WELL TESTING TRAINING MANUAL

SECTION 1 ............................................................................................... GENERALITIES

SECTION 2 ................................................................................. SAFETY PROCEDURES
SECTION 3 ..................................................................................... PIPES AND FITTINGS
SECTION 4 ........................................................................................................... VALVES
SECTION 5 ............................................................................................ FLOW CONTROL
SECTION 6 ..................................PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS
SECTION 7 ................................................................................. DEAD WEIGHT TESTER
SECTION 8 ................................................................ SEPARATORS AND SEPARATION
SECTION 9 ..................................................... SAFETY VALVES AND RUPTURE DISCS
SECTION 10 ................................................................ PNEUMATIC CONTROL VALVES
SECTION 11 ...................................................................... PNEUMATIC CONTROLLERS
SECTION 12 ......................................................... OIL VOLUME (TANKS AND METERS)
SECTION 13 ............................................................................. DANIEL ORIFICE METER
SECTION 14 ...................................................................................BARTON RECORDER
SECTION 15 ............................................................. RANAREX GAS GRAVITOMETERS
SECTION 16 .............................................................. GAS FLOW RATE COMPUTATION
SECTION 17 ..........................................HYDRATES (HEATER AND TEXSTEAM PUMP)
SECTION 18 .............................................................................................. REGULATORS
SECTION 19 ...............................................................................BURNERS AND BOOMS
SECTION 21 .........................................................................................TRANSFER PUMP

Generalities

1 - 1

SECTION 1
GENERALITIES
Generalities

2 - 2

1 INTRODUCTION TO WELL TESTING
Tests on oil or gas wells are performed at various stages of drilling, completion and
production and for different purposes. It is important to understand completely the
reasons for each of these tests and what is expected to be accomplish with the results.
1. Drill stem tests (DST) in open hole are normally carried out in exploration wells and
while drilling is in progress. Indications of hydrocarbons, either through cuttings, gas
cutting of mud or intermediate logs make it interesting to determine whether a true
reservoir exists, or simply hydrocarbons which are contained in tight rocks, but are
unproductive. These tests are normally short (less than 12 hours) and, if properly
performed, provide further evidence of fluid content of the rock, and usually some of
the rock parameters (permeability, for example)
2. If logs, DST's and other such information are sufficiently promising, casing will be run
and perhaps further testing carried out prior to completion. Such tests will usually be
DST's in cased hole.
3. Following the tests in cased hole, completion will usually be made in zone, which
gives the best results during the shorter tests. In some circumstances a dual zone
completion may be made, if it is sufficiently important to make long tests on two
separate zones at the same time.
The tests made on completing the well may be called completion or production tests (the
name "production test" can be misleading since all routine tests made in a production
station are classified as "production tests").
These notes are concerned with DST or production tests immediately on completing the
well, sometimes with a rig still present, sometimes after rigging down, but in any case,
long before the existence of any permanent production facilities.
The routine production tests after installation of facilities do not concern us here, since at
that time all the important decisions regarding reservoir development have already been
made. The correct interpretation of the first test, made with portable equipment, is on the
other hand of vital importance, since much of what comes later depends upon it.
What is important to understand is that in many aspects, production (completion) tests
are similar to DST's. Both are short term and are designed to give us information not only
on fluid content of a reservoir but in particular on rock properties, through correct
interpretation of bottom hole pressure transient data. The production test is longer,
producing rates can be more realistic, and preliminary information makes possible better
planning than in a DST, where testing is often finished before it is realized that important
data is missing or tool function was unsatisfactory. The production test attempts not only
to fill such gaps, but also to gain additional reservoir information by being considerably
longer. Only careful planning and observation can ensure this.
Generalities

3 - 3


WELL TEST TECHNIQUE


WELL TESTING
Customer requirements
Reservoir parameters - Kh, S, P.
Where do we get the data ?
FLOW RATE CONTROL
Open hole DST
Cased hole DST
Safety equipment (S.S.T.T.)
FLOW DATA
Production testing
PRESSURE DATA
Recorders
Real time gauges
ACQUISITION
Hardware
Software
A.L.S.
FLUID DATA
Sampling
Surface & downhole
PVT analysis
VALIDATION / INTERPRETATION
Validating data acquired on site
Interpretation on site
D/HOLE
GAUGES
DST
EQUIPMENT
SAFETY
EQUIPMENT
(S.S.T.T.)
SURFACE
TESTING
EQUIPMENT
ACQUISITION
SYSTEM
VALIDATION






Generalities

4 - 4

2 AIMS OF WELL TESTING
Determine exact nature of produced fluids.
PVT tests to be performed on recombined samples

Define well productivity
IPR curve for oil wells inflow performance response inflow production
relation
Deliver ability curve and open flow potential for gas wells

Evaluate characteristics of the producing formation
Static formation pressure
Formation flow capacity (kh)

Evaluate formation damage
Determine if acidifying or other treatment is needed
Control results of the treatment operation
2.1 WT OPERATIONS
The key to successful test is personnel
Job preparation (Base)
Job performance (Well site)
Job follow-up (Base)

Testing is personnel intensive and relies heavily on:
Leadership
Team work
2.2 TESTING PROGRAMME
Established according to:
Nature of fluid produced (oil, gas)
Reservoir characteristics
1
(High, low productivity)


1
First estimation can be made during clean-up using charts
Generalities

5 - 5


Generalities

6 - 6


2.3 SURFACE TESTING - OPERATIONAL ASPECTS
1. JOB PREPARATION
2. PRESSURE TESTING
3. CLEANING UP
4. MAIN TEST
5. REPORTING
6. JOB FOLLOW UP
1. JOB PREPARATION
CLIENT VISIT: by manager
Test program
Equipment selection
RIG VISIT: by test supervisor
Layout of basic equipment
Piping requirement
Boom installation
EQUIPMENT PREPARATION: under test supervisor's control
PRE-TEST MEETING: attended by test supervisor
Procedures
Program changes
EQUIPMENT DISPATCH: base
CREW DISPATCH: base
At least two or three days before test is due
Inspection for missing or damages equipment
Set up
Calibration
Pressure testing
Sampling preparation
Generalities

7 - 7


Generalities

8 - 8

2. PRESSURE TESTING
The following pressure testing sequence is compulsory before any well opening.
The record of the pressure tests should be included in the final well test report. Use the
Foxboro Recorder or any other recorder available.
TESTING THE LINES (See sketch of "PRESSURE TESTING SEQUENCE")
The different sections must be hydraulically tested at working pressure. Normally
after the well stream leaves the well head, the pressure is reduced in stages. After
the pressure is reduced, process components of lower pressure rating may be used.
The rule is: A pressure vessel should either be designed to withstand the maximum
internal pressure which can be exerted on it under any conditions, or be
protected by a pressure relieving device (safety relief valve or rupture
disc).
To determine system design pressure rating, it is necessary to show pressure-rating
boundaries on mechanical flow sheets. Each section of flow line or process
component has an assigned operating pressure e.g.:
From the well head or flow head down to the floor choke manifold
the working pressure must be higher than the shut-in tubing
pressure. This will lead to the choice of the floor manifold assembly.
For subsequent sections the working pressure is determined to suit
piping connection.
Note: In case of gas, if use of chicksan cannot be avoided, grease the ball bearings of
chicksan swivels and change the packing.
The separator is provided with pressure relieving devices. All other components are
protected by making sure that pressure will always remain lower than the rated
working pressure. For all components where working pressure is lower than the
shut-in well head pressure, this protection is provided by a surface safety valve (SSV)
located on the wing valve of the well head.
Surface safety valve.
On high-pressure tests (WHP>5000 psig) or in case of sour gas, a surface safety
valve (remotely controlled) should always be installed on the wing valve - or upstream
of the choke boxes. The flow line pressure sensors (OTIS pilot type P) should
actuate this Surface Safety Valve, and also be activation of the emergency shutdown
(E.S.D.) stations. In case of sour gas or high pressure, it is mandatory that one of
these E.S.D. stations is set-up at the separator, other stations will be set-ups
according to the customer's instructions. The pilot to shut in the SSV should be
provided on each flow line segment of different working pressure down to the
separator. When no surface safety valve is used, it is the operator's responsibility to
check and make sure that the pressure always remains lower than the working
pressure assigned to each section.
Generalities

9 - 9

3. CLEANING UP
The duration is variable from a few hours to exceptionally a few days.
Separator by passed until:
BSW lower than 5%
Salinity = formation water salinity
No acid
WHP is changing regularly (liquid has unloaded)
Hydrocarbons are being produced
At least volume of well has been produced
Guide lines
Q = max. Q compatible with equipment and formation
Gas wells
Pi - Pwf > .25 WHP
Vf > 50 ft/sec
4. MAIN TEST
AFTER CLEAN UP
Initial shut in to record initial reservoir pressure and temperature
Flowing the well at one or several successive flow rates
Taking representative fluid samples
Final shut in to record build up
PARAMETERS TO BE MEASURED
Flow rate of fluids produced: oil, gas, and water
Pressure and temperature of:
Bottom hole (producing interval)
Well head
Separator and other surface installations

Separator gas specific gravity G
Oil shrinkage factor and S.T.O. (Stock Tank Oil) gravity
BSW (Basic Sediment and Water)
Generalities

10 - 10

5. REPORTING
Must contain an accurate and complete record of:
Test procedure / program
Operating and measuring conditions
Equipment used
Well completion
Sequence of events
Measured and calculated data

6. JOB FOLLOW-UP
Equipment rig down and packing by entire crew
Shipping of equipment
Debrief
With management and crew
With client by manager and test supervisor
Equipment reception
Inspection of missing or damaged equipment
Maintenance initiation by test supervisor
Reporting
Final well test report
Service orders
Time sheets by test supervisor
Generalities

11 - 11


2.4 TYPES OF TESTS

flow rate
clean up initial
flowing period final shut-in
shut-in
BOTTOM HOLE PRESSURE
IDEALISED DIAGRAMS OF FLOW AND PRESSURE DURING AN OIL WELL TEST
BOTTOM HOLE FLOWING PRESSURE
GROSS PRODUCTION RATE, B/D
Results of a multiple rate test are presented as a plot of Pwf vs. gross liquid production rate
P
3
time
days
time
Generalities

12 - 12


IDEALISED AND TRUE IPR CURVES

2.4.1 Inflow Production Relation - IPR
The inflow production relation shows the relation between well production rate q, and
bottom hole pressure over the entire range of Pwf from zero to Ps. It is determined by
producing the well at several different rates (including zero) and measuring the
corresponding bottom hole pressures.
The slope

q
p
of the IPR curve is the productivity index.
A straight-line extrapolation of measured data points to intercept with the abscissa at Pwf
= O gives the zone open flow potential. This is the flow rate that could be obtained if 1
ATM. is applied to the formation face.
If one were to plot the IPR curve using data points below the reservoir fluid bubble point,
a departure from a straight line would be noted. The Darcy flow relation is linear only for
non-compressible (liquid) flow.
Generalities

13 - 13


2.4.2 Pressure and flow diagrams of a gas well back pressure test

Bottom hole pressure
time
clean
up
initial
shut-in
T T T T
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
gas flow rate
Pwi
Pwf1
Pwf2
Pwf3
Pwf4
Final shut-in
time


2.4.3 Testing procedures for high capacity gas wells
Gas wells with an open flow potential of over 50 MMSCF/D are classified as high
productivity wells. For these wells the backpressure test is the standard means of
evaluating the productive capacity.
The well is usually cleaned up for a few to 24 hours and closed in for an equal period prior
to testing.
In the backpressure test, bottom hole pressures and the corresponding surface flow rates
are measured during a series of four different flow periods. The flow rate is increased in
steps of equal time duration without shutting the well in between. Each flow period is
about 4 - 8 hours duration, the time needed for stabilization often taken when the tubing
head pressure variation is less than 2 psi/hour. The final shut in period is usually between
12 and 24 hours.
Generalities

14 - 14


2.4.4 Open flow potential of a gas well determined from a back pressure test

SURFACE PRODUCTION RATE - SCF/DAY

48 / 64 Choke
36 / 64 Choke
28 / 64 Choke
Open Flow


The results of a backpressure test are presented as a plot of surface production rate vs.
Ps - Pwf on a log - log grid.
Open flow potential is found by extrapolation of the performance line to Ps the flow rate
which would occur when Pwf = O.
Finding Ps is made by analysis of the pressure build up curve and is covered later in this
chapter.
Generalities

15 - 15


2.4.5 Pressure and flow diagrams of an isochronal test of gas well
GAS FLOW RATE
Q1
Q2
Q3
Extended flow
Q4
Time
clean
up
initial
shut in
T T T T
final shut in
Time
BOTTOM HOLE PRESSURE
stabilized
Flowing
Pressure
Pwf2
Pwf3
Pwf4
Pwf1
Pwi


2.4.6 Isochronal test procedures
For gas wells where the stabilization time would be too long to use the backpressure test,
an isochronal test technique may be used.
The isochronal test consists of flowing the well at four different rates for periods of equal
duration. Between two flowing periods the well is shut in until stabilization is achieved.
The last flow period is extended until stabilized conditions 1 psi/hr tubing head pressure
charge is reached; then the well is shut in for an extended build up period of one to three
days.
Generalities

16 - 16


2.4.7 Modified isochronal test
4
Q
Q
3
2
1
Q
Q
t t t t t t t
Time
Time
FLOW RATE
Pwf1
Pwf2
BOTTOM HOLE PRESSURE
Pwf3 Pwf4
Pwi


In practice, the "true isochronal test" is often replaced by the MODIFIED ISOCHRONAL
TEST, in which the duration of the shut-in period is equal to the duration of the flowing
period, regardless if stabilized shut-in pressure has been reached or not.
Generalities

17 - 17



PLOT SHOWING RESULTS OF MODIFIED ISOCHRONAL TEST DATA
(P-Pwf), PSIA
10
10
8
6
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10
2 3 4 3
2
3
4
Slope = 1/n
0.25 HR
1 HR
5 HR
FLOW RATE, q, STB/D


The data Q vs. Ps - Pwf taken after hr, hr, 1 hr, 2 hrs etc., are plotted on log-log
paper for each flow rate. On the extended test a point is plotted for stabilized flow near
the end of the extended flow period.
Lines connecting data points for hr, hr and 5 hrs will be parallel but have a slope
related to the productive capacity. A line of this slope passed through the final extended
flow data point can be extrapolated to Ps - Pwf (when Pwf = O) yielding the open flow
potential.
Generalities

18 - 18

3 Drill Stem Test (DST)

A Drill Stem Test is a temporary well completion

The tool features:

A packer
A flow control valve
Pressure recording devices
Accessory tools (Sampling, Safety, etc.)

A typical DST consists of:

A short initial flow period
An initial shut in period
A second or final flow period
A final shut in period

Results:

Direct
Fluid type, flow rate
Interpretation
Effective permeability, formation damage, reservoir pressure, barriers,
anomalies and relative size of the reservoir

Generalities

19 - 19


FIELD PRESSURE READINGS

1. Initial hydrostatic
2. Set pocket
3. Start of initial flow
4. End of initial flow
5. End of initial shut-in
6. Start of final flow
7. End of final flow
8. End of final shut-in
9. Final hydrostatic

TRIP OUT FSI FF ISI IF TRIP IN
BASE LINE
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Two Flow / Two Shut-in DST Chart

Generalities

20 - 20


3.1 TYPICAL DST PROCEDURE

TRIPPING IN THE HOLE
As the tools are lowered into the well, fluids enters the tubing via the MRCV. This
balances the system: in / out tubing and above / below POTV.
SPOT CUSHION
Once on depth, the cushion is spotted down the tubing. The cushion may be diesel, water
or whatever fluid is desired to allow the correct drawdown on opening. Pumping at +/- 3
Bbls/MN through the tool closes the MRCV. This creates a differential pressure tubing to
annulus and thus closes the tool.
FIRE GUN
After the PACKER is set, pressurizing the annulus to +/- 2000 psi fires the GUNS. This
opens the POTV. As the POTV opens a drawdown occurs below the packer, which
initiates the firing of the guns.
FLOW WELL
The well will start to flow after the guns have been fired. The well keeps on flowing, as the
POTV is still open. To keep the POTV open a pressure of +/- 2000 psi is held on the
annulus.
DOWN-HOLE SHUT-IN
When bleeding the annulus pressure, the POTV will shut, stopping the flow and allowing
a build up pressure below the POTV. Memory gauges in the BUNDLE CARRIER record
this build up.
REVERSING OUT
At the end of the test, it is necessary to reverse out all the produced fluids before
unsetting the packer (another solution will be to bullhead the produced fluids in the
formation, then the reverse out will be conducted). To do this, we apply +/-3500 psi to the
annulus, which ruptures a disc, opening the AORV. The tubing contents are reversed out,
the packer unset and the tools pull out of the well.

Generalities

21 - 21


Generalities

22 - 22

3.2 THE TOOLS


Generalities

23 - 23

3.2.1 PACKER
The packer provides isolation of the test interval from the annulus, allowing the reservoir
to be tested, and in addition facilitates the use annulus pressure-operated test tools.
The packer are classified according to there operating mechanism and their purpose.
Hook-wall packer: for cased hole test, can be used at all depth. This type of packer can
be used up to 10.000 psi and at a maximum of 320C (160F). Above these values it is
recommended to use a production (permanent) packer.
Open-hole packer: conventional packer. Drill collars or perforated anchors are run under
the packer. When the string tags the bottom and start taking weight, the packer
mechanism compress the rubber components which inflate in order to assure sealing
against the bore hole.
Inflatable packer: for open or cased hole. A hydraulic pump set at the top of the packer
will be actuating by a rotation of the spring. This pump will inflate the rubber components
of the packer.
Production packer: will be run with wire-line or tubing.
Non-retrievable: will have to be drilled out
Retrievable: by picking up the string at a certain tension, shear pins will break and release
the packer.
Geoservices packers:
ARROW SET 1-X 10.000 psi WP
For casing of: 5 7 9 5/8
BAKER retrievamatics 7500 psi WP
For casing of 7 9 5/8
MSG packer: high pressure (15.000 psi WP), high temperature.
For casing: 7
The Geoservices packers are retrievable hook-wall packers, suitable for
compression test spring applications and capable of withstanding TCP
underbalance perforating shock. They are designed to operate in both testing
and stimulation applications.
If TCP and/or stimulation operations are to be conducted it is recommended to
use the Baker packer who is equipped with hydraulic operated slips.
When running such operations with the Arrow set packers, it is recommended to
remove the mechanical hold down slips, thus to avoid any problem when
unseating packer.
Setting procedures
Due to the fact that the OD of the packer is very close to the ID of the casing or liner in
which he is run, the maximum run-in speed should not exceed 10 ft per minute in order to
avoid swabbing effect when running or retrieving. An internal by-pass reduces this
swabbing effect. The by-pass closes upon setting packer. When releasing, the by-pass
opens first to equalize pressures before releasing the upper slips.
Run to setting depth, pick up on the tubing and rotate turn to the right at the packer
then lower the tubing slacking off sufficient weight to set the packer. Pull tension to make
sure the packer is locked in the set position and that the upper slips are set. After setting
the packer, the tubing can be left in compression, tension or neutral.
Generalities

24 - 24

Releasing procedures
The releasing procedures are the same whether the packer has been in tension or
compression set. Set down weight on the packer and rotate tubing turn to the right at
the packer, and then pick up holding right hand torque. The internal by-pass will open,
allowing pressure to equalize. Further pick up releases the patented releasing sequential
slip system relaxing the elements, allowing the packer to be reset or removed from the
well.

RETRIEVABLE PACKER

Generalities

25 - 25

3.2.2 SAFETY JOINT
The safety joint provides for an emergency release between the test string and the
packer. In the event that the safety joint is released, the overshot can be run to reconnect
the work string with the packer assembly.
Releasing operation
The safety joint is run on the test string directly above the packer. Release is effected by
taking an upstrain (max. 10.000 lbs.) on the test string and rotating to the right. Release is
controlled by make up torque, which can be varied. Eleven turns at the safety joint are
required to back it off.
Retrieving operation
The safety joint can be reconnected to the work string by slowly setting down and rotating
the overshot to the right into the retrieving treads. Prior to reconnect the overshot it is
recommended to circulate through in order to clean the threads.

3.2.3 HYDRAULIC JAR
The hydraulic jar is used for the purpose of freeing stuck pipe and tools in the well bore.
This device delivers heavy impact blows to the test string by storing energy within the tool.
In well test application the tool is run directly above the safety joint. The hydraulic jar is
designed to transmit torque and withstand severe tensile and compressive loads.
Operation
To activate the hydraulic jar, the driller pulls up the work string and holds tension. This
hook-load will tend to decrease as the jar meters open and it is, therefore, necessary for
the driller to continue picks up and hold his tension.
The applied tension to the tool cause the oil in the jar cylinder to flow through a flow
regulator. This restricts the piston movement to a slow but controlled rate. When the
piston reaches the grooved section of the cylinder bore, the oil above the piston dumps
into the cylinder below the piston. At this time, the stretch in the work string accelerates
Generalities

26 - 26

the mandrel upward until the hammer (mandrel) strikes the anvil (torque sub). This
delivers a high impact blow to the stuck tool.
When the driller slacks off on the work string, an internal valve is forced open, allowing
the oil to by-pass the piston. This allows for rapid re-cocking of the jar.

Generalities

27 - 27

3.2.4 BUNDLE CARRIER
The recorder carrier is a full bore tool that may be run in any position in the test string.
The recorder carrier will carry a variety of gauges for recording pressure and temperature
versus time. Each bundle carrier can record external or internal data and can carry up to
four 1 OD gauge.
Operation
The gauge carrier is normally run directly below the tester valve to record pressure
transient data. The carrier is designed to minimize shock caused by tubing conveyed
perforating.
Two type of gauge carrier is available:
Bundle carrier full bore: 2 ID 4.9 OD
Care should be taken when running this tool. The gauges are fixed on an
offset, which conduct to a rotation OD of 6 . Due to the presence of the
shoulder, two gauge carriers cannot be run in tandem. If more than one
carrier is requested, a stand of tubing must be run in between the tools.
Bundle carrier with straight OD 5
The main point with this type of gauge carrier is the fact that it is not a full
bore tool. The offset is internal, avoiding all wire line operation through it.
3.2.5 DOWN HOLE VALVE
This valve gives control of communication between the isolated formation zone to be
tested and the inside of the test string.
It enables to create a differential pressure across the formation well bore in favor of the
formation so that the formation fluid can enter the well bore and come up to the surface.
The closure of the valve at the end of a flow period permits to record the pressure build
up as near as possible to the formation and thus obtain data, which are representative of
the formation pressure behaviour.
Geoservices tester valve
POTV: Pressure Operated Tester Valve
This valve is run in conjunction with a nitrogen chamber and pressure references
tool the ARTS: Annulus Reference Trap System.
The valve, run in conjunction with a hydrostatic reference system is a bottom well
control valve actuated by application and removal of annular pressure. Application
of annulus pressure opens the tool; removal of annulus pressure closes the valve.
Operation
As the tool is run with a self-compensating reference system, prior knowledge of bottom
hole temperature and pressure is not required within limits of specification.
Additionally, tool can be equipped with a lock open feature. With this option installed, the
tool can be run in or pulled out of the hole in the open or close position.
A pair of retaining segments and button head cap screws attaches the ball to the top sub.
The retaining segments have large trunions on which the ball is mounted. The ball sealing
system is a metal-to-metal one.
A ball operating sub, seal unit and collar are all interconnected to the upper mandrel. A
spline and lug on each arm of the ball-operating sub engage slots on the ball. As the
Generalities

28 - 28

upper mandrel is moved up or down, the lugs rotate the ball to the open or closed
position. The splines perform several functions in the mechanism.
The assist piston allows the tool to hold pressure from above. When the pressure above
the ball exceeds the pressure below the ball, a force is generated which forces the upper
mandrel assembly up, thus maintaining a seal.
The control piston separates annulus fluid from the nitrogen. As annulus pressure is
increased, the control piston moves down opening the tool, further compressing the
nitrogen and helical spring. When annulus pressure is removed, the compressed nitrogen
and spring act on the nitrogen side of the piston shifting the tool on the closed position.
The tool can be dressed with a lock open feature. When dressed with this option, an
indexing sleeve extends through the sleeve and engages G-slots cut into the index
mandrel. As the index mandrel moves down through the indexing sleeve, the indexing
sleeve rotates. This rotation brings splines on the indexing sleeve into alignment. As the
index mandrel moves up in response to a reduction of annulus pressure, the splines
contact each other preventing further upward movement of the mandrel, thus the ball is
mechanically held open. As the index mandrel is again forced down by application of
annulus pressure, the indexing sleeve is again rotated, the splines are taken out of
alignment allowing full upward movement of index mandrel allowing the ball to be rotated
closed by the ball operating sub.
In this configuration it is recommended to use the tool in the fail-safe position as long as
wire line or coil tubing operations are not run.
When dressed without the lock open feature, the tool is held open with application of
annulus pressure and closes when annulus pressure is removed without an intermediate
pressure cycle.

Generalities

29 - 29





POTV ARTS
Generalities

30 - 30

3.2.6 DOWN HOLE SAFETY VALVE
The DHSV is a single shot ball valve run in the open position. If required the ball can be
closed by applying annulus pressure to burst a high accuracy rupture disc. Once closed
the ball will isolate well pressure but will still allow fluid to be pumped through from above.
Operation
Applying pressure to the annulus closes the valve. This will burst the rupture disc. Once
this path is opened, the annulus pressure forces an operating mandrel in the upward
direction to rotate a ball valve to the closed position. The ball will not support differential
pressures from above allowing the well to be killed by bull heading.
3.2.7 REVERSING VALVE
This valve provides a means of communication between the annulus and the test string.
This allows the spotting of the cushion, fluids stimulation or the circulation of fluids out of
the test string.
Three different valves are available:
The AORV : Annulus Operated Reverse Valve
The MRCV : Multi-Reverse Circulating Valve
The MRST : Multi-Reverse Spot Tool

The AORV
The AORV is a single shot-circulating valve giving unrestricted flow between tubing and
annulus. Once open, the tool is retained in this position by a lock ring and cannot be re-
closed.
The AORV is opened by applied annulus pressure bursting a rupture disc. The pressure
acts on an unbalanced piston, forcing the mandrel to the open position. The locking of a
mechanism then locks the mandrel in the open position.
Generalities

31 - 31


AORV
The MRCV
The MRCV is normally run above the POTV. The tool is cycled by the application of 2500
psi differential bias to the tubing. This forces the mandrel assembly to be pumped
downward. When the pressure is bled off, a spring forces the mandrel assembly up.
Through the mandrels motion, an indexing sleeve, concentric to the mandrel assembly, is
allowed to rotate. An indexing pin is located in the indexing sleeve, which follows the path
of the slots in the indexing mandrel. After four or eight pressure cycles the index pin slides
into an elongated slot, which in turn allow the entire mandrel assembly to travel an
additional 2 inches, opening the tool.
To close the valve, fluid is pumped down the work string and out the ports at a
predetermined rate, to cause a pressure drop across the flow orifices. This creates a
differential pressure between the upper mandrel seal and the connector sub seals,
pushing the mandrel assembly down and closing the tool. When a tubing pressure of
2500 psi above annular hydrostatic is reached, and the pressure bled off, the indexing
Generalities

32 - 32

sleeves rotates, moving the indexing pin into the next slot and returning the mandrel
assembly to the first closed position.

MRCV

The MRST
The multi-reverse spot tool works under the same principle than the MRST.
The main difference resides in the fact that this tool offers one more position: the
circulating mode.
A pressure of 350 psi above hydrostatic, at the tool is applied to the drill string and then
bled back to 0 psi to cycle the tool to its next position. A rate of Bbls per minute at 300
psi is required to maintain circulation (spotting). Once pumping has stopped,
communication ports close. Circulation may be re-established by again starting the
pumps, as long as the pressure in the drill string has not been bled back to annulus
hydrostatic.

Generalities

33 - 33

3.2.8 SLIP JOINT
The slip joint is a telescopic joint run in the tool string, allowing five feet of free travel. It is
balanced to compensate for internal volume changes due to temperature. It is also
splined so that torque can be transferred below the tool.
Slip joint should be run together in the work string when testing on floating structures. At
the time the packer is set the slip joint will be half closed allowing for a maximum of
expansion or contraction due to changes in well condition.
Correspondence in between Geoservices and competitors tools
Geoservices Halliburton Schlumberger
Retrievable packer RTTS Positest Positrieve
Safety joint RTTS safety joint Safety joint
Hydraulic jar Big john jar Hydraulic jar
ARTS HRT PORT
POTV LPR-N PCT
MRCV
SPOT OMNI MCCV
AORV APR-A SHORT
DHSV (AOSV) APR-M SBSV PTSV
FBS APR-M2 FASC DBS
TTV TTV TTV

Generalities

34 - 34

3.3 SUB-SURFACE SAFETY SYSTEM
These sub-surface systems, normally landed in the BOP stack allow quickly shutting in
and controlling a well close to surface during a test. These tools can be broken into two
main groups:
THE SUB SEA (S/S) tree for floating rigs.
THE SUB SEA VALVE for fixed rigs.
3.3.1 THE SUB SEA TREE
The valve assembly provides a fail safe seabed master valve to close the drill/pipe tubing.
The latch assembly allows quick disconnection of a floating drilling vessel from the drill
string in the hole.
3.3.2 THE LUBRICATOR VALVE
Placed below the rig floor (approx. 20 - 40 ft) it enables the upper part of the test string to
be used as a wireline lubricator. Negates the need to rig up lubricator (Riser) on top of
the flowhead.
3.3.3 RETAINER VALVE
This valve is run above the sub sea tree. Operating in conjunction with the valve of the
S/S tree, it prevents the contents of the tubing between the S/S tree and surface blowing
into the riser and the sea.
3.3.4 THE SUB SEA VALVE
Similar to the S/S tree for floaters, this valve is designed for fixed rigs (i.e. Jack Ups). It is
again a fail-safe valve located in the BOP, but has no unlatch facility.
The S/S tree and S/S valve are hydraulically operated from surface. They are fail-safe in
that they require pressure to open the valves; loss of pressure in the control lines closes
the valves. Both valves are designed to cut up to 5/16" wireline, and usually with some
modification, up to 1" coiled tubing.
Generalities

35 - 35

SUB-SURFACE SAFETY SYSTEM

FLUTED HANGER
SLICK JOINT
S/S TREE VALVE
PIPE RAMS CLOSED
S/S TREE VALVE CLOSED
TREE LATCH
BLIND RAMS CLOSED
TUBING OR DRILLPIPE
CONTROL CONSOLE
HYDRAULIC HOSE REEL
FLOWHEAD

Generalities

36 - 36


LUBRICATOR VALVE / RETAINER VALVE
ONE STAND OF
TUBING / DRILLPIPE
LUBRICATOR VALVE
RETAINER
VALVE
S/S TREE VALVE CLOSED
RAMS CLOSED
RISER DISCONNECTED
RETAINER VALVE CLOSED


Safety procedures
1 - 22
SECTION 2
SAFETY PROCEDURES
Safety procedures

2 - 22

1.1 GENERAL LAYOUT AND ENVIRONMENT
Layout of equipment according to classified area and spacing.
Units grounding.
All electrical connections safe.
Anchoring of piping and connections.
Color coding to identify WP and fluids.
Wind direction.
Workplace tidy, clean, not slippery.
Hammers.
Pressure fittings.
Repair of vessels.
1.2 INSTALLATION AND INSPECTION OF EQUIPMENT ON SITE
1.2.1 Safety Standards
Classified zones:
The area around onshore offshore
A well head is a type 2 zone within a radius of 15 m (45 ft) 10 m (30 ft)
Separators, a type 2 zone within a radius of
Provided that the rupture disc is connected to a
discharge pipe at atmospheric pressure, ending far
away from the rig. Otherwise, the area around the
separator is a type 2 zone within radius of 5 m (45 ft).
10 m (30 ft) 3 m (10 ft)*
Gauge tanks, a type 1 zone within a radius of 15 m (45 ft) 15 m (45 ft)
The outlets of flares, safety valves, vents are
classified as type 1 zone within a radius of
15 m (45 ft) 15 m (45 ft)
Gas fired heaters: they must not be used in
classified type 1 or TYPE 2 ZONES
NOT
ALLOWED
NOT
ALLOWED
Wireline winches not to be used in classified
zones.
NOT
ALLOWED
NOT
ALLOWED
Safety procedures
3 - 22
1.2.2 Recommended Practices
Note 1: Installation without a heater
- The separator should be located 25 m away from the well head (75 ft)
- Offshore, this distance may be reduced to 13 m (40 ft). The separator instrument controls
should be supplied with compressed air.
- The pressure relief valve must be connected to the flare line.

Note 2: Tanks are equipped with a flame arrestor. The sniffer pipe must be connected to the
rig flare. Moreover, manhole cover should be bolted during operation.

Note 3: In some instances, due to lack of space, all the recommended distances cannot be
respected, but:
- Equipment must never be installed in the classified zone of the well head (type II zone).
- Fired heaters, burners and wireline winches must never be installed in classified zones.
- Chief Operator should inform the client and mention it in his report.

For further details, please refer to API RP 500 B.

Safety procedures

4 - 22

RESTRICTED ZONE - SAFETY STANDARDS


Safety procedures
5 - 22
RECOMMENDED OPTIMAL POSITIONING

Safety procedures

6 - 22

1.2.3 PRESSURE FITTINGS
Pressure fittings present a major hazard when dealing with pressure.
Do not use cast iron fittings
Use only stamped fittings
Do not use hydraulic fittings for oil and gas service
Check inner whole dimension
Check the threads
Check the thread make up (vanish thread)
Do not exceed 3 layers of Teflon on NPT fittings
Do not use NPT fittings larger than " for 10,000 psi service
Do not use NPT above 10,000 psi
Use plain plugs to plug NPT fittings
Do not work on fittings under pressure

NATIONAL PIPE TAPER " N P T "




NOMINAL
SIZE




NUMBER OF
TPI




WIDTH OF
FLAT F

NUMBER OF
TURNS
HANDTIGHT
ENGAGEMENT
(theoretical)

NUMBER OF
TURNS
HANDTIGHT
ENGAGEMENT
(Theoretical)


NUMBER OF
TURNS FOR
WRENCH
MAKE-UP


NUMBER OF
VANISH
THREAD
(Practical)




OD OF PIPE
(Male thread)
1/16 0.0014" 4.32 0.3125"
---------- 27 to 7.8 mm
1/8 0.0041" 1.36 0.405"
10.3 mm
1/4 0.0021" 4.10 0.540"
---------- 18 to 4 to 4.5 3 3.5 13.7 mm
3/8 0.0057" 4.32 0.675"
17.1 mm
1/2 0.0027" 4.48 0.840"
---------- 14 to 21.3 mm
3/4 0.0064" 4.75 1.050"
26.7 mm
Safety procedures
7 - 22
1.2.4 PRESSURE TESTING
EVERY TESTING operation involves PRESSURE. For this reason the biggest danger
comes from Personnel ATTITUDE.
The pressure hazards related to Surface Testing operations are particularly important
due to:
Proximity of operating personnel
Vessel size
Large number of seals

For these reasons, PRESSURE TESTING of Well Testing Equipment at the base and
at the Wellsite constitutes a critical part of MAINTENANCE and PRE-JOB CHECK.
The following parameters must be evaluated before undertaking a pressure test:
Test pressure
Periodicity
Pressure test fluid
Location
Procedure
TEST PRESSURES

EQUIPMENT


WORKING
PRESSURE

OFFICIAL TEST
PRESSURE

WELLSITE
TEST PRESSURE

Vessel, Bonnet, Piping < 10 000 PSI 2 WP WP
Cross-over, valve body > 10 000 PSI 1,5 WP WP

Valve and seat ANY RANGE WP WP

Never exceed WP during a Wellsite pressure test. Never test a closed Valve
above its WP.
PRESSURE TESTING
FLUID NATURE VS STORED ENERGY

EQUIPMENT


TEST PRESSURE
(psi)

STORED ENERGY
(testing with AIR)

STORED ENERGY
(Testing with WATER)

Separator 1 440 1.29 X 10
8
J 603 J

2 1/2" twin bop 10 000 1.24 X 10
6
J 4.15 J

Lubricator 10 000 1.39 X 10
7
J 46 J
(2 1/2" ID - 10 K) 4 sections
Vessels must be EVACUATED before pressure testing. Use only HYDRAULIC
pressure testing.

Safety procedures

8 - 22

1.2.5 SAFETY PROCEDURES
Prior to beginning any well test, a safety meeting should be held at which all persons
concerned should be present. Testing objectives and emergency procedures will be
discussed. A safety meeting must be held at regular intervals during the test.
Generally, we have two kinds of oil wells, which are the standard well, and the
corrosive well.
For both conditions some safety regulations must be respected during the job.
E.g.: Safety gear: gloves, safety shoes, coveralls, helmets
Fire hazard: some fire extinguishers present during test
Medical supplies: sufficient medical supplies for first aid are normally
available on location.
Gas hazard a draeger sniffer with different gas detection tubes
1.3 CORROSIVE CONDITIONS IN OIL AND GAS PRODUCTION
Corrosion problems which may occur in drilling or in production of oil and gas, may be
caused by:
Sweet corrosion
Sour corrosion.
1.3.1 Sweet Corrosion
The cause of sweet corrosion can be summarized as follows:
Sweet corrosion is caused by carbon dioxide (CO
2
), which dissolves in the
accompanying water phase and, depending on the partial pressure, considerably
lowers the pH so that a highly corrosive environment results. The partial pressure is
determined by multiplying the volume percentage of CO
2
by the gas pressure in ATM.
in the system. This can cause either a uniform corrosion, pitting or ringworm corrosion
to occur. The extent of sweet corrosion is expressed as follows:
Above 2 ATM. partial pressure: serious corrosion
Between 0.5 and 2 ATM. partial pressure: sometimes corrosive
Below 0.5 ATM. partial pressure: non-corrosive
As production testing is usually of short duration, sweet corrosion is considered of no
importance here.
Safety procedures
9 - 22
1.3.2 Sour Corrosion
Sour corrosion is caused by the presence of H
2
S and moisture in the production
stream, even when the quantities are slight.
It can manifest itself as follows:
A) HYDROGEN SULPHIDE STRESS CORROSION CRACKING
This type of corrosion causes cracks in the material, which eventually fails under
load or internal stress; failure may occur at any time during the working life of the
material even almost immediately after it is put into service.
B) EMBRITTLEMENT
The hydrogen derived from the hydrogen sulfide by chemical reaction embrittles
the material causing failure to take place within a short time, even in a matter of
hours.
C) UNIFORM CORROSION
The surface of the metal is attacked in a fairly uniform manner, with occasional
pitting.
The destruction by hydrogen occurs when the partial pressure of H2S in the gas is
higher than 0.01 ATM. Below this value, the effect declines sharply and below
0,001 ATM. there is no danger.
H2S stress corrosion occurs in steels having a hardness higher than Rc. 22 (237
Brinell). In cases where high residual stress is present, it is possible for H2S
stress corrosion to occur at hardness less than Rc. 22. Rough handling of
equipment may cause dents etc. which could have a local hardness of over Rc. 22
even if the base material is under Rc. 22. These dents have often been the cause
of failures and consequently careful handling of e.g. tubing with tubing tongs is of
vital importance.
For combating sour corrosion the use of an inhibitor may be risky, as the smallest
flaw may lead directly to a crack/destruction. Selection of suitable materials is the
best defense, be it a costly one, against this type of corrosion.
ACCEPTABLE AND NON-ACCEPTABLE MATERIALS FOR H
2
S SERVICE
A broad outline of these materials is as follows:
Acceptable:
API grade J.55, K.55, and L.80; C.75 material preferably type 2 with a
maximum hardness of Rc. 22.
Low-alloy steels with a maximum hardness of Rc. 22. 300 series stainless
steel in annealed condition. Maximum hardness Rc 22.
K-Monel, hot rolled and ages hardened. Maximum hardness Rc. 35.
Inconel and Inconel X, maximum hardness Rc. 35.
Hard facing with stellites, Colmonoy and Tungsten carbide. Base material,
maximum hardness Rc. 22.
9% Cr. - 1% Mo. steels quenched and tempered with a maximum hardness
of Rc. 22.
Safety procedures

10 - 22

Carpenter A-286 steel with a maximum hardness of Rc. 35.
Hastelloy B and Hastelloy C.
Not Acceptable:
Steels with a nickel content of more than 1%.
Series 400 Stainless Steel.
Precipitation hardened steels.
Cold worked steels (below 1000oF).
Copper, copper alloys.
Free machining steels (containing sulfur and lead).
High strength steels.
1.4 LOW TEMPERATURE SERVICE
For selection of materials and fabrication requirements not only the aspect of corrosion
but also the design temperature of production test equipment, including piping and
accessories, has to be taken into account.
Notably during a production test of a gas or gas/condensate well the operating
temperature can become low due to gas expansion and consequent temperature drop.
As ambient temperature may be low as well, the operating temperature may fall to
minus 15F. For this reason, the design temperature of production test equipment has
been set at minus 25F. For arctic conditions exists a design temperature of minus
50F.
Materials, piping and accessories used, have to be suitable for this temperature at the
specified operating pressures of the production test equipment.
As this equipment is normally rented from Service Companies, the Oil Companies
demands that adequate proof be handed to them by the Service Company, concerning
the acceptability of the test equipment.
Safety procedures
11 - 22
1.4.1 MATERIAL AND FABRICATION STANDARDS
The following materials and fabrication standards have been set in order to safeguard
well testing operations:
1. Vessels and piping shall be manufactured in accordance with ASME CODE VIII
Division 1. NACE MR 01.75
2. All vessel and piping welding shall be 100% X-rayed.
3. All welding to be made under preheat condition of 212F with low hydrogen
electrodes (permanent-backing rings shall not be used).
4. All welding are to be stress relieved, maximum hardness Rc.22 after stresses
relieving. Inspector selected welds to be checked with a portable Vickers or
Rockwell tester. (Stress relieving has been introduced in these requirements to
ensure that fully ductile welds and heat-affected zones will be present.
Unfavorable material conditions could be present in view of high carbon contents
of many American standard materials. Preheating, low hydrogen electrodes and
stress relieving are introduced to prevent specifying low carbon content
materials, which is generally not available in the U.S.A.).
5. Separators, including connections and piping, shall be designed for low
temperature service. The design temperature to be minus 25F, unless otherwise
specified.
(The design temperature was purposely set at minus 25F as at this level impact
testing is mandatory in accordance with the ASME VIII Division 1 CODE. Also,
stress relieving is mandatory at design temperature below minus 20F).
6. For sour service, all accessories (valves etc.) have to comply with appropriate
NACE specifications.
7. Inspection reports from independent inspectors shall be made available to the
Operating Company renting the production test equipment.
The Group Operating Company should also be provided with relevant data sheets,
material specifications and certification of chemical composition and physical
properties including hardness and charpy impact value.
Group Company Supervisors should scrutinize this data and make sure that the
following pertinent information concerning rented equipment is available prior to
production testing:
Evidence that materials used in fabrication of production test
equipment, where applicable, is suitable for MINUS 25F.
Proof that welding has been 100% x-rayed and is accepted by an
independence inspector.
Proof on stress relieving of welds and hardness check by an
independent inspector.
Production test equipment is to be rejected if points b) or c) do not conform to
requirements.
Safety procedures

12 - 22

If materials are used that are not suitable, where applicable, for low temperature
services then the equipment could be de-rated temporarily and should be replaced as
soon as possible because the capacity is then probably not in accordance with the
terms of the contract.
Such de-rating should be: for operating temperatures between 32F and 60F to
maximum 70% of allowed working pressures, and for operating temperatures below
32F to maximum 50% of the allowed working pressure.
Should standard surface equipment/materials downstream of the Xmas tree master
valve be in use by a Group Company and early detection would indicate the presence
of H
2
S, production testing is not to continue and the well must be killed.
Safety procedures
13 - 22
1.5 SAFETY - H
2
S
1.5.1 Sour Wells - Preface
Hydrogen sulphide gas is one of the most vicious and deadly hazards in the Oil
Industry and corrosion effects. Some precautions must be taken during the
production test.
All equipment shall be manufactured to withstand sour effects (SI PM
SPECIFICATIONS).
All personnel must be thoroughly familiar with H
2
S.
Warning signs, H
2
S detectors, H
2
S continuous monitors, escape sets, wind
socks, and must be included in the package test.
If necessary a male nurse who is specialized in artificial respiration should be
present during the test program.
1.5.2 Protective Equipment
When working on an H
2
S well or a well suspected to produce H
2
S, the personnel must
wear the following equipment either provided by the customer or by Geoservices.
One pocket size personnel detector per technician working at any place in the
operation rig up, plus two spare sets. These detectors must be equipped with a
visual and sound alarm.
"THE TRIGGER UNIT MUST BE SET UP AT 10 PPM OF H
2
S CONCENTRATION"
One escape mask per technician working in any places of the operation rig up,
plus two spare sets. These escape masks must be of a filtering cartridge type.
One Self Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) per technician working in any
place of the operation rig up, plus two spare SCBA'S. These SCBA's are to be of
a positive pressure type.
Two sniffer glasses tube type measuring apparatuses with sufficient supply of
graduated tubes of various ranges.
A wind sock/or wind streamers.
A reanimation kit:
Each crew conducting operations involving H
2
S should have at least one kit on
site. Special and efficient training must be given before starting the job.
Safety procedures

14 - 22


Safety procedures
15 - 22
1.5.3 H
2
s Service Equipment Definition
GAS SYSTEM ONLY
Below 65 psia of total pressure: no H
2
S requirements
Above 65 psia - pressure (psia) x H
2
S content (PPM) < 50000
OIL + GAS SYSTEM
The "50000" rule applies except if:
Total pressure is below 265 psia AND
Partial pressure of gas is below 10 psia AND
Percentage H2S in the gas is below 15%.
In this zone, no H
2
S requirements.
Generally, the "50000" rule applies everywhere upstream of the tanks, and this
giving very low H
2
S contents (50 PPM at 1000 psi). It can be said that as soon as
the presence of H
2
S is suspected, everything upstream of the tank should be H
2
S
proof.
Practically only H
2
S rated equipment is to be used down the WT line.
BASIC RULES:
Any equipment, which cannot be positively identified as H2S proof, must
be considered as non-H2S proof.
Any equipment on which any welding operation has been performed
outside of a properly equipped and qualified shop is not H2S rated any
more.
Any installation, on which one component has been tampered with, is not
H2S rated any more.
Any equipment on which modifications have been made should have the
H2S identification removed.
Any piping having threaded WECO connections is certainly not H2S proof.
All such H2 S equipments are welded together.
Safety procedures

16 - 22

1.5.4 Testing - H
2
s - D O ' S A N D D O N T ' S
PERSONNEL:
Never rely on smell for detection
Never return to the contaminated area unless wearing a SCBA
Never use escape mask while working
Regularly monitor concentration using DRAEGER sniffer tubes
Use SCBA when controlled leakage is expected
Wears escape mask around the neck - ready for use and escape
EQUIPMENT:
Never supply pilot circuits with separator gas
Never supply heaters with separator gas
Oil flow metering using gauge tank is prohibited
Feed pilot circuit with compressed air or N2
Use diesel-fired heaters
Use surge tank with gas outlet connected to low- pressure flare
1.6 SAFETY - MERCURY
1.6.1 Hazards
Mercury vapours max concentration 0.1 mg/m3 (0.8ppm) and is poisonous at
very low concentrations.
Vapour is produced at ambient temperatures in significant concentrations
Absorption in human body:
a) Inhaling
b) Skin, especially wounds and contaminated clothes
c) Swallowing
d) Long retention time transport / reaction with certain metals
e) Accumulates in kidneys, digestive tract and nervous system
1.6.2 Recommendations
The following are the main recommendations to be taken into account when
handling, working with mercury
Storage
Ventilation
Protective clothing
Safety procedures
17 - 22
Handling or contamination / spills (Handling of mercury must be done in open
and ventilated areas.)
Monitoring vapour level in atmosphere
Caution:
- Do not eat, drink or smoke when working with mercury.
- Leisure/casual clothes must not be used as working clothes.
- Working clothes will include headwear (disposable cap) and special shoes.
- Working clothes should be of a "closed type".
- Handling must be done with "disposable type" gloves and breathing apparatus of
disposable mask according to time of exposure.
- Before leaving the laboratory, the employee must brush his teeth, wash hands, take a
shower and change clothes.
- Special containers must be used to store contaminated working clothes, and they will be
heated to 70C for at least 24 hours.
- After each work session, laboratory and/or equipment will be cleaned and decontaminated
according to work done.Never try to adjust the position of the proximity switches on an
installed sensor while the drum is in motion.
1.7 HEAT RADIATION
LIMITS
330 BTU/hr/sqft sunbathing radiation
440 BTU/hr/sqft max harmless exposure to bare skin
1 300 BTU/hr/sqft heats a piece of wood to 500F
1 500 BTU/hr/sqft max exposure of person wearing working clothes and
intermittently sheltered or sprayed with water (after API-RP-
521)
2 000 BTU/hr/sqft pain threshold reached after 8 s exposure of bare skin,
blisters after 20 s
3 000 BTU/hr/sqft max for steel structure
4 000 BTU/hr/sqft piece of wood reaches 800F and ignites
5 300 BTU/hr/sqft blisters after 5 s
PRECAUTIONS
Heat radiation patterns (radburn)
PREVENTIONS
Inject water into flame
Use water screens
85 ft booms
Safety procedures

18 - 22

1.8 NOISE
EXPOSURE
(hours)
MAXIMUM SOUND LEVEL
dB(A)
8 85
4 88
2 91
1 94
1/2 97
1/4 100

EXAMPLES:
Off-shore accommodation 45 DBA
Off-shore control room 60 DBA
Separator 4 000 BOPD/GOR 300 62 DBA
At 100 ft from 6" gas flare:
10 MM SCFD (350 psi sep. pressure) 96 DBA
35 MM SCFD (850 psi sep. pressure) 107 DBA
1.9 EROSION
EROSION due to the presence of solids and combined with high fluid velocity
represents a major testing hazard, particularly in the case of gas Well Testing:
Unconsolidated sands
Salt particles
Post sand frac testing

Erosion occurs in elbows and zones or turbulence such as flanges.

If erosion is expected:

Monitor frequently pipe wall thickness with an Ultrasonic Thickness Detector
(Krautkramer DM2)
Reduce fluid velocity
Monitor solids production
Maintain pipe routing as straight as possible
Replace elbows by large radius ones
Use higher-grade (thickness) piping.
Safety procedures
19 - 22
1.10 GUIDELINE ATTACHMENT DIMENSIONS

Cable
diameter

A


B


C


D


E


F


G


H


J


K


M

Number
of
U.Clamp

Work
Load

55 mm 90 mm 80 mm 76 mm 35 mm 32 mm 114 mm 95 mm 51 mm 14 mm 100mm
5/8" 2 3/16 3 1/2 3 5/32 3" 1 3/8 1 1/4 4 1/2 3 3/4 2" 9/16 4" 3 12000
kg

75 mm 115mm 95 mm 90 mm 41 mm 38 mm 146mm 127mm 60 mm 18 mm 150mm
1" 2 1/8 4 1/2 3 3/4 3 1/2 1 5/8 1 1/2 5 3/4 5" 2 3/8 3/4 6" 4 140000
kg



Safety procedures

20 - 22


Safety procedures
21 - 22
1.11 SOME SAFETY RULES FOR THE "OIL PATCH" - 50 DO'S AND DON'T
Following is a list of 50 recommendations and rules pertaining to SAFETY in the Field.
The various points listed should be discussed and emphasized during SAFETY
MEETINGS to all your Personnel.
It is your duty and responsibility to check that these rules have been understood and
are adhered to.
1.11.1 GENERAL
1. Always wear your safety equipment i.e. boots, hard hat, overall, gloves, goggles
(no nylon clothing).
2. Do not drive without your safety belt on.
3. Do not drive recklessly.
4. Before removing a gauge or a plug from a vessel or pipe, make sure that there is
not pressure left inside.
5. Never hit vessels or pipes under pressure.
6. When working above water, wear your life jacket.
7. Prior leaving the Base, make sure your radio sets are working, spare tire(s), water
supply.
8. Make sure that you know the location of the fire extinguishers and that they are full
and you know how to operate them.
9. Make yourself sure that everybody in your crew knows what his duties are going to
be.
10. Ensure yourself that your working stations are clean and not littered.
11. Should night work be envisaged, take appropriate steps to ensure proper lighting.
12. Remember that a tired Operator is a potential danger to the rest of the crew.
13. Do not jump from platforms: use the stairs and ladders.
14. For each kind of particular work, use the appropriate tools.
15. Never do a welding job on or close by a vessel having contained hydrocarbons
without making sure it has completely degassed (steam cleaning is one of the best
ways to degas).
16. Before lifting a piece of equipment with slings, make sure the cables are in good
shape and the clamps and shackles well tightened.
1.11.2 WIRELINE
17. Always make sure that the pressure has been bled down to zero before attempting
to unscrew a quick union.
18. Never run-in a well with the winch engine stopped.
19. Do not climb or let somebody climb the lubricator whenever it is under pressure.
20. Never attempt to pull a plug before the pressures across it have been equalized.
21. When rigging up or down a lubricator, never stay below it.
22. Blowout preventer should always be tested before each job.
23. When running in for the first time always check the weight frequently.
24. It is recommended practice to run a gauge cutter (or sinker bars only) prior to
running anything else in the hole.
25. When working in H
2
S wells, inhibit the wire (Kontol, Norust).
26. When coming out of the hole, use the winch relief valve.
27. Always write down the length of the different components you are running in the
hole.
28. When cutting wire at the surface (rig down) make sure that neither end can "fly".
29. Always anchor the winch to the platform or deck it is installed on.
30. Always work in sight of each other.
Safety procedures

22 - 22

31. Before attempting a fishing job, check that your lubricator is long enough to handle
both lost string and fishing string.
32. When running a wireline job, always have a clear view of the stuffing box.
33. Keep track of the number of hours the wire has worked. Change it before it is too
late. Check frequently for defects or corrosion. Between each job, cut and
remove at least 10' of wire. Don't leave the cut wire on the wellsite
1.11.3 WELL TESTING
34. Standing rule when testing wells containing H2S: NO GAS (no matter how small
the amount) SHOULD BE RELEASED TO THE ATMOSPHERE UNLESS IT IS
BURNED ON THE SPOT.
35. Do always use compressed air or nitrogen to pilot a separator working with H2S-
rich effluents.
36. Do not supply a heater with H
2
S loaded gas - use diesel oil.
37. Have each member of the well testing crew show that he knows how to operate
the safety apparatuses.
38. Whenever changing orifices or sampling on a separator metering H2S effluents, it
is mandatory to breath air coming from compressed air bottles.
39. Always open up a well slowly using the upper master valve.
40. Whenever possible, use a surface safety valve remote-controlled (pilots).
41. Surface safety valve should always be installed upstream of the choke box.
42. Do not use steel sledgehammers to tighten connections - brass is a must.
43. Wear a safety harness when working on the burners.
44. On a floater, use enough chicksans to allow the compensating of maximum
heave.
45. Never allow a flame or naked light inside the safety perimeters.
46. Always pressure tests your installation prior to well opening.
47. When two or more people are called on to work at the same time on the same
installation, keep within sight of each other.
48. Each crew working on isolated locations (onshore) should take along a first aid kit.
49. When designing a well testing set up, make sure the equipment planned can
safely withstand and handle the maximum well head pressure.
50. Every member of the well testing crew must know how to shut in a well in case of
emergency.
Pipes and fittings
1 - 1
SECTION 3
PIPES AND FITTINGS
Pipes and fittings
2 - 2
1.1 HOSES AND PIPING
The various elements of the Well Testing set up are linked together through different
pipes and hoses, which are selected according to:
Service pressure
Flow rate
Relative movement and layout of WT equipment.
The highest expected pressure at a particular point of the Well Test set dictates
SERVICE PRESSURE of pipes and flow lines up. This will vary for as high as 15000 psi
between FLOWHEAD and CHOKE MANIFOLD for A HIGH PRESSURE WELL TEST to
2500 psi between SEPARATOR and BURNERS.
FLOW RATE is taken into account to determine pipe size. Pipe diameter is usually 2" or
3" upstream of the choke and 3" downstream. 4" piping is sometimes used downstream
of the separator for HIGH RATE GAS TESTS. Piping is refereed to by its NOMINAL
size actual ID can be considerably smaller of heavier pipe grades.
Piping routes should be kept as straight as possible to decrease pressure losses,
erosion and cost. However to accommodate relative movement of WT elements and
WT equipment layout, a typical set of piping consists of a mixture of RIGID (STRAIGHT
LENGTHS and ELBOWS) and ARTICULATED (CHICKSANS) piping or FLEXIBLE
HOSES.
On HIGH PRESSURE TESTS, FLEXIBLE HOSES are normally preferred to
CHICKSANS as they prove to be more reliable and relatively maintenance free.
Piping elements and hoses are connected together through "WECO" wing unions.
These unions are designated by their nominal size and FIGURE NBR (e.g. 3" 1002) in
Geoservices the first two digits refer to the test pressure the last two digits refer to the
sealing method.
Pipes and fittings
3 - 3

WELL TEST PIPE






PIPING USED IN WELL TEST RIG UP IS COLOUR CODED ACCORDING TO
PRESSURE RATING AND SERVICE.

