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AI
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AI K =
-
A@E@= A
FHE
P (X )
AI J = GKA J = I GKA
IJH=?E
IACK @
AH KC=H AI ALE@A JA GKA
KC=H FH >= @EI K J I 5E
AI
EJ=
A JA =@EJEL= F=H=
A1 , . . . , Am
F A1 + + Am ,
AI
EJ
f=
(F A1 )++(F Am )
f=
F A 1
f + +
F Am
f (A1 ) + + (Am ).
KAC
(A1 + + Am ) (A1 ) + + (Am ).

2=H= = @AIECK= @=@ ? AIA ?=I @=@ JH=HE= >=IJ= ? ANEIJA IKF AH GKA I
>0
Fi Ai EJ I J= AI (Ai ) f m
Fi
(Ai ) I
J @ I
EJ I
GKA
)I
(A1 ) + + (Am )
2=H= FH >=H GKA
F1 ++Fm
f (A1 + + Am ).
>IAHL= GKA I GKA IE
F A
EJ
AI ? F AJ= A JA =@EJEL= F A1 + + Am F=H= = C m ?

F
A = An
f (A1 ) + + (Am )
n=1
(An ).
!
+ A
-,1,)5
n=1

(An )
2=H= = @AIECK= @=@ ? JH=HE=
(An ).
JAIA GKA
A1 + + Am An ,
F H GKA
(A1 ) + + (Am ) = (A1 + + Am ) (An ),

AI @A?EH
n=1
(An ) (An ).
5ECKA
= CK =I ?
IA?KA ?E=I F=H= IAHEAI O IAHEAI @ > AI
2H F IE?E
?E @A

5A=
) F=HJEH @A
an
an 0 B=>HE?=
:NN
I
K = >EOA??E
{Nn }
K = F=HJE
bn = a(n)
- J ?AI
n=1 n=1
cn =
kNn n=1
ak .
an =
bn =
K
cn .
@A
2H F IE?E
- J ?AI

5A=
aij 0 {Nn }
N2
F=HJE?E
N2 cn =
Nn
aij
aij =
n=1
cn .
F=HJE?K =H
N2
aij =
{ aij } = { aij }. i=1 j =1 j =1 i=1

JA HA = @A .K>E E F=H= IAHEAI @ > AI
>IAHL=?E
&
JE
= E@A JE@=@ AI K
2H F IE?E
A J ?AI
5A=
aij 0
:N N
2
K = >EOA??E
5E
bpq = a(p,q)
N2
aij =
N2
bpq .
I CA AH=
AI B ?E ?
FH >=H IA JEA A A
HA= E@=@ K = FH F IE?E
g =f
2H F IE?E
!
5A=
f : X [0, ] O K
X
= >EOA??E
:Y X
= @
f=
g.
+)2 67
-,1,)5
!
A@E@=I ?
F AJ=I
5A= K = A@E@= A X ? @ E E K = CA>H= A 7 ? K J K N X AI J @ N A ? (N ) = 0 5A @E?A GKA AI ? F AJ= IE J @=I =I F=HJAI F @A K ? K J K =H>EJH=HE N I J= >E A A A J I @A A F H J= J ? K J I K I @A A + ANJAHE HAI + LAHA I A = IECKEA JA IA??E IEA FHA I ? F AJ=I IA AIJ=> A?A = ? JE K=?E =I A@E@=I E @K?E@=I F H A@E@=I FKA@A ? A@E@=I
J @=I =I
F AJ=HIA
6A HA = "
E JH @K?A = ? =IA
5A=
K =
A@E@= A
E E
K =
CA>H=
5A
= {E F : E A A
K J ? = BK ?E @A ?
O ANEIJA
N A
(N ) = 0
F N },
K J
(E F ) = (E ).
- J = ? ?AI
AI K = F AJ=
CA>H= O
AI K = ?AI
A@E@= ? J= >E
A@E@= ?
F AJ= O ANJEA @A =
(A, )
I FAGKA = GKA ANJEA @A = A J
, (A )
(A, )
F AJ=
I =
-I @A?EH
ANJEA @A =
, (A ) , (A ) , (A )
IE
AI AI
!
* 5A= ? = > ?
- AH?E?E I
A@E@=I
K = BK ?E
@A ? HAI A CA>H=
K J
E E
K = ?EAHJ= ? =IA @A
K J I
O L=
?K
F EA @
AI K = AI AI ?
AC=JEL= F AJ= A JA =@EJEL= F=H= = C
2H >=H GKA IE AI K =
(E ) <
K J E EJ
EA
A J
?AI
() = 0
AI @A?EH
A@E@= ? E EJ= EA JH=I
XK X ,A GKA AI
5A= @A ! 5E
(E ) = 0 IE E AI
A JA =@EJEL= FAH
EJ
A AI = ? =IA @A J @ I (E ) = IE E AI E
? F AJ=
I IK>? E J
K J I
2HK >AIA
A JA =@EJEL= A J ?AI
AI K =
A@E@= I >HA K =
CA>H=
A E, F A
(E ) + (F ) = (E F ) + (E F ).
" 5A= EI
{n } =
K = IK?AIE CA>H=
EJ= E EJ= @A A ,AB =IA = IK = n n ( ) n (E ) n (E ) =
A@E@=I @A @A =I
E@=I I >HA
A@E@=I ?
E A.
!
-,1,)5
,A K IJHAIA GKA
!
AI K =
A@E@=
1 @E?=?E
# 5KF C= AI K = IK?AIE
2KA@A KI=HIA = 2H F IE?E I GKA
AIJ
? AH I
IEJEJKE@
F H = IK?AIE
@A
AC=JEL I 2=H=
{xn } A X @AB
EA JH=I =IA
{pn }
(A) =
2H >=H GKA $ +
x m A
pm .
AI K = A A F
A@E@= @A
EJ=
IJH O=IA K J= GKA
A@E@=
O K = IK?AIE
@A?HA?EA JA
A
+ %
(En ) =
F AJ=I
K A
{En }
@A
F=H= J @
EA JH=I
(l m En ) = 0
A@E@=I ?
5A=
(X, A, )
IA ?K
K = I ?
A@E@=
EJ= 2HK >AIA GKA J= AI GKA
AGKEL= A =
= IECKEA JA FH FEA@=@ F A GKA J @ I F=HJA A@E@= ? A@E@= K = F H J= J F AJ= =
A, B A
K J I E EI =
(B )
& 5A=
A@E> AI O ?
AI ? F AJ= A B (A) = JAH A@E I C A C B I A@E@= GKA A O B

=@= F H J @ I =GKA I ?
K =
= ? =IA B H
K J I ? ' 5A=
K = 2H >=H GKA
AI K F A??E
= E 5E @A E I
(, A)
A@E@= O
( , A)
IK ?
A = {E \ N : E A, N N1 A (N1 ) = 0}.
,A IJH=H GKA
A = A
"
+)2 67
-,1,)5
"
5A= IK>?
A@E@=I -NJAHE HAI

K J I @A
: D R K = X OJ
BK ?E = L=
@A ? HAI A
K J
?KO
E E
AI K = ? =IA @A
5A @E?A GKA
AI IK>=@EJEL= IE
(E F ) (E ) + (F ),
F=H=
E, F D
?K= AIGKEAH= ?
EF D
n k=1
5A @E?A =
C=
A JA GKA
AI
EJ=
A JA IK>=@EJEL= IE
(E1 En )
F=H=
(Ek ),
= A JA AI ? n=1 En D
E1 , . . . , En D
=H>EJH=HE I ?
F AJ=
?K
A JA IK>=@EJEL= IE F=H=
E1 En D .E {En }nN =H>EJH=HE= A D ?

n=1
IA
F A
( n=1 En )
5A @EH GKA
(En ).
E F E?=
AI
= IE
E, F D E F
@A ? K J
(E ) (F )
IA @A E =
,A
K = E EE EEE
E?E
#
7 = BK ?E
: P (X ) [0, +]
A@E@= ANJAHE H IE
() = 0
AI ? AI
'
F AJ= J =
A JA IK>=@EJEL=
AB
F E?=
(A) (B )
E E @A
>IAHL=?E
K J I @A
>I HLAIA GKA A @
FHA @A J @ I
I IK>?
X
A A F I E F HJ= JA AI A@E@= ANJAHE H @A A>AICKA 2=H=
- A F N A
RN
A RN nf N (A) =
nN
(In ),
AI
@A A
IA ANJEA @A = J @=I =I IK?AIE
{In }
@A E JAHL=
I =>EAHJ I
In = (an , bn ) = (a1n , b1n ) (aN n , bN n ),

? = FH FEA@=@ @A HA?K>HEH
A A nN In ,
O @
@A
(an , bn ) = (b1n a1n ) (bN n aN n ).
"
-
-,1,)5 -:6-41 4-5

ABA?J F=H= FH >=H = IK>=@EJELE@=@ EE IA IKF A GKA
#
N (An ) <
O IA
GKEAHA FH >=H GKA
N (An )
,=@
N (An ).
@A
> 0 ANEIJA {Ikn }kN
HA?K>HE
EA J
An
F H E JAHL=
I =>EAHJ I J= GKA
k N
)D H= HAIK J= GKA
(Ikn ) N (An ) +
. 2n
An (n,k)N2 Ikn ,
KAC
N (An )
5EA @ ?E
(n,k)N2
(Ikn ) =
n=1 k=1
N (Ink )
N (An ) + .
AIJ= @AIECK= @=@ L IJHK??E @A =
E@= F=H= J @ A@E@= @A
IA ?
? KOA EE = IECKEA JA IA?
= ?
A>AICKA IA CA AH= E = A
,A

E?E
$
5A @E?A GKA K
K J
EX
AI
A@E> A ?
HAIFA?J
A@E> A IE
(A) = (A E ) + (A \ E ), AX
?E K J @A A@E@= ANJAHE H IA F ?= E A @A HA EALA A =JKH= A = ? A IECKEA JA IJHK??E A@E@=I ANJAHE HAI AI K
?K= GKEAH= GKA IA=
= KJE E@=@ @A = HAIK J=@ @A - @A =I K ? A@E@=I A
X
@ HO
6A HA = %
FH FEA@=@AI E EE ,A
+=H=JD
5E
AI K =
A@E@= ANJAHE H A ?AI IA I=JEIB=?A
@A
IEC = = ? =IA @A IKI ?
K J I
A@E> AI A J
=I IECKEA JAI
AI K = @A
CA>H= A@E@= A
FHE AH
A K =
-
A
AI B ?E LAH GKA IE
EA
-
IJH=?E
IACK @
KC=H I GKA
, X A
O GKA
Ec A
IE
KC=H LA
E1 E2 A
E1 , E2 A
0=O GKA LAH GKA
(A) (A (E1 E2 )) + (A \ E1 \ E2 ).
FA = I ?
(A) (A E1 ) + (A \ E1 ). (A \ E1 ) (A \ E1 E2 ) + (A \ E1 \ E2 ).
6=
>E
$
+)2 67
-,1,)5
KAC
(A) (A E1 ) + (A (E2 \ E1 )) + (A \ E1 \ E2 ),
O IA ? ? KOA = >IAHL=H GKA
(A E1 ) + (A (E2 \ E1 )) (A (E1 E2 )).

2 H J= J
AI K
CA>H=
2=H= FH >=H GKA
O IA
KAIJH= GKA
A AI K = CA>H= J S := En A AI @A?EH
= GKA
I K = IK?AIE
@EI K J=
En
(A) (A S ) + (A \ S ).
J= I A FHE AH KC=H GKA
Sn = n k=1 Ek A
KAC
(A) (A Sn ) + (A \ Sn ) (A Sn ) + (A \ S ).
5A AIJ=> A =D H= GKA
(A Sn ) =
,A =GK AI ? =H GKA
k n
(A Ek ).
AI @A?EH GKA

(A S )
k=1
k=1
(A Ek )
(A S ) =
- HAIK J=@ 2H >= E @K??E =@ @AIA=@ I EJE O I= A J J= I A ?=I
(A Ek ) = l m (A Sn ).
EJAI A I GKA
= @
I GKA = E@A JE@=@ AI ?EAHJ= F=H=
n = 1, 2
I
5E F H
O KI=
En+1
AI
A@E> A JA A
(A Sn+1 ) = (A Sn+1 En+1 ) + (A Sn+1 \ En+1 ) = (A En+1 ) + (A Sn ) = (A Ek ).

kn+1
2 H J= J
!
AI K = A J
CA>H= 3KA
AI K =
A@E@= AI ALE@A JA
>IAHL=?E
= 5E > 5E AIJ ?
(E ) = 0 (E ) = 0
?AI
AI
A@E> A
A J
?AI J @
AE
J=
>E
AI
A@E> A 5AC A@E@=I ? = =
IA D= @E?D
GKEAHA @A?EH GKA =I = I ? J=
A@E@=I ANJAHE HAI @= K J I A@E> AI ? EA >H I E = =
KC=H = HAIFA?J I ?
F AJ=I
@A
CA>H= A @A N IA @A = HAIJHE??E @A N = A>AICKA
A@E@= ANJAHE H #
LN
LN
IKI
K J I
A@E> A A>AICKA O
IA @A
A@E@= @A
A>AICKA 5A??E
"
-,1,)5 -:6-41 4-5
%
"
LAH
IJHK??E
@A
KAIJH= ? A
A@E@=I ANJAHE HAI

= ANE>E E@=@ @A IJHKEH =I 7 = AI @A HA?K>HE =I ?E A@E@=I ANJAHE HAI E 5A F HJ= JA AI = GKA
= IECKEA JA IA??E GKA AI HA =JEL=
A JA IA ?E
IECKA 5A @E?A GKA K = ? =IA E
EA J
AH=> A IE
K
@A?EH ANEIJA
EE 6 @
A X IA FKA@A HA?K>HEH A@E= {En }nN K J= GKA
JA K = IK?AIE
{En }nN K
-I
A n=1 En .
5A=
K = ? =IA @A HA?K>HE ? @ E E
EA J HAI A
AH=> A O A
K = BK ?E
@A ?
K J =H A L= H
AC=JEL=
+
J= GKA
() = 0
K {
L=
2=H=
AX
[0, +]
IA @A
AI @A?EH
FKA@A J
(A) = nf
n=1
} (En ) : {En }nN K, A n=1 En .
5A JEA A A IECKEA JA HAIK J=@
6A HA = &
>IAHL=?E
@A A>AICKA IA ? +K= @ @A?E@EH GK K ?
= BK ?E
- A A F
@A
A K =
A@E@= ANJAHE H A
=
X
A@E@= ANJAHE H
BK @=
A J= @A = =IEC =JKH= EA J 5A??E
IJHKOA F H AIJA FH ?A@E
#
F=H
(K , )
@A AIJA JEF
IA KI= F=H= ? AI IK
K J I I
A@E> AI O ?K ?AI LAH
CA>H=
K J I +
ANJA IE
medibles EA JH=I = A ? F AJ= @A (X, K, ) K = ? =IA A I HAIJHE?JEL= (K, ) IA

+=H=JD @ HO
A@E@= A J
I - AH?E?E I
HAIK J= B ?E (K, ) AI K F=H K A @ @A A I I K 2 H J= J (X, A, ) AI K =

IJHKEH A@E@= 5E EI HAIK J=@
>JEA A A
6A HA = '
H=> A O EA JH=I
: A [0, ]
?K
F EA @
(K, ) K = ? =IA () = 0 5KF C= (En ) = (En ),

5A=
@A HA?K>HE I GKA
EA J AI K
CA>H= "
@A
{En } A
AI K = B=
E E= @A A A
A J I @EI K J I @ I = @ I GKA I=JEIB=?A
En A.
5A= E EE
A@E@= ANJAHE H CA AH=@= F H F=H=
(K, )
K J I
- J
?AI
(E ) = (E ) KA
>IAHL=?E @ @A
EK
I ?
AI = ? =IA @A
+K= @
A@E> AI
E = K =
FHA A@E@=
!
I=JEIB=?A " IA = @A
&
+)2 67
IJH=?E
2H >= I EE O F=H= A J = I
-,1,)5
?K= GKEAH=
,A
?
(A) <
E KOK AX
F H GK
5A JH=J= @A ?
FH >=H GKA
(A) (A E ) + (A \ E ).
,=@
>0
ANEIJA
{En } K
n En A O (A) + (En ).
?
n
2 H JH= F=HJA
A E n (En E )
KAC
A \ E n (En \ E ), (A \ E )
n
(A E )
)I
(En E )
n
(En \ E ).
n
(A E ) + (A \ E )
-IJ O
{(En E ) + (En \ E )} =
(En ).
FHKA>= = @AIECK= @=@ >KI?=@= ?K= J = E J = I
EK
2=H=
>0
n
ANEIJA
{En } K
n En E
(E ) +
5E A >=HC
(En ). Fn K Fn En
O I
E n En = n Fn
@A
Fn
@EI K J I @ I = @ I +
E = n (Fn E ),
HAIK J=
(E ) =
(Fn E )
(En ) (E ) + .
JH=HE= AI ALE@A JA
,A =GK IA IECKA GKA (E ) 2 H J= J (E ) = (E )
(E )
EA JH=I = @AIECK= @=@ ?
n X = R ? IE@AH= I A CA>H= A = {k=1 Jk : Jk = (ak , bk ], Ji Jl = i = l} {(, a] : a R} {(b, ) : b R} - AH?E
- A
?
"
! I >HA = GKA @A
(E ) =
@ @A
n 1
(Ik ),
((a, b]) = b a O J = A L= H E EJ A I E JAHL= I E EJ I = ? IJEJKOA K = FHA A@E@= ?K= AI E A@EJ O CA AH= K = A@E@= ANJAHE H ?KO I ? K J I A@E> AI A ? JEA A = S (A) = B1 AI @A?EH = I > HA E= I @A R 2 H A JA HA = FHA?A@A JA = I >HA A AI @EB ?E # @A IJH=H GKA ? E ?E@A ? = A@E@= ANJAHE H @A A>AICKA 5A??E F H J= J GKA A I I ? K J I A@E> A A>AICKA
BK ?E
"
-,1,)5 -:6-41 4-5
'
"
,
- AH?E?E I
A@E@=I ANJAHE HAI
,AB =IA (E ) ? () = 0 (E )
ANJAHE H ,AJAH A AH IE @A A A AI E A J I @A EJ
=
I ?
2H >=H GKA
IE J= ?
K J AI K =
AI
EJ A@E@=
E =H
K J I
A@E> AI
5
,AB
K?E
=IA
A = (X ) () = 0 (E ) = 1
E =H I ? IE
E =
2H >=H GKA
AI K =
A@E@=
ANJAHE H ,AJAH
K J I
A@E> AI
5
!
K?E
F=H=
A = {, X }
K F IAA K = ?= JE@=@ AH=> A (E ) = 1 IE E AI E =H K I ?
5KF
C=IA GKA
AH=> A @A FK J I 5E K AH=> A ,A A@E> AI AH=> A} =@ ,AB E = @ K J I
(E ) = IJH=H GKA
AI K =
A@E@= ANJAHE H ,AJAH
5
" 5A=
K?E
A = {E X : E
HO
AH=> A K ?
K = A@E@= ANJAHE (A B ) 2H >=H GKA

A JHA I ? K J I = IK?AIE
BX
E
K J
=IA
(A) =
AI K =
A@E> AI @A EJ=
A@E@= ANJAHE H @AJAH O I @A EJ= @A
= HA =?E
5A=
= IK
{ K n}
=
A@E@=I ANJAHE HAI ,AB
=IA
) n (A) =
n (A)
A X.
,A
K IJHAIA GKA
AI K =
A@E@= ANJAHE H EJ= A JA =@EJEL= A J ?AI AI
1 @E?=?E
$ ,A K = % A@E@=
2KA@A KI=HIA = 2H F IE?E A@E@= ANJAHE H AI
K IJHAIA GKA IE K =
5A @E?A GKA K = =@
A@E@= ANJAHE H
EJA K = A L LA JA ? K J I A@E> AI ? ?HA?EA JA O AI HACK =H A J
AI HACK =H IE ?K= GKEAH ? A@E> A G A A G A = (A) = (G) 2HK >AIA GKA

?AI
K J IE
AX
I AI
CA>H= @A
{An }nN
(l m An ) = l m (An ).
1 @E?=?E A = An
+= >E= @
5A= +=
>E= @ F
Gn
Gn , G =I A L LA Gn F H Gn G H Gn Gn+1
JAI @A F @A F @A
An , A
I IKF I IKF
HAIFA?JEL= AH GKA AH GKA I
A JA ? I
Gn G Gn I
?HA?EA JAI +
A G := Gn G,
LA JA @A
AI K = A L
)D H=
(l m An ) = (A) = (G ) = l m (Gn ) = l m (An ).
+)2 67
K
-,1,)5
+ + =IAI HA?K>HE@ H=I A 5E

. K @=JE I B
AH=> AI HABAHA ?E=

5AGKA JE= ? LAHE C ? =IIAI
) = OIEI @A ) .HEA@ EA J E E AI K AH=> A A O L= HAI A = '
@AH
AI K = ? =IA @A HA?K>HE K J AC=JEL= ? @
@A ?
A@E@= ANJAHE H =I ?E=@= =
(K, )
X O AI K = BK ?E R IA HA?KAH@= GKA }
{ (A) = nf
(An ) : A n=1 An ,
{An } K .
#
n=1
& 5KF C= I GKA K ? IJ= @A X, O I ? K J (X ) = () = 0 (E ) = 1 IE E = X E = A I ? K A A A J 5A=
,AI?HE>EH
'
X K AH=> A O K ? (X ) = 1 (E ) = 0 IE E = X
2=H= 5KF J @ C= I GKA JHKEH = A@E@= ANJAHE H , IA K
,AI?H >=IA @E?E
A FH > A = = JAHE H IKF
C=
I GKA

(K, ) ?K
A A
F A =I ? ? F @ A
# 2H >=H GKA
AI FHALE=I GKA FAH
EJA
EK
AI K =
(E ) (E )
@A =@ EJE
F=H=
@A = @AIECK= @=@ HAIK J= AIJHE?J= A@E@= I >HA K

5E
CA>H= O
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AK
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J=
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= @A A@E@= ANJAHE H A>AICKA = @EA JAI ? I
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FKAI DA I KI=@ ? KOA A J = DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E ?AI @A $ GKA O GKA
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q1 F q2 F = q1 r1 = q2 r2 r1 = r2 .
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q1 = q2
O =I ? =IAI I
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2 H JH= F=HJA
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(Kr ) (A) + . 2 r =1
$
-,1,)5 -:6-41 4-5
641+)5
J= GKA
'
)D H= F=H= ?=@=
ANEIJA
{Kr s }sN Kn
Kr s=1 Kr s
s=1
+
(Kr s ) (Kr ) +
1 . 2 2r
A (r,s) Kr s ,
A J ?AI
n (A)
@A @
r s
(Kr s ) n
r =1
(Kr ) +
(A) + , 2
GKA
@A IA @A@K?A = D=?AH
O @AIFK I
0 (A) (A)
= IA??E
@A A AH?E?E I IA AIJ=> A A IECKEA JA HAIK J=@
6A HA = !'
JHE?= O F H J= J
A@E@= ANJAHE H @A
A>AICKA A A@E> A
RN
AI K = =
A@E@= ANJAHE H JHE?=
A>AICKA 5JEA J AI A ,A IJH=?E

I K E JAHL= +
I > HA E= J= >E
I I @A
A>AICKA
A@E@= ANJAHE H @A
A K =
@A =
A@E@= ANJAHE H
A@E@= @A = !& >IAHL=
IE@AH=
I A ?=I
A>AICKA O @ELE@E I GKA
(a, b)
@A
O F=H= =F E?=H A 6A HA CEJK@
x0 = a, . . . , xM = b
xi =
ba M
N =1 6 = I A M F=HJAI
(a, b) = (I1 ) + + (IM ),

?
Ii = (xi1 , xi )
FAH
I1 IM = (a, b) \ {x1 , . . . , xM 1 }.
2=H= HA?K>HEH
(a, b) ?=
>E=
Ii
F H
Ii = (xi1 , xi +
(a, b)
) M
)D H=
Ii
HA?K>HA
(I1 ) + + (IM ) = (a, b) +

5E I @= 5E F H EI ,A A E?E I
>0
nN
>=IJ= J I A DA?D
=H
JH= F=HJA KI= ! AI K =
ba 1 + < O= M M n @A GKA f AI ? JE K= F H =
= A@E@= ANJAHE H @A JHE?=
@AHA?D=
= E@A= IEHLA F=H= @A
IJH=H GKA
A>AICKA 5JEA J AI JHE?=
A@E@= ANJAHE H A>AICKA A A AH?E?E A ?
3KA = A ?=I
A@E@= ANJAHE H @A
n2
RN
AI K =
A@E@= ANJAHE H
IA FH F
L = IA
I - AH?E?E I $ % O &
!
+)2 67
-,1,)5
%
3KA ? =H +
- ?
I ? 5A ? IE@AH= I K
K J JAH =HE @A += J H
K J I K AH=> AI I ? K J @A K A@E@= GKA K = AI = C AI A ?B K ! GKA D= GKA@=@ AH=> A
IJHKOA =D H= K E JAHL=
I = [a, b] 5A @A [ ] [ ] l 2 I = a, a + a + l, b 3 3
@A GKEJ=H =
l = b a,
A@E 2=HJEA @ @A
AI @A?EH @A AIJ E B H I
A1 = I , . . . An+1 = A n
HAIK J=@
JAH?E FAH=?E
I = [0, 1]
A??E
=
=F E?=@= = K = ?
@A E JAHL=
I =?J = IAF=H=@= A JA I >HA ?=@= K @A A I 4AIK J= =I GKA n n =@ F H 2 E JAHL= I @EI K J I @A CEJK@ 1/3 ?K F EA @ GKA
An
An+1 An .
5A @A A A ? K J @A += J H
C = n=1 An . C
AI ?AHH=@ O L=? ,A DA?D = CA AH=?E
n
IE
= @A E JAHL=
n
I AI
n 2 n n 2 n n n An = [an 1 , b1 ] [a2n , b2n ] = k=1 [ak , bk ] = k=1 Ik ,

@ @A
n n Ik = [an k , bk ]
4AIK J= GKA
n n 2 n=1 k=1 {ak , bk } C,

n
FKAI @A B H
I ANJHA = GKA
I @A = CA AH=?E A E JAHL=
IECKEA JA ,A DA?D
n IA ? LEAHJA A n Ik @= KC=H = I @
+1 n an 2k = ak +
ANJHA
I E JAHL=
I @A = CA AH=?E n+1 n+1 I I2k1 O I2k1
+1 n an 2k1 = ak ,
EA JH=I
2 3n+1
+1 n bn 2k1 = ak +
2 H JH =@ A = CA AH=?E
1 , 3n+1
+1 n bn 2k = bk .
@A I
= IK?AIE
2n
ANJHA
an k
AI AN=?J=
A JA
an k =
-IJ ? IA FHKA>= F H E @K??E = IK?AIE AH= ? ? ? KIE I
n xl l=0
3l
xl {0, 2}.
H@A =@= @A J= AI ANJHA >=IA I I IA HA
= IA?KA ?E=
FHAIA J= ? 7 = FHE IA HAFHAIA J=
@A @ CEJ I GKA A AI GKA J @ I
JEA A
= B H
xs {0, 2}
AH I @A
0.x1 . . . xn
>=IA JHAI
[0, 1]
GKA A
0I
2I x=
xk k=0
3k
xk {0, 2}
(1)
% - +
FAHJA A?A = ?
7 6
K J
6-4 )41
,- +) 6 4
A JA IE
!
@A += J H 4A? FH ?=
x C x An
F=H= J @
n 0 x an k
-IJ FHKA>= GKA
1 , 3n
k = k (n).
x = l m an k(n) .
n
2 H JH =@
@A = CA AH=?E ,A =D
n+1 n Ik Ik @ @A k = n+1 I ? HJ= = K
k (n) k = k (n + 1)
@A = = JAHE H A J
+ ?AI
J @
E JAHL=
+1 an k(n+1) =
an k(n) an + 2 . 3n+1
F=HJA F A I =I
n+1 n Ik Ik
k(n)
O
?K= GKEAH= @A = I =D H=
I @ I ?=I I
yn
= = ?EBH=
+1 an k(n+1) n IE =
an k(n) ? n @A ak(n) O 3n .
FHE
AH=I ?EBH=I
y=
5A JEA A
yn
n
n x y = ( x an k(n) ) (y ak(n) ).
4AIK J= ALE@A JA GKA IJ=I @ I JE =I ?= JE@=@AI JEA @A = ?AH
6A HA = "
- ?
K J
@A += J H
xk k=0
C = n=1 An = {x =
2 H ,A JH= F=HJA IJH=?E =
+
3k
xk {0, 2}}.
A@E@= @A
A>AICKA @A
F=H= J @
AI ?AH
C An
n ( )n 2 (C ) (An ) = 0, 3
?K= @ ?
n
K J @A += J H
AI
AH=> A
-IJ
IA IECKA @A
= IECKEA JA
FH FEA@=@
2H F IE?E
,A IJH=?E
"
- ?
A
K J
AI >EOA?JEL
{0, 2}N
5A @A
f:
{0, 2}N (xi )
xi i 3
+)2 67
-,1,)5
*=IJ= FH >=H GKA
AI E OA?JEL= ) J= ABA?J
IKF
0.x1 . . . xn1 xn = 0.y1 . . . yn1 yn . . .

