Leadership Styles Running Head: Impact of Leadership Styles

The Impact of Leadership Styles on Employee Performance P. Parks uncan !ni"ersity of #entral $lorida

Leadership Styles &'stract

The need to de"elop 'etter leadership styles is 'ecoming increasingly important in all organi(ations. The purpose of this paper is to ascertain if there is a correlation 'et)een the super"isor*s leadership style and the employees* performance+ particularly in the la) enforcement field. This paper re"ie)s three recent and )idely utili(ed leadership styles:

contingency theory+ transactional theory+ and transformational theory. There is a lack of total agreement in the re"ie)ed literature as to the 'est leadership style to 'e used in la) enforcement+ 'ut transactional theory appears to 'e more effecti"e than contingency theory. Transformational theory is considered 'y many to 'e an impro"ement to the transactional theory of leadership. There appears to 'e an e"er increasing num'er of studies supporting the 'enefits of the transformational theory. In today*s e"er changing climate+ there are some researchers )hose findings suggest the optimal leadership style may 'e a 'lend of transactional and transformational theories.

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1. Introduction
This paper attempts to find a correlation 'et)een the super"isor*s leadership style and the employee*s performance+ particularly in the la) enforcement field. The use of the correct and appropriate leadership style in all fields has long 'een a topic of discussion and de'ate 'y 'oth scholars as )ell as practitioners. -The desire to de"elop 'etter leadership styles is 'ecoming a matter of increasing importance in the pu'lic sector and especially in la) enforcement agencies.. /0runs 1 Shuman+ 1233+ p 1456. Police leadership is often not )ell de"eloped 'ecause of the police culture+ the la) enforcement*s 'ureaucratic rank and file structure and the ci"il nature of the 7o' / ensten+ 12226. &s a result+ a "ariety of theories on different leaderships styles ha"e e"ol"ed 'ut many ha"e multiple similarities /Engel+ %8816. Engel /%8886 initially reported that many earlier )orks ha"e suggested that super"isory styles ha"e a significant impact on patrol officer 'eha"ior although the author noted no research has 'een attempted to e"aluate the "arying influence that different super"isory styles ha"e o"er police officer 'eha"ior. Engel

/%88,6 later reported a more recent and important finding that the style or 9uality of super"ision can significantly influence patrol officers* 'eha"ior. Super"ision 'y the sergeant can influence some patrol officer 'eha"iors+ 'ut this influence "aries according to the style of super"ision. &s Engel /%881 1 %88,6 notes+ first:line super"ision is e;tremely important to police organi(ations* success and the implementation of organi(ational goals. 0ut the author also reports that studies on police super"ision are limited in scope and fail to ans)er many 9uestions on differences in leadership styles. $or the purposes of this )ork+ performance is defined as the e;ecution or accomplishment of )ork+ acts+ feats+ etc. Satisfaction is defined as the fulfillment or gratification of a desire+

need+ or appetite (dictionary.com6. <o' satisfaction is defined as the e;tent to )hich people like

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/satisfaction6 or dislike /dissatisfaction6 their 7o's. -Traditional 7o' satisfaction facets include: co:)orkers+ pay+ 7o' conditions+ super"ision+ nature of the )ork and 'enefits.. /=illiams+ %8846. $or the purposes of this paper+ it is assumed that leaders aspire to increase su'ordinates* 7o' satisfaction and performance. In addition+ it is further assumed 7o' satisfaction and performance ha"e some degree of positi"e correlation and they are linked in some fashion. $or e;ample+ if employee 7o' satisfaction increases+ then employee 7o' performance impro"es. It should 'e noted this relationship 'et)een 7o' performance and 7o' satisfaction has 'een the topic of numerous studies )hose results ha"e 'een mi;ed. &rguments such as -does satisfaction lead to performance>. or -does performance lead to satisfaction>. or if there any correlation )hatsoe"er 'et)een performance and satisfaction still e;ist. /0uchanan+ %88?6. Three recent theories to 'e discussed in this paper are the contingency theory+ the transactional theory+ and the transformational theory. The contingency theory speculates that leadership styles are task or relationship oriented. This theory suggests effecti"e leadership is determined 'y the situation and an effecti"e leader is a'le to adapt to a "ariety of situations. Se"eral models ha"e pre"ailed under the contingency theory of leadership. The Situational Leadership @odel /Hersey and 0lanchard+ 12AA6 seems to ha"e 'een the most accepted and most pre"alent model under the contingency theory /Braeff+ 123,6. This )as deemed the most effecti"e leadership model from the late 12?8s to the early 1238s and as such+ )as the most pre"alent /0ryan+ %88%6. The second and third leadership theories to 'e discussed in this paper )ere introduced 'y 0urns /12A36 )ho identified t)o types of leaders C transactional leaders and transformational leaders. He made a sharp distinction 'et)een transactional and transformational leadership and It is still an issue of continuing de'ate

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considered them as opposite ends of the spectrum. =hile they )ere some)hat similar+ the transactional leadership theory and the transformational leadership theory )ere distinct and had different applications. 0ass /12356 theori(ed that transformational leadership can 'e considered an e;tension of transactional leadership. He hypothesi(ed that transformational leadership

complemented transactional leadership and they )ere not mutually e;clusi"e /as cited 'y <ohnson+ %88?D #han %885D E(men+ %8826. 0oth transactional and transformational leadership styles are e;pected to influence their su'ordinates* 'eha"ior. 0ut they may not 'e e9ually as effecti"e in de"eloping all types of su'ordinates* performance /<ohnson+ %88?6.

