Solid Mensuration - Chapter 1

RI CHARD T.
EARNHART
SOLID MENSURATION:
UNDERSTANDING THE 3D SPACE
Chapter I
Plane Figures
Richard T. Eanhart
Solid Mensuration: Understanding the 3D Space
Introduction
Point, line, and plane are undefined terms in geometry. Using these undefined
terms, other geometric figures are defined. Plane geometry is the study of
geometric figures that can be drawn on a two-dimensional surface called
plane. Figures that lie on a plane are called two-dimensional figures or simply
plane figures. This chapter deals with different plane figures, and their
properties, relations, and measurement. The most common plane figures are
the polygons.
Richard T. Eanhart
Solid Mensuration: Understanding the 3-D Space
Polygons
A polygon is a closed plane figure formed by line segments.
Parts of a Polygon 1. The side or edge of a polygon is one of the
line segments that make up the polygon.
Adjacent sides are pairs of sides that share
a common endpoint.
2. The vertices of a polygon are the end points
of each side of the polygon. Adjacent
vertices are endpoints of a side.
3. A diagonal of a polygon is a line segment
joining two non-adjacent vertices of the
polygon.
4. An interior angle is the angle formed by
two adjacent sides inside the polygon.
5. An exterior angle is an angle that is
adjacent to and supplementary to an interior
angle of the polygon.
Side or Edge
Vertex
Diagonal
Interior Angle
Exterior
Angle
A polygon may also be defined as a union of line
segments such that:
i) Each vertex is a common end point of two
adjacent line segments;
ii) no two adjacent line segments intersect except
at an endpoint; and
iii) no two segments with the same endpoint are
collinear.
Richard T. Eanhart
Types of Polygons
1. Equiangular Polygon
A polygon is equiangular if all of its angles are
congruent.
2. Equilateral Polygon
A polygon is equilateral if all of its sides are equal.
3. Regular polygon
Regular polygons are both equiangular and
equilateral.
4. Irregular Polygon
A polygon that is neither equiangular nor equilateral
is said to be an irregular polygon.
5. Convex Polygon
Every interior angle is less than 180. If a line is
drawn through the convex polygon, the line will
intersect at most two sides.
6. Concave Polygon
A concave polygon has at least one interior angle that
measures more than 180. If a line is drawn through a
concave polygon the line mat intersect more than two
sides.
An example of a convex polygon
An example of a concave polygon
Richard T. Eanhart
Naming Polygons
Polygons are named according to their number of sides. Generally, a polygon with n
sides is called an n-gon. To form the name of polygons with 13 to 99 sides, begin with
the prefix of the tens digit, followed by kai (the Greek word for and) and the prefix for
the units digit.
Number of Sides Name of Polygon
n n-gon
3 triangle or trigon
4 quadlerateral or tetragon
5 pentagon
6 hexagon
7 heptagon
8 octagon
9 nonagon or enneagon
10 decagon
11 undecagon or hendecagon
12 dodecagon
13 tridecagon or triskaidecagon
14 tetradecagon or tetrakaidecagon
15 pentadecagon or pentakaidecagon
Richard T. Eanhart
Number of Sides Name of Polygon
16 hexadecagon or hexakaidecagon
17 heptadecagon or heptakaidecagon
18 octadecagon or octakaidecagon
19 enneadecagon or enneakaidecagon
20 isosagon
30 triacontagon
40 tetracontagon
50 pentacontagon
60 hexacontagon
70 heptacontagon
80 octacontagon
90 enneacontagon
100 hectogon or hecatontagon
1,000 chiliagon
10,000 myriagon
10
8
megagon
10
100
googolgon
Richard T. Eanhart
Sides Prefix and Sides
(Ones Digit)
Suffix
20 icosi or
icosa
kai +
1 henagon
30 triaconta 2 digon
40 tetraconta 3 trigon
50 pentaconta 4 tetragon
60 hexaconta 5 pentagon
70 heptaconta 6 hexagon
80 octaconta 7 heptagon
90 enneaconta 8 octagon
9 enneagon
Richard T. Eanhart
For numbers from 100 to 999, form the name of the polygon by starting with the prefix
for the hundreds digit taken from the ones digit, affix the word hecta, then follow the rule
on naming polygons with 3 to 99 sides. However, one may use the form n-gon, as in 24-
gon for a polygon with 24 sides, instead of using the above method.
Example 1
A 54-sided polygon is called a pentacontakaitetragon.
50 and 4
pentaconta kai tetragon
Example 2
A 532-sided polygon is called a pentahectatriacontakaidigon.
500 30 and 2
pentahecta triaconta kai digon
Richard T. Eanhart
Similar Polygons
The ratio of two quantities is the quotient of one quantity divided by another quantity.
Note, however, that the two quantities must be of the same kind. For example, the ratio
of the measure of a side and an interior angle is meaningless because they are not
quantities of the same kind. A proportion is an expression of equality between two
ratios. That is, if two ratios a:b and c:d are equal, then the equation a/b=c/d is a
proportion. Thus, you can say that a and b are proportional to c and d.