O =@ EJE I GKA = FHE KAC AH= @EI?HAF= ?E= @A ?EBH=I AIJ = EFK = @ A A KC=H
@A
xn < yn
xn = 0 yn = 2
= E@A JE@=@
AC=
I =
0.xn xn+1 0,0 2 = 0,1 < 0,2 0.yn yn+1 . . . ,

GKA F H DEF JAIEI AI F IE> A
>IAHL=?E
= ,A JA HA > + -
AI %
= IA @A@K?A GKA A ?=H@E = @A JEA A A@E@= ?AH
AI
A ?=H@E = @A
?=H@E =
@A J @=I A@E> AI
=I F=HJAI @A JE K
J @ I IKI IK>? K J I I A@E> A A>AICKA C AI 2c GKA AI K ?=H@E = AIJHE?J= A JA
=O H GKA = F JA ?E= @A ? @A ? K J I
-IJ
@E?A GKA D=O K = A
A ?= JE@=@
? 5A FKA@A FH >=H GKA A ?=H@E = @A = D=>AH A J ?AI K?D I ? K J I
CA>H= @A * HA
BR
AI I
c LAH
& ,A>A I
A@E> A A>AICKA GKA
> HA E=
&
-
A@E@=I @A 0=KI@ H
RN
O ?
s>0
IA @A
A =
A@E@= ANJAHE H
s, (A)
@ @A
= nf {
d(En )s : A n=1 En , {En }nN K }, RN

@A @E I AJH A H ECK= GKA
n=1
I ?
K J I @A O IAC
=I
?HA?A
?K= @
0+
s,
I=>A
m s, (A) = sup s, (A), s (A) := l 0+ 0
AI K = 0=KI@ H @A IA ? A @E E?E ?A JH >=HC AJH
A@E@= ANJAHE H @A H@A EI
JHE?= K F ?
A@E@= =I ?E=@= IA IA ? AJH A
= H
= I ECK=
A@E@= @A
s
=
+ ?=
@A ?KE@=@
FHKA>= GKA
En
@A =
IA FKA@A
>E=H F H =>EAHJ I @A @E ?AI @E= ?=
>JEA A =
A@E@= ANJAHE H
= E@A= AI GKA IE
A
A
O H=@E
A J
(B (A, )) @E=
>E=H =>EAHJ K
O B (A, ) @A J= = > = (A) ?K= @ 0+ 5E

GKA
F @A
I E ? KI
F H E JAHL= E JAHL=
=>EAHJ
=>EAHJ @A
-IJ EI
IA
IECKA @A GKA J @ 2 H J= J A
=>EAHJ K = @E
IA FKA@A E JH @K?EH A A IE
s, (A)
= nf {
n=1
(bn an )s : A
(an , bn ), bn an < },
&
@A E ? ?=I
-,1,)5 ,- 0)75, 4..

@ IA A ?=I = ?
!!
s ? s=0
=HHE>= 5A AI ? IJK
>IAHL= GKA EH =
s AI
A@E@= @A
A>AICKA ?K= @ @A EJ H@A E ?AH EJ
s=1 0
A >HA @A A@E@= @A 0=KI@ H K J AI A@E@= @A ? JH=HE J=H A @ A ?=H@E = IE A ?
2H F IE?E
= 5E > 5E ,A
"
<
,A>A
5A= A J A J
E RN
O IKF
C=
I GKA
0s<t
0 0<
s (E ) t (E )
?AI t (E ) ?AI s (E )
= 0 t > s = s : 0 s < t
J=HIA GKA IE 0 (E ) AI EJ E AI EJ O s (E ) = 0 > 0 2 H JH =@ IE s (E ) > 0 A J ?AI E AI E EJ O 0 (E ) = 2H >= I = 2=H= K HA?K>HE EA J {En } @A E ? d(En ) < n IA JEA A
IJH=?E
d(En )t ts
d(En )s
t s s, (E ). t, (E )
>JA A I A HAIK J=@ A ?=I >
s, (E ) = O (1) 1 t s
?K= @
0+ d(En )s
d(En )t
1 (E ) s, (E ), ts t, t (E ) > 0 IA
F=H= J @
>JEA A
@A ?K= @
GKA@= AN? KE@
GKA
0+
t, (E ) =
A J ?AI
) IAH
s (E ) =
2H F IE?E
,A IJH=?E
"!
5E
E RN
s (E ) = 0
I
s>N N
J= GKA
>IAHL=
I GKA ANEIJA
CN
@AFA @EA JA @A
d(Q)N CN L (Q)
F=H= J @ ?K> =>EAHJ 5A JEA A GKA F=H= J @
E RN
N, (E ) N, (E )
FKAIJ
GKA
I ?K> I I
K = ? =IA AIFA?E= @A =>EAHJ I
KAC
N (E ) CN N (E ),
@ GKA @A 2
E = En @ @A ( E ) = 0 F=H= s > N @A n s
A I
AI =
A@E@= ANJAHE H @A I
A>AICKA A JEA A
RN
En
A@E@= ANJAHE H
EJ= O HAIK J=
GKA
s (E )
s (En ) = 0.
6A HA = ""
5A=
E RN
- J
?AI
sH (E ) := nf {s > 0 : s (E ) = 0} = sup{s 0 : s (E ) = } N.
!"
+)2 67
& @A AH
-,1,)5
A IE
>IAHL=?E
@A 0=KI@ H
sH (E ) @A
=
= FH F IE?E
IA @A
E = = @E
E
=
K J AH ?=I ? = I s1 O s2 = I AH I GKA s1 s2 FKAI IE s s I AH I E s s 5E s1 = 0 ( E ) FKA@A IAH J= J 0 A IACK @ ? K J AI L=? O A A ?=I @A JA HA @A EJ A ? ?=I IA
,A
+ =H= E
IJH=?E
A JA -
s1 N
A FHE
@A JA HA
sH
F E?=@ I A
IA @ I ? EJ IJ
K J I D= @A IAH JE IEA @
IACK @ ?
{0}
?
? DAHA JA ? = = H =?E 5E s1 > 0 D= @A IAH s (E ) = F=H= J @ 0 JH=@EH = = @A E?E @A s1 KAC s1 = s2
= FKAI
s2 = 0
JH=HE
s < s1
2H F IE?E
sH (G) = N
JEA A @E A IE
"#
-
G RN AI K N F=HJE?K =H sH (R ) = N
5E @A 0=KI@ H - ? K J )@A JAH =HE
=>EAHJ O ?
L=? IA D=LEIJ
@A
RN
=I F=HJAI @A
HAIK J= GKA N
IKFAHE H =
N C
JEA A @E A IE @A 0=KI H @A
2H F IE?E
@ H
"$
@A += J H
sH (C ) = log 2/ log 3
I F=H= J= L=
IA JEA A GKA
s (C ) = 1
&
.
- AH?E?E I
A@E@=I ANJAHE HAI JHE?=I
JHE? K AIF=?E ?AI
5A= (X, ) x /AA J
AX
,A
IJH=H GKA IE
AI ?AHH=@
(x, A) > 0
5E
5A= (X, ) K AIF=?E JHE? A X x, y X (y, A) FHK >AIA GKA (x, y ) > ! ,A K IJHAIA GKA IE (X, ) AI K AIF=?E F=H= = GKA I =>EAHJ I I ? A@E@= ANJAHE H K = A@E@= ?KO JHE?= @ E E AI = JHE?
(x, A) > > >
@ J=@
@A K =
ANJAHE H AI K = " 5A= @A
K J I
A@E> AI A J
?AI
A@E@=
CA>H=
2=H=
E, F A
IA
(E, F ) = ((E \ F ) (F \ E )) .
2HK >AIA GKA
I=JEIB=?A = @AIECK= @=@ JHE= CK =H A
AI @A?EH
(E, G) (E, F ) + (F, G),

?K= AIGKEAH= GKA IA= #
E, F, G A
JHE? AH ANJAHE H
(X, ) K AIF=?E I (E ) ? A GKA AI K = A@E@=

5A= =
{xn }
K = IK?AIE
2=H= =
@A FK J I JHE?=
xn
GKA FAHJA A?A
EX E 2HK
@A >AIA
/
A@E@= @A
A>AICKA A
RN
FH FEA@=@AI
=I
&
$
-,1,)5 ,- 0)75, 4..

5A= N
!#
K
?
= ? =IA @A
I E JAHL=
I =>EAHJ I
Ia,b = (a1 , b1 ) (aN , bN )
(Ia,b ) =
2=H=
(bi ai ).
i=1
ai R i > 0 ri N
bi = ai + ri i i = 1, . . . , ri .
EA JH=I GKA F=H= I
Iai ,bi ,i = (ai + (i 1)i , ai + i i )

1 JH @K?E I a = (a1 , . . . , aN ), b = (b1 , . . . , bN ) (1 , . . . , N ) {1, . . . , r1 } {1, . . . , rN } @A E
Ia,b, =
2H >=H GKA
N i=1
Iai ,bi ,i .
(Ia,b ) =
% 5A=
(Ia,b, ). i {1, . . . , N } EA JH=I (Ia,b+ ) (Ia,b ) < c

@AFA @A
> 0 a, b RN ai < bi N Ia,b+ = i=1 (ai , bi + ) ,A ? c = O(1) ?K= @ 0+
F=H= ?=@= IJH=H GKA
J=
& -
4AIK J=H
@A
K?D= KJE E@=@ ? I =@ I @A
?AH ?
@A
O @A =I
@EBAHA ?E=I > AJEL
bi ai
Ia,b
I ?
IJH=HA
@A A AH?E?E JHE?=
AI FH >=H GKA ?K= @A E JAHL= 2HK >AIA = J=
K J I @A * HA @A
I GKA = GKA @=@ I K
RN
?
@A
K J I @A
A>AICKA F=H=
A@E@= ANJAHE H E JAHL= ?
A>AICKA AI
>0 mN
Ia,b
=H>EJH=HE I ANEIJA
I =>EAHJ I
I1 , . . . , I M
Ia,b I1 IM ,
?
d(Ii ) < 1/n
F=H= ?=@=
i d(A)
AI A @E
AJH
@A
A
@A IKAHJA GKA
(I1 ) + + (IM ) (Ia,b ) + .
1 @E?=?E 2=H= ?=@= n N BH=??E AIA Ia,b KI= @ DEFAHF = I xi = ai + i i ? I i > 0 FAGKA I ? F=H= GKA d(Ia,b, ) < 1/n F=H= ?=@= 7I=H @AIFK I GKA (Ia,b ) = (Ia,b, ).
' 5KF @A K C=IA GKA E JAHL=
{Ick ,ek }m HA?K>HE k=1 AI K ?AHH=@ I a,b 2=H= r N

HA?K>HE
EA J EA J ?
F H E JAHL= J
I =>EAHJ I
=H>EJH=HE
ai /r
2HK >AIA = ANEIJA ?E= @A K I =>EAHJ I
A I i = bi {Ik ,k }m k=1 @A I a,b F H
E JAHL=
k = (ki ) k = (ki )
ki = ai + i i
ki = ai + i i ,
!$
+)2 67
, i Z i
-,1,)5
Ick ,ek Ik ,k , (Ik ,k ) (Ick ,ek ) + C , r ai + i ci,k

A JAH
@A
C
E K
@AFA @A @A 2=H=
r
NE
1 @E?=?E
k,i
5A= A
i =@ J AIA ki A ai + i ek,i A JAH

?AHH=@ =? J=@
I a,b
EJAHL=
2HK >AIA GKA
(I a,b ) = (I a,b ) = (I a,b ) =
n i=1
(bi ai ).
1 @E?=?E
2=H= K = @AIECK= @=@ KI=H GKA
(I a,b ) (Ia,b+ ) (Ia,b+ )

= @A ? ? KEH
> 0,
(I a,b )
2=H= = @AIECK= @=@ ? F EA @
n i=1
(bi ai ). E1 , . . . , Em
I E JAHL= I
JH=HE= FHK >AIA GKA IE
=>EAHJ I ?K
I a,b m k=1 Ek
A J ?AI F=H= ?K= GKEAH
>0
IA I=JEIB=?A GKA
n i=1
6= AIJE =?E
(bi ai )
m k=1
(Ek ) + .
I
(1)
O = =H>EJH=HEA@=@ @A
Ek
AL= = GKA
(bi ai ) (I a,b ).
i=1
I ABA?J I @A FH >=H KI= I A FH > A = "& ? IJHKE I Ik ,k Ek k = 1, . . . , m ? ik = ai + i i , ik = ai + i i i , i Z i = (bi ai )/r ? r N IK ?EA JA A JA CH= @A ? F=H= GKA Cm/r < ? C = ? IJ= JA @A FH > A = "& 6A A I A J AI (Ia,b, ), (Ia,b ) = (Ia,b, ), (Ik ,k ) = )

K J ?
= {1, . . . , r}k k Zk
Ia,b m k=1 Ik ,k ,
&
-,1,)5 ,- 0)75, 4..

@A @ @A
!%
m k=1 k .
5A ? ? KOA @A =D GKA
(Ia,b ) =
(Ia,b, )
m k=1 k
(Ia,b, ) = RN
m k=1
(Ik ,k )
m k=1
(Ek )+.

5A=
Ia,b
E JAHL=
=>EAHJ
=? J=@
@A
2H >=H GKA
(Ia,b ) = (Ia,b ) = (I a,b ) = (Ia,b ) = F AI A@E> A A>AICKA A RN > 0 ANEIJA K G F =>EAHJ J=

5E 5A=
N i=1
(bi ai ).
GKA F=H= ?=@=
? GKA
(F ) < FH >=H (G) < (F ) +

GKA
!
K J
A@E> A ?
A>AICKA @A F=?J
F=H= ?=@=
>0
+ @A
ANEIJA K LEA A A AI K = >
Rn ? K F J=
EA @ AI A ?
(F ) < FH >=H GKA (F ) < (K ) F

F A AIJ =? J=@ @A A @ A J=HE ? KIE > HA E= A>AICKA A@E@= @A
1 @E?=?E F B@
Gn
" 5E ?
FHK >AIA A J
?AI GKA
Fc F = l m Gn B ?
= @A
FA =H IKF RN 5E
GKA
F A B (F ) = l m (Gn B ) @ @A
= ? = ANEIJA ?E= @A K J @ K ? ? K J K J @A
AI K = IK?AIE
@A =>EAHJ I -NJH EC=IA @A =D FHK >AIA + = ? KIE A@E@= I ?
F AI A@E> A A>AICKA A RN E F GKA ?K F A (E \ F ) = 0

JEA A K K = A ? K J @A * HA = @A EI F=HJE?K =H JEA A " = H
GKA @E AHA A
- - AH?E?E AI ? = ?
= GKA = A A
CA>H= @A @A
K J I 1 @A =
A@E> A
A>AICKA I
F AJ=?E
IA JE@
+=F JK
CA>H= @A
K J I @A * HA
#
2H >=H GKA K = HA?J= @A I CA AH= A JA
RN n 2
JEA A
A@E@= @A
FH >=H GKA K A@E@= ?AH
IK>AIF=?E
@E
A IE
k N 1
A>AICKA ?AH N @A R ?
JEA A
1 @E?=?E
F=H= A % $ 2H >=H GKA A I =
= FH FEA@=@ AI ? I DEFAHF = I ?
IA?KA ?E= @A - AH?E?E H@A =@ I
IE >E
IF =
II
xi = 0
LAH J=
A - AH?E?E
= AIBAH=
B (0, R) JEA
AH GKA
A@E@= ?AH
B (0, R)
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(fn g ) d + g d = lim
IE
fn d.
JACH=> A
f d =
(f g ) d + f
A@E> A HA
JAIA GKA F=H=
E JACH=> A IE O I E =@=
f g E
6A HA = ! & 6A
@A BK ?E
= @A = +
LAHCA ?E= ,
AI E JACH=> AI GKA ? A JA GKA ?
LAHCA A
?=IE J @
FK J
5A= fn K = IK?AIE = K = BK ?E A@E> A A@E> A
= JAH =JEL=
LAHCA A
A@E@= = K = BK ?E F=H= ?=IE J @ ?AI
f
O J= GKA
|fn (x)| g (x)

@ @A
x X,
E JACH=> A
AI K = BK ?E
E JACH=> A - J
AI K = BK ?E
l m
O A F=HJE?K =H
|fn f | d = 0,
f d = l m
fn d.
! ! 1 6-/4) -5 37- ,-2- ,,A

5E
,- 2)4
A@E@= AI
-64 5
I @A E?=@ O LAH '
%%
IJH=?E
- ?=I A
l m fn = f
FK J
A A J
f = l m fn
?=IE J @
?AI
|f | g
AI A J
?AI E JACH=> A
5A JEA A =D H= GKA
0 2g |f fn |,
A ?=IE J @ FK J A = @A .=J K E F E?= A J ?AI GKA
2g d
AI @A?EH
2g d lim lim
|f fn | d,
|f fn | d = 0,
AI @A JA HA = AI @A JA HA =
@A @
@A IA @A@K?A = ?
=I ?
? KIE
5ECKA @A = ?
JE K=?E
= CK =I @A =I E E =@=
F HJ= JAI =F E?=?E
LAHCA ?E= @
!!
4A =F E?=@
1 JACH= AI GKA @AFA @A @A F=H

EJE I = O F=H= I E B H =?E I >HA A JA
AJH I
= A K ? JANJ
Rm
6A HA = ! '
O
5A=
AIF=?E
JHE?
J FE?=
A JA
Y =Q Q
=>EAHJ
f:
K = BK ?E = > GKA C
X Y (x, y )
R f (x, y )
= @A =I IECKEA JAI FH FEA@=@AI
f (, y ) f (x, )
- J ?
A@E> A F=H= J @ JE K= A
1
yY xX
F=H= J @
F=H= ? J
? ANEIJA
g L (X )
J= GKA
|f (x, y )| g (x) F (y ) =
X
(x, y ) X Y
?AI = BK ?E
f (x, y ) d(x)
AI ?
JE K= A
Y
7 = BK ?E ? =I FH FEA@=@AI = O > @A JA HA = IA ? ?A @A +=H=JD @ HO
>IAHL=?E
? BK ?E
! &
6A HA = ! !
5A=
=D H=
=>EAHJ
Rm
f:
K = BK ?E GKA I=JEIB=?A
X Q (x, y )
R f (x, y )
%&
+)2 67
A@E> A F=H= J @ AI
! +
8-4/- +1)
= >
f (, y ) f (x, )
yY xX gj L1 (X )
J= A GKA
F=H= ? J ANEIJA
? 2=H= J @
1jm
f (x, y ) gj (x) yj
F=H= J @ I - J I FK J I ?AI = BK ?E
(x, y ) X Q A I GKA AIJ @A E@= = @AHEL=@= F @A JA HA = = JAHE H AI @A ? =IA C 1 A Q O =@A F f (y ) = (x, y ) d(x). yj y j X Rn
? @A IE@=@
- A
! ' ?
F = AJ=
L1 ()
?HA= K
?=
CH=LEJ=J HE
E JA IE@=@ @A F JA ?E=
V (y ) = G
= BK ?E
(x) dy. |y x |
V C (Rn \ )
O =@A
V (y ) = 0
y Rn \ .
! " - -4+1+1 5
%'
!"
5A=
- AH?E?E I
.K ?E AI E JACH=> AI
f, g
IE@AHA K J
BK ?E
AI
A@E> AI
2HK >AIA GKA + ? I
AI E JACH=> A ?
f E
@
JACH=> A
g d =
@A
f = g f d
=
?=IE J @
FK J
f : (N, ) R
AH @A A A AI =>I
AI
A@E@= GKA =IEC = = ?=@=
IK
IE = IAHEA
A J I 2HK >AIA GKA KJ= A JA ?
n=1 f (n)
LAHCA JA ?
f d =
n=1
f (n).
F A =
A J= @ C=
A A AH?E?E A JA GKA
= JAHE H
AI
A@E@= GKA =IEC = = ?=@= ?
f : (NN , ) R f () = a N K J @A N IK AH @A A A
IE = B=
@A => A
A J I
2HK >AIA =
AI E JACH=> A IE O I I
E E= IK
|a |
AI ?
LAHCA JA )@A
|f | d =
+ IA @A E E I = ?E @A B= GK
n=1
|a |.
F=H= IK?AIE AI B= E
E E= IK
=> A I
E=I @A J H
a 0
IA JE@
FKA@A @=HIA =
N N
" 7 = BK ?E @= A A
a ?
=@= A R IA @E?A AI?= = a = x0 < x1 < xm = b J= AI GKA AI ? IJ= JA A ?=@= E JAHL= (xi1 , xi ) 1 i m ,A K IJHAIA GKA IE f AI E JACH=> A A A E JAHL= (a, b) ANEIJA K = IK?AIE @A BK ?E AI AI?= =@=I m J= AI GKA |f n | d 0 ? n f F=H= ?=IE J @ x (a, b) @A = B H =
(a,b)
AI?=
E JAHL=
(a, b)
O F H J= J
ANEIJA
1 @E?=?E 2H >=H A @A f IE F A ) J= G, G R =>EAHJ }

# 5A=
HAIK J=@
FHE
AH KC=H F=H= A ?=I A@E> A
I IA ?E
KI=H GKA IE
(E ) = nf {(G) : E > 0 > 0 =H>EJH=HE I sup(a,b)\E |f (x) f = n

i=1 ci Ei @ K = J=
E JACH=> A A A@E> A ?
E g (x)| <
ANEIJA $ @A I
(a, b) ,A (E ) <
?
IJH=H GKA F=H= O
g C [a, b] f
AI IE I
J= AI GKA
5A @E?A GKA K = BK ?E
F A =
F A IE
AI E JACH=> A IE (Ei ) < IEA FHA = E JACH= n f d = i=1 ci (Ei ) + A A ?=I HA= IA @E?A GKA K = BK ?E ? F A = A@E> A f AI E JACH=> A IE ANEIJA K = IK?AIE fn @A BK ?E AI IE F AI
Ei
A@E> AI @EI K J I O
ci C 5A @E?A GKA GKA ci = 0 5A @A A
&
+)2 67
GKA AI @A +=K?DO A A@E= AI @A?EH
! +
8-4/- +1)
l mm,n |fn fm | d 0 EA JH=I l m fn (x) = f (x) F=H= ?=IE J @ x X ,A K IJHAIA GKA K = BK ?E ? F A = f = f1 + if2 AI E JACH=> A IE O I IE I f1 O f2 IEA @ f d = f1 d + i f2 d
% 2H FEA@=@AI A A 5A= E A J= AI
GKA
(X, A, 1 ) O (X, A, 2 ) AIF=?E I @A A@E@= = 1 + 2 2H >=H (X, A, ) AI K AIF=?E @A A@E@= GKA K = BK ?E IE F A f AI i JACH=> A F=H= i = 1, 2 IE I IE AI E JACH=> A O f d = f d1 + f d2 .
A JA FH >=H GKA K = BK ?E IE AI A@E> A
.E = I
AI
E JACH=> A
i = 1, 2
IE
E JACH=> A O
f d = f d1 +
f d2 . f d 0
A@E> A F=H= J @ A J ?AI
&
5A=
K = BK ?E
E JACH=> A ,A ?AI @
K IJHAIA GKA IE FK J @ ?
E
IE
A@E> A A J
(X ) < + O f 1 F=H= ?=IE J

' ,A ,A IJH=H GKA IJH=H GKA
f 0 F=H= ?=IE J @ f d (E ) F=H= J E

FK J
E )IE EI
FHK >AIA GKA
K J
f (x) = sen x + cos x sen x f (x) = x 1 AI f (x) = x

KJ= E JACH=> A A
AI E JACH=> A
A>AICKA A
AI E JACH=> A
A>AICKA A
(1, +)

,A + 5A=
IJH=H GKA
E JACH=> A
A>AICKA A
(0, 1)
JE KE@=@ =>I
K = BK ?E
(a, b) f (x) = f
EA JH=I
g d
AI =>I KJ= IE A JA ? JE K= @A
(a,x)
A ! IA JE@ @A A>AICKA 2H >=H GKA
2H >=H GKA I BK ?E A ACEH ?
AI @A L=HE=?E
=? J=@= IE O I
AI ?HA?EA JAI 2H >=H GKA IE JE K=I - I=O=H ?
AI ?
JE K=
f = g1 g2 @ =I g1 , g2 x
g1 , g2
IA FKA@A
1 @E?=?E
"
g1
KJ=
= L=HE=?E A JA ?
@A
D=IJ=
2H >=H GKA IE J=@=
AI =>I
JE K= A J
?AI AI @A L=HE=?E
=?
#
,A
K IJHAIA GKA
@A L=HE=?E
=? J=@= A
f (x) = x sen(1/x) (0, 1)
AI K EB H
A JA ?
JE K= FAH
! " - -4+1+1 5
&
$
6A HA
= @A = ? IE
LAHCA ?E= @
E =@= =F E?=?E
AI
5A= fn (x) = n l m f = 0 F=H= -IJ @
?=IE J @
0 x 1/n fn (x) = 0 IE 1/n x 1 2H >=H GKA x [0, 1] EA JH=I [0,1] fn d = 1 F=H= ?=@= n
@E?E A J= = @A =? J=?E @A JA HA = @A = ? LAHCA ?E=
FHKA>= GKA = ? E =@= AI BK @= IE@AHA I A
%
1 fn (k ) = n 0
K EB H A = @A = ?
A@E@= @A
AH
@A A A
A J I ?
1kn k > n.
A JA EA JH=I
,A ? & -
K IJHAIA GKA JH=IJ=H ? A AIF=?E
fn 0
l m fn d = f d
I
A JA HA @A
LAHCA ?E= @ = JAHE H J
E =@= =
A@E@= @A A AH?E?E
1 fn (k ) = k 0
GKA
1kn k > n, fn
? LAHCA K EB H A A JA =
JH=I GKA ' 5KF
f (k ) = 1/k k N 2H >=H f AI E JACH=> A

C= I GKA
f
AI
EA
@E> AI A E JACH=> AI A 2H >=H GKA 5A=
AI
(X ) < + EA JH=I fn K = IK?AIE X GKA ? LAHCA K EB H A A JA E JACH=> A O l m fn d = f d

AI A@E> AI 2H >=H GKA
@A BK ?E
= K = BK ?E
f, g BK f 2 + g2
?E
f, g
E JACH=> AI IE = BK ?E
AI 2H >=H GKA
fg
AI E JACH=> A IE
f 2 , g2
AI
I A@E> AI
5A= A
(X ) < +
A@E@= IE O I
2H >=H GKA K = IK?AIE
@A BK ?E
fn 0
IE
|fn | 1 + |fn |
} d 0
EJ= 2=H=
n .
IA @A A
5A=
AIF=?E
@A
A@E=@
, g d(f ) =
,A ! 5A= IJH=H GKA
, g f L1 (X ) } |f g | d. 1 + |f g |
AIJ= JHE?=
L1 (X )
AI ?
f 0
A@E> A A
R? g ( t) =
F AJ
(0,)
f (x) dx <
2H >=H GKA
(0,)
AI @EBAHA ?E=> A O GKA
etx f (x) dx (0 < t < ),

(0,)
g (t) =
xetx f (x) dx.
&
+)2 67
" 5A=
! +
8-4/- +1)
fn
K = IK?AIE
@A BK ?E
AI E JACH=> AI ,A
K IJHAIA GKA IE
n=1
A J ?AI = IAHEA
|fn | d <
?=IE J @ FK J = K = BK ?E
n=1
fn
LAHCA A
E JACH=> A
f d =
# 5A=
n=1
fn d.
AC=JEL=I @A = GKA IA
fn
K = IK?AIE
I=>A GKA = IAHEA
@A
BK ?E
AI E JACH=> AI
fn
AI K = BK ?E
E JACH=> A 2HK >AIA GKA
fn d < . 0 fn (x) f (x) F=H= fn d lim fn d.