II. Contingency Theory of Leadership

The contingency theory of leadership suggests the leaderFs a'ility to lead is dependent upon "arious situational factors+ including the leaderFs preferred style+ the capa'ilities and 'eha"iors of follo)ers and "arious other situational factors. There is no one 'est )ay of leading and effecti"e leadership styles "ary from situation to situation. The theory assumes leadership 'eha"iors affect outcomes+ such as group performance and achie"ing goals+ 'y the influencing the su'ordinates* 'eha"ior /0utler 1 Reese+ 12216. There ha"e 'een se"eral models utili(ing the contingency theory concepts C the #ontingency Leadership Theory /$iedler+ 12?A6+ Gormati"e ecision Theory /Hroom 1 Ietton+ The

12336+ and Path:Boal Theory /House+ 12A16 /as cited 'y 0utler and Reese+ 12216.

Situational Leadership @odel /SL@6 'y Hersey and 0lanchard /12AA6 stands out in terms of its popularity )ith practitioners /0lank+ =eit(el 1 Breen+ 12286. The SL@ depicts four leadership styles grouped 'y -task 'eha"ior. and -relationship 'eha"ior.. The four styles are la'eled /16

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telling C a high riskJlo) relationship+ /%6 selling C a high riskJhigh relationship+ /,6 delegating C a lo) taskJlo) relationship+ and /46 participating C a lo) taskJhigh relationship. The SL@

recommends the appropriate leadership style 'ased on the -maturity. of the su'ordinates. @aturity is the su'ordinates* )illingness and a'ility 'ased on education andJor e;perience to focus their 'eha"ior on a task or o'7ecti"e. & manager*s adapta'ility is measured 'y a tool called the -Leader Effecti"eness and &dapta'ility escription /LE& 6 /0utler 1 Reese+ 12216. SL@ )as used e;tensi"ely in the training of police managers in the !nited States although it )as )idely ackno)ledged that most of the police super"isors did not recei"e any formal management training. In a study of %11 police super"isors+ the super"isors )ho )ere rated the most effecti"e utili(ed the SL@. /Standing 0ear+ 123?6. It should 'e noted most of these contingency theory models and associated papers )ere )ritten o"er %8 years+ )ell 'efore the de"elopment of the transactional and transformations theories.

Does the Contingency Theory Lend Itself to Increased Employee Performance? espite some studies offering limited and pro"isional support of the SL@+ most studies ha"e 'een critical for "arious reasons. The researchers indicated this is particularly surprising due to the e;tensi"e use of the SL@ and its )idely accepted managerial philosophy throughout the )orld. The researchers note the SL@ has little "erifia'le support. Enly a fe) studies ha"e 'een conducted to test its "alidity and most )ere not comprehensi"e in nature. $or e;ample+ se"eral studies in the 1238s )ere conducted in )hich the managers )ho utili(ed the SL@ rated their su'ordinates* 7o' performance significantly higher than managers )ho did not utili(e the

Leadership Styles SL@. !nfortunately no o'7ecti"e measures of performance )ere employed.

In addition+ the

SL@ has 'een critici(ed for multiple reasons on theoretical grounds for the reason that there is little academic 7ustification for the SL@*s style classifications as )ell as multiple arguments against the "alidity of the LE& /0utler 1 Reese+ 12216. 0asic assumptions the SL@ makes also added to the critical "ie)s of the model. &ccording to Braeff /123,6+ multiple features of the SL@ such as assumptions of the 7o' maturity aspects of the model appear to 9uestion its theoretical soundness and restrict its practical use. The author concedes that the SL@ makes minor contri'utions to the leadership arena as the model does correctly focus on the truly situational nature of leadership and the need for fle;i'ility on the leader*s 'ehalf. 0lank+ =eit(el 1 Breen /12286 supported Braeff*s findings and reported the SL@ focuses on only one situational "aria'le /su'ordinate maturity6 as a moderator of t)o leader 'eha"iors /task and relationship6 and leader effecti"eness. The authors* research raises more 9uestions than ans)ers a'out SL@ and indicates the need for more empirical studies. 0utler 1 Reese /12216 conducted a study in )hich they e;amined the relationship 'et)een ?A5 insurance salespersons* performance and their 41 'ranch managers )ho employed SL@ leadership styles. The researchers reported that the data did not support the hypothesis the SL@ leadership styles )ere associated )ith superior sales performance. In fact+ the SL@ leadership styles )ere associated )ith inferior performance. &nother facet of the study tested the four styles of the SL@. Insurance agents )ho preferred the telling /high taskJlo) relationship6 had a higher 7o' performance than the agent )ho preferred other styles. The researchers suggest these findings defy the logic on )hich the SL@ is founded. The findings also suggest the SL@ is

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incomplete in its description of leadership styles and the situations facing the leader. 0ut the simplicity of SL@ is one reason for its popularity.

