Tyler Shepard A Brief Survey of American Music Education History Foundations and Principles of Music Education, Dr.

Randall Paul March 2014

The current state of music education in the United States is the culmination of many years of crosscultural sharing of philosophical ideas and practical traditions which have affected how music and education are concurrently thought about and practiced as both distinct and integrated disciplines. This paper will examine the philosophical ideas which have been passed down through the years, changed into new ideas, and fit into their relative system of their times to cater to the needs of the students, communities and society as a whole. The specific disciplines of band, choir, orchestra, and general music curricula will then be examined individually, culminating in a whole view of historical music education in America. Educational philosophies have been very influential in how music education has been thought about and practiced throughout history. While Native American culture has a rich musical tradition, it was European settlers who brought and developed a structured educational system, based on ever-changing philosophies and the place of music in the overall education of young people. One of the pivotal figures of education in early American history is Lowell Mason. Examining his life and career would be a good starting place for any music educator wanting to understand the history of music education in America, though it is also of benefit to work backwards in history, examining the people who had progressively affected Lowell Masons philosophy and, in turn, those who would use his methods even further down the historical timeline. Lowell Mason was active in the public school system in Boston in the 1820-30s

during a period of time seen as an enlightenment in educational thought and systems.1 Mason, through the influence of William Channing Woodbridge, was introduced to the ideas of Johann Pestalozzi (17461827), a Swiss education reformer who believed that music should serve as a prime contributor to the moral aim of education.2 Pestalozzi was strongly influenced by the humanitarianism, empirical scientific views, naturalism, and religion of many of the proponents of education reform of his time.3 In addition to the moral aim of music education, Pestalozzi took into consideration two other factors: the physical element and the mental element. He considered all thought and processes as affected by physicalsensorystimuli which would thereby strengthen mental faculties, ultimately to serve the purpose of producing students who could make the right moral judgments about themselves and the world around them.4 In a personal letter, Pestalozzi writes, I need not remind you of the importance of music in engendering and assisting the highest feelings of which man is capable. It is almost universally acknowledged that Luther has seen the truth, when he pointed out music, devoid of studied pomp and vain ornament, in its solemn and impressive simplicity, as one of the most efficient means of elevating and purifying genuine feelings of devotion.5 The foundations of Pestalozzis concept at hand could be traced even further back in time. John Calvin (15091564), a likely influence on Pestalozzi, recognized the importance of music in the Christians personal devotion to and connection with God. Even as it can be seen through history that instrumental music was not as readily accepted by religious institutions, Calvin saw its value, noting that even though musical instruments serves our enjoyment and our pleasures rather than our needs, it
1 2

Tellstrom, A. Theodore. Music in American Education, Past and Present, pg 37 Ibid. 25 3 Ibid. 19 4 Ibid. 26 5 Green, J.A., ed., Letter XXIII, Training of Eye and EarMusic in Education in Pestalozzis Educational Writings (New York: Longmans, Green & Co., 1916), 229-232 in Music Education Source Readings from Ancient Greece to rd Today, 3 edition. Michael L. Mark, ed., pg 51.

ought not on that account to be judged of no value; still less should it be condemned. Pleasure is to be condemned only when it is not combined with reverence for God and not related to the common welfare of society.6 As early as the fourth century A.D., St. Augustine of Hippo recognized, with perhaps some trepidation, the importance of music in the Christians life in that music could serve as both a distraction and as a heightener of piety and connection with the divine. Ultimately, he recognized musics usefulness.7 A well-known quote, attributed to Augustine, goes something like, he who sings, prays twice. Augustine most definitely though that music could elevate and purify feelings of devotion, as Pestalozzi had said. Going even further back in history, it can be observed from the Bible that the Apostle Paul, when imprisoned for sharing the gospel, sings hymns of praise to God.8 Music has always been an important part of the human experience and connection with God not just in the Christian realmand some may argue that we are made to make music. Pestalozzi most certainly thought so, and his three part philosophy of education, most certainly affected by his predecessors, affected many after him. The same principles are seen in Lowell Masons Manual of the Boston Academy of Music, in which he advocates for vocal music instruction for all, giving practical, social, healthful, intellectual, and disciplinary reasons, with an emphasis on the cultivation of the feelings.9 Since Masons time, much more research has been done that actually does support most of his claims.