?=IE J @ ?=IE J @
5A= - J
fn f
?AI
BK ?E
AI E JACH=> AI J= AI GKA
xX
lim fn d lim
fn d lim
A GKA
-NJE % 5A= GKA
@=IA A HAIK J=@
= ?=I
|fn (x)| f (x) F=H=
xX
K IJHAIA
X=
n=1 En
En En+1 F=H= ?=@= n O f 0 f d = l m f d.

En
I ?=I I A L= H @A = E JACH= A
A@E> A ,A
JAIA GKA A F @H = IAH & 5A=
= CK
A FHE
AH
EA
>H
A@E> A O
f 0
{ fn (x) =
f (x) n
f (x) n f (x) > n.

JACH= @A FHE AH EA >H F @H =
2HK >AIA GKA IAH ' 5A= >E !
f d = l m
I ?=I I BK ?E
fn d = E
= CK
f1 , . . . , f k
E JACH=> A A A F
AI E JACH=> AI 2H >=H GKA
m ax{f1 , . . . , fk } AI J=
= @AIECK= @=@
, IA K AIJHE?J=
@A IA I=JEIB=C= A
= @A .=J K ?
!
5A=
K = BK ?E
HA= @A
E@= A
AIF=?E
@A
A@E@=
EJ= ,AB
=IA
sn =
k=
k k+1 k [ {x : n < f (x) }] 2n 2 2n
(n = 1, 2, . . . ).
! " - -4+1+1 5
5E
&!
AI E JACH=> A ?=@= IAHEA AI ?
LAHCA JA O
f d = l m sn .
n
4A? FH ?= J ?AI A JA IE F=H= = C
(1)
LAHCA =>I KJ= A JA A
= IAHEA
sn
AI E JACH=> A O IA LAHE ?= 5E
1 @E?=?E
LAHCA ?E=
f
J
= = = IK?AIE
AC=JEL= A E JACH=> A =F GKAIA A JA HA fn (x) = k/2n IE
= @A = ?
k k+1 f (x) < n 2 2n

5E
(k = 0, 1, . . . ). sn
AI ? LAHCA JA IAIA A J ?AI
f 0OK
JA @A
= @AIECK= @=@ ! ,A @ K
= @A =I IAHEAI F H A A F f (x) fn (x) + 1/2n >HALA
I F H AI
AGKEL= A ?E=
L (X, A, ) I f = {g : X R :
A@E> A O AIA ?E= JHE? ? F AJ ?
L (X ) L A@E> A, g = f F=H= ?=IE

A JA
=I ? =IAI @A J @
A JA =? J=@= ,A = @EIJ= ?E= AIA xX
K IJHAIA GKA
x X} L (X ) AI
AIF=?E
, g d(f ) = d(f, g ) = IKF
|f (x) g (x)|.
&"
+)2 67
! +
8-4/- +1)
+=F JK
"
@A 4EA =
= E JACH=
"
CH=?E =JA = ? JE?
= E JACH= @A 4EA =
= AI = KO HA? @A 4EA = O 4EA 5JEA J AI @A -@EJ HE= 4ALAHJ b f ( x ) dx @AIEC = @ a
A R
AH @A ?=F JK )F IJ @A E JA ) EIEI E>H @A 6 J=HA I = E JACH= @A 4EA A>AICKA
2=H= A IECKEA JA JA
A @=> A @EIF GKA IECKA @A
@A [a, b] EJ= @A FK J I {x0 . . . , xn } J= AI a = x 0 < x1 < < xn = b = =HA I P = ? K J @A J @=I =I F=HJE?E AI = H = | | @A K = F=JE?E @A J= | | = m ax(xi xi1 ) 5E f : [a, b] R AI K = BK ?E =? J=@= O P HAFHAIA J= I F H s , S O = =I ?= JE@=@AI
7 = F=HJE?E GKA
[a,b] AI K = IK?AIE
f (x) dx
= E JACH= @A
s =
@ @A
n i=1
mi xi
S =
n i=1
mi xi ,
EA JH=I
mi = nf Ii f Mi = supIi f Ii = [xi1 , xi ] xi = xi xi1 =

n i=1
f (i )xi
= = IK =I E BAHE H O IKFAHE H @A = =I ?E=@= =
@ 4EA
@A =
i Ii
5A=
AH I
=I ?E=@=I =
f
EA JH=I
s S IA AI K
= IK
= @A 4EA
2H FEA@=@ "
= > ?
K = BK ?E
=? J=@= A
[a, b] , P
- J
?AI
s S
E F E?=
s s S S
=? J=@ I F H
|s |, | |, |S |
AIJ
M (b a)
@ ,=@= K = F=JE?E
0 P
A J
?AI
sup s =
P , 0
&#
sup
s ,
&$
+)2 67
"
) 1 6-/4) ,- 41- )
O
P
nf S =
P , 0
nf
S . P
= A
,A
[a, b]
E?E
"
5A @E?A GKA AH
IE ANEIJA K
f sR
K = BK ?E
=? J=@= AI E JACH=> A 4EA
J= GKA F=H= ?=@=
>0
ANEIJA
J= GKA
| s|
F=H= J @= AH
e IA A @A
@A AI ?K= GKEAH IK = @A 4EA = =I ?E=@= = E = = E JACH= @A f A [a, b] O IA HAFHAIA J= ?
s=
a
f (x) dx.
=? J=@= A
,A
E?E
"!
5E =
AI K = BK ?E
[a, b]
IA @A
= E JACH=
E BAHE H @A 4EA
@A
s = sup s ,
P
EA JH=I = E JACH= IKFAHE H IA @A
A ?
s = nf s ,
P
>IAHL=?E
"
AH I
s s IEA
FHA ANEIJA
O ?K
F A
m(b a) s s M (b a),
@ @A
m = nf [a,b] f M = sup[a,b] f
5A=
6A HA = " "
I = >
K = BK ?E
=? J=@= A
[a, b] s
=I IECKEA JAI = H
=?E
AI
AGKEL= A JAI
AI E JACH=> A 4EA
[a, b]
E JACH=
=I E JACH= AI E BAHE H O IKFAHE H ? E ?E@A
s=s
? 2=H= J @
>0
ANEIJA
J= GKA
0 S s
F=H= J @= >IAHL=?E
A ?=I

AI "
> A L= H
@A = E JACH= @A 4EA =? J=@=
AI
s=s=s s=s
= E JACH=>E E@=@ A
5A @E?A GKA K = BK ?E JA HA IA JE@ ! = = H @A 4EA =
[a, b]
AI E JACH=> A ,=H> KN IE
= GKA = E JACH=>E E@=@ ,=H> KN ? E ?E@A ?
= EJAH=JKH= IA ?
?A = ? ?
A ?HEJAHE
@A E JACH=>E E@=@ @A 4EA
"
) 1 6-/4) ,- 41- )
= @A E?E GKA DA I @=@ F
R
= IA ANFHAI= A A
&%
@A E JACH= @A 4EA &
A CK=
A @A =I HA@AI LAH F H A A
= GKA IECKA AI K = L=HE= JA AGKEL= A JA
6A HA = " #
O I IE ANEIJA IA JEA A GKA
5A= f sR
K = BK ?E
=? J=@= A
J= GKA F=H= J @= IK?AIE
[a, b] f AI E JACH=> A 4EA = IE n A P ?K F EA @ |n | 0

"
l m n = s,
A ,A @ @A F=H= ?=@= IJH=?E
= ?
n n
@E?E
@AIEC = ?K= GKEAH IK

" E F E?= GKA
= @A 4EA
=I ?E=@= =
l m sn = l m Sn = s,
F=H= J @= IK?AIE
?K
F EA @
| n | 0
5E
s sn0 Sn0 s + ,
F=H= = C
n0
AIJ
? =H
GKA
s s S s + ,
F=H= J @= 5KF 0A
n0
IA=
2 H J= J
s=s = s
AI E JACH=> A 4EA = = O FH >A AI ?K @=@
= I GKA IA ?K F EA @ F A
C=
I =D H= GKA
AI E JACH=> A 4EA
" 2 H J= J
?K= GKEAH IK?AIE
@A F=HJE?E
|n | 0
I @A FH >=H " +
AI E JACH=> A 4EA
IA JA @H
s s +
F=H= ?K= GKEAH 6 A I JEA A GKA A
F=H= ?EAHJ= = {y0 , . . . , yN +1 } l = m n yj 2=H= ?K= GKEAH n = {x0 , . . . , xM +1 } ? |n | < l IA A CHKF @A E JAHL= I I1 , . . . , IN +1 D=O AN=?J= A JA N @A J=@ I
F A
J1 , . . . , JN
2 H J= J
GKA ?K
yk Jk .
f ( t i )xi +
n =
@ @A = FHE 2 H ? AH= IK
+ f (tj )(Jj ) + f (tj )(Jj ),

I E JAHL= I
= AIJ
ANJA @E@= = @ @A O=?A
Ii
GKA
? HJ=
+ Jj
HAFHAIA J= = F=HJA @A IECKEA JA
Jj
tj
n = n +
) AIJ=H
(f (tj ) f (yj ))(Jj ).

HAIK J= GKA
=? J=@= O IAH
|n | 0
n = n + n ,
?
n 0
2 H J= J
l m n = s.
&&
+)2 67
" !
"
) 1 6-/4) ,- 41- )
>IAHL=?E
) CK =I LA?AI " IA ANFHAI= AI?HE>EA @
| |0
l m = s.
@A K = BK ?E =? J=@=
,A
?
E?E
"$
I?E =?E
[a, b]
IA @A
= M m = sup f nf f.
[a,b] [a,b]
2H F IE?E
HAFHAIA J=H ?
"%
=
I?E =?E
@A K = BK ?E
=? J=@=
[a, b]
IA FKA@A
y,z [a,b]
sup f (y ) f (z ) =
y,z [a,b]
sup |f (y ) f (z )|.
EA JH=I H J= J
,A
IJH=?E
5A JEA A GKA AI
F=H= IK?AIE
yn zn
f (y ) f (z ) M m A E JAHL= [a, b] 2
f (yn ) M f (zn )
M m = l m(f (yn ) f (zn ))

2 H JH =@
y,z [a,b]
sup f (y ) f (z ).
|f (y ) f (z )| M m,
EA JH=I M
m 0 =
y,z [a,b]
M m = l m |f (yn ) f (zn )|
sup |f (y ) f (z )|.
,A
x [a, b]
E?E
"&
IA @A
= A ?
I?E =?E
f (x)
@A K = BK ?E
=? J=@=
FK J
f (x) = l m f,I (x) = nf f,I (x) ,

0+ 0+
@A
I (x) = [x , x + ] O f,I (x)

" " AI @EB ?E ?
@AIEC = =
I?E =?E
@A
f
K
A E JAHL=
I (x)
>IAHL=?E
I IE FH >=H GKA
AI ?
JE K= A
FK J
IE O
f (x) = 0
IA?KA ?E= E A@E=@J= @A ?HEJAHE @A 4EA =
= FH FEA@=@ GKA IECKA AI ?
2H F IE?E
IE O I
"'
5A=
IE F=H= ?=@=
f K >0
= BK ?E
=? J=@= A
ANEIJA K = F=HJE?E
n k=1
[a, b] f AI E JACH=> A P J= GKA
4EA
k xk ,
@A
@A
F=HJE?E
k = Mk mk
AI
I?E =?E
E JAHL=
[xk1 , xk ]
@A
"
) 1 6-/4) ,- 41- )
- GKA IECKA AI K JA HA
R
#
&'
= @A 8EJ= E @A '! ?B
6A HA = "
FK J I @
5A=
K = BK ?E
=? J=@= A ?AI
[a, b]
O IA=
A ? =
K J
@A
I IE
@A
AI ?
JE K= - J
f
I
AI E JACH=> A 4EA
IE O I
JEA A
A@E@= @A
A>AICKA ?AH
A?AIE@=@ AI?HE>E
,A
IJH=?E
2=H= =
D = m=1 Em 1 }. m
@A
Em
AI
Em = {x [a, b] : f (x) >

,=@
>0
ANEIJA
J= GKA
k xk .
I E JAHE HAI @A I E JAHL= I @A =
,A
JA
Ik = (xk1 , xk ) 1 k n
J= I GKA
F=HJE?E
(Em ) = (Em (I1 In )).

5E
Ii 1 , . . . , I i s
I E JAHL=
I GKA ? HJ=
Em
HAIK J= GKA
1 1 (Em ) ((Ii1 ) + + (Iis )) k xk . m m

KAC
(Em ) = 0
@ @A I
JEA A
A@E@= ?AH
2H >=
I =D H=
= E JACH=>E E@=@ @A E JAHL=
?K= @
In
(D) = 0
ABA?J
In
I =>EAHJ I J= AI GKA
x @A ? @A f
(In ) < A.
F A EJ
In A [a, b]
2 H
JH @ =@
=@
?=@= FK J I?E =?E
JE KE@=@ @A ?K ?
@A = I
f AI ?A B +
JH
@A K = B= =
E JAHL= E E=
{In , In } ?K>HA
@A
=>EAHJ
E JAHL=
EJA K In 2 H J= J
IK>HA?K>HE
EA J
A GKA B H
I K = F=HJE?E
k xk =
@AIEC =
k F 1
I
k xk +
kF2
k xk A(M m) + B (b a),
I E JAHL= I @A = F=HJE?E I ? JA E@ I A I HAIJ= JAI
@ = C
@A
F1
@E?AI @A =GKA AH= B=
E JAHL= I 6
In
@A = FHE
E E=
F2
@AIEC =
@E?AI @A
E JAHL=
= @
A=
? IACKE I
1 2(M m)
k
B=
1 , 2(b a)
k xk .
2 H J= J
AI E JACH=> A A
[a, b]
'
+)2 67
"
) 1 6-/4) ,- 41- )
@A FHAIA JA ?=F JK A = =IEC
KIJE ?= = E ? KIE
=JKH=
6A HA = "
CH=> A 4EA =
5A= A J
K = BK ?E
=? J=@= A
A E JAHL=
[a, b]
5E
AI E JA
?AI
AI E JACH=> A
b
A>AICKA O =I E JACH= AI ? E ?E@A
f (x) dx =
a [a,b]
f d, R GR
=>EAHJ
A ,A
@A
HAFHAIA J= =
FHE
A@E@= @A
A>AICKA A
IJH=?E
AH KC=H
AI
A@E> A 2=H=
f 1 (G) = D f 1 (G) + C f 1 (G),

@ @A
C
?
C = [a, b] \ D
- ?
K J
AI
A@E> A O ?
C f 1 (G)
AI =>EAHJ
C f 1 (G) = G1 C , G1
)IE K EI =>EAHJ @A
)I
C f 1 (G)
J=
>E
AI
A@E> A O
AI E JACH=> A
A>AICKA F H IAH =? J=@= ,=@
s s =
(a,b)
@ @A I
(mk Ik ) d
k
AI
A@E> A
f d
(a,b)
Ik
HAFHAIA J=
I E JAHL=
I =>EAHJ I @A = F=HJE?E
F=H= = GKA
k xk ,
2 H J= J
AI = E JACH= @A 4EA
@A
a
O = JH= @AIECK= @=@ IA @A " #
f (x) dx
(a,b)
f d,
KAIJH= ECK= @A 4EA IA JE@ = ? = @EBAHA ?E= @A = @A D=IJ= A A>AICKA AI >E=
>IAHL=?E
K = E JACH= @A IEC
= E JACH= IA E JACH= A
HEA J=@= A
A IA JE@
GKA IA
E JACH= @AI@A JH=HE
O ?=
?K= @
-I @A?EH IA @A
a
?K= @
f (x) dx =
b
f (x) dx
A>AICKA AI K = E JACH= HEA J=@=
b<a
5E F A
>=HC
= E JACH= @A A E JAHL= ?E@ I ?
5A E JACH= IE ) CK
A JA A
[a, b]
A GKA IECKA IA @A A>AICKA KAIJH= KO B ?E
I HAIK J=@ I ? @A =H?
A JA @A JH
@A = E JACH= @A
6A HA = "
B H A A JA A
5A=
[a, b]
fn K = IK?AIE = K = BK ?E f
a b
@A BK ?E - J ?AI
b
AI =? J=@=I GKA ?
LAHCA K E = O
AI E JACH=> A 4EA
f (x) dx = l m
a
fn (x) dx.
"
- 6- 4- ) ,- 2-)
'
"
8= @A JA HA
- JA HA = @A 2A=
I = KI=H =I E@A=I @A ?=F JK = @A 2A= L =IA % = JAHE H F=H= FH >=H = IECKEA JA LAHIE
6A HA = " !
5A=
f:
? JE K= O =? J=@= AI @A?EH
[a, b] R (t, y )
R f (t, y )
|f (t, y )| M
C= I =@A I GKA
F=H= J @
(t, y ) [a, b] R
5KF
AI ?HA?EA JA A
= L=HE=> A
AI @A?EH
y1 y2 y0 R
A FH > A
f (t, y1 ) f (t, y2 ).
=
- J
?AI F=H= J @
y = f (t, y ) y (a) = y0
F IAA = ,A
I K = I
6
K?E
[a, b]
O @A EA @
IJH=?E
= @
y = y0 M (t a) y = y 0 + M ( t a) T : C [a, b] C [a, b]
T [y ](t) = y0 +
a
f (s, y (s)) ds,
IA JEA A GKA
y T [ y ] T [ y] y .
. H = I =I IK?AIE AI
y n+1 = T [ yn ]
?
y n+1 = T [ y n ], y n
AI ?HA?EA JA
y 1 = y y 1 = y O
>IAHL=
I GKA
y n
AI @A?HA?EA JA O GKA
y n y n .
7I= @ A JA HA = @A =I ? LAHCA ?E= J = IA ? ? KOA GKA IE
y = l m y n ,
A J ?AI
y+ = l m y n ,
A FHE AH KC=H A>AICKA E JACH=> AI ?
f (t, y (t))
f (t, y+ (t))
y (t) = y0 +
(a,t)
+ =I
f (s, y (s)) ds.

A JA HA = BK @= A J= @A ? ?K E F E?=
y C 1
2 H J= J
E JACH=> A 4EA
EA JH=I
y = T [y ].
HAIKA LA A FH > A = @A L= H E E?E= FH FKAIJ
'
+)2 67
>IAHL=?E AI " $
= "
"
) 1 6-/4) ,- 41- )
= 2KA@A @=HIA K = FHKA>= @A 6A HA @A 4EA > =I = )HCK I A J= I ?
E?=
A JA I IJA E@= A
= E JACH=
IECKA IJ= JA ?
y n y n
EFI?DEJ E= =I @A ?
F H J= J
|y (t) y (s)| M |t s|,

O =I ? + GKA =I ?
I =I
J=
>E I
EFI?DEJ E= =I IK?AIE AI J =I = ? JE KE@=@ @A IKI HAIFA?JEL I I = ? JE K=?E I AL= =
y n y n
JA HA
EJAI O K
= @A ,E E " GKA A K ?E=
LAHCA ?E=I
y n y+
I K EB H AI = EJA A =I HA =?E AI
y n y ,
@ 2=I= @
y n+1 (t) = y0 +
a
? ? KE I
f (s, y n (s)) ds, y n+1 (t) = y0 +

a
f (s, y n (s)) ds,
y = T [y ].
6A HA = " "
J
5A=
AIF=?E
F=?J
fn : X R
K = IK?AIE
= @A BK ?E
AI ?
JE K=I J= GKA
fn (x) f (x),
F=H= ?=@= A ,A
xX
@A
f :XR
I GKA
AI J= A
>E
K = BK ?E
JE K= - J
?AI
EJA FHA?A@A JA AI =@A IJH=?E

5KF C=
I K EB H
fn
AI ?HA?EA JA ,=@
>0
= B=
E E=
Gn = {x : |f (x) fn (x)| < },

? IJEJKOA K HA?K>HE EA J =>EAHJ @A
J= GKA
Gn Gn+1
F=H= J @
nN
2 H J= J
ANEIJA
J= GKA
Gn = Gn = X,
F=H=
n n
-IJ
F E?= = ?
LAHCA ?E= K EB H
"!
[aN , bN ]
1 JACH= @A 4EA =
I HAIK J=@ I I >HA E JACH=?E @A 4EA = = BK ?E E JAHL= AI =? J=@=I ?AHH=@ AI K
@E A IE
F=H= BK ?E @A
=
AI @A K = L=HE=> A
IA ANJEA @A
f : [a, b] R @ N @A R =I F=HJE?E
[a, b] = [a1 , b1 ] AI @A [a, b] IA @A A
" ! 1 6-/4) ,- 41- )
,1 - 51
)
AI @A IE I E JAHL= AI I
'!
? I FH @K?J I 1 N @A F=HJE?E i i i i i = {xi 0 , x1 , . . . , xni } x0 = ai , xni = bi O A s
[ai , bi ]
5E
E JAHL=
i i Is = [xi s1 , xs ]
A J ?AI [a, b] IA @AI? F A A K J J= @A n1 nN (1 , . . . , N ) {1, . . . , n1 } {1, . . . , nN } E JAHL= I
I =
1 N I . I = I 1 N
=I IK =I E BAHE H IKFAHE H O @A 4EA = IA @A A ? A K = L=HE=> A
s =
m (I )
S =
O =
M (I )
f (t )(I ),
m = nf I f M = supI f
=I ?=H=?JAHE =?E K = BK ?E @=@AI JEA A )IE EI FAHE HAI A E BAHE HAI O @A 4EA
t j I
= A J H K J E I @A IK =I IK JE KE AI E@ JE?= = = @A ?=I IE A ? AI?= =H F=HJE?K =H
@A = E JACH=>E E@=@ 4EA
AI E JACH=> A A A@E@= @A =I BK ?E AI 4EA
[a, b]
=
IE O I
@A IKI @EI?
A>AICKA ?AH E JACH=> AI I E JACH=> A ? A>AICKA O IKI K J =? J=@
E JACH= AI ? E ?E@A 7 = ?KAIJE I @A E?=@= AI E JACH=H BK ?E K J I B H $ = AI I >HA K
A RN
6= AI ?
K = ? =IA HAIJHE CE@= A
RN
AI A@E> A A = IA JE@ AIA ?=I
,A
@A A ?
E?E
H@=
IE = BK ?E
@A
" #
7 A ?
K J
=? J=@
@A
RN
?=H=?JAH IJE?=
AI E JACH=> A 4EA
JA E@
IA @A
c(A) =
I
A dx, IA
@A
AI ?K= GKEAH E JAHL= AI " %

E?E = JAHE H AIA ?=I IE
?AHH=@
>IAHL=?E
= = @A I
@AFA @A @A A@E@= @A
ABA?J
A@E>E E@=@ LAH K
H@= F ?
@A I
@AFA @A @A GKA =
A>AICKA @A
IA= ?AH
=@A = JA -
AI I A dx = A d =
I I
A@E@= @A H@= AI =
A d =
I
A d =
I
I I
A dx,
@A
d
AI
$ @A
A>AICKA
> 5E
A@E> A
IA E JH @K?A I AIF=?E I
AI
A@E> A
@A 4EA =
A>AICKA O
O A ? JA
c(A) = (A)
E@ @A H@= A A =H? I
CA AH=
= E JACH= JHE? I
'"
+)2 67
"
) 1 6-/4) ,- 41- )
? 5E F=H= K = F=HJE?E
@A
Ji ( ) =
=I ?= JE@=@AI
I A
(I )
Je ( ) =
I A=
(I ),
ci (A) = sup Ji ( )
IA = = ? JA E@ @A =I IK
ce (A) = nf Je ( ),
A JA @A 5A
E JAHE H O ANJAHE H HAIFA?JEL= =I E BAHE HAI @A 4EA ? LEA A = @A
K J
AI
A@E> A A IKFHA ?K= @ ANJHA @ 5A ? ?E A
H@=
IE IKI ?
JA E@ I E JAHE H O ANJAHE H ? E ?E@A
,A DA?D
A=
?
>IAHL= GKA FK J
ci (A) AI ci (A) = 0
?=I
) AIJA HAIFA?J
>IAHL=H GKA K
FKA@A A
IE@AH=HIA A FH @K?J
@A E JAHL=
I ?AHH=@ I @ACA AH=@ I 2 H J= J ? =I @A E
FHKA>= GKA JA E@ 2=H= ?
ci (A) = ci (A)
O GKA
ce (A) = ce (A)
H@= ? E ?E@A >LE
AI @A ?
ANJAHE H A E JAHE H @A
FH >=H = FHE ?AI
AH= E@A JE@=@ HAIK J= JH=HE= IA FHKA>= ?
=I E JH @K?E@=I GKA ci (A) ci (A)
EA JH=I GKA = @AIECK= @=@ ? =H>EJH=HE= - J
IECKA 5A=
K = F=HJE?E
Ji (, A) =
@ @A
I A
(I ) = l m
I
I A
0+
(I, )
+ IJHKE I I = F=HJE?E IJ I JE I I I
I,
IA B H
= ? @A
I E JAHL=
i [ai j 1 + , aj ]
I @A A JA >EA ?
AIJ
IKFAHF IE?E E JACH=@ I A I +
I ANJHA
I E JAHL=
I,
FAGKA
>EA @EHA?J= I, A HAIK J=
K E
@A E JAHL=
I A
-IJ
(I, ) Ji ( , A) ci (A).
FHKA>= = @AIECK= @=@ @AIA=@=
2H F IE?E
E EE
" $
H@= @A @
5A=
A RN
K J
=? J=@
AGKEL= A JAI
AI
A@E> A
(A) = 0
AI =
A@E@= @A AH
A>AICKA EJ
@E
A IE
EEE 2=H= ?=@=
>0
ANEIJA K
@A E JAHL=
I =>EAHJ I
I1 , . . . , In
A n i=1 Ii ,
O
n i=1
(Ii ) < .
EL
c(A) = 0
" ! 1 6-/4) ,- 41- )

,A
EE K
,1 - 51
)
@ @A
'#
IJH=?E
E
EE F HGKA
AI A ?
K J
AI @EI?
JE K= K J
EEE F HGKA = IAH I
=? J=@ EE
AI ?
F=?J
O IK ?=H ?JAH @A ? AI ALE@A JA
AL= = EEE ,A DA?D
EEE FKAI A HA? FH ?
2=H= EEE
EL
J=
I GKA
ce (A)
A @
ce (n i=1 Ii )
GKA
ce (n i=1 Ii )
(n i=1 Ii )
n i=1
(Ii ) < ,
A@E@= ?AH KAC
@A IA D= KI=@
n (n i=1 (Ii )) i=1 ((Ii )) JEA

>E AI E A@E=J
c(A) = 0
- ?
- HA? HF ?
J=
JA E@
@A
H@=
AI A JHA
JH=I FH FEA@=@AI
EJ=
A JA =@EJEL
2H F IE?E
- J ?AI
" %
5A=
A, B
K J I
A@E> A
H@=
J= AI GKA
A B=
c(A B ) = c(A) + c(B ).

