Protasiakos Kai Katigorimatikos Logismos

Dom
tou
Majmatoc
Protasiak Logik (Propositional
Logic). Logic),
h opoa enai
Kathgorhmatik Logik (Predicate
gnwst kai wc Prwtobjmia Logik (First-Order
Logic). Ian
Autc oi shmeiseic enai basismnec stic shmeiseic tou
Hodkinson
Londnou.
ap to Kolgio
Imperial,
tou Panepisthmou tou
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Bibla
Ap th Logik sto Logik Programmatism kai thn G. Mhtakdhc. Ekdseic Kardamtsa. Stoiqea Majhmatikc Logikc. A. Tzoubrac. Ekdseic Zth. Logik: H dom tou Epiqeirmatoc. D. Portdhc, S. Ylloc kai D. Anapolitnoc. Ekdseic Neflh.
Prolog.
Diakrit Majhmatik kai Majhmatik Logik, Tmoc G': Majhmatik Logik. K. Dhmhtrakpouloc. Ellhnik Anoikt Panepistmio.
Logic in Computer Science: Modelling and Reasoning about Systems. M. Huth kai M. Ryan. Cambridge University Press. Articial Intelligence: A Modern Approach. S. Russel Norvig.
Ma Sgqronh Prosggish, ekdseic Kleidrijmoc. kai
P.
Kuklofore ellhnik kdosh me ttlo Teqnht Nohmosnh -
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1.
Logik:
Eisagwg
To kommti thc Filosofac pou pragmateetai morfc sullogismo kai skyhc, eidik epagwgc kai episthmonikc mejdouc. Epiplon, Logik enai h susthmatik qrsh sumbolikn teqnikn kai majhmatikn mejdwn gia ton upologism morfn gkurou epagwgiko epiqeirmatoc. Se aut to mjhma ja asqolhjome me th qrsh thc Logikc gia thn perigraf kai anptuxh prodiagrafn (specication) logismiko, kai ton sumperasm (reasoning) sqetik me tic prodiagrafc.
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Logik:
Eisagwg
H Logik enai o
logismc
thc Plhroforikc: ma
majhmatik bsh gia thn antimetpish plhroforac kai gia ton sumperasm sqetik me th sumperifor logismiko. Parqei ma kal exskhsh gia to swst sumperasm kai thn akrib perigraf. Merikc ap tic polplokec efarmogc Plhroforikc qreizontai kai qrhsimopoion Logik. Pq, h
Prolog
enai
ma glssa programmatismo Logikc. H glssa bsewn dedomnwn
SQL
enai basismnh se idec Logikc. Oi
prodiagrafc eufun praktrwn logismiko (intelligent
software agents)
ekfrzontai me th qrsh thc Logikc.
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Logik:
Eisagwg
H Logik brskei
efarmog
(sunjwc apotele to upbajro)
se arketc epistmec: Fusik: Kbantologikc Logikc (quantum
logics)
qoun
epinohje gia thn jemelwsh thc kbantomhqanikc (quantum
mechanics).
Yuqologa: qrsh Logikn gia thn melth thc anjrpinhc skyhc. Glwssologa: qrsh Logikc gia thn jemelwsh Logikn Grammatikn (logical
grammar)
me skop thn anlush thc
qrshc thc glssac ap touc anjrpouc. Pc, gia pardeigma, qrhsimopoiontai ta onmata, oi antwnumec, oi posodektec (loi-meriko-kpoioi klp), oi qrnoi (upersuntlikoc -aristoc, klp).
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Logik:
Eisagwg
'Ena ssthma Logikc perilambnei: Suntaktik (Syntax): ma tupik glssa (pwc ma glssa programmatismo) h opoa qrhsimopoietai gia na ekfrsei nnoiec, gia thn anaparstash thc gnshc. Shmasiologa (Semantics). H shmasiologa tou sustmatoc exetzei ton trpo me ton opoo oi ekfrseic pou epitrpontai ap to suntaktik thc glssac sqetzontai me to pragmatik touc perieqmeno. Snolo kannwn sumperasmatologac (Proof
theory).
Oi
kannec sumperasmatologac epitrpoun thn exagwg logikn sumperasmtwn ap th gnsh tou sustmatoc.
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2.
Protasiak Logik
Paraktw enai na mroc progrmmatoc:
if count>0 and not found then decrement count; look for next entry; end if
To prgramma perilambnei basikc (atomikc) protseic, pwc
count>0, found,
oi opoec enai alhjec
yeudec ktw ap orismnec sunjkec. Mporon na qrhsimopoihjon sndesmoi pwc
and, or,
not
gia na anaptuqjon pio polplokec protseic ap tic
atomikc protseic. h telik polplokh prtash ja enai alhjc yeudc. H protasiak logik den enai pol ekfrastik. H kathgorhmatik logik enai pio ekfrastik.
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Protasiak
Logik
'Ola ta edh Logikc baszontai se kpoio bajm sthn Protasiak Logik. Jloume na antimetwpzoume
if-tests
opoiasdpote
poluplokthtac kai na meletsoume ta genik qarakthristik touc. Den jloume apl na apotimome Jloume na gnwrzoume an do pte to na sunepgetai to
if-tests if-tests qoun to dio nhma, llo, an na if-test mpore
pot na enai alhjc ( yeudc). H Protasiak Logik perilambnei ma shmantik omda upologistikn problhmtwn, kai sunepc enai antikemeno melthc twn algorjmwn kai thc jewrac poluplokthtac.
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2.1
Sun taktik
Prta, prpei na dsoume na akrib orism sta edh twn
if-tests
ta opoa ja antimetwpsoume. Autc o orismc ja mac
dsei thn tupik glssa (formal
language)
thc Protasiakc
Logikc. To alfbhto thc glssac thc Protasiakc Logikc qei 3 sustatik.
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Prto sus tatik:
' Atoma
De mac apasqole poia atomik gegonta (pq,
count>0,
found)
ja antimetwpsoume. Arke na mporon na proun ma
alhjotim (dhlad na enai alhj yeud). Oi protasiakc metablhtc (propositional (propositional wc
atoms )
grfontai sunjwc wc
variables ) toma p , p , p0 , p1 , p2 , . . .
q, r , . . . x, y, z
sta Majhmatik.
Enai san tic metablhtc
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Detero
sus tatik:
Logiko
sndesmoi
'Eqoume touc paraktw sundsmouc (connectives): szeuxh (kai): grfetai wc rnhsh (den): grfetai wc dizeuxh (): grfetai wc
sunepagwg (an-tte): grfetai wc
isodunama (an kai mno an): grfetai wc
truth
kai
falsity:
grfontai wc
kai
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Parade gmata
count>0 and not found grfetai (count > 0) found, swc p q

To test
wc
Ta smbola gia szeuxh, dizeuxh, sunepagwg kai isodunama parnoun do paramtrouc kai grfontai wc:
p q, p ,
Ta
p q, q
p q,
pq
H rnhsh
parnei ma parmetro kai grfetai wc:
den qoun paramtrouc.
Enai logikc stajerc (pwc to
).
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Trto
sus tatik:
Shmea Stxhc
Qreiazmaste parenjseic gia na aposafhnsoume ta
if-tests.
Pq, sthn arijmhtik to
12+3
den enai xekjaro, up thn
nnoia ti mporome na to diabsoume wc
(1 2) + 3
1 (2 + 3).
Omowc, to
H diafor pazei rlo.
pqr
mpore na diabaste wc:
(p q ) r p (q r )
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Protseic
'Olec oi akoloujec sumblwn pou ekfrzoun toma, sundsmouc kai parenjseic onomzontai ekfrseic.
Aut pou qoume onomsei
if-tests
sth Logik lgontai
protseic (formulas ) kalosqhmatismnec (well-formed) ekfrseic.
Orismc 2.1
(Prtash)
Kje tomo (p , q , r klp) enai prtash. Ta An to An ta kai
enai protseic.
enai prtash tte enai kai to (A). ta
A, B enai protseic tte enai kai (A B ), (A B ), (A B ) kai (A B ).
Oi mnec ekfrseic thc glssac pou enai protseic, enai autc pou kataskeuzontai me touc parapnw kannec.
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Parade gmata Protsewn
Ta paraktw enai protseic:
p (p ) ((p ) ) (((p ) )) ((p ) (((p ) )))

Qreiazmaste kpoiouc kannec gia na meisoume ton arijm parenjsewn. Austhr milntac, ta apotelsmata ja enai suntomografec protsewn. All jewrontai protseic. Mporome pnta na paraleyoume tic exwterikc parenjseic: pq, ta
kai
((p ) )
enai saf.
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Kannec Apaloifc
Parenjsewn
Gia na paraleyoume perissterec parenjseic, orzoume thn paraktw proteraithta sundsmwn:
(isqurteroc)
, , , ,
(pio adnamoc)
Enai pwc sthn arijmhtik pou to
enai isqurtero ap to
+ kai sunepc to 2+34 (2+3)4. Omowc: pqr p q

diabzetai wc
diabzetai wc
2+(34)
kai qi wc
diabzetai wc
p (q r )
kai qi wc
(p q ) r
(p ) q
kai qi wc
(p q )
kai qi wc
p q r diabzetai wc (p (q )) r p ((q r )) p ((q ) r ))
Genik mwc protenetai h qrsh twn parenjsewn tan bohjei thn anagnwsimthta, parlo pou oi parenjseic mporon na apaloifjon. Pq, to na katanohje.
p q r s t
enai pol dskolo
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Kannec Apaloifc
Parenjsewn
Ti gnetai me protseic pwc
p q r;
H proteraithta twn
sundsmwn den mac bohjei se aut thn perptwsh. H parapnw prtash prpei na diabaste wc
p (q r )
wc
(p q ) r ;
Se ttoiec periptseic prpei opwsdpote na qrhsimopoiome parenjseic.
Ap thn llh, oi protseic pwc enai.
pqr
kai
pqr
enai safec
'Opwc ja dome h logik shmasa enai h dia kai stic do periptseic pwc kai na qrhsimopoisoume tic parenjseic. Oi protseic
(p q ) r
kai
p (q r )
enai diaforetikc. 'Alla
pwc ja dome qoun thn dia alhjotim se kje perptwsh: enai
logik
isodnamec.
'Ara de mac apasqole pc ja aposafhnsoume thn prtash
p q r.
(Sunjwc enai
(p q ) r .)
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Dndra
'Eqoume dexei pc na diabzoume me safneia ma prtash (formula). Se kje prtash antistoiqe na dndro (formation
tree ),
na
digramma dhlad pou deqnei pc kataskeuzetai h prtash aut ap toma me th bojeia twn sundsmwn. Pq, h prtash
p q (p q r )
-> V
qei to paraktw dndro:
-> q p /\
r
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Krioc Sndesmoc
Prosxte ti o sndesmoc sth rza (koruf) tou dndrou enai
Autc enai o krioc sndesmoc (principal
connective )
thc
prtashc
logik morf
p q (p q r ). A B.
Aut h prtash qei thn
Kje mh atomik prtash qei na krio sndesmo, o opooc kajorzei th logik morf thc prtashc.
pq r A B.
enai
qei krio sndesmo
. .
H logik thc morf enai
(p q ) A.
qei krio sndesmo
H logik thc morf
pqr pqr A B.
qei krio sndesmo
(pijantata to detero). H
logik thc morf enai
A B. .
H logik thc morf enai
qei krio sndesmo
Poia enai ta dndra autn twn protsewn;
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Upo-protseic
Oi upo-protseic (subformulas ) mac prtashc
enai oi
protseic pou qrhsimopoiontai gia thn anptuxh thc aut orzetai ap ton Orism 2.1.
A,
pwc
Oi upo-protseic antistoiqon stouc kmbouc, sta upo-dndra, tou dndrou thc
A.
Oi upo-protseic thc
p q (p q r ) enai: p q (p q r ) p q p qr p q p qr p q r p.
Prosoq: uprqoun duo diaforetikc upo-protseic
Ta
pq
kai
pq
den enai upo-protseic, enai
upo-akoloujec (sub-strings) sumblwn.
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Sun tomografec
1i n n
Ai ,
n i =1 Ai ,
Ai ,
i =1 1i n
Ai
Ta parapnw enai suntomografec gia thn prtash
A1 A2 An .
1i n n
Ai ,
n i =1 Ai ,
Ai ,
i =1 1i n
Ai
Ta parapnw enai suntomografec gia thn prtash
A1 A2 An .
Enai pwc sthn 'Algebra, pou to tou
n i =1 ai enai suntomografa
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a1 + a2 + + an .
Orologa
Orismc 2.2
Ma prtash thc morfc
onomzetai atomik prtash Stoiqeidhc tpoc rnhsh thc. Programmatikc tpoc
, , p , gia na tomo p , (atomic formula).
(literal)
enai kje atomik prtash h
(clause)
enai ma dizeuxh enc
perissotrwn stoiqeiwdn tpwn. Pq, oi protseic
p , r , ,
enai lec stoiqeideic tpoi.
Paradegmata programmatikn tpwn:
p,
p ,
p q r ,
p p p
q .
O kenc programmatikc tpoc, o opooc den periqei kanna stoiqeidh tpo, antimetwpzetai pwc h prtash
(sto ).
biblo o kenc programmatikc tpoc sumbolzetai me
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2.2
Shmasiologa
Gnwrzoume pc na diabzoume kai na grfoume protseic (formulas). Poio enai mwc to nhma touc; Me lla lgia, poia enai h shmasiologa touc; Oi logiko sndesmoi (, , , , ) qoun kpoia antistoiqa me thn Ellhnik glssa.
All ta Ellhnik enai ma fusik glssa, gemth me asfeiec kai eidikc periptseic. H metfrash metax Ellhnikn kai Logikc den enai pnta ekolh.
Qreiazmaste na akrib trpo me ton opoo na dnoume nhma stic protseic thc Logikc.
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Kats tash, Aponom
aljeiac
Ma katstash (situation) enai kti to opoo orzei an kje tomo enai alhjc yeudc.
Aponom aljeiac onomzoume kje sunrthsh pou
F : Q {, }
enai to snolo twn atmwn thc glssac. Dhlad ma
aponom aljeiac dnei alhjotimc sta toma thc glssac.
Gia ta
if-tests
ma katstash enai na shmeo sthn ektlesh
tou progrmmatoc. Oi trqousec timc twn metablhtn tou progrmmatoc kajorzoun an kje atomik kfrash enc (pq,
if-test
x > 0, x =y
klp) enai alhjc yeudc.
Gia thn kfrash enai o kairc.
if (it rains) then (it is cloudy)
ma katstash
Gia ta toma
p, q, . . .
ma katstash diatupnei poia ap
aut enai alhj kai poia enai yeud.
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Kats tash, Aponom
aljeiac
Uprqei pnw ap ma katstash. Profanc, se ma diaforetik katstash oi alhjotimc ja enai diaforetikc.
Gnwrzontac ma katstash mporome na upologsoume to nhma kje prtashc, dhlad an h prtash enai alhjc yeudc se aut thn katstash. Phganoume ap aplc protseic se pio snjetec, pwc ja dome eujc amswc.
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Erm hnea
Orismc 2.3
( Erm hnea
Evaluation
) )
H alhjotim mac prtashc se ma dedomnh katstash orzetai wc exc. H katstash mac plhrofore gia tic alhjotimc twn atmwn. H prtash Ac upojsoume ti enai alhjc kai h
enai yeudc.
A, B
enai protseic, kai ti gnwrzoume tic
alhjotimc touc sth dedomnh katstash. Tte se aut thn katstash: H prtash an h
enai alhjc an h
enai yeudc, kai yeudc
enai alhjc.
H prtash
AB
enai alhjc an h
Se opoiadpote llh perptwsh h
A kai h B enai alhjec. A B enai yeudc.

