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O0V0n!00n!h L0n!uIy
ModernsciencedidnotsringerfectandcomIete,asAthenafrom
the headofZeus,fromthe mindsofGaiIeo and Descartes. Onthe
contrary, the GaiIean and Cartesian revoIution - which remains,
nevertheIess, arevoIution~ hadbeenrearedby astrenuouseort
ofthought.Andthereisnothingmoreinteresting,moreinstructive,
normorethriIIing, thanto studythehistory ofthateort , to write
thestoryofthehumanminddeaingobstinatey withthesameever-
asting robems, encountering the same dimcuties, struggIingun-
tiringywiththesameobstacIes,andsowIyandogressiveIyforging
foritsefinstrumentsandtoos,newconcets,newmethodsofthink-
ing,whichwiIenabeittoovercomethem.
!tis a ongand thriIing story, too ongto be toId here. Yet, in
ordertounderstand the origin, thebearingandthe meaningofthe
GaIieo-Cartesian revoIution, we cannot disense with throwing at
east a gancebackwards, on some ofthe contemoraries and re-
decessors ofGaIiIeo.
Modernhysicsstudies,intheh rstIine,themotionofonderous
bodies,i. e. ,themotionofbodieswhichsurroundus.Thusitisfrom
theeorttoexIainthefactsandthehenomenaofcommon,every-
day, exerience ~ theactoffaIIing, the act ofthrowing~ that ro-
ceedsthetrendofideaswhicheadstotheestabIishmentofitsfunda-
mentaIIaws. Yetit doesnotroceedtherefromexcIusivey, oreven
rinciaIy, or in a direct way. Modern hysics does not originate
fromearth aIone.!tcomes,just asweI,fromtheskies. Anditisin
theskiesthatithndsitserfectionandend.
Thisfact,thefactthatmodernhysicshasits"roogue" andits
"eiIogue"intheskies,or,toseakamoresoberIanguage,thefact
thatmodernhysicstakesitsoriginfromthestudyofastronomica
robIems and maintains this tie throughoutits history, ha a dee
meaning, and carries imortant conseguences. It exresses the re-
acement ofthe cassic and medieva concetion ofthe Cosmos -
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cIosed unity of a guaIitativey determined and hierarchicaIy weI
orderedwhoIeinwhichdierentarts(heavenandearth)aresubect
todierentIaws- bythatoftheUniverse,thatisofanoenandin-
dehniteIy extended entirety of Being, governed and united by the
identity ofits fundamentaI aws , itdetermines the merging ofthe
Fh)sica coelestis with Fh)sica terrestris, whichenabIes theIatterto
use and to aIy to its robIems the methods ~ the hyothetico-
deductivemathematicaItreatment~ deveIoedbytheformer, itim-
Iies the imossibiIity ofestabIishing and eaborating a terrestriaI
hysics, or, atIeast, aterrestriaI mechanics, without aceIestiaI one ,
itexIains theartiaI faiIure ofGaIiIeo andDescartes.
Modern hysics, which, in my oinion, is born with, and in, the
works ofGaIiIeo GaIiIei, Iooks uon the Iaw ofinertiaI motion as
itsbasicandfundamentaIaw.!tdoessoguitecorrectIy,forignotato
motuignoraturnatura, andmodernscience aims attheexIainingof
everythingby"number,hgure,andmotion".True,itwasDescartes,
and not GaIieo - as ! beIieve ! have estabIished in my 0alilean
Studies- who forthehrst timefuIIyunderstooditsbearngandits
meaning.AndyetNewtonisnotwhoIIyincorrectingivingfuIIcredit
forittoGaIiIeo. Asamatteroffact,thoughGaIiIeoneverexIicitIy
formuIatedthisrinciIe~ norcouIdhehavedoneso- hismechanics,
imIicitIy, isbaseduonit. AnditisonIyhisreIuctancetodraw,or
to admit, theuItimate conseguences- or imications- ofhis own
concetion ofmovement, his reIuctance to discard comIeteIyand
radicaIIytheexerientiaIdataforthetheoreticaostuIateheworked
sohardtoestabIish,thatreventedhimfrommakingtheaststeon
the road which Ieads from the hnite Cosmos ofthe Greeks to the
inhniteIniverse oftheModerns.
TherinciIeofinertiaImotionisverysime.!tstatesthatabody,
eto itseIf, remainsinitsstateofrestorofmotion as ongasitis
notinterferedwithbysomeexternaIforce.!notherwords,abodyat
restwiIremaineternaIIyatrestunIessitis "utinmotion".Anda
bodyinmotionwiIIcontinuetomove, andtoersistinitsrectiIinear
uniformmotion, asIongas nothingreventsitfromdoingSO.'
P. Oyl0, Jtudeaalilennea[8lIS. Cl08HH I 3).bCC 0y Frcm the Clcaed
hcrldtctheItt/nite Unirerae[8!lI0OtC JODHS OKIHS \HIVClSIly lCSS, I 5T).
bIl S880 CWlOH Fhilcachiae Naturalia Frinciia Aathematica, PXIO08l8
SIVC lCgCS HOlUS LCX LOlUS O0HC ClSCVCl8IC IH Sl8lU SUO QUICS0CHUI VCl
0OVCHUI UHIOl0IlCl IH UIlC0lU0, HISI QU8lCHUS 8 VIlIDUS I0lCSSIS 0OgIlUl Sl8lU0
I1C 0UllC. bCC CWIOH HU )CS0!ICS IH P. KOyl0, Newlon0nlud|cx[LOHUOH,
2
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The rinciIc of inertiaI motion aears to us erfectIy cIear,
IausibIe, and even, racticaIIy, seIf-evident. !t seems to us retty
obvious thata body atrestwiIIremainatrest, i.e. wiIIstaywhereit
is ~ wherever thatmaybe~ andwiI|notmove away onits own
accord.Andthat,conversomodo,onceutinmotion,itwiIIcontinue
tomove,andtomoveinthesamedirectionandwiththesameseed,
because,asamatteroffact,wedonotseeanyreasonnorcausewhy
itshouIdchangeeither.AIIthataearstousnotonIyIausibIe,but
evennaturaI.YetitisnothingIessthanthat.!nfact,the"evidence"
and the "naturaIness" whch these concetions and considerations
areenoyingareveryyoung.weowethemto GaIiIeoandDescartes,
whereas to the Greeks, as weII as to the MiddIe Ages, they wouId
aearas"evidentIy"faIse,andevenabsurd.
Thisfact can onIy beexIainedifwe admit- orrecognize~ that
alI these "cIear" and "simIe" notions, which form the basis of
modernscience,arenot"c!ear"and"simIe"erseetinse,butonIy
asa art ofacertainsetofconcets and axioms, aartfromwhich
they are not "simIe" ataII. This, inturn,enabIesusto understand
whythedi scoveryofsuchsimIeandeasythingsas,forinstance,the
fundamentaIIawsofmotion,whichtodayaretaughtto, andunder-
stood by, chiIdren, has needed such a tremendous eort ~ and an
eortwhich oen remained unsuccessfuI ~ by some ofthe deeest
and mightiest minds ever roduced by mankind. they had not to
"discover" orto "estabIish"these simIe and evidentIaws, but to
workoutandtobuiIdutheveryframeworkwhichmadethesedis-
coveriesossibIe.Theyhad,tobeginwith,toreshaeandtore-form
ourinteIIectitseIf togiveto itaseriesofnewconcets, toevoIvea
new aroach to being, a new concet ofnature, d new concet of
science, in otherwords,anewhiIosohy.
Weare so weII acguaintedwith, orrathersoweIIaccustomedto,
theconcetsandrinciIeswhichformthebasisofmodernscience,
that it is nearIy i mossibIe for us to areciate rightIy either the
obstacIes that had to be overcomefor their estabIishment, or the
dimcuItiesthattheyimIyandencomass.TheGaIiIeanconcetof
moton(aswelI as that ofsace) seems to us so "naturaI" thatwe
even believe we have derived it from exerience and observation,
though, obviousIy, nobodyhaseverencountered aninertiaImotion
for the simIereason that sucha motion isutterIy and absoIuteIy
Chapman and HaII, I65 , Cambrdgc, Massachusctts : Harvard Unvcrsty
Frcss, I 65).
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imossibIe. Weare eguaIIy weII accustomed to the mathematicaI
aroachtonature,soweIIthatwearenotawareoftheboIdnessof
GaIiIeo'sstatementthat"thebookofnatureiswritteningeometricaI
characters", any more than we are conscious of the aradoxicaI
daringofhisdecisiontotreatmechanicsasmathematics,thatis, to
substituteforthereaI,exeriencedworIdaworIdofgeometrymade
reaI,andtoexpIainthereaIbytheimossibIe.
Inmodernscience,asweIIweknow,motionisconsideredasureIy
geometricaItransIationfromoneointtoanother.Motion,therefore,
innowayaectsthebodywhichisendowedwithit ,tobeinmotion
ortobeatrestdoesnotmakeanydierenceto,orroduceachange
in, the body whether in motion or at rest. The body, as such, is
utterIy indierent to both. ConseguentIy, we are unabIe to ascribe
motiontoadeterminedbodyconsideredin itseIf. A bodyisonIyin
motoninitsreation to somethingese- some other body- which
weassumetobeatrest.Wecan,therefore,ascribeittotheoneorto
theotherofthetwo bodies, adlibitum. AIImotionisreIative.
!ustasitdoesnotaectthebodywhichisendowedwithit,agiven
motion ofabodyinnowayinterfereswithothermovementsthati t
mayexecuteatthesametime.Thusabodymaybeendowedwithany
numberofmotions,whichcombinetoroducearesuItaccordingto
ureIygeometricaI ruIes , and, tice cersa, every givenmotioncanbe
decomosed, according to these same ruIes, into any number of
comonentones.
Yet, athisnotwithstanding, motion is considered to be a state,
and restanotherstate, utterIy andabsoIuteIyoosedtotheformer,
sothatwemustaIyaotceinordertochangeastateofmotionof
givenbodytothatofrest,andtice tetsa.
It is thereforeerfectIy evident that a body in a state ofmotion
wiIersistinthisstateforever ,andthatitwiIInomoreneedaforce
or a cause by which to exIain, or to maintain, its uniform, recti-
Iinear movement, than it wiII need one by which to exIain or to
maintain its rest.
Thus, inorderto aearevident, therinciIe ofinertiaImotion
resuoses(a)theossibiity ofisoIatingagivenbodyfromaIits
hysicaIenvironment,(b) theconcetionofsacewhichidentihesit
with the homogeneous, inhnite sace ofEucIidian geometry, and
(c)a concetionofmovement- and ofrest~ whichconsidersthem
asstatesandIacesthemonthesameontoIogicaIIeveIofbeing.
NowonderthattheseconcetionsaearedrettydimcuIttoad-
4
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mit- andevent ounderstand~ t othecontemorariesandredeces-
sors ofGaieo, no wonder that to his Aristoteian adversaries the
notionofmotionasa|ersistent, substantiareation-stateaeared
justasabstruseandcontradictoryasthefamoussubstantiaformsof
theschoasticsaeartous , nowonderthatGaieoGaieihadto
strugge before he succeeded informing that concetion, and that
great, butsomewhatesser,minds, suchasBrunoandeven Keer,
faiedtoreachthatgoa.Asamatteroffact,eventoday,theconce-
tion wearedescribingis bynomeanseasytogras, asanyonewho
everattemted toteach hysicstostudcntswho did notearnitat
schoowicertainytestify.Commonsense,indeed,is~ asitaways
was- medievaandAristoteian.
Wemustnowgiveourattentiontothere-Gaiean,chieyAristo-
teian,concetionofmotionandofsace. I wi not, ofcourse,en-
deavourtogivehereanexositionofAristoteianhysics ,Iwiony
ointoutsomeofitscharacteristicfeaturesasoposedtothemodern,
andI woud ike to stress, becauseit isfairywideymisareciated,
that theAristoteian hysics is a very thoroughy thought out, and
verycoherent,bodyoftheoreticaknowedge,which,besideshaving
averydeehiosohicafoundation,is,asstatedby. Duhemand
. Tannery,'inrettygoodaccordance~ amuchbetterone,indeed,
thanthe Gaiean- with the exerience, ateastwiththecommon-
senseexerience, ofoureverydayife.
Aristoteianhysicsisbasedonsense-ercetion,andistherefore
decidedy non-mathematica. It refuses to substitute mathematica
abstractionsforthecoourfu,guaitativeydeterminedfactsofcom-
monexerience,anditdeniestheveryossibiityofamathematica
hysics on the ground (a) of the nonconformity of mathematica
concetstothedataofsense-exerience,(b)oftheinabiityofmathe-
matics to exain guaity and to deduce movement. There is no
guaity,andnomotion,inthetimeessreamofhgureandnumber.
Asformotion lo:s - orrather"oca motion"- Aristoteian
hysicsconsidersitakindofrocessofchange~ incontradistinction
withrest,which, beingthegoaandtheendofmotion, istobere-
cognizedasastate. Motion ischange(actuaizationordecay) and
F. Ouhcm, Lc 5)atmc du mcndc, (Fars : Hcrmann, II5), pp. 4 h
F. Tanncry, "GaIIccctIcs prncpcs dc Ia dynamquc", Amcirca acicntquca,
Y(TouIousc : Frvat, Fars: Gauthcr-YIIars, I 26),pp.3h.
or ArstotIcrcst,bcnadchccncy,rivatic, s ona Iowcr ontoIocaI Icvcl
than moton,actuacntiaittctcntia inquantumcatinctcntia.

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conseguent!yabody nmotionchangesnoton!ytsrelaiionst oother
bodies,but,atthesametime,undergoesitseIfarocessusofchange.
Motion,therefore,aIwaysaectsthebodywhichenduresit,and,con-
seguentIy,ifabodyisendowedwithtwo(ormore)movements,these
movements interfere with each other, imedeeach other, and even
are, sometimes,incomatibIewitheachother. Besides,AristoteIian
hysicsdoesnotadmittheright,oreventheossibiIity,ofidentifying
theconcretewor!d-saceofitsweIIorderedandniteCosmoswith
the "sace" ofgeometry, anymorethanitadmitstheossibiIityof
isoIatingagivenbodyfromitshysicaI(andCosmicaI)environment.
IndeaIingwith a concrete hysicaIrobIemitis, therefore, aIways
necessarytotakeintoaccounttheworIdorder,toconsiderthercaIm
ofbeing(the "naturaIlace") towhicha givenbodybeIongsby its
nature ,and,ontheotherhand,itisimossibIetotrytosubectthese
derentreaImstothesame! aws,even anderhasesecia!!y~ to
thesameIawsofmotion.E.g.hear)thingsdescendwhereaslightones
ascend,terrestriaIbodiesmoveinrightIines,ceIestiaIonesincircIes,
andsoon.
Itisevident,evenfromthisbriefaccount,thatmotion,considered
asrocessuso/change(andnotasstate),cannotgoonsontaneousIy
and automaticaIIy, that it reguires, for its ersistence, a continu-
ous action of a mover or cause, and that it stos dead as soon
as this action does not exercise itseIf uon the body in motion,
i. e. as soon as the body in guestion is searated from its mover.
Cessante causa, cessat e`ectus. ItfoIlows therefrom, with absoIute
necessity, that the kind of motion which s ostuIated by the
rinciIe of inertia is utterIy and erfectIy imossible, and even
contradictory.
Andnowwemustcometothefacts.IhavesaidaIreadythatmodern
scienceoriginatedincIoseconnectionwithastronomy,morereciseIy
ittakesitsoriginin, andfrom,thenecessityofmeetingtheh)sical
obections formuIated by some ofthe Ieadingscientists of the time
againsttheCoernicanastronomy.Asamatteroffact,theseobjec-
tions were nothing Iess than new. guite to the contrary, though
resentedsometimes nasIightIymodernzed form, asby reIacing
the throwing ofa stone ofthe oIder argument by the hring ofa
cannon-baII, they were fundamentaIIy identicaI with those that
AristotIe and PtoIemy raised against the ossibiIity that the earth
moves. It isveryinteresting, andveryinstructive, to see them dis-
6
LLl LL L M bL l L HNLLLl L
cussed and rediscussed by Coernicus himseIf, byBruno, Tycho
Brahe, KeIer, andGaIiIeo.'
DvestedfromtheimaginatvecIothingwhichtheygavethem,the
argumentsofAristotIeandPtoIemycanbeboiIeddowntothestate-
mentthat,iftheearthweremoving,this movementwouIdaectthe
henomena occurringon its surface in two erfectIydehniteways .
( l ) the tremendous veIocity of this (rotationaI) movement wouId
deveIo a centrifuga force ofsuch a magnitudethat aI thebodies
notconnectedwiththeearthwouId0y away,and(2)thissamemove-
ment wouId cause aII bodies not connected, or temorariIy discon-
nected with it, to Iag behind. Therefore, a stone faIIing from the
summitofatowerwouIdneverIandatitsfoot,and,a]ortiori,astone
(orabuIIet)thrown(orshot)erendicuIarIyintotheairwouIdnever
faII back to the Iace fromwhich it dearted, because, during the
time ofitsfaII ori ght,thisIacewouId be"guickIyremovedfrom
beIowitandraidIymovedaway".
WemustnotsmiIeatthisargument.Fromtheointofviewofthe
AristoteIianhysicsitiserfectIysound. Sosoundthat, onthebasis
ofthishysics,itisutterIyirrefutabIe.Inordertodestroyitwemust
change the system as a whoIe and evoIve a newconcetofmove-
ment . theconcetofmovcmentofGaIiIeo.
AswehaveaIready seen,moionfor theAristoteIian is arocess
whichaectsthemoved,whichtakesIace"in"thebodyinmotion.
A faIIing body moves from A to B, from a certain Iace, situated
above the earth, toward the Iatter, or, more exactIy, towards its
centre. ItfoIIowsthestraight Iinewhich connects these two oints.
IfduringthismovementtheearthrevoIvedarounditsaxis,itwouId
describe,inresecttothisIine(theIineIeadingfromAtothecentre
ofthe earth) a movement in which neither this Iine, nor the body
whichfoIIowsit,takesanyartwhatever. themovementoftheearth
doesnotaectthebodywhichissearatedfromit. Thefactthatthe
earthbeneathitmovesawayhasnoeectonitstrajectory.Thebody
cannotrunaertheearth. ItfoIIowsitsathasifnothinghaened
because,infact,nothinghaenedto it.Eventhefactthattheoint
A(thesummitofthetower)didnotstaystiII,butarticiatedinthe
movement ofthe earth, does not have any bearng onits moton.
whathaened totheointofdeartureofthebody(afteritIeit)
has not the sIightest inuence onitsbehaviour.
' 5cc P. Koyrc,

tudeaahennea, part, GaIIccctIa Io d`ncrtc (Fars:

Hcrmann, I 3).
1
mLMYb l Lb L mLbLHLmL
Thisconcetionmay aearstranget ous . Buti t i s by nomeans
absurd . it isexactIy in thatway that we reresent to ourseIves the
movement orroagation~ ofaray ofIight.AnditimIiesthat,
ifthe earth were moving, a body thrown from the to ofa tower
wouIdneverfaIIatitsfoot , andthata stone,oracannonbaII, shot
verticaIIy intheair,wouIdneverfaIIbacktotheIacewhereitwent
from.ItimIies,a/ortiori,thatastoneorabaIIfaIIingfromtheto
ofthemastofamovingshiwiIIneverfaIIatitsfoot.
WhatCoernicus himseIfhas toreIy to theAristoteIian isvery
oor. He argues that the unhay conseguences deduced by this
Iatter wouId foIIow, indeed, in the case ofa "vioIent" movement.
Butnotinthatofthemovementoftheearth,andtothethingsthat
beIongto theearth. forthemitisindeedanaturalmovement. This
is the reason why aII these things, cIouds, birds, stones, etc., etc.,
artakeinthemovement,anddonotIagbehind.
TheargumentsofCoernicusareveryoor.Andyettheybearthe
seed ofa newconcetionwhichwiIIbedeveIoedbyIaterthinkers.
ThereasoningsofCoernicusaIytheIawsof"ceIestiaImechanics"
to terrestriaI henomena, a ste which, at Ieast imIicitIy, invoIves
abandoning the oId, guaIitative division of the Cosmos into two
derent worIds. Besdes ths, Coernicus exIans the aarentl)
rectilinear ath ofthefaIIingbody by itsarticiationinthe move-
mentoftheearth,this movement, beingcommontotheearth,tothe
body,andtoourseIves,remainsforus"asifitwerenon-existent".
Thearguments ofCoernicusare based onthemythicaIconce-
tion ofa "community ofnature" between the earth and "earthen"
things. Later science wiII have to reIace it by the concet ofthe
hysicaIsystem,ofthesystemofthingssharingthesamemovement ,
itwiII havetoreIy uon theh)sicaland not onIy uon the otical
reIativity ofmotion. AII ofwhich is imossibIe on the basis ofthe
ArstoteI anhiIosohy ofmotonandmakesitnecessary toadot
anotherhiIosohy. As a matteroffact, as we shaII see more and
morecIearIy, itiswithahiIosohicaIrobIem thatwe aredeaIing
inthisdiscussion.
TheconcetionofhysicaI or, rather, mechanicaI system, which
wasimIicitIy resentinthe arguuents ofCoernicus, wasworked
outbyGiordanoBruno.ByastrokeofgeniusBrunosawthatitwas
necessaryforthenewastronomytoabandonoutrighttheconcetion
ofa cIosed and hnite worId, and to reIace it by that ofan oen
inhnite Universe. This invoIves the abandonment ofthe no!ions of
8
LL LL L M bL W1 L HNLL L
"natura"acesandmotionsasoosedtonon-natura,vioentones.
IntheinhniteuniverseofBruno,inwhichthePatonicconcetionof
saceas "recetace"(pa) takes theaceoftheAristoteiancon-
cetion ofsace as enveoe, a "aces" are erfecty eguivaent
and therefore erfecty natura for a bodies. Therefore, whereas
-
Coernicus distinguishes between the "natura" movement of the
earth andthe"vioent" movement ofthethingsuon it, Brunoex-
ressyassimiatesthem. Athathaensontheearthifwesuose
it in movement has, as he exains, its exact counterart in what
haens ona shi giding on thesurface ofthesea, andthemove-
mentoJtheearth has nomoreinuenceuonthemovementouthe
earththanthemovementoftheshionthoseofthethingsthatarein
the shi. The conseguences deduced by Aristote woud ony take
ace ifthe origin, i. e. theace ofdearture, ofthe moving body
wereexternato, andnotconnectedwith,theearth.
Brunostatesthattheaceoforiginassuchdoesnotayanyroe
inthe determination ofthe motion (the ath) ofthe moving body,
thatwhatis imortantis theconnection orackofconnection- of
this"ace"withthemechanicasystem.Itisevenossibehonibile
dictu- for the sefsame"ace" to ertainto two or moresystems.
Thus, for instance,ifweimaginetwomen, one ofthem ontheto
ofthemastofashiassingundera bridge, andtheother onthat
bridge,wemayimagine,further,thatatacertainmoment,thehands
ofbothofthemwibeinthesefsameace.If,atthatmoment,each
ofthemshaetastonefa,thestoneofthemanonthebridgewi
fadown (and in thewater), but thestone ofthe manonthemast
wi foowthe movement oftheshi, and (describing, reativey to
thebridge,aecuiarcurve)faatthefootofthemast.Thereason
for this dierentbehaviour, exains Bruno, is simy the fact that
the ast stone havingsharedthemovement oftheshi retainsinit
a art ofthe "moving virtue" which has beenimressed into it.
As we see, Brunosubstitutes for the Aristoteian dynamics the
imetas-dynamics ofthe Parisian nominaists. Itseems to him that
this dynamics rovides a sumcient basis for his construction. A
beiefwhich,as historyhasshownus,was anerror. Itistruethatthe
concetion of the imetas, virtue, or ower, which animates the
movingbody,roducesitsmotion,andusesitsefuinthisroduc-
tion,enabed himtorefutethearguments ofAristote , ateastsome
ofthem.Yetitwas notabetomeetaofthem,stiesswas itabe
tocarrythestructure ofmodernscience.
V
^LMYb Lb L ^LbL1L^L
TheargumensofGiordanoBrunoaearouscrfecyreason-
abIe.Yeinhisimeheymadenoimressionwhaever , neiheron
Tycho Brahe, who in his oIemics wih Rohmann reeas imer-
urbabIy he od ArisoeIian obecions (hough in a somewha
modernized resenaion); nor even on KeIer, who, hough in-
0uenced by Bruno, deems himseIf obIiged o reurn o hose of
Coernicus, reIacing,indeed,hegrea asronomer'smyhicaIcon-
ceionofhecommuniy ofnaure by a hysicaconceion,ha
ofheforce ofaracion.
TychoBrahe0aydeniesha abuIe faIingfromheoofhe
mas ofa movingshiwiI comedowna isfoo. He amrmsha,
quieonheconrary,iwiIIagbehind,andIagbehindhemorehe
faserheshiismoving.!us ascannon-baIIs,shovericaIyinhe
air,wouIdnever- onamovingearh- beabIeocomebackohe
cannon.
Tycho Brahe addsha, ifheearhwere moving, as Coernicus
wansi,iwoudneverbeossbeosendacannon-baohesame
disanceoheeas andohewes .heexremeIyraidmovemen
ofhe earh, if i were shared by he baII, wouId imede is own
movemen and even, ifhebaI had o move in a direcionoosie
o ha ofhe movemen ofhe earh, renderi uerIy imossibIe.
Theoin ofviewofTychoBraheaearsousreysrange. Ye
we mus noforgeha o himheheoriesofBrunoseemeduery
unbeIievabIe and even exaggeraedy anhroomorhic. To reend
hawo bodies,faIingfromhesameIaceandgoingohesame
oin (he cenre ofhe earh), wiIfoowwo dieren ahs, de-
scribewodierenrajecories,forhereasonha oneofhemwas
associaed wih he shi, whereashe oherwas no, means for he
ArisoeIianoreendhahebuIIeinquesionremembersisas
associaion,knowswhereihasogo,andisendowedwihheower
andhe abiIiyo do so. Which, in urn, imIiesha i is endowed
wihasou.
Besides, aswehaveaIreadymenioned,fromheoin ofview of
he ArisoeIian dynamics asweII asfromhe oin ofview ofhe
dynamics ofhe imetus- wo dieren movemens aIways imede
each oher,which isroved byheweI-knownfac ha heseedy
moion ofhebuIIe(inahorizonaI0igh)revens i from moving
downwards and enabIes i o say inhe air much Ionger han i
woudbeabIeodoifwe simye i faI|oheboom.
In shor, Tycho Brahe does no admi he muuaI indeendence
l
LL LLL L L bL1L11L LNLLL1L
ofmotions - nobodydidtiII GaIiIeo, heisthereforeerfectIy right
notto admit thefacts, andthetheories, whichimIy it.
The osition taken by KeIeris ofa guitearticuIarinterestand
imortance. Itshows us, better than any other, the uItimatehilo-
sohical roots of the GaIiIean revoIution. From a ureIy scientihc
oint ofview, KeIer- to whom we owe, inter alia, the very term
inertia is, undoubtedIy, oneoftheforemost- ifnottheforemost-
geniusofhistime .itisneedIesstoinsistuonhisoutstandingmathe-
maticaI gis, eguaIIed onIy by the intreidity ofhis thought. The
verytitIeofoneofhis works,Ph)sica coelestis, is a chaIIengetohis
contemoraries. And yet, hiIosohicaIIy, he is much nearer to
AristotleandtheMiddIeAgesthantoGaIiIeoandDescartes.HestiII
reasons interms ofthe Cosmos , for him motion and rest are stiII
oosed as Iight and darkness, as being and rivation of being.
ConseguentIy, the term inertia means for him the resistance that
bodies oose,nottochange ofstate,asforNewton,butonIyand
soIeIyto movement, therefore,justIikeAristotIe andthehysicists
ofthe MiddIeAges, heneeds acause oraforce to exIain moion,
anddoesnotneedonetoexIainrest, justIikethem,hebeIievesthat,
searated from the mover, or derived from the inuence of the
moving virtue or ower, bodies in motion wiII not continue their
movement, but, on the contrary, wiII immediateIy sto. Therefore,
inordertoexIainthefactthat,onthemovingearth,bodies,evenif
theyarenotattachedtoitbymateriaIbounds,donot"Iagbehind",
atIeastnotercetibl)' , thatstones thrownuwards comedownto
thesottheywerethrownfrom,thatcannon-baIIsy(nearIy)asfar
to the west as to the east,hemustadmit~ or hnd out- a reaI force
whichbindsthemtotheearth,anduIIsthemaIong.
This force is found by KeIer in the mutuaI attraction of aII
materiaI, orat Ieast ofaII terrestriaI, bodies, which means, for aII
racticaI uroses, in the attraction ofaII terrestriaI things by the
earth. KeIer conceives aII these things as bound to the earth by
innumerabIe eIastic chains , it is the traction ofthese chains which
~
exIains that cIouds, vaours, etc., stones, and buIIets, do notstay
immobiIe in the air, butfoIIowtheearthinits movement , and the
factthatthese chains areeverywhere exIains, inKeIer's oinion,
theossibiIityofthrowingastoneorhringacannonagainstitsmove-
ment .theattractingchainsuIIthebuIIettotheEastasweIIastothe
Westand thus theirinuenceis nearIyneutraIized. ThereaImove-
' 5ccA. Koyrc,

tudcaal/lccanca (Fars : Hcrmann, I 3), pp, I 72-4.

l l
METAVHYS1CS AO MEASUEME!T
ment ofthe body (the cannon-baII shotveticaIIy) is, ofcouse, a
combinationo mixtueof(a)its ownmovementand(b)thatofthe
eath.But,astheIatteiscommontoaIItheexaminedcases, itis the
fome onIy thatcounts. Itis theefoe cIea (though Tycho Bahe
didnotgaspit)that,whiIetheIengthofthepathofabuIIetshotto
the eastand ofanothe shot to thewest die, as measued inthe
space ofthe univese, nevetheIess theipaths onthe eath ae the
sameoneaIy thesame. WhichexpIains whythesame foce, po-
duced bythesameamount ofpowde,can thowthemtothesame
distanceinbothdiections.
The AistoteIian o Tychonian objections against the movement
ofthe eath ae thus satisfactoiIy disposed of. And KepIe points
out thatitwas aneo to assimiIate theeathtothe movingship.
infact, theeath"magneticaIIyattacts"thebodies ittanspots,the
shipdoes not.Theefoe, onashipweneeda mateiaIbond, which
is pefectIyuseIessinthecaseoftheeath.
WeneednotdweIIuponthispointanyIonge .weseethatKepIe,
thegeatKepIe, thefounde ofmoden astonomy, thesame man
whopocIaimedtheunityofmatteinthewhoIeuniveseandstated
thatubimateria,ibigeometria,faiIedtoestabIishthebasisofmoden
physicaIsciencefo one and onIy oneeason. hestiII beIieved that
motionis,ontoIogicaIIy, onahigheIeveIofbeingthanest.
Ifnow,ae oubiefhistoicaIsummay, wetunouattention
toGa|ileoGaIilei,weshaIInotbesupisedthathe,too,discussesat
geat,andevenataveygeat,Iength,thetime-wonobectionsofthe
AistoteIians.WeshaII,moeove,beabIetoappeciatetheconsum-
mate skiII with which, in his Dialogue on the tuo greatest uorld
s)stems,hemashaIs his agumentsandpepaesfothehnaIassauIt
onAistoteIianism.
GaIi|eoisweII awae ofthetemendous dimcuIty ofhis task. He
knows pefectIy weI| that he has to deaI with powefuI enemies.
authoity, tadition, and- wost ofthem aII- common sense. Itis
useIess topesentpoofstominds not abIe togaspthei vaIue.Use-
Iess,fo instance, toexpIainthedieencebetweenIinea andadiaI
veIocity(theconfusionbetweenwhichis thewhoIebasis ofthest
ofthe AistoteIian and PtoIemac obections) to peopIe not accus-
tomedtomathematicaIthinking.Youmustbeginbyeducatingthem.
YoumustpoceedsIowIy,stepbystep, discussingandediscussing
the oId and the newaguments , you must pesent them invaious
forms , you must muItipIy exampIes, invent new andstiking ones .
I2
OA11LEO A!O THE 5C1E!T1I1C 8ENO1UT1O!
theexampIeoftheide thowinghisspea intheai andcatchingit
again , the exampIe ofthebowmanstaining his bowmoe oIess
and thusgivingto the aowageate oaIesseseed, theexampIe
ofthebowp!acedona movingcaiageandabIetocompensatethe
seedofthecaiagebyageate o Iesseseedgiventohis aows.
!nnumeabIe othe exampIes which,step bystep, Ieadus, oathe
his contempoaies, to the acceptance ofthis paadoxicaI, unhead
of point ofview, accoding to which motion is something which
pesists inbeinginseeterse and does noteguie any cause, o
foce, fo its pesistence. A had task. Because, as I have a!eady
said, it is not natuaIto think ofmotionintems ofspeedand of
diectioninstead ofthose ofeot, ofimpetus, and ofmomentum.
But, as a matte offact, we cannot think ofmotion in tems of
eot andimpetus . we onIycanimagine in thisway.Thuswemust
choose . eithe tothinko toimagine. To thinkwith GaIi!eo, o to
imaginewithcommonsense.
Foitisthought,pueunaduIteatedthought,andnotexpeience
o sense-peception, as untiIthen, thatgives thebasis fo the "new
science" ofGaIiIeo Ga!iIei.
GaIiIeois pefect!yc!eaaboutit.Thusdiscussingthefamous ex-
amp!e ofthe ba!! faIIingfom the top ofa mast ofa movingship,
GaIiIeo expIains atIength thepincipIeofthephysicaIe!ativity of
motion,thedieencebetweenthemotiono!thebodyase!ativeto
theeath, andas eIativeto theship, andthen, uithoutmakingan)
aealtoexerience,concIudesthatthemotionoftheba!I,inrelation
totheshi,doesnotchangewiththemotionoftheIatte. Moeove,
when his empiicaIIymindedAistoteIian opponentasks him, "Did
youmakeanexpeiment"Ga!i!eopoud!ydecIaes ."No,andIdo
notneedit,as withoutanyexpeience !canammthati tisso,be-
cause it cannot beothewise."
Thus necesse detemines esse. Good physics is made a riori.
Theoy pecedes fact. Expeience is useIess because befoe any ex-
peienceweaeaIeadyinpossessionoftheknow!edgeweaeseeking
fo. Fundamenta||awsofmotion(andofest),|awsthatdetemine
the spatio-tempoaI behaviou of mateiaI bodies, ae Iaws of a
mathematicaI natue. Of the same natue as those which goven
eIations and!aws ofhgues andofnumbes.Wend and discove
them not in Natue, but in ouseIves, in ou mind, in ou memoy,
as P!ato!ongagohas taughtus .
Anditis there/orethat,as GaIiIeo pocIaims ittothegeatestdis-
l J
mMYb Lb L mb LHm
may oftheAristoteIian, we are abIe to give topropositions which
describethe"symptoms"ofmotionstrictIyandpureIymathematicaI
proofs, todeveIoptheIanguageofnaturaIscience,toguestionNature
by mathematicaIIy conducted experiments,' and to read the great
bookofNature which is "writtenin geometricaI characters".
ThebookofNaturei swritteningeometricaIcharacters . thenew,
GaIiIean,physics is ageometryofmotion,ustasthephysics ofhis
truemaster, thedicusXrchimedes, wasageometryofrest.
Geometryofmotion,ariori,mathematicaIscienceofnature. . . .
Howisi tpossibIe!TheoId,AristoteIianobectionsagainstthemathe-
matizationofnaturebyP!ato,havethey,atIast,beendisprovedand
refutedNotguite.Thereis,indeed,noguaIityinthereaImofnum-
ber, andtherefore GaIiIeo - as,forthesumereason,Descartes is
obIigedtorenounceit,torenouncethevariegated,guaIitativeworId
ofsense-perceptionand commonexperienceandtosubstituteforit
the coIourIess, abstract Archimedian worId. Andas for motion. . .
there is, guite certainIy, no motion in numbers . Yet motion at
IeastthemotionofArchimedianbodies intheinhnite homogeneous
space ofthe new science - is governed bynumber. Bythe leges et
rationes numerorum.
Motionissubected to number, thatissomethingwhich even the
greatest ofthe oIdPIatonists, thesuperhumanArchimedes himseIf,
did not know,somethingwhichwas Iefttodiscovertothis "marveI-
IousAssayer of Nature",ashispupiIandfriendCavaIIiericaIIshim,
thePIatonistGaIiIeo GaIiIei.
ThePIatonismofGaIiIeoGaIiIei(aprobIemdiscussedbymeeIse-
where) is, indeed, guite dierentfrom that ofthe FIorentine Aca-
demy,ustashis mathematicaIphiIosophyofnaturesdierentfrom
theirneo-pythagoreanarithmoIogy.ButinthehistoryofphiIosophy
there is more than one PIatonic schooI, more than one PIatonic
tradition,anditisstiIIaguestionwhetherthctrendofideasrepresen-
tedbyIambIichusandProcIusismoreorIessPIatonicthanthetrend
representedbyArchimedes.
" Lxpcrmcnt- ncontradstncton tomcrccxpcrcncc- s aqucston wc put
to Naturc. nordcrto rocvc ananswcr wcmustlormuIatct n somc dcntc
lanuac. ThcGaIIcanrcvoIuton can bc boIcd downto thc dscovcry ol that
Ianuac,tothcdscovcryolthclactthatmathcmatcssthcrammarolsccncc.
t s lhs dscovcry ollhc ralonaI struclurc olNaturc whch gavc thc ar/cr/
loundatonstothcmodcmcxerimentalsccnccandmadctsconsttuton possbIc.
5cc"GaIIco and FIato", bcIow.
orlhcwhoIcdoxoraphctradton Archmcdcss ahilcachualatcnicua.
I4
LL LL L M bL L HNLLL1L
Iwi!!no! discuss!hisob!emhee.Ye! Imus!oin! ou!!ha!fo
!hecon!emoaiesandui!sofGa! i!eo,as we!! asfo Ga!i!eohim-
se!f, !he dividing!ine be!ween Ais!o!e!ianism and P!a!onism was
efec!!y c!ea. !n !hei oinion !he oosi!ion be!ween !hese !wo
hi!osohies was de!emined by a dieen! aecia!ion ofma!he-
ma!icsasscience,andofi!so!efo !hecons!i!u!ionof!hescienceof
Na!ue. Accoding!o !hem, ifonesees in ma!hema!ics anauxi!iay
science which dea!s wi!h abs!ac!ions and is, !heefoe, ofa !esse
va!ue !han sciences dea!ing wi!h ea! being, such asphysics, ifone
amms!ha!hysicscanand mus!bebui!!diec!!y onexeienceand
sense-ecetion, one s an As!o!e!ian. If, on !he con!ay, one
c!aimsfo ma!hema!icsasueiova!ue,andacommandingosition
in!hes!udyof!hingsna!ua!,oneisaP!a!onis!.Accoding!y,fo !he
con!emoaiesandui!sofGali!eo,aswe!!asfo Ga!i!eohimse!f,
!he Ga!i!ean science, !he Ga!i!ean hi!osohy ofNa!ue, aeaed
asae!un!oP!a!o,avic!oyofP!a!ooveAis!o!!e.
!mus!confess!ha!,!ome,!hisin!ee!a!ionseems!obeefec!!y
sensib!e.
!0

LuI!0O unO u!O

ThenameofGaileo Gaieiisindissoubyinkedwiththescientic
revoutionofthesixteenthcentury,oneoftheprofoundest,ifnotthe
mostprofound,revoutionsofhumanthoughtsincetheinventionof
the Cosmosby Greekthought . arevoutionwhich impiesaradica
inteectua"mutation", ofwhichmodernpysicascienceisatonce
theexpressionandthefruit.'
Thisrevoutionissometimescharacterized, and atthesametime
expained, as a kind ofspiritua!upheava, anuttertransformation
ofthewhoefundamentaattitudeofthehumanmind .theactiveife,
thecitaacticatakingthepaceofthe8ap/a, thecitacontemlatica,
which unti thenhad beenconsideredits highestform. Modern man
seeks the domination ofnature,whereasmedieva or ancient man
attempted above a its contempation. The mechanistic trend of
cassica physics of the Gaiean, Cartesian, Hobbesian physics,
scientia actica, oeratica, which was to render man "master and
possessorofnature" has,therefore,tobeexpainedbythisdesireto
dominate,to act , ithastobeconsideredpurey andsimpyanout-
ow ofthis attitude, an appication to nature ofthe categories of
thinkingofhomo/aber.ThescienceofDescartes- anda/ortiorithat
ofGaieo isnothingese than(ashasbeensaid)thescienceofthe
craftsmanorofte engineer.
mustconfessthat!donotbeievethisexpanationtobeentirey
correct. !t is true, of course, that modern phiosophy, as we as
modernethicsandmodernreigion,aysmuchmorestressonaction,
onvpa(:s thanancientandmedievathought.Anditisustastrueof
' 5cc J. H. RandaIl, Jr., The makin c/ the mcdem mind (Boston. I 26),
pp.220h.,23I h;scc.aIsoA. N. Whtchcad,5cienceandthemcdern hcrld(Ncw
York: I 25).
Thswdcsprcadconccpton must notbcconluscdwth that ol Bcrson,lor
whom aII physcs, thc ArstotcIanjust as much as thc Ncwtonan, s n thc Iast
analyss thcworkolhcmc/aber.
5ccL. Labcrthonncrc,Jtudeaaur Deacartea (Fars : Vrn,!35), |1,pp. 288 h,
27, 304: "physqucdcI'cxpIotaton dcschoscs".
l 6
LL1LL L LL
modenscience.Iam!hinkingof !heCa!esianphysics and i!s ana-
ogies ofueys, s!ings and eves. S!i !he a!!i!ude we havejus!
descibedis muchmoe!a! ofBacon- whoseoein!hehis!oyof
scienceis no!of!hesameode- !han!ha! ofGaieooDesca!es.
Theiscienceismadeno!byengineesocasmen,bu!bymenwho
sedom bui! o made any!hing moeea!han a !heoy. The new
bais!ics wasmadeno! bya!ices andgunnes,bu!agains!!hem.
AndGaieodidno!eanhisbusinessfompeopewho!oiedin!he
asenasandshiyadsofVenice.Qui!e!hecon!ay. he!augh!!hem
theirs. Moeove, !his !heoy exains !oo much and !oo i!!e. I!
exains!he!emendousscien!ihcpogessof!heseven!een!hcen!uy
by!ha! of!echnoogy.Andye!!hea!!ewas inni!eyessconspicu-
ous !han !he fome. Besides, i! foge!s !he !echnoogica achieve-
men!s of!he MiddeAges. I! negec!s!heus! fo owe andwea!h
which,!houghou!i!s his!oy, insiedachemy.
O!heschoashaveinsis!edon!heGaieangh!agains!au!hoi!y,
especiay agains!!ha! ofAis!o!e: agains! !hescien!icandphio-
sohica!adi!ion, uphed by!heChuchand!augh!in!he unive-
' Bacon s thc announccr, thc buccinatcr, olmodcm sccncc, not onc ol ts
crcators.
" Thc Cartcsan and Ga!Ican sccncc has, olcoursc, bccn olcxtrcmc mpor-
tancclorthccngnccrandthctcchncanu!tmatc!ythasproduccd a tchncaI
rcvoIuton.Ycttwascrtcdanddcvc!opcdncthcrbycngnccrsnor tchncans,
but bythcorstsandph!osophcrs.
"Ocvartcs artsan" s thc conccpton olCartcsansm dcvc!opcd by Lcroy
in hsDeacarteaacclal(Fars: I 3I), andbroughttoabsurdtyby.Borkcnau n
hs book Der
[
beran vcm/eudalen zum brerIichen helt0lId (Fars: I 34).
Borkcnaucxp!ansthcbrtholthcCartcsanph!osophyandsccnccbythatola
ncwlormolcconomccntcrprsc,.c. manulacturng.5ccthccrtcsmolthcwork
ol Borkcnau, a crtcsm much morc ntcrcstng and nstructvc than thc book
tscIl,byH. Grossmann,"Ocgcsc!!vhalt!chcnGrund!agcndcr mchanstschcn
Fh!osophc unddc Manulaktur",Zeltachrt/r5czla(crachun(Fars: I35).
AslorGa!Ico,hcs!nkcdwththctradtonsol thc artsans,bu!dcrs,cnn-
ccrs,ctc.,olthc Rcnassancc byL.O!vhk,Calllec undaelne Zelt (Ha!!c:I 27),
andmorcrcccnt!ybyL.Z!sc!,"Thc5oco!ogca!Rootsol5ccncc", TeAmerican
Jcurnalc/5cclclc),XLY(I 42).Z!sc!strcsscsthcro!cp!aycd bythc"supcror
artsans" olthcRcnassanccn thcdcvc!opmcnt olthc modcm vcnthc mcn-
ta!ty. t s,olcoursc,pcrlcct!y tructhatthc artsts,cngnccrs,archtcts, ctc., ol
thcRcnassanccp!aycdanmportantpartnthcstrugg!caganst thcArstotc!an
tradton, and that somc ol thcm - Ikc Lconardo da Ync and Bcncdctt -
attcmptcdcvcntodcvc!opancw,ant-Arstotc!andynamcs;yct ths dynamcs,
aswasconc!usvc!yshownbyOuhcm,wasntsmanlcaturcsthatolthcFarsan
nomnaIsts, thc lmetuadynamcs olJohn Burdan and Nco!cOrcsmc. And l
Bcncdctt, bylarthc most rcmarkab!c olthcsc"lorcrunncrs" ol Ga!Ico, trans-
ccnds somctmcs thc !cvcI olthc "Farsan" dynamcs, t s not bccausc ol hs
work as cngnccr and gunncr but bccausc olhs study olArchmcdcs and hs
dccsontoapp!y"mathcmatca!ph!osophy" tothcnvcstgatonolnaturc.
I7
mMYb Lb L mbm
sities. They have stressedtheroeofobservation and exerience i n
thenewscienceofnature.'It iserfectIytrue,ofcourse,thatobser-
vation and exerimentation form one of the most characteristic
featuresofmodernscience.ItiscertainthatinthewritingsofGaIiIeo
we nd innumerabIe aeaIs toobservationand toexerience, and
bitterironytowardmenwho didn'tbeIievetheireyes becausewhat
they saw was contrary to the teaching ofthe authorities, or, even
worse,who(IikeCremonini) didnotwanttoIookthrough GaIi|eo's
teIescoe forfear ofseeIngsomethingwhichwouIdcontradicttheir
traditionaI theories and beIiefs. It is obvious that it was ust by
bui!dinga te!escoe and by!ookingthrough it, by carefuI observa-
tion ofthemoonandtheIanets,byhisdiscoveryofthesateIlitesof
Iuiter,thatGaIiIeodealtacrushingbIowtotheastronomyandthe
cosmoIogyofhistimes.
StiII one mustnotforget that observation andexerience, in the
senseofbrute,common-senseexerience,didnotIay amaorroIe~
or,ifitdid,itwasanegativeone, therole ofobstacIe~ in thefoun-
dation ofmodern science.Thehysics ofAristot!e, andevenmore
thatoftheParisianNominaIists,ofBuridanandNicoIeOresme,was,
asstatedbyTanneryandDuhem, muchnearerto commonsense ex-
eriencethanthoseofGaIiIeo andDescartes. It is not"exerience"
but "exeriment" which Iayed - but only ater- a great ositive
roIe. Exerimentation isthemethodicaIinterrogationofnature, an
' AlrcndIycrtchsrcproachcdmclorhavngncgIcctcdthssdcolGaIIco's
tcachng. (5ccL. OIschk,"Thc5ccnthcFcrsonaItyolGaIIco",Bulletin c/the
Hiatcr] c/medicine, 7 [I 42.)1 mustconlcss 1 donotbcIcvc havc mcrtcd
thsrcproach,thoughdondccdbcIcvcthatsccnccsprmarIythcory and not
thcgathcrngol"lacts".
J. Mcycrson, !denlilc et rcalitc (Fars: Alcan, I 26), p. I 56, 3rd cd., shows
vcry convncngIy thcIackolaccordbctwccn"cxpcrcncc" and thcprncpIcs ol
modcrnphyscs.
F. Ouhcm, Ic 5]atme du mcnde (ars: Hcrmann, I I 3), 1, pp. I 4 h.
"Ccttc dynamquc, cnchct, scmbIc s'adaptcr s hcurcuscmcnt aux obscrvatons
courantcsqu'cIlcncpouvatmanqucrdcs`mposcr, tout d'abord, 0 I 'acccptaton
dcsprcmcrsquacntspccuIcsurIcslorccs ct Icsmouvcmcnts . . . . Fourquc Ics
physccns cn vcnncnt 0 rcctcr Ia Oynamquc d`Arstotc ct J consIrurc Ia
Oynamqucmodcrnc,IIcurlaudracomprcndrcqucIcslatsdontIssontchaquc
jour!cstcmonsncsontaucuncmcntIcsfatssmpIcs,cIcmcntarcs,auxqucIIcs Ics
Ios londamcntaIcs dcIa Oynamquc sc dovcnt mmcdatcmcnt appIqucr , quc
Ia marchc du navrc trc par cs haIcurs, quc Ic rouIcmcnt sur unc routc dc Ia
voturc attcIcc dovcnt ctrc rcgardcs commc dcs mouvcmcnts d`unc cxtrcmc
compIcxtc,cnunmotqucpourIcprncpcdcIasccnccdumouvcmcnt,on dot,
parabstracton, condcrcr un mobIc qui, sous I 'acton d'unc lorcc unquc, sc
mcut dans Ic vdc. Or, dc sa Oynamquc Arstotc va usqu` concurc qu`tm tcI
mouvcmcnt cst mpossbIc."
l 8
LL LL L LL
in!erroga!ion whichpresupposes andimpies alanguage inwhich!o
formua!e!hegues!ions, anda dic!ionarywhichenabes us !oread
and!oin!erpre!!heanswers.YorGaieo,asweknowwe,i! was in
curves andcirces and!rianges, inma!hema!icaorevenmorepre-
cisey,ingeometr/callanguageno!in!heanguageofcommonsense
orin!ha!ofpuresymbos-!ha!wemus!speak!oNa!ureandreceive
heranswers. Ye! obviousy !he choice of!he anguage, !he decision
!oempoyi!,coudno!bede!erminedby!heexperiencewhichi!suse
was !o makepossibe. I! had!ocomefromo!hersources .
S!i o!her his! orians of science and phiosophy' have more
modes!y!ried!ocharac!erizemodemphysics,ashxicx,bysomeof
i!s saien! !rai!s . for ins!ance, by !he roe which !he principe of
inertiapaysini! .Perfec!yrigh! ,oncemore.!heprincipeof/nert/a,
in con!radis!inc!ion !o !ha! of!he Ancien!s, hods an ou!s!anding
paceincassica mechanics . I! is i!s fundamen!a awofmo!ion, i!
impici! ypervades Gaieanphysics andgui!eexplici!y!ha! ofDes-
car!esandofNew!on.Bu!!hischarac!eris!icseems!ome!obesome-
wha! supercia. Inmy opinion i! is no! enoughsimpy!o s!a!e!he
fac! . Wehave !o unders!and and !o explain i! !o expain why
modenphysics was abe!o adop!!hisprincipe,!o unders!and why,
and how, !he principe ofiner!ia mo!ion, which !o us appears so
simpe, so cear, so pausibe and even sef-eviden!, acguired ! his
s!a!us ofsef-evidence and ariori!ruth whereas for!he Greeks as
weas for!he!hinkers of!heMiddeAges !heidea!ha! abodyonce
pu! in mo!ionwicontinue!omoveforever,appearedas obviousy
andeviden!yfalse,andevenabsurd.
Ishalno!try!oexpainhere!hereasonsandcauses!ha! produced
!hespiri!uarevou!ionof!hesix!een!hcen!ury.Itis forourpurpose
suicien!!odescribei!,!odescribe!hemen!aorin!eec!uaa!!i!ude
ofmodernscience by!wo (connec!ed) charac!eris!ics . They are . (l)
!hedes!ruc!ionof!heCosmos,and!herefore!hedisappearancefrom
scienceofaconsidera!ionsbasedon!ha! no!ion ,(2)!hegeome!ri-
za!ion ofspace !ha! is, !hesubs!i!u!ion of!he homogeneous and
5cc Kurd Lasswitz, Ceachichteder Ztcmiatik (Hamburgand Lcpzg: ! 80),
l, pp. 23 , L. Mach, Die Aechattik ittihrer Entiicklutt (lcpzg: Brockhaus,
I 2! ),pp. l I T H,8thEd. , [.WohIwll,"OcEntdcckungdcs Bcharrunggcsctzcs",
Zeitachr /r llXera]chcloie utd 5rachwiaaettac/ia//, voIs. XV and XY
(! 883
and I884),and E.Cassrcr, DaaErketttttniarcblem itt der Fhilcachic und
hiaaenacha/t deritettcrett Zeit (BcrIn. I I I), , pp. 34h, 2nd Ed.

5cc. Mcycrson, mentitetralit(Fars: AIcan, ! 26),pp. I24.

