Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Tesis de Doctorado
Facultad de Matemticas Directora: Dra. Da. Pilar Pisn Casares
2004
AI
# @A ?JK>HA @A "
ANFHAI=H I=
=I IE ?AH
=CH=@A?E EA J A HE=
= , = 2E =H IAH
= D O K =
=I HA?E>E@=I =
EI F=@HAI
1 ,1+- /- -4)
'
' A 1@A= AI @A 5A ECHKF @A 1 ! $ % ! " # %
N
@A 1@A= AI @A 4AJ
?K I O 5A ECHKF I
1 ,
+ = ?K ) C HEJ ) C HEJ
1 -
J=I
11 5EIJA =I @E B
= JE? I
11 ) 1 JH @K??E
11 * +
= ?K
I K?E
AI
'
' ! ! !!
@A = N I K?E CA AH=
*
KIGKA@= -ND=KIJEL=
AJ @ @A + =KIA . HJA >=?DAH
AH @A A?K=?E 4A@K??E
@A K
AJ @ @A + 11 + +
= ?K JA A= ,ALEA A@E= JA A A = @A ,E? I C
A A I
N I K?E
CA AH=
AI
@A K = N I K?E F=HJE?K =H
11
@E?A /A AH= 1
A = @A .=H =I F=H= IEIJA =I
AJ @ KI= @ *=IAI @A /H > AH 11 , 5EIJA =I ,E B
= JE? I A +
N I K?E
F=HJE?K =H N I K?E
CA AH=
C A A I
11 -
J=I
111
@K I @A 5E?ECE=I
111 )
0E
#%
#% $ $! I +E $%
111 *
111 + + = ?K
18 +
= ?K
18 ) + 18 *
@A 2HE AH
J=I
@K
@A 5E?ECE=I
%
% &
K J .E EJ @A +DAGKA
8 +
= ?K
8) 8* 8+ +
@A = 4AI K?E
I 5 CH=@ I
E>HA
E E =
&!
&" '# ''
K J .E EJ @A +DAGKA
+ J=I @A
81 - A F I
81 ) 1@A= @A 5A ECHKF 81 * 5EIJA =I ,E B
= JE? I
N I K?E
2=HJE?K =H N I K?E
/A AH=
" " # E E =
81 + 4AI K?E
E>HA
*E> E CH=B
=
'
,1+- ,- +7),4 5 1
111
1 @E?A @A ?K=@H I
11 ) C HEJ 81 0/
I 11 * %
11 + $ LAHIKI 11 * %
11 , #
0/ 81 ! 0/
81
#
,1+- ,- .1/74)5 1
1 @E?A @A CKH=I
18 . DKA? 18 8 0 C
= K = 8 E JHE= CK =?E
6HE= CK =?E
@A 6 H
1 64 ,7++1
KJ=JEL
EJ= A JA CA AH=@ F @A
5
?= IE
AA A J K I
>
AKJH
O @=@ K ?KAHF
5
I? A?
A JA @EA @A =
AI @A?EH A FH @K?J @A I
> = /A
AIJK@E=H AIJA = CA>H= AI AGKEL= A JA = AIJK@E=H =I HA =?E E@ I F H L=HEA@=@AI AI AI F=H= AJHE =@=I F H A?K=?E
E= AI AI @A
C OA = E
I A E@A= @A IA ECHKF ?
5
E
@A
= CA>H=I @=@ F H
4 :E
-I ?
E= O D
C A A HAI I F=H= ?= ?K =H I
-NEIJA = C HEJ
+=IE J @ I A
- ?=I @A = J HIE
BKA => H@=@ F H FHE AH= LA A F=H= IA ECHKF I LAHE ?= @ 5 5 =HJ
?K BKAH @A E@ I F H FHE AH= LA A IA >=I= A A AIJK@E @A ?EAHJ I ?
*+ 2'&>
=I J A? E?=I KJE E =@=I A AIJA F A I IE F E?E= AI GKA + ' O ?KO I CH=B I IK>O=?A
1 JH @K??E
JAI =F=HA?A A @ I IE K 4 5' -IJ=I J
A? E?=I I AI = A ?EA ?E= ? J HIE
A H? ? FKJ=?E = A JA F ? AIJ I
AJ
?E EA J @A F HGK A @A
= A FH > A = @A ?= ?K =H A E@A= HA?KHHEA @ = E JH @K?EH KAL=I L=HE=> AI - FH > A = @A =K A J=H A ? F F A E@=@ @A ?
= ?K A ?E= A A I GKA KJE E?A I JH I HAI LA E@A= AI @A HAJ
?K
1 :K :L K L
N
H
= C HEJ
FH L ?= K = CH= HA@K??E A
@A
AI K HAJ
?K
A =I ?E=
I A HAJ
?K
@=@ F H =I I K?E
) AIJA HAJ
?K AIJA F=I I
H * (
* *
N NH
+ + + )
A@E= JA
E 5
IAH = = GKA A ?= ?K A ?= ?K =
I IK E@A= =I ?E=@ A AH K
I >=IAI @A /H > AH ?
F IE> A @A L=HE=> AI 5E A IA ECHKF @A F=HJE@= 5 LAHE ?= = ? F @A @K=@ I O F H @A
= CA>H=
@K J= J F @A EI
@K @E?E
5 E>HA I A K ?E=H A A = @A = =O= = 111 ) F=H= I D=> =H @A = HAI K?E
5 O @A IEIJA =I
@K I 5 CH= E E =
@A IE?ECE=I @A
IAA A J I
.
B.
1 JH @K??E
@ ? @A AI A ? K J B
HC ,E?D I HAIK J=@ I 5 @A E
AIE
!
I HA =?E
@K
@K = I GKA A I CA AH=@ HAI =I D K IEIJA = D E E = AI @A CH=@ C
=I HA@K?E@=I 0E IE O I @A IE?ECE=I
@A IE?ECE=I D=O
K A A A J @A CH=@
C
=I K =I F @HA I ?= ?K =H @EHA?J= A JA I CA AH=@ HAI 111 ) #
-IJ= AI = I B
= GKA IA @AIFHA @A @A + ' O AI = GKA IACKEHA I A CH= F=HJA @A AIJ= A HE= ,A DA?D L= I = @A@E?=H CH= F=HJA @A A = = HAI LAH A FHE AH F=I @A AIJA FH > A = ?= ?K =H
+E
B
A AI ?
5 0E
+/
I =KJ HAI @A
KAL I ?
AIJA ? ?
K J A IEJK=?E
56)'$ O
I A A A J I HA =?E
=@ I ?
I IA ECHKF I IA
= AH= =JKH= =
AI @A K IEIJA = D D
C A A B H = C A A LEA A
/ CA AH=@ F H IKI A A A J I
=I @A K IEIJA = AI @A ?
E E = AI HAIFA?J @A
=JKH= A N 11 )
AI F=HJE?K =HAI O IK IK = ?
"
FEJA ? @ @ 7 IEIJA = @E B
= JE? A ? @A = + =I N I K?E A K I @E?D A ? I K = @A IKI A?K=?E
1 JH @K??E
CHKA ?E=I AI K IEIJA = @E B
= JE AI AIJ
= B H K =@= I >HA Z ?Z ?E EA J @A =I AIJHK?JKH=I @A GKA I HFHA @A JA A JA I A ?EA JAI EC=@ I =
=I HA AL= JAI A :: I FHE AH I ?KO=I I K I AIJK@E I I = C HEJ
@A ? AI K A JAH O= DA
AI @=J= @A
KO = JECK
AI J= ? =IE?
AI A AIJK@E @A AI ,A DA?D
JE = @ AIJA IA JE@ FAHJA A?A = = K A?=@= @A IEC I ?K= AI K = > KIGKA@= AND=KIJEL= A KAL = C HEJ
I B = =?E AI @A ?= ?K =H 11 *
F=H= ?= ?K =H = N I K?E CA AH= = K IEIJA = K = LAHIE ? IJHK?JEL= F=H= ?EAHJ I ? 11 * % /H=?E=I = AIJA = C HEJ IA HA@K?A A AI F=HJE?K =HAI
= @EIJE J I IEIJA =I @E B = JE? I I ANEIJA JAI F=H= ?= ?K =H K = N I K?E C A A ?=>A @AIJ=?=H CA AH= A?AI=HE= IJHKE 1 @= I IK = ? =LA A = C HEJ 11 + ! >=I=@ A A A = @A F=H= =F E?=H D = IEIJA =I C A A JEA A F=HJE?K =H ?=I @A GKA ANEIJ= = K IEIJA = D F H IK LA ?E@=@ @A ? FKJ E = D IA
.=H =I 11 + /KE=@ I F H = = J= LA ?E@=@ @A AIJA = C HEJ = IA??E 11 + @E?D = C HEJ C A A I - AIJ= IA??E @= I =@A =I K = ? @E?E
O IK ?EA JA F=H= I=>AH IE K IEIJA = @E B = JE? )F E?= @ KAL = C HEJ @A N I K?E CHKF @A @E?D = C HEJ
>=I=@ A E@A= AI @A IA ECHKF I F=H= = >JA ?E AI F=HJE?K =HAI = IEIJA =I @E B = JE? I 11 , # AGKEL= A JAI H=@E?= A =I ?E=H = K IEIJA = @E B = JE? K IA E
FH >= @ GKA I
1 JH @K??E
B H = @AJAH E =@= /H=?E=I = AIJ ? I A ? HEJ ? ? A = C HEJ LA@ I
CHKA ?E=I IE
F AJ= A JA
F=H= ?= ?K =H = N I K?E
CA AH= = K IEIJA = @E B
= JE? A CHKA ?E=I IE = =@EH E CK = KAL= L=HE=> A KAIJH= >IAIE
F H =K A J=H A
AH @A L=HE=> AI H= K @A N I K = FH
=?JE?= = GKA JA A I O @A E ?
C E F A E@=@ JA
HE?= @A HAI LAH A ?
= ?K F AJ 5+0'$ ? H =HE & = A
AH @A L=HE=> AI F H K A
AH K JANJ AI @A K IEIJA =
@K I @A IE?ECE=I @A
=I CA AH= AI @A?EH AKJH ?= ?A =JEL O
E I ?
= ?K I ?
@E?= A GKA = ? ?E ? AI AI
2 ?
F A E@=@ =K A J= ?
EJ= A JA CA AH=@
K = *=I = @ IJHKE
AIJHK?JKH=I GKA =F=HA?A A J @ ? K = ) F=HJEH @A A =I ? JEA A @A IA ECHKF 5 GKA ? HA?A A K IEIJA = IE?ECE=I @A = =
K J I @K
I CH=@ I @A
I A A A J I GKA =F= J AH E
EJK@ @A AIJ I ?
E A= AI @E B = JE? I =I ?E=@ I = AIJ=I AIJHK?JKH=I @A IE?ECE=I @A IE F E?E= ? A J K ?AFJ @A . DKA? 18 ) O FH >= ?AI ANEIJA K . DKA? =I ?E=@ = ? @A AIJ I . DKA? I A =I ?E= I A 18 ) ! GKA IE 0 FA
I K IEIJA = @E B = JE? ?
$
= F=HJEH @A =I N I K?E GKA ? I CA AH=@ HAI @A 5 )@A
=I @= IAA A J I IK
1 JH @K??E
AJ @ >=I=@ A K J EJ $ 18 ) & I = AIJK 2=H= A
@K
JA C= =
@K
@A IE?ECE=I F=I= = @A
@E=H A ?=I CA AH= AI @A?EH = AIJK@E=H A E
AIE IA ? ?AFJ @A . DKA? @A A KI= @ J= >E
A 11 @= I K = C HEJ 8 ) + E A= @A ?=F
JK
@K
?E @A
@A E AIE
5 ,A =GK
@A@K?E
@E EA J @A ? = ?K A J I @A 5 ? @E B = JE? I F @A JA = @= H=
K = O =I N I K?E @K
AI = IEIJA =I
I =@A =I @A ?= ?K =H =? J=H
JA E@=I I
AH @A CA AH=@ HAI K
ECK= AI
HE= AI JA AH K =I
?
A H?
I HAI LEA @ @A
1 JH @K??E
@A CA AH=@ HAI @A E@A= @A K IA ECHKF ? =D H= = C HEJ ? D=>
= B H = @A ? IJHKEH @A IA ECHKF CA
AHE? ? = GKA IKHCA @A J HIE
I CH=@ I @A J HIE
J HIE
-I
%
=I D=IJ= JH=H = AH= ABA?JEL= A E@A= @A K CHKA ?E=I FH > A GKA ?= ?K = I @EIJE J I LEHJEA @ A
IA ECHKF I ?= ?A =JEL I
-IJ= BKA = ? =LA F=H= F @AH @=H K = C HEJ I IEIJA =I E E = AI @A CA AH=@ HAI @A E>HA @A
5 ?
I ?= ?A =JEL I
1 * -IJA AIJK@E HALA = K = @K= E@=@ A JHA I @EIJE J I = C HEJ I=C @A E@A= AI @A HAJ
?K IA
I HAJ
?K I 6= >E
A = =E =
>=I=@ I A A KI @A >=IAI
@A /H > AH O =F O = @
FHE AH KC=H LA
@EIF=HAI GKA HAIKA LA IEIJA =I @E B = JE? I IE ? IEIJA =I @A CA AH=@ HAI K?E E E = AI @A @E?D=I I K?E I AI F=HJE?K =HAI ,AIFK AI CA AH= E = @= I = C HEJ
CHKA ?E=I @= @
AI @A AI I IEIJA =I = IEIJA =I A ? I >=I=@ I A >=IAI @A /H > AH JA E@ @A AIJA CHKA ?E=I I 11 , $ F=H= HAI LAH IEIJA =I @E B = JE
&
- A ?=F
JK E = @A = @A E
AIE @A ?=H=?JAHE =H
@K 111 ? A =
= CA>H= @A K IA ECHKF I CH=@ I @A @A IE?ECE=I @A = =O= = 8A
1 JH @K??E
I = AIJK@E=H = HAI K?E
I? E>HA E
IA FKA
I IEIJA =I
E E = AI @A CA AH=@ HAI @K I
5 = JH=L AI @A AIJHK?JKH=I ?
A@E= JA K = C HEJ I ?= ?K =H
111 * $ 6= >E A LA
I IEIJA =I @A CA AH= I HA I
I FH FE I CA AH=@ HAI
I = @=H K
@A N I K?E
I HAIK J=@ I FK 18 =
- A ?=F
JK
I ? J=I F=H= I CA
5 A BK ?E I = A JA @A
ANF E?EJ= @ K = ? J= F=H= = HACK =HE@=@ @A K = L=HEA@=@ J
HE?= 8 F=H= D= =H @E?D= HACK =HE@=@ 8 + AIJ
= HA? CE@ I A * 2+86'' A HE= HAIK J=@ I @A AIJA ?=F
JK - A ?=F
JK E KIJH= I = C HEJ
+)2 167
+
= ?K @A 1@A= AI @A 4AJ
?K I O 5A ECHKF I
IA. INTRODUCCION
5A= 5 K IA ECHKF ? AA A J @A 5 ,A
:
KJ=JEL OB
H
EJ= A JA CA AH=@ O ?
AKJH J=HA
:H
K ?KAHF IF H4= = E
4A? H@A AI A ? A @A K
I GKA IA FKA@A =I ?E=H K E@A= 1 @AFA @EA JA @A IE@AH=@ A 5 = IA ECHKF 5 ,E?D E@A= @A
= CA>H=I
5
E
4 :E
@A
K J
H : E E E E E
B:
KAC AI K E@A= >E
H : E
E=
,EHA
1@A= AI @A 4AJ
?K
A 1@A= AI @A 5A ECHKF
@E?E
5 5
BC
E E
IA JEA A I @A FH BK @E =H
- ?=F
JK I F IJAHE I
HAI
I A ?=HC=HA ,A
A F @A
I = =HA J=?E
H
I @A @=@
K
=H
J=
I F H K K = @E?E
K O IKFFK IKFFK
ZH O
AI = =O= = IE LAHE ?= = ?
K
; @EHA
- J
?AI IE IK E@A=
=JHE
=I ?E=@ AI FHE
I IA ECHKF I ?
AKJH O ?= ?A =JEL I A = 1 * @= @ @EIJE J I = C HEJ ?K =H K IEIJA = @A CA AH=@ HAI @A E@A= 1 )@A =I = = E =HA I @EBAHA JAI
AJ @ I F=H= ?= ?K =H K
+=F
JK
1 +
= ?K
GKA
@A 1@A= AI @A 4AJ
?K I O 5A ECHKF I
Z = Z
Z =I Z
@A =
=I I
A JAH I
K I +
IE@AHA
IB
CK ?
