Does the use of Instagram affect a persons self-esteem?

Nicol Colarusso and Erica Bettencourt Salem State University

2 Introduction Social networking sites (S.N.S) have been on the rise since the Internet was first created. Now what are social networking sites exactly used for? Well, According to some typically, users register via email and in return for advertising display are provided free online space and web publishing tools. Among a variety of elements, profile authors may include photographs, animation, music files, blogs as well as links to other sites. Additionally, users may simultaneously communicate via instant messaging or send email. Subscribers have the option of allowing anyone access to their profile or of limiting the number of peer group members. (Russell Research, 2006) The uses of social networking sites are for one overall reason, which is to create networks with other users. According to (Pew Internet and American Life Project, 2007), social networking websites are sites where users create a profile and connect their profile to others for the purpose of forming a personal network. The majority of social networking users include young teens and college students. Studies have shown adolescents and college students use social networking sites the most frequently (Buffardi and Campbell, 2008, Pempek et al., 2009 and Steinfield et al., 2008). Although there is a clear trend toward an older age demographic (35-54 years) of social networking servers, young people still comprise one of the largest Internet populations. (Russell Research, 2006). These networking sites cater to all ages and for different reasons. A study of college students identified five motives for use of the internet- interpersonal utility, passing time, convenience, information seeking, and entertainment (Papacharissi and Rubin, 2002)

3 One of the most popular social networking sites on the Internet is Facebook. Facebook counts more than 1 billion active users who spend nearly an hour online everyday (Facebook Statistics, 2012). Another popular social networking site that has expanded in the past few years has been Instagram. The first version of Instgram was created in 8 weeks and launched on the App Store on October 6, 2010. Apple soon named it App of the Week and Instagram started adding 100,000 new users per week (Jennifer Van Grove, 2011) The startup attracted 12 million users in just over a year on the App Store. By early November, the small company and we mean small; Instagram has just seven employees grabbed another million and now boasts well over 13 million application users, co-founder Kevin Systrom shared with VentureBeat (Jennifer Van Grove, 2011). Today, Instagram remains an iPhone-only application, though it does have a popular API that developers are using to bring the experiences to new platforms (Jennifer Van Grove, 2011). If the only hand held device that is compatible with Instagram is the iPhone, how many more users would Instagram gain by adding more compatibility to other handheld devices? With having so many active users all social networking sites, especially sites so popular such as Facebook and Instagram, must have some effect on a persons selfesteem. On friend networking sites, interpersonal feedback is often publicly available to all other members of the site. Such evaluations in the public sphere are particularly likely to affect, the development of adolescents self-esteem (Harter and Whitesell, 2003) There have been many studies on Facebook since it has been out for a few years, but what about Instagram. With Instagram on the rise in active users it is very important for people to know the effects it has on peoples self-esteem especially since some many of its users

4 are adolescences and college students. These people are the next generation, it is important for us to see how these social networking sites will affect our society now because that will only result in how our society will be in the future.

Literature Review Many researchers have studied the relationship between the use of social networking sites and the psychological effects to a persons self-esteem. This is an important topic because studies have shown adolescents and college students use social networking sites the most frequently (Buffardi and Campbell, 2008, Pempek et al., 2009 and Steinfield et al., 2008). Social networking sites are spanning past young adults. Even older adults are tuning in, with almost half of Americans above the age of 50 currently registered as social networking site users a 100% increase from the previous year (Pew Research Center, 2010). Some people may not know what a social networking site is. Social networking sites are viewed as a convenient tool for procrastinating, gossiping, relieving boredom, or expressing narcissist drives (Buffardi & Campbell). According to (Russell Research, 2006) typically, users register via email and in return for advertising display are provided free online space and web publishing tools. Among a variety of elements, profile authors may include photographs, animation, music files, blogs as well as links to other sites. Additionally, users may simultaneously communicate via instant messaging or send email. Subscribers have the option of allowing anyone access to their profile or of limiting the number of peer group members.