Note: All H2S pipe must have welded unions.




602 PIPE, 3000 psi WP, H2S

H2S





1002 PIPE, 5000 psi WP, H2S


H2S





1502 PIPE, 10000 psi WP, H2S


H2S


Pipes and fittings
4 - 4
1.2 WING UNIONS

DEFINITION
Fittings used to join lengths of pipe to permit easy opening of a line. Weco Wing Unions
are identified by Figure number
SIZES
1" through 12"
RATED PRESSURES
1,000 psi through 30,000 psi.
APPLICATIONS
For suction and discharge lines carrying liquids, vapours, gas or semi-solids.
In Geoservices typical Wing Unions used are:

Union Fig 200General-Service manifolds and lines.
Maximum pressure : 2000 Psi
Possible diameters (in inch): - 1 - 1.25 - 1.5 - 2 - 2.5 - 3 - 4
Possible assembly : - BSP Cylindrical - NPT Threads - Welded

Union Fig. 602 is used on Geoservices separator and choke manifold.
Maximum pressure: 6000 Psi
Possible diameters (in inch): - 1 - 1.25 - 1.5 - 2 - 2.5 - 3 - 4
Possible assembly : - BSP Cylindrical - NPT Threads - Welded
Pipes and fittings
5 - 5

Union Fig. 1002 is used on Geoservices heater, steam heat exchanger and choke
manifold.
Maximum pressure : 10000 Psi
Possible diameters (in inch): - 1 - 1.25 - 1.5 - 2 - 2.5 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 6
Possible assembly : - Integral Tubing Seal - NPT Threads - Welded

Union Fig. 1502 is used on Geoservices flowhead heater and choke manifold. Maximum
pressure : 15000 Psi
Possible diameters (in inch): - 1 - 1.5 - 2 - 2.5 - 3 - 4
Possible assembly : - Integral Stainless Steel Overlaid Face - Integral Tubing Seal -
NPT Threads - Welded
SERVICE ADVANTAGES
Weco Unions make up fast and seal perfectly. They withstand tougher service in a
greater variety of installations than any other union.
MAKE UP
Weco Unions require no special tools or wrenches. Wing nut can be made up seal-tight
with an ordinary hammer.
Pipes and fittings
6 - 6
INTERCHANGE ABILITY
Parts of the same size and pressure rating are interchangeable so there is no difficulty
matching and mating male and female subs that are frequently made up and broken
out. This is a decided advantage on rig piping and service company operations such as
cementing, acidification, fracture job etc.
IDENTIFICATION
Distinctive colors identify Weco Unions according to pressure rating.
SEALING
Fig. 402, 602, 1002 and 1502 Unions have a resilient seal ring, in addition to the ball
and cone seat.
ORDERING
Weco Unions may be ordered by Figure number and/or pressure rating (see table
below). Nominal Pipe size must always be specified.
The designations, Male Sub and Female Sub refer to seating surfaces, NOT threads
(See illustration). The Female Sub has conical seating surface and Acme threads for
wing nut. The Male Sub has ball seating surface but NO Acme threads. When ordering
parts, it is important to specify correct sub to avoid errors and delays.
The Male Sub is sometimes referred to as plain sub, and Female Sub as threaded sub.

Note: carefully check all unions before proceeding to connection and correspondence
between manufacturers.
Pipes and fittings
7 - 7

Caution: Not all the WECO unions are certified H2S.

Note: Generally WECO subs are welded and cannot be unscrewed, but it might happen,
when replacing leaking or damaged parts or to make a female-female or male-male sub,
WECO unions are removed.
Caution: Care should be taken that pairs with different pressure ratings are not mixed. Even
so, if you refer to the figure below and Table 1:
2 WECO fig. 602 and 1002 have the same thread - 3 1/16" Stub ACME with 3 threads per
inch. The OD of the thread of the female sub lies between 3.812" and 3.796" for both
figures.
A 2" WECO Fig. 1502 has a 4 1/8" Stub ACME with 3 threads per inch. The ID of the thread
of the nut lies between 3.792" and 3.808". Hence it is possible to screw a 2" WECO Fig.
1502 nut on a 2" WECO Fig. 602 or 1002 female sub, but the maximum thread overlap is
only 0.010". This is not sufficient to hold high pressure.





A 2" WECO Fig. 1502 nut fits over a
2" WEA 2" WECO Fig. 1502 nut fits
over a 2" WECO Fig. 602 or 1002
male sub, but the shoulder has only
an overlap of 0.088" (Distance B-C =
3.437 - 3.349 = 0.088").
The same can happen with a 3"
WECO Fig. 1502 nut installed on a 3"
WECO 602 or 1002 male sub. The
overlap is then 0.232", which is
smaller than the overlap of a correct
connection i.e. 0.588" for WECO Fig.
602 and 1002 and 0.357" for a WECO
union Fig. 1502.


Note: The 3" WECO unions Fig. 602, 1002 and 1502 all have different number of thread per
inch. It is therefore not possible to mix and screw them together.

Pipes and fittings
8 - 8
1.2.1 Main Features Of Original Weco Union

WROUGHT NUT: with three lugs, in order to resist to the impacts and guarantee a long
playing. The nut longlife guarantees the safety of the screwing up and the sealing, for
years of assemblies and disassemblies.

FEMALE SUB: threaded sub (ACME or ISO). Material selected according to
specifications. Quality steel: Standardized, hardened, tempered. Carbon steel, low
carbon, inox, etc...
European and American standards. To weld or thread.


Threaded ACME: corresponding to FMC Energy Systems standards, as well as
American and European standards (trapezodal modified). Absolute guaranty of
interconnection (between same figures).


Threaded ISO: in accordance with European standards : in general application to
chemistry. Absolute guaranty of interconnection (between same figures).


MALE SUB : sub which holds the nut. Material selected according to specifications :
steel, carbon, low carbon, Inox, etc...To weld or thread.


THE SEAL : it is chosen according to the product conveyed, it acts as primary seal and
protects the spheronical seat at metal / metal range, against abrasion and corrosion. A
special shoulder guarantees its holding on the range. Seal qualities : Buna, Viton,
Teflon, etc... depending on the application.
Pipes and fittings
9 - 9
1.3 CONNECTION LINE BETWEEN FLOWHEAD AND CHOKE
MANIFOLD
To allow for relative movement of the flowhead to the drill floor the line connecting to the
choke manifold must be flexible.
A flexible line is necessary when testing on a floating rig, but it will also allow picking up
and slacking off the flowhead to set the packer or to operate the MFE.
The main options for flexible lines are:
CHIKSAN Swivel
COFLEXIP Hose
1.3.1 The Chicksan Swivel

The CHIKSAN swivel joints have established a long track record of successful
applications whenever all-metal flexible flow lines are required instead of rubber hose.
Their main advantages are:
Smooth flow radii permit minimum restriction
Two or three rows of ball bearings handle moment, thrust and radial loads
Dynamic seal packing units are elastomer for temperatures to 225F; poly-
resin for temperatures to 450F
Grease retainer ring keeps ball race clean
360 rotation in one, two or three planes.
Pipes and fittings
10 - 10
Standard chicksan swivel joints used in Geoservices are of the "TRI-RACE"" type
10.000/15.000 psi WP/TP and 3" nominal size. Other sizes can be found in the field,
particularly the 2" sizes 10.000/15.000 psi WP/TP that is lighter and easier to handle.
Widest selection in the oil-field
Chicksan swivel joints come in 3/8 to 12 inch sizes and can handle pressures to 20,000
psi. Sour gas models are limited to 15,000 psi. Eight chicksan styles or configurations
are available from stock. These styles can be combined in an unlimited variety of ways
to suit practically any installation. End connections are threaded, integral Weco wing
unions, beveled for welding or flanged. Sour gas swivel joints have Weco wing union
end connections.
Pressure tight seals protect bearings from line fluid
Chiksan swivel joints come standard equipped with nitrile packing and bonded brass
anti-extrusion ring. 6 to 12 inch sizes have stainless steel anti-extrusion ring. The anti-
extrusion ring serves as a retainer and bearing to reduce friction between the resilient
packing material and the packing chamber as the joint is turned. These dynamic seal
packing units protect ball races and bearings from line fluid through the stated pressure
range, including vacuum or suction service to 225F. Most Longsweep models have a
secondary O-ring seal, which prevents minor leakage past the packing from contacting
the bearings. These Longsweep swivel joints also have a leak-detection port between
the packing and O-ring seal. If leakage past the packing should occur, it is forced
through the leak-detection port, signaling the need for packing replacement.
Bearings key to rotation, strength
To assure long, dependable operation, chicksan ball bearings are matched to loading
and service conditions. Although the size, type and number of bearings vary, chicksan
low-pressure, high-pressure and extra high-pressure swivel joints all have two rows of
bearings in each swivel and flame-hardened ball races. The majority of chicksan
Longsweep swivel joints have three rows of bearings in each swivel for improved load
capacities. All Longsweep swivel joints for standard service have carburized and
hardened ball races.
Smooth, round bore minimizes flow restrictions
Chiksan swivel joints have smooth round bores to minimize turbulence and keep
pressure drop low. Longsweep swivel joints have extra long radius elbows for even
better flow characteristics and reduced chance of washout when handling abrasives at
extremely high pressures.
Simple maintenance
Only occasional light greasing with a small hand-held grease gun is required to keep
chicksan swivel joints on the job. If packing, bearings or ball plugs should need
replacing because of leakage, field repair kits are available. Easy to follow instructions
come with each repair kit.
CHICKSAN LOW PRESSURE SWIVEL JOINTS
175 psi (12 bar) to 1,000 psi (70 bar) cold working pressure; 3/8 to 12 inch sizes.
Recommended service
Transfer lines, temporary flow lines, discharge lines, auxiliary flow lines, water lines and
other general-service oil-field applications.
CHIKSAN STYLES AND COMPONENT PARTS
Chiksan swivel joints are available from stock in eight basic styles or configurations.
These styles permit 360 degree rotation and movement in one, two or three planes.
They can be combined in an unlimited variety of ways to suit practically any installation.
Note: Although chicksan swivel joints can be rotated while under fluid pressure, they are not
recommended for services requiring continuous rotary motion.
All chicksan swivel joints are assembled using two or more standard pieces.
Component piece numbers are shown here with the various chicksan swivel joint styles.

Pipes and fittings
11 - 11
TECHNICAL CIRCULAR WORKING PRESSURE OF 3" 10000 CHKSANS AND WECO
UNIONS FOR SOUR GAS SERVICE

We would draw the attention of users of the above equipment to the fact that some
confusion may arise from the way that the working and test pressures are marked on
the following materials:
3" chicksans 10000 H2S Tri Race
3" Weco unions 10000 H2S (Fig. 1502 Special)
3" straight connections 10000 H2S
Nuts for 3" Weco unions, heat treated for H2S service (22 Rc max) 10000 psi CWP
(cold Working Pressure i.e. - 20 F to 200 F service) and manufactured by FMC and
Best Industries, are labeled as follows:


To conclude it is necessary to explain to users and customers that the material is made
for 10000 psi working pressure in a temperature range from -20 F to 200 F and 15000
psi test pressure. The confusion comes from incorrect marking on the union nuts.
In future after agreement from FMC, we suggest grinding out the word "TEST" and
stamping "CWP" instead.
Note: For standard service equipment (non H2S proof) further confusion may arise between
test and working pressures when reading the 1976/77 Composite Catalogue on FMC
products, which gives for a Fig. 1502 Weco "15000 psi TEST" and then "Recommended for
15000 psi NSCWP (NON SHOCK COLD WORKING PRESSURE) air, oil, water or gas.
10000 psi WP at 350F! !
Pipes and fittings
12 - 12
1.3.2 COFLEXIP
During a drill stem test your test line has to stand up to a lot of aggression from the
fluids - mingled with sand and sour gas - which may come rushing through it at great
velocity under high pressure.
This is when a Coflexip test line can be your best friend. It's a hose - but then again it
isn't. It's a steel pipe that flexes. Coflex is the preferred test line solution among
petroleum engineers and service contractors who know all about routing rigid pipes and
have experience of leaking swivel joints and the effects of live crude on rubber.
A Coflexip test line is one continuous, flexible route from your flow head to your choke
manifold. It gives you the strength of a rigid steel pipe with added bonuses: greater
resistance to abrasion, corrosion and shock from pressure surges. It won't "whip" or
"kick" like an ordinary hose can. There are no elbows, intermediate joints or swivels to
deteriorate and cause a leak in your system, because there are only two couplings to
connect up - one at each end. The end couplings that complete the Coflexip unit
undergo Ni-Kanigen anti-corrosion treatment. "Maintenance" is minimal - you simply
flush out with water after use! and change the WECO seal.!
These properties stem from the unique qualities built into the Coflexip structure. It is
designed to resist abrasion and corrosion from all types of hydrocarbons, H
2
S and CO
2
.
The concept of separate armor layers with independent functions makes for maximum
stability during pressure surges.
As an example of performances the 15,000 psi WP 3" ID drill stem test line has a tensile
strength in excess of 170 tons! And the range includes working pressures up to 20,000
psi.
Greater Strength, Stability and Reliability
Higher Performances and Durability
Easier, Faster Installation and Adaptability
No Maintenance
Three Year Limited Warranty
Available in any length
Supplied complete with any type of standard oil-field connection of your
choice
Improved cost efficiency

When your choke and kill lines are the only things standing between you and a blowout,
you know how important their strength and reliability are. If you're using rigid steel with
swivel joints or reinforced rubber hose, they're the weak link in the system.
Strength
Coflexip's flexible steel choke and kill lines offer the strength of rigid steel, and
resistance to shock from high pressure surges. A continuous, interlocking spiral of Z-
SECTION steel forms the flexible steel pipe (some are designed to work at pressure of
up to 20,000 psi). A seamless thermo-plastic sheath lines the internal pressure barrier
and resists abrasion and chemical attack. Cross-wound tensile armor pre-stresses each
line for maximum stability during pressure surges. Flush ID connectors are attached in
a way that maintains the integrity of the line. Because Coflexip is manufactured in
continuous lengths, there are no joints or discontinuities to weaken a Coflexip line.
Safety
Because Coflexip is flexible, there is no need for failure-prone swivels and intermediate
connections that can mean danger when you use rigid steel pipe. Coflexip is also less
subject to attack, erosion or aging from well fluids, including aromatics. A Coflexip line
is a single, integral unit. If Coflexip is damaged, it does not shear and whip, like a hose.
Low Maintenance
Pipes and fittings
13 - 13
Because it has no seals or intermediate connections; Coflexip requires little or no
maintenance. And unlike rubber hose, Coflexip does not deteriorate significantly with
time.
Testing
Coflexip documents the strength of its product. For your security, every line is tested at
rated test pressure for a full 24 hours! Special tests are available upon request a limited
warranty up to three years.
Only two end couplings to connect
Can be supplied with any standard end coupling
No maintenance. No seals to be replaced
No corrosion. End couplings are Ni-Kanigen treated. All Coflexip choke
lines are suitable for H
2
S service
External protection. Stainless steel outerwrap provides good fire resistance
(20 to 30 minutes at 800C before leaking, and without ever bursting)
Further insurance of superior quality and reliability: all Coflexip drilling and
service lines are pressures tested for 24 hours before leaving the plant
Reliability: Proven on over 400 mobile offshore rig

MAIN CHARACTERISTICS (subject to change without notice)
FLEXIBLE PIPES MAIN BUILT IN COUPLINGS

OD

Nominal
Diameter
Maximu
m
Working
Pressure

Test
Pressure
Weight
in air
empty
Minimum
Bending radius
for storage
Recommended
radius in service
(approximate)


API INTEGRAL FLANGE

INTEGRAL CLAMP HUB
CONNECTION
inches inches psi psi kg/m lb.ft inches cm feet meter ID seal
ring
cla
mp
n
3.9 2" 5000 10000 23 15 23 59 3 1.1 API 6B 21/16" - 5000
for R or RX 24
21/16"
5000
BX 152 1
5.3 3" 5000 10000 37 25 34 87 4.5 1.4 API 6B 31/8" - 5000
for R or RX 35
31/8"
5000
BX 154 4
5.8 3 1/2" 5000 10000 42 28 37 95 4.7 1.4 API 6B 41/16" - 5000
for R or RX 39
41/16"
5000
BX 155 5
4.1 2" 10000 15000 24 16.5 26 68 3.4 1.0 API 16BX 21/16" -
10000
for BX 152
21/16"
10000
BX 152 2
5 2 1/2" 10000 15000 39 26 32 82 4.7 1.4 API 16BX 29/16" -
10000
for BX 153
29/16"
10000
BX 153 4
5.4 3" 10000 15000 42 28 33 83 5 1.4 API 16BX 31/16" -
10000
for BX 154
31/8"
10000
BX 154 5
6.6 4" 10000 15000 59 40 40 102 6 1.6 API 16BX 41/16" -
10000
for BX 155
41/16"
10000
BX 155 6
5 2 1/2" 15000 22500 39 26 32 82 4.7 1.4 API 16BX 29/16" -
15000
for BX 153
29/16"
15000
BX 153 3
5.8 3" 15000 22500 56 38 38 96 5 1.4 API 16BX 31/16" -
15000
for BX 154
3"
150000
BX 154 6
5.6 2 1/2" 20000 30000 56 37 33 84 5 1.4 API 16BX 29/16" -
20000
for BX 153
21/16"
20000
BX 153 6

Pipes and fittings
14 - 14
FLEXIBLE TEST HOSES

Pipes and fittings
15 - 15

LAYER DESCRIPTION PURPOSE
1 (inner) Internal plastic sheath To make the hose internally
leak off
2 Z-shaped wire (zeta) To resist internal pressure
3 Flat steel reinforcing wire To increase "zeta" properties
4 Intermediate plastic sheath To reduce friction between
layers 3 & 5
5 Double cross wound tensile
armours
To resist axial loads
6 External thermoplastic
sheath
To make the hose externally
proof
7 Stainless steel outer wrap To protect the hose against
external damage



Pipes and fittings
16 - 16
MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR OF FLEXIBLE LINE
By design, a COFLEXIP flexible line is extremely resistant to:
Internal pressure
Dimensional changes under pressure are very limited; typical values are:
Relative elongation at design pressure 0.15 to 0.25 %
Relative outer diameter change at design pressure < 0.25 %
The line is extremely stable under pressure. In particular, if bent it will not tend to straighten
under pressure. No significant twist would occur. It will not pulsate or whip during high flow
rate circulation.
Tensile strength
Resistance to pulling forces ranges from about 5O,OOO daN for a 2" ID to more than
100,000 daN for a 3" lD (50 to 100 tons or 100,000 to 200.000 Ibs).
Crushing
The crushing resistance of COFLEXIP flexible pipes is similar to that of an API rigid pipe of
the same design pressure.
Bending
The line is resistant to bending; including frequent or continuous flexions with the imperative
condition that the minimum-bending radius is not exceeded.
In COFLEXIP's documents, the minimum-bending radius is abbreviated as MBR.
The minimum-bending radius is an extremely important characteristic of a flexible steel line.
As a rule of thumb, the minimum-bending radius is roughly equal to:
MBR =12 x ID (ID: inner diameter of the line).

Example: lD = 3" MBR @ 36". i.e. 3 ft.

For specific DRAG CHAIN applications. the MBR for installed use is 1.1 x the storage MBR,
as defined on the relevant data sheet.

The accurate value of the MBR is part of the technical specification of the flexible line.
FAILURE MODES OF COFLEXIP FLEXIBLE LINES
COFLEXIP flexible steel lines are extremely reliable due to:
The design of the product;
The use of the highest standards applicable;
The COFLEXIP quality assurance system.
However, misuse might damage the line. and it is useful to identify the four mains failure
modes.
Bending
If the minimum-bending radius is exceeded, the zeta layer may open; in which case, the
inner tube is not properly supported and perforation will occur under pressure.

Over-bending generally occurs due to mis-handling during installation.
Particular attention must be paid at this time to the first few feet of flexible pipe immediately
behind each termination.

an optional bend stiffener is available on request to improve the pipes resistance to such
over bending.

Pipes and fittings
17 - 17
Figure 6 shows how over bending may be caused. Whether or not the line be under internal
pressure.
Aging of the inner liner
The mechanical properties of the inner liner can be affected by aging. This phenomenon
causes the degradation of the long molecules of thermoplastic
and may be due to:
Long exposure to high temperature, exceeding the maximum rated temperature
Use of incompatible chemical products through the line.
The degradation of the material could make it brittle, and the tube may break when bent with
or without internal pressure. leading to a leakage.
Corrosion of the armour wires.
If the Outer thermoplastic sheath is damaged corrosion of the steel armor wires will occur.
This will progressively reduce the thickness of the wires, causing a progressive decrease of
the burst pressure. This failure mode may cause the line to burst.
Collapse of the inner liner.
If damaged, the outer sheath may not be leak proof. For subsea lines the external
hydrostatic pressure will be applied on to the inner liner, which may collapse.
GENERAL GUIDELINES
Storage.
Storage in general does not require specific precautions regarding environment
or duration of storage.
According to its length, the best ways to store a line are either:
1. In a straight line (up to 20 ft long);
2. Coiled to its MBR, attached to a wooden pallet or crate:
3. Installed in a DRAG CHAIN prior to hook-up and start of operations.

COFLEXIP Flexible lines are shipped with protection on the connectors. A similar protection
should be reinstalled when the line is disconnected. It may consist of a metallic blind flange
that fits the connection - which is preferable or of a good wooden protection.

This protection must ensure that:
The inner bore of the line is closed to avoid accidental intrusion of any foreign
material:
The connector, especially the seal area. is properly protected against impacts,
etc..

If stored below minimum rated temperature ensure that no handling is done before the line is
brought back to minimum rated temperature.

The inner bore of a COFLEXIP line should be thoroughly flushed with fresh water prior to
long-term storage.
Pipes and fittings
18 - 18
HANDLING
The line must never be bent below the minimum bend radius, as this may damage it.
As a rule of thumb, the minimum bend radius is equal to:
MBR = 12 X lD
The accurate value of the MBR of the line is part of the technical characteristics of the
COFLEXIP structure and can be obtained from the nearest COFLEXIP office.
The minimum bend radius (MBR) must be respected at all times, whether the line is under
pressure or not.

User should avoid bending the flexible just behind the end fitting. As a rule of thumb, a
straight length of about 2 to 3 feet ( 0.8 - 1.0 M) should be used as a safety distance (See
section - FAILURE MODES OF COFLEXIP FLEXIBLE LINES).

The use of wire ropes or chains may damage the anti-corrosion treatment of the end fitting.
It so required use a shackle connected through the eye of the lifting collar. Never use wire
ropes or chains directly against the stainless steel outer wrap.
If force, needs to be applied to the body of the flexible line itself, use nylon slings.

Moving flexible line on the ground
Do not attach slings directly to the end fitting - use the lifting collar instead.
Always connect slings to both lifting eyes in order to have the pulling force in a
straight line with the main axis of the line.
Prevent abrasion of the flexible line against the ground; use wooden supports or
planks.
To lift the line, a forklift may be used provided that slings are installed to prevent
sharp edge contact (see COFLEXIP Handling Guide).

Installation of a flexible line to a connector requires:
1. Supporting the weight of both the end-fitting and the line:
2. Correct alignment of the end fitting.
To achieve this:
The best way is to support the weight of the line through the use of the
lifting collar
Then, control the alignment with a non-metallic rope or sling attached
about 3 feet (1 meter) behind the end fitting.
Never does the reverse I.e.: Support the weight behind the end fitting;
Align the line from the end-fitting attachment.
WELDING
A flexible steel line is a mixed construction of steels and thermoplastics. It must be
recognized that through heat diffusion, which occurs during any welding process, the
Thermoplastic layers may suffer irreversible damage leading to an unsafe line.
When used, welding processes are only completed during the original manufacturing
process of the line at a stage where the operation cannot affect the other components.
Consequently, any field welding repair of a flexible line, involving either the end fitting
(including the stainless steel ring groove) or the stainless steel outer carcass, will render the
line unsafe and unusable. Such lines must withdrawn from service and stamped "NOT-
REUSABLE".

Pipes and fittings
19 - 19


Pipes and fittings
20 - 20
1.4 GYROLOK
Gyrolok is a trade name for a high-pressure pipe fitting for small diameter pipe; typically 1/2"
or 1/4". The thing that makes Gyrolok (Also "Swagelok") different to other small pipe unions
is that no flaring/crimping tools are necessary. Typical applications for testing are instrument
and pressure lines on separator, piping for Texsteam pump, etc...
ASSEMBLY INSTRUCTIONS
1. Firmly insert the tubing
2. Finger tightens the nut. Now simply tighten the nut 1 turns.
REASSEMBLY INSTRUCTIONS
Gyrolok fittings may be assembled and disassembled repeatedly. The following
instructions should be carried out to reassemble a fitting.
1. Insert the tubing end with the previously set ferrules into the fitting body and
tighten the nut to a hand-tight condition.
2. With a wrench, tighten the nut until a sharp rise in torque is felt, then simply snug
with wrench.
TUBE SELECTION
Specific recommendations to applicable ASTM standards.
The tubing selected whether metallic or non-metallic, should be compatible with the
process fluid, temperature, and application. The wall thickness selection should be
based on the operating pressure, temperature and shock conditions. Fully annealed
tubing is recommended. Stainless steel tubing having a hardness of less than Rockwell
B90 should be used with Gyrolok fittings. Nylon and Teflon ferrules are available for use
with glass tubing.
TUBE PREPARATION
Tubing ends should be cut relatively square and burrs removed. Where practical, the
use of tubing cutter is recommended.
Pipes and fittings
21 - 21
ASSEMBLED FITTING AND TUBE

1. Ease of assembly - Low assembly torque
2. Unique "Roll-in" locking action by rear ferrule. Not just sliding angles
3. No tube rotation on make-up
4. No torque transmitted to tubing
5. Controlled ferrule drive
6. Minimum tubing I.D. reduction
7. Solid "Metal to Metal Make Up" leaving no voids
8. Tubing "Butt Seal" provides a "Series Seal"
9. Full face contact and support among all components after make-up and subsequent
re-makes
10. Four point support for vibration control
11. Cannot be Over tightened - "Cannot self-destruct"
12. Unique sizing angle prevents sticking.
Pipes and fittings
22 - 22

HOKE VALVES WITH GYROLOK TUBE FITTINGS





Gyrolok flareless tube fittings are used exclusively on Hoke valves for quick and easy
installation to tubing. Gyrolok ended valves are specially machined so that the fittings
are an integral part of the valve body to prevent leakage and provide low torque
installation and thanks to Gyrolok's controlled ferrule drive, the valve body end
connections are protected from damage.
Pipes and fittings
23 - 23
HANDS ASSEMBLED GYROLOK FITTING


All components made from same type material
High-pressure applications
High temperature and bake-out applications
Cryogenic applications
Vibration resistant
Use on metal, plastic and glass tubing - thin and heavy wall
Excellent make and re-make life
Complete interchangeability in the field
Seal pressures that will burst tubing
Threads of 316 S/S nuts silver plated - no galling
Angle between ferrules before make-up
Pipes and fittings
24 - 24
ASSEMBLED GYROLOK FITTING AND TUBE



1. Unique "Roll-in" locking action by rear ferrule. Not just sliding angles.
2. No tube rotation on make-up. No torque transmitted to tubing.
3. Controlled gripping action.
4. Minimum tubing I.D. reduction
5. Solid "Metal to Metal Make-up" leaving no voids.
6. Tubing "Butt Seal" provides a "Series Seal"
7. Full face contact and support among all components after make-up and subsequent
re-makes
8. Four point support for vibration control
9. Cannot be over tightened - "Cannot self-destruct"
Pipes and fittings
25 - 25
1.5 THREADS
The aim of the threads is to enable the linking of two parts together like tubings - valves,
etc. by means of screws or bolts for the flanges. Threads are cylindrical or taper parts
on which a helicoidally groove has been machined.
The diameter is the outside diameter of the male thread (which is the diameter of the
screw).
1.5.1 Characteristics
To perform the main functions of the threads - sealing - mechanical linking - we have
several types of threads.
A thread is characterized by:
SHAPE
Cylindrical (mechanical linking)
Taper thread (utilized in the oil industry - good tightening - good tightness.
PROFILE
S.I. Triangular - The most utilized - easy to machine - secures a
good tensile strength.
SQUARE Rapid tightening - good line up.
TRAPEZOIDAL Better tensile strength.
ROUND Difficult to machine but excellent for tensile strength.
PITCH
STANDARD Correspond to the standard of tensile strength, tightness,
tightening - line up.
FINE Better tightness and good tensile strength.
HIGH Perform an easy and rapid tightening.
Pipes and fittings
26 - 26

Pipes and fittings
27 - 27
1.5.2 Cylindrical Threads
ISO THREAD
Two faces parallel Profile at 60. Truncation for the male part is equal H/8 at the
crest ad H/6 at the base. The female part has a truncation equal to H/4.
TRAPEZOIDAL THREAD
They are used for their great resistance and are very easy to assemble. The profile
is an isosceles trapezium with 30 angle for the non-parallel side.
WHITWORTH
Used in England for screws - bolts etc. the base section is an isosceles triangle with
an angle of 55 at the top. The truncation is H/6 at the top and at the bottom. The
angles are round.
The different whitworth threads are:
British standard whitworth BSW
British standard fine BSW
Gas threads
British standard pipe fastening BSPF
NATIONAL PIPE STRAIGHT
This is the Brigs cylindrical thread.
NPSI intermediate
NPSF fuel-oil
NPSC coupling
NPSH hose coupling
NPSM mechanical
NPSL locknut
The profile is triangular at 60. The crests and bases are truncated the truncation is
function of the pitch.
At crest : 0.033 p
At base : 0.033 p
Height at thread : 0.866 p
SUCKER ROD THREAD
Used principally in pumping well and for wireline tools. API standardizes them.
The profile is equilateral triangle crests and bases truncated to H/8. H is equal to
0.86603 p. Pitch: 10 threads per inch.
1.5.3 Tapered Threads
The taper is commonly 6.25%.
TAPERED GAS THREADS
They have the WHITWORTH profile. The taper is 6.25%; it can be used with 2
tapered threads or 1 tapered gas thread and 1 cylindrical gas thread.
BRIGS OR NATIONAL PIPE TAPER
Only the manufacturing tolerances are different in case, of the NPTF truncation
control at the base and crest is such that it ensures a high-pressure seal by metal-
to-metal contact without lubricant or gasket.
API THREAD
Profile is triangular at 60. Crests and bases are truncated.
Pipes and fittings
28 - 28
An LP thread can always replace an NPT thread but it will be dearer.
1.6 PIPES
1.6.1 Purpose
They are designed to allow a fluid to flow and have to withstand internal yield pressure,
tensile stress, and bursting strength, collapse strength well defined. They may also have
to resist to buckling stress.
1.6.2 Characteristics
Pipes (tubing, casings etc.) are widely used in the petroleum industry not only for the
completion of the well, but also during well testing, to connect manifolds, separators,
heaters to make flare line and so on. Then it is important to know the characteristics of
the pipes.

OD Outside diameter (thousands of inch)
I.D. Internal diameter (thousands of inch)
Nominal size External diameter (in inches)
Drift Maximum diameter that you can run into the pipe (thousands
of inch)
Grade of Material Generally a letter and a number (varies according to the
components etc.)
Collapse resistance PSI
Internal yield pressure PSI
Joint yield strength in LBS
Pipes and fittings
29 - 29
1.7 FLANGES
1.7.1 Purpose
They are used to connect pipe sections or valves, assuring the tightness with ring or flat
gasket. They are assembled with bolts. They are characterized by their working
pressure (WP) and their nominal diameter.
1.7.2 Characteristics
Diameter Nominal diameter: diameter of the tube on which the flange is
connected
Type WN Welding neck - lap joint
SN Screwed neck - blind
Ring Gasket Type = R - RX - BX - (see dimensions of manufacturer book
Flat Gasket Made of plastic, textile, material etc. the bolts provide the
tightening. The ring gasket is utilized especially on H.P. gas
circuit for it provides a better tightness.
1.7.3 API Series
API St 6 for pressures less than 5000 psi.
API St 6 Bx for pressure equal or above 5000 psi.
The series are:
API 720 - 960 - 2000 - 3000 - 5000 - 10000 - 15000.
The denomination of the series for the API corresponds to the WP This means that the
maxi WP for API 2000 will be 2000 psi at 37.8C.
WORKING PRESSURE
The following table gives the maximum WP with different temperatures for the principal
series used.
Temperature

MAXI WP IN PSI

F C API 2000 API 3000 API 5000
100 37 2000 3000 5000
150 66 1964 2964 4910
200 93 1928 2892 4820
250 121 1892 2838 4730
300 149 1856 2784 4640
350 177 1820 2730 4550
400 204 1784 2676 4460
Pipes and fittings
30 - 30
TEST PRESSURE
The test pressure is given in the following table.
API SERIES
WORKING
PRESSURE
TEST PRESSURE
NOMINAL DIAMETER
< 14" > 16"
6 B 960 960 1450
6 B 2.000 2.000 4.000 3.000
6 B 3.000 3.000 6.000 4.500
6 B 5.000 5.000 10000
6 BX 10.000 10.000 15000
6 BX 15.000 15.000 22500

1.7.4 ASA Series
The series are:
ASA 150 - 300 - 400 - 600 - 900 - 1500 - 2500
WORKING PRESSURE
Working pressure varies in function of temperature and steel used. Except for the serial
ISO. the maxi WP is equal to series x 2.4 it is expressed in PSI at a temperature of
850F for carbon steel and 950F for carbon molybdenum. The following Table gives
the WP for the different ASA series from -20 to 100F.
SERIES MAXI WORKING PRESSURE
ASA 150 275
300 720
400 960
600 1440
900 2160
1500 3600
2500 6000
TEST PRESSURE:
Is equal to 1.5 times the WP at 100F to the nearest 25 psi for carbon steel, carbon
molybdenum and stainless steel.
2 kinds of gasket can be used with ASA flanges:
1. toric joint
2. flat joint
In case of flat joint the maxi WP is obtained by x 2 the series instead of 2.4 for the toric
joint.
Example: serie 400 at 100F
Flat joint: 400 x 2 = 800 psi
Toric joint: 400 x 2.4 = 960 psi
Pipes and fittings
31 - 31
1.7.5 Utilization Of Api And Asa Flanges
API FLANGES generally on well heads.
ASA FLANGES generally kept for surface installations except for some taps fitting
existing only with API flanges.
The threaded fittings are defined by API standard.
SUMMARY TABLE
Standard Series Maxi WP (100F) Maxi Test Pressure
psi kg/cm bar psi kg/cm bar
API
< 14"

2000
3000
5000
2000
3000
5000
140.6
210.9
351.5
137.9
206.8
344.7
4000
6000
10000
281.2
421.8
703.8
275.8
413.7
689.5
API
> 16"

2000
3000
5000
2000
3000
5000
140.6
210.9
351.5
137.9
206.8
344.7
3000
4500

210.9
316.3
-
206.8
310.2
-



ASA



150
300
400
600
900
1500
2500
275
120
960
1440
2160
3600
6000
19.3
50.6
67.5
101.2
151.8
253.1
421.8
18.96
49.65
66.2
99.3
148.9
248.2
413.7
425
1100
1450
2175
3250
5400
9000
29.9
77.3
101.9
152.9
228.5
379.6
632.7
29.3
75.8
100.
150.
224.
392.3
620.5
1.7.6 Tightening Of Flanges
Put the joint (1) Ring Joint RJ
Lubricate the ring joint
put the ring joint into the groove of one flange
fit the bolts
(2) Flat Gasket RF
fit the bolts of the lower part of flanges
lubricate and put into place the gasket
fit on the rest of bolts.

To tighten the flanges (keep the parallelism of the faces of the flanges)
to screw the bolts until the approach of tightening
tighten the bolts in respect f the following order N/2 - 1
(N is the total number of bolts)

By example : Tightening of 2 flanges with 8 bolts.
Tighten 1 bolt then ( ) 4 ) 1
2
8
( 1 = + Tighten the number 4 bolt
Then it is without taking into account the number 1 the third bolt after it that we have to tighten.
With the formula we will have:
( )
6 16 11 ) 1
2
8
( 19
3 16 19 ) 1
2
8
( 16
= = +
= = +
= = +
= = +
= = +
= +
8 8 16 1
2
8
13
5 8 13 1
2
8
10
2 8 10 1
2
8
7
on so and 7 number the tighten we 7 1
2
8
4
) (
) (
) (
) (

So we have the following order: 1-4-7-2-5-8-3-6



Pipes and fittings
32 - 32
ASA AND API SERIES
FLANGES - VALVES - COUPLINGS
WORKING AND TEST PRESSURES
PRESSURE kg/cm PRESSURE kg/cm
ASA Series Test Working API Series Test Working
150 30 20
300 75 50
400 105 70
600 150 100 2000/4000 280 140
900 230 150 3000/6000 420 210
1500 380 250 5000/10000 700 350
2500 630 420 10000/15000 1050 700

ASA x .17 = WP kg/cm
2
API x .07 = WP kg/cm
2

W.P x 1.5 = T.P. kg/cm
2
W.P x 2 = T.P. kg/cm
2

Generally, the materials utilized for surface equipment are defined by ASA
STANDARDS and the materials used for well heads are defined by API STANDARDS.
For Flanges and valves, the dimensional correspondence is as follows:
API 2000/4000 : ASA 600
API 3000/6000 : ASA 900
API 5000/10000 : ASA 1500
API 10000/15000 : ASA 2500
The threaded couplings are defined by API standards.
Pipes and fittings
33 - 33
1.8 NPT FITTINGS FOR OIL AND GAS SERVICE
Experience shows that equipment, even manufactured by well-known manufacturers, is
often out of tolerances or specifications. This is especially true for NPT fitting.
The following recommendations are intended to serve as simple guide-lines and
checking procedures to avoid accidents or failures and to comply with API and National
Association of Corrosion Engineers standards (NACE MR-01-75 last edition 1978 for
H
2
S).
1.8.1 Use Only Stamped Fittings
Note: Hydraulic fittings not stamped or stamped "1.5 K", "3 K", "5 K", "T5K" etc. are to be
used in hydraulic piping exclusively.
DO NOT USE THEM FOR OIL SERVICE
Most of them are made of free-machining steels that are NOT ACCEPTABLE FOR H2S
SERVICE.
In addition, their safety factor is generally lower than the standard for oil service.
Note: 316 L stamped fittings are suitable for H2S, provided the threads are cut (not rolled)
and hardness is < 22 HRC.
This is quite difficult even not possible to check in the Field, but consultation of
Manufacturer's catalogue may help.
1.8.2 Check Inner Hole Dimensions
For 6000 lbs. series A 105 the center hole shall not exceed the following dimensions:
Thread
Nominal
1/4 1/2 3/4
Center

Hole
5.5 mm
or
7/32"
6.5 mm
or
1/4"
11 mm
or
7/16"
Larger inside diameters generally indicates "hydraulic" fittings.
1.8.3 Check The Threads
NPT threads (especially female threads) must be machined starting from a cone-shaped
material or a cylindrical hole drilled with a twist drill, the diameter of which is normalized.
Many manufacturers start with larger cylinder-shaped materials from obvious price cut
reasons. This practice is detrimental to the efficiency of the seal and the mechanical
resistance of the coupling since a few threads only has the normalized shape and is
engaged together. Refer to the following sketch.
It is therefore essential to check visually the "internals" of female threads and the
"original" OD of the male threads.
In the range 1/16 to 3/4" there must be at least 7" "good" threads perfectly cut and not
"over-flattened". In the above range, the maximum average flat is 5/1000", i.e. 1/10
mm. This is easily recognizable with naked eyes.
Check also that the threads are not crushed, bent, broken and do not present traces of
galling.
Table 1 gives information for easy field checks, which do not require any sophisticated
control equipment.
1.8.4 Check The Assembly
a) After having fitted Teflon tape (3 layers - not more) on the male thread, hand
tightening must be possible over at least 4 threads that is 4 turns after engagement.
b) Wrench tightening
Pipes and fittings
34 - 34
c) Normal wrench tightening is 3 extra turns after hand tightening; thus a total of 7
turns is needed for the make up.
d) Vanish threads that are threads due to chamfer on die must be left outside the
female part. Table 1 gives all relevant information.
Note: Do not use NPT fittings larger than " nominal for 10000 psi service. Make sure also
when plugging a npt hole to use plain plugs
This is essential for 3/4" threads.
A special 4130 3/4" NPT plug has been manufactured and is available under M 819 253.
This plain plug is stamped "10000 WP - H
2
S".
This plug must be installed on all apparatus considered in 5.
IN CASE OF LEAKS, bleed pressure to zero, wrench retightens the fitting. Re-
pressurize.
If leak does persist, bleed off again pressure to zero.
Caution: If retightening is still possible, this indicates permanent deformation of one of te
assembling element. Dubious parts must immediately be junked and replaced by new parts.
A critical visual check is normally sufficient to detect deformed elements. Remember the old
motto "leak before burst"!


Valves
1 - 1
SECTION 4
VALVES
Valves
2 - 2
Valves are external command opening and closing devices, which control the flow of
the fluid. They are manufactured according to specifications laid down by API and the
ANSI
API Standards cover valves used in the well and on the wellhead while ANSI
specifications cover valves used in surface installations.
There are many different types of valves which are used according to criteria, which
dictates their use, e.g. pressure, temperature amount of sealing ability required, gas or
oil service etc.
1. NEEDLE VALVES 2. GATE VALVES
3. PLUG VALVES 4. BALL VALVES
5. BUTTERFLY
1.1 NEEDLE VALVES

They have a small passage section and are used as block valves for instruments and
gauges, as purge valves, throttling small volume of air, gas or fluids, reducing pressure
pulsations in instrument lines. Because of the small passage section the valves are
easily blocked and also can be subject to flow cutting when using abrasive fluids.

Needle valves are built to reduce the flow of liquids, but are also very often used as
purge valves. They are subject to erosion. Their general characteristics are:

Small passage diameter
Passage direction: the pressure must be exerted on the weakest section of the needle
Compressible seal packing on the control stem. This packing is often composed of
tallow braid, Teflon or fiber rubber discs
Small size

Valves
3 - 3
REMARKS

Often these valve seats cannot be interchanged so the valves have to be replaced as
soon as the seal is insufficient, despite the needle grinding on its seat. The main
manufactures are:

- SAPAG - OCT

- KEROTEST - ROCKWELL

These valves can be straight or at right-hand angles. Their threaded ends are F x F or
F x M. Their working pressures vary from 960 to 10,000 in , 3/8", and 1"
dimensions to 3,600 psi in 1, 1" and 1 and 2" dimensions.
Valves
4 - 4
NEEDLE VALVES
Diameter: 1/4" - 3/8" - 1/2"
Size: 1/4" - 3/8" - 1/2"



Valves
5 - 5
1.2 GATE VALVES

Gate valves are manufactured in a wide variety of temperature and pressure ratings.
They are suitable for most on-off non-vibrating hydrocarbon service (vibration may
cause the gate to move up and down). They have good torque characteristics but
usually require many turns of the hand wheel to open or close them.

The type of seal affected by the valve depends on the manufacturer. FMC,
MALBRANQUE, VETCO, CAMERON TYPE F) and W.K.M. use a metal to metal seal
as the primary seal where as other manufacturers use more complex but no less
effective pressurized grease injection systems e.g. McEVOY.

They can be used as automatic shutdown valves by reversing the action of the gate
and fitting a push-pull actuator, pneumatically or hydraulically controlled.

a) McEVOY
b) W.K.M.
c) FMC
d) CAMERON
e) VETCO
f) MALBRANQUE-SEREG

- Gate perfectly line up in open position. Full-bore feature minimizes pressure
drop, turbulence and reduces erosion.
- Secondary tightness provided by sealing compound, replaced at each closing
position by sealant injection on the gate.
- Double tightness provided by two independent floating disks.
- No risk of mechanical jamming by calculated expansion of the shell.
- Stem tightness by back seat.
- Stem packing replaceable under line pressure.
- Stem bearing replaceable under line pressure.
- Low operating torque provided by:
Balanced stem depending on (nominal pressure and diameter)
Special single ring stem packing
Stem needle bearings
Seat lubrication

Valves
6 - 6
- Long life provided by:
Seat lubrication by automatic sealant injection
Body valve filled with grease to prevent oxidation by hydrates and foreign
matters.
- No stress corrosion for internal parts, i.e. there is no mechanical stress for the
valve while in opened or closed position. Thus no embrittlement.
- Single ring stem packing avoiding condensation and electro-chemical
corrosion.
- High security features:
Bolted bonnet with stainless ring, metal to metal seating
Secondary metal to metal sealing at the rear of seats
Drop forged bonnet, seats, gate, disks, stem.

- Special fire safe compound injection enable in case of major emergency or fire.
- Reversible design - bi-directional sealing capability allows installation of the
valve either direction.
Valves
7 - 7

MODEL B GATE VALVE
Valves
8 - 8
1.2.1 Gate Valve Model B
Quick clip to fix hand wheel
High resistance pin (coupling box/stem coupling)
Wiper protects stem and bearings against corrosion and moistures
Stem bearing with needle bearing takes the load and reduces significantly the
torque. Needle bearings are self-lubricated to provide easy operation and long life.
Setting screw for bearing cap lock
Stem packing is replaceable under pressure when valve is backseated
Bleeder screw allows to release the pressure trapped between back seat and
packing
Stem is surfaced hardened and ground. Smooth considerably reduce friction with
packing
Special studded bonnet providing excellent security for extreme high pressure
Integral stem back seat
Double balls body grease fitting for long product life by sealant compound injection
Bleeder screw allows to release the pressure of body
Stainless steel bonnet gasket autoclave type providing excellent security for extreme
high pressure
Stainless stem thread is hardened reducing torque
Floated stem nut
Special seal ring for extreme high pressure
Floated seats sealing by integral metal to metal contact no front seal is necessary
rear ring seals maintain seats against gate m a perfect contact allowing its self
cleaning action
Grinded and hardened surfaces of seals and gate provide a long life and decrease
torque stainless treatment is provided in standard trim
Extended wear plate design guides the gate during its movement improving seating
between gate and seals and avoiding penetration of dirt into body space.
Reversible design - bi-directional sealing capability allows installation of the valve
either direction.
Gate perfectly line up in open position. Full-bore feature minimizes pressure drop,
turbulence and reduces erosion.
Optimal valve design allows maximum medium flow with minimum turbulence.
Double tightness provided by two independent floating seats
No penetration of dirt into body space
No risk of mechanical jamming by calculated expansion of the shell
No stress corrosion for internal parts I.E. there is no mechanical stress for the valve
while in opened or close position. Thus no embrittlement.
Single ring stem packing avoiding condensation and elctro-chemical corrosion.
Valves
9 - 9
Low operating torque provided by:
Non rising stem
Special single ring stem packing
Stem needle bearings
Gate and seats with hard faced SS/minimum friction coefficient
Long life provided by:
Body valve filled with grease to prevent oxidation by hydrates and foreign
matters
Metal to metal seating seat by gate hard faced SS contact.
High security features:
Bolted bonnet with stainless ring, metal to metal seating
Secondary metal to metal sealing at the rear side of the seats
Drop forged bonnet, seats, gate, and stem
Stem tightness by back seat
Special solid block gate/seat design for extreme WP
Easy assembly and disassembly operations with standard tools
Easy maintenance of wears parts
Stem packing replaceable under line pressure
Stem bearing replaceable under line pressure
Gate and seats without special tool
1.2.2 CAMERON Gate Valve
1. FLEX SEAL
The valve body is composed of two parts, which bolt together, the outside ends having
flanged or threaded connections. The seats are metal rings with rubber inserts. The
gate and operating stem are one piece and the stem has a left-hand thread cut into it.
The stem has a square section, which lines up in the bonnet. Rotating the handwheel
causes the gate to rise up and down.
2. TYPE F
The control and seal assembly is bolted on to the top of the valve body which itself has
two flanged end connections for the line pipe. A bonnet cap, containing the needle
bearings and a control stem square head on to which the handle fits, is screwed on to
the upper flange. Two pins are located in the stem and the rotational movement of the
wheel is transmitted through these pins to the stem. These pins are designed to shear
if excessive force is used to open or close the valve so that the stem head does not get
twisted.
The main seal is a flat-toothed metal ring. It can rotate inside the seat body. The gate
has a dog at the base of each side. Every time the valve is opened fully, the dog
engages one of the teeth on the ring and rotates it slightly. This is to ensure even wear
on the seat due to the more severe wear when the valve is in the almost closed
position.
Valves
10 - 10
The assembly is lubricated through a plug in the topside of the valve. This energizes
the packing and reduces friction between the gate and seat. Another grease nipple is
located on the bonnet cap to lubricate the needle bearings.
Dismantling (Always make sure the valve is in the open position, and the line
pressure bled off).
- Unbolt and remove the top flange and assembly
- Unscrew the gate then remove the seats
- Remove the handwheel and remove the retainer bonnet cap
- Remove the top bearing, the stem to adapter pin and bottom bearing
- Unscrew the bottom adapter, which compresses the packing against the stem.
Assembling
- Assemble the valve in the reverse order to dismantling.
Valves
11 - 11

CAMERON GATE VALVE

The gate and seat assembly is
easily and quickly replaceable
without special tools.
The one piece gate construction
helps prevent line sediment from
entering the body cavity and also
prevents pressure locks when the
upstream pressure is reduce to zero.
Two thrust bearings with high-load
capacity absorb the opening or
closing loads of the gate, reducing
the turning effort to a minimum.
The threaded packing retainer
allows the replacement of the
bearings or the stem pin while the
valve is under pressure by holding
the stem packing inside the stuffing
box.
The shoulder on the stem can be
seated against the bonnet flange to
seal off the stuffing box, permitting
the replacement of the stem packing
while the valve is under pressure.
With alternate stem packing,
standard gate valves can be rated
for 350 service.
The stem pin protects the stem and
other internal parts from failure by
shearing if a high overload torque is
accidentally applied to the hand
wheel.
The grease injection port permits
lubrication of the gate and seal
assembly and is used to vent
trapped body pressure after stem
back seating.
It is not necessary to apply
excessive force when closing the
valve. The hand wheel should be
backed off turn after the valve is
fully closed.
Valves
12 - 12
CAMERON GATE VALVE


Valves

13 - 13
1.3 PLUG VALVES
Manufactured in a wide variety of sizes and pressure ratings.
Usually a quarter turns of the stem opens or closes the valve. The seal is either metal-
to-metal or metal to a softer sealing material (Teflon, Nylon, etc.).
A high torque is usually required to open plug valves with a differential pressure across
them e.g. 3" HALLIBURTON LO TORC.
They are not suitable for throttling applications as the sealing surface is exposed in the
slightly open position.
a) AUDCO ROCKWELL PLUG VALVES
b) HALLIBURTON LO TORC
1.3.1 AUDCO ROCKWELL
1. STANDARD
Comprised of a body with flanged or threaded ends and a top flange. The conical seat
is a part of the body. 'The conical plug sits in the body with the cone summit
downwards. Lubrication is done by means of grease sticks introduced into a reservoir
in the operating stem, the grease travelling through slots in the plug to the sealing
face.
The seal around the control stem is packing compressed by a gland.
2. HYPER SEAL
Similar to standard valve but the flange for the plug is on the bottom therefore the cone
summit of the plug faces upwards. The control stem seal is a fme well Iubricated
thread.
Dismantling
For Standard and Hyper Seal type, unbolt the flange and take out the plug.
Assembling
With the Hyper Seal type, the plug is pressed down into the seat once the stem
has been completely
1.3.2 HALLIBURTON LOW TORQUE
The body is made of alloyed AISI 4140 and treated steel. Plug is stainless steel. Seats
are100-70steel.
A Buna "O" ring sits in a groove on the outside of the seats. This ensures a seal
between the valve body and the seat. The plug to seat seal is metal to metal with gas
or corrosive fluids; Teflon ones replaces the Buna O rings. Other "O' rings and plug
stem packing are used to seal the adjusting nut and both ends of the stem.
Dismantling
Unscrew the Allen screws on top and the ball and seats pull out.
Assembling
The seats and ball can only be replaced when they form a perfect cylinder. The
seat "O" rings are susceptible to pinching when the seats are replaced. The
bearings should be greased.
Valves
14 - 14
HALLIBURTON LOW TORQUE

1. Valve body
2. Plug or Core
3. Valve inserts
4. End connections
5. Adjusting nut
6. O-Ring seals
7. Plug seals
8. Lubrication system
9. Valve operation

Valves

15 - 15
1.4 BALL VALVES
Available in both floating design and trunnion mounted. The floating design offers good
sealing capabilities but a high operating torque. The trunnion design offers a low
operating torque but not as good a seal.
The soft sealing material on the seat limits the temperature at which the valves can be
used; usually the temperature range is 10 - 180F.
Ball Valves are not suitable for throttling applications because in the partially open
position the ball seat is exposed to the well fluid.

