The Spice Notes of Fragrance

Fragrance Books Inc. @www.perfumerbook.
com
The Spice Notes of Fragrance
Glen O. Brechbill
Fragrance Books Inc.
www.perfumerbook.com
New Jersey - USA
2012
Fragrance Books Inc. @www.perfumerbook.com
To my late much loved father Ray and beloved mother
Helen Roberta without them non of this work
would have been possible
II
THE SPICE NOTES OF FRAGRANCE
This book is a work of non-fiction. No part of the book may be used or reproduced in
any manner whatsoever without written permission from the author except in the case
of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. Please note the enclosed
book is based on Fragrance Ingredients by House .
Designed by Glen O. Brechbill
Library of Congress
Brechbill, Glen O.
The Spice Notes of Fragrance / Glen O. Brechbill
P. cm. 313 pgs.
1. Fragrance Ingredients Non Fiction. 2. Written odor descriptions to facillitate the
understanding of the olfactory language. 1. Essential Oils. 2. Aromas. 3. Chemicals.
4. Classification. 5. Source. 6. Art. 7. Twenty one thousand fragrances. 8. Science.
9. Creativity. I. Title.
Certificate Registry #
Copyright 2012 by Glen O. Brechbill
All Rights Reserved
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
First Edition
About the Book
The Spice Notes of Fragrance is
basically about the spices used in
fragrance creation. The data within
is from my second book titled, The
Art of Fragrance Ingredients. It
was my original intention to take
each spice note and create separate
work sheets. In this instance I
believe the flow of the work looks
best by fragrance house.
Many spice ingredients have culi-
nary applications. Some are techni-
cally herbs like Thyme whereas
others are a herb and splice blend.
Many are in danger of disappearing
from a perfumer's palette due to
regulatory pressures from the
International Fragrance Assoc-
iation. Synthetic ingredients lack
the depth and beauty of natural
ingredients.
Its a shame really what this regula-
tory institution has done to the cre-
ative art. A simple warning label
should be employed. The industry
has no secrets. Any fragrance can
either be typed or duplicated
through a gas chromatography
computer. Folks have peanut aller-
gies including my niece. Do we
ban peanuts?
IFF and Symrise three of the
biggest five houses have their own
perfume schools. New artists are
trained in the fine art. However,
since these houses are pushing syn-
thetic fragrance blends little or no
training is given to essential oils.
As a consequence there are more
and more product failures due to
the gimmicks,noveltys, knock
off's, limited editions, new and
improved etc. This includes less
and less materials and of course
minimal use of essential oils.
To learn the basics of the creative
art I read close to a hundred books.
Soon after this I did my own per-
fumers notebook, which becamse -
A Reference Book on Fragrance
Ingredients. It took many thou-
sands of hours of work to complete.
Before embarking on my web site I
studied desktop publishing, font
manipulation, graphic arts that also
included web design.
I decided a while ago that it would
be an impossible job to keep my
main book completely up to date.
As it stands now it is close to 900-
page manuscript in two volumes.
Since I put it to rest in 2007 I esti-
All food products today have ingre-
dient labels. Should hold true with
the beauty industry. However, in
this instance just the word fra-
grance is listed. A formula can be
complicated containing a wide
range of aromatic materials.
Twenty years ago household type
fragrances used more essential oils
then fine fragrances created today.
Creative artists are under tight
restrictions through the regulatory
amendments that are issued by
this Gestapo type organization.
Dont comply with their rules, or
speak out against it one could find
themselves out of a job.
Twenty years ago the industry
launched less then fifty fine fra-
grances a year. There was a mys-
tique about the art, and this too
included the creativity. In 2011 we
had over 2,000 launches. No fra-
grance today, and this includes well
known Chanel # 5 are the same as
was originally created. The art has
slowly been strangled by the ever
incresing ammendments.
So what is happening to the fine art
of fragrance one asks? Givaudan,
3
mate conservatively that thirty per-
cent of the information contained
within it is gone from the www
including the fragrance houses, and
their fascinating data sheets.
My book's showcases the very best
of this secretive industry as it
appeared in 2007. The art is con-
stantly changing with new compa-
nies coming and going including
ingredients. The search engines
have been of help. However,
Google like many others fail to
rank sites bases on pertinance in leu
of irrelevance. Finding information
with this in mind takes a grea deal
of time, effort, and sometimes luck.
A quality fine fragrance is a combi-
nation of essential oils, artificial re
created bases and synthetic materi-
als. In proper proportions and care-
fully selected a well rounded for-
mula truly show cases the wonders
and creativity of the fragrance art.
However, no scent of today due to
the restrictions comes close to the
quality of what was created less
then twenty years ago.
Today through over regulation
more and more restrictions have
been placed on the use of natural
ingredients. Acting as a stooge for
the major five these regulatory bod-
ies are slowly destroying the art.
Profits is the underlying motive for
everything today. The houses that
control the synthetic ingredients
market wants no competition, and
essential oils are a threat to that
dominance.
My hobby has helped me to deal
with the stress of taking care of an
elderly beloved mother. In order to
safeguard my work I have had to
set the books at 50 % view plus dis-
abled the printing function.
Disclosing aspects of the creative
art book by book through self edu-
cated skills has brought me great
satisfaction. I inherited wonderful
organizational skills from my
father, and creative abilities plus
superb memory from my mother.
It is my hope that my name will live
forever on the www. Knowledge is
golden, and unlike money can
appreciate with time. The greedy
folks of the world know too that life
is short, and that their vast source
of wealth dies with them.
A book is timeless, and is a way to
gain immortality. That too is why
each of my books has been copy-
righted with the Library of
Congress.
At one time perfumers were
Presidents and CEO's of fragrance
houses. Although still highly paid
they are no longer given the recog-
nition that they deserve. Very little
of the creative art is represented in
the upper ranks of most internation-
al conglomerates. Uneducated per-
sonal inhabit most fragrance hous-
es, folks who are envious of the
noses critique it with marketing
briefs that are ludicrous.
The restrictions on the use of essen-
tial oils have given rise to another
problem, and that of course are the
natural artists that for the most part
are totally unregulated. Here too
after reading one or two books they
call themselves a nose. They create
homemade tinctures containing
unknown materials. They pass nat-
ural fragrances that are adulterated
with synthetic aromatic materials
as pure when they know they are
not.
I love the art, and know that my
work has been well received on the
www. After finding myself black-
balled twenty years ago I decided to
show case my abilities, and that in a
nutshell is what this intellectual
hobby of mine is about. Getting
even with a former employer who
said I wasnt good enough to be a
perfumer, and then making sure I
wouldnt work again has also
helped. The house understands true
well now that a mistake was made
and that his back stabbing cost him
dearly, and myself a lucrative well
paid career.
Glen O. Brechbill
4
Index
Copyright 2
About The Book 3 - 4
Index 5 - 6
Essential Oil Map of the World 7
International Directory By Country & House 8 - 13
The Spices 14 - 22
All Spice 23 - 24
Asafoetida 25 - 27
Bay 28 - 30
Cardamom 31 - 33
Caraway 34 - 35
Cassia 36 - 38
Celery Seed 39 - 42
Cinnamon 43 - 47
Clove 48 - 51
Coriander 52 - 54
Cumin 55 - 56
5
Fennel 57 - 59
Fenugreek 60 - 62
Garlic 63 - 65
Ginger 66 - 68
Juniperberry 69 - 70
Mustard Black 71
Nutmeg 72 - 74
Paprika 75 - 76
Pepper Long 77
Peppercorns 78 - 79
Saffron 80 - 82
Sassafras 83 - 84
Star Anise 85 - 86
Thyme 87 - 89
Tonka Bean 90 - 91
Turmeric 92 - 93
Vanilla 94 - 97
BOOK # 1 ( A - H ) 98 - 193
BOOK # 2 ( I - Z ) 194 - 310
Bibliography 311 - 313
Glen O. Brechbill
6
A World of Fragrances
7
International Directory by Country & House
Continent/Country/Fragrance House Continent/Country/Fragrance House
Manuscript # 1 ( A - H )
Manuscript # 2 ( I - Z )
Canada
The Spice Trader
United States
Alfa Chem
American Society of Perfumers
Aromatic International LLC
Artiste Flavor / Essence
Astral Extracts
Bedoukian Research, Inc.
Bell Flavors & Fragrances
Berje Inc.
Carrubba Inc.
Central States Chemical Marketing
Champon Vanilla
Citrus & Allied
Cookson & Hunt International Co.
Creative Fragrances Ltd.
DMH Ingredients
North America
Fiveash Data Management
Fleurchem, Inc.
Fleurin, Inc.
Flexitral, Inc.
Florachem Corporation
Florida Chemical Company, Inc.
Florida Worldwide Citrus
Frencharoma Imports Co., Inc.
Good Scents Company
Gorlin & Company
Graham Chemical Corporation
I.P. Callison & Sons
Innospec Inc.
International Flavors & Fragrances
J & E Sozio, Inc.
Joint American Ventures in China
MelChem Distribution
Millennium Chemicals
Natural Resourcing
Norwest Ingredients
Oliganic
Penta Manufacturing
Phoenix Aromas & Essential Oils
Polarome International
Glen O. Brechbill
8
Prima Fleur
Rosetta Enterprises LLC
Sarcom Inc.
Science Lab
Sensient Technologies Corporation
Sigma Aldrich
Spectrum Chemicals
Sundial Fragrances & Flavors
Sunrose Aromatics
Texarome
Treatt USA Inc.
Trisenx, Inc.
Uhe Company, Inc.
Ungerer & Company
Vigon International, Inc.
Walsh, John D., Company, Inc.
Mexico
Esencias y Materiales Lozmat
Tecnaal Group
Argentina
Esarco
Euma
Fritzsche SAICA
San Miguel Agici y F
Brazil
Citral Oleos Essenciais Ltda.
J. Piltz & Cia. Ltda.
Petit Marie
Rai Ingredients
Belgium
Synaco Group
Bulgaria
Vesselino Trading Company
Denmark
Wambesco Gmbh
France
A.N.E.C.
Adrian Industries SAS
Albert Vielle SA
Aromatic Collection
Aromax
Axxence SARL
BFA Laboratories
Barosyl S.A.
Biolandes Parfumerie
Charabot & Company Inc.
Clos DAguzon
Diffusions Aromatiques
Dulcos Trading
Exaflor
Central America
South America
Europe
9
H.Reynaud & Fils
IPRA Fragrances
Interchim
Laboratoire Monique Remy
Mane SA
Moraflor Produits Aromatiques
Muller & Koster
PCAS
Payan Bertrand SA
Prodarom
Prodasynth
Rhodia Organics
Robertet SA
SIPA A. Ch. Berthier
Sovimpex
Symarome
Germany
Basf
Dullberg Konzentra Gmbh
Eramex Aromatics Gmbh
Frey & Lau Gmbh
Lothar-Streck
Paul Kaders GmbH
Sensient Essential Oils Gmbh
Symrise GmbH & Co. KG
Th. Gyer Gmbh & Co. KG
Hungary
Silvestris & Szilas Ltd.
Italy
Baller s.r.l.
Capua s.r.l.
Citroflor di G.
Espira S.p.A
Farotti Essences srl
Moelhausen S.P.A.
Portugal
Kruetz Helmut
Spain
Bordas Destilaciones Chinchurreta
Cami de Fontainilles
Destilerias Munoz Galvez, s.a.
Lluche Essence
Ventos, Ernesto S.A.
Switzerland
Essencia, Aetherische Oele AG
Firmenich
Givaudan Fragrance Corporation
Puressence Wuresten Inc.
Glen O. Brechbill
10
The Netherlands
Brighten Colorchem, B.V.
Flavodor
PFW Aroma Chemicals
United Kingdom
A & E Connock Ltd.
Augustus OIls. Ld.
British Society of Perfumers
Buckton Home Page Ltd.
De Monchy Aromatics, Inc.
Earth Oil Plantations Ltd.
FD Copeland & Sons Ltd.
Fine Chemical Trading
Furest Day Lawson
Global Essence Ltd.
Handa Fine Chemicals Ltd.
JC Buck Ltd.
Lionel Hitchen Ltd.
Quality Analysis
SRS Aromatics Ltd.
Venus Enterprises
Israel
Agan Aroma & Fine Chemicals
Aromor Flavors & Fragrances Ltd.
Fruitarom Industries
Nardev
China
China Aroma Chemical Co., Ltd.
China Perfumer
Chinessence Ltd.
HC Biochem
Hangzhou Aroma Chemical Co.
Shanghai M & U International
Tianjin Jiete Fine Chemical Co.
Hong Kong
Naradev
OLaughlin Industries
India
Amen Organics
Anthea Aromatics Pvt. Ltd.
Anupam Industries
B.S. Industries
Bansal Aroma
FFC Aroma
Flowersynth
GMPCT
Gyran Flavours
Hermani Ex-Imp Corporation
Hindustan Mint & Agro Products
Indian Spices
Mediterranean
Asia
11
Kanta House
Katyani Exorts
Krupa Scientific
Kuber Impex Ltd.
Narain Terpene & Allied Chemical
Organica Aromatics Pvt. Ltd.
P.P. Sheth & Co.
Petitgara Chemicals
Premier Chemical Corporation
Privi Organics Ld.
Raj Aromatics Aroma Corporation
SAT Group
Seema International
Shreeji Aroma
Som Santi House
Some Extracts
Tadimetry Aromatics Pvt Ltd.
Thakker Group
Ultra International Limited
U.K. Aromatic & Chemicals
Indonesia
Djasula Wangi
Haldin
Indesso
Japan
Basf Japan Ltd.
Kao Corporation
Takasago International Corporation
Zeon Corporation
Korea
Castrading
M.X.D. Enterprise System
Nepal
Shambhala Herbal & Aromatics Pvt. Ltd.
Singapore
Taytonn Pte Ltd.
Sri Lanka
EOAS International
Thailand
Thailand Institute of Science
Turkey
Oregano
Viet Nam
Enter Oil
Australian Botanical Products
Cosmark
Perfume & Flavor Manufacturers
Peter Jarvis Cosmetic Develop.
W & W Australia Pty Ltd.
Glen O. Brechbill
Australia
12
Africa Trade
Egypt
A.Fakhry & Company
Fayyum Gharbya Aromatic
Kato Aromatic S.A.E.
Africa
13
Spices
A spice is a dried seed, fruit, root,
bark, or vegetative substance used
in nutritionally insignificant quanti-
ties as a food additive for flavor,
color, or as a preservative that kills
harmful bacteria or prevents their
growth. It may be used to flavour a
dish or to hide other flavours. In the
kitchen, spices are distinguished
from herbs, which are leafy, green
plant parts used for flavoring or as
garnish.
Many spices are used for other pur-
poses, such as medicine, religious
rituals, cosmetics, perfumery, or for
eating as vegetables. For example,
turmeric is also used as a preserva-
tive; liquorice as a medicine; garlic
as a vegetable.
Botanical Basis
Dried fruits or seeds, such as fen-
nel, mustard, and black pepper.
Arils, such as mace.
Barks, such as cinnamon and cas-
sia.
Dried flower buds, such as cloves.
U.S.S.R. )
Masala ( a generic name for any
blend of spices used in South Asia )
Mixed spice ( United Kingdom )
Old Bay Seasoning ( United States )
Panch phoron ( India and Ban-
gladesh )
Pumpkin pie spice ( United States )
Quatre pices ( France )
Ras el hanout ( North Africa )
Shichimi togarashi ( Japan )
Vegeta ( Croatia )
Za'atar ( Middle East )
Early History
Humans were using spices in 50,000
BCE. The spice trade developed
throughout the Middle East in
around 2000 BCE with cinnamon
and pepper, and in East Asia with
herbs and pepper. The Egyptians
used herbs for embalming and their
Stigmas, such as saffron.
Roots and rhizomes, such as
turmeric, ginger and galingale.
Resins, such as asafoetida.
Common Spice Mixtures:
Advieh ( Iran )
Baharat ( Arab world, and the
Middle East in general )
Berbere (Ethiopia and Eritrea)
Chaat masala ( India and Pakistan )
Chili powder
Curry powder
Five-spice powder ( China )
Garam masala ( South Asia )
Harissa ( North Africa )
Hawaij ( Yemen )
Jerk spice ( Jamaica )
Khmeli suneli ( Georgia, former
Glen O. Brechbill
14
need for exotic herbs helped stimu-
late world trade. The word spice
comes from the Old French word
espice, which became epice, and
which came from the Latin root
spec, the noun referring to "appear-
ance, sort, kind": species has the
same root. By 1000 BCE, medical
systems based upon herbs could be
found in China, Korea, and India.
Early uses were connected with
magic, medicine, religion, tradi-
tion, and preservation.
Archaeological excavations have
uncovered clove burnt onto the
floor of a kitchen, dated to 1700
BCE, at the Mesopotamian site of
Terqa, in modern-day Syria. The
ancient Indian epic Ramayana men-
tions cloves. The Romans had
cloves in the 1st century CE, as
Pliny the Elder wrote about them.
In the story of Genesis, Joseph was
sold into slavery by his brothers to
spice merchants. In the biblical
poem Song of Solomon, the male
speaker compares his beloved to
many forms of spices. Generally,
early Egyptian, Chinese, Indian,
and Mesopotamian sources do not
refer to known spices.
In South Asia, nutmeg, which orig-
inates from the Banda Islands in the
Molukas, has a Sanskrit name.
Sanskrit is the ancient language of
India, showing how old the usage
of this spice is in this region.
Historians believe that nutmeg was
introduced to Europe in the 6th cen-
tury BCE.
and 1,000 tons of the other com-
mon spices were imported into
Western Europe each year during
the Late Middle Ages. The value of
these goods was the equivalent of a
yearly supply of grain for 1.5 mil-
lion people. The most exclusive
was saffron, used as much for its
vivid yellow-red color as for its fla-
vor. Spices that have now fallen
into obscurity in European cuisine
include grains of paradise, a rela-
tive of cardamom which most
replaced pepper in late medieval
north French cooking, long pepper,
mace, spikenard, galangal and
cubeb.
Early Modern Period
The control of trade routes and the
spice-producing regions were the
main reasons that Portuguese navi-
gator Vasco da Gama sailed to India
in 1499. Spain and Portugal were
not happy to pay the high price that
Venice demanded for spices. At
around the same time, Christopher
Columbus returned from the New
World, he described to investors
new spices available there.
The military prowess of Afonso de
Albuquerque ( 1453 - 1515 )
allowed the Portuguese to take con-
trol of the sea routes to India. In
1506, he took the island of Socotra
in the mouth of the Red Sea and, in
1507, Ormuz in the Persian Gulf.
Since becoming the viceroy of the
Indies, he took Goa in India in
1510, and Malacca on the Malay
peninsula in 1511. The Portuguese
Indonesian merchants traveled
around China, India, the Middle
East, and the east coast of Africa.
Arab merchants facilitated the
routes through the Middle East and
India. This resulted in the Egyptian
port city of Alexandria being the
main trading center for spices. The
most important discovery prior to
the European spice trade were the
monsoon winds (40 CE). Sailing
from Eastern spice growers to
Western European consumers grad-
ually replaced the land-locked spice
routes once facilitated by the
Middle East Arab caravans.
Middle Ages
Spices were among the most
demanded and expensive products
available in Europe in the Middle
Ages, the most common being
black pepper, cinnamon (and the
cheaper alternative cassia), cumin,
nutmeg, ginger and cloves. Given
the medieval medicine's main theo-
ry of humorism, spices and herbs
were indispensable to balance
"humors" in food, a daily basis for
good health at a time of recurrent
pandemics.
Spices were all imported from plan-
tations in Asia and Africa, which
made them expensive. From the 8th
until the 15th century, the Republic
of Venice had the monopoly on
spice trade with the Middle East,
and along with it the neighboring
Italian city-states. The trade made
the region rich. It has been estimat-
ed that around 1,000 tons of pepper
15
could now trade directly with Siam,
China, and the Moluccas. The Silk
Road complemented the
Portuguese sea routes, and brought
the treasures of the Orient to
Europe via Lisbon, including many
spices.
With the discovery of the New
World came new spices, including
allspice, bell and chili peppers,
vanilla, and chocolate. This devel-
opment kept the spice trade, with
America as a late comer with its
new seasonings, profitable well
into the 19th century.
In the Caribbean, the island of
Grenada is well known[clarifica-
tion needed] for growing and
exporting a number of spices,
including the nutmeg, which was
introduced to Grenada by the set-
tlers.
Handling Spices
A spice may be available in several
forms: fresh, whole dried, or pre-
ground dried. Generally, spices are
dried. A whole dried spice has the
longest shelf life, so it can be pur-
chased and stored in larger
amounts, making it cheaper on a
per-serving basis. Some spices are
rarely available either fresh or
whole, for example turmeric, and
must be purchased in ground form.
Small seeds, such as fennel and
mustard seeds, are used both whole
and in powder form.
The flavor of a spice is derived in
part from compounds that oxidize
Pakistan 45,473 3 %
Total 1,588,807 100 %
Standardization
The International Organization for
Standardization addresses spices
and condiments, along with related
food additives, as part of the
International Classification for
Standards 67.220 series.
Research
The Indian Institute of Spices
Research in Kozhikode, Kerala, is
devoted exclusively to researching
all aspects of spice crops:
Black Pepper
Cardamom
Cinnamon
Clove
Garcinia
Ginger
Nutmeg
Vanilla
A List of Culinary Herbs & Spices
This is a list of culinary herbs and
spices. Specifically these are food
or drink additives of mostly botani-
cal origin used in nutritionally
insignificant quantities for flavor-
or evaporate when exposed to air.
Grinding a spice greatly increases
its surface area and so increases the
rates of oxidation and evaporation.
Thus, flavor is maximized by stor-
ing a spice whole and grinding
when needed. The shelf life of a
whole spice is roughly two years;
of a ground spice roughly six
months. The "flavor life" of a
ground spice can be much shorter.
Ground spices are better stored
away from light.
To grind a whole spice, the classic
tool is mortar and pestle. Less
labor-intensive tools are more com-
mon now: a microplane or fine
grater can be used to grind small
amounts; a coffee grinder is useful
for larger amounts. A frequently
used spice such as black pepper
may merit storage in its own hand
grinder or mill.
Some flavor elements in spices are
soluble in water; many are soluble
in oil or fat. As a general rule, the
flavors from a spice take time to
infuse into the food so spices are
added early in preparation.
Production
In tonnes. 2009 - 2010
India 1,100,000 70 %
Bangladesh 140,113 9 %
Turkey 87,028 5.7 %
China 85,987 5.5 %
Glen O. Brechbill
16
ing or coloring.
This list does not contain salt,
which is a mineral, nor is it for fic-
tional plants such as aglaophotis, or
recreational drugs such as tobacco.
This list is not for plants used pri-
marily as herbal teas or tisanes, nor
for plant products that are purely
medicinal, such as valerian.
Ajwain, carom seeds
(Trachyspermum ammi) (South
Asia, Afghanistan, Iran, Egypt,
Eritrea & Ethiopia)
Akudjura (Solanum Centrale)
(Australia)
Alexanders (Smyrnium Olusatrum)
Alkanet (Alkanna Tinctoria), for
red color
Alligator Pepper, mbongo spice
(mbongochobi), hepper pepper
(Aframomum danielli, A. citratum,
A. exscapum) (West Africa)
Allspice (Pimenta Dioica)
Angelica (Angelica Archangelica)
Anise (Pimpinella Anisum)
Aniseed myrtle (Syzygium anisat-
um) (Australia)
Annatto (Bixa Orellana)
Apple Mint (Mentha Suaveolens)
Camphor Laurel (Cinnamomum
Camphora)
Canelo, Winter's Bark (Drimys
Winteri) (Chile and Argentina)
Caraway (Carum Carvi)
Cardamom (Elettaria Carda-
momum)
Carob (Ceratonia Siliqua)
Catnip (Nepeta Cataria)
Cassia (Cinnamomum Aroma-
ticum)
Cayenne Pepper (Capsicum
Annuum)
Celery Seed (Apium Graveolens)
Chervil (Anthriscus Cerefolium)
Chicory (Cichorium Intybus)
Chili Pepper (Capsicum spp.)
Chives (Allium Schoenoprasum)
Cicely, Sweet Cicely (Myrrhis
Odorata)
Cilantro, Coriander Greens,
Coriander Herb (Coriandrum
Sativum)
Cinnamon, Indonesian (Cinna-
momum Burmannii, Cassia Vera)
Cinnamon, Saigon or Vietnamese
(Cinnamomum Lloureiroi)
Asafoetida (Ferula Assafoetida)
Asarabacca (Asarum Europaeum)
Avens (Geum Urbanum)
Avocado Leaf (Peresea Americana)
Barberry (Berberis Vulgaris and
other Berberis spp.)
Basil, Sweet (Ocimum Basilicum)
Basil, Lemon (Ocimum
Citriodorum)
Basil, Thai (O. Basilicum var.
Thyrsiflora)
Basil, Holy (Ocimum Tenuiflorum)
Bay Leaf (Laurus Nobilis)
Boldo (Peumus Boldus)
Borage (Borago Officinalis)
Black Cardamom (Amomum
Subulatum, Amomum Costatum)
Black Mustard (Brassica Nigra)
Blue Fenugreek, Blue Melilot
(Trigonella Caerulea)
Brown Mustard (Brassica Juncea)
Calabash Nutmeg, Ehuru
(Monodora Myristica) (West
Africa)
Calendula, Pot Marigold
(Calendula Officinalis)
17
Cinnamon, True or Ceylon
(Cinnamomum Verum, C.
Zeylanicum)
Cinnamon, White (Canella
Winterana)
Cinnamon Myrtle (Backhousia
myrtifolia) (Australia)
Clary, Clary Sage (Salvia Sclarea)
Clove (Syzygium Aromaticum)
Coriander Seed (Coriandrum
Sativum)
Costmary (Tanacetum Balsamita)
Cuban Oregano (Plectranthus
Amboinicus)
Cubeb pepper (Piper cubeba)
Cudweed (Gnaphalium spp.)
(Vietnam)
Culantro, Culangot, Long
Coriander (Eryngium Foetidum)
Cumin (Cuminum Cyminum)
Curry leaf (Murraya Koenigii)
Curry plant (Helichrysum Italicum)
Dill Seed (Anethum Graveolens)
Dill Herb or Weed (Anethum
Graveolens)
Elderflower (Sambucus spp.)
Horseradish (Armoracia Rusticana)
Houttuynia Cordata (Vietnam)
Huacatay, Mexican Marigold, Mint
Marigold (Tagetes Minuta)
Hyssop (Hyssopus Officinalis)
Indonesian Bay Leaf, daun salam
(Syzygium Polyanthum)
Jasmine Flowers (Jasminum spp.)
Jimbu (Allium Hypsistum) (Nepal)
Juniper Berry (Juniperus
Communis)
Kaffir Lime Leaves, Makrud Lime
Leaves (Citrus hystrix) (Southeast
Asia)
Kala Zeera (or kala jira), Black
Cumin (Bunium Persicum) (South
Asia)
Kawakawa Seeds (Macropiper
excelsum) (New Zealand)
Kencur, Galangal, Kentjur
(Kaempferia Galanga)
Keluak, Kluwak, Kepayang
(Pangium Edule)
Kokam Seed (Garcinia Indica)
(Indian confectionery)
Korarima, Ethiopian Cardamom,
false cardamom (Aframomum
Corrorima) (Eritrea)
Epazote (Dysphania Ambrosioides)
Fennel (Foeniculum Vulgare)
Fenugreek (Trigonella Foenum-
graecum)
Fil Powder, Gfil (Sassafras
Albidum)
Fingerroot, Krachai, Temu Kuntji
(Boesenbergia Rotunda)
Galangal, Greater (Alpinia
Galanga)
Galangal, Lesser (Alpinia
Officinarum)
Galingale (Cyperus spp.)
Garlic Chives (Allium Tuberosum)
Garlic (Allium Sativum)
Garlic, Elephant (Allium
Ampeloprasum var. Ampelo-pra-
sum)
Ginger (Zingiber Officinale)
Ginger, Torch, bunga siantan
(Etlingera elatior) (Indonesia)
Golpar, Persian Hogweed
(Heracleum Persicum) (Iran)
Grains of Paradise (Aframomum
melegueta)
Grains of Selim, Kani Pepper
(Xylopia Aethiopica)
Glen O. Brechbill
18
Koseret leaves (Lippia adoensis)
(Ethiopia)
Lavender (Lavandula spp.)
Lemon balm (Melissa officinalis)
Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citra-
tus, C. flexuosus, and other
Cymbopogon spp.)
Lemon ironbark (Eucalyptus
staigeriana) (Australia)
Lemon myrtle (Backhousia citri-
odora) (Australia)
Lemon verbena (Lippia citriodora)
Leptotes bicolor (Paraguay and
southern Brazil)
Lesser calamint (Calamintha nepe-
ta), nipitella, nepitella (Italy)
Licorice, liquorice (Glycyrrhiza
glabra)
Lime flower, linden flower (Tilia
spp.)
Lovage (Levisticum officinale)
Mace (Myristica fragrans)
Mahlab, St. Lucie cherry (Prunus
mahaleb)
Malabathrum, tejpat
(Cinnamomum tamala)
Marjoram (Origanum majorana)
odoratissimus)
Pandan leaf, screwpine (Pandanus
amaryllifolius)
Paprika (Capsicum annuum)
Paracress (Spilanthes acmella,
Soleracea) (Brazil)
Parsley (Petroselinum crispum)
Pepper: black, white, and green
(Piper nigrum)
Pepper, Dorrigo (Tasmannia stipita-
ta) (Australia)
Pepper, long (Piper longum)
Pepper, mountain, Cornish pepper
leaf (Tasmannia lanceolata)
Peppermint (Mentha piperata)
Peppermint gum leaf (Eucalyptus
dives)
Perilla, shiso (Perilla spp.)
Peruvian pepper (Schinus molle)
Pandanus amaryllifolius
Brazilian pepper or Pink pepper
(Schinus terebinthifolius)
Quassia (Quassia amara) (bitter
spice in aperitifs and some beers
and fortified wines)
Ramsons, wood garlic (Allium
ursinum)
Marsh mallow (Althaea officinalis)
Mastic (Pistacia lentiscus)
Mint (Mentha spp.) 25 species,
hundreds of varieties
Mountain horopito (Pseudowintera
colorata) (New Zealand)
Musk mallow, abelmosk
(Abelmoschus moschatus)
Mustard, black, mustard plant,
mustard seed (Brassica nigra)
Mustard, brown, mustard plant,
mustard seed (Brassica juncea)
Mustard, white, mustard plant,
mustard seed (Sinapis alba)
Nasturtium[disambiguation needed
] (Tropaeolum majus)
Nigella, kalonji, black caraway,
black onion seed (Nigella sativa
Njangsa, djansang (Ricinodendron
heudelotii) (West Africa)
Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans)
Olida (Eucalyptus olida)
(Australia)
Oregano (Origanum vulgare, O.
heracleoticum, and other species)
Orris root (Iris germanica, I. flo-
rentina, I. pallida)
Pandan flower, kewra (Pandanus
19
Glen O. Brechbill
Rice paddy herb (Limnophila aro-
matica) (Vietnam)
Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis)
Rue (Ruta graveolens)
Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius),
for yellow color
Saffron (Crocus sativus)
Sage (Salvia officinalis)
Saigon cinnamon (Cinnamomum
loureiroi)
Salad burnet (Sanguisorba minor)
Salep (Orchis mascula)
Sassafras (Sassafras albidum)
Savory, summer (Satureja horten-
sis)
Savory, winter (Satureja montana)
Silphium, silphion, laser, laserpici-
um, lasarpicium (Ancient Roman
cuisine, Ancient Greek cuisine)
Sorrel (Rumex acetosa)
Sorrel, sheep (Rumex acetosella)
Spearmint (Mentha spicata)
Spikenard (Nardostachys grandi-
flora or N. jatamansi)
Star anise (Illicium verum)
Wild betel (Piper sarmentosum)
(Southeast Asia)
Wild thyme (Thymus serpyllum)
Willow herb (Epilobium parviflo-
rum)
Winter savory (Satureja montana)
Wintergreen (Gaultheria procum-
bens)
Wood avens, herb bennet (Geum
urbanum)
Woodruff (Galium odoratum)
Wormwood, absinthe (Artemisia
absinthium)
Yellow mustard (Brassica hirta =
Sinapis alba)
Yerba buena, any of four different
species, many unrelated
Za'atar (herbs from the genera
Origanum, Calamintha, Thymus,
and Satureja)
Zedoary (Curcuma zedoaria)
Spices
Ajwain ( Bishop's Weed )
Aleppo Pepper
Alligator Pepper
Allspice
Amchur ( Mango Powder )
Anise
Aromatic Ginger
Asafoetida
Sumac (Rhus coriaria)
Sweet woodruff (Galium odora-
tum)
Szechuan pepper, Sichuan pepper
(Zanthoxylum piperitum)
Tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus)
Thyme (Thymus vulgaris)
Thyme, lemon (Thymus citri-
odorus)
Turmeric (Curcuma longa)
Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia)
Vietnamese balm (Elsholtzia cilia-
ta)
Vietnamese cinnamon
(Cinnamomum loureiroi)
Vietnamese coriander (Persicaria
odorata)
Voatsiperifery (Piper borbonense)
Wasabi (Wasabia japonica)
Water-pepper, smartweed
(Polygonum hydropiper)
Watercress (Rorippa nasturtium-
aquatica)
Wattleseed (from about 120 spp. of
Australian Acacia)
White mustard (Sinapis alba)
20
Camphor
Caraway
Cardamom
Cardamom, Black
Cassia
Cayenne Pepper
Celery Seed
Charoli
Chenpi
Chili Pepper
Cinnamon
Clove
Coriander Seed
Cubeb
Cumin
Cumin, Black
Dill and Dill Seed
Fennel
Fenugreek
Fingerroot ( Krachai )
Galangal Greater
Galangal Lesser
Garlic
Ginger
Golpar
Grains of Paradise
Grains of Selim
Horseradish
Juniper Berry
Kaempferia Galanga ( Kencur )
Kokum
Korarima
Lime, Black
Liquorice
Litsea Cubeba
Zedoary
Zereshk
Zest
Herb & Spice Mixtures
Adjika
Advieh
Baharat
Berbere
Bouquet Garni
Buknu
Chaat Masala
Chaunk
Chili Powder
Crab Boil
Curry Powder
Fines Herbes
Five-Spice Powder
Garam Masala
Garlic Salt
Harissa
Hawaij
Herbes de Provence
Jerk Spice
Khmeli Suneli
Lemon Pepper
Masala
Mitmita
Mixed Spice
Old Bay Seasoning
Mace
Mango-Ginger
Mahlab
Malabathrum ( Tejpat )
Mustard Black
Mustard Brown
Mustard White
Nigella ( Kalonji )
Nutmeg
Paprika
Pepper Brazilian
Pepper Peruvian
Pepper Long
Peppercorn
( Black, Green, and White )
Pomegranate Seed ( Anardana )
Poppy Seed
Radhuni
Rose
Saffron
Salt
Sarsaparilla
Sassafras
Sesame
Sichuan Pepper (hua-jia-o, sansho)
Star Anise
Sumac
Tamarind
Tasmanian Pepper
Tonka Bean
Turmeric
Uzazi
Vanilla
Voatsiperifery
Wasabi
21
Panch Phoron
Persillade
Pumpkin Pie Spice
Qlat Daqqa
Quatre Epices
Ras el Hanout
Recado Rojo
Sharena Sol
Shichimi
Tabil
Tandoori Masala
Za'atar
Glen O. Brechbill
22
All Spice
Allspice, also called Jamaica pep-
per, pepper, myrtle pepper, pimen-
ta, or newspice, is a spice that is the
dried unripe fruit ("berries") of
Pimenta dioica, a mid-canopy tree
native to the Greater Antilles,
southern Mexico, and Central
America, now cultivated in many
warm parts of the world. The name
allspice was coined as early as 1621
by the English, who thought it com-
bined the flavour of cinnamon, nut-
meg, and cloves.
Several unrelated fragrant shrubs
are called "Carolina allspice"
(Calycanthus floridus), "Japanese
allspice" (Chimonanthus praecox)
or "wild allspice" (Lindera ben-
zoin). Allspice is also sometimes
used to refer to the herb costmary
(Tanacetum balsamita).
Preparation Form
Allspice is the dried fruit of the
Pimenta dioica plant. The fruit is
picked when it is green and unripe
and, traditionally, dried in the sun.
When dry, the fruits are brown and
resemble large brown peppercorns.
The whole fruits have a longer shelf
life than the powdered product and
allspice as the sole spice added for
flavoring. In America, it is used
mostly in desserts, but it is also
responsible for giving Cincinnati-
style chili its distinctive aroma and
flavor. Allspice is commonly used
in Great Britain, and appears in
many dishes, including cakes. Even
in many countries where allspice is
not very popular in the household,
as in Germany, it is used in large
amounts by commercial sausage
makers. It is a main flavor used in
barbecue sauces.[citation needed]
In the West Indies, an allspice
liqueur called "pimento dram" is
produced.
Allspice has also been used as a
deodorant. Volatile oils found in the
plant contain eugenol, a weak
antimicrobial agent, Allspice is also
reported to provide relief for indi-
gestion and gas.
Cultivation
Pimenta dioica leaves in Goa, India
The allspice tree is classified as an
evergreen shrub that reaches a
height of between 10 and 18 meters
(32 and 60 feet). Allspice can be a
produce a more aromatic product
when freshly ground before use.
Fresh leaves are used where avail-
able. They are similar in texture to
bay leaves and are thus infused dur-
ing cooking and then removed
before serving. Unlike bay leaves,
they lose much flavour when dried
and stored, so do not figure in com-
merce. The leaves and wood are
often used for smoking meats
where allspice is a local crop.
Allspice can also be found in essen-
tial oil form.
Uses
Allspice is one of the most impor-
tant ingredients of Caribbean cui-
sine. It is used in Caribbean jerk
seasoning (the wood is used to
smoke jerk in Jamaica, although the
spice is a good substitute), in
moles, and in pickling; it is also an
ingredient in commercial sausage
preparations and curry powders.
Allspice is also indispensable in
Middle Eastern cuisine, particularly
in the Levant, where it is used to
flavor a variety of stews and meat
dishes. In Palestinian cuisine, for
example, many main dishes call for
23
small scrubby tree, quite similar to
the bay laurel in size and form. It
can also be a tall, canopy tree,
sometimes grown to provide shade
for coffee trees that are planted
underneath them. It can be grown
outdoors in the tropics and subtrop-
ics with normal garden soil and
watering. Smaller plants can be
killed by frost, although larger
plants are more tolerant. It adapts
well to container culture and can be
kept as a houseplant or in a green-
house. The plant is dioecious,
meaning plants are either male or
female and hence male and female
plants must be kept in proximity to
allow fruits to develop.
To protect the pimenta trade, the
plant was guarded against export
from Jamaica. Many attempts at
growing the pimenta from seeds
were reported, but all failed. At one
time, the plant was thought to grow
nowhere except in Jamaica, where
the plant was readily spread by
birds. Experiments were then per-
formed using the constituents of
bird droppings; however, these
were also totally unsuccessful.
Eventually, it was realized that pas-
sage through the avian gut, either
the acidity or the elevated tempera-
ture, was essential for germinating
the seeds. Today, pimenta is spread
by birds in Tonga and Hawaii,
where it has become naturalized on
Kaua?i and Maui.
Western History
Allspice (Pimenta dioica) was
encountered by Christopher
Columbus on the island of Jamaica
during his second voyage to the
New World, and named by Dr.
Diego lvarez Chanca. It was
introduced into European and
Mediterranean cuisines in the 16th
century. It continued to be grown
primarily in Jamaica, though a few
other Central American countries
produced allspice in comparatively
small quantities.
Glen O. Brechbill
24
Asafoetida (Ferula assafoetida),
alternative spelling asafetida (also
known as devil's dung, stinking
gum, asant, food of the gods, giant
fennel, Jowani badian, hing and
ting) is the dried latex (gum oleo-
resin) exuded from the living
underground rhizome or tap root of
several species of Ferula, which is a
perennial herb (1 to 1.5 m high).
The species is native to
Afghanistan mountains and are
imported to India. Asafoetida has a
pungent, unpleasant smell when
raw, but in cooked dishes, it deliv-
ers a smooth flavor, reminiscent of
leeks.
Cooking
This spice is used as a digestive aid,
in food as a condiment, and in pick-
les. It typically works as a flavor
enhancer and, used along with
turmeric, is a standard component
of Indian recipes such as dal (a
legume curry), and the spiced pota-
toes that are eaten with dosas (sour-
dough crepes made with a lightly
fermented rice-flour/legume bat-
ter). In its pure form, its odour is so
strong the aroma will contaminate
other spices stored nearby if it is
Chemical Society's Journal of
Natural Products, the researchers
said the compounds "may serve as
promising lead components for
new drug development" against this
type of flu.
Digestion - In Thailand and India,
it is used to aid digestion and is
smeared on the abdomen in an alco-
hol or water tincture known as
mahahing.
Asthma and Bronchitis - It is also
said to be helpful in cases of asthma
and bronchitis. A folk tradition
remedy for children's colds: it is
mixed into a pungent-smelling
paste and hung in a bag around the
afflicted child's neck.
Antimicrobial - Asafoetida has a
broad range of uses in traditional
medicine as an antimicrobial, with
well documented uses for treating
chronic bronchitis and whooping
cough, as well as reducing flatu-
lence.
Contraceptive/abortifacient - Asa-
foetida has also been reported to
have contraceptive/abortifacient
activity, and is related to (and con-
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asafoetida
not stored in an airtight container:
many commercial preparations of
asafetida utilize the resin ground up
and mixed with a larger volume of
wheat flour: the mixture is sold in
sealed plastic containers with a
small hole at the top, allowing the
diluted spice to be dusted lightly
over the food being cooked.
However, its odour and flavour
become much milder and more
pleasant upon heating in oil or
ghee, acquiring a taste and aroma
reminiscent of sauted onion and
garlic.
Antiflatulent
Asafoetida reduces the growth of
indigenous microflora in the gut,
reducing flatulence.
Medical Aplications
Fighting flu - Asafoetida was used
in 1918 to fight the Spanish
influenza pandemic. In 2009, scien-
tists at the Kaohsiung Medical
University in Taiwan reported that
the roots of Asafoetida produce nat-
ural antiviral drug compounds that
kill the swine flu virus, H1N1. In an
article published in the American
Asafoetida
25
sidered an inferior substitute for)
the ancient Ferula species
Silphium.
Antiepileptic - Asafoetida oleo-
gum-resin has been reported to be
antiepileptic in classical Unani, as
well as ethnobotanical literature.
Balancing the vata - In Ayurveda,
asafoetida is considered to be one
of the best spices for balancing the
vata dosha.
Regional Usages
In the Jammu region of India,
asafoetida is used as a medicine for
flatulence and constipation by 60%
of locals. It is used especially by
the merchant caste of the Hindus
and by adherents of Jainism and
Vaishnavism, who do not eat
onions or garlic. It is used in many
vegetarian and lentil dishes to add
both flavor and aroma, as well as to
reduce flatulence.
Other Uses
Bait - John C Duval reported in
1936 that the odor of asafoetida is
attractive to the wolf, a matter of
common knowledge, he says, along
the Texas/Mexico border. It is also
used as one of several possible
scent baits, most notably for catfish
and pike.
May also be used as a moth
(Lepidoptera) light trap attractant
by collectors - when mixed by
approximately 1\3 parts with a
smell". Nevertheless, it could be
substituted for silphium in cooking,
which was fortunate, because a few
decades after Dioscorides's time,
the true silphium of Cyrene became
extinct, and asafoetida became
more popular amongst physicians,
as well as cooks.
Asafoetida is also mentioned multi-
ple times in Jewish sources, such as
the Mishnah. Maimonides also
writes in the Mishneh Torah "In the
rainy season, one should eat warm
food with much spice, but a limited
amount of mustard and asafoetida."
After the Roman Empire fell, until
the 16th century, asafoetida was
rare in Europe, and if ever encoun-
tered, it was viewed as a medicine.
"If used in cookery, it would ruin
every dish because of its dreadful
smell", asserted Garca de Orta's
European guest. Nonsense, Garca
replied, "nothing is more widely
used in every part of India, both in
medicine and in cookery. All the
Hindus who can afford it buy it to
add to their food."
Cultivation and Manufacture
The resin-like gum which comes
from the dried sap extracted from
the stem and roots is used as a
spice. The resin is greyish-white
when fresh but dries to a dark
amber color. The asafoetida resin is
difficult to grate and is traditionally
crushed between stones or with a
hammer. Today, the most common-
ly available form is compounded
sweet, fruit jelly.
Repelling spirits - In Jamaica,
asafoetida is traditionally applied to
a baby's anterior fontanel
(Jamaican patois mole) to prevent
spirits (Jamaican patois duppies)
from entering the baby through the
fontanel. In the African-American
Hoodoo tradition, asafoetida is
used in magic spells, as it is
believed to have the power both to
protect and to curse.
In ceremonial magick, especially
from The Key of Solomon the
King, it is used to protect the magus
from daemonic forces and to evoke
the same and bind them.
History in the West
It was familiar in the early
Mediterranean, having come by
land across Iran. Though it is gen-
erally forgotten now in Europe, it is
still widely used in India (common-
ly known there as hing). It emerged
into Europe from a conquering
expedition of Alexander the Great,
who, after returning from a trip to
northeastern Persia, thought they
had found a plant almost identical
to the famed silphium of Cyrene in
North Africa - though less tasty.
Dioscorides, in the first century,
wrote, "the Cyrenaic kind, even if
one just tastes it, at once arouses a
humour throughout the body and
has a very healthy aroma, so that it
is not noticed on the breath, or only
a little; but the Median [Iranian] is
weaker in power and has a nastier
Glen O. Brechbill
26
asafoetida, a fine powder contain-
ing 30% asafoetida resin, along
with rice flour and gum arabic.
Ferula assafoetida is an herbaceous,
monoecious, perennial plant of the
family Umbelliferae, also called
Apiaceae. It grows to 2 meters
high, with a circular mass of 30 - 40
cm leaves. Stem leaves have wide
sheathing petioles. Flowering stems
are 2.5 - 3 meters high and 10 cm
thick and hollow, with a number of
schizogenous ducts in the cortex
containing the resinous gum.
Flowers are pale greenish yellow
produced in large compound
umbels. Fruits are oval, flat, thin,
reddish brown and have a milky
juice. Roots are thick, massive, and
pulpy. They yield a resin similar to
that of the stems. All parts of the
plant have the distinctive fetid
smell.
Composition
Typical asafoetida contains about
40-64 % resin, 25 % endogeneous
gum, 10-17 % volatile oil, and 1.5-
10% ash. The resin portion is
known to contain asaresinotannols
'A' and 'B', ferulic acid, umbellifer-
one and four unidentified com-
pounds.
Etymology
Asafoetida's English and scientific
name is derived from the Persian
word for resin (asa) and Latin foeti-
da, which refers to its strong sul-
furous odour. Its pungent odour has
Loves Nelly'!" resulted in its being called by many
unpleasant names; thus in French it
is known (among other names) as
merde du diable (devil's faeces); in
some dialects of English, too, it was
known as devil's dung, and equiva-
lent names can be found in most
Germanic languages (e.g. German
Teufelsdreck,Swedish dyvelstrck,
Dutch duivelsdrek, Afrikaans dui-
welsdrek), also in Finnish pirunpas-
ka or pirunpihka. In Turkish, it is
known as s,eytantersi (devil's
sweat), s,eytan boku (devil's shit)
or s,eytanotu (the devil's herb).[22],
in Tamil it is known as
"Perungayam""Gayam" means
medicine in Malayalam
Popular Culture
Penrod, an 11-year-old boy in a
1929 Booth Tarkington story set in
the midwestern U.S.A., suffers
intensely for being forced to wear a
bag of asafoetida on his neck and
encounters a girl in the same condi-
tion.
In the movie El Dorado (1966),
asafoetida was a component of a
hangover remedy that was intro-
duced by James Caan's character
"Mississippi".
In the "Snidely's Sawmill" episode
of Dudley Do-Right, villain
Snidely Whiplash tells Nell
Fenwick preparatory to her being
tied to a log that "over my heart is a
mustard plaster, and over that is an
asafoetida bag, and on that bag
there is a tag which reads 'Whiplash
27
Bay
Bay leaf (plural bay leaves) refers
to the aromatic leaf of the bay lau-
rel (Laurus nobilis, Lauraceae).
Fresh or dried bay leaves are used
in cooking for their distinctive fla-
vor and fragrance. The leaves are
often used to flavor soups, stews,
braises and pts in Mediterranean
cuisine. The fresh leaves are very
mild and do not develop their full
flavor until several weeks after
picking and drying
Taxonomy
The term "bay leaf" is used to refer
to several other plants besides the
leaves of L. nobilis. These include:
California bay leaf - the leaf of the
California bay tree (Umbellularia
californica), also known as
California laurel, Oregon myrtle,
and pepperwood, is similar to the
Mediterranean bay, but has a
stronger flavor.
Indian bay leaf or Malabathrum
(Cinnamomum tejpata; also tej pat,
tejpat, tejpata or Palav aaku in
Telugu or Punnai ilai in Tamil or
Daalchini in Kannada). In appear-
ance, the leaf is similar to bay
exporters of bay leaves, although
they are also grown in areas of
Albania, France, Belgium, Italy,
Russia, Colombia, Central
America, North America, and
India. The laurel tree from which
the bay leaf comes was very impor-
tant both symbolically and literally
in both Greece and Rome. The lau-
rel can be found as a central com-
ponent found in many ancient
mythologies that glorify the tree as
a symbol of honor.[4] Bay leaves
are one of the most widely used
culinary herbs in Europe and North
America. In the Elizabethan era,
some people believed pinning bay
leaves to one's pillow on the eve of
Saint Valentine's Day would permit
one to see one's future spouse in a
dream.
Taste and Aroma
If eaten whole, bay leaves are pun-
gent and have a sharp, bitter taste.
As with many spices and flavor-
ings, the fragrance of the bay leaf is
more noticeable than its taste.
When dried, the fragrance is herbal,
slightly floral, and somewhat simi-
lar to oregano and thyme. Myrcene,
which is a component of many
leaves, but is culinarily quite differ-
ent, having a fragrance and taste
similar to cinnamon (cassia) bark,
but milder. In culinary terms, it is
misleading to call it bay leaf
because it is of a genus other than
that of the bay laurel tree, it does
not taste the same as the bay laurel
leaf, and cannot be used in cooking
as a substitute for the bay laurel
leaf.
Indonesian bay leaf or Indonesian
laurel (salam leaf) the leaf of
Syzygium polyanthum is not com-
monly found outside of Indonesia;
this herb is applied to meat and,
less often vegetables. Like Indian
bay leaf, it is also inaccurately
named because the plant is actually
a member of the Myrtaceae family.
