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mecanice de calculat au fost propuse anterior:
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variabilele aflate n curs de procesare. Acest registru este cunoscut sub denumirea de
UHJLVWUX DFXPXODWRU &DOFXODWRDUHOH HOHFWURQLFH DX IRVW LQL LDO SURSXVH VXE IRUPD XQXL
DSDUDW DEVWUDFW FDUH SRDWH UHDOL]D VDX VLPXOD RULFH WLS GH PDLQ PHFDQLF )RUPD
WHRUHWLFDIRVWLQWURGXVGHAlan Turing pe la mijlocul anului 1930.
&D L vQ FD]XO PXOWRU DOWH WHKQRORJLL GH]YROWDUHD SUDFWLF D XQHL PDLQL FDUH V
respecte acest model, a fost LQIOHQ DW GH DO GRLOHD U]ERL PRQGLDO $FHVW OXFUX D IRVW
posibil deoarece se dorea calcularea traiectoriilor de rachete (&ROORVXV L Eniac) sau
GHFRGDUHDFRGXOXL(QLJPDIRORVLWGH*HUPDQLDSHQWUXSURWHF LDPHVDMHORU
Primul program stocat electronic a fost folosit n 1948. n primii ani de dezvoltare
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QRWRULHWDWHGHFODUD LDOXLBill *DWHVIRQGDWRUXO0LFURVRIWFXPFQXYHGHFXPDUSXWHDIL
YUHRGDWQHYRLHGHPDLPXOWGHKo RAM.
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active ale ecranului. Aceste controale care sunt activate din PRXVH sunt caracteristice
sistemului de operare WINDOWS.
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(audio, video, teleworking) a individului cu societatea.
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,QGXVWULHFRQWUROLDXWRPDWL]DUH microcontrolere, CAM (Computer

Aided
Manufactory);
Economie: gestiune, transferul banilor, "banii electronici" .
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neurale, procesoare analogice.
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SURFHVRDUHDQDORJLFHVWD LLJUDILFHDUKLWHFWXUL00;
Proiectare : programele de tip CAD (Computer Aided Design)
Se mai pot da exemple n mulWHGRPHQLLvQVHVWHFHUWF OD RUD DFWXDO YLD D L

VRFLHWDWHDXPDQQXPDLSRWILFRQFHSXWHIUFDOFXODWRU
3URJUDPDUHDLOLPEDMHGHSURJUDPDUH
Prin SURJUDPDUHVHvQ HOHJHvQPRGJHQHULFWUDQVSXQHUHDXQRURSHUD LLUHSHWLWLYH
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transpunerea ntr-un limbaj de programare.
R D GRXD HWDS DXWRPDW FDUH WUDQVSXQH FRGXO VXUV vQLUXLUHD GH LQVWUXF LXQL
specifice limbajului respectiv ntr-un FRGGLUHFWH[HFXWDELOinteligibil sistemului
GHFDOFXOOXFUXGHFDUHVHRFXSSURJUDPHVSHFLDOL]DWHQXPLWHFRPSLODWRDUH.
5ROXO SURJUDPULL HVWH FD ILH GDW R DQXPLW RSHUD LXQH VDX VXLW GH RSHUD LXQL
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H[HFXWH DVXSUD ORU VXLWD VWDQGDUG GH RSHUD LXQL L V OLYUH]H GDWHOH GH LHLUH DGLF
rezultatele).
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primul rnd cele care UH]HUYGHFODUR]RQGHPHPRULHFDILLQGVSHFLDOGHGLFDWQXPDL
SHQWUXDQXPLWHGDWHR]RQGHPHPRULHvQFDUHVHYRUFLWLGDWHOHGHLQWUDUHR]RQGH
PHPRULHvQFDUHVHYRUSVWUDGDWHOHLQWHUPHGLDUH(cele care apar n decursul calculelor
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Ca REVHUYD LH de ED]: un sistem de calcul este pur L simplu versiunea mult
GH]YROWDW a unui calculator de buzunar L deci nu trebuie V ne DWHSWP de la el ca vreo
GDW V IDF altceva dect l-a pus cineva, un programator prin intermediul unui program,
V IDF. ,QWHOLJHQ DDSDUHQWa unui sistem de calcul provine din cantitatea de LQWHOLJHQ
XPDQLQYHVWLWn respectivul program aflat n H[HFX LH
Hilar, am putea spune F omul vQFHDUF V IDF pe cineva GXS chipul L
DVHPQDUHD lui dar rezultatul este o copie SDOLG FDUH altfel este extrem de XWLO Din
aceste lucruri GHULY vestitul principiu de aur al primilor programatori GIGO (Garbage In
Garbage Out), care ntr-o traducere SUR]DLF vQVHDPQ: gunoi bagi gunoi VFR L L care
are meritul, n DIDU de cel umoristic, de a atrage DWHQ LD oricui care se va apuca de
programare F din nefericire calculatorul face numai ce i se LQGLF prin diverse metode V
IDF. De aici UH]XOW R SULP DWHQ LRQDUH YDODELO aprope tot timpul n cazul
GHSDQULL(H[HFX LHLSDVFXSDVn scopul JVLULLeventualelor defecte n IXQF LRQDUHunui
SURJUDP &$87 17, (52$5($ 7$ '( 352*5$0$725 , $32, ' 9,1$
PE CALCULATOR.
Desigur H[LVWun procent cam de 5% din VLWXD LLn care un program scris corect
este executat JUHLW lucru care apare ca rezultat al LQWHUIHUHQ HL unor programe
neautorizate, cum ar fi YLUXLL FX programul aflat n H[HFX LH n cazul n care nu este
valabil acest lucru problema este mai FRPSOH[putnd fi implicate GHIHF LXQLaleatorii ale
SU LL KDUGZDUH Oricum ar fi aceste lucruri LQWU n sfera de DF LXQH a unui inginer de
sistem, Ldeci nu sunt luate aprioric n FRQVLGHUD LHfiind de obicei rare.
Pentru a putea vQ HOHJHarhitectura vom FXWDanumite analogii ntre un om Lun
sistem de calcul.
6 DQDOL]P ce se vQWkPSO FX un om n momentul n care vede o formulare de
genul : 2*2= .
'HLni se pare ceva evident, cu WR LLDPvQY DWpe de rost tabla vQPXO LULL V
vQFHUFPacum o descompunere a SDLORUFDUHsunt H[HFXWD L
n primul rnd PHPRUPn memoria WHPSRUDUsau de VFXUWGXUDWRSHUDQ]LLdatele
asupra FURUDvom executa o RSHUD LXQHapoi UHDOL]PRSHUD LXQHDGHvQPXO LUHrezultnd
4, care este SkQODcomunicarea lui YHUEDOsau prin scris tot n memoria WHPSRUDU6H
REVHUYFoperanzii 2,2 LRSHUD LXQHD DXfost preluate de pe un suport extern si anume
cel scris, rezultatul putnd fi UHWXUQDWtrimis FWUHHPL WRUXOunei cereri de lucru GXS
cum am spus tot pe DFHOLsistem extern de stocare.
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i acum VDQDOL]PDUKLWHFWXUDEORF(structura IXQF LRQDODunui sistem de calcul.
'XS FXP VH REVHUY GLQ ILJ ntr-un
sistem de calcul H[LVW
- un dispozitiv de stocare n PDV rolul
caietului pe care scrim /citim n cazul
nostru. Acest dispozitiv este materializat
prin Hard Disk (HDD) FUXLD i se mai
0HPRULH
'LVSR]LWLY
spune Lsuport fix de date L)ORSS\'LVN
7HPSRUDUm
,QWUDUH
(FDD) FUXLD i se mai spune L suport
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mobil de date .
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- o memorie WHPRUDU 5$0 5DQGRP
VLVWHPGHFDOFXO
Acces Memory) care MRDF H[DFW rolul
memoriei de VFXUWGXUDWumane.
- dispozitive de Intrare sau de ,HLUH prin care sistemul SULPHWH sau UHWXUQHD] GDWH n
cazul unui sistem de calcul acestea sunt tastatura L PRXVH FD dispozitive de intrare L
monitorul sau imprimanta ca dispozitive de LHLUH
A mai Umas de OPXULWproblema microprocesorului care este inima unui sistem
de calcul L DUH rolul de a coordona ntregul sistem. Desigur F DFHDVW coordonare se
UHDOL]HD]WRWprin intermediul unor programe care H[LVWn ceea cea am putea numi, prin
analogie cu omul, partea de reflexe FRQGL LRQDWH aceste programe se JVHVF ntr-o
memorie ROM (Read Only Memory) deci nu pot fi dect citite.
' LV S R ] LW LY G H
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+ ' ' ) ' '
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Sistemul de calcul GXS FXP VH REVHUY FRPSRUW destul similitudini cu omul la
nivel de DUKLWHFWXULdeasemeni, GXSFXPvom discuta, LODnivel de IXQF LRQDUH
6vedem cum se UHDOL]HD]ELQHvQ HOHVODnivel simplificat, H[HFX LDunei formule
de genul 2*2= .
Se FLWHWH GH pe suportul de stocare programul care FRQ LQH cererea QRDVWU VH
vQFDUF n memoria WHPSRUDU GH acest lucru se RFXS VLVWHPXOGHRSHUDUHprogramul
specializat care se RFXS GH traducerea unor LQVWUXF LXQL VLPSOH L LQWXLWLYH DOH
utilizatorului n comenzi directe FWUH partea de H[HFX LH D sistemului, n urma cererii
noastre explicite de lansare a programului) L VH ncepe H[HFX LD lui de FWUH procesor
H[HFX LHFDUHXUPHD]aproximativ sistemul uman de gndire. Pe scurt modul de H[HFX LH
la nivelul procesorului poate fi descris ca :
FLWHWHdatele utile (din RAM n aceast caz) (2,2)
FLWHWHRSHUD LDFDUHtrebuie H[HFXWDWasupra datelor suspomenite(tot din RAM)(*)
H[HFXWRSHUD LD
returneazrezultatul (nnapoi n RAM)(4).
La nivelul sistemului de calcul modul de H[HFX LHDUDWFDmai jos:
FLWHWHprogramul de executat (de pe sistemul de stocare fix/mobil) L
vQFDUFOn RAM
H[HFXWprogramul (din RAM)
la terminarea programului DWHDSWnoua cerere de H[HFX LH
0HPRULD7HPSRUDUDXQXLVLVWHPGHFDOFXO
'XSFXPDPpomenit n primul capitol, una din componentele de ED]DOHunui
sistem de calcul este memoria GLQDPLF5$0sau memoria WHPSRUDU
$FHDVWmemorie a fost FRQFHSXW LQkQGcont de faptul Fsistemul de QXPHUD LH
folosit n interiorul unui calculator este ED] 'H aici UH]XOW F orice fel de GDW sau
LQVWUXF LXQHefectiv SURFHVDWsau H[HFXWDWODnivelul PDLQLLtrebuie Vfie SDVWUDWVXE
forma ei ELQDU deci FRUHVSXQ]WRDUH bazei 2). ntruct n baza 2 nu H[LVW dect dou
numere 0 L UH]XOW F vom avea UHSUH]HQWUL VXE IRUPD unor LUXUL GH L GH /D
nivelul PDLQLL materializarea HIHFWLY D respectivelor numere este UHDOL]DW GH obicei,
prin DWDDUHD ORJLF D lui 1 la o tensiune de 5 YRO L iar lui 0 lipsei acestei tensiuni.
7RWXLindiferent de nivelul tehnologic este absolut nepractic ca VFRQVLGHUPIL[9sau
fix 0 V ca valori de FRPSDUD LHpentru Facest lucru ar fi dus la QLWHechipamente extrem
de scumpe LGHlente. Din aceasta FDX]VHFRQVLGHUDILsau 1 logic n jurul valorilor
sus PHQ LRQDWH FX V. De aici a rezultat posibilitatea folosirii unui condensator ca
element de memorare. Acest lucru este posibil deoarece n cazul unei UHvQFUFUL
periodice a acestuia se poate RE LHQH FD tensiunea la bornele lui V varieze n limitele
necesare QRX GDF fac suficient de repede DFHDVW UHvQFUFDUH n aceste FRQGL LL foarte
simplist putem vedea o memorie GLQDPLF ca o matrice LPHQV de condensatoare care pot
fi vQFUFDWHsau GHVFUFDWHn cursul RSHUD LXQLORUGHscriere/citire.
Aici mai apare o SUREOHPLanume QXPUXOGHEL LFDUHcompun datele utile de
calcul (ELW unitate LQIRUPD LRQDO FRUHVSXQ]WRDUH H[LVWHQ HL sau a unei tensiuni la
intrarea unui dispozitiv digital) care pot fi SURFHVD LODun moment dat de un procesor.
ntruct memoria RAM este cea care IXUQL]HD] respectivele date era logic ca ea
V fie RUJDQL]DW n diviziuni de o PULPH HJDO cu cea a QXPUXOXL de EL L sus PHQ LRQD L.
Aceste JUXSUL se numesc ORFD LLGHPHPRULH L pot fi considerate ca minima unitate care
poate fi VFULV sau FLWLW dintr-o memorie. O GDW OPXULW acest aspect devine clar F
pentru a P putea referi la una sau alta din ORFD LL trebuie V existe o PHWRG GH
individualizare VWULFW6DDOHVcea mai VLPSOFXSXWLQ Lanume
numerotarea lor QXPUXOORFD LHLnumindu-se DGUHVDORFD LHL.
1R LXQHDGHDOJRULWP
QSURFHVXOGHUH]ROYDUHDXQHLSUREOHPHIRORVLQGFDOFXODWRUXOH[LVWGRXID]H
-
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'HILQLUHDLDQDOL]DSUREOHPHLSRDWHILODUkQGXOHLGHVFRPSXVvQ
- specificarea datelor de intrare;
- VSHFLILFDUHDGDWHORUGHLHLUH
6SHFLILFDUHDGDWHORUGHLQWUDUHFRQVWvQ
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Ce date vor fi primite la intrare;

Care este formatul (forma lor de reprezentare) a datelor de intrare;
Care sunt valorile permise sau nepermise pentru datele de intrare;
([LVWXQHOHUHVWULF LLDOWHOHGHFkWODSULYLQGYDORULOHGHLQWUDUH
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FXPVHYDWLFkQGVDXWHUPLQDWGHLQWURGXVGDWHOHGHLQWUDUH
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vQWUHGDWHLQWHUPHGLDUHLGDWHGHLHLUH
2. &DUHYDILIRUPDWXOGDWHORUGHLHLUHGHH[HPSOXXQQXPUUHDOSRDWHILDILDWFXWUHL
VDXFXFLQFL]HFLPDOHVDXXQWH[WSRDWHILDILDWLQWHJUDOVDXSDU LDO
3. 6XQW VDX QX QHFHVDUH H[SOLFD LL VXSOLPHQWDUH SHQWUX XWLOL]DWRU vQ DIDUD GDWHORU GH
LHLUH
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FDUH GHVFULX PRGXO GH SUHOXFUDUH D XQRU GDWH GH LQWUDUH vQ VFRSXO UH]ROYULL XQHL
SUREOHPH 'HFL $/*257,08/ (67( $&($ 3$57( '( &$/&8/ &2081 1
&$=8/5(=2/95,,81(,352%/(0('(&$/&8/
8QH[HPSOXVLPSOXGHDOJRULWPDUILVXLWDGHRSHUD LLPDWHPDWLFHIFXWvQUH]ROYDUHD
XQHL HFXD LL PDWHPDWLFH GH JUDGXO ,, D;E;F FRHILFLHQ LL D E F VH VFKLPE GDU
modul de procesare a valorilor lor, nu.
3URSULHW LOHXQXLDOJRULWPVXQW
1. (VWHFRPSXVGLQLQVWUXF LXQLVLPSOHLFODUH
2. 2SHUD LXQLOHVSHFLILFDWHGHLQVWUXF LXQLVHH[HFXWvQWURDQXPLWVHFYHQ
3. 6ROX LDWUHEXLHRE LQXWvQWUXQQXPUILQLWGHSDL
'LQ FHOH VSXVH PDL VXV UH]XOW F 81 $/*25,70 (67( ,1'(3(1'(17 '(
7,38/ '( /,0%$- 1 &$5( (67( 75$16386 6$8 '( 7,38/ '( 0$,1 3(
CARE ESTE EXECUTAT.
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UHVSHFWLY352*5$0$5($6(&9(1,$/
8Q DOJRULWP VHFYHQ LDO HVWH DFHO DOJRULWP FUHDW SHQWUX H[HFX LD SH XQ FDOFXODWRU
VHFYHQ LDO'HQXPLUHDGHVHFYHQ LDOSURYLQHGLQIDSWXOFDFHVWDQXSRDWHH[HFXWDGHFkW
RVLQJXURSHUD LHODXQPRPHQWGDW
5HSUH]HQWDUHDDOJRULWPLORU
Q JHQHUDO XQ DOJRULWP SRDWH IL FRQVLGHUDW FD R GHVFULHUH D SUHOXFUULL HIHFWXDWH
asupra unui flux de date, prelucrare care are loc cu un scop bine determinat. Ca de obicei,
vQ FD]XO GH]YROWULL XQHL QRL WHRULL VD FXWDW DWkW R FDOH GH VWDQGDUGL]DUH D PRGXOXL GH
GHVFULHUH D XQXL DOJRULWP FkW L R FDOH GH DO IDFH LQGHSHQGHQW GH XQ OLPEDM GH
SURJUDPDUHDQXPHUH]XOWkQGGRXPHWRGHFODVLFH
-
metoda schemei logice (diagramei de flux (flowchart));

metoda pseudocodului.
0HWRGDVFKHPHLORJLFH
QFDGUXODFHVWHLPHWRGHVHIRORVHWHXQVHWGHVLPEROXULSUH]HQWDWvQILJXUD
SHQWUXGHVFULHUHDSDLORUFHWUHEXLHH[HFXWD LSHQWUXFDSURJUDPXOUH]XOWDWVQHUH]ROYHR
DQXPLWSUREOHP
'HLDIRVWH[WUHPGHIRORVLWSkQQXGHPXOWDFHDVWPHWRGSDUHDSLHUGHWHUHQ
vQ ID D UHSUH]HQWULL GH WLS SVHXGRFRG SRDWH L GDWRULW WLPSXOXL VXSOLPHQWDU SLHUGXW GH
utilizator cu executarea simbolurilor grafice.
6 DQDOL]P XQ SURJUDP GH FDOFXO D PHGLHL SHQWUX WUHL QRWH L V YHGHP FXP DU
DSUHDGHVFULVSULQDFHDVWPHWRG
'XSFXPVHREVHUYvQILJXUDVHGHVFULXHIHFWLYSDVFXSDVWRDWHRSHUD LXQLOH
care trebuiesc urmate.
Q ILJXUD VD VSHFLILFDW L vQFHSXWXO SURJUDPXOXL IDSW FDUH SDUH LQXWLO GDU vQ
FD]XOGHVFULHULLXQXLSURJUDPIRDUWHPDUHVHSUHDSRDWHFDVFKHPDORJLFVVHvQWLQGSH
]HFLGHSDJLQLFD]vQFDUHGHYLQHHYLGHQWQHFHVLWDWHDGHFODUULLvQFHSXWXOXLLVIkULWXOXL
de program.
QXUPWRUXOSDVVHGHFODUYDULDELOHOH2YDULDELOHVWHXQLGHQWLILFDWRUSURSULXDO
SURJUDPDWRUXOXL FDUH vQ FD]XO RSHUD LXQLL GH GHFODUDUH VH DWDHD] OD JHQHUDUHD
SURJUDPXOXL XQHL ]RQH GH PHPRULH D FUHL GLPHQVLXQH HVWH vQ GLUHFW FRQFRUGDQ FX
WLSXOGHGDWVWRFDWGHDFHDVWD
Se trece apoi la citirea datelor de intrare. n acest caz este vorba de trei note ceea
FH SUHVXSXQH F YDORULOH GH LQWUDUH SRW DYHD L FX ]HFLPDOH 0DL WkU]LX VH YD GLVFXWD
GHVSUHDOHJHUHDWLSXOXLGHYDULDELOIXQF LHGHVSHFLILFD LLOHXWLOL]DWRUXOXL
6HH[HFXWFDOFXOXOSURSULX]LVGXSFDUHVHDILHD]UH]XOWDWXOFX]HFLPDOH$
PDL UPDV GRDU PDUFDUHD VIkULWXO GH SURJUDP &KLDU GDF PHWRGD DUH R LPSUHVLH
DUWLVWLFVSRULWFkWHRGDWVHSLHUGHSUHDPXOWWLPSLKkUWLHvQFD]XOIRORVLULLHLLGH
DFHHDGLQFHvQFHPDLPXO LSUHIHUFDPHWRGGHGHVFULHUHpseudocodul.
6LPERO GH WHUPLQDUH
VDX vQFHSHUH SURJUDP
&XWLH GH FDOFXO
&XWLH GH FRPHQWDULX
&XWLH GH
,QWUDUH VDX ,HLUH 'DWH
)LU GH H[HFX LH D SURJUDPXOXL

)LJ 6LPEROXUL VWDQGDUG SHQWUX
PHWRGD VFKHPHL ORJLFH
XQXL
)LJ 6FKHPD ORJLF
SURJUDP GH FDOFXO D PHGLHL SHQWUX

WUHL QRWH
0HWRGDSVHXGRFRGXOXL
)D GHVFKHPDORJLFDUHGH]DYDQWDMXOFQXvQWRWGHDXQDUHGDEVROXWWR LSDLLGH
FDOFXO 7RWXL HVWH PDL FRPRG GH IRORVLW vQ FD]XO vQ FDUH VH GHVFULX DOJRULWPL SHQWUX
OLPEDMHOHGHSURJUDPDUHGHQLYHOPHGLXLvQDOW
6FKHPD ORJLF HVWH FHD PDL LQGLFDW FD PHWRG GH GHVFULHUH vQ VSHFLDO vQ FD]XO
LPSOHPHQWULLXQXLDOJRULWPIRORVLQGOLPEDMGHDVDPEODUHXQGHGHVFULHUHDDPQXQ LWD
ILHFUXL SDV HVWH QHFHVDU SHQWUX SXWHD PLQLPL]D DQVHOH DSDUL LHL XQRU HURUL GH
implementare.
DescrierHDHIHFWLYDSDLORUFHWUHEXLHHIHFWXD LIRORVLQGFXYLQWHOHOLPELLURPkQH
vPSUHXQ FX FXYLQWH FKHLH DOH OLPEDMXOXL GH SURJUDPDUH vQ FDUH VH YD LPSOHPHQWD
DOJRULWPXO VH QXPHWH SVHXGRFRG 6H REVHUY F vQ DFHVW FD] FULWHULXO LQGHSHQGHQ HL
WRWDOHDGHVFULHULLID GHOLPEDMXOGHLPSOHPHQWDUHQXHVWHvQWUXWRWXOUHVSHFWDW
3HQWUX FRPSDUD LH YRP GHVFULH PDL MRV vQ SVHXGRFRG SUREOHPD SUH]HQWDW vQ
figura 1.2.
YDULDELOHPDQQQ
^
FLWHWHQQQ
PD QQQ
DILHD]PDFX]HFLPDOH
`
CAPITOLUL 2
2. Limbajul C
Limbajele de programare de nivel mediu au fost serios dezvoltate pe la mijlocul anilor
,GHLOH GH ED] IRORVLWH SHQWUX SURLHFWDUHD ORU GHULY GLQ IRUPXOHOH IXQF LRQDOH &KXUFKFHIXVHVHUSURSXVHSULQDQLL/DRUDDFWXDOVHHVWLPHD]FH[LVWSHVWH
GH OLPEDMH GH SURJUDPDUH GLIHUHQ HOH vQWUH HOH ILLQG OHJDWH vQ SULQFLSDO GH VWLOXO GH
programare.
Limbajul FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslator) a fost unul dintre primele limbaje
GH SURJUDPDUH (O HVWH IRORVLW L DFXP vQ LQGXVWULH VDX FHUFHWDUH SHQWUX D LPSOHPHQWD
DSOLFD LLVSHFLILFHFXYROXPHPDULGHFDOFXOHPDWHPDWLFHFRPSOH[H
3H OkQJ OLPEDMH GH SURJUDPDUH SHQWUX PDLQL VHFYHQ LDOH VDX GH]YROWDW L
OLPEDMHFDUHVXSRUWSURFHVDUHSDUDOHO'LQQHIHULFLUHPDMRULWDWHDQXVXQWSRUWDELOHILLQG
RULHQWDWH VWULFW SH DUKLWHFWXUD PDLQLL SHQWUX FDUH D IRVW GH]YROWDW OLPEDMXO 'H DELD vQ
XOWLPLL]HFHDQLGH]YROWDUHDUDSLGDUH HOHORUGHFDOFXODWRDUHDFRQGXVLODRvQFHUFDUHGH
standardizare a unor limbaje ce pot crea cod executabil simultan pe mai multe sisteme de
calcul.
$YDQWDMHOHSURJUDPULLODQLYHOinalt sunt:
ascund GLIHUHQ HOHGHDUKLWHFWXULQWHUQ
sunt XRUGHXUPULWLPHQ LQXWmodificare i depanare XRDU
sunt portabile . De exemplu un cod scris n C poate fi executat i sub UNIX LVXE
DOS
nu au cel mai eficient FRGvQFRPSDUD LHFXFHOVFULVLQ$60GLUHFW
De obicei sistemele de operare erau dezvoltate in limbaj de ansamblare pentru a fi mai
rapide . Limbajul C, dezvoltat in 1972 este Dennis M.Retchie la Laboratoarele AT&T
Bell, este primul limbaj pentru crearea sisteme de operare. Numele limbajului provine din
faptul c este rezultatul PEXQW LULLlimbajului B, folosit n scrierea UNIX pentru DEC
PDP7. Prima GRFXPHQWD LH despre acest limbaj a fost The C Programing Language,
scrisGH5HWFKLHLBrian Kernighan n 1977. naintea ei exista doar The C Reference
Manual, scris de Retchie. 2 FDUDFWHULVWLF LPSRUWDQW D DFHVWXL OLPEDM HVWH IDSWXO F
SRDWHILFRQVLGHUDWVLPXOWDQLXQOLPEDMGHQLYHOPHGLXLXQOLPEDMGHQLYHOVF]XW
2 GDW FX UVSkQGLUHD OXL SULQWUH SURJUDPDWRULL SURIHVLRQLWL VD WUHFXW L OD
DGDSWDUHDFRPSLODWRUXOXLSHQWUXVLVWHPXOGHRSHUDUH06'26'H DVHPHQHDD DSUXW L
DOWSUREOHPLDQXPHIDSWXOFVWDQGDUGXO.&R nu mai era satisfFWRU'HDVHPHQHD
GDWRULWYDULDQWHORUGHFRPSLODUHSHQWUX3&-uri C ncepuse VLpiardGLQportabilitate.
n acel moment Institutul 1D LRQDOpentru Standarde al Americii (ANSI), a creat
un subcomitet pt. a defini o versiune RILFLDOSWlimbajul C, rezultnd astfel ANSI C.
/LPEDMXO & L YHUVLXQLOH VDOH 223 Object Oriented 3URJUDPPLQJ & L PDL
QRXO 9LVXDO & VXQW SULQWUH FHOH PDL IRORVLWH OLPEDMH GH SURJUDPDUH OD RUD DFWXDO $
IRVW SURLHFWDW SRUQLQG GH OD GRX OLPEDMH GH]YROWDWH VSUH VIkULWXO DQLORU %&3/ L
prima sa versiune B.
8Q OLPEDM GH QLYHO VF]XW HVWH RULHQWDW SH DUKLWHFWXU L SRDWH IL GHILQLW FD DYkQG
IDFLOLWDWHDGHDVFULHLQVWUXF LXQLFHVHUHIHUGLUHFWODHOHPHQWHDOHUHVSHFWLYHLDUKLWHFWXUL
interne (ca n cazul limbajului de asamblare).
8Q OLPEDM GH QLYHO vQDOW VDX PHGLX HVWH RULHQWDW SH SUREOHP SHUPL kQG
SURJUDPDWRUXOXL VL VWUXFWXUH]H SURJUDPXO FkW PDL DSURSLDW SRVLELO GH SUREOHPD FH
WUHEXLHLPSOHPHQWDW$FHVWOXFUXVFDGHDQVHOHXQHLHURULGHSURLHFWDUHODQLYHOORJLFDO
DSOLFD LHL&KLDUGDFSURJUDPXOYDILPDLLQHILFLHQWGLQSXQFWGHYHGHUHDOYLWH]HLLDO
RFXSULL UHVXUVHORU SULQ FRPSDUD LH FX XQ SURJUDP VFULV vQ OLPEDM GH DVDPEODUH HO DUH
DYDQWDMXOFSRDWHILVFULVUHSHGHLH[WLQVFXXXULQ
Limbajul C SHUPLWH IRORVLUHD DPEHORU WHKQLFL SURJUDPDUH VWUXFWXUDW L DFFHV
GLUHFWODPDLQIDSWFDUHOIDFHVILHIRDUWHIOH[LELO
8OWLPXOLSRDWHFHOPDLLPSRUWDQWPRWLYSHQWUXvQY DUHDOLPEDMXOXL&HVWHIDSWXO
FSHUPLWHWUHFHUHDFXXXULQ OD&VDX-DYD
'HLlimbajul C are o libertate foarte mare in scrierea codului, el acceptnd multe
forme de scriere care n alte limbaje nu sunt premise, acest lucru ascunde vQVLpericole,
n special pentru programatorii IUH[SHULHQ
6WUXFWXUDJHQHULFDXQXLSURJUDPVFULVvQ&
'HODSULPHOHSURJUDPHVFULVHHVWHELQHVVH LQFRQWGHRVHULHGHUHJXOLSULYLQG
RUJDQL]DUHDFRGXOXLVXUV6WUXFWXUDJHQHUDODXQXLFRGYDIL
Apeluri ale directivelor speciale de compilare;
'HFODUD LLGHELEOLRWHFLIRORVLWH
'HFODUD LLIXQF LLLQOLQH
'HFODUD LLDOHSURWRWLSXULORUIXQF LLORUSHUVRQDOH
'HFODUD LLYDULDELOHJOREDOH
Corpul programului principal
{
GHFODUD LLYDULDELOH
DSHOXULGHIXQF LL
}
&RUSXULOHIXQF LLORUGH]YROWDWHGHSURJUDPDWRU
([LVW FkWHYD REVHUYD LL VXSOLPHQWDUH SULYLQG WHKQRUHGDFWDUHD FRGXOXL VXUV GH
FDUHDUILELQHVVH LQVHDPD
1. 6QXVHVFULHLQVWUXF LXQLOHXQDGXSDOWDFLXQDVXEDOWD
2. 7RDWHLQVWUXF LXQLOHFDUHIRUPHD]XQEORFSHQWUXRDOWLQVWUXF LXQHVILHGHSODVDWH
ID GHvQFHSXWXOUHVSHFWLYHLLQVWUXF LXQL
(WDSHOHJHQHUULLXQXLSURJUDPH[HFXWDELOSRUQLQGGHODRSUREOHPUHDO
8QD GLQ JUHHOLOH vQFHSWRULORU vQ SURJUDPDUH FRQVW vQ IDSWXO F SXQ SUHD PXOW
DFFHQW SH LQWURGXFHUHD XQRU SURJUDPH JDWD VFULVH IU FD vQ SUHDODELO V VWXGLH]H
SUREOHPDGHSRUQLUHSUHFXPLDOJRULWPXOJHQHUDWvQXUPDDQDOL]HLDFHVWHLSUREOHPH
QPRPHQWXOJkQGLULLXQXLSURJUDPSHOkQJDOWHFRQVLGHUHQWHWUHEXLH LQXWFRQWLGH
IDSWXOFHVWHRPDUHGLIHUHQ vQWUHSURJUDPHOHbune si cele care merg. Un program bun
nu numai cPHUJHGDUHVWHLXRUGHvQ HOHVLPHQ LQXW0XO LGLQWUHvQFHSWRULLvQ
programarea C-XOXLDXWHQGLQ DGHD seOLPLWDODSURJUDPHFDUHVPHDUJLDFHVWIDSW