Two polygons are similar if their corresponding interior angles are congruent and their
corresponding sides are proportional. Similar polygons have the same shape but differ in
size.
Richard T. Eanhart
Consider the similar polygons below.
y
1

y
2

x
1

x
2

A
1

A
2

The following relations between the two polygons are obtained using the
concept of ratio and proportion:
1. The ratio of any two corresponding sides of similar polygons are equal.
2
1
2
1
y
y
x
x
=
Richard T. Eanhart
2. The ratio of the areas of similar polygons is the square of the ratio of any two
corresponding sides.
2
2
1
2
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
x
x
A
A
3. The ratio of the perimeters of similar polygons is equal to the ratio of any of
any two corresponding sides.
2
1
2
1
x
x
P
P
=
Richard T. Eanhart
Properties of a Regular Polygon
A regular polygon of n sides can be subdivided into n congruent isosceles
triangles, whose base is a side of the polygon. The common vertex of these
triangles is the center of the polygon.
s
a
/2
Perimeter

To find a perimeter of a polygon, add the lengths of the sides of the polygon.
Since regular polygons are equilateral, the formula in finding the perimiter
of a regular polygon is
P = ns,

Where n is the number of sides and s is the length of each side.
Richard T. Eanhart
Central Angle

The angle that is opposite a side of a regular polygon is a central angle of the
polygon. It is the angle formed by two lines drawn from the center of the polygon to two
adjacent vertices. Regular polygons are equiangular. Thus, the measure of each angle is
given by
n
360
= u
Apothem

The altitude of the isosceles triangles that can be formed from a regular polygon is the
apothem of the regular polygon. The apothem bisects the central angle and its opposite
side. Thus, we can compute for the apothem as follows:
a
s
n
2
2
360
tan
2
tan
=
=

u
2
s
a
2
u
Solving for a,
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
n
s
a

180
tan 2
Richard T. Eanhart
Interior Angle

In each isosceles triangle, the measure of the base angles can be denoted by , and
each interior angle of the regular polygon by 2. Thus, the measure of each interior angle
is solved as follows:
( )
n
n
n
2 180
360
180
180 2
=
=
= u
u

Thus,
( )
n
n
A I
2 180
. .

=

Richard T. Eanhart
Sum of Interior Angles

Since the number of sides equals the number of interior angles, then the sum of
interior angles is n times the measure of the interior angle. Hence,
( ) 2 180 . . = n A I S

Diagonal

From any given vertex of a regular polygon, a diagonal is drawn from the
vertex to a non-adjacent vertex. This means that you can construct a diagonal
from each vertex of a polygon with n sides in n 3 ways. Since there are n
vertices and each diagonal has two end points, you can do this in only
2
ways.
Thus, the total number of distinct diagonals of a regular polygon is
=
2
( 3)
Richard T. Eanhart
Area

Area is the amount of two dimensional space that a plane figure occupies. To
get the area of a regular polygon, multiply the area of the isosceles triangle by
the number of triangles formed, or =
2
()().
Note that this is the same as one half of the product of its perimeter and its
apothem. In general, the formula of a regular polygon is given by
=
1
2
Pa
The formula for area of a regular polygon can be expressed in terms of its
number of sides and the measure of one side as follows:
=
1
2

=
1
2
2
180
2
4
180

Richard T. Eanhart
Example 3
Find the area of a regular nonagon whose sides measure 3 units. Determine the
number of distinct diagonals that can be drawn from each vertex and the sum
of its interior angles.

Solution:

A nonagon is a 9-sided polygon. Thus, n = 9. Given s = 3, solve as follows:

Area of the polygon:
=
2
4
180

=
9(3)
2
4
180
9

=55.64 square units
Number of diagonals:
=
2
3
=
9
2
(9 3)
= 27
Sum of interior angles:
. . . = 180 2
= 180(9 2)
= 1,260
Richard T. Eanhart
Exercises
1. Use the diagram below to answer questions (a) to (d)
A
a) Is the polygon convex or concave?
b) How many diagonals can be drawn from vertex A?
c) How many sides does the polygon have?
d) What is the name of the polygon
Richard T. Eanhart
2. Use the diagram below to answer questions (a) to (d)
A
a) Is the polygon convex or concave?
b) How many diagonals can be drawn from vertex A?
c) How many sides does the polygon have?
d) What is the name of the polygon
Richard T. Eanhart
3. Find the measure of an interior angle of a regular tridecagon.
4. That is the measure of an interior angle of a regular pentacontakaitrigon?
5. Find the sum of the interior angles of a regular trcontakaitetragon.
6. What is the sum of the interior angle of a regular icosagon?
7. Name each polygon with the given number of sides. Also, find the number of
diagonal of each polygon.
a) 24
b) 181
c) 47
d) 653
8. Name each polygon with the given number of sides.
a) 39
b) 127
c) 821
d) 86
9. How many sides does each polygon have?
a) Icosikaihenagon
b) Enneacontakaidigon
c) Octahectatetracontakaiheptagon
Richard T. Eanhart
10. How many sides does each polygon have? How many distinct diagonals can be
drawn from a vertex of each polygon?
a) Trihectatriacontakaitrigon
b) Pentacontakaioctagon
c) Heptacontakaiheptagon
11. The number of diagonals of a regular polygon is 35. Find the area of the
polygon if its apothem measures 10 centimiters
12. The number of diagonals a regular polygon is 65. Find the perimiter of the
polygon if its apothem measures 8 inches.
13. The Sum of the interior angles of a regular polygon is 1,260. Find the area of
the polygon if its perimeter is 45 centimeters.
14. The measure of an interior angle of a regular polygon is 144. Find the
apothem if one side of the polygon measures 5 units.
15. Find the number of sides of each of the two polygons if the total number of
sides of the polygons is 13, and the sum of the number of diagonals of the
polygons is 25.
16. Find the number of sides of each of the two polygons if the total number of
sides of the polygons is 15, and the sum of the number of diagonals of the
polygon is 36.
17. What is the name of a regular polygon that has 90 diagonals?
18. What is the name of a regular polygon that has 135 diagonals?
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19. Find the number of diagonals of a regular polygon whose interior angle
measures 144
20.Find the sum of the interior angles and the number of diagonals of a regular
polygon whose central angle measures 6.
21. The ratio of areas between two similar triangles is 1:4. If one side of the smaller
triangle is 2 units, find the measure of the corresponding side of the other
triangle.
22. One side of a polygon measures 10 units. If the measure of the corresponding
side of a similar polygon is 6 units, find the ratio of their areas. What is the
area of the larger polygon if the area of the smaller polygon is 12 square units?
23. A regular hexagon A has the midpoints of its edges joined to form a smaller
hexagon B. This process is repeated by joining the midpoints of the edges of
hexagon B to get a third hexagon C. What is the ration of the area of hexagon C
to the area of hexagon A?
24. What is the ratio of the area of hexagon B to the area of hexagon A in number
23?
25. If ABCDE is a regular pentagon and diagonals EB and AC intersect at O, then
what is the degree measure of angle EOC?
Richard T. Eanhart
Triangles
The most fundamental subset of polygons is the set of triangles. Although triangles
are polygons with the least number of sides, these polygons are widely used in the
field of mathematics and engineering. In this section, some important formulas
which are used extensively in solving geometric problems will be introduced.
Classification of Triangles According to Sides
1. Equilateral a triangle with three congruent sides and three congruent
angles. Each angle measures 60.
2. Isosceles a triangle with two congruent sides and two congruent angles.
3. Scalene a triangle with no congruent sides and no congruent angles.
60
60
60
Equilateral
Isosceles