Thctermrcmans, ol coursc, and Ncwton stI!spcaks ol thcCosmosand ts
ordcr(ashcspcaks olimetua), butn ancntrcIyncw mcanng.
l 9
^LMYb 1 Lb L ^LbL1L^L
abs!ac! sace ofEucIidian geome!y fo !he guaIi!a!iveIy dieen-
!ia!ed and conce!e woId-sace conce!ion of !he e-gaIiIean
hysics.These!wochaac!eis!icsmaybesummeduandexessed
as foIIows . !he ma!hema!iza!ion (geome!iza!ion) of na!ue and,
!heefoe,!hema!hema!iza!ion(geome!iza!ion)ofscience.
ThedissoIu!ionof!he Cosmosmeans! he des!uc!ionof!he idea
ofa hieachicaIIy-odeed hni!e woId-s!uc!ue, of!he idea ofa
guaIi!a!iveIy and on!oIogicaIIydieen!ia!edwoId,andi!seIace-
men!by!ha! ofanoen,indehni!eandeveninhni!eunivese,uni!ed
and govened by !hesame univesaI Iaws , a univese in which, in
con!adic!ion!o!he!adi!ionaI conce!ionwi!h i!s dis!inc!ion and
oosi!ionof!he!wowoIdsofHeavenandofEa!h,aII!hings ae
on !he same IeveI of Being. The Iaws of Heaven and !he Iaws
of Ea!h ae meged !oge!he. As!onomy and hysics become
in!edeenden!, and even unihed and uni!ed.' And !his imIies
!he disaeaance fom !he scien!ihc ou!Iook ofaII considea!ions
based on vaIue, on efec!ion, on hamony, on meaning and on
uose.They disaea in!heinhni!esace of!he new Univese.
I! is in!his newUnivese, in!his newwoId ofa geome!y made
eaI, !ha! !he Iaws of cIassicaI hysics ae vaIid and hnd !hei
aIica!ion.
ThedissoIu!ionof!heCosmos Ieea!wha!IhaveaIeadysaid .
!his seems !o me !o be !he mos! ofoundevoIu!ion achieved o
sueedby!hehumanmindsince!heinven!ionof!heCosmosby!he
Geeks .I!isaevoIu!ionsoofoundandsofa-eaching!ha! man-
kind wi!hveyfew exce!ions, ofwhomPascaIwasone fo cen-
!uiesdidno! gasi!sbeaingandi!s meaning,which,evennow,is
often misvaIued and misundes!ood.
Theefoe wha! !he foundes of moden science, among !hem
GaIiIeo,had!odo,was no!!oci!icizeand!ocomba!ce!ainfauI!y
!heoies, and!o coec! o !oeIace!hembybe!!eones.Theyhad
' As havc cndcavourcd to show c!scwhcrc (

tudea alikennea, part ,

Gallccct!a!od'ncrtc[Fars:Hcrmann,I 3]
)
modcrn sccnccrcsu!ts lrom ths
unhcaton olastronomy andphyscs whch cnab!cs t to app!y thc mcthods ol
mathcmatcaI nvcstgaton, tII thcn cmpIoycd n thc study ol cc!cstaI phcno-
mcna, to thc study ol thc phcnomcna ol thc sub!unar worId.
5ccE.Brchcr,Hiatcire de lahilcachie,vo!. , lasc. I (Fars : I2), p. 5 :
"OcscartcsdcgagcIaphysqucdc!ahantscduCosmos hc!!cnquc,c'cst--drc dc
!`magcd'unccrtanctatprvIcgcdcschoscsqusatslatnos bcsonscsthctqucs.
. . . 1l n'y a pas d'ctat prvIcgc pusquc tous Icsctats sont cquva!cnts. l n`ya
doncaucuncpIacc cn physquc pour !arcchcrchc dcs causcs hna!cs ct !a cons-
dcratondumc!!cur."
2
LL LLL L LL
t odosomethingguitedieent.Theyhad t odestoyonewodaud
toepaceitbyanothe. TheyI:adtoeshapethefamewok ofou
inteectitsef,toestateandtoefomits concepts,toevoveanew
appoachtoBeing, a newconceptofknowedge, a newconcept of
science- andeventoepaceapettynatuaappoach,thatofcom-
monsense,byanothe whichis notnatuaata.'
This expains why the discovey ofthings, ofaws,whichtoday
appeasosimpeandsoeasyastobetaughttochiden- theawsof
motion,theawoffaingbodies - eguiedsuchaong,stenuous,
andoenunsuccessfueotofsomeofthegeatestgeniusesofman-
kind,aGaieo,aDescates.Thisfactintunseemstometodispove
themodenattempttominimize, o eventodeny,theoiginaity,o
at east the evoutionay chaacte, of Gaieo's thinking, and to
make cear that the appaent continuity in the deveopment of
medIevaandmodenphysics (acontinuitysoemphatica!y stessed
by Caveni and Duhem) is an iusion. !t is tue, of couse,
that an unboken tadition eads fom the woks of the Paisian
Nominaists to those of Benedetti, Buno, Ga!ieo and Descates.
" 5cc F. Tanncry, "GaIIcc ct Ics prncpcs dc Ia dynamquc", n mmclrca
aclcntquca, Y (TouIousc. I 26), p. 3. "5 pour|ugcr Ic systcmc dynamquc
d'Arstotc, on lat abstracton dcs prcugcs qu dcrvcnt dc notrc cducaton
modcmc, s on chcrchc 0 sc rcpIaccr dans I`ctat d'csprt quc pouvat avor un
pcnscurndcpcndantaucommcnccmcntduXYcsccIc,IcstdmcIcdcmon-
natrc quccc systcmc cst bcaucoup pIus conlormc quc Ic ntrc 0 I`obscrvaton
mmcdatcdcslats."
5ccmytudcaalilcnnca,part ,La Io dc Iachutc dcscorps (Fars . Hcr-
mann, I 3).
5ccCavcm,5tcrladclmctcdcacrlmcntalclnItalla,5voIs.(1rcnzc. I 8I-6),
partcuIarIy voIs. Y and Y; F. Ouhcm, Lc mcuvcmcntabaclu ctlc mcuvcmcnt
rclat(Fars . I05); "Oc I'acccIcraton produtc par unc lorcc constantc",
Ccnra Intcmatlcnal dc |
,
hlatclrc dca aclcncca, IHc acaalcn (Gcncva. I );
tudeaaurLcnarddc Ilncl: Ccux qu'lla luctccux qul |
,
cnt lu, 3 voIs. (Fars.
I 0-I 3),partcuIarIyvoI.,LcarcuracuraarlalcnadcCalllc. Morc rcccntIy
thc thcss ol contnuty has bccn uphcId by J. H. RandaII, Jr., n hs brIIant
artcIc "5ccnthc Mcthod n thc 5chooI ol Fadua", Jcumal c/thc Hlatcr) c/
Idcaa, (!40) ; RandaII convncngIy shows thc progrcssvc cIaboraton ol thc
mcthodol"rcsoIutonandcomposton"nthctcachngolthcgrcatIogcansol
thcRcnassancc.YctRandaIIhmscIlstatcsthatthcrcwas "onccIcmcntIackng
n ZabarcIIa`s lormuIaton ol mcthod. hc dd not nsst that thc prncpIcs ol
naturaI sccncc bc mathcmatcaI" (p. 204), and that Crcmonn's Tractatua dc
acdla "sounds Ikc thc soIcmn warnng ol thc grcat tradton ol ArstotcIan
ratonaI cmprcsm to thc trumphant mathcmatcans" (bd.). As a mattcr ol
lact, t s|ust ths "mathcmatcaI cmphass addcd to thc IogcaImcthodoIogyol
ZabarcIIa" (p. 205) whch lorms, n my opnon, thc contcnt ol thc vcntc
rcvoIutonolthcscvcntccnthccntury;and,nthcopnonolthctmc,thcdvdng
Iinc bctwccnthcloIIowcrs olFIato and thoscolArstotIc.
2l
^LMYb Lb TL
@
Lb 11L^LT
(l myse!f have added a Iink to the history of that tradition.)'
Sti!! the conc!usion drawn therefrom by Duhem is a de!usion. a
we!!-prepared revo!ution is neverthe!ess a revo!ution, and in spite
ofthefactthatGa!i!eo himse! finhisyouth(aswe!! asattimesDes-
cartes)sharedtheviewsandtaughtthetheoriesofthemedieva!critics
ofAristot!e, modern science, the sciencebornfrom his eorts and
discoveries, does not fo!!ow the inspiration of the "Parisian fore-
runnersofGa!i!eo",itp!acesitse!fatonceonaguitedierent! eve!
ona!eve!whichI shou!d!iketoca!! theArchimedian one. Thetrue
forerunnerofmodernphysicsisneitherBuridan, norNico!eOresme,
norevenIohnPhi!oponos,butArchimedes.
I
Thehistory ofthe scientihc thought ofthe Midd!eAges and ofthe
Renaissance, nowbeginningto be somewhatbetter known, can be
dividedintotwoperiods.Orbetter,asthechrono!ogica!ordercorres-
ponds on!y very rough!y to that division, the history ofscientihc
thought may be, grosso modo, divided into three stages orepochs,
which correspond in turn to three dierent types ofthinking. the
Aristote!ian physics hrst , thenthe physics ofimetus, inaugurated,
!ikeeverythinge!se,bytheGreeks, ande!aborated inthecurrentof
the fourteenth century by the Parisian nomina!ists , and hna!!y
modern, mathematica!, Archimedian or Ga!i!ean physics.
Itisthesestagesthatwehndrepresentedintheworksoftheyoung
Ga!i!eo,whichthusnoton!ygiveusinformationonthehistory or
the prehistory ~ ofhis thought, onthe mobiles and motives which
dominatedandinspiredit,butpresentusatthesametime,condensed
andasitwerec!arihedbytheadmirab!emindofitsauthor,astriking
and deep!y instructive picture ofthe who!e historyofpre-Ga!i!ean
physics. Letusbrieyfo!!owthis story, beginningwith Aristote!ian
physics.
Aristote!ianphysicsisfa!se,ofcourse ,andutter!yobso!ete.Never-
' 5cc my Jtudea ulJennea, part , !`aubc dc Ia sccncc cIassquc (Fars:
Hcrmann, I 3).
Thcsxtccnthccntury,atIcastts!attcrha!l,sthcpcrodolthcrcccpton ol
thcstudyand olthcgraduaI undcrstandngolArchmcdcs.
WcowcthatknowIcdgcchchytothcworksolF.Ouhcm(tothc works ctcd
abovc,p. 2I n. 3, mustbcaddcd:LeaOriineadelaatatique,2 vo!s. [Fars . I 05],
andLe5]atmedumcnde, 5 vo!s. [Fars . I I3-IT|)andtothoscolLynn Thorn-
dkc (scc hs monumcnta! Hiatcr] c/maic andExerimental 5cience, 6 vo!s.
[Ncw York; I 23-4I]). 5cc a!so E. J. O|kstcrhus, hal en hcr (Gronngcn:
I 24).
22
LL L lL L LL
the!ess,iti sa"physics",thati s, ahigh!ythoughnon-mathematica!!y
e!aborated' science. It is not a chi!dish phantasy, nor a brute and
verba!restatementofcommonsense,butatheory,thatis,adoctrine
which, starting ofcourse with the data ofcommon sense, subects
them toanextreme!ycoherentand systematictreatment.
The facts ordata which serve as a basis for this theoretica! e!a-
boration arevery simp!e, and inpracticewe admit themustasdid
Aristot!e. Itsti!!seemstoa!! ofus"natura!"toseeaheavybodyfa!!
"down".Andust!ikeAristot!eorSt.Thomas, weshou!dbedeep!y
astonishedtoseeaponderousbody stoneorabu!! risefree!yin
the air. This wou!d seem to us pretty "unnatura! ", and we wou!d
!ookforanexp!anationintheactionofsome hidden mechanism.
Inthesamewaywesti!!hndit"natura!"thattheameofamatch
points"up", andthatwep!aceourpotsandpans"on"thehre.We
shou!d be astonished and shou!d seekforanexp!anationif,forin-
stance,wesawtheameturnaboutandpoint"down".Sha!!weca!!
thisconception,orratherthisattitude,chi!dishandsimp!e?Perhaps.
We can even point out that according to Aristot!e himse!fscience
beginsprecise! yby!ookingforanexp!anationforthingsthatappear
natura!.Stil!,whenthermodynamicsassertsasaprincip!ethat"heat"
passesfromahottoaco!dbody,butnotfromtheco!dtoahotone,
does it not simp!y trans!ate an intuition ofcommon sense that a
"hot"body "natura!!y" becomes co!d, butthataco!done does not
"natura!!y" become hot? And even when we are stating that the
centre ofgravity ofa system tends to take the!owest positionand
does notrisebyitse!f, arewenotsimp!ytrans!atinganintuition of
common sense, the se!f-same intuition which Aristote!ian physics
expressesbyitsdistinctionofmovementinto"natura!"and"vio!ent"?
Moreover, Aristotc!ian physics no more rests content than ther-
modynamics with mere!y expressing in its !anguage the "fact" of
common senseustmentioned, it transposes it, and the distinction
between "natura!" and "vio!ent" movements takes its p!ace in a
genera! conception ofphysica! rea!ity, a conception of which the
principa! features seem to be . (a) the be!ief in the existence of
gua!itative!ydetermined"natures",and(b)thebe!iefintheexistence
" F. Ouhcm, "Oc I'accc!craton produtc par unc lorcc constantc", Ccmtea
renduaduHeccnra /ntemat/cnaldehilcach/e(Gcnava. I04).
Thc systcmatc charactcr ol Arstotcan physcs s ocn not sumccntIy
apprcatcdbythcmodcmhstoran olsccnthcthought.
5ccE.Mach,D/emechan/k/n/hrerEntw/cklun,8thEd.(Lcpzg: Brockhaus,
I 2I), pp. I24 .
NN L 2J
^LMYb Lb L ^LbL1L^L
ofaCosmos thatis,thebeiefintheexistenceofprincipesoforder
invirtue ofwhichthe entirety ofrea beingsforms a hierarchicay
orderedwhoe.
Whoe,cosmicorder, andharmony. theseconceptsimpythatin
theUniversethingsare(orshoudbe)distributedanddisposedina
certain determined order, that their ocation is not a matter of in-
dierence(neitherforthem, norforthe Universe) , thatonthecon-
trary eachthing has, accordingtoits nature, a determined "pace"
intheUniverse, whichisinsomesenseits own.' A paceforevery-
thing, and everything in its pace . the concept of"natura pace"
expressesthistheoreticademandofAristoteianphysics.
Theconceptionof"naturapace"isbasedonapureystaticcon-
ception oforder. !ndeed, ifeverything were "in order", everything
woudbeinitsnaturapace,and,ofcourse,woudremainandstay
there forever. Why shoud it depart from it On the contrary, it
woud oer a resistance to any attempt toexpe ittherefrom. This
expusioncoudbeeected ony byexertingsome kind ofciolence,
andthebodywoud seektocomeback,if,andwhen,owingtosuch
a ciolence, itfounditsefoutof"its" pace.
Thus every movement impies some kind ofcosmic disorder, a
disturbance ofthe word-eguiibrium, being eithera directeectof
ciolence, or, on the contrary, the eect of the eort of Being to
compensateforthe ciolence, torecoverits ostandtroubed order
and baance, to bring things back to their natura paces, paces
where they canrestand remain. !tis thisreturningtoorder which
constitutespreciseywhatwehavecaled"natura"movement.
Upsettingeguiibrium,returningtoorder .itisperfectycearthat
orderconstitutesarmanddurabestatewhichtendstoextendtsef
indenitey.Thereisthereforenoneedtoexpainthestateofrest,at
eastthestate ofabodyatrestinitsnatura, properpace, itisits
ownnaturewhichexpainsit,whichexp!ains,forinstance,theearth's
beingatrest in the centre ofthe word. !tisobviousikewise that
movementisnecessariy a transitory state . natura movementends
naturay when itreaches its goa. And as for vioent movement,
Aristoteistoo optimistictoadmitthatthis abnormastatus coud
endure , moreover, vioent movement is disorder creating disorder,
' tson!yn"ts"
p!accthatabcngcomcstotsaccomp!shmcnt and bccomcs
tru!ytscIl. Andthatsthcrcasonwhyttcndstorcach thatp!acc.
Thcconccptons ol"naturaIp!accs" and "natura! motons" mp!ythat ol a
hntcUnvcrsc.
24
LPL LLL PL 1 LPL
andtoadmitthati tcouIdendureindeIniteIywouIdmean,infact,to
abandontheveryideaofaweII-orderedCosmos.AristotIetherefore
hoIdsthereassuringbeIiefthatnothingwhichiscontranaturamossn
esseeretuum.
Thus, aswehaveustsaid, intheAristoteIianphysicsmovement
is anessentiaIIytransitorystate. TakenIiteraIIy,however, thisstate-
mentwouIdbeincorrect, andeven doubIy incorrect. Asamatterof
factmovement,thoughitisforeacho/themoredbodies, oratIeast
forthose ofthe subIunar worId, for the movabIe things ofour ex-
perience, anecessariIytransitoryandephemeraIstate,isnevertheIess
for the whoIe ofthe worId a necessariIy eternaI, and therefore an
eternaIIynecessaryphenomenon- a phenomenonwhichwecannot
expIain without discovering its origin and cause in the physicaI as
weII as the metaphysicaI structure ofthe Cosmos. Such ananaIysis
wouIdshowthattheontoIogicastructureofmateriaIBeingprevents
it from reaching the state of perfection impIied in the notion of
absoIuterest,andwouIdenabIeustoseetheuItimatephysicaIcause
ofthe temporary, ephemeraI and variabIe movements ofsubIunar
bodies in thecontinuous, uniform, and perpetuaI movement ofthe
heavenIyspheres.Ontheotherhand,movementstrictIyspeakingis
notastate.itisaprocess,aux,abecoming,inandbywhichthings
constitute,actuaIizeandaccompIishthemseIves.ItisperfectIytrue
thatbecominghasBeingasitsend ,andthatmovementhasrestasits
goaI.YetthisimmutabIerestofafuIIyactuaIizedbeingissomething
utterIydierentfromtheheavyandimpotentimmobiIityofabeing
unabIeto moveitseIf, thehrstis somethingpositive, is "perfection
andactus",thesecondisonIya"privation".Movement,therefore-
arocessus, a becoming, a change- hndsitseIfpIaced ontoIogically
betweenthetwo.Itisthebeingofeverythingthatchanges,ofwhich
thebeingisaIterationandmodihcationandwhichisonIyinchang-
jng and in modifying itseIf. The famous AristoteIian dehnition of
movement actusentisinotentiainquantumestinotentia which
DescarteswiIIhndperfectIyuninteIIigibIe- expressesadmirabIythe
' AristotIc,Fh)aique (Fars . 5occtcd'
_
dtondcsBcIIcsLcttrcs, voI. (books
-V) I 52,voI.!l (booksV-V!) I 56.ArstotIc,7heFh)aica(Cambrdgc, Mass. :
Harvard Unvcrsity Frcss, ! 52).
MovcmcntcanrcsuItonIylromaprcvousmovcmcnt.ThcrclorccvcryactuaI
moton mpIcsan nhntcscrcsolprcccdingoncs.
nahntcUnvcrscthconIyunlormmovcmcntwhchcanpcrsstndchntcIy
sacrcuIaronc.
5cc Kurt RczIcr, Fh)aica andReaIit) (NcwHavcn, I 40).
25
mt MYb l Lb L mtbLHtmt
fact .movementisthebeingothcactus ofeverythingwhichisnot
God.
Tomoveis thus to change, aliter etalitersehabere, tochangein
itse!fandinespecttoothes.Thisimp!iesontheonehandatemof
e!ation o ofcompaison, withespect to whichthe thingmoved
changes itsbeingoeation,whichimpies ifweaedea!ingwith
!oca!movement'- theexistenceofahxedpointwithespecttowhich
the moved moves itse!f, a hxedunmovabepoint , whichobvious!y
can onIybethecente ofthe Univese. Onthe othe hand the fact
that evey change, evey pocess needs a cause toexp!ain it, imp!ies
thateveymovementneeds amove topoduceit, which,as!ongas
the movementendues, keeps it going. Movement indeed does not
maintainitse!f,asestdoes. Rest astateoapivation- does not
needtheactionofanycause toexp!ainits pesistence. Movement,
change,anypocess ofactua!ization(o ofdecay),andevenofcon-
tinuous actua!ization or decay cannotdispensewithsuch action. If
youemove the cause, movement wi!! stop. Cessante causa cessat
e_ectus.
Ifweaedea!ingwith "natua! "movement,thiscause,this moto
is the vey natue ofthe body, its "fom",which seeks to bing it
backto its pace, and thus keeps the movementgoing. lice rersa,
movementwhichis contra naturameguies thoughoutits duation
the continuous action ofan extenalmove conjointto the moved.
Removethemove,andthemovementwi!!stop. Detachitfomthe
moved, andthemovementwi!! egua!ystop. Aistot!e, as we know
we!!, does not admit action at a distance , evey tansmission of
movement imp!ies accoding to hima contact. Theefoe thee ae
onytwokindsofsuchtansmission.pessueandtaction. Tomove
abodyyouhaveeithetopushotopu!!it.Theeisnoothemeans.
Aistoteian physics thus foms an admiab!e and pefect!y co-
heenttheoywhich,tote!!thetuth,has on!yoneaw(besidesthat
ofbeing fase) , thatofbeingcontadicted byeveydaypactice, by
thepacticeofthowing. Butatheoeticiandesevingthenamedoes
LoaI movcmcnt- Iocomoton- s onIy onc, though a partcu!arIy mpor-
tant,kndol"moton" (-l.o:s),moton nthcrcaIm olspacc,n contradstnc-
ton to aItcraton, moton n thc rcaIm ol quaIty, and gcncraton and dccay,
moton n thcrcaIm olbcng.
ArstotIc s pcrlctIy rght. Noproccss olchangc or bccomngcan dspcnsc
wthacausc. Andlmoton, nmodcrnphyscs, pcrsstsby tscIl, tsbccausc t
s nolongcr U proccss.
Thcbody tendatotsnaturaIpIacc,buttsnotattractedby t.
26
LL LLL L LL
notaIIowhimseIft obetoubIedbyanobectionfomcommonsense.
Ifandwhenheencountesa "fact"thatdoesnothtintohistheoy,
hedenies its existence. And ifhecannotdenyit, heexpIainsit. And
itisintheexpIanationofthiseveydayfact, thefact ofthowing, a
movement continuing in spite ofthe absence ofa"move",a fact
appaentIy incompatibIewithhistheoy,thatAistotIegivesusthe
measueofhisgenius.ThisansweconsistsintheexpIanationofthe
appaentIymotoIessmovementofthepojectiebytheeaction of
theambientmedium,theai,o thewate. 'Thetheoyisastokeof
genius. UnfotunateIy(besidesbeingfaIse),fomthepointofviewof
commonsenseitisutteIyimpossibIe.Nowondetheefoethatthe
citicism ofAistoteIian dynamics tuns aIways tothesame questio
disutata: aquomoceanturro]ecta?
II
WeshaII come back ina momentto thisquestio, butwemusthst
tun ou attention to anothe detaiI ofAistoteIian dynamics . the
negation of any vacuum and of movement in a vacuum. In this
dynamics, indeed, a vacuum doesnotenabIemovementtopoceed
moeeasiIy,onthecontay, itendesitutteIyimpossibIe,thisfo
veypofoundeasons.
WehaveaIeadysaidthatiqAistoteIiandynamics, eveybodyis
conceived as endowed with a tendency to hnd itseIfin its natuaI
pIace, andto comebackto it when, andif, by vioIence it is moved
away fom it. This tendency expIains its (natuaI) movement. a
movement which bings it to its natuaI pIace by the shotest and
thespeediestway. ItfoIIowsthatevey natuaI movementpoceeds
in a staight Iine, andthateveybodytaveIstoitsnatuaI pIaceas
fastaspossibIe , thatis,asfastasitsenvionment,whichesistsand
opposesitsmovement,aIIowsittodo.Iftheefoetheeweenothing
toarestit,ifthesuoundingmediumdidnotopposeanyesistance
to its movement though it(as wouIdbethecase in a vacuum) the
body wouId taveI to "its" pIacewithaninhnitespeed.Butsuch a
movement wouId be instantaneous and this with good eason
seemstoAistotIetobeutteIyimpossibIe.TheconcIusionisobvious.
no (natuaI) movement can possibIy takepIace i nthe void. Asfo
vioIent movement, that, fo exampIe, of thowing, movement in a
' 5ccArstot!c, Fh)aica, Y, 8, 2I 5a, Y, I0, 267a, Oc CccIc. lll, 2, 3I 0b;
. Mcycrson, denIl ct rul (Fats:Alcan I 26),p. 84, 3rdLd.
5ccArstot!c, Fh]aicr, Yl, 5,24 b,250a;Oc Lcclc, !,2, 30I c.
27
mPMYb Lb PL mPbLHm
vacuum wouId beeguivaIent t omovement without a moto , it is
obvious that the vacuum is not a hysicaI medium and cannote-
ceive, tansmit and kee u a movement. Moeove, ina vacuum
(as in thesace ofthe EucIidian geomety) thee ae no iviIeged
Iaceso diections. Inavacuumtheeaenot,andtheecannotbe,
"natuaI" Iaces. Theefoe a body ut into a vacuum wouId not
knowwheetogo,wouIdnothaveanyeasontomoveinonediec-
tionathethaninanyothe,andthuswouIdnothaveanyeasonto
move ataII. lice cersa, oncemoved, it wouIdhavenomoeeason
tostoheeathe thanthee, andthus itwouIdhavenoeasonto
stoataII.' BothofwhichaeutteIyabsud.
AistotIeisoncemoe efectIyight.Anemtysace(thesace
of geomety) is uttely destuctive of the concetion of a cosmic
ode .inanemtysacetheeaenotonIynonatuaIIaces,thee
aenolacesataIl.Theideaofavacuumis notcomatibIewiththe
inteetationofmovementaschangeandas ocess - ehas not
even with that of the concete movement of concete "eaI", e-
cetibIe, bodies . I mean the bodies ofou common eveyday ex-
eience. The vacuum is a non ens

, and to Iace things in such a

non-ens is absud. GeometicaI bodies aIone can be "Iaced" in a
geometicaIsace.
Thehysicistinvestigates eaIthings,thegeometeeasons about
abstactions. Theefoe,contends AistotIe, nothing couId be moe
dangeous than to mingIe togethe geomety and hysics, and to
aIy ueIy geometicaI method and easoning to the study of
hysicaIeaIity.
III
I haveaIeadymentioned that AistoteIian dynamics, insite- o
ehasbecause- ofitstheoeticaIefection,wasbudenedwithan
imotantdawback,thatofbeingutteIyimIausibIeandcomIeteIy
unbeIievabIe and unaccetabIe to Iain sound common sense, and
obviousIycontadictoytothe commonesteveydayexeience. No
wondetheefoethatitneveenoyedunivesaIecognition,andthat
the citics and advesaies ofthe dynamics ofAistotIe aIways o-
osed to it the commonsense fact ofthe esistence ofmovement
' 5ccArstotIc,Fh)aica, !V, 8, 2I4b; 2I5b.
loncIkcstbcttcr,onccansayIhatnavacuum aIIpIaccsarcthcnatutal
pIaccs olcvcrykndolbody.
KantcaIIcd cmptyspaccan"Undin".
5uchwas, as wc know, thc opnon olOcscarIcs , and ol5pnoza.
2&
LPL LLL PL LPL
separated from ts origna! motor. Thus the cIassica! examp!es of
such movement, for instance the continuing rotaton ofthe whee!,
the ight ofthe arrow, the throwing ofa stone, were persistent!y
marsha!!ed aganst it, beg|nning with Hipparchus and Iohn Ph!o-
ponos,throughIohnBuridanandNico!eOresme,downtoJeonardo
daVinc, BenedettandGa!Ieo.'
donotproposetoana!yse herethetradtiona! argumentswhich
since Iohn Ph!oponos have been repeated by the partisans ofhis
dynamics.0rossomodotheycanbec!asshedntotwogroups .(a)the
hrst arguments are matera! and stress the mprobab!ity of the
assumpton that a big and heavy body, a bu!!et, a revo!vng m!!-
stone, anarrowyingagainstthewind, cou!dbemovedbythereac-
tionoftheair ,(b)theothersareforma! andpointoutthecontradic-
tioninvo!vedinattributingtotheairadoubIero!e,thatofresistance
and that ofbeng a mover, aswe!! as the!Iusory character ofthe
who!etheorywhichon!yshiftstheprobIemfromthebodytothear
ands,nfact,ob!igedtoendowtheairwiththesameab!tytomain-
taints movement in spite ofts separation fromts externa!cause
whichtdenestootherbodies. Ifso,theyask,whynotassumethat
the movertransmits to the moved, ormp;esses itwth, somethng
which enab!es it to move a something which is ca!!ed vop:
cirtusmotica, cirtusimressa, imetus, imetusimressus, sometmes
/orzaorevenmotio, andwhchs a!waysthoughtofassomekndof
power or force, whch passes from the mover to the mobile, and
" or thc hstory ol thc mcdcvaIcrtcsm olArstotIc scc thc works ctcd
abovc, p. 2I , n. 3, and B. Janscn, "OIv, dcr Itcstcscho|astschcVcrtrctcr dcs
hcutgcn Bcwcgungsbcgrhcs", Fhilcachiachea Jahrbuch (!20) ; K. MchaIsky,
"Laphysquc nouvc||c ctIcsdhcrcntscourantsphIosophqucsauXVcscclc",
Bulletin intematicnal de l'Acadcmieclcnaiae deaacienceaetdealettrea(Cracow:
I 2T), 5. Moscr, Crundberi]e der Naturhilcachie bei hilhelm rcn Occam
(nnsbruck: I 32) ; E. Borchcrt, Die Lehre rcn der Beweun bei Nicclaua
Oreame(Munstcr:I 34),R. MarcoIongo,'laMcccancad Lconardo da Vnc",
Atti delIa reale accademia deIle acienze /aiche e matematiche, X!X (NapIcs:
I 33).
OnJohnFh|oponos, whosccmstobcthcrcaInvcntorolthcthcoryolthc
imetua,scc E.Woh|w
|
|,"EnVorgngcr Ga!|cs mV.Jahrhundcrt",Fh)aica-
liacheZeitachr,V!(! 06),andF.Ouhcm,Le5)atmedumcnde,!. ThcFh)aica
olJohnFh|oponos, not havngbccntrans|atcdntoLatn,rcmancdnacccssbIc
to thc scho|astcs, who had at thcr dsposaI onIy thc brcl account gvcn by
5mpIcus.ButtwaswcI|knowntothcArabs,andthcArabctradton,drcctIy
andthroughthctrans|atonolAvccnna,sccmstohavcnucnccdthc"Farsan"
schooItoahthcrtounsuspcctcddcgrcc.5ccthcvcrymportantartcIcol5.Fncs,
"
_
tudcs sur Awhad aI-Zaman Abu` Barakat aI-Baghdad", Revue dea

tudea
Juivea(I38).
29
mLMYb Lb L mLbLHLmL1
whichthencarries onthemovement, orbetter, whichproduces the
movementasitscause.
!tisobvious,asDuhemhimse!frecognized,thatwearebackwith
commonsense. The partisansofthe imetusphysicsarethinkingin
termsofeverydayexperience.Isitnotc!earthatweneedane_ort, a
dep!oyment and anexpenditure offorce, in order to move a body,
for instance in order to push a carriage a!ong its path, to throw a
stoneortobendabow!sitnotc!earthatitisthisforcewhichmoves
thebody,orbetter,whichmakesitmove thatitisthisforcewhich
the bodyreceivesfromthemoverthatenab!esitto overcome resis-
tance(Iikethatoftheair)andtostrikeatobstac!es
The medieva! fo!!owers of imetus dynamics discuss at great
!ength, andwithoutsuccess, the onto!ogica! status ofimetus. They
trytohtitintotheAristote!iancIassication,tointerpretitassome
kindof /orm, orasakindofhabitus, orasakindofgua!itysuchas
heat(IikeHipparchusandGaIiIeo). Thesediscussionson!yshowthe
confused, imaginative nature of the conception, which is a direct
product or, ifonemaysayso, a condensation, ofcommonsense.
Assuch it is evenmorein accord thanthe Aristote!ianviewwith
the"facts" rea!orimaginary whichformtheexperientia!basisof
medieva!dynamics ,andparticu!ar!ywiththewe!I-known"fact"that
everyprojecti!ebeginsbyincreasingitsspeedandacguiresthemaxi-
mum ofitsve!ocity sometimeaeritsseparationfromthemover.
' tsntcrcstngtonotcthatthsabsurdbcIcl,sharcdandtaughtbyArstotIc
(DcCcclc,,6),wassodccpIyrootcdandsounvcrsaIIyacccptcdthatOcscartcs
hmscIl dd not darc to dcny t outrght, and as so ohcn wth hm prclcrrcd to
cxpIan t. n I 630hcwrtcsto Mcrscnnc (A.T.,1, I I0) : "Jc voudras bcnauss
avorsvousn'avczpontcxpcrmcntcs uncpcrrc|cttccavccunclrondc, ou
labaIcd'unmousquct,ouuntrastd'arbaIcstc,vontpIusvstcctontpIusdclorcc
au mIcudcIcurmouvcmcntqu'Isn'cnont aucommcnccmcnt,cts'|slont pIus
d'chct.Carc'cstlIacrcancc duvuIgarc,avcc IaqucIIctoutclos mcsrasonsnc
s'accordcntpas,ct|ctrouvcqucIcschoscsqusontpoussccsctqunc sc mcuvcnt
pasd'cIIcsmcmcs, dovcntavorpIusdclorcc au commcnccmcntqu'ncontncnt
aprcs."nI 632 (A.T., ,25)andonccmorcn I 640 (A.T.,,3Th)hccxpIans
tohslrcndwhatstrucnthsbcIcl:"Inmcturc]ectcrum,cnccrocpontquc
lc MssIc aIIc|amas mons vtc aucommcnccmcntqu' Ian, 0 contcr dcs Ic
prcmcrmomcntqu`Iccsscd'ctrcpousscparIamanouIamachnc,mas|ccros
bcn qu'un mousquct, n'cstant cIognc quc d`un pcd ct dcm d`unc muraIIc
n'aurapastantd'chctqucs'IcnctatcIogncdcqunzcoudcvngtpas, 0causc
qucIabaIc,cnsortantdumousquctncpcutsascmcntchasscrI`arqucstcntrc
luctccttcmuraIIcc,t ansdotaIlcrmonsvstcqucsccttcmuraIIccstotmons
prochc.Toutclosc'cstI'cxpcrcnccdcdctcrmncrsccttcdhcrcncccstscnsbIc
ct|cdoutclortdctoutcscc!lcsquccn'apaslatcsmo-mcmc."Ocscartcs'lrcnd,
Bcckmann,onthccontrary,dcncshatIythcpossbItyolanacccIcratonolthc
procctIcandwrtcs(Bcekmannumeraenne,Apr.30, I 30,sccCcrreacndancedu
JO
LL LL L LL
Everybody knows that in order toump an obstac!e one has to
"makea take-o" , thatachariotwhichonepushes,orpu!|s,starts
s!ow!y and !itt!e by !itt!e increases its speed , it too takes o and
gathersmomentum,ustaseverybody- evenachi!dthrowingaba!
- knowsthatinordertohitthegoa!hardhehastop!acehimse!fata
certain distance fromit,andnottoonear, in ordertoa!!owtheba!
to gather momentum. Thephysics ofimetus is notatpains to ex-
p!ainthisphenomenon ,fromitsstandpointitisperfect!ynatura!that
imetus shou!d reguire some time before it "takes ho!d" of the
mobile ust as,forexamp!e,heatneedstimetopermeateabody.
The conception ofmovementunder!ying and supporting imetus
physics is guite dierentfromthat ofthe Aristote!ian view. Move-
mentisnoongerunderstood asaprocess ofactua!ization. Yetitis
sti!! a change, and as such itmust be exp!ained by the action ofa
denite force or cause. Imetus isust that immanent cause which
producesthemovement,whichisconcersomodotheeectproduced
by it. Thus the imetus imressusroduces the movement , itmoces
thebody. Butatthe same timeitp!ays anotherveryimportantroe .
it overcomes the resistance opposed by the medium to the move-
ment.
Owing to the confused and ambiguous character ofthe imetus
conception, itisrathernaturathat thetwoaspects andro!es shou!d
mergetogether,andthatsomeofthepartisansoftheimetusdyna-
micsshou!dcometotheconcusionthat,at!eastinsomespecia!cases
such as the circu!ar movement ofthe heaven!y spheres, or, more
genera!!y, thero!!ingmovementofa circu!arbody ona!evep!ane,
or even more genera!!y i na! the cases where there is no externa
resistance to movement, suchaswou!d bethecaseinacacuum,the
imetusdoes notweakenbutremains"immorta!".Thisseemstobe
ac!oseapproachtothe!awofinertia,anditisthereforeofparticu!ar
interestandimportancetonotethatGai!eohimsef, whoinhisDe
Motugivesusoneofthebestexpositions ofimetusdynamics,reso-
!ute!ydeniesthepossibi!ityofsuchanassumption,andassertsmost
vigorous!ythe essentia!!yperishab!enature ofimetus.
Fre Aeraenne [Fars: I 3, , 43T) : "undtorcs vcro ac pucr omncs qu
cxstmant rcmotora lortus lcrrc quam cadcm propnquora, ccrto ccrtus
lalluntur."YcthcadmtsthatthcrcmustbcsomcthngtrucnthsbcIclandtrcs
to cxpIan: "Non dxcram pIcntudncm nmam acrs mpcdrc chcctum tor-
mcntor gIob, scd pu!vcrcm pyrum cxtra bombardamamcxstcntcm lorstan
adhucrarchcr,dcoquchcrposscutglobus tormcntaruscxtrabombardamnova
v (smI tandcm)proptilsus vcloctatc alqtiamdttcrcsccrct."
Jl
mVMYb \b L mbLHm
Ga!i!eoi sobvious!yperfect!yright. Ifmovementi sunderstoodas
theeect ofimetusconsideredasitsimmanent- andnotnatura!-
cause, it isunthinkab!e and absurd not to admit that the cause or
forcewhich produces it must necessari!y spend and na!!y exhaust
itse!finthisproduction.Itcanneverremainunchangedfortwocon-
secutive moments, and therefore the movement which it produces
mustnecessari!ys!ow downand cometo an end.' Thus itisavery
important!esson thatwe!earnfromtheyoungGa!i!eo. Heteaches
us that imetus physics, though compatib!e with movement in a
cacuum, is !ike that ofAristot!e incomatible with the princip!e of
inertia.Andthis isnot the on!y!essonthat Ga!i!eo teaches with re-
gardtoimetusphysics.Thesecondisat!eastasva!uab!eastherst.
Itrunsthat,!ikethatofAristot!e,thedynamicsofimetusisincom-
patib!ewithmathematica!treatment. It!eadsnowhere. Itisab!ind
a!!ey.
Imetus physics, during the thousand years that separate !ohn
Phi!oponos from

Benedetti, made very Iitt!e progress. But in the

! atter's works, and even more c!ear!y, more consistent!y and con-
scious!y, inthoseoftheyoungGa!i!eo,wend- underthe obvious
and unmistakab!e inuence of the "suprahuman Archimedes" a
determined attempttoapp!ytothis physicstheprincip!esof"mathe-
matica! phi!osophy".
Nothing is more instructive than the study ofthis attempt- or,
moreexact!y,oftheseattempts- andoftheirfai!ure.T}eyshowus
thatitisimpossib!etomathematize,i. e. totransformintoanexact,
mathematica! concept, therude, vague andconfusedconception of
imetus. In order to bui!d up a mathematica! physics fo!!owing the
!ines ofthestaticsofArchimedes, this conceptionhadtobedropped
a!together.Anewandorigina! conceptofmotionhadtobeformed
anddeve!oped.Itisthisnewconceptthatweoweto Ga!i!eo.
IV
Wearetoowe!! acguaintedwith,orrathertoowe!! accustomedto,
' 5cc De mctu Crav/um n Le Oere d/ Camec Came/ (rcnzc: Ldzonc
NazonaIc, I 88), , pp. 3I4h.
' 5cc De mctu Crav/um n Le Oere d/ Camec Came/ (rcnzc: Ldzonc
NazonaIc, I 88), , p. 30.
J. B. Bcncdctt, D/veraarum aeculat/cnum mathemat/carum l/ber (Taurn :
I 585),p. I68.
ThcpcrsstcnccolthctcrmnoIogy- thcword/metuasuscdbyGaIIcoand
hspupIs andcvcnbyNcwton- mustnotprcvcntuslrom rccognzng thc ds-
appcarancc olthcdca.
J2
LL LL L LL
the princip!es andconcepts ofmodernmechanics,sowe!! thatitis
a!most impossib!eforus toseethedimcu!ties which hadtobeover-
comefor theirestab!ishment. Theyseemtous sosimp!e,so natura!,
thatwedonotnoticetheparadoxestheyimp!yandcontain.Yetthe
merefactthatthegreatestandmightiestmindsofmankind- Ga!i!eo,
Descartes - hadtostrugg!einordertomakethemtheirs,is initse!f
sumcienttoindicatethatthesec!earandsimp!enotions- thenotion
ofmovementorthatofspace- arenotsoc!earandsimp!easthey
seemtobe.Ortheyarec!earandsimp!eon!yfromacertainpointof
view,on!yas partofacertainsetofconceptsandaxioms,apartfrom
whichtheyarenotsimp!eata!! . Or,perhaps,theyaretooc!earand
toosimp!e .soc!earandsosimp!ethat,!ikea!! primenotions,they
areverydimcu!ttograsp.
Movement,space-!etustrytoforgetforawhi!ea!!wehave!earnt
atschoo! ,!ctustrytothinkoutwhattheymeaninmechanics.Letus
tryoplaceourse!ves in the situationofacontemporaryofGa!i!eo,
a manaccustomedtothe concepts ofAristote!ianphysics whichhe
!earntathisschoo!,andwhoencountersforthersttimethemodern
conceptofmotion. Whatisit!nfactsomethingprettystrange.!tis
somethingwhichinnowayaectsthebodywhichisendowedwithit .
tobeinmotionortobeatrestdoes notmakeanydierencefor,nor
anychange in,thebodyinmotion oratrest.Thebody,assuch,is
utter!yandabso!ute!yindierenttoboth.'Therefore,wearenotab!e
toascribemotion toadeterminedbodyconsideredinitse!f.Abody
is in motionon!yinre!ationtosomeotherbodywhichweassumeto
beatrest. A!!motionis re!ative.Andthereforewemayascribeitto
theoneortotheotherofthetwo bodies,adhbitum.

Thus motionseems to be a re!ation. But atthesame time itis a

state,ustas restis anotherstate, utter!yandabso!ute!yopposed to
the former , besides which they are both ersistent states.

The
famousrst!awofmotion,the!awofinertia,teachesusthatabody
!etoitse!fpersistseterna!lyinitsstateofmotionorofrest,andthat
wemustapp!yaforceinordertochangeastateofmotiontoastate
' !n thc Arstotc|an physcs, motonsaproccss olchangcandaIways ahccts
thc bodynmoton.
Agvcnbody, thcrclorc, canbccndowcdwth any numbcroldhcrcnt mo-
tons,whchdonotntcrlcrc wthcachothcr.nthcArstotcIanaswc|Ias nthc
imetua physcs cvcry moton ntcrlcrcs wth cvcry othcr and somctmcs cvcn
prcvcnts t lrom takngpIacc.
Moton andrcstarc thuspIaccdonthcsamconto|ogcaIIcvcI,andthcrclorc
pcrsstcnccolmolonbccomcs|ustassc|l-cvdcntandwthoutnccdolcxp|anaton
as pcrsstcncc olrealhad prcvousIy bccn.
JJ
mMYb Lb L mbLHm
of rest,andcicecersa.'Yetnoteverykindofmotionisthusendowed
withaneternaIbeing,butonIyuniformmovementinastraightIine.
Modernhysics amrms, as weII we know, that a body onceset in
motionconserveseternaIlyitsdirectionandseed,rovidedofcourse
itisnotsubecttotheactionofanyexternaIforce.Moreover,tothe
obection ofthe AristoteIian that though as a matter offact he is
acguaintedwitheternaI motion, the eternaI circuIar motion ofthe
heavenIysheres, he has never yet encountered a ersistent recti-
Iinear one, modern hysics reIies . ofcourse! rectiIinear, uniform
motionis utterIyimossibIe, andcantakeIaceonIyinavacuum.
Letus thinkitover, anderhaswewiII notbetooharshonthe
AristoteIian who feIt himseIf unabIe to gras and to accet this
unheard-ofnotion, the notion ofa ersistent,substantiaI reIation-
state,theconcetofsomethingwhichtohimseemedustasabstruse,
andustasimossibIe,astheiII-fatedsubstantiaIformsoftheschoIas-
ticsaeartous.Nowonder|hattheAristoteIianfeIthimseIfaston-
ishedandbewiIderedbythisamazingattemttoexIainthereaIby
theimossibIe- or,whichisthesamething,toexIainreaIbeingby
mathematicaI being, because, as I have mentioned aIready, these
bodies moving instraightIines in inhnite emtysace are not real
bodies moving in realsace, but mathematical bodies moving in
mathematicalsace.
Once more, we are so accustomed to mathematicaI science, to
mathematicaI hysics, that we no Ionger feeI the strangeness of a
mathematicaIaroachtoBeing, thearadoxicaIdaringofGaIiIeo's
utterance thatthe bookofNature is written in geometricaI charac-
ters.Forus itis aforegoneconcIusion.Butnotforthecontemor-
aries ofGaIiIeo. Thereforeitis therightofmathematicaIscience, of
the mathematicaI exIanation ofNature, in oosition to the non-
mathematicaI one of common sense and ofAristoteIian hysics,
much more thanthe oositionbetweentwoastronomicaIsystems,
that forms the reaI subect of the Dialogue on the tuo greatest

n modcrn tcrms: n thc ArstotcIan and imetuadynamcs,lorcc produccs

moton, nmodcrndynamcs,lorccproduccsaccc!craton.
ThsmpIcsncccssarIythcnhntyolthcUnvcrsc.
I| 5aiatcre n Le Oere di Calilec Calilei (rcnzc: Edzonc NazonaIc,
I 88), Y, p. 232: "La hIosoha scrtta n qucsto grandssmo !bro, chc con-
tnuamcntcc sta apcrto nnanz a gI occh (o dco I'unvcrso), ma non s pu
ntcndcrc sc prma non s`mpara a ntcndcr Ia Ingua, c conosccr carattcr,
nc' quaI scrtto. Egl scrtto nInguamatcmatca,c carattcr son trangoI,
ccrch,cd aItrchgurcgcomctrchc,scnza quaI mcz mpossibIca ntcndcrnc
umanamcntc paroIa.` 5cc LetIertc LicetiolJan. I I , ! 64! (bd. , XV!l!, p. 23).
J4
LPL LLL PL 1 LPL
:]atcm: o] the worIJ. As amatteroffact theDialogue, as beIieve l
haveshowninmyttuJc:, is not so mucha bookonscience in our
meaningofthetermas abookonphiosophy- ortobeguitecorrect
and to empoy a disused but time-honoured expression, a book on
natural hilosoh)forthesimplcreasonthatthesolutionoftheastro-
nomicaIprobIemdependsontheconstitutionofa newPhysics ,which
inturn impIies thesoutionofthehilosohicalguestionoftheroe
pIayed by mathematics in theconstitutionofthescience ofNature.
The roe and thepace ofmathematics inscience is not infacta
verynewprobem. Quitethecontrary.formorethantwo thousand
years ithas formed the obect ofphiIosophicaI meditation, inguiry
and discussion. And GaIiIeo is perfecty aware ofit. No wonder !
Evenas a young boy, astudentin the University ofPisa, he cou|d
haveIearnedfromtheIectures ofhis master, FrancescoBuonamici,
that the "guestion"about the roe and the nature ofmathematics,
constitutes theprincipaIsubectofoppositionbetweenAristoteand
PIato.' AndsomeyearsaterwhenhecamebacktoPisa,this timea
ThccnormouscompIatonolBuonamc(I0I Ipagcsin/clic)sannvaIuabIc
sourcc-book lor thc study olmcdcvaI thcorcs olmoton. Though lrcqucntIy
menticnedby hstorans ol GaIIco t has ncvcr bccn utIzcd by thcm. Buona-
mc`s book s vcry rarc. aIIow myscIl thcrclorc to quotc t at somc Icngth .
FrancscBonamc, FIorcntn,c prmo Ioco phIosophamordnaramn AImo
GymnasoFsanoprotcnts,Demctu,libriX,quibuaeneralianaturaliahilcac-
hiae rinciia aummc atudic cc0ecta ccntinentur(FIorcntac: I 5I),Ib. X, cap.
X. Jurene mathematicae ex crdine acientiarum exurantur, p. 56:. . . "ltaquc
vcIutmnstrsuntmathcmatcac,ncchonorcdgnaccthabtacit, dcst
apparatus qudam ad aIas dscpInas. Ob camquc potssmccaussam, quod dc
bono mcntoncm laccrc non vdcntur. Etcnm omnc bonum cst ns, s vcro
cuusdamactus cst. Omnsvcroactuscstcummotu.Mathcmatcacautcmmotum
nonrcspcunt.Haccnostraddunt. Omncmsccntamcxproprscmc : propra
vcro sunt ncccssara quacaIcu j!]quatcnus psumct pcr scnsunt. Atqu taIa
prncpa malhcmatcac non habcnl. . . . NuIIum caussac gcnus accpt. . .
proptcrcaquod omncscaussac dcnuntur pcr motum: cmccns cnm cst prnc-
pummotus,nscuusgratamotuscst,lormactmatcrasuntnaturac,ctmotus
gturprncpasntncccssccst. Atvcromathcmatca suntmmobIa. EtnuIIum
gturbcaussacgcnuscxstI." lbd.,Ib. ,p.54: 'Mathcmatcaccumcxnots
nobs ct natura smuI cmcant d quod cupunt, scd cactcrs dcmonstratons
pcrspcutatcpracponcntur,namvsrcrumquaspsactractantnoncstadmodum
nobIs, quppc quod sunt accdcnta, d cst habcantratoncmsubstantac qua-
tcnussubcturctdctcrmnaturquanto,caqucconsdcrcnturIongcsousatqucn
natura cxstant. Attamcn nonnuIIarumrcrumngcnumtaIccssccompcrmusut
adccrtammatcramscscnonappIccnt,ncqucmotumconscquantur,quatamcn
n natura qucqud cst, cum motu cxstt, opus cst abstractonccuus bcncco
quantum motu non comprchcnso n co muncrc contcmpIamur, ct cum taIs st
carumnaturanhIabsurdcxortur.Quodtcmconrmatur,quodmcnsnomn
habtu vcrum dct, atquvcrumcst cx co, quod rcs ta cst. Huc acccdt quod
ArstotcIcsdstngutsccntasnoncxratoncnotonumscdcntum."
J
MLTAP HY S1S A^O M LASU RLML^
professorhimself,hecouIdhaveIearnedfromhisfriendandcoIIeague,
Iacopo Mazzoni, author of a book on PIato and AristotIe, that
"thereisnootherguestionwhichhasgivenpIacetomorenobIeand
beautifuIspecuIations. . . thantheguestionwhethertheuseofmathe-
matics in physicaI science as an instrument ofproofand a middIe
termofdemonstration,isopportuneornot ,inotherwords,whether
itbringsussomeprot, oronthecontraryisdangerousandharm-
fuI". "!t is weII known," says Mazzoni, "that PIato beIieved that
mathematicswasguiteparticuIarIy appropriateforphysicaIinvesti-
gations, which was the reason why he himseIfhadmany times re-
coursetoitfortheexpIanationofphysicaImysteries. ButAristotIe
heIdaguitedierentviewandheexpIainedtheerrorsofPIatobyhis
too great attachment to mathematics."'
OneseesthatforthescientihcandphiIosophicaIconsciousnessof
thetime BuonamiciandMazzoniareonIygivingexpressiontothe
commun/s oin/o the opposition, or rather the dividing Iine, be-
tween the AristoteIian and the PIatonist is perfectIy cIear. !fyou
cIaimformathematicsasuperiorstatus,ifmorethanthatyouattri-
butetoitareaIvaIueandacommandingpositioninphysics,youare
a PIatonist. !fonthe contrary you see in mathematics an abstract
science,whichisthereforeofaIesservaIuethanthose physics and
metaphysics which deaI with reaI being, ifin particuIaryoupre-
tendthatphysicsneedsno other basis thanexperience andmustbe
buiIt directIy onperception, that mathematics has to content itseIf
' JacobMazzon,Cacscnats,nAImoGymnasoFsanoArstotcIcmordnarc
FIatoncm vcro cxtra ordncm protcnts, In Univeraam Flatcnia et Ariatctelia
Fhilcachiam Fraeludia, aive de ccmaraticne Flatcnia et Ariatctelia (Vcncts .
\ 5T),pp.\ 8Th:"Diautaturutrumuauamathematicarumin Fh)aica utilitatemvel
detrimentttm a]erat, et in hcc Flatcnia et Ariatctelia ccmaratic. Non cst cnm
ntcr FIatoncm ct ArstotcIcm quacsto, scu dhcrcnta, quac tot puIchrs, ct
nobIssmsspccuIatonbusscatcat,utcumsta,ncnmnmaqudcmpartccom-
parar posst. Est autcm dhcrcnta, utrum usus mathcmatcarum n sccnta
Fhyscatanquamratoprobandctmcdustcrmnusdcmonstratonumstoppor-
tunus, vcI nopportunus, d cst, an utItatcm aIquam ahcrat, vcI potus dctr-
mcntum ct damnum. Crcddt FIato Mathcmatcas ad spccuIatoncs physcas
apprmc cssc accommodatas. Quaproptcr passm cas adhbct n rcscrands
mystcrsphyscs.AtArstotcIcsomnnosccusscntrcvdctur,crrorcsqucFIatons
adscrbct amor Mathcmatcarum. . . . 5cd s qus voIucrt hanc rcm dIcntus
consdcrarc,lorsan,ctFIatonsdcfcnsoncmnvcnct,vdcbtArstotcIcmnnon-
nuIIos crrorum scopuIos mpcssc, quod qubusdam n Iocs Mathcmatcas
dcmonstratoncs propro consIo vaIdc conscntancas, aut non ntcIIcxcrt, aut
ccrtc non adhbucrt. Utramquc concusoncm, quarum prmaad FIatons tutc-
Iamattnct,sccundacrrorcsArstotcIsoi.MathcmatcasmaIcrcjcctasprotctur,
brcvssmcdcmonstrabo."
J6
LPL LL PL LPL
withthesecondayandsubsidiayoIeofa mee auxiliay, youae
anAistoteIian.
Whatis inguestioninthisdiscussionisnotcetainty- noAisto-
teIianhas eve doubtedthecetaintyofgeometicaIpopositions o
demonstations - but Being, not even the use ofmathematics in
physicaI science - no AistoteIian has eve denied ou ight to
measue whatismeasuabIeandtocountwhatisnumeabIe- but
thestuctue ofscience,andtheefoethestuctueofBeing.
TheseaethediscussionstowhichGaIileoaIludescontinuousIyin
thecouseofhisDiulcuc. Thus attheveybeginningSimpIicio,the
AistoteIian,points outthat"conceningnatuaIthingsweneed not
aIways seek the necessity of mathematicaI demonstations". ' To
whichSagedo,whoaIIowshimseIfthepIeasueofmisundestanding
SimpIicio,epIies ."Ofcouse,whenyoucannoteachit. But,ifyou
can,whynot"Ofcouse.Ifitis possibIein guestions petainingto
natuaIthings toachieveademonstationpossessingamathematicaI
necessity, whyshouIdn'twety to doi tButis itpossibIeThatis
peciseIythepobIem, andGaIiIeo,inthemaginofthebook,sums
up the discussionandfomuIates theeaI meaningoftheAistoteI-
ian. "In natuaI demonstations," says he, "one must not seek
mathematicaIexactitude."
Onemustnot.WhyBecauseitisimpossibIe. Becausethenatue
ofphysicaIbeingisguaIitativeandvague.Itdoes notconfomtot}e
igidity and the pecision of mathematicaI concepts. It is aIways
"moeo Iess". Theefoe,as theAistoteIianwiIIexpIaintous Iate,
phiIosophy, thatis thescience oftheeaI, does notneedto Iook at
detaiIs, noneedithaveecousetonumeicaIdeteminationsinfo-
muIatingitstheoies ofmotion, aIIthatithastodoistodeveIopits
ch

efcategoies(natuaI,vioIent,ectiIinea,cicuIa)andtodescibe
its geneaIguaIitativeandabstactfeatues.
ThemodeneadeispobabIyfa fombeingconvinced.Hehnds
itdimcuItto admitthat"phiIosophy" hadtocontentitseIfwithab-
stactandvague geneaIizationandnotty toestabIishpeciseand
concete univesaIIaws. Themodeneade does notknowtheeaI
easonofthis necessity, but GaIiIeo's contempoaies knewitguite
weII. TheyknewthatguaIity,asweIIas fom,beingnon-mathemati-
caIbynatue, cannotbeteated intems ofmathematics.Physicsis
' 5cc Dialcc acra idue maaaimi 5iatemi del mcndc, n Le Oere di Calilec
Calii (rcnzc. Edzonc Nazona!c, I 88), V, p. 38; scc p. 256.
bd.,p. 242.
J!
TLP MYb Lb P`L TLPb LYLTL!
not aIied geometry. TerrestriaI matter can nevei exhibit exact
mathematicaIhgures ,the"forms"never"inform"itcomIeteIyand
erfectIy. ThereaIwaysremains a ga. !nthe skies, ofcourse, itis
dierent , and therefore mathematicaI astronomy is ossibIe. But
astronomyisnothysics.TohavemissedthatointisreciseIythe
errorofPIatoandofthosewhofoIIowPIato.!tisuseIesstoattemt
to buiId u a mathematicaI hiIosohy of nature. The enterrise
is doomedevenbefore it starts. !t does not Iead us to truth but to
error.
"AIIthesemathematicaI subtIeties", exIains SimIicio, "aretrue
in ub:tructc. ButaIiedto sensibIeandhysicaImatter,theydonot
work."' !nreaInature therearenocircIes, notriangIes, nostraight
Iines. Therefore it is useIess to Iearnthe Ianguage ofmathematicaI
hgures . the book ofNature, in spite ofGaIiIeo and PIato, is not
written inthem. !nfact, i tisnotonIyuseIess, itis dangerous . the
more a mind is accustomed to the recison and to the rigidity of
geometricaI thought, the Iess it wiII be abIe to gras the mobiIe,
changing,guaIitativeIydeterminedvarietyofBeing.
ThisattitudeoftheAristoteIianisveryfarfrombeingridicuIous.
To me, atIeast, itseems erfectIy sensibIe. YoucannotestabIish a
mathematicaI theory ofguaIity, obectsAristotIeto PIato , noteven
one ofmotion. Thereis no motion in numbers. But incrutc mctu
incrutur nuturu. And the AristoteIian of GaIiIeo's time couId add
thatthegreatestofthePIatonists,theJiru: ArchimedeshimseIf,was
neverabIetoestabIishmorethanastatics. Notadynamics. Atheory
ofrest. Notoneofmotion.
TheAristoteIianwaserfectIy right. !tisimossibIeto furnisha
mathematicaI deductionofguaIity. AndweIIweknowthatGaIiIeo,
Iike Descartes somewhat Iater, and for ust the same reason, was
forcedtodrothenotionofguaIity,todecIareitsubective,to ban
itfromthe reaImofnature.This at the sametime imIiesthathe
was obIiged to dro sense-ercetion as the source of knowIedge
andtorocIaimthatinteIIectuaI,andevenu ricri knowIedge,isour
soIeandonIymeansofarehendingtheessenceofthe reaI.
Asfordynamics,andtheIawsofmotion thec::c isonIyto be
" bd.,pp. 22, 423.
Aswcknow,t wassharcdby FascaI, andcvcnbyLcbnz.
t s pcrhaps worth mcntonn that lor all thc doxoraphc tradton,
Archmcdcssahilcachualatcnicua.
S E. A. Burtt, The metah)aical Fcundaticna c/mcdem Fh)aical 5cience
(London and Ncw York. I25).
J8
OAL LEO A!O FLATO
provedbythe c::c, inordertoshowthatitispossibIe toestabIish
mathematicaI Ia wsofnature,youhavetodoit.Thereisnootherway
and GaIiIeo is perfectIy conscious of it. It is therefore by giving
mathematicaIsoIutionstoconcretephysicaIprobIems theprobIem
offaIIingbodies, the probIem ofprojectiIe motion that he Ieads
SimpIicio totheconfession"thattowanttostudynaturaIprobIems
without mathematics is toattemptsomethingthatcannotbedone".
Itseems tomethatwearenowabIetounderstandthemeaningof
this signihcanttext ofCavaIieri, whoin l 6JOwrites inhis 5ccchic
C:tcric . "Howmuchis addedbytheknowIedgeofthemathematicaI
sciences, which the famous schooIs ofPythagoreans andPIatonists
considered supremeIy necessary for the comprehension ofphysicaI
things, I hopewiIIshortIy becomecIearwiththe pubIication ofthe
new science ofmovement promised by this marveIIous Assayer of
Nature, GaIiIeo GaIiIei."'
AndweunderstandtootheprideofGaIileothePIatonist,whoin
his Di:ccur:c: unJ Dcmcn:truticn: announces that "about a most
ancientsubjecthewiIIpromoteaguitenewscience",andwiIIprove
somethingthatnobodyhasproventiIIthen,nameIythatthemove-
mentoffaIIingbodiesissubjectedtotheIawofnumbers.Movement
governedbynumbers , theAristoteIian objectionhad atIastmetits
refutation.
Itis obvious thatfor thediscipIes ofGaIiIeojustasforhiscon-
temporaries andelders mathematicismmeans PIatonism. Therefore
when TorriceIIiteIIs us 'thatamongtheIiberaIdiscipIines geometry
ulcnc exercises andsharpens the mind andrenders it abIe to be an
ornamentof the Cityintime ofpeaceand to defend it intime of
war,andthatcuctcri: uribu:, amindtrainedingeometricaIgym-
nastics is endowedwitha guiteparticular and ririlestrength' not
" Bonavcntura CavaIcr, Lc 5ecchic Uatcric crerc trattatc Debe 5etticni
Ccnicheealcunilcrcmirabilie]ettiintcmcalLumectc.(BoIona:I 632),pp.I 52h:
"Ma quanto v auna Iacontonc dcIIc sccnzc Matcmatchc, udcatc da
qucIIc lamosssmc scuoIc dc` Fthoorc ct dc' 'FIatonc', sommamcntc ncccs-
sarc pcr ntcndcr Ic cosc schc, spcro n brcvc sar manlcsto, pcr Ia nuova
dottrna dcI moto promcssac daII'csqustssmo 5aatorc dcIIa Natura, dco
daI 5. GaIIco GaIIc, nc` suo OaIoh. . . .
' DiaccraiedimcatrazicnimathematicheintcmcaduenucreacienzenLeOere
diCalile0 Calilei(rcnzc:EdzoncNazonaIc,I 88),V,p. I 0: "nuI!uscnm,
quodscam,dcmonstravt,spataamobIcdcsccndcntccxquctcpcractantcm-
porbusacquaI bus,camntcrscrctncrcratoncm,quamhabcntnumcrmparcs
ab untatcconscqucntcs."
EvancIsta TorrccII, Oeru Cecmetrica (Iorcntac: I 64), ,p. T. "5oIa
cnmGcomctrantcrIbcraIcsdscpInasacrtcrcxacutncnum, doncumquc
J9
mLMYb Lb L mbLHLm
on!y does heshow himse!fan authentic discip!e ofP!ato, he ac-
know!edges andproc!aims himse!fto beone. And indoing ithere-
mains afaithfu! discip!e ofhis master Ga!i!eo, whoinhis Reacnae
lc lhe Thilcachicul txcrcilulicna ofAntonio Rocco addresses him-
se!ftothe!atter,askinghimtojudgeforhimse!ftheva!ueofthetwo
riva!methods,i . e. thepure!yphysica!andempirica! methodandthe
nathematica!one,adding."anddecideatthesametimewhoreasoned
better,P!ato,whosaidthatwithoutmathematicsonecou!dnot!earn
phi!osophy,orAristot!e,whoreproachedthissameP!atoforhaving
too muchstudied Geometry". '
! havejustca!!ed Gali!eo a P!atonist. And1 be!ieve thatnobody
wi!!doubtthatheis one.Moreover,hesays sohimse!f. Inthevery
rstpagesoftheDialogue SimpliciomakestheremarkthatGaIiIeo,
being a mathematician, is probab!y sympathetic to the numer-
ica! specu!ations of the Pythagoreans. This enab!es Ga|i!eo to
dec!are that he deems them perfect!y meaning!ess, and to say at
the same time . "! know perfect!y we!! that the Pythagoreans had
the highest esteem for the science ofnumber and that P!ato him-
se!f admired the human inte!!ect and be!ieved that it participates
]
n divinity so!e!y because it is ab!e to understand the nature of
rcddt ad cvtatcs adornandas n pacc ct n bcIIo dclcndcndas: cactcrs cnm
parbus, ncnum quod cxcrctatum st n GcomctrcapaIcstra, pccuIarcquod-
damct vrIcroburhabcrcsoIct . pracstabtqucscmpcrctantcccIIct,crcastuda
Archtccturac, rc bcIIcac,nautcacquc,ctc."
Eaercitazicni /lcac/che di Zntcnic Rcccc n Le Oere di Calilec Camci
(rcnzc . EdzoncNazonaIc, I 88), V, p. T44.
' ThcFIatonsmolGaIIcoGaIIchasbccnmorcorIcsscIcarIyrcconzcdby
ccrtan modcrn hstorans ol sccncc and phIosophy. Thus thc author ol thc
Gcrman transIaton olthcDiulcc notcs thcFIatonc nucncc(thcdoctrnc ol
anamncss) on thc vcrylom:olthc book (sccG. GaIIc, Dialcberdie beiden
hautacchlichaten helta]ateme,ausdcmtaIcnschcnubcrsctzt undcrIutcrtvon
E. 5trauss [Lcpz: I 8Ij, p. XLX) ; E. Cassrcr(DaaErkenntniarcblem in dcr
Fhilcachie und hiaaenacha/t derneurenZeit2ndEd.[BcrI n: ! I I], 1, pp.38h,)
nssts uponthcFIatonsmolGaIIco'sdcaIolknowIcdc;L.OIschk(Calilccund
aeineZeit[Lcpz: I 2T])spcaksaboutthc"FIatoncvsonolNaturc"olGaIIco
ctc. ts E. A. Burtt, Themetah]aicalFcundaticna c/mcdern Fh]aical5ciencc
(NcwYork: I 25), who sccms tomcto havc vcn thc bcstaccountolthc mcta-
physcaIsubstructurc(FIatoncmathcmatcsm)olmodcmsccncc.UnlortunatcIy
BurttlaIcdtorcconzcthccxstcnccoltwc(andnotonc)FIatonctradtons, that
olmystcaIarthmoIoy,andthatolmathcmatcaIsccncc.Thcsamccrror,whch
n thccascolBurttwas avcnaIsn, wasmadcbyhscrtc,E. W. 5tron,Frc-
cedureaandmetah)aica (BcrkcIcy, CaI. . I 36), and n ths casc twas a mortal
onc. On thc dstncton bctwccn thc two FIatonsms scc L. Brunschvc, Lca