conduce la GHSULQGHULQHVQWRDVH.
'H DFHHD PDL MRV YRP SUH]HQWD SDLL QHFHVDUL D IL XUPD L vQ HODERUDUHD XQHL DSOLFD LL
SRUQLQGGHODRSUREOHPUHDO
1. Q HOHJHUHDSUREOHPHL
2. 5HDOL]DUHDPRGHOXOXLPDWHPDWLFGDFHVWHFD]XO
3. 9HULILFDUHDPRGHOXOXLPDWHPDWLFFXXQVHWGHGDWHUHDOVDXFDOFXODWHPDQXDO'DFVH
REVHUY QHFRQFRUGDQ H VH YD UHOXD YHULILFDUHD SXQFWHORU DQWHULRDUH GDF QX VH
FRQWLQX
4. ,GHQWLILFDUHD GDWHORU GH LQWUDUH D GDWHORU GH LHLUH SUHFXP L D YDULDELOHORU
intermediare.
5. $OHJHUHDWLSXULORUGHGDWHIRORVLWHSHQWUXUH LQHUHDvQFXUVXOSURFHVULLDUHVSHFWLYHORU
date.
6. Specificarea modului de LQWHUID DUHFXXWLOL]DWRUXOODQLYHOGHLQWUDUHVDXLHLUH
7. Generarea schemei logice sau a pseudocodului ce descrie algoritmul propus pentru
rezolvarea problemei.
8. Verificarea modelului creat la punctul 7 cu un set date reale sau calculate manual. n
caz de QHFRQFRUGDQ HVHUHLDYHULILFDUHDSXQFWHORUDQWHULRDUHGDFQXVHFRQWLQX
9. 6FULHUHDFRGXOXLVXUVWUDQVSXQHUHDvQWUXQOLPEDMGHSURJUDPDUHRDUHFDUH
10.(OLPLQDUHDHURULORUGHVLQWD[
3HQWUXDH[HPSOLILFDSDLLPHQ LRQD LDQWHULRUYRPOXDXQH[HPSOXH[WUHPGHVLPSOX
6VHUHDOL]H]Hun program care UH]RYRHFXD LHRDUHFDUHGHJUDGXO,,
Pasul 1
n acest caz este simplu, e clar Fne referim la o HFXD LHGHfoma ax+bx+c=0;
Pasul 2
Modelul matematic este cel studiat n liceu:
Fie = b a c atunci :

E E DF
.
D
E L E + DF
'DF<0 atunci: [ =
.
D
E
'DF=0 atunci: [ =
.
D
Pasul 3
n acest caz poate fi evitat modelul matematic este prea simplu.
'DF>0 atunci: [

Pasul 4
6 YHGHP GHFL FDUH DU IL GDWHOH FH WUHEXLHVF IXUQL]DWH GH XWLOL]DWRU $YkQG vQ
YHGHUHFVHGRUHWHUH]ROYDUHDXQHLHFXD LLJHQHULFHGHRUGLQXO,,HVWHFODUF
- a,b,c date de intrare
- x GDWHGHLHLUH
- GDWLQWHUPHGLDU
Analiznd modHOXO PDWHPDWLF REVHUYP F D WUHEXLW V IRORVLP XQ VLPERO
VXSOLPHQWDU IXQF LH GH FDUH VH IDFH vQWUHDJD GLVFX LH $FHVW VLPERO QX HVWH QLFL GDW GH
XWLOL]DWRULQLFLQXLQWHUHVHD]SHQWUXUH]XOWDWXOILQDOGHFLHVWHRGDWLQWHUPHGLDUGH
calcul.

Pasul 5
$FXP WUHEXLH V VSHFLILFP WLSXO GH GDW IRORVLW SHQWUX UHSUH]HQWDUHD LQWHUQ vQ
PHPRULDFDOFXODWRUXOXLDYDULDELOHORU'HFLDYHPFkWHYDGDWHVXSOLPHQWDUHODGLVSR]L LH
pentru a vedea tipul de reprezentare care trebuie ales:
- VSHFLILFD LLOHXWLOL]DWRUXOXL
- modelul matematic
- H[SHULHQ DvQSURJUDPDUH
Q DFHVW FD] PRGHOXO PDWHPDWLF QH VSXQH F DEF VXQW QXPHUH UHDOH )U R
VSHFLILFDUHFODUDXWLOL]DWRUXOXLFDUHVvQGLFHFHOHDSDU LQDOWXLLQWHUYDOHVWHREOLJDWRULX
FDVOXPvQFRQVLGHUDUHPRGHOXOFHOPDLH[WLQVGHFLFHOPDLDGDSWDELO'HVLJXU FQX
YRP DOHJH FHO PDL FXSULQ]WRU WLS GH GDWH SXV OD GLVSR]L LH GH FWUH FRPSLODWRU vQ OLSVD
XQRUVSHFLILFD LLH[WHUQH'HFLa,b,c vor fi de tipul float.
9DULDELOD LQWHUPHGLDU HVWH UH]XOWDW DO DSOLFULL XQHL IXQF LL OLQHDUH DVXSUD XQRU
YDULDELOHGHWLSUHDOGHFLLGHOWDYDWUHEXLVILHfloat.
'DWHOH GH LHLUH [ GXS FXP VH REVHUY VXQW UH]XOWDWXO XQHL vQSU LUL L GHFL
REOLJDWRULXVXQWUHDOHLQGLIHUHQWGHWLSXOGHGDWDOHVSHQWUXGDWHOHGHLQWUDUH

Pasul 6
QOLSVDXQRUVSHFLILFD LLGHODXWLOL]DWRUYRPDOHJHSHQWUXFLWLUHDGDWHORUFHDPDL
VLPSOPHWRGFLWLUHDGLUHFWGXSFXPDPIFXWLSkQDFXP3HQWUXDILDUHvQVDYHP
GRXPHWRGHDILDUHDGHWLSXO5H[L,P[VDXGLUHFWUH]XOWDWXOFDvQFDOFXOXOPDQXDO
9RPDOHJHFHDGHDGRXDPHWRG
Pasul 7
3VHXGRFRGXOYDDUWDFDPDLMRV
FLWHWHD
FLWHWHE
FLWHWHF
FDOFXOHD]GHOWDGXSIRUPXOGHOWD E E D F
GDFGHOWD>=0 atunci
{
x=(-b+sqrt(delta))/(2*a);
x=(-b-sqrt(delta))/(2*a);
afiDILHD][[
}
altfel
{
delta=-delta;
delta=sqrt(delta)/(2*a)
afiHD]x1 de forma re+i*im

afiHD]x2 de forma re-i*im
}
CWHYDREVHUYD LLUHODWLYHODFRQVWUXF ia pseudocodului
- VH REVHUY F QX DP WUDWDW VHSDUDW VLWXD LD GHOWD SHQWUX F ]HUR OD DGXQDUH QX
PRGLILFUH]XOWDWXO
- vQDGRXDSDUWHDPIRORVLWXQDUWLILFLXGHFDOFXOvQVHQVXOFDPSVWUDWWRWvQYDULDELOD
GHOWD UH]XOWDWH SDU LDOH GH FDOFXO $OWIHO DU IL WUHEXLW V LQWURGXFHP YDULDELOH
VXSOLPHQWDUHSHQWUXSVWUDUHDS LLvQWUHJLLDSU LLUHDOH&RGXODUILIRVWPDLFODUGDU
vQDFHODLWLPSDPILIRORVLWPDLPXOWPHPRULH'DFvQFD]XODFHVWXLSURJUDPFkWHYD
YDULDELOH VXSOLPHQWDUH QX QH GHUDQMHD] vQ FD]XO XQRU SURJUDPH IRDUWH PDUL DFHVW
OXFUX SRDWH ULGLFD JUHXW L FH QX SRW IL HOLPLQDWH GHFkW SULQ WUHFHUHD OD DORFDUHD
GLQDPLFDPHPRULHL$FHDVWPHWRGYDILSUH]HQWDWXOWHULRU
- VH REVHUY F DP VFULV PXOW FRG VXSOLPHQWDU FDUH GLQ SXQFW GH YHGHUH DO FDOFXOXOXL
brut nu ne trebuie, dar din punct de vedere al modului n care i prezint rezultatul uni
XWLOL]DWRUHVWHHVHQ LDOSHQWUXFHVWHH[DFWvQIRUPDPDWHPDWLFFXQRVFXW
Pasul 8
Va fi evitat pentru acest exemplu deoarece este prea simplu.
Pasul 9
Codul n cazul limbajului C va DUDWDFDPDLMRV
#include <stdio.h>
*
#inlude <conio.h> // aici eroare de sintaxGHWHFWDELOGHinterpretor
void main(void)
{
float a,b,c,delta,x1,x2;
**
***
clrscr()
printf(Pentru calculul ecuatiei a*x*x+b*x*c=0 dati coeficientii);
printf(\na=);
scanf(%f,a); //aici eroare de VLQWD[QHGHWHFWDELOGHinterpretor
printf(\nb=);
scanf(%f,&b);
printf(\nb=);
scanf(%f,&b);
delta=b*b+4*a*c; // aici eroare de calcul
if( delta >=0)
{
x=(-b+sqrt(delta))/(2*a);
x=(-b-sqrt(delta))/(2*a);
printf(\nx1=%f,x1)
printf(\nx2=%f,x2)
}
else
{
delta=-delta;
delta=sqrt(delta)/(2*a)
printf(x1=%f+i*%f,-b/(2*a),delta);
printf(x2=%f-i*%f,-b/(2*a),delta);
}
}
Pasul 10
'XSFXPVHREVHUY DPLQWURGXVLQWHQ LRQDWWUHLWLSXULGHJUHHOL 3ULPD PDUFDW FX R
VWHDHVWH JUHHDO GH VLQWD[ FH YD IL GHWHFWDW GH FRPSLODWRU L GHFL R SXWHP FRUHFWD vQ
DFHDVWID]
Pasul 11
Q FDGUXO UXOULL SURJUDPXOXL UH]XOWDW VH REVHUY F DFHVWD QX IXQF LRQHD] FRUHFW /D
H[HFX LDSDVFXSDVVHYDREVHUYDFvQYDULDELODDQXVHGHSXQHFHHDFHVHFLWHWHGHOD
WDVWDWXU (VWH R JUHHDO GH ORJLF GH SURJUDPDUH SHQWUX F scanf DWHDSW XQ pointer
pentru a returna corect rezultatul, iar a nu este declarat SRLQWHU WUHEXLH WUDQVPLV DGUHVD
OXLD$FHDVWHURDUHQXSRDWHILGHWHFWDWGHinterpretor.
'HDVHPHQHD FX WUHL VWHOH DP PDUFDW R JUHHDO GH WUDQVSXQHUH D DOJRULWPXOXL R
JUHHDOVLPSOGHWUDQVFULHUHD XQHL IRUPXOH GH FDOFXO 'HDELD GXS HOLPLQDUHD DFHVWRU
erori se poate continua testarea programului.
(VWHELQHFDVH[LVWHXQ comentariu la vQFHSXWXORULFUHLVXUVHL&DYkQGXUPWRUXO
FRQ LQXW
/*----autor:
GDWDFUHULL/modificrii
------copyright
*/
CAPITOLUL 3
1R LXQHDGHYDULDELOLWLSXULGHYDULDELOH
2YDULDELO HVWHXQLGHQWLILFDWRUQXPHGDWGXSGRULQ GHFWUHXWLOL]DWRUXQHL]RQH
din memorie cu care se va lucra (stoca sau modifica datele utile programului) pe
SDUFXUVXOVFULHULLFRGXOXLVXUV
Q OLPEDMXOXL & SRW IDFH DVHPHQHD UHIHULUL GLUHFWH OD R ]RQ GH PHPRULH SULQ
intermediul SRLQWHULORU DYkQG WRWRGDW DYDQWDMXO VLQWD[HL IDFLOH D XQXL OLPEDM GH QLYHO
mediu.
3URJUDPXO VDX FRGXO VXUV HVWH WUDGXV SULQ LQWHUPHGLXO FRPSLODWRUXOXL & vQWUXQ
program executabil. n cadrul acestui proces se face identificarea dintre numele variabilei
L XQ DQXPLW QXPU GH ORFD LL GH PHPRULH 7RW vQ VDUFLQD FRPSLODWRUXOXL UPkQH L
JHQHUDUHD GH LQVWUXF LXQL FDUH V VH RFXSH GH VFULHUHD VDX FLWLUHD vQ EORF D PDL PXOWRU
ORFD LLGHRGDW2YDULDELOSRDWHRFXSDPDLPXOWGHRORFD LHGHPHPRULH
Caracteristicile variabilelor sunt :
1. )LHFDUHYDULDELODUHXQQXPH
2. )LHFDUHYDULDELODSDU LQHXQXLWLSGHGDW
3. )LHFDUH YDULDELO UH LQH R YDORDUH VDX XQ VHW GH YDORUL XWLOH SHQWUX SURJUDP $FHVWH
valori pot fi:
- GHSXVHvQPHPRULHSULQLQL LDOL]DUHvQSURJUDP
- SRWILFLWLWHGHODWDVWDWXUVDXGHODDOWGLVSR]LWLYGHLQWUDUH
/HJDWGHQXPHOHXQHLYDULDELOHVHSRWIDFHFkWHYDREVHUYD LL
1. 1XPHOH XQHL YDULDELOH VH DOHJH GH RELFHL DVWIHO vQFkW V GHVFULH FH vQVHDPQ SHQWUX
programator, din punct de vedere al SVHXGRFRGXOXL vQWUR IRUP FDUH SRDWH IL
SUHVFXUWDW VDX QX GXS SUHIHULQ 'H H[HPSOX vQ FD]XO SUREOHPHL GLQ ILJXUD
QXPHOH XQHL YDULDELOH FH UH LQH R QRW SXWHD IL QRWDB VDX Q VDX 1RWDB &D
REVHUYD LH OLPEDMXO & HVWH FDVH VHQ]LWLY DGLF IDFH GLVWLQF LH vQWUH OLWHUHOH PLFL L
PDUL IRORVLWH vQ VFULHUHD FRGXOXL VXUV GHFL 18 6( &216,'(5 $ ),,1'
$&(/$, 180( '( 9$5,$%,/ 1 &$=8/ 1 &$5( (67( 6&5,6 &8
LITERE MARI SAU CU LITERE MICI. Mai concret nota_1 Nota_1NOTA_1.
2. &kQGVHGRUHWHFDXQQXPHGHYDULDELOVILHFRPSXVGLQGRXFXYLQWH186(9$
/6$ 63$,8 175( (/( FFL YRU IL FRQVLGHUDWH GRX FXYLQWH VHSDUDWH HOH
WUHEXLHVFXQLWHFXOLQLHLQIHULRDUunderscore).
3. 1XPHOHGHYDULDELOHVXIHULGHXUPWRDUHOHUHVWULF LL
QXSRWvQFHSHFXXQQXPUM
nu pot ncepe cu $
( $ abc )
nu pot fi cuvinte rezervate ( int )
nu pot FRQ LQHcaractere speciale ( bab*#*@l ) excep LHIFQGunderscore
ex. bad_babe
,QL LDOL]DUHDYDULDELOHORU
QOLSVDXQHLLQL LDOL]ULH[SOLFLWHRYDULDELOORFDOYDFRQ LQHRYDORDUHRDUHFDUHDOHDWRDUH
QXPLWvQPRGFXUHQW JDUEDJH $FHDVW YDORDUH VH JVHD vQ PHPRULD DORFDW UHVSHFWLYHL
YDULDELOHODODQVDUHDvQH[HFX LDDSURJUDPXOXL
,QL LDOL]DWRULLH[SOLFL LVHSODVHD]GXSGHFODUDWRUXOODFDUHVHUHIHUVHSDUD LGH
acesta prin semnul egal (de exemplu nr1=234).
H H
OYDOXH
UYDOXH
'DFRELHFWXOLQL LDOL]DWHVWHXQDJUHJDWXQFRQJORPHUDWGHGDWHUHFXQRVFXWVXEXQ

QXPHFRPXQSHQWUXLQL LDOL]DUHVHIRORVHWHROLVWGHH[SUHVLLvQFKLVvQDFRODGHXQGHOD
ILHFDUHFRPSRQHQWFRUHVSXQGHFkWHRH[SUHVLH
7UHEXLHUHVSHFWDWHXUPWRDUHOHUHJXOL
1. QXPUXO GH LQL LDOL]DWRUL QX SRDWH IL PDL PDUH GHFkW QXPUXO GH FRPSRQHQWH GH
LQL LDOL]DW
2. QXVHSRWLQL LDOL]DGHFkWRELHFWHVDXWDEORXULFXGLPHQVLXQHGHILQLWDGLFVHFXQRDWH
QXPUXOPD[LPGHYDORULGHLQWUDUHFHSRWILGDWHGHXWLOL]DWRUSHQWUXDILSURFHVDWH
3. H[SUHVLLOHIRORVLWHSHQWUXLQL LDOL]DUHWUHEXLHVILHFRQVWDQWHvQXUPWRDUHOHVLWXD LL
ODLQL LDOL]DUHDXQXLRELHFWGHWLSVWDWLFvQ&QHVHPDLDSOLF
ODLQL LDOL]DUHDXQXLWDEORXXQHLVWUXFWXUL sau unei uniuni.
4. QX VH SRW LQL LDOL]D LGHQWLILFDWRUL FX YDODELOLWDWH vQ LQWHULRUXO XQXL EORF GDU FX OHJDUH
H[WHUQVDXLQWHUQ
5. GDF R OLVW vQFKLV vQWUH DFRODGH DUH PDL SX LQH HOHPHQWH GHFkW FRPSRQHQWH DUH
DJUHJDWXOLQL LDOL]DWUHVWXOFRPSRQHQWHORUVHYRULQL LDOL]DDXWRPDW
2ELHFWHOHGHWLSVFDODURVHULHGHGDWHGHDFHODLWLSDFURUGHILQL LHSRDWHILGDWFD
R vQLUXLUH GH GDWH FH SRW IL LGHQWLILFDWH SULQ SR]L LD ORU vQWUR vQLUXLUH VH LQL LDOL]HD]
IRORVLQGRVLQJXUH[SUHVLHFDUHSRDWHILHYHQWXDOvQFKLVvQDFRODGH8QLXQLOHJUXSULGH
PDL PXO L EL L GH GLPHQVLXQH GLYL]LELO FX GRL VH LQL LDOL]HD] FX R VLQJXU H[SUHVLH
corespunznd ca tip primului membru al uniunii.
6WUXFWXULOHJUXSULGHGLYHUVHGDWHGHWLSXULGLIHULWHVXEXQQXPHFRPXQLXQLXQLOH
VHSRWLQL LDOL]DFXRH[SUHVLHGHWLSVWUXFWXUVDXXQLXQHFRUHVSXQ]WRDUH9DORDUHDLQL LDOD
structurii sau uniunii va fi valoarea obiectului citat.
3UH]HQ DXQHLLQL LDOL]ULvQWURGHFODUD LHLQGLFRGHFODUD LHGHILQLWRULHFHVSHFLILF
FXFHYDILXPSOXWUHVSHFWLYXOVSD LXGHPHPRULH0DLMRVHVWHSUH]HQWDWXQH[HPSOX
int zile [7] = { 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1 } ;
char name1 [] = { "Costica" } ;
char name2 [] = "Dragan" ;
struct datep
{
int i ; // nr. ani
char str [21] ; //nume
double d ; //salar
} vas = { 28, "Vasile", 1500000.0 } ;
$FHHDL YDULDELO QX VH SRDWH LQL LDOL]D FX GRX YDORUL GHFkW vQ FD]XO vQ FDUH VH
UHQXQ ODYDORDUHDDQWHULRDUFXFDUHDIRVWLQL LDOL]DW
1XSRWH[LVWDGRXGHFODUD LLGHILQLWRULLFDUHvLVSHFLILFFRQ LQXWXOvQWU-un program.
3.2.Tipuri de variabile
8QD GLQ FHOH PDL GLILFLOH SUREOHPH FDUH DSDU vQ FDGUXO vQY ULL XQXL OLPEDM GH
SURJUDPDUHHVWHGHVFULHUHDXQHLVLWXD LLGLQOXPHDUHDOIRORVLQGHOHPHQWHOHUHVSHFWLYXOXL
limbaj.
Q DIDU GH SURSXQHUHD XQXL DOJRULWP SHQWUX D UH]ROYD R SUREOHP UHDO
SURJUDPDWRUXO PDL HVWH FRQIUXQWDW L FX XQ DOW DVSHFW GLILFLO DOHJHUHD WLSXOXL GH GDW
SHQWUXRYDULDELOWUHEXLHIFXWvQFRQFRUGDQ FXYDORULOHFDUHOHSRDWHOXDDFHDVWD
'H DFHHD SULPXO SDV HVWH V YHGHP FH WLSXUL IXQGDPHQWDOH GH GDWH QH SXQH OD
GLVSR]L LHOLPEDMXO& SUHFXP L JDPD GH YDORUL vQ FDUH HYROXHD] DFHVWHD 2 GDW WLXWH
DFHVWHOXFUXULSXWHPvQFHSHVYHGHPFDUHHVWHOHJWXUDFXH[HPSOHOHGLQYLD DUHDO
'LQDQDOL]DLQIRUPD LHLFDUHFLUFXOFXUHQWvQWUHRDPHQLUH]XOWFH[LVWGLQSXQFW
GHYHGHUHDOSURFHVULLGRXWLSXULGHLQIRUPD LH
- LQIRUPD LH RE LQXW SULQ PVXUWRUL DVXSUD IHQRPHQHORU UHDOH FDUH VXQW H[DFWH L
DVXSUDFURUDVHIDFSUHOXFUULPDWHPDWLFHGHRELFHL
- LQIRUPD LH VXE IRUP FRQGHQVDW FDUH GH RELFHL HVWH UHFRPSXV DVRFLDWLY vQ PLQWHD
XPDQFXPDUILOLPEDMXOVLLQIRUPD LDVFULV
'HDLFLUH]XOWFvQWUXQOLPEDMGHSURJUDPDUHDYHPQHYRLHGHGRXWLSXULGHYDULDELOH
FDUHVSRDWILIRORVLWHSHQWUX
-
stocarea unor valori numerice.