5 Social networking sites allow users to carefully plan their self-presentation and appear more social and popular (Zywica and Danowski, 2008). According to (Walther, Slovacek, and Tidwell, 2001), Individuals can carefully select profile pictures and selfdescriptions that might make them appear more popular. Social networking sites facilitate reaching a large audience with one mouse click (Siibak, 2009; 3). Lastly, According to (Pew Internet and American Life Project, 2007), social networking websites are sites where users create a profile and connect their profile to others for the purpose of forming a personal network. These networking sites cater to all ages and for different reasons. A study of college students identified five motives for use of the internet- interpersonal utility, passing time, convenience, information seeking, and entertainment (Papacharissi and Rubin, 2002). Although there is a clear trend toward an older age demographic (35-54 years) of social networking servers, young people still comprise one of the largest internet populations. (Russell Research, 2006). One of the most popular social networking sites on the internet is Facebook. Facebook counts more than 1 billion active users who spend nearly an hour online everyday (Facebook Statistics, 2012). Facebook users choose the individuals they allow to be part of their contacts and can both give and receive feedback through profiles (Valkenburg, Peter and Schouten, 2006). Social networking site users share information with friends and peers. But friends on Facebook can be a loosely used term for associated with that relationship. The notion of Facebook friends, however, differs greatly from the traditional notion of friends in that the former expands much more quickly and broadly through the simple friending process in which a friend relationship becomes established

6 when a user sends a friend request to an individual by clicking the add button and the other party accepts the request (Tong et al., 2008). Social networking sites provide an opportunity for intergenerational and intergroup contact and communication, which is perhaps less risky than offline communication and potentially very satisfying (Barker, 2011). Peer acceptance and interpersonal feedback on the self, both important features of friend network sites, are vital predictors of self-esteem and well-being in adolescents (e.g., Armsden and Greenberg, 1987; Harter, 1999; Hartup, 1996). On friend networking sites, interpersonal feedback is often publicly available to all other members of the site. Such evaluations in the public sphere are particularly likely to affect, the development of adolescents self-esteem (Harter and Whitesell, 2003). Social networking sites, such as Facebook, are particularly interesting to communication researchers because they are dedicated specifically to forming and managing impressions, as well as engaging in relational maintenance and relationshipseeking behaviors (Tong et al., 2008). This leads me to self-esteem. Self- esteem has yet to be defined by one simple definition. Over the years researchers have come up with different explanations to what self-esteem actually is. Most of the definitions circle around attitudes toward one self. There are different categories of self-esteem that help us understand the construct of it. Some of the categories are self-affirmation, social identity, self-presentation and selfconcept. Many researchers have spent time trying to construct self-esteem. There are different levels of self-esteem in general. (Simpson and Boyle, 1975) noted that researchers have measured global self-esteem in reference to an overall evaluation of

7 self-worth, role-specific self-esteem as the self-evaluation that arises from one of lifes many roles (parent, student, spouse, etc.) and task- or- situation- specific self-esteem as the self-evaluation that results from behavior in a specific situation and representing a persons competence in a task just performed. (Korman, 1976) notes that the way individuals react to life experiences varies as a function of their level of self-esteem or the extent to which they perceive themselves as competent, need-satisfying individuals. One underlying theoretical tenet regarding selfesteem is that individuals will develop attitudes and behave in ways that will maintain their level of self-esteem. (James, 1890) defined self-esteem as a summary evaluation that reflects a ratio of our pretensions divided by our successes (pp. 310). Self- esteem reflects a baseline feeling of self that one carries at all times regardless of objective reality. (Cooley, 1902) said that the self is determined and judged by the perception of others. (Mead, 1934) saw the self as a product of interactions in which the individual experiences him- or herself as reflected in the behavior of others. (Rogers, 1951) referred to self-esteem as the extent to which a person likes, values, and accepts him- or herself. Also unconditional positive self-regard is dependent on the unconditional positive regard of significant others. (White, 1963) described self-esteem as a process developing from two sources: an internal source of a sense of accomplishment and an external source of affirmation from others. An individual may have generally positive attitudes toward the self, possess a good sense of certain situations or particular days may feel better or worse about him- or herself (Demo, 1985).

8 Self- affirmation is defined as, the process of bringing to awareness essential aspects of the self-concept, such as values, meaningful relationships, and cherished personal characteristics (Sherman & Cohen, 206; Steele, 1988). Another part of selfesteem that correlates with self-concept is a persons social identity. Social identity is part of an individuals self-concept, which derives from his knowledge of his membership of a social group (or groups) together with the value and emotional significance attached to that membership (Tajfel, 1978). (Ellemers, Kortekaas, & Ouwerkerk, 1999) believe that three components may contribute to ones social identity: a cognitive component (a cognitive awareness of ones membership in a social groupself- categorization), an evaluative component (a positive or negative value connotation attached to this group membershipgroup, self-esteem), and an emotional component (a sense of emotional involvement with the group-affective commitment). (SIT, Tajfel & Turner, 1986) posits that social identity stems from that part of the individuals self-concept which derives from their knowledge of their membership of a social group (or groups) together with the value and emotional significance of that membership. Self-concept is a widely used general term used when discussing self-esteem. Self-concept is a persons perceptions of him- or herself that are formed through an individuals experiences with and interpretations of his or her environment (Shavelson, Hubner, & Stanton, 1976). Lastly, a final solid definition of self-esteem can be defined as the attitudinal, evaluative component of the self; the affective judgments placed on the self-concept