III. Transactional Theory of Leadership

Transactional theory+ as its name implies+ in"ol"es a -transaction. or 9uid pro 9uo 'et)een a super"isor and a su'ordinate. The type of the transaction+ )hether a re)ard or discipline+ depends on the employee*s performance. 0ass /12356 theori(ed the transactional leaders appeal to the su'ordinates* self interests /as cited 'y #han+ %8856. Transactional leaders attempt to meet the current needs of their su'ordinates through 'argaining and e;changing. Transactional

leaders e;pect their follo)ers to attain agreed:upon goals )ithout encouraging them to take on greater responsi'ilities for self:de"elopment or leading others. There is no attempt to change follo)ers* attitudes+ "alues+ gro)th+ and de"elopment on a long:term 'asis. 0oth leaders and follo)ers focus on achie"ing the negotiated performance le"el /#han+ %8856. & transactional leader moti"ates su'ordinates 'y gi"ing re)ards for ser"ices pro"ided. This leader clarifies the su'ordinates* goals and arranges contingent re)ards as inducements to)ard the achie"ement of the goals /Singer and Singer+ 12286. Ene might theori(e transactional leaders )ould ha"e the greatest effect on patrol officers* producti"ity such as the num'er of arrests+ reports or citations for the reason that super"isors can set clear 9uantitati"e e;pectations that are easily monitored /Engel 1 =orden+ %88,6. Leadership 'eha"iors that emphasi(e telling or controlling )ould 'e classified as transactional leadership 'ecause re)ards and discipline are administered according to adherence or de"iation from instructions. Transactional leadership is a reinforcement techni9ue re9uiring constant

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application. There are t)o main components of transactional leadership : contingent re)ard and management:'y:e;ception. #ontingent re)ard is )hen the leader pro"ides re)ards if the

su'ordinate performs in accordance )ith the performance e;pectations or e;pends the necessary effort / ensten+ 12226. The contingent re)ard aspect of transactional leadership should also relate positi"ely to performance in that these leaders clarify e;pectations and recogni(e achie"ements that positi"ely contri'ute to higher le"els of effort and performance /0ass+ &"olio+ <ung+ and 0erson+ %88,6. @anagement:'y:e;ception represents the taking of action 'y the leader )hen the follo)er does not meet the performance e;pectations / ensten+ 12226. In the management:'y:e;ception approach+ transactional leaders clarify e;pectations+ specify standards for compliance+ define )hat constitutes ineffecti"e performance+ and monitor closely to ensure that de"iances and errors are corrected promptly /0ass+ &"olio+ <ung+ and 0erson+ %88, cited 'y #han+ %8856.

Han @aanen*s -Station House Sergeant. "s. -Street Sergeant. Through e;tensi"e )ork )ith patrol officers and patrol sergeants in a large ur'an police department+ Han @aanen /123,+ 12356 identified t)o distinct types of patrol sergeants : the -station house sergeant. and the -street sergeant.. The first type+ identified as the -station house sergeant+. personified the characteristics common to the transactional leadership style. Station house sergeants spent the ma7ority of their time in the station+ dealing )ith administrati"e issues such as processing paper)ork. Rarely did they directly super"ise their su'ordinates in the field. They preferred to control officer 'eha"ior through their authority to grant fa"ors such as days off+ choice assignments+ and the a'ility to earn o"ertime pay. Han @aanen /12356 found that if gi"en a choice+ patrol officers preferred to )ork for the station house type of sergeant. This )as

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'ecause they had less direct super"ision+ more opportunities to conduct personal 'usiness on duty+ and less pressure to 'e proacti"e. The second type of sergeant+ the -street sergeant+. personified the characteristics common to the transformational leadership style and is discussed later in this paper /Han @aanen+ 123, 1 1235 as cited 'y <ohnson+ %88?6. Engel*s $our Super"isory Styles Studying ,%% patrol officers as )ell as 31 sergeants and lieutenants in t)o agencies+ Engel /%8816 identified four distinct super"isory styles among patrol super"isors. They )ere la'eled as traditional+ inno"ati"e+ supporti"e and acti"e. Three of these super"isory styles+ specifically traditional+ inno"ati"e and supporti"e+ )ere "ariations of the transactional style of leadership. The traditional style of super"ision is characteri(ed 'y super"isors )ho e;pect their officers to produce measura'le outcomes such as arrests+ reports+ citations+ etc. The traditional super"isors e;pect aggressi"e enforcement from their officers+ 'ut e;pect little relati"e to 9uality of life issues or community policing:related issues. The super"isors are likely to make the decisions as they took o"er calls or tell the officers ho) to handle their calls. Their main concern is to control su'ordinate 'eha"ior. The inno"ati"e super"isor e;pects their su'ordinates to engage in

community oriented policing. They are less concerned )ith enforcing rules+ report )riting or other tasks deemed important 'y the traditional super"isors. They e;cel as mentoring and coaching their su'ordinates. The supporti"e super"isors encourage and praise their officers more and maintain good relations )ith them. They may pro"ide a 'uffer 'et)een their officers and management to protect them from criticism and discipline. They are more likely to praise their su'ordinates and are not task oriented /Engel+ %888 1 %8816. <ohnson /%88?6 also classifies these three styles as "ariations of the transactional style of leadership.