Scalene
Richard T. Eanhart
Classifications of Triangles According to Angles
1. Right a triangle with a right angle (90 angle).
2. Oblique a triangle with no right angle.
a) Acute a triangle with three acute angles (less than 90)
b) Equiangular a triangle with three congruent angles. Each angle
measures 60.
c) Obtuse a triangle with one obtuse angle (more than 90 but less than
180
Congruent Triangles

The word congruent is derived from the Latin word congruere which means
agree. Two triangles are congruent when they have the same shape and size.
Congruent triangles can be made to coincide part by part. Corresponding parts of
congruent triangles are congruent. The symbol for congruence is
Richard T. Eanhart
Similar Triangles

Two triangles are similar if their corresponding sides are proportional. Similar
triangles have the same shape but differ in size. Look at the similar triangles
below.
a
1

a
2

b
1

b
2

c
1

c
2

Since the two triangles are similar, then the relations that exist between two
similar polygons also hold. Thus, it follows that:
a)
2
=
2
=
1

b)
2
=
2
2
=
2
2
=
2
2

c)
2
=
2
=
2
=
1

Richard T. Eanhart
Parts of a Triangle
A triangle has three possible bases and three possible vertices. Any of the three
sides of a triangle may be considered as the base of the triangle. The angle
opposite the base is called vertex angle. The two angles adjacent to the base are
called base angles.

A line segment drawn from a vertex perpendicular to the opposite side is called
altitude. The point of intersection of the altitudes of a triangle is called
orthocenter. A median of a triangle is the line segment connecting the
midpoint of a side and the opposite vertex. The centroid is the point of
intersection of the medians of a triangle. An angle bisector divides an angle of
the triangle into two congruent angles and has endpoints on a vertex and the
opposite side. The point of intersection of the angle bisectors of a triangle is
called incenter.
Orthocenter
Incenter
Centroid
Altitudes
Medians
A
C B
B/2
B/2 C/2
A/2
A/2
C/2
Angle Bisectors
Richard T. Eanhart
A perpendicular bisector of a side of a triangle divides the side into two
congruent segments and is perpendicular to the side. The circumcenter is the
point of intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle. The
Euler line is the line which contains the orthocenter, centroid, and circumcenter of a
triangle. The centroid is located between the orthocenter and the circumcenter.
However, in an equilateral triangle, the centroid, circumcenter, incircle, and
orthocenter are coincident.
Circumcenter
Perpendicular Bisectors
Orthocenter
Circumcenter
Centroid
Euler Line
Richard T. Eanhart
Properties of Triangle Centers

1. Orthocenter The orthocenter is not always in the interior of the triangle. In
an obtuse triangle, the two sides of the obtuse angle and the corresponding
altitudes are extended to meet at a point outside the triangle. In a right triangle,
the orthocenter is on a vertex of the triangle.
2. Centroid The centroid is known as the center of mass of the triangle. Unlike
the orthocenter, the centroid is always inside the triangle and for right, isosceles
and equilateral triangles, the centroid is located one-third of the altitude from
the base.
3. Incenter The incenter is the center of the largest circle that can be inscribed
in the triangle.
4. Circumcenter The circumcenter is the center of the circle circumscribing a
triangle. It is not always inside the triangle. The vertices of the triangle lie on
the circle and are equidistant from the circumcenter.
Richard T. Eanhart
Altitude, Median, and Angle Bisector Formulas

Consider an arbitrary triangle with sides a, b, and c, and angles A, B, and C/ Let h
c
,
m
c
and I
c
be the lengths of the altitude, median, and angle bisector from vertex C,
respectively. Then,
=
(;)(;)(;)
2
,
C
A B
b a
c
h
c
Altitude:
Where s is the semi-perimeter of the triangle and =
::
2
,
C
A
B
b
a
c
m
c
Median:
Angle Bisector:
=
1
2
2
2
+ 2
2

2

=
+
2

2
+

C
A
B
b
a
c
m
c
Richard T. Eanhart
Facts About Triangles

1. The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is always greater than the
third side. The difference between the lengths of any two sides is always less the
third side of a triangle.
2. The sum of the measures of the interior angles of a triangle is 180.
3. Two equiangular triangles are similar.
4. Two triangles are similar if their corresponding sides are parallel. Two triangles
are similar if their corresponding sides are perpendicular.
5. In any right triangle, the longest side opposite the right angle is called
hypotenuse.
6. If any two sides of a right triangle are given, the third side can be obtained by the
Pythagorean Theorem c
2
=a
2
+b
2
.
7. Two triangles are equal if the measures of the two sides and the included angle
of one triangle are equal to the measures of the two sides and the included angle
of the other triangle.
8. The line segment which joins the midpoints of two sides of a triangle is parallel
to the third side and equal to one-half the length of the third side.
9. In any triangle, the longest side is opposite the largest angle, and the shortest
side is opposite the smallest angle.
Richard T. Eanhart
10. The altitude h to the hypotenuse c of a right
triangle divides the triangle into two similar
triangles. Each of the triangles formed by this
altitude is similar to the original triangle.

