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• Historical Cost Accounting values can relate to transactions that could be a year
old or 10 years old. So, the acquisition value may be out of date and thus balance
sheet represents out of date values.
• Historical cost accounting is only interested in cost allocation and not in the value
of an asset. So, it discloses the acquisition cost of an asset and its depreciation in
the following year, but ignores the possibility that the current market value of the
asset may be higher or lower than the disclosed amount.
• Historical Cost Accounting has also flaw in terms of inflation. It is based on the
assumption that the purchasing power remains same over a period of time. But in
reality, an asset purchased at the current point of time may be more expensive in
future due to inflation. Historical cost financial statements are unadjusted for this
inflation. As a result, in the time of high inflation, profits are inflated and thus the
tax bill tends to increase.
• When an entity’s financial instruments are concerned, historical cost prices reflect
both an old interest rate and an outdated assessment of the amounts, timing &
uncertainty of future cash flows.
• Intangible assets acquired outside of business combination (internally generated)
are not reported in historical financial statements.
• Reliable forecast of the future income effects of a financial instrument is unlikely
to be possible from the simple extrapolation of past gain and losses based on
historical cost.
Introduction to Price Level changes
Prices do not remain constant over a period of time. They tend to change due to various
economic, social or political factors. Changes in the price levels cause two types of
economic conditions, inflation and deflation. Inflation may be defined as a period of
general increase in the prices of factors of production whereas deflation means fall in the
general price level. These changes in the price levels lead to inaccurate presentation of
financial statements. This is so because the financial statements are prepared on historical
costs on the assumption that the unit of account, i.e. rupees in the case of India, has static
value. But the assumption is not valid because the value of the unit of account, i.e., the
purchasing power of the rupee, keeps changing.
Financial statements are usually based on actual or historical cost concept. They reveal
the impact of various transactions involved in the accounting period on the operating and
financial health of the company. The various transactions include:
1. Current assets acquired and current liabilities incurred at different points of time
in the accounting period.
2. Various expenses incurred and income earned at different points of time in the
accounting period
3. Various assets acquired at different points of time
4. Various liabilities incurred at different points of time. Hence, it is clear that the
measurement unit of various transactions, i.e. money, relates to different points of
time. But the value of money does not remain the same over a period of time; it
has different values at different points of time due to changes in the price level.
It is generally said that profit as arrived from the profit and loss account ont eh basis of
historical cost has a tendency to be overstated in times of rise in prices. This is so because
during inflation the selling prices would indicate the value realized in terms of the
increased prices but the costs which pertain to the earlier periods would show lower
values.
The main objective of this method is to take into consideration the changes in the value of
money as a result of changes in the general price levels. It helps in presenting the
financial statements in terms of a unit of measurement of constant value when both cost
and revenue have been changing due to changes in the price levels.
a. Conversion Technique: in this method, various items of balance sheet and profit
and loss account are adjusted with the help of recognized general price index. The
conversion factor can be calculated with the help of the following formula:
b. Mid – Period Conversion: there are several transactions which take place
throughout the year such as purchases, sales, expenses, etc. For conversion of
such items, average index of the year can be taken as the one index for all such
items. If such an average is not available, the index of the mid-year be taken for
this purpose. And, if the index of the mid year is also not available, then the
average of index at the beginning and at the end of the period may be taken.
Non-monetary items: these cannot be stated in fixed monetary amounts. These are
bldgs, machinery, inventories of materials and finished goods meant for sale. Assets
may sell at any price inspite of its use. Hence, under CPP method, all such items are
to be restated to represent current general purchasing power.
A change in purchasing power of money affects both monetary and non-monetary
items. Gain/ loss on these items must be taken into account in this method and must
be shown as a separate item to arrive at overall P/L.
Another problem posed by this price level changes (and more so by inflation) is that how
much depreciation should be charged on fixed assets. The purpose of charging
depreciation is two fold – (i) to show the true and fair view of the financial statements
and the profitability of the concern, and (ii) to provide sufficient funds to replace the
assets after the expiry of the life of the asset.
In the Current value Accounting Technique of price level accounting all assets and
liabilities are shown in the balance sheet at their current values. The value of the net
assets at the beginning and at the end of the accounting period is ascertained and the
difference in the value in the beginning and the end is termed as profit or loss, as the case
may be. In this method also, like replacement cost accounting technique, it is very
difficult to determine relevant current values and there is an element of subjectivity in
this technique.
The crux of the Current Cost Accounting Technique is the preparation of financial
statements (B/S and P&L account) on the current values of individual items and not on
the historical or original cost.
The Current Cost Accounting Technique (CCA) has been preferred to the CPP technique
of price level accounting as it is a complete system of inflation accounting. The financial
statements prepared under this technique provide more realistic information and make a
distinction between profits earned from business operations and the gains arising from
changes in price levels. As depreciation under CCA is provided on current cost, the
method prevents overstatement of profits and keeps the capital intact. The effect of
holding monetary items in terms of gains and losses having an impact on the finance of
the business is also highlighted.
However, there are many difficulties in the operation of CCA technique:
a. It is very difficult to determine the ‘value to the business’ of a real asset.
b. There is an element of subjectivity in this technique.
c. It does not hold good during the periods of depreciation
i). Current Cost of Sales Adjustment (COSA): Under the CCA technique, cost of sales
are to be calculated on the basis of cost of replacing the goods at the time they are sold.
The important principle is that current costs must be matched with current revenues. As
for sales are concerned, it is current revenue and out of the costs, all operating expenses
are current costs. But in case of inventories, certain adjustments will have to be made,
known as cost of sales adjustment. Cost of sales adjustment can be calculated with the
help of the following formula:
COSA = (C-O) – Ia (C – O)
Ic Io
Where
C = Historical cost of closing stock
O = Historical cost of opening stock
Ia = Average Index Number
Ic = Index Number appropriate to closing stock
Io = Index Number appropriate to opening stock
ii). Depreciate Adjustment: under the CCA method, assets are shown in the balance
sheet on current replacement costs after allowing for depreciation. This will require an
adjustment in depreciation also. Current year’s depreciation under CCA can be calculated
with the help of following formula:
= Opening Current Value of Assets + Closing Current Value of Assets
2 x Life of Asset
MWCA = (C-O) – Ia (C – O)
Ic Io
Where
C = Closing Monetary Working Capital
O = Opening MWC
Ia = Average Index for the period
Ic = appropriate Index for closing MWC
Io = appropriate Index for opening MWC
v). Gearing Adjustment: During the period of rising prices, shareholders are benefited
to the extent fixed assets and net working capital, are financed while the amount of
borrowings to be repaid remains fixed except interest charges. In the same manner, there
is a loss to the shareholders in the period of falling prices. To adjust such profit or loss on
account of borrowings, ‘gearing adjustment’ is required to be made. ‘Gearing adjustment’
is also a financing adjustment like COSA and MWCA. This adjustment reduces the total
adjustment for cost of sales, depreciation and monetary working capital in the proportion
of finance by borrowings to the total financing. Gearing adjustment can be calculated
with the help of the following formula:
Gearing Adjustment = B x A
B+S