DAY 3

AIRCRAFT AS SEEN BY
DIFFERENT GROUPS
Stress group

Aerodynamic group

Production group
FLOW CHART OF AN A/C DESIGN
Design Specification

Design Criteria

Basic Loads
Laboratory
Flight Airplane Design Development
Test Data Test Data

Certification Test Program

Approved Type Certificate

DESIGN CYCLE OF AN A/C
 LOAD FACTOR
LOAD FACTOR :
A factor which defines load in terms of weight

L=W L+L=W+F

W
L  F  Az
g
 Az 
L  L  W 1  
 g   A
n  1  1
g
L
W
DESIGN LOAD FACTOR
(6 to 8)

(2 to 3)
 WING LOAD CASES
• CASE A
– Large angles of attack
corresponding to CL max while
reaching a load factor of nmax
(steep climb)
• CASE A’
– Reaching a load factor of nmax at
maximum airspeed
• CASE B
– Reaching a load factor of 0.5nmax
at maximum airspeed with
Ailerons deflected
• CASE C
– Ailerons deflected at maximum
airspeed (dive)
• CASE D & D’
– Acrobatic maneuvers with a
negative load factor
WING LOAD REGIONS

Region I : n=nmax
Region II : 0n<nmax
Region III : 0nnmin
Region IV : n=nmin
CONSTRUCTION OF V-n DIAGRAM
Vs12 S
L  W  C Lmax ………….(1)
296
From (1)
296 W
Vs1  S ………….(2)
C Lmax
Vsn2 S
nW  C Lmax ………….(3)
296
From (1) & (3) we get

Vsn  Vs1 n ………….(4)

Vs2
n  C Lmax ………….(5)
296 W / S
V-n DIAGRAM
MANEUVERING V-n DIAGRAM
GUST V-n DIAGRAM
LIMITING LOAD FACTOR VALUES
S.No Weight of the Limiting load factor
airplane
1 < 4118 3.8

2 4118 - 50000 24, 000

nlim it  2.1 
 Wto  10, 000 
3 > 50000 2.1
AIRCRAFT STRUCTURAL
DESIGN
 PHASES OF AIRCRAFT
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
• Specification of function and design criteria
• Determination of basic external loads
• Calculation of internal element loads
• Determination of allowable element
strengths and margins of safety
• Experimental demonstration or subtantiation
test program
 CLASSIFICATION
• CRITICAL
– ALL PRIMARY STRUCTURES
FUSELAGE
WING
EMPENNAGE
AILERON / FLAPS/STABILIZERS
• NEAR CRITICAL PARTS
– TRAILING EDGE PANELS OF WINGS &
EMPENNAGE
– RADOME
• NON-CRITICAL PARTS
– FAIRINGS / INTERIOR PANELS
CRITERIA FOR MATERIAL
SELECTION
• Light weight
• Stiffness
• Toughness
• Resistance to corrosion
• Fatigue
• Environmental heat
• Availability
• Easy to fabricate
 MATERIALS
• Aluminum alloy
• Titanium
• Steel
• Composites
 SIGN CONVENTIONS

A) AXIAL FORCE B) SHEAR FORCE C) BENDING MOMENT

D) TORQUE E) SHEAR FLOW F) ANGLE & ROTATION

 SIGN CONVENTIONS
(REACTION LOADS)

A) AXIAL & SHEAR B) BENDING MOMENT

C) TORQUE
 STRUCTURAL INDEX
• STRUCTURAL INDEX OFFERS THE DESIGNER
A GUIDE TO DESIGN THE OPTIMUM TYPE OF
STRUCTURE

• STRUCTURAL INDEX IS USEFUL IN DESIGN

WORK BECAUSE IT CONTAINS
– THE INTENSITY OF THE LOAD
– DIMENSIONS, WHICH LIMIT THE SIZE OF THE
STRUCTURE
 STRUCTURAL INDEX

A) SHEAR B) TORSION C) COLUMN D) WIDE COLUMN

E) PANEL F) TUBE G) WING BOX

SEQUENCE OF STRESS WORK

• PRELIMINARY SIZING
• PRODUCTION STRESS ANALYSIS
• FORMAL STRESS ANALYSIS FOR
CERTIFICATION
 PRELIMINARY SIZING
Step1 : Recognize the function and configuration of the
component

Step2 : Basic loads (static / fatigue / fail safe / crash)

Step3 : Material selection (static / fatigue / fracture

toughness)

Step4 : Fastener and repairability

Step5 : Efficient structure (Fabrication / Configuration /

assembly / installation / stiffness)

Step6 : Cost ( Manufacturing / assembly/ performance /

market)
 EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES
• THE FORCE EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS ARE
F  0 X

F  0 Y
FREE BODY DIAGRAM
M  0 L P

C T
A B
1200 lb
40000 lb-in
STRUCTURE W=8000 lb
M B 0
 F 0
F
Y
x 0 1200 * 10  P * 150  8000 * 6  40000
T  1200 lb 15P  7600
L  P  8000
P  506 L  7494
 TRUSS
TRUSSES ARE CLASSIFIED AS
- STATICALLY DETERMINATE
- STATICALLY INDETERMINATE
m= Number of members
m  2 j 3 j= Number of joints
m  2j-3 Structure is unstable
m  2j-3 Structure is statically indeterminate
 TRUSSES (Contd…)
• Identify whether the structure is statically
determinate / indeterminate

