Wilt aha tH NORMAN J. WALKER NDTreface/About the Author ii Glossary of Abbreviations and Tet osoenne lil Introduction. Chapter. Heat and Temperature : 3 ha Temperature nn. 3 12 Hedteseeennnnnninnnnnnnnnnennee 3 13. Heat Tas esnseecemnernnennennmnen 132 Conduction 4 132 Convection aed 133. Radiaton 14. Summary Chapter 2 Infrared Radiation. 21 The Electromagnetic Spctum.. 22. The Infrared Wavelength Region 23, Planck Wien and Boltzmann re 9 24. Emissivity Evaluation... 10 2.42 Surface Fish, ut 2.43 Angle of Measurement. 0 24 Reflected Temperature (lamb) son 245 Temperature and Emisii.nnnneeennn 2 25, Determining Emission =) 251 A Demonstration of Emission ooes 34 252 Determination ofan Uniriown Emissiiou5 26 Summary 7 sn Chapter 3 Tafaed ThernographicEgabrerl 7 BA trod ution sno 0 2 “Te Ht of infared magi tes 8 33 Infrared Systems 8 331 Infrared Radiation Thermometer. 19 332 Thermal Scanners 20 333, Thermal images. 34 _IRT Detector Performance. 2 34: Spot Radiometer, er 35,_ Lens Selection. a) 351 Zoom Seley 36 WOr SWovccvmmmnnynnnnnnn nn 24°95 3,7 IRT Camera Operation .. a5 371 Operating Functions and Features nnn 26 38 Colour Paletes, a 39° Build Quality and Ergonomics... 8 310 Calibration and Senicing.. 3a Sofware : 8 $3312 Software Selection un 29 352 General Support Equipments. 2 3.121 Digital Cameras. 29 312.2 Colour Printers... 30 323 Computer Requirements vncnsennnnnnn 30 333, Summary eer tao. Chapter 4 Good IRT Inspection Practices. x 4 RT Camera Settings and Measurement Procedures. 3 4. Emissivity Setting. onsen z 412 Palette Selection. men 413. Range, Level and Span Settings .os.suessonnn 33 lg Object Distance sn ——— it 42 Environmental Awareness Ey 42 Temperature Changes aes 42.01 Thermal Capacitance nvm 4 42.1.2 Mass Transport. 4 42.13 Phe Change enn sone 5 42.14 Energy Conversion. at % 42.15 Direct Transfer Differences 5 43 Summary 36 Chapter § Applications... 338 51 Electra. sasannrane 7) 5. Electrica Faults 39.40 5.2. The Efets of Circuit Loading nic 40-44 5.1.3, Load Measurement a) coon 4547 5.15. Electrical Component inspection 8 51.6. Misconceptions Associated with IRT Electrical Inspection nnn 49 517 Cable Tighten 9. nn 4518 Case Studies 5051 5.9 Eleatre Motors 253 5.110 Fequeney and Timing of IT Inspection 54 52 Mechanical. 55 5.21 Baseline Images 5556 522 Drive Trai sanrnnsnetnoren smeremntmnnne 56 52.3 Bearing PrODleMS erences: SPB 524 Seal. 8 25 Pumps. 9 526 Compressors. 60.62 5529 Limitation of IT in Machine Diagnostics... 5.2.8 Steam Heating vn 152.81 IRT Inspection of Steam Systems nnn 6465 5.282 Steam TAPS nnn nn 68 53 Chl Engineering OT 531. IRT Inspection Prerequisites. 9 532 Sefety ai son 88 5333 The Building Envelope wnvnewnsonnnnnn 6B 533.Theral Insulation wn 69:70 5.33.2 Air Leakage 77 5.33.3 Water Ingress. R 534 Strctual Finishes B 535, Stuctual Details vennennnnn Th 53.6 Aerial Energy SUVEYS nwo on B 54. Miscellaneous Industrial Applications... 76 54: Refractory Lined Vessels, ee; 5.42 Industral Process Monitoring. 7 5.43 Printed Circuit Boards (PCBS). B 5. Conveyance Stes. onnnn 39 5.45 Aerial Surveys of Pipelines een 580 $5. SUMAN. enemas 80 Chapter 6 RT Image Analysis. 61 Qualitative Exaluation wn 6: Defective Evaluation through Target Signature se BA Ga Defective Evaluation through Target Symmetry. 43 Defective Evaluation through Target Comparison no & 62 Quantitative Evaluation ccs 85 6.2 Differential Temperature (87) Measurement - 86 6.22 Trending... usenet 36 6.23 ATrending Strategy. 8 Ce ) CChapter7 Quality Assured IRT inspection 89 et) 12 Reporting Non Problems. o 721, Quality EvAlUaION nnn 9 12.2 Image Composition 2 123 Application Knowed nnneonn 2 73, Competence oo B 74 Safety Secor a 7.43 The Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 (HWA) nnn 4 7.42 Elect at Work (EAW) Fegaons 1989. ; 4 343 Consttuction (Design and Managemert) Regulations 1994 (CDM) se 3.44 Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations 1998 (PUWER) soonnnnenennn 94 7.45 Management of Heath ard Saya Wo Repltons 1999 (MHSW) nnn 8 75. Developing Witten Procedutes wxnnunnm 9 7 RISK ASSESSMER evernsnannnnnnnn 77. Summary. ae cans annex A Report Example nnannnnennnn S907 Annex B Bibliography mnnennnneeemnn UST ‘Append A Absolute Temperature Ciera based on Bish and European Standards ones OBS ‘Appendic B Table of Emissivity ennevennnnneTable _ Themogrepic applications Table 2 Aamo of dasson efor esesing he sro fla tempts. mds Table3 An example of lookup table for assessing the severity of electrical faut temperatures and recommended action Table 4 Matimum operating temperatures for eect motors Therm _Thermogapic Image ofa fuse with a faulty electrical contact Figure Erecoragre pect lating sbdhision of te inared waelengh region a) Fiewe2_Planckian Cures for blackbody emissions at various temperatures Figure 3 Temperature measurement compensation fr incident angles less than go degrees Them2 Athamegapi mag feeder so dink cars coning water adit tempers Sai Figure 4 Infared thermal imaging camera and accessor. 9 Figures Inared Radiation Thermometer. meee 9 Figure 6 Closssecnl ew of sang ether inspingame . 20 Figure 7 llustration ofan FPA Sytem... Fire Ate der coeng ig 08 plesen and xe np wer 2 Figue9 Inadequate coverage of detector element ut the lave smal object size, resuiting in inaccurate temperate messi nnnn 22 Fgue 10 Planck's Cures ilstratng shortwave and long wave operating bandwidths end sensitivity to diferent IR energy eves. 7 Pa awe Range Span ard eve Aste. ae ate; Therm 35, amples of alte Optio vennnnennnnmnnnn see 37 Figura and Therm 6) Internal fault detectable through heat ‘antral surfaces.. son 40 Figure 13 Imer mesh srens installed tf a 6 Figue 14 (and Therm 7) neal fa dtecabe on eternal uric of panel door. 1 Therm 8 remap shoving rune of pl ananais itina OC Pe Cert Parl. voce 8 Them 9 High vee bexinghesing and dive shat temper. Fa asus 2 Figure 16 Non drive end bering... a Sinassiapreaseatiane Them Compare ference in phase winding temperature caused by single phasing een “3 Ther 12 Poor eletial contact between commutator and lf-sde brush se Figure Poor electrical contact between commutator and leftsie bush... oe 3 co) Dine operant ele tpt eee aoe 36oy ere Figure 20 Crosssecton of motor dive end bearing housing and assembly. Therm “Thermogram sowing pit bearing operating ata eae teprature si 2 8 ‘Therm 5 High fan shaft temperature caused by Fiction wth fen shat seal Therm 6 Abark ofhot water circulating pumps Figure 25 Gas compressor intercooler showing the effec oflime-scale build up Figure 24 Intercooler Temperature Profile before and afte tube test descaling. “Therm 19 _Varlaton in compressor inde head temperature ‘Therm 20 -Hightevel steam main defects. Therm 21 RT used to locate underground steam leaks Therm 22 _No apparent temperature erential - Steam rap veting or may bese open ee Therm 23 Noticeable temperature diel Steam wap not pasing Therm 24 AThermal anomaly ona Building Exterior may not alvays be indicative of aul ‘Therm 25 Poor jointing of insulation batts and missing or damaged insulation in a brand new warehouse wall. Viewed from the inside on a hot summer day. Therm 26. Effects of warm ar exftration atthe wall¥o-oof nteraC€ venom sn n ‘Therm 27 Effects of warm ar exration atthe window frame seals... Therm 28 Image of roof taken during cold overcast winters day ‘Therm 29. Infared Image A Corelation with spall identification matkngS.nvssmseereneweneennennnne Figue 30 Reinforced concrete with so mm (ni) Sand cement ede. “Therm 3) Airborne Image of industrial Se .. Figure 35 Outer Surface of Industrial Boiler showing defective internal nsuation. ‘Therm 33. Avessel with an accumulation of sludge. Therm 34. Printed Greuit Board is » ra ‘Therm 35 Elevated surface temperature on escalator roller elernent. Therm 36 Airborne image of pipe bed locaton. “Therm 37_Loclised Heating and Even Heating of two fuse holders Therm 38 Differences in symmety on a human face canbe indicative ofa problem area. “Term 39 Power factor correction capacitors. Comparison shows a numberof capacitors at afrent stages of diclectrc degradation Therm 41 Images of UPS Battery Cables... Serie ce ee en 92‘The author would like to acknowledge and give special thanks to the following for their material and/or their editorial contribution to this book ‘A. Nowicki (IRIS) D. Titman (Technical Services), S. Roe (BINDT), D, Dibley (Infrared Consulting) C. Pearson (BSRIA), ‘A. Gingell (AWE ple), A. Barker (AWE ple), R. Faulkner (iRed Ltd), DHR Consultancy Services Ltd and R. Newport (Newport Solutions). THE BRITISH INSTITUTE OF NONNorman J. Walker This book was first conceived within the Infrared Thermography (IRT) Technical Committee of the British Institute of Non-Destructive Testing (BINDT).. The Committee established the technical specifications for the qualifications and certification scheme for Condition Monitoring (CM) and Diagnostic personnel. The scheme conforms to all International and European Standards relating to condition monitoring and certification. ‘The Technical Committee also identified that a knowledge or information gap exists between the scheme requirements in its training programme and textbooks currently available. This book is part of a set within the ‘Condition Monitoring Series’ produced by the BINDT. Using simple explanations, this book covers all the theoretical and practical elements required for levels 1, 2 and 3 of the BINDT CM scheme's training programme. In addition, the author has incorporated numerous hints and tips to help thermographers apply their trade more effectively and efficiently. “The second book in this set, by A. Nowicki, provides. 