History
The bay laurel tree has been culti-
vated since the beginning of record-
ed history; it originated in Asia
Minor, and spread to the
Mediterranean and other countries
with suitable climates. Bay leaf is
not grown in northern regions, as
the plants do not thrive in cold cli-
mates. Turkey is one of the main
Glen O. Brechbill
28
essential oils used in perfumery,
can be extracted from the bay leaf.
Bay leaves also contain the essen-
tial oil eugenol.
Uses
Bay leaves are a fixture in the cook-
ing of many European cuisines
(particularly those of the
Mediterranean), as well as in North
America. They are used in soups,
stews, meat, seafood and vegetable
dishes. The leaves also flavor many
classic French dishes. The leaves
are most often used whole (some-
times in a bouquet garni) and
removed before serving (they can
be abrasive in the digestive tract).
In Indian (Sanskrit name
Tamaalpatra, Hindi Tejpatta) and
Pakistani cuisine, bay leaves are
often used in biryani and other rich
spicy dishes although not as an
everyday ingredient in home cui-
sine and as an ingredient in garam
masala.
Bay leaves can also be crushed or
ground before cooking. Crushed
bay leaves impart more of their
desired fragrance than whole
leaves, but are more difficult to
remove, and thus they are often
used in a muslin bag or tea infuser.
Ground bay laurel may be substitut-
ed for whole leaves, and does not
need to be removed, but it is much
stronger due to the increased sur-
face area and in some dishes the
texture may not be desirable.
Bay leaves can also be scattered in
has been used as an herbal remedy
for headaches. It contains com-
pounds, called parthenolides,
which have proven useful in the
treatment of migraines. Bay leaf
has also been shown to help the
body process insulin more effi-
ciently, which leads to lower blood
sugar levels. It has also been used
to reduce the effects of stomach
ulcers. Bay leaf contains eugenol,
which has anti-inflammatory and
antioxidant properties. Bay leaf is
also an antifungal and antibacterial,
and has also been used to treat
rheumatism, amenorrhea, and colic.
Safety
Some members of the laurel family,
as well as the unrelated, but visual-
ly similar mountain laurel and cher-
ry laurel, have leaves that are poi-
sonous to humans and livestock.
While these plants are not sold any-
where for culinary use, their visual
similarity to bay leaves has led to
the oft-repeated belief bay leaves
should be removed from food after
cooking because they are poison-
ous. This is not true - bay leaves
may be eaten without toxic effect.
However, they remain very stiff
even after thorough cooking, and if
swallowed whole or in large pieces,
they may pose a risk of scratching
the digestive tract or even causing
choking. Thus, most recipes that
use bay leaves will recommend
their removal after the cooking
process has finished.
a pantry to repel meal moths,[5]
flies, roaches, and silverfish.
Bay leaves have been used in ento-
mology as the active ingredient in
killing jars. The crushed, fresh,
young leaves are put into the jar
under a layer of paper. The vapours
they release kill insects slowly but
effectively and keep the specimens
relaxed and easy to mount. The
leaves discourage the growth of
moulds They are not effective for
killing large beetles and similar
specimens, but insects that have
been killed in a cyanide killing jar
can be transferred to a laurel jar to
await mounting.[6] It is not clear to
what extent the effect is due to
cyanide released by the crushed
leaves, and to what extent other
volatile products are responsible.
Medicinal Value
In the Middle Ages, bay leaves
were believed to induce abortions
and to have many magical qualities.
They were once used to keep moths
away, owing to the leaf's lauric acid
content that gives it insecticidal
properties. Bay leaves have many
properties that make them useful
for treating high blood sugar,
migraine headaches, bacterial and
fungal infections, and gastric
ulcers. Bay leaves and berries have
been used for their astringent,
carminative, diaphoretic, digestive,
diuretic, emetic and stomachic
properties. Bay oil, or oil of bays
(oleum lauri) is used in liniments
for bruises and sprains. Bay leaf
29
Cultivation
Gardeners in frost-free or light frost
areas will find that bay laurel
seedlings planted in the ground eas-
ily grow into large trees, 38 feet (12
m) and taller; but when kept
pruned, it can thrive as a small
bush. Bay laurel can also be grown
in containers, the size of which lim-
its the ultimate size of the trees.
New plants are often started via
layering, or from cuttings, since
growing from seed can be difficult.
Bay trees are difficult to start from
seed, due in part to the seed's low
germination rate, and long germi-
nation period. Fresh seeds with the
pericarp removed typically have a
40% germination rate, while dried
seeds and/or seeds with an intact
pericarp have yet lower germina-
tion rates. In addition, the seed ger-
mination period can be 50 days or
more, which increases the risk of
the seeds rotting before they germi-
nate. Treating the seeds with gib-
berellic acid can be useful in
increasing seed germination, as is
careful monitoring of moisture lev-
els in the rooting medium
Glen O. Brechbill
30
Cardamom
Cardamom (or cardamon) refers to
several plants of the genera
Elettaria and Amomum in the gin-
ger family Zingiberaceae. Both
genera are native to India, Nepal
and Bhutan; they are recognised by
their small seed pod, triangular in
cross-section and spindle-shaped,
with a thin papery outer shell and
small black seeds. Today, the
majority of cardamom is still grown
in southern India, although some
other countries, such as Guatemala
and Sri Lanka, have also begun to
cultivate it. Elettaria pods are light
green while Amomum pods are
larger and dark brown.
It is the world's third most expen-
sive spice by weight, outstripped in
terms of its market value by only
saffron and vanilla.
Etymology
The word cardamom is derived
from the Latin cardamomum, itself
the latinisation of the Greek (kar-
damomon), a compound of (karda-
mon), "cress" + (amomon), which
was the name for a kind of an
Indian spice plant. The earliest
attested form of the word is the
Medes in northern Persia, while
others were aware that it came orig-
inally from India.
Ecology
Elettaria cardamomum is used as a
food plant by the larva of the moth
Endoclita hosei
Varieties
There were initially three natural
varieties of green cardamom plants.
Malabar (Nadan/Native) - As the
name suggests, this is the native
variety of Kerala. These plants
have panicles which grow horizon-
tally along the ground.
Mysore - As the name suggests,
this is a native variety of
Karnataka. These plants have pani-
cles which grow vertically
upwards.
Vazhuka - This is a naturally occur-
ring hybrid between Malabar and
Mysore varieties, and the panicles
grow neither vertically nor horizon-
tally, but in between.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardamom
Mycenaean Greek ka-da-mi-ja,
written in Linear B syllabic script
in the list of flavourings on the
"Spice" tablets found among palace
archives in the House of the
Sphinxes in Mycenae.
Types & Distribution
The two main genera of the ginger
family that are named as forms of
cardamom are distributed as fol-
lows:
Elettaria (commonly called car-
damom, green cardamom, or true
cardamom) is distributed from
India to Malaysia.
Amomum (commonly known as
black cardamom, brown car-
damom, Kravan, Java cardamom,
Bengal cardamom, Siamese car-
damom, white cardamom, or red
cardamom) is distributed mainly in
Asia and Australia.
The two types, and were distin-
guished in the fourth century BCE
by the Greek father of botany
Theophrastus, some of whose
informants told him that they came
to Greece from the land of the
31
Recently, a few planters isolated
high yielding plants and started
multiplying them on a large scale.
The most popular high yielding
variety is "Njallani." Njallani, also
known as "rup-ree-t", is a unique
high-yielding cardamom variety
developed by an Indian farmer,
Sebastian Joseph, at Kattappana in
the South Indian state of Kerala. K
J Baby of Idukki district, Kerala
has developed a purely white flow-
ered variety of Vazhuka type green
cardamom having higher yield than
Njallani. The variety has high
adaptability to different shade con-
ditions and can also be grown in
waterlogged areas.
Uses
Green and black cardamom
Both forms of cardamom are used
as flavorings in both food and
drink, as cooking spices and as a
medicine. Elettaria cardamomum
(the usual type of cardamom) is
used as a spice, a masticatory, and
in medicine; it is also smoked
sometimes.
Food and Drink
Cardamom has a strong, unique
taste, with an intensely aromatic,
resinous fragrance. Black car-
damom has a distinctly more
smokey, though not bitter, aroma
with a coolness some consider sim-
ilar to mint.
Green cardamom is one of the most
basmati rice and other dishes. It is
often referred to as fat cardamom
due to its size. Individual seeds are
sometimes chewed and used in
much the same way as chewing
gum; it is even used by Wrigley's
('Eclipse Breeze Exotic Mint')
where it states "with cardamom to
neutralize the toughest breath
odors." It has been known to be
used for gin making.
Traditional Medicine
Green cardamom is broadly used in
South Asia to treat infections in
teeth and gums, to prevent and treat
throat troubles, congestion of the
lungs and pulmonary tuberculosis,
inflammation of eyelids and also
digestive disorders. It also is used
to break up kidney stones and gall
stones, and was reportedly used as
an antidote for both snake and scor-
pion venom. Amomum is used as a
spice and as an ingredient in tradi-
tional medicine in systems of the
traditional Chinese medicine in
China, in Ayurveda in India,
Pakistan, Japan, Korea and
Vietnam. Species in the genus
Amomum are also used in tradi-
tional Indian medicine. Among
other species, varieties and culti-
vars, Amomum villosum cultivated
in China, Laos and Vietnam is used
in traditional Chinese medicine to
treat stomach issues, constipation,
dysentery, and other digestion
problems. "Tsaoko" cardamom
Amomum tsao-ko is cultivated in
Yunnan, China and northwest
Vietnam, both for medicinal pur-
expensive spices by weight, but lit-
tle is needed to impart the flavor.
Cardamom is best stored in pod
form because once the seeds are
exposed or ground they quickly
lose their flavor. However, high-
quality ground cardamom is often
more readily (and cheaply) avail-
able and is an acceptable substitute.
For recipes requiring whole car-
damom pods, a generally accepted
equivalent is 10 pods equals 1
teaspoons of ground cardamom.
It is a common ingredient in Indian
cooking and is often used in baking
in Nordic countries, such as in the
Finnish sweet bread pulla or in the
Scandinavian bread Julekake. In
the Middle East, green cardamom
powder is used as a spice for sweet
dishes as well as traditional
flavouring in coffee and tea.
Cardamom pods are ground togeth-
er with coffee beans to produce a
powdered mixture of the two,
which is boiled with water to make
coffee. Cardamom is used in some
extent in savoury dishes. In some
Middle Eastern countries, coffee
and cardamom are often ground in
a wooden mortar, a mihbaj, and
cooked together in a skillet, a
"mehmas," over wood or gas, to
produce mixtures that are as much
as forty percent cardamom.
In South Asia, green cardamom is
often used in traditional Indian
sweets and in Masala chai (spiced
tea). Black cardamom is sometimes
used in garam masala for curries. It
is occasionally used as a garnish in
Glen O. Brechbill
32
poses and as a spice. Increased
demand since the 1980s, principal-
ly from China, for both Amomum
villosum and Amomum tsao-ko has
provided a key source of income
for poor farmers living at higher
altitudes in localized areas of
China, Laos and Vietnam, people
typically isolated from many other
markets. Until recently, Nepal had
been the world's largest producer of
large cardamom. Guatemala has
become the world's biggest produc-
er and exporter of cardamom, with
an export total of US$137.2 million
for 2007.
33
Caraway
Caraway (Carum carvi) also known
as meridian fennel, or Persian
cumin is a biennial plant in the fam-
ily Apiaceae, native to western
Asia, Europe and Northern Africa.
The plant is similar in appearance
to a carrot plant, with finely divid-
ed, feathery leaves with thread-like
divisions, growing on 20 - 30 cm
stems. The main flower stem is 40 -
60 cm tall, with small white or pink
flowers in umbels. Caraway fruits
(erroneously called seeds) are cres-
cent-shaped achenes, around 2 mm
long, with five pale ridges.
Cultivation
The plant prefers warm, sunny
locations and well-drained soil rich
in organic matter. In warmer
regions it is planted in the winter
months as an annual. In temperate
climates it is planted as a summer
annual or biennial. There is howev-
er a polyploid variant ( with four
haploid sets = 4n ) of this plant that
was found to be perennial.
Uses
They are used as a spice in breads,
(again, cumin), which was adapted
into Latin as carum (now meaning
caraway), and the Sanskrit karavi,
sometimes translated as "caraway"
but other times understood to mean
"fennel." The Italian finocchio
meridionale (meridian fennel) sug-
gests these shared roots, while
cumino tedesco (German cumin)
again points towards cumin though
caraway also has its own name in
Italian, caro . Other languages share
similar peculiarities, with the
Norwegian name "karve", Yiddish
borrowing the German Kmmel
(caraway) as kimmel to mean car-
away, yet using the semitic term
kamoon for cumin, which is
Kreuzkmmel in German.
English usage of the term caraway
dates back to at least 1440, and is
considered by Skeat to be of Arabic
origin, though Katzer believes the
Arabic al-karawya (cf. Spanish
alcaravea) to be derived from the
Latin carum.
Similar Herbs
Caraway thyme has a strong car-
away scent and is sometimes used
as a substitute for real caraway in
especially rye bread.
Caraway is also used in desserts,
liquors, casseroles, curry and other
foods. It is more commonly found
in European cuisine. For example,
it is commonly used in British
Caraway seed cake and is also
added to sauerkraut. It is also used
to add flavor to cheeses such as
bondost, pultost, nkkelost and
havarti. Akvavit and several
liqueurs are made with caraway. In
Middle Eastern cuisine, caraway
pudding is a popular dessert during
Ramadan.
The roots may be cooked as a root
vegetable like parsnips or carrots.
Caraway fruit oil is also used as a
fragrance component in soaps,
lotions, and perfumes.
Names & History
The etymology of caraway is com-
plex and poorly understood.
Caraway has been called by many
names in different regions, with
names deriving from the Latin
cuminum (cumin), the Greek karon
Glen O. Brechbill
34
recipes.
Other similar members of the fami-
ly Apiaceae include anise, fennel,
dill, cumin, licorice-root
(Ligusticum), and coriander
(cilantro).
35
Cassia
Cinnamomum aromaticum, called
cassia or Chinese cinnamon, is an
evergreen tree native to southern
China, Bangladesh, Uganda, India,
and Vietnam. Like its close relative
Cinnamomum verum, also known
as "Ceylon cinnamon", it is used
primarily for its aromatic bark,
which is used as a spice. In the
United States of America, cassia is
often sold under the culinary name
of "cinnamon". The buds are also
used as a spice, especially in India,
and were once used by the ancient
Romans.
The tree grows to 1015 m tall,
with greyish bark and hard elongat-
ed leaves that are 1015 cm long
and have a decidedly reddish colour
when young.
Production & Uses
Cinnamomum aromaticum is a
close relative to Ceylon cinnamon
(C. verum), Saigon cinnamon (C.
loureiroi, also known as
"Vietnamese cinnamon"), camphor
laurel (C. camphora), malabathrum
(C. tamala), and Indonesian cinna-
mon (C. burmannii). As with these
species, the dried bark of cassia is
Saigon cinnamon (C. loureiroi), a
species which has a higher oil con-
tent than cassia, and consequently
has a stronger flavor. Saigon cinna-
mon is so closely related to cassia
that it was often marketed as cassia
(or, in North America, "cinna-
mon"). Of the three forms of cassia,
it is the form which commands the
highest price. Because of the dis-
ruption caused by the Vietnam War,
however, production of C. burman-
nii, in the highlands of the
Indonesia on island of Sumatra,
was increased to meet demand, and
Indonesia remains one of the main
exporters of cassia today.
Indonesian cassia has the lowest oil
content of the three types of cassia
and, consequently, commands the
lowest price. Saigon cinnamon,
only having become available again
in the United States since the early
21st century, has an intense flavour
and aroma and a higher percentage
of essential oils than Indonesian
cassia. Cassia has a stronger and
sweeter flavor, similar to Saigon
cinnamon, although the oil content
is lower. In China (where it is pro-
duced primarily in the southern
provinces of Guangxi, Guangdong,
and Yunnan) cassia is known as
used as a spice. Cassia cinnamon's
flavour is less delicate than that of
Ceylon cinnamon; for this reason,
the less expensive cassia is some-
times called "bastard cinnamon".
Whole branches and small trees are
harvested for cassia bark, unlike the
small shoots used in the production
of cinnamon; this gives cassia bark
a much thicker and rougher texture
than that of true cinnamon.
Most of the spice sold as cinnamon
in the United States and Canada
(where Ceylon cinnamon is still
generally unknown) is actually cas-
sia. In some cases, cassia is labeled
"Chinese cinnamon" to distinguish
it from the more expensive Ceylon
cinnamon (C. verum), which is the
preferred form of the spice used in
Mexico, Europe and Oceania.
"Indonesian cinnamon", also
referred to as C. burmannii, is also
commonly sold in the United States
where it is labeled only as cinna-
mon.
Cinnamomum aromaticum is pro-
duced in both China and Vietnam.
Until the 1960s, Vietnam was the
world's most important producer of
Glen O. Brechbill
36
tung hing.
Cassia bark (both powdered and in
whole, or "stick" form) is used as a
flavouring agent for confectionery,
desserts, pastries, and meat; it is
specified in many curry recipes,
where Ceylon cinnamon is less
suitable. Cassia is sometimes added
to Ceylon cinnamon, but is a much
thicker, coarser product. Cassia is
sold as pieces of bark (as pictured
below) or as neat quills or sticks.
Cassia sticks can be distinguished
from Ceylon cinnamon sticks in the
following manner: cinnamon sticks
have many thin layers and can eas-
ily be made into powder using a
coffee or spice grinder, whereas
cassia sticks are extremely hard, are
usually made up of one thick layer,
and can break an electric spice or
coffee grinder if one attempts to
grind them without first breaking
them into very small pieces.
Cassia buds, although rare, are also
occasionally used as a spice. They
resemble cloves in appearance and
have a mild, flowery cinnamon fla-
vor. Cassia buds are primarily used
in old-fashioned pickling recipes,
marinades, and teas.
Health Benefits & Risks
Cassia (called ru gi; ?? in
Chinese) is used in traditional
Chinese medicine, where it is con-
sidered one of the 50 fundamental
herbs.
In 2006, a study reported no statis-
History
Cinnamomum cassia (top left)
depicted by Micha? Boym (1655)
In classical times, four types of cin-
namon were distinguished (and
often confused):
Cassia (Hebrew q?s.i`), the bark of
Cinnamomum iners from Arabia
and Ethiopia, and literally means
'the peel of the plant' which is
scraped off the tree.
True Cinnamon (Hebrew qinna-
mon), the bark of Cinnamomum
zeylanicum from Sri Lanka
Malabathrum or Malobathrum
(from Sanskrit , tama-lapattram, lit-
erally "dark-tree leaves"),
Cinnamomum malabathrum from
the north of India
Serichatum, Cinnamomum aro-
maticum from Seres, that is, China.
In Exodus 30:23-4, Moses is
ordered to use both sweet cinnamon
(Kinnamon) and cassia together
with myrrh, sweet calamus (q?n-
bosem, literally cane of fragrance),
botanically named as Acorus cala-
mus to produce a holy oil to anoint
the Ark of the Covenant. Cassia is
also part of the Ketoret which is
used when referring to the conse-
crated incense described in the
Hebrew Bible and Talmud. It is also
referred to as the HaKetoret (the
incense). It was offered on the spe-
cialized incense altar in the time
tically significant additional benefit
when cinnamon cassia powder was
given to type 2 diabetes patients
who were already being treated
with metformin. A systematic
review of research indicates that
cinnamon may reduce fasting blood
sugar, but does not have an effect
on hemoglobin A1C, a biological
marker of long-term diabetes.
Chemist Richard Anderson says
that his research has shown that
most, if not all, of cinnamon's
antidiabetic effect is in its water-
soluble fraction, not the oil (the
ground cinnamon spice itself
should be ingested for benefit, not
the oil or a water extraction). In
fact, some cinnamon oil-entrained
compounds could prove toxic in
high concentrations. Cassia's
effects on enhancing insulin sensi-
tivity appear to be mediated by
type-A polymeric polyphenols.
Despite these findings, cassia
should not be used in place of anti-
diabetic drugs, unless blood glu-
cose levels are closely monitored,
and its use is combined with a
strictly controlled diet and exercise
program.
Due to a toxic component called
coumarin, European health agen-
cies have warned against consum-
ing high amounts of cassia.
Other possible toxins founds in the
bark/powder are cinnamaldehyde
and styrene.
37
when the Tabernacle was located in
the First and Second Jerusalem
Temples. The ketoret was an
important component of the Temple
service in Jerusalem. Psalm 45:8
mentions the garments of the king
(or of Torah scholars) that smell of
myrrh, aloes and cassia.
An early reference to the trade of
cinnamon occurs around 100 BC in
Chinese literature. After the explor-
er Zhang Qian's return to China, the
Han Dynasty pushed the Xiongnu
back, and trade and cultural
exchange flourished along the
Northern Silk Road. Goods moving
by caravan to the west included
gold, rubies, jade, textiles, coral,
ivory and art works. In the opposite
direction moved bronze weapons,
furs, ceramics and cinnamon
bark.[15] The first Greek reference
to kasia is found in a poem by
Sappho in the 7th century BC.
According to Herodotus, both cin-
namon and cassia grow in Arabia,
together with incense, myrrh, and
ladanum, and are guarded by
winged serpents. The phoenix
builds its nest from cinnamon and
cassia. But Herodotus mentions
other writers that see the home of
Dionysos, e.g., India, as the source
of cassia. While Theophrastus
gives a rather good account of the
plants, a curious method for har-
vesting (worms eat away the wood
and leave the bark behind),
Dioscorides seems to confuse the
plant with some kind of water-lily.
unguent produced in Commagene
in present-day eastern Turkey, was
made from goose-fat and aroma-
tised with cinnamon oil and spike-
nard (Nardostachys jatamansi).
Malobrathum from Egypt
(Dioscorides I, 63) was based on
cattle-fat and contained cinnamon
as well; one pound cost 300 denars.
The Roman poet Martial (VI, 55)
makes fun of Romans who drip
unguents, smell of cassia and cin-
namon taken from a bird's nest, and
look down on him who does not
smell at all.
Cinnamon, as a warm and dry sub-
stance, was believed by doctors in
ancient times to cure snakebites,
freckles, the common cold, and kid-
ney troubles, among other ailments.
Pliny (nat. 12, 86-87) gives a fasci-
nating account of the early spice
trade across the Red Sea in "rafts
without sails or oars", obviously
using the trade winds, that costs
Rome 100 million sesterces each
year. According to Pliny, a pound
(the Roman pound, 327 g) of cas-
sia, cinnamon, or serichatum cost
up to 300 denars, the wage of ten
months' labour. Diocletian's Edict
on Maximum Prices from 301 AD
gives a price of 125 denars for a
pound of cassia, while an agricul-
tural labourer earned 25 denars per
day.
The Greeks used ksia or mala-
bathron to flavour wine, together
with absinth wormwood (Artemisia
absinthia). Pliny mentions cassia as
a flavouring agent for wine as well
Malabathrum leaves (folia) were
used in cooking and for distilling an
oil used in a caraway-sauce for oys-
ters by the Roman gourmet Gaius
Gavius Apicius. Malabathrum is
among the spices that, according to
Apicius, any good kitchen should
contain.
Egyptian recipes for kyphi, an aro-
matic used for burning, included
cinnamon and cassia from
Hellenistic times onwards. The
gifts of Hellenistic rulers to temples
sometimes included cassia and cin-
namon as well as incense, myrrh,
and Indian incense (kostos), so we
can conclude that the Greeks used it
in this way too.
The famous Commagenum, an
Glen O. Brechbill
38
Apium graveolens is a plant species
in the family Apiaceae commonly
known as celery (var. dulce) or
celeriac (var. rapaceum), depending
on whether the petioles (stalks) or
roots are eaten: celery refers to the
former and celeriac to the latter.
Apium graveolens grows to 1 m
tall. The leaves are pinnate to bipin-
nate leaves with rhombic leaflets
36 cm long and 24 cm broad.
The flowers are creamy-white, 23
mm diameter, produced in dense
compound umbels. The seeds are
broad ovoid to globose, 1.52 mm
long and wide.
Etymology
First attested in English 1664, the
word "celery" derives from the
French cleri, in turn from Italian
seleri, the plural of selero, which
comes from Late Latin selinon, the
latinisation of the Greek (selinon),
"parsley". The earliest attested
form of the word is the Mycenaean
Greek se-ri-no, written in Linear B
syllabic script
Taxonomy
Celery was described by Carl von
The wild form of celery is known
as "smallage". It has a furrowed
stalk with wedge-shaped leaves, the
whole plant having a coarse, earthy
taste, and a distinctive smell. The
stalks are not usually eaten (except
in soups or stews in French cui-
sine), but the leaves may be used in
salads, and its seeds are those sold
as a spice. With cultivation and
blanching, the stalks lose their
acidic qualities and assume the
mild, sweetish, aromatic taste par-
ticular to celery as a salad plant.
The plants are raised from seed,
sown either in a hot bed or in the
open garden according to the sea-
son of the year, and after one or two
thinnings and transplantings, they
are, on attaining a height of 1520
cm, planted out in deep trenches for
convenience of blanching, which is
effected by earthing up to exclude
light from the stems.
In the past, celery was grown as a
vegetable for winter and early
spring; it was perceived as a cleans-
ing tonic, welcomed to counter the
salt-sickness of a winter diet. By
the 19th century, the season for cel-
ery had been extended, to last from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celery
Linn in Volume One of his Species
Plantarum in 1753.
The closely related Apium berme-
joi from the island of Minorca is
one of the rarest plants in Europe,
with fewer than 100 individuals
left.
Cultivation
Head of celery, sold as a vegetable.
Usually only the stalks are eaten.
Celery root, or celeriac, is also used
as a vegetable.
In North America, commercial pro-
duction of celery is dominated by
the varieties called Pascal celery.
Gardeners can grow a range of cul-
tivars, many of which differ little
from the wild species, mainly in
having stouter leaf stems. They are
ranged under two classes, white
and red; the white cultivars being
generally the best flavoured, and
the most crisp and tender. The
stalks grow in tight, straight, paral-
lel bunches, and are typically mar-
keted fresh that way, without roots
and just a little green leaf remain-
ing.
Cellery Seed
39
the beginning of September to late
in April.
Harvesting and Storage
Cross-section of a Pascal celery rib
Harvesting occurs when the aver-
age size of celery in a field is mar-
ketable; due to extremely uniform
crop growth, fields are harvested
only once. The petioles and leaves
are removed and harvested; celery
is packed by size and quality (deter-
mined by colour, shape, straight-
ness and thickness of petiole, stalk
and midrib length and absence of
disease, cracks, splits, insect dam-
age and rot). Under optimal condi-
tions, celery can be stored for up to
seven weeks between 0 to 2 C (32
to 36 F). Inner stalks may continue
growing if kept at temperatures
above 0 C (32 F). Freshly cut
petioles of celery are prone to
decay, which can be prevented or
reduced through the use of sharp
blades during processing, gentle
handling, and proper sanita-
tion.[10]
Cut pieces of celery last only a few
hours before they turn brown, and
few American restaurants include it
in green salads because it cannot be
prepared far enough ahead of time.
In the past, restaurants used to store
it in a container of water with pow-
dered vegetable preservative; how-
ever, the sulfites in the preservative
caused allergic reactions in some
people. In 1986, the U.S. Food and
Drug Administration banned the
pound, 3-n-butylphthalide, that has
been demonstrated to lower blood
pressure in rats.
It is thought to be an aphrodisiac by
some people, because it is thought
to contain androsterone, a metabol-
ic product of testosterone. Celery
contains androstenone which is a
compound different from adros-
terone.
Bergapten in the seeds can increase
photosensitivity, so the use of
essential oil externally in bright
sunshine should be avoided. The oil
and large doses of seeds should be
avoided during pregnancy, as they
can act as a uterine stimulant. Seeds
intended for cultivation are not suit-
able for eating as they are often
treated with fungicides.
Celery is used in weight-loss diets,
where it provides low-calorie
dietary fibre bulk. Celery seeds are
also a great source of calcium, and
are regarded as a good alternative
to animal products.[citation need-
ed] Celery is often purported to be
a "negative calorie food" based on
the assumption that it contains
fewer calories than it takes to
digest; however, this statement has
no scientific merit.
Allergies
Celery is among a small group of
foods (headed by peanuts) that
appear to provoke the most severe
allergic reactions; for people with
celery allergy, exposure can cause
use of sulfites on fruits and vegeta-
bles intended to be eaten raw.
Uses
Apium graveolens is used around
the world as a vegetable, either for
the crisp petiole (leaf stalk) or the
fleshy toproot.
In temperate countries, celery is
also grown for its seeds. Actually
very small fruit, these "seeds" yield
a valuable volatile oil used in the
perfume and pharmaceutical indus-
tries. They also contain an organic
compound called apiol. Celery
seeds can be used as flavouring or
spice, either as whole seeds or
ground and mixed with salt, as cel-
ery salt. Celery salt can also be
made from an extract of the roots.
Celery salt is used as a seasoning,
in cocktails (notably to enhance the
flavour of Bloody Mary cocktails),
on the Chicago-style hot dog, and
in Old Bay Seasoning.
Celery, onions, and bell peppers are
the holy trinity of Louisiana Creole
and Cajun cuisine. Celery, onions,
and carrots make up the French
mirepoix, often used as a base for
sauces and soups. Celery is a staple
in many soups, such as chicken
noodle soup.
Celery Seeds
The use of celery seed in pills for
relieving pain was described by
Aulus Cornelius Celsus around 30
AD. Celery seeds contain a com-
40
Glen O. Brechbill
potentially fatal anaphylactic
shock. The allergen does not appear
to be destroyed at cooking temper-
atures. Celery root commonly eaten
as celeriac, or put into drinks is
known to contain more allergen
than the stalk. Seeds contain the
highest levels of allergen content.
Exercise-induced anaphylaxis may
be exacerbated. An allergic reac-
tion also may be triggered by eating
foods that have been processed
with machines that have previously
processed celery, making avoiding
such foods difficult. In contrast
with peanut allergy being most
prevalent in the US, celery allergy
is most prevalent in Central
Europe. In the European Union,
foods that contain or may contain
celery, even in trace amounts, must
be clearly marked as such.
History
Daniel Zohary and Maria Hopfnote
that celery leaves and inflores-
cences were part of the garlands
found in the tomb of pharaoh
Tutankhamun (died 1323 BC), and
celery mericarps dated to the sev-
enth century BC were recovered in
the Heraion of Samos. However,
they note "since A. graveolens
grows wild in these areas, it is hard
to decide whether these remains
represent wild or cultivated forms."
Only by classical times is it certain
that celery was cultivated.
M. Fragiska mentions an archeo-
logical find of celery dating to the
9th century BC, at Kastanas; how-
the Lombard term, seleri, from the
Latin selinon, borrowed from
Greek. Celery's Mediterranean ori-
gins are still commemorated in the
French expression cleri d'Italie.
Celery's surprisingly late arrival in
the English kitchen is an end-prod-
uct of the long tradition of seed
selection needed to reduce the sap's
bitterness and increase its sugars.
By 1699, John Evelyn could rec-
ommend it in his Acetaria. A
Discourse of Sallets: "Sellery,
apium Italicum, (and of the
Petroseline Family) was formerly a
stranger with us (nor very long
since in Italy) is an hot and more
generous sort of Macedonian
Persley or Smallage...and for its
high and grateful Taste is ever
plac'd in the middle of the Grand
Sallet, at our Great Men's tables,
and Praetors feasts, as the Grace of
the whole Board".
Celery has made a surprising
appearance in football folklore.
Supporters of English Premier
League team Chelsea and Football
League team Gillingham regularly
sing songs about the vegetable and
are famed for throwing celery dur-
ing matches. This has also given
rise to the "Chelsea Cocktail", a
pint of Guinness garnished with a
stick of celery.
The Fifth incarnation of Doctor
Who, Peter Davison, was noted for
wearing a stalk of celery on his
lapel, claiming it at one point to be
an excellent restorative, though the
ever, the literary evidence for
ancient Greece is far more abun-
dant. In Homer's Iliad, the horses of
the Myrmidons graze on wild cel-
ery that grows in the marshes of
Troy, and in Odyssey, there is men-
tion of the meadows of violet and
wild celery surrounding the cave of
Calypso.
Cultural Depictions
A chthonian symbol among the
ancient Greeks, celery was said to
have sprouted from the blood of
Kadmilos, father of the Cabeiri,
chthonian divinities celebrated in
Samothrace, Lemnos and Thebes.
The spicy odour and dark leaf
colour encouraged this association
with the cult of death. In classical
Greece, celery leaves were used as
garlands for the dead, and the
wreaths of the winners at the
Isthmian Games were first made of
celery before being replaced by
crowns made of pine. According to
Pliny the Elder in Achaea, the gar-
land worn by the winners of the
sacred Nemean Games was also
made of celery. The Ancient Greek
colony of Selinous (Greek:
Selinou-s), on Sicily, was named
after wild parsley that grew abun-
dantly there; Selinountian coins
depicted a parsley leaf as the sym-
bol of the city.
The name "celery" retraces the
plant's route of successive adoption
in European cooking, as the
English "celery" (1664) is derived
from the French cleri coming from
41
human olfactory sense was com-
paratively weak.
42
Glen O. Brechbill
Cinnamon
Cinnamon is a spice obtained from
the inner bark of several trees from
the genus Cinnamomum that is
used in both sweet and savoury
foods. Cinnamon trees are native to
South East Asia.
Nomenclature and Taxonomy
The name cinnamon comes through
the Greek kinnmo-mon from
Phoenician.
In India, where it is cultivated on
the hills of Kerala, it is called
"karuvapatta" or "Elavanga
Tholi"(Malayalam) or "dalchini"
(Hindi). In Indonesia, where it is
cultivated in Java and Sumatra, it is
called kayu manis ("sweet wood")
and sometimes cassia vera, the
"real" cassia. In Sri Lanka, in
Sinhala, cinnamon is known as
kurundu, recorded in English in the
17th century as Korunda. In several
European languages, the word for
cinnamon comes from the Latin
word cannella, a diminutive of
canna, "cane".
History
Cinnamon has been known from
for a god: a fine inscription records
the gift of cinnamon and cassia to
the temple of Apollo at Miletus.
Though its source was kept myste-
rious in the Mediterranean world
for centuries by the middlemen
who handled the spice trade, to pro-
tect their monopoly as suppliers,
cinnamon is native to Malabar
Coast of India, Sri Lanka, Burma
and Bangladesh. It is also alluded
to by Herodotus and other classical
writers. It was too expensive to be
commonly used on funeral pyres in
Rome, but the Emperor Nero is said
to have burned a year's worth of the
city's supply at the funeral for his
wife Poppaea Sabina in AD 65.
Before the foundation of Cairo,
Alexandria was the Mediterranean
shipping port of cinnamon.
Europeans who knew the Latin
writers who were quoting
Herodotus knew that cinnamon
came up the Red Sea to the trading
ports of Egypt, but whether from
Ethiopia or not was less than clear.
When the Sieur de Joinville accom-
panied his king to Egypt on crusade
in 1248, he reported what he had
been told and believed that cinna-
mon was fished up in nets at the
remote antiquity. It was imported to
Egypt as early as 2000 BC, but
those who report that it had come
from China confuse it with cassia.
The Hebrew Bible makes specific
mention of the spice many times:
first when Moses is commanded to
use both sweet cinnamon (Hebrew:
qinna-mn) and cassia in the holy
anointing oil; in Proverbs where the
lover's bed is perfumed with myrrh,
aloes, and cinnamon; and in Song
of Solomon, a song describing the
beauty of his beloved, cinnamon
scents her garments like the smell
of Lebanon.
Cinnamon was a component of the
Ketoret which is used when refer-
ring to the consecrated incense
described in the Hebrew Bible and
Talmud. It was offered on the spe-
cialized incense altar in the time
when the Tabernacle was located in
the First and Second Jerusalem
Temples. The ketoret was an
important component of the Temple
service in Jerusalem.
It was so highly prized among
ancient nations that it was regarded
as a gift fit for monarchs and even
43
source of the Nile out at the edge of
the world. Through the Middle
Ages, the source of cinnamon was a
mystery to the Western world.
Marco Polo avoided precision on
this score. In Herodotus and other
authors, Arabia was the source of
cinnamon: giant Cinnamon birds
collected the cinnamon sticks from
an unknown land where the cinna-
mon trees grew and used them to
construct their nests; the Arabs
employed a trick to obtain the
sticks. This story was current as
late as 1310 in Byzantium,
although in the first century, Pliny
the Elder had written that the
traders had made this up in order to
charge more. The first mention of
the spice growing in Sri Lanka was
in Zakariya al-Qazwini's Athar al-
bilad wa-akhbar al-ibad
("Monument of Places and History
of God's Bondsmen") in about
1270. This was followed shortly
thereafter by John of
Montecorvino, in a letter of about
1292.
Indonesian rafts transported cinna-
mon (known in Indonesia as kayu
manis- literally "sweet wood") on a
"cinnamon route" directly from the
Moluccas to East Africa, where
local traders then carried it north to
the Roman market.
Arab traders brought the spice via
overland trade routes to Alexandria
in Egypt, where it was bought by
Venetian traders from Italy who
held a monopoly on the spice trade
in Europe. The disruption of this
Kannur) district of Kerala, and this
estate became Asia's largest cinna-
mon estate.
The British took control of the
island from the Dutch in 1796.
However, the importance of the
monopoly of Ceylon was already
declining, as cultivation of the cin-
namon tree spread to other areas,
the more common cassia bark
became more acceptable to con-
sumers, and coffee, tea, sugar, and
chocolate began to outstrip the pop-
ularity of traditional spices.
Cultivation
Cinnamon is harvested by growing
the tree for two years then coppic-
ing it. The next year, about a dozen
shoots will form from the roots.
The branches harvested this way
are processed by scraping off the
outer bark, then beating the branch
evenly with a hammer to loosen the
inner bark. The inner bark is then
prised out in long rolls. Only the
thin (0.5 mm (0.020 in)) inner bark
is used; the outer, woody portion is
discarded, leaving metre-long cin-
namon strips that curl into rolls
("quills") on drying. Once dry, the
bark is cut into 5 - 10 cm (2.0 - 3.9
in) lengths for sale.
The bark must be processed imme-
diately after harvesting while still
wet. Once processed, the bark will
dry completely in four to six hours,
provided that it is in a well-ventilat-
ed and relatively warm environ-
trade by the rise of other
Mediterranean powers, such as the
Mamluk Sultans and the Ottoman
Empire, was one of many factors
that led Europeans to search more
widely for other routes to Asia.
Portuguese traders finally landed in
Ceylon (Sri Lanka) at the beginning
of the sixteenth century and restruc-
tured the traditional production and
management of cinnamon by the
Sinhalese, who later held the
monopoly for cinnamon in Ceylon.
The Portuguese established a fort
on the island in 1518 and protected
their own monopoly for over a hun-
dred years.
Dutch traders finally dislodged the
Portuguese by allying with the
inland Kingdom of Kandy. They
established a trading post in 1638,
took control of the factories by
1640, and expelled all remaining
Portuguese by 1658. "The shores of
the island are full of it", a Dutch
captain reported, "and it is the best
in all the Orient: when one is down-
wind of the island, one can still
smell cinnamon eight leagues out to
sea."
The Dutch East India Company
continued to overhaul the methods
of harvesting in the wild and even-
tually began to cultivate its own
trees.
In 1767, Lord Brown of East India
Company established Anjarak-
kandy Cinnamon Estate near
Anjarakkandy in Cannanore (now
Glen O. Brechbill
44
ment. A less than ideal drying envi-
ronment encourages the prolifera-
tion of pests in the bark, which may
then require treatment by fumiga-
tion. Bark treated this way is not
considered to be of the same premi-
um quality as untreated bark.
Cinnamon has been cultivated from
time immemorial in Sri Lanka, and
the tree is also grown commercially
at Kerala in southern India,
Bangladesh, Java, Sumatra, the
West Indies, Brazil, Vietnam,
Madagascar, Zanzibar, and Egypt.
Sri Lanka cinnamon has a very
thin, smooth bark with a light-yel-
lowish brown color and a highly
fragrant aroma. In recent years in
Sri Lanka, mechanical devices have
been developed to ensure premium
quality and worker safety and
health, following considerable
research by the Universities in that
country led by the University of
Ruhuna.
According to the International
Herald Tribune, in 2006 Sri Lanka
produced 90% of the world's cinna-
mon, followed by China, India, and
Vietnam. According to the FAO,
Indonesia produces 40 % of the
world's Cassia genus of cinnamon.
The Sri Lankan grading system
divides the cinnamon quills into
four groups:
Alba, less than 6 mm (0.24 in) in
diameter
Continental, less than 16 mm (0.63
of Cinnamomum verum based on
the taste of bark:
Type 1 Sinhala: Pani Kurundu, Pat
Kurundu or Mapat Kurundu
Type 2 Sinhala: Naga Kurundu
Type 3 Sinhala: Pani Miris Kur-
undu
Type 4 Sinhala: Weli Kurundu
Type 5 Sinhala: Sewala Kurundu
Type 6 Sinhala: Kahata Kurundu
Type 7 Sinhala: Pieris Kurundu
Ceylon cinnamon, using only the
thin inner bark, has a finer, less
dense, and more crumbly texture,
and is considered to be more aro-
matic and more subtle in flavor
than cassia. Cassia has a much
stronger (somewhat harsher)
flavour than Ceylon cinnamon, is
generally a medium to light reddish
brown, hard and woody in texture,
and thicker (23 mm (0.0790.12
in) thick), as all of the layers of
bark are used.
Due to the presence of a moderate-
ly toxic component called
coumarin, European health agen-
cies have recently warned against
consuming large amounts of cassia.
This is contained in much lower
dosages in Cinnamomum burman-
nii due to its low essential oil con-
tent.
Coumarin is known to cause liver
in) in diameter
Mexican, less than 19 mm (0.75 in)
in diameter
Hamburg, less than 32 mm (1.3 in)
in diameter
These groups are further divided
into specific grades. For example,
Mexican is divided into M00 000
special, M000000, and M0000,
depending on quill diameter and
number of quills per kg.
Any pieces of bark less than 106
mm ( 4.2 in ) long are categorized
as quillings. Featherings are the
inner bark of twigs and twisted
shoots. Chips are trimmings of
quills, outer and inner bark that
cannot be separated, or the bark of
small twigs.
Species
A number of species are often sold
as cinnamon:
Cinnamomum verum ("True cinna-
mon", Sri Lanka cinnamon or
Ceylon cinnamon)
C. burmannii (Korintje or
Indonesian cinnamon)
C. loureiroi (Saigon cinnamon or
Vietnamese cinnamon)
C. aromaticum (Cassia or Chinese
cinnamon)
There are several different cultivars
45
and kidney damage in high concen-
trations. Ceylon cinnamon has neg-
ligible amounts of coumarin.
The barks, when whole, are easily
distinguished, and their microscop-
ic characteristics are also quite dis-
tinct. Ceylon cinnamon sticks (or
quills) have many thin layers and
can easily be made into powder
using a coffee or spice grinder,
whereas cassia sticks are much
harder. Indonesian cinnamon is
often sold in neat quills made up of
one thick layer, capable of damag-
ing a spice or coffee grinder. Saigon
cinnamon and Chinese cinnamon
are always sold as broken pieces of
thick bark, as the bark is not supple
enough to be rolled into quills. The
powdered bark is harder to distin-
guish, but if it is treated with tinc-
ture of iodine (a test for starch[, lit-
tle effect is visible with pure
Ceylon cinnamon, but when
Chinese cinnamon is present, a
deep-blue tint is produced.
Cinnamon is also sometimes con-
fused with Malabathrum
(Cinnamomum tamala).
Flavor, Aroma and Taste
Its flavor is due to an aromatic
essential oil that makes up 0.5 % to
1 % of its composition. This oil is
prepared by roughly pounding the
bark, macerating it in seawater, and
then quickly distilling the whole. It
is of a golden-yellow color, with
the characteristic odor of cinnamon
and a very hot aromatic taste. The
make a cinnamon-based curry pow-
der for stews or just sprinkled on
sweet treats ( most notably Shole-
zard, Persian ). It is also used in
sambar powder or BisiBelebath
powder in Karnataka, which gives
it a rich aroma and tastes unique. It
is also used in Turkish cuisine for
both sweet and savory dishes.
Cinnamon has been proposed for
use as an insect repellent, although
it remains untested. Cinnamon leaf
oil has been found to be very effec-
tive in killing mosquito larvae. The
compounds cinnamaldehyde, cin-
namyl acetate, eugenol, and anet-
hole, that are contained in cinna-
mon leaf oil, were found to have the
highest effectiveness against mos-
quito larvae.
Research
In a 2000 study published in The
Indian Journal of Medical
Research, it was shown that of the
69 plant species screened, 16 were
effective against HIV-1 and 4 were
against both HIV-1 and HIV-2. The
most effective extracts against
HIV-1 and HIV-2 were respective-
ly Cinnamomum cassia (bark) and
Cardiospermum helicacabum
(shoot + fruit).
An oil known as eugenol that
comes from the leaves of the cinna-
mon bush has been shown to have
antiviral properties in vitro, specifi-
cally against both the HSV-1 and
HSV-2 (Oral and Genital Herpes)
viruses according to a study pub-
pungent taste and scent come from
cinnamic aldehyde or cinnamalde-
hyde (about 60 % of the bark oil)
and, by the absorption of oxygen as
it ages, it darkens in color and
develops resinous compounds.
Other chemical components of the
essential oil include ethyl cinna-
mate, eugenol (found mostly in
the leaves), beta-caryophyllene,
linalool, and methyl chavicol.
Uses
Cinnamon bark is widely used as a
spice. It is principally employed in
cookery as a condiment and flavor-
ing material. It is used in the prepa-
ration of chocolate, especially in
Mexico, which is the main importer
of true cinnamon. It is also used in
many dessert recipes, such as apple
pie, donuts, and cinnamon buns as
well as spicy candies, tea, hot
cocoa, and liqueurs. True cinna-
mon, rather than cassia, is more
suitable for use in sweet dishes. In
the Middle East, it is often used in
savory dishes of chicken and lamb.
In the United States, cinnamon and
sugar are often used to flavor cere-
als, bread-based dishes, and fruits,
especially apples; a cinnamon-
sugar mixture is even sold separate-
ly for such purposes. Cinnamon can
also be used in pickling. Cinnamon
bark is one of the few spices that
can be consumed directly.
Cinnamon powder has long been an
important spice in Persian cuisine,
used in a variety of thick soups,
drinks, and sweets. It is often mixed
with rosewater or other spices to
Glen O. Brechbill
46
lished in the journal, Phytotherapy
Research.
A 2003 study at National Institutes
of Health shows benefits of cinna-
mon in diet of type 2 diabetics.
"Cinnamon improves glucose and
lipids of people with type 2 dia-
betes".
A study conducted in 2007 and
published in the Journal of
Medicinal Chemistry suggests that
specific plant terpenoids contained
within cinnamon have potent
antiviral properties.
Pharmacological experiments sug-
gest that the cinnamon-derived
dietary factor cinnamic aldehyde
(cinnamaldehyde) activates the
Nrf2-dependent antioxidant
response in human epithelial colon
cells and may therefore represent
an experimental chemopreventive
dietary factor targeting colorectal
carcinogenesis. Recent research
documents anti-melanoma activity
of cinnamic aldehyde observed in
cell culture and a mouse model of
human melanoma.
Cinnamon bark, a component of the
traditional Japanese medicine Mao-
to, has been shown in a 2008 study
published in the Journal of General
Virology to have an antiviral thera-
peutic effect.
A 2011 study isolated a substance
(CEppt) in the cinnamon plant
which inhibits development of
Alzheimer's in mice. CEppt, an
extract of cinnamon bark, seems to
treat a mouse model of Alzheimer's
disease.
47
Cloves (Syzygium aromaticum) are
the aromatic dried flower buds of a
tree in the family Myrtaceae.
Cloves are native to the Maluku
islands in Indonesia and used as a
spice in cuisines all over the world.
Cloves are harvested primarily in
Indonesia, India, Madagascar,
Zanzibar, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.
They have a numbing effect on
mouth tissues.
The clove tree is an evergreen that
grows to a height ranging from
812 m, having large leaves and
sanguine flowers in numerous
groups of terminal clusters. The
flower buds are at first of a pale
color and gradually become green,
after which they develop into a
bright red, when they are ready for
collecting. Cloves are harvested
when 1.52 cm long, and consist of
a long calyx, terminating in four
spreading sepals, and four
unopened petals which form a
small ball in the center.
Taxonomy and Nomenclature
The scientific name of clove is
Syzygium aromaticum. It belongs
to the genus Syzygium, tribe
region of India it is used sparingly
for sweet or spicy dishes, but rarely
in everyday cuisine. In Ayurvedic
medicine it is considered to have
the effect of increasing heat in sys-
tem, hence the difference of usage
by region and season. In south
Indian cuisine, it is used extensive-
ly in biryani along with "cloves
dish" (similar to pilaf, but with the
addition of other spices), and it is
normally added whole to enhance
the presentation and flavor of the
rice.
Dried cloves are also a key ingredi-
ent in Indian masala chai, spiced
tea, a special variation of tea popu-
lar in some regions, notably
Gujarat. In the US, it is often sold
under the name of "chai" or "chai
tea", as a way of differentiating it
from other types of teas sold in the
US.
In Mexican cuisine, cloves are best
known as clavos de olor, and often
used together with cumin and cin-
namon.
In Vietnamese cuisine, cloves are
often used to season the broth of
Pho+?.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clove
Syzygieae, and subfamily
Myrtoideae of the family
Myrtaceae. It is classified in the
order of Myrtales, which belong to
superorder Rosids, under Eudicots
of Dicotyledonae. Clove is an
Angiospermic plant and belongs to
division of Magnoliophyta in the
kingdom Plantae.
The English name derives from
Latin clavus 'nail' (also the origin of
French clou and Spanish clavo,
'nail') as the buds vaguely resemble
small irregular nails in shape.
Uses
Cloves can be used in cooking
either whole or in a ground form,
but as they are extremely strong,
they are used sparingly.
Cloves have historically been used
in Indian cuisine (both North Indian
and South Indian). In North Indian
cuisine, it is used in almost all rich
or spicy dishes as an ingredient of a
mix named garam masala, along
with other spices, although it is not
an everyday ingredient for home
cuisine, nor is it used in summer
very often. In the Maharashtra
Clove
Glen O. Brechbill
48
In American cooking, it is often
used in sweet breads such as pump-
kin or zucchini bread along with
other sweet spices like nutmeg and
cinnamon.
Due to the Indonesian influence,
the use of cloves is widespread in
the Netherlands. Cloves are used in
cheeses, often in combination with
cumin. Cloves are an essential
ingredient for making Dutch specu-
laas. Furthermore, cloves are used
in traditional Dutch stews like
hachee.
