\-

Chapter
One:
ShiPs'
electrical
systems
-
safetY
and maintenance
ShiF' Ehctricd
System
Electrical Disgrams
Electrical Sefely
Elcctric Shock
lnsulalbD Resistsnce
Testing
Insulalion
'festing
Continuily
TestinS,
Multimcters
Dbdc Tests
Currenl Clampmeters
Live-Line Testers
Gencral Eleclrical Maintenance
t l l
r 12
t / s
r 16
t l 6
r 17
r l 7
r l e
r / r o
I
l t 2
r l 12
r
/ 13
l / r 3
I ntroduclion
l hi s chaptcr
Prcscnl s
an overvi ew ol a shi P' s cl cctr i c l sl stcnr and dcseri bcs vari ous types of
ci rcui t rl i agrams uscd i | l cl ectri c t work. l l asi c cl ectri cal :al el y precauti ons and el ectri cal
testi ng fl l cthods i trc outl i ncd toScther wi l h a dcscri pttott of gcncral cl cctri cal mui nl nance.
Ships' clcctricNl system
Auxi l i ary scrvi ces on btl arrl shi p range frrttn cngi trc rtxrnl putl tps and l ans' dcck wi nches and
wi ndl asscs tr.r gcncral l i ghti ng, catcri rrg and ai r condi ti onrng. El cctri cal power i s used todri ve
the nraj ori ty ,rf thcse auxi l i ary scrvi ccs.
' l
hc cl ectri cl l po$cr svsl cl tl
()tl
bturd shi p i s desi gned
to provi dc a sccurc suppl y t0 tl l Irads wi th i l dcqui ttc htl i l l i n pr()tccti ()n f()t l he equi pment and
opcrari nS, pcrsttntrcl .
' fhc
gcncral schctne of a shi p s ch;ctri eal
Powcr
system i s conl mon t(t
near l y al l shi ps.
)ao I
GIIERATOR
l{o 2
OENERAIOR
1,RGEirY
GNERAIOR
' l
hc gcncrators (l i otncti ntes cal l crl i thctnators) producc the cl cetri eal
prwcr' l t i s col l ccl cd al
the mai n swi tchboard and thcn tl i stri hutcd t(! thc vari ous auxi l i ary *.-rvi ccs conl pri l i nE l he
t l t
v
clectrical load. An emergency generator and mcrgency swirchboard mainrain supplies in the
cvent of a mai n power fai l ure.
compare thisgcneral layout with the system on yourship.
Notc the grear similariries and also
note the differences
-
all ships' systems differ in some res1rcct.
The generators
may bc driven by a diesel engine. by a steam or gas turbine, or by the main
propulsion engine. The rype of prime mover is derermined by the design of rhe ship and by
cconomic factors.
The power rating ofth generators is determined by the power demand of the electrical load.
Large passengcr ships have three or four large generators rated at 2MW or more to supply the
ertcnsivc hotel services on board. A cargo ship may have two main generators
lypically rated
from 350 to l000kW which are sufficient to supply the engine room auxiliaries while at sca and
thc winches or cranes for handling cargo while in port. The limiied load required during an
cmergency requires that the emergency generators
may be rated from about l0kW for a small
coaster to about 300kW or more for a cargo liner. The shipbuilder must estimaie the number
and power rating ofthe required generators by assessing the pnwerdemand of the load for all
situations whether at sea or in port.
Electrical power on board ship is commonly generated ar 440V,60Hz (somerimes
380V, 50
Hz). These values have been adopted because they are standard shore practice in the
Americas and in Europe. Ships with a very large electrical power demand may be designed to
operate at 3.3kV and even 6.6kV, or hi gher.
The Bri ti sh Standard and IEC defi ni ri on of LOW VOLTAGE i s between 50V ac and 10fi )V
ac (the IEC gi ve thi s defi ni ri on ro harmoni ze Bri ti sh and European standards).
Li ghti ng and other domesti c suppl i es usual l y operate ar I | 5V or 220V, si ngl e-phase. Trans-
formers are used to reduce rhe
/0r(,)V
geoeraaed voltage to this safer volrage levI. Where
ponable equipment is to be used in dangerous, hot and damp locations, it is advisable to
oprate at 55V or even 24V suppl i ed agai n by a srep-d()wn rransformer. Occasi onal l y,
transformers are al so used to step up vol rages. e.g. suppl yi ng a l arge 3.3kV bow thrustel
motor from a 4zl0V switchboard supply.
Batteri es for vari ous servi ces operate at I2V or 24V but someri mcs hi gher vol tages are used.
Elcctricrl dlrgrrms
There are vari Ous typs of di agram whi eh attcnrpt t(| sh()w how an cl cctri cal ci rcui t operates.