9 consisting of feelings of worth and acceptance, which are developed and maintained as a consequence of awareness of competence, sense of achievement, and feedback from the external world (Guindon, 2002). Many researchers have done studies that associated with self-esteem and the use of social networking sites. There have been a significant amount of findings from these studies. A social network site that makes it easier for lower self-esteem students to engage with others outside of their close personal networks therefore be expected to have a larger effect for them than for higher self-esteem students (Steinfield et al., 2008). Steinfield says, This is because individuals with low self-esteem are able to communicate with individuals on Facebook they may not be as readily able to do so in person. It likely makes asking questions and making plans easier since a response is not expected so readily. (Pembek et al., 2009) found that undergraduate participants reported that Facebook posts detailing favorite music, movies and books were important in conveying identity. Also students reported that posting photos was a major activity that often helped them express who they were. Among teenagers in Great Britain, (Livingstone, 2008) described how communication via social networking sites is in part "necessary to reaffirm one's place within the peer network." "The findings the importance of collective self-esteem as a precursor to social networking site use for communication with valued peer group members." (Barker, V., 2011) Also evidence of a desire to compensate by seeking sources of connection/ comfort

10 via social networking sites was expected among those who felt disenchanted with their offline peers (Barker, 2011). Facebook profiles have been shown to enhance state self-esteem (Gonzales & Hancock, 2001), to improve adolescents' social self-esteem through positive feedback from peers (Valkenburg, Peter & Schouten, 2006) and to provide an unconscious boost in feelings of self-worth (Toma & Hancock, 2011). (Schouten, 2006) found that a study showed adolescents self-esteem was affected solely by the tone of the feedback that adolescents received on their profiles. In fact, positive feedback enhanced adolescents' self-esteem, and negative feedback decreased their self-esteem. A study of college students showed those who considered the internet as a warm, social and active environment used it mainly to pass time, for convenience, interpersonal utility and entertainment. Those who felt less secure in face-to-face interaction were more likely to turn to the internet for interactional purposes (Papacharissi, Z., & Rubin, A.M. 2000). In the same paper, (Barker, 2011) noted that adolescents who feel isolated and exhibit negative collective self-esteem (feel that they are not part of a 'popular' group) turn to their social networking pages for companionship. Earlier research suggests that users of social networking sites are quite able to learn how to optimize their self-presentation through their profile (Ellison et al., 2004). Self-presentation is mainly how you present yourself to others. (Goffman, 1959) asserted that people engage in strategic actions to create and maintain a desired image. (Goffman, 1959) believed that individuals not only try to convince others to see them as just, respectable, and moral individuals, but also that people want to maintain established

11 positive impressions. Individuals do not only seek to manage their impression face-toface, but also in computer-mediated environments (Zhao et al., 2008). (Toma, 2012) did a study with results from the self-presenter's perspective. (Toma, 2012) says, "Results show that, from the perspective of the self-presenters, Facebook profiles (1) represent positive and flattering self-portrayals, although not sufficiently flattering as to convey an idealized version of self; (2) are fairly accurate in conveying information about many personality dimensions, such as physical attractiveness, friendliness, and likeability; (3) are strategic in that profile owners selfenhance on certain dimensions, such as being outgoing, relaxed, adventurous and funny, while they self- diminish on others, such as being reliable and ambitious; and (4) are broad, in the sense of conveying a vast array of impressions, particularly those related to sociability." There are still a lot of studies that need to take place in order to fully understand all of the psychological self-esteem effects that are caused by social networking sites. But social networking sites such as Facebook will give researchers a solid ground to start their studies. This topic is so vast; we may never truly know every cause and effect of these social networking sites. But there are many studies out there that have given us an insight into this topic. Social networking site users will communicate through these social networking sites and will display information about themselves. Not all users will have the same effects because a person's self-esteem is not solely based on one definition. Also each person's profile may not contain the same information about the user. Users may use these sites for different reasons, such as, entertainment or communication with others.