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Erm hnea
Orismc 2.3 (Ermhnea) (sunqeia) H prtash
AB
enai alhjc an h
enai alhjc h
enai alhjc kai h
kai h
enai alhjec. Se
opoiadpote llh perptwsh h (Periektik dizeuxh.) H prtash
AB
enai yeudc.
AB
enai alhjc an h
enai yeudc h
enai alhjc. Allic, an h yeudc tte h H prtash
enai alhjc kai h
enai
AB
enai yeudc.
AB
enai alhjc an h
kai h
qoun thn
dia alhjotim (enai kai oi do alhjec kai oi do yeudec).
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P nakec Aljeiac
gia touc sundsmouc
Mporome na ekfrsoume autoc touc kannec qrhsimopointac pnakec aljeiac gia touc sundsmouc.
Grfoume 1 gia thn tim
Aut den qoun sqsh me ta qi alhjotimc.
alhjc kai 0 gia thn tim yeudc. , ta opoa enai protseic kai A
0 1 1 1
A
1 0
0 0
A
1 1 0 0
B
1 0 1 0
AB
1 0 0 0
AB
1 1 1 0
AB
1 0 1 1
AB
1 0 0 1
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Parade gmata
Ac upojsoume ti h prtash
enai alhjc kai h
enai
yeudc se ma sugkekrimnh katstash. Tte se aut thn katstash h prtash:
p q
enai yeudc. enai alhjc. enai yeudc. enai alhjc. enai yeudc. enai alhjc. enai yeudc kai h
pq pq
pq qp pq
p q
enai alhjc.
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Parade gmata
Ac upojsoume tra ti h prtash
enai yeudc kai h
enai
alhjc. Se aut thn kainorgia katstash h prtash:
p q
enai tra alhjc. enai tra yeudc. enai akma yeudc. enai akma alhjc. enai tra alhjc. enai tra yeudc. enai akma yeudc kai h
pq pq
pq qp pq
p q
enai akma
alhjc.
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Parade gmata
Ac upojsoume pli ti h prtash
enai alhjc kai h
enai
yeudc se ma sugkekrimnh katstash. Poia enai h alhjotim twn paraktw protsewn:
p q qq p q pq q (p ) (q (p q ))
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2.3
Sqsh
tou Protasiako
Logismo me
th Fusik
Glssa
H tupopohsh thc fusikc glssac, dhlad h metfrash twn protsewn thc fusikc glssac sthn Protasiak Logik den enai pnta ekolh. Enai mwc aparathth gia orismnec efarmogc. Merik stoiqea pou prpei na prosxoume sthn tupopohsh thc fusikc glssac: Apomonnoume tic atomikc protseic. Prosqoume an kpoiec ap tic atomikc protseic enai tautshmec. Antikajistome diakritc atomikc protseic me diakrit toma (p , q , r , . . . ). Entopzoume louc touc logikoc sundsmouc (aut apaite thn apdosh twn sundsmwn thc fusikc glssac se antstoiqouc thc tupikc).
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Tupopohsh
thc fusikc
glssac
Entopzoume tic mikrterec (snjetec) protseic oi opoec apotelon th snjeth prtash, kai tic diakrnoume me parenjseic. Entopzoume ton krio logik sndesmo pou sundei tic snjetec protseic metax touc, kai proqwrome ap' autn stouc epimrouc sundsmouc. Apoddoume thn prtash qrhsimopointac ta sqetik logik smbola kai parenjseic. Paradegmata tupopohshc thc fusikc glssac uprqoun sto biblo
Logik:
H Dom tou Epiqeirmatoc.
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Tupopohsh
thc fusikc
glssac
Pardeigma:
An
den psei o plhjwrismc kai anboun ta
epitkia, tte to dhmsio qroc ja psei an kai mno an katafgoume se exwterik daneism.
Atomikc protseic:
p: q: r: s:
o plhjwrismc pftei ta epitkia anebanoun to dhmsio qroc pftei katafegoume se exwterik daneism
Logiko sndesmoi: an
...
tte, den, kai, an kai mno an
Prth prosggish logikc morfc: an (den
kai
q ),
tte (r an kai mno an
s)
Krioc sndesmoc: an Logik morf:
. . . tte (p q ) (r s )
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Problmata s thn
tupopohsh
thc fusikc
glssac
To
all
mpore na shmanei
kai.
ja ja
bgw xw all brqei metafrzetai se bgw xw
brqei.
ektc an genik shmanei ja bgw xw ektc an brqei metafrzetai se ja bgw xw ja brqei. Epshc mpore na ekfraste wc (ja brqei)
To
ja bgw xw.
suqn shmanei kai mporec na preic kotpoulo yri sunjwc shmanei mporec na preic kotpoulo mporec na preic yri o o
Ginnhc kai h Mara enai eutuqismnoi maz prpei na
metafraste wc ma atomik prtash, qi wc Ginnhc enai eutuqismnoc
h Mara enai eutuqismnh
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Ap
thn tupik
glssa s th
fusik
Arqik h metfrash thc tupikc glssac sth fusik fanetai ekolh. Pq:
p q
metafrzetai se
kai
q . an
brqei tte
brqei
ja bgw xw metafrzetai se
den ja bgw xw. All uprqoun kai problmata. Oi polplokec protseic thc Protasiakc Logikc enai dskolo na apodojon sth fusik glssa. O sndesmoc
enai dskolo na apodoje. Sth fusik glssa
qrhsimopoiome to
an . . .
tte me diaforetikoc trpouc, kai
qi pnta prosektik. H prtash
Emai
o Ppac
emai jeoc enai alhjc
(giat;). All ja lgame pot ti h prtash thc fusikc glssac
An
emai o Ppac tte emai jeoc enai alhjc;
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3.
Epiqeirmata, egkurthta
Gnwrzoume pc na diabzoume, na grfoume kai na ermhneoume (evaluate) protseic thc Protasiakc Logikc. Gnwrzoume epshc merik prgmata sqetik me th metfrash metax thc fusikc glssac kai thc Protasiakc Logikc.
H Logik qrhsimopoietai kai gia epiqeirhmatologa. Pq, paraktw qoume to exc epiqerhma: O Swkrthc enai ndrac. Oi ndrec enai jnhto. 'Ara o Swkrthc enai jnhtc.
Enai aut na gkuro epiqerhma;
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3.1
'Egkura
epiqeirmata
To prohgomeno epiqerhma enai gkuro an gia kje katstash sthn opoa o Swkrthc enai ndrac kai oi ndrec enai jnhto, o Swkrthc enai ndrac.
'Opwc qoume anafrei, sthn Protasiak Logik ma katstash orzei thn alhjotim kje atmou.
Orismc 3.1
( 'Egkuro Epiqerhma (
Valid Argument
) )
Dojousn twn protsewn
A1 , A2 , . . . , An , B ,
ra
na epiqerhma
A1 , . . . , An ,
enai gkuro an: h prtash
enai alhjc se kje katstash
A1 , . . . , An enai alhjec. 'An isqei A1 , . . . , An |= B . To smbolo | = diabzetai wc logik sunpeia (logical entailment/implication).
sthn opoa lec oi protseic aut tte grfoume
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Parade gmata epiqeirhmtwn
Ac upojsoume ti
A, B
enai tuqaec protseic. To epiqerhma:
A,
ra
enai gkuro giat se kje katstash, an h
enai alhjc tte h
enai alhjc.
A |= A.
A B , A, A
ra pou h
ra
enai gkuro.
A B |= A.
A B den enai gkuro: uprqoun katastseic A enai alhjc kai h A B enai yeudc. Sunepc A B.
ra
A, A B ,
enai gkuro. To noma auto tou
epiqeirmatoc enai
modus ponens.
enai epshc gkuro. To noma
A B , B , A B , B ,
ra
auto tou epiqeirmatoc enai ra
modus tollens. A B, B A.
den enai gkuro.
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3.2
'Egkurec,
ikanopoisimec, isodnamec protseic
Treic basikc idec sqetzontai me ta gkura epiqeirmata.

Orismc 3.2 ( 'Egkurh Prtash (
Valid Formula
|= A
) )
Ma prtash enai logik gkurh logik alhjc an enai alhjc se kje katstash. Grfoume tan ma prtash
enai gkurh.
Oi gkurec protseic onomzontai kai tautologec (tautologies ).

Orismc 3.3 ( Ikanopoisim h Prtash (
Satisable Formula
) )
Ma prtash enai ikanopoisimh epalhjesimh an enai alhjc se toulqiston ma katstash.

Orismc 3.4 ( Isodnamec Protseic (
Equivalent Formulas
A B.
) )
Duo protseic
A, B
enai logik isodnamec an enai alhjec
stic diec akribc katastseic. Sumbolik
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Parade gmata
Prtash
'Egkurh nai
Ikanopoisimh nai qi nai qi nai
p p p pp
qi qi qi nai
Isodnamh;
p
nai qi qi qi nai qi
pq
qi qi nai
pp p p p q
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3.3
Sqseic
metax twn tessrwn
ennoin
Ta gkura epiqeirmata kai oi gkurec, ikanopoisimec kai isodnamec protseic orzontai metax touc. Pq:
epiqerhma
egkurthta
ikanopoihsimthta
isodunama
A |= B |= A
AB A
gkurh
A B
mh ikanopoisimh
(A B ) A
gkurh
A
mh ikanopoisimh
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4.
Elgqon tac thn
egkurthta
twn
protsewn
'Ara qreizetai na antimetwpsoume mno gkurec protseic. Pc katalabanoume an ma prtash enai gkurh; Elgqoume ti h prtash enai alhjc se kje katstash.
Aut mpore na epiteuqje gia protseic thc Protasiakc Logikc, all upologistik enai na dskolo prblhma.
Gia thn Kathgorhmatik Logik, thn opoa ja dome sta epmena majmata, enai pol pio dskolo prblhma, giat oi katastseic enai pollc kai pio polplokec. All uprqoun kpoioi trpoi na dexoume ti orismnec protseic thc Kathgorhmatikc Logikc enai gkurec.
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Trpoi
na elegqje h
egkurthta
twn
protsewn
Uprqoun diforoi trpoi na upologsoume an ma prtash thc Protasiakc Logikc enai gkurh qi: Pnakec aljeiac. Elgqoume an se lec tic pijanc sqetikc katastseic h prtash enai alhjc. 'Amesh majhmatik epiqeirhmatologa (direct mathematical argument). Isodunamec. 'Eqoume ma lsta ap qrsima zeugria isodnamwn protsewn. Qrhsimopoiome autc tic isodunamec gia na metatryoume thn arqik prtash sthn prtash , h opoa enai gkurh.
Difora sustmata apodexewn (proof
kannec fusikc sumperasmatologac (natural sustmata
Hilbert,
shmasiologiko
systems), pwc pq, deduction), pnakec (semantic
tableaux).
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4.1
P nakec
aljeiac
Ac dexoume ti h prtash
(p q ) (p q )
enai gkurh.
Grfoume 1 gia thn tim alhjc kai 0 gia thn tim yeudc.
'Eqoume do toma, pou to kajna parnei ma ap tic do alhjotimc. Oi alhjotimc llwn atmwn den mac apasqolon. 'Ara qoume tsseric sqetikc katastseic. Ermhneoume lec tic upo-protseic thc prtashc mac se kje katstash:
p
1 1 0 0
q
1 0 1 0
pq
1 0 1 1
p
0 0 1 1
p q
1 0 1 1
(p q ) (p q )
1 1 1 1 enai alhjc (qei
Blpoume ti h prtash
(p q ) (p q )
tim 1) se lec tic tsseric katastseic. 'Ara enai gkurh.
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Isodunama kai
ikanopoihsimthta
O dioc pnakac deqnei ti oi protseic
pq
kai
p q
enai
isodnamec: se kje ma ap tic tsseric katastseic qoun thn dia alhjotim. Ti elgqoume gia na dexoume ikanopoihsimthta;
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Meionektmata kai pleonektmata twn pi nkwn aljeiac
Enai kourastik kai enai ekolo na gnei ljoc.
All douleoun pnta, toulqiston gia thn Protasiak Logik pou mno peperasmnec katastseic sqetzontai me ma prtash. (Aut den isqei gia thn Kathgorhmatik Logik. Sthn perptwsh aut prpei na brome llouc trpouc.)
Oi pnakec aljeiac mporon epiplon na qrhsimopoihjon gia na dexoume ikanopoihsimthta kai isodunama.
Deqnoun pso dskolo enai na apodeiqje h egkurthta, ikanopoihsimthta, klp. Ma prtash me
toma qreizetai
2n grammc ston pnaka aljeiac thc. Prosjtontac na tomo

diplasizei tic grammc tou pnaka.
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4.2
' Amesh majhmatik
epiqeirhmatologa
Direct
argument
p pq
enai gkurh.
Ac proume ma tuqaa katstash, h opoa dnei alhjotimc sta toma
p, q.
Ja dexoume ti h prtash
p pq
enai
alhjc se aut thn katstash.
'Ara prpei na dexoume ti AN to
enai alhjc se aut thn
katstash TOTE enai alhjc kai h prtash
p q.
enai alhjc, ra
An to
enai alhjc, tte kai na ap ta
p, q
h prtash
pq
enai alhjc.
' Askhsh
: dexte ti h prtash
A (A B ) B
enai gkurh.
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' Amesh
majhmatik epiqeirhmatologa
Ac dexoume ti h prtash me thn prtash dexoume ti h
(A B ) C enai logik isodnamh A (B C ). (Omowc, ja mporosame na prtash (A B ) C A (B C ) enai gkurh.)
Ac proume ma opoiadpote katstash.
(A B ) C enai alhjc se aut thn katstash an kai mno A B kai h C enai alhjec (smfwna me ton orism thc shmasiologac tou ).
H an h To parapnw isqei an kai mno an h kai h
kai h
enai alhjec,
enai epshc alhjc, dhlad enai lec alhjec.
Aut isqei an kai mno an h h
enai alhjc, kai epshc h
kai
enai alhjec.
Aut isqei an kai mno an h
kai h
B C
enai alhjec.
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' Amesh
majhmatik epiqeirhmatologa
Aut isqei an kai mno an h
A (B C )
kai
enai alhjc.
'Ara oi protseic
(A B ) C
A (B C )
qoun thn dia
alhjotim se aut thn katstash. H katstash tan tuqaa, ra oi protseic enai logik isodnamec.
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' Amesh
Majhmatik Epiqeirhmatologa
Ac dexoume ti h prtash gnwst wc nmoc tou
((p q ) p ) p , Peirce, enai gkurh.
h opoa enai
Ac proume ma tuqaa katstash. An to aut thn katstash, tte h prtash alhjc, giat kje prtash thc tan h
p enai alhjc se ((p q ) p ) p enai morfc A B enai alhjc
enai alhjc.
An to
den enai alhjc tte ja enai yeudc se aut thn
katstash.
Tte h prtash morfc
pq
enai alhjc, giat kje prtash thc
AB
enai alhjc tan h
enai yeudc.
Tte h prtash thc morfc
(p q ) p enai yeudc giat kje prtash A B enai yeudc tan h A enai alhjc kai h B
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enai yeudc.
' Amesh
Majhmatik Epiqeirhmatologa
Tte h prtash prtash thc
((p q ) p ) p enai alhjc giat kje morfc A B enai alhjc tan h A enai yeudc.
Aut h morf epiqeirhmatologac onomzetai epiqeirhmatologa me periptseic (argument enai alhjc to (law
by cases):
to
enai yeudc. Den uprqoun llec
periptseic. Autc enai o nmoc thc tou trtou apoklesewc
of excluded middle).
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4.3
Isodunamec
Oi isodunamec mac bohjon sto na aplopoisoume ma prtash na metatryoume ma prtash se ma llh, pnta diathrntac th logik isodunama.
'Ara an mporsoume na metatryoume ma prtash sthn prtash tte xroume ti h arqik prtash enai gkurh.
Ja anafroume ma lsta isodunamin oi opoec enai qrsimec gi' aut ton skop.
Oi isodunamec enai pollc, all lec ekfrzoun basikc logikc arqc pou ja prpei na gnwrzete. Na elgxete ti oi protseic enai ntwc isodnamec qrhsimopointac pnakec aljeiac mesh epiqeirhmatologa.
54 / 232
Isodunamec pou
perilambnoun to sndesmo
Stic paraktw isodunamec ta
A, B , C
ekfrzoun tuqaec
protseic. Gia suntoma pollc forc ja grfoume
isodnamec
ant gia
logik
isodnamec.
1. H prtash
AB AA A
enai logik isodnamh me thn
B A A A. .
(antimetajetikthta tou 2. H prtash
).
enai logik isodnamh me thn
(autopjeia tou 3. H prtash
).
enai logik isodnamh me thn kai
4. Oi protseic 5. H prtash
A A ).
enai isodnamec me thn
(A B ) C
enai isodnamh me thn
A (B C )
(prosetairistikthta tou
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Isodunamec pou
6. H prtash
AB AA A
B A A
(autopjeia tou
(antimetajetikthta tou 7. H prtash
).
).
8. Oi protseic 9. H prtash 10. H prtash kai
A A
enai isodnamec me thn
A. A (B C )
(A B ) C
(prosetairistikthta tou
).
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Isodunamec pou
perilambnoun touc
sundsmouc
kai
11. H prtash 12. H prtash 13. H prtash 14. H prtash 15. H prtash 16. H prtash 17. H prtash 18. H prtash 19. H prtash
enai isodnamh me thn enai isodnamh me thn
.
.
A.
.
AA A A A A AB
enai isodnamh me thn enai isodnamh me thn enai isodnamh me thn enai isodnamh me thn enai isodnamh me thn enai isodnamh me thn
A.
. .
A. A B
kai thn
(A B ).
20. H prtash
(A B )
A B .
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Isodunamec pou
21. H prtash
AB
enai isodnamh me tic:
(A B ) (B A), (A B ) (A B ), A B .
22. H prtash
(A B )
enai isodnamh me tic:
A B , A B , (A B ) (A B ).
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Nmoi
De Morgan
De Morgan:
kai epimeris tikthtac twn
Nmoi
23. H prtash 24. H prtash
(A B ) (A B )
enai isodnamh me thn enai isodnamh me thn
A B . A B .
Nmoi epimeristikthtac twn 25. H prtash
, :
A (B C ) (A B ) (A C ). A (B C ) (A B ) (A C ). A.
26. H prtash
27. Oi protseic me thn
A (A B )
kai
A (A B )
enai isodnamec
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Apodeiknon tac
egkurthta
me isodunamec
Prte opoiadpote upo-prtash mac prtashc antikatastste thn me ma isodnamh prtash.
kai
Epanalbete to prohgomeno bma. To apotlesma ja enai ma prtash logik isodnamh me thn An to apotlesma enai h prtash Pq, ac dexoume ti h prtash
A.
tte h
enai gkurh.
p pq
enai gkurh.
Aut h prtash enai isodnamh me thn thn isodunama 19). H teleutaa enai isodnamh me thn isodunama 10). H teleutaa enai isodnamh me thn isodunama 8). H teleutaa enai isodnamh me thn opoa enai gkurh. Ftsame sthn prtash prtash
p (p q )
(ap
(p p ) q q
(ap thn
(ap thn
(ap thn 8 pli), h
, h opoa enai gkurh. 'Ara h
p pq
enai gkurh.
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Pardei gma
AB
B A.
H prtash
B A
(B ) A
(ap thn
(ap thn isodunama 19). H teleutaa enai isodnamh me thn isodunama 6). H teleutaa enai isodnamh me thn isodunama 13). H teleutaa enai isodnamh me thn isodunama 19).
A B A B AB
(ap thn
(ap thn
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Pardei gma
Ac dexoume ti h prtash isodnamh me thn H prtash
(p q ) (p q )
enai logik
p.
(p q ) (p q ) enai isodnamh me thn p (q q ) (anstrofh qrsh thc isodunamac 26).