11. Each leg of a right triangle is the geometric
mean between the hypotenuse and the
projection of the leg on the hypotenuse.
h
x
c - x
a
p
c
=
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Formulas for the Area of the Triangle

In general, the area of any triangle is one-half the product of its base and
its altitude.
=
1
2

To solve for the area of a triangle given the measures of two sides and an
included angle, use the SAS formula.
SAS (Side-Angle-Side) Formula
=
1
2

a
b

The area of a triangle is one-half the product of any two sides and
the sine of their included angle.
Richard T. Eanhart
When the measure of the three sides of a triangle are given, the area of the
triangle is determined by Herons Formula.
Herons Formula or SSS (Three Sides) Formula:
= ( )( )( ),
C
A
B
b
a
c
Where =
::
2
is called the semi-perimeter.
Richard T. Eanhart
Example 4

The measures of the three sides of a triangle are AB = 30 in., AC = 50 in., and BC =
60in.. From a point D on side AB, a line DE is drawn through a point E on side AC
such that angle AED is equal to angle ABC. If the perimeter of the triangle ADE is
equal to 56 in., find the sum of the lengths of line segments BD and CE.
Solution:

Draw the figure and label the parts with the given measures.
B
A E
D
C
60

30
50
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The perimeter of triangle ABC is P = 30 + 60 + 50 = 140 in. Notice that
triangle ABC and triangle ADE are similar triangles since ABC AED and BAC
DAE. Thus, the ratio of their perimeters is equal to the ratio of any of their
corresponding sides.
56
140
=
50
= 20

56
140
=
30
= 12
= 30 = 50
= 30 20 = 50 12
= 10 = 38
Hence, BD + EC = 10 + 38 = 48 in.
Richard T. Eanhart
Example 5
Derive formulas for the height and area of an equilateral triangle with
side s.

Solution:
In an equilateral triangle, the altitude divides the triangle into two
congruent right triangles. Thus, by the Pythagorean Theorem,
60
s
h

2

=
2
2
2

=
3
2

Since each interior angle measures 60, use the SAS formula to find the
area of the triangle.
=
1
2
2
sin 60
=
1
2
2
3
2

=
3
4
2

Richard T. Eanhart
Example 6
If one side of a triangle is 20 units and the perimeter is 72 units, what is
the maximum area that the triangle can have?
Solution:
Imagine the side of the length 20 units as the base of the triangle. Thus,
the sum of the lengths of the other two sides is P 20 = 52 units. Since the area of
the triangle is maximum when the height is also maximum, the triangle is isosceles
and the two sides measure 26 units each. By Pythagorean Theorem,
= 26
2
10
2
= 24
Hence, the area is
=
1
2

=
1
2
20 24
= 240
26
h

10
26
10
Richard T. Eanhart
Example 7
Derive the formula for the median of triangle ABC drawn from vertex C to
side AB using the Cosine Law.
Solution:
Draw and label the triangle.
by the Cosine Law, you get:
2
=
2
+
2
2 cos
2
=
2
+
2
2 cos
C
A
B
b a
2

Adding the two equations yields the identity
= cos + cos (1)
Apply the Cosine Law to each of the triangles formed by the median to get:
2
=
2
+
2
2
2
2
cos
cos =
2
:
2
4
;
2
(2)

2
=
2
+
2
2
2
2
cos
cos =
2
:
2
4
;
2
(3)
Richard T. Eanhart
Substituting equations 2 and 3 in equation 1 yields

=
2
:
2
4
;
2
2
:
2
4
;
2

Solving for m, you get

=
1
2
2
2
+ 2
2

2

Richard T. Eanhart
EXERCISES
1. Is it possible to form a triangle with sides 20, 30, and 50 units? Explain.
2. Is it possible to form a triangle with sides 2, 4, and 8 units? Justify your answer.
3. Find the altitude and the area of an equilateral triangle whose side is 8 cm long.
4. One side of an isosceles triangle whose perimeter is 42 units measures 10 units.
Find the area of the triangles
5. Find the area of an equilateral if its altitude is 5 cm.
6. The ratio of the base of an isosceles triangle to its altitude is 3:4. Find the
measures of the angles of the triangle.
7. The base of an isosceles triangle and the altitude drawn from one of the
congruent sides are equal to 18 cm and 15 cm, respectively. Find the length of
the sides of the triangle.
8. Two altitudes of an isosceles triangle are equal to 20 cm and 30 cm. Determine
the possible measures of the base angles of the triangle.
9. In a right triangle, the bisector of the right angle divides the hypotenuse in the
ratio of 2 is to 5. Determine the measures of the acute angles of the triangle.
10. The area of a triangle is equal to 48 cm
2
and two of its sides measure 12 cm and
9 cm, respectively. Find the possible measures of the included angles of the
given sides.
11. The lengths of the sides of a triangle are in the ratio 17:10:9. Find the lengths of
the three sides if the area of the triangle is 576 cm
2
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12. Find the area of a triangle if its two sides measure 6 in. and 9 in., and the
bisector of the angle between the sides is 4 3 in.
13. In an acute triangle ABC, an altitude AD is drawn. Find the area of triangle ABC
if AB = 15 in., AC = 18 in., and BD = 10 in.
14. In a right triangle, a line perpendicular to the hypotenuse drawn from the
midpoint of one of the sides divides the hypotenuse into segments which are 10
cm and 6 cm long. Find the lengths of the two sides of the triangle.
15. Given triangle ABC whose sides are AB = 15 in., AC = 25 in., and BC = 30 in.
From a point D on side AB, a line DE is drawn to a point E on side AC such that
angle ADE is equal to angle ABC. If the perimeter of triangle ADE is 28 in., find
the lengths of line segments BD and CE.
16. Suppose that AD, BC, AC and BD are line segments with
line AD parallel to line BC as shown in the figure on the
right. If AD = 3 units, BC = 1 unit, and the distance from
AD to BC is 5 units, find the altitude of the smaller
triangle.
A
3
D
B
1
5
C
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17. What is the sum of the areas of the two triangles formed in number 16?
2

A
C
E
B
D
F
18. If is equilateral,

=
1
3
,
=
1
3
,
and
=
1
3
. Find the ratio of the area of
to the shaded area.
19. In triangle ABC, E is the midpoint of AC and D is the midpoint of CB. If DF is
parallel to BE, find the length of side AB.
A
B
C
D
E
F
3
4
5
Richard T. Eanhart
20. The measure of the base of an isosceles triangle is 24 cm, and one of its sides is
20 cm long. Find the distance between the centroid and the vertex opposite the
base.