:H A
:
F @A
I E@A JE ?=H ?
+ + + )
A E@A= @A HAJ
?K AI A JAH=I
@A AH5 AI A HAJ
?K
B H =@ F H =I I K?E
* *
@A IEIJA = ?
N NH
H * (
Lema IB.1
E=
O?
AA A J
AKJH
IE O I
H
IE 1 AI K E@A= @A HAJ
?K
*
F H
B:
H : E
C
F @A
H : E
*
2 H J= J ? J K J * JA A
B:
I GKA
1 :
ZC
= @ A HAJ
?K
:
CA AH=@ F H =I H KF =I
@A
A ZH +
IE@AH=
I = =F E
@ @A I AE B H = 5A= 5 A IA ECHKF =I ?E=@ ? E ?E@A ?
-IJA HAIK J=@
1@A= AI @A 4AJ
?K
= >=IA ?=
E?= @A NH
A 1 AH
A 1@A= AI @A 5A ECHKF
I IA AA IK
O
AH
I HAJ
?K I ,=@ K IA ECHKF F @A
4AIFA?J = =I FH FEA@=@AI AI B =?E LAH GKA IE IE AH5 AI I=JKH=@ AI = =O= = IE O I A @A = E AIJ GKA -GKEL= A JA A JA
F=HJE IE F=HJE
5 AI E>HA @A J HIE IE O I
I=JKH=@ IE O I - AA F
I IEIJA =I @A
Ejemplo IB.2
Z "Z
!
"
!
GKA
AI
= =O= =
- J
AIJ
= CA AH=@ F H
1 N " N" ! N N
& " & N! " N! N" N!
N" N
$ N N
@A = > I IEIJA =I I
EHHA@K?E> AI
@E?E
5
BC
E E = AI @A CA A
A A A JH=HA
EI I?
+=F
JK
1 + = ?K
@A 1@A= AI @A 4AJ
?K I O 5A ECHKF I
!
2=H= A
GKA =BA?J= J= J = HAIK J=@ GKA IA >JEA A AI E JAHAI= JA F @AH @A JA?J=H ? KI=HA GK
A JEF @A IA ECHKF I = IECKEA JA ?=H=?JAHE =?E
O IA= 1 IK E@A= A E A
H
I AIJ=
I A BHA J= @
Lema IB.3
: :H
:H - IA ECHKF 5
E @A = B H =
C=
H
I
N
H
E : I GKA
FAHJA A?EA JA = 1 ?
H : E E E
?
?K= 5
H H
AI = =O= =
N J= GKA
2H
)
= C= A JA IE 5
E
AI
E E
= =O= = ANEIJA K = H KF =
OF H J= J A >E E :
FAHJA A?A = 1
Nota IB.4
?AI IE 5 AI
= =O= = I E= AI ?
K A A A J @A = B H =
I =D H= = LAH @EIJE J I = C HEJ I @EIJE J I = C HEJ KJ=JEL I ?= ?A =JEL I O = F=HJEH @A A AKJH
AI @A IA ECHKF I ? AA A J
"
F=H= J @= ? AGKEL= A JAI =GKA H=?E IA H@A =@= E K AA A J K
) C HEJ
H @A
IE? I @A +
I+= = ?K
I A A A J I @A F @A ANEIJA = I?
@A 1
A I
IE@AH=H
NH O
J= AI GKA + I = JH I ?
I GKA ANEIJA K A A A J ?
J @=I =I ?
H@A =@=I AI FA
I F=I=H @A K
I E@A= AI @A HAJ
?K
IK?AIEL AI = IECKEA JA
:L 1 IE O I
Lema IC.1
:K
IE K
K L
NH
Demostraci on. 2 H @A
) HAJ
?K F HK I ?EAHJ I - J
E?E
@A 1 IE K L = GKA JA A
5 J= AI GKA
JA A
I GKA :K :L
: KE
1
:
1 JA A LE
E
I GKA 1 )
OF H ?
J= J
KE LE
AC=
IA J
?AI = GKA K L
AH5
? KOA @
= @A
IJH=?E
4K F E : :H BC
5E AI K E@A= @A 4 O B I? K J I
B B
J= >E A I
E@A= AI
BC
:
C
NC
BC
I
I
:H
BI C
F=H= = C K I
= =HA
I >HA B
B
N J=
E= O B
+=F
JK
1 + = ?K
@A 1@A= AI @A 4AJ
?K I O 5A ECHKF I
- F HGK
A @A D=>AH E JH @K?E@
#
I EC= = I E@A= AI
H= A JA HAIF @A HAJ
?K
Lema IC.2
5A= + HAJ
?K @ @A
BK
KI C
- J IE
:K
+
?AI + AI K ? :
:K :H K K 1 K
K J @A CA AH=@ HAI @A
IE O I
IE 2=H= A
:
K
E KE
5E + CA AH= - J
@A
Z J= AI GKA K
E
?AI
I ; E
(
:K
:K
:KE
:KE
E
2 H? KE A
@E@=@ @A JH ?=I
J=?E
GKA@= @
:K
:K
J=HA
(
I F H LE = = KF = KE IE IECKA
)
= ANFHAIE
= JAHE H ?
I ; E
:L E
:L E
J=?E
GKA
E E
8=
=
I = IKF I @A
AH F H ? E =@ HAI
@E@=@ @A AC=
4A@K?EA @ E : J= GKA
:= :K
:K
E LE
:K :
+
E LE
E LE
8A=
I GKA :
E LE
$
: :L :M :L ?
M
) C HEJ
5E IKF J= J
:
2
E LE
IE? I @A +
I+= = ?K
I?
E LE
@A 1
2
E LE
I GKA
M :
2
E LE
F @A L
2I
IE@AH=H : O M
E LE
L
2I
E LE
2 H
:M :L :
M
:L
+
:L :L :
M
:M :L
:M
2
5E FAH= 2
:
E LE
I @A
+
:M :M
>JA A :
O O= DA
:H
I GKA :
E LE
- J
?AI ANEIJEH = K
:K
)F E?= @ =D H= 1 + JA A
IK
2 H
J= J
+A JH A
IA
I = C HEJ
+
I @A ?
= ?K
:H
@A E@A=
:
O= GKA =I
>JA A
I1
Teor a de Eliminaci on
- FHE AH GKA HABAHE I IA >=I= A = 6A H
= @A - E E =?E
E K O IA=
:
Proposici on IC.3
5A= 1
B
B
B B ;B
:
4K F E :H ; - J
?AI 1 B AI A E@A= ?
@A A E E =?E
CE DE
C C AI K = >=IA @A DE D E : :H ;
DE B
E
+=F
JK
1 +
= ?K
A
@A 1@A= AI @A 4AJ
?K I O 5A ECHKF I
%
AH K
I
=NB@AC; DE E 1 BI
$$
+
C
I=JEIB=?A 1 B
:
B
@A BB
BC
-IJA ? = ?K
IA HA= E =
:
A@E= JA >=IAI
:H ;
JAIA GKA DA
H L=HE=> AI = JH ?
H L=HE=> AI
FKJ=?E
= =K A JA AJAH
I @A HA= E =H ? = ?K I KI= @ >=IAI @A /H > AH AJ @ I >=I=@ I A ?= ?K =H >=IAI @A /H > AH AH @A L=HE=> AI H K GKA A CA AH= =?A AH= A FH
M etodo de Sturmfels-Hosten-Shapiro
- FHE AH GKA AIJK@E= F IEJEL= -IJ = ELA @A HAJ
?K
N
I =F=HA?A A
IE@AHA
BC
IA >=I= A A IECKEA JA A =
?AI
:H O
Lema IC.4
5A= @A ?
K E@A= D H@A
=@ A
HALAHI
IA JEA A GKA A
A J B
/H > AH @A
&
-IJA A = IECKEA JA
) C HEJ
IE? I @A + I+= = ?K
@A 1
: :
: H
I > EC=H
= = ?
GKA HAIKA L= KAIJH FH > A = )F E?= @ JH=>= I I GKA IA FKA@A AIJ=> A?AH K = IKIJ= ?E=
H LA?AI
HA?EA JAI 05 LA
FKJ=H A E@A=
Teorema IC.5
-NEIJA K ?
B:E
:E C J= AI GKA
: E :E
: E
>H ?
AJ @ GKA IA FH F O ? AA = A ?A 05 F=H= ?= ?K =H A = JAHE H ? =JHE ?KO=I I ?
6
=I I 5KF
I AA A C= C=
I F H I GKA
J=?E GKA
I FHE AH I
? O=
5A= O IKI =AA I GKA =I ,A
:
B :
:I C - E E =
FHE AH=I A J I @A I A
? K EI
=I 5E = IEC F=H=
K I O IKF
=I FHE AH=I ? K
KAL F @A O HAFAJE
I I
? 5A= 6
IK ?
B:
I A FH ?AI I +
K J 6 @A ?=H@E = K J 6 IA I? IE@AH=@
? >
>
? >H ? -IJA ?
AI A GKA >KI?=
=I IKF IE?E
AI GKA DA
+=F
JK
1 + = ?K
@A 1@A= AI @A 4AJ
?K I O 5A ECHKF I
=JHE AI @A = B H =
(
'
AC= = GKA =
)
+ ,
@
* * * * (
@A * AI K = F
2F
=JHE ?
= AIJHK?JKH=
+ + + + )
O , AI K = @A IEC
=I
D=O A A A J I
I @EIJE J I - = C HEJ
Algoritmo IC.6
=I
J=?E
- JH=@= 7 ? 5= E@= 7 ?
= =O= =
F?E 5A=
IA JE@ @A
! +
FKJ=
IA ? ?
K J @A L=HE=> AI 6 FKJ= I
B:
: ? E
: C JA HA =
1 + # " 2=H= E #
1
E E
IE@AH= @ A
6 =
H@A HALAHI
ANE? CH = ? IEA @
= L=HE=> A : E
= HAJ
?K I GKA ? IE@AHA IK =Z = =HA
LAHE GKA
=? =
BC O I=JKH=@ I JA A
I A AL=?E @A
=MHA ?A @A ) = = =JHE
) C HEJ
IE? I @A + I+= = ?K
@A 1
)
5E K =
)
)
? A I EI K
K
BK K
2 H
J= J
: K ;K ;H
:K ; K
A A = E =O= = 2 H
:
: H ;
J= J
JA A
I K = C HEJ
@A K IEIJA
= =O= = O I=JKH=@
Algoritmo IC.7
- JH=@= 7 HAJ
?K
+= ?K = += ?K = ! 5A=
I ) A AL=?E
@A =MHA ?A @A ) O ?
AH)
/
-IJA ?
B>E
E I @A / ?
=I L=HE=> AI ; ECK= AI = K
M etodo de Di Biase-Urbanke
JE - K @A HAJ
?K
AJ @ GKA FHAIA J= ,*7'# I F=H= A ?
= ?K @A K E@A= IA >=I= A
+=F
JK
Denici on IC.8
1 +
= ?K
,EHA
K L E
@A 1@A= AI @A 4AJ
?K I O 5A ECHKF I
I GKA K
+
= IE F=H= J @
IKFFK FAH
K J ?AI LE
@A LA?J HAI + AI
IKFFL
HJ C
>EA
IKFFK
IE ANEIJA E
IKFFL A J
GKA L= I = FHAIA J=H AIJ
= A A
Lema IC.9
,=@ K ? AA A J ? GKA 1
+
IE +
NH
F IAA K
Demostraci on. 5E A ?
+
I
+
OF H
J= J
- = C HEJ
J= GKA
2 ,AID=?AH
7 HAIK J=@
Lema IC.10
,=@ + HJ C
BK
K CK ?
ANEIJA JH +
= GKA CA AH= A
K J
Demostraci on. 7 ?
?
L K L K
= + LEA A @=@ F H +
KE KE
LE
BL
L C
2 H @A
HJ C
E?E
K L O LE =NE B KE C
E!
= @A
@A IEC
A AIJA ?=I F @A
I?
IJHKEH K = IK?AIE
) C HEJ
EJ= @A HAJ
?K I @A D=H
=
IE? I @A +
I+= = ?K
JA C=
@A 1
JE = AH= GKA @A K
I K IEIJA = @A ?EJ=@ I IA
I ?= >E I @A IEC
ZH
= O =I
+E +E O =I @A IE :
K
ZH =H % =
=E
=H
I HAJ
?K I O IKI IEIJA =I @A CA AH=@ HAI L= = GKA@=H @A
HC GKA O= @AJAH E =HA
E
E@ I
E
AI A HAJ
?K I
B
+ E I IE IE O I
E?E
E
= L=HE=> A :
L H
: AIJ =A 1
I
E
- F=I
= IECKEA JA FH F IE?E
Proposici on IC.11
5A=
/E
B:H E :K
?AI
:L
- J
/
B:K
:L :H E
E
= FH F IE?E
1
E
I = =F E?=?E 6
:L
:K :L :H E
F=I=HA I=
I F=I I
+=F
JK
Algoritmo IC.12
1 +
= ?K
+ =I
@A 1@A= AI @A 4AJ
?K I O 5A ECHKF I
J=?E AI = JAHE HAI K J + @A CA AH=@ HAI @A =
- JH=@= 7 ? + ! + F?E
K J @A CA AH=@ HAI @A
HJ C
B=
=
=C
=
BIKFFL L
=
+ C
N
H
+
O IA=
/)
B:L
I=
:L
+) C
A ACE
)OJ
F=H= /) HAIFA?J @A
# - HAIK J=@ /) AI K ?
K J @A CA AH=@ HAI @A 1
Z = Z
Z =I Z
@A =
=I I
A JAH I
K I +
IE@AHA
IB
CK ?
K J @A CA AH=@ HAI @A IA ECHKF - A = 1 * AI K = FEA = ? =LA F=H= =F E?=H =I J
A? E?=I @A =I IA??E AI = JAHE HAI = ?
= ?K ? @A E@A= AI @A IA ECHKF I ? I K KAL IA ECHKF 5 2=H= A E E =H = J HIE
=I ?E=@ = 5 IJHKE
J HIE
ZD
I
"
5A= A Z
D I
+
= ?K
E E
@A 1@A= AI @A 5A ECHKF I
IE@AH= @ I CA AH=@ HAI @A 5
&E
B
D
HC ?
O IA= J= >E
A
E
=E
I H
F=H= E
BH
,A JA
IC @
@A =E
?KF= = ?
I
H@A =@=
H
D
H I
I 5 = IA ECHKF @A ZD
CA AH=@ F H B
Algoritmo Algebraico
5A= AH5 A HAJ
?K IEIJA =
B H =@ F H =I I K?E
AI A JAH=I @A
H I * (
* *
N NH
I
+ + + )
Lema ID.1
,=@ K IEIJA = @A CA AH=@ HAI + @A AH5 HAIK J= @A FH OA?J=H + A @A CA AH=@ HAI @A AH5
)I
>JA A
ZH
A ?
K J + GKA
=I H FHE AH=I ?
Z
H
I K = C HEJ
=H A E@A= @A K IA ECHKF ?
Algoritmo ID.2
=I
J=?E
AI = JAHE HAI
H
+= ?K = += ?K = ! 2H OA?J=
I A A A J I @A + I >HA ZH O >JA A
+=F
JK
1 + = ?K
@A 1@A= AI @A 4AJ
?K I O 5A ECHKF I
I K IEIJA = @A CA AH=@ HAI @A 1 @A ?
= ?K
1
AH5
#
A
" ,A + >JA A
@E= JA = C
K = C HEJ
8A= IK J=@ CA I IA
@A E@A= AI @A HAJ
?K
>=I=@ A K HA J HIE
J HIE
= IECKEA JA IA??E
K = C HEJ
Lema ID.3
5A= * K
* A J
2H
?AI ANEIJA B @A
2H
* J= GKA B
2H I
NH
E E
GKA
E
E
B :
E
1 5A= B
E E
:H
?
E E
-I E
E E
E
2 H
J= J B AI K >E
E @A 1
E ?
E E
E
E E
2H
I A A A J I @A * 5A= B +
E
IB
1 J= GKA B
B :
E @A 1 A J
:H
K J CA AH=@ H @A 1 JA A I A A A J I @A * O F H I B A BK ?E
@A
E H :
JA A
IAA A J I F A JA @A
E
GKA FH >=H
= GKA * AI K ? 5=>A I GKA @A
I
J= @ F H
H : E E E
&
E
E E DZ
5E
BD
$
F H J= J IA JEA A GKA
H : E E E
+ = ?K
@A 1@A= AI @A 5A ECHKF I
H : E E E
F=H= ?EAHJ ,A
H
I &E E
E
I
&
O E
EA JH=I GKA IE E
I @A
E H D
IE A IE A
E H D
&
JH ?=I
E H D
E H D
2H I
JH ?=I
E E
2H I
-I B
=?E ?