H teleutaa enai isodnamh me thn isodunama 4). H teleutaa enai isodnamh me thn 9).
p p
(ap thn
(ap thn isodunama
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Kanonikc morfc
Oi isodunamec mac epitrpoun na metatryoume ma prtash se ma isodnam thc se kanonik morf (normal Uprqoun do koinc kanonikc morfc:
Orismc 4.1 Kanonik (Diazeuktik Kanonik Morf, Suzeuktik
form).
Morf)
Ma prtash enai se diazeuktik kanonik morf (DKM) (disjunctive
normal form (DNF))
an enai ma dizeuxh
suzexewn stoiqeiwdn tpwn, kai den mpore peraitrw na aplopoihje allzontac morf. Paradegmata:
p q r (p q ) r (p q r ) Anti-pardeigma: (p p ) (q
q )
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Kanonikc morfc
Orismc 4.1 (sunqeia) Ma prtash enai se suzeuktik kanonik morf (SKM) (conjunctive
normal form (CNF))
an enai ma szeuxh
diazexewn stoiqeiwdn tpwn (dhlad ma szeuxh programmatikn tpwn), kai den mpore peraitrw na aplopoihje allzontac morf. Pardeigma:
(p q ) (q r ) (p q )
O Orismc 2.2 orzei touc stoiqeideic tpouc kai touc programmatikoc tpouc.
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Metatrpon tac ma prtash
se kanonik morf
1. Apalofoume touc sundsmouc
, : AB AB
me me
Antikajistome lec tic upo-protseic Antikajistome lec tic upo-protseic
A B .
(A B ) (A B ).
2. Prowjome tic arnseic msa stic parenjseic mqri ta toma qrhsimopointac touc nmouc tic diplc arnseic (antikajistome
De Morgan. Bgzoume thn A me thn A).
3. Qrhsimopoiome touc kannec epimeristikthtac gia na katalxoume sthn epijumht kanonik morf. 4. Aplopoiome: antikajistome tic upo-protseic
, kai tic p p me p me p , tic p
. Antikajistome tic me
p p me p me , tic
H isodunama
p,
kai tic
me
27 enai epshc suqn qrsimh. Epanalambnoume mqri h prtash na mhn enai peraitrw aplopoisimh.
65 / 232
Pardei gma:
p q (p r )
se DKM
p q (p r ) (p q ) (p r ) (p q ) ((p r ) (p r )) p q (p r ) (p r ) p (p r ) (p r ) q p (p r ) q
[arqik prtash]
] , ] [De Morgan, apaloif ]

[apaloif [apaloif [isodunama 6] [isodunama 27]
H teleutaa prtash enai se DKM. Mporome na thn aplopoisoume peraitrw an jloume proswrin na fgoume ap thn DKM:
[(p p ) (p r )] q [ (p r )] q p r q
[isodunama 26-epimeristikthta] [isodunama 8] [isodunama 3]
H shmantik aplopohsh thc arqikc prtashc deqnei to pleonkthma thc metatropc mac prtashc se kanonik morf.
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5.
Sus tmata
apodexewn:
fusik sumperasmatologa
'Ena ssthma apodexewn mac bohjei na deqnoume ti ma prtash enai gkurh qrhsimopointac mno suntaktikoc kannec den qrhsimopoiome to nhma twn protsewn. Ja mporosame na gryoume na prgramma logismiko to opoo efarmzei autoc touc kannec. H automatopoihmnh sumperasmatologa (automated enai ma anaptussmenh ereunhtik perioq.
reasoning)
Uprqoun arket sustmata apodexewn. Sta epmena majmata ja asqolhjome me to ssthma kannwn fusikc sumperasmatologac (natural
deduction (ND)).
67 / 232
Ti
e nai
to
ss thma
ND;
Ma tupopohsh thc meshc epiqeirhmatologac (direct
argument).
Xekinntac swc ap kpoia dojnta gegonta kpoiec protseic
A1 , . . . , An
qrhsimopoiome touc kannec tou
sustmatoc gia sumperasmatologa proc ma prtash An epitqoume, grfoume
B.
A1 , . . . , An
B. B
ap tic
Kat th sumperasmatologa pargontai endimesec protseic. Autc apotelon thn apdeixh thc
A1 , . . . , An .
epiqerhma.
Kje bma thc apdeixhc enai na gkuro
Uprqoun do kannec gia kje sndesmo: nac gia na eisgoume to sndesmo (dhlad na eisgoume ma prtash thc opoac enai o krioc sndesmoc), kai nac gia na qrhsimopoisoume to sndesmo (na qrhsimopoisoume ma prtash thc opoac enai o krioc sndesmoc). Oi kannec enai basismnoi sthn shmasiologa twn sundsmwn, thn opoa edame sta prohgomena majmata.
68 / 232
5.1
Kannec
ND
gia touc
sundsmouc
, ,
Uprqoun do kannec gia kje sndesmo. Oi kannec baszontai sto nhma twn sundsmwn.
Kannec gia to sndesmo (eisagwg
prtash thc morfc tic protseic 1
-introduction, I ). Gia na eisgoume ma A B , prpei na qoume dh eisgei A kai B .

to qoume apodexei aut
A
. . .
... ...
(lla sumpersmata) kai aut
2 3
B AB
I (1,2)
H arjmhsh twn grammn enai aparathth gia thn katanhsh thc apdeixhc.
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Kannec
ND
gia to
sndesmo
(apaloif gryoume
, -elimination, E ). An qoume katafrei na A B , tte mporome na gryoume A kai/ B .

1 2 3
AB A B
E (1) E (1)
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Upojseic
Stic apodexeic
ND
prpei suqn na knoume upojseic gia na
apodexoume aut pou jloume. Ma upjesh enai apl ma prtash, all qrhsimopoietai me na eidik trpo. Upojtoume ti (qoume ma katstash sthn opoa) h prtash enai alhjc. 'Epeita mpore na proqwrsoume sthn apdeix mac kajc gnwrzoume perisstera gia thn katstash.
Pq, o Srlok Qolmc upojtei gia mia stigm ti autc pou kleye to logo th nqta tan gnwstoc. Tte enai sgouroc ti ta skuli tou stblou ja gbgizan kai sunepc ja eqan xupnsei oi flakec tou stblou. All oi flakec den xpnhsan kat th dirkeia thc nqtac. O Qolmc sumperanei ti ta skuli den gbgisan th nqta, ra autc pou kleye to logo den tan gnwstoc.
H upjesh tou tan ljoc parl' aut mporose na knei aut thn upjesh, kai tan qrsimo pou thn kane.
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Kannec
ND
gia to
sndesmo
(eisagwg
ma prtash thc morfc apodeiknoume
-introduction, I ). Gia na eisgoume A B , upojtoume ti A kai ti B . A

kai otidpote llo qoume dh
Kat th dirkeia thc apdeixhc, mporome na qrhsimopoisoume thn
apodexei. All den mporome na qrhsimopoisoume thn otidpote llo ap thn apdeixh thc
ap thn
argtera (giat aut h apdeixh tan basismnh se ma epiplon upjesh). Sunepc, apomonnoume thn apdeixh thc
ap thn 1
se na kout: upjesh
A
(h apdeixh)
2 3
B AB
to apodexame!
I (1,
2)
Kama ap tic protseic pou enai msa sto kout den mpore na qrhsimopoihje argtera.
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Kannec
ND
gia to
sndesmo
Sto ssthma
ND
ta kouti qrhsimopoiontai tan knoume
epiplon upojseic. H prth gramm msa sto kout prpei pnta na onomzetai ja dome argtera.
upjesh
me ma exaresh, thn opoa
73 / 232
Kannec
ND
gia to
sndesmo
(apaloif
na gryoume mporome
, -elimination, E ). An qoume katafrei A kai A B , me opoiadpote seir, tte na gryoume B (Modus Ponens).
1
AB
. . .
to apodexame aut
...
2 3
A B
kai aut
... E (1, 2)
74 / 232
Kannec
ND
gia to
sndesmo
(eisagwg
ma prtash thc morfc protimme) thn 1 2 H
-introduction, I ). Gia na apodexoume A B , apodeiknoume thn A, (an B.

to apodexame aut
A AB
... I (1)
mpore na enai opoiadpote prtash! 1 2
B AB
to apodexame aut
...
I (1)
mpore na enai opoiadpote prtash!
75 / 232
Kannec
ND
gia to
sndesmo
-elimination, E ). Gia na apodexoume kti ap ma prtash thc morfc A B , prpei na to apodexoume upojtontac thn A, KAI na to apodexoume upojtontac thn B .
(apaloif Aut enai epiqeirhmatologa me periptseic. 1 2 3 4 8
AB A
. . . upjesh prth apdeixh to apodexame 5 6 7
B
. . .
upjesh deterh apdeixh to apodexame xan
C C
E (1, A, B
2, 4, 5, 7)
Oi upojseic
den mporon na qrhsimopoihjon
argtera, sunepc topojetontai se (diplan) kouti. Kama ap tic protseic pou enai msa sta kouti den mpore na qrhsimopoihje argtera. H
mpore na enai ma opoiadpote prtash, all kai ta
do kouti prpei na teleinoun me thn dia prtash
C.
76 / 232
5.2
Parade gmata
Akma den qoume dexei touc kannec gia touc sundsmouc
, , .
Parl' aut mporome na dome kpoia paradegmata.

5.1
Pardei gma
Ac apodexoume ti
A AB
me to ssthma
ND
(pou oi
A, B
enai tuqaec protseic). Thn egkurthta autc thc prtashc thn apodexame me mesh epiqeirhmatologa nwrtera sto mjhma. Sugkrnete tic do apodexeic. 1 2 3
A AB AAB
upjesh
I (1) I (1, 2) Se
kpoia katstash
H apdeixh sth fusik glssa: upojtoume ti h 'Ara h
enai alhjc. Tte kai h
AB
enai alhjc.
AAB
enai alhjc se opoiadpote katstash.
77 / 232
Oi
kannec e nai
sun taktiko
Oi kannec tou sustmatoc
ND
enai basismnoi sthn
shmasiologa twn sundsmwn. Parl' aut enai suntaktiko kannec. Ma apdeixh me to ssthma
ND
enai suntaktik.
78 / 232
Parade gmata
Pardei gma
5.2
Dojeshc thc prtashc 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Sth fusik glssa:
A (B C )
apodexte ti
A B C.
A (B C ) dedomno AB upjesh A E (2) BC E (1,3) B E (2) C E (4, 5) AB C I (2, 6) Jewrome

ti h prtash
A (B C )
enai epshc
enai alhjc (se kpoia katstash). Gia na dexoume ti h
AB C
enai alhjc, upojtoume ti h
AB
alhjc (se aut thn katstash), kai deqnoume ti h alhjc. Efson qoume
C enai A B tte qoume kai A. Epomnwc, qrhsimopointac thn A (B C ) blpoume ti h B C enai alhjc. H A B mac dnei th B . Sunepc qoume kai thn C .
79 / 232
Sumpera noume:
Se kje katstash sthn opoa h prtash alhjc, h
A (B C )
enai
AB C
enai epshc alhjc.
Ap ed kai sto exc suqn ja paralepoume th frsh alhjc.
enai
80 / 232
To
smbolo
Apodexame thn
AB C
ap th dojesa
A (B C ).
Sunepc mporome na gryoume:
A (B C )
Orismc 5.3
AB C
'Estw
A1 , . . . , An , B
tuqaec protseic.
A1 , . . . , An
shmanei ti h uprqei ma apdeixh (fusikc sumperasmatologac protseic
(ND)) thc B , A1 , . . . , An (dedomna). n=0) B
xekinntac ap tic
(dhlad tan
shmanei ti mporome na
apodexoume thn enai
qwrc dedomna. Me lla lgia h
jerhma (thc fusikc sumperasmatologac). A1 , . . . , An B diabzetai wc h B enai apodeximh ap tic A1 , . . . , An kai B diabzetai wc h B enai jerhma.
81 / 232
To
smbolo
Den prpei na sugqoume to To To
me to
enai suntaktik kai perilambnei apodexeic. enai shmasiologik kai perilambnei katastseic.
82 / 232
Parade gmata
Pardei gma
5.4
AB C
A (B C ).
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
AB C A B AB C BC A (B C )
dedomno upjesh upjesh
I (2,3) E (1,4) I (3, 5) I (2, 6)
Jewrome ti h prtash A B C enai alhjc. Gia na dexoume ti h A (B C ) enai alhjc, upojtoume A kai deqnoume ti B C . Gia na dexoume B C upojtoume B kai deqnoume ti C . All tra qoume A kai B , ra kai A B . Gnwrzoume ti A B C . Sunepc qoume C .
Sth fusik glssa:
83 / 232
5.3
Kannec
ND
gia to
sndesmo
O sndesmoc
qei treic kannec. Oi do prtoi
antimetwpzoun thn (eisagwg
wc thn
A .
-introduction, I ). Gia na apodexoume ma prtash thc morfc A, upojtoume A kai apodeiknoume . Wc sunjwc, den mporome na qrhsimopoisoume thn A argtera. Sunepc klenoume thn apdeixh tou ap thn A se na kout:
1 2 3 4
A
. . .
upjesh lla sumpersmata to apodexame!
I (1,
3)
84 / 232
Kannec
ND
gia to
sndesmo
Ap thn
(apaloif
sumperanoume 1 2 3 4 (apaloif
-elimination, E ). . A
. . .
kai thn
to apodexame
...
lla sumpersmata to apodexame kai aut
E (1,
3)
-elimination, ). A A
Ap thn
sumperanoume
A.
1 2 to apodexame
... (1) .
To pardeigma 5.8 knei qrsh tou kanna
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5.4
Parade gmata
Pardei gma
5.5 (O Qolmc kai to logo)
s : autc b : o w : oi
pou kleye to logo th nqta tan gnwstoc
skloc gbgise th nqta flakec tou stblou xpnhsan
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
s b dedomno b w dedomno w dedomno s upjesh b E (4, 1) w E (5, 2) E (3, 6) s I (4, 7)