THE CAMERON BALL VALVE

1.4.1 CAMERON Ball Valve
The body is composed of two hemispheres welded together and enclosed within are
the seats and the ball.
The seats are similar to the gate valve (CAMERON) type F whereby a dog rotates the
seats by engaging a set of teeth on the seat. The seats have a Teflon seal.
The valve is not designed to be lubricated but if it is to be left on site, replace the
lateral plugs with grease nipples and inject grease into the seal cavity.
1.4.2 HARTMANN Ball Valve
The seats in the valve have two sealing surfaces, the outside seal being larger than
the inside, with the result that the seat is pushed against the ball when the valve is
closed. The ball is set in the body with two sets of ball or needle bearings, one on each
Valves
16 - 16
stem according to the diameter and pressure, therefore when the valve is closed the
seats are not squashed. The plastic seals have a very low coefficient of friction with
stainless steel and thus the operation of the valve is smooth.
Lubrication: only the bearings are lubricated before assembly.
1.4.3 CIPEG/MAPEGAZ Valve
Teflon sealing turn ball valve, used on LP applications, separators, pumps, tanks
etc. (2000 psi working pressure)
Common sizes used 2" and 3" on oil lines, gas lines and inlet manifold of separator.
Some dump lines are in 1".
Body is bolted between two flanges sealed by "O" rings.
Relatively easy to dismantle IF NOT TOO CORRODED.
Theoretically can be removed from line without dismantling ASA flanges from line. In
practice, because of line movement, it is easier to maintain if removed completely from
line.
Teflon seal easily damaged if the valve is closed on debris.
Competitively priced.
Valve should always be in left open position during storage.
Valves

17 - 17
CIPEG BALL VALVE

Valves
18 - 18
MAPEGAZ BALL VALVE

Valves

19 - 19
GACHOT BALL VALVE

Low pressure turn valve used on separators, tanks as sample points, gauge valves,
etc. (2000 psi working pressure)
Normally 1/2" or 1/4" NPT.
Virtually no maintenance possible, i.e. they are simply replaced when leaking.
Valves
20 - 20
BUTTERFLY VALVE

Very low-pressure valve: 100 psi
Application: only used on gauge tanks where the only pressure is the head of oil in the
tank.
Normal size used 3".
The seal can be change quite easily, thought the valve has to come out of the line.
Flow control
1 - 1
SECTION 5
FLOW CONTROL
Flow control
2 - 2
1 CHOKE MANIFOLD
1.1 THE CHOKE
A CHOKE is a device used for a number of reasons but principally to control the flow rate

Although chokes are often used downhole as safety devices for the purpose of controlling the
formation of hydrate, we will focus on the surface choke that is commonly used while testing and
during production.

During Production the choke is located in the flow line where the fluid leaves the wellhead.

During a test a special piece of equipment is used, the CHOKE MANIFOLD, which houses the
choke bean itself, and increases the flexibility of the system when many different choke sizes have
to be selected over a short period of time.

The surface choke is used for the following main reasons:

To reduce the pressure and improve the safety
To set a certain flowing rate according to the test sequence (testing) or to the selected
production flowing rate.
To prevent sand entry from the formation limiting the flow rate and hence the speed of the
produced fluid leaving the formation)
To produce the well and the reservoir at the most efficient rate (production wells)
To prevent water and gas coning.

The surface choke is also used to ensure that pressure fluctuations downstream from the wellhead
DO NOT AFFECT the performance of the well.

To achieve this condition, flow through the choke must be in CRITICAL FLOW. This is obtained
when the flow velocity is critical. For dry gas this means that the pressure drop across the choke is
sufficient to ensure that the fluid reaches sonic velocity; that velocity will be maintained within very
close limits and hence the volumetric flow rate through the choke will not change with a drop of the
downstream pressure.

For multi-phase fluids the physical interpretation of the critical flow is much more complex,
however the principle is the same.

As a rule a thumb the critical flow condition is reached when the upstream pressure is
approximately twice the downstream pressure.

The concept of critical flow is a basic one in well testing: flowing through the test equipment must
always be performed under critical flow conditions, basically to ensure that any variation of the
pressure downstream the choke (below the maximum value admitted to insure critical flow
conditions) due either to a variation of the flowing path (switching of valves, flowing to the gauge
tank, etc.) or a change of the separator pressure, will not affect the flowing rate.

There are two main types of chokes:
a) Positive or fixed choke
b) Adjustable choke.
Flow control
3 - 3
1.1.1 Positive Choke

Consists of a bean with a calibrated orifice of known diameter. This is screwed into a choke box.
Care must be taken that a good seal is made when inserting the bean.

All chokes are made of special heat-treated steel to ensure long-life. In some instances, however,
chokes with ceramic linings are used to make them even more resistant to wear e.g. on gas wells
with appreciable sand production and hydrate formation limitation.
Flow control
4 - 4


Flow control
5 - 5
Choke Bean Conversion Chart
NOTE: Choke beans can be supplied in various styles for different services (e.g. alloy steel for
normal use and tungsten carbide or ceramic construction for severe or erosive service).

IN 1/64TH
INCHES
EQUIVALENT IN
METRIC MM
EQUIVALENT IN
1/8TH INCHES
2/64 0.7938
4/64 1.5875
6/64 2.3812
8/64 3.1750 1/8"
10/64 3.9688
12/64 4.7625
14/64 5.5562
16/64 6.3500 "
18/64 7.1438
20/64 7.9375
22/64 8.7312
24/64 9.5250 3/8"
26/64 10.3188
28/64 11.1125
30/64 11.9063
32/64 12.700 "
34/64 13.4937
36/64 14.2875
38/64 15.0812
40/64 15.8750
42/64 16.6688
44/64 17.4625
46/64 18.2562
48/64 19.0500 "
50/64 19.8438
52/64 20.6375
54/64 21.4313
56/64 22.2250
58/64 23.0188
60/64 23.8125
62/64 24.6063
64/64 25.4000 1"
68/64 26.9875
72/64 28.5750
76/64 30.1625
80/64 31.7500
84/64 33.3375
88/64 34.9250
92/64 36.5125
96/64 38.1000 1 "
104/64 41.2750
112/64 44.4500
120/64 47.6250

Flow control
6 - 6
1.1.2 Adjustable Choke
It can be one of two types.

A. Willis choke

B. Thormhill Carver, O.C.T., Cameron Shaffer, Malbranque.

A. WILLIS CHOKE is an adjustable choke with two discs; each with two holes drilled in them.

When both the holes line up, full flow through the choke occurs.

When one disc is turned relative to the other, the hole-size gets smaller until the point where the
holes do not line up and there is no flow.

This decrease in hole-size is calibrated and read off in 64ths of an inch.



B. NEEDLE VALVE types. Made by a variety of manufactures but which is basically the
same. It consists of a needle valve with a conical plug seating against a tapered seat.

Flow control
7 - 7
ADJUSTABLE CHOKE




Flow control
8 - 8
1.1.3 INDICATOR SLEEVE ADJUSTMENT

After any change of packing, bean,bean-"O"ring,stem tip, indicator sleeve must be readjusted.
1) Untighten the lock screw in order to free the indicator sleeve.
2) Unscrew the two setscrews to free up the indicator sleeve.
3) Bring the tip in contact with the bean; do not over tighten.
4) Locate the indicator sleeve so that the "O" of the indicator sleeve is just in the middle of
the window.
5) Lock the two setscrews.

The thread of the operating stem must be greased periodically by means of the grease injector.





Flow control
9 - 9

Figure A
Flow control
10 - 10
1.2 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF A CHOKE MANIFOLD

In most cases the oil company representative will know what size of choke he wants the well to
flow. Insertion of this size of choke before the flow starts is a major advantage. Clean up of the well
will almost always take place through the adjustable choke, beaning up slowly until the desired
choke size is reached then switching over to the positive choke. Refer to Fig. A

E.g. Flowing through " fixed choke.

Valves A and C are open

Valves B and D are closed

Operator wants to bean up to " positive choke size.

1. Set adjustable choke to 32/64'

2. Open Valve D

3. Close valve A and open valve B at the same time

4. Close valve C

5. Increase choke slowly to 48/64 on adjustable choke

6. Open needle valve E and bleed pressure from fixed choke side

7. Open fixed choke side and change choke bean to 48/64' fixed

8. Close needle valve E, open valve C

9. Open valve A and close valve B at the same time

10. Close valve D

11. Bleed of pressure from adjustable choke side with needle valve F.

When changing chokes, set the adjustable choke at the new choke size and switch the flow to the
adjustable one. This should be done by two operators, one to close the valve and the other to open
the other valve at the same time. Depressurize the fixed choke side and change the choke. Reverse
the flow back to the fixes choke side.

Commonly the following devices are connected to the upstream side of the manifold; or on the data
header:

A Bourdon Tube Manometer, for a fast visual indication of the upstream pressure

A Dead Weight Tester, to accurately measure the well head pressure

Flow control
11 - 11
A Pressure Recorder, to keep track of the well head pressure behavior during the test.

A fourth " NPT hole usually has a THERMOWELL installed in it so that a temperature recorder
can use. The THERMOWELL is inserted deep into the flow and thus allows more accurate
measurement the flowing temperature.

Due to more and more parameters to be measured we now always use a data header in front of the
choke manifold.

Of the downstream holes generally only two are used, to connect a thermowell and a Bourdon
manometer. Accurate measuring and recording of the choke downstream pressure is generally not
required. Furthermore, during the test the pressure downstream of the choke equals closely the
separator pressure, which is monitored on a separate chart at the separator.

The two CHOKE BOXES also have " NPT connections to allow 'bleeding off of pressure before
removal of the WING NUT when it is necessary to change a CHOKE BEAN.

These bleeds off are connected upstream the choke bean, and are also used to collect fluid samples.

Also, at the very beginning of the test, in case of a liquid cushion not filling the string fully, a hose
plunged in a water bucket can be used, to check if a weak blow exists.

Flow control
12 - 12
1.3 SAFETY

Choke Manifolds are safety devices. As such they must be maintained and operated by trained and
competent personnel. Do not allow anyone that is not competent, to modify or service the Choke
Manifold.
Choke manifolds are the primary method of reducing wellhead pressure to allowable pressures for
downstream equipment. As such trained personnel who are aware of the operation and the
consequences of their actions must only use them.
The opening and closing of the choke can make large pressure differences to:
Downhole pressure
Wellhead pressure
Separator or surge tank pressure
Burner Pressure

As such, good communications must be maintained with operating company personnel to avoid
over or under pressuring equipment not directly related to your individual operation.
When operating with a needle type adjustable choke, be aware that the choke may vibrate open or
closed, always lock the choke stem when you have set the choke size to the required setting.
Never use the adjustable choke as a valve.
Never flow the well through the manifold when chokes are not installed.
Adjustable chokes should only be used for a short duration, as they are prone to erosion and
washout.
Check frequently for " wash and wear " on the adjustable choke, and suspect that fixed choke beans
have been washed out, if gradually higher flow rates are measured.
Remove measuring instruments before hammering on the wing unions.
Never forget to bleed of the pressure from the choke side that has to be opened for choke changes.
Use a sand trap when sand or salt production is expected in gas wells.
Firmly anchor the choke manifold to the rig structure or other solid base
Small choke sizes, especially on adjustable needle type chokes, may become plugged with well
debris. Look for unexplained pressure increases or decreases in flow rate. Rapidly increasing and
decreasing the choke size on an adjustable choke may clear some plugs. ("Rocking the choke")
When a plug is cleared, be aware of downstream choke pressure and ensure downstream equipment
is not over pressured.

Flow control
13 - 13
1.4 CHOKE MANIFOLD TECHNICAL DATA
Diagram of the Geoservices Choke Manifold Parts.


Flow control
14 - 14
1.4.1 5 K Manifold.
Item. Qt. Description
1 1 Inlet Flange 3 1/8" 5000 psi - WECO 602 Female
2 1 Inlet cross 3 1/8" 5000 psi - 4 way
3 2 Spacer 3 1/8" 5000 psi
4 5 Gate valve 3 1/8" 5000 psi model B
5 1 Adjustable choke 3 1/8" 5000 psi
6 1 Positive choke 3 1/8" 5000 psi
7 2 Elbow 3 1/8" 5000 psi
8 1 Outlets cross 3 1/8" 5000 psi - 4 way.
9 1 Outlet Flange 3 1/8" 5000 psi - WECO 602 Male
10 1 Skid + 2 tool boxes + lifting lugs

1.4.1.1 Technical Data (5 Kpsi Manifold)
Size Dia. 3.1/8"
Working Pressure Upstream Choke 345 bars (5 Kpsi)
Downstream Choke 345 bars (5 Kpsi)
Working Temperature - 20C to + 121C

Dimensions Length 2.325 mm
Width 1.675 mm
Height 0.790 mm
Weight 2080 kg

Flow control
15 - 15
1.4.2 10 K Manifold

1 1 Inlet Flange 3 1/16" 10000 psi - WECO 602 Fem.
2 1 Inlet cross 3 1/16" 10000 psi - 4 way
3 2 Spacer 3 1/16" 10000 psi
4 5 Gate valve 3 1/16" 10000 psi model B
5 1 Adjustable choke 3 1/16" 10000 psi
6 1 Positive choke 3 1/16" 10000 psi
7 2 Elbow 3 1/16" 10000 psi
8 1 Outlets cross 3 1/16" 10000 psi - 4 way.
9 1 Outlet Flange 3 1/16" 10000 psi- WECO 602 Male
10 1 Skid + 2 tool boxes + lifting lugs


1.4.2.1 Technical Data (10 Kpsi Manifold)

Size Dia. 3.1/16"
Working Pressure Upstream Choke 690 bars (10 Kpsi)
Downstream Choke 690 bars (10 Kpsi)
Working Temperature - 20C to +121 C

Dimensions Length 2.750 mm
Width 1.825 mm
Height 0.835 mm
Weight 2630 kg

Flow control
16 - 16
1.4.3 Special Features
One positive choke and one adjustable choke providing a flexible way of adjusting the
pressure on the test line
Sampling points on choke boxes in line with flow direction
Fire safe valve design
Seat/gate valve sealing by metal to metal hard faced seating
Positive sealing shut off from both sides on each valve
Low operating torque provided by non-rising stem and minimum friction coefficient
between gates and seats
Reduced valve and choke maintenance requirements
Extended set of fixed choke beans
By pass valve
Data header upstream

1.4.4 Connections
Connection 5 Kpsi manifold 10 Kpsi manifold
Data Header Weco 3"Fig. 602 Female
3"Fig. 602 Male
3" Fig. 1502
Female3"Fig. 1502
Male
Inlet Weco 3" Fig. 602 Female 3" Fig. 1502 Female
Outlet Weco 3"Fig. 602 Male 3"Fig. 1502 Male

1.4.5 Operation of the Geoservices Choke Manifold

- Ensure that the manifold is anchored to the deck/ground and grounded electrically.
- In offshore floating configuration, ensure that there is enough chicksan or Coflexip between flow
head and manifold to allow for heave/tide compensation.
- Always zero the calibration barrel of adjustable choke.
- Inspect choke tip for wear.
- Make a list of the fixed chokes available.
- With pressure upstream, never open the upstream valves against a completely closed adjustable
choke. The adjustable choke should always be slightly open to prevent pressure locks.
-Never leave gate valves in anything except the completely open or completely closed positions.
-When changing chokes, always change between chokes of the same size, and then use the
adjustable choke to in- or decrease the choke size, slowly.
-Rig up sample lines on both choke boxes.
-Always use needle valves to mount pressure gauges.

Flow control
17 - 17
1.5 PRESSURE TESTING
Refer to diagram on page 10.
Ensure that all unnecessary personnel are kept well away. Mark out area with striped tape. Offshore,
arrange public address announcements and obtain a work permit if necessary.
1. Plug the low-pressure outlet of manifold with pressure testing adapter. This adapter should
be fitted with a bleed off valve.
Rig a pressure gauge and a bleed off needle valve, to the inlet of the manifold.
2. Open all valves, circulate water to fill up manifold.
3. Close valves V1, V2 and V5.
4. Ensure that a fixed choke is in place.
5. Open adjustable choke, ensure that valves V3 and V4 are open.
6. Apply pressure at inlet of manifold with a small volume high-pressure pump such as a
Texsteam. Do not exceed maximum working pressure of the manifold.
7. Hold pressure for 5 minutes. Check for leaks. If all air has been evacuated, there should be
no appreciable drop in pressure. If leaks are detected bleed off all pressure before attempting
any remedial measures.
8. Bleed off pressure. Open valves V1 and V2, close valves V3 and V4.
9. Apply pressure to inlet side of manifold. Do not exceed the maximum working pressure of
the manifold. Ensure bleed valve on testing sub, which is mounted on outlet side of
manifold, is open.
10. Hold pressure for 5 minutes. Observe for leaks.
11. Bleed off pressure. Close bleed valve on testing sub. Open valves V3 and V4 and V5.
12. Apply pressure to the inlet for a body test.
13. Hold pressure for 5 minutes. Observe for leaks.
14. Bleed off pressure and rig down testing sub.
1.5.1 Pressure testing layout

INLET
OUTLET
V1 V2
V3
V4
V5



Flow control
18 - 18
1.6 CHOKE PERFORMANCE RELATIONSHIPS
It is important to understand the pressure versus flow rate performance of the choke at critical flow
rates.
Good correlations for single-phase flow of either gas or liquid through a choke are available but
they are not applicable to the multi-phase flow situation we normally encounter in our wells.
The performance correlations for multi-phase flow through chokes are derived empirically and
apply only at critical flow rates.
The theoretical equation describing the relationship between upstream pressures, gas or liquid
ratios, bean size, and flow rates at critical velocities in field units is as follows:

2
5
600
S
q R
Pwhf =
where :
R = GLR Mcf/bbl
q = flow rate BOPD
S = choke size 64th of an inch
Pwhf = WHP, well flowing psia

From the nature of this equation, we see that for a given orifice size ad GLR, the well head pressure
plots as a straight-line function of the flow rate q.
A typical plot is shown here. Note that as the orifice size increases or the GLR decreases, the line
shifts downward.


Gilbert while checking for choke erosion in a field in California, further refined the theoretical
formula to yield more accurate pressure rmeasurements:
89 . 1
546 . 0
435
S
q R
Pwhf =

Flow control
19 - 19
1.7 DATA HEADERS

The data header is an assembly used for sampling of well bore production parameters. It is usually
mounted in the production flow path upstream of the surface choke manifold. The data header is
designed with ports to provide access for measuring certain parameters of flow as it leaves the well
head. The access ports may be used for temperature probes, pressure gauges, chemical injection,
sand probes, als sensors, dead weight tester, Foxboro.

An illustration of a data header appears below.




Flow control
20 - 20
1.8 CHRISTMAS TREE FLOW CONTROL HEAD

The surface test tree is installed on top of the tubing and consists of an assembly of valves designed
to allow control of the well. Most surface test trees used today consist of four valves fitted to a cross
of 4 ways flow fitting, a hydraulic actuator (or pneumatic) and a heavy-duty swivel.

The master valve, swab valve and kill valve are all direct action valves, whereas the flow line valve
where fitted with an actuator is reverse action. An actuator is usually fitted to the flow line valve so
that it may be shut in quickly in an emergency.

The kill valve side is tied into the Halliburton, Dowell or mud pumps to allow
The well to be killed by pumping downs the tubing.

The swab valve is used when a wire line operation has to be conducted. It allows you to insert and
remove wire line tools from the while it is flowing or shut in at the choke manifold.

The swivel is incorporated so that the tubing string may be rotated to set a packer, open a reversed
circulating sub etc. Some swivels can turn with the full tubing weight on them; others can only turn
where the tubing weight is taken on the slips.

The hydraulic safety valve is a valve, which opens when pressure is applied to the actuator. This
pressure is normally in the region of 2000 - 3000 PSI. If a condition occurs which necessitates
shutting the well quickly, such as a downstream pressure line rupture, the pressure is bled off the
actuator and the valve closes.

A pilot system can also be introduced on to the hydraulic pneumatic) actuator whereas a well can be
shut in during an emergency from a safe, area e.g. Helideck, separator unit etc.

Flow control
21 - 21


Flow control
22 - 22
1.8.1 SAFETY

Flow heads are safety devices. As such they must be maintained and operated by trained and
competent personnel. Do not allow any unauthorized people to modify or service the flow head.

Operation of the flow head often requires personnel to perform acrobatic maneuvers far above the
rig floor. This need not be dangerous if certain guidelines are implemented and followed.

When being lifted up to the flow head by "tugger", make sure that the winch has been certified for
man lifting. Wear a proper sit harness. Make sure that the winch operator is competent and
understands your commands. Do not indulge in any horseplay or make unnecessary swinging
maneuvers that can lead to accidents.

Flow heads are heavy, and the transport and installation onto the rig floor can be hazardous. Use
corrects lifting slings and shackles. Attach the slings to the proper lifting eyes. When lifting the
flow head do not stand under it. If the flow head is being lifted up the veedoor, do not stand on the
catwalk. Do not stand in a place where you might be trapped if the flow head swings your way. Be
aware of safety hazards for yourself and others.

When servicing the flow head, and especially the hydraulic/pneumatic actuators, be aware that there
are strong springs contained in them. Use only the correct tools, and above all do not attempt to
service the flow head without prior training.

1.8.2 Equipment Safety
The flow head must be of sufficient capacity to withstand the maximum expected wellhead SHUT-
IN pressure.
The operation of the flow head requires hydraulic and pneumatic lines: make sure that they are
arranged as neatly as possible, Do not allow them to crowd the rig floor where they could become
damaged or cause an accident. Mark them clearly and make them visible when lines cross access
points.
When opening manually operated valves, always open them slowly. Be aware of the amount of
turns required to fully open and shut the valve. Count the turns as you open and shut valves; this
will give an indication as to whether there is something caught across the valve body or if the valve
has a failure.
Difficulty in opening valves is often due to pressure locking; equalize pressures across valves if
possible, or bleed off internal valve pressure with the proper tool. Do not use cheater bars.
Do not jam valves in the closed position; the valves on the FIowhead seal when closed and backed
off 1/4 turns.
When installing the flow head, always ensure a stick-up above the rig floor adequate to compensate
for the tide and for vessel heave. Have enough Coflexip hose available for the same reason.
Check operation of automatic actuator prior to job. The automatic valve should close smoothly and
quickly when the control pressure is bled off.

Flow control
23 - 23
1.9 Flowhead details

1.9.1 Technical Data (5K psi)
Nominal size Dia. 3.1/8"
Working pressure 345 bars (5000 psi)
Drift 79,3 mm
Working temperature - 29 Deg C to 121 Deg C

Dimensions Height - lying down 1.185 mm
Length - stand-alone. 2.935 mm
Width 1.240 mm
Weight 1820 kg
Maximum pull Atmospheric pressure 136000 kg
Under 345 bars 5000 psi 118000kg
1.9.2 Technical Data (10 K psi)
Nominal size Dia. 3.1/16"
Working pressure 690 bars (10000 psi)
Drift 77,8 mm
Working temperature 29C to 121 Deg C

Dimensions Height- lying down 1.095 mm
Length - stand alone 3.870 mm
Width 1.240 mm
Weight 2230 kg
Maximum pull Atmospheric pressure 222000 kg
Under 690 bars 10000 psi) 136000 kg


1.9.3 Special Features
Fire safe valve design
Seat / gate sealing by metal to metal hard faced seating
Low operating torque provided by non-rising stem and minimum friction coefficient
between gate and seats
Rotation locking device above and below the swivel
Fast response hydraulic fail safe shutdown actuator on flow valve
Reduced valve and swivel maintenance requirements
Weco connections to choke and kill lines
Flow control
24 - 24
1.9.4 Connections

1.9.4.1 10 K Flowhead

To Lifting Sub 6 1/2" - 4 ACME - 10 K
Flowhead
To Kill Line Weco 3" 1502 Female
To Flow Line Weco 3" fig. 1502 Male
To Test string 6 1/2"ACME
3 IF

1.9.4.2 5K Flowhead

To Lifting Sub 4 1/2" - 4 ACME - 10 K
Flowhead
To Kill Line Weco 3" 602 Female
To Flow Line Weco 3" fig. 602 Male
To Test string 4 1/2"ACME
3 IF


Flow control
25 - 25
1.10 SAFETY VALVE ACTUATORS
1.10.1 General

The Surface Safety Valve (SSV) Actuator is designed to be installed on a reverse-acting gate valve
remote control pressure is applied to the actuator cylinder to hold the SSV in the "down-open"
position Emergency shut down (E.S.D.) pilots, when sensing line pressure fluctuations, exhaust the
actuator cylinder pressure. The line pressure working against the actuator stem area along with
spring compression moves the valve gate to the "up-closed' position. The SSV actuator is equipped
with a spring that is loaded with sufficient compression for the SSV to be considered normally
closed.
1.10.2 Design Principle

The SSV and actuator are designed to be used as a lower master valve, wing valve, or at certain
intervals. a pipeline. The SSV has a visual indication as to position. In the "up-closed" position, the
actuator extends " plus the stroke dimension above the top of the cylinder. In the "down-open"
position, that actuator stem extends " above the top of the actuator cylinder.

After the SSV is installed in a flow line, pipeline or well head, control pressure from the control
system applied to the actuator cylinder above the piston. When enough pressure is applied to the
actuator cylinder to overcome line pressure friction and spring force, the piston, stem, and gate
move down to open the gate valve.

The SSV may be maintained in a "down-pen" position by control pressure, by being locked open
with the locking cap or fusible locking cap made up at the top of the cylinder, or by the use of a jack
assembly (The fusible locking cap and the opening jack assembly are available accessories.)


GATE VALVE WITH HYDRAULIC ACTUATOR


Flow control
26 - 26
1.11 Installation of the Geoservices Flowhead.

Before installation of the Flowhead perform routine maintenance according to the procedures laid
down in the maintenance manual.

Pressure test the Flowhead according to the pressure test procedure laid down in this manual.
Install thread protectors or caps on all inlets and outlet lines.
Lift Flowhead out of basket and place on catwalk below veedoor. Fit the necessary pup joint onto
Flowhead.
Make up as tight as possible with chain tongs.
If Coflexip hoses are being used they can be, at your discretion or according to rig procedures,
connected to the Flowhead while the flow head is on the Catwalk.
If Coflexip are made up to the flowhead, on the Catwalk, full attention must be given to adequate
support and correct lifting procedures, when lifting the Flowhead onto the rig floor.
If chicksans are to be used, ensure that they are supported by tugger lines throughout job. Do not
have weight of flowline "hanging"on chicksan elbow.
Lift the Flowhead onto the rig floor by using the lifting eyes provided on the flowhead. Do NOT lift
the Flowhead by wrapping slings around the Kill and Flow lines, as this will place undue strain on
the flanged connections. They were not designed for this purpose.
As soon as is feasible, install the rig elevators on top of the Flowhead
Fit the pneumatic line to the actuator, ensuring that the hose is supported, and not placing a strain on
the connector.
Pressure up actuator and remove transportation cap from actuator.
Fit bleed off valve on top cap. (This should not be left in place during transportation)
Fit hand wheels, ensuring that the locking pins are in place.
Lift the flowhead and lower pup joint into mouse hole.
Torque up all ACME connections to 4000 Ft-lbs minimum. Torque up pup joint according to pipe
connection.
Lift flowhead and install onto clients tubing. Torque up connection accordingly. Ensure that
swivel is operating correctly when turning tubing. Ensure that no Flowhead connections are backing
off as tubing joint is tightened. If lock subs on ACME threads have been installed, this should be
impossible.
Pneumatically open flow line valves and verify closure time. Operate all panic buttons, ensuring
each time that the actuated flowline valve closes. With no pressure in flow line this should be of the
order of 8 - 10 seconds.
Verify position of all valves in preparation for pressure test.
On floating rigs ensure that flowhead stick up is sufficient for expected heave and tide. Three to
four meters above rig floor is normal.
Operation of the valves in this case will mean the use of the riding belt. Ensure that the air tugger
being used is certified for man riding. (I.e. it is not used for any other purpose.). Ensure the tugger
operator can see you at all times. Ask one of the Geoservices crew to ensure that the tugger operator
is not distracted at any time during the operation. If the heave is bad, rig up a heave compensated
tugger line. Be very careful not to trap your feet/hands in the nooks and crannies of the flow head
while manoeuvring.
On fixed/land rigs, stick up should be just sufficient to make valve operations simple.

Flow control
27 - 27
1.12 Operation of the Geoservices Flowhead
Never pressure the equipment beyond its pressure rating, even during pressure tests on well site.
When operating the valves, count the number of turns. Never leave a gate valve in a midway
position.
Always back off 1/4 turn when the valve is completely open or closed. Tightening the valve handle
in no way assists sealing, on the contrary it is likely to damage the valve stem.
If the valve handle is hard to turn, do not force it; check that there is no trapped pressure in the body
by use of the bleeder screws. It should not be necessary to use a pipe wrench.
Once the well pressure is applied to the flowhead, ensure that the pneumatic pressure to the flow
line shut down valve is sufficient to maintain the valve open.



V1 The Master Valve
V2 The Swab Valve
V3 The Kill Line Valve
V4 The Flow Line Valve
V5 Needle valve for top pressure test adapter
V6 Needle valve for Kill line pressure test adapter
V7 Needle valve for Flow line pressure test adapter
V8 Needle valve for bottom pressure test adapter

1.13 ESD Panel and Hi- Lo pilots.
1.13.1 Function
The system is designed as a surveillance/operating system that actions a pneumatic actuator/gate
valve.
The gate valve is a reverse action type.
If the air pressure goes off the spring in the pneumatic actuator will bring the piston back to it's rest
position and moves the valve gate to it's closed position.
It is a fail-safe system; failure of air supply will close the gate valve
1.13.2 Preparation and arming
1. Adjust the regulators 1 and 3 to the zero position.
2. Close the valve 9
3. Adjust the regulator 2 to the required pressure.
4. Adjust the regulator 3 to 2,5 bars pressure.
Flow control
28 - 28
5. Manually engage the master pilot 10 and secure it with the block pin.
6. Open slowly the valve 9.
Once the surveying press is acting on the high/low sensors the pneumatic pressure of 2,5 bar will
start acting on the piston of the master pilot 10, the block pin will disengage automatically and the
system is operational.
1.13.3 Hi - Lo sensors description
The system shuts down, gate valve closes if:
The surveyed press. is higher than the preset press. on the Hi sensor.
Or the surveyed press. drops below the preset press. on the Lo sensor.
This will cut the command press. of 2,5 bars to the master pilot.
The equalized press. that was acting on the piston of the master pilot is disturbed. The master pilot
valve will be pushed by a spring to it rest position and open a bypass the press. from the actuator
will be bled off. The gate valve will close.
The accidentally opening of the gate valve is not possible without first executing the described
preparation and arming procedure
1.13.4 Panel
All instruments as showed in the table below are mounted in a panel with the following dimensions;
600 x 520 x 230 mm


1 Regulator from air
supply
6 Lo press. sensor
2 Pressure gauge,
indicates 10 bars press.
on actuator
7 Manifold
3 Regulator to master
pilot
8 Plug to port for
calibration purposes
4 Pressure gauge, should
indicate 2,5 bars
9 Valve to surveying
press.
5 Hi press. sensor 10 Master pilot

Flow control
29 - 29

Pressure and temperature
1 - 1
SECTION 6
PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE
MEASUREMENTS:
BOURDON TUBE GAUGES
(INCLUDING FOXBORO)
Pressure and temperature
2- 2
1.1 PHYSICS AND BEHAVIOUR OF FLUIDS
1.1.1 Pressure
The force exerted over a unit area (e.g., pascals, pounds per square inch).
Pr essure
Force
Surface Area
=


There are relative and absolute pressure scales:
Relative
gauge
Pressure above
atmospheric pressure
Relative
vacuum
Pressure below atmospheric
pressure
Absolute
Pressure above perfect
vacuum


The relative scales arose because many pressure-measuring instruments actually
measure the pressure difference between the system of interest and the atmosphere.
The complication is that atmospheric pressure varies. The formula that identifies the
different pressures is:
P=Pg+Po
P=absolute pressure,
Pg=gauge pressure,
Po=atmospheric pressure.
Atmospheric Pressure
The pressure exerted by the atmosphere
A barometer is used to record it and the average Atmospheric Pressure at sea level is:
1 Atm = 14.7 psi = 1.033 Kg/cm2 = 1.014 bar
or
29.92 In. Hg = 760 mm. HG = 1.14 bar = 101357 pascals
Pressure and temperature
3 - 3
Gauge Pressure
The gauge pressure is the difference between the system and the atmospheric
pressure.
Pressure is registered in Lbs per Sq. Inches (Lbs/inch
2
) or psig and in Kg/cm
2

In small pressure system Inches of Water are used where
1 psig = 27.7 Inches of water
or
1Kg/cm = 10 m of water.
Vacuum Pressure
Vacuum pressure is measured relative to ambient atmospheric pressure (pressure less
than the atmospheric pressure). It is referred to as pounds per square inch (vacuum)
or psiv
Absolute Pressure
This is the sum of both the Atmospheric and Gauge Pressures. The unit commonly
used is the psia.
Absolute pressure is used in the calculations of all gas Laws.
Some calculations:
Given 100 psig in a pressure system, Atmospheric Pressure being 14.7 psi, then
Absolute Pressure will be:
100 psig + 14.7 psi = 114.7 psia
If a system is under vacuum, that is, the pressure is less than Atmospheric
Pressure. Say the Vacuum is 2 psiv, then Absolute Pressure will be:
14.7 psi 2 psiv = 12.7 psia
Note : It is more common, and more accurate, however, to express the Vacuum in Inches of
Mercury (or mm of Hg in metric system). Hence, 14.7 psi Atmospheric Pressure at sea level
will be equal to 29.92 Inches Hg.
Thus: 2 Inches of Hg = 1 Pound per Square Inch (approximately)
Other Terms of Pressure
It is important to understand the relationship between pressure and head.
Head is the pressure exerted by a column of fluid. To relate pressure and head, you
must know the height of a column of fluid, the fluids density, and the gravitational
acceleration:
Pressure expressed in terms of height is called head.
Pressure and temperature
4- 4
Understanding the relationship between pressure and head is important not only in
calculating the pressure exerted by a column of fluid, but also in analyzing pump and
compressor performance.
Consider the force (or weight) exerted by this column of fluid:

F = ma = mg
m = V? = Ah?
F = Ah?g

Now apply the definition of pressure:
g h
A
g Ah
A
F
F
Fluid

= = =
The pressure at the bottom of the column is the sum of the pressure at the top of the
fluid and the pressure exerted by the fluid:
g h P P P P
Fluid
+ = + =
0 0

Head is measured in feet of water and is primarily used in the transmission of Fluids.
Each Foot of Head = 0.43 psig
Each psig of Pressure = 2.3 Feet Head of Water
Various Pressure Equivalents
Lbs/Sq.In.

Inches of
water at 40F
(4.4C)
Inches of Hg Feet Head Bar
1 27.6 2.03 2.3 0.069
14.7 406.8 29.30 33.8 1.014
.036 1 .07 .082 0.0025
.49 13.6 1 1.127 0.0346
Density ?
P
0

P
A
h
Pressure and temperature
5 - 5
1.1.2 Temperature
Temperature (symbolized T) is an expression of heat energy.
In thermodynamics the temperature is a measure of the kinetic energy in
molecules or atoms of a substance. The greater this energy, the faster the
particles are moving, and the higher the reading an instrument will render.
1.1.2.1 Principle temperature scales
Relative
Fahrenheit Scale (F)
Pure water at one atmosphere (the average sea-level pressure) freezes at +32
degrees Fahrenheit (F); pure water at one atmosphere boils at +212 degrees F.
Absolute zero is -459.67 degrees F. One Fahrenheit degree increment is 5/9
(0.55555) times the size of a Kelvin or centigrade degree.
Celsius Scale (C)
In the centigrade or Celsius temperature scale, the freezing point of pure water at
one atmosphere is assigned the value zero; the boiling point is +100 C. One-
degree increments in the centigrade scale are the same size as those in the Kelvin
scale.
Absolute
Rankine Scale (R)
The degree increments in this temperature scheme are the same size as those of
the Fahrenheit scale, but 0 R corresponds to absolute zero or 0 K. Degrees
Rankine can be obtained from degrees Kelvin by multiplying the Kelvin
temperature by 1.8. Degrees Fahrenheit are obtained from Rankine readings by
subtracting 459.67
Kelvin Scale (K)
One kelvin is formally defined as 1/273.16 (3.6609 x 10-3) of the thermodynamic
temperature of the triple point of pure water (H2O). A temperature of 0 K
represents absolute zero, the absence of all heat.
Conversions
To convert from one Scale to another the following equations are used:
( )
15 . 273
69 . 459
32
9
5
32
5
9
+ =
+ =
=
+ =
C K
F R
F C
C F

Pressure and temperature
6- 6

Comparison of temperatures scales

212
32
460
Boiling point
of water
Melting point of ice
Absolute zero
of temperature
fahrenheit rankine
Kelvin
Centigrade
672
492
0
100
0
273
0
373
273

Types of Thermometers
The most common type of thermometer is the mercury type, which involves the
expansion and contraction of a column of mercury.
Range of the mercury thermometer is from -39F to 600 F.
If the tube above mercury level is filled with Nitrogen under pressure, then
the Thermometer may be used up to 1000F.
For below -39F, Alcohol may be used.
1.1.2.2 Keywords
Critical Temperature
The critical temperature is the temperature above which it is no longer possible to
liquefy the substance in question by increasing the pressure.
Bubble Point
Is the temperature where the gas begins to escape from a liquid mixture at a fixed
pressure.
Dew Point
The dew point is the temperature to which the air must be cooled at constant
pressure in order for it become saturated, i.e., the relative humidity becomes
100%. Gas Dew point is very important in connection with Hydrates Formation.
Critical Point
Is the temperature where the liquid and the gaseous phases of the hydrocarbons
are indentical and can coexist.
Note: T and P may be said to work in similar directions. Lowering the T of a gas, may have
the same end result as lowering P. Increasing the T may have the same effects as
increasing gas P.
Pressure and temperature
7 - 7
1.1.3 VOLUME
Gas and liquid Hydrocarbons occupy a certain space. the space of the container
they are enclosed in is their volume.
For measuring purposes, a standard Cubic Foot is used by the gas industry: under
atmospheric pressure (14.7 psi) and at 60F temperature.
Molar Volume
The molar volume is the volume occupied by one mole of ideal gas at STP. Its
value is:
22.414 L mol
-1

379 Cubic Feet mol
-1

To calculate the moles of a certain gas at STP the formula is:
Mole
e MolarVolum
Volume
=
Some calculations:
Consider a volume of 2500 Cu.ft of Propane at STP.
This Volume in moles is:
2500
379
6 6 = . moles
Critical Values of some natural gas constituents

Gas
Critical
pressure
p.s.i.a.
Critical
Temperature
F
Critical
Volume
ft
3
/lb mol
Methane
Ethane
Propane
Butane
Nitrogen
Carbon dioxide
Hydrogen
Hydrogen sulfide
Dry Air
673
717
617
551
492
1071
188
1306
547
-116.5
90.0
204.0
306.0
-233.0
88.0
-400.0
213.0
-221.0
1.59
2.29
3.12
4.14
1.44
1.53
1.04
-
1.33
Pressure and temperature
8- 8
1.1.4 WEIGHT
The quality of being heavy; that property of bodies by which they tend toward the
centre of the earth; the effect of gravitational force, especially when expressed in
certain units or standards, as pounds, grams, etc.
Weight differs from gravity in being the effect of gravity, or the downward pressure
of a body under the influence of gravity; hence, it constitutes a measure of the
force of gravity, and being the resultant of all the forces exerted by gravity upon
the different particles of the body, it is proportional to the quantity of matter in the
body.
The terms atomic weight, molecular weight are all related to weight of the
substance. The molecular weight is the weight of one mole of the molecules, and
the atomic weight is the weight of one mole of the atoms
The Atomic Weight
The quantity of an element whose weight in grams is numerically equal to the
atomic weight of the element is called Atomic Weight.
Example: Atomic Weight of Sulphur is : 32
Atomic Weight of Carbon is : 12
Atomic Weight of Oxygen is : 16
Atomic Weight of Hydrogen is : 1
Atomic weight is measured in units of atomic mass units (amu) when referring to
single atoms, or in grams/mole when referring to moles of an element. The atomic
weight of an element is equal to the number of protons plus the number of
neutrons.

Molecular Weight
The molecular weight of a compound is the sum of the atomic weights of the atoms in
the molecules that form these compounds.
Molecular weight (also called "molar mass" or "gram formula mass") is measured
in units of grams/mole when referring to moles of an element. The molecular
weight of a compound is found by adding the atomic weights of all of the atoms in
the element.
Example Molecular Weight of Methane CH
4
is 12 + (4 x 1) = 16
Example Molecular weight of a gas mixture.
Gas Vol.% Mol.% Mol.Weight Average mol.Weight
Methane CH
4

Ethane C
2
H
6

Propane C
3
H
8

Isobutane C
4
H
10

N-butane C
4
H
10

50.0 50.0
25.0 25.0
10.0 10.0
5.0 5.0
10.0 10.0
12+(1+4) = 16
(12x2)+(1x6) = 30
(12x3)+(1x8) = 44
(12x4)+10 = 58
(12x4)+10 = 58
16 x 0.5 = 8.0
30 x 0.25 = 7.5
44 x 0.1 = 4.4
58 x 0.05 = 2.9
53 x 0.1 = 5.8
100.0 100.0 28.6
Average molecular weight = 28.6 Lbs which is the weight of 379 cuft of the gas
mixture.
Pressure and temperature
9 - 9
1.1.5 DENSITY, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, API GRAVITY
1.1.5.1 Density
Density is a measure of how much mass is contained in a given unit volume
(density = mass/volume).
Density is expressed in kg/m
3
, Lbs per Ft
3
or Lbs per Gallon.

Volume
substance the of Mass
= Density
Some relative densities
Water = 1000 g/litre or 62.4 Lbs/cuft
Air = 1.293 g/l or 0.076 Lbs/cuft
Some calculations:
If the density of air is 0.076 Lbs/cuft, what volume will 6 Lbs of air occupy?
3
95 . 78
076 . 0
6
ft
d
M
V = = =
Some calculations:
What is the density of Methane at 60F and 14.7 psia if its molecular weight is 16?
It is known that a gas with a molecular weight 16 at standard conditions is
occupying a volume of 379 cuft. Therefore:
3
Lbs/ft 04 . 0
379
16
= = =
V
M
d
Note: Density should never be confused with or used as the specific gravity of a substance.
Pressure and temperature
10- 10
1.1.5.2 Specific Gravity
Specific Gravity is the ratio of the density of the substance to
a. Density of water (for solids & liquids)
b. Density of air (for gases)
Specific gravity is not expressed in units, as it is purely a ratio.
Find the specific gravity of methane if the density of air is 0.076 Lb/cuft under
similar conditions.
SG
d
d
= = =
of CH
of air
Lb / ft
Lb / ft
4
3
3
0 04
0 076
0 55
.
.
.
The SG of natural gas varies according to its constituents.
When the gas composition is known the SG of the mixture can be easily found.
Some calculations:
A gas flows into the pipeline with a composition of 75% methane,
22% ethane and 3% nitrogen. What is its SG?
SG of mixture = (0.55 x 0.75)+(1.05 x 0.22)+(0.971 x 0.03) = 0.672
Densities and SG of Natural Gas Constituents

Gas

Density
lb/f
t3

60F : 14.7
psia
Specific gravity
Air = 0.076 Lb/ft
3

60F : 14.7 psia
Methane CH
4
0.042 0.553
Ethane C
2
H
6
0.079 1.039
Propane C
3
H
8
0.116 1.526
N-butane C
4
H
10
0.153 2.013
Carbon dioxide CO
2
0.116 1.526
Nitrogen N
2
0.073 0.960
Oxygen O
2
0.084 1.105
Hydrogen sulphide H
2
S 0.089 1.171
Air (dry) 0.076 1.000


Pressure and temperature
11 - 11
1.1.5.3 API Gravity
The American Petroleum Institute (A.P.I.) scale of Specific Gravity is used in the
Oil and Gas Industry to classify the spoecifc weight of crude oil at a base
temperature of 60 F.
The API gravity is found by using the formula:
5 . 131
F 60 at SG
141.5
= gravity

API
As the specific gravity increases the API gravity decreases.
In this system fresh water has been arbitrarily designated as having an API
Gravity of 10.
If the liquid is less dense than water, API > 10.
If the liquid is denser than water, API < 10.
Typical Oil API Gravities:
Heavy oil <20 API
Black oil < 40 API
Volatile oil >40 API
Condensates ~40 - 60 API
1.1.6 VISCOSITY
Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow. It describes the internal friction
of a moving fluid. A fluid with large viscosity resists motion because its molecular
makeup gives it a lot of internal friction. A fluid with low viscosity flows easily because
its molecular makeup results in very little friction when it is in motion.
With increase of T:
a) Gas Viscosity increases
b) Liquid Viscosity decreases
The Viscosity of gases does not vary significantly with changes of pressure.
The unit of kinematic viscosity is the stoke, expressed in square centimeters per
second. The more customary unit is the centistoke (cSt) one one-hundredth of
a stoke.
Kinematic Viscosity
1 centiStoke (cSt) = 10-2 Stoke (St) = 1 millimetre squared per second (mm2/s).
Dynamic (absolute) Viscosity
1 milliPascal second (mPa.s) = 10-3 Pascal second (Pa.s) = 10-2 Poise (P) = 1
centipoise (cP). One (1) cP is the Viscosity of water at 68.4F.
Relationships
Dynamic Viscosity = Kinematic Viscosity x Density (at the same temperature) or
cP = cSt x fluid density
Pressure and temperature
12- 12
Change in Viscosity and Gravity of Crude Oil due to dissolved gas
Gravity
Viscosity
100 200 300 400 500
0
.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
Viscosity - Centipoise Gravity - API
DISSOLVED GAS - CU.ft per BBL
57
54
51
48
45
42
39
36
33
30
D
E

1.1.7 HEAT
The form of energy that flows between two samples of matter due to their difference in
temperature. Usually denoted by 'Q'.
The British thermal unit (Btu) is a nonmetric unit of heat, used in the United States
and, to a certain extent, the UK. The SI unit is the joule (J), which is used by most
other countries. 1 Btu is defined by the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one pound of water from 63F to 64F. It is often used to describe the
heat value of fuels and heating and cooling system capacities.
1 Btu is approximately equivalent to:
252.0 calories,
778 ftlb,
1,055 joules
Pressure and temperature
13 - 13
1.2 HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure due to the unit weight and vertical height of a
static column of fluid. The diameter and the shape of the fluid column have no
effect.
Hydrostatic pressure calculation in metric units:
( ) 10 / Ld Ph =
where:
Ph = hydrostatic pressure (kg/cm
2
)
d = mud weight (g/cc)
L = vertical depth (meters)
Hydrostatic pressure in API units:
dL Ph 0519 . 0 =
where:
Ph = hydrostatic pressure (psi)
d = mud weight (ppg, pounds per gallon)
L = vertical depth (feet)
The number 0.0519 is a conversion factor used to obtain pressure in oil industry
imperial units, as follows:
1. There are 7.48 gallons in 1.0 ft
3
, and 144 inches
2
in 1.0 ft
2

2. Mud weight in ppg x 7.48 gal/ft
3
x 1/144 ft
2
/in
2
= psi/ft
3. Thus, 7.48/144 = 0.0519 (psi/ft/lb/gal)

Hydrostatic pressure having different density units:
When the density is expressed in API gravity the formula of the pressure
gradient becomes:
foot
psi
es squareinch
squarefoot
cubicfoot
lb
=

144
1


Pressure and temperature
14- 14
psi feet
d
Ph = =
144

Where d = pounds per cubic foot
When the density is expressed in pounds per cubic foot the formula of
the pressure gradient becomes:
foot
psi
API
=
+

5 . 131
5 . 141 433 . 0
0

psi feet
API
Ph =
+
=
5 . 131
317 . 61
0

Where API is the API gravity of the substance
Pascal's Law states that the pressure at any point in a static fluid is the same in all
directions. The fluid transmits any applied pressure, undiminished by distance,
throughout the fluid.

The hydrostatic pressure gradient is the variation of hydrostatic pressure per unit
of height. This value describes the pressure development in a liquid, expressed in
pressure units per depth (meters or feet):
Kgf/cm
2
/m or PSI/ft
Well site personnel often report the hydrostatic pressure gradient as a volumetric
mass (g/cc or ppg), to enable easy comparison of pressure to mud weight.
Metric units:
H
According to Pascal's Law, the hydrostatic pressure ('H')
is exerted in all directions at a given depth in the fluid
column.
Fluid Column

Pressure and temperature
15 - 15
10
Pv
L
Ph
HPG = =
where:
HPG = Hydrostatic pressure gradient
in kg/cm
2
/m
Ph = Hydrostatic pressure in kgf /cm
2

Pv = Volumetric mass in g/cc
L = True vertical Depth in meters
Pv
L
Ph
HG = =
10 x

where:
HG = Hydrostatic gradient in g/cc
API units:
Pv
L
Ph
HPG 052 . 0 = =
where:
HPG = Hydrostatic pressure gradient in psi/ft
Ph = Hydrostatic pressure in psi
Pv = Volumetric mass in ppg
L = Depth in feet
Pv
L
Ph
HG = =
237 . 19 x

where:
HG = Hydrostatic gradient in ppg

Pressure and temperature
16- 16
1.2.1 Pressure of a liquid in a well
The pressure at a given depth in a static liquid is a result the weight of the liquid
acting on a unit area at that depth plus any pressure acting on the surface of the
liquid.
Pliquid Patm P + =
Some calculations:
A container is filled with a liquid and gas under pressure, what is the gauge
pressure in psi at the bottom of this container.

( ) psig Pliquid Patm Pg 20 . 130 0519 . 0 15 68 . 6 125 = + = + =
Knowing that P=Pg+Po: P=130.20 psig + 14.7 psi = 147.90 psia
1.2.2 Pressure in Vessels containing immiscible Fluids
Ho
Hw
Hm
Mercury
Water
Oil
.O
.w
.m

Three Fluids, oil, water and mercury are
mixed together in a tube
Let us find the pressure at the bottom of
this tube
SG oil = 0.850
SG water =1
SG mercury =13.6


The Pressure at "0" is


The Pressure at "W" is


The Pressure at "M" is
144
62 6 . 13
144
4 . 62 1
144
4 . 62 85 . 0
144
4 . 62 6 . 13
144
4 . 62 1
144
4 . 62 85 . 0
0

+

+

=

+ =

+ =

=
M W O
M
M
W M
W
O W
O
H H H
P
H
P P
H
P P
H
P

Pressure at the bottom of the tube is equal to the sum of the pressure of each
liquid.
Some calculations:
What is the pressure at the bottom of a well 6000 feet deep which contains 3500 ft
of mud of SG = 1.6 and 2500 ft of cement of SG = 1.9?
Gas pressure = 125 psi
Density Liquid = 50 lbs/CuFt = 6.68 ppg

Pressure and temperature
2- 17
psig 4485
144
4 . 62 9 . 1 2500
144
4 . 62 6 . 1 3500
=

+

= + =
cement mud
P P BHP
1.2.3 Communicating Vessels
When two vessels are connected together and filled with the same liquid, the free
face levels are identical and horizontal, whatever the shape of the vessel.


The pressure is the same at all points at
the same depth from the surface.

Then : P
A
= P
B
= P
C

The "U" Tube
H

The two arms are filled to the same height whatever the position of the tube.
Some calculations:
Use of "U" tube to measure the pressure of a gas
The "U" tube used should be filled with a suitable liquid at the pressure to be
measured.
SG of alcohol : 0.700
SG of mercury : 13.6
(II) (I)
h/2
h/2
M
H
I
H
II
O


P (to be measured)

Pressure to be measured is applied to one
of the arms. The other hand remains free.

Level in arm I descend and rises in arm II.


