AEROFOIL SECTIONS RESULTS FROM WIND-TUNNEL INVESTIGATIONS THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS BY DR. FRIEDRICH WILHELM RIEGELS “Translated from the German by D. G. RANDALL LONDON BUTTERWORTHS 1961LIST OF CONTENTS Foreword... Preface to the English Edition Abbreviations... ‘Notes on the References 1. Nomenclature. Geometry. Survey Ll Definitions, Seope of book. . 12 Characteristic Geometrical Quantities | 12.1 Thickness Distribution and Camber Line 122 Parameters. 2. 2. 1.2.3 Introduction of the Parametric Angle 13. Experimentally Investigated Families of Profiles 1.3.1 Gottingen Profiles... : 1.32 Fourigure NACA Profiles 1.3.3 Fivesigure NACA Profiles 7 1.34 First Extension of the Fourigure and Five-fgure NACA Series... 1.3.5 Extension of the NACA Series by the DYE... 1.3.6 Extension of the NACA Series with re- gard to the Pressure Distribution. Lami narProfles 2... 14 Theoretically Developed Families of Profiles 1.4.1 Joukowsky Profiles and Generslisations 1.4.2 Kérmin-Trefftz and Betz-Keune Profiles 14.3 The Hyperbola Family diab 1.4.4 Remarks on Further Families of Profiles References. 5 1.5.1 Books a5 6 . 1.5.2 Comprehensive Reports | ‘ 1.5.3 Specialised Reports 7 10 10 a 2B 2 RB 2 B 13 2 On Experimental Methods. Wind Tunnels and Corrections 2.1 Some Details of Wind Tunnels used for Profle Measurement... 5 : 2.1.1 Gottingen Wind-tunnels 2.1.2 Wind Tunnels of the DVL 2.1.3 Wind Tunnels of the NACA. 214 British Wind-tunnels . 2.1.5 Some Other Wind-tannels On the Turbulence of Wind-tunnels. _ | 2.2.1 Degree of Turbulence and Seale of Turbue Ime se. 2 The Critical Reynolds Number for Tur- bulenes 22.3 The Turbulence Factor O60 2.24 Influence of the Diameter of the Sphere. More Exact Definition of the Turbulence Factor. Blolola 6 ona 2.5 Comparison Between Hot-wire “and Sphere Measurements . a 23 General Remarks on Experimental Investi- gitims 23.1 On Profile Measurements in Wind Tun- els pid 23.2 On Wind-tunnel Corrections. |) | 15 1s rc 6 18 18 18 18 19 19 20 a 2 a 3 Influences of Wing-tips and Supports 2.34 Influence of Turbulence in the Air 2A References . : 3 Force and Moment Coefficients 8.1 Characteristic Aerodynamic Quantities 2 Review of Experimental Results : 3.2.1 Angle of Incidence Ranging from 0° to BO 3.2.2 Normal Range of Angle of Incidence 33° Behaviour of the Lit... 33.1 Lift-curve Slope 3.3.2 Angle of Zero Lift | qo 0 8.3.3 Effect of Increase in Mach Number on the Relation between Lift and Angle of Incidence . 34 Maximum Lift 35. Profle Drag 3.5.1 Incompressible Flow. Minimum Drag 3.5.2 Incompressible Flow. Dependence of Lift Coefficient . 3.5.3 Compressible Flow 3.8 Moment Coefficient, Cenére Aerodynamic Centre 3.6.1 Incompressible Flow 3.6.2 Compressible Flow BT References . ao 3.7.1 Incompressible Flow 3.7.2 Compressible Flow 4 Special Problems 4.1 Ingtuence of Quality of Surface 41.1 Older Results... 4.1.2 Surface Roughness. 4.1.3 Standard Roughness 4.1.4 Isolated Disturbances : 41.5 Permissible Size of Grain and Critical Height of Roughness . Saas 41.6 Waviness . . | || 42 Problems of High Speed in Liquid Media: Cavitation. carr 43 References . : 43.1 Quality of Surface 43.2 Cavitation 5 Profiles with Flaps BAL Survey Plain Flaps 53. Split Flaps 5 Sloted Flaps. | 5.5 Nose Flaps and Slats 5.8 References . : 6 Boundary Layer Controt 6.1 Suction as a Means of Increasing the Lift 62 Blowing as a Means of Increasing the Lift of Pressure, and 26 26 28 28 9 30 31 82 32 35 35 37 37 3863. Suction as a Means of Reducing Drag 6.3.1 Keeping the Boundary Layer Laminar - 6.3.2 Controlof the Turbulent Boundary Layer G4 Pressure and Power Requirements for Boundary Layer Control . 