86 / 232
Parade gmata
Pardei gma
5.6
Ac apodexoume ti
A
1 2 3 4
A. A A A
dedomno upjesh
E (1, 2) I (2, 3)
87 / 232
Parade gmata
Pardei gma
5.7
Ac apodexoume ti
(A B )
A.
dedomno upjesh
1 2 3 4 5 Sth fusik glssa: eqame
(A B ) A AB A
I (1) E (1, 3) I (2, 4)
tte ja eqame
Dojeshc thc prtashc (A B ), an A B , dhlad ja eqame antfash. of excluded middle).
'Ara qoume
A.
Aut enai ma akma kfansh tou nmou thc
tou trtou apoklesewc (law
88 / 232
Otidpote e nai
apodeximo ap
thn an tfash
Pardei gma
5.8
Ac apodexoume ti
1 2 3 4 5
gia kje prtash
A.
dedomno
A A A
upjesh
(1)
I (2, 3) (4)
Prosxte th qrsh tou
sth gramm 3 gia na
dikaiologsoume ma prtash h opoa enai dh diajsimh.
Otidpote enai apodeximo ap thn antfash.
89 / 232
Otidpote e nai
apodeximo ap
thn an tfash
Uprqoun do trpoi na to katanosoume: 1. Apl efarmzoume touc kannec
ND. A
enai alhjc. All
2. Jewrsame wc dedomno ma katstash sthn opoa h enai alhjc kai apodexame ti kai h den uprqei katstash pou h
enai alhjc. Sunepc
den uprqei lgoc na mhn deqtome opoiadpote sunpeia autc thc jerhshc. Epeid den uprqei katstash sthn opoa h mporome na apodexoume thn
enai alhjc,
mno ktw ap antifatikc
upojseic se na kout miac apdeixhc. Suqn knoume ttoiec upojseic. Pq, se epiqeirhmatologa me periptseic (qrsh kanna
E ).
Se autc tic periptseic mporome na
sumpernoume opoiadpote prtash (kajc apodexame thn
).
Sunepc enai qrsimo na deqnoume ti
Dete to
pardeigma 5.11 paraktw.
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Apodeiknon tac
thn
A A
A A
(pol qrsimh apdeixh). upjesh upjesh
Pardei gma
5.9
Ac apodexoume ti 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(A A) A A A A A A (A A) A A Upojtoume
ti
I (2) E (1,3) I (2,4) I (5) E (1, 6) I (1, 7) (8) (A A). An A tte 'Ara A (gramm 5). Tte
Sunepc
Sth fusik glssa:
A A,
dhlad ja eqame antfash.
mwc qoume
A A
to opoo enai antfash. Ara h arqik
upjesh enai yeudc, dhlad enai
(A A).
A A.
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5.5
Kannec
gia to sndesmo
(eisagwg
-introduction,
I ).
Mporome na
eisgoume to sndesmo enai pol qrsimo. (apaloif ,
opoudpote. Aut bbaia den
-elimination,
E ).
Den mporome na .
apodexoume tpota kainorgio ap
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5.6
Kannec
gia to sndesmo
(eisagwg
-introduction, I ). Gia na apodexoume prpei na apodexoume A kai A (gia opoiadpote prtash A).
1 2 3 4
A
. . .
to apodexame
...
lla sumpersmata to apodexame kai aut
I (1, E .
3)
Autc o kannac enai o dioc me ton do onmata gia ton dio kanna. (apaloif
Uprqoun dhlad
-elimination, E ).
Mporome na
apodexoume opoiadpote prtash ap pardeigma 5.8). 1 2
(Dete to
to apodexame
... E (1)
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5.7
Lmmata
'Ena lmma enai kti pou qoume dh apodexei kai mac bohjei na apodexoume aut pou jloume.
Sto pardeigma 5.9 apodexame
A A.
Aut h apdeixh
enai pol qrsimh. Diaire to epiqerhma se do periptseic, kai
A.
Aut dieukolnei ma apdeixh giat gnwrzoume
perisstera gia kje perptwsh.
Stic apodexeic
ND
ja mporete na eisgete thn prtash
A A
wc lmma (dhlad ja grfete
lmma
sth dexi stlh
thc apdeixhc), qwrc na qreizetai na thn apodexete.
Enai to monadik lmma pou ja mporete na qrhsimopoisete (qwrc na to apodexete).
Prpei mwc esec na dialxete poia prtash qrhsimopoisete.
ja
94 / 232
Parade gmata
Pardei gma
5.10
Ac apodexoume ti
((A B ) A) A
(nmoc tou
Peirce).
1 2 3
(A B ) A A A A
upjesh 5 6
upjesh lmma
upjesh
4 11 12
A upjesh 7 I (5,6) 8 B E (7) 9 A B I (6,8) A (3) 10 A E (1,9) A E (2, 3, 4, 5, 10) ((A B ) A) A I (1, 11)
95 / 232
5.8
Kannec
gia to sndesmo
A B wc (A B ) (A B ).
Antimetwpzoume mia prtash thc morfc
(A B ) (B A),
(eisagwg
kai isodnama wc
-introduction, I ). Gia na apodexoume A B apodeiknoume A B kai B A. Enallaktik, gia na apodexoume A B apodeiknoume A kai B , apodeiknoume A kai B (poia perptwsh protimme).
Prth enallaktik. . . 1
2 3
BA ... AB AB B ... A AB
to apodexame
... ...
kai aut
I (1,2)
to apodexame
Deterh enallaktik. . . 1
...
2 3
kai aut
... I (1,2)
96 / 232
5.8
Kannec
gia to sndesmo
Trth enallaktik. . . 1
2 3
A ... B AB
to apodexame
...
kai aut
... I (1,2)
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Kannec gia
to
sndesmo
thn
(apaloif thn
A,
qoume thn
Ap thn
-elimination, E ). Ap B. A B kai thn B , qoume thn A.

1
AB
kai
2 3
AB ... A B AB ... B A
to apodexame
...
kai aut
... E (1,2) ...
to apodexame
2 3
kai aut
... E (1,2)
98 / 232
5.9
Anakpton tec kannec (
Derived Rules
Oi basiko kannec tou sustmatoc
ND
(oi opooi qoun
parousiaste wc tra) mporon na sunduaston gia paraqjon noi kannec. Oi anakptontec auto kannec DEN enai aparathtoi se mia apdeixh, all knoun thn apdeixh pio sunoptik.
'Enac anakptwn kannac pou ja mporete na qrhsimopoiete onomzetai
apdeixh
ap antfash (Proof
by Contradiction
(PC)):
Gia na apodexoume
A,
upojtoume
kai apodeiknoume
99 / 232
Anakpton tec
kannec
O kannac
PC
enai o sunduasmc twn kannwn 1 2 3 4 5
kai
A
. . .
A A
I (1, 3) (4)
H parapnw apdeixh grfetai wc exc me th qrsh tou kanna
PC:
1 2 3 4
A
. . .
A PC
PC (1,3)
meinei thn apdeixh kat ma gramm.
H qrsh tou kanna
100 / 232
5.10
Sumboulc gia apodexeic
ND
1. Mjaite touc kannec. Lste askseic. 2. Gryte thn apdeixh me mesh majhmatik epiqeirhmatologa. 'Epeita tupopoiste thn apdeixh me touc kannec
ND. A,
tte ta
3. An duskoleeste na apodexete ma prtash paraktw mpore na bohjsoun:
A ( , proof by contradiction (PC) ). B B B . . 5.10 .
101 / 232
Parade gmata
Pardei gma
5.11
A B , C A, (B C )
Ac upojsoume ti qoume qoume wc dedomno ti dhlad
C.
C . Tte ja qoume kai A. All B , ra ja qoume B . 'Eqoume

dhmiourge antfash, kajc qoume
kai
wc dedomno
C , to opoo (B C ). C.
'Ara prpei na qoume
H parapnw epiqeirhmatologa enai ekolo na metafraste se apdeixh
ND.
102 / 232
Pardei gma
5.11
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 11 12 13 14
AB C A (B C ) C A A upjesh I (5,6) B E (7) B B C C
dedomno dedomno dedomno upjesh
E (2,4)
9
B B
upjesh
10
(9)
E (1,
6, 8, 9, 10)
I (11, 4) I (3, 12) PC (4, 13)
103 / 232
Kouti:
ti
prpei na
jummas te
Kje kout msa se ma apdeixh prpei na plhro tic paraktw propojseic: 1. 'Ena kout pnta arqzei me ma upjesh (h monadik exaresh afor ton kanna logik.) 2. Ma upjesh mpore na lbei qra mno sthn prth gramm enc koutio. 3. Msa se na kout mporome na qrhsimopoisoume opoiadpote prtash ap prohgomenec grammc thc apdeixhc, ektc ap tic protseic pou brskontai se kouti pou qoun klesei prin ap to trqon shmeo thc apdeixhc.
sthn kathgorhmatik
104 / 232
Kouti:
ti
prpei na
jummas te
4. Oi monadiko trpoi na exgoume plhrofora ap na kout enai me th qrsh twn kannwn (epiplon me thn qrsh twn
I , E , I , kai PC kannwn E kai I sthn
kathgorhmatik logik). H prth gramm met ap kje kout prpei na dikaiologhje me th qrsh enc ap autoc touc kannec. 5. Kama ap tic protseic pou enai msa se na kout den mpore na qrhsimopoihje xw ap to kout, ektc an exaqje smfwna me touc kannec pou anafrontai sthn propjesh 4. An na kout den plhro ma ap tic parapnw propojseic tte h apdeixh enai ljoc.
105 / 232
Qrsh koutin
'Estw ti jloume na apodexoume ti 1 2
A.
A A
dedomno
(1)
h kalterh apdeixh!
1 2 3 4
A A A
dedomno upjesh
I (2,1) I (1,2)
swst all qi xupno
106 / 232
Ljoc
qrsh koutin
1 2 3 4
A A A
dedomno upjesh
I (2,1) E (3)
ljoc!
1 2 3 4 5
A A A A
dedomno upjesh
I (2,1) E (3)
(4)
ljoc!
107 / 232
5.11
kai
O basikc mac stqoc enai na exetzoume th logik sunpeia ( ).
Jumhjete ti
A1 , . . . , An
enai alhjc an h
enai alhjc
se kje katstash pou oi H
A1 , . . . , An
enai lec alhjec. .
den enai qrsimh an den mac bohjei na dexoume
Orismc 5.12
'Ena jerhma enai ma prtash h opoa mpore na apodeiqje ap na dojn ssthma apodexewn. Mac endiafrei to ssthma kannwn fusikc sumperasmatologac. 'Ara na jerhma enai kje prtash pou
A.
Orismc 5.13
'Ena ssthma apodexewn enai orj an kje jerhma enai gkuro, kai plrec an kje gkurh prtash enai jerhma.
108 / 232
Orjthta
kai Plhrthta tou sus tmatoc
ND
Mpore na deiqte ti to ssthma kannwn fusikc sumperasmatologac (ND) enai orj kai plrec.
Jerhma 5.14 (orjthta sus tmatoc
ND
'Estw ti oi
A1 , . . . , An
Gia
A1 , . . . , An , B enai tuqaec B , tte A1 , . . . , An B .
protseic. An
n=0: Kje apodeximh prtash enai gkurh. To ssthma ND den knei pot ljh.
(plhrthta sus tmatoc
Jerhma 5.15
ND
'Estw ti oi
A1 , . . . , An
Gia
A1 , . . . , An , B enai tuqaec B , tte A1 , . . . , An B .
protseic. An
n=0:
tic gkurec
Kje gkurh prtash enai apodeximh. To ssthma ND mpore na apodexei lec protseic.
109 / 232
Orjthta
kai Plhrthta tou sus tmatoc
ND
'Ara mporome na qrhsimopoiome to ssthma elgqoume thn egkurthta twn protsewn.
ND
gia na
110 / 232
Sunpeia
Orismc 5.16
(sunpeia)
Mia prtash
enai sunepc an
'Ena snolo protsewn
A. {A1 , . . . , An } enai
sunepc an
1i n
Ai .
Smfwna me ta jewrmata orjthtac kai plhrthtac (Jewrmata 5.14 kai 5.15) qoume:
Jerhma 5.17
Mia prtash enai sunepc an kai mno an enai ikanopoisimh.
H nnoia thc ikanopoihsimthtac dnetai ap ton Orism 3.3.
111 / 232
Pandora
Pandora: www.doc.ic.ac.uk/pandora New Pandora: www.doc.ic.ac.uk/pandora/newpandora
Aut enai do ekdseic enc progrmmatoc logismiko me to opoo mporete na knete apodexeic qrhsimopointac touc kannec
ND. Imperial.
Oi
'Eqei anaptuqje ap foithtc tou Kolegou
foithtc tou majmatoc Majhmatikc Logikc to qoun brei pol qrsimo sto na majanoun na anaptssoun apodexeic me to ssthma
ND.
help tou progrmmatoc Pandora kai exaskhjete me ta tutorials tou. Lste tic askseic sto Pandora sto New Pandora kai elgxte an oi lseic sac enai swstc.
Diabste to Shmewsh: To prgramma
EM
(ap to
Pandora onomzei law of Excluded Middle).
to lmma
A A
112 / 232
6.
P nakec
Beth
Oi pnakec
Beth
apl pnakec (tableaux) apotelon na
ssthma apodexewn. Qrhsimopointac suntaktikoc kannec mporome na exetzoume an ma prtash enai gkurh.
O pnakac miac snjethc prtashc kataskeuzetai me bsh touc pnakec twn protsewn pou emfanzontai sth snjeth prtash.
113 / 232
Atomiko
p nakec
Orzoume atomikoc pnakec gia touc sundsmouc thc Protasiakc Logikc.
A /\ B
-(A /\ B)
-A
-B
O isqurismc ti ma prtash alhj kai thn
AB
enai alhjc apaite thn
alhj (gramm).
O isqurismc ti ma prtash thn
(A B )
enai alhjc apaite
yeud thn
yeud (diakldwsh).
114 / 232
Atomiko
p nakec
AVB
-(A V B)
A -> B
-(A -> B)
-A
-A
-B
-B
Mia diakldwsh stouc atomikoc pnakec dhlnei dizeuxh en ma gramm dhlnei szeuxh.
115 / 232
Atomiko
p nakec
A <-> B
-(A <-> B)
- -A
-p
-A
-A
-B
-B
116 / 232
Pardei gma
Gia na kataskeusoume ton pnaka miac snjethc prtashc xekinme grfontac
sthn koruf tou pnaka. Met
anaptssoume ton pnaka thc pnakec.

Pardei gma 6.1
smfwna me touc atomikoc
Na kataskeuaste o pnakac thc
(A A) (B (C D )).
(A /\ -A) V (B V (C /\ D))
A /\ -A A B
B V (C /\ D) C /\ D
-A
117 / 232
Pardei gma
Autc enai nac teleiwmnoc pnakac me treic kldouc. Oi kldoi arqzoun ap thn koruf. O aristerc kldoc enai antifatikc, periqei tic antifatikc protseic Sumbolzoume thn antifatikthta enc kldou upogrammzontac thn teleutaa tou prtash. Oi lloi do kldoi den enai antifatiko.
kai
A.
Msw tou pnaka thc
(A A) (B (C D )) B
blpoume ti h
upjesh ti aut h prtash enai alhjc enai ktw ap orismnec sunjkec swst, pq tan h enai alhjc oi
kai
enai alhjec.
Mporete na xeqwrsete touc atomikoc pnakec ston parapnw pnaka;
118 / 232
Orismo
Orismc 6.2
'Enac kmboc enc pnaka lgetai qrhsimopoihmnoc an emfanzetai san koruf atomiko pnaka. Allic lgetai aqrhsimopohtoc.
Orismc 6.3
'Enac kldoc enc pnaka lgetai antifatikc an oi enai kmboi tou kldou (gia kpoia tuqaa
Orismc 6.4
A kai A prtash A).
'Enac pnakac lgetai teleiwmnoc an kannac mh antifatikc kldoc den qei aqrhsimopohtouc kmbouc. Allic lgetai hmitelc.
Orismc 6.5
'Enac pnakac lgetai antifatikc an loi oi kldoi tou enai antifatiko.
119 / 232
Pardei gma
Pardei gma
6.6
Na kataskeuaste o pnakac tou nmou tou
Peirce
((A B ) A) A.
-(((A -> B ) -> A ) -> A )
(A -> B ) -> A
-A
-(A -> B) A
-B
120 / 232
Pardei gma
Diaisjhtik: An nac teleiwmnoc pnakac me koruf
breje
antifatikc, aut shmanei ti dokimsame louc touc dunatoc trpouc pou ja mporosan na knoun thn prtash kai apotqame. 'Ara h
yeud
enai alhjc se lec tic katastseic.
121 / 232
Pardei gma
((A -> B ) -> A ) -> A
-((A -> B ) -> A)
A -> B
-A
-A
122 / 232
To
smbolo
Orismc 6.7
Ma
Beth-apdeixh
miac prtashc
antifatikc pnakac me koruf
K enai nac teleiwmnoc K . H prtash K lgetai

to sumbolzoume me
Beth-apodeximh
an qei
To ti ma prtash
Beth-apdeixh. enai Beth-apodeximh

B
H prtash
K enai Beth-apodeximh ap tic protseic A1 , . . . , An an uprqei teleiwmnoc antifatikc pnakac me koruf K kai epmeno kmbo A1 An . Sumbolik A1 , . . . , An
B
Orismc 6.8
Ma
Beth-diyeush
miac prtashc
antifatikc pnakac me koruf
Beth-diayesimh
an uprqei
K enai nac teleiwmnoc K . H prtash K lgetai ma Beth-diyeush thc.