Symbol s are used to represent i tems of equi pment. Thc shi pbui l tter provi des a compl ete sct of
shi ps' el ectri cal di agrams. l t i s i mgrrtant that you \i udy rhese dragrams to bc abl ,j to read and
understand them compctentl y, and to use them as an ai d i n kxati ng el ectri cat faul ts.
A BLOCK DIAGRAM shows i n si mpl i fi ed form the mai n i nrer-rel ati onshi ps of the el emenrs
i n a sysl m, and how the system works or may bc operai d. Such di agrams are oftn used to
depi ct control systems and oi her compl cx rel ari onshi ps.
3-..I-.*..--
l l
l'::T'
a
Di agrams l i ke thi s state the tuncti ()n ol cach bkrck but usual l y gi vc n. i nl ornruti on of thc
comfxl nents i n each bkl ck nor how thc bkxks arc i ntcrconnccted
A SYSTEM DIAGRAM shows thc murn l cl tures of a systcm and i rs b()unds. wi thout
necessari l y showi ng causc- l o-effcct. l ts matn use i s to i l l ustratC l hc ways
()f
operati ng the
t 1 2
-
sFtcm. Detril is omined in order to make the diagram as clear as possible, and so easily
undcrstood.
A CIRCUIT DIACRAM shows, lN FULL, the functioning of a circuit. All csscntial p.tt!
rnd conncctiom are dcpicted by means of symbols arranged to show the opcration es clcrly
.r
pcriblc bur without rcgard lo the physical layout of lhe various ilcms, thcir p$lt or
conncc'tions.
o (
o
o
..O+
O_--*----.-{.1
---O
Thc clectrical connections of rhe above m(Nor starteJ are clearly shown in the simPlest
poesible way. A most important
F)int
is that no attempl is made to show thc movinS conlacls
of e rclay or conlactor alongside the coil that operatcs therh
(whcrc they aac actually
t l t
physi cal l y l ocated). l ' . tead
numbr oi l ei l r.
For cxarnPle: contactor coil
the coil and its related contacls are identified by a common
' cc'
dri ves two auxi l i ary contacts i denti fi ed as
' cc
l ' and
' cr2' .
/A
v
Each wire connection is identified by a number which may be found on a numbcred sleeve on
cach wirc at its termination on a component in ihe actual starter'
Allhough there are international agreements as to ihe symbol to be uscd 1o rpresent
elecrricil components
you must be prepared to meel various different symbols representing
thc samc oomponent. For example: a coil can be represenled as
JTtru
The use of a circuil diagram is to enable the reader to understand the operation of the circuit,
to follow each scquence in the operation from lhe moment of initiatinB the operation (e.g. by
presci ng a' stan' buti on) to the fi nal act
(e.g. starti ng of the motor)' l f the equi pment fai l s to
operatJ correctly, lhe reader can follow the sequence of operalions until he comes to the
opcntion that has failed. He can then examine all the components involved in that faulty
opcration
(and only thos components need be examined) and so locate the fauhy compo-
nint. He has no need to examine other components that are known to function corteclly and
have no influence on the fauli; his work is simplified. A circuit diagram is an essential tool in
trouble shooting.
A WIRING DIAGRAM shows lhe detailed wiring and conneciions between componcnts or
itcms of equipment, and in some cass the routeingofthcsc connections- A wiring diagmm of
an ilem ofequipmenl shows the components in the approximate
Posilion
thy occuPy in rhc
actual equipment. The componnt may be shown complete
(e.9. a contaclor coil togethcr
with all Ge conracts it drives) or may bc simply represented by a blcrck with th necessarry
termi nal s cl earl y marked. Di fferent thi cknesses of l i ne can be used to di ffcl cnti al e bel ween
power and control circuii conneclions.
'I'he
wiring diagram below is of the same starter shown
, _l _.
I llrr-.r I
-l l -rr I
i l t i l t
r l
l L i t I
I
l-.--.-.--J
--E-
for the
previous circuit diagram.
z - - - - - - a - - - - - \
r o r f . o o . t . r r . r , & . 1
+;i
(
t 14
A wiring diagram may be of a fairly simple circuit, but it is quite difficult to use it to work out
thc sequential opcration of the circuit. The purpose of a wiring diagram is to imtruct the wiring
mrn how to construct and connect the equipment. lt is of little use in trouble shooting apart from
idcntifying the cxact position of suspect components and tcrminals.
QUESTION
What are you to do if difficulties arise in locating a fault on an item of equipment and only a
wiring diagram is available?
ANSWER
It may well save time and trouble to convrt the wiring diagram into a much simpler and morc
useful circuit diagram. When converting a wiring diagram into a circuit diagram certain basic
rules and conventions should be followed.
l. Every sequence should be drawn from left to right and from top to bottom (where
prssible).
2. Each stage should be in order of occurrence from left to right.
3. All contacts and components which are in series should be drawn in a straight line
(where possible) with the component they conlrol.
4. All contacts and components which are in parallel should be drawn side by side and at
the same level to emphasise their parallel function.