VWRFDUHDXQRUFDUDFWHUHLQIRUPD LHVFULV
&RQIRUP DFHVWRU QHFHVLW L OLPEDMXO & D IRVW SUHY]XW FX XUPWRDUHOH WLSXUL
fundamentale de date:
-
intVWRFKHD]QXPDLQXPHUHvQWUHJL
float, doubleSHQWUXQXPHUH]HFLPDOHFDOFXOvQYLUJXOPRELO
charSHQWUXDVWRFDFRGXOXQXLFDUDFWHUVDXXQQXPUvQWUHJUHSUH]HQWDWSHPD[LPXP
RSWEL LLQFOX]kQGLVHPQXO
2EVHUYD LHchar[QU@YDUH LQHXQLUGHnr caractere sau ntregi.
8QDGLQWUHXWLOL]ULOHLUXULORUGHFDUDFWHUHDUILPHVDMHOHGHGLDORJFXXWLOL]DWRUXOXQXL
SURJUDPVDXPHVDMHOHGH HURDUH Q DFHVWFD]QXQHLQWHUHVHD] FRQ LQXWXO GLQ SXQFW GH
vedere al valorii lor numerice ca atare.
)XQF LH GH QHFHVLW LOH SURJUDPDWRUXOXL SXWHP VSXQH F H[LVW GRX FODVH GH WLS GH
date care pot fi folosite n cazul unui limbaj de nivel mediu sau nalt:
1. tipuri de date predefinite
tipuri de date definite de utilizator.

CAPITOLUL 4
4. Tipuri de date predefinite
4.1. Date numerice
/LPEDMXO & HVWH SUHY]XW FX XQ VHW GH GDWH predefinite. Aceste tipuri de date sunt
FRQFUHWL]DWH SULQ IRORVLUHD XQXL QXPU GH ORFD LL GH PHPRULH SHQWUX VWRFDUHD FRQIRUP
XQXLDOJRULWPELQHGHILQLWIXQF LHGHWLSXOGHGDWDXQXLWLSGHGDWHH[LVWHQWHQFD]XO
tipului de date FKDU GHL D IRVW LQWURGXV SHQWUX VWRFDUHD GDWHORU GH WLS DOIDQXPHULF HO
SRDWHILIRORVLWvQFDOFXOHPDWHPDWLFHLORJLFHvQLQWHUYDOXOGHYDORULQXPHULFHSHFDUHOH
poate stoca.
3HQWUXWLSXULOHGHGDWHFHVWRFKHD]YDORULQXPHULFHvQWUHJLSUHVFXUWDWLQWVDXGXS
cum am spus FKDUQXPUXOHVWHVWRFDWvQPHPRULHGLUHFWVXEIRUPDUH]XOWDWODFRQYHUVLD
n binar.
n cazul datelor de tip real, float, sau GRXEOHODFRQYHUVLDGLUHFWDQXPUXOXLvQED]D
GRLVDUILSLHUGXWSUHDPXOWHORFD LLGHPHPRULHLGHDFHHDHOHVH SVWUHD] VXE IRUPD
WLLQ LILF$FHDVWIRUPVHUHIHUODIDSWXOFH[LVWR]RQGHPHPRULHFDUH LQHPDQWLVD
L R ]RQ GH PHPRULH FDUH LQH H[SRQHQWXO 8Q H[HPSOX GH UHSUH]HQWDUH WLLQ LILF GLQ
punct de vedere matematic ar fi:
123344445455454=1.23344445455454 * 1014 =1.23344445455454E+14
unde mantisa=1,23344445455454 iar exponentul = 14.
0DLMRVSUH]HQWPRVHULHGHWLSXULGHGDWHSUHGHILQLWHGLPHQVLXQLOHORULGRPHQLXO
YDORULORU FDUH SRW IL VWRFDWH 6H REVHUY F VDX IRORVLW PRGLILFDWRUL GH WLS 3ULP
PRGLILFDWRULGHWLSVHvQ HOHJFXYLQWHFKHLHFDUHDXFDHIHFWODFRPSLODUHFDGLPHQVLXQHD
vQRFWH LSHFDUHHVWHUHSUH]HQWDWXQWLSGHGDWHVFUHDVFFXXQIDFWRUFDUHHVWHVDXR
putere a lui doi)).
char {128, 127}
unsigned char {0, 255}
IUVHPQ
signed char {128, 127}
semn
int {32768, 32767 }
cuvnt (2 octeti)
unsigned int {0, 65535}
semn
signed int {32768, 32767}
semn
short int {32768, 32767}
semn
unsigned short int {0, 65535}
semn
1 octet
1 octet
1
octet
cu
1
FXYkQW IU
1 cuvnt cu
1 cuvnt cu
FXYkQW IU
signed short int 32768 to 32767

semn
long int {2147483648, 2147483647}
signed long int {2147483648, 2147483647}
float {3.4E38, 3.4E+38}
double {1.7E308, 1.7E+308}
long double {3.4E4932, 1.1E+4932}
1 cuvnt cu
2 cuvinte
2 cuvinte cu semn
2 cuvinte
4 cuvinte
5 cuvinte
2EVHUYD LH $FHVWH LQWHUYDOH VXQW GH RELFHL VSHFLILFH VLVWHPXOXL GH RSHUDUH VXE FDUH
OXFUHD]FRPSLODWRUXOLPDLQLLSHFDUHDFHVWDHVWHH[HFXWDW'RPHQLLOHGHPDLVXVVXQW
valabile pentru compilatorul de C++ realizat de Borland.
2SHUDWRUXOYLUJXO
a,b HYDOXHD]DHYDOXHD]E
$FHVWRSHUDWRUSHUPLWHHYDOXDUHDDGRXVDXPDLPXOWHH[SUHVLLGLVWLQFWHLQORFXULOHLQ
FDUHRVLQJXUH[SUHVLHHVWHDGPLVDILIRORVLWDVWDHUD LXQHDLQWURGXFHULLOXL
De ex:
for ( j=0,k=100 ; k-j>0 ; j++,k-- ) este chivalent cu
j=0 ; k=100;
j=0 , k=100
{
{
j++;
sau
j++;
k--;
k--;
}
}
8QDOWH[HPSOXIXQF LDbreak_line:
break_line (int interval)
{ int c,j;
for (c=getchar(),j=0 ; c!=EOF ; c=getchar (),putchar (c),j++)
if (j % interval = = 0 ) printf( \n ) ;
}
4.2. Date alfanumerice
Q FDGUXO SURLHFWULL XQHL DSOLFD LL SRW DSDUH SH OkQJ FHULQ H OHJDWH GH FDOFXOH
QXPHULFHFRPSOH[HLFHULQ HSHQWUXSURFHVDUHDGHWH[WHVDXDXQRUED]HGHGDWH
ToWDOLWDWHDFDUDFWHUHORUFHSRWILDILDWHVDXOLVWDWHvQFD]XOOXFUXOXLVXEXQVLVWHP
GH RSHUDUH FODVLF 81,; VDX '26 VH QXPHVF FDUDFWHUH DOIDQXPHULFH DOIDEHWLFH L
QXPHULFH )LHFDUH FDUDFWHU DUH R LPDJLQH SH HFUDQ $FHDVW LPDJLQH HVWH VWRFDW vQ
memoria QHYRODWLODFDOFXODWRUXOXLLDUHDWDDWXQFRGXQLFODFDUHVHIDFHDSHOFkQGVH
GRUHWHDILDUHDVDXOLVWDUHDHL
'DWRULW QHFHVLW LL FD XQ WH[W HGLWDW SH XQ VLVWHP IDEULFDW GH R DQXPH ILUP VL
SVWUH]H vQ HOHVXO VD WUHFXW OD VWDQGDUGL]DUHD FRGULL LPDJLQLORU FDUDFWHUHORU $VWIHO D
UH]XOWDWVWDQGDUGXO$6&,,IRORVLWODRUDDFWXDOGHWRDWHFDOFXODWRDUHOHGLQVHULD;
([LVWGHFDUDFWHUHvQDFHVWVWDQGDUG1XYRPIDFHUHIHULULODVHWXULOH H[WLQVHGH
caractere specifice editoarelor de teste sau sistemelor de operare de tip Windows sau
XWindows.
3HQWUXVWRFDUHDXQXLLUGHFDUDFWHUHOLPEDMXO&IRORVHWHXQWDEORXmonodimensional
GH FDUDFWHUH FDUH SRDWH VWRFD FRGXULOH D PD[LPXP GH FDUDFWHUH R GDW vQ FD]XO
GHFODUULLVWDWLFH
2EVHUYD LD 'DF VD GHILQLW YDULDELOD V FD DYkQG FDSDFLWDWHD GH VWRFDUH GH GH
caractere iar la citirea ei sunt introduse mai mult de 25, atunci numai pentru primele 25
QXH[LVWULVFXOSLHUGHULLORUSHSDUFXUVXOH[HFX LHLSURJUDPXOXL Q DFHVWFD] SRW DSUHD
erori mascate n cod.
2EVHUYD LDQFD]XOvQFDUHQXDPGHILQLWQXPUXOGHFDUDFWHUHFDUHSRDWHILVWRFDW
vQ UHVSHFWLYD YDULDELO IXQF LH GH PRGXO GH FRQVWUXF LH DO FRPSLODWRUXOXL ILH VH DORF
GLPHQVLXQHDPD[LPSRVLELOILHODSULPDLQL LDOL]DUHVHDORFH[DFWFkWHVWHQHFHVDUGDU
nu peste maximul definit.
2EVHUYD LD 1XH[LVWQLFLROHJWXUvQWUHYDORDUHDQXPHULF[LFDUDFWHUXO[FDUH
apare pe ecran. De exemplu 2 2.
,QL LDOL]DUHDXQHLGDWHFXRYDORDUHXWLOSRDWHDYHDORFvQXUPWRDUHOHPRGXUL
- la declararea ei;
- la citirea datelor de intrare;
- oriunde n program .
4.2.1. Caractere speciale de control
3HOkQJFDUDFWHUHOHGLUHFWDILDELOHPDLH[LVWvQOLPEDMXO&RVHULHGHFDUDFWHUHGH
FRQWURO$FHVWHDSURYLQGLQQHFHVLWDWHDGHFRQWURODXQHLLPSULPDQWHLVLPXOWDQDXIRVW
IRORVLWHLODDILDUHDSHWHUPLQDOHOHDOIDQXPHULFH
\a
\b
\f
Cod
07h
08h
0Ch
\n
\r
0Ah
0Dh
\t
\v
\\
\
\
\?
\ooo
\xhh
09h
0Bh
5Ch
27h
22h
3Fh
ooo
hh
6HFYHQ D
Caracter
BEL (alert produce un semnal sonor)
BS (backspace)
FF (form feed PXW FXUVRU OD
XUPWRDUHD SDJLQ
LF
CR (carriage return, salt la inceput de
linie QRX
HT (horizontal tab)
VT (vertical tab)
\ (backslash)
(apostrof)
(ghilimele)
? (semnul vQWUHEULL)
Caracterul cu codul ooo n octal
Caracterul cu codul hh n hexa
3HQWUX MXVWLILFDUHD LQWURGXFHULL DFHVWRU FDUDFWHUH GH FRQWURO VH YD SUH]HQWD XUPWRUXO
FD]HUDLQXWLOWULPLWHUHDXQLQXPUIL[GHFDUDFWHUHLGHQWLFHGHILHFDUHGDWFkQGVHGRUHD
XQ WDEXODWRU XQ DQXPLW QXPU GH VSD LL JRDOH OD vQFHSXWXO XQXL SDUDJUDI L DWXQFL VD
FRQYHQLW V VH IRORVHDVF XQ FDUDFWHU GH FRQWURO XUPkQG FD LPSULPDQWD VO
UHFRQYHUWHDVF LQWHUQ vQ VSD LL JRDOH $QWHULRU VD SUH]HQWDW XQ WDEHO FH FRQ LQH DFHVWH
caractere.
2SHUD LXQLVLPSOHGHFLWLUHVDXDILDUHDGDWHORU
/LPEDMXO&DUHODGLVSR]L LHRVHULHGHIXQF LLSHQWUXFLWLUHDGDWHORUGHODWDVWDWXU

VDX SHQWUX DILDUHD ORU SH HFUDQ &HOH PDL IRORVLWH GLQWUH HOH VXQW JUXSDWH vQ GRX
biblioteci conio.h (&21VROH,QSXW2XWSXW+HDGHU L StandardInputOutput.Header)
stdio.h.
)XQF LLGHLQWUDUHVDXLHLUHFXXWLOL]DWRUXO
Pentru a putea discuta primele programe este necesar studierea modului n care un
SURJUDP SRDWH VFKLPED GDWH GLVSR]LWLYHOH VWDQGDUG GH LQWUDUH VDX LHLUH PRQLWRU
WDVWDWXU'LQDFHVWSXQFWGHYHGHUHH[LVWGRXFODVHGHIXQF LL
-
)XQF LL GH LQWUDUH FX DMXWRUXO FURUD VLVWHPXO GH FDOFXO SULPHWH GH OD WDVWDWXU
YDORUL QXPHULFH FRPHQ]L L RULFDUH DOW WLS GH LQIRUPD LH FH SRDWH IL IXUQL]DW SULQ
intermediul acelui dispozitiv.
)XQF LLGHLHLUHFXDMXWRUXOFURUDVLVWHPXOGHFDOFXOOLYUHD]UH]XOWDWHOHDILHD]
IRORVLQGXQGLVSR]LWLYVWDQGDUGGHLHLUHPRQLWRUVDXLPSULPDQW
3HQWUXDFLWLRGDWVDXXQLUGHGDWHGHODWDVWDWXUDYHPRIXQF LHVSHFLDOL]DWFDUH
poate citi orice tip SUHGHILQLWGHGDWH)XQF LDDUHSURWRWLSXOSUH]HQWDWPDLMRV
int scanf (const char *format [,address, ...]);
7LSXOGHGDWHHVWHVSHFLILFDWGHFWUHSURJUDPDWRUSULQPRGLILFDUHDXQRUSDUDPHWULDL
IXQF LHL0DLMRVHVWHGDWXQVFXUWH[HPSOX
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main (void)
{
int a;
char c;
char b[20];
float d;
FOUVFUWHUJHHFUDQXO
VFDQIG DFLWHWHXQvQWUHJLOGHSR]LWHD]vQ
// variabila a
VFDQIF FFLWHWHXQFDUDFWHU
VFDQIVEFLWHWHXQLUGHFDUDFWHUH
VFDQII GFLWHWHXQQXPU]HFLPDO
getch();
}
$FHDVW IXQF LHOD DSHODUHSUHLDLQIRUPD LDLQWURGXV GH OD WDVWDWXU GXS DSVDUHD
WDVWHL (17(5 &D HIHFW XWLOL]DWRUXO YHGH GRDU F SURJUDPXO vL RSUHWH GHUXODUHD L
DWHDSW FHYD GDU IU D SULPL XQ PHVDM FDUH V vL FRPXQLFH FH WUHEXLH V IDF VDX
LQIRUPD LLGHVSUHQDWXUDGDWHORUFDUHWUHEXLHVFOLYUDWH
0DLMRVHVWHSUH]HQWDWSURWRWLSXOXQHLIXQF LLGHVIRORVLWvQDILDUHDGLYHUVHORUWLSXUL
de date.
int printf (const char *format [, argument, ...]);
Ex: SULQWI$ILHD]FHOHQXPHUHGGGQUQUQU
Vom prezenta un prim exemplu despre unele din SRVLELOLW LHGHDILDUHDOHIXQF LHLprintf
.
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int a;
/*ntreg simplu
*/
long int b;
/* ntreg lung
*/
short int c;
/* ntreg scurt
*/
unsigned LQWG vQWUHJIUVHPQ
char e;
/* caracter simplu
*/
IORDWI QXPU]HFLPDOvQVLPSOSUHFL]LH
GRXEOHJ QXPU]HFLPDOvQGXESUHFL]LH
a = 1023;
b = 2222;
c = 123;
d = 1234;
e = 'X';
f = 3.14159;
g = 3.1415926535898;
printf("a = %G?QD DILDUHIRORVLQGED]DGHQXPHUD LH
printf("a = %R?QD DILDUHIRORVLQGED]DGHQXPHUD LH
printf("a = %[?QD DILDUHIRORVLQGED]DGHQXPHUD LH
printf("b = %OG?QE DILDUHVSHFLILFSHQWUXvQWUHJOXQJ
printf("c = %G?QF DILDUHVSHFLILFSHQWUXvQWUHJVFXUW
printf("d = %X?QG DILDUHVSHFLILFSHQWUXvQWUHJIUVHPQ
printf("e = %F?QH DILDUHVSHFLILFSHQWUXFDUDFWHU
printf("f = %I?QI DILDUHVSHFLILFSHQWUXQXPUvQVLPSOSUHFL]LH
printf("g = %I?QJ DILDUHVSHFLILFSHQWUXQXPUvQGXEOSUHFL]LH
printf("\n");
/*salt la line QRX
printf("a = %G?QD DILDUHVSHFLILFSHQWUXvQWUHJ
SULQWID G?QD DILDUHVSHFLILFSHQWUXXQvQWUHJGDUDORFkQG
caractere n dreapta */
SULQWID G?QD DILDUHVSHFLILFSHQWUXXQvQWUHJGDU

alocnd 7 caractere n stnga */
c = 5;
d = 8;
printf("a = %*d\n",c,a); /* folosim un cmp de 5 caractere */
printf("a = %*d\n",d,a); /* folosim un cmp de 8 caractere */
printf("\n");
printf("f = %I?QI DILDUHSHQWUXQXPUvQVLPSOSUHFL]LH
printf("f = %12f\n",f); /* folosim un cmp de 12 caractere */
SULQWII I?QI IRORVLPXQFkPSGHFDUDFWHUHGXS
YLUJXO
SULQWII I?QI IRORVLPXQFkPSGHFDUDFWHUHGXS
YLUJXO
SULQWII I?QI DILDUHVSHFLILFSHQWUXXQQXPUvQ
VLPSOSUHFL]LHGDUDORFkQGFDUDFWHUHvQVWkQJD
}
6UHOXPH[HPSOXOSUH]HQWDWODFLWLUHDGDWHORULQWURGXFkQGGHDFHDVWGDWL
mesajele pentru utilizator.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main (void)
{
int a;
char c;
char b[20];
float d;
FOUVFUWHUJHHFUDQXO
printf(Introduceti o valoare intreaga)
VFDQIG DFLWHWHXQvQWUHJLOGHSR]LWHD]vQ variabila a
printf(\nValoarea citita este %d, a);
printf(\nDati un caracter )
VFDQIF FFLWHWHXQFDUDFWHU
printf(\nCaracterul citit este %c,c);
prinf(\nDati un sir de caractere );
VFDQIVEFLWHWHXQLUGHFDUDFWHUH
printf(\nS-a citit urmatoarea propozitie %s,b);
printf(\nDati un numar zecimal);
VFDQII GFLWHWHXQQXPU]HFLPDO
printf(\n Sa citi numarul %f,d)
printf(\nApasa orice tasta pentru a continua)
getch();
}
CAPITOLUL 5
5. Operatori ai limbajului C
8QRSHUDWRUUHSUH]LQWGLQSXQFWGHYHGHUHDOSURJUDPULLDFHOVLPEROFDUHDOWXUDWOD
XQDVDXGRXQXPHGHYDULDELOHVSHFLILFRSHUD LDFHWUHEXLHUHDOL]DWDVXSUDORU)XQF LH
GHQXPUXOGHYDULDELOHGHFLGHGDWHDVXSUDFUXLDVHDSOLFRSHUDWRULLSRWILFODVLILFD L
vQGRXPDULFDWHJRULL
-
operatori XQDULDFURUIRORVLUHSRDWHILFDPDLMRV
- nume_var_i oper_unar nume_var_j;
- oper_unar nume_var_i, unde i, j N;
RSHUDWRULELQDULDFURUIRORVLUHHVWHFDPDLMRV
- nume_var_i=nume_var_j oper_binar nume_var_k, unde
i, j, k N.
Limbajul C are mai multe tipuri de operatori:

-
RSHUDWRULDULWPHWLFLFDUHGDXSRVLELOLWDWHDUHDOL]ULLRULFURUFDOFXOHDULWPHWLFH
RSHUDWRUL UHOD LRQDOL FH VXQW IRORVL L SHQWUX WHVWDUHD UHOD LLORU FH SRW H[LVWD vQWUH
FRQ LQXWXODGRXYDULDELOH
RSHUDWRULORJLFLIRORVL LSHQWUX
- DSXWHDUHDOL]DH[SUHVLLFRPSOH[HvQFDGUXOWHVWULLUHOD LLORUGLQWUHYDULDELOH
- a procesa la nivel de bit variabilele.
5.1. Operatori aritmetici

$FHVW WLS GH RSHUDWRUL UHDOL]HD] FDOFXOH PDWHPDWLFH VLPSOH 'HVLJXU F SUHFL]LD vQ
FDUH YD IDFH FDOFXOXO UHVSHFWLYD DSOLFD LH LQH GH WLSXO FRQW GH GDW DOHV 2SHUDWRULL VXQW
SUH]HQWD LvQOLVWDGHPDLMRV6FRQVLGHUPGRXYDULDELOHDLEFDUHODXQPRPHQWGDW
FRQ LQYDORULOHD LE DWXQFL
- + adunare
y=a+by=8
- - VFGHUH
y=a-by=-2
- * vQPXO LUH
y=a*by=15
- / vPSU LUH
y=a/by=0.60000000
- % modulo
y=a%b\ UHVWXOvPSU LULLOXLDODE
5.2 Expresiile
2H[SUHVLHFRQVWGLQWUXQFRQJORPHUDWUHDOL]DWGLQ
operanzi
operatori
vQVFRSXOFDOFXOULLXQHLYDORUL
%ORFXULOHGHED]FRQVWUXFWLYHDOHH[SUHVLLORUSRWIL
variabile
constante
DSHOXULIXQF LH
([LVWSDWUXPDULWLSXULLPSRUWDQWHGHexpresii:.
1. Expresii constanteFDUHUH LQQXPDLYDORULFRQVWDQWH
De exemplu 5
5+6*13/30
a
2. Expresii ntregi care VXQWH[SUHVLLFDUHGXSUHDOL]DUHDWXWXURUFRQYHUVLLORUDXWRPDWH
sau explicite de tip, produc un rezultat care este de tip ntre. Presupunnd j,k ntregi
DWXQFLXUPWRDUHOHH[SUHVLLvQWUHJL
j
j*k
j/k+3
k-a
3+(int)5.0
3. ([SUHVLLvQYLUJXOPRELOFDUHVXQWH[SUHVLLFDUHGXSWRDWHFRQYHUVLLOHDXWRPDWHVDX
H[SOLYLWHGHWLSSURGXFXQUH]XOWDWFDUHHVWHvQYLUJXOPRELO'DF[HVWHfloat sau
GRXEOHDWXQFLXUPWRDUHOHH[SUHVLLVXQWGHDFHVWWLS
x
x+3
x/y*5
3.0
3.0-2
3+(float) 4
4. Expresii de tip pointer FDUHVXQWH[SUHVLLFDUHvQXUPDHYDOXULLGDXRDGUHV'H
H[HPSOXGDFSHVWHpointer, iar j este ntreg:
p, p+1, (char* ) 0x00ffffff, &j, abc sunt expresii de tip pointer.
2UGLQHDGHHYDOXDUHDXQHLH[SUHVLLIXQF LHGHSUHFHGHQ DRSHUDWRULORU
8QXOGLQSULPHOHOXFUXULGHFDUHWUHEXLH LQXWVHDPDFkQGVHVFULXH[SUHVLLDULWPHWLFH
FRPSOH[H HVWH IDSWXO F VSD LLOH DOEH VSD LX WDEXODWRU VDOW OD OLQLH QRX QX DX vQ HOHV
QXVXQWOXDWHvQFRQVLGHUDUH'HH[HPSOXFHOHGRXH[SUHVLLGHPDLMRVVXQWHFKLYDOHQWH
y=x*x+2*x-5*x/y;
y=x * x + 2 * x 5 * x / y;
2DPHQLL IRORVHVF FkWHRGDW VSD LX vQ ORF GH SDUDQWH]H SHQWUX D VSHFLILFD PRGXO GH
HYDOXDUHDXQHLH[SUHVLL1R LXQHDGHHYDOXDUHVHUHIHUODRUGLQHDvQFDUHVHYRUUHDOL]D
FDOFXOHOH GLQWUR H[SUHVLH PDWHPDWLF Q FDGUXO XQXL OLPEDM GH SURJUDPDUH QXPDL
SDUDQWH]HOHMRDFDFHVWUROQOLSVDSDUDQWH]HORUGLQWURH[SUHVLHVHYRUUHVSHFWDUHJXOLOH
GHSUHFHGHQ LPSOLFLW
&DXQH[HPSOXVGLVFXWPPRGXOGHHYDOXDUHDH[SUHVLHGHPDLVXVGDFVHYD LQH
VHDPD QXPDL GH SUHFHGHQ HOH LPSOLFLWH 'HRDUHFH RSHUDWRULL ^ ` DX DFHHDL
SUHFHGHQ FDUHvQVHVWHPDLPDUHFDDRSHUDWRULORU^`HYDOXDUHDH[SUHVLHLVHYDIDFH
GHODVWkQJDODGUHDSWDGXSFXPXUPHD]
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
VHFDOFXOHD]YDORDUHDOXLx*x;
VHFDOFXOHD]YDORDUHDOXL [
VHFDOFXOHD]YDORDUHDOXL [
VHFDOFXOHD]YDORDUHDOXL [\
se face suma (x*x)+(2*x);
VHIDFHVFGHUHDx*x)+(2*x) - (5*x)/y.
1R LXQHD GH SUHFHGHQ VH UHIHU OD PRGXO vQ FDUH LDX GHFL]LL vQ HYDOXDUHD XQHL
H[SUHVLLGDFQXDPSXVHSDUDQWH]H0DLMRVHVWHSUH]HQWDWWDEHOXOFXWRDWHSUHFHGHQ HOH
implicite:
Operatori
() []
! ~ ++ -- + - (unary) &
(type) sizeof
* / %
+ << >>
< <= > >=
== !=
&
^
|
&&
||
?:
= += -= *= /= %= &=
^= |= <<= >>=
,
2UGLQHDGHSUHFHGHQ
de la stnga la dreapta
de la dreapta la stnga
5.3. Tipuri aritmetice de date