In Europe, cloves are also a com-
mon ingredient in Christmas sea-
sonal dishes such as Mulled wine.
Non-culinary Uses
The spice is used in a type of ciga-
rette called kretek in Indonesia.
Kreteks have been smoked
throughout Europe, Asia and the
United States. In 2009, clove ciga-
rettes (as well as fruit and candy
flavored cigarettes) were outlawed
in the US. However, they are still
sold in similar form, re-labeled as
"filtered clove cigars".
Cloves are also an important
incense material in Chinese and
Japanese culture. And clove
essence is commonly used in the
production of many perfumes.
During Christmas, it is a tradition
in some European countries to
make pomanders from cloves and
oranges to hang around the house.
traindicated in any persons with fire
symptoms and according to classi-
cal sources should not be used for
anything except cold from yang
deficiency. As such it is used in for-
mulas for impotence or clear vagi-
nal discharge from yang deficiency,
for morning sickness together with
ginseng and patchouli, or for vom-
iting and diarrhea due to spleen and
stomach coldness. This would
translate to hypochlorhydria. Clove
oil is used in various skin disorders
like acne, pimples etc. It is also
used in severe burns, skin irrita-
tions and to reduce the sensitivity
of skin.
Cloves may be used internally as a
tea and topically as an oil for hypo-
tonic muscles, including for multi-
ple sclerosis. This is also found in
Tibetan medicine. Some recom-
mend avoiding more than occasion-
al use of cloves internally in the
presence of pitta inflammation such
as is found in acute flares of
autoimmune diseases.
In West Africa, the Yorubas use
cloves infused in water as a treat-
ment for stomach upsets, vomiting
and diarrhea. The infusion is called
Ogun Jedi-jedi.
Medicinal Uses and
Pharmaceutical Preparations
Western studies have supported the
use of cloves and clove oil for den-
tal pain. However, studies to deter-
mine its effectiveness for fever
reduction, as a mosquito repellent
This spreads a nice scent through-
out the house and serves as holiday
decorations.
Cloves are often used as incense in
the Jewish practice called Havdala.
Clove also works as an ant repeller.
Traditional Medicinal Uses
Cloves are used in Indian
Ayurvedic medicine, Chinese med-
icine, and western herbalism and
dentistry where the essential oil is
used as an anodyne (painkiller) for
dental emergencies. Cloves are
used as a carminative, to increase
hydrochloric acid in the stomach
and to improve peristalsis. Cloves
are also said to be a natural
anthelmintic. The essential oil is
used in aromatherapy when stimu-
lation and warming are needed,
especially for digestive problems.
Topical application over the stom-
ach or abdomen are said to warm
the digestive tract. Clove oil,
applied to a cavity in a decayed
tooth, also relieves toothache. It
also helps to decrease infection in
the teeth due to its antiseptic prop-
erties.
In Chinese medicine cloves or ding
xiang are considered acrid, warm
and aromatic, entering the kidney,
spleen and stomach meridians, and
are notable in their ability to warm
the middle, direct stomach qi
downward, to treat hiccough and to
fortify the kidney yang. Because
the herb is so warming it is con-
49
and to prevent premature ejacula-
tion have been inconclusive. Clove
may reduce blood sugar levels.
Tellimagrandin II is an ellagitannin
found in S. aromaticum with anti-
herpesvirus properties.
The buds have anti-oxidant proper-
ties.
Clove oil can be used to anesthetize
fish, and prolonged exposure to
higher doses (the recommended
dose is 400mg/l) is considered a
humane means of euthanasia.
In addition, Clove oil is used in
preparation of some toothpastes,
laxative pills and Clovacaine solu-
tion which is a local anesthetic and
used in oral ulceration and anti-
inflammations. Eugenol (or clove
oil generally) is mixed with Zinc
oxide to be a temporary filling.
Adulteration
Clove Stalks: They are slender
stems of the inflorescence axis
which show opposite decussate
branching. Externally, they are
brownish, rough and irregularly
wrinkled longitudinally with short
fracture and dry, woody texture.
Mother Cloves (Anthophylli):
There are the ripe fruits of cloves
which are ovoid, brown berries,
unilocular and one-seeded. This
can be detected by the presence of
much starch in the seeds.
Sinbad the Sailor is known to have
bought and sold Cloves[18]. In the
late 15th century, Portugal took
over the Indian Ocean trade,
including cloves, due to the Treaty
of Tordesillas with Spain and a sep-
arate treaty with the sultan of
Ternate. The Portuguese brought
large quantities of cloves to
Europe, mainly from the Maluku
Islands. Clove was then one of the
most valuable spices, a kg costing
around 7 g of gold.
The high value of cloves and other
spices drove Spain to seek new
routes to the Maluku Islands, which
would not be seen as trespassing on
the Portuguese domain in the
Indian Ocean. Ferdinand and
Isabella of Spain sponsored the
unsuccessful voyages of
Christopher Columbus, and their
grandson Charles V sponsored the
voyage of Ferdinand Magellan. The
fleet led by Magellan reached the
Maluku Islands after his death, and
the Spanish were successful in
briefly capturing this trade from the
Portuguese. The trade later became
dominated by the Dutch in the 17th
century. With great difficulty the
French succeeded in introducing
the clove tree into Mauritius in the
year 1770. Subsequently, their cul-
tivation was introduced into
Guiana, Brazil, most of the West
Indies, and Zanzibar.
In Britain in the 17th and 18th cen-
turies, cloves were worth at least
their weight in gold, due to the high
price of importing them.
Brown Cloves: Expanded flowers
from which both corolla and sta-
mens have been detached.
Exhausted Cloves: Cloves from
which almost or all of the oil has
been removed by distillation. They
yield no oil and are darker in color.
History
Until modern times, cloves grew
only on a few islands in the Maluku
Islands (historically called the
Spice Islands), including Bacan,
Makian, Moti, Ternate, and Tidore.
Nevertheless, they found their way
west to the Middle East and Europe
well before the 1st century AD.
Archeologists found cloves within
a ceramic vessel in Syria along with
evidence dating the find to within a
few years of 1721 BC.
In the 3rd century BC, a Chinese
leader in the Han Dynasty required
those who addressed them to chew
cloves so as to freshen their breath.
Cloves, along with nutmeg and
pepper, were highly prized in
Roman times, and Pliny the Elder
once famously complained that
"there is no year in which India
does not drain the Roman Empire
of fifty million sesterces".
Cloves were traded by Muslim
sailors and merchants during the
Middle Ages in the profitable
Indian Ocean trade, the Clove trade
is also mentioned by Ibn Battuta
and even famous One Thousand
and One Nights characters such
50
Glen O. Brechbill
Active Compounds
The compound eugenol is responsi-
ble for most of the characteristic
aroma of cloves.
Eugenol comprises 72-90% of the
essential oil extracted from cloves,
and is the compound most responsi-
ble for the cloves' aroma. Other
important essential oil constituents
of clove oil include acetyl eugenol,
beta-caryophyllene and vanillin;
crategolic acid; tannins, gallotannic
acid, methyl salicylate (painkiller);
the flavonoids eugenin, kaempfer-
ol, rhamnetin, and eugenitin; triter-
penoids like oleanolic acid, stig-
masterol and campesterol; and sev-
eral sesquiterpenes.
Eugenol has pronounced antiseptic
and anaesthetic properties. Of the
dried buds, 15 - 20 percent is essen-
tial oils, and the majority of this is
eugenol. A kilogram (2.2 lbs) of
dried buds yields approximately
150 ml (1/4 of pint) of eugenol.
Eugenol can be toxic in relatively
small quantities as low as 5 ml
51
Coriander
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum),
also called cilantro (Spanish) or
dhania (Hindi) or Malli
(Malayalam), is an annual herb in
the family Apiaceae. Coriander is
native to southern Europe and
North Africa to southwestern Asia.
It is a soft, hairless plant growing to
50 centimetres (20 in) tall. The
leaves are variable in shape, broad-
ly lobed at the base of the plant, and
slender and feathery higher on the
flowering stems. The flowers are
borne in small umbels, white or
very pale pink, asymmetrical, with
the petals pointing away from the
center of the umbel longer (56
mm) than those pointing towards it
(only 13 mm long). The fruit is a
globular, dry schizocarp 35 mm
diameter. While in the English-
speaking world (except for the
U.S.) the leaves and seeds are
known as coriander, in American
culinary usage the leaves are gener-
ally referred to by the Spanish word
cilantro.
Etymology
First attested in English late 14th
century, the word coriander derives
from the Old French coriandre,
which is a close relative to corian-
der (Coriandrum sativum L.) but
has a distinctly different appear-
ance, a much more potent volatile
leaf oil and a stronger smell.
The leaves have a different taste
from the seeds, with citrus over-
tones. Many experience an unpleas-
ant
"soapy" taste or a rank smell and
avoid the leaves. The flavours have
also been compared to those of the
stink bug, and similar chemical
groups are involved (aldehydes).
There appears to be a genetic com-
ponent to the detection of "soapy"
versus "herby" tastes. Belief that
aversion is genetically determined
may arise from the known genetic
variation in taste perception of the
synthetic chemical phenylthiocar-
bamide; however, no specific link
has been established between
coriander and a bitter taste percep-
tion gene.
The fresh leaves are an ingredient
in many South Asian foods (such as
chutneys and salads), in Chinese
dishes, in Mexican cooking, partic-
ularly in salsa and guacamole and
which comes from Latin corian-
drum, in turn from Greek (korian-
non).The earliest attested form of
the word is the Mycenaean Greek
ko-ri-ja-da-na (written in Linear B
syllabic script, reconstructed as
koriadnon), similar to the name of
Minos' daughter Ariadne, and it is
plain how this might later evolve to
koriannon or koriandron.
Uses
All parts of the plant are edible, but
the fresh leaves and the dried seeds
are the parts most commonly used
in cooking. Coriander is common
in South Asian, Middle Eastern,
Central Asian, Mediterranean,
Indian, Tex-Mex, Latin American,
Portuguese, Chinese, African, and
Scandinavian cuisine.
Leaves
The leaves are variously referred to
as coriander leaves, fresh coriander,
Chinese parsley, or cilantro (in
America, from the Spanish name
for the plant).
It should not be confused with
culantro (Eryngium foetidum L.)
52
Glen O. Brechbill
as a garnish, and in salads in Russia
and other CIS countries. Chopped
coriander leaves are a garnish on
Indian dishes such as dal. As heat
diminishes their flavor, coriander
leaves are often used raw or added
to the dish immediately before
serving. In Indian and Central
Asian recipes, coriander leaves are
used in large amounts and cooked
until the flavor diminishes. The
leaves spoil quickly when removed
from the plant, and lose their aroma
when dried or frozen.
Fruit
The dry fruits are known as corian-
der or coriandi seeds. In India they
are called dhania.The word "corian-
der" in food preparation may refer
solely to these seeds (as a spice),
rather than to the plant. The seeds
have a lemony citrus flavour when
crushed, due to terpenes linalool
and pinene. It is described as warm,
nutty, spicy, and orange-flavored.
The variety C. s. vulgare or macro-
carpum has a fruit diameter of 35
mm, while var. microcarpum fruits
have a diameter of 1.53 mm.
Large-fruited types are grown
mainly by tropical and subtropical
countries, e.g. Morocco, India and
Australia, and contain a low
volatile oil content (0.1-0.4%).
They are used extensively for
grinding and blending purposes in
the spice trade. Types with smaller
fruit are produced in temperate
regions and usually have a volatile
oil content of around 0.4-1.8%, and
beers.[13] The coriander seeds are
used with orange peel to add a cit-
rus character.
Roots
Coriander roots have a deeper,
more intense flavor than the leaves.
They are used in a variety of Asian
cuisines. They are commonly used
in Thai dishes, including soups and
curry pastes.
History
Coriander grows wild over a wide
area of the Near East and southern
Europe, prompting the comment,
"It is hard to define exactly where
this plant is wild and where it only
recently established itself."[14]
Fifteen desiccated mericarps were
found in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic
B level of the Nahal Hemel Cave in
Israel, which may be the oldest
archeological find of coriander.
About half a litre of coriander meri-
carps were recovered from the
tomb of Tutankhamen, and because
this plant does not grow wild in
Egypt, Zohary and Hopf interpret
this find as proof that coriander was
cultivated by the ancient Egyptians.
The Bible mentions coriander in
Exodus 16:31: "And the house of
Israel began to call its name manna:
and it was round like coriander
seed, and its taste was like that of
flat cakes made with honey."
Coriander seems to have been culti-
vated in Greece since at least the
second millennium BC. One of the
are therefore highly valued as a raw
material for the preparation of
essential oil.
It is commonly found both as whole
dried seeds and in ground form.
Seeds can be roasted or heated on a
dry pan briefly before grinding to
enhance and alter the aroma.
Ground coriander seed loses flavor
quickly in storage and is best
ground fresh.
Coriander seed is a spice in garam
masala and Indian curries, which
often employ the ground fruits in
generous amounts together with
cumin. It acts as a thickener.
Roasted coriander seeds, called
dhana dal, are eaten as a snack. It is
the main ingredient of the two
south Indian dishes: sambhar and
rasam. Coriander seeds are boiled
with water and drunk as indigenous
medicine for colds.
Flowers of Coriandrum Sativum
Outside of Asia, coriander seed is
used for pickling vegetables, and
making sausages in Germany and
South Africa (see boerewors). In
Russia and Central Europe, corian-
der seed is an occasional ingredient
in rye bread as an alternative to car-
away. Coriander seeds are used in
European cuisine today, though
they were more important in former
centuries.
Coriander seeds are used in brew-
ing certain styles of beer, particu-
larly some Belgian wheat
53
Linear B tablets recovered from
Pylos refers to the species as being
cultivated for the manufacture of
perfumes, and it appears that it was
used in two forms: as a spice for its
seeds and as a herb for the flavor of
its leaves. This appears to be con-
firmed by archaeological evidence
from the same period: the large
quantities of the species retrieved
from an Early Bronze Age layer at
Sitagroi in Macedonia could point
to cultivation of the species at that
time.
Coriander was brought to the
British colonies in North America
in 1670, and was one of the first
spices cultivated by early settlers.
54
Glen O. Brechbill
Cumin sometimes spelled cummin;
Cuminum cyminum) is a flowering
plant in the family Apiaceae, native
from the east Mediterranean to
India. Its seeds (each one contained
within a fruit, which is dried) are
used in the cuisines of many differ-
ent cultures, in both whole and
ground form.
Etymology
The English "cumin" derives from
the Old English cymen (or Old
French cumin), from Latin
cuminum, which is the latinisation
of the Greek (kuminon), cognate
with Hebrew (kammon) and Arabic
(kammun).Forms of this word are
attested in several ancient Semitic
languages, including kamu-nu in
Akkadian. The ultimate source is
the Sumerian word gamun. The
earliest attested form of the word
(kuminon) is the Mycenaean Greek
ku-mi-no, written in Linear B syl-
labic script.
Description
Cumin is the dried seed of the herb
Cuminum cyminum, a member of
the parsley family. The cumin plant
the New Testament (Matthew
23:23). The ancient Greeks kept
cumin at the dining table in its own
container (much as pepper is fre-
quently kept today), and this prac-
tice continues in Morocco. Cumin
was also used heavily in ancient
Roman cuisine. During the Middle
Ages, cumin fell out of favour in
Europe, except in Spain and Malta.
It was introduced to the Americas
by Spanish and Portuguese
colonists. There are several differ-
ent types of cumin but the most
famous ones are black and green
cumin which are both used in
Persian cuisine.
It has since returned to favour in
parts of Europe. Today, it is mostly
grown in Iran, Uzbekistan,
Tajikistan, Turkey, Morocco,
Egypt, India, Syria, Mexico, Chile,
and China. The plant occurs as a
rare casual in the British Isles,
mainly in southern England, but the
frequency of its occurrence has
declined greatly. According to the
Botanical Society of the British
Isles' most recent Atlas, there has
been only one confirmed record
since 2000.
grows to 3050 cm (0.981.6 ft)
tall and is harvested by hand. It is
an herbaceous annual plant, with a
slender branched stem 2030 cm
tall. The leaves are 510 cm long,
pinnate or bipinnate, thread-like
leaflets. The flowers are small,
white or pink, and borne in umbels.
The fruit is a lateral fusiform or
ovoid achene 45 mm long, con-
taining a single seed. Cumin seeds
resemble caraway seeds, being
oblong in shape, longitudinally
ridged, and yellow-brown in color,
like other members of the
Umbelliferae family such as car-
away, parsley and dill.
History
Cumin has been in use since
ancient times. Seeds excavated at
the Syrian site Tell ed-Der have
been dated to the second millenni-
um BC. They have also been
reported from several New
Kingdom levels of ancient
Egyptian archaeological sites.
Originally cultivated in Iran and
Mediterranean region, cumin is
mentioned in the Bible in both the
Old Testament (Isaiah 28:27) and
Cumin
55
Cultivation
of cumin requires a long, hot sum-
mer of 34 months, with daytime
temperatures around 30 C (86 F);
it is drought-tolerant, and is mostly
grown in Mediterranean climates. It
is grown from seed, sown in spring,
and needs fertile, well-drained soil.
Uses
Cumin is the second most popular
spice in the world after black pep-
per. Cumin seeds are used as a
spice for their distinctive aroma,
popular in Nepalese, Indian,
Pakistani, North African, Middle
Eastern, Sri Lankan, Cuban, north-
ern Mexican cuisines, central Asian
Uzbek cuisine, and the western
Chinese cuisines of Sichuan and
Xinjiang. Cumin can be found in
some Dutch cheeses, such as
Leyden cheese, and in some tradi-
tional breads from France. It is
commonly used in traditional
Brazilian cuisine. Cumin can be an
ingredient in chili powder (often
Texan or Mexican-style), and is
found in achiote blends, adobos,
sofrito, garam masala, curry pow-
der, and bahaarat.
Cumin can be used ground or as
whole seeds. It helps to add an
earthy and warming feeling to
cooking, making it a staple in cer-
tain stews and soups, as well as cur-
ries and chili.
tant aroma compounds of toasted
cumin are the substituted pyrazines,
2-ethoxy-3-isopropylpyrazine, 2-
methoxy-3-sec-butylpyrazine, and
2-methoxy-3-met hyl pyrazi ne.
Other components include beta-
Pinene and Gamma-terpinene.
Confusion with Other Spices
Cumin is sometimes confused with
caraway (Carum carvi), another
umbelliferous spice. Cumin is how-
ever hotter to the taste, lighter in
color, and larger. Many European
languages do not distinguish clear-
ly between the two though. Many
Slavic and Finno-Ugric languages
referring to cumin as "Roman car-
away". Examples include Czech:
kmn caraway, r(msk kmn -
umin; Polish: kminek caraway,
kmin rzymski cumin; Hungarian:
kmny caraway, rmai kmny
cumin. Finnish: kumina caraway,
roomankumina cumin, although
sometimes also called juustokumi-
na, cheese caraway. In Swedish and
Norwegian, caraway is called kum-
min while cumin is spiskummin,
from the word spise, to eat, while in
German, Kmmel stands for car-
away and Kreuzkmmel denotes
cumin. In Icelandic, caraway is
kmen, while cumin is kmn. In
Romanian, chimen is caraway,
while chimion is cumin.
The distantly related Bunium per-
sicum and the unrelated Nigella
sativa are both sometimes called
black cumin (q.v.).
Aroma Profile
Cumin's distinctive flavour and
strong, warm aroma are due to its
essential oil content. Its main con-
stituent and important aroma com-
pound is cuminaldehyde (4-iso-
propylbenzaldehyde). Other impor-
56
Glen O. Brechbill
Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) is a
plant species in the genus
Foeniculum (treated as the sole
species in the genus by most
botanists). It is a member of the
family Apiaceae (formerly the
Umbelliferae). It is a hardy, peren-
nial, umbelliferous herb, with yel-
low flowers and feathery leaves. It
is indigenous to the shores of the
Mediterranean, but has become
widely naturalised in many parts of
the world, especially on dry soils
near the sea-coast and on river-
banks.
It is a highly aromatic and flavorful
herb with culinary and medicinal
uses, and, along with the similar-
tasting anise, is one of the primary
ingredients of absinthe. Florence
fennel or finocchio is a selection
with a swollen, bulb-like stem base
that is used as a vegetable.
Fennel is used as a food plant by
the larvae of some Lepidoptera
species including the mouse moth
and the anise swallowtail.
Etymolgy & History
The word fennel developed from
but thinner.) The flowers are pro-
duced in terminal compound
umbels 515 cm wide, each umbel
section having 2050 tiny yellow
flowers on short pedicels. The fruit
is a dry seed from 410 mm long,
half as wide or less, and grooved.
Cultivation & Uses
Fennel is widely cultivated, both in
its native range and elsewhere, for
its edible, strongly flavoured leaves
and fruits, which are often mis-
termed "seeds". Its aniseed flavour
comes from anethole, an aromatic
compound also found in anise and
star anise, and its taste and aroma
are similar to theirs, though usually
not as strong.
The Florence fennel (Foeniculum
vulgare Azoricum Group; syn. F.
vulgare var. azoricum) is a cultivar
group with inflated leaf bases
which form a bulb-like structure. It
is of cultivated origin, and has a
mild anise-like flavour, but is more
aromatic and sweeter. Florence fen-
nel plants are smaller than the wild
type. Their inflated leaf bases are
eaten as a vegetable, both raw and
cooked. There are several cultivars
the Middle English fenel or fenyl.
This came from the Old English
fenol or finol, which in turn came
from the Latin feniculum or
foeniculum, the diminutive of
fenum or faenum, meaning "hay".
The Latin word for the plant was
ferula, which is now used as the
genus name of a related plant. As
Old English finule it is one of the
nine plants invoked in the pagan
Anglo-Saxon Nine Herbs Charm,
recorded in the 10th century.
In Greek mythology, Prometheus
used the stalk of a fennel plant to
steal fire from the gods. Also, it
was from the giant fennel, Ferula
communis, that the Bacchanalian
wands of the god Dionysus and his
followers were said to have come
Appearence
Fennel, Foeniculum vulgare, is a
perennial herb. It is erect, glaucous
green, and grows to heights of up to
2.5 m, with hollow stems. The
leaves grow up to 40 cm long; they
are finely dissected, with the ulti-
mate segments filiform (thread-
like), about 0.5 mm wide. (Its
leaves are similar to those of dill,
Fennel
57
of Florence fennel, which is also
known by several other names,
notably the Italian name finocchio.
In North American supermarkets, it
is often mislabelled as "anise".
Foeniculum vulgare 'Purpureum' or
'Nigra', "bronze-leaved" fennel, is
widely available as a decorative
garden plant.
Fennel has become naturalised
along roadsides, in pastures, and in
other open sites in many regions,
including northern Europe, the
United States, southern Canada and
in much of Asia and Australia. It
propagates well by seed, and is
considered an invasive species and
a weed in Australia and the United
States. In western North America,
fennel can be found from the
coastal and inland wildland-urban
interface east into hill and mountain
areas, excluding desert habitats.
Florence fennel was one of the
three main herbs used in the prepa-
ration of absinthe, an alcoholic
mixture which originated as a
medicinal elixir in Switzerland and
became, by the late 19th century, a
popular alcoholic drink in France
and other countries.
Culinary Uses
The bulb, foliage, and seeds of the
fennel plant are widely used in
many of the culinary traditions of
the world. Fennel pollen is the most
potent form of fennel, but also the
most expensive. Dried fennel seed
selves or mixed with other vegeta-
bles, cooked to be served and con-
sumed as part of a meal, in some
parts of India. In Lebanon, it is used
to make a special kind of egg
omelette (along with onions, and
flour) called ijjeh.
Many egg, fish, and other dishes
employ fresh or dried fennel leaves.
Florence fennel is a key ingredient
in some Italian and German salads,
often tossed with chicory and avo-
cado, or it can be braised and
served as a warm side dish. It may
be blanched or marinated, or
cooked in risotto.
Medicinal Uses
Fennel contains anethole, which
can explain some of its medical
effects: it, or its polymers, act as
phytoestrogens.
Other Uses
Syrup prepared from fennel juice
was formerly given for chronic
coughs. It is one of the plants which
is said to be disliked by fleas, and
powdered fennel has the effect of
driving away fleas from kennels
and stables.
Production
India is the leader in production of
anise, badian (star anise), fennel
and coriander.
India 110,000 F
Mexico 49,688 F
is an aromatic, anise-flavoured
spice, brown or green in colour
when fresh, slowly turning a dull
grey as the seed ages. For cooking,
green seeds are optimal. The leaves
are delicately flavoured and similar
in shape to those of dill. The bulb is
a crisp, hardy vegetable and may be
sauted, stewed, braised, grilled, or
eaten raw.
Fennel seeds are sometimes con-
fused with those of anise, which are
similar in taste and appearance,
though smaller. Fennel is also used
as a flavouring in some natural
toothpastes.
Fennel features prominently in
Mediterranean cuisine, where bulbs
and fronds are used, both raw and
cooked, in side dishes, salads, pas-
tas, vegetable dishes and risottos.
Fennel seed is a common ingredient
in Italian sausages and meatballs
and northern European rye breads.
Many cultures in India, Pakistan,
Afghanistan, Iran and the Middle
East use fennel seed in their cook-
ery. Fennel is one of the most
important spices in Kashmiri
Pandit and Gujarati cooking. It
is an essential ingredient
of the Assamese/Bengali
/Oriya spice mixture panch phoron
and in Chinese five-spice powders.
In many parts of India and
Pakistan, roasted fennel seeds are
consumed as mukhwas, an after-
meal digestive and breath freshen-
er. Fennel leaves are used as leafy
green vegetables either by them-
58
Glen O. Brechbill
China 40,000 F
Iran 30,000 F
Bulgaria 28,100 F
Syria 27,700
Morocco 23,000 F
Egypt 22,000 F
Canada 11,000 F
Afghanistan 10,000 F
World 415,027 A
59
Fenugreek
Fenugreek; Trigonella foenum-
graecum) is a plant in the family
Fabaceae. Fenugreek is used both
as a herb (the leaves) and as a spice
(the seed). The leaves, known as
methi in Hindi/Urdu/Hindi/Nepali),
are also eaten as vegetables. The
plant is cultivated worldwide as a
semi-arid crop and is a common
ingredient in dishes from the Indian
Subcontinent.
History
The name fenugreek or foenum-
graecum is from Latin for "Greek
hay". The plant's similarity to wild
clover has likely spawned its
Swedish name: "bockhornsklver"
as well as the German:
"Bockshornklee", both literally
meaning: "ram's horn clover".
Zohary and Hopf note that it is not
yet certain which wild strain of the
genus Trigonella gave rise to the
domesticated fenugreek but believe
it was brought into cultivation in
the Near East. Charred fenugreek
seeds have been recovered from
Tell Halal, Iraq, (radiocarbon dat-
ing to 4000 BC) and Bronze Age
levels of Lachish, as well as desic-
Cuisine
The cuboid yellow to amber
coloured fenugreek seeds are fre-
quently used in the preparation of
pickles, vegetable dishes, daals and
spice mixes encountered in the cui-
sine of the Indian subcontinent. The
dried leaves also called kasuri
methi (or kasoori methi in North
India and Pakistan), after the region
of Kasur in Punjab, Pakistan
province, where it grows abundant-
ly have a bitter taste and a char-
acteristically strong smell. When
harvested as microgreens, it also
known as Samudra Methi, in
Maharashtra, especially in and
around Mumbai, where it is often
grown near the sea in the sandy
tracts, hence the name (Samudra
means "ocean" in Sanskrit). It is
calledMenthium or Venthayam in
Tamil and Menthya in Kannada.
Fenugreek is used in Eritrean and
Ethiopian cuisine. The word for
fenugreek in Amharic is abesh (or
abish), and the seed is used in
Ethiopia as a natural herbal medi-
cine in the treatment of diabetes.
Yemenite Jews following the inter-
cated seeds from the tomb of
Tutankhamen. Cato the Elder lists
fenugreek with clover and vetch as
crops grown to feed cattle (De Agri
Cultura, 27).
Production
Major fenugreek producing coun-
tries are Nepal, India, Pakistan,
Bangladesh, Argentina, Egypt,
France, Spain, Turkey, Morocco
and China. India is the largest pro-
ducer of fenugreek in the world
where Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Haryana and Punjab are the major
fenugreek producing states.
Rajasthan produces the lion's share
of India's production, accounting
for over 80% of the nation's total
fenugreek output. Qasuri Methi,
more popular for its appetizing fra-
grance, comes from Qasur,
Pakistan, and regions irrigated by
the Sutlej River, in the Indian and
Pakistani states of Punjab. (sources:
T. Jilani PhD, Arizona, DASD
2007)
60
Glen O. Brechbill
pretation of Rabbi Salomon
Isaacides, Rashi of Talmu-d,
believe Fenugreek, which they call
Helba is the Talmudic Rubia. They
use Fenugreek to produce Hilba, a
foamy sauce reminiscent of curry,
consumed daily but ceremoniously
during the meal of the first and/or
second night of Rosh Hashana
(Jewish New Year).
Lactation
Fenugreek seeds are thought to be a
galactagogue that is often used to
increase milk supply in lactating
women.
Medicinal
Arthritis has a low incidence rate in
India where a lot of fenugreek is
consumed. Drinking 1 cup of fenu-
greek tea per day, made from the
leaves, is said to relieve the dis-
comfort of arthritis.[
A June 2011 study at the Australian
Centre for Integrative Clinical and
Molecular Medicine found that
men aged 25 to 52 who took a fenu-
greek extract twice daily for six
weeks scored 25% higher on tests
gauging libido levels than those
who took a placebo.
Seeds
Fenugreek seeds are a rich source
of the polysaccharide galactoman-
nan. They are also a source of
saponins such as diosgenin, yamo-
genin, gitogenin, tigogenin, and
Fenugreek seed is widely used as a
galactagogue (milk producing
agent) by nursing mothers to
increase inadequate breast milk
supply. Studies have shown that
fenugreek is a potent stimulator of
breast milk production and its use
was associated with increases in
milk production. It can be found in
capsule form in many health food
stores.
Several human intervention trials
demonstrated that the antidiabetic
effects of fenugreek seeds amelio-
rate most metabolic symptoms
associated with type-1 and type-2
diabetes in both humans and rele-
vant animal models by reducing
serum glucose and improving glu-
cose tolerance. Fenugreek is cur-
rently available commercially in
encapsulated forms and is being
prescribed as dietary supplements
for the control of hypercholes-
terolemia and diabetes by practi-
tioners of complementary and alter-
native medicine. Fenugreek con-
tains high dietary fiber, so a few
seeds taken with warm water before
going to sleep helps avoiding con-
stipation.
News
In February 2009, the International
Frutarom Corporation factory in
North Bergen, New Jersey, was
found to be the source of a mysteri-
ous maple syrup aroma which had
been reported as occasionally drift-
ing over New York City since 2005.
The odor was found to be an ester
neotigogens. Other bioactive con-
stituents of fenugreek include
mucilage, volatile oils, and alka-
loids such as choline and
trigonelline.
Fenugreek seeds are used as a
medicinal in Traditional Chinese
Medicine under the name Hu Lu Ba
(Traditional Chinese: Simplified
Chinese: , Pinyin: h l ba-), where
they are considered to warm and
tonify kidneys, disperse cold and
alleviate pain. Main indications are
hernia, pain in the groin. They are
used raw or toasted. In India about
2-3g of raw fenugreek seeds (called
Methi in India) are swallowed raw
early in the morning with warm
water, before brushing the teeth and
before drinking tea or coffee, where
they are supposed to have a thera-
peutic and healing effect on joint
pains, without any side effects.
In Persian cuisine Fenugreek leaves
are used and called (shambalile). In
Arabic traditional medicine, it is
known as (Helba or Hulba). Tea
made from the seeds is used in the
Near East to treat various kidney,
heart, abdominal illnesses and
Diabetes. Seeds are used by
Bedouin women to strengthen
pregnant and breastfeeding women.
Fenugreek is frequently used in the
production of flavoring for artifi-
cial maple syrups. The taste of
toasted fenugreek, like cumin, is
additionally based on substituted
pyrazines. By itself, fenugreek has
a bitter taste.
61
associated with fenugreek seed pro-
cessing. No health risks have been
found.
Fenugreek seeds imported from
Egypt in 2009 and 2010 have been
linked to outbreaks of Escherichia
coli O104:H4 in Germany and
France, causing 50 deaths in 2011.
62
Glen O. Brechbill
Garlic
Allium sativum, commonly known
as garlic, is a species in the onion
genus, Allium. Its close relatives
include the onion, shallot, leek,
chive, and rakkyo. Dating back
over 6,000 years, garlic is native to
central Asia, and has long been a
staple in the Mediterranean region,
as well as a frequent seasoning in
Asia, Africa, and Europe. It was
known to Ancient Egyptians, and
has been used throughout its histo-
ry for both culinary and medicinal
purposes.
Description
Allium sativum is a bulb. It grows
up to 0.6 m (2ft) in height. Its har-
diness is USDA Zone 8. It produces
hermaphrodite flowers. Pollination
occurs by insects and bees.
Origin & Major Types
The ancestry of cultivated garlic is
not definitively established.
According to Zohary and Hopf, "A
difficulty in the identification of its
wild progenitor is the sterility of the
cultivars", though it is thought to be
descendent from the species Allium
longicuspis, which grows wild in
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garlic
freezes, and harvested in late
spring. Garlic plants are usually
very hardy, and are not attacked by
many pests or diseases. Garlic
plants are said to repel rabbits and
moles. Two of the major pathogens
that attack garlic are nematodes and
white rot disease, which remain in
the soil indefinitely once the
ground has become infected. Garlic
also can suffer from pink root, a
typically nonfatal disease that
stunts the roots and turns them pink
or red.
Garlic plants can be grown close
together, leaving enough room for
the bulbs to mature, and are easily
grown in containers of sufficient
depth. When selecting garlic for
planting, it is important to pick
large heads from which to separate
cloves. Large cloves, along with
proper spacing in the planting bed,
will also improve head size. Garlic
plants prefer to grow in a soil with
a high organic material content, but
are capable of growing in a wide
range of soil conditions and pH lev-
els.
There are different types or sub-
species of garlic, most notably
central and southwestern Asia.
Allium sativum grows in the wild
in areas where it has become natu-
ralised. The "wild garlic", "crow
garlic", and "field garlic" of Britain
are members of the species Allium
ursinum, Allium vineale, and
Allium oleraceum, respectively. In
North America, Allium vineale
(known as "wild garlic" or "crow
garlic") and Allium canadense,
known as "meadow garlic" or "wild
garlic" and "wild onion", are com-
mon weeds in fields. One of the
best-known "garlics", the so-called
elephant garlic, is actually a wild
leek (Allium ampeloprasum), and
not a true garlic. Single clove garlic
(also called pearl or solo garlic)
originated in the Yunnan province
of China.
Cultivation
Garlic is easy to grow and can be
grown year-round in mild climates.
While sexual propagation of garlic
is indeed possible, nearly all of the
garlic in cultivation is propagated
asexually, by planting individual
cloves in the ground. In cold cli-
mates, cloves are planted in the fall,
about six weeks before the soil
63
hardneck garlic and softneck garlic.
The latitude where the garlic is
grown affects the choice of type as
garlic can be day-length sensitive.
Hardneck garlic is generally grown
in cooler climates; softneck garlic
is generally grown closer to the
equator.
Garlic scapes are removed to focus
all the garlic's energy into bulb
growth. The scapes can be eaten
raw or cooked.
Production Trends
Garlic is grown globally, but China
is by far the largest producer of gar-
lic, with approximately 10.5 mil-
lion tonnes (23 billion pounds)
grown annually, accounting for
over 77% of world output. India
(4.1%) and South Korea (2%) fol-
low, with Egypt and Russia (1.6%)
tied in fourth place and the United
States (where garlic is grown in
every state except for Alaska) in
sixth place (1.4%). This leaves 16%
of global garlic production in coun-
tries that each produce less than 2%
of global output. Much of the garlic
production in the United States is
centered in Gilroy, California,
which calls itself the "garlic capital
of the world".
Culinary Uses
Garlic is widely used around the
world for its pungent flavor as a
seasoning or condiment.
The garlic plant's bulb is the most
the basal plate of the bulb is the
only part not typically considered
palatable in any form.
Garlic is a fundamental component
in many or most dishes of various
regions, including eastern Asia,
South Asia, Southeast Asia, the
Middle East, northern Africa,
southern Europe, and parts of South
and Central America. The flavour
varies in intensity and aroma with
the different cooking methods. It is
often paired with onion, tomato, or
ginger. The parchment-like skin is
much like the skin of an onion, and
is typically removed before using in
raw or cooked form. An alternative
is to cut the top off the bulb, coat
the cloves by dribbling olive oil (or
other oil-based seasoning) over
them, and roast them in an oven.
Garlic softens and can be extracted
from the cloves by squeezing the
(root) end of the bulb, or individu-
ally by squeezing one end of the
clove. In Korea, heads of garlic are
fermented at high temperature; the
resulting product, called black gar-
lic, is sweet and syrupy, and is now
being sold in the United States,
United Kingdom and Australia.
Garlic may be applied to breads to
create a variety of classic dishes,
such as garlic bread, garlic toast,
bruschetta, crostini and canap.
Oils can be flavored with garlic
cloves. These infused oils are used
to season all categories of vegeta-
bles, meats, breads and pasta.
commonly used part of the plant.
With the exception of the single
clove types, garlic bulbs are nor-
mally divided into numerous fleshy
sections called cloves. Garlic
cloves are used for consumption
(raw or cooked) or for medicinal
purposes. They have a characteris-
tic pungent, spicy flavor that mel-
lows and sweetens considerably
with cooking.
Other parts of the garlic plant are
also edible. The leaves and flowers
(bulbils) on the head (spathe) are
sometimes eaten. They are milder
in flavor than the bulbs, and are
most often consumed while imma-
ture and still tender. Immature gar-
lic is sometimes pulled, rather like
a scallion, and sold as "green gar-
lic". When green garlic is allowed
to grow past the "scallion" stage,
but not permitted to fully mature, it
may produce a garlic "round", a
bulb like a boiling onion, but not
separated into cloves like a mature
bulb. Additionally, the immature
flower stalks (scapes) of the hard-
neck and elephant types are some-
times marketed for uses similar to
asparagus in stir-fries.
Inedible or rarely eaten parts of the
garlic plant include the "skin" and
root cluster. The papery, protective
layers of "skin" over various parts
of the plant are generally discarded
during preparation for most culi-
nary uses, though in Korea imma-
ture whole heads are sometimes
prepared with the tender skins
intact. The root cluster attached to
Glen O. Brechbill
64
In some cuisines, the young bulbs
are pickled for three to six weeks in
a mixture of sugar, salt, and spices.
In eastern Europe, the shoots are
pickled and eaten as an appetizer.
Immature scapes are tender and
edible. They are also known as
"garlic spears", "stems", or "tops".
Scapes generally have a milder
taste than the cloves. They are often
used in stir frying or braised like
asparagus. Garlic leaves are a pop-
ular vegetable in many parts of
Asia. The leaves are cut, cleaned,
and then stir-fried with eggs, meat,
or vegetables.
Mixing garlic with egg yolks and
olive oil produces aioli. Garlic, oil,
and a chunky base produce sko-
rdalia. Blending garlic, almond, oil,
and soaked bread produces ajoblan-
co.
Garlic powder has a different taste
from fresh garlic. If used as a sub-
stitute for fresh garlic, 1/8 teaspoon
of garlic powder is equivalent to
one clove of garlic.
Historical Use
Garlic has been used as both food
and medicine in many cultures for
thousands of years, dating at least
as far back as when the Giza pyra-
mids were built. Garlic is still
grown in Egypt, but the Syrian
variety is the kind most esteemed
now (see Rawlinson's Herodotus,
2.125).
says Cullen (Mat. Med. ii. p. 174,
1789), found some dropsies cured
by it alone. Early in the 20th centu-
ry, it was sometimes used in the
treatment of pulmonary tuberculo-
sis or phthisis.
Garlic was rare in traditional
English cuisine (though it is said to
have been grown in England before
1548) and has been a much more
common ingredient in
Mediterranean Europe. Garlic was
placed by the ancient Greeks on the
piles of stones at crossroads, as a
supper for Hecate (Theophrastus,
Characters, The Superstitious
Man). A similar practice of hanging
garlic, lemon and red chilli at the
door or in a shop to ward off poten-
tial evil, is still very common in
India.[26] According to Pliny, gar-
lic and onions were invoked as
deities by the Egyptians at the tak-
ing of oaths. (Pliny also stated gar-
lic demagnetizes lodestones, which
is not factual.) The inhabitants of
Pelusium, in lower Egypt (who
worshiped the onion), are said to
have had an aversion to both onions
and garlic as food.
To prevent the plant from running
to leaf, Pliny (N.H. xix. 34) advised
bending the stalk downward and
covering with earth; seeding, he
observes, may be prevented by
twisting the stalk (by "seeding", he
most likely meant the development
of small, less potent bulbs).
Garlic is mentioned in the Bible
and the Talmud. Hippocrates,
Galen, Pliny the Elder, and
Dioscorides all mention the use of
garlic for many conditions, includ-
ing parasites, respiratory problems,
poor digestion, and low energy. Its
use in China was first mentioned in
AD 510.
It was consumed by ancient Greek
and Roman soldiers, sailors, and
rural classes (Virgil, Ecologues ii.
11), and, according to Pliny the
Elder (Natural History xix. 32), by
the African peasantry. Galen eulo-
gizes it as the "rustic's theriac"
(cure-all) (see F. Adams' Paulus
Aegineta, p. 99), and Alexander
Neckam, a writer of the 12th centu-
ry (see Wright's edition of his
works, p. 473, 1863), recommends
it as a palliative for the heat of the
sun in field labor.
In the account of Korea's establish-
ment as a nation, gods were said to
have given mortal women with bear
and tiger temperaments an immor-
tal's black garlic before mating with
them. This is a genetically unique,
six-clove garlic that was to have
given the women supernatural
powers and immortality. This garlic
is still cultivated in a few mountain
areas today.
In his Natural History, Pliny gives
an exceedingly long list of scenar-
ios in which it was considered ben-
eficial (N.H. xx. 23). Dr. T.
Sydenham valued it as an applica-
tion in confluent smallpox, and,
65
Ginger
Ginger or ginger root is the rhizome
of the plant Zingiber officinale,
consumed as a delicacy, medicine,
or spice. It lends its name to its
genus and family (Zingiberaceae).
Other notable members of this plant
family are turmeric, cardamom, and
galangal.
Ginger cultivation began in South
Asia and has since spread to East
Africa and the Caribbean.
Etymology
he English name ginger comes
from French: gingembre, Old
English: gingifere, Medieval Latin:
ginginer, Greek: zingiberis.
Ultimately the origin is from Tamil:
inji ver. The botanical term for root
in Tamil is ver, hence inji root or
inji ver
Horticulture
Ginger produces clusters of white
and pink flower buds that bloom
into yellow flowers. Because of its
aesthetic appeal and the adaptation
of the plant to warm climates, gin-
ger is often used as landscaping
around subtropical homes. It is a
as seafood or goat meat and vege-
tarian cuisine.
Ginger acts as a useful food preser-
vative.
Fresh ginger can be substituted for
ground ginger at a ratio of 6 to 1,
although the flavors of fresh and
dried ginger are somewhat differ-
ent. Powdered dry ginger root is
typically used as a flavoring for
recipes such as gingerbread, cook-
ies, crackers and cakes, ginger ale,
and ginger beer.
Candied ginger is the root cooked
in sugar until soft, and is a type of
confectionery.
Fresh ginger may be peeled before
eating. For longer-term storage, the
ginger can be placed in a plastic
bag and refrigerated or frozen.
Regional Use
In Western cuisine, ginger is tradi-
tionally used mainly in sweet foods
such as ginger ale, gingerbread,
ginger snaps, parkin, ginger bis-
cuits and speculaas. A ginger-fla-
vored liqueur called Canton is pro-
perennial reed-like plant with annu-
al leafy stems, about a meter (3 to 4
feet) tall.
Traditionally, the root is gathered
when the stalk withers; it is imme-
diately scalded, or washed and
scraped, to kill it and prevent
sprouting.
Uses
Ginger produces a hot, fragrant
kitchen spice. Young ginger rhi-
zomes are juicy and fleshy with a
very mild taste. They are often
pickled in vinegar or sherry as a
snack or just cooked as an ingredi-
ent in many dishes. They can also
be steeped in boiling water to make
ginger tea, to which honey is often
added; sliced orange or lemon fruit
may also be added. Ginger can also
be made into candy.
Mature ginger roots are fibrous and
nearly dry. The juice from old gin-
ger roots is extremely potent and is
often used as a spice in Indian
recipes, and is a quintessential
ingredient of Chinese, Korean,
Japanese and many South Asian
cuisines for flavoring dishes such
66
duced in Jarnac, France. Green gin-
ger wine is a ginger-flavored wine
produced in the United Kingdom,
traditionally sold in a green glass
bottle. Ginger is also used as a
spice added to hot coffee and tea.
India and Pakistan, ginger is called
adrak in Hindi, Punjabi and Urdu,
aad in Maithili, aadi in Bhojpuri,
aada in Bengali, Adu in Gujarati,
hashi shunti in the Kannada, allam
in Telugu, inji in Tamil and
Malayalam, inguru in Sinhalese,
alay in Marathi, and aduwain
Nepali. Fresh ginger is one of the
main spices used for making pulse
and lentil curries and other veg-
etable preparations. Fresh, as well
as dried, ginger is used to spice tea
and coffee, especially in winter.
Ginger powder is also used in cer-
tain food preparations, particularly
for pregnant or nursing women, the
most popular one being katlu which
is a mixture of gum resin, ghee,
nuts, and sugar. Ginger is also con-
sumed in candied and pickled form.
In Bangladesh, ginger is finely
chopped or ground into a paste to
use as a base for chicken and meat
dishes alongside shallot and garlic.
In Burma, ginger is called gyin. It is
widely used in cooking and as a
main ingredient in traditional med-
icines. It is also consumed as a
salad dish called gyin-thot, which
consists of shredded ginger pre-
served in oil, and a variety of nuts
and seeds. In Indonesia, a beverage
called wedang jahe is made from
ginger and palm sugar. Indonesians
cake.
On the island of Corfu, Greece, a
traditional drink called (tsitsibira),
a type of ginger beer, is made. The
people of Corfu and the rest of the
Ionian islands adopted the drink
from the British, during the period
of the United States of the Ionian
Islands.
In Arabic, ginger is called zanjabil,
and in some parts of the Middle
East, ginger powder is used as a
spice for coffee and for milk, as
well. In Somaliland, ginger is
called sinjibil, and is served in cof-
fee shops in Egypt. In the Ivory
Coast, ginger is ground and mixed
with orange, pineapple and lemon
to produce a juice called nya-
manku. Ginger powder is used in
hawaij, a spice mixture used mostly
by Yemenite Jews for soups and
coffee.
Ginger Tea
A glass with a spoon and cubed
sugar on a wooden table
Ginger tea is a beverage in many
countries, made from ginger root.
In China, the tea is made by boiling
peeled and sliced ginger to which
brown sugar is often added. Sliced
orange or lemon fruit may also be
added to give a flavor. In Korean
cuisine, ginger tea is called saeng-
gang cha. It can be made either by
boiling the ginger or by mixing hot
water and preserved sweetened gin-
ger. For the latter, sliced ginger root
also use ground ginger root, called
jahe, as a common ingredient in
local recipes. In Malaysia, ginger is
called halia and used in many kinds
of dishes, especially a soup. In the
Philippines it is brewed into a tea
called salabat. In Vietnam, the fresh
leaves, finely chopped, can also be
added to shrimp-and-yam soup
(canh khoai mo) as a top garnish
and spice to add a much subtler fla-
vor of ginger than the chopped root.
In China, sliced or whole ginger
root is often paired with savory
dishes such as fish, and chopped
ginger root is commonly paired
with meat, when it is cooked.
However, candied ginger is some-
times a component of Chinese
candy boxes, and a herbal tea can
also be prepared from ginger.
In Japan, ginger is pickled to make
beni shoga and gari or grated and
used raw on tofu or noodles. It is
also made into a candy called shoga
no satozuke. In the traditional
Korean kimchi, ginger is finely
minced and added to the ingredi-
ents of the spicy paste just before
the fermenting process.
In the Caribbean, ginger is a popu-
lar spice for cooking, and making
drinks such as sorrel, a seasonal
drink made during the Christmas
season. Jamaicans make ginger
beer both as a carbonated beverage
and also fresh in their homes.
Ginger tea is often made from fresh
ginger, as well as the famous
regional specialty Jamaican ginger
67
is stored with honey for a few
weeks like jam. In Japanese cuisine
it is called sho-gayu. In Philippine
cuisine it is called salabat and
served in the relatively cold month
of December. From its main ingre-
dient ginger tea derives a flavor that
is spicy and stimulating.
Chemistry
The characteristic odor and flavor
of ginger is caused by a mixture of
zingerone, shogaols and gingerols,
volatile oils that compose one to
three percent of the weight of fresh
ginger. In laboratory animals, the
gingerols increase the motility of
the gastrointestinal tract and have
analgesic, sedative, antipyretic and
antibacterial properties. Ginger oil
has been shown to prevent skin
cancer in mice and a study at the
University of Michigan demon-
strated that gingerols can kill ovari-
an cancer cells.-gingerol (1-4'-
hydroxy-3' -methoxyphenyl-5-
hydroxy-3-decanone) is the major
pungent principle of ginger. The
chemopreventive potentials of -gin-
gerol present a promising future
alternative to expensive and toxic
therapeutic agents.
Ginger contains up to three percent
of a fragrant essential oil whose
main constituents are sesquiter-
penoids, with (-)-zingiberene as the
main component. Smaller amounts
of other sesquiterpenoids
sesquiphellandrene, bisabolene and
farnesene) and a small monoter-
penoid fraction phelladrene, cineol,
and citral) have also been identi-
fied.
The pungent taste of ginger is due
to nonvolatile phenylpropanoid-
derived compounds, particularly
gingerols and shogaols, which form
from gingerols when ginger is dried
or cooked. Zingerone is also pro-
duced from gingerols during this
process; this compound is less pun-
gent and has a spicy-sweet aroma.
Ginger is also a minor chemical
irritant, and because of this was
used as a horse suppository by pre-
World War I mounted regiments for
feaguing.
Ginger has a sialagogue action,
stimulating the production of sali-
va, which makes swallowing easier.
68
Glen O. Brechbill
Juniper Berry
A juniper berry is the female seed
cone produced by the various
species of junipers. It is not a true
berry but a cone with unusually
fleshy and merged scales, which
give it a berry-like appearance. The
cones from a handful of species,
especially Juniperus communis, are
used as a spice, particularly in
European cuisine, and also give gin
its distinguishing flavour.
