PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS IN ENGLISH

Phraseology as the branch of Linguistics. The problem of terminology Definition of phraseological units. Criteria for phraseologacal units Three approaches towards the study of phraseological units Classification of phraseological units

Phraseology as the branch of Linguistics

appeared studies

in the 1940s

phraseological units of the language

Object of Phraseology
phraseological

units, their nature, the way they function in speech

Problem of terminology
set expression idiom set phrase fixed word-groups word-equivalent phraseological unit

Problem of terminology
set

phrase implies that the basic criterion of differentiation is stability of the lexical components and grammatical structure of word-groups (I.V. Arnold)

Problem of terminology
idiom

implies that the essential feature of the linguistic units is idiomacity or lack of motivation (English and American linguists)

Problem of terminology
word-equivalent

stresses semantic and functional inseparability of certain wordgroups, their aptness to function in speech as single words (A.I.Smirnitstky)

Problem of terminology
1. 2.

phraseological unit the most acceptable by Russian linguists phraseological units are not always stable (like set
expressions)

not always equivalent to one word (like

word-equivalents)

3.

not always idiomatic (like idioms), may be only partially motivated

Phraseological Units
non-motivated word-groups cannot be freely made up in speech reproduced as ready-made units structurally stable possess stability of lexical components reproduced as single unchangeable collocations

Phraseological Units
e.g. red (blue, white, etc) flower BUT red tape blue tape red flower red flowers BUT red tape red tapes

Phraseological Units
Denotational meaning belongs to a whole phrase as a single inseparable unit e.g. apple sauce - nonsense Connotational meaning belongs to the whole word-group e.g. old boy

Phraseological Unit
a

stable word-group characterized by a completely or partially transferred meaning (A.V. Koonin)

Criteria to distinguish free-word groups from phraseological units

semantic

criterion structural criterion

Semantic criterion

free word-groupseach meaningful component stands for a separate concept e.g. a red flower

phraseological units convey a single concept e.g. red tape

Semantic criterion

1.

Phraseological units are characterized by different degrees of semantic change: semantic change may affect the whole word-group (complete transferred meaning) e.g. to skate on thin ice (to take risks), to have ones heart in ones boots (to be anxious about smth.)

Semantic criterion
2. semantic change may affect only one of the components of a word-group (partially transferred meaning) e.g. to fall in love, small talk, to talk shop

Structural Criterion: restriction in substitution

free word-groups components may be changed e.g. The cargo ship/vessel is carrying coal to Liverpool/ Manchester

phraseological units no word can be replaced without destroying the sense e.g. to carry coals to Newcastle

Structural Criterion: introducing additional components

free word-groups change can be made without affecting the general meaning e.g. The big ship is carrying a large cargo of coal to the port of Liverpool

phraseological units no additional components can be introduced e.g. the white elephant NOT the big white elephant

Structural Criterion: grammatical invariability

free word-groups e.g. red flower red flowers

phraseological units e.g. to find fault with smb. NOT to find faults with smb.

Features of Phraseological Units

semantic and structural stability idiomacity (lack of motivation) ready-madeness the most common structure:

verb +object formed from free word combinations

Approaches to the Study of Phraseological Units

semantic functional

contextual

Semantic Approach
phraseological

units are nonmotivated (idiomacity) phraseological units are opposed to free-word combinations which are completely motivated

Functional Approach
phraseological

units are specific word-groups functioning like word-equivalents like words they possess structural and semantic inseparability

Contextual Approach
phraseological

units are used in specific contexts non-variable, or fixed non-variability is a stability of the lexical components within the semantic structure

Classifications of Phraseological Units

Classifications based on a semantic approach semantic classification - according to the degree of motivation (V.V. Vinogradov) structural classification based on the ability to perform the same syntactical functions as words structural-semantical classification by A.I. Smirnitsky
1.

Classifications of Phraseological Units

2. Classification based on a functional approach structural-semantic classification (A.V. Koonin) 3. Classification based on a contexual approach classification by N.N. Amosova

V.V. Vinogradovs Classification

phraseological combinations ( ) word-groups with partially changed meaning e.g. to be good at smth., to have a bite, bosom friends

V.V. Vinogradovs Classification

phraseological unities ( ) word-groups with completely changed meaning, the meaning of the unit does not correspond to the meanings of its constituent parts, but deducible as it is based on metaphor

V.V. Vinogradovs Classification

phraseological unities
e.g. to lock the stable door after the horse is stolen (to take precautions too late), a fish out of water (a person situated uncomfortably outside its usual environment)

V.V. Vinogradovs Classification

phraseological fusions ( ) word-groups with completely changed meaning, their meaning cannot be deduced from the meanings of its constituent parts

V.V. Vinogradovs Classification

phraseological fusions e.g. at sixes and sevens (in confusion or in disagreement) to set ones cap at smb. (to try and attract smb.)