12 These social networking sites have been growing immensely and researchers will continue to study their effects.

Research question / Hypothesis Our research question is whether or not the use of Instagram has a negative effect on a persons self-esteem. Does the use of Instagram make a persons self-esteem positive or negative? Our hypothesis is that the more time an Instagram user spends on Instagram, the less self-esteem the person has. We hypothesized that if a user does not get enough positive feedback from followers, including likes and positive comments that a person begins to have less self-esteem. We have determined this as our hypothesis due to the facts that social networking sites are viewed as a convenient tool for procrastinating, gossiping, relieving boredom, or expressing narcissist drives (Buffardi & Campbell). If these finding are true of social networking sites, this would imply that only narcissist driven people use social networking sites. If a person were narcissist driven they would need the positive feedback to feel good about themselves. Also social networking users are able to put a false image of themselves on social networking sites to make them more desirable to others. Social networking sites allow users to carefully plan their selfpresentation and appear more social and popular (Zywica and Danowski, 2008)

Methods Our independent variable was the use and the amount of time spent on Instagram, while the dependent variable was the effects of Instagram on a persons self-esteem. To

13 conceptualize our independent and dependent variable we thought of what the uses of social networking sites were, (social networking websites are sites where users create a profile and connect their profile to others for the purpose of forming a personal network.) (Pew Internet and American Life Project, 2007). Social networking sites, such as Facebook, are particularly interesting to communication researchers because they are dedicated specifically to forming and managing impressions, as well as engaging in relational maintenance and relationship-seeking behaviors (Tong et al., 2008). This suggests how the uses of these sites are to judge someone from their page. This led us to create the question; does the use of Instagram have an effect on a persons self-esteem? To operationalize our variables we created a six-survey question to determine the use of Instagram, and how Instagram users felt about themselves overall. The questions included, Self-Esteem Definition: A confidence and satisfaction in oneself. (http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/self-esteem, 2013) 1=Strongly agree 5=Strongly disagree 1. How often do you use Instagram? 2. I feel that I do not have much to be proud of. 3. I take a positive attitude towards myself. 4. On the whole, I am satisfied with myself. 5. I feel that I have a number of good qualities. 6. I feel that I am a person of worth at least on an equal plane with others.

14 This survey was created in survey money, and was distributed through social networking sites including Facebook and Twitter. The survey had 27 participants; the results and participants remained anonymous. When creating the questions, we based our questions off of Rosenbergs self-esteem scale. However we did modify some of his questions to better fit our study. Once we had received all of our participants results, we gathered the results and examined the participants answers. We placed the results into excel and found the average, and the standard deviation of all the questions asked in the survey, also we also found these results for the independent variable (Instagram use) and the dependent variable (self-esteem). Also within excel we had found the correlation between both the independent variable (Instagram use) and the dependent variable (selfesteem). We did these finding to make the results of the survey more clear to understand, explain, and evaluate.

Results To determine our results that Instagram use negatively affects a persons selfesteem we had 27 participants take a six-question survey. For the survey, we used a scale that included 1=Strongly agree 2 =Agree 3 =Neutral 4 = Disagree 5 = Strongly disagree

15

Participants 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Q1 results 3 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 2 1 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1

Q2 results 5 2 4 2 4 4 5 5 5 2 4 3 5 5 5 2 4 5 4 5 5 4 4 5 3

Q3 results 2 2 5 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 3 2 2 2 3 1 3 1 2 2

Q4 results 2 3 4 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 3 1 2 2 4 1 2 3 4 2 2 2 2 2

Q5 results 2 2 2 4 2 3 1 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2

Q6 results 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 3

16 26 27 1 2 3 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Our results determined that the use of Instagram had a positive effect on a persons self-esteem. The average and standard deviations results of the questions included, Question Average Stand. Div. 1 1.51851852 0.7388657 2 4 1.05409255 3 2 4 2.22222222 5 1.81481481 0.66872111 6 1.77777778 0.49690399

0.81649658 0.7856742

These results conclude that the average person does not have low self-esteem due to the use of Instagram. The results show that people who use Instagram more think more highly of themselves than those that use Instagram less. While the results also show that the people who use Instagram less, have less self-esteem. Also we found the average, the stand deviations and the correlation of the results from the questions administered from the survey. These results included Variable Average Stand deviation Correlation between (IND.V) and (DEP.V) Instagram use (Independent) 1.518518519 1.743496636 0.189536819 Self-esteem (Dependent) 11.81481481 0.738886568 0.189536819

The correlation between the Independent Variable and the dependent variable is 0.189536819. This correlation determines that even though it is a small number, the correlation is positive which indicates that Instagram use has a positive effect on a

17 persons self-esteem, which indicates that a person is not negatively affected by the use of Instagram and social networking sites.