According to one FAO document,
juniper berries are the only spice
derived from conifers, though tar
and inner bark (used as a sweetener
in Apache cuisines) from pine trees
is sometimes considered a spice as
well.
Species
All juniper species grow berries,
but some are considered too bitter
to eat. In addition to J. communis,
other edible species include
Juniperus drupacea, Juniperus
oxycedrus, Juniperus phoenicea,
Juniperus deppeana, and Juniperus
californica. Some species, for
example Juniperus sabina, are toxic
and consumption is inadvisable.
the berries are almost always at
least lightly crushed before being
used as a spice. They are used both
fresh and dried, but their flavour
and odour is at their strongest
immediately after harvest and
decline during drying and storage.
Juniper berries are used in northern
European and particularly
Scandinavian cuisine to "impart a
sharp, clear flavour" to meat dishes,
especially wild birds (including
thrush, blackbird, and woodcock)
and game meats (including boar
and venison). They also season
pork, cabbage, and sauerkraut dish-
es. Traditional recipes for chou-
croute garnie, an Alsatian dish of
sauerkraut and meats, universally
include juniper berries. Besides
Norwegian and Swedish dishes,
juniper berries are also sometimes
used in German, Austrian, Czech
and Hungarian cuisine, often with
roasts. Northern Italian cuisine,
especially that of the South Tyrol,
also incorporates juniper berries.
Juniper, typically Juniperus com-
munis, is used to flavor gin, a liquor
developed in the 17th century in the
Netherlands. Recently, some
Characteristics
Juniperus communis berries vary
from four to twelve millimetres in
diameter; other species are mostly
similar in size, though some are
larger, notably J. drupacea (2028
mm). Unlike the separated and
woody scales of a typical pine
cone, those in a juniper berry
remain fleshy and merge into a uni-
fied covering surrounding the
seeds. The berries are green when
young, and mature to a purple-
black colour over about 18 months
in most species, including J. com-
munis (shorter, 810 months in a
few species, and about 24 months
in J. drupacea). The mature, dark
berries are usually but not exclu-
sively used in cuisine, while gin is
flavoured with fully grown but
immature green berries.
Uses
The flavour profile of young, green
berries is dominated by pinene; as
they mature this piney, resinous
backdrop is joined by what McGee
describes as "green-fresh" and cit-
rus notes. The outer scales of the
berries are relatively flavourless, so
69
American distilleries have begun
using 'New World' varieties of
juniper such as Juniperus occiden-
talis.[10] It was first intended as a
medication since juniper berries are
a diuretic and were also thought to
be an appetite stimulant and a rem-
edy for rheumatism and arthritis.
Western American Native Tribes
are also reported to have used the
juniper berry as an appetite sup-
pressant in times of hunger and/or
famine. Currently, the juniper berry
is being researched as a possible
treatment for diet-controlled dia-
betes, as it releases insulin from the
pancreas (hence alleviating
hunger). It is also said to have been
used by some tribes as a female
contraceptive. The name gin itself
is derived from either the French
genivre or the Dutch jenever,
which both mean "juniper". Other
juniper-flavoured beverages
include the Finnish rye-and-juniper
beer known as sahti, which is
flavoured with both juniper berries
and branches.
A few North American juniper
species produce a seed cone with a
sweeter, less resinous flavour than
those typically used as a spice. For
example, one field guide describes
the flesh of the berries of Juniperus
californica as "dry, mealy, and
fibrous but sweet and without resin
cells". Such species have been used
not just as a seasoning but as a
nutritive food by some Native
Americans. In addition to medical
and culinary purposes, Native
Americans have also used the seeds
appearance to our junipers". inside juniper berries as beads for
jewellery and decoration.
An essential oil extracted from
juniper berries is used in aro-
matherapy and perfumery. The
essential oil can be distilled out of
berries which have already been
used to flavour gin.
History
Juniper berries have been found in
ancient Egyptian tombs, including
Juniperus phoenicia and Juniperus
oxycedrus at multiple sites. The lat-
ter is not known to grow in Egypt,
and neither is Juniperus excelsa,
which was found along with J.
oxycedrus in the tomb of
Tutankhamun. The berries import-
ed into Egypt may have come from
Greece; the Greeks record using
juniper berries as a medicine long
before mentioning their use in
food.The Greeks used the berries in
many of their Olympics events
because of their belief that the
berries increased physical stamina
in athletes. The Romans used
juniper berries as a cheap domesti-
cally-produced substitute for the
expensive black pepper and long
pepper imported from India. It was
also used as an adulterant, as
reported in Pliny the Elder's
Natural History: "Pepper is adulter-
ated with juniper berries, which
have the property, to a marvellous
degree, of assuming the pungency
of pepper." Pliny also incorrectly
asserted that black pepper grew on
trees that were "very similar in
70
Glen O. Brechbill
Mustard Black
Brassica nigra (black mustard)
( sanskrit, rajakshavak; Marathi:,
Kali Mohari ) is an annual weedy
plant cultivated for its seeds, which
are commonly used as a spice.
The plant is believed to be native to
the southern Mediterranean region
of Europe, and has been cultivated
for thousands of years.
The spice is generally made from
ground seeds of the plant, with the
seed coats removed. The small (1
mm) seeds are hard and vary in
color from dark brown to black.
They are flavorful, although they
have almost no aroma. The seeds
are commonly used in Indian cui-
sine, for example in curry, where it
is known as rai. The seeds are usu-
ally thrown into hot oil or ghee,
after which they pop, releasing a
characteristic nutty flavor. The
seeds have a significant amount of
fatty oil. This oil is used often as
cooking oil in India.
In Ethiopia, where it is cultivated as
a vegetable in Gondar, Harar and
Shewa, the shoots and leaves are
consumed cooked and the seeds
used as a spice. Its Amharic name is
seed mentioned by Jesus in
Matthew 13:31-32
senafitch.
Ground seeds of the plant mixed
with honey are widely used in east-
ern Europe as cough suppressant.
In Eastern Canada, the use of
mouche de moutarde to treat respi-
ratory infections was popular
before the advent of modern medi-
cine. It consisted in mixing ground
mustard seeds with flour and water,
and creating a cataplasm with the
paste. This cataplasm was put on
the chest or the back and left until
the person felt a stinging sensation.
The plant itself can grow from two
to eight feet tall, with racemes of
small yellow flowers. These flow-
ers are usually up to 1/3" across,
with four petals each. The leaves
are covered in small hairs; they can
wilt on hot days, but recover at
night.
Since the 1950s, black mustard has
become less popular as compared
to India mustard because some cul-
tivars of India mustard have seeds
that can be mechanically harvested
in a more efficient manner.
Black mustard is thought to be the
71
Nutmeg
The nutmeg tree is any of several
species of trees in genus Myristica.
The most important commercial
species is Myristica fragrans, an
evergreen tree indigenous to the
Banda Islands in the Moluccas (or
Spice Islands) of Indonesia. The
nutmeg tree is important for two
spices derived from the fruit: nut-
meg and mace.
Nutmeg is the seed of the tree,
roughly egg-shaped and about 20 to
30 mm (0.8 to 1 in) long and 15 to
18 mm (0.6 to 0.7 in) wide, and
weighing between 5 and 10 g (0.2
and 0.4 oz) dried, while mace is the
dried "lacy" reddish covering or aril
of the seed. The first harvest of nut-
meg trees takes place 79 years
after planting, and the trees reach
full production after 20 years.
Nutmeg is usually used in pow-
dered form. This is the only tropical
fruit that is the source of two differ-
ent spices. Several other commer-
cial products are also produced
from the trees, including essential
oils, extracted oleoresins, and nut-
meg butter.
The common or fragrant nutmeg,
Myristica fragrans, native to the
(35-40 %) success rate.
Culinary Use
Nutmeg and mace have similar sen-
sory qualities, with nutmeg having
a slightly sweeter and mace a more
delicate flavour. Mace is often pre-
ferred in light dishes for the bright
orange, saffron-like hue it imparts.
Nutmeg is used for flavouring
many dishes, usually in ground or
grated form, and is best grated fresh
in a nutmeg grater.
In Penang cuisine, dried, shredded
nutmeg rind with sugar coating is
used as toppings on the uniquely
Penang ais kacang. Nutmeg rind is
also blended (creating a fresh,
green, tangy taste and white colour
juice) or boiled (resulting in a much
sweeter and brown juice) to make
iced nutmeg juice or, as it is called
in Penang Hokkien, lau hau peng.
In Indian cuisine, nutmeg is used in
many sweet as well as savoury
dishes (predominantly in Mughlai
cuisine). It is known as jaiphal in
most parts of India. In Kannada,
nutmeg is called jaayi-kaayi/jaaipa-
tre, jathikai in Tamil and jatipa-
Banda Islands of Indonesia, is also
grown in Penang Island in Malaysia
and the Caribbean, especially in
Grenada. It also grows in Kerala, a
state in southern India. Other
species of nutmeg include Papuan
nutmeg M. argentea from New
Guinea, and Bombay nutmeg M.
malabarica from India, called
jaiphal in Hindi; both are used as
adulterants of M. fragrans products.
Botany & Cultivation
Nutmeg is a dioecious plant which
is propagated sexually and asexual-
ly, the latter being the standard.
Sexual propagation by seedling
yields 50% male seedlings, which
are unproductive. As there is no
reliable method of determining
plant sex before flowering in the
sixth to eighth year, and sexual
propagation bears inconsistent
yields, grafting is the preferred
method of propagation. Epicotyl
grafting, approach grafting and
patch budding have proved suc-
cessful, epicotyl grafting being the
most widely adopted standard. Air-
layering, or marcotting, is an alter-
native, though not preferred,
method, because of its low
Glen O. Brechbill
72
triand jathi seed in Kerala. In
Telugu, nutmeg is called jaaji kaaya
and mace is called jaapathri . It is
also added in small quantities as a
medicine for infants (janma ghutti).
It may also be used in small quanti-
ties in garam masala. Ground nut-
meg is also smoked in India.
In Middle Eastern cuisine, ground
nutmeg is often used as a spice for
savoury dishes. In Arabic, nutmeg
is called jawzat at-tiyb.
In Greece and Cyprus, nutmeg is
called (moschokarydo) (Greek:
"musky nut"), and is used in cook-
ing and savoury dishes.
In originally European cuisine, nut-
meg and mace are used especially
in potato dishes and in processed
meat products; they are also used in
soups, sauces, and baked goods. In
Dutch cuisine, nutmeg is added to
vegetables such as Brussels
sprouts, cauliflower, and string
beans. Nutmeg is a traditional
ingredient in mulled cider, mulled
wine, and eggnog.
Japanese varieties of curry powder
include nutmeg as an ingredient.
In the Caribbean, nutmeg is often
used in drinks such as the
Bushwacker, Painkiller, and
Barbados rum punch. Typically, it
is just a sprinkle on the top of the
drink.
The pericarp (fruit/pod) is used in
Grenada to make a jam called
826) allowed his monks to sprinkle
nutmeg on their pease pudding
when required to eat it. In
Elizabethan times, it was believed
nutmeg could ward off the plague,
so nutmeg became very popular
and its price skyrocketed.
The small Banda Islands were, until
the mid-19th century, the world's
only source of nutmeg and mace.
Nutmeg is noted as a very valuable
commodity by Muslim sailors from
the port of Basra, such as Sinbad
the Sailor in the One Thousand and
One Nights. Nutmeg was traded by
Arabs during the Middle Ages and
sold to the Venetians for very high
prices, but the traders did not
divulge the exact location of their
source in the profitable Indian
Ocean trade, and no European was
able to deduce their location.
In August 1511, Afonso de
Albuquerque conquered Malacca,
which at the time was the hub of
Asian trade, on behalf of the king of
Portugal. In November of that year,
after having secured Malacca and
learning of the Bandas' location,
Albuquerque sent an expedition of
three ships led by his friend
Antnio de Abreu to find them.
Malay pilots, either recruited or
forcibly conscripted, guided them
via Java, the Lesser Sundas and
Ambon to Banda, arriving in early
1512. The first Europeans to reach
the Bandas, the expedition
remained in Banda for about a
month, purchasing and filling their
ships with Banda's nutmeg and
morne delice. In Indonesia, the fruit
is also made into jam, called selei
buah pala, or is finely sliced,
cooked with sugar, and crystallised
to make a fragrant candy called
manisan pala (nutmeg sweets).
Essential Oil
The essential oil obtained by steam
distillation of ground nutmeg is
used widely in the perfumery and
pharmaceutical industries. This
volatile fraction typically contains
60-80% d-camphene by weight, as
well as quantities of d-pinene,
limonene, d-borneol, l-terpineol,
geraniol, safrol, and myristicin.[5]
The oil is colourless or light yellow,
and smells and tastes of nutmeg. It
contains numerous components of
interest to the oleochemical indus-
try, and is used as a natural food
flavouring in baked goods, syrups,
beverages, and sweets. It is used to
replace ground nutmeg, as it leaves
no particles in the food. The essen-
tial oil is also used in the cosmetic
and pharmaceutical industries, for
instance, in toothpaste, and as a
major ingredient in some cough
syrups. In traditional medicine, nut-
meg and nutmeg oil were used for
disorders related to the nervous and
digestive systems.
History
t is known to have been a prized
costly spice in European medieval
cuisine as a flavouring, medicinal,
and preservative agent. Saint
Theodore the Studite (ca. 758 ca.
73
mace, and with cloves in which
Banda had a thriving entrept trade.
The first written accounts of Banda
are in Suma Oriental, a book writ-
ten by the Portuguese apothecary
Tom Pires, based in Malacca from
1512 to 1515. Full control of this
trade by the Portuguese was not
possible, and they remained partic-
ipants without a foothold in the
islands themselves.
The trade in nutmeg later became
dominated by the Dutch in the 17th
century. The English and Dutch
engaged in prolonged struggles to
gain control of Run Island, then the
only source of nutmeg. At the end
of the Second Anglo-Dutch War,
the Dutch gained control of Run,
while England controlled New
Amsterdam (New York) in North
America.
The Dutch waged a bloody war,
including the massacre and
enslavement of the inhabitants of
the island of Banda, just to control
nutmeg production in the East
Indies in 1621. Thereafter, the
Banda Islands were run as a series
of plantation estates, with the
Dutch mounting annual expeditions
in local war-vessels to extirpate
nutmeg trees planted elsewhere.
In 1760, the price of nutmeg in
London was 85 to 90 shillings per
pound, a price kept artificially high
by the Dutch voluntarily burning
full warehouses of nutmegs in
Amsterdam.
As a result of the Dutch interreg-
num during the Napoleonic Wars,
the English took temporary control
of the Banda Islands from the
Dutch and transplanted nutmeg
trees to their own colonial holdings
elsewhere, notably Zanzibar and
Grenada. The national flag of
Grenada, adopted in 1974, shows a
stylised split-open nutmeg fruit.
The Dutch however continued to
hold control of the spice islands
until World War II.
Connecticut gets its nickname ("the
Nutmeg State", "Nutmegger") from
the legend that some unscrupulous
Connecticut traders would whittle
"nutmeg" out of wood, creating a
"wooden nutmeg" (a term which
came to mean any fraud).
74
Glen O. Brechbill
Paprika
is a spice made from the grinding of
dried bell peppers or chili peppers
(fruits of Capsicum annuum). In
many European languages, the
word paprika refers to the
Capsicum fruit itself. The season-
ing is used in many cuisines to add
color and flavor to dishes. Paprika
can range from mild to hot. Flavors
also vary from country to country.
Etymology
In modern times, the word paprika
is derived from the Hungarian
paprika or the Croatian word papri-
ka ; meaning pepper (Capsicum).
The Hungarian paprika is a diminu-
tive form of the Bosnian/
Croatian/Serbian/Montenegrin
papar, derived from the Latin piper
or Modern Greek piperi. It came
into currency in the 19th century.
Many European languages use a
similar word whilst examples from
other languages include the Hebrew
paprika
Usage
Paprika is produced in a number of
places including Hungary, Serbia,
Spain and California. It is used as
Delicate (cspo"smentes csemege)
color from light to dark red, a mild
paprika with a rich flavor.
Exquisite Delicate (Cseme-gepa-
prika) similar to Delicate, but
more pungent.
Pungent Exquisite Delicate
(Cspo"s Csemege, Pikns) - an
even more pungent version of
Delicate.
Rose (Rzsa) - pale red in color
with strong aroma and mild pun-
gency.
Noble Sweet (desnemes) - the
most commonly exported paprika;
bright red and slightly pungent.
Half-Sweet (Fldes) - A blend of
mild and pungent paprikas; medi-
um pungency.
Strong (Ero"s) - light brown in
color, the hottest paprika.
The Netherlands is a major produc-
tion and distribution source of
paprika as well, especially grown in
greenhouses.
an ingredient in a broad variety of
dishes throughout the world.
Paprika is principally used to sea-
son and color rices, stews, and
soups, such as goulash, and in the
preparation of sausages as an ingre-
dient that is mixed with meats and
other spices. In the United States,
paprika is frequently sprinkled on
foods as a garnish, but the flavor is
more effectively produced by heat-
ing it gently in oil.
Spanish Paprika (Pimentn) is
available in three versions, mild
(Pimentn Dulce), moderately
spicy (Pimentn Agridulce), and
very spicy (Pimentn Picante.)
Some Spanish paprika, including
Pimentn de la Vera has a distinct
smokey flavor and aroma as it is
dried by smoking, typically using
oak wood.
Hungary is a major source of papri-
ka and is thus more commonly
used. It is available in grades rang-
ing as follows:
Special quality (Klnleges) the
mildest, very sweet with a deep
bright red color.
75
In Moroccan cuisine, paprika (tah-
mira) is usually found slightly
moistened by the addition of a
small amount of olive oil blended
into it.
Paprika can also be used with
henna to bring a reddish tint to hair
when coloring it. Paprika powder
can be added to henna powder
when prepared at home.
76
Glen O. Brechbill
Pepper Long
Long pepper (Piper longum),
(Pippali), sometimes called Indian
long pepper, is a flowering vine in
the family Piperaceae, cultivated
for its fruit, which is usually dried
and used as a spice and seasoning.
Long pepper has a similar, but hot-
ter, taste to its close relative Piper
nigrum - from which black, green
and white pepper are obtained. The
word pepper itself is derived from
the Tamil/Malayalam word for long
pepper, pippali.
The fruit of the pepper consists of
many minuscule fruits each about
the size of a poppy seed embedded
in the surface of a flower spike that
closely resembles a hazel tree
catkin. Like piper nigrum, the fruits
contain the alkaloid piperine, which
contributes to their pungency.
Another species of long pepper,
Piper retrofractum, is native to
Java, Indonesia.
History
Long pepper reached Greece in the
sixth or fifth century BCE, though
Hippocrates,the first writer to men-
tion it, discussed it as a medicament
rather than a spice. Among the
Piperlongumine, a compound
believed to have an anti-tumor
effect.
Uses
Today, long pepper is an extremely
rare ingredient in European
cuisines, but it can still be found in
Indian vegetable pickles, some
North African spice mixtures, and
in Indonesian and Malaysian cook-
ing. It is readily available at Indian
grocery stores, where it is usually
labeled pippali.
The Ayurvedic texts list pippali as
one of the most powerful Rasayana
herbs, meaning it believed to be a
longevity enhancer and is a remedy
for throat irritation. Pippali is one
of the most widely used Ayurvedic
herbs.
Greeks and Romans and prior to the
European discovery of the New
World, long pepper was an impor-
tant and well-known spice. The
ancient history of black pepper is
often interlinked with (and con-
fused with) that of long pepper,
though Theophrastus distinguished
the two in the first work of botany.
The Romans knew of both and
often referred to either as just piper;
Pliny erroneously believed dried
black pepper and long pepper came
from the same plant. Round, or
black pepper, began to compete
with long pepper in Europe from
the twelfth century and had dis-
placed it by the fourteenth. The
quest for cheaper and more depend-
able sources of black pepper fueled
the Age of Discoveries; only after
the discovery of the New World
and of chili pepper, called by the
Spanish pimiento, employing their
word for long pepper, did the popu-
larity of long pepper fade away.
Chili peppers, some of which, when
dried, are similar in shape and taste
to long pepper, were easier to grow
in a variety of locations more con-
venient to Europe. Today, long pep-
per is a rarity in general commerce.
Long pepper is known to contain
77
Black pepper (Piper nigrum) is a
flowering vine in the family
Piperaceae, cultivated for its fruit,
which is usually dried and used as a
spice and seasoning. The fruit,
known as a peppercorn when dried,
is approximately 5 millimetres
(0.20 in) in diameter, dark red when
fully mature, and, like all drupes,
contains a single seed.
Peppercorns, and the powdered
pepper derived from grinding them,
may be described simply as pepper,
or more precisely as black pepper
(cooked and dried unripe fruit),
green pepper (dried unripe fruit)
and white pepper (dried ripe seeds).
Black pepper is native to South
East Asia and China, and is exten-
sively cultivated there and else-
where in tropical regions. Currently
Vietnam is the world's largest pro-
ducer and exporter of pepper, pro-
ducing 34% of the world's Piper
nigrum crop as of 2008.
Dried ground pepper has been used
since antiquity for both its flavour
and as a medicine. Black pepper is
the world's most traded spice. It is
one of the most common spices
added to European cuisine and its
Black pepper
is produced from the still-green
unripe drupes of the pepper plant.
The drupes are cooked briefly in
hot water, both to clean them and to
prepare them for drying. The heat
ruptures cell walls in the pepper,
speeding the work of browning
enzymes during drying. The drupes
are dried in the sun or by machine
for several days, during which the
pepper around the seed shrinks and
darkens into a thin, wrinkled black
layer. Once dried, the spice is called
black peppercorn. On some estates,
the berries are separated from the
stem by hand and then sun dried
without the boiling process.
Once the peppercorns are dried,
pepper spirit & oil can be extracted
from the berries by crushing them.
Pepper spirit is used in famous bev-
erages like Coca-Cola and many
medicinal and beauty products.
Pepper oil is also used as an
ayurvedic massage oil and used in
certain beauty and herbal treat-
ments.
descendants. The spiciness of black
pepper is due to the chemical piper-
ine. It is ubiquitous in the industri-
alized world, often paired with
table salt.
Etymology
The word "pepper" is ultimately
derived from the Sanskrit word for
long pepper, pippali. Black pepper
is marica. Ancient Greek and Latin
turned pippali into the Latin piper
which was used by the Romans to
refer both to black pepper and long
pepper, as the Romans erroneously
believed that both of these spices
were derived from the same
plant.[citation needed] The English
word for pepper is derived from the
Old English pipor. The Latin word
is also the source of Italian pepe,
Dutch peper, German Pfeffer,
French poivre, and other similar
forms. In the 16th century, pepper
started referring to the unrelated
New World chile pepper as well.
"Pepper" was used in a figurative
sense to mean "spirit" or "energy"
at least as far back as the 1840s; in
the early 20th century, this was
shortened to pep.
Pepper Corns - Black, Green & White
78
Glen O. Brechbill
White Pepper
Consists of the seed of the pepper
plant alone, with the darker
coloured skin of the pepper fruit
removed. This is usually accom-
plished by a process known as ret-
ting, where fully ripe red pepper
berries are soaked in water for
about a week, during which the
flesh of the pepper softens and
decomposes. Rubbing then
removes what remains of the fruit,
and the naked seed is dried.
Sometimes alternative processes
are used for removing the outer
pepper from the seed, including
removing the outer layer through
mechanical, chemical or biological
methods.
Ground white pepper is sometimes
used in Chinese cooking or in dish-
es like salad, light-coloured sauces
or mashed potatoes, where black
pepper would visibly stand out.
White pepper has a slightly differ-
ent flavour from black pepper due
to the lack of certain compounds
which are present in the outer fruit
layer of the drupe but are not found
in the seed.
Green Pepper
Like black, is made from the unripe
drupes. Dried green peppercorns
are treated in a way that retains the
green color, such as treatment with
sulfur dioxide, canning or freeze-
drying. Pickled peppercorns, also
green, are unripe drupes preserved
in brine or vinegar. Fresh, unpre-
pepper made from fruits from the
grafted Malabar plants grown on
Mount Tellicherry. Sarawak pepper
native to the Malaysian portion of
Borneo.
Lampung pepper is from
Indonesia's island of Sumatra.
White Muntok pepper is another
Indonesian product. Vietnam pep-
per comes in white and black pep-
per and is from Ba Ria - Vung Tau,
Chu Se and Binh Phuoc
served green pepper drupes, largely
unknown in the West, are used in
some Asian cuisines, particularly
Thai cuisine. Their flavour has
been described as piquant and
fresh, with a bright aroma. They
decay quickly if not dried or pre-
served.
Pink Pepper
Pink pepper from Piper nigrum is
distinct from the more-common
dried "pink peppercorns", which
are actually the fruits of a plant
from a different family, the
Peruvian pepper tree, Schinus
molle, or its relative the Brazilian
pepper tree, Schinus terebinthi-
folius.
The bark of Drimys winteri (Canelo
or Winter's Bark) is used as a sub-
stitute for pepper in cold and tem-
perate regions of Chile and
Argentina where it is easily avail-
able.
In New Zealand the seeds of
Kawakawa (Macropiper excelsum),
a relative of black pepper, are
sometimes used as pepper and the
leaves of Pseudowintera colorata
(Mountain horopito) are another
replacement for pepper.
Region of Origin
Peppercorns are often categorised
under a label describing their port.
Two types are come from India's
Malabar Coast: Malabar pepper and
Tellicherry pepper. Tellicherry is a
79
Saffron
Saffron is a spice derived from the
flower of Crocus sativus, common-
ly known as the saffron crocus.
Crocus is a genus in the family
Iridaceae. Each saffron crocus
grows to 2030 cm (812 in) and
bears up to four flowers, each with
three vivid crimson stigmas, which
are each the distal end of a carpel.
Together with the styles, or stalks
that connect the stigmas to their
host plant, the dried stigmas are
used mainly in various cuisines as a
seasoning and colouring agent.
Saffron, long among the world's
most costly spices by weight, is
native to Southwest Asia and was
first cultivated in Greece. As a
genetically monomorphic clone, it
was slowly propagated throughout
much of Eurasia and was later
brought to parts of North Africa,
North America, and Oceania.
The saffron crocus, unknown in the
wild, likely descends from Crocus
cartwrightianus, which originated
in Crete or Central Asia; C.
thomasii and C. pallasii are other
possible precursors. The saffron
crocus is a triploid that is "self-
incompatible" and male sterile; it
undergoes aberrant meiosis and is
Etymology
The ultimate origin of the English
word saffron is, like that of the cul-
tivated saffron clone itself, of
somewhat uncertain origin. It
immediately stems from the Latin
word safranum via the 12th-century
Old French term safran. Etymology
beyond that point is conflicted.
Safranum may derive via the
Persian intercessor, or za'fern. But
some disputants argue that it
instead ultimately came from the
Arabic word, or za'fara-n. The lat-
ter comes from the adjective: as.far,
meaning "yellow".
History
The documented history of saffron
cultivation spans more than three
millennia. The wild precursor of
domesticated saffron crocus was
Crocus cartwrightianus. Human
cultivators bred wild specimens by
selecting for unusually long stig-
mas; thus, a sterile mutant form of
C. cartwrightianus, C. sativus, like-
ly emerged in late Bronze Age
Crete.
hence incapable of independent
sexual reproduction all propagation
is by vegetative multiplication via
manual "divide-and-set" of a starter
clone or by interspecific hybridisa-
tion. If C. sativus is a mutant form
of C. cartwrightianus, then it may
have emerged via plant breeding,
which would have selected for
elongated stigmas, in late Bronze-
Age Crete.
Saffron's bitter taste and iodoform-
or hay-like fragrance result from
the chemicals picrocrocin and
safranal. It also contains a
carotenoid dye, crocin, which
imparts a rich golden-yellow hue to
dishes and textiles. Its recorded his-
tory is attested in a 7th-century BC
Assyrian botanical treatise com-
piled under Ashurbanipal, and it
has been traded and used for over
four millennia. Iran now accounts
for approximately 90 per cent of the
world production of saffron.
Because each flower's stigmas need
to be collected by hand and there
are only a few per flower, saffron is
the most expensive spice in the
world.
80
Glen O. Brechbill
Use
Saffron's aroma is often described
by connoisseurs as reminiscent of
metallic honey with grassy or hay-
like notes, while its taste has also
been noted as hay-like and sweet.
Saffron also contributes a luminous
yellow-orange colouring to foods.
Saffron is widely used in Persian,
European, Arab, and Turkish
cuisines. Confectioneries and
liquors also often include saffron.
Common saffron substitutes
include safflower (Carthamus tinc-
torius, which is often sold as
"Portuguese saffron" or "aafro"),
annatto, and turmeric (Curcuma
longa). Saffron has also been used
as a fabric dye, particularly in
China and India, and in perfumery.
It is used for religious purposes in
India, and is widely used in cook-
ing in many ethnic cuisines: these
range, for example, from the
Milanese risotto of Italy or the
bouillabaise of France to biryani
with various meat accompaniments
in South Asia.
Saffron has a long medicinal histo-
ry as part of traditional healing;
several modern research studies
have hinted that the spice has possi-
ble anticarcinogenic (cancer-sup-
pressing), anti-mutagenic (muta-
tion-preventing), immunomodulat-
ing, and antioxidant-like properties.
A 1995 study suggested that saffron
stigmas, and even petals, have been
said to be helpful for depression.
Early studies show that saffron may
protect the eyes from the direct
rusts, and corm rot pose other
threats. Yet Bacillus subtilis inocu-
lation may provide some benefit to
growers by speeding corm growth
and increasing stigma biomass
yield.
Bihud, Iran
The plants fare poorly in shady
conditions; they grow best in full
sunlight. Fields that slope towards
the sunlight are optimal (i.e., south-
sloping in the Northern
Hemisphere). Planting is mostly
done in June in the Northern
Hemisphere, where corms are
lodged 715 cm (2.85.9 in) deep;
its roots, stems, and leaves can
develop between October and
February. Planting depth and corm
spacing, in concert with climate,
are critical factors in determining
yields. Mother corms planted deep-
er yield higher-quality saffron,
though form fewer flower buds and
daughter corms. Italian growers
optimise thread yield by planting
15 cm (5.9 in) deep and in rows 23
cm (0.791.2 in) apart; depths of
810 cm (3.13.9 in) optimise
flower and corm production.
Greek, Moroccan, and Spanish
growers employ distinct depths and
spacings that suit their locales.
C. sativus prefers friable, loose,
low-density, well-watered, and
well-drained clay-calcareous soils
with high organic content.
Traditional raised beds promote
good drainage. Soil organic content
was historically boosted via appli-
effects of bright light and retinal
stress apart from slowing down
macular degeneration and retinitis
pigmentosa. (Most saffron-related
research refers to the stigmas, but
this is often not made explicit in
research papers.) Other controlled
research studies have indicated that
saffron may have many potential
medicinal properties.
Cultivation
Crocus sativus thrives in the
Mediterranean maquis, an ecotype
superficially resembling the North
American chaparral, and similar
climates where hot and dry summer
breezes sweep semi-arid lands. It
can nonetheless survive cold win-
ters, tolerating frosts as low as -10
C (14 F) and short periods of
snow cover. Irrigation is required if
grown outside of moist environ-
ments such as Kashmir, where
annual rainfall aver-
ages1,0001,500 mm (3959 in);
saffron-growing regions in Greece
(500 mm or 20 in annually) and
Spain (400 mm or 16 in) are far
drier than the main cultivating
Iranian regions. What makes this
possible is the timing of the local
wet seasons; generous spring rains
and drier summers are optimal.
Rain immediately preceding flow-
ering boosts saffron yields; rainy or
cold weather during flowering pro-
motes disease and reduces yields.
Persistently damp and hot condi-
tions harm the crops, and rabbits,
rats, and birds cause damage by
digging up corms. Nematodes, leaf
81
cation of some 2030 tonnes of
manure per hectare. Afterwards,
and with no further manure applica-
tion, corms were planted. After a
period of dormancy through the
summer, the corms send up their
narrow leaves and begin to bud in
early autumn. Only in mid-autumn
do they flower. Harvests are by
necessity a speedy affair: after blos-
soming at dawn, flowers quickly
wilt as the day passes. All plants
bloom within a window of one or
two weeks. Roughly 150 flowers
together yield but 1 g (0.035 oz) of
dry saffron threads; to produce 12 g
(0.42 oz) of dried saffron (or 72 g
(2.5 oz) moist and freshly harvest-
ed), 1 kg (2.2 lb) of flowers are
needed; 1 lb (0.45 kg) yields 0.2 oz
(5.7 g) of dried saffron. One fresh-
ly picked flower yields an average
30 mg (0.0011 oz) of fresh saffron
or 7 mg (0.00025 oz) dried.
Chemistry
Saffron contains more than 150
volatile and aroma-yielding com-
pounds. It also has many non-
volatile active components, many
of which are carotenoids, including
zeaxanthin, lycopene, and various
?- and ?-carotenes. However, saf-
fron's golden yellow-orange colour
is primarily the result of ?-crocin.
This crocin is trans-crocetin di-(?-
D-gentiobiosyl) ester; it bears the
systematic (IUPAC) name 8,8-
diapo-8,8-carotenoic acid. This
means that the crocin underlying
saffron's aroma is a digentiobiose
ester of the carotenoid crocetin.
zeaxanthin is, incidentally, one of
the carotenoids naturally present
within the retina of the human eye.
When saffron is dried after its har-
vest, the heat, combined with enzy-
matic action, splits picrocrocin to
yield Dglucose and a free safranal
molecule. Safranal, a volatile oil,
gives saffron much of its distinctive
aroma. Safranal is less bitter than
picrocrocin and may comprise up to
70% of dry saffron's volatile frac-
tion in some samples. A second ele-
ment underlying saffron's aroma is
2-hydroxy-4,4,6-trimethyl-2,5-
cyclohexadien-1-one, the scent of
which has been described as "saf-
fron, dried hay like".Chemists
found this to be the most powerful
contributor to saffron's fragrance
despite its being present in a lesser
quantity than safranal. Dry saffron
is highly sensitive to fluctuating pH
levels, and rapidly breaks down
chemically in the presence of light
and oxidizing agents. It must there-
fore be stored away in air-tight con-
tainers in order to minimise contact
with atmospheric oxygen. Saffron
is somewhat more resistant to heat.
Crocins themselves are a series of
hydrophilic carotenoids that are
either monoglycosyl or diglycosyl
polyene esters of crocetin. Crocetin
is a conjugated polyene dicar-
boxylic acid that is hydrophobic,
and thus oil-soluble. When crocetin
is esterified with two water-soluble
gentiobioses, which are sugars, a
product results that is itself water-
soluble. The resultant - crocin is a
carotenoid pigment that may com-
prise more than 10% of dry saf-
fron's mass. The two esterified gen-
tiobioses make -crocin ideal for
colouring water-based and non-
fatty foods such as rice dishes.
Esterification reaction between cro-
cetin and gentiobiose. Components
of ?crocin: D-gentiobiose
Crocetin
The bitter glucoside picrocrocin is
responsible for saffron's flavour.
Picrocrocin (chemical formula:
C16H26O7; systematic name: 4-(?-
D-gl ucopyr anosyl oxy) -2, 6, 6-
trimethylcyclohex-1-ene-1-carbox-
aldehyde) is a union of an aldehyde
sub-element known as safranal
(systematic name: 2,6,6-trimethyl-
cyclohexa-1,3-diene-1-carboxalde-
hyde) and a carbohydrate. It has
insecticidal and pesticidal proper-
ties, and may comprise up to 4% of
dry saffron. Picrocrocin is a trun-
cated version of the carotenoid
zeaxanthin that is produced via
oxidative cleavage, and is the gly-
coside of the terpene aldehyde
safranal. The reddish-coloured
82
Glen O. Brechbill
Sassafras
Sassafras is a genus of threeextant
and one extinct species of decidu-
ous trees in the family Lauraceae,
native to eastern North America
and eastern Asia.
Sassafras trees grow from 9.118 m
(3059 ft) tall and spreading 7.612
m (2539 ft). The trunk grows
70150 cm (2859 in) in diameter,
with many slender branches, and
smooth, orange-brown bark. The
branching is sympodial. The bark
of the mature trunk is thick, red-
brown, and deeply furrowed. The
wood is light, hard, and sometimes
brittle. All parts of the plants are
very fragrant. The species are
unusual in having three distinct leaf
patterns on the same plant, unlobed
oval, bilobed (mitten-shaped), and
trilobed (three-pronged); rarely the
leaves can be five-lobed. They have
smooth margins and grow 720 cm
long by 510 cm broad. The young
leaves and twigs are quite mucilagi-
nous, and produce a citrus-like
scent when crushed. The tiny, yel-
low flowers are five-petaled, and
bloom in the spring; they are dioe-
cious, with male and female flow-
ers on separate trees. The fruit are
blue-black, egg-shaped, 1 cm long,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sassaf
of the products of aridification is
the isolation of populations, and
this likely caused the increase in the
rate of speciation as found in the
Lauraceae.
The Sassafras genus responded to
favourable climatic periods and
expanded across the available habi-
tat, adapting also to more extreme
conditions, but depending on favor-
able soil edaphic conditions, as
presence of aquifers, groundwater
periodic flows, etc. This genus
occur as opportunistic species
across a wide distribution with
close relatives and few species.
Deciduous sassafras trees lose all of
their leaves for part of the year,
depending on variations in rainfall.
In deciduous tropical Lauraceae,
leaf loss coincides with the dry sea-
son in tropical, subtropical and arid
regions. In temperate or polar cli-
mates, the dry season is due to the
inability of the plant to absorb
water available to it only in the
form of ice.
In convergent evolution, ecological
or physical coincidences drive
toward a similar solution, including
produced on long, red-stalked cups,
and mature in late summer. The
largest sassafras tree in the United
States is located in Owensboro,
Kentucky, which measures over
100 feet high and 21 feet in circum-
ference.
The name "sassafras," applied by
the botanist Nicolas Monardes in
the 16th century, is said to be a cor-
ruption of the Spanish word for
saxifrage.
Ecology
The Lauraceae or laurel family, are
aromatic, evergreen trees or shrubs.
Many botanical species have simi-
lar foliage to the Lauraceae due to
convergent evolution. Those plants
are adapted to high rainfall and
humidity. But the Sassafras genus
and one or two other genera in
Lauraceae are deciduous. It is a
phenomenon of divergent evolution
from the large evergreen trees, to
occupy another ecological niche.
The patterns of speciation in the
Lauraceae family indicate that
since the onset of aridification on
the continents 15 million years ago,
rainforest species diversified. One
83
analogous structures. Sassafras is
commonly found in open woods,
along fences, or in fields. It grows
well in moist, well-drained, or
sandy loam soils and tolerates a
variety of soil types, attaining a
maximun in southern and wetter
areas of distribution. It is a phe-
nomenon of divergent evolution
from the large evergreen trees, to
occupy another ecological niche.
Its pattern of speciation is the prod-
uct of aridification of its habitat.
Sassafras expanded in favourable
climatic periods across the avail-
able habitat and adapted to more
extreme conditions, cooler and
drier, but depending yet on favor-
able soil edaphic conditions, as
presence of aquifers, groundwater
periodic flows, etc.
In Sassafras, the dispersal of seeds
is due to birds that swallow them,
so the berries shape is attractive to
birds. The fruits are an important
food source for birds.
Species
Sassafras albidum (Nuttall) Nees -
sassafras, white sassafras, red sas-
safras or silky sassafras, eastern
North America, from southernmost
Ontario, Canada through the east-
ern United States, south to central
Florida, and west to southern Iowa
and East Texas.
Sassafras hesperia (Berry) Wolfe &
Wehr 1987 - from the Eocene
Klondike Mountain Formation of
Washington and British Columbia
Culinary Uses
The dried and ground leaves are
used to make fil powder, an ingre-
dient used in some types of gumbo.
The roots of sassafras can be
steeped to make tea, and were used
in the flavoring of traditional root
beer until being banned for mass
production by the FDA. Laboratory
animals that were given oral doses
of sassafras tea or sassafras oil that
contained large doses of safrole
developed permanent liver damage
or various types of cancer. In
humans, liver damage can take
years to develop and it may not
have obvious signs. Along with
commercially available sarsaparil-
la, sassafras remains an ingredient
in use among hobby or microbrew
enthusiasts.
In 1960, the FDA banned the use of
sassafras oil and safrole in commer-
cially mass-produced foods and
drugs based on the animal studies
and human case reports. Several
years later, sassafras tea was
banned, a ban that lasted until the
passage of the Dietary Supplement
Health and Education Act in 1994.
Sassafras root extracts which do not
contain safrole or in which the saf-
role has been removed are permis-
sible, and are still widely used com-
mercially in teas and root beers.
Sassafras tea can also be used as an
anticoagulant.
Sassafras tzumu (Hemsl.) Hemsl.
Chinese sassafras or Tzumu, cen-
tral and southwestern China, it dif-
fers from S. albidum in the leaves
being more frequently three-lobed,
the lobes having a tapered acumi-
nate apex (not rounded to weakly
acute).
Sassafras randaiense (Hayata)
Rehd. - Taiwanese sassafras,
Taiwan, is treated by some
botanists in a distinct genus as
Yushunia randaiensis (Hayata)
Kamikoti, though this is not sup-
ported by recent genetic evidence,
which shows Sassafras to be mono-
phyletic.
Uses
Steam distillation of dried root bark
produces an essential oil consisting
mostly of safrole that once was
extensively used as a fragrance in
perfumes and soaps, food and for
aromatherapy. The yield of this oil
from American sassafras is quite
low, and great effort is needed to
produce useful amounts of the root
bark.[citation needed] Sassafras
extract was a primary ingredient in
root beer. Commercial "sassafras
oil" generally is a byproduct of
camphor production in Asia or
comes from related trees in Brazil.
Safrole is a precursor for the clan-
destine manufacture of the drug
MDMA (ecstasy), as well as the
drug MDA (3-4 methylene-
dioxyamphetamine) and as such, its
transport is monitored internation-
ally.
84
Glen O. Brechbill
Star Anise
Illicium verum, commonly called
Star anise, star aniseed, or Chinese
star anise, (Chinese: pinyin: ba-
jia(o, lit. "eight-horn" or "eight-cor-
ners") is a spice that closely resem-
bles anise in flavor, obtained from
the star-shaped pericarp of Illicium
verum, a small native evergreen
tree of northeast Vietnam and
southwest China. The star shaped
fruits are harvested just before
ripening.
Nomenclature
In Persian, star anise is called badi-
an, hence its French name badiane.
In northern India it is called badian
khatai. It is said[who?] that its ori-
gin is a place called Khata in China.
In Malay it is called "Bunga
Lawang". It is widely used in
Malay cooking. In Tamil it is called
as" ("Annachi mokku") and in
Malayalam it is called "thakolam".
Culinary Uses
Star anise contains anethole, the
same ingredient that gives the unre-
lated anise its flavor. Recently, star
anise has come into use in the West
as a less expensive substitute for
Traditional Chinese Medicine
Modern pharmacology studies
demonstrated that its crude extracts
and active compounds possess
wide pharmacological actions,
especially in antimicrobial,antibac-
terial, antioxidant, insecticidal,
analgesic, sedative and convulsive
activities. It is the major source of
shikimic acid, a primary precursor
in the pharmaceutical synthesis of
anti-influenza drug Tamiflu.
Shikimic acid is produced by most
autotrophic organisms and whilst it
can be obtained in commercial
quantities from elsewhere, star
anise remains the usual industrial
source. In 2005, there was a tempo-
rary shortage of star anise due to its
use in making Tamiflu. Late in that
year, a way was found of making
shikimic acid artificially. Roche
now derives some of the raw mate-
rial it needs from fermenting E. coli
bacteria. The 2009 swine flu out-
break led to another series of short-
ages as stocks of Tamiflu were built
up around the world, sending prices
soaring.
Star anise is grown in four
provinces in China and harvested
anise in baking as well as in liquor
production, most distinctively in
the production of the liquor
Galliano. It is also used in the pro-
duction of sambuca, pastis, and
many types of absinthe. Star anise
enhances the flavour of meat.[cita-
tion needed] It is used as a spice in
preparation of biryani all over the
Indian subcontinent. It is widely
used in Chinese cuisine, in Indian
cuisine where it is a major compo-
nent of garam masala, and in Malay
and Indonesian cuisine. It is widely
grown for commercial use in
China, India, and most other coun-
tries in Asia. Star anise is an ingre-
dient of the traditional five-spice
powder of Chinese cooking. It is
also a major ingredient in the mak-
ing of pho+?, a Vietnamese noodle
soup. In India it is used as an ingre-
dient of masala chai.
Medicinal Uses
Star anise has been used in a tea as
a remedy for rheumatism, and the
seeds are sometimes chewed after
meals to aid digestion. As a warm
and moving herb, star anise is used
to assist in relieving cold-stagna-
tion in the middle jiao, according to
85
between March and May. It is also
found in the south of New South
Wales. The shikimic acid is extract-
ed from the seeds in a ten-stage
manufacturing process which takes
a year. Reports say 90 % of the har-
vest is already used by the Swiss
pharmaceutical manufacturer
Roche in making Tamiflu, but other
reportssay there is an abundance of
the spice in the main regions -
Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi and
Yunnan.
Japanese star anise (Illicium anisat-
um), a similar tree, is not edible
because it is highly toxic (due to
containing sikimitoxin); instead, it
has been burned as incense in
Japan. Cases of illness, including
"serious neurological effects, such
as seizures", reported after using
star anise tea may be a result of
using this species. Japanese star
anise contains anisatin, which caus-
es severe inflammation of the kid-
neys, urinary tract and digestive
organs.The toxicity of Illicium
anisatum, also known as Shikimi, is
caused by its content in potent neu-
rotoxins (anisatin, neoanisatin, and
pseudoanisatin), due to their activi-
ty as non-competitive antagonists
of GABA receptors.
86
Glen O. Brechbill
Thyme
History
Ancient Egyptians used thyme for
embalming. The ancient Greeks
used it in their baths and burnt it as
incense in their temples, believing
it was a source of courage. The
spread of thyme throughout Europe
was thought to be due to the
Romans, as they used it to purify
their rooms and to "give an aromat-
ic flavour to cheese and liqueurs".
In the European Middle Ages, the
herb was placed beneath pillows to
aid sleep and ward off nightmares.
In this period, women would also
often give knights and warriors
gifts that included thyme leaves, as
it was believed to bring courage to
the bearer. Thyme was also used as
incense and placed on coffins dur-
ing funerals, as it was supposed to
assure passage into the next life.
Cultivation
Thyme is widely cultivated for its
strong flavour, which is due to its
content of thymol.
Thyme is best cultivated in a hot,
sunny location with well-drained
soil. It is generally planted in the
nent of the bouquet garni, and of
herbes de Provence.
Thyme is sold both fresh and dried.
The fresh form is more flavourful,
but also less convenient; storage
life is rarely more than a week.
While summer-seasonal, fresh
greenhouse thyme is often avail-
able year round.
Fresh thyme is commonly sold in
bunches of sprigs. A sprig is a sin-
gle stem snipped from the plant. It
is composed of a woody stem with
paired leaf or flower clusters
("leaves") spaced to 1" apart. A
recipe may measure thyme by the
bunch (or fraction thereof), or by
the sprig, or by the tablespoon or
teaspoon. If the recipe does not
specify fresh or dried, assume that
it means fresh. Dried thyme is
widely used in Armenia (called
Urc) in teas.
Depending on how it is used in a
dish, the whole sprig may be used
(e.g. in a bouquet garni), or the
leaves removed and the stems dis-
carded. Usually when a recipe
specifies 'bunch' or 'sprig', it means
the whole form; when it specifies
spring, and thereafter grows as a
perennial. It can be propagated by
seed, cuttings, or by dividing root-
ed sections of the plant. It tolerates
drought well. The plants can take
deep freezes and are found growing
wild on mountain highlands.
Culinary Use
Thyme is widely used in cooking.
The herb is a basic ingredient in
Levantine (Lebanese, Syrian,
Palestinian, Jordanian, Israeli),
Libyan, Armenian, Indian, Italian,
French, Albanian, Persian,
Portuguese, Assyrian, Spanish,
Greek, Nigerian, Caribbean, and
Turkish cuisines, and in those
derived from them.
Thyme is often used to flavour
meats, soups and stews. It has a
particular affinity to and is often
used as a primary flavour with
lamb, tomatoes and eggs. Thyme,
while flavourful, does not over-
power and blends well with other
herbs and spices. In some
Levantine countries, and Assyrian,
the condiment za'atar (Arabic for
thyme) contains thyme as a vital
ingredient. It is a common compo-
87
spoons it means the leaves. It is
perfectly acceptable to substitute
dried for whole thyme.
Leaves may be removed from
stems either by scraping with the
back of a knife, or by pulling
through the fingers or tines of a
fork. Leaves are often chopped.
Thyme retains its flavour on drying
better than many other herbs. As
usual with dried herbs, less of it is
required when substituted in a
recipe. As a rule of thumb, use one-
third as much dried as fresh thyme
a little less if it is ground.
Substitution is often more compli-
cated than that because recipes can
specify sprigs, and sprigs can vary
in yield of leaves. Assuming a four-
inch sprig (they are often somewhat
longer), estimate that six sprigs will
yield one tablespoon of leaves. The
dried equivalent is 1:3, so substitute
one teaspoon of dried or three-
fourths of a teaspoon of ground
thyme for six small sprigs.
As with bay, thyme is slow to
release its flavours, so it is usually
added early in the cooking process.
Medicinal Use
Oil of thyme, the essential oil of
common thyme (Thymus vulgaris),
contains 20-54% thymol. Thyme
essential oil also contains a range of
additional compounds, such as p-
Cymene, myrcene, borneol and
linalool. Thymol, an antiseptic, is
the main active ingredient in vari-
Important species and cultivars
For a longer list of species, see
Thymus (genus).
Variegated lemon thyme
Thymus citriodorus (synonym T.
fragrantissimus, T. serpyllum citra-
tus and T. serpyllum citriodorum)
(citrus thyme). Cultivars are select-
ed for aromas of different citrus
fruits:
Lemon thyme (Thymus citriodor-
us) - lemon
Orange thyme (Thymus citri-
odorus 'Orange') - orange, unusual-
ly low growing
Silver thyme (Thymus citriodor-
us 'Argenteus' or variegata) lemon,
variegated with white or yellow
Thymus herba-barona (caraway
thyme) is used both as a culinary
herb and a ground cover, and has a
very strong caraway scent due to
the chemical carvone.
Thymus pseudolanuginosus (wool-
ly thyme) is not a culinary herb, but
is grown as a ground cover.
Thymus serpyllum (wild thyme,
creeping thyme) is an important
nectar source plant for honeybees.
All thyme species are nectar
sources, but wild thyme covers
large areas of droughty, rocky soils
in southern Europe (Greece is espe-
cially famous for wild thyme
ous mouthwashes such as Listerine.
