Introduction The purpose of this paper is to compare learning theories in the area of deaf education. Well look at the behaviorist, constructivist, and schema learning theories; specifically, how they apply to educating students with hearing loss. There are four main questions were going to answer: How does learning occur? What are the learning outcomes? How is learning applied to other areas? And, is the theory applicable in a bilingual/bicultural learning environment? This is a very important topic due to the fact that there are now many options available for educating students with hearing loss. In the past, these students have been contained to schools for the deaf, or resource rooms in their home school districts. In the schools for the deaf, education was delivered strictly in spoken English or strictly in American Sign Language. Now, students with hearing loss are integrated in the mainstream classroom with their hearing peers, or in schools for the deaf where instruction is provided using a bilingual/bicultural approach in which instruction is provided in both American Sign Language as well as spoken English. The students are exposed to both hearing and Deaf cultures. The question is: How do the constructivist and schema learning theories fit into deaf education? Literature Review Deaf bilingual-bicultural education is defined by Mason and Ewoldt as the incorporation of native sign language and the written majority language as the principle languages of communication and instruction. (Mason & Ewoldt, 1996). The objective is to promote relations between education and real life experiences and values as well as to help deaf students appreciate that they are different rather than deficient (Mason & Ewoldt, 1996). The deaf bilingual- EDCI531 Final Paper Kelly Trozzo
bicultural education recognizes the Deaf and hearing cultures as distinguishable and definable phenomena and enhances mutual respect between deaf and hearing people (Mason & Ewoldt, 1996). To be ASL-English bilingual, a student doesnt have to be fluent in both languages. The reading abilities of students with hearing loss are well below that of their peers. Approximately half of all students with hearing loss graduate below a fourth grade reading level. This may not be caused by lack of ability but from instructional weaknesses. In order to solve this problem, one must first understand working memory and short term memory in students with hearing loss. In addition to having processing speed deficits, students with hearing loss have more difficulty with sequential memory processing tasks in regard to digits, printed words, pictures, American Sign Language, spoken English, fingerspelled words, and spoken English words (Hamilton, 2011). Another concern is attention. Students with hearing loss are highly attuned to information in peripheral vision causing movement on either side of the student or the teacher to be distorting (Hamilton, 2011). However, these students strength is in recalling information presented in static visuospatial format, or presenting a visual array such as blocks on a table or objects on a grid (Hamilton, 2011). The constructivist theory states that learning occurs when ideas are constructed through collaboration and social interaction. Students have to understand themselves and others around them before they can start learning the curriculum (Powell, 2009). Communication is key and everyone must be on the same common ground. The outcome is for students to learn about themselves, and then apply what they have learned in real world situations. This is also how learning is applied to other areas. This theory is applicable in a bilingual/bicultural learning environment. EDCI531 Final Paper Kelly Trozzo
In the schema theory, learning occurs by relating what you are teaching to something that is meaningful to the student; something they already know. The outcome is that it provides the underlying structure for organizing problems which leads to effective problem solving. Learning is applied to other areas by supporting multiple ways to solve problems. This theory is also applicable in a bilingual/bicultural learning environment. Application What does this all mean? The research shows that students with hearing loss are at a serious disadvantage. The bilingual/bicultural approach is used to bridge the gap between education and real life experiences. The constructivist and schema learning theories fit right into this approach. Constructivism looks at cultural differences, and helps the students learn about themselves and the people around them. These are the same cultural differences that students with hearing loss face every day. When they attend school, they are submersed in Deaf culture. They communicate using American