At a point M, the pressure will be: P
d H d H
P
I II
M
+

=
144 144

( )
144
d H H
P
I II

=
Pressure and temperature
3 - 18


Measure gas flow rate
Let us consider the following drawing
Q
H
A
P P
B
B
A
H
M




The Calibrated orifice in the gas line create a
differential pressure according to the flow rate
crossing it
At the point M of the tube we will have
( ) ( d
B
H
B
P d
A
H
A
P + = +


) (
A
H
B
H d
B
P
A
P =
1.2.4 Well Holes And Reservoirs
A well is a vertical column of height H in communication with the producing
reservoir and filled with a fluid of density d.
Let us examine some cases.
1.2.4.1 Well shut in at the surface
H
P
G
WHP



The pressure at the Bottom Hole is the same
everywhere and equal to the static pressure of the
reservoir.
144
d H
WHP
G
P

+ =
WHP = Well Head Pressure
Pressure and temperature
4- 19
1.2.4.2 Flowing Well
If WHP >0, the well will flow when the well head valve is opened
When the well flows, the bottom hole pressure drops from P
G
to the value P
F
,
because of pressure drop necessary to overcome the friction of the fluid in the
producing reservoir. We will also have a pressure drop P in the tubing during
production.
We can write following equations:
144
144
d H
P WHP
F
P
d H
P
F
P WHP

+ + =

=

The well will be flowing as long as
0
144
G
P or 0

+ +

d H
P WHP
F
P
G
P
After a certain period of production, the value of P
G
will decrease and
consequently the value of the flow rate.
The density may also increase because of:
Water production increases
Less gas in the oil.
Production will stop when:
144
d H
G
P

=
1.2.4.3 Non Flowing Well
In such case:
144
d H

G
P

Liquid level does not reach the surface
Some calculations:
The pressure in the well 7500 ft deep is 2200 PSI and SG of oil is 0.825.
Is the well flowing? If not at what depth is the liquid level?
psi 2681
144
4 . 62 825 . 0 7500
144
Hd
case our
144
Hd

G
P if flowing is Well
=

=

In


2200psi > 2681psi Well is not
flowing
ft 6154
62.4 Sg
144 2200
= H
144
Hd
= 2200
: of depth a at rise will Liquid
=

Liquid level is at a depth of:
7500 - 6154 = 1346 ft

Pressure and temperature
5 - 20
1.2.4.4 Maintenance Operations on Wells
During workover operations (changing the tubing), the well must be neutralised
(killed).
This consists of injection into the tubing a fluid with such density that this
following condition is obtained.
H
G
P
d Therefore
G
P
144

144
Hd

= >
Some calculations:
a) A well 8500 ft deep has a BHP of 5400 PSI and a SG of oil : 0.825.
1. What is the well head pressure?
2. What will be the density of the mud to be used to kill the
well?
1) Well Head Pressure
psig 2361 3039 5400
144
4 . 62 825 . 0 8500
5400
144
= =

=

=
d H
G
P WHP
2) Density of Mud
47 . 1
62.4
92
= SG Lbs/CuFt 92
8500
144 5400
= d

144
5400
= =

>
Hd

b) During well completion, we replace mud of SG: 1.6 by oil of SG: 0.850. What
will be the maximum pressure variation reached at the wellhead? The tubing
shoe is set at 7000 ft deep.
mud
oil
H



The well was full of mud and WHP=0
The pressure at the tubing shoe is :
psi 4853
144
4 . 62 6 . 1 7000
= =
x x
M
P
When oil is pumped into the well, the mud is displacing and escaped through
the annular. The WHP increases as the pumping continues.
When all mud in the tubing has been replaced by oil:
psig 5878
144
4 . 62 850 . 0 7000
=

=
O
P
Therefore WHP is 4853 - 2578 = 2275 psig
Pressure and temperature
6- 21
How to choose range of pressure element - Amerada
A well is 11500 feet deep and contains oil of SG =0.820. The WHP is 1400 psi.
We would like to run in the hole an Amerada to record the BHP.
What Amerada range do you suggest to carry out this operation knowing that -
1) The accuracy of the lower and upper 15% range of the gauge is to reliable
2) Normally gauges are in multiple of 1000 psi.
* The bottom hole pressure is
psi 5486 4086 1400
144
4 . 62 820 . 0 11500
1400 = + =

+ = BHP
To avoid the 15% upper range of the gauge we would therefore choose a
pressure element with range: 0 - 7000 psi
1.2.5 Artificial Drives
When a well stops being a flowing well, the producing reservoir still contains large
quantities of oil.
To help to produce those hydrocarbons we use artificial drive methods.
1. Gas Lift Method
This method consists of mixing gas with the effluent to lower its density.
The mixing takes place in the well low enough to reduce as much as possible the
weight of the column of oil.
Gas is injected in the well through valve fitted in the tubing.
Some calculations:
In a gas lift well, gas is injected in the well at a pressure of 1200 PSI.
After a certain time of gas injection, the effluent density of the well is reduced to 51
Lb/cuft.
1) At what depth should we set the injection valve so that the gas can enter the
tubing?
2) What will be the BHP of the well at 5200 feet deep after the installation is fully
running?
3) What conclusion can you make knowing that the formation pressure is 1700
PSI?
Pressure and temperature
7 - 22
H
h
h
1
2
Injection Valves
Gas + Oil
Gas Injection

1) When starting the well gas displaces the oil in the tubing. The gas will start to
enter the tubing when the Hydrostatic Pressure of the column is overcome.
The maximum height of this column will be:
144
51
1200

=
H
feet 3388
51
144 1200
=

= H
The valve must be set at a depth of 3388 ft
2) When the well is in operation, the gas injection will have reduced the density
of the oil to 40.5 Lb/cuft.
Pressure in front of the valve will be:
psi 953
144
5 . 40 3388
=

=
a
P
The pressure difference: 1200 - 953 = 247 PSI will allow the gas injected to
enter the tubing through the valve.
Under the valve the density of the effluent is still 51 Lb/cuft and exerts a
pressure of:
psi 642
144
51 ) 3388 5200 (
=

=
b
P
The BHP will therefore be: P
a
+ P
b
= 953 + 642 = 1595 psi
3) Since the formation pressure is 1700 psi the well will begin to flow.
Note: Increase of production can be obtained by increasing the quantity of gas injected,
resulting in lowering the density of oil. Another valve can be set lower down than the one
already in place. This second valve can only be in operation when the well has been started
up and gas through the first valve has already reduced the oil column pressure.
Pressure and temperature
8- 23
2 Pumping Method
A bottom hole pump enables the height of the column of oil to be reduced so that
the well can produce again.
Let us consider a well of depth H where a pump is set at depth h
1
, which will lift
the oil from depth h
2
to the surface.
Oil
h
h
1
2
H






h
1
= Pump level

h
2
= Fluid level

H = Well depth
Bottom hole pressure will be:
( )
144
2
d h H
BHP

=
Since this value will be lower than the formation pressure, the well will flow.
Some calculations:
A well 9200 feet deep has a bottom hole pressure of 3100 psi and filled with oil of
SG = 0.950.
1) Will the well flow?
2) If not what is the fluid level?
3) At what depth must the pump be placed - knowing that it must always be
immersed under 600 ft of fluid so that when the well is producing the bottom
hole pressure is 1000 psi.
1) The hydrostatic pressure of a column of 9200 ft is:
psi 3787
144
4 . 62 950 . 0 9200
= =
x x
P
This pressure is greater than the formation pressure Therefore: well is not
flowing

2) With a BHP of 3100 psi, the oil column in the well cannot be higher than

ft 7530
4 . 62 950 . 0
3100 144 144
=

=
d
P
H
h2 = 1670 ft

The liquid level h2 is therefore at 9200 7530 = 1670 ft

3) When the pressure is 1000 psi a the bottom of the well, the height of the oil column
is:

bottom) the (from ft 2429
4 . 62 950 . 0
1000 144 144
=

=
d
P
H

Pressure and temperature
9 - 24
Then the depth is 9200 2429 = 6771 ft. The pump will be installed at a depth of
h1 =6771+600=7371ft

Pressure and temperature
10- 25

Pressure and temperature
11 - 26
1.3 BASIC CRITERIA OF A GOOD UNDERSTANDING OF
METROLOGY
Buzzwords:
ACCURACY
RESOLUTION
REPEATABILITY
STABILITY
HYSTERESIS
TRANSIENT RESPONSE
1.3.1 Accuracy
It is the overall performance of any instrument. Furthermore it is the difference
between the measured value of pressures and the absolute true value generated
by a reference standard (D.W.T.).
Expressed in: % of F.R.O (Full Range Output) or % of reading.



Pressure and temperature
12- 27
1.3.2 Resolution
The smallest pressure variation that will result in a measurable change in
transducer (meter) output.
Expressed in:% of F.R.O. or absolute value.
Pressure Increase
OUTPUT
Resolution

1.3.3 Repeatability
Dispersion of the measurements when a gauge is repeatedly subjected to the
same pressure with all others conditions remaining constant.
Expressed in: % of F.R.O. or absolute value.
Pressure and temperature
13 - 28

1.3.4 Stability
The ability of a transducer to retain its performance (mainly accuracy) throughout
its specified operating and storage life.
DRIFT is the result of lack of STABILITY
Expressed in: % of F.R.O. versus time or absolute values versus time.
1.3.5 Stability becomes crucially important in interference testing.Hysteresis
Pressure difference at a given level between an increasing an a decreasing
pressure excursion.
Expressed in: maximum value.

1.3.6 Transient Response
It represents the disturbances generated by a quick variation ot the main
environmental parameters.
For a pressure gauge, the two major inputs are pressure and temperature.
Discrepancies are quantified by subjecting the instrument to pressure or
temperature steps.
Is expressed in maximum deviation according to specified input stimulation.


Pressure and temperature
14- 29
1.4 TYPES OF PRESSURE GAUGES USED IN GEOSERVICES
Four main types of gauges are to be considered:
1. BOURDON MANOMETER
2. FOXBORO RECORDER
3. BARTON RECORDER
4. AMERADA PRESSURE DOWN HOLE RECORDER
They all have a sensing element, a bourdon tube.
1.4.1 BOURDON TUBE
The Bourdon Tube is the measuring device used in many gauges. The free end of
the Tube is connected to a variable length linkage. This is connected to a pivoted
arm, at one end of which is a toothed arc and the other end a variable length
linkage. The toothed arc of the pivot arm engages a gear wheel with a pin on which
is attached the pointer.
A. C SHAPE

The sensing element of a Bourdon
Tube is a curve. There are two main
forms:

A - C shape

B - The Helicoidal Form.

The C Shape is very common in
pressure gauges. The Helicoidal
form is found in instruments such as
the BARTON, MECI FOXBORO and
AMERADA.


B. HELICOIDAL FORM

When pressure is applied to the
Bourdon Tube, it tends to straighten
out and the relative pressure is
measured by the displacement of the
free end. After the pressure has been
withdrawn, the Bourdon Tube returns
to its original point because of its
elasticity.


Pressure and temperature
15 - 30
1.5 AMERADA PRESSURE DOWN HOLE RECORDER
While in the first three pressure gauges the displacement of the bourdon is transmitted
to the index or to the pen on the scale through a system of links, in the Amerada the
stylus is directly connected to the Bourdon, thus to reduce to the minimum the moving
parts in a tool, which has to satisfy very special operational requirements.
As a result in the Amerada it is not possible to correct the errors through mechanical
adjustments, and the output values cannot be read directly on the chart.
It is, therefore, necessary to draw the actual calibration curve of the gauge and after
having interpolated it (using the least square method) with a straight line, to refer to
this line to read the values of the pressure.
The process of tracing the calibration curve and calculating the interpolation straight
line is known as the "CALIBRATION OF AMERADA PRESSURE GAUGE".
The temperature affects the Bourdon response; the calibration should be performed at
a temperature as close as possible to the bottom hole temperature at which the gauge
will work.


For the other gauges considered (Manometer, Foxboro and Barton recorders) it always
exists a linkage system between Bourdon tube and index.
This system can itself introduce errors, but allows also for their corrections through
adjusting screws that are slightly modifying the lengths of the links.
In particular the linkage system can introduce a "linearity error" which should not be
confused with that of the sensing element and that can be called "linearity
misalignment". Unlike that of the sensing element, this error can be corrected through
linkages adjustments.
Pressure and temperature
16- 31
1.6 BOURDON MANOMETER
Following is considered the linkage system of a Bourdon Manometer, which with
few small variations is also valid for the other instruments.

Fig. 1
Pressure and temperature
17 - 32
1.6.1 Linearity error of the linkages

Fig. 2
Ideally equal variations of the variable (here the displacement) produce equal
increases in the indication over the full range (definition of LINEARITY).
In reality as illustrated in Fig. 2 the angle a is smaller than the angle due to the
different lengths of the arcs A
2
A
1
and A
2
A
3
.
So when it is 50% we read on the scale a value less than 50%.
This error can be reduced by having the angle between link "a" and needle equal to
90 when the pressure applied is 50% of the full scale.
To adjust the linearity we have then to apply 50% of the f.s. pressure and adjust the
length of link to have a right angle.
This is always the first adjustment to perform when calibrating a Bourdon Tube gauge.
Pressure and temperature
18- 33
1.6.2 Zero offset error adjustment


Fig. 3
Even if this adjustment corresponds to a shift of the scale, as shown in Fig. 3. The zero
adjustment is performed rotating the index needle around its pin, because the scale is
fixed in the instrument.
Pressure and temperature
19 - 34
1.6.3 Angularity error adjustment
The Angularity of the gauge is its ability to indicate correctly when the value of the
measurement is at 0% and 100% of its range.

Fig.4
To adjust the angularity we act on the length OA of the variable length linkage of the
pivoted arm. OA is the distance between the pivot O and the attachment point A of the
linkage.
As it is shown in Fig. 4 the angularity is adjusted so as to half the error Ea present
when the upper range pressure is applied.







Pressure and temperature
20- 35
In Fig.5 we can see how the dimension d of the pivoted arm can be varied.

Fig. 5
Pressure and temperature
21 - 36
1.6.4 Calibration settings

Fig. 6
The calibration steps are the following:
Replace main scale with a graduated disc allowing access to the regulating
elements.
1. Adjust linearity link to have the 90 angle when 50% of pressure is applied
(Fig. 6)
2. Adjust zero (Fig. 6)
3. Adjust angularity. Apply 100% nominal pressure and check the reading. If it
is too high, lengthen the variable angularity arm to have the error. If it is too
Pressure and temperature
22- 37
small, shorten it. Remove pressure and reset the zero. Repeat these two
operations until the pressure gauge reads correctly for 0% and 100% of the
nominal pressure.
4. Check linearity. Apply 50% of the working pressure and check the reading.
If it is too high, lengthen the variable arm between the Bourdon tube and the
pivoted arm. If too small, reduce.
5. Re-adjust angularity.
6. Alternate steps 4 and 5 until the gauge reads correctly at 0%, 50% and
100% of its range.
1.6.5 Field operation
The pressure gauge should be selected to read the pressure in the middle
third of the scale.
Always fit a pressure gauge with an isolation valve and, if possible, a purge
valve.
The threads of the gauge and the valve or piping must be the same.
Do not screw the pressure gauge only its case, use a spanner on the
hexagon neck.
Protect the gauge against vibration, shock, high temperatures, by the
following methods:

1.6.5.1 High Temperatures
Use a coil of stainless steel pipe to separate the gauge from he piping.
e.g. Max temperature for bronze elastic chambers 150F
Max temperature for steel elastic chambers 400F
1.6.5.2 Low Temperatures
Coils deteriorate rapidly if the liquid inside freezes. Use a buffer pot with glycol
(etc) inside.
1.6.5.3 Vibrations and Shock
Isolate the gauge by using flex. Gauges must be removed when shocks are
anticipated.
e.g. changing the choke
1.6.5.4 Pressure Surges
Pressure surges are to be avoided. Open the isolation valve to the gauge slowly
or fit a pulsation dampener.








Pressure and temperature
23 - 38
1.7 FOXBORO
The Foxboro is a device that measures pressure and temperature at the well head
(before the choke manifold) on a diagram. The pressure sensor is a bourdon tube
typically 5000 and 10000 psi, the temperature sensor a fluid filled.
The Foxboro is normally connected to the choke manifold to measure WHP and
WHT.
The pressure and temperature are recorded on a chart, which is driven by a clock.
Therefore pressure and temperature are recorded versus time.
IMPORTANT POINTS
Choose the bourdon tube range according to the expected maximum WHP.
The clock has to be wound, and the chart changed every 24 hrs.
Check, every now and again, that the chart is driving.
Do not over wind the clock.
1.7.1 Description
Two different pressure ranges and one temperature range are available on a
Foxboro.
1.7.1.1 Pressure Elements
A Bourdon Tube generally of helical shape transmits the pressure to a system
of links, which relay the signal to a recording pen.
Pen Link
Bourdon tube
Pressure

1.7.1.2 Temperature Element
The temperature element consists of a bulb containing a volatile liquid in
connection with a helical Bourdon tube.
Increase in the well temperature changes the vapour pressure of the liquid
and thus the pressure inside the Bourdon tube, causing rotation of the free
end.
1.7.1.3 Time Scale
The time scale is given by a clock, which guides a diagram. The clock and
diagram can be of 24 hours or 7 days
Pressure and temperature
24- 39
1.7.2 Installation at the well site
Select a location, which is well illuminated, free from vibration, and free from big
and rapid variations of temperature.
During installation check the scale to which the Bourdon tube is connected. The
following connections are to be used:
Female NPT " up to 2000 PSI
Male NPT " over 2000 PSI
Do not forget to take into account that:
If fluid being measured has excessive pressure fluctuations or pulsations, a
fluid damper should be installed.
If fluid being measured is corrosive, viscous or has solids in suspension,
pressure seals or purge should be used.
Pressure and temperature
25 - 40



1. BOURDON TUBE ADJ.
2. ANGULARITY ADJ. SCREW
3. LINK ADJ.
4. LINEARITY ADJ.
5. LINK ADJ.
6. ZERO ADJ.
7. RANGE ADJ.
8. PEN ACTUATOR
9. PEN CARRIER
10. PEN




Pressure and temperature
26- 41
1.7.3 Calibration
a) To adjust path of arcing pen:
Only one pen - the arcing pen- in a recorder traces a path that coincides exactly
with the time arc on the chart. To adjust it:
Remove chart plate. Disconnect link from pen movement (note which hole
link is in). Replace chart plate and chart itself. Move arcing pen across chart
by hand.
If path of pen requires adjustment, loosen left chart drive screw and hex nut at
bottom of left column.
Adjust eccentric hex shaft until path of pen is satisfactory.
Tighten nut and screw, and reconnect link. Check calibration.

b) Squaring up of linkage for complete calibration:
Set pressure at middle of element range (see range on element nameplate).
Obtain right angle a) by loosening the two screws on top of element and
slipping drive lever on its shaft.
Obtain right angle b) by adjusting length of link (See Barton notes for
geometrical demonstration).


Pressure and temperature
27 - 42

c) To adjust angularity:
Adjust the zero (without applying pressure on the Bourdon tube. Purge if
necessary).
Apply 100% pressure on the Bourdon tube, correct the error by half with the
angularity adjustment screws.
Return to zero, readjust it if necessary and then apply 100% pressure.
Repeat this operation until correct angularity is obtained.





Pressure and temperature
28- 43

d) To adjust linearity:
Set pressure at mid range. If the pen is not at midscale, proceed as follows:
1. adjust length of link to move pen five times the amount of error in the
direction of the error.
2. then begin all the adjustment again (including the adjustment of
angularity).
As soon as calibration is finished, lock all the adjustment screws with nail varnish,
for example.


Dead weight tester

1 - 1

SECTION 7
DEAD WEIGHT TESTER
Dead weight tester

2 - 2

Pressure results from the application of a force, which is distributed over an area of
surface, it is defined as a force or thrust exerted over a surface divided by its area.


A
F
P =


B A S I C P R I N C I P L E


Practical applications of Pascal's principle are the hydraulic jack and the dead weight
tester.






Consider the piston A with a surface area of 20 cm2 and piston B with a surface area of 1
cm
2
. To raise the piston A (i.e. to lift the 200 kg weight) a pressure P must he applied on
to A to produce an upward force F greater than 200 kg.
Dead weight tester

3 - 3

2
2
/ 10
20
200
Pr cm Kg
cm
Kg
Area
Force
essure = = =
A force of 10 kg applied on B will result in a pressure of 10 kg/cm which will be
transmitted through the fluid to the piston A.

A weight slightly above 10 kg on B will therefore lift the 200 kg weight on A.

In a DWT the piston A has been removed and the cylinder is then connected to either:

a closed vessel where we can vary the pressure with a pump (i.e. Bourdon tube
gauge),

or an external pressure source (i.e. well head).

The pressure on the system applied on the piston B is balanced by the pressure resulting
from a known weight on this piston of known diameter.

The weights and pistons are calibrated to give an accuracy of 1/10 of 1 % of the indicated
pressure.
Dead weight tester

4 - 4

1.1 PORTABLE HIGH PRESSURE DEAD WEIGHT TESTER

Dead-Weight Testers are a source of very accurate pressures and are used for
calibration of other, less accurate, types of pressure measuring devices such as
Bourdon Tube pressure gauges. The high accuracy is obtained by balancing the force
exerted by the oil pressure on a piston of known area against weights of known mass.
The weights and pistons are calibrated in sets to give an accuracy of 1/10 of 1% of the
indicated pressure. The High Pressure Dead-Weight Tester sketch is shown on the
following page.

Before using the Tester the first time, the oil reservoir must be filled with oil through
Filler Plug using the oil supplied. A good grade of SAE 20 oil is recommended. The
Tester must be on a firm level base. (The Ac-Me Tripod forms a convenient field
support.) After removing the carrying case cover, weight rods and weights, the gauge
to be tested is connected to the gauge-connecting base using one of the adapters
supplied. The correct numbers of weights to give the pressure desired are placed on
the piston table and the oil pump operated until the piston floats, while spinning,
between the two marks just below the table. The oil pump is a screw type with
manually operated valves. When facing the Tester, with the oil pump to the right, the
far valve is in the suction line, and the near valve in the discharge line.

After the test is completed, the oil should be pumped back into the reservoir, the gauge
removed from the Tester and the connection on the Tester plugged; after which the
weights, weight rods and cover may be replaced, leaving the Tester ready for
transportation.

The Tester may be used as a Dead-Weight Gauge by using the reservoir adapter as a
reservoir to prevent gas from blowing through the piston and cylinder. The adapter
should be screwed into the gauge connector base, filled with oil, and connected to the
gas pressure through suitable tubing and a valve. After the valve is opened and
pressure is on the piston, weights are placed on the table until it floats, while spinning.
The indicated pressure is then the total of all the weights on the table, pius the table,
when balance is obtained.

The entire Tester should be kept clean, as dirt and grit will cause rapid wear. The
piston will naturally wear with use and will change size slightly, impairing the accuracy,
at which time the Tester should be recalibrated. Excessive oil leakage usually indicates
this condition. Since the piston and weights are matched sets, the entire Tester must
be returned for the recalibration.



Dead weight tester

5 - 5



TYPICAL DEAD WEIGHT TESTER
Dead weight tester

6 - 6


1.1.1 Portable high pressure dead-weight tester replacement parts

Part Number Description

2 - 7 RESERVOIR CAP
2 - 8 PUMP CYLINDER
2 - 9 PISTON AND CYLINDER ASSEMBLY
2 - 10 PUMP PLUNGER ASSEMBLY
2 - 13 CARRYING CASE COVER

2 - 16 BASE UNIT ASSEMBLY
2 - 59 BASE PLATE
5 - 12 WEIGHT N 1
5 - 13 WEIGHT N 2
5 - 14 WEIGHT N 5

5 - 15 WEIGHT N lO
5 - 16 WEIGHT N 50
5 - 17 WEIGHT N 100
5 - 18 WEIGHT N 500
5 - 20 WEIGHT ROD

15 - 18 KNURLED NUT
23 - 6 OIL PUMP CAP
23 - 13 PUMP SCREW WITH HANDLE
23 - 69 GAUGE CONNECTOR
36 - 38 10 FT LENGTH 1/8" STEEL TUBE W/FITTINGS

36 - 39 20 FT LENGTH 1/8" STEEL TUBE W/FIITINGS
36 - 40 ADAPTER " MALE X " FEMALE
36 - 44 RESERVOIR ADAPTER "
P - 62 "O" RING CYLINDER
P - 63 CYLINDER AND PUMP "O" RING

P - 180 HOSE ADAPTER
P - 256 BUSHING " X "
P - 291 VALVE 1/8" MALE
P - 530 POINTER DRIVER
P - 531 HAND JACK

P - 748 BACK-UP RING PUMP
P - 760 FILLER PLUG
P - 856 LEATHER HANDLE
P - 857 HANDLE LOOP
P - 859 "U" CUP PUMP

P - 972 PIPE PLUG "
P - 984 LEVEL, BULLSEYE
P - 1121 SMALL WEIGHT STUD


Dead weight tester

7 - 7




Dead weight tester

8 - 8

1.1.2 Trouble shooting chart

TROUBLE PROBABLE CAUSE REMEDY
A.
Gas escapes past
piston when instrument
is used to determine
unknown gas pressure
1.
Insufficient oil in 36 - 44
reservoir adapter.
Valve, and draw oil into
pump.



2.
Damaged cylinder "O"
ring.
1.
Shut off and "bleed" pressure
from tester. Close discharge
Close suction valve, open
discharge valve and pump oil
to th e 36 - 44 adapter until
full.

2.
Unscrew cap nut remove
guide rod and piston. Use
wrench to unscrew cylinder
from adapter with pencil and
replace P - 62 "O" ring.
B.
Gas "bubbles" or blows
into oil of centre
reservoir, when
determining unknown
gas pressure

Damaged cylinder adapter
"O" ring.

Disassemble as per 'A - 2'.
After unscrewing cylinder
adapter replace P - 63 "O"
ring.
C.
Not sensitive to small
weight changes, when
used to determine
unknown gas pressure
1.
Overtightened cylinder
cap nut.

2.
Dirty oil.


3.
Damaged Piston.





4.
Cold weather makes
standard oil too viscous.
1.
Unscrew cap nut. Re-retighten
only until "snug".

2.
Remove oil. Wash clean with
solvent and replace with clean
oil.
3.
Remove piston and cylinder as
per '2-2'. Clean with solvent. If
'binding' is evedent replace
with new 2-9 piston and
cylinder assembly.

4.
Replace standard oil with P-
1484, low temperature 'pour'
point oil.
D.
Pressure cannot be
maintained, when
calibrating another
pressure gauge.
1.
Air is drawn into pump
because of insufficient oil
in centre reservoir.

2.
Damaged cylinder adapter
"O" ring.

1.
Unscrew 2-7 cap and check oil
level in reservoir. Add oil if
necessary.

2.
See "B" remedy.


Dead weight tester

9 - 9

TROUBLE PROBABLE CAUSE REMEDY
3.
Leakage thru "suction"
valve.
3.
Close P-291 "Section" valve
securely. If leakage persists,
remove and examine valve
stem. Replace valve if
required.
E.
Excessive Oil leakage
at piston
1.
Damaged cylinder "O"
ring.

2.
Oil too "ligh".




3.
"Worn" piston and cylinder
assy.
1.
Replace P-62 "O" ring as per
'A-2'.

2.
Check and remove fluid in
reservoir if it is shock absorber
or brake fluid. Replace with
SAE 20 Oil.

3.
Replace with new 2-9 piston
and cylinder assy.
F.
Not sensitive and/or
poor operation during
hydrostatic (water)
testing.

Water emulsifying with
tester oil.

Best - use P-1169 synthetic
fluid instead of standard oil.


Satisfactory - use 2-71 oil
water separator.







Separators and separation

1 - 1

SECTION 8
SEPARATORS AND SEPARATION
Separators and separation

2 - 2

1.1 SEPARATION PRINCIPLE
Phase separation in a separator is based on gravity:

- oil is segregated from liquid

- oil si segregated from water

Gravity separation only takes place when:

- fluids to be segregated are not solubre in each other

- fluids have different densities

Separation speed is a direct function of realitive gravity

05 . 0
20
1
1
= =
G
Gq
95 % of separation takes place within a few seconds

75 . 0
1
=
Gq
G
Separation requires a few minutes

1.2 SEPARATOR
1.2.1.1 Role of separator

For safety reasons, because the well head pressure is still not at atmospheric pressure
(Eruptive well) and the temperature is still elevated, it is necessary to free the oil of
both dissolved and free gas before putting it in storage tank (Atmospheric conditions).

Therefore the separation occurs of the gas from free liquids such as crude oil,
hydrocarbon condensate, water and entrained solids.

So, the basic separator design must:

1. Control and dissipate the energy of the well stream as it enters the separator.
2. Ensure that the gas and liquid flow rates are low enough so that gravity segregation
and vapor liquid equilibrium can occur.
3. Eliminate re-drive of the separated gas and liquid.
4. Provide an outlet for gases with suitable control to maintain preset operating
pressure.
5. Provide outlet of liquids with suitable liquid level controls.
6. Provide clean out ports at points where solids may accumulate.
7. Provide relief for excessive pressures in case the gas or liquid should be plugged.
8. Provide equipment such as pressure gauges, thermometers, and liquid sight glass
assemblies.

Separators and separation

3 - 3

1.2.1.2 Separator lay out

The separator consists of cylindrical container designed to resist high pressure. It
may be vertical or horizontal. The oil accumulates at the base of the container, while
the gas, being less dense, occupies the space above it.

So, the gas/oil separation is due to gravity.

The gas outlet is fitted with a special valve to maintain a fixed backpressure. The oil
outlet with a valve, controlled by a float, ensures that the level remains in the middle
of the separator. Thus the oil remains in the separator for a certain period of time,
depending on the affluent flow rate. Let's say the oil contained in the separator is 1
m3 and the separator is treating 60 m3/hour, so the oil will be replace every 1/60
hours for each minute. during this period, the oil is maintained at a constant
pressure and bubbles of gas produced in the oil are raised into the gas space above
the liquid level. Therefore, the oil leaving the separator is almost free of entrained
gas; the amount remaining depends on pressure, temperature, viscosity, the nature
of the oil, retention time etc.

An equilibrium is established between the quantities of each of the components
present in the liquid and gaseous phases. It is necessary for the oil to be kept in the
separator for long enough. The time is generally known as the "RETENTION TIME"
and depends on:
a. Nature of the oil (density and viscosity)
30 seconds for light oil
60 seconds for high density oil.
b. The effluent flow rate
c. The separator dimension and liquid level.
1.2.1.3 Type of separators
Vertical
Vertical is used on low to intermediate gas/oil ratio well streams. It can be fitted
with a false cone bottom to handle sand production. (As an offshore platform
where space is an important consideration).

However, because the natural upward flow of gas in a vertical vessel opposes the
falling droplets of liquid, a vertical separator is more expensive than horizontal
units for the same capacity.

An inlet diverter spread the inlet fluid against the vertical separator shell in a thin
film and at the same time imparts a centrifugal motion to the fluid. This provides
the desired momentum reduction and allows the gas to escape from the thin oil
film. The gas rises to the top of the vessel and the liquid falls to the bottom. Some
small particles will be swept upward with the rising gas stream and these particles
are separated by a centrifugal baffle arrangement below the gas outlet connection.
Horizontal
The horizontal separator is less expensive than the vertical separator for equal
capacities. It has a much greater gas /liquid interface area, consisting of a large,
long baffled gas separation section which permits higher gas velocities. They are
always used for high gas/oil ratio well and for foaming well streams. It is equipped
Separators and separation

4 - 4

with a flow breaker (i.e. a series of steel plates designed to capture the oil
particles), a horizontal baffle to prevent waves and finally a series of deflectors at
the gas outlet.

Three phase horizontal separators are used for well testing and from time to time
where free water readily separates form the oil or condensate. They are identical
to two-phase separators except for a water compartment and an extra level control
and dump valve.

A double-barrel horizontal separator has all the advantages of a normal horizontal
separator plus a much higher liquid capacity.

Incoming free liquid is 'immediately drained away from the upper section into the
lower section. The upper part is filled with baffles and the gas flows straight
through and at higher velocities.
1.2.1.4 Separator capacity
Liquid capacity is function of:
Retention time t=vo (usually 1 min)
Separator oil volume (liquid level)
Gas capacity is function of :
Separator pressure
Gas liquid interface level
1.2.1.5 Working pressure and nominal pressure of a separator

The separators used are characterized by their flow (gas + liquid) and by their
nominal pressure printed on the manufacturers plate. The nominal pressure is the
maximum pressure at which the separator can be used.

Manufacturers provide models whose nominal pressure is between 40 and 3500 psi.

A separator must never be operated above the nominal pressure. Moreover, this
would not be possible as, in general, two safety devices are installed to avoid excess
pressure.

1. A safety valve designed to open at 90W separator's nominal pressure.

2. A rupture disc designed to break at pressure equal to 1009 bar of the nominal
pressure.

To ensure that separators withstand their nominal pressure without any leaks or risk
of rupturing, they are tested to a higher pressure.

The test pressure is nominal pressure increased by 50 % (e.g. for 600 psi nominal
pressure, the test pressure will be 900 psi). The regulations demand that a hydraulic
test is carried out every 2 years.
Separators and separation

5 - 5

Diagram of separator


Separators and separation

6 - 6


1.2.1.6 Gas capacity
The gas capacity of a separator depends on the speed of the gas as it passes
through the separator and is proportional to the pressure and the gas passage
section.

For horizontal separators it is a function of :
- The height of the liquid
- The separator diameter.
HEIGHT OF OIL
DIMENSIONS
SEPARATOR
PRESSURE
(psi) 18" 12" 8" 6"
1200

650000
23
960000
34
1100000
39

36" x 10'
600
450000
16
680000
24
850000
30

1200


260000
9.2
400000
14
450000
16
24" x 10'
600
205000
7.2
310000
11
370000
13

1.2.1.7 Oil capacity
The "Retention Time" is the time it takes a fluid particle to flow through the
separator.

This time depends on:
a. The separator diameter
b. The length and height of the separator.
An increase in any of these parameters will increase the "Retention Time" if the
retention time is kept constant and the separator capacity will be increased.

Generally - SEPARATOR PRESSURE RETENTION TIME

0 - 600 pis 1 minute
600 - 1100 psi 50 seconds
1100 psi 30 seconds

Separators and separation

7 - 7

1.2.2 Verification And Utilisation of Separator During A Test Programme
1.2.2.1 General verifications
Before any job, the verification of the separator and its accessories must be done.
This verification consists of:
- Hydraulic test pressure
- Check the working of Daniel orifice, Barton flow meter, pressure
controller, level controller, safety valves and rupture discs, sight glasses
plus all valves on separator.
1.2.2.2 Starting procedure
Before starting a test program, ensure all equipment confirms with test program and
rig up completely.
After rig up is done, pressure tests the test package to conform to safety
regulations. Prepare accessories for use, Ranarex meter, BS&W kits,
gravitometers.

Before starting up the separator the following things should be checked:

- Rotron/Floco isolated, by pass open.
- Daniel Orifice up
- It is assumed that the correct operation of ACV's has been checked.
- Wizard valve set "just on the balance", valve closed.
- Level troll valve set "just on the balance", valve closed.
- This means that as soon as the flow goes into the separator, the wizard
valve will begin to open. This means you cannot accidentally over-
pressure the separator. This is particularly important in high
volume/pressure gas wells. Similarly the level troll valve will begin to open
as soon as the level touches the float.


METHOD A

The by-pass is open, inlet closed. (Which by-pass will depend on whether it is a
gas or an oil well.) Slowly open the inlet, and close the by-pass. (SLOWLY!)

As you do this, you should observe the wizard valve beginning to open.

If it does not, STOP, close the inlet opens the by-pass again and checks the
operation of the wizard.

Except in low pressure/volume wells, you should have an assistant watching the
level/pressure in the separator as you perform this task.

Separators and separation

8 - 8

Gradually bring the separator pressure and level up to required levels. Remember
that separator pressure should never be greater that 1/3 of WHP, or below a
pressure that creates liquid carry over problems. Also if flowing directly to the
burners, you will need sufficient pressure to attain efficient burning. In very low-
pressure wells it may be necessary to flow to a tank first.

The level chosen will depend upon the oil/gas capacity of the well. The client will
often dictate the parameters.

METHOD B

This method has more application in high volume/GOR wells. Open the inlet to the
separator, LEAVE THE BY-PASS OPEN, bring the pressure and level up, when the
separator is running smoothly, slowly close the bypass. This method means that
you reduce the risk of over-pressuring the separator. (Blow safety valves, rupture
discs!)
1.2.2.3 Shut down procedure
After the test program is completed:
1. Lift Daniel orifice and isolate Barton recorder. Put liquid meter on by-pass
position.
2. Open main by-pass, close inlet valve and gas main valve.
3. Drain separator through drainpipe by using pressure remaining in the separator.
If necessary flush test package with diesel or water.

Note: Daniel Orifice should always be lifted if anything is done which upsets the balance of
the separator, i.e. changing chokes, etc..








Separators and separation

9 - 9





Separators and separation

10 - 10







Separators and separation

11 - 11

1.3 SEPARATION PROBLEMS


PROBLEM

CAUSES

ACTION


Liquid carry over

High flow rate
High liquid level
Low operating
pressure


Wave action in
separator

Foaming

Decrease flow rate
Lower oil/gas interface
Raise operating pressure
or decrease flow rate
Reduce sensitivity of oil
level controller
Increase pressure

Poor gas/oil separation.

High viscosity

High separator
pressure

Heat well effluent
Increase retention time
Reduce pressure

Separators and separation

12 - 12

1.4 SEPARATOR TROUBLE SHOOTING
1.4.1 Liquid carry over in outlet gas stream

POSSIBLE CAUSE OF CARRY OVER TROUBLE SHOOTING PROCEDURE
1.
High inlet gas flow


2.
High liquid level which reduces vapor space.


3.
Coalescing plates or mist pad is plugged with
waxes, paraffins, hydrates, debris on the
separator and after the demist pad.



4.
Wave action in liquid

5.
Low operating pressure


6.
Hunting - Wizard too sensitive

7.
Slugging/Heading

Check gas flow and reduce after consulting
client representative.


Check liquid level. Clean glass. Lower level.


Check pressure and temperature for waxes,
paraffins, and hydrates formation. Remove
debris.
Measure pressure drop across plates and
pad, should be less than 2 psig. A DWT can
be placed.

Check baffles inside separator. Have they
corroded away?

Check pressure and if necessary or possible
raise or alternatively reduce flow rate.

Check proportional band, increase or
dismantle and check for obstructions.

Too large chokes size, check with client and
reduce.
Separators and separation

13 - 13

POSSIBLE CAUSE OF CARRY OVER TROUBLE SHOOTING PROCEDURE
8.
Float has not been attached to torque tube.

9.
Float is totally immersed in liquid







10.
Float is not in liquid phase.









11.
Level-troll too sensitive.


12.
The well is slugging; reaction time for the
controller is too slow.

13.
Automatic control valve is not operating
properly.





14.
Wave action causing float to move.

Checks position of flapper or remove
inspection cover.

A.
Blocked sight glass - true level not being
shown
B.
Manually drain separator in order to actuate
float.
C.
Put level controller into service.

A.
Blocked sight glass - true level not been
shown.
B.
Close manual outlet valve and observe level.
C.
Set level controller to half level.
D.
Put level controller into service.

Check proportional band and increase. Check
proportional band controller for obstruction.

Lower set point on liquid level controller.
Reduce proportional band setting.


A.
Check operation manually.
B.
Check valve action. Is it normally closed or
normally open?
C.
Is the controller set-up correctly?



Check condition of baffle/weir.

Separators and separation

14 - 14

POSSIBLE CAUSE OF CARRY OVER TROUBLE SHOOTING PROCEDURE
15.
Level controller shows no response.













16.
Float in oil/water interface is totally immersed in
emulsion.

A.
Check torque tube movement by manually
twisting. If no response then repair controller.
If yes, then float has dropped off? Replace.
Alternatively liquid level is above or below
float.
B.
Check liquid level.
C.
Manually drain separator and observe for
controller movement or ACV movement as
level falls off one length of float. If no
response then float has come off.

A.
Check for emulsion by draining fluid from
separator.
B.
Drain emulsions or introduce de-emulsifier at
choke.
AII above-mentioned points should be been checked prior to the test. They will be
covered during the procedure if it has been written out meticulously.
1.4.2 How to deal with oil foaming during separation
1.4.2.1 Foam formation
It is always caused by the liberation of a large amount of micro-bubbles in the oil.
This is due to:
Either a localized pressure drop during the process
Or a delayed gas evolution, caused by the liberation of heavier gases (C; - C3
- CO2).
Factors that increase the foam volume are:
High pressure drop
Pressure drop taking place at low pressure
High volume of evolved gas.
Presence of foam will prevent good separation, ruin gas and liquid metering and
pumping. The most adverse factor is foam stability. Two factors help to decrease
the stability:
Slow separation process (multistage separation)
Lowering oil viscosity by heating.
1.4.2.2 How to fight oil foaming
To fight oil foaming the use of chemical means is the most used. The molecules of
antifoaming additives replace the natural tensio-active components adsorbed on
interfacial films. It has been shown that:
Separators and separation

15 - 15

Silicon additives are the most efficient ones (e.g. RHODORSTL 427, DOW
CORNING 200)
Note: STRAIGHTENING VANES - Be aware that " NPT plug upstream holds straightening
vanes in place. This plug should never be removed during normal operations.


Separators and separation

16 - 16


Note: SIGHTGLASS VALVES - If during a well test operation, the window of a liquid level
breaks, there is a Ball Safety Valve automatically closing under the differential pressure
existing between the inside of the Separator.
In this case the normal reaction could be to close manually the isolating valve of the liquid
level. Doing so, the internal pressure of the separator is redirected to atmosphere this until
this valve rests on its seat, since it has a plunger pushing back the ball in the open position.
So, if a liquid level window breaks, the safe solution for repair is to by-pass the separator
before bleeding its pressure to zero, then to close the isolation valves of the liquid level and
to proceed to window replacement. During repair, the separator must be restarted.

If this solution is not possible, either wait for the completion of the test or start repairing - but
IN NO CASE, THE ISOLATING VALVES OF THE LIQUID LEVEL SHOULD BE CLOSED.
This precludes that the Ball Safety Valve does its job perfectly.



Separators and separation

17 - 17

SIGHT GLASS VALVE






Separators and separation

18 - 18

1.5 Safety
- THE EQUIPMENT USED IN WELL TESTING OPERATES AT HIGH
PRESSURES WITH INFLAMMABLE LIQUIDS.
- IT IS ESSENTIAL THAT THIS EQUIPMENT BE HANDLED BY COMPETENT
OPERATORS IN ACCORDANCE WITH STANDARD PRACTICE AND
SAFETY REGULATIONS.
- Check the validity of the official pressure test of the separator.
- Check rupture disc rating.
- Check calibration of safety valve has been performed within the last 3 months.
- Ensure all members of the crew are competent in the operation of the
separator.
- IF H2S IS PRODUCED, IT IS FORBIDDEN TO USE SEPARATOR GAS TO
SUPPLY THE PILOT CIRCUIT FOR THE INSTRUMENTATION.
- This is because in normal operations, gas is vented from the flapper nozzle
systems of the controllers.
- If H2S is expected, or even suspected, breathing apparatus must be available
and used, if concentrations of H2S are above minimal levels. See Geoservices
safety manual for toxicity levels.
- On H2S jobs, all vent lines (Daniel bleed down, sight glasses etc) should be
piped to a safe area. Particular attention should be taken when sampling,
operating shrinkage tester etc.
- On H2S jobs operate the "buddy" system whereby no operator works on his
own without supervision from another area.
- All well testing equipment should be electrically grounded with an earth strap
(minimum area 1 sq. cm). Offshore this should be welded or bolted to an
unpainted part of the deck. Onshore earth stakes (minimum length 1 meter)
should be used. Earth stakes should be kept damp.


Safety valves & Rupture disc

1 - 1

SECTION 9
SAFETY VALVES AND RUPTURE
DISCS
Safety valves & Rupture disc

2 - 2

1.1 SAFETY VALVES
1.1.1 Role
The role of the safety valve is to automatically reduce an overpressure in the separator by
venting off a certain amount of gas. The safety valve is normally set at 90 % of Working
Pressure of the Separator (e.g. a 1440 psi separator shall have the safety valve set at
1296 psi).
1.1.2 Description
The valve consists of :
the cone (3)
the perfectly ground flat closing disc. This is the top sealing face (4)
the guide which isolates the body and casing (8)
the Balan seal bellows which counteract the effect of hack pressure and isolates the
safety valve internals i.e. spring, spring stop etc. from the vented fluid/gas (28)
the tapered disc carrier which diverts the force of the vented fluid away from the
guide
the blow down ring which is used to make the disc rise more quickly after the set
pressure has been reached (7)
a hand operated level to test the function of the valve. (Only on certain safety
valves.)
Safety valves & Rupture disc

3 - 3



Safety valves & Rupture disc

4 - 4

1.1.3 Operation
The valve opens violently when the upward force exerted on the seat face by the
separator pressure overcomes the force exerted downwards by the spring.
S P F =
Where F = force exerted by the spring
P = Separator Pressure
S = Area of the Valve Seat.
1.1.3.1 Safety Valve Operation (Series 2600 FARRI S SAFETY VALVE)
This valve features a blow down spring. When the pressure in the nozzle exceeds the
compressive force of the spring, the disc rises.

For compressible fluids (air, gas, vapour) the full opening occurs at less than 3% above
the adjustment pressure and the closure at less than 51% below it.

For non-compressible fluids (Liquids) the use of the spring causes hammering. The
spring is therefore inactivated by winding it right down. In this case the full opening occurs
at 10% to 15% of the adjustment pressure.
Setting the blow down ring
The spring is adjusted according to the relief valve pressure setting.

It is screwed into the nozzle and has around its perimeter a serrated edge which positions
it in the nozzle. A set screw which makes contact with the serrated edge holds it in
position. For liquids the spring is not required and so it is screwed right down.


Fig. 1

Setting for gases and Vapours
For gases and vapours, the position of the ring depends on the pressure setting. Proceed
as follows:

Safety valves & Rupture disc

5 - 5

With the disc in position, put the ring in contact with the disc holder (Figure 2, Position 1).
Referring to the following table, lower the ring by a number of teeth corresponding to the
pressure setting (Figure 2, Position 2).


Fig. 2



Safety valves & Rupture disc

6 - 6

2600 SERIES

P = net calibrated pressure in kg/cm

D = number of teeth after contact made with the disc holder


Up to
P D P D
1 2 15,8 20
2,8 4 19 25
4,6 6 25,5 30
6 8 31,5 40
7,7 10 38,5 50
9,5 12 42 60
10,2 14 47,5 70
12,4 16 48 80
13,4 18 70 90

These specifications apply to all types of valve complete with a blow down ring and to any
part.



























Safety valves & Rupture disc

7 - 7




1.1.3.2 The pilot operated safety valves

As already briefly described this type of valve does not use a spring or a weight to
keep the disc closed but uses the pressure of the process fluid.

In fact this valve confines a certain quantity of process fluid in a chamber called
"DOME" above the disc called "PISTON".

The production of the pressure of the process fluid in the area of the dome is
generally 20 % higher than the piston seat. This generates a force sufficient to
oppose the static force of the fluid. this configuration permits a much higher set
pressure with larger orifices than could be obtained with conventional or balanced
valves, because of the much larger spring forces required for these valves.

HOW A PILOT OPERATED SAFETY VALVE FUNCTIONS
Safety valves & Rupture disc

8 - 8


As illustrated in Figure 3 a pilot operated safety valve consists of a main valve
destined to relieve the processes fluid and a pilot valve destined to control the
opening and closing of the main valve. The pilot controls the pressure in the dome
above the piston. The piston is seated on the nozzle and directly in contact with
the process pressure.

From this fact, both opposing sides of the piston are pressurized at a same value.
But because of the larger area (20 % ore) on the topside of the piston, the net
force is greater than the static force of the process fluid on the bottom side of the
piston.

Once the set pressure is reached the pilot opens and depressurizes the dome of
the main valve, causing it so relieve as there is no longer any force acting on the
top of the piston.

Once the pressure decreases, the pilot closes and re-establishes the pressure in
the dome of the main valve, which will also close.

As an example, the unbalance of the piston, as previously said is generally 1.211
but some manufacturers (mainly for the low pressure) have a range up to 3.0/1.

Taking an average valve of 1.2/1 (most common) that means that the top area of
the piston is 1.2 times the area of the bottom area. Taking also a pressure of 10
bar upstream of the piston and an area of 10 cm that gives:

Upward force = 10 cm x 10 bar = 100 daN.
Downward force = 10 x 1.2 x 10 bar =120 daN.

The net force will be 120 100 = 20 daN

By this example, it is shown that for the main value to open, the pilot must
depressurize the dome by at the least a pressure equal to 20 % of the inlet
pressure.

When that occurs the forces in opposition are balanced and the valve is then on
the threshold of opening.

Safety valves & Rupture disc

9 - 9




POP ACTION PILOT OPERATED VALVE (flowing type)
Fig. 3


Safety valves & Rupture disc

10 - 10


The process pressure increasing, the piston will lift immediately, and the valve will
remain open all the time the pressure remains constant. The pressure decreasing,
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Safety valves & Rupture disc

11 - 11

the pilot will close and re-pressurise the dome of the main valve at the same
pressure as that of the inlet of the valve as shown on the curve of the figure 4.

For a pilot operated valve, the full lift occurs at set pressure and is maintained until
the reseat also occurs. As no further force must be overcome as in a spring-
operated valve, the full lift is achieved without overpressure.

EFFECT OF A BACKPRESSURE ON A PILOT OPERATED SAFETY VALVE

The dome (pressure chamber) must be perfectly pressure sealed fro the
downstream side of the valve.

That is for minimizing the pressure drop, which could occur, and also to prevent an
eventual backpressure from entering. Because of this fact the lift characteristics of
the valve are not affected.

Indeed this is only valid for a backpressure not exceeding the inlet pressure.

The sealing is generally made by means of rings in elastomer or plastics, but if the
backpressure is greater than the inlet pressure (process), then it will cause the
main valve to open as shown in Fig. 5 and consequently the flow will go
backwards.

In fact the backpressure force acting on the unbalanced area of the piston (around
the seat area) will produce an upward lifting force which will cause the piston to lift.

Example as previously described:
Inlet pressure 10 bar - nozzle area 10 cm
Unbalanced downward force = i e. 20 % of 10 cm = 2 x lO = 20
Unbalanced upward force = 2 x 14 = 28
Net force = 8
Such a condition might occur if the valve is fitted into a pressured header and
process pressure at the valve inlet decreases below the inlet pressure (process
shut down).

To prevent this, the answer is to equip the valve with two check valves. It is the
most commonly used system. One check valve is fitted on the pressure line
connecting the main valve outlet to the dome above the piston.

Another is located in the pressure sense line. This latter having for target to
prevent the backflow from the outlet into the process side of the valve through the
pilot.

The first check valve allows the backpressure to pressurize the dome of the main
valve. When the back- pressure exceeds the process pressure only the area
beyond the noule area is subjected to the back- pressure force. The area within
the nozzle diameter is subjected to the higher backpressure on the top side of the
piston and thus produces a net downward force to keep the valve closed
(preventing a back flow).

Example with the previous valve:
Safety valves & Rupture disc

12 - 12


Downward force = 0 x 1.2 x 14 = 168 daN

Upward force:
1. Inlet pressure = 10 x 10 = 100 daN
2. Backpressure = 2 x 14 = 28 daN
Total upward force 128 daN

Net downward force = 40 daN.

The above described system applies for the flowing pilot that means the process
fluid coming from the pressure sense line flows through the pilot to maintain it
open till the pressure decreases.

Another type of pilot exists now (and is more and more used). Which is called the
non flowing pilot which as its name states, does not flow the process fluid. When
the main valve relieves to oppose a backpressure, the non-flowing pilot needs to
be equipped with a system called "back flow preventer".

The back flow preventer is a shuttle check valve system, which is fitted between
the top and the outlet of the main valve. When the back-pressure is greater than
the inlet pressure (PS) and this last lower than the set pressure, the shuttle check
transfers to the left blocking the back-pressure flow entering the pilot.

The dome is then pressurized by back-pressure.

When the inlet pressure exceeds the backpressure but is lower than the set
pressure the shuttle transfers to the right allowing the pressurization of the dome
by the inlet pressure. When the inlet pressure exceeds the set pressure the pilot
opens, depressurizing the dome (PB): the main valve opens and the shuttle
transfers to the right blocking the hack-pressure flow to the pilot and sending the
dome pressure to the pilot vent.

The function of the second check value is to prevent the backpressure from
discharging through the pilot vent when the main valve is relieving a backpressure
acting on the pilot could cause an erratic closure or blow down of the main valve.

ALL HAS BEEN SAID ABOUT THE MAIN VALVE BUT WHAT ABOUT THE PILOT?

The pilot valve is in fact a small spring operated safety valve, which functions in
the same way.

The supply pressure is sensed either at the main valve inlet through a pressure
pick-up or directly on the process system itself.

The inlet pressure acts on the seat of a spindle, which is loaded by the spring
adjusted at the set pressure value.

The pressure is equal both in the pilot and the dome of the main valve. The
spindle seals an orifice called pilot exhaust. Once the pressure increases to reach
the set pressure then the spindle lifts and releases the pilot exhaust permitting the
dome pressure to escape and the main valve to open as shown in the below
figure.


Safety valves & Rupture disc

13 - 13





A blow down adjustment allows the pilot to close more or less quickly to adjust the
re-pressurisation of the dome once the pressure decreases.
Safety valves & Rupture disc

14 - 14

DIFFERENT TYPES OF PILOT

1. The most commonly used is the non-flowing pop action type. This type of pilot
is not only designed to have no fiow of the process fluid but also to open the
main valve in a snap way at the set pressure to full lift and reclose at some
pressure below set. As for a conventional valve, this difference is called
blowdown.

2. The flowing pop action type is more and more abandoned, although acting in
the same way as the no-flow type. It obliges the process fluid to be
recuperated and furthermore submits the internals to the corrosive action fo
the fluid.

3. The modulating action type (flowing or not). This type of pilot produces a main
valve opening characteristic that is proportional to the relieving capacity
required. In other words, the valve responds to the flow capacity generated
by the increase of pressure. In fact is acts as a regulator. The pressure at
which the valve opens and closes is the same. There is no blowdown on this
type of valve.
SEAT TIGHTNESS OF THE PTLOT OPERATED SAFETY VALVE
Two different designs of seat are in opposition.

a. The metal-to-metal seats where both the nozzle and piston seats are metallic
(as most of the conventional valves).
- which do not accept the least foreign particle without its tightness being
affected
- obligation to have both seats perfectly lapped
- withstands the corrosive action and temperature of most fluids.

b. The soft seat where the nozzle seat is metallic and the piston seat is made
form elastomer or plastic.
- accepts more easily some foreign particles without affecting the tightness
- does not need a lapping and is very easy and quick to replace
- is more sensible to the corrosivity and the temperature of the fluid
pressure
- special care must be taken when selecting the elastomer

All the above described valves:
o weighted pallet
o spring operated
o pilot operated

are manufactured by the Sebim Group and are going to be described more fully in
following chapters. The next table will help you to select the appropriate valve with
regards to the operating service considerations.