:
1 IA JEA A GKA B
FH >=H =D H= GKA
B :
E
E
E E
O GKA ?
B
:H
= LKA J= = IA ECHKF E E?E= ? A A = C HEJ I KAL I CA AH=
E>HA @A J HIE
=I L=HE=> AI E JH @K?E@=I ?
Algoritmo ID.4
=I
J=?E
AI = JAHE HAI
H
IE 5 AI
+= ?K = += ?K = + ! 0=?A
I =I L=HE=> AI B:E CH E H
I * K IEI
+=F
JK
1 + = ?K
@A 1@A= AI @A 4AJ
?K I O 5A ECHKF I
-IJA = C HEJ AI ? FKJ=?E = A JA A
%
I A ?EA JA GKA 1
=I J HIE
, CA ?
O= GKA = =@A KAL=I L=HE=> AI = ? = ?K AJHE?= @A = AIJHK?JKH= @A J HIE >JA A I FHE C I @= K = ANF E?=?E @A F H GK A I = F=HJEH @A K FHE ?K= 15
FAH @= K = LEIE
I E@A= AI @A IA ECHKF I ?
,A DA?D
I E@A= AI @A IA ECHKF I AI ?
I A CA AH= -IJ IA @A>A = GKA @E?D E@A= A@E= JA E JAHIA??E @= A?AI=HE= A JA K E@A= FHE
IE. NOTAS
K AIJA ?=F
JK DA I FHAIA J=@ @ I JEF I @A = C HEJ I I ?= ?K = A E@A= @A K HAJ
?K ,A A JHA F A O JH I A @A K IA ECHKF
I FHE AH I ANEIJA AIJK@E I GKA HA= E = K = ? F=H=?E AI I = JAHE HAI = = A H= HA= E =@= J= J
HAJ
?K I = > I = C HEJ = JEA F @A ?
FKJ FJE E = =
K @A>E@ = GKA IEA FHA AIJ= + AI A @A HAJ
?K
= =O= = A @A F E ?
BHA JA = =I H L=HE=> AI A?AI=HE=I F=H= =F E?=H 1 + % - = C HEJ =I HA? A @=> A F=H= KI=H IE = =O= = AI @A?EH IE AI I=JKH=@ J HIE
D=IJ= = =F=HE?E @A 2+86'$ K = HABAHA ?E= = AIA ? = ?K ?= HAIK J= @A J @ E A ?EA JAI =@A =I @A GKA I IA ECHKF I = =O= = 7 = C HEJ
>E =J HE I GKA A
AI =F E?=> A =
&
47*'$ 4/5'& A ? 1 , JH= I JH = C HEJ @ FH > A = @AI@A A ?
= ?K - JHA A = C HEJ = > I - = C HEJ 1 + DA I E F A A J=@ A @A N I K?E
J=I
@A IA => H@= A 4/5'&
AI @A K IEIJA = @E B = JE?
FK> E?=@ A
86'' O A =F=HA?E@ A
IA D= HA= E =@ AIJK@E I ?
@A IAH >JA E@ L
= BJF A
ftp.uca.es/pub/matematicas/semigrou1.zip
11
IIA. INTRODUCCION
- AIJA ?=F
JK @A @EIJE J I ? )@A
=I @= +
/N
L=
I = HA= E =H K FAGKA
AI @A K IEIJA = @E B = JE
I F=H= ?= ?K =H N I K?E
IEIJA =I @E B
= JE? I A ? A ?A
/
CHKA ?E=I
? -I ?
?E@ @AI@A
01 ' GKA AA A E E I
=I I K?E ?E J ? AI D AKJH O K =?
= @A CA AH=@ HAI J= GKA ?K= GKEAH N I K?E
FKA@A IAH ANFHAI=@= A A A J I @A @E?D ?
0E >AHJ O IA A @A
) AIJA ?
E = >=IA @A
J= F H 05 05
!
,A O H GKA
1 JH @K??E
J=HA A IF H
H@A F=H?E=
O @EHA
H
AI A JAH I
= AI
I A A A J I @A K 5A=
AC=JEL I O = E E = A = ? K J
IE
IE
AI
B C
N @EHA
I GKA
,A
J=HA
I F H 0 0
$ BC 0 AI A ? B C
BC 0 BC
K J @A A A A J I
E E = AI A
- A = @A ,E? I
I C=H= JE = =
EJK@ @A A = I
I JH I @= +
I A 11 * # K = LAHIE ?
I GKA O=
Lema IIA.1
5A= /
=I N I K?E
H
= K E
EJ= @A
IK>? D
K = N I K?E
AI @A IEIJA =
Lema IIA.2
5A= / A ?
NH /N
BN
NH /N
C - J
?AI
/
N 0/
N
/
A JA = I
C A A ?
=I -IJA F=I
+=F
JK
Nota IIA.3
AI
!
0/
5E /
0BN
BN
NH /
NH
>N
>N
C
?AI
/
C A J
H
0/
BN
N N
0/ C
N I
- ?=F
JK I IK?AIEL I L= K?E AI E E = AI I D=HA A@E= JA = IECKEA JA
I = A?AIEJ=H ?= ?K =H J= I @=@ A C A A
-IJ
?= ?K = @ N I K?E
Nota IIA.4
5A= A
NH O IA=
/A
2=H= ?= ?K =H 0/A KI=HA
BN BN
N /N
N
AC
I GKA /A
N /N
H
/A A O 0/A
A
0/A A ?
/A
2 H J= J K = LA A IK =HA C
A A
C AI @A K IEIJA = D
@A IKI A A A J I = KF = A -
AI A BK ?E @A =
B usqueda Exhaustiva
-IJA
AJ @ IA >=I= A = HA= E =?E
@A K = >
KIGKA@= AND=KI AI A K = HACE
@A AIF=?E ,E?D= I H@A =@=I @A JEL= >=HHE@ @A =I N I K?E
!
@ ? A?K=?E A IEIJA A K = LA
+ = ?K
@A = N I K?E
CA AH=
AI
AJ =I E A '%
A A A J I A JAH I F IEJEL I @AJAH E =@ I F H =I ? J=I LAHE ?= AI ,AIFK AI K J E = AI @A AIA ? H A J= = HE= I L= - FHE ?EF= FH > A = @A AIJA ?E@=I D=IJ= A
AJ @ AI A
@A =I ? J=I ? I = @=H = CK
IE@AH=H
?
CE
H Z
HC/
OH
11 *
,A K?E ?
J= AI A =
)
I F H 0/ O F H 0/ = E E = AI
=NE H =K
I HAIFA?JEL I ?
K J I @A N I K J IA @A K J H =K A
H =K H =I K =JHE
@A K ?
@A =I
@A ?=@= A A A J @A ?
)
IEA @ IKI ? ?
@A K = KF = = IK = @A
2
I L= HAI =>I KJ I @A E I IK
=E @A
0/
2=H= A
H
=NB
@A / C 11 *
E@A= AI @A HAJ
?K I O = IE@AH= I =
I IEIJA =I @E B = JE? I
0/
OK =K F ?
E
=N
H :
CE
11 * !
=I FAGKA = A CA AH=
0/
E
H :
CE
=I ? J=I = JAHE HAI 11 * " O 11 * CA AH= ANEIJEA @ A A F I F=HJE?K =HAI @
@A K = AI
+=F
JK
AI
IE@AH= # & # #
)
!!
I = =JHE
IE ? " #
& !
>JA A >=HC
)
JA A
M etodo de Clausen-Fortenbacher
+.&' =F=HA?A K = C HEJ F=H= ?= ?K =H N I K?E C
A A= =>HEA @ ? AI = FK J
E?= A?K=?E
@E B
K =K = JE?= D @A F=HJE@= + IE@AHA
E?= A?K=?E
@E B
IK =K = JE?= D
@N C N C N CH NH
= FKAHJ= = K =
C A A=
AI
H
+.&' AI ?
IJHKEH =I N I K?E =I ?
E E
AH C
= AI @A AIJ= A?K=?E = F=HJEH @A = >=IA ?= E?= @A N BA F @A I EH E ?HA A J= @ = K LA?J H J= AC=H = K = N I K?E
@E?E
E JA ECA JA GKA E EJA =I ? J=@=I F=H= >JA AH K -I=I ? @E?E 5E C N = CK = ? 5E C N = CK = ?
AJ @ ? AI @A =I N I K?E
C N C N
H@A =@=I GKA L= = IAH E ?HA A H@A =@= I ?AI E ?HA A J= ?AI E ?HA A J=
AI ? HHA?J=I
!"
Algoritmo IIB.1
) C HEJ
- JH=@= 5= E@=
+
= ?K
@A + =KIA . HJA >=?DAH = A?K=?E
@N C N
C N
@A = N I K?E CA AH=
CH N H
AI @A = A?K=?E
2
BA
EA JH=I 2 $
= * > ? 2
AH C O *
D=
*
BN
2 @N
C E E = A *
@N
BN
2 *N
BNCC
C
BN AE N @AE C
@AE
B N AE N
@N
AI @A @N
Teorema IIB.2
- = C HEJ
11 * ?= ?K = = >=IA @A 0E >AHJ @A @N
A K
AH K
EJ @A F=I I
A JA =I
A=I = >
KIGKA@= AN
D=KIJEL= IECKEA @
B GKAI HAI L
= A FH > A = F=H= K IEIJA = ? @A A?K=?E AI
&
K = A?K=?E A?K=?E AI
+=F
JK
AI
K J @A 0E >AHJ @A 3 K =?
!#
J >E =?E
BK
K CA ?
KAL IEIJA = )
? 5E JA A
? K 5KIJEJKOA
A?K=?E
AI ?KO=I L=HE=> AI I
I K = >=
? K O
IA @A 0E >AHJ @A IEIJA = )
I A ? K
AI @A 5EIJ JA A
>=IA -IJA I
M etodo de Contejean-Devie
+,'" I =KJ HAI CA AH= E = A = C HEJ AI @E B
= JE?=I
/ /AE
H Z
11 * @A K = ,A J=HA KAL I
A?K=?E = ?K= GKEAH IEIJA = @A A?K=?E 5A= /N ?HA A J=H A K LA?J H F H / 8= A IEIJA = @E B = JE? ? F H /N = LA?J H /N O F H /N =?
AE = /N
I = =F E?=H =GK
= E@A= @A = @EHA??E
? HHA?J= @A + =KIA JH=H K = N I K?E
@A IEIJA = - AIJA ?=I I = EH E ?HA A J= @ =B
=I ? HJ C H@A =
AE AIJ
A A A IA EAIF=?E GKA
IECKA
E ?HA A J=H = ? -IJ K?E AI I = A?K=?E
H@A =@= NE A IE /N
/AE
I FAH EJA HAIJHE CEH A AIF=?E @A > KIGKA@= @A =I N I E E = AI IE FAH@AH E CK = >JA A I =? JAIA GKA A A ?=I @A K = @E?E @=@= F H + =KIA . HJA >=?DAH
!$
A@E= JA AIJ= ? @E?E
+
= ?K
>JA A
@A = N I K?E
CA AH=
I K = C HEJ C
A A F=H= ?= ?K =H
Algoritmo IIB.3
) C HEJ
5= E@=
@A +
JA A= ,ALEA C A A /N
- JH=@= 7 IEIJA = D
= >=IA @A 0E >AHJ /
2
BA
= * > ? 2
AH C O *
EA JH=I 2 $
*
BN
2 /N
C
*N$ IC /AE
BN
2 * &I
BN AE N
/N
C AI @A /N
Teorema IIB.4
- = C HEJ
11 * ! ?= ?K = = >=IA @A 0E >AHJ @A /N
A K
AH K
EJ @A F=I I
AI O
C
A A AI ? I =KJ HAI HA?KHHA = A J
AH E E @AFA @EA H@A =@=
JE = ? =K
C A A = F E=@ ? =I N I K?E
=I AIJHK?JKH=I @A FE =I @A
+=F
JK
AI
!%
=F E?=HA J=HA
IH
C
K J
Lema IIB.5
A = @A ,E? I
5A=
.
NH I
O IA= . A ?
BIC
0 E
- J
?AI 0
0.
&
O= GKA JHELE= 5A= ANEIJA A JA . IE
E
'
I
. ?
JH ?=I OF H
ANEIJA J= J
O =F E
K
@E?A E J= GKA
2 @A I?
IE - J
E
0 E ?
IE@AH=H E AC= K IK>? K J @A NH I @EIJE J I
I = GKA JA A
?
E
E
E
F=H= @AJAH E =@ I
N
E HO H
Corolario IIB.6
0 AI
? K J
EJ
K J >EA
H@A =@ EJ EJ
0 AI L=?
I = K IK> A JA F H
A F=HJE?K =H AI I GKA 0 AI
6HELE=
= HA?KHHA ?E= @A 11 * # JA A
F H IAH K = K E
!&
- A = 11 * # IAH
=?
IE O
+ = ?K
@A = N I K?E
CA AH=
@A?E@E> AI @ I =IFA?J I
IJHK?JEL IE I
L=?
I
I @EIJE J I I
= = C K
I GKA AI ?
IJHK?JE> A IE A A I K J AI ?
@A?E
@E> AI =I @ I ?KAIJE
IJHK?JE> A
I GKA =F E?=H AIJA HAIK J=@ = =I N I - AIJA ? JANJ J @ I I? K I IA IJHK?JE> AI O = = AH= @A I=>AH IE I
J I GKA A F A= L=?
I
Algoritmo IIB.7
N I K?E
AI =
- JH=@=
5A= H A
AH @A ? K K
5= E@= 0/ ?
=I @A /
NH /
>C
5E H 5E H
JA A
I I
@AJAH E = I
KI= @ A = C HEJ
@AL LA IA= I
HO
O JAH E =
I
/
?= ?K = 11 * % I 0/ E KI= @
# 2=H= E @A
+=F
JK
AI
!'
K J 0. ?
.
BIC
H IE E
0/ E
% ,AL LA
I 0/
0.
= JAHE H = K IEIJA = @E B
= JE? C
A A =I ?E=@ >JA A D I K = C HEJ
Algoritmo IIB.8
K J
/ @A =I N I K?E
I/
>
AI @A /N
>
NH /
C KI= @ 11 * %
I 0/ ?
/ /
B
NH /
>C KI= @ 11 * %
0/
/
I 11 * % O 11 * & FKA@A IAH F=H= A E =@ I = IAH I ?
= ?K I @A I @EIJE J I ? K J I GKA =F=HA?A A H=@ GKA IK JEA F @A ?
FKJ F @H
= IAH
JEF AI FH ?AI=@ HAI K
H@A =@ H ?
"
+ = ?K
@A K = N I K?E F=HJE?K =H
L= A JA AIJK@E=H = ANEIJA ?E= @A N I K?E C= LA?J HE= @A =I I K?E I J= >E
A GKA B?
+ = = G H
AI @A IEIJA = D =I I
Q ?
G
Q AI K = >=IA @A
B?
M
= A Q H
= =I ? K IE ANEIJA M
M
IE O I
@A AIJ I
QH O
LE O =
= HA =?E A JHA K
M ?
MG ?G
M
L
LH
7 = LA ? CKEA JA LAHIE ?
?=@ I A AIJA FK J
I >=IJ= ?
=F E?=H = IE
IJHK?JEL= @A A = @A .=H =I
= C HEJ OM F=H= @A?E@EH IE ANEIJA
LE & E
Proposici on IIC.1
5A= L LA?J H M
LH
G
QG -NEIJA K
Q J= GKA M
L
H - A ?=I @A
I @= K J= LA?J H M
I @A
G
Demostraci on.
5KF ?=I
>KI?= 5E OF
LE $
5E L = @ M
LE LE
JH
F=H= = C K E 6
J @=I =I ?
IA ?
H@A =
@=I K =I I= L
I 5KF C=
=E
AIE = ECK= =
I GKA H
QG J= GKA F
O= DA
JH=@ A M GKA
ANEIJA F =
L
O F LE & E I JAH E =@
H
ANEIJA M O F H
LH J
J= J IM
ANEIJA I K?E
F O D=>H
=
+=I @A GKA I
ANEIJ= F
+=F
JK
AI
LH
"
,A E I
IA J
O F
LH
LH
LE &E
11 +
H
5E ANEIJA F AI IK ?EA JA ?
