertoregainitsmenwaslikelytoalienateitsalliesandfosterthe disintegrationofthePeloponnesianLeague. ThepresenceofSpartanhostagesatAthensputanendtotheannualinvasionsof Attica,butthewardidnotend.Now,growinginconfidencebecausetheyhad 298 compelledSpartanhoplitestolaydowntheirarms,theAtheniansoccupiedthe MegarianportofNisaeaandseizedtheislandofCytheraoffLaconia.Thesewere bothessentiallynavaloperationsthatPericleswoulddoubtlesshaveapproved,but theAtheniansalsobeganexperimentingwithsubstantialdeparturesfromPericles strategy,sendingoutinfantrytofacetheenemyinbattle.Asounddefeatbythe BoeotiansatDeliumin424dampenedthehighspiritssparkedbythesuccessat Pylos;thephilosopherSocrates,fightingintheranks,mightwellhavebeenkilled hadhenotbeenrescuedbyhisadmirer,theyoungAlcibiades.Athenianlosses farthernorthaddedstrengthtotheSpartancauseevenwhileSpartansoldiers remainedcaptiveinAthens.FortheSpartanshaddiscoveredwhattheyhad previouslylacked,atleastsincethelossofArchidamusaround427:acharismatic general.Astalentedanoratorashewasastrategist,Brasidasbyhiscampaignsin ChalcidiceverynearlywonthewarforSparta,justasDemosthenesandCleonhad nearlywonitforAthensatPylos. BrasidasandChalcidice(424422BC)

AthensholdonChalcidicehadalwaysbeenfragile,andnodoubttheincreaseinthe tributeassessmenttheAthenianshadvotedin425intensifieddiscontentthereas elsewhere.WhensomeChalcidictownsrequestedSpartanaidandwerejoinedin theirappealbyAthensonagain,offagainallyPerdiccasofMacedonia,theSpartans promptlydispatchedthedynamicBrasidas.OnceinChalcidice,Brasidaswasableto persuadethetownsofAcanthus,Stagirus,andArgilusofSpartassincerityasa liberatorandtoinducethemtorevoltfromAthens,promis Figure8.4.ThisbronzeshieldfoundintheAthenianagorawasinscribedasbooty takenfromPylos. 299 ingthatSpartawouldnotinterferewiththeirgovernments.(Hiseloquencewas great,butThucydidesstressesthatfearoftheSpartanpresencewasalsoafactorin theserevolts.) ThoughBrasidashadaccomplishedmuchforSparta,thegreatestprizelayahead. GainingpossessionofAmphipoliswouldrequirealittlemoreeffort,butthis cherishedAthenianstrongholdwasBrasidasprincipaltarget,andinfacthebrought itovertotheSpartansideinlessthantwentyfourhours.Horrifiedbythisloss,the AtheniansbanishedoneoftheirgeneralswhohadbeenoffshoreatThasoswhenthe catastropheoccurred:thehistorianThucydides.TheeventsofthatsnowyDecember nightinthenorthplayedalargeroleindeterminingjustwhatformThucydides historyofthewar,alreadybegunearlier,wouldtake.Justastheycutoffthe opportunityforhearingspeechesdeliveredintheassemblyandforpickingupthe latestscuttlebuttintheagora,theyalsoensuredthatThucydides,freedfromcivic responsibilitiesandperhapsmoretrustedbyforeignersnowthathewasontheouts withthehomegovernment,wouldhavemorereliablenonAtheniansources. ThucydidesseemstoknowagreatdealaboutBrasidasthinking,forexample; perhapsthetwomengottoknoweachother. Thefollowingspring(423)theAtheniansandtheSpartanssignedayearsarmistice thatwasrespectedinmostpartsofGreece.TroublecontinuedinChalcidice,where thecityofScionerevoltedtoSparta,probablybeforelearningofthetruce.Whenthe armisticeexpiredin422,itwasinChalcidicethatfightingresumed.ThereCleon, nowaregularlyelectedgeneral,metBrasidasinbattleatAmphipolis,decidingnotto waitforreinforcementsfromPerdiccas,whohadreturnedtotheAthenianfold. Greekgeneralsfoughtinthefrontlines,andinthefightingbothCleonandBrasidas werekilled. ThePeaceofNiciasandthePeaceofAristophanes(421BC)

ThedoortopeacewasopenedbythedeathsofthemenAristophanescalledthe pestleswhoweregrindingdownthemortarofwar.AthensandSpartahadbothhad enough.AgricultureinAtticahadbeenhorriblydisruptedandwithitthetrade betweencityandcountrysidethatwasthefoundationofpolislife,andtheAthenians wereunsettledbythepatentunrestthroughouttheirsphereofinfluenceinthenorth. SpartawasnervousaboutcontinuingitswarwithAthenswhentheSpartanArgive truceofthirtyyearswasonthevergeofexpiring.AnumberofSpartansoldiershad diedincaptivityinAthens,andtheSpartanswereextremelyeagertorecoverthe survivors.Bothsidesweredisturbedbythedegreetowhichtheyhadbeen compelledtohiremercenariestokeepthewargoing;itseemedlikeabadprecedent, anditwasalsocostly.Theotherkeyplayersonthediplomaticscene,however Corinth,Megara,andBoeotiahadsomewhatlesstogainfrompeaceingeneral (althoughtheyhadalsoexperienceddevastationduringthewar),andnothingto gainfromtheparticularpeaceonwhichtheAtheniansandSpartansagreed.Infact, theyrefusedtosignit.Thehighlyprob 300 lematicagreementknownasthePeaceofNicias(namedfortheprincipalAthenian negotiator,Cleonsoldrival)wasessentiallyavictoryforAthens. CountlessmenandwomenthroughouttheGreekworldhadnodoubtlonged increasinglyforpeaceduringthetenyearsoftheArchidamianWar,but,asisoften thecase,weknowmostaboutthesituationinAthens,fromwhichthebulkofour writtensourcesoriginate.In425,AristophaneshadpresentedhisAcharnians.Comic dramaswereproducedtwiceayearinAthens,bothtimesatfestivalsofthegod Dionysus.Asattragiccompetitions,severaldramatistspresentedplays,butthough weknowthenamesofothercomediansandfragmentsoftheirworkremain,no wholeplaysbyanyhandotherthanAristophaneshavesurvived.Obsceneand boisterous,Aristophanesplaysalsomanifestatenderloveofthecountryside,a nostalgiaforasimplertime,andasobercommitmenttopeace.Though Aristophanescomicgeniuswasunique,hisvaluesmusthavebeencongenialtothe community;thedecisionwhethertograntachorusfortraininglaywiththecity magistrates,andofcourseprizeswereawardedbycitizenjudges. TheAcharnianshadpresentedasitsheroacertainDicaeopolis(themanofthejust city),agrumpyfarmerfromthedemeofAcharnaenorthofAthens.Dicaeopolis spleenwasdirectednotattheinvadingenemybutratherattheAthenianpoliticians whoweredeterminedtocontinuethewar.Acharnaehadbeenravagedannuallyby thePeloponnesians,andDicaeopolis,disappointedinhishopeofageneralpeace, decidedtomakehisownprivatepeacewithSparta.Nowin421,withanendtothe warinsight,AristophaneswrotehisPeace;bythetimeitwaspresented,thetreaty wasclosetobecomingareality.Here,parodyingalostplaybyEuripides,

AristophanesshowshisprotagonistTrygaeusridingonahugedungbeetletothe houseofZeus(accomplishedonstagebyacrane)toinquirewhyZeusisdestroying Greecebywar.TherehelearnsfromHermesthatthegodshavebeenalienatedby thetwosideschildishsquabbling.Theaudiencecannothavebeenentirely comfortablewithHermesevenhandedallotmentofblame.Thegods,hesays, werefrequentlyforpeace. Butyouguyswantedwar.Laconians, whenoncetheygotalittlepieceofluck, wouldsay,ByGod,thoseAtticanswillpay! Orifitseemedthatluckwasonyourside, andthentheSpartanscameaboutapeace, atonceyoudcry:Werebeingtakenin! Athena!Zeus!wecantagreetothis! IfwehangontoPylos,theyllcomeback. (Peace211219) HethenexplainsthatWarhasimprisonedPeaceinacaveand,havingobtaineda hugemortarinwhichtogrinddownalltheGreekcities,hassenthisslaveTumultin searchofpestles.Tumult,however,haslearnedthatAthensandSparta 301 haverecentlylosttheirpestlesCleonandBrasidas.Perhaps,then,thereissome hopeofsettingPeacefree. TrygaeusfinallypersuadesHermestohelphimorganizetherescueofPeace.Thisis nomeantask,sinceitisdifficulttogetalltheGreekstopulltogetheronthe necessaryropesevenwithdivineassistance,butintimetheireffortsaresuccessful. TheblessingsPeacewillbringarecelebratedintermsthatreflecttheconcernsofthe Athenianfarmersintheaudience: Trygaeus:Fellowfarmers!Stopandlisten!Canyouhearthesewondrouswords? Nomorespears,men,nomorejavelins,nomorefightingwithourswords! Wevegotpeacewithallitsgiftsnow,wecantradeinallthatarming Forahappy,happysongaswemarchhometodosomefarming. Chorus:Whataday,notjustforfarmersbutforanyoneworthwhile: Whatayearnedfor,hopedforvision!SeehowjoyouslyIsmile

AsIthinkabouthowsoonIllseethevinesuponmyland; AndthefigtreesthatIplantedasayouthwithmyownhand! (Peace551558) Thetermsofthereallifepeaceweretobeobservedforfiftyyears.Athenswasto keeptheempirewithwhichithadenteredthewar;thetreatycontainedthe expressiontheAtheniansandtheirallies.SpartawastoreturnAmphipolis,while AthenswouldabandonPylosandCytheraandreleaseallprisonersofwar.Though attremendouscostinmoneyandhumanlives,theAthenianwargoalhadbeenmet: theSpartanshadfailedtodestroytheempire.Withouteventrying,theAthenians haddonemuchtoweakenthePeloponnesianLeague.Afteragruelingwaroften yearsSpartahadsufferedlossoflifeandlossofprestige,andnowshewasaboutto loseheralliesaswell. AngrythatnosubstantialdamagehadbeendonetotheAthenianempireandthat twocitiesonthewestcoast,SolliumandAnactorium,remainedinAthenianhands, Corinthrefusedtosignthepeace.Megarawouldnotsignanagreementthatallowed theAthenianstoretainNisaeaastheSpartansshouldhaveforeseen.TheBoeotians, furiousattheordertorelinquishtheborderfortressofPanactumtotheAthenians, notonlydeclinedtosignthetreatybutdemolishedPanactumsoonerthangiveit back.ThedisintegrationofthePeloponnesianLeaguemighthaveprovenhelpfulto theAthenianshadthetermsofthelimitedAthenianSpartanpeacebeenrespected. WhenArgosdecidednottorenewitstreatywithSpartaandSpartarespondedby nervouslysigningafiftyyearalliancewithAthens,thepositionoftheAthenians seemedquiteenviable.ButSparta,asitproved,exaggerateditsabilitytocontrol evenitsweakestallies.TheAmphipoli 302 tans,forexample,hadburiedBrasidaswithhonorsandcometoreverehimastheir founder,extinguishingthememoryoftheAthenianHagnonwhohadpreviously enjoyedthatstatus,andtheyrefusedtoreturntotheAthenianempire.Inretaliation, theAtheniansheldontoPylos.Thechanceforaproductivealliancebetweenthetwo mostpowerfulstatesinGreecewaslost.ProbablythiswasaluckythingforSpartas erstwhileallies.ThoughAthensandSpartadidnotattackoneanotherdirectly,the yearsthatfollowedwereverytense,andThucydidesviewedthePeaceofNiciasasa falsepeace,atroubledinterludebeforetheresumptionofhostilities. BETWEENPEACEANDWAR EventsweretoprovethatthethousandswhohaddiedintheArchidamianWarhad giventheirlivesfornothing.Theshortlivedpeacenotonlyfailedtosolvethe

problemsofpreviousyears;italsocompromisedthehopesofthefuture.Thesense thattheSpartansbetrayedtheminfailingtohonorthetermsofthePeaceofNicias wasprobablyakeyfactorintheAtheniansaversiontomakinganothernegotiated peacewiththeirrival.ThoughtheAtheniansandSpartanswhodesiredpeace wanteditverybadlyindeed,theyhadtocontendwithformidablecountervailing forces. Effectivelyexcludedfromthepeaceof421,Spartasmostpowerfulalliesposeda seriousthreattopeaceinGreece.Dangeralsocamefromindividualswithinthe hegemonicstates.Twoephors,CleobulusandXenares,schemedwiththe CorinthiansandBoeotianstobringArgosovertotheSpartansideandsetthestage forcontinuingthewar.InAthens,theambitionsofonememorableAthenianhada powerfulimpactonthecourseofevents.Asarule,itisdangeroustoaccordtoolarge aroletohighprofileindividualsinshapingthecourseofhistory.Attimes,however, aparticularpersondoesseemtobearanextraordinaryshareoftheresponsibilityfor thewaythingsturnout.SuchwasthecasewiththeflashyAthenianaristocrat Alcibiades.Strategosforthefirsttimein420,Alcibiadeshadlittleprospectofmaking anameforhimselfinatranquilworld.Hisfutureglorywascontingentonthe disintegrationofthefragilepeace.ToAlcibiades,evenmorethantotheaverage Greekaristocrat,alifewithoutglorywasbarelyworththename. Alcibiades,RenegadeAristocrat Alcibiadeshadbeen3whenhisfatherdied,andhewasraisedinthehomeofhis relativePericles.Handsome,witty,athletic,charming,andsensuous,hewaseagerly courtedbyloversofbothsexes.Hisrakishpersonalityandflamboyantlifestylewere conducivetoanecdote,andPlutarchtellsseveralstoriesillustratingtheopposition betweentheresponsibilityofPericlesandtheirresponsibility 303 ofhisirreverentward.Oneday,itseems,whenAlcibiadeshadgrownupand wishedtospeaktoPericles,he wenttohishouse,butwastoldPericlescouldnotreceivehim,ashewasconsidering howtopresenthisaccountstothepeople.Woulditnotbebetter,askedAlcibiades ashecameaway,ifheconsideredhowtoavoidpresentingaccountstothepeopleat all? (Alcibiades7;ScottKilvert1960) Alcibiadesneverdidlikerules.HispassionsincludedhisteacherSocrates,the breedingandracingofhorses,andindeedcompetitioninallitsforms,onandoffthe track.Hiswealthyfamily(whosegenealogywehavediagrammedinChapter6,

Figure6.10)hadconnectionsabroad,anddespitehisrelationshiptoPericles,his grandfatherhadbeentheSpartanproxenosatAthensthemanchargedwith representingSpartaninterestsinhishomestate.Tothefamilyconnectionsthatwere hisbybirth,headdedamarriageconnection;hiswifeHipparete,daughterof Hipponicus,belongedtooneofthemostprominentfamiliesinAthens. AtfirstitappearedthatAlcibiadesinterestinreactivatingthewarwouldcometo nothing.AlthoughElisandMantineajoinedtheallianceAthenshadformedwith Argos,Spartamanagedtodefeatthenewgroupinginbattle,scoringadecisive victoryinMantineain418BC,andalsosucceededinmendingfenceswithits disaffectedalliesBoeotiaandCorinth,thusineffectrestoringthePeloponnesian League.MeanwhiletensionsranhighamongthevariouswouldbeleadersinAthens. AnostracismmighthavedecidedtherivalryofAlcibiadesandNicias,thehawkand thedove,butthetwomenseemtohavepanickedandmobilizedtheirsupportersto turnonathirdman,Hyperbolus,instead. Apoliticianfromtherisingbusinessclass,likeCleon,Hyperbolusappearstohave beenaneffectivespeakerwhosharedCleonsimperialisticpolicies,butotherwise littleisknownabouthim.Inretrospect,theAthenianswereupsetbythewaythe votinghadgone,andtheyneveragainheldanostracism.Thefactthatostracismwas inrealitysomethingofanhonorisunderlinedbyPlutarchsclaimthatitwas Hyperbolusunworthinessthatsparkedthisdecision;acontemporarycomicpoet apparentlyquipped,Theman,indeed,deservedthefate,butnotthefatetheman. Atthisdistance,itisimpossibletodeterminewhethertheAtheniansdistressatthe outcomeoftheostracismresultedfromHyperboluspoliticalinsignificanceorhis socialorigins;thosewhohadbeenostracizedearlierinthecenturycamefrom aristocraticfamilies.Inanyevent,theAtheniansnowturnedtoadifferent,less peculiarstrategyforensuringdemocraticcontrolongovernment.Aroundthistime theybeginutilizingthegraphparanomn(indictmentforillegalproposals)to punishpoliticianswhobroughtforwardproposalsinconflictwithexistinglaws.Like ostracism,however,thisprocedurewasoftenusedpoliticallyadevelopmentthatis notsurprising,since,withoutawrittenconstitutionorbillofrights,onlyahighly subjectivejudgmentcoulddeterminewhatnewlawswereandwerenotinharmony withtheold. 304 TheDestructionofMelos(416BC) TheyearsthatfollowedweremarkedbyconflictinAthensandchaosinthe Peloponnesus.Argosswitchedalliancesmorethanonce,andbothAlcibiadesand Niciashadsufficientsupporttobeelectedtwoofthestrategoifor417416.A disturbingAtheniannavalexpeditionstandsoutfromthesetroubledyears,

memorializedinsomeofthemostfrequentlyreadpagesinThucydides.In416, probablyattheinstigationofAlcibiades,theAtheniansdecidedtobringthelittle islandofMelosundertheircontrol.TheonlyislandintheCycladesthathadstood alooffromtheiralliance,Meloshadtechnicallyremainedneutralinthepreviouswar buthadgivenSpartaasmallsumforthewareffort.ASpartancolony,Melos definitelyleanedtothePeloponnesianside,butAthensandSpartawerenotreallyat waranylonger,andMeloswasofnostrategicsignificance.ItisunclearwhatAthens hadtogainbysubjugatingMelosbesidesthesatisfactionofmakinganexampleof theuncooperativeMelians,butforwhateverreason,Athenianshipsweredispatched toMelostoorderitsinhabitantstoentertheiralliance.HopeofSpartanassistance movedtheMelianstoturnAthensdown.Spartanaiddidnotmaterialize,andas punishmentfortheirrecalcitrance,theAthenianskilledalltheMelianmenandsold allthewomenandchildrenintoslavery. TotreatanenemythiswaywasnotunheardofinGreece;thisispreciselywhatthe AthenianshaddonetotheinhabitantsofrebelliousScionein421.ButtheMelians werenottheAtheniansenemies.Theepisodeplainlymadeadeepimpressionon Thucydides,whochosetoincludeinhishistoryachillingrenditionofthe conversationbetweentheMeliansandtheAthenianstheonlysustaineddialoguein hiswork.Meloswasatinyislandinaremotelocale.HowdidThucydidesknow whatwassaidthereinsuchdetail?Hedidnt.ThesetpieceknownastheMelian DialogueshowsusThucydidesexperimentingwithanartformclosertodramathan tohistory. ThucydideswasnottheonlyAthenianaliveatthetimewhousedhisverbaltalents toshowcasethehorrorsofwarandtoexploreitscorrosiveeffectonmorality.The followingspring(415BC)EuripidesconfrontedtheAthenianswithhisanguished TrojanWomen.Noonecouldseriouslydoubtthatthisexquisitelypainfuldrama, ostensiblysetinTroyintheaftermathofthecitysfall,wasdesignedtoillustratethe dreadfulnessofwaringeneralandthecurrentwarinparticular.Thespecterofthe enslavementofthewivesandsistersanddaughtersoftheTrojanheroesandthe executionoftheyoungAstyanax,Hectorsson,throwntohisdeathfromthecity walls,wasalltooevocativeofrecentdevelopments:manyofthosesittinginthe audiencehadthemselvesdonethekillingatMelos.Italsoprovedpropheticofevents yettocome. THEINVASIONOFSICILY(415413BC) Whileasmallnumberofmenmetdailytopracticesingingtheunsettlingchorusesin Euripidessoberingdrama,alargenumberbusiedthemselvespreparingforthe largestmilitaryexpeditioninAthenshistory.Inthewinterof416415 305

temptationhadappearedtotheAthenianassemblyintheformofambassadorsfrom theSiciliancityofEgesta,anoldally.Theirrequestforassistanceagainsttheir neighborSelinusprovidedaspringboardforwarmongerslikeAlcibiades.Inawar withEgesta,SelinuscouldcountonthebackingofSyracuse,themostpowerfulcity inSicilyandaCorinthiancolony.TheexpansionofSyracusanpowerinSicily auguredwellforAthensenemies,andtheEgestansrequestpiquedtheinterestof menwhoyearnedfornewadventures.PericleshadwarnedtheAtheniansthat attemptstoexpandtheirempirewouldunderminetheirchancesofwinningthewar, butPericleswaslongdeadandhisstrategyhaddiedwithhim.WhenAlcibiades advocatedfullsupportforEgestaandNiciasarguedwithequalpassionagainst involvementinSicily,theAtheniansresolvedonapeculiarcompromise.Alcibiades wouldindeedbesentwestwithalargeforce,buthewouldbeaccompaniedbytwo otherstrategoiLamachus,anexperiencedgeneral,andNiciashimself,whose presencetheyhopedwouldserveasacheckonAlcibiadesrashness. JustabouteverythingthatcouldhavegonewrongwiththeSicilianenterprisedid. TheideathatNiciasprudencewouldcounterAlcibiadesimpulsivenaturewas singularlywrongheaded.Shortlybeforetheexpeditionwastosail,moreover,a bizarrenocturnalescapadeinAthenssparkedascandalofextraordinaryproportions thatspilledoverfromreligiontopolitics.OutsideAthenianhomesandtemples stoodreligiousimagesknownashermsstonepillarsbearingimagesofthefaceand erectphallusofthegodHermes.Theyweremeanttobringgoodluckandprotection fromdanger.Onemorningnotlongbeforetheexpeditionwastosetsail,the Atheniansawoketofindthatnearlyallthesehermshadbeenvandalized. CulturaldifferencesmakeithardforusfullytounderstandwhyAtheniansreacted tothissacrilegiousprankwithutterterrorandbecameconvincedthataplotwas afoottooverthrowthegovernment,butthisisexactlywhathappened.Thoughmany werepunished,responsibilityfortheprojecthasneverbeendetermined.Itmayhave beentheworkofoneormoreoftheorganizationsknownashetaireiai.Drinkingclubs composedofupperclassyoungmen,oftenwitholigarchicleanings,hetaireiai involvedthemselvesinavarietyofsocialandpoliticalactivities.Todemocratsthey seemedsinisterandpotentiallytreasonous. Notsurprisingly,fingerswerepointedatAlcibiades,preciselythesortofirreverent individualwhowouldsethisdrinkingcompanionsonsuchanenterprisewhether theybelongedtoahetaireiaornot.Fuelwasaddedtotheflamesbyaccusationsthat AlcibiadeshadstagedaburlesquemockingthemysteryritescelebratedatEleusis, violatingtheirsecrecybyparodyingtheminfrontoftheuninitiated.Sincehehad solidsupportamongtheadventuroussailorsboundforSicily,Alcibiadeswisely demandedthathebetriedatonce,beforethefleetleft.Insteadhisopponentswaited tobringchargesuntiltheexpeditionhadsailed.

ThefleettheAtheniansdispatchedforSicilywasentirelyoutofproportiontothe sizeorimportanceofitsintendedobjective.Itconsistedof134triremeswith130 supplyboats,atotalofover25,000men.Dozensofmerchantvesselsdecidedto accompanythenavy,hopingforprofits.Bothcitizensandforeignerscrowded 306 theshoreoglingthearmada,whichThucydidessayswasthemostexpensiveany Greekcityhadlauncheduntilthatday.Atrumpetproclaimedsilence,andaherald recitedtheprayers.Oneverydeckbothofficersandmarinesofferedlibationstothe godsinvesselsofgoldandsilver.Thecrewsraisedthepaean,andwhenthelibations werefinished,putouttosea,sailingfirstinsinglefileandthenracingoneanotheras farasAegina.FromtheretheyhastenedtoCorcyratorendezvouswiththerestof theirallies. OfthemanywhosailedforSicilyfewreturned.TheAtheniansreceivedlesssupport fromthecitiesofSicilyandsouthernItalythantheyhadexpected,andeventhe eagerEgestansturnedoutnottohavetheresourcestheyhadclaimed.Envoys dispatchedtoEgesta,itproved,hadbeendupedintobelievingthecitywasrich wheninfactitwaspoor.ThucydidestellshowthevariousEgestansreceivedthe crewsoftheAthenianshipsintheirhomes,roundingupasmanygoldandsilver cupsastheycouldfindintownandintheneighboringcitiesandpresentingthemat partiesasiftheybelongedtothehousehold: Theyallusedthesamegoblets,forthemostpart,andtheyshowedsomuchofit everywherethatitabsolutelyawedtheAtheniancrewmen,who,whentheyreturned toAthens,spreadthenewsaboutthegreatwealththeyhadseen.Thosewhohad beendeceivedinturnmisledothers,andtheywereallheldresponsiblebythetroops whenwordgotoutthatEgestadidnothaveanymoney. (ThePeloponnesianWar6.46;Blanco1998) Thethreegenerals,moreover,wereunabletoagreeonaplanofaction.Nicias wantedtoheadforSelinus,settleitsquarrelwithEgesta,andthenconsiderreturning home.AlcibiadespreferredtobuildupallianceswithotherSiciliancities.Lamachus planwasprobablythebestanimmediateattackonSyracusebeforethecitycould fullymobilizeitselfandrecoverfromitsterrorattheAtheniansarrivalontheisland. Lackingsupportforhisgoodproposal,LamachusthrewhisbackingtoAlcibiades plan.Thegeneralsthenfritteredawaynearlyayearinminorenterprises,but AlcibiadesdidnotspendmuchofthisyearinSicily.Afterhisdeparturefrom Athens,hisenemieshadlodgedformalchargesagainsthimforsacrilege,andoneof Athenstwoofficialstatetriremes,theSalaminia,wasdispatchedtoSicilytobring himhome.PermittedtofollowtheSalaminiainhisownship,Alcibiadesescapedto ThuriiandthencetothePeloponnesus,wherehedefectedtoSpartaandsetabout

advisingAthensoldenemyofthebestwaystoundermineit.Wheninthewinterof 415414envoysfromSyracuseandCorinthcametoseekSpartanaidfortheSicilian campaign,AlcibiadeswarnedtheSpartansthattheAthenianswereplanningto conquerSicilyandItaly,attackCarthage,andthengoafterthePeloponnesus.The dispatchofaSpartangeneraltoSicily,hesuggested,mightbenecessaryifthe SpartanswantedtopreventanAtheniantakeoveroftheentireGreekworld. MeanwhileNiciasandLamachushadoccupiedtheplateauknownasEpipolaewest ofSyracuseandhadbegunbuildinganorthsouthwallwiththeideainmindof blockadingthecity.InthefightingthatensuedwiththeresistingSyra 307 Figure8.5.DiagramofSyracuseandEpipolae. cusans,however,Lamachuswaskilled,leavingNiciasinsolecommand.Niciasat firsthandledthesituationwell,successfullymovingtheAthenianfleetinto Syracusesharborandcreatingarealpossibilityofblockadingthecity,butthe SpartansweredeterminedtopreventanAtheniantakeoverofSicily.Thoughthe numbersofthefullbloodedSpartiatecastehaddropped,talentwasnotlacking,and thereinforcementsthatarrivedinSyracusewereledbyGylippus,agifted commanderfromthenewclassknownasmothakessometimestheoffspringofa Spartanfatherandhelotmother,sometimesthesonsofimpoverishedSpartans 308 whonolongerhadthemeanstocontributetothecommonmealsandthusmaintain theirstatusinthecorpsofequals.ThearrivalofGylippuswithreinforcements changedthesituationdramatically.GylippusscaledtheEpipolaeheightsviaapass thattheAthenianshadcarelesslyleftunguardedthesamepasstheythemselveshad usedafewmonthsbefore.TheSyracusans,moreover,builtacounterwallthat destroyedAthenianchancesforablockade. NiciaswasnowsufferingacutelyfromkidneydiseaseandaskedtheAtheniansto recallhim.Theyrefused.Convincedthesituationwashopeless,hetriedtodissuade themfromcontinuingtheireffortsinSicilybyalonglettertotheassembly maintainingthatonlyaforceaslargeastheoriginalexpeditioncouldhaveany chanceofsuccess.Tohishorror,theAthenianssentDemosthenesoutattheheadof theproposedreinforcements.Whenhearrivedwiththesecondfleetandpromptly sufferedaseriousreverseontheEpipolaeheights,Demosthenesadvocated immediatewithdrawal.Afraidtomovewithoutordersfromtheassembly,Niciasat firstinsistedonremaining.WhenherealizedthatGylippushadgatheredstill additionalforcesfromthroughoutSicilyandhadalsoreceivedfurther

reinforcementsfromthePeloponnesus,hechangedhismind.Atthatpoint,however, religiousanxietyoncemoreintrudedintothesecularsphere.Wheneverythingwas readyfortheAtheniansdeparture,Thucydidesrelated, andjustastheywereabouttosail,therewasaneclipseofthemoon,which happenedtobefull.TheeventmademostoftheAtheniansfeeluneasy,andthey urgedtheirgeneralstostay;andNicias,whowastooinclinedtobelieveinthe interpretationofomensandthatsortofthing,refusedeventodiscussamoveuntil aftertheyhadstayedforthreetimesninedays,astheirseersdecreed.Thiswasthe reasontheAtheniansstayedonafteralltheirdelays! (ThePeloponnesianWar7.50;Blanco1998) OnlearningthattheAthenianshadbeenplanningtoleave,theSyracusansattacked theAthenianfleetandblockedtheexitfromtheharbor.Afiercebattleensued,with sometwohundredshipsrammedtogetherinatightspace.Thedinmadeit impossibletohearthecallsofthecoxswains. Unabletomaketheirescapebysea,theAtheniansresolvedtodepartoverland, abandoningtheirsickandwounded.About40,000mensetoutonthedismaltrek, theSyracusanshotontheirheels.NiciasandDemosthenesbecameseparated;the SyracusanscaughtupfirstwithDemosthenes,whosurrenderedinthehopeof savinghissoldierslives.TheSyracusansthenovertookNiciasarmy. Document8.1Thucydidesisathisnarrativebestinportrayingthefinalcollapseof theAthenianeffortinSicily. TheAthenianspushedontotheAssinarusriver,allthewhilebeingdevastatedby thespears,arrowsandstonescomingfromeverywhereandbythehordesofcavalry andothertroops.Theythoughtthatiftheycouldjustget 309 acrosstheriver,thingswouldbealittleeasierforthem.Theyweredesperatetostop thepain,todrinksomewater.Whentheygottotheriver,theybrokeranksandran intoit,everymanstrugglingtomakethebrutalcrossingfirstastheenemybore down.Driventocrossalltogether,theyfellontooneanotherandtrampledeach otherdown.Somewerekilledimmediatelybytheirownspears;othersgottangled upintheirequipmentandwitheachotherandsankintotheriver.Syracusans positionedontheotherbank,whichwassteep,hurleddownspearsattheAthenians, mostofwhomwerejumbledtogetherravenouslydrinkingfromthenearlydry riverbed.ThePeloponnesianswentdownintotheriverafterthemanddidmostof thekillingthere;andthoughitquicklybecamefouled,theAtheniansnonetheless foughtamongthemselvestogulpthemuddywaterclottedwithblood.

Finally,withdeadbodiesheapedatopeachotherintheriverbed,andthearmy decimated,someintheriverandotherssuchasgotacrossbythecavalry,Nicias surrenderedhimselftoGylippus,trustinghimmorethantheSyracusans.Hetold GylippusandtheSpartanstodowithhimwhattheywanted,buttostop slaughteringhismen.Afterthis,Gylippusorderedhistroopstotakeprisoners, whereuponthesurvivingmenwerebroughtinalive,exceptforthelargenumber whohadbeenhiddenbyindividualSyracusansoldiers.Theyalsosentasearchparty outafterthethreehundredwhohadbrokenthroughthesentriesbynightand capturedthem....Alargenumber,ofcourse,werekilled,fortherewasagreat slaughterattheriver,greaterthananywhichoccurredinthewholewar. (ThePeloponnesianWar7.8485;translatedbyWalterBlanco,inWalterBlancoand JenniferRoberts,eds.,Thucydides:ThePeloponnesianWar.NewYork:W.W.Norton, 1998. ThetriumphantSyracusanscelebratedtheirvictorybypresentingApollowithlavish offeringsatDelphi.TheAthenians,ontheotherhand,hadlosttensofthousandsof menandaccomplishednothing.Forthem,theoutcomeofthecampaignwasso horrificthattheyatfirstrefusedtobelievetheappallingnews.Plutarchclaimsthat wordofthedisasterfirstreachedAthensbywayofahaplessmanwhohadreported itmatteroffactlytoabarberinPiraeusasifitwerecommonknowlege:theagitated barberpromptlyranthe5milestoAthens,whereherepeatedthetale.Hewasinthe veryprocessofbeingtorturedasatroublemakerwhenmessengersarrivedto confirmtheastonishingstory.AsThucydideswaslatertowrite,Allwaslost.Ships. Men.Everything(7.87). ThewarpartyatAthenshadnotbeencrazytobelievetheAthenianscouldbring Sicilyundertheircontrol.Withbettermanagement,thecampaignmighthave succeeded.ButtheAtheniansambivalenceabouttheprojectandaboutindividual leadersprovedfatal.Thoughthemutilationofthehermscouldnothavebeen predicted,themistrustinspiredbyAlcibiades.wellknownirreverenceand 310 recklessnesswasaterribleandforeseeableliabilitytothewarparty.Nicias timiditywasinlargepartafeatureofhispersonality,andhebearsagreatdealof responsibilityfortheexpeditionsmiserableend.Hisfearofactingwithout authorizationfromtheassembly,however,wasexacerbatedbytheAthenians impeachmentofseveralunsuccessfulgeneralsinthe420sthethreegeneralswho hadfailedinthefirstexpeditiontoSicily,andthehistorianThucydideshimself. AlthoughthebadjudgmentshownbyNiciashadlittletodowiththeformof governmentinoperationatAthens,aristocratswhohadneverlikeddemocracy

foundinthefailureoftheSicilianinvasionanopeningfortheiroligarchicprograms, andantidemocraticagitationwasnotlongingettingofftheground. THEWARINTHEAEGEANANDTHEOLIGARCHICCOUPATATHENS(413 411BC) BytheirdefeatatSyracusetheAtheniansstunnedtheGreekworldasmuchasthey hadbytheirvictoryatMarathon.Themythofnavalsuperioritythathadheldthe DelianLeaguetogetherwasshattered.Athensfightingforcewasvastlysmallerthan ithadbeenin431.Moneywasinshortsupply;previouslyonetrierarchhadbeen appointedforeachship,butsoonafterthedisasterinSicilytheAtheniansintroduced thesyntrierarchy,allowingtwomentosharetheexpense.ForAtheniansubjects, suddenlyrevoltbecamenotmerelyanoptionbutapowerfultemptation.Mightnot makingfriendswithSpartawhenitseemedpoisedonthebrinkofvictoryprove moreprudentthanwaitingforeventstotaketheircourse?Alcibiadescruisedthe seasonSpartasbehalf,fomentingrebellionwhereverhecould.MeanwhileinAttica sometwentythousandslavesdesertedtotheSpartankingAgis,whoatAlcibiades instigationhadestablishedhimselfinafortatDeceleainnortheastAttica.The disappearanceoftheslavesfromtheminespreventedthecontinuedtappingofthe silverveins,andthestrengthoftheencampmentatDeceleainterferedgravelywith Athenianagriculture.NowtheSpartanscouldravageAtticaallyear,killingfarm animalsastheywentandkeepingAthensinaperpetualstateofsiege.Seeingsuccess wellwithintheirgrasp,theinvigoratedSpartanssetaboutbuildinganewnavalforce ofahundredtriremesandbegannegotiatingforPersiansupport. Incredibly,ittookSpartaeightyearstobringAthenstoitskneeseightyearsduring whichtheAthenians,crippledbydevastatinglossesinSicily,survivedthelossofthe hugeislandofEuboeaofftheAtticacoastandanoligarchiccoupinthecity.The historyoftheseeightyearsiscrowdedwithshiftingalliances,plotsandcounterplots, murdersandlies.WithinAthens,linesbetweendemocratsandoligarchsappear blurredaskeyplayersinthepoliticalarenamovebackandforthbetweentheparties, andanewcreatureappears,themoderateapoliticianwhosemotivesforkeeping onefootineachcampareoftenimpossibletodetermine:sincerepatriotismbecomes increasinglydifficulttodistinguishfromunprincipledtimeserving.Spartansare dividedastohowseemlyitmightbetobartertheIoniansfreedominexchangefor Persiangold.Persianscannotdecide 311 whichside,ifany,tosupport.Alcibiadesremainsawildcard,cagilyshiftingposition tosuittherapidlyalteringinternationalsituationandtokeephimselfsafefromthe wrathofAgis,whosewifeheappearstohaveseducedinamomentofimprudence. Thefortunesofbattleswingwildlybackandforth.In413Athensseemedtobe

finished;by410theSpartanssueforpeace.Athenswinsastunningvictoryin406 onlytolosethewarby404(reallyby405). CivilStrifeinAthens TheburstofPeloponnesianenergythateruptedinthewakeofAthensdefeatin Sicilywasshortlived.TheSpartanssoonrevertedtotheirnaturalsluggishness.Their lukewarmeffortswouldhavecometolittlehaditnotbeenforthedynamicenergyof AlcibiadesandforthetensionsthateruptedinAthens,settingthehopliteinfantry andthearistocraticeliteagainstthetheteswhomannedthefleet. FornearlyacenturyaftertheclashbetweenCleisthenesandIsagoras,Athenshad beenfreefromthedangerofcivilwar.ThedebacleinSicily,however,gavean openingtowouldbeoligarchswhowantedtoreconstitutethegovernmentonless democraticlines.Thefirstrumblingsofdiscontentweremild,thoughominous:in 413BCtheAtheniansplaceddecisionmakinginthehandsoftenoldermencalled probouloi.Despitetheundemocraticnatureofsuchaboard,however,theindividual probouloiweremenofimpeccabledemocraticcredentials;onewastheplaywright Sophocles.TheAtheniansnowtappedtheemergencyreservefundstheyhadbeen storingontheAcropolissincethebeginningofthewarandusedittorebuildthe fleetandtrainnewcrews.Withthenewshipstheywereabletopreventthesecession ofChiosfromtheempireandwinafewvictoriesonthecoastofAsiaMinor. Unrestcontinued,however,asmenofoligarchicinclinationsplayedonthe Atheniansanxietiesaboutthefailureoftheirdemocraticleaderstobringthewartoa successfulconclusion.ThemachinationsofAlcibiadesprovidedacatalystforamore substantialchangeinthegovernment.Alcibiadeshadrenderedsignalserviceto SpartainencouragingrebellionsinanumberofcitiesincludingErythrae,Rhodes, Ephesus,Chios,andMiletus.HavingfallenfoulofAgis,howeverwhetherbecause oftheallegedaffairwithhiswifeorforsomeotherreasonhehadbeguntoplota returntoAthens.TheentryofPersiaintotheequationprovidedthespringboardhe needed.IntheyearsthatfollowedtheAtheniandefeatinSicily,Persianpolicy towardGreecewasdeterminednotprimarilybytheking,DariusII,butbythe coastalsatrapsPharnabazus(thesatrapofDascylium)inthenorth,and Tissaphernes(thesatrapofSardis)inthesouth. TissaphernesinparticularhadalivelyinterestinGreekaffairs,andindeedinGreek cultureasawhole.AtfirstheleanedtowardSparta,andinfactnegotiatedaseriesof treatieswithSpartainwhichtheSpartans,uncomfortablybutunmistakably,agreed toselloutthefreedomoftheGreekcitiesofIoniainexchangeforPersiangold.Thus diedtheSpartansclaimtobetheliberatorsofGreece.SparkingPersiasinterest (howevervacillating)intheircausewasprettymuchSpartasonlyachievement duringtheseyears,andeventhistheSpartansowedingood

312 Figure8.6.ThisGreeklikecoinstruckbyTissaphernesrevealshisdesiretobe identifiedwithGreekculture. parttoAlcibiades.Notlongafterward,however,AlcibiadespersuadedTissaphernes thatitmightbebetterforPersiatoletAthensandSpartaweareachotherdown. WhenTissaphernessupportfortheSpartancausebegantowaver,Alcibiadessent wordtoAthensthathehaditinhispowertobringthePersiansintothewaronthe Atheniansidebutthattheirsupportwouldbecontingentonreplacingthe democracywithanoligarchy.Hissupport,ofcourse,wouldbecontingentonhis recall. ThatAlcibiadesreallybelievedhecouldpersuadeTissaphernestopourmoneyinto theAtheniantreasuryisunlikely,thoughnotimpossible.Intheevent,hecouldnt, butbythetimeitbecameclearthatthePersiansupporthehadpromisedwas illusory,thewheelshadbeensetinmotionforachangeingovernmentand Alcibiadesreturn.Itisanindexofhowdeeplythelongwarhadshakenthe Atheniansthatin411theassembly,somemembersintimidatedandothersjust demoralized,voteditselfoutofexistenceandplacedthesafetyofthestateinthe handsofanew,provisionalCounciloffourhundred,which,itwasunderstood, wouldsoongivewaytoalargerbodyoffivethousand.Despitethewaythewarhad underminedconfidenceinthedemocraticgovernment,thisvotewasmadepossible onlybytheabsenceofthefleet,basednowatSamos;forsailors,whoweregenerally poormen,couldbecountedontoopposeanyreformsthathadtheeffectoflimiting thefranchisetopropertyowners. ExperimentsinOligarchy Neitherofthereformersnotionswasentirelynew.Solonwasbelievedbymany peopletohavecreatedaCounciloffourhundredcertainlysuchabodydatedfrom approximatelyhistimeandthefivethousandwerethoughttocorrespondtothe hopliteclass.Sailorswererighttobealarmedbysuchprojects.Whatwasreallyat issueherewasthedisfranchisementofthelowestclassintheSoloniccensus,the thetes.ThenotionofhoplitedemocracyhadbeenCimonsideal,andhewasnot alone.FromthismomentmanyAtheniansofantidemocratictendenciesbeganto makeuseofanewwatchword,theancestralconstitution,that 313 is,ademocracylimitedtolandowners,whichtheyinsistedwasmoretraditionally Athenianthantheupstartdemocracythatincludedthepoormenwhoservedas

rowersinthefleet.Thisissue,whichhadseemedtobesettledin508with CleisthenesvictoryoverIsagoras,wasnowonceagainonthefloor. Aswasoftenthecaseinantiquity,Athenianrevolutionariescasttheirprogramasa returntoanearliertime.Theprobouloihadbeenoldermen;thetwowhoseidentities areknowntouswerePericlesassociateHagnon,whowasinhis50s,andthe playwrightSophocles,whowasover80.Ifoldmenmadegoodadvisers,deadmen wereevenbetter;andsothosediscontentwithdemocracycalledfrequentlyonthe namesofSolon,Draco,andCleisthenes,claimingtoberestoringamoreauthentic Atheniangovernmentthantheonethathadoperatedduringtheirownlifetimes. Undertheoligarchyof411,consequently,theclockwasturnedbackandpaywas abolishedformoststateoffices.Thoughthisdidservethepurposeofconcentrating moneyonthewareffort,italsoeffectivelylimitedparticipationingovernmentto thosewhocouldaffordtospendtimeinnonremuneratedlabor.Carryingarmsand flankedbyanadditional120men,theFourHundredalsoenteredtheBouleuterion wherethecouncilmet,paidthecouncilorsthebalanceofwhatwasowingtothem, anddismissedthem.Theirowndespoticrulewasalsomadeeasierbytheominous suspensionofthegrapheparanomon,theindictmentforillegalproposals. TherewerenowtwoAtheniangovernmentstheoligarchyoftheFourHundredin thecityandthedemocraticfleetstationedatSamos,whichfunctionedasthe assembly.ConsideringthemselvestherealgovernmentofAthens,thesailorson Samosdeposedtheincumbentgeneralsandappointednewones,includingthe trierarchThrasybulus,achampionofthedemocracy.Thosewhohadalways suspectedAlcibiadesofdesignsonthedemocraticconstitutionprovedtohavemuch justiceontheirside.Notonlyhadhesuggestedconstitutionalinnovationdirectly; indirectlyhehadalsobroughtitaboutbyfomentingrebellionsintheeastthatkept thedemocraticfleetawayfromAthens.Hissupport,however,didnotcomeentirely fromantidemocraticquarters.Thrasybuluswasjustoneofthedemocratswho backedhim,andsoonafterhisarrivalonSamosAlcibiadestoowaselectedgeneral. BackinAthenstheFourHundredwereunderminedbytwopowerfuldivisionsin theircamp.Somewantedtoprosecutethewarvigorously,butotherswithdifferent plansprevailedandsentanembassytoSpartaseekingpeaceatanyprice.In addition,somefullyexpectedtheimplementationofthegovernmentoftheFive Thousandwhileothersunderstoodthatitwasnothingbutafictioncalculatedto bringabouttheabdicationoftheassembly.Meanwhilerumorscirculatedamongthe fleetatSamosthattheFourHundredwereexercisingareignofterror,thatnowifeor childwassafefromtheiroutrage.Atthisjuncture,itappears,Alcibiadesroseto statesmanlikeheightsanddissuadedthefurioussailorsfromsailingtoAthensto overthrowtheFourHundred.Theirdeparturewouldhavelefttheeastatthemercy ofAthensmanyenemies,andtheirinterventionatAthensprovedunnecessary,as theFourHundredwereselfdestructinganyway.

314 ThebeliefthatAthensforeignaffairswoulddobetterunderoligarchicguidance sufferedserioussetbackswhenthepeacewithSpartafailedtomaterializeand EuboeasuccessfullyrevoltedfromtheAthenianempire.ThehopliteswhomtheFour HundredhadsettofortifyingthepromontoryofEetioniaatPiraeusmutinied,and theFiveThousandwerepromptlyinstalled.TheythenrecalledAthensexiles, includingAlcibiades,andgovernedAthensforeightmonths,fromSeptember411to June410.Notagreatdealisknownabouttheirgovernment,thoughtheyseemto havelimitedthefranchisetothehopliteclass(cuttingoutthetheteswhomannedthe triremes).Thucydides,whowasfrequentlyimpatientwithdemocracy,praisedthe governmentoftheFiveThousandasalaudableblendingofdemocraticand oligarchicelements. ThevigortheAtheniansshowedinrebuildingtheirfleetandcarryingonthewar despiteacutedomesticconflictwasremarkable.AfteravictoryatCynossema,the Athenians,ledbyAlcibiades,scoredastillmorestrikingoneatCyzicus,wherethe Spartanslosttheiradmiralinchief,Mindarus.Thebattleismemorableforthe laconicdispatchtheAtheniansinterceptedonitswaytoSpartaafterward:Ships lost;Mindarusdead;menstarving;cantfigureoutwhattodo.(Itisalsomemorable asthefirstmajorencounterofthewarnotdescribedbyThucydides:Thucydides accountbreaksoffshortlyafterCynossema.Fromthispointontheprincipalsources areXenophonandDiodorus.)Thevictoriesintheeasthadbeenwonbythe cooperationoftheFiveThousandinAthensandthefleetatSamos,andinJunethe democracywasformallyrestoredatAthens.AnumberoftheleadersoftheFive Thousandremainedpowerfulunderthedemocracy.AmongthesewasHagnonsson Theramenes,whoseemedtofindaplaceforhimselfinanygroup.Animosityand suspicionwerenotentirelygone,however,andasoneofitsfirstofficialactsthe restoreddemocracyadministeredaloyaltyoath,requiringeachcitizentoswear:I willdomybesttokillbywordandbydeed,bymyvoteandbymyhand,anyone whooverthrowstheAtheniandemocracy,holdsofficeunderanundemocratic regime,orseekstoestablishatyrannyeitherforhimselforforsomeoneelse.If anyoneelsekillssuchaperson,Iwillconsiderhimcleanintheeyesofgodsand spirits(Andocides,OntheMysteries,97). TheSpartanssoughtpeacefromtherestoreddemocracy,butonlyonthebasisofthe statusquo.ThattheAthenianshadregainedtheirconfidenceisindexedbytheir refusal.InthisdecisionCleophonplayedalargepart.Agoodfinancialplanner,he playedakeyroleinframingpolicyatthistimeandwasresponsibleforthe conversionoftemplepropertiesintomoney,whichwasdistributedtothemost needyintheamountoftwoobolsaday.Inretrospect,manyAtheniansmusthave regrettedtheirrejectionoftheSpartanoffer,butatthetimeitdidlookasifthey mightwinbacktheirlostpossessions.

TheLastYearsofWar(407404BC) In407,however,theunionoftwopowerfulmendramaticallyalteredthesituationin theAegean.AlcibiadeswasnottheonlyGreekwithcharm.Thenewchiefadmiralof theSpartannavy,Lysander,wasamothaxlikeGylippus,butfarmore 315 ambitious.Hehadmanagedtowintheheart(andpresumablythebodyaswell)of youngAgesilaus,halfbrothertoAgis.Thisremarkablecouppresagedanillustrious future,andindeedtherewererumorsthatLysanderwasplottingtomakethe Spartanmonarchyelective.Darius,meanwhile,recalledthetwocoastalsatrapsand replacedthemwithhissonCyrus,grantinghimlargepowerstohelpSpartaendthe war.Thoughnottheelderson,CyrushopedtobecomekingofPersia,andhe acceptedhisnewresponsibilitieswithenthusiasm.LysanderandCyrusshareda profoundlyambitioustemperament,andthetwobecamefastfriends.Ultimately, theirassociationspelleddoomforAthens. In407Alcibiades,havingraisedahundredtalentsforAthensbylootingthecoastof Caria,decideditmightfinallybesafetoreturnhome.Itwasanextraordinary circumstanceamanwithsomanyfriendsthathewasrepeatedlyelectedtothe boardofgeneralsbutwithsomanyenemiesthathefearedtosetfootonAtticsoil. EvenafterhisshiphadsailedintoPiraeusinJune,hestoodmotionlessonthedeck surveyingthehugecrowdthathadassembledontheshoreuntilhesawapartyof hisfriendswaitingtoescorthim.Onlythendidhedisembark.Shortlyafterward,in thehopesofboostingtheAtheniansspiritswhileatthesametimedispellingthe suspicionsofimpietythatstillattachedtohim,heledthestateprocessiontoEleusis, daringtogobyland:sincetheoccupationofDeceleatheAthenianshadnervously conductedtheprocessionbysea.Inautumnhesailedeastincommandofone hundredships,investedwithfullpowerstodirectthewarwithSparta. Hisascendancy,however,wasremarkablybrief.Withinamatterofmonths,the AthenianslosttwentytwoshipstoLysanderatanavalengagementoffNotium, whereAlcibiadeshadlefthispersonalpilotAntiochusinchargewithordersunder nocircumstancestoengagetheSpartans.Antiochus,afriendofAlcibiades,probably hadnobusinessinapositionofsuchauthority,sincehewasnotatrierarch,and Alcibiadeshadnotacquittedhimselfwell;butthestrengthoftheAthenianreaction atteststothecontinuingagitationofhisenemies.AlcibiadescareeratAthenswas finished.Itiscertainthathewasnotreelectedtothestrategia,anditislikelythathe wasactuallydeposedbeforehistermwasout.Rumorscirculatedthathehad fortifiedacastleintheGallipolipeninsulaasarefugeincaseofemergency.Nowthat theemergencyhadmaterialized,hepromptlywithdrewtothisveryfortress.He neversawAthensagain.

ThatspringtheAtheniansofferedfreedomtoslaveswhowouldjointhenavythat wasabouttosetoutfortheareaofLesbos.Theretheyscoredanimpressivevictory inahugenavalbattleofftheArginusaeislands,sinkingfullyseventyfive Peloponnesianships.SometwentythousandGreekslosttheirlives.Amongthese wastheSpartanschiefadmiralCallicratidas,anothermothaxwhohadtakenover fromLysander,sincetheannualofficewasnonrenewable.Anobleandgenerous youngpatriot,CallicratidasrepresentedthebestelementsinSpartathosewillingto risktheirlivestopreventtheimperialistAtheniansfromtyrannizingovertheweak, andcommittedtodoingitwithoutPersianhelpwhereLysanderrepresentedthe worst.Callicratidasalwaysfoughtbravelydespitehisdislikeof 316 Spartasgrowingimperialism,andheretainedtheloyaltyofhismeninthefaceof Lysandersconstantmachinationsagainsthim.Hislossbodedillforthefutureofthe Greekworld. Theaftermathofthebattlewitnessedabizarrefrenzyofselfdestruction.Thoughthe AthenianswereheartenedbytheirvictoryatArginusae,theyknewthattheir admiralCononandhisfleetwereblockadedatMytilene.WhiletheAthenian strategoiweredebatingwhethertosetaboutretrievingthesailorsinthewaterorto sailtoMytilenetorescueCononsforce,asuddenstormcameupthatmaderescue impossible.WhennewsofthecasualtiesreachedAthens,peoplebegananxiouslyto castblameononeanother.ThegeneralsblamedthetrierarchsTheramenesand Thrasybulus,andthetrierarchsblamedthegenerals.Whetherthemeninthewater weredeadoraliveisuncertain,butforGreekstherecoveryevenofbodieswas important,sincethesoulsofthoseleftunburiedwouldwandereternallyinHades, unabletofindarestingplace.Theeightgeneralsincommandweresummonedhome fortrial,andsixchosetoreturn.Inviolationofcustomaryprocedureandoverthe protestsofthephilosopherSocrates,whoseturnithappenedtobetochairthe assemblymeetingthatdaythegeneralsweretriedonasingleslate,condemned,and executed.Ironically,afterthedeathofhislegitimatesons,Pericleshadimploredthe AthenianstoconfercitizenshiponhissonsbyAspasia,andPericlestheYoungerwas amongthegeneralsexecuted. TheFinalBattle Again,theSpartansofferedpeaceonthebasisofthestatusquo(thoughtheywere willingtoevacuateDecelea);again,theAtheniansfollowedCleophonsadviceand declined.Time,however,wasrunningout,aswasthepooloftalentedcommanders andofmoney.ItseemedthatthenextmajorbattlewouldbeAthenslaststand,and infactitwas.Lateinthesummerof405Lysander,makinggooduseofthesubsidies hehadobtainedfromhisfriendCyrus,stormedthecityofLampsacusinthe

Hellespontwithafleetofsometwohundredshipsandestablishedabasethere.In AugusttheAtheniangeneralsCononandPhiloclesstationedtheirfleet2milesacross thechannelatAegospotami.Alcibiades,seeingthattheAthenianspositionwas highlyvulnerable,descendedfromhisfortressandadvisedthemtomove,butthey disregardedhiscautions.Afterthefleetshadbeeninthesepositionsforfivedays, LysandergavethesignalforattackwhentheAtheniancrewshadgoneashoreto gatherprovisions.TheSpartanscaptured171ships,andtheirinfantryoverwhelmed thecamp.Understandably,theAthenianscarelessnessgaverisetorumorsof treachery.OnlyahandfulofAthenianvesselsescaped,oneofthemtheofficialstate triremetheParalus,anothercommandedbyConon.Rememberingthefateofthe victorsofArginusae,ConontookrefugeinCyprusanddidnotreturntoAthensuntil hehadengineeredavictoryovertheSpartansatCnidusin394,tenyearsafterthe endofthewar. 317 Lysanderthencalledameetingofthealliestosolicittheirthoughtsabouttheproper treatmentoftheprisoners.ThespeechesmadeabouttheAthenians,Xenophon reports,weremanyandbitter, bothwithregardtoallthecrimestheyhadcommittedinthepastandaboutthe decreewhichtheyhadpassedtotheeffectthat,iftheywonthenavalaction,they couldcutofftherighthandofeverymantakenalive;therewasalsothefactthat, aftercapturingtwotriremes,onefromCorinthandonefromAndros,theyhad throwneverymaninthecrewsoverboard.ItwasPhilocles,theAtheniangeneral, whohadallthesemenkilled.Manyothersuchstoriesweretold,andintheendit wasdecidedthatalltheprisonerswhowereAthenianshouldbeputtodeathwith theoneexceptionofAdimantus.HehadbeentheonlymanintheAssemblywho opposedthedecreeforcuttingoffthehandsofprisoners.Hewasalso,itshouldbe said,accusedbysomepeopleofhavingbetrayedthefleet.AsforPhilocles,whohad throwntheAndriansandCorinthiansoverboard,Lysanderfirstaskedhimthis question:Whatdoyoudeserveforhavingbeenthefirsttoactlikeacriminaltoward yourfellowGreeks?Hethenhadhisthroatcut. (Hellenica2.1.3132;Warner1979) TheSpartanvictoryatAegospotamihadcutoffAthensfromitsprincipalsourceof grain;tomakesuretherewouldbenoslipups,Lysanderalsodecreeddeathasthe penaltyforanyonecaughtbringinggraintoAthens.Lysanderknewthatthewarwas nowover,andtheAthenianswouldknowitsoonenough,fortheParaluswasen routetoPiraeuswiththedismaltidings.Theshiparrivedatnight,andasthenews wasreported,Xenophonrelates,onemanpasseditontoanother,andasoundof wailingaroseandextendedfirstfromPiraeus,thenalongtheLongWallsuntilit

reachedthecity.Thatnightnooneslept.Theymournedforthelost,butmorestillfor theirownfate(2.2.1;Warner).LateinthefallLysandersailedvictoriousforPiraeus. AlongthewayheacceptedthesurrenderofAthensformeralliesandreplacedtheir democracieswitholigarchicgovernmentsbeholdentoSparta.Healsoensuredstill furtherstressontheAtheniansdwindlingfoodsupplybyencouragingAthenian garrisonstoreturnhome.SamospersistedinitsloyaltytoAthens,inrecognitionof whichtheAtheniansuncharacteristicallygrantedtheSamianscitizenship.Agis, whoseoccupationofDeceleahadplayeditsdesiredpartinthestarvationofthecity, moveddowntothewallsofAthens,wherehewasjoinedbyPausanias,hiscoking. Miserableandterrified,theAthenianswereatalossforwhattodo.Theycouldsee nofutureforthemselves,Xenophonwrote,excepttosufferwhattheyhadmade otherssuffer,peopleofsmallstateswhomtheyhadinjurednotinretaliationfor anythingtheyhaddonebutoutofthearroganceofpowerandfornoreasonexcept thattheywereintheSpartanalliance(2.2.10). ThemutabilityoffortunehadbeenacommonplaceinGreekliterature,andthe Atheniansgatheredinthetheaterin415hadbeengiventheopportunityto contemplatethecrueltyofwarschancesinEuripidesTrojanWomen.Ofthosewho prosper,theTrojanqueenHecubahadsuggested,considernooneblestuntilhes dead(509510).ThisnotionsoreminiscentofSolonswarningtoCroesus 318 inHerodotuscautionarytalewasdevelopedlaterintheplay,asHecubaunderlines thefoolishnessofthosewhobelieveprosperityissecure: likesomeonewhosgonemad,inchangingmoodsfortuneleapswildly,nowthis way,nowthat:nobodyeverprospersallthetime. (TrojanWomen12041206) Intheend,Athenswasspared.TheThebans,Corinthians,andotherSpartanallies advocateddoingtoAthenspreciselywhathadbeendonetoMeloskillingallthe adultmenandsellingallthewomenandchildrenintoslavery.TheSpartans declined,pleadingAthensnobleservicetoGreeceduringthePersianwars.The brutalityofLysanderstemperamentmakesitmorelikelythattherealmotivewas fearofthepowervacuumintowhichCorinthormorelikelyThebescouldbe countedontorush. TheAtheniansfirstofferstoSpartainvolvedjoiningthePeloponnesianLeagueif onlytheycouldkeeptheLongWallsandPiraeus,andonthemotionofCleophona decreewaspassedforbiddinganyonetosomuchasproposeagreeingtodismantle thewalls.Earlyinthespring,howeverbywhichtimemanyhaddiedofstarvation andCleophonhadbeenexecutedonatrumpedupchargebroughtbyoligarchsthe

AtheniansagreedtoatreatynegotiatedbyTheramenesontheSpartansterms: AthenswouldnotonlybecomeSpartasallybutwouldagreetothedestructionof theLongWallsandthefortificationsofPiraeusandwouldsurrenderallbutadozen ships.Exileswouldalsoberecalled;thesewerelargelymenofoligarchicsympathies. Thewallswerepulleddown,Xenophonsays,tothemerryaccompanimentofflutes, foritwasthoughtthatthisdaywasthebeginningoffreedomforGreece(2.2.23; Warner).TheSpartansactions,however,presagedillforfreedom.Thewillingnessto sellouttheIonianstoPersiaandtheestablishmentofproSpartanoligarchiesincities formerlyintheAthenianempirewerebadsigns,andworsewastocome. FALLOUTFROMTHELONGWAR Aswehaveseen,itsometimeshappenedthatmenwhodidnotbelongtothe entrenchedaristocracybecamewealthythroughindustryCleon,forexample,whose familyownedatannery.Itwasalsotrue,however,thatthetendencytokeeplandin thefamilyconstrictedsocialmobilityinGreece,limitingopportunitiesforimproving oneslotinlife.Thefrustrationsofthepoorresultedinfrequentstasis,withthepoor likelytofavordemocracyandthericholigarchy,althoughtherewerealwayssome aristocratsamongthepartisansofdemocracy,menlikePericlesandCleisthenesat Athens.ThenaturaldispositionofGreekcitystatestofactionalismandcivilstrife hadbeenintensifiedduringthewar.Predictably,hisinterestinhumannatureand thedrivetopowerfocusedThucydidesinterestonthisdevelopment,whichhe encapsulatedinhisdescriptionofeventsoccurringearlyinthewar. 319 Document8.2InoneofthemostmemorablepassagesinhisHistory,Thucydides tooktheoccasionofthebloodyeventsatCorcyrainthe420stocommentontheway thethreedecadesofwarintensifiedconflictwithinthepolis. Later,virtuallyallofGreecewasinafrenzy,withdissensioneverywhere,andthe leadersofthepeopletryingtobringintheAthenians,andtheoligarchs,the Spartans.Inpeacetime,therewouldhavebeenneitherpretextnorinclinationfor invitingtheirintervention;butinwar,wherealliancesareatoneandthesametimea waytohurtyourenemiesandgainsomethingforyourself,inducementscameeasily tothosewhowantedradicalchange.Eventsstruckthesestrifetorncitiesasthey alwaysdoandalwayswillforsolongashumannatureremainsthesame,hardand fastwithmoreorlessviolence,quicklychangingshapeaschangekeepspacewith happenstance.Intimesofpeaceandprosperity,bothcitiesandindividualscanhave loftyidealsbecausetheyhavenotfallenbeforetheforceofoverwhelmingnecessity. War,whichrobstheeaseofeveryday,isaharshteacherandabsorbsmostpeoples passionsinthehereandnow.