21. The two sides of a triangle are 17 cm and 28 cm long, and the length of the
median drawn to the third side is equal to 19.5 cm. Find the distance from an
endpoint of this median to the longest side.
Richard T. Eanhart
QUADRILATERALS

A quadrilateral, also known as tetragon or quadrangle, is a general term
for a four-sided polygon. There are six types of quadrilaterals. They are square,
parallelogram, rectangle, rhombus, trapezoid, and trapezium. Each type of
quadrilateral has unique properties that make it distinct from other types. A square
is the most unique quadrilateral because it possess all those unique properties.
The common parts of a quadrilateral are described as follows:
1. Side A side is a line segment which joins any two adjacent vertices.
2. Interior angle An interior angle is the angle formed between two adjacent
sides.
3. Height or Altitude It is the distance between two parallel sides of a
quadrilateral.
4. Base This is the side that is perpendicular to the altitude.
5. Diagonal This is the line segment joining any two non-adjacent vertices.
Richard T. Eanhart
Classification of Quadrilaterals
The classification of quadrilaterals is based on the number of pairs of its
parallel sides as shown in the figure below.
Quadrilateral
Parallelogram
Rectangle
Square
Rhombus
Trapezoid Trapezium
Classifications of Quadrilaterals

Parallelogram has two pairs of parallel sides.
Trapezoid has only one pair of parallel sides.
Trapezium does not have any pair of parallel
sides.
Rectangle, rhombus, and square are special
types of parallelograms.
Richard T. Eanhart
General Formulas for the Area of Quadrilaterals
Consider the quadrilateral below.
A
B
C
D
a
b
c
d
e
1

e
2

There are several useful formulas
for the area of a planar convex quadrilateral
in terms of sides a, b, c, and d, and diagonal
lengths e
1
and e
2
. Among them are the
following:
=
1
2
2
sin ,
Formula 1: where is the angle formed between e
1
and e
2
.
Formula 2:
=
1
4
2
+
2

2

2
tan ,
where the four sides are labeled
such that a
2
+ c
2
> b
2
+ d
2
.
Formula 3:
= cos
2
1
2
+ ,
where s is the semi-perimeter and angles A and C are any two opposite angles of
the quadrilateral.
Note that in Formulas 1 and 2, sin = sin(180 ) and tan = tan(180 .
Thus, you can choose the other angle formed by the two diagonals without affecting
the area of the quadrilateral.
Richard T. Eanhart
PARALLELOGRAM
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral in which the opposite sides are
parallel. The figure below illustrates an example of a parallelogram.
A B
C
D
b (base)
h (height)
Parallelograms have the following important properties:
1. Opposite sides are equal.
2. Opposite interior angles are congruent (e.g., ).
3. Adjacent angles are supplementary (e.g., + = 180 ).
4. A diagonal divides the parallelogram into two congruent triangles (e.g.,
).
5. The two diagonals bisect each other.
Richard T. Eanhart
Diagonals of a Parallelogram
If sides a and b, and the angle are given, then by the Cosine Law, the
diagonal may be obtained by the equation:
2
=
2
+
2
2 cos
A B
C
D
h
a
b
d

a
h

If any two parts of the parallelogram are given, the relationship among a, h, and
may be obtained from the right triangle. Using the other angle 180 , the
second diagonal may be obtained by the same formula.
Richard T. Eanhart
Perimeter of a Parallelogram

Opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal. Thus, its perimeter is given by
= 2 + 2
Area of a Parallelogram
The area of a parallelogram can be obtained by any of the following
formulas:
Formula 1:
where b is the length of the base, and h is the height.
= ,
Formula 2: = sin
where a and b are the lengths of the sides of the parallelogram and is any interior
angle.
In problems involving area of a parallelogram, one will have to find the
height h or the angle using the right triangle containing the parts a, h, and . Since
a diagonal divides the parallelogram into two congruent triangles, the area of the
parallelogram is twice the area of one of the two triangles. Thus, if two sides a and
b, and an angle are given, you can obtain the area using SAS formula. The area of
the parallelogram is determined by = 2
1
2
sin = sin . Note theta the
angle is any interior angle since = 180
Richard T. Eanhart
Kinds of Parallelogram
The next three quadrilaterals that will be discussed-rectangles, rhombuses,
and squares-are all special types of parallelograms. You can classify each shape
depending on the congruent sides and angles. Given a shape, you can work
backwards to find out its sides or angles. Coordinate geometry is an effective way to
measure the angles and the sides
RECTANGLE
A rectangle is essentially a parallelogram in which the interior angles are
all right angles. Since a rectangle is a parallelogram, all of the properties of a
parallelogram also hold for a rectangle. In addition to these properties, the
diagonals of a rectangle are equal. However, the sides are not necessarily all equal.
A B
C D
h
b
Richard T. Eanhart
Diagonals of a Rectangle
A diagonal of a rectangle cuts the rectangle into two congruent right
triangles. In the figure on page 26, the diagonal AC divides the rectangle ABCD into
congruent right triangles ADC and ABC. Since the diagonal of the rectangle forms
right triangles that include the diagonal and two sides of the rectangle, one can
always compute for the third side with the use of the Pythagorean Theorem, if any
two of these parts are given. Thus, the diagonal d=AC may be determined using the
equation
=
2
+
2