65 References. CF Nhe Theory of Wing Profiles 1 "Profle Shope and. Pressure Distribution in Inviscd Incompresite low « TT” General Remaria Comber Live and Velocity Distrntion 1 Simple Special Casea 2 Various Types of Camber Line | 18 Thickness Disttrtion and Veloity Disin Tah Simple Special Cases 3.2 More Generel Thickness Distributions 733 Intuence of « Sudden Chonge in Curva ture of the Profle Contour TA Cambered Proptes TB References» 8 The Theory of Wing Profiles IT Numerical Methods 81 The Flow Field 8.2 Calewlation of the Pressure Distribution for a Prescribed Shape of Profle . 1 Velocity Distribution on @ Thin Profile; Vortex Distribution 2 Velocity Distribution on a Symmetrical Profle; Source Distribution and Addi- tional Vortex Distribution 8.23 Velocity Distribution on an Unsym. metrical Profile of Finite Thickness and ‘Small Camber . 8.2.4 Simple Formulas for Practical Caleala- tion. : 8.2.5 Forees and Moments 88 Coleiton ofthe Prefs Shape for t Preseribed Velocity Distribution 83.1 Thin Profiles 83.2 Symmetrical Profile at Zero Incidence 8.3.3 Unsymmetrical Profile at Incidence 84 Remarks on the Rigorous Hethods of Conformal Mapping 8.4.1 Older Solutions of the ‘Second Main Problem 8.42 Iteration without Intermediate Slapping 8.5 References . . 9 The Theory of Wing Profiles IIL Viscous Flow 9.1 Influence of Reynolds Number on Preseure Distribution and Lift. 9.2 Cateulation of Boundary Layers 82.1 Introduotory Remarks Basic Equations. Momentum and Energy Theorems oo 92.3 TaucxeNpropr's Approximate Procedure. 9.2.4 Bffect of Compressibility | | 9.3 Results of Stability Calculations and Caleula- ion of the Critical Reynolds Number. 93.1 The Critical Reynolds Number 62 62 62 62 63 80 aL al 82 33 83 85 10 u 2 oP Coxrexts 932 Amplification and Transition. 95 9.3.8 Keeping the Boundary Layer Laminar at Higher Reynolds Numbers... 95, 94 Calculation of the Profle Drag Dl 98 94.1 Preliminary Remarks . 06 9.4.2 Drag of the Flat Plate with and without ‘Boundary Layer Control... 96 9.4.3 Drag of an Arbitrary Profile 97 9.5. Calculation of Polars. 29 9.5.1 Calculation of the Maximum Lift 99 9.5.2 Behaviour of the Pitching Moment 4100 96 References . 100 The Theory of Wing Profiles IV Compressible Flow ce - 103 10.1 General Remarks : 103 102 Relation between Speed and Pressure 103 103 Subsonic Flow. . 108 103.1 The PrandtiGlauert Rule || 104 10.3.2 Higher Approximations . | 105 104 Mixed Subsonic and Supersonic Plows 107 104.1 Appearance of Shock Waves 107 10.4.2 Similarity Rules 108 10.3 Supersonic Flow : ints 10.5.1 The Flow Field ml 10.5.2 The Pressure Distribution in Supersonic Flow . ne 10.5.8 Approximate Formulas for the Forces on an Arbitrary Profle 13 10.54 Approximate Formulas for Special Pro- fils, and Comparison with Wind-tunnel ‘Measurements 43 10.5.5 Bxact Solution for the Flat Plato al 108 References Loe 16 Tables 1L1 Collection of Geometrical and Aerodynamic Data 120 M2 Ordinatn, Slops, ond Veloiy Distribution of Camber Lines... 138 113 Profile Co-ordinates wt M4 Ondinates and Velocity Distributions ({rom Po- tential Theory) of NACA Profiles 160 115 Measured Force and Moment Conficients 162 118 Profiles with Hightift Devices 16 1LT Coaficients for the Determination of Theoretical Lift and Drag Coeficients 193 U8 Cosficients for Determining the Velocity Ditri- bution (Given the Co-ordinates) 194 1.9 Coeficients for Determining the Co-ordinates (Given the Velocities) 198 Catalogue of Theoretical and Experimental Results 121 Pressure Distributions of Camber Lines 122 Preseure Distributions of Symmetrical Profiles 123 Prenre Dsributions of Cambered Profle Measured Presoure Distributions 124.1 For Incompressible Flow 12.4.2 For Compressible Flow 125 Polars 125.1 For Incompressible Flow 12.32 For Compressible Flow 1253 With Cavitation . List of Symbols 75 Indexes... co aTFOREWORD During the last fifty years fluid dynamics has become indispensable in the solution of industrial problems, particularly those associated with