2 detailed compendium of IRT applications covering most sector-specific applications within levels 2 and 3 of the BINDT CM scheme's training programme.AP (E} ‘Authorised Person (Electrical) ASNT “American Society of Non-destructive Testing AWE ‘Atomic Weapons Establishment BINDT Biitish Institute of Non-Destructive Testing BSRIA Building Services Research and Information Assocation com Construction Design and Management (Regulations) cm Condition Monitoring cAW Electricity At Work (Act) FMEA Failure Mode and Effects Analysis HSWA Health and Safety at Work Act IFov Instantaneous Field of View RT Infrared Thermography (or Thermographic) 1s0 International Standards Organisation McB Miniature Circuit Breaker mec Motor Control Centre MHSW Management of Health and Safty at Work (Regulation) MMs Maintenance Managernent System MTBF Mean Time Before Failure NASA National Aeronautical Space Administration NDE Non-Destructive Evaluation PEMciA Personal Computer Memory Card International Association Pan Predictive Maintenance PFC Power Factor Correction PPE Personal Protective Equipment PPM Planned Preventative Maintenance PUWER Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulation ne SAP () Senior Authorised Person (Electrical) Sow Safe System of Work Te Thermoelectric UKTA “United Kingdom Thermography AssociationAbsorber ‘Ary material that converts energy of radiation into heat ‘Absorptivity ‘A measure ofthe ability ofa body to absorb radiation; a ratio ofthe radiant flux absorbed by the body to that incident upon the body. ‘Ambient Temperature The temperature of the air where the equipment is being measured. Sometimes used to refer to the average apparent temperature ofthe surrounding hemisphere facing the target with which it exchanges heat by radiation ‘Analysis tools - Area Calculated temperature within the area placed on the thermogram, This can be Maximum, Average or Minimum. The area can be a box, Girdle ora polygon. ‘Analysis tools - Highlights temperatures within the specified range. Isotherm ‘Analysis tol-Spot Calculated the temperature a the location ofthe spot on the thermogram Analysis tools: - Plot of temperature distribution along the profi line. The line can be straight or ‘Temperature Profle & curved. The cursor can be placed anywhere along the line to highlight any point Cursor of interes. ‘Atmospheric ‘The temperature ofthe air near the object being surveyed. Temperature This includes any rise in temperature due to reflections. “Authorised Electrician A petson with sufficient electrical knowledge, (raining and experience appointed in writing to carry out specified duties within specified boundaries. Barri A part providing a degree of protection against contact with live parts Black Body ‘A body that completely absorbs any heat or light radiation incident falling upon it A blackbody maintained at a steady temperature is a fll radiator and remains at thermal equilibrium with the radiation reaching and leaving it. Basher ‘length of constant voltage conductor in a power circuit. Normally of rigid copper construction, Catastrophic Failure ‘Complete failure of a component or system to continue to perform its| intended function ‘Compact Flash Memory card for storage of digital data Memory Card ‘Competence Demonstrated ability to apply knowledge andJor skils and, where relevant, demonstrated personal attributes, as defined may be defined in a cetttication scheme. Conductor 'A material that offers a low resistance to the passage of an electric current. A pattof an electric transmission, distribution or wiring system that actually cartes current Contactor ‘A device used for switching electric current, typically used for electric motors. Continuity Tests ‘Atest to determine the existence of an uninterrupted or low resistance path for ‘current in a circuit. Creation Date Date on which the thermogram was createdration Time ‘Time at which the thermogram was created, Current ‘The flow of electrons in a circuit (unit of measurement is the Ampere). Detector ‘A device in whieh the presence of radiation produces physical changes thatis observable, DIN-ail ‘A method of mounting electrical or electronic cable termination blocks. Distribution Board An assembly containing switching of protective devices used as a means of isolating electrical circuits. Diversity factor The ratio of actual connected electrical consumers tothe simultaneous maximum demand ofthe group. i Downtime “The period during which an item of plant or equipment is unavailable due to adjustment, cleaning, or other maintenance. Dynamic Video Storage The means of storing motion images onto a magnetic storage media. Electromagnetic Something that employs a current carrying col thet is designed to exhibit specific ‘magnetic effects, ofan electric current, such as the motor coll that uses electromagnetic influences to provide turring torque to the drive shaft va the rotor. Elements ‘Aunit of a detector assembly sensitive to radiation and whose physical state changes when radiation falls upon it. Emissivity The ratio of emissive power of a surface at a given temperature to that of a black body at the same temperature and with the samme surroundings. Emitter ‘A material or surface that emits radiation. Energise ‘Given energy contributing to the cause of electricity flow into a circuit Extraneous Sources _1R sources which do not form part ofthe system being inspected. Failure Mode “The identification ofan inadequacy of circumstance in which a component fis or fails to operate effectively, Fault Source Source of heat (normaly ata fault location) that represents the highest temperature present in a thermal image. Feeder Pillar ‘pillar containing switches, links and uses, for connecting the feeders of an clecric power distribution system with the distributors. Ferrography ‘A method of magnetic separation of particles that allows the evaluation of level of ‘mechanical wear and surface condition. Field of View “The area over which the image is visible to the eyepiece of an optical instrument. Floppy Disk Lightweight, magnetic disk forthe storage of digital information. Flash Memory Card PCMCIA PC Card for storage of digital data; (now superseded by Compact Flash Memory Cards). Forced Convection Cooled by ventilating air supplied under pressure to increase the rate of thermal energy transfer fiom a surface. Grey Bodies ‘An object with a constant surface emissivity value thats less the unity (1.0) over a specifi spectral range. i High Temperature Fier A fiter extending the maximurn temperature sensitivity of an Infrared detector beyond its design range. THE BRITISH INSTITUTE OF NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTINGElectromagnetic radiation in the wavelength range of 075 to 1000 jim that lies between the visible light and microwave regions ofthe spectrum. Infrared Scanner or An instrument for recording thermal images. (Infrared Thermal Imager)? Infrared Thermography The use of radiant heat emitted by a body to construc visual images. Ingress Protection An alphanumerical value or rating, given as a pair of digits, given to equipment (ating) and enclosures relating to the abilty to withstand or prevent ingress of water and solids, respectively The higher the number the greater the protection. Insulation Resistance A test made to determine the insulation resistance of equipment or conductors in Tests an electrical system. Isolated Removed from a supply of energy, installation or system. (ve. electrically isolated) Kinetic Energy Energy arising from motion that is a product of mass and velocity. Life Cycle Costs| “The total cost ofa system or plant iter including, purchase, manufacture, maintenance, decommissioning and disposal costs. Live Parts “Those parts of an electrical system that is designed to be lve. Live Working ‘Work undertaken in the knowledge that operatives will be exposed to live pars Load Electrical impedance connected to an electrical supply. Normally associated with doing work eg. lighting and power. Longwave (infrared) A portion of the IR region ofthe electrornagnetic spectrurn approx 8 to 14 Hm. Low Voltage “The value of electromotive force expressed in volts up to a value of 1000 VAC. Lubrication Analysis A rethod for determining the condition of lubricants and oils to establish the levels of contaminants and degraded products. Matrix Arcay ‘substrate on which a number of detector elements are mounted, ie. 240 x 320. Method statement definition ofa means by which the work will be executed. Microbolometer ‘A semiconductor device containing mary miniature elements for measuring, infrared energy, consisting of a bridge circuit that gives an indication when power heats up the resistor. ‘Natural Convection “The transfer of heat in a fluid by the circulation flow due to temperature differences, The regions of higher temperature, being less dense, rise, whilst regions of lover temperature move downwards to take their place. Neural Networks ‘A computing architecture, a selFlearning system consisting ofa highly interconnected array of simple processing units Nominal Current Rated or design value of electric current for a distribution system or loa. Object Distance Distance between the scanner and the object being inspected. ‘Oscillation Amplitude The peak-to-peak measurement of an oscillating component at any point in time. ‘Overload ‘An electrical circuit which is exceeding its rated nominal current Phase Conductor ‘A conductor in an AC system forthe transmission of electrical energy but excluding the neutral or earthing conductor.Photon energy Quantum or paticle of ight or infared electromagnetic radiant energy. Physical Properties Assesses the condition ofa lubricant to identify chemical breakdown, Testing additive depletion, contamination and degradation Planckian Curves Lines depicting the wavelengths of radiant energy emitted by a blackbody at ferent temperatures. Potential Energy Energy stored by virtue of ts position ina field without any observable change. ie the potential to impart energy. Predictive Maintenance _A maintenance strategy that uses technologies to determine the early stages of faults and predict failure by evaluating the rate of degradation eg. IRT and Vibration Analysis Preventative "Amainterance strategy designed to prevent fallure by inspection, cleaning and Maintenance component replacement. Qualitative (analysis) Identification of diferences without regard for measurement, Le. through visual characteristics. Quantitative (analysis) _ Identification of diferences by measurement, ‘Quantum Mechanics The branch of mechanics based on quantum theory used for interpreting the behaviour of elementary particles and atoms, which do not obey Neutonian