Haroutunian, Joseph and Smith, Louise, Ethics and the common Life, in Calvin: Commentaries, Vol. XXIII, The Library of Christian Classics (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1958), 354, 355. In Music Education Sources rd Readings from Ancient Greece to Today, 3 edition. Michael L. Mark, ed. Pg 38 7 Sheed, F.J., trans., The Confessions of St. Augustine (New York: Sheed & Ward, 1943), 242-244 in Music Education rd Source Readings from Ancient Greece to Today, 3 Edition. Michael L. Mark, ed., pgs. 22-23 8 The whole story can be read in Acts chapter 16, where the particular verse referenced is verse 25. Paul and his companion in sharing the gospel, Silas, have been imprisoned for sharing their faith and they can be heard praying and singing hymns of praise to God, by all who are in the jaila testimony of the validity and vitality of their faith and the power of Christ working in them. 9 Mason, Lowell, Manual of the Boston Academy of Music for Instruction in the Elements of Vocal Music on the System of Pestalozzi (Boston: Boston Academy of Music, 1834), in Music Education Source Readings from Ancient rd Greece to Today, 3 Edition. Michael L. Mark, ed., pg. 85

Research in music education is not a new practice, but one that has been honed through time. Understanding of psychological principles have informed music educators since the time of Pestalozzi chiefly, the idea of developmentalism, broken down into three parts: pattern of nature, self-activity, and interest.10 Pattern of nature refers to how each individual student learns at his or her own pace, which the music teacher should be sensitive to; Self-activity refers to the idea of learning to do by doing-rather than being told what he or she should be learninggoing back to the idea that morals should be felt; and interest refers to the teacher guiding the student with the ultimate end that each student would be self-motivated, engaged, and invested in their own education.11 The learning process that Lowell Mason derived from Pestalozzis theory consisted of three steps: 1) Numberin which students are taught things before words, applied to music by looking at something as a whole unit; 2) Formin which students are taught to break down the whole unit into its distinct parts, i.e. notes, articulations, melodies, measures, etc.; and 3) Languagein which students take their understanding of the individual parts and put them back together to get a whole understanding of the concept at handone which they will be able to readily talk about.12 The next phase in Education in America came with the Industrial Revolution of the nineteenth century, where music and education began to be seen through a lens of commerce and industry. Research in education was thusly directed toward science and empirical evidence. Pestalozzis theory of learning process was affectively changed from number, form, language, to number, form, relationship, whereby the measure of students understanding and learning became their ability to observe and practice rather than simply talk about what they are learning.13 Tellstrom notes that it was around this time that the word rote became disreputable in music education circles, where Lowell Mason might have used rote teaching as an effective way to

10 11

Tellstrom, 43. Tellstrom 44. 12 Tellstrom 50. 13 Tellstrom 70.

produce solid musical learners.14 In the 1850s Herbert Spencer, a renowned philosopher, posited that if music instruction was to continue successfully in schools it should be taught scientifically, where the music would not just be listened to and appreciated but theoretically analyzed. This utilitarian view took precedent for a whilea period of time which saw many simplifications to music education practices and an increased importance for organized music education philosophies having a basis on psychology.15 Over time, a child-centered approach to education began to take precedent, and after the Civil War a more progressive view of education began materializing, in which three philosophies of humanism, realism, and idealism dominated.16 By the end of the 19th century, a new philosophyDeterminism began to take root in education in which music became a critical part of every students education. In 1904, the National Education Association approved music for credit, allowing as part of the scholastic routine.17 During this time, instrumental music and applied music lessons became more prevalent in schools.18 By the 1930s, multiple types of tests designed to measure music learning were in place.19 This reflected the importance of music instruction, the validity of its aims, and an unprecedented effort by music educators to authenticate their profession. Despite these efforts, a need for new direction in education and music education arose, due largely to the Great Depression of 1929. Educators began to experiment with ways to use music to develop both individuals and society; promote correct emotions; enhance overall interest in education and music; promote discipline; and build character.20