,A
H@=
IJH=?E
-I E
A@E=J
GKA = K E
@A ?
K J I
A@E> A
H@=
AI
A@E> A
) AI?HE>EH E JACH= AI @A
A>AICKA
AB =
FKAI = 4EA
+
A
@A =I
=
B
?
A +
K J @A
B ,
A@E@= ? K = >I HLAIA
A B =A B N
A JA GKA = = FHE
AI K
AH= O
JE
=I E JACH= AI ? E ?E@A
E JACH= AI @A
,A
E?E
f
" &
=
5E A
AI K
@E?A GKA
AI E JACH=> A 4EA =C
E JACH=> A 4EA
RN f : A R =? J=@= = ANJA IE F H 0 @A f = RN = I >HA A IE f E JAHL= ? F=?J I A - AIA ?=I @A E dx. f dx = f

? K J =? J=@ @A
A I
IA AI I
>IAHL=?E
= >
AI " &
E = E JACH=>E E@=@ @A I ? ) J K J I F =H
E A L=
H @A IK E JACH= @AFA @A
@A E JAHL= @A>AH =
?= @E@=J I = IAH HA?E J I @A E JACH=?E AI =? J=@=I O ? I GKA
IAH J= AI
GKA F H A A
=I BK ?E ? ? KE
JE K=I A
A@E> A
BKAIA
E JACH=> AI A
f =1
@A>A IAH
H@=
5A JEA A = IECKEA JA FH F IE?E
2H F IE?E
J @A ?AI
" '
5A=
A
=
A@E> A A
H@= IE O I
K = BK ?E K J
=? J=@= A @A @EI?
AI E JACH=> A 4EA A@E@= ?AH
IE A ?
JE KE@=@AI
JEA A
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IJH=?E
K J 6A A 5A JH=J= @A A@EH =I @EI?
"
) 1 6-/4) ,- 41- )
,A
A ? A
JE KE@=@AI @A
A I f
@A =I @EI? JE KE@=@AI @A c I D (A) = )I
A I D f
A @A =I @EI?
JE KE@=@AI
D @A f
D = D A + D A = D A + D A
4AIK J= GKA
(D ) = (D A ) = (D A ) = (D).
""
,A
- AH?E?E I
K IJHAIA GKA J @= BK E = A A J = O =? J=@=
E JAHL=
[a, b]
AI E JACH=> A 4EA +
IJH O=IA K = IK?AIE
J= AI GKA FK JK= ! 5A=
{fn } @A BK ?E AI E JACH=> A 4EA = 0 fn (x) 1 F=H= ?=@= x [0, 1] @A B H = GKA ANEIJ= fn (x) f (x) FAH GKA f (x) IA= E JACH=> A 4EA = fn
BK ?E AI =? J=@=I A E JACH=> AI 4EA F=H= J = A
[0, 1]
EJA
A E JAHL=
[0, 1]
F=H=
@A IKAHJA GKA ?=IE J @ FK
|fn (x)| K J x [0, 1] A

n
x [0, 1]
2HK >AIA GKA IE
fn f
?AI
l m
fn (x) dx =
0 0
f (x) dx. [a, )

t
"
5A= E
FH FE=
K = BK ?E =? J=@= A A E JAHL= f ( x ) dx IA @A A ? a
= E JACH= @A 4EA
a
IKFKAIJ E GKA A
f (x) dx = l m
EJA ANEIJA IE 7 = J= =
f (x) dx,
a
BK ?E
IA @E?A =>I
KJ=
A JA
E JACH=> A A FH FE
[a, ) f
|f |
AI 4EA
E JACH=> A A
[a, )
A
IA JE@
= 2HK >AIA GKA IE > 2HK >AIA GKA
AI =>I
KJ=
A JA E JACH=> A J=
>E
AI E JACH=> A
sen x dx x sen x/x

AI =>I KJ= A JA E JACH=> A
ANEIJA A A
IA JE@
FH FE
FAH
GKA
[a, )
" " - -4+1+1 5

? ,A IJH=H GKA IE IE
'%
AI =>I
KJ=
A JA E JACH=> A A J
?AI
f L1 (a, )
O =I E JACH= AI ? E ?E@A
f (x) dx = f (x) dx.

(a,)
E FH FE IE
a
# 5A @E?A GKA J @
AI E JACH=> A A EJA
IA JE@
f R[n, n] F=H=
O ANEIJA A
f (x) dx :=
n
2HK >AIA GKA IE
l m
f (x) dx.
A IA JE@ E FH FE A J ?AI
f L1 (R)
|f |
I
AI E JACH=> A A
O =@A
f (x) dx =
+ BK ?E ?=I KAIJH= IA AI?HE>A L F I A A F I @A
f (x) dx.
R
AI KJ=
=I BK ?E =>I
f (x) = x sen x/x

A JA E JACH=> A -
K = AIA
FKA@A IAH E JACH=> A FAH
f (x) dx = l m
n
f (x) dx,
n
A $ @ @A L F I =I IEC =I @A
L=
H FHE ?EF= A?AI=HE= EJA A JA =? J=@= J= GKA
5A= f : [a, b) R K = BK ?E R[a, b ] F=H= J @ 0 < < 0 f A IA JE@ E FH FE IE ANEIJA A
IA @E?A E JACH=> A A
A E JAHL=
f [a, b)
0+
5E J=
f (x) dx =:
a
E FH FE A J
l m
f (x) dx.
?AI IA @E?A GKA
|f |
AI E JACH=> A A
IA JE@
AI =>I
A JA E JACH=> A
= 2HK >AIA GKA IE > ,A 1
AI =>I
KJ=
A JA E JACH=> A J= KJ=
>E
AI E JACH=> A
IJH=H GKA IE IE
AI =>I
A JA E JACH=> A A
[a, b)
A J
?AI
L (a, b)
O =I E JACH= AI ? E ?E@A
a
% 5A= 5A=
f (x) dx =
(a,b)
f (x) dx.
R A HA?J CK a x b c y d O f K = BK ?E =? J=@= A R 1 K = F=HJE?E {x0 xn } @A [a, b] 2 {y0 ym } K = F=HJE?E @A [c, d] ,AB = IA Mij = sup f,
Ii Jj
mij = nf f
Ii Jj
'&
+)2 67
?
"
) 1 6-/4) ,- 41- )
=I IK =I IKFAHE H A
Ii = [xi1 , xi ] Jj = [yj 1 , yj ] = 1 2 )
A HAIFA?JEL= A JA ?
E BAHE H IA @A
S =
)IE EI
i j
Mij xi yj ,
s =
i j
mij xi yj .
=
@A A K = IK
i j
f (i , j )xi yj ,
= =I ?E=@= =
(i , j ) Ii Jj ,
IE
= @A 4EA
= BK ?E
AI E JACH=> A ,=H> KN A
s=s @
= @A
@A
s = sup s
) 4EA C= ? = A JA IA @E?A GKA
s = sup S .
IE ANEIJA
f AI E JACH=> A 4EA |s | < F=H= J @= @ =I ?E=@= = - AIA ?=I IA F A s=

a c
?E
s R J=
GKA = @A
AI ?K= GKEAH IK
f (x, y ) dxdy.
= 2H >=H = AGKEL= A ?E= @A =I @ I > ,A K IJHAIA GKA IE
AI @A E JACH= = A
AI E JACH=> A 4EA
A J
?AI AI E JACH=> A
A>AICKA O =I HAIFA?JEL=I E JACH= AI ? E ?E@A & 1 JACH= @A 4EA O =? J=@= GKA @A BK ?E ANFHAIE =? J=@= O =
: [a, b] R K = BK ?E ? JE K= 5E f : [a, b] R AI K = = {x0 , . . . , xn } P AI K = F=HJE?E @A [a, b] =

5JEA AI E =HA 5A= I A
E JACH=@ H
=
?
f (ti )i ,
ti Ii Ii = [xi1 , xi ] i = (xi ) (xi1 ) IA = = K = IK = @A = @A f =I ?E=@= = 5A @E?A GKA f AI 4EA = 5JEA J AI E JACH=> A ? HAIFA?J = A [a, b] =>HALE=@ f R() IE ANEIJA s R J= GKA P ?K F EA @ | s| < F=H= J @= @ @A AI ?K= GKEAH IK = @A 4EA = =I ?E=@= = - J= ?=I IA AI?HE>A b s= f (x) d.
4EA
a
>LE= A JA
IA
= = E JACH= @A 4EA =?E AI
5JEA J AI @A
2HK >A IA =I IECKEA JAI = H
" " - -4+1+1 5

= 5E
''
f, g R() A J ?AI F=H= ? IJ= JAI =H>EJH=HE=I c1 , c2 R c1 f + c2 g R() O IA JEA A b b b (c1 f + c2 g ) d = c1 f d + c2 g d.

a a a
? I
> 5E
1 , 2
J= JAI ?K= AIGKEAH=
[a, b] f R(i ) i = 1, 2 A J ?AI F=H= c1 , c2 R f R(c1 1 + c2 2 ) O IA ?K F A b b b f d(c1 1 + c2 2 ) = c1 f d1 + c2 f d2 .

=? J=@=I A
a
' 2 H = = C = ?
a
= E JACH= @A ,=H> KN IA E JH @K?A = 5JEA J AI
a
I IECKEA JAI ? 5A= A
?AFJ I =I ?E=@ I = = E JACH= @A 4EA @A?HA?EA JA O =? J=@= 2=H= IKFAHE H A E BAHE
= =I
[a, b] IA @A H =I ?E=@=I = K = F=HJE?E S = Mi i , s = mi i ,

=? J=@= A
=I =I IK
Mi = supIi f mi = nf Ii f Ii E JACH= AI IKFAHE H A E BAHE H I
= [xi1 , xi ] i = (xi ) (xi1 ) s = sup S .
= @A?HA?EA JA FHK >AIA
=I
s = nf S ,
)@ EJEA @ GKA
AI =?E
J AI
= AGKEL= A ?E=
@A =I IECKEA JAI = H = >
f R ( ) s=s
@E?E @A 4EA =
? ?
> 0
J= GKA
S s < .
5A= BK ?E
: [a, b] R K = BK ?E ? JE K= f C [a, b]
@A 4EA =
@A L=HE=?E I=JEIB=?A
=? J=@= ,A
K IJHAIA GKA J @= E JACH=@ H K IJHAIA GKA
IA JE@ 5A=
5JEA AI A
f R() AI [a, b] J = @ ?
@A?EH AI E JACH=> A A
JE K= O
@A L=HE=?E =? J=@= A [a, b] ,A b f (x) d(x) V () sup |f (x)|,

a [a,b]
J J= @A J
@ 5A=
@A
V ()
?
AI = L=HE=?E
I >HA
[a, b] [a, b]
O ? JE K=
JE K= A
[a, b]
b
@A?HA?EA JA A
F H = @AHA?D= 2HK >AIA GKA
f (x) d ,
(a,b]
f (x) d =
a
@ @A
AI =
A@E@= @A
A>AICKA 5JEA JA AI =I ?E=@= =

+)2 67
"
) 1 6-/4) ,- 41- )
+=F JK
-IF=?E I
Lp
#
,A E?E
,AIECK= @=@AI
#
5A @E?A GKA K = BK ?E
x, y (a, b)
: (a, b) R
AI ?
LAN= IE F=H=
=H>EJH=HE I
((1 )x + y ) (1 )(x) + (y )
F=H= J @ >IAHL=?E
= 5E
#
01
AI #
LAN= O
AI ?
{x1 , . . . , xn } (a, b)
n n ( ti xi ) ti (xi ) i=1
F=H= > ?K
ti 0
?K= AIGKEAH= J= AI GKA
i=1
i=1 ti
=1
=I ? @E?E AI @A # IA
= BK ?E F A
IA @E?A AIJHE?J=
A JA ?
LAN= IE A
((1 )x + y ) < (1 )(x) + (y )

IEA FHA GKA
x = y
= {0, 1}
=?E AI I AGKEL= A JAI LAN= ?K= AIGKEAH=
2H FEA@=@ #
=
=I IECKEA JAI = H AI ?
: (a, b) R
> 2=H=
a<s<t<uE I
t = s + (u s) = (1 )s + u,
?
#
=
+
ts . us
# !
(t) (1 )(s) + (u),

A J ?AI
(t) (s) ((u) (s)),

GKA AI
b)
# IA AI?HE>A
= HA =?E
t = s + (u s) = s + (1 )u,
?
# "
=1=
5EA @
ut . us
(t) (s) + (1 )(u),

A J ?AI
(u) (s)
@A @ @A I= A
1 ((u) (t)),
d)
= HA =?E # ! IA AI?HE>A
.E =
A JA
(1 )(t) + (t) (1 )(s) + (u),

F H J= J
(t) (s)
GKA E F E?=
((u) (t)), 1
AI ? LAN= A J ?AI
c)
2H F IE?E
>IAHL=?E
= -I E =>EAHJ ?
#!
AI #
5E
: (a, b) R
AI ?
JE K=
FHAI?E @E> A A ABA?J AI ? I = ?
= FH FEA@=@ = JAHE H GKA J = @ A L=
: [0, 1] R
JE K= JE K=?E
AIJ @A E@= A H 0 A [0, 1) O 1
K A
E JAHL=
x=1
AI
LAN= O
> 2H >=
K = FH FEA@=@
I BKAHJA GKA =
AH= ?
JE KE@=@
# ,-51/7) ,),-5
!
2H F IE?E
#"
5E
@AHA?D= O F H = E GKEAH@= A
: (a, b) R AI ? LAN= A ?=@= t (a, b) )@A D(t) D(t+)
J I
?AI
AI @AHEL=> A F H =
A ,A
?=@=
IEA @
>=I BK ?E
I
AI
D(t)
D(t+)
?HA?EA JAI
IJH=?E
- ACE
t < s < u < u
O IA ?K
F A GKA
(u) (t) (u ) (t) (t) (s) . ut u t ts

+ =H= A JA
(u) (t) (t) (s) (u) (t) = nf . ut+ ut+ ut ut ts l m

)I FKAI
D(t+)
5E D=?A I
(t) (s) . ts
t s+
HAIK J=
D(t+) D(s+),
IE F H ? JH=
s t
D(t+) D(t),
= @AHEL=@= F H = E GKEAH@= IA IECKA @A K =HCK A J
FKAI IE
= ANEIJA ?E= @A
E =H
2H F IE?E
EJ=
# # ,AIECK= @=@ @A
AI ? LAN= A
A IA
5A=
K = BK ?E
HA= A E JACH=> A A
J= GKA
(X, A, ) K AIF=?E @A A@E@= a < f (x) IAHL=?E
IA ? D= @A IAH # !
1 (X )
(a, b)
X
- J
?AI
) f d
1 (X )
f d.
X
= E JACH=>E E@=@ @A
IA HAGKEAHA A A ?KHI @A = @A
A A K ?E=@ IJH=?E
F HGKA
FHKA>= A
GKA A
?=I
@A
E JACH=>E E@=@
f d = .
X
,A
IJH=?E
1 t= (X )
f.
X
5=>A
I GKA
(t) (s) ts
s < t,
"
+)2 67
@A
# -52)+1 5 LP
>E IA ?K F A
= D(t)
F H
JH= F=HJA
D(t+)
J=
(s) (t) (s t)
+ ? KE I A J ?AI GKA
s > t.
f (x) (t) + (f (x) t),

? = JAIEI GKA = IAH
A@E> A IA JEA A GKA = > I EA
>EA
AI E JACH=> A F H
>EA
JEA A I
E JACH= E
EJ= 1 JACH= @
>H I O @ELE@EA @
(X )
>JA A
- A
@A
F
A IA
# "
5E AI
(X, A, )
I GKA
EJ
X = {q1 , . . . , qn } ?
n i=1
i = {qi }
= @AIECK= @=@
(
@ @A
n i=1
ti x i )
ti (xi ),
i ti = n
j =1
F H A A F
j
?
xi = f (qi ).
? KE I
= @
= ex xi = log yi
n
1
1 n A ) yn (y1
1 i yi A i=1
AC=JEL I ?
A=
n i=1
i . = 1 y1 , . . . , yn
>IAHL=?E
AC=JEL I J=
# # >E
5A= A J
t1 , . . . , t n
?AI
i=1 ti
t1 tn . . . yn t1 y1 + tn yn . y1
>IAHL=?E
# $
5E
x1 , . . . , xn
AC=JEL I
AH I
pi
F IEJEL I O
1 1 + + = 1, p1 pn
A J ?AI @AIECK= @=@ @A ; K C
x 1 . . . xn
1 p1 1 pn x + + x . p1 1 pn n
#
,A E?E
KC=@ I IE
,AIECK= @=@AI @A 0 @AH O @A

#$
5A @E?A GKA @ I AH I F IEJEL I
E
p, q
I
MI E
ANF A JAI ?
1 1 + = 1. p q
EJA IA @E?A =IE EI GKA
?=I
p=1
q=
KC=@ I
-52)+1 5 LP
5A=
#
6A HA = # %
?
f, g : X [0, ] BK ( f g d f d (
p
?E
AI
A@E> AI
1<p<q
ANF
A JAI
KC=@ I - J
?AI
)1/p ( g d )1/p |f | d
p q
)1/q , )1/p |g | d
p
@AH
( |f + g | d
p
)1/p
( +
.
= IACK @=
>IAHL=?E
= @A E
# % MI E +
= FHE
AH= @AIECK= @=@ AI = @AIECK= @=@ @A 0
,A
BK ?E fp X
IJH=?E
AI
I ?
= @AIECK= @=@ @A 0 GKA AI A ?=I
@AH O IKF =
A =
I GKA =I I
f p O g q I E JACH=> AI d B = X g q d O >JA A f g d =
HA AL= JA
A =
I @A = @AIECK= @=@ @A ; K C
(tf )(t1 g ) d
EA
q
1 p 1 t A + tq B, p q
E A
F=H= J @ A L=
t>0
E
- IACK @
>H
p
= ?=
= K
tp+q = B/A
IEA @
H @A
A p+q B p+q = A1/p B 1/q .

?K= J = = @AIECK= @=@ @A E MI E AI?HE>E I
1 , |f + g |p1 |f + g | d (|f |p + |g |p )|f + g |p p
A @A
@A IKF
I GKA IE
GKA = F JA ?E=
q
( )1/p |f |p := |f |p d p1 = @A |f + g | AI EJ= @
@A
|g |p I q AI A
EJ=I O IA ? KC=@
>IAHL= @AH
@A 0
#
,A
2=H=
-IF=?E I Lp
0<p<
E?E
#&
5A= @A
(X, A, )
E I
AIF=?E
@A
A@E@= O
K = BK ?E
A@E> A
( |f |p =
,A J= p I N
)1/p |f | d
p
.
AI A@E> AI J= AI GKA A>AICKA
Lp (X ) Lp () A ? K J @A L (R ) Lp (G) @A J=H HAIFA?JEL= RN O A K =>EAHJ G @A RN ? HAIFA?J
=I BK ?E A JA = =
I ? HHAIF A@E@= @A
|f |p < @EA JAI AIF=?E I A
$
+)2 67
# -52)+1 5 LP
A@E> A
,A
f : X [, ]
A@E@= ?AH A
E?E
#'
5A @E?A GKA IE
M 0 AI K
= ? J= AIA ?E= @A K = BK ?E
{x : |f (x)| > M }
,A E I A IKFHA AIA ?E= @A AIA X JA J=
JEA A ?
@A K = BK ?E I F H
A@E> A
@A IKI ? J=I AIA ?E= AI
|f | = IKF
,A K J= I =>EAHJ
f.
A ?=I @A
L (X ) L () HAIFA?JEL= A G @A RN ? = A@E@= @A
A JA =? J=@=I
- IKFHA AIA ?E= # &
L (RN ) L (G) A
K J
RN
AI
A>AICKA A ?
@A =I BK ?E
A@E> AI AIA ?E= >IAHL=?E
AI K = ? J= AIA ?E= F HGKA = IAH
{|f (x)| > } = n {|f (x)| > +

A FHE AH EA >H JEA A A@E@= ?AH 2 H J= J
1 }, n
A JA = A H @A
AI ?EAHJ=
=I ? J=I E BAHE HAI
2H F IE?E
,A p IJH=?E
#
Lp (X )
AI K
AIF=?E
I
LA?J HE= F=H=

>LE I 3KA
1p
f + g Lp (X ) IE f, g L (X ) F=H= p > 1 IA IECKA @A = ? LANE@=@ @A (t) = |t|p F=H= p 1 - ABA?J ( )p |x| + |y | 1 1 |x|p + |y |p 2 2 2
I ?=I I @A
p = 1,
@A @
(|x| + |y |)p 2p1 (|x|p + |y |p ).
>IAHL=?E
= 5E J
AI # '
A@E> AI J= AI GKA
f (x) = g (x) A ?=IE J @ FK J A 1 p - Lp (X ) 1 p IA @A A = HA =?E @A AGKEL= A ?E= f g IE f (x) = g (x) F=H= ? J x X - ? HHAI p p F @EA JA ? ?EA JA L (X )/ IAH HAFHAIA J=@ F H L (X ) 5E [f ] AI K = ? =IA |[f ]|p IA @A A ? |f |p - LEHJK@ @A = @AIECK= @=@ @A E MI E IA JEA A p GKA | |p AI K = H = A L (X )
?AI J @
f g I BK ?E AI |f |p = |g |p F=H=
>
Lp (X ) J=
= >IJ= JA
>E
AI K @A K
AIF=?E A A AIF=?E
LA?J HE= IE AIJA ?=I JHE? ?
0 =HC
A BK ?E
| |p Lp (X ) AI
K =
= - AH?E?E I # $ O IE IA A @ J= @A = @EIJ= ?E=
d(f, g ) =
I HA EJE I = - AH?E?E %
|f g |p d.
-52)+1 5 LP
%
6A HA = #
,A
?
(Lp (X ), | |p )
5E
AI K
AIF=?E
@A *= =?D F=H=
1p=H GKA A
fn
AI K = IK?AIE
@A +=K?DO A I @EHA?J= A JA ?
Lp (X )
FHAI?E @E
J=?E
@A =I ? =IAI O JH=>= =
BK ?E ANEIJA
fn f
fn
AI @A +=K?DO A
A@E@= 2 H J= J I K = IK?AIE
A@E> A J= GKA
A@E@= ,A
fn
ANJH=A
fnk
J= GKA GKA
fn k f
A A ?=IE J @ FK J .E = I
O IA JEA A
lim
IE
|fnk fn |p d .
= A J ?AI GKA
n n
= @A .=J K = H
|f fn |p d =
lim |fnk fn |p d
H J= J GKA
n n -IJ IEC E ?= GKA f fn Lp (X ) O F p GKA fn f A L (X )

IE
f Lp (X )
)@A
6A HA = #
,A IJH=?E
(L (X ), | | )
5A=
AI K
AIF=?E
@A *= =?D
ANEIJA
nk N
fn
K = IK?AIE K J
@A +=K?DO A
L (X ) 1 } k
- J
?AI F=H= J @
J= GKA A ?
Fk = mnnk {|fm (x) fn (x)| >

JEA A
F0
A@E@= ?AH 2 A k=1 Fk 4AIK J= A J I K
F0 = n=1 {|fn (x)| > |fn | } O ?AI GKA F JEA A A@E@= ?AH O =
I IA JEA A A J ?AI F H ? IJHK??E
@A I
5E @= 2 H J= J
=H>EJH=HE
E I F = E =X \F c GKA E Fk
sup |fm fn |
E
F=H=
1 k
A >E A JA A AI
m n nk 2 H J= E O IK ANJA IE f =? J=@= A E F H IAH supE |fn | |fn | +

A@E> A A
F H
fn f K 0 = X
EB H J=
= BK ?E
A@E> A A
EJA K EB H
A @A BK ?E
AI =? J=@=I
f AI X )@A I E - ABA?J
IKF AIA X
|f | sup |f |
E
FKAI A IACK @ )@A I
EA
>H
@A
A K = ? J= AIA ?E=
f f L (X )
IKF AIA X O= GKA A IACK @ EA >H @A
|fn f | sup |fn f |.