Thecauseofallthiswaspowerpursuedforthesakeofgreedandpersonalambition, whichledinturntotheentrenchmentofazealouspartisanship.Theleadershipin thecitiesonbothsidesadvancedhighsoundingphraseslikeTheequalityoffree menbeforethelaw,orAprudentaristocracy,butwhileservingthepublicinterest intheirspeeches,theycreatedaspoilssystem.Strugglingwithoneanotherfor supremacyineverywaytheycould,theykeptcommittingthemosthorriblecrimes andescalatedtoevergreaterrevenges,nevertopromotejusticeandthebestinterests ofthecity,butconstantlysettingthelimitatwhateverbestpleasedeachsideatany givenmomenttheywerealwayspreparedtogluttheirpartisanshipbyeither riggingvotesorbyseizingpowerwiththeirbarehands.Thus,neithersideobserved therulesofpiety:theyweremorerespectedforthehighwordswithwhichtheygot awaywithperformingtheirbaseactions.Asforthecitizenswhotriedtobeneutral, theywerekilledbybothsideseitherbecausetheydidnotjoininthefightingorout ofenvybecausetheyweremanagingtosurvive. (ThePeloponnesianWar3.82,translatedbyWalterBlanco,inWalterBlancoand JenniferRoberts,eds.,Thucydides:ThePeloponnesianWar.NewYork:W.W.Norton, 1998). Ofthehegemons,onlyonehadremainedimmunetothisdisease.Auniquestate, Spartamanagedthroughoutthewartoconfineinternalbloodshedtotheusual suppressionofhelots(oratleasttokeepwordofmurderouscivilconflictfrom leakingbeyondthePeloponnesus).Throughoutthewar,itremainedformany Greeksamodelofstablegovernment.Athens,however,wasnotfreefromcivil 320 strife.FromCimontoTheramenes,selectedAthenianpoliticianshadalwayshad seriousreservationsaboutdemocracy,andthedemocracysfailureinthetheaterof waralwayscarriedwithitthedangerofanoligarchiccoup.Thetakeoverof411had beenshortlived,butLysandersvictoryin404wouldsparkasecondandfarbloodier episode. TheThirtyTyrants(404403BC) ThroughouttheAegeanLysandersetupdecarchies,thatis,boardsoften proSpartanofficialsdesignedtoensurethatAthensformerallieswerenow governedinaccordancewitholigarchicprinciplesandservedSpartaninterests.Ten menwouldnotbeenoughforAthens;theintimidatedassemblyhadnochoicebutto accedetoLysandersrequestandratifyanewgovernmenttoberunbyaboardof thirty(theThirty).Atheniancitizens,thesethirtyweresympathetictoSpartaand willingtosacrificedemocraticprinciples,buttheywerenotallcommittedoligarchs. Theramenes,whowasamongthem,becameacontroversialfigurenotonlyamong Atheniansofthefourthcenturybutalsoamongmodernhistorians.Hispropensity

forlandingonhisfeetinanycrisishassuggestedtosomethathewasaflexibleman whosawmeritinavarietyofregimes,whereasothershaveseenhimasan unprincipledtimeserver.Themostprominentofthosewhocametobeknownasthe ThirtyTyrants,however,leftnodoubtastohispoliticalconvictions.Platosrelative CritiaswasachillingfigureapupilofSocrates,abrilliantintellectual,anavowed atheist,apassionateantidemocrat,alongtimeadmireroftheSpartanconstitution, and,aseventsweretoshow,amanwhowouldordermurdersbythehundreds withoutaqualm.BanishedattheinstigationofCleophonafterthefalloftheFour Hundred,towhichhehadbelonged,Critiaswasnowbackwithavengeance. AletterwrittenbyPlato(orbysomeoneusingPlatosnameasapseudonym) describesthephilosophersjoyattheaccessionofthoughtfulintellectualswho wantedtoreformtheconstitutionalongSpartanlines,andtheauthorofthe AristotelianAthenianConstitutionechoestheviewthatthebeginningofthenew regimeseemedfullofpromise: Attheoutset,therefore,theywereengagedin...removingtheblackmailersandthe personswhoconsortedundesirablywiththepeopletocurryfavorandwereevil doersandscoundrels;andthestatewasdelightedatthesemeasures,thinkingthat theywereactingwiththebestintentions. ([Aristotle],TheAthenianConstitution35.3;Rackham1961) Butsoonafterward,hegoeson, whentheygotafirmerholdonthestate,theykepttheirhandsoffnoneofthe citizens,butputtodeaththoseofoutstandingwealthorbirthorreputation, intendingtoputthatsourceofdangeroutoftheway,andalsodesiringtoplunder theirestates;andbytheendofabriefintervaloftimetheyhadmadeawaywithnot lessthanfifteenhundred. (TheAthenianConstitution35.4;Rackham1961) 321 TheThirtydidnotestablishtheancestralconstitution,althoughtheydidabolish theorgansofdemocraticgovernmentsuchasthepopularcourtsandappointeda newbouleoffivehundredantidemocrats.Toprotectthemselvesfromapopular uprising,theyrequestedfromLysandersevenhundredsoldiersandaSpartan harmost(garrisoncommander)similartothoseSpartahadestablishedinstates throughouttheAegeanithadliberatedfromAthenianhegemony.Theyalso surroundedthemselveswiththreehundredwhipbearersandsetupaboardoften tokeepaneyeonthePiraeus,rightlyconsideredahotbedofdemocraticradicalism.

Theexecutionofenemiesbegan.UnderprotestfromthealarmedTheramenes, Critiasandhiscliqueagreedtobroadentheoligarchybyestablishingacitizenrollof ThreeThousandwhosememberswouldbeentitledtotrialbytheboule.The consequenceofthis,however,wastheoppositeofwhatTheramenesintended.Now itappearedtotheThirtythattheexistenceofthisprotectedThreeThousandgave themcarteblancheintreatingallothersastheywished,andabloodbath commenced.Notallvictimswerecitizenswhocouldpossiblyhavebeenconceived aspoliticalenemies;manywerewealthymeticswhosepropertytheThirtycoveted. Understandably,somanyAthenianswereappalledandfrightenedthattheThirty cametofearthatTheramenesmightorganizearesistancemovement,andthey summonedhimfortrialinthebouleatrialatwhichyoungoligarchswith concealeddaggershadbeenstationedbyprearrangement.Whenitappearedthat Theramenesimpassioneddefenseofmoderategovernmenthadmovedthe councilors,CritiasstruckhisnamefromtherolloftheThreeThousand,thereby obviatingtheneedforatrial.Draggedofftoprisonfromthealtarwherehehad takenrefuge,Therameneswasexecutedbybeingforcedtodrinkhemlock,thepoison laterusedtoexecuteSocrates.Heroicatleastinhisfinalhours,Therameneswentout instyleandnotwithoutirony,toastingCritiashealthwiththelastdrops. UltimatelytheThirtywereundonebytheirownabandon.Byforbiddingthosenot onthelistoftheThreeThousandtoenterAthensandconfiscatingmanyoftheir farms,theycreatedadangerousbodyofexiles.ThoughSpartahadforbidden neighboringstatestoreceiverefugeesfromtheThirty,themurderousconductofthe AthenianoligarchyhadalienatedmanyGreeksfromSparta,andneitherThebesnor MegarawasdisposedtoturnawayAtheniansfleeingthebrutalSpartanbacked oligarchy.ItwasinThebesthattheAthenianexilesmountedtheircampaignto regaintheircity,makingtheirmoveinJanuaryof403.LedbyThrasybulus,seventy oftheexilesseizedPhyle,astrongholdonMountParnesontheAtheniansideofthe Attic/Boeotianboundary.Theretheywaiteduntiltheirnumbersrosetoseven hundred;inspringtheymoveddowntoPiraeus,joiningthedissidentsthereand establishingthemselvesonthehillofMunychia.Critiasandhismenattemptedto dislodgetheminanuphillcharge,andintheattemptCritiasdied. Thrasybuluscallforpeaceandunionbetweenthetwocampswasrejectedbythe oligarchs,whoexpectedSpartanaid.InSparta,however,themurderousar 322 roganceofLysanderandhisassociateswasmakingmanypowerfulmennervous, includingthekingsAgisandPausanias.MarchingintoAttica,Pausaniastookthe leadandmastermindednotonlythereconciliationofthevariousAthenianparties butalsothetemporaryeclipseofLysander.UnderhisaegistheAtheniansagreedon

thefirstrecordedamnestyinhistory.Underitsterms,onlytheThirtyandtheirchief officerscouldbebroughttojusticeforcrimescommittedbefore403;allotherswere compelledtorenouncethemanybittergrievancesthathadaccumulated.In SeptemberThrasybulusledhismenunopposedtotheAcropolis,wherethey sacrificedtoAthenaingratitudeforthesalvationofthecityandtheirownsafe return.Theworkofreestablishingthedemocracythenbegan. TheTrialofSocrates(399BC) TheAthenianscameclosetorespectingthetermsoftheamnestyuponwhichthey hadagreed.Nonetheless,decadesofwarfollowedbymonthsofterrorunderthe Thirtyhadtakenaheavytoll,andtherewasnolackofpeopleeagertoassignblame forAthensproblems.ThecolorfulSocrateshadannoyedjealousparentswhose youngsonshadlionizedhim,andthoughtheAthenianswereaversetobreakingthe amnestylaw,somewereopentobendingit.Rawfromthedevastatingwarand frustratedbythechangetheysawintheworldaroundthem,threeAthenians Anytus,Meletus,andLyconzeroedinonthiseccentricoldphilosopherwho hauntedthepublicspacesofAthensconfutingthecarelessinargument.Socrates( 470399BC)hadbeenquicktoidentifythedrawbacksofdemocracy,andhehadalso beentheteacherof(atleast)twomenwhoindifferentwayshadharmedAthens: AlcibiadesandCritias.TheamnestypreventedhisaccusersfromchargingSocrates withincitinghispupilstotreason,soinsteadtheybroughtathreepronged accusationofakindsomewhatunusualinAthens.Socrates,theyclaimed,didnot believeinthegodsofthestate;hetaughtnewgods;andhecorruptedtheyoung. ThoughthissortofchargewasunusualatAthens,precedentswerenotlacking. Greekstateshadnoconstitutionalprinciplesseparatingchurchandstateor protectingfreespeech.Becauseofhisnaturalisticexplanationoftheuniverseandhis sophisticatedconceptionofdivinityasNous,Anaxagorashadbeenforcedtoleave Athenstoavoidpossibleexecutionforatheism.Thisaccusation,however,whichwas lodgedatthesametimeasAspasiastrialforimpiety,wasplainlypoliticalinits motivation.ThesamemustbesaidaboutthetrialofSocrates,thoughnodoubtthe ironicmannerthatcharmedsomeandinfuriatedothersplayedaroleaswell. SinceSocratesneverwroteanything,wearedependentforourconceptionofhimon thedialoguesofhisadmirersPlatoandXenophon.PlatospupilAristotleobserved aboutSocratesthatthetwothingsonecouldbecertainofattributingtohimwere inductivereasoninganduniversaldefinition.Wecanbesureofafewotherthings. Socrates,anAtheniancitizen,performedconventionalcivicservicesinAthens, fightingasahopliteatPotidaea,Delium,andAmphipolisinthePeloponnesianWar andservingaspresidentoftheassemblyonthedayof 323

theArginusaetrialin406.Hisavocationwasdiscussinginterestingphilosophical questionswithyoungmen,questionsthatfocusedonthebestwayforhumansto thinkandlive;atleastinhismatureyears,hewasnotparticularlyexcitedbynatural science.Hebelievedthatthebestwaytodevelopideaswasinthegiveandtakeof conversation,andthatthebestwaytoeducatepeoplewastoaskthemaseriesof questionsleadinginaparticulardirection(nownamedforhimtheSocratic method).Howeverpainfulitmightbetofindoneselftheobjectofinjustice,hewas firmlyconvincedthatdoingwrongoneselfwastheonlyrealmisfortunethatcould befallaperson.Hehadakeenwitandanengagingpersonality,andpupilsflockedto himeagerly,thoughhehadnothingthatcouldbecalledaschool.Hewasnota sophist;hebecamepoorthroughhisrefusaltochargefees,andhisgoalwasto inculcatemoralexcellence,whichheviewedastheparticularexcellenceofahuman being.Likethesophists,however,heusedcleverargumentsandsubjected conventionalnotionstorationalanalysis,andlikethemhedisruptedthecustomary bondthatplacededucationinthecontextofthefamily,woundingAthenianparents whosesonspreferredhiscompanytotheirsandwhogavehisideasgreater credence.Whom,SocratesasksMeletusinXenophonsrenditionofhisdefense speech,doIcorrupt?ByGod,Meletusreplies,Iknowsomethoseyouve persuadedtoobeyyouratherthantheirparents.(Xenophon,ApologyofSocrates20) Itisnotpeculiar,therefore,thathewasmistakenforasophist,orthatthesophists shadyreputationshouldhaverubbedoffonhim.HewasparodiedinAristophanes Clouds,whichshowedhimcarriedacrosstheskyinacraneinaflakyeducational establishmentknownasathinkshop. Healsospokesharplyaboutdemocracy.Whetheritisfairtosaythatheopposedit andwouldhavelikedtoseeadifferentregimeinstitutedatAthensisanother question.Socratesenjoyedpuncturingillusions,anditmaybethathadhelived underamonarchyoranoligarchy,thosewouldhavebeenthegovernmentshespent histimeundermining.ButifanythingcansafelybegatheredfromPlatosdialogues, thenSocrateswastroubledbythenotionofamateurgovernment,inwhichanyones opinioncountedforasmuchasthenextmansandinwhichavolatileassemblywas swayedthiswayandthatbyrhetoricaldisplays.Mostpeople,hepointedout,arent terriblythoughtfuloranalytical,sowhyshouldmostpeople,thatis,themajority, makethelifeanddeathdecisionsthataffectthepolis? Thisisaquestionanyadvocateofdemocracymustask,andSocratesinsistenceon askingitneednotbetakenasimplyingthathewanteddecisionsmadebyaminority. CombinedwithhisassociationwithAlcibiadesandCritias,however,hispointed remarksaboutthefoiblesofdemocracyseemeddownrightunpatriotic,andhecould easilyenoughbecastasapurveyorofdangerousideas. ByAtheniancustom,Socratestrialtookonlyoneday.Itisintolerablypainfulfor mostreadersofPlatoApologyofSocratestobelievethatthewordswrittendownby

PlatowerenotactuallyspokenatSocratestrial.Perhapstheywere,andperhapsthey werent;XenophonsaccountofSocratesspeech,alsocalledtheApology,isless inspiringandmuchthinner.(TheGreekwordapologydoesnot 324 connoteapologizinginthemodernsensebutrathermeansarefutation.)Platos renditioncontainsthefamousdictumthattheunexaminedlifeisnotworthliving andconstitutesanextraordinarilymovingpaeantointellectualfreedomandthelife ofthemind.Shunningthestrategythatheidentifiesasstandardprocedureinan Atheniancourtroomweeping,pleading,paradinghischildreninfrontofthejury Socrates,accordingtoPlato,tookthepositionthatthebestdefensewasastrong offense.Usingthequestionandanswermethodforwhichhewasfamousandwhich hadapparentlygottenhimintotrouble,hedemolishedhisaccusersby demonstratingtheinconsistenciesintheirallegationsandthenwentontoexplainin poignantdetailthegreatserviceprovidedtothestatebyhisrelentlessprobing.His servicetothestate,heargues,ispreciousandirreplaceable.Itis,literally,agodsend: Knowthatifyoukillme,IbeingsuchamanasIsayIam,youwillnotinjuremeso muchasyourselves;forneitherMeletusnorAnytuscouldinjureme;thatwouldbe impossible,forIbelieveitisnotthegodswillthatabettermanbeinjuredbyaworse ....Forifyouputmetodeath,youwillnoteasilyfindanother,who,tousearather absurdfigure,attacheshimselftothecityasagadflytoahorse,which,thoughlarge andwellbred,issluggishonaccountofhissizeandneedstobearousedbystinging. Ithinkthegodfastenedmeuponthecityinsomesuchcapacity,andIgoabout arousing,andurgingandreproachingeachoneofyou,constantlyalightingupon youeverywherethewholedaylong.Suchanotherisnotlikelytocometoyou, gentlemen;butifyoutakemyadvice,youwillspareme.Butyou,perhaps,mightbe angry,likepeopleawakenedfromanap,andmightslapme,asAnytusadvises,and easilykillme;thenyouwouldpasstherestofyourlivesinslumber,unlessthegod, inhiscareforyou,shouldsendsomeoneelsetostingyou. (Apology30C31A;Fowler1966,adapted) Socratespersuadednearlyhalfthejuryof501Atheniancitizens;heseemstohave losthiscasebyaboutthirtyvotes.Meletus,theprincipalaccuser,hadproposedthe penaltyofdeath.Athenianprocedurecalledforconvicteddefendantstorecommend analternativepenalty,anditseemsclearthatSocratesaccusersexpectedhimto proposeexileandwouldhavebeenquitecontenttoseehimleavetown.Instead,he provokedthejurybysuggestingratherthattheAtheniansshouldprovidehimwith freemealsfortherestofhislifeastheirbenefactor,justastheydidforOlympic victors.XenophonascribedthisstrategytoSocrateswishtoendasatisfyinglife beforethesadrealitiesofoldageovertookhim;itisalsopossiblethatSocrateswas

testingthejurytoseeiftheyunderstoodwhohereallywasandwhathereally providedtoAthens.Anumberofthosewhohadwantedhimacquittedhadachange ofheartandvotedforthedeathpenalty.Socrateswasthenexecutedbyoneofthe customaryAthenianmethods,beingorderedtodownapoisonousdraftofhemlock. Athistrial,ifwearetobelievePlato,SocratesprophesiedthattheAthenianswould bringgreatodiumonthemselvesforkillinghim.Hewasright.Throughout subsequenthistory,theexecutionofSocratesisthemostseriouschargethat 325 hasbeenbroughtbythecriticsofAtheniandemocracy.Socratesdeathalsomadea deepimpressiononhisbrightestdisciples,youngaristocratslikeXenophonand Plato.ThoughXenophonsworksarelittlereadtoday,theywereverypopularin ancientRomeandduringtheRenaissance.ThedialoguesPlatobegansoonafterhis teachersdeath,inwhichSocratesservedasamouthpieceforhisownthinking, becamethefoundationofwesternphilosophy.Inthiswaythestrainsoccasionedby thePeloponnesianWarplayedadramaticroleinthehistoryofideas. THEWARINRETROSPECT TherewasnothinginevitableabouttheSpartansultimatevictoryinthewar.Darius ofPersiadiedin404.HadtheAtheniansnotbeensocarelessatAegospotami,the withdrawalofPersiansupportthatwouldprobablyhaveattendedonDariusdeath wouldgravelyhavecompromisedtheSpartanschancesofwinningthewar.Onthe otherhand,theSpartansalthoughnotasquicklyasprudencewouldhavedictated didintimelearnavitallessonaboutthecentralityofnavalpower.Theanonymous treatisewrittensometimeduringthelaterfifthcenturybythesocalledOldOligarch (onceconfusedwithXenophon)hadjudgedseapowersuperiortopoweronland. TheAthenians,theauthorargued,didwelltosacrificethedevelopmentoftheir infantrytothatoftheirnavy.Foritispossible,hewrote, forsmallsubjectcitiesonthemainlandtouniteandformasinglearmy,butinasea empireitisnotpossibleforthosewhoareislanderstocombinetheirforces,forthe seadividesthem,andtheirrulerscontrolthesea....Further,itispossibleforthe rulersoftheseatodowhatlandpowerscannotalwaysdo;theycanravagetheland ofmorepowerfulstates.Theycansailalongthecoasttoanareawheretheenemy forcesarefewornonexistent,andiftheenemyapproachtheycanembarkandsail away;inthiswaytheygetintolessdifficultythanthoseoperatingonland.Then again,therulersoftheseacansailasfarasyoulikefromtheirownland,butland powerscannotmakelengthyexpeditionsfromtheirownterritory,formarchingis slow,anditisnotpossibletotakeprovisionsforalongperiodwhentravellingon foot.Also,alandforcemustmarchthroughfriendlyterritoryorwinapassageby

force,butanavalforcecandisembarkwhereitisstrongerandnotdosowhereitis not,butsailonuntilitreachesfriendlyterritoryoralesspowerfulstate. ([PseudoXenophon]TheConstitutionofAthenians34;Moore1975) WhenSpartabecameaseapower,theAthenianslostthisadvantage,lostthewar, andlosttheirempire. Theeconomicconsequencesofthewarweregrave.ExceptinSpartaproper,where helotscontinuedtotillthelandandnoforeignforcedaredinvade,agriculture sufferedterribly.Theredoubledlaborofwomenandslaveswasinsufficientfullyto compensateforthedeathorabsenceoffarmersonlongcampaignsfarfromhome, andagooddealofterritory(inAtticaontheAtheniansideandMegaraonthe Peloponnesian,forexample)wasregularlyravagedbytheenemy. 326 Livestockandfarmingimplementsweredestroyed.Vinestookseveralyearsof nurturebeforetheywouldproducearichcropofgrapes,anddamagewroughtby thedestructionofolivetreeswasevenlongerlasting:thoughcuttingscarefully graftedontodamagedtreesorstumpsmightproduceenougholivesforasmall familyinfiveortenyears,newlyplantedtreesgenerallytookaboutfifteenyearsto produceasalablecrop.Commercebylandandseawasdisrupted;citieslikeCorinth sufferedimmensely. UnliketheoverseaswarsoftheRomanrepublic,whichenrichedthefewwhile impoverishingthemany,thePeloponnesianWarhurteveryone.ThroughoutGreece povertypushedasignificantnumberofmenbeneaththehoplitecensus.Somemen tookserviceasmercenaries,anincreasinglypopularprofession.Asusuallyhappens inwartime,manywomenwereforcedtoworkoutsidethehome.Populationalso droppedinmanypartsoftheGreekworld,andthelossofthousandsupon thousandsofsoldiersandsailorsleftmanywomenwithouthusbands.Intheplay namedforherandproducedin411,AristophanesprotagonistLysistrata,whohas organizedthewivesofGreeceinasexstriketoforceanendtothefighting,is scandalizedwhenamagistratecomplainsaboutuppitybehavioronthepartof womenwhoborenoshareinthewar: None,youhopelesshypocrite? Thequotawebearisdouble.First,wedeliveredoursons tofilloutthefrontlinesinSicily.... Next,thebestyearsofourliveswerelevied.Toplevelstrategy attachedourjoy,andwesleepalone. Butitsnotthematrons

likeuswhomatter.Imournforthevirgins,beddedinsingle blessedness,withnothingtodobutgrowold. Men,theCommissionerprotests, havebeenknowntoage,aswellaswomen. No,Lysistratareplies, notaswellasbetter. Aman,anabsoluteantique,comesbackfromthewar,andhesbarelydodderedinto townbeforehesmarriedtheveriestnymphet.Butawomansseasonisbrief;itslips, andshellhavenohusband,butsitoutherlifegropingatomensandfindingno men. (Lysistrata,pp.587589,591597;Parker1964) InAthensalone,asmanyasfiftythousandpeopleprobablydiedoftheplague,many ofthemdoingsobeforetheycouldreproduce.Warcasualtiesseemtohaveincluded atleastfivethousandhoplitesoldiersandtwelvethousandsailors(includingsome threethousandexecutedbyLysanderafterAegospotami),andtheThirtyTyrantsof 404403apparentlykilledsomefifteenhundredcitizens,perhapsmanymore. Probablythenumberofadultmalecitizensin403washalf 327 whatithadbeenin431.Somecities,likeMelosandScione,hadbeenvirtually annihilated.InSparta,absolutenumbersdroppedlesssharply,butthevarious classesbegantoredefinethemselves,astheranksofcommandersaswellassoldiers wereswellednotonlybydistinguishedmothakesbutalsobyhelotfightersrewarded withfreedomandlandandknownasneodamdeis(newcitizens). ThelongwaralsounderminedwhatonescholarhascalledthePoliscitizenaxis. WhetherThucydideswasrighttoidentifyasinglewaraslastingfrom431to404 remainsanopenquestion,perhapsonethatcanneverberesolved:whereonewar stopsandanotherbeginsmaybeasubjectmoreforphilosophersthanfordiplomatic historians.Buthewascorrecttoenvisionsomethingunprecedentedaboutthese decadesofconflict.ForuntilthistimeGreekwarfarehadobservedalmostcourtly rulesofplay.Whenwintercame,fightingceased;usingcitizensforfightingin farmingseasonviolatedbothdecorumandcommonsense.Therewasatimetoplow andatimetofight,anditwasnotthesametime.PreviouslyinGreekhistory importantconflictsandevensocalledwarscouldbedecidedbybriefhoplite encountersonlevelground.ThegrowthofAtheniannavalpowerhadbegunto changethis,butneverbeforethePeloponnesianWarhadfightingbecomethecentral

factoflifeinbothhotandcoldweather.TheBattleofDeliumtookplaceinwinter,as didtheclimacticnavalbattleintheSyracusanharbor.ThucydideslostAmphipolisto Brasidasinthesnow.Brasidas,moreover,hadwithhimsevenhundredhelotsand numerousmercenaries.Theuseofmercenariesandtheperiodicemergency enfranchisementofhelotsandslavestherewereonethousandneodamodeisin Spartaby421andprobablyatleastfifteenhundredbytheendofthewarblurred thelinesthathadtraditionallydividedcitizensfromnoncitizensanderodedthe conceptofthecitizensoldierandthecitizensailor,andthefrequencyofbloodycivil strifeerodedtheconceptofthepolisitself.AristophanesTrygaeusatthedoorstepof ZeuswasnottheonlyGreektoinquirehowitcouldbethatthegodswouldallow Greecetobeconsumedbyawarofthisscope.Atthesametime,however,the shatteringoffaithfosteredaquestioningspiritthatopenedthedoortothereflections ofSocrates,Xenophon,andPlato.ThePeloponnesianWartransformedtheGreek world,butitdidnotdestroyit. TRANSLATIONS Blanco,Walter.1998.ThePeloponnesianWar,fromWalterBlancoandJenniferRoberts, eds.Thucydides:ThePeloponnesianWar,NewYork:W.W.Norton. Fowler,H.N.1966.TheApologyofSocratesinPlato:Euthyphro,Apology,Crito,Phaedo, Phaedrus.LoebClassicalLibrary.Cambridge,Mass.andLondon:HarvardUniversity Press. Moore,J.M.1975.TheConstitutionoftheAtheniansAscribedtoXenophontheOratorin AristotleandXenophononDemocracyandOligarchy.Berkeley:UniversityofCalifornia Press. Parker,Douglass.1964.Lysistrata.NewYorkandScarsborough,Ontario:Mentor. Rackham,H.1961.Aristotle:TheAthenianConstitution,inTheAthenianConstitution; TheEudemianEthics;OnVirtuesandVices.LoebClassicalLibrary.Cambridge,Mass. andLondon:HarvardUniversityPress. 328 ScottKilvert,Ian.1960.TheRiseandFallofAthens:NineGreekLivesbyPlutarch. Harmondsworth,England:Penguin. Warner,Rex.1979.Xenophon:AHistoryofMyTimes[TheHellenica].Harmondsworth, England:Penguin. SUGGESTEDREADINGS

Connor,W.Robert.1992.TheNewPoliticiansofFifthCenturyAthens.Indianapolis: Hackett.Anuancedbuthighlyreadableexaminationofthechangingdynamicsof Athenianpoliticallifeinthefifthcentury. DeJacquelineRomilly.1988.ThucydidesandAthenianImperialism.Trans.P.Thody. ReprintedSalem,N.H.:AyerCo.Publishers.AclassicstudyofThucydidesandthe empire. Ehrenberg,Victor.1974.ThePeopleofAristophanes.ReprintedNewYork:Barnes& Noble.AstudyofthesociologyandeconomicsoftheAthenianstatebasedonaclose examinationofdatainAristophanescomedies. Green,Peter.1970.ArmadafromAthens.London:HodderandStoughton.Aspirited accountoftheAthenianinvasionofSicilybyadistinguishedancienthistorian. Hansen,MogensHerman.1995.TheTrialofSocratesfromtheAthenianPointofView. Copenhagen:TheRoyalDanishAcademyofSciencesandLetters.Discussionofthe sources,areconstructionofthetrial,andaninvestigationofthepoliticalbackground oftheprosecution. Hornblower,Simon.1986.Thucydides.Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress.A penetratingstudyofthehistorianshistorian. Kagan,Donald.1974,1981,1987.TheArchidamianWar(1974),ThePeaceofNiciasand theSicilianExpedition(1981),andTheFalloftheAthenianEmpire(1987).Ithaca,N.Y.: CornellUniversityPress.Thesethreevolumesofferadetailedanalysisofthewars militaryanddiplomatichistory. Loraux,Nicole.1986.TheInventionofAthens:TheFuneralOrationintheClassicalCity. Trans.AlanSheridan.Cambridge,Mass.,andLondon:HarvardUniversityPress.An examinationofthekeyroleoftheAthenianfuneralorationinshapingidealsofcivic lifeanddefiningwhatAthenswasallabout. Meiggs,Russell.1972.TheAthenianEmpire.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.A historyofAthensrelationshipwithitsalliesfromtheinceptionoftheDelianLeague totheendofthePeloponnesianWar,withchaptersonthejudgmentsmadeonthe empireinboththefifthandfourthcenturiesandachartrecordingtributepayments fortheyears453to420. Strauss,Barry.1993.FathersandSonsinAthens:IdeologyandSocietyintheEraofthe PeloponnesianWar.Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress.Asensitiveanalysisof Atheniansocietyduringthelastdecadesofthefifthcenturythatgroundsconflictin intergenerationaltension.

329 9 THECRISISOFTHEPOLISANDTHEAGEOFSHIFTINGHEGEMONIES ThelongPeloponnesianWarwroughtchangesintheGreekworldsofarreaching thatitisimpossibletoimaginethecourseofhistorywithoutit.Tobesure,fourth centuryGreekscontinuedtofarmandweaveandfight,andthepoliticallyaware polisremainedtheprimaryunitofgovernmentforseveralgenerations.Yearsof futilewarfare,however,accompaniedbyeconomicdifficultiesandattendantcivil strifeledmanypeopletoquestiontheirrelationshiptotheworldaroundthem. AlreadyaroundthemiddleofthefifthcenturyGreekthinkershadbeguntoaskkey questionsaboutthehumancommunity.Whatwasthepurposeofciviclife?Whyhad peoplecometogetherincommunitiesinthefirstplace?Werethelawsofthepolisin accordwithnatureorinconflictwithit?Whyweresomepeoplefreeandothers slaves?HowwereGreeksdifferentfromnonGreeks?ShouldGreekswarwithother Greeksandenslavethemwhenvictorious? Tothesequestionsotherscametobeadded.Whyshouldsomehavesomuchmore thanothers?Didtheautonomouscitystateprovidethebestwayoflife?Didthe exclusionofwomenfromdecisionmakinggowithoutsaying?Waswarfareworth thesacrificesitentailed?Asmallergroupdebatedlargerquestionsthenatureof justice,ofpiety,ofcourage,oflove.Thoughmanyoftheseconcernshadengaged fifthcenturyminds,thepostwargenerationsweremorepronetothiskindof questioningandlessconfidentthattheylivedinthebestofallpossibleworlds.New genrestooktheplaceoftheoldasthesearchformeaninginlifemovedforwardon differentpaths:whereasthepainfulissuesofhumanexistencehadbeenexplored duringthefifthcenturyintragedyandhistory,fourthcenturythinkersdevelopedthe philosophicaldialogueandtreatise. WhilemanyGreeksweresubjectingtheirtraditionalvaluestoscrutiny,others perpetuatedthesquabblesofthefifthcentury.ThePeloponnesianWarhad 330 solvednothing.Inmanypoleistheeconomicproblemsarisingfromthewar exacerbatedexistingclasstensionsandsparkedbloodycivilconflict,thoughthe Atheniandemocracyremainedremarkablyfreeofstasis.Interpoliswarfare continuedtobetheorderoftheday,andcivilstrifeoftenverybloodywas extremelycommon.TheeagerinvolvementofPersiaheightenedanalreadychaotic situation.WhenanextraordinaryindividualarosetothenorthintheformofPhilip ofMacedon,theinabilityoftheGreekstoworktogetherproductivelyhaddramatic consequences,andtheautonomouspolisceasedtobethedefiningpolitical institutionoftheGreekworld.

SOURCESFORFOURTHCENTURYGREECE Inalmostallrespectsthesourcesforthepoliticalhistoryofthefourthcenturyare richerthanforthefifth.Awealthofinscriptionsshedslightonbothinternational relationsanddomesticpolicy,andAristophanesEcclesiazusae(WomeninCongress) andPlutus(Wealth)providevaluableinformationaboutAthenstroublesinthe generationafterAegospotami.PlutarchsbiographiesoftheSpartansLysanderand AgesilausandoftheThebanPelopidassurvive;unfortunatelythelifeof Epaminondasislost.Muchcanbegleanedfromthevastbodyofmiscellanygathered togetherinthecollectionknownasPlutarchMoralia,thoughsomematerialhascrept infromotherauthors. Atticoratoryprovidesavitalwindowintothelivesandthoughtpatternsoffourth centuryAthenians.Unfortunatelynocomparablebodyoftextshassurvivedfrom anyotherpolis.DozensofspeecheswrittenfordeliveryinAthenssometimestothe courts,sometimestotheassemblyrevealthepolitical,social,andeconomicsituation inthecity.Numerousspeecheshavebeenpreservedunderthenameofthemetic Lysias,thoughsomeofthemmayreallybebyothers.ThespeechAndocidesgave whenheservedasambassadorduringtheCorinthianWarisveryuseful.Ofthe manyspeechesattributedtoIsocrates,abouthalfofthetwentyonethatsurvivewere composedduringtheperiodbetweentheendofthePeloponnesianWarandtherise ofMacedon.Thosewrittenlater,moreover(Isocrateslivedtobe98andcontinued writinguntilhisdeathin338BC),alsocontainusefulperspectivesontheprevious decades.Indeed,oratorsactiveprimarilyaftertheaccessionofPhilipofMacedonin 359providesomeofourmostpreciousinformationaboutthehalfcenturyafterthe endofthePeloponnesianWar.MostprominentamongtheseisDemosthenes(384 322BC),dozensofwhosespeechessurvive.(Heisofcourseadifferentpersonfrom thefifthcenturygeneralbythesamenamewhowasexecutedinSicily.)Eventhe speechesthatseemtohavebeenwronglyattributedtoDemosthenescomprisea valuablecompendiumofdetailaboutGreeklaw. Speeches,however,mustbeusedwithevenmorecautionthanisgenerallyexercised withsources.Thoughapricelessindextothevaluesofthecommunity,anddotted withallusionstohistoricalevents,theyaimedatpersuasion,nottruth,andtheso calledinformationtheycontainmustberegardedwithsome 331 skepticism.TherewerenoprofessionallawyersinAthens,moreover;thosewhohad toappearincourtsimplyhiredtrainedrhetoricianstowritespeechesforthem.Not surprisingly,thelawsembeddedintheserhetoricaldisplayswereoftenquoted partiallyorinaccurately,sincethespeechwriterscouldnotbeheldtoaccountfor theirmisrepresentations.Evenaslateasthefourthcentury,Greekcultureretaineda

thickoverlayoforality,andthenotionofverificationbyreferencetodocumentswas notsofirmlyentrenchedasitistoday. NohistoryofthefourthcenturysurvivesthatcanmatchthatofHerodotusor Thucydidesineitherpainstakingresearchordepthofanalysis.Onegiftedhistorian wroteduringthefourthcentury,buthisworkisalmostentirelylost;alittleonthe PeloponnesianWarandontheyears397to395isallthatsurvivesofthewriter knownastheOxyrhynchushistorianbecausethefragmentsofhisworkwerefound amidstotherpapyriattheEgyptianvillageofOxyrhynchus.Onlyfragmentssurvive ofEphorus,Theopompus,andtheSicilianPhilistus,thoughEphoruswasapparently theprincipalsourceforDiodorusaccountofthisperiod,andmuchofPhilistuswork (greatlyadmiredinantiquity)founditswayintoDiodorusaccountofaffairsinhis nativeSicily.Intheabsenceoffullercontemporarysources,therefore,wearethrown backchieflyonXenophon. Alivelyandinnovativewriter,XenophonhadahardypartialityforSpartaevenatits moredisgracefulmomentsthatsometimesmarstheaccounthegivesofGreek historyinhisHellenica.Wearenonethelessindebtedtohisnarrativeformuch informationthatwouldotherwisehavebeenlost;thesameistrueofhisencomiastic biographyAgesilaus.HisWaysandMeansprovidesvaluableinsightintoAthens economicdifficultiesinthefourthcentury.TheAnabasis,theaccountofhis experienceswithfellowmercenariesinPersia,isanincomparableeyewitnesssource forGrecoPersianinteraction.TheCyropaedia,ahistoricalromancebasedonthelifeof CyrustheGreat,tellsusagreatdealaboutGreekperceptionsofPersia.Various dialoguesinwhichSocratesappearsrevealagooddealaboutthevaluesof Xenophonssocialclass,andmayeventellusabitaboutSocrates. Socrates,likeJesus,expressedhimselfinspeechandwrotenothing.MostofPlatos workconsistsofconversationsPlatohasimaginativelyreconstructed,inwhich someonehecallsSocratesleadsoneormoreyoungmentoagreaterunderstanding ofsomesubject.Aristotlewasstillmoreprolific.AncientestimatesofAristotles prodigiousoutputrangedfromfourhundredtoonethousanddifferentworks. Thoughmanyarelostandsomearethoughttobetheworkofhisstudents,the Aristoteliancorpusfillsseveralvolumes. POSTWARGREECEANDTHESTRUGGLEFORHEGEMONY TherehadbeennothinginevitableaboutSpartasvictoryinthePeloponnesianWar. TheAtheniansmightwellhavewonhadeventsturnedoutjustalittledifferently. ConsequentlythepoleisofGreecewatchedSpartasselfaggrandizementwarily.The economicsituationoftheGreekcities,thoughitvariedfrom 332

onepolistothenext,seemedtofavorwar.Ontheonehand,thelongyearsof fightingattheendofthefifthcenturyhadharmedtheeconomyofmanyGreekstates sufficientlytocreateadesireforbothbootyandrevenge;atthesametime,however, thepostwarpoleisshowedremarkableresilience,andwithinlessthantenyearsfrom theendofthePeloponnesianWar,theeconomyhadreboundedsufficientlyfor peopletocontemplatenewmilitaryundertakings.Theeconomy,inshort,wasbad enoughformanypeopletowantwarandgoodenoughforthemtoconsiderit.Itwas notlongafterthewarthatthehostilityoftheGreekstatesfoundafocus,andthat focuswasSparta. Spartanswerenobleindeathbutinsufferableinvictory.Plutarch,aswehaveseen, enjoyedreportingthedisappointmentSpartanmothersprofessedifasonmadethe mistakeofsurvivingabattle,andXenophontoldoftheheroicfortitudeofthe SpartansinhearingoftheirresoundingdefeatatthehandsoftheThebansin371:the nextday,hewrote,youcouldseethosewhoserelativeshadbeenkilledgoingabout inpubliclookingbrightandhappy,whileasforthosewhoserelativeshadbeen reportedliving,therewerenotmanyofthemtobeseen,andthosewhoweretobe seenwerewalkingaboutlookinggloomyandsorryforthemselves(Hellenica6.4.16; Warner1966).Theprotocolfordealingwithvictory,however,wasmoreelusive. Thoughatfirsttheirhoplitescontinuedtodowellonthebattlefield,agraceless diplomacyregularlyledtheSpartanstolosethepeaceafterwinningthewar.Intime, Spartasaggressiveforeignpolicywouldsparkacounterattackthatwouldalsoend themythofSpartaninvincibilityonthebattlefield. JubilantafterbringingAthenstoitskneesin404,Spartahousedsignificant imperialistfactionssupportingtheaggressivepoliciesofLysanderandKing Agesilaus.In395Spartasalienatedalliescombinedagainstit.Theresultingwar endedin387,butcontinuinghighhandedbehavioronSpartaspartcausedexisting resentmentstofester.In377Agesilausprovocativepoliciesresultedbothinthe formationofanewAtheniannavalconfederacyandintheallianceofAthensand Thebes.By371ThebeswasstrongenoughtodefeatSpartaonthebattlefield,andthe yearsthatfollowedsawtheThebanscrippleSpartastillfurtherbytheliberationof Messenia.TheThebansascendancydied,however,whentheircharismaticleader Epaminondaswaskilledinbattle,andrevoltsduringthe360sand350sgradually weakenedtheAthenianconfederacy.Theresultingvacuumwouldbefilledby MacedonundertheresoluteleadershipofPhilip. TheNewImperialistsofSparta Thoughdetailsabouttheircollapsearelacking,themurderousdecarchiesLysander establishedinthewakeofAegospotamiseemtohavebeenshortlived.Spartas interferenceinthedomesticaffairsofitsallies,however,continued.Justasthe imperialistAthenianshadalwayspreferreddemocraciesinalliedstates,sothe

Spartansofthepostwarperiodsoughttoestablisholigarchieswhereverpossibleby militaryinterventionifnecessary.Alarmedbythisproclivity,theThebansdeclined tohelptheirSpartanallieswhenKingAgisIImarchedonElis 333 around400inordertocompelthedemocraticgovernmenttheretogrant independencetotheoutlyingcitiesinitscontrol.BadfeelingincreasedwhenAgis diedandLysanderengineeredthesuccessionofthekingsbrother,hisfriend Agesilaus.WhenAgesilaus,planningtoinvadeAsia,triedtolendlegitimacytohis crusadebysacrificingatAulis,justasAgamemnonhaddoneenroutetoTroy,the Boeotiancavalrywasdispatchedtostandinhisway.Agesilausneverforgotthe insult,andhelivedalongtime.Thenextdecadessawfrequentwarfarebetween SpartaandThebes. ThegenesisofAgesilausjourneytoAsiaissignificantinanumberofrespects. SpartasrelationswithPersiabegantodeterioratewhenLysandersallyCyrusthe Youngerbecameenmeshedinaquarreloverthesuccession.Whenhisbrother ArtaxerxessucceededDariusIIin404,Cyrusmountedarebellionforwhichhe engagedthirteenthousandGreekmercenaries.ThoughCyrusarmywassuccessful atthepivotalbattleofCunaxanearBabylonin401,inthehourofvictoryCyrus caughtsightofhisbrotherand,losingcontrol,attemptedtokillhim.Hewas promptlycutdownintheensuingmelee.ThisuntowarddevelopmentlefthisGreek soldiersinanextraordinarilyvulnerablesituation,deepintheheartofahugeempire whosekingtheyhadjustattemptedtooverthrow.Theircircumstancesdeteriorated stillfurtherwhentheSpartanClearchusandtheotherGreekgenerals,havingbeen hospitablyreceivedbythesatrapTissaphernes,weretreacherouslymurdered. Indesperatestraitstheyelectednewleaders,oneofwhomwasXenophonthe Athenian.Actingasamobilepolisunderthisnewleadership,theymanagedto completethearduousmarchbacktotheseaandsailbacktotheirhomesinGreece. Xenophonslivelyaccountoftheiradventuresinthismarchupcountry(Anabasis) survivesintactandhasprovidedentertainmentandexcitementforgenerationsof intermediateGreekstudents(aswellasanthropologistsandzoologists).Xenophons contemporaries,however,foundnewsoftheGreeksexperienceinAsiatobemore thanentertaining.Itwasalsoprofoundlyinstructive.Whatittaughtwasthatthe PersianempirewasbynomeansasformidableanadversaryasGreekshad imagined.Intime,thisknowledgewouldissueinthecampaignsofAlexander, campaignsthatwouldtransformthecivilizationsofGreece,Egypt,andwesternAsia. Intheshortrun,itpromptedAgesilaustoinvadeAsia.WithCyrusdead,prospects forfriendshipwithPersiahadwaned.Nowtherewouldbewarinstead.

WhileAgesilausandhismenfoughtinAsiaMinor,theSpartanscontinuedto alienatetheiralliesinmainlandGreecebyinterventionindomesticaffairs,marching onMessenianNaupactus,forexample,andHeracleaTrachinianearThermopylae. WhennearlyadecadehadpassedsincetheendofthePeloponnesianWarandthe economiesofthemainlandstateshadmanagedapartialrecovery,Spartaslongtime alliesThebesandCorinthwereopentoallyingwiththeiroldenemyAthensagainst Sparta.AtthisjunctureoneTimocratesofRhodesappearedinGreecebearinggold fromthePersianking:eagertogetAgesilausoffhisback,Artaxerxeswasprepared todisbursethismoneytothosewhowouldmakewaronSparta. 334 TheCorinthianWar(395387BC) ThewarthatensuedwasknownastheCorinthianWar,sincemuchofthefighting tookplaceintheareaoftheisthmus.ItpittedSpartaagainstacoalitionofAthens, Thebes,Corinth,andArgos.Thefirstconsequenceofthisfutilewarwasthedeathof Lysander,whowaskilledfightingatitsoutset.ThePersiansthengottheirwish: SpartarecalledAgesilausfromAsia.MeanwhilethePersiannavycommandedbythe satrapPharnabazusandtheAthenianadmiralCononwonadecisivevictoryover SpartaatCnidus(394BC)insouthwestAsiaMinor.Feelingsecureatlastfromthe odiumthathadattachedtoallwhohadbeenpresentatAegospotami,Cononnow returnedtoAthensandplayedalargepartinrebuildingtheLongWallsthere.Inthis projecthewasassistedbyPersianshipsandmoney. Lossoflifeintheongoingwarwasconsiderable.Aboutfourthousandmenwere killedfightingbytheNemeaRiverinthenortheastPeloponnesusin394,thelargest hoplitebattleGreekshadeverfought.EventuallytheSpartanspersuadedthe Persianstoallywiththembyoffering,oncemore,toabandontheGreeksofAsia MinortoPersiandomination.Peacenegotiationsinitiatedin392failedhowever,and fightingcontinued. Tothehoplitewarfareoftheseyearswasaddedacrucialnewelementavarietyof lightlyarmedtroopsincludingarchers,slingers,andjavelinthrowers.Aparticularly usefulbrandofjavelinthrowerwasthemanknownasthepeltast,namedforthe smallroundwickershieldhecarried,theThracianpelt.Enjoyingamobility unthinkableforthehopliteswiththeirheavyshieldsandarmor,peltastsandother lightlyarmedsoldiersexpandedthepossibilitiesofwarfare.Theycouldbedeployed toforageforsupplies,toseizeanddefendpasses,toambushenemytroops,andto ravageenemyterritory.Theyalsoplayedkeyrolesinwhatwerebasicallyhoplite confrontations,forharassmentatadistancebyjavelinthrowingpeltastsmadeit difficultfortheheavilyarmedenemyhoplitestoretreat.Ahardybandofpeltasts backingupahopliteforcecouldeasilyturnthetideofbattle.

Perhapsbecauseoftheirhistoryofsuccessathoplitewarfare,theSpartansnever reallylearnedtomakeuseoflightarmedtroopsandthisdespiteaharshlesson administeredin390,whenharassmentbypeltastsinthecommandoftheAthenian IphicratesenabledtheAthenianstodestroyanentireSpartanregimentatthe CorinthianportofLechaeum.TheSpartancommander,Xenophonreports, orderedtheinfantryintheagegroups20to30tochargeanddriveofftheirattackers. However,theywerehoplitespursuingpeltastsatthedistanceofajavelinsthrow, andtheyfailedtocatchanyone,sinceIphicrateshadorderedhismentofallback beforethehoplitescametoclosequarters.ButwhentheSpartans,inlooseorder becauseeachmanhadbeenrunningathisownspeed,turnedbackagainfromthe pursuit,Iphicratesmenwheeledround,somehurlingtheirjavelinsagainfromin frontwhileothersranupalongtheflank,shootingatthesideunprotectedbythe shields....Then,asthingsweregoingverybadly,[theSpartancommander]ordered anotherpursuit,thistimewiththemenoftheage 335 groups20to35.Butinfallingbackfromthispursuitevenmoremenwerekilledthan before.... Afterawhile,Xenophoncontinues,theSpartanswere attheirwitsend,sufferingastheywereandbeingdestroyedwithoutbeingableto doanythingaboutit;andnowwhen,inadditiontoallthis,theysawthehoplites bearingdownonthem,theybrokeandran.Someplungedintothesea.... (Hellenica4.5.1518;Warner1966) ThisremarkableachievementstunnedtheGreekworld.Italsomadethereputation ofIphicrates.Subsequentlyelectedonnumerousoccasionstothestratgia,Iphicrates becameoneofAthensbestknowngenerals.Intimeheintroducedlongerswords andlight,comfortablebootsthatcametobecalledIphicratides. Mercenaryserviceandthepopularityoflightarmedtroopsfrequentlywenthandin hand:thelessercostofthelightwickershieldmadeserviceasapeltastmore appealingtotheimpoverishedlandlessmenwhochosetosupportthemselvesas soldiersoffortune.Likemercenaries,lightlyarmedsoldiershadbeenused throughoutthelaterfifthcentury.Havinglearnedoftheirpotentialfromhispainful experienceswiththeAetolians,DemostheneshadmadesuretodeploythematPylos andSphacteria,wheretheywerecrucialtotheAthenianssuccess.Asinsomany areas,whatappearasdistinguishingcharacteristicsofthefourthcenturyinfacthad theirrootsinthePeloponnesianWar.

In387theexhaustedGreeksagreedtoapeacenegotiatedinPersia.Thisagreement wasthefirstofseveralfourthcenturyattemptsatwhatDiodorus,following Ephorus,calledakoineiren(commonpeace),apeaceapplicabletoallpoleisand whoseoverridingprinciplewasthatofautonomy.Throughoutthefourthcentury, intellectualsandpoliticiansexpressedlongingforsuchapeace.Theformthis particularpeacetook,however,wascalculatedtodrivehometotheGreeksthe PersiankingscloutinHellenicaffairs.ThetextappearsinXenophonHellenica: I,KingArtaxerxes,regardthefollowingarrangementsasjust:1.ThecitiesinAsia and,amongtheislands,ClazomenaeandCyprusshouldbelongtome.2.Theother Greekcities,bigandsmall,shouldbelefttogovernthemselves,exceptforLemnus, ImbrosandScyros,whichshouldbelongtoAthens,asinthepast.Andifeitherofthe twopartiesrefusestoacceptpeaceontheseterms,I,togetherwiththosewhowill acceptthispeace,willmakewaronthatpartybothbylandandbysea,withships andwithmoney. (Hellenica5.1.31;Warner1966) NegotiationsnearlybrokedownoverthethornyquestionoftheBoeotianLeague. WhentheThebanswantedtoratifythetreatyonbehalfofallBoeotia,Agesilaus demandedthattheysweartoleavealltheBoeotiancitiesautonomous.Meeting resistance,hebeganmobilizingforcestoinvadeBoeotia.InthefaceofaSpartan 336 attack,theThebansgrudginglyagreedtoAgesilausterms.Futuredevelopments wouldshow,however,thattheirambitionshadnotsubsided. GreeceAftertheKingsPeace ThegoverningprincipleoftheKingsPeacewasautonomy.Ironically,Spartaas Persiasallywascastastheguarantorofthispeacedespitethefactthatitwas SpartandisregardfortheautonomyofotherGreekstatesthathadsparkedthewarin thefirstplace.Intheguiseofenforcingautonomy,Spartapromptlysetaboutusing forceandthreatsofforcetodismantleavarietyofexistingarrangementsinGreece. SincethelongstandingBoeotianLeaguewasdominatedbyThebes,its disintegrationhadgivenAgesilausparticularpleasure.DuringthewarCorinthand Argoshadundertakenacuriousexperimentinisopolitywherebycitizenshipand itsprivilegesweresharedbybothstatesinanovelformofunion.Spartademanded itsdissolution.WhenPhliusdeclinedtochangeitsgovernmentinresponseto Spartanpressure,itwasbesiegedandultimatelyforcedtoreplaceitsgovernment withthatofproSpartanexiles.Mantinea,composedoffivevillages,wascompelled toteardownitsfortificationsanddissolveitselfintothefiveoriginalcommunities.

Allthiswasasnothing,however,toSpartasseizureofthecityofThebes.Duringthe 380stheThebansweredividedbetweenaproSpartanfactionledbyLeontiadesand aproAtheniangroupledbyIsmenias,andin382LeontiadespersuadedtheSpartan commanderPhoebidastooccupytheThebanacropoliscalledtheCadmeaandinstall aproSpartangovernment.PhoebidasactionssparkedoutragethroughoutGreece. ThoughtheSpartansbroughtPhoebidastotrial,Agesilausarguedforhisacquittal onthegroundsthattheonlycriterionforjudgingPhoebidasbehaviorshouldbeits usefulnesstoSparta.Phoebidasgotoffwithasmallfine,andtheSpartangarrison remainedontheCadmea.EquallyshockingtoGreekswasthetrialatThebesof Ismenias,whomtheproSpartangovernmentexecutedonchargesofconspiringwith PersiaandacceptingPersianmoney.SpartasownrecordofcollaborationwithPersia madethisturnofeventsparticularlyscandalous. In379sevenofthepartisansofIsmeniaswhohadtakenrefugeinAthensslipped unnoticedintoBoeotiaand,linkingupwithfellowconspiratorsthere,werebrought tothemagistratesdisguisedaswomenwhohadbeensuppliedfortheirdelectation. Drawingtheirweapons,theyeasilyoverpoweredandkilledtheoligarchs; proceedingtothehouseofLeontiadestheykilledhimaswell.Thenextdaytwo Atheniangeneralsandtheirregimentsappeared,probablyasvolunteers,andhelped theThebanpatriotsexpeltheSpartangarrisonontheCadmea. TheSpartanspromptlysentouttheiryoungkingCleombrotusattheheadofan expedition.ThoughhewasunabletodoanythingaboutthesituationinThebes,his campaignhadimportantconsequences.AlarmedbytheSpartanmilitarypresence, theAtheniansbroughtthetwogeneralswhohadhelpedtheThebansretaketheircity totrial,executingtheonewhoturnedupforhishearing 337 andexilingtheother.ThoughthegeneralsassistancetotheThebanshadprobably beenofanunofficialnature,stillitwasreprehensiblefortheAthenianstopunish theminthiswayforimplementingapolicytheAthenianstatesurelyapproved. Thetrialofthegeneralscontrastednotonlywiththelightsentencemetedoutto PhoebidasinSpartaafewyearsbeforebutalsowithamockeryofatrialthat followedafewmonthslater.In378Sphodrias,theharmost(governor)whom CleombrotushadleftbehindinBoeotia,decidedthatanightmarchcouldbringhim toPiraeusbydawn,andheplottedtoseizetheportforSparta.Hemiscalculated:a nightmarchbroughthimasfarastheThriasianplainnearEleusis.Hisplantoseize Piraeuscametonothing,andtheAthenianswerefurious.Immediatelytheyseized someSpartanenvoyswhohappenedtobeatAthens,buttheyreleasedthemwhen theenvoysassuredthemthatSphodriashadactedwithoutauthorizationandwould

surelybeexecutedatSparta.Nothingofthekindhappened.Sphodriassonand Agesilaussonwerelovers,andAgesilausengineeredSphodriasacquittal. Sparta,Athens,andThebes EnragedatSpartasfailuretopunishSphodriasanddeeplysorrytheyhadletthe Spartanenvoysgo,theAtheniansnowalliedwiththeThebansformutualprotection againstSparta.Theyalsomovedforwardwiththeirplanstoestablishthenewnaval leaguethathistorianscalltheSecondAthenianConfederacy,plansthathadprobably beguntotakeshapeevenbeforetheSphodriasfiasco.Learningfromhistory,the Atheniansconceivedthenewleaguealonglinesverydifferentfromtheoldone.The decreeproposedbyAristotelessettinguptheleagueincludedinitspreamblethe statementthattheassemblywastakingthisactionsothattheSpartansmayallow theGreekstoliveinpeace,freeandautonomous,withalltheirterritorysecureand sothatthepeaceof387mayremaininforceforever.Allallies,thedecree proclaimed,willremainindependentandautonomous,enjoyingtheformof governmenttheywish,admittingnogarrisonsormagistratesandpayingnotribute. Athenianswereprohibitedfromacquiringpropertyinalliedterritory.Thetotal numberofstatesinthealliancewassomewherebetweensixtyandseventy.League memberscamefromallovertheAegeanandwesternGreece.Theyincludedabout thirtyfiveformermembersoftheDelianLeague,anoteworthydevelopmentthat mustbethrowninwiththeotherevidenceforthepopularityofAthensfirst experimentinleagueleadership. Leaguepolicywastobecontrolledbytwobodiesofequalweight,theAthenian assembly(ekklsia)andtheassemblyoftheallies(synedrion).Allproposalsrequired theapprovalofbothbodies.Thuseachassemblyhadthepowertovetomeasures approvedonlybytheother.Eachstate,however,sentonlyonedelegatetothe synedrion,withtheresultthatAthenscouldgarnerquiteanumberofvotesin supportofitspoliciesbyintimidatingthetiniestpoleis.TheAtheniansalsoretained controlovermilitaryoperations.Finally,thoughthedecreeofAris 338 Figure9.1.TheDecreeofAristoteles,377BC.Thenamesofthecitiesthatjoined thealliancewereinscribedonthesamestoneasthedecree.Asnewstatesjoined, theirnameswereadded. totelesspecifiednotribute,asystemofsyntaxeis(contributions)wasestablishedto financeleagueoperations.Thesesyntaxeisdidnotoccasionthesamebitternessasthe tributeassessmentsoftheDelianLeague,butalliesdidnotalwaysmeettheir obligations,thuscausingfinancialproblemsfortheleagueandrevealingsome ambivalenceonthepartofitsmembers.

UndertheAtheniangeneralChabrias,theconfederacypromptlywonanimportant navalvictoryovertheSpartansatNaxos.OperatingintheAegeanandThraceunder ChabriasandinthewestunderTimotheus,thefleetbroughtseveralnewstatesinto theconfederacy.TheSpartans,whomtheseeventshadmadequiteanxious,were furtheralarmedbythegrowthofapowerfulstateinthenorth,whereJasonofPherae wassucceedinginhiseffortstouniteThessalyandrevivetheoldtitleoftagos (dictatorofallThessaly),unitingtheThessaliansunderoneleaderforthefirsttime sincethesixthcentury.Athens,ontheotherhand,thoughenjoyingvictoriesatsea, foundnavaloperationscostly,andsawmeritinendingthefighting.In375Sparta, Athens,andThebessignedaCommonPeacethatacknowledgedtheexistenceof theAtheniansnewleague.Fighting,how 339 ever,soonbrokeoutagainandcontinueduntilanotherattemptatacommonpeace wasmadein371. ThistimetheambitionsofThebessankthepeacenegotiations.ThestatusofThebes intheBoeotianLeaguehadvariedovertheyears,andtheThebanswerenow strongerthanever.Inthe370stheyhadenjoyedtheenergeticleadershipoftwo intimatefriends,EpaminondasandPelopidas.Bothhadbeeninvolvedinthe liberationoftheCadmeain379(PelopidasmorethanEpaminondas),andeachwas oftenelectedtoserveontheboardofelevenBoeotarchswhogovernedtheregion. Pelopidasexcelledprimarilyingeneralship,Epaminondasincharismaticpolitical leadership.AstheBoeotarchrepresentingThebesin371,Epaminondaswalkedoutof thepeacecongressinSpartawhenAgesilauswouldnotlethimsignthetreatyon behalfofallBoeotia. ThispowerplaydidnotsitwellwiththeSpartans.KingCleombrotusinvaded Boeotiawithtenthousandmenaboutninethousandhoplitespluscavalry. EpaminondasandPelopidasmethimontheplainofLeuctrawithanarmyofsix thousandhoplitesandonethousandcavalry.InnovativeThebantacticsproved decisivedespitetheSpartanssuperiornumbers.ItwastraditionalforThebansto fightinanunusuallydeepformation;atDeliumin424,forexample,theyhadfought twentyfivedeep.Now,however,Epaminondaspackedhisleftwing(normallythe weakersideofaGreekformation)fullyfiftyshieldsdeep.Healsoadvancedinan obliquelinesoastoholdbackthecenterandrightwingwhileoverpoweringthe enemywiththeleftatthepointwherehecouldexpectCleombrotustobe.The cuttingedgeoftheThebanlinewasprovidedbytheelitecorpsknownastheSacred Band,150pairsofselecthoplites.PlatowasprobablythinkingoftheSacredBand whenhewrotethatifonecouldcontrivethatastateoranarmyshouldentirely consistofloversandloved,itwouldbeimpossibleforittohaveabetterorganization thanthatwhichitwouldthenenjoythroughtheiravoidanceofalldishonourand

theirmutualemulation;moreover,ahandfulofsuchmen,fightingsidebyside, woulddefeatpracticallythewholeworld(Symposium178179;Hamilton).Plutarch analyzedthedynamicinhislifeofPelopidas:abandcementedbyfriendship groundeduponloveisnevertobebroken,andinvincible;sincethelovers,ashamed tobebaseinsightoftheirbeloved,andthebelovedbeforetheirlovers,willinglyrush intodangerforthereliefofoneanother(Pelopidas18;Dryden,rev.Clough).The SacredBandandthenoveltacticsofEpaminondascarriedtheday,andoftheseven hundredSpartanspresentthebulkofthearmyconsistedofSpartanalliesfullyfour hundredwerekilled,Cleombrotusamongthem.TheremainderoftheSpartanarmy withdrew,thelegendofSpartansupremacyinhoplitewarfareforevershattered. ThelossoflifeatLeuctrawascriticaltothefutureofinterpolisrelationsinGreece, fortherenowremainedonlyaboutathousandSpartanhoplites.WhentheSpartans weaknessbecameapparenttotheirallies,thePeloponnesusbeganseethingwith sedition.Democraticrevolutionsinmanycitiesledtobanishmentsandexecutions, andaleaguewasformedconsistingofMantinea,Tegea,andthecommunitiesof southernandcentralArcadia.InevitablySpartaopposedthenewfederation,butit receivedthesupportnotonlyofThebesbutofthevariousstates 340 ithadmanagedtogatherunderitsleadership:whenEpaminondasarrivedinthe Peloponnesushisarmyamountedtoatleastfortythousandmen.Thoughthisforce wasunabletotakethecityofSparta,itravagedLaconia,somethingthathadnever happenedpreviously.Mostimportant,itsucceededintheliberationofMessenia. Helotswerenowcitizens,andthenewcapitalofMessenewasfoundedonMount Ithome.EpaminondasalsofoundedanewcapitalfortheArcadianLeague, Megalopolis.ThisnewfoundationbecamethemeetingplaceoftheCouncilofFifty thatrepresentedthecommunitiesoftheleagueinproportiontotheirpopulation,and oftheAssemblyofTenThousand,inwhichallleaguecitizenscouldparticipate.This developmentindexedagrowinginterestinexperimentingwithamicablefederations. (SodidthefoundingoftheSecondAthenianConfederacy,thoughitsprofessed egalitarianismseemstohavebrokendownovertheyears.) Withinafewyearsandwithcomparativelylittlelossoflife,Thebesunder EpaminondasandPelopidasmanagedtoaccomplishwhatgenerationsofAthenians couldnot,fightanddieastheymight.Spartawasfinishedasaninternationalpower. JasonofPherae,adangerousallywithseriousaspirationsofhisown,was assassinatedin370.TheremainingthreattoThebanexpansionwastheAthenian navy.Epaminondasbuiltafleetandcapitalizedongrowingrestlessnessinthe AthenianleaguetobringsomeofAthensalliesovertohisside,butthecostand laborofsupportinganavywasultimatelyunmanageable,andtheThebansfound themselvesoverextended.PelopidaswaskilledfightinginThessaly.Fearingthe

collapseoftheBoeotianLeague,theThebansmarchedagainstrestiveOrchomenos anddestroyedit,killingthemenandenslavingthewomenandchildren. Forallhispersonalmagnetism,EpaminondasseemedtohavenoplanforGreece beyondreplacingAthenianandSpartanimperialismwithThebanimperialism.His supportinthePeloponnesuswaswaning:anumberofArcadiancommunitiesallied withAchaea,Elis,Athens,andSpartaagainstThebes.Marchingsouth,Epaminondas triedtotakeSpartabysurprisebyanightmarchbutfailed.Finallyhemetthe allianceontheplainofMantinea(362BC).DeployingthesamestrategyasatLeuctra andoutnumberingtheenemybysometenthousandmen,theThebanswere victorious,butEpaminondashimselfwaskilledandwithhisdyingbreathcounseled hiscountrymentomakepeace.UltimatelyThebesgainednothingbyitsdecadeof militaryascendancy.IthadfailedtoinspireloyaltyorunifyGreeceinanyproductive way.ThoughtheliberationofMesseniawascertainlypleasantfortheMessenians andoffersacertainsatisfactiontotheenemiesofslaveryinalltimesandplaces,by knockingoutSpartaasamilitarypowerEpaminondasperformedagreatserviceto PhilipofMacedon,thefutureconquerorofGreecesomethingforwhichnotall Greekswouldultimatelybegrateful. DisaffectionintheSecondAthenianConfederacy InhisnavaloperationsEpaminondastookadvantageofgrowingunrestinthe Athenianalliance.Ambiguitiesintheevidencehavelefthistoriansdividedastojust howhonorablytheAtheniansadheredtothefairsoundingprinciplessetout 341 inthedecreeofAristoteles.Itseemslikelythatattheveryleastthepassingoftime fosterederosion.Somecleruchiesappeartohavebeenestablishedinviolationofthe prohibitionagainstAtheniansowningpropertyinalliedterritory.Particularlyunder theirembarrassinglyviolentandungovernablegeneralChares,theAtheniansdid sometimesinterveneindomesticaffairs.ThefourthcenturyhistorianTheopompus wasquicktoobservesarcasticallythattheuseofthewordsyntaxeis(contributions) clothedtheoldtributeinaeuphemismthatfoolednobody.Resentmentgrewwhen theAtheniansdivertedleaguefundstooperationsthatbenefitedAthensalone,such astheconstantoperationsintheareaaroundAmphipolis,wherethestrugglefor preciousnaturalresourcescontinued. Revoltsfromtheleague,however,werefrequentlyconnectedwithoutsideagitators Epaminondas,forone,whodealttheAtheniansaseriousblowbydetaching Byzantium,andsubsequentlyMausolus.TechnicallyasatrapofthePersianking,in factMausolusoperatedasanindependentrulerofthemountainousregionofCaria insouthwestAsiaMinorthatlaysouthoftheMaeanderRiver.TheCariansclaimed tobeindigenous,butbyMausolusdaytheywereHellenized,fortheareaincluded

theGreekcitiesofCnidusand,mostimportantly,Halicarnassus,thehomeof Herodotus.MausolusdecisiontomovehiscapitaltoHalicarnassusfromtheCarian cityofMylasaprobablysignaledhisidentificationwithHellenism;Greeksculptors workedonthehugetombthathewasconstructingforhimself(theMausoleum, whenceourEnglishword)andthathiswifeArtemisiafinishedafterhisdeath.Eager todevelopCariasmaritimecapabilities,MausolussawtheAthenianleagueasa seriousobstacletohisambitions.TheislandofCos,whichblockedtheharborat Halicarnassus,wasamemberoftheleague.AsubstantialAtheniancleruchy, moreover,stoodonnearbySamos.Mausolussolutionwastoencouragetheunrest hehadnoticedamongoligarchsinalliedstatesgovernedbydemocracies.In357, afterreceivingpromisesofCarianbacking,Rhodes,Cos,andChiosrevoltedfrom Athens.SoapparentlydidByzantium,thoughthereissomequestionwhetherthe ByzantineshadeverreallyreturnedtotheAthenianalliancesincetheyhaddefected toEpaminondasinthe360s. AllAthensmostprominentgeneralsweresenteasttosquelchthisuprising,whichis generallyknownastheSocialWarfromtheLatinwordforally,socius(thesameroot thatappearsinassociate,andsociety).CharesandChabriaswentfirst,but ChabriaswaspromptlykilledtryingtoforcehiswayintotheharboratChios. IphicratesandTimotheusweredispatchedthefollowingyearandtogetherwith CharespreparedtomeettherebelfleetoffthelittleislandofEmbatathatstood betweenChiosandthemainland.WhenTimotheusandIphicratesdeclinedto engagebattlebecauseofbadweather,Charesattackedanyway.Withoutthebacking ofhiscolleagues,hesufferedsubstantiallosses,andhelateraccusedIphicratesand TimotheusoftreasonattheexithearingsknownaseuthynaithatallAthenian officialshadtoundergouponleavingoffice.Iphicrateswasacquitted,butTimotheus wasfinedsuchalargesumthathewasforcedtogointoexilesincehecouldnotpay it,andhediedsoonafterward. 342 Latein355orearlyin354Athensmadepeace,inpartbecauseofiratethreatsfrom thenewPersiankingArtaxerxesIII,whohadsucceededArtaxerxesIIin358.Chares wasrecalledandtheindependenceofByzantium,Chios,Rhodes,andCoswas recognized.SoonLesbosandseveralotherstatesalsobrokeawayfromthe confederation.ThesanitizedDelianLeaguehadnotenduredmorethanageneration. ThoughtheAthenianconfederacycontinuedtoexist,itwasseverelycrippled.Inthe end,PhilipwasthebeneficiaryofMausolusagitation,ashewasofthefailedTheban imperialismthathadbrokenthepowerandprestigeofSparta. LAWANDDEMOCRACYINATHENS

ThebodythattriedTimotheusandIphicrateswhenCharesaccusedthemmayhave beentheassembly,butitcouldjustaswellhavebeenoneofthepeoplescourts knownasdicasteries(dikastria).ThepeoplescourtswerecentraltotheAthenian democracy.Atheniansocietywasnotoriouslylitigious,andinthehandsof unscrupulouspoliticianscourtcasesoftenbecametoolsoffactionalstrife.Trialsof impeachedofficialsstrategoiinparticularwerefrequentlyofapoliticalnature,for impeachmentatAthenswasoftenusedasaforumforadebateonforeignpolicy. Sincedecreesproposedintheassemblycouldbechallengedbythegraphparanomn (indictmentforillegalproposals),itcanbearguedthatinfourthcenturyAthensthe dicasteriesratherthantheekklesiaweretheultimatearbitersofpolicy.Inthe absenceofasupremecourtorabodyofjurisconsults,dicasterieswerealsothe arbitersoflaw.Courtswerealsoused,ofcourse,intheadjudicationofprivate lawsuitsandcriminalcaseswithnopoliticalramifications. TheFunctioningofDicasteries Allmalecitizensovertheageof30wereeligibletoserveondicasteries,anddicasts (jurors)werechoseneachyearbylotfromthosewhovolunteered.Aswesawin Chapter6,toensurethatthecompositionofthecourtswouldreflectthevotersof Athens,Pericleshadinstitutedpayforjuryservice.Thethreeobolsaday,orhalfthe averagewageofalaborer,doubtlessattractedthepoor,whocouldnotearnthree obolsanotherway,aswellascomfortablyretiredoldermenwhoenjoyedthe opportunitytositwiththeirfellowcitizensinsituationsthatoftenoffered spellbindingentertainment.Perhaps,then,itwasnotasrepresentativeasPericles hadhoped.Thenumberofdicastsallocatedtoagivencasevariedusuallyfrom201 to501(oddnumberspreventedatie),althoughalargerbodymightbeusedforhigh profiletrialsofapoliticalnature,andsomeimportantpoliticaltrialswereheldinthe assemblyitself.Largejuriesweredesignedinparttoinvolvelargenumbersof citizensindecisionmaking,inparttodiscouragebribery.Furtherobstaclesto briberyincludedanelaboratemechanismtose 343 lectjuriesbylotandthecustomofchoosingthematthelastpossiblemomentbefore thetrial.Smallplaques,eachinscribedwithadicastsname,wereinsertedintoa klrotrion,anallotmentdevicethatdistributedthenameshaphazardlyamongthe dailyjuries.Votingwasbysecretballot.Eachdicastwasgiventwopebblesorbronze discs,oneofwhichhadaholepunchedthroughit;aheraldwouldproclaimthatthe pebblewiththeholeisavotefortheprosecutor,andthewholepebbleavoteforthe defendant.Tocasthisvotehewouldthrowtheonehewantedtobecountedintoa copperreceptacleanddiscardtheotherpebbleintothewoodenone.

