Jennifer Kaltenbach April 14, 2013

Annotated Bibliography
Research Problem
Everything can be found online now. A lot software have even created interfaces to work with the IPad, Facebook, and the Droid operation system, making all the knowledge available at ones fingertips. Some companies have even completely stopped providing paper copies of the manual when the product is shipped out. Consequently, this has left the traditional paper manuals obsolete. These manuals contain all of the necessary information to use the software; however, people never really use them. It is wasteful and not environmentally conscience to keep printing them out, and are no longer necessary.

Research Question(s)
The information required to use an interactive program successfully, one that responds to humansupplied commands, is online information (Rubens 6). How is this different than the traditional paper manuals and is it more beneficial to customers? Would companies be alienating potentially new and/or existing customers by no longer creating and/or updating hard copy manuals to encourage customers to be more technical?

Works
Albers, M. J. (2005). Communication of complex information: User goals and information needs for dynamic Web information. Mahwah, N.J: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Pub.

Abstract
This book provides the skills needed to do an audience analysis for your documentation. From there, Dr. Albers gives explanations and instructions on how to format and provide visuals representations of the documentation in a manner that is beneficial to the users.

Communication Problem
Technical Communicators often need to figure out their audience to be able to provide sufficient and appropriate documentation.

Applicability
This book provides of details useful for my research topic. Everything from the user needs/goals to the formatting to the visual aspects of online documentation is beneficial. Also, at the end of the book, Albers provided a lengthy example of an online textbook design.

Catanio, J.T. Ph.D. & Catanio, T. L., (2010). The Effects of Integrating On-Going Training for Technical Documentation Teams. Journal of Technical Writing and Communication. Vol. 40(1) 77-97.

Abstract
The tools and techniques utilized in the technical communications profession are constantly improving and changing. Information Technology (IT) organizations devote the necessary resources to equip and train engineering, marketing, and sales teams, but often fail to do so for technical documentation teams. Many IT organizations tend to view documentation as an afterthought; however, consumers of IT products frequently base their purchasing decisions on the end user documentations content, layout, and presentation. Documentation teams play a unique role in IT organizations as they help to build and create a public identity through end user manuals and the corporate website, as well as maintain intellectual knowledge through knowledge sharing and management. The technical communicator makes sense of complex engineering specifications by creating user-friendly manuals for the layman. The practitioner who compiles and records this complex information is a valuable resource to any IT organization. Therefore, on-going training for technical documentation teams is essential to stay competitive in the fast-paced technical market. Technical communicators in IT organizations who only write end user manuals are becoming a rarity. Research indicates a marked trend toward technical writers in multiple roles and varied responsibilities that include web design and development, and business systems analysis functions. Although these added roles and responsibilities require training on some of the newer software tools and more complex programming tools, technical communicators are experiencing difficulty keeping pace with these tools. This article discusses technical documentation teams in IT organizations and provides an on-going training assessment to help technical documentation managers identify their teams strengths and weaknesses. In addition, measures and results from a study conducted at eight IT organizations, are provided to show the effect of how the integration of ongoing training for documentation teams enhances individual competency and improves team performance, (Catanio & Catanio 77-78).

Communication Problem
Technical Writers and the newer Technical Communicators are a needed and an integral part of any IT department. Although, they provide an important service by creating documentation that translates technical jargon into text understandable by the layperson.

Applicability
This article provides the necessary research to show that providing the necessary documentation within any service or practice will increase the customers understandability and effective use of a product.

Cleary, Y., (2012). Preparing Technical Communication Students to Function as User Advocates in a SelfService Society. Journal of Technical Writing and Communication. Vol. 42(3).

Abstract
The self-service nature of todays society means that technical communicators are needed more than ever before since users may find themselves struggling to make sense of online documentation with minimal support from the institutions that provide it. Certain demographics within the user population (older adults, disabled persons, non-native speakers) may face serious challenges when trying to use self-service documentation. Technical communication educators should prepare students to function as user advocates for members of these groups. Technical communication students need a thorough understanding of the challenges that may interfere with an audiences ability to use websites and other online documentation. This article suggests ways to help students gain this understanding through course content and by structuring service-learning and virtual team projects in which students can put their newly-developed understanding into practice, (Cleary 305).

Communication Problem
So much technology has provided a self-service world. While this is good, it also leaves users feeling ignored by the companies providing support to them.

Applicability
This article provided insight into what users expect from online applications and how they prefer to receive the information. This aids with the main topic in my research question.

Dannels, D.P., (2011). Relational Genre Knowledge and the Online Design Critique: Relational Authenticity in Preprofessional Genre Learning. Journal of Business and Technical Communication. Vol. 25:3. DOI: 10.1177/1050651910380371.