Safety valves & Rupture disc

15 - 15

1.1.4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF VALVE TYPES

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

WEIGHTED PALLET TYPE

Low cost Set pressure not readily adjustable
Very low set pressure availahle Extremely long simmer
(down to 0.5 ounce/in2) High overpressure necessary for full lift
(100W or more in some cases)
Seat easily frozen closed at cryogenic
temperatures

CONVENTIONAL METAL SEATED

Lowest cost (in smaller sizes and lower Seat leakage
pressures) Long simmer or long blow down
(adjustment of
Wide chemical compatibility blow down ring effects simmer, set
pressure and
High temperature compatibility blow down
Vulnerable to effects of back-pressure (set
pressure and capacity)

BALANCED BELLOWS METAL SEATED

Protected guiding Seat leakage
Set pressure constant with Long simmer or long blow down
backpressure Limited bellows life
Capacity reduced only with High initial and maintenance costs
higher levels of back-pressure Limited back-pressure capability
Good chemical and high temperature Vulnerable to effects of inlet pressure
capabilities losses

CONVENTIONAL SOFT SEATED

Good seat tightness before relieving Temperature limited to elastomer used
Good reseat tightness after relieving Chemically limited to elastomer used
Good cycle life Vulnerable to el'fects of inlet pressure
losses
Low maintenance cost

SOFT SEATED, PILOT OPERATED - PISTON TYPE

Smaller, lighter valves at higher Not recommended for polymerizing type
services
pressure and/or with larger without pilot purge
orifice sizes Limited chemical and high temperature
Good seat tightness before relieving compatibility due to soft goods
Good reseat tightness after Liquid service limitation (must have
relieving suitable pilot)
Ease of setting and adjusting Limited low pressure setting
set pressure and blow down (about 15 psia)

Safety valves & Rupture disc

16 - 16

Pop or modulating action available
In-line maintenance
Adaptable for remote pressure sensing
Short blow down obtainable
Set pressure can be field test
while in service
Remote unloading available
Not effected back-pressure (when pilot
discharges to atmosphere or is balanced)
Safety valves & Rupture disc

17 - 17

1.2 RUPTURE DISCS

These are fine metal diaphragms, designed to rupture in case an excess pressure is
accidentally caused in the separator. The rupture disc pressure is chosen to be 100 %
of the nominal working pressure of separator.

The discs (or diaphragms) can be directly tightened in a special union sub, or between
two flanges, according to the size and assembly. There are discs as large as 6' in
diameter and also smaller sizes wit rupture pressure of up to 6000 PSI.

The discs are conceived to resist the pressure and the pressure must be exerted on
the hollow side.

The metals commonly used are :
nickel
stainless steel 18/8

The pressure is indicated on each rupture disc, on a strip of metal riveted to the
disc.
Safety valves & Rupture disc

18 - 18

Safety valves & Rupture disc

19 - 19



Pneumatic control valves

1 - 1

SECTION 10
PNEUMATIC CONTROL VALVES
Pneumatic control valves

2 - 2
AUTOMATIC CONTROL VALVE TYPE "EASY-E"









Pneumatic control valves

3 - 3

1.1 AUTOMATIC CONTROL VALVE - SINGLE PORT
1.1.1 Role

The automatic control valve is a final control element designed to regulate the rate of
flow of fluid in a pipe by varying its cross-sectional area in response to a signal
received from a controller.
1.1.2 Description

The automatic control valve consists of two separate parts.
1. TOP WORKS OR DIAPHRAGM ACTUATOR
2. VALVE BODY
TOP WORKS OR DIAPHRAGM ACTUATOR
Converts the pressure output of the controller into a mechanical motion strong
enough to move the valve plug. Diaphragm actuator consists of:

Diaphragm case
Diaphragm
Metal diaphragm plate connected to an actuator stem
Actuator spring
Spring seat
Spring adjuster
Stem connector
Travel indicator scale
Cast iron yoke which fractures under sudden shock, preventing damage to the
valve stem
Yoke to body connection.
Diaphragm actuators used by GEOSERVICES operate in the range of 3 to 15 psi or 6
to 30 psi. The size of top works used depends on the size of the valve and the
working pressure (6 to 30 psi on 1440 psi separator).

Automatic control valves installed on GEOSERVICES are of the throttling type and
used with the proportional mode of control.
VALVE BODY
It is in the valve body that physical control of the fluid is achieved by means of varying
the cross-sectional area for flow available to the fluid.

The valve body consists of:
Pneumatic control valves

4 - 4
Body casting
Top flange with bonnet
Packing flange
Packing box or stuffing box
Stem
Valve plug
Seat ring
Cage
THROTTLING VALVE
The control mechanisms used for automatic control of the proportional type are
designed to produce a linear relationship between the change in controlled pressure,
or level, and the force applied to the automatic control valve to affect control.

They are also designed to produce a linear relationship between the rate of change of
the process variable and the rate of change of the valve-positioning force. If these two
relationships exist and there is also a linear relationship between the percentage of
total valve movement and the percentage of total flow resulting from any change in
valve position, the result will be a good control. Automatic control valves installed on
GEOSERVICES separators use an equal percentage flow characteristic.
SIZING OF CONTROL VALVE
The importance of correctly sizing automatic control valves is essential. From an
economic viewpoint, an undersized valve cannot do the job for which it is intended
and must be replaced. A valve that is too large costs more initially. As for operation,
an oversized valve provides poor control and can cause system instability. The most
expensive, sensitive and accurate controller is of little value if the automatic control
valve cannot correct the flow properly to maintain the desired set point within
acceptable table limits.

The basic theory of control valve sizing may be expressed - "The flow rate of the
process fluid is mathematically converted to an equivalent flow rate of a reference
fluid. Then a valve size is selected which is known by test to be capable of flowing
that equivalent quantity of the reference fluid at the process pressure condition
specified." For liquid flow, the reference fluid is water; for gas flow, the reference fluid
is air at standard conditions of temperature and pressure.

Manufacturers use a valve flow coefficient Cv to provide a comparatively simple
method of sizing, which is applicable to a wide variety of valve constructions, valve
sizes and field services.
VALVE CHARACTERISTIC
The valve flow coefficient or Valve Characteristic CV is the number of US gallons of
water per minute which will pass through a given flow restriction with a pressure drop
of 1 psi across the valve. For example, an automatic control valve which has a
maximum flow coefficient CV of 15 has an effective port area in the width open
position such as it passes 15 gallons per minute of water with a 1 psi pressure drop
Pneumatic control valves

5 - 5

across the valve. Basically it is a capacity index, which enable rapidly and accurately
to estimating the required valve size in any fluid system.

Inherent flow characteristic is the basic flow characteristic that is built into a given
valve and is only the parameter convenient for the manufacturers to publish.
Deviations from these characteristics should be expected in actual service when
changes in pressure drop and other conditions are encountered.

The term given to the characteristic obtained in service is "installed flow
characteristic". Many factors may affect this actual relationship between valve travel
and flow, with the result that the difference between inherent and installed
characteristic can become quite substantial and always must be considered in the
complete analysis of any control system.

Valve flow characteristics are produced in control valve from the physical design of
the valve plug itself, or from shaped openings in cage in which the valve plug guides.

A wide variety of valve-plug and cage constructions are available, many of which
exhibit the same overall flow characteristic.

Valve plugs for control valve bodies and cages for balanced single plug valve fall into
one of the following categories:

a) Equal percentage (used in GEOSERVICE separators)
b) Modified parabolic, linear
c) Quick opening.

These terms apply basically to the flow characteristic obtained when a particular style
of valve plug is installed. Valve plugs may be contoured, ported, or fluted to obtain the
desired characteristic.
EQUAL PERCENTAGE VALVE PLUGS
A valve plug that has an equal percentage flow characteristic is one in which equal
increments of travel will give equal percentage changes in existing flow.

The change in flow is always proportional to the flow rate existing just before the
change in valve plug position is made. When the valve plug is near its seat and the
flow is small, the change in flow will be small; with a large flow, the change in flow will
be large.
Generally, valve plugs with an equal percentage flow characteristic are used on
applications where a large percentage of the pressure drop is normally absorbed by
the system itself, with only a relatively small percentage available at the control valve.
Equal percentage valve plugs should also be considered for those applications where
highly varying pressure drop conditions could be expected.

GEOSERVICES separators are fitted with FISHER single ported automatic control
valve designs ED and ES valve bodies.
FISHER DIAPHRAGM ACTUATOR
Visual inspection of the diaphragm actuator will determine whether it is a direct or
reverse acting one.

Pneumatic control valves

6 - 6
In the direct acting type, the loading pressure is applied to the upper case section,
above the diaphragm.

In the reverse acting type, the loading pressure is applied to the lower case section,
below the diaphragm.
1.1.3 DIRECT ACTING TYPE 657 FISHER DIAPHRAGM ACTUATOR
DESCRIPTION (see figure 1)

The Fisher Type 657 is a direct acting, spring opposed diaphragm actuator that is
used for the operation of automatic control valves. The opening closing or throttling of
the valve plug in the body is accomplished by varying the automatic loading pressure
on the diaphragm. This loading pressure is transmitted from an

automatic controller which may be controlling pressure, liquid level, temperature or
flow. A typical Type 657 actuator is shown in figure 1.

In a direct acting diaphragm actuator, an increasing loading pressure causes the
actuator stem to move downward, compressing the spring. When the diaphragm
pressure is decreased, the spring moves the actuator stem upward. In the event of
failure of the loading pressure or the operating medium pressure to the automatic
controller, the actuator stem moves to the extreme upward position.
1.1.4 REVERSE ACTTNG TYPE 667 FISHER DIAPHRAGM ACTUATOR
DESCRIPTION (see figure 2)

The Fisher Type 667 is a reverse acting, spring opposed diaphragm actuator that is
used for the operation of automatic control valves. The opening, closing or throttling
of the valve plug in the body is accomplished by varying the pneumatic loading
pressure on the diaphragm. A typical Type 667 actuator is shown in figure 2.

In a reverse acting diaphragm actuator, an increasing loading pressure causes the
actuator stem to move upward compressing the spring. When the diaphragm
pressure is decreased, the spring moves the actuator stem downward.

In the event of failure of the loading pressure to the diaphragm of the actuator, the
actuator stem moves to the extreme downward position.
















Pneumatic control valves

7 - 7

FISHER DIAPHRAGM ACTUATOR
(Direct acting) Type 657








Fig. 1
Pneumatic control valves

8 - 8
FISHER DIAPHRAGM ACTUATOR
(Reverse acting) Type 667





Fig. 2
Pneumatic control valves

9 - 9

1.2 CALIBRATION (for normally open valve)
Calibration of Spring Adjusting Screw:
- Check that the spring adjusting screw is free
- Position the indicator disc against the zero of the control scale after coupling
actuator stem and valve plug stem
- Apply 3 PSI to the Top Works
- Screw the spring adjusting screw until disc return to zero. (The control stem
actuator should not begin to move for a pressure below 3.1 psi).
1.3 DESIGNS ED, EAD, ET, EAT
If a new stem is to be assembled in the valve plug, screw the valve plug until it wedges
tight at the end of the valve stem thread. Determine drill size from figure 3, locate the
pilot hole in the valve plug, and continue drilling the hole through the valve plug and
stem assembly. Drive in the groove pin to lock the assembly.

If the Design ED or EAD piston ring or the Design ET or EAT seal ring is visibly
damaged, remove it and replace with a new part. Be careful not to scratch the surfaces
of the ring groove in the valve plug, or the new ring may not seal properly. The Design
ET or EAT seal ring must be pried and/or cut from the groove, so it cannot be used
again.

Grinding of metal seats, if required, should be done before installing the piston or seal
ring.

For Design ED or EAD bodies using a carbon-filled TFE piston ring, spread the ring
apart slightly at the split and install it over the stem and into the groove in the valve
plug.

Graphite piston rings are furnished as a complete ring and must be broken into two
approximately equal portions. Hold the ring securely and strike it across the edge of a
table or bench. Be certain broken ends are re-matched when the piston ring is installed
in the valve plug groove.
For Design ET or EAT body, apply Molykote No 80 lubricant or equivalent to both back
up and seal rings.

Place the back-up ring over the stem and into the groove. Place the seal ring over the
top edge of the valve plug so that it enters the groove on one side of the valve plug.
Slowly and gently stretch the seal ring and work it over the top edge of the valve plug.
The TFE material in the seal ring must be permitted time to cold-flow during the
stretching procedure, so avoid jerking sharply on the seal. Stretching the seal over the
valve plug may make it seem unduly loose when in the groove, but it will contract to its
original size after insertion into the cage.

When putting the valve plug into the cage, make sure the piston or seal ring is evenly
engaged in the entrance chamfer at the top of the cage to avoid damaging the ring.

Mount the bonnet on the body.

Tighten the bonnet-to-body bolts to the recommended torque given in the following
table (follow accepted bolting practices and lubricate bolts.
Pneumatic control valves

10 - 10

Body Size
In.
Recommended Bolt
Torque, Ft-Lb
ED, EAD ET, EAT
1, 1-
1--2
2-
3
4
6
100
80
100
130
190
400
104
75
104
130
191
404

Proper tightening of the bonnet bolts accomplished two purposes:
a) The spiral wound gasket compresses enough to both load and seals the seat
ring gasket.
b) The outer portion of the top gasket compresses so that the bonnet-to body
joint forms a seal.
Note : Spiral wound gasket boltup characteristics are such that tightening of one bold may
loosen an adjacent bolt. This will occur on subsequent tightening of all the bolts until the
bonnet-to-body seal is made. This requires several trials on each bolt until the nut does not
turn at the given torque.
Mount the actuator on the bonnet and make up the stem connection according to
procedure.Always ask the rig mechanic for advice in any case when the Geoservices
operator has to disconnect any rig air or fluid.

Pneumatic control valves

11 - 11


SECTIONAL OF DESIGN "ED"





Fig.3
Pneumatic control valves

12 - 12
1.4 FISHER CONTROL VALVE BODIES
1.4.1 DESIGN "ED" CONTROL VALVE BODY

"Globe" style body with balanced valve plug and metal seat. (Globe is a term derived
from the globular shape of the body).

Several calibrated orifices on the valve plug allow the downstream pressure to act
simultaneously on both sides of the plug and ensure a good balance.

The valve plug (see figure 3) has a piston-ring upper seal and is designed for general
control applications.

It ensures a tolerance of leakage no greater than 0.5 % of maximum flow-rate.

The fluid action tends to close the valve.

The guided and balanced plug ensures a greater stability to the system and as a
result diaphragm actuator can be of a small size.

Flow direction for standard and cavitrol cages is, in through the cage openings and
out through the seat ring - Flow down.

Equal percentage cages equip GEOSERVICES valve bodies on separator oil and gas
outlets.

Note: There is an arrow on the Easy E valve body; the valve must be installed in piping with
the arrow indicating the direction of flow.
Pneumatic control valves

13 - 13

1.4.2 DESIGN "ES" CONTROL VALVE BODY
Design "ES" control valve body fits for all the general applications and covers a large
range of temperature and pressure drop. The standard seat is metallic but an
elastomer joint can be fitted.

Maximum input pressure is 1440 psi for steel material and up to 64 F.

Maximum pressure drop with a metallic seat is similar to the maximum input pressure
up to 64 F.

It ensures a tolerance of leakage no greater than 0.01 % of maximum flow rate. The
leak is virtually nil with an elastomer joint.

The "ES" type valve body is fitted with a microform " plug (equal percentage flow
characteristic) and is found on 1" oil outlet and 2" water outlet from the 1440 psi
separator. The " microform plug is guided by a cage and is only used for low flow
rates.

Flow direction: flow up.

The fluid action tends to open the valve hut the action is very slight and doesn't need
to be compensated by a larger diaphragm actuator.

Note: the arrow on the "ES" valve body must be installed in piping with the arrow indicating
the direction of flow.

Pneumatic control valves

14 - 14




NORMALLY OPEN - SINGLE PORTED AUTOMATIC CONTROL VALVE
(FISHER)
SEPARATOR GAS OUTLET

Pneumatic control valves

15 - 15



NORMALLY CLOSED - SINGLE PORTED AUTOMATIC CONTROL VALVE
(FISHER)
SEPARATOR OIL OUTLET


Pneumatic control valves

16 - 16



1.5 THE PLUG
The all or nothing shape is used for valves that must be fully open or fully closed,
without the possibility of adjustment. The parabolic and V port shapes enable the
passage section to be varied according to the rise of the plug. These forms are suitable
for the adjustment of the flow rate.
The set course for opening variation can be linear or exponential, in the case of a plug
called an "equal percentage" plug. On separators, "Linear Parabolic" or V port plugs
are nearly always used.
1.5.1 LINEAR PARABOLIC
For 20% valve travels provides 20% of maximum capacity.
1.5.2 V PORT PLUG
40% of valve movement will only result in a small flow change.
Pneumatic controller
1 - 1
SECTION 11
PNEUMATIC CONTROLLERS

Pneumatic controller
2 - 2
1.1 LEVEL MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLES
1.1.1 Introduction
We define the level as:
The height between the free surface of a liquid inside a vessel and a reference
point.
The height between the separation surface of two different liquids and a
reference point.
Level Measurement Principles


The measurement of liquid level is a fundamental one used in the automatic control
of continuous processes. It is frequently used in conjunction with other basic
measurements of temperature, pressure and flow for the control of processes in
chemical and petroleum industries.
Several principles of measurement are used in determining the level of liquids. The
type of instrument selected being governed by the nature of the liquid, the shape of
the vessel in which the liquid is contained, the pressure under which it is operating,
and the application.
To enable the various instruments used to quantify the measurement made, various
units are used: linear units such as feet for a direct measurement of depth or
pressure units such as psi for a pressure head.
1.1.2 Methods of level measurement
Level can be measured in a number of different ways.
The simplicity or complexity of the instrument used will depend largely on the
application of the measurement, whether it is an infrequent measurement made for
long term records control of a complex process.
The main types used can be grouped under the following classifications.
Visual Indicators
Float actuated instruments
Displacement type instruments
Pneumatic controller
3 - 3
1.1.2.1 Visual I ndicators

a. DIPSTICK
The simplest, probably the most common method of measuring level in an
open tank, is by means of a dipstick of gauge staff immersed in the liquid and
marked off in contents or depth over a datum line.
The dipstick although crude and simple is a very accurate method of level
measurement but cannot be used for automatic recording or controlling
purposes. It has many applications where a continuous indication is
unnecessary buy where regular readings can easily be taken.
b. SIGHT TUBE



The device is based on the communicating vessels principles. The two ends of
a glass tube are connected to the vessel in which the liquid level is to be
measured.
The tube is mounted on the side of the vessel in the vertical position.
The level in the tube is the same as that in the vessel.
The liquid in the tube can be seen and its height can be measured with a
graduated scale, which is placed behind the tube. The device is not convenient
for high pressure.
Pneumatic controller
4 - 4

c. SIGHT GLASS


With high pressures, a sight glass must replace the sight tube.
This device is made within a steel chamber.
Basically two models are available:
with front and back glass, allowing the passage of the light to give a
clear indication of the level (transparent sight glass)
with only one glass on one side of the chamber (refracting sight glass);
in this case the glass has generally longitudinal bevels on its inside to
easy the reading by refracting the light.
The thickness of the chamber and of the glass itself depends on the working
pressure and temperature.
Note: When using sight glasses, the liquid in the glass should be as clean as possible. the
number of glasses used depends on the range of the level variations. As the glass may
break, sight glass safety valves should always be used with sight glasses.
SIGHT GLASS SAFETY VALVE
This valve is made of a body and a valve stem with a bevelled shutter acting as
a tap. The stem of the valve has got a tip to push on the floating ball. The body
has an inlet connected to the vessel, and an outlet directly connected to the
sight glass. A handle enables positioning the stem inside the valve body.
In the position shown, the shutter is away from its seat letting the passage to
the sight glass open and the flow through the valve is only due to the level
variations: the ball is then kept by its weight down in its groove.
If the glass breaks, the flow increases very much and pushes the ball against its
seat, hence insulating the sight glass, which can safely be repaired.
To re-open the valve, the ball must be pushed back in its groove. This is
performed by turning the handle half way clockwise in order to push the ball
with the stem tip.
However, this new position of the stem is not safe, impeding the ball to seat
properly in case of a new failure. Hence the handle has to be returned to the
initial position by turning it completely counter-clockwise.

Pneumatic controller
5 - 5
1.1.2.2 Float actuated instruments

A class of level detectors is based on Archimede's principle. Archimede's principle
states that the weight of a floating object is equal to the weight of the water displaced
by the object. For an object to be in equilibrium, the upward force of buoyancy must
be equal the downward force of gravity (weight). Also, the centre of gravity and the
centre of the underwater volume (centre of buoyancy) must be vertically aligned.


When a rigid object is submerged in a fluid (completely or partially), there exits an
upward force on the object that is equal to the weight of the fluid that is displaced by
the object.
Explanation: When the object is removed, the volume that the object occupied will fill
with fluid. This volume of fluid must be supported by the pressure of the surrounding
liquid since a fluid can not support itself. When no object is present, the net upward
force on this volume of fluid must equal to its weight, i.e. the weight of the fluid
displaced. When the object is present, this same upward force will act on the object.
g V F
submerged fluid B
=
The net force on the object is given by,
obj B obj net
W F F =
,

g V g V F
obj obj sub f obj net
=
,

Note: When the density of the object is less than that of the fluid, the net force will be
upwards and the object will rise. A Helium filled balloon is a good example.
When an object is floating, the net force on it will be zero. This happens when the
volume of the object submerged displaces an amount of liquid whose weight is equal
to the weight of the object. A ship made of steel can float because it can displace
more water than it weighs.

Pneumatic controller
6 - 6
obj B
W F =

g V g V
obj obj sub f
=

f
obj
obj
sub
V
V

=

Thus the fraction of a floating object that is submerged stand in ratio to the density of
the object to the density of the fluid. For objects with a vertical wall around the outside
edge like a rectangle, we can reduce the above equation even farther,
f
obj
obj
sub
d A
d A

f
obj
obj
sub
d
d

=

Where A is the surface and d is the height of the object.

To measure the level, based on the archimedes principle, a hollow float is resting
freely on the liquid surface and is connected by a cord, chain or thin metallic tape
over a pulley to a counterbalance weight.

The float maintains a constant depth of immersion in a given liquid and rises and falls
with any change in the liquid level. In doing so, it drives a pulley, which operates an
indicating, recording or control mechanism to show the changes in level.
Turbulence in the liquid can be prevented from affecting the float by the addition of a
stilling well around it.
This device cannot be used for applications where the liquid is under pressure. Here,
some method of transferring the position of the float through the container wall is
needed.
Pneumatic controller
7 - 7
A caged float controller is used for pressurized applications.


A float and lever contained in a metallic cage, which is connected to the pressurized
vessel, follows any variations in level.
This movement is transmitted through the cage by a shaft rotating in a gland or
stuffing box to a counterbalance lever outside the cage. This outside lever can
operate a pneumatic controller or can be directly linked to a control valve regulating
the low of liquid into or out the vessel.
1.1.2.3 Displacement type instruments
The level detector, here, is a displacer usually produced for a cylinder with closed
ends which is pressure tight. The displacer is denser than the liquid and therefore
sinks in the liquid being measured.
The actual measurement made is the apparent weight of the displacer, which
decreases as the liquid level rises.
The loss in weight is equal to the weight of liquid displaced, which in turn is
governed by the volume of the displacer and the height of the fluid level relative to
the bottom of the displacer.
To exemplify this concept, a displacer of weight Wd and volume V is suspended to
a scale and balanced by a counter weight Wa.

The apparent weight is given by:
up
F Wd Wa =
Pneumatic controller
8 - 8
( ) ( ) g L A Wd g V Wd Wa
f f sub
= =
Where A is the area of the displacer and L is the height of the liquid relative to the
bottom of the displacer.
As a consequence the apparent weight is inversely proportional to the level. So, this
device can be used as a transducer with the level indicated by a force.
In practice, the scale is replaced by a dynomemetric system.
The apparent weight of the displacer is measured by a torsion spring known as a
torque tube assembly, which transforms the weight variations into an angular
movement of a torque tube shaft.
The angular movement can be used to drive a pneumatic or electronic transmitter or
controller, producing an indicating or controlling output signal in direct proportion to
the liquid level from the bottom of the displacer.
The principle of the torque tube is schematically given in the figure.


One end of the tube is fixed on a flange while the free end is connected to the
displacer arm, which is acting as a lever.
The apparent weight Wa of the displacer, applies to the tube a torque T:
l Wa T =

Where l is the length of the displacer arm.
( ) ( ) l g L A Wd l F Wd T
f up
= =

Where A is the area of the displacer and L is the height of the liquid relative to the
bottom of the displacer.

Pneumatic controller
9 - 9
As a consequence, the tube twists by the amount (for small valves of temperature) of:
K
T
=

Where K is the constant of torsion of the tube

The torque tube behaves like a spring where the force is replaced by the torque and
the linear displacement by the angular displacement.
Inside the tube, a rod is welded to the closed end of the torque tube and is free to
rotate at the other end.
This rod transmits the tube rotation out of the flanged end.
The system is therefore very well suited for a perfect sealing.

LIQUID GAS INTERFACE
From the previous relations, we get:
( )
K
l g L A Wd
f

=

So when the liquid level L builds up around the displacer, its apparent weight
decreases and, as a consequence, so does the angle a.
Obviously, if the level is below the bottom of the displacer or above its top, no further
change in the apparent weight takes place and therefore, no further indication of level
change is possible.
The total variation in level measurement is therefore, governed by the height of the
displacer.
If for the same torque tube, the height is increased, the section has to be decreased
consequently so as to keep the total volume of the displacer constant.
Note: The zero of the device is independent from the density of the liquid.
The total deflection depends on the length of the displacer and on the density of the liquid.
As the angular variation of the output is very small, an amplifier will be needed to give a
readable output signal.
The same device can be used to ensure liquid density, provided the displacer is all the time
completely immersed in the liquids.

LIQUID-LIQUID INTERFACE
Displacement units can be also used to measure the position of the interface
between two immiscible liquids having different specific gravities.
This is commonly down to measure the interface between oil and water in a
separator to allow the oil and water to be drawn off the vessel individually. In this
application, it is essential that the displacer is always submerged in liquid.
Pneumatic controller
10 - 10

1.2 PNEUMATIC CONTROLLERS
Pneumatic controllers are designed to detect a variation in the system to be controlled
and to transform this into a pressure impulse controlling the valve displacement to
correct the variation.
The system to be controlled can be a pressure or the level of a fluid.
The Bourdon Tube detects the pressure variation. The float meausures the level of
the fluid. These mechanisms act on a nozzle-flapper system.
1.2.1 Nozzle-flapper system
This system is supplied with air/gas under constant pressure controlled by a
FISHER 67 FR REGULATOR. The gas pressure acting on the valve is adjusted by
a restricted orifice A and a nozzle B, that can be more or less blocked by a flapper
P, pivoting on a fixed point O. The flapper is mechanically linked to the detection
mechanism (float or Bourdon Tube).
Orifice A is much smaller than nozzle B (about half its diameter) so that when the
flapper is away fro the nozzle, the gas is vented faster than the incoming flow and
no pressure builds up. When the flapper blocks nozzle B, the pressure can build up
in the system and be transmitted to the D.M.V. There is a risk that the valve reply
time would be unsuitable for the oil flow rate or the variation in pressure and so a
power relay is used to accelerate the nozzle-flapper system reply time.
Pneumatic controller
11 - 11

1.3 LIQUID LEVEL AND INTERFACE MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL
Fisher Level Trol (Type 2500 - 249 V)









Pneumatic controller
12 - 12



RIGHT HAND MOUNTED TYPE 2500
PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER


Pneumatic controller
13 - 13
1.3.1 Role
This equipment is designed to operate in conjunction with a normally closed
automatic control valve in controlling the liquid level in a continuously supplied
vessel.
1.3.2 Principle of design
The float-displacement-type level-measuring instrument is based on the apparent
change in weight of a body when it is placed in a liquid. According to Archimedes'
principle, a body placed in a liquid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of
the displaced liquid.
1.3.3 Description
It is composed of three basic elements:
A plunger
A torque tube
Regulation and supply equipment
PLUNGER
The plunger (volume 100 cu. ins., weight 4 3/4 lbs) is made of stainless steel.
TORQUE TUBE ASSEMBLY
the torque tube assembly consists of the rotary shaft and the torque tube itself. The
rotary shaft is usually made of steel but it can be Monel or Iconel. The rotary shaft
converts the Archimedes' upthrust into angular displacement of the flapper.
Note: since the torque tube-plunger assembly is fitted under tension with the torque tube
attempting to raise the plunger, the lower the liquid level, the greater the couple on the torque
tube.


REGULATION AND SUPPLY SYSTEM
This consists of six parts:
Pneumatic controller
14 - 14
a case (or pilot)
a flapper directly coupled to the rotary shaft
an amplifier relay
a proportional control valve
a liquid level set point may be adjusted over a graduated disc and which acts
directly on the position of the nozzle mounted on the end of a Bourdon tube.
(this set point allows the desired level of liquid to be selected in advance
providing that it lies between the top and the bottom of the plunger.)
two pressure gauges indicating the supply and outlet pressures of the controller.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The apparatus is provided with an air pilot supply at a pressure of 20 psi and an
outlet pressure is converted in the range between 3 to 15 psi.
DECREASE IN LEVEL
Decrease the level in the separator, the upthrust on the plunger decreases,
increasing the torque on the torque tube which thus rotates. The flapper which is
fixed to the rotary shaft, rotates away from the nozzle increasing the amount of air
vented to the atmosphere.
This causes a decrease in pressure in chamber 'L', which causes the diaphragm
assembly to move upward, opening the exhaust valve 'K' and allowing the pressure
in chamber 'N' to bleed out to atmosphere. The pressure in the D.M.V. valve
decreases, closing the valve and allowing the liquid level to rise until it reaches the
set point.
As shown schematically, the pressure from chamber 'N' goes to valve and to the
proportional band adjustment three-way valve 'G'. The orifice of this three-way
valve is adjustable so the amount of feed-back to the Bourdon Tube can be set to
the amount desired. So, at the same time, the pressure in the Bourdon Tube is
being decreased through the three-way valve, causing the nozzle to move closer and
build-up the pressure in the system. The unit is again i equilibrium with the level.
INCREASE IN LEVEL
When we have an increase in level, it means that we have an increase in pressure
output to open the valve. (The reverse action as mentioned above is taking place.)
THE PROPORTIONAL BAND
The proportional band of a liquid level may be defined as the number of inches of
level change necessary to stroke the control valve.
Pneumatic controller
15 - 15


SCHEMATIC ILLUSTRATION OF TYPE 2500-249 V FISHER LEVEL
CONTROLLER


Pneumatic controller
16 - 16
FLOAT AND FLOAT ROD ON RIGHT OF TORQUE TUBE
A. The rise in level makes the float rise. When the flapper moves away from the
nozzle, it causes a drop in output pressure applied on the control valve.
B. The rise in level makes the float rise. The flapper nearer the nozzle causes a
rise in output pressure.



FLOAT AND FLOAT ROD ON LEFT OF TORQUE TUBE
A. The rise in level makes the float rise. The flapper moves nearer the nozzle
causing a rise in output pressure applied on the control valve.
B. The rise in level makes the float rise. The flapper moves away from the nozzle
causing a drop in output pressure applied in the automatic valve.
Oil and water level on the separators used, are always controlled by normally
closed valves and regulators will have to be fitted for direct action. (Rising level _
Increase in output _ Valve opens.)


Pneumatic controller
17 - 17

1.4 LEVEL TROL FOR 600/720 PSI SEPARATOR
Model: 2500 - 249 v
Mounting: right hand
Action: direct acting
Supply pressure: 22 psi
Black bourdon tube
Output pressure range: 3 to 15 psi


Pneumatic controller
18 - 18

1.4.1 Calibration in the shop
Check that the supply pressure is 22 PSI.
Set proportional band adjustment on 100%.
With substitute weight WL (lowest level) in place on the displacer rod, adjust
the raise level dial to give 3 PSI output pressure.
Remove substitute weight WL and replace it with substitute weight WH
(highest level) on the displacer rod.
The output pressure should be 15 PSI. If not it can be adjusted by sliding the
level set arm i the elongated slot. This action changed the sensitivity of the
nozzle flapper system. Sliding the level set arm to the left increases the
sensitivity and increases the output span.
Remove weight WH and hang weight WL. Reset the output pressure to 3 PSI
by adjusting the raise level dial. Repeat the above steps (4 and 5) and
relocate the level set arm again until the required output pressure span is
obtained.
Set the raise level dial to 3.0 to 3.5 and the proportional band to 10%. With
substitute weight WL on the displacer rod observe the output pressure that
should be 3 PSI. If not, adjust the flapper clamp nut and alignment screw to
obtain the proper output pressure.
This adjustment will insure that any proportional band at any level may be set
without further flapper adjustment.
Note: If the Level Trol cannot be calibrated it is necessary to look for other troubles such as
non perpendicular flapper-nozzle condition, leaky connections, binding displacer rod,
damaged bourdon tube or even a torque tube sized for a different set of service conditions.

Pneumatic controller
19 - 19

1.5 LEVEL TROL FOR 1440 PSI SEPARATOR
Model 2500 - 249 v
Mounting right hand
Action direct acting
Supply pressure 36 psi
Red bourdon tube
Output pressure range: 6 to 30 psi (3 - 15 psi)
1.5.1 Calibration in the shop
Check that the supply pressure is 36 PSI (20 PSI if 3 - 15 PSI).
Set proportional band adjustment on 100%.
With substitute weight WL (lowest level) in place on the displacer rod, adjust
the raise level dial to give 6 PSI output pressure.
Remove substitute weight WL and replace it with substitute weight WH
(highest level) and the displacer rod.
The output pressure should be 30 PSI. If not it can ba adjusted by sliding the
level set arm in the elongated slot. This action changes the sensitivity of the
nozzle flapper system. Sliding the level set arm to the left increases the
sensitivity and increases the output span.
Remove weight WH and hang weight WL. Reset the output pressure to 6 PSI
by adjusting the raise level dial. Repeat the above steps (4 and 5) and
relocate the level set arm again until the required output pressure span is
obtained.
Set the raise level dial to 3.0 to 3.5 and the proportional band to 10%. With
substitute weight WL on the displacer rod observe the output pressure that
should be PSI. If not, adjust the flapper clamp nut and alignment screw to
obtain the proper output pressure.
This adjustment will insure that any proportional band at any level may be set
without further flapper adjustment.
Note: If the Level Trol cannot be calibrated it is necessary to look for other troubles such as
non perpendicular flapper-nozzle condition, leaky connections, binding displacer rod,
damaged bourdon tube or even a torque tube sized for a different set of service conditions.

Pneumatic controller
20 - 20

1.6 GEC-ELLIOTT CONTROL VALVES LIMITED TYPE 2900 LIQUID
LEVEL CONTROLLER
1.6.1 Introduction
Fisher combines economy and quality to provide a rugged liquid level controller for
oil production field processing systems. The displacement principle is used in the
detection of liquid level of specific gravity interface. The units are available as
either snap acting or proportional (throttling) with direct or reverse action.
1.6.2 Construction features
PILOTS
Type 2900
The Type 2900 internal pilot relay action is easily changed between snap
acting and throttling by inverting the switching block, marked with a "T" in
Figure 2 to the side marked "S" without additional parts.
Adjustment of the relay nozzle pressure is all that is required to calibrate the
Type 2900. Using the nozzle pressure gauge, the Type 2900 can be dry float
adjusted for accurate blind level operation.
The Type 2900 is resistant to operational vibration, especially wave motion
and compressor pulsation.
The liquid level controller was designed with rugged service demands in
mind. The pilot assembly is completely enclosed in a sturdy case with gauge
windows for both "Supply" and "Output" pressure gauges. Double
connections are also provided for piping convenience.
The Type 2900 is easily converted from direct to reverse acting by rotating
the controller 180 on the sensor assembly or by rotating the entire unit 180
on the vessel. Conversion can also be accomplished by changing from a 2900
nozzle to a 2901 style or vise versa. See Figure 3.
Type 2901
The Type 2901 pilot was designed for snap action on gas applications where supply
gas must be conserved. This pilot incorporates a small, 3-way valve in the nozzle
to provide intermittent bleed only. All other construction is the same as the Type
2900.
CONTROL SENSORS
Type 244V
The sensor consists of a K-monel flexure tube secured to a carbon steel mounting
hub. The flexure tube assembly is fabricated to provide a hermetic seal. Therefore
it has no packing box and needs no lubrication or packing maintenance. The
control sensor has a maximum working temperature of 140F with the standard
plastic displace.
Type 279V
The Type 279V is basically a Type 244V as shown in Figure 4 with a shorter
flexure tube assembly for smaller I.D. vessels.
Type 279VBU
The Type 279VBU is an external cage mounted unit incorporating the short flexure
tube.
DISPLACERS
Pneumatic controller
21 - 21
Displacers are available in solid plastic (6000 psig max. working pressure) or
optional 304 SST (1440 psig max. working pressure) for either horizontal or
vertical mounting.
Type Hub.Size Displacer Size Material
(inch) (inch) Plastic 304 SST
2 1-7/8 X 12 X X
244 V

3 & 4
1-7/8 x 12
2-3/4 x 8
X
X
x
X
279 V 2 1-7/8 x 9 X ...
279 VBU 2 1-7/8 X 9 X ...
X-available. Special displacers can be provided on request.



Principle of operation:
Direct Acting
Increasing process level gives an increasing controller output
Reverse Acting
Decreasing process level gives an increasing controller output
PROPORTIONAL CONTROL



Pneumatic controller
22 - 22
DIRECT ACTING
Supply pressure of 20 to 50 psig is supplied to chamber "A". On rising level,
disc "B" moves to restrict nozzle opening "C" and pressure builds on
diaphragm "E". When the force on diaphragm "E" is great enough to
overcome the force of the relay springs, the diaphragm assembly moves toward
the inner valve "H" closing exhaust port "G". Both exhaust "G" and supply "F"
are now closed. As the diaphragm assembly continues to move, supply port
"F" opens to pressurize chamber "J" and the control valve. Diaphragm "K" is
now pressurized with a force opposite of diaphragm "E". Since chambers "L"
and "M" are vented to atmosphere there is no influencing force on diaphragm
"N". Diaphragms "K" and "E" seeking an equilibrium, enable proportional
control. As the process level drops, disc "B" moves away from nozzle "C".
The force across diaphragm "K plus the force of the relay spring is now greater
than the force on diaphragm "E", the diaphragm assembly moves down,
closing supply port "F". As the pressure on diaphragm "E" continues to
decrease, exhaust port "G" opens and allows the pressure on the control valve
diaphragm to bleed to atmosphere.
REVERSE ACTING
For reverse acting proportional control, the principle of operation remains the
same but the controller assembly is mounted on top of the flexure tube
assembly. This enables an increasing signal to the control valve diaphragm on
decreasing liquid level.
SNAP-ACTING CONTROL

DIRECT ACTING
With increased level, nozzle "C" is open and 20 to 50 psig supply pressure is in
chambers "L" and "J" ad loading the control valve. The pressures on
diaphragm "K" are opposite and equal. The pressure on diaphragm "N" is
upward because chamber "M" is vented to atmosphere.
As the liquid level decreases, disc "B" will cover nozzle "C". This causes
pressure to build up on diaphragm "E" overcoming the relay spring and the
opposite force on diaphragm "N". The increased pressure on diaphragm "E"
closes supply port "G" and opens exhaust port "F". Chamber "J" and the
control valve loading pressure are vented to atmosphere. With chamber "J"
Pneumatic controller
23 - 23
vented to atmosphere, the forces in chamber "L" on diaphragms "N" and "K"
are opposite and equal. The relatively unopposed force o diaphragm "E" now
causes the pilot to snap closed.
As the liquid level increases, disc "B" will uncover nozzle "C". This bleeds the
pressure from diaphragm "E". The relay sprig close exhaust port "F" and open
supply port "G". chamber "J" is pressurized and the forces on diaphragm "K"
are neutralized again. The unopposed pressure on diaphragm "N" causes the
pilot to snap open.
REVERSE ACTING
For revere snap-acting control, the principle of operation remains the same but
the controller assembly is mounted below the flexure tube assembly. This
ensures an increasing signal to the control valve diaphragm on decreasing
liquid level.
Pneumatic controller
24 - 24

1.7 FISHER CONTROL VALVE ASSEMBLY TYPE 4150
Let us assume that a pressure drop occurs in the separator. The Bourdon Tube
contracts and brings the flapper towards the nozzle. The nozzle will be partially
blocked and pressure will build up in chamber 'H' of the FISHER relay due tot he
constant air supply through restriction 'F'. The pressure build-up pushes diaphragm
'G' upwards, opening relay valve 'K' and allowing the inlet pressure to flow to the
automatic valve through chamber 'J'.
The pressure in chamber 'J' builds up, tending to push the diaphragm down and close
relay valve 'K'. The pressure in chamber 'J' is transmitted to the D.M.V. and the
valve throttles closer to its seat. The diaphragm ratio between 'H' and 'J' is 3 : 1.
At the same time, the pressure that is relayed to the valve is relayed to a bellows
chamber 'E', which pushes the flapper away fro the nozzle and allows air to vent
from nozzle 'D', stopping the pressure build-up in chamber 'H'. The pressure relayed
to bellows chamber 'E' is adjusted by a three-way valve, called the Proportional Band
Valve.
By this, we can see that a number of cause ad effect situations are happening
simultaneously, some to increase the pressure to the D.M.V., and some to decrease it.
If the pressure in the separator rises, the flapper moves away from the nozzle,
venting pressure in chamber 'H', thus causing the pressure in chamber 'J' (and the
pressure in the D.M.V. to bleed to atmosphere via the small valve 'L'. The loss of
pressure in chamber 'J' is also transmitted to bellows 'E', causing the flapper to move
closer to the nozzle.
Note: Although output from the relay valve may vary from 0 - 20 psi, and the 3 - 15 psi range
is useful because it is within this range that the D.M.V. valve works i.e. at 3 psi on the gas
D.M.V., the valve is fully open and at 15 psi the valve is fully closed. Therefore, the wizard is
calibrated to give 3 psi output at 100% of the Bourdon Tube range and 15 psi at 0% of the
Bourdon Tube range.
As shown schematically, the output pressure from relay chamber 'J' goes to the control valve
diaphragm and also the proportional band three-way valve 'M'. The orifice in this valve can
be set to the amount of feed-back desired to proportional bellows 'E'. When valve 'M' is fully
open, all the diaphragm pressure is transmitted to bellows 'E'. Beam moves away from
nozzle 'D', stopping the pressure build-up in relay chamber 'H'. This produces 100%
proportional band based on the rating of the Bourdon Tube.
PROPORTIONAL BAND
This is the percentage of the controlled pressure variation, in relation to the capacity
of the Bourdon Tube, capable of causing the complete stroke of the valve.
This pressure variation is independent of the controller's set point pressure.
Example:
A wizard is equipped with 1000 psi Bourdon Tube. The set point is at 400 psi,
Proportional Band 10%. The valve plug will stroke completely for a pressure
change of:
psi 100
100
10
1000 = x
Pneumatic controller
25 - 25
So the valve will stroke completely between 350 psi and 450 psi.


DIAGRAM OF FISHER RELAY






Pneumatic controller
26 - 26
FISHER TYPE 4150 WITH PROPORTIONAL ACTION




PROPORTIONAL BAND ADJUSTMENT, SUB-ASSEMBLY
Pneumatic controller
27 - 27
1.7.1 Pressure controller fisher wizard ii (type 4150)
CALIBRATION
Material required
200 psi pilot air supply
Dead Weight Tester
Precision pressure gauge (preferably a mercury column)
ADJUSTMENT OF PRESSURE RANGE
Adjust proportional band to 100% (10). In this position, application of 100%
Bourdon Tube nominal pressure should move the valve from fully closed to
fully open.
Adjust set point to give an output of 15 PSI with no pressure applied to the
Bourdon Tube.
Apply 100% nominal pressure to the Bourdon Tube when the output should
fall to 3 psi. If it does not, adjust the nozzle block to left or right to obtain 3
psi.
Adjust until, for a fixed point, application of 100% nominal pressure will give
a range of 3 - 15 psi.
ADJUSTMENT OF SET POINT
Adjust proportional band to 10% to give sensitive control.
Adjust set point to 50% of scale.
Apply 50% of nominal pressure to the Bourdon Tube.
Adjust the height of the nozzle to give an output of 9 psi.
Note: Do not raise the nozzle more than 0.07" because the Allen screw will cut the "O" ring
seal.
Once the calibration is complete, check that:
with the set point just above zero and no pressure on the Bourdon Tube, the
output is 3 psi (or less).
with the set point just below 100% nominal pressure on the Bourdon Tube, the
output is 15 psi (or more).
PROPORTIONAL BAND TEST
From the definition of proportional band, application of 25% of nominal pressure to
the Bourdon Tube, with the proportional band at 25%, should give 3 - 15 PSI
change in the output pressure.
Adjust to 25% proportional band
Adjust set point to give 15 PSI output
Apply 25% nominal pressure to Bourdon Tube
Output should be 3 PSI or less.
Maintain 25% proportional band
Adjust set point to give 15 PSI output
Apply 50% nominal pressure to Bourdon Tube
Output should be 3 PSI or less.
Pneumatic controller
28 - 28
Increase to 75% nominal pressure, adjusting as above and check for 3 PSI or
less.
Adjust as above, apply 100% nominal pressure and check for 3 PSI or less.
TESTING BELLOWS ALIGNMENT
Put proportional band close to zero, with no pressure on the Bourdon Tube
Adjust set point to give 9 PSI output
Mark position of set point on scale
Apply 100% nominal pressure to Bourdon Tube
Adjust set point to give 9 PSI output
Mark the position of the set point on the scale
The two marks should be at approximately the same distance from the 50% line.
If this is not so, it is necessary to change the bellows which may have been
subjected to excess pressure or other cause of damage.
Note: If the nozzle is positioned for direct action, then read 15 PSI for 3 PSI and vice versa.
FIELD REGULATION
Ensure that the valve supply pressure to the Bourdon Tube is fully open.
Ensure that the supply pressure is set at 20 PSI.
Adjust proportional band setting to 10% for safety.
Adjust set point to give 15 PSI output to close the valve.
Check for correct operation of the controller by moving the Bourdon Tube
manually. A small deflection should give a large alteration in output pressure.
Adjust proportional band to a value giving minimum pumping and alteration
in differential pressure for a relatively constant static pressure.
Pneumatic controller
29 - 29

MAINTENANCE
Two important points:
Draining the pressure reducer filter bowl occasionally to prevent liquid
interfering with controller operations. A small drain valve is fitted for this
purpose.
Clean the restrictor orifice occasionally by pressing the pin to allow free
passage of pilot air through the relay orifice.
OPERATING INCIDENTS
Failure to obtain complete pressure range to the control valve:
Ensure that the output pressure gauge reads correctly
Check for faults in the lines and unions.
Pressure pulsations on the output pressure or cycling:
The proportional band being set too low can produce cycling at the outlet of a
controller.
Check that the valve is not blocked or seized by a foreign body (hydrates etc.)
If the valve plug operates too close to the seat, the valve is probably over-
sized.
FAULTS
Linkage broken between Bourdon Tube and flapper.
Ruptured relay diaphragms.
Pneumatic controller
30 - 30


FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAM OF A CONTROL VALVE ASSEMBLY






Pneumatic controller
31 - 31
DIAPHRAGM ASSEMBLY (Standard Temperature only)


Oil volume

1 - 1

SECTION 12
OIL VOLUME (TANKS AND METERS)
Oil volume

2 - 2

1.1 TANKS
Tanks come in two varieties.
1. Atmospheric gauge tanks
2. Pressurised surge tanks.
The tank on a test, serves one of three purposes:
1. To calibrate the meters on the separator
2. To measure oil flow rate when the flow rate is less than the minimum
for the meters on the separators.
3. To measure the shrinkage/meter factor combined.
Why two types of tank?
1.1.1 Gauge tank
The gauge tank operates at atmospheric pressure. It normally has two
compartments of 50 bbls each, with hatches and vents on the roof. There are two
compartments so that when the tank is being used for flow calculation, the
measurement of flow rate does not have to stop while the tank is being emptied.
(One compartment is emptied while the other is used for measurement.)
The tank is fitted with sightglasses so that the level can be read without the
necessity of dipping the tank. The tanks are normally rectangular and have a
calibration coefficient marked on a plate.
Advantages: Simple design, can be dipped if sightglasses are plugged, or if
you have oil and water in tank. Relatively cheap.
Disadvantages: Cannot be used with H
2
S. Cannot accept any pressure inside.
Safety: As mentioned above they should never be used in the presence
of H
2
S. (Even if the material is stamped as being H
2
S.)
The vent lines on the roof are fitted with flame arresters. The
vent hoses should be run to a safe area. (Overboard on an
offshore job.)
It should be noted that in certain areas atmospheric gauge
tanks are forbidden offshore.
There is a connection on the roof that allows connection to a
foam supply.
Never, never pressurize a gauge tank, they have been known
to explode. There is a weak point in the roof that will normally
give first in the case of over-pressure.
Never flow the well directly into a gauge tank without passing
through the separator. (Clean up) If a client insists, maintain a
small choke and have someone on the oil manifold at all times.
Oil volume

3 - 3

1.1.2 Surge tank
The surge tank is normally a vertical, 100 bbl single compartment tank that can
operate up to 50 psi. This makes it ideal for work with H
2
S. the gas line is taken
along the boom, or to the pit with the separator gas line.
The tank is fitted with a graduated sightglass so that volumes can be measured.
The tank is also fitted with a safety valve and rupture disc.
Advantages: Pressurised, for use with H2S, possible to measure GOR2 if an
orifice meter and control valve are fitted on gas outlet line. This
tank can be used for measuring clean up returns, because it is
a pressurised vessel.
Disadvantages: Cost, only single compartment. Unable to dip tank.

Oil volume

4 - 4

THE 35 BBL/100 BBL Surge Tank



Oil volume

5 - 5

Safety Check the validity of the official test documentation of the surge
tank
Check the setting of the safety valve before starting operations
Check the condition of the rupture disc.
Tanks must be earthed and the resistance value checked.
(minimum section of 1 cm
2
cable )
Ensure an unrestricted flow from the vessel is available before
flowing in. Empty all liquids before flowing in and be beware of
any residual H2S.
Any residual liquid or gas must be evacuated with steam before
working inside a tank or any welding job on the equipment.
Flushing with water is NOT sufficient.
Breathing apparatus is mandatory when entering or working
inside a tank.
Empty tanks and vessels prior to transportation or lifting.
The flow rate should always be limited so as not to fill the tank
too rapidly, 30 min. filling time is a reasonable figure, it
corresponds to 3800 bbl per day or 160 bbl / hr. for the 100
bbl surge tank. Never fill the tank above 80 % of it's capacity.
A flowrate of 1350 bbl per day is the maximum for the 35 bbl
surge tank.
In case of the calibration of a 3" vortex flow meter the flow rate
has to be increased to 5000 bbl / day, but the flowing time has
to be reduced accordingly, in all cases someone should be on
standby near the tank to divert the flow from the tank if
necessary.
A surge tank must be used whenever H2S is expected or
suspected during a test.
A wizard press. controller acts on an normally open automatic
control valve and regulates the pressure inside the surge tank ,
the gas is evacuated to the flare line. This valve closes
whenever the pressure is below 40 psi. if the wizard is set
correctly, the valve will be fully open if the pressure inside the
tank exceeds 70 psi.
The liquid level is adjusted manually so constant supervision is
still required, HI - LO pilots are installed to indicate if the level
is above or below pre-set limits.
A safety valve and a rupture disc on top of the surge tank can
prevent the bursting of the tank due to excess pressure.
Never tie the surge tank gas line into the separator gas outlet.
Never fill the tank beyond 80% of its capacity.
Ensure the tank and flare knock-out drum is grounded.
Offshore an earth strap bolted to the deck. On land, an earth
stake driven into the ground. In dry climates water the earth
stake daily!. Earth straps should have a .cross sectional area of
at least 1 cm2
Oil volume

6 - 6

Check the operation of the Hi-Lo level alarms.
Lifting or transportation of the equipment shall only be
performed with the tank empty. operational position is vertical,
transport position horizontal. The tank and flare knock-out drum
should only be lifted by the lifting eyes set in the frame.
Pipe the drain from the flare knock-out drum to the flare pit.
Technical data
Specifications SURGE TANK
100BBLS
SURGE TANK
35 BBLS
Capacity 16 M3 5.6 M3
Dimensions overall 7.800mm X
2.380mm X
2.700mm
6.600mm X
2.380mm X
2.700mm
Dimensions vessel 5.800mm X 1.300m

4.000mm X
2.000mm
Working Pressure 70 PSI
(4.8 bars)
70 PSI
(4.8 bars)
Working
Temperature
-29 to + 40 Deg C - 29 to + 40 Deg C
CONNECTIONS
Inlet 3" Fig 206 Female 3"Fig 206 Female
Outlet gas 3" Fig 206 Male 3"Fig 206 Male
Outlet oil 3" Fig 206 Male 3"Fig 206 Male
Safety valve line Piped into gas
outlet line
Piped into gas outlet
line
Drain Piped into oil outlet
line
Piped into oil outlet
line


1.1.2.1 Operation of the Surge Tank
1. The tank is used to calibrate oil meters, or measure oil flow on wells, which
have a flowrate less than the minimum rate for the flowmeters of the
separator.
2. To this end, a tank calibration is marked on a plate on the side of the vessel.
3. The tank is fitted with graduated sight glasses so that volumes can be
measured.
4. Flowrates should be limited, so as not to fill the tank to rapidly. A filling time
of 30 minutes is normal. there should always be an operator in close
proximity to the tank while it is filling.
5. When calibrating flow meters setting an initial liquid level just above the
manhole is recommended, as the manhole can give significant errors in
volume calculations.
Oil volume

7 - 7

6. Check operation of the HI - Lo level alarms before starting test. To start from
a completely empty tank, the Lo-Level alarm has to be bypassed until the
liquid level is above the Lo - Level sensor.
7. The filling and emptying of the tank must be supervised at all times.
8. The pressure in the tank is insufficient for burning to a burner. The transfer
pump must be used to empty the tank.
Note : When using tank for meter calibration ensure "O" level is above manhole cover.
(Manhole can give significant error). Check date and condition of rupture disc. Ensure the
gas outlet line goes to pit or along to end of burner boom.



Oil volume

8 - 8

1.2 SHRINKAGE TESTER
The shrinkage factor can be calculated in a laboratory, but it is simple to find it by
means of an instrument called the shrinkage tester that is connected to the
separator.
1.2.1 Principle
It is a calibrated container into which oil can be admitted under the same
conditions as the separator.
The oil is then slowly decompressed and the shrinkage value can be read off
directly, expression %, form a graduated scale.