AsthecaseofSocratesreveals,thedicastsalsodeterminedthepenalty.Precedents werenotbinding,soeachjurywassovereign.ThedecisionofanAthenianjurywas final.Therecouldbenoappealtoahighercourtortothepeople,foranAthenian dicasterywasboththehighestcourtandthepeople.Consequentlydicastsfunctioned asjudgesaswellasjurors. MurderandtheCourts TheearliestknownlawsinAthensandthosethatremainedunchangedforthe longesttimeconcernedhomicide.SincetheGreeksbelievedthatmurderoffended thegods,therewerereligioussanctionsagainsthomicide,andanyone Figure9.2a.Thisfragmentremainstogiveussomeideaofthefunctioningofthe kleroterionorallotmentdevicethatassignedjurorstodicasteries. 344 whokilledanotherpersonoutsideofwartimewasconsideredpolluted.Atthesame timeapressingreligiousandsocialobligationlayuponthemalenextofkinto avengeadeathbykillingtheperpetrator,evenifanactofhomicidehadbeen involuntary,say,astheresultofahuntingaccident.Inaccordancewithbasic principlesofvendettasthatoperateacrossmanysocieties,therefore,onehomicide couldevolveintoanunendingseriesofretaliations.TheAtheniansclaimedtohave foundedthefirstlawcourtintheworldwhenAgamemnonssonOrestescameto AthensfromArgosseekingabsolutionforthemurderofhismother,whomhehad killedinordertoavengehisslainfather.TheBronzeAgemyththatAeschylushad fleshedoutinhisOresteiahadofferedtheplaywrightanopportunitytoexplainhow lawhadcometoreplacefamilyfeudinjustsuchacase.ThecourtoftheAreopagus inAthensadjudicatedthecase,markingthehistorictransferofjurisdictionfromthe familytothestate. Apersonalelement,however,remained,foraccusationsofhomicidehadtobe broughtbyfamilymembers.Thus,whilethemurderofaslavebyhisorhermaster mightbeillegal,prosecutionwasunlikelyintheabsenceofacitizenrelativewho couldbringcharges.ThroughoutAthenianhistory,selfhelpremainedacentral principleinlaw.(Italsoextendedtohelpingfriendsandrelationsinawidevarietyof instances.Citizenswereexpectedtoshowbothfriendshipandcivicmindednessby bringingcasesonbehalfofotherswhowerewronged,suchasorphansorgirlsof marriageableagewithoutdowries.) BesidestheAreopagustherewerefouradditionalvenuesformurdertrials.Thecourt ofthePalladionwasusedforunpremeditatedkillings,theDelphinionforjustifiable ones(i.e.,homicidescommittedinselfdefense,orbyamanwhodiscovered

someoneintheveryactofhavingintercoursewithhiswife,mother,sister,or daughter).ThePrytaneionhandledcasesofunidentifiedmurderersandcasesin whichananimaloranobjectsuchasafallingrooftilehadcausedadeath.Finally, thosewhowerealreadysentencedtoexileforhomicideandwereontrialforan additionalmurderhadtopleadtheircasesonaboatoffthecoastofPhreattotoavoid pollutingthelandofAttica. ConductofCases Theseriousnessofthechargesdictatedtheamountoftimeallocatedtoatrial,and theminutesweremeasuredoutbyawaterclock.Theconductofcasesdifferedfrom thoseinmodernwesterncourtsinthattheGreeksreliedheavilyonthetestimonyof witnessesnotonlyastothefactsbutalsoastothecharacterofthedefendant.Itwas customaryforwitnessestotestifytothevirtuesoftheaccusedandthepublicservices hehadperformedortothecalamitieshisfamilywouldexperienceifhewas convicted.Thoughrulesoftimewerestringentlyobserved,rulesofevidencewere few,anddefendantsthemselveswerenotdiscouragedfromspeechifyingabouttheir pastservicestothepolisorfromparadingtheirvulnerablechildrenbeforethejury. Evenaftertheadventofwriting,Greeksremainedsomewhatsuspiciousoftexts,and jurorsusuallytrustedthetestimonygivenbywitnessesunderoathmorethan writtenevidence;theyunder 345 Figure9.2b.Inthisklepsydra,orwaterclock,waterdrainedfromtheupper vesseltothelowerone.Ittookseveralminutesforavesseltoempty.Tenvessels wereallocatedforcasesinvolvinglargesumsofmoney. stoodthatadocumentsuchasawillcouldbeforged.Slaveswereoftentheoptimal witnesses,fortheywereubiquitousandoftenobligedtoassisttheirownersinillicit activities.Theoretically,thetestimonyofslaveswasadmissibleonlyifithadbeen givenundertorture,butweareuncertainhowoftensuchtorturewasactually inflicted.Followingaguiltyverdict,prosecutoranddefendantproposedalternate penalties,asinthecaseofSocrates,andthejurydecidedbetweenthetwo.The principleofselfhelpalsomeantthatinprivate,orcivil,casestheprosecutorhadto executethejudgmenthimself.WhentheoratorDemosthenessucceededin convincingajurythathisguardianshaddissipatedthefortunehisfatherhadleft,it washisownresponsibilitytotrytocollectthemissingfundsandproperty. PoliticsintheCourts WithafewnotableexceptionssuchasthetrialofSocrates,onthewholethe Atheniansobservedtheamnestyof403.Insignificantmeasuretheremarkable

stabilityoffourthcenturyAthenswasthelegacyofCritiasandhiscompanions,for theThirtyhaddisgracedthenameofoligarchyinsuchathoroughgoingwaythat nobodydaredhintatitsrevival.Previouslyoligarchyandtyrannyhadbeendistinct concepts.Now,however,theyhadcometobeindissolublylinkedinmostAthenian minds,adevelopmentthatguaranteedthehealthofthedemocracy. Still,avarietyofpolicyandfactionaldisputesgaverisetopoliticalandquasipolitical trials.AlargeproportionofAthenianpublicofficialsfoundthemselves 346 incourtatsomepointintheirlivesaseitheraccusersordefendants.Thishadbeen trueinthefifthcentury,whenMiltiades,Aristides,Themistocles,Cimon,Pericles, Alcibiades,andahostoflessfamousofficialsfoundthemselvesimpeachedor ostracized,anditremainedthecaseinthefourthwithafewdifferences:notall importantpublicfiguresservedasgeneral,andthegrapheparanomonhadreplaced ostracismasaweaponthatcouldbeusedagainstthosewhohappenedtoholdno office.Sometrialstookplaceinfrontofregulardicasteries,otherinfrontofthe demosassembledintheekklesia.Factorsthatgaverisetosuchtrialsincluded genuinesuspicionofincompetenceortreason,factionaldisputes,andselfprotective behaviorofvariouskinds.Inthefourthcenturyasinthefifth,moreover,important menmightbringaccusations.Iphicrateswasinvolvedinaccusationsagainst Timotheus;TimotheusandIphicrateswereimpeachedbyChares. TheAthenianDemocracyintheFourthCentury Thesurvivalofsomanyspeechesandinscriptionsfromthefourthcenturyenablesus toseeAtheniandemocracyinactionmorevividlyinthisperiodthanwaspossible forthefifthcentury.Insomewaysthedemocracychangedaftertherestorationof 403,particularlyintheconstitutionofvariousadhocboardsofnomothetai(creators oflaws)toapproveandreviewlegislation.Thefundamentalprinciples,however, remainedthesame.Allfreeadultmaleshadatheoreticallyequalrighttoparticipate ingovernmentregardlessofdifferentialprestigeandeconomicstanding.Women andslaveswereexcluded,anditwasdifficultforresidentaliensortheirchildrento becomecitizens.Onlymenwithtwocitizenparentscouldvote.Wealthand illustriousancestryweredistinctadvantagesinseekingpublicoffice.Boastingof yourbenefactionstothestatewasagoodstrategyifyouneededtodefendyourself incourt,whichwasoftenthecaseinthislitigioussociety.AlthoughSolonsfour classeswereneverformallyabolished,itisclearthatatleastbythemiddleofthe fourthcenturypublicofficeswereopentomenofallgroups.Manythetesand zeugitaiwereselectedforofficeschosenbylot,suchasserviceontheboule.Thus participationingovernmentwaswidelydiffusedthroughoutthecommunityof citizenmales.

JokesinAristophanesplaysrevealachangeinthedynamicsofassemblyattendance. TheAcharnians(425BC)alludestothehabitofropingcitizensinwithacordcovered withredpaintthatwouldsmeartheclothesoftherecalcitrant,butwhenwomen dressasmenandpacktheassemblyintheEcclesiazusae(392BC)untilaquorumis reached,therealmenofAthenscomplainthattheyarrivedtoolatetogettheirpay. Thecarrotreplacedthestickshortlybefore400,whenasalaryofthreeobolswas institutedforattendanceattheassembly.ByAristotlestimeithadbeenraisedtoa drachma(sixobols)foranordinaryassemblyandadrachmaandahalfforthekyria ekklsia,thatis,theprincipalassemblyofaprytany.Atthelevelofassembly attendance,then,thegovernmentofthefourthcenturywassomewhatmore democraticthanthefifth,forahighernumbercouldaffordtotaketimeawayfrom work,thoughitremainedthecasethatattending 347 meetingswaseasierforthosewholivedclosebyandthosewhoworkedfor themselves.Thelargenumberofpoliticalissuesultimatelydecidedinthecourtswas anotherdemocraticelement. Asinthecourts,whereevencriminalcasesdependedonvolunteerprosecutorstoset theminmotion,thevoluntaryprincipleplayedakeyroleintheassembly.Inthe absenceoforganizedpoliticalparties,concernedcitizenstookituponthemselvesto initiatelegislation.Nowelldefinedgroupofofficeholderssawitselforwasseenby othersasclearlymarkedofffromtherestofthepopulace.Bypoliticianspeople simplymeantthosewhomostenjoyedmakingproposalsintheassemblyandgiving speechesintheirsupport.Theimportanceoforatoryanddebatetothefunctioningof thedemocraticsystemisattestedintheGreekwordthatcomesclosesttoourword politician:rhtr.Sincerhtoressharedcommoninterestsandhabits,nodoubt peoplewerecomfortableidentifyingaparticularcitizentheymightseewalking downthestreetasoneoftherhetores,butitisimportanttorememberthatthere wasnoofficialboardofrhetorestowhichsuchmenbelonged.Todayitwouldbe peculiartoidentifysomeonewhodidnotholdpublicofficeasapolitician,butthe Athenianssawnothingstrangeaboutit.Itwaspreciselybecauseofthepower privatecitizenscouldgainthroughskillfuloratorythattheAtheniansmadesureto havethegrapheparanomononthebookstoensuretheaccountabilityevenofthose whotookpartinpublicaffairswithoutholdingoffice.Thoseconvictedofproposing somethingillegalweregenerallyfined;threeconvictionsdeprivedacitizenofthe righttomakefurtherproposals. ThefrustrationsofAthensimperialistventures,theexacerbationofclasstensions, andtheriseofindividualismallplayedaroleinthecreationofanewphenomenon atAthens:alargeclassofwealthymenwhochosenottoinvolvethemselvesin politics.Thoughthisiscommonenoughtoday,whenevenamongtheelite

participationinnationalaffairstendstobelimitedtoasmallfraction,this developmentwasnoteworthyinfourthcenturyAthens,forduringtheprevious centurymenfromaffluentfamiliesnormallyhadchosentostandforthehighoffices theyconsideredappropriatetotheirstatus.NowaftertheruinousPeloponnesian Warthequietismsomehadalwayschosenbecamemorewidespread.TheAthenian system,however,stillguaranteedthatcivicresponsibilitywouldbesharedbyalarge groupthehundredswhosatontheboule(stillaoneyearterm),thethousandswho servedasdicastsandattendedmeetingsoftheekklesia,andthehundredswhosat foradayinanewbodythatwasperiodicallyconstitutedtoinspectandpasslaws, thenomothetai.Socrateswascertainlyontosomethingimportantintheideologyof Atheniandemocracywhenhecomplainedthatitmeantgovernmentbyamateurs: becausemanyGreeksweresomewhatsuspiciousofprofessionalismandconsidered itincompatiblewithgoodbreeding,Atheniandemocracywasrunlargelybypeople whodevotedonlyafractionoftheirtimetopolitics.Itisimportanttoremember, however,thattheignorantanduntalentedwerediscouragedfrominvolving themselvesinpublicaffairsbytheAtheniansrelentlessuseofthemachineryof accountabilityagainstanyonewhochosetomountthespeakersplatform,letalone holdastateoffice; 348 andtheprinciplesofselectionbylotandfrequentrotationinofficemeantagood dealofhandsontraininginthebusinessofgovernment. THEFOURTHCENTURYPOLIS AlthoughthebulkofourevidencecomesfromAthens,mostGreeks,ofcourse,lived inotherstates.Inthefourthcenturyasinthefifth,someGreekpoleisweregoverned bydemocracies,othersbyoligarchiesthatvariedintheirnarrowness.Ashadalways beenthecaseinGreece,unevendistributionofwealthfosteredeverpresenttensions thatthreatenedconstantlytoeruptanddisturbthetenuousconcordthatunited citizens,andchangesofconstitutionwerefrequent.Althoughwarfareremaineda factoflife,manypeopleweresickofitandhadcometoquestionitsefficacyin improvingtheirlives.Whilesomepoorercitizenscontinuedtowelcomewarforthe payitofferedtorowersinthefleet,thosewhohadlandorcommercetoprotectwere hesitant.Nolongerdidwarseemtopromiseeitherthetangiblerewardsofbootyor theintangibleonesofgloryandprestige.Theidealofthecitizensoldierwaswearing thin,andanincreasingshareofthefightingwasconductedbymercenariesfrom outside.Agricultureremainedthebasisoftheeconomy,butthedevastationofthe landduringthePeloponnesianWarhadfosteredadrifttothecities.Bythrowing peopletogether,thisdevelopmentheightenedtheawarenessofeconomicinequality andsharpenedclassbitterness.PlatoandhispupilAristotlebothtookitforgranted thatapolisconsistedinrealityoftwocities,oneofthemanypoorandoneofthefew

rich.ThedivisionofcitizensintohavesandhavenotsthathadalwaysmarkedGreek stateswasexacerbatedinthefourthcenturybytheincreasedpovertyofthehave nots,bringinglatenttensionstothesurfacewheretheycouldnolongerbeignored. Stasis Wheretheeconomywasmostprosperousandfamiliesfromthelowerclasseshad thebestchanceofremainingabovethepovertylevel,stasismightbeavoided,aswas thecaseindemocraticAthens,thestableststateofthefourthcentury.Manypoleis withlargeconcentrationsofpoorpeople,however,wereconsumedwithcivilstrife; XenophonHellenicamentionsoverthirtyinstances.Bloodshedwascommon,and religiouspietieswereoftenignored.In392Corinthiandemocratsviolatedthe sanctityoftemplesbymurderingoligarchswhohadtakenrefugethere.Diodorus reportsrevolutionsinCorinth,Sicyon,andPhliusandXenophonrecordedserious tensionsinTegea,Phlius,Sicyon,Pellene,andElis.Diodorus,whosharedthe antidemocraticorientationofmostancientwriters,tookacertainsatisfactionin relatingthetortureandmurderoftheelitebyArgivedemocratsin371,whenclass tensionseruptedwithviolenceexceptionalevenbyGreekstandards.Afterthe executionoftwelvehundredinfluentialmen,Diodoruscontends, 349 thepopulacedidnotsparethedemagoguesthemselves.Forbecauseofthe magnitudeofthecalamitythedemagogueswereafraidthatsomeunforeseenturnof fortunemightovertakethemandthereforedesistedfromtheiraccusation,whereas themob,nowthinkingthattheyhadbeenleftinthelurchbythem,wereangryat thisandputtodeathallthedemagogues.Sothesemenreceivedthepunishment whichfittedtheircrimesasifsomedivinitywerevisitingitsjustresentmentupon them,andthepeople,easedoftheirmadrage,wererestoredtotheirsenses. (LibraryofHistory15.58.4;Sherman1952) Internalstrifewasexacerbatedbytensionsamongpoleis.Thusforexampleacertain EuphrongainedpoweratSicyonbyplayingonantiSpartanfeelinginthe Peloponnesus:HetoldtheArgivesandtheArcadians,Xenophonwrites,thatifthe menofthewealthyclassesremainedincontrolofSicyon,quiteobviouslythecity would,atthefirstopportunity,goovertoSpartaagain.Butif,hesaid,Ia democraticgovernmentissetup,youcanbesurethatthecitywillremainloyalto you(Hellenica7.1.44;Warner1979).Outsidehelpwasvaluableinstasis.InElis, Xenophonreports,whiletheEleanswereatwarwiththeArcadians,thedemocrats enlistedtheArcadianshelpinseizingtheacropolis.Assistancemightalsocome fromthelargepoolofavailablemercenaries,suchasthosewhohelpedEuphron regainpowerinSicyon.

BothAthensandSpartausedtheprevailingdiscordanddemoralizationtogood rhetoricaleffectinarguingfortheirownhegemony.Thosewhowouldreject AthenianhegemonyinfavoroftheautonomyguaranteedbytheKingsPeace, Isocratesargued,shouldthinkagain: Forwhowoulddesireaconditionofthingswherepiratescommandtheseasand mercenariesoccupyourcities;wherefellowcountrymen,insteadofwagingwarin defenceoftheirterritoriesagainststrangers,arefightingwithintheirownwalls againsteachother;wheremorecitieshavebeencapturedinwarthanbeforewe madethepeace;andwhererevolutionsfollowsothicklyuponeachotherthatthose whoareathomeintheirowncountriesaremoredejectedthanthosewhohavebeen punishedwithexile? (Panegyricus116117;Norlin1966) Document9.1IsocratesputssimilarargumentsaboutSpartanhegemonyinthe mouthofArchidamusIII,thesonofAgeslaus.Evenallowingforaconsiderable degreeofrhetoricalexaggeration,thepictureoflifeinthePeloponnesusissobering. NotonlythepeopleofthePeloponnesusingeneralbuteventheadherentsof democracy,whomweconsidertobeespeciallyunfriendlytous,arealready yearningforourprotection.Forbyrevoltingfromustheyhavegainednothingof whattheyanticipated;onthecontrary,theyhavegotjust 350 theoppositeoffreedom...;andthewaroffactions,ofwhoseexistenceinother territoriestheyusedtoknowonlybyreport,theynowseewagedalmosteveryday intheirownstates.Theyhavebeensolevelledbytheirmisfortunesthatnomancan discernwhoamongthemarethemostwretched;fornotoneoftheirstatesis unscathed,notonebuthasneighboursreadytodoitinjury....Theyfeelsuch distrustandsuchhatredofoneanotherthattheyfeartheirfellowcitizensmorethan theenemy;insteadofpreservingthespiritofaccord[homonoia]andmutual helpfulnesswhichtheyenjoyedunderourrule,theyhavebecomesounsocialthat thosewhoownpropertyhadratherthrowtheirpossessionsintotheseathanlend aidtotheneedy,whilethosewhoareinpoorercircumstanceswouldlessgladlyfind atreasurethanseizethepossessionsoftherich;havingceasedsacrificingvictimsat thealtarstheyslaughteroneanotherthereinstead;andmorepeopleareinexilenow fromasinglecitythanbeforefromthewholeofthePeloponnesus. Archidamus6467;translatedbyGeorgeNorlin,inIsocratesvol.1.Londonand Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress,1966,p.387.

Beginninglateinthefifthcentury,Greekintellectualshadbeguncallingfor homonoia(concord,)amongcitizens,butthefrequencywithwhichtheappealwas maderevealsthediscordantreality:infacttheslogancaughtonduringthe contentiousdaysofthePeloponnesianWar.Inpraisingtheruleoflaw,Socrateshad insistedinthepagesofXenophonMemorabiliathatthroughoutGreecehomonoia wasadvocatedbythebestmen(thearistoi).Aristotle,however,tookadarkerand morerealisticview.Insomestatesofhisownday,hewroteinthePolitics,the oligarchsinchargetakeanoathtobehostiletothedemosandplotwhateverevil possibleagainstthepeople(1310a). Notallpoleiswereconstantlytornapartbystasisanddebilitatedbyinterpoliswars. Sincetheprincipalcauseofinternalweaknessandvulnerabilitytooutsideattackwas thefrustrationsofthepoor,prosperitymightactasapowerfuldeterrent.Megara withitsbriskwoolentradeflourishedthroughoutthefourthcentury,andcivilstrife wasrare.Theprogressoftheeconomywasfacilitatedbypeacewithotherpoleis:the alliancebetweenCorinthandAthensduringtheCorinthanWareliminatedMegaras pivotalpositionininterpolisdiplomacy,andtheMegariansseemtohavepreserved theirneutralitythroughoutthatwar.Megarianwoolensfoundeagermarkets throughoutGreece.Sheepgrazedinabundance,andlargenumbersofslaves, probablymostlyfemale,turnedoutwellmadeandinexpensivegarments.The privatehomesofMegarawereknownfortheirelegance,andavarietyofmonuments decoratedthecity.TheAtheniansculptorPraxiteles(370329BC)produced numerousstatuesofthegodsforthesanctuariesofArtemisandApolloandthe templeofAphrodite.Scopas,whocontributedtotheMausoleuminCaria,also workedinMegara.ExactlywhatkindofgovernmentfourthcenturyMegaraenjoyed isuncertainPlatopraised 351 itbutdidnotdescribeitbutitseemsatleasttohavebeenfairlystable.Megarawas not,however,entirelyimmunetotheendemicstasisofthefourthcentury,for Diodorusreportsanabortiveuprisinginthe370s. MarginalizedWorkersintheEconomy Theeconomyofeachpoliswasdifferent,butthroughoutGreeceprestigeattachedto somekindsofworkmorethantoothers.Becausesocialprejudicesfavoredself sufficiencythroughfarming,ormakingmoneybysellingtheproduceofonesland, freecitizenstendedtoavoidinvolvementincommerceandbanking,turningover theseactivitiestometicsandslaves.Suchworkersbecameimportantinthefourth centuryandoftenmadeconsiderablefortunes,foronephenomenonthat distinguishedthepolisofthefourthcenturyfromthatofthefifthwastheriseof banking.

Bankownerstrustedslavestomanagethedailyoperationsofbanksindependently andeventotravelwithlargesumsofcash.Suchslaveswerehighlyskilled,usually literate,andveryvaluable.Aslavewhomanagedabankcouldbecompletely responsibleforhismastersproperty.Therefore,amastermightwriteawillfreeing hisbankmanageronconditionthathemarryhiswidowandmanagehisbankin behalfofhisminorchildren.Manumittedslavesbecamemetics.Someofthese metics,includingacertainPasioandPhormio,wereamongthewealthiestAthenians ofthefourthcentury.Ingratitudefortheirgenerousbenefactionstothestate,Athens rewardedthemwithcitizenship.Thusslavesinbankingmightexperiencerapid socialmobility. Thestigmathatattachedtoworkingforsomeoneelsewasgreaterforwomenthan formen;fewwomenchosetoworkoutsidethehomeunlesscompelledtodosoby poverty.Inthefourthcenturyasinthefifth,however,somewomendidworkat servicejobsoutsidetheirhomes.Slavewomenweresometimesrentedoutbytheir owners,andformerslaves,metics,andevencitizenwomeninstraitenedfinancial circumstancesworkedatavarietyofjobs.Somehiredthemselvesoutasnursesfor otherwomenschildren;somesoldgoodsinthemarketplace;andolderwomenoften servedashiredmournersatfunerals.Althoughunacceptableforcitizenwomen, prostitutionwasprobablytheworkdonemostfrequentlybywomenoutsidethe home.Somewereputtoworkwhentheywerestillchildren.InCorinth,Nicarete,a formerslave,purchasedyounggirlsfromslaveholdersandtrainedthemfortheir work: Nicarete,whowasthefreedwomanofCharisiusofElisandthewifeofhiscook Hippias,boughtsevengirlswhentheyweresmallchildren.Shewasanastutejudge ofnaturalbeautyinlittlegirlsandfurthermoresheunderstoodhowtobringthem upandtrainthemskillfully,forshemadethisherprofessionandgotherlivelihood fromthegirls.Sheusedtoaddressthemasdaughters,implyingthattheywerefree women,sothatshemightextractthelargestfeesfromthosewhowishedtogetclose tothem.Whenshehadreapedtheprofitoftheyouth 352 fulprimeofeach,shesoldallsevenofthem:Anteia,Stratola,Aristocleia,Metaneira, Phila,Isthmias,andthisNeaerahere... Neaera...wasworkingwithherbody,althoughshewasstillveryyoung,forshe hadnotyetreachedpuberty. (PseudoDemosthenes,59.1820;Murray1936) Neaerasfurtheradventuresarealsodetailedinthisspeech,whichisincludedinthe corpusofDemosthenesalthoughitwasalmostcertainlywrittenbysomeoneelse.

TwoofNeaerasclientspurchasedherfromNicaretetobetheirslave.Butwhen thesemenwereabouttomarry,theyofferedNeaeratheopportunitytobuyher freedom.Neaeraborrowedherpurchasepricefromformerclients,andrepaidthem fromherearningsasafreeprostitute.Herattemptatsocialmobilitywasquashed, however,whenshemovedtoAthens,marriedacertainStephanus,andpretendedto beanAtheniancitizen.Apollodorus,anenemyofStephanus(whohadbrought againsthimoneindictmentforanillegalproposalandanotherformurder),brought hertotrialforfalseassumptionofcitizenrights.HealsochargedStephanuswith livingwithanonAthenianwomanasthoughshewerehiswife,andwithgiving NeaerasdaughterinmarriagetoanAtheniancitizenasbeinghisowndaughterborn fromacitizenwoman. PHILOSOPHYANDTHEPOLIS ThechangingpoliticalsituationintheGreekworldhelpedshapeGreekthoughtin eachnewgeneration,andtheproblemsofthefourthcenturypoliswereno exception.PhilosophyevolvedwiththepolisandsurviveditwhenPhilipof Macedonbroughtthefreedomoftheindependentcitystatestoanendin338BC. TheGreekwordphilosophosmeansaloverofwisdom,andformanyyearsbefore PlatoandAristotlefoundedtheirfamousschoolsinAthens,Greekthinkershad takendelightinsearchingfortheunderlyingprinciplesthatshapedthecosmosand determinedthelifehumansmadeinit.Democrituscontendedthathewouldrather findtheexplanationforasinglephenomenonthangainthekingdomofPersia.The trulyprosperousman,Empedoclessaid,isonewhoenjoystherichesofadivine intelligence.Philosopherscameinmanyshapes.ThinkerslikeThalesand Anaximanderfocusedonthenaturalworld.OtherslikeHerodotusandThucydides usedthewritingofhistoryasavehiclefortheirideasaboutthehumancondition, whilestillothersexpressedthemthroughdramasasdidAeschylus,Sophocles,and Euripides.Intime,PlatowouldwritedialoguesandAristotletreatises.These innovativethinkersexploredtheareasthatstillmakeupphilosophytodayethics, logic,epistemology(thephilosophyofknowledge),metaphysics(thescienceof being),aesthetics,theology,philosophyofscience,andsocialandpoliticaltheory.It wasintherealmofsocialandpoliticaltheorythatphilosophywasmostcloselytied tothepolis.Becausemostsurvivingtextsofpoliticaltheorywerecomposedin democraticAthens,onemightimaginethat 353 theypraiseddemocracy.Infact,theoppositeistrue:theprincipaltextsofGreek politicaltheoryweretheworkofintellectualswhowereintenselycriticalof democraticgovernment.Indeed,modernpoliticalscientistshaveobservedthat politicaltheoryliterally,lookingatthecitystatewasinventedtoshowwhy

democracycouldnotpossiblywork.Itistheworkingsofdemocracyitselfthatreveal theideologybehindit. DemocracyandPoliticalTheory TheOldOligarchhaddefendedAtheniandemocracywithbitingironyasa beautifullyefficientwayofguaranteeingthesuppressionofoneclassbyanother,but nosurvivingtexttreatsthedynamicsofdemocracyinapositiveway.Reconstructing thetheorybehinddemocracyfromwrittentextsrequiresassemblingpatchesfroma varietyofsourcesthatengagetheissueonlyobliquely.Thucydidesversionof PericlesfuneralorationgivesusasenseofwhattheAtheniansatanyrateprizedin theirgovernment.AtAthens,Periclessays,worthisassessedintermsofability,not wealthorclass.Atheniansconsiderremainingalooffrompoliticsavice,notavirtue. Theyviewdebateasanaidtoconstructiveaction,notahindrance. JustasThucydides,whowasnotparticularlysympathetictodemocracy,included Periclesspeechinhishistory,soPlato,oneofdemocracyssharpestcritics,included astatementofdemocraticideologyinhisdialogueProtagoras.Therethefamous sophisttellsaquaintmythinsupportofhisthesisthatallpeoplepossessthe rudimentsofcivicmindedness.Inearliesttimes,Protagorassays,peoplewere unabletolivetogetherconstructivelyincitiesbecauseoftheirlackofpolitiktechn, theskillofformingandmanagingapolis.Seeingthisandfearingthedestructionof thespecies,ZeussentHermestobringaids(shame)anddike(justice)tomortals. WhenHermesaskedZeuswhethertheseshouldbedistributedtoaselectfew,aswas thecasewiththeartsofmedicineandothertechniques,ortoeveryone,Zeusordered himtogivesometoeverybody,sincecitiescannotbeformedifonlyafewsharein theseskillsastheydointheotherarts.(322D)Itisforthisreason,Protagorassays, thatwhentheAthenianscometogethertomakedecisionsthatrequirethesenseof justicethatgoesintopoliticalwisdomtheytakeadvicefromeverybody,sinceitis heldthatforstatestoexisteveryonemustpartakeofthisexcellence(322E323E). Becausethepolitiketechneisdiffusedthroughoutthecommunity,Protagoras concludes,theAtheniansdorighttowelcomepoliticaladvicefromanyonewhois movedtogiveit.Nowheredoeshesuggestthateveryoneisequallyskilledincivics, buteveryone,heargues,hasatleastalittle. Furthercluesareprovidedinthedozensoforationssurvivingfromthefourth century,whichpraisefreedomofspeech,liberty,equalitybeforethelaw,andthe ruleoflaw.Ourbestcluetothetheoryofdemocracy,however,isitspractice.The AtheniandemocracyitselfrevealswhatmostmeninAthensbelievedabout government:theybelievedinademocracyofmalecitizensthatrequiredactive participationonthepartofthesecitizens,guaranteedbyfrequentrotationinoffice, 354

andtheybelievedthattheaveragemanwasqualifiedtomakepoliticaldecisions,as evidencedbytheuseofthelotandthetakingofimportantdecisionsintheassembly bymajorityvote.Theybelievedintrialbyjury,andtheyfearedthecorruptionthat inheredinsmallgroupsmorethanthemobpsychologythatthreatenedlargeones. Theybelievedthatthepeoplehadtherighttocallitsofficialstoaccountwith regularityandontheslightestpretext.Theybelievedincapitalpunishmentfora widevarietyofoffensesincludingmilitaryincompetenceandtheseductionofthe wives,daughters,andsistersofcitizens.Theybelievedthatthestabilityofthestate wassocrucialthatitwasreasonabletoexileamanfortenyearsunderthesystem knownasostracismevenifhehaddonenothingtobreakthelaw.Theybelievedin slaveryandpatriarchy.Theybelievedthatthecontrolofwomenssexualitywas essentialtothesmoothfunctioningofthecommunityandthatthesequestrationof womenandgirlswasagoodstepinthisdirection.Weknowallthisnotbecausethey wroteitdownbutbecauseofhowtheychosetoruntheirgovernmentandlivetheir lives. WeknowalsothatGreekswhodidnotliveunderdemocraticgovernmentsbelieved intheruleoflaw,whichappearsasapersistentleitmotivintheliteratureofthefifth andfourthcenturies.ItsprominencebeginswiththeeffortsofHerodotusand AeschylustodefineandcelebratewhatitmeanstobeGreek;forthemlivingunder lawplayedakeyroleinshapingthatidentity.Euripidesalsoconnectedlawwith democracyinhisSuppliants,wherehedefinedAthensevenunderTheseusasaplace where Ourcityisnotsubjecttooneman. No,itisfree,forherethepeoplerule. (404406) Underatyranny,onemangoverns,keepingthelawinhisprivatehands,andthereis noequality: Butwhenthelawsarewrittendown,theweak Enjoythesameprotectionastherich. (434435) AlthoughmanyAthenansidentifiedtheirdemocraticconstitutionwiththeruleof law,Greekintellectualssometimessawthingsdifferently.Platofrequentlyidentified democracywithtyranny,andhispupilAristotlecomplainedthatthedecreesofa democraticassemblywerenodifferentfromtheedictsofthetyrant. Plato

ItiscertainlyatributetoAtheniandemocracythatitproduceditsownmostastute critics.AnaristocratfromoneofAthensmostdistinguishedfamiliesandarelativeof theoligarchCritias,PlatobecameadiscipleofSocratesandwasprofoundlyshaken byhisdeath.Thelossofhismentor,however,onlyheightened 355 hiscreativepowers.OverhislifetimePlatocomposednumerousdialogues,inmost ofwhichtheprincipalpartisplayedbyacharacterheidentifiesasSocrates.Whatis beauty?Whatispiety?Whatisjustice?Whatislove?Thesequestionswereexplored inPlatosSocraticdialogues.AsPlatosthinkingevolvedwiththepassingoftime, thisSocrateshadlessandlessincommonwiththehistoricalSocratesandcameto serveasavehicleforPlatosownideas. ChiefamongthesewasthetheoryofForms.PlatosbeliefinFormswasconnectedto hispassionfordefinitions,forbothdependonaconvictionthatdisparateactsand itemscannonethelessbeclassifiedincategoriesthatbeautifulobjectsandactsand ideas,forexample,allhavesomethingincommon.InPlatosview,theyallpartakeof theidealFormofbeauty.Whileabeautifulsunsetmightseemdifferentfroma beautifulmathematicalprooforabeautifulyoungathlete,infactwhattiesthem togetherismoreenduringthanwhatsetsthemapart.Similarlywiththevariousseats thataremundanerepresentationsoftheidealFormofchair,orthevariouspale thingsthatareearthlyexamplesoftheidealFormofwhiteness. TherelationshipofappearancetorealityinPlatosworldviewcanperhapsbebest graspedinthecontextofmathematics.Aringoraprincelydiademortheperimeter ofahopliteshieldmightseemtothecasualobservertobecircles,buttheyarenot circlesinthesamesensethatthelocusofallpointsinagivenplaneequidistantfrom agivenpointisacircle.Theyonlylooklikecircles;ifyouweretoputthemundera magnifyingglassyouwouldseethattheywerenotcirclesatall,merelyobjects vaguelycircularinappearancepreciselybecausetheybringtomindtheFormofthe circle.Onlythecircledepictedinthemathematicaldefinitionisacircle.Somepeople mightsaythattheseconcreteobjectsarerealcircleswhereasthegeometricalconcept isimaginary,butPlatowasnotoneofthesepeople.ForPlato,onlytheconceptis real.Thetangibleobjectsaredebasedcopies,feebleimitationsoftheidealForm. Plato,inotherwords,wasanidealistandadualist.Hebelievedinanopposition betweenthephysicalworldofappearances,whicharedeceptive,andtheintellectual universeofideas,whichrepresentreality.Thefirstistawdryandservesonlyto distractpeoplefromultimatetruth;thesecondisnoble,andtocontemplateit ennobling. InmanywaysPlatowasarevolutionary.Thecloseconnectionbetweenappearance andrealitywasfundamentaltoGreekcivilization.Ifyouarerichandhandsome,

mostofhiscontemporariesbelieved,thenprobablyyouarealsogood;ifyouare poorandugly,probablyyouarebadaswell.Ifeveryoneadmiresyou,thenallis rightwiththeworld;ifyouaredespised,thenyouhavenoreasontogoon.Formost Greekmen,reputation,power,andmaterialsuccesswerecentraltohappiness.Like Socratesbeforehim,whopreferredbeingrighttobeingalive,Platoidentifiedvalues thatweremoreimportantthanbeingwelllikedorenvied.Inhisdialogueon governmentandeducation,TheRepublic,heraisedakeyquestionaboutjustice.Let ussay,heproposed,thatyouhadamagicringthatwouldmakeyouinvisible. Wouldyoupracticejustice,orwouldyoutaketheopportunitytograbasmuch powerandwealthasyoucould,practicinginjusticeinthehappyexpectationof gettingawaywithit? 356 everyoccupationisopentoboth,sofarastheirnaturesareconcernedthough womanisforallpurposestheweaker. Glau.Certainly. Soc.Isthatareasonformakingoveralloccupationstomenonly?Glau.Ofcourse not. Soc.No,becauseonewomanmayhaveanaturalgiftformedicineorformusic, anothermaynot. Glau.Surely. Soc.Isitnotalsotruethatawomanmay,ormaynot,bewarlikeorathletic?Glau.I thinkso. Soc.Andagain,onemayloveknowledge,anotherhateit;onemaybehighspirited, anotherspiritless? Glau.Trueagain. Soc.ItfollowsthatonewomanwillbefittedbynaturetobeaGuardian,anotherwill not;becausethesewerethequalitiesforwhichweselectedourmenGuardians.So forthepurposeofkeepingwatchoverthecommonwealth,womanhasthesame natureasman,saveinsofarassheisweaker.Glau.Soitappears. Soc.Itfollowsthatwomenofthistypemustbeselectedtosharethelifeanddutiesof Guardianswithmenofthesametype,sincetheyarecompetentandofalikenature, andthesamenaturesmustbeallowedthesamepursuits.

Glau.Yes. Soc.Wecomeround,then,toourformerposition,thatthereisnothingcontraryto natureingivingourGuardianswivesthesametrainingformindandbody.The practiceweproposedtoestablishwasnotimpossibleorvisionary,sinceitwasin accordancewithnature.Rather,thecontrarypracticewhichnowprevailsturnsout tobeunnatural. Glau.Soitappears. Soc.Well,wesetouttoinquirewhethertheplanweproposedwasfeasibleandalso thebest.Thatitisfeasibleisnowagreed;wemustnextsettlewhetheritisthebest. Glau.Obviously. Soc.Now,forthepurposeofproducingawomanfittobeaGuardian,weshallnot haveoneeducationformenandanotherforwomen,preciselybecausethenatureto betakeninhandisthesame. Glau.True. TheRepublic455;translatedbyF.M.Cornford,TheRepublicofPlato.LondonandNew York:OxfordUniversityPress,1945. Theguardiansliveswillbeunusualinmanyrespects.Theacquisitiveprinciplethat guidesmostpeoplesactivitieswillbealientothem,forPlatoenvisionsa communisticregimewithintheguardianclass;privateproperty,thoughitexistsfor theothertwoclasses,willbeabolishedforthetopgroup.Norwilltheyhavespouses intheconventionalsenseoftheword.Inshort,theywillhavenooikoi 358 somethingthatmakesthememinentlyunAthenian.Thoughtheywillnotlivein households,however,theguardiansmustreproduceinordertoperpetuatethe system.Anelaboratemathematicalschemewilldictatetemporarycouplings.(Plato wasdeeplyinfluencedbythePythagoreans,andhefoundinmathematicsnotonly theembodimentofperfectabstractionbutelementsofmysticismaswell.)Onceborn oftheseshorttermmarriages,however,childrenwillbemixedinwithalltheother childrenconceivedaroundthesametimeandraisedincommonnurseries.Thusno parentwillknowhisorherownchildandviceversa. Likeotherutopias,Platosisdesignedtodemonstratetheshortcomingsofrealstates. WhetherheeverplannedorevenwishedtoseehisRepublicestablishedisuncertain. WhatisclearishisdislikeoftheexistinggovernmentsinGreece,andparticularlyof

democracy.Tyrannyandoligarchyareeasiesttodismiss;nobodyshouldhavetolive bythewhimsofapowerhungryautocrat,andmoneyisnomeasureofmerit. Democracyishardertodisposeof,butlivingunderagovernmenthedidnotlike galvanizedPlatointoavehementattackonasystemhecategorizedasanagreeable formofanarchymarkedbyanequalityofapeculiarkindforequalsandunequals alike(558C;Cornford1945).Thedebunkingofthesocalledequalityofdemocracy wascommontothethinkingoffourthcenturyintellectuals.AristotleandIsocrates sharedPlatospreferenceforwhattheylabeledproportionalorgeometric equality.Itwastheratiobetweenmeritandprivilege,theyargued,thatoughtto remainconstant.Suchasystemwasfarmoreequitable,theybelieved,thanthe arithmeticequalityofdemocracythataccordedequalprivilegetopeopleof unequalmerit.ForPlato,givingequalpoliticalpowertoallalikewasnodifferent fromgivingallstudentsthesamegraderegardlessoftheirperformanceonpapers andexams. Goodgovernment,Platoconcluded,willnevercomeintobeinguntilphilosophers andrulersareoneandthesame.Tohelpbringthisabout,Platofoundedaschoolhe calledtheAcademybecauseofitslocationbythegrovesoftheancientGreekhero Academus.Theremenstudiedforyearstoachieveanenlightenmentwhich,in Platosview,wouldqualifythemtoparticipateingovernmentbutwhichhe acknowledgedwouldinfactdriveawedgebetweenthemandtheirunenlightened fellowcitizens.FormerstudentsattheAcademyincludedmanyfamous philosophers,astronomers,mathematicians,andevenscientists.Thepresenceof scientistsattheAcademyisatestamenttoitsbreadth,forPlatohimselfwasnot drawntoscience.Howcouldhebe,whenhebelievedthatonlytheeternalmattered thattheformsweretheultimateandonlyreality?Sciencedealswithchangeand withmotion.LikeParmenides,Platoconceivedrealityasunchangingand unchangeable.Withoutamechanismforexplainingchange,Platosidealist philosophywasantitheticaltoscience. Aristotle ItwasPlatosstarpupilAristotlewhofoundedthegreatinstitutionofscientific learningatAthens,theLyceum.HisfatherhadbeenacourtphysicianinMacedon, andhehadbeentrainedinscientificobservationfromhisyouth.Hewas 359 neverhappierthaninthemeticulousobservationandclassificationofspecies. Scholarsinalldisciplines,butespeciallyperhapsbiologists,willrecognizethe delighthetookinconnectingtheparticulartothegeneral,andinobservingnatureat workinallitsperfection:evenintheanimalsthatarenotattractivetothesenses,he wrote,thecraftsmanshipofnatureprovidesextraordinarypleasurestothosewho

areabletorecognizethecausesinthingsandwhohaveanaturalinclinationto philosophy(OnthePartsofAnimals645a7ff).CertainlyAristotlethrivedinthe constantlychangingworldofnature,whilePlatowashappiestcontemplatingthe eternaltruthsofmathematics.ForAristotle,thedynamicpowerofchangeaccounted foragreatdealoftheexcitementofmentallife.Andnotonlythis:itwasmovement towardaparticularendteleology,fromtheGreektelosmeaningendorgoal thathesawastheguidingforcebehindlife.Aprimemover,heargued,shapedthe universeinaccordwithhisends.Onlytheprimemoverwasnotitselfmoved. Looselyspeaking,theprimemoverwaswhatmostpeoplewouldcallGod. AristotlesphilosophywasverypopularinEuropeduringtheMiddleAges,when ThomasAquinas(12251274AD)adaptedittoChristiantheology. AristotlewasalesseccentricpersonthanPlato.ThoughhecamefromtheIoniancity ofStagirainnorthernGreeceandhencedidnotbelonginAthensthesamewaythe bluebloodedPlatodid,hewasmorefirmlygroundedinthecustomaryrelationsof GreeksocietythanPlato,whoapparentlynevermarriedorhadchildren.Helived withtwosuccessivewomen,hiswifePythiasandthen,afterPythiasdeath,his concubineHerpyllis;hehadadaughterandason.AfterPlatosdeathin347,when AristotlehadstudiedattheAcademyfornearlytwentyyears,heleftAthensand tookupresidenceinAssosinAsiaMinor.Severalyearslaterhereturnedto Macedon,wherePhiliphadsummonedhimtoserveastutortotheyoungprince Alexander.BackinAthensin335,heestablishedhisownschool,theLyceum.Heand hisstudentsconversedtherewhilestrollingthroughthecolonnadedwalks(peripatoi, whichgavehisfollowersthenameperipateticsbywhichtheyarestillknown today).WhenhewasaccusedofimpietyintheburstofantiMacedonianfeelingthat eruptedafternewsofAlexandersdeatharrivedinAthens,AristotleleftAttica. LookingbacksomberlyatthetrialofSocrates,heobservedthathedidnotwantthe Athenianstosinasecondtimeagainstphilosophy.Hediedthefollowingyear,in 322. ThatAristotlelovedsciencewhilePlatolovedmathematicsrevealsaprofound differencebetweenthetwomenandtheirwaysofengagingwiththeworldofideas. LivethingsexcitedAristotleandinspiredinhimthedesiretocategorizethem.The sameurgewouldleadhimtoclassifyallthepoliticalarrangementsfamiliarinhis dayinhisfamousworkofpoliticaltheory,thePolitics.WherePlatohadusedreason asvirtuallyhisonlytoolinthequestforunderstanding,Aristotleplacedtremendous importanceonobservation.HisstayinnorthwestAsiaMinorandtheadjacent islandswasparticularlyrewardingtohimbecauseoftheopportunityitaffordedhim tostudythelagoonofPyrrhaonLesbos,whichteemedwithlife.Thoughreasonwas nothisonlytool,hewasthefounderofthedisciplineoflogic.ToAristotleweowe thearticulationofthefundamentalprinciple 360

ofthesyllogismtheprinciplethattellsusthatifAyieldsBandByieldsC,thenAby itselfmustyieldC.IfSneakyisacatandallcatsaremammals,thenSneakymustbe amammal.SincetheParthenonisinAthensandAthensisinAttica,thenthe ParthenonmustbeinAttica. WhereasPlatohaddevelopedaframeworkfordiscussingpoliticssotheoreticalthat scholarsareoftenpuzzledastowhatrealstateshemighthavehadinmind,Aristotle approachedthequestionofthehumancommunitybyamassingandanalyzinga tremendousamountofdata.Inthisprojecthewasassistedbyhisstudentsatthe Lyceum,where158essaysonconstitutionsofvariouspoleisweredrawnup.Thatall thesehavedisappearedexceptforTheAthenianConstitutionisanincalculablelossto thestudyofGreekhistory.Aristotlewasfascinatedbyissuessurrounding government.HisprincipalworkofpoliticaltheoryishisPolitics,whichremaineda cherishedhandbookthroughoutthemedieval,Renaissance,andearlymodern periods. Inhisconceptionoftheuniverseatlarge,AristotledifferedwithPlatoonakeypoint theexistenceofForms.ToAristotle,astotheaverageperson,Formswerenotreal. Onlythecombinationofformandmattercreatedsomethingreal.Plato,Aristotle thought,hadfailed,likeParmenides,toaccountforchange.Aristotlealsorejectedthe broadlevelofgeneralizationatwhichPlatooperated.Intheirviewsofthehuman community,however,thetwomenwerequitesimilar.Bothsawthepolisasmore thanapracticalarrangementfortheexchangeofgoodsandmutualprotection;for themhumanexistenceandtheexistenceofthepoliswerecoterminous.(Thelackofa statestructurewouldmakeafullyhumanexistenceimpossible,butastructurelarger thanthepolisseemedunimaginable.Aristotleidentifiedthelargestpossiblesizefor thestateattenthousandcitizens,thenumberwhocouldbeaddressedbyaspeaker atonetime.)Aristotleisfamousforhavingsaidmanisapoliticalanimal.Whathe actuallysaidisthatpeopleareanimalswhosenatureitistoliveinapolis.Onlyina poliscouldindividualsrealizetheirsocialnaturesandgrowthroughthesharingof ideas.Thisgrowth,however,waslimitedtoafewpeopleofintellectualgiftswho belongedtoasocialclassthatguaranteedthemleisureforcontemplation.Powerful obstaclespreventedthepoorfromparticipatinginpoliticsespeciallythe nonfarmingpoor,whodidbanausiclabor,arduousjobsthatcompromisedthe mindalongwiththebody.Thebeststate,heconcludes,willnotmakecommon laborerscitizens,forcitizensmusthaveadequatepropertytoensuresufficientleisure forgoodnessandpoliticalactivity.Somuchfordemocracy. BoththebluebloodedAthenianaristocratandAthensmostfamousmetic,then, wereintenselyclassconscious.Aristotlespoliticalphilosophy,however,differed fromPlatosintwokeyrespects.First,Aristotlebelievedincollectivewisdom:amass ofpeoplewhoareindividuallyunwise,heargues,maysurpassthewisdomofthe fewbestmen,justaspotluckdinnersmayprovetobetastierthanthosehostedbya

singleindividual.Themasses,heclaims,canbeperfectlygoodjudgesofmusicand poetry,sincesomeappreciateonething,someanother,andtakentogetherthey appreciateeverything(Politics1281b).Forthisreason,heisopentoacompromise similartothatofSolon:poorpeopleinhis 361 idealstatewouldbeallowedtochooseofficialsandholdthemtoaccount,butnotto holdoffice.Second,Aristotlehadsuchapowerfulbeliefinnaturalhierarchiesfree overslave,GreekovernonGreek,adultoverchild,maleoverfemalethathe recurredwithsomefrequencytothethemeoftheinferiorityofwomentomen. WhereasPlatosutopiaentailedaunisexeducationaimedatproducingguardian menandwomenwhowouldgoverntogether,Aristotlewasastaunchsupporterof patriarchy,whichhebelievedhadasolidbasisinwomensbiologicalinadequacy. Women,hemaintained,hadcolderbodiesthanmen.Forthisreason,thoughthey wereabletoprovidematterforembryos,onlymencouldprovidethesoul.Inthe womb,embryosthatstoppedshortoffulldevelopmentforlackofheatbecame female.Thuswomenwereliterallyhalfbaked.Fromthiscametheinferiorstrength heidentifiedinavarietyofspecies.Thefemale,hecontended,is,sotospeak,a deformedmale(GenerationofAnimals737a).Attimes,aswasthecasewiththe Hippocratics,Aristotlespowersofobservationdesertedhimwhenwomenwere theirsubject.ThetwentiethcenturyphilosopherBertrandRussellquippedthat Aristotlewouldnothaveclaimedthatwomenhadfewerteeththanmenifhehad allowedhiswifetoopenhermouth. Foralltheirdifferences,PlatoandAristotlesharedapassionateconvictionthatthe goalofphilosophywastoenableselectedpeopletopursueenlightenmentina republicofvirtuouscitizens.Thestateforthemmeantthepolis,anditwascentralto thegoodlife.Theirthinkingcontrastsstrikinglywiththatofmostmoderns,whoare morelikelytoseethestateasdesignedtograntindividualsthefreedomtopursue theirprivategoals,particularlytheireconomicones.ThoughPlatoandAristotlewere bothintenselycriticalofdemocracy,theysharedwiththeAtheniandemocratsan eminentlyGreekbeliefintheactivenatureofthepolis.Sofarfromanartificial institutionwhosechiefgoalwastoredistributegoodsandpreventcrime,thepolis wasconceivedbyitsresidentsasaforceforthemoralandspiritualimprovementof itscitizens.Forthisforcetooperateproperly,citizenshadtoengageeagerlyin politicallife;participationwasaduty,notaright.Theproblemsofthefourth century,however,raisedseriousquestionsaboutwhetherthepolisastraditionally conceivedwasadequatetoservepeoplesneeds. SignsofDespair:FlirtingwithMonarchy

Awarethathisidealrepublicwouldnotberealizedinhislifetime,Platoframeda secondbeststateinhislatedialogueTheLaws.Towardtheendofhislife,however, healsotoyedwiththenotionthatrulebyaparticularlywiseindividualmightbe preferabletogovernmentbyeventhebestlaws.Laws,afterall,areinflexibleand cannoteasilybeadaptedtoindividuals.InhisdialogueTheStatesman,Platogavea blankchecktothemanofextraordinarywisdom.Suchmen,hewrites, whethertheyruleoverwillingorunwillingsubjects,withorwithoutwrittenlaws, andwhethertheyarerichorpoor,must,accordingtoourpresentopinion,be supposedtoexercisetheirruleinaccordancewithsomeartorscience.... 362 Andwhethertheypurgethestateforitsgoodbykillingorbanishingsomeofthe citizens,ormakeitsmallerbysendingoutcoloniessomewhere,asbeesswarmfrom thehive,orbringincitizensfromelsewheretomakeitlarger,solongastheyactin accordancewithscienceandjusticeandpreserveandbenefititbymakingitbetter thanitwas,sofarasispossible,thatmustatthattimeandbysuchcharacteristicsbe declaredtobetheonlyrightformofgovernment. (TheStatesman293;Fowler1925) AlthoughthisnotionwasthepredictableconsequenceofPlatosownconvictionthat knowledgeisabsoluteinnature,itcanalsobeseenasanaturaloutgrowthofthe particularstrainsofthefourthcentury.Asdraininginterpoliswarsandeconomic difficultiesdraggedonandon,somepeoplewithworldviewsverydifferentfrom Platosbegantoquestionwhetherinfacttheruleoflawwouldsolvetheproblemsof thepolis.Whatifanexceptionalindividualweretoarisewithanextraordinarygift forknowingwhatwasright?Perhapsitwouldbeeasiertofindandeducateonesuch personthantoroundupmany,orevenafew. ThenotionthatonegiftedmancouldmakeanimprovementinthelifeofGreeceis apparentinthewritingsofPlatoscontemporariesXenophonandIsocrates.Each manhadsomethingincommonwithPlato:XenophonsharedPlatosadmirationfor theirteacherSocrates,andIsocrateshadhisownschool.Thetwomenwerevery differentfromoneanother:Xenophonwasamanofaction,asoldierandadventurer whoenjoyedwritingabouthorsemanshipandhunting,whereasIsocrateswastoo nervoustofeelcomfortablespeakinginpubliceventhoughhemadehisliving teachingoratoryandwritingspeeches.Bothmen,however,wereintriguedbythe possibilitiesofakindofpoliticalleadershipfewGreeksofthefifthcenturywould havedaredpraise.Fordifferentreasons,bothweredrawntomonarchy. Theconceptofawisemonarchrulingbylaw,whichappearsinXenophons encomiumonhisfriendAgesilaus,alsoplaysanimportantroleinhisCyropaedia(

TheEducationofCyrus),ahistoricalromancesetinanimaginary,sentimentalized Persia.Inoneoftheirmanyheartwarmingconversations,Cyrusmotherassureshim thatPersiaissuperiortoMediainthatamongthePersianswhatisjustisdefinedas whatisequal(Cyropaedia1.3.18).HisfatherthePersianking,sheboasts,isalways thefirsttocarryouttheordersofthestateandacceptwhathasbeendecreed,forhis standardisnothisowninclinationbutratherthelaw(1.3.18).This,shesays,is whatdistinguisheskingshipfromtyranny. ThehappyegalitarianPersiaoftheCyropaediaisafarcryfromthedespotismsetup byAeschylusandHerodotusasafoiltoGreekfreedom.Xenophonsimageof monarchywouldhaveseemedincongruous(andprobablytreasonous)inthefifth century,whenoligarchyanddemocracyalwaysprovidedthepolesofthedebate. Greeksknewwhereonemanruled:Persia.TheinvasionsofDariusandXerxesleft Greekswithastrongfeelingthattobethemselvestheyneededtoliveundersome formofnonmonarchicgovernment.Bythefourthcentury,despitetheoverbearing conductofArtaxerxes,itseemedmorelikelythatthenextinvasionwouldgofrom westtoeast.NowmemoriesofthePersianmenace 363 servedprimarilytostirthoughtsofrevenge,nottoshapeGreekidentity.Theworld hadchanged,andincreasinglypeoplebegantoquestionwhetherastillmoreradical shiftwasnotcalledfor. Isocratesproposedjustsuchachange.Hisviewofmonarchyalsohadtodowith Persia,butinanentirelydifferentway.Convincedthatthemanlyandintelligent Greekracehadanaturalright(andaneconomicneed)toruleoverslavishand effeminatebarbarians,IsocratesyearnedforamanwhowouldunitetheGreeksina holywaragainstPersiandegenerates.SuchaprojectwouldunifytheGreeksby turningtheiraggressionoutwardagainstacommonfoe,wouldenthronethemaster raceinitsappropriatepositioninworldpolitics,andwouldimprovetheeconomic conditionofGreecebytakingfromPersia:Trytopicturetoyourselves,hesuggests tohisfellowGreeksinhisPanegyricusof380,whatvastprosperityweshouldattain ifweshouldturnthewarwhichnowinvolvesourselvesagainstthepeopleofthe continent,andbringtheprosperityofAsiaacrosstoEurope(Panegyricus.187188; Norlin) Itwasthispracticalconcernthatpromptedhimtocastaboutforastrongmanwho couldsaveGreece.HeconsideredsuchdisparatepersonalitiesasJasonofPherae, tagosofThessaly;DionysiusI,thetyrantofSyracuse;andArchidamusIIIofSparta. ThefactthatbothJasonandDionysiusowedtheirpowertomercenariesrevealsthe pricehewaswillingtoseeGreecepayforunification.WhenJasonandDionysius diedandArchidamusprovedtohavemorelocalconcerns,IsocratesturnedtoPhilip

andtherisingpowerofMacedontoputtheprogramofthePanegyricusinmotion. IsocratesdidnotimagineaMacedonianempireoverGreecebutratheraleagueof oldfashionedpoleisunitedunderadeterminedleader.WhenMacedoniadidunite GreeceintheyearofIsocratesdeath,thetermswereverydifferentfromwhathehad envisioned.Nonetheless,thehopeofaPanhelleniccrusadeagainstPersiakepthim goinguntiltheageofnearly100.AfterPhilipsconquestofGreecein338Isocrates wrotetotheMacedoniankingassuringhimthat agloryunsurpassableandworthyofyourpastdeedswillbeyourswhenyoucompel thebarbarians...tobeserfsoftheGreeks,andwhenyoushallforcethekingwhois nowcalledGreattodowhateveryousay.Forthentherewillbenothingleftforyou excepttobecomeagod. (ToPhilip115) AReallifeExperiment:DionysiusIofSyracuse AnembryonicexperimentinunitingGreeceunderacharismaticleaderhadalready takenplaceinthewestbeforePhilipaccededtothethroneofMacedon.Isocrateswas nottheonlypersonwhohadoncethoughtDionysiusofSyracusemightbedestined forgreatness.Dionysiusthoughtsotoo.Hadhissuccessorsinheritedhisenergyand determination,theempireDionysiuscreatedinItaly,Sicily,andbeyondmighthave changedtheGreekworldmuchastheconquestsofMacedondidlaterinthecentury. Intheevent,however,thosewhocameaf 364 terhimlackedhistalentsandhisluck,andintheendallhishardworkwas rewardedwithoblivion.AlmostnobodyremembersDionysius,exceptperhapsas thetyrantcaricaturedinCicerowhohadhisdaughtersshavehimbecausehedidnot trustbarbers.Intime,hedidnottrusthisdaughterseither,andheaskedthemto forgotherazorandremovehisbeardbysingeingitwithheatedwalnutshells. AlthoughinsomewayshisregimeevokesthatofPeisistratusinsixthcentury Athens,Dionysiuswasverymuchaproductofhistime,forhispowerwasfirmly groundedinthatquintessentialfourthcenturyphenomenon,themercenaryarmy. Carthaginianinvasionsprovidedaspringboardforhisambitions.Denouncinghis fellowgeneralsfortheirfailureindealingwiththeinvaders,hepersuadedthe Syracusanstodismisshiscolleaguesandplacehiminsolecharge.Whenastaged assassinationattempt(afterthemannerofPeisistratus)gavecredencetotheneedfor abodyguard,hesethimselfupasadefactotyrant(405BC),usingavarietyoftitles suchasbasileusandarchonofSicily.AsinPeisistratidAthens,muchofthedayto daymachineryofdemocracycontinuedtofunction,butDionysiusalwayshadthe lastword,andhisregimewasfarbloodierthanthatofhisAthenianpredecessor.