QG J= GKA F
IE@AH=H
M F
O= GKA M LE A - J
F LE &E
H O M LH
DA
I GKA
ANEIJA M I GKA H ?
M
C=
L
L
?
F L F L
ANEIJA F JA A
OF H J= J ?K= AI E F IE> A
I GKA L
ANEIJA M @A A
ANEIJEH 8=
L
I = IKF
G
J= GKA
L E
F
! LE
" L
LE &E
L
L
F
LE
E
LE F
&E
F L
F L
L E
JA I
E F
F
L E
,A
LE
LH
O
E
E
F
F
L
E
&E $ &
"
8= I = FH >=H GKA
L E
H : D E
+ = ?K
@A K = N I K?E F=HJE?K =H
LE
L ? ED D
&D ED
&
8A =
&E
I
F H E @K??E
A
L E LE LE
2=H=
LH E
O FH >
A
E
F=H=
5=>A
I F H =
E?E @A
GKA
LE L E
E
7I= @
F @A
H : D E H : D
I AI?HE>EH
LE
L ED D
O
L L
D LD
O >JA A
I A HAIK J=@
L
)D H= ?
JA A
H : D
I
D
L
L ? D D
,A =GK
IA @A@K?A JHELE=
,A = FH FE= @A
A JA GKA
IJH=?E
ANEIJA M
>JA A I K = C HEJ
Algoritmo IIC.2
) C HEJ
- JH=@= 7
L
OM
LE E
H +=I @A
ANEIJEH M @ALKA LA
5E H
= 5E L
@AL LAH
+=F
JK
AI
QG K LA?J H ?
"!
J @=I =I O F LE =E
AIE = ?
QG J= GKA F L
JH ?=I
@AL LAH M
? 5E H
LE O LE $
@AJAH E = IE ANEIJA F
KI=H @A
= AH= HA?KHHA JA
F O F=H=H LE
LH LH & E
L
O F
LE E
,AJAH E =H IE ANEIJA F
H
QG J= GKA F
KI= @ @A
11 +
F
F
LH
LH
Algoritmo IIC.3
C A A
- JH=@=
5= E@= 7 = N I K?E
JHELE= K @A IEIJA = ?=I @A GKA ANEIJ= E?= E ? C EJ= I K = K =JHE ?KO=I 6 =I I = KAC = I K?E AI
JA A IA= + =
K = >=IA @A Q AIF=?E
LH =I ? K
I L
=I @A
""
! 2=H= E
H
+ = ?K
@A K = N I K?E F=HJE?K =H
11 +
M
IE ANEIJA K LA?
@A
H
QH ,ALKA LA
J H M J= GKA M LE
> 5E ANEIJA M IA= K
O M L F=H= $ E M
A
K
L
LH
E
? A
K =NE
JEF K ? K
@A " ,ALKA LA K
@ELEI H
@A =I ?
K 2=H=H
I A IEIJA = D
C A A JEA A K = N I K?E
' K
O IE O I
IE
'M
,A O M AI
Q ?
L
OM C
A A
MG ?G
LE
&E
= AH= =
= C= = ?=I D K
M ?
2 H
J= J
C
A A I JA A
@AJAH E =H IE ANEIJA M I? F @A
O M LE ,A J=HA
H 8A=
I HAI LAH
+=F
JK
AI
HJ C
"#
= @A L A =H AI IK ?EA JA J
J=
I F H L = = FH OA??E
L M
-I ? =H GKA L $ O L
- AIJA ?=I L
L L H
F HGKA M 5E L
L
OM
9 F @A
2H
LE
&E
ANEIJA M ? LE I
5E L A
E LE ?
?AI
= @A
IJH=?E
@A 11 +
J = I L
2H
JH ?=I =I ? HHAIF
H
E LE 5A= ) = LH
=JHE ?KO=I JA IF H =I @A
@A = I GKA +N
I LA?J HAI L I
O @A
) 5KF
A E
K =I A?K=?E
N +I
H
AI E F
?EJ=I @A
O @A
I
5
BI
C A = IA ECHKF 5 AI D
ID O F H
JAIA GKA A IEIJA = GKA C
A A J= 5A= BI + AIJ=I J=?E IF H, = = =JHE I
I @A
H ,
AI JA A
Proposici on IIC.4
L
O
OM
LE
N
D OD
&E
'O
- AIJA ?=I
)N
D
ND J= GKA
AI IK ?EA JA J
,O
=H M ?
K = I K?E F=HJE?K =H @A
Demostraci on.
O
N J= GKA
5A=
)M -I ? =H GKA
5 O A J
,O ,A = ?
>E =?E
D OD
E A= L
2H
?AI ANEIJA
E LE O =
ECK= @=@ M
L
JA A
I GKA
O
H
- J
?AI
"$
5A=
) I 2=H=
L
2H
+
= ?K
,O + 5
@A K = N I K?E
F=HJE?K =H
@A@K?E I GKA I H= C I @A ) O @A >E =?E
E A=
>=IJ= IA = =H GKA = ?
E LE E F E?= GKA M L
H )M
H ,O
+ ?E ?
I GKA K IEI
I = JA AH = F=HJEH @A
F=H= ?= ?K =H K = N I K?E
Algoritmo IIC.5
) C HEJ
- JH=@= 7 ?
LH
QG ?
H L
Q J= GKA M
OM
LE
&E
+
IE@AH=
9 J
LH
5E L
! -
I L = FH OA??E
O F=H= I I A = C HEJ
E LE ?
HJ C
11 +
?AI
= @A L A 9
,AL LA
JH ?=I
=F E?=
2H
5E L O F=H=
" 6 + =
E A J
D=O I K?E
I
JE K= I
2H
JH ?=I ?
IK =? I +N
>E =?E L
E LE
# 5A= ) =
=JHE ?KO=I
=I ? HHAIF
@A =
I LA?J HAI L
LH
IE@AH=
K =I A?K=?E
AI E F
?EJ=I @A Q AIF=
+=F
JK
AI
=I @A ) C KI=HA
ID
D OD
"%
QH +
FK
BI
N +I
11 * % - AIJA = C HEJ
H , ?
ND J= GKA
O
I 11 + $
I
5E ANEIJA O LA
-
@AL ?
I
,O
I M K = I K?E
F=HJE?K =H @A )N I
D=O I K?E
KAC F=H= JH ?=I
F @A
O F=H=
,A AIJA = C HEJ
I >JA AH JH GKA D
I @= K = N I
C
A A
D
Algoritmo IIC.6
N I K?E
C
A A I
- JH=@= 7 IEIJA = /N
11 * 11 + !
5E > 5E H ! 5E H
KI= JA A IA=
LH
I = = C HEJ
K?E
AI JHELE=
?G K = >=IA @A Q AIF=?E
AI @A I ?
@EA JAI = =I ? K
?G ) AIJ I LA?J HAI
5E ANEIJA M K
QG J= GKA M L
O M LE M
L
N A J
?AI
= I= E@= AI K @
M ?
@A
MG ?G M LH
"&
O F=H=
-
+
= ?K
I
@A K = N I K?E F=HJE?K =H
JH ?=I
D=O I K?E
I = C HEJ
KAC F=H=
I
I
A K
-I @A @AIJ=?=H GKA
I A = =@ I = JAHE HAI
?
? E? I O= GKA J= J A 11 + # ?
N I K?E
A 11 * % IA L= HA@K?EA @ A
2 6' ?
+6'
=I >=IAI
@A /H > AH O = 6A H
= @A - E E =?E
F=H= HAI LAH A FH > A = @A @A N I K?E E I
IE@AH=
IA = E
;
;
E@ F H
;/AH ;/AH
H
; 6 ;/A ;/A
;/ A
Teorema IIC.7
=I
J=?E
/N
/N @
@A = B H =
AI K = N I K?E @ 1 ? AI K =
N I K?E
J= J D
C A A ? D
D C A A
-IJA = C HEJ
? @
F=I= A A ?=I
F H ?= ?K =H K =
H@A @A A E E =?E @A 6 A ; O
+=F
JK
AI
JH ?=I A IEIJA =
"'
JEA A N I I = C
K
JA A AI
I K = N I K?E C A A
- A ?=I D E @A = B H = FA?J @A
FH >=H IE JA A
H@A F H A ?K= ?
I K = N I K?E
JH ?=I
A IEIJA =
JEA A N I K?E
AC=JEL I /AE =H
=
;/A
;/AH H H
+ DA
I? I?
? = ?K
HE= AI A AIJK@E O ? = ?K
@A IEIJA =I @E B
= JE? I A ?
N N
N N N N N
5EIJ
D N
DH NH
D N
D
D H NH
@ = @ = I
D I N
D I
D IH NH
#
@ @A
E
5EIJA =I ,E B
= JE? I A +
= O >E I
CHKA ?E=I
D IE
AH I A JAH I O K
E
-I B =?E AI @A =
ANJA @AH A
I =FHA?E=H
Nota IID.1
I A =I 11 ) O 11 ) CHKA ?E=I
2AH A =JA
=JE?=I K = ? I= I =I AIJHK?JKH=I O JH= I
AJ @ I @A ?
= ?K -
AJ @ =JKH= O ?
=IE? F=H= ?= ?K =H =I N I K?E AI @A K IEIJA = @E B
= JE? A ? CHKA ?E=I F=I= F H = =@EH = IEIJA = KAL=I L=HE=> AI GKA =>I H>= =I ? CHKA ?E=I HAI LEA @
&
N N
N N N N N
H NH
H NH
5EIJ
D N
DH NH
D N
D
D H NH
J = JI =I
J = JI =I
D I N
D I
D IH NH
5E ?
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * (
IE@AH=
=
I =
=
=JHE
N /N
H I H
=
=
>
=I
=I
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + )
ZD
I
O @A O
J=
IF H
BN
@ = C
>C
BN
/ 6N
+=F
JK
AI
#
Propiedad IID.2
O 0 0
@ @=I
@A NH
@A = J= ?
F A E@=@ F AJ
@A N I K?E @A
AI AI
2 ?
AI K = F
JE?= ? I ALEJ=H IE HA= E = I GKA IA= A ?EA JA
A JA ? HHA?J= ; AI = C
GKA @A>A
= C K ? = ?K 5E ?E F @A
= = FH FEA@=@ 11 ,
E JH @K?E
2=H= ?= ?K =H = N I K?E CA AH= @A K IEIJA = A ? ?E=I IA D= KI=@ ? =IE?= A JA K ?A A 4/5'& )@A =I A @A AIJ I IEIJA =I F H J=?E AJ @ >=I=@ A 11 ,
CHKA AI FK
=I H ?=I @A IEIJA =I
AH @A L=HE=> AI ? K
LEA A @=@= F H A ? = ?K
#
I =@A
=I
5EIJA =I ,E B
= JE? I A +
5EIJ GKA IA HA= E =H
= KI= @ A = C HEJ I IECKEA JAI HAIK J=@ I 1 ,
CHKA ?E=I
A?AIEJ=
LAH 86''
Teorema IID.3
IE ANEIJA K >E
>
Z = Z
Z =I Z
IKFF: - J= ?=I
AI K = N I K?E @A 5EIJ
Lema IID.4
.E A
IA
:
:H
H@A
O IA= : J= GKA H
?AI
' :H
@ HAI >E
' :H
:
)@A =I IE 5 AI K IA ECHKF E= AI @A 1 ?
= =O= = O * K ?
K J @A CA AH=
? A ?EA JAI
A?AI=HE= A JA >=IA @A
Algoritmo IID.5
+ = ?K
AI ?
5EIJ ?
$
K = N I K?E A NH -
+=F
JK
AI
:
#!
:H E@A= @A 5 KI= @ A =
I 15 1 , AI
C HEJ E= AI ?
? 5E 5
5EIJ
JEA A N I K?E
>
I 15 1 ,
:
:H :H
= C HEJ
? 5E 5 AI
@A 15 -
E= @= @ O ?= ?K = IK =
:H
: A + A J
?AI 5EIJ -
AI K = J= N I K?E
5EIJ
=@ EJA N I K?E
= =@A I L=HE=> AI I ?
= ?K I= E I
EA JH=I GKA
F A E@=@ >=IAI @A /H > AH IA HA= E = A L=HE=> AI IAC K IA= A ?=I I FJE E = = I IA ECHKF I I @A = IA??E 11 + O= GKA I E@A= AI @A
-IJA = C HEJ
#"
Algoritmo IID.6
N I K?E
J=I
AI =
CHKA ?E=I =I @A /
- JH=@=
E @AFA @EA JA O = ? AH @A ? K K
@ = 5A= H A
>
N /
@ =C
5E H 5E H 11 , #
JA A
I I
@AJAH E =
! 5E / AI L=?
" # JH ?=I
/
IA ? K J 0. ?
A@E= JA A = C HEJ
.
11 * % ?= ?K =
BIC
H IE E
0/ E
=K A J=H A
AH @A K
A = C HEJ
11 * % KI=HA
I 11 , # = ?= ?K =H =I @EIJE
I 0/
0.
CHKA ?E=I F @A I =F E?=H AIJA
IIE. NOTAS
I AA F ?
FKJ
AJ @ I
=I JH=@E?E = AI O GKA =F=HA?A A I E>H I @A ?=>A?AH= @A I AIJK@E I I @A = 2H CH= =?E
I >=I=@ I A I >=I=@ I A I >=I=@ I A E A= - JAH= F H
5+0'$ I J= J F H F H
I @A IACK @= CA AH=?E
+=F
JK
AI
11 , $ D= IE@ ?
##
F=H= = J=> = 11
FKJ=?E
I @A IACK @= CA AH=?E
KAIJH= I >HA L=HE I A A F I K = ? ,A = J=> = IA @A@K?A GKA A = C HEJ EA J ? @A I 5E ? FKJ=?E IE@AH= = IE A A KI=
?E= @A K = C HEJ
=K A J=H A
=I N I K?E ? = ?K ?=I
AI )@A =I A ? = ?K
AI F H AIJ= L
= FKA@A IAH = F E I @A IACK @= CA AH=?E
A @=@
F H ,
#$
Cuadro II.1. ) C HEJ
J=I
I 11 * % 11 + $ LAHIKI 11 * % 11 , #
5EIJA =I 0
C
A A I
7I= @
A = @A .=H =I
I
IA?
# IA? #
I
$ IA? $#
! "
# #
I
# IA? %
% IA? ##!
! !
%
!
I
% IA?
"
* (
!
+ )
# IA?
!
!
* * * (
!
!
+ + + )
% IA? !"&
* (
"
!
!
+ )
IA? "
! !
" #
111
- AIJA ?=F
JK =HA I @A EA @
L=
E>HA
E E = A A I
@A = CA>H= @A K IA ECHKF
J= HAI K?E
I B
= = GKA IACKEHA GKA ?= ?K = IEIJA =I
5
I A ?=F
JK I IK?AIEL I F=H= E E = AI @A CA AH=@ HAI @A = HAI K?E
=>A @E?E
EJ= A JA CA AH=@ O ?
- AIJ=I ?
#&
AI AI ? ?E@ O O= DA I A F A=@ ? JH IA ECHKF AI EI EJ= A JA CA AH=@
@K I @A 5E?ECE=I
= JAHE HE@=@ GKA KAI F @A I IKF AH
Z = Z
Z =I Z
H
= I = IKF +
=I
ZI 5A=
CK ?
5
5 8=
AH A
BC
IF H4= = E
K ?KAHF
@A
J=
E :
E I =
:H O F H
:H A E@A=
= CA>H=
5 5 4 AI J= >E
A K
E
@ = E
@A =I ?
A JAI D
C A A=I I
5 CH=@K=@
2 H
J= J
F @A
I AI?HE>EH
@ @
@A 4 AI A -I ?
E I @A CH= @A CA AH=?E =
Proposici on IIIA.1
=>A E=
EJ= A JA CA AH=@ @K
5 CH=@K=@ J= GKA
+=F
JK
111
@K I @A 5E?ECE=I
- D H I @A
= CA>H=I 1 ) @=@ F H
4 :E
E
#'
AI K D O= LE GKA ?
H I I K E@A= D IE@AHA
? A AI ? O IK K IE@AHA I A IEIJA =
5 4 1
KAC ? ,A
1
?AH A E@A= AI ? JA ?
I F H 8 = ? ?EA JA 1
5 2 H 111 ) JA A
I ? ?EA JAI EJ @A
1
I GKA K ?