5. All major components oprating at bus-bar voltage should be drawn at lhe same level
(or aligned horizontally) to help identify the rer;uired components quickly.
6. All contacts should be shown
'open'or 'closed'
as in their NORMAL or unenergiscd
condi ti on.
There are other conventions but lhese cover the main points of g<xrd systematic diagrams.
Bl ock, system, ci rcui t and wi ri ng di agrams are the basrc types i n gcneral use for el ectri cal
work. Other l ypes of di agram arc some ti mcs uscd to gi ve i nti rrmal ron for whi ch thc basi c
types ar unsui tatrl e (e.9. a pi ctori al vi cw of a c()nl poncnt).
You should study the ghip's electrical diagrams so as to gain an underslanding of them whcn
carrying out mainle nance or fault finrling. Ships' diagrams should be regarded as an csscntial
tgol when carryi ng out work on el ectri cal equi pment.
Eloctricd sefety
Before attempting any elecrrical work, there are mme basic safety precautions you must bar
in mind. The possible dangers arising from the misuse of electrical equipment are well known.
Electric shcck and fire can caus loss of life and damage to equipment.
Regul ati ons exi st to control the consl ructi on, i nstal l ati on, oJrrati on and mai nl enance of
el ectri cal equi pment so that dangcr i s el i mi nated as far as possi bl e. Mi ni mum acceptabl e
standards of safety are i ssued by vari ous hodi csj ncl udi ng nati onal govcrnrnents, i nte rnati on-
al governmental conventi ons (e.g. SOLAS), nati onal and i ntcrnati onal standards associ a-
ti ons (e.g. BSS and IEC), l earned soci eti es (e.g. IEE), cl assi fi cati on soci cti cs (e.g. Ll oyds),
etc. Where danger arises it is usually duc to accidcnt, neglect or somc other contravention of
the regulations.
Ships'staff must operate equipment in a safe nrannr and nraintain it in a safe condition at all
times. Failure to do so will causc dangcr with p,ossible disastrous consequenccs. Ships' staff
should keep in mind an essential list of DO's and DONT's when working with electrical
equi pment.
DO get to know the shi p' s el ectri cal systcm and equi pmcnt. Study shi ps' di agramsto pi npoi nt
the location of switches and protection devices supplying distribution boards and essential
i tems of eqdi pment. Wri te down thi s i nformati on i n a note book. Note the normal i ndi cati ons
on swi tchboard i nstruments so that abnormal operati on can be qui ckl y detected.
DO operate equipment according to manufacturcrs' recommendations.
DO maintain equipment according to manufacturers' recommendations or shipowners'
ts3Hffff:tll""iililil;. covers and doors are securety firted anrt ihar all botrs an<t firings
are fitted and tight.
DO i nform the Offi ccr of thc Watch beforc shutti ng"down equi pmcnt for mai ntenance.
r/ s
DO swi tch ttff and l ock off suppl i es. rcmove fuses. and di spl ay warni ng noti ccs bcfore
removi ng covers of equi pment for mai ntenance.
DO confi rm that ci rcui ts arc DEAD (by
usi ng a vol tage tcstcr) bcforc touchi ng conrJuctors
and t ermi nal s.
DON' T touch l i ve conductors under any pretext.
DON' T touch rotati ng parts.
DON' T l eave l i ve conductors or rotati ng parts exposed.
DON' T overl oad equi pment.
DON' T negl ect or abuse equi pment.
You should think
'safety'
at all times and so develop a safety conscious attitude. This may well
save your life and the lives of others. Most accidents occur due to a momentary loss of
concentration or attempts to short-circuit standard safety procedures. DO NOT let this
happen to YOU.
Ehctric shock
Nearly everyone has experienced an electric shock at some time. At best ir is an unpleasant
experi ence, at worst i t i s fatal . Anyone who has access to l i ve el ectri cal equi pment must be
fully aware of first aid and safety procedures related to electric shock as described in relevant
safety acts. copies of these safery procedures should bc displayed on board ship.
Electric shock is due to the flow of current through your body. This is ofien from hand to hand
or from hand to foot. A shock current as low as l5mA ac or dc may be fatal. Obviously the size
of shock current i s rel ated to the appl i cd vol tage and your body resi stance. Unfi rrtunarel y,
your body resi stance goes down as the appl i ed vol tage goes up. Thi s means that rhe shock
currenl is further increased at high voltages. The size of your body resistance also depends on
other factors such as your state of heal th. the degree of contact wi th l i ve wi res and thc
perspi rati on or dampness on y()ur ski n. l ' ypi cal dry ful l contact hody rcsi stancc i s about
5UnQ at 25V fal l i ng to abour 2(XXIQ ar 2-5(,V.
QUESTTON
What woul d the equi vhl ent shock currcnr l evel s be ar 25V and 250V?