Whateverhecalledhimself,Dionysiusowedhispowertoamercenaryforcethat numberedsomewherebetweentenandtwentythousandmenandeffectedhis restorationwheneverpopularuprisingsoustedhimfromhisoffice.Dionysius remainedinpowerforthirtyeightyearsuntilhisdeathin367,leadingtheSicilians inaseriesofCarthaginianwarswithmixedsuccess.Thoughhewasneverable entirelytoridSicilyofCarthaginians,hedidsucceedinunitingmuchoftheisland underhisrule.HedidnothesitatetomakeallianceswithnonGreekpeoplesin EuropewhowereattackingHelleniccities.HisalliancewiththeLucanianswholived intheItalianinteriorfacilitatedhisconquestofmanycoastalGreekcitiesinsouthern Italy,andhisGallicalliesenabledhimtoravagethecoastofwesternItaly,establisha navalbaseonCorsica,andoccupytheislandofElba.Healsotookpartinthepolitics oftheGreekhomeland,usuallysidingwithSpartabuttryingtomaintaingood relationswithSyracusesoldenemyAthenswheneverpossible.TheAthenians grantedhimhonorarycitizenshipshortlybeforehisdeath. JustashedidnotscrupletoallywithLucaniansandGauls,Dionysiushappily incorporatedSicelandItalianmercenariesintohisarmy,believingthatthe admixtureofnonGreekswouldinvigoratehisfightingforce.Naturallyhealso wishedtoseeasmanypeopleaspossibleindebtedtohimfortheirpositions.While somewerebitterbecauseofhisconstantconscriptionsoflabortobuildwallsthat madeSyracusethebestfortifiedcityinEuropeandtoconstructanavyofoverthree hundredships,othersweregratefulthathehadgiventhemcitizenshiporfreedthem fromslavery.Foreveryslavehefreed,however,anotherfreepersonwasseizedand sold,forsubstantialrevenuewasrequiredtomaintainthemercenariesinthestyle theydemanded.WholepopulationswerealsoforciblyrelocatedtoSyracusefrom ItalyandotherpartsofSicily. Dionysiuswasthemostremarkablemilitaryinnovatorofhisday.Hisadvanceswere mostconspicuousinthearenaofsiegewarfare.Aswehaveseen 365 fromthecourseofthePeloponnesianWar,Greeksiegesnormallyendedwhen hungerforcedsurrender.Dionysius,however,anticipatedAlexandertheGreatinhis abilitytotakecitiesbystorm,makinguseofthenewdeviceknownasthegastraphets (orbellyshooterbecauseofthewayitsoperatorusedhisstomachtoactivateit).In essenceahugecompositebow,thegastrapheteswascockedbyasoldierwhorested hisstomachinagrooveandpushedtheinstrumenttomaximumextensionby pressingforwardonit.Thisdevicecouldhurlaprojectileabout250yards.Along withwheeledsixstoreysiegetowerswithflyingbridges,thegastraphetesseemsto havebeentogoodeffectinDionysiussiegeofMotya,akeyCarthaginianstronghold inSicilythathedestroyedin397.(Greekinhabitantswhohadremainedloyalto Carthagewerecrucified.)Withtheadditionofartillerytolightandheavyinfantry

andcavalry,Dionysiusarmywasthemostcomplexinorganizationandequipment ofanyfightingforceinGreecedowntohistime. Document9.3DiodorusofSicily,whoOftenspokeharshlyofDionysius,nonetheless admiredhisenergyanddetermination.HerecountedinhisLibraryofHistorythe eagernesswithwhichworkmenviedtomakethebestcontributionstothewareffort. HisaccountalsostressedtheforceofDionysiuspersonality. Aftercollectingmanyskilledworkmen,hedividedthemintogroupsinaccordance withtheirskills,andappointedoverthemthemostconspicuouscitizens,offering greatbountiestoanywhocreatedasupplyofarms.Asforthearmour,he distributedamongthemmodelsofeachkind,becausehehadgatheredhis mercenariesfrommanynations;forhewaseagertohaveeveryoneofhissoldiers armedwiththeweaponsofhispeople,conceivingthatbysucharmourhisarmy would,forthisveryreason,causegreatconsternation,andthatinbattleallofhis soldierswouldfighttobesteffectinarmourtowhichtheywereaccustomed.And sincetheSyracusansenthusiasticallysupportedthepolicyofDionysius,itcameto passthatrivalryrosehightomanufacturethearms.... InfactthecatapultwasinventedatthistimeinSyracuse,sincetheablestskilled workmenhadbeengatheredfromeverywhereintooneplace.Thehighwagesas wellasthenumerousprizesofferedtheworkmenwhowerejudgedtobethebest stimulatedtheirzeal.Andoverandabovethesefactors,Dionysiuscirculateddaily amongtheworkers,conversedwiththeminkindlyfashion,andrewardedthemost zealouswithgiftsandinvitedthemtohistable.Consequentlytheworkmenbrought unsurpassabledevotiontothedevisingofmanymissilesandenginesofwarthat werestrangeandcapableofrenderinggreatservice.Healsobegantheconstruction ofquadriremesandquinqueremes,beingthefirsttothinkoftheconstruction 366 ofsuchships....Withsomanyarmsandshipsunderconstructionatoneplacethe beholderwasfilledwithutterwonderatthesight. LibraryofHistory14.41.443.1;translatedbyC.L.ShermaninDiodorusofSicily,vol. VII,LoebClassicalLibrary,Cambridge,Mass.andLondon:HarvardUniversity Press,1954. Dionysiusenvisionedhimselfasthefounderofadynasty,andhemadeapublic displayofthetyrantsfreedomfromconventionalrestraintsbymarryingtwowomen inasingleceremony.Insodoingheborrowedconsiderabletroubleforthefuture. Uponhisdeath,DionysiusII,thesonofonewife,foundhimselfinchargebut saddledwithanofficialadviserinthepersonofDion,theotherwifesbrother.The twomenhadradicallydifferenttemperaments,andtheyfoughtforyears.Plato,who

hadmetDionduringastayinSicilyinthe380s,woundupinthemiddlewhenDion twiceinvitedhimbacktoSicilyinthehopethatDionysiusIIcouldbeimprovedby thestudyofphilosophy.Theattemptwasnotsuccessful;PlatoreturnedtoAthens, andDionwasassassinatedin354. Theburgeoningofanimperialtyrannyinthewestmustbeseeninthecontextofthe risingindividualismofthefourthcentury,aphenomenonalsovisibleinAthensin thewithdrawalofmanyaffluentcitizensfrompoliticstofollowprivatepursuitsand intheindependentventuresmanyAtheniangeneralsundertookasmercenaries. IphicratesmarriedthedaughteroftheOdrysiankingCotysandspentmanyyears fightingonCotysbehalf.(WhatdidhedowhenCotysattackedAthensbasesinthe Chersoneseandelsewhere?)Thepullthatthedrivetopowerexertedontalented individualsisevidentinliteratureaswellaslife.PlatosdialogueGorgiasdepicts SocratesinconversationwithabrashyouthPlatocallsCallicles.ForCallicles, conventionalpietiesmustbecastasidewhentheyinhibitmenofexceptionalabilities (suchas,presumably,himself).Themanwhoistoliverightly,heargues,should lethisappetitesgrowaslargeaspossibleandnotrestrainthem,andwhentheseare aslargeaspossible,hemusthavethepowertoservethem,becauseofhisbravery andwisdom,andtofillthemupwithwhateverhehasanappetiteforatanytime( Gorgias491e492a;Irwin1979).Peopleofaverageabilities,Calliclessays,beingunable todothis,praisetemperanceandjusticetoconcealtheirownimpotence.Dionysius, whomPlatohadknowninSicily,wouldprobablyhaveagreed.SowouldAristotles employerPhilipofMacedon. *** ThefourthcenturyBCwitnessedanexplosionofcreativeenergyinmanyareas. Philosophy,biology,politicaltheory,mathematics,andmilitaryscienceallmade significantadvances.Whereallthisfertilitywasleadingisunclear.Solidfoundations wereestablishedforintellectualtraditionsthatlivedandgrewforcenturies;manyof themstillflourishinalteredorunalteredforms.Theknowledgegenerateddidnot, however,offersalvationtoGreece.Theincreasingspecializationofthefourth centuryledtoadivisionbetweengeneralsandpoliticians 367 thatresultedinmoreprofessionalmilitaryskills.Consequentlygeneralsinthefourth centurywerebetterthanthoseofthefifth.Theirweaponsandmachineryweremore versatileandsophisticated.Newwaysofthinkingalsoledtospecialized monographslikeXenophonstreatisesontheartofhorsemanshipandtheskills necessaryforasuccessfulcavalrycommander,andtheSiegecraftoftheauthorknown asAeneasTacticus.Nogood,however,cameoftheseimprovements.Greekssimply expandedtherepertoireofavailablemethodsforkilling.

ThegreattextsofGreekpoliticaltheorycontinuetobereadtoday.Theinsightthey afforded,however,seemstohavehadlittlereallifeapplicationintheirownday. PlatosstudentsneverdidtakeoverAtheniangovernment,andAristotlesinfluence onhispupilAlexanderseemstohavebeennegligible.Identifyingthosewhoare likelytogovernbestisalwaysachallenge,anditcontributeslittletopointoutthe imprudenceofaccordingsovereignpowertoapowerhungrytyrant,acliqueofrich men,oranangrymob.Itispreciselybecausewealthandbirthhavehistoricallybeen thecriteriaforinclusionintheelitethatdemocracyhasbecomeapopularalternative tooligarchy.Itisonethingtoadvocateanaristocracyofintellectandanotherto designpracticalmachineryforestablishingone.ItwasacentraltenetofGreek intellectualsthatmostpeoplelackedcapacityforgrowth.PlatoandAristotleworked ontheassumptionthatthesecrettoreforminggovernmentwasinnurturingthetiny minoritythathadthiscapacity.Theirgoalwasbasicallytodesignaconstitutionthat minimizedthepowerprudencemustaccordtothemindlessmasseswhomight otherwiseriseupandslaughtertheirbetters. Tosaythatthepolisultimatelyfailedbecauseitlackedatrulydemocraticideology wouldnonethelessberidiculousonseveralcounts.First,mightyempireshave flourishedforlongperiodswithoutanydemocraticideologywhatsoever.Second,we knowfromthevigorandstabilityoffourthcenturyAthensthatdemocracywasalive andwell,albeitnotinthemindsofGreecesintellectuals.Third,thepolisdidnot entirelyfail.ThecollapseofpolisideologybeforetheMacedonianonslaughtwas certainlynoticeableinstateslikeAthensandSpartathathadonceenjoyedthe privilegeofframingtheirownforeignpolicies.Smallerpoleis,however,hadlong beenaccustomedtoekingoutwhatdignitytheycouldintheshadowofgreater powers.ThebustlingcityinfactremainedthecoreofGreekcivilizationforcenturies tocome. TRANSLATIONS Blanco,WalterandJenniferRoberts.1998.Thucydides:ThePeloponnesianWar.New York:W.W.Norton. Cornford,F.M.1945.TheRepublicofPlato.LondonandNewYork:OxfordUniversity Press. Dryden,John.n.d.PelopidasinPlutarchsLives,rev.A.H.Clough.NewYork:Modern Library. 368 Fowler,H.N.1925.TheStatesman,fromPlato:TheStatesman,Philebus,H.N.Fowler, andW.R.Lamb,eds.LoebClassicalLibrary.Cambridge,Mass.andLondon: HarvardUniversityPress.

Hamilton,Walter.1951.Plato:TheSymposium.Harmondsworth,England:Penguin. Irwin,Terence.1979.Plato:Gorgias.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress. Murray,A.T.1936.PseudoDemosthenes,AgainstNeaera,fromDemosthenes.Vol.VI. LoebClassicalLibrary.Cambridge,Mass.andLondon:HarvardUniversityPress. Norlin,George.1966.ArchidamusandPanegyricus,fromIsocrates.Vol.I.LoebClassical Library.Cambridge,Mass.andLondon:HarvardUniversityPress. Oldfather,C.H.andC.L.Sherman,1952,1954.DiodorusofSicily.Vol.VI,VII.Loeb ClassicalLibrary.Cambridge,Mass.andLondon:HarvardUniversityPress. Warner,Rex.1979.Xenophon:AHistoryofMyTimes[TheHellenical.Harmondsworth, England:Penguin. SUGGESTEDREADING Bryant,Joseph.1996.MoralCodesandSocialStructureinAncientGreece.Albany:State UniversityofNewYorkPress.Theconnectionbetweenvaluesandsocial organizationfromtheArchaicperiodthroughtheHellenisticAge. Cartledge,Paul.1987.AgesilaosandtheCrisisofSparta.Baltimore:JohnsHopkins UniversityPress.AclosestudyoffourthcenturySparta. Caven,Brian.1990.DionysiusI:WarLordofSicily.NewHaven,Conn.:Yale UniversityPress.AreadableexaminationofthesourcesforDionysiusrulethatseeks topresenthiminamorefavorablelightthanhasbeencustomary. Field,G.C.1967.PlatoandHisContemporaries.3rded.London:Methuen.The intellectualandhistoricalcontextofPlatoswork. Grene,Marjorie.1963.APortraitofAristotle.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.A livelysummaryofAristotlesthoughtthatgroundshisworldviewinhisenthusiasm forbiology. Hansen,MogensH.1991.TheAthenianDemocracyintheAgeofDemosthenes.Oxford andCambridge,Mass.:BasilBlackwell.AnengaginganalyticalstudyofAthenian democracythatiscrammedwithusefulfacts. Hunter,Virginia.1994.PolicingAthens.SocialControlintheAtticLawsuits,430320B.C. Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress.Anexaminationofsocialcontroland conflictresolutioninAthens,withemphasisonthesocialmatrixandspecial emphasisongenderrelations,slavery,andtheroleofgossip.

Ober,Josiah.1989.MassandEliteinDemocraticAthens:Rhetoric,Ideology,andthePower ofthePeople.Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress.Asociopoliticalstudyof fourthcenturyAthensthatusesthefindingsofmodernsocialscientiststoshedlight ontheideologyofthedemocracyasrevealedintheworkoftheorators. 369 Sage,Michael,ed.1996.WarfareinAncientGreece:ASourcebook.LondonandNewYork: Routledge.AcollectionofpassagesrelatingtoGreekwarfare,tiedtogetherby thoughtfulanddetailedcommentarythatincludescriticalreadingsofthesources themselves. Sinclair,T.A.1968.AHistoryofGreekPoliticalThought.2nded.ClevelandandNew York:Meridian.AthoughtprovokinganalysisofGreekpoliticalthinkingfrom HomerthroughtheRomanconquest. Todd,S.C.1993.TheShapeofAthenianLaw.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.A detailedandanalyticalstudyofAthenianlawdealingwithbothprocedureand substance. Tritle,Lawrence,ed.1997.TheGreekWorldintheFourthCentury:FromtheFallofthe AthenianEmpiretotheSuccessorsofAlexander.LondonandNewYork:Routledge.A collectionofessaysontheproblemsofthefourthcentury,includingchapterson Thebes,theGreeksofAsiaMinor,andthestatesofwesternGreece. Wood,EllenMeiksins.1988.PeasantCitizenandSlave:TheFoundationsofAthenian DemocracyLondonandNewYork:Verso.Therelationshipbetweenagrarianlabor anddemocracyinClassicalAthens. 370 10 PHILIPIIANDTHERISEOFMACEDON ItisoneofthegreatparadoxesofancienthistorythattheGreekpoleiswereableto maintaintheirindependenceuntilalmostthelastthirdofthefourthcenturyBC. TheirtinysizeandconstantquarrelsmadetheirescapefromPersianconquestinthe earlyfifthcenturyBCappearalmostmiraculous,eveninantiquity.Itwasnot surprisingwhenthethreatofforeignconquestreturnedalittleoveracenturylater. Whatwassurprisingwasthesourceofthethreat:notthemightyPersianempire, fearedbytheGreeksforalmosttwocenturies,butthehithertoinsignificantkingdom ofMacedonlocatednorthofGreeceinsoutheasternEurope.

ThesuccessofMacedoninconqueringtheGreekstateswasdueinparttothe internaldivisionsandeconomicstrainsthatinhibitedtheevolutionofaconsistent policyinAthens,inparttothemutualmistrustthatstoodinthewayofaneffective unitedfrontonthepartoftheleadingpoleisAthens,Sparta,andThebes.Alarge partwasplayedaswellbythelongingmanyGreeksfeltforaradicalcurefortheills ofHellasmonarchy,perhaps,andevenacrusadesuchasamonarchcouldmount againstPersia.Credithowevermustalsobegiventotheuniquemilitaryand diplomaticgiftsofthemanwhobecamekingofMacedonin359BC.Amanof exceptionaltalentsandindefatigabledetermination,PhilipIIhasfascinated historiansofantiquityforovertwothousandyearsandcontinuestodosotoday. SOURCESFORMACEDONIANHISTORY ReconstructingthehistoryofMacedonbeforethereignofPhilipIIisdifficult.The lackofsourcesthatbedevilsmuchofGreekhistoryisanobviouspartoftheproblem. WeknowthenamesofseveralhistorianswhowrotehistoriesofMacedonin antiquity,butonlymeagerfragmentsoftheirworkssurvive.Themostimportantof theseworkswasthefiftyeightbooklongPhilippicaofTheopompus 371 ofChios(fourthcenturyBC).AfewmanuscriptsofTheopompushistorywerestill extantinConstantinopleintheninthcenturyAD,buttheydisappearedsoon thereafter.Nevertheless,muchofthecontentoftheseworkssurvivesingeneral historiessuchasthosebyDiodorusofSicily(firstcenturyBC)andJustin(second centuryAD). ThebiographerPlutarch,thegeographerStrabo,andseveralAthenianorators, includingAeschines,Hyperides,andespeciallyDemosthenes,alsopreserve importantevidence.Inaddition,archaeologicaldiscoveriesconstantlysupplement theevidenceoftheliterarysources.Inrecentdecades,forexample,archaeologists haverevealedtheremainsoftheearlyMacedoniancapitalofAegaeandtheadjacent royalcemetery,theimportantsanctuaryofZeusatDion,andanArchaicAge cemeteryrichinspectaculargoldjewelryatSindos.Thecombinationofliteraryand archaeologicalsourceshasmadeitpossibleforhistorianstoreconstructthehistoryof Macedoningreaterdetailthaneverbefore. Thisreconstructioniscomplicatedbythethreefoldbiasesoftheavailablesources. Firstandforemost,ancienthistorianstreatedMacedonianhistorypriortoAlexander theGreatasamereprologuetoAlexandersspectacularreign.Second,manysources originateinAthensand,notsurprisingly,viewMacedonianactionsalmostentirely intermsoftheirputativeeffectsonAthenianinterests.Thefiercelypartisanpolitical conflictsofmidfourthcenturyAthensonlyexacerbatethistendencyinsomeofthe mostimportantsources.Finally,theauthorsofmostofoursourceswerestrongly

influencedbythefourthcenturydebateconcerningtheGreekorbarbariancharacter oftheMacedonians.Asaresult,constructingachronicleofearlyMacedonianhistory isrelativelyeasy,butviewingthathistoryfromaMacedonianperspectiveisnot. OnlyrecentlyhavehistoriansattemptedtostudythehistoryofMacedonfroma Macedonianpointofviewinsteadofreproducingtheorientationoftheancient sourcesbytreatingitasanappendixtoGreekhistory. EARLYMACEDONIA AccordingtothehistorianHerodotus,Perdiccas,thefirstkingofMacedon,was promisedthelandilluminatedbythesunashiskingdom.Therealitywasdifferent. FormostoftheArchaicandearlyClassicalperiodsofGreekhistory,thekingsof Macedonruledachronicallyunstablekingdomthatwasoftenastatemoreinname thaninfact.SandwichedbetweenThessalyonthesouth,ThraceandtheChalcidian Leagueontheeast,Paeoniaonthenorth,andIllyriaandEpirusonthewest, Macedoniankingshadtostrugglehardtofendoffforeignenemies.Atthesame time,theystrovehardtoasserttheirpreeminenceoverthelocaldynasts,whoruled thevariousregionsthatmadeupthekingdomofMacedon. Macedoniasgeographyrenderedtheirstruggleevenmoredifficult.Ancient Macedoniaconsistedoftwodistinctgeographicalregions:LowerMacedonia,the greatalluvialplaincreatedbytheHaliacmonandAxiusriversastheyflowed 372 downtotheGulfofTherma;andUpperMacedonia,thehorseshoeofrugged uplandsandmountainsthatstretchednorthwestwardtowardIllyriaandEpirusand wasdrainedbythesametwogreatrivers.TheplainsofLowerMacedoniaformed theheartofthekingdomofMacedonandsupportedalargeagriculturalpopulation. Itsmountainoushinterlandsnotonlyheldextensiveforestsandrichmineraldeposits butalsoshelteredvarioustribeswhojealouslyguardedtheirfreedomfromthe controlofthelowlandMacedoniankings.Unitingthesetworegionsunderthe authorityofthekingofMacedonwastheessentialpreconditionforthegrowthand expansionofMacedonianpower. MACEDONIANSOCIETYANDKINGSHIP WeretheMacedoniansGreek?Thisquestionisthemostcontentiousissuein Macedonianhistoriography.IncontemporaryBalkanpolitics,conflictingclaimsto theterritoryofancientMacedoniahavemadethequestionoftheGreeknessofthe ancientMacedoniansaburningissue.Modernnationalistsmaybeconfidentoftheir answers,butsufficientevidencetosettletheissueonewayoranotherislacking. Thus,althoughthesourcesareclearthatGreekscouldnotunderstandspoken Macedonian,notextswritteninMacedoniansurvive.Linguistscannoteven

determinewhetherMacedonianwasanarchaicdialectofGreekoranotherlanguage altogether.Nevertheless,onefactisundisputed:inantiquityneitherMacedonians norGreeksconsideredtheMacedonianstobeGreek.Greeksviewedthe MacedoniansasbarbariansliketheirThracianandIllyrianneighbors.Anexception wasmadeonlyforthemembersoftherulingArgeadhouse,whoclaimedtobethe descendantsofimmigrantsfromArgos. Moreimportant,althoughMacedoniankingsencouragedtheHellenizationofthe Macedoniannobility,MacedonianandGreekculturehadlittleincommon.While mostpeopleinGreecelivedbyagriculture,stillthecitieswerethecoreofwhatwas mostdistinctiveinGreekcivilization.CitylifeinMacedonia,ontheotherhand,was limitedtoafewGreekcoloniesonthecoastoftheGulfofTherma.Thefewlarge settlementsintheinteriorofMacedon,suchasAegaeandPella,weredynastic centerswithoutcivicinstitutions.ThevastmajorityofMacedoniansweresmall farmersorseminomadicpastoralists,wholivedinscatteredvillagesandowedtheir primaryallegiancetoMacedonianaristocrats.Otherdistinctionsdividedthetwo culturesaswell.TheMacedonianelite,forexample,waspolygamous,whereasthe Greeksweremonogamous.TheMacedoniansloveofunmixedwineandtheir preferencefortumulusburialinsteadofsimplecremationorintermentwereother significantiflessremarkabledifferences. ThehistoryoftheMacedonianmonarchyisasmuchabouttheeffortsofMacedonian kingstotametheirturbulentnobilityasitisabouttheireffortstoexpandtheir territory.ThelifestyleoftheMacedoniannobilityhadmoreincommonwiththatof HomericheroesthanwiththatofClassicalGreeks.Warandhuntingweretheonly suitableactivitiesforaMacedoniannoble.Killingwasawayoflife.Beforebeing recognizedasanadult,ayoungmanhadtospearaboarwithoutthe 373 Figure10.1.Macedoniaanditsneighbors. 374 aidofanetandkillanenemy.Heavydrinking,fiercecompetitionforpreferenceat theroyalcourt,andstrugglesoverthefavorsofyoungmenandwomenallgenerated violentfeuds. ThemonarchywasthecentralinstitutionofMacedoniansociety.LikeLouisXIVof France,theMacedoniankingswereautocratswhocouldwellsayIamthestate. Althoughearliertheoriesheldthattheirpowerswerelimitedbyanarmyassembly investedwiththerighttoelectthekingandtrycasesoftreason,itisnowclearthat thesehypothesesaregroundless.Thearmymightacclaimanewkingandwitness

trialsofnobles,butthekingandhisadvisersalwaysmadethefinaldecisions.The kingmadeallappointments,allgrantsoflandandprivilege,andallresponsesto petitions.ThekingalonerepresentedMacedoninforeignaffairs.Treatiesand alliancesweremadewithhimpersonally,andforeignalliespledgedtheirsupportto himandhisfamilywithoutreferencetotheMacedonianpeople.Thekingeven decidedtheroyalsuccession.Macedoniankingswerepolygamous,and,provided onlythatthenewkingwasanArgead,akingcoulddesignateanysonbyanywifeas hissuccessor. Nevertheless,suchabaldsummaryofthepowersoftheMacedoniankingsis potentiallymisleading.Therewerenoconstitutionallimitationsonthekings powers,buttherewereextraconstitutionallimitsonhowtheseprerogativeswere exercised.Greekpoliticaltheoristsusuallyequatedmonarchyandtyranny,because theyconsideredthesupremeimportanceoftherulerspersonalityinpublicand privatespheresaliketobethedistinguishingfeatureofboth.Thiswasespeciallytrue ofMacedon,wherenoimpersonalbureaucracybufferedthekingfromhissubjects. ThekingsofMacedonspenttheirlivesinthemidstoftheircompanions Macedoniannobleswhoformedtheirpersonalentourage.Thekingschosetheir closestadvisersandthemembersoftheirbodyguardfromthesecompanions.Inwar, thecompanionsservedinanelitecavalryunitpersonallycommandedbytheking.It isnotsurprising,therefore,thatMacedoniankingssatoninsecurethrones.Onlytwo ofPhilipIIspredecessorsdiednaturaldeaths.One,Archelaus,wasmurderedbya disgruntledhomosexuallover.Therestdiedinbattleorfellvictimtoconspiracies. ThePredecessorsofPhilipII PhilipIIwasthebeneficiaryofalmosttwocenturiesofpatientstatebuildingbyhis Argeadpredecessors.InviewofthedecisiverolethatPhilipIIandhissonAlexander wouldplayinthedestructionofthePersianempire,itisironicthatthisstate buildingprocessbeganinthelatesixthcenturyBCwithAmyntasIsalliancewith Persia.ThealliancewassealedbythemarriageofaMacedonianprincesstoahigh Persianofficialandlastedforoverthreedecades.TheMacedoniansprovedtobe loyalallies.DuringthePersianinvasionofGreecein480BC,Amyntassonand successor,AlexanderI,personallyledtheMacedoniancontingentsagainstthe Greeks.Notsurprisingly,afterthePersiandefeatAlexanderIencouragedthespread ofstoriestestifyingtohiscovertsupportoftheGreekcauseduringtheinvasion. 375 aidofanetandkillanenemy.Heavydrinking,fiercecompetitionforpreferenceat theroyalcourt,andstrugglesoverthefavorsofyoungmenandwomenallgenerated violentfeuds.

ThemonarchywasthecentralinstitutionofMacedoniansociety.LikeLouisXIVof France,theMacedoniankingswereautocratswhocouldwellsayIamthestate. Althoughearliertheoriesheldthattheirpowerswerelimitedbyanarmyassembly investedwiththerighttoelectthekingandtrycasesoftreason,itisnowclearthat thesehypothesesaregroundless.Thearmymightacclaimanewkingandwitness trialsofnobles,butthekingandhisadvisersalwaysmadethefinaldecisions.The kingmadeallappointments,allgrantsoflandandprivilege,andallresponsesto petitions.ThekingalonerepresentedMacedoninforeignaffairs.Treatiesand alliancesweremadewithhimpersonally,andforeignalliespledgedtheirsupportto himandhisfamilywithoutreferencetotheMacedonianpeople.Thekingeven decidedtheroyalsuccession.Macedoniankingswerepolygamous,and,provided onlythatthenewkingwasanArgead,akingcoulddesignateanysonbyanywifeas hissuccessor. Nevertheless,suchabaldsummaryofthepowersoftheMacedoniankingsis potentiallymisleading.Therewerenoconstitutionallimitationsonthekings powers,buttherewereextraconstitutionallimitsonhowtheseprerogativeswere exercised.Greekpoliticaltheoristsusuallyequatedmonarchyandtyranny,because theyconsideredthesupremeimportanceoftherulerspersonalityinpublicand privatespheresaliketobethedistinguishingfeatureofboth.Thiswasespeciallytrue ofMacedon,wherenoimpersonalbureaucracybufferedthekingfromhissubjects. ThekingsofMacedonspenttheirlivesinthemidstoftheircompanions Macedoniannobleswhoformedtheirpersonalentourage.Thekingschosetheir closestadvisersandthemembersoftheirbodyguardfromthesecompanions.Inwar, thecompanionsservedinanelitecavalryunitpersonallycommandedbytheking.It isnotsurprising,therefore,thatMacedoniankingssatoninsecurethrones.Onlytwo ofPhilipIIspredecessorsdiednaturaldeaths.One,Archelaus,wasmurderedbya disgruntledhomosexuallover.Therestdiedinbattleorfellvictimtoconspiracies. ThePredecessorsofPhilipII PhilipIIwasthebeneficiaryofalmosttwocenturiesofpatientstatebuildingbyhis Argeadpredecessors.InviewofthedecisiverolethatPhilipIIandhissonAlexander wouldplayinthedestructionofthePersianempire,itisironicthatthisstate buildingprocessbeganinthelatesixthcenturyBCwithAmyntasIsalliancewith Persia.ThealliancewassealedbythemarriageofaMacedonianprincesstoahigh Persianofficialandlastedforoverthreedecades.TheMacedoniansprovedtobe loyalallies.DuringthePersianinvasionofGreecein480BC,Amyntassonand successor,AlexanderI,personallyledtheMacedoniancontingentsagainstthe Greeks.Notsurprisingly,afterthePersiandefeatAlexanderIencouragedthespread ofstoriestestifyingtohiscovertsupportoftheGreekcauseduringtheinvasion. 375

tween400and360BC.Finally,in360,Philipsbrother,PerdiccasIII,waskilledin battlewiththeIllyrians.Inadditiontotheking,fourthousandMacedoniantroops andnumerousmembersoftheMacedonianaristocracydiedinthebattle.Macedons enemiesquicklytookadvantageofthisunprecedenteddebacleandthechaosthat resultedfromit.TheIllyriansandPaeonianspreparedinvasions,whilethe AtheniansandThraciansofferedtheirsupportforinsurrectionsinfavorof pretenderstotheMacedonianthrone.Thekingdomseemedonthevergeofcollapse. THEREIGNOFPHILIPII PhilipIIwasbornabout382BC,thelastsonofAmyntasIIIandhisIllyrianwife Eurydice.Littleisknownabouthisearlylife.AccordingtoPlutarch,hismother Eurydicelearnedtoreadinordertoeducateherchildren.WhateverchancePhilip hadforeducation,however,wasendedbytheturbulentpoliticsofMacedoninthe 370s.AnunsuccessfulattemptbyhisbrotherAlexanderIItoweakenTheban influenceinThessalyledtoPhilipsspendingtheyears369to367asahostagein Thebes.Hisexilewasnotallloss.PhilipsenforcedresidenceinThebes,scarcelytwo yearsafteritsvictoryatLeuctramadeitthegreatestpowerinGreece,gavehiman insightintoGreekpoliticsandmilitarytacticsthatwouldlaterproveinvaluable. Figure10.2.ThisminiatureivoryheadofPhilipIIwasdiscoveredatVergina.The damagetohisrighteyecausedbyacatapultboltisclearlyindicated. 377 PhilipsreturntoMacedonin367coincidedwiththedescentofthekingdominto chaos.ThreekingsruledMacedonduringthemiddleandlate360s:Ptolemyof Alorus,Pausanias,andPhilipsbrotherPerdiccasIII.Theinstabilityencouraged Macedonsenemiesandapparentlyforeclosedanyhopeforaquickrestorationof ordertoMacedonianaffairs.ItalsoprovidedPhilipwithanunexpectedopportunity. ThecrisiscreatedbyPerdiccasdeathdemandedarulercapableoftakingdecisive action.ThatrulercouldonlybePhilip,sincehewasthesolesurvivingadultArgead. Philipquicklyassumedcontrolofthegovernment,andby357atthelatesthehad supplantedhisinfantnephewAmyntastobecomekingofMacedon. WhenPhiliptookpowerin360,hischancesofsurvivalseemedslim.Macedonwas threatenedbyformidableenemiesonallsides.Worseyet,pretenderschallengedhis righttothethrone.SeuthesII,thepowerfulkingoftheThracians,supportedthe claimsofthreeofPhilipshalfbrothers.TheAthenians,stillhopingtoregaintheir longlostcolonyofAmphipolis,backedtheclaimsofArgaeus,apretenderwhohad brieflyruledMacedoninthe380sbeforebeingexpelledbyPhilipsfather,Amyntas II.

Inthenexttwoyearsthesituationhadchangeddramatically.Throughastute diplomacy,PhilippersuadedtheThraciansandAthenianstoabandonthe Macedonianpretenderstheyhadbeensupporting.Freetoconcentrateallhisforces againsthisotherenemies,PhilipquicklydefeatedboththePaeoniansandIllyrians andregainedcontrolofwesternandnorthwesternMacedonia.Philipsbrilliantuse ofdiplomacytopreparethewayforhisdecisivemilitaryvictoriesoverthePaeonians andIllyriansin358setthepatternfortherestofhisreign. Successfollowedsuccessduringtheremainderofthedecade.Analliancewiththe MolossiansinEpirus,whoalsohadlongsufferedfromIllyrianattacks,completed thepacificationofMacedonswesternfrontierandfreedPhiliptoturnhisattentions totheeast.Inquicksuccession,PhilipseizedtheGreekcitiesalongthecoastofthe GulfofThermaandinsouthwesternThrace,togetherwiththerichgoldmining regionofMountPangaeus.ThesameminesprovidedPhilipwiththefinancial resourcesonethousandtalentsayear,accordingtoDiodorusrequiredtocarryout hisvariousplansduringtheremainderofhisreign. Inlessthanadecade,PhiliphadfreedMacedonfromtheenemiesthathad threateneditssurvivalsincethesixthcentury.Hismilitaryanddiplomaticsuccesses inthe350swereaccompaniedbyfarreachingreforms,givingthekingdom unprecedentedmilitarystrengthandpoliticalcohesion. TheReformsofPhilipII PhilipIIsrisetopowercoincidedwitharevolutioninmilitarytacticsandweaponry thatendedtheGreekhoplitesdominanceofthebattlefield.Byintroducingthese innovationstoMacedon,Philiptransformeditalmostovernightintothepreeminent militarypowerinsoutheasternEurope.Someofhisinnovationsweretechnological. DionysiusIofSyracusehadfirstdemonstratedthepotentialofthecatapultatthe siegeofMotyain397.ItwasPhilip,however,whorealized 378 thatpotentialbyintroducingnewandmorepowerfultorsioncatapultspoweredby energystoredintightlytwistedropes.Combinedwiththecreationofanelitecorps ofmilitaryengineers,thesenewweaponsenabledPhilipsuccessfullytobesiege fortifiedcitiessuchasAmphipolis.Atthesametime,theskirmishingandscouting abilitiesofhisarmywereenhancedbyspecialunitsoflightarmedinfantryand cavalryrecruitedfromhisnonMacedoniansubjectsandallies. Document10.1AlexandersSpeechatOpis(324BC)InthisspeechtheRoman historianArrianhasAlexanderadducethechangesPhilipIIbroughttoMacedoniain anefforttoquellthemutinyofhistroopsatOpisin324.

Inthefirstplace,asisreasonable,IshallbeginmyspeechfrommyfatherPhilip.For hefoundyouvagabondsanddestituteofmeans,mostofyoucladinhides,feedinga fewsheepupthemountainsides,fortheprotectionofwhichyouhadtofightwith smallsuccessagainstIllyrians,Triballians,andtheborderThracians.Insteadofthe hideshegaveyoucloakstowear,andfromthemountainsheledyoudownintothe plains,andmadeyoucapableoffightingtheneighboringbarbarians,sothatyou werenolongercompelledtopreserveyourselvesbytrustingrathertothe inaccessiblestrongholdsthantoyourownvalor.Hemadeyoucolonistsofcities, whichheadornedwithusefullawsandcustoms;andfrombeingslavesandsubjects, hemadeyourulersoverthoseverybarbariansbywhomyouyourselves,aswellas yourproperty,werepreviouslyliabletobecarriedofforravaged.Healsoaddedthe greaterpartofThracetoMacedonia,andbyseizingthemostconvenientlysituated placesontheseacoast,hespreadabundanceoverthelandfromcommerce,and madetheworkingoftheminesasecureemployment.Hemadeyourulersoverthe Thessalians,ofwhomyouhadformerlybeeninmortalfear;andbyhumblingthe nationofthePhocians,herenderedtheavenueintoGreecebroadandeasyforyou, insteadofbeingnarrowanddifficult.TheAtheniansandThebans,whowerealways lyinginwaittoattackMacedonia,hehumbledtosuchadegree...that...those statesintheirturnprocuresecuritytothemselvesbyourassistance. Arrian,AnabasisAlexandri7.9,translatedbyE.J.Chinnock.ArrianAnabasisof AlexanderandIndica.LondonandNewYork:G.Bell&Sons,1893. PhilipsmostimportantmilitaryreformwasthereorganizationoftheMacedonian infantry.Philipcreatedanewuniformlyequippedphalanxtoreplacetheold undisciplinedmilitiathathadservedMacedoniankingssopoorlyinthepast.Asin theoldgenerallevy,thesixdivisionsofthenewphalanxwererecruitedfromeachof Macedonstraditionalterritorialdivisions,buttheywereequipped 379 Figure10.3.TheMacedonianphalanx. withnewweaponsandassignedanewroleinbattle.Eachmemberofthephalanx woreametalhelmetandcarriedasmallshieldandashortsword.Hisprincipal weapon,however,wasanenormouspikethatcouldbeasmuchas18feetlong, allowingthesoldiertostrikeablowbeforehisenemiescouldcloseandusetheir shorterweapons. Inthisway,PhilipdeprivedhisGreekopponentsoftheirchieftacticaladvantage:the abilitytoconcentratehoplitesincloseformationagainstanenemyanddestroyhim. Asaresult,themerepresenceofthenewphalanxinabattleforcedPhilipsenemies tomodifytheirtacticstocopewiththisunusualformation.Thetacticalopportunities

thuscreatedcouldthenbeexploitedbythecompanioncavalry,whichwoulddeala decisiveblowtoanenemyforcealreadyconfusedbythephalanxandtheeliteguard unitsprotectingitsflanks. PhilipsreformswerenotlimitedtoreorganizationoftheMacedonianarmy.Healso tookstepstostrengthenthebondsbetweenthearmy,itsleaders,andtheking.He freelysharedhismenshardshipsanddangers,ashismanywounds(includingthe lossofaneye)attested.Heconferredanewtitleonthecommonsoldiers,Pezhetairoi (FootCompanions),suggestingthattheytoo,likethenobles,werethekings personalcompanions.Agenerationlater,therageofAlexanderssoldiersatthe thoughtofsharingtheircherishednewstatuswiththeconqueredPersiansclearly demonstratedthepowerfulbondPhiliphadforgedwithhissoldiers. Philipalsomadeimportantchangesinthenatureofthebondbetweenthekingand theMacedoniannobility.PerdiccasIIIsdisastrousdefeathadcausedthedeathsof manyMacedoniannoblemen.Philipusedtheopportunitythuscreatedtorecruit newmembersfortheroyalcompanions,chosenfromtheGreeksandnonGreeks whoflockedtoMacedoninsearchofopportunityandwealth.Healsocreated opportunitiesformembersoftheoldnobility,whoreceivedcommandsinPhilips newmodelarmy.Theirsonsalsobecamemembersofanewinstitution,theroyal pages.Thepagespersonallyservedthekingandwereeducatedatcourt.Fromthem Philiprecruitedhisfutureofficers.Butatthesametime 380 theroyalpagesalsoservedasecondpurpose:theywerehostagesforthegood behavioroftheirfamilies. Theopompus,themoralizingcontemporaryhistorianofPhilipsreign,sarcastically characterizedPhilipsexpandedcorpsofcompanionsascomposedofmenmore suitedtobecourtesansthancourtiers.Nevertheless,theirpersonalloyaltyto Philipwasstrong,andforgoodreason.Philipsvictoriesgavehimunprecedented resourcesinlandandtreasure,andheusedthemtorewardhisfollowersliberally. Philipsabilitytoattractandrewardloyalsupporterswasenhancedbyland reclamationprojects,suchasthedrainingofmarshlandinLowerMacedonia, combinedwiththefoundationofcoloniessuchasPhilippi.Asaresult,Philip possessedwhatnopreviousMacedoniankinghadeverhadbefore:anextensiveand loyalbaseofsupportforhispoliciesathomeandabroad. PhilipBecomesaForceinGreece MacedoniankingshadlongfearedthepotentialdangerposedbyaunitedThessaly, withitslargepopulationanditsstrongmilitarytradition.Philipspredecessorshad soughtunsuccessfullytoavertthatthreat.TheyrepeatedlysupportedLarisaagainst

JasonandAlexanderPheraesambitioustyrantsandtheirThebanallies.Jason,in fact,nearlyreducedPhilipsfatherAmyntasIIItothestatusofavassalinthelate 370s,and,aswehavealreadyseen,AlexanderIIsunsuccessfulThessaliancampaign in369resultedinPhilipsThebanexile. Notsurprisingly,developmentsinThessalyinthemid350sledPhilipalsoto interveneinthetangledpoliticsofMacedonssouthernneighbor.Theprimarycause wastheconclusionofanalliancebetweenPhocisandMacedonsoldenemyPherae. Phocishadsuddenlyemergedinthemid350sasoneofthemajorpowersincentral andnorthernGreece.TheunionofPheraeandPhocisthreatenedtheinterestsofboth LarisaandThebes(Phocisbitterenemy),andforcedthemtoinvitePhilips intervention.Philipinitiallyunderestimatedtheseriousnessofthethreatposedby theallianceofPheraeandPhocis.Hewasdisabusedbytwodefeatsinflictedby Phocianforcesin353themostserioushesufferedinhisentirereignandhe returnedtoThessalywithoverwhelmingforcethefollowingyear,crushingthe PhociansattheBattleoftheCrocusField. ThisbattletransformedPhilipsrelationshiptoThessalyandtherestofGreece.Inthe immediateaftermathofPhilipsvictory,Pheraewasseized,anditslasttyrantfled intoexile.FinallyfreedofthePheraeanthreat,theThessalianLeaguemetand appointedPhiliparchn(commanderinchief)ofThessaly,effectivelyuniting ThessalyandMacedoninthepersonofPhilip.TheunionofThessalyandMacedon virtuallydoubledthemilitaryforcesatPhilipsdisposalandbroughtthefirstdecade ofhisreigntoasuccessfulconclusion.ItalsoallowedPhiliptoexpandhisinfluence deepintocentralGreece. WhilePhilipwasbusyextendingMacedonianinfluenceinThessaly,centralGreece wasconvulsedbytheconflicthistorianscalltheThirdSacredWar.Behindthe outbreakofthewarwasThebesattempttoconsolidateitshegemonyincentral Greece.ExploitingafavorablemajorityonthecounciloftheDelphicAmph 381 ictyony,ThebesarrangedtohavePhocisseverelyfinedin357forcultivatingland sacredtoApollo.Phocisresponsewasunexpected. PhocishadlongbeenThebeschiefrivalforpreeminenceincentralGreece.Thebes hadexploiteditsvictoryatLeuctrain371toforcePhocistosignatreatyrecognizing Thebansuzerainty.PhocisacceptanceofThebansuzeraintyhadbeengrudgingat best,andin357thePhociansmadeadesperateefforttoregaintheirindependence. InsteadofsubmittingtoThebanblackmail,theyseizedcontrolofDelphiandused thetreasuresofApollotorecruitapowerfulmercenaryarmy.Althoughthesacrilege outragedGreekopinion,ThebesattempttoformaunitedfrontagainstPhociswas frustratedbyAthenianandSpartanhostilitytofurtherexpansionofThebanpower.

Asaresult,thePhociansquicklybroughtalmostthewholeregionfromtheGulfof CorinthtoThessalyundertheirsway. FrustratedattheirinabilitytodefeatthePhocians,ThebesanditsThessalianallies appealedtoPhilip,thenewleaderofThessaly,tocometoDelphisaid.Hostilitiesin ThraceaswellaswithAthensandOlynthusinthenorthAegeanpreventedPhilip fromtakingactionagainstPhocisforseveralyears.In347hefinallyintervenedon thesideofThebesintheSacredWar.AlthoughMacedonianinterventiontippedthe scalesagainstPhocis,increasingThebanpowerwasnotinPhilipsinterest.Philip, therefore,playedadoublegame.AtthesametimethathesupportedThebes militarily,healsoopenednegotiationswithPhocisoverpossiblesurrenderterms. ThetraditionalpenaltyforsacrilegesuchasthePhocianshadcommittedagainst Delphiwastheexecutionofallmalesofmilitaryage.Withthatdirethreathanging overtheirheads,thePhociansquicklyacceptedPhilipsofferandsurrenderedinthe summerof346.AsPhiliphadpromised,thetermsimposedbytheDelphic AmphictyonyonPhocisprovedtoberelativelymild.Phociancitieswerebrokenup intotheirconstituentvillages.ThePhociansundertooktopaybackthetreasurethey hadtakenfromDelphiatarateofsixtytalentsperyear.Mostimportant,Phocis votesintheDelphicAmphictyonyweretransferredtoPhilip,whohenceforth,thanks tohiscontrolofThessaly,enjoyedavotingmajorityontheAmphictyonicCouncil. AsaresultofhistimelyinterventionintheSacredWar,Philiphadwonforhimself animportantroleinDelphicaffairs.Justhowsignificantapositionhenowoccupied wasmadecleartoallGreeksin346whenhebecamethefirstMacedoniankingtobe grantedthehonorofpresidingoverthePythiangamessupervisedbythe Amphictyony.PhilipsspectacularsuccessintheSacredWaralsotemporarilyhalted thegrowinghostilitybetweenMacedonandAthens. Philip,Athens,andthePeaceofPhilocrates BecauseoftheAtheniansvestedinterestinChalcidice,theirtenserelationswith Philipdatedbacktothebeginningofhisreign.In359,PhiliphadinducedAthensto withdrawitssupportfromhisrival,Argaeus,bypromisingtorestoreAmphipolisto itsauthority.TheAtheniansquicklylearned,however,thattheirtrustinPhilips promiseshadbeenmisplaced.PhilipneededAmphipolitanlandtore 382 wardhissupporters;moreover,itsstrategiclocationnearthemouthoftheStrymon RivermadethecitytoosignificanttoturnovertoAthens.Twoyearslater,in357, PhiliphimselfoccupiedAmphipolisafterabriefsiege.Therapiditywithwhich PhilipsnewsiegeenginesbrokethroughAmphipolisdefensesgavetheGreeksa vividdemonstrationoftheeffectivenessofhisnewengineeringcorps.

RelationsworsenedayearlaterwhenPhilipalsocapturedAthensprincipal remainingMacedonianallies,PydnaandMethone,aswellasPotidaea.Insodoing, heeliminatedthemaincentersofAthenianinfluenceintheChalcidiceandonthe coastsoftheGulfofTherma.ThoughmanyAthenianswantedtofightPhilip,andin factthecitydeclaredwar,circumstancespreventedAthensfrommountingserious militaryoperationsinthenorthAegean. AthensslowrecoveryfromtheeconomicdevastationcausedbythePeloponnesian WarrestrainedtheambitionsofallfourthcenturyAthenianpoliticians.Financial resourceshadtobecarefullyhusbanded.Earlyinthe350sthismeantthatAthens ignoredPhilipsactionsinnorthernGreecetofocusitseffortsoncopingwiththe threattotheSecondAthenianLeaguecausedbytheoutbreakoftheSocialWarin 357.Athenianforeignpolicywasfurtherconstrainedbyanimportantpolitical innovationofthe350s. Untilthistime,surplusesfromtheannualgovernmentbudgetshadbeenchanneled intoafundnormallydevotedtomilitaryexpenditures.Eubulus(c.405c.335BC), however,theleadingpoliticianofthisera,persuadedtheAthenianstopassalaw assigningallsurplusinsteadtowhatisknownastheTheoricFund;hehimself servedasoneofthecommissionersoftheFund.SomeofthisFundwastobeused forprojectssuchasrepairingroadsandfortifications.Therestwasearmarkedfor distributiontoAtheniancitizensatreligiousfestivals;theFundreceiveditsname fromthetheatricalperformancesthatplayedakeyroleinthesecelebrations. BymitigatingthepovertyofAthensneediestcitizens,thisarrangementreduced tensionsbetweenrichandpoor.Forgoodreason,theoratorDemadescalleditthe glueofthedemocracy.TheTheoricFundalso,ofcourse,encouragedapacifist foreignpolicy.Before,thepoorerclassesmightexpecttobenefitfromwar,during whichtheywouldbepaidtorowinthefleet,whereasthosewhohadmorewere sometimesinclinedtoprotectwhattheyhadbyvotingagainstmilitary involvements.AftertheestablishmentoftheTheoricFund,however,thischanged, sincetheoutbreakofwarwouldrequirethatfundsberedirectedtomilitary operations,andthelevelofthepopulacesbenefitswouldbereduced. Eubuluskeeninterestinfinanceshaddramaticresults.Underhisstewardship, Athenianrevenuesrosefrom130talentsto400,enablingAthenstoconstructnew triremesandimprovethedocksandfortifications.Workattheneglectedsilvermines atLauriumwasrenewedandnewinducementsluredadditionalmeticstoAttica. Thewealthofindividualcitizensgrewwiththatofthestate.Thissituationmakesit easytounderstandwhyformostofthedecadetheAtheniansconfinedtheir responsetoPhilipsactionstodesultoryraidsintoMacedonianterritorythatwere littlemorethannuisances.Onlythethreatofpos

383 Figure10.4.PolyeuctusposthumousportraitofDemostheneswaserectedinthe Athenianagorain280BCandsurvivesinthisRomancopy.Itshowstheoratoras gaunt,worried,andthoughtful.(Note:Thepositionofthehandsisreproduced incorrectlyinthiscopy.) 384 sibledirectmilitaryinterventionbyPhilipincentralGreeceinducedthemtotake strongeraction. WithaMacedonianinvasionofAtticaseeminglyimminent,theAthenians dispatchedalargeexpeditionaryforcein352tooccupyThermopylae,toblockthe Macedonianadvance.ThemotionwasmadebyacloseassociateofEubulus.Insuch acrisis,concernforAthenssecurityclearlyoverrodeanyscruplesEubulusandhis supportersmayhavehadaboutdippingintotheTheoricFund.Otherwise,however, AthensfailedutterlytohindertheMacedoniankingsgrowinginfluenceinnorthern andcentralGreece. Athensactionsintheearly340sweresimilarlyineffective.WhenOlynthus, increasinglysuspiciousofPhilipsgrowingpower,abandoneditsalliancewiththe MacedoniankingandsoughttomakepeacewithAthens,Philipturnedonhis formerally.AthensresponsetoOlynthusdesperateappealsforhelpweretoolittle, andtoolate.TheAthenianscouldonlywatchindismaywhen,in348,Philip capturedthecity,razedit,andcarriedoffitscitizenstobecomeslavesinMacedon. Worse,hedismantledtheChalcidicLeague,MacedonsonlypotentialGreekrivalin thenorthAegean. AthensrestraintinthefaceofPhilipsgrowingpowerwasprudent.Nevertheless,its inabilitytoregainAmphipolisortoaiditserstwhileallieswashumiliating.Not surprisingly,proponentsofamoreaggressiveAthenianpolicytowardMacedon becamemoreinsistentintheirdemands. ThemostprominentofthesepoliticianswasDemosthenes.Themostfamousorator oftheGreekworld,Demosthenesacquiredsuchareputationforeloquencethatthe RomanstatesmanCiceronamedhisspeechesagainstMarkAntonyPhilippicsafter theorationsinwhichDemostheneshadsoughttorousetheAtheniansagainstPhilip. DemostheneshadenteredpoliticsinitiallyasasupporterofEubulus.By351, however,hehadbecomedisenchantedwithEubuluspoliciesandconsequently begantoforgeanewpoliticalidentityforhimself.InthefamousFirstPhilippic, DemosthenesrevealedhisnewviewsbyvigorouslyattackingPhilipandberatingthe AtheniansfortheirsluggishresponsetothedangerheposedtoAthens.

Simultaneously,heurgedtheAthenianstovotefortheestablishmentandsupportof astrongnavalforcetoconductthedesiredwar.Demosthenescontinuedtoadvocate resistancetoPhilipinsubsequentyears.Still,evenherecognizedthatthefallof Olynthus,combinedwithPhilipstriumphintheSacredWarandthedefectionofthe vitalAtheniannavalbaseofEuboea,madepeaceimperativeifAthenswastoavoid totaldisaster. TheAthenianpoliticianPhilocratesnegotiatedpeacewithPhilipinthesummerof 346.TheprocessofnegotiatingthetreatyandsecuringitsapprovalbytheAthenian assemblywasbothcomplexandcontentious.BecausethePeaceofPhilocrates quicklycollapsedamidstbitterdisputeovertheresponsibilityforitsnegotiation, muchremainsunclearaboutthedetailsofthediplomacythatproducedit.Theterms ofthetreaty,however,allownodoubtaboutitsmeaning.Facedwiththeunpalatable alternativesofcontinuingthewarwithMacedonoracceptingthehumiliatingterms offeredbyPhilip,Athenschosethelatter.Athenspubliclyrenounceditslong cherishedclaimtoAmphipolis,acceptedtheexclusion 385 ofitsPhocianandThracianalliesfromtheprotectionofthetreaty,andagreedthat thecityandtheremnantsoftheSecondAthenianLeaguewouldbecomepermanent alliesofPhilipandhisdescendants.Athensimpotenceinthefaceofgrowing MacedonianpowerandinfluenceinGreecewasnowrevealedforalltosee. TheAftermathofthePeaceofPhilocrates BysigningthePeaceofPhilocrates,theAtheniansrecognizedPhilipspreeminencein northernandcentralGreece.Nevertheless,Philipsdiplomatictriumphwasshort lived.Athenssupportforthetreatyhadbeentheresultofthefearofwarwith Macedonanditsconsequences.Itwasthereforenosurprisethatsupportdissipated assoonasthethreatofwarreceded.PhilipstreatmentofPhocis,moreover,notonly angeredandembarrassedtheAthenians;italsocastdoubtonthecredibilityofthe ambassadorssuchasPhilocratesandEubulusallytheoratorAeschines.Alongwith Philocrates,AeschineshadpersuadedtheAthenianassemblythatnoharmwould cometothePhociansasaresultoftheirexclusionfromthePeace.WhenPhocis surrenderedtohim,however,Philip,asalreadymentioned,destroyedthetownsof Phocisandresettledtheirinhabitantsinseparatevillages.TheAmphictyonicCouncil transferredtoPhilipthetwovotesattheirmeetingsthathadpreviouslybelongedto thePhocians.TheAtheniansandSpartansweresoangryattheCouncilsdecision thattheydeclinedtosendtheircustomarydeputationstothePythiangames. Aeschines,however,wasinattendance,apparentlyasPhilipsguest. PhilipscriticsinAthenssteadilyunderminedthePeaceofPhilocratesandthemen associatedwithit,usingthedestructionofPhocistopointoutthedishonestyof

PhilipandthequestionablecompetenceandintegrityofhisAtheniansupporters. Philipsproposalstostrengthenthepeacewererebuffed.Indeed,Athensonceagain demandedthathereturnAmphipolis.Philocrates,theprincipalarchitectofthe peace,wasindictedforbriberyandfledintoexiletoescapeexecution.Demosthenes, anotherofthetenambassadorswhohadbeensenttonegotiatewithPhilip, nervouslysoughttoprotecthispositionbyalsoimpeachinghisfellowenvoy Aeschinesonachargeofacceptingbribes. AeschinesopenpartisanshipforPhilipevenafterthedestructionofPhociswas foolish,anditseemsclearthathehadacceptedgiftsfromtheMacedonianking. ThoughitwasnotnecessarilyacrimeinAthensforpoliticianstoreceivepresents fromaforeignheadofstateunlessitcouldbedemonstratedthatthesegiftsledthem intounpatrioticacts,thecaseagainstAeschineslooksfairlystrong.Itisatestimony tothepowerofhisalliesthatwhenthecasefinallycametotrialin343hewas acquitted,thoughbyaverysmallmargin.InhiscornerwasnotonlyEubulus,the mostprominentpoliticianinAthensandastaunchadvocateofpeace,butthe strategosPhocion(c.402/401318BC).Abitingdenigratorofdemocracywhowas electedtothestrategiamoreoftenthananyotherman(fortyfivetimesbetween371 and318),PhocionwasfavorabletoMacedonandinfactwasexecutedforhis Macedoniansympathiesin318.InadditiontoharboringmanyMacedonianpartisans amongitsowncitizens,moreover,Athensopenlysupportedorshelteredenemiesof Philipfromotherstates. 386 OnlyPhilipsneedforpeaceinGreeceduringhisThraciancampaignin342 preventedhimfromtakingstrongactionagainstAthens.Philipfinallydeclaredwar in340,whenAthensinalliancewithseveralotherGreekstatesandPersiafrustrated hissiegeoftheHellespontinecityofPerinthus.Athensrespondedwithitsown declarationofwar. Theactualoutbreakofhostilitieswasdelayedforanotheryear.First,Philip unsuccessfullybesiegedByzantium;then,hecampaignedagainsttheScythians,who ruledtheDobrujainmodernRomaniaandthreatenedMacedoniancontrolofThrace. Nevertheless,hewasstillabletogiveAthensasharpreminderofthepotential consequencesofwarwithMacedon.Athensdependedformuchofitsfoodongrain importedfromtheBlackSea,sothatwhenPhilipseizedthewholeBlackSeagrain fleetin340,panicbrokeoutinthecity. PhilipslongawaitedopportunitytostrikedirectlyatAthensfinallycamein339, whentheDelphicAmphictyonyinvitedhimtoleadasacredwaragainstthecityof Amphissa,justsouthofDelphi.Hequicklyacceptedtheinvitation,andbytheendof

theyearheandhisarmyweresecurelyensconcedinPhocis,withineasystriking distanceofAthens. InoneofthemostfamouspassagesinGreekliterature,Demosthenesproudly recalledthatonlyhehadthecouragetoaddresstheassembly,whennewsreached AthensofPhilipspresenceinPhocis. AtdawnthenextdaythePrytaneiscalledtheCounciltotheChamber,andcitizens movedintotheAssembly....TheCouncilappeared,announcedthenewstheyhad received,andbroughtforwardtheirinformanttorepeatit.Theheraldthenvoiced thequestionWhodesirestospeak?Noonemoved.Thequestionwasrepeated severaltimeswithoutamanstandingup,thoughallthestrategoiwerethere,allthe orators,andthevoiceofAthenscalledforawordtosaveher....Icameforwardand addressedtheAssembly. (OntheCrown,pp.169172;Saunders1975) TheAtheniansdespairwasunderstandable.Demostheneseffortstoformagrand GreekallianceagainstMacedonhadonlylimitedsuccess.OnlyCorinth,Megara,and Messenia,togetherwithanumberofothercitiesinthenorthernandwestern Peloponnesus,hadheededDemosthenes,appeal.Sparta,stillbitteraboutthe ThebansliberationofMesseniathreedecadesearlier,remainedalooffromthe alliance.Throughouthistory,theAthenianshavebeencensuredforfailingto respondquicklyandvigorouslytothegrowingMacedonianthreat,butitis importanttoremembertheroleplayedinthefinalconfrontationbytheSpartans refusaltostandbytheirfellowGreeks.Whenbattlewasfinallyjoinedinlatesummer 338atChaeroneainBoeotia,onlytheleviesofAthensandThebesandtheBoeotian LeagueandafewPeloponnesianunitsfacedPhilip. AmonumentalstonelionstillgazesovertheplainofChaeronea,markingthesiteof thispivotalbattleinworldhistory.Otherwiselittleisknownaboutthebattleitself beyondtwofacts:Greekcasualtieswereheavy,andthedecisiveblowwasstruckby thecompanioncavalryledbyPhilips18yearoldsonandheir,Alexander.A thousandAthenianswerekilledandanothertwothousandcap 387 Figure10.5.Thisburialmonumentmarksthegravesof254Thebansburiedatthe siteofthebattleofChaeronea. tured;theThebanscherishedSacredBandwasslaughteredtoaman.Philips triumphoverhisGreekfoeswascomplete.WhetherPhiliphadplannedallalongto conquerGreeceisunknown.AfterhisvictoryatChaeronea,however,anyresistance

tohisauthorityinGreecewouldhavebeenfutile.Allthatremainedtobedetermined wastheformMacedoniandominationofGreecewouldtake. MACEDONIANDOMINATIONOFGREECE AccordingtothehistorianDiodorus,adrunkenPhilipcelebratedhisvictoryby mockingtheGreekdeaduntilanAthenianprisoner,thepoliticianDemades,sobered himupwiththeremarkthathisconductillbefittedagreatking.Whetherthestoryis trueornot,PhilipsdecisionsafterChaeroneareflectedcarefulthought.Exactlywhen PhilipdecidedtoattackPersiaisuncertain,buthisactionsintheaftermathofthe battlemakeitclearthatthedecisionhadalreadybeenmadebytheearly330s. Philipsimmediateconcernwashowtodealwithhistwoprincipalenemies.The Thebansweretreatedwithexemplaryharshness.AsThebeshadalongrecordof collaborationwithPersiaandwasMacedonschiefrivalforpowerincentraland northernGreece,Philiptookadvantageofhisvictorytobreakthe 388 cityspower.ThebanandotherBoeotianprisonerswerereleasedonlyafterpayment ofaheavyransom.Thebespoliticalleaderswereeitherexecutedorexiled.A MacedoniangarrisonwasinstalledontheCadmea,thecitysacropolis.Finally, ThebeswasstrippedofitstraditionalpositionofleadershipintheBoeotianLeague. PhilipstreatmentofAthenswasdramaticallydifferent.Atheniansupportwas essentialtothelongtermpacificationofGreece.Adifficultsiegewouldberequired tocapturethecity,andinthemeantime,itsfleetcouldseriouslyinterferewithhis projectedPersiancampaign.Consequently,Athensescapedsignificantpunishment despiteitsleadingroleinthewar.Athenianprisonerswerereturnedwithout ransom,andthebodiesoftheAtheniandeadwereescortedbacktothecitybyan honorguardledbyAlexanderandAntipater,Philipsmosttrustedgeneral.Nordid PhilipobjectwhenDemosthenes,hismostimplacableopponent,deliveredthe funeralorationoverthedeadofChaeronea. Philipsactionswerewellreceived.FewGreeksregrettedthehumiliationofThebes, whosearbitrarybehaviorinthedecadessincetheBattleofLeuctrahadbred widespreadresentment.Athens,foritspart,respondedtoPhilipsunexpected leniencybyshoweringthecitysformerenemieswithhonors.Antipaterand AlexanderweremadeAtheniancitizensandacultwasestablishedinPhilipshonor inoneofthecitysgymnasia.Needlesstosay,AtheniansuspicionofPhilips intentionsorthoseofhissupportersatAthensdidnotdisappear:alawpassedin337 promisedseverepenaltiesforanyonewhoconspiredtooverthrowthedemocracy andestablishatyranny.Some,however,welcomedMacedonasaforceinAthenian

politics.AfterChaeroneaasbefore,allshadesofopinionthrivedinthecityalong withavarietyofsentimentstowardPhiliprangingfromreverencetohatred. Officially,however,relationswereamicable.AntipaterandAlexanderwerenotthe onlyMacedoniansubjectstobenefitfromthethawinrelationsbetweenPhilipand Athens.AthenianinscriptionsdemonstratethatcontactbetweenAthensandthe MacedoniancourtbecameincreasinglycommonintheyearsaftertheBattleof Chaeronea.Oneofthosewhotookadvantageofthenewrelationshipbetween AthensandMacedonwasthephilosopherAristotle.AclosefriendofAntipaterand theformertutorofAlexander,AristotlereturnedtoAthensin335andremained thereuntil322,whenrenewedantiMacedoniansentimentforcedhimtofleeto Euboea.Therehediedthesameyear. TheschoolthatAristotlefoundedatAthens,theLyceum,becamethemodelforthe greatresearchinstitutionsoftheHellenisticperiod.Philip,however,hadnosuch elevatedgoalsinmindwhenhesodramaticallydispatchedAntipaterandAlexander toAthensin337.Hisimmediatepurposewastoavoidadifficultsiegeandwin AthensacquiescenceinhisplansforGreece,andhiscalculatedgenerositylargely succeededinachievingthosegoals.Athensofferednofurtherresistanceto MacedonianpreeminenceinGreece.Moreimportant,theAtheniansagreedtosend representativestothegeneralmeetingofGreekstatesatCorinththatPhilipcalledin thesummerof337BC,wherePhiliprevealedhisplansforthefuture. 389 TheCorinthianLeague ExceptfortheSpartans,whorefusedtoattend,allthemajorGreekstatessent representativestoCorinthtolearnPhilipsplans.Noaccountofwhattranspiredat Corinthsurvives,butthemainpointsofPhilipsproposalsareknown.The centerpieceoftheneworderwasanalliance,traditionallyreferredtoasthe CorinthianLeague,butwhichPhilipcalledsimplytheGreeks.Thepurposeofthe alliancewastwofold:tomaintainacommonpeaceinGreeceandtoretaliateagainst thePersiansfortheinvasionof480BCandotheractsofaggressionagainstGreeks. Toachievethoseends,thecouncil(synedrion)ofthealliancewasempoweredtopass decreesbindingonmemberstates,toarbitratedisputesbetweenthem,andtotry individualsaccusedofbetrayingthegoalsandpoliciesofthealliance.Memberstates ofthealliancealsoreceivedpledgesofmutualnonaggressionandpromisesof supportagainstattackorsubversionoftheirgovernments.Notsurprisingly,Philips proposalswereapprovedbythedelegates,andhewasappointedhgemn,(leader) oftheallianceandcommanderofthewarofrevengeagainstthePersians.