Perimeter of a Rectangle
The perimeter is the sum of the four sides. Thus,
= 2 + 2.
Area of a Rectangle
If b is the length of the base and h is the height, then the formula for the
area of a rectangle is
A=bh
Richard T. Eanhart
SQUARE
A square is a special type of a rectangle in which all the sides are equal.
Since all sides and interior angles are equal, a square is classified as a regular
polygon of four sides.
a
d
a
Diagonal of a Square
The steps in finding the diagonal of a square is similar to the steps used in
a rectangle. Thus, =
2
+
2
= 2, where a is the length of one side of the
square.
where a is the length of one side of the square.
= 2
Note that, if the length of the diagonal is given, one can always compute for the
length of the sides of the square using the same formula.
Richard T. Eanhart
Perimeter of a Square

Since all the sides of a square are equal, it is also possible to provide a
simple formula for the perimeter of the square. Thus, the simplified form of the
perimeter is
= 4
Area of a square

The formula for the area of a square is given by
=
2
.
Richard T. Eanhart
RHOMBUS

A rhombus is a parallelogram in which all sides are equal.
b
d
1

d
2

h
A rhombus may also be defined as an
equilateral parallelogram. The terms
rhomb and diamond are sometimes
used instead of rhombus. A rhombus with
an interior angle of 45 is sometimes called
a lozenge.
The Diagonal of a Rhombus
Just like the square, the diagonals of a
rhombus are perpendicular bisectors.
Thus, the angles formed by the diagonals
measure 90 and the length of each side of
the rhombus is given by =
1
2
2
+
2
2
2

b
1
2

2

h

2
2

Richard T. Eanhart
Also, the diagonals of the rhombus are angle bisectors of the vertices. By
the Cosine Law, the diagonals may be obtained in a similar manner like that of a
parallelogram. Thus,
1
2
= 2
2
1
2
2
= 2
2
1 +
and
One can also verify that the angle opposite the shorter diagonal d
1
, may be obtained
by the formula
= 2
;1
2
.
where d
2
is the longer diagonal and is the angle opposite the shorter diagonal.
The Perimeter of a Rhombus

If b is the measure of one side of a rhombus, then the perimeter is given by
= 4.
Richard T. Eanhart
Area of a Rhombus

The area of a rhombus may be determined by any of the following ways:
The area is one-half the product of its two diagonals.

=
1
2
2

Note that this expression follows from Formula 1 for the area of
quadrilateral, where =90

Since a rhombus is a parallelogram, the area is also the product of the
base times the height.
=
The area is twice the area of one of the two congruent triangles formed by
one of its diagonals. This is the same method used in finding the area of a
parallelogram.
=
2

Richard T. Eanhart
TRAPEZOID

A trapezoid is a quadrilateral with one pair of parallel sides.
a
b

h

In the trapezoid shown above, the parallel sides a and b are called bases and h is the
height or the perpendicular distance between the two bases. If the non-parallel sides
are congruent, the trapezoid is called an isosceles trapezoid. The base angles of
an isosceles trapezoid are also congruent. One can observe that the relationship
among the sides, height, and base angles of an isosceles trapezoid may be obtained
from the right triangle formed by constructing a line from one vertex perpendicular
to the opposite side (lower base).
Richard T. Eanhart
A trapezoid which contains two right angles is called a right trapezoid. The
trapezoid on the right is an example of a right trapezoid.
a
b-a
h
b
Area of a Trapezoid
The area of a trapezoid is equal to the product of the mean of the bases
and the height. In symbols, the area is given by the formula
=
1
2
+ h.
The median of a trapezoid is the line segment parallel to and midway between the
bases of the trapezoid. Thus, =
:
2
and A=mh.
Richard T. Eanhart
TRAPEZIUM

A trapezium is a quadrilateral with no parallel sides. In finding the area
of a trapezium, you may use any of the three formulas for the area of a quadrilateral.
Example 8

Find the area and perimeter of a square whose diagonal is 15 units long.
a
a
15
First find the length of a side of the square
using the formula = 2. Thus, the
measure of the side of the square is
=
15 2
2
units.
Therefore, the area is A=112.5 square units and the perimeter is = 30 2, or 42.43
units.
Richard T. Eanhart
Example 9
The side of a square is x meters. The midpoints of its sides are joined to
form another square whose area is 16 m
2
. Find the value of x and the area of the
portion of the bigger square that is outside the smaller square.
Solution:

Let y be the measure of one side of the inscribed square. Since you know
that the area of the inscribed square is
2
, the value of y is 4. In triangle ABC,
4
2
= (
2
)
2
+ (
2
)
2

Which yields x = 4 2 .
A
B
C
2

The difference between the areas of the two squares is the area calculated as follows:
Required Area = 32 16 = 16
2

You can actually compute for the area by symmetry on the two figures
knowing that the area of the bigger square is twice the area of the smaller one which
is 2(16)= 32. The difference of their areas would still be 16
2
.
Richard T. Eanhart
Example 10

If ABCD is a rhombus, AC=4, and ADC is an equilateral triangle, what is
the area of the rhombus?

Solution:
If ADC is an equilateral triangle, the then length of a side of the rhombus is
4, and angle ADC is 60.