123 / 232
Sus tmata apodexewn
Ja qrhsimopoiome ta smbola tic apodexeic tou sustmatoc
ND kai
ap tic
B gia na xeqwrzoume
ND
Beth
apodexeic.
124 / 232
Pardei gma
Pardei gma
6.9
Na apodexete ti
((p q ) (p q )).
- -((p V q) <-> (-p /\ -q))
(p V q) <-> (-p /\ -q)
pVq -p /\ -q p -p -q q -p -q
-(p V q) -(-p /\ -q) -p -q - -p p - -q q
125 / 232
Pardei gma
Pardei gma
6.10
Na apodexete ti
M K, M K
-K
K.
(M V K) /\ (M -> K) MVK M -> K M -M K K
126 / 232
Orjthta
kai Plhrthta twn
Beth
-apodexewn
Jerhma 6.11
(orjthta
Beth
-apodexewn)
'Estw ti oi
A1 , . . . , An
Gia
A1 , . . . , An , K enai tuqaec K , tte A1 , . . . , An K .
protseic. An
n=0: Kje Beth-apodeximh prtash enai gkurh. To ssthma Beth-apodexewn den knei pot ljh.
(plhrthta
Jerhma 6.12
Beth
-apodexewn)
'Estw ti oi
A1 , . . . , An
Gia
A1 , . . . , An , K enai tuqaec K , tte A1 , . . . , An B K .
protseic. An
n=0: Kje gkurh prtash enai Beth-apodeximh. To ssthma Beth-apodexewn mpore na apodexei gkurec protseic.
lec tic
127 / 232
Orjthta
kai Plhrthta twn
Beth
-apodexewn
'Ara mporome na qrhsimopoiome touc pnakec elgqoume thn egkurthta twn protsewn.
Beth
gia na
128 / 232
Sunpeia
Mia prtash
enai sunepc an
A.
enai sunepc an
'Ena snolo protsewn
{A1 , . . . , An }
1i n
Ai .
Smfwna me ta jewrmata orjthtac kai plhrthtac twn
Beth-apodexewn
ma prtash enai sunepc an kai mno an
enai ikanopoisimh.
H nnoia thc ikanopoihsimthtac dnetai ap ton Orism 3.3.
129 / 232
Pardei gma
Pardei gma
6.13
Na apodexete ti Epeid to ssthma
p (p q ). Beth-apodexewn enai B p (p q ).
-(p -> (p V q))
orj kai plrec,
arke na dexoume ti
p -(p V q)
-p -q
130 / 232
Pardei gma
Pardei gma
6.14
Na apodexete ti oi protseic Arke na dexoume ti
p q kai q p enai isodnamec. (p q ) (q p ). (Giat;).
-((p /\ q) <-> (q /\ p))
p /\ q -(q /\ p) p q
-(p /\ q) q /\ p q p
-q
-p
-p
-q
131 / 232
Sumboulc gia
Beth
-apodexeic
Mjaite touc atomikoc pnakec. Lste askseic. Den uprqei ousidhc lgoc pou na kajorzei th seir anptuxhc twn protsewn, all mejodologik h anptuxh prta twn suzexewn (grammc) kai peita twn diazexewn (diakladseic) odhge kat kanna se aplosterouc pnakec.
132 / 232
Pardei gma
Pardei gma
6.15
Na exetsete an
M K, M K
-M
M.
(M V K) /\ (M -> K) MVK M -> K M -M K K
O parapnw pnakac enai teleiwmnoc all mh antifatikc. 'Ara
M K, M K
M.
133 / 232
Pardei gma
Pardei gma
6.16
Na brejon oi katastseic stic opoec h prtash
(p q ) (p q )
enai yeudc.
-((p -> q) <-> (p V q))
p -> q -(p V q) -p -p -q q -p -q
-(p -> q) pVq p -q p q
Ap touc mh antifatikoc kldouc enc teleiwmnou pnaka me koruf
A,
parnoume tic katastseic pou h
enai yeudc. 134 / 232
Kathgorhmatik
Logik
H Kathgorhmatik Logik ( Prwtobjmia Logik) enai ma epktash thc Protasiakc Logikc. Sta epmena majmata: ja parousisoume to suntaktik kai th shmasiologa thc Kathgorhmatikc Logikc, ja dome th sqsh thc Kathgorhmatikc Logikc me th fusik glssa, ja dsoume touc orismoc tou gkurou epiqeirmatoc kai thc gkurhc prtashc sthn Kathgorhmatik Logik, kai ja dome trpouc gia na apodeiknoume thn egkurthta sthn Kathgorhmatik Logik:
. . .
135 / 232
H angkh
gia ma
pio
ekfras tik
glssa
H Protasiak Logik enai ma plosia glssa, all enai perioristik sthn diatpwsh idiottwn kai sqsewn. Pq:
An
o Girgoc enai njrwpoc tte o Girgoc enai jnhtc
grfetai wc
A B.
Ti gnetai me th Mara, ton Ksta, klp;
Epiplon den mpore na elegqje me thn Protasiak Logik h egkurthta twn epiqeirhmtwn pwc: 'Oloi oi gtoi enai templhdec (p ). O Mtsoc enai gtoc (q ). 'Ara o Mtsoc enai templhc (r ).
136 / 232
7.
Perlhyh
Kathgorhmatikc
Logikc
7.1 Nec Atomikc Protseic Mqri stigmc, jewrosame frseic pwc
upologistc enai
Sun
kai
Fthc agrase staflia wc atomikc, dqwc
eswterik dom. Tra ja dome thn dom touc. Jewrome thn mrka
Sun
wc ma idithta (property,
attribute )
thn opoa nac upologistc (kai lla prgmata) mpore na qei na mhn qei. 'Ara eisgoume: 'Ena smbolo kathgormatoc (relation
symbol, predicate
symbol ) Sun. 'Eqei tou (arity ) enai 1.
1 parmetro ra lme ti o bajmc
'Ena smbolo kathgormatoc
'Eqei 2 paramtrouc
ra lme ti o bajmc tou enai 2. Stajerc (constants ), gia na onomzoume antikemena. Pq,
, , -002, .
Sunepc
Sun()
kai
(, )
enai do nec
atomikc protseic.
137 / 232
7.2
Posodektec
Arqik mpore na fanetai ti to
(, )
den enai diaforetik ap aut pou grfame sthn Protasiak Logik:
o Fwthc agorase stafulia

All h Kathgorhmatik Logik qei mhqanismoc gia na metablei tic paramtrouc tou kathgormatoc
Sunepc mporome na ekfrsoume tic idithtec thc sqshc
.
Oi mhqanismo auto onomzontai posodektec.
138 / 232
Ti
e nai
oi posodektec
'Enac posodekthc ekfrzei ma posthta (ap prgmata ta opoa qoun ma idithta).
Paradegmata: 'Oloi oi foithtc diabzoun pol. Kpoioi foithtc koimontai. Oi perissteroi kajhghtc enai trelo. Okt stic dka gtec to protimon. Kannac den enai pio xupnoc ap esna. Toulqiston xi foithtc den koimontai. Uprqoun peiroi prtoi arijmo. Uprqoun pio poll
PC
ap
Mac.
139 / 232
Posodektec
s thn Kathgorhmatik
Logik
'Eqoume do posodektec:
( (
(A) (E )
): ):
gia
kje (kajolikc posodekthc). (uparxiakc posodekthc).
uprqei
Kpoioi lloi posodektec mporon na ekfraston me touc parapnw. (Kje nac ap touc parapnw posodektec mpore na ekfraste msw tou llou.) All den uprqoun posodektec sthn Prwtobjmia Logik gia na ekfrsoun sqseic pwc
uprqoun
peiroikai
perisstero
, .
ap.
Edame ekfrseic pwc to
Aut enai stajerc pwc
. loi
oi upologistc enai
Gia na ekfrsoume protseic pwc
Sun
qreiazmaste metablhtc oi opoec mporon na proun
timc ap to snolo lwn twn upologistn.
140 / 232
7.3
Metablhtc
Ja qrhsimopoisoume metablhtc gia na ekfrsoume posodeixa. 'Eqoume na snolo
V y
metablhtn: pq
x , y , z , u , v , w , x0 , x1 , x2 , . . .
Merikc forc ja grfoume metablht. Pra ap tic protseic pwc protseic pwc
gia na pome
opoiadpote
Sun(),
ja grfoume kai
Sun(x ).
Gia na ekfrsoume thn prtash grfoume
ta
to
pnta enai
Sun
ja
x Sun(x ). Gia
kje
Aut diabzetai wc:
x,
enai enai
Sun. Sun
ja
Gia na ekfrsoume thn prtash grfoume
kti
x Sun(x ). Uprqei x
to opoo enai
Aut diabzetai wc:
Sun.
Fthc agrase na
Uprqei
Sungrfetai wc x (Sun(x ) (, x )) x , to opoo enai Sun kai o Fthc to
agrase.
141 / 232
8.
Sun taktik Kathgorhmatikc Logikc
'Opwc kname sthn Protasiak Logik, tsi kai tra ja dome prta to suntaktik kai met th shmasiologa.
8.1 Glssa
Orismc 8.1
Ma glssa enai na snolo ap stajerc kai smbola kathgorhmtwn sugkekrimnou bajmo.
Sunjwc sumbolzoume ma glssa wc gia stajerc kai
L.
Grfoume
c, d, . . .
P, Q, R, S, . . .
gia smbola kathgorhmtwn.
Argtera ja exetsoume kai ta smbola sunartsewn.
142 / 232
Ma apl
glssa
To snolo twn sumblwn mac glssac pou jloume na ekfrsoume.
exarttai ap aut
Ja qrhsimopoisoume wc pardeigma ma glssa perilambnei: tic stajerc
h opoa
-002,
(bajmc 1)
, , , , , , kai c Sun, ,
(bajmc 2)
ta smbola kathgorhmtwn
to smbolo kathgormatoc
Shmewsh:
perilambnei smbola (suntaktik). Gia na
dome to nhma (shmasiologa) twn sumblwn ja prpei na dome poia morf qei ma katstash sthn Kathgorhmatik Logik.
143 / 232
8.2
'Oroi
(Terms)
Gia na grfoume protseic sthn Kathgorhmatik Logik qreiazmaste rouc (terms ), me touc opoouc onomzoume antikemena. Oi roi den enai protseic, den qoun alhjotimc,
Orismc 8.2 ('Oroc)
Dojeshc mac glssac 1. Kje stajer thc
L:
enai nac
L-roc.
2. Kje metablht enai nac 3. Tpota llo den enai
L-roc.
L-roc. term)
enai nac roc o opooc den
'Enac basikc roc (ground perilambnei metablhtc. Paradegmata rwn:
(basiko roi).
x , y , x56
(mh basiko roi).
Argtera ja exetsoume kai ta smbola sunartsewn.
144 / 232
8.3
Tpoi Kathgorhmatikc
Logikc
Orismc 8.3
( Tpoc (
formula
) )
'Estw ma glssa 1. An
L.
R enai na smbolo kathgormatoc bajmo n thc L, kai t1 , . . . , tn enai L-roi, tte to R (t1 , . . . , tn ) enai nac atomikc L-tpoc. t, t ,
enai
2. An 3. Oi 4. An
L-roi
tte
t =t
enai nac atomikc
L-tpoc.
enai atomiko
L-tpoi.
A, B enai L-tpoi, tte kai oi (A), (A B ), (A B ), (A B ), (A B ) enai L-tpoi.

metablht, tte oi
5. An h
A enai nac L-tpoc kai x ma (x A) kai (x A) enai L-tpoi. L-tpoc.

kai
6. Tpota llo den enai
H proteraithta twn sundsmwn enai pwc sthn Protasiak Logik. Oi posodektec
enai tso isquro so kai h
145 / 232
Parade gmata tpwn
1.
(, x )
O
2.
Fthc agrase to
x .
x (, x ) O Fthc agrase kti. x ((x ) (x )) Kje kajhghtc enai njrwpoc. x ((, x ) Sun(x )) 'O,ti agrase o Tsoc enai Sun. tree) enc tpou kai (subformulas) pwc sthn
3.
4.
Anaptssoume to dndro (formation grfoume touc upo-tpouc tou Protasiak Logik.
146 / 232
Parade gmata tpwn
5.
x ((, x ) (, x )) H Sofa agrase ti agrase kai o Tsoc. x (, x ) x (, x ) An o Tsoc agrase ta pnta, tte kai h Sofa agrase ta pnta. x y (x , y ) Ta pnta agrasan
kti.
6.
7.
8.
y x (x , y ) Kti agorsthke ap
ta pnta.
9.
x y (x , y ) Kti agrase ta pnta.
147 / 232
9.
Shmasiologa
Kathgorhmatikc Logikc
'Opwc sthn Protasiak Logik, tsi kai tra prpei na diatupsoume ti enai ma katstash sthn Kathgorhmatik Logik pc na ermhneoume touc tpouc thc Kathgorhmatikc Logikc se ma dedomnh katstash 9.1 Domc (katastseic sthn Kathgorhmatik Logik)
Orismc 9.1
'Estw ma glssa
L.
Ma
L-dom
(h opoa merikc forc
onomzetai montlo)
M:
M gnwrzei. To snolo aut onomzetai to pedo timn (domain) smpan (universe) thc M , kai grfetai wc dom(M).
qei na mh-ken snolo ap antikemena ta opoa h diatupnei ti shmanoun ta smbola thc parapnw antikemena.
se sqsh me ta
148 / 232
Domc
H apdosh (interpretation) mac stajerc sth antikemeno sto
enai na
dom(M).
H apdosh (interpretation) enc sumblou kathgormatoc sth
enai ma sqsh sto
dom(M).
149 / 232
Pardei gma
domc
Gia thn glssa
pou qrhsimopoiome wc pardeigma, ma
L-dom
prpei na diatupnei:
poia antikemena enai sto smpan thc poia ap ta antikemena thc enai o Tsoc, h Sofa, klp poia antikemena enai
Sun,
kajhghtc, njrwpoi
poia antikemena agrasan lla antikemena Paraktw uprqei na digramma miac sugkekrimnhc thn opoa onomzoume
L-domc,
M. M.
(pq
Uprqoun 12 antikemena sto smpan thc 'Eqoume blei etiktec (pq
Fthc)
se merik antikemena gia
na dexoume to nhma twn stajern thc
Oi apodseic (nnoiec) twn kathgorhmtwn
). Sun,
anaparstantai wc perioqc sto digramma. H apdosh (nnoia) tou kathgormatoc anaparstatai me marec koukkdec. H apdosh (nnoia) tou kathgormatoc

anaparstatai
me kateujunmenec grammc metax antikeimnwn.
150 / 232
H dom
151 / 232
Tsoc
Tasoc
Den prpei na uprqei sgqush metax tou antikeimnou thn etikta (stajer)
me
Tsoc,
tou smpantoc thc
M,
me to smbolo
thc glssac
L.
(Qrhsimopoi diaforetikc grammatoseirc gia na diakrnw metax twn sumblwn mac glssac kai twn antikeimnwn tou smpantoc mac domc thc glssac.)
Aut enai diaforetik prgmata. To smbolo suntaktik, en to
enai
enai shmasiologik. Gia th dom
enai na noma gia to antikemeno
me thn etikta
M , Tsoc.
152 / 232
Tsoc
Tasoc
Gia na apofgoume thn sgqush ja uiojetsoume thn paraktw smbash:
Smbash 9.2
'Estw
ma
L-dom
kai
ma stajer thc
L.
Grfoume
cM
gia thn apdosh thc thc
sth
M.
To antikemeno tou smpantoc
enai aut pou onomzei h
sth
M. Tsoc.
'Ara
M =to
antikemeno
me etikta
Se ma llh dom, to smbolo shmanei) kti llo.
mpore na onomzei (na
H nnoia mac stajerc apodoje sto
enai to antikemeno
cM
to opoo qei
ap th
M.
Ma stajer (kai kje smbolo thc
L)
qei tsec nnoiec sec kai o arijmc twn
L-domn.
153 / 232
Ta uploipa
smbola
H glssa
pou qrhsimopoiome wc pardeigma qei stajerc
kai kathgormata prtou kai deutrou bajmo. Gia na anaparastsoume grafik ma dom glssac: zwgrafsame na snolo ap antikemena (to smpan thc
autc thc
M)
dhlsame poia antikemena thc stajerc thc
onomzontai ap poiec
L
, )
smfwna me th
dhlsame poia antikemena ikanopoion ta kathgormata prtou bajmo (Sun,
M
zwgrafsame kateujunmenec grammc metax twn antikeimnwn pou ikanopoion to kathgrhma deutrou bajmo () smfwna me th grammc qei shmasa.
M.
H katejunsh thc
154 / 232
Ta uploipa
smbola
An uprqan perisstera ap na kathgormata deutrou bajmo sthn
tte ja tan aparathto na bloume etiktec
stic kateujunmenec grammc.
Genik, den uprqei ekoloc trpoc na anaparastsoume grafik apodseic kathgorhmtwn trtou megalterou bajmo.
Kathgormata bajmo 0 enai ta dia me ta toma thc Protasiakc Logikc.
155 / 232
9.2
Alhjotimc
se ma
dom (m h tupik peri graf)
Pte enai nac tpoc qwrc posodektec alhjc se ma dom; O tpoc
Sun()
enai alhjc sth
M,
giat
na antikemeno
to opoo h
Aut to grfoume To diabzoume wc