taeadelahilcachiemathmatique(Fars . I 22)pp.6h,andLercradela
ccnacienccdanalahi|cachiccccidentale(Fars:I 3T), pp. 3Th.
4
GALl LLO A!O VLATO
numbers. And myseIfamweII inclined to make the :ame udge-
ment."
How couId he beofa dierentopinion,hewhobeIievedthatin
mathematicaIknowIedgethehumanmindattainstheveryperfection
ofthedivineunderstandingDoeshenotsaythat"extensire,thatis
inrespectofthemuItipIicityofthingstobeknown,whichis inhnite,
thehumanmindisas nothing(evenif itunderstoodathousandpro-
positions, because a thousand compared with inhnity is IiIe zero) .
buttakingtheunderstandingintensire,insofaras thistermmeansto
graspintenseIy,thatis, perfectIya givenproposition,!saythatthe
humanmindunderstandssomepropositionsasperIectIyandhasof
them as absoIutecertaintyas Nature herseIfcanhavc , and ofthat
kindarethepuremathematicaIsciences,thatis,geometryandarth-
metic, ofwhichthe divine inteIIect knows ofcourse inhniteIy more
propositions,forthesimpIereasonthatitknowsthemaII ,butasfor
those few understood by the human inteIIect, I beIieve that our
knowIedgeeguaIsthedivineinobjectivecertainty,becauseitsucceeds
inunderstandingtheirnecessity,beyondwhich itdoes notseemthat
therecanexistagreatercertainty".
GaIiIeocouIdhaveaddedthatthehumanunderstandingis soex-
ceIIentaworkofGod thatab initio itis inpossessionofthesecIear
andsimpIeideas ofwhichtheverysimpIicityis aguaranteeoftruth,
andthatithasonIytoturntoitseIfinordertohndinits "memory"
thetruefoundations ofscience andknowIedge,theaIphabet, i. e. the
eIements, oftheIanguage- themathematicaIIanguage spokenby
theNatureGodhascreated.Thereis tobefoundthetruefoundation
ofa realscience, ascience oftherealworId- not ofascience en-
dowedwithapureIy

ormaItruth,theintrinsictruthofmathematicaI
reasoninganddeduction,atruthwhichwouIdnotbeaectedbythe
non-existenceinNatureoftheobectsstudiedbyit .itisobviousthat
GaIiIeo wouId no more thanDescartes ever restcontent withsuch
anErsatzforreaIscienceandknowIedge.
!tis ofthis science, the true "phiIosophic" knowIedge which is
knowIedge of the very essence of Being, that GaIiIeo procIaims .
"And!,!saytoyouthatifonedoes notknowthetruthbyhimseIf,
itis impossibIefor anyone eIse togive him that knowIedge. Itis in-
' 5cc Dialcc acra i ducmaaaimi 5iatcmi dclmcndc, nLc Ocrcdi Calilcc
CaI/lci Y (rcnzc: EdzoncNazonaIc, I 88), p. J5.
5ccDiaIcc acra i duc maaaimi 5iatcmi dcl mcndc, n Lc Ocrc di CaIilcc
0aIilci Y (rcnzc: EdzoncNazona!c, I 88),pp. I28.
4!
mMYb Lb L mbLHm
deedpossibIet oteachthosethingsthatareneithertruenorfaIse ,but
thetrue, bywhichI meannecessaythings,thatis,thosefor which
itisimpossibIetobeothewise,eveyaveagemindeitherknowsby
itseIf, o it is impossibIe fo it eve to Iean them. "' AssuedIy. A
PIatonist cannot beofa dierent opinion because forhim to know
isnothingeIsethan toundestand.
The aIlusions to Pato sonumeous inthe woks ofGaieo, and
the repeated mention ofthe Socaticmaieutics and ofthe doctine
ofeminiscence, ae notsupehciaonamentsbornfomhisdesie
to confom to theIiteary modeinheritedfomthe concen ofRe-
naissancethoughtwithPIato.Noraretheymeanttogainforthenew
science thesympathyofthe "commonreader", tiedand disgusted
bytheaidityofAristoteIianschoIastics ,nortocIoakhimseIfagainst
AristotIe inthe authoity ofhis maste and ivaI, PIato. Quite the
contary. they ae pefectIyserious,andmustbetakenattheiface
vaIue. Thus, that no-onemighthave the sightestdoubtconcening
hisphiIosophicaIstandpoint,GaIiIeoinsists .
b N . hc sOuttOn Ol thc qucsttOn undct dtsCusstOn tmptcs thc
KnOwcdgc OlCcttatn ttuths that atc )ust as wc KnOwn tO yOu as tO mc.
But, as yOu dO nOt tcmcmOct thcm, yOu dO nOt scc that sOIuttOn. 1n thts
way, wtthOut tcaChtngyOu, OcCausc yOu KnOw thcm aItcady, Out Ony Oy
tcCatngthcmtO yOu, 1 sha maKcyOu sOVc thcptOOcmyOutscl.
b N L L . bcVctattmcs1haVcOccnsttuCKOyyOutmannctOltcasOntng,
whtChmaKcsmcthtnKthatyOutnCtnctOthc OptntOnOlatOthatnoatrum
acirc ail ucddum rcminiaci, ptay,ltcc mcltOmthsdOuOtandtcmcyOut
Own Vtcw.
b N . What1 thtnK Olthts OptntOn OlatO 1 CancXp!atn Oy wOtds,
and asO OylaCts. 1n thc atgumcnts sOlatadVanCcd 1 haVc atcady mOtc
thanOnCcdcCatcdmysclOylaCt.IOw1wtappythcsamcmcthOdnthc
tnqutty wc haVc tn hand, an tnqutty whtCh may sctVc as an cXampc tO
hcpyOumOtccastytOundctstandmytdcasCOnCctntngthc aCqutstttOn Ol
sCtcnCc. . . .
Theinguiy"wehaveinhand"isnothingeIsethanthededuction
ofthefundamentaIpropositionsofmechanics.Weareinfomedthat
Gaieo udges he has done moe than mereIy decIare himseIf a
foIIower and a patisan of PIatonic epistemoogy. !n addition, by
appIyingit, bydiscoveingthe tue Iawsofphysics, by etting them
bededucedbySagedoandSimpIicio, that is,b)thereaderhimseIf,
` Scc Dialcc acraidue maaaimi 5laIemidelmcndc, n Le Oere di Calilec
Calilei Y (Frcnzc: EdzoncNazonaIc, I 88),p. I 83.
Scc Dialcc acra idue maaaimi 5iatemidel mcndc, nLeOere di Calilec
Calilei, Y(Frcnzc: Edzonc Nazona!c, I 88), p. 2I 7.
42
OAL LEO A!O FLATO
byus, hebe!ieveshehasdemonstatedthetuthofP!atonism "by
fact".TheDialogueandtheDiscoursesgiveusthe histoy ofanin-
te!!ectua! exeiment- ofa conc!usive exeiment, because itends
withthewistfu!confessionoftheAistote!ianSim!icio,acknow!edg-
ingthenecessity ofthestudyofmathematics,andegettingthathe
himse!fhadnot!earneditinhisyouth.
The Dialogue and the Discourses te!! us the histoy ofthe dis-
covey,obette sti!I, oft!eediscovey oftheIanguagesokenby
Natue. They ex!ainto usthe manne ofguestioninghe, i.e. the
theoyofthatscientihcexeimentationinwhichthefomu!ationof
ostuIates and the deduction of thei im!ications ecedes and
guidestheecouse to obsevation. Thistoo, at!eastfo Ga!i!eo, is
aoof"byfact".Thenewscienceisfo himanexeimenta! oof
ofP!atonism.
43
1
LumOO8 IOu!I8O !c olu rJvum:
!hO u8O unO uOu8O O ImugInuIy OXOIImOn!
TheawgoverningthefreefaIofbodies,whichsoundedthekneIof
AristoteIianphysics,containstwostatementswhichareindependent
ofeach other, eventhough they were intimatey inked together in
themindofGaieo. Forthisreason, acarefu distinctionshoudbe
madebetweenthem.
The hrst statement concerns the mathematicaI and dynamic
natureofthemotionoffaII.ItassertsthatthismotionobeystheIaw
ofnumber, and thatthe distances traversed in successive egua in-
tervas oftime areutnumeriimaresab unitate , in other words, a
constantforce, contrary tothe teaching ofAristotIe, does not pro-
duce a uniform motion, but a uniformIy acceIerated motion . that
is to say, the motive force does not produce a veocity, but an
acceeration.
ThesecondstatementaddsthatduringfaII,againcontrarytothe
teachingofAristote,aIbodies,argeorsmaI,heavyorIight,thatis
to say,whatevertheirsizeorkind,faII, inprincipIe ifnotinfact,
withthe sameveocity . in otherwords, the acceIerationduringfaI
isauniversaIconstant.
" Ournlrccah,thcspccdncrcascsndrcctproportontothctmc,thatsto
say,proportonaI!ytothcnaturaInumbcrs; thcdstanccs travcrscd nsucccssvc
cquaI ntcrvals oltmc arc proportonaI to thc odd numbcrs; and thcdstanccs
travcrscdlromthccommcnccmcnt ollaIIarc proportonaI to thcsquarcs olthc
naturaInumbcrs.
" nthclastanaIyss,thcIawovcrnnthclaIIolbodcsmpIcsthatolncrta,
thatstosay,thcconscrvatonolmoton.nArstotlc`svcw,suchconscrvatons
mpossblc. motonmp!csthcactonolamotvclorcc,aprmc-movcrattachcd
tothcmovnbody;whcnthclormcrsdctachcd, thcIattcrstops.
Onaccountolthcrcsstancc olthcar, hcavyand Iht bodcscan acqurc
thcsamcspccdollaIIonIy na vacuum.
AsKcplcrddprcvousIy,wcrcduccravtytotcrrcstraIattracton,andths
"constant" dcpcnds on thc dstancc ol thc hcavy body lrom thcccntrc ol thc
carth. orGaIlco,whodocsnotadmtattracton,thcacccIcratonconstant has
aunvcrsaIvaIuc.Morcovcr,thsconstantsmpIcdbyGaIIconthcdcducton
tscIlolthcIaw ollaII.
44
OALILEO
*
5

OE MOTU O8ANIUM

Historicastudyofthehrstofthesetwostatementshasfreguenty
been made' , on the other hand, the second has been somewhat
negectedbyhistorians.However,sucha studyisratherinteresting,
not ony because it rovides a briiant exame ofthe use - and
abuse- by Gaileo ofthemethodofimaginaryexeriment, butalso
because itenabes us to dehne to some extent the reationshi be-
tween Gaieanthought and that ofhis immediate, and even more
remote,redecessors.
Imaginary exeriments, which Mach has caed "thoughtexeri-
ments" (0edankenexerimente), and to which Poer has recenty
directed attention, have ayed an imortant art in the history of
scientihcthought.This fact is easiyunderstood. Rea experiments
areoftenvery dimcut to carry out , andust as often invovecom-
icatedandexensiveeguiment.Furthermore,theyarenecessariy
attendedbyacertainackofrecision,andsobyacertaineementof
doubt.
Itisimossibeinracticetoroduceaanesurfacewhichistruy
ane ,ortomakea shericasurfacewhich issoinreaity.Perfecty
rigid bodies donot, andcannot, exist inrerumnatura, norcaner-
fecty eastic bodies , and it is not ossibe to make an absoutey
correct measurement. Perfection is not ofthis world . no doubtwe
canaroachit, butwecannotattainit. Betweenemiricafactand
theoreticaconcetthereremains,andwiawaysremain,agathat
cannotbebridged.
Thatiswhereimaginationaearsonthescene.!tcheerfuycoses
thega. !tis notembarrassedbytheimitationsimosedonusby
reaity. It "achieves"Iheidea, andeventheimossibe.Itoerates
by means oftheoreticay erfect concets, and these are the very
concets that are brought into lay bythe imaginaryexeriment.
Thus, it ros erfect sheres on erfecty smooth, erfecty hard
anes , it hangs weights from erfecty rigid weightess evers , i t
causesighttobeemittedfromointsources ,itsendsbodiestomove
eternay in inhnite sace, it times Gaiean reference systems i n
" RcccntIy by myscIf: scc

tudea alilennea, part , LaIodcI achutc dcs

corps(Fars . Hcrmann, I 3).
ThcyusuaIIy Imt thcmscIvcs to thc "cxpcrmcnt at thcLcann Towcr ol
Fsa", whchGaIIco ncvcr pcrlormcd and ncvcr mcntons; sccmy "GaIIcc ct
l'cxpcrcncc dc Fsc`, Annalea de l' Univerait de Faria, I 37; Lanc Coopcr,
Ariatctle, Calilec andthe Tcwerc/Fiaa (NcwYork,thaca: I35).
5ccK.Foppcr, TheLcicc/5cientcDiaccver)(NcwYork: I5),App.,
pp. 42 h.
1hc part pIaycd sthusntcrmcdatcbctwccn thc mathcmatcaI and thcrcaI.
45
METAVHY5ICS A!O MLA5UEME!T
inertia motion withsynchronouswatches , ithurs hotons oneata
timeontoascreeniercedwithasingIesIit, orerhastwo.Having
doneths, it obtains resuItsoferfectrecision,thoughitisnotre-
vented thereby from being wrong sometimes, at east, with resect
torerumnatura.UndoubtedIy,itisonaccountoftheseerfectresuIts
that imaginary exeriments sooftenunderlie thefundamentaI aws
ofthegreatsystemsofnaturaIhiIosohy,suchasthoseofDescartes,
Newton, Einstein. . . andGaIiIeotoo.
LetusgobacktoGaIiIeo,andarticuIarIytothehrstbookofthe
Discorsi e dimostra:ioni matematiche intono a due nuore scien:e,
which Iike the Dialogo. . . sora i due massimi sistemi del mondo
Tolemaico, e Coernicano, is a friendIy conversation betweenthree
symboIiccharacters . SaIviati,whoreresentsthenewscienceandis
the sokesman for GaIiIeo , Sagredo, the bonamens, oen-minded
and free from schoIastic reudices, who is abIe for this reason to
understand, and receive instruction from, SaIviati , and SimIicio,
suorter of university tradition dominated by AristotIe, whose
viewshedefends,thoughnotwithgreatfervour.'
AerhavingtaIked aboutvariousmatters,theystarttodiscuss
thefaIIofheavybodies.InordertodisrovetheAristoteIianassert-
ionthattheseedoffreefalIofbodiesisroortionaItotheirweight,
andinverseIyroortionaI to theresistance oered by themediain
which they move (hence the imossibiIity ofmotion in a vacuum),
GaIileohrstofaIImakesthisstatementthroughSimIicio(thesokes-
man for AristoteIianism), and then ooses itthrough Sagredo by
the resuIts of a genuine exeriment, and through SaIviati by the
resuItsofanimaginaryexeriment.
b N L L . Aristotle,asaras1 remember, |nveighsaga|nstsomeothe
anc|ents, whousedto |ntroduce the |dea othe vacuum as a necessary
prerequ|siteormot|on, say|ng that mot|oncouldnottakeplacew|thout
" Thcrsttwocharactcrsarcnot onIysymboIc,butaIsorcaIpcrsons. 5arcdo
(I5TI-I620) was a Vcnctan, 5aIvat (I 582-I6I4) was a Iorcntnc. Both wcrc
lrcnds ol GaIIco, who wshcd to pcrpctuatc thcr mcmory n ths manncr.
5mpIco,howcvcr,spurcIysymboIc.tsrathcrunIkcIythatGaIIco,whcnhc
choscthcnamc,hadnmnd 5mpIcus, thcrcat commcntator olArstoIIc, t
smorcIkcIythathcwantcdtoshowthatthcArstotcIanmnd s,bydcnton,
ovcr-smpIc; or pcrhaps, by a pIay on thc smIarty olnamcs, hc wantcd to
sucst thatthcsprtuaI dcsccndcnts ol5imhciuawcrccver-aimle.
Cohcson; rcsstancc olmatcraIstolracturc(ttIcolthcrstOay) ;vacuum;
paradoxcs conccrnn nnty (ArstotIc's whccI) , cxpcrmcnt to show that thc
propaatonolIht snotnstantancous, butrcqurcs tmc,ctc.
5cc Diaccrai e dimcatrazicni matematicheintcmcaduenucieacienze, n Le
OeredeCal/lec Cal/lei, V!
(
rcnzc: EdzoncNazonaI, I 8T), pp. I05 .
46
LL LL

LL mLL LHN Lm

l. Pt8lClc, CppC8ng lh8 VcW, 8hCW8 lh8l, Cn lhc CCn!t8ty, lhc 8Cl C
mCVcmcnl ptCVc8 (88 Wc 8h8 8cc) lh8l 8 V8Cuum 8 nCCnCcV8Oc, 8nd h8
8tgumcnl 8 88 CCW8. 1c 8uppC8c8 lWC C88c8 . lhc ht8l, C CO]cCl8 C
dctcnl Wcghl mCVng n lhc 88mc mcdum, lhc 8cCCnd, C lhc 88mc
CO]cCl mCVng n dctcnl mcd8. 1n lhc ht8l C88c, hc 8uppC8c8 lh8l CO]cCl8
C dctcnl Wcghl mCVc n lhc 88mc mcdum 8l dctcnl 8pc0d8, WhCh 8tc
lhcm8cVc8 n lhc 88mc ptCpCtlCn 88 lhc Wcghl8 , 8C lh8l, Ct n8l8nCc, 8n
CO]cCl lcn lmc8 88 hc8Vy 88 8nClhct 8hCud mCVc lcn lmc8 88 88l.' 1n lhc
Clhct C88c, hc 888umc8 lh8l lhc 8pccd8 C lhc 88mc CO]cCl n dctcnl mcd8
8tc n nVct8c ptCpCtlCn lC lhc lhCKnc88c8 Ct dcn8lc8 C lhc mcd8, 8C
lh8l, Ct cX8mpc, lhc tc88l8nCc C W8lct Wctc lcn lmc8 gtc8lct lh8n lh8l
C 8t, hc WCud 88y lh8l lhc 8pccd n 8t WCud Oc lcn lmc8 lh8l n W8lct.
1c u8c8 lh8 8cCCnd C88c lC ptCVc h8 pCnl, n lhc CCWng W8y. P8 lhc
lcnuly C V8Cuum 8 nhnlcy gtc8lct lh8n lh8l C 8ny mcdum hcd Wlh
m8llct, hCWcVct t8tc, 8ny OCdy WhCh mCVcd Ct 8 Cctl8n d8t8nCc n 8
Cctl8n lmc n 8 mcdum hcd Wlh m8llct 8hCud, n 8 V8Cuum, mCVc
n8l8nl8ncCu8y

, Oul n8l8nl8ncCu8 mClCn 8 mpC88Oc, CCn8cqucnly lhc

dc8 C 8 V8Cuum, CWng lC mCVcmcnl, 8 mpC88Oc.
bJ N . hc 8tgumcnl 8 p8ny 0hcmincm - dtcClcd, lh8l 8, 8g8n8l
lhC8c WhC ptCpC8c 8 V8Cuum 88 ncCc888ty Ct mClCn. 8C lh8l 1 8gtcc
lh8l lhc 8tgumcnl 8 CCnCu8Vc, 8nd lh8l mClCn n 8 V8Cuum 8 m-
pC88Oc, lhc CCnCcplCn C lhc V8Cuum, l8Kcn n lhc 8O8Culc 8cn8c 8nd
nCl n tc8lCn lC mCVcmcnl, 8 8l nCl nV8d8lcd." ul lC tcpy 88 lhc
8nCcnl8 lhcm8cVc8 mghl h8Vc tcpcd, l 8ccm8 lC mc lh8l n Ctdct lC
8cc hCW muCh Pt8lClc`8 8tgumcnl tc8y ptCVc8, Cnc mghl tc]cCl h8
888umplCn8, ndccd dcny lhcm OClh. Pnd 88 Ct lhc ht8l 888umplCn, 1
Vcty muCh dCuOl Whclhct Pt8lClc cVct ltcd lC h1:d Cul Whclhct l 8 ltuc
lh8l lWC 8!Cnc8, Cnc lcn lmc8 88 hc8Vy 88 lhc Clhct, 8CWcd lC 8 8l lhc
88mc n8l8nl tCm 8 hcghl C, 88y, 8 hundtcd CuOl8, WCud 8 8l 8uCh
dctcnl 8pccd8 lh8l Whcn lhc 8tgct Cnc tc8Chcd lhc gtCund lhc Clhct
WCud h8Vc 8cn Cny lcn CuOl8.
b N L L . \Cu C8n cVcn 8cc tCm lhc WCtd8 hc u8c8 lh8l hc mu8l h8Vc
ltcd l, OcC8u8c hc 88y8 . " Uc scc lhc hcnticr`, nCW, lh8l WCtd "8cc
mpc8 lh8l hc mu8l h8Vc ltcd l.
b[LL . ul 1, bgnCt bmpCC, h8Vc my8c ltcd l, 8nd 1 888utc yCu
lh8l 8 C8nnCn-O8 Wcghng 8 hundtcd, lWC hundtcd pCund8, Ct cVcn mCtc,
W nCl tc8Ch lhc gtCund 8 p8m8 Otc8dlh 8CCnct lh0n 8 mu8Kcl-O8
Wcghng h8 8 pCund - cVcn tCm 8 hcghl C lWC hundtcd CuOl8. "
" Assumn that thc mcdum ohcrs a constant rcsstancc, wc havc I
:
=F

]R
and I

=F_] R.
I
t
=F]R and I_ F]R_ n cncraI I=F]R, aIways assumn that F;R.

I=F]O o.Thcspccd nvacuumwouIdbcnntc.

GaIIcoadmttcdthccxstcncc,notonIyolnntcsmaIvods,whchcxpIan
thccohcsonolbodcs,butaIsontcvods,suchasthoscproduccdby8 sucton
pump.
tsvcrydoubtluIl5arcdocvcrcarrcd outthcsccxpcrmcnts.Thcrstto
bc madcnasystcmatcmanncrsccmto bc thoscoIRccoIand Mcrscnnc, scc
"An Expcrmcnt n Mcasurcmcnt", bcIow.
47
MLTAFHYSCS AO MLASUEMET
bN . PnyW8y, WlhCul utlhct cXpctmcnl, Wc C8n Cc8ty ptCVc Oy
8 Otc, CCnCu8Vc 8tgumcnl lh8l l 8 nCl ltuc lh8l 8 hc8Vct OCdy mCVc8
l88lct lh8n 8 ghlct Cnc - mc8nng 8W8y8 OCdc8 C lhc 88mc m8lct8, n
8Cl lhc Cnc8 d8Cu88cd Oy Pt8lClc. c mc, bgCt bmpCC, Whclhct
yCu 8dml lh8l cVcty 8ng OCdy h88 8 8pccd dclctmncd Oy n8lutc, WhCh
C8nnCl D nCtc88cd cXCcpl Oy 8ppyng VC!cnCc Ct ptc8cnlng 8Cmc CO-
8l8Cc lC l8 mCVcmcnl.
b N L L . hctc C8n Oc nC dCuOl lh8l lhc 88mc OCdy, n lhc 88mc
mcdum, W h8Vc 8 8pccd WhCh 8 dclctmncd 8nd 8ppCnlcd Oy n8lutc,
8nd C8nnCl Oc nCtc88cd cXCcQl Oy CCncttng 8Cmc ncW mpclu8 lC l, nCt
dmn8hcd 88Vc Oy 8Cmc mpcdmcnl 8CWng l dCWn.
b NJ J , 1 lhctcCtc Wc h8Vc lWC OCdc8, WhC8c n8lut8 8pccd8 8tc
uncqu8!, l 8 cVdcnl lh8l Wc ]Cn lhc 8CWct lC lhc 88lct, lhc 88lct W
Oc p8tl8y 8CWcd Oy l, 8nd lhc 8CWct h88lcncd lC 8Cmc cXlcnl Oy lhc
Clhct, 88lct OCdy. Ptc yCu nCl Wlh mc n lh8 CpnCn?
b N L L . 1l dCc8 8ccm lC mc lh8l lh8l mu8l undCuOlcdy CCW.
b N . ul lh8 8 8C, 8nd 8 8tgc 8lCnc mCVc8 8l 8 8pccd C, Ct
n8l8nCc, cghl dcgtcc8, 8nd 8 8m8ct Cnc 8l 8 8pccd C Cut, Cn ]Cnng
lhcm lhc CCmpC8lc C lhc lWC W! CVc 8l 8 8pccd O88 lh8n cghl . Oul lhc
lWC 8lCnc8, Whcn ]Cncd lCgclhct, m8Kc 8 8lCnc 8tgct lh8n lhc ht8l 8lCnc
WhCh mCVcd 8l cghl dcgtcc8 C 8pccd. LCn8cqucnly lh8 8tgct 8lCnc
(8thCugh l 8 8tgct lh8n lhc ht8l 8lCnc Oy l8c) W mCVc mCtc 8CWy
lh8n lhc ht8l Cn l8 CWn, WhCh W88 8m8!ct, WhCh 8 8g8n8l yCut 8up-
pC8lCn. 1cnCc yCu 8cc hCW tCm lhc 8uppC8lCn lh8l lhc hc8Vct OCdy
mCVc8 88lct lh8n lhc ghlct, CCnCudc lh8l l mCVc8 mCtc 8CWy.
Simicioisquitebewidered. !sitnotobviousthatasmaerstone
addedtoaargeroneincreasestheweight,andthereforeincreasesthe
seed as asserted by Aristote? But Saviati siences him by ro-
caimingthatitisnottruethata smastoneaddedto a arger one
increasestheweightoftheatter,asitdoeswhenatrest.Thetruthis
thatadistinctionmustbemadebetweenheavybodiesinmotionand
thesamebodies atrest.
P 8tgc 8lCnc p8Ccd n 8 O88nCc dCc8 nCl Cny 8Cqutc cXlt8 Wcghl
Whcn 8nClhct 8lCnc 8 p8Ccd Cn lCp C l -Ct cVcn lhc 8ddlCn C 8 pumc
C h8X W! m8Kc l Wcgh lhc 8X Ct lcn CunCc8 mCtc lh8l lhc h8X Wcgh8 ,
hCWcVct, yCu cl lhc 8lCnc, lcd lC lhc h8X, 8 tccy tCm 8 hcghl, dC
yCu OccVc lh8l, n mClCn, lhc h8X WCud Wcgh Cn lhc 8lCnc, lhu8 8C-
Ccct8lng l8 mClCn, Ct dC yCu lhnK lh8l, Oy p8tl8!y 8u8l8nng l, lhc
h8X WCud 8!CW l dCWn? Yc cc 8 Wcghl Cn Cut 8hCudct8 Whcn Wc lty
" t s ntcrcstntonotcthatthsarumcnIwas put forward byGaIIcon hs
youthluI work De mctu Cravium (scc Le Oere di Camec Camei, (rcnzc:
EdzoncNazonaIc, I 88),p.265)wrttcnprobabIy about I 50, thouh hc dd
drawthcconcIusonthatthcspccdolfaIIoIhcavybodcssthcsamc.
' 5cc Le
Oere diCamec Camci, Yl l (rcnzc: Edzonc NazonaIc, I 88),
p. I 08 .
4&
LL LL
*
b

L mLL LHN Lm

!C ppC8c !hc mCVcmcn! !h8! !hc Wcgh! Wc 8tc C8ttyng 8 !tyng !C m8Kc,
Ou! Wc Wctc !C 8 8! !hc 8pccd 8! WhCh !hc Wcgh! WCud n8!ut8y 8,
hCW dC yCu m8gnc ! CCud ptc88 Ct Wcgh dCWn upCn u8 ? 1C yCu nC!
8cc !h8! !h8 WCud Oc Kc !tyng !C 8nCc 8 m8n tunnng 8hc8d C yCu 8! 8
8pccd 88 gtc8! 88 Ct gc8!ct !h8n !h8! 8! WhCh yCu 8tc CCWng?' YCu m8y
CCnCudc, !hctcCtc, !h8! n tcc 8nd n8!ut8 8 !hc 8m8ct 8!Cnc dCc8 nC!
Wcgh dCWn upCn !hc 8tgct, 8nd dCc8 nC! n CCn8cqucnCc nCtc88c !8
Wcgh!, 88 ! dCc8 8! tc8! .
SimIicio, however, does not give i n.
Lc! u8 88y, !hcn, !h8! !hc 8m8ct 8!Cnc dCc8 nC! Wcgh dCWn upCn !hc
8tgct. u! Wh8! yCu pu! !hc 8tgct Cn !Cp C !hc 8m8ct ?
L CCut8c-tcpc8 b8V8!! WCud 8dd !C !hc Wcgh! (C !hc !!!0 8!Cnc),
l ! mCVcd 88!ct . Ou! ! h88 8tc8dy Occn CCnCudcd !h8! !hc 8m8!ct Wctc
8CWct ! WCu!d p8t!8y tc!8td !hc 8pccd C !hc 8tgct, 8C !h8! !hc CCm-
On8!Cn C !hc !WC WCud mCVc mCtc 8CWy 8!!hCugh gtc8!ct, WhCh 8
CCn!t8ty !C yCut 888ump!Cn. Yc m8y !hctcCtc CCnCudc !h8! OCdc8 8tgc
8nd 8m8, !hcy 8tc C !hc 88mc 8pcChC gt8V!y, mCVc 8! cqu8 8pccd.
Itismost curious that GaIiIeo shoud mention secihcgravity at
this oint, where it is not reIevant to the argument. Hi storicaIIy,
however, it is very imortant, because it reveaIs the insirationaI
source of GaiIeo's reasoning, not only in theassageustguoted
butaso in the one thatI shaIguote shortIy. The source is Giam-
battistaBenedetti.Asearyasl 55JinhisResolutioomniumEuclidis
roblematumBenedetti,fortheuroseofanaIysingthefaIIofheavy
bodies,substitutedanArchimedeanschemeforthatofAristotIe,and
GaIieo did thesame, aswe shaII seeshorty. In thededicatoryre-
facetothefore-mentionedwork Benedettiwrote .
nCW 888ct! !h8! !hctc 8tc !WC OCdc8 C !hc 88mc Ctm' 8nd 8pcCc8
(8pcChC gt8V!y), c!hct cqu8 Ct uncqu8, !hcn, n !hc 88mc mcdum, !hcy
W bOCtnc CVct 8n cqu8 8p8Cc n 8n cqu8 !mc. h8 ptCpC8!Cn 8 mC8!
]
! s amusn to notc that ths strkn cxampIc wasIatcruscd by 5tclano
dcI AncI n hs poIcmc wth RccoI, scc my "De mctu Cravium. . . ",
American Fhilcachical5cciet), Tranaacticna, I 55.
'LeOeredi Calilec Calilei,V (rcnzc:EdzoncNazonaIc, I 88),p. I09.
Thc nucncc olBcncdctt on GaIIco hasaIrcady bccn cmphaszcd by G.
VaIat: scc "lc 5pccuIazon d Govann Bcncdctt su! Moto dc Grav",
5critti (rcnzc: I I I), pp. I6I h, and morc rcccntIy R. GacomcII, Cahlec
Calileiicvaneedauc "Demctu" (Fsa: I 4).
ReacIutic cmnium Euclidiarcblematum alicrumque unatantum mcdc circini
aertura (Vcncts: I 553). or G. H. Bcncdctt, scc my study "Jcan Baptstc
Bcncdctt, crtquc d`Arstotc", Alanea c]ertau Jtienne Cil:cn (!ars : I5);
andcarIcrmyJtt:deaalilcnnea,1and!,whcrcthcrc s abbIoraphyofths
author, sccaIso IhcworksolVaIaIand GacomcIIctcdn thc prcvousnotc.
" thcywcrc not,thcrshapcwouIdacct thcrmoton.
49
mLMYbl Lb L mbLHLmL
cVdcnl, OcC8u8c, lhcy dd nCl move n cqu8 lmc8, lhcn lhcy WCud
ncCc888ty b odctcnl 8pOc8 . - ., or c8c lhc med|umwould nCl Oc
un||ormorlhc 8p8Cc8 wouldOc uncqua. a a
Benedetti, aswe as Gaieo, considered the simutaneous fa of
Iarge and smaII heavy bodies (of identica kind, i .e. of the same
secihcgravity)tobecontrarytoAristote'steaching.Theywereun-
guestionabyright. Aristote, in actuafact,taughtthatarge stones
famoreraidythansma ones.Nevertheess,we mightaskour-
seves ifSimicio were not wrong to accet Saviati's reasoning so
easiy, and to aow himsefto be confounded by the aradoxica
"exeriment" ofa body weighed down by the addition ofanother
moving sower than, or as guicky as, the former. Coud not he,
oughtnothe,tohaveansweredSaviatibysayingthatinhisanaysis
ofthe fahehadnegectedafactor offundamenta, andvita, im-
ortance, namey, the resistance to motion? A motion, in fact,
imIiesactionandresistance , andhehadfurthermore admitted, as
amatterofcourse,thattheweightofanassembl)o]bodiesbehaves
inthesamewaywithregardtotheassembyastheweightofasinge
bodydoeswithregardtoitsownweight.Coudnothehavesaid,for
exame, thatBenedetti's "exeriment" asutforward in his book
Dirersarum seculationum mathematicarumeth)sicarum liberwas
anexceentone,butofnovaueasanargumentagainstAristote?
Intheexerimentinguestiontwoeguabodiesofidenticamateria
arehrstofaaowedtofa singy, andaerwardsmadetofa to-
gether, beingtiedtogetherwith a mathematica string. Itwas con-
cuded,thatthereisnoreasonwhytheyshoudfamoreraidyi n
thesecondinstance,thati stosay,moreraidytogetherthansear-
atey.Infact,thetwo bodies in guestion remaintuo bodies whether
they are tied together or not , and they do not constitute a single
bod). Two simiar horses connected by a bride do not make one
horseoftwicethesize,andthetwotogetherdonotruntwiceasfast
aseach ofthem, butwiththesame seed. Even ifweregardBene-
BcncdcttpubIshcdthcprclacc scparatcIy atVcncc n I 554undcrthcttlc,
Demcnatraticrccrticnum mctuum lccalium ccntra Ar/atctelem, t svcryrarc.
t was rcpublshcd by G. Lbr n thc thrd voIumc olhs Hiatcire dea aciencea
mathmatiqueaen1tahe(Fars . I 838),pp.258. Thcpassacquotcd hcrc wIIbc
lound on p. 26I . havc rcproduccd t n transIaton n my artcIc on Bcncdctt
ctcdabovc.
Hcwas rht.
Diveraarum 5eculaticnum mathemuticarum et Fh)aicarum Liber (Taurn:
I585).
bd.,p. I T4; sccp. 3TI olmyartclconBcncdcttctcd abovc.
5O
LA L LL

b
-
LL mLL LHN Lm

deu's two bodies as onesingIebody, the atter woud havenorea
reasontomovefasterthaneitherbodybyitseIf,neitherinavacuum,
where the seed inanycasewouIdbeinhnite, nor in aIenum,te-
cause then they woud incur twice the resistance.' Now, the seed
being roortionaI to the force, or inverseIy roortionaI to the
resistance, itwouId bethesame in bothcases.
As for Saviati's "exeriment", SimIicio couId have answered
thatabundIeofstrawattachedtoacannon-baIIremainsabundIeof
straw, in the same way that a cannon-ball remains a cannon-ball ,
and ifthe bundIe ofstraw faIIs sIowy by itsef, whiIstthe cannon-
baIfaIs raidy,itis reasonabIe, and by nomeanscontraryto the
teachingofAristotIe,toconcIudethatwhenthetwoaretiedtogether
the cannon-baII wiII acceIerate the motion ofthe bundIe ofstraw,
andtheIatterwiIretardthemotionoftheformer,insiteofthefact
thattheweightoftheassembIy isgreaterthanthatoftheindividuaI
comonents, articuIarIy of the cannon-balI. An assembIy com-
risinga bundIe ofstrawanda cannon-baIIisnotacannon-baI of
greaterweight, because the assembyis not a naturaobect.Again,
in the hyotheticaI reIy to Benedetti, SimIicio couId have added
thatevenifwedoersist,contrarytocommon-senseandtheteach-
ing ofAristotIe, in attributing to an assembIy behaviour which is
vaIidonlyforitscomonents,thenweshouIdhavetakenaccountof
thefactthat, thevoIumeoftheassembywithresecttothecannon-
baIhavingbeenincreasedtoagreaterextentthantheweightofthe
Iatter, the resistance ofthe assembIy to motion wiII have been in-
creasedtoagreaterextentthanitsincreaseinweight. ConsequentIy,
it is quite norma (and yet again in agreementwith AristotIe's dy-
namics),iftheratioofthemotiveforcetotheresistancedecreases,for
themotion,i. e. theseed,todecreaseinthesameroortion.
SimIiciocouIdhavesaidaIIthat,orsomethingsimiIar. !tisrather
aitythathedidnot.TheAristoteianstandointwouldhavebeen
carihed thereby, without, however, beingstrengthened. SaIviati, in
histurn,byinvokingthecaseofthehen'seggandthemarbIeegg,as
hedoesinsIightIydierentcontext,wouldhavebeenabetoretort
that roortionaity between seed and weight is not aected by
takingthisresistanceintoaccount,becausetheresistanceisthesame
' lthcywcrctobcconsdcrcdasconncctcdbyaphyscaIrod,thswouIdohcr
addtonaIrcsstanccto thc ambcntar.
Twomcn hoIdnhandsdonot laIIanylastcr;ncthcrnlact,noraccordn
tothc tcachnolArstotIc.
Iide in/m, p. 55.
5l
mMYb Lb L mtPbLHtMt
forbothbodies(thehen'scggandthemarbeegg), ands odoesnot
enterintotheargument. Theseedoffaofthesaidbodiesisnot
roortionatotheirweight.Infact,insteadofmovingmuchsower
than the marbe egg, the hen's eggmoves amost as raidy as the
former, andreachesthegroundinnearythesametime.
If,inhisreductioadabsurdumcriticismofAristote'sdynamics,which
wehaveustexamined,Gaieohasnottakenintoaccounttheresist-
anceoeredbythemediumtoafaingbody,wemustnotconcude
therefromthathehasin generafaiedtorecognizetheartthatit
aysindynamics.Quitethecontrary!BycriticizingtheAristoteian
concetofthereationshibetweenforce andresistancehcwased
torove,bymeansofanimaginaryexeriment,notonIytheossi-
biityofmotioni navacuum,butasothefactthatabodiesfa in
racuowiththe sameveocity, andthati tisreciseythe resistanceof
the medium that rovides the reason why they do not do so i na
enum.
Why, then,hashenegectedsofarto seakofit?Perhas itwas
becausehehadsetforthAristoteiandynamicsasbeingbasedontwo
axiomaticrincies . (a) thatseed is roortionatomotiveforce,
and(b)thatitisinverseyroortionatotheresistance,andhaving
doneso,hethoughtitnecessarytocriticizethemsearatey',erhas
aso, because this resistance oftheairisusuaytrivia, andmayi n
fact be negected. Indeed, when Simicio, instead ofresenting
Saviatiwiththeargumentsthatwehavebeenobigedtodeveofor
him, restricts himsefin site ofaargumentstotheremarkthathe
cannotbeievethataeadenshotfasustasraidyasacannon-ba,
hedrawsuonhimsefthefollowingtiradefromSaviatF .
bN . \Cu 8hCud h8Vc 88d. "P gt8n C 88nd 88 8Wlty 88 8 gtnd-
8lCnc. ul 1 WCud nCl W8h yCu, bgnCt bmpCC, lC dC Wh8l m8ny
Clhct8 dC, 8nd dVctl lhc 8tgumcnl tCm lhc m8n pCnl Oy 8ll8CKng 8Cmc
8l8lcmcnl C mnc lh8l 8 8 h8t`8 Otc8dlh tCm lhc ltulh, 8nd hdc Ocnc8lh
lh8 h8t`8 Otc8dlh lhc cttCt C 8nClhct, WhCh 8 88 Og 88 8 8hp`8 C8Oc.
Pt8lClc 88y8 . "Pn tCn O8 Wcghng 8 hundtcd pCund8, 8ng tCm 8
hcghl C 8 hundtcd CuOl8, tc8Chc8 c8tlh OcCtC Cnc Wcghng Cnc pCund
h88 8cn cVcn 8 8ngc CuOl. 1 88y lhcy 8ttVc 8l lhc 88mc lmc. yCu hnd,
Cn C8ttyng Cul lhc cXpctmcnl, lh8l lhc 8tgct 8ttVc8 lWC hngct8` Otc8dlh8
OcCtc lhc 8m8ct - lh8l 8, Whcn lhc 8tgct 8ltKc8 lhc gtCund, lhc 8m8ct
' Hs own thcory takcs account olthcsc two lactors.
Diaccrai, rst Oay, Le Oere di Cumec Cumei, Y (rcnzc. Edzonc
Iazona!c, I ), p. I I.
52
LPL LL
*
b

L mLL LHPN LM

8 lWC hngct8 Otc8dlh8 tCm lhc gtCund. nCW yCu 8tc ltyng lC hdc Oc-
hnd lhc8c lWC hngct8 Otc8dlh8 lhc nncly-nnc CuOl8 C Pt8lClc, 8nd Oy
8pc8Kng Cny C my 8ghl cttCt, lC p888 CVct h8, WhCh 8 cnCtmCu8, n
8cnCc. Pt8lClc dcC8tc8 lh8l OCdc8 C dctcnl hc8Vnc88 mCVc n lhc 88mc
mcdum (n 8C 8t 88 lhct mClCn dcpcnd8 Cn gt8Vly) 8l 8pccd8 ptCp Ct-
lCn8lc lC lhcI Wcghl8, 8nd hc gVc8 88 cX8mpc8 OCdc8 n WhCh lhc putc
8nd 8O8Culc ccCl C Wcghl C8n Oc d8CcDcd, ncgcClng, 88 C mnm8
mpCtl8nCc, Clhct CCn8dct8lCn8 8uCh 88 8h8pc, WhCh 8tc gtc8l!y 8cClcd
Oy lhc mcdum, WhCh 8lct8 lhc 8mpc ccCl C gt8Vly 8Cnc. WhCh 8
Why gC!d, lhc hc8Vc8l C 8 m8lct8!8, Whcn tcduCcd lC 8 Vcty lhn !c8,
hC8l8 lhtCugh lhc 8t, 8nd 8lCnc8 gtCund lC Vcty hnc pCWdct dC lhc
88mc. ul yCu W8nl lC m8nl8n lhc gcnct8 ptCpC8lCn yCu mu8l 8hCW
lh8l lhc ptCpCtlCn8ly C 8pccd8 C8n Oc 8ccn n 8! hc8Vy OCdc8, 8nd lh8l
8 8lCnc C lWcnly pCund8 mCVc8 lcn lmc8 88 88l 88 Cnc C lWC.
The resistance ofthe medium does, then, aysomeeectiveart
in determiningthe seed offa. Aristote, in admittingit, was not
entireymistaken. Nevertheess,hemadeagreaterrorinsayingthat
the seed offa ofa heavy body is inversely roortiona to the
resistance,thatistosay,tothedensity,ofthemediuminwhichthe
fa takes ace. This error invoves inadmissibe conseguences. !n
fact, Saviati continues with these words' .
1 l Wctc lIuc lh8l n mcd8 C dctcnl dcgtcc8 C lhnnc88 8nd t8tc-
8ClCn, n Clhct WCtd8 C dctcnl dcgtcc8 C tc88l8nCc, Kc, Ct n8l8nCc,
8t 8nd W8lct, lhc 88mc OCdy mCVcd 88lct n 8t lh8n n W8lct, 8CCCtdng
lC lhc ptCpCtlCn OclWccn lhc t8tly C 8t 8nd W8lct, l WCud C!CW lh8l
8ny OCdy WhCh c n 8t WCud 8! n W8lct 88 Wc . WhCh 8 8!8c, n lh8l
8 gtc8l m8ny OCdc8 8 n 8t, WhCh n W8lct nCl Cny dC nCl 8, Oul t8c
upW8td8.
SimiciodoesnotrightyunderstandSaviati'sreasoning.Further-
more, he thinks it is unwarranted, seeing that Aristote was con-
cernedonywiththefaofbodies intwomedia(waterandair),and
notwithbodiesthatfain oneandrise intheother.
Takeniteray, Simicio's obectionisundoubtedyratherweak,
andSaviatiis guiteustihedinbringinghometohimthefactthathe
ismakingabaddefenceofhismaster.Asamatterof fact, Simicio
oughttohavereied ashehadareadydone- thatthehysicsof
Aristote is not mathematica hysics, and for this reason the for-
muae ofroortionaity that it uts forward are not to be taken
" bd.,p.I I 0; sccthcsamcarumcntnDemctuCravium,LeOerediCalilec
Cahlei, (rcnzc: EdzoncIazonaIc, I 88),pp. 263 h.
' 5cc Dialcc . . . acra iduemaaaimi5iatemidelmcndc, Tclemaicc, e Ccer-
nicanc, Frst Oay, LeOerediCalilec Calilei,Y(rcnzc.Edzonc Iazona!c,
88),p. 38; 5ccondQ8y, p. 242.
5J
mLMYb Lb L mbLHLm
iteray in the mathematica sense, because they are i n fact onIy
guaitativeandvague,theyarearoximations.' GaiIeo, ofcourse,
knewthisguiteweI. Nodoubthethoughtitunnecessarytoursue
the matter in the Discorsi, seeing that he had aready treated the
generaI robIem ofthe mathematization ofhysica science in his
Dialogo. He couIdhaveaddedthathewasnotaIone inacceting
AristotIe's seudo-mathematica exressions iteraIy, and that
Aristote's commentators had done so Iong before. Salviati then
roceeds to demonstrate the absurd, and even contradictory, con-
cIusions1romAristotIe'sthesis bymeansofa "concrete" examIe.
ul lc mc, lhcn - hc 88y8 lC bmpCC" - Whclhct lhctc 8 8Cmc ptC-
pCtlCn OclWccn lhc gtC88nc88 C lhc W8lct - Ct Wh8lcVct l 8 lh8l tcl8td8
lhc mClCn - 8nd lhc gtC88nc88 C 8t, 8nd lhctc 8, 888gn Cnc 8l yCut
pc88utc.
hctc 8 - tcpc8 bmpCC - 8nd cl u8 88y l 8 lcnCd, 8nd lh8l mCtc-
CVct lhc 8pccd C 8 DCdy WhCh 88 m OClh ccmcnl8 _8 lcn lmc8 8CWct n
W8lct lh8n n 8t.
Lcl u8 nCW l8Kc Cnc C lhC8c OCdc8 Wh0h 88 n 8t Oul nCl n W8lct,
CCnlnuc8 b8V8l, 8uCh 88 8 O8 C WCCd, 8nd 88K yCu lC 888gn lC l
Wh8lcVct 8pccd yCu pc88c Ct l8 8 lhtCugh lhc 8t.
` undamcntaIIy, 5mpIco s rht. By substtutn a strctIy quanttatvc
schcmc[orArstotIc`sscm-quaItatvcdcas,wcarcobIcdtoadd"morcorIcss"
tothcconcIusons,whcrcbythcmcannsconsdcrabIyaItcrcd; conccrnnths
aspcctsccmyJtudcaalilcnnca,,pp. I 2 handmorcrcccntIy,E.J, Ojkstcr-
hus, 'ThcOrnsolCIasscaI Mcchancs" n CriticalFrcblcmainthcHiatcr)c/
5cicncc (Madson, Wsconsn. I5).
'5ccDia

cc, rst Oay, Lc Opcrc diCalilcc Culilci, Y(rcnzc. Edzonc

IazonaIc,I 88),pp. 38h;5ccondOay,pp.22h;242h;ThrdOay,pp.423h;
aIsoH 5aiatcrc,LcOpcrc diCalilcc Ca|ilci, N (rcnzc:Edzonc IazonaIc
I 88), p. 232, ctc.
McdcvaI crtcs as wcII had pontcd out thc loIIown contradctory con-
sdcratons. WhcnthclorcccquaIsthcrcsstancc,thcspccds unty (I= F]R, t
FR,thcn I" I ) ; now,tsobvousthat,lthcrcsstancccquaIsthclorcc,thcrc
canbc no moton. ThclormuIa spccdlorcc]rcsstancc tscIl mpIcs somcthn
stIImorcabsurd,namcIy,thatanylorcc,nomattcrhowsma!I,aIwaysproduccs
moton,nomattcrhowrcatthcopposnrcsstancc. 5nccthctmcolAvcrrocs,
sundry lormuIac havc bccn proposcd to takc account ol thcsc crcumstanccs,
cspccaIIy onc that cxprcsscs spccd as proportonaI, not to thclorcc, but to thc
cxccss olthc lorcc ovcrthc rcsstancc a lormuIawhchs vcry smIar to that
adoptcdbyBcncdctt(ridc in/ra).Bradwardnc,too,adoptcdoncwhchwasmorc
compIcatcd, and n modcrn notaton s cquvaIcnt to a Ioarthmc luncton.
5ccMarshaII CIactt, Cicrannimarlianiandlatc mcdicralFh)aica (IcwYork:
I 4I), pp. I2 h; AnncIcsc Macr, Dic Icrlu/cr Calilcia im XIIJahrhundcrt
(Romc: I 4),pp. 8I h, MarshaIICIactt, 7hc5cicnccc/mcchanicainthcAiddlc
Aca (Madson, Wsconsn. I 5).
Diaccrai, p. I I I . [Fitbliahcr`anctc:ThcloIIownpassacwastosomccxtcnt
paraphrascdbyFrolcssorKo]rclromthcotnaI ltaIan.Thcsprtolthspara-
phraschashcrcbccnrcproduccdnIhscdtoraIrctransIatontrom thctaIOt\.]
54
L L LLL

b
-
LL mLL LHNl Lm

<
Lcl u8 88y lh8l l mCVc8 Wlh 8 8pccd C lWcnly, bmpCC ptCpC8c8.
hcn, CCnCudc8 b8V8l, lhc OCdy 8hCud, lC CCnCtm Wlh Pt8lClc8
888umplCn, h8Vc 8cn n W8lct 8l 8 8pccd C lWC, n8lc8d C hC8lng up
tCm lhc OCllCm, 88 l 8Clu8y dCc8 . ticc tcrsn, 8 OCdy, hc8Vct lh8n WCCd,
WhCh n W8lct WCud 8 8l 8 8pccd C lWC, Cughl lC 8 n 8t 8l 8 8pccd
C lWcnly - lh8l 8 lC 88y 8l lhc 8pccd C lhc WCCdcn O8 - WhCh CCnlt8-
dCl8 Pt8lClc`8 lc8Chng CCnCctnng lhc ptCpCtlCn8ly C 8pccd 8nd
Wcghl. c8dc8, cVctyd8y cXpctcnCc 8 lhctc lC 8hCW u8 lh8l Pt8lClc`8
888ctlCn 8 88c, 8nd lh8l lhc tc8lCn OclWccn lhc 8pccd C CO]cCl8 8ng
n W8lct 8 Vcty dctcnl tCm lh8l OclWccn lhc 8pccd C lhct 8ng n 8t.
ForcX8mpc,' 8 m8tOc cgg W! 8! n W8lct 8 hundtcd lmc8 88lct lh8n 8
hcn8 cgg, WhCh, 8ng lhtCugh lhc 8t tCm 8 hcghl C lWcnly CuOl8,
W nCl 8ttVc 8C muCh 88 Cut hngct8 Otc8dlh8 OcCtc l, 8nd, n 8hCtl,
8uCh 8 OCdy W l8Kc lhtcc hCut8 lC tc8Ch lhc OCllCm C lcn CuOl8 C W8lct,
Whc n lhc 8t l WCu!d l8Kc Cnc Ct lWC pu8c-Oc8l8 lC lt8Vct8c 8 8m8t
d8l8nCc, 8nd 8nClhct (Kc 8 O8 C c8d) WCud c88y lt8Vct8c [lhc lcn
CuOl8 C W8lctj n c88 lh8n lWCc lhc lmc [tcqutcd lC 8 lhtCugh lhc
8tj.
It foows, therefore, thatthe Aristoteian objectiontothe ossi-
biityofmotionin avacuum,basedonanincreaseinseedroor-
tionatothedecreaseinresistance,isnotvaid.theseedinavacuum
wi neverbeinhnite.
We knowthattheossibiityofmotioninavacuumhadaready
been asserted byBenedetti, who came to the same concusionbya
critica examination of Aristoteian "roortionaity". Benedetti,
however, roved, as did Gaieo aso, that the motive force, being
takenas egua to, oridentica with the weight, shoud be reduced,
andnotdivided, bythevaueoftheresistance. Henceheconcuded
that bodieswoudfainavacuumwithseedsroortionatotheir
secihc gravities , and not a with the same seed, as stated by
Gaieo.ItisinterestingtonotethatSagredo(withoutacknowedge-
ment) invokes Benedetti'sargument, which aswehaveseen seemed
tohavethe suort ofSaviati.
YCu h8Vc Cc8ty 8hCWn - hc 88y8 - lh8l l 8 nCl ltuc lh8l OCdc8 C
dctcnl Wcghl mCVc n lhc 88mc mcdum Wlh 8pccd8 ptCpCtlCn8 lC
lhct Wcghl8, Oul 8l lhc 88mc 8pccd - mc8nng 8W8y8 OCdc8 C lhc 88mc
m8lct8, Ct lhc 88mc 8pcChC gt8Vly (OcC8u8c 1 dC nCl lhnK yCu mc8n lC
" bd., p. I I2.
bd. , p. I I2.
bd., pp. I I2 h. t was 8 rcuIarpcdaocpractccol GaIIcoto makcthc
rcadcrtraccthcphascsolhsownthouht,la!Intothcsamccrrorsthathchm-
scIlhadlaIIcnnto,andthcnlrcchmlromthcm.5arcdosaIwaysa!Iottcdthc
ntcrmcdatcphasc,and5aIvatthchnaI.
NN L
55
mLMYb Lb L mLbLHmL
CCnCudc lh8l 8 O8 C CCtK mCVc8 8l lhc 88mc 8pccd 88 8 O8 C c8d) , 8nd
nCW lh8l yCu h8Vc 88C Cc8ty dcmCn8lt8lcd lh8l l 8 nCl ltuc lh8l lhc
88mc OCdy mCVc8 n mcd8 C dctcnl tc88l8nCc Wlh 8pccd Ct 8CWnc88
ptCpCtlCn8 lC lhc tc88l8nCc, 1 8hCud Oc cXltcmcy pc88cd lC hc8t Wh8l
ptCpCtlCn8 8tc 8Clu8y CO8ctVcd n c8Ch C88c.
WeknowerfectywethatGaieointendstorovereciseythat
whichSagredohndsunbeievabe- asitwasasotohimformery
namely, thata ball ofcorkandoneofleaddonotfallwithdierent
seeds, butwithtbesameseed, inavacuum. Thiswasanastonish-
ingroosition,andhewoudhavehadmoreustihcationforcaim-
ingthatit,ratherthanhisawoftheacceeration offaingbodies,
had not been ut forward by anyonereviousy.' It is, moreover,
interestingto anayse his roofcosey,articuaryasitreveasthe
deveomentofhisthought.
Pllct h8Vng 888utcd my8c lh8l l 8 nCl ltuc lh8l lhc 88mc OCdy mCV-
ng n mcd8 C dctcnl tc88l8nCc Kccp8 l8 8pccd ptCpCtlCn8 lC lhc
ycdngnc88 C lhc mcd8, nCt lh8l OCdc8 C dctcnl Wcghl m8nl8n, n
lhc 88mc mcdum, 8pccd8 n ptCpCtlCn lC lhct gt8Vly (mc8nng OCdc8
C dctcnl 8pcChC gt8Vly 88 Wc), 1 Ocg8n lC CCmOnc lhc8c lWC phcnC-
mcn8 lCgclhct, 8nd CO8ctVc Wh8l h8ppcncd lC OCdc8 C dctcnl gt8Vly
p8Ccd n mcd8 C dctcnl tc88l8nCc. 8nd 1nClCcd lh8l lhc ncqu8ly C
8pccd8 W88 8Clu8y gtc8lct n mCtc tc88l8nl mcd8 lh8n n mCtc ycdng
Cnc8. h8 dctcnCc W88 8uCh lh8l, lWC OCdc8 8 lhtCugh lhc 8t Wlh
Cny Vcty 8ghly dctcnl 8pccd8, n W8lct Cnc W 8 lcn lmc8 88 88l 88
lhc Clhct , n 8Cl, lhc Cnc WhCh 88 8Wt!y n 8t, n W8lct nCl Cny W
nCl 8, Oul W tcm8n 8O8Culcy mClCnc88, 8nd Wh8l 8 mCtc, mCVc
upW8td8 . OcC8u8c lhctc 8tc 8Cmc Knd8 C lmOct - pcth8p8 8 KnCl Ct 8
ICCl - WhCh n W8lct tcm8n mClCnc88, 8nd n lhc 8t 8 I8pdy.
This mentionofbodies that remain ineguilibrium in watergives
riseto a digressionwhichinterrutstheine ofargument, so it wi
notbeconsideredforthe moment. Thedigressionisofinterestbe-
cause itrovides Sagredo and Saviatiwiththe oortunity to dis-
course on rather surrising exeriments reating to hydrostatica
eguilibrium, asweasothermatters.Saviaticontinuesasfoows .
' ThcruIclorndnthcdstancctravcrscd by8 body, or8 pont, nunlorm
acccIcratcd moton wasknown nthcMddIcAcs,rstat Oxlord, thcnatFars,
lromthcrsthaIlolthclourtccnthccntury. twascvcnappIcd tothc moton ol
laII by Oomnco 5oto nthc sxtccnth ccntury. 5cc thc wcII-known works olF.
Ouhcm, Jtudca aur Lcnarddc Iinci, 3 voIs. (Fars . I 08-I3) ; hs 5)atmc du
mcndc,Yand Y(Fars : I 56and I 58);apd thcworksquotcd on p.54,n.3.
' Diaccrai, p.I I 3.
5ccthcappcndxto thsp8pct.
Diaccrai, p. I I 6.
56
LPL l LtL