Two important events in American music education in the 20th century that helped shape our current state of music education where the convening of the Music Educators National Conference in 1946 and

14 15

Tellstrom 71 Tellstrom 89. 16 Tellstrom 170. 17 Tellstrom 191 18 Tellstrom 193 19 Tellstrom 201 20 Tellstrom 238.

the Tanglewood Symposium in 1967. The MENC gave many reasons that music should be studied in America, including music teaching as an exponent of democratic processes; the broadening scope of musical experiences; international cultural relations through music; and providing music material is a social responsibility.21 The Tanglewood Symposium, sponsored by the MENC, had the purpose to consider the role of music in American society during a time of rapid social, economic, and cultural change, and to make recommendations to improve the effectiveness of music education.22 The Symposium concluded with music educators agreeing on the following points: 1) Music serves best when its integrity as an art is maintained. 2) Music of all periods, styles, forms, and cultures belongs in the curriculum. The musical repertory should be expanded to involve music of our time in its rich variety, including currently popular teenage music and avant-garde music, American folk music, and the music of other cultures. 3) Schools and colleges should provide adequate time for music in programs ranging from preschool through adult or continuing education. 4) Instruction in the arts should be a general and important part of education in the senior high school. 5) Developments in educational technology, educational television, programmed instruction, and computer-assisted instruction should be applied to music study and research. 6) Greater emphasis should be placed on helping the individual student to fulfill his needs, goals, and potentials.

21

Morgan, Hazel Nohavec, ed., Music Education Source Book (Chicago: Music Educators National Conference, rd 1947), xi-xii in Music Education Source Readings from Ancient Greece to Today, 3 Edition. Michael L. Mark, ed., pgs. 143-144 22 Choate, Robert, ed. Documentary Report of the Tanglewood Symposium Washington,DC:Music Educators National Conference, 1968), 110-15, 138, 139. In Music Education Source Readings from Ancient Greece to Today, rd 3 Edition. Michael L. Mark, ed., pgs. 323-332

7) The music education profession must contribute its skills, proficiencies, and insights toward assisting in the solution of urgent social problems as in the inner city or other areas with culturally deprived individuals. 8) Programs of teacher education must be expanded and improved to provide music teachers who are especially equipped to teach high school courses in the history and literature of music, courses in the humanities and related arts, as well as teachers equipped to work with the very young, with adults, with the disadvantaged, and with the emotionally disturbed.23 It is interesting to note that they recognized many of the same purposes of music education as Pestalozzi and those before him and after him who advocated the focus on the individual for the betterment of society. The Tanglewood Symposium was perhaps a universification of some of the principles that pockets of music educators had strongly held to. Many of these aims of music education can still be seen today, which is a testament to all of the people through history who had a part to play in shaping so many contemporary music educators philosophies on music.

The structure of educational systems in the United States has also had a significant impact on music education. In his article, United States of America: Reflections on the development and effectiveness of compulsory music education, Jere T. Humphreys distinguishes between compulsory schooling and compulsory education, in that the latter refers to educational outcomes and the former to physical attendance.24 Humphreys posits that compulsory schooling became more prevalent through the years, as opposed to education in the homes, as America transitioned from a colony of Great Britain to an independent country. Music played an important part of colonial life largely due to the religious

23 24

Choate, Robert, ed. Documentary Report of the Tanglewood Symposium Humphreys, Jere T. United States of America: Reflections on the development and effectiveness of compulsory music education. InThe Origins and Foundations of Music Education, Cross-cultural historical studies of music in compulsory schooling. Ed. Gordon Cox, and Robin Stevens. New York and London, 2010, pg 121