Document10.2OathofMembersoftheLeagueofCorinth(338337BC)Fragment ofanAthenianinscriptionrecordingtheoathswornbytheAthenianswhenthey ratifiedthetreatyestablishingtheLeagueofCorinth. Oath.IswearbyZeus,Earth,Sun,Poseidon,Athena,Ares,andallthegodsand goddesses.Iwillabidebythepeace,andIwillnotbreaktheagreementswithPhilip theMacedonian,norwillItakeuparmswithhostileintentagainstanyoneofthose whoabidebytheoathseitherbylandorbysea.Iwillnotseizeinwarbyanydevice orstratagemanycityorfortorharborbelongingtothosewhosharethepeace,nor willIsuppressthekingdomofPhiliporofhisdescendantsortheconstitutionsin forceamonganyofthose[whosharethepeace],whentheysworetheoaths concerningthepeace.Iwillnotcommitanyactthatcontravenestheagreementsnor willIpermitanyothertodoso.Ifanyonebreakstheagreements,Iwillassistthose whohavebeenwrongedinaccordancewiththeirrequestsandIwillfightagainst thosewhobreakthecommonpeacejustasthecommoncouncilandtheleader (hgemn)decide.... InscriptionesGraecae2.236. HistorianshavelongrecognizedthattheprimarypurposeoftheLeagueofCorinth wastolegitimizePhilipsdominationofGreece,anditdidsoinawaythatwasall themoreeffectivebecauseitreflectedimportanttrendsincontemporaryGreek thought.EversincetheendofthePeloponnesianWar,Greekpoliticiansand thinkers,dismayedbychronicpoliticalandsocialunrest,had 390 soughtwaystoendtheconstantwarfarethatplaguedfourthcenturyGreece.In worksliketheRepublicandtheLaws,Platoandotherphilosophersofferedutopian visionsofidealcitiesfreeofstasisthattheythemselvesknewcouldnotberealized. MorepragmaticthinkerssoughttoredefinetheplaceofwarinGreeklife.They denouncedwarsbetweenGreeksascivilwars,whileinsistingthatwarsagainst barbarianswereinherentlyjustorevendesirableasawayofreducinginternal tensionsinGreece.Theseideaswereembodiedintherepeatedattemptstoestablish commonpeaces,suchastheKingsPeaceanditsvarioussuccessors,thatareso characteristicoffourthcenturyGreekdiplomacy. ThemostprominentofthejustwartheoristswastheAthenianeducatorIsocrates. Isocrateswasalmost100yearsoldwhentheBattleofChaeroneaoccurred. Throughouthislongcareerasaspeechwriterandteacherofrhetoric,hehad broodedonGreeceschronicsocialproblems.Hisproposedsolution,aswehaveseen inChapter9,wasconqueringaportionofthePersianempire,providingaplaceto whicheconomicallydeprivedandpotentiallydangeroussegmentsofGreeksociety couldemigrate.HehadappealedinvaintovariousGreekrulers,including

DionysiusIofSyracuseandJasonofPherae,toforciblyuniteGreeceandleaditina crusadeagainstPersia.PhilipmusthaveseemedIsocrateslastchancetoseehis dreamrealized.Unfortunately,wedonotknowhowPhiliprespondedwhenhe invitedhimtoleadsuchacrusadeafterhisvictoryattheBattleofChaeronea,butby unitingintheLeagueofCorinththeideasofacommonpeaceandacrusade againstPersiaPhilipwasexploitingideasthathaddeeprootsinfourthcenturyBC Greece. TheDeathofPhilipII TheCorinthianLeaguesapprovalofPhilipsplanforaPersianwarwaswelltimed. Theearly330swereatimeofseverecrisisforthePersianempire.Theablebut ruthlesskingArtaxerxesIII(358338BC)hadstruggledthroughouthisreignto rebuildPersianpower,andbythelate340shiseffortshadbeencrownedwith success.Heendedthesatrapalrebellionsthathaddisruptedthereignofhisfather ArtaxerxesII(405359BC),reestablishedPersianauthorityinPhoeniciaandAsia Minor,andevenreconqueredEgypt,whichhadbeenindependentsincetheendof thefifthcentury. Artaxerxespowerrivaledthatofhisgreatsixthandfifthcenturyancestors. DemosthenesandotherenemiesofPhiliplookedtothePersiankingforassistance againstMacedon.ButdisasterstruckalmostassoonasPersiahadreemergedasa significantfactorintheaffairsoftheeasternMediterraneanbasin.In338,an ambitiouseunuchnamedBagoasassassinatedArtaxerxesIIIandprecipitateda successioncrisisthatlastedforalmosttwoyears.OnlyafterarelativeofArtaxerxes succeededinkillingthetreacherouseunuchandhimselfascendedthethroneof PersiaasDariusIIIdidthecrisisendandasemblanceofstabilityreturn. In336,PhilipquicklytookadvantageofthechaosattheheartofthePersianempire bysendinganexpeditionaryforceacrosstheHellespont,commandedby 391 histrustedgeneralParmenion.AstheMacedonianarmymovedsouthwarddown thewestcoastofAnatolia,PhilipssupportersinvariousGreekcitiesrevoltedand overthrewtheirproPersiantyrants.AtEresusonLesbos,thenewgovernment signaleditsadhesiontotheMacedoniancausebyestablishingaculttoZeus Philippios;atEphesusPhilipssupportershadastatueofthekingplacedinthe templeofArtemis.ThesuccessesachievedbyParmenionandhisexpeditionaryforce in336auguredwellforthemaincampaignPhilipwastoleadthefollowingyear. Beforethatcampaigncouldtakeplace,however,fateintervened.Inthesummerof 336,PhilipwasassassinatedatAegaebyamemberofhisownbodyguardnamed Pausanias.Hisassassinationwastheclimaxoftheturbulencethathadmarkedhis

personallifeduringthelastyearsofhisreign,resultingfromhisseventhmarriagein 338.FormostofhisreignPhilipsqueenhadbeenhisfourthwife,theEpirote princessOlympias,whoborehisdesignatedheir,Alexander.Hisothermarriagesto Thessalian,Thracian,Illyrian,andevenScythianbrideshadserveddiplomaticends withoutthreateningOlympiaspositionatcourt.Philipsseventhmarriagewas different.Forthefirsttime,PhiliptookaMacedonianbride,ayoungwomannamed Cleopatra,andalliedhimselftoapowerfulMacedoniannoblefamily. ScholarshavebeenunabletoexplainPhilipsfinalmarriage.Ancientwriterssawitas theresultofadisastrousinfatuationwithayoungerwoman.Somemodernscholars havesuggestedthatPhilipmayhavehopedthatthenewmarriagemightresultin additionalsonstostrengthenhisfamilysholdonthethrone.WhateverPhilipsplans mayhavebeen,thedramaticconsequencesofhismarriagequicklybecameevident. InshortorderbothOlympiasandAlexanderfellfromfavorandfledintoexile, amidsttalkthatPhilipintendedtosupplanthissonwithaMacedonianheir. Asitturnedout,thethreattoAlexanderspositionendedalmostassuddenlyasit hadbegun.In337CleopatraborePhilipadaughternamedEuropa.Thechildsname borewitnesstoPhilipsunderstandableprideinhisaccomplishments,butawoman couldnotsucceedtotheMacedonianthrone.Withoutanewsontoreplace Alexanderasheir,Philiphadnochoicebuttoreconcilewithhim.Amutualfriend, DemaratusofCorinth,effectedtherapprochement.AlthoughOlympiasremainedin exileinEpirus,AlexanderreturnedtoPellaandresumedhisplaceatcourt.Thecrisis overthesuccessionhadended,itseemed,withoutseriousconsequences. Indirectly,however,PhilipsilladvisedmarriagetoCleopatraprovedtobehis undoing.TheunioninevitablyembroiledPhilipintheenmitiesofherfamily,and oneoftheminvolvedhisassassin,Pausanias.AccordingtoAristotle,Pausaniaskilled PhilipbecausehehadbeenabusedbyCleopatrasuncleAttalusandPhiliphaddone nothingaboutit.ThedetailsarepreservedbyDiodorus,whomakesitclearthatthe abusehadbeenextreme.AttalusservantshadrapedPausanias.Themotiveforthis atrociousactwasrevengeforthedeathofayoungrelativeofAttalus,whom PausaniashadslanderedbecausePhiliphadchosenthelatteras 392 hislover.Unwillingtoendangerhisalliancewithhisnewqueensfamily,Philip soughttopalliatePausaniasgrievancebypromotinghimtothecovetedrankof royalbodyguard. Philipseffortstomollifytheyoungmanwereconspicuouslyunsuccessful,andthe weddingofPhilipsdaughterCleopatragavePausaniasanopportunityfor vengeance.Theclimaxoftheweddingfestivitieswasasplendidprocessionledby Philip.AstheprocessionenteredthetheateratAegae,Pausaniasrushedforwardand

stabbedPhiliptodeathbeforethestartledeyesoftheguestswhohadcomefromall overtheMacedonianempiretowitnessthekingstriumph.Soendedthereignofthe mostcontroversialofallMacedoniankings. *** CouldGreekunionandresolvehavepreventedtheMacedoniantakeover? TwentiethcenturyhistorianshavesometimescomparedPhilipwithHitler,casting DemosthenesintheroleofWinstonChurchill(aconstructdeeplyflatteringto Demosthenes,whoseeffortsfailedconspicuously).Whetherornottheanalogyhas validity,itraisesthequestionwhetherPhilipssuccesswasnotcontingentonGreek vacillationandappeasementandonthecollusionofproMacedonianfactionsinthe poleis:itisimportanttorememberPhocionslongstandingaffectionforMacedon. Thisquestionseemsultimatelyunanswerable,forhistoryisnotalaboratoryscience, andwehavenowayofreplayingthefourthcenturyBCwithahealthier,richer,and lessdividedGreece.WhatisclearisthatPhilipIlwasaremarkableman. Sinceantiquity,historianshavehaddifficultyassessingPhilipandhisachievements. PolybiuswasbewilderedbytheopeningofTheopompusofChiosgreathistoryof Philip.ItbeganwiththeobservationthatEuropehadneverproducedamanlike PhilipandthenwentontocataloguePhilipscrimesandfollies,includinghis unbridledsexualityanddrunkenness,hisbetrayalofhisfriendsandallies,andhis destructionofGreekcities.Assoofteninsuchmatters,theproblemispartlyoneof perspective.PolybiuswrotetwocenturiesafterPhilipsdeathandfounditdifficultto sympathizewithTheopompus,afourthcenturyGreekwhohadviewedPhilip primarilyasaforeign,malignantforceinGreekaffairsandnotasthefounderof Macedoniangreatness. Whichpointofviewiscorrect?Infact,bothhavemerit.Itisimpossibletodenythat inmanywaysPhilipsinfluenceoncontemporaryGreekaffairswasnegative.The destructionofcitiessuchasAmphipolis,Methone,Stagira,andOlynthusiswell documented.Nevertheless,PhilipwasfirstandforemostkingofMacedon.His primaryconcernwasthewelfareofMacedon,notthatofGreece.Inthatregardhe succeeded.Inthetwentyfouryearsofhisreign,PhiliptransformedMacedonfroma kingdomonthevergeofdissolutiontoaunifiedstate,rulinganempirethat extendedfromtheDanubetosouthernGreece.Whetherhisplanstoextend MacedonianpowerintoAsiawereasgrandioseasthosecarriedoutlaterby Alexandercannotbeknown.Nevertheless,itisclearthatwithoutPhilipslegacyofa united,powerfulMacedontheachievementsofAlexanderandhissuccessorswould havebeenimpossible. 393 TRANSLATIONS

Chinnock,EdwardJames.1893.ArriansAnabasisofAlexanderandIndica.Londonand NewYork:G.Bell&Sons. Saunders,A.N.W.1975.DemosthenesandAeschines.Harmondsworth,England, Penguin. SUGGESTEDREADING Adcock,F.E.1957.TheGreekandMacedonianArtofWar.BerkeleyandLosAngeles: UniversityofCaliforniaPress.LucidintroductiontoGreekandMacedonianideasof war. Andronicos,Manolis.1984.Vergina:TheRoyalTombs.Trans.LouiseTurner.Athens: EkdotikeAthenon.BeautifullyillustratedaccountofthediscoveryoftheMacedonian royalcemeteryatVergina. Borza,EugeneN.1990.IntheShadowofOlympus:TheEmergenceofMacedon.Princeton, N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress.InsightfulhistoryofthekingdomofMacedonfrom itsorigintothereignofPhilipII. Cawkwell,George.1978.PhilipofMacedon.London:Faber&Faber.Perceptive biographyofPhilipfromaGreekviewpoint. Ellis,J.R.1976.PhilipIIandMacedonianImperialism.London:ThamesandHudson. LucidtreatmentofPhilipsreignfromaMacedonianviewpoint. Martin,ThomasR.1985.SovereigntyandCoinageinClassicalGreece.Princeton,N.J.: PrincetonUniversityPress.Importantstudyofthenumismaticevidencefor MacedonianrelationswithThessaly. Sealey,Raphael.1993.DemosthenesandHisTime:AStudyinDefeat.NewYork:Oxford UniversityPress.ImportantrevisionistbiographyoftheAthenianstatesman. 394 11 ALEXANDERTHEGREAT RarelyhasanepochmakingreignbeguninsuchuncertaintyasthatofAlexanderthe Great.Inhisreignofalmosttwoandahalfdecades,Alexandersfather,PhilipII,had transformedMacedonintoastrong,centralizedmonarchy.Philipsmilitaryreforms hadmadeMacedonthepremiermilitarypowerintheregion,controllinganempire thatstretchedfromtheDanubeRiverinthenorthtoThessalyinthesouth.By creatingtheLeagueofCorinth,PhiliphadextendedMacedonianinfluencedeepinto

southernGreeceandgainedthepublicsupportofhisGreeksubjectsandalliesforhis projectedinvasionofAsia.Philipsassassinationontheeveofhisdeparturetojoin hisforcesintheeastthreatenedtoruinnotonlyhisAsianadventure,butallofhis achievements. Likehisfathers,Alexandersreignbeganwithasuccessioncrisis.AlexanderIIIwas only20yearsoldatthetimeofhisfathersdeathinthesummerof336BC.Omens werelatersaidtohaveforecasthisrule.Hismother,Olympias,whohadmuchto gaininsecuringthesuccessionforherson,claimedtohavedreamedthatlightning struckherwomb.ThegreattempleofArtemisatEphesuswasbelievedtohavebeen destroyedbyfireonthedayAlexanderwasborn.AlthoughPhiliphadoffspring fromseveralofhiswives,Alexanderwasclearlytreatedashisfathersheirformost ofPhilipsreign. PhilipandOlympiasgroomedAlexandercarefullyfortherolehewouldultimately play.AseriesofGreektutorswhoincludedAristotleprovidedhimwiththe educationinGreekliteratureandculturethatPhiliphadlacked.Fromthem AlexandergainedhislifelongloveofHomerandhisdeterminationtoequalorexcel theexploitsofhislegendaryancestors,HeraclesandAchilles. Alexanderspracticaltraininginkingshipwasnotneglected.HegovernedMacedon inPhilipsabsenceandsuppressedaThracianrebellion.Likehisfather,Alexander foundedacitynamedafterhimselfinThrace.Finally,hetookpartinPhilips campaigns,evencommandingthecompanioncavalryinthedecisiveBattleof ChaeroneathatestablishedMacedonianruleinGreecein338BC.Nevertheless, Alexanderssuccessionwasnotassured.Hewasisolatedatcourtatthetimeof Philipsdeath.OlympiasandAlexandersfriendsandadvisersremainedinexile.Not surprisingly,rumorsquicklyspreadafterPhilipsassassinationthat 395 AlexanderhadencouragedtheassassinandthatOlympiasevenhadmournedhim. Therewasalsotalkofotherpossiblesuccessors.Themostimportantofthese potentialrivalswasPhilipsnephew,ward,andsoninlaw,theformerking, AmyntasIV.OnlytimelyinterventionbyAntipater,oneofPhilipsmostsenior Figure11.1.Alexanderscampaign. 396 generals,savedthesuccessionforAlexander.AntipaterspresentationofAlexander totheMacedoniantroopsatAegaeforthetraditionalacclamationasking,combined

withthedeathoftheassassinPausaniasandtherapidcondemnationandexecution ofhisallegedfellowconspirators,securedthethronefortheyoungprince.Italso changedthehistoryofwesternAsia. 397 SOURCESFORTHEREIGNOFALEXANDER TheEnglishpoetChaucer(d.1400)wroteinTheMonksTale(lines641643)thatthe storieofAlisaundreissocommune,/thateverywightthathathdiscrecioun/hath herdsomewhatoralofhisfortune.FormostoftheMiddleAges,themostwidely readnonreligiousbookintheOldWorldwasaromanticbiographyofAlexander (thesocalledAlexanderRomance)thatfreelymingledhistorywithfiction.The popularityofhisremarkablestoryhascontinuedtothepresent,inspiringfilmsand novels.AselectivebibliographyofworksdealingwithAlexandercontainedthetitles ofalmostsevenhundredstudiespublishedbetween1700and1970,anddozensof newexplorationsofhisreignhaveappearedeveryyearsince.Despitethisvast outpouringofscholarship,interpretationsofAlexanderscharacterandgoalsdiffer widely.HistorianshavecastAlexanderinmanyroles:asthechiefagentinthe spreadofHellenism,asanidealisticbelieverintheunityofmankind,asanAryan superman,and,morerecently,asabrutalconquerorwithoutconstructiveplansfor thefutureofhisempire.Thereasonsforthislackofagreementoneventhemost basicissuesofAlexandersbiographyamongGreekhistoriansareclear:the limitationsoftheavailablesourcesforhislifeandreignandhistoriansdifficultyin transcendingtheirownhistoricalcontext.Althougharchaeologyhasrevealedmuch aboutthetimesinwhichAlexanderlived,includingthediscoveryofunlootedtombs thatmaybelongtohisfatherandson,historiansmuststillrelyontheevidence containedinGreekandLatinliteraturefortheessentialdetailsofhislifeandcareer. TheancientevidenceconcerningAlexanderoriginallywasvariedandextensive. Alexanderhimselfactivelypromotedthedevelopmentofliteratureabouthimself andhisachievements.Inadditiontoengineersandothertechnicalexperts,his entourageincludedanofficialhistorian(anephewofAristotlenamedCallisthenes) aswellaspoetsandscholarswhoweretocelebratehisconquestsanddescribethe discoveriesmadeduringhiscampaign.Inthetwogenerationsfollowinghisdeath, theliterarytraditionconcerningAlexanderwasenrichedbythepublicationof numerousworksbothephemerasuchaspoliticalpamphletsandsubstantialhistories ofhisreignwrittenbyparticipantsinhisexpeditionincludingtheadmiralNearchus, theCynicphilosopherOnesicritus,andthelaterkingofEgypt,PtolemyI.The treatmentofAlexandersreignintheseworksrangedfromofficialapologiai(i.e., defensesagainstcriticism)toheroicadventurestory.Unfortunately,noneofthe historiesbyAlexanderscontemporariessurvivesinitsoriginalform.Ourlimited knowledgeoftheircontentsisbasedonthecollectionandintensiveanalysisby

modernscholarsofthefewextantquotations,summaries,orallusionstothemfound inlaterwriters. TherecentpublicationofcuneiformtextsconcerningAlexanderholdsoutthehope ofthediscoveryofnewsourcesthatwouldprovideamuchneededAsian perspectiveontheMacedonianconquest.ModernhistoriansreconstructAlexanders lifefromthefiveextantbiographiesofAlexander,namely,thosecontainedinthe universalhistoriesofDiodorus(firstcenturyBC)andPompeiusTrogus(first centuryBC),thelatterextantonlyintheformofanabridgmentpreparedin 398 thesecondcenturyADbyanotherwiseunknownwriternamedJustin;theHistoryof AlexanderbyQuintusCurtiusRufus(firstcenturyAD);PlutarchLifeofAlexander (secondcenturyAD);andtheAnabasisofAlexanderbyArrian(secondcenturyAD). Thesebiographieswereallwrittenbetweenthreehundredandfivehundredyears afterthekingsdeathandreflecttheinterestsandideasoftheearlyRomanempire,a periodverydifferentfromthatinwhichAlexanderlived.Theirvaluedepends, therefore,onthefactthattheydrewtheirinformationfromthenowlostworksof Alexanderscontemporaries.Asnoinfalliblemethodofevaluatingtherelativemerits ofeachofthefivelatebiographieshasyetbeendevised,thevariationinmodern assessmentsofAlexanderresultsinlargepartfromthedifferingjudgmentsof scholarsconcerningtheweighttobeassignedtotheirevidence.Ononematter, however,allbiographersofAlexander,ancientandmodern,agree:Alexanders personalactionswereofdecisiveimportanceinshapingtheremarkableeventsofhis reign. CONSOLIDATINGPOWER Alexanderspersonalrolewasnevermoreimportantthaninthecriticalfirstyearof hisreign.ThesupportofPhilipsseniorcommandershadbeenindispensablein securingthesuccessionforAlexander.Intheaftermathofhisaccession,theyurged theyoungkingtoproceedcautiously,consolidatinghisbaseinMacedonandusing diplomacytoconciliateMacedonsnorthernsubjectsandallies,evenattheriskof losinginfluenceinGreece.SuchcautionwasnottoAlexanderstaste,andnotforthe lasttimeherejectedtheadviceoftheMacedonianoldguardinfavorofdecisive action. GreecefirstclaimedAlexandersattention.Immediatelyafterconductinghisfathers funeral,Alexandermadeasuddenanddramaticappearancethere.AntiMacedonian politiciansatAthensandThebesquicklyabandonedplanstoexploitapresumed weaknessinMacedoninthewakeofPhilipsassassinationandtofreeGreecefrom continuedMacedonianrule.AlexanderwasconfirmedinPhilipsformerpositionsas archnofThessalyandhgemnoftheCorinthianLeague,andGreeksupportforthe

waragainstPersiawasreaffirmed.AfterabriefstayinMacedonfollowinghisreturn fromGreece,Alexanderwagedanevenmorewiderangingnortherncampaignin thespringof335,intendedtoimpressontheThraciansandIllyriansthatPhilips deathwouldbringnoeasingoftheMacedonianyoke. AlexandersfirstmajorcampaignextendedasfarnorthasthebanksoftheDanube. Onlysketchyaccountsofthecourseofeventssurvive,butitisclearthatAlexander achievedhisprincipalgoalsinthenorth.HismaintargetwastheTriballi,whohad humiliatedPhilipin339duringhisreturnmarchtoMacedonafterhisvictoryover theScythians.TheTriballisattempttoholdakeypassagainstAlexanderfailed, thankstothedisciplineofhisMacedoniantroops,whoquicklyclearedapathforthe wagonstheirenemiessentcareeningdownthemountaininthehopeofbreaking theirline.Triballianresistancecollapsedshortlythere 399 afterwhenAlexanderdefeatedtheirmainforcesandthenlaunchedanamphibious assaultonanislandwheretheTriballihadplacedtheirwomenandchildrenfor safety.AlexandersdramaticraidinforceacrosstheDanubeintotheterritoryofthe GetaegainedthesubmissionoftheremainingThraciantribes.Alexanderalso concludedatreatyoffriendshipwithagroupofGauls,thevanguardofamigration thatwasgreatlytoaffectsoutheasternEuropeandAnatoliaintheearlyHellenistic period. Havingsecuredhisnorthernfrontier,AlexanderturnedsouthwestwardintoIllyria todealwithPhilipIIsoldenemy,KingCleitus.Alexanderreceivedthefirstofhis manybattlewoundsduringthisphaseofthecampaign.Onlyhisintuitive understandingofthepsychologicalimpactthatadisplayofMacedoniancloseorder drillwouldhaveontheIllyriansenabledhimtoextricatehisarmyfromapotentially disastroustrap.HeinflictedadecisivedefeatonCleitusthatfinallyendedthe IllyrianthreattoMacedonswesternfrontierthathadloomedoversomanyofhis predecessors. AlexanderslongabsenceinthenorthsparkedrumorsofhisdeathinGreece.Hope wasmothertothefact.Demosthenesevenintroducedasupposedeyewitnessof AlexandersdeathtotheAthenianassembly.ConfidentofAthenianaid,theThebans roseinrevolt,besiegingthecitysMacedoniangarrisonontheCadmeia,theacropolis ofThebes,andinvitingotherGreekstatestojointheminthestruggleforfreedom. ForcedmarchesbyAlexander,whohadbeeninformedoftheeventsunfoldingin Greece,broughthimandhisarmyunderthewallsofThebesbeforetherebellion couldspread.TheAthenians,whohadvotedmilitaryaidforThebes,nowhesitated. TheSpartans,whohadfailedsostunninglytohelpatChaeronea,alsoheldback. WhentheThebansnonethelessspurnedAlexandersdemandforsurrender,thecity

wasstormedandsacked.AlexanderorderedthatThebesBoeotianneighborsdecide theultimatefateofthecityanditssurvivingcitizens.Alltoomindfulofpastefforts byThebestosubduethem,theydecidedthatThebesshouldbedestroyedandthe remainingThebanssoldintoslavery.Alexandercarriedoutthedecree,sparingfrom destructiononlyThebestemplesandthedescendantsandhouseofitsillustrious poet,Pindar. ThedestructionofThebeswasrememberedforcenturiesasoneofthegreatatrocities ofGreekhistory.Alexanderhimselfwassaidlatertohavegivenspecial considerationtopersonalrequestsbyThebans.Forthemoment,hiscalculateduseof terrorachieveditspurpose.AsnewsofthedestructionofThebesspread,active resistancetoMacedonianruleceasedthroughoutGreece.Forthesecondtimeina littleoverayear,theCorinthianLeagueacknowledgedAlexanderasitshegemon andaffirmeditssupportforhispolicies.NowthattheexampleofThebeshorrible fatehadsappedGreekresolve,Alexandercouldaffordtoadoptamoremoderate stance,abandoninghisdemandsforthesurrenderofantiMacedonianleadersat AthensandelsewhereinGreece. Similarlyruthlessmethodswerealsousedtoneutralizepotentialoppositionin Macedon.MeasuressuchasfreeingMacedoniansfromallpersonalobligations exceptmilitaryservicewonAlexanderpopularityamonghissubjects,whilepotential rivalswereeliminated.Thesourcesconcealthefullextentofthepurgebe 400 causetheyemphasizeinsteadthebrutalandunauthorizedmurderofPhilipIIslast wifeCleopatraandherdaughterbyOlympiasduringAlexandersabsenceinGreece in336BCInfact,themalemembersofCleopatrasfamily,whohadhopedtoprofit fromherpositionasPhilipsqueen,werealsowipedout.Furthermore,AmyntasIV, Alexandersonlylegitimaterivalforthethrone,wasassassinated.Thoseoftheir supporterswhocouldescapefledtotheironlypossiblerefuge,Persia,leaving AlexanderastheunchallengedrulerofMacedon. InvasionofAsia Inthespringof334BCwithhispositioninMacedonfinallysecure,Alexanderledhis forcesacrosstheHellesponttoAsia.Hisformidablearmywasfully37,000strong.Its coreconsistedofthe12,000Macedoniantroopswhoformedthephalanx.Theywere supplementedby3000hypaspists(royalguards)and1800companioncavalry.In additiontohisMacedoniantroopshisarmyincludedspeciallightarmedunitsfrom IllyriaandThraceandalmost9000alliedGreekinfantryandcavalry.Afleetof almosttwohundredshipsprovidedbyAlexandersGreekalliessupportedhistroops andmaintainedhiscommunicationswithEurope.

AlexandersfirstactionsinAsiawerebold,eventheatrical.Hewasthefirst MacedoniantolandonAsiansoil,leapingashoreandcastinghisspearintotheland toclaimallthatheconqueredasterritorywonbythespear.Hethenwenttothe traditionalsiteofTroy,wherehesacrificedtoAthena,askedpardonofthe Figure11.2.LeoninehairaddstohisferocityinthisportraitofAlexanderashero king.Romanmarblecopyaftertheheadofanoriginalstatuteofabout330Bc. InscribedAlexandros,sonofPhilip,ofMacedon. 401 ancientTrojankingPriamforinvadingAsia,andpaidhomagetoAchilles,whohe believedwasoneofhisancestors. ThesymbolismsuitedtheleaderoftheGreekcrusade,butseriousproblemslay behindallthebravado.TomaintainhisauthorityinMacedonandGreece,Alexander hadbeencompelledtoleavealmosthalfhisMacedoniantroopsbehindinEurope withAntipater.InAsiaeverythingwonbyPhilipsadvanceguardin336hadbeen losttoavigorousPersiancounteroffensiveexceptforthebridgeheadatAbydus. Worseyet,Alexanderhadsufficientfundsforonlyabriefcampaign;andhisfriends didnotyetholdimportantpositionsinthegovernmentandarmy.InMacedon, Antipatergovernedasregentinhisname.AlexanderssecondincommandinAsia wasParmenion,aclosefriendofAntipater,anduntilPhilipsdeath,anallyof Cleopatrasfamily.Moreover,Parmenionsrelativesheldkeycommandsinthe armyscriticalcavalryunits.Alexanderneededaquickvictorytoachievethegoalsof hiscampaignandensurehisfreedomfromthedominationoftheMacedonian aristocratswhohadmadehimking.Fortunatelyforhim,thePersiansprovedtobe convenientenemies. TheBattleofGranicus(334BC) ThevastsizeofthePersianempiremeantthatmobilizationofitsmainforcesto confrontathreatonaremotefrontierwasalwaysslow.Inthemeantime,local satrapshadtorelyonthelimitedforcesstationedintheirterritoriestocopewiththe initialphasesofaninvasion.Insuchcircumstances,satrapsnormallyuseda defensivestrategythataimedatcontrollingkeystrongpointswhiledenyingthe enemyuseoflocalresourcesuntiltheGreatKingcouldmobilizetheempires financialandmilitaryforces,andbringthemtobearontheinvader.Suchastrategy wasinfactproposedbyMemnon,theRhodiangeneralwhohaddefendedAsia MinoragainstParmenionsforcestheyearbefore.TheAnatoliansatraps,however, werejealousofMemnonshighstandingwithDariusandunwillingtoriskhavingto justifythelossesinrevenueandthedestructionofroyallandsthatsuchastrategy

wouldentail.Insteadtheychoseaboldercourse,decidingtoconfrontAlexander directlyinbattleinthehopeofkillinghim. Thestrategyalmostworked.ThePersiansmetAlexanderattheRiverGranicus,the modernKoabas,innorthwestAnatolia.Theirpositionwasstrong.Theircavalrywas stationedalongtheriverbankitselftopreventtheMacedoniansfromsuccessfully crossingtheriver;theirinfantry,includingseveralthousandGreekmercenary troops,werepostedbehindthemassupport.Thedetailsofthebattleitselfare unclear.AlexanderapparentlyoverruledParmenionssuggestionthathewaituntil thenextdaytoattackinordertoallowhissoldierstorecoverfromtheirmarch. Instead,heorderedanimmediateattack.Thefightingwashard,anddisasterwas barelyaverted. ThePersiansnearlysucceededinkillingAlexander,whostoodoutclearlyinthe flamboyantarmorofAchillesthathehadtakenfromthetempleofAthenaatTroy. ThekingwassavedfromcertaindeathonlybythedaringactionofCleitustheBlack, thebrotherofAlexandersnurse:atacrucialmomentCleitussliced 402 offthearmofaPersiannoblewhowasabouttodealafatalblowtoanalreadydazed Alexander.BecausethePersianshadstakedeverythingonkillingAlexander,the failureoftheirplanbroughtdisaster.TrappedbetweentheMacedoniansandtheir owninfantry,thebulkofthePersiancavalrywasslaughtered.ThePersianinfantry, whichhadtakennopartinthebattle,fledandabandonedtheGreekmercenaries whoformedthecoreofthePersianarmy.Sincemanyofthesewereexiledenemiesof MacedonianruleinGreece,itisnotsurprisingthatAlexanderorderedallbuttwo thousandofthemmassacredastraitorstotheGreekcause.Thesurvivorsweresent toMacedoniatoworkinchains.Alexanderboldlyannouncedhisvictorytothe GreekworldbysendingtoAthensthreehundredsuitsofPersianarmorasa dedicationtoAthenawiththeinscription:FromAlexander,thesonofPhilip,and theGreeks,excepttheSpartans.HisbarbedreferencetotheSpartanshighlighted theirrefusaltojointheLeagueofCorinthandshareinthePanhelleniccrusade againstPersiathathewasleading. AlexandersdecisivevictoryattheGranicuschangedthecharacterofthewar.Their defeatdeprivedthePersiansofaprincipaladvantage:nolongercouldtheymountan effectivedefenseinAnatoliawhileexploitingtheirnavalsuperiorityandfinancial resourcestoharassAlexanderscommunicationswithMacedonandfomentrebellion inGreece.WithmostofthePersiancommandersdeadandmuchoftheirbestcavalry andGreekmercenarieslost,thePersianpositioninAnatoliadisintegrated.Although thePhoenicianfleetfreelycruisedtheAegean,theGreeksasawholerefusedto committhemselvestothePersiancause.Alexandersforces,meanwhile,sweptsouth

alongthewestcoastofAnatolia.FierceresistancebythePersiangarrisonsatMiletus andHalicarnassusslowedtheMacedonianadvancebutcouldnotstopit.Inquick successionthesatrapiesofLydia,Caria,andLyciafelltoAlexander.Bythespringof 333,AlexanderhadreachedGordium,thecapitaloftheancientkingdomofPhrygia, nearmodernAncyraincentralAnatolia.Inlessthanayear,Isocratesonceseemingly impossibledreamofseveringAnatoliafromthePersianempirehadbeenrealized. Thefirstyearofthecampaignalsoexposedtheunresolvedconflictinherentin AlexanderspositionashegemonoftheLeagueofCorinthandleaderoftheGreek crusade,andkingofMacedon.AshegemonhewasrequiredtorespectGreek opinionandthecommitmentsheandPhiliphadmadetotheLeagueofCorinth. Consequently,hepunishedtheGreekmercenariesaftertheBattleoftheGranicus andturneddeposedproPersiantyrantsovertothecounciloftheLeagueofCorinth fortrial.AskingofMacedon,however,conqueredterritorywashistodowithashe sawfit,andincreasinglyhisinterestsaskingoverrodehisobligationstotheLeague andhisconcernforGreekopinion. GreekReaction AlexandermadehissupremacyclearimmediatelyafterhisvictoryattheGranicus. HetoldrepresentativesofGreekandnonGreekcitiesthathadsurrenderedtohimto obeytheirnewMacedoniansatrapandpaytohimthesametributetheyhadpaidto thePersians.Alexanderretainedtheexistingpatternofsatrapalgov 403 ernmentelsewhereinAnatolia.Whenitbecameclearthathispreviousseverityhad onlystiffenedtheresolveofGreekmercenariesinPersianservicetofight,heeased thetermsforsurrenderofferedtothem.Similarly,activesupportfordemocracyin theGreekcitiesofAsiabecameroyalpolicyonlywhendemocraticfactionsoffered theirsupporttotheMacedonianforces.Citiessoliberated,however,foundtheirnew freedomhedgedaboutwithrestraints.Theywerefreeoftheobligationtopay tributetothePersians,buttheynowhadtomakefinancialcontributionstothe Macedonianmilitaryeffortandwereseverelypunishediftheyobjected.Moreover, asaseriesofinscriptionsfromChiosandotherAsiancitiesreveal,Alexanderfreely intervenedintheinternalaffairsoftheGreekcitiesofAsiawheneverhethoughtit necessary. ThedevelopmentofhisrelationswithhisnewnonGreeksubjectswassimilar. BefittinghispositionasthehegemonoftheLeagueofCorinth,thefirstnewsatraps AlexanderappointedwereMacedonians.Inthecourseofthecampaign,however, Alexandertookstepstowinlocalsupport.InCaria,heentrustedthecivil administrationoftheareatoQueenAda,whoadoptedhimashersonandheir.At

thesametime,controlofmilitaryaffairsremainedinthehandsofaMacedonian garrisoncommanderresponsibletohimself. AlexanderpursuedthesamepolicyelsewhereinAnatolia,appointingPersian satrapsforCappadociaandArmenia.Althoughcircumstancespreventedtheselatter appointmentsfrombecomingeffective,thepolicywasclear.NonGreekleaderswho recognizedAlexandercouldexpectroyalfavorandpromotion.AlthoughIsocrates haddreamedofanewgreaterGreeceinAnatolia,thetruesituationwasmore accuratelyreflectedinthesymbolismofAlexandersdramaticseveringofthe Gordianknot.Accordingtoafamouslegend,ruleoverAsiawaspromisedto whomeverloosedthecomplexknotthatconnectedthedrawpoletothewagonthe firstMidashadriddenwhenhebecamekingofPhrygia.WhilehewasatGordium, Alexanderfulfilledtheprophecybyslashingthroughtheknotwithhissword, allowingnodoubtthatanewkinghadariseninAsia. Document11.1LetterofAlexandertotheChians(334BC)Thetensionbetween AlexandersclaimtohavefreedtheGreekcitiesofAsiaandtherealityof Macedonianpowerisparticularlyclearinthisletterofinstructionsconcerningthe reformofthecitysgovernmentthatAlexanderwrotetothecitizensofChios: AlltheexilesfromChiosaretoreturnandthegovernmentatChiosistobea democracy.Lawdraftersaretobechosenwhoshalldraftandcorrectthelaws,in orderthatnothingmaybecontrarytothedemocracyortothereturnoftheexiles. ThelawsthathavebeencorrectedordraftedaretobereferredtoAlexander.The Chiansaretoprovidetwentyfullymannedtriremesattheirownexpense.Theseare tosailaslongastheotherfleetoftheGreekssailswithus.Thosewhobetrayedthe citytothebarbariansandhavees 404 capedaretobeexiledfromallthecitiesthatshareinthepeaceandaretobeliableto arrestaccordingtothedecreeoftheGreeks.Those,whohavebeencaptured, however,aretobebroughtbackandjudgedinthesynedrion(council)oftheGreeks. Anydisputewhichmaydevelopbetweenthosewhohavereturnedandthoseinthe cityistobejudgedbeforeus.UntiltheChiansarereconciledtooneanother,thereis tobeagarrisonamongthemfromkingAlexander.Thegarrisonistobeofsufficient strength;andtheChiansaretosupportit. TranslatedbyA.J.Heisserer,AlexandertheGreatandtheGreeks:TheEpigraphicEvidence. Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1980,pp.8081. AseverefeverthatbroughtAlexandertothebrinkofdeathdelayedthedepartureof theMacedonianarmyfromAnatoliauntilthesummerof333.Theancient biographies,withtheirconcernforAlexandersheroicstature,focusonhissteadfast

trustinhispersonalphysicianinthefaceofParmenionswarningthathehadbeen bribedbythePersians.Moreimportant,Alexandersbrushwithdeathrevealedto everyonehisuniqueimportancetotheexpedition.Withoutanheirandwithno plausibleavailablealternativeking,Alexanderwasindispensable.Onlyheheldthe armytogetherandgaveitsactionsforceanddirection.Thearmysdependenceon Alexanderandthepoweritgavehimwouldonlyincreaseasthearmysmarch carrieditfurtherandfurtherawayfromMacedon. TheBattleofIssus(333BC) Afterrecoveringfromhisillness,Alexandermadeacharacteristicallybolddecision. InsteadofmovingtoconfronttheforcesofDariusIIIdirectlyinMesopotamia,asthe youngPersianprinceCyrushaddoneinhisrevoltagainsthisbrotherArtaxerxesII almostseventyyearsearlier,Alexanderdirectedhisforcestowardthecoastalregions ofSyria,Palestine,and,ultimately,Egypt.Behindthisdecisionlayarisky calculation.HavingdisbandedmostofhisGreekfleetalmostayearearlier, AlexanderhopedtoendPersiannavaloperationsintheAegeanbydeprivingthe PersianfleetofitsSyrianandPhoenicianbases. Thestrategywasdaringandalmostresultedincatastrophe.Alexandermarched southalongtheSyriancoastduringthelatesummerandfallof333.Atthesame time,DariusIII,whohadcompletedthemobilizationofthePersianempiresmain forces,movednorthwestwardfromBabylonalongtheEuphratesRiverinthehopeof catchingAlexanderbeforehesucceededinleavingAnatolia.Atonepoint,thetwo armies,marchinginoppositedirections,passedeachotheratadistanceoflessthana hundredmiles.OnlearningAlexanderslocation,Dariuswheeledhisarmyaround thenorthernendoftheAmanusMountainsandhastenedsouthwardtotakethe Macedonianforcesintherear.HavingbrilliantlycutAlexanderscommunications withAnatoliaandhisMacedonianbase,how 405 ever,DariusyieldedtheinitiativetoAlexanderbyallowinghimtochoosethe battlefield.AlexanderchosetomeetthePersiansatIssusinnorthernSyriaina narrowcoastalplainconfinedbetweentheAmanusMountainsontheeastandthe seaonthewest.BypreventingDariusfromfullydeployinghisforces,thischoiceof battlegroundneutralizedthesignificantnumericalsuperioritythePersiansenjoyed overAlexandersMacedonians. WhenAlexanderenteredtheplainofIssushefoundthePersianforcespostedalong thenorthsideoftheriverPayas,themodernPinarus.Dariushadstationedhis cavalryonbothwingswhilehe,hisroyalguard,andhisremainingGreek mercenariesoccupiedthecenterofthePersianline.Alexander,forhispart,drewup hisMacedoniansintheunbalancedlinethathadbynowbecometraditional.

Parmenioncommandedthephalanxandmostoftheinfantryontheleftwing; Alexanderplacedthebulkofthecavalryontherightwingunderhispersonal command. Theofficialhistorian,Callisthenes,whoseaccountistheultimatesourceofthe severalextantnarrativesoftheBattleofIssus,treateditasaHomericcontest betweenAlexanderandDariusIII,butwedoknowthemainoutlinesofthebattle. Figure11.3.PlanoftheBattleofIssus. 406 TheMacedonianleftsufferedseverelyfromthePersianassault,untiladirectattack byAlexanderandhiscavalryunitsonthecenterofthePersianlineforcedDariusto abandonhisarmyandflee.Thismomentwasbrilliantlydepictedinafamous paintingofthelatefourthcenturyBC,acopyofwhichappearsinamosaicthatwas discoveredatPompeiiandisnowpreservedintheNaplesMuseum.Theflightof DariusturnedthedefeatofthePersianarmyintoafearfulrout.YearslaterPtolemyI recountedinhishistoryofAlexanderhowhisunitshadcrossedstreamsonthepiled upbodiesofDariusdeadsoldierswhilepursuingthefleeingPersianforces. AlexandersvictoryatIssuswasafundamentalturningpointinhiscampaign. DariusIIIwasinheadlongflight.MostofthecoreofthePersianforceshadbeen destroyed.TheroyaltreasurestoredatDamascusquicklyfellintoAlexandershands andputanendtothefinancialproblemsthathadthreatenedhisplanssincetheir inception.Inhishastetoescape,moreover,Dariushadabandonedhisfamily,which, inaccordancewithPersiancustom,hadaccompaniedhimduringthecampaign.The GreatKingsmother,wife,daughters,andsonandheirtothePersianthronewere nowallAlexandersprisoners. AlexanderhadnotmerelydefeatedtheGreatKing:hehadhumiliatedhim.This humiliationcontinued,asAlexandersummarilyrejectedDariuswrittenof Figure11.4.ThismosaicfromPompeiiisbelievedtobealateHellenisticor RomancopyofafourthcenturyBCpaintingdepictingtheBattleofIssus. 407 feroffriendshipandallianceinexchangeforhisfamilysreturn.Healsoaccorded thePersianroyalfamilytheprotectionandpublicdeferencetowhichtheirformer stationentitledthem,butwhichtheyhadlostwhenDariusdesertedthem.The symbolismwasclearandunambiguous:henceforthAlexanderandnotDariuswas thearbiterofthefateoftheAchaemenids.

ThesignificanceofAlexandersvictorywasequallygreatfortheGreeks.AfterIssus allhopeofPersianaidagainstMacedonianrulehadtobeabandoned.Not surprisingly,therestofGreeceremainedpassivewhenAntipatercrushedaSpartan rebellionin331BC.Finally,andmostimportant,theroadtoEgyptlayopentothe Macedonianarmy.WiththeexpulsionofPersianpowerfromtheshoresofthe Mediterranean,eventheconquestoftheempireitselfsuddenlyseemedpossible. FROMISSUSTOEGYPT:CONQUESTOFTHEEASTERNMEDITERRANEAN (332331BC) WhileDariusfledeastward,Alexanderresumedhismarchsouthalongthecoastof Syria.WithouthopeofPersiansupport,themajorityoftheSyrianandPhoenician coastalcitiessurrendered,successfullyconcludingAlexandersplantodefeatthe Persianfleetbydeprivingitofitsbases.Thesituationislessclearwithregardtothe peoplesoftheinteriorofSyriaandPalestine,butthesurrenderoftheSamaritansin northernJudaeasuggeststhattheyalsoquicklycametotermswithAlexander. OnlyatTyreandGazadidAlexandermeetwithresistance,andhisresponsewas characteristicallyvigorous.WhentheTyrians,trustingtothestrengthoftheirisland fortress,rejectedAlexandersrequesttoenterthecityandsacrificetohisancestor HeraclesintheguiseoftheirchiefgodMelqart,helaidsiegetothecity.Rightly seeingintheTyriansrefusalarejectionofhisauthority,Alexanderpressedthesiege ofTyreforalmosteightmonths.ThecityfellinAugust332andsufferedthesame brutalfateasThebes:slaughterofmostofthemalepopulationandsaleofthe survivingwomenandchildren.ThedecisionbyGazasPersiangovernor,aeunuch namedBatis,tomaintainhisloyaltytoDariusinthefaceofAlexandersdemandfor surrenderresultedinasimilarunhappyfateforhiscitytwomonthslater.Thefallof GazaremovedthefinalbarrierbetweenAlexanderandthegreatestprizeofthefirst phaseofhisAsianadventure:Egypt. AlexanderinEgypt AlexandersstayinEgyptdramaticallyalteredhisviewofhimself,buttheconquest ofEgyptitselfwassomewhatanticlimactic.Isolatedinthemidstofarestive populationandwithouthopeofaidfromDarius,Mazaces,thelastPersiansatrapof Egypt,surrenderedhissatrapywithoutafight. UnlikemostoftheotherpeoplesoftheancientNearEast,theEgyptianshadnever acceptedPersianrule.ThefifthandfourthcenturiesBChadbeenmarked 408 byrepeatedEgyptianrebellionsandseverePersianrepression;thelastepisodewas onlyafewyearsbeforeAlexandersinvasion.Notsurprisingly,therefore,the

EgyptianswelcomedAlexanderandhisMacedoniansduringtheirmarchthrough theDeltatotheancientcapitalofMemphis,wherehecelebratedhisvictoryby holdingGreekstylegamesandsacrificingtoZeus.Atthesametime,Alexander soughttoconciliatetheEgyptiansbypubliclyhonoringtheApisbull,theliving incarnationofPtah,chiefgodofMemphis,andotherEgyptiandeities.Alexander doubtlessaccomplishedmuchduringthesixmonthshespentinEgypt,butthe sourcesconcentrateononlytwoepisodes:hisconsultationofthefamousoracleof ZeusAmmonandtheestablishmentofAlexandria,thefirstandgreatestofhis foundations. TheoracleofZeusAmmon,about300mileswestoftheNileintheoasisofSiwahin theLibyandesert,wasoneofthethreeprincipaloraclespatronizedbytheGreeks. BecauseofitsimpactonAlexandersconceptionofhimself,theancientsources suitablyembellishedthetaleofhisvisittoSiwahwithmiracleandromance. Unseasonablerainsprovidedhispartywithwater,andsacredanimals,suchas snakesorcrows,guidedthemwhentheybecamelost.Unfortunately,Alexander revealedneitherhismotivesforconsultingtheoraclenoritsreplytohim.Ancient andmodernhistorianshaveproposedwidelydifferingexplanationsforhisvisit:he mayhavehopedtoequalhislegendaryancestorHeracles,whowasreputedtohave visitedtheoracle;ortohavedesiredtosurpassthePersiankingCambyses,whohad failedtoconquertheoasis;orhemaysimplyhavesoughtdivineapprovalforthe newcityhewasalreadyplanningtofoundinEgypt. WhateverAlexandersoriginalmotivesmayhavebeen,alltheancientaccountsagree thatthedecisivemomentofhisvisitwaswhenthechiefpriestoftheoraclegreeted himasSonofAmmon.Throughtheprocesshistorianscallsyncretism(the unificationofreligiousbeliefs),GreeksequatedAmmonwithZeus.TheGreeks, therefore,understoodthatAlexanderwaspresentinghimselfasaSonofZeus. WhetherornotthepriestwasmerelyaccordingAlexanderthewelcometraditionally grantedakingofEgypt,Alexanderclearlytookitasadivinesignthat,ashismother hadalwaysclaimed,therewassomethingmorethanmortalabouthisbirth. AlexanderhadprobablyselectedthefishingvillageofRhakotisnearthewesterntip oftheDeltaasthesiteforhisnewcityduringhistriptoSiwah,buttheactual foundationofAlexandriawasdelayeduntilhisreturnfromtheoracleinApril331. ThestrongHomericassociationsofthesiteplayedanimportantroleinhischoiceof Rhakotis.LessthanamileoffshorewastheislandofPharos,whichHomerhad mentionedintheOdyssey.Thesitewasalsoidealforagreatcommercialcenter,with PharoscreatingashelteredanchorageforshipsandthenearbyLakeCanopus affordingreadyaccesstotheNileandtheinteriorofEgypt.Understandably,the sourcesdepictAlexandriaasmarkedoutforgreatnessatitsinception.Theytellhow birdsconsumedthesacredflourwithwhichAlexanderwasmarkingitsboundaries,

therebyindicatingthatthecitywouldhaveabundantresourcesandnourishpeople fromallovertheworld. 409 ThefoundationofAlexandriawasAlexanderslastmajoractinEgypt.Assessmentof thefullsignificanceofAlexandersconductinEgyptisdifficult.Historianshave assumedthatEgyptiansconsideredhimtheirliberatorfromPersiantyrannyandthat heactedaccordingly.Supportforthisviewwasthoughttobeprovidedbythehonor AlexanderpaidtoEgyptiangodsandthefactthathewascrownedPharaoh.They havealsosuggestedthathehopedtoavoidthehostilityarousedbythesacrilegious outragessupposedlycommittedbythePersiankingsCambysesandArtaxerxesIII Ochus. ConsiderationofAlexandersactionsinEgyptasawholeindicatessignificant continuitybetweenhispoliciesinEgyptandthosehefollowedintheterritories conqueredearlierinthecampaign.Thisisparticularlyclearwithregardto Alexandria,whichwasfoundedasaGreekpoliswithcitizenshiplimitedtoGreeks andMacedonians.AlexandersorganizationofEgyptitselflikewisefollowedthe modelhehadusedinAnatolia.Thus,althoughhedidnotappointasinglesatrapfor allofEgypt,AlexanderretainedmuchofthePersianorganizationofEgyptincluding therequirementthatEgyptianspaytribute.Natives,bothEgyptiansandGreek, exercisedonlycivilauthority.MilitarypowerremainedinthehandsofMacedonian officers. Onlyinoneareawastheresignificantchange,butthatareawasthemostimportant ofall:Alexandersselfimage.TherevelationofhisdivineparentageatSiwahstruck aresponsivechordinAlexander.Itconfirmedhissenseofhisownuniquenessand heightenedhispersonalidentificationwithhisheroicancestorsHeraclesand Achilles.Henceforth,althoughAlexanderneverrenouncedPhilipashisearthly father,hisunshakablebeliefinhisconnectiontohisdivinefatherAmmonwouldbe thelinchpinofhispersonality.Hisbeliefinhisdivinedescentalsoopenedarift betweenhimandtheolderMacedonians.TheycouldnotacceptAlexandersviewof hisspecialtietoabarbariangodandtheimpliedslighttoPhilip,thekingthey believedresponsibleforMacedoniangreatness. FROMALEXANDRIATOPERSEPOLIS:THEKINGOFASIA(331330BC) AfewweeksafterthefoundationofAlexandria,AlexanderleftEgypt,intenton seekingafinalanddecisiveconfrontationwithDariusIII.WhileAlexandermarched northtowardtheEuphratesRiver,Dariusmadeonelastdesperateefforttoavoid battle,offeringAlexandermarriagetohiseldestdaughter,cessionofallterritory westoftheEuphratesRiver,andanenormousransomforhisfamily.Dariusoffer wasunprecedented.Itinvolveddivisionoftheempire,surrenderofseveralofits

richestsatrapies,andpermanentexclusionofPersianpowerfromtheshoresofthe Mediterranean. ParmenionprobablyspokeformostofthearmywhenheadvisedAlexanderto acceptDariusproposal.Alexander,however,wouldhavenoneofit,curtly observingthathewouldacceptittooifhewereParmenion!FacedwithAlexanders 410 Figure11.5.RepresentationofAlexanderasPharaohbeforeAmmonRaand KhonsuThothintheBarkshrineatLuxortempleatThebes.Ca.330325BC. 411 refusal,Dariushadnochoiceexcepttohastilygathertogetheranotherarmytoface theMacedonians.ThetwoarmiesfinallymetonOctober1,331BC,atGaugamela, justsouthofMosulinnortheasternIraq.ThankstothecaptureofthePersian headquartersafterthebattle,whichgaveAlexandershistoriansauniqueinsightinto Persianplans,theBattleofGaugamelaisthebestdocumentedofallbattlesinancient Greekhistory. TheBattleofGaugamela(331BC) LearningfromhisdefeatatIssusthepreviousyear,Dariuscarefullychosea battlefieldthatsuitedthepeculiarstrengthsandweaknessesofhisarmy.Deprivedof almostallitsGreekmercenariesandotherunitsdrawnfromthewesternportionsof theempire,DariusnewarmywascomposedprimarilyofleviesdrawnfromPersia andtheeasternportionsofhisempire.Thismeantthathisforcesweremorecohesive thanmostPersianarmiesandparticularlystrongincavalry,butweakinfirstline infantry.DariushopedthatthebroadplainofGaugemelawouldallowhimto exploithissuperiorityincavalrytooutflankandultimatelyenvelopAlexanders Macedonians,whilerelyingonshockandterrorweaponssuchasscythedchariots andelephantstocompensateforhislackofgoodinfantry. Thesehopesweredisappointed.Alexanderemployedamodifiedversionofthe tacticsthathadworkedsowellatIssus.Hestationedthebulkofhisinfantryunder thecommandofParmeniononhisleftwingandpostedhisbestcavalryunitsunder hispersonalcommandonhisrightwing.AstrongforceofalliedGreekinfantrywas heldinreservetopreventthePersiancavalryfromencirclinghisforcesandattacking themfromtherear.Althoughthefightingwasfierce,particularlyontheleftwing, wheretheMacedonianphalanxwashardpressed,thebattleendedasatIssus,when theattackofAlexanderandthecompanioncavalryonthecenterofthePersianarmy forcedDariustoabandonhisforcesandfleethebattlefield.