K J
A A A J I @A 1
CA AH= IE O I
IE =I ? =IAI @A IKI A A A J I A 8 E E = @A CA A @E
8
CA AH= AIJA AIF=?E LA?J HE= )@A
=I K IEIJA = H=@ HAI @A 1 JEA A J= J I A A A J I @A CH=@ AIF=?E I LA?J HE= AI 8 I
4K = E
4> 4 A B
? @A 4
>
,A = H I I
> >
@E
8 O A A
AIE
EI =
= AH= F @A
E
I ?
IJHKEH HA?KHHA JA A JA
4>E 4>E
@A = J AHE @A
=H K ?
4
>E
K J
E E = OD
1 O >
$
E
@K I @A 5E?ECE=I
5E F=H= ?=@= A JHA K
5 4
>E
AIE
CA AH=@ H @A
AI
JEA A ?
C A A I =I >E
KF =I ?KO= E E = O
AIE = ? +
A JA AI K A A A J D @K
C A A A 4 @A CH=@ E>HA
AIJA FH ?AI ?
I K = HAI K?E
5 CH=@K=@= F=H= A 4
5 @=@= F H
4> 4> 4
E 4>E E 4>E
5
>E
@E
8E O 8E
E
E
AI AI @E
EJ F H IAH 4
8E
AJDAHE=
AH @A A A A J I K @K I C=H= JE = ?HA
A K IEIJA =
E
= F=HJEH @A K
@E?A E IK ?EA JA A JA CH= @A +
Proposici on IIIA.2
=I
J=?E
E>HA
E E = 5 CH=@K=@=
F=H= A = CA>H=
4>F ?
H HC/5 F H
4> 4
5
E>HA
5
5 F @A
I ?= ?K =H A FHE AH KC=H I L=
0E
8E
2=H= ? A =H IA= A ? K J B H =@ F H
HC ,=@ .
I IK>
@E?AI @A L= I = @A J=H
I CA AH=@ HAI @A 5 E A
B
+=F
JK
111
@K I @A 5E?ECE=I
F H ?=@=
.
$
E
= AA A J
5 F @A
5
E .
OF H
= ?AH
+ FA
AIJ=
J=?E
F=H=
I @A
I?
EH A IECKEA JA ?
FA =I ?E=@ =
.
IE F E?E=
FA IE F E?E=
Denici on IIIA.3
5A= =>IJH=?J
= =HA
= ?
5C
B.
.E =@ K A A A J ?=H= @A ? FA A IE
E @A =F E?=?E
F @A ? A @ E A=
(E +E (E .
2
I ?
5A= +E
+E
.
@E
. E .. .
@ .E A
@A
..
IE . $ . O
..
IE .
.
..
IAH
=K
E +E
? - J
E ,A
J=HA
E
IF H
E
= AH(E O F H *E E = ?E? I O =
E
A A A J I @A ?AI JA A
IA AI @A I GKA
0E
@E?E
*E
I
)D H= AIJ=
IA ?
L= = FAH EJEH ?= ?K =H 8E
Teorema IIIA.4
EJ= A JA CA AH=@
?= ?A =JEL
= =O= = .E =@ K ?
K J @A CA AH=@ HAI
$
K I @A 5 B HAI K?E
JEA A
0E
H
@K I @A 5E?ECE=I
C K ?KAHF ?
KJ=JEL
5 O
O ? I?
IE@AH= @ FA I
= IA
E>HA
E E = 5 CH=@K=@= @A 8E ?
F=H= J @
5 OE
I =KJ HAI @= @A = AH= A
*+ 2'&= JA HA = ! ! H I
IEIJA BK @= A J= AJ @ I ?
>=I=@ A
@K I @A IE?ECE=I @A
J=?E AI = JAHE HAI
Algoritmo IIIA.5
- JH=@= 7 ?
K J @A CA AH=@ HAI B
C @A 5
@K @A IE
5= E@= 7 IEIJA =
?ECE=I @A
+= ?K =H A ?
+E
5 0E
$ C ?
+E
, F=H= @EIJE J I E
A@E= JA A EI @A IE?ECE=I @A
- = C HEJ IAH ABA?JEL I HAI LAH @A I
@K
A JA K = C HEJ
IE J @ I
= AH= ABA?JEL= - F=HJE?K =H JEA A GKA I F=H= HAI LAH @ I FH > A =I - IACK @ FH > A = IA FKA@A I
?= ?K =H +E O ?= ?K =H K = >=IA @A 0E = AH= = C H
J E?=
+=F
JK
111
@K I @A 5E?ECE=I
IECKEA JAI F=I I
5A @AJAH E = KI= @ I
AJ @ I @A FH CH= =?E
11
$!
E A=
E
*E
KI= @
= CA>H= E A= K ?KAHF B
=?E A JA ,A DA?D A@E= JA 81 =@= K = HEA J=?E
A A ?=F
JK
H@E =HE= A AIF=?E I LA?J HE= AI I >HA K = LA ? =I =F E?=?E ?E@=I =I ?=H=I @A @A AIJ LAHA O I AI (E IA FKA@A ANF E?EJ=H
=JHE?AI 7 A A F L= I = @=H K
= IECKEA JA IA??E
AJ @ ABA?JEL F=H=
I =D H= K = C HEJ ?=H=?JAHE =H A ?
>E =J HE GKA K J @A
I FAH EJA
+
?= ?K =H IE K J FA
AN LAH *+ 2'&>
:H H AI K
I GKA IKFF ,A JA
)@A
=I IE ) E @A CH=@ K J
H : E E E E E E H : E
=NE =
@A
?KO I F HJA AI )
*
5A= + @A IE@AHA IKF ? AN @HA
B:
O/
C
E I @A CH=@ F A JAI ? J = AN=I IK =
* K IK>?
K J @A >E
I A IECKEA JA CH=B ?
L AHJE?AI =I ?
$"
=HEIJ= ?KO I ANJHA IE AI K CH=B ? ANF E?EJ= = IKFF O IKFF ,EHA AN ? A A IA JE@ KIK=
I IA= =I ? F A JAI ?
@K
@A 5E?ECE=I
JA C=
AN=I GKA ?
H> I GKA / AI K =
CA AH=@ H F=H=
I L AHJE?AI O I
Teorema IIIB.1
5A= /
* 5
AI
/
/
AN
@ K J
@A / AI K =H> A JH ?=I
CA AH=@ H F=H=
IE AIJA
O/
/ AI K ?
E E = @A CA AH=@ HAI @A 1
#
AJ @ F=H= ?= ?K =H AN + I I =I ? E I
+I I
,AJAH E =H 5E
E
AI
+E @
AI @A CH=@ A JAI ?
AN E A ?
IKFF
E
+ @AJAH E =
@A + I
I
AN=I @A
/
= C H
J E?= )@A
=I AIA = C HEJ @ + A ?A I
C
= AH= $ E A 0
IE F @A AI F ?
I ?= ?K =H @A AN
A?AIEJ=
I ?= ?K =H =I ? IE@AH=HA
A JAI ?
ANEIJA O F=I=HA
) F=HJEH @A =GK
?
K J
I @= @ = CK = KAL=
EF C *
Notaci on IIIB.2
5A= )
BE
?
K J @A
)$
O*$
I
J=HA
-) * = ?
NF J= GKA
$ F=H= F
+=F
JK
111
@K I @A 5E?ECE=I
-I F IE> A AI?HE>EH
F :
:
$#
J )
J J
?
-) *
NO
NF
$ F=H= =
AI
IK J
-) *
0-) *
,EHA
@A
-) *
E E =C I L
AHJE?AI @A -) *
I? IE@AH=H = IECKEA JA
I GKA
E?E
I A A A J I @A 0-) * I
J=?E AI F @A
) F=HJEH @A AIJ=I
Denici on IIIB.3
5A=
) AIJ
=
5 O IA= )
BE
EF C
)$
O*$
,EHA
I GKA
=EI =@ @A
* IE IA ?K F A
-I F IE> A AI?HE>EH
F :
:
J *
J J
? !
E
J EF
I
N O
$ F=H= J @ BE
EI C ) O ) $ )
* F @A
0-) *
-) * F=H= ?=@= )
K J AI
) AIJ =
=EI =@ @A ? I F HJA ?
2F
@E?E
E @A CH=@
EF
I
JA E@ A
0-) * J= GKA
I I
E
B
) O &
0-) *
I ) -IJ IA HAIKA LA
$$
HA?KHHEA @ = J
A? E?=I @A FH CH= =?E
@ I GKA F = JA= I A A ?=F
JK 11 - IECKEA JA A =
@K
@A 5E?ECE=I
I
AJ
E A= A JAH= O ? C
= KI=@=
* - J
I ? =HE ?= = JAH E
O)
* AIJ
=
Lema IIIB.4
5A= A
*
5 *
*$
=EI =@ @A I AIJ A K
?AI JH
ANEIJA E CK = =HEIJ= A
?KO I ANJHA
A )OA
A JAI ?
AN=I @A ?
2=H= A
JA HA = GKA =I ?=H=?JAHE =
Teorema IIIB.5
5A= +
+ H F
O
5 5
+ AI K = ? -NEIJA K
= +
A JA ?
AN= @A
AN
I IK>?
5C
K J I 6
LAHE ?= @
> 6 AIJ = ? 6
=EI =@= @A
+ &
F=H= ?
C
AJ @ ABA?JEL >=I=@ A
+=F
JK
Algoritmo IIIB.6
111
@K I @A 5E?ECE=I
- JH=@= 7 IEIJA = @A CA AH=@ HAI @A K IA ECHKF 5 5= E@= 7 IEIJA =
$%
= =O= =
5A=
A ?
B
5E @ ? AI ? AN=I @A ?
IKFF
AI
AN C + I I
+I I
AN
E
@AJAH E =
+E @
E I =I ?
@A CH= A JAI
@A +
/
! /
5
AI K IEIJA =
E E = @A CA AH=@ HAI @A 1
HA?KHHA H I
K J I
E E = AI @A CA
8 2=H= A
@K I @A IE?ECE=I @A IA= , K ? C
= 0
A@E= JA A EI
K J @A ?E? I @A ,A J=HA IF H
GKA B H = = = =F E?=?E
K = >=IA @A = D
H I
I=?
2=H= ?=@= = @
? F
AN
I @A
F=H= ?=@= ?
A JA L @A F @
K FK J 2L A A = A JAI @A
2
=I @EBAHA ?E=I 2L
2
I >HA =I ?
2
2
2 2
2
IA JEA A K A A A J AI K E
1 @=@ F H /
2 :2
$&
@A CH=@ K >E I F HJA ? @ HAI @A J
?
2
+ = ?K
I +E
- F=HJE?K =H = K ?E?
2
, IA A =I ?E=
@A
2
E I @A CH=@
?KO
,
C=
/
I GKA JA A
/ >
I K IEIJA = I
C +
IE@AHA
+ E A 0
I , K IK>?
. .
K J @A I
>2
:
>=IA @A 0 IJHK??E
, HA= E =
I = IECKEA JA ?
:.
:2
.
FK J 2
IE@AH=
.
2.
@ J
@A =
AI K =2
E @A CH=@ 4
>
F
)D H= ?
2
>2
I =2
?
J= GKA >2
:
=2 /
- J
?AI K =
IE?ECE=
LEA A @=@= F H
>
2
:2 = 2
C=
I GKA JA A
E / >E
I K IEIJA =
E E K F=H=
E /
C F=H= E
2
,A KAL
,
F=HJEA @ @A K ?
.
$ ,=@ ? ? A ?
:
. .
FKJ=H = IE?ECE= ? @E
.
F=I I ? IE@AH=
:.
:.
. .
IECKA 2HE AH IA F E E
>.
.
. .
@
4
>
@A
.
AI K
>.
.
?
E @A CH=@
=. /
O F=H= ?=@= . ?
:
)D H= J @E
.
= ?
I =.
=. I
IE@AH=
>.
@=@ F H
>.
. .
:.
:.
.
=.
,A KAL IA ? K=
IJHKOA =.
4>
.
AJ @ = JAHE H O ? >JA A
JE I
I FAH= @ @A =
EI = B H = 2=H= = @E A IE
+=F
JK
111
@K I @A 5E?ECE=I
K A A A J @A @=@ F H
>
:
$'
:2 = 2
@ J
@A =2 ? A
4>
? HHAIF
@A = = ?=H= @A @E A IE
7 A A A
>
2
:2 = 2
- A ?=F
JK @A FHE AH AIJ I
AJ @ I
I A A F I HA= E =HA
I A ? = ?K
18
- AIJA ?=F
JK I A @=H K ? IE?ECE= @A K J A J A K IEIJA =
O= D=>
= EJ @A ?DAGKA
I =@A = J=@
I ?A JH=HA @K @A
+ J= GKA IE ANEIJA K A A +
= =O= = E A 5
Z =
5
BC J= GKA
Z =I
=
=I HC +
D I
ZI O K
H
C @A
AA
5 5A=
B
IE@AH= @ I @A
A J IA Z
F @A
EH = D
=JHE
)
+ A ? O= ANFKIE
@K K J + @A FHE AH
D I H Z
I A 111 ) # F=H= @=H K IEIJA = @A CA AH=@ HAI @A IE?ECE=I @A = CA>H= @A IA ECHKF >=IJ= JA AH K J
5 0
$ C 8=
I=?
IJHKEH K ?
%
EJ + GKA ? E?E JEA A 2=H= A K = IAHEA @A @A AI O HAIK J=@ I
EJ C
K J .E EJ @A +DAGKA
I A FHE AH KC=H @=H
A?AIEJ=
Denici on IVA.1
5A=
5O.
BE
K F
C I GKA @E?E AI
A?AI=HE= A JA F = AI K . DKA? @A .
?KO ? IE IA JEA A
K J @A L AHJE?AI AI . ,EHA
&
.
J IEA @
BE E C &
O .J
BEJ E C
=I ?=H=I @A 5E .
)? =HA JH=JEL
. .
O . $ . &
E?E
J A J
?AI .
E KI
I AIJ= @A
A@E= JA A IECKEA JA A A F
Ejemplo IVA.2
5E ?
IE@AH=
IA ?
FA
IE F E?E=
@=@ F H A CH = ? 18 AI
B H =@ F H ! " FA
K J
! AI K B
!C DKA
A JHE
= CK
?
AI K B ! "C DKA? F H
. @A L
AHJE?AI @A ?=H@E = J A
J
@EIJE J I I >HA
A AI
@E?E
+
I = F=HJEH @A = @A
E?E @A
+=F
JK
Lema IVA.3
18 +
= ?K
5A= ?=H=I I
@A 2HE AH
5 J= GKA 0 . LAHE ?= @ ?
@K
@A 5E?ECE=I
K . DKA? @A
%!
?KO=I
$ -NEIJA . O
J :
*
&
$ F @A
.
I? *
IE@AH=H A
H A JAH
$ &
C=
J - J= ?=I
.E $ . &E $
5KF F=H= = C K
I?
( @
FK J @A F=HJE@= GKA .
BE C
BE E C - J
?AI
BE C
K J . ? L=
$ O J= GKA E FAHJA
I = IKF AH GKA O
A ?= = A 2 H?
J=?E
BE E! C -I ? =H GKA E $ E! F HGKA . $ .
)
= C= A JA ANEIJA K ? K J .! @A JHELE=
@E?E
@A . DKA? @
5E E"
E JA A .
BE E C .
I @A
@
BE E! C .!
IAA A J I
.
BE! E C
- J
?AI F @A
EH
. .
! .! ! .!
J :
!
"
. @
?
@
O J= AI GKA ( @
O F H
J= J @
5E IKF
%"
E E = @ ! KAC @ = @A
*
+
- AIJA ?=I = @ ?
K J .E EJ @A +DAGKA
@ *
OA J
?AI J
6
@ O= D=>H
=
I JAH E =@
I GKA J "
IJH=?E
>JA A I GKA ANEIJA . "F H?
5E E" $ E O I=>EA @ GKA E" $ E A E" $ E! JA A ) ECK= GKA = JAI ,A KAL L= ?E
5E JKLE
AIA
BE" E# C E# $ E! E"
@E@=@ @A J=
I=?
IE@AH=H
E F @A
I A ?=I E# F H
2"
= EA J
I A ?=I E#
IJHKOA @ K A A A J ? I .#
2"
= EA J
. J"
BE# E$ C O ?
AIJA FH EJ @A F IE
EJ= = ANEIJEH K I?
?AI F @A
J :
?
.
BE E C .
BE E! C .!
& @A K J
BE! E" C
J
.J J
BEJ E C
I FH >=H I GKA@= - AIA
G J= AI GKA
F=H= K
I @AJAH E =@ I @ C= @A . AI A ?