mechanics. Radiosiy “The total infrared energy leaving a target surface (including the reflecting and transmiting components). Real Body ‘Aterm used to define the radiative nature of object surfaces that do not possess black body or grey body characteristics (sometimes refered to as non- greybodies). Realtime “The measurement of data and events as they occur. (measurement) Reflectivity /Reflecion The proportion of incident energy that is returned rather than absorbed or transmitted. Refractive Index The ratio of the phase velocity of electromagnetic waves in fre space to that in the medium. The ratio ofthe water vapour content in the at that temperature and pressure. to the maximum content possible Material used for the lining of furnaces that can resist high temperatures, usually associated with molten metal Resistance ‘The real impedance to the flow of electrical curent in a circuit. Resistor ‘An electric component designed to introduce known resistance into a circuit and to dissipate the accompanying loss in power (as heat). Resolution (Spatial) The abiity ofan imaging system to diferentate between closely spaced object. Risk Assessment ‘An appraisal ofthe likelihood that harm will occur and ts severity. ‘Shortwave (inffared) A portion of the infrared region of the electrornagnetic spectrum approximately 2to6 um.Stored thermal energy within a material derived from solar radiation, ‘The sensitivity or response to radiant energy of different wavelengths. ‘starter switch for an induction motor, which, in one position, connects the stator windings in star for starting and delta for running. ‘A miniaturised compressed gas reffigeration unit for cooling infrared detectors. ‘Amechanical device capable of making, carrying and breaking electrical current under normal and occasional overloads conditions. ‘Temperature Sensitivity The ability ofan imaging system to differentiate and measure objects, of similar temperature ‘Temperature Range The selected range within which the instrument is capable of measuring temperatures ‘Temperature Span __The temperature-span within a temperature range to which an instrument is set ‘Thermal Viewer ‘Annon-measuring thermal imager that produces thermal images that relate to surface radiosity. ‘Thermocouple A device usualy consisting of two wires of diferent metals. A potential difference is created when the wires are subject to temperature differences. ‘Thermodynamics The mathematical treatment of he relation of heat to mechanical and other forms of energy. ‘Thermoelectric Abstraction of heat from electronic components by Peltier Effect. ‘Thermogram A thermographic image. ‘Thermographer ‘A person competent in therrral imaging and thermal image analysis. ‘Thermography ‘The use of radiant heat emitted by a body to construct images. a ‘Transducer ‘A device that converts signals from one physical form to another ‘Transmissivity The rato of radiant energy transmitted through a body to that incident upon it. Wavelength (2) stance, measured racially fom the source, between two successive points in {ree space at which an electromagnetic wave has the same phase.The evolution and development in Inffared Thermography (IRT), ike so many other technologies, owes ‘much tothe military. The frst real-time use of infrared was in the night imaging systems developed for the military earlier in the last century The development of mage scanning gave birth to infared thermographic cameras and, although these ‘arly cameras were ungainly and limited in accuracy, they pioneered practical IRT as ne know it today. Infrared camera design and technology improvements include advanced detector technology, Sophisticated hardware and software, greater accuracy, operational ergonomics and portability. Morcover, despite significant improvements in specification, system costs have contac to fal, largely due to increased popularity and a continuously expanding applications base However for IRT to be applied successfully a level of skill and knowledge is Fequired on the part of the SPerator that isnot always appreciated, even by those awate ofthe technology and Prepared to invest init This manual will provide guidance on the subject of RT, namely, heat transfor theory, equipment selection, applications and operational factors; and as such can be used as an information source to support IRT operations. ‘of ways, for example: 2. They can only measure single point target areas 4 Diagnostic evaluation of information is very limited. IRT Is the most versatile measurement tool available today. Everything around Us, including ourselves Spustant emits thermal energy tothe environment inthe form of invisible infrared (18) radiant energy ‘The higher the objects temperature, the greater the energy contained within tha object and the greater the ‘aciant energy emitted from its surface. We are often able to feel infrared radiation, but cannot see it with ur unaided eyes. Infiared thermography, however, Is the technique used for making this form of radiant ‘energy visible and measurable.a Ni felsltatiron Fr Thermal imaging cameras employ optics to gather and focus the incoming infrared energy from a scene onto a detector. The detector is sensitive to energy n the infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum and so converts the incoming energy into a proportionate electrical signal, which is then amplified, processed and displayed, typically on an LCD viewer. The display represents a thermographic map or thermogram of the IR camera's field of view, which is an infrared version of an image that one might expect to see on a normal (visible light) camcorder. Black and white or colour scales are artificially applied to Provide image detail and to differentiate IR radiation intensity. Thermogram 1 represents a typical thermogram of a faulty fuse assembly; the image colours correspond to the temperature range shown on the right side, scale. hhermal imaging cameras are real time instruments that can record, as dynamic footage, on videotape or as single images onto memory cards for later analysis using appropriate computer sofware sAn in-depth knowledge of thermodynamics and the principles governing the detection and measurement of infrared radiation is not essential. A basic understanding of heat transfer principles, however, will prove invaluable to the successful application of infrared thermography. Temperature is arguably the most widely measured parameter or physical quantity in science and engineering, and the measurement of temperature can provide valuable information as to the condition of an object. Improvements and innovations are continually being sought to improve the ability to view and measure temperature more accurately and reliably. ‘Although five different temperature scales are in use today the two most commonly used are the Celsius (C) or Centigrade scale, and the SI (System International) Kelvin scale (K). Only these two scales wil be referred to in this training manual To fully understand the subject of IRT, its applications, qualities and limitations, it is necessary to be familiar with the physics and laws that govern heat, heat transfer and the principles of infrared radiation, Heat is the transfer of energy from one part of a material or substance to another, or from one body to another due to a temperature difference. Heat is energy in transit; it always flows from a body at a higher temperature to that at a lower temperature. As this process continues, the warmer body cools and the cooler body heats up until, eventually, ‘thermal equilibrium’ is reached (le. the temperature of each body has equalised). This heat ‘transfer process is created through changes in a material's molecular activity. As the molecules in all materials vibrate when heat is transferred to that material, the added thermal energy causes the molecules to vibrate faster about their equilibrium position. Each ‘activated! molecule interacts with its neighbours causing them, in turn, to vibrate faster which in turn causes their neighbours to vibrate faster, and so on. Effectively, the thermal energy within a material may be considered as internal vibration energy. The higher a material's temperature the greater the capacity to transfer its energy or heat to other bodies, ‘Therefore, temperature determines the direction of heat flow between two bodies. This isthe principle behind the thermometer. When a thermometer is placed in contact with an object, thermal ‘energy flows from the hottest object to the coolest object (i. the thermometer). Once thermal equilibrium is reached, the indicated temperature will correspond to the object temperature. Heat is offen considered an intrinsic property ofan object or system, It would therefore be inaccurate to say that a system ‘contains’ a certain amount of heat, rather that, a system can ‘transfer’ an amount of energy as heat under certain specific conditions. ‘As mentioned, heat is defined as energy being transferred from one place to another due to temperature differences. Heat Transfer therefore, is a subject that examines the dynamics ofthe energy transfer process, There are three modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection and radiation, and any one or a combination of these transfer mechanisms will be responsible for a material receiving or losing thermal energy. (emu Wan‘The dynamics of conduction has already been partly described in Section 1.2. All states of matter, for example, solids, liquids and gases comprise molecules that vibrate more actively in hotter regions than cooler regions. AAs the molecules interact, faster molecules give up their energy to slower molecules by way of friction, which, in turn, speed up. This process eventually results in an even distribution of energy where the molecular energy in each molecule equalises with its neighbours. This condition is termed thermal equilibrium. IFadditional energy is applied to one part of the material, the vibrational activity of the molecules in that area will accelerate, creating a ‘chain reaction’ of mutual vibration throughout adjoining cooler parts ofthe material As the molecules give up their energy, the transfer of vibrational