Lt MLL LHPN Lm

C h8VC 8IC8dy SCCn lh8l lhC dCICnCC DlWCCn lhC SCCdS C DCdCS C
dCICnl gI8Vly DCCCmCS CulSl8ndngy gIC8lCI 8S lhC ICSSl8nCC C lhC
mCdum nCIC8SCS, Dul Wh8l S mCIC, n lhC mCdum C quCkSlVCI, gCld
nCl Cny SnKS mCIC SWly lh8n lC8d, Dul S lhC Cnly SuDSl8nCC lh8l dces
8 - 8 ClhCI mCl8S 8nd SlCnCS ISC lC lhC SuI8CC 8nd C8l Cn l , WhCIC8S
Wlh D8lS C gCd, C8d, CCCI, CIhyIy, CI ClhCI hC8Vy m8lCI8lS, lhC
dCICnCC DClWCCn lhC W8y lhCy mCVC lhICugh lhC 8I S 8lmCSl ndS-
lnguSh8DlC ~ CI 8 gCd D8, 8l lhC Cnd C 8 dCSCCnl C 8 hundICd CuDlS,
Wll nCl 8I1VC CuI DngCIS DIC8dlhS DCCIC CnC C CCCI. bCCng, 1 S8y,
lh8l lhS S SC, 1 mmCd8lCy C lC lhC CCnCuSCn lh8l lhC ICSSl8nCC C
lhC mCdum WCIC ICmCVCd, 8l m8lCI8lS WCud 8l 8l lhC S8mC SCCd.
Gaieo'sargument isthusutforwardasakindofrogressionto
the imitingcase. Two sets ofmagnitudes, one the resistanceofthe
mediainwhichheavybodiesmove,theotherthedierenceintheir
seeds, deveo in a consistent manner , the greater the resistance,
the greaterthe dierence in seeds , and conversey, as the former
decreases, so the atter decreases.' Ifwe suress the former, then
mostrobabyweshaseetheatterdisaearaso.
Ofcourse,thisroofisnotsatisfactoryogicay,andtheAristote-
ianwasnotentireywrongindeciningtoaccetitassuch.Torove
theGaieansuosition, anexerimentisnecessary. Butthatisim-
ossibe, we cannot work in a vacuum. So Gaieo found himsef
obiged toreverse the rocedure and show that, by assumingthat
heavybodies,inaccordance withhishyothesis,fawiththe same
seedinavacuum, hecanredicttheresuts ofactuaexeriment ,
andfurthermorethathecanexainthetrueartayedbyresistance
intheeectiveretardationofmotion. Hecontinuesthus .
C 8IC lIyng lC Dnd Cul Wh8l WCud h8Cn lC DCdCS C VCIy dCICnl
WCghlS n 8 mCdum C nC 1CSSl8nCC, SC lh8l 8ny dCICnCC C SCCd WhCh
W8S Cund WCuld h8VC lC DC 8llIDulCd lC lhC dCICnCC C WCghl 8lCnC,
8nd SnCC Cny 8 S8CC CCmClCly Cmly C 8I CI C 8nylhng ClSC, CVCn C
8 lhn 8nd yCdng n8luIC, WCud DC 8DC lC gVC uS 8 VSDC dCmCnSlI8-
lCn C Wh8l WC 8IC SCCkng - 8nd WC l8Ck SuCh 8 S8CC ~ WC Sh8 lIy lC CD-
SCIVC Wh8l h8CnS n lhC lhnnCSl 8nd C8Sl ICSSl8nl mCd8, CCm8ICd lC
Wh8l WC SCC CCCuIIng n ClhCIS CSS lhn 8nd mCIC ICSSl8nl. 1 WC Dnd, n
8Cl, lh8l DCdCS C dCICnl WCghl dCI CSS 8nd lCSS n SCCd 8S lhCy 8IC
8CCd n CSS 8nd CSS ICSSl8nl mCd8 - 8nd lh8l, hn8ly, n lhC hnCSl mC-
dum C 8, CVCn l S nCl 8 V8Cuum, lhC dCICnCC n SCCd, CVCn DClWCCn
DCdCS C VCIy dCICnl WCghl, S CXlICmCy Sm8l, ~ 8mCSl n8ICC8DC ~
" nthcArstotcIanschcmcthsdhcrcncc- proportonaItothcwchtotthc
aIInbodyand thc dcnsity othc mcdum - should rcman unchancd.
' EspccaIIy as I contradcts Bcncdctt's thcory, whch, at rst sht, s so
scductvc.
Diaccrai, p. I I T.
57
m MYb Lb L mbLHmL
t 8ccm8 tC mc th8t t WCud D 8 Vcty 88c guc88 tC OccVc th8t n 0 V0Cuum
thct 8pccd8 WCud Oc cX8Cty thc 88mc. Lct u8 thctcCtc CCn8dct Wh8t
h8ppcn8 n 8t. C ChCC8c 8 8h8pc C Wc dctctmncd 8ut8Cc 8nd Vcty ght
m8tct8, 1 8hCud Kc tC CCn8dct 8 OCWn-up O8ddct n WhCh thc 8t
WhCh 8 n8dc t W Wcgh, inthc mcdum C 8t t8c, nCthng - Ct Vcty
ittc, 8nCc t C8n Cny D Vcty 8ghty CCmptc88cd' - 8C th8t thc Wcght 8
Cny th8t tny 8mCunt CCn8ttutcd Oy thc 8Kn t8c, WhCh WCud nCt Oc 8
thCu88ndth p8tt C 8 m888 C c8d 88 Og 88 thc nh8tcd O8ddct. yCu
8CWcd thc8c tWC, bgnCt bmpCC, tC 8 ICm 8 hcght C Cut Ct 8X
CuOt8, Oy Wh8t d8t8nCc dC yCu thnK thc c8d WCud 8ntCp8tc thc O8d-
dct n thct 8 ? YCu m8y Oc 8utc t WCud nCt gct thctc thtcc tmc8 8CCnct,
nCt cVcn tWCc 88 8CCn, 8thCugh yCu WCud h8Vc m8dc t 8 thCu88nd tmc8
88tct.
Um8y Oc - tcpc8 bmpCC - th8t 8t thc Ocgnnng C thct mCVcmcnt,
th8t 8 n thc ht8t Cut Ct 8X CuOt8 C mCVcmcnt, Wh8t yCu 88y mght
CCCut . Out 8ltctW8td8, 8nd n 8n cXtcn8Vc CCntnu8tCn [C thc mCVcmcntj,
OccVc th8t thc c8d WCud c8Vc [thc O8ddctj Ochnd nCt Cny Oy 8X
p8tt8 Cut C thc tWcVc, Out Oy cght Ct tcn.
Saviati agrees, and goes onebetterbysaying .
. . . inVcty Cng d8t8nCc8, thc c8d mght CCVct Cnc hundtcd mc8 Whc
thc O8ddct W88 tt8Vct8ng Cnc.
But that by no means contradicts the roosition. quite the
contrary, as is conhrmedbythefactthat the seed ofbodies when
faling freey varies rogressivey during fa. This variation is
reciseywhatshoudoccurifthedierenceinseedisnotcausedby
the dierence inweight, butisdeendent soey onextema condi-
tions,namey,theresistanceofthemedium.Itwoudnotoccurifthe
seeddeendedontheheavinessofthefalingbodies.
cC8u8c, thcy Wctc thc 88mc [thct gt8Vtc8j, thc ptCpCttCn OctWccn
thc 8p8Cc8 thcy tt8Vct8c Cught tC Oc thc 88mc, Whctc88 Wc 8cc th8 ptCpCt-
tCn CCntnung tC gtCW 88 thct mCVcmcnt ptCgtc88c8.
Gaieo's argument i ssecious. !t may even seem rather trivia,
andureyoemica,thatistosay,designedtosiencehisadversary,
ortodefeathimbymeetinghimonhisownground,forthatiswhat
itreay comes to. Undoubtedy he does meet his adversary on his
own ground, as a critica argument shoud, but in the mind of
" Thcwchtolthcarsnotundcrdscusson; northclactthattwchsmorc
whcn t s comprcsscd. thcscarc mattcrs admttcd by cvcryonc. On thc othcr
hand, wc mustadmrcaII thc morc GaIIco`sncnutynscttnup hscxpcr-
mcnt - manary, olcoursc ~ cvcn thouh t cIcarIy cannot makc cIams to
prccson.
Diaccrai, p. IT.
1bd., p. I 8.
58
LL LL
*
b

L mLL LHN Lm

Gaieohisargumentis to be taken seriousy. Forwhat he charges
against Aristoteianism (and imicity against Benedetti-Sagredo,
aso)invovescon0ictwiththefundamentarincieofascientihc
exanation,i. e. constantcausesroduceconstanteects. Herided
himsefuon having estabished a doctrine in agreement with this
rincie.
!n Aristoteian dynamics a constant force roduces a uniform
motion. The constant weight ofa body shoud not, therefore, ro-
duce anacceleratedmotion duringfaI However, etusgofurther,
andadmitthatitdoes"cause"anacceeratedmotion.Then,ateast,
theratiobetweentheseeds"caused"bydierentweightsshoudbe
constant,andhencetheratiobetweenthedistancestraversedshoud
asobeconstant. !nfact,theyarenot.
Itwoudseem,moreover,thattheGaieandoctrineoffaissub-
ect to the same obection. For ifthe hrstandimmediateeect of
gravityisnotmotion,butacceeration, andtheincreaseinseed of
faisonyasecondaryeect,thenthisacceeration,suosingitto
bedierentfordierentbodies,e.g.aninatedbadderandaeaden
ba in thesame medium, nevertheess remains constant foreachof
them. The result is - oraears to be- thattheratiobetween the
seedsandthedistancestraversedshoudremainconstantaso.
Whethertheartayed byresistancewithresecttothe motive
force wasimroeryunderstood byAristote androery under-
stood by Gaieo (or Benedetti) does not ater the basic osition,
namey,constantfactors cannotroducevariabeeects.
Now, this is exacty what Simicio says, and he, being a good
ogician,hasnoneedoftheexanationofGaieo'sargumentwhich
wehavebeenconstrainedtomake .
P tghl , Oul, lC CCW in yCut ownlt8CK8, , n OCdc8 C dctcnl
gt8Vlc8 l C8nnCl Oc lhc dctcnCc n Wcghl lh8l 8 lhc tc88Cn Ct lhc
Ch8ngc n lhc ptCpCtlCn C lhct 8pccd8, Cn lhc gtCund8 lh8l lhct gt8Vlc8
dC nCl Ch8ngc, nclhct C8n lhc mcdum, WhCh 8 8uppC8cdy 8W8y8 lhc
88mc, C8u8c 8ny 8lct8lCn n lhc ptCpCtlCn OclWccn lhct 8pccd8.
Aswesee, Simiciois guiteright.!ftheresistanceofthemedium
has a constant vaue, as admitted by Aristote (Gaieo himsef,
foowingBenedetti in thismatter, didsoasoinadierentcontext),
the ratio oftheseedsresutingfromtwo constant "causes" shoud
' ThccxpIanaton olths acccIcratons8 cruxnArstotcIan dynamcs.
Thcncrcascnspccd,andthcspccdtscIl,arconIythcrcsuIt, oraccumuIatcd
rcsuIt,olacccIcraton.
Diaccrai, p. 8.
59
mVMYb Lb L mbLHM
remainconstant.!tisreciseIyatthisointthattheerrorarises .the
resistanceofhemediumisnotconstant,butvariabIe, anditvaries
asafunctionoftheseedofmotion.SaIviatiexIainsasfoIIows' .
1 WCud 88y Ct Cnc thng th8t 8 hc8Vy OCdy h88 8n nhctcnt tcndcnCy tC
mCVc tCW8td8 thc CCmmCn Ccnttc C 8 OCdc8 ~ thc Ccnttc C thc c8tth -
Wth 8 mCtCn WhCh 8 CCntnu8y, 8nd unCtmy, 8CCcct8tcd, 8C th8t n
cqu8 8p8Cc8 C tmc, cqu8 8dditCn8 C 8pccd 8nd mCmcntum 8tc m8dc.
Pnd th8 mu8t D undct8tCCd tC CCCut WhcncVct 8 8CCdcnt8 8nd cXtctn8
mpcdmcnt8 8tc tcmCVcd, 8nd thctc 8 Cnc WhCh Wc C8nnCt tcmCVc thc
mpcdmcnt C thc pctV8dng mcdium, WhCh mu8t Oc Cpcncd 8nd pu8hcd
88dc Oy thc 8ng OCdy. hCugh t 8 8 ycdng 8nd p888Vc ud, thc
mcdum CppC8c8 th8 mCtCn With 8 tc88t8nCc WhCh 8 8t ht8t 8m8, Out
gtCW8 gtc8tct 8nd gtc8tct, 88 t Cpcn8, ht8t 8!CWy, thcn 88!ct 8nd 88tct,
n Ctdct tC 8CW thc OCdy tC p888 , 8nd, OcC8u8c, 88 1 h8Vc 88d, thc OCdy
8 CCntnu8y 8CCcct8tng, CWng tC t8 n8tutc, 88 8 CCn8cqucnCc t cn-
CCuntct8 cVct gtc8tct tc88t8nCc tCm thc mcdum, 8nd thc 8mCunt8 C
8pccd 8Cqutcd gtCW cVct c88, 8C th8t hn8y thU 8pccd 8nd thc tc88t8nCc
C thc mcdum tc8Ch V8uc8 WhCh, O88nCng c8Ch Cthct, ptcVcnt utthct
8CCcct8tCn.
FromthisointonwardsthemovingbodymovesuniformIywith
theseedithasacquiredduringfaII.Theincreaseinresistancedoes
notderivefrom anychangeinthenatureofthemedium,butsoIeIy
fromtheincreaseinseedwithwhichitmustbedi sIacedfromthe
athofthefa|Iingbody.!nthisway,wemayadd,thebasicrinciIe
ofroortionaIity between cause and eect has been safeguarded .
atthesametimeithasbeenexIained howaconstantcausecanro-
duce avariabIeeect.
Theassagewhichhasjustbeenquoted from GaIiIeoI8 veryin-
terestingandsignihcant.NotonIydoesitgiveamechanicaIexIana-
tion ofthe resistance ofthe medium a concet whose great im-
ortance'isnotintheIeastdiminishedbythefactthatGaIiIeomakes
' bd.,cf. a!soDcmctuCravium, pp. 255h.
' norancc olthcnaturcolravty, as procIamcd, n thcDiaIcc, docs not
prcvcntGa!!colromrcconzntasannhcrcntprncpIcolbodcs.Morcovcr,
that san ndspcnsabIcrcqurcmcntlorthcconstancy olacccIcraton.
t s ntcrcstn to notc that lthc rcsstancc to acccIcraton sproportonaI
tothcspccd,andhcnccncrcascsproportonaIIytothcIattcr,thcntsownvaIuc
(orts"spccd")dccrcascsnvcrscIy;thcratobctwccnrcsstanccandacccIcraton
s thcrclorc cxactIy thc samc as that postuIatcd by ArstotIc bctwccn rcsstancc
and spccd. Wc shaII rctum to ths mattcrIatcr.
Iidc in/ra, Appcndx, l, p. 84,n.2. .B. Cohcn n 8 rcccnt book(ThcBirth
c/aNcwFh)aica(
Ncw York: I ), pp. I I J h)makcs thc vcrypcrtncntrcmark
thatths"cquabIcandunlorm'downward motonsanncrtaImoton,thconIy
ncrtalmotonthatcanbcrcaIzcdnGaIIcanphyscs.
Thssthcstartn-pontloraIIsubscqucnt studcs onthcrcsstanccolmcda
6O
LL LL
*
b
-
L mLL LHN Lm
:
amost curious mistake' in aIyingit toreaIity butitaIsoreveaIs
what ! shouId Iike to caII the underIying axioms of his thought,
axiomswhichhefaiIstoformuIatecIearIyandexIicitIy,ordoesnot
aIwaysformuIate,butwhichshowevidenceoftheiractivityin some
wayorotherinthecourseofhisreasoning.
WeknowthatGaIiIeo,asweII asBenedetti andArchimedes,con-
sideraIIbodiestobe"heavy",andthatIightonesdonotexist.We
canthereforeextendtoaIIbodies, ortoabodyquabody,theremark
hemakesabout "gravity", andsaythat every body "ossesses" an
internaIrinciIe byvirtueofwhichitmovestowardsthecentreof
the earth with a uniformIy acceIerated motion. In other words,
"gravity", concerning whose "nature" we are in other resects
ignorant, can, nevertheless, be dehned as a "cause" or inherent
"rinciIe" andcon-substantiaIwiththebody,andasaforcewhich
is not onIy constant, but aIso the same in aIIbodies,whatevertheir
kind.ItisforthisveryreasonthatacceIerationhasaconstantvalue,
andhenceisthesameforaIIbodies,whatevertheirnature,orwhere-
everthey areIaced, for this would notbesoif"gravity" were the
tothcmotonotbodcs.thardIymattcrs,asNcwtonrcmarksnhsFhilcacphiac
Naturalia Frincipia mathcmatica (Book , 5ccton , Ot thc moton of bodcs
thatarcrcsstcdnthcratoofthcvcIocty),that"thcrcsstanccotbodcssnthc
rato otthcvcIocty, smorc amathcmatcaI hypothcssthan aphyscaI onc. n
mcda vod otaII tcnacty, thc rcsstanccs madc to bodcs arc n thc dupIcatc
ratootthcvcIoctcs", and not n drcctratoto thcspccds, as GaIIcothought.
' Iidc in/ra, Appcndx. .
5ccprcvousIynDcmctuCrarium, p. 360: "Ccncludamua itaquc,raritatia
nul|um ccrpum cxpcra caac,acdrariacaaccmnia,hacc quidcm maia, haccautcm
minua,prcutccrummatcriamaiacatccnatipatactccmprcaaa,rcld(uaactcxtcnaa,
/ucrit."
Wc mghtcvcnsaythathcavncssccnatitutcathcph)aicalbody.
5ccDialcc,LcOpcrcdiCalilcc Calilci(rcnzc: EdzoncNazonaIc, I 88),
Y!,pp. 260h:
`5t M"LtCtO . La cauaa di qucat'c]cttc (thcmoton ot carthIy thngsdown-
wards) nctiaaima, cciaachcdun aa chc lararitJ.
"5ALvtA1; . Ici crratc, 5i. 5implicic, rci dcrcri dirc chc ciaachcdun aa
ch'cl|a ai chiama raritJ. ma ic ncn ridcmandc dclncmc, ma dcll'caacnza dcl|a
ccaa: dcl|a qualc caacnza rci ncn aapctcpuntc piu di qucllc chc rciaappiatc dcl|'
caacnza dcl mcrcntcdcllc atcl|c in irc, ccccttuatcnc u ncmc, chc a qucata atatc
pcatc c/attc/amiliarc c dcmcaticc pcr la/rcqucntc capcricnza chc millc rcltc
iccncrciamc,mancnchcrcalmcntcnciintcndiamcpiu,chcrincipiccchc
rrtuaiaqucl|a chc mucrclapictra in iu,diquclchcnciaappiamc ch/lamucra
in au, acparata dalrcicicntc, c chi mucra la Luna in ric, cccttcchc (ccmc hc
dcttc) incmc,chciuainularccrcricliabbiamcaaacnatc digravt,dcrcch
a quchc ccn tcrminc pitt cncricc aaacnamc vrt mprcssa, a qucllc diamc
ntcIIgcnza, c assstcntc, c ntormantc, cd a in/niti altri mcti diamc lcrc pcr
caicnc la natura."
6l
mMYb Lb L mbLHm
eectof anextemaforce,suchasattraction,forexame.'Inthelast
anaysis,thisimiesthatthematterofwhichbodies(ateastterres-
triabodies)arecomosedisidenticainthema, andisnotaccom-
anied by quaitative dierences. The "gravity" of a body (in a
vacuum)isthereforestrictyroortionatothequantityofmatterit
contains. Anticiating somewhat, and ascribing to Gaieo a ter-
minoogyofwhichheknewnothing, wecoudsaythatheregarded
themassofabodyandits heavinesstobethesamething.
Wecoudevengofurther,andanticiateoncemorebysayingthat
Gaieo regards inertia mass and gravic mass as beingessentiay
thesame,athoughthisidentityaearsonywhenmotionoccursin
avacuum,andnotwhenitoccursinaenum,asweshaseeshorty.
Inertiamass ! EventhoughGaieodoesnotemoythisterm,itis
nonetheesstruethatheconstantymakesuseofthisconcetinthe
courseofhisarguments.Infact,aartfromthe"inherentrincie"
" tsnthsrcfusaItoscckancxpIanatonofgravtyonwhchtobuIdathcory
thatwchnd thcsourcc ofstcrItyofGaIIcan phIosophy nastronomy, andthc
causcofBorcII'sfaIurc. A bad thcorys aIwaysprctcrabIc to nothcory at aII.
5ccmyRvcluticnaatrcncmiquc,Bcrcl|ictlamcaniqttcclcatc(Fars:Hcrmann,
01.
Thchstoryofthcconccpt"massquanttyofmattcr"sstIIrathcrobscurc.
On thconchand, wccouIdmantan that t wasaIrcadympIict nthctcachng
ofArstotIc, onthcothcrhand,wccouIdsaythcsamcoftsdctcrmnatonfrom
"voIumc? dcnsty",aswcIIasby"wcght": tsaIsothcvcrybassofthcartof
thcassaycr.WccouIdaIsogvcKcpIcrthccrcdtforhavngdscovcrcd thscon-
ccpt,and thatsmybcIcf. nfact,hcwasthcrst togvcacorrcctdchntonof
thc conccpt by dstngushng "mass =quantty of mattcr=voIumc? dcnsty"
from "wcght", thc formcr s conccmcd n dynamc rcIatonshps, and rcmans
constant,whcrcasthcIattcrdocsnot.ThcachcvcmcntsaIIthcmorcmcrtorous
sccng that, ndynamcs, Kcplcrwas stII anArstotcIan,cvcnthoughahcrctc.
For thc prchstory of thc conccpt ofmass, scc AnncIcsc Macr, Dic Icrlu/cr
Calcia im XII Jahrhundcrt (Romc: 4) , Max Jammcr, Cccpta c/ maaa
(Harvard Unvcrsty Frcss, 0).
Thctcrm "ncrta" (incrtia) dcrvcs from KcpIcr, andn thcscnsc uscd by
hm hasvcryncarIythcoppostcmcanngto that ofthcprcscntday.Hcmcans
inclinaticadquictcm, asNcoIcOrcsmc wouId say, andnotrcsstanccofa body
Iomoton.tsundcrstoodthatuscthctcrmntsmodcmscnsc.
tcouId bcmantancd that thcccnccpt of"ncrtarcsstancc tomoton=
ncInatontorcst"scrvcsonIytocIarfyancsscntaIfundamcntaIdcaofArstotIc.
ndccd,whyshouIdforccsbcnccssarytosctbodcsnmoton,fbodcsohcrno
rcsstancctobcngsctn moton?andwhyshouId thcyccascthcr moton, whcn
dcprvcd ofthcmotvcforcc, unIcssthcyhavc,nhcrcntIy,anncInatontorcst?
FnaIIy,totakcthcmattcrfurthcr, umotonsthcactuaIzatonofaforcc, how
canthcIattcrbcconccvcd to ohcrnorcsstancc to actuaIzaton?
tmghtbcsadthatthcmodcmconccptofncrtasnotsofarfrom thatof
KcpIcr(orArstotIc)as wouId appcar at rst sght, as havc|ustsad,nboth
cascs t s rcaiatancc tc chanc. 5cc Ncwton, Frinciia mathcmatica, Book ,
Ocmton .
62
LL LL
*
b

L mLL LHN Lm

of"gravity",theGaieanbodyossessesasecondinternarincie,
namey, thatofresistancetotheacceeration,ordeceeration,which
weimose onit, orcausetobe imosed onit , anditisevenro-
ortionatothis acceeration (ositive ornegative)andtheweight,
oretussayitsmass,i. e. theguantityofmattercontainedinit.For
thisreason,andinthisway,amediumatrest,oryieding,resiststhe
motionofafaingbody.Thearticesofthemedium,whichGaieo
treatsasaerfect0uid,havenobondonewithanother(noviscosity),
andresistbeingsetinateramotion,andthisresistanceisgreaterthe
moreraidtheateramotion,fortheatterisafunctionoftheseed
offaofthebodyinguestion, ormoreexacty,itisinratio tothe
acceleration of the artices ofthe medium from rest to motion.
Wecoudaso saythegreatertheactionofthefaingbody onthe
medium, thegreateristhereactionofthemedium,oritsartices.
!tisobviousthatthisreaction isgreaterwhentheresistance ofthe
medium is greater, thatisto say, when the medium is denser , or
(whichcomestothesamething)theheavierthemediumis. Finay,
itisobviousthat afaingbodywiovercometheresistanceofthe
mediummoreeasiywhenitisimeedbya greaterforce , inother
words,theheavieritis ,or,moreexacty,whenitisheavierthanthe
mediuminguestion.Wehaveseenthattheverysmamomentumof
anin0atedbadderencounteredgreatresistancefromtheair, whist
thegreatweightofaeadenbaencountereditteresistance.From
aconsiderationofthesefactswecometotheconcusionthatifthere
were no medium the benet accruing to the badder woud be so
great,andtotheeadenbasosma,thattheirseedswoudbecome
egua. Now,ifweadmittherinciethat"in amediumwhich, on
account ofa vacuum or something ese", oers no resistance to
motion abodies wi fawith the same seed, we shoud be in a
ositiontodeterminetheratiooftheseedsofsimiaranddissimiar
WcarcconccrncdhcrcwthacccIcraton,andnotthcmotonwhchthcbody
conscrvcs, andtowhchts"ndhcrcnt".tsforthsvcryrcasonthatahcavy
body contnucs ts moton wth a unform spccd, whcn ts acccIcraton durng
faIIsncutraIzcdbythcrcsstanccofthcmcdum.
'A ycatcr forcc srcqurcdto mparta grcatcracccIcraton to agvcnbody
(.c. a fastcr moton), acccIcratonsproportonaItothcfomc.
Hcncc, for a gvcn forcc, thc acccIcraton s nvcrscIy proportonaI to thc
mass(wcght)ofthcbody onwhch tacts.
Thcstatcmcntthat actonandrcactonarccquaIsmpIcthcrc.thadprc-
vousIybccnstatcdbyLconardodaYncformpact.
Diaccrai, p. I l . 5omcthngcIsc! ?
ThcrcsstanccoffaIIngbodcst oacccIcraton sproportonaIt othcrmass,
andso,too, sthcmotvcforcc, .c.gravty,whcnccunform acccIcraton.
6J
mMYb Lb L mbLHm
bodieswhentheymoveinthe same,orindierent, media, inother
words,weshouIdbeabIetogiveacorrectanswertotherobemto
whichAristotIegaveasoution,whichwehaverovedtobewrong.
Indeed,intheconsiderationsdestinedtoreIacetheerrorofAristotIe
bythetruthofGaIieo,theartIayedbythemediumwiIaearin
a noticeaby dierent asect. !tsaction wiI noongerbedynamic,
butstatic, or,ifreferred,hydrostatic, asitwaswithBenedetti.The
mediumwiInotoerresistancetothefaIIingbody,itwiIIderive it
ofartofitsweight.
DidGaIi|eotakeaccountofthischangeinthewayhereresented
the action ofthe medium? He says nothing about it, and asses
straightfromonetotheother. !tseemstomeimossibIeforhimto
haveconfusedthetwoviews.' !tismoreIikeythatheregardedthe
two as being suerimosed, and trusted the reader to make the
necessarydistinction.Howeverthatmaybe,hesaysthatwecansoIve
therobeminguestion
byobserv|nghowmuchtheheav|ncss othemed|umdetractsrom the
heav|ness othe a!l|ngbody. |ts heav|ness be|ng the means bywh|ch |t
opensupapath|nthemed|umandpushesas|dethepartsothemed|um
. . . Ands|nce|t|sknownthattheeectothemed|um|stodim|n|shthe
we|ghtothebodybythewe|ghtothemed|umd|splaced,wemay accom-
pI|shourpurposebyd|m|n|sh|ng|n]ustth|s proport|onthespeedsothe
all|ng bod|es, wh|ch |nanon-res|st|ng med|um we have assumed to be
equa!.
The reasoningiscurious,and conhrms the interretation ofthe
GaiIeanconcetthat! gave above . "the weight" is"thecause" or
"thereason"oftheacceIeration.Ifthe"weight"actingonthebody
isdecreased, thentheacceIeration, andhencetheseed,wiIIbe de-
creasedbythesameamount,rovidedthattheresistancewhichthe
body oersto theactionofthisweightremainsunaItered.
Thus,orexample,sayleadweretenthousandt|mesasheavyasa|r,but
'Thc part pIaycd by thc rcsstancc of air to thc moton ola pcnduIum or
pro|cctIcs spurcIymcchancaI , ridc in/ra, pp. T0-T.
' Diaccrai, p. I I .
Accordn to ths arumcnt, takcn ItcraIIy, thc spccds arcproportonaI to
thc wchts, as mantancd by ArstotIc, or Bcncdctt. But propcrIy spcakn,
GaIIco'srcasonnmustnot bctakcnItcraIIy,fort snot thc "spccd", but thc
"acccIcraton", that s n qucston hcrc. n modcm tcrms, wc couId say that
submcrsonol ahcavybodynamcdumthat"Ihtcns` t,scparatcsthcravc
massfromthc ncrtaI mass.
64
LPLl LL

L mLL LHN Lm

cOCny Cny 0 lhCu80nd lmc8 08 hc0Vy. * ICW, Whc lhc 8pccd8 C lhc8c lWC
m0lct08, l0Kcn 0O8Culcy, lh0l 8 cVcty tc88l0nCc Wctc tcmCVcd, WCud
Oc cqu0, lhc 0t dclt0Cl8 tCm lhc 8pccd C c0d Cnc p0tl n lcn lhCu80nd,
Whc tCm lhc 8pccd C cOCny l dclt0Cl8 Cnc ]0tl n 0 lhCu80nd, lh0l 8,
lcn p0tl8 n lcn lhCu80nd. LCn8cqucnly, Whcn c0d 0nd cOCny 0 lhtCugh
lhc 0t tCm 0ny gVcn hcghl, tCm WhCh, lhc 8CWng dCWn ccCl C 0t
Wctc tcmCVcd, lhcy WCu!d h0Vc 0cn cqu0y quCKy, lhc 0t W dclt0Cl
Cnc lcn-lhCu80ndlh p0tl C lhc 8pccd C lhc c0d, Oul lcn lcn-lhCu80ndlh8
tCm lhc 8pccd C lhc cOCny , WBCh mc0n8 lh0l lhc hcghl tCm WhCh
lhc OCdc8 c Wctc dVdcd nlC lcn lhCu80nd p0tl8, lhc c0d WCud tc0Ch
lhc c0tlh lcn - Ct t0lhct nnc - C lhc lcn lhCu80nd p0tl8 OcCtc lhc cOCny.
Pnd 8 lh8 nCl lhc 80mc 08 hndng lh0l 0 O0 C c0d 0ng tCm 0 lCWct
lWC hundtcd CuOl8 hgh Cul8ltp8 0 O0 C cOCny Oy 8C0tCcy Cut hngct8
Otc0dlh8 ? ICW, cOCny Wcgh8 0 lhCu80nd lmc8 08 muCh 08 0t , Oul Cut
Wc-n0lcd O8ddct Cny Wcgh8 Cut lmc8 08 muCh. lhctcCtc lhc 0t
l0Kc8 Cnc lhCu80ndlh p0tl C lhc 8pccd tCm lhc n0lut0 8pccd C cOCny,
Oul tCm [lhc 8pccd] C lhc O0ddct, WhCh 8hCud Oc cX0Cly lhc 80mc, l
l0Kc8 Cnc p0tl Cul C Cut lhctcCtc Whcn lhc cOCny O0, 0ng tCm lhc
lCWct, tc0Chc8 lhc gtCund, lhc O0ddct W Cny h0Vc lt0Vct8cd lhtcc-
qu0tlct8 C lhc d8l0nCc. Lc0d 8 lWcVc lmc8 08 hc0Vy 08 W0lct, Oul VCty
Cny lWCc 08 hc0Vy, lhctcCtc W0lct l0kc8 tCm lhct 0O8Culc VcCClc8
WhCh WCud Oc lhc 80mc -tCm c0d 0 lWcHh p0tl, Oul tCm VCty 0 h0!
8C lh0l n W0lct, c0d h0d 0cn ccVcn CuOl8, VCty WCud h0Vc 0cn
8X. Pnd CCWng lh8 ptnCpc, 1 lhnK Wc W hnd lh0l cXpctcnCc
CCttc8pCnd8 muCh mCtc CC8cy lC Cut C0Cu!0lCn8 lh0n lC lhC8c C
Pt8lClc.
UndoubtedIy the GaIiIean caIcuIation wouId agree with exeri-
ment much betterthan that ofAristote's,rovidedaIways that we
docarryouttheexeriment,andinIaceofSaIviati'sroundnumbers
ofl, OOOandl O,OOOwesubstituteactuanumbers,roerymeasured,
exressingthetrueratiosbetweenthesecihcweightsofthevarious
bodiesfaIIingin thesame medium. Onthe avaiIabIeevidence, such
exeriments were not carriedoutby GaIiIeo, andhedoesnoteven
claim to have done so. We are still, as always, in the realm of
imaginaryexeriment.
SimiIarIy,thereareimaginaryexerimentswhichwiIenabIeusto
ndthe ratio ofthe seeds ofbodiesfaIIing in dierentmedia,
" Diaccrai, pp. I I.Onccagan,thcmagnarynaturcofGaIIco`snumcrcaI
datamaybcpontcd out.
By bcngpIaccd nar,IcadwIIosconc tcn-thousandth partoftswcght,
andcbonyoncthousandth part. ThcchcctvcwcghtofthcformcrwIIthcrcforc
bc I0,00 - I ,, and of

hc Iattcr I ,00 I00, or,n both cascs, cqU0

tothccxccssofthc wcghtofthc body ovcr thatofthc mcdum(F- R).
GaIIco dcca nctaa):spcccwcghts, as hcs madc tosay by H. Crcwand
A. dc5aIvo n thcrtransIaton ofthc Diaccrai(Dialcuca Ccnccmin Twc Ncw
5cicncca
(
!cw York. I!4)). Howcvcr, thcmcanng s cIcar.
65
mVMYb Lb L mbLHm
nCl Oy CCmp8tng lhc V8tCu8 tc88l8nCc8 C lhc mcd8, Oul Oy CCn8dctng
lhc cXCc88 hc8Vnc88 C lhc OCdy 8OCVc lh8l C lhc mcdum.' Ct n8l8nCc,
ln 8 8 lhCu88nd lmc8 hc8Vct lh8n 8t, 8nd lcn lmc8 hc8Vct !h8n W8lct,
lhcn, dVdng lhc 8O8Culc 8pccd C ln nlo 8 lhCu88nd p8tl8, n 8t, WhCh
l8Kc8 8W8y 8 lhCu88ndlh p8tl, l Wi mCVc 8l 8 8pccd C nnc hundtcd 8nd
nncly-nnc, Oul n W8lct 8l 8 8pccd C Cny nnc hundtcd, DC8u8c W8lct
l8Kc8 tCm l alcnlh p8tl C l8 hc8Vnc88, 8nd 8t Cny 8 lhCu88ndlh. C
l8Kc 8 8Cd Cny 8ghly hc8Vct lh8n W8lct, 8uCh 88 C8K. 88y 8 O8 Wcghcd
8 lhCu88nd dt8Chm8 - 8 8m8t 8mCunl C W8lct Wcghcd nnc hundtcd
8nd lly, Oul 8 8m8t 8mCunl C 8it Cny lWC, l 8 p8n lh8l, lhc 8O8C-
ulc 8pccd [C lhc O8 C C8Kj Wctc 8 lhCu88nd, n 8t l8 8pccd WCud Oc
nnc hundtcd 8nd nncly-cghl, Oul n W8lct Cny ly - Cn lhc gtCund8 lh8l
lhc W8lct l8Kc8 nnc hundtcd 8nd Dlly p8tl8 C l8 hc8Vnc88 Cul C 8
lhCu88nd, 8nd c8Vc8 l Cny Dly. buCh 8 8Cd WCud lhctcCtc mCVc 8-
mC8l lWcnly lmc8 88 88l n 8t 88 n W8lct, OcC8u8c lhc cXCc88 C l8
hc8Vnc88 CVct lh8l C W8lct 8 Cny 8 lWcnlclh p8tl C l8 CWn hc8Vnc88.
Pnd hctc cl u8 nClc lh8l, 88 Cny m8lct88 WhCh 8tc hc8Vct n Knd lh8n
W8lct C8n mCVc dCWnW8td8 n l, 8nd 88 lhc8c OCdc8 8tc n CCn8cqucnCc
m8ny hundtcd8 C lmc8 hc8Vct lh8n 8t, n 8ccKng lhc ptCpCtlCn Oc-
lWccn lhct 8pccd8 n 8t 8nd n W8lct, Wc m8y C8Cu8lc, WlhCul 8gnhC8nl
cttCt, lh8l lhc 8t dCc8 nCl tcduCc lhc 8O8Culc hc8Vnc88 - 8nd hcnCc lhc
8O8Culc 8pccd - C 8uCh m8lct88 Oy 8ny mpCtl8nl 8mCunl, hcnCc, h8Vng
c88y Cund lhc cXCc88 C lhct hc8Vnc88 CVct lh8l C W8lct, Wc m8y 88y
lh8l lhct 8pccd n 8t 8 lC lhct 8pccd n W8lct n lhc 88mc ptCpCtlCn 88
lhct lCl8 hc8Vnc88 8 lC lhc cXCc88 C lhct hc8Vnc88 8OCVc lh8l C W8lct.
Ct cX8mpc, 8n VCty O8 Wcgh8 lWcnly CunCc8 , lhc 88mc 8mCunl C
W8lct Wcgh8 8cVcnlccn, lhctcCtc lhc VcCCly C VCty n 8t lC lhc VcCCly
C VCty n W8lct 8, 8pptCXm8lcy, n lhc ptCpCtlCn C lWcnly lC lhtcc.
GaIiIeo's"hydrostatic" argument foIowsvery coseIy that ofBene-
detti.TheonIydierences aretheuseofdiaogue,theeIegantstyIe,
the numberandvariety ofexamIes. !fBenedetti, when discussing
the robIem of the seed offaI in a vacuum and in a resistant
medium, nearIy aways seaks ofsecic gravity, whereas GaIiIeo
nearIy aways simIy says gravity, his examIes generaIIy imIy a
reference to secihc gravity, and in such a manner that the reader
cannotbemisIed. Now,bytracingthesameathandbyemIoying
the same Archimedean scheme in their arguments, Benedetti and
GaIiIeo arrive atnoticeabIydierent concIusions. Whereas thefor-
mer, asIhavesaid,assertsthatbodies,arge orsmaII,heavyorIight,
butofthesamemateria!orsecqcgrarit),faIIwiththesameseed,
andthatbodiesofdierentsecicgravitiesfaIIwithdierentseeds,
notonIyin a Ienumbutasoin avacuum, GaiIeo maintains that
theirseed inavacuumisthesame. HowdoweexIainthisdier-
' Diaccrai, . I20.
66
LL LL
*
b
-
L mLL LHN Lm

cnCc n CCnClu8CD1 188 cDcdcll 8mQy m8dc 8 m8l8Kc1 LI 8 lhcIc
8Cmc ClhcI Ic88CD1
1I8 C 8, cl U8 qUClc cncdcll' !
uIlhct 8uppC8c lh8l lhc ptCpCtlCn OclWccn lhc mClCn8 C 8m8I
OCdc8, h8Vng dcIcnl hCmCgcnclc8 8nd mCVng n lhc 88mc mcdum
CVct cqu8 8p8Cc8, 8 lh8l WhCh cX8l8 OclWccn lhct cXCc88c8 (n pCndcIC8ly,
lh8l 8, CI n ghlnc88) CVct lhc mcdum . . . . P8C lhc CCnVct8c, n8mcy, lh8l
lhc ptCpCtlCn OclWccn lhc cXCc88c8 CVct lhc mcdum, dc8CIbd 8OCVc,
8 lhc 88mc 88 lh8l OclWccn lh0 mClCn8 C lhc OCdc8.
h8 8 m8dc Cc8t 88 CCW8. LCn8dcI 8 unCtm mcdum b/, cl u8 88y
W8lct, n WhCh 8tc CC8lcd lWC OCdc8 C dcIcnl hCmCgcnclc8, lh8l 8 lC
88y C dctcnl 8pOc8. CI cX8mpc, cl lhc OCdy dcc Oc C c8d, 8nd lhc
OCdy nui C WCCd, 8nd cl c8Ch OCdy Oc hc8Vct lh8n 8 OCdy cqu8 lC l Oul
m8dc C W8lct. utlhct, cl lhctc Oc gVcn 8uCh 8phctC8 OCdc8 C W8lct,
8nd C8 lh0m m8nd n e e e o Lcl m Oc lhc 8qucCu8 OCdy cqu8 lC nui 8nd n
lhc Cnc cqu8 lC dcc. Lcl dcc Oc cghl lmc8 n n pCndctC8ly, 8nd nui dCuOc
m. nCW 888ctl, lhcIcCIc, lh8l lhc ptCpCIlCn C lhc mClCn C lhc OCdy
dcc lC lhc mClCn C lhc OCdy nui (hCdng lC lhc 88mc hypClhc88) 8 lhc
88mc 88 lh8l OclWccn lhc 8upcthulc8 C lhc OCdc8 dcc 8nd nui CVcI lhc
OCdc8 n 8nd m. lh8l 8 lC 88y lh8l lhc lmc n WhCh lhc OCdy nui W Oc
mCVcd W Oc 8cVcn lmc8 lh8l n WhCh lhc OCdy dcc W Oc mCVcd. h8
8 OcC8u8c l 8 COVCu8 Oy lhc lhtd ptCpC8lCn C PtChmcdc8` OCCK Oc
lnsldcnllbus lh8l lhc OCdc8 nui 8nd dcc tc8pcClVcy Wctc cqu8 n
hc8Vnc88 lC lhc OCdc8 m8nd n, lhcn lhcy WCud n nC W8c mCVc, nclhct
upW8td8 nCI dCWnW8td8. utlhcI Oy lhc 8cVcnlh ptCpC8lCn C lhc 88mc
OCCK, WhCh 8l8lc8 lh8l OCdc8 hc8VcI lh8n lhc mcdum 8tc OCDc dCWn-
W8td8, lhc OCdc8 nui 8nd dcc W Oc OCInc dCWnW8td8. hctcCIc lhc
Ic88l8nCc C lhc d8mp (lh8l 8 C lhc W8lcI) 8 C 8 8uOdupc pICpCtlCn
88 CCmp8tcd Wlh lhc OCdy nui e e . , 8nd C 8 8uOCClupc ptCpCtlCn 88
CCmp8tcd Wlh lhc OCdy dcc. hu8 lhc lmc WhCh lhc Ccnltc C lhc OCdy
dcc l8Kc8 lC CtC88 lhc gVcn 8p80c W Oc Cund lC Oc n 8cplupc ptCpCIlCn
(n cnglh) lC lh8l n WhCh lhc Ccnltc C lhc OCdy nui mc88utc8 lhc 8Ctc-
mcnlCncd 8p8Cc . . . . h8 CCW8, OcC8u8c, ICm lhc OCCK C PtChmcdc8
8tc8dy Clcd, l m8y Oc g8lhctcd lh8l lhc ptCpCtlCn C mClCn lC
mClCn dCc8 nCl h8Vc tcctcnCc lC lhc ptCpCtlCn C lhc hc8Vnc88 OclWccn
nui 8nd dcc, Oul lC lhc ptCpCtlCn WhCh 8 bclWccn lhc hc8Vnc88 C nui
CCmp8tcd Wlh m 8nd lhc hc8Vnc88 C dcc CCmp8tcd Wlh n. hc CCn-
Vct8c C lh8 8uppC8lCn 8 COVCu8 cnCugh, 8nCc lhc 8OCVc CCn8dcI8lCn8
8tc Cc8t . . . .
tCm 8 lh8 l 8 cVdcnl lh8l 8Wl!ct mClCn 8 nCl C8u8cd Oy 8n cXCc88
C hc8Vnc88 Ct ghlnc88 Cn lhc p8tl C lhc 8WHct OCdy 88 CCmp8tcd Wlh
' L. B.Bcncdctt,Rcaclutic cmnium Euclidiaprcblcmatum (Lbr, op.ct.,pp,
25h)p.50,n. I . ; sccpp.353hofmyartcIconBcncdcttquotcdp.4,n.4.nthc
orgnaIthcrcsadagramwhchhavcthoughttunncccssarytorcproducchcrc.
' Wood twcc as hcavyaswatcrIBcncdcttscxaggcratng8 llc.
67
MLPMYbl Lb PL MLPb LHLML
lhc 8CWct Cnc, . . . Oul Oy lhc dctcnCc i n 8pcCc8 OctWccp thc tWC OCdic8
withrespecttoheavinessorIightness.
!n short, if Benedetti agrees with AristotIe that the "virtue or
"guaIity" actuatingafaIIingbodyisroortionaItoits weight, then
itisnotaguestionoftheabsoIuteweightofthebody,butitssecihc
weight. Furthermore, asthisweightis decreased accordingtoArchi-
medesbytheactionofthemediuminwhichitisIaced,itisonIythe
residuaIweight(the"excess"ofthesecihcweightofthebodyover
thesecihcweightofthemedium)whichhastobetakenintoaccount ,
and itisthe ratio of these dierent "excess" weights rovided by
bodiesofdierent secihc gravity that determines the ratio oftheir
seeds.Thus,theweightofabodyfaIIinginagivenmediumshouId
bedecreased,andnotdivided,bytheresistanceofthemedium,that
istosay,decreasedbytheweightofaneguaIvoIumeofthemedium.'
TheseedwiIIthenbeP~ R,andnotP jR, andtheseedsofdierent
bodiesinthesamemediumwiIIbeintheratiooftheexcessoftheir
weightsoverthatofthemedium
ThatisexactIyhow GaIiIeoexIainedit.
Benedetti,therefore,hasgoodreasonsforremarkingthathiscon-
cet"isnotinaccordancewithAristotIe's teaching".Andmightnot
hehaveadded,"norwiththatofanyofhiscommentators",thathe
hadhadtheoortunitytoread, ortoconversewith?WecertainIy
havenoreasontosusecthis IackoftruthfuIness. Furthermore, his
theoryinitsentiretyisnotfoundinanyofthecommentatorsofthe
Stagyrite. NevertheIess,rathersimiIarthingsreIatingtothedoctrine
offaIIarefoundintheworksofIoannesPhiIoonus,articuIarIyin
hiscommentaryonAristotIe'sPh)sica,whichwaseasiIyavaiIabIeto
Benedetti.Moreover, certainofAristotIe'smedievaIcommentators
inthecourseofsubectinghisdynamicstoenetratingcriticismcon-
' Arthmctc, not gcomctrc, proporton.
' OrmorcaccuratcIy,lF,
sthcwcghtolthcbody,andFthatolthcmcdum
thcn I, F, ~
F and I,'/ I,-(F',~ F)/(F',~
F)
ThscommcntarybyJoanncsFhloponuswasprntcdlorthcrsttmc nI 535
(nGrcck) ,LatntransIatonsappcarcdnI 53,I 546, I 550,I 554,I 558 and I 56.
Morcovcr, tsquotcdby GaIIcon hsDcmctuCravium, p. ?84,whcn dcaIng
wth moton n a vacuum (vide in/ra, p. T?) : " 7antacatvcritatiavia`utdcctiaaimi
ctiamvirictFcriateticihuiuaacntentiacAriatctclia/ulaitatcmccncvcrunt,quamvia
ccrumnuhuaccmmcdcAriatctcliaarumcntadilucrcctucrit. . . 5cctua, D.7hcmaa,
Fhilcpcnua . . . .
6&
LPL l LL
*
b
-
Lt MLL LHPNl LM

CuCcC Ih0I I W08 ncCc880ty IC m0Kc Ihc 8QccC C 0 OCCy CcQcnC, nCI
Cn Ihc t0IC (Ff R)C Ihc CtCc IC Ihc tc88I0nCc, OuI Cn Ihc cXCc88 C
Ihc Ctmct CVct Ihc 0IIct.' !t8 Ituc, hCWcVct, Ih0I 1hCQCnu8 CCc8
nCI tcct IC PtChmcCc8 , 0nC Ih0I Ihc mcCcV08I8 CC nCI 0QQy Ihct
Cc08 IC mCICn C 0.
htIy yc0t8 0Ict In hI8 Dirersarumseculationummathematicarum
eth)sicarumlibercncCcII tcIutncC IC Ih8 quc8ICn 0nC 80C !
WhcncVct lWC OCdc8 h0Vc Ct tcCcVc Cnc 0nC lhc 80mc tc88l0nCc Cn lhct
8ut0Cc8, lhct mClCn8 W Oc ptCpCtlCn0y tc0lcd n ptcC8cy lhc 80mc
W0y 08 lhct mClVc pCWct8 . 0d, CCVct8cIy, WhcncVct lWC OCdc8 h0Vc
Cnc 0nd lhc 80mc hc0Vinc88 Ct ighlnc88 0nd dctcnl tc88l0nCc8, lhct
mClCn8 WI h0Vc mulu0y lhc 80mc ptCpCtlCn 08 lhct tc88l0nCc8 n lhc
CCnVct
g
c mCdc.
uI W0I, Ih8 mu8I nCI Oc nIctQtcIcC 0CCCtCng IC Pt8ICIc. 1n
0CI,
l 8 08C lC Oc 8uppC8cC Ih0l lhc 8pccd8 C lhc n0lut0 mClCn8 C 0ny
hc0Vy OCdy n dctcnl mcd0 0tc ptCpCtlCn0 lC lhc Wcghl8 C lhc OCdy
n lhC8c mcd0. 1Ct cX0mpc, lhc lCl0 Wcghl C 0ny hc0Vy OCdy 8
dcnClcd Oy ni, 0nC lhc OCdy 8 p0CcC n 8Cmc mcdum c88 dcn8c lh0n
l8c [Ct, l Wctc p0Ccd n 0 dcn8ct mcdum l WCud nCl Oc hc0Vy Oul
ghl, 08 PtChmcdc8 8hCW8), lhcn lh0l mcdum 8uOlt0Cl8 0 p0tl cl tCm lhc
WcghI C lhc OCdy 8C lh0l lhc p0tl nc tcm0n8 tcc lC 0Cl. 1 lhc OCdy 8 lhcn
p0Ccd n 8Cmc CCn8ct mcdum, Oul c88 dcn8c lh0n lhc OCdy l8c, lh0l
mcdum 8uOlt0Cl8 0 p0tl u C lhc 80d Wcghl, 0nd 8C lhc p0tl nu C lhc
Wcghl W tcm0n.
1 088ctl lh0l lhc ptCpCtlCn C lhc 8pccC C lhc OCdy lhtCugh lhc c88
Ccn8c mcdum lC l8 8uO8cqucnl 8pccC lhtCugh lhc mCtc Ccn8c Cnc 8 08
nc lC ou. h8 8 mCtc n 0CCCtd Wlh tc08Cn Ih0n Wc Wctc lC 80y lh0l
8pccd8 C lh8 Knd Wctc 08 u lC ni, Ct 8pccC8 0tc ptCpCtlCncd 8Ccy Oy
mClVc pCWct8 . . . . Yh0I Wc h0Vc nCW 80d Cc0tIy tc8cmOIc8 Wh0l Wc
WtClc 0OCVc, OcC0u8c l 8 Ihc 80mc lhng lC 80y lh0I lhc ptCpCtlCn C lhc
8pccd8 C lWC hclctCgcncCu8 OCCic8, WhCh 0tc ncVctlhcIc88 8m0t n
hgutc 0nd cqu0I n m0gnluCc 0nd mCVc n lhc 80mc mcdum, 8 cqu0 lC
lhc ptCpCtlCn C lhcit Wcghl8, 08 l i8 lC 80y lh0l lhc ptCpCtliCn C lhc
8pccd8 C Cnc 8Cc OCdy n dctcnl mcd0 8 lhc 80mc 08 lh0l OclWccn l8
Wcghl8 n lhC8c mcd0.
Iide aupra, p. 54, n. 3.
'Diveraarum 5peculaticnum mathematicarum et Fh)aicarum Liber (Taurn :
585),pp. I 68h.nanaIysngthcspccdof faIIngbodcs,Bcncdctttakcsaccount
onIyofthcmotvclorccs,bccauschcsdcaIngwthnaturaImotontowhchthc
body ohcrs no rcsstancc of ts own. Ths s not thc casc whcn thc moton s
attcndcdbycxtrancouslorcc,nwhchcascthcntcrnaIrcsstanccolthcbodyto
moton (c.g. to bcng rascd, or cvcnmovcd IatcraIIy) saddcd to thc cxtcrnaI
rcsstanccofthcmcdum.
69
mMYb Lb L mbLHm
What has been said there does not agree with the teaching of
Aristote. But it is Aristote who is wrong, eseciay by asserting
thatheavinessandightnessareoositeguaitiesecuiartoabody.
!nfact, thisisnotso. abodiesare heavy, more oress , and their
rimarygualitiesconsistintheirdensityortheirtenuity.Lightbodies
aresimybodiesthatarenotsoheavybecausetheyareacedina
heavier medium, or more exacty, they are more "tenuous bodies
acedindensermedia.
i
Now, wecan, ateastinimagination,vary
the density ortenuity ofthe medium, and in thisway transform a
heavybody(reativetothemedium) intoaight one, andricerersa.
Simiary, we canaterthe seed offa ofa given bodyindierent
mediabyateringthedensityofthe medium.1narticuar, we can
increasetheseedbymakingthemediummoretenuous. However,
itwineverbecomeinhnite, notevenin avacuum, whichfactren-
derstheAristoteianobectionagainstmotioninavacuumnuand
void.Onthecontrary,itisinavacuumthatbodiesofdierentsecihc
weights wi fa with dierent seeds, and at seeds which are
ecuiar to those bodies. In fact
n 8 Cnum lhC ICCIlCn C lhC CXlCIn8 ICSSl8nCCS lC lhC DCdCS S
SuDlI8ClCd ICm lhC ICCIlCn C lhCII WCghlS, 8nd Wh8l ICm8nS dClCI-
mnCS lhC ICCIlCn C lhCII SCCdS, WhICh WCu\d bnI\ lhC ICCIlICn
C lhC ICSSl8nCCS WCIC Cqu8 lC lhC ICCIlCn C lhC WCghlS, 8nd CI
lhS IC8SCn lhC SCCdS n V8Cuum WCud nCl DC lhC S8mC 8S n 8 Cnum.
hC SCCdS C dCICnl DCdCS (.C. DCdICS CCmCSCd C dCICnl SuDSl8nCCS)
Wl DC ICCIlCn8 lC lhCI 8DSCulC SCChC WCIghlS.
On the other hand, in a vacuum, bodies comosed ofthe same
materia wi havethe same seed, whethertheyarearge orsma ,
andacannon-bawi notfalanyfasterthanamusket-ba.
Benedetti'sreasoningseemsfaultess,andso,too,theconcusionhe
reaches. We shahnd the same again in thewritings ofthe young
Gaieo. !nfact,ifthemedium"removes"weight,andhenceseed,
from bodies moving through i t , and if, moreover, it removes a
dierentercentagefrombodies ofthesamedimensionsbutdier-
ent kinds (i.e. dierent secihc weights), even though the absoute
amount ofweight "removed" be the same, withtheresutthatthe
dierentseedswithwhichtheyfainthemediumareroortiona
tothedierentvaluesoftheexcessoftheirdierentweightsoverthe
weight of the medium ( l=!
i
-F and l =!