GKA @A>A I
O .
F
=D H= AI GKA A F
C
. DKA? @A
E@ F H .
.J AI ?EAHJ= A JA K
. 2=H= AIJ . . ?
= IACK @= ?
@E?E
@A = @A
. . $ .
E?E @A . DKA?
I GKA ANEIJA .
J 5KF
C=
IF H?
@E@=@ GKA F
BE EG C - J
?AI F @A
I HAI?HE>EH ? @A =
= AH=
+=F
JK
18 +
= ?K
IECKEA JA
?
2J
@A 2HE AH
@K
@A 5E?ECE=I
%#
. .
J .
J .
J .
.
G .G
?
J .
G .G
?
J .J
2=H= K J= J ?
@AJAH E =@ >EA ?
*
J
IA JEA A GKA ? ?
*
2 H
?
O= GKA ?
*
-IJ A JH= A
JH=@E??E
?
+
GKA J AI
E E =
IJH=?E
= JAHE H ?=>A @A?EH GKA I
=? =H=?E
= = @A
E
A JAH I A
IE@AH=@= +
@E?E AI
Denici on IVA.4
5A=
5
IE
5 ,=@
K IK>?
I GKA
0 AI 5
E E = A 0 IE
&
= ANEIJA ?E= @A A A A J I 5
5 LEA A C=H= JE =@= F H IAH 5
E E = AI A K IK>? A BK ?E
@A A J
J
K J 0 I CA AH=@
I =IACKH= GKA
AI K . DKA? @A
E E H J
?AI ANEIJA
H J
%$
LAHE ?= @
&
. .
+
2 2
. . . .
K J .E EJ @A +DAGKA
@= @=
&
. .
). ).
@= @=
J
2
.J .J
. .J . .J
J J
@= @=
.J .J
@= @=
D I H J
Z
AI =
.
=JHE ?KO=I ? K
.E
=I I E I
=I @A )
E @E?=@=I F H A ?
K J
.E
A
? F
E NH NH
@EA JAI = ? + =I
I GKA ANEIJA K = KF = @A
N
H J J
KF =I J= GKA
).
O
A ? A
).
). J
NH
J
J
@= 5 J= AI GKA
A. A.
A . J A. J
J
- J IA= K
N
H J J
* * * * * * * * * * (
?AI
= B H = @A ? IAH = ?
IACKEH A A A J I AI @E B
= JE? I
+* +* +* +* +* +* +* +* +* +* )(
. DKA? @A
FKJ=H = CK =I N I K?E
AI
@A
I IEIJA =I @A A?K=?E
).
). ).
).! ). !
). "
).J
).J
@A
+ + + + + + + + J + + )
J
@A ?=@= JH=
=
@A D I
=I @A IEIJA = AIJ =A ?
@K
@ = 7 IEIJA = @A = B H = = JAHE H
IF H
@=
+=F
JK
18 +
= ?K
@ @A
* * * * * * * * (
@A 2HE AH
@K
@A 5E?ECE=I
+ + + + + + + + )
%%
).
). ).
).! ).!
)."
J D I H J
J Z
).J
I JH=
).J
IA ?
O A I
> ,A
4
CHKA ?E=I AI
I =D H= 4 = ?
J
K J @A N I K?E
N
H J J
@=
A C
5A= 04 A ? IK>?
4
K J @A
IAA A J I
J
E E = AI @A 4
J
O 4 =
K J @A 5
BF
5A=
5 F
).
). J
4 C
BF
5 F AI 5
E E = A E?E
4 C
AI O
J=?E C
=
AI ? I= K=
+
A A = 18 ) ! @= @ K
A@E= JA A ?K= L=
FHE AH= D
Proposici on IVA.5
5E 0
$ A J
K . DKA? @A
J= GKA
Demostraci on. 2 H A A = 18 ) ! JA A
?KO=I ?=H=I .E LAHE ?= GKA
?
J :
I GKA ANEIJA
K . DKA? @A
*
4
F=H= ?EAHJ I O
& C= I GKA
J 8EIJ AIJ 4
5KF
+ - AIJA ?=I
5 J= AI GKA
%&
5E D=>H
= 5KF
+
JA @H
= ? KE@ C= IA J ?AI GKA
K J .E EJ @A +DAGKA
GKA
H : E
I FH >=@
+
@E
E
O F H
J= J
I?
$
. 6
IK
@E?A J= GKA E
E .
.
E
@E $
5 5
'
5.
B EC
-IJ A JH= A ? ? @A
5E E
JH=@E??E ?
A DA?D @A GKA
AI K . DKA
@E $
+ ?AI ?
E .
5 5
'
. (
J :
5 &
- J
IE@AH=
I .
?
B EC
. *
&
J -I B =?E
LAH GKA
-IJ AI K = ? = K FK J
Figura IV.2. 0
/H = ?= A JA JH =?JE
A . DKA? AI ? = CKH= 18
C
= K =
0A
+=F
JK
18 + = ?K
@A 2HE AH
=@ I
@K
@A 5E?ECE=I
E E = AI ? I=?
J
%'
A A = 18 ) ! ?= ?K =H K J EJ I O IA FKA@A IE@AH=H A ?
J
4A =?E @A
I AA A J I 5 I ? K J I + I
I B= J= LAH GKA
04
2 H JA A + AI
BF
5 F
).
).J
K J EJ
04 C
EJ
LEIJ A A ?=F
JK I GKA 04 AI K ? EJ
J=?E
Lema IVA.6
=I
04
- F=HJE?K =H + AI
EJ
I A K FHE AH + A J GKA
J
+
4
04
I GKA
J
'
).
4
).J
) ? ?AI ANEIJA 5E ?
IE@AH=H GKA
04 04 O
- J
FKA@A IAH
N I K?E
@A )
E E = A J= GKA
IE@AH=
IA A A A J AI 5 EJ = IAH
I HA =?E =
).
GKA + A
5 OF H
J= J K J
E E = A
04 JA A 4 F HGKA $
+
DA
I AC=@ = K = ?
JH=@E??E O= GKA
+ AI K ?
04
IAA A J I5 E E = AI @A
5 GKA
Nota IVA.7
JAIA GKA A A = 18 ) $
4 ?
E E = AI @A 4
D H= @A =? J=H A CH=@ @A =I FHE AH=I IE?ECE=I @A
= CA>H= LAHA I A 8 * ! ,A DA?D A @E?D= IA??E
=? J=HA F H AIJ=H A +
>JA A I K = C HEJ
5 F=H= ?DAGKA=H
)F E?= @ =D H= A A = 18 ) $
I AA A J I
&
5 J= AI GKA 0
+
$
K J .E EJ @A +DAGKA
Algoritmo IVA.8
) C HEJ
- JH=@= K ? 5= E@= + K ?
C @A 5
5 J= AI GKA 0
EJ F=H= ?DAGKA=H
$
/
B.
2 . !C .O& F
C
?KO ? K J @A L
AHJE?AI AI 04
EA JH=I . $
= 2=H= .
AI . += ?K =H A IK>? += ?K =H A ? ! /
> .
K J @A N I K?E
K J + = F=HJEH @A 04
.
B
+ C
. .
.
! +
DKA? @A
O
.
/C
-IJA = C HEJ =
18 ) &
Teorema IVA.9
- ?
IEIJA =
E E = @A
5
5 FKA@A IAH ?= ?K =@
@A B H = ABA?JEL= = JH=L AI @A
F A I IE F E?E= AI
18 ) &
Demostraci on. 1
A@E=J= @A = C HEJ
) A
+=F
JK
18 + = ?K
@A 2HE AH
@K
@A 5E?ECE=I
KAL = C HEJ
&
F=H= ? FK IK = F=H= J @ I ?= ?K =
+ J
I >JA E@ K
E E = @A CA AH=@ HAI @A H I
0
I K = >=IA @A AIF=?E 0
O = F=HJEH @A A
>=IA @A 8 = JH=L AI @A EI
8
@K
Corolario IVA.10
7 ?
K J
+
@A IE?ECE=I @A
18 ) &
18 ) &
E E = @A K = L=HEA@=@ J
HE?= D=O GKA =F E?=H A K J + IA HA= E = I @A AIJA ? K J + K J I AI K J EJ GKA JEA A + O GKA AI = I= E@= @A C
= HA@K?E@= =I ?E=@= =
= F=HJEH @A K ? AA A J I
>JA E@ + A E E =
5 J= AI GKA = D
IVB. NOTAS
)K GKA A ? GKA DA A GKA F HJ= EA J ? FKJ=?E AI >KA = @A I = C HEJ I I @AI?HEJ A AIJA ?=F
JK IK E F HJ= ?E= H=@E?=
I FAH EJA ? FHA @AH ? >E =J HE= A JA A
= CA>H= =I ?E= @= = K IA ECHKF
-IJ= AI = @EBAHA ?E= FHE ?EF= ? I = C HEJ I >=I=@ I A >=IAI @A /H > AH LAH -15'# JA HA = @A 5?DHAOAH O= GKA AIJ I I
IE
I K = DAHH= EA J= @A ?
= ?K O K = L
= @A ? FHA
+)2 167
INTRODUCCION
+ A ?=F
JK I = JAHE HAI L=
5
H
I=?
IE@AH=H
Z =I
Z =
= K J
=I
ZI O J= GKA 5
5
0E
BC 5A=
$ C K J
B
HC O IA=
+E A ?
+E
- AIJA ?=F
JK @A E
AIE
+E
L=
I = @=H K ?
EJ @A ?DAGKA
+E
J= GKA IE ANEIJA K A A A J A K IEIJA = +E 2=H= A @K @A IE?ECE= @A I CA AH= E =HA = JAHE H I HJA= @ I?
E E = @A CA AH=@ HAI
I HAIK J=@ I >JA E@ I F=H= E I @EIJE J I FH > A =I GKA IKHCA K J I +E = JAHE HAI =? J=HA
A A ?=F
JK = CA AH= E =H
IA
E E = @A CA A
&"
H=@ HAI @A E
AIE =HA HA
@K
K J .E EJ @A +DAGKA
5 +
I @= @ K = ? J= F=H= = FHE AH= IE?ECE= O @AIFK AI CA AH= E = JE I AIJ= ? J= = ?K= GKEAH IE?ECE= 2 H K I K = ? J=
F=H= = HACK =HE@=@ @A K = L=HEA@=@ J HE?= FH OA?JEL= O K = C HEJ F=H= ?= ?K =H = FH FE= HACK =HE@=@
I @= K = =FH NE =?E
@A ?
C
= AI
AJ @ @A ?
= ?K
E
Lema VA.1
5KF
2J
C=
.
5J
I GKA 0E
K = O IA= ?
?
J J= AI GKA . $
5E .
. A J
&F
Demostraci on. +
F . 5KF
.G O .G
B FC
. ' J J= GKA .OF . F=H=
A ?A I F=H= A
J :
C=
AI @A?EH F
?K= GKEAH
J - AIA ?=I
?
. . BFC .
BFC
+E
J -IJ
2AH ? F=I A
. BFC
OF H
J= J
&
AI F IE> A = IAH ?
KAC O= DA C=
I FH >=@
KAIJH FHE AH
. 5E . B FC . B FC
. O IKF
I F H ?
I JAH E =@
AH K
?
= FHKA>= - ?=I ?
B
.COA ?
. . (E .
-I ? =H GKA ?
*E
+=F
JK
8 + = ?K
@A = 4AI K?E
IECKA
?
J :
E>HA
E E =
&#
-IJ= IK = GKA@= ?
.
@E . E . $ .
. . .
2J
2 H
J= J
F
? IA FKA@A HAAI?HE>EH ?
?
O .
$ .
@A 5A=
IE
5E F
. ANEIJA G
G J J= GKA .
IJHKEH ? I
AIJA FH ?AI DA
.G
5E . AI ?=I
KAIJH
$ 2 H H=
I GKA ANEIJA
F=H= = C
K G ?=I ?
?
2J
JH=HE
= AH= =
= C= = IK >JA ?E
.
KAL A A A J ?
E
*E
J
5J
.
@A ,A
O J=
GKA .
$ . IE $
I @A KAL
. .
. C O .
>JA A
5E F
.
ANEIJA G
G J J= GKA .
. G
,A KAL JA A @A KAL F
.
IA
&$
O= GKA AIJA FH ?AI JAH E = A K FH FEA@=@ GKEAH ?
+
AH K
K J .E EJ @A +DAGKA
EJ @A F=I I CH=?E=I = =
5KF
E
*E
J . $ . IE $
. @
@A
O?
IA = ?=
.
.
.@
@A .
5J
. - J
?AI
5E A
.
J= GKA F
I GKA ANEIJA
.G ?
B FC
.
EI I ?
G J KAC D=>H
=
5E A IA = ?= J GKA A A ?=I ? IE A AIJA FH ?AI C=H= JE = + A O= DA
.
E
I JAH E =@
=HCK A IJHKE JE K= I? I I 5E >JA A JAH E =
EJ O= GKA = FH FEA@=@
$ K ?
K J
O K = IAHEA @A IK>? .
5J
K J I .
J= AI GKA
. E &
E?E
AI
Denici on VA.2
5A= A ?
K J .
B.
.J C AI K = E JHE= CK =?E
@A . IE IA I=JEIB=?A @E .
E &
+=F
JK
8 + = ?K
@A = 4AI K?E
.
5J
E>HA
E E =
&%
)@A
=I @EHA
5 IE .
I GKA
AI K = E JHE= CK =?E @A . A
&
J O.
JAIA GKA @A
.A . DKA?
B.
.J C AI K = JHE= CK =?E
@A . A ?=H=I E?E @A
- A IECKEA JA A A F FA IE F E?E=
Ejemplo VA.3
.E =@ .
B
'C O A ?
FA
@=@ F H = CKH= 8 F @A
7 1 2 3
5 4
&&
@A EH ? K =
+
JHE= CK =?E
@A . A
. .! .# .% .' . .!
K J .E EJ @A +DAGKA
B &C B ! &C B! " &C B" # &C B# $ &C B$ % &C B% &C B.
B 'C . " B ! 'C .$ B! " 'C .& B" # 'C . B# $ 'C . B$ % 'C ." B% 'C ." C
.
6A A ?E D C
= AI
I K
HAIK J=@ AI ? K=
= = C =
A = 18 ) ! GKA
I HA =
= =I JHE= CK =?E
I A A A J I A 5 J= AI GKA IK E AIE =
Lema VA.4
5E 0E
AI
K= A J
?AI ANEIJA K ?
K J .
K = E JHE=
CK =?E @A . A
=H A A A A J ?
E
*E
O
A A A =8 )
5
JAIA GKA @=@ K A A A J @A IA ECHKF K J . E = JHE= CK =?E A@E= JA A IECKEA JA A A F JHE= CK =?E = JAHE HAI I GKA @=@ K ?
EA ? I
E? I A CA AH= 8A= K
K J . FKA@A ANEIJEH
AI @A @EIJE J= B H =
? K J .
Ejemplo VA.5
,=@ A @=@= F H
EI
B
'C @A A A F ? HHAIF
8 ) ! F @A @EA JA = =
I? CKH= 8
IE@AH=H I >HA A K =
JHE= CK =?E
+=F
JK
8 + = ?K
@A = 4AI K?E
E>HA
E E =
&'
4 6 8 5 7 9 1
3 2
B.
.& C
5KF ,A
C=
I GKA
B.
GKA DE?E
.J C AI K = E JHE= CK =?E @A . A
= AH= IE E =H =
I?
I . DKA? I L=
I = >KI
?=H KAIJH=I JHE= CK =?E @E B = JE? I GKA F=I= 4A? H@A F=H= ?K= GKEAH ? K ? =I I
I @AJAH E =@ I IEIJA =I
I GKA = FH FEA@=@ .E
N J= AI GKA
AI AGKEL= A JA =
2H
I J= >E
A GKA ) AI =
H
.E
=JHE ?KO=I
I CA AH=@ HAI @A 5 ?
IE@AH=@ I IKI A A A J I IE
D I H Z
I F H A.
NH = LA?J H ?
J @=I IKI ?
.
H@A =@=I
@A
'
+
* * * * * * * * * * (
+
IE@AHA I = =JHE ?
K J .E EJ @A +DAGKA
)
) )
A.J
)J
) )
NHJ
)
D IJ HJ Z
OA LA?J H
A. - J )J
A
?AI @A ?=@=
J
E JHE= CK =?E
@A . A
NHJ LAHE ?= @
IA >JEA A K
@ =
J
O= LE
I A A ?=F
JK
@A@E?=@ = ? = ?K
@A + AIJ=
5 J= GKA 0E
$ KAC JA A
I GKA
B.
