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Dominic Ward
origins extend way back, as a distinct discipline within the vast knowledge-body that
comprises science, it really only came into its own in the 20th Century. Since then many
theories have been proffered in the attempt to describe, explain and optimise human
development. Each theory has undoubtedly contributed something to the field. But is
any one theory ‘better’ than another? The brief for this essay was to compare two of
these competing theories of development within the context of personal experience. The
first theory I have therefore selected to examine is the behaviourism of B.F. Skinner. I
would like to juxtapose his theory against the cognitive-constructivist theory of Jean
Piaget, which itself is one of the more famous theories of development. In approaching
this discussion, I would firstly like to describe each theory separately. Following this, I
shall present two detailed reports utilising my own experiences as a gauge: the former
shall document the similarities between the two theories; and the latter shall reference the
differences. In this way, it is hoped that the analysis of the two theories through the filter
of the case study shall provide an indication as to the overall strengths and weaknesses of
each theory.
University during the early part of his tenure there. His particular mechanism for
behaviourism, known as operant conditioning, emphasises the role of environment in
shaping future behaviours and therefore development (Sigelman, 2009). Building on the
Learning theory seeks to place the emphasis for development on nurture rather than
nature. In this way, development is seen as having being ‘learnt’ from the environment,
as opposed to hard-wired or programmed into the brain through gene codes. I think this
Malone & Cruchon, 2001). This prescribes a relationship between context – history –
conditioning with an extra flexibility – it places the individual in society, and therefore
private events (the subjective properties associated with human experience, emotion for
example), yet he felt they could be explained exclusively by behaviour, that is, operant
from that of Watson and the classical or methodological behaviourists (32-33). The
punishment weakens the behaviour in the same way. Therefore, positive reinforcement
in some way. That is, the behaviour is encouraged because, when it was actioned, it
Like Skinner, Jean Piaget’s initial interest in human developmental theory grew out of
animal studies - Piaget held a doctorate in biology. There is much conjecture in the
here to note that he did at some point make the change between the two sciences,
focussing then on the nature of development in children. His work with children
convinced him that development must be a cognitive process, that is, conscious thoughts
play the central role in determining development (Santrock, 2006). He further nominated
a four-stage system to explain his cognitive theory in context. The first stage is the
coordinating sensory experiences with physical actions” (46). The second, preoperational
stage involves the use of images and words to represent the world the child experiences.
In the third stage, the concrete operational stage, a child becomes adept at using reason to
explain experiences logically. The fourth, formal operational stage describes that stage of
development wherein the child can involve ideals and abstract concepts in the cognitive
process. Two essential mechanisms underpin this entire construct: organisation, whereby
we sort and classify information gleaned from our experiences subjectively; and adaption,
wherein our thinking behaviours must change to allow for any new information
(Sigelman, 2009; Santrock, 2006). Borrowing heavily from his previous work in biology,
Piaget further stated that there were two processes to adaption. The first was
to new knowledge. It would also at this point be prudent to note that Piaget’s theory of
wherein an individual is created as it were from the fabric of his or her experiences in
It is now time to formally outlay the examination of the similarities between these two
recollections of my own developmental history by way of providing a case study that can
actively illustrate the arguments herein offered. My first contention is that both
organisation and adaption. Both sets of mechanics may operate in different ways and for
different reasons, but they operate to the exact same end – the synthesis of experience
models argue that it is the experience of our environment that shapes our development.
Allow me to illustrate this point. In grade three, at the age of nine, I was struck down
with glandular fever. The virus forced me from school with severe lethargy for a month,
completing only half-days for a further month on my return. Consequently, I missed a lot
of school, falling a long way behind my classmates. The ultimate impact was the
suffering for many further years as a result of this capitulation. Before I got sick, I was a
bright, happy student with good study routines and positive, if somewhat compliant,
behaviour. After my return to school, I was changed. A deep cynicism came to the fore
and I took to self-destructive behaviours and ideals in order to protect myself from the
fear of failure elicited by the rapid evaporation of my self-esteem. Both Skinner and
Piaget would argue that, all things equal, it was the experience of the environmental
direction. Moreover, Skinner would have claimed that the overall temporal context in
which I was situated at that time would have predisposed me to that new direction (Ruiz,
1995; Malone & Cruchon, 2001). At that juncture in my life, I would have qualified
under the rubric that describes the concrete operational stage in Piaget’s system
(Sigelman, 2009; Malerstein & Ahern, 1979). Piaget may therefore have suggested that
the new cynicism and self-destructive patterns that defined my exit from the viral illness
and return to school were a product of the rational processing, through assimilation or
Similarly, and perhaps more importantly, both radical behaviourism and cognitive-
constructivism describe a developmental process that is essentially reactive. That is, the
process of renewal within these behavioural and cognitive models is accepted as deriving
condition of both models in that they are, intrinsically, materialistic1. Again, allow me to
illustrate this. I recently experienced a severe episode of depression. The final outcome
of this episode was that I enrolled and began studying counselling as a means of fulfilling
a strong need to be of service. Skinner would have explained it, firstly, contextually.