E
A K = ? J= AIA ?E= @A
fn f
)I
fn f
L (X )
&
+)2 67
# ?AI A 5A IECKA @A EJA A A J
# -52)+1 5 LP
>IAHL=?E
I A K ?E=@ I FHA?A@A JAI GKA IE A ?=IE J @ FK J A O ?=IE K EB H A JA A A ?
fn f
A
Lp (X )
5E @A K
A J
K = IK>IK?AIE
fn f
? K J
f AI A fnk L (X )
A JA @A F A A J
?AI
fn f
K EB H
@A
A@E@= ?AH
#!
? p IA ?
+
CA AH=
JA E@ I
IA @= HA =?E AI @A ? JA E@ A JHA I
Lp
IE
JH= IE
(X ) <
I AIF=?E I IA D=?A AH= = H =?E ?
I FAGKA IE@AH= I
I =
A@E@= GKA
(X ) = 2 H p ?HA?A
= BK ?E
LEAHJA A
K = AIFA?EA @A
A@E@= @A = HACK =HE@=@ @A = BK ?E
2=H= E KIJH=H = FHE
X = (1, )
f (x) =
5E
1q 1.
)I
A 2 H
CA AH=
Lp (X ) Lq (X )
= I
IE
1q<p (1,2) , (x 1)
IE
JH= F=HJA J
g = g Lp (1, ) J= GKA
IE O I IE
p < 1/
KAC
p<q
O IEA
FHA F @A
I A ACEH K
p<
O
g Lp (1, ) \ Lq (1, )
+ IE@AH= JH F=H= A
KAC
1 q, Lp (X ) Lq (X )
JA E@
IE
p<q
HA =JEL = ?=I
I =D H= @ I HAIK J=@ I @A ?
(X ) <
?AI
CA AH=
6A HA = # !
F=H=
5A=
(X, A, )
K
p
AIF=?E
@A
q
A@E@= ?
(X ) <
- J
L (X ) L (X ) 1p<q
?
|f |p (X ) p q |f |q ,
1 1
F=H= J @
f Lq (X )
IA?KA ?E= E A@E=J= @A = @AIECK= @=@ @A 0 @AH
= FHKA>= AI ?
6A HA = # "
5A=
@A
A@E@=
EJ=
f : X [0, ]
p
A@E> A - J
?AI
l m f
1 (X )
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A JA IE O I = AIA
f.
EJA AI EJ
F=HJE?K =H
AIJ
=? J=@= AIA ?E=
A JA IE J=
# " ,- 51,),
,A IJH=?E
+
'
( ap :=
AI ?HA?EA JA A
1 (X )
f p d
)1/p
p ANEIJA A = l mp ap = sup ap 5EA @ ap = fp /((X )1/p ) l m |f |p = A A = AIJ @AI?=HJ=@ 5KF C= I A EJ ,A = @AIECK= @=@ @A 6?DA>O?DA HAIK J= ( )p A , {|f (x)| m} (X ) m
F=H= .E =
F=H= J @ ?AH FKAI ?
m > 0 O p 1 2 H J= J A ? m > A ,A =GK |f | A )IE

IA ? A JA FHKA>= B ?E A JA AIJ F=JE> A ? E
K J EI GKA
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A@E@=
F E?=H = GKA
A=
5KF
|f | A l m ap A
?
AI E ?
IA= =? J=@=
6A HA = # #
f L (X )
r
C=
I GKA
f Lp (X ) Lq (X )
I
p < q
- J
?AI
F=H= J @
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O =@A
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@A
r = (1 )p + q
#"
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,A = ? LAHCA ?E= @ E =@=
6A HA = # $
K = IK?AIE
5A=
fn Lp () 1 p <
@A BK ?E
AI J= AI GKA
|fn (x)| g (x)

F=H= ? J
xX
@A
g Lp ()
EA JH=I
fn (x) f (x)
A A ,A ?=IE J @ p FK J IEA @
K = BK ?E
A@E> A - J
?AI
f Lp ()
F=H= ? J
fn f x X
L ()
IJH=?E
3KA
f Lp
IA IECKA @A GKA
|fn |p | f |p
EA JH=I
|fn |p g p .
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f| 0
xX
|f |p
2=H= = ?
LAHCA ?E=
J=
I GKA
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K J
|fn f |p 2p g p ,
@A @ @A
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+)2 67
IE@=@ @A =I BK ?E AI IE F AI
# -52)+1 5 LP
6A HA = # % ,A
BK ?E
1p<
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AI IE
F AI A E JACH= AI A
- J
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S (X )
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5A=
S (X )
AI @A I
A AIF=?E @A =I p A L (X ) F=H=
IJH=?E
f Lp (X ) O IKF
AH
GKA
f 0
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f (x) = l m fn (x)
A ? J
xX
0 fn (x) f (x)
IEA @
fn S (X )
)D H=
0 f (x) fn (x) = |f (x) fn (x)| f.

+
f Lp (X ) A J ?AI f fn 0 2=H= f CA AH= AI?HE>E I
Lp (X )
f = f + f ,
>IAHL= I GKA
f Lp (X )
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O =F E?=
I = ?
? KIE
FHA?A@A JA
2H F IE?E
# &
RN
IE@AH= = B=
E E= @A E JAHL=
F = Fk
@A
Fk = {2k (1 , . . . , n ) + 2k [ 0, 1)n : = (1 , . . . , n ) Zn }, 0 = (0, . . . , 0) 1 = (1, . . . , 1)

? K = K E @EI K J= - J ?AI J @ =>EAHJ
@A
RN
IA FKA@A AI?HE>EH
G = n=1 In 1 p < Lp (G) RN 5E E AI G E J= GKA

A
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I ANEIJA K
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2=H=
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=?E =>EAHJ
AI IAF=H=> A
A@E> A ? A@E@=
= = H
>0
|E G |p .
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>0
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E E=
EJ=
{I1 , . . . , In }
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2H F IE?E
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RN
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AI @A @E?D=I BK ?E p A L (G)
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=>EAHJ
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IA FHKA>= = ?
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# " ,- 51,),

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f = B
U
K ?
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= I K = > = B = B (, r ) G 1 U = {f L (G) : |f f | < 2 } >IAHL= AI GKA U1 U2 = IE 1 = 2 I ? K J I @A L (G) - J ?AI {U } ? IJEJKOA K = B= E E= I =IE EI L=? I GKA I @EI K J I @ I = @ I -IJ AI E ?
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G RN
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A A
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A AIF=?E
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6A HA = #
#
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G RN
A AIF=?E
Cc (G)
@A I
Lp (G)
@A =
- JA HA = KAIJH= GKA 1 = @A L ANFHAI=@= A J H E EA J A@E@= = @A 7HOID
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I @A
AI = ?
F A??E @A 4EA
Cc (RN )
2 H
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IA FKA@A E JH @K?EH @EHA?J=
A JA = E JACH= @A
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2H F IE?E
# !
5A=
(X, d)
AIF=?E A JA
X @ I ?AHH=@ I @EI K J I @A X -NEIJA A J [0, 1] J= GKA = 1 A A = 0 A B { = 0} = B

,A IJH=?E
*=IJ= J =H
?AI K = BK ?E I AN=?J=
A, B :X { = 1} = A O
JHE? ? JE K=
(x) =
@ @A
d(x, B ) d(x, B ) + d(x, A)

?AI GKA
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0}
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? BK ?E
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A ?=I @A
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A
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= #
E E=
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= FHKA>= @A 6A HA E JAHL= 5A KI= A ?AI
= # ' LA
I ? I @A ,=@ > 0 O K RN : @EIJ(x, I ) }

F @EA JA BK ?E
F I
I GKA AI IK ?EA JA ? N F H K = BK ?E @A Cc (R ) @A = B= E E= IA ? IE@AH= = @A 7HOID IEA @
=FH NE
A = I B = {x Cc (RN ) = ? HHAI
- J
|I |p ({0 < @EIJ(x, I ) < })

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0
?K= J
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FHKA>= A HAIK J=@ @A K =>EAHJ
RN
I
AI?HE>E
G = Gn
@ @A Gn AI K = IK?AIE f Lp (G) O fn = Gn f A @A =>EAHJ I J ?AI
Gn Gn Gn+1 Gn ? fn f A Lp (G) JA HA = @A = ?
F=?J
5E
LAHCA ?E=

+)2 67
E =@= *=IJ= =FH NE =H
# -52)+1 5 LP
@A
fn
F H BK ?E ANEIJA
BKAH= @A
O F=H=
>0
=H>EJH=HE
AI @A Cc (G) 5A ANJEA Cc (RN ) J= GKA
fn
F H ?AH
|fn |p,G |fn |p,RN .

F=HJE?K =H
|fn |p,Gn + ||p,G\Gn .

A )D H= IA KI= A A = @A 7HOI RN \ Gn+1 + =H= A JA F=H= JA AH
(x)
JE K=
=1
Cc (G)
Gn = 0
|fn |p,G = |fn |p,Gn + ||p,G\Gn |fn |p,Gn + ||p,G\Gn .

2 H ? IECKEA JA DA # ! I JAH E =@ I @A JH= B H = 5E f p N A L (R ) = =FH NE = KAC
>IAHL=?E
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A J=
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I F H
= IK ANJA IE
F H ?AH BKAH= @A RN @A I F HJA ?
G f
GKA AIJ
JE K= A
F=?J
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GKA
O = = BK ?E
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Gn+1
4AIK J=
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|n | ||,
@ @A FH NE
n .
IEC E ?= GKA F=?J @A E I = BK ?E
n = n Gc (G) p = = f A L (G) EA
C= I GKA
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n A Lp (G) -IJ GKA n JEA A I F HJA ? RN

O F=H=
AIJ
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AI
A@E> A A
h RN
fh (x) = f (x + h).
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h0
fh (x) f (x)
A >=HC
AI FHA?EI=
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= BK ?E
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Q @E?D ? K J FKA@A IAH L=? Q AI E ? KI p IE f L ? 1 p < A J ?AI fh f A Lp (RN )

- J ?AI
6A HA = # "
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f Lp (RN ) 1 p < |fh f |p 0,
h0
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O JA A
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FKAI
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A
J= GKA
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m n{h0 , }
*=IJ= A ACEH
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|gh g |p < n (I )1/p .

? LA EA JA A JA F=H= ? ? KEH GKA
|fh f |p <
F=H=
|h| <
# # - -4+1+1 5
!
##

- AH?E?E I
5A=
: [a, b) R
@A?HA?EA JA 5A @A
(x) =
a
2HK >AIA GKA ,A !
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AI ?
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L (X )
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?
0<p<1
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GK
AI AI ?EAHJ
xy =
@ ?E @A
xp yq + , p q
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x, y
F IEJEL I O @AH
p, q
f, g
BK =
AI E JACH=> AI
AC=JEL=I ?=H=?JAHE =H ?K
IA @= = ECK= @=@ A
@AIECK= @=@ @A 0
f g d
" 5A=
)1/p ( )1/q f p d g q d .
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f g (
BK ?E E
AI
A@E> AI O MI E
@AIECK= @=@ @A
)1/p |f + g |p d = f
O @A
( |f |p d g
2=H=
)1/p +
( |g |p d
)1/p .
3K #
IA FKA@A @A?EH @A
,AIECK= @=@ @A 0 A@E> AI O
AH E LAHI=
AC=JEL=I
f, g
J= AI GKA
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<0
5A IKF
A =@A
I GKA
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K IJHAIA
f g d
)1/p ( )1/q f p d g q d .
O KJE ?AIA = @AIECK= @=@ @A 0
1 @E?=?E
@AH $ 5A IKF ,A A
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f p = (f g )p g p
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+)2 67
2H >=H GKA ?K= @
# -52)+1 5 LP
JHE? ? F AJ IE
0 0
>0 ) F=H= > 0
A JA @ IA K
1 @E?=?E
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1 1 + + = 1, p1 pm
FHK >AIA GKA
f1 . . . fm d

( f p1 d
)1/p1 ...
( f pm d
)1/pm .
2H >=H = @AIECK= @=@ @A 0
@AH @E?HAJ=
n i=1
IEA @ J @ I
( xi yi
A JAI ?
n i=1
)1/p ( xp i
n i=1
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q yi
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KC=@ I
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xi , yi
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i=1
IEA @ 5A= AC=JEL I I AH I
i=1
i=1
xi , yi
f1 , . . . , fm g1 , . . . , gm BK ?E AI @A Lp (X ) 2HK >AIA GKA (m )1/p ( m )1/p ( m )1/p |fi + gi |p d |fi |p d + |gi |p d .

i=1 i=1
7I=H A 6A HA = @A .K>E E A JA ? >AIA GKA
i=1
1 @E?=?E
! 5A=
fn gn IK?AIE AI A Lp (X ) O Lq (X ) HAIFA?JEL= p q J= AI GKA fn f A L (X ) O gn g A L (X ) 2HK 1 A L (X )
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K J I A - J ?AI
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Sa (D1 ) Sa (D2 ) = Sa (D1 D2 ).

,A IJH=?E
+
Sa (D1 ) Sa (D2 ) Sa (D1 )

A J ?AI
Sa (D2 ) D1 D2 ,
Sa (D1 ) Sa (D2 ) Sa (D1 D2 ).

#
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JH ? JA E@ DA I @A FH >=H GKA
-,1,)5 24 ,7+6
2=H= A
Sa (D1 )
5A H= = =I 2=H=
Sa (D2 ) Sa (D1 D2 ).
@A J= I
D2 D 2
S1 = {E X : E D2 Sa (D1 D2 )}.
4AIK J= GKA GKA
S1 D1 AI K = CA>H= O F H J= J Sa (D1 ) S1 E D2 Sa (D1 D2 ) F=H= J @ E Sa (D1 ) 2=H= = ? c GKA S1 AI CA>H= A F=I ? =LA AI E S1 E S1 ) J= G = (E D2 )c Sa (D1 D2 ) FAH
c G = E c D2 + X D2 = E c D2 + (X D2 )c .
GKA IEC E ?= FH >=?E IA @A >IAHL= GKA
(X D2 )c Sa (D1 D2 ) HAIK J= GKA E c S1 )D H= = I E Sa (D1 ) O F A I S2 = {F Y : E F Sa (D1 D2 )}.
4AIK J= ECK= JAH E =@
A JA GKA
S2 D2
AI K =
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Sa (D2 ) S2
O DA
2H F IE?E ,A E?E
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$ $!
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E X Y O E ? IECKA
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xX yY
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?K= GKEAH= - J
S (D) A = S (D A). D
AI K = ? =IA @A ? K J I A
>IAHL=?E
A J ?AI A
5E E
= GKA FAHJA A?A
=
O =
CA>H= CA AH=@ I F H
? E ?E@A
Sa (D) = S (D).
+ ABA?J FH FE
S (D) Sa (D) F HGKA J @ = E AI K = CA>H= 5E A S (D) AI K = CA>H= F H J= J IA ?K F A A ? JA E@ ? F A =F E?=?E @A A = IE E = A B AI K HA?J CK A J ?AI A B E = Sa (A B ) E = S (A B ) E = S (A
>=HC A J=HE
B E ).
&
+)2 67
JH =@
-,1,)5 24 ,7+6
EA JH=I
2 H
S (A
,A
B E)
IJH=?E
B E FE
KAC
S (A
B E ) S (FE )
FE
-I @A?EH
A B E = S (FE ).
@A A =
=I BK @= A J= AI @A ?=F JK
)D H= IECKA
I JA HA
6A HA = $
E X Y
K
5A= AA
A J
(X, A, ) O (Y, B , ) AIF=?E @A A B 2=H= x X IA f (x) = (Ex ),
I @A @A A
A@E@=
EJ I O IA=
EA JH=I GKA F=H=
yY
IA E JH @K?A
g (y ) = (E y ).
- J ?AI =I BK ?E AI
A@E> AI A
HAIFA?JEL=
A JA O =@A
f d =
Y
g d.
A@E> A GKA J= ?
$
>IAHL=?E
+K= @
$ !
5A HA?KAH@= GKA J @= BK ?E A IA JE@ H= A A ?
f 0F
?AFJ
IAA K = E JACH= A
AI E JACH=> A A 11 IA @A
BKA E J @K?E@
A +=F JK
f = .
X
8 = IA @AJ= AI A
A +=F JK
111 -
= E@A JE@=@ $ % ?=>A J=
>E
= F IE>E E
@=@ @A GKA =I E JACH= AI L= C= 1 JH @K?E I = A JA =
A@E@= FH @K?J
6A HA = $
5A=
CA>H= FH @K?J
(X, A, ) (Y, B , ) AIF=?E I @A A@E@= A B IA @A A = BK ?E @A ? K J (E ) = (Ex ) d = (E y ) d.

X Y
EJ I 5 >HA =
$
5A JEA A A J E?= A@E@=
?AI GKA I >HA
AI K = A@E@= A B J= GKA
EJ= I >HA
AB
I =
AI =
(A B ) = (A) (B ),
I >HA I HA?J CK I
AB
I >HA
@A
AB
I @A A@E@=
,A
E?E
$
@E@= FH @K?J
2=H=
(X, A, ) (Y, B , ) AIF=?E A B IA @A A ? (E ) = (E ),
EJ I
@A
AIJ
@A
E@= F H $
- 6- 4- ) ,- .7*1 1
>IAHL=?E
5A @A $ " ) CK =I LA?AI = 2H F IE?E
'
IA @A
J= ?
GKA =I HAIJHE??E I AI ?K
KAIJH= A
$ !# @A ) AN I > HA E=
m+n
@A =I
A@E@=I @A
A>AICKA =
Bm Bn
Bm+n
m n
F A
m+n (A B ) = m (A)n (B ),
2 H J= J
A Bm , B Bn .
m+n (E ) =
Rm
@A
n (Ex ) dx =
Rn
m (E y ) dy,
=I A@E@=I @A
$ ! A>AICKA A
IEA
FHA GKA
E Bm+n
dx dy
HAFHAIA J=
I AIF=?E I ? HHAIF
@EA JAI
$
5A= @A
- JA HA = @A .K>E E
f
K = BK ?E @A E@= A
E X Y
5A @A
=I IA??E
AI
fx
fy
fx (y ) = f (x, y ) f y (x) = f (x, y )
y Ex , x Ey .
O A@E> A A AB f y : X R J= - J >E ?AI I
2H F IE?E
F=H= J @ A@E> AI
5A= J @
xX
$ !
A
5A= f : X Y R K = BK ?E y Y =I IA??E AI fx : Y R
hK xX
= BK ?E AI?HE>E I
A@E> A A
X Y 5E hx AI f (x) = hx d.
Y
AC=JEL= =
E JACH=> A
AC=JEL= F=H=
$ "
5E
AI E JACH=> A
A@E> A O I
I =
f d
K = E JACH=
EJAH=@= @A
O AI?HE>E
f d =
X
= JH= E JACH= EJAH=@=
h dd =
X Y
IA @A A >=
d
X
?
h d.
Y
@E?E AI = C=I ?
g d
g d =
Y
@ @A
h dd =
Y X
d
Y
h d,
X
g (y ) =
X
hy d.
GKA IA ? ?A ? A JA HA
$ # = @A
5ECKA .K>E E
= ?
JE K=?E
JHAI LAHIE
AI @A

+)2 67
HA = @A .K>E E
-,1,)5 24 ,7+6
AC=JEL= O A@E> A
6A HA = $ " 6A
A
XY
5A= O
h
@A
K = BK ?E E@=I
- J
?AI =I BK ?E
AI
A@E= JA $ " O $ # I
A@E> AI O IA JEA A GKA
h dd =
X Y
h dd.
Y X
$ $
X Y
JH= LAHIE
h d( ) =
@A JA HA
= @A .K>E E AI = GKA IECKA
6A HA = $ #
- J ?AI
5KF
C=
hx
HAIFA?JEL= FK J
F=H= ?=IE J @
y Y
A JA
I GKA h AI K = BK ?E E JACH=> A I >HA hy AI E JACH=> A F=H= ?=IE J @ FK J x = BK ?E
XY X H
f
H
@A A
E@= F H $ " H
= BK ?E
g
$
@A
#
E@= F H $ # AI E JACH=> A A
Y
O IA I=JEIB=?A = E@A JE@=@
.E =
A JA
= L=HE= JA
JE A
=I =F E?=?E
AI
6A HA = $ $
5A=
K = BK ?E

X Y
A@E> A A
X Y
O IKF
C=
I GKA
>EA
|h| dd <
>EA
|h| dd < .
Y X
- J
?AI
AI E JACH=> A A 7 ?
X Y
K J AI @A
O IA I=JEIB=?A = E@A JE@=@ $
#
+ H =HE $ %
IE
A@E> A
E X Y
JEA A
A@E@= ?AH FK J
Ex
HAIFA?JEL=
A JA
F=H= ?=IE J @
FK J
Ey y Y
A@E@= ?AH
F=H= ?=IE J @
xX
IE O I H
$!
= H=
- FHE ?EFE @A +=L= EAHE

@A IAH @A I ? = IA??E AI A K J I @A A@E> AI A F A??E A>AICKA A Rm Rn + DA?D IECKEA JA IE E L(m + Rm+n FKA@A ?KHHEH GKA >EA
CA>H= @A y >EA E IA= @A?EH GKA = FHE @EHA?J= E m+ n
L(m + n) ?
JEA A AIJHE?J=
A JA =
L(m) L(n) L(m + n) AI GKEAHA L(m) L(n) IA LA A A ) AN GKA

? IA?KA ?E= ? K J F @A I KI=H
n) Ex
AH= AI = ? A JA 2 H A A
@A = IACK @= =I IA??E
I HAIK J=@ I @A F
AI = JAHE HAI F=H= ?= ?K =H AI I >HA K
L(m + n)
E F=H= E JACH=H BK ?E
m+n (E ) A@E> A E @A
= ANEIJA ?E= @A =I E JACH= AI
(Ex ) d,
X
GKA @A>AH = FH F H?E AIJ=H >EA ?E E @A E@ I ?=IE =H I A L= H @A A
(E y ) d,
Y
m+n (E )
>=HC ?
GKA@= A
A JHA@E?D I = ?
= JE K= AI
I E JACH= @ I 5E A@E> AI L = IA
ANF E?=
J @=L = FKA@A @=HIA IA JE@ F E?=@=I I
= J= AI E JACH= AI FKAI HAIK J= GKA =I BK ?E I +=F JK I 11 O 111
$ ! - 241 +121
,- +)8) 1-41
AIF=?E @A A@E@= ?

4A? H@= I = @A E?E 5A= (X, A, ) AI K f : D R AI ?=IE A@E> A IE f|N c : N c R AI K N 5E =@A I f|N c : N c R AI E JACH=> A IA E JACH=
IA @E?A K J
A@E> A F=H= ?EAHJ @E?A GKA
AI E JACH=> A ?
f d =
f d.
Nc
K J K
5A @A @A K E?E
KAIJH= GKA = E JACH= 2 H = EI @A = H= E@= A
@AFA @A @A ? IA ?K F A GKA IE M c A J ?AI
GKA =F=HA?A A JH ?
AI ?K= GKEAH
K J
J= GKA
AIJ
f d =
f d.
Mc
111 I L E@ I F=H= + AI K =
I HAIK J=@ I BK @= BK ?E IK?AIE
A J= AI @A ? AIJA IA JE@ AI ?=IE
LAHCA ?E= @A +=F JK 2 H A A A@E> AI O F IE
AI E JACH=> AI A J
f : Dn R
= @A BK ?E
AC=JEL=I
0 fn (x) fn+1 (x)

A J ?AI
x Dn Dn+1 ,
f d = l m
fn d
A@E> A A K ? K J @A =
@ B H
@A =
f = l m fn Mc ? M
@A
ABA?J A@E@=
A K =
EJA ANEIJA O AI
6A HA = $ &
E EE EEE EL
5A=
E Rm+n
FK J
K J
A@E> A
A>AICKA - J
?AI
Ex L(n)
= BK ?E
F=H= ?=IE J @
xX
A@E> A A
x n (Ex )
AI ?=IE FK J
Rm Y
F H J= J E JACH=> A A
E y L(m)
F=H= ?=IE J @
y
yY
A@E> A A
= =FE?=?E y m (E ) AI ?=IE =K GKA IK E JACH= FKA@= L= AH
LE 5A JEA A = ECK= @=@
m+n (E ) =
>IAHL=?E
EJA =IE 5A??E EI $ # -
n (Ex ) dm (x) =
= AIJA +=F JK IJHK??E
Rm
Rn
@=
m (E y ) dn (y ).
$ %
A = AN
I K = FHKA>= @A 6A HA A@E@= FH @K?J $ -IJ
$ & GKA AI E @AFA @EA JA @A = ? FH >=H A 6A HA $ " @A
@A =
= @A .K>E E O HAIK J=@ I =I ?E=@ I A
FAH m+ n
= AH= E @AFA @EA JA = = 5A??E
A = $ '
? K J I FK J
5E I
y Rn
K=
y N L(m + n) AI K ? K J K A J ?AI Nx O N I n m m A R O R F=H= ?=IE J @ FK J x R O F=H= ?=IE J @ y =I BK ?E AI x n (Nx ) O y m (N ) I E JACH=> AI ?
E JACH=
+)2 67
IJH=?E
5A JEA A F=H= -IJ
-,1,)5 24 ,7+6
,A
B H
Gx N y Gy
? J K = $ ! E n
yR
N G G K > HA E= @A A@E@= ?AH 4AIK J= Nx x y ?K= AGKEAH= 5E A >=HC m+n (G) = 0 EA JH=I = y m F E?= GKA Gx O G I K I F=H= ?=IE J @ FK J x R O
FHKA>= A A = 5E
,A
IJH=?E
@A 6A HA
= $ &
E L(m + n)
A J
?AI
E = G + N,
@ @A
AI K
> HA E=
AI K
K J
2 H J= J
Ex = Gx + Nx
O @A A = IA @A@K?A GKA
Ex L(n)
F=H= ?=IE J @
FK J
x Rm
GKA
n (Ex ) = n (Gx )
F=H= ?=IE J @ FK J
x Rm
m n (G) =
FKAI IA @A KAIJH= ) AN GKA
Rm
n (Gx ) dm (x) = m+n (G),

A J ?AI
m+n AI K = ANJA IE @A m n m+n (E ) = n (Ex ) dm (x).