Prosoq:
M lei ti enai M Sun(). h M lei ti Sun().
M Sun.
enai
Aut enai ma diaforetik qrsh tou
ap
aut tou Orismo 3.1. To smbolo skopoc. Omowc, o tpoc Sumbolik O tpoc qrhsimopoietai gia do diaforetikoc
(, ) (, ).
enai alhjc sth
M.
(, ) enai yeudc sth M , giat h M den lei ti h stajer onomzei na antikemeno to opoo ton eaut tou. Sumbolik M (, ).
Omowc,
Sun() (, ).
156 / 232
Ma llh
dom
Paraktw enai ma llh
L-dom,
Uprqoun mno 10 antikemena sto smpan thc
157 / 232
Sqetik me
th
M M M M
(, ). =. () Sun(). (, ) (, c).
Poia h alhjotim twn paraktw tpwn;
(, ) (). (c, ) Sun() ().
158 / 232
Erm hneon tac tpouc me
posodektec (m h tupik
peri graf)
Pte enai nac tpoc me posodektec alhjc se ma dom;
159 / 232
Erm hneon tac posodektec
Pc exetzoume an o tpoc sth
x (x , )
enai alhjc
M; M x (x , ); glssa, uposthrzei h M
ti kti agrase ton
Sumbolik, Sth fusik Erm;
Gia na enai alhjc o parapnw tpoc, prpei na uprqei na antikemeno
sto smpan thc
tsi ste
M
Me lla lgia, h
(x , ).
prpei na uposthrzei ti pou
(x , ), M .
=M . x
Uprqei ttoio antikemeno: blpoume sto digramma ti to mpore na enai, pq,
Sunepc,
x (x , ).
160 / 232
Pardei gma:
x (agorase(Tasoc, x ) agorase(Sofia, x ));

Gia
kje antikemeno
sto smpan thc
M,
enai o tpoc
(, x ) (, x )
Sth
alhjc sth
M ;
uprqoun 12 pijan
x.
Prpei na elgxoume an o tpoc enai alhjc sth
(, x ) (, x )
kje na ap aut.
gia
O tpoc
(, x ) (, x )
ja enai
alhjc sth
gia kje na antikemeno enai yeudc sth
ttoio ste o tpoc
(, x )
na elgxoume ta enai alhjc.
M.
(Giat;) 'Ara qreizetai
gia ta opoa o tpoc
(, x )
161 / 232
Pardei gma:
x (agorase(Tasoc, x ) agorase(Sofia, x ));
O tpoc
(, x )
enai alhjc mno gia na
x,
gia to
M .
=M , o tpoc (, ) enai epshc alhjc sthn M . 'Ara o tpoc (, ) (, ) enai alhjc sth M .
Gia to antikemeno 'Ara o tpoc alhjc sth
(, x ) (, x )
gia kje antikemeno
enai
x thc M . Sunepc, x ((, x ) (, x )).
162 / 232
' Askhsh:
Poia e nai alhj
s th
M;
x (Sun(x ) (, x )) x ((x ) (x )) x (Sun(x ) y (y , x ))

163 / 232
Erm hneon tac tpouc (m h tupik
peri graf)
Gia na snjeto tpo pwc
x (Sun(x ) y (y , x )):
Brete pc metafrzetai kje upo-tpoc sth fusik glssa, xekinntac ap touc atomikoc upo-tpouc (ta flla tou dndrou (formation (rza tou dndrou).
tree)
) ftnontac mqri thn arqik prtash
Autc enai suqn nac kalc trpoc na ermhneoume tpouc. Pq, o parapnw tpoc anafrei ti uprqei na enai
to opoo
Sun
kai kti to agrase (enai dhlad h katlhxh mac
kateujunmenhc grammc). 'Ara elgqoume tic grammc.
164 / 232
9.3
Alhjotimc
se ma
dom (tupik
peri graf)
Edame pc na ermhneoume orismnouc tpouc se ma dom koitntac to digramma thc domc.
Qreiazmaste mwc na pio tupik/majhmatik trpo gia na ermhneoume louc touc tpouc thc Kathgorhmatikc Logikc se domc.
Sth Protasiak Logik, upologzame thn alhjotim mac prtashc se ma katstash upologzontac tic alhjotimc twn upo-protsewn thc, xekinntac ap tic atomikc upo-protseic (ta flla tou dndrou thc (formation rza tou dndrou.
tree)
) ftnontac mqri th
Sth Kathgorhmatik Logik ta prgmata den enai tso apl...
165 / 232
'Ena prblhma
O tpoc
x ((, x ) Sun(x ))
enai alhjc sth dom
thc seldac 163. To dndro tou enai:
Mporome na ermhnesoume autn ton tpo xekinntac ap ta flla, katalgontac sth rza;
Enai o tpoc Enai o tpoc
(, x ) alhjc Sun(x ) alhjc sth M ;
sth
M;
Den enai loi oi tpoi thc Kathgorhmatikc Logikc alhjec yeudec se ma dom!
166 / 232
Elejerec kai
desmeumnec
metablhtc
Prpei na elgxoume pc emfanzontai oi metablhtc stouc tpouc.

Orismc 9.3
'Estw
nac tpoc.
1. H emfnish mac metablhtc tou
se na atomik upo-tpo
lgetai desmeumnh (bound) an brsketai ktw ap
na posodekth
sto dndro (formation
tree)
tou
A.
2. Allic h emfnish thc metablhtc lgetai elejerh (free). 3. Oi elejerec metablhtc enc tpou
enai oi metablhtc
oi opoec qoun elejerec emfanseic ston
A.
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Pardei gma
x (R (x , y ) R (y , z ) z (S (x , z ) R (z , y )))
Oi elejerec metablhtc tou tpou enai oi Shmewsh: h
y, z.
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qei elejerec kai desmeumnec emfanseic.
Protseic
Orismc 9.4
Ma prtash (sentence) enai nac tpoc qwrc elejerec metablhtc. Paradegmata: O tpoc
x ((, x ) Sun(x ))
enai prtash.
Oi upo-tpoi tou:
(, x ) Sun(x ) (, x ) Sun(x )
den enai protseic. Poiec enai protseic;
(, ) (, x )
x =x x (y (y =x ) x =y ) x y (x =y z (R (x , z ) R (y , z )))
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Prto prblhma:
elejerec
metablhtc
Oi protseic enai alhjec yeudec se ma dom. All oi tpoi pou den enai protseic den enai alhjec yeudec se ma dom! 'Enac tpoc me elejerec metablhtc den enai alhjc yeudc se ma dom nhma sth Den
M , giat oi elejerec metablhtc tou den qoun M . Enai san na rwtme enai to x =7 alhjc; mporome na ermhnesoume na tpo A thc
Kathgorhmatikc Logikc se ma dom pwc ermhneame protseic thc Protasiakc Logikc se katastseic, giat h dom den enai ma
stic elejerec metablhtc tou
oloklhrwmnh A.
katstash: den dnei nnoiec
'Ara prpei na dsoume timc stic elejerec metablhtc prin ermhnesoume na tpo. Aut prpei na to knoume akma kai tan oi timc autc den ephrezoun thn ermhnea tou tpou (pq, tan o tpoc enai
x =x ).
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Ekqrhsh timn s tic metablhtc (
assignment
Ma ermhneutik sunrthsh metablhtn (ESM) dnei timc stic elejerec metablhtc.
Ma ESM enai gia tic metablhtc ,ti ma dom gia tic stajerc.
Orismc 9.5
'Estw
(ESM)
M ma dom. Ma ermhneutik sunrthsh metablhtn h sto plasio thc M antistoiqe se kje metablht na antikemeno ap to smpan thc M : h : V dom(M )
(V enai to snolo twn metablhtn kai twn antikeimnwn (smpan) thc Gia ma ESM
dom(M )
enai to snolo
kai ma
M .) metablht x ,
grfoume
h(x )
gia to
antikemeno to opoo qei antistoiqhje sth
ap thn
h.
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Ekqrhsh timn s tic metablhtc (
assignment
Dojeshc mac qoume ma
L-domc M
kai mac ESM
sto plasio thc
M,
oloklhrwmnh L-ro. M.
katstash. Sunepc, mporome na
ermhnesoume: opoiodpote smpan thc H tim tou ja enai na antikemeno sto
opoiodpote atomik ( mh) tpo mac glssac tou ja enai alhjc yeudc.
L.
H tim
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Erm hneon tac rouc
Ma dom kai ma ESM dnoun ma
oloklhrwmnh
katstash.
Mac dnoun tic alhjotimc lwn twn atomikn tpwn. Ja dexoume prta pc ermhneoume rouc kai met pc ermhneoume tpouc.
Orismc 9.6
'Estw ma glssa plasio thc Tte enai ap: Th
L, M ma L-dom, kai h ma ESM sto M. gia kje L-ro t , h tim tou t sth M smfwna me thn h to antikemeno thc M to opoo qei antistoiqhje ston t M, h,
an to
t t
enai ma stajer. Se aut thn perptwsh h
tim tou Thn
enai
tM . h(t ).
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an to
enai ma metablht. Se aut thn perptwsh
h tim tou
enai
Erm hneon tac rouc:
pardei gma
(1) H tim tou rou antikemeno
sth M smfwna me thn h enai to Tsoc. (Ap ed kai sto exc ja M anaparist wc Tsoc , all qi wc .) (2) H tim thc x sth M smfwna me thn h enai Ermc.
me etikta
to
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Shmasiologa tpwn
qwrc
posodektec
Mporome tra na ermhnesoume opoiodpote tpo qwrc posodektec. 'Estw ma tpoc
L-dom M M, h A.
kai ma ESM
h.
Grfoume
enai alhjc sth
smfwna me thn
M, h A h. Allic
an o
grfoume
Orismc 9.7
1. 'Estw ti
n L, kai t1 , . . . , tn enai L-roi. Ac upojsoume ti h tim tou ti sth M smfwna me thn h enai ai , gia kje i =1, . . . , n (dete ton Orism 9.6). Tte M , h R (t1 , . . . , tn ) an h M uposthrzei ti h ditaxh (a1 , . . . , an ) qei th sqsh R . Allic, M , h R (t1 , . . . , tn ).
enai na smbolo kathgormatoc bajmo mac glssac
2. An
t, t
enai roi, tte
M, h
t =t
an ta
kai
qoun thn
dia tim sth tim tte
M smfwna M , h t =t .
me thn
h.
An den qoun thn dia
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Shmasiologa tpwn
qwrc
posodektec
Orismc 9.7 (sunqeia) 3. 4.
M, h M, h M, h AB
kai
M, h
. A
kai
A B an M , h A B.
kai
M, h
B.
Allic,
5. Omowc orzoume thn ermhnea twn tpwn
A, A B ,
A B.
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Erm hneon tac tpouc qwrc posodektec:
pardei gma
M, h M, h M, h
(z ) x = (, v ) z =
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Detero
prblhma:
desmeumnec
metablhtc
Gnwrzoume pc na dnoume timc se elejerec metablhtc: me ma ESM. Me aut ton trpo mporsame na ermhnesoume louc touc tpouc qwrc posodektec. All uprqoun tpoi pou qoun desmeumnec metablhtc. Oi timc autn twn metablhtn den dnontai, kai den prpei na dnontai, ap thn katstash, kajc oi metablhtc autc elgqontai ap posodektec. Pc upologzoume tic timc desmeumnwn metablhtn; Do trpoi: 1. Elgqoume tic pijanc ESM:
. .
2. Qrhsimopoiome paiqndia (Hintikka
games),
ta opoa mac
bohjon na katalboume tic epidrseic twn posodeiktn, kai eidiktera twn emfwleumnwn (nested) posodeiktn.
178 / 232
Shmasiologa tpwn
me posodektec
Orismc 9.7 (sunqeia) Ac upojsoume ti gnwrzoume pc na ermhnesoume na tpo sth
smfwna me opoiadpote ESM. 'Estw
ma
opoiadpote metablht, kai 6.
ma opoiadpote ESM. Tte:
M, h
me thn
xA an uprqei kpoia ESM g h opoa sumfwne h gia lec tic metablhtc ektc, pijanc, ap th x , kai isqei M , g A. An den uprqei ttoia ESM tte M , h xA. M, h xA an M , g A gia kje ESM g h opoa sumfwne h gia lec tic metablhtc ektc, pijanc, ap th x . Allic, M , h xA.
sumfwne me thn
7.
me thn
H g
ektc
ap th
h gia lec tic metablhtc ektc, pijanc, x shmanei ti g (y )=h(y ) gia lec tic metablhtc y thc x . (Aut den apokleei thn perptwsh g (x )=h(x ).)
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Erm hneon tac tpouc me
posodektec:
pardei gma
x (x ) M , g (x ) pou g (x )=Fthc. M , h x (x ) giat, pq M , g (x ) pou g (x )='Arhc. M , h x ((, x ) (x )) (Elgxte sugkekrimna th g me g (x )=Ermc kai th g g (x )='Arhc.) M, h
giat, pq
me
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Smbash gia
elejerec metablhtc
H paraktw smbash enai qrsimh gia na grfoume kai ermhneoume tpouc. Sta bibla suqn blpoume ekfrseic thc morfc:
'Estw A(x1 , . . . , xn ) A
enai metax twn
nac tpoc.
H parapnw kfrash dhlnei ti oi elejerec metablhtc tou
Shmewsh: Oi
x1 , . . . , xn . x1 , . . . , xn prpei A.
na enai lec diaforetikc.
Epiplon, den enai aparathto na qoun lec oi elejerec emfanseic ston

Pardei gma:
x1 , . . . , xn
'Estw o tpoc
C:
x (R (x , y ) yS (y , z ))
Ja mporosame na gryoume ton tpo wc:
C (y , z ) C (x , z , v , y ) C (an den all qi wc C (x ).
qrhsimopoisoume aut th smbash)
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Smbash gia
Erm hneutikc Sunartseic Metablhtn
Gia kje tpo
A,
an isqei
h(x )
mno gia tic metablhtc
M , h A qi, exarttai ap x oi opoec qoun elejerec
thn
A. 'Ara gia na tpo A(x1 , . . . , xn ), an h(x1 )=a1 , . . . , h(xn )=an , tte enai OK na gryoume M A(a1 , . . . , an ) ant gia M , h A.
emfanseic ston Ac upojsoume ti mac qoun dsei na tpo ste
C (y , z )
ttoio
x (R (x , y ) yS (y , z ))
An pq
h(y )=a, h(z )=b , M C (a, b ),
tte mporome na gryoume
x (R (x , a) yS (y , b ))
M , h C . Shmewsh: mno oi elejerec emfanseic C qoun antikatastaje ap to a. Oi desmeumnec emfanseic tou y paramnoun wc qoun. Gia ma prtash S , an isqei M , h S qi, den exarttai kajlou ap thn h. 'Ara mporome na gryoume M S.
ant gia tou
ston
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Pc na
erm hneoume
tpouc
;
Tarski,
Edame ton orism thc aljeiac se ma dom (Alfred dekaeta 1950).
Poioc mwc enai o kalteroc trpoc na elgqoume an isqei
A;
Se merikc periptseic mporome na metafrzoume ton
sth fusik glssa kai na elgqoume an enai alhjc sth
(dete selda 164).
Qrhsimopoiome ton Orism 9.7 kai elgqoume lec tic pijanc ESM. Pq, gia ton tpo elgqoume, gia la ta enai kai
x,
an to
x ((x ) Sun(x )) x enai kajhghtc tte

ta opoa mac
Sun. Hintikka,
Qrhsimopoiome ta paiqndia
bohjon na katalboume tic epidrseic twn posodeiktn. Me ta paiqndia mjhma.
Hintikka
den ja asqolhjome se aut to
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10.
Sqsh
tou
Kathgorhmatiko Logismo
me th
fusik
glssa
10.1 Ap thn tupik glssa sth fusik H metfrash twn protsewn thc Kathgorhmatikc Logikc sth fusik glssa den enai pol duskolterh ap th metfrash twn protsewn thc Protasiakc Logikc sth fusik glssa. Oi metablhtc prpei apaloifjon: sth fusik glssa den tic qrhsimopoiome.
x ((x ) (x =) (x , )) Gia kje x , an to x enai nac kajhghtc kai to x den enai o Fthc tte to x agrase ton Trtwn. Kje kajhghtc ektc ap ton Fth agrase ton Trtwn.
(Mpore kai o Fthc na ton agrase.)
184 / 232
Ap
thn tupik
glssa s th
fusik
x y z ((x , y ) (x , z ) (y =z )) Uprqoun x , y , z ttoia ste to x agrase to y , to x agrase to z , kai to y den enai to z . Kti agrase toulqiston do diaforetik prgmata. x (y z ((x , y ) (x , z ) (y =z )) x =) Gia kje x , an to x agrase do diaforetik prgmata, tte to x enai o Tsoc. Otidpote agrase do diaforetik prgmata enai o Tsoc.
Prosoq: h parapnw prtash den lei ti o Tsoc agrase do diaforetik prgmata, all ti kannac lloc den agrase do diaforetik prgmata.
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10.2
Tupopohsh thc
fusikc glssac
Ekfrste tic upo-nnoiec sth logik. 'Epeita sunjste tic upo-nnoiec se ma logik prtash. Upo-nnoia:
to x
agorsthke/
to x
qei
agorast:y
(y , x ).
Otidpote agorsthke den enai njrwpoc:
x (y (y , x ) (x )).
Prosoq: h metfrash se
x y ((y , x ) (x )) den enai swst. Kje Sun agorsthke: x (Sun(x ) y (y , x )). Kpoio Sun qei na agorast: x (Sun(x ) y (y , x )).
'Oloi oi agorastc enai njrwpoi kai kajhghtc:
x (y (x , y ) (x ) (x )).
o x enai agorastc
Sun: x ((x ) y ((x , y ) (Sun(y ))).