Sign Language. After graduation, they go out into the real world where they are expected to read English (which is completely different than ASL), communicate with people who communicate using spoken English (they do not know ASL), and live and work with them in harmony. The bilingual/bicultural approach helps s\these students to learn about hearing culture and learn English while they are still in school, so they can have an easier transition into the hearing world. Constructivism also uses scaffolding to help students learn. They are given the extra support they need at the beginning, and as they learn, the support is slowly removed until the students can perform the task independently. The schema theory plays a large role here as well. It can also be used in conjunction with the constructivist theory. The schema theory involves connecting the lesson to something the EDCI531 Final Paper Kelly Trozzo
student already knows. Cultural differences are key here. For example, I grew up, and attended college, in an extremely rural area. I did my student teaching in the inner city. I was in culture shock. One student told me that he left his homework in the jitney. I had to ask another teacher what a jitney was. The same holds true for a student. If a student is from the inner city, he will most likely suffer the same type of culture shock if he is placed in a rural school. His learning needs to be individualized to fit his cultural needs; what he already knows. We can now transfer this over to Deaf culture. The language of the Deaf is very visual. The lessons need to be presented in a visual manner and applied to what the student already knows. In conclusion, the constructivist and schema theories fit quite nicely into deaf education. EDCI531 Final Paper Kelly Trozzo
References DeLana, M., Gentry, M., & Andrews, J. (2007). The Efficacy of ASL/English Bilingual Education: onsidering Public Schools. American Annals of the Deaf, 152(1), 73-87. Retrieved February 20, 2013 , from http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.lib.purdue.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=248ecc 2f-a7f8-4c62-acdc-1392bc1a79a3%40sessionmgr11&vid=2&hid=27 Hamilton, H. (2011). Memory Skills of Deaf Learners: Implications and Applications. American Annals of the Deaf, 156(4), 402-423. Retrieved February 20, 2013, from http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.lib.purdue.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=7e616d aa-ce36-4c24-9ef7-ab5625e6ca13%40sessionmgr15&vid=2&hid=27 Jitendra, A. K., Star, J. R., Rodriguez, M., Lindell, M., & Someki, F. (2011). Improving Students' Thinking Using Schema-Based Instruction. Learning and Instruction, 21, 731- 745. Retrieved February 19, 2013, from http://www.sciencedirect.com.ezproxy.lib.purdue.edu/science/article/pii/S095947521100 0375 Jitendra, A. K., Star, J. R., Starosta, K., Leh, J. M., Sood, S., Caskie, G., . . . Mack, T. R. (2009). Improving Seventh Grade Students' Learning of Ratio and Proportion: The Role of Schema-Based Instruction. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 34, 250-264. Retrieved February 19, 2013, from http://www.sciencedirect.com.ezproxy.lib.purdue.edu/science/article/pii/S0361476X0900 0162 Mason, D., & Ewoldt, C. (1996). Whole Language and Deaf Bilingual-Bicultural Education - Naturally! American Annals of the Deaf, 141(4), 293-298. Retrieved February 20, 2013 , from http://muse.jhu.edu.ezproxy.lib.purdue.edu/journals/american_annals_of_the_deaf/toc/aa d.141.4.html Matthews, W. J. (2003). Constructivism in the Classroom: Epistemology, History, and Empirical Evidence. Teacher Educatoin Quartely, 30(3), 51-64. Retrieved February 20, 2013, from http://seaerch.ebscohost.com.exproxy.lib.purdue.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eft&AN =507842427&site=ehost-live Miller, M. S. (2010). Epistemoloy and People Who Are Deaf: Deaf Worldviews, Views of the Deaf World, or My Parents Are Hearing. American Annals of the Deaf, 032(3), 479-485. Retrieved February 20, 2013, from http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.lib.purdue.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=fea43d cf-d3e5-42c4-bc72-98e8207619fa%40sessionmgr15&vid=2&hid=27 EDCI531 Final Paper Kelly Trozzo
Powell, K. J. (2009). Cognitive and Social Constructivism: Developing Tools For An Effective Classroom. Education, 130(2), 241-250. Retrieved February 20, 2013, from http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.lib.purdue.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=tfh&AN =47349084&site=ehost-live
(Philosophy and Medicine 82) Josef Seifert (Auth.) - The Philosophical Diseases of Medicine and Their Cure - Philosophy and Ethics of Medicine, Vol. 1 - Foundations (2004, Springer Netherlands)