Rm
GKA
=I ?KA J=I IE
JHE?=I FHKA>=
m+n (E ) =
Rn
m (E y ) dn (y ).
5ECKA
= CK
I ? H
=HE I
+ H =HE $
IA JEA A GKA )@A I
5E E L(m + n) JEA A A@E@= n (Ex ) < K J ? m (E y ) <
EJ= A J
?AI
? J
F=H= ?=IE J @
FK J
x Rm y Rn
m+n (E ) =
Rm
n (Ex ) dm (x) =
@A +=L= EAHE
Rn
m (E y ) dn (y ).
? J x Rm HAIFA?JEL= A y y m (E ) = m (F ) - J ?AI
+ H =HE $
2HE ?EFE
JA
? J
5A= E, F L(m + n) J= AI GKA y Rn IA JEA A n (Ex ) = n (Fx )
m+n (E ) = m+n (F ).
$ ! - 241 +121
- A F
$ $
,- +)8) 1-41
= > = K E@=@ -K? @A= A
!
5A=
B1 (0)
Rn
- J
?AI
n (B1 (0)) =
@ @A
-
n/2 (n ), 2 +1
/= =
(p) =
ABA?J
tp1 et dt
AI = BK ?E
KI= @
A FHE ?EFE
@A +=L= EAHE
( n = B
FKAI
1 n+1 , 2 2
) n1 = ( )
n i=1
( B (
1 i+1 , 2 2
) ,
1 = 2 = B
7I= @ = HA =?E
1 2 , 2 2
=B
) 1 ,1 . 2
B (p, q ) =
IA @A@K?A GKA
(p)(q ) , (p + q )
( ) ( ) ( 1+1 ) n+1 2+1 2 2 ) ( 2 ) ( ). n = n/2 ( n+2 2 n+1 2+1 2 2 n/2 (n ). 2 +1

5A=
2 H J= J
n =
>IAHL=?E - A F
$ & $ % 8AH J= >E CA I A
A - AH?E?E
1 JAHFHAJ=?E IE@AH=
JHE?= @A = E JACH=
[0, )
A@E> A O ?
Rm+1
E L(m) f : E
A ?
K J
G = {(x, y ) : x E, 0 y f (x)}.
- J ?AI
G L(m + 1)
m+1 (G) =
E
@ @A
f (x) dx,
dx
HAFHAIA J= $ '
>IAHL=?E
=F E?=?E O I IE
E L(n)
n n 5A FHKA>= A A IECKEA JA ?=F JK GKA IE T L(R , R ) =I n AI E A= AI @A R A I EI AI E LAHJE> A A J ?AI T (E ) L(n) I

?
n (T (E )) = |@AJ T |n (E ).
"
+)2 67
-,1,)5 24 ,7+6
>IAHL=?E
F=H= J @ BK ?E GKA
x f
$ 5A @E?A GKA K = BK ?E f : Rn R AI H=@E= IE f (x) = g (|x|) n R O ?EAHJ= BK ?E g : [0, ) R 5A FKA@A FH >=H GKA K = J= L1 (Rn ) IE O I = A JA IE tn1 g (t) L1 (0, ) O A J ?AI IA JEA A
Rn
f d = nn
0
tn1 g (t) dt. B (0, 1)

O
,A DA?D
IA @A $
KIJH= GKA
nn
AI A
HA= @A = AIBAH= K E@=@
- A
f L ((E ))
F 1
5A= A J
(x) = a + T (x) ? T L(Rn , Rn ) E LAHJE> A E L(n) 1 ?AI f L (E ) O f (y ) dy = |@AJ T | f (x) dx.

(E ) E
F = JAHE H = I ? K J I
ABA?J
>=IJ= =F E?=H A A A
G = {(x, y ) : x E , 0 y f (x)},
@ @A
G = {(x , y ) : x (E ) , 0 y f (x )}
G = H (G)
H (x, y ) = ((x), y )
$"
+ FHE ?EFE BK ?E A >=HC
- JA HA = @A .K>E E A Rm+n
IA D= @E?D
L(m + n)
? E ?E@A ?
L(m) L(n)
F @A
I A
KI=H A 6A HA 1 AI @A L (G) @ K = =@=FJ=?E
$ = @A .K>E E @A = 5A??E m+ n @A G R AI K =>EAHJ A =
F=H= HA@K?EH = E JACH= @A = E JACH= AI EJAH=@=I 5E $ ! O A ) AN = A
A= @A =I E@A=I @A = 5A??E @A JA HA
FKA@A @AI=HH
=HIA F=H= FH >=H K = LAHIE 6 A E
Rm+n
AC=JEL= - J ?AI
6A HA = $
= >
5A=
K = BK ?E
A@E> A O
f (x, )
AI
= BK ?E
A@E> A O
Rn
AC=JEL= A AI ?=IE
F ? J
xR
m
f (x, y ) dy
A@E> A A
? IA I=JEIB=?A = HA =?E
f d(x, y ) =
Rm+n Rm
( f (x, y ) dy
Rn
) dx.
5E = >
JHE?=
A JA AI
f (, y )
= BK ?E
A@E> A O
Rn
AC=JEL= A AI ?=IE
Rm
F ? J
y Rn
f (x, y ) dx
A@E> A A
Rn ) f (x, y ) dx dy.
IECKEA JA
f d(x, y ) =
Rm+n Rn
(
Rm
A
5A @= K = @A
IJH=?E
@A AIJA HAIK J=@
= IA??E
$ " - 6- 4- ) ,- .7*1 1 -
R M +N
A@E> A O AC=JEL= O IA ? IE@AH=
#
+ H =HE $ !
E JACH= AI
5E
AI K = BK ?E
=I
f d(x, y ),
Rm+n
( f (x, y ) dy
Rn
) dx,
Rn
( f (x, y ) dx
Rm
) dy,
JH=I @ I
Rm
A J
?AI =
EJK@ @A K = ?K= GKEAH= @A A =I E I JHAI L= HAI ) JH=I @ I A@E> A A C= F E?= = @A =I 5A= ?AI K J K
F E?= =
EJK@ @A =I
O = ? E ?E@A ?E= @A JHAI E JACH= AI E
A JA
= @ELAHCA ?E= @A K = @A =I
+ H =HE $ "
J @ FK J - J ? c ? E -NEIJA K J @
K = BK ?E
Rm+n
A
J= GKA
f = 0
@A
?=IE
M N
xM
J= GKA
f (x, ) = 0 f (, y ) = 0
= @A 6
?=IE J @
FK J
Rn Rm
F=H=
EE -NEIJA K J @ ,A
y Nc
IJH=?E
K J
J= GKA
?=IE J @
FK J
@A
F=H=
*=IJ= =F E?=H A 6A HA
A E = = BK ?E
|f |
O JA AH A
?KA J= GKA
Rm+n
|f | d(x, y ) = 0.
6A HA = $ #
= >
1
.K>E E
5A=
f L1 (Rm+n )
m
- J
?AI
f (x, ) L (R ) F ? J x R = BK ?E f (x, y ) dy AI ?=IE Rn

n
A@E> A A E JACH=> A A
Rm
f d(x, y ) =
Rm+n
Rm
( f (x, y ) dy
Rn
) dx.
5E = >
JHE?=
A JA
f (, y ) L1 (Rm ) F ? J y Rn = BK ?E f (x, y ) dx AI ?=IE Rn f d(x, y ) =

Rm+n
A@E> A A E JACH=> A A
Rn
Rn
AI
( f (x, y ) dx
Rm
E JACH=> AI O
) dy.
AC=JEL=I =F E?= @
,A
IJH=?E
=I BK ?E A E JA A
A 6A HA
= @A 6
I GKA
Rm+n
f d(x, y ) =
Rm
(
Rn
f (x, y ) dy
) dx =
Rn
(
Rm
f (x, y ) dx
) dy.
$
+)2 67
-,1,)5 24 ,7+6
2 H J= J
f d(x, y ) = (f + f ) d(x, y ) = Rm+n Rm+n ) ( + (f (x, y ) f (x, y )) dy dx =

Rm Rn
= JH= E JACH= EJAH=@= IA FH ?A@A ECK= $ 2=H= =>HALE=H AI?HE>E I
( f (x, y ) dy
Rm Rn
) dx.
>IAHL=?E
Rm
f (x, y ) dydx.
Rn
f (x, y ) dy
Rm Rn
dx =
2H F IE?E
$ $
5A=
R m +n
f L1 (Rm+n ) O m+n K = FAH KJ=?E f dx = . . . f dx(1) . . . dx(m+n) .

F E ?=H F I F H I H@A A I
- J
?AI
,A
IJH=?E
2=H=
2=H= IE E
p = m+n
>IAHL=
I GKA A @
= @A
E JACH= EJAH=@= E JACH=
@A
@A JH =?E
x = y
p @A xi = y(i)
= JH= IB H
L : R R
D=?E= =BKAH= p p
L(y ) = x
4AIK J= B ?E FH >=H GKA
f dx =
= = @
f L dy.
Rp
= 1 y = x F H A f L dy = . . . f L dy1 . . . dyp = . . . f dx(1) . . . dx(p) .
= LAHIE
JE @A JA HA
= @A .K>E E AI = IECKEA JA
6A HA = $ %
Rm+n
5A=
K = BK ?E
|f | d(x, y ),
I =I
Rm
Rn
Rm+n 5E K = @A =I E JACH= AI |f (x, y )| dydx, |f (x, y )| dxdy,

A@E> A A
Rn Rm
AI ?K =H
EJ=
JH=I @ I ? E ?E@A
A JA
f L1 (Rm+n )
F=HJE
f d(x, y ) =
Rm+n
Rm
f (x, y ) dydx =
Rn
Rn
f (x, y ) dxdy.
Rm
+ H =HE $ &
CH= AI
5A=
A@E> A A
=>EAHJ
G Rm+n
5E K = @A =I E JA
|f | d(x, y ),
G
|f (x, y )| dydx,
G1 Gx
|f (x, y )| dxdy,
G2 Gy
$ " - 6- 4- ) ,- .7*1 1 AI EJ= @ ?AI @A
R M +N
AI @A -
%
G1 , G2
I =I
=I FH OA??E
I >HA
JA A J
JH=I @ I ? E ?E@A
AIA
f d(x, y ) =
G
G1
,A>A
f (x, y ) dydx =
Gx
G2
Rm O Rn HAIFA?JEL= ?=I f L1 (G) O f (x, y ) dxdy,

Gy
,A
IJH=?E
>IAHL=HIA GKA
f d(x, y ) =
G
@ O
d(x, y ), f
Rm+n
.E = A JA
AI = ANJA IE F H ?AH @A f @A f (x, y ) f (x, y ) = G2 (y )Gy (x)f
(x, y ) = G (x)G (y )f (x, y ) f 1 x
$"

- AH?E?E I
A@E@=
0= =H =
n (n )
@A I
F E?A K E@=@
n = {x Rn : xi 0, Rn ?
=
n i=1
xi 1}.
IA ?
IE@AH= A @
E E H A
FHA @E@ n
A JHA @ I ?E E @H I E I?HEJ I AIA = A@E@= @A
A ?K>
[a, a]n
7I= @
>IAHL=?E
$ ?= ?
F=HJE?K =HE = @
IK L=
A AIF=?E
= 3 Q = (0, 1) (0, 1)
A ?K=@H=@ K E@=@
2H >=H GKA
f (x, y ) =
x2 y 2 (x2 + y 2 )
AI E JACH=> A A
"
-IJK@E=H = E JACH=>E E@=@ @A
f (x, y ) = y/ x
Q=
(0, 1) (0, 1)
# ,A A $ IJH=H GKA =I @ I E JACH= AI EJAH=@=I @A = BK ?E A ?K>
f (x, y ) =
Q = (0, 1) (0, 1)
x2 y 2 (x2 + y 2 )2 xy (x2 + y 2 )2
@EIJE J=I
2H >=H GKA =I @ I E JACH= AI EJAH=@=I @A = BK ?E IE
f (x, y ) =
=I
(x, y ) = (0, 0) f (0, 0) = 0 2 AI E JACH=> A A R 2 H J= J

BK ?E O GKA ? E ?E@= E
R2
ECK= AI O =
= BK ?E
GKA ANEIJ=
=I E JACH= AI EJAH=@=I @A K =
F E?= IK E JACH=>E E@=@
-IJK@E=H = E JACH=>E E@=@ @A
f (x, y ) =
Q = (0, 1) (0, 1)
& -IJK@E=H = E JACH=>E E@=@ @A K E@=@
x2 y 2 (x2 + y 2 )3/2
A ?K=@H=@
K E@=@
f (x, y ) =
Q = (0, 1) (0, 1)
1 >0 (1 xy )
A ?K=@H=@
&
+)2 67
-,1,)5 24 ,7+6
$#
- FH @K?J @A ?
FAH EJA @A
L K?E
EH ? FH FEA@=@ = FAH=?E
f g (x) :=
A JHA BK ?E AI E JACH=> AI A $ ! ? F JA ?E=
Rn
f (x y )g (y ) dy
$ &
Rn
AI A L= H @A FH @K?J @A ? L K?E A K J J= @A K IEIJA = I >HA @E?D FK J = E JACH=
>IAHL=?E
FK J GKA -
=I =F E?=?E
IK I >HA
x HAFHAIA
I FK J I A ?=I
J= =
=??E A AH?A
ANFHAI= @E?D= =??E
= @A = =??E
AI E @ELE@K= AI
f (x y )g (y ) dy
C |x| I F HJA A K
x
AMJ E= A
@A @A L
R3
=I BK ?E
AI I
f (x) =
g (x) = (x) @ =>EAHJ = ?
AI K = BK ?E K?E JEA A A
E JACH=> A O AIJA ?=I
AC=JEL= ? =
= B H
f g (x) = C
(y ) dy. |x y |
?AI ?=IE J @ FK J
6A HA = $ '
E EE = BK ?E
5A= A
f, g L1 (Rn )
$ & AIJ
- J E@= A
f g
@A I =
x Rn
f g
AI E JACH=> A A
Rn
f g (x) = g f (x)
F ? J
x Rn |f g |1 |f |1 |g |1 .
EEE 5A I=JEIB=?A = HA =?E
IJH=?E - FHE AH KC=H IA JEA A GKA h(x, y ) = f (x y )g (y ) AI A@E> A A R Rn FKAI ANEIJA K = IK?AIE @A BK ?E AI ? JE K=I ? I F HJA ? F=?J n A R fn gn J= AI GKA fn f gn g A ?=IE J @ FK J ) H = I A J ?AI GKA h AI A EJA A ?=IE J @ FK J @A K = IK?AIE @A BK ?E AI ? JE K=I @A n @ @A h AI A@E> A ) J= ABA?J D=O GKA FH >=H GKA IE N R AI K ? K J K A J ?AI N = {(x, y ) : x y N } AI J= >E K ? K J K - ABA?J ANEIJA Gk K IK?AIE @A?HA?EA JA @A =>EAHJ I N l m Gk O n (Gk ) 0 5E n F=H= A R ?K= GKEAH= @A E I A = {(x, y ) : x y A} A J ?AI ,A n
N l m Gk .
5E F=H=
M >0
AI?HE>E
DM = Rn {|y | < M }
N DM l m Gk DM ,
F=H= J @
>=IJ= ?
GKA @A
IJHA
I GKA
l m 2n (Gk DM ) = 0.
$ # - 24 ,7+6
)D H= KI= @ A JA HA
,- +
7+1
FHKA>= GKA
'
= @A .K>E E IA ?
2n (Gk DM ) = n (Gk )n ({|y | < M }).

-IJ ANF E?= = L= E@A IACK @ KC=H @A EJA O F H J= J GKA N AI K ? K J K h L1 (Rn Rn ) - ABA?J |f (x y )||g (y )| dxdy = |f |1 |g (y )| dy = |f |1 |g |1 . |h| d(x, y ) =
Rn Rn
Rn
Rn
Rn
2 H A JA HA
= @A .K>E E
Rn
(
Rn
h d(x, y ) =
Rn Rn
?K= FHKA>= GKA
) f (x y )g (y ) dy dx,
FK J AI E JACH=> A O GKA
f g
AIJ
@A
E@= A
?=IE J @
Rn
.E = A JA ?
f g (x) dx =
h d(x, y ).
Rn Rn
|f g (x)|
A J ?AI
Rn
|f (x y )||g (y )| dy, |h| d(x, y ) = |f |1 |g |1 .

A@E=J=
|f g |1
Rn Rn
AI E
= ?
KJ=JELE@=@ @A =
FAH=?E
,A
E?E
$ !
@A ?
$ "
5E L
f, g L1 (Rn )
K?E
= BK ?E
f g
@A ?
@A
E@= F H $ & IA
A FH @K?J >IAHL=?E
7 = =F E?=?E ?
@A FH @K?J
K?E
AI = IA= -
>IAHL=?E ABA?J IE
@A GKA f
g AI J= HACK =H g C (Rn ) Cc (Rn ) A J
g =K GKA f @A DA?D n ?AI f g C (R ) 2 H A A F x f g (x) = f (y )x g (x y ) dy. i i

Rn
=H BK ?E AI @A
-IJ= E@A= IA A HACK =HAI ?K= @ HACK =HAI
F A= F=H= =FH NE IA
L1
Lp
A@E= JA BK ?E
AI AI
IA HAA
F = = F H K = IK?AIE
=@A?K=@= @A BK ?E
? A I HACK =HE = JAI
2=H= AIJ=> A?AH = FH FEA@=@ = JAHE H >=IJ= ? GKA f n L1 ( K ) F=H= J @ ? F=?J K R ABA?J F=H= loc
n L1 loc (R ) AI |x x0 | <
@A?EH
f g (x) =
K
@ GKA @A
f (y )g (x y ) dy
@A
K = {x : d(x) + d(x0 )} @
x f i
d(x) = @EIJ (x, I
g)
,A =D IA @A@K?A
g (x) =
K
f (y )x g (x i
y ) dy =
Rn
f (y )x g (x y ) dy, i
F=H= J @
(N {0})n
!
+)2 67
-,1,)5 24 ,7+6
,A
E
E?E
K = 1
$ !
7 = B= @A
E E= @A BK ?E ? A I =FH NE
AI = JAI IE
AC=JEL=I
K L1 (Rn ) > 0
IA @E?A K = IK?AIE
F=H= J @
EE 2=H= J @ - A
@
> 0 l m0
6 = I
{|x|> }
K = 0
F
@A
$ #
1 K (x) = c exp{ 1| x|2 } IE |x| < 1 K (x) = 0 A |x| 1

= GKA
c>0
IA A ECA @A B H
K = 1.
- J ?AI = B= E E=
=FH NE
= JAI
>I LAIA GKA =I
K (x) = n K (x/) ? B H K I C A Rn
= K = IK?AIE
@A
? A I
5A JEA A = IECKEA JA FH FEA@=@
2H F IE?E
AI @A I ,A A
f L1 (Rn ) K AI = @A
IJH=?E
$!
- J - A
5A= ?AI F
L1 (Rn )
K K = IK?AIE =H>EJH=HE= @A f = K f f A L1 (Rn ) 5E A n $ # A J ?AI f Cc (R ) -IJ
? A I =FH NE F=HJE?K =H
= JAI O
= IK?AIE n IEC E ?= GKA Cc (R )
5A JEA A
f (x) f (x) =
Rn
(f (y ) f (x))K (x y ) dy = (f (x y ) f (x))K (y ) dy,

Rn
@A @
@A
Rn
|f (x) f (x)| dx { +
|y | Rn
K (y ) K (y ) }
Rn
|f (x y ) f (x)| dx dy = |f (x y ) f (x)| dx dy
|y |
|y |
Rn
|y |
A @ @A
sup fy f L1 (Rn ) + 2f L1 (Rn )

- FHE AH J H E AI FAGKA IE
K (y ) dy,
O A
fy (x) = f (x y )
I =D H=
AI FAGKA
IACK @ .E =
JEA @A = ?AH
?K= @ ? A
0+
A - A F $ #
6A HA = $ !!
?K= @
p<
5E
f Lp (Rn )
I CA AH=
A JA
1p< A J IE G AI K =>EAHJ f (y )K (x y ) dy
?AI @A
f f A Lp (Rn ) Rn f Lp (G) 1
f (x) =
G
$ $ 6- 4- ) ,- +)7+0;2-)
A J ?AI
6)
!
n f f A Lp (G) ?K= @ 0 ) C= A JA IE f C (R ) HAI n FA?JEL= A JA C (G) A J ?AI f f A C (R ) C (G) ?K= @ 0 @ @A ? LAHCA ?E= A C (G) IEC E ?= ? LAHCA ?E= K EB H A A ?=@= IK>? K J ? F=?J K G
,A
AI f
IJH=?E
= ANJA IE @A
= IACK @= = H F H ?AH
=?E
AI ?
IA?KA ?E= @A = FHE ?AI = JE = E JACH=
AH= F HGKA IE AI IE =
BKAH= @A
G
I
A J
ANFHAIE
K f
AH= AI?HE>E
2=H= FH >=H = FHE
|y |
|f (x) f (x)|
p
)D H=
K p Lq (B (0,))
|f (x y ) f (x)|p dy. A , n
K p Lq (B (0,))
@ @A
A n(q1) q
p
A = K p Lq (B (0,1))
2 H J= J
p f f p Lp (Rn ) An sup fy f Lp (Rn ) , |y |

@A n = n (B (0, 1)) 0+ @ 5A I=>A GKA A JE J H E JEA @A = ?AH ?K= @
$$
+ I=JEIB=?A
6A HA = @A +=K?DO2A=
IE@AH= I K = BK ?E ? JE K=
J=
GKA $ '
f : [a, b] Rn R Rn Rn
|f (t, y )| M
F=H= ?EAHJ= ? IJ= JA F IEJEL=
(t, y ) [a, b] Rn ,
M
=
6A HA = $ !"
2=H= J @
y0 Rn A FH > A { y = f (t, y ) y (a) = y0 , y (t)

@A E@= A
F IAA = ,A
I K = I
K?E
[a, b]
A
IJH=?E
1 JH @K?E
I = HACK =HE =?E
@A = BK ?E
f (t, y ) =
@ AI
Rn
K (y z )f (t, z ) dz,
F AIJ $ # - J =? J=@= A ?AI = BK ?E n
C
2 H
@A
I ?
I =@
? A I HACK =HAI @A - A = = L=HE=> A
HAIFA?J JH
O ?
[a, b] R
f
F H
= IAH
Rn
yi f (t, y ) =
yi K (y z )f (t, z ) dz,
1 i n,
!
+)2 67
AI =? J=@=I A = =FH NE
-,1,)5 24 ,7+6
= @A 2E?=H@ E @A %
BK ?E
[a, b] Rn
=@
LEHJK@ @A JA HA
A FH > A
y = f (t, y ) y (a) = y0 ,
E@= A
=@
EJA K =
E?= I
K?E
y (t)
@A
[a, b]
6= I
K?E
?K
F A
y (t) = y0 +
a
,A =GK IA @A@K?A GKA = B= )@A I =I CH ?=I @A E E=
f (s, y (s)) ds.

AIJ A ? K EB H K EB K= A A A JA =? J=@= A [a, b] K = [a, b] {y : |y H A A JA =? J=@=I A [a, b] [a, b] -NEIJA F H J= J K = A A A JA = K = ?EAHJ= ?AI
{y (t)}
A
y0 | M } )IE EI =I @AHEL=@=I y (t) AIJ F H M KAC = B= E E= {y (t)} AI AGKE? JE IK>IK?AIE yn (t) @A y (t) n 0 GKA ? y (t) ? JE K= A [a, b] + fn f K EB H
y (t)
O=?A
F=?J
LAHCA K EB H A JA A
A J
fn (t, yn (t)) f (t, y (t))

K EB H A A JA A
[a, b]
2=I= @
EJA A
yn (t) = y0 +
a
>JA A I
fn (s, yn (s)) ds
t
y (t) = y0 +
a
F=H=
f (s, y (s)) ds,

FH > A =
t [a, b]
GKA FHKA>= GKA
y (t) HAIKA LA A { y = f (t, y ) y (a) = y0 ,
[a, b]
$%
- FHE
) AN
= I K = FHKA>= E @AFA @EA JA @A 6A HA AI = IECKEA JA FH FEA@=@ = $ & AH F=I
,AI=HH
2H F IE?E
,A
O
$ !#
5=>A K I
5A=
E L(m) F L(n)
- J ?AI
E F L(m + n)
m+n (E F ) = m (E )n (F ).
IJH=?E
I 2 H J= J I GKA
E = B \ M F = B \ N
@A
B, B
> HA E=
M, N
E F = (B B ) (M c N c ) = (B B ) \ O,
$ % ) -:
@ @A
!!
O = (M c N c )c = M Rn + M c N
AI K $ ? K J JH =@ GKA I ? K @A I=>A 2 H ?
BB E F L(m + n)
I GKA I =D H= A @A
Rm+n
F H J= J
@A AI K
L(m + n)
> HA E=
A @A
= $ !%
R m+ n
2H F IE?E
?A JH=
IJH=H GKA
m+n (E F ) = m (E )n (F ).
2HE AH= A JA A A ?=I @A =>EAHJ I
G, G G
HAIFA?JEL=
IA AI?HE>A GKA
K E
@EI K J= @A E JAHL=
I @E @E? I
Ir
Js
A JA ?
m+n (G G ) = m+n (r,s Ir Js ) =

r,s
= E@A JE@=@ AI L 5KF A E@= E @AFA @EA JA
r,s
m+n (Ir Js ) =
r
m (Ir )n (Js ) = (
A JA @A IE ?AI
m (Ir ))( n (Js )).

s
A@E@= EJ=
I =>EAHJ I JEA A
I =D H=
EF
=? J=@ I - J
E F = B B \ O
@ @A
E = (l m Gr ) \ M := B \ M,
=I IK?AIE AI K
F = (l m G s ) \ N := B \ N,
I
Gr G s
I IEA @
@A?HA?EA JAI = A JA
Gr , G s
=>EAHJ I O
I ?
K J I
M, N
m (E ) = l m m (Gr )
+
n (F ) = l m n (G s ).
AI
m+n (E F ) = m+n (B B ) = l m m+n (Gr G m m (Gr )n (G s ) = l s ).