ANSWNR
5mA and l 25mA.
Voltages of about filV and bekrw are regarded as reasonably safe for portablc hantl tools.
Thi s i s why speci al step-down i sol ati ng transfornrcrs are used wi th portabl c rrxl l s an{
handl amps.
' Ihese
transft)rmers suppl y the tool or l amp at I l 0V ac but because rhc seconcl ary
wi ndi ng i s cent re-t apped t o eart h, t he maxi mum shock vol t age t o cart h i s 55V.
El ectri c shock i s often accompani ed by fal l i ng. whi ch may causc adtl i ri onal physi cal i nj ury
and requi re fi rst ai d acti on, l f the shock vi cti m i s unconsci ous. resusci tati on must take pri ri ri ty
over fi rst ai d methods. Check the resusci tati on techni qucs di spl aycd on rhe cl ccrri c sho,ck
posters
di spl ayed on board.
Insulatiron resistance
Al l el ectri cal equi pment has i nsul ati on.
' l "hc
purpose of the i nsul ari on i s to kcep el ectri c
currents i n thc conductors and to prevent contact wi th l i ve wi res.
' Ihc
el cctri cal resi stance of
i nsul ati on must be very hi gh (MC2) to prevent currcnt
' l caki ng'
awry from conducttl rs.
Insul al i on resi stance i s the resi stancc of thc i nsul al i rl n measured (u) bctwecn conductor ancl
earth or (b) between conductor and other c(,nductor(s). The i nsuhti orr resi stancc i ncl udes
the resi stance of the i nsu.l ati on matcri al and al so the rcsi stancc of any surfucc dcposi ts of di rt.
oi l , moi sture, etc.
r n l u r a l r o n r a t r a t a n a a
Dat r aai t ar i l l nat a
l r l
I
I
:
U6
. . . l i a a l r r r . O c l a i t
Surfrcc depxits cnn rcducc the inculation resi$tsncc. Thc flow of leakugc curre ntlr through
ruch surfilce dc;xrsits is called
' TRACKING' ,
Equipment mu$t be nruintaincd in o clcrn
condition to prsvcnt trucking und to muintein a high value of insulation resistancc (usually
at
l cast I MO),
Inrulatkrn millcrills are non-mctallic and have vcry few of the generally good physicrl
propcrtics essocialed with mctnls. Insulation is adversely affected by many factors such ss
humidity. lemperelure. clcctrical and mechsnical stresl, vibrrtion, chemicals, oil, dirt end, of
coursct old uge.
Traditional insulstion malerisls include cotton. silk, papcr. ctc, Thcy msy bc cithcr dry or
trcelcd with euitable varnishcs or rcsins to cxclude moisturc and othcr harmful substrnccr.
Othcr materials include mica. glass fibre. etc., and morc modarn materirls such m PVC rnd
othcr photict and compounds. An cxtensivcly uscd insulant not nolmElly considercd rr en
inrulation matcrial is air.
The majority of insulation materials in common usc cannot withstand tcmpcraturcs much in
exccss of ltf0oC, All elcctrical equipmcnt heats up when,carrling lbarl current with thc
con$equcnt rise in tempcralure, This temperature rise is above that of the ambient ooling air
lemperuture, All electrical equipment is constructed and reted to work satisfactorily in a
maximum amhient uir temperature of 45' C (Lloyds),
Under these conditions the expcctcd
tcmperature rise will nol exceed the permitted temperature limit set for the insulation
mrterial, lt is therefore the insulation matcrial that dictates the maximum permitted opclst.
ing temperature of thc electrical equipment.
For thir purposc insulation is elassificd according to t[c maximum tcmpcrstu]c ot which it ir
refe io opcrate, Various clasEcs of ineulation are listed'in British Stbndards but normrlly only
clattcr A, E and B are uscd for marinc elcctrical cquipment, Thc mexlmum tcmpclsturc
rlbwcd for cach of thesc clarrer is:
CLASS A
E
B
55'C CLASS F 105.C
7rc H l$.c
&fC C l3{fC +
Thesc are stearly surfaee temperatures measured with equipment stopped and no flow of
cooling rir.
' llot
spot' temperatures of 105"C
(Clasr
A) and l30o(i
(Class
B) arCgencrrlly
scceptcd ar normal at the centre of coils and windings of machrnes with thesc rurfrcc
tempcreturcs, A machin operating continuously with these hot sErt tempratures would
hrve an expected life of l5 to 2() years before the insulation failed completely. Howevcr, thc
life would be halved firr every llPC above these allowed hrlt spol temperaturcs.
Tcsting
Thi s *cti rl n kxrks al thc vari ous el ccl ri cal tesl i nB operal i rl nr you may nced ttl carry out. and
at l he i nstrumenl s vou wi l l necd.