-F), does it not

bd., pp. T4h,and8u]ru p. 0, M. 2.
'Thatstosay,fthcmotvcforcccqualsthcrcsstancc.
1
LL LL
*
b

L mLL LHN Lm

foIIowthatwhentheeectofthe medium is suressed byIacing
thcbodiesinavacuumweaddanidenticaIamounttotheirweights
andseeds,andsoobtaindierentresuIts?ThisisreciseIywhatthe
young GaIieo saysin his Demotugrarlum

.
lhc 8pccd8 Wlh WhCh Cnc 8nd lhc 88mc OCdy W 8 lhtCugh dctcnl
mcd8 8tc n lhc 88mc t8lC 88 lhc 8mCunl8 Oy WhCh l8 Wcghl 8 n
cXccaa C lhC8c C lhc mcd8, lhu8, lhc Wcghl C lhc mOVng OCdy
8 8, 8nd lh8l C 8n cqu8 VCumc C lhc mcdum 8 , l8 8pccd W Oc
Z unl8, 8nd lhc Wcghl C 8n cqu8 VCumc C 8nClhct mcdum 8 4,
l8 8pccd W Oc 4unl8. hc 8pccd8 W lhctcCtc Oc lC c8Ch Clhct 88
Z 8 lC 4, 8nd nCl n lhc t8lC C lhct dcn8lc8, 88 m8nl8ncd Oy Pt8lClc.
hc 8n8Wct lC 8nClhct quc8lCn W D cqu8y cVdcnl . Yh8l W Oc lhc
t8lC C lhc 8pccd8 C mCVng OCdc8 WhCh h8Vc lhc 88mc VCumc, Oul
dctcnl WcIght8 Whcn thcy 8 In Cnc 8nd thc s8mc mcdum? hc 8pccd8 Cl
lhc8c mCVng OCdc8 W Oc n lhc 88mc t8lC a8 lhc 8mCunl8 Oy WhCh lhc
Wcghl8 C lhc OCdc8 8tc n cXCc88 C lh8l C lhc mcdum. 1Ct cX8mpc,
cl lhctc Oc lWC mCVng OCdc8 h8Vng lhc 88mc VCumc, Oul dctcnl
Wcghl8, cl lhc Wcghl C Cnc C lhcm Oc 8, 8nd C lhc Clhct , 8nd cl
lhc Wcghl C 8n cqu8 VCumc C lhc mcdum Oc 4. lhcn lhc 8pccd C Cnc
OCdy W Oc 4unl8, 8nd C lhc Clhct Z unl8. hc8c 8pccd8 W lhctcCtc
Oc n lhc t8lC C Z lC 4, 8nd nCl n lhc t8lC C lhct Wcghl8, WhCh 8 8 lC .
GaIiIeoaddsthattheconcetdeveIoedbyhimmakesitossibIe
to caIcuIate theratio oIthe seeds withwhich dierent bodies faII
(orrise) in dierent media, and concIudesasfoIIows .
hc8c 8tc lhctcCtc lhc unVct88 tuc8 CI lhc t8lC C mClCn8 C OCdc8,
Whclhct lhcy Oc C lhc 88mc Knd, Ct C dctcnl Knd8, Whcn lhcy 8 CI
t8c n lhc 88mc mcdum, Ct n dctcnl mcd8.
NevertheIess,GaIiIeowarns usthat these ruIes areinnowiseveri-
ed by exeriment . Iight bodies faIImuch faster tban they ought,
andevenfallfasterthanheavyonesatthebeginningoftheirmotion.
So, we are obigedto exIainthe non-agreement ofobserved facts
withtheory,withoutin anywayimIyingthatitiswrong. Thedis-
creancyimIiestheresenceandeectofanadditionafactor . . .
5ccDcmctuCrarium,pp. 2T2h.
' bd., p. 2T3.
bd., p. 2T3 : "5cdanimudrcrtcndum catqucd mana hiccritur dy cultaa:
qucdprc pcrticnca iatac, ab cc quipcriculum/cccrit, ncn cbacrrari ccmpcricntur.
5icnmducdrcraa mcbilaaccipctquactalcahabcantccnditicncautaltcrumaltcrc
duplo c/t/ua /cratur, ct cx turri d/mittat, nott ccrtc vclccius, duplc citiua, tcrram
pcrtinct:quin ctiam ain cbacrrctur, idqucdlcriuacat, inprinciic mctuapracibit
rariua ct rclcciua crit. Quac quidcm dircraitatca ct, qucdammcdcprcdiia, undc
accidant (pcr accidcna cnimhaccaunt)ncncathicinquircndi. Iidcndum cnimriua
cat, cur mctua naturalia tardiuaait inprincqic."
| 1l
METAFHY5l C5 ANO MEA5UEMENT
Galileo's"rules",whichaswehaveseenarereallythoseofBene-
detti, imlyforbothofthemtheossibilityofmotioninavacuum.
bodieswillfal l inavacuumwithhnitebutdierentseeds.Aristotle' s
error arose from not realizing that heaviness and lightness are not
nalgualitiesofbodies,butonlyrelativeones,whichexressratios
betweentheirownroerdensitiesandthoseofthemediainwhich
theyareresent.!narticular,hemadethemistakeofexressingthe
relationshibetweentheforceandtheresistanceas a geometric,in-
stead ofan arithmetic, roortion. For this reason he was led to
concludethat theseedwouldbeinhniteina vacuum.'
n thc C08c C gcCmcttC ptCpCttCn thc 8m0ct qu0ntty mu8t Oc C0p0Oc
C Ocng mutpcd m0ny tmc8 8C 08 tC cXCccd 0ny gVcn m0gntudc. hc
80d qu0ntty mu8t thctcCtc Oc 8Cmcthng, t C0nnCt Oc nCthng, Ct
nCthng mutpcd Oy t8c dCc8 nCt cXCccd 0ny qu0ntty. ut th8
qutcmcn! dCc8 nCt hC!d n 0tthmctC ptCpCttICn, Whctc 0 numOct C0n
h0Vc thc 80mc tc0tCn8hp Wth tc8pcCt tC 0nCthct numOct 08 8Cmc Cthct
numOct h08 tC nCthng . . . . hu8 Z 8 tC Z 08 8 8 tC . Ct th8 tc08Cn, ,
08 m0nt0ncd Oy Pt8tCtc, thc mCtCn8 Oc0t thc 80mc gcCmcttC ptCpCt-
tCn tC c0Ch Cthct 08 thc dcn8ty C Cnc mcdum dCc8 tC 0nCthct, Wc 8hCud
Oc )u8tDcd n CCnCudng th0t nC mCtCn C0n t0kc p0Cc n 0 V0Cuum. 1n
0Ct, thc t0tC C thc tmc [C mCtCnj n 0 pcnum tC thc tmc n 0 V0Cuum
C0nnCt Oc thc 80mc 08 th0t C thc dcn8ty C 0 pcnum tC thc dcn8ty C 0
V0Cuum. ut thc 8pccd8 dcpcnd Cn 0n 0tthmctC, 0nd nCt 0 gcCmcttC,
ptCpCttCn, thcn thctc 8 nC 0O8utdty n thc CCnCu8Cn.
!n actualfactthatiswhathaens.
1cnCc, 0 OCdy W mCVc n 0 V0Cuum n thc 80mc W0y 08 n 0 pcnum.
ICW, n 0 pcnum thc mCtCn C 0 OCdy dcpcnd8 Cn thc 0mCunt Oy WhCh
t8 Wcght 8 n cXCc88 C thc Wcght C thc mcdum n WhCh t mCVc8,
8m0ty, n 0 V0Cuum thc mCtCn dcpcnd8 Cn thc cXCc88 C thc Wcght C
thc mCVng OCdy CVct thc Wcght C 0 V0Cuum, 0nd 08 thc Wcght C 0
V0Cuum 8 nCthng, thc cXCc88 C thc Wcght C thc mCVng OCdy CVct th0t
C thc VaCCum 8 [cqu0 tCj t8 tCt0 Wcght. 1cnCc, t W mCVc 08tct
[th0n n 0 pcnumj n t0tC tC t8 tCt0 Wcght. n 0Ct, t WCud nCt Oc 0Oc
tC mCVc 8C 08t n 0ny pcnum, 8ccng th0t thc cXCc88 C thc Wcght C thc
mCVng OCdy CVct th0t C thc mcdum W Oc c88 th0n thc tCt0 Wcght C
thc mCVng OCdy, 08C, t8 8pccd KcW8c W Oc c88 . . . .
Therefore, the seeds ofbodies movingina vacuumwill not be
inhnite- whichwouldbe absurd- northesame.Onthecontrary,
theywilldeendontheirsecihcgravities .abodyofsecicgravity
8 willfallwith 8 units ofseed,andone with d secihcgravityof4
'bd., pp. 2T8h. 'bd., p. 28 .
72
LL LL
*
b
-
L mL LN m

wiIIfaIIwith4unitsofseed,whiIstthoseofthesamesecihcgravity
wiIIfaIIinthesametime.'
! do not think it is necessary to dweII on the matter. The young
GaIiIeo,aswesee,hadadotedBenedetti'sdoctrineinaIIitsdetaiIs ,
andwhatis more, it is by no means absurd. !nfact, Ietussuose
that heaviness is caused by a terrestriaI attraction, something like
magneticattraction,orsimIytheattractionof"simiIarthings"be-
tweenthemseIves. Then, therewouIdnotbeanything surrising in
thefactthatcertainofthesebodies aremorestrongIy attracted by
theearththanothers- theywouldbe"heavier"- andconseguently
faII with dierent seeds, assuming the same internaI resistance to
motion. We shouId then say that the inert mass ofa body and its
gravicmassarenoteguaI.NodoubtitmaybeobjectedthatBene-
detti,nomorethanGalileo,doesnotexlainheavinessbyattraction,
butregards itas anaturaIroerty ofbodies,Iinkedwith, oreven
identicaI with, their density, as is erfectIy true. AIso, ! have not
attributedto Benedettiatheoryofattractionbygravitation.! have
onlysuggesteditasanexamleinordertorovethatitisnotabso-
IuteIynecessaryforbodiestofaIIinavacuumwiththesameseed,
andthattheycouId guiteweIIdosowithdierentseeds.Further-
more, we couId add that Benedetti wasunaware ofthe concet of
inertmass,aswellasthatofinternaIresistanceofbodiestoacceIera-
tion, and even resistance to motion during "naturaI" motion, and
conseguentIy, that he couId neither distinguish inert mass from
gravihcmass, noridentify onewiththeother. Thisisafact , and it
rovidestheexIanationwhyGaliIeo,whoreasonedinanaarently
identicaI manner to Benedetti, and did the same in his De Motu
0racium, wasabIetoreacha totaIIydierentconcIusion intheDis-
corsi, as he haddonereviousIyin the Dialogo. !nfact, ifwe do not
endowthefaIlingbodywithaninternaIresistanceoosingtheforce
acting on it' , if, with AristotIe, we take account onIy ofexternaI
resistance , and ifwe accet a simIe roortionaIity betueen the
bd.,p.283.
' GaIIcodocsnotquotchm,butthcconncctonsobvous.
Iidc aupra, p. 5.n.3.
Bcncdctt, who "cxpIancd`acccIcratcdmotonol laII by thccontnual pro-
ductonollrcshimpctuaonthcpartolthcbody, couId casIy admt thatbodcs ol
grcatcr spcchcgravty(dcnscr)wouId produccgrcatcr impctua.
Undcr naturaI moton ths "lorcc" s consubstantaI wth thc body. Ths s
not thccascwhcnthcmotonssub|otcdtocxtrancousnucnccs:conscqucntly
bodcsohcr anntcmaIrcsstancctothclorccactngonthcmlromwthout.
7J
mVYb Lb L mbLHm
seedandthemotire]orces,thenweareconcernedsoIeIywithvaria-
tion in themotiveforce. Thearithmeticargumentthenassumes its
fuIIsignihcance.TheconcetofBenedetti,andoftheyoungGaIiIeo,
thendemandsroerrecognition.
!f,ontheotherhand,asGaIiIeodoesintheassagequotedabove,
we admit (be it onIy imIicitIy) that a body faIIing under naturaI
motion is ossessed ofaninternaIresistance to its change ofstate
(i.e.acceIeration) , and,furthermore,ifwesuosetheresistanceto
beroortionaItothemassofthebody(i.e.itsabsoIuteweight),we
immediateIy arrive at the roosition ofthe simuItaneous faII of
heavy bodiesina vacuum, bysodoing, we transfer totheintenal
resistance thegeometricroortionaIity that AristotIe had assigned
totheexterior resistance.' Thereintroduction ofgeometricroor-
tionaIityintothedynamicschemedoesnotstohere.Whenwecome
tostudythefaIIofbodiesinresistantmediainsteadofinavacuum,
that is to say, whenwecome to study the artIayed by externaI
resistance,wecannotIimitourseIvestoconrmingthatitmanifests
itseIfbyanarithmeticdecreaseinthemotiveforce ,or,moreexactIy,
we cannot concIude that there wiII be a simiIar arithmetic decrease
foraIIbodies intheseedoftheirdownwardmotion.Thisdecrease
n the motive force wiII be evaIuated in reIation tothe unchanged
internaIresistance, anditisfromthisgeometricreIationshithatwe
shaIIdeterminetheresuItingseed,or,whatcomestothesamething,
weshaIIdetermineitasafunctionoftheweightofthebodyinques-
tion, decreased by that ofthe medium, to its absoIute weight , or,
again, whatisthesamething, bytheratio ofits motiveforcein the
medium to its absoIute motive force in a vacuum, or, in modern
terms,bytheratiooftheeectiveweightinthemediumtoitsinertiaI
mass. So,whenwereachavacuumattheendofthenhniterange
ofcontinuousIydecreasingresistancesoeredtothemotionoffaII-
ingbodiesbymediabecomingmoreandmoretenuous,weshaIIhnd
notdierentseeds,butthesameseed.WearriveatthisresuItonIy
becauseitwasourstarting-oint.
Both thcmotvclorcc and thcntcrnaIrcsstanccbcngproportonaI tothc
wcght (absoIutc)olthc body, thcrrato,thatstosay,thc acccIcratonscon-
stant.HcnccsaunvcrsaIconstant.
' ThcspccdolabodyolgvcnspcccwcghtnagvcnmcdumwIIthcrclorc
bcdctcrmncd bythc rato (wcght olbody-wcghtolmcdum)](wcghtolbody) ,
or, by thcrato olthc cxccss olthclorccovcr thccxtcrnaIrcsstancctothc n-
tcmaItcsstancc, (I- I]n)[I(n- )]nor[!Rg_j)]R_j, scc8u]ru, .5,M. 3.
74
GALILEO
*
S

OE MOTU G8ANIUM

Gaieo's assertio ofthe simutaneousfa ofheavy bodies, in the
form inwhich it has sofarbeen putforward in the Discorsi, rests
ony onariori arguments and imaginary experiments,' as we are
nowweaware. Uptothepresent, we have never been confronted
witharealexperiment , andnone ofthenumericaldatainvokedby
Gaieo reates to measurements actuay made. ! do not reproach
himon thisaccount,onthecontrary,!shoud iketocaimfor him
the gory and merit ofhaving known how to dispense withexperi-
ments (shown to be nowise indispensabe by the very fact of his
havingbeen abe todispense withthem) . yettheexperiments were
unreaizabe in practice with the faciities at his disposa. How, in-
deed, coud a fa in vacuum be reaized before the invention of
pneumaticpumps?Andasforexperiments in aplenum, how could
aninsignihcantossorgaininmotionofbodiesthrownfromthetop
ofsometowerbemeasuredexactl)beforetheinventionofprecision
cocks? Furthermore, in spite ofthe ingenious methods which he
describes,howcoudapropermeasurementoftheweightordensity
ofairbemade?For,ifthemeasurementshadnotbeencorrect,they
woudhavebeenofitteornovaue.Gaieoknewthisasweas,or
betterthan, anyone.
Naturally,there is noquestion ofnegecting, or minimizing, the
partpayed byexperiment. !t is obviousthatexperimentaonecan
providethenumericadatawithoutwhichourknowedgeofnature
remainsincompete andimperfect. !t isasotrue- and Gaieo has
expressed himsefwithsumcientcarityonthematter- thatexperi-
mentaoneisabetoreveawhichofthemanymeans,asuitabefor
acertainpurpose,havebeenrightyseectedinanygivencase.Even
" OdGallcoabandonBcncdctt'sconccptuscdnDcmctuCrarium,boausc
hcsawthattddnotvcmuchbcttcrarccmcntwthcxpcrmcntthanArstotIc's?
t s possblc, and thc quotaton vcn abovc (p. TI , n. 3)rathcrponts nthat
droton. Onthcothcrhand, tscIcarthatthcdscovcry ofthcconscrvatonof
moton,andthcsubsttutonofaccclcratcdmoton asthcprmcandpropcrchcct
ofthc motvcforcc (prncpIcofncrta),couIdnotmakchmdoso.
'Andcvcn Iatcr. AccnturywastocIapscbcforcarcaIcxpcrmcntwasmadc
by Atwood.
AhumancIockwasuscd byRccolnhscxpcrmcnts,scc`P cxpcrmcnt
nmcasurcmcnt", bcIow.
or cxamplc, wchnar by forcn a dchntc voIumc ofar nto a Icathcr
bott\ca\rcadyfullofar; thc cxccsswcht corrcspondsto thccXccssquantty of
arnthcbottlc(Diaccrai, pp. 2Ih).
ThccxampIcofthcrass-hoppcrnH5aiatcrc s cIassc. Thc rccoursc to
cxpcrmcnt dcpcnds on thc fcrtlty ntroduccd nto cIasscaI sccncc by mathc
maIcs. On ths subjot, Ocscartcs docs not dhcr fromGaIIco, sccmy "Gallcc
1
METAVHYSCS AD MEASUEMET
when deaing with thefundamenta aws ofnature, such as that of
fa,wherepurereasoningsumcesinprincipe,experimentaonecan
ensurethatotherunseenfactorsarenotpresenttointerferewiththeir
appication, and thatmatterstake pace in tangibereaity, inhoc
eero aere, very neary as they do in the Archimedean word of
reihedgeometry onwhich ourdeductionsaregrounded. Moreover,
fromanotherpointofviewthatmightbecaedpedagogic, nothing
cantakethepaceofexperiment .itwasexperimentthatpointedout
theinadequacy ofAristoteiandoctrinewithrespecttoreaity, and
which, as much as itsinherentcontradictions, convinced Simpicio
thatitwaswrong.TheGaieandoctrineofthesimutaneousfaof
heavybodieswassonove,andath rstsightsocontrarytofactand
common-sense,thatexperimentaconhrmationaonecoudmakei t
acceptabe.Nodoubt,theargumentsand"experiments"adducedty
Gaieo are sumcientfor enightened minds freefrom preudice, as
representedbySagredo.Butwhatabouttheothers?Forthem,some-
thingmoreisrequired,namey,areaexperiment.
So,wearenotunduysurprisedtohndGaieoseekingexperimen-
taproofofhis doctrine ,andwecannotbutadmirethesupremein-
genuitywithwhich, seeingthatitwasimpossibetoproceedtodirect
experiment, he found a phenomenon in nature, which, when pro-
peryinterpretedandsighty"corrected"(etusadmititintheproper
pace),provided him with indirectconrmation.This phenomenon
was the isochronous movement ofa penduum, which he had dis-
covered,orbeievedhehaddiscovered. '
8AL VIATI . hc cXpcImcnl C 8CWng lWC OCdc8, 88 dcIcnl n Wcghl
88 pC88Oc, lC 8 ICm 8 hcghl, lC dclcImnc WhclhcI lhcI 8pccd8 8Ic lhc
88mc, pIc8cnl8 8Cmc dmCulc8 . OcC8u8c lhc hcghl 8 CCn8dcI8Oc, lhc
mcdum, WhCh mu8I D Cpcncd 8nd pu8hcd 88Idc Oy lhc 8Dg OCdy, W
8Ol lhc 8ghl mCmcnlum C lhc VcIy ghl OCdy muCh mCIc lh8n lhc
VCcnCc C lhc VcIy hc8Vy OCdy, 8C lh8l lhc ghl OCdy W Icm8n Ochnd
n 8 Cng 8 Whc ICm 8 8m8 hcghl Cnc mghl dCuOl WhclhcI lhcIc
Ic8y W88 nC dcIcnCc 8l 8, CI WhclhcI lhcIc W88 8Cmc, Oul l W88 nd8-
CcDOc. 1 lhcIcCIc lhCughl C Icpc8lng lmc 8llcI lmc 88 ICm 8m8
hcghl8, 8nd 8CCumu8lng 8 8Igc numOcI C lhC8c 8uppC8cd lny dcI-
ct Ocscartcs", Ccnra Intcmaticnal dc Fhilcachic (Ccnra Dcacartca) (Fars :
I 9J7).
` Diaccrai, pp. 128 h. Thc sochronsm olthcpcnduIum sccms to havc bccn
gcncraIIy admttcd at thc bcgnnng olthc scvcntccnth ccntury; BaIano cvcn
Iad t down as a prncpIc. Whatcharactcrzcs GaIIco, s that hc attcmpIcd a
dcmonstratonolt.OnBaIano,scc5.Moscovc,"5urI'nccrttudcdcsrapports
cntrc cxpcrcncc ctthcorcauXY sccIc", Fh)aica, I 950.
76
LL LL
*
b
-
L mLL LHN Lm

cnCc8 n lmc OclWccn lhc 8ttV8 C lhc hc8Vy OCdy 8nd lhc ghl, 8C lh8l
lCgclhct lhcy WCud 8mCunl lC 8 pctCd C lmc nCl Cny d8CctnOc, Oul
tc8dy d8CcDOc. NCtcCVct, n Ctdct lC Oc 8OIc lC m8kc u8c C mCVc-
mcnl8 88 8CW 88 pC88Oc, n WhCh lhc tc88l8nCc C lhc mcdum dCc8 nCl
WCtk lC 8lct lhc ccCl clhct, 8nd lhc cCCl dcpcnd8 8Ccy upCn gt8Vly,
lhCugl C 8CWng OCdc8 lC 8I Cn 8 8l 8Cpc, nCl muCh t88cd 8OCVc
lhc hCtZCnl8 , Ct Cn 8uCh 8 8Cpc Cnc C8n CO8ctVc hCW OCdc8 C dctcnl
Wcghl8 Och8Vc nC c88 lh8n n lhc pctpcndCu8t. ' C gC utlhct, 1 88C
W8nlcd lC gcl td C 8ny mpcdmcnl lh8l mghl tc8ul tCm lhc CCnl8Cl C
lhc8c OCdc8 8g8n8l lhc nCncd pI8nc. 8nd hn8Iy 1 lCCk lWC O88, Cnc C
c8d 8nd lhc Clhct C CCtk, lhc Cnc 8l c88l 8 hundtcd lmc8 88 hc8Vy 88 lhc
C
!h ct, 8nd 1 8ll8Chcd c8Ch C lhcm lC lWC dcnlCaI lhn 8ltng8, 8OCul Cut
Ct hVc CuOl8 Cng, hXcd 8l lhc lCp. hcn, h8Vng dt8Wn lhcm OClh O8Ck
tCm lhc pctpcndCu8t, 1 cl lhcm gC 8l lhc 88mc n8l8nl, 8C lh8l lhcy c
lhtCugh lhc CtCumctcnCc8 C lhc CtCc8 dc8CtOcd Oy lhc dcnlCa 8ltng8,
8nd, p888ng lhtCugh lhc pctpcndCu8t, tclutncd Oy lhc 88mc p8lh, 8nd
tcpc8lng lhc8c O8Ck-8nd-Ctlh mCVcmcnl8 8l c88l 8 hundtcd lmc8 Cn
lhct CWn, lhcy panIy 8hCWcd lh8l lhc hc8Vy OCdy CCW8 lhc lmc C lhc
ghl OCdy 8C Wc lh8l l dCc8 nCl 8nlCp8lc l Oy lhc 8m8c8l 8mCunl
cVcn m8 hundtcd Ct 8 lhCu88nd VOt8lCn8 - lhcy kcpl pctcCly n 8lcp.
hc ccCl C lhc mcdum 8 88C cVdcnl, 88, Oy C8u8ng 8Cmc mpcdmcnl
lC mCVcmcnl, l tcduCc8 lhc VOt8lCn8 C lhc CCtk muCh mCtc lh8n lhC8c
C lhc c8d - nCl lh8l l m8kc8 lhcm 8ny mCtc Ct c88 tcqucnl . n 8Cl,
Whcn lhc 8tC8 dc8CtOcd Oy lhc CCtk Wctc nCl mCtc lh8n hVc Ct 8X dcgtcc8,
8nd lhC8c C lhc cad hty Ct 8Xly, lhcy Wctc ltaVct8cd n lhc 8amc pctCd
C lmc.
Not without reason, Simliciowas somewhatconfounded bythe
aradoxicaI nature ofthis demonstration. How, indeed, can it be
cIaimed thatthetwobaIIsmovewiththesameseed, when inthe
sametimeoneofthemdescribesanarcofvedegrees,andtheother
oneofsixty?!sitnotobviousthattheeadenbaIIgoesmuchfaster?
Undoubtedy, but this greater seed has nothing to do with the
weightofthebaII(atIeastnotdirectly) ,itisafunctionoftheheight
throughwhichitfaIs.TheroofIiesinthefactthattheroIescanbe
reversed,thatistosay,thecorkbaIcanbemadetodescribeanarc
ofydegrees,andtheeadenbaIIoneofhvedegrees.TheywiIItake
' ThcsubsttutonofmotononanncIncdpIancfor thatoffrccfaIIsoncof
GaIIco`scIamstofamc.Byhscxpcrmcntsonthc ncIncd pIanchcwasabIcto
vcrfythc vaIdty ofhs Iaw govcrnng thcfaII ofbodcs, on ths pont, scc my
JtudeaaIilennea, : and "An cxpcrmcnt n mcasurcmcnt".
" Dlaccral, p. \28. . . . claacheduna dlIcrc hc attacata adueacttlIl aahetti
euaIi."5o ths sabIarpcnduIum,thcnvcntonofwhch, gcncraIIyattrbutcd
tothcAccademladeICimentc,shouIdthcrcforcbcrcstorcdtothccrcdtofGaIIco.
t may bc askcd f GaIIco rcaIIy obscrvcd cne thcuaandoscIIatons ofhs
pcnduIum.
77
mLMYb Lb L mLbLHLmL
hc 88mc Imc, CI hcy Wl dc8CIIDc cqu8 8IC8 In hc 88mc Imc,
WhchcI hcy Dc C HVc CI HHy dcgIcc8. b8VI8I hcn IcQlIc8' !
ul Wh8t WCud yCu 88y, bgnCI bmpCC, thcy 8t CCVctcd thcI
p8th8 n thc 88mc tmc, Whcn lhc CCtK, dt8Wn O8CK lhtty dcgtcc8 tCm thc
pcIpcndCu8t, h8d lC tI8VcI8c 8n 8tC C 8Xty dcgtcc8, Whc thc c8d,
dt8Wu O8CK ICm lhc 88mc Ccnttc pCnl Oy Cny tWC dcgtcc8, tt8Vct8cd 8n
8tC C CuI dcgtcc8 ? YCud nCl lhc CCtK thcn, cqu8y, D thc 88tct ? Pnd
ycl cXpcImcnl 8hCW8 th8 lC CCCut. ul nCtc th8 . thc c8d pcnduum,
dt8Wn O8CK, Ct n8l8nCc, hly dcgtcc8 tCm thc pctpcndCu8t, 8nd thcn
Iccd, 88, 8nd p888c8 lhc pctpcndCu8I 8g8n Oy 8mC8t 8nCthcI hy,
dc8CtOng 8n 8tC C 8mC8t 8 hundtcd dcgtcc8, lhcn, tctuDng C t8 CWn
8CCCId, dc8CtOc8 8nCthct, 8ghty c88cI 8tC, 8nd CCntnung l8 VOt8tCn8,
8ltcI 8 gtc8l numOct hn8y CCmc8 lC Ic8t. L8Ch Cnc C thc8c VOt8lCn8
t8Kc8 8D cqu8 8mCun! C tmc, Cnc Cl uucty dcgcc8 88 muCh 88 Cnc C
hy, lWcnty, lcn, CI Cut, 8C th8l, n CCn8cqucnCc, lhc 8pccd C lhc OCdy
CCntnu8y dcCtc88c8 t lt8Vct8c8, n lhc 88mc 8p8Cc C tmc, cVct 8m8ct
8nd 8m8ct 8tC8. hc CCtK, h8ngng tCm 8n cqu8y Cng 8tIng, dCc8 8
8m8t lhng, n 8Ct thc 88mc thng, cXCcpt lh8t t Ic8Chc8 thc 8t8tc C tc8t
n 8 c88ct numOct C mCVcmcnt8, 88, CWng lC l8 ght Wcghl, l 8 c88
8Oc lC CVctCCmc thc CO8t8C!c C thc 8I . Out n 8ny C88c 8 thc VOt8lCn8,
8tgc 8nd 8m8, 8tc pctCtmcd n tmc8 WhCh 8tc thcm8cVc8 cqu8, 8nd
88C cQu8 lC lhc tmc8 C thc c8d. 1l 8 lhu8 ttuc lh8t, Whcn lhc c8d
lI8Vct8c8 8n 8tC C hlty dcgtcc8 8nd lhc CCtK Cnc C tcn, lhc CCtK 8 8CWct
lh8n lhc c8d, Cn thc CthcI h8nd, l W 88C h8ppcn lh8l thc CCtK tt8Vct8c8
8n 8IC C hy dcgtcc8 8nd thc c8d Cnc C lcn Ct 8X. 8C lh8t 8t dctcnl
lmc8 cthcI lhc c8d Ct lhc CCtK W! Oc lhc 88lct. ut thc8c 88mc OCdc8
lt8Vct8c cqu8 8tC8 n cqu8 tmc8, Cnc C8n 88cy 88y th8t thct 8pccd8 8tc
cqu8.
c QICC I8 CCmQcc" , hc l8W C hc 8Imul8ncCH8 8ll C hc8Vy
" Diaccrai, p. 2.
* ThccompIctcarcoloscI!aton.
On thc Fourth Oay ol thc Dlaccrai (scc p. 2TT) Gallco statcs, curous\y
cnough, thatthcIcadcn ba makcsthcsamcnumbcr oloscIIatons as thccork
baII.
ThcthcoryolsochronsmolthcpcnduIum,prcvousIytrcatcdnthcDialcc
n dhcrcnt contcxts, such as moton ol a matcraI pcnduIum (5ccond Oay, p.
25T), andlaII aIong thccrcumlcrcncc ol a crcIc (Fourth Oay, pp. 4T4 h),s
prcscntcd hcrcas bcng bascd soIcIy on cxpcrmcnt. 5mIarIy, on thc Fourth
OayolthcDiaccrai(pp. 2TTh),whcrc, nrcgardtothcmattcrs havc|ustmcn-
toncd, GaIIco adds onIy thcloIIowngcommcnt : thc rcsstancc ohcrcd by thc
arbcngproportonaI to thc spccd olthcmovng body, tsrctardngacton on
last andsIowmotons(IargcandsmaIIoscIIatons)wI!bcthcsamc,andconsc-
qucntIy, wthout chcct on thcr duraton. But thc dscussons on thc rst and
lourth days arc conductcd ona rcIatvcIy popuIar IcvcI ; and thcyarc wrttcnn
taIan.Thcpropcrprool,thcmathcmatcaIprool,olsochronsmsgvcnonthc
ThrdOay,andtsnLatn.tsbascdonthcloIIowngpropostons(Thcorcm
Y,FropostonY,pp. 22l h) :(l)ThctmcoldcsccntolahcavybodyaIongthc
7&
LL LL
*
b
-
L mLL LHN Lm
:
bodies is estabished, the discrepencies observed in tangibe reaity
are easiy expained bytheresistanceoftheair,which isgreaterfor
morerapidmotion,andmoreeasiyovercomebyheavybodiesthan
byightones. Itdependsaso, ofcourse, ontheshapeofthemoving
bodies(afactwhichhadongbeenknown),andtheeasewithwhich
they canpenetrate and push aside the ambient air.' FinaIIy, it de-
pendsonthenatureoftheirsurface,whethersmooth,orrough,and
on their voume, provided that a other things are simiar. The
mechanica resistance isineectafunctionoftheratiobetweenthe
surfaceofthebodyanditsweight ,whichratioisessforargebodies
thanforsmaones ,andthisfactanswersthequestionputsometime
previousy by Sagredo, and to whichIe nowreturns . Why does a
cannon-bafamore quicky than a musket-ba ?Once again, the
weightofthebodydoes notcomeintothequestion.
Wemightexpresstheopinionthattheisochronismofthependuum,
onwhich Gaileo insists sostrongy,isnotnecessaryforhisproof,
andthatitisonynecessarytoverifythefactthattwobas,oneof
damctcrofavcrtcaIcrcIc,andaIonganychordpassngthroughtsIowcstpont,
sthcsamc; (2) thctmcofdcsccntaIong two succcssvc chordssIcssthanthat
aIongonconIy.WhcncctfoIIowsthatdcsccntaIongthccrcumfcrcnccwIItakc
pIaccwth maximumspccd, and thc tmc wII aIways bc thc samc. Wc can onIy
admrcthccIcganccandngcnutyofGaIIco`sproof,cvcnthough(aswasshown
Iatcr)dcsccntaIongthccrcumfcrcnccsnotthcfastcstanddocsnottakcpIaccn
cquaItmcs(thccycIodhasthcscpropcrtcs),trcmansnoncthcIcsstruc,spcak-
ng n cghtccnth-ccntury Ianguagc, that thc "tautochronc" and "brachsto-
chronc" arc but oncandthcsamccurvc.
" On accountof thcrcsstancc ohcrcd bythcar,bodcsfaIIngonourpIanct
cannotconform cntrcIy to thc mathcmatcaI Iaw offaII ; thcy can do so onIy
partaIIyandapproxmatcIy.nfact . (a)bccauscofthchydrostatcacton ofthc
ar,whch"Ightcns"bodcspIaccdnt,thcgravcmasssnotdcntcaIwththc
ncrtal mass: hcavy bodcs fa\l fastcr thanlight oncs; (b) Ihc rcsstancc ofIhc
mcdum ncrcascs wth thc ratc ofacccIcraton, and so snotconstant, but n-
crcascs; thcfaIIng motonthcrcforc s not "unformIy", but "non-unformIy",
acccIcratcd,andaftcraccrtanIapscof tmcchangcsntoaunformmoton.For
ths rcason, cvcry mcdum, partcuIarIy ar, mposcs a maximum spccd, whch
cannot bccxcccdcdby anybody durngfrcc faII,nomattcrfrom whathcght t
faIIs,orhowIongthcfaIIpcrssts.tcan,howcvcr,bccxcccdcdbyartcaImcans,
as, for cxampIc, by shcIIs from cannon. GaIIco caIIs such spccds . aupcmatural
spccds (scc Diaccrai, pp. 2T5-8).
tsamusngtonotcthatGaIIcanphyscs,asarcsuItofsubsttutngacccIcra-
ton for moton, and by transfcrrng thc rcsstancc to changc from wthout, to
wthn, thc body, nds tscIf n a poston ofacccptng thc conscqucnccs whch,
nArstotcIanphyscs,Icd toabsurdtcs(sccp.4T, n.2). npartcuIar:(a)that
any forcc, howcvcrsmaII, appIcd to a rcsstancc (ncrtaI),howcvcrgrcat, pro-
duccs moton, and (b)that, whcn thc forcc cquaIs thc rcsstancc, thc rcsuItng
moton aIways hascquaI orconstant, spccd.
79
METAVHYSCS A!O MEASUEME!T
corkandtheotherofead,droedfromthesameheightwireach
theend oftheirtrave(intheerendicuar) in the sametime. No
doubt,thisisso.ButasfarasGaieowasconcerned,theisochron-
ism ofthe enduum is not ony a great discovery ofwhich he is
guitejustihabyroud,buti taso resents one ofthe veryrare in-
stances where agreement between exeriment and theory is amost
erfect.Furthermore,itrovides means(a)ofeiminatingasfaras
ossibe theernicious eects ofsecondary causes (in thiscasethe
resistanceoftheair)whichaecttherimaryfactorsunderi nvesti-
gation,and(b) ofrenderingobservabe,asaresutoftheiraccumu-
Iation,thosesmaeectswhichtakeninisoationwoudnotbedetect-
abe.Now,thisisunguestionabyamatterofextremeimortance ,itis
acaitaIimrovement,whichitwou|dnotbeanexaggerationtoca
revoutionaryinexerimentatechnigue ,itisanimrovementwhich
farsurassesthatachievedbyGaieowhenhesubstitutedfaonan
incinedaneforfreefa.So,wecanunderstandthevaueheattri-
butedtoit,asweashisdesiretoutitintoeect.
But is this agreement between theory and exeriment in fact
genuine?In otherwords, coud the exerimentrove the isochron-
ism ofthe enduum? Or, at east, conhrm the theoretica roof?
Unfortunatey, no. For the enduum is not isochronous, as Mer-
senne was abe to verify b) exeriment (and Huygens roved i t
theoreticay). Now, ifthe methods emoyed by Mersenne were
dierentfrom,andmoreaccuratethan,thoseofGaieo,itremains
nevertheess true that the dierence between the duration of ong
andshortosciationsisguitenoticeabe,andconseguentycoudnot
havefaiedtobeobservabeintheosciationsroducedbyGaieo.
Whatdidhedothen?He"corrects" theexeriment , hehodsitin
hisimaginationandsuressestheexerimenta deviation. Washe
wrongtodoso?Notata !foritisnotbyfoowingexeriment,but
byoutstriingexeriment, thatthescientihcmindmakesrogress.
Letusnowookback. !nthecourse ofthis study wehavetriedto
characterize Aristoteian dynamics by its fundamenta axiom. the
seed ofa moving body is roortiona to the motive force, and
inverseyroortionatotheresistance(l=F[F) , andconseguenty
" MorccorrotIy: wouIdbcso- lthcyddsolact.

5cc `A cxpcrmcnt nmcasurcmcnt".
Or: thc dQ erences, lorthcnon-sochronsm olthcIargcand smaII oscIIa-
tons, scovcrcdtwccovcrbythccorkand Icad.
8O
GA1l1EO

OE MOTU ORANlUM

a constant force in a constant medium roduces uniform motion.
Againstthiswehaveurgedthefundamentaaxiomofcassicadyna-
micsaccordingtowhich,motionbeingconservedinthemovingbody,
a constantforce roduces a motionthat isnoongeruniform, but
acceerated. Wehave tracedthe criticism ofAristoteian dynamics
throughBenedettiandtheyoungGaieo, acriticismwhichhrstsub-
stitutesanArchimedeanschemeforhatofAristote( l=F[F), and
ends with the scheme. acceeration is roortiona to motive force
. . . and inverseyroortiona totheresistance (interna and exter-
na) .Z=F[F, orZ =F[(F,+ F).Thesimiarityofthisformuawith
thatofAristotewoudnothaveescaedanyone.
Letusookcoser,itisnotasimiarity,itisaformaIidentitythat
wediscoverinthesetwoformuae.Infact,thesecondcanbederived
fromthehrstbymakinganadditionandasubstitution.additionof
the internaresistancetotheexternaresistance, and substitution of
acceeration for motion. The addition ofthe interna resistance to
thatoftheexternamediumdoesnotaterthestructureofAristote's
dynamics , itcoudevenbeconsideredasimicitin it.Inthesame
way Keer's dynamics in the deeest roots of its insiration is
Aristoteian' . inthis instanceseedis awaysroortionatoforce,
andaconstantforceroducesauniformmotion.Ontheotherhand,
thesubstitutionofacceerationformotion is acometeuheava .
itisnoongeramodicationoftheancientdynamics,itisareace-
ment.
Andyet,WhydidAristoteutmotion(orseed)roortionato
the motive force Because he conceived it as a change, /yc:s, a
rocessin whichthemovingbodyisneverinthesamstate(semer
aliteretalitersehabet) ,andbecauseachangenecessariyreguiresa
cause ~ a cause roortiona to its eect. Whence, necessariy, the
roortionaityofmotion to themotivecause, andits cessation in
theabsenceoftheatter.Thereisnot, andtherecannotbe,motion
withoutdrivingower .sinecausanoneste_ectus,andcessantecausa,
cessate_ectus.
Gaieanhysics, cassicahysics,noongerconceivesmotionasa
change,butasatrue"state"- ateastwhenthemotionisuniform.
Notonythat,itisabetoersistandconserveitsefwithout"cause" .
' ForKcpIcr,motoncontrastsrcstnthcsamcway thatlghtcontrastsdark-
ncss;sccmyJtudcaakcnnca, .
' Though wthoutusng ths tcrm,whch dcrvcs lrom Ocscartcs, as s wcIl
known.
& l
m1MYb Lb L mbLHm1
derived of, orsearatedfrom,itsdrivingower, themovingbody
wiIIthereforecontinueitsmotion. Ontheotherhand,acceIerationis
achange,infact,themovingbodydoesnotremaininthesamestate .
sehabetaliteretaliter. Furthermore,acceIerationreguiresa"cause"
ora "force" strictIyroortionaIto itseIf, anditceasesto be ro-
ducedwhentheactionoftheIatterceases.Sinecausanoneste_ectus;
cessantecausaquidem cessate_ectus.
!f we reIace the reIativeIy concrete terms land X, seed and
acceIeration,inourformuIaebyamoreabstract,vitaIterm,<(</vqc:;)
we shaII obtain =F[F, which is thesamefor GaIiIeo asweIIasfor
AristotIe. FromahiIosohicaIointofview, this seemstometobe
aneminentIysatisfactoryresuIt.
APPEND! X
! ntheforegoingages ! havetriedt odescribe andjustify GaIiIeo's
use ofthe method ofimaginaryexerimentconcurrentIy with, and
even in reference to, reaI exeriment. !n fact, it is an extremeIy
fruitfuI methodwhich incarnates, as itwere, thedemands oftheory
inimaginary objects,therebyaIIowingtheformertobeut incon-
creteform, andenabIesustounderstandtangibIereaIityasadevia-
tionfromtheerfectmodeIwhichitrovid

s.'!tmustbeconfessed,
however,thatthe method is not without its dangers , and thatthe
tendencytogototheextremeinuttingideasintoconcreteform,to
which tendency it is guite easytosuccumb, sometimesIays some
ratherannoyingtricks,andIeadstoassertionsthatreaIityersistentIy
refutes.AIas !ithastobeadmittedthatGaIiIeodidnotaIwaysescae
thisdanger.
I am not going to enumerate aII the instances where the great
FIorentine succumbed to temtation, I shaII Iimit myseIf to two
examIes,bothofthemratherstriking.
[!]. !nthehydrostatic"digression',whichIdidnotanaIyseinthe
course ofthis study because it interruts the deveIoment of the
theoryoffaII,SagredoteIIshowheutsaItintoagIassvesseIbefore
hIIingitwithwaterinsuchawaythatthevesseIthencontainedthe
heaviersaIt-wateratthebottom,andtheIighterfreshwaterattheto.
andhow,totheastonishmentofhisfriends,hesucceededinkeeing
't thcrcforc pIays a part ntcrmcdatc bctwccnpurc thought and tangbIc
cxpcrmcnt.
' Diaccrai, rstOay,pp. ! I 3 .
&2
LLl LL
*
b
-
L mLL LHPN1 Lm

abaofwax,madeheavybygrainsofsand,in eguiibriummidway
intheiguid.Saviatiimroves onthis accountbydescribinghowit
isossibetomakethebarise orfabyadding sat-waterorfresh-
watertotheiguidcontainedinthevesse- andhenodoubtcauses
evengreaterastonishment.Then,reyingonthefact(?)thatthesame
resuts can be roduced by addingfour dros ofhot water to six
oundsofcodwater,orricerersa,heconcudesthatwaterossesses
no viscosity, and oers no resistance (other than mechanica) to
enetration or searation ofits arts , and that hiosohers who
teachtothecontraryaregreatymistaken.Sagredoagrees.However,
ifthisbeso,heaskshowitisossibefordrosofwater,evenguite
arge ones, to form on cabbage eaves, and remain intact without
readingorscattering. Saviatiadmitsthathecannotexainit. He
iscertain,however,thattheeectresutsfromanexternacause,and
notfrom any internaguaity, and injustihcation ofthis assertion
oers a "veryconvincing"exerimentaroof.!nfact,'
ithepartic!esowaterinag!obu!esurroundedbyairhadsomeinterna!
reason or sustaining themse!ves, they wou!d do so much more easi!y
whensurroundedbyamediuminwhichtheyhad!esstendencytoa!!than
theyhaveintheambientair !ikewine,orinstance,andso,pouringwine
round such ag!obu!e owater, onecou!d!! thewineuprightroundit,
withoutthepartic!esowater,stuck together theyarebytheirinterna!
viscosity,dissolving.However,thisdoesnotoccur,inact,assoonasthe
!iquorspreadsroundandtouchesit,withoutwaiting[orittorisemuch,it
wi!!disso!veandspreadout,!yingunderneath,iitisredwine.Thecause
othisbehaviouristhereoreextena!,andpossib!yanattributeothesur-
roundingair.)ndeed,aconsiderab!eantipathybetweenairandwatermay
actua!!ybeobserved 1 observeditmyse!inanotherexperiment . thatis
tosay,i1 takeag!assg!obewithaneckasnarrowasastraw,!!itwith
water,andthenturn it,u!y!!ed,sothatitsopeningpointsdownwards,
a!thoughthewateriscomparative!yheavyandinairtendstoa!!,anda!-
thoughairtendsequa!!ytorisethroughwater,beingcomparative!y!ight,
thetwoai!toagreewithoneanother,andinsteadothewatera!!ingand
theairrisingthroughtheho!e,theybothremainstubbornanddeant.On
the otherhand, however, H 1 app!ya]arored wine to theopening, a|-
thoughredwineisscarce!yany!ighterthanwater,wewi!!immediate!ysee
its!ow!yrisingthroughthewaterinredstreaks,andthewaterwi!!ass!ow!y
a!!throughthewine,withoutinthe!eastmixing, unti! na!!ythe g!obe
!!sitse!entire!ywithwineandthewatera!!sdowntothebottomothe
]arbeneath.Nowwhatcan one say, what arguments can one propose,
otherthananincompatibi!itybetweenwaterandair,which1 donotunder-
stand, butwhich, perhaps. . . .
' Ib|d.,pp. I I5 h.
&J
m1MYb Lb L mbLHm1
IconfessthatI shareSaviati'serexity.It is,indeed,dimcutto
utforwardanexanationoftheastonishingexerimenthehasjust
reorted,articuary,because,ifwereeateditexactl)asdescribed,
weshoudsee thewinerisein the gassgobe(Iedwithwater),and
waterfainto the vesse (fu ofwine) , but we shoud not see the
waterandthewine simyreacingeachother , we shoud see the
formationofamixture.'
Whatistheconcusion?Dowehavetoadmitthatredwinesofthe
seventeenthcenturyhadroertiesnoongerossessedbythewines
oftodayroertiesthatmadethem,ikeoi,immiscibewithwater?
OrcanwesuosethatGaieo,whoundoubtedynevermixedwater
with hiswine(forwinetohimwas "theincarnationoftheight of
thesun"),hadnevermadetheexeriment , but, havingheard ofit,
reconstructeditinhisimagination,accetingthecometeandessen-
tia incomatibiity of water with wine as an indubitabe fact? -
Personay, I feethatthe attersuosition is therightone.
[II]. Thefact that theresistance ofamediumtothemotionofa
moving body does not have a constant vaue, but increases as a
function ofthe seed ofthe motion, and roortionay to it, in-
vovesatrainofaradoxicaconseguenceswhichSaviatitakesgreat
easure in settingbefore his comanions.
bPNP . ICW . . . C8n 8mtm WthCut thc 8ghtc8t hc8t8tCn th8t thctc
8 nC 8phctc 8C 8tgc, nCt C 8C hc8Vy 8 m8tct8, th8t thc tc88t8nCc C thc
mcdum, hCWcVct tcnuCu8, dCc8 nCt Ot8Kc t8 8CCcct8tCn, 8nd CCntnucd
mCtCn dCc8 nCt Otng t tC 8 8t8tc C cquOtum. 8nd C th8 Wc C8n CO-
t8n 8 Vcty Cc8t ptCC tCm cXpctcnCc. cC8u8c, [ 8ny 8ng OCdy Wctc
8Oc, Oy CCntnucd mC!Cn, tC 8Cqutc 8ny 8pccd yCu Kcj, nC 8pccd [WhCh
W88 mptc88cd upCn t Oy 8ny cXtctn8 cngncj CCud bc 8tgc cnCugh Ct t
tC tcu8c thc 8pccd 8nd C8c t CWng tC thc mpcdmcnt C thc mcdum.
hu8, Ct n8t8nCc, 8n 8ttcty O8 WhCh h8d 8cn thtCugh thc 8t Ct
Cut CuOt8, 8nd h8d 8Cqutcd tcn dcgtcc8 C 8pccd, Wctc tC cntct thc W8tct
'RcsuItsmorcncarIynagrccmcnt wth 5aIvat`sasscrton wouId bcobtancd
byhavngtwcopcnngs,nstcadofonc,nthcgIassask,andhttngastraw,or8
narrowtubc, to cach nsuchamanncrthatonc(A) s drcctcd tothcntcrorof
thcask, and thcothcr(B)to thccxtcror. Wc shouId thcnsccastrcakofwnc
strcamngfromtubcAtowardsthctopofthcask,andastrcakofwatcrstrcam-
ngtothcbottomofthcvcsscI, wththcrcsuItthatthcwnc wouId coIIcctat thc
top,andthcwatcratthcbottom. UnfortunatcIy,cvcnnthscasc,thcrcwouIdbc
mxng.Furthcrmorc,5aIvatprovdcscncorhcconIytohsask, not twc, nor,
docs hc provdc any straw.
Diaccrai, Frst Oa], pp. 36h.
Tranalatcr'a nctc: Frofcssor Koyrc`s trans!aton ofths passagc abbrcvatcs
ths scntcnccby omttng to transIatcthcwordshcrcbrackctcd.
&4
LL LL
*
b

L mLL LHN1 Lm

8l lh8l 8pccd, lhc mpcdmcnl C lhc W8lct Wctc nCl 8ltCng cnCugh lC
8lCp lhc O88 mpclu8, lhc O8 WCud gC Cn 8CCcct8lng, Ct 8l c88l l
WCud CCnlnuc 8l lhc 88mc 8pccd unl l tc8Chcd lhc OCllCm. Lnc dCc8
nCl 8cc lh8 h8ppcn. Ln lhc CCnlt8ty, lhc W8lct, cVcn nCl mCtc lh8n 8
cW CuOl8 dccp, mpcdc8 8nd Wc8kcn8 l8 mClCn, 8C lh8l l Cny 8ltkc8
lhc Ocd C lhc tVct Ct 8kc Vcty ghly. 1l 8 lhctcCtc p8n lh8l lhc W8lct
WCud h8tdy 8CW lhc 8hCl cVcn 8l 8 dcplh C 8 lhCu88nd CuOl8, lC 8Cqutc
lhc 8pccd C WhCh l W88 8Oc lC dcptVc l n 8C 8hCtl 8 ]Cutncy. Pnd Why
pctml l lC g8n lhc 8pccd n 8 lhCu88nd CuOl8 Cny lC tcmCVc l n Cut ?
NOcCVct, Wc m8y CO8ctVc lh8l lhc mmcn8c mpclu8 C lhc O8, hutcd
tCm lhc C8nnCn, 8 8C tcduCcd Oy lhc nlctpC8lCn C 8 cW CuOl8 C W8lct,
lh8l l 8uCCccd8 8C8tCcy n Oumpng lhc 8hp, WlhCul 8ny d8m8gc lC l 8l
8. Pt lCC, 8lhCugh Vcty ycdng, CWct8 lhc 8pccd C lhc 8ng OCdy,
hc8Vy lhCugh l m8y Oc, 88 m8y Oc 8ccn tCm 8m8t cXpctmcnl8, Ct Wc
cl C 8n 8tqucOu8 lCW8td8 lhc gtCund tCm lhc lCp C 8 lCWct, l W m8kc
muCh c88 C 8 lhud Cn lhc c8tlh lh8n Wc cl l C tCm Cny Cut Ct 8X
CuOl8 tCm gtCund cVc , 8n cVdcnl 8gn lh8l lhc mpclu8 Wlh WhCh lhc
O8 ct lhc O8ttc 8l lhc lCp C lhc lCWct dmn8hcd 88 l dc8Ccndcd
lhtCugh lhc 8t. LCn8cqucnly 8 dc8Ccnl tCm 8 Vcty gtc8l hcghl W nCl
Oc cnCugh lC m8kc l 8Cqutc 8 8pccd, C WhCh lhc tc88l8nCc C lhc 8t
dcptVc8 l Whcn l h88 8tc8dy gCl l, nC m8llct hCW. Lqu8Iy lhc d8m8gc
dCnc lC 8 W8 Oy Ocng 8ltuCk Oy 8 8hCl tCm 8 C8tOnc tCm 8 d8l8nCc C
lWcnly CuOl8 WCud nCl, 1 OccVc, Oc C8u8cd Oy l 8ng pctpcndCu8ty
tCm 8ny hcghl, hCWcVct mmcn8c. lhctcCtc OccVc lh8l lhctc 8 8 ml
lC lhc 8CCcct8lCn C 8ny n8lut8 OCdy 8l8tlng tCm tc8l, 8nd lh8l lhc
mpcdmcnl C lhc mcdum hn8y tcduCc8 l lC 8 8lc8dy 8l8lc, n WhCh l
lhcnCcCtlh tcm8n8.
This ongassagerovidesagoodexameofthemindofGaieo
atworkandinaction.ower andimrudence,use andabuseof
theimagination. Isthereanythinghner, ormorerofound, thanthe
considerationsthateadhimtoassertthatitisonl)inaracuumthat
theacceeratedmotionoffacanobeythemathematicaawwhich
hehasestabishedfori t, whistineveryothermediumthereissome
deviationfromtheaw, andhnay the acceerated motionchanges
into auniformmotionhaving a seed determined bythenature of
thefa|ingbodyandtheambientmedium(i.e.ratioofweight)?Con-
seguenty,thisseedcoudbecaedthe"naturaseed"ofthebody
inthemediuminguestion.Whatcoud bemoreingeniousthanthe
reasoningwhichdemonstratesthatitisimossibeCt 8 givenbody
enetrating a 8tticuar medium to exceed its "natura" seed in
that medium, and that it is imossibe for the body to reacguire
that greater seed which it ossessedbefore entering the medium,
and which the medium reduced by retarding the motion of the
body? What coud be more striking than the exeriments which,
&5
mtVMYb Lb L mbLHm
i nGaieo's view, iustrate and rovide roofofhis roosition?
Yet,ifitisguitetruethatbodiesfamoreraidyinairthani n
water, andthatinassingfromtheonetotheothertheirmotionis
retarded,arewejustiedinraisingthisobservationtothedignityof
ageneraIaw, and in sayingthatwhen afreeyfaingbodyasses
fromatenuousintoadensermediumitsmotionisretarded?Coud
notweinfer thearrestofmotion as a conseguence oftheimossi-
biityofsuchaassage?Infact,inGaieo'sexameor"exeriment"
we coudeta cannon-bafanotfromfourcubits, butfrom one,
one-haf,one-guarter,wherebyinthecourseofitstravethroughthe
airitwouIdacguirenottenunits ofseed, butve, one, one-haf,
andsoontoinhnity. Iftheseedinwatermustawaysbeess than
thatinair, itshoudendbybeinginniteysma,anddrotozero.
How,then,coudaheavybody,whetherofeadorgod,acguireits
"natura"seedinwater?Isn'titobvious,eveni fi tissurrising,that
Gaieo confuses "seed" with "acceIeration"? Isn't it even more
surrising that, in his exame of the cannon-ba arrested in its
motionbyseveracubitsofwater,heignoresthedierencebetween
theeectofimactandthat ofhydrostatic resistance, eectswhich
hesowedistinguishesesewhere? Ontheotherhand, ifit is guite
dehnite that the seed, and hence the imetus, ofa cannon-ba i s
greatestatthemomentof eavingthemouthof thecannon,andthata
assage of2O cubits through air sumces to retard its motion, and,
furthermore,ifitisegua|ydehnitethatacannon-bathrownverti-
cayuwardsinair,nomattertowhatheightitrisesandfromwhat
heightitfasagain,wineverreachthegroundagainwithitsinitia
seed,canwedrawthesameconcusiontherefromasGaieo?That
istosay,the seed (andhencetheimetus) ofthe cannon-bawiI
neveregua the seed with which iteaves the cannon, no matter
fromwhat height itfaIIs, evenifthis heightbeseveraItimesgreater
thanthatwhich it coud attainbybeing/redverticay. Obviousy,
we cannot. Gaieo does, however. Why? Because he beieves that
the seed ofthe shoteaving a cuverin is a"suernatura" seed,
and greaty exceeds that which the shot woud attain as a freey
faingbody,evenifitfefromtheMoon.'Howdoeshedemonstrate
' bd., Fourth Oay, pp. 2T5 h: "Quantc pci al pcrturbamcntc prcccdcntc
dall'impcdimcntcdclmczc,qucatcpiuccnaidcrabilc, c,pcrlaauatantcmcltiplicc
varictd,inca paccdipctcracttcrcclc/crmccaacrccmprcaccdatcncacicnza,attcac
chc, ac ncimcttcrcmc in ccnaidcrazicnc ilaclc impcdimcntc chc arrcca |'aria a i
mcticcnaidcratidanci, qucatc ai trcrcrdpcrtorbarli tutti, cpcrturbarin mcdi
in/niti, acccndc chcin in/nitimcdiairarianclc/urc, lcraritd clc vclccitddc i
&6
LPL LL