practices of the time. Singing schools arose in the eighteenth century in order to address the issue of poor singing ability among church congregations.25 These schools were accessible to the public and utilized such methods as William Billings The New England Psalm Singer which not only served as a tool to improve congregational singing, but also served to introduce different eclectic methods of musical instruction, widening the base of musical knowledge that students were receiving.26 The mid-nineteenth century saw an increased tension between private, usually church affiliated, schools and free schools for economically disadvantaged families. Out of this arose the common school system, which the states supported through taxation.27 During this period of change to a common school curriculum, Lowell Mason, music educator, and William Woodbridge, school reformer, began to strongly advocate for the addition of music into the curriculum. While the justifications for standardizing music as part of the school curriculum were primarily religiousmuch like the singing schoolsearly music pedagogues in the common schools took an eclectic approach, incorporating European folk and art music, including limited instruction on instruments.28 As the common schools gave way to public schooling, certain states, such as Ohio, saw great success in their school music programs. In 1844 Dayton Public hired its first full-time music teacher, while Walter Aiken, director of music in Cincinnati Public, incorporated the methods of Lowell Mason to much success, advocating strongly by force of personality the inclusion of music in the school curriculum.29 In Cleveland, a very important idea was taking root, which spread outward in the years to followthe idea of the regular teacher as the music teacher.30 The superintendent of Cleveland schools in 1869, required that the regular teachers would teach music lessons, hiring a full-time music teacher to not only teach the students but also to train grade teachers

25 26

Humphreys; Cox & Stevens, ed. 123 Ibid. 124 27 Ibid. 125 28 Ibid. 126 29 Sunderman, Lloyd Frederick. Historical Foundations of Music Education in the United States. The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Metuchen, 1971. Pg 101 30 Ibid. 161

on how to instruct their students further in music. Superintendent Rickoff reported that, The task assigned to Mr. Stewart was not an easy one but the work of the year has been a gratifying success.31 This was a task unprecedented in the relatively short lifespan of the public school system thereto, but a project that did not go unnoticed, as many other schools began seeing the importance of at least having a full-time music teacher, if not also requiring or encouraging regular teachers to give music instruction to their students.

The common school era, which Humphreys cites as 1830-1865, was followed by the compulsory school era, where many public school music departments were appearing. It was during this period, 1910 and onward in particular, that not only singing and performing were addressed, but also music listening and music appreciationlargely due to the invention of the phonograph.32 General music programs in schools also became much more standardized, taking a form very similar to general music programs of today.33 As public school music programs began to gain popularity and broaden in scope, music teacher education programs began to do the same. Where instrumental music teachers had been trained vocalists and choir masters before, the 1920s saw the development of college and university programs designed specifically to train instrumental teachers.34 Humphreys raises an interesting question toward the end of his article, pertaining to the place of compulsory music education in the compulsory education of today. Because of the nature of compulsory education, some socio-economic groups of students historically have not performed well in the system, even though the idea behind compulsory education is an opportunity for an equal education for each and every student. Humphreys points out that music is only compulsory for a certain amount of years of a childs education, then they have the

31 32

Sunderman 162. Cox & Stevens 128 33 Ibid. 128. 34 Ibid. 129.

choice to join ensembles.35 The problem, as one could argue, is that the ensemble format itself is a conservative paradigm taken from military (band), church (choir), and elite cultural (orchestra) traditions.36 If music education is limited to these three fields, the question could be raised whether educators are truly allowing each and every student to experience music. A closer look at how each of these subjects have been approached through history may provide some answers to these questions. While early music educators in American education systems worked to advocate for their art by reaching out to as many groups of students as possible, it was not until recent decades that band programs became an integral part of the public school curriculum. Interesting to note, in Mason and Kuhns 1978 work Contemporary Music Education, little to no attention is given to instrumental music programs, but rather to vocal arts and development of vocal skills. To their credit, the thrust of most of their methods is to equip students with a wide base of music knowledge and skills; though perhaps the importance and potential of instrumental music instruction had not been fully realized on a grander scale. Roger Mantie distinguished between the idea of The American Wind Bandwith its civic band, military band, professional bands of Sousa and others, and entertainment facultiesand the pedagogical band world, which refers to band in academia with a focus on artistry and technical prowess. Community bands came together for different reasonsusually some sort of socio-musical ethic.37 While this may be seen as a weakness, particularly from an academic standpoint, it could also been seen as a strength, as the base of those who were participating in bands was expanding. Mantie notes that bands of the late 1800s and early 1900s not only provided functional music for various events and community gatherings, but made music accessible to the public with their of the people and for the people concept, which contrasted with the underlying notion that other musical groups such as