Oil volume

9 - 9

1.2.2 Shrinkage tester operations
Refer to below Shrinkage tester diagram


Oil volume

10 - 10

Before starting shrinkage measurement, flush the sight glass 3 times to bring
fresh oil into the sight glass. (In the case where the shrinkage tester is connected
to sight glass. On some separators the shrinkage tester is tied into the oil line)
a. Check that all valves are closed.
b. Open valves V1, 2 and 9 and thereby pressurize the tester.
c. Close V9 and open V12 to sweep the separator of any gas from previous
measurement.
d. Close V12. Repeat steps b and c 3 times.
e. Open V9 again and pressurise tester. Open valves V5, 7 and V11 and thereby
slowly begin to fill tester.
f. When the level reaches the bottom of the tester sight glass close V11 and V9
open V12 and flush the tester contents to a bucket. This flushes the lines and
tester with fresh oil.
g. Open V9 again, then open V11 and slowly begin to fill the tester.
h. When the level reaches the "O" mark on the tester, close valve V11 and V7.
Close also V2 and V9.
i. If level is above "O" mark, proceed as follows: Very gently open V12 and
VERY SLOWLY drop level. At "O" mark close V12. Monitor tester pressure,
ensure it comes back to separator pressure. Leave 2-3 minutes to stabilize.
j. If level is below "O" mark (Separator level low), proceed as follows: Open V7
and V11, then open VERY SLOWLY V10, level will be "pulled up" very
Monitor tester pressure, ensure it comes back to separator pressure. Leave
2-3 minutes to stabilize.
k. At this point all valves on the shrinkage tester should be closed. (Including V2
V7 on sight glass.)
l. Open VERY SLIGHTLY valve V10 to allow the sample to slowly degas. The
nozzle, which makes it easier to control the rate of degassing.
m. The level in the tester will fall, after decompression is complete (+/- 1-2 hours)
the shrinkage value can be read of the scale, directly in percent. The final
temperature shall also be read, this temperature shall be used to
calculate the "K" (VCF) factor. (Volume reduction)
1.3 OIL FLOW RATE MEASUREMENT (FLOCO METER)
Oil flow rate coming from separators can generally be measured by gauging the
reception tank or flowing the oil through a positive flow meter.
1.3.1 Gauging the reception tank (stock tank)
The producer is only interested in the amount of stock tank oil the well is
producing i.e. degassed oil at 60F and 14.73 psi. This is a very accurate method
of measurement. If the oil has passed through a separator, only the tank
temperature will need to be taken into account (BSW and shrinkage will not be
factors)
1.3.2 Positive flow meter
Generally most positiv Floco meter. Some correction factors have to be included in
the oil flow calculations for:
amount of volume reduction due to gas entrained in the oil (shrinkage).
amount of volume reduction due to water and solids in the oil (BSW).
Oil volume

11 - 11

temperature of the oil. An increase above 60F of the oil increases the
apparent flow rate.
the oil in the separator is under pressure and the apparent oil flow rate is
greater.
Oil volume

12 - 12

1.3.3 Floco Flowmeter
DESCRIPTION
Type : F 2500-2
Service : H
2
S - 720 PSI WP
Liquid meter dia. : 2" (3")
Ends : flange ASA 300 LBS RF
Flow rate : 3 - 60 GPM (90)
Non reset register - 7 wheel totalizer readout in U.S. barrels No. 3059
Overall length face-to-face : 304,8 mm
Oil volume

13 - 13

LAYOUT

Oil volume

14 - 14


N DESCRIPTION
1 Body bolt,
3/8
- 24 x 1
1/4
Soc.Hd
2 Washer,
3/8
Flat
3 Nut, blind
4 O-ring, bearing seal
6 Nut, bearing
7 Sideplate, register-side, plain-side
8 Wearplate
9 Rotor bearing
10 Hinge Pin, Rotor
11 Rotor Hinge Assembly
12 Spring
13 Spring grommet
14 Hub Assembly
15 Wedge
16 O-ring, body seal
17 Liner
18 Meter Body
19 Dowel pin
20 Bridge Seal (set of two)
21 Bridge
22 Drive Screw
23 Nameplate
24 Bridge screw,
5/16
-18 x
7/8
Soc.Hd
25 Bridge screw washer
26 Bushing, O-ring
27 Drive pin
28 Drive coupling and shaft assembly
29 Magnet, drive
30 E-ring
31 Housing, bearing assembly
32 O-ring, Buna-N
33 Magnet, driven, assembly
34 Drive pin
35 Worm
36 Screw, 10-32 x
1/2

37 Register adapter assembly
38 Worm gear assembly
39 Calibration gear, drive (See Section 5.2)
40 Calibration gear, driven (see Section 5.2)
41 Register assembly
42 Not Required
43 Register gasket
44 Gasket, Seal
45 Glass Register
46 Retainer, Register Glass
47 Register Box Assembly (includes Items 43, 44, 45, 48 & 49)
48 Lid, Register, Housing
49 Pin Register Lid

Oil volume

15 - 15

CALIBRATION GEAR CHART


Oil volume

16 - 16

1.3.4 Ball Vortex Liquid Meters (Rotron) (Oilgear)
PRINCIPLE
The liquid flowing through the meter creates a VORTEX in an offset chamber.
The VORTEX rotational velocity is proportional to the flowrate and is measured
directly on a readout meter which is driven by the rotor through a magnetic
coupling.

ACCURACY
Factory Calibration 0.5% of reading
Repeatability 0.2% of reading
BALL BEARINGS SLEEVE BEARINGS
RANGE
2" - 850 to 6850 bbls/d 700 to 8500 bbls/d
3" - 2050 to 17000 bbls/d 3400 to 22000 bbls/d

Oil volume

17 - 17

CONSTRUCTION
Roots Vortex Series P liquid meters are manufactured in five pipe sizes - 1", 2",
3", 4" and 6" - and in a variety of materials and bearings types. They are intended
for handling clear liquids at flow rates, pressures and temperatures within their
nameplate ratings.
The construction of a Roots Vortex meter is described by its model number. The
diagram on the following page explains the Model Number system.
MAINTENANCE
Meter application will govern the frequency at which maintenance is required.
Periodic inspection is recommended as preventative maintenance.
INSPECTION
A recommended inspection check list should include at least the following items:
Check externally for leaks.
Check for obstruction to flow by foreign objects.
Remove the cover and inspect the rotor assembly for worn or damaged parts.
Particular attention should be given to the bearings.
Remove the readout and check for proper operation

THE BALL VORTEX METER PRINCIPLE



Oil volume

18 - 18

INSTALLATION DIAGRAM


OILGEAR TYPE PV LIQUID METER CORRECTLY INSTALLED


Line drawing illustrating the correct flow direction when facing the read-out hub-top
view. The letter A or B will be found on the meter code (register)
Oil volume

19 - 19

REPAIR
Before attempting disassembly, depressurize and drain the line. It is not
necessary to remove the meter from the line for normal repairs.
CALIBRATION
Each Ball Vortex liquid meter is calibrated at the factory and the calibration plug
cover is sealed. Factory calibration is accomplished using well designed, carefully
maintained proving equipment. Meter inaccuracy after installation is frequently the
result of improper installation or faulty standards of comparison.
If meter registration is suspect, first check the installation to be sure all
requirements are met. When using a gravimetric proving system, specific gravity
and temperature must be carefully considered in computing the volumetric
equivalent of the weight of the liquid used for testing.
For field proving the recommended flow standard is a large volumetric calibrated
tank or pipeline type ball piston prover.
In Production testing the volumetric tank method is exclusively used for meter
calibration.
Errors found after proving are accounted for in the arithmetical calculations of oil
volumes, by introducing a correction factor. The calibration plug is NEVER
adjusted in the field.
The proving tank should be equal to at least the amount passed by the meter in
one minute at its maximum rate.
If meter registration is found to be low, check first for a damaged rotor or worn or
damaged bearings, before attempting any adjustment.
If meter registration is found to be high, check for upstream obstructions which
could result in increased liquid velocity, or an obstruction under the septum which
will cause over registration.
Liquid flowing at or near it's vapour pressure, may flash and cause over
registration as will entrained gas.
If the meter does not register, check for proper installation of the readout device. If
properly installed, check the readout for proper operation by removing and turning
by hand.
LUBRICATION
The bearings of the Roots Vortex meter are lubricated by the liquid being metered.
However, if the meter is handling contaminated liquids or solutions which tend to
precipitate solids, it is advisable to periodically flush the meter with clean liquid or
water. Flushing is particularly important if the meter will stand idle while filled with
solutions which can precipitate solids.
Remove the readout by loosening the three set screws and twisting the readout as
it is pulled off the mounting ring. Remove the cover screws and then remove the
readout side cover by pulling straight away from the meter. Protect the rotor
during this step.
The rotor assembly may come out when the cover is removed. If it remains, it
should be removed by gently pulling on it while taking precautions to prevent
damage.
Oil volume

20 - 20

If it is necessary to replace the bearings or the magnet assembly, it is
recommended that a fixture similar to that shown below be used to prevent
bending the rotor shaft when driving the old pins out of the new ones in.
Replace all "O" rings once they have been removed. Reassemble the meter
following the reverse procedures and clean all parts before reinstalling them.
Particular care should be taken to clean the blind side bearing cavity. Apply a
suitable "O" ring lubricant to all "O" rings before installation. tighten the cover
screws to between 15 and 20 ft - lb torque.
For units with tungsten carbide bearings, carefully seat the lightly lubricated "O"
ring on the bushing collar and true in its groove, insert the collar and "O" ring into
the retainer until fully seated against the "O" ring positioning stop.
The blind end collar and "O" ring must be installed while removed from the rotor
assembly. The magnet end collar and "O" ring may be inserted into the cover and
diaphragm with the rotor assembly as the "seating tool".
The final step is to insert the rotor and cover combination into the meter body,
carefully guiding the back carbide sleeve bearing into the carbide bushing and
collar, without unseating either the blind end "O" ring or the magnet end "O" ring
from their fully seated positions.
Refer to the proper parts list for rotor assembly part numbers and for correct
location of the parts making up the rotor assembly.
Oil volume

21 - 21

RANGE OF 2" FLOCO AND 3" ROTRON METERS FITTED ON THE
SEPARATOR OIL OUTLET
2" FLOCO 2" ROTRON 3" ROTRON
{100 - 2200 BPD {850 - 8500 BPD {2200 - 22000 DPC
{3-64 GPM {25-250 GPM {64-642 GPM
Metering problems on a separator have led us to recognise the "gap" which exists
between the 3" Rotron and 2" meter.
The lower range of the 3" Rotron is 100 gpm (3400 BPD) and the upper range of
the Floco is 60 gpm (2060 BPD).
Originally, we were using ball bearing Rotron with a lower limit of 60 gpm and
there was no metering gap. When it was found that the ball bearings were giving
a lot of trouble, the type of Rotron was changed to the sleeve bearing type, with
the higher lower range.
The manufacturer was contacted at that time and we were given assurance that
this type of meter would keep an accuracy of 2% even below its lower theoretical
limit.
Controls made with two independent laboratories have shown that this is simply
untrue. Below 100 gpm, the accuracy of the Rotron drops sharply and errors up to
12% can be expected near 60 gpm.
On the contrary the Floco meter, used above its upper limit of 60 gpm shows an
excellent behaviour, with errors within the 1.5% limit, and this up to 100 gpm.
Consequently, when a flow rate has to be measured in the measuring gap,
between 60 and 100 gpm, the measurement must be done not with the Rotron but
with the Floco. The latter can take an over speed for several hours without being
destroyed.
Oil volume

22 - 22



Oil volume

23 - 23

1.4 OIL READINGS AND CALCULATIONS
The computation of the oil flow rate from the separator is one of the fundamental
functions to be performed during a well test. The oil rate is calculated using either
the FLOCO or the ROTRON. The meter which will be utilised, depends entirely on
the flowrate. The following are the flowrate ranges for the 2" floco and the 3" rotron.
FLOCO Range 200 - 2200 bbls/day
ROTRON Range 3400 - 22000 bbls/day (Sleeve type bearing)
It can be seen that the two ranges do not overlap. These are however, the official
manufacturers ranges, experience has shown that the 2" floco will operate up to
3500 bbls/day. It is far preferable to use the floco somewhat above its stated range,
than to use the rotron below its range. (The accuracy of the rotron below 3400
bbl/day is very poor).
A number of factors come into play concerning the oil rate. They are:
"K" (or VCF) factor:
The volume reduction factor due to temperature, known as the "K" factor. This is
derived from tables or a chart.
1.4.1 Shrinkage
The "SHRINKAGE" is the reduction of the volume of oil due to the release of
dissolved gas in solution leaving the separator.
Oil volumes are always reported at "STANDARD CONDITIONS" usually 14.73
psia at 60F. The oil leaving the separator will always be at elevated pressures
and temperatures and will therefore normally still contain some dissolved gas. In
taking the oil to atmospheric conditions this gas will be released, and the oil
volume will reduce because of it. The shrinkage can be derived from either a
shrinkage tester, gauge tank or from tables.
The method used will depend on equipment available and client.
In order of reliability they are:
The gauge tank method
The shrinkage tester
Tables of charts. They only really give an approximation and make several
assumptions about the fluid that may or may not be true.
The temperature used to calculate the "K" factor above is THE FINAL
SHRINKAGE TEMPERATURE, either of the tank or the shrinkage tester, and
NOT the flowing temperature of the oil line of the separator. If the charts are used
to ESTIMATE the shrinkage then the "K" factor will be 1, because the charts give
the shrinkage at 60F.

Oil volume

24 - 24

1.4.2 "BSW":
The BSW is the Basic Sediments and Water, that is the amount of water and
sediment present in the well flow. It is normally measured by taking samples of well
flow at the choke manifold and oil outlet of the separator. A centrifuge is then used
to separate out the constituent parts of the sample. The glasses are graduated so
that the BSW can be read of as a percentage. The BSW will be introduced into the
oil computation so that the final oil rate calculated reflects the pure oil rate alone. It
is important to understand that if water is being dumped from the separator then the
BSW at the choke manifold will NOT be the same as the BSW at the oil outlet.
theoretically, in this case, if the water level is kept low in the separator the BSW at
the oil outlet will be zero. If, however, water is not dumped from the separator, but
simply allowed to leave the separator with the oil, then the BSW at both choke
manifold and meter run should be the same. Essentially, in a nutshell, the BSW
used for oil calculation will be the BSW at the meter run.
BSW measurement
The Basic Sediment and Water has to be determined in order to be able to
calculate the NET oil flow from the well, and to be aware of the presence of water
and sediments.
METHOD
The basic piece of equipment for BSW determination is the centrifuge. This may
be driven by an electric motor or hand driven.
Samples of well flow are taken from the well head, upstream of the choke, and
placed int he centrifuge in order to separate out the oil, water and sediment. In
the case of emulsions a demulsifier may have to be used. (Only a drop in each
glass.) The glasses should be filled to the 10 ml mark (or 100 ml depending on
size of glass) to make percentage calculations simple. The method of sample
taking is important. If the needle on the choke manifold is only cracked open to fill
the sample glasses, the sample taken will not be representative.
A good flow into a bucket has to be established and a plastic container filled. This
container should then be well shaken and the sample glasses filled form it.
Centrifuge the samples for a good 2 - 3 minutes. The percentage of sediment and
water can then be read off the millilitre scale. The average of the two readings is
taken as the result.
If the separator is running two phases only this BSW shall be entered into the oil
calculation. If the separator is running 3 phase, (water is being dumped and
measured from the separator), the BSW is for information only on the "Well Test
Data Sheet".
Caution: The centrifuge runs at a very high speed, never open an electric centrifuge until
the rotor has stopped completely.
1.4.3 Meter factor
All meters have an error, it is normal to ascertain this error before the test begins.
This is achieved by pumping water through the meters, at a rate around the
expected well flow rate. The flow is directed to the gauge tank, where the precise
amount of water pumped can be measured. (Min 20 - 30 bbls). by reading the
meter before and after, and comparing with the tank reading, a meter factor can be
arrived at.
Oil volume

25 - 25

Meter factor = tank vol/meter vol.
i.e. if 30 bbls are flowed through the meter but this reads as 28 bbls in the tank,
then the meter factor = 28/30 = 0.9333.
This is a very simple calculation but you would be surprised how many people, even
experienced people, get it the wrong way round.
1.4.4 Meter and Shrinkage factor
This is a method whereby a combined correction factor for meter and shrinkage
factor is calculated using a gauge or surge tank. It is the most accurate, and
therefore most preferable, method of calculating these two factors.
The procedure is as follows. During a given flow period in the test the well flow is
directed from the burner to the gauge/surge tank. At the precise moment that the
valves are operated, the meter is read. It is necessary before starting to have a
level of dead oil in the tank. Some 20 or 30 bbls of oil are passed to the tank.
When this quantity of oil has passed to the tank, the flow directed back to the
burner again. As before the meter is read at the moment the flow is diverted. What
we have now is a precise quantity of oil having passed through the meter to the
tank, say 25 bbls. The oil in the tank is now left to "shrink". Because the tank is at
atmospheric pressure the oil will gradually degas, and shrink due to this degassing.
When the oil has completely degassed (can take 2 - 3 hours or more) the new tank
level is read and converted to bbls. This may be 21 bbls. As before by dividing the
tank volume by meter volume we get a correction factor. This factor represents a
composite correction, comprising meter factor AND shrinkage. The final tank
temperature is also read and form this the "K" (or VCF) factor is calculated.
1.4.5 Rate Calculation
The meter is normally read every 15 or possibly 30 minutes. The difference in
meter readings is then multiplied by the various correction factors described above,
and then by the time factor to give bbls/day (or M3/day if working in SI). The time
factor is 96 for 15 minute readings and 48 for 30 minute readings.
The formula for oil rate is as follows:
( ) ( ) K shr BSW Mf V Q
o
= 1 1
where:
Vo is the difference between two readings.
Mf = Meter Factor (Usually in the range 0.95 - 1.1)
(1-BSW) = factor derived from expressing the BSW as a fraction and subtracting it
from 1. e.g.. BSW = 5% therefore fraction = 0.05 and 1 - 0.05 = 0.95
(1-SHR)= correction due to shrinkage.
K (or VCF) = correction for temperature to base 60F (or 15C if working in SI
system). Be careful to use the correct depending on which unit system you are
working in.
1.4.6 Specific Gravity
One other property which is measured is the oil Specific Gravity. The SG does not
go directly into the calculation of oil rates, but may be needed for example, if the
estimation of shrinkage charts are used. It is an important parameter which is
Oil volume

26 - 26

normally entered into the oil calculation sheet. The SG is an expression of the
"weight" of the oil in relation to fresh water. It is simply a ratio, and has NO units. It
should NOT be confused with density!
It is measured using glass hydrometers. The temperature is also measured at the
same time and the SG measured must be corrected to 60F (15C if in SI).
Daniel
1 - 1
SECTION 13
DANIEL ORIFICE METER
Daniel

2 - 2
DIFFERENTIAL - PRESSURE PRIMARY - ELEMENT ORIFICE METER
(DANIEL)


Daniel
3 - 3
1.1 DANIEL ORIFICE BOX
This is a device which enable the orifice plate to be changed without interrupting the
separator gas flow.
The orifice plate is placed in a TEFLON gasket and then put into an orifice plate
carrier. This carrier has gears on either side which are engaged by gear wheels
within the Daniel Box.
The box is composed of two compartments, separated by a sliding gate valve. The
upper compartment is sealed on top by a removable gasket and sealing bar.
The operation of installing an orifice plate is very simple. With the gasket and
sealing bar off and the sliding valve closed, the orifice plate carrier is put into the top
compartment. The sealing bar and gasket are replaced and the pressure is
equalized between the two compartments by an equalizing valve. The sliding gate
is opened and the orifice plate carrier is wound down into the gas flow path by gear
wheels. The sliding gate valve is closed and pressure bled off from the top. (Full
details of operation are given on next page).
1.1.1 Installation
Remove all scale, sediment and dirt from the flange faces, pipe and Daniel
Box. The roughness of the inside of the pipe should correspond with
commercially finished steel pipe. Gasket the line flanges and install the fitting
in the line, be sure that the flow direction correspond with the arrow on the
body.
Install bleeder valve (N10B) and grease gun (N23) to connections on Daniel
Box.
With no orifice plate in line and the gate valve closed, do a hydraulic pressure
test corresponding to the test pressure of the Daniel Box, line pipe and
flanges i.e. Separator test pressure. After the hydraulic test, check for any
welding slag or foreign matter that may be in the pipe and remove it.
1.1.2 Operation
Operation of the Daniel Box is shown in Figure 1. However, there are some points
that should be raised when using a Daniel Box.
If the gas flow rate is now known, always put an orifice that is larger and work
down until the right size plate is in the line.
Lift the orifice plate into the top compartment just before a choke change.
Daniel

4 - 4
DANIEL ORFICE METER



Daniel
5 - 5





INSTRUCTIONS FOR INSTALLATION FOR ORIFICE
PLATE
1. Select an orifice plate of sufficient size to easily
pass the anticipated flow rate from the separator. A
smaller orifice may consequently be substituted if
the initial selection does not produce an adequate
differential.
NOTE - Size of the orifice is stamped on the
outer edge of the downstream side of the
plate.
2. Install the orifice plate in the plate carrier (believed
face of orifice to be on downstream side).
3. Check that side valve (n5) and equalizer valve
(n1) are closed, and that upper chamber bleed
valve (n10B) is open.
4. Loosen set screws (n11) in clamping bar from
slot. Remove sealing bar (n9) and gasket (n9A).
CAUTION - Do not stand in line with slot
during this operation. Pressure inside top
chamber may cause injection of clamping
and sealing bars.
5. Install orifice plate carrier in the top of the orifice
fitting. Turn carrier arm (n7) slowly until the carrier
is meshed with the gear. Crank carrier down until it
touches the slide valve.
6. Inspect sealing bar gasket (n9A). If this is not
satisfactory, use a new one. Install sealing bar
(n9) and replace clamping bar (n12) in the slot.
Tighten all set screws (n11).
7. Close upper chamber bleeder valve (n10B).
8. Open the equalizer valve (n1 and let pressures
equalize in upper and lower chambers.
9. Crank the slide valve (n5) to the open position on
the indicator.

10. Crank carrier arm (n7) until carrier meshes with
the lower gear.
11. After meshing, crank carrier arm (n6) until the
plate carrier is all the way down.
12 Crank slide valve arm (n5) until indicator shows
"closed".
13 The orifice plate is now in the flow.
14. Close equaliser valve (n1) and open bleeder valve
(n10B) to bleed-off pressure in upper chamber.
Close after pressure is bled-off.
CAUTION - It is important to close the
bleeder valve, since gas may leak past the
slide valve and escape to atmosphere,
causing a concentration of explosive H2S.
15. The orifice fitting is now in service.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR REMOVAL OF ORIFICE
PLATE
1. Check that bleeder valve (n10B) is closed.
2. Open equalizer valve (n1) to equalize pressures in
top and bottom chambers.
3. Crank the slide valve (n5) to the "open" position
on the indicator.
4. Crank lower carrier shaft arm (n6) until plate
carrier meshes with upper carrier gear.
5. Crank upper carrier shaft arm (n7) until plate
carrier touches top of upper chamber.
6. Crank slide valve arm (n5) to the "closed" position
on the indicator.
7. Close equalizer valve (n1).
8. Open upper chamber bleeder valve (n10B) and let
pressure bleed off from the top chamber.
9. Loosen set screws (n11) in clamping bar (n12).
NOTE - Do not remove clamping bar at this
stage
10. Crank upper carrier arm (n7) to loosen the sealing
bar (n9) and the gasket.
NOTE - This operation will relieve any
remaining pressure in the upper chamber.
11. Remove clamping bar (n12), sealing bar (n9) and
gasket (n9A).
NOTE - Take care not damage the gasket.
12. Crank upper chamber arm (n7) to raise the carrier
from the top chamber until the gear is not meshed.
13. Remove orifice plate from the carrier and from the
plate gasket.

Daniel

6 - 6
1.1.3 Lubrication procedure
Daniel type I Lubricant is expressly made for use in "SENIOR" Orifice Fittings for
Lubricating the all-important slide valve, insuring maximum operating performance.
Since it is a chemical compound rather than a petroleum base product, the
lubricant has significant advantages.
Type I Lubricant is effective over a wide range of temperature, - 40 to +
500F.
The Lubricant contains no fillers or inert materials, thus eliminating hardening
or oxidizing.
Type I Lubricant is insoluble in water and extremely resistant to hydrocarbons
within its temperature range.
Daniel Type I Lubricant is formed into sticks, 1/2" in diameter, 2" long for
packaging 24 sticks to the box. The cylinder shape fits neatly into the grease fitting
which comes on the SENIOR.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR LUBRICATING
1. Lubricate the slide valve one per month, whether or not the orifice plate is
removed.
2. Before lubricating, open the bleeder valve and close both the slide valve
and the equalizer valve.
3. To lubricate, remove stem from grease fitting, insert lubricant stick,
replace stem and slowly turn.
4. Inject lubricant slowly. If done hastily, high pressure from the lubricant
may rupture valve seat gasket or force apart the valve and seat.
5. Crank stem all the way in to grease fitting. If more lubricant is required,
repeat steps 3 and 4 above.
To clean out dried or cracked lubricant when fitting has not been operated for long
periods of time, close slide valve, de-pressure line and fill top chamber with a
grease solvent. Also, solvent may be forced through grease fitting with a large
chamber grease gun. After cleaning, replace with new lubricant.
1.1.4 Maintenance
It is recommended that all Senior-type orifice fittings be operated once every thirty
days. Slide valve (Part n5) should be opened and closed and lubrication applied
through Part n23. If plate inspection is not required, it is recommended that gear
shafts (n6 and n7) be rotated. Under conditions where there is likely to be an
accumulation of sediment for any cause, blow-down valves should be installed in
place of pipe plugs at bottom of fitting and blown as often as required. Plate carrier
should always be raised into upper chamber before blowing or cleaning through
blow-down valves.

Daniel
7 - 7

EXPLODED VIEW
Daniel

8 - 8

REAR VIEW OF DANIEL ORIFICE AND BARTON
Barton
1 - 1

SECTION 14
BARTON RECORDER

Barton
2 - 2

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE UNIT
MODEL 199
Barton
3 - 3

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
RECORDERS

Ranarex
1 - 1

SECTION 15
RANAREX GAS GRAVITOMETERS



















Ranarex

2 - 2

1.1 ROLE
The Ranarex Gas Gravimeter allows the accurate determination of specific
gravity of gas.
The instrument operates on the principle that the kinetic energy of air on
counter rotating impellers.
1.2 HOW RANAREX OPERATES

Figure 1
The Ranarex Gravimeter uses dynamic forces to measure the specific gravity of
gas. The simple operating principle is illustrated in Figure 1. The chassis of the
instrument forms two cylindrical gas-tight measuring chambers, each having
separate inlet and outlet connections. Each chamber contains an impeller and an
impulse wheel, which have straight radial vanes. These wheels are mounted on
separated shafts, facing each other but not touching, so that each chamber
resembles an automotive fluid coupling. An electric motor and drive belt rotates both
impellers at the same speed and in the same direction.
The impellers draw continuous flows of gas simple and dry reference air into their
respective chambers and spin the gas and air against the vanes of the
corresponding impulse wheels which are proportional to the densities of the gas and
of the reference air. This torques is transmitted from the chambers by the impulse
wheel pivot shafts to two external measuring wheels. The upper measuring wheel
has a spiral shaped rim (cam) and the lower measuring wheel has a circular rim.
A flexible tape is wrapped over the measuring wheel rims in the crossed direction so
that the gas and air torque exerts two opposing forces on the tape. These opposing
forces prevent continuous rotation of the measuring wheels but permit controlled
Ranarex
3 - 3

motion of the system as the gas torque changes. As the system moves, a pointer
attached to the hub on the upper or cam wheel moves over the indicating scale,
which is graduated to read specific gravity

Figure 2 - Ranarex measuring system

Figure 2 explains the geometry of the measuring system for the two operating
conditions. The left view shows the position of the cam and reference wheel when
checking the "zero". This check is made each time the gravimeter is started, by
operating with dry air flowing through both chambers. Both torques "Ta", produced
by the air, will be equal and the measuring wheels will move until the opposing
forces "Fa" are equal. The radii (moment arms) "Ra" must be equal to produce
equal forces from equal torque. The angular position at which the cam radius equals
the reference wheel radius corresponds to the 1.000 graduation on the indicating
scale.
The right views of Figure 2 shows the position of the system when measuring
specific gravity below 1.000. Gas is admitted to the upper chamber and dry
reference air to the lower chamber. The lighter gas creates a smaller torque "Tg" in
the upper chamber than the torque "Ta" created by the air in the lower chamber.
Temporarily, the upward force "Fg" created by the cam wheel will be smaller than
the downward force "Fa" created by the reference wheel. The reference wheel and
tape will then turn the cam wheel clockwise toward the balance position shown. As
the cam wheel rotates the radius "Rg" gradually decreases. As the radius
decreases, the resulting upward force "Fg" gradually increases and eventually is
restored to its original value. When "Fg" becomes equal to "Fa" they will balance
and motion will cease. Meanwhile the cam wheel has turned the pointer to a new
Ranarex

4 - 4

angular position on the scale. The operator reads the inner circle of scale
graduations having a range of 0.520 to 1.030 specific gravity.
It is evident for these examples that the radius of the cam - not the force it exerts -
changes as the gas density varies. In effect, the measuring system divides the
radius of the cam by the radius of the reference wheel. This is the equivalent of
dividing the torque and density of the gas in the upper chamber by the torque and
density of the reference air in the lower chamber, which is the specific gravity.
To measure specific gravity above 1.000, the gas is admitted to the lower chamber
and the dry reference air is admitted to the upper chamber. The measuring system
then divides the torque and density of the air in the upper chamber by the torque
and density of the gas in the lower chamber. This is the reciprocal of the specific
gravity. The measuring system and pointer will reach a balance position as they did
with gas below 1.000. However, the user reads the outer circle of scale graduations
from 0.970 to 1.90, which are placed at the reciprocal values of the inner circle.
As described later, the pressures of the gas and reference air are equalized and the
temperatures of the gas and reference air are equalized. In addition, the belt and
pulley drive turns the impellers at equal speeds. Therefore, changes in pressure,
temperature and motor speed affect both torques equally. Since the torques
produce opposing forces the effects of varying pressure, temperature and motor
speed are cancelled.
The length of the flexible tape is not critical for accurate measurement. The circular
measuring wheel, which acts primarily as the reference device also serves as a
take-up, winding or unwinding the tape as required.
A high-capacity air drier is built into the Gravimeter to dry incoming ambient air for
use as reference air and zeroing air. The Gravimeter is also equipped with a rotary
selector valve which directs the flows of gas sample and dry reference air to the
correct chamber for checking "zero", for measuring gas below 1.000 or for
measuring gas below 1.000 or for measuring gas above 1.000 specific gravity.
The drive motor is a low-current, non-arcing type for operation on 115 volt AC.
When the Gravimeter is to be used in a motor vehicle or in an area where AC is not
available, a DC-AC transistorized inverter is supplied to change 12-volt DC battery
current to the correct AC supply. A different motor pulley should be ordered for 50 or
60 Hz.
Measuring sour gas will not damage the RANAREX. The impellers and impulse
wheels is molded phenol; the chamber and casing are aluminum; the shafts are
stainless steel and all internal trim in contact with the gas is aluminum or stainless
steel. These materials are not attacked by dry or moist sour gas.
1.3 CONDITIONING THE GAS AND AIR SAMPLES
The RANAREX Gravimeter measures specific gravity in accordance with the
accepted definition: "ratio of the density of the gas, under the observed conditions of
pressure and temperature to the density of dry air at the same pressure and
temperature" to comply with this definition to assure highest accuracy, requires a
simple but adequate sampling system to satisfy the following:
DRY AIR BASE is provided by the built-in air drier. It uses silica gel as the
desiccant and is readily rechargeable to simplify replacing the
silica gel when exhausted.
PRESSURE Reference air is admitted to the Gravimeter at barometric
pressure. In order that the gas and air will be measured at the
Ranarex
5 - 5

same pressure, the gas must be reduced to barometric pressure.
Barometric pressure will automatically be maintained in the gas
chamber if the gas flow rate is adjusted to 12 SCFH. Therefore,
the Gravimeter is supplied with an integral rota-meter type flow
meter with needle valve. As an operating convenience the flow
scale is graduated in specific gravity units. The operator merely
adjusts the needle valve so that the flow meter reads the
approximate specific gravity of the gas. These flow meters are
suitable for 20 PSIG inlet pressure; when sample pressure is
higher it must be reduced with a conventional pressure-reducing
regulator.
TEMPERATURE Reference air is admitted to the Gravimeter at the ambient
temperature of the instrument. In order that gas and air will be
measured at the same temperature, the gas must be heated or
cooled to ambient temperature. This is especially important if the
gas pressure has been reduced more than 100 PSIG, or if the gas
flows through a temperature zone more than 10F. different form
the ambient temperature of the Gravimeter. If the gas is passed
through a section of 3/8 inch metal tube at least 5 ft (preferably 10
ft) long, exposed to the ambient temperature of the Gravimeter
and located after the last pressure reduction, temperature
adjustment will be automatic. The tube may be coiled or bent in
the form of a grid to fit the space available.
FILTERING if the gas contains suspended particles larger than 25 microns,
they must be removed. A commercial gas filter may be used or
one may be made of steel or glass wool, in a tube. Either type
should be connected ahead of the regulator and flow meter.
RANAREX instruments do not include the gas filter, pressure reducing regulator or
sample hose because most users have individual preferences for these items and
maintain their own stock.
1.4 SET-UP INSTRUCTIONS
1.4.1 Check accessories
A. All RANAREX Gravimeters include:
Electric cord, 6 ft of 18 gauge cable with male and female plugs
1 1/2 LB can of silica gel
Filling funnel
Instruction Manual, Form R1 212
B. When the RANAREX Gravimeter is operating on 12 volt DC battery current,
the following is also furnished, unless excluded by purchaser:
RANAREX Inverter
Battery Cables, 16 ft of 12-gauge wire with battery clips
Instruction Sheet, Form 5437
Ranarex

6 - 6

1.4.2 Select location for RANAREX
Instrument should be easily visible and readily accessible from operator's position,
not near hot or cold objects. Allow at least 5" clearance on the left side and 3" on
the right side for making connections and normal operating functions.
If the instrument is to be permanently mounted in one location, it should be
secured with four - 20 machine screws. These screws will pass up through the
mounting surface and through the holes of the RANAREX base to which the feet
are attached. The feet may be used or omitted, as preferred. See figure 3 of the
Operating manual for dimensions of RANAREX and location of mounting holes.
See Figure 4 of the Operating manual for location of connections and external
controls.
1.4.3 Install inverter
First read carefully and completely the instructions Form 5437 packed with
inverter.
Caution: Do not operate RANAREX without first reading pages 5 and 6 Operating
Instructions.
1.4.4 Fill air drier
The air drier must be removed from the upper left side of the instrument (loosen
the two fasteners). Draw the plastic drier assembly out of the Gravimeter just far
enough so the rubber tube can be removed from the elbow at the rear of the drier.
Remove the rubber closure plug on the front of the drier by lifting the lever at the
center of the plug (but do not turn the lever).
Hold the drier horizontal with the front face up and pour silica gel through a funnel
into the spout. Tap or shake the drier vigorously and continue to fill to the base of
the spout. Replace the rubber closure, attach the rubber tube on the elbow at rear
of drier, and then install drier in Gravimeter. The rubber tube has an internal
spring to prevent collapse; do not remove or lose this spring.
The drier is permanently riveted together as an assembly. Do not attempt to
remove the rivets and disassemble the drier.
The capacity of the silica gel will vary according to the atmospheric humidity and it
should be inspected through the drier cover at regular intervals. When the upper
half of the narrow compartment shows a change from deep blue color to Grey-pink
color, the silica gel must be replaced.
Active silica gel has a deep blue color and should be kept in a tightly closed
container. Exhausted silica gel has a light grayish, pink color and may be
reactivated and used over and over again. Merely heat it in an open container at
about 250F until the dark blue color returns, and then store in a tightly closed
container.
Additional silica gel may be obtained from RANAREX Instruments as Part No. 300-
00259. This contains 1 LB of indicating type silica gel in 6 - 16 mesh sizes.
1.4.5 Attach outlet hoses
If RANAREX is operated in confined space, as inside a vehicle, the gas sample
must be discharged outside the vehicle. This will prevent contaminating the
operating space with noxious or hazardous gas and air mixtures. If measuring
only gas below 1.000 specific gravity, attach hose to nipple "LIGHT GAS OUTLET"
Ranarex
7 - 7

on upper right side of RANAREX case. If also measuring gases above 1.000
specific gravity, also attach hose to nipple "HEAVY GAS OUTLET". These hoses
must remain attached when making air check or "zero point" check.
1.4.6 Gas filter
If the gas contains suspended particles larger than 25 microns, or if it is "wet",
filtering is required. If a commercial filter is not available, a suitable filter may be
made of 1" pipe 15" long mounted vertically. Cap both ends and install a drain
cock in bottom cap. Install inlet connection from gas line 2" from bottom and outlet
to RANAREX 2" from top. Fill pipe loosely with commercial No. 0 steel wool. Drain
filter frequently to keep steel wool free of condensate.
1.4.7 Gas temperature
If the gas sample is above 100 psig pressure, of if the sample will flow through a
temperature zone more than 10F different from the ambient temperature of the
RANAREX, temperature adjustment is required. Installs a section of 3/8" metal
tube at least 5 ft (preferably 10 ft) long, and locate it near the RANAREX case.
The tube may be coiled or bent in the form of a grid, to suit the space available.
1.5 Make gas sample connection
Attach pressure-reducing regulator to sample tap and run sample hose to
RANAREX location, but do not yet connect to RANAREX. Sample line must be
capable of delivering 12 SCFH gas, free of condensed fractions or moisture, at
pressure not exceeding 15 psig.
1.6 OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS
Caution: This type RANAREX Gravimeter is provided with a Pointer Lock (Figure 4 of the
Operating manual) which must be locked at all times when the RANAREX motor is not
operating. The function of the lock is to exert tension on the flexible tape, which connects the
cam and reference wheel (Figure 1). This tension maintains correct "tracking" of the tape
when the RANAREX is stopped. The user is cautioned to leave the lock applied until after
the RANAREX motor has been started and to apply the lock before shutting off the motor, to
avoid operating inconvenience and prevent damage to the RANAREX.
The "LOCK" position of the pointer is at the upper right corner of the scale, near the 0.970 -
1.030 graduations. The arrow of the knob and the legends shows the position of the locking
mechanism on the RANAREX front cover.
To check if the pointer is locked, turn the knob to "UNLOCK" and observe if the pointer drifts
downward, even though slightly. Then turn knob to "LOCK" position and observe if the
pointer snaps into original position. If doubt exists that the flexible tape is correctly tracked,
check as explained on page 7.

1.6.1 Procedure
The correct procedure for operating the RANAREX Gravimeter is described in the
instruction plate located over the center of the indicating scale and reproduced
here as Figure 5 of the Operating manual. It is recommended that the used
Ranarex

8 - 8

observe the sequence of steps as listed. By so doing maximum accuracy will be
achieved with minimum effort and time. In fact, the user is encouraged to read
each item of the instructions each time the instrument is used until the correct
sequence becomes a matter of habit. The following comments will also be helpful.
1.6.2 Zero adjustment
The zero adjust screw should be turned in the direction opposite to the correction
required in the pointer reading. For example, if the pointer must be moved
clockwise to read 1,000 on the scale, the screw should be turned counter-
clockwise. After making adjustments, allow pointer to stabilize because there is a
tendency to overshoot when turning the zero adjusts screw. In normal operation
the zero adjusts screw should require only little adjustment, less than turn, to set
pointer to 1,000. If more than turn is ever required, stop motor and investigate
for the cause. Never turn screw full travel clockwise with motor operating; never
turn screw full travel counter-clockwise.
RESPONSE TIME
When measuring gas at the normal flow rate of 12 SCFH, the response time to
reach final reading is 40 - 45 seconds. Operating at a higher flow rate obtained by
adjusting the flow meter valve so the float reads higher than the actual gas specific
gravity can reduce this time.
For example, when measuring 0.6 gravity gas, a flow meter setting of about 1.2 will
reduce the response time to about 30 seconds. However, the flow meter valve
should not be opened so much that the float is lifted against the stop at the top of
the flow tube.
OVER-PRESSURE PROTECTION
If by oversight the flow meter valve is opened before the selector valve is turned to
"LG" or "HG", the valve cover will lift off the body to relieve the pressure and will be
reseated by the spring.
PURGING TO 1,000 AFTER READING ON GAS
This is a necessity in order to bring the pointer within operating reach of the pointer
lock mechanism. If the pointer starts toward 1,000 and then hesitates and remains
at an intermediate reading, turn the selector valve halfway beyond "O" toward the
next position. If the pointer then continues toward and reaches 1,000, check for an
obstruction as described on page 6 of the Operating manual, "check gas and air
flow".
1.7 MAINTENANCE
1.7.1 Disassembly
When necessary to disassemble the Gravimeter, observe the sequence described
in the "Disassembly Procedure", page 12 of the Operating manual.
1.8 LUBRICATION
The motor bearing, impeller bearing and idler pulley bearing have long life
lubrication and should give long service. If the impeller bearing binds or become
extremely noisy, they may be lubricated as described on page 10 and 11 of the
Operating manual, or the complete assembly may be replaced. The idler pulley
Ranarex
9 - 9

bearing should be inspected and re-lubricated if it does not turn freely or becomes
noisy.
Note : Bearing is lubricated as shipped. It cannot be disassembled but can be re-lubricated
when necessary.
Grip round shaft where it extends from pulley.
Remove adapter shaft by gripping hex section ad turning for right-hand
thread. Unscrew adapter shaft complete but do not lose split lock washer.
Insert tip of grease tube (RANAREX 187 - 14010) into tapped hole in pulley
shaft. Fill hole with grease.
Replace adapter shaft in pulley shaft. Be sure split lock washer is in position
in recess around base of male thread.
Tightening adapter shaft into pulley shaft will force grease into bearing.
Excess grease will be forced out through seals but do not use more grease
than needed to obtain smooth rotation of shaft in pulley.
1.8.1 Selector valve
If the selector valve is exposed to dirty gas, it may require cleaning and lubrication.
Should this become repeatedly necessary a gas filter should be installed. The air
drier functions as a filter so a separate reference air filter should not be required.
To clean the selector valve removes the screw at center of valve cover and
withdraws screw, 2 washers, spring and cover. Clean off all old grease and dirt
from faces and channels of both cover and body. Lubricate faces of cover and
body with silicone grease or stopcock greases and replace all parts.
If the valve cover or body become scored by dirt, it is necessary to grind the
mating surfaces to eliminate the scoring. Clean both surfaces, apply fine valve
grinding compound to them and reassemble the valve. Loosen or remove the
dtente spring, which engages the "O", "LG" and "HG" notches of the cover.
Rotate the cover back and forth on the body well beyond its normal operating arc,
continuing until the scoring is removed. Then thoroughly clean, lubricate and
reassemble all parts.
1.8.2 Pointer lock
If the connecting tape leaves the cam or reference wheel while the Gravimeter is in
transit, the pointer lock requires adjustment in the following sequence:
Remove front cover to check if the sides of the U-hook at end of lock spring
are parallel with inner face of the cover, and if the setscrew is fully tightened
in the shaft of the lock knob. Turn spring and tighten screw if necessary.
Remove indicating scale, track the connecting tape on the cam and reference
wheel, then set pointer approximately at the 1.000 position. Hold front cover
by hand in correct position o Gravimeter casing. Turn knob toward the lock
position to check if the U-hook straddles the radial edge of the cam. If
necessary, bend the spring in the correct direction at the knob shaft.
Again holding front over to casing by hand, turn know toward lock position to
check if the spring takes up the slack in the connecting tape before the lower
end of the spring snaps between the dtente pins of the cover. If it does not,
bend the upper section of the lock spring, at the knob, toward the cam edge.
This will be toward the left when viewed from inside the cover.
Ranarex

10 - 10

Finally, with the cover held to the casing, check if the lower end of the lock
spring will snap between the dtente pins and will be retained. If necessary,
bend the lower end of the spring toward, or away from, the front cover, if
required.

Gas flow rate computation
1 - 1
SECTION 16
GAS FLOW RATE COMPUTATION
Gas flow rate computation

2 - 2

1.1 GAS FLOW RATE MEASUREMENTS
Natural gas is in a state of continuous flow from the time it leaves the reservoir until it is
burned, either in the gas flare on a drill stem test or in domestic appliances.
It was very important for the sale of natural gas in distribution systems that an accurate
method of measuring gas flow-rate was found. Several American technical societies
sponsored research into gas flow rate measurement and their findings were put
together into a report - AGA - 3 (American Measurement Committee Gas Association,
Gas Report n3)
Basically there are two types of metering devices used for gas measurement.
1. DYNAMIC METERS 2 VOLUMETRIC METERS
Orifice Meter Diaphragm meter
Venturi meter Laboratory wet test meter
Flow nozzle
Critical flow prover
Pitot tube
Rotameter
Choke
For measuring large flow rates, the orifice meter is used.
An orifice of known size is located in the pipe. The restriction caused by the orifice
causes a velocity increase and a pressure drop. This pressure drop is known as the
differential pressure and is a function of the flow rate, static pressure, pipe I.D. and
orifice size. The differential pressure may be taken either using flange taps or pipe
taps.
d D
2.5 D 8 D
PIPE TAPS
FLANGE TAPS
1" 1"

The differential pressure is measured across the orifice from taps located one inch
to either side of the orifice. The differential pressure is measured from taps located
at 2.5 D upstream (where D = I.D. of pipe). The orifice may be installed in the line
either between two flanges or in a Daniel's box. The orifice installed between two
flanges is called a diaphragm. It is circular in shape, made of stainless steel and has
Gas flow rate computation
3 - 3
a concentrically pierced in. calibrated orifice in it. Above the diaphragm is a tail,
which sticks out the flange. This tail has orifice and pipe line sizes engraved on it.
The flanges are bottled together with a diaphragm inside. The method is suitable for
steady flow. It is economical and easy to use. However, large variations in flow
would cause the insuring device to go off scale and another diaphragm to be put in.
If continuous fluctuations are occurring, then this is not suitable.
Gas flow rate computation

4 - 4

1.2 GAS FLOW RATE CALCULATION
(Orifice meter constants AGA - 3)
The quantity measured by an orifice meter in an hour is expressed by the formula:
hwpf C Qh ' =
Where
Qh= Rate of flow at base conditions in cu/ft per hour
C'= Orifice flow constant. It is the rate of flow in cu/ft per hour at base
conditions when the pressure extension, 1.000 = hwpf
hw= Differential pressure in inches of water
Pf= Static pressure in psia
1.000 = hwpf = Pressure extension.
1.2.1 Orifice flow constant
1 F Fa Fm Fpv Fg Ftf Frb Fpb Y Fr Fb C =
In calculation of gas flow rate only Fb, Y, Ftf, Fg and Fpv are significant. Therefore,
for calculating gas flow rate in GEOSERVICES, C' will be taken into account:
Fpv Fg Ftf Y Fb C =
1

where
Fb = Basic orifice flow factor. The value of this factor depends upon
the location of the differential taps
the orifice diameter (d)
internal diameter of the pipe (D)
where
The pressure base Pb= 14.73 PSI
The temperature base Tb= 60F
Specific gravity gas (G) = 1
Flowing temperature Tf = 60F
Expansion factor Y= 1
Reynold's number is infinity
Y = Expansion factor. When a gas passes through an orifice, the change in
pressure and velocity is accompanied by a change in the specific weight. Y
depends upon
the location of the differential taps
Gas flow rate computation
5 - 5
the location of the static pressure tap
ratio of orifice size to line pipe size (d/D)
ratio of differential to static pressure, static pressure taken at
upstream tap = Pf1, static pressure taken at downstream tap = Pf2.
Ftf = Flowing temperature factor. Orifice factors were calculated at 60F.
Therefore, this correction factor corrects the flowing temperature to 60F.
re temperatu flowing actual 460
520
+
= Ftf
Fg = Specific gravity factor. Orifice factors were calculated with gas of specific
gravity 1.000. The factor necessary to convert the specific gravity of the gas to 1 is
G
Fg
1
=
Fpv = Super compressibility factor. Takes into account the deviation of the gas
from the ideal gas laws i.e. BOYLES and CHARLES Law.
By experimentation, factors have been worked out which take this non-ideality into
account.

EXERCISE 1
Line Size = 5.761"
Orifice Size = 1.250
Static Pressure = 345 psig
Differential Pressure = 64" H2O
Gas Temperature = 110F
Gas Specific Gravity = 0.791
(Pipe taps, static pressure taken downstream)
Calculate the flow rate/day
If the oil flow rate = 2.560 STO BPD, calculate the G.O.R.

EXERCISE 2
Line size = 7.981"
Orifice Size = 3.500
Static Pressure = 850 psig
Differential Pressure = 126" H2O
Gas Temperature = 143F
Gas Specific Gravity = 0.695
(Flange taps, static pressure taken downstream)
Calculate the gas flow rate/day
If the oil flow rate = 6.895 STO BDP, calculate the G.O.R.
Gas flow rate computation

6 - 6

1.2.2 Unit Factor Table 1
UNITS
REFERENCE CONDITIONS Cuft/hour Cuft/day
M
3
/hour M
3/day

60F
14,73 psia

1

24

0.02832

0.6796
0C
760 mm Hg

0.9483

22.760

0.02685

0.6445
15C
760 mm Hg

1.0004

24.009

0.02833

0.6799
15C
750 mm Hg

1.0137

24.329

0.02870

0.6889



Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
1 - 1

SECTION 17
HYDRATES
(HEATER, TEXSTEAM PUMP)
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)

2 - 26

1.1 AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
As Gas flows through a pipe it cools to the ambient temperature e.g. gas flow lines
to a commercial station.
In some gas fields, conditions exist which cause hydrate formation in the tubing but
in most fields, hydrates are not a problem until the gas passes through the surface
equipment.
Hydrate formation is most likely to occur when gas is cooled and turbulent
conditions exist e.g. in chokes, valve meters and pip-work. They can cause meters
and valves to be inoperative and in sever cases, totally block the flow of fluid. This
is critical because a hydrate plug may form in a low-pressure line causing the full
well shut in pressure to be exerted on this line.
There are several methods of hydrate prevention:
1. Heating the gas above the hydrate formation temperature by the use of
a direct or indirect heater. These heaters also have long nose chokes
immersed in the heating medium and can be used if the gas temperature
is low.
2. Injection of anti-freeze agents, such as methanol, glycol and ammonia.
These cause the water to dissolve, and not contribute to, hydrate
formation. (Texsteam Pump)
3. Downhole heating in wells with relatively low temperatures. (Used only
rarely on producing fields).
4. Opening up the gas well to try and get the bottom hole temperature to
surface as fast as possible.
5. By using a downhole choke to restrict the flow in an area of high
temperature.
Using the long nose choke on the heater, as the primary flow control device, the well
can be choked back with the minimum likelihood of hydrates forming. (Pipework to
the heater is usually rated at 5000 PSI).
On the separator if hydrates form downstream of the back-pressure valve, then
methanol/glycol can be injected between the Daniel Box and the back-pressure
valve. In locations, which can supply steam, the pipe below the valve can be lagged
with a steam coil wrapped around the pipe.
Hydrates may also from in instrument lines and needle valves e.g. between the
Daniel Box and Barton meter, and at the Data header. Installing bigger piping,
eliminating leaks, installing ball or plug valves in meter piping instead of needle
valves etc. may counteract the problem.

Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
3 - 3


TexTeam Pump
From W.H.
Data header injection
of methanol / glycal
Choke manifold
HEATER
To by pass flare
Long nose choke
SEPARATOR
Pipe can be lagged
To gas flare
TexTeam Pump
Injection of methanol / glycal
Daniel box
Barton
meter

Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
4 - 26
1.2 HEATERS
The first question asked is why are heaters required in an offshore or on-shore well
testing package? Heaters are installed to heat the crude oil stream either to lower
its viscosity and/or to pass it in separation of the gas/oil or, more particularly, an oil
water emulsion. Another reason for having a heater in a test package is for gas well
testing. When gas under high pressure is passed through a choke to reduce its
pressure, it expands and cools. If this cooling is severe, it my result in hydrate
formation and blocking of all the connecting lines.
The basic heater design is aimed at combating this problem. The design is refereed
to as a split bundle type. The incoming stream, which has been expanded and
cooled through the choke manifold, passe directly into the high pressure coil,
consisting of a number of passes of high pressure pipe where the gas is re-heated.
The high-pressure stream then exists from the heater and passes through a heater
choke, where it is expanded, reduced in pressure and once again cooled. It passes
back into the heater and through the low-pressure coils and is re-heated.
A by-pass manifold should always be incorporated as part of the heater so that the
test stream can be diverted directly across the heater, without passing through it.
Increasingly high heater outputs are being asked for, especially in the North Sea,
where high surface pressures, high flow rates and cool temperatures lead to hydrate
formation.
Heaters are now in use with heat transfer capacities ranging from 1.5 to 4
MMBTU/HR with 2 MMBTU/HR being the most popular. They are fabricated with a
variety of heating methods:
GAS FIRED
OIL/DIESEL FIRED
ELECTRICALLY FIRED
HOT WATER CIRCULATION
STEAM
The first three are indirect heaters; the last two are direct heaters. The two most
popular heaters are the gas fired and steam ones.
1. Steam Heaters are widely used in areas where steam is available e.g.
offshore production platforms because it is very safe and also has a
high heat transfer capacity. Only type of heater allowed in the North
Sea.
2. Gas fired heaters (indirect)
Heater consists of:
Heater shell - thin walled horizontal vessel, having removable flanged covers
at both ends.
Removable fire tube and burner assembly mounted on the lower portion of
one of the end covers.
Removable coil assembly mounted on the upper portion of the opposite end
cover.
The heater is filled with water, covering both the firebox and the high pressure coil
assembly. This has two advantages - should the high-pressure coils rupture, the
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
5 - 26
well fluid will come into contact with water, the same applies when the firebox is
perforated.
Also installed above the firebox is the thermosiphon baffle. This gives better control
over the direction of the hot water currents, allowing greater heat transfer and it
reduces the possibility of steam generation, thus reducing scaling of the fire tube.
1.2.1 Description
Type : Skid mounted, water bath indirect heater
Made of: 1 cylindrical vessel
2 Coils for process fluid with positive choke
1 firing tube
1 stack
1 diesel burner
1 diesel pump with pneumatic motor
1 set of regulation & controlling instruments
1 gas burner
1 scrubber
Process fluid: Oil, gas, oil & gas, oil mud & diesel.
Heating fluid: Water, maximum temperature 90* C (glycol may be
added)
Burner data: burner liberation: 510.000 Kcal/h
Burner combustible: diesel, gas
Pilot combustible: propane gas
Instrument power: air, propane, and gas
Diesel pump power: air
Burner atomization: air
Diesel consumption: 50 l/h at 8 bars
Pilot gas: 2,5 kg/h at 0.4 bars
Instruments: 3 Nm /h at 7 bars
Atomizing air: 30 Nm /h at 1,5 bar
Air for diesel pump: 70 Nm /h at 10 bars
1.2.2 Technical data
Working Pressure primary coil 340 bar ( 5000 psi )
Working Pressure secondary coil 150 bar ( 2160 psi )
Working Pressure gas scrubber coil 16 bar ( 240 psi )
Corrosion allowance of all coils 1.5 mm
Shell Working Pressure Atmospheric
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
6 - 26
Working Temperature shell and coils 121 deg. C ( 250 deg. F )
Exchange surface coils 26 m2
Nominal Calorific Power 500 Mcal/h (2MMBTU / h)
1.2.2.1 Dimensions
Shell 3.450 mm x 8.140mm *
Overall Length 6.200 mm
Width 2.200 mm
Height 2.800 mm
2.2 Weight
Empty 11.300 kg
Full of water 17.300 kg

1.2.3 Special Features
3" adjustable choke between primary and secondary coil
Diesel reservoir 400 liter
Tool box
1.2.4 Safety Devices
Safety drilling of coils returns bends
High Temperature Shut Down (HTSD)
Gas Pilot Detector (CM 5 pilot guard)
1.2.5 Control Equipment
Temperature Controller (TC)
Temperature Control Valve (TCV) in burner diesel line
Temperature Control Valve (TCV) in burner gas line
Temperature Control Valve (TCV) in air supply line
High Temperature Shut Down (HTSD)
Shut Down Valve (SDV) in air supply line
Shut Down Valve (SDV) in burner diesel line
Shut Down Valve (SDV) in burner gas line
Gas Pilot Detector (CM 5 box)
Shut Down Valve (SDV) in pilot gas line
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
7 - 26
1.2.6 Connections
Diameter Wing union
Crude / gas inlet 3" 3"fig.1002 female
Crude / gas outlet 3" 3" fig. 602 male
Burner gas inlet 1" 1" fig. 602 female
Burner gas outlet 1" 1" NPT
Water bath drain 3" 3" fig. 602 male
1.2.7 Operation
1.2.7.1 Diesel burning:
Preparation
Place the heater on a horizontal surface, rise the chimney place the
gasket and tighten all bolts.
Fill up the heater with sweet water through the 6" top filler pipe until
it overflows.
Close the manual valve G 2 to the gas burner.
Check those valve D 1 on diesel line and airline valve A 5 to diesel
pump are closed.
Open air supply valves A 1 and A 3 to controller instruments, check
for 1.5 bar (20 psi) min. pressure on temperature controller outlet,
regulate if needed with RA 1
Open atomizing valve A 4, check for atomizing air pressure at about
2 bars then close the valve. The fine adjustment of the combustion
can be adjusted with regulator RA 2.
Disconnect gas pilot outlet from scrubber and connect gas bottles to
the gas pilot line.
Check that the 12 V battery is loaded and place the ignition box on
its stand dont forget to connect the earth lead to the frame.
Start up pilot
Before any attempt to light the burners, always circulate the
combustion chambers with the air blower between 5 and 10
minutes, by opening valves A 1 and A 6.
Open the manual valve PG 1 to gas pilot, check that the press. is
about 1 bar. It can be regulated with RG 3.
Push "button" on CM 5 pilot guard, press "ignition button on
ignition box until pilot flame is on.
Once the temperature feeler from the CM 5 pilot guard is warm
enough it will switch the pneumatic relay R and will supply air to the
TC and HTCS and will also maintain AG 3 valve open.
Start main burner
Open manual valve to diesel burner D 1.
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
8 - 26
Open the manual valve A 5 to start the diesel pump.
Once main diesel burner is working the combustion can be fine-
tuned with the air regular RA 2 (approximately 2 bar), and the
pressure on the diesel line around 7 bar. (Use the regulator on the
diesel pump to adjust the diesel press.)
If the main burner is not starting, the TC controller could be out of its
normal setting, adjust it so the main burner starts.
Set max. temperature 95 C on HTSD controller.
Set temperature required on TC controller maximum 90 C.
1.2.7.2 Gas burning:
Preparation
Place the heater on a horizontal surface, rise the chimney place the
gasket and tighten all bolts.
Fill up the heater with sweet water through the 6" top filler pipe until
it overflows.
Verify that valves G 1, G 2, G 3, PG 1, are closed on gas burner line
and pilot line.
Open atomizing valve A 1 and A 4, check for atomizing air pressure
at about 2 bar then close valve A 4, once the main flame is burning
it is possible to fine adjust the combustion if needed with regulator
RA 2.
Open air supply valve A 3 to controller instruments, check for 1.5
bar (20 psi) min. pressure on temperature controller outlet, regulate
if needed with RA 1
Start pilot
Open air supply valve A 1 and A 6 to burner for 5 to 10 min. before
any other operation.
Open manual inlet valve, on heater gas scrubber G 1
Set ''big joe"' RG 1 regulator to have 7.5 bar maximum outlet
pressure.
Open the manual valve PG 1 to gas pilot, check that the press. is
about 1 bar. it can be regulated with RG 3.
Push "button" on CM 5 pilot guard, press "ignition button on
ignition box until pilot flame is on.
Once the temperature feeler from the CM 5 pilot guard is warm
enough it will switch the pneumatic relay R and will supply air to the
TC and HTCS and maintain AG 3 valve open.
Start main burner
Open slowly manual valve to gas burner G 2.
If the main burner is not starting, the TC controller could be out of its
normal setting, adjust it so the main burner starts.
Set max. temperature 95 C on HTSD controller.
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
9 - 26
Set temperature required on TC controller maximum 90 C.
Air circuit Main gas circuit
A 1 Air inlet isolating valve G 1 Gas supply from separator,
isolating valve
A 2 Air circuit bleed off or
output valve
G 2 Gas Shut off to burner, manual
A 3 Air supply isolating
valve to control
instruments
G 3 Gas scrubber Drain
A 4 Air Isolating valve
atomizing air burner
RG 1 Regulator gas, high pressure
A 5 Air Isolating valve diesel
pump motor
RG 2 Regulator Gas, low pressure
A 6 Air isolating valve to
blower
AG 1
(SDV)
Automatic valve to cut Gas to
burner, controlled by (HTSD)
RA 1 Regulator Air pressure
for control instruments
S Safety valve 10 Bar
RA 2 Regulator Air pressure
for burner atomizing air
AG 2
(TCV)
Automatic valve to cut Gas to
burner, controlled by (TC)
RA 3 Regulator Air pressure
for blower
Gas pilot circuit
AA 1
(SDV)
Automatic Air valve to
cut diesel pump,
controlled by (HTSD)
AG 3 Automatic Gas valve controlled
by (CM 5)
AA 2
(TCV)
Automatic Air valve to
cut diesel pump,
controlled by (TC)
PG 1 Pilot Gas Isolating valve
Diesel circuit RG 3 Regulator for Gas pilot pressure
D 1 Diesel burner isolating
valve
Control designations
D 2 Diesel line check valve TC Temperature Controller in
thermowell, connected to TCV
valves
AD 1
(SDV)
Automatic Diesel valve
to cut diesel supply
controlled by (HTSD)
HTSD High Temperature Shut-Down
with thermowell, connected to
SDV valves
AD 2
(TCV)
Automatic Diesel valve
to cut diesel supply
controlled by (TC)
TCV Temperature Control Valve
SDV Shut Down Valve
O Oilier for diesel pump R Air Relay
F Air filter for diesel pump CM 5 Pilot Guard
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
10 - 26
1.2.8 Safety
Only personnel trained in the use of the heater may operate this equipment.
The Geoservices heater can either operate on gasoil or gas from the
separator, if H2S is expected or suspected use the gasoil burner, (H2S when
burned releases SO4 another dangerous gas.)
Check that the heater and ignition system is grounded.
Check that the stack is properly mounted and that all bolts and seals are
tight.
Before starting the heater you have to blow fresh air through the combustion
chamber during 5 to 10 minutes, this to sweep any gases from previous
operation and avoids an explosion. A special air blower is installed for this
purpose.
While igniting the pilot flame the air blower should stay on and only when the
main burners are operating the air blower can be turned off.
Stay away from the front of the burner while igniting and don't allow any other
person in the area (5 m around)
Always turn off the main supplies of gasoil or gas when stopping the heater.
Beware of hot surfaces on burner or vessel.
Install heater outside zone 1 or zone 2.
Drain heaters before any transportation and use only sweet water in the bath.
Never use the adjustable choke as a valve.
Check frequently for " wash and wear " on the adjustable choke.
Remove measuring instruments before hammering on the wing unions.
Use a sand trap when sand or salt production is expected in gas wells.
Never flow a well trough the heater if no choke or choke seat is installed, this
to protect the internal threat of the choke seat.

Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
11 - 26
1.2.9 Heater instrumentation layout

AG3
Sensor
PG1
RG1
D2 D1
AD2
To Diesel
Burner
Gas Pilot Gas Burner
G2
AG2
Air
Blow
Burner
Air
RA2
Reset
Button
CM5
RA1 A3
R
Vent
AA2
A4 A6 A5
A2 A1
TC
HTSD
A1
Air
Inlet
RG1
G1
Gas Inlet
G3
Scrubber
Diesel
Pump
Diesel Reservoir
AD1
RG2
AG1
AA1
RA3
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
12 - 26
1.2.10 Trouble shooting
PROBLEM CAUSES
Pilot flame off, burner stopped Check:-valve PG 1 is open-pilot gas
supply bottles-pilot gas press. is at least
0,4 bars-if air supply is on-if TC temp.
setting is above HTSD setting-if there is
any liquid in gas pilot line (drain scrubber)
Burner stopped Pilot flame off, (see above), fuel or gas
supply low or finished, Temperature set
on TC is reached, bad atomizing air or off.
Bad combustion Check if atomizing air is working properly
(valve A 4 open, A 6 closed) sufficient
pressure for fuel and air, see burner
section for further remedies.
Water boiling TC and HTSD set to high, temperature
controllers defect. Or water level to low.
CM 5 pilot guard does not come on
after ignition.
Adjust temperature sensor (bulb) closer to
the pilot flame inside the burner housing.
Diesel supplies pressure to low. Not sufficient air supply, oilier O empty or
air filter F plugged.

Note: Before any intervention on the burner circuits you have to close all manuals operating
fuel and air valves, beware of hot surfaces.
1.3 HIGH PRESSURE INJECTION PUMP 5002 TEXSTEAM
1.3.1 Description
Chemical injectors are positive displacement type units powered by integral gas
motors. These injectors fill the requirements of a broad range of applications
because of their ability to achieve high discharge pressures (up to 20,000 psi) and
wide volume ranges. A horizontal plunger and vertical resilient check valve
arrangement assure high operating efficiency.
The standard pump head has a Ductile Iron body and 10-8 stainless steel trim. All
Stainless steel heads are also available for highly corrosive applications. A built-in
priming valve facilitates pump head priming, enables the operator to easily check
pump operation and offers a sample-catching device.
The pump frame and body castings are high-strength aluminum. The operating
mechanism operates in oil and is protected against dust and other atmospheric
influences.
A standard equipment safety valve offers protection against accidental
overpressure of the main diaphragm. The adjustable packing is equipped with a
lantern ring and a grease jack for lubricating the plunger and packing to insure long
life. No grease jack is furnished with Teflon packing.
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
13 - 26
1.3.2 Applications
Introducing detergents in air-gas drilling operations.
Blending foaming agents in water ladened gas wells.
High-pressure addition of fluid compounds in blending and chemical
processing.
Pilot laboratory procedure involving high-pressure circulation of mercury and
other test substances.
Introduction of desalting agents, de-emulsifiers, inhibitors and flocculent in
crude oil and gas streams.
High and low pressure lubrication systems.
Methanol and alcohol injection in gas systems to prevent freezing.
General high-pressure injection applications.
Fluid blending of extreme pressure within varied, controlled processes.
Hydrostatic testing.
Glycol circulation.
Pumping liquefied gases.
Water treatment.
High-pressure sampling.

Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
14 - 26


Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
15 - 26
1.3.3 Characteristics
Model n 5002
Plunger size "
Operating ratio gas/fluid 1000/0
Maximum discharge pressure (psig)
Hard packing 20 000
Soft packing 3 000
Maximum volume
Intermittent GPH 0.83
Intermittent GPD 20
Continuous GPH 0.67
Continuous GPD 16


GAS CONSUMPTION CHART
Injection pressure
in psi
1/4" piston
Long stroke
Injection pressure
in psi
1/4" piston
Long stroke
50 280 1,000 306
100 281,2 1,500 318
150 282,4 2,000 330
200 283,6 3,000 356
250 284,8 3,500 368
300 286 4,000 380
400 289 5,000 404
500 292 6,000 428
600 294,6 7,000 452
700 297,2 8,000 476
800 300 9,000 500
900 303 10,000 522
Standard cubic feet of gas required to pump one gallon.
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
16 - 26
1.3.4 Installation
After removing pump from carton, inspect for possible damage in transit from
factory. If the pump has been damaged, file claim with carrier.
Bolt holes are provided for a permanent mounting (see drawing for dimensions). If
more detailed information is required, request TXT Blueprint.
Connect the suction line to pump head. When a reservoir is furnished with the
pump, the suction line is already connected. Fill the reservoir and open (all the
way) the sight feed shut-off assembly. It is important to have the valve open all the
w
ay when the pump is in operation because the valve seals-off in the open position
and prevents air from entering the suction line through the valve. A dual strainer is
furnished as part of this unit.
When a power unit model (less tanks) is purchased, a strainer should be piped into
the suction line to prevent sand, rust or other particles, which score the plunger or
possible four the check valves, from entering the pump head.
The sight feed assembly which can be used with the 3/8" and " plungers only. A
street ell and nipple is required to pipe the sight feed into the bottom bushing of the
pump head. This should be installed as shown. the inlet connections on the pump
head and the sight feed are " FPT.
Connect the discharge line. The top connection on the pump head is the fluid
discharge and has a female " pipe thread connection. A line check should be
installed in the discharge line as close to the point of injection as possible. For
pumps with 3/8" plunger, offers a " line check either in brass or stainless steel
which will withstand working pressures of 3000 and 6000 psi respectively.
For further plunger sizes, ", 1 and 1", offers the stainless steel line check which
withstands pressures up to 6000 psi. When installing these check valves note the
arrow on the body, which indicates the direction of flow.
Connect the power gas line. First blow power gas line clean to remove any loose
rust particles, slag, sand, etc.
Consider the pressure requirements of the pump. If the gas supply exceeds 50 psi
(consider erratic pressure), the pump should be equipped with a regulator to
reduce the gas pressure to 50 psi.
Note: The regulator pipe (Item 2, General Assembly) between the inlet valve and pilot valve
is for reducing only a small part of the gas supply to actuate the master valve. It does not
reduce the main gas supply.
Caution: The regulator does not regulate the pressure of the main gas supply. It is factory
set at 12 psi. Do not readjust them unless the pressure gauge indicates reading other than
12 psi. This is important because over-pressure will cause excessive wear.
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
17 - 26
The safety valve is for protection of the diaphragm and is set at 50 psi. Pressure
on the diaphragm should not in any case exceed 50 psi. Tie in gas line into inlet
valve.
Lubrication. Remove the cover plate and fill the chamber next to diaphragm with
oil.
Insert stick lubricant into the grease jack. No lubrication is required if the pump is
equipped with Teflon packing and chrome-plated plunger.
Adjust for desired volume by considering pump speed (see charts) and position of
pin. Different volumes can be achieved by short and long stroke setting (see
charts). The pump is assembled with the plunger travel-adjusting pin inserted in
the hole
of the plunger nearest the plunger-packing gland nut. This is the position of longest
stroke. To shorten the stroke places the pin in the other hole.
1.3.5 Operating instructions
Start the pump by slowly opening the inlet valve. Prime the pump head by opening
the priming valve. After the pump discharges fluid without bubbles, close the
priming valve for normal operation. At this point make a visual check of the plunger
drip and using a flat blade screwdriver slowly tighten the gland nut to prevent
excess drip and waste of chemicals. Do not overtighten plunger packing.
It may be necessary to readjust the packing the next day. A slight leak during the
break-in period is beneficial. Sufficient time should be allowed to let the packing
"seat-in". Do not adjust packing under pressure.
If low volumes are being pumped, the pump head, the fluid discharge line and all
other fittings-up to the line check should be thoroughly purged of all air bubbles.
If, in replacing parts in the pump head, corrosion is noted, notify the TXT factory of
the type and name of the manufacturer of the compound being pumped. If any
excessive wear or excessive replacement of parts is noted the TXT factory should
be notified and the failing part numbers be identified. We are endeavoring to build
the best equipment possible and your suggestions are always appreciated.
1.3.6 Maintenance
Inspection of Pressure Regulator
Loosen lock nut, back out regulator screw, remove the five body screws and lift-off
bonnet. Lift out and inspect adjusting spring disc and adjusting spring. Unscrew
lock nut and lift out adjusting spring plate, diaphragm, body gasket and diaphragm
nut gasket. To inspect other parts, unscrew cap, lift out cap gasket.
At this point seat block pin must be removed with punch. When pin is removed,
valve seat assembly (reversible) and orifice screw can be removed. Now the valve
seat block yoke can be lifted out through other side of body.
Check inlet filter screen for obstructions. Reset regulator at 12 psi.
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
18 - 26
Master Valve Assembly
Remove the six cap screws, remove housing cap and inspect diaphragms. After
removing the diaphragms, the stem may be removed.
To inspect valve spring, valve disc and lower valve seat, unscrew upper valve
seat.
Inspecting Pilot Valve Assembly
Unscrew disc retainer, lift out valve spring, washer and valve disc. Close
inspection of the valve disc sealing surface and drive socket slot is necessary.
Very close inspection of the drive pin should be made, if ends are worn, the valve
disc should be replaced. If body and valve discs are badly scored, replace.
Realignment of the valve disc is important. Refer to positioning diagram.
Replacement of diaphragms, spring and Related Parts
Remove regulator, valve, and master valve. Remove 16 bolts. The cover is under
tension. Care should be exercised when removing the last bolts. Two C-clamps or
5/16" x 2 (slightly longer than bolts) would be very helpful for this work.
Trouble Shooting
If the pump stops with plunger in extreme discharge position and gas or air is
being discharged from the safety valve, or a constant discharge of gas or air is
discharged when the safety valve lift ring is pulled, the diaphragm in the master
valve is burst.
If the pump does not more forward and a constant discharge of gas or air is
observed in the lubricating oil chamber then the main diaphragms are ruptured.
Pump is operating but not pumping fluid.
Open bleeder valve to break air lock.
Check if sight feed shut-off assembly is screwed in "out" position.
Check top and bottom balls and seats for leaking.
(Refer to parts lists on next pages)
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
19 - 26
1.3.7 Parts list
1. Pressure gauge 0-12 psi 37. Diaphragm housing bolts
2. Pilot valve 38. Bushing
3. Nipple 39. " Safety valve set 50 #
4. Inlet gas valve assembly 41. Set screw
5. Half union 42. Screw
6. Master valve 43. Bolt
7. Attachment nipple 44. Nut
8 Half union 45. Gasket
9. Line assembly from pilot valve
to master valve (Copper)
46. Base
11. Air filter 47. Pin
12. Elbow 48. Cover
13. Elbow 49 Flipper connection pin
14. Cap screw 50. Stuffing box
15. Line from pilot valve to reg. 51. Gasket
16.* Gasket 52. Nut
17. Pilot valve assembly 53. Housing
18. Grease jack 54.* Packing
19. Bolt 304SS 55. Thrust Rod
20. Priming valve 56. Screw
21. Nipple 57. Outlet body
22. Strainer sight feed assembly 58.* Spring
23. Standard head assembly 59.* Ball 3/8" 316SS
25. Body 60.* O' ring Buna-N
26. Screw O' ring Viton
27. Base 61. Inlet body
28. Retainer 62. Outlet body
29. Ball 63. Inlet body
31. Housing 64. Washer
32. Disc 65. Body
33.* Spring 66. Valve
34. Cover 67.* O'ring Buna-N
35.* Diaphragm (2 required
neoprene)
O'ring Viton
36. Drain plug 68.* O'ring Buna-N
O'ring Viton
69. Bushing
*Recommended spare parts
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
20 - 26

Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
21 - 26
1.3.8 Parts list
1.* Upper valve seat 31. Cotter pin
2.* Valve spring 32. Clevis pin
3.* Valve disc 33. Body C.I.
4.* Lower valve seat 35.* Valve Disc
5. Housing, alum 36.* Washer
6. Cap bolt 37.* Spring, SS
7. Stem assembly 38. Disc retainer
8.* Diaphragm 39. Washer
9. Housing cap 40. Cap screw
10. Cap nut 41. Elbow
11.* Bowl 42. Cap
12.* Gasket 43. Cap gasket
13. Bushing 44. Seat block pin
14. Screen 45.* Valve seat assembly
15. Body 46. Filter screen
16. Shut-off assembly 47. Orifice screw
17. Body 48. Body
18.* Packing 49. Valve seat block yoke
19. Gland nut 50. Diaphragm nut gasket
20. Nut 51.* Body gasket
21. Valve stem 52.* Diaphragm
22. Lock pin 53 Spring plate
23. Bearing 54 Lock nut
24. Socket cap screw 55. Spring
25. Flipper bearing pin 56. Spring disc
26. Flipper arm 57. Body screw
27. Spring connector 58. Bonnet
28. Flipper spring 59. Lock nut
29. Flipper assembly 60. Adjusting screw
30. Flipper arm assembly 61.* Drive pin
*Recommended spare parts

Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
22 - 26

Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
23 - 26
1.3.9 Injector head parts list
1.* Plunger (armaloy - 17.7 ph)
2. Packing gland nut, C.S. cad.
3. Packing gland 303SS
4. Lantern ring 303SS
5. Packing, buna-N
6. Pipe plug
7. Top busing 303SS
8. Check ball spring 316SS
9. Gasket 304SS
10.* Top check ball 3/8" 316SS
11.* Top check valve seat assy 303
12. Pump head
13. Ball cage 303SS
14.* Bottom check ball 316SS
15.* Gasket 304SS
16.* O'ring buna-N
17.* Bottom check valve seat 303
18. Bottom bushing 303SS
19. Priming valve (not shown)
25. O'ring buna-N (included in item 11)
5-A Packing
Teflon
Hard above 3000 psi
11-A* Top seat (metal to metal) 303
16-A Viton O'ring
17-A* Bottom seat (metal to metal) 303
25-A Viton O'ring
*Recommended spare parts
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
24 - 26
INJECTOR HEAD

Regulators
1 - 1

SECTION 18
REGULATORS

Regulators

2 - 2
1.1 ROLE
To reduce the pressure
To keep the downstream pressure constant
To act, if necessary, as a filter.
1.2 DESCRIPTION
Regulators are generally composed of:
A body in several parts
A diaphragm
A calibration spring
A plug, its seat and a plug spring
A filter element can be added
1.3 OPERATION
In order to go from upstream of the regulator to downstream, the gas to be reduced
passes across a plug seat system. The downstream pressure, against the
diaphragm, causes a force that is counter-balanced by the tension of the calibration
spring. Adjustment of the spring tension will enable the value of this force to be
adjusted.
Let us examine what happens when the downstream pressure in the regulator
varies:
The downstream pressure is reduced
The spring tension is then greater than the force exerted by the gas pressure o the
diaphragm; consequently:
The plug moves away from its seat
The downstream pressure increases until the desired value is reached.
The downstream pressure is increased
The spring tension is then less than the force exerted by the gas against the
diaphragm. Consequently:
The plug pushed by its support spring, approaches its seat
The downstream pressure falls until the desired value is reached.
1.3.1 Dismantling and assembly
This aspect will be covered when studying the individual regulators.
1.3.2 Adjustment
The value of the downstream pressure range will be a function of the spring used.
To reduce the value of this range, a change of spring following the manufacturer
instructions is all that is necessary.
Regulators
3 - 3

The value of the downstream pressure (within its range) is obtained by adjusting the
spring tension with the aid of an adjustment screw. This tension plays the role of a set
point.
1.3.3 Maintenance
Purge frequently
Clean the porous cartridge if there is one.
1.3.4 Breakdowns
Pierced diaphragm
Blocked filter
1.4 TYPES OF REGULATORS
We are now going to study four types of regulator
FISHER type 67 FR
FISHER type 1305 antifreeze
FISHER type 621
FISHER type 630 "Big Joe"
1.4.1 FISHER 67 FR Regulator
4.1.1 ROLE
The object of this type of regulator is to supply, at constant pressure of air or gas,
all sorts of pneumatic controllers.
4.1.2 OPERATION
This has already been studied. Nevertheless, one should note the small channel
providing the communication between the regulator output and the diaphragm.
REMARK
If the downstream pressure is too great, the gas or air can vent through the hole in
the middle of the diaphragm.
During normal operation, this hole is covered by the tapered top part of the
plug.
The gas can vent to the atmosphere through an orifice in the bonnet cap, an
orifice that also allows the diaphragm to "breathe" during normal operation.
4.1.3 DISMANTLING AND REASSEMBLY
To dismantle the bonnet cap, begin by removing the spring calibration adjustment
screw.
4.1.4 ADJUSTMENT
The outlet pressure from the regulator is marked on the bonnet cap. The different
ranges possible are:
Regulators

4 - 4

Spring Range (In bars) Spring Color
0.35 to 1.4 GREEN
0.35 to 2.4 SILVER
2.1 to 4.2 BLUE
3.85 to 7 RED
We generally use spring range 0.35 to 2.4.
REMARK
Each spring can nevertheless produce an outlet pressure equal to O.
To change the regulator output pressure:
o Unscrew the locknut (11)
o Turn the adjustment screw (10)
screw to increase output pressure
unscrew to decrease output pressure
o Retighten the locknut.
The maximum input is 17.5 bars (250 PSI).
4.1.5 MAINTENANCE
Purge frequently
Clean the porous cartridge.
4.1.6 BREAKDOWNS
Pierced diaphragm
Blocked filter
4.1.7 67F AND 67FR SERIES REGULATORS
WARNING
Regulators should be installed, operated and maintained in accordance
with federal, state and local codes rules and regulations and Fisher
instructions. If the regulator vents gas or a leak develops in the system,
it indicates that service is required. Failure to take the regulator out of
service immediately may create a hazardous condition. Call a
serviceman in case of trouble. Only a qualified person must install or
service the regulator.
INTRODUCTION
The Type 67F and 67FR regulators are designed to provide a constant
reduced pressure (air or gas) to pilot operated controllers and
instruments. They can also be used for air spray guns, air jets, and
other miscellaneous air and gas applications.
Both the Type 67F and 67FR regulators are constructed with a filter.
The cellulose filter removes particles greater than 0.0015" diameter. A
stainless steel or brass filter removes particles greater than 0.002"
diameter.
The 67FR is designed with an integral low capacity relief valve. The
metal valve stem seats against an orifice in the diaphragm head, which
allows some leakage. (The amount is insignificant on air service.) A
downstream pressure increase above the control point.
Regulators
5 - 5

Control point will move the diaphragm off the valve stem, venting the
excess pressure to the atmosphere through a drilled vent in the spring
case.
INSTALLATION
WARNING
The vent hole drilled in the bonnet must not be plugged. On outdoor
installations this hole should be in the down position. If this is
impractical, protect the regulator so that moisture cannot enter the vent.
The Type 67FR must not be used for applications where gas cannot be
vented to the atmosphere. All pipelines should be thoroughly cleaned
and blown out before installing the regulator. Be sure that flow is in
accordance with the letters denoting "IN" and "OUT" on the body. Inlet
and outlet connections are tapped " NPT. Install with the drain cock
down. The drain cock (key 17) should be opened periodically to allow
moisture, which has accumulated to drain. The regularity with which this
is done will depend on how much moisture is in the system.
OVER-PRESSURE PROTECTION
As is the case with most regulators, the Series 67F and 67FR have an
outlet pressure rating lower than the inlet pressure rating. Some type of
over-pressure protection is needed if the actual inlet pressure exceeds
the 100 psig maximum operating outlet pressure rating. The maximum
inlet pressure rating is 250 psig.
Over-pressure protection should also be provided when the inlet
pressure is greater than the safe working pressure of downstream
equipment.
Full-capacity downstream relief protection must be provided with the 67F
design if upstream pressure is high enough to damage equipment
downstream. This also applies to the 67FR design, which only provides
for low capacity relief.
ADJUSTMENT
The outlet spring range is shown on the paper label attached to the
bonnet. Outlet pressure spring ranges are as follows:
Spring Range in psig Spring Color
3-20 Green
5-35 Cadmium
30-60 Blue
35-100 Red
The above spring ranges are recommended, although reduced pressure
down to O psig may be obtained with each spring.
To change the outlet setting of the spring, first loosen locknut (key 11).
Then turn adjusting screw (key 10) clockwise to increase outlet setting or
counter-clockwise to decrease outlet setting. Be sure to tighten locknut
after changing the setting.
Regulators

6 - 6




FISHER FR 67

Regulators
7 - 7

MAINTENANCE
CAUTION
Before disassembly or removing the regulator from the line, isolate it
from the pressure system and release all the pressure from the
regulator.
Due to normal wear, parts must be periodically inspected and replaced if
necessary. The frequency of inspection depends on the severity of the
service conditions.
Before disassembling the unit for diaphragm replacement, loosen the
locknut and turn the adjusting screw counter-clockwise until there is no
compression on the spring. Remove the six screws (key 12) and
separate the bonnet from the body. This exposes the diaphragm (key 7)
for replacement.
To replace the valve plug, remove the four cap screws (key 18) and
remove the filter cap (key 25). The filter adapter (key 13) can now be
removed with a deep socket wrench to gain access to the valve plug
(key 4).
When the filter element (key 29) becomes dirty, it should be cleaned
with solvent and blown out with air or replaced.
TYPE NUMBER
When corresponding with the factory or representatives in regard to this
regulator, always give the type number found stamped on the body.
Refer to the complete part numbers when ordering parts.
1.4.2 FISHER 1305 ANTIFREEZE REGULATOR
4.2.1 ROLE
The aim of this regulator as its name indicates is to prevent the formation of
hydrates during gas reduction.
4.2.2 DESCRIPTION
A small calibrated orifice (1) located upstream of the regulator causes the
reduction. This orifice is always installed inside the separator where the gas is
hottest. The heat is transmitted to the reduced gas by fins (2) located on the input
adapter. This system enables the temperature of the input gas to be increased
and also prevents the formation of hydrates.
The task of the stem (3) linking the orifice to the bottom part of the diaphragm is to
vary the quantity of gas input according to the fluctuations of the downstream
pressure in the regulator. These pressure fluctuations are transmitted to the
diaphragm.
4.2.3 OPERATION
Fall in downstream pressure:
The spring pushes back the diaphragm, which consequently uncovers slightly
more of the input orifice. As a result, the downstream pressure in the regulator is
re-established.
Increase in downstream pressure:
Regulators

8 - 8
The pressure pushes back the diaphragm, which consequently closes slightly
more of the input orifice. As a result, the downstream pressure in the reducer is
re-established.
4.2.4 DISMANTLING AND ASSEMBLY
Dismantling presents no particular difficulty. Start by disconnecting the union (4).
During these operations, proceed extremely carefully in order to avoid blocking the
bosses of the stem, linking the orifice with the diaphragm.
4.2.5 ADJUSTMENT
The regulator output pressure is marked on the bonnet cap. It is a function of the
type of spring used:
10 to 75 PSI
50 to 150 PSI
100 to 225 PSI
200 to 500 PSI
As for other regulators, adjusting the spring tension can set the output pressure.
4.2.6 MAINTENANCE
It might be necessary to replace the disc opposite the orifice, on the end of the
stem. To do this:
Disconnect the union
Unscrew the disc carrier and replace it.

FISHER TYPE 1305 ANTIFREEZE REGULATOR
Regulators
9 - 9

1.4.3 FISHER TYPE 621 REGULATOR
4.3.1 ROLE
It is used on GEOSERVICES Heaters to reduce the supply gas for the principal
burner. This reduction is carried out between the scrubber working at 100 PSI and
the principal burner, which must be supplied between 10 and 25 PSI.
4.3.2 DESCRIPTION
A body (1) contains the spring and diaphragm.
A pipe (2) providing the communication between the bottom part of the
diaphragm and the regulator output.
A calibrated orifice (3) allowing the fall in pressure.
A disc (4) more or less covering the calibrated orifice according to the
variations in output pressure.
A linkage system (5) connecting the disc to the diaphragm.
4.3.3 OPERATION
The gas is reduced across the calibrated orifice. As for all regulators, a variation in
the downstream pressure causes the disc to be displaces, thus enabling the
passage of gas to be increased or reduced. As a result, the downstream pressure
is re-established.
4.3.4 DISMANTLING AND ASSEMBLY
Nothing particular except during assembly:
Replace the adjustment screw by compressing slightly the spring before re-
tightening the bonnet cap positioning screw - this is done in order to give the
diaphragm a bit of slack, enabling the regulator to work (do not forget it is a
controller too).
4.3.5 ADJUSTMENT
The output pressure range is a function of two parameters:
The spring
The diameter of the orifice, which can be changed according to the flow,
anticipated.
On our regulators, we use:
The type 10 - 25 PSI spring
The 3/8" orifice.
This information can be seen on the bonnet cap. The adjustment of a precise
output pressure is obtained by regulating the spring tension.
Regulators

10 - 10
4.3.6 MAINTENANCE
Disc and orifice inspection
You can easily do this by unscrewing the union, which connects the body (fixed on
the tubing) to the diaphragm assembly.
Make sure that the union is correctly tightened.
In the case of leakage from this point, change the gasket.
To remove the diaphragm:
a) Remove the adjustment screw
b) Remove the bonnet cap positioning screw
c) Remove the diaphragm assembly-head by disconnecting the push
rod (6) of the arm (7).
4.3.7 BREAKDOWNS


PIERCED DIAPHRAGM
Regulators
11 - 11

4.3.8 TYPES 620 AND 621
INSTALLATION
Uncrate and inspect the regulator. Be certain that the body and seat ring
are clean. Remove pipe scale and foreign material from the connecting
pipelines. For threaded connections, coat male threads with pipe
compound. The regulator may be installed in any position provided the
flow is in the direction indicated by the flow direction arrow on the body.
The regulator must be protected against damage by vehicles or other
external sources.
The operative ambient temperature range for Type 620 and 621
regulators is -20F to +150F.
VENTS
Spring-loaded Type 620 and 621 regulators have a screened vent
assembly installed in the " NPT spring case vent opening. Remove the
vent assembly and install a remote vent line if necessary.
Loading regulators for pressure-loaded constructions have atmospheric
bleed provided by a bleed orifice fitting in the Type 1301F and an internal
relief valve in the Types 67R and 67HR.
WARNING
The bleed orifice or relief valve of the pressure-loading regulator
continuously vents a small amount of gas. Explosion of accumulated gas
could cause personal injury or equipment damage. If the regulator is
located where accumulation of the vented gas will create an explosion
hazard, install a remote vent line to carry the vented gas to a safe area.
Type 1301F belled orifice is furnished with a " NPT screened opening:
remove the screen and install a remote vent line. Types 67R and 67HR
must be specified to have a tapped spring case if remote venting is
desired.
Remote vent lines must have the largest practical diameter. The vent line
should be as short as possible with a minimum number of bends or
elbows.
Protect all vent openings against entrance of rain, snow, or any other
foreign material that may plug the line and prevent proper operation of the
regulator. Periodically check the vent openings to be sure they are not
plugged.
OVER-PRESSURE PROTECTION
As in most regulators, the Types 620 and 621 spring-loaded and
pressure-loaded regulators have maximum inlet pressure ratings, which
exceed the maximum outlet pressure ratings. Outlet over-pressure
protection must be provided if the actual inlet pressure is capable of
exceeding the outlet pressure rating.
Over-pressure protection may also be required for the loading regulator
and main regulator spring case of pressure loaded regulators.
WARNING
Over-pressuring any portion of this equipment may cause damage to
regulator pasts. Leaks in the regulator, or personal injury due to bursting
of pressure-containing parts of explosion of accumulated gas.
Regulators

12 - 12
To avoid over-pressure, provide an appropriate over-pressure protection
device to ensure that none of the limits listed in tables 1 through 3 will be
exceeded.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Refer to the operational schematic in figure 3. In Type 620 and 621
regulators, outlet pressure is registered under the diaphragm via the pilot
tube and used as the operating medium. Type 621 monitoring regulator
and monitoring pilot control pressure is registered through the " NPT
connection in the lower casing. If downstream demand increases, outlet
pressure decreases. Spring compression pushes the diaphragm and
pusher post down and pulls the disc away from the seat ring to permit
increased gas flow. When downstream demand decreases, the outlet
pressure increases. The increased pressure acting on the diaphragm
compresses the spring and moves the disc closer to the seat ring to
reduce gas flow.
A Type 621 monitoring pilot allows quick bleed of the working pilot and
main regulator of a monitoring system (see figure 4). When pressure
under the diaphragm increases after the main disc (key 6) is seated, the
spring-loaded back disc (key 65) (see figure 8) opens and allows pressure
from the working pilot and main regulator to bleed back through the throat
of the pilot.
LOADING REGULATOR SUPPLY PRESSURE
Use a clean, dry gas as supply pressure for the loading regulator of
pressure-loaded units. Connect the supply to the " NPT inlet connection
of the loading regulator. The supply pressure may be obtained from the
upstream piping, but be certain adequate over-pressure protection is
provided for both the loading regulator and main regulator spring case.
PUTTING UNIT INTO SERVICE
Caution: In order to avoid an over-pressure condition and possible equipment damage or
personal injury, pressure gauges should always be used to monitor pressures during start-
up.
1. For pressure-loaded constructions, turn on supply pressure to loading regulator.
2. Slowly open the upstream shutoff valve.
3. Slowly open the downstream shutoff valve.
4. Check all connections for leaks.
5. If indicated by the monitoring pressure gauges, make final spring adjustments
according to the "Adjustment" section.
ADJUSTMENT
The range of allowable pressure settings is marked on the nameplate. If
a pressure setting beyond this range is necessary, substitute the
appropriate main regulator spring or loading regulator spring. Change the
nameplate to indicate the new pressure range.
Regulators
13 - 13

Before increasing the setting, refer to manufacturing tables. Review the
pressure limits for the spring range being used and be certain that the
new pressure setting will not result in an over-pressure condition.
Note: Always use a pressure gauge to monitor pressure when making adjustments.
For spring-loaded Types 620 and 621
1. Remove the adjusting screw cap from Type 621 (top view key 31).
2. Loosen locknut (key 22).
3. Increase the outlet setting by turning the adjusting screw (key 23)
clockwise. Decrease the outlet setting by turning the adjusting
screw counter-clockwise.
For pressure-loaded Type 621 regulators, perform adjustments on the
loading regulator as follows:
1. Loosen locknut if one is present.
2. To increase outlet setting, turn adjusting screw clockwise. To
decrease outlet setting turn adjusting screw counter-clockwise.
3. Tighten locknut.
TAKING UNIT OUT OF SERVICE
Isolate the regulator from all pressure. For pressure-loaded
constructions, shut off supply pressure to the loading regulator.
Cautiously release all pressure from the regulator to be serviced before
performing any maintenance on the unit.
FISHER 'BIG JOE' PRESSURE REDUCING REGULATOR (630)
This regulator is used to lower the separator gas pressure (max 1 500
PSI) to 100 PSI so that gas can be supplied to operate the separator
instruments (in locations with no air supply) or to supply gas to the heater.
The pressure reduction can depend on the size of the orifice and the
spring rate.
Specifications - max inlet pressure 1 500 psig
outlet pressure 3 - 40 psig or 27 - 500 psig
operating temperature 20F to 150F.

Regulators

14 - 14

Regulators
15 - 15

1.4.4 FISHER TYPE 630 "BIG JOE" REGULATOR
4.4.1 ROLE
This regulator is used on our Heaters to lower the supply pressure between the
separator outlet and the heater scrubber. That is to say, between 1500 PSI, which
is the maximum reducer limit, and 100 PSI, which is the maximum working
pressure limit of the scrubber.
4.4.2 DESCRIPTION
See diagram.
4.4.3 OPERATION
The same principle as for the 621.
4.4.4 DISMANTLING AND ASSEMBLY
During assembly, do not forget to put the case (3) containing the spring on the low-
pressure side. The arrow on the bonnet cap indicates the flow direction of the
fluid.
During assembly, replace the adjustment screw by slightly compressing the spring
before re-tightening the case positioning screws. This is to give the diaphragm a
bit of slack.
4.4.5 ADJUSTMENT
The output pressure range is a function of two parameters:
The spring
The orifice diameter.
Information about the spring and orifice is marked on the bonnet cap.
a) SPRING
On the equipment that we use, the most frequent output ranges are:
46- 95 PSI
90- 150 PSI.
The output pressure desired can be adjusted by regulating the screw tension.
b) ORIFICE
The orifice normally used is the 3/16". In the heater body you will find 1/8" and "
orifices. Remember that 3/16 1/8.
If the input pressure of fuel gas is weak (it is generally the separator pressure), you
will have to use a large orifice and vice versa.
We can see, therefore, that to obtain a correct supply pressure, one must regulate
both the orifice diameter and the spring at the same time.
Note: If there were a risk of the presence of H2S, you would be well advised to use Stainless
Steel rather than brass orifices.
4.4.6 MAINTENANCE
Check that the orifice is clean.
Grease the male connections before tightening them.
Regulators

16 - 16
To change the disc proceed in the following way:
Remove the bonnet cap diaphragm assembly.
Remove the disc carrier
Check the orifice.
To change the diaphragm proceed in the following way:
Remove the adjustment screw
Remove the diaphragm assembly
Replace the diaphragm.
To assemble:
Check that the diaphragm connection stem is well fixed in the arm
Tighten the bonnet cap screw before putting the diaphragm assembly
back in position
Do not forget to replace the adjustment screw before re-tightening the
bonnet cap screws; in order to give the diaphragm the necessary slack.
4.4.7 BREAKDOWNS
See other regulators.
Burners and Booms
1 - 1
SECTION 19
BURNERS AND BOOMS
Burners and Booms
2 - 2

1.1 VULCAN BURNER
The Vulcan burner has been designed to be a versatile burner for the clean disposal of crude
oil, oil-based muds, and workover fluids.

Although the burner can be configured in many ways due to Customer requirements, the
standard Vulcan burner is equipped with six heads, each individual head comprising of:

- Venturi mixing chamber that atomizes fluid into fine droplets and where compressed
air is injected into the flow.
- Static mixers tube where air and fluid are commingled thoroughly.
- A spray cone on the burner tip to achieve final atomization.
- A diesel or gas pilot

The four upper heads of the burner are for the disposal of well fluids and effluent. Depending
on the expected flow rate, the number of guns can be selected by the opening or closing of
valves on the burner oil manifold.
The oil supply line to the burners is equipped with diesel injection piping to mix well effluent
with diesel to achieve a more favorable burning mixture.
The lower two guns are to provide a diesel or gas blanket flame to aid in the disposal of oil
based muds, or oils with high water cut or solids. These lower guns may also be used for the
disposal of surge tank contents whilst the well is flowing through the upper guns.

The Vulcan burner also has water injection piping around the burner heads that enables
atomized water to enter the flame. The action of high temperature on water vapor splits the
water into its constituent elements that combine chemically with the hydrocarbons to improve
burning, and eliminates the formation of black smoke.

Also fitted to the burner head is a water screen to reduce radiated heat and enable personnel
access to the burner head whilst burning is in progress.

Flare ignition is carried out by the use of high-tension spark plugs igniting a gas or diesel pilot
flame. Each burner head has an individual pilot to ensure early ignition of the atomized fluid
from each gun. The spark plugs are connected to armored high-tension leads, which are in
turn connected to three high-tension transformer units supplied by 220 or 110 V. AC supply.

For added safety, non-return valves are fitted to the oil and air supply lines to prevent back
flow into the boom and rig pipework.








Burners and Booms
3 - 3
1.1.1 Technical Data
Design pressure 100 bars (1440 psi) at 53C (125F)
Working pressure 90 bars (1330 psi) at 121C (250F)
Capacity 100 m3/h (15000 BPD)
Working
temperature
- 29C to +121C (- 20F to + 250F)
Configuration Four 2" guns, two 1" guns
Dimensions Length 2650 mm (8.70 ft)
Width 1200 mm (3.93 ft)
Height 1650 mm (5.41 ft)
Weight ( Stand alone ) 600 kg (1320 lbs.)
1.1.2 Supplies
Air (Maximum rate) 17 m3/min (600 cuft/min) at 10 bars (150 psi)
Water (Maximum rate) 1.25 m3/min (325 gal/min) at 20 bars (300 psi)
Diesel (For injection) 0.8 M3/min (215 gal/MN) @ 10 Bars (150 psi)
Electricity (for pilot ignition system) 220 V AC 50 or 60 Hz
1.1.3 Special Features
Four main 2" guns for oil/mud burning
Two independent 1" guns for diesel blanket or auxiliary burning
Two stage atomization device consisting of:
A mixing chamber preparing fluid/air mixture
A static mixer gun producing fine spray
Diesel injection capability on the main heads
Two independent water lines equipped with nozzles for water injection into the
flare to improve combustion and prevent black smoke
Water screen around the guns to reduce heat radiations
Individual gas/diesel pilot and ignition system on each head
Supporting frame with two pivots and swivel joints permitting +/- 74 rotation
1.1.4 Safety Devices
Non return valves on oil, air and diesel lines

OPTIONAL EQUIPMENT

Steam injection for heavy oil burning
Diesel injection unit
Remote operated pneumatic/hydraulic-rotating device
Remote control valves on water lines for accurate adjustment of water
injection rate

Burners and Booms
4 - 4

1.1.5 Connections

Diameter Flange Weco
Oil 3" 3" 600 # RF 3" fig. 602 female
Water screen 2" 2" 150 # RF 2" fig. 602 female
Water injection 2" 2" 150 # RF 2" fig. 602 female
Diesel injection 2" 2" 600 # RF 2" fig. 602 female
Air 2" 2" 150 # RF 2" fig. 602 female
Diesel cushion 2" 2" 600 # RF 2" fig. 602 female
Pilot gas " NPT

1.1.6 Position of Connections

Oil Water
screen
Water
injection
Diesel
injection
Air Diesel
cushion
A/ Floor to centre
line of flange
connection
1280 mm
(4.20')
390 mm
(1.28')
390 mm
(1.28')
990 mm
(3.25')
479 mm
(1.57')
180 mm
(0.59')
B/ Centre line of
flange
connection to
centre line of
unit
0 421 mm(*)
(1.38')
421
mm(*)
(1.38')
0 0 0

(*) Connected through flexible hose


Burners and Booms
5 - 5
1.2 OPERATION OF THE VULCAN BURNER
1.2.1 Installation
Install the burner on the boom in accordance with current certification.
Connect the burner oil, water, air and diesel pipework to the boom pipework
according to table 4. These connections and the burner valves and non-return
valves must be pressure tested.
Connect the gas or diesel supply to the pilot connections.
Connect the air supply to the pilot connections.
Connect the spark plugs to the high-tension cable, feed the high-tension
cables through the protective shielding, and connect them to the ignition
transformers.
Connect the ignition transformers to the correct voltage AC supply.
Turn on the air and gas or diesel supplies to the burner pilots.
Press and hold the igniter button. The spark plugs will spark every two
seconds, and should ignite the pilots.
Regulate the pilot flame.
1.2.2 Burner start up and operation
Determine the wind direction, and orientates the burner head so the wind
direction is blowing parallel and from behind.
Depending on the expected oil Flow rate open the required number of burner
guns.
Turn on the gas or diesel pilot supply; turn on the pilot air supply.
Ignite the pilot by pressing and holding the ignition button. If ignition is not
immediate, regulate the gas or diesel supply and try again.
Start the air compressor and send air to the burner head at about 1-2 bar.
Make sure the pilots remain lit.
Start the water pump. Open the water valve to the water injection rings. Make
sure that you have good atomization and that all the water nozzles are free
and unplugged.
Decrease the water supply, by regulating the valve, to the minimum to achieve
good atomization.
If a diesel or gas flame blanket is being used, slowly open the supply valve to
the burner. When flare ignites, regulate the flame by adjusting the supply
valve. The diesel blanket will normally burn with black smoke, as air will flow
preferentially to the upper guns until oil production is being sent to them.
Slowly open the oil supply valve to the upper burner nozzles. The burner
should ignite, and burn with black smoke.
Slowly increase the burning rate to the maximum by opening the oil and air
supply valves to the burner. Black smoke will be reduced by the addition of
more air. Do not increase either the air or oil supply without adjusting the
other.
When a stable flame is produced at the maximum flow-rate, increase the
water injection into the flare by slowly opening the water supply valve. The
black smoke will become thinner and eventually disappear.
It should be noted that a lack of air would produce fallout and black smoke,
especially at low flow rates. Fallout and black smoke will decrease with the
addition of more air, and fallout can be eliminated completely when the right
balance is achieved. The addition of water will stop black smoke formation, but
Burners and Booms
6 - 6

too much water will cause fallout, even before you start to produce grey
smoke.
1.2.3 Checks whilst the burner is in operation.
- Air supply piping is free from any return of hydrocarbons.
- Water nozzles remain unplugged and atomization is even and good.
- Wind direction is correct for burner orientation.
- There is no fallout and black smoke is minimized.

A close check should be made whilst burning on abrasive solids in oil or for
drilling mud, etc. These fluids can be very damaging to the venturi and burner
tips leading to poor atomization of oil and reduced burning efficiency. Fallout
will become evident and steadily worsen under these conditions. Replacement
of the affected parts should be carried out at the first opportunity.
1.2.4 Stopping Burning
To stop the burning operation:
- Close the oil supply valve to the burner.
- When the flame is extinguished, allow the air to continue for a few
minutes, before slowly closing the air supply valve. Hot oils or oil with
dissolved gas will often re-ignite the burner briefly as the air pressure is
decreased.
- Shut down the pilot flame.
- Let the water screen flow for a few minutes to cool the burner.
- Flush the water line with fresh water to remove corrosive seawater.
- Perform routine maintenance to prepare for the next job.
1.2.5 Methods to enhance burner performance
Good burning is dependent on good atomization. Atomization can be
improved by trying to attain the highest possible burner pressure. A minimum
of 10 bar (150 psi) is recommended.
If the flow rates are too low to achieve these pressures, the addition of
increased compressed air has a positive effect on burner performance.
Compressed air should slowly be increased as too high a velocity of an air/oil
mixture leaving the burner tip can cause late ignition and the burner flame can
be extinguished.
The increase of compressed air to the burner will cause backpressure on the
oil line and sometimes reduced oil flow. Caution should be taken to observe
separator levels during burner adjustment.

Correct maintenance of the burner is simple but imperative if clean burning is
to be achieved. Before the start of every job the following safety and
maintenance checks should be done.
The burner tips should be checked for signs of wear. If they are worn
the burner gun should be dismounted and the venturis, twisted parts,
and burner tip should be replaced if worn.
Burners and Booms
7 - 7
The spark plugs and high-tension leads should be inspected for signs
of corrosion or damage. Make sure there is no dirt on the spark plug
tip that may cause shorting.
The pilots head must be dismantled and cleaned.
Propane flow rate or gas oil/compressed air ratio must be adjusted.
The water spray system must be cleaned and function checked.
The pressure test of the burner head is compulsory in order to verify
the efficiency of the check valve on the compressed air line.
1.3 SAFETY
Use of the burner is the single largest source of ignition during normal rig operations.
The Vulcan Burner is designed for ease of use and is a safe operation. To maintain
safe working conditions, certain guidelines must be followed before the start, and
during the burning operations.

1. The Burner must only be operated by trained personnel who are familiar with its
operation.

2. Before starting any Burner operations all process lines and connections to the
burner must be pressure tested.

3. The burner head isolation valves, and non-return valves on the air, oil, and diesel
lines must be operational and pressure tested.

4. Burning operations must only be started upon direction from the customer.
Stopping burner operations is upon direction of the customer or upon discovery of
equipment malfunction.

5. Burning during boat or helicopter operations may be hazardous. Checks must be
made for these, and other operations, that may interfere with burning.

6. A crew of fire fighters must be standing by during burning operations, to cool
overheated equipment and structures.

7. Information on the estimated flow rate, oil viscosity and gravity should be obtained
before the start of burner operations.

8. Burner set-up may be modified whilst burning, as the burner does not radiate
excessive heat towards the rear. Certain safety rules must be observed whilst
modifications to the burner set-up are made.

Wear cotton or flame retarding materials. Work clothing must not be made
of Nylon or similar synthetic material.
Wear work gloves.
Wear safety goggles & ear protectors.
Wear a life jacket or buoyancy aid.
Secure yourself with a safety harness.
Always have fire fighters and a rescue team present to lend assistance.