energy will continue until the temperature stabilises. This process of energy transfer is termed ‘conduction’ and is the only method by which thermal energy can flow through a solid or between solids (in direct contact). The speed at which heat can travel through a substance will depend on the thermal conductivity of any given material and temperature difference Heat transfer by convection is similar to conduction in that energy is removed from the surface molecules of a solid and transferred to a fluid (liquid or gas). The main difference being that there is significantly less molecular bonding, therefore heat is transferred not only by molecular contact but also through molecular displacement, The movement cen be ether natural or forced, ‘Natural convection’ occurs due to the thermal excitation ofiquid or gas molecules in contact with surfaces of higher temperature, Molecular vibration causes the molecules to expand, become less dense, rise, and simultaneously be displaced by denser cooler molecules under the influence of gravity. ‘Any other method or force that creates movernent of the fluid should be categorised as forced convection’ Increasing the speed of fluid movernent in contact with surfaces of higher temperature increases the rate of heat transfer. EERE eeroeansren-mapisvon Infrared ((R) radiation is the heat transfer mechanism that has formed the basis for IRT techniques to evolve. The subject of IR radiation is quite complicated and involves the transfer of thermal energy by electromagnetic radiation through the atmosphere or a vacuum. A general understanding of the laws of physics involved in this heat transfer process is vital to effective IRT. The surface of an object and the characteristics ofthat surface dictate the degree of inftared radiation emitted from that surface and hence what can be ‘seen’ and measured by the IRT camera. Recognising these aspects is an essential part of the thermographer's training, without which accurate temperature assessment would not be possible. Consequently, Chapter 2 has been devoted entirely to the subject of infrared radiation. Reliable IRT temperature measurement relies on an appreciation of the laws of physics and principles that relate to the transfer of thermal energy. All forms of heat transfer are important in thermography because each has the capacity to influence surface temperatures and consequently, the amount of thermal radiation emitted from the surface either directly or indirectly. Irespectve of the IRT application chosen, accurate measurement will not be possible unless heat transfer processes are accounted for. Sener relars Pacem ene‘Over the years, many physicists have contributed directly and indirectly to physical laws that have evolved into a subject known as Quanturn Mechanics. Quantum mechanics is a complex subject, which forthe purposes ofthis training manual wil be exarrined only to a depth necessary to gain an appreciation of those elements related to infrared detection and measurement. Infrared radiation is a process of heat transfer, where thermal energy is released or emitted by matter in the form ‘of electromagnetic waves and absorbed by other matter. All matter above absolute zero (-273.1s°C or o°K) has the ‘capacity to radiate or absorb infrared radiation. If we could see this radiation and measure itwe would, in time, be able to determine whether the levels of radiation from an object surface or the characteristics of the emissions were normal or abnormal. This concept was the catalyst for the development of Infrared Thermography (IRT) This Chapter describes the basic concepts of thermal radiation, how itis generated, propagated and attenuated. MEEMieeeerouacnericsrecrm Electromagnetic radiation is wavelike n nature and is characterised by its wavelength and frequency. All electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light, 300,000 km/s. Given that the speed of all 0.9) than low emissivity targets. Iflow emissivity targets are likely to be encountered, not only is it ‘essential to accurately determine surface emissivity but also to take account of extraneous radiation sources. Radiation sources of significantly higher or lower temperature than a low emissivity target surface should ideally be shielded. To obtain a general value forall extraneous surfaces an effective method is to crumple and reflatten an appropriately sized piece of aluminium foil and adhere it to a flat piece of card. With the foiled card placed in front of but facing away from the target, the fol surface can be measured from various angles and average values for Tamm obtained. The camera emissivity should be set to 1.0 and distance settings should be set to the minimum distance setting of the camera (ie. 1 m) for this activity EU Ra ea oarATMOSPHERIC TEMPER) [Atmospheric temperature is the temperature ofthe atmosphere between the object and the infrared camera ‘This parameter is also part of the required data that has to be programmed into the camera or the software for calculation of temperatures. How accurate the estimation of this parameter has to be depends on the temperature values being investigated. ‘When the difference between the object temperature and the atmospheric temperature is significant, such as in clecrical surveys, relative large errors in Tatmy Can be tolerated. However, when the difference is small, such asin investigations of building defects, an accurate estimate of Tt is desirable in order to avoid significant temperature measurement errors. While on site, various methods can be utilised to measure Tatm such as: 1, Use of digital or a mercury thermometer 2. Measuring the temperature of a suspended cardboard 3. Measuring the temperature ofa emissivity nearby object. ‘When establishing Tatm by any of these methods, care should be taken to avoid reflections nearby hot objects. Itis recommended that low emissivity objects, such as surfaces clad with highly polished metal, are not used for the estimation of Tate TEMPERATURE AN Large increases in surface temperature often result in a corresponding increase in surface emissivity that, unless compensated for, may lead to erroneous measurement. There are, however, exceptions, such as oxidised ‘magnesium, where increasing temperature results in a reduction in surface emissivity, Materials such as these however, ate unlikely to be encountered in industrial thermographic investigations. Surface emissivity variations with temperature can be obtained from emissivity reference tables (see Appendix B). Thermographers should se these tables to ensure correct camera emissivity settings. ‘There are however, a number of points that should be considered when using these emissivity tables: ’) Not all tables provide wavelength data relative to quoted temperature and emissivity values Most emissivity values quoted are for specific temperatures or temperature ranges, and emissivity values for materials at temperatures of interest may not be included, The value of emissivity also depends upon the spectral response of the instrument used to obtain them (ie. emissivity values vary with wavelength and yet some cameras may operate in different infrared wavelength intervals). iv) The tables are not exhaustive, in that some materials and surface finishes may be omitted, making their usefulness somevihat limited particularly where new technology materials are concerned ‘Thermographers are advised to compile their own reference emissivity table forthe range of materials specific to their Feld of investigation or application. That is, know the materials and temperatures that may be encountered and ensure these conform to the instrument's specification. The personalised table of emissivity will be surprisingly short and can often be reproduced as an easy reference ‘credit-card-sized’ look-up table. PGE ce MN Cola onan ena)RMOGRAPHIC SURVEYS: INFRARED RADIATION SESH Cbetermininc emissivity Because reflective surfaces are poor emitters, they create problems for thermographers. Ifa reflective object (low emissivity) were placed adjacent to a blackbody of the same temperature, the black body would appear ‘much warmer to the IRT camera. However, an object of low emissivity wll also reflect most ofthe radiation incident upon it, and may appear to be warmer than high emissivity objects of equal temperature where the environment contains extraneous sources radiating at higher temperatures. The variation in surface emissivity and the influence of external radiation sources can be illustrated by way of a practical demonstration. EEE) 4 DEMONSTRATION OF Emissivity ‘Thermogram 2 illustrates three identical aluminium drink cans. Can A contains water at a temperature lower than ambient, Can B contains water at ambient temperature and Can C contains water at a temperature higher than ambient. For the purpose ofthis demonstration, actual temperatures are not important. Each can has a strip of black PVC tape adhered to its surface. The tape has a igh emissivity value of 0.97 and the IR camera has been set to this value, All ofthe cans have a colour-printed surface design that creates variations in surface emissivity. For this exercise, all other sources of infared radiation higher than ambient were removed o shielded with the exception of the IRT camera and operator. ‘Thermogram 2 ‘A thermographic image of three identical aluminium drink cans cont at different temperatures. 