35 36

Cox & Stevens 130. Ibid. 131. 37 Mantie, Roger. Bands and/as Music Education: Antimonies and the Struggle for Legitimacy in Philosophy of Music Education Review, 20,no. 1 (Spring 2012), pg 70

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orchestras were only able to be enjoyed by the cultural elite.38 As bands became to be accepted by the general public as an integral partat least functionallyof society, they began to become institutionalized and integrated into public schools and universities.39 However, a distinct difference could be seen historically and still today between the public schools and universities in how band is thought of and approached. Bands on the college level emphasize doing band for the love of band and music, whereas band on the public school level tends to be approached with emphasis on developing in students values and skills that are extra-musical.40 Here, Mantie seems to be personally predisposed to opposing the influence of extra-musical goals of band education, but it could be argued that these goals could add to the legitimacy and overall education of students. Overall, the history of band education seems to be characterized by emphasis on functionality and development of life skills in studentstrends which are still prevalent today.

Much has been said about the background of choir instruction being linked historically to Christianity and the Churchand still plays an important role in that arenabut the question should be raised how choir and vocal instruction has been used to reach a wider audience among public school pupils and dedicated music students. Various types of vocal ensembles have taken form, which have likely been influenced by American pop culture, past and present. Some of these types of singing groups include: show choirs, a cappella groups, musical troupes, barbershop quartets, and concert choirs. While a cappella singing is traditionally linked to reverence in church settings, it is evolved and developed to include the contemporary popular music scene. In his Janurary 2014 article Contemporary A Cappella, Brody McDonald discusses factors that have contributed to the growing popularity and acceptance of this art form. Kids love it because they can make creative funny mouth sounds, they get to play with
38 39

Mantie, 69. Mantie, 71. 40 Mantie, 74.

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technologypedals, throat mics, and so on, and perhaps most importantly students are singing songs with which they are more familiar.41 Directors love it because of the multitude of possibilities with types and sizes of ensembles, unique opportunities for development of young singers and young leaders, and opportunities to reach out and garner community PR.42 McDonald does acknowledge that there are still some obstacles to overcome, primarily stemming from the incorrect perception that a cappella will result in poor singing technique, but ends with an encouragement that all educators can learn to teach a cappellaand should, given the benefits. It is interesting to note the almost constant tension between more traditional ensembles and more contemporary ensembles and the question comes to mind, Why cannot both be taught concurrently with equal weight and emphasis? It is with this mindset that we turn briefly to orchestra programs in schools.

School orchestra programs continue to thrive, though not universally, depending upon school funds and support of the community. Growing up in a rural school district, students are not likely to have the opportunity to join an orchestra, as the community may only be willing to support the more practical aspects of the music programchoir and, particularly, band. Choir programs commonly produce wellknown popular musicals which the community enjoys and pays to seea source of income for the school music program that sometimes may be self-sustaining. Band programs are vital, particularly on Friday nights in the fall, and maybe for some pep during high school basketball games. The band sets the tone and provides atmosphere for sporting events. While these may seem like pessimistic views of the value of various music programming, it may shed some light on how school officials and some community members see musica means to an end. The value of orchestra programs is not always seen. Orchestra music is a window into our European roots and oftentimes displays the genius of
41

McDonald, Brody. Contemporary A Cappella (Timeless Communications, Corp. Janurary 2014) in Choral Director Magazine, accessed online March 2014 42 Brody McDonald, Contemporary A Cappella

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composers whose music has been the basis for much thought, analysis, composition, theory, and enjoyment concerning most Western music. Unfortunately, the importance of keeping these historical roots as part of a well-rounded music education is not always seen.