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Does the Transactional Theory Lend Itself to Increased Employee Performance? Transactional leaders achie"e compliance from su'ordinates through an e;change of re)ards for ser"ices. $or e;ample+ transactional leaders )ill offer raises or promotions for higher )ork producti"ity. The )eakness of this leadership style is that employees are not in"ested in their )ork and once re)ards 'ecome una"aila'le+ it is difficult to continue to moti"ate them /<ohnson+ %88?6. &ccording to 0ass /12356 and House /122?6+ a transactional approach is deficient for long: term de"elopment+ )hich normally entails significant indi"idual and organi(ational change. =hile many leaders utili(e transactional leadership+ they fail to constantly apply this 'eha"ior 'ecause of lack of time+ inade9uate opportunities to o'ser"e+ ineffecti"e appraisal systems+ dou'ts a'out positi"e reinforcement effecti"eness+ and lack of skills. The negati"e aspects of leadership 'eha"iors are associated )ith transactional leadership. Ene of the most interesting findings of a study of 438 senior &ustralian la) enforcement officers )as the pre"alence of the transactional theory*s management:'y:e;ception o"er other leadership 'eha"iors. The significantly higher le"el of management:'y:e;ception indicates that leaders of senior officers are mainly passi"e and focus on correcting de"iations from the status 9uo. Se"eral pre"ious perceptions of police leadership support this finding+ such as police leaders 'eing -after the fact super"isors.. It is suggested that high le"els of transactional leadership indicate only 'asic

leadership competency among leaders. Therefore+ in the &ustralian la) enforcement study+ it appears that leaders only demonstrate 'asic leadership capa'ilities+ )hich may reflect the lack of formal leadership training. espite the shortcomings of transactional leadership )hich pre"ailed

in this la) enforcement en"ironment+ the findings ama(ingly indicated a relati"ely high le"el of

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1%

follo)er satisfaction )ith this leadership 'eha"ior. &s the author noted+ the relati"ely high follo)er satisfaction le"el )ith such a negati"e form of leadership 'eha"ior )as surprising and re9uires further in"estigation / ensten+ 12226. !nder Han @aanen*s -Station House Sergeant "s. Street Sergeant. theory+ the patrol officers of the -Station House Sergeant. /i.e.+ the transactional leader6 )ere significantly less producti"e and less compliant )ith rules and directi"es than employees of the -Street Sergeant. /i.e.+ the transformational leader6 /Han @aanen+ 123, 1 1235 as cited 'y <ohnson+ %8856. !nder Engel*s /%8816 four super"isory styles theory+ all of Engel*s /%8816 leadership styles influenced su'ordinates to some degree. The three leadership styles that )ere classified as "ariations of transactional leadership+ specifically traditional+ inno"ati"e+ and supporti"e leadership styles+ )ere found to ha"e limited influence /<ohnson+ %88?6. In fact+ Engel /%888 1 %8816 suggests the acti"e super"isor /the transformational style of leadership6 has the most influence o"er their su'ordinates* 'eha"ior.

IV. Transformational Theory of Leadership

Transformational leadership is the leader*s a'ility to moti"ate follo)ers to rise a'o"e their o)n personal goals for the greater good of the organi(ation /0ass+ 1235+ 122? as cited 'y @urphy 1 rodge+ %8846. 0ass /12356 theori(ed the transformational style of leadership comes from deeply held personal "alues )hich cannot 'e negotiated and appeals to the su'ordinates* sense of moral o'ligation and "alues /as cited 'y #han+ %8856. -Transformational leaders go 'eyond transactional leadership and are characteri(ed as "isionary+ articulate+ assured+ and a'le to engender confidence in others so as to moti"ate them to surpass their usual performance goals. /Sch)ar()ald+ Koslo)sky and &gassi+ %881+ p %AA6. The transformational leaders

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1,

attempt to stimulate the unde"eloped or dormant needs of their su'ordinates /#han+ %8856. 0ass declared there )ere four types of transformational leadership 'eha"ior+ namely ideali(ed influence /charisma6+ inspirational moti"ation+ indi"iduali(ed consideration+ and intellectual stimulation / ensten+ 12226. Ideali(ed influence represents role:modeling 'eha"ior )here the leader instills pride+ faith+ and respect+ and has a gift for seeing )hat is really important+ and transmits a sense of mission. Inspirational moti"ation represents the use of images and sym'ols that ena'le the leader to raise the e;pectations and 'eliefs of their follo)er concerning the mission and "ision. Indi"iduali(ed consideration represents pro"iding e;periential learning and occurs )hen the leader delegates a pro7ect+ pro"ides coaching and teaching+ and treats each follo)er as an indi"idual. Intellectual stimulation represents cogniti"e de"elopment of the follo)er and occurs )hen the leader arouses follo)ers to think in ne) )ays and emphasi(es pro'lem sol"ing and the use of reasoning 'efore taking action /<ohnson+ %88?6. Transformational leaders encourage their su'ordinates to 'ring creati"e "ie)points to )ork and stimulate a team "ision through positi"e moti"ation. =ith regards to the la) enforcement arena+ the transformational leader e;pects their su'ordinates to 'e more occupied )ith pro'lem sol"ing and community:oriented policing )hich more often than not e9uate to lo)er statistics. /Engel+ %88,6. Transformational leaders are e;pected to enhance the performance capacity of their follo)ers 'y setting higher e;pectations and generating a greater )illingness to address more difficult challenges /0ass and &"olio+ 122A6. Transformational leaders continuously sho) concern for their su'ordinates* needs+ treat them )ith respect and utili(e a fle;i'le approach