' l ' hc
mai n l ests are ti rr:
-
l nsul ati on Rcsi stancc
-
Ci rcui t Conti nui l v
-
Com;xrncnt Resi stancc
-
Vrrl tagc
-
Currenl
Inrulrtlon te$lnt
A mcl surenr*n, Jrt l hc i nsul ati on resi stunce gi vcs rl nc of thc besl gui dcs to rhe stal c of hcal rh
rl l cl cctri cal cqui pmcnt.
' [' hc
rcsi stance shoul d be mcasurcd hctwccn i nsul ated conductors
und curth. and hetwcc' n conducl ors.
An i nsul ati ol t l cstcr i s a hi gh rcl di ng rcsi sti l ncc nrel cr usi ng a hi gh tcsr vttl tagr,.
-
usuul l y 500V
dc.
' I' hc
l ssl r' (tl l l gc i s produccd ci thcr by un i ntcrnul hand-dri vcn gl .ncrut()r or by o bnttery
and cl ccl roni c rol l ugc changcr. A tcst vti l tagc trf 5(X)V dc i s sui tabl e ti rr tcsti ng shi ps'
equi pment rated rl l {(l V . Tcst vol tagcs of l (Ix)V und S{XIf V arc usctl for hi gh vol tagc systcms
on board ship.
t 17
7
---.t -----f_
Therc are rcvernl mnnufacturers of insulation testers available. thc MEGGE,R INSULA-
TION TESTER hcing one of the most common.
J"' tY
a
\.i'.
it
atlraft
ataa
a
Qr ' 1
6
Short thc probcr together, switch to
'M(l'
and turn the handle or prcs3 thc button or
rockerswitch. Thc pointcr should indicate
'0Q'
resistance. Some inrtrumcnts hrve r bettcry
chcck rwitch pooition also. The cquipment to be tcrtcd muit be disconncctcd and lockcd ofi
rmrding to rtandard rafety procedures.
A Mcggcr type lR terter can be uscd to chcck whcthcr the circuit to bc tcsted ir alive. Switch
thc inrtrument io
'MO'
and conncct the probcs to pairs of equipment tcrminalr. DO NOT
Prc$
thc button or lurn thc handle. lf the grinter deflects the circuit is'livc'. lf thc circuit it
'dead',
it ic then safe to press the button (turn
handle), Confirm that a rclirblc crrth
connoction ir obteincd by connecting lhe probcs lo two rcparatc carth
F)ints
on thc
cquipmcnt frame while testing for continuity.
Meacure and log the phase-to'pha*,e insulation rcsistance valucr. Thrce readingt should tr
mcarured:
U - V . V - W . W - U ,
Measure and log the phase-to-earth insulatitln resistance value's. Three readings should bc
measured:
u - E . v - E . w - E .
Insulation resistance decrcases wilh increase of temJrcrature .
1
t 18
rerrrtrn t l Oo
r aar at aaaa
IA
QUESTION
Why slrould thc measurcmcnt of the insulation resistrncc of r machinc ideally bc madc whilc thc
mrchinc is hot?
ANSWER
lnsulation bccomes more'leaky'
(its IR valuc falls) at high temperatures. So testing while hot
shows the realistic lR value at, or near, working temperature. lnsulation resistance can vary
considerably with changing atmosphericconditions. A single readinggives littlc information.
Flowever, the regular recording of insulation resistance readings may show a downward lrend
which indicates impending trouble which can be remedied by preventive maintenancc.
Exampl e of an IR l og:
Confhuity tcclin3
An insulation tester normally also incorporales a continuity test facilily. This is a low
resistance insirumcnt for mcasurinS, the continuity
(or otherwisc) of conductors. lt can bc
used to measure thc low resistancc of cables. motor windings. transformer windings, canhi[t
straps. etc. The pro,cedure for usc is much as for that of thc insulation lester.
PROVE the correct tl perati on of the i nstrumcnt.
ISOLATE and lock off the equipment io be tested
PROVE the equi pment to be dead.
Swi tch the i nstrumenr ro' Q' or' conti nui i y' . Connect thc probes to the ci rcui t. OPcrarc l hc
switch/handle and check the indication on the
'Q'
scale. Lng all readings.
aat a
Jat rll llTr Jai
C l a c U l l : x c . t C O r t a a l a O l
l i t l aa r aa- cal a l r a at t aact t
r p
In the case of three-phase motors and transformers. etc. the comparison betwecn readings is
usual l y more i nrportant than the ahsol ute val dc of the rcadi ngs. Al l rcadi rrgs shoul d trc
i denti cal
-
i f onc readi ng i s si gni fi cantl y smal l er than the others thi s coul d i ndi cate the
possi bi l i ty of short-ci rcui ted turns i n the wi ndi ng bei ng measured. Conversel y, a hi gh con-
ti nui ty resi stance val ue i ndi cates a hi gh resi stance faul t or an open-ci rcui t (e.g. a l oose
connecti on).