Prior to the depression, I was working a job that could not have satisfied my needs. I had
Thus the stimulus of the job itself acted as positive reinforcement for my subjective
context, and the depression was the manifestation of this. In this way, my behaviour
informed the depression. Similarly, Piaget would have also contended that the depression
arose reactively. Piaget might have understood the depression as the result of the
1
Though it is fair to say that this criticism could be levelled at all of science, I think that it is particularly
pertinent to discuss this here. Why? Because if the end result of this study is that we all graduate as
mindful counsellors, we should be prepared to disregard, as necessary, the materialistic side of our training.
Clients will come with myriad issues that do not speak to a materialistic understanding of the world. The
daemons of creativity that so often accompany altruistic forms of depression cannot be described, explained
or optimised by any view of development that is reactive.
processing of new information. In this way, the experience of disenchantment with my
job – the new information – once assimilated or accommodated, would have, as for the
behaviourist model, manifested as depression, as the new information could not have
Rather than go into a lengthy count of all those individual differences, I think it more
beneficial to constructively outline the major theoretical unbalances between the two.
This will entail an investigation of the concepts of learning theory and cognitive-
the constructivist modes beyond what has already been discussed in prior paragraphs.
Skinner opined that the behaviours are learned from the environment; behaviours that
already have been adopted comprise the context through which an individual experiences
his or her world, thereby stimulating the addition of further behaviours, or the subtraction
of currently held, but inappropriate behaviours. Thus, this process of learning is largely
(though not entirely) automatic (Ruiz, 1995; Malone & Cruchon, 2001), its apparatus
still exclusively at home with my mother and brothers. My mother decided to trial a few
mornings for me at a local kindergarten so that I might socialise with other children my
own age. I spent the first morning crying so hard at the window of the kindergarten that
my mother shortly thereafter returned and collected me. I did not attend kindergarten
again. Skinner would not deny the quality of the private events in my experience of
kindergarten. But he would further claim that it was my behavioural reaction to the
tears (Mowrer, 2001). Where behaviour, and therefore development, is under the
exclusive control of the environment, determinism in the only possibility. It was beyond
process. In this way, the agent has a direct and insoluble role in furthering his or her
my first and only day at kindergarten, Piaget might have seen this as a reaction to the
experience of new information wherein the new information is counter to the conscious
needs derived from the understanding of prior experiences or information. In this way, I
was able to express a distinct preference for remaining at home with my mother and
siblings. Here, the agent, through cognitive mechanisms, constructs the form of
individual any real control of his or her development (Perez-Alvarez & Garcia-Montes,
2006), constructivism imbues the individual with the power to create their own
developmental path.
along side the cognitive-constructivist model, what has become apparent is the obvious
truth in both models. Both models represent the scientific method, and in such a format
they both operate equally well in describing and then explaining the observations of their
respective proponents. I would not select either in favour over the other. In fact, much
practice and the theory that underpins it within psychology and counselling has evolved
example is that of cognitive-behaviour therapy (Favre & Bizzini, 1995) which allies both
models into a working unit, although it has been argued that the cognitivism of Bandura
has had a larger direct impact on this development than has that of Piaget (Goldfried,
2003). On a personal note, I would suggest that at the purely descriptive level, the two
models make equally relevant and honest observations of the process of human
development. In this way, they both offer much in optimising development. But as a
means of explaining human development, I believe they both fail. The full
conceptualisation of human development lies beyond the realms of the material sciences.
If the reactions that precipitate development can be described by Skinner and Piaget,
what then of the events that cause these reactions? Are they all external and
environmental or cognitive and conscious as Skinner and Piaget suggest? Since I was a
teenager I have felt an unmistakable urge to write prose. This urge takes the form of the
through the written word. Along the way I have wanted to quit many times, so unhappy I
have been with the results of my efforts. But I have not given it up, because I cannot.
There is an undercurrent to the force that drives me that I doubt can be explained through
either behavioural models or cognitive models. Nevertheless, the ideas of Skinner and
Piaget have influenced much that works and much that otherwise can now no longer be
undone. Both similar and dissimilar all at once, the two theories need not compete with
each other; they are both tangible marvels of the subjective human experience.
References
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