1XPHUHOHvQWUHJLVXQWUHSUH]HQWDWHGLIHULWGH FHOHvQYLUJXO IORWDQW'H DFHHDDSDUH
XUPWRDUHDSUREOHPFRQYHUVLDQXPHUHORUdintr un format ntr-altul.
'DF VH GRUHWH FD UH]XOWDWXO V ILH VWRFDW vQWUXQ DOW IRUPDW PDL PXOW VDX PDL SX LQ
FXSULQ]WRUDWXQFLDFHVWDWUHEXLHGHSXVntrRYDULDELOGHUHVSHFWLYXOWLSLFRQYHUVLDVH
YDIDFHDXWRPDW([LVWFD]XULvQFDUHFRPSLODWRUXOGHLDFFHSWFRQYHUVLDGXQPHVDM
GH DWHQ LRQDUH $FHDVW VLWXD LH DSDUH DWXQFL FkQG VH SRDWH DOWHUD YDORDUHD XQRU GDWH
deoarece formatul n care fac conversia este mai mic.
'DF SURJUDPDWRUXO HVWH VLJXU F GRUHWH UHVSHFWLYD FRQYHUVLH DWXQFL WUHEXLH V
UHDOL]H]H R FRQYHUVLH H[SOLFLW SHQWUX FD UHVSHFWLYXO PHVDM GH DWHQ LRQDUH V GLVSDU
'HRDUHFHODFRQYHUVLLOHLPSOLFLWHVHSRDWHDOWHUDYDORDUHDFDOFXODWSRDWHDSUHDRHURDUH
JUHXGHWHFWDELO
S1= (int)((double)z/x+0.5);
QH[HPSOXOGHPDLVXVVHIRU HD]WUXQFKLHUHDGHODRUHSUH]HQWDUHGHWLSdouble la o
reprezentare n numere ntregi.
'DWHOHQXSRWILDOWHUDWHGDFVHUHDOL]HD]RFRQYHUVLHGHWLSvQWUHXQWLSGHGDWFX
GRPHQLXGHYDORULPDLPLFLXQWLSGHGDWDOFUXLGRPHQLXHVWHPDLPDUH
5.4. Operatorii unari ++L- 'XS FXP VD PHQ LRQDW DFHWL RSHUDWRUL VH QXPHVF XQDUL GHRDUHFH VH DSOLF
DVXSUDXQHLVLQJXUHYDULDELOHH[SUHVLLODXQPRPHQWGDW(LUHDOL]HD]LQFUHPHQWDUHDVDX
decrementarea valorii respective cu o unitate.
/LPEDMXO & PDL DUH XQ DYDQWDM DFHWL RSHUDWRUL SRW IL IRORVL L SHQWUX SRVW VDX
preincrementare. Acest lucru este prezentat n exemplu de mai jos:
'DF[ DWXQFL
Preincrementare
Predecrementare
Postincrementare
Postdecrementare
y=++x
y=--x
y=x++
y=x--
x=x+1=5
L\ [
x=x-1=3 L\ [
y=x=4
L[ [
y=x=4
L[ [
5.5. Operatorii op=

$X IRW LQWURGXL SHQWUX VLPSOLILFDUHD VFULHULL FRGXOXL 2 LQVWUXF LXQH JHQHULF GH
tipul rez = rez op opd1 UH]RS RSG$FHWLRSHUDWRULDSDU LQXUPWRDUHLFODVH^
+= -= = /= %= &= ^= |=} de exemplu: x=x*7 x*=7;
2SHUDWRULUHOD LRQDOLLORJLFL
Pentru a se putea lua decizii ntr-un program, deci pentru a realiza ramificarea
IOX[XOXL GH SUHOXFUDUH D GDWHORU WUHEXLH V H[LVWH R PRGDOLWDWH GH FRPSDUDUH D
LQIRUPD LLORU L GH DVHPHQL GH FRPELQDUH D H[SUHVLLORU ORJLFH SULPLWLY vQ H[SUHVLL PDL
complexe.
'HH[HPSOXGDFvQYDULDELOHOH[L\DPVWRFDWYDORDUHDDWXQFLH[SUHVLDx==y va fi
$'(95$7LYDDYHDODHYDOXDUHDH[SUHVLHLYDORDUHDQXPHULFGDF[ L\
atunci expresia [ \YDIL)$/6LGHFLvQXUPDHYDOXULLYDILvQORFXLWFXYDORDUHD
([SOLFD LH
Operatori
UHOD LRQDOL
==
!=
>
<
>=
<=
Operatori logici
||
&&
!
Egal cu
Diferit de
Mai mare ca
Mai mic ca
Mai mare sau egal
Mai mic sau egal
SAU
,
NU
5.7. Expresii logice complexe

'H RELFHL HVWH LQVXILFLHQW R VLQJXU H[SUHVLH ORJLF VLPSO Q VFULHUHD XQXL
SURJUDPHVWHQHFHVDUGHPXOWHRULFRPSXQHUHDDPDLPXOWHGHFL]LL8QH[HPSOXFODVLF
HVWHFD]XOvQFDUHWUHEXLHYHULILFDWDSDUWHQH DYDORULLVWRFDWHvQWURYDULDELOODXQDQXPLW
interval. De exemplu x[5,20] este echivalent cu xL[20 ceea ce folosind operatori
ORJLFLLUHOD LRQDOLVHSRDWHVFULH[! [
7DEHOHOHGHDGHYUSHQWUXRSHUDWRULLORJLFLDLOLPEDMXOXLVXQW
X Y
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
X&&Y
X||Y
!X
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
8UPHD]SUH]HQWDUHDXQSURJUDPVLPSOXFDUHUHDOL]HD]GLYHUVHRSHUD LLORJLFHFXXQ
VHW GH YDORUL LQL LDOL]DWH GLUHFW vQ SURJUDP $FHDVW PHWRG GH LQL LDOL]DUHD DUH
GH]DYDQWDMXOFSURJUDPXOQXSRDWHSULPLSHQWUXFDOFXODOWHYDORULGHFkWGDFVHPRGLILF
FRGXOVXUV
void main(void)
{
char mask;
char number[6];// tablou de 6 elemente de tip char
char and,or,xor,inv,index;
QXPEHU>@ [LQL LDOL]DUHvQFRG
number[1] = 0x11;
number[2] = 0x22;
number[3] = 0x44;
number[4] = 0x88;
number[5] = 0xFF;
printf(" numerele asupra carora am aplicat diverse operatii logice folosind o
masca sunt: \n");
mask = 0x0F;
for (index = 0;index <= 5;index++) {
and = mask & QXPEHU>LQGH[@LORJLF
or = mask | number[index];//sau logic
xor = mask ^ number[index];// sau exclusiv
inv = ~number[index];// not bit cu bit
printf("%5x %5x %5x %5x %5x %5x\n",number[index],
mask,and,or,xor,inv);
}
printf("\n");
mask = 0x22;
for (index = 0;index <= 5;index++) {
and = mask & number[index];
or = mask | number[index];
xor = mask ^ number[index];
inv = ~number[index];
printf("%5x %5x %5x %5x %5x %5x\n",number[index],
mask,and,or,xor,inv);
}
}
3HQWUXUHVWXOWLSXULORUGHRSHUDWRULSUH]HQWD LYRPGDXQDOWH[HPSOXGHIRORVLUHDORU
void main(void)
{
int x = 0,y = 2,z = 1025;
float a = 0.0,b = 3.14159,c = -37.234;
/* incrementare */
[ [ [VHLQFUHPHQWHD]
x++;
/* x se SRVWLQFUHPHQWHD]
++x;
/* x se SUHLQFUHPHQWHD][
z = y++;
/* z = 2, y = 3 */
z = ++y;
/* z = 4, y = 4 */
/* decrementare */
\ \ \VHGHFUHPHQWHD]
y--;
/* y este postdecrementat */
--y;
/* y este predecrementat */
y = 3;
z = y--;
/* z = 3, y = 2 */
z = --y;
/* z = 1, y = 1 */
RSHUD LLDULWPHWLFH
D D VHDGXQODD
D VHDGXQvQFODD
D DVHvQPXO HWHFX

a -= b;
/* se scade b din a */
a /= 10.0;
/* se mparte a la 10.0 */
H[SUHVLLFRQGL LRQDOH
D E! " DFHDVWH[SUHVLH
LIE! HVWHLGHQWLFFXWRDWLQVWUXF LXQHDif */
a = 2.0;
/* din punct de vedere al rezultatului*/
else
a = 10.5;
c = (a > E"DE FSULPHWHPD[LPXPGLQWUHDLE
c = (a > E"ED FSULPHWHPLQLPXOGLQWUHDLE
}
CAPITOLUL 6
,QVWUXF LXQLGHVHOHF LHGHFL]LH
,QVWUXF LXQHVLPSOGHGHFL]LH
)LHXUPWRDUHDSUREOHPFHWUHEXLHUH]ROYDWSULQLQWHUPHGLXOXQXLSURJUDP
6VHUHDOL]H]HXQSURJUDPFDUHIDFHDXWRPDWFDOFXOXOPHGLHLGHOLFHQ LDPHGLHL
generale.
3URJUDPXOSULPHWHWUHLPHGLLGHOHH[DPHQHOHGHOLFHQ LQRWDSULPLWODVXV LQHUHD
SURLHFWXOXLGHVWDW(OWUHEXLHVFDOFXOH]HPHGLDvQWUHQRWHOHGHODH[DPHQHOHGHOLFHQ
UH]XOWkQGRSULPPHGLHFDUHDSRLVHPHGLD]FXQRWDGHODSURLHFWXOGHVWDWUH]XOWkQG
PHGLDJHQHUDO
([LVWROLPLWDUHDVXSUDGDWHORUGHLQWUDUHFDUHWUHEXLHUHDOL]DWGHSURJUDPLDQXPH
GDFXQDGLQPHGLLOHGHODH[DPHQXOGHOLFHQ HVWHPDLPLFFDFLQFLVQXPDLUHDOL]H]H
FDOFXOXOPHGLLORUILQDOHLVOGHFODUHSHUHVSHFWLYXOFDQGLGDWUHVSLQV
2VROX LHGHUH]ROYDUHDSUREOHPHLODQLYHOGHSVHXGRFRGDUDWFDPDLMRV
LQFOXGHOLEUULLOHQHFHVDUHOXFUXOXLvQPRGWH[W
void main(void)
{//nceput program
GHFODUYDULDELOHOHQQQQVPPGHWLSUHDO
WHUJHHFUDQXO
FLWHWHQRWDvQYDULDELODQ
GDFQ!LQ!LQ!DWXQFL
{
FLWHWHQRWDVWDWvQYDULDELODns;
UHDOL]HD]PHGLDP QQQ
UHDOL]HD]PHGLDP PQV
DILHD]PHGLDGHOLFHQ DP
DILHD]PHGLDJHQHUDOP
}
DOWIHODILHD]&DQGLGDWUHVSLQV
DWHDSWRWDVW
`VIkULWGHSURJUDP
6H REVHUY F D IRVW QHYRLH GH R UDPLILFDUH OD QLYHOXO SURFHVULL GDWHORU UDPLILFDUH
FDUHDSDUHGLQQHYRLOHXWLOL]DWRUXOXL(VWHQHYRLHFDODXQPRPHQWGDWVKRWUkPPRGXUL
PXOWLSOHGHSUHOXFUDUHSHQWUXDFHODLIOX[GHGDWHGHLQWUDUH
Q OLPEDMXO & SHQWUX D LPSOHPHQWD DFHVW WLS GH GHFL]LL D IRVW LQWURGXV
LQVWUXF LXQHDif cu sintaxa ca mai jos:
if (FRQGL LH DGHYUDW
{
LQVWUXF LXQL
H[HFXWEORFLQVWUXF LXQL
}
else
{
};
GDFFRQGL LDHVWHDGHYUDW
H[HFXW EORF
altfel
6LQWD[D LQVWUXF LXQLL HVWH LGHQWLF FX SVHXGRFRGXO ELQHvQ HOHV F VH IRORVHWH OLPED
HQJOH]
)LJD5HSUH]HQWDUHDSULQVFKHPDORJLFDLQVWUXF LXQLLGHGHFL]LH
)LJE5HSUH]HQWDUHDSULQVFKHPDORJLFDLQVWUXF LXQLLGHGHFL]LHVLPSOH
Q ILJXULOH D L E HVWH SUH]HQWDW UHSUH]HQWDUHD OD QLYHO GH VFKHP ORJLF D
LQVWUXF LXQLLGHGHFL]LH6SUHGHRVHELUHGHDOWHOLPEDMHGHSURJUDPDUHFXPDUIL3$6&$/
GHH[HPSOXOLPEDMXO&QXIRORVHWHYDULDELOHGHWLSORJLFSHQWUXUH]XOWDWXOHYDOXULLXQHL
expresii. Valorile comparate pot rezulta din valoarea UHWXUQDW GH R IXQF LH GLQ FHD
VWRFDWvQWURYDULDELOVDXGLUHFWGDWvQSURJUDP
'DFvQORFXO FRQGL LHLvQXUPDHYDOXULLH[SUHVLHLUH]XOWXQQXPUGLIHULW GH ]HUR
DFHVWDYDILFRQVLGHUDWFDFRQGL LHvQGHSOLQLWLGHFLVHYDH[HFXWDEORFXOGHLQVWUXF LXQL
GDF HVWH ]HUR FRQGL LD QX HVWH VDWLVIFXW DWXQFL VH YD H[HFXWD EORFXO GH LQVWUXF LXQL
$FHVW OXFUX FRQIHU XQ PDUH DYDQWDM SULQ IDSWXO F VH SRW LQWURGXFH GLUHFW H[SUHVLL
PDWHPDWLFH VDX DSHOXUL GH IXQF LL FH UHWXUQHD] UH]XOWDWH QXPHULFH vQ ]RQD GH WHVW D
FRQGL LHL
1XvQWRWGHDXQDHVWHQHYRLHGH DPEHOHSU LDOHLQVWUXF LXQLLGHH[HPSOXFkQGVH
H[HFXW R RSHUD LXQH QXPDL GDF HVWH vQGHSOLQLW R DQXPLW FRQGL LH 'H IDSW VWUXFWXUD
ORJLF GH FRQWURO DU WUHEXL SUHY]XW L FX R UDPXU GH else dar acest lucru nu ar duce
GHFkW OD VXSUDvQFUFDUHD FRGXOXL FHHD FH vQJUHXQHD] PXOW GHSDQDUHD SURJUDPXOXL
UH]XOWkQGVLQWD[DSUH]HQWDWPDLMRV
if (FRQGL LH DGHYUDW
{
LQVWUXF LXQL
};
GDFFRQGL LDHVWHDGHYUDWDWXQFL
e[HFXW EORF
QFD]XOvQFDUHVXQWLPSOLFDWHPDLPXOWHGHFL]LLVLPSOHFDUHWUHEXLHVFOXDWHIXQF LH
GH GLIHULWH YDORUL DOH XQHL VLQJXUH YDULDELOH OLPEDMXO HVWH SUHY]XW FX LQVWUXF LXQH
VSHFLDOL]DWFDVH'LVFX LDDFHVWHLLQVWUXF LXQLVHYDIDFHXOWHULRU
0DLMRVHVWHSUH]HQWDWSURJUDPXOFRUHVSXQ]WRUpseudocodului prezentat anterior.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main(void)
{
float n1,n2,n3,ns,m1,m2;
clrscr();
printf(Dati prima nota:);
scanf(%f,&n1);
printf(\nDati a doua nota:);
scanf(%f,&n2);
printf(\nDati prima nota:);
scanf(%f,&n1);
if( (n1>5) && (n2>5) && (n3>5))
{
printf(\nDati nota de la stat:);
scanf(%f,&ns);
m1=(n1+n2+n3)/3;
m2=(m3+ns)/2;
printf( media de licenta %f, m1);
printf( media generala %f,m2);
}
else
printf(Candidat respins);
getch();
}
2EVHUYD LL
1. Q DFHDVW ID] IDSWXO F VD IRORVLW R UHIHULQ SHQWUX FLWLUHD XQHL YDULDELOH YH]L
QQXSRDWHILH[SOLFDWVXILFLHQWLYDWUHEXLOXDWFDDWDUHvQFD]XOFLWLULLYDULDELOHORU
simple.
2. Operatorul ?QUHDOL]HD]XQVDOWODOLQLHQRX
3. 6H REVHUY F SH UDPXUD GH else nu s-au introdus delimitatorii de bloc (acoladele)
SHQWUX F GDF DFHWLD QX VXQW SUHFL]D L SULPD LQVWUXF LXQH HVWH DXWRPDW FRQVLGHUDW
DSDU LQkQGUDPXULLUHVSHFWLYH
4. 3HQWUX SURJUDPDWRULL PDL DYDQVD L vQ PRPHQWXO vQ FDUH EORFXO GH LQVWUXF LXQL HVWH
IRUPDWGLQWURVLQJXULQVWUXF LXQHVHSRDWHIRORVLRSHUDWRUXO"FDvQH[HPSOXOGHPDL
jos, unde :
if(a>b) x=25;
else yx=34;
poate fi echivalat prin: a>b (x=25) : (y=34);
8Q DOW H[HPSOX GH IRORVLUH D RSHUDWRUXOXL " HVWH R OLQLH GH FRG FDUH FDOFXOHD]
PD[LPXOGLQWUHYDULYDULOGHSXQHvQYDULDELODPD[
max=(var1>var2) ? var1 : var2;
Mai jos vom prezenta un program simplu cu exemple despre evaluarea unor expresii
compuse ntr-un program:
void main(void)
{
int x = 11,y = 11,z = 11;
char a = 40,b = 40,c = 40;
float r = 12.987,s = 12.987,t = 12.987;
LI[ \] H[HFX LDLQVWUXF LXQLLYDDYHDFDHIHFW]
LI[!]D
$
H[HFX LDLQVWUXF LXQLLYDDYHDFDHIHFWD
LI[!]D
%
H[HFX LDLQVWUXF LXQLLQXYDDYHDQLFLXQHIHFW
LIE FU H[HFX LDLQVWUXF LXQLLYDDYHDFDHIHFWU
LIU VW F H[HFX LDLQVWUXF LXQLLYDDYHDFDHIHFWW
LI[ U V] H[HFX LDLQVWUXF LXQLLYDDYHDFDHIHFW
IDSWXOF[YDOXDYDORULSR]LWLYHLDU]
LI[ \] H[HFX LDLQVWUXF LXQLLYDDYHDFDHIHFW
[ \L]
LI[ ] H[HFX LDLQVWUXF LXQLLYDDYHDFDHIHFW]
LI[] H[HFX LDLQVWUXF LXQLLYDDYHDFDHIHFW]
x = y = z = 77;
LI[ \ [
] H[HFX LDLQVWUXF LXQLLYDDYHD

ca efect z = 33 */
LI[!\__]!] H[HFX LDLQVWUXF LXQLLYDDYHD
ca efect z = 22 */
LI[ \ ]] H[HFX LDLQVWUXF LXQLLYDDYHD
ca efect z = 11 */
LI[ \ ] U H[HFX LDLQVWUXF LXQLL
LI[
va avea ca efect x = 1, y = 2, z = 3, r = 12.00 */

\ ] U H[HFX LDLQVWUXF LXQLLQX
va avea nici un efect */
if (x == x); z = 27.345; /* z se va modifica ntotdeauna */

LI[ [] \QXVHYDPRGLILFDQLFLRGDW
LI[ ] [YDOXDYDORDUHD]YDUPkQHQHVFKLPEDW
}
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folosind metoda pseudocodului.
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sZLWFKRSHUDQGIXQF LHGHRSHUDQG
{
FDVHYDOGDFRSHUDQGXOLDYDORDUHD
EORFGHLQVWUXF LXQL
break; // stop
case vDOGDFRSHUDQGXOLDYDORDUHD
EORFGHLQVWUXF LXQL
break; // stop
...
case YDOQGDFRSHUDQGXOLDYDORDUHDQ
EORFGHLQVWUXF LXQLQ
break; // stop
GHIDXOWSHQWUXRULFHDOWYDORDUH
EORFGHLQVWUXF LXQLFHWUDWHD]UHVWXOYDORULORU
ce le poate avea operandul
} // stop
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SHUPLWHVHOHF LDRSHUD LHLPDWHPDWLFHFHWUHEXLHUHDOL]DWFDvQILQDOVDILH]HUH]XOWDWXO
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main(void)
{
int op1, op2;
float rez;
char oper;
clrscr();
printf(Dati primul operand:);
scanf(%d,&op1);
printf(\nDati al doilea operand:);
scanf(%d,&op2);
printf(\nSelectionati operatia dorita);
oper=getch();
printf(/n1- Adunare);
printf(/n2- Scadere);
printf(/n3- Inmultire);
printf(/n4-Impartire );
switch(oper)
{
case 1:rez=op1+op2;break;
case 2:rez=op1-op2; break;
case 3:rez=op1*op2; break;
case 4:rez=op1/op2; break;
default:
clrscr();
printf(Operatie nepermisa);
}
printf(\nRezultatul este: %d, rez);
}
CAPITOLUL 7
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de valori n cazul datelor care le poate introduce un utilizator. Acest lucru este necesar
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mai jos:
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{
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}
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intervalului [0,255].
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main(void)
{
unsigned char value;
clrscr();
printf(Nr1:);
scanf(%d,&op1);
while((value>255)&&(value<0))
{
printf(Eroare ! Numarul trebuie sa fie intre 0 si 255 );
printf(Nr1:);
scanf(%d,&op1);
}
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}
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jos:
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#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main(void)
{
unsigned char value;
clrscr();
do
{
printf(Nr1:);
scanf(%d,&op1);
if( value>255)&&(value<0))
printf(Eroare ! Numarul trebuie sa fie intre 0 si 255 );
} while((value>255)&&(value<0));
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}
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nu numai.
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LQL LDOL]HD]YDULDELODUH]XOWDWFHYDSVWUDnr la putere, cu 1 (rez=1)
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rez=rez*nr;
pw=pw-1;
UHSHW
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#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main(void)
{
int nr, pw;
float rez;
clrscr();
printf(Numarul);
scanf(%d,&nr);
printf(\nPuterea);
scanf(%d,&op2);
rez=1; //****
while(pw>0)//*****
{
rez=rez*nr;
pw=pw-1;//*****
}
printf(Numarul %d la puterea %d este %f,nr,pw,rez);
getch();
}
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suplimentar. Programul anterior UHVFULVIRORVLQGDFHDVWLQVWUXF LXQHHVWHGDWPDLMRV
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main(void)
{
int nr, pw,i;
float rez;
clrscr();
printf(Numarul);
scanf(%d,&nr);
printf(\nPuterea);
scanf(%d,&op2);
for(i=0;i<pw;i=i+1)
rez=rez*nr;
FRGXOPDLSRDWHILVFULVLFDLQ]RQDFRPHQWDWDFHXUPHD]
// for(i=pw;i>0;i=i-1)
//
rez=rez*nr;
printf(Numarul %d la puterea %d este %f,nr,pw,rez);
getch();
}
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scris este mult mai succint.
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mai sunt necesare
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void main(void)
{
int xx;
for(xx = 5;xx < 15;xx = xx + 1){
if (xx == 8)
break;
printf("In bucla oprita fortat , xx are valoarea %d\n",xx);
}
for(xx = 5;xx < 15;xx = xx + 1){
if (xx == 8)
continue;
printf("Prin aplicarea continue in bucla, xx devine %d\n",xx);
}
}
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# define AND &&
void main(void)
{
int x;
printf(Dati un numar);
scanf(%d,&x)
if((x>=MIN)AND(x<=MAX))printf(\nNumarul este in interval);
else printf(Numarul nu este in interval);
getch();
}
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8. Masive de date. Tablouri
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-
tablou monodimensional:
WLSGDWQXPHWDEORX>nr-elemente]; (ex: char s[10])
tablou bidimensional:
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tablou tridimensional:
WLSGDWQXPHWDEORX>coord x][coord y][coord z];
(ex:
float
punct[10][10][10]).
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caractere sau 100 de ntregi sau 1000 de valori reale pentru cazurile prezentate ca exemplu.
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s[3]=2 sau m[2][2]=30 sau punct[0][0][0]=0.233445.
Indicele poate fi furnizat prin intermediul unei variabile. Acest lucru permite
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caractere. Cum, n general, prelucrarea acestora nu se face caracter cu caracter, ele fiind
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8.1. Tablouri monodimensionale
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#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main (void)
{
int v1[100], v[100],v2[100],i,j,n;
clrscr();
printf(Dati dimensiunea vectorilor n=);
scanf(%d,&n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf(V[%d]=,i);
scanf(%d,v[i])
}//citirea vectorului v
for(i=0;i<n-1;i++)
for(j=i+1;j<n;i++)
if(v[i]>v[j])
{
t=v[i];
v[i]=v[j];
v[j]=t;
}
printf(\nVectorul ordonat:\n)
for(i=0;i<n;i++) printf(%d ,v[i]);// afisarea vectorului v
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf(V1[%d]=,i);
scanf(%d,v1[i]);
}
for(i=0;j=0;i<n;i++;j++)
{
v2[j]=v1[2*i];
v2[j+1]=v[2*i+1];
}
printf(\nVectorul v interclasat cu v1 este:\n)
for(i=0;i<n;i++) printf(%d ,v[i]);
for(i=0;i<n;i++) v2[i]=v1[i]+v[i];
printf(\nVectorul v sumat cu v1 este:\n)
for(i=0;i<n;i++) printf(%d ,v[i]);
getch();
}
0DLMRVHVWHSUH]HQWDWFRGXOFDUHLPSOHPHQWHD]DOJRULWPXOPHUJe sort, bazat pe
WHKQLFDvPSDUWHLVWSkQHWHvQWURPDQLHUUHFXUVLY
#include <stdio.h>
int a[100],n; // variabile globale vizibile Ln main Ln interiorul
//RULFUHLIXQF LLGHILQLWHGHutilizator
merge_sort(int st,int dr); // prototipurile IXQF LLORUproprii

merge(int st,int mij,int dr);
void main(void)
{
int i;
printf("\n introd dimensiunea sirului de sortat : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf(\nV[%d]=,i);
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
}
merge_sort(0,n-1);
printf("\n sirul ordonat este :\n");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
printf("%3d ",a[i]);
}
merge_sort(int st,int dr)
{
int mij;
if(st<dr){
mij=(st+dr)/2;
merge_sort(st,mij);
merge_sort(mij+1,dr);
merge(st,mij,dr);
}
}
merge(int st,int mij,int dr)
{
int h,i,j,k;
int b[100];
h=st;
i=st;
j=mij+1;
while(h<=mij && j<=dr){
if(a[h]<=a[j]) {b[i]=a[h];h++;}
else {b[i]=a[j];j++;}
i++;
}
if(h>mij)
for(k=j;k<=dr;k++)
{b[i]=a[k];i++;}
else for(k=h;k<=mij;k++)
{b[i]=a[k];i++;}
for(k=st;k<=dr;k++) a[k]=b[k];
}
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monodimensional.
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-
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char s[]=.doc
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LUXO
la declarare cu definirea dimensiunii tabloului
char s[20]=doi
direct n program : s=Dati valoarea