Kannac kajhghtc den agrase na
o x agrase na Sun
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Tupopohsh
thc fusikc
glssac
Suqn qreizetai na pome:
'Oloi oi kajhghtc enai njrwpoi: x ((x ) (x )). OQI x ((x ) (x )). OQI x (x ) x (x ). 'Oloi oi kajhghtc enai njrwpoi Sun: x ((x ) (x ) Sun(x )). Tpota den enai Sun kai kajhghtc: x (Sun(x ) (x )), x (Sun(x ) (x )). Sunepc o tpoc x (A B ) enai pol suqnc. Epshc oi x (A B ), x (A B ), x (A B ), x (A B ) qreizontai suqn: lne ti ta pnta/kti enai A kai/ B .
O tpoc ston
x (A B ),
eidik tan h
qei elejerh emfnish
A,
enai spnioc.
An gryete autn ton tpo elgxte an qete knei ljoc.
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Tupopohsh
thc fusikc
glssac
Uprqei toulqiston na
Sun: x Sun(x ). Uprqoun toulqiston do Sun: x y (Sun(x ) Sun(y ) x =y ), x y (Sun(y ) y =x ). Uprqoun toulqiston tra Sun: x y z (Sun(x ) Sun(y ) Sun(z ) x =y y =z x =z ), x y z (Sun(z ) z =x z =y ). Den uprqei Sun: x Sun(x ). Uprqei to pol na Sun:
1. x y (Sun(x ) Sun(y ) x =y ) ( Sun) 2. x y (Sun(x ) Sun(y ) x =y ). 3. x y (Sun(y ) x =y ).
Uprqei akribc na
Sun:
1. Sun Sun. 2. x y (Sun(y ) x =y ).

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11.
Smbola sunartsewn
Sthn arijmhtik qrhsimopoiome sunartseic pwc pq
+, , ,
x.
Sthn Kathgorhmatik Logik mporome na ekfrsoume sunartseic. 'Ena smbolo sunrthshc enai san na smbolo kathgormatoc ma stajer, all apoddetai se ma dom wc ma sunrthsh. Kje smbolo sunrthshc qei na sugkekrimno bajm (arity).
Sumbolzoume sunjwc ta smbola sunartsewn me
f , g.
Ap ed kai sto exc uiojetome thn paraktw epktash tou Orismo 8.1:
Orismc 11.1
Ma glssa enai na snolo ap stajerc, kai smbola kathgorhmtwn kai sunartsewn sugkekrimnou bajmo.
Prosoq:
den prpei na uprqei sgqush metax mac ESM
sto plasio mac domc
M,
me ma sunrthsh
mac glssac
h L.
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'Oroi
me smbola sunartsewn
Tra mporome epektenoume ton Orism 8.2:

Orismc 11.2 ('Oroc)
Dojeshc mac glssac 1. Kje stajer thc
L:
enai nac
L-roc.
2. Kje metablht enai nac 3. An
L-roc.
f enai na smbolo sunrthshc bajmo n thc L, kai t1 , . . . , tn enai L-roi, tte o f (t1 , . . . , tn ) enai nac L-roc. L-roc.
c,
na smbolo sunrthshc
4. Tpota llo den enai

Pardei gma:
'Estw ti h
qei ma stajer
prtou bajmo, kai na smbolo sunrthshc bajmo. Tte ta paraktw enai
deutrou
L-roi:
f (c) g (x , x ) (wc sunjwc g (f (c), g (x , x ))
enai metablht)
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Shmasiologa sumblwn sunartsewn
Prpei epiplon na epektenoume ton Orism 9.1: an h smbola sunartsewn, ma nhma touc. Gia kje smbolo sunrthshc
qei
L-dom f
prpei na diatupnei to
bajmo
thc
L,
ma
L-dom M
prpei na lei poio antikemeno (ap to smpan thc) antistoiqe h
se kje ditaxh
enai antikemena tou smpantoc thc Sumbolzoume wc thc
(a1 , . . . , an ), M.
pou
a1 , . . . , an
f M (a1 , . . . , an )
to antikemeno tou smpantoc
pou h
antistoiqe sth ditaxh
(a1 , . . . , an ).
'Ena smbolo sunrthshc bajmo 0 jewretai ma stajer.
Pardei gma
Sthn arijmhtik, h
mpore na uposthrzei ti oi sunartseic
kai
ekfrzoun thn prsjesh kai ton pollaplasiasm
arijmn: to 5 qei antistoiqhje me to Den enai aparathto h
2+3,
to 8 me to
24,
klp.
na to uposthrzei aut. Mpore na
uposthrzei enallaktik ti h sunrthsh prsjesh.
ekfrzei thn
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Erm hneon tac rouc me smbola
sunartsewn
Tra mporome na epektenoume ton Orism 9.6:

Orismc 11.3
H tim enc
sto plasio thc An o
L-rou t se ma L-dom M M orzetai wc exc:
smfwna me ma ESM
t t t
enai stajer tte h tim tou enai to antikemeno
tM
to opoo qei antistoiqhje ston
ap th
M. h.
An o
enai metablht tte h tim tou enai to antikemeno
h(t )
An o
to opoo qei antistoiqhje ston enai sunrthsh thc morfc
ap thn
f (t1 , . . . , tn ), kai oi t1 , . . . , tn sth M smfwna me thn h enai antstoiqa a1 , . . . , an , tte h tim tou t enai to antikemeno f M (a1 , . . . , an ).
timc twn rwn Sunepc h tim enc rou sth
smfwna me thn
enai pnta
na antikemeno tou smpantoc thc roc den qei alhjotim.
M.
Me lla lgia nac
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Shmasiologa tpwn
me smbola sunartsewn
O orismc 9.7 den qreizetai allag, pra ap to ti qrhsimopoietai plon me ton Orism 11.3 (kai qi me ton Orism 9.6).
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Arijm htiko roi
'Estw ma glssa
gia arijmhtik kai gia progrmmata
logismiko pou qrhsimopoion arijmoc, h opoa perilambnei: tic stajerc
0, 1, 2,
. . . (upogrammzw aut ta smbola gia
na ta xeqwrsw ap touc fusikoc arijmoc 0, 1, 2, . . . ), ta smbola sunartsewn deutrou bajmo
+, , ,
kai
ta smbola kathgorhmtwn deutrou bajmo
<, , >, .
klp,
Apoddoume ta parapnw smbola se ma dom me smpan to snolo to
{0, 1, . . . }, pou to 0 apoddetai sto 0, to 1 sto 1, +(x , y ) ekfrzei x +y , to <(x , y ) ekfrzei x <y , klp. Shmewsh: h tim tou (34, 55) den mpore na problefje,
mpore na enai opoiosdpote arijmc.
Paradegmata rwn:
+(x , 1), +(2, +(x , 5)), (+(3, 7), (5, 2)).

Paradegmata tpwn:
'Oqi to
+(x , y , z )
>((3, x ), 0), y (>(y , 0) >((y , y ), y )).

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Sunoyzon tac
Ma
L-dom M
perilambnei:
na mh-ken snolo, to gia kje stajer
dom(M )
na stoiqeo
c L,
c M dom(M )
ma
gia kje smbolo sunrthshc
M sunrthsh f
dom(M )n
f L bajmo n, dom(M )
gia kje smbolo kathgormatoc sqsh
RM
sto
dom(M ),
to
dhlad
R L bajmo n, R M dom(M )n .
n forc
ma
(Gia na snolo
S,
Sn
enai to
S S S .) h
Shmewsh:
den prpei na uprqei sgqush metax mac ESM
sto plasio mac domc sunrthsh
M,
pou
mac glssac
h : V dom(M ), me ma L, pou f M : dom(M )n dom(M ).

195 / 232
12.
Epiqeirmata, egkurthta
H Kathgorhmatik Logik enai pio ekfrastik ap thn Protasiak Logik. All h empeira mac ap thn Protasiak Logik mac bohjei na diatupsoume ton orism thc egkurthtac sthn Kathgorhmatik Logik.
Orismc 12.1 ('Egkuro epiqerhma)
A1 , . . . , An , B tpoi thc L. 'Ena epiqerhma A1 , . . . , An , ra B enai gkuro an se L-dom M kai ESM h sto plasio thc M pou M , h A1 , M , h A2 , . . . kai M , h An ,, tte M , h B . Se aut thn perptwsh grfoume A1 , . . . , An B.
'Estw ma glssa kai
kje
Me lla lgia, se kje katstash (dom + ESM) sthn opoa oi tpoi
A1 , . . . , An
enai loi alhjec, o
prpei epshc na
enai alhjc. Eidik perptwsh: Shmanei ti o ESM.
n=0.
Se aut thn perptwsh grfoume
B.
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enai alhjc se kje
L-dom
smfwna me kje
Egkurthta,
Ikanopoihsimthta,
Isodunama
'Estw ma glssa
Orismc 12.2
L.
gia kje
('Egkuroc Tpoc)
'Enac
L-tpoc enai (logik) gkuroc an ESM h sto plasio thc M , qoume M , h Grfoume Aan o A enai gkuroc.
(Ikanopoisimoc Tpoc)
L-dom M
kai
A.
Orismc 12.3
'Enac ESM
L-tpoc enai ikanopoisimoc an gia kpoia L-dom M h sto plasio thc M , qoume M , h A.
(Isodnamoi Tpoi)
kai
Orismc 12.4
kai ESM
L-tpoi A, B enai logik isodnamoi an gia kje L-dom M h sto plasio thc M , qoume M , h A an kai mno an M, h B.
Oi
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Egkurthta,
Ikanopoihsimthta,
Isodunama
Oi sqseic metax autn twn ennoin (selda 43) isqoun kai gia thn Kathgorhmatik Logik.
'Ara, pq oi nnoiec tou gkurou, ikanopoisimou tpou, kai thc isodunamac, mporon na ekfraston me bsh thn nnoia tou gkurou epiqeirmatoc.
198 / 232
Poia
epiqeirmata e nai gkura
;
AB A.
Merik paradegmata ap gkura epiqeirmata: gkura epiqeirmata Protasiakc Logikc: pq poll kainorgia: pq
x ((x ) (x )), x ((x ) (x , )), x ((x ) (x , ))

Elgqontac an na epiqerhma genik pra pol dskolo. Den mporome na elgxoume ti o
A1 , . . . , An
enai gkuro enai
L-domc
+ ESM stic opoec oi
B enai alhjc se lec tic A1 , . . . , An enai loi alhjec L-domc.
(pwc kname me touc pnakec aljeiac). Aut sumbanei giat uprqoun peirec
Jerhma 12.5 (
Church, 1935
Den uprqei algrijmoc o opooc mpore na entopsei akribc ta gkura epiqeirmata thc Kathgorhmatikc Logikc.
199 / 232
Trpoi
gia na
elgqoume thn egkurthta twn
epiqeirhmtwn
Par to Jerhma 12.5, sthn prxh mporome suqn na elgqoume an na epiqerhma thc Kathgorhmatikc Logikc enai gkuro. Aut mporome na to petqoume me touc paraktw trpouc: mesh epiqeirhmatologa isodunamec sustmata apodexewn pwc to ssthma kannwn fusikc sumperasmatologac Qrhsimopoiome touc parapnw trpouc kai gia na dexoume ti nac tpoc enai gkuroc, dhlad
A.
Oi pnakec aljeiac den enai qrsimoi giat uprqoun peirec domc.
200 / 232
12.1
' Amesh epiqeirhmatologa
Ac dexoume ti
x ((x ) (x )), x ((x ) (x , )) x ((x ) (x , )).

Ac proume ma opoiadpote
L-dom M
(pou
enai h glssa
pou qrhsimopoiome wc pardeigma). Ac upojsoume ti
x ((x ) (x )). (2) x ((x ) (x , )). 'Ara prpei na brome na antikemeno sth M ttoio ste M () (, ). Smfwna me thn upjesh (2) uprqei na sth M ttoio ste M () (, ). 'Ara M ().
(1)
M M
Smfwna me thn upjesh (1),
M
'Ara 'Ara
() (). M (). M () (, ).
201 / 232
Pardei gma
Ac dexoume ti
x ((x ) (x )), x (Sun(x ) (x )), x (Sun(x ) (x )) x (x ).

Ac proume opoiadpote dom (1)
ttoia ste:
x ((x ) (x )), x (Sun(x ) (x )), (3) x (Sun(x ) (x )) Prpei na dexoume ti M x (x ). Ac proume na opoiodpote antikemeno thc M . Jloume na isqei M (). Smfwna me thn (3) qoume M Sun() (). An M (), tte ap thn (1) isqei M (). Allic M Sun(). Tte ap th (2) isqei M (). 'Ara kai ap tic 2 periptseic qoume M ().
(2)
M M M
202 / 232
' Amesh
epiqeirhmatologa me
isthta
Ac dexoume ti o tpoc enai gkuroc.
x y (x =y zR (x , z ) uR (y , u )) M,
kai antikemena
Ac proume ma opoiadpote dom smpan thc
sto
M.
Prpei na dexoume ti
M
AN
= zR (, z ) uR (, u )
TOTE
'Ara prpei na dexoume ti
= zR (, z ) M M
uR (, u ). ,
enai to dio
All AN
= zR (, z ), zR (, z ).
tte ta
antikemeno. Sunepc
'Ara uprqei na antikemeno
sto smpan thc
ttoio ste
R (, ). M uR (, u ).
Teleisame.
Sunepc
203 / 232
12.2
Isodunamec
H Kathgorhmatik Logik perilambnei tic isodunamec pou ja dome paraktw kajc KAI tic isodunamec thc Protasiakc Logikc. 'Estw
A, B
tuqaoi tpoi.
28. O tpoc 29. O tpoc 30. O tpoc 31. O tpoc 32. O tpoc 33. O tpoc
x yA x yA xA xA
enai logik isodnamoc me ton
y xA. y xA.
enai (logik) isodnamoc me ton
enai isodnamoc me ton enai isodnamoc me ton
x A. x A. xA xB . xA xB .
x (A B ) x (A B )
204 / 232
Isodunamec me
desmeumnec
metablhtc
34. An h
xA
kai
Pq oi
A, tte oi tpoi xA enai logik isodnamoi me ton A. x xP (x ) kai x xP (x ) enai isodnamoi me xP (x ).

den qei elejerh emfnish ston
A
35. An h
A,
tte kai o
o tpoc tpoc 36. An h
x (A B ) enai isodnamoc me ton A xB , x (A B ) enai isodnamoc me ton A xB .

A,
tte
o tpoc o tpoc 37.
x (A B ) x (A B )
A xB , A xB .
kai
Shmewsh:
o tpoc o tpoc
An h x den qei elejerh emfnish ston B , tte x (A B ) enai isodnamoc me ton xA B , kai x (A B ) enai isodnamoc me ton xA B .
Prosoq: O posodekthc allzei!
205 / 232
Metonomzon tac tic desmeumnec metablhtc
38. Ac upojsoume ti:
Q , y A, B A x A y .
Tte o tpoc
QxA
enai isodnamoc me ton
QyB .
x y (x , y ) z u (z , u ).
Pq o tpoc
enai isodnamoc me ton
206 / 232
Isodunamec/egkurthta
me isthta
39. O tpoc
t =t t =u
enai gkuroc gia kje ro
t.
40. Gia opoiodpote rouc o tpoc
t, u u =t . x
enai nac tpoc ston opoo h
enai isodnamoc me ton An
41. (Arq tou
Leibniz)
qei elejerh emfnish, h
den emfanzetai kajlou ston
A,
kai o
prorqetai ap ton
antikajistntac ma
perissterec elejerec emfanseic thc tpoc
ap thn
y,
tte o
x =y (A B )
enai gkuroc. Pardeigma: o tpoc gkuroc.
x =y (zR (x , z ) zR (y , z ))
enai
207 / 232
Pardei gma
Ac dexoume ti an h o tpoc
x den enai elejerh metablht tou A tte x (x B A) enai isodnamoc me ton x (A B ).
Oi paraktw tpoi enai isodnamoi:
x (x B A) x B A xB A A xB x (A B )
(isodunama 34, kajc h
den enai elejerh
metablht tou
x B A)
(isodunama 30)
(pardeigma sel. 61) (isodunama 36, kajc h
den enai elejerh
metablht tou
A)
208 / 232
Tpoi
pou DEN
e nai
logik
isodnamoi
Gia orismnouc tpouc
A, B ,
oi paraktw tpoi DEN enai
logik isodnamoi. (Pnta mwc isqei prtoc tpoc deteroc tpoc.) kai
x (A B ) x (A B ) xA xB M
xA xB . x (A B ). M M
kai tpouc prtoc
kai kai
xA xB . A, B tpoc;
pou
Mporete na brete ma dom deteroc tpoc, all
209 / 232
13.
Fusik
sumperasmatologa gia
thn Kathgorhmatik
Logik
To ssthma kannwn fusikc sumperasmatologac (natural
deduction (ND))
gia thn Kathgorhmatik Logik perilambnei
touc kannec gia thn Protasiak Logik kai nouc kannec gia touc posodektec
kai thn isthta
=. ND
enai
Prin kataskeasoume ma apdeixh me to ssthma qrsimo na thn anaptxoume prta me mesh
epiqeirhmatologa kai peita na thn metatryoume se ma apdeixh
ND.
Oi apodexeic protsewn thc Kathgorhmatikc Logikc me to ssthma
ND
mpore na enai pio dskolec ap tic apodexeic
protsewn thc Protasiakc Logikc, giat tra qoume nouc kannec oi opooi mac dnoun perissterec epilogc, kai mpore arqik na knoume ljoc epilogc.
210 / 232
Eisagwg
introduction I
,
Gia na apodexoume ma prtash thc morfc apodexoume thn
xA, prpei na A(t ) gia kpoio basik ro t thc epilogc mac.