Thus, the area of the rhombus is
= 2
= 2
1
2
4 4 60
= 8 3
13.86
A
B
C D
4
Richard T. Eanhart
Example 11
Find the diagonal of the rectangle inscribed in the isosceles right triangle
shown in the figure if the upper two vertices of the rectangle lie at the midpoints of
the two legs of the triangle.
A
B
C
D E
F G
12m
Solution:
In triangle ABC,

12
= 45
AB= 8.49m

Since E is the midpoint of BC,
BE = BD = EC =
2
= 4.24m
Hence, AD = BD = 4.24m.
DE =
1
2
=
1
2
12 = 6

In triangle EGC,
4.24
= 45, which gives

EG = 3m (height of rectangle)

Hence, the diagonal of the rectangle is
DG= 6
2
+ 3
2
= 6.71m
Richard T. Eanhart
Example 12
Find the area and the perimeter of the right trapezoid shown in the figure.
8
11
60
Solution:
To find the area, draw the height of the trapezoid such that a right triangle
is formed as shown in the figure below. The length of the base and the height of this
triangle are 3 and h, respectively, where:
h = 3 tan 60 = 5.2 units
and z =
3
cos 60
= 6
Thus, the area and the perimeter
of the trapezoid are:
=
1
2
+ =
1
2
8 + 11 5.2
= 49.4
P= sum of all sides
P= 8 + 11 + 5.2 + 6 = 30.2 units
8
3
60
8
h h
z
Richard T. Eanhart
Example 13
A vacant lot has the shape of a trapezium with sides 8m, 12m, 18m, and
20m. If the sum of the opposite angles is 230, find the area of the lot.
8
12
20
18
2

Solution:
Referring to the figure to the right,
compute:
1
:
2
2
=
230
2
= 115

The semi-perimeter is
=
:::
2
=
8:12:18:20
2
= 29.
Therefore, the area of the trapezium is

=
2
(
1
:
2
2
)

= 29 8 29 12 29 18 29 20 8(12)(18)(20)
2
[115]

= 170.8
2

Richard T. Eanhart
Example 14
If the sides of the parallelogram and an included angle are 8m, 12m, and
120, respectively. Find the length of the shorter diagonal and the area of the
parallelogram.

Solution:
In the figure shown on the right,
= 180 120 = 60.
By Cosine law,

2
= 8
2
+ 12
2
2 8 12 60
= 4 7m
In triangle CDE,
8
= 60
= 4 3
6.93
Therefore, the area of the parallelogram is
=
= 12 4 3
= 48 3
83.14
2

Alternative Solution:
= 2
= 2
1
2
8 12 60 = 48 3
2

A
B C
D E
d
120
8

h
Richard T. Eanhart
Example 15
Verify the area of the parallelogram in example 14 using the three general formulas for the area of
quadrilaterals.

Solution:
Referring to the previous example, obtain the following results:

1
= = 4 7

2
= = 8
2
+12
2
2 8 12 120 = 4 19

By Cosine Law,
8
2
= (
4 7
2
)
2
+ (
4 19
2
)
2
2
4 7
2
4 19
2

= 64.31
where
1
and
2
are the two diagonals, and the acute angle is the included angle between these two
diagonals.
Formula 1: The area of the parallelogram is
=
1
2
2
=
1
2
4 7 4 19 64.31
= 83.14
2

Formula 2: With a=c=12 and b=d=8, then
=
1
4
2
+
2

2
2
||
=
1
4
12
2
+12
2
8
2
8
2
|tan64.31|
= 83.14
2

Formula 3: With semi-perimeter s=20, obtain:
= (20 8)
2
(20 12)
2
(8
2
)(12
2
)
2
[
1
2
60 +60 ]
= 83.14
2

Richard T. Eanhart
Example 16
A trapezoid has an area of 144
2
and altitude of 4m. Its two bases have a
ratio of 4:5. What are the lengths of the bases in meters? What is the perimeter of
the trapezoid?

Solution:
The area of the trapezoid is:
144 =
1
2
+ 4 (E1)
The sides ratio is:
=
4
5

=
5
4
(E2)

Substituting (E2) into (E1), = 32; 2 , = 40.
Now, to determine the perimeter, you only need to know the length of c, In
triangle QRS, =
;
2
= 4

By Pythagorean Theorem,
=
2
+
2

= 4
2
+ 4
2

= 4 2
Thus, the perimeter is
= 40 + 32 + 2 4 2
= 83.31
Q a
S
c
c
x
h=4
R
Richard T. Eanhart
Example 17
The area of a rhombus is 143
2
. If the longer diagonal is 26m, find the angle opposite
the shorter diagonal and the length of one side of the rhombus.

Solution:
In the figure shown, you can compute for the length of the shorter diagonal based on
the area of the rhombus. Thus, solve as follows:

=
1
2
2

143 =
1
2
1
26

1
= 11
Since the diagonal of a rhombus are perpendicular bisectors, the four triangles formed
by these diagonals are congruent right triangles.

Thus, in one of these triangles, you can get the length of side x and the interior angle
as show below.
tan
2
=
2

= 2
;1
2

= 45.86
The length of side x may be computed using the Pythagorean Theorem.
= (
1
2
)
2
+ (
2
2
)
2
= (
11
2
)
2
+ (
26
2
)
2
= 14.12 m
x
x
2