aviation, Technology has advanced so rapidly that, to meet its demands, research on 8 gigantic scale is necessary. A regrettable consequence of this is that advances in the field of fluid dynamics have become too numerous for one person to be able to survey them. There is therefore a pressing need for surveys of the various branches, so that a reader can obtain a view of the Gottingen, October, 1956 ‘whole subject and can be informed on the questions of greatest importance. Unfortunately, little has been accomplished in this direction; the ebief reason is that few workers have a real mastery of their field. Consequently, this book is most welcome, since it provides a clear and comprehensive survey of the subject of wing profiles, It is highly desirable that similar books should be written on other subjects. Auperr BerzPREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION Dr. Riegels's book was written with the needs of German workers in mind, yet it should appeal to a much wider cele of readers. Our knowledge of a scientific subject is never complete, but further advances in the subject of wing profiles are likely to be small-scale; therefore, a book ‘that surveys all the main theories and discusses many of the experimental investigations should be most valuable. Not tthe least usefull part of the book is the large amount of tabular and graphical information on the geometrical and aerodynamic characteristics of profiles In times when slonderness is such a desirable attribute of wings, and supersonic speeds are commonplace, there is Farnborough, February, 1960 # tendency to think of low-speed, two-dimensional flow as an outdated topic. Itis forgotten that the subject is still of importance: it is continually required in the design of ship propellers, turbines, and compressors; and it is still of use fora wide variety of aircraft, ranging from gliders to model aeroplanes. I wish to thank many of my colleagues at the Royal Aizerafe Establishment (not all of them German-born) for their ready help. It isa pleasure to express my gratitude to Mrs. W. T. Lord for performing the secretarial worl so competently. D. G. Rawpaue,AVA KWI, MPI G8. Mon, DAL LGL Jb.aDL UWB TB FB ABBREVIATIONS Acrodynamische Versuchsanstalt Géttingen. In references to reports (often unpublished) the first two figures denote the year when the report appeared; for example, 4 Report: A/15, produced 1941. Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut; from 1947, Max Planck-Institut fir Gottingen. ‘Monographs on Progress in German Aero. nautical Research since 1939, Gottingen (1946). General Editor: A. Betz. Unpublished. Obtainable from the AVA on payment of appropriate charge. Deutsche Akademie der Luftfahrtforschung. Lilienthalgesellschaft fur Luftfahrtforschung. Jahrbuch der deutschen Luftfabrtforschung (Oldenbourg, Munich). Zentrale fiir Wissenschattliches Berichtwesen des Generalluftzeugmeisters. ZWB Technical Reports Berichte”). ZWB Research Reports, in the Series Strimungsforschung, (“Technische uM 2EM Lafo DVL NACA Ror TR or Rep Nor TN wR RU ARC R&M oP “Deutsche Luftfabetforschung” (‘“Forsch- ungsbericht”) Investigations and Communications in the ZWWB Series “ Deutsche Lufttahrtforschung” (“Untersuchungen und Mitteilungen” Zeitschrift fir Flugtechnik und Motor- Laftschiff-Fahrt (Oldenbourg, Munich). Zeitschrift fir Luftfahrtforschung (Olden- bourg, Munich). Deatsche Versuchsanstalt fir Luftfabrt. National Advisory Committee for ero- nauties, Washington, AGA Technical Report, ACA Technical Note, ACA Wartime Report. NACA Research Memorandum, Aeronautical Research Council, Ministry of Aviation, Reports and Memoranda, ARC. Current Paper, ARC.NOTES ON THE REFERENCES 1, The year is given in parentheses. 