. . .
1 2
A(t ) xA
to apodexame aut
...
I (1)
Smbash 13.1
Ap ed kai sto exc ap ton tpo
A(t )
enai h prtash h opoa prorqetai lec tic elejerec
emfanseic thc
A(x ) antikajistntac x me ton ro t .
Jumhjete ti nac basikc roc enai nac roc o opooc den perilambnei metablhtc. Sunepc perilambnei stajerc kai smbola sunrthshc. An se kpoia dom
h prtash
A(t ) A
enai alhjc, tte kai h
xA
tou
enai alhjc giat uprqei na antikemeno sth
(h tim
sth
M)
to opoo knei thn
alhj.
211 / 232
Eisagwg
introduction I
,
Epilgontac ton katllhlo ro
mpore na enai dskolo. Gi'
aut enai qrsimo na anaptssoume ma apdeixh prta me mesh epiqeirhmatologa kai peita na thn metatrpoume se ma apdeixh
ND.
212 / 232
Apaloif
elimination E
,
'Estw
A(x )
nac tpoc. An qoume apodexei thn prtash
xA,
tte mporome na apodexoume ma prtash upojtontac thn
B:
A(c ),
pou h
enai ma na stajer h
opoa den qrhsimopoietai sthn tra, kai apodeiknontac thn
sthn apdeixh wc
ap thn parapnw upjesh.
Kat thn dirkeia thc apdeixhc thc
mporome na
qrhsimopoisoume otidpote qoume dh apodexei. All tan apodexoume thn
den mporome na
qrhsimopoisoume argtera kanna mroc thc apdeixhc thc sumperilambanomnhc kai thc apdeixh thc
B,
c.
Sunepc klenoume thn
B
1 2
ap thn
A(c)
se na kout:
xA
A(c)
h apdeixh
upjesh
3 4
B B
to apodexame
E (1,
2, 3)
213 / 232
Apaloif
elimination E
,
H stajer
lgetai stajer
Skolem.
214 / 232
Aitiolghsh
kanna
E
uprqei
An h prtash
na antikemeno
xA enai alhjc se ma dom M , tte sto smpan thc M ttoio ste M
A(). M.
To
mpore na mhn onomzetai ap kpoia stajer sth
Mporome mwc na prosjsoume ma na stajer, pq thn stajer
c,
gia na to onomsei. Epiplon, prosjtoume thn
plhrofora sth
ti h
onomzei to
H stajer
prpei na enai kainorgia giat oi uploipec
stajerc mpore na mhn onomzoun to
sth
M.
'Ara h prtash prtash thn thn
A(c) gia kpoia na stajer c enai san thn xA. An mporome na apodexoume thn prtash B ap upjesh A(c), tte enai san na apodeiknoume thn B ap xA.
215 / 232
Pardei gma
qrshc kannwn
kai
Ac dexoume ti 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
x (P (x ) Q (x ))
xP (x ) xQ (x ).
x (P (x ) Q (x )) dedomno P (c) Q (c) upjesh P (c) E (2) xP (x ) I (3) Q (c) E (2) xQ (x ) I (5) xP (x ) xQ (x ) I (4, 6) xP (x ) xQ (x ) E (1, 2, 7) x (P (x ) Q (x )). Tte P () Q (). 'Ara P () kai Q (). xQ (x ). Sunepc xP (x ) xQ (x ). ND.
Se
Sth fusik glssa: Jewrome ti uprqei na 'Ara
ttoio ste
xP (x )
kai
Shmewsh:
Mno protseic uprqoun se ma apdeixh
autc tic apodexeic den prpei na uprqoun tpoi me elejerec metablhtc.
216 / 232
Eisagwg
introduction I
,
Gia na eisgoume ma prtash thc morfc tpo
xA,
gia kpoio
A(x ),
prpei na eisgoume ma na stajer, pq
c,
h opoa
den qei qrhsimopoihje wc tra sthn apdeixh, kai na apodexoume thn prtash
A(c). A(c)
mporome na
Kat thn dirkeia thc apdeixhc thc
qrhsimopoisoume otidpote qoume dh apodexei. All tan apodexoume thn
A(c)
den mporome na
qrhsimopoisoume argtera thn apdeixh thc
c.
Sunepc klenoume thn
A(c)
1
se na kout:
c
h apdeixh
stajer
2 3
A(c) xA
to apodexame
I (1, ND
2) pou grfoume
Aut enai h monadik for sto ssthma
ma gramm (gramm 1) h opoa perilambnei na ro kai qi ma prtash. Epiplon, enai h monadik for pou na kout den arqzei me ma gramm h opoa onomzetai
upjesh.
217 / 232
Aitiolghsh
Kanna
Gia na dexoume ti
gia kje antikemeno
M xA, prpei na dexoume sto smpan thc M .
ti
A()
Sunepc dialgoume na tuqao stajer prtash
h opoa onomzei to Epeid to
, prosjtoume ma na , kai apodeiknoume thn xA.
A(c).
c
enai tuqao, qoume dexei ti
H stajer
prpei na enai kainorgia giat oi stajerc pou
qoun dh qrhsimopoihje mpore na mhn onomzoun to
218 / 232
Apaloif
elimination E
,
'Estw nac tpoc prtash
A(x ).
An qoume katafrei na gryoume thn
xA,
tte mporome na gryoume kai thn
A(t )
gia
opoiodpote basik ro epilxoume;). . . . 1 2 Aitiolghsh: an h
thc epilogc mac (poion ro
ja
xA A(t ) xA
to apodexame aut
... E (1) A(t )
enai alhjc se ma dom, tte kai h
ja enai opwsdpote alhjc, gia opoiodpote basik ro
t.
H epilog tou katllhlou
mpore na enai dskolh. Gi' aut
enai qrsimo na anaptssoume ma apdeixh prta me mesh epiqeirhmatologa kai peita na thn metatrpoume se ma apdeixh
ND.
219 / 232
Pardei gma
qrshc kannwn
kai
Ac dexoume ti
Se aut thn perptwsh to
P xQ (x ) P
x (P Q (x )).
enai smbolo kathgormatoc
bajmo 0, dhlad enai na tomo. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P xQ (x )
c
dedomno
I stajer P upjesh xQ (x ) E (3, 1) Q (c) E (4) P Q (c) I (3, 5) x (P Q (x )) I (2, 6)
P xQ (x ). Tte gia kje xQ (x ), ra Q (). 'Ara gia kje antikemeno , an P , tte Q (). Me lla lgia, gia kje antikemeno , qoume P Q (). 'Ara x (P Q (x )).
Sth fusik glssa: Jewrome ti antikemeno
an
tte
220 / 232
Pardei gma
qrshc lwn twn kannwn twn
posodeiktn
Ac dexoume ti
x yG (x , y )
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
y xG (x , y ).
dedomno
x yG (x , y )
d
stajer upjesh
yG (c, y ) G (c, d) xG (x , d) xG (x , d) y xG (x , y )
E (3) I (4) E (1, 3, 5) I (2, 6)
Sth fusik glssa: Jewrome ti kpoio antikemeno
ttoio ste
'Ara gia opoiodpote antikemeno kai
x yG (x , y ). Tte uprqei yG (, y ). , qoume ti G (, ), ra y xG (x , y ).

221 / 232
Epeid to
xG (x , ). tan
na tuqao antikemeno, qoume
Ljoc
qrsh kannwn
Prpei na gnwrzoume wc tra ti
Pq stouc fusikoc arijmoc h prtash alhjc, en h
x y <(x , y ) y x <(x , y ). x y <(x , y ) enai
y x <(x , y ) x y <(x , y )
c
enai yeudc.
'Ara h paraktw apdeixh prpei na enai LAJOS: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 H stajer dedomno
stajer
y <(c, y ) <(c, d) <(c, d) <(c, d) x <(x , d) y x <(x , y )
E (1)
upjesh
(4)
E (3, 4, 5) I (2, 6) I (7)
LAJOS
Skolem d,
thn opoa eisgame sth gramm 4, den
prpei na emfanzetai sto sumprasma (grammc 5, 6). Dete thn selda 213. 'Ara h qrsh tou kanna ljoc.
sth gramm 6 enai
222 / 232
Anakptwn Kannac:
E
PC:
meinei thn apdeixh
Autc o kannac enai san ton kanna
kat ma gramm. Enai qrsimoc kannac all den enai aparathtoc. 'Estw ti qoume apodexei tic protseic
x (A(x ) B (x )) B (t ):
kai
A(t ),
gia kpoiouc tpouc
A(x ), B (x ),
kai kpoio basik ro
t.
Gnwrzoume ti ap aut sumperanoume ti 1 2 3 4 O kannac 1 2 3
x (A(x ) B (x )) A(t ) A(t ) B (t ) B (t ) E : x (A(x ) B (x )) A(t ) B (t )
to apodexame aut. . . . . . kai aut
E (1) E (2, 3)
to apodexame aut. . . . . . kai aut
E (2,
1)
223 / 232
Pardei gma
qrshc kanna
Ac dexoume ti
x y (P (x , y ) Q (x , y )), xP (x , a)
1 2 3 4 5 6
yQ (y , a).
x y (P (x , y ) Q (x , y )) dedomno xP (x , a) dedomno P (c, a) upjesh Q (c, a) E (3, 1) yQ (y , a) I (4) yQ (y , a) E (2, 3, 5) E

se do
Qrhsimopoisame apeujeac ton kanna posodektec
Aut enai akma pio qrsimo.
224 / 232
Kannec gia
isthta
Anaklastik idithta isthtac (reexivity
re).
Se opoiadpote gramm mac apdeixhc mporete na eisgete ma prtash thc morfc basik
t =t ,
gia opoiodpote
L-ro t
kai gia opoiadpote glssa . . . 1
L.
t =t
re
knei thn prtash
Aitiolghsh: opoiadpote alhj (o
L-dom
t =t
enai basikc roc).
225 / 232
Kannec gia
isthta
Antikatstash swn rwn (=substitution An
A(x )
enai nac tpoc, oi
apodexei
A(t )
1 2 3 4
kai
t =u
=sub). t , u enai basiko roi, qete u =t , tte mporete na gryete
A(u ). A(t )
. . . to apodexame aut. . .
t =u A(u ) t, u
. . . kai aut
=sub(1,
3)
Aitiolghsh: an oi
enai soi tte mporome na
antikatastsoume ton ston tpo
me ton
wc proc th metablht
A.
226 / 232
Pardei gma
me isthta
Ac dexoume ti
c=d
d=c.
1 2 3
Oi
c, d
enai stajerc.
c=d d=d d=c
dedomno
re =sub(2,
1)
Aut enai suqn qrsimo, gi' aut mporome na to qrhsimopoiome wc anakptonta kanna: 1 2
c=d d=c
dedomno
=sym(1)
227 / 232
Pardei gma
me isthta
Ac dexoume ti 1 2 3 4
x y (y =f (x )).
c
stajer
f (c)=f (c) y (y =f (c)) x y (y =f (x ))
re I (2) I (1,
3)
Sth fusik glssa: Gia opoiodpote antikemeno
qoume
f ()=f ().
'Ara gia opoiodpote
, ,
uprqei kti so me to
f ()
(to dio to
f ()).
'Ara gia opoiodpote Epeid to qoume
y (y =f ()). x y (y =f (x )).
tan na tuqao antikemeno, qoume
228 / 232
Pardei gma
me isthta
Ac dexoume ti 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
x y (P (y ) y =x ), xP (f (x )) x y (P (y ) y =x ) dedomno xP (f (x )) dedomno y (P (y ) y =c) upjesh P (f (c)) E (2) f (c)=c E (4, 3) c=f (c) =sym(5) x (x =f (x )) I (6) x (x =f (x )) E (1, 3, 7)
x (x =f (x )).
229 / 232
Didaqjesa lh
Protasiak Logik
Suntaktik Shmasiologa Metfrash Logikc se fusik glssa kai antstrofa Epiqeirmata, egkurthta
, Beth
Kathgorhmatik Logik Ta dia me thn Protasiak Logik, ektc ap
.
230 / 232
Merik ap
ta jmata pou
den
kalyame
apodexeic orjthtac kai plhrthtac twn susthmtwn kannwn fusikc sumperasmatologac kai jerhma sumpgeiac jerhma tou
Beth
apodexewn
G odel
Logik (Temporal
mh klassik edh Logikc, pq Tropik Logik (Modal
Logic), Qronik (Linear Logic)
Logic),
Grammik Logik
peperasmnec domc kai upologistik poluplokthta
231 / 232
Logik se
ereunhtik eppedo
Sthn Plhroforik gnetai qrsh diafrwn eidn Logikc, pwc Protasiakc, Kathgorhmatikc, Tropikc, Qronikc kai Dunamikc Logikc. Uprqoun efarmogc sta peda teqnhtc nohmosnhc, bsewn dedomnwn, parllhlwn kai katanemhmnwn susthmtwn, polu-praktorikn susthmtwn, anaparstashc gnshc, diatpwshc kai epaljeushc diergasin, klp. H Jewrhtik Plhroforik qreizetai th Logik.
H Logik apotele antikemeno melthc kai gia llouc tomec, pwc ta Majhmatik, thn Filosofa, kai th Glwssologa.
232 / 232

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Protasiakos Kai Katigorimatikos Logismos

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Dom

Protasiak Logik (Propositional

Kathgorhmatik Logik (Predicate

gnwst kai wc Prwtobjmia Logik (First-Order

Autc oi shmeiseic enai basismnec stic shmeiseic tou

tou Panepisthmou tou

Kuklofore ellhnik kdosh me ttlo Teqnht Nohmosnh -

ma glssa programmatismo Logikc. H glssa bsewn dedomnwn

enai basismnh se idec Logikc. Oi

prodiagrafc eufun praktrwn logismiko (intelligent

ekfrzontai me th qrsh thc Logikc.

(sunjwc apotele to upbajro)

se arketc epistmec: Fusik: Kbantologikc Logikc (quantum

epinohje gia thn jemelwsh thc kbantomhqanikc (quantum

me skop thn anlush thc

Paraktw enai na mroc progrmmatoc:

oi opoec enai alhjec

yeudec ktw ap orismnec sunjkec. Mporon na qrhsimopoihjon sndesmoi pwc

gia na anaptuqjon pio polplokec protseic ap tic

if-tests if-tests qoun to dio nhma, llo, an na if-test mpore

Prta, prpei na dsoume na akrib orism sta edh twn

ta opoa ja antimetwpsoume. Autc o orismc ja mac

dsei thn tupik glssa (formal

Logikc. To alfbhto thc glssac thc Protasiakc Logikc qei 3 sustatik.

Prto sus tatik:

De mac apasqole poia atomik gegonta (pq,

ja antimetwpsoume. Arke na mporon na proun ma

alhjotim (dhlad na enai alhj yeud). Oi protasiakc metablhtc (propositional (propositional wc

Enai san tic metablhtc

sunepagwg (an-tte): grfetai wc

isodunama (an kai mno an): grfetai wc

count>0 and not found grfetai (count > 0) found, swc p q

parnei ma parmetro kai grfetai wc:

den qoun paramtrouc.

Enai logikc stajerc (pwc to

Qreiazmaste parenjseic gia na aposafhnsoume ta

Pq, sthn arijmhtik to

den enai xekjaro, up thn

nnoia ti mporome na to diabsoume wc

H diafor pazei rlo.

mpore na diabaste wc:

Aut pou qoume onomsei

sth Logik lgontai

protseic (formulas ) kalosqhmatismnec (well-formed) ekfrseic.

Kje tomo (p , q , r klp) enai prtash. Ta An to An ta kai

enai prtash tte enai kai to (A). ta

A, B enai protseic tte enai kai (A B ), (A B ), (A B ) kai (A B ).

Parade gmata Protsewn

Ta paraktw enai protseic:

p (p ) ((p ) ) (((p ) )) ((p ) (((p ) )))

Gia na paraleyoume perissterec parenjseic, orzoume thn paraktw proteraithta sundsmwn:

Enai pwc sthn arijmhtik pou to

+ kai sunepc to 2+34 (2+3)4. Omowc: pqr p q

p q r diabzetai wc (p (q )) r p ((q r )) p ((q ) r ))

enai pol dskolo

Ti gnetai me protseic pwc

Ap thn llh, oi protseic pwc enai.

enai diaforetikc. 'Alla

pwc ja dome qoun thn dia alhjotim se kje perptwsh: enai

'Ara de mac apasqole pc ja aposafhnsoume thn prtash

qei to paraktw dndro:

Prosxte ti o sndesmoc sth rza (koruf) tou dndrou enai

Autc enai o krioc sndesmoc (principal

Aut h prtash qei thn