Some models of insulation/cohtinuity testers provide means to measure
'ac
voltage' and
resistance in the
'kQ'
range.
Multimcterc
Routine etectrical test work involves measuring amps, volts and ohms. This is most conve-
niently done using a multimeter with all the necessary functions and ranges.
'fhe
instrument
may be the traditional analogue type (pointer and scale) or the more modern digital type with
a numerical display.
Range selection can be by rotary selector switches or a range of push buttons depending upon
the model .
In al l i nstrument model s an i nternal battery i s fi tted for use when measuri ng resi stance.
Before measuring the resistance of a comp,onent it is essential rhat the componenr circuit is
switched off, locked off. and any capacitors discharged. The instrument is likely to be
damaged oiherwise.
The instrument should be proved for correcl operation before use. The manufacturets'
instructions should be carefully followed for this but a general procedure is as follows:
Use the CORRECT probe leads and insert into the correct sockets on the meter. lf the
multimeter is an ANALOCUE type: Ensure the pointer indicates zero
-
adjust if necessary.
Set selector switches to
'51'
and connect probe tips together. Pointer should deflecl to indicate
0Q
-
Adj ust tri mmi ngcontrol s. Check each resi stance range i n thi s way. Set sel ectorswi tch to
' acV' (hi ghest
range). Connect pi obes to a sui tabl e known l i ve suppl y (wi rh
CARE) such as
the el ectri cal workshop test panel . Poi ntcr shoul d i ndi cate correct vol tage.
xr al a, ana t l ' a
r af l acl aa r cal .
aa- I ncl aai i al
l a r o c r r a a r a
r aac aat r l l t cr ar
Instrument battery fai l ure i s checkecl wi th the i nstrument sel to read' Q' wi th the probe ti ps
connected together. lf the pointer fails to reach
'0Q'
after adjustment of the resistance range
adjust knob, the battery must be replaced. The instrument should be switched OFF when not
in use to conserve battery life.
I f t he mbl t i met er i s a DI GI TAL rypc:
Switch on and connect probe tips together. Sct selector switches to
'dcV'
(highest range).
Di spl ay shoul d i ndi cate zero
(Obcf
).
Rep.ot for al l
' dcV'
sel ector swi rch prsi ti ons anrl note
movement of the deci mal poi nt. Scparate probe ti ps. Sct scl cctor swi tches to' Q' (hi ghest
range). Di spl ay shoul d i ndi cat e' OL' (over-range) or' 1i l )' (depcnds upon model ). Connect
probe ti ps together
-
di spl ay shoul d i ndi cate zero (OOO). Repeat for al l
' Q'
sel ector swi tch
posi ti ons and notei movemenl of the deci mal ptl i nt. Set sel ector swi tches to
' acV'
(hi ghest
rangc). Connect protrcs to a sui tabl e known l i ve suppty. Di spl ay shoul d i nrJi catc c()rrecl
vol tage. Test the dc vol tage range al so and note thc pol ari ty i ndi cati on on the nt!.ter.
g t t a c l o i
6 f r t c h c s o l s ? t a Y
r r o o q c v
t oo oc v
t o o c v
I GCV
t OOhv OCv
ooot l
oo. o
o, oo
' o o o
o o o
|
/ 10
In:rrunrcnr hatrcrv fl i l ure i s i ndi catcd hy thc numcri c di spl ay. The tl i spl ay may i ncl ude' BT'
()r
the 6eci rntl poi nt may bl i nk. or some other di spl ay mcans may be used.
' I' he
i nstrumenl
shguld be switchc{
'OFF'
when not in usc ttl conserve baltery life.
These simple
'proving
tcsts' should be performed every time before using the instrument for
.real ' .
l t i s obvi gusl y rl ungerous to touch conductorb bel i evi ng them to be
' dead'
havi ng
checkcd thcm wi th a faul ty i nstrument.
To MEASURE RESTSTANCE the procedure to be a<l opted shoul d be:
PROVE the correct operati on of the i nstrument.
ISOLATE and lock off the equipment to be tested.
PROVE the equi pment to be dead'
SWTTCH the insrrument to the appropriate resistance range, connect the probes to'the
equipment and note the resistance value.
Disconnect the probes and switch the instrument to OFF.
To MEASURE VOLTAGE:
PROVE the crrrrect i nstrument operati on.
SWI' ICH the i nstrumenr ro the HIGHEST vol tage range (ei ther acV or dcV as appropri ate).
CONNECT the probes to the terminals being tested. Takc great care not to touch the probe tipl
and remember that the equipment being tested b LIVE.
NOTE rhe voltage reading" If a LOWER voltage range would give a more accurate reading'
adjust the selector switches accordingly.