Before the advent of modern antibi-
otics, oil of thyme was used to
medicate bandages. Thymol has
also been shown to be effective
against various fungi that common-
ly infect toenails.Thymol can also
be found as the active ingredient in
some all-natural, alcohol-free hand
sanitizers.
A tea made by infusing the herb in
water can be used for coughs and
bronchitis. Medicinally, thyme is
used for respiratory infections in
the form of a tincture, tisane, salve,
syrup, or by steam inhalation.
Because it is antiseptic, thyme
boiled in water and cooled is very
effective against inflammation of
the throat when gargled three times
a day, with the inflammation nor-
mally disappearing in two to five
days. The thymol and other volatile
components in the leaf glands are
excreted via the lungs, being highly
lipid-soluble, where they reduce the
viscosity of the mucus and exert
their antimicrobial action. Other
infections and wounds can be
dripped with thyme that has been
boiled in water and cooled.
In traditional Jamaican childbirth
practice, thyme tea is given to the
mother after delivery of the baby.
Its oxytocin-like effect causes uter-
ine contractions and more rapid
delivery of the placenta, but this
was said by Sheila Kitzinger to
cause an increased prevalence of
retained placenta.
Glen O. Brechbill
88
honey) and North Africa, as well as
in similar landscapes in the
Berkshire and Catskill Mountains
of the northeastern US. The lowest-
growing of the widely used thyme,
it is good for walkways.
Thymus vulgaris (common thyme,
English thyme, summer thyme,
winter thyme, French thyme, or
garden thyme) is a commonly used
culinary herb. It also has medicinal
uses. Common thyme is a
Mediterranean perennial which is
best suited to well-drained soils and
full sun.
89
Tonka Bean
Dipteryx odorata (commonly
known as "cumaru" or "kumaru") is
a species of flowering tree in the
pea family, Fabaceae, that is native
to the Orinoco region of northern
South America. Its seeds are known
as Tonka Beans. They are black and
wrinkled and have a smooth brown
interior. Their fragrance is reminis-
cent of vanilla, almonds, cinnamon,
and cloves.
The word "tonka" is taken from the
Galibi (Carib) tongue spoken by
natives of French Guiana; it also
appears in Tupi, another language
of the same region, as the name of
the tree. The old genus name,
Coumarouna, was formed from
another Tupi name for tree,
kumar. The tree is native to the
Orinoco region of Guyana.
The Tonka seed contains coumarin,
a chemical first isolated from this
plant, and named for it. Coumarin
is responsible for the pleasant odor
of the seeds, and is used in the per-
fume industry. Coumarin is bitter to
the taste, however, and in large oral
doses can cause liver damage in
rodents. It is therefore controlled as
a food additive by many govern-
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dipteryx_odorata
coumarin, a chemical derivative of
coumarin initially isolated from
this bean. Coumarin itself, howev-
er, does not have anticoagulant
properties.
The beans were formerly also
spelled "Tonquin" and "Tonkin",
although it has no connection with
Tonkin, now part of Vietnam.
Soap companies, like Lush, are
using Tonka as part of a vanilla
smelling soap product. Thorntons
has produced a variety of milk
chocolate made with tonka-infused
cocoa butter, winning the Academy
of Chocolate's Silver Award in
2009.
Tonquin is still used today to flavor
some pipe tobaccos like Dunhill
Royal Yacht and Samuel Gawith
1792 Flake.
Cumaru, also known as Brazilian
Teak, is an increasingly popular
hardwood used for flooring in the
US. It has a very appealing natural
color variation and is considered
quite durable as it has a 3540 rating
on the Janka Hardness Scale.
ments. Like a number of other
plants, the Tonka Bean plant proba-
bly produces coumarin as a defense
chemical.
Radio-carbon dating of D. odorata
stumps left by a large logging oper-
ation near Manaus by Niro
Higuchi, Jeffrey Chambers and
Joshua Schimel, showed that it was
one of around 100 species which
definitely live to over 1,000 years.
Until their research, it had been
assumed unlikely that any
Amazonian tree could live to great
age due to the conditions of the rain
forest.
Tonka Beans had been used as a
vanilla substitute, as a perfume, and
in tobacco before being banned in
some countries. They are used in
some French cuisine (particularly,
in desserts and stews) and in per-
fumes. Today, main producers of
the seeds are Venezuela and
Nigeria.
Its use in food is banned in the
United States by the Food and Drug
Administration. Many anticoagu-
lant prescription drugs, such as
warfarin, are based on 4-hydroxy-
90
Glen O. Brechbill
Herbal and Mythological
Properties
In the Pagan and Occult communi-
ties the Tonka Bean is considered to
have magical properties and uses.
One who practices magical arts
believe that by crushing a Tonka
Bean and steeping it in an herbal
brew or tea it will help cure ail-
ments of depression, disorientation,
confusion, and suicidal behavior, as
well as boosting the immune sys-
tem.
It is also believed by some practi-
tioners of various occult traditions
that Tonka Beans can grant or help
one fulfill desires and wishes by
using the bean in a variety of meth-
ods. Such methods include holding
the bean in your hand while whis-
pering your wish or desire then car-
rying it with you until your wish or
desire is fulfilled, then burying the
bean afterwards; another common
method is by making your wish
with the bean in your hand then
stomping on it afterwards. Other
methods include making your wish
then planting it in fertile earth,
when and as the plant grows so
does your wish so become fulfilled.
91
Turmeric
Turmeric (Curcuma longa) is a rhi-
zomatous herbaceous perennial
plant of the ginger family,
Zingiberaceae. It is native to tropi-
cal South Asia and needs tempera-
tures between 20 C and 30 C (68
F and 86 F) and a considerable
amount of annual rainfall to thrive.
Plants are gathered annually for
their rhizomes, and propagated
from some of those rhizomes in the
following season.
When not used fresh, the rhizomes
are boiled for several hours and
then dried in hot ovens, after which
they are ground into a deep orange-
yellow powder commonly used as a
spice in curries and other South
Asian and Middle Eastern cuisine,
for dyeing, and to impart color to
mustard condiments. Its active
ingredient is curcumin and it has a
distinctly earthy, slightly bitter,
slightly hot peppery flavor and a
mustardy smell.
In medieval Europe, turmeric
became known as Indian saffron,
since it was widely used as an alter-
native to the far more expensive
saffron spice.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turmeric
ing agent is not of primary value in
South Asian cuisine.
In Indonesia, the turmeric leaves
are used for Minangese or
Padangese curry base of Sumatra,
such as rendang, sate padang and
many other varieties.
Although most usage of turmeric is
in the form of root powder, in some
regions (especially in Maharashtra,
Goa and Konkan), leaves of
turmeric are used to wrap and cook
food. This usually takes place in
areas where turmeric is grown
locally, since the leaves used are
freshly picked. This imparts a dis-
tinct flavor.
In recipes outside South Asia,
turmeric is sometimes used as an
agent to impart a rich, custard-like
yellow color. It is used in canned
beverages and baked products,
dairy products, ice cream, yogurt,
yellow cakes, orange juice, bis-
cuits, popcorn color, sweets, cake
icings, cereals, sauces, gelatins, etc.
It is a significant ingredient in most
commercial curry powders.
Turmeric is mostly used in savory
dishes, as well as some sweet dish-
Nizamabad, a city in the south
Indian state of Andhra pradesh, is
the world's largest producer and
most important trading center of
turmeric in Asia. For these reasons,
Nizamabad in history is also known
as "Turmeric City". Sangli, a town
in the southern part of the Indian
western state of Maharashtra, is the
second largest and most important
trading center for turmeric in Asia.
Kasur district of Pakistan is the
largest producer of turmeric in
Pakistan. Mayo cultivators intro-
duced different varieties of turmer-
ic in Kasur. Turmeric is commonly
called Pasupu in Telugu, Kaha in
Sinhala, Manjal in Tamil, Arisina
in Kannada, Haridra in Sanskrit and
Haldar or Haldi in Hindi. Attempts
to patent turmeric have been defeat-
ed.
Turmeric grows wild in the forests
of South and Southeast Asia. It is
one of the key ingredient for many
Indian, Persian and Thai dishes
such as in curry and many more.
Ancient Indian medicine, Ayurveda
has recommended its use in food
for its medicinal value, much of
which is now being researched in
the modern day. Its use as a color-
92
Glen O. Brechbill
es, such as the cake sfouf.
Although usually used in its dried,
powdered form, turmeric is also
used fresh, much like ginger. It has
numerous uses in Far Eastern
recipes, such as fresh turmeric
pickle, which contains large chunks
of soft turmeric.
Turmeric (coded as E100 when
used as a food additive, indicating
how it is used as a food coloring
since it normally gives food slight-
ly yellow color) is used to protect
food products from sunlight. The
oleoresin is used for oil-containing
products. The curcumin/polysor-
bate solution or curcumin powder
dissolved in alcohol is used for
water-containing products. Over-
coloring, such as in pickles, relish-
es, and mustard, is sometimes used
to compensate for fading.
In combination with annatto
(E160b), turmeric has been used to
color cheeses, yogurt, dry mixes,
salad dressings, winter butter and
margarine. Turmeric is also used to
give a yellow color to some pre-
pared mustards, canned chicken
broths and other foods (often as a
much cheaper replacement for saf-
fron).
Turmeric is widely used as a spice
in South Asian and Middle Eastern
cooking. Many Persian dishes use
turmeric as a starter ingredient for
almost all Iranian fry ups (which
typically consist of oil, onions and
turmeric followed by any other
Wall Street Journal, research activ-
ity into curcumin and turmeric is
increasing. The U.S. National
Institutes of Health currently has
registered 61 clinical trials com-
pleted or underway to study use of
dietary curcumin for a variety of
clinical disorders (dated June
2011).
Turmeric Rhizome
Some research shows compounds
in turmeric to have anti-fungal and
anti-bacterial properties, however,
curcumin is not one of them.
ingredients that are to be included).
In Nepal, turmeric is widely grown
and is extensively used in almost
every vegetable and meat dish in
the country for its color, as well as
for its medicinal value. In South
Africa, turmeric is traditionally
used to give boiled white rice a
golden color.
In Goa and Dakshina Kannada
(Karnataka state, India), turmeric
plant leaf is used to prepare special
sweet dishes, patoleo, by layering
on the leaf rice flour, and coconut-
jaggery mixture, and then closing
and steaming in a special copper
steamer (goa). In Tamil Nadu, an
Indian State, it is called "Manjal",
which is extensively used for its
aroma, color and as a disinfectant.
History
Turmeric has been used in India for
over 2500 years and is a major part
of the Ayurvedic system of medi-
cine. It was first used as a dye and
then later for its medicinal proper-
ties.
Preliminary Medical Research
Turmeric is currently being investi-
gated for possible benefits in
Alzheimer's disease, cancer arthri-
tis, and other clinical disorders. As
an example of preliminary labora-
tory research, turmeric ameliorated
the severity of pancreatitis-associ-
ated lung injury in mice.
According to a 2005 article in the
93
Vanilla
Vanilla is a flavoring derived from
orchids of the genus Vanilla, prima-
rily from the Mexican species, Flat-
leaved Vanilla (V. planifolia). The
word vanilla is derived from the
diminutive of the Spanish word
"vaina" meaning sheath or pod, and
simply translates as little pod. Pre-
Columbian Mesoamerican peoples
cultivated the vine of the vanilla
orchid, called tlilxochitl by the
Aztecs, and Spanish conquistador
Hernn Corts is credited with
introducing both vanilla and choco-
late to Europe in the 1520s.
Initial attempts to cultivate vanilla
outside Mexico and Central
America proved futile because of
the symbiotic relationship between
the vanilla orchid and its natural
pollinator, the local species of
Melipona bee. It was not until 1837
that Belgian botanist Charles
Franois Antoine Morren discov-
ered this fact and pioneered a
method of artificially pollinating
the plant. The method proved
financially unworkable and was not
deployed commercially. In 1841,
Edmond Albius, a 12-year-old
slave who lived on the French
island of Runion in the Indian
labor-intensive. Despite the
expense, vanilla is highly valued
for its flavor, which author Frederic
Rosengarten, Jr. described in The
Book of Spices as "pure, spicy, and
delicate" and its complex floral
aroma depicted as a "peculiar bou-
quet". As a result, vanilla is widely
used in both commercial and
domestic baking, perfume manu-
facture and aromatherapy.
History
The Totonac people, who inhabit
the Mazatlan Valley on the Gulf
Coast of Mexico in the present-day
state of Veracruz, were the first to
cultivate vanilla. According to
Totonac mythology, the tropical
orchid was born when Princess
Xanat, forbidden by her father from
marrying a mortal, fled to the forest
with her lover. The lovers were
captured and beheaded. Where
their blood touched the ground, the
vine of the tropical orchid grew.
In the fifteenth century, Aztecs
invading from the central highlands
of Mexico conquered the Totonacs,
and soon developed a taste for the
vanilla bean. They named the bean
Ocean, discovered the plant could
be hand-pollinated. Hand-pollina-
tion allowed global cultivation of
the plant.
There are currently three major cul-
tivars of vanilla grown globally, all
of which derive from a species
originally found in Mesoamerica,
including parts of modern day
Mexico. The various subspecies are
Vanilla planifolia (syn. V. fragrans),
grown on Madagascar, Runion,
and other tropical areas along the
Indian Ocean; V. tahitensis, grown
in the South Pacific; and V. pom-
pona, found in the West Indies,
Central, and South America.[6]
The majority of the world's vanilla
is the V. planifolia variety, more
commonly known as Bourbon
vanilla (after the former name of
Runion, le Bourbon) or
Madagascar vanilla, which is pro-
duced in Madagascar and neighbor-
ing islands in the southwestern
Indian Ocean, and in Indonesia.
Leptotes bicolor is used in the same
way in South America.
Vanilla is the second most expen-
sive spice after saffron, because
growing the vanilla seed pods is
94
Glen O. Brechbill
"tlilxochitl", or "black flower",
after the mature bean, which shriv-
els and turns black shortly after it is
picked. Subjugated by the Aztecs,
the Totonacs paid tribute by send-
ing vanilla beans to the Aztec capi-
tal, Tenochtitlan.
Until the mid-19th century, Mexico
was the chief producer of vanilla.
In 1819, however, French entrepre-
neurs shipped vanilla beans to the
islands of Runion and Mauritius in
hopes of producing vanilla there.
After Edmond Albius discovered
how to pollinate the flowers quick-
ly by hand, the pods began to
thrive. Soon, the tropical orchids
were sent from Runion Island to
the Comoros Islands and
Madagascar, along with instruc-
tions for pollinating them. By 1898,
Madagascar, Runion, and the
Comoros Islands produced 200
metric tons of vanilla beans, about
80% of world production.
According to the UN Food &
Agriculture Organisation,
Madagascar is currently responsi-
ble for the vast majority of the
world's bourbon vanilla production
and 58% of the world total vanilla
bean production.
The market price of vanilla rose
dramatically in the late 1970s after
a tropical cyclone ravaged key
croplands. Prices remained high
through the early 1980s despite the
introduction of Indonesian vanilla.
In the mid-1980s, the cartel that
had controlled vanilla prices and
distribution since its creation in
guage in the 1754, when the
botanist Philip Miller wrote about
the genus in his Gardeners
Dictionary. Vainilla is from the
diminutive of vaina, from the Latin
vagina (sheath) to describe the way
the pod must be split open to
expose the seeds.
Cultivars
Bourbon vanilla or Bourbon-
Madagascar vanilla, produced from
V. planifolia plants introduced from
the Americas, is the term used for
vanilla from Indian Ocean islands
such as Madagascar, the Comoros,
and Runion, formerly the le
Bourbon.
Mexican vanilla, made from the
native V. planifolia, is produced in
much less quantity and marketed as
the vanilla from the land of its ori-
gin. Vanilla sold in tourist markets
around Mexico is sometimes not
actual vanilla extract, but is mixed
with an extract of the tonka bean,
which contains coumarin. Tonka
bean extract smells and tastes like
vanilla, but coumarin has been
shown to cause liver damage in lab
animals and is banned in food in the
US by the Food and Drug
Administration.
Tahitian vanilla is the name for
vanilla from French Polynesia,
made with the V. tahitiensis strain.
Genetic analysis shows that this
species is possibly a cultivar from a
hybrid-cross of V. planifolia and V.
odorata. The species was intro-
1930 disbanded. Prices dropped
70% over the next few years, to
nearly US$20 per kilogram; prices
rose sharply again after tropical
cyclone Hudah struck Madagascar
in April 2000. The cyclone, politi-
cal instability, and poor weather in
the third year drove vanilla prices
to an astonishing US$500 per kilo-
gram in 2004, bringing new coun-
tries into the vanilla industry. A
good crop, coupled with decreased
demand caused by the production
of imitation vanilla, pushed the
market price down to the $40 per
kilogram range in the middle of
2005. By 2010, prices were down
to US $ 20/per kilo.
Madagascar (especially the fertile
Sava region) accounts for much of
the global production of vanilla.
Mexico, once the leading producer
of natural vanilla, with an annual
500 tons, produced only 10 tons of
vanilla in 2006. An estimated 95%
of "vanilla" products are artificially
flavored with vanillin derived from
lignin instead of vanilla beans.
Etymology
Vanilla was completely unknown in
the Old World before Cortez.
Spanish explorers arriving on the
Gulf Coast of Mexico in the early
sixteenth century gave vanilla its
current name. Spanish and
Portuguese sailors and explorers
brought vanilla into Africa and
Asia later that century. They called
it vainilla, or "little pod". The word
vanilla entered the English lan-
95
duced by French Admiral Franois
Alphonse Hamelin to French
Polynesia from the Philippines,
where it was introduced from
Guatemala by the Manila Galleon
trade.
West Indian vanilla is made from
the V. pompona strain grown in the
Caribbean, Central and South
America.
The term French vanilla is often
used to designate preparations that
have a strong vanilla aroma, con-
tain vanilla grains and may also
contain eggs (especially egg yolks).
The appellation originates from the
French style of making vanilla ice
cream with a custard base, using
vanilla pods, cream, and egg yolks.
Inclusion of vanilla varietals from
any of the former or current French
dependencies noted for their
exports may in fact be a part of the
flavoring, though it may often be
coincidental. Alternatively, French
vanilla is taken to refer to a vanilla-
custard flavor. Syrup labeled as
French vanilla may include custard,
caramel or butterscotch flavors in
addition to vanilla.
Production
In general, good vanilla will only
come from good vines and through
careful production methods.
Commercial vanilla production can
be performed under open field and
"greenhouse" operations. Both pro-
duction systems share the follow-
ing similarities:
should be placed in the base of the
vine. Fertilization varies with soil
conditions, but general recommen-
dations are: 40 to 60g of N, 20 to
30g of P2O5 and 60 to 100g of
K2O should be applied to each
plant per year besides organic
manures like vermicompost, oil
cakes, poultry manure and wood
ash. Foliar applications are also
good for vanilla, and a solution of
1% NPK (17:17:17) can be sprayed
on the plant once a month. Vanilla
likes a lot of organic matter; there-
fore 3 to 4 applications of mulch a
year are adequate for the plant.
Artificial Vanilla
Most artificial vanilla products
contain vanillin, which can be pro-
duced synthetically from lignin, a
natural polymer found in wood.
Most synthetic vanillin is a byprod-
uct from the pulp used in paper-
making, in which the lignin is bro-
ken down using sulfites or sulfates.
However, vanillin is only one of
171 identified aromatic compo-
nents of real vanilla beans.
Leptotes bicolor also belongs to the
orchid family and is used as a natu-
ral vanilla replacement in Paraguay
and southern Brazil.
Culinary Uses
There are three main commercial
preparations of natural vanilla:
Plant height and number of years
before producing the first grains
A tree or frame to grow around
(Bamboo, coconut or Erythrina
lanceolata)
Labor intensity (pollination and
harvest activities)
Vanilla grows best in a hot humid
climate from sea level to an eleva-
tion of 1500 m. The ideal climate
has moderate rainfall, 150300 cm,
evenly distributed through 10
months of the year. Optimum tem-
peratures for cultivation are 1530
C (5986 F) during the day and
1520 C (5968 F) during the
night. Ideal humidity is around
80%, and under normal greenhouse
conditions it can be achieved by an
evaporative cooler. However, since
greenhouse vanilla is grown near
the equator and under polymer
(HDPE) netting (shading of 50%),
this humidity can be achieved by
the environment. Most vanilla pro-
cessing is done in the region within
10 to 20 degrees above and below
the equator.
Soils for vanilla cultivation should
be loose, with high organic matter
content and loamy texture. They
must be well drained, and a slight
slope helps in this condition. Soil
pH has not been well documented,
but some researchers have indicat-
ed an optimum soil pH of around
5.3. Mulch is very important for
proper growth of the vine, and a
considerable portion of mulch
Glen O. Brechbill
96
Whole Powder
Powder (ground pods, kept pure or
blended with sugar, starch, or other
ingredients).
Extract (in alcoholic or occasional-
ly glycerol solution; both pure and
imitation forms of vanilla contain at
least 35% alcohol).
Cook Flavoring Company's Pure
Vanilla Powder
Vanilla flavoring in food may be
achieved by adding vanilla extract
or by cooking vanilla pods in the
liquid preparation. A stronger
aroma may be attained if the pods
are split in two, exposing more of a
pod's surface area to the liquid. In
this case, the pods' seeds are mixed
into the preparation. Natural vanilla
gives a brown or yellow color to
preparations, depending on the con-
centration. Good-quality vanilla
has a strong aromatic flavor, but
food with small amounts of low-
quality vanilla or artificial vanilla-
like flavorings are far more com-
mon, since true vanilla is much
more expensive.
A major use of vanilla is in flavor-
ing ice cream. The most common
flavor of ice cream is vanilla, and
thus most people consider it to be
the "default" flavor. By analogy, the
term "vanilla" is sometimes used as
a synonym for "plain". Although
vanilla is a prized flavoring agent
on its own, it is also used to
enhance the flavor of other sub-
stances, to which its own flavor is
often complementary, such as
chocolate, custard, caramel, coffee,
cakes, and others.
The cosmetics industry uses vanilla
to make perfume.
The food industry uses methyl and
ethyl vanillin. Ethyl vanillin is
more expensive, but has a stronger
note. Cook's Illustrated ran several
taste tests pitting vanilla against
vanillin in baked goods and other
applications, and, to the consterna-
tion of the magazine editors, tasters
could not differentiate the flavor of
vanillin from vanilla; however, for
the case of vanilla ice cream, natu-
ral vanilla won out.
97
A & E Connock Ltd. - United Kingdom
Essential Oils & Aromatic Chemicals
BOOK # 1 ( A - H )
Camphor
Caraway
Cardamon Seed
Cassia Leaf
Cinnamon Bark
Clove Bud
Clove Leaf
Clove Stem
Coriander Seed
Garlic
Ginger
Japan Pepper ( Hua-Jiao )
Juniper Berry
Nutmeg
Vanilla Absolute
Glen O. Brechbill
98
A. Fakhry & Company - Egypt
Natural Materials
Allium Sativum
Garlic
Anethum Graveolens
Dill Leaf
Anethum Graveolenes
Dill Seed
Apium Graveolens
Celery Leaf
Apium Graveolens
Celery Seed
Carum Carvi
Caraway
Coriandrum Sativum
Coriander Leaf
Coriandrum Sativum
Coriander Seed
Cuminum Cyminum
Cumin
Foeniculum Vulgare
Fennel Seed, Sweet
Foeniculum Vulgare
Fennel ex-distilled, Bitter
Foeniclum Vulgare
Fenne Seed, Bitter
Nigella Sativa
Black Cumin
Ocimum Basilicum CT Citral
Lemon Basil
O.Basilicum CT Linalool
Sweet Basil
O.Basilicum CT Methyl Chavicole
Methyl Chavicol Basil
O.Basilicum CT Methyl Cinnimate
Cinnamon Basil
Pimpinella Anisum
Aniseed Seed
99
A.N.E.C. - France
Endroit Produits
Cardamome
Cumin
Gingembre
Poivre
Thyym
Glen O. Brechbill
100
Adrian Industries SAS - France
Products
Camphor White
Caraway
Cardamom
Cassia
Celery Leaf
Celery Seed
Cinnamon Bark
Cinnamon Leaf
Clove Bud
Clove Leaf
Clove Stem
Dill ( Herb or Seed )
Fennel Sweet
Garlic
Ginger
Juniper Berry
Nutmeg
Pimento Leaf
Thyme Red
Thume White
Processed Oleo Resins
Clvoe Leaf, light
Clove Leaf, rectified
Organic Essential Oils & Extracts
Cinnamon Leaf Oil -
Cinnamomum Verum
Cinnamon Bark Oil -
Cinnamomum Zeylanicum
Clove Bud Oil - Eugenia
Caryophyllus
Coriander ( Seed ) Oil -
Coriandrum Sativum
Fennel Oil -
Foenilculum Vulgare
Pepper Black Oil -
Piper Nigrum
Thyme Oil -
Thymus Vulgaris
Vanilla Extract -
Vanilla Planifolia
Organic Spices
Cinnamon Leaf
Cinnamon Spice
Clove Buds and Stems
Coriander
Cumin
Dill Herb
Oleoresins
Black Pepper
Capsicum Oleoresin 6.6 %
Celeri Oleoresin 8 %
Ginger Oleoresin 30 %
Nutmeg Oleoresin
Paprika Oleoresin
Tumeric Oleoresin
Vanilla Absolute
Vanilla Oleoresin
Aromatic Raw Materials
Acetyl Eugenol
Anethol 21/22 natural
Anethol 21/22 synthetic
Heliotropine
Iso Eugenol
Safrol
Thymol Crystals
Vanillin
101
Ginger
Thyme
Glen O. Brechbill
102
Africa Trade - Africa
Essential Oils
Cote DIvoire Essential Oils
Ginger Oil
Egypt Essential Oils
Anise Seed Oil
Caraway Oil
Celery Oil
Clove Bud Oil
Coriander Oil
Cumin Oil
Dill Oil
Fennel Oil
Thyme Red Oil
Egypt Essential Oils
Anise ( seeds )
Caraaway ( seeds )
Celery ( seeds )
Coriander ( seeds )
Cumind ( seeds )
Dill ( weed ) ( seeds )
Fennel ( seeds ) ( roots )
Morocco Essential Oils
Ref AF 3782
Iris Roots: Pyretre & fennel
Thyme
ESSENTIAL OILS
Thyme
Morocco Essential Oils
Ref AF 3782
Cypress
Thyme a Borneol
AROMATIC & MEDICINAL PLANTS
Coriandre Graine
Thyme
Liquorices ( roots ) ( crushed )
Turmeric or Moghat ( roots )
Thyme ( crushed )
NATURAL OILS
Caraway Oil
Cumin Oil
Fennel Oil
Fenugreek Oil
Garlic Oil
Nigella Oil
Madagascar Essential Oils
Cinnamon Bark
Cinnamon Leaves
( Cinnamomum Verum )
Clove Buds
Clove Stem
( Eugenia Caryophyllata )
DISTILLED ON SPECIAL ORDER
Ginger Zingiber Officinale
103
Anise Oil - Spain
Asafoetida Oil - Iran
Caraway Oil - Holland
Cardamom Oil - Guatemala
Cassia Oil - China
Cedarleaf Oil - France
Celery Seeds Oil - India
Clove Bud Oil - Madagascar
Clove Leaf Oil - Madagascar rect.
Coriander Oil - Russia
Cumin Oil - Egypt
Fennel Sweet Oil - Hungary
Garlic Oil - China
Ginger Oil - China, India
Juniperberry Oil - Albania
Pepper Black Oil - India
Pimento Berries Oil - Jamaica
Pimento Leaf Oil - Jamaica
Saint Thomas Bay Oil - Jamaica
Star Anise Oil - China
Thyme Linalol Oil - France
Thyme Red Oil - Spain
Thyme Thymol Oil clear - France
Tumeric Oil - India
Vanilla Oleoresin - Madagascar
Absolutes
Tonka Beans Abs. - S.A.
Albert Vieille SA - France
Maitieres Premietres Aromatiques
Glen O. Brechbill
104
Alfa Chem - USA
Fine Aroma Materials
Allspice Oil ( Pimenta Berry Oil )
Bay Oil
Bay Oil Terpeneless
Caraway Seed Oil
Cardamom Oil Ceylon
Cardamom Oil Guatemala
Cassia Oil
Cassia Oil redistilled
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil Ceylon
Cinnamon Leaf Oil Ceylon
Cinnamon Leaf Oil redistilled
Clove Bud Oil Madagascar
Clove Bud Oil Indonesia
Clove Bud Oil redistilled
Clove Leaf Oil Madagascar
Clove Leaf Oil Indonesian
Clove Leaf Oil redistilled
Clove Leaf Terpenes
Clove Stem Oil
Clove Stem Oil redistilled
Coriander Seed Oil
Dillweed Oil
Fennel Oil Bitter
Fennel Oil Sweet
Garlic Oil Cinese
Garlic Oil Egyptian
Garlic Oil Mexican
Camphor Powder natural USP
Camphor Powder synthetic USP
Camphor Powder Technical 96 %
Camphor Oil White
Camphor Oil Yellow 96/98
Camphor Oil 1070
Eugenol USP
Eugenol Methyl Ether
Eugenyl Acetate
Heliotropine
Iso Eugenol
Iso Eugenyl Acetate
Iso Safo Eugenol
( Propenyl Guaerthol )
Methyl Eugenol
Propenyl Guaethol
( Iso Safro Eugenol )
Vanillin
Vanillin Ex-Eugenol
Vanillin Ex-Lignin
Ginger Oil
Mace Oil
Nutmeg Oil East Indian
Pepper Oil Black
Pimenta Berry Oil
Pimenta Leaf Oil
Pimenta Leaf Oil rectified
Absolutes
Cardamom Abs.
Celery Seed Abs.
Cinnamon Abs.
Clove Abs.
Coriander Abs.
Cumin Abs.
Pepper Oil Black Abs.
Resinoid
Mace Resinoid
Aromatic Chemicals
Anethole N.F.
Anise Star Oil
Beta Caryophyllene
105
Amen Organics - India
Products
Organic Essential Oils
Black Pepper Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Clove Oil
Mace Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Essential Oils
Anise Oil
Bay Oil
Cassia Bark Oil
Cassia Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Cinnamon Twig Oil
Clary Sage Oil
Clove Bud Oil
Clove Leaf Oil
Coriander Oil Indian
Coriander Seed Oil
Cumin Seed Oil
Fennel Oil
Fennel Seed Oil
Dilli
Fenugreek
Garlic
Ginger
Juniper
Lemon
Mace
Marjoram
Nutmeg
Onion
Paprika
Parsley
Pepper
Rosemary
Sage
Sweet Fennel
Thyme
Turmeric
Vanilla
Garlic Oil
Garlic Seed Oil
Ginger Grass Oil
Ginger Oil
Mace Oil
Mustard Oil
Neroli Oil
Pimento Berry Oil
Red Thyme Oil
Saffron Oil
Spices
Allspice
Anis
Capsicum
Caraway
Cardamom
Cassia
Celery
Chilli
Cinnamon
Clove
Coriander
Cumin
Curry Leaves
Curry Powder
Glen O. Brechbill
106
Oleo Resins
Akarkara
Amla
Basil
Black Pepper
Capsicum ( Chilli )
Caraway
Cardamom
Celery
Chilli
Cinnamon
Clove
Coriander
Cumin
Fennel
Fenu Greek
Garlic
Ginger
Green Chilli
Lemon Peel
Licorice
Mace
Mustard
Nutmeg
Onion
Orange Peel
Patrika 100000 CU
Paprika 40000 CU
Paprika 2000 CU
Rosemary
Saffron
Tamarind
Thyme
Turmric
Valarian
White Pepper
107
American Society of Perfumers - USA
Classification of Olfactory Notes
Spicy Notes
Bay Leaf
Caraway
Cardamon
Carrot Seed
Cascarilla
Cassia
Celery
Cinnamon Bark
Clove
Coriander
Cumin
Ginger
Mace
Marjoram
Nutmeg
Parsley
Pepper
Pimento
Shiso
Thyme
Aromatic Chemicals - Spicy
Acetyl Eugenol
Acetyl Iso Eugenol
Benzyl Iso Eugenol
Cinnamic Aldehyde
Cinnamonitrile
Cinnamic Aldehyde
Eugenol
Iso Eugenol
Methyl Eugenol
Methyl Iso Eugenol
Glen O. Brechbill
108
Anupam Industries - India
Product Catalog
Canthoxal
Celery Ketone
Cinnamic Aldehyde
Clove Oil Rectified
Cumarine
Eugenol
Givescone
Herbacet # 1
Para Cresyl Acetate
Peru Balsam Alva Essence
Timberiff
Vanillin
109
Aromatic Collection - France
Endroit: Produits
Black Pepper Oil
Caraway Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Clary Sage Oil
Clove Bud Oil
Clove Leaf Oil Rectified
Clove Stem Oil Redistilled
Coriander Oil
Cumin Oil
Juniperberry Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Pimento Berry Oil
Star Aniseed Oil
Thyme Oil Red
Thyme Oil White
Natural Isolates
Anethol
Caryophyllene
Eugenol
Iso Eugemol
Methyl Eugenol
Terpenes
Fennel Terpenes
Star Aniseed Terpenes
Oleoresins
Thyme
Aromatic Chemicals
Eugenyl Acetate
Iso Eugenyl Acetate
Glen O. Brechbill
110
Aromatic International LLC - USA
Odor Profiles
Spicy Group
Anis Seed
Bay Leaf
Black Pepper Seed
Caraway Seed
Cardamom Seed
Cascarilla
Celery Seed
Cinnamon Bark
Cinnamon Leaf
Clove Leaf
Coriander Seed
Cubeb
Cumin Seed
Dill Seed
Ginger
Hop Lovage Root
Mace
Nutmeg
Pepper ( black )
Pimento Berry
Pimento Leaf
Tumeric
111
Aromatics Adl - France
Catalogue Des Produits
Ail
Asafoetida
Bay West Indies
Camphre Chine
Carvi Distillation Francaise
Carvi Hollande
Celeri Graines Dist. Francaise
Coriandre Feuilles
Coriandre Graines
Cumin Egypte
Cumin Distillation Francaise
Fenouil Doux
Girofle Clous Indonesie
Girofle Clous Madagascar
Girofle Feuilles Madagascar
Piment Baies
Piment Feuilles
Poivre Inde
Poivre Madagascar
Sassafras
Thym Blanc 45/50 Thymol
Thym Blanc 60/65 Carvacrol
Thym Rouge 45/50 Thymol
Produits Aromatiques Definis Ex
Naturel Et Synthetiques
Anethol 21/22 Synthetique
Caryophyllene
Cinnamate Ethyle
Coumarine Chine
Heliotropine
Iso Eugenol
Methyl Eugenol
Piperitone
Glen O. Brechbill
112
Aromax - France
Aroma Chemicals & Specialties
Natural Extracts & Specialties
Cinnamon
Ocimum Gratissimum
Pepper
113
Artiste Flavor / Essence - USA
Fragrances & Specialty Ingredients
Anise Oil
Black Pepper Oil
Camphor Oil
Caraway Oil
Cardamom Oil
Carrot Seed Oil
Cassia Oil
Cedarleaf Oil
Clove Bud Oil
Clove Leaf Oil
Clove Stem Oil
Dillweed Oil
Garlic Oil
Ginger Oil
Juniper Berry Oil
Juniper Leaf Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Pimento Berry Oil
Pimento Leaf Oil
Star Anise
Thyme Oil
Natural Aromatic Chemicals
Cinnamic Alcohol
Cinnamic Aldehyde
Methyl Cinnamate
Vanillin
Glen O. Brechbill
114
Astral Extracts - USA
Products
Anise
Caraway
Cassia - Chinese
Clove Bud
Clove Leaf
Clove Stem
Coriander - Yugoslavia
Garlic Oil - Egyptian
Ginger
Mustard Oil Volatile
Nutmeg ( E.I. Indonesian )
115
Augustus Oils Ltd. - U.K.
Fragrance Specialties & Essential Oils
Anise China Star
Aniseed Oil
Asafoetida Oil
Bay Oil
Camphor Oils
Caraway Seed Oil
Cardamon Seed Oil
Cassia Oils
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Clove Bud Oil
Clove Leaf Oil
Clove Stem Oil
Coriander Oils
Cumin Seed Oil
Dill Weed Oil
Fennel Oil Sweet
Garlic Oil
Ginger Oils
Juniper Berry Oil
Nutmeg Oils
Pepper Oils
Pimento Berry Oil
Thyme Oils
Glen O. Brechbill
116
Australian Botanical Products Pty. Ltd. - Australia
Essential & Citrus Oils
Aniseed China Star
Asafoetida
Bay West Indies
Caraway
Cardamom
Carrot Seed
Cassia
Cedarleaf
Celery Seed
Clove Bud
Clove Bud Madagascar Extra
Clove Leaf unrectified
Clove Stem
Cognac Green
Coriander
Cubeb
Cumin
Dill Seed Europe
Dill Weed
Fennel Sweet
Fennel Wild Tasmanian
Garlic
Ginger
Ginger Fresh Distiled
Juniperberry Wild Himalayan
Juniper Wild Tyrol
Mace E.I.
Pepper Black
Pimento Leaf
Thyme Linalool Organic
Thyme Red
Turmeric
117
Axxence SARL - France
Specialty Materials
Huiles Essentielles
Asafoetida
Asafoetida
Black Pepper Madagascar
Poivre Noir Madagascar
Caraway
Carvi
Clove Stem
Girofle Griffes
Dill Leaf
Aneth Feuille
Garlic
Ail
Ginger
Gingembre Inde
Juniper Berry
Genevre Baies
Oleoresines - Extraits
Black Pepper India
Poivre Noir Inde
Travail a Facon Rectification
Fractionnement
Juniper Berry Terpeneless
Genievre Baies Rectifiee
Glen O. Brechbill
118
BFA Laboratoires - France
Essential Oils & Specialties
Anethole ex Anise Star
Illicium Verum
Anise
Pimpinella Anisum
Caraway
Carum Carvi L. Elleteria
Cardamom
Cardamomum L.
Caraway
Carum Carvi L. Elleteria
Cassia rectified
Cinnamomum Aromaticum
Cassia terpeneless
Cinnamomum Aromaticum
Celery India
Apium Graveolens L.
Clove
Eugenia Caryophyllus
Coriander
Coriandrum Sativum L.
Cumin
Cuminum Cyminum
Dill
Anethum sp.pl
Garlic
Allium Sativum L.
Ginger India
Zingiber Officinale
Tonkin
Dipterix Odorata
Vanilla
Vanilal Mexicana
Alcoholates
Anise/Star Anise
Pimpinella Anisum L.
Cinnamon
Cinamonum Zeylanicum
Clove
Fennel Sweet
Foeniculum Vulgare Mill
Oleoresins
Allspice
Pimenta Dioica L.
Cardamom
Elettaria Cardamomum L.
Caraway
Apium Graveolens
Celery
Apium Graveolens
Chilies
Capisicum FrutescensL
Mace India
Myristica Fragans
Nutmeg
Myristica Fragens
Pepper ( Black epper )
Piper Nigrum L.
Thyme ( Thymol Type )
Thymus sp pl
Thyme
Thymus sp pl
Turmeric
Curcuma Longa L.
Hydraresin Absolutes
Ginger
Zinziber Officinale
Mace
Myristica Fragrans
Nutmeg
Myristica Fragans
Pepper
Piper Nigrum
Thyme
Thymus sp pl.
119
Clove
Eugenia Caryophyllus L.
Coriander
Dill
Anethum sp.L.
Fennel
Foeniculum Dulce DC
Fenugreek
Trigonella Foenumgraecum
Garlic
Allium Sativum L.
Ginger
Zingiber Officinale
Nutmeg
Myristica Fragans
Paprika ( stand 100 000 cu )
Capiscum sp pl L.
Capiscum sp pl L.
Capiscum Annum L
Capsicum Annum L
Pepper Black 42/44
Piper Nigrum L.
Pepper Black 40/42
Piper Nigrum L.
Pepper Black 36/38
Piper Nigrum L.
Pepper White
Piper Nigrum L.
Pepper Green
Piper Nigrum L.
Thyme
Thymus sp. pl
Turmeric stand. ( 35 % )
Cucuma Longa L.
Plant Infusions
Cardamom
Elettaria Cardamomum L.
Coriander
Fenugreek
Trigonella Foenum
Fennel Sweet
Foeniculum Vulgare L.
Ginger Fresh
Zingiber Officinale
Juniper berry
Juniperus Communis L.
Liquorice
Glycyrrhiza Glabra L.
Thyme
Thymus sp pl
Tonka Bean
Dipterix Odorata
Vanilla
Vanilla Mexicana
Glen O. Brechbill
120
B.S. Industries - India
Anise Oil 85% A
Bay Oil
Black Pepper Oil
Caraway Oil
Cardmom Oil
Cassia Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Clove Oil
Coriander Oil 70 %
Cubeb Oil ( Kabab Chini )
Cumin Seed Oil
Dill Seed Oil ( Anithi )
Eugenol - Iso
Fennel Oil
Garlic Oil
Ginger Oil
Juniper Berry Oil
Mace Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Primento Berry Oil
Thymol natural ( Ajwoin Oil )
Turmeric Oil
Vanilla
Essential Oils
121
Bansal Aroma - India
Product List
Ajowan Oil
Aniseed Oil
Black Pepper Oil
Bay Oil
Betel Leaf Oil
Cassia Oil
Camphor Oil
Cardamom Oil
Carrot Seed Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Clove Oil
Coriander Seed Oil
Cubeb Oil
Cumin Seed Oil
Fennel Oil
Garlic Oil
Juniper Berry Oil
Mace Oil
Saffron
Termeric Oil
Thyme Oil
Oleoresins
Basil
Capsicum
Cumin
Curcuma
Garlic
Nutmeg
Piper Longrum
Piper Nigrum
Zingiber
Glen O. Brechbill
122
Barosyl S.A. - France
Essential Oils
Black Pepper
Pepper Nigrum
Caraway ( Carvi )
Carum Carvi
Cardamom
Eletteria Cardamomum
Celery Seed
Apium Graveolens
Cinnamon Bark 50
Cinnamon Bark 60
Cinnamon Leaf
Clove Bud
Clove Bud Madagascar
Clove Griffes
Clove Indonesia
Clove Rectified 85
Coriander Seed
Coriandrum Sativum
Cumin
Cuminum Cyminum
Dillweed
Fennel Sweet
Foeniculum Vulgare
Garlic
Allium Sativum
Ginger
Zingiber Officinalis
Gingergrass
Cymbopogon Martinii V.
Green Pepper
Nugmet Indian
Myristica Fragrans
Nutmeg Indonesian
Myristica Fragrans
Thyme
Thymus Satureioides
123
Bedoukian Research, Inc. - USA
Bisabolene
Methyl Amyl Ketone
Product Listing
Glen O. Brechbill
124
Berge Inc. - USA
Essential Oils, Aroma Chemicals & Fragrance Specialties
Anise Oil Chinese
Anise Oil Spanish
Bay Oil W.I.
Caraway Oil
Cardamom Oil
Cassia Oil
Cedarleaf Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Clove Bud Oil Indonesian
Clove Bud Oil Prime
Clove Leaf Oil Indo 78/80 %
Clove Leaf Oil Mad 80/82 %
Clove Leaf Oil Redistilled
Clove Stem Oil
Clove Terpenes
Coriander Herb Oil Cilantro
Coriander Seed Oil
Cubeb Oil
Cumin Seed Oil
Dillweed Oil
Fennel Oil
Garlic Oil Chinese
Garlic Oil Mexican
Ginger Oil Chinese
Juniperberry Oil
Mustard Oil Natural
Mustard Oil Synthetic
Nutmeg Oil E.I.
Pimento Berry Oil
Pimento Leaf Oil
Sassafras Oil
Thyme Oil Red
Thyme Oil White
Vanilla Absolute
Aroma Chemicals
Anethole Natural
Anethole Synthetic
Caryophyllene
Caryophyllene Acetate
Coumarin
Eugenol
Eugenol Iso
Eugenyl Acetate
Heliotropine
Methyl Iso Eugenol
125
Glen O. Brechbill
Biolandes Parfumerie - France
Fine Essential Oils
Wood, Branches
Thyme
Berries, Buds
Clove
Juniper
Peper
Natural Products
Clove Buds Oil
Juniper Branches Oil
Juniper AG Oil
Paprika Inco 5
Pepper Oil
Thyme Oil
Thyme Inco 20
Absolutes
Vanilla Absolute
Resinoides
Fenugreek Resinoid 50 % / MPG
Tonka Resinoid 50 % / DPG
Tonka Resinoid D
Parfumeric Reconstitutions
Cardamom Aressence
126
Bordas Destilaciones Chinchurreta Sa - Spain
Fine Essential Oils
Anise Seed Oil
Clove Oil, Crude
Clove Oil, Rectified
Clove Terpenes
Cumin Oil
Coriander Oil
Fennel Oil, bitter
Fennel Oil, sweet
Sassafras Oil
Sassafras Terpenes
Star Anise Oil
Star Anise Terpenes
Thyme Oil, Red
Thyme Oil, White
Aroma Chemicals
Anethol 21/22
Anethol 21/22 ( ex Badiana )
Anethol Terpenes
Camphor Technical
Coumarin
Eugenol 100
Heliotropin
Iso Eugenol
Origanum Oleoresin
Paprika Oleoresin 40,000 c.u.
Watersoluble
Watersoluble
Thyme Grey Oleoresin
Thyme Red Oleoresin
Terpenes
Clove Terpenes Def.
Star Anise Terpenes
Thyme Red Terpenes
Terpinyl Acetate
Botanicals
Anise Seeds
Coriander Seed
Cumn Seed
Paprika Powder 80 ASTA
Star Anise Seeds
Thyme Leaves, Grey
Thyme Leaves, Red
Oleo Resins
Anise Seed Oleoresin
Caraway Oleoresin
Coriander Oleoresin
Cumin Oleoresin
Fennel Oleoresin
Laurel Oleoresin
Marjoram Oleoresin, Spanish
127
Brighten Colorchem B.V. - The Netherlands
Product List of Aromatic Chemicals
Camphor natural
Camphor Oil
Camphor Oil White
Aromatic Chemicals
Cinnamic Alcohol
Cinnamic Aldehyde
Coumarin
Ethyl Vanillin
Heliotropin
Terpinyl Acetate
Thymol
Vanillin
Vanillin O
Glen O. Brechbill
128
Buckton Page Ltd. - U.K.
Product List
Aniseed Oil
Asafoetida Oil
Bay Oil
Camphor Oils
Caraway Oil
Cardamon Oil
Cassia Oil
Cedarleaf Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Clove Bud Oil
Clove Stem Oil
Coriander Oil
Coriander Herb Oil
Cumin Seed Oil
Dill Oil
Fennel Oil
Garlic Oil
Ginger Oil
Juniper Berry Oil
Mace Oil
Mustard Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Pepper Oil
Sassafras Oil
Thyme Oil
Resinoid
Tonka Beans Resinoid
129
Buckton Page Ltd. - U.K.
Product List
Thyme Red Oil
Spanish Origin
Fennel Sweet Oil
Thyme White Oil
Other Origin
Celery Seed Oil
Garlic Oil
Ginger Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Glen O. Brechbill
130
Carrubba Inc. - USA
Botanical Extracts
Anise
Anise Seed
Bay Laurel
Cardamom
Cinnamon
Cinnamon Cassia
Clove Blossom
Coriander
Cucumber
Cucumber Seed
Curcumin
Fennel
Fennel Seed
Fenugreek
Garlic
Ginger
Juniperberry
Nutmeg
Sarsaparilla
Sassafras
Sesame Seed
Thyme
Vanilla Bean
131
Castrading - Korea
Essential Oils
Aniseed, Spain
Anise Star, China
Bay, West Indies
Camphor Powder, synthetic
Camphor, White
Caraway
Cardamom
Caryophyllene
Cassia Bark
Cassia, China
Cassia, China redistilled
Celery Seed
Cinnamon Bark
Cinnamon Leaf
Cinnamon Leaf Bleached
Clove Bud
Clove Leaf Crude
Clove Leaf Redistilled
Clove Stem
Cumin
Dill Seed
Dill Weed
Fennel, Sweet
Garlic
Ginger, China
Ginger, India
Ginger, West Indies
Mace
Nutmeg, East Indies
Nutmeg, Ceylon
Pepper, Black
Sassafras
Thyme, Red
Thyme, White
Aromatic Chemicals
Ethyl Vanillin
Eugenol
Glen O. Brechbill
132
Central States Chemical Marketing - USA
Bio Scents Product Catalog
Anise - China
Black Pepper Oil - Madagascar
Cardamom Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Clove Oil - Madagascar, redistilled
Fennel Oil, sweet
Ginger Oil - China
Ginger Oil - Madagascar
Juniperberry Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Thyme Red Oil - N & A
Absolutes
Fenugreek Abs.
Aromatic Materials
Eugenol
133
Champon Vanilla, Inc. - USA
Aniseed
Bay 50 / 55 %
Camphor 1.070
Camphor Oil
Caraway
Cardamom Oil
Cassia Chinese 85 %
Cinnamon Leaf / Bark
Clove Bud
Clove Leaf
Clove Stem
Coriander
Cumin
Dillweed / Dillseed
Garlic
Ginger
Juniperberry
Nutmeg
Ocotea Cymbarum
Parsley Leaf / Seed
Pepper
Pimento Leaf
Thyme
Aromatic Chemicals
Anethol USP
Coumarin
Eugenol
Heliotropine
Iso Eugenol
Iso Eugenol Acetate
Iso Longifoline
Iso Thymol
Safrol
Terpinyl Acetate
Glen O. Brechbill
134
Charabot & Company Inc. - France
Fine Essential Oils
Acetate Eugenol
Acetate Iso Eugenol
Black Pepper Oil Madagascar
Caraway Oil
Cardamon Oil
Cinnamon Bark Madagascar
Clove Bud Oil
Clove Leaf Oil
Clove Stem Oil
Coriander Oil
Coriander Oil Russian
Cumin Oil
Eugenol Acetate
Nutmeg Oil
Pimento Berry Abs.
Pimento Berry Oil
Thyme Oil Provence
Thyme Oil Red
Thyme Oil White
135
China Aroma Chemical Co., Ltd. - China
Essential Oils & Imported Products
Aniseed Oil
Aniseed Star Oil
Bay Oil
Black Pepper Oil
Camphor Oil
Caraway Oil
Cardamom Oil
Carum Carvi Oil
Cassia Oil
Cassia Bark Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Cinnamon Twig Oil
Cinnamon Oil
Clove Bud Oil
Clove Oil
Coriander Seed Oil
Fennel Oil
Garlic Oil
Ginger Oil
Ginger Oil C.P.