AlexandersvictorywasmarredonlybyhisfailuretocaptureDarius.Thesources characteristicallyblamedthisfailureonParmenion,whowasreportedtohave recalledAlexanderfromhispursuitofthePersiankinginordertorescuethe Macedonianleftwing.Otherwise,however,theheartlandofthePersianempirewas nowAlexandersforthetaking.Withjustificationhistroopssalutedhimaskingof Asia.Inrapidsuccession,thethreewesternmostcapitalsofthePersianempire( Babylon,Susa,andPersepolis)felltoAlexander,whileDariusandhisimmediate entouragesoughtrefugeineasternIran. Alexanderstreatmentofhisthreegreatprizesdifferedsharply.Alexanderentered BabylonintriumphinmidOctober,331.Cuneiformtextsleavenodoubtthat,asin Egypt,heactivelysoughttoconciliatethelocalpopulationandespeciallythe influentialBabylonianpriesthood.Histroopswereorderedtorespectproperty duringthemarchtoBabylon.DuringhisstayinthecityAlexanderofferedsacrifice toitschiefgodMardukandorderedthereconstructionofMarduksgreatziggurat, Esagila,whichthePersianshaddestroyedacenturyanda 412 Figure11.6.PlanoftheBattleofGaugamela. halfearlieraspunishmentforaBabylonianrebellion.Mazaeus,thePersiansatrapof Babylonia,hadplayedakeyroleinthesurrenderofBabylon,andAlexander rewardedhimappropriatelybyconfirminghiminhisformerposition.Ashehad doneinEgypt,however,AlexanderstrovetoensureMazaeusloyaltybyassigning commandoftheBabyloniangarrisontooneofhisownofficers,aGreekfrom AmphipolisnamedApollodorus.InlikemannerAbuleites,whosurrenderedSusato Alexanderwithitsroyalpalaceandtreasureintact,wasreappointedSatrapof Susiana.Fardifferent,however,wasthefateofPersepolis,thethirdofthePersian capitalstofallintoAlexandershands,anditscitizens. TheDestructionofPersepolis IndecidingthefateofPersepolis,Alexandercouldnotconsiderexpediencyalone,as hehaddonewithregardtoBabylonandSusa.Persepoliswasthespiritualcenterof thePersianempire.ThecentraleventsandritualsofPersianrule,includingthenew yearsfestivalandtheceremonialpresentationoftheirtributetotheGreatKingby thesubjectsoftheempire,alltookplacethere.ItwasalsoatPersepolisthatGreek ambassadorshadbeenrequiredtoabasethemselvesbeforePersiankingssincethe reignofDariusI.PersepoliswasthereforeidentifiedwithPersianruleintheeyesof GreeksandPersiansalike,anditstreatmentwouldsendaclearmessagetoboth peoples.ThemessageAlexanderchoseto

413 sendwasoneofvengeanceforthedestructionofthetemplesofAthensduringthe Persianwarsacenturyandahalfearlier.OntheeveofAlexandersdeparturefrom PersepolisinApril,330BC,theMacedonianstorchedtheciwspalaces. ThesourcesheightenedthesenseofpoeticjusticeinthedestructionofPersepolis byassigningcreditfortheburningofthecitytoanAthenian,thecourtesanThais, whowassaidtohavesuggestedittoAlexanderandhisfriendsduringadrunken revel.ThaismayhaveinspiredtheactualburningofPersepolis,butthereareclear signsthatAlexanderalreadyhaddecidedfourmonthsearlierthatthecitywastobe destroyedatthetimeofitscapture.Despiteitssurrender,Persepolissufferedallthe samerigorsofasackashadThebesandTyre.Modernexcavationshavealso revealedthatitspalaceswerecompletelystrippedoftheirtreasures,theaccumulated wealthoftwocenturiesofPersianimperialrule,beforetheyweresetonfire.With theflamesrisingovertheruinsofPersepolisAlexanderunmistakablysignaledthe triumphantendoftheGreekcrusade. THEHIGHROADTOINDIA:ALEXANDERINCENTRALASIA AsAlexanderwatchedPersepolisburn,hecouldnothaveanticipatedthatthenext fouryearswouldbethemostdifficultofthecampaign.Atfirst,hisgoodfortune seemedtocontinueunabated.NewsoftheendoftheSpartanrebellionhadalready reachedhimbeforeheleftPersepolis.Meanwhile,Dariushadfledeastwardfrom Media,leavingEcbatana,thelastofthePersiancapitals,tofallintoAlexanders handswithitstreasuresintact.HavingsecuredPersiaandMedia,thehistorical heartlandofthePersianempire,AlexanderliquidatedthelasttracesoftheGreek crusadebydischarginghisremainingGreektroops.Allthatwasneededtocomplete hisvictorywastocaptureDariusIIIhimselfandputanendtothelonglineof Achaemenidrulers. TheDeathofDarius(330BC) LeavingParmenionbehindatEcbatanatosecurehiscommunicationswiththewest, AlexanderracedtowardtheCaspianGates,thegatewaytotheeasternsatrapies.He hopedtointerceptDariusbeforehecouldreachBactria,roughlymodern Afghanistan,andcontinueresistancefromthere.BeforeAlexandercouldovertake thefleeingGreatKing,newsreachedhimthatacabalofeasternsatrapsheadedby Bessus,thesatrapofBactrialhadarrestedandthenassassinatedDariusIIIinJuly, 330BC.Worseyet,BessushadescapedtoBactria,wherehehadassumedthethrone ofPersiaasArtaxerxesIV. TheassassinationofDariusIIIchangedthedynamicsofthecampaign.Asthesackof Persepolisclearlyindicated,AlexanderhadhithertoactedinPersiaastheavengerof

pastPersianmisdeeds.ItwasastancethatwaspopularwithGreeksbuthardly calculatedtofosterPersianacceptanceofthenewregime.Dariusassassinationgave Alexandertheopportunitytoescapefromthisdilemma.Upon 414 learningofDariusdeathAlexanderimmediatelyassumedtheroleofhissuccessor anddefenderofAchaemenidlegitimacyagainsttheregicides.Tosymbolizehisnew roleAlexanderadoptedanewstyleofdressthatcombinedelementsfromboth MacedonianandPersianroyalstyle.DariusbodywasbroughtbacktoPersiaand buriedwithfullroyalhonorsattheroyalcemeteryatNakshiRustam.Arumoreven begantospreadthatDariuslastwishhadbeenthatAlexanderavengehim. Alexandersstrategywascleverandeffective.WhilePersiannoblesandevensome survivingmembersoftheAchaemenidhousejoinedAlexander,Bessusalienated potentialsupportersbyrelyingonascorchedearthdefensetohaltAlexanders advanceinsteadofattemptingtoconfronthimdirectly.Asaresult,resistancemelted awayasAlexandermovedfurtherandfurtherintoeasternIran.Finally,inthespring of329,Bessusfellowregicides,fearfulfortheirownsurvival,seizedBessusand surrenderedhimtoAlexanderinexchangeforapardonandconfirmationintheir offices,muchastheyhadbetrayedDariusIIIafewmonthsearlier.Alexander remainedtruetohisnewroleasthesuccessoroftheAchaemenids.Bessuswas turnedovertoAlexandersPersiansupportersfortrialandexecutionasaregicide. TheStruggleforBactriaandSogdiana(330327BC) AlexandersignoranceofconditionsineasternIranalmostcosthimeverythinghe hadgainedthroughhisastutedynasticpolicy.Bymisunderstandingthecloseties thatconnectedthepeoplesofeasternIranwiththenomadicScythiantribesofthe centralAsiansteppe,Alexanderignitedarebellionthatquicklyspreadthroughout muchofSogdianaandBactriawhenhetriedtoestablishacontrolledborderbetween SogdianaandScythiaattheJaxartesRiver.Therevoltwasmarkedbyatrocitieson bothsides.Itwasledbyaguerrillacommanderofgenius,Spitamenes,aSogdian nobleandformerregicide,whobetrayedAlexanderasreadilyashehadpreviously betrayedDariusIIIandBessus.Therevoltlastedalmostthreeyearsandendedwith themurderofSpitamenesbyhisScythianalliesinthespringof327.Bythetimeit wasover,Alexanderhadsufferedsomeoftheworstmilitarydefeatsoftheentire campaignandhadbeenforcedtodevelopawholenewapproachtothecontrolof conqueredterritory. AlexanderreplacedIraniansatrapswithGreekandMacedonianofficials.Healso settledGreekmercenariesandsuperannuatedveteransinaseriesofmilitarycolonies establishedatstrategicsitesthroughoutSogdianaandBactria.Mostimportant,the

crisisincentralAsiastarklyrevealedthegrowingtensionsinthearmyandeven withinAlexanderscourtitself. MacedonianUnrest NoGreekorMacedonianarmyhadevercampaignedforsolongorsofarawayfrom home,andAlexanderssoldiersbecameevermorereluctanttogoonastheirmarch ledthemdeeperintoAsia.IthadtakenallofAlexanderspersua 415 sivepowerstodissuadehistroopsfromgoinghomeassoonastheylearnedof Dariusdeath.ThemiseriesofthesubsequentstruggleagainstSpitamenesinthe forbiddingenvironmentofSogdianaandBactriaonlyincreasedtheirfrustrationand longingforhome.MoreworrisometohisofficerswasAlexandersgradual abandonmentofthetraditionallyinformalMacedonianstyleofkingshipandthe growingprominenceofIraniansandIranianpracticesathiscourt.Themost dramaticexampleofthetrendwasAlexandersmarriageinthespringof327to Roxane,thedaughterofapowerfulSogdiannoble.Theadvantagesofthemarriage wereobvious:AlexandergainedanimportantallyinBactriaandSogdiana. Nevertheless,thefactremainedthatAlexandersqueenandthepotentialmotherof hissuccessorwasnotaMacedonianorevenaGreekbutanIranian! TensionatcourtwasincreasedstillfurtherbyAlexandersunsuccessfuldemandfor theritualprostrationknownasproskynsisonthepartofallmembersofhiscourt. BothancientandmodernthinkershaveseenaconnectionbetweenAlexanders attempttoimposeproskynesisonhiscourtandhisclaimtobesonofAmmon,but theydisagreeastohisintentions.AccordingtoArrian,Alexanderdesiredthat peoplerecognizehisdivinedescent: ThefactisthatthereportprevailsthatAlexanderdesiredpeopleactuallytodohim obeisance,fromtheunderlyingideathathisfatherwasAmmonandnotPhilip,and ashewasnowexpressinghisadmirationforthewaysofthePersiansandMedes, bothinhischangeofdressandinadditionbythealteredarrangementsforhis attendance,andthatevenastoobeisancetherewasnolackofflattererstogivehim hiswish. (Anabasis;Brunt1976) Plutarch,ontheotherhand,thoughtthatAlexanderhopedtouseproskynesisasa meansofdominatinghiseasternsubjects: Ingeneral,heborehimselfhaughtilytowardstheBarbarians,andlikeonefully persuadedofhisdivinebirthandparentage,butwiththeGreeksitwaswithinlimits

andsomewhatrarelythatheassumedhisowndivinity.However,inwritingtothe AtheniansconcerningSamos,hesaid:Icannothavegivenyouthatfreeand illustriouscity;foryoureceiveditfromhimwhowasthenyourmasterandwas calledmyfather,meaningPhilip.Atalatertime,however,whenhehadbeenhitby anarrowandwassufferinggreatpain,hesaid:This,myfriends,thatflowshere,is bloodandnotIchor,suchasflowsfromtheveinsoftheblessedgods....Fromwhat hasbeensaid,then,itisclearthatAlexanderhimselfwasnotfoolishlyaffectedor puffedupbythebeliefinhisdivinity,butuseditforthesubjugationofothers. (LifeofAlexander;Perrin1919,adapted) MostmodernscholarsadoptaviewsimilartothatofPlutarch,especiallysinceitis clearthatPersiansviewedproskynesisprimarilyasanaffirmationofthehi 416 erarchicalorderofsociety.Whateverhisintentionsmayhavebeen,however, Alexanderunderestimatedtheresistancehisplanswouldencounter.Greeksand Macedonianssawproskynesisasarecognitionofdivinityandanunwelcome reminderofpastPersianarrogance.TheytolerateditsperformancebyPersiansat Alexanderscourt,butbitterlyresentedhisefforttomakethemalsoperformit.Itis notsurprising,therefore,thatthesourcesforthefirsttimerefertoopenresistanceto Alexanderspoliciesandevenconspiraciesagainsthislifeduringhisstayincentral Asia. Thefirstsignoftroubleappearedlatein330andinvolvedoneofAlexanderssenior commanders.Philotas,thecommanderoftheCompanionCavalryandsonof Parmenion,wasexecutedafterfailingtoinformAlexanderofanallegedplottokill him.Philotasguilthasbeendebatedsinceantiquity.Somescholarsevensuggestthat PhilotaswasthevictimofaplotdevisedbyAlexander.Whetherthechargesagainst Philotasweretrueornot,Alexanderhenceforthtookseriouslythepossibilityof conspiraciesagainsthimandactedaccordingly.PhilotasfatherParmenionwas assassinated,andoneofhisbodyguards,whowassuspectedofcomplicityinthe plot,wascashiered.AlexanderofLyncestis,asoninlawofAntipater(Alexanders regentinMacedon),hadbeenheldunderarrestsincethebeginningofthecampaign; nowhewasexecutedinordertoremoveapotentialfocusforrebellion.Alexander alsoinstitutedcensorshipofhissoldiersandofficerscorrespondence. Thesemeasuresmutedtherancoratcourt,butaslatereventsrevealed,theydidnot eliminatediscontent.ThemostdramaticincidentwasAlexandersdrunkenmurder inautumn328ofCleitustheBlack,whohadsavedhislifeattheGranicusandhad justbeenappointedsatrapofBactriaandSogdiana.Cleitusoffensewascriticizing AlexanderseffortstoaccommodatethePersiansandhisunwillingnesstorecognize thecontributionofhisofficersandsoldierstohissuccesses.Moreseriously,

Alexanderbarelyescapedassassinationsixmonthslaterbyagroupofhisown pages,whoclaimedattheirtrialthattheyhopedtofreetheMacedoniansfrom Alexandersgrowingtyranny.AsthecaseofPhilotashadrevealed,Alexanderwas implacableinthefaceofdisloyaltybymembersofhispersonalentourage.Thepages weresummarilytriedandsentencedtodeath.Callisthenes,Alexandersofficial historianandthepagestutor,whosepublicoppositiontoproskynesiswasneither forgottennorforgiven,wasarrestedandlaterdiedundermysteriouscircumstances. Bythesummerof327AlexandercouldconsiderSogdianaandBactriasecure. SpitameneswasdeadandopenresistancetoMacedonianrulehadended.Beforethat happyoutcome,theyearsofhardfightingandsufferinghadresultedinmajor changes.Mostobviouswerethechangesinthearmy.Forcedtocopewithamobile andresourcefulenemyandcutofffromEuropeanreinforcements,Alexander reorganizedhisarmytoallowgreaterflexibilityinitsuse.Inparticular,he extensivelyrecruitedIranianunitstosupplementhissteadilydwindlingsupplyof MacedonianandGreektroops. 417 Document11.2PlutarchsAccountoftheMurderofCleitustheBlackin328BC TheriftthatopenedbetweenAlexanderandhisMacedonianofficersandsoldiers duringhiscampaignsincentralAsiaisparticularlyclearinPlutarchsvividaccount ofthemurderofCleitustheBlackatadinnerpartyinBactria: Afterthecompanyhaddrunkagooddealsomebodybegantosingtheversesofa mannamedPranichus...,whichhadbeenwrittentohumiliateandmakefunof someMacedoniancommanderswhohadrecentlybeendefeatedbythebarbarians. Theoldermembersofthepartytookoffenseatthisandshowedtheirresentmentof boththepoetandthesinger,butAlexanderandthosesittingnearhimlistenedwith obviouspleasureandtoldthemantocontinue.ThereuponCleitus...became angrierthaneverandshoutedthatitwasnotrightforMacedonianstobeinsultedin thepresenceofbarbariansandenemies....AlexanderretortedthatifCleituswas tryingtodisguisecowardiceasmisfortune,hemustbepleadinghisowncase.Atthis Cleitussprangtohisfeetandshoutedback,Yes,itwasmycowardicethatsaved yourlife,youwhocallyourselfthesonofthegods,whenyouwereturningyour backtoSpithridatessword.AnditisthebloodoftheseMacedoniansandtheir woundswhichmadeyousogreatthatyoudisownyourfatherPhilipandclaimtobe thesonofAmmon!ThesewordsmadeAlexanderfurious.Youscum,hecriedout, doyouthinkthatyoucankeeponspeakingofmelikethis,andstiruptrouble amongtheMacedoniansandnotpayforit?Oh,butweMacedoniansdopayforit, Cleitusretorted.Justthinkoftherewardswegetforallourefforts.Itsthedead oneswhoarehappy,becausetheyneverlivedtoseeMacedoniansbeingbeatenwith Medianrods,orbeggingthePersiansforanaudiencewithourownking.The

argumentbetweenAlexanderandCleitusbecamemoreheated,andCleitusfriendshustled himoutofthediningarea.Butsoonafterwardshecameinbyanotherdoor,and,ashe didso,recitedinaloudandcontemptuousvoicethislinefromEuripides Andromache(line683):Alas,whatevilcustomsreigninGreece.AtthisAlexander seizedaspearfromoneofhisguards,facedCleitusashewasdrawingasidethe curtainofthedoorway,andranhimthrough. Plutarch,LifeofAlexander5051,translatedbyIanScottKilvertTheAgeofAlexander.( London:PenguinBooks,1973,pp.307308). EquallyimportantchangesoccurredinAlexanderscourt.TheMacedonianold guardhadlargelydisappearedinthepurgesthatresultedfromtheperiodsvarious conspiraciesandtumults,leavingpreeminentmenpersonallytiedtoAlexandersuch asPerdiccas,Craterus,Lysimachus,andPtolemy.Thesemenwouldplaycritical rolesintheturbulenteventsthatfollowedAlexandersdeath. 418 Finally,therelationshipbetweenAlexanderandhissoldiershadalteredinasubtle butsignificantway.Theirloyaltyremainedunchallenged,but,aseventsinIndia weretodemonstrate,Alexanderwouldneveragainbeabletocountontheir unquestioningobedienceafterthestrainsofthecentralAsiancampaign. INDIAANDTHEENDOFTHEDREAM WhenAlexandercrossedtheHinduKushmountainsinthesummerof327BC,he believedhewasapproachingtheendoftheinhabitedworld.ForGreeksand Persiansalike,IndiawasthelandoftheIndusRiver,essentiallymodernPakistan. AristotlebelievedthatbeyondIndiatherewasagreatdesertandthenocean,which supposedlywasvisiblefromthepeaksoftheHinduKushMountains.Although DariusIhadconqueredIndiaandbrieflymadeitapartofthePersianempire, PersianrulehadlongsinceendedwhenAlexanderenteredtheregion.Hewouldbe campaigninginamysteriouslandthatDionysus,Herades,andthelegendary AssyrianqueenSemiramisallhadfailedtoconquer,alandwherefactandfictionco existed,wherecannibalsandmonstrousmenandanimalslived,whereclothgrewon trees,andantsminedgold.WhatAlexanderactuallyfoundwasalmostas remarkable:avastsubcontinentoccupiedbyacomplexnetworkofpeoplesand states,whoviewedAlexanderasanewpiecetobeplayedintheircomplexpolitical chessgame. ItwasvirtuallyanewworldthatAlexanderandhisarmyenteredinthesummerof 327BC.NorcanhehaveremainedlongindoubtaboutconditionsinIndia.Asthe MacedonianarmypassedalongthefamousroutethroughtheKhyberPasstothe plainoftheIndusRiverinthesummerandfallof327,it

Figure11.7.TheGreekviewoftheinhabitedworld. 419 encounteredsomeofthefiercestresistanceinthecampaign.Oppositionendedonly whenthearmyreachedthecityofTaxila,whoseruler,calledTaxiles,hadalready solicitedAlexandersaidwhilehewasstillincentralAsia.Taxilawasoneofthe principalcentersofIndianreligiousthought.ThroughoutantiquityGreekand RomanmoralistscontinuedtobefascinatedbyAlexanderssojournthereandhis meetingwithagroupofnakedphilosophersasceticIndianholymen,oneof whom,Calanus,evenjoinedhisexpedition. TaxileshadsoughtAlexandersaidagainsthiseasternneighbors,Abisares,theruler ofKashmir,andespeciallyPorus,whosekingdomincludedalltheterritorybetween theJhelumandChenabrivers.WhenAbisaresofferedhissubmission,Alexander movedagainstPorusinearly326. TheBattleoftheHydaspes(326BC) ThetwoarmiesmetattheHydaspesRiver,themodernJhelum.ThereAlexander foundthatPorushadestablishedastrongdefensiveposition,usinghisinfantryand histwohundredelephantstoformalivingwallalongtheeastbankoftheriver. SolvingthisdifficultmilitaryproblemtookallofAlexanderstacticalskills Figure11.8.InthisimageinanIslamicmanuscriptAlexanderisdepictedwearing IndiancostumewithphilosophersinIndia. 420 andinvolvedadaringsecretcrossingofthefloodedriver.Intheend,however,the outcomewasthesameasthatofhisearlierbattles:thetotaldestructionofhis enemysforces.MuchtothedispleasureofTaxilesandhisotherIndianallies, AlexanderdidnotexploithisvictorytodestroyPorus.Instead,impressedbythe nobilityofhisdefeatedopponent,whoaskedonlytobetreatedlikeaking, AlexanderrestoredhiskingdomtoPorusandevenaddednewterritoriestoit. AlthoughAlexanderdidnotrealizeitatthetime,theconfrontationattheHydaspes wastobehislastpitchedbattle.Asthearmymarchedfurthereastwardthroughthe Punjab,moraledroppedsteadily.ThecrisiscamewhenAlexanderreachedtheriver Hyphasis,themodernBeas.Exhaustedbythestressesoffightingandmarching duringtheendlessrainsofthesummermonsoon,terrifiedbyrumorsofyetanother greatrivervalleyoccupiedbygreatkingdomspossessingthousandsofwar elephants,anddoubtfulthattheywouldeverreturnhome,thearmymutinied.This

timenotevenAlexandersformidablepowersofverbalandmoralpersuasioncould convincehissoldierstogoon.Ultimately,Alexanderyielded,defeatedbyhisown army,andagreedtoreturntotheIndus,wherehehadalreadyorderedthe constructionofagreatfleet. TheEndoftheCampaign Alexanderdidnotannouncehislongrangeaimstohiscontemporaries.From antiquitytothepresent,therefore,historianshavespeculatedabouthisgoals.After hehaddefeatedDarius,avengedthePersianwars,andtakencontrolofthePersian empireanditsvasttreasures,whydidhecontinuetopushevereastward?Didhe haveamasterplanforworldconquestwhenheleftMacedonia,ordidhisambitions growwitheachnewsuccess?Unfortunately,nodefinitiveansweris Figure11.9.SilverfiveshekelcoinfromBabylonia(c.326323BC).Obverse: AlexanderattackingPorusonhiselephant.Reverse:Alexanderholdingscepterand thunderbolt,attributesofZeus. 421 possible.WhateverAlexandersultimateintentionsmayhavebeen,theresistanceof hisarmyforcedhimtoadoptamoremodestgoal:theconquestoftheentireIndus Rivervalleytoitsmouth. Fromearlywinter326tomidsummer325,Alexandersarmymovedsteadily southwardagainstheavyresistance.Thetaleofslaughtertoldintheancientsources isunparalleledelsewhereinthecampaign.Alexanderhimselfreceivedanearfatal wound,leadinghisincreasinglyreluctanttroopsinstormingacityoftheMalli. Finally,inJuly325,thearmyreachedthemouthoftheIndusandtheocean.Onan islandnearthemouthoftheIndusAlexandermadeofferingstogodsforwhomhis fatherAmmonhadorderedsacrifices;thenhesailedoutontotheIndianOceanto praytoPoseidonforasafevoyagetoBabylonia.Alexandersseeminglyendless eastwardadvancewasatanend,andthepreparationsforthejourneyhomehad begun. ResultsoftheIndianCampaign AlexandersinvasionwasthefirstmajorincursionintoIndiafromthewestsincethe reignofDariusIalmosttwocenturiesearlier.LikethatofhisPersianpredecessor, AlexanderscampaignresultedinafloodofnewinformationabouttheIndian subcontinentanditspeoples.AlsolikethePersians,theMacedoniansweretoremain onlybrieflyinIndia.WithinlittlemorethanadecadeafterAlexandersdeath,most tracesofhiscampaignanditsresultshaddisappearedfromtheIndianlandscapeand

evenIndianconsciousness.IndiancultureknowsonlytheromanticAlexanderof medievallegend,nottheAlexanderofGreekhistory. TheephemeralcharacterofAlexandersachievementsinIndiahasledsome historianstosuggestthathelostinterestintheareaoncehisarmypreventedhim fromextendinghisconqueststotheGangesValley,butthisistoconfuseresultswith intentions.Alexanderspoliticalarrangementssuggestthatheintendedtomaintain controlofhisIndianconquestsafterhisreturntothewest.ThreeMacedoniansatraps supportedbystrongdetachmentsofmercenarytroopsgovernedtheIndusValley fromitsnorthernapproachestothesea.LocalrulerssuchasTaxiles,whohad demonstratedtheirloyalty,retainedtheirthronesbutwereplacedunderthe supervisionofoneoftheMacedoniansatraps.ThreenewGreekcitieswerefounded atstrategiclocationsinthenorthernsatrapy,andseveralfoundationswerealso plannedfortheothersatrapies.Finally,theMacedonianeasternflankwasprotected bytheexpandedkingdomofAlexandersally,KingPorus.Alexanderhadplanned carefullyforhisIndiandomain,buttheresourcesavailabletohisagentsproved inadequatetomaintainMacedonianruleinthisremotepartofhisempire. RETURNTOTHEWEST AlexanderleftIndiaforPersiainlateAugust325.Heintendedtoleadhisarmy throughGedrosia,anandregioninsouthwesternPakistan.Hispurposewasto establishsupplydepotsforhisfleet,whichwastofollowthetimehonoredroute 422 alongthenorthcoastoftheIndianOceanfromthemouthoftheIndusRivertothe PersianGulf.Nearchus,thecommanderofAlexandersfleetandoneofhisclosest friends,laterclaimedthatAlexander,everthecompetitor,wasalsodeterminedto surpassSemiramisandCyrusIIofPersia,whoweresaidtohavelosttheirarmiesin Gedrosia.Foralmosttwomonths,Alexandersmenstruggledthroughtheand wastesofGedrosia.Includingthewivesandchildrenthesoldiershadacquiredinthe courseoftheircampaignsandthecampfollowersthathadattachedtothegroup, possiblyasmanyaseightythousandsoulscomprisedwhatwasvirtuallyamoving city.BeforethearmyfinallyreachedCarmaniaandsafety,thousandsdied,including mostofthesoldiersfamilies,whoweresweptawaytogetherwiththebulkoftheir possessionsinaflashflood.Onlynewsofthesafearrivalofthefleetattheheadof thePersianGulfsometimeinDecember325afteradifficultandadventurefilled voyagethatincludedencounterswithwhalesandexplorationofahauntedisland lessenedAlexanderssenseofhavingbarelyescapedtotaldisaster. ReorganizationoftheEmpire

AlexandersreturnfromIndiasparkedturmoilthroughouthisvastempire.Inshort order,eightsatrapsandgeneralsbothMacedoniansandIraniansweredeposedand executed.OneofAlexandersoldestfriends,theroyaltreasurer,Harpalus,fledto Athenswithahugefortunelootedfromthekingsfundsandaprivatearmyofsix thousandmercenaries.Theancientsourcesarguedthattheupheavalwascausedby thedeteriorationofAlexanderscharacter.Modernadmirerscitehisoutrageatthe reportsofcorruptionandoppressionbyhisofficialswhilehewasaway.Thetruthis morecomplex.Somevictimsofthekingswrath,suchasthegovernorsofthe satrapiesalonghislineofmarchthroughGedrosia,clearlywerescapegoatsfora disasterthatwaslargelyofAlexandersownmaking.Otherswerevictimsofcourt politicsandjealousies,butastheRomanhistorianCurtiusRufus(10.1.7) perceptivelynoted,mostwereguiltyoftheoneunforgivablecrime:theyhad assumedAlexanderwouldnotsurviveandhadbeguntoexploithisempirefortheir ownpersonalbenefit. Alexandersactionswerenotlimitedtopunishingoverlyambitiousandcorrupt subordinates.Healsoattemptedtopreventsimilarproblemsinthefuture.All satrapswereorderedtodisbandimmediatelytheirmercenaryforces.Whenthe securityofhisAsianrealmwasthreatenedbyrovingbandsofembitteredcashiered soldiers,afurtherorderwassenttothecitiesofEuropeanGreecerequiringthemto permittheirexilestoreturnhome.Fullytwentythousandexilesaresaidtohave heardAristotlessoninlawNicanorreadtheroyaldecreeatOlympiainthesummer of324BC.Theproblemsofreintegratingthemintothelifeoftheirvariouscitieswere tocauseturmoilinGreeceforyearstocome,sparkingalastdesperateattemptbythe GreekcitiestofreethemselvesfromMacedonianruleimmediatelyafterAlexanders death. 423 UnificationofMankind AlmostasseriousathreattoAlexanderwasposedbythedismayandsuspicionof hisveteranMacedoniantroopsatthechangesintheirrelationshiptotheirking.In theearlyspringof324AlexandercelebratedtheconquestofIndiaingrandstyle. Decorationsweredistributedtoofficersofthearmyandfleet.Theclimaxofthe celebrationwasagrandmarriageceremonyinwhichAlexanderhimselftooktwo Persianwives,daughtersrespectivelyofArtaxerxesIIIandDariusIII.Ninetyofhis principalofficerstooknoblePersianandMedianwives.Giftsweredistributedtoten thousandofhissoldierswhohadfollowedAlexandersexampleandmarriedAsian women,andtheirdebtswerepaidbytheking. ThegoodfeelingsquicklydissipatedwhenAlexanderintroducedintothearmy thirtythousandyoungIraniantroopstrainedtofightinMacedonianstyle,whomhe

referredtoashisSuccessors.Theirnamesuggestedthattheywereeventuallyto replacehisMacedonians.Itisnotsurprising,therefore,thatwhenAlexander announcedatOpisinthesummerof324thatheintendedtodischargeandsend homeveteranswhoweretoooldortooilltofight,thearmymutinied.Thesoldiers demandedthatthekingdischargethemallandsarcasticallyurgedthathehenceforth relyonhisfatherAmmon.OnlyafterAlexanderreassuredthemthathis Macedonianswerehisonlytruecompanionsdidthemutinysubside. Thevictoryofhisveteranswasonlysymbolic.AlthoughMacedoniansoccupiedseats ofhonoratagreatbanquetAlexanderheldatOpistocelebratetheendofthe mutiny,heremainedsteadfastincarryingouthisoriginalplans.Hedischargedthe veteransshortlythereafterandsentthembacktoMacedon,whileretainingthe childrenproducedbytheirmarriagestoAsianwomenwithhimasthenucleusofa newgenerationofsoldiersloyalonlytohimself.Inthemeantime,theintegrationof Iranianunitsintothearmycontinued. DeathinBabylon ThefinalyearofAlexandersreignwasfullofactivityandunfulfilledplans.Itbegan withapersonaltragedy.InNovember324,Hephaestion,Alexandersmostintimate friend,drankhimselftodeath.ThegriefstrickenkingexecutedHephaestionsdoctor andorderedamonstrouszigguratlikemonumenttoHephaestiontobebuiltat Babylon.WhenhebelievedhehadreceivedapprovalfromAmmon,heorderedthe Greekcitiestogranthisdeadfriendheroichonors.Itmayalsohavebeenatthistime thatAlexanderissuedanotherdecreedemandingthattheGreeksworshiphimasa god. AlexanderfurtherassuagedhisgriefwithawintercampaignintheZagros MountainsbeforereturningtoBabyloninthespringof323.Therehereceiveda seriesofdelegationsbearingcongratulationsandpetitionsfromtheGreeksandother peoplesoftheMediterranean.Healsobegantoformulateplansforhisnextmajor project,theconquestoftheArabians,who,heclaimed,hadnotsentanembassyto honorhim.Butomensofhisimpendingdeathwerealreadybeing 424 bruitedabout.Indesperation,theBabylonianpriestsevenrevivedtheancient substitutekingritual:acriminalwasseatedonthekingsthronedressedintheroyal regalia,thenexecutedinthehopeofavertingthedoomthreateningtheking. Thisfranticeffortwastonoavail.OnMay29,Alexanderfellillatapartyhostedby oneofhisofficers.Aftersufferingfromfeveranddeliriumforalmosttwoweeks,he diedonJune10,323BC.Legendwouldlaterclaimthathewasthevictimofaplot concoctedbyAristotleandAntipater,whomhehaddecidedtoreplaceashisregent

inEurope.Morelikely,hisbody,exhaustedbythestrainofconstantcampaigning andnumerouswounds,wasunabletofightoffadisease,possiblymalaria,thathe contractedduringhisfinalsojournatBabylon.Hewasalmost33yearsold. *** OnlearningofAlexandersdeaththeAthenianpoliticianDemadesremarkedthathe couldnotbedeadbecausethewholeworldwouldstinkfromthestenchofhis corpse.Alexanderhadrousedstrongpassionsduringhislifeandcontinuedtodoso afterhisdeath.Hehadconductedthelongestandmostfarreachingmilitary campaigninGreekhistory,andinsodoinghehadchangedforevertheworldthe GreeksandMacedoniansknew.FromtheMediterraneantoIndia,Eurasiahadbeen linkedtogetherandwouldremainsountiltheendofantiquity.Thecitieshe establishedinEgyptandcentralAsiaprovidedthefoundationsforasignificant Greekpresenceinthoseareas. Sinceantiquity,scholarshavedisagreedaboutAlexandersplansforthefutureofhis empire.Acleartendencytowardincreasingautocracycanbedetectedoverthe courseofAlexandersreign,culminatinginactionssuchasthedecreesorderingthe returnofexilesandhisowndeification.Noclearevidenceexiststhatmightreveal howAlexanderenvisionedthefinalformofthatautocracyortherolesheexpected thevariouspeoplesofhisempiretoplayinit.Inpart,ofcourse,thisisbecause Alexanderdidnotexpecttodiewhenhedid.Thereis,however,amorefundamental reason.WhenheheardthatAlexanderhadcompletedmostofhisconquestsbythe ageof32andwasperplexedaboutwhatheshoulddowiththerestofhislife,the RomanemperorAugustusissaidtohaveexpressedsurprisethatAlexanderdidnot considergoverninghisempireagreaterchallengethanconqueringit.Not surprisingly,hispaperscontainedonlyschemesforgrandiosemonumentsand futurecampaigns,notplansforthegovernanceofhisempire. Inaveryrealsense,therefore,Alexandersgreatestachievementwasnegative.He destroyedthePersianempire,therebyliquidatingastatesystemthatgoverned relationsintheNearandMiddleEastforovertwocenturies.Healsoendedtherole oftheGreekstatesassignificantplayersinthepoliticsoftheeasternMediterranean basin.Hissuccessors,however,andnotAlexanderhimself,wouldshapethenew politicalorderthatwouldreplacethePersianempireandprovidetheframeworkfor socialandculturalrelationsinmuchofwesternAsiafortherestofantiquity. 425 TRANSLATIONS Brunt,P.A.1976.Arrian:AnabasisofAlexander.Vol.I.LoebClassicalLibrary. Cambridge,Mass.andLondon:HarvardUniversityPress.

Perrin,Bernadotte.1919.PlutarchsLives.Vol.VII.LoebClassicalLibrary.Cambridge, Mass.andLondon:HarvardUniversityPress. SUGGESTEDREADING Bosworth,A.B.1988.ConquestandEmpire:TheReignofAlexandertheGreat. Cambridge,Eng.:CambridgeUniversityPress.Unsentimentalandclearlywritten politicalandmilitaryhistoryofAlexandersreign. Bosworth,A.B.1996.AlexanderandtheEast:TheTragedyofTriumph.Oxford:The ClarendonPress.ArevealingstudyofAlexandersIndiancampaignandits treatmentbyancientandmodernhistorians. Engels,DonaldW.1978.AlexandertheGreatandtheLogisticsoftheMacedonianArmy. BerkeleyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.Anilluminatingaccountof thepracticalproblemsofsupplyingAlexandersarmyduringitslongcampaign. Holt,FrankL.1989.AlexandertheGreatandBactria.Leiden:E.J.Brill.Lucidaccountof AlexanderscentralAsiancampaignanditssignificancefortheestablishmentof GreekcultureinBactria. Stewart,Andrew.1993.FacesofPower.AlexandersImageandHellenisticPolitics. BerkeleyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.Detailedstudyofthe developmentanduseofthebestknownroyalportraitimageinantiquity. Wheeler,Mortimer.1968.FlamesoverPersepolis:TurningPointinHistory.NewYork: ReynalandCompany.Illuminatingsurveyofthearchaeologicalevidencefor Alexanderscampaign. 426 ALEXANDERSSUCCESSORSANDTHECOSMOPOLIS AlexandersconquestschangedforevertheworldtheGreeksknew.Fromcitizensof minusculecitystatesonthefringesofthePersianempire,theGreekshadbecome partnersintheruleofavastterritorythatstretchedfromtheMediterraneantothe bordersofIndia.Thisenormouscosmopolis(literally,acitystatecomprisingthe world)wasunifiedbytheuseofGreekasthecommonlanguageofgovernmentand cultureandbythecreationofislandsofGreekcultureinsettlementsscattered throughoutthisbroadarea.Thecosmopolisservedasahugearenaforthemilitary andpoliticalstrugglesofAlexanderssuccessors.Againstthisbloodybackdrop, ordinarypeople,bothGreeksandtheirsubjects,attemptedtoretaintraditional valueswhilemakinginnovationsthatenabledthemtoliveinaworldthatwasvastly differentfromthatoftheirgrandparents.

TheMacedonianconquestendedtheGreekworldknowntodayasClassical. ClassicalGreececertainlysetstandardsinanumberofareas,suchassculpture, architecture,philosophy,andpoliticaltheory,thatcontinuetoshapethedirectionof westerncultureeventoday.Themodernworld,however,issharplydifferentfrom thenarrowandintenselypoliticaluniverseofthepolis;inmanyrespectsitsclosest affiliationiswiththeerawecallHellenistic. ANEWWORLD TheHellenisticperiodspansthethreecenturiesfromthedeathofAlexanderin323 BCtothedeathofCleopatraVIIofEgyptin30BC.Thisperiodwitnessedthe attemptsofpeoplefromdifferentculturestobuildcommunitiesinwaysthatwould havebeenunthinkableintheageofthepurelyHellenicpolis.Inmanyways,the challengesoftheHellenisticageanticipatedthosefacedbymodernim 427 perialpowers.Moreover,inthelargemultiethnicHellenisticstatestheaverageman wasnolongerasintenselyinvestedinpoliticsashehadbeenin,say,Classical Athens.Privatelifeoccupiedalargershareofpeoplesenergy.Schoolsofthought likeStoicism,Epicureanism,Cynicism,andSkepticismaddressedthesamefeelings ofstressandanxietythattroublemenandwomentoday.Whereasthephilosophies ofPlatoandAristotleweredesignedforaffluentmenwhocouldexpecttoparticipate inthegovernmentoftheirpoleis,thephilosophiesthatdevelopedduringthe HellenisticAgespoketoabroaderspectrumofthehumancommunity.Inthevisual arts,theClassicalpreoccupationwiththebeautiful Figure12.1.ThisoldmarketwomansurvivesinaRomanmarblecopyofan originalofthethirdorsecondcenturyBC. 428 youngmalediminishedandthesculpturalrepertoireexpandedtoincludesuch groupsastheelderly,children,women,nonGreeks,andeventhedeformed. SOURCESFORTHEHELLENISTICPERIOD LikeAlexandersconquests,hisempirescollapsegeneratedanextensivehistorical literature,muchofitwrittenbyparticipantsintheevents.Themostimportantwere twogreathistoriesthatcoveredthewholeperiodfromthedeathofAlexandertothe lastconflictofhissuccessorsinthelate280SBC.OnewaswrittenbyHieronymusof Cardia,adiplomatandcourtierwhoservedseveralofAlexanderssuccessors,and theotherbyDuris,astudentofthephilosopherTheophrastusandtyrantofthelarge

islandofSamos.Thewrittenevidencethatonceexistedwasnotlimitedtogeneral histories.Cityandregionalhistories;biographiesofrulers,intellectuals,andartists; descriptionsofthelandsconqueredbyAlexander;politicalpamphlets;andeven collectionsofinscriptionswereallcomposedduringthetwogenerationsfollowing Alexandersdeath. Unfortunately,virtuallyallofthisextensivebodyofevidencehasdisappeared,and thereasonisclear.ThemodernviewoftheHellenisticperiodasoneoftheformative erasofhistorywasnotsharedbytheGreeksoflateantiquity,whodecidedwhat bookswouldbecopiedandthuswouldsurviveintotheMiddleAges.Intheir opinion,thesecenturieswereatimeofforeignruleandhumiliationthatcontrasted unfavorablywiththeClassicalperiod,whenGreecewasindependentand triumphantoveritsenemies.Theirmedievalsuccessors,theByzantines,were likewiseuninterestedinthehistoryoftheHellenisticperiod,butforadifferent reason.SincetheyviewedthemselvesasChristiansandRomans,theirinterestin HellenistichistorywaslimitedtothestoryofRomanexpansionintheeastandthe fateoftheJewsintheintertestamentalperiod.Asaresult,interestinandcopiesof theworksoftheHellenistichistorianssteadilydeclined.Intheend,onlyonedetailed accountofthethreecenturiesthatfollowedthedeathofAlexandertheGreat survivedintotheByzantineperiodthatcontainedinBooks21to40oftheLibraryof HistoryofDiodorusofSicilyandthelastmanuscriptofDiodorusworkthat includedthosebookswasdestroyedduringtheTurkishsackofConstantinoplein 1453AD. FormuchofHellenistichistory,therefore,modernhistoriansareforcedtocobble togethertheirnarrativeofeventsfromdisparate,fragmentary,andoftenintractable sources.Fortunately,thesituationislessdesperatewithregardtothecriticalhalf centuryafterAlexandersdeath,whenthefateofhisempirewasdecided.Diodorus accountofthelasttwodecadesofthefourthcenturyBCsurvivesintact.Whenhis narrativefails,historiansstillcandrawonavarietyofsourcesthatincludePlutarchs livesofDemetriusandPyrrhus,JustinsepitomeofthePhilippicaofPompeius Trogus,andanumberofinscriptionstoreconstructthehistoryofthenextquarterof acentury.Historiansarefarbetterserved,however,withregardtosourcesfor everydaylifeandadministrativeandeconomichistory. 429 FormostwritingtheGreeksandtheotherpeoplesoftheancientMediterranean worldusedpapyrus,flatsheetswovenfromstripscutfromthepapyrusreed. Becauseofdampnesselsewhere,documentswrittenonthismaterialhavesurvived inlargenumbersonlyinEgypt.Therearchaeologistshavediscovereddocuments writteninseverallanguages,includingGreek,Latin,Egyptian,andAramaic.These documentsilluminateallaspectsofthelivesoftheinhabitantsofHellenisticEgypt.

Theyincludeprivateletters,wills,marriagecontracts,leasesandotherfinancial documents,andevenelementaryschooltexts.Papyrialsooftenprovideourmain evidenceforactivitiesofthegovernmentofAlexanderssuccessors,thePtolemies, includingtaxcollection,religiousaffairs,andlegalproceedings.Thisrich documentationgivesusuniquesnapshotsofthePtolemaicgovernmentatwork, fromtheroyalcourttothesmallestEgyptianvillage. PapyrihavealsopreservedlonglostworksofGreekliterature,manyofwhich surviveonlyinfragmentarycopiesdiscoveredintheruinsofGreektownsinEgypt. Thus,someofSapphospoetryandAristotleConstitutionofAthens,soimportantfor thehistoryoftheAtheniandemocracy,surviveonlybecauseGreekslivinginEgypt hadtheirowncopiesofthesetexts.Likewise,theplaysoftheAthenianplaywright MenanderandtheLockofBereniceoftheAlexandrianpoetCallimachusareextant onlyinpapyruscopies.Thevastnumberofpapyrithathavebeendiscoveredinthe EgyptiancountrysidetestifytoboththeuseoftheGreeklanguageandthespreadof Greekculture,oneofthemostenduringresultsofAlexandersconquests.Equally important,notallpapyriarewritteninGreek.Scholarshavejustbeguntostudyin detailthenumerousDemotic(vernacularEgyptian)papyri,whichshowthat,despite theinfluxofGreeks,theEgyptianwayoflife,legalsystem,andreligiousinstitutions allenduredandevenflourishedintheHellenisticperiod. Figure12.2.LettertoZenoncomplainingaboutilltreatment:...toZenon,greeting. Youdowellifyoukeepyourhealth.Itooamwell.Youknowthatyouleftmein SyriawithKrotosandIdideverythingthatwasorderedinrespecttothecamelsand wasblamelesstowardyou.Whenyousentanordertogivemepay,hegavenothing ofwhatyouordered.WhenIaskedrepeatedlythathegivemewhatyouordered andKrotosgavemenothing,butkepttellingmetoremovemyself,Iheldoutfora longtimewaitingforyou;butwhenIwasinwantofnecessitiesandcouldget nothinganywhere,IwascompelledtorunawayintoSyriasothatImightnotperish ofhunger.SoIwroteyouthatyoumightknowthatKrotoswasthecauseofit.When yousentmeagaintoPhiladelphiatoJason,althoughIdoeverythingthatisordered, forninemonthsnowhegivesmenothingofwhatyouorderedmetohave,neither oilnorgrain,exceptattwomonthperiods,whenhepaystheclothing(allowances). AndIamindifficultybothsummerandwinter.Andheordersmetoacceptordinary wineforsalary.Well,theyhavetreatedmewithscornbecauseIamabarbarian.I begyoutherefore,ifitseemsgoodtoyou,togivethemordersthatIamtoobtain whatisowingandthatinfuturetheypaymeinfull,inorderthatImaynotperishof hungerbecauseIdonotknowhowtoactlikeaGreek.You,therefore,kindlycausea changeinattitudetowardme.Ipraytoallthegodsandtotheguardiandivinityof theKingthatyouremainandcometoussothatyoumayyourselfseethatIam blameless.Farewell.BusinessPapersoftheThirdCenturyB.C.DealingwithPalestineand Egypt,Vol.2,eds.W.L.Westermann,C.W.KeyesandH.Liebesny[NewYork: ColumbiaUniversityPress,1940]NR.66.

430 THESTRUGGLEFORTHESUCCESSION Alexandersreignbeganandendedwithacrisisoverthesuccessiontothe Macedonianthrone.WhenAlexanderdiedsuddenlyinthesummerof323BC, MacedonianpowerextendedfromMacedontoIndia.ThePersianempire,whichhad dominatedtheNearandMiddleEastforovertwocenturies,haddisappeared,butno newpoliticalstructurehademergedtoreplaceit.OnlyAlexanderscharismatic personalityheldhisvastrealmtogether.Hissuddendeathremovedthatfocusof loyalty.Survivaloftheempirerequiredthatanewkingbechosenquickly,butthere wasnoobviousheir.Alexanderhadmarriedlateinhisreign 431 andnoneofhiswiveshadproducedachildatthetimeofhisdeath,althoughRoxane waspregnant.OfAlexandersownimmediatefamily,onlyhismentallydeficient halfbrotherArrhidaeussurvived.Aregency,therefore,wasinevitable.Thequestion waswhowouldleadtheregencyandforwhomwouldheberegent? SpeculationwasrifeamongtheMacedoniansatBabylonaboutAlexanderswishes concerningthesuccession,butallthatwasknownforcertainwasthatonhis deathbedhehadgivenhissignetringtohischiefminister,Perdiccas.Not surprisingly,Perdiccastooktheinitiative,proposingthatnodecisionbemadeuntil Roxaneschildwasborn.Alexandersbodyguardsandthecavalrysupported Perdiccasproposal.TheMacedonianinfantrywasnotsosupportive.Facedwith continuinguncertaintyaboutthesuccessionandenragedattheideaofahalfIranian heirshouldRoxanebearason,theymutiniedanddemandedthatArrhidaeusbe recognizedastheirnewking. Foraninstant,civilwarthreatenedbetweentheMacedonianinfantryandcavalry, onlytobeavertedatthelastmomentbyabizarrecompromise.Itwasdecidedthat Roxaneschild,ifitweremale,andArrhidaeuswouldbejointkings!Withtheir demandforaMacedoniankingsatisfied,theinfantryabandoneditsrebellionand watchedpassivelywhilePerdiccasseizedandsummarilyexecuteditserstwhile leaders.WhenRoxanegavebirthtoasonshortlythereafter,heandArrhidaeuswere proclaimedkingsunderthenamesofAlexanderIVandPhilipIII.Thecrisis,it seemed,hadendedalmostassuddenlyasithadbegun.Eventsweretoprove, however,thatAlexanderhadspokenthetruthwhenhesaidthatheforesawgreat funeralgamesoverhiscorpse.

ThestruggleforAlexandersempirethefuneralgameshehadforeseenlasted,in fact,foralmosthalfacentury.Thehopeofmaintaininghisvastempireintactproved tobeaseductivewillothewisp.RepeatedeffortsbyAlexandersSuccessorsto holdtheempiretogetherwerefrustratedbycoalitionsoftheirrivals.Whenthelastof themfinallydiedin280BC,thevisionofasinglegreatempireoccupyingthewhole areafromtheMediterraneantoIndiahaddisappeared.Initsplacewerethefirst glimmeringsofanewpoliticalsystemthatwouldbedominatedbythreekingdoms ruledbyMacedoniandynasties:thePtolemies,whoserealmincludedEgypt, Palestine,Libya,andCyprus;theSeleucids,whoseterritoriesincludedmuchofthe NearandMiddleEast;andtheAntigonids,whoruledMacedonandnorthern Greece.ThisarrangementformedtheframeworkforpoliticalandsociallifeinEgypt andwesternAsiaforovertwocenturies.Italsofacilitatedavibrantculturethat providedthebasisformuchoftheculturallifeoflaterantiquityandthemiddleages. THEREGENCYOFPERDICCAS ThevastextentoftheHellenisticworldandtheinadequaciesofthesourcesgiveits historyakaleidoscopicqualitythatmakessynthesisdifficult.Thesourcesleaveno doubt,however,thatmorewasatstakeatBabylonduringtheturbulent 432 summerof323thanmerelydeterminingtheidentityofAlexanderssuccessor. Decisionsalsohadtobemadeconcerningthegoalsofthenewimperialgovernment. ConquestandexpansioncharacterizedAlexandersreign,andtherewerenosignsof anychangeinpolicy.Quitethecontrary:evenduringhisfinalillness,Alexanderwas stillmakingplansforhisprojectedinvasionofArabia.Afterhisdeath,theregent Perdiccasclaimedthathefoundamongthekingspapersplansforevenmore grandioseschemes,includingtheconquestofCarthageandtheconstructionofa tombforPhilip11equalinsizetothegreatpyramidofKhufuatGizehinEgypt. Adecisionhadtobemadeconcerningthestatusofalltheseprojects,andPerdiccas hadnodoubtastowhatthatdecisionshouldbe.Helaidbeforeanassemblyofthe MacedonianarmyheldatBabylonthemostextravagantandambitiousof Alexandersplansandaskedforthesoldiersopinion.Exhaustedbyyearsofarduous campaigningandfearfulthattheywouldneverseeMacedonagain,thesoldiers respondedasPerdiccasexpected,demandingthatAlexandersfinalplansbe abandoned.ThefantasticcareerofconquestthathadbegunwithAlexanders crossingoftheHellespontadecadeearlierwasover.Thephaseofimperial expansionhadended.ThetimeforconsolidationofMacedonianruleandenjoyment ofthefruitsofvictoryhadarrived,orsothesoldiersthought. Withthequestionofthesuccessionsettled,Perdiccasmovedquicklytogiveformto theregency.Thefirstorderofbusinesswasreallocatingthesatrapiesoftheempire.

Thesourcesanachronisticallyhighlightthesatrapiesassignedtothemenwhowould dominatetheeventsofthenextfewdecades:CappadociatoEumenes,Egyptto Ptolemy,ThracetoLysimachus,andmuchofwesternAnatoliatoAntigonusthe OneEyed.Cappadocia,however,hadyettobeconquered.Egyptwasheldbythe notoriouslycorruptusurperCleomenesofNaucratis,whilethesatrapyofThracewas vacantandmuchofitsterritoryhadbeenlostinaThracianrebellion.Thisisnot surprising.InthewakeofthecrisisatBabylon,Perdiccasneededtoavoidalienating thepowerfulMacedoniansatrapsinAsiatosurvive,andsuchappointmentsmetthis need. ThesamecautiousandconciliatoryapproachcanalsobedetectedinPerdiccasplans fortheorganizationoftheregencyitself.Threemenweretogoverntheempireinthe nameofthekings:Antipater,AlexandersstrategosinEurope;Craterus,themost prominentfieldcommanderinthelastyearsofAlexandersreignandhisintended successortoAntipaterinEurope,whobecameprostates(protector)ofthekings;and, ofcourse,Perdiccashimself.ThepotentialdisruptionofMacedonianunity threatenedbyAlexandersplantosupersedeAntipaterinEuropewasavoided,and Perdiccastwomostpowerfulpotentialenemiesweretransformedintoalliesinthe jointgovernanceoftheempire.Antipater,forhispart,respondedintraditional Macedonianfashion,seekingtocementthenewalliancebyarrangingtomarrytwo ofhisdaughterstoPerdiccasandCraterus. HardlyhadtheregencybeenformedthanPerdiccaspositionbegantocrumble. Revoltsbrokeoutatboththeeasternandwesternendsoftheempire.Alexanders Asiansubjectshadremainedpassivespectatorsofthecrisisthathadfollowedhis death;notsotheGreeks.TheGreeksettlersandgarrisonsincentral 433 Asiawerethefirsttorevolt.BactriawastobecomehometoaremarkableGreek kingdomthatwouldexertasignificantinfluenceontheculturesofcentralAsiaand India.ThegloriesofBactrianHellenism,however,layinthefuture.In323theGreek settlersandgarrisontroopslefttherebyAlexandersawitasaplaceofbitterexile, andonlearningofhisdeath23,000ofthemmutiniedandsetoutonthelongmarch home.Perdiccasresponsewaspromptanddecisive.Pithon,oneoftheRoyal Bodyguards,interceptedtherebelsandcrushedthem,forcingthesurvivorstoreturn totheirpostsinBactria.AlmostsimultaneouslywiththerevoltinBactria,the EuropeanGreeksroseinanevenmoreseriousrebellionthatbrieflyseemedto threatentheverysurvivalofMacedonianruleinGreece. LiketherevoltoftheBactrianGreeks,therootsoftheEuropeanuprisinglayinthe lastyearsofAlexandersreign.Alexandersdecreeof324,orderingthereturnhome ofGreekexiles,threatenedthegovernmentsofmanyGreekcitieswithsocialand

politicalupheaval,aslargenumbersoferstwhilecitizenscamehomeanddemanded thereturnoftheirproperty.Atthesametime,hisorderthathissatrapsdisbandtheir mercenaryforceshadcreatedabuyersmarketintrainedsoldiersreadytofightfor anyonewhowouldpaythem.TheleadersoftherevoltwereAthensandAetolia,the twostateswhoseinterestsweremostthreatenedbytheexilesdecree.Adecadeof financialreformsdesignedandimplementedbytheconservativearistocratLycurgus hadrestoredAthensfiscalandnavalstrength.Withnewfoundfinancialresources, Athenshiredamercenaryarmyandlaunchedthestrongestnavalforcemobilizedby thecitysincethePeloponnesianWar. VictoryinitiallyseemedtobealmostwithintheGreeksgrasp.Caughtbysurprise andoutnumberedbyhisGreekenemies,Antipaterwasforcedtotakerefugeinthe ThessahancityofLamia,fromwhichtherevoltgetsitsname,theLamianWar(323 322BC).WhiletheGreekforcesbesiegedLamia,theAthenianfleetdominatedthe Aegean.ButtheneventsturnedinexorablyagainsttheGreeks.TheAtheniangeneral Leosthenes,themanresponsibleforbuildingthealliesmercenaryarmy,waskilled inbattle,andtheAthenianfleetwasdecisivelydefeatedneartheislandofAmorgos. Meanwhile,thearrivalofMacedonianreinforcementsfromAsiaenabledAntipater toescapefromLamiaandthentocrushtheforcesoftheGreekrebelsatCrannonin Thessalyin322.UnliketheBactrianGreeks,theEuropeanGreekswouldhaveno gloriousfuturetocompensatethemforthefailureoftheirrevolt.Antipaterintended thatthereshouldbenofurtherrevolts.TheLeagueofCorinthwasdissolvedand withitthelasttracesofthefiction,socarefullyfosteredbyPhilipIIandAlexander, thattheGreekswerealliesandnotMacedoniansubjects. Notsurprisingly,theheaviestpunishmentfellontheprimeinstigatoroftherevolt: Athens.DemosthenesandtheotherleadingantiMacedonianpoliticianswere hunteddownandexecuted,ortheycommittedsuicide.ThepillarsoftheAthenian democracyselectionofofficialsbylot,payforoffice,andtheenfranchisementofall Athenianswereabolished.TwelvethousandAthenians,overhalfthecitizenbody, failedtomeetthenewfinancialrequirementsforcitizenshipandweredisfranchised. Forthefirsttimeinalmostacentury,Athenswas 434 ruledbyanoligarchybeholdentoaforeigngovernment,andmaintainedinpower byaforeigngarrison. TheDeathofPerdiccas UnliketheAthenians,theAetoliansescapedAntipaterswrath,asdisturbingnews concerningPerdiccasactivitiesforcedAntipaterandhisalliestoturntheirattention toAsia.WhileAntipaterandCrateruswereoccupiedwiththeLamianWar, Perdiccaswasunsuccessfullystrugglingtoimposehisauthorityonthesatrapsin

Asia.In322BC,AntigonustheOneEyed,thesatrapofPhrygia,firstdefiedthe regentsordertohelpEumenestakecontrolofhissatrapyofCappadociaandthen fledtoMacedon.Worse,AntigonusbroughttoMacedonthedisconcertingnewsthat PerdiccaswasnegotiatingwithOlympiastomarryCleopatra,Alexanderssister, despitehispromisetowedoneofAntipatersdaughters.Antigonusnewsoutraged Antipaterandsplittheregency.Thesparkthatignitedthefirstofthewarsof Alexanderssuccessors,however,waslitbyPtolemy,whointerceptedtheelaborate funeralcortegethatwasbringingAlexandersbodytoMacedonforburialand divertedittoEgypt.Insodoing,Ptolemymayhavethoughtthathewasonly followingAlexanderswishes,sincethereisevidencethatAlexanderdesiredtobe buriedatSiwahnearthesanctuaryofhisdivinefather,Ammon.Still,Perdiccas couldnotignoresodirectandhumiliatinganaffronttohisauthority.In321, therefore,hemovedagainstPtolemyinforce,onlytohavehisinvasionofEgypt thwartedwhenPtolemyopenedthedikesthatheldintheNileandfloodedthe easterndelta,drowningthousandsofPerdiccassoldiersintheprocess.Inwar,asin everythingelse,timingisallimportant.Perdiccasofficers,demoralizedbydefeat andseducedbyPtolemyspromises,assassinatedhim.Soonafterthedeathof PerdiccasamessengerbroughtthenewsthatCraterushadbeenkilled,andthat PerdiccasallyEumeneshaddefeatedinAnatoliatheforcesentwithhimby AntipatertosupportPtolemy. ShortlyafterPerdiccasdeath,thevictorsmetatTriparadeisusinSyriatoreorganize theregency.Theiractionswerefewbutsignificant.AntipaterreplacedPerdiccasas regentforthekings,andtheSatrapieswerereassignedyetagain.Somesatrapssuch asPtolemyandLysimachusweretooentrenchedintheirpositionstobetouched. Perdiccasrelativesandalliesamongthesatraps,however,werereplacedbymen uncompromisedbytieswiththeformerregent,suchasSeleucus,whoreceived Babylonashissatrapy.TheheaviestblowwasreservedforEumenes,theonlyGreek amongthemajorsatrapsandPerdiccasclosestally;hewascondemnedtodeath.At thesametime,AntipaterrewardedAntigonustheOneEyedforalertinghimto PerdiccasambitionswiththepositionofstrategosinAsia.Healsoassigned AntigonusthetaskofhuntingdownEumenesandPerdiccasothersurviving supporters.Withthereorganizationofthegovernmentcomplete,Antipaterreturned toMacedonwiththetwokings.ForthefirsttimesinceAlexanderhadcrossedinto Asiaoveradecadeearlier,akingwouldoccupytheroyalpalaceatPella. 435 Atfirstglance,littlehadchangedatTriparadeisus.Theempirewasstillintact. ArgeadrulecontinuedinthepersonsofPhilipIIIandAlexanderIV.Onlythe identityoftheirregentandofsomeofthesatrapsseemedtohavechanged. Nevertheless,theappearanceofcontinuitywasdeceptive.Macedonianloyaltyto Argeadrulemightstillbefirm,buttheMacedonianaristocracysdeepseated

hostilitytoroyalpowerburstforthagainafterAlexandersdeath.Perdiccashad failedtoreimposeroyalauthority.Antipater,whowasoldandhad,moreover,been deeplysuspiciousofAlexandersgrowingautocracy,wasunlikelyeventotry. Moreover,bytakingthekingsbacktoMacedonwithhim,Antipaterhadmadeclear thatMacedonwascentralinhisviewoftheempire,whileatthesametimehe eliminatedwhateverrestraintthepresenceofthekingshadimposedontheAsian satraps.ThepersonbestsituatedtoexploitthenewsituationwasAntigonusthe OneEyed,whosepositionasstrategosinAsiagavehimfullcontrolofallroyalforces andresourcesinAsiaandcompletelibertytousethemashethoughtbest. THEPRIMACYOFANTIGONUSTHEONEEYED AntigonusrisetopreeminenceinAsiawasrapid.Inalittleoverayearhesucceeded insuppressingPerdiccasremainingalliesinAnatolia,drivingEumenesfromhis satrapyofCappadociaandbesieginghiminthefortressofNoraincentralAnatolia. ThedecisionsmadeatTriparadeisusseemedonthevergeofbeingimplemented, whenAntipaterssuddendeathin319BCprecipitatedanewroundofconflict amongAlexanderssuccessors.AntipaterssonCassanderrefusedtoaccepthis fatherschoiceofPolyperchonasregentforthetwokingsandfledtoAntigonus. Antigonus,Cassander,Ptolemy,andLysimachusquicklyformedagrandalliance againstthenewregent. Thestrugglelastedforthreeyearsandendedwiththecompletecollapseoftheroyal causeinbothEuropeandAsia.WhenitbecameclearthatCassanderwaswinning, PolyperchonturnedindesperationtoOlympiasforhelp.Intheabsenceofcompetent maleArgeads,thesurvivingfemaleArgeadsincreasinglyembodiedthecharismaof Philip11andAlexanderintheeyesoftheMacedonians.Olympiasentryintothe frayenergizedPolyperchonscause,butitdidsoatthecostofsplittingthedual kingship.HersinglemindedpassionforthecauseofhergrandsonAlexanderIV forcedEurydice,thedaughterofAmyntasIVandqueenofPhilipIII,torecognize Cassandersclaimtoberegentforherhusband,buttonoavail.In317thetwoqueens finallycommandedopposingarmiesinabattle,whereOlympiasfirstcrushedher rival,Eurydice,andthenorderedtheexecutionofbothherandPhilip111. Olympiastriumph,however,wasbrief.Sixmonthslatershesufferedthesamefate asEurydice,leavinghergrandsonandMacedoninthehandsofCassander. Outwardly,CassanderclaimedonlytoberegentforAlexanderIV,butthereality wasdifferent.CassanderwasthenewrulerofMacedon,andhequicklyconsolidated hispower.ThechildkingandhismotherRoxanewereconfinedunder 436

housearrestinAmphipolis,nevertobeseeninpublicagain.Meanwhile,Cassander himselfsoughttolegitimizehisholdonpowerbymarryingAlexandershalfsister Thessalonice. CassandersfirstactsleftnodoubtaboutthenatureoftheneworderinMacedonand Greece.Macedoniantraditiongavekingstheprerogativeoffoundingcitiesnamed afterthemselvesormembersoftheirfamilies,andCassanderfoundedtwosuch cities.OnewasnamedThessaloniceafterhisnewqueenandtheother,onthesiteof Olynthus,wascalledCassandreaafterhimself.Inaddition,heorderedthe restorationofThebes,thecitywhosedestructionhadmarkedthebeginningof AlexandersdominanceinGreece.TheregimeofAlexandertheGreatandhisfamily wasover;thatofhissuccessorshadbegun. AsimilarfatebefelltheroyalcauseinAsia.AlthoughAlexandersformersecretary Eumenesunexpectedlyprovedtobeabrillianttactician,hismilitaryskillswere ultimatelyinsufficienttosavehim.IsolatedfromEurope,Eumenesreceivedonly grudgingsupportfromtheAsiansatraps,whodespisedhimasaGreekupstart. Nevertheless,hemanagedtoavoiddefeatforthreeyearsbeforehisownsoldiers betrayedhimin316toAntigonus,whoorderedtheimmediateexecutionofhis resourcefulfoe. AsinEurope,soinAsiaavictorywoninthenameoftheheirsofAlexander resultedinsteadintheusurpationofArgeadrule.WithEumenesdead,Antigonus replacedhissupportersamongtheeasternsatrapswithmenloyaltohimself. SeleucusthoughtitbesttoabandonBabylonandfleetoPtolemy.Althoughofficially onlystrategosinAsiaforAlexanderIV,Antigonus,infact,controlledthechildkings vastAsianterritoriesassecurelyasCassanderdidhisEuropeanones. TheFreedomoftheGreeks AntigonusemergenceasthedominantpowerinAsiaalsodestabilizedthealliance thathadbroughtdowntheregencyandmaderenewalofwarinevitable.Thenew alignmentofforceswasquicklyrevealed.OnhisreturntoPhoeniciain315, Antigonuswasgreetedbyanultimatumfromhisallies,demandingthatheshareall thetreasureandterritoriesthathehadcaptured.Notsurprisingly,Antigonus rejectedtheirultimatumandcounteredwithanultimatumofhisowndemanding thathisrivalsrecognizetheprinciplethatallGreekstatesshouldbefreeandself governing.Asbothancientandmodernhistorianshaverecognized,theserival ultimatumswereessentiallypropagandaintendedtoseizethediplomatichigh groundandwooMacedoniansupportwhilebothsidespreparedforwar.Antigonus invocationoftheprincipleofGreekfreedom,however,wasaddressedtoadifferent audience:theGreeks.

AntigonusassertionoftheprincipleofGreekfreedomhasbeenthesubjectofmuch discussion.ScholarshaverightlypointedoutthatAntigonusneverfreedtheGreek citiesunderhiscontrolandhaveconcluded,therefore,thathissupportofGreek freedomwasonlypropaganda.Itwaspropaganda,however,thatAntigonushad goodreasontobelievewouldhaveastrongresonanceinGreece. 437 TheGreekswerefiercelydevotedtotheindependenceoftheirpoleis,andthe MacedoniankingshadfoundnowaytosolvetheproblemofreconcilingtheGreeks hungerforindependencewithmaintainingcontrolofthecitieslocatedintheir territories.AftertheLamianWar,AntipatersandCassandersnewpolicyof controllingtheGreekcitiesdirectlythroughpuppetgovernmentsbackedbyresident garrisonsmadetheissueparticularlycontentious.Theresultwasinevitable: increasingresentmentofMacedonianrule.Alreadyin319,Athenshadrebelledin responsetoanearlierpromisebyPolyperchontorestoredemocracyandfreedomto theGreeks.AntigonushopedthathisdeclarationofhissupportforGreekfreedom wouldhaveasimilareffectamongCassandersotherembitteredGreeksubjects whenhelaunchedhisprojectedinvasionofMacedon. AlthoughAntigonuscontinuedmakingpreparationsforwarthroughout314and 313,hisinvasionofMacedonnevermaterialized.Antigonusfacedthesametactical problemthatPerdiccashadalmostadecadeearlier:attackingoneenemywhile simultaneouslydefendingagainstanotherinhisrear.Asbefore,theeffortfailed. BeforeAntigonuscouldcrosstoEuropetoconfrontCassander,Ptolemyinflicteda massivedefeatonhissonDemetrius,whohadbeenguardinghisfatherssouthern flank,atGazain312BC.PtolemycompletedthedebaclebyhelpingSeleucusreturn toBabylonthesameyear,whereheimmediatelybegantoincitedefectionsamong theeasternsatraps.Withhissouthernandeasternfrontsinruins,Antigonushadno choiceexcepttomakepeacewithhisformerallies,whichhedidin311. ThePeaceof311BCrepresentedAntigonusadmissionthattemporarily,atleast,his ambitiousplanstogaincontrolofallofAlexandersempirehadfailed.Thetermsof thetreatyitselfrevealthemagnitudeofthefailure:Cassandertoremainasstrategos inEuropeuntilAlexanderIVcameofage,Antigonustocontinueasstrategosoverall Asia,PtolemyandLysimachustoretaintheirsatrapies,andtheGreekcitiestobe free.InreturnforapledgetosupporttheprincipleofGreekfreedomthatneitherhe norhisrivalsintendedtofulfill,Antigonushadretractedallthesubstantivedemands hehadmadeagainsthisenemiesatTyreandagreedtothecontinuationofthe divisionoftheempireasithadexistedatthebeginningofthewar. Document12.1LetterofAntigonustheOneEyedtoScepsis(311BC)The importanceofthethemeoftheFreedomoftheGreeksinthewarsofAlexanders

successorsisreflectedinthislettersentbyAntigonustheOneEyedtothecitizensof ScepsisinnorthwestAnatoliashortlyaftertheconclusionofthePeaceof311BCand preservedinaninscriptiondiscoveredatScepsis. ...weexercisedzealforthelibertyoftheGreeks,makingforthisreasonnosmall concessionsanddistributingmoneybesides.Tofurtherthiswesentouttogether AeschylusandDemarchus.Aslongastherewasagreementonthisweparticipated intheconferenceontheHellespont,andifcertainmenhadnotinterferedthematter shouldthenhavebeensettled.Nowalso,whenCassanderandPtolemywere conferringaboutatruceandwhen 438 PepalausandAristodemushadcometousonthesubject,althoughwesawthat someofthedemandsofCassanderwereratherburdensome,stillastherewas agreementconcerningtheGreekswethoughtitnecessarytooverlookthisinorder thatthemainissuemightbesettledassoonaspossible.Weshouldhaveconsidered itafinethingifallhadbeenarrangedfortheGreeksaswewished,butbecausethe negotiationwouldhavebeenratherlongandinadelaysometimesmanyunexpected thingshappen,andbecausewewereanxiousthatthequestionoftheGreeksshould besettledinourlifetime,wethoughtitnecessarynottoletdetailsendangerthe settlementoftheprincipalissue.WhatzealwehaveshowninthesematterswillI thinkbeevidenttoyouandtoallothersfromthesettlementitself.Afterthe arrangementswithCassanderandLysimachushadbeencompleted,toconclude whichtheyhadsentPepalauswithfullauthority,Ptolemysentenvoystousasking thatatrucebemadewithhimalsoandthathebeincludedinthesametreaty.We sawthatitwasnosmallthingtogiveuppartofanambitionforwhichwehadtaken nolittletroubleandincurredmuchexpense,andthattoowhenanagreementhad beenreachedwithCassanderandLysimachusandwhentheremainingtaskwas easier.Nevertheless,because...wesawthatyouandourotherallieswereburdened bythewaranditsexpenses,wethoughtitwaswelltoyieldandtomakethetruce withhimalso.WesentAristodemusandAeschylusandHegesiastodrawupthe agreement.Theyhavenowreturnedwiththepledges,andtherepresentativeof Ptolemy,Aristobulus,hascometoreceivethemfromus.Wehaveprovidedinthe treatythatalltheGreeksaretosweartoaideachotherinpreservingtheirfreedom andautonomy,thinkingthatwhilewelivedinallhumanexpectationthesewouldbe protected,butthatafterwardsfreedomwouldremainmorecertainlysecureforall theGreeksifboththeyandthemeninpowerareboundbyoaths.Forthemtoswear alsotohelptoguardthetermsofthetreatywhichwehavemadewitheachother, seemstousneitherdiscreditablenordisadvantageousfortheGreeks;thereforeit seemstomebestforyoutotaketheoathwhichwehavesent.Inthefuturealsowe shalltrytoprovidebothforyouandfortheotherGreekswhateveradvantagewe haveinourpower....Farewell.