No harm will be causerl to the instrumenl by operating the selector range swilches while still
connected ro a l i ve suppl y. BUT CREAT CARE must be taken nol to swi tch i nto ei ther thc
current or resistance mo{e. This woukJ almost certainly operate the instrumeni overlord
device and may cause severe damage to the instrument and danger to yourself. Take your
ti me t6 oprate the sel ector swi tches rturi ng the operati on and THINK about whal ydu are
doi ng.
Di sconnect the probes and swi tch the i nstrument to' OFF' '
To MEASURE CURRENT:
Most test i nsl ruments can onl y measure up to a fcw amps (usual l y l 0A or l ess)'
' I' he
cufrcnt
measuring facility is inrenderl only for light-current componenls, and in particular, fol
electroniC circuits. The insrrument will almost certainly be damaged if it is used to fieasurc
the current of motors and other power ci rcui ts.
The basi c currenr range can be exl ended by usi ng external shunts (dc) and currenl transfor'
mers (ac).
' [hcse
acccssrtri es are gene ral l y purchased separatel y from the i nsl rument manu'
facturers.
The procedure trt be used lo measure. currenl in a light'current circuit is as follows:
PROVE thc corrcct i nstrument operati on.
SWl l ' Cl l rhc i nsrrumcnr rtr thc l l l Gtl EsTcurrent range
(ei ther acA ordcA as appropri ate).
Turn
()Fl -
thc powcr ttt the ci rcui l to be tested and di scharge al l capaci tors.
OPEN tl re ci rcui t i n whi ch current i s trl be measured
-
removi ng a fusc-l i nk often gi ves a
convcni cnt poi nl ti l r currcnt measurcment.
Securel y conncct the prrl bes i n seri es wi rh the kratl i n whi ch current i s to be measured. Turn
ON. rhe power to the i i rcui r bei ng tested, R.l ,.l l hc currcnt val ue ol i the meter di spl ay. Turn
OFF rhi power to rhe circuit being testerJ and discharge all capacitgrs. Disconnect lhc tesl
probes and swi rch the i nstrument to OFF. Reconn.ect the ci rcui t thut was bei ng testcd.
I t ] " i
3 &
r l l l
Diodc tcsts
Di odes can be tested usi ng a di gi tal type i nstrumenr usi ng the fol l owi ng pr<redure:
PROVE the correct i nstrument operati on.
SWITCH the instrument to diode test.
--ff
In thi s test the i nstrument dri ves a smal l dc current (a few mA) through the di ode whi l e i t al so
acts as a vol tmeter to measure the vol t-drop across i t. If l he dbde i s sti l l i n ci rcui t. turn off the
power to the circuit, discharge all capacitors and remove fuses.
CONNECT the probes across the diode.
READ the forward volt drop across the diode. This should be between 500 and 9(Xf mV for a
healthy silicon diode. REVERSE the probe connections and the display should indicate
'over-range'.
lf the display indicates over-range in both directions the diode is
'open-circuit'
faulted.
If the display indicates less than I V in both directions, the diode may be short-circuit faulted.
The associated diode circuitry may be giving false readings and the diode must be discon-
nected from the circuit then retested.
Currcnt clrmpmcters
Power currents can be measured simply by means of a clampmeter. The instrument
'tongs'
are clipped round a single insulated conductor
-
the circuit is not interrupted. The current is
read off either from a digital display or an analogue display.
Many modern cl ampmeters are vi rtual l y mul ti meters wi th the addi ti on of faci l i ti es to measure
voltage and resistance as well as measuring currents up to lffnA.
CARE must be taken when measuri ng the current i n UNINSULATED conductors.
QUF^STION
What woul d acl ampmeter i nrJi cate i f cti ppeO around,a.3-core cabl c whi ch i s known i o bc
carrying l00A ac to a motor?
l lrz
ANSWER
Zero. This is because the clampmeter monitors the magnetic flux around the cable which is
produced by the current. ln a balanced 3-core (or 2-core for that matter) cablc, the net flux is
zero
-
hence no indication. This is why the clampm0ter is only connected arcund one
conductor.
Live-llm teslcrs
When equipment is to be inspected for maintenance it is important that supplies be switchcd
OFF and locked OFF. The equipment must then b PROVED to be dead ro eliminate thc
danger of electric shock. A live-line (or voltage) tester is a simplc device to check whcther or
not a voltage exists at lerminals.
Live-line testers are of various types. Some light up (e.g. screwdriver type with a neon
indicator). some make a noise, others operate mechanical indicators (flags) to indicate thc
approximate value of voltage. It is important that voltage ibsters themselves be PROVED to
operale correctly before use. This can be conveniently carried out at lhe e lectrical workshop
test panel.
Home-made test lamps should not be used as they can be dangerous.
Gcncrd dccfricrl mrfoilenemc
All equipment is subject to wear and tear. ventually reaching rhe end of its useful life when it
must be replaced. As equipme nt nears the end of its lifc its condition can delerioratc to such
an extent as to be a danger to prsonnel and other plant. The purpose of maintename,
therefore, is to extend the useful life by repair and/or replacement of defective parts and lo
maintain it in a safe and serviceable condition.