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s[i]=\0;
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#include <stdio.h>
void main(void)
{
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nume[0] = 'M';
nume[1] = 'i';
nume[2] = 'h';
nume[3] = 'a';
QXPH>@ FDUDFWHUXOFHPDUFKHD]VIkULWXO

printf("Numele este %s\n",nume);
printf("O litera din el este %c\n",nume[2]);
printf("O parte din nume este %s\n",&nume[1]);
getch();
}
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- 8WLOL]DWRUXOWLHH[DFWFkWHVWH GLPHQVLXQHD PD[LP D matricilor care vor fi folosite,
acesta este cazul ideal care este relativ rar.
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acoperitoare.
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-
tablou monodimensional: Nr_elem=dim_vect*sizeof(tip_data);

tablou bidimensional: Nr_elem=dim_x*dim_y*sizeof(tip_data);
tablou tridimensional Nr_elem = dim_x* dim_y *dim_z * sizeof(tip_data).
'HMDDSDUHRSUREOHPUHODWLYODVSD LXOPD[LPFDUHSRDWHILRFXSDWGHWRWDOXOGDWHORU
GHILQLWHVWDWLFDGLFFXPDPYRUELWSkQDFXPLDQXPHIDSWXOFFKLDUVXEPRGHOXOGH
FRPSLODUH +8*( QX VH SRDWH DORFD PDL PXOW GH 0R RFWH L SHQWUX GDWH
Deci implicit apare automat o limitare asupra dimensiunii maxime care o poate lua un
tablou.
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-
metoda swap-ului;
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dimensiuni maxime. Practic dispozitivul de stocare devine un fel de prelungire a
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Mai jos vom prezenta un scurt exemplu de folosire a tablouri pentru implementarea de
RSHUD LXQLVLPSOHFXmatrici.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main(void)
{
int m1[5][5],m2[5][5],m3[5][5],m4[5][5],i,j,k,m,n,p;
clrscr();
printf(n=); scanf(%d,&n);// se poate scrie LDDvQFRG
printf(m=); scanf(%d,&m);// dar nu este recomandat
printf(p=); scanf(%d,&p);// am citit dimensiunile matricilor
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
for(j=0;j++;j<m)
{
printf(\nA[%d,%d]=,i,j);
scanf(%d,&m1[i][j]);
}// am terminat de citit prima matrice
// se observFDQXPHOHVXEFDUHRFLWHVFQXDUHOHJWXUFX
//modul n care o denumesc n program.
for(i=0;i<m;i++)
for(j=0;j++;j<p)
{printf(\nB[%d,%d]=,i,j);
scanf(%d,&m2[i][j]);
}// se poate scrie LDDn cod
// deci am citit cele doumatrici, acum vom ncepe procesarea.
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
for(j=0;j++;j<p)
{
m3[i][j]=0;
for(k=0;k++;k<m)
m3[i][j]+=m1[i][k]*m2[k][j];
}// vQPXO LUHDDGRXmatrici
printf(Matricea Cnp=Amn*Bnp este:)
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{printf(\n)
for(j=0;j++;j<p)printf(%d ,m3[i][j]);
}
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
for(j=0;j++;j<p)
m4[i][j]=m3[j][i];
printf(Transpusa lui C este );
for(i=0;i<p;i++)
{printf(\n)
for(j=0;j++;j<n)printf(%d ,m4[i][j]);
}
getch();
}
Deoarece tablourile bidimensionale de caractere nu sunt folosite uzual, nu le vom trata.
CAPITOLUL 9
9. Tipuri de date definite de utilizator
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FRQ LQHDXQXPDLGDWHGHDFHODLWLS6XQWPXOWHFD]XULvQFDUHHVWHQHYRLHFDGDWHGHWLSXUL
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GHRSHUD LXQLSHGDWHVWUXFWXULOHVXQWIRORVLWHSHQWUXDEVWUDF LXQL.
9.1. Declararea unei structuri
2VWUXFWXUHVWHXQWLSGHGDWJHQHUDOL]DWGHILQLWGHXWLOL]DWRUcare poate fi folosit
pentru gruparea diferitelor tipuri de date ntr-un nou concept. De exemplu un tip de date
FHVHUHIHUODXQHOHGLQFDUDFWHULVWLFLOHXQXLVWXGHQWHVWHSUH]HQWDWPDLMRV
struct Student
{
char name[20]; // numele studentului
unsigned short int age; // virsta
unsigned char n_lab; // nota la laborator
unsigned char n_ex; // nota la examen
}
([LVWRFRQYHQ LHFRPXQOHJDWGHQXPHOHXQHLVWUXFWXULLDQXPHDFHVWDVvQFHDS
FXOLWHUPDUH8QH[HPSOXGHGHFODUD LLFXDFHVWWLSGHGDWHHVWHGDWPDLMRV
struct Student tmp, an99[20];
9.2. Operatorul typedef
Comanda W\SHGHIFDUHHVWHIRORVLWODredenumirea unor variabile
HQXPHUDWH SRDWH IL IRORVLW L vPSUHXQ FX FXYkQWXO FKHLH VWUXFW 3HQWUX R VWUXFWXU
WUHEXLH V DSDU GXS FH HVWH GHILQLW L vQDLQWH GH RULFH GHFODUD LH GH YDULDELOH 8]XDO
noul tip de date se UHGHQXPHWHLVHDWDHD]RHWLFKHWHFKLYDOHQWFDPDLMRV
typedef struct Student
{
char name[20]; // numele studentului
unsigned short int age; // virsta
unsigned char n_lab; // nota la laborator
unsigned char n_ex; // nota la examen
} stud;
Deci noul tip de date a fost redenumit ca VWXGvQDFHVWHFRQGL LLGHFODUD LLUHODWLYHODHO

devin:
8QDOWH[HPSOXGHGHILQLUH
Stud tmp,an99[20];
Definesc noul tip de date

struct my_data
{
char name[19];
secol[11];
short month,day,year;
}
Folosesc noua defini ie
struct my_data test,tab[100],*ptab;
Deoarece my_data nu este un tip predefinit de date ,ci este un conglomerat definit
de programator trebuie specificat i cuvntul cheie struct.
Creearea unui nou tip de date se face astfel:
typedef struct
{
char name[19];
secol[11];
short month,day,year;
}pers;
ncepnd de acum pers se va folosi direct frDOWHVSHFLILFD LLvQGHILQLUHDXQRUHOHPHQWH
de acest tip.
pers test,tab[100],*ptab;
IQL LDOL]DUHDXQHLVWUXFWXUL
&DLvQFD]XOWDEORXULORUVDXDOWRUWLSXULGHGDWHSRDWHILUHDOL]DWDVWIHO:
: La declararea unui element
Ex: pers eu={MIKE, 354263,3,5,1978};
: Oriunde in cadrul programului
Obs:
Ini LDOL]DUHDXQHLVWUXFWXULQXSRDWHILUHDOL]DWODGHILQLUHDQRXOXLWLSGH
GDW(cu typedef)(YLGHQWH[LVW o diferen FODULQWUHGHILQLUHDXQXLQRXWLSGHGDW
LGHILQLUHDXQHLYDULDELOHGHXQDQXPLWWLS
9.3. Accesarea membrilor unei structuri
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H[LVWHQWHQXWLXVOXFUH]HGHFkWFXWLSXULOHpredefinite de date. De aceea este necesar ca
SUHOXFUDUHD V VH IDF WRW OD QLYHO GH PHPEUL FkPSXUL 3HQWUX DFHDVWD WUHEXLHVF
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din membri este .. Accesul se face prin referire la numele global urmat de numele
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tablou de elemente de tip student.
for(i=0;i<10;i++)
{
clrscr();
printf(Nume);
scanf(%s, an99[i].nume);
printf(\n Nota la laborator:);
scanf(%d,an99[i].n_lab);
printf(\n Nota la examen:);
scanf(%d,an99[i].n_ex); }
2VWUXFWXUvQLQWHULRUXODOWHLVWUXFWXULnested structures)
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prezentat mai jos.
typedef struct Grupa
{
int nume; // numarul grupei
int an; // an de studii
stud t[35]; grupa contine maximum 35 de studenti
}gr;
gr temp;
Accesul la membri n acest caz se face prin compunere ca mai jos
temp.nume //umele grupei
temp.t[3].name QXPHOHFHOXLGHDOWUHLOHDVWXGHQWGLQJUXS
0DLMRVSUH]HQWPvQFXQH[HPSOX
typedef struct
{char name[19],snum[11];
struct
{short day;
short month;
short year;
}birth_date
}pers;
O referire la day se va face pentru persoana eu: eu.birth_date.day
Element VXEVWUXFWXUFPS
VWUXFWXU
mare
Obs: numele cPSXULORUXQHLVWUXFWXULQXVXQWY]XWHGLUHFWvQDIDULGHFLRUHIHULUH:
struct x {int x; ) x; este legalODDFFHVDUHx.x=5.
Aten LHQFHSWRULLVHYLWHDFHVWOXFUXGHRDUHFHFUHD]RDPELJXLWDWHQHUHFRPDQGDWvQ
cod.
9.5 Structuri autoreferite
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LQVWDQ LHULDOHHL
struct p
struct p
{int a,b;
{int a,b;
float c;
float c;
struct p next;
struct p* next;
}
}
la analiza lexicalVHLQWUvQFLFOXLQILQLW
OK!!Acest lucru este posibil

deoarece pointerul este o
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altei variabile
7UDQVIHUXOVWUXFWXULORUFDDUJXPHQWHGHIXQ LL
: transfer chiar structura (prin valoare)
: transfer un pointer cWUHHD(prin referin )
Ex: pers om;
func1 (om)
func2 (&om)
7UDQVIHUXOSULQYDORDUHVHUHFRPDQGLQXUPWRDUHOHFD]XUL:
structura este mic
JDUDQWDUHDIDSWXOXLFIXQ LDDSHODQWQXPRGLILFVWUXFWXUDDSHODW
La apelul prin valoare compilatorul JHQHUHD]Rcopie a respectivei structuri (IXQF LD
DSHODQWpoate deci modifica doar DFHDVWcopie).
DacDPGRULVVSHFLILFPWUDQVIHUXOSULQUHIHULQ LQFODU(vezi func2(&om)) este
suficient ca sGHFODUPSHUV* om LDWXQFLIXQFRPHVWHFRUHFW
Atunci n acest caz func1(om) nu ami este corect pentru cRPHVWHXQSRLQWHULQXR
valoare.
9.7 Returnarea unei structuri
K&R nu permite returnarea unei structuri dar ANSI permite acest lucru.
Deci:
pos by value
pos by reference
pers f(.)
{
pers x;
return x;
}
pers* f1(..)
{
static pers* p;
return &p;
}
&kPSXULGHEL L
Membrii unei structuri de tip int sau XQVLJQHGSRWILDORFD LvQFkPSXULGHSkQOD
EL L%L LLVXQWDORFD LvQFHSkQGFXFHOPDLSX LQVHPQLILFDWLYELWDOILHFUXLFXYkQWGH
EL L6LQWD[DHVWH
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vQVHDPQDOLQLHUHODXUPWRDUHDOLPLWGHFXYkQW'DFQXVHVSHFLILFXQQXPHSHQWUX
FkPSXOGHEL LFkPSXOHVWHDORFDWGDUQXHVWHDFFHVLELOVHIRORVHWHSHQWUXDOLQLHUL
struct special_word
{
LQWLYDILUHSUH]HQWDWSHEL LLEE
XQVLJQHGMYDILUHSUH]HQWDWSHEL LLESkQODE
LQWYDILUHSUH]HQWDWSHEL LLESkQODE
int
k :1 ; // va fi reprezentat pe bitul b11
XQVLJQHGPYDILUHSUH]HQWDWSHEL LLESkQODE
};
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9.9. Uniuni
8QLXQLOH FRUHVSXQG FX vQUHJLVWUULOH FX YDULDQWH GLQ DOWH OLPEDMH GH SURJUDPDUH
(Pascal, Modula-2, etc.); o uniune este un tip hibrid, valoarea variabilei uniune fiind
YDORDUHD PHPEUXOXL DFWLY DO XQLXQLL FHLODO L PHPEUL ILLQG QHGHILQL L 'LQ SXQFW GH YHGHUH
VLQWDFWLF GHILQL LD XQXL WLS XQLXQH VHDPQ FX GHILQL LD XQXL WLS VWUXFWXU FX GLIHUHQ D F
indicatorul VWUXFWVHvQORFXLHWHFXXQLRQVXQWSHUPLVHLFkPSXULGHEL L
Ca implementare sunt similare cu structurile, cu diferen DFPHPEULLVXQWVXSUDSXLXQXO
GXS DOWXO vQ PHPRULH 6SD LXO GH PHPRULH HVWH IRORVLW OD PD[LPXP vQ UDSRUW FX
VWUXFWXULOH 'H IDSW SHUPLW FD DFHHDL ]RQ GH PHPRULH V ILH LQWHUSUHWDW GLIHULW IU D
folosi cast.
'LPHQVLXQHDVSD LXOXLGHPHPRULHDORFDWXQLXQLLHVWHHJDOFXGLPHQVLXQHDVSD LXOXL
alocat celui mai mare membru. Accesul la membrii uniunii se face sub forma unor
componente selectate, foloVLQG DFHLDL RSHUDWRUL L DFHOHDL UHJXOL FD vQ FD]XO VWUXFWXULORU
1XPHOHGHXQLXQLUHVSHFWDFHOHDLUHJXOLFDLQXPHOHGHXQLXQLVSD LXGHQXPHXWLOL]DUH
etc.).
QUHJLVWUULYDULDELOH
n cazurile n care se poate ca ntr-o ba]GHGDWHGRXVDXPDLPXOWHFPSXULV
se DXWRHOLPLQHUHFLSURFIXQF LHGHGDWHOHLQWURGXVHvQHDVHSRDWHRE LQHRSWLPL]DUHD
VSD LXOXLJUXSDWvQPHPRULHGHXQHOHPHQWDOVWUXFWXULLSULQJUXSDUHDDFHORUFPSXUL
ntr-RXQLXQHFHDSDU LQHVWUXFWXULL
Ex.:
typedef union
{
struct
{
char c1,c2;
}s
long j;
float x;
}u
1000
C1
1001
C2
1002
1003
J
X
&RPSLODWRUXODORFVXILFLHQWPHPRULHSHQWUXDSXWHDUH LQHFHOPDLPDUHPHPEUXLWR L
PHPEULLvQFHSODDFHHDLDGUHV'DWHOHVWRFDWHntr-o uniune depind de care membru al
uniunii se va utiliza.
pas.s.c1=a
pas.s.c2=b
1000
1001 1002
1003
a
b
...
Unused
pas.j=5
VXSUDVFULHFHOHFDUDFWHUHLGHSXQHSHWR LFHLRFWH LWLSlong int)

1000
1001 1002
1003
0
6XSRUWDFHOHDLUHJXOLVLQWDFWLFHFDVWUXFWXULOH
([LVWDSOLFD LLGHED]SHQWUXXQLXQL:
1. FUHHD]VWUXFWXULIOH[LELOHYDULDQWDUHFRUGVvQFDUHSRWUH LQHGLIHULWHWLSXULGH
date)
2. interpretea]DFHHDLPHPRULHvQPRGXULGLIHULWH
Exemplu pentru cazul 1:
Union myunion
{
int i ;
double d ;
char c ;
} mu ;
sizeof ( myunion ) --> 8
sizeof ( mu ) --> 8
sizeof ( mu .i ) --> 2
sizeof ( mu .c ) --> 1
sizeof ( mu .d ) --> 8
5HVSHFWkQGFRQYHUVLLOHQHFHVDUHSXWHPVSXQHFXQSRLQWHUFWUHRXQLXQHHVWHXQ
SRLQWHUFWUHRULFDUHGLQWUHPHPEULLHL
(double *) & mu == & mu .d
O uQLXQH QX SRDWH IL LQL LDOL]DW GHFkW SULQ LQWHUPHGLXO SULPXOXL VX PHPEUX
GHFODUDW 9RP SUH]HQWD PDL MRV XQ SURJUDP FDUH FLWHWH FXYLQWXO VSHFLDO FDUH UH LQH
FRPSRQHQWHOHKDUGZDUHGHED]LQVWDODWHvQWUXQVLVWHPGHFDOFXO$FHVWDHVWHLQL LDOL]DWvQ
urma DXWRGHWHF LHL IFXWH vQ VHFYHQ D GH SRUQLUH FH DUH ORF OD SXQHUHD VXE WHQVLXQH D
sistemului.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<dos.h>
union
{
unsigned w;
struct bit_field {
unsigned fd :1;
unsigned dimR :2;
unsigned modV :2;
unsigned nrF :2;
unsigned DMA :1;
unsigned nrRS :3;
unsigned game :1;
unsigned serP :1;
unsigned nrLpt :2;
} b;
} eqp;
void main(void)
{
unsigned far *ptr;
clrscr();
ptr=MK_FP(0,0410);
eqp.w=*ptr;
// urmeazDILDUHDILHFUXLHOHPHQWDOuniunii conform
// cu vQ HOHVXOdat
getch();
}
Cazul 2 Interpretarea GLIHULWDdatelor
Ca un exemplu VFRQVLGHUPproblema FRPXQLFD LHLseriale, unde datele vin
octet cu octet.
Uniunile permit o modalitate de grupare, a RFWH LORUvPSUHXQastfel vQFWVSRDW
fi reconstruite n forma lor RULJLQDO'Hexemplu, Vpresupunem Fget_byte( ) este o
func LHFDUHvQWRDUFHXQRFWHWFLWLWdintr-un device de comunica LH
O valoare GRXEOHSHRFWH LSRDWHILH[WUDVGLQdevice prin 8 apeluri recursive
DOHIXQF LHLGXSFXPVHYHGH:
union double
{
char c[];
double val;
}
double get_double( )
{
extern char get_byte( ); //optimal depinde de modul de structurare a
//fiLHUXOXL
int j;
union double d;
for (j=0; j<8 ; j++)
d.c[j]=get_byte( );
return d.val;
}
Aten LH!!! (VWHRGLIHUHQ PDMRUvQWUHDFHVWPRGGHLQWHUSUHWDUHLFRQYHUVLLOHSULQcast.
,QL LDOL]DUHDXQLXQLLVSHFLILF$16,:
union ex
{int I;
float f;
};
union ex test={1};
sau vQFD]XOXQLXQLFHUH LQHLRVWUXFWXU
union n
{
struct {int i; float f;}s;
char ch[6];
}
union n test1 = {1, 1.10}
(QXPHUUL
Tipurile de date enumerate sunt folosite n principal pentru a da nume mnemonice
unor constante ntregi. n exemplul de mai jos
enum zile { luni,marti,miercuri,joi,vineri,simbata,duminica } oricezi ;
VH GHILQHWH XQ QRX WLSvQWUHJ QXPLW HQXP ]LOH XQ QXPU GH FRQVWDQWH GH DFHVW WLS OXQL
PDU LFXYDORULGHDFHVWWLSLVHGHFODURYDULDELOGHWLSHQXP]LOHQXPLWoricezi.
Q SUH]HQWD RS LXQLL E VDX D FRPHQ]LL FRUHVSXQ]WRare din mediul integrat)
FRPSLODWRUXO DUH OLEHUWDWHD VD DORFH VDX RFWH L SHQWUX R YDULDELOD GH WLS HQXPHUDUH LQ
IXQF LHGHYDORULOHFRQVWDQWHORUGHILQLWHYDORULOHFRQVWDQWHORUGHILQLWHVXQWGHWLSunsigned
FKDUVDXLQWQ&XQHLYDULDELOHGHWLSHQXPHUDUHLVHSRDWHDWULEXLRULFHYDORDUHvQWUHDJ
enum days this_day ;
days another_day ;
// legal si in C si in C++
// legal numai in C++
Constantele de enumerare au implicit valori ncepnd cu 0 care cresc din 1 in 1 (luni

PDU L GXPLQLFD /DGHILQL LDWLSXOXLRULFHFRQVWDQWGHHQXPHUDUHSRDWHIL
HYHQWXDOXUPDWGHXQLQL LDOL]DWRUVXEIRUPDXQHLH[SUHVLLvQWUHJL FRQVWDQWH SR]LWLYH VDX
QHJDWLYHFDUHVWDELOHWHYDORDUHDFRQVWDQWHL&RQVWDQWHOHGHHQXPHUDUHXUPWRDUHFDUHQX
DXRYDORDUHH[SOLFLWFUHVFGLQLQ6XQWSHUPLVHYDORULGXSOLFDWH1XPHOHFRQVWDQWHORU
GHHQXPHUDUHVHDIOvQDFHODL VSD LXGH QXPH FD L QXPHOHGH YDULDELOH IXQF LLL WLSXUL
Valori de tip enumerare pot apare oriunde sunt permise valori de tip ntreg.
enum coins
{
penny = 1,
// 1
tuppence,
// 2
nickel = penny + 4,
// 5
dime = 10,
// 10
quarter = nickel * nickel // 25
};
Tipuri enumerative
Se folosesc atunci cand se doreste creerea unui set mic de valori care pot fi
asociate cu o variabila .Compilatorul va genera o eroare daca se incearca asigurarea
unei valori care nu face parte din multimea valorilor specificate in declaratii.
De ex.:
enum { red,blue,green,yellow } my_colors
enum { bright,medium,dark } my_intensity
color = yellow
color = bright
OK
ERROR
Aceste valori numerice pot fi si direct specificat ,caz in care compilatorul aplica sumarea
FXSR]L LHQXPDLODFHOHnespecificate.
De ex.:
enum { apple,arong=10,lemon,grope=-5,melon }
va avea ca rezultat urmatoare atribuire de catre compilator:
apple=0;
orange=10;
lemon=11;
grape=-5;
melon=-4;
CAPITOLUL 10
1R LXQHDGHIXQF LH
'HILQL LH2IXQF LH&HVWHRFROHF LHGHRSHUD LLVSHFLILFHOLPEDMXOXL
3kQDFXPVDGLVFXWDWGHVSUHSURJUDPHH[WUHPGHVLPSOH'HDVHPHQHDVDXIRORVLW
DSHOXULGHIXQF LLSUHGHILQLWHDOFUXLFRGHVWHJDWDVFULV6HSRDWHVSXQHFRIXQF LHHVWH
REXFDWGHSURJUDPVHSDUDWVXESURJUDPFDUHHVWHIRORVLWvQPDLPXOWHVFRSXUL
5HDOL]DUHDXQXLFRGVXUVFkWPDLFODU
6LPSOLILFDUHDSURLHFWULLXQHLDSOLFD LLSULQVWUXFWXUDUH
5HDOL]DUHDGHELEOLRWHFLGHIXQF LLGHFLFUHWHUHDYLWH]HLGHGH]YROWDUHDDDSOLFD LLORU
XOWHULRDUH
3HQWUXLQWURGXFHUHDDFHVWXLFRQFHSWvQPRGFRUHFWWUHEXLHGLVFXWDWHvQWkLXQPLQLPGH
WHKQLFL GH SURLHFWDUHD D XQHL DSOLFD LL L DFHDVWD GHRDUHFH R IXQF LH QX VH LQWURGXFH vQ
FDGUXOXQXLSURJUDPGLQPRWLYHDUWLVWLFHFLDUHRMXVWLILFDUHODQLYHOORJLFIRDUWHFODU
&DWHKQLFLGHSURLHFWDUHH[LVWGRXPHWRGHWRSGRZQGHVXVvQMRVLERWWRPXS
GHMRVvQVXV3URLHFWDUHDXQHLDSOLFD LLFRQVWvQGHVFRPSXQHUHDORJLFSHVXEPRGXOH
)XQF LH GH FRPSOH[LWDWHD DFHVWHL DSOLFD LL GHVFRPSXQHUHD SRDWH FRQWLQXD UHFXUVLY OD
QLYHOXOILHFUXLPRGXOUH]XOWDWSkQFkQG

DFHVWDHVWHH[WUHPGHVLPSOXGHUHDOL]DW
HVWHGHMDLPSOHPHQWDWUHVSHFWLYDSDUWHvQWURELEOLRWHFDFRPSLODWRUXOXL
HVWHGHMDGH]YROWDWDQWHULRU
GDWRULWVLPSOLW LLSURJUDPXOXLQXPDLDUHVHQV
Q FD]XO PHWRGHL GH SURLHFWDUH WRSGRZQ SURLHFWDUHD GHFXUJH H[DFW FXP DP GHVFULV
PDL VXV 8]XDO vQ SURJUDPDUHD & VH IRORVHWH DFHDVW PHWRG Q FD]XO ERWWRPXS VH
SRUQHWH GH OD XQ VHW GH IXQF LL L RSHUD LXQL H[LVWHQWH L VH FRQVWUXLHVF PRGXOH FDUH OD
UkQGXOORUYRUFRQVWUXLUHFXUVLYDOWHPRGXOHSkQFkQGUH]XOWDSOLFD LD$FHDVWPHWRG
HVWHIRORVLWX]XDOvQFD]XOSURLHFWULLDSOLFD LLORUSHQWUXED]HOHGHGDWH
7RWXLHVWHJUHXGHLPSXVXQDQXPLWWLSGHJkQGLUHFkQGVHUHDOL]HD]SURLHFWDUHDXQHL
DSOLFD LHL ([LVW R WHRULH IRDUWH ELQH IXQGDPHQWDW L GRFXPHQWDW SULYLQG DFHVWH
SUREOHPHQWURSULPID]HVHQ LDOHVXQWH[SHULHQ DDYXWvQSURLHFWDUHDXQXLDQXPLWWLS
GHDSOLFD LHLDSRLH[SHULHQ DGHSURJUDPDUH
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LQGLIHUHQWFkWGHFRPSOLFDWDUILGLVWULEX LDXQHLHFKLSHSURJUDPDWRUXOXLSURSULX]LVLVH
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FRUHFWLDWkW
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Descriere n pseudocod
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^
FLWHWHXQFXYkQW
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$WkWDWLPSFkWPDLVXQWFXYLQWHLQILLHU
^
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FLWHWHFDUDFWHUHOHSkQJVHVFXQ
LQFUHPHQWHD]QUBFXY
`
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QH SXQ OD GLVSR]L LH R VXP YDULDELO GH UXWLQH SUHFRPSLODWH 7RWXL SHQWUX D SXWHD
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OHJWXUL vQWUH ILLHUHOH RELHFW GDF DSHOXO UHVSHFWLYHL IXQF LL VH UHIHU OD UXWLQD
SUHFRPSLODWH[LVWHQWGHMDVDXODFRUSXOIXQF LHLSURSULL6HSRDWHFKLDUPDLUXVQXVH
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VHSRWULYHVFLDUDFHVWWLSGHHURDUHHVWHH[WUHPGHJUHXGHGHWHFWDW
'HDVHPHQHDWUHEXLHVSHFLILFDWHLDUJXPHQWHOHFHYRUILWUDQVPLVHIXQF LHLODDSHO
WLSXORUGLQHDORU2IRUPJHQHUDOSHQWUXGHFODUDUHDXQHLIXQF LLHVWH
WLSBGDW!QXPHBIXQF LHOLVWBDUJXPHQWH!
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(VWH QHFHVDU V VH UHDOL]H]H VSHFLILFDUHD WLSXOXL GH GDW SHQWUX DUJXPHQWH L
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CAPITOLUL 11
11. 3RLQWHULLDORFDUHDGLQDPLF
11.1. Introducere.
Primele PLQLVLVWHPH FX PLFURSURFHVRDUH SH EL L DYHDX ko memorie RAM.
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necesari pentru construirea adresei 2 = 2 * 2 = 2 ko = 64 NRGHFLEL LGHDGUHV
QWUXFkWSURFHVRUXOOXFUDSHEL LSHQWUXDDYHDDFFHVODRGDWRDUHFDUHGLQPHPRULHHO
WUHEXLD V IDF XQD VDX GRX RSHUD LL GHSLQ]kQG GH FRQVWUXF LD LQWHUQ 6LVWHPHOH FX
SURFHVRDUH SH EL L 9 DYHDX XQ QRX VHW GH LQVWUXF LXQL HUDX PDL
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64 ko.
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V YDG PHPRULD 5$0 FD ILLQG DOFWXLW GLQ EXF L VHJPHQWH GH FkWH ko.
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unei date utile.
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a avea acces direct la adresa de memorie a unei date stocate acolo.
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Pentru a vedea mai clar folosirea conceptului de SRLQWHUVFRQVLGHUPSURJUDPXO