OrientisGraeciInscriptionesSelectae(ed.W.Dittenberger,2vols.,Leipzig:S.Hirzel 19031905,Nr.5)translatedbyC.B.Welles,RoyalCorrespondenceintheHellenistic Period.London:YaleUniversityPress1934,pp.45. AntigonusLastGamble ThePeaceof311wasnotatruepeace,merelyatruceinthestrugglebetween Antigonusandhisenemiesthatbothsidesusedtorebuildtheirstrength.Afteran unsuccessfulattempttoexpelSeleucus(whohadnotbeenincludedinthetruce) fromBabylon,Antigonuswascompelledtomakepeacewithhimin308.Hethen turnedhisattentiontothewest,wherehetriedtoexploitthedivisions 439 betweenCassanderandPtolemy.In307Demetrius,Antigonusson,intervenedin Greeceattheheadofastrongexpeditionaryforcewithamandatetofreeallthe citiesofGreece. Successwasimmediate.DemetriusdroveDemetriusofPhalerum,whomCassander hadappointedgovernorofAthensin317,intoexileinEgyptandrestored democraticgovernmentinAthens.WithhisbaseinGreecesecure,Demetriuscrossed toCyprusin306,wherehequicklybegantounderminePtolemysholdontheisland, focusingonthecityofSalamisonthesoutheastcoastoftheisland.Thesiegeof SalamiswasthefirstoftheepicsiegesthatwouldlatergainforDemetriusthe sobriquetPoliorcetes(theBesieger).ThefallofSalamisandtherestofCyprusleft thewholeislandinAntigonidhands.Demetriusfinallyhadhisrevengeforhis humiliationatthehandsofPtolemyatGazasixyearsearlier.Moreimportant, possessionofCyprusgaveAntigonusandDemetriusaninvaluablebasefromwhich theirfleetcoulddominatethewholeoftheeasternMediterraneanbasin. Demetriussuccessesradicallytransformedthepoliticalworldofthelatefourth centuryBC.PreviouslynoneofAlexanderssuccessorshaddaredtoputasidethe fictionthathewasanythingbutadeputyofthemurderedchildkingAlexanderIV. InEgyptandAsia,documentsevencontinuedtobedatedbytheyearsofthereignof AlexanderIVforalmosthalfadecadeafterhisdeath!WhenthenewsofDemetrius victoryinCyprusreachedAntigonusandhistroopsinSyria,however,allthis changed:thesoldiersacclaimedDemetriusandAntigonusaskingsofMacedonia. ThecrowningofAntigonusandDemetriusannouncedanewreality:the replacementoftheArgeadsbyanewroyaldynasty. ThebasisofAntigonusandDemetriusclaimtobekingsandthenatureoftheir kingdomareevident.LiketheheroesofHomericepic,Macedoniankingswerefirst andforemostmilitaryleaders,andthesourcesleavenodoubtthatitwasthegloryof DemetriusdecisivevictoryatSalamisthatjustifiedtheacclamationofhisfatherand

himselfasking.Macedoniankingsruledsubjects,notterritories.Antigonusand Demetrius,therefore,didnotclaimtobekingsofAlexandersempireoranyother territorybuttobekingspureandsimple.Theextentoftheirrealmwouldbe determinednotbygeographybutbyhistory,thatis,bytheirsuccessinsubduing theirrivals. TheelationofAntigonusandDemetriusprovedshortlived.Insteadofintimidating theirrivals,theirassumptionoftheroyaltitlehadtheoppositeeffect.Withinayear Cassander,Lysimachus,Ptolemy,andSeleucusalsohadassumedthetitleKing, therebydenyinganyclaimbyAntigonusandDemetriustosovereigntyovertheir territories.Norwastheirdefiancepurelysymbolic.In305BCPtolemybeatoffan attemptedinvasionofEgyptbyAntigonusforces.Ayearlaterhejoinedwith CassanderandLysimachustohelpfoilthesecondandmostfamousofDemetrius greatsieges,hisyearlongefforttosubduethecityofRhodes,acloseallyofPtolemy andtheonlysignificantremainingindependentGreeknavalpowerintheeastern Mediterranean.AntigonusandDemetriusregalpretensionsandaggressiveactions hadreunitedtheirenemies,settingthestageforafinalrenewalofthestrugglefor controlofAlexanderslegacythathadbeeninterruptedbythePeaceof311. 440 betweenCassanderandPtolemy.In307Demetrius,Antigonusson,intervenedin Greeceattheheadofastrongexpeditionaryforcewithamandatetofreeallthe citiesofGreece. Successwasimmediate.DemetriusdroveDemetriusofPhalerum,whomCassander hadappointedgovernorofAthensin317,intoexileinEgyptandrestored democraticgovernmentinAthens.WithhisbaseinGreecesecure,Demetriuscrossed toCyprusin306,wherehequicklybegantounderminePtolemysholdontheisland, focusingonthecityofSalamisonthesoutheastcoastoftheisland.Thesiegeof SalamiswasthefirstoftheepicsiegesthatwouldlatergainforDemetriusthe sobriquetPoliorcetes(theBesieger).ThefallofSalamisandtherestofCyprusleft thewholeislandinAntigonidhands.Demetriusfinallyhadhisrevengeforhis humiliationatthehandsofPtolemyatGazasixyearsearlier.Moreimportant, possessionofCyprusgaveAntigonusandDemetriusaninvaluablebasefromwhich theirfleetcoulddominatethewholeoftheeasternMediterraneanbasin. Demetriussuccessesradicallytransformedthepoliticalworldofthelatefourth centuryBC.PreviouslynoneofAlexanderssuccessorshaddaredtoputasidethe fictionthathewasanythingbutadeputyofthemurderedchildkingAlexanderIV. InEgyptandAsia,documentsevencontinuedtobedatedbytheyearsofthereignof AlexanderIVforalmosthalfadecadeafterhisdeath!WhenthenewsofDemetrius victoryinCyprusreachedAntigonusandhistroopsinSyria,however,allthis

changed:thesoldiersacclaimedDemetriusandAntigonusaskingsofMacedonia. ThecrowningofAntigonusandDemetriusannouncedanewreality:the replacementoftheArgeadsbyanewroyaldynasty. ThebasisofAntigonusandDemetriusclaimtobekingsandthenatureoftheir kingdomareevident.LiketheheroesofHomericepic,Macedoniankingswerefirst andforemostmilitaryleaders,andthesourcesleavenodoubtthatitwasthegloryof DemetriusdecisivevictoryatSalamisthatjustifiedtheacclamationofhisfatherand himselfasking.Macedoniankingsruledsubjects,notterritories.Antigonusand Demetrius,therefore,didnotclaimtobekingsofAlexandersempireoranyother territorybuttobekingspureandsimple.Theextentoftheirrealmwouldbe determinednotbygeographybutbyhistory,thatis,bytheirsuccessinsubduing theirrivals. TheelationofAntigonusandDemetriusprovedshortlived.Insteadofintimidating theirrivals,theirassumptionoftheroyaltitlehadtheoppositeeffect.Withinayear Cassander,Lysimachus,Ptolemy,andSeleucusalsohadassumedthetitleKing, therebydenyinganyclaimbyAntigonusandDemetriustosovereigntyovertheir territories.Norwastheirdefiancepurelysymbolic.In305BCPtolemybeatoffan attemptedinvasionofEgyptbyAntigonusforces.Ayearlaterhejoinedwith CassanderandLysimachustohelpfoilthesecondandmostfamousofDemetrius greatsieges,hisyearlongefforttosubduethecityofRhodes,acloseallyofPtolemy andtheonlysignificantremainingindependentGreeknavalpowerintheeastern Mediterranean.AntigonusandDemetriusregalpretensionsandaggressiveactions hadreunitedtheirenemies,settingthestageforafinalrenewalofthestrugglefor controlofAlexanderslegacythathadbeeninterruptedbythePeaceof311. 440 Ironyiswovendeepintothefabricofhistory.Confrontedbytheallianceof PtolemyandLysimachus,Seleucussoughtanallyofhisownandfoundanunlikely oneinDemetrius,thesonofAntigonustheOneEyed,whohadescapedfromthe fieldofIpsusandnowruledakingdomcomprisinghisfathersfleetandahandful ofcitiesinwesternAnatolia,theAegean,andGreece,includingthekeyportsof EphesusandCorinth.Onceagainwarseemedimminentbetweenrivalalliancesof Alexanderssuccessors,butthistimetheoutbreakoffightingwasdeferredforovera decade. BuildingNewKingdomsandCities TheprolongedconflictwithAntigonushadforcedhisrivalstoputofftheirplansfor thedevelopmentoftheirownkingdoms.Freedfromthisconcernbyhisdeath,they devotedthemselvestolocalaffairsduringthe290s.ThusLysimachusstruggledwith limitedsuccesstosecurehisnorthernfrontieragainsttheGetae,wholivedacrossthe

Danube,whilesimultaneouslyfoundingorreorganizingseveralmajorcitiesin westernAnatolia.ThemostimportantofthesecitieswasEphesus,whichhemoved toanewsiteclosertotheseaandrenamedArsinoeaafterhisnewwifeor,perhaps, hisdaughterofthesamename.Asweshallsee,Ptolemyalsobuiltonalargescalein thisperiod,transformingAlexandriaintoaworthycapitalforhiskingdom.The greatestbuilderoftheperiod,however,wasSeleucus,whofoundednumerouscities andmilitarysettlementsinSyria,includinghisnewcapitalofAntioch,whichhe builtonthesiteofAntigonustheOneEyedsnamecityofAntigoneianearthemouth oftheOrontesRiver. AsthousandsofGreeksemigratedtoEgyptandtheNearandMiddleEast,thenew citiesgrewandprospered.Ultimately,AlexandriaandAntiochsupported populationsnumberinginthehundredsofthousandsandboastingsplendidpublic buildingsandamenitiesunknowntothecitiesofoldGreece.Littleisknownof HellenisticAntiochandAlexandria,althoughtherecentdiscoveryofextensive archaeologicalremainsunderthewatersofAlexandriaharborpromisesfinallyto revealsomeofthegloryofancientAlexandria.Inthemeantime,anideaoftheir splendorandprosperitycanbegainedfromthesiteofAiKhanum,probably AlexandriaontheOxus,innorthernAfghanistan,whereFrencharchaeologistshave discoveredalargecitywithbroadstreets,elegantmansions,andallthepublic buildingsessentialtoaGreekpolis:monumentaltemples,agymnasium,atheater, andanagora.Thepreoccupationwithdomesticaffairsthatoccupiedmuchofthe decadeafterthedeathofAntigonuswasended,however,bytheactionsofhisson Demetrius. TheFinalStruggle UnliketheothersuccessorsofAlexander,DemetriusPoliorcetes(theBesieger) possessedakingdomwithoutaterritorialbase,andhespentmostofthe290s tryingtoremedythatdeficiency.In295heoccupiedAthens,andayearlaterhis 442 effortswerefinallycrownedwithsuccesswhenheseizedcontrolofMacedonfrom thefeudingsonsofCassander. Demetriussuccess,however,wasshortlived.Whiletheotherkingsmighthave acquiescedinhisruleofMacedon,DemetriussawMacedononlyasabasefrom whichtolaunchonelastefforttogainpowerinAsia.Beforehecouldcompletehis preparationsforhisinvasionofAsia,hisrivalsstruck.WhilePtolemysupportedyet anotherAthenianrevolt,LysimachusjoinedwithPyrrhus,thekingofEpirus,to occupyMacedonandtoforceDemetriusintoprematurelylaunchinghisAsian campaignin286.Theresultwasinevitable.Badlyoutnumberedandill,Demetrius hadlittlechoiceexcepttoresignhimselftohisfateandsurrendertothejointforces

ofSeleucusandLysimachus.In283,thismostflamboyantofAlexanderssuccessors diedwhileconfinedunderhousearrestnearAntioch. Demetriusconquerorsdidnotlongsurvivehim.Abittersuccessioncrisis,inwhich LysimachusexecutedhisowneldestsonAgathocles,splittheThracianmonarchs court.AgathoclessupportersfledtoSeleucusandurgedhimtosupporttheircause, therebysettingthestagefortheresumptionofthestruggleforcontrolofAlexanders empirebetweenthelastofhisgenerals.Theforcesofthetwoagingmonarchsboth wereover80metinearly281atCorupedium(theFieldofCrows),inPhrygia.At theendofthebattle,LysimachuslaydeadonthefieldandSeleucus,itseemed, finallyhadachievedthedreamthathadhauntedPerdiccasandAntigonustheOne Eyedandhisson:thereunionoftheEuropeanandAsianportionsofAlexanders empire. Theroleofchancecanneverbeignoredinhistory.WithinayearSeleucuswasdead, assassinatedbyanexiledsonofPtolemy,PtolemyCeraunus(TheThunderbolt),to whomhehadgivensanctuary.TheThunderboltsmomentofgloryalsopassed quickly.Alittleoverayearlater,in279,hewasalsodead,killedtryingtostemthe invasionofMacedonbybandsofmigratingGauls.ACelticpeople,whosemigration fromtheirwestEuropeanhomehadbegunintheearlyfourthcenturyBC,theGauls tookadvantageofthechaosinMacedoncausedbythedeathofLysimachusand overranMacedonandnorthernGreeceasfarsouthasDelphi. Despiteitshorrors,theGalliceruptionwasonlyanisolatedepisodeinthehistoryof EuropeanGreece,butitwasonethathadsignificantconsequences.Althoughthe GaulssoontransferredtheirterrortoAnatolia,twooftheirraidingpartiessuffered humiliatingdefeatsatDelphiandLysimacheiaatthehandsoftheAetoliansand AntigonusGonatas(Knockknees),thesonofDemetrius,whohadmaintaineda precariousholdonthefewremainingAntigonidpossessionsinGreecesincehis fathersdeathalmostadecadeearlier.TheirvictoriesovertheGaulstransformedthe positionofboththeAetoliansandAntigonus,legitimizingtheemergenceofthe formerasthepreeminentpowerincentralGreeceandtheprotectorofDelphiand thelatteraskingofMacedon.Thefinalpiecesofthenewpoliticalsystemthathadso graduallyandpainfullyemergedfromthewreckageofAlexandersempirehad fallenintoplace. 443 Figure12.3.TheHellenisticworld. 444 THEPLACEOFTHEPOLISINTHECOSMOPOLIS

AlthoughtheemergenceofthenewMacedoniankingdomschangedthecharacter andshapeoftheworldtheGreeksknew,oneaspectofGreekliferemainedlargely unchanged:thepoliscontinuedtoformthebasicframeworkforthelifeofmost Greeks.OldpoleissuchasAthens,Syracuse,andEphesusgrewandprospered.At thesametime,theincidenceofwarbetweenpoleisactuallydeclined,andthe peacefulsettlementofinternationaldisputesthrougharbitrationbecamealmost routine.Eventhenotoriousparticularismoftheclassicalpoliswaspartially overcomebytheAetolianandAchaeanleagues.Theysucceededinbuildingstrong federalstatesthatcoulddealwithMacedonandtheotherMacedoniankingdomson aroughlyequalbasisbyexpandingtheirmembershiptoincludecitiesoutsidetheir traditionalhomesincentralGreeceandthenorthernPeloponnesus.Unlikethe polarizingAthenianandSpartanleaguesoftheClassicalera,thefederalleaguesof theHellenisticAgewereinvokedasinspiringmodelsbylateraspirantstofederalism suchastheintellectualsofrevolutionaryAmericaintheeighteenthcentury. Atthesametime,politicaltrendsthathadappearedalreadyinthefourthcenturyBC intensifiedinthecenturiesfollowingthedeathofAlexander.Whilenominal democracybecamethenorminGreekcities,democracyitselflostmuchofits meaning,comingtosignifylittlemorethantheabsenceoftyranny.Inreality,therole ofaveragecitizensingovernmentsteadilydwindled,andaristocraticoligarchies managedaffairsfrombehindthescenes.Althoughnumerousinscriptions documentingtheirgenerosityandpublicserviceattesttothepatriotismofthesenew leaders,suchcoreinstitutionsofpolislifeaspopularassembliesandelectedcouncils inevitablydeclined,aspoleiscametorelymoreandmoreontheassistanceofsuch mentorescuethemfromrecurrentfinancialanddiplomaticcrises. AthensandSparta Asusual,AthensandSpartawereexceptionstotheprevailingpoliticaltrends. Althoughitsdemocracywasneverfullyrestored,Athenscontinuedtobethecultural centerofGreeceandprospered.ThetoneofHellenisticAthenianculturediffered greatlyfromthatofthefifthandfourthcenturycity.Thechangeismostobviousin drama,theprincipalAthenianliteraryform.Thegrandtragediesandbitingpolitical comediesoftheClassicalerawerereplacedbyalightergenreknownasNew Comedy.Thegentle,amiableplaysofMenander(344c.292BC),whichreflectthe newpoliticalorderandtheinterestsofitsupperclassaudience,areourchief survivingrepresentativesofthisliterarygenre. MenanderhadbeenapupilofTheophrastus,headoftheLyceumafterthedeathof Aristotle.HewasalsoafriendofDemetriusofPhalerum,anotherpupilof Theophrastus,whomCassanderappointedasgovernorofAthensin317.Historians aredisposedtobelievethatMenandersplaysprovidereliablehistoricalevidence:a scholarinAlexandriawrote,OMenanderandOlife,whichoneofyouhasimi

446 tatedtheother?ARMenandersplaysarecontemporaryanddepictaGreekworld populatedbyswaggeringmercenariesinsearchofplunderandromance, impoverishedcitizenswholivenextdoortoextremelywealthypeople,courtesans andpimps,spendthriftyouths,andrespectableyoungwomenwhoseonly appropriatedestinyismarriage.Menanderscharactersarecompletelywrappedup intheirprivateworlds,asthoughwearyofwarandpoliticalupheaval. SlavesareubiquitousinNewComedy,andinfactwhenDemetriusconducteda censusinAthenstherewere21,000citizens,10,000metics,and400,000slaves (includingthosewhoworkedinthemines).Evenifthefiguresforslavesare exaggerated,stilltheratioofslavestofreeislikelytohavebeenunusuallyhigh.The quartercenturyofcampaignshadcertainlyreducedmanypeopletoslavery. Entrepreneurialslavedealersalsotookadvantageofthehabitofexposingunwanted newborns.Theabandonmentofinfants,especiallyfemales,wasanacceptablemeans ofcopingwiththeinsecurityoflifeintheHellenisticperiod.Infantexposureforms thethemeofseveralofMenandersplots(thoughliteratureascribedabandoned babieshappierdestiniesthanthosethatawaitedtheminreallife).Significantly,the chiefdivinityinNewComedyisTyche(Fortune),afittingemblemofthischaotic era. Figure12.4.Fortune(Tyck),personifiedasagoddesswearingacrown representingcitywalls,wasacommonthemeinHellenisticsculpture.ThisRoman bronzestatuettereflectstheloststatueoftheTycheofthecityofAntiochby Eutychides. 447 Thealteredtemperofthetimeswasevidentalsoinnewdevelopmentsintherealm ofphilosophy.Thoughtheyhadmuchtosaytoordinarymenandwomen,and continuetobestudiedtodaywithinterestbypeopleofvariedsocialandeconomic backgrounds,ClassicalphilosopherslikePlatoandAristotledirectedtheirteachings toaffluentmenofleisurewhowereinterestedinimprovingtheirpoliticalactivities intheautonomouspoleis.Hellenisticphilosophies,ontheotherhand,weredesigned tohelppeoplecopewithaworldoverwhichtheyhadlittlecontrol. LiketheestablishmentsofPlatoandAristotle,twoofthemostimportantschoolsof HellenisticthoughtfloweredinAthens.ThesewereStoicismandEpicureanism.Born inCitiuminCyprus,Zeno(335263BC),thefounderofStoicism,wasafriendof AntigonusGonatasandspentmanyyearsinAthens,wherehelecturedonthe terraceknownastheStoaPoikil(PaintedPorch).Forthisreasonhisfollowers receivedthenameofStoics(i.e.,Porchers).

Zenosphilosophyreflectedtherealitiesofthenewpoliticalorder.Accordingto Zeno,theearthstoodatthecenteroftheuniversewithZeusitsprimemover.justas cosmicmotionsneverchangedandZeusremainedkingofthegods,somonarchy wasthedivinelyorderedsystemofgovernment.Revolution,consequently,violated thenaturalorganizationoftheworld,whereaspatriotismandpublicservice harmonizedwiththecosmicorder.Serenity,theStoicsbelieved,wasimpossible withouttheconfidencethatonehadfulfilledonesdutiestoothers,andStoicism entailedalargedoseofhumanitarianism. Zenourgedhisfollowerstoattainaninnertranquillitythatwasproofnotonly againstagonizingpainhenceourwordstoicalbutagainstexcessivepleasureas well.Hedidnot,however,advocatewithdrawalfromthesocialandpoliticalrealm asdidsomeofhiscontemporaries.Instead,heencouragedStoicstoupholdjustice butnottoengageinanyseriousattemptsatreform.Thus,whileinprincipleStoics consideredslavesjustasfreeastheirowners,theymadenoattempttoabolish slavery.Itwasconsideredenoughforslavestobemadeawarethat,deepinside,they enjoyednomoreorlessfreedomthantheirmastersandmistresses,whomightbe themselvesslavestogreedorlust.Becausetheyrejectedexcessivepleasure, moreover,Stoicsembracedsexonlyforpurposesofprocreation.Theiracceptanceof ahierarchicalsociopoliticalorderandtheirrejectionofsexualpleasurearetwo importantarenasinwhichStoicismanticipatedtheteachingsofearlyChristianity. Inkeepingwiththeirbeliefinanorderlyuniverse,Stoicsbelievedthatlifewas rationalandcouldbeplanned.AverydifferentpositionwastakenbyEpicurus(341 270BC),anativeofSamoswhomovedtoAthens,whereheestablishedinhishomea schoolcalledTheGarden.Epicurusevenincludedwomenamonghisstudents. AdoptingtheatomictheoryfirstputforwardbyLeucippusandDemocritus,he rejectedthedeterminismoftheearlyatomists.Thoughheagreedthatatomsfellin straightlinesfromthesky,headdedanewelement.Epicurusarguedthatthe multiplicityofsubstancesintheuniversearosefromperiodicswervesintheatoms paths,causingthemtocollideatavarietyofangles.Likethedomainscontinually carvedoutandalteredbyAlexanderssuccessors,theentireuniversecombinedby chance,andwouldperishandregeneratebychanceaswell. 448 Thisconstructionleftlittleroomforthegods,andinfactEpicuruscontendedthat thoughthegodsmustexistsincepeoplesawtheirimagesindreams,theyhadno interestinhumans.IntheEpicureansystem,thegodslivedserene,untroubledlives, indifferenttosuchstaplesofGreekreligiousandsociallifeasprayers,offerings,and rituals.(Thegoodnewswasthatthehorrificpunishmentsassociatedwiththe underworldwerefictions;thebadnewswasthatnobodyonOlympuswasinterested

inlisteningtocomplaints,offeringsolace,oravenginginjustices.)Afterdeath,the atomsthathadcomprisedthesoulandbodyofeachpersonmerelydissolved. Intheabsenceofeternalrewardsandpunishments,Epicurusviewedhappinesson earthasthepurposeoflife,thuswinningforhimselfthenameofhistorysfirst humanistphilosopher.Hedefinedhappinessastheattainmentofataraxia,an untroubledstatefreefromexcessivepleasureandpain,muchliketheserenity advocatedbyZeno.UnlikeZeno,however,Epicurusadvocatedwithdrawalfroma widevarietyofactivitiesthatmightbringpain,boththeriskyquestforloveor money(whichtheStoicswouldalsoseeasproblematic)andparticipationinpolitics (whichtheStoicspraised).ForEpicureans,anythingthatmightthreatenataraxiawas tobeavoided.ThoughinmodernparlancethelabelEpicureanconnotesindulgence inpleasure,particularlyinthepleasuresoffinedining,Epicurusactuallycounseled moderationinfoodanddrinkinordertoavoidindigestionandhangovers.Unlike theStoics,Epicureansapprovedofsexaslongasitdidnotentailfallinginlovewith alltheattendantpitfalls. Despitetheirsubstantialdifferencesoversexandpolitics,StoicsandEpicureans sharedacommongoal:attainingtranquillityinaturbulentworld.Asimilaraim characterizedtwootherschoolsofthoughtthatevolvedaroundthesametime, CynicismandSkepticism.TheprincipaltheoristoftheCynicmovementwas DiogenesofSinope(c.400325BC),whoencouragedhisfollowerstobecomeself sufficientbysheddingthetrappingsofcivilizationforthenaturalnessofanimals. Denyingthathumanshadneedsdifferentfromthoseofothermammals,Diogenes scandalizedcontemporariesandearnedhimselfthenameoftheCynic(dog,kun inGreek)bybrazenlymaintainingthatpeopleshouldfollowinstinctsjustasanimals dourinatingormasturbatinginpublic,forexample.TheheirstotheCynics rejectionofcivilizednormsweretheSkeptics,whoalsosharedtheEpicureans disillusionmentwithpubliclife.Skepticism,associatedwiththenameofPyrrhonof Elis(c.365275BC),becamepopulararound200BC.Stressingtheimpossibilityof certainknowledge,Skepticsurgedpeopletowithdrawfromtheworldaroundthem. Thequestfortruth,afterall,washopeless,aswasthequestforpower.Today,the wordsskepticalandcynicalarelinkedwhenwetalkaboutpeoplewhoarenot easilypersuaded.InthisrespectthephilosophiesweassociatewiththeHellenistic world(thoughCynicismbeganinthefourthcentury)contrastsharplywiththoseof PlatoandAristotle,whoreallybelievedthatknowledgewaspossibleandcouldbe gainedthrougheducation. WhileAthenscontinuedtoserveasamagnetforintellectuals,itissignificantthatthe centerofphilosophicalspeculationintheHellenisticerashiftednotonly 449

awayfromAthensbutalsoawayfrommainlandGreeceingeneral.Thebestknown Stoicthinkers,forexample,camefromplaceslikeCyprusandSyria,whileTarsus, Alexandria,andRhodesbecamethemostfamousStoicuniversitytowns.Intime StoicismtookrootfirmlyintheRomanempire,whereitanchoredthemindsand soulsofmanymenandwomenseekingtocopewiththedecadenceandautocracyof theimperialgovernment. AlmostasremarkablewasthefateofSparta.Afteracenturylongdeclinethatsaw thenumberofSpartiatesdwindletofewerthanathousandandtensionsbetween richandpoorbecomeacute,tworeformerkings,AgisIV(262241BC)and CleomenesIII(260219BC),revitalizedSpartasLycurganinstitutions.Debtswere canceled,landwasredistributed,andthetraditionalSpartaneducationalsystem,the agg,wasreestablished.Forabriefwhile,SpartabecametheStoicmodelstate.The Stoicnotionthatindividualsufferingispartofsomegreatnaturalschemeand shouldbebornewithoutlamentationstruckaresponsivechordinSpartans,andthe ideathatausteritywaspreferabletoselfindulgencereverberatedwithSpartanideals aswell.ForafewyearsSpartanarmswereinvincibleandthecityseemedonthe vergeofdominatingthePeloponnesusagain.Greekintellectualstrumpetedonce morethevirtuesoftheLycurgansystem.TheirdreamsofGreekrenewalwere shatteredwhenthejointforcesofMacedonandtheAchaeanLeaguecrushedthe SpartansatSellasiain222BC.AsthefateofSpartarevealed,noteventhestrongest poliscouldresistindefinitelythepoweroftheMacedoniankingdomsthatstroveto subduethemortousethemaspawnsintheirowndiplomaticandmilitarystruggles. THEMACEDONIANKINGDOMS Greekliterature,withitspolisbias,containslittleinformationabouttheorganization anddaytodayoperationoftheMacedoniankingdomsthatdominatedthe Hellenisticpoliticalworld.Fortunately,thediscoverybyarchaeologistsofextensive nonliteraryevidenceintheformofinscriptionsandespeciallypapyrihasenabled historianstoremedythisdeficiency.Morethanacenturyofintensivestudyofthese newsourceshasdemonstratedthattheHellenistickingdomswereconqueststates whoseorganizationwasbasedontwofundamentalprinciples:first,thatasspearwon land,thekingdomanditspopulationbelongedtotheking;andsecond,thatthe conductofthekingsbusinessandtheperformanceofthekingsworktook precedenceoverallotherconsiderations.Thesetwoprincipleswerecommontoan theMacedoniankingdoms.Theiroperationisclearest,however,inthecaseof PtolemaicEgypt,wheretherichpapyrologicalevidencehasprovidedscholarswitha detailedviewofthegovernmentandsocietyofamajorHellenistickingdom. TheCaseofEgypt

ThebasisofEgyptswealthwasitsagriculturalland.LikethePharaohsbeforethem, thePtolemiesclaimedownershipofallEgypt.Nevertheless,forpracticalpurposes thePtolemaicgovernmentdividedEgyptianlandintotwobroadcate 450 gories:royallandforbasicagriculturalproductionandreleasedland.Thelatter categorywasfurtherdividedintofoursubcategories:cleruchicland,usedtoprovide landgrantstosoldiers;giftland,usedtorewardgovernmentofficials;templeland, usedtoprovideeconomicsupportforEgyptsnumeroustemples;andprivateland, usedforindividualhouseandgardenplots.Thenonagriculturalsectorsofthe economywerealsotightlyorganized.Majoreconomicactivitiessuchastextile, papyrus,andoilproductionwerestatemonopolies,intendedtogeneratethe maximumrevenueforthekingfromfeesandtaxes.Foreigncompetitionforthe profitsofEgyptiancommercewasminimizedbystrictcurrencycontrolsand limitationsonimports.AnextensiveadministrationheadquarteredinAlexandria supervisedtheentiresystem.ItsagentsGreekattheupperlevelsandEgyptianat theloweronescouldbefoundineventhemostremotevillage.Toensurethatthe kingsworkwasdone,thattaxeswerepaid,andthattheallimportantirrigation systemfunctionedproperly,everyadultfrompeasanttoimmigrantsoldierwas registeredaccordingtoplaceofresidenceandeconomicfunction.Finally,theking and,eventually,alsothequeenpresidedoverthewholesystemwithallthepowers ofautocratswhoseeverywordwaslaw.Thesupremacyoftheroyalfamilyoverall levelsofsocietywassymbolizedbytheinstitutionofanofficialcultoftheliving rulerandhisancestors.Monarchsencouragedbeliefintheirowndivinityasawayof legitimizingtheiruseofabsolutepower,whilesubjectsenjoyedparticipatinginruler cultsasameansofdemonstratingpatriotism,loyalty,andgratitude.Inrecognitionof theirbeliefinmonotheismandoftheirsupportoftheregime,onlytheJewswere formallyexcusedfromtheseobservances. PtolemyIIusedbothsculptureandcoinagetoannouncetheapotheosesofmembers ofhisfamily.InrulercultsmengenerallyrepresentedthemselvesasDionysusor Heracles,whilefemaleswereportrayedasAphrodite.Throughsyncretism,however, theywereoftenequatedwithOsirisandIsisandconsideredtobeactualincarnations ofthedivinities.ThecoexistenceofGreekandEgyptiancultureisevidentinthe portraitsofthedeifiedPtolemies.Dependingonwhichelementsofthepopulation weremorelikelytoviewtherepresentation,kingsandqueensmightbedepictedin purelyEgyptianstyle,inpurelyGreekstyle,orinsomecombinationofthetwo. Figure12.5.ThisgoldoctodrachmshowingPtolemyIIandArsinoeIIwasminted byPtolemyIII(246221BC). 451

Figure12.6.LimestonestatueofArsinoeII.Ahieroglyphicinscriptionontheback pillarofArsinoesportraitindicatedthatthefigurewasdedicatednotlongafterher deathanddeificationin270.Hercorncurlswerepaintedblack,andthefaceand partsofthebodywereoriginallygilded.Thefull,curvedlips,highlyarchedbrows, andlarge,wideopeneyesaredepictedintheEgyptianstyle,butthequeencarriesa doublecornucopia,anattributeofGreekgoddessesreferringtotheirpowersof fertility. TheapparentrationalityofHellenisticstateorganizationgreatlyimpressedlate nineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturyhistorians,leadingthemtoviewthe HellenistickingdomsasessentiallyGreekinstitutionswithfewtiestotheirPersian andEgyptianpredecessors.CloserscrutinyofEgyptianandCuneiformtextsandthe Greeksources,however,hasrevealedgreatercontinuitywithEgyptianandancient NearEasternpoliticaltraditionsintheadministrationoftheMacedoniankingdoms thanearlierhistorianshadrealized.Theseregionsmaintainedmanyoftheir traditionaladministrativestructures,togetherwithmanyoftheirkeyinstitutions. TheadministrativeorganizationofPtolemaicEgyptandSeleucidAsia,forexample, remaineddividedintotraditionalsubdivisions,suchasnomesandsatrapies,justas theyhadbeenundertheMacedoniansPersianpredecessors.Notsurprisingly,the Greekterminologyofmanyofoursourcesoftenprovesuponanalysistobeafacade, hidingtraditionalinstitutionsandpractices. 452 InHellenisticEgyptandAsia,thetemplesstillplayedmajorrolesinthesocialand economiclivesoftheirpeoples.InEgypt,thepriestsusedthenamesoftheGreek gods,equatedthemonthsoftheMacedonianandEgyptiancalendars,andtranslated theroyaltitularyintoGreekinordertogiveaHelleniccasttothemillenniaold traditionsofEgyptianreligionandkingship.Thiscontinuitywiththepastisnot surprising,since,likeAlexander,thePtolemiesandSeleucidsweresimultaneously bothMacedoniankingsandpharaohsandkingsofBabylon,whoseresponsibilities includedsupportoftraditionalinstitutions. InadditiontocontinuitiesbetweentheEgyptianandNearEasternpastandthe organizationofthelaterHellenistickingdoms,scholarshavealsoobserved irrationalitiesandinefficienciesintheireverydayoperations.PtolemaicEgyptand SeleucidAsiawerepersonalautocracies.Officialdocumentsdescribetheir governmentsasconsistingoftheking,hisfriends(thekingspersonalentourage), andthearmy.Theonlyeffectivelimitonthekingsexerciseoftheirpowerwasfear oflosingthesupportoftheirarmiesandgenerals,whoalonehadthepowerto unseatakingifprovokedtoofar.Governmentofficialswerepoliticalappointees withoftenmultipleandsometimesevenoverlappingresponsibilities,whofulfilled whateverpositionthekingpostedthemtoirrespectiveoftheirpreviousservice.

Insteadofthesmoothlyfunctioningbureaucraticmachinesenvisionedbytheirlate nineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturypredecessors,therefore,thesourcesreveal thattheHellenisticgovernmentswereinefficientandoftenarbitraryinstruments, primarilydesignedtoextractthemaximumrevenuefromtheirrulerssubjects. DocumentssuchasPtolemyIIs(282246BC)recentlydiscoveredorderfora completeeconomicsurveyofEgypt,andhisletterforbiddinglawyersfromassisting individualsindisputesconcerningtaxes,bearwitnessnottorationalcentral planningbuttotheHellenistickingsinsatiableneedformoneytosupporttheir ambitiousforeignpoliciesanddomesticprojects.Similarly,thenumerousroyal ordersforbiddinggovernmentofficialsfromexploitingthekingssubjectsfor personalgain,andthefrequentrecoursetoblanketamnestiesforunfulfilled obligationsowedthegovernmentandforchargesofwrongdoingbygovernment officials,attesttotheinherentinefficiencyandcorruptionofthesesystemsinactual practice. HELLENISTICSOCIETY WhiletheemergenceofnewMacedonianmonarchiesintheearlythirdcenturyBC posedasignificantthreattotheindependenceofthecitiesofAegeanGreece,they alsocreatedunprecedentedopportunitiesforindividualGreeksfromthosesame cities.WhateverAlexandersplansforthegovernanceofhisempiremayhavebeen, hissuccessorsclearlyjudgedthathehadmadeaseriousmistakeinappointing Iranianstoimportantposts.Instaffingtheupperlevelsoftheirgovernments, therefore,theyreliedonGreekimmigrantsinstead. 453 NewOpportunitiesinaColonialWorld TheresultingopportunitiesweregreatestforthemalemembersoftheGreekelite, whoquicklyformedapowerfulclassofexpatriatecivilianandmilitaryofficials. Inscriptionsandpapyriamplydocumentthewealthandinfluenceofmembersof thisnewgoverningclassmensuchasApollonius,thechieffinancialofficerof PtolemyII,andZenon,theCarianimmigrantwhomanagedhisestate.Less glamorous,butequallyrealandfarmorenumerous,weretheopportunitiescreated bythekingsincessantneedforGreekstoserveintheirarmiesandtofillthe multitudeofminor,butpotentiallylucrative,administrativejobsrequiredtogovern theirkingdoms.Forambitiousmenofthissort,thecourtpoetTheocritusspokethe literaltruthwhenhedescribedEgyptasalandofopportunityforimmigrantsand characterizedPtolemyIlasagoodpaymaster. Document12.2LetterofKingPtolemyIItoApolloniusconcerningtherevenuesof Egypt(259BC)

KingPtolemytoApollonius,greeting.Sincesomeoftheadvocateslistedbeloware interveninginfiscalcasestothedetrimentoftherevenues,issueinstructionsthat thoseadvocatesshallpaytothecrowntwicetheadditionaltenthandthattheyshall nolongerbeallowedtoserveasadvocatesinanymatter.Andifanyofthosewho haveharmedtherevenuesbediscoveredtohaveservedasadvocateinsomematter, havehimsenttousunderguardandhavehispropertyassignedtothecrown. TheAmherstPapyri(eds.B.P.GrenfellandA.S.Hunt,Vol.2,London,1901,Nr.33) translatedbyStanleyM.Burstein,TheHellenisticAgefromtheBattleofIpsostothe DeathofKleopatraVII.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1985,pp.121122. Opportunitieswerenotlimited,however,tomen;theyexpandedalsoforwomen, althoughnottothesameextent.Asinthecaseofmen,theyweregreatestforwomen ofwealth.QueenslikeArsinoeIIandCleopatraVIIofEgyptstandoutintheancient sources,butsomeGreekcitiesallowedwomentoholdminorpublicofficesinreturn fortheirwillingnesstousetheirwealthforcivicpurposes.Education,whichbecame commonforupperclasswomenintheHellenisticperiod,alsocreatedthepossibility ofcareersforindividualwomen,suchastheCynicphilosopherHipparchiaandthe professionalmusicianPolygnota 454 ofThebes,whosecareerisdocumentedinaseriesofinscriptionsfromDelphi.More women,however,probablybenefitedfromthemodestbutsignificantchangesin theirrightsthatoccurredinthecolonialsocietyoftheMacedoniankingdoms,where marriagecontractsandotherlegaldocumentspreservedonpapyrusrevealwomen capableofconductingtheirownbusinessandseekinglegalredressfortheir husbandsmisconduct.Notsurprisingly,theexplosionofnewopportunitiesmade theHellenisticperiodoneofthegreatcreativeagesofGreekcivilization. ALEXANDRIAANDHELLENISTICCULTURE AlexandriawasthemostfamousandenduringofAlexandersfoundations,andthe siteofhistomb.Responsibilityforembellishingthecity,however,laywiththefirst threePtolemies,whotransformeditintotheforemostcityoftheHellenisticworld.A liberalimmigrationpolicycreatedamultiethnicpopulationincludingMacedonians, Greeks,Egyptians,andavibrantJewishcommunityoccupyingonefifthofthecitys area.Perhapstheclearestsymbolofthedynamismandoriginalityofearly HellenisticAlexandriawasitssignaturemonument,thePharos.Builtbythearchitect SostratusofCnidusforPtolemyII,thePharoswasthefirstskyscraper,a400foot highpolygonaltowertoppedbyastatueofZeusSoter(Savior)whosebeaconfire, reflectedfarouttoseabygiantmirrors,guidedshipstoAlexandria.ThePharoswas consideredoneoftheSevenWondersoftheAncientWorld.Itisnoaccidentthat threeofthesevencreationsthatwounduponthislistdatedfromtheHellenistic

period,forthiswasatimewhenrulerswereparticularlyeagertoadvertisetheir citieswealthandprestige;the Figure12.7.TetradrachmoftheRomanEmperorCommodus(180192AD)struck atAlexandriashowingship(s?)passingthePharos. 455 othertwoweretheColossusofRhodesandthetempleofArtemisatEphesus.In scaleandstylethesewereallappropriatemonumentstoanageofcompetitionand largerthanlifehistoricalfigures. Document12.3MarriageContractofHeracleidesandDemetria(311BC)The improvedlegalpositionofmarriedwomenintheHellenisticperiodisclearinthis marriagecontractfromEgypt.ThediverseoriginofGreekimmigrantstoEgyptis evidentinthevarietyofethnicsamongthewitnessestoHeracleidesandDemetrias marriagecontract. SeventhyearofthereignofAlexander,thesonofAlexander,fourteenthyearofthe satrapyofPtolemy,monthofDius.MarriagecontractofHeracleidesandDemetria. Heracleides,afreebornman,takesashislawfulwifeDemetria,afreebornwoman fromCos,fromherfatherLeptines,fromCos,andfromhermotherPhilotis. Demetriawillbringwithherclothingandornamentsworth1,000drachmas. HeracleideswillfurnishtoDemetriaeverythingthatisappropriateforafreewoman. Weshalllivetogetherinwhateverplaceseemsbestinthecommonopinionof LeptinesandHeracleides. IfDemetriashallbedetecteddevisingsomethingevilforthepurposeofhumiliating herhusbandHeracleides,sheshallbedeprivedofeverythingshebroughttothe marriage.HeracleidesshalldeclarewhateverchargehemaymakeagainstDemetria beforethreemenwhombothapprove.Heracleidesmaynotintroduceanother womanintotheirhometoinsultDemetria,norhavechildrenfromanotherwoman, nordeviseanyeviltowardDemetriaforanyreason.IfHeracleidesshallbedetected doinganyofthesethingsandDemetriadeclaresthisbeforethreemenwhomboth approve,HeracleidesshallreturntoDemetriathedowryof1,000drachmaswhich shebrought,andheshallpaytoherinaddition1,000silverAlexandriandrachmas. Demetria,andthosewithDemetria,shallbeabletoexactpayment,justasthough therewerealegaljudgmentfromHeracleideshimself,andfromallofHeracleides propertyonbothlandandsea. ThiscontractshallbewhollyvalidineverywaywhereverHeracleidesproducesit againstDemetria,orDemetriaandthosewithDemetriaproduceitagainst Heracleides,inordertoexactpayment.HeracleidesandDemetriaeachhavethe

righttopreservetheircontractsandtoproducethecontractsagainsteachother. Witnesses:CleonofGela,AnticratesofTemnos,LysisofTemnos,Dionysiusof Temnos,AristomachusofCyrene,AristodicusofCos. ElephantinePapyri(ed.O.Rubensohn,Berlin,1907,Nr.1,lines118). 456 ThePtolemiesalsostrovetomakeAlexandriatheculturalcenteroftheGreekworld. LikeAlexander,whoseentouragehadincludedartistsandintellectualssuchas Aristotlesnephew,Callisthenes,hiscourthistorian,PtolemyIandhisimmediate successorsencouragedprominentGreekscholarsandscientiststocometoEgypt. WiththeenormouswealthofEgyptattheirdisposal,thePtolemiescouldaffordto subsidizeintellectuals,encouragingartisticandscientificworkbyestablishing culturalinstitutionsofanewtype. TheirprincipalculturalfoundationwastheresearchcenterknownastheMuseum becauseofitsdedicationtothenineMuses,thepatrongoddessesofthearts.There distinguishedscholars,supportedbygovernmentstipends,couldpursuetheir studiesincongenialsurroundingsincludingdormitories,diningfacilities,and pleasantgardens.ToassisttheMuseumsscholars,PtolemyIestablished(withthe aidofDemetriusofPhalerum)alibraryintendedtocontaincopiesofeverybook writteninGreek.Thelibraryscollectionissaidtohaveultimatelyreached700,000 papyrusrolls. ThePtolemiespassionforexpandingtheroyallibraryscollectionswaslegendary. TheGreektranslationoftheJewishBible,theSeptuagint,wassupposedlyproduced onorderofPtolemyII,andtheofficialAtheniancopyoftheworksofthethree canonicaltragedianswasallegedlystolenbyPtolemyIII.Eventhebooksofvisitors toEgyptwerescrutinizedandseizedtheownerreceivedacheapcopyiftheywere notinthelibrary.Howeveritsbookswereacquired,thelibraryoffered unprecedentedresourcesforscholarlyresearchineveryfieldofintellectualendeavor (althoughanenviousrivalmightsneeratthesuccessfuloccupantsofPtolemysbird coopwithsomejustification,sincesubsidizedintellectualswereexpectedtoearn theirkeep).Doctorsandwritersreceivinggovernmentstipendsservedasphysicians andtutorstomembersoftheroyalfamily,andcelebrateditsachievements.The scholarandpoetCallimachuscreatedamonumentalcataloguein120booksofthe librarythatlaidthefoundationforthehistoryofGreekliterature.InhispoemThe LockofBereniceCallimachusalsocelebratedthetransformationintoacometofalock ofhairdedicatedbyBereniceIIin246BCtocommemoratethebeginningofthe ThirdSyrianWar.Inasimilarvein,TheocritusseventeenthIdyllextravagantly praisedthefirstdecadeofPtolemyIIsreign. NewDirectionsinLiterature

TheworkofAlexandrianintellectualswasnotlimited,however,tosatisfyingthe whimsoftheirroyalpatrons.Alexandrianwritersmadeimportantinnovationsin Greekliterature.InhisIdylls,briefdialoguesormonologuessetinanidealized countryside,Theocritusintroducedthepastoralmodeintowesternliterature. Callimachusinauguratedthetraditionoflearnedpoetryinworkssuchashis HymnsandAetia,inwhichheretoldinelegantverseobscuremythsandtheorigins ofstrangecustomsandfestivalscollectedfromallovertheGreekworld. CallimachusyoungercontemporaryandrivalApolloniusofRhodesreinvigorated theoldepicgenrewithhisacutepsychologicalportraitsofJasonandMedeain 457 hisvividretellingofthestoryofJasonandtheArgonauts,theArgonautica.Another contemporaryofCallimachus,Euhemerus,anambassadorofCassandertoPtolemyI, putforwardaradicalandimportanttheoryabouttheoriginsofmythology:he inventedtheutopiantravelromanceinordertopropoundinhisSacredTalethe notionthatthegodsweregreatrulersworshipedaftertheirdeathsfortheirgiftsto humanity. TheVisualArts Thevisualartsreflectthecombinationofoldandnewthatisadistinctivefeatureof theHellenisticage.IntheClassicalperiodartistshaddevotedthemselvestothe perfectionofalimitednumberofartisticgenresortypes.Forexample,theepitomeof fifthcenturysculpturewastheidealizedfigureofanunemotionalyouthfulnude male.Thistypeoffigurecontinuedtobesculptedasaheroicrepresentationof Hellenistickings.ThoughHellenisticartevolvedfromClassical,itischaracterizedby varietyandexperimentation.Sculptorsperfectedanidealizedfigureoftheyouthful femalenudeandalsoproducedrealisticrenderingsofacrosssectionofthe populationofthecosmopolisdisplayingavarietyofhumanemotions.Sculptures, bothlargeandsmall,areadditionaltestimonytothenewfocusontheindividualas specialandunique,ratherthanasanequalmemberofademocraticpolis. Theproductionofsmallterracottafiguresbeganinthefourthcenturyandcontinued toflourishintheHellenisticperiod.Thesefigurinesweremadeinmoldsinmultiple copies,andwererelativelyinexpensive.Likethepeopletheyrepresented,theywere widespreadintheGreekworld.Thefigurinesareourbestevidenceforthevisual artsasareflectionofreality.Aswehavementionedpreviouslyinourdiscussionof Menandersplays,artcouldbeconsideredamirroroflife.Thefigurinesportray peopleofallages,everysocialstatus,andarangeofethnicities,includingchubby children;stooped,stout,andwrinkledelderlypeople;elegantandgracefulsociety women;andmembersofthelowerclasses.Smallbronzesculptures,thoughmore expensive,alsodepictabroadvarietyofpeople.

Thedevelopmentofportraitureoncoinsandinsculpturewasfosteredbyinterestin theindividualandinthepersonality:suchthingswereparticularlyimportantfor peoplewhoselivesweresubjecttothewhimsofmonarchs.Astheportrayalsof AlexanderandhissuccessorsinthischapterandChapter11indicate,aportraitwas notonlyanattempttoportraytheactualfeaturesofthesubject,butalsoanattempt toinfluencetheviewersperceptionofthecharacter.Coinsmaybesmall,butbecause theyarenumerousandcirculatewidelytheyareveryinfluential.Inlargerworksas well,artnotonlyreflectstheworldbutattemptstoshapeit.ThePtolemies,for example,wereadeptattheuseofvisualimageryaspropagandatogainsupportfor theirreign.LikeAlexander,whoencouragedbeliefinhisowndivinityandwas worshipedasagodafterhisdeath,theHellenisticrulersmanipulatedreligionin theirowninterests.Themonarchsdefinitionofthemselvesasdivinewasnotmere immodesty;italsoservedtolegitimizetheiruseofabsolutepower.Membersofthe rulingdynastieswerecommonlyportrayedoncoinsandinsculpturewiththe attributesandepithetsof 458 a b cFigure12.8.MiniatureHellenisticsculptures.a.Terracottafigurineof oldnurseandchild.LatefourthcenturyBC.b.Terracottafigurineofschoolgirl readingapapyrusroll.c.Bronzestatuetteofblackyouthincraftsmansgarb.Third tosecondcenturyBc. godsandheroes.Thevalueofsculptureasapoliticaltoolisobviousintheimageof AlexanderinthecompanyofEgyptiandivinities(Chapter11,Figure11.5)andinthe sculptureofArsinoeII(thischapter,Figure12.6)thatportraysthequeenasan Egyptiangoddess.Evenanilliterateviewerwouldimmediatelyunderstandthe message:Alexanderandhissuccessorsarenotmeremortalsbutincarnationsof divinities.Furthermore,theyarerightfulheirstothethroneofthepharaohsaswell asmonarchswhoruleovertheGreekworld. LargerthanlifemonarchsstruttedproudlyonthehugestageofEgyptandthe easternMediterranean.Manyofthemonumentstheycommissionedarenow fragmentaryorhavecompletelydisappeared,butlikethePharostheyareknown throughimagesoncoins,copiesmadebytheRomans,andverbaldescriptions.They conveyavividimpressionofthewealthandpowerofthemonarchsandproudcities whoconstructedthem.Artistswereavailabletotravelwhensuchpatronsbeckoned. BravuracharacterizesmanymajorHellenisticsculptureslikeoneofthebestknown, theVictory(Nik)ofSamothrace.Thishugeworkwas 459

dedicatedbythepeopleofRhodestocommemoratetheirvictoriesoverAntiochusIII ofSyria(222187BC).ItwaserectedatSamothrace,aninternationalreligiouscenter whereitwouldbeseenbytravelers.Victoryalightsontheprowofaship.Herwet andwindblowndressrevealsthecontoursofherbody,whiletheclothflaringout behindthegoddesssymbolizestheagitation,restlessness,andcontinuouschange characteristicnotonlyoftheartbutalsooflifeintheHellenisticperiod.Herraised wingsalsosuggestthatherpresenceisnotnecessarilypermanent,butlinkedtothe donorsfortune.LikethegoddessTyche(Fortune),Victorycanbefickle. Thevisualartsalsorevealnostalgiaforthepast,whichmusthaveseemedasafer, moresecuretime.Portraitsofphilosophers,poets,andotherhistoricalfigures decoratedpublicareasandprivateenclosedspacessuchaslibraries(cf. Demosthenes,Chapter10,Figure10.4).Someauthorsandotherintellectualswere worshippedasdivine.Theyhadbecomeasimmortalastheirwordsandthoughts. Forexample,portraitbustsofHomer(aboutwhoseappearancenothingwasknown), werecommon,nodoubtbecausetheIliadwasthemostlywidelyreadbookinthe Greekworld,and,wasusedasatextinprimaryschool.Nevertheless,despitethe reverenceforthepast,theevidenceofthevisualartsleavesnodoubtthattheworld hadchangeddrasticallysincethedaysofAchillesandthebardswhofirstrecitedhis exploitsinregularlinesofverse. ScholarshipandScience ThegreatestachievementsofHellenisticintellectuals,however,wereintheareasof literaryscholarshipandappliedscience,wheretheirworksremainedunmatched duringtherestofantiquity.Callimachus,togetherwithotherscholarssuchasthe philologistsZenodotusandAristarchus,foundedthecriticalstudyofGreek languageandliterature,andpreparedstandardtextsofHomerandtheotherpoets thataretheancestorsofthosewestilluse.Themathematicianandgeographer Eratosthenesestablishedtheprinciplesofscientificcartography,andproduceda strikinglyaccurateestimateofthecircumferenceoftheearthonthebasisofevidence collectedbyHellenisticexplorers.ThephysicistCtesibiuspioneeredthestudyof ballisticsandtheuseofcompressedairasasourceofpower,whileotherscientists experimentedwiththeuseofsteamtooperatesimplemachines.Moremundanely, anunknownPtolemaictechnicianinventedthesaqqiyah,ananimalpoweredwater wheelthatisstillusedtodayinEgyptandtheSudan. ThedoctorsHerophilusandErasistratusmadefundamentaldiscoveriesconcerning theanatomyandfunctionsofthehumannervous,optical,reproductive,and digestivesystemsbydissectingcorpses,andevenvivisectingcriminalswhomthe governmentprovidedfortheadvancementofscience.TheHippocraticOath,which inmanypartsofthewesternworldphysicianstakeupongraduationfrommedical school,datestotheHellenisticperiod.Intheoaththephysicianspromisetorespect

thephysicianswhotaughtthemandtohandontheirknowledgeonlytotheir teacherssonsandpayingapprentices.Theysweartoabstainfromusingtheircraftto harmorwronganypersonandtorefrainfrom 460 Figure12.9.Victory(Nik)ofSamothrace.Themassivestatueknownasthe WingedVictorydatesfromaround200BCandisoneofthebestknownworksofart intheLouvreMuseuminParis. 461 Figure12.10.ThissculptedreliefoftheApotheosisofHomerbyArchelausof Priene,foundinBovillae,Italy,datesfromaround221205BC.Thedeifiedpoet, seatedatthelowerleftholdingascrollandscepter,iscrownedbytheMuseofepic poetry.TheotherfiguresincludeZeusandMnemosyne(Memory)andtheir daughters,theMuses.Thesculpturewasprobablymadeforapoetwhowas victoriousinacompetitionatAlexandria. practicingabortionandeuthanasiaandfromdivulgingwhatpatientstellthemin confidence.Sincetherewasnolicensingofphysiciansinantiquityandmany conflictingmedicaldoctrinesandviewsofthephysiciansethicalrole,theoathwas bynomeansuniversallyadheredtobyGreekphysicians,asisobviousfromother medicaltextsthatdodiscussabortion,andfromtheuseofvivisection. TheimportanceofroyalpatronageinPtolemaicculturalactivitydid,however,have adrawback.Areasthatdidnotreceiveroyallargesstendedtostagnate. 462 Figure12.11.EratosthenesCalculationoftheCircumferenceoftheEarth. EratosthenesmeasuredatAlexandriatheshadowcastbyapointerontheinteriorof ahemisphericalbowlatnoononthedayofthesummersolsticewhenthesunwas directlyoverheadatAswan.Byapplyingtwosimplegeometricaltheoremsthe anglesofsimilartrianglesareequalandequalanglessweepoutequalarcshe concludedthatthe5000stadedistancebetweenAlexandriaandAswanrepresented 1/50ofaspherewithacircumferenceofapproximately250,000stades.Despiteminor errorsoffactthatEratosthenescouldnotknow,hisprocedurewasmethodologically correctandresultedinameasurementofthecircumferenceoftheearththatwas eitheralmostexactlycorrector,atthemost,20percenttoolarge,dependingon whetherEratosthenesstadeshouldbecountedasequalto10tothemileor81/3to themile.(DiagramofEratosthenesprocedureforcalculatingthecircumferenceoftheearth.)

Thus,apartfromtheworksofthemathematicianEuclid,whoseElementsisstillused tointroducestudentstogeometry,theAlexandriancontributiontothetheoretical sciencesandphilosophy,whichwereoflimitedinteresttothePtolemies,was undistinguishedinqualityandlimitedinquantity. SOCIALRELATIONSINTHEHELLENISTICWORLD TheimportanceoftheirculturalachievementstendstoobscurethefactthatGreeks wereaminorityintheHellenisticworldeverywhereoutsidetheAegean.Thiswas trueevenincitieslikeAlexandriaandAntioch,whichwerethemselvesonlyislands ofGreekdominationandcultureinapredominantlynonGreekworld.Not surprisingly,therefore,therelationshipbetweenimmigrantGreeksandthenative populationsisoneofthecentralissuesofHellenistichistoriography.Those Hellenistichistorianswhowroteearlyinthetwentiethcenturywereheartenedby theresultsoftheencounterbetweenGreeksandnonGreeksintheHellenistic period.TheyviewedtheHellenisticcitiesasmeltingpotsinwhichGreekandnon Greekculturesandpeoplesblendedintoanewcosmopolitanciv 463 ilization.AmuchharsherinterpretationofHellenisticsocialrelationshasbecome popularrecently,reminiscentofIsocratesdreamofaconqueredAsiainwhich nativesworkedjustashardtosupportthenewGreekcolonistsandtheir MacedonianmastersastheyhadfortheirPersianoverlords.Supportersofthisnew interpretationviewtheMacedoniankingdomsassegregatedsocietiesinwhichsocial statusandprivilegewereprimarilydeterminedbyethnicity.Needlesstosay,inthis interpretationtheethnicitiesthatcountedwereMacedonianandGreek. Aconsiderabledegreeofsocialandculturalsegregationwasinherentinthe demographyoftheHellenistickingdoms.AsGreeksettlementwaspredominantly urban,thecountrysideinevitablywaslargelycutofffromGreekinfluence.Studiesof EgyptianvillageshaverevealedanalmosttotalabsenceofeitherGreekresidentsor Greekinfluenceondailylife. Ethnicseparationwasnotlimited,however,tothecountryside.NonGreekswere deniedcitizenshipandlivedinseparateresidentialquartersinthecitiesofthe HellenisticEast.InEgyptdistinctlegalsystemswereevenmaintainedforGreeks, Egyptians,andJews.Ethnicprejudicesandtensionsarealsowelldocumentedinthe sources.TheocrituscharacterizespettystreetcrimeasanEgyptiangame,andan agriculturalworkercomplainsthathissupervisorsholdhim Figure12.12.TheRosettaStone.27March196B.C.Fragmentofablackgranitestele foundattheRosettamouthoftheNilecontainingatrilingualdecree(Greek, Hieroglyphic[MiddleEgyptian],andDemotic[vernacularlateEgyptian])passedby

asynodofthepriestsofEgyptcommemoratingthecoronationofPtolemyV(204180 BC)askingofEgypt:Inthereignoftheyounggodwhoreceivedthekingshipfrom hisfather,Lordofcrowns,greatoffame,whoestablishedEgypt,andisreverent towardthegods,victoriousoverhisenemies;whoimprovedthelifeofmen,lordof thethirtyyearcyclejustasHephaistustheGreat,andkingjustasHelios;greatking oftheupperandlowerlands,sonofthegodsPhilopatores,whomHephaistus approved,towhomHeliosgavevictory,livingimageofZeus;sonofHelios, Ptolemy,livingforever,belovedofPtah.Whenhe[sc.PtolemyV]arrivedat LycopolisintheBousiritenome,whichhadbeenseizedandhadbeenreadiedfora siegewithanabundantstoreofweaponsandallotherprovisionssincethe conspiracyhadbeenpreparedoveralongperiodoftimebyimpiousmenwhohad gatheredtogetherinitandwhohadcommittedmanyevilactsagainstthetemples andtheinhabitantsofEgypt,heencampedoppositeitandsurroundedthecitywith moundsandditchesandwondrouswalls.AstheNilefloodintheeighthyearwas greatandnormallycoveredtheplains,herestraineditbyblockinginmanyplaces themouthsofthecanals.Havingspentnotalittlemoneyonthesethingsand,having stationedcavalryandinfantrytoguardthem,inashorttimehetookthecitybyforce anddestroyedalltheimpiousmeninit,justasHermesandHorus,thesonofIsis andOsiris,dealtwiththerebelsinthesesameplacesformerly.Thosewhohadled therebelsinthetimeofhisownfather[sc.PtolemyIV]andcauseddisorderinthe landanddesecratedthetemples,whenhearrivedatMemphistoavengehisfather andhisrealm,hepunishedallofthemfittinglyatthetimehearrivedtoperformthe ritesconnectedwithhiscoronation.OrientisGraeciInscriptionesSelectae(ed.W. Dittenberger,2vols.,Leipzig:S.Hirzel,19031905,Nr.90);translatedbyStanleyM. Burstein,TheHellenisticAgefromtheBattleofIpsostotheDeathofKleopatraVII. Cambridge,CambridgeUniversityPress,1985,pp.131132(excerpted). 464 incontemptandrefusetopayhimbecauseIamabarbarian(cf.Figure12.2),while thepersonalpapersofaGreekrecluseatMemphisarefilledwithreferencesto incidentsofpersonalharassmentbyhisEgyptianneighbors.Finally,longingforthe endofMacedonianruleisacommonthemeinbothHellenisticEgyptianandJewish literature,andthehistoryofPtolemaicEgyptandSeleucidAsiaisrepletewith examplesofrebellionsintendedtoachievethatgoal.The 465 RosettaStonealludestosucharebellioninthefirstyearsofthereignofPtolemyV. SomeEgyptiansevendreamedofthemiraculousreturnofNectaneboII,thelast

pharaohofafreeEgyptwhohadfledtoNubiawhenthePersiansreconqueredEgypt inthe340sBc. ThePlaceofNonGreeks Nevertheless,thepictureoftheHellenistickingdomsasdividedintotwoalmost totallyisolatedsocietiesoneGreekandtheothernonGreekdistortsancientsocial realityalmostasmuchastheearlieridealofaharmoniouslymixedHellenistic civilization.TheexistenceofGreekversionsoftheNectanebostory,suchasThe DreamofNectanebos,provesthatatleastsomeGreekswereinterestedin contemporaryEgyptianculture.Moreimportant,serioussocialdivisionsand conflictswithinthenativepopulationsoftheHellenistickingdomsthemselves precludedanyunifiednativeresistancetoMacedonianrule. InthetheocraticmonarchiesofEgyptandtheancientNearEast,thesecurityofthe statereliedonthesupportofthegodsandtheirpriesthoods,andthatremainedtrue duringtheHellenisticperiod.ThePtolemiessubjectedthetemplesofEgyptto greatersupervisionthantheirpharaonicpredecessors,buttheyalsomaintainedand evenexpandedthescaleofstatesubsidyofreligion,ascanbeseenfromthevast extentoftemplebuildingthatoccurredduringtheHellenisticperiod.Studyofthe extensiveEgyptianevidenceforHellenisticEgyptisonlyinitsinfancy.Butalreadyit hasrevealedthatunderthePtolemaicregimethepriestlyfamiliesprospered, accumulatinglargeestatesandactivelyengaginginbusinesstransactionsofall kinds,whileexpendinglargesumsonthetraditionalEgyptianindicatorsofpersonal success:dedicationstothegodsandlavishtombfurnishings.Theirprosperityalso providedthebasisforavigorousrevivalofEgyptianculture,resultinginavarietyof newandinterestingliteraryandartisticworksthatareonlynowbeingstudiedand appreciated.Itisnotsurprising,therefore,thatintheRosettaStonePtolemyVis congratulatedforhisbrutalsuppressionofanativerebellionatLycopolisinLower EgyptthatthreatenedthewelfareoftheEgyptianpriesthoodjustasmuchasitdid theirMacedonianoverlord. Opportunitywasnotlimitedtothereligiouselite.Analysisofthepersonalarchives ofvillageofficialsindividualsdismissedbyearlyHellenistichistoriansaslowlyand insignificantfigureshasshownthatsuchpeoplecouldgrowrichbyexploitingtheir roleasessentialintermediariesbetweentheGreekspeakingcentralgovernmentand itsEgyptiansubjects.Notsurprisingly,priestsandlocalofficialswereloyal supportersofthePtolemaicregime,andbothweresingledoutforreprisalduring nativeuprisingsinthelatethirdandsecondcenturiesBC.Similarpatternsofroyal patronageforthetemplesandpriestlyprosperitycharacterizeSeleucidAsia,where theSeleucidmonarchsgenerouslysupportedbothBabyloniantemplesandthe templeofYahwehatJerusalem,receivinginreturntheloyalsupportoftheir respectivepriesthoods.