While it is important to keep in mind our European roots when considering music education, it is also of utmost value to consider music of other cultures which have enlightened and affected many aspects of not only the American musical tradition but continue to affect how music education is approached in America. Some of these areas of music which continue to grow in popularity and importance are, jazz education, steel drum bands, and guitar instruction. Jazz education started right alongside the art form of jazz music, developing from the late 1800s piano rags and traditional music of African American slaves.43 The piano rags of such composers as Scott Joplin were receiving enough widespread attention that the U.S. Marine band performed Joplins Maple Leaf Rag in 1909.44 During the 1930s1950s, music educators began to criticize jazz believing it would have a negative effect on the traditional music curriculum and would corrupt their students.45 As jazz programs in colleges and universities began to see success and the public mindset of jazz as mere entertainment changed to see jazz as an art form in itself, public school systems began to be more open to including jazz in their curricula.46 Jazz has gradually become legitimized over recent years. In Ohio, for example, music educators have banded together to form JECO, The Jazz Education Connection of Ohio, which has been in existence since 2008 and works to promote jazz in the schools at all levels
43

Thelonius Monk Institute of Jazz. Jazz education. Jazz Resources. Last modified 2014. http://www.jazzinamerica.org/JazzResources/JazzEducation/Page
44

Thelonius Monk Institute of Jazz. Timeline. Jazz Resources. Last modified 2014. http://www.jazzinamerica.org/JazzResources/JazzEducation/Page
45 46

Thelonius Monk Institute of Jazz. Jazz education. Thelonius Monk Institute of Jazz. Jazz education.

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statewide.47 Organizations like this are a growing trend nationally, likely as teachers, students, and community members alike experience jazz for what it isa unique art form. In addition a proliferation of Jazz Educators Journals, Jazz Education Materials, Jazz Festivals, advanced degrees in jazz studies, performing arts schools jazz programs, and inclusion in general music instruction give music educators, music students, parents of music students, and other community members opportunities to experience jazz music and observe jazz music education in action.48

Steel drum bands are increasing in popularity, particularly in urban schools. Bob Chadwick, band director at EJ Brown Middle School in Dayton Public Schools incorporates steel drum band in his curriculum.49 Steel drum band offers unique musical sounds and opens doors for both individual and group instruction on instruments. Mr. Chadwick often opens up time during his lunch block to give mini lessons to any steel drum band students who want some additional time on the drums. The structure of the band is such that there are 1-2 lead players who usually have the melody, playing on a lead drum with a wider range of pitches; 2-4 tenor drum players who fill in harmonies, often with ostinati, and 2-4 bass drum players who lay the foundation for the group, playing on drums that are literally hammered out of steel trash cans. Mr. Chadwicks group performs 1-2 times each semester for both parents and for the school during daytime concertsa very effective way to garner further interest in the schools music program. Though a newer form of music, steel drum bands will likely grow in popularity as students experience the utter fun, parents hear the pleasing music that their students can make, and educators see the potential for increased student involvement in school music programs.

47 48

Jazz Education Connection of Ohio. About. http://www.jecohio.org/about-jeco/ Thelonius Monk Institute of Jazz. Jazz education. 49 The author spent 10 weeks in 2009 as a student teacher with Mr. Chadwick, actively observing and participating in activities with steel drum band students

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Guitar, while normally thought of as a Spanish instrument, and having become an icon of American pop and rock culture, can also be linked to early African American culture. Grunfeld writes of the blues guitar of the American Negro and the affect that this genre had on American music and culture in his book The Art and Times of the Guitar.50 Apparently, en route from West Africa to the Americas, African slaves were exposed to the north Saharan Moors and their instrumentswhich resembled three string guitars. Having been sold in America, African slaves were discouraged from playing their tribal instruments, but encouraged to keep making and playing plucked string instruments.51 It is from this tradition that the Blues emerged, also affecting and affected by jazz styles of particular African American musicians. Keeping in mind the rich heritage and cross-cultural sharing of guitar music and wide variety of styles in which it is still used, guitar education for students of all ages is a must. Guitar education in schools has enjoyed a renaissance of sorts in recent years, as Adam Perlmutter outlines in his 2011 article from Teaching Music magazine.52 Guitar instruction can be a window into the wide world of music, as well as a reflection on Americas own rich musical heritage. Evidently, music education in America is an ever-changing phenomenon and practice. Many different world music styles and traditions have affected our American culture, having been integrated into the common American consciousness of American music. Additionally, developments in science and advances in educational systems, derived from American and international influences alike, have continued to inform how music education is approached. As a result, much of our current music education philosophies and practices in America are based on many educators, thinkers, and musicians who were not American. It is likely that the field of music education will continue to move in the direction of further integration of cultures, other arts, sciences, and development of life skills, but one
50