P P P
C P P P

A B A B C D

RAH RBH
RAV RBV
 ASSUMPTIONS IN TRUSS
ANALYSIS
• The members of the truss are straight,
weightless and lie in one plane
• The members of the truss meeting at a point
are considered as joined together by a
frictionless pin
• All the members axis intersect at the centre
of the pin
• All the external loads are only applied to the
joints and in the plane of truss
 TRUSS ANALYSIS
TRUSSES CAN BE ANALYSED BY
- METHOD OF JOINTS
- METHOD OF SECTIONS FREE BODY DIAGRAM
4000 lb
STRUCTURE
2000 lb A B C

A 1000 lb

R1
M D 0
D E G H
1000 * 30  4000 * 10  2000 * 10  R3 * 20
R2 R3
R3  4500 lb

F X 0 F Y 0
R 2  R3  5000
R1  2000
R 2  500 lb
 TRUSS ANALYSIS (Contd …)
JOINT D FAD
F X  0  FDE  2000 2000
F Y  0  FAD  500 D FDE
500
JOINT A
 Y
F  0  FAE Sin 45
 FAD
A FAB
FAE  707lb 2000 lb
 X
F  0   FAE Cos 45
 FAB  2000
FAE
FAB  2500 lb FAD=500

JOINT E FAE=707 FBE

F Y  0  FAE Sin45  FBE


FEG
FBE  500lb FDE=2000

 XF  0  FAE Cos 45

 FDE  FEG E

FEG  2500 lb
 TRUSS
JOINT B
ANALYSIS (Contd …)
4000 lb
F Y  0  FBG Sin45  FBE  4000

FAB=2500
FBC
FBG  4950lb
B
 XF  0  FBG Cos 45
 FAB  FBC FBE=500
FBC  1000 lb FCG
FBG=4950
JOINT G FGH
FEG=2500
 X
F  0  FBG Cos 45
 FEG  FGH
G
FGH  1000 lb
4500
F Y  0  FBG Sin45  FCG  4500


FCG  1000lb
1000 lb
FCH
JOINT H
 Y
F  0  FCH Sin 45
 1000 FGH=1000
FCH  1414lb H
 TRUSS ANALYSIS
(METHOD OF SECTIONS)
4000 lb
2000 lb A B C

1000 lb

R1
G
D E G H
R2 R3=4500
 TRUSS ANALYSIS
(METHOD OF SECTIONS)
4000 lb
M G 0
 2000 *10  4000 *10  500 * 20  FBC * 10
2000 lb A B FBC
FBC  1000 lb

FBG F Y 0

R1=2000 lb FBG Sin 45  4000  500

D E FEG G FBG  4950 lb

R2 =500 lb F X 0
FEG  FBG Cos 45  2000  2000  1000
FEG  2500 lb
 TRUSS ANALYSIS
(METHOD OF SECTIONS)

M B 0
4500 *10  1000 * 20  FEG *10 FBC C
B
FEG  2500 lb FBG 1000 lb
F Y 0
FBG Sin45  4500  1000
FEG G
FBG  4950 lb H
R3=4500
F X 0
FBC  FBG Cos 45  FEG
FBC  1000 lb
 TRUSS WITH MEMBERS IN BENDING

100 lb 200 lb 100 lb

A B C

200 lb
RAX RBX1 E

RAY=100 lb RBY1=100 lb D
RBX1 200 lb
RCX

RBY2=100 lb RCY=100 lb
 TRUSS WITH MEMBERS IN BENDING
F Y 0 200 lb F Y 0
FCE Sin30  100 B F FBE  200 lb
FAB BC
100 lb FCE  200 lb
F X 0
FBC C FAB  FBC  173.2 lb
F X 0 FBE
FBC  FCE Cos30 FBE=200 lb
FCE
FBC  173.2 lb FAE=200 lb FCE=200 lb

FED E
F Y 0

100 lb FAE Sin30  100 FED  F CE  FAE Cos60  FBE Cos60

FAE  200 lb FED  400 lb
FAX A FAB FED

FAE
F X 0
FD  FED  400 lb
FAX  FAB  FAE Cos 30  FD D
FAX  346.4 lb
 FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
• A GENRALIZED MATHEMATICAL
PROCEDURE FOR CONTINUUM PROBLEMS
POSED BY MATHEMATICALLY DEFINED
STATEMENTS 10
9 11
9 10

9 7 8 11 12
4 5 6 7 8
1 2 5 6
3 4
5 6
1 2 3
 TRUSS ELEMENT
Y x2
x1
U1 U2
X
r=-1 r=1

Natural coordinate system r

Global coordinate system X
2 2
X   hi X i U   hiU i
1 1
1
h1  1  r  1
h1  1  r 
2 2
1
h2  1  r  1
2 h2  1  r 
2
 TRUSS ELEMENT (Contd…)
dU dU dr
   1
dX dr dX K   BDBT dX
dU 1 1

1  1 
1
dr 2 1
K     1 1 AE  Jdr
dX 1 L L L 1 
  X 2  X1  
1

dr 2 2 AE
1
 1  L
K  2    1 1  dr
 
 U 2  U1  L 1 
 1  2
L AE 1 - 1
K
1
B    1 1 L - 1 1
L
 STATIC ANALYSIS
KU  F
K-STIFFNESS MATRIX
U–DISPLACEMENT VECTOR
F- FORCE VECTOR

SOLUTION METHODS
A) SPARSE DECOMPOSITION
B) CHOLESKEY FACTORIZATION
C) PCG METHOD
D) FRONTAL SOLVER
 PRACTICEWORK
Prob. 1 : Solve the given truss using method of joints, method of
sections and compare
 PRACTICEWORK
2. Solve the given aircraft structure using method of joints,
method of sections and compare