KAC
m+n (E F ) = m (E )n (F ).
O IKI A ?=I EA CA AH=
E = l m Ek F = l m Fk @
KAC
@A =I IK?AIE
AI I
?HA?EA JAI
>H I =? J=@ I
m+n (E F ) = l m m+n (Ek Fk ) = l m m (Ek )n (Fk ) = m (E )n (F ).
,A = ?=H=?JAHE =?E
@A =
A@E@= FH @K?J
IA IECKA GKA
!"
+)2 67
-,1,)5 24 ,7+6
2H F IE?E
HAIJHE??E @A
$ !$
m+n
5E =
m+n AI = A@E@= Lm Ln AI m n
@A
A>AICKA A
Rm+n
A J
?AI =
m+n |Lm Ln = m n .
A = $ !%
- J ?AI
M H
5A=
M L(m) K
AI K ?
K J K O A
H Rn
K J
?K= GKEAH=
K J
F=HJE?K =H
M H L(m + n).
,A IJH=?E
5A FKA@A AI?HE>EH
M H = n M Hn
@ K @A
Hn
AI =? J=@
F=H= ?=@=
n O AI E
AI ?
A@E=J
LAH GKA
M Hn
AI K
K J
2H F IE?E
$ !&
m n
F AJ=
H= GKA HA E= A J
,A IJH=?E 5E A ? K J H @A A = ?K F A =D M H / Lm Ln 5E A >=HC ANEIJA B M H > + B Lm Ln AI m+n K KAC m n K

? F AJ=
H / Ln
? ?AI
A J
?AI AI
A@E@= ?AH
m n
2H F IE?E
,A
J= J O
$ !'
5=>A HA?J ? =?E CK K J
Lm+n
AIJ K @A
AI = ?
F A??E
HA?J CK
@A
Lm Ln
A@E@= @A EJ= F H AI K
IJH=?E
J @ AI K = = H
I GKA J @
A Bm+n m+n ?AI @A
ABA?J
E m n @A E = B\N @
IA IECKA A J
Bm+n m n = Sa (m
J = @ 2 H AI K ? ? JH K J F A??E =@ K IE AI O @A >IAHL= @ A J GKA
n ) Bm+n ,
O
E L m+ n
A>AICKA A
?AI E m+n
Bm+n = Lm+n = F + H @ @A F Lm Ln
,A =D
m+n (E ) = m+n (F ) = m n (F ).
,A =D
m+n
AI ?EAHJ=
A JA =
E ,A
= ANJA IE E = I ?K
F AJ= @A A ?
m n
K J
,A
IJH=?E
@A 6A HA
= $ &
C (m, n)
C (m, n) = {A L(m + n) : A
? = >
F A = > O ?}
Ax L(n)
= BK ?E
F=H= ? J
x Rm
AI ?=IE A@E> A
x n (Ax )
$ % ) -:
? IA I=JEIB=?A GKA
!#
m+n (A) =
Rm
n (Ax ) dx.
O = J= ABA?J
$ IA FH ?A@A F H AJ=F=I
5A JH=J= @A FH >=H E 5AC DA I LEIJ
C (m, n) = L(m + n)
L(m)
ABA?J
L(n) = {E F : E L(m), F L(n)} C (m, n).

F=H= J @
n (Ax ) = n (F )E (x)
AI K = IK?AIE
x Rm
A J ?AI
EE 5E
Ak
?HA?EA JA A
C (m, n)
A = l m Ak C (m, n).
2=H= FH >=H IA JEA A GKA
Ax = k Ak,x = l m Ak,x L(n)

F ? J F H
x Rm = BK ?E f (x) := n (Ax ) = l m fk (x) ? fk (x) = n (Ak,x ) AI ?=IE IAH =I fk ,A JA HA = @A = ? LAHCA ?E= J = f (x) dx = l m fk (x) = l m m+n (Ak ) = m+n (A),
GKA GKAH = = IK?AIE I @A IJH=H
A@E> A
GKA AI EEE 5E
Ak AI K
?AI
@A?HA?EA JA A
C (m, n) J=
GKA ANEIJA j0 ?
m+n (Aj0 ) <
A J
A = l m Ak C (m, n).
= J=?E @A EEE J= I =D H= GKA
7I= @
fk fk0 L1 (Rm )
2 H AI
f (x) dx = l m
? GKA
fk (x) = l m m+n (Ak ) = m+n (A),
f (x) dx = m+n (A). C (m, n)
EL 5E
Ak
AI K = B=
E E= A
@A A A
A J I @EI K J I @ I = @ I A J
?AI
A = k Ak C (m, n).
>=H L 6 @ ABA?J KAC
A = l m Bl @ A C (m, n)
@A
Bl = A1 + + Al C (m, n)
AIJ A
AI B ?E ?
FH
=>EAHJ
G Rm+n
C (m, n)
-IJ
IA IECKA @A GKA
AI = K E J @ I =
@EI K J= @A K = B=
E E= @A E JAHL=
I @E @E? I
I ?K= AI FAHJA A?A
C (m, n)
!$
+)2 67
-,1,)5 24 ,7+6
@A K = B= @A E E=
LE 6 @ K IK?AIE LEE 6 @
=? J=@ IE
A Rm+n A
AI K
AI K
AH=> A @A =>EAHJ I FAHJA A?A = ABA?J
G
@A
G C (m, n)
A J
IE AI = E JAHIA??E ?AI KAC
=? J=@
@A?HA?EA JA @A =>EAHJ I =? J=@ I ? K J K
A = l m Gk @ A C (m, n)
+
Gk
AI K =
Rm+n FAHJA A?A = C (m, n) n (Ax ) dx = 0

? K J K
=@A
I IA JEA A
IA FKA@A =IACKH=H = ANEIJA ?E= @A K
M Rm
J= GKA
n (Ax ) = 0
JH=I F= =>H=I ?=IE J @=I =I IA??E A@E@=
x M c.
AI @A K ? I K J K JEA A =IE EI
@E
A IE
= ?AH =?E @A K E@=@ AI?HE>E
2=H= FH >=H = = H
A = Aj
+
Aj = A B (0, j ).
ANEIJA K
Aj Aj Bj
AI K )IE
? EI
K J
=? J=@ KAC
0=
Bj C (m, n) n (Bj,x ) dx
O =? J=@
Bj
J= GKA
n (Bj,x ) = 0
c x Mj .
)I
0 = n (Bj,x ) n (Aj,x ) = n (Ax )

-IJ = H IEC E ?= GKA =?E E E?E= I = A JA A 6A HA
x M c = (Mj )c .
? J
Ax
AI K
K J
x Rm
?K=
FHKA>=
LEEE 2H >= +=@=
= $ & +K= GKEAH @A A A
@EI K J= @A K = IK?AIE
Ek L(m + n)
E L(m + n)
AI = K E
A J I @EI K J I O =? J=@ I
Ek
I=JEIB=?A = HA =?E
Bk = Ek + Nk
@ @A
Bk
AI K
Nk
AI K
J @ I A
Rm+n
,A = E@A JE@=@
Bk,x = Ek,x + Nk,x

IA @A@K?A
Ek,x L(n)
F ? J
)@A
n (Bk,x ) = n (Ek,x )
F ? J
n (Ek,x ) AI E JACH=> A ? m+n (Bk ) = n (Bk,x ) dx = n (Ek,x ) dx = m+n (Ek ),

.E = A JA FHE ?EFE GKA
FKAIJ +
GKA @AI@A K DA
I FH >=@
m+n (Bk ) = m+n (Ek ) Ek C (m, n) A J ?AI Bk C (m, n)
$ % ) -:
>IAHL=?E
= @A > =I = H
!%
AI $ $
=?E AI @A 6A HA JHE?= =HE $ AI ? J ? E? IA?KA ?E= @EHA?J= @A 6A HA GKA IA A = $ & = = $ & HABAHA JAI = =I IA??E AI
y IA @A KAIJH=
= AH= IE
JAIA GKA A + H )D H= IECKA K
HAIK J=@ $ "
F A= F=H= = FHKA>= @A 6A HA
@A .K>E E @A = 5A??E
A = $ "
= >
5A=
f L(Rm+n )
K = BK ?E
E JACH=> A O IE
F A - J
?AI
f (x, )
AI E JACH=> A O IE
= BK ?E
FA A
F ? J
xR
m
Rn
f (x, y ) dy
AI E JACH=> A A
f d(x, y ) =
Rm
( f (x, y ) dy
Rn
) dx.
Rm+n
5E = >
JHE?=
A JA AI E JACH=> A O IE
f (, y )
= BK ?E
FA A
Rm
F ? J
y Rn
Rm
f (x, y ) dx
AI E JACH=> A A
Rn ) f (x, y ) dx dy.
f d(x, y ) =
Rn
I = BK ?E
(
Rm
Rm+n
,A
IJH=?E
-I?HE>E
f=
O >IAHL= I GKA
N k=1
k Ek
f (x, y ) d(x, y ) =
Rm+n
FKAI A E JACH= @ E JACH=> AI 2 H JH =@ AI K = ?
N k=1
k m+n (Ek ) =
Rm
N k=1
) k n (Ek,x ) dx
>E =?E
E A= @A BK ?E
AI ?=IE
A@E> AI GKA I
f (x, ) =
@A @ @A
N k=1
k Ek,x Rn
F ? J
f (x, )
AI IE
F A A E JACH=> A A
f (x, y ) dy =
Rn
N k=1
k n (Ek,x ).
!&
+)2 67
FHKA>= GKA = E JACH= @A FHE AH EA >H
-,1,)5 24 ,7+6
?=IE A@E> A
-IJ
AI K = BK ?E
?KO= E JACH=
Rm
( f (x, y ) dy
Rn
I @A
) dx =
f (x, y ) d(x, y ),
Rm+n
GKA AI
GKA GKAH =
IJH=H 5E
,A
IJH=?E
@A 6A HA
= $
AI
A@E> A
AC=JEL= A J
?AI
f = l m fj
@ A ? @A A EJA AI FK JK= O
Rm+n
fj
AI K = IK?AIE
@A BK ?E
AI IE
= E JACH=>E E@=@ AI ?
IA?KA ?E= @A ?=H ?JAH
EJ
F AI A E JACH=> AI m+n @A R 2 H
IECKEA JA
f d(x, y ) = l m
Rm+n
J= E@A JE@=@ = E JACH= @A =I BK ?E AI ?HA?EA JA F=H=
R m +n
fj d(x, y ).
EJ= A K J E K EJ= = I )@A
JAIA GKA A )IE EI K = IK?AIE
FKA@A IAH
fj (x, ) I x Mc @ Rn
A@E> AI A @A
Rn
?
= $ " O B H
AI K
l m fj (x, ) = f (x, ).
2 H J= J A
f (x, )
AI
A@E> A A
F=H= J @
x Mc
= $ " @E?A =@A
I GKA
Rn
Fj (x) =
AI A@E> A A
fj (x, y ) dy
Mc
2 H
J= J
J=
>E
f (x, y ) dy
Rn
F (x) =
AI A@E> A A
M c F
J =
AI ?=IE
A@E> A A
Rm
E JACH= 6A HA
= @A = +
LAHCA ?E=
F (x) dx = l m
Mc
Rm
F (x) dx =
Rm
JAIA GKA
Fj (x) dx. )
F (x) dx =
Rm
Rm
( f (x, y ) dy
Rn
dx.
2 H
JH
=@
l m
Rm
Fj (x) dx = l m
Rm+n
fj d(x, y ), ) dx.
LEHJK@ @A
= $ " -IJ
FHKA>= = E@A JE@=@
f (x, y ) d(x, y ) =
Rm+n
+ =
f (x, y ) dy
Rm Rn
JH= E JACH= EJAH=@= IA FH ?A@A ECK=
+=F JK
1 JACH= @EBAHA
%
@A A>AICKA O
?E=?E
%
5E
6A HA = @A @EBAHA ?E=?E
f
AI K = BK ?E ? JE K= A K E JAHL=
@A A>ACKA
[a, b]
AI ? ?E@ GKA
F (x) =
a
@A A K = BK ?E
f (t) dt
C1
[a, b]
O GKA IK @AHEL=@= L= A
F (x) = f (x)
,A DA?D 7 A K ?E=@ AIJ= AI K = @A =I LAHIE @A I > AJEL I @A ?=F JK = E JACH= @ I
x [a, b].
= BK @= ANF A J= @A ? = ANJA IE ?K @A AIJA
AI @A JA HA ? IEIJA A -
H=H
I CA AH= AI
F=HJE?K =H
?K= @
AI E JACH=> A
A>AICKA 5A JEA A @A DA?D
A IECKEA JA HAIK J=@
6A HA = %
5A=
f L1 (a, b)
- J
?AI IK FHE
EJEL=
F (x) =
a
f (t) dt
O @A DA?D
AI @AHEL=> A A
?=IE J @
FK J
x (a, b)
F (x) = f (x)
F=H= ?=IE J @ >IAHL=?E
BK ?E
x (a, b)
% -IJK@E= I A A +=F JK 111 = ? JE KE@=@ =>I KJ= @A =
F (x)
!'
"
+)2 67
= % @A CH= @A E JAH I A JHA IJ I HA= E = A J= @A JH=I HA=I A
% ,1.-4- +1)+1
A + ?K @A 8=HE=?E JE K=?E AI )
- 6A HA AI ? @
IA?KA ?E= @A K = IAHEA @A HAIK J=@ I GKA AIJ=> A?A @A FHAIA J=?E I = IECKEA JA
I = ?
>IAHL=?E A JA GKA
) AI?HE>EH A ? ?EA JA E ?HA
D= =
I B ?E
F (x + h) F (x) 1 = h 1 (I )
@ O @ @A
f,
I
@A IE
I = (x, x + h)
@A HA? H@= -IJ= HA ANE
I GKA
I = (x + h, x) @AFA F (x) = (a,x) f 1 n (B )
@EA @
AI F IEJEL
AC=JEL
E LEJ= = ?
IE@AH=H F=H= K = BK ?E
f L1 (RN )
I FH
@E I
f (y ) dy,
B
O AIJK@E=H IK x RN O IK L 2 H A GKA @A ? 2 @A ?K I J=H@A ?
EJA ?K= @ K A J A JA @HA IE@AH=
=I > I A
=I =>EAHJ=I
F=I= I ?
F H K >
FK J
=@
AI @A?EH IK H=@E JEA @A = ?AH A JA GKA JH=J= K J I =I AK? @A=I =K I CA AH= AI = BK @= A J= I ? A@E> AI ECAH= A JA
I A K ?E=H K = AIFA?EA @A ANJA IE
CA AH= @A JA HA
6A HA = %
J ?AI
6A HA
= @A @EBAHA ?E=?E
@A
A>AICKA
5A=
f L1 (RN )
1 l m (B ) n n (B ) 0 xB x RN
AH= >IAHL=?E A A
f (y ) dy = f (x)
B
F=H= ?=IE J @
7 = FHE
A J= AI = IECKEA JA
2H F IE?E
%!
5E
f L1 (Rn )
AI ?
JE K= A
A J
?AI
1 l m n (B ) 0 n (B ) xB
,A IJH=?E
5A JEA A GKA
f (y ) dy = f (x)
B
|f (y ) f (x)| <
IE A
|x y | < 5E B AI ?K= GKEAH > = =>EAHJ= ? H=@E rB 2 GKA F=I= J ?AI B B (x, ) F H AI 1 1 f (y ) dy f (x) |f (y ) f (x)| dy < . n (B ) B n (B ) B
F H
% 6- 4- ) ,- -*-5/72=H= =I ?E=@=
"
f L1 (Rn ) = f ?
IA @A
= BK ?E
=NE
@A 0=H@O
EJJ AM
f (x) = sup
@ @A A IKFHA
x B
1 n (B )
|f (y )| dy,
B
=I =>EAHJ=I
IA ANJEA @A = J @=I
=I >
GKA F=I=
F H A
FK J
x
5A=
6A HA = % "
E EE
f L1 (Rn )
FK J
- J
?AI
AI
A@E> A F=H= ?=IE J @ =?E
f (x) <
x Rn
EEE 5A ?K
F A = AIJE
n ({f })
@ @A
A |f |1 ,
%
A = 3n
% = AIJE =?E % IA = = K = @AIECK= @=@ @ >E ,A DA?D
>IAHL=?E
AI K = AIFA?EA @A IK>IJEJKJ @A = @AIECK= @=@ @A 6?DA>O?DAL = ?K= IAH = L E@= IE f BKAIA E JACH=> A DA?D IJA GKA AI ?EAHJ A CA AH= >IAHL=?E % " JAIA F H JH =@ GKA @A 6A HA = % IA IECKA GKA |f | f A ?=IE J @ FK J .E = A JA EE AI ? IA?KA ?E= @EHA?J= @A EEE HAIK J=@ @A HA?K>HE EA J
= FHKA>= @A EEE HAGKEAHA K
A = % # %
- J ?AI
5A=
B = {B1 , . . . , BN }
K = ? A??E
=@
EJA K = IK>B=
E E= @EI K J=
{Bi1 , . . . , Bik }
@A > =I =>EAHJ=I @A @A B H = GKA
Rn
n (i Bi ) 3n n (k Bik ).
>IAHL=?E
B= @AFA @A @A % ! AH A = = H = GKA = BH=??E = @A =I > A J @A E E= @EI K J= AIJ =? J=@= E BAHE H E @A J= A JA F H K = ? =I @A =I= HA?K>EAHJ= F H = IK> n IJ= JA 3 GKA
B B = B (x, R)
,A
B = B (x , R )
IJH=?E
= >=IA @A =HCK I @ I > =I ?
B B =
AI = IECKEA JA = H =?E IE O R R A J ?AI
B 3B := B (x, 3R).
ABA?J IE
y B
d(y, x) d(y, x ) + d(x , x) < R + d(x , z ) + d(z, x) < 3R,

@ @A
AI K E
FK J I @A
@A = E JAHIA??E I? IECKA -
)D H= FH ?A@A O IKFHE HAIK J=@
BJ
? =
= IK
B i1
K =>
= @A H=@E
NE -
AI K = B=
@E?D= > = K J E E= B @A > =I ?
J @=I =GKA =I =
=I GKA ? HJ=
N 1 A A
A J I 5E AI GKA A
"
+)2 67
GKA@= > IE@AH = @A H=@E =I @A B = =I GKA ? HJ= =I ? NE >JA C
% ,1.-4- +1)+1
O = GKEJ @A
Bi2
K J
? =I @=I J=I I
J @=I =I > B ? = IK =I > )@A =I @A
=I K = K?D
KAL= B=
E E= @A >
N 2 Bk
A A
A J I 6H=I ? >EA AI
F=H= B H =
=H K = IK>B= @A
I J @= >
N F=I I IA I=?= J E E= {Bi1 , . . . , Bim } @A > =I @EI K K = B ij >EA ? HJ= = K = Bij -
@ I ?=I I
Bk 3Bij .
2 H ? IECKEA JA
k Bk j 3Bij .
,A =GK
n (k Bk )
n (3Bij ) = 3n
n (Bij ) = 3n n (j Bij ).
= IECKEA JA = H 1 - AH?E?E !
=?E
IA FH FKI
IK
A J
A AH?E?E
+=F JK
A =%$
5A=
E L(n)
- J
?AI ? F=?J
n (E ) = sup{n (K ) : K E, K
,A
K
}.
- J ?AI
IJH=?E
E JAHL= ?
5KF F=?J
C=
I GKA
AI K
K J
=? J=@
EI I
)@A
I ANEIJA
Gk
K = IK?AIE
@A?HA?EA JA @A =>EAHJ I
J= AI GKA
I E l m Gk I
2 H J= J
n (I E ) = l m n (Gk I ).
E l m I (Gk I )
+
l m n (I (Gk I )) = n (I ) l m n (Gk I ) = n (E ).
AI K ? F=?J @A
I (Gk I ) = I Gk
F @A F=?J
I ?
? KEH GKA
n (E ) = sup{n (K ) : K E, K
5E
}.
@A =? J=@ I
AI K
A@E> A CA AH=
E
?
AI = K E F=?J
?HA?EA JA @A K = IK?AIE J= GKA ? F=?J
Ej
,=@
>0
ANEIJA K
Kj Ej
n (Ej ) < n (Kj ) sup{n (K ) : K E, K

6 = @ EJAI A
}.
j
? F=?J
n (E ) sup{n (K ) : K E, K
-IJ FHKA>= = = H 0A I FH >=@ =?E = IECKEA JA FH FEA@=@
}.
% 6- 4- ) ,- -*-5/7-
"!
2H FEA@=@ % %
6 @
K J
@A
L(n)
IA FKA@A HAFHAIA J=H A
= B H
E =K +N
@ @A
AI K
K J
AI K
F=?J
AI @A?EH K = K E
H=> A @A ? ,A
@A ?
F=?J I
= = H J= GKA ? =?E K J
IJH=?E
IJH=H F=?J
E = Ej
@A
F=H= ?
K J I =? J=@ I
Ej I =? J=@ I *=IJ= FKAI E L(n) 5E Ks E AI K
n (E )
A J ?AI
1 < n (Ks ), s
GKA ?K F A
K = s Ks
AI K
F=?J
n (K ) = n (E )
-IJ
FHKA>=
= FH FEA@=@
,A
IJH=?E
@A 6A HA
= % "
2=H= FH >=H E
J=
I GKA IE
x {f > }
1 n (B )
|f | > ,
B
F=H= = CK = > = =>EAHJ= B ? x B -IJ IEC E ?= GKA f (x ) > F=H= J @ x B KAC {f > } I AI A@E> A IE GKA AI =>EAHJ 0A I FH >=@ @A DA?D GKA f AI IA E? JE K= E BAHE H A JA )IE EI F=H= ?=@= x {f > } ANEIJA K = > = =>EAHJ= Bx GKA ?K F A
n (Bx )
Bx
- J A ? ?AI J @ =I ? F=?J
|f |.
HA?K>EAHJ A A )I F HK AH EA J FAH EJ @A EJA
J= AI >
{B1 , . . . , BN } =
K {f > } AIJ
=I GKA =F E?= @
= @A HA?K>HE
JH=H = IK>B=
E E= @EI K J=
{Bi1 , . . . , Bim } K s 3Bis .
KAC
n (K ) 3n
7I= @ A ?=H ?JAH @EI K J
n (Bis )
3n |f |. s Bi s
@A =I >
=I HAIK J=
3n |f |. n (K ) s Rn
-IJ FHKA>= EEE % " 5E
>IAHL=?E
E JACH=> A
f L1 (Rn )
AI E@
JE?=
A JA
K =
= BK ?E
AI
""
+)2 67
ABA?J
% ,1.-4- +1)+1
2=H=
Br0
|f | > 0
F=H= = C
r0 > 0 Br = B (0, r) ( |f | |f |

Br 0
|x| r0
HAIK J= GKA
f (x)
-IJ FHKA>= = % #
1 n 2n |x|n
B2|x|
1 2n n
1 . |x|n
E JACH=>E E@=@ @A = AIJE =?E A
f
EEE @A 6A HA = % " AI FJE = 6 A I
>IAHL=?E
?
I F HJA A
B1
A E JACH=
|f | = 1.
B1
- J
?AI F=H=
|x| > 1 f (x) 1 . n (B (0, |x|))

I
2=H=
>JA AH = @AIECK= @=@ J
B (0, |x| + ) 1 n |x|n
O D=?A
0+
2 H J= J
f (x)
F=H=
|x| > 1
-IJ
@E?A GKA
{x : 1 < |x| <

>IAHL= = I =D H= GKA = A@E@=
1 } {f (x) > } ()1/n n

@A ? K J @A = E GKEAH@= AI AGKEL= A JA
1/
?K= @
0+
2 H J= J
n {f (x) > }
F=H=
c ,
J= @A GKA IA J A
0+
2 H
J=
FH NE
IA @AIAA ? F E?=
FAGKA
JH= F=HJA
JAIA GKA EEE E
n {f (x) > }
F=H= J @
3n ,
@A 6A HA
K J
,A
IJH=?E
= %
%
*=IJ= ?
@A
IJH=H GKA F=H=
> 0 ?K=
GKEAH= A ?
E := {x :
1 lim | n (B ) 0 n (B ) xB
f (y ) dy f (x)| > }
B
JEA A
A@E@= ?AH
% 6- 4- ) ,- -*-5/7) J= ABA?J J = I
"#
g Cc (Rn ) 1 n (B )
>IAHL=
I GKA
1 n (B )
f (y ) dy f (x) =
B
(f (y ) g (y )) dy +
B
1 n (B )
2 H J= J
(g (y ) g (x)) + |g (x) f (x)|.

B
1 lim | n (B ) 0 n (B ) xB
,A J= @
f (y ) dy f (x)| (f g ) (x) + |f (x) g (x)|.
F = {(f g ) (x) >

HAIK J= GKA O A 6A HA = % " JA A I GKA
} 2
G = {|f (x) g (x)| >

7I= @
} 2
c c E F G F Gc E
= @AIECK= @=@ @A 6?DA>O?DAL
n (F ) + n (G ) 2
5E B H A >=HC A LEHJK@ @A IA= J= = GKA
3n + 1 |f g |1 .
8
I HAIK J=@ I @A +=F JK FAGKA = ?
FKA@A AI? CAHIA @A
|f g |1
IA GKEAH= ,A =D
n (E ) = 0
n f L1 loc (R )
,A
f L (K )
1
E?E
%&
5A=
f
?
K = BK ?E F=?J ? KIE
I
F=H= J @ = ?
6 ? =
@A
A@E> A A n = %
Rn
5A @E?A GKA
IE
+ H =HE % '
,A IJH=?E
= J @= >
@A 6A HA
AI ?EAHJ= IE
n f L1 loc (R )
O
x BN
O H=@E
B2N = B (0, 2N ) rB < N 2 IA B B2N .
2=H= J @ JEA A
x BN = B (0, N )
5E
= B f f 2N
A J
?AI
1 n (B )0 n (B ) l m
F=H= J @
= f (x) f
B
A J ?AI
x Rn \ M n (M ) = 0
?AI GKA
.E =@
x BN \ M
O @=@
>0
IA JEA A A J
B ? xB rB < m n{, N 2 } 5E A
F=H= J @=
1 n (B ) rB < |
AIJ
f (x)| < f
B
F=HJE?K =H F=H= J @= > IEC E ?= GKA =
>=HC
|
GKA AI GKA GKAH = I @A
1 n (B )
IJH=H
B B2N
xB
KAC
f f (x)| < ,
B
"$
+)2 67
% ,1.-4- +1)+1
n f L1 loc (R )
IE
5A @E?A GKA
x Rn
AI K
FK J
@A
A>AICKA @A
1 l m n (B )0 n (B )
A @ @A =I > =I
|f (y ) f (x)| dy = 0
B
EJA F=I= F H A FK J
HABAHE@=I A
f
,A
6A HA = %
n L1 loc (R )
+=IE J @ I
x Rn
FK J I @A
A>AICKA @A K = BK ?E
f q L (R )
n
2 H AI
IJH=?E 1
%
2=H= J @
=K GKA
q Q f L (Rn )
1
IA ?K
F A GKA
n f q L1 loc (R )
FAH
n (B )0
F=H= J @ K ?
xB
l m
1 n (B )
?
|f (y ) q | dy = |f (x) q |,
B
K 6 = I
c x Mq Mq
K
K J
M = q Mq
GKA AI J=
>E
K J
2 H J= J
n (B )0
xB
lim
1 n (B )
|f (y ) f (x)| dy
B
n (B )0
F=H= J @ @AIA=@=
xB
l m
1 n (B )
|f q | dy + |f (x) q | = 2|f (x) q |,

B
x Mc
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= L= E@A = A
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a
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x [a, b]
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F
A
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K J
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= BK ?E
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= 0
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@ @A
n An = Ik
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n
IE
= @A E JAHL=
n n Ik = [an k , bk ]
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= l m n ,
@ @A E EE
n n
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JE K= A
I n (0) = 0 n (1) = 1
=
AI ?HA?EA JA O @A = B H
x +
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EEE
n n ( Ik )=
k1 k , 2n 2n
n Ik
EL -
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IJ= JA A F=H= @A EH
n n [bn k , ak+1 ] k = 1, . . . , 2
k1 k , 2n 2n
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k = 1, . . . , 2n
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n IA J Gn = I \ An
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n (an k) =
,A =?KAH@ ? AIJ
k1 2n
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k 2n
n =
1 . 2n
n+1 = n
+
x Gn .
Gn
AI ?HA?EA JA IA JEA A A J
?AI GKA
n+h = n
2=H= FH >=H = = H =?E
x Gn
h.
E JAHL= @A
FHA?A@A JA IA JEA A GKA K IJA E JAHL= ? E ?E@A ?
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n I Ik -I E
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A JA A A ?=@=
n+1 n
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= 0
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g:II
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? FH FEA@=@AI AIFA?E= AI 6 = I
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+
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HAIFA?J
@A
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+)2 67
% % AIJ F=FA K 2=H= K = A@E@= ? I ?
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IEC I ? (N ) = 0 F=H= K J I K
N I=JEIB=?EA @ N N A@E> A
A@E@= F IEJEL= A@E@=I ? '
I F=H= K =
IA?KA JA
A JA
FHA?A@A JA IA FKA@A ANJA @AH =
HAB H
IECKA
(E )
=0
?K= @
||(E ) = 0
2H F IE?E
I E EE EEE
% !