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to)ards them. This does not necessarily mean that the transformational leader ne"er resorts to punishment or negati"e feed'ack. =hen these 'eha"iors are used+ they are percei"ed or may 'e interpreted as e;ceptional and re9uired for completing the present task /Sch)ar()ald+ Koslo)sky+ &gassi+ %8816. Transformational leadership 'eha"iors alter the higher order needs of follo)ers 'y changing their attitudes+ 'eliefs+ and "alues. Such 'eha"iors are important to the leaders of senior police officers 'ecause they can directly influence rank:and:file officers and any process of change. Transformational leadership in"ol"es raising the consciousness of follo)ers 'y appealing to higher ideals and "alues+ and mo"ing the focus of follo)ers a)ay from their self: interests encouraged 'y transactional leadership. In other )ords+ the leader encourages their follo)ers to consider their actions 'eyond simply -)hat is in it for them.. The transformational leader moti"ates su'ordinates 'y focusing them on a greater cause+ such as 7ustice. 0urns /12A36 argued that transformational leaders ha"e a more significant moti"ating effect on employees and are prefera'le to transactional leaders 'ecause they moti"ate employees to perform )ell e"en in situations that lack any chance of recei"ing formal recognition. #han /%8856 reports that o"er the last fe) decades+ organi(ations ha"e had relati"ely significant success )ith "arious kinds of transformational leadership models. & leading e;ample is the Kou(es and Posner*s /%88,6 model )hich offered a leadership model )ith fi"e distinct practices that outstanding leaders use to influence employees* performance. This model consists of some of the key elements of the transformational leadership styles. The fi"e practices of e;emplary leadership are: /a6 challenging the process: searching and sei(ing challenging opportunities to change+ gro)+ inno"ate+ and impro"e+ )ith the )illingness to take risks and learn from mistakesD /'6 inspiring a shared "ision: enlisting follo)ers* support in a shared "ision 'y

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appealing to the follo)ers* "alues+ interests+ and aspirationsD /c6 ena'ling others to act: achie"ing common goals 'y 'uilding mutual trust+ empo)ering follo)ers+ de"eloping competence+ assigning critical tasks+ and pro"iding continuous supportD /d6 modeling the )ay: 'eing a role model and 'eing consistent )ith shared "aluesD and /e6 encouraging the heart: pro"iding recognition for success and cele'rating accomplishments. Han @aanen*s -Station House Sergeant. "s. -Street Sergeant. &s mentioned pre"iously+ Han @aanen /123,+ 12356 identified t)o distinct types of patrol sergeants. The first )as the -station house sergeant. )ho personified the transactional

leadership style. Han @aanen*s second type of patrol sergeants+ )hich he called the -street sergeants.+ personified the transformational leadership style. They spent the ma7ority of their time in the field directly super"ising officers or engaging in patrol )ork of their o)n. Street sergeants held characteristics similar to the transformational leadership style through their direct support of officers in the field and their leading 'y e;ample. Efficers )ho )orked under the street sergeant types of super"isors e;perienced more direct super"ision+ fe)er opportunities to conduct personal 'usiness or engage in loafing+ and )ere under constant pressure to produce outputs through proacti"e stops and patrols /Han @aanen 123, 1 1235 as cited 'y <ohnson+ %88?6. Engel*s $our Super"isory Styles Engel /%8816 identified four distinct super"isory styles among patrol super"isors and they )ere la'eled as traditional+ inno"ati"e+ supporti"e and acti"e. &s pointed out pre"iously+ the first three of these super"isory styles+ )ere classified as "ariations of the transactional style of leadership. The fourth leadership style la'eled as acti"e )as found to ha"e the 9ualities of a transformational leader. These acti"e style super"isors+ much like Han @aanen*s /123,+ 12356

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1?

street sergeants+ spent most of their time in the field 'acking up officers on calls and engaging in their o)n proacti"e patrol )ork. They directly super"ised officers in the field+ engaged in high le"els of proacti"e enforcement and pro'lem:sol"ing acti"ities+ and e;pected their su'ordinates to do the same. @urphy 1 rodge*s Study of R#@P etachment @urphy and rodge /%88,6 studied the leadership style of a Royal #anadian @ounted

Police /R#@P6 detachment consisting of %3 police officers. The o"erall leadership style )as descri'ed as transformational leadership in )hich the four I*s of transformation leadership+ namely indi"iduali(ed consideration+ ideali(ed influence+ inspirational moti"ation and intellectual stimulation+ )ere clearly present. The study found an essential component of the indi"iduali(ed consideration )as to make certain the correct personnel are placed in positions in )hich they ha"e a strong interest. It )as also disco"ered that re)arding achie"ements )ere important as )ell as pro"iding the tools necessary to perform their 7o's. The authors found that a high degree of ideali(ed influence e;isted in the detachment as the leaders had pro"ed themsel"es through kno)ledge and deed in order to gain the respect of the officers. $urthermore+ the leaders understood the need for a command and control style of management that )as 'alanced )ith fle;i'ility and empo)erment. & key ingredient of inspirational

moti"ation+ communicating the "ision to all officers and repeating it often+ )as e"ident among the detachment. This is essential to leading the su'ordinates to achie"e more that they originally e;pected to accomplish. Intellectual stimulation )as also found to 'e pre"alent 'y the authors as the leaders of the detachment )ere focused on continuous employee de"elopment.

Leadership Styles Does the Transformational Theory Lend Itself to Increased Employee Performance?