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cum vom vedea mai jos.
Geneza operatorului &op
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WLP FRQFUHW GHVSUH FH DGUHV HVWH YRUED /D FH QH UHIHULP: cea ce poate reprezenta o
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^
SULQWI?Q&RQWLQXWXOOXL YG GL YL
SULQWI?Q$GUHVDOXL9>G@HVWHSLYL
`
IRUL LQL
^
SULQWI?Q&RQWLQXWXOOXL SG GL YL

SULQWI?Q$GUHVDOXLSGHVWHSLSL
`
JHWFK
`
VIkULW]RQDSURJUDPSULQFLSDO
QHDYkQGIXQF LLSURSULLQXDPDLFLQLPLF
,HLUHD DFHVWXLSURJUDPvQFD]XOH[HFX LHL SHQWUX XQ YHFWRU GH WUHL HOHPHQWH DUDW FD
mai jos:
GDWLGLPHQVLXQHD1
9>@
9>@
9>@
&RQWLQXWXOOXLY
$GUHVDOXL9>@HVWH&()'
&RQWLQXWXOOXL Y
&RQWLQXWXOOXL Y
&RQWLQXWXOOXL S
$GUHVDOXLSHVWH&()'
&RQWLQXWXOOXL S
$GUHVDOXLSHVWH&()'
&RQWLQXWXOOXL S
$GUHVDOXLSHVWH&()'
2SHUD LLDULWPHWLFHFXpointeri
2SHUD LLOHDULWPHWLFHSHUPLVHVXQW
-
adunarea unui pointer cu un ntreg

VFGHUHDXQXLvQWUHJGLQWU-un pointer
VFGHUHDDGRLpointeri
compararea unui SRLQWHUFXFRQVWDQW18//YDORDUHDvQWUHDJD
compararea a doi pointeri.
6LQJXUDRSHUD LHDULWPHWLFSHUPLVDVXSUDSRLQWHULORUFWUHIXQF LLHVWHFRPSDUDUHDFX

constanta NULL.
Adunarea unui pointer cu un ntreg are ca rezultat un SRLQWHUGHDFHODLWLSQFD]XO

n care SRLQWHUXODUHFDYDORDUHDGUHVDXQXLHOHPHQWGHWDEORXUH]XOWDWXODGXQULLHVWHDGUHVD
HOHPHQWXOXL DO FUXLLQGLFH HVWH HJDO FXVXPDGLQWUH LQGLFHOH HOHPHQWXOXL FWUH FDUH LQGLF
pointerul, plus valoarea ntregului.
'LQ PRWLYH OHJDWH GH PRGXO GH JHQHUDUH D DGUHVHORU IL]LFH GH FWUH SURFHVRU
UH]XOWDWXOQXHVWHYDOLGGHFkWGDFLQGLFHOHUH]XOWDWGLQFDOFXOHVWHPDLPDUHVDXHJDOFX]HUR
LPDLPLFVDXHJDOFXQXPUXOGHHOHPHQWHGLQWDEORX
6FGHUHD unui ntreg dintr-un SRLQWHU 6H IDFH FD L FXP V-ar aduna la pointer
YDORDUHDvQWUHDJUHVSHFWLYFXVHPQVFKLPEDW
6FGHUHD a doi pointeri. Cei doi SRLQWHULWUHEXLH VLQGLFH FWUH GRX HOHPHQWH GLQ
DFHODLWDEORXUH]XOWDWXOHVWHXQvQWUHJHJDOFXGLIHUHQ DLQGLFLORUFHORUGRXDHOHPHQWH
Compararea a doi pointeri. Cei doi SRLQWHULWUHEXLH VLQGLFH FWUH GRXD HOHPHQWH
GLQDFHODLWDEORXUH]XOWDWXOFRPSDUD LHLHVWHHJDOFXUH]XOWDWXOFRPSDUD LHLLQGLFLORUFHORU
doua elemente de tablou.
9DORULOH DSDU LQkQGXQXL WLS SRLQWHU SRW IL FRQYHUWLWH FWUH RULFH DOW WLS pointer prin
folosirea unei conversii explicite.
11.1.3 Modele de memorie
Structura procesoarelor 80x86 a determinat maniere diferite de generare a codului de
FWUHFRPSLODWRDUHLQIXQF LHGHPRGXULOHGHDGUHVDUHXWLOL]DWH
SHQWUXDFFHVXOODGDWHVDXGHPRGXOGHUHDOL]DUHDDSHOXULORUGHIXQF LL
'DFSURJUDPDWRUXOFXQRDWHFRPSOH[LWDWHDaplicatiei si volumul de date manipulat, el
poate impune o anumita modalitate de generare a codului, astfel incit el sa fie optim.
$DDDSUXWQR LXQHDGHPRGHOGHPHPRULHVSHFLILFPDMRULWDULLFRPSLODWRDUHORUGHSHR
PDLQFRPSDWLELO,%0-PC.
Pentru manipularea datelor se folosesc, adesea, SRLQWHUL Q IXQF LH GH PRGXULOH GH
adresare utilizate, ei pot avea atributele:
- near pointerSHEL LUHSUH]HQWkQGGHIDSWXQoffset in interiorul unui segment;
- far pointerSHEL LUHSUH]HQWkQGRFRPELQD LHVHJPHQWRIIVHWDGLFRDGUHVUHDO
FRPSOHWXQpointer "far" poate avea orice valoare (in limita a 1 MB de memorie), dar n
calcule, segmentul nu poate fi modificat;
- huge pointer este similar pointerului "far", dar n calcule segmentul poate fi modificat,
astfel LQFkW V SRDW IL DGUHVDW WRDW PHPRULD IU VFKLPEDUHD H[SOLFLW D VHJPHQWXOXL
$FHDVW FDUDFWHULVWLF HVWH GDW GH RSHUD LD GH QRUPDOL]DUH OD FDUH VXQW VXSXL pointerii
"KXJHvQRULFHRSHUD LLGHFDOFXO
2EVHUYD LH QFOFDUHD UHJXOLORU GH PDL VXV QX HVWH VHPQDODW vQWRWGHDXQD SURPSW GH
compilator. Rezultatele pot fi incerte. Modelele de memorie, utilizate de Turbo C, sunt:
7,1<60$//0(',80&203$&7/$5*(L+8*('LIHUHQ LHUHDORUHVWHGDW
GHPRGXOGHXWLOL]DUHD]RQHORUGHFRGGDWHVLVWLYDSUHFXPLGHDWULEXWHOHLPSOLFLWHDOH
SRLQWHULORUXWLOL]D LvQPRGHOXOUHVSHFWLY9RPIDFHGLVWLQF LHvQWUH]RQHOHGHGDWHVWDWLFHL
zonele de date alocate dinamic (KHDS&DUHJXOLJHQHUDOHSHQWUXDORFDUHDGDWHORUVH LQH
FRQWGHXUPWRDUHOH
GDWHOHVWDWLFHVHDORFvQVHJPHQWXOGHGDWH'6LVXQWOLPLWDWHODFHOPXOWkB;

GDWHOHDORFDWHGLQDPLFVHSODVHD]ILHvQVHJPHQWXOGHGDWHODPRGHOHOH7,1<60$//
MEDIUM), fie in "heap" (la modelele COMPACT, LARGE, HUGE);
GDWHOHDXWRVHDORFvQVHJPHQWXOGHVWLY66LVXQWOLPLWDWHODFHOPXOWkB.
$ORFDUHGLQDPLF
11.2.1. Introducere
3kQ DFXP VD GLVFXWDW GHVSUH FHHD FH VH QXPHWH DORFDUH VWDWLF $FHVW WHUPHQ VH
UHIHU OD IDSWXO F R GDW DORFDW R YDULDELO vQ SURJUDP PHPRULD FRUHVSXQ]WRDUH HL
numai poate fi UHIRORVLW GDF OD XQ PRPHQW GDW QX DU IL QHYRLH GH HD SH SDUFXUVXO
H[HFX LHLSURJUDPXOXL'HRDUHFHIRDUWHPXOWHRULPHPRULD5$0HUDH[WUHPGHVFXPS
LDUQHFHVLW LOHGHPHPRULHIRDUWHPDULVDvQFHUFDWUH]ROYDUHDDFHVWXLFRQIOLFW
3ULPD PHWRG HUD FD DWXQFL FkQG QX DMXQJHD PHPRULD 5$0 VH IRORVHD R XQLWDWH
H[WHUQ GH VWRFDUH FX SRVLELOLW L GH VFULHUH VDX FLWLUH $FHDVW PHWRG HVWH L DFXP
IRORVLW6LQJXUXOGH]DYDQWDMDODFHVWHLPHWRGHHVWHIDSWXOFRSHUD LLOHFXGLVFXOVXQWPXOW
mai lente dect cu memoria RAM.
De aceea s-a pus problema folosirii ct mai optime a acestei memorii. n acest scop
SURLHFWDQ LL XQXL VLVWHP GH RSHUDUH DX SUHY]XW vQ FDGUXO DFHVWHL IXQF LL VSHFLILFH GH
gestionare a memoriei.
3ULQWUHIDFLOLW LOHGHED]DOHDFHVWRUIXQF LLVXQW
-
alocare de memorie;
dealocare de memorie;
YHULILFDUHDVSD LXOXLGHPHPRULHUPDVnealocat .
Alocarea memoriei 3ULQ WHUPHQXO GH DORFDUH VH vQ HOHJH UH]HUYDUHD XQHL ]RQH GH
PHPRULHGHRDQXPLWGLPHQVLXQHDFHDVW]RQGHPHPRULHGLVSDUHSUDFWLFGLQ]RQD
GH PHPRULH vQ FDUH VLVWHPXO FLWHWH VDX VFULH IU UHVWULF LL /D DORFDUH VH UHWXUQHD]
adresa de nceput a acestei zone.
Dezalocarea memoriei. Prin termenul de GH]DORFDUH VH vQ HOHJH IHQRPHQXO LQYHUV
DORFULL6HWULPLWHFWUHVLVWHPDGUHVDGHvQFHSXWDXQXLEORFDORFDWUH]HUYDWLLVHFHUH
HOLEHUDUHD OXL DGLF UHLQWHJUDUHD vQ VSD LXO GH PHPRULH FH SRDWH IL DFFHVDW GH RULFH DOW
program.
9HULILFDUHDVSD LXOXLGHPHPRULHnealocat'XSXQQXPURDUHFDUHGHDORFULIUD
PDL IDFH L GH]DORFUL VSD LXO UPDV OLEHU WLQGH FWUH ]HUR )XQF LLOH GH DORFDUH vQ
PRPHQWXO vQ FDUH OL VH FHUH V DORFH R DQXPLW ]RQ QRFWH L L QX PDL DX VXILFLHQW
VSD LX OLEHU UHWXUQHD] 18// SHQWUX D VHPQDOL]D DFHDVW LPSRVLELOLWDWH 7RWXL DFHDVWD
UHSUH]LQWRVLWXD LHFULWLFLQXVHPDLSRDWHIDFHPDUHOXFUX'HDFHHD FDWHKQLFGH
SURJUDPDUH VH SRDWH IDFH GLQ FkQG vQ FkQG vQ SXQFWHOH FKHLH YHULILFDUHD VSD LXOXL GH
PHPRULHUPDVOLEHUSHQWUXDFDOFXODDXWRPDWGDFSURJUDPXOSRDWHFRQWLQXDVDXQX
(URDUHGHJkQGLUHDvQFHSWRUXOXLUHODWLYODRSHUDWRUXOsizeof
$FHVW RSHUDWRU WLH V vQWRDUF QXPUXO GH RFWH L SH FDUH HVWH VWRFDW XQ WLS GH GDW
DEFINITILHLPSOLFLWWLSXULOHGHGDWLPSOLFLWHchar , int , long, double) fie cele definite
de utilizator (structurile).
Dar, NU POATEFDOFXODGLPHQVLXQHDXQHL]RQHGHVSUHFDUHQXDUHLQIRUPD LLFODUHvQ
PRPHQWXOFRPSLOULL
Exemplu clasic :
char S[10];
.......
gets(S);
n=sizeof(S) // eroare
// S poate avea fie 255 caractere (caz vQ FDUH VH SVWUHD] sigur numai
// primele 10, fie nici un caracter
// deci nu poate fi aplicat.
'HDFHHDVDLQWURGXVIXQF LDstrlen(S) n acest caz.
O versiune de strlen(S) ar fi
nr_cars=0;
while ( *S[i++]!=\0) nr_cars++;
return nr_cars;
0DLMRVSUH]HQWPRDOWFODVLILFDUHDWLSXULORUGHGDWH
$ORFDUHDGLQDPLF
2ULFHWLSGHGDWpredefinit sau definit de utilizator poate fi alocat static
VDX GLQDPLF )XQF LD GH ED] vQ OLPEDMXO & IRORVLW SHQWUX DORFDUHD GLQDPLF DUH
XUPWRUXOSURWRWLS
YRLG PDOORFVL]HBWVL]H

YRLGIDU IDUPDOORFXQVLJQHGORQJQE\WHV
$ORFDUHD GLQDPLF D XQXL EORF GH PHPRULH GH OXQJLPH GDW size, sau nbytes).
"malloc" permite alocarea din segmentul de date a cel mult 64 kB, iar "farmalloc"
permite alocarea din "heap" a cel mult 1 MB (de fapt in limitele memoriei ramase
GLVSRQLELOH)XQF LLOHUHWXUQHD]SRLQWHU18//GDFQXPDL H[LVWVXILFLHQWPHPRULH
pentru alocare.
YRLG FDOORFVL]HBWQHOHPVL]HBWHOVL]H
YRLGIDU IDUFDOORFXQVLJQHGORQJQXQLWVXQVLJQHGORQJXQLWV]
$ORFDUHDGLQDPLFDXQXLEORFGHPHPRULHSHQWUXXQQXPUGDWGHHOHPHQWHnelem,
QXQLWV GH GLPHQVLXQH FXQRVFXW elsize, XQLWV] 'LPHQVLXQHD WRWDO DORFDW HVWH
produsul celor doi parametri. "malloc" permite alocarea din segmentul de date a cel mult
64 kB, iar "farmalloc" permite alocarea din "heap" a cel mult 1 MB (de fapt n limitele
PHPRULHL UPDVH GLVSRQLELOH )XQF LLOH returneaza SRLQWHU 18// GDF QX PDL H[LVW
VXILFLHQWPHPRULHSHQWUXDORFDUH
YRLG UHDOORFYRLG EORFNVL]HBWVL]H
YRLGIDU IDUUHDOORFYRLGIDU ROGEORFNXQVLJQHGORQJQE\WHV
Modificarea dimensiunii unui bloc de memorie deja alocat. Pointerul block
(ROGEORFN WUHEXLH V IL IRVW RE LQXW FX R IXQF LH GH DORFDUH DSHODW DQWHULRU malloc"
("farmalloc"), "calloc" ("IDUFDOORF 'DF UHGLPHQVLRQDUHD QX VH SRDWH IDFH IXQF LLOH
UHWXUQHD]18//(VWHSRVLELOFDQRXOSRLQWHUUH]XOWDWVILHGLIHULWGHSRLQWHUXOLQL LDO
YRLGIUHHYRLG EORFN
YRLGIDUIUHHYRLGIDU EORFN
(OLEHUHD]XQEORFGHPHPRULHGHMDDORFDWPointerul EORFNWUHEXLHVILIRVWRE LQXW
FX R IXQF LH GH DORFDUH DSHODW DQWHULRU malloc" ("farmalloc"), "calloc" ("farcalloc").
QFHUFDUHDGHDDSHODXQDGLQIXQF LLOHGHPDLVXVFXXQSRLQWHURE LQXWSHDOWHFLSRDWH
duce la rezultate imprevizibile.
Q SURJUDPHOH FH XWLOL]HD] DORFDUH GLQDPLF VH UHFRPDQG FD RULFH ]RQ DVWIHO
REWLQXWVILHHOLEHUDWGXSXWLOL]DUH
2EV&RPSLODWRUXOQXVHVL]HD]HURULGHWLSXOFHORUPHQ LRQDWHPDLVXVGHSDQDUHDHVWHGH
DVHPHQHDGLILFLO
XQVLJQHGFRUHOHIWYRLG
XQVLJQHGORQJIDUFRUHOHIWYRLG
(YDOXHD]GLVSRQLELOXOGHPHPRULHSRVLELOGHDILIRORVLWvQDORFDUHDGLQDPLF)XQF LD
"coreleft" UHWXUQHD] PHPRULD OLEHU GLQ VHJPHQWXO GH GDWH LDU farcoreleft" memoria
OLEHUGLQheap".
)XQF LLOH GH DORFDUH SULPHVF QXPUXO H[DFW GH RFWH L FH VH GRUHVF D IL DORFD L L
UHWXUQHD]DGUHVDGHvQFHSXWDUHVSHFWLYHL]RQH'LQPRWLYHGHportabilitate a programului
QXHVWHLQGLFDWVVHFDOFXOH]HGLPHQVLXQHD]RQHLGHDORFDWFXIRUPXOD
1UBHOHPHQWH QUBRFWH LBRFXSDWBGHBUHVSHFWLYXOBWLSBGDW
LDFHVWOXFUXGHRDUHFHIXQF LHGHDUKLWHFWXUDVLVWHPXOXLGHFDOFXOQXPUXOGHRFWH LSH
FDUHHVWHUHSUH]HQWDWDFHODLWLSGHGDWHSRDWHGLIHULW'HFLSURJUDPXODUWUHEXLPRGLILFDW
n cazul UHFRPSLOULLVXEDOWSODWIRUP
Portabilitatea unui program
6H UHIHU OD PRGXO GH VFULHUH D XQXL FRG VXUV DVWIHO vQFkW OD recompilarea sau la
H[HFX LDOXLVXEGLIHULWHSODWIRUPHKDUGZDUHVDXVRIWZDUHPRGLILFULOHFHWUHEXLHIFXWH
SHQWUXDOIDFHIXQF LRQDOVILHPLQLPHVDXLQH[LVWHQWH
Pentru a asigura SRUWDELOLWDWHDGLQSXQFWGHYHGHUHDODORFULLGLQDPLFHVHYDIRORVL
XQ RSHUDWRU VSHFLDO DO OLPEDMXOXL & L DQXPH sizeof(WLSBGDW 1XPHOH VH WUDGXFH SULQ
PULPHDOXL(OUHWXUQHD]QXPUXOGHRFWH LSHFDUHHVWHUHSUH]HQWDWUHVSHFWLYXOWLSGH
GDWQDFHVWHFRQGL LLUH]XOWFODUF]RQDGHPHPRULHFHVHGRUHWHDILDORFDWWUHEXLH
FDOFXODWFXXUPWRDUHDIRUPXO
1UBRFWH LBGHBDORFDW nr_elemente*VL]HRIWLSBGDW
$FHVWRSHUDWRUWLHVIDFFDOFXOXOQXPUXOXLGHRFWH LRFXSD LLvQFD]XOXQXLWLSGHGDW
definit de utilizator.
$ORFDUHDGLQDPLFDWDEORXULORUGHGDWH
'XSFXPWLPvQFD]XOWLSXULORUGHGDWHDORFDWHVWDWLFVHSRWGHILQLWDEORXULFDUHV
DLESkQODWUHLGLPHQVLXQL([LVWvQUHVSHFWLYXOFD]ROLPLWDUHD]RQHLGHPHPRULHFDUH
SRDWHILDVWIHODORFDWLDQXPHvQWUHNRL0RIXQF LHGHPRGHOXOGHPHPRULHDOHV
SHQWUXFRPSLODUH'DFvQFD]XOGHFODUULLVWDWLFHFRPSLODWRUXOVHRFXSGHWRWSURFHVXO
vQFD]XODORFULLGLQDPLFHDFHVWSURFHVGHYLQHFHYDPDLFRPSOLFDW([LVWGRXPHWRGHGH
alocare:
Metoda I
$ORFDUHD VH IDFH R VLQJXU GDW SHQWUX WRDWH HOHPHQWHOH L HVWH R VLQJXU
LQVWUXF LXQH0HWRGDDUHSHQWUXWDEORXULOHDFURUGLPHQVLXQLVXQW! GH]DYDQWDMXOF
accesul la un element se poate face numai prin intermediul unui SRLQWHU L WUHEXLH V
IRORVHVFRIRUPXOGHFDOFXODDGUHVHLHOHPHQWXOXL$FHDVWIRUPXOWUHEXLHV LQFRQW
GHDGUHVDGHvQFHSXWDPDVLYXOXLGHLQGLFLLHOHPHQWXOXLLGHQXPUXOGHRFWH LSHFDUH
HVWH UHSUH]HQWDW $D VH OXFUD OD QLYHOXO OLPEDMXOXL GH DVDPEODUH XQGH QX DYHDP DOWH
SRVLELOLW L
)RUPXODGHHFKLYDOHQ ar[i] *(av+i).
Vom prezenta un scurt exemplu de folosire a primei metode n cazul unui tablou
monodimensional de caractere.
#include <string.h>
#include <stdio.h>
YRLGPDLQYRLG
^
FKDUVWUJ>@ WKHUHRQHWZR
LQW SWOLVW>@LQGH[
VWUFS\VWUJ$FHVWDHXQVLUGHFDUDFWHUH
RQH VWUJ>@ RQHLWZRVXQWLGHQWLFLFDYDORDUH
WZR VWUJ
SULQWIRQHWZR FF?QRQHWZR
RQH VWUJ>@ RQHLWZRVXQWLGHQWLFL
WZR VWUJ
SULQWIRQHWZR FF?QRQHWZR
WKHUH VWUJ VWUJHVWHLGHQWLFFXVWUJ>@
SULQWIVWUJ>@ F?QVWUJ>@
SULQWIWKHUH F?Q WKHUH
IRULQGH[ LQGH[LQGH[
OLVW>LQGH[@ LQGH[
SW OLVW
SULQWIOLVW>@ G?QOLVW>@
SULQWI SW G?Q SW
JHWFK
`
Metoda II
3RUQHWH GH OD REVHUYD LD F FRPSLODWRUXO IDFH DXWRPDW FDOFXOXO DGUHVHL
HOHPHQWXOXL vQ LUXO GH HOHPHQWH vQ FD]XO GHFODUULL VWDWLFH 6H SRDWH IRORVL L vQ FD]XO
DORFULL GLQDPLFH DFHDVW IDFLOLWDWH D FRPSLODWRUXOXL FX FRQGL LD FD PRGXO vQ FDUH VH
UHDOL]HD] DORFDUHD V UHVSHFWH PRGDOLWDWHD LQWHUQ IRORVLW GH FRPSLODWRU vQ FD]XO
DORFULLVWDWLFH$FHVWOXFUXSHUPLWHFDGHLVHYDDORFDGLQDPLFXQWDEORXXOWHULRUvQFRG
DFFHVXO OD RULFDUH HOHPHQW V SRDW IL UHDOL]DW IRORVLQG PHWRGD LQGLFHDO WLSLF FD]XOXL
DORFULLVWDWLFH
11.2.3.1. Alocarea tablourilor monodimensionale
n acest caz alocarea se face conform formulei de mai jos:
Nume_tablou=(tip_elem_tablou)malloc(nr_elem_tab *sizeof(tip_el_tablou))
Un exemplu de aplicare n program a acestei formule
YRLGPDLQYRLG
^
LQWY
Y LQW )PDOORF VL]HRILQW
`
6HREVHUYFYDORULLreturnate de PDOORFvLDSOLFPXQRSHUDWRUGHFDVWQPRG
QRUPDOFRQYHUVLDGHWLSVHIDFHDXWRPDWWRWXLvQFD]XODORFULLHVWHLQGLFDWVILHIFXW
explicit.
9HFWRUXOYDSXWHDILIRORVLWFRQIRUPFHORUGRXPHWRGHFDPDLMRV
1. *(v+4*sizeof(int))=0x32;
2. v[4]=0x32;
8Q FD] VSHFLDO HVWH FD]XO DORFULL GLQDPLFH DO XQXL WDEORX monodimesional de
FDUDFWHUH 2ULFH LU GH FDUDFWHUH HVWH SUHY]XW FX XQ WHUPLQDWRU VSHFLDO ? $FHDVWD
SURYLQH GLQ OLPEDM GH DVDPEODUH DYkQG vQ YHGHUH IDSWXO F IXQF LLOH '26 GH OXFUX FX
LUXULOHGHFDUDFWHUHVXQWJkQGLWHVSULPHDVFDGUHVDGHvQFHSXWGLQ]RQDGHPHPRULHL
V SUHOXFUH]H HOHPHQW FX HOHPHQW LUXO SkQ FkQG HVWH vQWkOQLW WHUPLQDWRUXO 'DF
LQL LDOL]DUHD VH YD IDFH HOHPHQW FX HOHPHQW vQ SURJUDP \0 trebuie depus explicit.
)RORVLUHD IXQF LLORU GH ELEOLRWHF G DYDQWDMXO F WHUPLQDWRUXO HVWH SXV DXWRPDW GH
UHVSHFWLYHOHIXQF LL
11.2.3.2. Alocarea tablourilor bidimensionale
Formula de HFKLYDOHQ ar[m][n] *(ar[m]+n) *(*(ar+m)+n)
DaFDUHVWHGHvQWUHJLint ar[m][n] atunci ar[i][j] este echivalent cu
*(int*)((char*)ar + (i*a*sizeof(int) + j*sizeof(int))
Cast-urile trebuiesc puse pentru FVHREVHUYFFDOFXOHOHGHGHSODVDPHQW LQkQGFRQWGH
GHVSD LXORFXSDWGHXQHOHPHQWGLQWDEORXDXIRVWIFXWHH[SOLFLW
QDFHVWFD]DORFDUHDHVWHPDLFRPSOLFDWvQVXOWHULRUH[LVWDYDQWDMXOGHDVHSXWHD
OXFUDLSULQVSHFLILFDUHDSR]L LHLHOHPHQWXOXL
LQWIDU WBDOORFLQWOLQLQWFRO