40 30 20 10 | ec Note: The general amber coloration corresponds to the ambient temperature. THE BRITISHA DEMONSTRATION OF EMISSIVITY CanA Can A contains water that is cooler than ambient temperature. The point of interest here is that the black PVC tape appears to be cooler than the can, even though itis of course the same temperature. ‘The tape represents a true indication of the can's temperature because it has very low reflectance (€2>R) and will therefore emit radiation proportional to the can’s temperature, The reason the can appears to be warmer than the tape is that much ofits surface is reflective and consequently reflects varying degrees of higher energy radiation from its environment. Can B Examination of Can B shows that the black PVC tape corresponds to ambient temperature, The other areas of Can B that correspond to ambient are not, for the most part, a true measurement of the can’s temperature, but rather a reflection (due to low surface emissivity (i. €< R)) of ambient ‘temperature sources in the surrounding environment. Those areas of Can B that differ from ambient are the result of reflected infrared radiation from other sources. There are three such sources; to the left, low energy radiation from Can A; to the right, higher energy radiation from Can C; and in the centre, higher energy radiation from the camera operator. Cans A and € were removed and the ‘operator shielded, the temperature of Can B would be uniform, that is ambient and would therefore be invisible to the camera Canc ‘At first glance, Can C seems to offer a contradiction to Can A, in that the PVC tape appears warmer than the can. Here again the PVC tape isthe true representation of the can’s actual temperature because it is a near-perfect emitter. Much of the can’s surface however, is not a good emitter and is able to emit only a fraction of its thermal energy compared to the tape. The environment is significantly cooler than Can C and therefore the environmental radiant energy does not have a significant effect in this case, as the can’s temperature (and therefore its radiant energy) is much higher than ambient. This exercise demonstrates the relationship between emissivity and reflectivity, and why a careful ‘assessment of material surface finish is important in determining correct emissivity values and accurate temperature measurement. Inall three instances, the PVC tape, because of ts high emissivity (ie. 0.97), gave a reliable measurement of surface temperature. Thermographers may use adhesive PVC tape to help create their own emissivity tables for a variety of materials, surface finish and temperatures. Ifthey do, the measurements obtained are likely to be more reliable than general look-up emissivity tables, as they will be more specific to the operational characteristics of thermographer’s own IRT camera, ioe rea ed |EMISSIVITY ‘The exercise described in the previous section showed how a high emissivity material, such as PVC tape, ‘ould be used to determine the surface ternperature of an object of unknown emissivity PVC tape is Particularly useful because it affords good surface adhesion to most material, resulting in good thermal conductivity. ‘When a thermographer is confronted by a surface of unknown emissivity, and Tables of Emissivty do not provide a suitable value, the following method may be used to determine surface emissivity: Adhere-a material of known high emissivity, such as PVC tape, tothe surface of unknown emissivity and allow time forthe tape to thermally equalise with the surface. The surface being measured should ideally be warmer ‘oF cooler than ambient temperature, in order to facilitate a thermal contrast (see Thermogram 2). ‘Adjust the camera emissivity setting to the correct value, for example, 0.97 for PYC tape, and record the surface temperature ofthe tape. Now focus on the surface of unknown emissivity it will be seen thatthe temperature ofthis surface differs from that noted forthe tape. Nes, adjust the camera emissivity setting Lunt the surface temperature corresponds tothe previously recorded temperature for the PVC tape. ‘When the temperatures match, the indicated camera emissivity setting will be a close approximation of the surface emissivity for this temperature. Using very high emissivity value materials such as PVC tape is particularly useful because reflective influences will have a negligible effect on results. However, ambient temperatures wl significantly affect measurement accuracy if not accounted for For surfaces or shapes that prelude the use of black PVC tape, other materials of known high emissivity may bbe used as a substitute, such as high emissivity paints or powers. The prefered high emissivity material cften depends on surface characteristics and operational/ervironmental circumstances Before the assessment of a surface of unknown emissivity, always assess the surrounding environment and set the camera ambient temperature setting so that surrounding surface influences are accounted for Notwithstanding, effort should be made to remove or shield external sources of infared radiation, Particularly when measuring reflective surfaces, and remember that surface emissivity changes with temperature,so emissivity should be recorded over a range of temperatures where necessary. (ue REN(EGS ssumwary Heat transfer mechanisms such as conduction and convection create distinctive thermal pattems that are recognisable tothe experienced thermographer because these mechanisms directly and inditecly affect surface radiosity levels. Climatic influences for example, such as sun, wind and rain wil, to varying degree, affect surface temperature and consequently radiation distribution and intensity levels. Additionally it wil be important to gain an understanding of the operational and performance characteristics of objects surveyed. For example, many structures, equipment and plant items use heat transfer principles by design; «electric motors, for instance, use conduction to draw thermal energy from the motor casing to the machine ‘extremities, where forced convection (created by the motor cooling fan) removes the unwanted thermal energy. ‘Accurate temperature measurement, therefore, requires the thermographer to consider all influencing factors that may affect surface temperature or that make surface temperature assessment dificult. ‘Chapter 5 (Applications) addresses many ofthe environmental and operational influences that thermographers are likely to encounter inthe fel. Ue oa one reLike many of today's technologies, IRT advancement has come about due to military involvement. Thermal imaging systems were developed by the military for night vision use, target signature analysis, infrared carioufage, military clothing and the development of IR guided missiles. These developments saw the birth of IRT, and through commercial interest thermographie systems continued to evolve. ‘The semiconductor ‘boom’ ofthe 1960s was the catalyst for subsequent detector development. As a result, high resolution images, high temperature sensitivity and accurate ternperature measurement thermographic systems emerged ‘The introduction of Focal Plane Array (FPA) technology has produced a breed of high performance IRT cameras, that are compact and affordable. The increased popularity ofthese instruments has resulted in the creation of a variety of new applications, for exemple, from deep space surveillance to medical screening Recogrition ofthe advantages of non-contact temperature measurement through infrared thermography is increasing, bt an adequate knowledge ofthe principles governing infrared radiation, detection and measurement, and particularly the pitfalls and limitations, is often lacking With IRT manufacturers vying fora percentage of a relatively small bt lucrative market, competition is strong. ‘Good quality IRT systems retail between £7K to £40K, soit is important to establish specific system requirements Prior to selection to ensure the chosen system is best suited for the intended application(s). Figure 4 illustrates a typical IRT system together with some essential accessories that would typically be required during an IRT survey. It should be noted that the intention isnot to endorse any specific product a teueka kee A) Infrared thermal imaging camera. B) Spare camera batteries. C) Digital photographic camera D) High emissivity PVC tape, E) Lens blower brush. _F) Current clamp ammeter (electrical inspections).HERE 1+ ston or wrenep ncn YTS Early IR imaging systems required detectors to be cooled to very low (cryogenic) temperatures so that they ‘would be sensitised to inftared radiation. The method of cooling required liquid nitrogen or argon to be manually poured into the detector chamber within the camera. Thermographers of those days were forced not only to carry large heavy cameras but also flasks of liquid gas. Fortunately, these methods of detector cooling ‘were later replaced by Thermoelectric Coolers (TEC) and miniaturised refrigeration cycle coolers (Stirling Coolers). Stirling Coolers are capable of attaining operating temperatures of 77K (boiling point of liquid nitrogen) providing an operating detector temperature that affords good sensitivity to low level infrared energy, particularly in the 8 to 12 4m wavelength region. However, TECs are capable of cooling a detector to only 200K, ‘making them sensitive to only high infrared energy levels associated with the 2 to 6 sum wavelength region with the detectors available in the early 1990s. Although very effective units, Stirling coolers contain rotating ‘mechanical components and an operational ife of only 8,000 to 12,000 hours, they are costly to repair or replace, they suffer from high power consumption, and can take as long as 15 minutes to cool the detector to operating temperature. TECs have the advantage of no moving parts, good reliability, short startup times (10 to 20 s) and an ‘operational life of 50,000 hours. However, their operational stability is sensitive to extremes in ambient ‘temperature and battery power consumption is high due to the need for a cooling fan to remove unwanted heat from the TEC heatsink. This power consumption however is not high as that for a stirling cooler. “The advantages of today's uncooled systems are numerous; there is no builtin cooler to service (improving, camera reliability), no cooldown time required, significantly reduced power requirements (negating the need for heavy-duty battery packs); they are lighter and quieter end performance is generally improved. Video camcorder-type batteries now ft into the camera using the space vacated by the now redundant cooler. EE veosces ‘Outwardly today's IRT cameras are compact and lightweight and are similar in appearance to hand-held video ‘cameras. The early IRT cameras more closely resembled the commercial shoulder supported TV and video ‘cameras of the 1980s. ‘To some extent, using a thermographic camera is not very different to