Richard T. Eanhart
EXERCISES

1. The diagonal of a rectangle is 25 meters long and makes an angle of 36 with one
side of the rectangle. Find the area and the perimeter of the parallelogram.
2. Determine the area of a rectangle whose diagonal is 24cm and the angle between
the diagonals is 60.
3. A side of a square is 16 inches. The midpoints of its sides are joined to form an
inscribed square. Another square is drawn in such a way that its vertices would
lie also at the midpoints of the sides of the second square. This process is
continued infinitely. Find the sum of the areas of these infinite squares.
4. A rectangle and square have the same area. If the length of the side of the square
is 6 units and the longest side of the rectangle is 5 more than the measure of the
shorter side, find the dimensions of the rectangle.
5. Determine the sides of the rectangle if they are in the ratio of 2 is to 5, and its
area is equal to 90cm
2
.
6. Find the height of a parallelogram with sides 10 and 20 inches long, and an
included angle of 35. Also, calculate the area of the figure.
7. A certain city block is in the form of a parallelogram. Two of its sides measure 32
ft. and 41ft. If the area of the land in the block is 656ft.
2
,what is the length of its
longer diagonal?
8. The area of an isosceles trapezoid is 246m
2
. If the height and the length of one of
its congruent sides measure 6m and 10m, respectively, find the lengths of the
two bases.
Richard T. Eanhart
9. An isosceles trapezoid has an area of 40m
2
and an altitude of 2m. Its two bases
have a ratio of 2 is to 3. What are the lengths of the bases and one diagonal of the
trapezoid?
10. A piece of wire of length 52m is cut into two parts. Each part is when bent to
form a square. It is found that combined area of the two square is 109m
2
. Find
the measures of the sides of the two squares.
11. A rhombus has diagonals of 32 and 20 inches. Find the area and the angle
opposite the longer diagonal.
12. If you double the length of the side of a square, by how much do you increase the
area of that square?
13. If the diagonal length of a square is tripled, how much is the increase in the
perimeter of that square?
14. If the length and width of a rectangle are doubled, by what factor is the length of
its diagonal multiplied?
15. The area of the rhombus is 156m
2
. If its shorter diagonal is 13m, find the length
of the longer diagonal.
16. A garden plot is to contain 240 sq. ft. If its length is to be three time its width,
what should its dimension be?
17. The altitude BE of parallelogram ABCD divides the side AD into segments in the
ratio 1:3. Find the area of the parallelogram if the length of its shorter side AB is
14cm, and one of its interior angle measures 60.
Richard T. Eanhart
18. The official ball diamond is in the form of a square. The distance between the
home base and the second base in a baseball is usually 35m. Find the area and
the distances between the bases.
19. The vertical end of a trough, which is in the form of a trapezoid, has the
following dimensions: width at the top is 1.65m, width at the bottom is 1.15m,
and depth is 1.35m. Find the area of this section of the trough.
20.A piece of wire is shaped to enclose an equilateral triangle in which the area is
16 3 cm
2
. It is then reshaped to enclose a rectangle whose length is 9cm. Find
the area of the rectangle.
21. A square section ABCD has one of its sides equal to x. Point E is inside the
square forming an equilateral triangle BEC with one side equal in length to the
side of the square. Find angle AED.
22. A rectangle ABCD which measures 9 ft., is folded once perpendicular to diagonal
AC such that the opposite vertices A and C coincide. Find the length of the fold.
23. A quadrilateral contains two sides measuring 12 cm each and an included right
angle. If the measure of the third side is 8 cm and the angle opposite the right
side angle is 120, find the measure of the fourth side and the area of the
quadrilateral.
24. The four angles of a trapezium have the same constant difference between them.
If the smallest angle is 75, find the measure of the second largest angle.

Richard T. Eanhart
25. The distance between the center of symmetry of a parallelogram and its longer
side is equal to 12 cm. The area of the parallelogram is 720 cm
2
, and its
perimeter is 140 cm. Determine the length of the longer diagonal of the
parallelogram.
26. Find the area of the rhombus in which one side measures 10 cm and a diagonal
measures 12 cm.
27. The lengths of the parallel sides of an isosceles trapezoid are 8 in. and 16 in.,
respectively. If the diagonal bisects the base angle, what is the area of the
trapezoid?
28.The perimeter of an isosceles trapezoid is 62 cm. If three sides are equal in
length and the fourth side is 10 cm longer, find the area of the trapezoid.
29. The longer diagonal of a parallelogram measures 62 cm and makes an angle of
30 with the base. Find the area of the parallelogram if the diagonals intersect at
an angle of 70. Hind: use the formula =
1
2
2
, where is the included
angle between diagonals d
1
and d
2
.
30.A diagonal of an isosceles trapezoid measures 20 in. and makes an angle of 30
with the base. If one of the congruent sides measures 15 in., find the area of the
trapezoid.
Richard T. Eanhart
Chapter Test
I. Completion of Statements
1. If three sides of one triangle are equal respectively to three sides of another,
the triangles are said to be _________.
2. Corresponding parts of congruent triangles are ________.
3. If the median of a triangle is also the altitude, the triangle is _______.
4. In a right triangle, the side opposite the right angle is called _______.
5. The _______ of a triangle is the line connecting a vertex and the midpoint
of the opposite side of the triangle.
6. The sum of the three angles in any triangle is _______.
7. A triangle is _______ if it has two congruent altitudes.
8. A regular polygon of three sides is called a/an _______.
9. A regular polygon of four sides is called a/an _______.
10. The sum of the measures of the angles in a quadrilateral in _______.
11. A trapezoid is said to be a/an _______. If two of its angles measure 90.
12. The intersection of the angle bisectors of a triangle is called _______.
13. In an isosceles triangle, the _______ is located one-third of its altitude
from the base.
14. In naming of polygons, the word kai means _______.
15. A quadrilateral with no parallel sides is called _______.
Richard T. Eanhart
II. True-False Statements
______ 1. A line perpendicular to another line also bisects the line.
______ 2. An equilateral triangle is also equiangular
______ 3. The altitude of a triangle always passes through the midpoint of a side.
______ 4. In an isosceles triangle, median to the base is perpendicular to the base.
______ 5. The bisector of an angle of a triangle bisects the side opposite of a side.
______ 6. The altitude of a triangle intersects the midpoint of a side.
______ 7. The bisectors of two angles of a triangle are perpendicular to each other.
______ 8. In an equilateral triangle, the altitude is a perpendicular bisector of the
base.
______ 9. In an equilateral triangle, the base angles are congruent.
______ 10. In an isosceles triangle, all three angles are acute.
______ 11. If the two diagonals of a quadrilateral are perpendicular, the
quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
______ 12.A parallelogram is a rectangle.
______ 13. A square is a rectangle.
______ 14. An isosceles trapezoid has two congruent sides.
______ 15. The two diagonals of a rhombus bisects each other at right angles.
Richard T. Eanhart
III. Place a check mark under the name of each figure that satisfies the given
property.
Property Parallelogr
am
Rectangle Square Rhombus Trapezoid
All Sides are
congruent
Both pairs of
opposite sides
are parallel
Both pairs of
opposite sides
are congruent
Diagonals are
congruent
Diagonals
bisect each
other
Diagonals are
perpendicular
Richard T. Eanhart

Solid Mensuration - Chapter 1

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