Discussion The significances of our findings indicate that our hypothesis that Instagram use would have a negative effect on a persons self-esteem is incorrect. The results of the study conclude the opposite of the hypothesis, the results show that the use of Instagram has a positive effect on a persons self-esteem. The correlation between the dependent variable (self-esteem) and the independent variable (Instagram use) was positive. This determines that Instagram use actually has a positive effect on a persons self-esteem. Our finding relate to the literature used in many ways, one literature analysis used for this study was Mirror, Mirror on my Facebook wall: Effects of Exposure to Facebook on self-esteem by Amy L. Gonzales and Jeffrey T. Handcock, which conducted a similar study of the effects of Facebook on self-esteem and which resulted in similar results. This study was designed to test the effects of exposure to Facebook on self-esteem relative to traditional self-awareness enhancing stimuli, such as a mirror or photo of oneself. The study suggests that selective self-presentation, afforded by digitally mediated environments can have a positive inuence on self-esteem (Gonzales, Handcock, 2011). Also within literature analysis they stated, The results revealed that, in contrast to previous work on OSA, becoming self-aware by viewing ones own Facebook prole enhances self-esteem rather than diminishes it. Participants that updated their proles and viewed their own proles during the experiment also reported greater self-esteem, which

18 lends additional support to the Hyperpersonal Model. (Gonzales, Handcock, 2011). The study done by Gonzales and Handcock had similar results to the study conducted here. The study done by Amy L. Gonzales and Jeffrey T. Handcock had results that showed a positive correlation between the use of Facebook and self-esteem. These ndings suggest that selective self-presentation in digital media, which leads to intensied relationship formation, also inuences impressions of the self (Gonzales, Handcock, 2011). Another study that supports these finding states, Facebook profiles have been shown to enhance state self-esteem (Gonzales & Hancock, 2001), to improve adolescents' social self-esteem through positive feedback from peers (Valkenburg, Peter & Schouten, 2006) and to provide an unconscious boost in feelings of self-worth (Toma & Hancock, 2011). By the results of these studies, they are suggesting that the more a person views their own social networking profile, and update their profiles the higher self-esteem they have. Within the study we had many strengths and weaknesses. Some of our strengths included the way we distributed the surveys to the participants. We used social networking sites including Facebook and Twitter. This was the most effective way to distribute our surveys since our study had to do with social networking use, most people that have a Facebook and twitter have an Instagram as well. If we were to distribute paper surveys, we do not think that it would have had the same effects or results as we had received. Along with our strength we had some weaknesses as well. Some of our weaknesses included the lack of questions regarding the amount of time actually spent on Instagram, the context they distributed and received, and how they feel when they are using or receiving feedback on Instagram. If the survey had focused more on the use of Instagram

19 as well as how a person felt about themselves while on Instagram the results would have been more accurate. Also to have more accurate results we would suggest that participants social networking content received is monitored. Does the person get a lot of positive feedback? How do they feel when they get over a certain number of likes? Do they try to get as much positive feedback as possible? Or do they just post content and not care about the feedback they receive? Another weakness encountered was the lack of participants that participated. There were only 27 participants that took the survey. With a larger sample size there would have been more accurate results, along with more results to analyze exactly what causes self-esteem to change either positive or negative while using Instagram. If others were to research a topic a good recommendation would be to research who uses social networking sites the more frequently, people that are in school and or educated or people that are out of school (high school) or are not educated (have not finished high school, or not attended college). Added to this research recommendation it would be interesting to research if there were a difference in content that educated people posted and the friends they followed, versus people that were uneducated. It would be interesting to find if there is a difference between the two. This way we would be able to see if there is a gap between these two groups of people. Can you be uneducated and still be interested in educational content? And can a person be educated and post uneducated or explicit content on social networking sites? Does being educated determine what you do or do not post on social networking sites? With the finding of this study it would either close the gap of educated and uneducated people or create more commonalities, or it would create an even larger gap between the two groups.

20

Conclusion Throughout the study the use of Instagram and the effects of its use on a persons self-esteem was examined. To conclude these results a six question survey was created and administered through social networking sites, such as Facebook and Twitter. The hypothesis given, which was that the use of Instagram would have a negative effect on a persons self-esteem was proven incorrect. The finding concluded that the use of Instagram had a positive effect on a persons self-esteem. The finding that Instagram has a positive effect on a persons self-esteem allows people, parents and teachers to know the effects of social networking on themselves, and young adults. If there was a negative effect of social networking sites on a persons self-esteem that could potentially create a self-conscious and negative future for our society. By having this study and various other studies conclude that social networking sites have a positive effect on peoples selfesteem, it also means that networking socially online is a positive aspect of our society. If people are able to benefit from social networking sites our society will be able to flourish and become more socially connected.

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