using a common video camera. ‘An object or scene is focused by a lens onto a detector. The image is then converted into an electrical signal, amplified, processed and displayed to the operator, via an eyepiece or LCD viewer as a ‘real time’ image. I required, the image may be stored in a digital format. Typically, compact flash memory or PCMCIA cards are used for image storing, they are PC compatible for downloading, printing, diagnostics and report generation. Some thermographic imaging systems provide thermal images only, whilst others provide radiometric data as ‘well. The former is used solely for qualitative assessment and the latter for both qualitative and quantitative assessment. These assessment techniques are discussed in Chapter 6. The aim of this Chapter is to provide a basic understanding of IRT camera design and operational specification required to meet the needs of practising thermographers. [oer ueen tu aora ron?Ee | ea ‘Most IR instruments that are capable of generating thermal images are based on the infrared radiation thermometer. The infrared radiation thermometer, Figure 5, does nat provide an image, itis a device that. converts infared radiation into an electrical signal that is proportional to the target surface temperature. ie ee una ce SIGNAL PROCESSOR T@) ei ‘TARGET FILTER DETECTOR CELL ourPur From the illustration in Figures, infrared radiation leaves the surface ofthe target and the IR thermometer lens collects the radiation, focusing it onto the detector cell via a filter. Filters are employed to ensure that only infrared radiation energy from a specific spectral band reaches the detector. The infrared energy absorbed by the detector is converted into an electrical signal, which is amplified and processed. The output is used to Provide an output parameter (Le. a voltage or temperature values) or used as a process trigger, such as to signal 2 temperature excursion from a process norm in a production environment.| ‘Thermal scanners use detectors ofa single element design similar to the infrared radiation thermometer ‘Thermal scanners are capable of producing two-dimensional images by rapiely scanning the field of view both horizontally and vertically. These optomechanical scanning systems consists of a complex array of optical ‘components such as rotating prisms, reflecting lenses and motor-driven titing mirrors (see Figure 6). “The most commonly used detector for these imaging systems is the mercury cadmium telluride (HgCdTe) detector, commonly known as MCT. The MCT was designed to detect wavelengths in either the 2 to 6 um, 8 to 12 4m spectral band. Systems that operate in these bands tend to be referred to as Short Wave (SW) and Long Wave (LW) systems respectively. Cross-sectional view ofa scanning-type thermal imaging camera | «Front End Ontes— | Rotating & Oscillating Mirrors. EZ l Heat Sink Za Detector _ Scanner feu Pau 20‘The most significant development in recent IRT detector technology has been the introduction ofthe Focal Plane Array (FPA) or Staring Array Detectors (SAD). Largely replacing single detector technology, these solid-state, matrix cell arrays revolutionised IRT technology by eliminating many of the design constraints. associated with single element systems. Each element or cel in the array continuously senses one portion of the camera's field of view. By reducing cell size and increasing the number of cells in the array spatial resolution, values four times higher than their scanning counterparts were achieved. However, this. depends on the detector size of the scanner, where spatial resolution can, in some systems, be of compatible resoluti ‘A recent development in detector technology was the introduction of the uncooled microbolometer. Based on the bolometer (first introduced over 50 years ago), this device represented the first radiometric IR sensitive resistance thermometer. The principle of operation is based on the resistance ofthe detector material changing in a recognised manner when subjected to inffared radiation. The detector output signal is proportional to its temperature, rather than the amplitude of photon energy received. ‘The microbolometer fitted to today’s uncooled IRT cameras are similar to FPA detectors (Figure 7), in that «each microbolometer element measures about somim wide and forms part ofa 320 x 240 detector array. Uncooled detectors had a design constraint to overcome, in that the radiation received by the detector ate from exterior sources, The radiation striking the detector is made up of two components, that which passes through the lens and that which is radiated from the internal surfaces of the camera within the detector feld of view. In an uncooled camera, the internal radiation compared to the object's radiation is several orders of magnitude higher than that for cooled cameras, The compensation circuitry for uncooled detectors is therefore entical and more complex, requiring solid-state signal processing and neural networks to facilitate accurate temperature measurement. For mor information abous infiared camera history and design see thelist of publications in the Bibliography (Annes 8}. rece ued Fir DETECTOR SIGNAL KTER OURRAY PROCESSING i | > RNpatoa onesie eaBEZEE ocrecron encormanc “Two important parameters worth considering when purchasing an IRT system are sensitivity and resolution. Sensitivity refers to the minimum discemible temperature difference that can be detected by the camera; ‘that is, a system with high sensitivity is capable of detecting very small temperature differences. Resolution, usually referred to as spatial resolution, is a measure ofthe minimum size of object or detail that can be resolved by a system: that, a systern with high resolution is capable of detecting very small objects. For all systerns, spatial resolution is a product of detector cell size. Decreasing individual cell dimensions ‘enables a greater number of cells to be mounted onto the detector array resulting in higher resolution. For scanning systerns, achieving high resolution is dificult. Optical mirrors are used to reflect the image of an object onto the detector, in such a way that the detector cell effectively scans the object line by line, Signal strength is affected by the amount oftime the detector cells exposed to each portion of the area ‘within the Field of View (FOV). To improve signal strength the scan rate would need to be reduced such that the cell received radiation for longer periods. This serves to increase sensitivity albeit atthe expense of a poor image update rate. Nevertheless, a single element detector system does have the advantage of high image uniformity, because there is no calibration error between elements of the image. Modern staring array detectors can have over 76,800 detector elements or cells, typically in a 320 x 240 matrix, for a high specification system. The FOV is projected onto the array of detector elements, where each element operates 2s an individual infrared radiation thermometer as shown in Figure 7 with individual FOV angles expressed in several milradians rather than degrees. The system specification wil refer to this miliradian value as the instantaneous field of view (FOV), where the smaller the angle quoted, the greater the spatial resoltion. “This enables objects to be detected and accurately resolved at greater distances. Whilst staring array detectors possess high spatial resolution capability, the discemible objec size and detail will also be effected by the distance of object and choice of lens used. Errors in measurement and fallure to resolve faults will occur ifthe distances to object is too great or lens selection is inappropriate. Figures 8 and 1 illustrate the effect of poor lens selection, or viewing from too great a distance. Each square in the illustrations is intended to represent the IFOV for each detector cel. In Figure & the burning fuse completely fills the IFOV of a cell The output from this cell, being proportional to radiation received, will provide accurate ‘temperature information. In Figure 9, however, the temperature of the burting fuse cannot be accurately assessed because the output from this cell willbe based on a minture of background radiation and the higher levels of radiation emitted by the fuse. Asa result, the output form this cell will provide a temperature that will be considerably lower than the fuse temperature. ere eee nT ol Inadequate coverage of a detector element due ee ue oi acu c! to the relatively small object size, resulting in cus eu eae ue 5 SSNS CR TCR 22Spot radiometers are a moder, hand-held, miniature equivalent ofthe infared radiation thermometer ‘They are simple, singl-element ‘point and shoot 1R measurement devices, that provide a digital ‘emperature readout based on mean nfared radiation levels within the detector element FOV, Spot ‘adiometers are useful instruments for ilustrating the relationship between distance of object and FOV. \Ffor example, a spot radiometer had a distance-to-size ratio of 251, the instrument would resolve a ‘spot Size target of 4 cm diameter ata distance of one metre. Because the measured value equates to the average or mean photon energy striking the detector, distance isctical the target size was small in terms ofthat which is projected onto the detector the measured temperature would include a background component resting in erroneous measurement, For accurate temperature measurement, the objector hot spot rust be larger than the detector element IFOV, Many of today’ thermographic cameras accommodate interchangeable lenses (ie. telephoto, wide-angle, Gi), Functionally, the lenses serve the same purpose as photographic lenses and are physically sila, However thermographic camera lenses are more expensive because they are made from materiale such as Bemanium, zinc selenide ora thallium based material known as KRS-. Although these mateals are opaque to radiation inthe visible part ofthe spectrum, they possess high transmissivity to infrared radiation, at certain wavelengths. Germanium has a high effactve index anda transmissivity of only 4796, however the application of special antivelectve coatings significantly