1A

Lo)e and Kroeck /122?6 reported transformational leadership has 'een sho)n to ha"e a positi"e relationship on follo)er performance. &nother finding that )as particularly note)orthy )as their conclusion transformational leadership is more highly associated )ith effecti"eness than transactional leadership. Their tests also suggest that leader 'eha"ior may 'e more important at lo)er organi(ational le"els than has 'een generally assumed 'y those )ho "ie) transformational leadership as primarily a means to 'e utili(ed only 'y senior management. It should 'e noted the authors also reported that transactional leadership is a necessary component of effecti"e management. 0ass and his colleagues found that although 'oth transactional and transformational leadership styles may 'oth ha"e positi"e effects+ transformational leadership+ particularly the charisma component+ had the highest association )ith positi"e outcomes. This has 'een demonstrated )ith "arious criteria including performance le"el+ 7o' satisfaction+ organi(ational commitment+ and citi(enship 'eha"ior /Sch)ar()ald+ Koslo)sky and &gassi+ %8816. Trust is a critical element in the successful implementation of transformational leadership /0ass and &"olio+ 1228D Kou(es 1 Posner+ %88, as cited 'y #han+ %8856. Research has pro"ided confirmation that trust in superiors and influence of superiors are predictors of 7o' performance and 7o' satisfaction /Boris+ Haught+ and Pettit+ %88, as cited 'y #han+ %8856. Research also found that found that trust affects 7o' satisfaction and 7o' performance /#unningham and @acBregor+ %888 as cited 'y #han+ %8856. Pre"ious research has associated trust in leaders )ith 7o' satisfaction+ 7o' performance+ and inno"ati"e 'eha"ior /Simmons+ Gelson+ 1 Geal+ %881D Tan 1 Tan+ %888 as cited 'y #han+ %8856.

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13

Han @aanen found that officers preferred to )ork for a station house sergeant 'ut the ma7ority of patrol officers had more respect for the street sergeant 'ecause of this type of super"isor*s )illingness to 'ack them up on calls and engage in pro:acti"e patrol )ork. He also found that patrol officer producti"ity and compliance )ith rules and directi"es )as significantly higher )hen )orking for a street sergeant than )ith a station house sergeant+ suggesting support for the effecti"eness of transformational style leadership /Han @aanen+ 123, 1 1235 as cited 'y <ohnson+ %8856. Han @aanen /123,+ p. %23 as cited 'y Engel+ %8886 descri'ed the street sergeant as 'eing -'oth admired and feared 'y their men. and therefore more likely to influence their su'ordinates* 'eha"ior. !nder Engel*s /%8816 four super"isory styles theory+ all four styles influenced su'ordinates to some degree 'ut the only leadership style that )as classified as a type of transformational leadership+ specifically the acti"e leadership style+ )as the most po)erful moti"ator for the leader*s police officers. Patrol officers )ho )orked for acti"e style super"isors )ere found to 'e significantly more likely to engage in proacti"e enforcement acti"ity /including traffic stops6 and community pro'lem sol"ing than patrol officers )orking for the other types of super"isors. &gain+ this e"idence speaks to the effecti"eness of the transformational leadership style /<ohnson+ %88?6. Engel asserts the acti"e super"isory style has a significant influence on the increased likelihood of patrol officer*s use of force. This disco"ery that officers )ith acti"e super"isors are more likely to use force is consistent )ith the hypothesis that super"isors )ith stronger super"isory styles )ould 'e more likely to s)ay their su'ordinates* 'eha"ior. Bi"en that acti"e super"isors are in the field )ith their su'ordinates more and ha"e e;pectations of aggressi"e la) enforcement+ it is only logical )hen it )as determined acti"e super"isors personally ha"e a higher le"el of use of force than other leadership styles. It may seem to the

Leadership Styles

12

su'ordinates that aggressi"e tactics may 'e tolerated and perhaps+ e"en e;pected+ 'y their super"isor )ith acti"e leadership styles. The author also indicates these officers ha"e higher arrest rates )hich may partially e;plain the higher rate of use of force. &dditionally+ the officers )ith acti"e super"isors spend much more time in self:initiated+ pro'lem:sol"ing and community: oriented acti"ities. Therefore Engels /%888 1 %8816 concludes these findings suggest the acti"e super"isors /i.e.+ the transformational leader6 ha"e the most influence o"er their patrol officers* 'eha"ior. @urphy and rudge /%8846 conclude that training for transformational leadership is

possi'le and can ha"e positi"e impact on organi(ations. & key is teaching leadership skills early in the leaders* careers and to 'e a continuous )ork in progress. &dditionally+ it )as noted the enhanced commitment to the organi(ational and increased performance )ere o'ser"ed in su'ordinates after transformational leadership training. leadership theory is a useful model in policing leadership. 0oerner+ Eisen'eiss and Briesser /%88A6 stated a positi"e relationship e;ists 'et)een transformational leadership and organi(ational performance as documented in pre"ious studies. They hypothesi(ed that transformational leaders increase their follo)ers* performance and enhance follo)ers* inno"ation. They also hypothesi(ed the same )ould not hold true for The authors assert transformation

transactional leaders. In their study of 21 leaders in 21 Berman companies+ their hypotheses )ere confirmed. In a series of studies+ 0ass /12356 disco"ered su'ordinates* satisfaction and effecti"eness ratings had higher correlations )ith the leader*s transformational 'eha"ior ratings than )ith transactional 'eha"ior ratings. 0ass also differentiated 'et)een mechanistic organi(ations and organic organi(ations. In mechanistic organi(ations+ the structure is rigid and formalD conformity