Therewere,moreover,socialandculturalfactorsthattendedtomoderatethestrong impulsetowardsocialsegregationinPtolemaicEgyptandelsewherein 466 theHellenisticworld.Themostimportantofthesefactorswasdemography.Atthe beginningoftheHellenisticperiodintermarriagebetweenGreeksandnonGreeks mayhavebeenrelativelycommon,sincethemajorityofGreekimmigrantswere soldiersandthereforepredominantlymale.Moreover,althoughthePtolemiesand theirrivalsactivelyencouragedGreekimmigrationwithgenerousrewards,the actualnumberofimmigrantswasrelativelysmall,andthemajorityofthosecamein theearlyyearsofMacedonianrule.ThenumberofethnicGreeksinPtolemaicEgypt andelsewhereintheHellenisticEastwas,therefore,probablysmall.Furthermore, thoseGreekswholivedinthecountryside,wherethetendencytowardintermarriage wasgreatest,assimilatedsomewhattothesocialandculturalmoresoftheirnon Greekneighbors.Thiswasparticularlytrueintheareaofreligion,sinceGreeks,like otherpolytheists,werealreadypredisposedtohonorthegodsofcountriesinwhich theylived. HellenisticReligion ThroughouttheHellenisticworld,Greekreligionunderwentaprofoundchange,as someoftheoldpolisgodscametoappearanachronisticorirrelevanttothe multiethnicpopulationsofEgyptandAsia.Paganismandpolytheismwereflexible, nondogmaticreligioussystems,amenabletotheintroductionofnewdivinitiesand tothereshapingofoldones.Inmanyinstances,thepowersoftheoldOlympiangods wereredefined,forplainlytheirmissioncouldnolongerbeconceivedasdefending GreekinterestsagainstthoseofnonGreeks. InEgypt,forexample,aHellenizedformofEgyptianreligiondeveloped.Themost strikingproductofthisHellenizationofEgyptianreligionwastobefoundin Alexandria,wherePtolemyIcalledontheEgyptianpriestManethoandthe AthenianritualexpertTimotheustocreateanewgodtoserveasthecitysnew patrondeity.Thenewgod,Sarapis,wasasynthesisofEgyptianandGreekelements, combiningaspectsofHades,Osiris,Dionysus,andZeus.OutsideAlexandria,Greeks worshipedtraditionalEgyptiangodssuchasIsisandOsiris.Acceptanceofthese strangedeitieswasaidedbythecenturiesoldGreekpracticeofidentifyingtheirown godswiththoseofotherpeoples(syncretism),buttheprocessofidentificationitself entailedlossesaswellasgains. NativeEgyptianpracticesthattooobviouslyconflictedwithGreekreligious traditions,suchasanimalworshipormummification,werepurgedfromthenew Hellenizedcults,whiletheEgyptiangodstookontheidentitiesoftheGreekgods withwhomtheywereidentified.TheresultisevidentinthecaseofIsis.Originally

thedevotedwifeofOsirisandmotherofHorusinthechartermythoftheEgyptian monarchy,Isis,throughheridentificationwithGreekgoddesseslikeAphrodite, Demeter,andAthena,assumedacharacterthatwasunprecedentedinEgyptian tradition:queenoftheuniverse,benefactressofallpeople,andcreatorofcivilization. WhenaccommodationbetweenGreekandnonGreekcultureoccurred,therefore,it occurredinsuchawaythattheresultdidnotchallengethedominanceofGreek cultureandvalues. 467 Document12.4ThePraisesofIsis(firstcenturyBCorfirstcenturyAD)The HellenizationofEgyptianreligionisevidentinthisinscriptionfromthecityofCyme innorthwestAnatoliawithitsuniversalizationofIsispowerandidentificationsof GreekandEgyptiangods(Hephaestus=Ptah,thecreatorgodofMemphis;Hennes= Thoth,godofwisdomandinventorofwriting;andCronus=Geb,godoftheearth andfatheroftheroyalgodsofEgypt). Demetrius,thesonofArtemidorus,whoisalsocalledThraseas,aMagnesianfrom MagnesiaontheMaeander,anofferinginfulfillmentofavowtoIsis.Hetranscribed thefollowingfromthesteleinMemphiswhichstandsbythetempleofHephaestus. IamIsis,thetyrantofeveryland;andIwaseducatedbyHermes,andtogetherwith HermesIinventedletters,boththehieroglyphicandthedemotic,inorderthatthe samescriptshouldnotbeusedtowriteeverything.Iimposedlawsonpeople,and thelawswhichIlaiddownnoonemaychange. IamtheeldestdaughterofCronus.IamthewifeandsisterofKingOsiris.Iamshe whodiscoveredthecultivationofgrainforpeople.Iamshewhoiscalledgoddessby women.BymethecityofBubastiswasbuilt.Iseparatedearthfromsky.Idesignated thepathsofthestars.ThesunandthemoonscourseIlaidout.Iinvented navigation. Icausedthejusttobestrong.WomanandmanIbroughttogether.ForwomanI determinedthatinthetenthmonthsheshalldeliverababyintothelight.Iordained thatparentsbecherishedbytheirchildren.ForparentswhoarecruellytreatedI imposedretribution.TogetherwithmybrotherOsirisIstoppedcannibalism. Irevealedinitiationstopeople.Itaughtpeopletohonortheimagesofthegods.I establishedprecinctsforthegods.ThegovernmentsoftyrantsIsuppressed.I stoppedmurders.Icompelledwomentobelovedbymen.Icausedthejusttobe strongerthangoldandsilver.Iordainedthatthetruebeconsideredbeautiful.I inventedmarriagecontracts.LanguagesIassignedtoGreeksandbarbarians.I causedthehonorableandtheshamefultobedistinguishedbyNature.Icaused nothingtobemorefearfulthananoath.Anyonewhounjustlyplottedagainstothers

Igaveintothehandsofhisvictim.OnthosewhocommitunjustactsIimposed retribution.Iordainedthatsuppliantsbepitied.Ihonorthosewhojustlydefend themselves.Withmethejustprevails. Iammistressofriversandwindsandthesea.Noonebecomesfamouswithoutmy knowledge.Iamthemistressofwar.Iamthemistressofthethunderbolt.Icalmand stirupthesea.Iamintheraysofthesun.Isitbesidethecourseofthesun.Whatever Idecide,thisalsoisaccomplished.Formeeverythingisright.Ifreethosewhoarein bonds.Iamthemistressofsailing.ThenavigableImakeunnavigablewheneverI choose.Iestablishedtheboundariesofcities. 468 IamshewhoiscalledThesmophoros.TheislandfromthedepthsIbroughtupinto thelight.IconquerFate.Fateheedsme.HailEgyptwhorearedme. InscriptionesGraecae12.14;translatedbyStanleyM.Burstein,TheHellenisticAgefromthe BattleofIpsostotheDeathofKleopatraVII.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1985, p.147. Theseconsiderationshaveimportantimplicationsforunderstandingthecourseof relationsbetweenGreeksandnonGreeksthroughouttheHellenisticworld.Since apartheidwasnevercharacteristicofGreeksociety,thecombinationofarelatively smallnumberofethnicGreeksandtheHellenistickingsconstantneedforaGreek elitetoprovideareliablebaseofsupportfortheirrulecouldhaveonlyoneresult.As timepassed,manyindividualsreferredtoasGreeksinHellenisticsourceswerenot somuchpersonsofGreekbirthasofGreekculture:people,thatis,whohadreceived aGreekeducation,adoptedaGreeklifestyle(andfrequentlyaGreekname),and worshipedtheiroldgodsunderGreeknames. Likewise,manyGreekcitiesintheNearEastweremoreandmoreoftensimply renamedlocalsettlementswhosecitizenbodieswerecomposedlargelyofsuch acculturatednonGreeks.SomeJewssoughttotransformJerusalemintoaGreek polisintheearlysecondcenturyBC,butotherJews,undertheleadershipofthe familyoftheMaccabees,opposedtheseeffortstoHellenizethecommunity.The conflictescalatedwhenAntiochusIVwasdrawnintoit,forbadetheJewstocarryon theirtraditionalreligiouspractices,andin167BcrededicatedthetempleofYahweh atJerusalemtoOlympianZeus.WhenJewscelebratethefestivalofChanukahtoday, theycommemoratetheirtriumphoverAntiochusandhissupporters.Thehistoryof thisconflictisrecordedinMaccabeesIandII,twobooksoftheApocryphathatprovide auniquepictureoftheHellenisticworldfromtheviewpointofasubjectpeople. TheyalsoclearlyrevealthechieflimitationoftheprocessofHellenization:its inabilitytoaffectsignificantlythelivesofthemassofthepopulationofthe Hellenistickingdoms.

AlthoughMacedonianruleinEgyptandwesternAsialastedforalmostthree centuries,assessmentsofthesignificanceofthisperiodofforeignrulevarywidely. SomescholarsemphasizethepositiveeffectsofthespreadofGreekcultureinthe region,whileothersviewitasatransitoryperiodofcolonialruleinwhichGreek culturewaslittlemorethanaveneer,beneathwhichtraditionalsocialandcultural traditionssurvivedandevenflourished.Notsurprisingly,thetruthismorecomplex thanissupposedbythesupportersofeitherextreme.Hellenizationdidoccur,butits effectswerelittlefeltoutsidethemajorurbancentersoftheregion.Likewise,native traditionsdidsurviveandwereeven,ashasbeennotedearlierinthischapter, patronizedbythePtolemiesandSeleucids.Still, 469 theirvigorwasshortlived,havinglargelyspentitselfbythelatefirstcenturyBC. Education,culture,andelitestatushadalwaysbeencloselyconnectedintheregion. Persianrulehadnotthreatenedthatconnection,becausethePersiansthemselves recognizedtheprimacyofMesopotamiancultureintheirempire.Theprivileged positionenjoyedbyGreekculture,however,severedthelinkbetweencultureand status,thusprovidingastrongincentiveforambitiousmembersofthelocalelites graduallytoabandontheirtraditionalculturesandHellenize.Withoutanyone intendingit,therefore,theestablishmentoftheMacedoniankingdomsmarkedthe beginningoftheendoftheancientcivilizationsofEgyptandtheancientNearEast. SUGGESTEDREADING Green,Peter.1990.AlexandertoActium:TheHistoricalEvolutionoftheHellenisticAge. BerkeleyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.Brilliantlywritten comprehensivehistoryoftheHellenisticperiod. Green,Peter,ed.1993.HellenisticHistoryandCulture.BerkeleyandLosAngeles: UniversityofCaliforniaPress.Widerangingcollectionofessaysonvariousaspects ofHellenisticculture. Lewis,Naphtali.1986.GreeksinPtolemaicEgypt.Oxford:ClarendonPress.Lucid accountoflifeinPtolemaicEgyptasreflectedinthecareersofeightGreeksand Egyptians. Momigliano,Arnaldo.1975.AlienWisdom:TheLimitsofHellenization.Cambridge, Eng.:CambridgeUniversityPress.Pioneeringstudyofthenatureofcultural interactionintheHellenisticperiod. Onians,John.1979.ArtandThoughtintheHellenisticAge:TheGreekWorldView35050 BC.London:Thames&Hudson.Provocativestudyoftherelationshipbetweenart andthoughtintheHellenisticAge.

Polfitt,J.J.1986.ArtintheHellenisticAge.Cambridge,Eng.:CambridgeUniversity Press.StandardtreatmentofHellenisticArt. Pomeroy,SarahB.1984,1989.WomeninHellenisticEgypt:FromAlexandertoCleopatra. NewYork:SchockenBooks(1984);withanewforewordandaddenda,Detroit: WayneStateUniversityPress(1989).Widerangingsurveyofthesocial,economic, andlegalstatusofwomeninPtolemaicEgypt. 470 EPILOGUE InmanywaystheearlythirdcenturyBCwastheclimaxofancientGreekhistory.For abriefperiodMacedonianpowerandGreekculturereignedsupremeintheNear andMiddleEast.NewGreekcitieswerefoundedatstrategicpointsthroughoutthis enormousregion.ApersoncouldtravelfromEgypttothebordersofIndiaspeaking onlyGreek.TheheydayoftheHellenistickingdoms,however,wasbrief.Internal andexternalthreatscalledtheirsurvivalitselfintoquestionwithinagenerationof theirfoundation. TheSeleucidskingdomprovedthemostvulnerable.FromtheircapitalatAntioch theSeleucidsstruggledwithlimitedsuccesstomaintaincontroloftheAsian territoriesofAlexandersempire.AlreadybeforetheendofthefourthcenturyBC SeleucusI(311281)hadcededhisdynastysclaimstoAlexandersconquestsinIndia toChandraGupta(ca.324300),whohadconquerednorthernIndiaandfoundedthe Mauryadynasty.FurtherterritoriallossesfollowedinthethirdcenturyBC.While Seleucussuccessorsfoughtbitterlyamongthemselvesoverthesuccessiontothe throne,enemiesattackedtheirwesternandeasternfrontiers.Inthewest,theAttalids ofPergamumseizedcontrolofmuchofAnatolia;intheeast,theParthians(Iranian speakingnomads)andrebelliousGreeksettlerscarvedoutkingdomsforthemselves ineasternIranandBactria. ThePtolemiesweremoresecureintheirEgyptianfortressthantheirSeleucidrivals. ForoveracenturyandahalfnoenemysucceededinbreachingEgyptsdefenses. Nevertheless,PtolemaicauthorityinEgyptalsoweakenedsignificantlyinthethird centuryBC.NativerulewasreestablishedinsouthernEgyptinthelastdecadesof thecentury,whilesuccessioncrisessappedthedynastysstrength.By200BC,the PtolemiesruledonlyLowerandMiddleEgypt.WithtotalcollapseoftheHellenistic statesystemvirtuallyinsight,AntiochusIII(223187BC)andPtolemyV(204180 BC)launchedvigorouscounteroffensivesthatseeminglyrestoredtheirdynasties authorityovermostoftheirformerterritory.BeforetheSeleucidsandPtolemies couldfullyconsolidatetheirholdontheirkingdoms,however,disasterstruckinthe formoftheRomans.RomanexpansionintotheeasternMediterraneanwasso

dramaticandunexpectedthatthehistorianPolybiuscouldjustifiablybeginhisgreat historywiththedeceptivelysimpleques 471 tion:HowcouldanyonenotbeinterestedinknowinghowtheRomansoverthrew theworldcreatedbyAlexanderinlessthanhalfacentury? AlthoughRomanrelationswiththeHellenistickingdomsdatedtothe270sBC,Rome firstinterveneddecisivelyinthepoliticallifeoftheeasternMediterraneaninthefirst decadeofthesecondcenturyBC,inflictingseveredefeatsonPhilipVofMacedon andAntiochusIII.TheRomansdidnotannexanyterritoryafterdecisivelydefeating thetwokings,preferringinsteadtoposeasthedefenderofGreekfreedom.The RomanSenatesrefusaltobrookpotentialrivalstoRomanpreeminenceintheregion, however,effectivelyunderminedallthemajorHellenistickingdoms.Bythemid secondcentury,thekingdomofMacedonhaddisappeared,transformedintoa Romanprovince.Meanwhile,theSeleucids,weakenedbydynasticrivalryand internalsubversionoftenabettedbyRome,werelockedinalosingstrugglewiththe Parthians.ThisstrugglegraduallyreducedtheoncemightySeleucidkingdomtoa fewcitiesinSyriathatRomefinallyoccupiedin63BC.ThePtolemiessurvivedtheir Seleucidrivalsbyageneration,butonlybecausetheRomanSenatecouldnotagree onwhichsenatorwouldtakecreditfortheannexationofEgypt.Thatdebateended in31BC,whenOctaviandefeatedAntonyandCleopatraVIIatActiuminnorthwest Greece.Withtheirsuicidesin30BCthelongsuccessionofAlexanderssuccessors finallyended. Intheend,RomeandParthiaturnedouttobetheultimateheirsofAlexanders legacy,havingextinguishedthekingdomsofhissuccessors.Thedemiseofthe HellenisticstatesystemdidnotmarktheendofGreekcivilizationinthelands conqueredbyAlexander,butitdidchangeitscharacterandrole.Intheeastern portionsofAlexandersempire,Greekcivilizationgraduallydisappearedasa coherentforce.MacedonianandGreekrulerswereresponsibleforthefloweringof GreekcultureintheHellenisticEast,andtheirpatronageendedwiththe disappearanceoftheirkingdomsinthelatesecondandfirstcenturiesBC.Deprived ofpoliticalsupport,GreekculturewitheredasthenewParthianrulersoftheMid FigureEpilogue1.CoinportraitofCleopatraVII,whoruledEgyptfrom51to30BC. 472

dleEastsoughttorallysupportfortheirregimefromthenonGreekelitesoftheir territorybyfavoringlocaltraditions.InthewesternpartoftheHellenisticworld, Greekculturedidnotmerelysurvive.ItflourishedthankstoRomansupport. ThatRomewasthesaviorofGreekcultureintheNearEastisoneoftheparadoxesof history.AbrutalitythatbeliedthepromiseoffreedomtheRomanshadmadetothe Greeksin196BCafterthedefeatofPhilipVmarkedtheRomanconquestofthe easternMediterranean.Incidentssuchastheenslavementof150,000peoplefrom EpirusbyAemiliusPaulusin168BC,thedestructionofCorinthin146BC,and SullasdevastationofAtticain86BCmadecleartotheGreeksthattheRomanshad cometotheEastasmasters,notliberators.Nevertheless,whilethedisruptionof GreeklifeduringthealmosttwocenturiesduringwhichRomeconsolidateditsrule overtheeasternMediterraneanwasenormous,itwasnotthewholestory. LiketheirMacedonianpredecessors,theRomanswerenostrangerstoGreekculture. GreekinfluenceonRomedatedfromthebeginningofthecityshistoryandhad becomeanintegralpartofRomanculturebythetimeRomeintervenedintheaffairs oftheHellenisticEast.ThatinfluencecontinuedlongafterGreecehadceasedtobea politicalandmilitarypowerandhadbecomeaminorprovinceoftheRomanempire. Notsurprisingly,GreekliteratureandartwerefamiliartomanyupperclassRomans. Somesenators,likeFabiusPictor(c.220BC),thefatherofRomanhistory,were sufficientlyfluentinGreektowritebooksinthelanguage.BythefirstcenturyBC RomanaristocratsroutinelyacquiredaGreekeducation.Romanculturewas suffusedwithGreekinfluence.Romesgodsandmythshadbeenrecastintermsof Greekmythology.LatinwritersconstantlyechoedtheirGreekpredecessors,sothata worklikeVirgilAeneid,Romesnationalepic,hastobereadagainstthebackground oftheIliadandOdysseyforitsartistrytobefullyappreciated.ThefirstcenturyBC RomanpoetHoracewasonlyrecognizingrealitywhenhewrotethatGreece, thoughacaptive,capturedherfierceconqueror,andbroughttheartstorustic Latium(Epistles2.1). OneimportantresultoftheHellenizationoftheRomanupperclasswastheSenates adoptionoftheconceptofGreekfreedomastheframeworkfortheexerciseof RomansupremacyintheeasternMediterranean.Inspiteofthesufferingthey inflictedonthecitiesandkingdomsoftheGreekEast,therefore,theRomansmade thesupportofGreeksandGreekculturethelinchpinoftheirruleoftheregion. Greeksenjoyedprivilegedstatus,andGreekcitiesprovidedtheframeworkfor Romanprovincialadministration.Theresultwasaremarkablerenaissanceinthe culturallifeoftheGreekcitiesofoldGreeceandtheNearEastduringthefirsttwo centuriesoftheChristianera.Evidenceofthisrenaissanceisvisibleintheruinsof thesplendidpublicbuildingsthateverywhereintheeasternMediterranean dominatetheremainsofGreekcitiesandintheinnumerablehonorarystatuesthat crowdourmuseums.

Greekwriters,suchasthehistorianAppianandtheoratorAeliusAristides,had goodreasontocelebratethebenefitsofthePaxRomana(RomanPeace),although conscientiousRomangovernorslikePlinytheYoungercomplainedaboutthecostsof theambitiousbuildingprojectsundertakenbytheGreekcitiesintheir 473 effortstooutdoeachotherinpublicsplendoranddistinction.Therenaissancewas notlimitedtoarchitectureandthevisualarts.ThesecondandthirdcenturiesAD alsosawaremarkableupsurgeofGreekliteraryactivitythathistoriansofGreek literaturecalltheSecondSophistic.TheSecondSophisticisnamedafterthegreat publicoratorssuchasAeliusAristideswhodominatedthepubliccultureofthe period,butnewworksappearedinalmosteverygenreofGreekliterature.Manyof theseworkssuchasthebiographiesandessaysofthebiographerandmoralist PlutarchandthehistoriesofArrianwereofconsiderabledistinctionandexercised significantinfluenceonthedevelopmentoflaterwesternthought. Scienceandphilosophyalso,flourished.GalenandPtolemycompiledsynthesesof Greekmedicine,astronomy,andgeographythatremainedauthoritativeformore thanamillennium.Indeed,medicalstudentsstillstudiedtheworksofGaleninthe earlynineteenthcenturyAD.TheEgyptianbornNeoPlatonistPlotinuscreatedthe lastgreatphilosophicalsystemofantiquity,aphilosophicalmysticismbasedloosely ontheworksofPlatothatwasChristianitysmostformidableintellectualrival.Only inoneareaofGreeklifewastherenorenaissance:thecivicandpoliticalcultureof theGreekcitiesthemselves.Instead,duringthesesametwocenturies,thelast vestigesofthepolistraditionofselfgovernmentdisappeared. Officially,theRomanstreatedtheGreekcitiesoftheeasternMediterraneanasself governingentities.Epigraphicalrecordsoftheirgovernmentsactivitiesare numerous,butthespiritwasgone.Cityassembliesnolongermet,andcitycouncils werecontrolledbynarrowaristocraticoligarchies.Eventhefreedomofactionof theseoligarchicregimeswasincreasinglylimitedbytheRomangovernments practiceofemployingofficialssuchasPlinytheYoungertomonitortheirconductof affairs.Plutarchcandidlyassessedthesituationinanessaywritteninresponsetoa youngfriendsrequestforadviceaboutapossiblepoliticalcareer.Nowadays,he wrote,whentheaffairsofthecitiesnolongerincludeleadershipinwars,northe overthrowingoftyrannies,noractsofalliances,whatopeningforaconspicuousand brilliantpubliccareercouldayoungmanfind?Plutarchansweredhisownquestion bypointingoutthatthereremainthepubliclawsuits,andembassiestothe Emperor(PreceptsofStatecraft805ab;Fowler).GreekpatriotssuchasPlutarch,who consideredholdingthetraditionalmagistraciesinhishomecityofChaeroneaa sacredobligation,foundthecontrastwiththefreedomoffifthandfourthcentury BCGreecepainful.OtherGreeksweremorepragmatic.MensuchasArrian,who

wasgovernorofCappadociaundertheemperorHadrian(117138AD)andhistorian ofAlexander,andDioCassius,ahistorianofRomewhoheldtheofficesofconsul andpraetorianprefectduringtheearlythirdcenturyAD,abandonedtheirpoleis, andfoundrewardingcareersintheserviceofRome. WhileGreeksandGreekcultureprosperedunderRomanrule,thesamewasnottrue ofthenonGreekculturesofEgyptandtheNearEast.TheRomanemperors patronageoftheGreekcitiesoftheeasternMediterraneanheightenedthevalueof GreekcultureandRomancitizenship.Theformerwasthekeytosocialandcultural prestigeandthelattertoapoliticalcareeranditsrewards.NonGreekcultural traditionsandinstitutionswerenotrepressed,buttheywerede 474 valued.InthesecondcenturyADtheSyrianwriterLucianexpressedthecultural prioritiesofthenewregimeinhisautobiographicalessayTheDream,statingthat withoutaGreekeducationamancouldonlybeanartisanandcommoner,always envyingtheprominentandfawningonthemanwhowasabletospeak,whilethe educatedmanwashonoredandpraised,ingoodreputeamongthebestpeople,well regardedbythosewhoarepreeminentinwealthandbreeding...andconsidered worthyofpublicofficeandprecedence(TheDream911).Lucianscalculationwas correct.HisGreekeducationandliteraryskillbroughthimfameandalucrativepost onthestaffofthePrefectofEgypt. Somepeoples,suchastheJews,resistedtheassimilatorypressuresofRoman imperialsociety,sometimesviolently.OthersfoundinthenewChristianchurch opportunitiesforthesatisfactionoftheambitionsoftheirelites.Notsurprisingly, however,overtimeincreasingnumbersofnonGreeksfollowedLuciansexample andsoughttoacquiretheadvantagesofGreekstatus,especiallyafter212ADwhen theemperorCaracallaerasedthelegalbarriersbetweenGreeksandnonGreeksby conferringRomancitizenshiponvirtuallyallinhabitantsoftheempire. Theprocessofassimilationwasnotalwaysfreeoffriction.ComplaintsofGreek prejudiceandculturalchauvinismarefrequentinthewritingsofHellenizednon Greekssuchas,forexample,theHellenizedSyrianrhetoricianTatian,whourged GreeksnottodespisenonGreeksandtheirideassincemostGreekpracticestook theiroriginfrombarbarianways(AddresstotheGreeks1.1).Nevertheless,bylate antiquityasignificantportionofthesocialandintellectualeliteoftheeastern provincesoftheRomanempireconsistedofHellenizednonGreeks.Thelocal languagesoftheregiondidnotdisappear.Theysurvivedinthevernacularspeechof theurbanlowerclassesandthecountrysideandevenfoundnewwrittenexpression intheliteraturesofSyriacandCopticChristianity.Butthetraditionalculturesof EgyptandtheNearEastdied,asthenativeelitesthathadpatronizedthemfor

millenniagraduallydesertedthem.HarassedbythegovernmentoftheChristian Romanemperors,theysurvivedonlyintheesotericknowledgeofthepriestsofafew remoteandimpoverishedtemplesbeforefinallydisappearingcompletelyinlate antiquity.Meanwhile,thedominantstrandintheintellectuallifeoftheeastern MediterraneanbasinbecamewhatscholarscallHellenism,essentiallya cosmopolitanformofGreekculturelooselybasedonthecanonofClassicalGreek literature.ThisliteratureformedthebasisofbothpaganandChristianeducationand thought,althoughtheciviccultureoftheGreekcitystatesthathadgivenbirthtoit almostamillenniumearlierhaddisappeared.InthisformGreekculturecontinuedto flourishinthelandsconqueredbyAlexandertheGreatandinfluencedthemedieval civilizationsofByzantiumandIslamandthroughthemthecultureofwestern EuropeandtheAmericas. TRANSLATIONS Fowler,HaroldN.1936.PlutarchsMoralia.Vol.X.LoebClassicalLibrary. Cambridge,Mass.andLondon:HarvardUniversityPress. 475 GLOSSARY AcademyTheschoolfoundedbyPlatoatAthensduringthe380sBCinthegroves sacredtotheheroAcademus.ItsmostfamouspupilwasAristotle.TheAcademy continuedtofunctionuntiltheChristianemperorJustinianordereditclosed,along withotherpaganschools,in529AD. acropolisLiterally,theuppercity,thecitadelofacityortown.Manycitadelhills hadbeenthesitesofMycenaeanpalacesandremainedasspecialplacesinpolislife. ThemostfamousistheAcropolisofAthens,thereligiouscenterofthecity,which wasmagnificentlyadornedwithtemplesinthefifthcentury. agoraInHomer,thetermfortheplaceofgathering,theassemblyofthepeople.In thecitystateperioditdenotedthepublicspaceofacityortown,beingboththe marketplaceandciviccenter.Lingeringintheagorawasthebestwaytoinform oneselfaboutpublicaffairs,makebusinesscontacts,andcollectgossip. AmphictyonicCouncilThegoverningbodyofanancientleagueofDelphis neighbors,theDelphicAmphictyony,thatadministeredtheoracle.The AmphictyonyalsoconductedthePythiangamesanddealtwithtransgressions againsttheoracleanditsterritory.Thememberswereethn,ofwhichthemost importantweretheThessalians,Phocians,Boeotians,Dorians,andIonians.Votes wereunequallydividedamongthemembers,sothatPhilipIIsacquisitionofthe

twelveThessalianandtwoPhocianvotesgavehimamajorityofthecouncils twentytwovotesandcontroloftheAmphictyony. archonAcommontitle(meaningleader)forthehighestrankingmagistrateinthe earlycitystates.DuringtheClassicalperiod,evenwhenthestratgoihadbecome themostimportantofficialsinAthens,ninearchonscontinuedtobechosen(bylot) toservejudicialandadministrativefunctions.Thearchontatewasusedinlarger contextsaswell;forexample,asthetitleofthecivilandmilitaryheadofthe ThessalianLeague.ThisarchonwaselectedbytheLeagueassemblyandservedfor life. 476 aristocracyThetermaristokratia(powerinthehandsofthebestmen)was coined,probablyinthefifthcentury,asthewordtheeliteusedtodescribetheir holdonpower,inpreferencetothelessnoblesoundingoligarchia.(Platodefines aristocracyasthegoodformofoligarchy.)Aristocraticpowerandexclusiveness werestrongestintheearlyArchaicperiodandgraduallyweakenedasstrong democraticsentimentsemergedinthecitystates. assemblyAlongwiththecouncil(boul,gerousia),oneofthetwoprimary elementsofGreekgovernance.FromtheDarkAgeonitwasmadeupofthe adultmalesofthecommunity.IntheDarkAge,theassembly(calledagorain Homer)hadlimitedpowervisvisthechiefs,althoughitsconcurrencewas crucial.DespiteattemptsbytheoligarchicalrulersoftheArchaicperiodto curtailfurthertheauthorityoftheassembly,iteventuallybecamethedeciding bodyofstatepolicy.InAthens,theassemblyorekklsia metintheopenaironthe hillcalledthePnyxaboutfortytimesayear. barbarosThetermusedbytheancientGreeksforallpeoplewhowerenot Greekinlanguageandculture.Thecontrastdidnotnecessarilyimply uncivilizedcrudityandsavagery(thehighlycivilizedandgenerallyadmired EgyptiansandPersianswerebarbaroitotheGreeks),althoughincreasinglyfrom thefifthcenturyonbarbaroicametobestigmatizedastheinferiorothers, lackingthementalandmoralcapabilitiesthatbelongednaturallytoHellenes. basileusThetermforthelegitimatesingleruler,theking.InMycenaean society,thetitlepasireudenotedanofficialwhohadchargeofavillageordistrict; withthebreakupoftheMycenaeankingdomsitbecame(intheformbasileus)the titleofthewarriorchiefswhoruledthevillagesanddistrictsintheDarkAge. ThehierarchyofbasileiswasreplacedintheArchaicAgebylandedaristocrats whoruledasanoligarchy. bouleThecommonesttermforthecouncil,which,alongwiththeassembly, wasoneofthetwoprimarygoverninginstitutionsoftheGreeks.Composedof thechiefsandotherinfluentialmenintheDarkAge,itbecamethemajororgan ofaristocraticpowerintheArchaicAge.Inthedemocratizingcitystates,the

councilbecameincreasinglyanorganofpopularwill.InClassicalAthens,the boulconsistedoffivehundredmenchosenbylot;itpreparedbusinessforthe assembly.Itcouldalsotrycertaincourtcases. CadmeaTheacropolisofThebes.ItsseizurebySpartain382BCprovokeda majordiplomaticcrisisinGreece. cellaTheinnershrineofatemple.ThegoldandivorystatueofAthena,over40 feethighandnowlost,stoodinthecellaoftheParthenon. 477

CommonPeaceThetermusedtodescribeanumberoffourthcenturyBC treatiesbeginningwiththeKingsPeacein387andendingwiththatsponsored byPhilipIIaftertheBattleofChaeroneain338.Thecharacteristicfeatureof thesetreatieswasthattheyguaranteedtheautonomyofallsubscribingstates. CorinthianLeagueThetermusedbymodernscholarstodesignatethealliance organizedtoimplementtheCommonPeaceestablishedbyPhilip11in338BC. TheLeagueincludedtheprincipalcitiesandethnofGreeceexceptSpartaand guaranteeditsmembers:freedom,autonomy,collectiveactionagainststates who brokethepeace,andprotectionagainstproposalstocanceldebtsandliberate slaves.TheCorinthianLeagueprovidedtheframeworkforMacedonian dominationofGreeceuntilitwasdissolvedbyAntipaterin322BC. currency,AthenianUnitsofAtheniancurrencyincludedtheobol,the drachma,themina,andthetalent.Sixobolsmadeadrachma;onehundred drachmasmadeamina;andsixtyminas(i.e.,6000drachmas)addeduptoa talent.Amanwhohadatalentwasrich.InfifthcenturyAthens,asilver drachmacoinwasconsideredgoodpayforadayslaborbyanunskilledworker andprobablyrepresentedalivingwageforasmallfamily.Adrachmawasthe standardpayforarowerinthefleet.Maintainingatriremecostatalentamonth. DelianLeagueThemodernnamefortheconfederacyorganizedunder AthenianleadershipaftertheendofthePersianwars.Foundedin477BC,the LeaguewasslowlyconvertedintoanAthenianempireasAthensbeganforcing unwillingstatestoremainintheorganization,ortojoinitiftheywerenot alreadymembers. demagogosLiterally,aleaderofthepeople.Thiswasthetermsome AtheniansusedtocategorizethepoliticianswhoaroseinAthensafterPericles death.Usuallyithadnegativeconnotationsandsuggestedthatsuchamanwas interestedonlyinhisownwellbeing,unlikeatruestatesman,whocaredforthe welfareofthestate.Unliketheworddemagoguetoday,however,itwas occasionallyusedinaneutralway. democracyAformofgovernmentinClassicalGreecethatpermittedallfree mensomedegreeofparticipationinpolitics,regardlessofwealthorfamily background.Ideologiesofequalitywerepreached,thougheconomicinequalities prevailedandgenerallybroughtpoliticalinequalitieswiththem.Athens

encourageddemocraticgovernmentsinitsallies.LikeotherformsofGreek government,democraciesdeniedvotingrightstowomenandassumedthe appropriatenessofslavery. demosAterritoryandthepeoplewholiveinit;thus,thelandandthe people.ItoccursintheLinearBtabletsintheformdamo,meaning,apparently, avillagecommunityanditsfreeinhabitants.Originallyaneutralterm,itcameto 478

beusedbyaristocrats(probablyintheseventhcentury)asanexclusivetermfor thecommoners,orthemasses,althoughtechnically(asinlegalinscriptions) itretaineditsinclusivemeaningasthe(whole)people. DemoticThepopularscript,anextremelysimplifiedcursiveformofthe hieroglyphicscriptusedintheHellenisticperiodtowriteEgyptian.Demoticwas theprincipalEgyptianscriptinPtolemaicEgyptandwasusedforwritingboth literaryandnonliterarytexts. dicasteries(dikastria)ThepeoplescourtsatAthens.AsAthenswas notoriouslylitigious,thesecourtstriedanenormousnumberofcases.A dicasterionwascomposedofhundredsofadultmalecitizenswhowerechosen bylotteryatthelastminutefromthosewhohadpresentedthemselvesfor membershipinthepoolofjurorsknownastheheliaia(q.v.)Boththelastminute elementofthechoiceandthelargesizeofthejuriesdiscouragedbribery, especiallysinceAtheniancourtcaseshadtobedecidedinasingleday.Sincethe largejurywasconsideredtobeactinginthesteadofthepeople,therecouldby definitionbenoappealfromitsdecisions.Beginningaroundthemiddleofthe fifthcentury,jurorsreceivedasmallamountofpayfortheirservices. dokimasiaThescrutinyAtheniancitizenshadtoundergobeforeassuminga positioninthegovernment.Politicalenemiesoftenusedthisprocedureasa meansofkeepingamanoutofpublicoffice. drachmaSeecurrency,Athenian. ekklesiaSeeassembly.TheAthenianassembly(ekklsia)metaboutthirtyto fortytimesayearonthehillknownasthePnyx.Initsmeetingsitvotedon businesspreparedbytheboul. ephor(ephoros)Overseer,anofficefoundinSpartaandinotherDorian states.InSpartaaboardoffiveephorswaselectedannuallybytheassembly;the seniorephorgavehisnametotheyear.Theephorshadgreatpowerinthe Spartanstate,includinggeneralcontroloverthekingsconduct. epiklerosAbrotherlessAtheniangirlwhowascompelledtomarryhernearest malerelativeabletoprocreatesothatherson,whowasslatedtoinherither fathersproperty,wouldbedescendedfromhisgrandfatherthroughthemale line.Thewordisoftentranslatedheiress,butinfacttheepikleroscouldherself inheritnothing,whichwasthewholepointofherforcedmarriage. ethnosThetermusedtodescribealargegroupofpeoplewhoshareda

commonidentityandterritory,butwerenotpoliticallyunited,preferringlocal selfgovernment.ThestoryoftheGreekethnistheirgrowingabilityfromthe sixthcenturyBContoactasunifiedstatesbyformingfederationsoflocaland regional 479 segmentsoftheethnos.Bythefourthcentury,ethnicconfederaciesandleagues wereplayingaprominent,andevenadominant,roleinthegeopoliticsof Greece. FreedomoftheGreeksPropagandasloganusedbyvariousHellenistickings andtheRomanstoattractthesupportofGreekcities.Althoughproclamationsof freedomincludedguaranteesthatcitieswouldbefree,autonomous,and ungarrisoned,inpracticekingsdidnothesitatetointerfereincityaffairsto achievetheirgoals. genosClan.Asocialgroupcomposedoffamilieswhoclaimeddescentfroma singlemaleancestor.Agenoswasledbyitsmostprominentfamilyandplayeda prominentpartasapoliticalgroupintheArchaicAge.Thepowerandinfluence ofthearistocraticgen(plural)wanedintheClassicalperiod,butcontinuedto confersocialprestigeonthememberfamilies. gerousiaThecouncilofelders(fromgern=oldman).Thiswastheterm usedatSpartaandinotherpoleisforthearistocraticcouncil.TheSpartan gerousiaconsistedofthetwokingsplustwentyeightmenoverage60who servedforlife. grapheparanomonTheproceduretheAtheniansbegantouseinthelatefifth centuryBCtoindictamanformakinganillegalproposalintheassembly.Since theAthenianshadnorealconstitution,itwasverydifficulttotellwhatlaws mightbeillegal,andtheprocedurewasusuallyusedasaformofpoliticalattack. Thoseconvictedweregenerallyfined;threeconvictionsbarredacitizenfrom makingfurtherproposals. guestfriendship(xenia)Aformofritualfriendship,wherebyastranger (xenos)enteredintoarelationshipofmutualfriendshipwithamanfromanother dmos,eachobligedtoofferhospitalityandaidwhentheyvisitedeachothers community.Thebondwasperpetuateddownthroughgenerationsofthetwo families.AprominentfeatureofHomericsociety,xeniacontinuedthroughout antiquity,evolvinginthecitystatesintothemoreformaldiplomaticrelationship ofproxeny(q.v.). hegemonAstateorindividualwhoheadedanorganizationofstates.Athens, forexample,wasthehegemonoftheDelianLeague,SpartaofthePeloponnesian League.Ahegemonwassaidtoexercisehegemony,hencetheperiodofTheban ascendancyinthe360sBCisknownastheThebanhegemony.Hegemonwas alsothetitleoftheleaderoftheCorinthianLeague.Thishegemonwasofficially electedbytheLeaguecouncilandwasitschiefexecutiveandcommanderin

chiefoftheLeaguesmilitaryforceswithfullauthoritytoconductitsmilitary anddiplomaticactivities. hektemoroiAtermusedinSolonianAthensmeaningsixthparters,referring, presumably,topoorfarmerswhohadfallenintodebttowealthylandowners andhadtohandovertothemasixthoftheirproduceunderpenaltyof enslavementfortheirdebt. 480

heliaiaThebodyofprospectivejurorsfromwhichdikasteria(q.v.)were selected.Anyadultmalecitizenmightpresenthimselfforparticipation. HellenesThenametheGreekscalledthemselves(andstilldo).Theyhada mythofaneponymousancestor,Hellen,whowasthesonofDeucalion,the GreekNoah,andthefatheroftheeponymousancestorsoftheDorians,Ionians, andAeolians.Thereissomereasontobelievethatthecommonname(andthe supportingmyth)aroserelativelylate,perhapsintheeighthcenturyBC. helotsThetermusedtodescribegroupsofconqueredpeopleinGreecewho wereforcedbytheirconquerorstoworkasserfsontheirformerlands.Theword ismostcommonlyassociatedwithSparta,wherehelotsprobablyoutnumbered citizensbyaratioofseventoone.TheSpartanwayoflifebothdependedonand wasformedbythestatesownershipofthelaborofthousandsofhelotsin LaconiaandMessenia.FearofhelotuprisingsoftendiscouragedtheSpartans frombecomingengagedincampaignsfarfromhome. hetairaMeaningliterallyfemalecompanion,thiswasthetermnormallyused forcourtesansinClassicalAthens.Hetairaiusuallycamefromthemeticclass. Theyweregenerallymorecultivatedthancitizenwomen;theyweretrained (usuallybyolderhetairai)tobeentertainingandinterestingratherthantobe thriftymanagersofhouseholds.SincePericlescitizenshiplawsof451450made itimpossibleforamantomarryameticwomanandstillhavehischildrenenjoy citizenshiprights,manyAthenianmenchosetohavelongtermassociations withhetairaisimultaneouslywiththeirlegalmarriagestoAthenianwomen. Somehetairaifunctionedasentrenchedmistressesorevencommonlawwives, butotherslessfortunatewereessentiallyprostitutes. hetaireiaiThemilitarysystemsofsomecitiessuchasthoseinCretegrouped meninhetaireiaiorbandsofcompanions,butthewordismostcommonly associatedwithAthens.Thereyoungmenoftheupperclassfrequentlybelonged tohetaireiaiorsocialclubswithpoliticalovertones,oftenofanantidemocratic nature.Themutilationofthehermsin415wasrumoredtobetheworkofsucha hetaireia,andthesubversiveactivityofhetaireiaiprobablyplayedapartinthe oligarchicrevolutionsof411and404. hetairosCompanionorcomrade.IntheDarkAge,followerbandsof hetairoiformedthemilitaryandpoliticalsupportofthechiefswhorecruitedand rewardedthem.Associationsofhetairoiforpoliticalpurposescontinuedto

functioninthecitystates(seehetaireiai).InMacedonia,thehetairoiwereanelite bandofwarriorsandadvisorswhoformedtheretinueandpersonalbodyguard ofthekings. 481 hopliteHoplits.Theheavilyarmoredinfantryman,namedfromhisdistinctive shield(hoplon).Hopliteswerethedominantmilitaryarmfromtheseventh centuryon,graduallyundergoingchangesinweaponryandtactics.Because Greekgovernmentsdidnotissuearmstotheirsoldiers,hoplitestendedtocome fromthemiddleclass,menabletoaffordarmorandswords,unliketherowers inthefleets,whowerelikelytobethtes(seethes). KingsPeaceTheagreementthatendedtheCorinthianWarin387BC.Akey rolewasplayedbyArtaxerxesIIofPersia,andGreekswerechagrinedbythe wordingofthepeace,whichbegan,I,KingArtaxerxes,regardthefollowing arrangementsasjust. klerosAnallotmentoffarmlandsufficienttosupportacitizenfamily;itwas passedoninperpetuityinthemaleline.Inoligarchicstates,fullcitizenshipwas frequentlytiedtothepossessionofacertainamountofland. koreMaiden.AtermusedtodescribethelifesizeorlargermarbleArchaic statuesofclothedfemales,madeascultofferingsorgravemarkers.Theterm kouros(youth)isusedofthecorrespondingnudemalestatues. liturgiesAnindirectsystemoftaxationwherebytherichwererequiredto spendtheirownmoneyintheserviceofthestate.Liturgiesincludedfinancing thetrainingofachorusfordramaticperformancesorfinancingadelegationtoa religiousfestivalinanotherstate.Themostexpensiveliturgywasthetrierarchy, whichrequiredamantomaintainatriremeforayearandtopayforthetraining ofitscrew. LyceumTheschoolfoundedbyAristotleinAthensin335BC.Itbecamea majorcenterforscientificstudy,andAristotlespupilsalsocollectedthe constitutionsof158states. megatonAlargerectangularbuildingthatservedasthefocalpointof Mycenaeanpalaces.Itsfunctionasthegreathalloftherulercontinuedinthe reignoftheDarkAgechiefs.Inthecitystatestheancientmegaronachieved immortalityasthebasicplanoftheGreektemple. meticsResidentaliensinaGreekstate.Therewereprobablymeticsthroughout Greece,butweknowonlyaboutmeticsinAthens.Althoughtheylacked citizenship,meticsmingledcomfortablyinAtheniansocietyandwereoften calledonforhelpinwartime.Thewomenknownashetairaiweregenerally metics,thoughmostmeticwomenwereprobablyhousewives. metropolisMothercity,describingapolisthatsentoutacolonyunderits aegis.Therelationshipbetweenthemothercityandthenewpoliswasnormally veryclose,combiningeconomic,political,andspiritualties.

482 minaSeecurrency,Athenian. mothax(pl.mothakes)ThemothakeswereanewclassthataroseinSparta duringthePeloponnesianWar.SomeweretheoffspringofSpartanfathersand helotmothers,othersthesonsofimpoverishedSpartanswhowerenolonger abletomaintaintheirstatusinthecorpsofequalsbycontributingtothe commonmeals. mythAllculturespossessmyths,traditionaltalesthattreataspectsoflifethat areimportanttothecollectivegroup(e.g.,marriage,initiation,food,cultural institutions,humandivinerelations.,etc.).TheGreekshadanimmenselyrich storehouseofsuchorallytransmittedstoriesgoingbacktothesecond millenniumBCandcontinuallyinfusedbyadditionsfromthemythologiesofthe NearEast.TheGreekhistoriansdependedonancientmythstoreconstructthe preliteratepast.Modernresearchersattempttogleanfromthemhistoricalor psychologicalrealities. nomosCustomorlaw.SometimesitcorrespondstotheEnglishwordmores, connotingawayofdoingthingsthatisdeeplyembeddedinavaluesystem.It canalsobeused,however,inalegalcontext;thusforexampletheruleslaid downbySolonwerecalledhisnomoi. nomothetaiAthenianofficialssetupaftertherestorationofthedemocracyin 403BC.ThenomothetaireviewedandratifiedthelawsofAthens. obolSeecurrency,Athenian. oikistTheoikistes(notetherootofoikos)wasthefounderandtheleaderofa colonysentoutbyamothercity(mtropolis).Asthefounder,hehadgreat authorityinthenewsettlement,andwasusuallyhighlyhonoredafterhisdeath. oikosHousehold.ThefundamentalsocialandeconomicunitinGreek society,comprehendingthefamilygroup,itshouse,land,animals,andproperty, includingslaves. oligarchyOligarchia(rulebyafewmen)wasthestandardformof governmentintheearlycitystates,havingreplacedthesystemofranked chieftains.Oppositionfrombelowthenarrowrulingcirclecausedmost oligarchiestobroadeninclusioninstateaffairs,whileotherstatesadopted democraticgovernments.Democraticpoleisweresubjecttooligarchic revolutions,asinAthensin411andagainin404BC.Throughoutthefifthand fourthcenturies,tensionbetweenoligarchsanddemocratswhichoftenadded uptotensionbetweenrichandpoor,especiallyinthedifficulteconomictimesof thedecadesafterthePeloponnesianWarwasaconstantfactorinGreekpolitical lifeandsometimeseruptedinbloodshed. 483 paramountAnanthropologicaltermreferringtothehighestrankingleaderofa

communityorgroup.ThemajorwarriorheroesoftheHomericepics,whorule overotherleadersasafirstamongequals,representtheparamountchiefswho ruledduringthetenthtoeighthcenturyBC. pedimentTheelongatedtriangularspacesthatsatontopofthecolumnsonthe frontandbackofGreektemples.Theywerefrequentlyadornedwithelaborate reliefsculpture. PeloponnesianLeagueThemodernnameforanorganizationledbySparta anddatedtosometimeinthesixthcenturyBC.Scholarshavejokedthatitwas neitherPeloponnesiannoraleague.ItconsistedofSpartaandlesspowerful alliedstateswhosworetohavethesamefriendsandenemiesastheSpartans. ThustheyweretiedtoSpartabutnotreallytoeachother,andsomeimportant membersoftheLeague,suchasThebes,wereoutsidethePeloponnesus.The mostimportantmemberafterSpartawasCorinth,whichprovidednavalpower. AfteritsvictoryoverAthensinthePeloponnesianWar(431404BC),Sparta increasinglyinterferedindomesticaffairsinalliedstates,causingsubstantial friction.TheLeaguefinallydissolvedinthe360s. peltastsLightlyarmedGreeksoldierswhocarriedlightthrowingspearsand small,roundshields.Theyfunctionedasskirmishersandcouldbedeployed eitheraloneorinconcertwithhoplites.Althoughtheywereutilizedduringthe PeloponnesianWar,theyincreaseddramaticallyinimportanceinthefourth century.TheAtheniancommanderIphicratesowedhissuccessestohiswell trainedpeltasts. pentakosiomedinmoiSeeSolonicsystem. perioikoiThosewhodwellabout,thetermusedtodescribeneighboring peopleswhowereinasubordinaterelationshiptoadominatingpolis.Themost prominentexampleisSparta,whichtreatedthepeopleoftheperioecic communitiesofLaconiaandMesseniaashalfcitizens,grantingthemlocal autonomybutobligatingthemtomilitaryserviceandallowingthemnosayin theconductofpolicy. phalanxThetacticalformationofahoplitearmy,consistingintheArchaicand Classicalperiodsofranksofheavyinfantry,usuallyeightdeep.Thephalanx underwentchangeandexperimentinthefifthandfourthcenturies.Thehighly successfulformofphalanxintroducedbyPhilipIIofMacedonconsistedofsix brigadesoffifteenhundredmeneach,recruitedonaregionalbasis.Macedonian phalangiteswerearmedwithashortsword,asmallroundshield,andalong pike(sarissa)upto18feetlong,andtheyfoughtinrectangularformations sixteenmendeep. phratryAsubdivisionofthetribe(phyl)and,atleasttheoretically,akin grouping.InClassicaltimesphratrieswerewelldefinedsocialgroupsconcerned with 484

definingdescentandthereforecitizenship.EverycitizenfamilyinAthens belongedtoaphratry. phylaiThetermforthelarge,ancientdescentgroupsintowhichadmoswas divided.Ioniancommunitieshadfoursuchtribes,asmodernscallthem, Doriancommunitiesthree.Thetribesfunctionedasorganizationalunitsinthe citystates.InhisreformoftheAtheniangovernment,Cleisthenesbypassedthe fourtraditionaltribesanddividedAtticapoliticallyandmilitarilyintotennew phylai. polemarchTheofficeofpolemarchos(warleader)wascommontomanyearly citystates.Asarmycommanderforaspecifiedterm,usuallyayear,andsubject tothepolicyofthearistocraticcouncil,thepolemarchwaslimitedinhispower. In500BCatAthensthepolemarchwaseclipsedbytheboardoftenstratgoi, militarycommanderselectedfromthetennewphylai.After487BC,whenthe polemarchbecameappointedbylot,hisfunctionsbecamemainlylegaland ceremonial. polisCity,town.Beginningintheeighthcentury,poliscametodesignatea politicalcommunity,composedofaprincipalcityortownanditssurrounding countryside,whichtogetherformedaselfgoverningentity,thecitystate.The smallpoliswastheprincipalformofGreekcommunitythroughoutantiquity, numberinginthehighhundredsbythefifthcenturyBC.Withtheexceptionof Sparta,poleisweregenerallygovernedbysomesortofrepublicangovernment, whetheroligarchicordemocratic.Sincethepolissystemimpliedsomedegreeof politicalselfawareness,itwasanopenquestionwhetheracityruledbyatyrant couldbeapolis. probouleuticThetermforthecouncils(bouls)functionofpreparingstate businessforconsiderationintheassembly. probouloiInAthens,acommitteeoftenoldermenthatwassetuptodirectthe governmentin413BC.Theestablishmentoftheprobouloiresultedfromthe shockengenderedbythedisasterinSicily. proskynesisGreeknameforthePersianritualgreetingthatsocialinferiors offeredtotheirsuperiorsandallPersiansofferedtothePersianking.Inits simplestform,proskynsisinvolvedmerelyblowingakiss.Proskynesistothe Persianking,however,requiredfullprostrationbeforetheruler.Although Persiansdidnotbelievethattheirkingwasdivine,GreeksandMacedonians consideredtheperformanceofproskynesistobeappropriateonlytodeitiesand resentedattemptstomakethemperformit. proxenyThetermusedforadiplomaticarrangementwherebycitizensinone state,calledproxenoi,lookedaftertheinterestsofotherstatesintheir communities.Theproxenoswashighlyhonoredbytheforeignstatehe represented.The 485

systemofproxeny(proxenia)developedfromanearliersystemofxeniaor privateguestfriendship(q.v.). prytanisOneofthetitlesforthepresidingmagistrate(oracollegeof magistrates)inacitystate.InthereorganizationoftheAthenianboul(508BC), tenboardsoffiftyprytaneiseach,chosenbylotfromthetennewtribes(phylai), tookturnsastheofficialsinchargeofthedailybusinessoftheboulandekklsia foratenthoftheyear.Eachgroupoffiftymencomprisedaprytany. redistributivesystemThetermforthekindofeconomicandpolitical arrangementsfoundintheBronzeAgekingdomsoftheNearEastandGreece, wheremostoftheagriculturalandmanufacturedproductionofaregionwas controlledfromthecenter(thekingandhispalace),whichredistributedthe resourcesasitsawfit.IntheGreekcitystates,bycontrast,thegovernment exercisedonlylimitedcontroloverproductionanddistribution.Seeliturgies. rhetoresThemenwhochosetoinvolvethemselvesintensivelyinAthenian politicsduringthefourthcentury,proposingdecreesandmakingspeechesinthe assembly.Itisoftentranslatedpoliticians. RoyalPagesTheRoyalPageswereabodyofyoungmenrecruited,probably whilestillintheirteens,fromtheMacedonianaristocracy.Thepageslivedatthe royalcourtandwerethekingspersonalattendants,guardinghimwhilehe slept,accompanyinghimonhuntingexpeditions,andperformingwhatever othertaskshemightrequireofthem.TheinstitutionwasestablishedbyPhilipII andservedasthefirststepinthecareerofMacedonianaristocrats. SacredBandEliteThebaninfantryformedabout378BC.TheSacredBand consistedof150pairsoflovers.ItplayedamajorroleintheSpartandefeatat Leuctrain371andlaterThebanmilitarycampaignsuntilitwastotallydestroyed attheBattleofChaeroneain338BC. SatrapTitleofthegovernorsoftheprincipalterritorialsubdivisionsofthe Persianempire,thenofAlexanderIIIsempire,andlateroftheSeleucid kingdom.DuringthePeloponnesianWar,thecoastalsatrapsTissaphernesand Pharnabazusenjoyedconsiderableindependencefromthekingandentered freelyintonegotiationswiththewarringstates. satrapyOriginallyaprovinceofthePersianempire.AlexanderIIIretainedthe satrapalsystemofthePersianempireastheadministrativeframeworkofhis empire.AfterthedivisionofAntigonustheOneEyedsempirein301BC,the termwasusedtodesignatethelargestterritorialsubdivisionsoftheSeleucid kingdom. SecondAthenianConfederacyAvoluntaryorganizationledbyAthenswhich manyGreekstatesjoined,someattheinceptionin377andotherslater.Though memberstatessentdelegatestoacommondeliberativebodyknown 486

asthesynedrionandhencehadfargreatersayinpolicydecisionsthanthe

helplessalliesoftheDelianLeague,disaffectionnonethelessdevelopedandthe alliancebegantodisintegrateinthelate370s.Itsufferedsubstantialdefectionsin the350sandwasfinallydissolvedwhentheCorinthianLeaguewasestablished in338BC. SolonicsystemAccordingtothereformsmadeearlyinthesixthcenturyBCby Solon,Atheniancitizenswereallottedpoliticalpowerinaccordwiththeamount theirlandproduced(afigurethatcorrelatedroughlywiththeamountofland theyowned).Makinguseofpropertyclassesthathadexistedforsometime, Solondividedcitizensintofourgroups.Toqualifyformembershipinthe highestclass,thepentakosiomedimnoior500measuremen,amanneededan estatethatproducedatleast500medimnoi(bushels)ofproduceinany combinationofoil,wine,orgrain.Belowthesewerethehippeis(horsemen, sincetheywerethemenwhocouldaffordtokeepahorseforthecavalry),whose incomewasmorethan299medimnoibutlessthan500.Afterthemcamethe zeugitai,menwhocouldaffordtoownateamofoxen,with200to299measures. Thelowestclass(abovetheslaves)consistedofthethtes,poorpeoplewhose landproducedfewerthan200measures;somehadnolandatallandso producednomeasures. sophistsTheitinerantintellectualswhotaughtandgavespeechesduringthe latterpartofthefifthcenturyBC.Somewereprimarilyteachersoforatory,while othersengagedinthoughtfulspeculationaboutsocietythatchallenged entrenchedconventions.SophistsweredrawntotheclimateofAthens,where responsetothemwasmixed.Platomadethediscreditingofthesophistsan importantpartofhisdialogues,accusingthemofsubstitutingshowyrhetorical displaysforrealwisdomsuchasSocratespossessed. stasisThetermfirstforagroupofmenwhotakethesamestandinapolitical disputeafactionandthenbyextensiontheactitselfoftakingsides.Inthecity statesstasis(civilstrife)occurredbetweenoligarchicalfactionsandbetweenthe richandthepoor.Atitsworststasisentailedbloodshed;thuscontainingit withinnonviolentboundswasaprincipalobjectiveofthecitystates. steleAstoneslabinscribedwithatext,adecoration,orboth.Stelaecouldbe usedtoindicategraves,militaryvictories,orpropertyboundaries.Important textssuchaslegaldecreesandtreatiesmightalsobeinscribedonthem. strategosThecommontermforamilitaryleader.Inthecitystates,thisoffice wasusuallypoliticalaswellasmilitary.InAthens,after487,thetenstratgoi weretheonlyelectedhighofficials(theothersbeingselectedbylot);thusmost ofthepowerfulpoliticiansofthefifthcenturywerestrategoi.IntheHellenistic era,duringthereignsofAlexanderIII,PhilipIII,andAlexanderIV,stratgos (general)wasthetitleofthehighestrankingMacedonianmilitarycommanderin EuropeandAsia.ThefourattestedstrategoiofthisperiodwereAntipater, Polyperchon,andCassanderinEuropeandAntigonustheOneEyedinAsia. 487

symposionInArchaicandlaterperiodstheafterdinnerdrinkingparty, madeupofasmallnumber(betweenfourteentothirty)ofmen,wasafrequent eventinadultmalesociallife,primarilyamongtheelite.Thesymposionwasan importantbondingritualamongyoungaristocratsand(likethehetaireiai,q.v.) wasoftentheoccasionoffactionalplotting.Meaningdrinkingtogether,itisthe originoftheEnglishwordsymposium. synedrionArepresentativecouncilsuchasthatoftheSecondAthenian Confederacy(q.v.)ortheCorinthianLeague(q.v.).ThesynedrionoftheSecond AthenianConfederacywascomposedofasinglerepresentativefromeach memberstateandruledtheconfederacyjointlywiththeAthenianassembly; policydecisionshadtoberatifiedbybothbodies.Thesynedrionofthe CorinthianLeagueconsistedofrepresentativesofthemembercitiesandethnof theleague.ThelattersynedrionwasresponsibleforupholdingtheCommon Peace(q.v.)thatestablishedtheCorinthianLeagueandwasempoweredto arbitratedisputesamongitsmembersandtotryindividualsaccusedof betrayingitsgoals. synoecism(synoikismos)Thetermusedfortheprocesswherebyseveral separatecommunitieswereformedintoasinglepoliticalunion.Synoecismalso referredtotheactualmovementofpeoplefromseveralcommunitiesintoa brandnewcompositesettlement. talentSeecurrency,Athenian. temenosInMycenaeantimesandintheDarkAge,atemenoswasaparcelof choicelandgivenasaduetothepreeminentfamilies.Temenoswasalsotheterm forasacredprecinctoflandgiventoagodorhero,containinganaltar,andoften otherbuildings,forcultandritual.Thisbecametheprevalentmeaninginthe Archaicandlaterperiods,asthecustomofgivinglandtotheleaderswaned (thoughitdidnotcompletelyvanish)withtheshortageofgoodland. TheoricFundAspecialfundestablishedatAthensprobablyinthe350sBCby Eubulus.Inpeacetimeitreceivedthefiscalsurplusremainingafterallannual expendituresmandatedbylawhadbeenmade.Thepurposeofthefundwasto enablepoorAthenianstoattendpublicfestivals,butitwasalsousedforvarious otherpurposesincludingworkonthedockyardsandthepublicarsenal.In wartimeuseofthesurplusformilitarypurposeswaspossiblebyvoteofthe Athenianassembly,butsuchusewasunpopular. thesThetermforafreemanwhowasforcedbyhispovertytohireoutasa laborerforwages.InAthens,accordingtotheeconomicdivisionsattributedto Solon(c.600BC),thethtes(plural)formedthelowestclassofcitizens. ThirtyTyrantsTheproSpartanpuppetgovernmentinstalledinAthensby Lysanderin404.Aftermurderingoverathousandcitizens,aswellasmetics whosepropertytheycoveted,theThirtywereoverthrownthefollowingyear. 488

tholos(pluraltholoi)Atypeofmonumentalabovegroundstonetomb (shapedlikeabeehive)favoredbytheelitesoftheLateBronzeAge.Inthe Classicalperiod,circularstructures,alsocalledtholoi,servedastemplesand publicbuildings. triremeThemoderntermforthestandardformofGreekwarship(trirs)inthe Classicalperiod.Propelledbythreebanksofoars,andattainingspeedsofnine knots,thetriremeuseditsbronzeramtodisableenemyships.Athenianoarsmen werethebestatthismaneuver,andAthenianfleetsdominatednavalwarfare duringthefifthcentury. tyranny(tyrannis)Theillegalseizureandcontrolofgovernmentalpowerina polisbyasinglestrongman,thetyrant(tyrannos).Tyrannyoccurredasaphase inmanycitystatesduringtheseventhandsixthcenturies,andisoftenseenas anintermediatestagebetweennarrowoligarchyandmoredemocraticformsof polity.Inthelatefifthandthefourthcentury,anewkindoftyrant,themilitary dictator,arose,especiallyinSicily. wanaxLord,master.ThetitleofthemonarchicalrulerofaMycenaean kingdom.Intheformanaxitappearsasthetitleofgodsandhighrankingchiefs inHomer. xeniaSeeguestfriendship. zeugitaiSeeSolonicsystem. 489