2, The references at the end of each chapter are arranged alphabetically (according to the names of the authors). Where an author has several works referred to, these are arranged in the order in which they appeared. 3. If an author is referred to in the text, this usually means that a corresponding reference occurs in the list at the end of the chapter. If several works of one author are mentioned, the year of publication is added when the titles do not give sufficient indication. Special Acknowledgment Figures 3.20, 3.21, 3.22, 12.51a, 12.60, 12.75, 12.103, and the tables for the profile Go 625 at R= 21.104 and R= 63.104 have (by kind permission of the publishers) been taken from the book by F, W. Scurrz, “Aerodynamik des Flagmodells” (second, enlarged edition), 160 pages, 92 figures, 5 tables, price 13 DM (Carl Lange, Duisburg).1. NOMENCLATURE. GEOMETRY, SURVEY 1.1 Definitions. Scope of Book Every body moving through a fluid is subjected to a force. Of particular importance are those bodies for which the component of force opposite to the direction of motion is omall compared with the component of force normal to the direction of motion. Bodies with this property are called __wings” if the dimension in one direction, the “thickness”, is substantially smaller than the dimensions in two direc. fons normal to each other and to the first direction, the “chord” and the “span”; the direction of the chord is approximately that of the flow at infinity, the “free stream’ A section normal to the span is called a “wing Profile"-—briely, a “profile”. We shall be mainly eon- cermed with two-dimensional flow about a profile—in others words, with flow about a wing of infinite span. The ‘wing is assumed to be moving with a constant speed V; if Wwe use a system of co-ordinates fixed with respect to the ‘wing, the speed of the fluid at infinity is assumed to be P. 1.2 Characteristic Geometrical Quantities 1.2.1 Thickness Distribution and Camber Line The ordinates of the profile are measured from some suitable axis, the z-axis, It is usual to regard the profile as formed by superposition of a “thickness distribution” 9%(2), symmetrical about the z-axis, on a “camber line” ¥(2). The camber line, sometimes called “mean line” or “skeleton line”, has been defined in two ways, The older Ke Loo 1 Fle 1.1. General detaition of the camber ine definition assumes that the complete profile is given; the camber line is then the line joining the centres of inscribed circles (Figure 1.1). The second definition assumes that the ‘vo parts of the profile are separately given; the complete Profile is then formed by measuring the ordinates of the thickness distribution from the camber line in a dizection normal to this line, These two definitions are approximately equivalent.+ Using the second definition, we obtain for the + On the difference between the two definitions see Bavscn, e ordinates of the upper or “suction” side (suffix u) and the lower or “pressure” side (suffix 1) ty =2—y"siny mH =2+y%siny YO+ yO cosy, 0 — y cos 7 (1.1) Ye w where tany = dy(/dz. ‘This is the method used for the design of NACA profiles; itis the most usual one nowadays, Simple addition and subtraction of the camber line and thickness distribution sre usually sufficient for slightly cambered profiles (small y) Me ~t wrt yo, a2, yoyo (1.2) The co-ordinates ¢ andy are generally divided bythe chord, & of the profile, the origin of co-ordinates lying at the leading edge. In addition to the co-ordinate system (z, y) second one (&, y) is often employed, in which the origin Y Y — — ak. t CN OTe Fie 12, Usual co-ordinate systems lies at z = ¢/2, y = 0 and the co-ordinates are divided by GP instead of by c (see Figure 1.2). The following relation holds between these two systems}: (13) ‘The z-axis is defined as the straight line joining the ends of the camber line, and so itis possible that « few points in the region