^
LQWL
UHJLVWHULQWIDU SOLQ SGDWD
SGDWD LQWIDU IDUFDOORFOLQ FROVL]HRILQWIDU
LISGDWD LQWIDU 18//HUU1XH[LVWDVSDWLX
SOLQ LQWIDU IDUFDOORFOLQVL]HRILQWIDU
LISOLQ LQWIDU 18//HUU1XH[LVWDVSDWLX
IRUL LOLQL
^
SOLQ>L@ SGDWD
SGDWD FRO
`
UHWXUQSOLQ
`

YRLGWBIUHHLQWIDU SD
^
IDUIUHH SD
IDUIUHHSD
`
([HPSOXO GH PDL VXV QH SHUPLWH V SRW DFFHVD vQ SURJUDP XQ HOHPHQW GLQ WDEORX vQ
maniera m[i][j] ceea face codul mai clar.
11.2.3.3. Tablouri tridimensionale
6H WUDWHD] GXS DFHHDL JkQGLUH FD L FHOH ELGLPHQVLRQDOH PDL MRV YRP SUH]HQWD XQ
exemplu de tranfer de parametru n cazul tablou tridimensional.
fie
void main(void)
{
int m [5][6][7];
f2(m, x, y, z);
}
void f2 ( int *** argm, dim1, dim2, dim3)
{int x;
atunci
x=2 + *((int x) argm + i*dim3*dim2 + j*dim2 + k) (echivalent cu
argm[i][j] )
11.3. Pointeri la structuri

$YkQG vQ YHGHUH GHILQL LD SRLQWHUXOXL QX H[LVW QLPLF FDUH V vPSLHGLFH GHFODUDUHD
unor SRLQWHUL OD R VWUXFWXU Q DFHVWH FRQGL LL WLSXO GH GDWH JUXS L VWXGHQW SUH]HQWDWH
anterior se vor rescrie ca mai jos.
W\SHGHIVWUXFW6WXGHQW
^
FKDU QDPH
XQVLJQHGVKRUWLQWDJH
XQVLJQHGFKDUQBODE
XQVLJQHGFKDUQBH[
`VWXG
W\SHGHIVWUXFW*UXSD
^
LQWQXPH
LQWDQ
VWXG W
`JU
JU S,*S
11.3.1. Accesarea membrilor
'HDFHDVWGDWVHYDIRORVLvQORFGHSXQFWUHVWXOUHJXOLORUGHDFFHVDUHUPkQkQG
identice. Acest nou operator de acces a fost introdus doar pentru a scrie cod ct mai clar
GHRDUHFHGDFDYHPVWXG S; atunci SQXPH este perfect echivalent cu SQXPH din
punct de vedere sintactic.
11.3.2. Alocarea structurilor de date
7UHEXLHDYXWJULMFDWRWVSD LXGHFDUHHVWHQHYRLHVILHDORFDW([LVWGRXQLYHOHGH
DORFDUHSULPXOVHUHIHUODDORFDUHDGHVSD LXSHQWUXQRXOWLSGHGDWDOGRLOHDQLYHOVH
UHIHUODDORFDUHDGHVSD LXXQGHHVWHFD]XOSHQWUXPHPEULLQRXOXLWLSGHGDW
Alocarea la primul nivel:
*U S
S JU PDOORF VL]HRIJU
1LYHOXOGRLGHDORFDUHHVWHFODUGHDELDvQID]DGHLQL LDOL]DUHDXQHLVWUXFWXUL
,QL LDOL]DUHLGLVWUXJHUHVWUXFWXUL
'DF DORFDUHD GLQDPLF SHQWUX WLSXULOH GH GDWH SUHGHILQLWH H UHODWLY VLPSO vQ
PDMRULWDWHD FD]XULORU vQ FD]XO VWUXFWXULORU GH GDWH WUHEXLH FD SURJUDPDWRUXO VL
FRQVWUXLDVFSURSULLOHIXQF LLGHLQL LDOL]DUHHOLEHUDUHDGDWHORU
6HYRUSUH]HQWDIXQF LLOHGHLQL LDOL]DUHSHQWUXXQRELHFWGHWLSJUXSD6HREVHUY

FXQRELHFWGHWLSJUXSDFRQ LQHXQWDEORXGHRELHFWHGHWLSVWXGHQWLGHFLWUHEXLHvQWkL
VFULVIXQF LDFDUHLQL LDOL]HD]SHDFHVWD
6WXG LQLWBVWXGFKDU QDPHXQVLJQHGVKRUWLQWDJH
XQVLJQHGFKDUQBODEQBH[
^
VWXG S
LIS VWXG PDOORFVL]HRIVWXGHUURU1RWHQRXJKPHPRU\
LIS!QDPH FKDU PDOORFVWUOHQQDPH VL]HRIFKDU
HUURU1RWHQRXJKPHPRU\
VWUFS\S!QDPHQDPH
S!DJH DJH
S!QBODE QBODE
S!QBH[ QBH[
UHWXUQ S
`
YRLGIUHHBVWXGVWXG S
^
IUHHS!QDPH
IUHHS
`
JU LQLWBJULQWQXPHVWXG VWFKDUQDPHLQWDJHQQ
^
JU S
LIS JU PDOORFVL]HRIJUHUURU1RWHQRXJKPHPRU\
S!QXPH QXPH
S!DQ DQ
S!VWXG VW
UHWXUQS
`
YRLGHUUFKDU V
^
FOUVFU
SXWVV
H[LW
`
'XSFXPVHREVHUYFHOHGRXIXQF LLDORFFkWHXQHOHPHQW$ORFDUHDSHQWUXWDEORXO
GH VWXGHQ L DO FUXL pointer este primit n LQLWBJU QX D IRVW SUH]HQWDW SHQWUX F VH
IRORVHWHIXQF LDGHDORFDUHDXQXLVWXGHQWSHQWUXILHFDUHGLQHOHPHQWHLHOHSRWILGHSXVH
vQWUXQWDEORXDORFDWVWDWLFVDXGLQDPLFVDXvQWUROLVWvQOQ XLW
'HFODUD LLFRPSOH[HvQ&
3HVWH XQ DQXPLW QLYHO GH H[SHULHQ H[LVW WHQGLQ D IRORVLULL XQRU GHFODUD LL
FRPSDFWH GDU FRPSOH[H L DFHDVWD FRPSLODWRUXO OH DFFHSW DFHVW OXFUX FRQGXFH OD
VFGHUHD FODULW LL FRGXOXL GH DFHHD UHFRPDQGP HYLWDUHD SH FW SRVLELO 'H H[HPSOX
XUPWRDUHDGHFODUD LHGHFODUSH[FDILLQGXQSRLQWHUODRIXQF LHFDUHvQWRDUFHXQpointer
FWUHDOFLQFLOHDHOHPHQWGLQWUXQWDEORXGHpointeri la ntregi. Complicat , NU?
int *(*(*x)()[5];
Mai IRVSUH]HQWPRPHWRGVLPSOSHQWUXHYLWDUHDDFHVWXLWLSGHFRPSOLFD LL
typedef int *AP[5] //al 5-lea element dintr-un tablou de pointeri la ntreg
W\SHGHI$3 )3IXQF LDFHYDreturna un pointer la al 5-lea element al unui
tablou de SRLQWHULFWUHvQWUHJL
FP *x
// pointer la......
0RWLYXO SULQFLSDO SHQWUX FDUH GHFODUD LLOH GH WLSXO FHORU SUH]HQWDWH PDL VXV VXQW DD
FRPSOLFDWH vQ & HVWH GDWRUDW IDSWXOXL F RSHUDWRUXO pointer { * } este de tip prefix, iar
RSHUDWRULLGHIXQF LHLWDEORXVXQWGHWLSpostfix.
3HQWUX D GHVFLIUD GHFODUD LL FRPSOH[H WUHEXLH SULYLW GLQXQWUX vQVSUH DIDU
DGXJQG vQVWQJDLVDX>@vQGUHDSWD
'HVFLIUDUHDGHFODUD LLORUFRPSOH[HvQ&
&HDPDLEXQVWUDWHJLHvQGHVFLIUDUHDGHFODUD LLORUFRPSOH[HHVWHVSRUQLPGHOD
QXPHOHYDULDELOHLLDSRLVDGXJPV LQHPFRQWGHHIHFWXOILHFDUHSDUWHRSHUDWRUDL
H[SUHVLHSRUQLQGFXRSHUDWRULLFHLPDLDSURSLD LGHQXPHOHYDULDELOHL
n liSVDSDUDQWH]HORUVHYD LQH FRQW vQWL GH RSHUDWRULL GH WLS IXQF LH VDX WDEORX
GLQ GUHDSWD YDULDELOHL GHRDUHFH DX SULRULWDWH PDL PDUH L GHDELD OD VIULW VH YD LQH
cont de efectul operatorilor de tip prioritar)
De exemplu:
FKDU >@YDILGHVFLIUDWvQXUPWRULLSDL
1. x[ ] este un tablou
2. **[ ] este un tablou de pointeri
3. char *x[ ] este un tablou de SRLQWHULFWUHFDUDFWHUH
3DUDQWH]HOH SRW IL IRORVLWH ILH SHQWUX FODULWDWH ILH SHQWUX VFKLPEDUH D SUHFHGHQ HL 'H
exemplu:
LQW >@YDILGHVFRPSXVGXSFXPXUPHD]
1. x[ ] este un tablou
2. ( **[ ] ) este un tablou de pointeri
3. ( **[ ] ) ( ) este un tablou de SRLQWHULFWUHIXQF LL
4. int ( (*x [ ] ) ( ) este un tablou de SRLQWHULFWUHIXQF LLFHUHWXUQHD]XQvQWUHJ
&RPSXQHUHDGHFODUD LLFRPSOH[H
3HQWUXDFRPSXQHGHFODUD LLFRPSOH[HSURFHVXOHVWHLGHQWLF FDODGHVFRPSXQHUH
'H H[HPSOX GDF VH GRUHWH GHFODUDUHD XQXL SRLQWHU FWUH XQ WDEORX GH SRLQWHUL FWUH
IXQF LL FDUH vQWRUF SRLQWHUL OD WDEORXUL GH VWUXFWXUL FX QXPHOH 6 VH YRU IRORVL XUPWRULL
SDL
1. ( *x) este un pointer
2. ( *x)[ ] este un pointer la un tablou
3. ( *(*x[ ])) este un pointer la un tablou de pointeri

4. ( *(*x[ ])) ( )este un pointer la un tablou de SRLQWHULODIXQF LL
5. ( *( *(*x[ ])) ( ) )este un pointer la un tablou de SRLQWHUL OD IXQF LL FH vQWRUF
pointeri
6. ( *( *(*x[ ])) ( ) ) [ ] este un pointer la un tablou de SRLQWHULODIXQF LLFHvQWRUF
pointeri catre tablouri
7. struct S ( *( *(*x[ ])) ( ) ) [ ] este un pointer la un tablou de SRLQWHULODIXQF LLFH
ntorc pointeri catre tablouri de structuri cu numele S
Q VFRSXO XXUULL vQ HOHJHULL VH YD SUH]HQWD XQ WDEORX FX diverese expresii complexe
X]XDOHvQFRGXULOH&LDQXPLWHJUHHOLFRPXQH
int i; un ntreg
int* p; pointer la ntreg
int a[ ]; tablou de ntregi
LQWIIXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHXQvQWUHJ
int **p; pointer la SRLQWHUFWUHvQWUHJ
int ( *pa ) [ ]; pointer la tabloul de ntregi
int ( *pf ) ( ); SRLQWHUODRIXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHXQvQWUHJ
int *ap [ ]; un tablou de SRLQWHULFWUHvQWUHJL
int aa [ ] [ ] un tablou de tablou de ntregi
int DI>@XQWDEORXGHIXQF LLFHvQWRUFvQWUHJ
NEPERMIS
int *ISRIXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHXQpointer la ntreg
LQWID>@RIXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHXQWDEORXGHvQWUHJL
NEPERMIS
LQWIRIXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHRIXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHXQint
NEPERMIS
int ***p; pointer la pointer la pointer la int
int ( **ppa) [ ]; pointer la SRLQWHUFWUHXQWDEORXGHint
int ( **ppf) [ ]; pointer la SRLQWHUFWUHRIXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHint
int * ( *pap) [ ]; SRLQWHUFWUHXQWDEORXGHpointeri la ntregi
int (* paa) [ ] [ ]; pointer la un tablou de SRLQWHULFHUH LQvQWUHJL
int (* paf) [ ] ( ); SRLQWHUODXQWDEORXGHIXQF LLFHvQWRUFvQWUHJL NEPERMIS
int *( *pfp) ( ); un SRLQWHUODRIXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHvQWUHJ
int (* pfa ) ( ) [ ]; SRLQWHUODRIXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHXQWDEORXGHvQWUHJL
NEPERMIS
int IDI>@IXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHXQWDEORXGHIXQF LLFHvQWRUFvQWUHJL
NEPERMIS
int *IISIXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHRIXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHXQpointer la int
NEPERMIS
int (* pff) ( ) ( ); un SRLQWHUODRIXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHRIXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHXQvQWUHJ
NEPERMIS
int **app[ ]; un tablou de pointeri la SRSLQWHULFWUHvQWUHJL
int ( *apa[ ] ) [ ]; un tablou de SRLQWHULFWUHXQWDEORXGHvQWUHJL
int (*apf[ ] ) ( );un tablou de SRLQWHULFWUHIXQF LLFHvQWRUFvQWUHJL
int *aap[ ] [ ];un tablou de tablouri de pointeri la ntregi
int aaa[ ] [ ] [ ]; un tablou de tablouri de tablouri de ntregi

int DDI>@>@XQWDEORXGHWDEORXULGHIXQF LLFHvQWRUFvQWUHJL
NEPERMIS
int *DIS>@XQWDEORXGHIXQF LLFHvQWRUFpointeri la ntregi
int DID>@>@XQWDEORXGHIXQF LLFHvQWRUFWDEORXULGHvQWUHJL
NEPERMIS
int DII>@XQWDEORXGHIXQF LLFHvQWRUFIXQF LLFDUHvQWRUFvQWUHJL
NEPERMIS
int **ISSRIXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHXQpointer la pointer de ntregi
int ( *ISD>@RIXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHXQSRLQWHUFWUHWDEORXULGHvQWUHJL
int ( * ISIIXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHXQSRLQWHUFWUHRIXF LHFHvQWRDUFHXQvQWUHJ
int IDD>@>@IXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHXQWDEORXGHWDEORXULGHvQWUHJL
NEPERMIS
int *IDS>@IXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHXQWDEORXGHSRLQWHULFWUHvQWUHJL
NEPERMIS
Cteva tehnici de FUHWHUHDvitezei de H[HFX LHDunui cod

Propagarea copiei (se pune la asignare)
Fie urmWRDUHDVHFYHQ GHFRG:
x=y
z=1.+x
corect este:
x=y
z=1.+y (eliminLQWHUGHSHQGHQ HOHGLQWUHFHOHGRXUHOD LL
Reducerea puterii
Ex:
y = pow (x,2) -> ia foarte mult timp
QORFXL LFXy=x*x sau j=k*2 -> ia mult timp vQFRPSDUD LHFXDGXQDUHDM=k+k sau
cu deplasarea la stQJDj=k<<2
Redenumirea variabilelor
CWHRGDWFQGVHYUHDYLWH]PD[LPHVWHPDLELQHVHYLWPrefolosirea variabilelor
x=y*z
q=r+x+z
x=a+b
A
b
x=y*z
x0=y*z
q=r+x+z
q=r+x0+x0
x=a+b
x=a+b
Compilatorul reali]HD]DXWRPDWDFHVWHOXFUXULGDUSHQWUXFDOFXOHGHILQH HHVWHELQHV
facem personal optimizarea codului. Deoarece a) PQQFWLPSGHFDOFXOLDUEPQQF
PHPRULHvQRS LXQLOHFRPSLODWRUXOXLH[LVW:
1.
optimi]DUHSHQWUXYLWH]VWLOE
2.
optimizare pentru dimensiune (stil a)
Eliminarea subexpresiilor comune

Ex.
D=C*(A+B)
E=(A+B)/2
F=sqr(A+B)
t=A+B
D=C*t
E=t/2
F=sqr(t)
Aten LHODRUGLQHDvQFDUHVHVFULXsubexpresiile deoarece pt. compilator a+b+c
poate fi diferit de %&DFKLDUFkQGVHIDFHRSWLPL]DUHDXWRPDW
----->
Eliminarea codurilor constante din bucle

for (i=0;i<u;i++)
{A[i]=B[i]+C*D;
E=G[k];
}
Se observF& 'HVWHFDOFXODWGH1RULLQXHVWHRIXQF LHGHL) . Absurd!
/DIHOL(= G[k] este un transfer de memorie realizat de n ori LQXHVWHRIXQF LHGHL
deci corect bucla este :
temp=c*d;
for(i=0;i<n;i++) A[i]=B[i]+t;
E=G[k];
6LPSOLILFDUHDSULQLQGXF LH
Ex. for (i=0;i<n;i++)
k=i*4+M
DupRVFXUWDQDOL]PDWHPDWLFWHPDFDVUH]XOWRVHFYHQ HFKLYDOHQWGDUVH
VFXWHVFQvQPXO LUL
k=m
for(i=0;i<n;i++) k=k+4;
Se IRORVHte cnd referim direct tablouri
adresa = adresa_de_baza(A)+(i-1)*sizeof(data)
adresa = adresa_de_baza(A)-sizeof(data)
adresa = adresa+sizeof(data)
dacDSOLFLHOLPLQDUHDFRQVWDQWHORUFRGXOGHYLQH
temp = sizeof(data)
adresa = adresa_de_baza(a)-temp
adresa = adresa+temp
/XFUXOFXILLHUHOHGHGDWH,2),/(Streamuri (streams)
&QXIDFHGLVWLQF LHvQWUHGLYHUVHGLVSR]LWLYHFXPDUILWHUPLQDO=,3+''
n toate cazurile I/O este realizat prin aceste VWUHDPXULFDUHVXQWDVRFLDWHFXILLHUHVDXFX
dispozitive.
'HI: Un streamFRQVWGLQWURvQLUXLUHRUGRQDWGHRFWH L3RDWHILJQGLWFXPYD
FDXQYHFWRUQXPDLFvQDFHVWFD]QXDPDFFHVSDUDOHOFLVHULDOODILHFDUHHOHPHQW
Pentru a realiza accesarea unui stream trebuie declarat un SRLQWHUODRVWUXFWXUVWDQGDUG
QXPLW),/(GHILQLWLQstdio.h.
(DFRQ LQH
,QIRUPD LLGHVSUHQXPHOHILLHUXOXL
Modul de acces
Un SRLQWHUFWUHXUPWRUXOFDUDFWHUGLQstream
$FHVWH LQIRUPD LL VXQW QHFHVDUH VLVWHPXOXL GH RSHUDUH GLQ SXQFWXO GH YHGHUH DO
programatorului accesul se face prin intermediul unui SRLQWHU OD DFHDVW VWUXFWXU QXPLW
SRLQWHUODILLHUILOHpointer).
Un program poate avea unul sau mai multe streamuri deschise simultan.
Unul din cmpurile din FILE este indicatorul dHSR]L LHvQILLHUFDUHVHUHIHUOD
XUPWRUXORFWHWFHYDILVFULVFLWLWvQGLQILLHU
'XS ILHFDUH RSHUD LH 5: 62 PRGLILF DXWRPDW DFHVW pointer. Accesarea se
SRDWH IDFH GLUHFW GDU DFHVW FD] SDUWLFXODU GH FDUH WUHEXLH LQXW VHDPD YD IDFH FD XQ
SURJUDPVQXPDLILHSRUWDELO
$WHQ LH: A nu se confunda SRLQWHUXO OD ILLHU FX LQGLFDWRUXO GH SR]L LH 8QXO HVWH XQ
pointer altul este un deplasament.
Streamuri standard
([LVW streamuri care sunt deschise automat pentru fiecare program. Ele se
numesc stdin, stdout, VWGHUUQPRGQRUPDOHOHVHUHIHUODWHUPLQDOGDUPXOWHVLVWHPHGH
operare permit redirectarea lor.
([XQPHVDMGHHURDUHSRDWHILVFULVvQWUXQILLHUvQORFGHWHUPLQDOSULQWILscanf()
folosesc streamurile VWGLQLVWGRXW$FHVWHIXQ LLSRWILIRORVLWHSHQWUXOXFUXOFXILLHUHOH
prin redirectarea VWGLQ L VWGRXW FWUH UHVSHFWLYHOH ILLHUH IRORVLQG BBBBBB 'DU PDL
FRPRGHVWHIRORVLUHDIXQF LLORUIVFDQILfprintf().
)RUPDWWH[WLIRUPDWELQDU
Datele pot fi accesate Q XQXO GLQ FHOH GRX IRUPDWH VWDQGDUG $16, WH[W VDX
binar. Un VWUHDPGHWLSWH[WFRQVWGLQWURVHULHGHOLQLLXQGHILHFDUHOLQLHHVWHWHUPLQDW
FXXQFDUDFWHUGHVDOWODOLQLHQRX\n.
2ULFH 62 SRDWH DYHD DOW SROLWLF GH VWRFDUH D OLQLLORU SH GLVF GHFL WHUPLQDWRUXO \n nu
este obligatoriu. Dar din punct de vedere al programatorului este ca mai sus, restul fiind
DVFXQVGHFRPSLODWRUXO&7RWXLOXFUXOvQPRGWH[WQXJDUDQWHD]RSRUWDELOLWDWHWRWDOD
XQXLSURJUDPQIRUPDWXOELQDUFRPSLODWRUXOQXUHDOL]HD]QLFLRLQWHUSUHWDUHDEL LORUvL
FLWHWHVDXVFULHH[DFWFXPDSDU
Bufferarea (folosirea unei zone de memorie ca tampon)
'HRDUHFHFRPSDUDWLYFXPHPRULDGLVSR]LWLYHOHGHVWRFDUHvQPDVVXQWH[WUHPGH
vQFHWHVHvQFHDUFUHGXFHUHDQXPUXOXLGHRSHUD LLGH ,2 FXGLVFXOBufferarea este cea
PDLVLPSOPHWRGSHQWUXDUHDOL]DDFHDVWD
Un EXIIHU HVWH R ]RQ XQGH VXQW VWRFDWH WHPSRUDU GDWHOH vQDLQWH GH D IL WULPLVH
FWUHGHVWLQD LDORUILQDO7RDWH62IRORVHVFbuffere pentru a citi/scrie din dispozitivele
,2QXPDLFvQDFHVWFD]EXIIHUXODUHGLPHQVLXQHIL['HRELFHLHVWHGHVDX
RFWH L$FHVWOXFUXvQVHDPQFFKLDUGDFVHGRUHWHFLWLUHDXQXLVLQJXUFDUDFWHUGLQWUXQ
ILLHU62FLWHWHWRWEORFXOFDUHFRQ LQHUHVSHFWLYXOFDUDFWHU
%LEOLRWHFD&FRQ LQHXQVWUDWDGL LRQDOGHbufferare care apare n 2 forme:
buffere de linie
buffere de bloc
La EXIIHUDUHDvQOLQLHVLVWHPXOVWRFKHD]FDUDFWHUHOHSQODSULPXO\n sau SQ
se umple EXIIHUXO L DSRL WULPLWH vQWUHDJD OLQLH OD 62 SHQWUX SURFHVDUH $FHVW OXFUX VH
vQWPSOLFQGFLWHVFGDWHGHODWHUPLQDO
La EXIIHUDUHD vQ EORF VLVWHPXO VWRFKHD] FDUDFWHUHOH SQ FQG DFHO EORF HVWH
umplut.
Implicit VWUHDPXULOH ,2 UHODWLY OD ILLHUH VXQW bufferate n bloc, iar cele care se
UHIHUODWHUPLQDOstdin, stdout) sunt bufferate n linie.
'HDVHPHQHDELEOLRWHFD&LQFOXGHLXQPDQDJHUGHEXIIHUFDUH LQHDFHObuffer FW
PDLPXOWSRVLELOvQPHPRULHGHFLGDFVHDFFHVHD]DFHHDLSRU LXQHGLQWUXQstream de
PDLPXOWHRULH[LVWPDULDQVHFDVVHHYLWHDFFHVXOODGLVSR]LWLYXOGHVWRFDUH
$WHQ LH$FHVWOXFUXSRDWHFUHDSUREOHPHGHFRQVLVWHQ GDFILLHUXOHVWHIRORVLW
n comun de mai multe procese. Pentru sincronizarea ntre procese este nevoie de:
scrierea n ASM a propriilor IXQF LL
IRORVLUHDIXQF LLORUVSHFLILFH62SHFDUHVHOXFUHD]
n ambele moduri de bufferare, bufferul poate fi golit la cerere cu ajutorul lui fflush()
WULPL QGDVWIHOGDWHOHGLQHOODGHVWLQD LDORU
'HL DFHVW PRG GH bufferare este mai eficient GHFW SURFHVDUHD LQGLYLGXDO D
ILHFUXL FDUDFWHU H[LVW FD]XUL vQ FDUH QH GHUDQMHD] L DQXPH FQG VH GRUHWH H[SOLFLW
SURFHVDUHDLQVWDQWDQHHDXQXLFDUDFWHUILHODLQWUDUHILHODLHLUH&HOPDLVLPSOXH[HPSOX
este atunci FQGVHGRUHWHSURFHVDUHDFDUDFWHUHORULQWURGXVHGHOD.%'IUDPDLDWHSWD
\n.
C permite modificarea memoriei bufferului chiar la acest nivel,tocmai pentru a
SXWHDUH]ROYDLSUREOHPHOHGHDFHVWWLS
&LWLUHDLVFULHUHDGDWHORU
2GDWFHVDGHVFKLVXQILLHUVHYDIRORVLSRLQWHUXOODILLHUSHQWUXDSXWHDUHDOL]D
RSHUD LLGHVFULHUHFLWLUH([LVWQLYHOHGHJUDQXODULWDWHILQH H
1. la nivel de caracter
FkWHXQFDUDFWHURGDW
2. la nivel de linie
FkWHROLQLHRGDW
3. la nivel de bloc
FkWHXQEORFRGDW
2 UHJXO FDUH VH DSOLF OD WRDWH QLYHOHOH GH ,2 HVWH DFHHD F QX SRW FLWL GLQWUXQ
VWUHDPLDSRLVFULXvQHOIUDDSHODfseek() , rewind() sau IIOXVK/DIHOLvQFD]XO
LQYHUV $FHVW OXFUX HVWH QHFHVDU SHQWUX F WUHEXLH JROLW EXIIHUXO vQDLQWHD RULFUHL
RSHUD LLLSHQWUXDHYLWDSUREOHPHOHGHLQFRQVLVWHQ
1. Lucrul la nivel de caracter
JHWFPDFURFLWHWHXQFDUDFWHU
putc() - macro , scrie un caracter
fgetc()
fputc()
de la stream-ul implicit
identice cu anterioarele lor dar sunt ILQF LL
'HLSULPHOHVXQWPDFURXULGHFLPXOWPDLUDSLGHSRWH[LVWDSUREOHPHGHex:
putc(x, fp[M@VDUSXWHDVQXPHDUJFRUHFW
'H DFHHD HVWH LQGLFDW F DWXQFL FQG VH OXFUHD] FD vQ H[HPSOX V IRORVLP fputc() sau
fgetc();
2. La nivel de linie
)XQF LLIJHWVLISXWVLVHVSHFLILFSDUDPHWUL
s -> pointer la tabloul de caractere
n -> nr. Maxim de caractere ce vor fi procesate
stream -> VWUHDPXOFXFDUHVHOXFUHD]
3. La nivel de bloc
Un bloc poate fi JQGLWFDXQWDEORX&QGFLWLPVFULHPvQEORFWUHEXLHVVSHFLILFPDWW
QXPUXOGHHOHPHQWHDOEORFXOXLFWLGLPHQVLXQHDILHFUXLHOHPHQW
)XQF LLIUHDGLIZULWHFXXUPWRULLSDUDPHWUL
ptr -> SRLQWHUFWUHWDEORXOFHVWRFKHD]FDUDFWHUHOH
VL]H!PULPHQUGHRFWH LDOWLSXOXLGHGDWIRORVLWUHFRPDQGsizeof() pentru
portabilitatea programului
QXPUHOHPHQWHFHWUHEXLHSURFHVDW
pointer la stream
I/O Nebufferat
$QWHULRU DP PHQ LRQDW IDSWXO F H[LVW VLWXD LL vQ FDUH bufferarea datelor nu
GHUDQMHD]([HPSOXFODVLFHVWHHGLWRUXOGHWH[WFQGVHVFULHXQWH[WLVHDSDVWDVWHOH
de navigare prin el.
Pentru a elimina buferarea pentru stdin se poate folosi fie setbuf(), fie setvbuf().
Setbuf(stdin,NULL) sau stat= setvbuf (stdin, NULL, IONBUF, O).
$FFHVXODOHDWRUvQWUXQILLHU
(VWHDVLJXUDWGHIXQF LDIVHHNFDUHSR]L LRQHD]SRLQWHUXOODILLHUODXQGHSODVDPHQWGRULW
ID GHvQFHSXWXODFHVWXLD
Ftell UHWXUQHD]YDORDUHDSRLQWHUXOXLGHILLHU
CAPITOLUL 12
)DFLOLW LGHQLYHOVF]XWDOHOLPEDMXOXL&
5XWLQHOH XWLOL]DWH GH VLVWHPXO GH RSHUDUH 06'26 SHQWUX WUDWDUHD RSHUD LLORU GH
LQWUDUHVDXLHLUHLJHVWLXQHDUHVXUVHORUVLVWHPXOXLSRWILDSHODWHLGLQWU-un program scris
intr-un limbaj GHQLYHOvQDOWFXPHVWH&/LPEDMXOSHUPLWHLOHJDUHDFXPRGXOHVFULVH
in limbaj de asamblare.
Rutinele DOS sunt apelate prin ntreruperi software. ntreruperea 21h (INT 21h) este
serviciul pentru apelul IXQF LLORU'26Pentru apelul unei IXQF LLaceste registre (nu toate)
se SUHJWHVFFXGLYHUVHvalori:
con LQHQXPUXOIXQF LHL
con LQHQXPUXOVXEIXQF LHLGDFeste cazul)
AH
AL
Celelalte registre se vQFDUFdiferit de la caz la caz. Se JHQHUHD]apoi, ntreruperea