Burners and Booms
8 - 8

1.4 RECOMMENDED SPARE PARTS
1 ignition box
2 high-tension cables
2 spark plugs
50 water nozzles
1 complete burner head assembly 2
1 complete burner head assembly 1
1 'O' rings kit
1 complete gas pilot assembly
1 ball valve 2"
1 ball valve 1
1 swivel 3"
2 'O' rings for swivel 3"
4 bolts for flanges
4 rings for flange 1 "
4 rings for flange 2"
4 rings for flange 3"
1 check valve 3"
1 check valve 2"
2 venturi cones
6 grey lock seal 2"
2 grey lock seal 3"


Burners and Booms
9 - 9
Have all maintenance
procedures been carried out ?
Pressure test burner
Carry out
maintenance
Pressure test
successful?
Burner
orientated correctly for wind direction ?
Ignite Pilots
Orientate
Burner
Pilots ignited ?
Use Diesel/Gas
Blanket
Vulcan Burner Troubleshooting guide
Start Water Injection spray
Reduce water to minimum
Adjust Gas or
Diesel supply Check power supply
and high tension circuit
Diesel/gas flare blanket used?
Ignite flare
blanket
Flare blanket burning
without fallout ?
Start air
compressor
Open air valve to Burner.
Air pressure 1-2 bar
Slowly open Oil supply valve to burner
Flare ignited?
If diesel or gas injection is used,
Increase Injection rate
Slowly increase oil and air to maximum
Fluid burning without fallout?
Clean Burn!
Increase air
Decrease Water
Improved burning?
Fluid burning with black smoke?
Decrease water
injection
Fluid burning with grey smoke?
Increase water
injection
Check fluid constituents
are they flammable?
Stop Burning!
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
Yes
No

Yes
No No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
No



Burners and Booms
10 - 10

1.5 BOOM INSTALLATION

In the following pages you will find the typical cable installation of a 60 burner boom, delta
plates mounting.

Burners and Booms
11 - 11

BOOM 60

DELTA PLATE MOUNTING
Burners and Booms
12 - 12


DETAIL 1 VERTICAL CABLE

BOOM 60
DELTA PLATE MOUNTING
Burners and Booms
13 - 13

DETAIL 2 VERTICAL CABLE
Burners and Booms
14 - 14


DETAIL 3 HORIZONTAL CABLES
Burners and Booms
15 - 15

DETAIL 4 HORIZONTAL CABLES
Burners and Booms
16 - 16





DELTA PLATE
Burners and Booms
17 - 17

CONNECTING PLATE DETAIL
Burners and Booms
18 - 18

BILL OF MATERIAL
Sampling
1 - 1
SECTION 20
SURFACE SAMPLING




Sampling
2 - 2
1.1 GENERAL
Samples taken at the bottom of the producing well or at surface make it possible to
analyze both the physical and chemical characteristics of the reservoir fluids.
Results obtained in the laboratory can only be interpreted if the sample is
representative because the volume necessary for analysis is only an infinitesimal
part of the fluid in place.
MAKE SURE THAT NO CHEMICALS ARE INJECTED UPSTREAM OF THE
SEPARATOR (Glycol, Methanol, inhibitors etc.) at the time of sampling. If any such
injection is stopped before sampling, allow ample time for the chemicals to be
purged from the separator. If it is impossible to operate without injection of
chemicals, note the chemical used and its injection rate.
The choice of a sampling method should be made according to the type and
conditions of the reservoir fluid, production characteristics, bottom hole and surface
equipment available. In all cases the selected method should follow the procedures
described in this chapter.
Note: if possible the separator liquid and gas samples should be taken simultaneously in
order to have the same sampling conditions for both fluids.
Bottom Hole Sampling if any will be advantageously performed at the same time.
The earlier in the well life sampling is made, the better, but the well must be properly
cleaned-up.
1.1.1 Sample point check
The main difficulty while sampling arises from the fact that liquid and gas are
in dynamic equilibrium in the Separator:
Any drop in pressure or increase in temperature of the Separator liquid,
which is at its bubble point, will result in the formation of gas. For the
Separator gas, which is at its dew point (this is a normal dew point - not
retrograde), an increase in pressure or decrease in temperature will result in
condensation of the heavy components.
In any such case when a fluid becomes diphasic during sampling, it is
probable that disproportionate quantities of the two phases will be collected
and the sample will not be representative.
Before any sampling is attempted, the sample point should be checked to
make sure there is no possibility of contamination (e.g. oil or condensate
carry-over for a gas sampling point; water or sludge from a liquid point).
1.1.2 Special cases
If more than one separator is in use, gas and liquid samples must be taken
from the first (higher-pressure) separator. In exceptional circumstances,
liquid samples could be taken from lower pressure separators, but only if
samples of gas are taken from this lower pressure separator and all higher-
pressure separators; all gas flow rates must also be measured.
H2S concentrations in a sample can change due to reaction, adsorption or
solution, and laboratory analyses frequently give reduced concentrations due
to this. Thus, in any case where H2S is present in a reservoir fluid, on-site
Sampling
3 - 3
analysis (even by Dredger tube) is highly recommended. Concentrations in
all produced fluids should be determined.
1.2 CONDITIONING OF THE WELL
The flowing period during which the samples are to be taken should be preceded by
a cleaning-up period long enough to eliminate the drilling completion or stimulation
fluids.
Well must flow through the Separator situate as close as possible to the Well Head,
to avoid any disturbance and too lengthy stabilization periods in flow lines.
With client agreement, immediately after the clean-up period, a first sampling is
performed for safety. (When all further samples have been taken, the samples
taken at the end of the clean-up period can be discarded).
Sampling should be performed when the Gas Liquid Ratio (G.L.R.) is stable; stability
should normally be better than 5%. In difficult wells, variations of up to 10% may be
unavoidable.
In general, the longer the flow period, the better the flow stability and quality of
samples.
This is achieved in producing the well with a low drawdown (saturated fluid) or at a
bottom hole pressure higher than the bubble point pressure (undersaturated fluid),
until a stable flow is reached, in order to avoid retrograde condensation in the
reservoir near the bore hole (gas well) or gas liberation in the reservoir near the bore
hole (oil well).
Stabilization is achieved:
When well head pressure and temperature remain stable.
When flow rates and GOR are stable, the temperature and pressure of separator
remaining unchanged.
Choice of flow rate:
It depends on the productivity of the well:
In high productivity wells, there is no problem.
In average or low production wells or if the productivity is unknown, the choice of
flow rate giving regular flow of the 2 phase liquid and gas to the Separator might be
difficult:
Sampling a Gas Well
Flow must be high enough to avoid liquid accumulations at the tubing shoe.
If the GOR decreases, keep producing until stabilization is reached.
Sampling an Oil Well
Flow must be maintained at the minimum steady rate. When the Gas Oil Ratio
(G.O.R.) is steady between two flow reductions, then the well is producing fluid
representative of the reservoir.

Sampling
4 - 4
1.3 ADJUSTMENT OF SEPARATOR PRESSURE
The pressure must be adjusted to minimize liquid carry over at the Separator Outlet.
1.4 DOWN-HOLE CONDITIONS
The Down Hole flowing pressure shall be recorded during sampling. A pressure
gradient while flowing is useful to compute the pressure at the level of perforations.
Pressure and temperature of reservoir under static conditions are also necessary.
All other information requested on the Surface Sampling Sheet
1.5 SAMPLING PROCEDURES - GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS
1. CONNECTION LINE TO SAMPLING BOTTLES MUST BE AS SHORT AS
POSSIBLE. Two 2.5 m Flexible Hoses with Quick Unions are provided in the
Sampling Kit - one for gas sampling, one for oil sampling.
2. Full purging of Flexible Hose before sampling is necessary to make sure that the
sample is representative of the fluid actually leaving the separator (i.e. for which the
flow rate is measured).
3. Sample Bottles must be clean and dry.
4. OFFICIAL PRESSURE TEST MUST NOT BE DUE WITHIN THE NEXT 6
MONTHS
5. Need for duplicate samples: it is recommended that three samples of each phase
(coupled if possible) be taken. This is an insurance against sample leaks or other
losses and allows crosschecking of samples in the Laboratory.
6. Need for sufficient sample quantities for the entire PVT study. Condition 5. is
normally sufficient.
7. Information to be given on each sample. The laboratory PVT study of the sample
can be carried out properly only if all the information obtained during the well test
has been noted carefully and then sent to the laboratory. Surface Sampling sheet
(separate one for each sample) should be filled in completely. This means every
space should have some entry with units as appropriate; an example is given
hereafter. If a measurement was not made or is unknown, enter N/A for "Not
applicable". Any observation about unusual character of fluid, problems during
sampling etc. should be given under "Remarks". A copy of the Surface Sampling
sheet must be enclosed, in a protective envelope, with the samples to be sent to
the laboratory or to be stored. A COPY OF THE WELL TEST REPORT SHOULD
BE SENT SEPARATELY TO THE PVT LABORATORY ALONG WITH THE
TRANSPORT DETAILS
8. Reporting of sampling data should include: method and transfer fluid used,
quantities (even approximate) of materials remaining in the sample bottle, and
reporting any event which may mean one sample is less reliable than another.
Sampling
5 - 5
9. OIL BOTTLES MUST NEVER BE LEFT FULL OF LIQUID SAMPLE. A GAS CAP
OF AT LEAST 10% IS COMPULSORY FOR SAMPLE STORAGE AND/OR
TRANSPORTATION.
10. If 0.5 liter gas bottles are provided, fill up one bottle with gas after standard
sampling is completed. This will be available for chromatographic analysis. If 0.5
liter gas bottles are not available, a standard oil bottle can be filled if required, using
nitrogen as displacement fluid. As connection to oil bottle (" NPT x 3/16" RIC) is
unique in the Sampling Kit, this sampling can be effected at the end of operation
only. MAKE SURE THAT NO TRACE OF OIL OR SOLVENT REMAINS IN THE
UNION. A 0.5 liter gas bottle or 628 cc oil bottle is filled in about 5 minutes.
11. Sample Bottle Checking immediately after the sampling must be performed, and
once the Flexible Hoses have been disconnected, a leak test is made on the
Valves by immersing them into a bucket full of water. If the test shows no leaks,
the Valve outlets are fitted with Protector Plugs and sealed. Finally Bottle End
Protectors are installed. If a leaking valve is detected for an oil or condensate
sample, the sample is invalid and sampling should be repeated. A leaking gas
sample should likewise be rejected, unless the leak is cured before any significant
quantity of gas has been lost. (Pressure still within 2% of Separator pressure).
12. It is prohibited to re-use a contaminated bottle following a miscarried sampling.
13. It is recommended to fill up a 5 gal (20 liter) jerrycan with flashed Separator or Tank
oil and to give it to client for his possible use.
14. For transportation purposes, the Bottle is placed into a special Transportation
Container. (Together WITH Surface Sampling sheet and Maintenance Report on
Sampling Bottles.)
15. Surface Sampling can only be carried out if at the minimum stabilized flow rate the
G.O.R. is very close to the initial G.O.R.
1.6 GAS SAMPLING
1.6.1 Number of sample bottles to be used
Take a minimum of three bottles (20 or 20 liter) for each sampling sequence
for a normal PVT study to ensure full control of representativeness and
sufficient quantity of sample.
THIS IS IRRESPECTIVE OF GOR - i.e. ANY GOR = 3 BOTTLES.
In case of low separator pressure (< 100 psi) and/or sampling with small
sample bottles (less than 10 liters) the following minimum gas volumes
should be collected:
Reservoir
Fluid Type
Volume of Gas at STANDARD CONDITIONS to
be sampled
Oil reservoir 200 litres = 7 cubic feet
Gas reservoir 500 litres = 18 cubic feet
Sampling
6 - 6
On some occasions, if the customer wants very extensive or duplicate PVT
studies, additional quantities of samples may be requested.
1.6.2 Methods
The following gas sampling methods are listed in order of decreasing
reliability. All methods try to avoid condensation of heavy components.
Separator gas behaves so, that either increasing pressure or decreasing
temperature is likely to produce condensation.
The vacuum method should be used in nearly all cases.
1.6.2.1 VACUUM METHOD
This method is to fill a container in which vacuum has previously
been made.
It eliminates any condensation, since one of the bottles has been
filled, it is not re-circulated.
In the Lab, any condensation is re-vaporized.
Evacuated bottles are normally brought up from base to the well
site or Vacuum Pump is available on side.
Remember the Pump and Vacuum Gauge are not explosion
proof!
Sample Bottles are evacuated in a horizontal or vertical position
with Vacuum Pump connected to one valve, and Vacuum Gauge
connected to the other valve.
The minimum vacuum (maximum pressure) allowed is 10 mmHg
(10 Torr) but the recommended vacuum of 1 to 2 mmHg should
normally be obtained before sampling is attempted.
It takes hour to 1 hour to evacuate a 20 litres Bottle to the
recommended void of 1 to 2 Torr.
When sampling, no heating of the bottle is necessary, nor should
purging or re-circulating of gas be attempted. Poor vacuum will
lead to air contamination of the sample.
1. Check that the Bottle is "green" tagged, equipped with
Stainless Steel Valves and fitted with End Protectors.
Check that the "Maintenance Report on Sampling
Bottles" is provided and correctly filled in. Make up
equipment as illustrated on the drawing opposite.
2. Connect the Union and Flexible Hose to the Gas
Sampling Point of the Separator.
3. Connect the Gas Bottle to the Swivel Adapter; making
sure the Teflon Seal is in place. Check that the Bottom
Valve of Bottle is tightly closed.
4. Open slowly the Separator Sampling Point, to
pressurize sampling line (Watch Pressure Gauge).
Close the Separator Sampling Point. Loosen the Swivel
Connection at the Bottle: gas leaks at the connection
with the Bottle. Tighten the Swivel Connection.
Sampling
7 - 7
5. Repeat the procedure in (4) five times.
6. Open Separator Sampling Point. Read and note
pressure on Gas Sampling Pressure Gauge after
allowing few minutes for stabilization.
7. Open slowly the Gas Bottle Top Valve, making sure that
there is no appreciable pressure drop indicated on the
Sampling Pressure Gauge. Fill up slowly the Gas Bottle,
checking again that pressure remains constant. (It
takes about 20 minutes to fill a 20 litres bottle, 10
minutes for a 10 litres bottle etc.)
8. Close the Top Valve of the Gas Bottle.
9. Close the Separator Sampling Point.
10. Unscrew the Swivel Joint slowly. Gas leaks as the
inside pressure of the line drops to atmospheric
pressure.
11. Disconnect bottle.
12. Check tightness, seal and label bottle "FULL"
immediately. Place in Transportation Container and
store in shade.
Note Bottle number and time of sampling in the sequence of events. Do not forget to
complete fully the sampling sheet and include one copy in the Transportation Container.

Sampling
8 - 8

Sampling
9 - 9
1.6.2.2 AIR DISPLACEMENT METHOD
In this method the bottle contains air at atmospheric pressure, or
partial vacuum.
The set-up is the same as for the VACUUM METHOD.
If possible the bottle should be heated to separator temperature.
To ensure complete displacement of the air or gas originally in
the bottle, two procedures can be used:
1.6.2.3 REPEATING PURGING
After mounting connection and purging of the Flexible Hose as
for the VACUUM METHOD - steps 1 to 5
1. Open slowly the Top Valve of Sampling Bottle
2. Open slowly the Separator Sampling Point Valve until
pressure reaches about 75% of Separator pressure.
3. Close Separator Sampling Point Valve.
4. Open Bottom Valve to purge the contents of the Bottle to
atmospheric pressure.
5. Close Bottom Valve.
6. Repeat the process of filling with gas at 75% of Separator
pressure and purging at least 7 times. (More often, say
10 or 12 times if Separator pressure is < 100 psi).
7. Finally fill the Bottle to 100% of Separator pressure.
8. Close Top Valve. No circulation of gas should be
attempted.
9. Close the Separator Sampling Point.
10. Unscrew the Swivel Joint slowly. Gas leaks as the inside
pressure of the line drops to atmospheric pressure.
11. Disconnect Bottle.
12. Check tightness, seal and label Bottle "FULL"
immediately. Place in container. Store in shade.
Note Bottle number and time of sampling in the sequence of events. Do not forget to
complete fully the Sampling Sheet and include one copy in the Transportation Container.
Bottle pressure is maintained below separator pressure during purging in order to reduce the
possibility of condensation. If, however, there is significant cooling at the Control Valve
during filling, the filling procedure should be slowed down or stopped and restarted.
1.6.2.4 CIRCULATING
1. Connect to the Lower Valve of the Sampling Bottle via
transparent tubing: Either a Gas Flowmeter or a Gas
Meter. (Measuring Volumetric flow requires a StopWatch
with a Gas Flowmeter)
2. After mounting, connection of the Flexible Hose and
purging as for the VACUUM METHOD steps 1 to 5. Open
the Separator Sampling Point Valve.
3. Open slowly top Valve of the Sampling Bottle.
4. Admit gas into the Bottle, while maintaining the smallest
possible pressure drop across the Flexible Hose.
5. When Bottle pressure reaches Separator pressure, open
the Bottom Valve of the Bottle.
Sampling
10 - 10
6. Circulate gas until a volume of gas equal to 10 times the
produce "absolute pressure x volume of the Bottle" in a
coherent unit system has been recorded on the Gas
Meter.
Example:
pressure absolute atm 14.6
14.7
214.7
psig 200 = pressure =

= Separator

20 litre bottle used, thus:
( ) l 2900 6 . 14 20 10 =
7. Close Bottom Valve, Wait for pressure stabilization.
8. Close Top Valve.
9. Close the Separator Sampling Point.
10. Unscrew the Swivel Joint slowly. Gas leaks as the inside
pressure of the line drops to atmospheric pressure.
11. Disconnect Bottle.
12. Check tightness, seal and label bottle "FULL"
immediately. Place it in a container. Store in shade.
Note Bottle number and time of sampling in the sequence of events. Do not forget to
complete fully the Sampling Sheet and include one copy in the Transportation Container.
If it is not possible to maintain the bottle at Separator temperature during circulation and/or
condensate is seen issuing from the Bottle Lower Valve, the circulation must be performed at
a lower pressure (e.g. 75% of Separator pressure). This is done by controlling flow at the
Separator Output and at the Bottle Lower Valve. If significant cooling of the Control Valves
occurs, purging should be slowed down or stopped temporarily. When purging is complete
(same volume as computed above), the Lower Valve is closed, and pressure allowed to build
up to Separator pressure before the Bottle Upper Valve is closed.
1.6.2.5 WATER DISPLACEMENT METHOD
This method is similar to the mercury displacement method; the
bottle being initially full of water, which is bled off slowly as the
sample is collected.
Purging with gas is not usually required.
The major problem in this method is the possibility of solution of
the more soluble components (especially H2S and CO2 from the
gas). Thus the type of water used is very important and the
following three possibilities are given in order of decreasing
reliability:
SEPARATOR WATER
This is the best option here (if the well is producing water)
because this water is already saturated with separator gas. After
ensuring that the water tapping point used is not producing any
separator hydrocarbon liquid (oil or condensate), the Sample
Bottle should be filled by gravity from the bottom with water at
separator pressure. It may not be possible for the Bottle to be
installed below the water output of the Separator, but Separator
Sampling
11 - 11
pressure will be sufficient to cause the water to flow. Water is
circulated until 4 or 5 bottle volumes have been passed through.
Purging of Flexible Hose is then made as for VACUUM
SAMPLING Steps 1 to 5 but the Pressure Gauge is attached to
the Lower Valve of the Sample Bottle as for oil sampling. Open
the Separator Sampling Point Valve, then:
1 Open top Valve of Sampling Bottle.
2 Open slowly Bottom Valve of Sampling Bottle. The Pressure
Gauge should show Separator pressure.
3 Bleed off water from the lowermost Needle Valve, while
maintaining outlet pressure at Separator pressure. If the
Bottle is at a temperature below the Separator temperature,
leave 1 or 2% of water in the Bottle, to avoid loss of any
condensate, which may have formed during filling.
Otherwise, bleeding off is continued until the first bubbles of
gas are seen at the Exit Valve.
4 Close Bottom Valve.
5 Close Top Valve.
6 close the Separator Sampling Point.
7 unscrew the Swivel Joint slowly. Gas leaks as the inside
pressure of the line drops to atmospheric pressure.
8 Disconnect Bottle.
9 Check tightness, seal and label Bottle "FULL" immediately
and place it in a container. Store in shade.
Note Bottle number and time of sampling in the sequence of events. Do not forget to
complete fully the Sampling Sheet and include one copy in the Transportation Container.
SALT WATER (Only if water cut = 0)
This can be true seawater or fresh water, which has been
saturated with common salt (sodium chloride). With the bottle full
of salt-water, mounting, connection and purging of tubing should
be made as for VACUUM METHODS Steps 1 to 5. The
Pressure Gauge is attached to the Sample Bottle Upper Valve.
1 Open slowly Top Valve of Sampling Bottle
2 Open slowly Bottom Valve to bleed off salt water. Also open
Separator Sampling Point, maintaining sampling pressure at
2 or 3 times atmospheric pressure with Bottom Valve (i.e. 30
- 40 psig: this pressure should be well below Separator
pressure).
3 Close immediately Bottom Valve when gas appears.
4 With Top Valve allow pressure to build up slowly to
Separator pressure.
5 Close Top Valve.
6 Close the Separator Sampling Point.
7 Unscrew the Swivel Joint slowly. Gas leaks as the inside
pressure of the line drops to atmospheric pressure.
8 Disconnect Bottle.
9 Check tightness, seal and label Bottle "FULL" immediately
and place it in a container. Store in shade.
Note Bottle number and time of sampling in the sequence of events. Do not forget to
complete fully the Sampling Sheet and include one copy in the Transportation Container.
Sampling
12 - 12
FRESH WATER (Only if water cut = O)
This procedure should be avoided if at all possible. The
sampling technique is the same as for Salt Water, so all water
must be bled off during the sampling.
1.7 SEPARATOR OIL OR CONDENSATE SAMPLING AT SEPARATOR
Three bottles at least should be taken for each sampling to ensure good representation
and sufficient quantity of sample for a normal PVT study.
THIS IS IRRESPECTIVE OF GOR - i.e. ANY GOR: 3 BOTTLES.
On some occasions, if the customer wants very extensive or duplicate PVT studies,
additional quantities of samples may be requested.
1.7.1 Methods
All methods aim to keep the Separator liquid at or above its bubble point pressure
until it is transferred inside the Sample Bottle (by keeping sample at Separator
pressure and below Separator temperature).
The Sampling Bottle must be maintained at or below Separator Temperature. This
prevents a gas liberation, which would interfere with the filling in operation. In
cases where the Separator temperature is below ambient temperature, the Sample
Bottle should be cooled in a water/ice or water/salt/ice bath.
The oil or condensate methods below are listed in order of decreasing reliability.
Note Bottle number and time of sampling in the sequence of events. Do not forget to
complete fully the Sampling Sheet and include one copy in the Transportation Container
Please to refer to oil sampling using the surface sampling kit.
1.8 WELL HEAD SAMPLING
1.8.1 Oil sampling at well head
This sampling is possible only when the Well Head pressure is higher than the
bubble point pressure at Well Head temperature. For this condition to be achieved
it may often be necessary for samples to be taken at a low flow rate (i.e. less than
10 tubing total volumes per day). Clearly a good idea of the Bubble Point is
needed.
It is advisable that Separator Samples be taken at the same time to act as a back
up in case of unexpected two-phase flow at Well Head, or other cause of invalid
sampling.
Normal liquid sampling methods should be used BUT MAKE SURE SAMPLE
BOTTLES, GAUGES AND TUBINGS HAVE A WORKING PRESSURE RATED
ABOVE WELLHEAD PRESSURE.

Sampling
13 - 13
1.8.2 Gas sampling at well head
Since most gas-condensate wells produce two phases at the surface, this will only be
possible on the rare occasions when monophasic Well Head flow is expected (Well
Head pressure higher than dew point pressure at Well Head temperature). As in Oil
Sampling at Well Head, Separator back up Samples should be taken. Most
applications will be for dry gas wells where no liquid is formed in the Separator; here, a
Well Head Sample will be identical to a Separator Gas Sample.
Normal gas sampling methods should be used (i.e. usually VACUUM method) BUT
MAKE SURE SAMPLE BOTTLES, GAUGES AND TUBINGS HAVE A WORKING
PRESSURE RATED ABOVE WELLHEAD PRESSURE
1.9 USING THE SAMPLING SKID
1.9.1 Sampling skid description
The PVT surface sampling skid is an open framework stand for mounting and
supporting the oil and gas sampling cylinders and with all the valves,
interconnecting pipe work and pressure gauges necessary for the sampling
operation panel mounted to the supporting frame. The sampling skid comprises
two sections for the separate but simultaneous sampling of the gas and liquid
equilibrium phases from the test separator.
Dedicated flexible sampling lines are used to connect from sample points on the
test separator to the inlet fittings of the sample skid. The sampling lines should be
kept and maintained solely for use for each of the specific phases to be sampled
and are tagged accordingly (gas/oil) to avoid cross use.
A schematic of the sampling skid system is shown at the end.
1.9.2 Gas sampling
The gas sampling section inlet connection is inch Swagelok on the back panel.
One or two 20 liters gas sample cylinders can be supported in the frame and
connected for sampling with short sections of fixed flexible lines. Control of the gas
flow is via an on/off ball valve and fine control during sampling via a horizontally
mounted needle valve. The body of needle valve is positioned in an insulated
water bath immediately below the panel.
Prior to sampling the water bath is filled with hot water (> 40 C) to a depth such
that the body of the needle valve is submersed. The temperature of the water
helps prevent hydrates forming across the valve flow area during sampling that
can cause total blockage of the valve. Immediately downstream of the flow control
valve is a pressure gauge panel mounted above the valve.
1.9.3 Liquid sampling
A flexible sampling line is used to connect the oil section of the skid to the sample
point at the test separator similarly as for the gas sampling via a rear mounted
inch swagelok fitting. Again, a ball valve is used to control on/off flow to the
system. The oil sample cylinder is mounted and secured on an angled support
plate at the front of the skid. The cylinder is positioned with the double port valve at
the top. A sample fluid, flexible line connection is made to, one side of the sample
valve at the top of the cylinder. The sample line flush valve is mounted on the other
Sampling
14 - 14
side of the sample valve on the top of the cylinder. A displacement fluid, flexible
line connection is made to the valve at the bottom of the cylinder.
Two gauges are mounted one above the other, used to monitor, during sampling,
the sample pressure and the displacement fluid pressure. Two gauges are needed
as a check against malfunction or operational problems during the sampling and to
measure a shipping pressure of the sample for reference in the PVT laboratory.
1.9.3.1 SAMPLING
GAS: 20-LITER SAMPLE
Gas sample, as seen previously, are traditionally taken from the
gas outlet of the test separator. All test separators will have take
off points at various points along the gas outlet flow line. A
preferred sample point is on the top of the horizontal section
where the outlet leaves the top of the separator. The next
preferred alternative, is any point on the bottom of a horizontal
pipe section.
For dry gas reservoir system the client may request 2 X 20 L gas
sample per condensate sample. This is to provide additional gas
for the recombination because of the lower ratio of liquid to gas
for these systems.
SAMPLING PROCEDURE
Referring to figure schematic layout of Test separator sampling.
1. Check gas cylinders are fully evacuated with on site vacuum
pump.
2. Identify suitable sampling point on gas outlet flow line as per
discussion above.
3. Connect sample line to take off point on test separator gas
outlet with double valve connection (V1 & V2).
4. Connect sample line to gas inlet of sampling skid (back of
panel V4).
5. Positions gas sample cylinder(s) on sample skid, secure and
connect inlet line, record cylinder serial number.
6. Fill water bath (containing V4) with hot water (>40C), ensure
valve body is fully immersed in the water.
7. Equipment should be assembled with all valves in closed
position.
8. Valve V6 at the bottom of the gas sample cylinder must
remain plugged and closed.
9. Open fully valve V2.
10. Crack open valve V1, check for leak in sample line.
11. Open valve V3 and crack open V4; gauge G1 will show test
separator gas pressure.
12. Open fully valve V4, check for leaks in sample skid
connections up to the gas sample cylinder.
13. With valves V1, V2, V3 and V4 fully open begin sample line
flush process.
Sampling
15 - 15
14. Close valve V3, and crack open the swagelok connection on
connecting line to gas cylinder at valve V5.
15. Watch gas pressure on gauge G1 and close fitting again
before the pressure reaches zero.
16. Reopen valve V3 and pressurize the system again.
17. Repeat 14 to 16 5-6 times, and finally, close the fitting on the
cylinder inlet connection with system pressure close to zero
on gauge G1.
18. Close valve V4.
19. Open valve V5.
20. When opening valve V5 the final check for vacuum on the
sample cylinder is the negative deflection of the gauge G1.
21. Commence taking sample by cracking open valve V4.
22. Control the pressure increase of the sample cylinder with
valve V4, sampling period is approximately 30 40 minutes,
which gives an approximate pressure increase of 15
psi/minute (1 bar/minute) for a test separator pressure of 500
psi.
23. Continue to control filling of the gas sample cylinder until test
separator pressure is reached, record pressure.
24. Close valve V3 and V4; check pressure remains stable no
leaks.
25. Close valve V5.
26. Cracks open gas cylinder fitting connection (V5) and bleed
off pressure.
27. Remove connecting fitting.
28. Secure shipping plug in valve V5 opening.
29. Return gases sample cylinder to transportation box and tag
as used and containing a sample.
OIL SAMPLING
Similarly to the gas sampling traditionally liquid samples are
taken in 6 50 MI cylinders the latest generation of which is
the piston type. Oil (liquid) sample cylinders are normally
supplied cleaned and ready for use filled with a displacement
fluid (glycol/water mix). A check should be made that cylinders
are charged with the displacement fluid and if so that there are
no losses.
The preferred sample point for produced hydrocarbon liquid from
the test separator is the oil outlet flow line. Most separators will
be equipped with sample points on the flow line. An alternative is
a take off point on the bottom of the site glass level indicator for
the separator. This point is not ideal because of the relatively
large volume between the take off point and the bulk fluid of the
separator. Sampling from the site glass can also interfere with
the separator operation and show a false indication.
SAMPLING PROCEDURE
Sampling
16 - 16
Refer to figure: schematic diagram of PVT Test Separator
sampling.
1. Locate and prepare sampling point on the oil production flow
line, ensure double valve (alternate, use site glass V14).
2. All equipment valves should be closed prior to sampling.
3. Connect sample line to valve connection.
4. With valve V9 closed, open V7 and V8 and check for leaks.
5. Sample line must be flushed into a suitable container by
valve V9 prior to connect it to the sampling skid.
6. Secure sample cylinder to support plate with double port
valve at top, record cylinder serial number.
7. Connect sample line to sample skid liquid connection, rear of
panel G2.
8. Flush through the top tubing to the sample cylinder through
V10.
9. Close V10 and open V11, the sample side of the cylinder will
now be primed with sample fluid.
10. Open V12 and pressurize up to V13.
11. Commence sampling by cracking open V13 and control the
flow of displacement fluid in to a measuring cylinder. Flow
rate of displacement fluid should be approximately 20 ml per
minute to give a sampling time of approximately 30 40
minutes to match that of the gas sample.
12. Continuously check the pressure readings on gauges G2
and G3 are the same. Differential changes in the pressure
on these gauges indicate a problem with the sample flow.
13. Continuously check the displacement fluid flow as this can
alter or stop altogether.
14. As the measured volume of the displacement fluid
approaches, 550 ml, pay particular attention and prepare to
stop the sampling.
15. Finish sampling at 550 ml of displacement fluid.
16. Close V13.
17. Close V9.
18. Record sample pressure (should remain constant at
separator sampling pressure).
19. Crack open V13 and slowly displace a further 50-ml of
displacement fluid. This introduces a safety gas cap in the
bottle for transportation.
20. Close V13.
21. Close V12.
22. Disconnect the displacement fluid line connection from the
cylinder (at V12).
Sampling
17 - 17
23. Agitate sample cylinder still connected to sample skid at V11
and gauge G2.
24. Record pressure on G2 (this is the shipping pressure).
25. Close V11.
26. Disconnect the sample cylinder from the sampling skid (at
V11).
27. Replace plugs in sample cylinder valve ports.
28. Return sample cylinder to transport box and tag as used and
containing a sample.

Sampling
18 - 18

Sampling



OIL CYLINDER

PISTON TYPE
Sampling
20 - 20
LEUTERT SURFACE SAMPLING SYSTEM
USING THE TYPE 5 CYLINDER

Sampling
21 - 21

1.10 P.V.T. PROPERTIES
In order to study the properties of gases and hydrocarbon liquids we need to understand the
relationship between them. This is best understood by considering molecular behavior and
its effect on three physical properties.
Pressure which is a function of molecular attraction and repulsion
Volume which is a function of the number of molecules present
Temperature which is a function of kinetic energy of the molecules
Pressure and molecular attraction tend to hold a material together. Temperature and
molecules repulsion tends to separate a material. When a material appears to be at rest it is
actually in dynamic equilibrium between the attractive and repulsive forces.
If one of the physical confines is changed (P.V. or T.) then equilibrium must be established.
For example if we add heat to the system then the temperature rises, because of the
increase of kinetic energy of the system and :
Either
The pressure increase as a function of the increased number of times the excited
molecules strike the walls of the container.
Or
The volume expands to accommodate the more excited molecules at the same
pressure.
In extreme case, when enough heat is added the forces become unbalanced (boiling liquid)
and the material changes state into gas phase.
Phase behaviour is best understood by considering phase diagram.
Pure substances
First we look at the simple phase diagram of a pure substance.

The phase diagram is a plot of Pressure against Temperature. For the purposes of
hydrocarbon chemistry we can ignore the Solid part of the phase diagram and concentrate
on the vapour pressure line TC with particular reference to C the critical point. The
temperature and pressure at this point are defined as :
Critical Temperature (Tc) the temperature above which a gas cannot be liquified
regardless of the pressure applied
Sampling
22 - 22
Critical Pressure 5Pc) the pressure above which liquid and gas cannot co-exist regardless
temperature
Two component systems
Next we can look at two component systems.

We have developed a phase envelope. The line AC is the bubble point locus and BC is the
dew point locus.
We can see also the definition of critical point C which we applied to the pure component
does not apply. Clearly liquid and gas can co-exist at temperatures and pressures above the
critical point. The critical point is merely the point at which Bubble Point locus and Dew Point
locus meet.
This type of behavior becomes more exaggerated as the complexity of a hydrocarbon
mixture increases as is shown in the following diagram.

It now becomes necessary to re-define the Pressure and Temperature above which gas and
liquid cannot co-exist.
The circondenbar is the pressure above, which liquid cannot be formed and the
circondentherm is the temperature above which liquid cannot exist.
Multicomponent Mixtures (Reservoir Fluids)
Sampling
23 - 23

We should now turn our attention to real complex hydrocarbons fluids and below are
presented typical phase diagrams for Reservoir fluids under the normal classifications
accepted in petroleum engineering.
LOW SHRINKAGE BLACK OIL

HIGH SHRINKAGE OIL

GAS CONDENSATE

Sampling
24 - 24
WET GAS

DRY GAS

As previously stated, phase diagrams are plots of pressure against temperature, whereas in
petroleum engineering we are usually more concerned with pressure vs. Volume (PV) at a
fixed or perhaps one or two fixed temperatures.
In this case it is interesting to consider the isotherm marked 1-2-3 on the phase diagrams
which represents reservoir temperature.
With reservoir oils a drop in pressure from 1-2 brings us the Bubble Point (the point at which
the first bubble of gas of the lightest component in the mixture appears). As we proceed from
2-3 the gas becomes progressively richer in heavier components, as the liquid becomes
progressively depleted of lights ends.
With condensate reservoir gases a drop in pressure from 1-2 brings us to the Dew Point (the
point at which the first drop of liquid appears). Here we observe retrograde condensation,
which is that the heaviest components drop out first and the gas stream becomes
progressively lighter as pressure drops.
We should now consider what happens in practice when the reservoir fluid is produced to the
surface, giving rise to both a drop in pressure and temperature.
This can be best done by reference to the dotted line on the phase diagrams marked 2-Sep.
The point marked Sep denotes the Separator Pressure and Temperature.
Sampling
25 - 25

With oils and condensate gas we remain within the phase envelope where liquid and gas can
co-exist. The actual point within the phase envelope defines the relative compositions of the
oil and gas according to physico-chemical parameters which will be explained later.
What is interesting to observe is that the Wet Gas produces no liquid (in the reservoir) along
the isotherm 1-2 but if the drop in pressure is accompanied by a drop in temperature, as
happens during production, then liquid is produced at separator pressure and temperature.
By definition a Dry Gas produces no liquid even at separator conditions, and heavy
components present have to be chilled out from the gas stream to bring the temperature
within the phase envelope.
1.11 WHEN A RESERVOIR SHOULD BE SAMPLED
The aim of PVT sampling is to obtain a small sample fluid under pressure, which is identical
to the reservoir fluid under initial conditions. To achieve this several factors must be taken
into account :
A. To decide upon the condition of the well to be sampled
B. To decide which sampling technique will give the best chance of obtaining a
representative fluid sample
A field discovery well is usually subjected to relatively large drawdown pressures and
considerable depletion in the production testing necessary to determine its extent. The
second and third wells drilled will still encounter essentially virgin reservoir pressure and the
problems associated with conditioning, sampling and analysis will be minimized.
Depletion of a reservoir below the bubble point pressure, leads to extreme difficulty in
obtaining a reliable sample. As the results from the analysis of reservoir fluids are generally
used in material balance calculations it is desirable that the analysis is performed on original
fluids samples. Extra pollution of data from a current bottom hole pressure to a higher bubble
point pressure is always hazardous and should only be attempted in extreme cases.
Selection of a well for sampling
For the result of the fluid analysis to be of maximum value in the reservoir study, the sample
must be representative of the phase that saturated the reservoir rock initially. In an oil
reservoir it will be the gas phase.
The well to be sampled should meet as many of the following conditions as possible :
1. The well should be centrally located in the field
2. It should have as high a productivity index as possible
3. The well should be completed in the section of the reservoir to be studied. In most cases
this will be the oil zone. Care should be taken to eliminate any occuring gas coning.
4. The well should be free from water production
5. The flow in the reservoir should be single phase
6. If bottom hole sampling is required, no mechanical difficulties in running the sampler to a
depth opposite the perforations should exist.
Data required prior to sampling
Before sampling is attempted it is important to obtain preliminary details of the reservoir and
well characteristics for example:
1. The type of fluid expected to be encountered. Oil, gas, condensate, or water
2. Whether it is saturated or undersaturated
Sampling
26 - 26
3. Whether the formation had high or low permeability
In exploration wells Standings correlations can be used to estimate the bubble point
pressure at formation temperature. To use this correlation the following data is required :
1. Initial and static reservoir pressure
2. Reservoir temperature
3. Oil and gas gravities
4. Stabilized gas-oil ratios at one or more flow rates
Well conditioning
The well should be flowed until a stabilized rate is achieved such that the G.O.R. is equal to
the initial G.O.R. Stability should be achieved for a minimum of 4 hours for bottom hole
sampling and 12 hours for surface sampling with a flowing bottom hole pressure greater than
the bubble point pressure. During this period the oil and gas flow rates, well-head pressure,
and flowing bottom hole pressure should all be constant. The latter gives the best indication
of stability but can only be used if electronic surface read out gauges are available.
1.11.1 Oil reservoirs
Undersaturated reservoirs
These reservoirs are characterized by constant G.O.R. equal to the maximum gas
solubility in oil. Bottom hole sampling and surface sampling can be carried out with
the well flowing at any stabilized flow rate for which flowing reservoir pressure
exceeds saturation pressure at reservoir conditions.
Saturated reservoirs
In these reservoirs the G.O.R. is only equal to the maximum gas stability in oil during
a very short initial flow period. The G.O.R. then increases as the well is produced.
Saturation pressure will equal to or near the initial static reservoir pressure, and if an
initial gas cap is present will always equal the initial pressure.
Bottom hole sampling can be carried out if the following procedures are adopted.
The flow rate should be progressively reduced and then the well finally shut-in. During
this period the flowing bottom hole pressure will increase and the free gas produced
into the well bore, or remain stationary within the oil phase until when the well is shut
in reservoir saturation pressure should be near to the initial static reservoir pressure.
At this point the well should be opened on the smallest possible choke (e;g; 1/16)
and flowed for 10 to 15 minutes before the sampler closes. During this short flow
period draw down should minimized and any liberated gas, too small to affect the
validity of the samples.
The flow rate should be progressively reduced over a long period (depending on the
permeability of the reservoir) and finally shut in. During this period the flowing bottom
hole pressure will increase until it approaches the initial static bottom hole pressure.
The movable free gas will be produced into the well bore and the stationary free gas
will remain in the pore space of the reservoir. This remaining free gas reduces the
effective permeability of the reservoir rock to monophase reservoir fluid, and
increases the pressure drawdown.
Sampling
27 - 27

1.11.2 Gas reservoirs
Since for these reservoirs it is impossible to determine in the field from well test data
the exact nature of the reservoir fluid (dry or wet gas), sampling should always be
carried out assuming the most difficult case, i.e. a gas condensate reservoir with a
dew point equal to the initial static pressure.
Surface sampling should always be carried out in gas reservoirs, bottom hole
sampling being unsuitable for the following reasons :
1. The laboratory analysis requires a greater sample than the 600 cc or 1000 cc
available with standard bottom hole samplers.
2. If a sample were taken, the effect of bringing the sampler to surface conditions
would cause liquid to condense in the sampler chamber. This liquid would in most
cases be only a small amount and would remain behind, wetting the walls of the
chamber, during a normal transfer at atmospheric temperature. Even if the sampler
was reheated to reservoir temperature, no guarantee that single phase conditions
existed could be given in the field.
In addition to the normal criteria for surface sampling in dealing with a gas reservoir, a
further parameter has to be met. The liquid condensed in the tubing, between the
bottom of the well and the tubing must be produced in the separator.
1.11.3 Volatile Oil Reservoir
A volatile oil is one with a very high gas solubility in relation to its bubble point
pressure and because of its high G.O.R. and low relative density can be confused in
the field with a gas condensate reservoir. Because of these unusual characteristics,
Standings correlations cannot be used to determine bubble point pressure, therefore
these reservoirs should be sampled as gas condensates. If PVT analysis shows that
it is an oil reservoir and the bubble point is established, bottom hole sampling can be
employed on subsequent wells.

Transfer Pump
1 - 1
SECTION 21
TRANSFER PUMP

Transfer Pump
2 - 2
1.1 GENERAL
Pumps are used to empty one compartment of a tank; separator or other vessels
where not enough pressure exist to empty it.
The pump inlet is generally connected to the tank manifold for compartment selection;
the outlet is generally connected to a manifold that permits the passage of the liquid to
stock tanks to burners or burn pits through the normal piping.
It may also be required to re-inject the oil from the separator into an existing production
line or system, in which case a high-pressure transfer pump can be used.
1.1.1 Installation
Aligning driver and pump
Driver and pump units are
factory aligned, but must be
accurately realigned during
and after installation.
To align coupling, use a
straight edge and feeler
gauge to check for parallel
and angular alignment as
shown in illustration at left.
Check the alignment at
every step during
installation; after the unit is
mounted on skid or
foundation, after piping has
been secured, and after
pump has run with the liquid
at operating temperature.
Do not depend on flexible
couplings to compensate
for misalignment.
Installation of strainers
Most types of pumps can be used for clean fluids only and a strainer or filter
should be installed before the inlet and it should be cleaned on regular bases.

Transfer Pump
3 - 3
Installation of pipes
Use of Teflon tape for
installing pipes may cause
damage to the pump.
Piping should be checked
carefully, allowing for
expansion or contraction.
pipe strain can distort the
pump components, thus
increasing wear, causing
bearing misalignment, or
breaking parts. Pipe
supports and expansion
joints should be used to
avoid weight and stresses
on the pump. See that
flanges or unions fit without forcing.
Pump part size does not necessarily establish correct pipe size. If in doubt as to
the pipe size to used contact the engineering department. It is recommended that
the pump be installed below the liquid level, with a short, large diameter supply line
to assure a flooded inlet.
1.1.2 Pre-operation checks
See instructions on preparation and mounting of the pumps.
Determine the proper direction of rotation by using the appropriate instructions and
illustrations. When a relief valve is used, make sure it is positioned and adjusted
properly.
After the unit is mounted and the piping connected, the pump should be checked
to be sure it operates freely, without binding. After operation is proves satisfactory,
both pump and driver should be tightly secured and the alignment rechecked
before operation.
Before starting, make sure the inlet and discharge valves are open and there is
liquid in the pump.
After starting the unit, check that the pump is delivering liquid, if not, stop the driver
immediately and refer to the "trouble shooting check list. If the pump is delivering
liquid, check the unit for quiet operation, vibration, localized heating, and excessive
seal or packing leakage. It is recommended that the pressure and or vacuum is
checked by installing gauges at both sides of the pump to make sure the pressure
and or vacuum conforms to the specifications.
1.1.3 Operation
A pump is a simple piece of equipment and should not give any major problems if
the following precautions are taken.
- Check required electrical supply (V, Hz).
- Check that the ventilation on the electrical motor is not obstructed.
- Don't inverse inlet and outlet.
- Check transmission parts, (v belts, flexible couplings)

Transfer Pump
4 - 4
- Check oil level and electrical cables.
- Grease bearings if grease nipples are fitted.
- When starting the pump for the first time immediately check the sense of
rotation if the rotation is the wrong way around have the rig electrician inverse
two of the three phases in the connection box.
- If flexible hoses are used checks the pressure rating, the condition of
connections and hoses; tie down the hoses with cable or rope.
- Never start a pump in dry state or with inlet or outlet valves closed.
- If no flow is obtained within one minute, stop the pump and check that:
- Valves are open,
- Suction line is immersed with fluid,
- Liquid is not vaporizing in the suction line,
- No waxes have build up in the lines.
- Open the by-pass valves while starting. (if fitted)
1.2 PERSONNEL SAFETY
- Know operating conditions.
- Never start a pump with the switching box open.
- Always use caution near rotating parts, including the drive system for the
pump.
- Install proper guard(s). Never operate a pump without guards in place.
- Do not operate the equipment in excess of its rated capacity, pressure,
speed, and temperature, or other than in accordance with the operation
instructions.
- Install and properly set relief valve.
- Do not try to adjust or remedy operating defaults while pump is running or
still plugged to the main power.
- Proper measures should be taken to avoid spillage and overflow.
- Identify all possible hazards. Determine what controls are needed; only you
the user understand your product and system characteristics fully. The
ultimate responsibility for the application and safety is with you.
- The pump must be earthen and the earth checked.
- Never place your hand or fingers either on the suction or discharge side
of a pump, this can cause serious bodily injury.
- The possibility of fire and burns from flammable or hot liquid spillage from
ruptured hoses should be particularly be noted and proper precautions taken.
- Static electricity is created by the fluid flowing through the pumps and
hoses (if used), If the equipment is not properly grounded, sparking may
occur, and the system may become hazardous. Sparks can ignite fumes
from hydrocarbons and the fluid being pumped, as well as dust particles and
other flammable substances. To reduce the risk of static sparking, ground
the pump and all other equipment used or located in the area.
Transfer Pump
5 - 5
1.3 EQUIPMENT SAFETY
- Open all lines before starting pump.
- Never start a pump in "dry state" as it can seize the pump.
- Never install a pump immediately " in line "after the separator.
- Check the direction of rotation and the safety valve of the pump itself.
- Check if the pump still confirms with the safety regulations, plugs,
connection boxes, electric motor.
- Diesel operated pumps should have flame arrestors on the exhaust, and
the starting mechanism should be intrinsically safe or air started.
- Place the pump unit so no well fluids can come in direct contact with hot
engines.
- It is important that the maximum capacity of the pump should be greater
than the expected maximum well capacity.
- Determine consequences of spillage or leakage (all pumps or systems may
fail)
- Explode
- Toxic
- Corrode
- Fire
- High temperature
- Chemical burn
- High pressure
- Other
- Have appropriate safeguards been used?
- Temperature controls
- Pressure controls
- Leak detectors
- Shutoff devices
- High or low pressure safeguards
- Alarm devices
- Overfill or overflow detection
- Have all possible methods and sequences of failure been considered?
- Are there any other methods needed to control a hazard?
- Inspection for wear and/or deterioration of components.
- The relief valve is a safety device and is used to protect equipment and
personnel from accidents due to overpressure; it should never be used as a
control device to regulate pressure.
- If there is no relief valve in the system, never block the outlet stream, high
pressure will occur, resulting in possible damage or breakage to the pump or
system parts and possible injury to personnel. Even with a relief valve in
Transfer Pump
6 - 6
the system, do not operate the pump for more than a few minutes with the
outlet line blocked. Rapid heating and possible damage will occur.
- When working or repairs are made on a pump always isolate the driving
system to avoid the accidental start-up by ignorance, neglectance or
automatic systems. Remove the air supply for pneumatic operated pumps,
remove fuses or electrical operated pumps, remove the engine starter key or
isolate the starter on combustion engines that drive a pump,
Transfer Pump
7 - 7
1.4 TROUBLE SHOOTING GUIDE (GENERAL, FOR MOST PUMPS)
PROBLEM CAUSE SOLUTION
1. NO LIQUID
DELIVERERED
Pump not primed, if pump fails to
deliver after 1 minute, stop the pump.


Rotating in the wrong direction.


Inlet lifts to high; check this with gauge
at pump inlet.

Clogged valve or inlet line, or valve
upstream closed.

Air pockets or vapor lock.

Check valves blocked or corroded.
Prime it by pouring some liquid
into the discharge side of the
pump.

Change the direction of
rotation.

Review setup.


Clean line or open valve.


Use a degasser, or bleed air.

Repair checks valve assembly.
2. RAPID
WEAR
Abrasives in liquid.

Compatibility of liquid and pump
material.

Excessive pressure.

Non lubricating liquid, (only for pumps
that need a lubricating pump fluid).
Use strainers or filters.

Use different pump.


Lower discharge pressure.

Change to other pump type
3. EXCESSIVE
NOISE
Starved pump.



Air leaks in inlet line.

Air or gasses in liquid.

Pump speed to high.



Relief valve chatter.



Improper mounting.
Check supply liquid, see also
"no or insufficient liquid
delivery".

Repair.

Use a degasser before inlet.

Check on engine revolutions,
and freq./voltage ratings on el.
motors.

Check pressure setting or
check line downstream is not
blocked.

Check aligning thoroughly.
Transfer Pump
8 - 8
PROBLEM CAUSE SOLUTION
4.
INSUFFICIENT
LIQUID
DELIVERED
Air leaks through packing or
mechanical seal.

Air leaks in inlet line.

Inlet lifts to high; check this with
gauge at pump inlet.

Speed too slow.


Viscosity of liquid too high for the
size and length of pipe.

Foot valve or end of inlet pipe not
immersed deeply enough in liquid.

Vortex formation at inlet.


Pump damaged by foreign matter or
misalignment.

Excessive clearance caused by
wear or corrosion.

Relief valve set to low or stuck
partially open.

Check valve(s) blocked or corroded
Repair.


Repair.

Redesign the system.


Check engine revolutions, and
or check frequency / voltage.

Change piping.


Adjust.


Use a vortex breaker or
immerge inlet deeper into liquid.

Repair and install filter before
pump if needed.

Repair.


Regulate relief valve or repair.


Repair
5. PUMP
TAKES TOO
MUCH POWER
Speed too high.



Liquid more viscous than previously
anticipated.

Operating pressure higher than
specified. Check with gauge at the
pump outlet.

Outlet line obstructed.

Mechanical defect, such as a bent
shaft, packing gland too tight, or
misalignment of piping.

Relief valve not operating properly.
Check on engine revolutions,
and or freq./voltage ratings on
el. motors.

Use more powerful pump.


Use larger piping or eliminate
any obstructions.


Clean.

Repair.



Regulate relief valve or repair.

Transfer Pump
9 - 9
1.5 SIHI PUMP TECHNICAL DATA
Components:
- Electrical motor 18,5 kW, 3 phase, 380 V , turning at 1465 rev. / MN.
- Speed reducer type RX 101, from 1400 rev. / MN. to 683 rev. / MN. ( new
reducers come with a plug at the top, replace this plug with a vent that is
delivered with the pump.)
- Safety valve with bypass assures the protection against overpressure, (valid for
the flow direction)
- Pump, SIHI ref. RPNA 101
- Capacity : 5000 BOPD
- Max. temp. : 200 c
- Max. viscosity : 75000 CST.
- Rotation direction : reversible
1.5.1 Description
This type of pump is a positive displacement pump.
The pump uses gear wheels to vehicle fluid from the inlet to the outlet; the rotating
gears give a constant transfer of liquid without any pulsations or turbulence.
The drive gear wheel is the biggest and is attached to the main shaft; it grips into
the driven gear and makes it turn as well.
The liquid finds its way in-between the empty space of the gear teethes as the
gear teethes has different dimensions (see drawing).

A separation plate between the gears prevents the liquid from flowing back.
Only one shaft exit exist, so only one exit seal which can be inspected and
replaced without disconnecting the piping (bleed down the lines first to avoid oil
spillage.).
This pump has a high efficiency, and viscosity chances don't have much influence
on the flow rate.
1.5.2 Electrical wiring
The schematic drawing underneath show how to wire the engine to a three phases
alternative current.
Transfer Pump
10 - 10
220 Volts between two phases or 380 Volts between two phases.

1.5.3 Maintenance
Besides the usual checks before the use of a pump there is some periodical
maintenance to be made;
- The oil level in the speed reducer should be checked regularly and an oil
change made every 10.000 working hours or every two years.
- Clean the bearings after 10.000 working hours and put new grease, fill-up
only one third of the space in the bearing.
- Inspect the seal on the shaft exit for leaks. Packing cord as shaft seal
demands current adjustment to ensure correct leakage at the stuffing box.
Dependent on RPM and viscosity the stuffing box must leak 10 100 drops
a minute to remove the friction heat generated between shaft and packing
cord. In the event of insufficient leakage the heat generation will cause
hardened packing rings and increase wear on the shaft.
Transfer Pump
11 - 11



MAIN PARTS

A : Pump casing BC : Main bearing
AA : Front cover BU : Rotor
AB : Idler BV : Shaft
AC : Idler pin CQ : Bearing bracket
AD : Idler bearing CU : Ball bearing
BA : Rear cover CJ : Packing rings
Transfer Pump
12 - 12
1.6 SAFETY VALVE
As a result of the Rotan pump operating against a closed discharge outlet, an unlimited
pressure build up can occur. This means that a relief valve should protect the pump, piping
and valves etc.
The relief valve leads the pumped liquid from the discharge side back to the suction side
when the set pressure is exceeded. The pump must not operate in by-pass mode for a long
time, as it will cause heating of both liquid and pump.
The standard relief valve only protects in one pumping direction. The adjusting screw on the
relief valve should point to the suction side of the pump. In a case of a valve with a vertical
adjusting screw, it shall point to the pressure side of the pump. Normally the valves are
provided with a P for pressure side and an S for suction side.
The opening pressure should be 1 3 bar over the normal operating pressure.
The total overpressure (inlet pressure + differential pressure) must not exceed 10 bars for the
type 101.





Transfer Pump
13 - 13