increases the transmissivity to 97% IRT lenace Should be treated with care, as lens materials are relatively sot and susceptible to scratches and corresive clements. Lens replacement costs are in the order of £z000. jas selection should match the intended applications. Unless athermographer stipulates ales preference, [RT camera manufacturers wil usually provide an instrument fitted with 225 lens as standard, Moreover hie tis may be satisfactory for mary applications, the thermographer should consider specific applications carey as an alternative or additional lens maybe required. Selection criteria should primarly be based on Anticipated target size and operating distance. The FOV values the total angular Fld the detector array sees and thsi determined by the ype oflens fied Lens selection dictates the target size fora given target distance, Wide angle lenses increase the FOV value enabling more deal to be included for a given object stance. These lenses are use large targets Such a building surveys or when viewing distances are restricted, Telephoto lenses do the opposite, by reducing the FOV value less target area is included fr a given object distance. These lences are sed where small targets ate viewed fom a distance such as high voltage switch and distribution components ‘Wide-angled lenses should be used with care, particularly during quantitative evaluation because for large IFON values, spatial resclution willbe reduced fora given distance. Temperature measurement accuracy may also be a problem for reasons discussed in section 34 and ilustated in Figures 8 and Also remember the {emperature measurement accuracy wil be affected for target detail inthe periphery ofthe FOV due to low angles of incidence as discussed in section 2.4.3. Ths significant operational consideration ic particularly ‘elevant to low-end infared temperature measurement devices such as spot radiometers TE OF NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTINGes ‘To avoid the expense of having multiple lenses to sult specific applications, some IRT camera manufacturers have introduced a 200m function to increase object siz. In optical scanning systems, z00m is achieved by ‘reducing the scanning mirror oscillation amplitude, which makes the FOV smaller and the image is then expanded to fil the camera's image viewer. The IFOV remains the samme and the optical magnification is not changed, consequently there is no improvement in spatial resolution and image definition suffers as pixelation becomes more evident with increased zoom, Staring array systems zoom electronically by expanding the central portion ofthe image toil the LCD display. Here again, spatial resolution remains unaltered and image definition suffers as pixelation becomes more evident wit increased zoom, [Atthe time of writing, due to the high cost of IR optical materials there are no true zoom lenses avalable for IRT cameras. Eliminating measurement error and maintaining spatial resolution when viewing from a distance can only be achieved by using a telephoto lens or, ideally, by moving closer tothe target. In contrast to the camcorder market, IRT systems are relatively ‘high cost/low turnover’ products. The highest cost components in IRT systems are the detector and lens. SW and LW IRT lenses are not interchangeable. This means itis not economically viable for IR system manufacturers to support a range of products that incorporates both LW and SW versions. Today's manufacturers oF IR equipment are promoting LW systems that feature uncooled microbolorneter technology, and the performance of these systems continue to ‘improve. Manufacturers ofthese LW systems dim that LW systems have superior performance characteristics to that of their SW counterpart. For the most pat, tis is a reasonable statement. However, SW instruments do have certain performance characteristics that make them a more suitable choice for specific applications. The Planckian Cures illustrated in Figure 10 show the relative levels of temperature sensitivity in both the LW. and SW operating bandwidths. itis clear that where SW cameras are particulary sensitive to high-energy radiation, LW detectors are more sensitive to low-energy radiation sources, thats, typical ambient values of 275 to 300 K. Whilst SW and LW systems are perfectly capable of measuring temperatures over a wide range, there are instances where high sensitivity to specific wavelengths can ether be beneficial or problematic. Short wave detectors are very sensitive to the high-energy emissions associated with hot bodies, thus making these SW instruments suitable for hot process applications. However, outdoor work, particularly on sunny days, would present serious solar reflectance problems to the thermographer using an SW instrument, ‘especially wit reflective surfaces such as industrial pipe cladding or metalic high voltage (HV) components, LW cameras are less sensitive to high-energy wavelengths and are therefore less prone to problems associated wth solar reflectance. This makes them the prefered choice for outdoor suneilance. However, Figure 10 shows that LW detectors are very sensitive to low-energy wavelengths, consequently in some instances, low energy reflectance may cause problems. THE BRITISH G 24‘Atmospheric conditions may also influence system choice, particulary iflong distances are involved. If visibility {is poor then this usually means that there i alrborne particulate air pollution) or water vapour such as mist, fog or steam, As particulate size increases, radiation n the SW spectral region is mostly affected, whereas over long distances atmospheric water vapour is most likely to affect LW systems. Planck's curves illustrating short wave and long wave operating ce ee {tis most important to remember that for most applications, LW or SW, @ system has the ability to perform adequately, providing the operator understands the capabilities {and limitations ofeach system and is able to ‘compensate for, or make the necessary allowance for diferent environments, ‘The manufacturers of RT cameras abvays provide a technical specification, therefore itis always worthwhile ‘comparing specifications to ensure that a particular camera meets the requied citria and represents best value for money ‘An important feature of moder staring aray systems is 12-bit and 14-bit processing technology. This technology has served to reduce time spent fine-tuning camera settings inthe field for each image recorded. Modem systems only require image composition, focus adjustment and in some cases temperature range to be accurately set in the field. All other camera settings and adjustments can be altered or fine tuned later using the system softvare during the image evaluation and report generation stage. Most modem IRT cameras store images onto removable, ‘compact flash memory cards. Some IRT systems record images 2s 76,800 (320 x 240 elernent detector) pieces of individual data, whereas some ofthe latest systems record a simple ‘peg’ image where the radiometric information {for that image is stored or set in the adjacent temperature scale. Through colour pitel comparison with the image, temperature values can be extrapolated. | IRT software developed since 2000 allows full image manipulation and diagnostics to be undertaken on a personal | ‘computer (PC) or laptop, The IRT software processes downloaded images by performing algorithms that | reconstruct each image and extracts radiometric and set-up data in preparation for analysis and reporting For more information regarding IRT software refer to Section 31. aM eeeOAT FUNCTIONS AND FEATURES Like their photographic counterparts, thetmographic cameras also need adjustment and fine-tuning to affect the best results. inorder to achieve the best image resolution itis important to ensure the temperature range! setting inthe IRT camera is appropriate for the intended application For most applications, this would be the default setting, for example, minus 40 to plus 160°C. This temperature range is normally far too wide to provide adequate image resolution, therefore IRT cameras provide the means of setting a viewing temperature range appropriate to the target or FOV (see Figure 1), This viewing range is normally referred to as the ‘Span’. The span can be as narrow as 2°C, or as wide asthe selected range. Finally, the ‘Lev’ adjustment places the temperature span on the ‘optimum point ofthe range that best suits the target conditions. ‘Most IRT cameras have an ‘auto-anging function Coe eee ees heat are sae ata ea correspond with the minimum and maximum ‘temperatures detected within the FOY. Ths is a useful feature for new to thermographic operatives, or for those undertaking non-specific general inspections. Experienced thermographers, however, are more likely to operate the camera in mamual ‘mode, because it enables the thermographer to eliminate irrelevant or interfering high or low temperature sources within the FOV and to present an image that provides greatest target definition. (Operating the camera in manual mode enables the ‘thermographer to adjust range, span and level settings to achieve optimum temperature resolution and target definition for a specific type of target, a generic target type orto identify targets operating at or above a specific temperature value, for example, ‘Additional fine-tuning may be required depending on temperature accuracy requirements, Additional settings or adjustments include, emissivity compensation, distance to object (for atmospheric attenuation) and ambient temperature (which compensates for surrounding radiation sources). (Other features include isotherms, which atfally colour image pies that are of identical temperature or that fll into a specified temperature range. The colour applied will contrast with adjacent pixels ofa diferent temperature so that thermal features are more clearly defined. Image preview is now faily standard on mos systems and its worth sing this feeture to check tat the record image is ‘clean, target framing is good, and the thermal anomaly is presented as intended. Most systems also feature temperature measurement functions that may be activated as required