b
-
L mLL LHPN Lm

the "suernatura" character ofthe seed ofthe cannon-ba? He
doesso,asamatteroffact,bymeansoftheexerimentinwhichthe
shotisreddirectydownwards ,theshotfromthecannon,orfrom
thearguebus, isretardedintraveingfromthe toofthe towerto
thebottom. Thiswoudnotbetheresutiftheinitiaseedwereess
thantheimitingseedacguiredduringfa.
Although Galileo doesnotsay so, itis easy to make u for his
sience,andsaythatthatistheconditionforthevaidityofhisargu-
ment according to which the resistance oered by the water irre-
mediaby retards the faing cannon-ba, and the resistance ofthe
airretardstheshotfromthearguebus, whenbotharehreddirecty
downwards.Infact,inavacuum,wheretheseedoffaexeriences
no such imiting factor, a cannon-baI hred directy downwards
woud not beretarded, onthecontrary, the norma acceerationof
fawoudbeaddedtoitsinitiaseed.Theresutwoudbethesame,
orneary so, if, instead ofrojectingitdownwards with a "suer-
natura"seedconferredonitbythe combustion oftheowder,we
imitedoursevestothrowingitwithsuchseedashumanarmscoud
confer .etussay, tencubitsersecond. Itisobviousthattheresis-
tanceoftheairroortionatothisextremelyowseed, andthere-
fore amost nothing, woud not be abe to revent the shot from
mcbili. Impcrc chc, quantc alla vclccitd, acccndc chc qucata aard maicrc,
maicrc aard il ccntraatc/attcli dall`aria, la qualc ancc impcdirdpitt i mcbili,
accndcchcaaranncmcnravi: talch, acbcnc ilravcdcaccndcntcdcvrcbbcandarc
accclcrandcai in duplicataprcpcrzicnc dclla durazicn dcl auc mctc, tuttavia, pcr
raviaaimc chc/uaac ilmcbilc, nclvcnirdarandiaaimc altczzcaardtalcl'impcdi-
mcntcdcll'aria, chctcrrdilpctcrcrcaccrcpittla aua vclccitd, cla ridurrd adun
mctc uncrmc cd cquabtlc, c qucata adcquazicnc tantc pia prcatc cd in mincri
altczzc ai cttcrrd, quantc il mcbdc aard mcn ravc + e + Dc i quali accidcnti di
ravitd, divclccitd, cdanccdi/ura, ccmcvariabiliin mcdiin/niti, ncnaipucdar
/crma acicnza: cpcrc, pcr pctcr acicntcamcntc trattar cctal matcria, biacna
aatrar da caai, c ritrcvatc c dimcatratc lc ccncluaicni aatrattc da l'impcdimcnti,
acrvirccnc,nclpraticarlc,ccnqucllclimitazicnichcl'capcricnzacivcrrdinacnandc."
'bd.,pp.2T8 h: 5aIvatcxpIansthat projcctIcsofrc-arms shouId bcput
n a dhcrcnt catcgory from thosc of baIIstac, cross-bows, ctc. on account ol
"l'ccccaaiva c,pcrviadidirc,/uriaacpranaturalcccnlaqualctaliprcicttivcncnc
cacciati, ch bcnc ancc/ucra d'ipcrbclc mipar chc la vclccitd ccn la qualc vicn
cacciatalapaIla/ucri d'un mcachcttc c d'una artilcria, aipcaaa chiamar acpra-
naturalc.Impcrc chc, accndcndcnaturalmcntcpcrl'ariada qualchcaltczzaimmcnaa
una talpalla, la vclccitd aua, mcrccdclccntrastcdcll'aria,ncnaiandrdaccrcaccndc
pcrpctuamcntc: ma qucllc chc nc icadcntipcccraviai vcdc inncn mcltc apazic
accadcrc, dicc di ridurai/nalmcntc a un mctc cquabilc, accadcr anccra, dcpc la
accaa di qualchc miliara di braccia, in unapalla di/crrc c di icmbc, c qucata
tcrminata cd ultima vclccit aipuc dirc caacr la maaaima chc naturalmcntc puc
cttcncrtalravcpcraria: la qualvclccitd ic rcputcaaaaimincrdi qucllachcalla
mcdcaimapalla vicnc imprcaaadaIlapclvcrcacccaa."
NN !
&7
mVMYb Lb L mbLHm
reaching the groundwitha seed greater thanthe initia seed, as
weas greaterthanthatwhichitwoudhaveattained infreefa.
Now, exeriment showsthati tisinfactretarded. Exeriment aso
demonstratesthe"suernatura"seedoftheshotfromthearguebus
andofthecannon-bafromthecuverin.
Isaid.theexerimentdemonstrates ,butIshoudhavesaid.uould
demonstrate. ItwouId demonstrate- iftwere erformed. For, as
Gaieo honesty admits onthe Fourth Day ofthesesameDiscorsi
(fromthe FirstDayofwhich I have made suchongguotations),he
didnoterformit.'Yetheissureoftheresut.Wehavenodimcuty
inunderstandingthereason.thatwhichshoudhaen,doeshaen,
andthatwhich cannot haen, does not haen. Now,theseedof
fa ofaheavy body, evenifit were tofa fromtheMoon, cannot
exceed,aswehaveseen, acertainimit. Itfoowsthatthecannon-
ba isretarded. Exeriment mereyconhrmsthe deduction.
WeknowguitewethatGaieowasright. Goodhysicsismade
ariori.AsIhaveareadysaid,itmustatacostsavoidthetemta-
tionandfautofextremeconcretism,andmustnotaowimagination
totaketheace oftheory.
" bd., p, 27: "!c ncnhc/attc talc capcricnza, ma inclinc a crcdcrc chc una
pahad'archibuaccd'artilicria,cadcndcdaun'altczzaquantcaircliarandc,ncn
/arquc|lapcrccaaachcclla/a inunamuraliain lcntananzadipcchcbraccia,cic
diccaipcchc,chc'lbrcvcadrucitc,cvc|iamdircaciaaura,da /araincll' ariancnbaatia
lcvarl' ccccaac dclla/uriaacpranaturalc imprcaaalidal/uccc."
&&
N
Pn LX0IIm0n! In 0u8uI0m0n!
Historiansofmodern science,' whentryingto determine its essence
andstructure,and thus to ooseit tothemedievaand cassica
ones, insist, asoenas not, in contradistinctiontotheabstractand
bookish character of the atter, uon the emirica and concrete
characteroftheformer.Observationandexerienceeadingavigor-
ous- andvictorious- assautuontraditionandauthority. suchis
theimage,itseftraditiona,thatweareusuaygivenofthesiritua
revoution oftheseventeenthcentury,ofwhichmodernscienceis, at
thesametime,therootandthefruit.
This icture isby no means wrong. Quite onthe contrary. it is
erfectyobviousthatmodernsciencehasimmeasuraby andeven
beyondmeasure enarged ourknowedge ofthe word, increased
thenumber of"facts" a kinds offacts thatithasdiscovered,
observedandcoected.Besides,itisjustinthiswaythatsomeofthe
founders ofmodern science have seen and understood themseves
andtheirwork. GibertandKeer,Harveyand Gaieo they a
extotheadmirabefecundity ofexerience anddirectobservation,
as they oose it a to the steriity of abstract and secuative
thought.
Yetwhateverthe imortance ofthe new "facts" discovered and
broughttogetherbytherenatores, asimeamountof"facts",that
is, amerecoIectionofobservationaI orexerientiaIdata, does not
constituteascience.theyhavetobeordered,interreted,exained.
" IshaIIuscthctcrm"modcmsccncc" forthcsccncc ofthcscvcntccnth and
cghtccnth ccnturcs, .c. for thc pcrod whch gocs, roughIy, from GaIIco to
Lnstcn.ThssccnccssomctmcscaIIcd"cIasscaI"sccnccncontradstncton
tothccontcmporaryonc; wIInotfoIIowthsusagcandwIIrcscrvcthcdcsgna-
ton"c\assca\sccncc"tothcsccnccof\hcc\assca\wor\d,chcytothat ofthc
Grccks.
* 5cc for nstancc W. WhcwcII, Hiatcr) c/ thc inductirc acicncca, 3 voIs.
(London: T. W. Farkcr, I 83T) ; L. Mach, Dic mcchanik in ihrcr Entwicklun,
hiatcriach-kritiach darcatcl|t (Lcpzg: F. A. Brockhaus, I 883 ; th Ld.,Lcpzg:
F. A. Brockhaus, I 33) : nLngIsh undcr thc ttIc: Thc 5cicncc c/mcchanica
(Chcago: Opcn Court, I 883; 5th Ld.,La 5aIIc: Opcn Court, I43).
&9
mtPMYb l LO PL mtPb LHtmt
Inotherwords,itisonywhensubjectedt otheoreticatreatmentthat
a knowedge offacts becomes science.
Besides, observation and exerience - in the meaning ofbrute,
common-sense observation andexerience had a very sma art
in the edication ofmodern science' , one coud evensay thatthey
constitutedthechiefobstacesthatitencounteredonitsway. !twas
not exerience, but exeriment that had nourished its growth and
decided the strugge. the emiricism ofthe modern science is not
exeriential, it isexerimental.
! certainy don't need to insist here uon the dierence between
"exerience" and"exeriment". Yet! shoud iketostressthecose
connectionbetweenthisatterandthebuidingoftheory.Farfrom
being oosed to each other, exerimentand theoryare boundto-
gether and mutuay interdetermined, anditis with the growth of
recision andrenement oftheorythatgrowtherecision and re-
hnement oIthe exeriments. !ndeed, anexeriment as Gaieo so
beautifuyhasexressedit beingaguestionutbeforenature,itis
erfecty cear that the activity which resuts in the asking ofthis
guestionisafunctionoftheeaborationoftheanguageinwhichitis
formuated. Exerimentation is a teeoogica rocess ofwhich the
goaisdeterminedby theory. The "activism" ofmodernscience, so
wenoticed scientiaactira,oeratira- andsodeeymisinterret-
edbyBacon, is onythecounterartofitstheoreticdeveoment.
Wehavetoadd,moreover- andthisdeterminesthecharacteristic
featuresofmodernscience- that,forits theoreticawork, itadots
and deveos theattern ofthinkingofthemathematician. This is
thereasonwhyits"emiricism" diers toto caelo fromthatofthe
Aristoteiantradition ."thebookofnatureiswritteningeometrica
characters"decared Gaieo , this imies that in ordertoreachits
goamodernscienceisboundto reace the system ofexibe and
semi-guaitativeconcets oftheAristoteianscience bya system of
rigidandstrictyguantitativeones.Whichmeansthatmodernscience
constitutes itsefin substitutingfortheguaitative or,moreexacty,
Asrccognzcd aIrcadybyTanncryandOuhcm, thcArstotcIansccnccsn
muchbcttcraccordancc wthcommoncxpcrcncc thanthat olGaIIco and Ocs-
cartcs. 5cc F. Tanncry, "GaIIccctIcs prncpcs dcIadynamquc", n mmcirea
5cientquea Y, pp.400 h (TouIousc: L. Frvat, 26) , F. Ouhcm, Le 5)atme
dumcnde (Fars : Hcrrman, 3), , pp. I4-5.
' t s an cmprcsm that thc ArstotcIan tradton opposcs to thc abstract
mathcmatsmolthcGaIIcandynamcs.5cconthccmprcsmolthcArstotcIans,
J, H. RandaII, Jt,, "5ccnthc mcthod n thc 5chooI olFadua", Jcurnal c/ the
Hiatcr) c/Ideaa, , pp. TT-206 (40).
9O
7H m mbLHm
forthemixedwordofcommon-sense(andAristoteianscience) an
Archimedeanwordofgeometrymaderea ,or whichis exactythe
samething insubstitutingforthewordofthemore-or-|essofour
daiyifeauniverseofmeasurementandrecision.Indeed this sub-
stitutionimiesautomaticaytheexcusionfrom orthereativa-
tionin thisuniverseofeverythingthatcannotbesubjectedtoexact
measurement. '
It is this research ofguantitative recision, ofthe discovery of
exactnumerica data, ofthese "numbers, weights, measures"uon
whichGodhasbuitthe wordthatformsthegoa, andthusdeter-
minestheverystructureofthe exeriments ofmodern science. This
rocedureisnotco-extensivetoexerimentationingenera . neither
achemy,norCardano,norGiambattistaPorta- norevenGibert-
isookingfornumericaresuts.Thisbecausetheythinkthewordas
anensembeofguaitiesmuchmorethanasanensembe ofmagni-
tudes. Quaity, indeed, is reugnant to the recision ofmeasure.
Nothingis more signihcant in this resect than thefactthat Boye
and Hooke,bothofthemexerimenters ofthehrstrank, menwho
know the vaue ofrecise measurement, make aureyguaitative
studyofthesectracoours.Nothingreveasbettertheincomarabe
greatness of Newton than his abiity to transcend the ream of
guaityandtobreakthroughintothereamofhysica,thatisguan-
titativeydetermined,reaity.Butbesidesthetheoretica(concetua)
and sychoogica dimcuties thathindertheaication oftheidea
ofmathematica rigour to the word ofercetion and action, the
actua erformance of a correct measurement encounters in the
seventeenthcenturytechnicadimcutiesofwhich,ivingaswedoina
word overcrowded with, and dominated by, recision instruments,
wehave,Iamafraid,averybadunderstanding.Evenhistorians,who
asProfessor. BernardCohenointedout onytoooenresent
uswiththedecisiveexerimentsoftheastnotastheyuereactuay
erformed then, butas theyareerformed nou in ouraboratories
'Ths appIcs, ol coursc, onIy to thc so caIIcd "cxact sccnccs" (physco-
chcmcaI) ncontradstncton to"naturaIsccncc" or"hstory" (sccnccsdcaIng
wththc"naturaI"worIdolourpcrccptonandIlc)whchdocsnot- andpcrhaps
cannot- dscard quaItyand substtutcaworId olcxactmcasurcslor thcworId
olthc "morc-or-Icss".nanycascncthcrnbotanynornzooIogy, norcvcn n
physoIogyandboIogy,ddcxactmcasurcmcntspIayanyroIc;thcrconccptsarc
stII thcnon-mathcmatcaIconccptsolthcArstotcIanIogc.
' QuaIty can bc ordcrcd, but not mcasurcd. Thc"morc orIcss"wcarcusng
nrcspcct to quaIty cnabIcusto buId a scaIc, butnotto appIycxactmcasurc-
mcnt.
9l
mtMYb Lb L mtbLHtmt
andcassrooms,donotreaizethereaconditions,andthereforethe
rea meaning, of exerimentation in the heroic eoch of modern
science. ' Anditisinordertobringacontributiontothehistoryof
the constitution oftheexerimentamethods ofscience that ! wi
try,today,totethestoryofthehrstconsciousandsustainedattemt
ofan exerimenta measurement. The measurement ofa universa
constant,theconstantofacceerationofbodiesintheirfreefa .
Everybodyknowsthehistoricaimortanceoftheawoffa,the
hrst ofthe mathematica aws ofthe new dynamics deveoed by
Gaieo,theawwhichestabished,onceandforever,that"motionis
subjectedtotheawof number".Thisawresuosesthatgravity,
though by no means an essentia roerty ofbodies (and ofwhich,
moreover, we ignore the nature), is, nevertheess, their universa
roerty (a bodies are "heavy" and there are no "ight" ones) ,
besides,foreveryoneofthemitisaninvariabeandconstantroerty.
It is ony onthese conditions thatthe Gaieanaw is vaid (in the
vacuum).
Yet,insiteofthemathematicaeeganceandhysicaausibiity
ofthcGaieanaw,itisobviousthatitisnottheonyossibeone.
Besides,wearenotinthevacuumbutintheair,andnotintheab-
stractsace, butontheearth, andeven, erhas, ona moving one.
!tisguitecearthatanexerimentaverihcationoftheaw,asweas
ofitsaicabiitytobodiesfainginoursace,inhocreroaere,is
indisensabe.Iustasthedeterminationoftheconcretevaueofthe
acceleration(ofg)isindisensabe.
!tiswelknownwithwhatextremeingenuity,beingunabetoer-
form d|rect measurements, Gaieo substitutes for the free fa the
motiononanincinedane ononehand, andthatoftheenduum
on the other. !tis onyjustice torecognize his immense merit and
geniainsight,whicharenotdiminishedbythefactthattheyarebased
ontwowrongassumtions.Butitisjusticetoototurnourattention
'5cc.Bcrnard Cohcn, "A scnsc ofhstory nsccncc", American Jcumalc/
Fh)aica, XY (0), pp. 343 h(I50).
Diaccrai e Dimcatrazicni matematiche intcmc a due nucre acienze, n Le
OerediCalilec CaIilei, Y(Frcnzc:LdzoncNazonaIc, 88), p. I0.
ThusL. B. BaIano proposcs aIawaccordng towhchtravcrscdspaccs arc
utnumeriand not utnumeriimarea, Ocscartcs and Torrcc!! dscuss thcposs-
bItyofthcspaccsbcngncubcaIand notnquadratcproportontothctmc
nthc Ncwtonan physcs acccIcraton s a functon ofattracton and thcrcforc
notconstant. Morcovcr, asNcwtonhmscIfdocs notfaItopont out, thc nvcrsc
squarc Iawofattracton sbyno mcans thc onIy possbIconc.
GaIIco'scxpcrmcntsarcbascdonthcassumptons(a)thatthcmotonofa
92
A EXFER1MET 1 MEA5UREMET
l C lHC 8m8Zlng 8nd Qlllu QCVCIly C lDC CXQCIlmCnl8 mC8nS 8l DS
dlSQCS8.
Cl uS C8In ICH DIHSC DlS modusrocedendi'.
P oC C WCCdCn mCudng CI SC8nlng, 8DCul Z CuDlS Cng, h8 8
CuDl WdC, 8nd lhICC DngCI-DIC8dlhS lhCk, W8S l8kCn, Cn lS CdgC W8S Cul
8 CD8nnC 8 llC mCIC lD8n CnC DngCI n DIC8dlD, h8Vng m8dC lhS gICCVC
VCIy SlI8ghl, SmCClh 8nd CShCd, 8nd h8Vng nCd l Wlh 8IChmCnl,
8SC 8S SmCClh 8nd CShCd 8S CSSDC, WC ICCd 8Cng l 8 h8Id, SmCClh
8nd VCIy ICund DICnZC D8. m8Vng 8CCd lhS DC8Id n 8 SCng CSlCn,
Dy lng CnC Cnd SCmC CnC CI lWC CuDlS 8DCVC lhC ClhCI, WC ICCd lhC D8,
8S W8S ]uSl S8yng, 8Cng lhC Ch8nnC, nClng, n 8 m8nnCI ICSCnly lC DC
dCSCIDCd, lhC lmC ICquICd lC m8kC lhC dCSCCnl. C ICC8lCd lhS CX-
CImCnl mCIC lh8n CnCC n CIdCI lC mC8SuIC lhC lmC Wlh 8n 8CCuI8Cy
SuCh lh8l lhC dCV8lCn DClWCCn lWC CDSCIV8lCnS nCVCI CXCCCdCd CnC
lCnlh C 8 uSC DC8l. m8Vng CICImCd lhS CCI8lCn 8nd h8Vng 8SSuICd
CuISCVCS C lS IC8Dly, WC nCW ICCd lhC D8 Cny CnC-qu8IlCI lhC
CnglD C lhC Ch8nnC , 8nd h8Vng mC8SuICd lhC lmC C lS dCSCCnl, WC
Cund l ICCSCy CnC-D8 C lhC CImCI.
.
CXl WC lICd ClhCI dSl8nCCS, CCm8Ing lhC lmC CI lhC WhCC Cnglh
Wlh lh8l CI lhC h8, CI Wlh lh8l CI lWC-lhIdS, CI ndCCd CI 8ny I8ClCn,
n SuCD CXCImCnlS ICC8lCd 8 ul hundICd lmCS WC 8W8yS Cund lh8l
lhC S8CCS lI8VCISCd WCIC lC C8Ch ClhCI 8S lhC Squ8ICS C lhC lmCS, 8nd lhS
W8S lIuC CI 8 nCn8lCnS C lhC 8nC, .C. C lhC Ch8nnC 8Cng WhCh WC
ICCd lhC D8. C 8SC CDSCIVCd lh8l lhC lmCS C dCSCCnl, CI V8ICuS n-
Cn8lCnS C lhC 8nC, DCIC lC CnC 8nClhCI ICCSCy lh8l I8lC WhCh, 8S
WC Sh8 SC 8lCI, lhC 8ulhCI h8S ICdClCd 8nd dCmCnSlI8lCd CI lhCm.*
CI lhC mC8SuICmCnl C lmC, WC CmCyCd 8 8IgC VCSSC C W8lCI
8CCd n 8n CCV8lCd CSlCn, lC lhC DCllCm C lhS VCSSC W8S SCdCICd 8
C C Sm8 d8mClCI gVng 8 lhn ]Cl C W8lCI WhCh WC CCCClCd n 8
baIIrcl|inydownonanncIncdpIancscquvaIcnttothatotabodyylidinydown
(wthout trcton) onthcscItsamcpIancand (b) thatthcpcnduIarmotonspcr-
totIy sochronous. Ths vchronsm bcng aconscqucnccoths Iaw ottaII, an
cxpcrmcntaIconhrmatonotthctormcr wouIdthcrctorcconhrmthcIattcr. Un-
tortunatcIy,nodrcctmcasurcmcnt otconsccutvcoscIIaton-pcrodsspossbIc:
|ust bccausc thcrc arc no cIocks wth whch wc couId mcasurc thcm. GaIIco,
thcrctorc- and onccannotbutadmrchscxpcrmcntaIgcnus- substtutcstor
thcdrcctmcasurcmcntthccomparsonotthcmotonottwodhcrcntpcnduIa(ot
cquaIIcngth),thcbobsotwhch, thoughhavngpcrtormcd oscIIatonsotdhcr-
cnt ampItudcs, arrvc ncvcrthcIcssat thc samc momcnt atthcrpostonotcqu-
Ibrum(thcIowcstpont otthccurvc) , thcsamccxpcrmcntmadcwthpcnduIa,
thc bobs ot whch arc consttutcd by bodcs ot dhcrcnt wcght, dcmonstratcs
cxpcrmcntaIIy that bodcs hcavy and Ight (ndvduaIIy as wcII as spcccaIIy)
taII wth thc samc spccd. 5ccDiaccrai, pp. I28 h.
' 5cc Diaccrai, pp. 2I2 . I am quotng thc transIaton ot Hcnry Crcw and
AItonsodc5aIvo,Dialcyueaccnceminytwcnewaciencea(NcwYork,MacmIIan,
II4, rcprntcd,NcwYork: OovcrFubIcatons, I 52), pp. I T8 h.
' ThcspccdotthcdcsccntsproportonaItothcsncotthcangIcotncInaton.
5cc bd., pp. 25, 2I ; pp. 8I , I 85 otthctransIaton.
93
mMYb Lb L mbLHm
8m8 g888 dutng thc tmc C c8Ch dc8Ccnt, WhcthcI CI thc WhCc cngth
C thc Ch8nnc Ct Ct 8 p8tt C t8 cngth, thc W8tcI thu8 CCcCtcd W88
Wcghcd, 8tct c8Ch dc8Ccnt, Cn 8 Vcty 8CCut8tc O88nCc, thc dctcnCc8 8nd
thc I8tC8 C thc8c Wcght8 g8Vc u8 thc dctcnCc 8nd thc I8tC8 C th0 tmc8,
8nd th8 Wth 8uCh 8CCut8Cy th8t 8thCugh thc Cpct8tCn W88 pctCImcd
m8ny, m8ny tmc8 thctc W88 nC 8pptcC8Oc d8Ctcp8nCy n thc tc8ut8.
Abronzeba roingina"smoothandoished"woodengroove !
A vesse ofwater with a sma hoe through which it runs out and
whichonecoectsinasmagassinordertoweighitaI\erwardsand
thusmeasure the times ofdescent (the Roman water-cock, that of
Ctesebius, had been aready a much better instrument) . what an
accumuationofsources oferrorandinexactitude !
Itis obvious thatthe Gaiean exeriments are cometey worth-
ess . theveryerfection oftheir resuts is arigorous roofoftheir
incorrection.'
NowonderthatGai|eowho,doubtess,isfuyawareofathat,
refrains, as far as ossibe (thus in the Discourses), from giving a
concretevauefortheacceeration,andthatwheneverhegivesit(as
intheDialogue),itiscometeyandutteryfase.SofasethatFather
Mersennehasbeenunabetohidehissurrise ."Hesuoses,"writes
hetoPeyresc,"thatabuetfasonehundredcubitsin 5[seconds] ,
wherefromitfoowsthatthebuetwilfanotmorethanfourcubits
in one second, though I amcertain that itwi| fafrom a greater
height."
!ndeed,fourcubits notevensevenfeet isessthanthehafof
thetruevaue , andabouthafthevauethatFather Mersenne wil
estabish himsef. And yet, that the gures given by Gaileo are
grossyinaccurate is byno means surrising, guite the contrary. it
woudbesurrising,andevenmiracuous,iftheywerenot.Whatis
surrising,thatisthefactthatMersenne,whoseexerimentameans
' Modcrn hstorans, accustomcd tosccthc GaIIcan cxpcrmcnts pcrformcd
forthcbcnctofstudcntsnourschooIIaboratorcs,acccptndccdths astonsh-
ngrcportas gospcItruthandcvcnprascGaIIcoforhavngthuscxpcrmcntaIIy
cstabIshcd not onIy thc cmprcaI vaIdty of thc Iaw offaII, but cvcn ths Iaw
tscIf. (5cc amongcountIcss othcrs, N. Bourbak, Jlmentademathmatique X,
prcmcrcpartc, Ivrc V, chap. -, Notc hstorquc, p. I 50 (ActuaItcs sccnt-
qucs ct ndustrcIIcs, No. I 0T4 [Fars : Hcrrman, I 4]). 5cc Appcndx, I .
.M. Marn Mcrscnnc,LettreuFe)reac ofI 5January I 635, sccTamzcydc
Larroquc, La CcrreacndancedeFe)reac, XX, I I2(Fars: A.Fcard,I 82) :scc
Harmcnie Unirerael|e, I(2),pp. 85, 5, I08, I I2, I44, I 56, 22I (Fars: I 636).
Thc Iorcntnc cubt, doubtIcss uscd by GaIIco, contans 20 nchcs, .c.
I foot,8nchcs;andthcIorcntncfootscquaItothcRomanonc,thatscquaI
to 2.5T cm.
94
L7VLH mL mLbLHLmL
werenotmuchricherthanthoseofGaieo,coudhaveobtained so
much better resuts.
Thusmodernsciencendsitsefatitsbeginningsinaratherstrange
and even aradoxica situation. it has recision for rincie, it
asserts thatthereais, initsessence, geometricaand,conseguenty,
subject of rigorous determination and measurement (rice-rersa,
mathematicians ike Barrow and Newton see in geometry itsefa
science ofmeasurement') , itdiscovers andformuates (mathemati-
cay)awsthataowittodeduce andtocacuatetheositionand
seedofabodyateachointofitstrajectoryandateachmomentof
itsmotion, anditisnotabetousethembecauseithasnowaysto
determine a moment, nor to measure a seed. Yet, withoutthese
measurestheawsofthenewdynamicsremainabstractandvoid.In
ordertogive them a rea content itisindisensabe to possess the
means ofmeasuringtime (sace iseasy tomeasure), that is organa
chronou, horologia, timekeeersasGaieohascaIedthem, in other
words . reiabecocks.
Time, ofcourse, cannot be measured directybut ony through
somethingeseinwhichwehnditembodied.Thatiseither(a)acon-
stant and uniform rocess, such for instance as the constant and
uniformmotionoftheheavenyshereortheconstantanduniform
out0ow ofwater in the water-cock ofCtesebius , or(b) a rocess
which,thoughnotuniforminitsef,canbereeated,orreeatsitsef,
automaticay, orhnay (c) a rocess which, though not reeating
" 5cc saac Barrow, Lecticnea mathematicae of I 664-6 (The mathematical
hcrka c/Iaaac Barrcw, D.B., cd. by W. WhcwcII [Cambrdgc: C.U.F., 860]),
pp. 2I6h, saac Ncwton, Fhilcachiae naturaliarinciia mathematica,re/ace
(London, 68T).
' Thc unrcIabIty ofthccIocksofthc sxtccnth and scvcntccnth ccnturcs s
wcIIknown,prccsoncIocksarcby-productsofsccnthcdcvcIopmcnt(sccWIIs
. MIham, Time and timekeeera [Ncw York: MacmIIan, I 23] , L. Ocfosscz,
LeaaarantaduXI 1!e aicleet la meauredutema [Lausannc: cd. Jcumal5uiaae
d'hcrlcyerie, I 46]), yct thcrbuIdng s usuaIIycxpIancdbythcurgc ofsoIvng
thc probIcm ofIongtudc, .c. thcprcssurc ofpractcaI nccds ofnavgaton, thc
cconomcaImportanccofwhchgrcwconsdcrabIysnccthccrcumnavgatonof
Afrcaandthcdscovcry ofAmcrca (sccfornstancc LanccIotHogbcn, 5cience
/crthecitizen(London: G. AIIcnand Unwn, I 46),pp.235h, 2nd Ld.,Tthmp.
Wthoutdcnyng thc mportancc ofpractcaI nccds or cconomc factors onthc
dcvcIopmcntofsccncc, bcIcvcthscxpIanaton,whchcombncsBaconanand
Marxstprc|udccs forraxiaaganst thecria, to bcatlcast50 pcrccntfaIsc:thc
motvcs for buIdng corrcct tmc mcasurng nstrumcnts wcrc, and stII arc,
mmancnt to thc sccnthc dcvcIopmcnt tscIf. 5cc my papcr, "Ou mondc dc
8 pcu prcs8I'unvcrsdcIaprccson", Critique, n. 28 (I46).
5cc ts dcscrptonn H. OcIs,Antike Technik (Lcpzg:Tcubncr, I 24) 3rd
Ld.
95
mMYb Lb L mbLHm
itsefas cometey identica, emoys for its cometion the same
amountoftime, resentingusthus, sotosay, an atomorunity of
duration.
It is in the enduar motion that Gaieo found such a rocess.
!ndeedaenduum,rovidedofcourseaexternaandinternaim-
ediments, such, for instance, as friction or the resistance ofair,
were eiminated, woud reroduce and reeat its osciations, in a
erfectyidenticamanner, titheendoftime. Moreover,eveninhoc
rero aere where its motion is continuousIy retarded and where no
two osciationsarestrictyidentica,theeriodoftheseoscilations
remainsconstant.
Ortoutitin Gaieo'sownwords' .
t8l C 8! Cnc mu8l CO8ctVc lh8l c8Ch pcndu!um h88 l8 CWn lmc C
VOt8lCn 8C dchnlc 8nd dclctmn8lc lh8l l 8 nCl pC88Oc lC m8Kc l mCVc
Wlh 8ny Clhct pctCd lh8n lh8l WhCh n8lutc h88 gVcn l, 8nd WhCh dc-
pcnd8 nclhct Cn lhc Wcghl C OCO, nCt Cn lhc 8mpludc C lhc C8C8lCn,
Oul Cny 8nd 8C!c!y Cn lhc cnglh C lhc pcnduum.
Thisgreatdiscovery,bytheway,hasbeenmadebyGaieonotby
gazingatthe osciations ofthegreatcandeabraofthecathedraof
Pisaandstatingtheirisochronismbycomaringthemwiththebeats
ofhisuse,asfoowingVivianiisstitodinthetextbooks,butby
extremey ingenious exeriments in which hecomares the oscia-
tions oftwo endua ofthe sameengthbutwith bobs ofdierent
matter and thus ofdierent weight (corkandead),andhrst and
foremostbyhardmathematicathinking.ThussaysSaviati.
Pnd ht8l, 88 lC lhc quc8lCn Whclhct Cnc 8nd lhc 88mc pcnduum tc8y
pctCtm8 l8 VOt8lCn8, 8tgc, mcdum 8nd 8m8, 8 n cX8Cly lhc 88mc
lmc, 1 8h8 tc!y upCn Wh8l 1 h8Vc 8tc8dy hc8td tCm Cut PC8dcmC8n.
5cc Diaccrai cDimcatrazicni matcmatichcintcmcaducnucrcacicnzc, n Lc
OcrcdiCalilcc Calilci(rcnzc:LdzoncNazonaIc,I 88),YI,p. 4I ,LngIsh
transIaton, p. I4.
ThcfamouscandcIabrumwasputntothcCathcdraIofFsathrccycarsahcr
GaIIco'sdcparturcfromthatcty;atthctmcatwhchYvanpIaccsthcdscovcry,
thc cupoIa of thc CathcdraI of Fsa was stII barc and vod. 5cc L. WohIwII,
"
[
bcr cncn GrundfchIcr aIIcrncucrcnGaIIc-Bographcn", mnchcncr mcdi-
ziniachc hcchcnachr(t ( ! 03), and Calilci undacinKam//rdic Cccmicaniachc
Lchrc, (Hamburgand Lcpzg: L. Yoss, I0) , R. GacomcII, 'GaIIco GaIIc
Govanc c u suo Oc Motu", Quadcrni di atcria c critica dclla acicnza, (Fisa:
I 4).
5cc aura, p. 2, n. 4.
5ccDiaccrai c Dimcatra:icnimatcmatirhcintcnca duc nucrc acicnzc, nLc
OcrcdiCalilccCalilci(rcnzc :LdzoncNazonaIc,! 88),Y!!,p. ! 3, LngIsh
transIaton, p. 5.
96
L7b1 mL1 1 mLbLbLmL
mC h8S CC8Iy ShCWn lh8l lhC lmC C dCSCCnl S lhC S8mC 8Cng 8 ChCIdS,
Wh8lCVCI lhC 8ICS WhCh SuDlCnd lhCm, 8S WC 8Cng 8n 8IC C [.C. lhC
WhCC d8mClCI| 8S 8Cng CnC C `, , , Z, |"CI 4'. 1l S undCISlCCd,
C CCuISC, lh8l lhCSC 8ICS 8 lCImn8lC 8l lh0 CWCSl Cnl C lhC CICC,
WhCIC l lCuChCS lhC hCIZCnl8 8nC.
1 nCW WC CCnSdCI dCSCCnl 8Cng 8ICS nSlC8d C ChCIdS lhCn, ICVdCd
lhCSC dC nCl CXCCCd V, CXCImCnl ShCWS lh8l lhCy 8IC 8 lI8VCISCd n
Cqu8 lmCS , Dul lhCSC lmCS 8IC gIC8lCI CI lhC ChCId lh8n CI lhC 8IC, 8n
CCCl WhICh IS 8 lhC mCIC ICm8Ik8DC DCC8uSC 8l DISl g8nCC CnC WCud
lhnk uSl lhC CCSlC lC DC lIuC. Ct SnCC lhC lCImn8 CnlS C lhC lWC
mClCnS 8IC lhC S8mC 8nd SnCC lhC SlI8ghl nC nCudCd DClWCCn lhCSC
lWC CnlS S lhC ShCIlCSl dSl8nCC DClWCCn lhCm, l WCud SCCm IC8SCn8DlC
lh8l lhC mClCn 8Cng lhS nC ShCud DC CXCCulCd n lhC ShCIlCSl lmC, Dul
lhS S nCl lhC C8SC, CI lhC ShCIlCSl lmC 8nd lhCICCIC lhC mCSl I8d
mClCn - S lh8l CmCyCd 8Cng lhC 8IC C WhCh lhS SlI8ghl nC S lhC
ChCId.
PS lC lhC lmCS C VDI8lICn C DCdCS SuSCndCd Dy lhIC8dS C dCICnl
CnglhS, lhCy DC8I lC C8Ch ClhCI lhC S8mC ICCIlCn 8S lhC Squ8IC ICClS C
lhC CnglhS C lhC lhIC8dS , CI CnC mghl S8y lhC CnglhS 8IC lC C8Ch ClhCI
8S lhC Squ8ICS C lhC lmCS , SC lh8l CnC WShCS lC m8kC lhC VDI8lCn-
lmC C CnC Cnduum lWCC lh8l C 8nClhCI, hC muSl m8kC lS SuSCnSCn
CuI lmCS 8S Cng. 1n lhS m8nnCI, CnC Cnduum h8S 8 SuSCnSCn nnC
lmCS 8S Cng 8S 8nClhCI, lhIS SCCCnd Cnduum W CXCCulC lhICC VDI8lCnS
dutng C8Ch CnC C lhC HISl , ICm WhCh l CCWS lh8l lhC CnglhS C lhC
SuSCndIng ChCIdS DC8I lC C8Ch ClhCI lhC [InVCISC) I8lIC C lhC Squ8ICS C
lhC numDCI C VDI8lCnS CICImCd n lhC S8mC lmC.
One cannotbut admire thedeth ofthe GaliIeanthinkingwhich
showsitsefinitsveryerror ,theosciationsoftheenduumare, of
course,notisochronous ,andthecirceisnottheineoftheguickest
descent ,but,tousethetermsoftheeighteenthcentury,the"brachi-
stochrone" curve, and the curve uon which osciations are er-
formedinthe same time, orthe "tautochrone" one, are recognized
byGaieotobethesameine.
Thctmcsoldcsccnt onaIthcchordsbcngcquaIandthcmotonaongthc
(crcuIar) arc bcng quckcr than that aIong thc chord, t was rcasonabIc tor
GaIIcto assumc that thc dcsccnt aIongthcarcwasthcquckcstpossbIcandthat
thc moton otthc pcnduIumwas, thcrctorc, sochronous. That t snotthccasc
was dscovcrcd cxpcrmcntaIly by Mcrscnnc n ! 644 (scc Ccyitata Fh)aicc-
mathematica, Fhencmena Ba0iatica (Farss : I644), proposto XY, scptmo,
p.42),andthcorctcaIIybyHuygcnswho,n! 65,dcmonstratcdthatthc"tauto-
chronc" Inco!dcsccntsthccycIodandnotthccrcIc (\hcsamcdscovcry was
madcndcpcndcntIybyLordBrounckcr,n! 662).AstorthccycIodbcngat thc
samc tmc thc curvc ot thc quckcst dcsccnt ("brachstochronc"), ths was
dcmonstratcdbyJ.BcrnouIIn l 66,andndcpcndcntIy- answcrngthcchallcngc
otBcrnouII - by Lcbnz, dc I' HptaI and Ncwton.
97
%
MVMYb1 Lb L Mb LHM
! t i s rather strange that, having discovered the isochronism ofthe
enduIum the very basis of aII modern chronometry - GaIiIeo,
though he tried toachievewith its heI a timekeeer, and even to
constructa mechanicaI enduIum-cIock' neveruseditin hisown
exeriments.!tseemsthatitwasFatherMersennewhorstgotthis
idea.
Mersenne,asamatteroffact,doesnotteIIusexressisrerbisthat
he emIoyed the enduIum as a means ofmeasuring the time of
descent ofheavy bodies inthe exeriments hereorts about inhis
Harmonie 0nirersehe. But as in the same work he gives a carefuI
descrition ofthe motion ofthe semicircuIar enduIum and insists
uonthevariousutiIizationsofthesameinmedicine(forthedeter-
minationofthevariationsinseedoftheuIsebeats),inastronomy
(for the observation oftheecIisesofthe moon andthesun), etc.,
itisracticaIIycertain,andmoreoverconhrmedbyanotherassage
oftheHarmonie 0nirersehe,notonIythathediduseaenduIumbut
eventhatthisenduIumwasthreeandahaIffeetIong.!tisindeed
'ThscIock,or,morccxactIy, tsccntraI rcguIatngmcchansm,wasconstruc-
tcd by Yvan; scc Lettera di Iincenzio Iiviani alFrincie Leooldo de' medici
intomoal|' alicazione delendolo all' oroloio, n Le Oere di Cameo Calilei
(Frcnzc:Ldzonc NazonaIc, I 0T),XX,pp.64T , scc cquaIIy L. GcrIand-F.
TraumiIIcr, Ceachichte der h)aikaliachen Exerimentierkunat (Lcpzg: W.
LngcImann,I 8),pp.I20h;L.Oclosscz,LeaaavantaduXIHeaicleetlameaure
du tema (Lausannc: cd. Joumal5uiaae d'horloerie, I 46), pp. I 3 h.
5ccHarmonie Univeraehe , pp. I 32 h(Fars: 636).
bd.,p. 36: "Quoyqu'!cnsot,ccttc mancrcd'HoroIogcpcutscrvraux
obscrvatonsdcsLcIypscsdc5oIcI,dcIaLunc,carI'onpcutcontcrIcssccondcs
mnutcs par Ics tours dc Ia chordc, tands quc I'autrc fcra Ics obscrvatons,
marqucrcombcnIyauradcsccondcs,dcIaprcmcrc8Iatroscsmcobscrvaton,
ctc.
"Lcs Mcdccns pourront scmbIabIcmcnt uscr dc ccttc mcthodc pour rccon-
notrcdccombcnIcpouxdcIcurmaIadcsscrapIusvstcoupIustardf8dvcrscs
hcurcs,ctdvcrs|ours, ctcom bcnIcs passons dcchoIcrc,ctIcsautrcsIchastcnt
ou Ic rctardcnt ; par cxcmpIc qu'! faut unc chordc dc tros pcds dc Iong pour
marqucr Iadurccdu poux d'auourd'hu par I'undc scstours, ct qu'! cn faIIc
dcux,c'cst8 drcuntourctunrctourpourIcmarqucrdcman,ouqu'! ncfaIIc
pIusqu'uncchordcIongucdc3]4dcpcdpourfarcuntourcnmcsmctcmpsquc
Ic poux bat uncfos, Icstccrtan qucIc poux batfos pIus vstc."
bd.,p. 220, CoroIIarc : "Lorsquc|'aydtqucIachordcdc3pcdsdcmy
marquc Ics sccondcs par Ics tours ou rctours,|cn'cmpcschc nuIIcmcnt quc I'on
n'accourcssc Ia chordc, s I'ontrouvcqu'cIIcsottropIonguc,ct chacun dcscs
tours durc un pcu.trop pour unc sccondc, commc 'ay qucIqucfos rcmarquc,
suvant Ics dhcrcntcs horoIogcs communcs ou fatcs cxprcz: par cxcmpIc Ic
mcsmchorIogccommun,dont 'aysouvcntmcsurcI'hcurccntcrcavc360tours
dcIachordcdc3 pcds dcmy,n'apasfatd'autrcsfossonhcurcsIonguc:car
IafaIIuscuIcmcntfarcIachordcdc3 pcdspouravor00rctoursdans I'un dcs
quarts d'hcurc dudt hOroIogc : ct `ay cxpcrmcntcsur unc monstrc 8 rouc fatc
9&
P LA1LHl ML l MLPb LHLM
of suchaenduumthat,accordingtoMersenne,theeriodisexacty
eguatoone second oftherimemobie.'
TheresutsofMersenne'sexeriences, "erformedmorethan 5O
times",areguiteconsistent ,thefaingbodytraverses3feetinhafa
second, l 2inasecond, 4& intwo, lO& inthree, and l 47inthreeand
a haf. Which isneary twice as much (&O er cent) as it shoud be
accordingtotheguresgivenby Gaieo.
Thus Mersennewrites .
ul CCnCCtnng lhC CXCtCnCCS C L8CC, CnC C8nnCl m8gnC WhCtC lhC
gtC8l dCtCnCC lh8l CnC DndS hCtC n 18tS 8nd n lhC SuttCundngS CCn-
CCtnng lhC lmCS C lhC 8S, WhCh h8VC 8lW8yS 8C8tCd lC uS lC D muCh
Sm8CI lh8n hS, CCmCS tCm. nCl lh8l 1 ShCud kC lC tCtC8Ch SuCh 8
gIC8l m8n Ct llC C8tC n 1S CXCtCnCCS, Dul WC h8VC m8dC CutS m8ny
lmCS tCm dCtCnl hCghlS, n lhC tCSCnCC C m8ny CtSCnS 8nd lhCy
8W8yS SuCCCCdCd n lhC S8mC W8y. hCtCCtC lhC CuDl WhCh L8CC h8S
uSCd h8S Cnly CnC CCl 8nd lWC lhtdS, lh8l S lWCnly nChCS C lhC tCy8
CCl WhCh WC uSC n 18tS, l S CCIl8n lh8l lhC DulCl dCSCCndS mCIC lh8n
CnC hundtCd CuDlS n J SCCCndS.
!ndeed, exains Mersenne, "the hundred cubits of Gaieo" are
eguato l 66g of"our"feet.ButMersenne'sownexeriments"re-
eated more than y times" have given guite dierent resuts ,
accordingtothem, in 5aheavybodywitraversenot lOO, but l &O
cubits or3OOfeet.
Mersennedoesnotteusthathehasactuaydroedheavybodies
from the atitude of 3OO feet. it is a concusion that he draws by
ayingthe "duicateroortion"totheexerimentadataathis
disosa. Yet as these data "demonstrate" that a heavy body fas
threefeetinhafasecond,tweveinasecond,forty-eightintwo, lO&
cxprcz pour marqucr Ics scuIcs sccondcs mnutcs, quc Ia chordc dc 2 pcds
dcm ou cnvron tasot Ics tours csgaux ausdtcs sccondcs. Cc qu n`cmpcschc
nuIIcmcntIavcrtcnyIaustcsscdcnosobscrvatons,rasonqu`Isumtdcscavor
qucIcssccondcs dontcparIc, sont csgaIcs Iadurccdcs tours dcma chordc dc
Jpcdsdcmy:dcsortcqucsqucIqu'unpcutdvscrIcourcn24partcscsyaIcs,
I vcrra ascmcnt s ma sccondc durc trop, ct dc combcn cst trop Ionguc." For
hs subscqucnt cxpcrmcnts rcportcd n Coitata Fh)aico-mathematica, Fheno-
menaBahiatica, pp. J8 h, Mcrscnnc uscd apcnduIumotthrcc tcct onIy. Hc had
notccd, ndccd,thatthcthrccandahaIttcctoncwasabttooIong,thoughthc
dhcrcncc was practcaIIy mpcrccptbIc, scc Coitata, p.4.
''OncsccondotthcprmcmobIc"sthctmcnwhchthc"prmcmobIc"
,
.c. thcskcs, orthc carth, dcscrbcs arotatonotoncsccond.
5ccHarmonie Univeraehe, , p. IJ8(Fars : I 6J6).
Asamattcrottact,thctootuscdbyGaIIcosshortcr 257cm.- thanthc
"royaI"tootuscdbyMcrscnnc J287cm. ,thcdhcrcnccotthcrrcspcctvcdata
sthcrctorccvcnmuchgrcatcrthantsassumcdbythcIattcr.
99
mtP MYb Lb P L MPb LHtMt
i nthree and l47i nthrce and a haIf' hgures that arei na erfect
accordwiththeduicateroortion- MersennefeeIsentitIed, and
evenbound,toassertthataheavybodywiIfaII l 66gfeetinony3j
seconds, andnot inve. Moreover, headds, fromGaieo'shgures,
itwoudfoIowthataheavybodywouIdfaIIonyonecubitinhafa
second, andfourcubits, thatis about6feet, inonesecond, instead
ofthetwevefeetwhichitdescendsinfact.
TheresuIts oftheMersennianexeriments thehgures obtained
byhim- ofwhichheisveryroud, andofwhichhemakesusefor
cacuIatingthetimes with which bodieswouIdfaIfromaIIossibIe
aItitudesutothemoonandthestars,andtheengthofaIIkindsof
enduumswitheriodsuto3O- constitute,undoubtedIy, aro-
gressinresecttothoseofGaieo. Yettheyimyaratherawkward
conseguence,oosednotonIytocommonsenseandthefundamen-
tateachingsofmechanics,butaIsotoMersenne'sowncaIcuIations .
nameIythatthedescentontheeriheryofthecircIeisguickerthan
that on theerendicuar.
Mersenneseemsnottohavenoticedthisconseguence(nordidany-
bodyeIse)ateastforseverayears. Inanycasehedoesnotmention
itbeforetheCogitataPh)sico-Mathematicaofl 644,where,resuming
anewthediscussionoftheawofthefaIIandoftheroertiesofthe
enduum, he states it, though in somewhat attenuated form, to-
gether with that of the non-isochronism of the great and smaI
osciIations.
Thus,havingexIainedhowstrangeitisthata three-footendu-
um (which he uses now instead of the three-and-a-haIf-foot one
which heemoyedformerIy) makes his semi-osciIIation in exacty
hafa second(that is, descends three feet), whenfree-faIingbodies
traversetwevefeetina second(thatiseguaIythreefeet inasemi-
' Asamattcroffact,Mcrscnncobtancd! ! 0andnot!08fcctononchand,and
40| onthcothcr. But Mcrscnnc docs notbcIcvc n thc possbIty ofrcachng
cxacttudcby cxpcrmcnt- consdcrngthcmcansat hsdsposaI, hcspcrfcctIy
rght - and thusassumcs that hcs cnttIcd to corrcct thc cxpcrmcntaI data n
ordcrtohtthcmtothcthcory.OnccmorchcspcrfcctIyrght,asIong,ofcoursc,
ashcrcmans(andhcdocs)onthssdcofthcmargnofthccxpcrmcntaIcrrors.
NccdIcss to say that Mcrscnnc`s proccdurc has bccn foIIowcd by sccncc cvcr
sncc. 5cc Appcndx, 2.
5cc bd., p. I40. nhscaIcuIatons, Mcrscnnc assumcs - as GaIIco - that
thcvaIucofthcacccIcratonsaunvcrsaIconstant.
ThcbaIIdcsccndsonthcquadrantofthccrcIcasquckIyas onthcradus,f
thsradusscquaIto3 fcct, orcvcn quckcrfthcradusscquaIto 3)fcct.
5cc CoitataFh)aico-mathematica, FhenomenaBahiatica, pp. 38and 3, scc
Appcndx, 3.
l OO
P 7H M MPbLHM
second), whereas according to calcuIations made aIready i n the
Harmonie 0nirersehe it shouId traverse in the time of a semi-
osciIIation l l [7 of the semi-diameter' (i. e. , 33[7 or 5 feet), hecon-
tinues,
lh8 mpc8 a Vcty gtc8l dHCuly, OO8u8c OClh [lhc8c 8Cl8j h8Vc Occn
CCnhtmcd Oy numctCu8 CO8ctV8lCn8, n8mcy lh8l 8ng OCdc8 lt8Vct8c
Cn lhc pctpcndCu8t lWcVc ccl Cny, 8nd lh8l lhc lhtcc ccl pcnduum
dc8Ccnd8 tCm C lC 1n h8 8 8cCCnd, WhCh C8nnCl CCCut Oul lhc gCOc
[C lhc pcnduumj dc8Ccnd8 tCm C lC 1 Cn lhc CtCumctcnCc n lhc 88mc
lmc 88 8 8m8t gCOc [88j Cn lhc pctpcndCu8t 1. ICW 88 lh8 Cnc
8hCud dc8Ccnd J ccl n lhc lmc n WhCh lhc gCOc CCmc8 tCm C lC I,
dC nCl 8cc 8ny 8CulCn.
OnecouIdofcourseassumethatbodiesfaIIguickerthanithasbeen
admitted.butthiswouIdbeagainstaIIobservations.Wehavethere-
fore, states Mersenne, either to accet that bodies faII on the er-
endicuIarwiththesameseedastheydescendonthecirce,orthat
theairresistsmorestrongIythemotiondownwardsthantheobIigue
one, orhnaIIy,thatbodiestraverse infreefaIImorethan l2feetin
onesecond,andmorethan4&intwo,butthat,becauseof thedimcuIty
ofascertainingexactIy, by attendingtothesoundoftheercussion
ofthebodyontheavement,therecisemomentofthisoccurrence,
aIIourobservationsconcerningthisguestionareutterIyfauIty.
ItmusthavebeenratherhardforMersennetoadmitthefaIIacious-
nessofhis, socarefuIIymade,exeriments andthemeaningIessness
oftheIongcaIcuIations andtabIesbaseduonthem.Yetitwasun-
avoidabIe. OncemorehehadtorecognizethatrecisioncouIdn'tbe
achievedinscienceandthatitsresuItswereonIyaroximateIyvaIid.
ThusitisnotsurrisingthatinhisRe]exionesPh)sico-Mathematicae
ofl 647hetriesin thesametimetoerfecthisexerimentaImethods
- thusbyhoIdingtheboboftheenduIumandthedescendingbody
(simiIarIeadensheres)inoneandthesamehandinordertoensure
thesimuItaneityofthebeginningoftheirmotions,andbyhxinghis
enduIumtoawaIIinordertoinsurethesimuItaneityoftheendof
these motionsbythemergingtogether ofthe two soundsroduced
bythe hit oftheenduIumuonthewaII andbythatofthefaIIing
" 5ccbd.,p.4.
* t s ntcrcstng to notc that n hs cxpcrmcnts, Mcrscnnc dctcrmncs thc
momcnt olarrvaI olthclaIIngbodyto thccarthnotbysght, but by hcarng;
thc samc mcthod wII bc loIIowcd by Huygcns, doubtIcssIy undcr Mcrscnnc's
nucncc.
5cc Re)exionea Fh)aico-mathematicae XY (Farss. I 5T), pp. 52 h,
l Ol
MLTAPHYSl CS AND MLAS URLMLNT
bodyuontheground, andtoexIain,at aconsiderabIeIength, the
IackofcertaintyoftheresuIts,'which,bytheway,conhrmthoseof
hisformerinvestigations .thebodyseemstofaII4&feetinabout2,
and l2in l". Yet,insists Mersenne, it is imossibIe to determine
exactIy the Iength ofthe enduIum ofwhich the eriod wouId be
reciseIyasecond,norisitossibIetoerceive,byhearing,theexact
coincidenceofthetwo sounds. AcouIeofinchesorevenfeetmore
orIessdoesnotmakeanydierence.Thus,heconcIudes,wehaveto
contentourseIveswitharoximationsandnotaskformore.
NearIyatthe sametimeatwhich F.M. Mersenneerformedhis ex-
eriments, anotherexerimentaI research ofthe Iaws offaII, Iinked
togetherwith anexerimentaI determination ofthevaIueofg, was
madein!taIybyateamof!esuitscientistsIedbythefamousauthor
of the Xlmagestum Norum, R. P. Giambattista RiccioIi, who,
strangeIyenough, waserfectIy indeendentfrom, andevenwhoIIy
ignorantof, theworkofMersenne.
RiccioIihasaratherbadreutationwiththehistoriansofscience-
areutationnotguite merited. Yetonemustconfessthatheisnot
onIya muchbetter exerimenter than F. M. Mersenne, butevena
muchmoreinteIIigentone,andthathehasaninhniteIydeeerunder-
standing ofthe vaIue and meaning ofrecision than the friend of
DescartesandPascaI.
!t was in l 64O, when he was rofessor of hiIosohy in the
Studium ofBoIogna,thatRiccioIistartedaseriesofinvestigationsof
which!shaIIgivehereabriefaccount,andIwouIdIiketostressthe
'5cc bd. XX, p. I 55: De rariia dy cultatibua ad/uneendulum et caaum
rariumertinentibua.
Thc rcport on thcsc cxpcrmcnts s ncIudcd n thc Almaeatum Norum,
Aatronomiam reterem noramque comlectena obaerrationibua aIiorum etroriia,
Noriaque Theorematibua, Froblematibua ac Tabulia romotam . . . auctore F.
Johanne Batiata Riccioli5ocietatiaJeau . . . (Bononac: I 65I). Thcworkhad to
havcthrccvoIumcs,butonIythchrstonc,ntwoparts,hasbccnpubIshcd.Ths
hrstvoIumc" s, ndccd, I 50pagcsIong(nloIo).
RccoI s, olcoursc, an ant-Copcrncan and, n hs grcat works Alma-
eatumNorum olI65I andAatronomiaRe/ormata olI665 hchcaps argumcnts
uponargumcnts n ordcr torclutcCopcrncus, whchs,ndccd, rcgrcttabIc, but
acraIIrathcrnaturaIlor aJcsut. Onthcothcrhand,hcdocsnothdchsgrcat
admratonlorCopcmcusandKcpIcrandgvcsasurprsngIycorrcctandhoncst
account olthc astronomcaI thcorcs hc s crtczng. Hc s mmcnscIy Icarncd
and hs works, cspccaIIy thc Almaeatum Norum, arc an nvaIuabIc sourcc ol
nlormaton. Thsmakcs h:s gnoranccolthc works olMcrscnncsomuchmorc
surprsng.
5ccAlmaeatumNorum,I(I ),bk.,ch.XXandXX, pp. 84and(2),bk.
!O2
7H m mbLHm
carefuythoughtoutandmethodicawayinwhichheroceedswith
his work. He does not want to take anything for granted and,
though, as a matter offact, he is hrmy convinced ofthe vaue of
Gaieo's deductions, he hrsttries to estabish, orbetter to say, to
verify,whetherthcthesisoftheisochronismofenduarosciations
is exact , then, whetherthereationassertedby Gaieobetweenthe
ength ofthe enduum and its eriod(eriodroortiona to the
sguare root ofthe ength) is conhrmed by exerience, hnay, to
determine,asrec|seyasossibe,theeriodofagivenenduumin
ordertoobtaininthiswayatime-measuringinstrumenthttobeused
fortheexerimentaresearchoftheseedoffa.
Riccioi starts by rearing a convenient enduum. a sherica
metaicbobsusendedfromachain'attachedtoametaiccyinder
turning freey in two, eguay metaic, sockets _ A hrst series ofex-
periments aims at the verication ofthe Gaiean assertion ofthe
constancyoftheeriodoftheenduumbycountingthenumberof
itsosciationsinagiventime.Thetimeismeasuredbythemeansof
a water-gass and Riccioi, reveaing a dee understanding ofthe
emiricaconditionsofexerimentationsandmeasurement,exains
thatit is thedoube rocess ofrunningoutandhingagain ofthe
water-gassthatistobetakenastheunitoftime.Theresutsofthis
rstseriesconhrmtheassertionofGaieo.

A secondseriesofexerimentsforwhichRiccioi usestwoendu-
a, ofthe same weight, but ofdierent ength ("height"), namey
ofoneandoftwofeet,conhrmsthesguarerootreationestabished
byGaieo . thenumberofosciationsin theunitoftime is, resec-
tiveIy, &5 and6O.
Mersenne woud robaby sto at this oint. Not Riccio i , he
understands guitewethatevenbyusinghis method ofturningthe
water-gassusidedownoneis stifarawayfromrearecision.for
this wehave sti to ook esewhere, that is tothe skies, tothe ony
reaIyexacthorologium existingin this word, totheorganachronou
rovided bynature,themotionsoftheheavenybodiesandsheres.
RiccioireaizesfuwethetremendousimortanceoftheGaIi-
eandiscovery.theisochronismofthependuumenabesustoachieve
arecisetimekeeer. !ndeed,thefactthatargeandsmaosciations
X,scct. Y, 2,pp. 384. prcscntcd arcportonthccxpcrmcnts olRcco!to
thc XX Conra intemational de Fhiloaohie dea 5ciencea whch mct nFars,
m I 4.
'5ccAlmaeatumNovum,(I),bk.,ch.XX,p.84.
' 5ccbd.,ch.XX, prop. Y, p. 86.
NN M l OJ
mVMYb Lb L mbLHm
areerformedinthesametImeentaistheossibiityofmaintaining
its motion as ong as we want by counteracting its norma and
sontaneous sowing down, for instance, by giving it a new ush
aer a certain amount of beats' , thus any number of atoms of
timecanbeaccumuatedandaddedtogether.
Itiscear,however,thatinordertobeabetousetheenduumas
areciseinstrumentformeasuringtime,wehavetodetermineexactl)
thevaue ofitseriod.Thisisthetasktowhich,withanunyieding
atience, Riccioiwi devote himsef. His aimisto manufacture a
enduum ofwhichtheeriod woud beexacty onesecond.Aas,
insiteofaeortshewinotbeabetoreachhisgoa.
Tobeginwithhetakesaenduumweighingaboutoneoundand
threefeetandfourinches(Roman)"high".Thecomarisonwiththe
water-gass has been satisfactory. nine hundred osciations in a
guarterofanhour. Riccioi roceeds, then, to a verihcation bythe
meansofa sundia. Forsixconsecutivehours,fromnine o'cock in
themorningtothreeo'cockintheaernoon,hecounts(heisaided
bythe R.P.FrancescoMariaGrimadi)theosciations.Theresutis
disastrous . 2l ,706 osciationsinsteadof2l ,660. Moreover, Riccioi
recognizesthatforhisaimthesundiaitsefacksthewantedrecision.
Another enduum is reared and "with the aid of nine Iesuit
=
fathers", he starts counting anew, this time 2 Ari l 642 for
twenty-four consecutive hours, from noon to noon. the resut is
&7,99&osciationswhereasthesoardaycontainsony&6,640seconds.
Riccioimakesthenathirdenduum,engtheningthesusension
chainto J feet, 42inches. And, in order to increasethe recision
evenmore,hedecidestotakeasaunitoftimenotthesoar,butthe
sidereaday.Thecountgoesonfromtheassagethroughthemeridian
ineofthetaioftheLion(l2May l 642) tiitsnextassageonthe
thirteenth.Oncemoreafaiure .&6,999osciationsinsteadof&6,400
thatthereshoudhavebeen.
Disaointedyetsti unbeaten, Riccioidecidestomakeafourth
tria,withafourthenduum, somewhatshorterthistime,ofJfeet,
ThspushngolthcpcnduIumsby nomcanscasyandmpIcsaIongtran-
ng.
' RccoI,as wc shaIIscc,snotascasIysatscd as Mcrscnnc.
A Romanloot scquaIto257cm.
5ccAlmaeatumNovum,Ioc. ct., p. 86.Thcnamcsolthcsclathcrs oughtto
bcprcscrvcdascxampIcsoIdcvotontosccncc;hcrcthcyarc(sccI(2),p.386) :
5tcphanus Ghsonus, CamIIus Rodcngus, Jacobus Mara FaIavacnus, rancs-
cus Mara GrmaIdus, Yccntus Mara GrmaIdus, rancscus Zcnus, FauIus
Casarus, rancscusAdumus, Octavus Rubcns.
IO4
t7tH mt mtbLHtmt
and 267 inches onIy.' But hecannot imose uon his nine com-
anions the dreary and wearisome task of counting the swings.
FatherZeno andFatherF.M.GrimaIdiaIoneremainfaithfuItohim
totheend.Threetimes,threenights,l 9and2&Mayand2!unel 645,
theycountthevibrationsfromtheassagethroughthemeridianIine
ofthe Sica(ofVirgo)to that ofArcturus. Thenumbersare twice
J,2l2andthethird timeJ, 2l4for J, l 92seconds.
AtthisointRiccioIiseemstohavehadenoughofit.AeraII,his
enduIum,theeriodofwhichiseguaIto59 J6 ,isaerfectlyusabIe
i nstrument. The transformation ofthe number of osciIIations into
secondsiseasy.Besides,itcanbefaciIitatedbyrecaIcuIatedtabIes.
StiII,RiccioIiisratherworriedabouthisIackofsuccess. Hetries,
therefore, to caIcuIate the "height" of enduIum which wouId
swing inexactIya second. arrivingattheresuItthatit shouIdbe J
feet,J27inches.Heconfesses,however,nothavingactuaIIymadeit.
OntheotherhandhehascertainIymanufacturedmuchshorteren-
duIums in orderto achieve a greaterrehnementin measuring time
intervaIs . one of 9 76 inches with theeriod ofJO", another, stiII
shorter, of l l 5 inches ofwhich the eriodis onIy l O''' .
"It is such a enduIum that I emIoyed," says RiccioIi, "for
measuringthe seed ofthe naturaI descent ofheavy bodies' in the
exeriments erformed in this same year l 645 at the Torre degIi
AsineIIi, in BoIogna.
IowitisobviousIyimossibIetousesoraidaenduIumsimIy
bycountingitsswings , onehastondoutsomemeansofsumming
themu.Inotherwords,onehastoconstructacIock.ActuaIIyitisa
cIock,thehrstenduIumcIock,thatRiccioIihasbuiItforhisexeri-
ments. YetitwouIdbedimcuIttoconsiderhim agreatcIockmaker,
aforerunnerofHuygensandHooke. HiscIock, indeed, hadneitber
weightnorsring,norevenhandsordiaI.Asamatteroffact,itwas
nota mechanicaI cIock, buta human onethathebuiIt.
InordertosumuthebeatsofhisenduIumRiccio|iimagineda
very simIe, and a veryeIegant device . hetrained two ofhis coIIa-

5ccbd., p. 8T.
5cc bd., p. 85. As thc moton ol thc pcnduIum s not sochronous thc
cxqustc concordancc olthc rcsuIts olRccoI`s cxpcrmcnts can bc cxpIancd
onIy lwc assumc that hc madc hs pcnduIums pcrlorm practcaIIy cquaI and
amahoscIIatons.
RccoI gvcs thcsc tabIcs nthc Almaeatum Norum, (I), bk. 2, ch. XX,
prop. 7, p. 38T.
b bd.and (2), p,384.
5ccbd., (I),p.87.
lO5
mMYb Lb L mbLHm
boratorsandfriends,"giednotonyforhysicsbutaIsoformusic,
tocountun,de,tre. . . (intheBoIognesediaIectinwhichthesewords
areshorterthaninItaIian)in a erfectIyreguaranduniformway,
asarewonttodothosewhodirecttheexecutionofmusicaieces,
insuchawaythattotheronunciationofeachgurecorresonded
anosciation oftheenduIum."Itiswiththis"cIock"thatheer-
formedhis observations andexeriments.
Therstguestionstudiedby RiccioIiconcernedthebehaviourof
"Iight" and "heavy" bodies. Do they faII with the same, or with
dierent,seeds?Averyimortant,andverycontroversiaI,guestion,
to which, as we know, ancient and modern hysics gave dierent
answers. Whereas the AristoteIians maintained that bodies faI so
muchguickerastheyareheavier,BenedettihadtaughtthataIIbodies,
ateastaIbodiesossessinganidenticanature,i.e. secihcgravity,
feIwith the same seed. As for the moderns, suchas GaiIeo and
Baiano, foIIowed by the !esuits VendeIinus and N. Cabeo, they
assertedthataIbodies,whatever their natureorweight,feIIaIways
withthesameidentica seed (intheracuum).

