1 Instructional Learning Theories T.

Dumais EdTech 597

This paper is a brief overview of the key concepts and ideas of five
theories behind gamification and of learning and instruction.

Flow theory
Flow theory was created by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi and is part of the learned optimism field of
psychology. The theory is called the science of the optimal state and defined as flow. This
theory is based upon the idea that when a person is engaged in an activity that is challenging, not
too easy or too difficult and the participant receives some sort of feedback on a regular basis, in
regards to their progress, then the participant can step outside of their consciousness and be in
the moment (Csikszentmihalyi, M 1997). Flow is the process of being in the moment, shutting
off the conscience mind and letting conciseness flow where time doesnt exist. This losing of
oneself in the moment is self-rewarding and creates a sense of well-being; this well-being is part
of the attraction back into flow (Csikszentmihalyi, M 1997). Flow can be achieved in
meditation, sports as well as any time you focus your attention to the exclusion of all others.

Situated Learning Theory

This theory began with Dr. Jean Lave as she sought to understand how best to transfer
knowledge from teacher to student. Lave proposed that learning takes place best when the
learner can experience learning in real world situations to create authentic learning (Abma 2007).
The idea is to create an opportunity for the learner to engage in a community of learners who are
experts in their field and the learner, through contact with this group in a real world environment
is provided an optimal learning opportunity. The learner and experts work collaboratively in this
learning environment to pass on knowledge and information to the learner. Ben-Ari describes
this learning environment like that of an apprentice that learns from a journeyman (Ben-Ari, M.
2005). Situated learning theory can be related to edutainment by having a student participate in
a mock drill with real actors to simulate a disaster or car accident. The learner then is able to put
their skills into real work environment and are provided feedback from the community of
learners.
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Constructivist Theory

Constructivist theory views learning as something that the student will develop and learn on their
own or with the assistance for the teacher. The teacher is merely a facilitator for the student who
may look to solve a problem or issue individually or collaboratively. Constructivist theory states
that teachers are not the sole repository of information; they create situations, problems where
the student must construct or develop an understanding of the challenge and find a solution
(Sivan, 1986). Regarding edutainment, constructivist theory is related to inquiry learning where
the student is there to solve challenges; the teacher creates an environment where the student
develops the skills necessary to tackle the next level of challenge. Teachers scaffold learning
environments that support the students achievement that allows the learner to apply their
problem solving skills to new challenges (Sivan, 1986). Students construct their learning
through either individual and or collaborative environments where students become experts in
some areas and rely upon other experts to supplement their learning or to help them achieve a
goal. This collaborative aspect of constructivist theory works well with edutainment as some
games and activities are cooperative in nature.


Activity Theory

This theory focuses upon how people learn while completing a task. The theory also focuses
upon not only the action (learning) but the environment or circumstances that learning takes
place in. Activity cannot be understood or analyzed outside the context in which it occurs
(Arnseth, 2008). This theory also focuses on the conscience of the learner while they learn; the
focus is upon what and how people think while they are learning. The goal is skill or knowledge
development and it helps that the learner can have the opportunity to practice and repeat the
learning process. This theory works well in games as players will have the opportunity to repeat
levels, or challenge similar tasks in a new setting.



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Motivational Theory

In order for students to be successful learners this theory states that learners must go through four
stages that affect and support the learning process. Those stages include attention, relevance,
confidence and satisfaction (Keller, 2005). Kellers ARCs model is used by instructional
designers to ensure that their program provides an opportunity for the learner to be engaged,
opportunity to practice and to master the task or skills. Good teaching practices should include
the ARCSs model theory as the learner is first brought into the lesson by gaining the learners
attention while explain that new material to be learnt. The lessons will also include directions
and or examples of the desired outcome with an eventual assessment or demonstration of the
new skill set learnt. This model and theory focuses on the motivations behind learning, the goal
is to keep learners motivated without becoming purely entertaining (Keller, 2005).


Part II: Comparison of Theories

I have chosen to compare the Activity, Constructivist and the Situated Learning theories as all
three are related to the concept of hands on, real world learning. The students build (construct)
new knowledge based upon their previous learning and knowledge. All three theories are related
to student centered learning where the teacher is more of a facilitator and creates the
environment that supports and develops the students problem solving skills. The student must
work in collaboration with others in order to develop the skills or accomplish goals. With
Situated Learning Theory, the student is in an apprenticeship type learning environment where
learners are part of a greater community of learners that are experts and support the students
achievement (Ben-Ari, 2005). The student goes from learning what to know to knowing how to
do the task or skill. This is similar to Constructivism as the student is often required to work in a
collaborative fashion as they will rely on others as experts to fill in information gaps or help
them achieve success in an area of weakness (Sivan, 1986). I think of World of Warcraft as a
good example where individually players cannot be successful on a raid as the obstacle is too
formidable, but working collaboratively with other experts, they are able to accomplish the goal.
With constructivism the teachers also plays a role of facilitator and they must scaffold the
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learning to allow success, provide timely feedback as well as have clear goals and objectives
(Keller 2005). Activity learning is like a combination of Constructivist and the Situated
Learning Theories as Activity theory states that students learn best by actually performing the
skills they will have to learn and that the learning comes from the activity itself (Arnseth, 2008).
This is related to both constructivist, and Situation Learning; where students construct, or
develop their learning and where the student is placed in a learning environment where they must
mimic or practice skills needed to achieve their objectives (Arnseth, 2008). All three theories
advocate the concept of the teacher as facilitator and that students must take responsibility for
their own learning. The teacher does not have to be the expert, but can help the student to
become and expert. The focus of these theories is to move away from learning what to know;
facts, figures, dates and events, in isolation, learning abstract material independently of authentic
learning situations. These learning theories take into account how people learn best, hands on,
situational, in context that develops students that understand the material and can apply it in the
real world. I always remember reading about how Helen Keller began to understand the palm
writings and movements her teacher, Anne Sullivan was doing in her hand when Anne made
gestures in her hand then put her hand in water, and then made the gestures again. As Helen
describes it, a light went on and she now understood what the abstract palm writing actually
meant now that it was in context. (Keller, Macy, Shattuck, & Herrmann, 2003). Implementing
these learning theories will help instructors to turn on the lights for all of our students just as
Anne Sullivan did for Helen Keller.










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References:

Abma, T. (2007). Situated learning in communities of practice. Evaluation, 13, 1, 32-47.
Arnseth, H. C. (2008). Activity theory and situated learning theory: Contrasting views of
educational practice. Pedagogy, culture and society, 16, 3, 289-302.
Ben-Ari, M. (2005). Situated learning in this high-technology world. Science &
education, 14, 367-376.
Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of
learning. Educational researcher, 18, 1, 32-42.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1997). Finding flow. Psychology today, 30, 4.)

Keller, H., Sullivan, A., Macy, J. A., Shattuck, R., & Herrmann, D. (2003). The story of my life.
New York: Norton.
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Keller, J. M. (1987). The systematic process of motivational design. Performance & instruction,
26 (9/10), 1-8

Latham, G. P., & Pinder, C. C. (2005). Work motivation theory and research at the dawn of the
twenty-first century. Annual review of psychology, 56, (1)

Sivan, E. (1986). Motivation in social constructivist theory. Educational psychologist, 21, 3,
209-233.