Chapters 6-7: Cells

I. The Cell
The cell is the basic functional unit of all living
things.
The plasma membrane (cell membrane) surrounds
the cell and encloses the cytoplasm which
consists of specialized, highly functional, membrane-
bound bodies called organelles.
The nuclear membrane (identical in structure to
the plasma membrane) encloses the nucleus =
the control center of the cell.
Organelles are suspended in the cytosol = a fluid
matrix which consisting of H
2
O, dissolved
proteins, and other nutrients.

To increase efficiency, cells are designed to
increase surface area while reducing volume.
Organelles allow for this to happen keep the
cell small while still allowing for sufficient
membrane space inside to carry out cellular
functions.
Surface area (SA) of a cube = 6a
2
where a is the
length of the side of the cube.
Volume (V) = a
3
(l x w x h)

Surface Area to Volume Ratio (SA : V):
II. Plasma Membrane
1. Phospholipid bilayer/Fluid-Mosaic Model:

Separates the cell from the external environment
Controls the movement of material into and out of the
cell.
Phospholipids arrange themselves with the polar
hydrophilic heads forming the two outer faces and the
nonpolar hydrophobic tails pointing toward the inside of the
membrane.
Cholesterol is distributed intermittently within the
membrane providing more rigidity to animal cells (sterols
do the same in plant cells).

2. Proteins:

Are scattered throughout the membrane
Attached loosely to the inner or outer surface of
the membrane (peripheral proteins) or extended
within the membrane = integral proteins.
If integral proteins span across the membrane
appearing at both surfaces, they are termed
transmembrane proteins.
Integral proteins are also amphipathic = have
hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions.
There are 6 types of membrane proteins:
a. Channel proteins: provide passageways for
water soluble substances.


b. Transport proteins: use ATP to actively transport
materials that DO NOT freely diffuse across.
c. Recognition proteins: attached to polysaccharide
chains and act like an antenna, distinguishing cells as
the bodys own Responsible for ABO blood types
and organ rejection after a transplant.
ex. Glycocalyx = polysaccharide coat covering
the outer face of the membrane provides cell-
cell recognition.
d. Adhesion proteins: attach neighboring cells, provide
anchors and give stability.
e. Receptor proteins: provide binding sites for
hormones and once attached, trigger specific cell
responses.
f. Electron transfer proteins: involved in transferring
electrons from one molecule to another during
chemical reactions.




Fluid-Mosaic Model:
3. Selective Permeability:

Only small, polar molecules like H
2
O and
CO
2
and nonpolar molecules like O
2
and
hydrocarbons can freely diffuse across the
membrane.
Large, polar molecules like glucose (C
6
H
12
O
6
)
and all ions = charged particles, are
IMPERMEABLE.


III. Organelles
1. Nucleus: control center of the cell.
a. Bound by the nuclear envelope/membrane (similar to
plasma membrane).
b. Contains DNA which during interphase, is in the form of
chromatin = threadlike version of DNA.
c. When the cell prepares for division the chromatin
condenses into chromosomes = DNA wrapped around
proteins known as histones.
d. Also found in the nucleus is the
nucleolus functions in the
production of ribosomes
which are made of RNA.



2. Ribosomes: site of protein synthesis
a. Made in the nucleolus shipped to the cytoplasm.
b. Have two subunits, large and small, each made of RNA.
3. Endoplasmic reticulum (E.R.): stacks of flattened sacs
involved in the production of cellular material and
organized in maze-like channels that can be found closely
associated with the nucleus.
a. Rough E.R. is studded with ribosomes and creates
glycoproteins (polysaccharides attached to polypeptides).
b. Smooth E.R. lacks ribosomes and synthesizes lipids and
hormones.
c. The interior compartment of the E.R. is known as the
lumen.
4. Golgi Apparatus: flattened sacs arranged like a stack of
bowls.
a. Modifies and packages proteins and lipids into vesicles
small, spherically shaped sacs that bud from the
outside of the G.A. and merge with the membrane.
b. Prepares material for export out of the cell.


5. Lysosomes: NOT FOUND IN PLANTS.
Contain digestive enzymes that break down
food and foreign invaders, eliminating them
from the cell via exocytosis.
6. Peroxisomes: detoxify harmful substances, do
not eliminate them (H
2
O
2
H
2
O and O
2
).