Juniperus Chinesis Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Pimento Oil
Thyme Oil
Concretes
Fenugreek Concrete
Ginger Concrete
Licorice Concrete
Tamarind Concrete
Vanillagrass Concrete
Tinctures
Fenugreek Tincture
Tamarind Tincture
Vanilla Tincture
Miscellaneous
Liquorice Triterpens
Glen O. Brechbill
136
Charabot SA
Cardamom Oil Ceylon
Caraway Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil China
Cinnamon Leaf Oil Decolorized
Clove Oil
Clove Stem Oil
Clove Leaf Oil Decolor
Clove Leaf Oil
Coriander Oil
Cumin Oil
Ginger Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Pepper Black Oil Madagascar
Pepper Black Oil India
Pimenta Oil
Pimenta Leaf Oil
Thyme Red Oil
Thyme White Oil
Thyme Albania
Vanilla Oil Extra
Absolutes
Clove Abs. Decolor
Clare Extracts
Fenugreek
Saffron
Tonka Beans
Vanilla
Givaudan SA
Bisabolene
Zingerone
Quest Intl. - Givaudan SA
Cumin Nitrile
Fenugreek Abs.
Mace Abs.
Vanilla Abs.
Vanilla Abs. Extra
Concretes
Fenugreek Concrete
Pimenta Concrete
Vanilla Concentrate Extra
Tinctures
Vanilla Tincture
Aromatic Chemicals
Acetyl Eugenol
Acetyl Iso Eugenol
Eugenol 98
Iso Eugenol
Methyl Iso Eugenol
China Perfumer - China
On Line Catalogs
137
Chinessence Ltd. - China
Key Products
Aniseed Oil Terpenes
Camphor Oil 50 % Min.
Garlic Oil (FCC)
Ginger Oil
Juniperus Chinensis Oil
White Camphor Oil
Natural Isolates
Anethole
Camphor Powder BP
Vanillin ( Natural )
Aroma Chemicals
Camphor Powder ( Synthetic )
Coumarin
Eugenol
Heliotropin
Terpinyl Acetate 90 %, 95 %, 98 %
Terpinyl Acetate Alpha
Zingerone
Glen O. Brechbill
138
Citral Oleos Essenciais Ltda. - Brazil
Perfume Bases, Essential Oils & Aromatic Chemicals
Aromaterapia
Cinnamon Zeylanicum Oil
Clove Buds Caryophyllata Oil
Juniper Communs Oil
Pepper Nigrum Oil
Thyums Oil
Oleos Essencias - Naturais
Gengibre Oleoresina
Nutmeg
Pepper Oil 83631009
Thyme Oil A1300
Perfumaria
Aldeido Cinamico
Aldeido Cuminico
Bisabolene
Cumarina Rhodiacent
Celery Ketone
Eugenol
Iso Eugenol
Vanilina Rhovanil
139
Citrus & Allied - USA
Citrus & Aroma Products
Natural Aroma Chemicals
Anethole FCC
Caryophyllene Beta FCC
Eugenol 99/100 T FCC
Thymol Crystals
Vanillin Ex - Turmeric
Encapsulated Oleoresins
Basil Oleoresin
Celery Oleoresin
Cinnamon Oleoresin
Clove Bud Oleoresin
Ginger Oleoresin
Jalapeno Oleoresin
Pepper Black Oleoresin
Pepper White Oleoresin
Oleoresins
Allspice
Celery Seed
Cinnamon
Pepper, White
Tumeric
Fennel
Ginger
Mace
Nutmeg
Paprikas
Pepper, Black
Pepper, White
Spice Oils
Allspice
Basil
Celery Seed
Cinnamon
Fennel
Ginger
Mace
Nutmeg
Oregano
Paprikas
Pepper, Black
Glen O. Brechbill
140
Aniseed Oil
Black Pepper Oil
Caraway Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Clove Bud Oil
Coriander Oil
Cumin Oil
Fennel Oil Bitter
Fennel Oil Sweet
Ginger Oil
Junip Population
Nutmeg Oil
Pimento Berry Oil
Star Aniseed Oil
Thyme Oil Red
Thyme Oil White
Concretes & Absolutes
Clove Bud
Aromatic Chemicals
Eugenyl Acetate
Iso Eugenyl Acetate
Fenugreek
Thyme
Oleoresins
Thyme
Natural Isolates
Anethol
Caryophyllene
Eugenol
Phellandrene
Piperitone Laevo
Natural Derivatives
Caryophyllenol
Fennel Terpenes
Iso - Eugenol
Methyl Eugenol
Matieres Premieres Aromatiques
Clos DAguzon - France
141
Aniseed Oil - China, Vietnam,
Spain
Bay Oil - Dominica, West Indies
Camphor Powder - China
Cananga Oil - Indonesia
Cardamom Oil - Guatamela,
Honduras, India
Cassia Oil - China
Cinnamon Oils - Sri Lanka
Clove Oils - ( Bud, Leaf, Stem )
Indonesia, Madagascar
Coriander Oil - Russia, Ukraine,
Egypt
Dillweed Oil - USA, Eastern
Europe
Eugenol - Indonesia
Ginger Oil - India, China
Heliotropin - China, Spain, Brazil
Nutmeg Oils - Indonesia
Pimento Berry Oil - Jamaica
Thyme - Spain
Aromatic Chemicals
Anethole
Coumarin
Ethyl Vanillin
Terpenes
Aniseed
Cornmint
Fennel
Cokson & Hunt International Co. - USA
Glen O. Brechbill
142
Cosmark - Australia
Robertets Natural Isolates
Thymol
143
Creative Fragrances Ltd. - USA
Essential Oils
Allspice Oil - Jamaica
Anise Oil - China
Bay Leaf Oil - W.I.
Camphor Oil White - China
Caraway Seed Oil - France
Cardamon Oil - W.I.
Cassia Oil rectified - China
Cedarleaf Oil - Canada
Cinnamon Leaf Oil - Sri Lanka
Clove Bud Oil - Indonesia
Clove Leaf Oil - Indonesia
Coriander Seed Oil - Russia
Cumin Oil - France
Dillweed Oil - US
Fennel Oil Sweet - US
Ginger Oil Chinese - China
Juniper Berry Oil - Italy
Nutmeg Oil - India
Pepper Oil Black - India
Pimenta Berry Oil - Jamaica
Thyme Oil White - Spain
Vanilla Oleoresin Water Soluble -
France
Glen O. Brechbill
144
DMH Ingredients - USA
Allspice
Aniseed - Spain
Anise Star Chinese
Bay, Oil W.I.
Caraway
Cardamon
Caryophyllene Distilled
Cassia Bark - China, Redistilled
Celery Seed
Cinnamon Bark
Cinnamon Leaf
Coriander
Cumin
Dill Seed, Weed
Fennel Bitter
Fennel Sweet
Garlic
Ginger - India, W.I
Mace
Nutmeg - Ceylon, EI
Pimento Leaf - W.I.
Thyme, Red
Thyme, White
Aromatic Chemicals
Ethyl Vanillin
Eugenol
145
Bay West Indian ( Light )
Cardamon
Cassia Redistilled
Clove Bud
Coriander Leaf
Dill Seed
Dill Weed
Ginger Chinese
Ginger Cochin
Pepper ( Black )
Pimento Berry
Oleoresin
Vanilla
Aroma Chemicals
Ethyl Vanillin
Terpinyl Acetate
Vanillin
De Monchy Aromatics, Inc. - U.K.
Essential Oils & Specialties
Glen O. Brechbill
146
Destilerias Munoz Galvez, s.a. - Spain
Essential Oils, Aroma Chemicals & Flavours
Anis rectified
Aniseed Pimpinella
Cumin
Fennel Sweet
Fennel Wild
Thyme Red 40/55 % ph. Thymol
Thyme White 30 % Phenols
Aromatic Chemicals
Anethol 21/22 ex Pine
Anethol 21/22 natural
Eugenol 98 % natural
Heliotropine
Terpinyl Acetate
147
Diffusions Aromatiques - France
Produit De Synthese
Coumarine
Ethyl Vanilline
Eugenol NI
Piperonal ( Heliotropine )
Vanilline Ex Gaiacol
Glen O. Brechbill
148
Djasula Wangi - Indonesia
Fine Essential Oils
Black Pepper Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Clove Bud Oil
Clove Leaf Oil
Clove Stem Oil
Cubeb Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Citronella Oil
Clove Bud Oil
Clove Leaf Oil
Clove Stem Oil
Cubeb Oil
Ginger Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Agriculture Products
Cubeb ( Tailed Pepper )
Cloves
Fresh Ginger
Kaempferia Galanga
Long Pepper
Nutmeg
Turmeric
Vanilla Beans
Oleo Resins
Black Pepper Oleoresin
Ginger Oleoresin
Nutmeg Oleoresin
Vanilla Oleoresin
Derivatives
Beta Carryophellene
Carryophellene
Clove Leaf Oil Rectified 92.94 %
Clove Leaf Oil Redistilled 85 %
Eugenol Technical 98 %
Eugenol USP 99.5 %
Eugenol Acetate
Iso Eugenol
Iso Eugenol Acetate
149
Dulcos Trading - France
Liste de Produits
Camphre Chine Blanche 35 %
Cardamome Inde
Celeri Graine
Coriandre Russe
Cumin Egypte
Cumin Inde
Galangal
Gingembre Chine
Gingembre Inde
Girofle Clou Inde
Girofle Clou Indo
Girofle Clou Mada
Girofle Feuille Indonesie
Girofle Feuille Madagascar
Girofle Griffe Indonesie
Girofle Griffe Madagascar
Mace
Piment Feuille
Poivre Noir Inde
Poivre Vert
Thym Espagne 45/50 %
Turmeric
Extraits DEpices
Capsicum Oleoresine
Cardamome Oleoresine
Celeri Oleoresine
Carvi - Finlande
Clous de Girofle - Mada
Coriandre - Pologne
Gingembre - Chine
Gingembre - Inde
Gingembre - Nigeria
Paprika ( arome ) - Espagne
Paprika ( coleur 180,000 u.c. ) -
Espagne
Piment - Inde
Poivre Noir - Inde
Thyme - Allemagne
Vanille 2 % vanilline Mada
Vanille 26 % vanilline Made
Vanille 21 % vanilline Java
Clous Oleoresine Girofle
Cumin Oleoresine
Gingembre Oleoresine
Noix De Muscade Oleoresine
Paprika Oleoresine
Poivre Noir Oleoresine
Epices Extracts
Black Pepper Oleoresine
Capsicum Oleoresine
Cardamome Oleoresine
Celeri Oleoresine
Cloves Oleoresine
Cumin Oleoresine
Ginger Oleoresine
Nutmeg Oleoresine
Paprika Oleoresine
Turmeric Oleoresine
Extraits
Anis Etoile - Chine
Cardamome - Guatemala
Glen O. Brechbill
150
Dullberg Konzentra GmbH - Germany
Fine Essential Oils
Anis Oil
Black Pepper Oil
Bay Oil
Camphor Oil
Cardamom Oil
Caraway Oil
Cassia Oil
Cinnamon Leaves Oil
Cinnamon Oil
Clove Oil
Coriander Oil
Cumin Oil
Dill Seed Oil
Dill Weed Oil
Fennel Oil
Galangal Oil
Garlic Oil
Juniperberry Oil
Juniperwood Oil
Mustard Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Pimento Berries Oil
Pimento Leaf Oil
Sassafras Oil
Thyme Oil
J.Piltz - Brazil - Distributor
Anis, Anis Estrelado
Cadamom
Eugenol
Funcho ( Erva Doce )
Gengibre
Pimenta Preta
Pimentao
151
Earth oil Plantations Ltd. - U.K.
Black Pepper Oil
Cardamom Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Clove Bud Oil
Fennel Oil
Ginger Oil
Juniper Berry Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Thyme Oil
Glen O. Brechbill
152
Enter Oil - Viet Nam
Essential Oils
Camphor Oil
Camphor 40 % min.
Camphor 45 % min.
Cassia Oil
Cinnamaldehyde 50 %
min.
Cinnamaldehyde 80 %
min.
Ocimum Gratissimum Oil
Eugenol 65 % min.
Eugenol 75 % min.
Star Anise Oil
( Anethol 90 % min )
153
Eramex Aromatics GmbH - Germany
Esential, Citrus Oils & Aromataic Chemicals
Anis Oil ex Illicium verum
Anis Oil ex Pimpinella anisum
Bay Oil, West Indian
Caraway Oil
Cardamom Oil
Cassia Oil
Celery Leaf Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil min 40 %
Cinnamon Bark Oil min 60 %
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Coriander Leaf Oil
Coriander Seed Oil
Cubeb Oil
Cumin Seed Oil
Dill Seed Oil
Dill Weed Oil
Garlic Oil, Chinese, natural
Garlic Oil, Mexican, N.I.
Ginger Oil, Chinese
Ginger Oil, Indian
Juniper Berry Oil
Mace Oil
Nutmeg Oil, Indonesian
Nutmeg Oil, Sri Lankan
Fennel Oleoresin, 10 %
Feungreek Oleoresin
Garlic Extract/Concentrate
Ginger Oleoresin, 28 %
Japapeno Oleoresin
Mace Oleoresin, 30 %
Nutmeg Oleoresin, 40 %
Paprika Oleoresin
Pepper Oleoresin, Black, 40/20
Pepper Oleoresin, White, 30/25
Pimento Berry Oleoresin, 30 %
Pimento Leaf Oleoresin, 30 %
Tamarind Extract
Thyme Oleoresin
Tumeric Oleoresin
Vanilla Oleoresin
Aroma Chemicals Natural
Anethol
Anis Terpenes
Caryophyllene ex Clove
Cinnamic Aldehyde
Clove Terpenes
Pepper Oil, Black, Sri Lankan
Pepper Oil, Black, Indian
Pimento Leaf Oil
Thyme Oil, Red, Spanish
Thyme Oil, White, German
Thyme Oil, White
Thyme Oil ex Thymus Serpyllum
Absolutes
Fenugreek Absolute
Thyme Absolute
Tonka Absolute
Oleoresins
Anise Oleoresin, 10 %
Bay Oleoresin, 10 %
Caraway Oleoresin, 10 % min.
Cardamom Oleoresin, 50 %
Celery Oleoresin 7 - 8 %
Cinnamon Oleoresin
Clove Oleoresin
Cocoa Extract
Coriander Oleoresin
Cumin Oleoresin, 10 %
Dill Seed Oleoresin, 10 %
Glen O. Brechbill
154
Eugenol
Iso-Eugenol
Aroma Chemicals
Cinnamic Aldehyde
Eugenyl Acetate
Thiocineol
155
Esarco - Argentina
Organic Herbs
Celery Seed Oil
Clove Oil
Dill Seed Oil
Iso Eugenol Oil
Turmeric Leaf Oil
Aromatic Chemicals
Anethole
Eugenol
Thymol natural ( Ex - Ajowin Oil )
Glen O. Brechbill
156
Esencias y Materiales Lozmar, S.A. de C.Y. - Mexico
Esencias
Quimicos De Aromaticos
Acetato De Terpenilo
Aldehido Cinamico
Anethol 21/22
Ethyl Vanillina
Eugenol
Iso Eugenol
157
Esperia S.p.A - Italy
Fennel
Garlic
Juniperberry
Thyme Red
Thyme White
Essential Oils
Glen O. Brechbill
158
Essencia, Aetherische Oele Ag - Switzerland
Liste des Produits
Anis vert
Pimpinella Anisum
Bay - St. Thomas
Pimenta Racemosa
Camphre - Blanc
Cinnamomum Camphora
Cardamome
Elettaria Cardamomum
Carvi
Carum Carvi
Celeri Semences
Apium Graveolens
Clous De Girofle Ph.Eur.3
Cumin
Cuminum Cyminum
Fenoquil Amere
Foeniculum Vulgare
Fenoquil
Foeniculum Vulgare
Piment Baies
Pimenta Officinalis
Piment Feuilles
Pimenta Officinalis
Poivre
Piper Nigrum
Thym Citron
Thymus Citriodorus
Alcool Cinnamique synth.
Cinnamyl Alcohol
Aldehyde Cinnamique
Cinnamal
Camphre nat. ( d-Camphre )
Camphor
Cinnamate DEthyle
Ethyl Cinnamate
Coumarin crist.
Coumarin
Ethyl Vanilline
Heliotropine
Iso - Eugenol
Iso Eugenol
Methyl Iso Eugenol
Thymol crist.
Thymol
Vanilline
Vanillin
Thym rouge Ph.Eur.4.1
Thymus Vulgaris
Thym rouge Suisse
Thymus Vulgaris Varico
Thym rouge 30/35 % i.n.
Thymus Vulgaris
Absolute
Vanille Absolue
Vanilla Planifolia
Resinoides
Fenugrec Resinoide
Trigonella Foenum
Oleoresine Capscici (Poivre)
Piper Nigrum
Tonka Feve Resinoide
Dipteryx Odorata
Terpene
Terpene De Thyme
Acetate De Terpenyle
Terpinyl Acetate
159
Glen O. Brechbill
Anethol
Black Pepper Oil
Camphor Oil
Camphor Powder
Cardamom Oil
Celery
Celery Oil
Cinnamon Leaves Oil
Clove Leaves Oil
Coriander Oil
Cumin Oil
Dill Oil
Eugenol / Clove
Fennel Oil
Fennel Terpenes
Garlic Oil
Garlic Powder
Ginger Absolute
Ginger Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Papprika Resin Oil
Thyme Red Oil
Thyme White Oil
Thymol Cristals
Vanillin
Aceites Esenciales & Productos
Naturales
Anethol
Apio Oleorresina
Coriandro Ac. Es.
Eugenol / Clavo
Jengibre Absoluto
Jengibre Aceite
( zingiber officinale )
Papprika Oleo Resina
Vanillina
Euma - Argentina
Essential Oils & Natural Products
160
Exaflor - France
Catalogue
Cardamome
Coriandre
Gingembre
Thym Espagne
Oleoresins
Celeri
Clou De Girofle
Cumin
Gingembre
Macis
Moutarde
Paprika
Piment
Poivre
Vanille
161
Aniseed Oil
Bay Oil
Camphor Oil White
Caraway Oil
Cardamon Oil Guatemalan
Cassia Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Clove Bud Oil
Clove Leaf Oil - Cleaned
Clove Stem Oil
Cubeb Oil
Cumin Seed Oil
Dill Seed Oil
Eugenol
Fennel Oil Sweet
Ginger Oil
Juniperberry Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Pimento Leaf Oil
Pimento Berry Oil
Thyme Oil - Spanish Red
Thyme Oil - Spanish White
Thyme Oil - Vulgaris
Vanilla Beans - Madagascar
Oleo Resin
Pepper Oleo Resin
FD Copeland & Sons Ltd. - UK
Essential Oils
162
Glen O. Brechbill
Farotti Essences srl - Italy
Natural Essential Oils
Camphor Liquid Essence
Cardamom Essence
Cassia Natural Essence
Celery Essence
Cinnamon Bark China Essence
Cloves Essence
Coriander Russian Essence
Fennel Sweet Essence
Ginger India Essence
Nutmeg Essence
Pepper Black Indian Essence
Thyme White Essence
163
Anise Oil
Pimpinella Anisum
Caraway Oil
Carum Carvi
Celery Herb Oil
Apium Graveolens L.
Celery Seed Oil
Apium Graveolens L.
Coriander Herb Oil
Cumin Seed Oil
Cuminum Cyminum L.
Dill Oil
Anethum Graveolens
Garlic Oil
Allium Sativum
Fayyum Gharbya Aromatic - Egypt
Product List
164
Glen O. Brechbill
Fine Chemical Trading Ltd. - U.K.
Products
Anise Seed
Anise Star
Asafoetida ( Heeng )
Bay Oil
Black Pepper
Camphor
Cassia Oil
Caraway Oil
Cardamom
Celery Seed
Cinnamon Bark
Cinnamon Leaf
Clove - Bud
Clove - Leaf
Coriander Seed
Cumin
Cubeb
Dill Oil
Fenugreek Oil
Garlic Oil
Ginger
Juniper Berry
Juniper Leaf
Mace
Nutmeg
Pimento Berry
Pimento Leaf
Thyme
Tumeric
165
Fiveash Data Management, Inc., - USA
Spectra of Essential Oils
Bay West Indies
Black Pepper India, Madagascar,
Sri Lanka
Camphor White China
Caraway Seed Hungary
Cardamom India
Cardamom Sri Lanka
Celery Seed India
Cinnamon Bark 65% Sri Lanka
Cinnamon Berry - Sugandha India
Cinnamon Leaf Fresh Madagascar
Cinnamon Leaf Sri Lanka
Clove Bud Extra Madagascar
Clove Bud Indonesia, Madagascar
Sri Lanka
Clove Leaf Indonesia
Clove Leaf Redist Madagascar
Clove Stem Madagascar
Coriander Seed Russia
Cumin India
Cumin Turkey
Dill Seed Bulgaria, Hungary
Dill Weed Oregon
Fennel Bitter Bulgaria
Fennel Sweet Italy
Galangal Indonesia
Galangal - False
Galangal India
Ginger India
Garlic China
Ginger China
Ginger Fresh Indonesia
Ginger Fresh Madagascar
Ginger Lily India
Ginger Rajkumari India
Green Pepper Fresh Madagascar
Juniper Berry France
Juniper Berry India
Juniper Needle Bulgaria
Nutmeg India, Indonesia,
Sri Lanka
Thyme Red Borneol Type
Morocco
Thyme Red Thymol Type Hungary
Thyme Red Thymol Type Spain
Thyme Serpolet Bulgaria
Thyme Spike Turkey
Thyme White FCC USA
Turmeric India
166
Glen O. Brechbill
Flavodor - The Netherlands
Catalogues
Aniseed Oil
Asafoetida Oil
Bay Oil
Camphor Oil
Caraway Oil
Cardamom Oil
Cassia Oil
Celery Leaf Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Clovebud Oil
Cloveleaf Oil
Clovestem Oil
Coriander Oil
Cubeb Oil
Dill Seed Oil
Dill Weed Oil
Fennel Oil
Galanga Oil
Garlic Oil
Ginger Oil
Gingergrass Oil
Juniperberry Oil
Mace Oil
Ginger
Juniperberry
Mace
Nutmeg
Paprika
Pepper
Piment
Tamarind
Thyme
Turmeric
Vanilla
Absolute Resinoids
Asafoetida
Foenugreek
Mustard Oil, natural
Nutmeg Oil
Pimenta Berry Oil
Pimenta Leaf Oil
Sassafras Oil
Thyme Oil, Red / White
Turmeric Oil
Oleo Resins
Allspice
Anis
Bay ( Laurel )
Caraway
Cardamom
Cassia
Celery
Cinnamon
Clove
Coriander
Cumin
Dill
Fennel
Foenugreek
167
Anise, Chinese
Anise, Spanish
Bay
Camphor
Camphor, White
Camphor, Yellow
Caraway
Cardamon, Ceylon
Cardamon, Guatemala
Cassia
Celery Seed
Cinnamon Leaf, Ceylon
Clove Bud
Clove Leaf
Clove Leaf, Madagascar
Clove Stem
Coriander
Cumin
Dillweed
Fennel, Bitter
Fennel, Sweet
Garlic
Ginger
Juniperberry
Mustard
Phellandrene
Terpinyl Acetate
Thymol USP
Vanillin
Vanillin ex Eugenol
Nutmeg
Pepper, Black
Pimento Berry
Pimento Leas, 80 %
Thyme, Red
Thyme, White
Aromatic Chemicals
Camphor Powder USP
Camphor Powder, Technical
Cinnamic Alcohol
Cinnamic Aldehyde
Cinnamyl Cinnamate
Coumarin
Cuminic Aldehyde
Di Hydro Coumarin
Ethyl Vanillin
Eugenol
Eugenyl Acetate
Heliotropine
Iso-Eugenol
Iso-Safro Eugenol
( Propenyl Guaethol )
Mustard Oil
Fleurchem, Inc. - USA
168
Glen O. Brechbill
Celery Seed Oil
Coriander Oil
Cumin Oil
Thyme Oil Red
Thyme Oil White
Resins
Tonka Feves Resin
Absolutes
Tonka Feves Abs.
Fleurin, Inc. - USA
Product Listing
169
Flexitral, Inc. - USA
Fine Product List
Coumane
Ethyl Vanillin
Nugenol
Vanisal
Glen O. Brechbill
170
Florachem Corporation - USA
Destilaciones Bordas SA Spain
Essential Oils
Aniseed Orange BigaradeNeroli
Coriander
Fennel, Bitter
Fennel, Sweet Star Anise
Thyme Red 45/50 % Carvacrol
Thyme White 60/65 % Carvacrol
Thyme White Red 45/50 %
Thymol
Absolutes, Concretes, Gums,
Resinoids
Fennel Absolute
Thyme Absolute, Gray
Thyme Absolute, Red
Harting Aromas
Terpinyl Acetate
Privi Organics Limited - India
Cinnamic Aldehyde
Aroma Chemicals
Anethole 20/21 Synthetic
Anethole 21/22 ( ex Badiana )
Anethole 21/22 Extra
Caryophellene - Beta
Eugenol 85 % ( ex Clove )
Eugenol USP 98 % ( ex Clove )
Eugenol 100 % ( ex Clove )
Heliotropin
Iso Eugenol
Terpinyl Acetate ( European Type )
Aroma Chemicals
171
Frencharoma Imports Co., Inc. - USA
Allspice
Aniseed
Anise Oil
Bay Leaf W.I.
Camphor Powder
Cardamom
Caraway
Cassia ( Redistilled )
Celery Seed
Cinnamon Bark
Cinnamon Leaf
Clove Bud
Clove Bud ( Indonesian )
Clove Bud ( Madagascar )
Clove Leaf ( B & Amp; F )
Clove Leaf 80% - 85% ( rectified )
Clove Stem ( Indonesian )
Coriander
Cumin Seed
Dill Weed
Fennel Seed Spanish
Garlic
Ginger ( India )
Ginger ( Chinese )
Juniperberry Oil
Mustard ( Natural & Amp;
Synthetic )
Nutmeg E.I.
Nutmeg W.I.
Pimento Leaf W.I.
Red Thyme
Thyme Red
Vanilla Pure ( No Alcohol )
White Thyme
Aromatic Chemicals
Anethol
Caryophyllene
Cinnamic Alcohol
Cinnamic Aldehyde
Cinnamyl Acetate
Cinnamyl Cinnamate
Eugenol Acetate
Eugenol USP
Phellandrene Alpha
Glen O. Brechbill
172
Anise - ( Star ) Oil
Bay Oil
Camphor natural
Camphor synthetic
Camphor Oil 35 %
Caraway Oil
Cassia Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Clove Leaf Oil rectified
Coriander Seed Oil
Dill Weed Oil
Dill Seed Oil
Fennel Oil
Ginger Oil
Juniperberry Oil
Juniperwood Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Pepper Oil ( black )
Pimento Berry Oil
Pimento Leaf Oil
Thyme Oil
Aromatic Chemicals
Anethole, natural
Anethole, snythetic
Camphor, natural
Camphor, synthetic
Ethyl Vanillin
Eugenol
Thymol
Vanillin
Frey + Lau GmbH - Germany
173
Fritzsche SAICA - Argentina
Products
Anise Seed Oil
Camphor Oil
Caraway Oil
Cardamom Oil
Cassia Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Clove Bud Oil
Coriander Seed Oil
Cumin Seed Oil
Dill Weed Oil
Ginger Oil
Juniperberry Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Pepper Oil
Star Anise Oil
Thyme Oil
Glen O. Brechbill
174
Fruitarom Industries - Israel
Essential Oils, Citrus & Specialties
Aniseed Oil
Aniseed Oil Chinese
Bay Oil
Black Pepper Oil Indian
Camphor Oil
Camphor Oil Chinese
Caraway Oil BP 2000 FIGS
Caraway Oil BP98
Cardamon Oil
Cassia Oil
Cassia Oil 80/85 %
Cassia Oil Chinese
Celery Seed Oil Indian
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Cinnamon Oil BP 2000
Clove Bud Oil
Clove Oil
Clove Oil BP 88
Clove Stem Oil Madagascar
Coumarin Substitute
Cumin Seed Oil
Dill Oil
Fennel Oil East European
Fennel Oil Spanish
Garlic Oil English
Garlic Oil Mexican
Ginger Oil Chinese
Juniperberry Oil
Juniperberry Oil East European
Mustard Oil
Nutmeg Oil East Indian Type
Pepper Oil Black India
Thyme Oil Red
Thyme Oil White
175
Fuerst Day Lawson - U.K.
Essential Oils & Aroma Chemicals
Aniseed Oil China, Viet Nam
Black Pepper Oil
Camphor Oil, white 35 %
Cardamon Oil
Cassia Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Coriander Oil
Garlic Oil
Ginger Oil
Ginger Oil C.P.
Nutmeg Oil
Pimento Berry Oil
Pimento Leaf Oil
Oleoresins
Ginger Oleoresin
Nutmeg Oleoresin
Aroma Chemicals
Anethol
Camphor Powder natural
Camphor Powder synthetic
Coumarin
Ethyl Vanillin
Eugenol USP
Iso Eugenol
Terpineol ( China ) MU
Terpinyl Acetate
Vanillin ( China )
Glen O. Brechbill
176
GMPCT - India
Essential Oils & Perfumery Chemicals
Anise Oil
Caraway Oil
Cardamom Oil
Cassia Oil
Cinnamon Oil
Clove Oil
Coriander Oil
Cumin Seed Oil
Fennel Seed Oil
Aromatic Chemicals
Anethole
Camphor from Isoborneol
Eugenol
Thymol
Thymol from Menthone and Pip-
eritone
177
Givaudan Fragrance Corporation - Switzerland
Specialty Bases & Aroma Chemicals Compendium
Toscanol
Aroma Chemicals Compendium
Celery Ketone
Pepperwood
Zingerone
Quest International - Givaudan -
Perfumers Compendium
Bay Oil Nardenised
Black Pepper Roasted C2558
Di Hydro Eugenol
Eugenol
Iso Eugenol
Iso Eugenol Sub AAB 655
Supravanil
Glen O. Brechbill
178
Global Essence Ltd. - U.K.
Products
Asafoetida Oil
Bay Oil
Caraway Seed Oil
Cardamon Oil
Cassia Oil
Celery Root Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Clove Bud Oil
Clove Stem Oil
Coriander Herb Oil
Coriander Seed Oil
Cumin Seed Oil
Dill Herb Oil
Ginger Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Pimento Leaf Oil
Thyme Red Oil
Thyme White Oil
Caraway Seed Oil
Cardamon Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Heliotropin - Uk
Iso Eugenol
Methyl Iso Eugenol
Piperonyl Acetate
( Heliotropine )
Terpinyl Acetate
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Coriander Leaf Oil
Cumin Oil
Dill Oil
Fennel Oil
Garlic Oil
Ginger Oil
Juniperberry Oil
Mace Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Pepper Black Oil
Pepper White Oil
Thyme Red Oil
Tumeric Oil
Aromatic Chemicals
Caryophellene
Cinnamic Aldehyde
Cinnamyl Cinnamate - Usa
Coumarin
Ethyl Vanillin
Eugenol
179
The Good Scents Company - USA
Perfumery Raw Materials Information
Anise Oil
Anise Seed Oil - Star China
Anise Seed Oil - Star Terpeneless
Asafetida Oil
Bay Leaves Oil
Bay Leaves Oil Anise
Bay Leaves Oil Clove
Bay Leaves Oil Lemon
Bay Leaves Oil Terpeneless
Camphor Oil White
Caraway Seed Oil
Caraway Seed Oil Black
Cardamon Seed Oil
Cassia Bark Oil China
Cassia Leaf Oil China
Celery Leaf Oil
Celery Seed Oil India
Cinnamon Twig Oil
Clove Bud Oil
Clove Leaf Oil
Clove Leaf Oil Terpeneless
Clove Stem Oil India
Coriander Leaf Oil
Coriander Seed Oil
Cubeb Oil
Cumin Seed Oil
Dill Seed Oil
Dill Weed Oil America
Absolute Listing
Asafetida Absolute
Cardamom Absolute
Clove Bud Absolute
Coriander Leaf Absolute
Coriander Seed Absolute
Fennel Absolute Sweet
Fenugreek Absolute
Ginger Root Absolute
Mace Absolute
Nutmeg Absolute
Pepper Black Absolute
Pimento Berry Absolute
Thyme Absolute
Tonka Bean Absolute
Vanilla Absolute 100 %
Concrete Listing
Cassia China Concrete
Clove Bud Concrete
Coriander Seed Concrete
Fennel Seed Oil Bitter Spain
Fennel Seed Oil Sweet
Galangal Root Oil
Ginger Root Oil China
Ginger Root Oil Cochin
Ginger Root Oil Terpeneless
Africa
Gingergrass Oil
Grains of Paradise
Nutmeg Flower Oil
Nutmeg Leaf Oil
Nutmeg Oil India
Nutmeg Oil Terpeneless
Pepper Oil White
Pepper Tree Berry Oil
Pepper Tree Leaf Oil
Pimenta Leaf Oil
Pimenta Oil
Pimento Berry Oil
Saffron Oil
Sassafras Oil
Thyme Oil Red India
Thyme Oil Red Spain
Thyme Oil Spain
Thyme Oil White
Thyme Oil Wild or Creeping
Tumerica Oil China
Glen O. Brechbill
180
Juniper Berry Concrete
Aromatic Chemicals
Anethole
Bisabolene
Bisabolol
Caryophyllene Beta
Caryophyllene Beta Alcohol
Acetate
Celery Ketone
Cinnamaldehyde
Cinnamyl Acetate
Cinnamyl Alcohol
Coumarin
Cumin Aldehyde
Cuminyl Aldehyde
Di Hydro Coumarin
Di Hydro Eugenol
Ethyl Vanillin
Ethyl Vanillin Prpylene Glycol
Acetal
Eugenol
Eugenol Acetate
Heliotropin
Iso Eugenol
Iso Eugenyl Acetate
Iso Eugenyl Phenyl Acetate
Methyl Eugenol
Terpinyl Acetate
Thymol
Vanillin
Vanillin Propylene Glycol Acetal
Vanillyl Acetate
Vanillyl
Cinnamaldehyde Di Methyl Acetal
Cinnamaldehyde Ethylene Glycol
Cinnamaldehyde / Methyl Anth.
Cinnamon
Cinnamon Acrolein
Cinnamon Oleoresin
Cinnamon Twig Oil
Cinnamyl Acetate
Cinnamyl Nitrile
Cinnamyl Propionate
Clove Bud Absolute
Clove Bud Concrete
Clove Bud Oil
Clove Bud Oleoresin
Clove Leaf Oil
Clove Leaf Oil Terpeneless
Clove Stem Oil India
Country Spice
Cubeb Oil
Cubeb Oleoresin
Cumin Oleoresin
Cumin Seed Absolute
Cumin Seed Oil Egypt
Cuminaldehyde
Cuminyl Alcohol
Cuminyl Nitrile
Currant Bud Absolute Black
Cycloger Aniol Iso
Decyl Furan - 2
Dianthus Ethone
Diethyl Octanamide
Dihydroeugenol
Dill Seed Oil
2, 4 Dimethyl Anisole
Estragon Oil
Ethyl Iso Eugenol
4 - Ethyl Guaiacol
Ethyl Vinyl Ketone
Eucalyptus Dives var. A Oil
Spicy
Allspice
Allspice Oil
Alspice Oleoresin
Amyl Cinnamyl Alcohol - alpha
Amyl Iso Eugenol
Anisaldehyde
Anisyl Formate - Para
Apple Spice
Atractylis Root Oil
Bay Leaf Oil
Bay Leaf Oil Terpeneless
Bay Rum
Bayberry
Benzyl iso Eugenol
Benzylidene Acetone
Boldus Leaf Oil Chile
Canella Bark Oil
Caprolactam - Epsilon
Capsicum Oleoresin
Caraway Seed Oleoresin
Cardamom Seed Oil
Carnation Absolute
Carrot Weed Oil
Carvacrol
Carvacryl Ethyl Ether
Carvomenthenol - 4
Carvone - Dextro
Caryophyllene
Caryophyllene - Alcohol
Caryophyllene - Alcohol - alpha
Caryophyllene - Beta
Caascarilla Bark Oil
Cassia Bark Oil China
Cassia Concrete China
Cassia Leaf Oil China
Cassia Oleoresin
Chipotle Chili Oleoresin
Christmas Spice
Cinnamaldehyde
181
Eugenol
Eugenol Iso
Eugenyl Acetate
Eugenyl Acetate Iso
Eugenyl Benzoate
Eugenyl Phenyl Acetate
Eugenyl Phenyl Acetate Iso
Eugenyl Iso Valerate
Fleabane Oil
Floral Spice
Galangal Root Oil
Galangal Root Oleoresin
Ginger Oleoresin
Ginger Oleoresin Africa
Ginger Root Oil China
Ginger Root Oil Cochin
Ginger Root Oil Terpeneless
Africa
Ginger Grass Oil
Grains of Paradise Oil
Hollyberry
Jalapeno Oleoresin
Laurel Berry Oil
Laurel Leaf Oil
Lovage Oleoresin
Lovage Root Oil
Mace Absolute
Mace Oil East India
Mace Oleoresin
Maja
Marjoram Absolute Spain
Marjoram Oil Spain
Marjoram Oil Sweet Egypt
4 - Methyl Biphenyl
Methyl Cinnamaldehyde - Alpha
Methyl Eugenol
Methyl Iso Eugenol
Zingerone
Zvoulimba Oil
Tonka
6 - Amyl - Alpha Pyrone
Coumarin
Deer Tongue Absolute
Deer Tongue Concrete
Deer Tongue Oleoresin
Dihydrocoumarin
Floube Absolute
Gamma Hexalactone
Melilot Absolute
Mint Lactone
Octahydrocoumarin
Phthalide
Saffron Resinoid
Tonka Bean Absolute
Tonka Bean Oleoresin
Tonka Bean Resinoid
Tonka Furanone
Tonka Ketone
Tonka Undecanone
Whiskey Lactone
Methyl Heptadienone
Myrcene
Myrtenal
Nutmeg Absolute
Nutmeg Oil India
Nutmeg Oleoresin
Octanol - 2
Octyl Tiglate - 3
Paprika Oleoresin
Pepper Absolute Black
Pepper Hexanone
Pepper Oleoresin Black
Pepper Oleoresin White
Perillyl Acetate
Pimenta Leaf Oil
Pimento Berry Absolute
Pimento Berry Oil
Pine Forest Fixative - 0001
Piperine
4 - Propenyl Syringol
Propyl 2 - Furan Acrylate
Pumpkin Pie
Sassafras Oil
Savory Oil Winter
Snake Root Oil Canada
Spice
Spicy Acetoacetate
Spicy Acrolein
Spicy Carbonate
Sugandha Kokila Berry Oil
Tea Tree Oil Australia
Turmeric Oil China
Turmeric Oleoresin
Turmeric Root Absolute
Verbenone - Laevo
Glen O. Brechbill
182
Gorlin & Company - USA
Essential Oils
Aniseed, Spain
Anise Star, China
Bay - West Indies
Caraway
Cardamom
Caryophyllene
Cassia Bark
Cassia - China
Cassia - China redistilled
Celery Seed
Cinnamon Bark
Cinnamon Leaf
Cinnamon Leaf Bleached
Clove Bud
Clove Leaf Crude
Clove Stem
Cumin
Dill Seed
Dill Weed
Fir Needle - Canada
Fir Needle - Siberia
Garlic
Ginger - China
Ginger - India
Ginger - West Indies
Nutmeg, Ceylon
Nutmeg, East Indies
Pimento Leaf W.I.
Thyme, Red
Thyme, White
Vanilla Beans, Indonesia
Vanilla Beans, Mad.
Natural Isolates
Anethole
Eugenol
Aromatic Chemicals
Ethyl Vanillin
Eugenol
183
Graham Chemical Corporation - USA
Anise Star Oil
Bay Oil
Black Pepper Oil
Camphor Oil White
Caraway Seed Oil
Cassia Oil
Celery Leaf Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Clove Bud Oil
Clove Leaf Oil
Clove Stem Oil
Coriander Leaf Oil
Coriander Seed Oil
Cumin Seed Oil
Dill Herb Oil
Fennel Oil Bitter
Fennel Oil Sweet
Garlic Oil
Ginger Oil
Juniper Berry Oil
Mace Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Methyl Eugenol
Phellandrene ( Alpha )
Terpinyl Acetate
Thymol Crystals
Vanillin
Vanillin Isobutyrate
Vanitrope
Pepper Oil Black
Pimenta Berry Oil
Pimenta Leaf Oil
Star Anise Oil
Thyme Oil
Thyme Oil White
Tumeric Oil
Aromatic Chemicals
Anethole, natural
Camphor Powder synthetic
Cinnamic Alcohol
Cinnamic Aldehyde, natural
Cinnamyl Acetate
Coumarin
Di Hydro Coumarin
Eugenol USP
Eugenyl Acetate
Heliotropin
Iso Eugenol
Iso Eugenol Acetate
Iso Safro Eugenol
Aroma Chemicals & Essential Oils
Glen O. Brechbill
184
Gyran Flavours - India
Products
Ajwain Oil 40 %
Juniper Berry Oil
Aromatic Chemicals
Anethol
185
Aniseed Oil
Black Pepper Oil
Cardamom Oil
Cassia Bark Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Cinnamon Twig Oil
Clary Sage Oil
Clove Bud Oil
Coriander Seed Oil
Fennel Oil
Ginger Oil ( Cold Pressed )
Juniperus Chinesis Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Thyme Oil
Absolutes
Cassia Abs.
Concretes
Fenugreek
Ginger
Sweet Clover
Vanillagrass
Tinctures
Fenugreek
Vanilla Bean
HC Biochem - China
Essential Oils & Concretes
Glen O. Brechbill
186
H. Reynaud & Fils - France
Essential Oils
Anis Espagne
Aniseed Oil
Anis Etoile
Aniseed Star Oil
Cardamome Guatemala
Cardamom Oil
Carvi Europe
Caraway Oil
Coriandre Russe
Coriander Oil
Cubeb
Cubeb Oil
Cumin Egypte
Cumin Oil
Gingembre Chine
Ginger Oil
Clove Bud Oil
Clove Leaf Oil
Girofle Feuilles Rectified
Clove Leaf Oil Rect.
Noix Muscade Indonesie
Nutmeg Oil
Piment Baies
Pimento Bay Oil
Piment Feuilles
Pimento Leaf Oil
Poivre Noir Inde
Black Pepper Oil
Sassafras Viet Nam
Sassafras Oil
Absolute
Feves Tonka Absolute
FranceTonka Beans Abs.
187
Haldin - Indonesia
Essential Oils & Extracts
Anise Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Clove Bud Oil
Clove Leaf Oil
Fennel Oil
Ginger Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Liquid Extracts
Betel Pepper Liquid Extract
Galangal
Garlic Liquid Extract
Ginger Liquid Extract
Tamarine Liquid Extract
Turmeric Liquid Extract
Vanilla Single Fold
Vanilla Double Fold
Glen O. Brechbill
188
Handa Fine Chemicals Ltd., - U.K.
Fine Essential Oils
Anethole Oil
Aniseed Oil
Bay Oil
Black Pepper Oil
Camphor Oil
Cardamamon Oil
Cascarilla Bark Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Clove Bud Oil
Clove Leaf Oil
Corriander Seed Oil
Cumin Seed Oil
Dill Seed Oil
Garlic Oil
Ginger Oil
Gingergrass Oil
Horseradish Oil
Juniper Berry Oil
Juniper Leaf Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Peperita Oil
Pimento Oil
Star Aniseed
Vanilla
Aromatic Chemicals
Anethol 21/22
Coumarin
Di Hydro Anethole
Eugenol 99 %
Methyl Eugenol
Thyme Oil
Turmeric Oil
Concentrated Botanical Extracts
Aniseed
Bay
Caraway
Cassia
Cinnamon
Clove
Corriander Seed
Dill
Fenugreek
Garlic
Ginger
Green Ginger
Nutmeg
Pimento
Saffron ( Top )
Sarparilla
Thyme
Turmeric
189
Hangzhou Aroma Chemical Company - China
Products
Piperonal Heliotropine Deriv-
atives
Heliotropine
( Piperonyl Acetone )
Others
Coumarin
Glen O. Brechbill
190
Hemani Ex-Imp Corporation - India
Natural Essential Oils Aromatic Chemicals
Aniseed Oil
Betal Leaf Oil ( Bangala )
Betal Leaf Oil ( Meetha Patta )
Black Pepper Oil
Caraway Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Clove Bud Oil
Coriander Oil
Cuber Oil
Cumin Seed Oil
Dill Seed Oil Natural
Dill Seed Oil 40 % ( Dilapole Free )
Dill Seed Oil ( As Per I.P./B.P Grade )
Dill Seed Oil ( As Per I.P./B.P Grade )
Fennel Seed Oil
Ginger Oil
Juniper Berry Oil
Mace Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Tumeric Oil
Black Pepper Powder
Chilli Powder
Coriander Powder
Cumin Powder
Dhanna Jeeru Powder
Garam Masala
Ginger Powder
Madras Curry Powder
Tea Masala
Tumeric Powder
Oleo Resins
Black Pepper 30 %
Cardamom
Cubeb
Cumin 30 %
Ginger 30 %
Long Pepper
Mace
Nutmeg Butter
Tej Masala
Spices
Ajwan Seeds
Anardanna
Black Elcha
Black Pepper M.G.
Coriander Seeds
Coriander Seeds Kanpuri
Dhanna Dal Roasted White Super Fine
Dhanna Dal Unroasted Yellow
Fennel Seeds
Fennel Seeds Roasted
Gum Edible Arabic
Indoori
Kalongi
Kokum Black
Kokum White
Sabudanna
Seasamee Seeds
Tumeric Fingers Allepy
Ground Spices
Amchur Powder
191
Tej Masala Double
Aromatic Perfumery Chemicals
Anisole
Cinnamic Aldehyde
Eugenol
Glen O. Brechbill
192
Hindustan Mint & Agro Products Pvt. Ltd. - India
Products
Celery Oil
Spices
Aniseed
Black Pepper
Caraway Seed
Cardamom
Cassia
Cellery Seed
Chillies
Cinnamon
Cumin Seed Oil
Dill Seed
Fennal Oil
Ginger Dry
Gingergrass Oil
Nutmeg
Turmeric
Aromatic Chemicals
Anethole 99.8 %
Terpenyal Acetate
Thymole
193
BOOK # 2 ( I - Z )
IPRA Fragrances - France
Produits
Celeri Semences
Coriandre Graines Russie
Gingembre Chine
Girofle Griffes Madagascar
Piment Baies Martinque
Piment Feuilles Jamaique
Absolues
Feves Tonka
Vanille
Resinoides
Fenugrec
Feves Tonka
Produits Organiques et de
Synthese
Acetate D Eugenyle/Acetyl
Eugenol
Acetate D Iso Eugenyle/
Acetyl Iso Eugenol
Benzyl Eugenol
Benzyl Iso Eugenol
Caryophyllene
Eugenol 98 %
Heliotropine
Iso Eugenol
Methyl Eugneol
Vanilline
Glen O. Brechbill
194
Indesso - Indonesia
Essential Oils, Natural Extracts & Aromatic Chemicals
Essential Oils
Clove Bud Oil 863 Colourless to yellow oil liquid, clove-like odour; spicy, pungent
Premium taste.
Clove Bud Oil S 873 Colourless to yellow oily liquid, Clove-like, sweet, spicy, pungent taste.
Clove Leaf Oil 80 862 Colourless to yellow oily liquid. Spicy, clove-like odour; warm
Rectified spicy, pungent taste.
Clove Leaf Oil 85 860 Colourless to yellow oily liquid. Spicy, clove-like odour; warm, spicy
Rectified pungent taste.
Clove Stem Oil 857 Yellow to Light brown oily liquid. Spicy, clove-like odour; warm,
spicy, pungent taste.
Cubeb Oil 851 Light green to bluish green oily liquid. Mink-like, spicy odour; minty
slightly acrid taste.
Aromatic Chemicals
Benzyl Iso Eugenol 903 White to ivory crystalline powder. Sweet, balsamic, floral spicy.
Caryophyllene 917 Colourless to pale yellow oily liquid. Woody, spicy, dry and
tenacious odour; woody, somewhat bitter taste.
195
Caryophyllene Acetate 927 Pale yellow to yellow liquid. Woody, sweet, fruity, slightly dry.
Dihydroeugenol 909 Colourless to pale yellow oily liquid. Spicy, clove-like, sweet
floral, fruity.
Eugenol USP 906 Colourless to pale yellow oily liquid, tends to darken and thicken
on exposure to air. Strong, clove-like odour; spicy, pungent,
clove-like taste.
Eugenol USP 926 Colourless to pale yellow oily liquid, tends to darken and thicken
on exposure to air. Strong, clove-like odour; spicy, pungent,
clove-like taste.
Eugenol 90 935 Colourless to pale yellow oily liquid. Strong, clove-like odour;
spicy, pungent.
Eugenyl Acetate 905 Colourless to pale yellow liquid. Mild, clove-like odour; mild,
spicy taste.
Iso Eugenol HT 914 Colourless to yellow viscous liquid. Mild, floral, carnation-like odour;
pungent, spicy taste.
Iso Eugenol S 915 Colourless to yellow viscous liquid. Mild, floral, carnation-like odour;
pungent, spicy taste.
Iso Eugenyl Acetate 908 White crystalline powder. Mild, rose-carnation, spicy odour;
mild, sweet and spicy taste.
Methyl Eugenol 921 Colourless to pale yellow oily liquid. Mild, clove, carnation odour;
bitter, burning taste.