Grunfeld, Frederic V. The Art and Times of the Guitar: An illustrated history of Guitars and Guitarists. New York & London, 1969, pg 229. 51 Grunfeld, 229. 52 Perlmutter, Adam. Up and Strumming: Why Guitar is Increasingly Finding a Place in the Music classroomand How You Can Build Your Own Program, Teaching Music, (October 2011), 32

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could hope that the integrity of the history of American music education, considering all philosophies, structures and practiceswill be upheld and taught with the same importance as growing trends in our ever-changing world.

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Selected Bibliography Gary, Charles L. A History of American Music Education, third edition. Lanham, New York, Toronto, and Plymouth, 2007 Green, J.A, ed., Letter XXIII, Training of Eye and EarMusic in Education in Pestalozzis Educational Writings (New York: Longmans, Green & Co., 1916), 229-232 in Music Education Source Readings from Ancient Greece to Today, 3rd Edition. Michael L. Mark, ed., pg. 50-51 Grunfeld, Frederic V. The Art and Times of the Guitar: An illustrated history of Guitars and Guitarists. New York & London, 1969 Haroutunian, Joseph and Smith, Louise, Ethics and the Common Life, in Calvin: Commentaries, Vol. XXIII, The Library of Christian Classics (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1958), 354, 355. In Music Education Source Readings from Ancient Greece to Today, 3rd Edition. Michael L. Mark, ed., pg. 38 Humphreys, Jere T. United States of America: Reflections on the development and effectiveness of compulsory music education. InThe Origins and Foundations of Music Education, Cross-cultural historical studies of music in compulsory schooling. Ed. Gordon Cox, and Robin Stevens. New York and London, 2010. Mantie, Roger. Bands and/as Music Education: Antimonies and the Struggle for Legitimacy in Philosophy of Music Education Review, 20,no. 1 (Spring 2012), pgs 63-81 Mark, Michael L., ed. Music Education Source Readings From Ancient Greece to Today, 3rd edition. Routledge, 2013. Mason, Lowell, Manual of the Boston Academy of Music for Instruction in the Elements of Vocal Music on the System of Pestalozzi (Boston: Boston Academy of Music, 1834), in Music Education Source Readings from Ancient Greece to Today, 3rd Edition. Michael L. Mark, ed., pgs. 81-86 McDonald, Brody. Contemporary A Cappella (Timeless Communications, Corp. Janurary 2014) in Choral Director Magazine, accessed online March 2014. http://www.choraldirectormag.com/2726/articles/commentary/contemporary-a-cappella/ Perlmutter, Adam. Up and Strumming: Why Guitar is Increasingly Finding a Place in the Music classroomand How You Can Build Your Own Program, Teaching Music, (October 2011), 32-26 Sheed, F.J., trans., The Confessions of St. Augustine (New York: Sheed & Ward, 1943), 242-244 in Music Education Source Readings from Ancient Greece to Today, 3rd Edition. Michael L. Mark, ed., pgs. 22-23 Sunderman, Lloyd Frederick. Historical Foundations of Music Education in the United States. The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Metuchen, 1971. Tellstrom, A. Theodore. Music in American Education, Past and Present. Holt, Rinehard and Winston, Inc. New York, 1971. Thelonius Monk Institute of Jazz. Jazz education. Jazz Resources. Last modified 2014. http://www.jazzinamerica.org/JazzResources/JazzEducation/Page

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