7. Mitochondria: carry out
cellular respiration a process
that forms ATP from
carbohydrates.
a. Contain their own DNA
and ribosomes.
b. C
6
H
12
O
6
+ 6O
2
6CO
2
+
6H
2
O + 36ATP
8. Chloroplasts: carry out
photosynthesis a process by
which sunlight is used to
produce carbohydrates.
a. NOT found in animals.
b. Contain their own DNA
c. 6CO
2
+ 6H
2
O + sunlight
C
6
H
12
O
6
+ 6O
2


9. Microtubules, Intermediate Filaments, and Microfilaments:
three protein fibers of decreasing diameter, respectively. Make
up a cells cytoskeleton (internal structure of the cytoplasm).
a. Microtubules - provide support and tracks for cellular
molecules to travel along. Made up of the protein tubulin.
Found in the mitotic spindle, cilia, and flagella.
b. Intermediate filaments - maintain cell shape.
c. Microfilaments - involved in cell motility. Made of actin
and found in muscle cells and cells that move by changing
shape, ie., phagocytes (WBCs that attack invaders).


10. Cilia and Flagella: structures that extend out
from the plasma membrane and move the cell
via wavelike motions. Both are made-up of
microtubules in the 9+2 array = 9 pairs of
microtubules arranged in a circle with one pair
of microtubules in the middle.
a. Cilia short, hair-like projections along the
entire circumference of the cell. Occur in
large numbers. Live in the respiratory tract
and trap foreign particles.
b. Flagella long, tail-like structures that whip
or rotate to propel the cell. Found in sperm
and allow them to swim.

9 + 2 Array of Microtubules:
11. Centrioles and Basal Bodies: also known as
MTOCs (microtubule organizing centers). Have
an arrangement similar to the 9 +2 array except
the 9 microtubules are triplets not doublets and
there is only 1 microtubule in the middle not
two.
a. Centrioles - give rise to the microtubules
that make up the mitotic spindle used during
cell division. Plants DO NOT have centrioles.
b. Basal bodies - located at the base of each
flagellum and cilium and appear to organize
their development. Only lower level plants
(mosses and ferns) have flagella and basal
bodies.
12. Cell walls: found in plants, fungi, bacteria and
protists.
a. Found outside the plasma membrane.
b. Provides support for the cell.
c. In plants it is composed of cellulose = a
polysaccharide from -glucose.
d. In fungi it is composed of chitin = a modified
polysaccharide with a hydroxyl group replaced by
an N.
e. In bacteria it is
composed of
peptidoglycan.

13. Vacuoles and Vesicles: fluid-filled,
membrane-bound bodies.
a. Transport vesicles move material between
organelles or from organelles to the plasma
membrane.
b. Food vacuoles temporary receptacles for
nutrients. Merge with lysosomes which then digest the
food within.
c. Storage vacuoles found in plants store starch,
pigments and toxic substances.
d. Central vacuoles large and occupy most of the
interior of plant cells. Fill with H
2
O swell and
exert tugor pressure on cell walls maintaining cell
rigidity. Store other nutrients and make-up for a
lack of lysosomes by carrying out those functions as
well.
e. Contractile vacuoles specialized organelles found
only in single-celled organisms. Collect and pump out
excess cellular water.
Plant vs. Animal Cells: each can be distinguished
based on the presence or absence of certain
organelles.
PLANT cells have
(animal cells lack)
cell walls
chloroplasts
storage vacuoles
central vacuoles (~90%)
rectangular, fixed shape
ANIMAL cells have
(plant cells lack)
lysosomes
centrioles
cilia
round, irregular shape

Plant cell
Animal cell
IV. Intercellular Junctions
Anchor adjacent cells to one another and provide
passageways for cellular exchange and
communication.
There are four types of intercellular junctions
1. Desmosomes: protein attachments between
adjacent ANIMAL cells. Composed of a disk-like
structure just inside the plasma membrane from which
protein fibers extend into the cytoplasm. Hold together
tissues that undergo considerable stress such as skin
or heart tissue.
2. Tight junctions: tightly stitched seams between
ANIMAL cells. Prevent the movement of material
between cells. Found encircling cell of the digestive
tract where material is required to pass through
cells rather than intercellularly from one cell to
another.
3. Gap junctions: narrow tunnels between ANIMAL
cells that prevent the cytoplasm of each cell from
mixing. Still allow ions and small molecules to pass
through, however. Allows for cell-cell
communication by way of material exchange or
electrical impulses.
4. Plasmodesmata: narrow channels between PLANT
cells. A narrow tube of E.R. called desmotubules
surrounded by cytoplasm and plasma membrane
passes through the channel. Material exchange
occurs through the cytoplasm surrounding the
desmotubule.
Desmosomes, Tight Junctions, and Gap Junctions:
V. Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes
The cells discussed thus far are eukaryotic cells =
complex cells with a nucleus and membrane-bound
organelles.
Eukaryotes include all living things except for bacteria
and cyanobacteria which are prokaryotes.
Prokaryotes are cells that lack all membrane-bound
organelles.
Generally, prokaryotes consist of only a plasma
membrane, DNA, ribosomes (organelles WITHOUT a
membrane), cytoplasm and usually a cell wall.
Prokaryotes DO NOT have a nucleus.
Prokaryotic DNA is naked = it does not contain
condense around histones or other proteins like
eukaryotic DNA.