@A
5A=
K =
A@E@= ?
IEC
=I IECKEA JAI FH FEA@=@AI
AGKEL= A JAI
+ | |
O @
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% "
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K = A@E@= F IEJEL= > 0 J= GKA (E ) = 1 J= GKA n 2
J= GKA F=H= J @
n ANEIJA En
(En ) 0 . E = lim En ,
IA ?
FHKA>= @EHA?J=
A JA GKA
(E ) = 0
FKAI
( k=n Ek )
2 H JH =@
1 . 2n1
(E ) = (lim En ) lim (En ) 0 ,

GKA ? JH=@E?A = KAL= @A E?E @A ? JE KE@=@ =>I KJ=
7 = ?
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2H F IE?E
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(E ) <
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f L1 (X ) A J (E ) = f d
E
F A
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JA HA
= @A 4=@
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Pn
Nn I N AI
F IEJEL
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F = {f : X [0, )
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:
=
f d (E ) E A}
= L=HE=?E
a = sup
F AI L=? = FKAI 0 F ) H F - ABA?J IA JEA A FHE c IE E = {f > g } F = E A = AH= J
f F
f d.
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IA = ?= E =A K = BK ?E
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f0
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f, g F
F E?=
m ax{f, g } F
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A
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AF
AE
F=H= J @
m ax{f, g } d f d + g d (A)
A F
AA
2 H
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+ IE@AH= I =D H= = A@E@= F IEJEL=
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= f0 d.
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f n d.
n X
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n (X ) +
n X
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f=
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n
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f = f f
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x
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[a, b]
x [a, b]
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m k=1
|Fk |
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,;
##
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F=HJE?E
AI @A
[a, x]
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Vn
n n
|Fk | +
n,k
F HGKA
n n
|Fk | =
I
|Fn,k |,
A
? HHAIF
@A =
= B=
E E= @A E JAHL= O
In,k In,k
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k
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E JAHL=
CA AH=@
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n n
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#$
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2 H J= J +
V AC [a, b]
FA JE F=I AI?HE>E I
F (x) = V (x) (V (x) F (x)) := F1 (x) F2 (x).

=I BK ?E IA IECKA @A AI
F 1 , F2
=>I
KJ=
A JA ?
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EA JH=I
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F (y ) F (x) |F (y ) F (x)| V [x, y ] = V (y ) V (x),

F=H=
x<y
E?E AI
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= FHKA>= AIJ 5E
F AJ= A J ?AI
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@A
% I HA
F AC [a, b]
AI @A L=HE=?E ABA?J @=@
=? J=@= F=H= =I
EJE
I = +=F JK
111 -
ANEIJA
n
F=H= J @= B= 6 GKA = I K = 5E E E=
|Fn | < 0 ,
JAHL= I @EI K J I ? JAHL= I GKA JEA A
In = (an , bn ) @A E F=HJE?E 0 @A [a, b] ?

@A
1 (In ) < 0
CEJK@ A H
AI ?K= GKEAH F=HJE?E
lE [a, b]
IEA @ GKA
|Fk |
@
0
@A
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AI A
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E JAHL= @A
s = ( 0 ) Is
AI @A L=HE=?E
IE
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FHKA>=
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6A HA
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L=HE=> A
5A D= LEIJ @A A A??E K J I K >= D A
GKA F=H= ? A
IJHKEH K IA LE I ? ?
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K J @A>AH = IAH ? A +=F JK
A@E> A IA HAGKEAHA A =NE F E?=@ JH= IB H =H ? FH % GKA A A CA AH=
2=HA?A AIJ A@E> AI 5E H I
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FHAIAHL=
K J I
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= IECKEA JA IA??E A@E> AI A K I
I GKA A
GKA K = BK ?E
JE K= JH= IB H
AGKEL= A JA = GKA @E?D= BK ?E
FHAIAHLA
&
?=
6H= IB H =?E
KAIJH FHE AH > AJEL
@A ?
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K J I
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AI A HAIK J=@
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IJH=?E
f : G Rm ?AI f (E ) Lm
K J ?AI K O
? IE
IA =F O= A
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2H F IE?E
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&
5KF
5A= A JA
N R
f : N Rm m n
? K J
C
K =
EFI?DEJ E= = - J
C= I F=H= A
f (N ) AI K f
AI
Rm
O GKA
FA =H GKA
EFI?DEJ
>= A
|f (x) f (y )| L|x y |,
F=H=
x, y N | |
HAFHAIA J= =
= E
EJ
,=@
>0
ANEIJA K = IK?AIE
@A ?K> I =>EAHJ I
Ik Ik = xk + ak Q Q = (1, 1)n n (Ik ) < . N Ik

?K> A J @A =HEIJ=
GKA HA?K>HA
O ?K
F A
f (N Ik ) Ik
4AIK J= A J
?AI GKA IE x, x0 @ @A Ik AI K
m (f (N ))
?AI |f (x) f (x0 )| ak L 2Lak 2 H J= J
KAC
n (Ik ) < Lm .
#%
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FHKA>= GKA
& +) *1
,- 8)41)* -
-IJ -
f (N )
AI K
K J
?=I E @A
CA AH= B O
EFI?DEJ E= = O F H J= J AIF=?E K
F IAA K A J H Ux @ @A f f (Ux ) AI K ? K J K + N Rn N AI N = Uxk KAC f (N ) = f (Uxk ) O f (N ) AI K ? K ?=@= FK J
x N
AI K J
,A
AI ? K
IJH=?E
O
@A 6A HA
? F=?J A@E> A
= &
5E
E Rn
AI KAC
A@E> A
2H FEA@=@ % %
E = F +N @ f (E ) = f (F ) + f (N )
@A
AI K
K J
&
. H K = @A ?= >E @A L=HE=> AI F=H= =F E ?=?E AI E A= AI

5A=
6A HA = & !
,A
B H
f : Rn Rn
K = =F E?=?E
E A=
- J
?AI
&
n (f (E )) = | det f | n (E )
IJH=?E
= = = H K = =?E I F @A I ? AI JHELE= F HGKA ?A JH=H A n A =??E A
E Ln .
?=I A GKA
f (R )
det f = 0
@A
JH= F =
JEA A
A@E@= ?AH
5A JH=J= =D H= @A B=?J HE =H = B H
AI IA ?E =I
f1 , . . . , fM
GKA ?K
n (fi (E )) = | det fi | n (E )
F=H= J @ JA A FAH=?E E 5K
E Ln 1 i M
FAH=?E AI A A =H = A J= AI > IE?=I I =
K = = =I =
K
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IJ= JA @A =F E?=H K = @A AIJ=I FAH=?E AI
K JEF E?=H = AI K = =JHE =JHE
F H K = ? AI A HAIK J=@ ?AI
= =
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n n Ei I A J
Ai = Ei A
AI A HAIK J=@ ?= @A =F E?=H = ? @A FAH=?E =
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FAH=?E
AI A A
J= AI IA ? @E ?= = =F E?=?E
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AI GKA JEA A FAH=?E 2 H A A
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= >=IA @A ?
E?= = @A = ? HHAIF
fi
{e1 , .i.)., ei , j. . i.), ej , . . . , en } {e1 , .i.)., ej , j. . i.), ei , . . . , en }.

2 H JH =@ A J @ @A A E E =?E @A /=KII FAH FAH=?E AI A A EJA
HA@K?EH J @= A J= AI -I @A?EH =JHE E LAHJE> A
= = E@A JE@=@
A@E= JA
I = E1 . . . EM A
1 1 A = EM . . . E1 .
& ! +)5
=I
/- -4)
@EHA?J= IJ=I ?AI FAH=?E A JA K = @A =I A J= AI = FAH=?E = @ AI A A A J= AI E EE EEE GKE I K F ? =I ?E=@= = ?
#'
1 Ej
I @A
>E =?E =HC= @A JA A
-I @A?EH AI A A
@A =HHE>= AI ?
>E =?E
fi
= = =F E?=?E
1 Ei
I A J
f = f1 fM .
)D H= = H @A EE EEE + ? IE@AH= A@E I = I GKA J @=I =I FH >= I GKA
fi
?K
F A =H =
& -IJ FAH=?E
AI ALE@A JA A = 5E = K
I ?=I I EE
I = L= E@A AI @A
F=H= =
E 7I= @
FAH=?E
? HHAIF
@A = IK
= @ I = =
Q = (0, 1)n
f (Q)
=I A?K=?E
y1 = x1 + x2
KAC
y = x
x = (x2 , . . . , xn ).
f (Q) = {(y1 , y ) : y Q := (0, 1)n1 , y2 y1 y2 + 1}.

7I= @ GKA >E= 1 I HAIK J=@ I @A +=F JK I = IA $ LAH >IAHL=?E =I
n (f (Q)) = n (Q) = 1 @ x2 x2 + f 1
?K F A & .E =
=I A?K=?E JEA A A@E@=
AI @A
AI E A@E=J ? FH >=H f 1 I =I @A f ?= AI E O EEE J= O >E FH >=H AIJA
>JEA A KI= @
FAH=?E
A JA IE
EJ= >=IJ= ?
?=I @=@
ANEIJA K = IK?AIE
@A ?K> I =>EAHJ I
Ik
E Ik
n (Ik ) n (E ) +
n (f (Ik )) n (E ) + (f (E )) n (E ) + .
A HAIK J=@ IA FKA@A =F E?=H =
2 H J= J GKA
n (f (E )) n (E )
F A &
f 1
IA JEA A
?K
>IAHL=?E & 2 H K A@E I A A A J= -I?HE>E I f (Q) = A + B @ @A A = {y2 < y1 < 1} B = {1 y1 < y2 + 1} 5E B e1 = {0 y1 < y2 } >IAHL= I GKA n (B e1 ) = n (B1 ) @ @A B1 = {0 < y1 y2 } + ? KE I
n (f (Q)) = n (A) + n (B ) = n (A) + n (B1 ) = n (Q),

GKA AI GKA IA GKAH = FH >=H
&!
+ A@E> A
+=I CA AH=
IE@AHA = I
f : (X, A, ) (Y, B , ) f ( )
5KF
K = =F E?=?E
AIF=?E I @A
A@E@= IA = =@ I A@E@= FK >=?
C= I GKA f (A) f @A ?B A
B AI @A?EH f 1 X IA @A A ?
>EOA?JEL= A JHA
I AI
f (E ) = (f (E )).
GKA = IA??E = JAHE H IA @A IJH GKA F=H=
EI
H I
@A
Rn
IA JEA A
f n (E ) = det(f )n (E ).
$
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5A=
& +) *1
,- 8)41)* K I E JAHL= A J @A ?AI
A =&"
ANJHA
I H=?E
, Q =>EAHJ n = AI a, b Q
Rn O J = [a, b) [a, b] 1 5E f C (, Q) AI K @EBA H n (f (J )) | det(f )| dx.

I @A
J
@A A = F=H= I =@A = JA
2 IF LEA A >EA
= @A
IJH=?E
IECKEA JA
A = &#
A@E> A - J
5A=
(X, A, )
AIF=?E
@A
A@E@=
f : X [0, ]
K = BK ?E
?AI
(E ) =
E
f d
AI K = 5E
A@E@= AI K = BK ?E A@E> A IA JEA A
f : X [0, ]
g d d =
.E = ,A A JA IE IJH=?E
@ @A =I
g df d.
A J ?AI
AI IE AI
f >0 fn
I
?=IE J @
=?E IE
FK J
AI ?
-
F AJ= IE
A ?=I
AI
= = H
AI ?EAHJ= IE F AI =I BK ?E
F A
CA AH=
f =
l m fn
(E ) =
E
I A@E@=I O AI K =
f d
A@E=J= J= O A JA GKA
A@E@= -
(E ) = l m n (E ) = sup n (E ) 5A ? ? KOA E ABA?J IE {Ek }kN AI K = B= E E= @EI K

k
E = k=1 Ek
n (E ) =
2 H JH =@ F=H=
n (Ek )
(Ek ) (E )
(Ek ).
N
N k=1
N k=1
(Ek ) =
N k=1
l m n (Ek ) = l m
n (Ek ) =
n
CA AH= J= J ?K= J = = IACK @= = H ? =?E
N l m n (N k=1 Ek ) = (k=1 Ek ) (E ).
IJ= AI E J A@E=J= IE = @A BK ?E
AI IE AI IE
F A O A F AI 2 H
g = l m gn
gn
K = IK?AIE
g dn d = l m g dn f d =
g df d.
g d d = l m
& ! +)5
/- -4)
$
2H F IE?E
? K J
&$
A@E> A
5A=
f C 1 (, Q)
IA JEA A GKA
@EBA
H I
- J
?AI
F=H= J @
n (f (E )) =
,A IJH=?E
2=H= A
| det(f )| dx.
&
FA =H IA JEA A GKA
(E ) =
E
| det(f )| dx
I LAH GKA
AI K =
A@E@= ? A = I ?
F AJ= A
3KAHA GKA
n (f (E )) = (E )
F=H= J @
FH >= @
n (f (E )) (E ),
F=H= J @ + @E @E? I
& !
E
J @ =>EAHJ
G IA AI?HE>A ? G = Qk @ @A n (f (G)) = n (f (Qk )) (Qk ) = (G).

=? J=@ = IK?AIE O @EIJ(E, )
Qk
?K> I
5KF A I =D H= GKA E AI l m Gk @ @A Gk Gk AI K n (B ) = n (E ) - J ?AI
>0
- J
?AI
EB=
A JA
@A?HA?EA JA @A =>EAHJ I .E =
n (f (E )) n (f (B )) = l m n (f (Gk )) l m (Gk ) = (B ) = (E ).
5E ?
E
@E?E
AI ?K= GKEAH ?
K J =
A@E> A
E = l m Ek
@A
Ek
AIJ
=I
AI FHA?A@A JAI O B H
K = IK?AIE
?HA?EA JA )I
n (f (E )) = l m n (f (Ek )) l m (Ek ) = (E ),
F H JA HA JH=@= )D H= >IAHL= I GKA & ! IA FKA@A AI?HE>EH ? = @A = ? LAHCA ?E= J = = @AIECK= @=@ & ! D= IE@ @A I
f (E ) (y ) dy
Q
2 H J= J
= @AIECK= @=@
f (E ) f (x)| det(f )(x)| dx =
f (E ) f d.
g (y ) dy
Q
AI ?EAHJ= F=H= BK ?E ? LAHCA ?E= 1 JAH?= JEA A >E= @ J
AI IE
g f (x)| det(f )(x)| dx =

F AI
g f d,
F H F=I = KC=H @A EJA O
AC=JEL=I O @A =D AI A@E> AI
= F=H= BK ?E =D H=
I F=FA AI @A
g : Q [0, ] Q KI= @ f 1 A
IA
g f (x)| det(f )(x)| dx
g f f 1 (y )| det(f )(f 1 (y ))|| det(f 1 ) (y )| dy,
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@A
& +) *1
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@A @
g f (x)| det(f )(x)| dx

Q
?AI GKA F=H= J @= BK ?E 0A ?K I ? F A ? KE@ A J
g (y ) dy.
A@E> A
g : Q [0, ]
IA
g (y ) dy =
Q
A@E=J=
g f (x)| det(f )(x)| dx.

A JA @A & "
& "
= HA =?E
&
IA IECKA E
6A HA = & %
F A
g f | det f ()| L ()
1
=I ?
@E?E
AI FHA?A@A JAI F A = HA =?E
g L1 (Q)
& "
IE O I
A JA IE
O IA ?K
C=
>IAHL=?E 1
&
5KF
I GKA
(F ) A
F=H= J @
EB M(Y ) g
f : (X, A, ) (Y, B , )
- J ?AI
AI >EOA?JEL= O ?K
f :
@ @A @A
M(X ) f (g ) = g f,
AI A@E> AI AIJ >EA @A E@
HAFHAIA J= = ? =IA @A =I BK ?E FAH=@ H FK >=? =I ?E=@
IA
E = A
f
AI FHA?A@A JAI O
+ H =HE & &

JEA A
2=H=
, Q
Q
=I ?
@E?E
g L1 (Q)
IA
g dy =
f (g ) d(f n ),
@A
FHE
@ ,A
F @E
@A
d(f n )
AI = A
A@E@= FK >=? = & "

@EI K J= ? H = E -
n
AH
L =
f
>IAHL= GKA E=>EAHJ I
IJH=?E
AH ? AJH 7I= J=
@A
KC=H IA
K = K E FAGKA I =D H= =
J = N k=1 Jk
@A ?K> I IA
J IA FK@A [ak , bk ) @A
O
IA GKEAH=
?A JH
x0
EJ |x| = m ax |xi | 7 ?K> Q @A =HEIJ= r r r 1, x 0 + 2 1) n (Q) = rN 2 H JH =@ Q = [x 0 2 ( ) Kr f (Q) B f (x0 ), n (f (Q)) K n rn = K n n (J ), 2 IA AI?HE>A ?
@A
K = supQ |f |
= @AI? F IE?E @A
7I= @
JA A
n (f (J )) =
- ACE )I I
n (f (Jk )).
O F A I
xk J k
k
J= GKA
| det f (xk )| = m nJ k | det f |

k
Tk = f (xk )
n (f (J )) =
1 n (Tk Tk f (Jk )) =
1 n (Tk f (Jk ))| det Tk |
1 n {sup |Tk f |} n (Jk ))| det Tk | | det f (x)| dx,

k Jk J
&" +
@ @A
4,- ),)5 -5. 41+)5
$!
1 n = m axk {supJ k |Tk f |} 2=H= AIJE =H F A I 1 1 Tk f (x) = I + Tk (f (x) f (xk )),
KAC
= @
= supJ |(f 1 ) |
1 |Tk f (x)| 1 + sup |f (x) f (xk ) 1 + , Jk
IKFKAIJ F=H= GKA J= J
GKA A @E = I?E =?E
AJH @A
@A
Jk
IA D= J A
=@ H GKA
IK ?EA JA
A JA FAGKA @A A
? I 2 H
f (x)
IA=
?=@= K
n (f (J )) (1 + )n
J
| det f (x)| dx,
F=H= J @
>0
2 H J= J
DA
I JAH
E =@
&"
-
+
Rn
J
H@A =@=I AIB HE?=I

= I n
2 H = Re1 Re3 Ren ,
O = BK ?E
F :
@A
R+ (0, 2 ) (0, ) (0, ) (r, , )

E@= ?
n2)
Rn \ H x = F (r, , ) = r(, ), sen n2 sen n2 sen n2 sen n2 r cos n2 ,
x1 x2 x3 xn1 xn
IEA @ IA @A
= r cos sen 1 = r sen sen 1 = r cos 1 = =
sen n3 sen n3 sen n3 r cos n3
r = |x |
O FH >=@
5A FHKA>= F H E @K??E n J = I x Rn+1 A H @ @A x AI = FH OA??E F=H=
GKA F \ Hn+1 HJ C
AI >EOA?JEL= -IJ L= A F=H= n = 2 n - J ?AI x R \ Hn F=H= AI n = @A x A R {0} -I?HE>E I
x = (x , 0) + xn+1 en+1 ,
?
xn+1 = r cos n1
- J ?AI
n1 (0, ).
|x | = r sen n1
{ x = r sen n1 (, ) xn+1 = r cos n1 .

@A
,A =D
-IJ
FHKA>= = ?
IJHK??E
O = = H
=?E
@A >EOA?JELE@=@
$"
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& +) *1
,- 8)41)* -
*E> E CH=B =
0 6 6 0
-I?DAH
) = OIEI 111 *EH D KIAH *=IA EIEI =JA

8
' = '&
)F IJ
JE?
4ALAHJ
*=H?A
! " #
)F IJ *HA EI +AH@
+= ?K KI ) ) EIEI .K ?E EIEI 4A=
I 4ALAHJ ) E= =
*=H?A
= '
=
-@E?E
=@HE@ '&! = *=H?A =
I 7 ELAHIEJ=J @A *=H?A
$ %
+D GKAJ / + FFA 9
6 F
)
C = 6 H=O
=II
=H=C
= '%
5J=>E EJO = @ =IO

F= O * IJ
FJ JE? >AD=LE H
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, + 0A=JD = @ + & '

. = @ / = ) *
4A= ) = OIEI 9E AO . K @=JE I B @AH 4A=
.HEA@
) = OIEI , LAH
; '& 5FHE CAH AM
0AMEJ -
5JH
>AHC
= @ =>IJH=?J = = OIEI
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E
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6 F
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4K@E 9
2HE ?EF AI
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F AN ) = OIEI , LAH
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$%

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6A H = @A = A@E@= +KHI @A 1 JH @K??

1 JACH= AI GKA @AFA @A - AH?E?E I

,AIECK= @=@AI ,AIECK= @=@AI @A 0 p -IF=?E I L JA E@ I ,A IE@=@ - AH?E?E I

& += >E @A L=HE=> A

*1* 1 /4). ) ,1+- ) .)* 61+

5A HA? CA A E JACH=?E ?KHI I + J I = H= JA K B H =

=I FHAIA J=I F=HJE@ A

= 7 ELAHIE@=@ @A I >HA A JA =O?

=JAHE= > IE? AIJHA

I A AH?E?E I FH FKAI = O IA E F=HJA @K

I ,A>A HAI= J=HIA GKA =

CA JAI = =I ?=H=I @A ?K> ECK= = @ I JAH?E I @A ?K> GKA IA ? IJHKOA @A AIJ=

HAIK J= @A KJE E@=@ F=H= =I > LA@=I 0AH

= @ELAHI=I ? =IAI @A ? =H E@A=I A ?=I HA= 2HE

K J I =>IJH=?J I O AIJK@E= =I E JACH= F E=I @A BK ?E O HAF=IA @A F =

KO CA AH= AI @A ? =IAI = AH=

R = {{a, b} {c, d} : a, b, c, d R, a b, c d},

(R) = (b a)(d c).

J= AI GKA IKI E JAHE HAI I A@E@= =JKH=

HA= 2 H AI IA E JH @K?A = B= E R2 =? J=@ IA @A A

>JA E@= =>=H?= = K = ? =IA = E JACH= @A 4EA

HA= = K = ? =IA J @=L = ANJA @EA @  = E JACH= @A

A>AICKA -IJA FH ?AI

Cpula de Hern: interseccin de dos cilindros inscritos en un cubo

= > IGKA@= @A K = AI ?=FHE?D I= +

D=?A AIF=?E = AK? @A= 5E F A??E

= CA AH= E =?E IA F = JA= ?K AIF=?E ? LAHA ?KO H = AH= = = JHE? F AJ I

@A AIJA AIF=?E = AH= @A I= A

IA I=>A GKA

GKA AI A AIF=?E I CA AH= @A = H

IACKEH = ECK= @=@

a0 + an cos nx + bn sen nx. 2 n=1

f (x) cos nx dx,

f (x) sen nx dx.

m = n HAIFA?JEL= A JA EA cos mx sen nx dx = 0.

= IAHEA A = ? =IA =I BK ?E 4EA I= = =

E = = IAHEA @A . KHEAH CA AH=@= F H AI GKA FKA@A ,= EA *AH = IACK @=

?EA JAI @AFA @A = F=@HAI @A = AI AH= E JH @K EI

= JH=L I @A =I E JACH= AI IA = =@=I 2 H J= J K E O ?E . KHEAH = H @A E JACH= ?E =>=

AC=H = HAFHAIA J=HIA @A AI= B H GKA J @=I * I=JEIB=?J HE=

B=?JE> AI HAGKEAHA K = = @A = ?

EJ=@ @A :1:IK A JA ?K= @

@A E JACH= FHA?E A =H?

A JA F=HA AIJK@E=H A FH > A EIEI @A A>AICKA

LAHCA ?E= @A = IAHEAI @A . KHEAH IA JH=J= A

IA A HEGKA?A IK>IJ= ?E=

LAHCA ?E= K EB H AH @A K EJA A ? ?AFJ

=CHAIEL= O AI @AIA=> A @EIF @A

KJA ? A>AICKA EJA IA

= @= KJ=H E JACH= O F=I HAIFA?J = F=H AI K AJH I L =IA A N F = AJ= R ?

= @EBAHA ?E=?E CA AH= K

IJ= JA @A CH=LEJ=?E = E JACH= = B IE?=

JE?= E JAHAI= I=>AH IE

A JA @EBAHA ?E=> A BKAH= @A

IJ= JAI 2HK >AIA GKA ?K

FHK >AIA GKA

2H >=H GKA ANEIJA

5E K = BK ?E F JK ? A @A ? B H I FK J I > A 4EA IA JE@ DA?D =

" HAIK J= GKA

>I HLAIA GKA

JE K= O J @=L = IAH 4EA @A GKA JEA A

E JACH=> A ,A DA?D @A IKI FK J I @A @EI? "

JE KE@=@ AI FAGKA F H A =O H = @A J=> A

1 1 /4). ) ,1+- ) .)* 61+

HA= = K = ? =IA J @=L = ANJA @EA @ = E JACH= @A

A>AICKA -IJA FH ?AI

D=?A AIF=?E = AK? @A= 5E F A??E

IA I=>A GKA

m = n HAIFA?JEL= A JA EA cos mx sen nx dx = 0.

?EA JAI @AFA @A = F=@HAI @A = AI AH= E JH @K EI

B=?JE> AI HAGKEAHA K = = @A = ?

EJ=@ @A :1:IK A JA ?K= @

= @= KJ=H E JACH= O F=I HAIFA?J = F=H AI K AJH I L =IA A N F = AJ= R ?

" HAIK J= GKA

E JACH=> A ,A DA?D @A IKI FK J I @A @EI? "

A@E@= ?AH +=F JK

I AIJ=@ I @A KE@ I AIJ AI E L ?

A>AICKA J= GKA ANEIJA ?AI GKA ?K

EA J I H CE@ I JH=I =?E

6=HI E & GKA F=HJE?E AI

' " *= =?D O 6=HI E

2H FEA@=@ " 2H FEA@=@ #

CA>H= CA AH=@= F H K = ? =IA

CA>H=I FH >=H GKA

AI @A?EH AIJ 5A= ? EJ ,A -

2 n - R ? IE@AH= I A = {k=1 Jk : Jk = {ak , bk } {ck , dk }, Ji Jl = i = l} = ? =IA @A I ? K J I