Leadership Styles

%8

rather than inno"ation is the norm. In organic organi(ations+ the structure and goals are fle;i'le+ mem'ers are educated and inno"ati"e+ and the climate is )arm and trusting. 0ass speculated transactional leadership is more likely to 'e utili(ed in mechanistic organi(ations and police forces are prime e;amples of mechanistic organi(ations. Police forces ha"e centrali(ed

authority+ set career paths and e"aluations and utili(e a hierarchical rank structure. Therefore+ 'ased on 0ass* speculation+ police forces* leadership styles should e;hi'it more transactional than transformational. Si;ty Ge) Lealand police officers )ere studied 'y Singer and Singer /%8816. It )as disco"ered the actual leader 'eha"ior )as significantly more transformational than transactional. &dditionally+ the officers had a preference for transformational leadership style o"er the transactional style. The researcher*s results ga"e 'road supports to the hypothesis that transformational leadership style is associated )ith higher le"el of su'ordinates* satisfaction. &nother study conducted 'y 0ass+ &"olio+ <ung+ and 0erson /%88,6 )as to e;amine ho) transactional and transformational leadership predicted performance in !.S &rmy units operating under conditions of high le"els of uncertainty+ challenge+ and stress. Leadership ratings )ere compiled from A% !.S. &rmy platoons during normal operational assignments. These leadership ratings )ere then used to predict the performance of the platoon units operating in a %:)eek simulation that )as designed to test the unit*s performance effecti"eness under high le"els of stress and uncertainty in order to e"aluate platoon performance in near:com'at conditions. Results sho) that the platoon leaders* transformational and transactional leadership each had positi"e and direct relationships )ith platoon performance. The researchers reported it seemed fair to say that it took 'oth acti"e transactional and transformational leadership to 'e successful in this performance conte;t.

Leadership Styles

%1

In a study of %5% @0& students+ transformational leadership )as associated )ith a higher le"el of team cohesi"eness as compared to transactional leadership. 0oth kno)ledge le"el and team cohesi"eness predict team performance+ particularly among men. $rom the o"erall results+ it appears that team cohesi"eness and kno)ledge )ere significant predictors of team performance. &lso+ as e;pected+ transformational leadership style )as associated )ith higher le"els of team cohesi"eness /Stashe"sky and Koslo)sky+ %88?6. @asi and #ooke /%8886 conducted a study of appro;imately %+588 !.S. &rmy personnel and found strong correlation 'et)een transformational leadership and moti"ation+ 'ut )eak correlation 'et)een transactional leadership and commitment to)ards the achie"ement of organi(ational outcomes. The study strongly supports that transformational leaders empo)er and moti"ate their su'ordinates+ )hile transactional leaders suppress 'oth commitment and producti"ity. It )as particularly note)orthy that Sil"estri /%88A6 stated the importance of a transformational style for the police organi(ation should not 'e underestimated. The past decade has )itnessed a rene)ed interest in the role of the police leader as supported 'y 0ritain*s creation of the Gational Police Leadership $aculty and the Police Leadership e"elopment

0oard /P LP6 in %881. The P LP has already endorsed the need for transformational leadership throughout the ser"ice and has commissioned learning and de"elopment packages for its chief officers+ )hich take into account the principles of transformational leadership. =hile there are fe) studies that sho) tangi'le e"idence of the effects of a transformational leadership style for the police organi(ation+ o''y and Tuffin*s /%8846 recent )ork does pro"ide some pro"isional

e"idence of the 'enefits of a MMtransformational approach. for impro"ing police performance. Police leaders )ho displayed MMtransformational 'eha"iors. in their study )ere found to ha"e a

Leadership Styles

%%

)ide a range of positi"e effects on their su'ordinates* attitudes to their )ork as )ell as increasing 'oth their 7o' satisfaction and their commitment to the organi(ation. ensten /12226

also emphasi(es the potential of a transformational approach )ith its capacity to MMalter the higher order needs of follo)ers 'y changing their attitudes+ 'eliefs and "alues** /p. 4?6. He goes on to stress that such 'eha"iors are important to police leaders as they MMcan directly influence rank and file officers and any process of change. In short+ the message is clearD masters of the use of participatory styles are also the masters of change. /p. 4?6. 0ass /12356 asserted that transformational leadership is more likely to appear in organi(ations )here mem'ers are highly educated and inno"ati"e+ goals and structures are unclear+ 'ut )armth and trust are highD )hile transactional leadership is most likely appear in organi(ations )here goals and structures are specific and )here mem'ers* )ork are e;tremely )ell:defined. 0ass /12286 theori(ed that transformational leaders are role models+ admired+ respected+ trusted+ confident+ determined+ persistent+ highly competent+ inno"ati"e+ and )illing to take risks. He added that transformational leaders also inspire their follo)ers through coaching+ mentoring+ support+ encouragement+ and challenge /as cited 'y #han %8856. 0y this e;planation 'y 0ass+ la) enforcement agencies )ould more likely make use of the transactional leadership style rather than transformational leadership style. This is particularly interesting due to other researchers emphasi(ing or highly suggesting that la) enforcement agencies )ould 'enefit 'y utili(ing the transformational theory of leadership.