INT 21H.
Similar cu IXQF LLOH'26VHSRWrealiza Lapeluri de IXQF LLBIOS pregWLQGregistrele
intr-un mod convenabil. Sunt astfel accesibile majoritatea IDFLOLW LORU pe care
programatorul le avea numai la nivelul limbajului de asamblare.
Vom descrie in continuare cteva din func LLOH cuprinse in biblioteca C ale FURU
prototipuri se afla in fisierele dos.h, bios.h, setjmp.h, process.h.
12.1. )XQF LLpentru acces direct la memorie
unsigned FP_OFF(farpointer);
unsigned FP_SEG(farpointer);
void far *MK_FP(unsigned seg, unsigned ofs);
Aceste trei macrouri sunt folosite pentru a returna:
-offsetul unui pointer far;
-segmentul unui pointer far;
-un pointer far cu segmentul seg si ofsetul ofs.
Exemplu:
#include <dos.h>
#include <stdio.h>
void main(void)
{
char far *ptr;
unsigned seg,off;
ptr=MK_FP(0x8000,0);
seg=FP_SEG(ptr);
off=FP_OFF(ptr);
printf("farptr=%Fp, segment=%04x, offset=%04x\n",
ptr,seg,off);
}
int peek(unsigned segment,unsigned offset);
char peekb(unsigned segment,unsigned offset);
void poke(unsigned segment,unsigned offset,int value);
void pokeb(unsigned segment,unsigned offset,char value);
Cele patru IXQF LLGHmai sus UHDOL]HD] citirea (peek, peekb) respectiv scrierea (poke,
pokeb) unui cuvnt sau caracter de la sau la adresa de memorie segment:offset.
12.2. )XQF LLpentru accesul la porturile de intrare sau LHLUH
int inp(int portid);
int outp(int portid, int value);
int inport(int portid);
unsigned char inportb(int portid);
void outport(int portid,int value);
void outportb(int portid,unsigned char value);
Toate cele DVH IXQF LL GH mai sus au drept scop citirea (inport) respectiv scrierea
(outport) a unui cuvnt, sau caracter (inp, inportb, outp, outportb) de la, sau la portul de
intrare sau LHLUHspecificat prin variabila portid.
)XQF LLSHQWUXJHVWLXQHDLQWHUYDOHORUGHWLPS
void delay(unsigned miliseconds);
)XQF LDVXVSHQGH[HFX LDprogramului n intervalul specificat (n milisecunde).
void sleep(unsigned seconds);
)XQF ia suspendH[HFX LDprogramului curent pe durata seconds secunde.
12.4. Functii pentru controlul sistemului de ntreruperi
void disable(void);
$FHDVWIXQF LHLQYDOLGHD]ntreruperile, OVkQGYDOLG numai ntreruperea QHPDVFDELO
NMI. Este echivalentFXLQVWUXF LXQHD&/,GLQlimbajul de asamblare.
void enable(void);
$FHDVW IXQF LH YDOLGHD] ntreruperile oferind programatorului controlul flexibil al

ntreruperilor hardware. Este echivalentFXLQVWUXF LXQHD67,GLQlimbajul de asamblare.
12.5. )XQF LLpentru alocarea memoriei (prin DOS)
int allocmem(unsigned size, unsigned *segp);
)XQF LDDSHOHD]'26[pentru a aloca o zonGHmemorie OLEHUGHdimensiune
size*16 RFWH L Ea UHWXUQHD] adresa de segment a blocului alocat n ORFD LD SRLQWDW GH
segp. n caz de succes UHWXUQHD] -1. n caz contrar se VHWHD] Bdoserrno si variabila
JOREDOerrno.
int setblock(unsigned segx, unsigned newsize);
$FHVW IXQF LH PRGLILF dimensiunea DORFDW unui bloc de memorie, de la adresa de
segment segx UPkQkQGDORFD Ldoar newsize*16 RFWH Ln caz de succes IXQF LDUHWXUQHD]
-1. )XQF ia face apelul DOS 0x4A.
int freemem(unsigned segx);
)XQF LD HOLEHUHD] un bloc de memorie alocat cu allocmem. Parametrul segx este
adresa de segment UHWXUQDW de aceasta din XUPn caz de succes IXQF ia UHWXUQHD]-1.
)XQF LDface apelul DOS 0x44.
12.6. ntreruperi software. Accesul la registrele procesorului.
void geninterrupt(int intr_num);
Acest macrou JHQHUHD] ntreruperea software intr_num. Starea registrelor GXS apel
depinde de ntreruperea DSHODW. Accesul la registrele procesorului se face prin variabilele
pseudoregistru prezentate mai jos:
_AX, _BX, _CX, _DX, _SI, _DI, _BP, _SP, _DS, _CS, _ES, _SS, _FLAGS
care le copie starea. Aceste variabile trebuie folosite cu precau LH6HUHFRPDQGDVHevita
alterarea variabilelor _DS, _SS, _CS si _SP. n orice caz, se va XUPULcodul generat LVH
va depana cu DWHQ LHprogramul.
int int86(int intno, union REGS *inregs, union REGS *outregs);
Aceasta IXQF LH H[HFXW ntreruperea software VSHFLILFDW n intno. naintea H[HFX LHL
ntreruperii, se copie n registre valorile specificate n reuniunea SRLQWDWGHinregs. 'XS
execu LHvalorile registrelor sunt copiate n outregs; de asemenea, Lstarea bitului Carry n
x.cflag (1=de obicei LQGLFReroare). De notat Foutregs poate pointa pe DFHHDLstructura
ca inregs. )XQF ia UHWXUQHD]valoarea din AX la terminarea ntreruperii. Reuniunea REGS
este GHILQLWastfel:
struct WORDREGS {
unsigned int ax,bx,cx,dx,si,di,cflag,flags;};
struct BYTEREGS {
unsigned char al,ah,bl,bh,cl,ch,dl,dh;};
union REGS {
struct WORDREGS x;
struct BYTEREGS h; };
int int86x(int intno, union REGS *inregs, union REGS *outregs,
struct SREGS *segregs);
Aceasta IXQF LH este LGHQWLF FD IXQF LXQH cu cea DQWHULRDU SHUPL kQG n plus
folosirea registrelor de segment pentru transmiterea de parametri (VDOYHD]si UHVWDXUHD]
automat ES si DS). 5HWXUQHD]DFHOHDLvalori ca int86. Structura SREGS este GHILQLW
astfel:
struct SREGS {
unsigned int es;
unsigned int cs;
unsigned int ss;
unsigned int ds;};
void intr(int intno, struct REGPACK *preg);
)XQF LDUHDOL]HD]RDOWHUQDWLYpentru LQWHUID area cu ntreruperile software, QXPUXO
ntreruperii fiind specificat n variabila intno. Structura REGPACK este GHILQLWastfel:
struct REGPACK {
unsigned r_ax,r_bx,r_cx,r_dx;
unsigned r_bp,r_si,r_di,r_ds,r_es,r_flag;};
void segread(struct SREGS *segp);
)XQF ia returneazn structura pointata de segp valorile registrelor de segment.
)XQF LLSHQWUXFLWLUHDVDXPRGLILFDUHDYHFWRULORUGHvQWUHUXSHUH
void interrupt (*getvect(int interruptno))();
Fiecare procesor din familia 80x86 include un set de vectori de ntrerupere, QXPHURWD L
de la 0 la 255. Valoarea pe 4 RFWH LGLQfiecare vector este o DGUHVreprezentnd adresa
rutinei de tratarea a ntreruperii. getvect FLWHWH valoarea vectorului de ntrerupere
specificat de interruptno LUHWXUQHD]DFHDVWvaloare ca un pointer far la o UXWLQGHtratare
a ntreruperii.
void setvect(int interruptno, void interrupt (*isr)());

$FHDVWIXQF LHVHWHD]valoarea vectorului de ntrerupere specificat prin interruptno
cu o valoare QRX isr, care este un pointer far la adresa altei IXQF LL GH tratare a
ntreruperii. Obligatoriu aceasta QRXIXQF LHtrebuie sa fie GHFODUDW de tip interrupt (cu
modificatorul interrupt). Exemplu:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <dos.h>
void interrupt (*oldvect)();
void interrupt get_out();
void capture_prtscr(void interrupt (*func)());
int looping=1;
void main(void)
{
puts("Pentru a termina apasati <Shift><PrtSc>");
capture_prtscr(get_out);
while(looping);
puts("Succes");
}
/*noua rutina de tratare intrerupere*/
void interrupt get_out()
{
setvect(5,oldfunc);
looping=0;
}
void capture_prtscr(void interrupt (*func)())
{
oldfunc=getvect(5);
setvect(5,func);
}
12.8. Apeluri de IXQF LL DOS.
int bdos(int dosfun, unsigned dosdx, unsigned dosal);
)XUQL]HD]accesul direct la multe IXQF LL'26&Dargumente:
dosfun = QXPUXOIXQF LHL'26
dosdx = valoarea registrului DX;
dosal = valoarea registrului AL.
)XQF ia UHWXUQHD]valoarea registrului AX. Exemplu:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <dos.h>
char current_drive(void);
main()
{
printf("DRIVERUL %c\n",current_drive());
getch();
}
char current_drive(void)
{
char drive;
drive = bdos(0x19,0,0);
return ('A'+drive);
}
int bdosptr(int dosfun, void *argument, unsigned dosal);
)XQF LDIXUQL]HD]accesul la IXQF LLOH'26prin argumentele sale:
dosfun = QXPUXOIXQF LHL'26
argument = pointer cerut de IXQF LHLQregistrul DS:DX;
dosal = valoarea registrului AL.
5HWXUQHD]DFHOHDLvalori ca bdos.
int intdos(union REGS *inregs, union REGS *outregs);
)XQF LD DSHOHD] ntreruperea INT 21h pentru a realiza func LD sistem VSHFLILF n
registrul AH (inregs->h.ah). Structura outregs este DFWXDOL]DWsetndu-se in caz de eroare
indicatorul carry.
int intdosx(union REGS *inregs, union REGS *outregs,
struct SREGS *segregs);
Este VLPLODU IXQF LHL intdos, SHUPL kQG n plus L transmiterea parametrilor prin
registrele de segment (DS,ES). Aceste registre sunt restaurate la terminarea apelului.
Exemplu:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <dos.h>
int delete_file(char far *filename);

main()
{
int err;
err=delete_file("Temp1.$$$");
printf("S-a sters fisierul Temp1.$$$:%s\n",(!err)?"DA":"NU");
}
int delete_file(char far *filename)
{
union REGS regs;
struct SREGS sregs;
int ret;
regs.h.ah=0x41; /*delete file*/
regs.x.dx=FP_OFF(filename);
sregs.ds=FP_SEG(filename);
ret=intdos(&regs,&regs,&sregs);
return(regs.x.cflag?ret:0);
}
)XQF LLSHQWUXWHUPLQDUHDVDXODQVDUHDSURJUDPHORU
void exec(int code);
)XQF LD GHWHUPLQ terminarea QRUPDO D programului i furnizarea unui cod de retur
(code) la LHLUH Acest cod poate fi interpretat ulterior n ILLHUHOH de comenzi. Este
HFKLYDOHQWFXIXQF ia DOS 0x4C.
void abort(void);
3URYRDFterminarea DQRUPDODprogramului, cu DILarea unui mesaj FRUHVSXQ]WRUpe
consola sistemului.
void keep(unsigned char status,unsigned size);
Apelul acestei IXQF LL permite terminarea programului curent cu transmiterea VWULL
procesului SULQWHn variabila status, precum Lsetarea lui ca program TSR (Terminate
and Stay Resident) de dimensiune size paragrafe. Restul memoriei este eliberat. )XQF ia
este VLPLODUapelului DOS 0x31.
int system(const char *cmd);
/DQVHD] &200$1'&20 L H[HFXW R FRPDQG LQWHUQ sau o comand H[WHUQ
sau un ILLHUGHcomenzi. irul de caractere, folosit ca parametru, FRQ LQHnumele complet
al comenzii Ltoate argumentele necesare H[HFX LHL
unsigned getpsp(void);
)XQF LDUHWXUQHD]VHJPHQWXOSUHIL[3URJUDPSegment Prefix) al programului curent.
(D UHDOL]HD] IXQFWLD DOS 0x62. Q ORFXO DFHVWHL IXQF LL vQV VH SRDWH IRORVL GLUHFW
valoarea variabilei globale _psp.
int bioskey(int cmd);
Pot fi executate serviciile specifice INT 16h. &X DMXWRUXO DFHVWHL IXQF LL VH SRW FLWL
FRGXULOHGHVFDQDUHFRGXULOHH[WLQVHDOHWDVWHORUVHSRWFLWLFDUDFWHUHIUH[WUDJHUHGLQ
bufferul tastaturii, sau se poate afla starea tastelor speciale (SHIFT, CTRL, ALT):
-
FPG FLWHWHFRGXOGHVFDQDUHVLVFRDWHFDUDFWHUXOGLQEXIIHUXOWDVWDWXULLGDFQXPDL
VXQWFDUDFWHUHVHDWHDSWDSVDUHDXQHLQRLWDVWH
FPG FLWHWHFRGXOGHVFDQDUHIUDVFRDWHFDUDFWHUXOGLQEXIIHUXOWDVWDWXULLGDFQX
PDLVXQWFDUDFWHUHIXQF LDUHWXUQHD]
FPG FLWHWH%,266KLIW6WDWHVWDUHDWDVWHORUVSHFLDOH6+,)7&75/$/7
int biosprint(int cmd, int abyte, int lpt_port);
5HXQHWH WRDWH IXQF LLOH VSHFLILFH ,17 K DFFHVXO OD SRUWXO SDUDOHO /37[[ )XQF LD
permite FLWLUHDVWULLWULPLWHUHDXQXLFDUDFWHUDE\WHVDXLQL LDOL]DUHDLPSULPDQWHL
- FPG WULPLWH FDUDFWHUXO DE\WH OD SRUWXO SDUDOHO FX QXPUXO GDW GH OSWBSRUW /37
1=LPT2, etc).
- FPG LQL LDOL]HD]LPSULPDQWDFRQHFWDWSHOSWBSRUWFXYDORULOHGLQDE\WH
- FPG FLWHWHVWDUHDLPSULPDQWHLFRQHFWDWHSHOSWBSRUW
int bioscom(int cmd, int abyte, int com_port);
5HXQHte toate IXQF LLOH specifice INT 14h (accesul la portul serial COMxx). )XQF LD
permite citirea VWULLtrimiterea unui caracter (abyte) pe FRPXQLFD LHcitirea unui caracter
de pe FRPXQLFD LHsau setarea unor controale Lparametri de IXQF LRQDUH
-
cmd=0 LQL LDOL]DUHD portului de FRPXQLFD LH com_port (0=COM1, 1=COM2) cu

parametrii GD LGHabyte.
cmd=1 trimite caracterul abyte pe linia de FRPXQLFD LHGDWDGHcom_port.
cmd=2 FLWHWHcaracterul UHFHS LRQDWpe linia de FRPXQLFD LHGDWGHcom_port.
cmd=3 citeste starea portului de FRPXQLFD LHcom_port.
long biostime(int cmd, long newtime);
)XQF LDpermite citirea (cmd=0), sau modificarea (cmd=1) timpului sistem, exprimat
n incrementi de 55ms, de la pornirea sistemului.
'H]YROWDUHDGHFRGvQWUXQOLPEDMPL[W&L$60
(VWH VSHFLILF PHGLXOXL GH GH]YROWDUH %RUODQG & FDUH RIHU SRVLELOLWDWHD LQVHUULL GH
FRG$60vQSURJUDPHVXUV&)LHFDUHLQVWUXF LXQH$60WUHEXLHSUHFHGDWGHFXYkQWXO
cheie DVPVDXWUHEXLHLQFOXVvQWUXQEORFGHWLS$60GHIRUPD
asm {
LQVWUXF LXQL$60
}
Acest model de dezvoltare este foarte comod, deoarece vizibilitatea obiectelor definite n
&VHH[WLQGHLDVXSUDEORFXULORU$60$VWIHOSXWHPIRORVLQXPHGHSDUDPHWULIRUPDOLDL
IXQF LLORUHWF IU D PDL VFULH FDUDFWHUXO B vQ ID D QXPHORU UHVSHFWLYH 6H HYLW DVWIHO
VHFYHQ HOHGHLQWUDUHLUHYHQLUHGLQIXQF LLFDUHVXQWUHDOL]DWHDXWRPDWGHFRPSLODWRUXO&
([LVWUHVWULF LLGHXWLOL]DUHDHWLFKHWHORU0DLSUHFLVHWLFKHWHOHWUHEXLHGHILQLWHFD
etichete C, deci n afara blocurilor ASM.
&D L OD GH]YROWDUHD SH PRGXOH VHSDUDWH SURJUDPDWRUXO WUHEXLH V JHVWLRQH]H
explicit modelele de memorie, n sesnsul definirii precise a adreselor far sau near. Pentru
DFHDVWDVHXWLOL]HD]PRGHOHOHGHPHPRULH&LVDXFXYLQWHOHFKHLHQHDULIDU
3HQWUX H[HPSOLILFDUH V GLVFXWP LPSOHPHQWDUHD XQHL IXQF LL GH FXWDUH IRORVLQG
DWkWPHWRGDFODVLFFkWLPHWRGDFXFRGGHDVDPEODUH
)XQF LDUHVSHFWLYVFULVvQ&HVWHSUH]HQWDWPDLMRV
int my_search(int *x, size_t n, int y)
{
int i;
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
if(y==x[i])return i;
return 1; // nu am JVLWvQWUHJXO\vQWDEORXO[
}
)XQF LDUHVFULVIRORVLQGOLPEDMGHDVDPEODUH
int my_search(int near *x, size_t n, int y)
{
asm {
push si
push cx
push dx
mov si,x
mov cx,n
jcxz nu
mov dx,x
sub si,2
}
et: asm {
add si,2
cmp [si], dx
loopnz et
jnz nu
mov ax,n
sub ax,cx
dec ax
jmp m_end
}
}
nu:
asm mov ax,-1
m_end:
asm {
pop dx
pop cx
pop si
}
return _AX
}
6H REVHUY F LQGLFHOH JVLW D IRVW FDOFXODW FD GLIHUHQ GLQWUH GLPHQVLXQHD Q D
WDEORXOXL L YDORDUHD LQFUHPHQWDW D FRQWRUXOXL &[ OD LHLUHD GLQ EXFO 5HYHQLUHD GLQ
EXFO VH IDFH IRORVLQG YDORDUHD VWRFDW vQ UHJLVWUXO $; OD FDUH DP DFFHV SULQ
preudoregistrul _AX.
0HWRGD DUH GH]DYDQWDMXO VFGHULL SRUWDELOLW LL OD recompilarea sub alte
compilatoare.
12.11 Tratarea dispozitivelor bus asincrone

6 SUHVXSXQHP F VH GH]YROWD XQ FRG SHQWUX FRQWUROXO XQXL GLVSR]LWLY KDUGZDUH XQ
driver de exemplu). Acest lucru este realizat prin depunerea de diverse valori n registre
hard la adrese absolute ( existente fizic independent de modul virtual de manipulare a
PHPRULHLSXVODGLVSR]L LHGH62
6SUHVXSXQHPFDFHVWGLVSR]LWLYDUHUHJLVWUHILHFDUHfiecare avnd lungimea de 16
EL LODDGUHVHGHPHPRULHFUHVFWRDUH
0HWRGDFODVLFGHDFFHVDUHHVWHFDPDLMRV:
struct devregs
{
unsigned short csr // control si stare
unsigned short data // portul de date
}
#define ER 0x1
#define RDY 0x2
#define RES 0x4
// adresa absoluta a dispozitivului
#define DEVADR (( struct dev regs*)ox ffff0000
// QXPUXOGHGLVSR]LWLYHGHDFHVWWLSGLQVLVWHP
#define NDEVS 4
// RIXQF LHFHFLWHWHXQRFWHWGLQGLVSR]LWLYXOQIRORVLQGSURWRFROGHWLSbusy/wait.
$WHDSWpna cnd apare semnal de RDY (ready) sau ER(error); dacQX HVWHHURDUHL
un UHDG\ DFWLY vQVHDPQ F SRW FLWL XQ RFWHW DOWIHO YD DQXOD HURDUHD GDU YRL vQWRDUFH
0xffff.
unsigned int read_dev ( unsigned devno)
{
unsigned devregs *dvp=DEVADR + devno;
if ( devno >= NDEVS ) return (0xffff)
QXH[LVWXQDVHPHQHDGLVSR]LWLYvQORW
while (( dvp -> csr& (RDY | ER )) == 0);
// EXFODYHFWRUFDUHDWHDSWSULPDXQDGLQFRQGL LLHVWHYDOLGDW
if dvp -> csr & ER // a fot eroare
{
dvp -> csr= RES // reset
return 0xffff;
}
return (dvp-> data) & 0xffff; // nu DIRVWHURDUHLGLVSR]LWLYXOHJDWDVHPLWRFWHWXO
}
CAPITOLUL 13
13. Preprocesorul
2ULFHSURJUDP&vQID]DGHFRPSLODUHWUHFHvQWkLSULQWURSUHSURFHVDUHLDELDDSRL
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2 OLQLH FDUH FRQ LQH QXPDL FDUDFWHUXO vQ DIDU GH HYHQWXDOHOH VSD LL DOEH HVWH
LJQRUDWGHSUHSURFHVRU
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GHILQHLGHQWLILFDWRU>>OLVWDBDUJXPHQWH@FRUS@
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13.3. Directiva #include

#include <nume_fisier>
#include "nume_fisier"
#include nume_macro
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[ text_1 ]
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text_2 ]...
[ "#" "else"
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13.5. Directiva #line
#line QXPUBOLQLH>nume_fisier"]
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13.6. Directiva #error
#error mesaj
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#if !defined ( __cplusplus )
#error Nu se poate compila decit in C++
#endif
13.7. Directivele #pragma
#pragma argsused
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#pragma exit nume_functie [prioritate]
#pragma startup nume_functie [prioritate]
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#pragma option
#pragma option optiune [,optiune]...

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#pragma warn
#pragma warn +xxx
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#pragma warn -xxx
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#ifndef __TEST
#define __TEST
.......
corpul
.......
#endif
Sau pentru depanare
#if DEBUG
printf(.......);
#endif
Sau daca nu am definite ni;te valori speciale
#ifndef M_PI
#define M_PI 3.1415....
#endif.
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Curs de C Pentru Incepatori-1

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