Methyl Eugenol A 931 Colourless to pale yellow oily liquid. Mild, clove, carnation odour;
Methyl Iso Eugenol 922 Colourless to pale yellow oily liquid. Mild, clove, carnation odour;
Glen O. Brechbill
196
Indian Spices - India
Spices
Spices Edible Part(s) Major Source
Clove Buds Indonesia, Malaysia,
Tanzania
Coriander Fruit Argentina, India,
Morocco, Romania,
Spain, Yugoslavia
Cumin Fruit India, Iran, Lebanon
Dill Fruit India
Fennel Fruit Argentina, Bulgaria,
Germany, Greece, India,
Lebanon
Fenugreek Fruit India
Ginger Rhyzome Argentina
Laurel Leaf India, Jamaica, Nigeria,
Sierra Leone, Portugal
Marjoram Leaf Turkey
Mint Leaf Chile, France, Lebanon,
Mexico, Peru, Bulgaria
Shoot Egypt, France, Greece
Germany, Morocco
Seed Romania, Russia, UK
Allspice Berry, leaf Jamaica, Mexico
Aniseed Fruit Mexico, Spain
The Netherlands
Basil, Sweet Leaf France, Hungary, USA
Yugoslavia
Caraway Fruit Denmark, Lebanon,
The Netherlands,
Poland
Cardamom Fruit India, Guatemala
Cassia Stem bark China, Indonesia,
South Viet Nam
Celery Fruit France, India
Chervil Leaf USA
Chilli Fruit Ethiopia, India, Japan
Kenya, Mexico,
Nigeria, Pakistan, USA,
Tanzania
Cinnamon Stem bark Sri Lanka
Major Spice Producing Areas
197
Mustard Aril, seed Canada, Denmark,
Ethopia, Uk
Nutmeg Bulb Grenada, Indonesia
Onion Leaf Argentina, Romania
Oregano Fruit Greece, Mexico
Paprika Fruit Bulgaria, Hungary,
Morocco, Portugal,
Spain, Yugoslavia
Parsley Black Leaf Belgium, Canada,
France, Germany,
Hungary
Pepper Fruit Brazil, India, Indonesia,
Malaysia, Sri Lanka
The Netherlands,
Poland, Romania,
Turkey, Russia
Seed France, Spain, USA,
Indonesia
Rosemary Flowers Spain, France, Corsica,
Italy, Yugoslavia, Russia
Saffron Pistil of Flor Spain
Sage Leaf Albania, Yugoslavia
Sesame Seed China, El-Salvador,
Ethopia, Guatemala,
India, Mexico,
Nicaragua
Star anise Fruit China, North Viet Nam
Tarragon Leaf France, USA
Thyme Leaf France, Spain
Turmeric Rhizome China, Honduras,
India, Indonesia,
Jamaica
Vanilla Fruit/beans Indonesia, Malaysia
Mexico
Glen O. Brechbill
198
Innospec Inc. - USA
Aroma List
alpha - Methyl Cinnamic Alcohol
alpha - Methyl Cinnamic Aldehyde
Thymoxane
199
International Flavors & Fragrances - USA
Fragrance Ingredients
Anethole 21/22
Anethole USP
Cinnamalva
Terpinyl Acetate ( CST )
Terpinyl Acetate ( GUM )
Tobacarol
Glen O. Brechbill
200
JC Buck Ltd. - U.K.
Products
Spice Oils
Aniseed BP
Aniseed China Star
Bay W.I.
Black Pepper Indian
Black Pepper Sri Lanka
Caraway
Cardamom Guatemalan
Cardamom Honduras
Cardamom Sri. Lanka
Cassia Chinese
Celery Leaf, English Distilled
Celery Seed Indian
Cinnamon Bark Sri Lanka 30 %
Cinnamon Leaf 75 %
Clove Bud Indonesian
Clove Bud Madagascan
Clove Bud Zanzibar
Clove Leaf Indonesian 85 % Rect.
Clove Leaf Madagascan
Coriander Herb East European
Coriander Herb Egyptian
Coriander Seed
Cumin Seed Egyptian
Dillseed 50 % East European
Dillweed 38 % East European
Garlic Chinese
Garlic Mexican
Ginger Chinese
Ginger Cochin
Ginger Sri Lankan
Juniperberry Sr. Lankan
Juniperberry Yugo. Std.
Juniperberry Yugo. Iso.
Juniper Needle East European
Nutmeg Grenada
Nutmeg Indonesian
Thyme Red Spanish Commercial
Thyme White Spanish Commercial
By Products
Aniseed Terpenes
Clvoe Terpenes
Fennel Terpenes
Thyme Terpenes
Absolutes
Fenugrec French
201
J & E Sozio, Inc. - USA
Esential Oils
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Ginger Oil
Juniperberry Oil
Thyme Oil White
Glen O. Brechbill
202
J. Piltz & Cia. Ltda. - Brazil
Esential Oils
Cadamom
Cassia
Eugenol
Gengibre
Junipero
Pimenta Preta
Pimentao
203
Joint American Ventures in China - USA
Aroma Chemicals
Anethol
Cinnamic Aldehyde
Coumarin
Dihydrocoumarin
Eugenol
Methyl-6 Coumarin
Vanillin
Vanillin ex Clove Oil
Glen O. Brechbill
204
Kanta House - India
Black Pepper Oil
Betel Leaf Oil ( Bangla Variety )
Betel Leaf Oil ( Meetha Variety )
Caraway Oil
Cardamon Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Clove Bud Oil
Coriander Oil
Cubeb Oil
Cumin Seed Oil
Dill Seed Oil
Fenel Seed Oil
Galangal Oil
Garlic Oil
Ginger Oil Dry
Ginger Oil Fresh
Juniper Berry Oil
Mace Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Turmeric Oil
Cardamom
Clove Bud
Cubeb
Cumin
Dill Seed
Fenugreek
Fresh Coriander
Garlic
Ginger
Long Pepper
Mace
Nutmeg
Paprika
Tamarind
Tumeric
Isolates & Aromatic Chemicals
Anithole
Eugenol
Iso - Eugenol
Thymol Crystals
Rectified Essential Oils
Caraway Oil
( As per I.P. / B.P.Grade )
Cinnamon Oil ( As per I.P. / B.P.
Grade )
Clove Oil Rectified 85 %
Clove Oil ( Any Grade )
Dill Seed Oil 40 %
( Dillapole Free )
Dill Seed Oil 50 %
( Dillapole Free )
Dill Seed Oil 60 %
( Dillapole Free )
Dill Seed Oil ( As Per I.P. Grade )
Resinoids
Asafetida
Big Cardamom
Kalongi ( Black Cumin )
Kulangan ( Galangal )
Licorice
Oleo Resins & Extracts
Black Pepper
205
Kato Aromatic S.A.E. - Egypt
Essential Oils
Celery Herb Oil
Apium Graveolens L.
Celery Seed Oil
Apium Graveolens L.
Coriander Herb Oil
Coraindrum Sativum L.
Cumin Seed Oil
Cuminum Cyminum L.
Garlic Oil
Allium Sativum
Absolutes
Cassie
Acacia Farnesiana L.
Others
Coriander Oil
Coriandrum Sativum
Glen O. Brechbill
206
Katyani Exports - India
Fine Spices & Herbs
Indian Name Botanical Name
Part Used
Ajwain
Carum Copticum Seed
Amaltas
Cassia Fistula Pulp
Babool
Acacia Arabica Bark
Chakramarda
Cassia Tora Seed
Dalchini
Cinnamomum Tamal. Bark
Dill / Suwa
Anethum Sowa Seed
Elaichi ( Small )
Elettaria Cardamom. Fruit
Ginger
Zingiber Officinale Rhizome
Kasondi
Cassia Occidentalis Seed
Fennel Seed Oil
F. Vulgare Var.
Garlic Oil
Allium Sativum L.
Ginger Oil
Zingiber Officianale
Hing Oil
Asafoetida Oil
Mace Oil
Myrisstica Fragrans Houttuyn
Nut Meg Oil
Myristica Fragrans Houttuyn
Onion Oil
Allium Cepa
Star Anise Oil
Turmeric Oil
Curcuma Longa
Aromatic Chemicals
Anithole
Eugenol
Iso - Eugenol
Thymol Crystal Synthetic
Spice Oils
Ajowan Oil
Carcum Copticum Seed
Betel Leaf Oil
Piper Betle
Black Pepper Oil
Piper Nigrum
Cardamom Oil
Caraway Oil
Carum Carvi
Celery Seed Oil
Apium Graveolens Linne
Cinnamon Oil
Cinnamomum Zylanicum Nees
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Clove Bud Oil
Eugecaryophllata
Coriander Oil
Coriandrum Sativum
Cubeb Oil
Piper Cubeba
Cumin Seed Oil
Cuminum Cyminum
Dill Seed Oil
Anethum Sowa
207
Kruetz Helmut - Portugal
Produto
Aniseed Oil - China
Bay Oil
Black Pepper Oil - India
Camphor Oil - China
Caraway Oil BP 2000 Figs
Caraway Oil BP 98
Cardamon Oil
Cassia Oil
Cassia Oil 80 / 85 %
Cassia Oil - China
Celery Seed Oil - India
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Cinnamon Oil BP 2000
Clove Bud Oil
Clove Leaf Oil - Madagascar
Clove Oil
Clove Oil BP 88
Clove Stem Oil - Madagascar
Coumarin Substitute
Cumin Seed Oil
Dill Oil
Fennel Oil - East European
Fennel Oil - Spain
Garlic Oil - England
Garlic Oil - Mexico
Ginger Oil - China
Juniperberry Oil - East European
Mustard Oil
Pepper Oil Blaci - India
Pimento Leaf rectified
Pimento Leaf
Thyme Oil Red
Thyme Oil White
Glen O. Brechbill
208
Krupa Scientific - India
Flavours & Fragrances
SPICY
Benzyl Formate
Eugenyl Acetate
Methyl Eugenol
Phenyl Ethyl Formate
209
Kuber Impex Ltd. - India
Herbs & Spices
Baru Mool Andropogen Halepensis
Babchi Seeds Psoralea
Beal Fruit Aegle Marmrlos
Beal Mul Aegle Marmelos
Belladona Leaf/Herb Aegle Marmelos
Belladona Root Atropa Belladona
Bhava ( Vassia Fiseula Fruit )
Bharangi Mool Clerodendron Indicum
Bhillama, Bhella Semecarpus Anacadium
Bhui Kokhala Kantakari
Bhoi-Pathri Launaea Pinnatifida
Bidhara Argyreia Speciosa
Bijasar Pterocarpus Masupium
Bhui-Amla Phyllanthus Niruri
Black Piper Piper Ngrum
Blackteal Sesamum Indicum
Brahmi Centella Asiatica
Chavak Piper Chabaata
Chitrak Plumbago Rosea
Cinchona Bark Cinchona Officinale
Cotton Seed Gossypium Indicum
Curry Leaf Bergera Koenigis
Dalchini Eragrostis
Darbha Cynosuroide
Daruhalder Berberis Aristata
Dashmool Dashmool
Devdhar Cedrus Deodara
Dikemari Gardenisgummipera
Dhamasa Fagoniaarabica
Dhayati Woodfodia Fructicosa
Dhana Coriandrum Sativum
Aconite Bach Nag Root Aconite Ferox
Agar Aquillaria Gallocha
Ageda Achyranthes Aspera
Ajmod Apium Graveoens
Ajowan Seeds Carum Couticum
Akkalkara Mul Anacylus Pyrethrum
Aloes Aloes Indica
Amba Chhal Mangifera Indica
Ambahalder Cucurma Amda
Amla Emblica Officinalis
Amli Tamarindus Indicus
Anantmool Hemidesmus Indicus
Ankdo Calotropis Giganta
Annatto Seeds Baxa Orellana
Anuir Ficus Carica
Apple Pyrus Malus
Aritha Sapindus Trifoliatus
Arjun Bark Terminalia Arjuna
Arni Mool Root Clitoria Ternatea
Ashok Bark Saraca Indica
Ashwagandha Withanla Somnifera
Atibala - Chikana Sida Cordifolia
Ativish Aconitum Heterophyllun
Babul Bark Acacia Arabica
Babul Pods Acacia Arabica
Baheda Terminalia Belerica
Bakula Mimusops Elangi
Bakayan ( Fruit ) Melia Azedirach
Banafshah, Wild Violet Viola Odorata
Local Name Botanical Name
Glen O. Brechbill
210
Dhatura Folio Dhatura Alba
Dhatura Phool Woodfordia Horbundas
Dudal Taraxacum Officinale
Dudhi Euporbia Thymifolia
Elaichi Elattaria Cardamomum
Ephedra Ephedra Vulgaris
Eranda Root Ricinus Communis
Euphorbia Euphorbia Hirta
Gahula Gavala (Prunusmahaleb)
Gandhprasarini Leaf Paederia Foetidia
Garlic, Lashun Allium Sativam
Garmola, Amaltas Cassia Fistula
Ginger, Lashun Zingiber Officinale
Glycyrrhiza, Mulethi Glycyrrhiza Glabra
Godambi Semicorpusabacarduyrus
Gorkhru Tribulus Terrestris
Green Chilli Capsicum Annum
Guguchi, Galo, Amruta Tinispora Cordifolia
Guggal Commiphora Mukul
Guggal Ethyl Acetate Commiphora Mukul
Gurmar Gymnema Sylvestre
Haldercucurma Longa Rizomes
Harde, Harir, Haritaki Teminalia Chebula
Henna Leaf Lawsonia Alba
Hing Fraula Assafoetida
Indrajav Wrightiat Incotoria
Jambu Seed Eugenia Jambolans
Jardalu Apricot Prunus Armeniaca
Jatamanshi Nardostchya Jatamanshi
Jaypal Myristica Fragans
Jivanti Leptadenia Reticulata
Jungli-Mehti, Bala Sida Cordifolia
Jyotishmathi Cardiospermum Halicaca
Kakuani Capparisspionsa
Kakad Cucumissativus
Kalihari, Khadyanag Gloriosa Superba
Kali Draksha Vitis Vinifera
Kali Musli Curculogo Orchioides
Kalmegh Andrographis Paniculat
Kantakari, Kateli Solanus Xanthocarpum
Kapilo Mallotus Phillipinensis
Kapur Kachri Hedychium Spicatum
Karanja Pongamia Glabra
Karela Seed Momordica Charantia
Kasni Seed Cichorium Intybus
Kawach Seed Mucuna Pruriens
Kayphal Bark Mynica Nagi
Kher, Khadir Bark Acacia Catechu
Khurasani, Ajmobark Hyoscyamus Niger
Khus Valo Vetivera Zizaniodes
Kovarya Seed Cassia Tora
Kulinjan Alpinia Galanga
Kurchi, Kada Chhal Holarrhena Antidysentr
Kusum Phool Carthamus Tinctorius
Kuth, Uplet Saussurea Lappa
Kutki, Kadu Picrorhiza Krroa
Lajwanti Mimosa Purida
Lemon Citrus Bergamia
Limbodi Fruit Melia Azadirachta
Lindipiper Piper Longum
Lobelia Lobelia Nicotianaefolia
Lodhra Symplocos Racemosus
Makoi, Kakmachi Solanum Nigrum
Male Fern Diyopyeris Felix
Mamejvo Enicostema Littorale
Manjistha Rubia Cordifolia
Meda Gonatumcirrihilficum
Methi Seed Trigonella Foenum Grae
Mochras Bombax Malbaricum
Nagarmotha, Musta Cyperus Scariousus
Nagkesar Mesua Ferrea
Neem Bark Melia Azadirachta
Neem Leaves Melia Azadirachta
Nirgundi Leaf Vitex Negundo
Nishot Ipomen Turprnthum
Nux Vomica, Kuchla Seed Strychnos Nux Vomica
211
Onion Allium Cepa
Orange Peels Citrus Aurantium
Orris Iris Germanica
PapayaBeej Carrica Papaya
Pashanbhed Saxifraga Ligulata
Patanga Caesalpinia
Pimplimul Pimperlongum
Pitpapdo Fumaria Officinalis
Podophyllum Podophyllum Emodi
Priphala Amla+Baheda+Hardetus
Pudina Menntha Spicata
Punarnava, Satodi Boerrhavia Diffusa
Pushkarmula Iris Florentina
Putranjiva Putranjiva Roxburghi
Rakta Chandan Pterocarpus Santalinus
Rasna Root Vanda Roxburghi
Ratanjyot Onosma Echioides
Rohitak, Rakta Rhohida Amoora Rohituka
Rose-Wood, Sisam Dalbergia Sisoo
Ruma Mastaki Pistacia Lentiscue
Safed Aghedo, Apamarg Achyranthes Aspera
Saghurghota Caesalpinia Crista
Sallai Gum, Sallaki Boswellia Serrata
Salmali Shalmali Malabarica
Sandal, Chandan ( Sweet ) Santalum Album
Saptparana Bark Alstonia Scholaris
Sarpagandha Rauvolfia Serpentina
Sau Variali Foeniculurn Vulgare
Scilla Indian, Jungli Piyaz Urginea Indica
Senega Indian Root Poltagala Chinensis
Senna Leaf Cassia Angustifolia
Senna Pod Cassia Angustifolia
Shatavri Asparagus Racemosus
Shatapushpa, Badiyan Pimpinella Anisum
Shikakai Acacia Concina
Shikakai Shilajit
Sherdi Mool Saccharum Officinarum
Somlata Sarcostemma Brevistigm
Stramonium Leaf Datura Stramonium
Suragavo Bark Moringa Oleifera
Swet Musli Asparagus Adscendens
Tagar Valeriana Vallichi
Taj, Dalchini Cinamomum Zeylanicum
Talispatra Taxus Baccata
Tandalja Mool Amranthus Polygamus
Takla Beej Cassia Tara
Tejbal Zylum Zanthoxylum
Trikatu Piper+Black +Ginge
Umbar Bark Ficus Racemosa
Ulat Kambal Abroma Augusta
Utkanta Echinops Echinatus
Vacha Acorus Calamus
Valerian, Tagar Valerian Wallichi
Vans Baambusa Arundinacea
Vardharo Rourea Santaloides
Vasaka, Ardusa Adathoda Vasica
Vavading, Vidang Embelia Ribes
Viburnum Bark, Narvela Viburnum Foetidum
Vidari Kand Pueraia Tuberosa
Vayavama Bark Crataeva Religiosa
Glen O. Brechbill
212
Laboratoire Monique Remy - France
Specialty Materials - The Major Catalogs of Fragrance
Bay Oil Terpeneless
Cardamom Guatemala Extract Co2
Cardamom Oil Ceylon
Cardamom Oil India
Cinnamon Bark Oil Ceylon 40 %
Coriander Oil Terpeneless
Ginger Oil Fresh
Ginger Oil R S
Juniper Berry Oil R.S.
Pimento Berry Oil
Pimento Leaf Oil
Thyme Oil Whtie Israel
213
Lionel Hitchen Ltd. - U.K.
Essential Oils
Aniseed China Star
Bay
Caraway
Caradamom
Celery
Cinnamon Bark
Cinnamon Leaf
Clove Bud
Clove Stem
Clove Leaf
Coriander Seed
Coriander Leaf
Cumin
Dillseed
Dillweed
Fennel
Garlic
Ginger
Juniper Berry
Mace
Nutmeg
Pepper
Pimento Berry
Pimento Leaf
Thyme Red
Thyme White
Standardised Oleoresins & Extracts
Ginger Australian
Ginger Blend
Ginger Chinese
Ginger Cochin
Ginger Jamaican
Ginger Nigerian
Cassia
Coriander
Cinnamon
Dill
Mace
Massioa
Nutmeg
Pimento
Glen O. Brechbill
214
Lluche Essence - Spain
Essential Oils & Aromatiac Chemicals
Aniseed Oil
Bay Dec. Oil
Black Pepper India Oil
Caraway Egypt Oil
Caraway Hungary Oil
Cardamom Guatemala Oil
Cardamom India Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil 50 %
Cinnamon China Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Cinnamon Viet Nam Oil
Clove Bud Oil
Clove Leaf Indonesia Oil
Clove Leaf Madagascar Crude Oil
Clove Leaf Madagascar Dec. Oil
Clove Rectified Oil
Clove Stem Oil
Clove Terpenes
Coriander Leaf Oil
Coriander Seed Oil
Cumin Oil
Dill Leaf Oil
Dill Seed Oil
Garlic Oil
Ginger China Oil
Ginger India Oil
Gingergrass Oil
Celery Oleoresin
Cinamon Oleoresin
Clove Oleoresin
Coriander Oleoresin
Cuminseed Oleoresin
Fennel Oleoresin
Foenugreek Oleoresin
Garlic Oleoresin
Ginger Oleoresin
Mace Oleoresin
Nutmeg Oleoresin
Paprika Oleoresin
Paprika Oleoresin 40.000 CU
Thyme Red Oleoresin
Turmeric Oleoresin
Vanilla Oleoresin
White Pepper Oleoresin
Synthetic Aroma Chemicals
Benzyl Cinnamate
Benzyl Iso Eugenol
Bisabolene
Juniperberry 1R Oil
Juniperberry 2A Oil
Juniperberry 2R Oil
Juniperberry 2R Sol. Oil
Mace Oil
Nutmeg Oil India
Nutmeg Oil Indonesia
Nutmeg Oil Sri Lanka
Pimento Berry Oil
Pimento Leaf Oil
Red Thyme Oil
Star Aniseed Oil
Thyme Capitatus Oil
Turmeric Oil
Vanilla Beans
White Thyme Oil
Oleoresins
Black Pepper Oleo Resin
50 % DPG
Cardamom Oleoresin
215
Camphor Powder DAB - 6
Caryophyllene Extra
Celery Ketone
Cinnamic Alcohol
Cinnamic Aldehyde
Coumarin
Cumin Nitrile
Cumminic Alcohol
Cumminic Aldehyde
Di Hydro Coumarin
Di Hydro Eugenol
Ethyl Feungreek
Ethyl Vanillin
Eugenol
Iso Eugenol
Methyl Iso Eugenol
Piperonal
Piperonyl Acetate
Terpinyl Acetate
Vanillin
Vanillin Acetate
Vanillin Iso Butyrate
Glen O. Brechbill
216
Lothar Streek - Germany
Ingredients by Givaudan
Aromatic Chemicals & Specialty
Bsaes
Bisabolene
Celery Ketone
Cinnamyl Acetate
Eugenol Pure
Zingerone
217
M.X.D. Enterprise System - Korea
Perfume List
Anise Seed Oil Extra
Bay Oil Rectified
Bay Oil Terpeneless Extra
Caraway Oil Extra
Caraway Oil Terpeneles Extra
Celery Leaf Oil Extra
Celery Seed Oil Extra
Cinnamon Ceylon Oil
Cinnamon Ceylon Oil Extra
Cinnamon China Oil Extra
Cinnamon Leaf Oil Extra
Coriander Oil Extra
Cumin Oil Extra
Dill Herb Oil Extra
Dill Seed Oil Extra
Fennel Sweet Oil Extra
Garlic Oil Extra
Ginger Oil Extra
Juniperberry Oil Extra
Nutmeg Oil Extra
Pepper Black Oil Extra
Pimento Berry Oil Extra
Pimento Leaf Oil Extra
Thyme Red Oil Extra
Thyme White Oil
Absolutes
Clove Bud Abs. Extra
Fenugreek Abs. 'TF' Extra
Mace Abs. Extra
Tonka Abs. 'A'
Tonka Abs. Extra
Vanilla Abs. Decolourized Extra
Vanilla Abs. Soluble
Vanilla Abs. Soluble Extra
Resinoids
Tonka Resinoid Extra
Tonka Resinoid Perfumery
Glen O. Brechbill
218
Mane SA - France
Raw Materials Catalog
Anise Seed Oil - China
Black Pepper CO2 - India
Cardamon Oil - India
Cinnamon Bark Oil - Asia
Cinnamon Leaf Oil - Asia
Clove Bud Oil -
Madagascar, Asia
Clove Leaf Oil -
Madagascar, Asia
Ginger Top Note CO2 - India
Juniper Berry Oil - Europe
Nutmeg Top Note CO2 - India
Pepper Black Oil - Madagascar
Natural Absolutes
Clove Bud Abs. - Asia
Madagascar,
Tonka Abs. - Brazil
Vanilla Abs. - Madagascar
CO2 Extracts
Black Pepper Top Note
Black Pepper 40/20
Cumin Extract
Ginger Top Note
Ginger Extract
Hot Chili Extract
Nutmeg Top Note
Nutmeg Extract
Vanilla Extract
Aroma Chemical & Isolates
Caryophyllene 100 %
Cinnamic Aldehyde Ex Cassia
219
MelChem Distribution - USA
Natural Aroma Chemicals
Caryphyllene Beta Nat.
Cinnamic Aldehyde Nat.
Cinnamyl Acetate Nat.
Cinnamyl Alcohol Nat.
Heliotropine Nat.
Terpinyl Acetate Nat.
Vanillin Nat.
Glen O. Brechbill
220
Millennium Chemicals - USA
Fragrances Bases & Aromatic Chemicals
Cinnamon Oil 950
Aromatic Chemicals
Anethole Extra USP
Terpinyl Acetate FCC
221
Moelhausen S.p.A. - Italy
Fine Essential Oils
Allspice Leaf Oil
Bay Oil St. Thomas
Camphor Oil White
Caraway Oil
Cardamom Oil
Cassia Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamom Bark Oil ( 30 % CA )
Clove Bud Oil
Clove Leaf Raw
Clove Leaf Raw Madagascar
Clove Leaf Oil
Coriander Seed Oil
Cubeb Oil
Cumin Oil
Fennel Bitter Oil
Fennel Sweet Oil
Garlic Oil China
Juniperberry Oil
Juniperberry Oil Dalmazia
Pepper Black Oil
Pimento Berry Oil
Star Anise Oil
Star Anise Terpenes
Thyme Oil Red
Thyme Oil White
Thyme Oil Wild
Resinoids
Tolu Balsam Resinoid
Oleoresins
Cassia Oleoresin
Clove Bud Oleoresin
Coriander Oleoresin
Cumin Oleoresin
Fennel Sweet Oleoresin
Fenugreek Oleoresin
Garlic Oleoresin
Paprika Sweet Oleoresin
Pepper Black Oleoresin
Thyme Oleoresin
Zingiber Oleoresin
Absolutes
Fenugreek Abs.
Glen O. Brechbill
222
Moraflor Produits Aromatiques - France
Specialties & Essential Oils
Bay - St. Thomas, Domique
Cardamome - Guatemala
Celery Seeds - France
Cinnamon - China
Cinnamon Bark - Ceylan
Cinnamon Leaves - China
Cloves - Madagascar
Clove Leaves - Madagascar
Clove Nails - Madagascar
Coriandre Seeds - Ukraine
Cumin - Egypt
Garlic - China
Gingembre - China
Macis - Indonesia
Nutmeg - Indonesia
Pepper Black - India
Pepper Black - Madagascar
Pepper Hot Leaves - Jamaica
Thyme Red - Morocco
Specialties or Reconstitute Oils
Black Pepper Oil MF
Cinnamone Oil MF
Clove Oil MF
Coriander Seeds MF
Garlic Oil MF
Nutmeg Oil MF
Thyme White Oil MF
223
Muller & Koster - France
Essential Oils
Bay St. Thomas
Pimenta Acris
Cardamomo
Carvi
Carum Carvi
Coriandoli Pays
Coriandrum Sativum
Coriandoli Russia
Coriandrum Sativum
Cumino
Cuminum Cyminum
Garofano Chiodi
Garofano Chiodi
Garofano Foglie Madagascar
Garofano Foglie Rettificato
Garofano Indonesia
Ginepro Albania
Juniperus Communis
Ginepro Yugoslavia
Juniperus Communis
Sassafrasso
Sassafras Officinale
Timo Bianco
Thymus Vulgaris
Timo Bianco Pays
Thymus Vulgaris
Timo Rosso ( Carvacrolo )
Thymus Vulgaris
Timo Rosso ( Timolo )
Thymus Vulgaris
Timo Rosso Portogallo
Thymus Vulgaris
Vaniglia Assoluta
Vanilla Planifolia
Zenzero
Zingiber Officinalis
Glen O. Brechbill
224
Naradev - Hong Kong
Essential Oils
Anise
Aniseed Star ( Badiane )
Bay
Caraway
Cardamom Ceylon
Cardamon Guatamala
Celery Seeds O/D
Cinnamon Bark Ceylan
Cinnamon Bark Chinese
Cinnamon Bark Madagascar O/D
Cinnamon Leaves
Clove Bud O/D
Clove Leaf Clarified
Clove Leaf Crude
Clove Stem
Coriander
Coriander Leaves
Cumin
Fennel
Ginger Chinese
Juniper Berry
Mace O/D
Nutmeg
Pepper Black Madagascar
Pimento Berry
Thyme Red
Thyme White
225
Nardev - Israel
Essential Oils
Anise Star Oil
Bay Oil
Bay Oil Terpeneless
Camphor Oil 1070
Camphor Oil White
Cardamom Oil - Guatemala
Cassia Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil - Ceylon
Cinnamon Leaf Oil - Ceylon
Cinnamon Leaf Oil redistilled
Clove Bud Oil - redistilled
Clove Leaf Oil - Madagascar
Clove Leaf Oil - redistilled
Coriander Seed Oil
Cumin Seed Oil
Fennel Oil Bitter
Fennel Oil Sweet
Garlic Oil - China
Garlic Oil - Egypt
Garlic Oil - Mexico
Ginger Oil
Junipberry Oil
Mace Oil
Nutmeg Oil - E.I.
Pepper Oil Black
Pimento Berry Oil
Pimento Leaf Oil
Pimento Leaf Oil rectified
Thyme Oil Red
Thyme Oil redistilled
Thyme Oil White
Glen O. Brechbill
226
Natural Sourcing, LLC - USA
Essential Oils
Allspice, Jamaica
Anise Seed, Hungary
Bay, Dominican Reputlic
Camphor, China
Cardamom, Guatemala
Cardamom, India
Cassia, China
Cinnamon Leaf, Spain
Clovebud, Indonesia
Clovebud, Madagascar
Coriander, Bulgaria
Coriander, Russia
Dill Seed, Bulgaria
Dill Seed, Hungary
Fennel Sweet, Hungary
Ginger, China
Ginger, Fresh Sweet, Indonesia
Juniper Berry, Bulgaria
Juniper Berry, India
Nutmeg, Indonesia
Star Anise, China
Thyme Red, Spain
Vanilla Oleoresin, France
Vanilla, Brazil
227
OLaughlin Industries - Hong Kong
Herbal Extracts, Mints & Essential Oils
Herbal Extracts
Cassia Oil, Crude
Cinnamomun Cassia Oil
Cassia Oil, Redistilled
Cinnamomum Cassia Oil
Clary Sage Oil
Salvia Sclarea Oil
Garlic Oil
Allium Sativum Oil
Allium Sativum Bulb Oil
Ginger Oil
Zingiber Officinale Oil
Mustard Oil Natural, FCC
Allyl Isothiocyanate
Star Anise Oil
Illicum Verum Oil
Fragrance & Flavor Ingredients
Anethole
Oil of Cassia Distilled
Oil of Cassia Roasted
Terpinyl Acetate
Glen O. Brechbill
228
Oliganic - USA
Essential Oil Crop Calendar
Aniseed - Spain
Aniseed - Turkey
Aniseed, Star - China
Bay Oil - West Indies
Camphor - China
Camphor - Taiwan
Caraway - Holland
Cardamom - Guatemala
Cardamom - India
Cassia - China
Celery Seed - China
Celery Seed - India
Cinnamon - Madagascar
Cinnamon - Sri Lanka
Clove - Brazil
Clove - Indonesia
Clove - Madagascar
Clove - Zanzibar
Coriander - Russia
Coriander - Morocco
Coriander - Turkey
Cumin - India
Cumin - Turkey
Dill Weed - Europe
Dill Weed - USA
Fennel - China
Fennel - Egypt
Fennel - India
Fennel - Turkey
Garlic - China
Garlic - Mexico
Ginger - China
Ginger - India
Juniperberry - Yugoslavia
Nutmeg - Indonesia
Pepper Black - Brazil
Pepper Black - India
Pimento Leaf - Jamaica
Sassafrass - China
Thyme - Spain
229
Oregano - Turkey
Essential Oils
Anise Seed
Pimpinella Anisum - Turkey
Bay ( Laurel ) Leaves
Laurus Nobilis - Turkey
Coriander
Coriandrum Sativum - Turkey
Fennel ( Sweet )
Foeniculum Vulgare - Turkey
Glen O. Brechbill
230
Organica Aromatics Pvt. Ltd. - India
Fine Chemicals by Family
Esters
Acetyl Eugenol
Acetyl Iso Eugenol
Benzyl Iso Eugenol
Eugenol Acetate
Flavoperine
Iso Eugenol Acetate
Floral
Safracin
231
PCAS - France
Specialty Chemicals Odor Classification
Spicy - Honey
Cinnamonitrile
Cinnamyl Cinnamate
Fenchone
Glen O. Brechbill
232
PFW Aroma Chemicals - The Netherlands
Fine Chemicals
Tilanol NP
Tilanol Super
Vanilys
233
P.P. Sheth & Co. - India
Essential Oils
Anethole Terpenes natural
Anethole natural
Anise Oil
Bay Oil
Camphor Oil
Caraway Oil
Cardamom Oil
Cassia Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Clove Oil
Clove Oil, Rectified
Clove Terpenes
Coriander Oil
Cubeb Oil
Cumin Oil
Dillseed Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Star Anise Oil
Thyme Absolute
Thyme Oil Red
Glen O. Brechbill
234
Paul Kaders GmbH - Germany
Fine Aroma Products
Anise Oil
Asa Foetida Oil
Bay Leaf Oil
Camphor Oil White min. 35%
Caraway Oil
Cardamom Oil
Celery Oils ( Leaf / Seed )
Cinnamon Oils ( Bark / Leaf )
Clove Oils ( Bud / Leaf / Stem )
Coriander Oil
Cubeb Oil
Cumin Oil
Dill Oils (Seed / Tips / Weed)
Fir Needle Oil ( Pine Needle Oil )
Galangal Oils
Garlic Oil
Ginger Oil
Gingergrass Oil
Juniperberry Oil
Mace Oil
Mustardseed Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Pepper Oils ( Black / Green /
White )
Ginger
Jalapeno
Juniperberry
Laurel ( Bay )
Lovage
Mace
Marjoram
Nutmeg
Onion
Origanum
Paprika
Parsley
Pepper Black
Pepper White
Pimento ( Allspice )
Rosemary
Saffron
Sage
Tarragon
Thyme
Turmeric
Vanilla Beans
Pimento Oils / Allspice Oils
( Berry / Leaf )
Thyme Oils ( Red / White )
Spice Extracts / Oleoresins
Anise
Annatto
Basil
Bay ( Laurel )
Capsicum
Caraway
Cardamom
Carrot
Cassia
Celery
Cinnamon Bark
Clove
Coriander
Coriander leaf
Cumin
Curcumin
Dill
Fennel
Fenugreek
Gardenia ( Crocin )
Garlic
235
Aromatic Chemicals
Anethol 21/22
Camphor Powder nat.
Camphor Powder synth.
Cinnamic Alcohol
Cinnamic Aldehyde
Coumarin
Eugenol
Propenyl Guaethol
Terpinylacetate
Vanillin
Glen O. Brechbill
236
Payan Bertrand SA - France
Essential Oils, Absolutes & Specialties
Anise Oil
Bay Rectified Oil
Bay Terpeneless Oil
Caraway Oil
Cardamom Guatemala Oil
Cardamom India Oil
Caryophyllene Beta natural
Cassia Oil
Celery Leaf Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamic Alcohol natural
Cinnamic Aldehyde natural
Cinnamon
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Cinnamyl Cinnamate natural
Clove Bud Oil
Clove Leaf Oil
Coriander Leaf Oil
Coriander Seed Oil
Cumin Oil
Dill Herb Oil
Dill Seed Oil
Eugenol natural
Fennel Sweet Oil
Juniperberry Oil
Mace Oil
Pepper Black India Oil
Pepper Black Madagascar Oil
Pimento Berry Oil
Pimento Leaf Oil
Savory Oil
Terpenyl Acetate natural
Thyme Red Oil
Thyme White Oil
Absolutes
Cardamom Abs.
Clove Bud Abs.
Mace Abs.
Tonka Abs.
Vanilla Abs.
Resinoid
Fenugreek Resinoid
Tonka Resinoid
237
Penta Manufacturing - USA
Natural Chemicals
Anise Oil FCC
Asafoetida Oil
Bay Oil
( Bleached & Filtered )
Bay Oil
( Pimenta Racemosa )
Bay Oil Redistilled
Bay Oil, Sweet
( Laurus Nobilis L. )
Bay Oil Terpeneless
Camphor Oil
Camphor Oil White, Distilled
Camphor Oil White ( Taiwan )
Caraway Seed Oil
Cardamon Oil
Cassia Oil Redistilled
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Clove Bud Oil
Clove Leaf Oil, Redistilled
Clove Leaf Oil, Technical
Clove Leaf Oil,
( Bleached & Filtered )
Clove Stem Oil
Cubeb Oil
Cumin Oil
Dillseed Oil
Dillweed Oil
Terpenes
Bay Terpenes
Clove Terpenes
Thyme Terpenes
Aromatic Chemicals
Anethole
Cinnamic Alcohol
Cinnamic Aldehyde
Cinnamyl Acetate
Terpinyl Acetate
Valspice
Vanillin
Vanillin, Ex-Vanilla
Vanillin, Ex-Clove
Fennel Oil Sweet
Garlic Oil
Ginger Oil
Juniper Berry Oil
Mace Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Pepper Black Oil
Pimento Leaf Oil Redistilled
Pimento Berry Oil
Thyme Oil Red
Thyme Oil White
Resins
Allspice Oleo Resin
Oleoresins
Fenugreek Oleoresin
Absolutes
Fenugreek Abs.
Extract
Licorice Root Fluid Extract
Glen O. Brechbill
238
Perfume & Flavor Manufacturers - Australia
A Complete Listing
Allspice Oil
Anise Hyssop Oil
Anise Oil
Anise Seed Oil
Anise Seed Oil Star - Spain
Bay Leaves Oil
Bay Leaves Oil - Anise
Bay Leaves Oil - Clove
Bay Leaves Oil - Lemon
Camphor Oil Brown
Camphor Oil White Japanese
Camphor Oil Yellow
Caraway Seed Oil
Celery Leaf Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamomum Bark Oil
Cinnamomum Berry Oil
Cinnamomum Cassia Leaf Oil
Cinnamomum Cullilawan Oil
Cinnamomum Fruit Oil - India
Cinnamomum Leaf Oil - Java
Cinnamomum Nees Berry Oil
Cinnamomum Twig Oil - India
Cinnamomum Wood Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Cinnamon Fruit Oil - India
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Cinnamon Twig Oil - India
Clove Bud Oil
Clove Leaf Oil
Clove Stem Oil - India
Nutmeg Oil - India
Pepper Black Oil
Pepper White Oil
Pepper Tree Berry Oil
Pepper Tree Leaf Oil
Peruvian Spice Oil
Piper Aduncum Oil - Malaysia
Piper Betel Leaf Oil
Piper Crassipes Oil
Piper Cubeba Oil
Piper Longum Oil
Piper Matico Leaf Oil
Piper Nigrum Black Oil
Piper Nigrum White Oil
Sassafras Officinale Oil
Sassafras Oil
Star Anise Oil - Spain
Thyme Gracillis Oil - Spain
Thyme Sylvestris Oil - Spain
Thyme Vulgaris Red Oil - India,
Spain
Thyme Copticum White Oil
Thyme Wild or Creeping Oil
White Cinnamon Bark Oil
White Pepper Oil
Coriander Leaf Oil
Coriander Seed Oil
Cubeb Oil
Cumin Seed Oil
Dill Herb Oil - America
Dill Seed Oil
Eugenia Caryophyllata Bud Oil
Eugenia Caryophyllata Leaf Oil
Eugenia Caryophyllata Stem Oil
Eugenia Jambolana Leaf Oil
Fennel Oil Bitter
Fennel Oil Sweet
Fennel Roman Oil
Fennel Seed Oil Bitter
Fennel Seed Oil Sweet
Galangal Root Oil
Garlic Oil
Ginger Root Oil
Gingergrass Oil
Horseradish Oil
Juniperberry Oil
Mace Oil
Mustard Oil Brown
Nutmeg Flower Oil
Nutmeg Leaf Oil
239
Peter Jarvis Cosmetic Developments Ltd. - U.K.
Botanical Listing
Herbal Extracts
Ginger EA
Ginger EG
Ginger EO
Thyme EG
Thyme EO
Vanilla EG
Vanilla EO
Glen O. Brechbill
240
Petigara Chemicals - India
Natural Products
Betel Leaf Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Clove Bud Oil
Clove Leaf Oil
Ginger Grass Oil
Juniperberry Oil
Spice Oils
Ajowan Oil ( Indian Thyme Oil )
Anise Oil
Basil Oil
Betel Leaf Oil
Black Pepper Oil
Caraway Seed Oil
Cardamom Oil
Coriander Oil
Cumin Seed Oil
Dill Seed Oil - India
Garlic Oil
Ginger Oil
Mace Oil
Mustard Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Parsley Seed Oil
Safron Extract
White Pepper Oil
241
Petit Marie - Brazil
Lista De Produtos
Caraway Oil
Cardamom Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Light Oil
Clove Oil rectified
Coriander Oil
Cumin Oil
Fennel Sweet Oil
Garlic Oil
Ginger Oil
Juniperberry Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Pepper Black Oil
Star Anised Oil
Thyme Spanish Oil
Thyme White Oil
Absolutes
Fava Tonka Abs.
Fenogreco Abs.
Tonka Bean Abs.
Char Double Oleo
Citronela Oleo
Cognac Oleo Green
Copaiba Oleo
Coriandro Oleo
Costus Raiz Oleo
Cravo Botao Oleo
Cravo Folhas Oleo
Cuminho Oleo
Davana Oleo
Espruce Oleo
Estoraque Oleo
Fava Baunilha Oleo Resina
Funcho Doce Oleo
Galbano Oleo
Genebra Oleo ( Zimbro Oleo )
Gengibre Oleo
Geraldeido Oleo
Geranio Africa Oleo
Geranio Bourbon B Oleo
Grapefruit Oleo
Guaiaco Madeira Oleo
Hysopo Oleo
Labdano Cistus Oleo
Laranja Amarga Oleo
Laranja Oleo
Lima Destilada Oleo
Oleos
Aipo Oleo ( Celery )
Alho Oleo
Allspice ( Pienta Jamaica Oleo )
Angelica Raiz Oleo
Angelica Semente Oleo
Anis Estrelado Oleo
Artemisia Marrocos Oleo
Asafoetida Oleo
Basilicao Oleo ( Comores )
Bay Oleo ( Louro Cereja )
Bergamota Natural Oleo
Betula Oleo
Bigarade Oleo
Buco Oleo
Cade Oleo
Calamus Oleo
Camomila Romana Oleo
Cananga Oleo
Canela Casca Oleo
Caneleiro Folhas Oleo
Capsicum Oleo Resina
Caraway Oleo ( Alcaravia )
Cardamomo Oleo
Cassia Oleo
Cebola Oleo
Cedro Folhas Oleo
Cedro Madeira Virginia Oleo
Cedro Texas Oleo
Cenoura Semente Oleo
Glen O. Brechbill
242
Limao Siciliano Oleo
Litsea Cubeba Oleo
Louro Oleo Essencial
Mamona Oleo
Mandrina Oleo ( Verde )
Mangerona Oleo
Menta Oleo
Menta Piperita Oleo
Mira Oleo
Mirtle Oleo
Neroli Bigarade Petalas Oleo
Nox Moscada Oleo
Nox Moscada Oleo
Oleo Mineral ( Emkaplus 70 )
Olibanum Oleo
Opoponax Oleo
Oregano Oleo
Palmarosa Oleo
Paprika Oleo Resina
Patchouly Oleo
Pau Rosa Oleo
Pimenta Preta Oleo Essencial
Pimenta Preta Oleo Resina
Pinho Oleo
Pinho Oleo 45
Pinho Oleo 50
Pinho Oleo 65
Pinho Oleo 70
Pinho Oleo 75
Pinho Oleo 80
Pinho Siberiano Oleo
Rosa Marrocos Oleo
Rosa Oleo
Rosa Turca Oleo
Rosmarinho Oleo ( Alecrim )
Salsa Oleo ( Parsley Oleo )
Salvea Dalmatia Oleo
Vanilina
Vanitrope ( Propenil Guaethol )
Salvea Esclarea Oleo
Salvea Oficinalis Oleo
Spearmint Oleo
Tagete Oleo
Tangerina Cravo Oleo
Tea Tree Oleo ( Melaleuca )
Tomilho Branco Oleo
Tomilho Vermelho Oleo
Vassouras Oleo
Verbena Oleo
Vetivert Oleo
Yuzu Oleo
Aromatic Chemicals
Acetato Terpenila
Aldeido Cinamico
Benzil Iso Eugenol
Bisabolene
Celeriax
Cinamato Cinamila
6 - Metil Coumarina
Coumarina
Di Hidro Cumarina
Di Hidro Eugenol
Eugenol
Eugenol Metil Eter
Heliotropina
Iso Eugenol
Metil Eugenol
Tonkitone Super
243
Phoenix Aromas & Essential Oils, Inc. - USA
Essential Oils
Anise Seed Oil
Asafoetida Oil
Bay Oil
Caraway Oil
Cardamon Oil ( Guatemalan )
Cassia Oil B & F
Cassia Oil Crude
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil B & F
Clary Sage Oil
Clove Bud Oil
Coriander Herb Oil
Coriander Seed Oil
Cumin Seed Oil
Dillweed Oil
Garlic Oil
Chinese, Egyptian
Ginger Oil
Chinese, Indonesian
Juniperberry Oil
Mace Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Pepper Oil Black
Pimento Leaf Oil
Glen O. Brechbill
244
Plant Lipids - India
Product Catalog
Ajowan Seed Oil
Black Pepper Oil
Cardamom Oil
Cassia Bark Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Clove Bud Oil
Clove Leaf Oil
Coriander Seed Oil
Cumin Seed Oil
Dill Seed Oil
Galangal Oil
Ginger Oil
Java Galangal Oil
Juniper Berry Oil
Mace Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Turmeric Oil
Oleoresins & Resinoids
Ajowan Seed Oleoresin
Fennel Seed Oleoresin
Fenugreek Seed Oleoresin
Garlic Oleoresin
Green Extractives
Coriander Leaf Oil
Curry Leaf Oil
Garlic Oil
Garlic Oleoresin
Green Chilli Oleoresin
Green Ginger Oil
Green Ginger Oleoresin
Green Pepper Oil
Green Pepper Oleoresin
Capsicum ( Chilli ) Oleoresin
Cardamom Oleoresin
Cassia Bark Oleoresin
Celery Seed Oleoresin
Cinnamon Bark Oleoresin
Clove Bud Oleoresin
Coriander Seed Oleoresin
Cumin Seed Oleoresin
Curcumin Powder
Fennel Seed Oleoresin
Galangal Oleoresin
Ginger Oleoresin
Juniper Berry Oleoresin
Mace Oleoresin
Nutmeg Butter
Nutmeg Oleoresin
Piperine Crystals
Turmeric Oleoresin
White Pepper Oleoresin
Roasted Flavours
Capsicum ( Chilli ) Oleoresin
Coriander Seed Oleoresin
Cumin Seed Oleoresin
245
Polarome Intenrational - USA
Product Listing
Allspice Oil
( Pimenta Berry Oil )
Bay Oil
Bay Oil Terpeneless
Black Pepper Oil
Caraway Seed Oil
Cardamom Oil Ceylon
Cassia Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil Redistilled
Clove Bud Oil Indonesian
Clove Bud Oil Madagascar
Clove Bud Oil Redistilled
Clove Leaf Oil Indonesian
Clove Leaf Terpenes
Clove Stem Oil
Coriander Herb Oil ( Cilantro )
Coriander Seed Oil
Cumin Seed Oil
Dillweed Oil
Garlic Oil Chinese
Garlic Oil Egyptian
Garlic Oil Mexican
Pepper Black Abs.
Thyme Abs.
Concretes
Fenugrec Concrete
Aromatic Chemicals
Anethole N.F.
Benzodihydropyrone
( Dihydrocoumarin )
Bitter Almond Oil Synthetic
( Benzaldehyde )
Camphor Powder Natural USP
Camphor Powder Synthetic USP
Camphor Powder Technical 96 %
Synthetic
Caryophyllene
( Beta Caryophyllene )
Cinnamic Alcohol
Cinnamic Aldehyde
Di Hydro Coumarin
( Benzodihydropyrone )
Eugenol USP
Eugenyl Acetate
Ginger Oil
Juniperberry Oil
Mace Oil
Nutmeg Oil East Indian
Pepper Oil Black
Pimenta Berry Oil
Pimenta Leaf Oil
Pimenta Leaf Oil Rectified
Sassafras Oil
Thyme Oil Red
Thyme Oil Redistilled
Thyme Oil White
Resinoid
Mace Resinoid
Absolutes
Cardamom Absolute
Celery Seed Abs.
Cinnamon Abs.
Clove Abs.
Coriander Abs
Cumin Abs
Fenugrec Abs.
Glen O. Brechbill
246
Iso Eugenol
Iso Eugenyl Acetate
Iso Safro Eugenol
Methyl Eugenol
Phellandrene - Alpha
Terpinyl Acetate
Vanillin Ex. - Eugenol
Vanillin Ex. - Lignin
Vanillyl Alcohol
247
Premier Chemical Corporation - India
Bay Oil
Camphor Oil
Cassia Oil
Curry Leaf Oil
Galangal Oil ( Galangal Alpine )
Ginger Grass Oil
Ginger Lily Oil
Juniper Berry Oil
Juniper Leaf Oil
Pimento Berry Oil
Aromatic Oils
6-Methyl Coumarin
Zingerone
Glen O. Brechbill
248
Premier Chemical Corporation - India
Bay
Pimenta - West Indies
Cardamom, Total
Elettaria Cardamomum - Guat.
Cinnamon
Cinnamomum Zeylanicum - Mada.
Cinnamon Leaf
Cinnamomum Zeylanicum - Mada.
Cinnamon Select
Cinnamomum Zeylanicum - Sri. L.
Coriander
Coriandrum Sativum - France
Coriander Total
Coriandrum Sativum - Bulgaria
Cumin Seed
Cuminum Cyminum - France
Dill
Anethum Graveolens - USA
Fennel Sweet
Foeniculum Vulgare - Croatia
Ginger
Zingiber Officinale - Madagascar
Ginger
Zingiver Officinale - India
Ginger Total
Zingber Officinale - Nigeria
Mace
Myristica Fragrans - Indonesia
Nutmeg
Myristica Fragrans - Indonesia
Pepper Black
Piper Nigrum - Madagascar
Thyme Borneol
Thymus Satureioides - Morocco
Thyme Geraniol
Thymus Vulgaris - France
Thyme Linalol
Thymus Vulgaris - France
Turmeric
Curcuma Longa - India
Vanilla
Vanilla Madagascariensis - Mada.