RiccioiwantstosettIe this robIem once andforever. Thuson4

Augustl 645heroceedstowork. Sheresofeguasizebutofdier-
ent weight, made, resectiveIy, ofcIay and ofaer, covered with
chak(thisisinordertomaketheirmotionaIongthewaI,asweIas
theirburstingwhenreachingtheavement, easierto observe), were
droedfromthesummitoftheTorredeiAsineIi,articuIarycon-
venientforthiskindofexerimentandsumcientIyhigh- Jl 2Roman
feet~ to make such dierences in seedercetibIe in theireects.
The resuts oftheexeriments,which Riccioireeatseentimes,
areindubitabIe. heavybodiesfaIguickerthanIightones. Yettheir
aggingbehind, which,deendingontheweight andthedimension
ofthebaIs,variesfroml2to4Ofeet,doesnotcontradictthetheory
deveoedbyGaieo.itistobeexainedbytheresistanceoftheair
andhasbeenforeseenbyhim.Ontheotherhandtheobservedfacts
areerfectIy incomatibe withtheteachingsofAristotIe.
RiccioiisintenseyconsciousoftheoriginaIityandofthevaIueof
' 5ccbd., (2),p. 14.
Rcco!, a hundrcdycars bchnd hs tmc, st!!bc!cvcsn"!ghtncss" as an
ndcpcndcntqua!tycorrc!atcdwth,andopposcdto,"hcavncss".
5cc bd., p. 11.
ThcTorrcdcg!Asnc!!posscsscsvcrtca!wa!!sandstandsonarathcr!argc
andat p!atlorm.
5cc bd., p. 1.
lO6
L7VLH mL mLbLHLmL
hiswork. AccordingIy heokesfun atthe "semi-emiricists" who
don't knowhowtomake a realIy concIusive exeriment and who,
forinstance,assert- ordeny~ thatbodiesfalIwiththesameseed
because theyareunabIetodeterminethe recise momentwhenthe
body strikes the avement.'
ThesecondrobIeminvestigatedbyRiccioIiisevenmoreimor-
tant. He wants to ascertain the roortion with which the falIing
bodyacceIeratesitsmotion. !sit, asitistaughtbyGaIiIeo, a "uni-
formIydiorm" (uniformIyacceIerated)motion,thatisamotionin
which the saces traversed are utnumeriimares ab unitate or, as
BaIiano wants it, a motion in which these saces are a series of
naturaInumbers?Asfortheseed,isitroortionaItotheduration
ofthefaII, orto the sacetraversed.
Aidedby R.P.GrimaIdi, RiccioIimanufacturesanumberofbaIIs
madeofchaIk,ofidenticaIdimensionsandweight,and,aerhaving
estabIishedbydirectmeasurementofthetimes oftheirfalIingfrom
dierent storeys of the Torre dei AsinelIi that they foIIow the
GalileanIaw,heroceedstotheverihcationofthisresuIt(nothing
is more characteristic than this inversion of the rocedure) by
droing these baIIs from reviousIy caIcuIated, determined, aIti-
tudes, usingto this urose aIIthechurches andtowers ofBoIogna
ofwhich the heights are aroriate, nameIy, those ofStPeter, St
Petronio, St!ames,and St Francis.
TheresuItsareconcordantinaIIdetaiIs.Indeedtheiraccordisso
erfect,thesacestraversedbythebaIIs (l5, 6O, I 35, 24feet)con-
hrmtheGaIiIeanIawinsorigorousamannerthatitisguiteobvious
thattheexerimentershavebeenconvincedofitstruthbefore start-
ing. Which, aer aII, is not surrising, asthe exeriments withthe
enduIum have aIready given toit afuIIconhrmation.
Yetevenifweadmit- aswemust~ thatthegoodfatherscorrected
somewhatthe actuaI resuIts oftheirmeasurements, we havenever-
theIess to acknowIedge that these resuIts are ofa guite surrising
" 5ccbd. and (I),p. 8T.
'5cc bd. t s ntcrcstng to notc that Rcco! uscs thc o!d scho!astc tcr-
mno!ogy and, qutc corrcct!y, dcnthcs thc "unlorm!y dhorm" (unormiter
d(gormia) moton wth thc unlorm!yaccc!cratcd (or rctardcd) onc.
Hctc!!sus,ndccd,thathcthoughtaboutthcprob!cmsnccI 62andadoptcd
thcrc!aton I , 3, , 2T, bclorchavngrcadGa!!co n I 634, havngbccna!!owcd
todosobyhssupcrors. tsntcrcstngtonotcthatbclorchavngrcadGa!!co
thcvcry !camcd Rcco! dd not dcntly thc unormiter d_ ormia moton wth
thatolthcla!!.
5cc bd.,p.38T.Thccxpcrmcntswcrc contnucdlrom I 640 to I 650.
lO7
m1MYb Lb L mbLHm1
recision.ComaredtotherougharoximationsofGaIiIeohimseIf
andeventothose ofMersenne,theyconstitutea decisiverogress.
TheyarecertainIythebestonesthatcouIdbeobtainedbydirectob-
servationandmeasurementandonecannotbutadmiretheatience,
the conscience, the energy, and the assion for truth of the R.P.
Zeno,GrimaIdi,andRiccioIi(asweIIasoftheircoIIaborators)who,
without any otherinstrument for measuringtime than the human
cIock into which they transformedthemseIves,were abIe to deter-
minethevaIueoftheacceIeration,or,moreexactIy,theIengthofthe
sace traversed by a heavy body i nthe hrst second ofits free faII
through the air, as beingeguaIto l 5(Roman)feet. AvaIuewhich
HuygensaIone,byusingthe mechanicaI cIockinventedbyhim, or
betterto say,byaIyingindirect methodswhichhismathematicaI
geniusenabIed himto discover and to use in thevery construction
ofhis cIock, wiIIbe inaositiontoimrove.
Itisveryinteresting, andvery instructive, tostudy themodiroce-
dendiofthegreatutchscientisttowhomweowe ourwatchesand
cIocks.TheiranaIysisenabIesustowitnessthetransformationofthe
stiII emiricaI or semi-emiricaI exeriences ofMersenne and Ric-
cioIi into a truIy scienticexeriment , itimarts to us, too, avery
imortant Iesson, nameIy, that in scientihcinvestigationsthe direct
aroach is by no means the best nor the easiest one, and that
emiricaIfactsaretobereachedonIybyusingatheoreticaIcircuit.
Huygens starts his workbyreeating, in l 659 (2l October), the
(Iast) exeriments of Mersenne, as described by the Iatter in his
Re]exiones of l 647 , and once more we are obIiged to stress the
aaIIingovertyoftheexerimentaImeansathisdisosaI .astring-
enduIum attachedtothewaII, its bob, aIeadenbaII, and another,
simiIar, Ieaden,gIobeare heId inthesamehand,thesimuItaneityof
the arrivaI of the twogIobes, resectiveIy, to Ihe waII and to the
groundisdeterminedbythecoincidenceofthetwosoundsroduced
bythe hits. StrangeIyenough, usingexactIythe samerocedureas
Mersenne, Huygens obtains better resuIts , according to him, the
bodyfaIIs l4feet'
On 2J October l 659 Huygens reeats the exeriment, usingthis
timeaenduIumthesemi-vibrationofwhichiseguaInottoahaIf-
" 5cc L. Huygcns, Guvrea, XY, p. 2T8 (La Hayc. M. N|hol, I32): "
O. I . Expcrtus 2I Oct. I 65. 5cmsccindo mnuto cadt pIumbum cx aIttudnc
pcdumct dmdj vcI T poIIcum crctcr. Lrgo unus sccund spatocx ! 4pcdcm
aIttudnc."

lO&
L7LH mL1 mLbLHLmL
second,buttothree-guartersofi t. DuringthistimetheIeadenshere
faIIs7feet,&inches.ItfoIIowsthatinoneseconditwouIdfaIIabout
IJ feet,7] inches.'
On I 5November I 659HuygensmakesathirdtriaI.Thistimehe
imroves somewhat his rocedure by attaching both boband the
Ieadensheretoathread(insteadofhoIdingtheminthesamehand)
bythecuttingofwhichtheyarereIeased. Moreover,heutsarch-
mentonthewaIIandthegroundtomaketheercetionofthesounds
moredistinct.TheresuItisabout&feet, 9qinches.Yet,justasMer-
sennebeforehim,HuygensisobIigedtoadmitthathisresuItisvaIid
onIyasanaroximation,becausethreeorevenfourinchesmoreor
Iess in theheight ofthe faII cannot be distinguished by themeans
emIoyedbyhim.thesoundsseemtocoincide.!tfoIIows,therefore,
thatanexact measure cannotbeobtained in thisway. But thecon-
cIusion hedraws therefrom isbynomeansthesame. Quite onthe
contrary. Whereas Mersenne renounces the very idea ofscientihc
recision, Huygens reduces the roIe ofthe exeriment to that of
verication oftheoreticaIIyarrived atresuIts. !tis enough when it
doesnotcontradictthem,asinthiscasewheretheobservedhgures
areerfectIycomatibIewiththosededucedfromtheanaIysisofthe
motion ofthecircuIarenduIum, i.e. about I5 feet, 7] inches er
second.
' 5ccHuygcns, Ourrea,XY,p.2T8.'1 O.2.Expcrtusdcnuo23Oct. I 65.
FcnduIum adhbu cu|us snguIac vbratoncs 3]2 sccund unus, undc scm-
vbrato qua usussum crat3]4."EratpcnduI Iontudocrctcr6p. I I unc. 5cd
vbratoncs non cx hac Iongtudnc scd conlcrcndo cas cum pcnduIo horo!og|
coIIgcbam. IIus taquc scmvbratonc cadcbat aIud pIumbum smuI c dgts
dcmssum,cxaIttudncT pcdum8unc.ErgocoIIgturhncunosoundocasurum
cx aIttudnc I 3 pcd. T I]2 unc,lcrc.
"Ergo n pror cxpcrmcntodcbusscntlussc non tot 3 pcd. 5 poII.
"5umam autcm unosccundo dcsccndcrc pIumbum pcdbus 3. unc. 8. Mcr-
scnnc I2 pcd, pars. uno sccundoconc scrbt. I2 pcd. Fars. conhcuntcrcitcr
2 pcd. 8 unc. Rh|nIand. Ergo Mcrscnn spatum |usto brcvus cst uno pcdc
Rh|nI."
A RhcnIandlootscquaIto 3I 3cm.
" 5ccbd., p.28I : "I O. 4. I5 Nov. I 65.FcnduIumAB scmvbratonm-
pcndcbat3]4unussound ;IumdcmBOCpIumbumBctgIandcmCrctncbat,
dcndc lorhcubus Ium ncdcbatur, undc nocssaro codcm tcmpors artcuIo
gIobuIus C ct pcnduIum movcr ncpcbant. pIumbum B n F paImscsto m-
pngcbatur,utcIarumsonumcxctarct.gIobuIusnlundumcapsacGHdccdcbat.
smuI autcm sonabant, cumCEaIttudo crat 8pcdumct ]2uncarumcrctcr.
5cdcts 3 quatuorvcunc|s augcrcturvcI dmnucrctur aIttudo CEnhIomnus
smu! sonarc vdcbantur. adco utcxacta mcnsura hoc pacto obtncr ncqucat.
Atcxmotuconco pcnduI dcbcbantcsscps 8 pcdcsct ]2uncac. undcuno
sccundodcbcbuntpcragapIumbocadcntcpcdcs 5.unc.T ]2proxmc.5umct
l O9
mVMYb Lb L mbLm
Asamatteroffact,theana|ysisofthependu|armotiongives, as
we sha||see, evenbetterresu|ts.
Ihavea|readymentionedtheparadoxica|situationofmodernscience
atthetimeofitsbirth. possession ofexactmathematica||awscom-
bined with the impossibi|ity oftheir app|ication because ofthe in-
abiIity of performing a precise measurement of the fundamenta|
magnitudeofdynamics, thatis, oftime.
Nobodyseemstohavefeltitmorestrong|ythanHuygens,anditis
certain|yforthatreason,andnotforpractica|considerationssuchas
thenecessityofgoodc|ocksfornavigation- thoughhebynomeans
neg|ectedthepractica|aspectoftheguestion'- that, attheverybe-
ginningofhis scientihccareer,heapp|ied himse|ftotheso|utionof
thisfundamenta|andpre|iminaryprob|em.theperfecting,orbetter,
thebui|ding ofaperfecttimekeeper.
Itisintheyearl 659,thesameyearinwhichhemadethemeasure-
mentsI havejustreported,thathereachedhis goa|byconstructing
an improved pendu|um c|ock , a c|ock which he used in order to
determinetheexactva|ueofthe osci||ationofthependu|umthathe
hademp|oyedinhisexperiments.
Inthehistoryofscientihcinstruments Huygens'c|ock occupies a
veryimportantposition. itisthehrstapparatusthatembodiesinits
construction the |aws ofthe new dynamics , it is the resu|t not of
empirica| tria| and error, but ofcarefuI and subt|e theoretica| in-
quod cxpcrcnta huc mcnsurac non rcpugnct, scd quatcnus potcst cam com-
probct.5p\umbumB ctglobulumL ntcrdgtossmulcontncas gsqucapcrts
smuIdmttcrcconcrs, ncquaquamhocasscqucrs,dcoquctaIcxpcrmcntonc
crcdas. MhscmpcrhacratoncmnusnvcncbaturspatumLL,adco uttotus
ntcrdumpcds dhcrcntacssct. At cum hIum sccatur nuIIus potcstcrrorcssc,
dummodo lorhccs antc scctoncm mmotac tcncantur. FcnduI AB oscIIatoncs
antc cxpIoravcram quant tcmpors csscnt opc horo!og| nostr. Lxpcrmcntum
crcbro rcpctcbam. RccoIus AImag. I . sccundo scrupuIo 5 pcdcs transrc
gravastatut cx suscxpcrmcnts. Romanos nmrum antquosaRhcnoIandcs
non dhcrrc 5ncIIusprobat."
' Mcmbcr ol a martmc naton, Huygcns was luIIyawarc olthc vaIuc and
mportancc ol a good tmckccpcr lor navgaton, as wcII as ol thc hnancaI
possbItcs olthcnvcnton ola marnccIock. tswcII known that hc trcd to
havchscIockpatcntcd nLngIand. 5cc L. Oclosscz, op.ct.,pp. I I 5 h.
Thc st pcnduIum cIock was constructcd by Huygcns n I 65T; t contans
aIrcadycurvcd|aws cnsurng thc sochronsm ol thc (hcxbIc) pcnduIum. Yct
thcsc|awswcrcnotyctmathcmatcaIIydctcrmncd,butlormcdonIyonthcbass
olcmprcal tra\ and crror proccdurc. t was on\y n I 65 that Huygcns ds-
covcrcd thcsochronsm olthccycIod andthcmcans olmakng thc bobolthc
nduIum movc aIong a cycIod.
l l
7VH m mbLHm
vestigationofthemathematicastructureofcircuarandosciatory
motions.Thustheveryhistoryofthependuum-cockgivesusagood
exampe ofthe vaue ofthe roundabout way in preference to the
directone.
Huygens, indeed,isperfectyawarethat,asareadydiscoveredby
Mersenne,smaandargeosciations ofthependuumarenotper-
formedinthesametime. !nordertoconstructaperfecttimekeeper
onehas,therefore,(a) todeterminethetruyisochronouscurve,and
(b)to hnd out the means to make the bob ofthependuum move
aongthis ine and not aong the periphery ofthe circe. Itis we
knownthatHuygenssucceededinsovingbothprobems(thoughfor
doingithehadtodeviseacompeteynewgeometricatheory),'and
to achieve a perfecty iochronous motion, the motion aong the
cycoid, moreover, thathesucceededinhttinghiscycoidapendu-
uminto cock.
Hewasnowinpositiontoproceed,withaninhniteybettereguip-
ment- amechanicacockinsteadofaIumanone- andthereforea
muchbetterchanceofreachingprecision,toexperimentsontheine
ofthoseofRiccio i . Yethenevertriedtoperformthem.Thisbecause
the construction ofthe penduum-cock putinto his hands a much
betterprocedure.
Asamatteroffact,hehadnotonydiscoveredtheisochronismof
the motion aong the cycoid, but aso somethingthat Mersenne
hadtried(butfaied)tohndoutforthecirce- thereationbetween
thetimeofdescentofabodyaongthecycoidtothatofitsfaaong
thediameterofitsgeneratingcirce. thesetimesaretoeachotheras
thesemi-circumferenceis tothediameter.
Thus, ifwecoudmake a (cycoida) penduum, swinginginpre-
cisey one second, we woud beabe to determine the exacttime in
which a heavy body woud descend aong its diameter, and there-
from thespacestraversedbeingproportionatothesguaresoftime
- to cacuate thedistance ofits fain onesecond.
The ength ofsuch a penduum - which, besides, needn't be a
cycoida one,because,asHuygenswi pointitouttoMoray,sma
' That olthccvoIutcs olgcomctrca! curvcs.
5ccL.Oclosscz, op. ct.,p. 65 ; onthccontcmporaryattcmptsolH,Hookc,
scc Lousc O.Fattcrson, "Fcndu!ums olWrcnand Hookc", Oairta, X,pp. 2TT-
322(I52).
5cc Lh.Huygcns,Devicentrua ol \ 65,Ouvrea, XY, p. 2T6(L Hayc:
M. N|hof, I 2).
5cc Chrstaan Huygcns, Lcttrc 8 H. Moray 30 dcccmbrc I66I, Ourrea
l l l
mYb Lb L mbLHm
osciations ofa common (erendicuar) enduumareerformed
inracticaythesameamountoftimeasthoseofthecycoidaone
canbeeasiycacuatedassoonaswehavesucceededindetermining
theeriodofagivencycoidaone.
But, asa matteroffact,we do notneedtobotherourseveswith
theactuafabricationofsuchaenduum.Thisbecausetheformua
devisedbyHuygens,
=(4rl)/J
or (l/)
hasageneravaueanddeterminesthevaueof as afunctionofthe
engthandtheseedofwhateverenduumwemaybeusing.Indeed,
it is a rather short and guickenduumthatHuygens has used, a
enduum ony ! 8 inches ong, and making 4,44 doube oscia-
tionserhour.Accordingy,Huygensconcudedthatthevaueof
isJ! 25 feet,i . e. 8! cm., which is thevaue thathasbeen acceted
eversince.'
Themoraofthishistoryofthedeterminationoftheacceeration
constant is thus rather curious. We have seen Gaieo, Mersenne,
Riccioiendeavouringtoconstructatimekeeerinorder to be abe
tomakeanexerimenta measure oftheseed ofthefa. Wehave
seenHuygenssucceed,wherehisredecessorshadfaied,andbyhis
very success, disense withmaking the actua measurement. This,
because his timekeeer is, so to say, a measurement initsef, the
determinationofitsexacteriodisareadyamuchmorereciseand
ccmltea, pubIccsparIa5occtchoIIandascdcssccnccs,,p.438(LaHayc:
M.N|hol,I 80) :"Jcnctrouvcpasqu`Isotncccssarcd`cgaIcrIcmouvcmcntdu
pcnduIcparIcsportonsdcIaCycIodcpourdctcrmncrccttcmcsurc,masqu`I
sumtdc Iclarcmouvorpardcsvbratonslort pcttcs, IcsqucIIcs gardcntasscz
prcsI`cgItcdcs tcmps,ctchcrchcransqucIIcIongucurIfautpourmarqucr,par
cxcmpIc,uncdcmcsccondcparIcmoycn d`unc horoIogcqu sot dcsacn tran
dcbcnaIIcr,cta|ustccavccIaCycIodc."
5ccHuygcns,Ouvrea, XVI, p. I00: "HctgctaI van dc dobbcIc sIacgcn dc
hctpcnduIum nccnuyr docntroct, gcgcvcn sjndc, quadrccrt hctscIvc,cn mct
hct quadraat dvdccrt dacrmcdc I23I20000. cndcdc quotcns sa! acnw|scn
dc Icnghdc van hct pcnduIum. tc wctcn aIs mcn dc twcc Iactstcc|hcrs dacr al
sn|t,sooshctrcstcrcndc hct gctaIdcrdu|mcndchctpcnduIummocthcbbcn;
dc 2 algcsncdcnc c|hcrs bctc|ckcncn, hctccn, dc tcndcn dccIcn vanccn du|m
dc dacr noch b| moctcn gcdacn wcrdcn, hct andcr, dc I00' dccIcn van ccn
duymvangcI|ckcn dacrb|tcdocn. RhynIandscmact.
"b| cxcmpcI Ecn horoIogc to macckcn s|ndc dcns pcnduIum 45 dobbcIc
sIagcnnccnu|rdocnsaI,hctquadractvan4464sI 2T26,wacrmcdcgcdccIt
s|ndc I23! 20000, komt 6]I8 ontrcnt. dat s 6 du|m I]I0 cn 8]I00 van ccn
dum. ndcn hct gctaI vandchcc!c du|mcn mccrsaIs I2 soo moct hct door
! 2 gcdccIt wcrdcn om tcwctcn hocvccIhcc!cvoctcndacr ns|n."
! ! 2
Ab m 1 mbLbm
rehned exeriment than athose that Mersenne and Riccioi have
everthoughtof.ThemeaningandvaueoftheHuygensiancircuit
whichhnayreveaeditsefasashortcut isthereforecear .notony
aregoodexerimentsbaseduontheory,buteventhemeanstoer-
formthemare nothingesethantheoryincarnate.
APPENDI X
I . M. Mersenne,Harmonie 0nirersehe(Paris . l 636),. l l l :
LtautCymctttcc8cXpctcnCc8qucnOu8aVOn8atc8ttc8cXaCtcmcnt
8ut Cc 8uct, ahn quc `On pu88c 8uVtc Cc qu`cc8 dOnncnt. Pyant dOnO
CbO8 unc bautcut dc Cnqpcd8 dcHOy, ct ayant at Ctcu8ct, ctpOt un
pan, nOu8 uy aVOn8 dOnnc pu8cut8 8Ottc8 d`nCmatOn8, ahn dc a88ct
tOuctunc OOuc dc pOmO, ct dc OO8OtttOndctOutauOngdu pan. Cc
quc nOu8 aVOn8 at dc pu8cut8 cndtOt8 dctcnt8 8uVant c8 dctcntc8
nCnatOn8, tand8 qu`unc auttc OOuc dc mc8mc Dgutc, ct pc8antcut
tOm Oat dc Cnq pcd8 dc baut dan8`at, ct nOu8 aVOn8 ttOuVc quc tand8
qu`cctOmOcpctpcndCuatcmcntdcCnqpcd8dcbaut,cc tOmOc 8cuc-
mcnt d`un pcd8utc pan nCnc dcqunZcdcgtcZ, aucu qu`cc dcVtOt
tOmOct8cZcpOuCc8.
butcpannClncdc VngtCnq dcgtcZcOOucttOmOcunpcd J dcm,
dcVtOt tOmOctdcuXpcd8, unpOuOc untct8 : 8utCcuy dcttcntcdcgtcZ
tOmOc dcuX pcd8 . dcVtOt tOmOct dcuZ pcd8 ct ]ZJ Cat ctOt 8X
pcd8 dan8`at, tand8qu`tOmOc dcuX pcd8 ]Z8ut!cpan, aucuqu`
nc dcVtOt 1OmOct quc Cnq pcd8. butc pannCncdc4 dcgtcZ, dcV
tOttOmOctttO8pcd8dcuXpOuCc8 ]Z.ct`cXpctcnCcttc8cXaC!cncdOnnc
quc dcuXpcd8, ncupOuCc8, Cat Ot8qu`On mct c OOuct dcuXpcd8 dX
pOuCc8 lOn dc `cXttcmtc dupan c OOuct qu 8c mcut pctpcndCuatc-
mcntCbct cptcmct, ct quand On`cOgnc dc dcuX pcd8 but pOuCc8 8ut
cpan, tOmOccdctnct .ctOt8qu`On`cOgncdcdcuXpcd8ncupOuCc8,
8tOmOcntn8tcmcntcn mc8mctcmp8, 8an8 quc `On pu88cd8tnguctcut
Otut8.
but c pan dc quatantcCnq dcgtcZ dcVtOttOmbct ttO8pcd8ct ]Z
unpcu daVantagc, ma8 nc tOmOc quc ttO8 pcd8, ct nc tOmOcta pOnt
ttO8pcd8 ]Z, 8`auttcnctOmOcCnqpcd8 J]4pat`at.
butc pandcCnquantcdcgtcZdcVtOt atc ttO8pcd8dXpOuCc8,
n`cnatqucdcuX ctncupOuCc8 : Cc qucnOu8aVOn8tcpctc pu8cut8 O8
ttc8 cXaCtcmcnt, dc pcut d`aVOt ay, ta8On qu`I tOmOc cn mc8mc
tcmp8 dc J pcd8, C`c8t dtc dc J pOuCc8 daVantagc 8utcpan nClnc dc
4J dcgtcZ: Cc qu 8cmOc Ott c8ttangc, pu8qu` dOt tOmOct dautant pu8
V8tcquccpanc8tpu8nCnc. LtncanmOn8ncVapa8pu8V8tc8utc
pan dc J dcgtcZ quc 8utCcuy dc 4. Ou auttcmatquct quc Cc8 dcuX
nCnatOn8 8Ont cgacmcnt cOgncc8 dcCccdc4J dcgtcZ, aqucc tcntc
mcucnttcc8dcuXcXttcmc8, 8aVOtcnttc`nCnatOnnhncatcdan8
agncpctpcndCuatcctCccdc `bOtZOntac.tOutcO88`On COn8dctc
I | 3
mVMYb Lb L mbLHm
Cct chct ptOdgcuX, `Onpcut dtc qu` attVc Cau8c quc c mOuVcmcnt
du OOuctc8tantttOpVOcntdan8`nCnatOndcJdcgtcZ,ncpcuttOuct
ctCOuct8utcpan,qucat 8autctpu8cut8O8 . dOnt8`cn8utautant
dctcpO8 quc dc 8aut8,pcndantc8quc8c OOuctquCbctpctpcndCuatc-
mcnt, aVanCc tOu)Out8 8On Cbcmn. ma8 Cc8 8aut8 n`attVcnt pa8 dan8
`nCnatOn dc 4, ct nc COmmcnCcnt qu`apU8 Ccc dc 4J, n8quc8 8
aqucc a Vtc88c du OOuct 8`augmcntc tOu)Out8 dc tcc 8Ottc qu` pcut
tOu]Out8tOuct8an88autct .Ottan d8qu` atttO8pcd8dXpOuCc88ut!c
pan nCnc dc Cnquantc dcgtcZ, cn at 8X ]Z dan8 `at au cu qu`l
n`cn dcVtOt atc qucCnq.
IOu8 aVOn8 au88 cXpctmcntc quc tand8 quc a OOuc at J pcd8
pOuCc8 8utc pan nCnc dc JdcgtcZ, cc at pcd8 ]Zpat !`at, COm-
Ocn qu`cc nc dcn8t atc quc Cnq pcd8. P `nC!natOn dc 4, cc at
qua87pcd8 dan8 `at,pcndantqu`ccatJpcd8Z pOuCc8 ]Z8utcpan,
ma8`cXpctcnCc tctctcc `nCnatOn dc J, ccatJ pcd8 8utc pan,
quOy quc a mc8mc CbO8c attVc Z pcd8 V pOuCc8 . Cc qu mOn8ttc a
gtandcdm Cutcdc8cXpctcnCc8 .Catc8tttc8dmCcd`appctCcVOtcquc
tOmOc c ptcmct dc8 dcuX OOuct8 dOnt `un tOmOc pctpcndCuatcmcnt,
ct`auttc8utcpannCnc.J`a)OutcncanmOn8ctc8tcdcnO8 cXpctcnCc8
8ut c8 pan nCncZ dc ct dc 3 dcgtcZ. c OOuct cOgncdc`cXttcmtc
du pan dc Z pcd8, V pOuCc8, Ou dc J pcd8, tOmOc cnmc8mc tcmp8 quc
CcuyquCbct dc Cnq pcd8 dc bautpctpcndCuatcmcnt, ct ncanmOn8
dcVtOtCbcOt4pcd8 ]J 8utc pan dc , ct4pcd8 ]Z 8utCcuydc J.
butcpandc7JdcVtOtatc4pcd8 pOuCc8,ct`cXpctcnCcncdOnnc
quc J pcd8 ]Z.
cut c8ttc quc 8c8pan8nc dOnnOcntpOntpu8d`cmpc8Cbcmcnt auX
mOOc8 quc `at, qu`8 nc tOmOctOcnt 8uVant c8 ptOpOttOn8 quc nOu8
aVOn8cXpquc. ma8c8cXpctcnCc8ncnOu8dOnncnttcnd`a88cutc,patt-
Cuctcmcnt auX nCnatOn8 qu pa88cnt 4J dcgtcZ, patCc quc c Cbcmn
quc atc OOuctCcttc nCnatOn, c8t qua8cgaCcuyqu` at8utc8
pan8dcJ, ,ctJ, ct8utCcuydc7JncatqucdcmpcddaVantagc.
F. MersenneaIIows himseIfeventodoubttheactuaerformance
by GaIieo of some of the exeriments mentioned by the great
scientist. Thus, referring to the exeriments on the incined Iane
describedby GaiIeo inhis Dialogo (not to those described in tbc
Discorsi,which!haveguoted),hewrites(Harmonie0nirerselle, l l 2,
corr. !) .
Jc dOutc quc c 8cut Lacc ayt at c8 cXpctcnCc8 dc8 Cbcutc8 8ut c
pan pu8qu` n`cn patc nucmcnt, ct quc a ptOpOttOn qu dOnnc COn-
ttcdt 8OuVcnt `cXpctcnCc. ct dc8tc quc pu8cut8 c8ptOuVcnt a mc8mc
CbO8c 8ut dc8 pan8 dhctcn8 aVcCtOutc8 c8ptcCautOn8 dOnt 8pOuttOnt
8`aV8ct,ahnqu`8VOycnt8cut8cXpctcnCc8tc8pOndtOntauXnOttc8,ct8
`OncnpOuttattct a88cZ
_
cumctcpOutatc unbcOtcmc cnaVcut dc
a Vtc88c dc Cc8 Cbcutc8 OOquc8, dOnt c8 Vttc88c8 pOuHOcnt c8ttc
mc8utcc8 pat c8 dhctcn8 chct8 du pOd8, qu tappcta dautant pu8 Ott
l l4
T L7YL mL mLbLHLmL
quc cplan8ctamOn8nClnc8ut`bOtZOn,ct qu`lapptOCbcta daVantagc
dc la lgnc pctpcndCulatc.
2.Ibid., . I3& .
ma8 quant l`cXpctcnCc dc Lallcc, On nc pcutnmagnctd`OuVcnt
la gtandc dhctcnCc qu 8c ttOuVc Cy at8 ct auX cnVtOn8, tOuCbant c
tcm8dc8 Cbcutc8, qu nOu8a tOu)Out8 paO OcauCOup mOndtc quc c 8cn:
Cc n`c8t pa8 quc)cVcullctcptcndtc un8gtandbOmmc dc pcu dc 8Oncn
8c8 cXpctcnCc8, ma8 Onlc8 a atc8 plu8cut8 O8 dc dhctcntc8 bautcut8,
cn ptc8cnCc dc plu8cut8 pct8Onnc8, ct cllc8 Ont tOu)Out8 8uCCcdc dc la
mc8mc8Ottc. L`c8tpOutquOy8laOta88cdOntLalcc8`c8t8ctVyn`aqu`un
pcd ct dcuX tct8, C`c8t dtc VngtpOulCc8 dcpcdduHOy dOnt Onu8c
at8, lc8tCcttanquc cOOulctdc8Ccndplu8 dc CcntOta88c8cn JJ.
LcCy ctant pO8c, lc8 Ccnt Ota88c8 dc Lallcc Ont Z]J dcnO8pcd8,
ma8 nO8 cXpctcnCc8 tcpctcc8 plu8 dc Cnquantc O8, )Ontc8 la ta8On
dOuOlcc, nOu8COnttagncntdcdtcquccOOulctatJ pcd8cn J,C`c8t
dtc 8 Ota88c8, Ou qua8 dcuX O8 daVantagc qu`l nc mct : dc 8Ottc
qu`ldOtatclc8Ccnt Ota88c8, Ou pcd8Z]JcnJct 8]ZJ,quOntJ,
4J, Z, ct nOn pa8 J , CatnOu8 aVOn8 ptOuVc qu`un glOOc dc plOmO
pc8ant cnVtOn unc dcmclVtc, ct quc Ccluy dc OO8 pc8antcnVtOnunc
OnCctOmOcntdc48 pcd8cnZ, dc 8 cnJ,ct dc 47 pcd8cnJct ]. Lt
lc8 47 ptcd8tcVcnncnt88ct ]JOta88c8, ct8`l8cttOuVcdumc8COntc,l
Vcnt plu8tOt dc Cc quc nOu8 dOnnOn8 ttOppcu d`c8paCc auXdt8 tcmp8,
qu`au COnttatc, Cat ayant la88c CbcOt c pOd8 dc pcd8, l c8t u8tc-
mcnt tOmOc cn J, ma8nOu8 ptcnOn8 8pOuttcglctlaptOpOttOn, ctlc8
bOmmc8 nc pcuVcnt OOsctVct la dhctcnCc du tcmp8 auqucl l tOmOc dc
, Ou dc 8 pcd8. Quant la bauIcut dc 47 pcd8, l 8`cn a!\at un
dcm-pcd,Ccqutcndlata8OndOuOlcttc8-u8tc, d`autantquccpOd8dOt
atcJ pcd8cnuncdcmc8cCOndc,8uVantCcttcV8tc88c, Zpcd8dan8unc
8cCOndcmnutc, ctCOn8cqucmmcnt,Z7pcd8cn ct ], 48 pcd8cn Z, 7J
cn Zct ], 8pcd8cn Jct 47pcd8cn Jct ], CcqutcVcnt OttOcn
nO8cXpctcnCc8, 8uVantlc8quc!!c8 ltOmOcta VZ pcd8 cn4 ct J cn J,
pcndantlcquclLallccncmctquc pcd8Ou Ota88c8,8clOnlc8qucllc8
l dOt atcunc Ota88c cnunc dcmc 8cCOndc, 4 cn ! , Cc qu Ontptc8 dc
pcd8 Z]J, au lcu dc Zquc cpOd8 dc8Ccnd cncct.
J. F. M. Mersennus, Cogitata h)sico-mathematica, Phenomena
baIIistica (Parisii . I 644). Proositio XV. Grauium cadentium
veIocitatem in ratione duIicata temorum augeri robatur cX
enduIis circuIariter motis, isormgue enduIorum muItifarius
usus exIicatur, J-44.
Lcttum c8t 8cCund hlum punCtO L ad Cadcn8 tcmpOt8 n8umctc
tantundcm n lO Ca8u, quantum n8umt n a8Ccn8u ad pctCtCum-
ctcntamm, 8tcnm hlum P Zpcdum, dOCct cXpctcnta glOOum
ttaCtum ad L, ndc ad 8patO 8cCund mnut tcCdctc, altctu8
8cCund8patO Vct8u8 a8Ccndctc.bVctP ttumpcdumuctt, bOC
l l 5
mMYb Lb L mbbm
CSl I0oCdCnlIS SuDqu0dIulum, S0lIC dImIdI] SCCundI L dCSCCudCl 8d
, 8Cqu0l lCmCIC 0d VCl b CIuCnICl , 8d SI Dlum 00I
nullum 0CI0nl mCdImCnlum, Cm ImCluS CX C8Su L In ImICSSuS
SuCI0l 0d ICmCuCndum glCDum Cndulum 0d unClum.
D
S
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C
R
L
X
mm~mmm~ m m

V
M
LlCDuS IgIluI S8lIC SCCundI CICuIICl dImIdI8m CIICumCICnlI8m L,
0Cqu0lI lCmCIC CI VCISuS L ICCuIICl , dCnCC hInC IndC VIDI8luS
l0ndCm u unClC quICSC8l, SIuC 0D 80IIS lI ICSISlCnlI8m VnICuIquC
CuISuI IouISuI 8lIquId dClI8hCnlCm, SIuC CD ISIuS ImCluS n8luI8m,
qu0C SCnSIm mInu8luI, qu0 dC IC CSlC0. Cl0 VCI gCDum ]lumDCum
VnIuS VnCI8C DlC lIICd8lI 8CnSum, nCn IIS quICSCCIC CSlqu8m CX
unClC L mCuCII CCCIl, qu3m lICCCnlICS SCX0gICS CI Ill8m SCmICIICum-
CICnlI0m ICIIl , CuIuS CSlICm0C VIDI8lICnCS 0d NSunl 8dCC InSCnSIDIlCS,
Vl IllIS nulluS 8d CDSCIu8lICnCS VlI dCDC0l, SCd 8lI]S m8ICIIDuS, qu0lCS Sunl
8D 1, VCl 8D m 0d . . . .
LCIlum CSl lCIlIO Dlum P1 DlI P SuDqu8dIulum VIDI8lICnCS Su8S
h8DIC CClCIICICS VIDI0lICnIDuS lI P, CSSCquC Dlum P 0d 1P In I8lICnC
dulIC0l0 lCmCIum quI DuS IllCIum VIDI8lICnCS CIDCIunluI, 8lquC 8dCC
lCmCI8 h0DCIC SC 8d DlCIum lCngIludInCS Vl I8dICCS 8d qu0dI8l8, qu8-
IClCI IS0C VIDI0lICnCS Sunl In C8dCm 8C lCmCI8 I8lICnC . . . .
bCXlO, Dlum lIICd8lC ClCSl 8lICuI IuS lO VIdCII lCngIuS 0d SCCundum
mInulum qu0lIDCl VIDI8lICnC nCl8ndum, Cm CnIm In lInC0 CICndul8II
P gI8
_
C C8dCnS CIlIS 0d unClum CIuCnI0l, qu8m VDI CX L VCl CI
CIICumCICnlI8C qu0dI8nlCm mCuCluI, qu8ndCquIdCm P lInC0 DICuIS-
SIm duCIl 0d CCnlIum g0uIum, l8mCn CX CDSCIV0lICnIDuS gI8uI8 C8dCn-
lI0 lICd0lC dunl8X0l IulCIu8llum 8D P 8d SCmISCCundC, ZCdCS
SCCundC CCnhCI0nl, Illud Dlum lIICd0lC mInuS CSSC dCDCIC VIdCluI ' 18mquC
lID. Z.dC C8uSIS SCnCIum, CCICll8IIC J.IC. Z7,mCnuCI0m CC lCmCIC quC
Cndulum dCSCCudIl 0D P, VCl L 0nd CI LL, CSIl0 CICndICul8II P
7 0IlIum, gI0uC CI l0num hCII2CnlI CICndICul0IC 8IlCS VndCCIm
dCSCCndCIC.
QuCd quIdCm dICull0lCm InSIgnCm CCnlInCl, Cm VlDmquC DullIS CD-
SCIV0lICnIDuS CCmICD0lum uCIIl, nCmC gI0uI0 CICndICul8II mClu
l l 6
L7YLb mL mLbLbLmL
duOdom 8OummOdO pcdc8 8patO 8cCund, gOOum ctam CtCumctcn-
tac quadtantcm,Cuu8 tadu8 ttpcda8,0LadB8cm8cCundOpctCuttctc,
quachcttamcnncqucuntn8gOOu80LadBpctCtCumctcntacquadtan-
tcmdc8CcndatcOdcmtcmpOtcquOgOOu8acqua8pctPB.quCumpcdc8J
pctpcndCuattct dc8Ccndat cO tcmpOtc quO gOOu8 L ad L pctucnt,
nuIa mh 8OutO Vdctut, n8 mau8 8patum gtau pctpcndCuattct
Cadcntc pctCurt dCatut quam ud quOd haCtcnu8 nOtauctam, quOd Cum
aOVnOququcpO88tOO8ctuat,ncCVaVcmmcnt8 antCpatOnc Vcttat
ptacudCatc,nOud88muatcnOdum,qucmau8,8pOt8c8t,8Ouat.NtVt
8lOO8ctuatOputc8tctatadOCctttpcdachumnOngcntc8c88patOqua-
dtant8hOtacVOtat,aCCOn8cqucntcthOtac8patOJ.quaptOptct8pct
ncampctpcndCuatcm gtauc48pcdc88patO Z 8cCundOtum cXaCtc pct-
Curtat, Vc atcndum c8t gauc acqua tcmpOtc aO candcm attudnc pct
CrCuquadtantcm,aCpctp8ampctpcndCuatcmCadctc,Vcatcmmag8
OO88tctc gtauOu8 pctpcndCuattct, quam OOquc pct CtCumctcntac
quadtantcm dc8CcndcntOu8, Vc grauc putc8 qu0m Z pcdc8 8cCund
8patO, aut pu8quam 48 duOOu8 8cCunddc8Ccndctc, ncOcc88cOO8ct-
uatOnc8, qud a8O gtauum ad paumcntum aut 8Oum cX audtO 8OnO
ndCatauctt,quCumtcmpu8aquOdnpctCutrcnd848pcdOu8n8umat,
quO tamcn gtauc nOn ampu8 dc8Ccndt, augcndum Vdctut 8patum
gtauOu8 pctpcndCuattct COncCtum. . . .
bcptm, gOOu8 cX LnB Cadcn8paupu8 tcmpOr8qu0m aOL,
aOL qu0m0L n8umt,adcOuth!aduOacquaa,quOtumVnum0L,aud
0 L 8ua8VOtatOnc8nCpat, quOd 0 L nCpt, JptOpcmOdumuOtctut,
dum quOd 0 L nCpt JJ duntaXat VOtatut, hOC c8t Vnam VOtatOncm
uCtctutquOd0 LCadt,0 quO8quamOctVOtatOncmnCpctct, aud
8uam quamOct a punCtO L, Ong Ctu8 am VOtatOncm uCtatctut.
QuantVct OtcuOt tcmpOtc gOOu8 cuOt, VctOgtata 8uOct8, 8ua8 V-
OtatOnc8aCat,quantqucCtu8 VOtatOnum8uatum pctOdum aO8Ouat,
O. Z. dcCau88 8OnOtumptOp. Z7 a]8hatmOnCOtum nO8ttOtum OC8
tcpctc8. . .
LuOdcCm, pcnduOtum 8tOtum VOtatOnc8 putOu8 V8Ou8 adhOct
pO88unt, Vt ttaCtatu dc hOtOOgO VnVct8a, hatmOnCOtum tum La-
COtum . Z. dcmOtOu8, aq8putOu8 OC8, tumLatnOtum ctam . Z.
dc Cau88 8OnOtum 0 ptOp. Z. ad J. dCtum c8t . . . antum addO mc
pO8tca dcptchcnd88c h ttpcdacm Ongtudncm 8umCctc, quac 8ua
quaOctVOtatOncmnutum8cCundumnOtct,CumptacdCt8OC8pcdOu8
J ]Z V8u8 uctm 8cd Cum Vnu8qu8quc dcOcat cXpctt, Cum hOtOOgO
mnutOtum 8cCundOtum cXaCt88mO, hum quO dcnCcp8 n 8u8 Vtatut
OO8ctuatOnbu8, nOnc8t quOd haC dctc putOu8 mOncam. addc qud n
mcChanC8humud8ucttpcdac,8ucpcdumJ ]Z8at8cXaCtc8cCunda
tcptac8cntct, Vt cXpctcnta COnuCtu8 atcOct8 : hnC n 8On VcOCtatc
tcpctcnda, quac 8cCundO ZJ hcXapcda8 ttOut, hOC hO V8u8 8um, quO
mcdC pO88nt cXpOtatc VatO8 8ngu8 dcOu8 acgtOtOtum, 8anOtmquc
pu8u8.
l l 7
Y
Lu880nOI unO OCI0nC0 In hI8 Im0
ToseakofGassendi'sreIationshiwith1hescienceofhistimewouId
seem, athrstsight,tobeanimossibIetask, andevenaninustice.
Gassendi,infact, isnotagreatsarant, andinthehistoryofscience,
inthestrictmeaningoftheterm,heisnotaIIottedaveryimortant
osition. HecIearIy cannot be comared with great minds such as
Descartes, Fermat,PascaI,norevenwithRobervaIorMersenne,aII
ofwhomgaveIustretohiseriod.Heinventednothing,hediscovered
nothing, and, as B. Rochet (who cannot be susected of anti-
gassendism)remarkedononeoccasion,thereisno'LawofGassendi' ,
notevenawrongone.
ThematterisevenmoreinvoIvedthanthat.For,howeverstrange
itmightseem (orindeed may be), this rabid oonentofAristotIe,
thisresoIutesuorter ofGaIiIeo, remaineda strangertothe sirit
of modern science, eseciaIIy to the sirit ofmathematization by
whichitisactuated. Hewasnota mathematician, and, because of
that,didnotaIwaysunderstandtheexactimortofGaIiIeanreason-
ings(suchasthedeductionoftheIawoffaIIingbodies).Furthermore,
his materiaIistic emiricism seemed to revent him from under-
standing the re-eminent roIe in science that is Iayed by theory,
articuIarIymathematicaItheory.Hishysics,too,beingdeIiberateIy
anti-AristoteIian, remainedust asguaIitative,andhardIyeverwent
beyondtheIeveI ofa roughtriaIto risetothatofexerimentation.
However, Ietusnotbetoo severe, andIetustrytoavoidanach-
ronism. For, ifGassendiis nota greatsarant in our estimation, he
wasforhiscontemoraries,andaverygreatoneatthat~ theeguaI
and rivaI of Descartes.'
Now, an historian shouId aIways take account ofcontemorary
oinion, evenifosterityreversesitsudgement. UndoubtedIy, con-
' ThcnucnccolOcscartcsonhscontcmporarcswas,nlact,notvcrygrcat.
"L'acadcmc parscnnc" groupcd around Mcrscnnc was man!y composcd ol
opponcnts olOcscartcs. 5cc R. LcnobIc, meraenneculanaiaaancedumcaniame
(Fars. I 4p.
I l &
LPbbLl PL b Ll L l Ml b 1 M
temoraries are sometimes deceived, but, onthe other hand, they
see many things that escae our notice. Moreover, as regards
Gassendi, his contemoraries were onIy haIf deceived. He was, in
actuaIfact,a rivaI,andeven,incertainresects,avictoriousrivaIof
Descartes , andinthesecondhaIfofthecenturyexertedaverycon-
siderabIe inuence,'even onmindsofverymuchgreaterrange,from
thescienticointofview,thanhimseIf suchasBoyIeandNewton.
ThoughhecontributedveryIittIe(saveforone ortwoexcetions
ofwhich!shaIIseakIater)totheeectivedeveIomentofmodern
science, hedidsomethingmuchmoreimortant , heintroducedthe
ontoIogy,or,morecorrectIy,thecomIementofontoIogy, ofwhich
itwas in need. !nfact,if, as! have saidreviousIy, modernscience
is a resurgence ofPIatonic ideas, this victorious resurgencehas not
been achieved by PIato aIone. !t was an aIIiance (undoubtedIy an
aIIiance against nature, but history has seen many others) ofPIato
with Democritos thatoverthrewtheemire ofAristotIe. !twasre-
ciseIy Democritean (or Eicurean) ontoIogy, that he modied by
doingaway with the chnamen and unwieIdiness, but ofwhich1ere-
tained the essentiaI feature, nameIy, atomsandvacuum. !twasthis
thatGassendibroughttobearontheseventeenthcentury,andsetin
battIearrayagainsttheStagyrite.TheexamIeofGassendishowsus
exactIy how, in the history of scientic thought, eseciaIly in its
creative and criticaI eriods such as the seventeenth century, and
such as our own, it is imossibIe to searate hiIosohic thought
fromscienticthought.Theonein0uencestheother ,toisoIatethem,
istocondemnoneseIftounderstandingnothingofhistoricaIreaIity.
!ndeed, the scientifc revoIution of the seventeenth century in-
augurated by GaIiIeo, therofound signicance ofwhich consisted
in the mathematization ofreaIity, had gone beyond its Iegitimate
urose atthe hands ofDescartes a notinfreguenthaening in
history. !t had become invoIved in what ! have formerIy caIled
"geometrizationtotheIimit",andhadtriedtoreducehysicstoure
geometry by denying every secic guaIity ecuIiar to materiaI
reaIity.AIso,asaresuItofconsideringmatterandsaceasidenticaI,