AIJ
= 18 @A
J
.J C K = E JHE= CK =?E @A . O ?
I =D H= GKA
5 J= AI GKA
=@= 8= E I
I = >KI?=H A J @A . A I? K J I @ =
?AI
I ,A
AI K = E JHE= CK =?E
= AH= =
= C= = ?=F
JK
4
B
4
HJ
)J
A C
J
4 C
5 LAHE ?= GKA 0E
$
K J @A L AHJE?AI . O K =
E JHE= CK =
?E @A . J= GKA
6A A
+E
.
+=F
JK
8 +
= ?K
@
@A = 4AI K?E
E>HA
E E =
E JHE= CK =?E
'
AI @A . O . A CA AH= ? EJ I E E I=
@A = K E
AI I >HA J @=I =I + O= LE I I ? I
4
.E
. FH LEA A @A A = 8 ) I? AI K J I 4 E E = F=H= K J I
FAH IE = AI 04 @A E ?= ?K =H +E
K J I B H =@ I F H IKI A A A J I EJ I ?
J
C ) F=HJEH @A AIJ I
I GKA L=
I A 5 K = IAHEA @A IK>?
04
O
B
+
)
5
04 C
AI 5
E E = A
4 C
- ? AIJ=H ?
K J
Lema VA.6
=I ?
04
- F=HJE?K =H + AI
EJ
IJH=?E
AI =
= C= = = @A A = 18 ) $
@E?E C
= AI AI @A @=H = ECK= GKA F=H= A ?=I @A I =JH=FA IAA A J I K=
K J @A L
AHJE?AI . J= GKA
2J
Proposici on VA.7
5E ?
5 O 0E .E
$ A J OK =
?AI ANEIJA K ?
E JHE= CK =?E
@A . A
AH GKA 0E
E
K
. ?
K J
5J
?
*E
2 H8 )
B.
4
I GKA
AI K = E JHE=
CK =?E @A . A
O GKA
'
) AIJ=H = A JA @H
=
4
+
4 JA A
K J .E EJ @A +DAGKA
E E
I GKA AI IK = @A K A A A J 5
+ O @A K A A A J
+ O D=>H
=
5E
I GKA C=
I JAH E =@
2H
= @A
IJH=?E
I GKA
? IJH=?E
N F=H= ?K=
H 2 H?
@E@=@ A
= @A
IKF
C=
$ 5E . =F E?= I A A = 8 ) F=H= F - J ?AI ANEIJEH
= G G J J= GKA .G O .G BC - ?K= GKEAH ?=I 5 F HGKA + O 5 F HGKA $ 6A A I .G
A J ?AI GKA GKA .G )
B C
.G
.G
5 -IJA DA?D ? .
JH=@E?A
.
OF H 5A= .
J= J IA @A@K?A GKA
AIJ=H A . O IAH
. ?
JA A
I GKA
BC
J :
O IA=
+E
.
I ? = ?K I L=
8= I=? +
J :
? 2=H= IE F E ?=H
JA A
I GKA @E .
F=H= J @ . ?
8 )
2 H JH
=@
(E ?
:
J :
@E
. E
. .
.
8=
I = FH >=H GKA
J :
.
. .
.
8 )
O
:
J :
.
. .
.
8 ) !
+=F
JK
8 + = ?K
@A = 4AI K?E
5E
. O
. .
E>HA
E E =
I GKA
'!
.
.
BC O A J
?AI .
$ F=H= = C
K J JA A
. - ?K= GKEAH ?=I
. . J :
E?= O JA A AI K
. .
J +
E
. JA A
. .
C=
I GKA
. .
. O GKA
. .
I GKA .
BC . ?
$ F=H=
. .
)@A =I ?
O KI= @ 8 ) JA A J= J ?
*E
? OF H
AC= @
=K =? KAC
JH=@E??E AI HA=
=?
AH GKA
$
A JA A A A A J
AKJH @A 5 FH >
= @ IA =I
KAIJH
I = E ? KIE
HAIK J=@
2 H = FH F IE?E
= JAHE H 8 ) % JA A
+E
.
@A .
.E
EJ A = 8 ) $ DA
+E 2 @H
=
IA ?
EJ ?
JA EA @ = I
+
I?
= ?
.
=H K F ?
IE
2=H=
K J I
.
B
AI
+E .
GKA
AN? KOA
O IKI K E
+
I @= F=H= ?=@= E K ?
5
K J
EJ GKA
E E = @A CA AH=
'"
Teorema VA.8
- ? K J
+E @A
K J .E EJ @A +DAGKA
E E = AI @A
5 AIJ =?
JA E@ A A ?
+E
EJ
+E .
18 = ? JA A
JEA A = ?
@ F H
Algoritmo VA.9
) C HEJ
- JH=@= K ? 5= E@= +E K ?
K J @A CA AH=@ HAI B K J O.
C @A 5
5 J= AI GKA 0E
EJ F=H= ?DAGKA=H
$
/
B.
2 . E
EA JH=I . $
= 2=H= .
+= ?K =H A IK>? += ?K =H A ? ! /
> .
K J + = F=HJEH @A 04
.
B
/ .
+ C
. .
5 .
! +E
8 ) '
+ = ?K + = ?K
= = C = 18 ) & = = C = 18 ) &
+=F
JK
Teorema VA.10
8 +
= ?K
- ?
@A = 4AI K?E
E>HA
E E =
'#
E E = @A CA
5
5 FKA@A IAH ?= ?K =@
@A B H = ABA?JEL= = JH=L AI @A
Demostraci on. 1
A@E=J= @A = C HEJ
A = C HEJ
I FAH EJA A K
Corolario VA.11
7 ?
K J
@K
@A IE?ECE=I
@A = HAI K?E
E =@ KI= @ A = C HEJ
= B H = @A >JA AH A ? JA E@ K IKFAH? @A +E
IA= K = )I
>JA A 111 ) # AI K = C HEJ
CH=@ I GKA =F=HA?A A K IEIJA = @A IE?ECE=I @A CA AH=@ HAI @A IA ECHKF 2=H= >JA AH AIJ=I ? J=I L=
N I K?E
KAIJH=I ? J=I I
AI GKA DA
I @=@ A
HA
'$
5A=
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * (
+ J=I @A
I 5 CH=@ I
=
=
=
=
=!
=!
=I
=I
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + )
ZD
I
=JHE
,A
J=HA
IF H6= =
* * * * * * * * * * (
6
6
6
+ + + + + + + + + + )
I
ZJ
D I
IJ
+E )F E?= @
.E A ANEIJA K ? @A . A )$
I GKA
K J . J= GKA
?
+
.E
K = E JHE= CK =?E
0A
04 ; A J
J
?AI ANEIJA
04 J= GKA
IE
A
@A
6A A
I GKA
A
04 IE O I
0B
N
I
HJ
)J
@ = C
O IE O I
IE ANEIJA
J= GKA
A
0B
HJ
)
AI
)J 6 )JA
D IJ HJ
IJ Z
= @A
+=F
JK
Lema VB.1
8 +
= ?K
+ =I
@A = 4AI K?E
J=?E
E>HA
E E =
'%
=NB = C
" ) D
I@E
@E
H E
I H=
= EA J I = JAHE HAI DA
I AC=@ =
0) 2 H 11 * !
A
)
IJ
D IJ
=JHE ) JEA A D
. O . H ) E
=I @ - J
@A ?AI J
I@E
B .
(
. JC .
)
(
8A=
@E O F H J= J D E I =D H= GKA ) " )
D
=NB = C
)J ) )
>JA A
Teorema VB.2
5E
5 AI K
5 CH=@
N J= GKA
H
@A K = E IE?ECE=
E E = @A
A J
?AI
)N ?
N
N
H E
=N B = C
)
" ) D
I@E
E
@E
@A @E
'&
Demostraci on. +
J
+ J=I @A
= J=?E
@A A = 8 * JA A I
I 5 CH=@ I
LAHE ?= @ A A = 2=H= = @A
A A
IJH=?E AI IK ?EA JA
J=H GKA
A
E J E
)D H= F H 8 * @E
- A ?=I E
=NB = C " )
D I@E
FKA@A ?
A H= A
= ? J= = JAHE H ,E?D= -
IE@AH=
)
* * * * (
I =
).
=JHE
! "
6
).
).
6
6
).
).
).
).
J
).
8=
I = @A
EH K
,
AN? KIEL= A JA @A ?
K J @A CA AH=@ HAI J
C I >HA . .
B, C
N
?
,
IKFE B
) ) A E C
>JA A = AI?HEJKH= @A
I =I
A IECKEA JA HAIK J=@ GKA I 5 CH=@ I @A
5
I @= K = ? J= I >HA
I IEIJA =I
E E = AI @A CA AH=@ HAI
Teorema VB.3
5A= J= GKA
5 K CH=@ @A K A A A J
E E = @A K IEIJA = D @A IE?ECE=I @A
IH
C
A A
NH
@K
=I
I
5 - J H
?AI '
) O
AI =
=NE
B =E C ,D
+=F
JK
8 + = ?K
@A = 4AI K?E
E>HA
E E =
A ?E= A A
''
A K
I = IKF
AH GKA 1 AI K E@A= D
H 567' A = " " /A
H
C
A A F=H= = CH=@K=
QD J= GKA
&E
AJHE?= A JA 1 @A
1 AI 5 D
N ?
H
JAIA GKA IE B
C A A
F=H=
I GKA BB
CH=@ BE FE C> CH=@ CE
E E = @A CA AH=@
E
@A FE
E E
)
@
E > 5E C
C
?AI 5
@A
FE )@A =I
)
D
E
O CH=@ C
E
- CA AH= IE D )I
>JA A K B H@ @A 1
D>E
AI K = E IE?ECE= @A 5 CH=@
NH J= GKA
F=H=
Teorema VC.1
=I
J=?E
AI = JAHE HAI
HAC1 H
)
" ) D@
H
@
@A @
>H ?
Demostraci on.
A
=NE
=NEH BJE EC @
@A JE AI
2 H A JA HA = 8 * " ) D@E
E
@E
H E
?AI
JE
" ) D@
H =NE
@
)D H= AI IK ?EA JA ?
2=H= ? ? KEH LA= E E = @A 1 F=H= @=H @A
IE@AH=H A
I GKA
Algoritmo VC.2
+ = ?K
- JH=@= 7 ?
C @A 5 J @ I A
IA
K DEFAHF =
5= E@=
IAA A J I
$ O
B
E
)
HC
+E C
=NBJE
+)2 167 -A F I
81
- AIJA ?=F
JK =? =H=H A BK ?E = CH= =O H
= @A
L=
I = @AI=HH
= EA J @A = CK I JH I
I = C HEJ EI IA
I A A F I D= IE@ ? J=I @A ?
HA= E =H F=HJA @A ? = ?K
+ J HIE
! !
Z !Z
E E = @A E@A= @A 5 A
! ! !
5A= + K
K J
AH5 AI @A?EH A
? A A JAH @A = K =JHE
* * * * * * (
1@A= @A 5A ECHKF
+ + + + + + )
! ! !
+ B
C I
>JA A
L=
! ! ! C 1 + AH5 7 LEA A
% ! !
J=?E
@A 1 +
+)
I GKA )
B# $C O
B
AI N N
%
N N N! N# N$
N N # H@A
"
N! " N" N# N$ #
N! ! N" ! N# # N$ N
$
E
6 @= @A
N! N"
+)
=
N$
D
I=
)O?
IE@AH=
HAIFA?J @A
N#
D
ANE? CH
= ? E @K?E@ F H N#
N" N$ # N! % N
!
N" N$ ! N
2 H
J= J
/B$C
K J = JAHE H
N" ! N$ ' N! ' N
$
E
N
N" N$ # N! % N
+=F
JK
81 - A F I
O)
) B #C
!
B$C
+)
HAIFA?J @A
N# AI N N! N
H@A
ANE? CH = ?
N
N! N$ N N! '
E
N" N# N N! %
N N#
N" N$ ! N#
N! #
N# !
N$ N N" N# N N! "
N N N! N$ N N N$ N# N ! N
N$ N! # N" N$ N" N# !
N! ! N" N#
2 H
D
J= J
N
A ?
N" N# N ! N
K J / ECK= =
N$ N! # N! % N$ N# ! N N! '
E
N$ ! N$ N#
N# N
N N! N$ N N$
N N N!
N N N#
N! # N"
N! ! N" N#
AI K IEIJA = @A CA AH=@ HAI @A 1 AH=@ HAI @A E@A= @A 5 JAIA GKA 5 AI D=O E C K >E
AH5
6A A
I =I
K IEIJA = @A CA K J = JAHE H I? IE@AH=H =
= =O= = O= GKA A A ?
E
N! # N" N N" N# N$ N# N#
!
N! ! N" N# N! N$
%
N ! N
N# N N N$ N$
!
N N N! N! '
E
N N N# N N! N$
N N" N#
5E GKAHA =@ F H
>read totsemig:
I JH I @A>A
>S:=[[2,0,1,0],[0,1,0,1],[1,0,0,2],[0,1,3,0],[3,0,0,1],[1,1,1,1],[3]]: >totsemig(S);
1@A= @A 5A ECHKF
N$ ! N! '
N
E
N" N#
N$ N! # N N$
N# N
N N! N$ N" N# !
N N" N#
N$ N#
N N N! N ! N
N! % N$ N# !
N N N#
N! # N"
N N! " N$
N! ! N" N#
"
*=IA @A /H > AH @A 1@A=
D
5EIJA =I ,E B
= JE? I
N! ! N" N# N
!
N ! N N$ !
N$ N! # N N" N# N N" N#
N# N N N$ N! '
E
N! # N"
N$ N#
N N N!
N! % N$
N N N# N N! N$ N" N! % N
N N! % N"
D
N N$ N# N N$ # N ! N
N# !
N! ! N" N# N! % N$
N$ N! #
N# N N N$ N$ ! N
N! # N" N" N#
N$ N# N# !
N N N! N! '
E
N N N# N N! N$
N N" N#
= I= E@= @A 5 A
= AI K IEIJA =
N N N! N" N# N$
N soluci on Particular
- IECKEA JA A A F ? IE@AHA
&
I E KIJH= A = C HEJ D
N# N# N# N" N# N$
C A A A ? !N $
%N"
N"
5EIJ
"N #N
%N
!N!
N!
2=H= ?= ?K =H K = N I K?E
F=HJE?K =H ?=I @A ANEIJEH @A IEI JA = 5EIJ ? IJHKE I A FHE AH KC=H A IA ECHKF 5 Z Z #Z Z Z Z !Z B H =@ F H =I ? K =I A IEIJA =
! % # " % " ! ! "
- F=I IECKEA JA AI ? 1 ,
D
I
>JA EA @ K ?
N
N$ " N# " N N$
N$ N% $ N# N% # N$ #
N# # N%
N% " N# $
A IA ECHKF AI
= =O= = N %
+ JA A
I GKA @A N% AI
H@A @
+=F
JK
81 - A F I
= L=HE=> A ?
D
#
=O H FAI - AIJA ?=I L=
N N N!
I=?
N" N#
IE@AH=H A
N$
H@A
E
ANE? CH
= ? E @K?E@ F H N%
N% N# $ N$ # N N$ " N# " N
N$ ! N# "% N!
N$ # N# %# N"
N# $ N$ ! N$ $ N# '
I = @= A >E
E N% I JH I IE A I
= E F A A J=?E
@A AIJA
H
IE@AH=@
H
>
I >JA E@ ?
IECKEA JA
1@A= @A 5A ECHKF
N% N$ # N"
E
N$ $ N% #
N
N$ " N% "
N N!
N% ! N$ "%
N$ $ N% !
N#
N$ ' N% $
) );) )
N% N$ # N" N
N$ $ N% #
- AIJA ?=I
K = N I K?E AI $ #
N soluci on General
8A= ? IE@AHA A ? IK AA F E KIJH=JEL @A = C HEJ 11 , $ 2=H= A C
A A=I I A IECKEA JA IEIJA = @A A?K=?E
&
AI @E B = JE?=I D
CHKA ?E=I
N N N
!N!
N! N!
!N"
N"
@! @!
$
,A J=HA I F H / = ? = ? K J = JAHE H O F H /E
5EIJA =I ,E B
= JE? I
K J @A N I K?E AI @A IEIJA =
BN
+ AIJ= E@A= @A E
N NE
"
C
I HA?KHHA JA A JA /E
E
E E = @A CA AH=
BIC
0/E 0.