Vanilla Food Grade
Vanilla Planifolia - Madagascar
Vanilla Total
Vanilla Planifolia - Madagascar
249
Prodarom - France
Training Manual For Student Perfumers
Spicy:
Bay
Cardamom
Cinnamon
Clove
Nutmeg
Aniseed:
Anise
Basil
Dill
Fennel
Star Anise
Tarragon, Fennel
Glen O. Brechbill
250
Prodasynth - France
Aroma Product Line
Cinnamique Alcool
Cinnamique Aldehyde natural
Cinnamyle Acetate
Coumarine
Coumarine Butyro
Ethyl Vanilline
Eugenol
Eugenol Acetyl
Heliotropine
Iso Eugenol
Iso Eugenol Acetyl
Methyl Eugenol
Methyl Iso Eugenol
Terpinyl Acetate
Vanilline
Vanillique Alcool
251
Puressence Wuersten Inc. - Switzerland
Essential Oils
Aniseed Oil
Asafoetida Oil
Bay Oil
Camphor Oil
Caraway Oil
Cardamom Oil
Cassia Oil
Celeryleaf Oil
Celeryseed Oil
Cinnamonbark Oil
Cinnamonleaf Oil
Cloveleaf Oil
Clovestem Oil
Coriander Oil
Cubeb Oil
Cumin Oil
Dillseed Oil
Dillweed Oil
Fennel Oil Bitter
Fennel Oil Sweet
Garlic Oil
Garlic Oil Spray Dried
Ginger Oil
Gingergrass Oil
Juniperberry Oil
Mace Oil
Vanilla
Terpenes
Caraway Terpenes
Celery Terpenes
Coriander Terpenes
Eugenol Residues
Iso Eugenol Residues
Nutmeg Terpenes
Thyme Terpenes
Sotecna SA
Horseradish Oil
Mustard Seed Fatty Oil
Mustard Seed Oil
Mustard Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Pepper Oil
Pimentoberry Oil
Pimentoleaf Oil
Thyme Oil
Tumeric Oil
Resinoides
Asafoetida
Foenugreek
Vanilla
Concretes
Asafoetida
Cardamom
Clove
Cumin
Fennel
Juniperberry
Thyme
Tonka
Glen O. Brechbill
252
Quality Analysis Ltd. - U.K.
Product List
Anise Star Oil - China
Bay Leaf Oil - West Indies
Black Pepper Oil - India
Caraway Seed Oil - England
Cardamon Oil - Guatemala
Celery Seed Oil - India
Cinnamon Bark Oil - Madagascar
Clove Bud Oil CO2 - Madagascar
Clove Stem Oil - Indonesia
Cubeb Oil - India
Cumin Oil - Iran
Dill Seed Oil - Europe
Fennel Oil Sweet - Spain
Ginger Oil - China, India
Juniper Berry Oil - Italy
Mace Oil ( CO2 ) - West Indies
Nutmeg Oil - East Indies
Thyme ( Geraniol ) Oil - France
Thyme ( Red ) Oil - Spain
Thyme ( Sweet ) Oil - France
Thyme ( Thuyanol ) Oil - Spain
Thyme ( White Pure ) Oil - Spain
Absolutes
Vanilla Abs. CO2 - Bourbon / UK
253
Rai Ingredients - Brazil
Raw Materials
Anethol 21/22 USP
Camphor Crystal
Cinnamic Alcohol
Cinnamic Aldehyde
Clover Leaves Rectified OE
Coumarin
Ethyl Vanillin
Eugenol USP
Helional
Isoeugenol
Terpinil Acetate
China Perfumer - Givaudan mate-
rial listing
Bisabolene
Celery Ketone
Zingerone
Glen O. Brechbill
254
Raj Aromatics Aroma Corporation - India
Esential Oils & Aromatic Chemicals
C.V. Aroma - Indonesia
Benzoin Resinoid
Clove Leaf Oil
Clove Oil Rectified
Eugenol
Eugenol 180
Clos DAguzon S.A. - France
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Clove Bud Oil
International Aroma Chemicals
Indesso
Iso Eugenol
Rhodia/China
Cou Marin
Vanillin
255
Rhodia Organics - France
Fine Products
Carnaline
Licoris
Rhodiaflor
Rhodiascent
Rhodiascent Extra Pure
Glen O. Brechbill
256
Robertet SA - France
Natural Ingredients
Anise Essence
Anise Oil
Caraway Seed Essence
Cardamone Abs.
Cardmone Essence
Cardamone Oil
Cardamone Oil D - 1204
Cardamone Resinoid
Cassie Abs.
Celeri Abs.
Celery Essence
Celery Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Essence
Cinnamon Oil
Clvoe Leaf Decolorized Oil
Clove Leaf Rectified Oil
Clove Leaf Rectified Essence
Coriander Russian Essence
Coriander Terpeneless Essence
Coriander Terpeneless Oil
Cumin Redistilled Essence
Cumin Redistilled Oil
Deli Seed Oil
Estragon Essence
Fenugrec Abs.
Ginger Abs.
Girofle Clous Abs.
Girofle Clous Oil
Juniperberry Terpeneless Essence
Juniperberry Terpeneless Oil
Pepper Essence
Pepper Oil
Pepper Resinoid
Saffron
Thyme Abs.
Thyme Oil
Thyme White Essence
Tonka Feves Abs.
Tonka Feves Resinoid
Tonkarinol
Vanilla Abs.
Vanilla Resinoid
257
Rosetta Enterprises, LLC - USA
Products
Anise FCC
Bay FCC
Camphor White
Camphor 1070
Caraway Seed FCC
Cardamon FCC
Cassia Redistilled FCC
Celery Seed FCC
Cinnamon Bark Extra FCC
Cinnamon Leaf Ceylon FCC
Clove Bud FCC
Clove Leaf Madagascar
Clove Leaf Redistilled FCC
Clove Stem FCC
Coriander FCC
Cumin FCC
Dill Weed FCC
Fennel Sweet FCC
Garlic FCC
Ginger FCC
Juniper Berries FCC
Mace Distilled FCC
Nutmeg E.I.
Pepper Black FCC
Pimenta Berries FCC
Pimenta Leaf 80/85 % FCC
Thyme Red FCC
Thyme White FCC
Oleoresins
Black Pepper
Capsicum to Specification
Celery Seed
Cinnamon
Ginger African
Ginger Cochin
Ginger Jamaican
Guajillo Chile Oleoresin
Habanero Chile Oleoresin
Paprika to Specification
Turmeric
Aromatic Chemicals
Glen O. Brechbill
258
SAT Group - India
Essential Oils
Aniseed Oil
Black Pepper Oil
Bay Oil
Betel Leaf Oil
Camphor Oil
Cardamom Oil
Cassia Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Clove Oil
Coriander Seed Oil
Cubeb Oil
Cumin Seed Oil
Fennel Oil
Garlic Oil
Ginger Oil
Juniper Berry Oil
Mace Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Saffron
Thyme Oil
Oleoresins
Anise Oleoresin
Capsicum Oleoresin
Cardamom Oleoresin
Celery Oleoresin
Clove Oleoresin
Coriander Oleoresin
Cumin Oleoresin
Fennel Oleoresin
Fenugreek Oleoresin
Garlic Oleoresin
Ginger Oleoresin
Nutmeg Oleoresin
Paprika Oleoresin
Saffron Oleoresin
Turmeric Oleoresin
259
SRS Aromatics Ltd. - U.K.
Coumarin Substitute 5091 P
Cumarone 5157 P
Essential Oils
Caraway Oil A
Caraway Oil 693
Cardamon Oil
Cardamon Oil Ceylan A
Cardamon Oil Guatemala A
Cardamon Oil Guatemala 799
Cassia Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil 249
Cinnamon Bark Oil Ceylon 40 % A
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Ginger Oil Cochin
Juniper Berry Oil R.S.
Juniper Berry Oil Rectified
Juniper Berry Oil Ref A
Oleoresin
Ginger Cochin Oleoresin
Aroma Chemicals
Anethole 90
Anethole Extra USP 21/22 FCC
Caryophylene
Cinnamic Alcohol
Cinnamic Aldehyde
Coumarin
Coumarin Extra Pure
Di Hydro Anethole
Heliotropin
Terpinyl Acetate
Perfumery Specialties
Glen O. Brechbill
260
Sarcom Inc. - USA
Fine Oils & Aromatic Chemicals
Anise Seed Star China
Camphor White 35 % China
Camphor White 86/88 % China
Cassia 85 % China
Celeryseed China
Celeryseed India
Cinnamon Bark Ceylon
Clove Bud Indonesia
Clove Leaf 80 % Indonesia
Clove Leaf 82 % Madagascar
Clove Stem Indonesia
Cumin Egypt
Dillweed 35 % Far West
Garlic China
Garlic Egypt
Ginger China
Ginger India
Nutmeg Indonesia
Pepper Black India
Aromatic Chemicals
Anethole 21/22 China
Camphor Powder BP80 natural
China
Camphor Powder DAB8 China
Camphor Powder DAB6 China
Camphor Powder Technical grade
China
Heliotropin 99 % China
Iso Eugenol USP Indonesia
Vanillin China
Vanillin Ex Eugenol China
261
Science Lab - USA
Essential Oils
Allspice Oil
Anise Oil FCC
Bay Oil
Bay Oil FCC
Camphor Oil White
Caraway Oil
Caraway Oil FCC
Cardamom Oil FCC
Cassia Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil Ceylon FCC
Cinnamon Leaf Oil Ceylon FCC
Cinnamon Oil Imitation
Clove Leaf Oil
Clove Oil FCC
Clove Stem Oil
Coriander Herb ( Cilantro ) Oil
Coriander Oil
Coriander Oil FCC
Cubeb Oil
Cumin Oil FCC
Dillweed Oil 32%
Dillweed Oil American FCC
Fennel Oil FCC
Galangal Root Oil
Garlic Oil FCC
Ginger Oil FCC
Juniper Berry Oil 2X Rectified
Mustard Oil Synthetic
Nutmeg Oil
Pimenta Berry Oil
Pimenta Leaf Oil
Thyme Oil Red
Thyme Oil White
Glen O. Brechbill
262
Seema International - India
Product List
Anise Oil
Betel Leaf Oil
Black Pepper Oil
Camphor Oil
Caraway Oil
Cardamom Oil
Cassia Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Celery ( Terpene ) Oil
Chilly Seed Oil
Cinnamon Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Clove Bud Oil
Clove Oil Rectified
Coriander Oil
Cubeb Oil
Cumin Seed Oil
Curry Leaf Oil
Dill Seed Oil
Fennel Seed Oil
Garlic Oil
Ginger Oil
Gingergrass Oil
Juniper Berry Oil
Juniper Leaf Oil
Mace Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Pimento Berry Oil
Saffron Oil of Kashmir
Thyme Red Oil
Tumeric Leaf Oil
Tumeric Oil
Aroma Chemicals
Anethole 99.5 %
Camphor Powder
Camphor Tablets
Thymol Crystals
263
Sensient Essential Oils Gmbh - Germany
Products
Anethol nat. - China
Aniseed ( Star ) Oil - Spain 20/21
Aniseed Oil - Spain
Asafoetida Oil
Bay Oil Light - W.I.
Camphor Powder nat. - China
PH, Europe
Camphor White Oil - China
Caraway Oil rectified
Cardamon Oil - India
Cassia Oil - China
Celery Seed Oil Indian
Cinnamon Bark Oil - Sri Lanka
30/35 %
60/65 %
Dark
Cinnamon Leaf Oil - Sir Lanka
Light
Dark Min. 80 %
Light Min. 80 %
Cumin Seed Oil - Iran
Curry Leaf Oil - India
Dill Seed Oil - Bulgaria
Capsicum 1 %
Capsicum 6 %
Capsicum 6 % 1 Mio. s.u., dec.
Capsicum 10
Celery Seed
Cinnamon Bark ( Cassia Bark )
Clove 25 %
Clove 42 %
Clove 60 %
Coriander Green 1, 5 %
Coriander Seed Roasted
Coriander Seed Green 1, 5 %
Cumin Seed
Cumin Seed 10 %
Fenugreek Roasted
Galangal Root
Garlic Roasted water soluble
Ginger India 30 %
Green Chili 4 - 6 %
Green Garlic watersoluble
Green Ginger watersoluble
Green Onion watersoluble
Green Pepper 43/18 %
Juniper Berry
Macis 50 %
Majoram 40 %
Nutmeg 30 %
Nutmeg 40 %
Fennel Oil - Slovenia, Spain
Fennel Bitter Oil - Spain
Galangal Root Oil - India
Garlic Oil - China
Ginger Oil - India, Sri Lanka
Juniperberry Oil - Croatia, India
Mace Oil - Indonesia
Nutmeg Oil - Indonesia, Sri Lanka
Pepper Black Oil - Dinia,
Sri Lanka
Pimento Berry Oil
Star Aniseed Oil - China
Thyme Light Oil - German
35/40 %
Thyme Light Oil - Iran
Thyme Red Oil - Spain 45/50 %
Oleoresins
Black Pepper ( 5 - 50 % )
Black Pepper 40/20
Black Pepper 40/20 %
decolourized
Black Pepper 43/25 % entf.
Glen O. Brechbill
264
Paprika 3.000 Color Units
Parpika 80.000 CU
Paprika 100.000 CU
Paprika Green 4 % up to 6 %
Pepper Plack 42/22 % dec.
Pimento
Tumeric 10 % watersoluble
265
Sensient Technologies Corporation - USA
Fragrances
Cumin Oil
Fennel Oil, bitter
Fennel Oil, sweet
Thyme Oil, white
Thymus Baeticus
Glen O. Brechbill
266
Shambhala Herbal & Aromatics Pvt. Ltd. - Nepal
Specialty Products
Nepali Pepper Oil ( Timur )
Spikenard Oil
Sugandhakokila Oil
267
Shanghai M & U International Trade Co., Ltd. - China
Anethole - Natural
Cassia Oil
Garlic Oil
Ginger Oil
Star Aniseed Oil
Aromatic Chemicals
Camphor Powder
Cinnamic Alcohol
Cinnamaldehyde
Coumarin
Ethyl Fenugreek Lactone
Vanillin
Natural Aromatic Chemicals
Anisole
Cinnamic Alcohol
Cinnamic Aldehyde
Cinnamyl Acetate
Vanillin
Zingerone
Glen O. Brechbill
268
Shreeji Aroma - India
Anise
Bay
Black Pepper
Camphor
Caraway
Cardamom
Carrot Seed
Cassia
Celeryseed
Cinnamon Bark
Cinnamon Leaf
Clove Bud
Coriander
Costus
Cubub
Curry Leaf
Dill Seed
Juniperberry
Mace Oil
Nutmeg
Saffron 1 Ml
Aromatic Chemicals
Cinnamic Alcohol
Cinnamic Aldehyde
Coumarin
Iso Eugenol
Vanilline
269
Sigma Aldrich - USA
Essential Oils
Anise Oil
Bay Oil
Black Pepper Oil
Camphor White Oil
Caraway Oil
Cardamom Oil
Cassia Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Cinnamon Oil, Ceylon
Cinamon Leaf Oil, Ceylon
Clove Bud Oil
Clove Leaf Oil, Indonesian
Coriander Oil
Dillweed Oil
Fennel Oil
Garlic Oil, Chinese
Garlic Oil, Mexican
Ginger Oil
Juniperberry Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Pimenta Leaf Oil
Thyme Oil Red
Thyme Oil White
Glen O. Brechbill
270
Silvestris & Szilas Ltd. - Hungary
Essential Oils
Anise Oil
( Pimpinella anisum )
Black Pepper Oil
( Piper nigrum )
Caraway Oil
( Carum carvi )
Cinnamon Oil
( Cinnamomum zeylanicum )
Clove Oil
( Syzygium aromaticum )
Coriander Leaf Oil
( Coriandrum sativum )
Coriander Seed Oil
( Coriandrum sativum )
Dill Seed Oil
( Anethum graveolens )
Dill Weed Oil
( Anethum graveolens )
Fennel Oil
( Foeniculum vulgare )
Garlic Oil
( Allium sativum )
Juniperberry Oil
( Juniperus communis )
Thyme Oil
( Thymus vulgaris )
271
Som Santi House - India
Natural Products
Anise Oil - TD
B. Pepper Oil - Nat.
Caraway Oil - Pharmaceutical
Cardamom Oil - Nat.
Celery Seed Oil - Nat.
Cin. Leaf Oil - Nat.
Cinamon Oil - FL
Cumin Seed Oil - CA
Cumin Seed Oil - CA 30
Cumin Seed Oil - CA 40
Dill Seed Oil - Nat.
Dill Seed Oil - Pharmaceutical
Fennel Seed Oil - Nat.
Ginger Oil - Nat.
Juniper Berry Oil - Nat.
Nutmeg Oil - Indian
Nutmeg Oil - Pharmaceutical
Glen O. Brechbill
272
Some Extracts - India
Products
Cardamom Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Cumin Seed Oil
Dill Seed Oil
Ginger Oil
Aroma Chemicals
Anethole 21/22 Ex Basil Oil
Thymol Synthetic
Natural Isolates
Thymol Ex Ajowan Oil
Imported Products
Clove Oil W/W 85 % - Madagas.
Clove Oil Rectified - Indonesia
Clove Oil Rectified - Madagascar
Clove Oil Rectified - 85 % - Ind.
Clove Oil Rectified - 85 % - Mad.
Clove Stem Oil - Madagascar
Coriander Oil - Russian
Indegenius Essential Oils
Anise Oil TD
Black Pepper Oil nat.
Caraway Oil Pharma
Cardamom Oil nat.
Celery Seed Oil nat.
Cinnamon Leaf Oil nat.
Cinnamon Oil Pharma
Cinnamon Oil FL
Cumin Seed Oil CA
Dill Seed Oil Pharma
Dill Seed Oil nat.
Fennel Seed Oil nat.
Ginger Oil nat.
Nutmeg Oil - Indian
Nutmeg Oil Pharma
Indegenius Imported Chemicals
Anethole Basil 21/22
273
Sovimpex - France
Produits
Anethol
Camphre
Cardamone - Guatemala
Cardamone - Honduras
Cardamone - Inde
Cardamone - Sri Lanka
Carvi
Coriandre
Cumin Iran
Gingembre
Girofle Clou
Girofle Feuille
Piment Feuilles
Poivre Blanc Inde
Poivre Noir Inde
Derives Natureles
Eugenol
Iso Eugenol
Methyl Eugenol
Terpenes
Girofle
Aromatiques De Synthese
Acetate Terpenyle
Coumarine
Ethyl Vanillin
Thymol Cristallise
Glen O. Brechbill
274
Spectrum Chemicals - USA
Fine Chemicals
Anise Oil Spanish
Anise Star Oil
Bay Oil
Black Pepper Oil
Black Pepper Oil FCC
Camphor Oil White
Caraway Oil
Cardamom Oil FCC
Cassia Oil
Cedarwood Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil, Ceylon FCC
Clove Leaf Oil
Clove Stem Oil
Corainder Herb ( Cilantro ) Oil
Coriander Oil
Cubeb Oil
Cumin Oil FCC
Dillweed Oil American FCC
Fennel Oil FCC
Galangal Root Oil
Garlic Oil FCC
Juniper Berry Oil 2 x rectified
Nutmeg Oil East-Indian FCC
Pimenta Berry Oil
Pimenta Leaf Oil
275
Sundial Fragrances & Flavors - USA
Aromatic Chemicals
Anmethole
Anethole USP
Terpinyl Acetate Supra Alpha 99 %
Vanillin
Glen O. Brechbill
276
Sunrose Aromatics - USA
Fine Essential Oils
Key:
O - Organic
ONC - Organic, not certified
WC - Wild crafted
Aniseed ( O )
Aniseed Myrtle ( O )
Bay Laurel, Crete ( WC )
Black Pepper ( O )
Camphor, White
Caraway Seed
Cardamom ( WC )
Celery Seed ( WC )
Cinnamon Bark
Cinnamon Leaf ( WC )
Clove Bud
Clove Bud CO2 ( WC )
Coriander Hungary
Coriander India ( WC )
Cumin Seed
Dill Seed
Fennel Sweet ( O )
Ginger ( O )
Juniper Berries ( WC )
Juniper Berry ( O )
Nutmeg
Thyme Crete T. Capitatus ( WC )
Thyme CT Linalool ( WC )
Thyme Red Spain ( WC )
Tumeric India ( WC )
Absolutes
Cardamom Abs.
Miscelaneous
Vanilla Bourbon Oleoresin
277
Symrise GmbH & Co. KG - Germany
Fragrance Ingredients
Anethol Supra 21.5 C
Anisole
Cinnamic Aldehyde
Coumarone
Eugenol
Iso Eugenol Methyl Ether
Methyl Cinnamic Aldehyde alpha
Thymol Crystals
Thymol Crystals PH
Thymol dist.
Vanillin natural
Vanillin natural 30 % in AL
Glen O. Brechbill
278
Synaco Group - Belgium
Essential Oils
Anethol
Aniseed Oil
Asafoetida Oil
Caraway Oil
Cardamon Oil - Guatemala, India
Cassia Oil China
Celery Leaf Oil
Clove Leaf Oil - Indonesia,
Madagascar
Coriander Herb Oil - Russia
Cumin Seed Oil
Dill Seed Oil
Dill Weed Oil
Eugenol
Fennel Oil
Garlic Oil - China, Mexico
Ginger Oil - China
Juniperberry Oil
Mace Oil
Mustard Seed Oil
Dillseed
Fennel
Fenugreek
Garlic
Ginger
Jalapeno
Juniper Berry
Lovage
Mace
Nutmeg
Paprika
Thyme
Turmeric
White Pepper
Nutmeg Oil - Indonesia, Sri Lanka
Pepper Oil Green
Pepper Oil Balck - India,
Madagascar
Pimento Berry Oil
Thyme Oil Red
Thyme Oil White
Thyme Wild Oil
Thymol
Oleoresins - Oil & Water Soluble
Allspice
Anise
Bay / Laurel
Black Pepper
Capsicum
Caraway
Cardamon
Cassia
Celery
Chillies
Cilantro
Cinnamon
Clove
Coriander
Cumin
Cuminseed
Curry Powder
279
Cassiarome
Cassiarome FM
Diantharome RI
Aromatic Chemicals Natural
Ceylanyle
Cinnamique Aldehyde Di Methyl
Acetal
Synarome - France
Specialty Products
Glen O. Brechbill
280
Tadimety Aromatics Pvt Ltd. - India
Product Line
Acetyl Iso Eugenol
Eugenyl Acetate
281
Takasago International Corporation - Japan
Aroma Chemicals Compendium
Anethole 21/22 USP ( Synthetic )
Anethole 21/22 USP Extra Natural
Aniseed Oil BP Extra
Aniseed Oil Pimpinella Spanish
Fennel Oil Bitter
Fennel Oil Sweet
Thyme Oil Red
Thymol Crystals
Glen O. Brechbill
282
Taytonn Ptd Ltd. - Singapore
Fine Aromas
Essential Oils
Indonesian
Clove Leaf
Sri Lankan
Black Pepper
Cinnamon Bark
Cinnamon Leaf
Ginger
Nutmeg
European
Clary Sage
Coriander Seed
Fennel
Juniperberry
Chinese
Camphor
Botanical Extracts
Tamarind
Aroma & Fine Chemicals
Helional
Thymoxane
alpha Methyl Cinnamic Aldehyde
alpha Methyl Cinnamic Alcohol
Others
Coumarin
Vanillin
283
Tecnaal Group - Mexico
Essential Oils
Cinnamon
Coriander
Mustard
Oleoresins
Bay
Celery
Chile - Arbol
Chile - Chipotle
Chile - Habanero
Chile - Jalapeni
Cinnamon
Clove
Coriander
Cumin
Garlic
Ginger
Mustard
Pepper
Tamarid
Thume
Natural Extracts
Thyme
Vanilla
Artificial Vanillin
Natural Vanilla
Natural Vanilla 1X
Natural Vanilla 2X
Natural Vanilla 5X
Natural Vanilla 10X
Natural Vanilla 20X
Glen O. Brechbill
284
Thailand Institute of Science & Technology - Thailand
Essential Oils by Country
Australia
Fennel Sweet Oil
Bulgaria
Anise Seed Oil
Dill Weed Oil
China
Camphor Oil
Cassia Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Fennel Bitter Oil
Ginger Oil
Star Anise Oil
Egypt
Anise Seed Oil
Caraway Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Coriander Oil
Cumin Oil
Dill Seed Oil
Indonesia
Clove Bud Oil
Clove Leaf Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Vanilla Resinoid
Jamaica
Pimmento Berry Oil
Pimmento Leaf Oil
Vanilla Resinoid
Madagascar
Vanilla Resinoid
Morocco
Anise Seed Oil
Netherlands
Caraway Oil
Seychelles
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Fennel Bitter Oil
France
Anise Seed Oil
Celery Herb Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Guatemala
Cardamom Oil
Hungary
Dill Weed Oil
India
Ajowam Oil
Anise Seed Oil
Cardamom Oil
Celery Herb Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Coriander Oil
Ginger Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Pepper Oil
285
Sri Lanka
Cardamom Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Clove Bud Oil
Clove Leaf Oil
Spain
Anise Seed Oil
Cumin Oil
Fennel Bitter Oil
Fennel Sweet Oil
Taiwan
Camphor Oil
Tanzania
Clove Stem Oil
Clove Leaf Oil
Tunisia
Anise Seed Oil
United Kindom
Celery Seed Oil
United States
Celery Seed Oil
Dillweed Oil
Sassafras Oil
USSR
Coriander Oil
Dill Seed Oil
Fennel Sweet Oil
Viet Nam
Star Anise Oil
Glen O. Brechbill
286
Corriander Oil - Russia
Fennel Seed Oil - Hungary
Garlic Oil - Hungary
Nutmeg Oil - Frutarom
Nutmeg Oil - Sri Lanka
Pimento Berry - Payan & Bertrand
Star Aniseed Oil - Chinese
Aromatic Chemicals
Ethyl Vanillin - Rhodia
Eugenol - Indian
Vanillin - Rhodia
Thakker Group - India
Essential Oils & Fragrances
287
Th. Gyer Gmbh & Co. KG - Germany
Products
Aromabase Ginger
Aroma Chemicals
Anethol Supra
Anisole
Coumarone
Eugenol
Vanillin natural
Glen O. Brechbill
288
The Spice Trader - Canada
Fine Organic Spices
Cinnamon Cassia Chips (O) -
Viet Nam
Cinnamon Ceylon (O) - Sri. Lanka
Cloves (O) - Sri. Lanka
Cocoa Powder (O) - Hispaniola
Coriander Seed (O) - Egypt
Cornstarch (O) - Austria
Cubeb Pepper - Indonesia
Cumin Seed (O) - Egypt
Curry Leaf (O) - Sri Lanka
Dill Seed (O) - Egypt
Dill Weed (O) - USA
Epazote Leaf - Mexico
Fennel Seed (O) - Turkey
Fenugreek Leaf ( Methi ) - India
Fenugreek Seed (O) - Egypt
Galangal (O) - India
Garlic (O) - USA
Grains of Paradise - Africa
Gumbo File Powder - USA
Habanero Powder - USA
Horseradish Powder - Germany
Jalapeno Flakes (O) - USA
Juniper Berries (O) - Bulgaria
Kashmiri Chilis Whole (O) -
Kashmir
Lavender Flower (O) - France
Lemon Peel (O) - USA
Lemongrass (O) - Guatemala
Licorice Root (O) - Egypt
Long Pepper - Indonesia
Loomis ( Dried Limes ) - Iran
Mace (O) - Sri. Lanka
Marash Pepper - Turkey
Marjoram (O) - Spain
Mustard (O) - Canada
Nigella Seed (O) - Egypt
Nutmeg (O) - Sri Lanka
Onion (O) - USA
Orange Peel (O) - USA
Oregano (O) - Turkey
Oregano Mediterranean - Turkey
Oregano Mexican - Mexico
Paprika (O) - Israel
Paprika Smoked - Spain
Parsley (O) - Netherlands
Peppercorns Black (O) - Sri Lanka
Peppercorns Green (O) - Sri Lanka
Peppercorns Mixed (O) - Canada
Peppercorns Pink (O) - Brazil
Peppercorns White (O) - Sri Lanka
Peppermint Leaf (O) - USA
Rose Petals Pink (O) - Morocco
Rosemary (O) - Spain
Ajowan Seed - India
Aleppo Pepper - Syria
Allspice (O) - Guatemala
Amchur Powder - India
Ancho Pepper - USA
Aniseed (O) - Egypt
Annatto Seed (O) - Indonesia
Arrowroot (O) - Indonesia
Asafetida - India
Barberries ( Zereshk) - Egypt
Basil Leaf (O) - Egypt
Basil Leaf Sweet (O) - Egypt
Bay Leaf (O) - Turkey
Birdseye Chilis - Africa
Caraway Seed (O) - Canada
Cardamom (O) - Ceylon
Cardamom Seed (O) - Guatemala
Carob Powder (O) - Spain
Cayene Pepper (O) - Pakistan
Celery Seed (O) - India
Chervil - USA
Chicory Root Roasted (O) - France
Chili Flakes (O) - USA
Chipotle Peppers - USA
Chive Rings (O) - USA
Cilantro Leaf (O) - USA
Cinnamon Cassia (O) - Indonesia
Spices
289
Saffron - Kashmir
Sage (O) - USA
Sanaam Chili (O) - India
Savory Summer (O) - Turkey
Savory Winter (O) - Spain
Sesame Seeds (Roasted) - India
Sesame Seeds Black - India
Spearmint Leaf (O) - USA
Star Anise (O) - Viet Nam
Sumac Ground (O) - Turkey
Szechuan Pepper - China
Tamarind Powder - India
Tarragon (O) - USA
Thyme (O) - Spain
Tomato Powder (O) - USA
Turmeric (O) - Sri Lanka
Vanilla Bean - Uganda
Vanilla Extract (O) - Canada
Wasabi Powder - Japan
Organic Blends
Baharat (O) - Canada
Bangkok Blend (O) - Canada
BBQ Rub (O) - Canada
Bouquet Garni (O) - Canada
Cajun Spice (O) - Canada
Chai Masala (O) - Canada
Chili Powder (O) - USA
Chinese Five Spice (O) - Canada
Curry Powder (O) - USA
Curry Powder Royal (O) - Canada
Garam Masala (O) - USA
Herbes de Provence (O) - Canada
Italian Mixed Herbs (O) - Canada
Jerk Seasoning (O) - Canada
Quatre Epices (O) - Canada
Rosemary (O) - USA
Thyme (O) - Spain
India -
Indian cooking can be as simple
or as complex as you want to make
it. Here are some of the key ingre-
dients that go into making great
Indian food.
Ajowan Seed - India
Amchur Powder - India
Asafetida - India
Cardamom (O) - Ceylon
Chai Masala (O) - Canada
Cinnamom Cassia (O) - Indonesia
Cloves (O) - Sri Lanka
Coriander Seed (O) - France
Curry Leaf (O) - Sri Lanka
Curry Powder Royal (O) - Canada
Fennel Seed (O) - Turkey
Feungreek Leaf (Methi) - India
Fenugreek Seed (O) - Egypt
Garam Masala (O) - USA
Garlic (O) - USA
Ginger (O) - Indonesia
Kala Namak
Kashmiri Chilis Whole (O) -
Kashmir
Mustard (O) - Canada
Mexican Mix (O) - Canada
Mixed Spice (O) - Canada
Mulling Sice (O) - Canada
Panch Phora (O) - Canada
Peppercorns Mixed (O) - Canada
Quatre Epices (O) - Canada
Ras El Hanout (O) - Canada
Steak Rub (O) - Canada
Tandoori Powder (O) - Canada
Tuscan Seasoning (O) - Canada
Zaatar - Canada
France -
These are a few of the essential
ingredients that you would find in
the cupboard of a French kitchen
Bouquet Garni (O) - Canada
Chervil - USA
Fleur de Sel - France
Garlic (O) - USA
Ginger (O) - Canada
Herbes de Provence (O) - Canada
Lavender Flower (O) - Canada
Nutmeg (O) - Sri Lanka
Peppercorns White (O) - Sri Lanka
Spices by Cusine
Glen O. Brechbill
290
Nigella Seed (O) - Egypt
Nutmeg (O) - Sir Lanka
Panch Phora (O) - Canada
Saffron - Kashmir
Tandoori Powder (O) - Canada
Mexico -
Mexican cuisine has a very rich
and diverse history with influences
from the Spanish, French and even
parts of the Caribbean. Don't just
stick to chili powder. Here are a few
of the key spices
Ancho Pepper - USA
Annatto Seed (O) - Indonesia
Chipotle Peppers - USA
Cocoa Powder (O) - Hispaniola
Epazote Leaf - Mexico
Habanero Powder - USA
Jalapeno Flakes (O) - USA
Marjoram (O) - Spain
Mexican Mix (O) - Canada
Oregano Mexican - Mexico
Thai -
While influenced by India,
China, Malaysia and Laos the cui-
sine of Thailand has some basic
ingredients such as
Bangkok Blend (O) - Canada
Basil Leaf Sweet (O) - Egypt
Birdseye Chilis - Africa
Chinese Five Spice (O) - Canada
Galangal (O) - India
Garlic (O) - USA
Lemongrass (O) - Guatemala
Tamarind Powder - India
Thyme (O) - Spain
Morocco -
As you stroll through the souk
markets of Morocco you would
likely find the following spices
Anise Seed (O) - Egypt
Baharat (O) - Canada
Barberries ( Zereshk ) - Egypt
Cayenne Pepper (O) - Pakistan
Cinnamon Ceylon (O) - Sri Lanka
Coriander Seed (O) - France
Lemon Peel (O) - USA
Marash Pepper - Turkey
Orange Peel (O) - USA
Parsley (O) - Netherlands
Peppermint Leaf (O) - USA
Ras El Hanout (O) - Canada
Rose Petals Pink (O) - Morocco
Saffron - Kashmir
Sesame Seeds ( Roasted ) - India
Spearmint Leaf (O) - USA
291
Treatt USA Inc. - USA
Citrus Specialties
Ajowan Oil
Aniseed Oil
Asafoetida Oil
Bay Oil min. 50 pct
Camphor Oil White min. 35 pct
Caraway Oil
Cardamon Oil
Cassia Oil min. 85 pct
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil
min. 30/40/50/55 pct
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
min. 75 pct colour rectified
Clove Bud Oil
Clove Leaf Oil
min. 80/82/85 pct water white
Clove Oil Terpenes
Clove Stem Oil
Coriander Oil
Cumin Seed Oil
Dill Seed Oil
Dill Weed Oil
Fennel Oil Bitter/Sweet
Galangal Oil
Garlic Oil
Chinese/Mexican
Ginger Oil Chinese/Indian
Bay Oil Terpeneless
Cinnamon Leaf Oil Rectified
Ginger Oil Terpeneless No 1, 2
Pimento Berry Oil Terpeneless
Pimento Leaf Oil Terpeneless
Ginger Oil 'Hot'
Ginger Oleoresin Decolourised
Gingergrass Oil
Juniperberry Oil
Nutmeg Oil Indonesian
Pepper Black Oil
Pimento Berry Oil
Pimento Leaf Oil
Thyme Oil Red
Thyme Oil White
Natural Chemicals
Anethol Ex Fennel
Bisabolene Ex Lemon
Black Pepper Oil Distillate
Caryophyllene Pure
Cinnamic Aldehyde 90%
Eugenol Ex Bay
Eugenol Ex Clove
Terpinyl Acetate
Rectified Oils
Bay Oil Rectified
Glen O. Brechbill
292
Treatt USA Inc. - USA
Essential Oil Map of the World by Treatt USA Inc.
Europe
Albania
Juniperberry
Bosnia & Herzegovnia
Juniperberry
Bulgaria
Coriander
Dill
Fennel
Finland
Coriander
France
Coriander
Fennel
Garlic
Hungary
Caraway
Coriander
Dill
Spain
Fennel
Thyme
Ukraine
Coriander
United Kingdom
Celery
Coriander
Dill
Middle East
Iran
Cumin
Turkey
Cumin
Juniperberry
Africa
Comoros
Cinnamon
Pepper
Vanilla
Fennel
Horseradish
Italy
Juniperberry
Macedonia
Juniperberry
Moldova
Coriander
Netherlands
Caraway
Garlic
Romania
Coriander
Russian Federation
Coriander
Dill
Fennel
Slovnia
Juniperberry
293
Egypt
Coriander
Cumin
Dill
Fennel
Garlic
Ethiopia
Pepper
Madagascar
Cinnamon
Clove
Pepper
Vanilla
Mayotte
Cinnamon
Seychelles
Cinnamon
Tanzania
Cardamon
Clove
Vanilla
Uganda
Vanilla
North America
United States
Celery
Dill
India
Cardamon
Celery
Cinnamon
Clove
Cumin
Dill
Galangal
Ginger
Gingergrass
Juniperberry
Mace
Mustard
Nutmeg
Pepper
Thyme
Vanilla
Indonesia
Clove
Ginger
Mace
Nutmeg
Myanmar - Burma
Sassafras
Napal
Sassafras
Sri Lanka
Cardamon
Cinnamon
Clove
Ginger
Mace
Nutmeg
Pepper
Caribbean
Dominica
Bay
Grenada
Mace
Nutmeg
Guadeloupe
Fennel
Haiti
Fennel
Jamaica
Orange Pimento
Central America
Guatemala
Cardamon
Mexico
Garlic
Vanilla
Asia
China
Camphor
Celery
Cinnamon
Garlic
Ginger
Glen O. Brechbill
294
Taiwan
Camphor
Viet Nam
Cinnamon
Sassafras
Star Anise
Pacific Ocean
Australia
Celery
Dill
Fennel
Ginger
Fiji
Vanilla
New Zealand
Fennel
295
Glen O. Brechbill
Trisenx, Inc. - USA
Fine Aromatic Chemicals
Eugenol ( Prime )
Iso - Eugenol
Nutmeg Oil
Thyme Oil ( White Turkey )
296
Uhe Company, Inc. - USA
Essential Oils & Aroma Chemicals
Aniseed Star 15 Chinese
Bay 50/55%
Camphor
Caraway
Cardamom
Cassia
Celeryseed
Cinnamonbark Sri Lanka
Cinnamonleaf Sri Lanka
Clovebud
Cloveleaf
Clovestem Indonesian
Coriander Russian
Cumin
Dillweed
Fennel
Garlic
Ginger
Juniperberry 2x Rect.
Mustard
Nutmeg Indonesian
Pepper Black
Pimentoleaf 80 %
Sassafras
Thymus Vulgaris
Aroma Chemicals
Camphor Powder USP XXII
297
Ultra International Limited - India
Betel
Black Pepper
Cardamon Green
Celery Seed
Cinnamon
Clove Bud
Clove Leaf
Coriander
Cubeb
Cumin Seed
Curry Leaf
Galangal
Ginger
Ginger Grass
Juniperberry
Juniperleaf
Mace
Nutmeg
Pimento Berry
Pimento Leaf
Turmeric
Glen O. Brechbill
298
Ungerer & Company - USA
Essential Oils Compendium
Anise FCC
Bay FCC
Camphor White
Camphor 1070
Caraway Seed FCC
Cassia Redistilled FCC
Celery Seed FCC
Cinnamon Bark Extra FCC
Cinnamon FCC
Cinnamon Leaf Ceylon FCC
Clove Bud FCC
Clove Leaf Madagascar
Clove Leaf Redistilled FCC
Clove Stem FCC
Coriander FCC
Cumin FCC
Dill Weed FCC
Garlic FCC
Ginger FCC
Juniper Berries FCC
Nutmeg EL
Pepper Black FCC
Pimenta Berries FCC
Pimenta Leaf 80/85 FCC
Thyme Red FCC
Thyme White FCC
299
Ventos, Ernesto S.A. - Spain
Products
Anise Oil
Anise Star Oil
Anise Star Oil, rectified
Bay Oil
Capsicum Oleoresin 6 %
Cardamom Oil
Cassia Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Celery Seeds, CO 2 Extract
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil Light
Clove Bud, Oil
Clove Leaf Oil, Madagascar
Clove Leaf Oil, Rectified Indesso
Clove Terpenes 920, Indesso
Coriander Seed Oil
Cubeb Oil 851, Indesso
Cumin Seed Oil
Fennel Oil, Bitter
Fennel Oil, Sweet
Garlic Oil
Ginger Oil
Ginger, CO2 Extract
Juniperberry Oil, India
Juniperberry Oil, Rectified
Nutmeg Oil
Nutmeg Oil, Rectified
Coffee Extract 701
Cubeb Oil 851
Eugenol, natural
Iso Eugenol
Iso Eugenyl Acetate
Methyl Eugenol
Methyl Iso Eugenol
Tamarind Extract Pure
Synarome
Tonkanyle II
Tonkarome
Aromatic Chemicals
Anethole Synthetic - IFF
Benzyl Iso Eugenol
Camphor
Caryophyllene Oxide
Cinnamalva - IFF
( Cinnamyl Nitrile )
Cinnamic Alcohol
Cinnamic Aldehyde
Coumarin
Thyme Oil White, natural
Thyme Oil, Red Spain
Thyme Oil, Wild
Natural Aromatics
Anethole ( Ex Star Anise )
Bisabolol Alpha
Camphor - D
Caryophyllene - Beta
Caryophyllene Beta - Indesso
Eugenol - Indesso
Concretes
Vanilla Concrete
Cinnamalva
Cinnamon Bark Oliffac
P.T. Indesso Aroma
Acetyl Eugenol
Caryophyllene - Beta, natural
Clove Leaf Oil
Clove Terpenes 920
Cocoa Extract AF 718
Glen O. Brechbill
300
Heliotropine Di Ethyl Acetal -
Synarome
Iso Eugenol - Indesso
Iso Eugenyl Acetate - Indesso
Iso Eugenyl Acetate - Indesso
Methyl Iso Eugenol - Indesso
Piperonal ( Heliotropine )
Piperonyl Acetate
Terpinyl Acetate
Terpinyl Acetate - IFF
Vanillin
Vanitrope
Zingerone
301
Venus Enterprises Ltd. - U.K.
Products
Aniseed Oil
Bay Oil
Camphor Oil
Caraway Oil
Cardamom Oil
Cassia Oil
Celery Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Clove Bud Oil
Clove Leaf Oil
Clovestem Oil
Coriander Oil
Cumin Oil
Davana Oil
Dill Seed & Dill Weed Oil
Fennel Oil
Garlic Oil
Ginger Oil
Gingergrass Oil
Juniper Berry Oil
Mace Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Nutmeg Terpeneless
Pepper Black Oil
Pimento ( Berry & Leaf ) Oil
Sassafras Oil
Thyme Oil
Terpenes
Bay Terpenes
Nutmeg Terpenes
Aromatic Chemicals
Anethol
Cinnamic Aldehyde
Coumarin
Dihydro Coumarin
Eugenol
Iso Eugenol
Vanillin
302
Vigon International, Inc. - USA
Essential Oils
Anise Oil
Anise Oil, Spanish
Anise Star Oil Extra
Bay Oil Redistilled
Bay Oil Terpeneless
Caraway Oil
Cardamom Oil True
Cassia Oil Natural
Clery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Bark Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Clove Bud Oil
Clove Stem Oil
Coriander Oil
Coriander Oil Terpeneless
Cumin Oil
Dillweed Oil 30/32 %
Dillweed Oil 36 %
Fennel Oil
Garlic Oil China
Garlic Oil Mexican
Ginger Oil
Juniperberry Oil
Mace Oil
Nutmeg Oil East Indies
Pepper Black Spice N Easy
Pimenta Beries Oleoresin FCC
Pimento Leaf Oil Redistilled
Thyme Oil White Distilled
Oleoresin
Celery Oleoresin
Ginger Oleoresin African
Ginger Oleoresin Cochin FCC
Ginger Oleoresin Pale Dry
Mace Oleoresin
Superresin
Allspice Superresin
Celery Superresin
Cinnamon Superresin
Clove Superresin
Cumin Superresin
Fennel Superresin
Nutmeg Superresin
303
W & W Australia Pty Ltd. - Australia
Products
Aniseed Oil
Cassia Oil
Garlic Oil FCC
Licorice Extract Block
Licorice Extract Powder 22 %
Licorice Extract Powder 24 %
Aromatic Chemicals
Anethol
Coumarin
Ethyl Vanillin
Terpinyl Acetate
Vanillin
Vanillin Natural
Glen O. Brechbill
304
Walsh, John D., Company Inc. - USA
Products
Anise Oil
Bay Oil, W.I.
Caraway Oil
Cardamon Oil
Cassia Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Clary Sage Oil
Clovebud Oil, Madagascar
Cloveleaf Oil, Redistilled
Coriander Herb Oil
Coriander Seed Oil
Cumin Oil
Fennel Oil, Sweet
Garlic Oil
Nutmeg Oil, E.I.
Pepper Oil, Black
Pimento Leaf Oil
Thyme Oil, Red
Thyme Oil, White
Absolutes
Fenugreek Ab.
Vanilla Abs.
Aromatic Chemicals & Naturals
Camphor Powder, Synthetic
Cinnamalva
Cinnamic Alcohol
Cinnamic Aldehyde
Cinnamon Bark Oliffac
Coumarin
Eugenol
Helional
Heliotropine
Iso Eugenol
Terpinyl Acetate
Thymoxane
Vanillin
Vanilys
305
Wambesco Gmbh - Denmark
Essential Oils & Essences
Anise Seed Oil
Bay Oil
Bay Terpenes Oil
Caraway Oil
Cardamom Seed Oil
Cassia Oil
Celery Seed Oil
Cinnamon Leaf Oil
Clove Buds Oil
Clove Leaf Oil
Clove Stem Oil
Clove Terpenes Oil
Coriander Seed Oil
Cumin Seed Oil
Dillweed Oil
Fennel Seed Oil
Fennel Sweet Oil
Garlic Oil
Ginger Oil
Horseradish Oil
Juniper Berry Oil
Nutmeg Oil
Pimento Berry Oil
Pimento Leaf Oil
Iso Eugenol Extra 100 %
Iso Eugenol ex Clove Leaf Oil
Iso Eugenyl Acetate
Methyl Iso Eugenol ex Clove Leaf
Vanillin
Vanillyl Alcohol
Vanillyl Ethyl Ether
Vanitrope
Star Anise Oil
Thyme Leaf Oil
Thyme Red Oil
( Thymus Sygis )
Thyme Terpenes Oil
Oleoresins
Ginger African
Vanilla Bourbon
Aromatic Chemicals
Anethole
Benzyl Eugenol ex Clove Leaf Oil
Benzyl Iso Eugenol ex Clove Leaf
Caryophyllene Coeur
Cinnamic Aldehyde
Cinnamyl Acetate
Di Hydro Coumarin
Di Hydro Eugenol
Ethyl Vanillin FCC
Eugenol ex Clove Leaf Oil
Eugenol Acetate
Eugenyl Phenyl Acetate
Heliotropine Recrystalized
Glen O. Brechbill
306
Spice Fragrance Chemicals
Acetate Eugenol Sweet spicy carnation.
Acetate Iso Eugenol Balsamic, warm faintly spicy.
Bay Oil West Indies Powerful spicy and sweet.
Bisabolene Warm spicy balsamic.
Caraway Oil Intense and spicy.
Cardamon Oil Spicy balsamic odor.
Cardamon Abs. Strong warm spicy aromatic.
Cardamone Oil D - 1204 Sweet, spicy piney woody camphoraceous.
Caryophelline Beta Woody spicy dry and tenacious.
Cassia Oil Intense cinnamon like.
Cassie Abs. Powerful strong spicy floral odor.
Cassie Abs. Syn 17.620 Warm powdery spicy and at same time herbaceous odor.
Celery Seed Oil Spicy warm sweet, and rich soup like odor.
Cinnamalva Powerful warm spicy oily slight floral.
Cinnamic Aldehyde Warm spicy balsamic odor suggestive of cassia, cinnamon.
C A Di Methyl Acetal Warm spicy, balsamic odor, cinnamon like.
Cinnamon Leaf Oil Warm spicy rather harsh, lacks rich body of bark oil.
307
CIS Jasmone Diffusive, warm spicy fruity, dilution - floral.
Clove Bud Abs. An intensely warm powerful sweet clove spicy odor.
Clove Bud Oil Warm, sweet clove odor.
Clove Critical Sweet, clean clove spicy.
Clove De Girofle Resin Abs. An extremely strong spicy, and herbaceous odor.
Clove Leaf Decolorized Oil Has a typical clove odour.
Clove Leaf Oil Harsh, woody and dry spicy odor.
Clove Stem Oil Strong spicy somewhat woody, but quite pleasant odor.
Clove Terpenes Oil Warm sweet spicy strong, typical clove odor.
Coriander Oil Pleasant sweet somewhat woody spicy aromatic candy like.
Coriander Essence Max A pungent spicy aromatic odor of coriander oil.
Coriander Oil Russian Spicy and aromatic, very nice.
Coumarin Sweet, warm, herbaceous, slightly spicy, dilution - hay like.
Coumarin Sub # 772A Almost oppressively cloying, more vanilla then herbaceous.
Cubeb Oil Dry woody, but simultaneously warm camphoraceous spicy.
Cumin Oil Extremely powerful diffusive green spicy, slightly fatty odor.
Curruma Oil Spicy and fresh Rem of sweet orange, ginger & galganga oil.
Cyclotene Sweet and very powerful, caramellic spicy odor, walnut mapple.
Dianthanol A spicy carnation floral rose compound.
Di Hydro Iso Eugenol Warm spicy sweet slight floral balsamic odor.
Elemi Terpene, peppery lemon dilweed.
Glen O. Brechbill
308
Eugenol Powerful warm spicy balsamic.
Eugenol Acetate Mild and sweet spicy balsamic.
Fennel Oil Bitter Sharp peppery, camphoraceous.
Fennel Oil Sweet Sweet peppery, spicy.
Flove Oil Intensely sweet, coumarin hay like heavy herbaceous odor.
Ginger Oil Warm fresh woody, spicy odor.
Heliotropine Sweet warm floral, slightly spicy, dilution - cherry pie.
Iso Eugenol Mild and sweet deep floral carnation like.
Iso Eugenol # 6504 A sweet spicy warm floral odor of carnation very nice.
Iso Eugenol Ethyl Acetal Spicy floral carnation like softer.
Methyl Amyl Ketone Penetrating fruity spicy light odor.
Methyl Benzaldehyde Warm mildly floral sweet spicy odor of benzaldehyde.
Methyl Cinnamic Aldehyde Powerful sweet herbaceous cinnamon spicy.
Methyl Eugenol Peculiar musty tea like, warm mildly spicy.
Methyl Iso Eugenol Sweet and warm mild floral tea like slightly spicy.
Myrr Essence Warm balsamic, sweet somewhat spicy.
Myrr Oil Warm spicy.
Myrr Resinoid Intensely warm deep spicy.
Myrtle Oil Rectified, Tunesia Distinct, spicy and camphoraceous.
Nutmeg Oil Fresh warm spicy.
Olibanol Highly balsamic and spicy.
309
Opoponax Oil Possesses and intensely sweet balsamic spicy.
Opoponax Resinoid Sweet aromatic reminiscent of spicy soups.
Orange Des Indes 68A817 A nice clean fresh orange odor with a discreet spicy note.
Pepper Oil Black Fresh dry, woody warm spicy odor resembles dried pepper.
Pimento Berries Oil Warm, spicy sweet odor.
Pimento Leaf Oil Dry, woody warm spicy aromatic odor reminiscent of clove leaf.
Terpinyl Acetate Herbaceous sweet, refreshing spicy.
Thyme Oil Red Rich sweet powerful, sweet warm herbaceous spicy.
Thyme Oil White Sweeter then red oil.
Thymol Crystals. Powerful sweet medicinal herbaceous warm spicy.
Tonka Beans Abs. Sweet herbaceous slightly spicy.
Tonkarinol Rich sweet warm distinctly coumarin.
Glen O. Brechbill
310
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313

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