V. Conclusion

Leadership Styles

%,

Sur"eys of 7o' satisfaction from the 12%8s on)ard ha"e uniformly reported that leaders can make a difference in their su'ordinates* satisfaction and performance. Employees* fa"ora'le attitudes to)ard their leaders had 'een reported as a contri'utor to their 7o' satisfaction as )ell as directly related to the producti"ity of )ork groups /0ass+ 1228 as cited 'y #han+ %8856. =hat leadership style should la) enforcement leaders employ to ma;imi(e follo)ers* 7o' performance> &lthough there is a lack of agreement in the re"ie)ed literature+ there appears to 'e gro)ing support in one theory. & re"ie) of the literature suggests that parts of the contingency theory of leadership underlying ground)ork is fla)ed and 'ased on assumptions. It )as also noted that despite the )ide use of the Situational Leadership @odel /SL@6 'y Hersey and 0lanchard /12AA6+ most studies ha"e 'een critical of the theory. In fact+ some studies ha"e sho)n a lo)er 7o'

performance 'y follo)ers of the leaders utili(ing the SL@. 0ass+ &"olio+ <ung and 0erson /%88,6 reported pre"ious research has sho)n transactional contingent re)ard style of leadership to 'e positi"ely related to follo)ers* commitment+ satisfaction+ and performance. In contrast+ the transactional management:'y:e;ception style of leadership is associated )ith the negati"e aspects of leadership 'eha"ior. =hile there are positi"e aspects of the transactional theory+ it has sho)n to ha"e inherent )eaknesses. &dditionally+ the theory may'e deficient in the long:term in that it does not readily a"ail itself to allo) for change )hich is increasingly important in today*s climate. ensten /12226 asserts that to meet the demands of modern organi(ations+ especially criminal 7ustice agencies+ the managers must implement more humanistic and principle:'ased styles of leadership. To respond to these demands+ the researcher 'elie"es that there is a need for the la) enforcement managers to apply transformational leadership to their agencies. The

Leadership Styles

%4

traditional style of management resting upon strict managerial rules needs to 'e transformed 'y a ne) process 'ased on di"erse skills+ interests+ and attitudes. This form of transformational leadership can 'e a "alua'le tool to help reform management )ithin police agencies. =ith a 'etter understanding of the needs and aspirations of police employees+ transformational leadership can turn traditional police managers into effecti"e and "alua'le leaders. Such a change can make police chiefs more competent and 'etter e9uipped to handle policing in a comple; and rapidly changing society. &s a result of glo'al technological and social alteration+ transformational leadership 'ecame necessary for 'oth pri"ate and pu'lic agencies+ particularly for those in paramilitary structures+ such as police agencies+ 'ecause interactions 'et)een super"isors and su'ordinates are more crucial than e"er /E(men+ %8826. 0ono and <udge /%88,6 concluded that

transformational leaders could influence ho) follo)ers percei"e their )ork acti"ities and that these perceptions resulted in an increase in the follo)ers* 7o' satisfaction+ commitment+ and performance. =hether called acti"e+ street sergeants+ etc.+ strong indications are that

transformational leaders affect their su'ordinates* 'eha"ior and effecti"eness more /<ohnson+ %88?6. In contrast to other researchers+ Engel concedes none of the four super"isory styles indentified in her research should 'e consider the ideal standard for police super"ision. It

should 'e noted the three of Engel*s styles identified in her research are transactional and one is transformational. There are pros and cons associated )ith each style. The appropriate style of leadership for departments )ould differ depending on the agency*s organi(ational goals /Engel+ %8816. This assessment is supported 'y #onger /%8846 )ho argued that transformational leadership is a principally normati"e model+ )hich takes a single approach to practicing

Leadership Styles

%5

leadership across le"els 'ut it does not considering situational contingencies /as cited 'y #han+ %8856. The study 'y 0ass+ &"olio+ <ung+ and 0erson /%88,6 of A% !.S. &rmy platoon*

performance in near:com'at conditions illustrated the platoon leaders* transformational and transactional leadership each had positi"e and direct relationships )ith platoon performance. Therefore this paper concludes there is a sufficient 9uantity of information )hich suggests the fla)ed contingency theory has lost popularity )ith practitioners as )ell as theorists. Transactional theory is to some e;tent effecti"e 'ut not necessarily the optimal theory. Transformational theory is the foremost leadership theory to optimi(e 7o' performance at this point of time. 0ut there is some e"idence in studies that hint that a 'lend of transactional and transformational theories of leadership may 'e the style of leadership to 'e e;amined further to optimi(e 7o' performance+ especially in military and para:military organi(ations such as la) enforcement agencies.

Leadership Styles References 0ass+ 0. @. /12356. Leadership and performance 'eyond e;pectation. Ge) Iork: $ree Press. 0ass+ 0. @.+ 1 &"olio+ 0. <. /12286. Transformational leadership de"elopment: @anual for the @ultifactor Leadership Nuestionnaire. Palo &lto+ #&: #onsulting Psychologists Press. 0ass+ 0. @.+ 1 &"olio+ 0. <. /122A6. $ull range leadership de"elopment: @anual for the @ultifactor Leadership Nuestionnaire. Red)ood #ity+ #&: @ind Barden. 0ass+ 0. @.+ &"olio+ 0. <.+ <ung+ . I.+ 1 0erson+ I. /%88,6. Predicting unit performance 'y assessing transformational and transactional leadership. <ournal of &pplied Psychology+ 33+ %8A:%13.

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Leadership Styles

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