R.S.Ginzburgs Classification
phraseological

fusions completely non-motivated wordgroups, characterized by the complete stability of the lexical components and the grammatical structure

e.g. to kick the bucket, red tape

R.S.Ginzburgs Classification
phraseological unities partially nonmotivated, the meaning is perceived through the metaphoric meaning of the unit, characterized by high degree of stability of the lexical components e.g. to show ones teeth, to wash ones dirty linen in the public

R.S.Ginzburgs Classification
phraseological

collocations motivated word-groups, have specific lexical valency which results in their stability

e.g. to take a liking/ fancy, to bear a grudge/ malice

Structural Classification
verbal (verb equivalent) e.g. to catch at a straw substantive (noun equivalent) e.g. dogs life, white elephant adjectival (adjective equivalent) e.g. safe and sound

Structural Classification
adverbial (adverb equivalent) e.g. in the twinkle of an eye interjectional e.g. goodness gracious! Dear me!

Classification by A.I. Smirnitsky

tried

to combine structural and semantic principles compared phraseological units with words

Classification by A.I. Smirnitsky

one-summit (one-top) units have one meaningful constituent (compared with affixed words)

1.

verbal-adverbial units equivalent to verbs in which grammatical and semantic centers coincide in the first component

e.g. to back up to nose out -

Classification by A.I. Smirnitsky

2. units equivalent to verbs in which semantic centre is in the second element and grammatical centre is in the first element e.g. to be tired

Classification by A.I. Smirnitsky

3. prepositional-nominal units equivalent to unchangeable words: prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs. Semantic center is in the nominal constituent, there is no grammatical center e.g. in the course of during, o the nose exactly

Classification by A.I. Smirnitsky

two-summit (two-top) units - have two or more meaningful constituents (compared with compound words) 1. attributive-nominal units - equivalent to nouns e.g. millstone round ones neck high road -

Classification by A.I. Smirnitsky

2. verbal-nominal units equivalent to verbs e.g. to read between the lines to speak BBC -

Classification by A.I. Smirnitsky

3. phraseological repetitions equivalents of adverbs or adjectives, components are joined by a conjunction e.g. back and forth ups and downs multi-summit units e.g. to be a shadow of ones own self

A.V. Koonins Classification

based on structural-semantic principle based on the functions units fulfil in speech

A.V. Koonins Classification according to the function in communication

1. nominative e.g. a bull in a china shop 2. interjectional e.g. a pretty kettle of fish!

A.V. Koonins Classification according to the function in communication 3. nominative-communicative verbal

word-groups which are transformed into a sentence when the verb is used in the Passive Voice
e.g. to break the ice the ice is broken

4. communicative proverbs and sayings

e.g. spare a rod and spoil a child - , ;

A.V. Koonins Classification according to the structure

changeable/ unchangeable 1. may have synonyms e.g. to lift a finger not to raise a finger 2. with a variable pronoun e.g. to pull ones leg 3. with both types of variability e.g. to give smb a piece/ a bit of ones mind

Classification by N.N. Amosova

phraseological

units are units of

a fixed context fixed context specific and unchanging sequence of lexical components and specific relations between them

Classification by N.N. Amosova

always binory, one component has a phraseologically bound meaning, the other serves as a determining context e.g. small talk, small hours
phrasemes

Classification by N.N. Amosova

idioms the new meaning is crated by the whole, every element may have its original meaning weakened or completely lost e.g. in the nick of the time at the exact moment movable (changeable)/immovable e.g. apple sauce/ the apple of ones eye

Proverbs ()
sum up the collective wisdom of the community, a popular truth or a moral lesson in a concise and imaginative way are metaphorical they moralize e.g. Hell is paved with good intentions

Proverbs
they admonish e.g. If you sing before breakfast, you will cry before night they criticize e.g. Everyone calls his own geese swans they give advice e.g. Dont judge a tree by its bark

Proverbs
lexical components are stable meaning is figurative are ready-made units are easily transformed into phraseological units e.g. dont cast pearls before swine to cast pearls before swine

Sayings ()
are

non-metaphorical, not figurative grammatically they are finished sentences e.g. Where there is a way, there is a will

Familiar Quotations ( )
come from literature in contrast to proverbs, they do not express finished judgment e.g. To err is human.