Abstract
This study explores the types of feedback and implicated relational systems in an online design critique using an inductive analysis of an online critique about a project focused on designing a new food pyramid. The results reveal eight types of feedback and three implied relational systems, all of which suggest relational archetypes that are disconnected from typical pre-professional activity systems. These results illustrate the potential for the online medium to be a space in which participants pursue idealized relational identities and interactions that are not necessarily authentic approximations of actual relational systems. Using these results as a foundation, the author discusses the potential relevance of the online medium to this setting and the implications of relational authenticity and genre knowledge on oral genre teaching and learning, (Dannels 4).

Communication Problem
How does online content (in this case critique) change the way readers use the information, even though it may contain the same information as another medium?

Applicability
While I realize this article has little to do with my research problem, I believe it still brought forth an interesting idea. If the information is the same, does it matter what medium it is presented to the reader/user? This article had a refreshing approach to this idea, without actually being about online Help documentation, but still being applicable to my thought that some users may feel alienated by the lack of paper manuals.

Dillon, A. (1992) Reading from paper versus screens: a critical review of the empirical literature. Ergonomics, 35(10), 1297-1326.

Abstract
The advent of widespread computer use in general and increasing developments in the domain of hypertext in particular have increased awareness of the issue of reading electronic text. To date the literature has been dominated by reference to work on overcoming speed deficits resulting from poor image quality but an emerging literature reveals a more complex set of variables at work. The present review considers the differences between the media in terms of outcomes and processes of reading and concludes that single variable explanations are insufficient to capture the range of issues involved in reading from screens, (Dillon 1292).

Communication Problem
Paper texts and electronic texts each have their place and use, but which one is preferred? 4

Applicability
This article helped distinguish the pros and cons of paper texts and electronic texts. This is important for research topic because it helps establish how and when users use each.

Elling,S.,Lentz, L & de Jong, M., (2012). Users' Abilities to Review Web Site Pages. Journal of Business and Technical Communication. Vol. 26: 171. DOI: 10.1177/1050651911429920.

Abstract
Web sites increasingly encourage users to provide comments on the quality of the content by clicking on a feedback button and filling out a feedback form. Little is known about users abilities to provide such feedback. To guide the development of evaluation tools, this study examines to what extent users with various background characteristics are able to provide useful comments on informational Web sites. Results show that it is important to keep the feedback tools both simple and attractive so that users will be able and willing to provide useful feedback on Web site pages, (Elling, Lentz & de Jong 171).

Communication Problem
When users provide feedback, how do you know they are qualified to do so?

Applicability
This article provides a background for users. What can they be expected to know and how do you evaluate their feedback? This provides insight into how users operate a program and could aid in providing documentation that helps them learn the product as they go.

Hackos, J. T. PhD, (1997). Online Documentation: The Next Generation. SIGDOC '97 Proceedings of the 15th annual international conference on Computer documentation. Pages 99 104. DOI: 10.1145/263367.263383.

Abstract
Information delivered through the computer means many things today. You may embed online help within the software applications you develop, deliver online documentation on CDROMs or floppy disks, or establish information databases to be accessed through a company intranet or on the World Wide Web. Some companies distribute nearly all of the information users receive in electronic form rather than as paper manuals. They save the cost of printing and shipping the manuals. Users get the problems of navigating the current crop of online information to use the application software, (Hackos 99).

Communication Problem
Many companies just put their paper manuals online without changing anything. Online documentation has progressed, but is still difficult to navigate for a lot users.

Applicability
This article proved that simply putting ones paper manuals was not enough to provide online documentation. This wholly supports my topic in that users need well-written, effective and efficient online documentation to be able to eliminate the need for paper manual.

Hovde, M.R., (2010). Creating Procedural Discourse and Knowledge for Software Users: Beyond Translation and Transmission. Journal of Business and Technical Communication. DOI: 10.1177/1050651909353306.

Abstract
Although most theorists agree that discourse creates meaning, they have not adequately described how this process emerges within the creation of procedural knowledge. This article explores how technical communicators in diverse settings based discourse decisions on their knowledge of (a) users, (b) organizational image and constraints, (c) software structure and features, and (d) genre conventions in order to create communication artifacts designed to help users develop procedural knowledge. The transformations in which they engaged indicated that these technical communicators were skilled in forming images in these four areas and then using these images as they created meaning in procedural discourse. In this process, they moved beyond merely translating or transmitting technical knowledge, (Hovde 164).

Communication Problem
How can technical communicators show that they simply dont just organize and pretty up others information and show they are more professional writers that should be taken seriously.

Applicability
This article provides insight into how technical communicators can provide documentation that is both professional and useful. This could go a long in convincing customers that provided online documentation is just as, or more so, effective than paper manuals.

McCabe, K., (1997). Online Documentation: Its Place in a Two-Year Colleges Technical Writing Curriculum. Journal of Business and Technical Communication. DOI: 10.1177/1050651997011001005.