11 , # O >JA A K J I
O = F=HJEH @A
A JA @H
= = -IJA F=I = KF = I 2 H
.
I GKA 0/ I
I
I 0/ 2=H= A
N N
&
IE@AH=H A IEIJA
= E E?E= D=?EA @ N
!N !
N! N!
!N "
N"
@! @!
,A KAL JA A
I @A = JAHE H IEIJA = K ? .
BI C
E
0/ E
+=F
JK
81 - A F I
7 = J= I AI ! ! KAC
.
%
5 5I
" E 0/ E BI C E B ! !C 0/ ! 0/ ! 0/ ! 0/ " 0/ " 0/ "
N N
!N"
N"
F IAA
)
= C= A JA 0/ !
N N N"
!N "
- ?= >E
L=?
O= GKA A IEI
JA = =I ?E=@ = A D
!N !
N! N
JEA A F H A A F L JA A
BI C
2=H= A ?
@! @!
&
Cuadro VI.1.
5EIJA =I ,E B
= JE? I
0/
0/ " 0/ " 0/ " 0/ " 0/ " 0/ " 0/ " 0/ " 0/ " 0/ " 0/ " 0/ " B C ! " # $ % &
0/ ! !
0/ ! 0/ ! 0/ ! 0/ " 0/ " 0/ "
) A ?
JH=H
I?
AI ?
K = I = E ? C EJ= E?= AI =K
- AIJA ?=I
B C
A@E= JA KAIJH= HA?KHHA ?E= HA@K?EA @A HAI K AI AC=H = K = I =
K J @A =I N I K?E
JE K= @ ?
K J I 0/ O 0/
JA A
I GKA
K J @=@ F H =I K E
AI @A
! C I = JAHE HAI O I AI
! C
5KI A A A J I
A FH FE . 0.
+=F
JK
81 - A F I
'
Cuadro VI.2.
0/
0/ 0/ 0/ 0/ 0/ 0/ 0/ 0/ 0/ 0/
! ! ! " ! " #
0/
$ !
Cuadro VI.3.
0/
0/
!
!
.
4AI K?E
E>HA
E E =
2 H D
J= J @A@K?E
I GKA A ?
K J
E E = @A CA AH=@ HAI
@A =I N I K?E
AI >=IA @A 0E >AHJ @A
C A A @A F=HJE@= AI
0/
0.
! C
I = =F E?=H A = C HEJ
"
B
B.
2 . !C -
BB !C B "C B #C B ! "C B ! #C B " #C B ! "C B ! #C B " #C B! " #C B ! "C B ! #C B " #C B ! " #C B ! " #C B ! " #CC
K J I IA FKA@A J >E =?E =H ? IE@AH= @ I? K AI IE HAFAJE?E
@A A A A J I @A I A A A J I @A . 5A= . I >HA . FKJ=H A
- CA AH= AIJ I ? J
J I B H =@ I F H =I ? + A ?A I ?
B
!C
IEIJA A ?
? ?E
K J @A N I K?E AI
(
A ?K= AI A ?
)
K J @A N I K
E E = AI @A IEIJA = @E B = JE?
).
). ).
)
!
).!
+=F
JK
81 - A F I
ECK= =
* * * * * * * * * * * * (
" #
A
! !
!
?
A
!
! ! ! !
" #
! !
+ + + + + + + + + + + + )
J= AI GKA @A J
* * * * * * * * * * * * (
IA K
! A !
E
A A ?=F
JK @A>A # I? " ! !
18 2 H =
)
@A
* * * * * * * * * * * * ( + + + + + + + + + + + + )
! ! ! !
-IJA ?
B #
K J AI
#$ % # $ % " # ! & ! !%# # $ # # & # " $ $ " " ! $ "! % $ & ! % # " # $ # ! " ! # $ % " ! " ! " $ ! " " # ! " ! " ! % ! ! ' % " & ' # %" ! "% ! # " " & % ! & "% ! ! !" & # ' & ! $ # ! % ! $ & ! % & $ # $ ! # & "& & !' & # $ # " " &!&" '# #" $ ! " " # % " & $ " # " ! ! % !# &" " ' &' & #! # $ ! " $" ! !" # !& ' !' & # # # " ! " ! # ! ! " % ' # # & #! ! $$ ! # % " # ! ! % ! $ !" # "& # !" "! "# ' # # #$ $# # # " # ! " ! ! ! " ' ' " # ' & ! # ! ' ! % ' ' $ ! $ ! ! $ ! $ ! ! ' $ $ % ! C
4AI K?E
E>HA
E E =
)D H= =F E?= @ K = LA =I A HAIK J=@ 11 ) " @A>A I = =@EH A ! = ?=@= A A A J @A = JAHE H ? K J F=H= >JA AH 04 ! O @A =D
04 !
4
!
% & " %
! $ " % $ % !
" ! % "' !
' %
%
"' $ '
% $
"& $ !
!# $ " $ "
$ $ !& & ! $
$ " "
E E = AI @A 4
!
B ! %
%C I A A A J I @A I =I ?E=@ I =
DA
I >JA E@ HAIJ= @ @ I = @ I J @ I IF
C
04
O?
A 5
B ! %
! $ - F=I IECKEA JA AI ? + 2=H= A ?E=@ I = L= I=?
B
IE@AH=H
C
F A I IE F E?E= AI =I @A @E?D I
I @EBAHA JAI ?
I A A A J I @A / @=@ I A
= J=> = 81 # - ? = ?K
+=F
JK
81 - A F I
!
"
"
? FA I DA ?=F
JK 11 2 H A A F F=H= ?= ?K =H
4AI K?E
I HA= E =@ = JH=L
AI @A
%
E>HA
E E =
@E B
= JE? %
!
" "
#
# !
! K J
I CA AH=@ HAI @A 5 O ?= ?K = AI
IA ?
AI
E E = AI I AI I
=I ?=H=I
=NE = AI
,A DA?D
AIJ=I N I K?E
% A BK ?E
@A ?
. DKA? I @A IKI ?
I CA AH=@ HAI @A 5 FA II
I A A A J I GKA ?KO I F
C
B%
%
C
K =I 2 H
C
=I =I ?E=@=I = IKI ? F=H= F H A A F AI
%
+
IE@AH=H =I =F E?=?E
+
%
+
%
@A
+
%
+
%
+=F
JK
81 - A F I
#
FA I
2 1 3 5 4
1
1
!
2
2
4
5 4
1
%
2
2 1
"
3 5 4
2 1 3 5 4
2 1 3 5 4
2 1 3 5 4
2 1 3 5 4
!
5
2 1
3 5 4
2 1 3 5 4
2 1 3 5 4
# !
% #
!&
! $
& " !
$
5KI =JHE?AI =I ?E=@=I I
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * (
4AI K?E
E>HA
E E =
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + )
* * * * * * * * * (
+ + + + + + + + + )
(
7I= @
= CA>H= E A= LA
0
%
I GKA @
B C
B !C
%
B !C
BC O @E 0
%
%
)
= C= A JA @ @E 0 O 0
%
B C
B "C
B "C
0
B C O
- AIJA ?=I
= > I?
+
K J I + O + ? E ?E@A
KAC
B%
@K
7 = LA A EI AIJ= @A
>JA E@ + F=I=
0
E E = A@E= JA
8 2=H= A
@A IE?ECE=I KI=HA K J
@A
I JH I DA
,
A I BJM=HA =F=HA?E@ A
1 , O DA
N N" N# N! "
N! # N"
N " N
!
N! N !
N#
+=F
JK
81 - A F I
5EC= I
%
I F=I I O =I J=?E AI @A 111 + F=H= @
B C
I
B !C B !C F H
>. 1
.
B !C B !C E A FK J I ?
:
IE@AH=
.
. .
:.
:.
.
%
@ - J
@A
AI K = I =.
E @A CH=@ =.
2
?AI J
.
4
%
.
=.
BC
>BC
:. . . : . . : : :! B C BCB C : : ! ! $ : : :# : :! =BC :! .
%
.
:#
B !C BCB !C
: :! $ : :
.
B C
>B C
2
=B
.
.
:#
B !C B CB !C
: :! " :! :" :# :
:#
B!C
>B!C
2
=B!C
.
.
.
B !C B!CB !C
: :! " :! :" :# :!
=B"C
=B#C
:! =B!C
B"C
>B"C
:
:! :" ! :"
B#C
>B#C
- J
?AI
: =BC
: =B C
&
4A= E = @ A J EI ?
= ?K
4AI K?E
? AI
:! :" ! :" C @
E>HA
E E =
K
>JA A
I GKA K ?
E E = @A CA AH=@ HAI @A
B:! : :# :" :
8= 5E A GKA
C
@K
@A IE?ECE=I AI K
: :# J= AI
K
:"
ANEIJEH
= C C
C
:
:!
:" ! :"
- J= ?=I
A ? ?EA JA C C JA @H
= GKA L= AH IE K J
= A= A JA
: :! :! : :# O
" :" ! :" :
?K= AI E F IE> A 2 H
J= J C IECKA
KAC
O
&E
= HAI K?E
GKA@= ?
: : : ! : " : #
: : : ! : " : # ! : : : ! : " : # 5
*1* 1 /4). 1)
*+ 2'&=
- *41) -5 ) +) 21 +
+
)41 7)
= @ 2 215
>E =J HE?I
A?J
*+ 2'&>
- *41) -5 ) +) 21
*0'%
0-4
* 54'' * 85 '!
) ) *
*1/)661 4 4 -4 1-/ -4
) 5+) ) = @
4 **1)
FKJE C 9016-
J HE? E@A= I = @/
FKJ=JE
)5 8-4/ )5 * 5674 .- 5
=JDA =JE?I = @ EJI )FF E?=JE
? FA@E= B
2HAII ''! * '! , *);-4 = @ , = CA>H=E? CA ''! * 2+86'' *41) -5 64) -5 41 561
AI
7 . 4, 9D=J ?= >A ?
FKJA@ E
AJHO 5E F IE= 2
215
+)5)4-5
= @
B = J HE? L= B H @AJA?JE C
*5'& E=
=JDA =JE
*E> E CH=B
=
, *);-4 = @ * 5674 .- 5 +A K =H HAI KJE @K AI # ! " ''& 1 /
+ /H A> AH *=IAI KJ=JELA ) >ACH=
*9'!
I 1 B H B
! "! % I
''"
+.&'
+ )75- = @ ) . 46- *)+0-4 -B ?EA J I KJE E A=H @E FD= JE A AGK=JE & $ '&' = @ 2 /1 - KH = B ) CA>H= 5O > E? + FKJ=JE
+/ + '
) +) 21 HEAJEAI ) +) 21 ! "'
A J HE? L= I B H =
= @ +
)41 7)
5
A
0ECDAH HA =JE
6D A H
>HAI * H@A=KN
5EIJA =
? ? = @E = K ECA EJ ) + KHIA E +
@A
? = ?K
IE > E?
0 + 0-
FKJ=JE
= ) CA>H=E?
>AH 6DA HO L K A !& B /H=@K=JA 6ANJI E JE?I 5FHE CAH 8AH =C ''!
=JDA =
+2
) +) 21
= @ 2 215
A?J
6 HE?
=JDA =JE?I BH
IA E
=JDA
CH KF LEAMF E J +6' 2 +
61 = @ + 64)8-45 E C
*K?D>AHCAH = C HEJD
JAI E +
= @E
JACAH FH CH=
CAH #!' ''
A?JKHA
*E> E CH=B
=
,*7'# . ,1 *1)5- = @ 4 74*) JDA AH A
-NFAHE A J=
- ) = C HEJD E= HE C D % !" ''# J ?= ?K =JA HFDEI I B ?AHJ=E F O
'
- , AGK=JE
-15'#
J +
AM ; H
''#
,K A
-5'$ / 4%!
*E
E= E@A=
2 / 4,) &%!
EJ &
$ !
/ /A AH=J HI B HA =JE
= @ IA ECH KFI HE C
= KI?HEFJ=
! %# '!
>E =J HE?I
HHEI AH
F ANAI 1 *4
=@ 4)
A@EJ HI 4E C 6DA HO 11
$ % B =J
05 05'#
50)214
F IEJE
5O > E? +
F H =F=HA?AH
= @ * 5674 .- 5 /HE
A@EJ HI 1 JACAH 2H CH=
) E F A A J=JE E C 1 - *= =I = @
E C = @ + >E =
J HE= FJE E =JE
*E> E CH=B
=
+5 ' 5FHE CAH 8AH =C ' $%
) *-46 7 A > H A F KH AI C A AH=JAKHI @AI I I A JE AHAI F IEJELAI @K A AGK=JE +)5)4-5 = @ ) 81/ -4 J HIE
+
= ?K I = @ ) 6@E FD= JEA 41 A E
A=EHA + 4 )?=@ 5?E 2=HEI !# !' " '&% 2 215
1@A= AI @A =F AL )?J=I 641
B
+)5)4-5 I J
N I KJE
E A=H IOIJA I
2HAFHE J
2+86AH
2 215
+)5)4-5 = @ ) 81/ -4
K E?=JE
.EHIJ IO O IE ?
I E ) CA>H= 2 H =F=HA?AH
E E = I KJE
= + BAHA ?A
25'& 4/5'&
+04 5) -5 = @ 2 /)4+
1) 5)
= =H= 5F=E F=CAI ! " ''&
E@AI ?= ?A =JEL I 2H ?AA@E CI B -)+)'& /K=@= 4 5' + 4 5) -5 5A ECHKF I K AHE? I 2D, JDAIEI 7 ELAH IE@=@ @A /H= =@= ''
*E> E CH=B
=
4 5'# 47*'$ + 4 5) -5
5A ECH KF . HK
!
EJA O CA AH=JA@ IK> # # 74*)
K E?=JE B
''# * ) +
J @A?E@A EB =
5+0'$ 56)'$
6DA HO
*=IA
K
567' 567'#
=JDA =JE?=
IJH=E JI
)5
5 LE C E A=H ,E FD= JE A +
AJHO L K A
B)C
86''
) 81/ -4
JE I
6-
41 I
@E FD= JE A AGK=JE
B " B "
04 ' 04 %'
E E = ! AH5
(E $
'
AH5
!%
# %% ' E E = %# '
K . DKA?
+E 0E
E
% &$
E
4 4 5
E JHE= CK =?E
$ $ $
8E $
N I K?E
E A A
#'
) %% ) % )J '
+ %%
%$ '
5 #&
HAC1 $
/ ! /A ! / ! 0 0 ! 04 '
$ $
4 4
+ +
FA K J
IE F E?E= $ HJ C =
1@A= AI @A HAJ
?K 4AJ
?K
= =O= =
%% ' "
= =O= =
Resumen: Dado un semigrupo abeliano, cancelativo, finitamente generado y con elemento neutro, S, y un cuerpo k, podemos considerar el lgebra S-graduada k[S]. El estudio de esta lgebra tiene un gran inters dentro de la Geometra Algebraica por su relacin con la Geometra Trica. En esta memoria nos centramos en el estudio de los mdulos de sicigias de la resolucin del lgebra asociada al semigrupo. Damos algoritmos basados en bases de Grbner que nos permiten calcular sistemas irreducibles de generadores del ideal de un semigrupo con torsin. Adems, damos un mtodo efectivo, basado en el clculo de N-soluciones de sistemas diofnticos en congruencias, para calcular los grados que aparecen en el primer mdulo de sicigias de k[S], ampliando estos resultados a toda la resolucin del lgebra k[S]. De estos mtodos, deducimos cotas para los grados que aparecen en un sistema minimal de generadores el i-simo mdulo de sicigias, en funcin solamente de los generadores del semigrupo. Explicitamos una cota para la regularidad de una variedad trica, as como un algoritmo para hallar dicha regularidad.
Abstract Given a finitely commutative cancelative semigroup with zero element, S, and a field k, we can consider the S-graduated algebra k[S]. The study of this algebra has a great interest inside the Algebraic Geometry because of its relation with the Toric Geometry. In this memory we study the modules of sizigies of the resolution of the algebra associated with the semigroup. We give algorithms based on Grbner bases that allow us to compute irreducible systems of generators of the ideal of a semigroup with torsion. Besides, we give an effective method to compute the degrees that appear in the first module of sicigias of k[S] using diophantine equations in congruences, extending these results to the whole resolution of the algebra k[S]. Of these methods, we deduce bounds for the degrees of a minimal systems of generators of the i-sizigies by means of the semigroup generators. We give explicit bounds for the regularity of a toric variety, as well as an algorithm to find it.