Prokaryotic ribosomes are smaller (70s with 50s and 30s
subunits) than eukaryotic ribosomes ( 80s with 60s
and 40s subunits)
Cell walls are made of peptidoglycans = a
polysaccharide-protein molecule rather than cellulose
or chitin.
Flagella are not made from microtubules and are not
organized in the 9 + 2 array.
VI. Movement of Cellular Material
The movement of substances may occur across a
selectively permeable membrane = allows only specific
substance to pass.
The substances moving may be solvent (H
2
O) or solute
(salt, sugar, etc.)
Movement may occur down the [ ] gradient (higher to
lower) of up the [ ] gradient (lower to higher).
[solutes] between two areas can be compared a
hypertonic solution has a higher [solutes] than the cell.
A hypotonic solution has a lower [solutes] than the cell.
An isotonic solution has an equal [solutes] to the cell.
The movement of substances may be active = requiring
ATP to move up the [ ] gradient, or passive = moving
down the [ ] gradient WITHOUT requiring ATP.
Substances move between cells and into and out of cells in
various ways:
1. Passive Transport: movement of material DOWN the [ ]
gradient from an area of higher [ ] to an area of lower [ ].
It DOES NOT require ATP. There are different types of
passive transport:
a. Bulk Flow the collective movement of substances in
the same direction of a force or pressure (e.g. blood
flowing through veins)


b. Diffusion the NET movement of substance from
and area of higher [ ] to an area of lower [ ].
Molecules move randomly, some up the gradient,
some down; therefore diffusion is the overall result
of the movement = the NET flow. Eventually
equilibrium is attained = molecules are uniformly
distributed throughout the system, but continue to
move randomly.
c. Osmosis the diffusion of water. When water enters
a cell or body, osmotic/tugor pressure builds up
causing the cell to bulge.
Passive Diffusion/Osmosis/Equilibrium:
d. Dialysis the diffusion of solutes (generally used
when different solutes are separated by a selectively
permeable membrane).
e. Plasmolysis the movement of water out of a cell by
osmosis resulting in the collapse of the cell (common
in plant cells due to central vacuole).
f. Facilitated Diffusion the diffusion of solutes
through channel/carrier proteins in the plasma
membrane (water passes in and out without the
help of proteins).

e. Countercurrent Exchange the bulk flow of
substances between two regions in opposite
directions (e.g. the flow of water in fish gills is
opposite the flow of blood in order to maximize the
diffusion of oxygen into the blood. Helps to
maintain a [ ] gradient along the full area of
contact).
2. Active Transport: the movement of substances UP or
AGAINST the [ ] gradient therefore requiring
ATP/energy. Transport proteins are required to
transport ions such as potassium, sodium, nitrogen,
hydrogen, and chlorine. Also amino acids and
monosaccharides may be transported. There are
different types of active transport:


a. Exocytosis the
process of vesicles
fusing with the
plasma membrane
and releasing their
contents to the outside
of the cell (common
when a cell exports
produced
substances).

b. Endocytosis the capture of a substance outside of the cell
due to the merging of a vesicle and the plasma membrane
as the substance is engulfed. It enters the cytoplasm still
wrapped in its vesicle. There are three types:
i. Phagocytosis = cellular eating when undissolved
material enters the cell due to the plasma membrane
wrapping around the substance and engulfing it.
Phagocytes (WBCs) attack and engulf bacteria in this
manner.
ii. Pinocytosis = cellular drinking when dissolved
material enters the cell. Plasma membrane closes off
the channel, encircling the liquid inside a vesicle.
iii. Receptor- Mediated Endocytosis = when specific
molecules in the extracellular fluid bind to specialized
receptors in the plasma membrane. The receptors and the
specific molecules called ligands fold inward and the
vesicle forms (e.g. proteins that transport cholesterol in
blood, low-density lipoproteins or LDLs, and certain
hormones targeted specifically by receptor-mediated
endocytosis).