Abstract
This article considers on-line documentations place in a two-year colleges technical communication program. Such a course can be successful if instructors (1) emphasize design principles rather than a particular software package; (2) build on rhetorical skills students already possess, while developing the new skills necessary for authoring documents for the computer screen; and (3) acknowledge the need for their own professional development, (McCabe 74).

Communication Problem
Would the students benefit from learning how to write online documentation, and would they be able to use their previous skills to write and implement the documentation and learn while doing so.

Applicability
This article was helpful in providing insight into the learning curve for learning to write online documentation. It focused primarily on design and skills people already possess, which allows me to use the results in a way that benefits my research question by showing how people learn by writing. Also, it introduced ideas of what should and should not be online.

Pennington, L.L., (2007). Approaches/Practices: Surviving the Design and Implementation of a ContentManagement System: Do the Benefits Offset the Challenges? Journal of Business and Technical Communication. Vol. 21: 1. DOI: 10.1177/1050651906293530.

Abstract
Technical communicators should be prepared to take on challenges that are beyond their daily tasks. The author took on such a challenge when she was asked to develop and implement a companys content-management system. This article addresses the different phases of designing and implementing a unified content-management system. The article also offers suggestions for any content developer faced with developing and implementing a content management system or for any technical communication instructor who wishes to learn more about this process to help meet the academic needs of upcoming content developers, (Pennington 62).

Communication Problem
If too many people work on the same document, there are bound to be errors or content that is written by more than one person. How can these be avoided and what is the best way to do this?

Applicability
With creating online Help, comes content management. You need one once youre providing the other. This article provided suggestions on how to start, create and maintain a content library that would benefit writers and readers of online content. This is a small piece of my research problem puzzle, but an important one nonetheless.

Rubens, P., (1987). The Impact of Innovative Communication Technologies: Online Documentation, the Reader, and the Writer. Journal of Business and Technical Communication. Vol. 1:5. DOI: 10.1177/105065198700100202.

Abstract
New communication technologies, based on the computer, will change the ways in which texts are written and produced. Most of these changes will restrict the writing process. While the most noticeable innovation has been the word processor, purely electronic information will soon introduce more potent challenges into the writers task. This movement from paper-based information to electronic, or online, information requires the writer to consider interaction methods, layout features, screen functions, and the like. It also requires a reevaluation of the readers relation to the traditional concept of "texts" and calls into question many writing strategies, (Rubens 1).

Communication Problem
How has the advancement of technology and new electronic media redefine the role of reader and writer?

Applicability
This article relates to my topic by setting the foundation what online information is and how its been changing. Rubens article explores the implications of online information to the reader and writer, and ultimately provides guidelines to understand and effectively use this new media source.

Rude, C.D., (1988). Format in Instruction Manuals: Applications of Existing Research. Journal of Business and Technical Communication. Vol. 2: 63. DOI: 10.1177/105065198800200105.

Abstract
Research in cognitive psychology, instructional technology, and human factors applies to formatting complex instructions for equipment and procedures. Formatting includes typographic cueing of prose paragraphs and more graphic displays of text in flowcharts and structured writing. Format can improve both comprehension and the readers access to selected material. While graphic displays may interfere 8

with memorization, both typographic cueing and graphic displays can improve performance time and accuracy, (Rude 63).

Communication Problem
While documentation is available for users, it is not always understandable. What are the benefits of standardized formatting in documentation?

Applicability
This article provided information into how effective formatting can be in documentation. This article was written when companies were still solely providing paper manuals, but the concepts still apply to online documentation. The key is formatting and making the documentation easy to read and understandable.

Smart, K.L. & Whiting, M.E., (2002). Using Customer Data to Drive Documentation Design Decisions. Journal of Business and Technical Communication. Vol. 16: 115. DOI: 10.1177/1050651902016002001.

Abstract
This article shows how user-centered design can be applied to documentation and reports the results of a two-year contextual design study. The article (1) demonstrates how contextual design can be applied to information and (2) reports some of the studys results, outlining key insights gleaned about users. The study found that users vary widely in their information needs and preferences. Users employ a variety of learning strategies in learning new software and in overcoming problems encountered within applications. Documentation can better meet variances in learning styles and user preferences when tightly integrated into applications, accessible in the users own language. Additionally, documentation is most beneficial when several assistance options exist for users to choose among, varying according to context, task, and user need. Finally, the article discusses the constraints that affect the implementation of design ideas and explores implications for practice and additional research, (Smart & Whiting 115).

Communication Problem
Technical Communicators need contact with users data to be able to provide proper and adequate guidance instead of their own biases and rationalizations.

Applicability
This applies to my topic by proving that a users wants and needs need to be known by the technical communicator to provide the appropriate Help. If I included users data within my scope, it would

provide invaluable findings into proving or disproving a users preference of paper manuals or online documentation.