of the nose of a cambered profile have a value of # less than 0, or a value of less than —(c/2); usually this occurs only when the camber is large. To avoid it we use the longest line joining two points of the profile as reference axis in the theory of Chapters 7 and 8; this axis is obtained from the axis used above (the chord of the camber line) by rotation through a small angle an; in Table 11.2 this angle is given for some common profiles. The chord of + The experimenter prefers to work in the region 0 < 2 < ¢: the theorist, to make use of certain symmetrical properties of the formulas, prefers —(c/2) < $< (ef). Both definitions are {wed in this book: when no confusion ia possible, cis occasionally set equal to 1, oF (to avoid the decimal point) to 100,the pressure side or the tangent at the trailing edge on the pressure side have been used as reference axes for the ordinates when the profile has large camber. For sym- ‘metrical profiles (or for thickness distributions) the axis of symmetry is always used as the reference axis. 1.2.2 Parameters For fixing the geometrical form with the help of a few data, the following parameters are suitable. (a) For the camber line (Figure 1.3) Fig. 1.2, Geontsloal parameter of the camber tine 1. the ratio of the maximum camber, f, to the chord, briefly, the “maximum eamber”, fle; 2. the position of maximum camber, 2, divided by the chord—briely, the “position of maximum camber”, zc (b) For the thickness distribution (Figure 1.4): ig, 14, Geowetcial parameters of the thlekness distrbation 1. the ratio of the maximum thickness, ¢, to the chord—briefly, the “thickness ratio”, te; 2, the position of maximum thickness, 2, divided by the chord—briefly, the “position of maximum thickness”, z/e; 3. the nose radius, referred to the chord, 6 tog {Meda 4. the slope atthe trailing edge, tan tp = —dy!(dz at 2c. In special eases itis useful to know 3, the leading edge coeficient,t san (20% [ro —~ tan ry = tim (44° — /2); (1s) 6. the radius of curvature at the maximum thickness, referred to the chord, (1.6) The parameters fie and t/c are generally regarded as seale factors of an affine transformation. To have the remaining parameters in a form that remains constant This quantity, which by its definition is limited to the thick. ness distribution, i positive or negative when the nose is respectively hyperbolic or elliptic. 1. Nomenctarune. Geometry. Survey when the scale factors change, the following characteristic combinations of parameters are frequently used; they are designated by the quantity that is made dimensionless. (a) Nose radius: go = "O any tan rr, (b) Slope at the trating edge: en = P77. 1.8) (c) Leading edge coefficient: e, = oat (1.9) (a) Radius of curvature at the maximum thickness (20) [the profile is designed empirically the parameters must be found graphically. To determine the camber line, inseribed circles are drawn and their centres joinedt (Figure 1.1); the quantities ¢ and f can then be measured. For the determination of the nose radius, rojc, and the leading edge coefficient, tan rz, the quantity (0/Vz is plotted against (Figure 1.5). The slope at the trailing othe position of maximum thlekness, # edge, tan t7, can be measured sufficiently accurately if y is drawn with an enlarged scale near 2 = ¢, The position of maximum thickness, 2, is obtained as in Figure 1.6, y\9 is plotted against 2, When zy has been thus found, the radius of curvature at the maximum thickness, nije, is obtained by plotting (=a wy inst = (Figure 1.7). Fig. 17. The determiaation ered ofthe radias of curvature at he maximuanthiskoes, 1 In the construction of profiles by the NACA method it is useful to know the initial slope of the camber line, because the centre of the circle of curvature at the nose is assumed + For a refined method see Bavscm.