for specific applications or target types; these are ‘spot’ and area’. Spot provides a moveable cross hair symbol that is superimposed on the image and the targeted pixel temperature is displayed inthe information Window. Area isa square that is superimposed on the image and the minimum, maximum or average temperature ‘value forthe total ruber of pitels contained within the square may be displayed in the information window. A feature that some may find useflis voice annotation, this feature enables operatives (via ahands-iee microphone) to attach audio tert, as an aide memoir, to aid image evaluation during the report generation stage. In addition, some systems allow attachment of predefined text to image fies. Camera features vary between manufacturers and systems soit is important to determine which are important and, Which have litle value, and apply these criteria to the purchase specification. RT manufacturers are usually more than happy to demonstrate their system features and explain how these may be used to suit your specific needs. Ua nu OM ONS 26 |[EEEHD cotour patertes The choice of colour palette is a matter of personal preference, though some palettes are better suited to particular applications. Example illustrations of palette options are provided in Thermograms 3 t0 5 The temperature represented by a colour is arbitrary and will depend on the temperature range and span selected by the operator. ‘Thermogram 3 Most modern cameras are capable of ‘measuring temperatures over a range of 500°C and with a sensitivity better than 01°C, To see a temperature difference of °C over a range of 500°C would require the ability to differentiate sooo shades of grey or colour; this is not possible, Images viewed in black and white for example, present shades of grey to the operator where the maximum temperature satural temperatures saturate into black. The human eye can only resolve 20 to 30 shades of grey (depending on the individual). Therefore, ifa viewable ;0 white, while the minimum temperature sensitivity of 01°C were required, the temperature span would need to be only 2 to 3°C. This is @ very ‘small range where everything on the image outside this range would saturate to black and white, Whilst ths illustrates the quality and temperature resolution offered by modern IR cameras, this degree of viewable sensitivity is rarely required for most applications. Typically, a temperature sensitivity of 1.0°C is more than sufficient for most applications, providing a discernible temperature span of 20 to 30°C. In practice, auto-ranging usually results in a reasonable and viewable range, while some manual fine-tuning is often necessary to achieve the desired sensitivity and image detail‘Opersbilty and ergonomics are very important system selection criteria Some IRT surveys may lst for several hours, and may require the operator to workin uncomfortable environments ort may ental lengthy walking or even climbing. Operator fatigue canbe a real problem and fatigue can affect concentration which in turn may fet quality and safety. itis important, therefore, to select a camera with userfiendly controls that are comfortable to use and require minimal button pressing for adjustment and feature access. Balance and weight must feel right, otherwise fatigue willbe a problem. Sorne manufacturers wl allow you to borrow a camera ifthe fel a sae is likely 50 take full advantage and become familar'sed withthe operability and ergonomics of each system just as you would do if purchasing @ new motor cat, Camera build quay is also an important consideration, especialy ifthe cameras likey to be used in harsh environments oF subjected to severe jlts or contamination. For environments where airborne particulates likely tobe present, then Ingress Protection (IP) may be an important buld-quaiy Factor. court ano seavcnc it Calibration and servicing will require the IRT equipment to be sent tothe IRT manufacturer’ calibration and servicing centre, “These centres are not situated in every country, worldwide, soit would be prudent to ascertain the nearest located centre for each manufacturer. Overseas servicing and calbration will havea sigrificant impact on camera availabilty so ‘turmaround! times should be determined and agreed in wing before being commited to a system purchase. This action will help to ‘evaluate annual running costs and camera avalabily, “Temperature measurement accuracy largely applcation-dependent, and may citate the Frequency wth which the manufactures’ calibration services are required, Where accurate temperature measurements a prerequisite, calibration ‘would normaly be undertaken annually or when system accuracy is considered suspect, Where certified temperature accuracy is not a necessary requirement, then its possible to undertake an effective secalbraton check. Remember that "water and ice possess ver high surface emissivity values, making them ideal calibration sources. As wate boils at 100 C at sea level and freezes at °C, you can be confident that your system measurement is accurate providing the measured temperature is cose to these values and that the majorty of our application measurement work falls ner or within this temperature range. At freezing the ideal situation isa mixture of ce and water. comme Like the advancement in thetmographic camera technology diagnostic and report writing software have also kept pace, “The dita and graphical processing power of medern computers have facitated the emergence of vty powerful diagnostic software. Additional, the introduction of eflordabl, high performance colour printers and digital photographic cameras has greatly enhanced the quality and standard of thermographic reporting, Modem technology has made fas, high quality report ‘generation possible. Atypical computer generated IRT report page formats ilustrated in Section 73. Today's software providers produce a package that combines both image analysis and report generation. Software selection is largely a matter of personal preference. Its important to examine and compare diagnostic features and user-fiendlness, bearing in mind potetial applications. Also remember, not all sofware packages suppor all image formats and ths again may influence camera choice. Sofware programs that interface wth common word processing packages have the advantage of ulising a proven word processing platform with all the features necessary to create reports and report templates to suit almost any thermographic application, The down side to this option isthe need and time taken to continual switch between the analysis software and the word processing software, which may not suit all thermographers.‘Stand-slone! software packages combine both analysis and report generation functions, where thermograms are analysed and manipulated on the report page rather than independent. There is a compromise with this approach, where the word processing and template construction is usually less ‘sophisticated and can often be tedious and time consuming. However, once a report template i constructed, these sofware packages provide the ideal tool for fast analysis and report generation, (oe uce tera rosea mmppl thermograms ae stored ina format urique tothe manufacture nthe past, his usualy mean that onrlonded images could only be processed by the caea maruictue' software This hntaon of sofa choice res apparent today, wth manufactures cing image compatbity witha number of elfrert mege omens Some manufacturers il ofer the softare either fre or at scouted prices when purchasing a yon poffare selection should be deterined by ese of operation and the ana functions ofred, The value of specific functions, such a image eting and data manipulation, for eample wil largely depend on the thecmographic or statistical analysis, ‘Making the correct choice of IRT equipments essential to obtaining high standards for a given application, Equally itis important to select the corect support and ancillary equipment. The fllonng three subsections Provide guidance on the selection process. Eas Thermographic reports typically show thermographic and photographic images side by side, for identification and ee aint consider photographic sofa. pil carer sofware haste image citing capabily owe ts shoud not fect the prefered cole of cameras goed lowcost image editing sofware packages are eilabe: Formos applications, high quay digital cana are not necessary sce eye one ‘memory that has to De tered not olin the camera but also archived om the PC and als high quay images take longer to pint. Laue Eanes IVE TESTINGcoors aT “The report represents the final product ofa thermographic survey it will normally contain te, tables and ofcourse graphics ‘high quality report not onl demands technical accuracy but also good presentation; and the report wl be the ‘yardstick by which the IRT service is evaluated, Printers var considerably in terms of print quality, speed and pice. Print quality may bbe driven by the thermographic application, which may or may not demand high resolution. Printer speed and on-board memory should also be considered ifthe volume of works ikely tobe high, bearing in mind that increasing printer performance can be costly. In adton tothe ital purchase price, running costs could vary significantly from printer to printer Manufacturers should be able to provide total printing costs based ona single printed page, and include the cost of paper and ink cartridges. conmuresrequaeuents Manufacturers ofthermographic diagnostic and report writing sofware usually speci the minimum computer requirements necessary to operate their sofware, Today, however, most modern PCs satisfy these requirements. It's worth bearing in mind that graphical applications can be demanding on memory and processing power, so the highest affordable specification PC should be acquired with a monitor size of at least 19 inch. Check with the IRT manufacturer that they can supply the necessary camera-t-PC interconnecting, cables and make sure these are included in the project's Budget for comparison we “The decision to either purchase IRT equipment or employ the services of a specialist maintenance contractor vill normally