Smart, K.L. & Whiting, M.E., (2002). Using Customer Data to Drive Documentation Design Decisions. Journal of Business and Technical Communication. Vol. 16: 115. DOI: 10.1177/1050651902016002001.

Abstract
This article shows how user-centered design can be applied to documentation and reports the results of a two-year contextual design study. The article (1) demonstrates how contextual design can be applied to information and (2) reports some of the studys results, outlining key insights gleaned about users. The study found that users vary widely in their information needs and preferences. Users employ a variety of learning strategies in learning new software and in overcoming problems encountered within applications. Documentation can better meet variances in learning styles and user preferences when tightly integrated into applications, accessible in the users own language. Additionally, documentation is most beneficial when several assistance options exist for users to choose among, varying according to context, task, and user need. Finally, the article discusses the constraints that affect the implementation of design ideas and explores implications for practice and additional research, (Smart & Whiting 115).

Communication Problem
Technical Communicators need contact with users data to be able to provide proper and adequate guidance instead of their own biases and rationalizations.

Applicability
This applies to my topic by proving that a users wants and needs need to be known by the technical communicator to provide the appropriate Help. If I included users data within my scope, it would provide invaluable findings into proving or disproving a users preference of paper manuals or online documentation.

Spinuzzi, C., (2011). Losing by Expanding: Corralling the Runaway Object. Journal of Business and Technical Communication. Vol. 25: 449. DOI: 10.1177/1050651911411040.

Abstract
Third-generation activity theory (3GAT) has become a popular theoretical and methodological framework for writing studies, particularly in technical communication. 3GAT involves identifying an 10

object, a material or problem that is cyclically transformed by collective activity. The object is the linchpin of analysis in the empirical case. Yet the notion of object has expanded methodologically and theoretically over time, making it difficult to reliably bound an empirical case. In response, this article outlines the expansion of the object, diagnoses this expansion, and proposes an alternate approach that constrains the object for case-study research in writing studies, (Spinuzzi 449).

Communication Problem
The 3GAT theory method has been used for years, but it has face criticism. Spinuzzi sets out to prove that its the object and therefore the linchpin of analysis.

Applicability
This article was based more in academia, but I interpreted it as a more in-depth way of collecting and analyzing data. In this case, data is the information needed for the online documentation.

Ummelen, N., (1996). The Selection and Use of Procedural and Declarative Information in Software Manuals. Journal of Technical Writing and Communication. Vol. 26(4).

Abstract
Some research results suggest that declarative information in a software manual is of little value to a user. However, most research methods are aimed at measuring specific information effects, They hardly ever yield data about what users select and use if they have a choice. Also, the concepts of procedural and declarative have not been operationalized consistently. Finally, one type of user has been the main focus of investigation so far: the tutorial user. In an attempt to specifically investigate the selection and use of procedural and declarative information, a new approach is described. In an experiment based on this new approach, special attention was paid to the operationalization of the information types and three different user types were included. The results show that users use more declarative information than is often assumed, (Ummelen 475).

Communication Problem
The users perception of what is important varies from what writers think. Declarative information is more needed in manuals than originally thought.

Applicability
This article is extremely useful to my topic. It goes in-depth about what is beneficial most in documentation. Using this information, I can focus more if providing it online is better than paper 11

copies.

Westendorp, P., (1996). Learning Efficiency with Text, Pictures, and Animation of On-Line Help. . Journal of Technical Writing and Communication. Vol. 26(4) 401417.

Abstract
To test the relative efficiency and learning effect of text, pictures, and animation in on-line help systems, six versions of an on-line help system for telephones were designed. The operational information was presented in either text, pictures, or animation and presented either with or without spatial information (in pictures). Subjects were asked to perform thirteen tasks, using these six versions of the instructions and to do the same tasks again, using the same version of the instructions, one week later. The results show that only presenting the operational information via text is the most efficient. Subjects using instructions in animation needed significantly more time than those using the text or picture versions. Adding spatial information (in pictures) was counterproductive: without this information subjects performed better in all versions. Performing the same tasks with identical instructions one week later produced the same results, but the differences were much smaller. Therefore, it has been concluded that text remains the most efficient medium as long as users have to apply the instructions immediately. If the time needed to readsee the instructions is deducted, animation turns out to be the most efficient medium. It is therefore concluded that animation could be the best medium for learning how to operate a device, (Westendorp 401).

Communication Problem
When Help documentation is offered online, it allows for a lot of different and new medias to be introduced. What are the best and most effective ways to introduce these medias to users.

Applicability
Though this is an older article, it provides beneficial information for what is useful or not when creating online Help documentation. It also provides a very clear and concise organizational pattern to engage and teach users.

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