The marine environment is particularly arduous for electrical equipment due to the damp.
salt'laden atmosphere. extremes of temperature and constant vibration. Shipboard equip-
ment is in particular need of correct maintenance. The continuous operation of equipment on
board ship demands high operating efficiency and optimum economy in ortler to keep down
costs io maintain financial competitiveness.
Nearl y al l equi pment NEEDS mai ntenance. An effi ci ent mai ntenance engi neer must
tct
to
know his plant. He.must be able to check shipc'drawings and diagrams and relate rhiin to
actual equipment. Equipment must be kept under continuous observation so that normel
heahhy operating conditions become known. and abnormal operation becomes quickly
apparent. Faults can then be pin-pointed and corrected before a breakdown occurs. Maintc-
nance can be classified as: Breakdown maintenance. Planned maintenancc and Condition
moni tori ng.
Breakdown mai ntenance (correcti ve
mai ntenance) i s that i n whi ch equi pment i s l eft un-
touched until a breakdown occurs. At this time the equipme nt is re paired or replaccd and any
other speci fi ed mai ntenance prrxedure carri ed out.
Pl anned mai ntenance (preventi ve
mai ntenance) i s that i n whi ch equi pment i s regul arty
inspected and maintained according to a laid rlown rimetable and se t of procedurer speiifyin!
the actual work to be done at parti cul ar ti mes i n order to prevent fai ture of equi pment.
Condi ti on moni tori ng (anothe r form of preventi ve mai ntenance) i s that i n whi ch equi pment
i s regul arl y moni torcd and tested. Whcn moni tori ng i ndi cates that breakdown i s i mmi ncnt,
the equipment is repaired or replaced and any other specified maintenance proccdures
carri ed out. Regul ar i nsul ati on testi ng and vi brati on testi ng arb two forms oi condi ti on
moni t ori ng.
There are several di sadvantages i n breakdown mai ntenance:
l . A seri ous breakdown of equi pment may cause suffi ci ent down ti me to put rhe shi poul of
commi ssi on unti l i t i s repai red.
2. If seve ral .breakdowns occur si mul taneousl y the avai l abl e manpower on board shi p may
not be abl e to cope adequatel y, resul ti ng i n del ays.
3. Some i l ems of equi pment may need thc speci al i st servi ces of the manufacturer to carry
out repai rs whi ch may cause furrher del ays.
Pl anned mai ni enancc i s carri ed out at fi xed regul ar i nterval s whether rhe equi pment needs i t
or not and the ai m i s to prevent breakdown. Thi s type of mai ntenance has the fol l owi ng
advantages:
l. Fewcr brcakdowns and reduced tlown time prlxlutes highdr levels.of operating cffi-
ci ency.
l / r 3------s-
2. Mai ntenancc i s carri cd out l t ti mcs favourabl c to the rrpcrati on of thc pl ant,
3. More effecti ve l atxrur uti l i sul i on bccause mai ntenance i s carri cd oui at ti me s l avourahl e
to ships' staff.
4. Repl acement equi pment can be ordered i n advance.
5. Equi pment i s mai ntai ncd i n a safe condi ti on wi th reduced possi bl c di tngcrs.
6. Where speci al i st manufacturers' scrvi ccs are requi red these can be obtai ned al pre-
pl anned and conveni ent ti mes.
7. Repl acement of short l i fe components at schedul ed ti mes.
Condi ti on moni tori ng i s al so carri ed out at fi xed rcgul ar i nterval s. The ai m i s to forestal l
breakdown by predicting probable failure from the TREND shown by the monitoring results.
The advantage of this type of maintenance is that equipment is not subjected to unnecessary
maintenance.
Equipment is regularly condition-monitored according to a monitoring schedule. Measure-
ments are taken of i nsul ati on resi stance. temperature and vi brati on (of motoqs). Contacts
and other parts subject to deterioration are inspected. All findings are recortled in an
hi stori cal record fi l e. No mai ntenance i s carri ed out unti l fi n<fi ngs i ndi cate that i t i s ahsol utel y
necessary. The equi pment i s then ei ther repl aced. repai red or subj ected l rl a maj or overhaul
as specified on a
job
card.
A ricords system is required. The recorcled measurements of insulalion resistance may show
a fal l i ng trend i ndi cati ng a progressi ve degradati on of i nsul ati on. The equi pment shoul d be
i nspected and repai red before the i nsul ati on resi stance fal l s to a dangerousl y kl w val ue.
The recorded measurements of the vibration of a motor may follow a rising trend indicating
progressive bearing deterioration. Bearings should be replaced before a final bearing failure
(rccurs..
lmmediate repair or maintenance is probably not necessary but should be put in hand
at the earl i est conveni ent momnl .
I
l t 4