it Ied to an imossibIe kind of hysics. !t couId not exIain the

eIasticity of bodies, nor their secihc densities, nor the dynamic
' ThankstoBcrncrandhsAbrdelahilcachiede Caaaendi(Lyons: I 6T8,
I 684), tsccms to mcccrtanthatat thccIosc olthcscvcntccnth ccntury know-
IcdgcabIc pcrsons wcrc much morc lrcqucntIy supportcrs ol Gasscnd than ol
Ocscartcs.
A 1
l l9
mLMYb Lb L mLbbLmL
natureofimact.DescartescertainIydid,butat whatarice !There
isasti|Imoreseriousmatter.Physicsofthis kind, asNewtonwasto
show,whichaI owedonIyextensionandmovementintheworId,was
notevenabIetoimarttheseproertiestothebodiesinitsmuchtoo
tightIyboundUniversewithoutdeartingfromitsownrinciIes.
Now,itisreciseIyagainstthisidentihcationofmatterwithsace
inCartesian"extension"thatGassendi,assoonashebecameaware
ofit,madea stand.Tobesure, hedidnotstartthevioIentoIemic
against Cartesian hysics thathe had undertaken against its meta-
hysics andeistemoIogy. !n l 645,thatistosay, shortIy afterDes-
carteshad ubished hisPrinc/ia Philosohiae,he wrote to Andre
RivetsayingthathewasgoingtodisaointthoseeoIewhoattri-
buted that intention to him, orincited himthereto, becausehewas
notinthe habitofattackingthosewho didnotattack him.' Butin
that Ietter, aswe|| as in many others, he showed very IainIy his
oositiontotheessentiaIthesisofCartesianism,namey,hisoo-
sition to the identihcation ofhysicaI matter with geometrica ex-
tension.ForexamIe,inthesameIettertoRivet,hewrote
bctc 8 nO nccd tO mcntOn pattCuat pOnt8 , Ot, COn8dctng Ony tbc
ht8t ptnCpc8, 8 tbctcanyOncwbO CannOt 8cc bOwmanydmCutc8and
COnttadCtOn8 tbcy cnta ? bu8, tbc matcta wOtd 8 nhntc, Ot, undc-
hncd, a8 bcnCcy d8Ingu8bc8 , n t8ct 8 COmpctcy hcd, and 8 n-
d8tngu8babc tOm cXtcn8On, t may bc gtOund ntO 8ma tagmcnt8
Capabc OCbangng tbct pO8tOn IOCay n VatOu8 way8 wtbOut tbc n
tctVcntOn OVaCuum, and tbctc atc Otbct mattct8 Otbc 8amc Knd. IOt
tbat tbc autbOt dOc8 nOt 8uCCccd, Otatca8ttty tO 8uCCccd, nCtcatng an
u8On and n c8Capngbyb88ubtcd8tnCtOn8 , butdunCc8andcmpty
mnd8 aOw tbcm8cVc8 tO bc taKcn n by wOtd8, tbcn 8ctOu8 pct8On8
dcVOtcdtO ttutbCcttanydO nOt bc8tatcOn tbat8COtc, but caVngcmpty
wOtd8 a8dc, tbcy pay attcntOn n tbct tc8catCbc8 Ony tO aCtua tbng8.
Against Cartesian "Ienism" Gassendi resoIuteIy set u the exis-
tenceof"atoms" and "vacuum". Buthe didnotsto there. From
l 646onwardsheattackedtheverybasisofthetraditionaIontoIogy
that Descartes, ossibIy without being aware ofit, had inherited
from Aristote, and which Ied them both to a denia ofvacuum
identihedwith nothingness.hetraditiona ontoogy"distinguishes"
a body's substance and attributes. But, in his Xnimadrersiones in
decimum librum Diogenis Laertii a work which aImost certainIy
' 5cc R. Ocscartcs, Ouvrea, cdtcd by Adam andTanncry,V, p. I 53.
'bd.
Thc Animadveraicnea wctc not prntcd QntI I 5, though thcy had bccn
l 2O
LbbL L bL L M b m
insiredPascaI'sfamousreroach ofPre NocI - GassendihadaI-
readyguestionedwhetherornotthisdistinctionwasIegitimate. In
fact, "PIacenomorethanTimeisneitherSubstance norAccident ,
nevertheIess they are both something, and not nothing, they are
reciseIytheIaceandtimeofalIsubstancesandaIIaccidents".'
CartesianreasoningwhichresuItsinadeniaIofvacuumis, infact,
onIyeguivaIent in terms ofAristoteIian ontoIogy tosaying. emty
sace being neither substance nor accident cannotbe anything eIse
butnothingness ,andnothingness,cIearlybeingunabIetohaveattri-
butes, cannot be the subject ofmeasurement , dimensions must be
thedimensionsofsomething,thatistosay,ofasubstanceandnotof
nothingness.
In the S)ntagma, where he elaborates and develos the themes
brie0ytreatedin hisXnimadrersiones, Gassendimakes it cIearthat
we come u against dimcuIties as a resuIt ofa reconcetion with
whichthePeriateticSchooIhashlledourmind ,nameIy,thatevery
thingis eithersubstanceoraccident,andthat
a tbat 8 nOt buO8tanCc Or ACCdcnt 8 nOn-cntty (ncn-ens), nOn-pby8Ca
(ncn-res), Or nOtbng at a (nihil). Wc tbcn, 8nCc . . . buO8tanCc and
ACCdcnt apart, paCc Or8paCc, and tmc Or duratOn arccnttc8 and rca
tbng8 (res), t 8 Ccar . . . tbat tbc Onc and tbc Otbcr arc nOtbng (nihil)
Onyn tbc crpatctC 8cn8c [otbc tcrmj, Out nOtn tbc truc 8cn8c. bc8c
twO cnttc8 [tmc and 8paCcj COn8ttutc Knd8 Otbng8 d8tnCt rOm tbc
Otbcr8 , 8O aCc andmc arca8 ttcaOctO OcbuO8tanCcOrACCdcnta8
buO8tanCc and ACCdcnt Can Oc aCc ormc.
ItfoIIowsthatthegeometrizationofsaceinnowayinvoIvesthat
ofmatter.Onthecontrary,itobIigesustomakeacarefuIdistinction
betweentheIatterandthesaceinuhichitndsitseIf,andtoendow
it with its own characteristics. These characteristics are . mobiIity,
which cannot be an attribute of sace, for it is itself necessarily
motionIess , imenetrability, which cannot be deducedfromexten-
sionureandsimle(Descartesnotwithstanding,forsacequasace
oers no resistance to enetration by bodies) , and hnaIly, discon-
tinuity,whichimosesIimitstothedivisionofbodies,whereasthere
isnosuch thinginsace, foritisnecessarilycontinuous.
wrttcn bclorc I 646. Whcn thc manuscrptwastakcntoLyonsn I646, a copy
oltrcmancdat Fars.
5cc Animadveraicnea, p. 6I4olthc I 64 cdton.
' 5cc 5)ntama Fhilcachicum (Oera Omnia, Lyons : 658, , p. 84a).
Gasscnd, rathcr unkndIy, cxpIctIy says that thc rcasonng ol Ocscartcs s
worthyonIyolanArstotcIan (bd., p.2I b).
l 2l
MLMYb Lb L MLb LHtML
Gassendi`sontoogyi s doubtessneithernewnororiginaI . itis,as
areadynoted,thatofanatomistofantiguity. However, itnotonIy
enabed him on occasion to adot ideas that were to have much
successateron,asforexametheconcetofthecoruscuIarnature
ofIight,ofwhich,itmustbeconfessed,hemadenouse(Newtonwas
todothat), butevenenabIedhimtosurassGaIiIeoinformuIating
therinciIeofinertia,andPascaIininterretingbarometricheno-
mena.
!t may be said that ! am too severe in my udgement ofPierre
Gassendi'sstrictyscientihcwork. Attentionmaybe directed to his
workasanastronomer ,totheexerimentshemadeorreeated,and
theinferenceshewasabIetodrawtherefore,totheideasheutfor-
ward (such as the distinction between atoms, coruscIes and moIe-
cuIes),ideaswhichhehimseIfwasunabIetodeveo,butfromwhich
otherswereatertorot.
Thiscannotbedenied .itisaseverejudgement ,but,unfortunatey,
itistheudgementofhistory. Havingsaid this,itis undeniabIe that
Gassendi did not Iimit himseIf to writing interesting and usefu
biograhiesofthegreatastronomers , andtoteachingastronomyat
the Collge Ro)al, where, moreover, he heId an eguaI baIance be-
tween the two orthreegreat systems ofPtoIemy, Coernicus and
Tycho Brahe, between which the scientihc conscience was stiI
hesitating. Hewasatrueastronomer,aro/essional, onemightsay,
and we must doustice to the atience with which he studied the
heavens and accumuIated observations on ceIestiaI henomena
throughouthiswhoIeIife. HerearesomeexamIes,whichreresent
ony a very smaIart ofhis work. He observed the ecIises ofthe
sunatAixin l 62l , atParisin l 6JO,atAixagaininl 6J9,atParisin
l 645, atDignein l 652, atParis in l 654, andthoseofthemoonat
Digne in l 62J, atAixin l 62&, at Digne again in l 6JJ, l 6J4, l 6J6,
l 6J&, atParisin l 642, l 645, l 647,andfortheIasttimeatDignein
l 649.HeobservedtheIanets,articuarIySaturn,astarinwhichhe
was seciaIy interested on account of what he beieved to be its
sateIites , he observed the occuItation ofMars by the Moon, and
so on. He even succeeded in observing on 7 November l 6J l the
assage ofMercury across thesoIar disc,' as redicted in l 629 by
' 5ccmercuriuain 5cle viaua et Ienua inviaa Fariaiia annc J0JJ (Fars : I632),
OeraOmnia,Y,pp.4h. orthcastronomcaIworkolGasscnd,sccOcIam-
brc, Hiatcire de l'Aatrcncmie mcdeme (Fars : I 82I), , pp. 335 h, and Fcrrc
Humbcrt, L`Ouvre aatrcncmiquede Caaaendi (Fars: I 36), lrom whch quotc
thc loIIown (p. 4) : "No-onc madc obscrvatons wth so much cacrncss and
l 22
Lb b LLl L b Ll LLL Ml b M
Keer,aartfromHarriot,hewasaImosttheonIyonetodosoina
scientihcmanner.
He made exeriments,too, evenexerimentsinvovingmeasure-
ment. Thus, again foIIowingMersenne, hemeasuredtheveIocity of
roagation ofsound, which hefound to be l ,47J feetersecond.
Now, though this hgure is much too high - the correct hgure is
l ,OJ&feet- theerror isnotexcessive, whenweremember the dim-
cuItyinmakingexactmeasurementsinaeriodthathadnoaccurate
cocks, and couId not measure time roerIy. Gassendi's exeri-
mentsedhim to amrmthatIowand high itched soundswerero-
agated with the same veIocity. On the other hand, he comIeteIy
misunderstood its hysicaI nature, having assigned to it, as to aI
guaIities, a articuIar atomic structure, instead ofvibrations in the
air.Moreover,hetaughtthatsoundwasnotcarriedaIongbytheair,
and thatits roagation, Iike that ofIight, was not aected bythe
wind.
pcrscvcrancc.Nooccurrcnccnthcsky,andnothnthatcouIdbcdscIoscdthcrc
cscapcd hs notcc. Hs cyc was cvcr ata tcIcscopc to obscrvc sunspots, moun-
tans on thc moon, thc satcIItcs olJuptcr, ccIpscs, occuItatons, and transts.
Hc rcmancd at hs tmcpccc to dctcrmnc thc postons olpIancts, Iontudcs
and Iattudcs, and thccorrot tmc. As a mattcr ollact, hcdscovcrcd nothn.
Thouh a dIcntobscrvcr olJuptcr, hclaIcd tonotccts bands. HscarcluI
drawnsol5atum dd not rcvcaI tohmthc trucnaturc olthc rn. Wth rcard
to soIar rotaton or Iunar Ibraton hc dd no morc than conrm carIcr ds-
covcrcs. YctaII hsobscrvatonsvccvdcncc olamcthodcaI mnd,acarc lor
prccson, aqucstlorcIcanccthat sct hm abovc hs contcmporarcs."
Gasscnd`smcrtsaIIthcrcatcrasKcpIcr`sworksccmstohavcbccnaImost
compIctcIy ncIcctcd n rancc. t was not tII I 645 thatsmacIBouIIaud dcaIt
wthtnhsAatrcncmiaFhilclaica(Fars : I 645).nthsworkhcrcjcctcdKcpIcr's
ccIcstaI dynamcs, and adoptcd, wth rathcr unlortunatc modcatons, thc
KcpIcran doctrnc ol thc cIIptcaI orbt ol thc pIancts. As lor Gasscnd, hc
avc an account olt nhs 5)ntama Fhilcachicum (Lyons: I 658). (5cc Oera
Onmia, , pp.63.)Orrathcr, hc dcscrbcd thc mohansm olmanctc attrac-
ton and rcpuIson adoptcd by KcpIcr to cxpIan thc cIIptcty ol pIanctary
orbts, whIst ncIcctn thc mathcmatcaI structurc ol KcpIcr's astrophyscs,
thcnnovatncharactcrolwhchhcdocsnotsccmtohavcraspcd.Hcacccptcd
KcpIcr`s prcdctons wthout conccrnn hmscIlunduIy wth thc Iawson whch
thcywcrc bascd, and possbIy dd not rcaIzcthat hs obscrvatonolthctranst
olMcrcury provdcd dccsvc conrmaton ol KcpIcr's conccpt.
' 5cc "An cxpcrmcnt n mcasurcmcnt", abovc. Gasscnd, morcovcr, dd not
sccmtoascrbcanyrcatvaIuctocxactncssmmcasurcmcnt. orcxampIc,nthc
5)ntama (,p.35I a) hcrccordsthcvaIuclorthcacccIcraton olalaIInbody
obtancdby GaIIco (I 80lcctn5scconds)and by Mcrscnnc (30lcct), wthout
cxprcssna prclcrcnccloroncorthc othcr.
Hcrc, too, cxpcrmcntaIcondtonsmustbctakcn nto account , and tmust
bcnotcd,ncxoncraton olGasscnd,that BorcIIandYvancamctothcsamc
rcsuIt. BorcIIand Yvanwcrctrucaavantaandoutstandncxpcrmcntcrs,who
I 2J
mLMYb Lb L mLbLbLmL
In order t o rovide exerimentaI conrmation ofthe Iaws of
motion estabIished by GaIiIeo, and at the same time to invaIidate
thosethatMicheIVarroncIaimedtohaveroved,heconceived,and
evencarriedintoeect,amosteIegantexeriment.Weknow,accord-
ingtoGaIiIeo, that theveIocityofa falIingbodyisroortionaI to
thetimeeIased.and, accordingtoVarron,thatitisroortionaIto
thedistancetraveIIed.Now,amongtheconcIusionsdrawnbyGaIiIeo
from his dynamics, there is a articuIarIy striking one, which it is
imossibIetodrawfromthatof Varron,anditis,thatbodiesfalIing
aIongthediameterandchordsofaverticaIcircIetakethesametime
toarriveattheendointofthefaII.UndoubtedIy,itwasimossibIe
tomeasuredirectIythetimestakentotraveIthevariousdistancesthat
werecovered.But,asGassendiguiteweIIunderstood,itwasossibIe
to avoid measurements. GaIiIeo's theorem imIied, in eect, that
bodiesIeavingtheointsA, B and C atthesametimearriveatthe
same moment at the oint D (AD being a diameter, BD and CD
being chords incIined to the verticaI). Gassendi therefore made a
circIe in wood about two toises (l 2feet) in diameter, htted it with
gIasstubes,andIetIittIebaIIsfaIIinthem.TheresuItsfuIIyconhrmed
GaIiIeo'sdoctrine, and invaIidatedthatofVarron,byshowing that
itwasgreatIyatvariancewithexerimentaIfact.'
In l 64 Gassendiundertook a seriesofexeriments onthecon-
servation ofmotion.TheseresuIted inanexerimentinvoIvingthe
reIease ofa baII from the to ofthe mast ofa moving shi an
exerimentthathadbeendiscussedforcenturies,andwasgeneraIIy
advancedasanargumentagainstthemovementoftheEarth.Infact,
obtancd an aImost corrcct vaIuc ol ,0TT lcct pcr soond lor thc vcIocty ol
propagaton olsound.
5cc5)ntama, , p. 350b.
' n myJtudeaalilennea (Fars: 3), p.25 sad that Gasscnd wasthc
rsttomakcthscxpcrmcnt.Asamattcrollact,thccxpcrmcntnqucstonhad
bccn carrcd out scvcraI tmcs prcvousIy. t may havc aIrcady bccn trcd by
Thomas Oggcs, whonhs Fer/t Deacriticnc/the CeleatiallOrbeapubIshcd n
5T6as an appcndx to thcFrcncaticaticn everlaatine c/rihteccde]`ecte by
hs lathcr Lconard Oggcs, sad that laIIng bodcs, or thosc thrown n thc ar
downtothcground whchsmovng,sccmtomovcna straght Inc. nthcsamc
manncr, a shot droppcd lrom thc top olthc mast ola shp n moton laIIs thc
Icngtholthcmasttothclootolt,andappcarstomovcnastraghtInc,though
n lact t dcscrbcs acurvc.ThcFrcncaticaticn everlaatine as wcII as thcFer/t
Deacriticn havc bccn rcssucd by . Johnson and 5. Larkcy, "Thomas Oggcs,
Thc Copcmcan 5ystcm and thc dca ol thc nhnty ol Unvcrsc n I 5T6",
HuntindcnLibrar)Bulletin(I35):sccaIso.R.Johnson,Aatrcncmical Thcuht
inRenaiaaanceEnland(BaItmorc: 3T),p.I 64.nanycasc,tshouIdbcnotcd
thatThomas Oggcs ddnotsay thathchadcarrcd outthccxpcrmcnthmscIt;
l 24
LbbLL L bL LLL M b m
as was said over and over again from the time ofAristotIe and
PtoIemy,abodythrownverticaIyintotheaircouIdnotfaIbackon
tothelacewhencei thadbeenthrown,andabaIreIeasedfromthe
toofatowercoudneverfalItothefootofthattower,but"wouId
|ag behind", behaving |ike a ba| reIeased fromthe to ofa shi's
mast, falIing at the footifthe vesseIwere stationary, but "Iagging
behind"andfalIingontheoo,ifthevesseIweremoving,andeven
in thewateriftheshiweremovingtooraidIy.Tothisargument,
revived by Tycho Brahe, the Coernicans, in the erson ofKeIer,
reIied by ostuIating adierence in characterbetween thecase of
theshi andthatoftheEarth.TheEarth,itwas said,carries heavy
bodies(terrestriaI)aIongwithit,whereastheshidoesnothingofthe
kind. Furthermore, a ba|| re|eased fromthetoofa towerwi||fa||
at the base because it is attracted by the Earth through a quasi
magneticattraction, whereasthe same baII reIeasedfromthe to of
the mast ofa shi in motion wiII deviate,becauseit is not attracted
bythe shi. Bruno and, ofcourse, GaIiIeo wereaoneinhavingthe
boIdness to amrm that a balfaIIingfromtheto ofthemast ofa
hcmcntoncd tas somcthngthat stood to rcason. 5ccondIy, GaIIco, as havc
sad, postvcIy statcd to !ngoI thathchadmadcthccxpcrmcnt. Hcddnot say
whcrc orwhcn; andhccontradctcd hmscIfnthcDialcc,sowcarccnttIcdto
havcdoubts. Onthcothcrhand,cxpcrmcntscarrcd outbythcrcnchcngnccr
GaIIcatanunccrtandatc, though bclorc I 62,mustbcacccptcdashavngtakcn
pIacc,aswcIIasthoscolMornn! 634.ThccxpcrmcntsofGaIIcwcrcdcscrbcd
and dscusscd by rodcmont (romondus) n hs Ant-Ariatarchua, aive Orbia
Terrae immcbilia liberunicua(Antvcrpac: I 63I ); and Ieata aiveAnt-Ariatarchua
Iindex (Antvcrpac: I 634). AccordngtoC. dcWaard,lromwhom havc takcn
ths nformaton (scc Ccrreacndance du F. marin meraenne, ars. I 45 ,
p. T4), GaIIc's cxpcrmcntswcrccarrcdoutnthcAdratc.Hc"droppcd a mass
olIcad lrom thc taII mast olaVcnctanga!Icy. t dd not laIIat thclootol thc
mast, but was dcvatcd towards thc poop, thcrcby provdng thc dscpIcs ol
toIcmy wth an apparcnt conhrmaton olthcr doctrnc". As lor Morn (scc
CcrreaondanceduF. marin meraenne,ars : I 46,, pp. 35h), hc rccordcd
n hs Reacnaic rc Telluria qttiete . . . (Parss : I 634) that hc had carrcd out
thscxpcrmcnton thc 5cnc, and hadloundthatGaIIco`sasscrtonswcrccon-
rmcd, "thc rst tmc wth amazcmcnt, thc sccondwth admraton, thc thrd
withIaughtcr". or, as Morn sad, thccxpcrmcntprovcdnothing nlavour ol
thcCopcrncans.nlact,thcmanatthctopofthcmastwthastoncnhs hands
mpartcd to t hs own propcrmovcmcnt, and thc morc so whcn thc shp was
movngrapdIy.Thcstonc,thcrcIorc,wasrcaIIyprojcctcdlorwards,andthat was
whytddnotIagbchnd.Butlthcshpwcrcpassngundcrabrdgc,and anothcr
stonc wcrc droppcdlromthcbrdgcat thcsamc momcntasonclromthc mast,
t would bchavc qutc dcrcnt|y, and wouIdfalIonthc poop. 5o, byrcasoning
copcd ItcraIIy from Bruno (scc La Cena de la Ceneri, !, 5, Oere italiane,
Lpsac. I 830, 1, p. I TI , quotcd by mc n my Jtudeaalilennea, , pp. I 4 h),
butwhchhcobvousIyddnotundcrstand,MornwasabIctoconrmhs bcIcl
nthcgcoccntrc thcory.
I25
mLMYb Lb L mLbLHLmL
shi,whetherstationaryormoving,wouIdaIwaysfaIIat thefootof
the mast. Now, GaIiIeo in his Lettera a Francesco Ingoli (l 624)
cIaimedatwofoldsueriorityoverIngoIi,asweIIasoverAristoteIian
hysicistsingeneraI.HiscIaimwasthathehadcarriedouttheexeri-
menttheyhadnevermade ,andthathehaddonesoonIya/terhaving
foreseentheresuIt.But,inhisDialogosoraiduemassimisistemidel
mondo, andreciseIy at thatointwhere he discussestheargument
in guestion, he teIIs us that he had never tried the exeriment.
Furthermore,headdsthathehadnoneedtomakeit,becausehewas
such a goodhysicist,thatwithoutanyexerimenthecouIddeter-
minehowthebalIwouIdbehave,shouIdthenecessityarise.
ItiscIearthat GaIiIeowas right. This exerimentwas guite un-
necessary for anyone who understood the concet of motion in
modernhysics.Butwhatabouttheothers?Thosewhohavenotyet
understood, and who must be brought to an understanding? For
them,theexerimentmayIay adecisiveroIe.ItisdimcuIttosayif
itwasforhimseIforforothersthatGassendiundertook,inl 64O,the
exerimentstowhichIhavereferred.ProbabIyitwasforthe"others"
- thoseforwhomitwasnecessarytorovideanexerimentaIroof
oftherinciIeofinertia.Yet,erhasforhimseIftoo,inordertobe
assured that this rinciIe was vaIid not onIy in abstracto, in the
vacuum ofimaginary saces, butaIsoinconcreto, onourworId,in
hocreroaere, as GaIiIeosaid.
Bethatas itmay,the exeriments succeeded erfectIy. Withthe
heIoftheComted' AIaishe organized a ubIic demonstration at
MarseiIIes, whichexcitedgreatinterestatthetime. Itwasdescribed
thus' . "M. Gassendi having been aIways interested in seeking to
justifyexerimentaIIythetruth ofsecuIationsutto himbyhiIo-
sohy, andbeingatMarseiIIesintheyear l 64l, demonstratedona
gaIIey sent to sea at the command of this rince (who is more re-
nowned for Iove and knowIedge ofgood things thanfor the sIen-
dourofhisbirth),thatastonereIeasedfromthehighestointofthe
mastwhiIstthegaIIeymovedatthe greatest ossibIe seed, did not
faII anywhere eIsebut where itwouIdfaII ifthe same gaIIey were
stoedandstationary.ThestoneaIwaysfaIIstheIengthofthemast
to the foot, and on the same side, whetherthe gaIIey moves or is
5ccRecue/lde Lettreadea aieuramcrin,Dela Rcche,DeNevreetCaaaendet
auite de l'aclcie du aieur Caaaend tcuchant la queaticn L mL1 mVLbbL
mLLL bL Fars . I 650, Frclacc; scc myJtudea alilennea, pp. 2I5.
Thcdatc I 64I shouIdbcputlorwardoncycar.
I 26
Lb b LL L b L L LL M b mL
stationary. This exeriment erformedi nthe resence ofMonseig-
neurleComted' AIaisandaIargeassembIyseemedtobesomething
of aaradoxtomanywhodidnotwitnessi t; andforthisreasonM.
Gassendi in the same year wrote a treatise De motu imresso a
motore translato, which came forth as a Ietter addressed to M. du
Puy."
Now, in this "Ietter", De motu imresso a motore translato,'
GassendididnotrestricthimseIftosettingforthGaIileo'sarguments,
addingadescritionoftheexerimentsatMarseiIIes,andaIyingto
ananaIysisoftheIattertheGaIiIeanrinciIesofreIativemotionand
conservation ofveIocity. He succeeded in surassing GaIiIeo, and,
byfreeinghimseIffrombothobsessionwithcircuIarityandobsession
withgravity,gaveacorrectformuIationoftheIawofinertia.Infact,
the GaIiIean restriction of this Iaw to horizontaI movement was
ointIess. In rinciIe, aII directions are ofeguaI worth, and in
imaginary saces- emtysaces outside theworIdwheredoubtIess
there is nothing, but where something couId nevertheIess exist
"motion,inwhateverdirectionitoccurs,wiIIbesimiIartothatwhich
is horizontaI, andwiII neither acceIerate nor retard, andhence wiII
never cease". Gassendi very sensibIy deduced from this that the
same hoIdstrueonEarth thatmotionquamotionismaintainedin
directionandseed. Ifinfact, thestateofaairs isotherwise, itis
because thebodiesencounterresistance(e.g. from theair),andare
deviatedbyattractionfromtheEarth.
Imaginary saces outside the worId are obviousIy not subject to
exeriment, any more than the bodies that God may ut there.
GassendireaIizedthis ,anditredoundstohiscredit.YetitwouIdbe
rather hard to dweII onthis, and to emhasize the agrant incom-
atibiIity ofGassendi's argument with the emiricaI eistemoIogy
thatherofessedand,itmustbeadded,hadinheritedfromEicuros
togetherwithhisconcetsofatomsandvacuum.Furthermore,itwas
nothiseistemoIogy whichonIysoiIedandvitiatedhisthought
but the inteIIigent emIoyment ofatomism, that enabIed Gassendi
toanticiate Robert BoyIe in the interretation of TorriceIIi's and
PascaI'sbarometricexeriments.
These exeriments, incIudingthat at Puy-de-me ofwhich he
wasinformedbyAuzout,werereortedatIengthinanAendixto
his Xnimadcersiones. Having reeated them with Bernier on a hiII
' Fars, I 642; or Oera Omnia, Lyons: I 658, !, pp. 4T8 h.
' 5ccmyJtudeaalilennea, pp. 24-30;and Oera Omnia,I(I658),p. 45b.
l 27
mPMYb Lb PL mPbLHm
near TouIon (in l 65O), he restated and rediscussed them i n the
S)ntagma.
TheexerimentaIfactreveaIedbythe barometric exeriment is, in
itseIf, simIe enough. EssentiaIIy, it estabIished the variation in
heightofacoIumnofmercuryinaTorriceIIiantubeasafunctionof
the aItitude atwhich itwasIaced, butits correctinterretationis
anythingbutsimIe.!timIied,infact,adistinctionbetweentheaction
oftwofactorsinroducingtheeect ,and,hence,theeIaborationof
twodistinctideas,nameIy,thatofueight,andthatofelasticressure
ofthecoIumn ofair baIancingthemercury. Now, even ifthesetwo
ideaswere,attheoutset,inthemindsoftheexerimenters(TorriceIli
seaksofthecomressionofairbycomaringitwithabaIIofwooI),
theaction ofthetwofactors isfarfrombeingcIearIyanaIysed. Be-
sides, itwasnotveryeasytodoso,aswasweIIshownbythecaseof
RobervaI,whowasbamedbythefactthataguitesmaIIguantityof
air a dro, to aII intents and uroses weighing nothing- when
introduced into thevacuum ofaTorriceIIiantube causedthe IeveI
ofmercurytofaIInoticeabIy.EvenPascaI,seducedandIedintoerror
bythinkingofairasa Iigu|d(thiswasusuaIatthetime),exIained
theroductionofavacuuminthemercurytubebyconcetsdrawn
fromhydrostatics, that is to say, byreference to an eguiIibrium of
weights. !f, in theinterretation ofbarometricexeriments (exan-
sion ofabIaddercarriedtothetoofamountain, etc.)recordedin
hisTraitde l'quilibredesliqueursandthe Traitde laesanteurde
la massede /'air, thecomression of air at groundIeveIanditsrare-
/action atthe toofa mountainare cIearIy stated, it remainsnone-
theIesstrue,thatthetwotreatises(astheirverytitIesindicate) were
dehniteIyconceivedinthesiritofhydrostatics , andtheconcetuaI
anaIysis ofthe henomena studied does not rise above the IeveI
aIready reachedbyTorriceIli.
!twas atthis ointthatatomistic ontoIogyaIIowed Gassendi to
take a ste forward. The henomena ofdiIation (exansion) and
condensation (comression) of air, and the fact that the same
guantity ofair (same number of coruscIes, and hence the same
weight) couId exert extremeIy variabIeressures deending on the
state ofcomression ordiIation, becamereadiIyunderstandabIeto
him. !n this comression and the resuIting ressure, he saw the
essentiaI factor ofthe henomenonreveaIedby barometricexeri-
' 5ccAnimadreraicnea in decimumIihrum Dicenia Laertii, Lyons: !64;and
5)ntamaFhilcachicum, n Oera Omnia, , pp. I 80 n.
I 2&
LbbL L bL L M b m
ment ,andheadvancedaerodynamicanaIogies(thepressureofcom-
pressed airina bombard, orthepump ofCtesibios) in ordertoex-
pIainit. Theweightofa coIumnofair, heteIIs us,compressesthe
IowerIayers,anditisthisressurethatcausesthemercurytorisein
atube.TheactionofueightisthusputinitsproperpIace,thedirect
cause comes from theressure.
AIIthis wasbynomeansunimportant,ofcourse. StiII,compared
with the eort expended by Gassendi, the roIe he pIayed, and the
inuence he exercised, it is veryIittIe. Butthatis what ! said atthe
outset. !tisnotasasarantthathebecamein0uentiaI,andconguered
apIace inthehistory ofscientihcthought, itisasaphiIosopher,by
resuscitating Greek atomism and compIeting thereby the ontoIogy
thatwasneededbysciencein theseventeenthcentury.Hewasun-
guestionabIynotthehrsttodoit- Berigard,Bassonandothersdid
itbefore him andwecouIdsaythatatomismwassoweIIadapted
to the physics and mechanics ofthe seventeenth century, that the
directin0uenceofLucretiusandEpicuroswouIdhavesumcedfori t
tobeaccepted. Eventhosewho, Iike Descartes, reectedatoms and
vacuum, and sought to estabIish a physics ofthe continuum, were
indeed obIiged to make useofcorpuscuIarconcepts. NonetheIess it
remainstrue that no-onehadpresentedtheatomicconceptwithso
muchforce, andno-onehaddefendedtheexistence ofavacuumi n
aIIitsforms(insideasweIIasoutsidetheworId)withsomuchper-
severanceandpersistenceasGassendi.ConseguentIy,no-onecontri-
buted somuchtotheruinofcIassicaI ontoIogy basedonnotionsof
substance and attribute, ofpotentiaIity and actuaIity. !n fact, by
procIaimingthe existenceofa vacuum, thatistosay, thereaIity of
something which was "neither substance, nor attribute", Gassend
made a breach in the traditionaI system ofcategories . a breach in
whichhewashnaIIytobeenguIfed.
!n thatway therefore, hecontributed more thananyoneto a re-
duction ofphysicaI being to pure mechanism, with aII its impIica-
tions , nameIy, making the worId inhnite as a resuIt of making it
autonomous, andmakingspaceandtime inhnite, andmakingsen-
tientguaIitiessubective.ThisissomewhatparadoxicaI,forintruth,
GassendihimseIfdidnotbeIieveinoneortheother.!nnityofsace,
for him, did not invoIve innity ofthe reaI worId, seeing that the
' 5cc 5)ntama Fhilcachicum, . 20T-I2.
'5ccB. HoChoI,Lea Travauxde CaaaendiaurE/cureetaurl'atcm/ame,Fars:
I 44.
l29
MLMYbl Lb L MLb LHLM
totaI number ofatoms entering into its composition couId not be
inhnite. Thereduction oftheproperties ofatomsto "weight, num-
ber,measure",didnotpreventhimfromtryingtodeveIopaquanti-
tativephysicswithanatomicbasisbypostuIatingatomsspecicaIIy
adaptedtotheproductionofperceptibIequaIities ,- Iumnousatoms,
resonantatoms,atomsofheatandatomsofcoId,andsoon.!nthe
caseofatomsofIight,thisIedhimtoanticipate,thoughremoteIyand
forbadreasons,theNewtonianconceptofIight(corpuscuIartheory) ,
andinthecaseofsound, todenytheexistence ofsound waves.
WhatIhavesaidmaybesummarizedinfewwords.Gassenditried
toestabIishasystemofphysicsthatwasstiIIquaIitative,basingiton
the atomismofantiquity. Byrenewing, orresurrecting,theatomism
of antiquity he was enabIed to provide a phiIosophicaI basis, an
ontoIogicaIbasis,formodernscience,whichhasunitedwhathedid
notknowhowtounite,nameIytheatomism ofDemocritoswiththe
mathematicaI outIook of PIato, introduced by the GaIiIean and
CartesianrevoIution.Itwastheunionofthesetwostreamsthatpro-
ducedtheNewtonian synthesis ofmathematicaIphysics.
l JO
N1
u8Cu! OuVunI
!t is dimcuIt, if not imossibIe, to form a roer concetion of
PascaI'sersonaIityandscientihcwork. !nfact,muchofhisworkhas
beenIost ,morearticuIarIythegreatTraitdesconiques,theexceIIent
guaIitiesofwhichMersennecommendedtoHuygens,'andwhichhe
mentionedinhis Cogitata Ph)sico-Mathematica, nordowe ossess
theTraitdu ride, ofwhichonIytherefacetogetherwithsomefrag-
mentshavesurvived,andnothingremainsoftheTraitdemcanique.
As for PascaI's ersonaIity, it has been sodistorted by PascaIian
hagiograhy thatitis extremeIydimcuIttoconsiderthematterwith-
outbias. However, that is what ! am going to attemt, even atthe
risk ofbeingaccountedanti-PascaIian.
!tisobviousthat!shaIIbeabIetogivenomorethanaraid,brief
and suerhciaI survey. The extantwork ofPascaI the hysicist has
beencarefuIIycoIIectedtogether,andcomrisesnomorethansome
exeriments,incIudingthefamousoneatthePuy-de-Dme,together
withshorttreatisesdevotedtoeIaborating, ormorereciseIy,syste-
matizing, hydrostatics. On the other hand, the work ofPascaI the
mathematician,eveninthedeIetedamountwhichhassurvived, is
stiI| vast andvariedenough, because it consists mainIy ofthe study
5cc Marn Mcrscnnc, Ccitata Fh)aicc-mathematica, Fars : I 644, prclacc:
Unica rccaiticne univeraaliaaima, 4 ccrcIlariia armata, interum Acllcnium
ccmlexua eat. Lcttcr to Constantyn Huygcns, pcrc, I T March I648, Ouvrea
ccmlteade Chriatiaan Hu)ena, La Hayc: I 888, , p. 83 . 'l your Archmcdcs
comcswthyou, wc shaII Icthm scc oncolthcncsttrcatscsongcomctrythat
hc has cvcr sccn, and whch has|ust bccn compIctcd by thc young FascaI." n
hs Adreaae u l'Acadmie Fariaienne (I 654) FascaI gvcs notcc ol: "Ccniccrum
cua ccmletum, et ccnica Acllcnii et alia innumera unica )ere rccaiticne
amlectena,qucdquidemncndum aexdecimumaetatia annumaaaecutuaexccitavi,
et deinde in crdinemccneaai."
Ths Trait du vide, notcc ol whch s gvcn n thc Exriencea ncuvel|ea
tcuchantle vide(I64T),sccms to havc bccn compIctcd n I65I . n hsIcttcr to M.
dcRbcyrcdatcd I 2JuIy I 65I FascaI says that hc scompIctnga trcatsc whc
wII cxpIan "thctruccauscolaIIthcchotsthatarcattrbutcdtothchorrorola
vacuum".
FascaI`s sccntc works arc rcadIy acccssbIc n thc Ouvrea ccmltea de
Faacal,Fars:BbIothcqucdc Ia FIcadc, I542ndEdton.
I Jl
mLMYb Lb L mLbLHLmL
andsoIutionofsecihcrobIems.AdetaiIedanaIysisofi t wouIdbe
timeconsumingandratherdimcuIt,atIeastatresent.ItwouIdcer-
tainIyhave beenmuch Iessso for PascaI's contemoraries, because
they, Iike PascaI himseIf, had theadvantageofus in understanding
geometryinawaythatwenoIongerdo.Ontheotherhand,weknow
manyotherthingsthatareerhasmoreimortant,morefruitfuIand
moreowerIuI,suchasaIgebraandtheinhnitesimaIcaIcuIus,which
theywerethen onIybeginningto eIaborate. On this score, we are
sueriortotheminbeingabIetosoIveeasiIyrobIemswhichinvoIved
theminmuchworkandtroubIe.AIas !thissueriorityisofnoavaiI
indeed guitethecontrary when it becomes a matter ofrecording
history and understandingtheir thought. We are notabIe, as they
were, to reason "in the manner ofthe ancient hiIosohers", i . e.
the Greeks , nor "in the manner ofthe modern hiIosohers", i. e.
grossomodointhemannerofCavaIieriorFermat.Wedonotunder-
stand, for examIe, why in l 65& PascaI considered it necessary to
rove "inthemanneroftheancienthiIosohers" theeguivaIence
ofthe araboIa and the siraI. This roosition was attributed by
PascaIto RobervaI, aIthoughithadaIreadybeenworkedoutsome
timereviousIyby CavaIieri, admittedIyin a ratherIaboriousway,
ithadbeenworkedoutaIsobyTorriceIIi ina most eIegantmanner .
neitherofthemismentionedbyPascaI.PerhasheuroseIywanted
~ sitreniarerbo to outdo TorriceIIi (the btenoireofRobervaI,
whowasbothteacherandfriendofPascaI),andtoroveonceagain
theIegitimacyofthemethodsofthegeometryofindivisibIes,'which
heusedinanotherconnection.
Indeed,forPascaI,asweIIasforCavaIieriandTorriceIIi,theonIy
trueandgreatgeometrywasthatoftheGreeks.ThisisnoIongerthe
caseasfar as we areconcerned. So, whenweundertakea study of
the geometers ofthe seventeenth century, PascaI amongst others,
what do we do? We transIate PascaIian arguments into our own
Ianguage , we write some aIgebraicformuIae together with one or
twointegraIs, andthengaintheimressionthatwe understand.In
'Thccxprcsson "gcomctry olndvsbIcs" s ambguous. ThcttIc olBona-
vcntura CavaIcr`s work s n lact Cecmetria indiriaibilibua ccntinucrum ncra
raticne rcmcta, Bononac: I635, whch mcans: The ecmetr) c/ ccntinucua
manitudea treatedb)meanac/indiriaiblea, andnot: Theecmetr)c/indiriaiblea.
Asthc cxprcssons uscd byFascaI havc donc thc samc. 5cc myartcIc"Bona-
vcntura CavaIcr ct Iagomctrc dcs contnus" n Jventaildel'hiatcire rirante,
HommagcLuccnFcbvrc, Fars : I53,, pp. 3I h.
* FascaI Icnds hmscIlpartcuIarIy wcII to ths knd ol trcatmcnt, as has bccn
rcmarkcd byNcoIasBourbak, who to hs mathcmatcaI accompIshmcnts adds
I32
bLL bN
fact,i t i s notso ,forbytransatingPascaIintoformuIaewedistortand
even comIeteIy misreresent his thought, which is characterized
essentiaIIy bythere]ection offormuIae, a reectionwhichcosthim
dear, in that PascaI himseffaiIed to make two great discoveries,
nameIythebinomiaItheorem(subseguentIystatedbyNewton),and
thedierentiaIcaIcuIus(subseguentIydeveoedbyLeibniz) ,though
boththesediscoveries doubtIessowed somethingtohim.
How are we to exain this reection of formuae? In the ast
anaysisitundoubtedIydeendsontheverystructureofthePascaIian
genius. Historians ofmathcmatics teI us, in eect, that there are,
roughIy seaking, two tyes ofmathematicaI mind. the geometers
and the aIgebraists. Onthe one hand we have those who have the
giofseeingintosace"bygreatIystretchingtheirimagination",as
Leibnizhas said, and who are abIetotracethereina muItitude of
Iines,anderceivetheirreIevanceandreIationshiwithoutconfusion',
onthe other hand we have those, such as Descartes, who hnd this
eort ofimagination, in fact any eort ofimagination, tiring, and
who refer the diahanousurity of aIgebraic formuIae. For the
former,everyrobIemistobesoIvedbya[geometricaI]construction,
fortheIatter,byasystemofeguations.DesarguesandPascaIbeIong
tothehrsttye,DescartesandLeibniztothesecond.Fortheformer,
a conic section is anevent in sace, whiIst an eguation isnomore
thananabstract,remotereresentation,fortheIatter,theessenceofa
curveisreciseIyitseguation,whiIstitssatiaIformisonIyaroec-
tion~ somethingwhichisguitesecondaryandattimesevenuseess.
LconBrunschvicghaswrittensomemasterlyagesonthecontrast
betweenDescartes the aIgebraist and PascaI thegeometer. He con-
trasts Descartes, the man ofLa mthode, the method ofuniversa
vaIidity, which shouId beaIicabIeeverywhere and to everything,
with PascaI, the man ofmethods, articuIar and seciaI methods,
ecuIiar to each articuIar, concrete examIe. These writings of
BrunschvicgareuniversaIIyknown,so!shaIInotdweIIonthem.
a vcry dccp knowIcdgc ol thc hstory ol ths sccncc. 5cc NcoIas Bourbak,
Jhmenta de mathmatiquea (Fars: 4), X, p. I48, notc XX 'Thanks to thc
prcstgcdcrvcd lrommatchIcss Ianguagc, FascaI has succccdcd n crcatng thc
IIusonolpcrlcct cIarty."
` nhsIcttcrtoConstantynHuygcns(sccp. I 3 ! , n. ! abovc),whcn spcakng
olthcsoIutonobtancdby FascaIto thcprobIcm'olthcIocusolFappos ad3,
4lineaawhchthcy say hcrchasnot bccncompIctcIysoIvcdbyM. dcs Cartcs",
Mcrscnncsaysthat'twasncccssarytouscrcd,grccnandbIackIncsn ordcrto
dstngushthcmuIttudcoldctaIsundcrconsdcraton".
' 5cc LconBrunschvcg, Blaiae Faacal, Fars . I53, pp. I2T h, I 58.
! JJ
MA MYO l LO A !l M^O LVM!
The PascaIianattitude may seem strange to us , thoughi t i s ro-
babIyIessrarethanonewouIdimagine. Thus, PauI MonteI' hasre-
minded us most oortuneIy ofa remarkmadebyHenri Poincare,
whowrotewithregardtoDescartes ."Amethodthatreducesdiscovery
totheaIicationofuniformruIes,whichmakeaatientmanintoa
great geometer, is not truIy creative. '
I shouIdIiketoaddthatthePascaIianattitude, nameIy, thatofa
geometer roer, was much more generaI and customary than the
Cartesian in the seventeenth century. The Iatterreresents a much
greater imovation and a much more radicaI break with resect to
tradition than do the innovations of CavaIieri, or even those of
Desargues. IntheseventeenthcenturyitwasDescartes, itwasaIge-
bra, eseciaIIy aIgebraic geometry, that was dimcuIt, unusuaI, in-
comrehensibIe.
As for PascaI, his innate geometricaI outIook was certainIy
strengthenedbyhismathematicaIeducation,andhisanti-aIgebraism
by his constant hostiIitytowards Descartes.
ToteIIthetruth,wedonotknowagreatdeaIaboutPascaI'smathe-
maticaI education. Thehagiograhic accountby Mme Perierisnot
to be taken seriousIy. We can accet theinformation rovided by
TaIIemant des Reauxto the eect thatPascaI whenhe was tweIve
years oIdwas abIe to read Euclid for Ieasure, and that heraidIy
mastered the hrst six books. This is sumcientIycommendabIe and
unusuaItomakeitunnecessary to eIaboratethereon.
We can be sure, withoutfear ofdeceiving ourseIves, that PascaI
didnotstoatEucIid,andthathehadaIreadyacguiredinhisyouth
that dee knowIedge ofGreek geometry, ofArchimedes, ofAoI-
Ionios, ofPaos,whichbreaksforthin his work, andrightIysoin
the roof ofthe eguivaIence ofthe araboIa and the siraI. His
acguaintancewithGreekgeometryisaIIthemoreIikeIybecausehis
father,
[
tienne PascaI, was a connoisseurofthiskind ofgeometry.
From Greekgeometryheassedonto Desargues.
IamincIinedto thinkthatthein0uenceofDesargueswasexerted
throughersonaIcorresondence. !ndeed, IdonotbeIievethatany-
one, even a genius Iike Pascal, couId understand and assimiIate the
ideas and methods ofthe great geometer from Lyons by simIy
` 5cc FauI MontcI, Faacal mathmaticien, FaIas dc Ia Ocouvcrtc, Far s:
I 50, pp. I2Th, I 58.
'5cc NcoIasBourbak, op.ct.,p. I 53.
I J4
bLL bN
reading the Brouillon ro]et d'une atteinte aux rnements des ren-
contresducnearecunlan,whichintheseventeenthcenturywasnot
unustihabycaedLeonsdes tnbres, and,whatismore,I donot
beievethathecoudhavedonesosumcientyguickytobeabeto
presenttotheParisianAcademyofMersenneinl 64OtheEssa)our
lesconiques, which is notonyobviousyinspiredby Desargues, but
aso oudyprocaimed tobe sobyPasca himsef.' Conseguenty, I
beievethatinPascawecanseeatruepupiofDesargues.Thisisas
muchanhonourfortheoneasfortheother.
Let usreturn to the Essa). Side by side with matters which are
directy derived from Desargues, weh ndin Lemmas I and !!! the
eguivaentofthefamous"Pasca'sTheorem',whichstatesthatthe
pointsofintersectionoftheoppositesidesofahexagoninscribedin
aconicieonastraightine.Undoubtedy,wehavetheretheunigue
propositionwhichwasthestarting-pointfromwhichPascadeveoped
a compete theory ofthese ines in his ost Trait ateast, thatis
what Mersennetesuswithout, however, guotingthisproposition.
Theinscribedhexagonwas then caed the m)stic hexagram, and
Pascaassertedthateveryconicsectionhasitscorrespondingspeci-
hc"mystichexagram" ,andconversey,everyhexagramhasitsspeci-
hcconic section.
Thiswasaveryhnediscovery,whichhasbeenpreservedforusby
purechanceinacopymadeby Leibniz,whohadPasca'spapersin
hispossessionin l 675. Hemadeaninventoryofthem, copiedsome
fewsheets , and unfortunateyfor usreturnedthe originas to their
egitimate owner,
[
tiennePerier. Thesepapers contained the whoe
ofPasca'sgeometricawork,areadypromisedintheEssa)ourles
coniques andpromisedanewintheXdresse l' XcadmieParisienne
ofl 654.
ThisbodyofworkwascertainynottheTraitdesconiquesspoken
ofbyMersenne,thoughitwasbroadlytheeguivaent.Intheopinion
ofLeibniz,conhrmedmoreoverbysomepagesofthetreatiseentited
0eneratio Conisectionum, which he has preserved for us, they were
treatises inspired by Desargues. Leibniz recommended that they be
printed,andinsistedonimmediatepubication.Hesaidthathehad
' b R. Taton, "L'Eaaa)curlea Ccnlquea dc Fasca!", Revue d'hlatclre dea
aciencea, Y, lasc. I (I 55).
5cc Lettre de Leibniz u tienne Frier datcd 20 August I 6T6 n Uurrea
ccmlteadeFaacal, Fars: BbIothcqucdc !a FIcadc, I54,pp. 63 h Adreaaeu
l'Acadmie Fariaienne, bd., pp. TI h.
bd.,pp. 66.
^3 l J5
METAVHYSICS AO MEASUREMET
seen certain works (undoubtedy those ofde La Hire) bearingevi-
denceofthesameinsiration,whichcouIdderivePascaI'sworkof
itsnoveIty.
Leibnizhastherebygivenformajudgement .PascaIwasthedisciIe
andcontinuatorofDesargues. Now,the historians ofPascaI either
habituaIy uegect this reIationshi between the two geometers, or
theyresentitinatotaIIyincorrectmanner.Thus,EmiIePicard(who
is guoted without comment by !acgues ChevaIier in his edition of
PascaI'sOurres comltes)' makesPascaIaear astheinventorof
the rojective methods "that were to befoIowed so briIIianty by
PonceIet and ChasIes" in the nineteenth century, and Pierre Hum-
bertinhisIatestworkdevotedtoPascaIthesarantteIIsusthatPascaI
wasthecontinuator ofDesargues, but with the addition ofgenius.
For my art, ! beIieve that it is referabIe to say that PascaI is
Desargues with the addition of cIarity and systematization, for
PascaIiscearwhiIst Desargues isnot ,butthegreatcreativegenius,
theinventorofanewformofgeometry,isDesargues,andnotPascaI.
TheseconderiodofPascaI'smathematicaIworkoccursaboutthe
years l652-4, andiscentredround thearithmeticaItriange. Itwas
then that Pasca Iaid the basis ofrobabiIity caIcuIations, concur-
rentIy with Fermat and indeendentIy of GaIi|eo, who receded
boththeformerinthisconnection.PascaIseemstohaveabandoned
geometryforawhiIe.
WithregardtothearithmeticaItriangIe, theinventionofwhichis
sometimesattributedtoPascaI,wehaveheresomethingthatisguite
oId.AccordingtoMoritzCantorithascomedowntousfrom the
Arabs. It is given in a somewhat simiIar form by StifeI ( l 544),
TartagIia(l 556), and, cIoser tothetime ofPascaI, by Stevin ( l 625)
andHerigone(l 632).
ParadoxicaIy,itistoPascaI'sverygreatcreditthatheturnedthe
triange about its aex, and by so doing changed it, at Ieast in
rincie,intoaninhnitesguare asguaresubdividedintoaninhnite
number of"ceIs" byaraIIeI, horizontaI andverticaI ines. As for
" bd., p.58.
* 5cc Fcrrc Humbcrt, "Cct chrayant cnc", L'Ouvre acientque deBlaiae
Faacal, Fars: I 4T,pp. I , 34, 47.
5ccMortz Cantor, Icrleaunen ber Ceachichte der mathematik, Lcpz.
I 0, , pp.434,45.
5cc Fcrrc Boutroux, "ntroducton au Trait du trianle arithmtique" n
Ouvreade Blaiae Fmcal, cdtcd by L. Brunschvcg andFcrrc Boutroux, Fars:
I 08 , pp. 438 h.
l 36
VASCAL SAVAT
thetriangIesthemseIves,theywereformedbythediagonaIsjoining
theointscorresondingto the above subdivisions ,thesediagonas
formedthe"bases" ofsuccessivetrianges.
In the sguare formed in this manner the ceIIs in the rst "row"
containonythenumberl , thoseofthesecond,thecardinanumbers ,
those ofthe third, the trianguIar numbers , those ofthefourth, the
yramidanumbers , andso on. Pascadiscovered a whoeseries of
extremeIy interesting reIationshis between the numbers inscribed
intheceIs,deendingonthepositionoccuiedbytheminthe"bases"
and"rows"both"araIIeI"(horizontaI)and"erendicuIar"(verti-
caI)ofthediagram. !nhis handsthe"arithmeticatriangIe" became
aningeniousandowerfuinstrumentforsovingrobIemsofgrou-
ing androbabiity. Amongst other things, Pasca showed (though
ater than Herigone and TartagIia) that the "bases" rovide the
coemcients ofintegraIowers in tbe bi:omia exression.
ThereremainedonIyonemorestetotake .namey,todiscoverthe
underying structure andintemaconnectionbetween the numbers
forming the basis, and hence todeducethegeneraIformuIa.PascaI
did not take this ste. His anti-agebraism, his aversion from for-
muIae, which ! have aIready mentioned, caused him to miss this
greatdiscovery.Hedidnotmakeitbecausehedidnotseekit. '
Ontheotherhand, whenhedid seekit, hefoundthegenerafor-
muIa,ormoreexacty, theruleaIIowingthe numberofcombinations
ofmthingstaken] ata timetobededuced.
FinaIy, because it beongs to this same eriod as the Trait du
trian|earithmtique- orerhasaIittIeearIier- Ietus mentionthe
most interesting IittIe treatise Fotestatum numericarum summa

in
whichbycomaring, asdidFermatandRobervaI, the summation
ofthe owers in anarithmeticarogressionwiththe "summation"
ofIinesorareasaserformedinthegeometryofindivisibIes, Pasca
directytransferredtheresutsobtainedinthereamofdiscontinuous
arithmetictothereaImofcontinuousgeometry.
He wrote as foIows . "Those who are somewhat versed in the
doctrine ofindivisibIeswiI easiIy recognize howusefuthisconcet
is for determiningcurviIineaI areas. !nfact, araboIas ofaII kinds
may beimmediateIysguared, and aninnityofothercurves easiIy
' Nor ddhcattcmpt to uscthc"tranIc" n hscomctrcaI caIcuIatons, as
ddWaIIsnhsArithmeticain/nitcrum.
bd., pp. 42 .
Fctealatum Numericarum 5umma, Ouvrea ccmltea, pp. I 66 h.
l J7
mL1YW3b Lb L mLbHLmL1
measured. If, then, itisreguiredtoaytoa continuous guantity
what we have foundfor numbers by this method, we can estabish
thefoowingrues. . . . " These "rues", which I refrainfromguot-
ing, concude with the foowing genera rue. "Thc sum of the
owers ofa certain number ofines eachraisedtothesamedegree
is to the ower of thegreatest of them raised to the next higher
degreeas unity is to the exonentofthishigherower."'
Aart fromthisingeniousandfruitfu rarochement~ itisess
origina than is usuay caimed - between two great disciines,
namey,arithmeticandgeometry, whichcassicatraditionersisted
inkeeingaart,wehndinthisittetreatisethefamousassageon
the reationshi between dierent orders ofmagnitude. It is inthis
assagethatattemtshaveoccasionaI|ybeenmadetondthedee-
rooted intuition ofPascaian thought, an intuitionwhich underies
hismathematicathoughtustasmuchas Iishiosohica,andeven
theoogica,thought. Hereistheassagewhichformstheconcusion
to the treatise Potestatum numericarum summa, and which im-
mediateyfoowstherueonintegrationguotedabove .
1 8halI 8aynOthtngaOOut thctcmatntngCa8c8, OcCau8cthctc t8 nO nccd
tOCOn8tdctthcmhctc, tt8umCc8 tOhaVc8tatcdthctuIc8 gtVcn aOOVc. hc
Othct8wtIlOcOundwtthOutdtmCulty,Ocattngtnmtndtht8pttnCtpIc. that,
n lh0 cu0 0}c0nlnu0u8 munlud08 o) d08r0d num00r 0}munlud08 0}
u) Knd Whul80000r udd0d l0 a munlud0 0}u 8u0r0r d0r00 udd8 n0lhn
l0 l. hu8, pOtnt8 add nOthtng tO Itnc8, Itnc8nOthtng tO 8utaCc8 , 8utaCc8
nOthtng tO 8OItd8 . Ot, tO cXptc88 Onc8cI tn numbt8, a8 t8 ptOpct tn a
ttcatt8c On attthmcttC, 8quatc tOOt8 add nOthtng tO thctt 8quatc8 , 8quatc8
nOthtng tO CuOc8 , CuOc8 nOthtng tO Outth pOwct8, and 8O On. cnCc,
quanttttc8 Oa lOwct Otdct [Omagnttudcj 8hOuld OcncgIcCtcda8 OctngO
nOaCCOunt. 1 wantcdtOmaKcapOtnt Oaddtngthc8ccwtcmatK8, whtCh
atc amtltat tothO8c whO haVc 8tudtcd tndtVt8tOIc8, tn Otdct tO cmpha8tzc
thc COnncCttOn, whtCh t8 tnadcquatcIy admttcd, that natutc, thc IOVct O
untty, ha8 c8taOIt8hcd Octwccnthc mO8ttcmOtcthtng8. t t8cVtdcnt tntht8
cXampIc,whctc wchnd thcCOmputattOnOCOnttnuOu8magnttudc8ltnKcd
wtth thc 8ummattOnOthc pOwct8 OnumOct8.
This is certainy an admirabe assage, but you wi notice that
" bd., pp. I T0, I TI .
(7ranalatcr'a ncte. nthc orgna! ths rcads: 5umma cmnium [linearumJ n
quclibetyradu0sl ad maximaminrcximauericriyradu,utunitaaadexcnentem
auericriayradua.)
Th
_ ! +2 + J. . .+n (! +l}n)(2+!ln)
.
at s,
n 6
!]J whcnnsvcryIargc.
* bd., p. I TI .
I J&
VbLL bN
PascaIsays ."Iwantedt omakeapointofaddingthesefewremarks,
whichare famiiar to thosewhohave studied indivisibIes. " In fact.
theseremarksarenothingmorethantheexpressionofsomethingthat
was rather commonpIace and weII known to aII mathematicians,
whethertheydeaItwithindivisibIesornot.ThefactthataIineisnotin-
creasedbyaddingapoint,noranareabyaddingaIine,norasoIidby
addinganarea,isimpIiedintheformaIprincipIesofgeometryknown
fromtimeimmemoriaI ,andthefactprovidesnostimuIatingimpu!se
forageometer,unIessheraisesthegeneraIprobIemofthecontinuum.
As for the connection between the sum ofnumericaI powers (of
numbers) and that ofindivisibIes (ofcontinuous magnitudes), that
wasundoubtedIy somethingnotsoweIIknown,butmorenoveI ,yet
twas something that formedthevery bass oftheworkofFermat
and RobervaI, whosein0uence onPascaI seemstohavesuppIanted
thatofDesargues.Onceagain,itisthec!evernessofhisdiscoveries,
andthecIarityofhisexposition,nottheinventionoffreshprincipIes,
thatstampsthegeniusofPascaI.
HismathematicaIgeniusshoneforthinaIIitsbri!IiancefortheIast
time in the series ofworks devoted to the rouIette (cycIoid). The
story ofthisrevivaI ofinterestonthe partofPascaI, who since his
"night of hre" (2J November l 654) had resoIved to forsake the
worId (and science), and had renounced aII except God, is weII
known. MargueritePenerteIIsusthatinl 657PascaI,whensuering
fromavioIenttoothache,
decidedtore!ievethepainbydevotinghimse!tosomethingwhichbyits
poweru!inuencewou!d sostrong!yattract thoughtstohisbrain thatit
wou!ddivertthemromhispain.Tothatend, hethoughtaboutthepro-
positionconcerningtherou!ette,previous!yconsideredbyMersenne,which
no-onehadyetso!ved,andtowhichhehadnotprevious!ygivenattention.
" ThcanaIoywththcrc!atonshpsbctwnvarousordcrsolmantudcand
thoscsctlorthbyFascaIbctwccnthcdcrccolpcrsons,mnds,andchartysnot
ourconccm hcrc.
'nthsnstanccthcprncp!cputlorwardbyFascaIsnottobctakcnItcraIIy,
bcausct squtcccrtanthatby rcmovna pontlromalnc, orcvcnaspacc,
somcthnstakcn lrom thclormcr, and a ho!cs madc nthcIattcr. Wc couId
qutcwc!ItransposcthscomparsonandappIyttothcrcIatonshpbctwnGod
andcrcatcdthn,andattrbutctothcIattcr,whchsncapab!coladdnsomc-
thntoOvncacton,cthcrthccapactytoprcscrvctcntrc,oronthccontrary
torobtolsomcthn.
5cc mmcirc aur la ric dc m. Faacal crit ar madcmciachc maryucritc
Fricr,aa nicc, Guvrca ccmltca, p. 40: aIso La Iic dc mcnaicurFaacal critc
ar madamc Fricr, aa aur, bd., pp. ! h: and thc anonymous notc n thc
crucil Uucrricrquotcd bd., p. IT4.
l J9
METAVHYSICS ANO MEASUREMENT
c pOndcrcd 8OwcII Onthc mattcr that hcOundthc 8OIuttOn andaI I thc
ptOO8. ht8 tntcn8c chOtt O COnCcntrattOn 8tOppcd ht8 tOOthaChc, and
whcn hc Cca8cd thtnKtng aOOut thc prOOIcm, a!|cr haVtng 8OIVcd tt, hc
Ound htm8cICutcd.
Nonetheess, "he recorded nothing about it, and set Iitte store by
thediscovery,forhe regardedit asvainand useIess ,andhewasun-
wiIing to forgo the time devoted to his work on reIigion". !t was
onIy onthe insistence ofthe Duc de Roannez, thatPascaIdecided
toedit his discoveries and tomake them the subect ofa cometi-
tion. The Duke remarked to him that in order to combat atheists
andIibertinesitwas"goodtoshowthatoneknewmorethanaIIof
themabouttheconcernsofgeometryandwhatisamatterofroof",
andthatifonesubmitted to revelationoffaith, it was not through
ignorance,but,onthecontrary,itwasbecauseoneknewbetterthan
othersthe imits ofreasonand thevaue ofroofs.
!n!une l 65&, under the seudonym ofAmos DettonviIIe, Pasca
sent a circuaretterto EuroeanmathematicianschaIengingthem
to hnd the soutions to sixrather dimcuIt robIems reIatingto the
areaofasegmentofthecycIoid,thecentreofgravityofthissegment,
and the voIumes and centres ofgravity ofthe soIids ofrevoIution
formedbyturningthissegmentaboutitsbaseanditsaxisresectively.
Two rizes, one of4O and the other of2O istoIes, were oered to
cometitors. Another circuIar etter aid down the conditions of
award ofthe rizes. The amount ofthe rizes was deosited with
Carcavi,towhomcometitorswererequiredto sendtheirmemoirs.
MargueritePerier'sstoryisagoodone.UnfortunateIy,itisrather
unikey. !nfact, even ifwe admit theeisode ofthe toothache, it
wouId stiI be quite inconceivabIe that PascaI, twenty years Iater,
shouId suddenIyremember the questionroounded by Mersenne
in l 6J6, andasothathehadneverbeforeonderedontheroer-
tiesofthecycoid, whichwasavery ouIarcurveatthetime, and
which had been considered by Descartes, Fermat, TorriceIIi, and
articuIarIy by his teacher and friend RobervaI.' Furthermore,
Marguerite Perier's story contains another very serious inaccuracy.
Shesays,thatPasca "had hxedthehnaI dateateighteenmonths'.
Infact, PascaI, whoonhisownadmissionhadworked for severaI
months in soIvin the robIems which he ut out to cometition,
thad cvcn provokcd apoIcmcbctwccn TorrccII and Robcrva!, who had
un)ustIy ar.cuscd thc taIan aarant olp!aarsm. Ths charc was rcncwcd by
FascaI mhsHlatclrcdc la rculcItc tn I 658.
l4O
VbLL bN
andwhohadsentouthishrstcircuarIetteri n!une l 65&,'hadxed
the ast day for receiving reIies at the/rst o/ Octoberin thesame
)ear. MakingaIIowanceforostaIdeIays, thisdategavecometitors
threemonthsattheoutside. !tisnotsurrising,therefore,that!ohn
WaIis, who sent his hrst reIy to Carcavi dated I & August I 65&,
shouIdhaveaskedforanextensionoftime,oratIeastthatthehrst
ofOctober shouId beregarded asthe dateofdesatch and not the
dateofreceitofthereIies,becausetheseconditionsofthecome-
tition unduyfavoured the French mathematicians, eseciaIythose
atParis. Pascarefused. !nhisR]exionssurles conditions desrix
attachs lasolution desroblcnes concenant la c)cloide (circuIar
etterdated 7 October I 65&announcingthe cIosing ofthecometi-
tion), whichisrather haughty and disagreeab|e intone, heusties
hisrefusaIbytheguiteseciousreasonthatifhehaddoneotherwise
cVcntbO8cwbOmlgbtbaVcwOntbcptlZc8OyOcngamOng8ttbcht8twbO8c
8OutlOn8wctctcCclVcdOytbcht8tOLCtOOct,wOudncVctbaVcOccn8utc
OOclngaOctOcn)Oytbcm,OcCau8ctbcyCOudaway8baVcOccnCOntc8tcd
Oy Otbct 8OutlOn8 attlVlng cVcty day and Ocatlng catlct datc8 wbctcOy
tbcy wOud baVc Occn cxCudcd On tbc wOtd OOutgOma8tct8 and OmCa8
O8Omc amO8t unKnOwn tOwn ln tbc dcptb8 O mu8COVy, LOCbln-Lblna
anUJapan.
!tiseasyto see that PascaI had no mind to risk the Ioss ofhis 6O
istoIes, andhad deniteIy decided to win his own cometition.
Notwithstanding the unfavourabIe conditions, the cometition
rovoked greatinterest. SIuse wrote to PascaI (6 !uIy I 65&) to say
thathehadsoIvedthehrstroblemaIongtimebefore,however,the
others seemed to him to be too dimcut. Huygens, too, found the
' 5cc Frcblemata de c)clclde rccalta menae Junll !658 : Ourrea ccmltea,
p. I 80: "Quum ab allquct menalbua, quaedam clrca c)clcldem, e]uaque centra
rarltatla, medltaremur,lnrccaltlcneaaatlaarduaaacdy clIla, utncbiarlaumeat,
incldlmua."
'5ccR/exlcnaaurlea ccndltlcnadearlxattacha 0lcaclutlcndea rcblmea
ccncemant la c)clclde: Ouvrea ccmltea, p. I 85. FascaI adds (bd.) . "GIory s
notat my dsposaI ; t s gvcn by mcrt ; havcnothngto dowth that ; onIy
admnstcrthcawardolthcprzcs; as thcyarcprovdcd by myownIbcraIty,
havc compIctc lrccdom to scttIc thc condtons. Thcy wcrc cstabIshcd accord-
ngIy; no-onchas causctocompIanolt;I owcnothngto thc Gcrmans,orthc
Muscovtcs; couIdhavcohcrcdthcmonIytothcrcnch;canohcrsomcothcrs
onIylorthc Icmsh, orloranyonccIscthat pIcasc."
Thchrstthrccandthcsxth. HcddnotsoIvcthcrcmanngtwo,andddnot
soIctaprzc.Aslarashcwasconccrncd,thccompcttonhadmportantrcsuIts.
1t attractcd hs attcnton to thccycIod, whch hc provcd n I 05to bc a curvc
baVn thc propcrty oltautochronsm.
I4l
NVMYb Lb L NbLN1
robems dimcut , yet hesoved four ofthem. Christoher Wren
sovednone.Ontheotherhand,herectihedthecycoid(itwas,there-
fore,thesecond curvetoberectihed), andfoundits ength egua to
four timesthediameterofthecircebywhichit is generated. Wais
sent a ratherongmemoir inwhichheattemted athe robems
rooundedbyPasca, deaingwith themina very ingenious man-
ner. Unfortunateyforhim,throughhastyworking,hemadesevera
mistakes incacuation, andeven in method, which hecorrected in
art, butnotentirey.' FinaUy, a !esuit, Father Laoure, rofessor
at the Coge de Tououse, sent in a memoir which he caimed,
guitewrongly, todeservetherize.
!mmediateyaertheR]exionssurlesconditionsdesrix,Pasca
ubishedthree accounts givingthehistoryofthe cometition, and
exaininghisreasonsfornotawardingtherizes.Then,inDecem-
berl 65&,aearedaLettrem.deCarcariinwhichhemadeknown
hisresutsandthemethodsbywhichtheywereobtained.!n!anuary
I 659 the Lettres de X. Dettonrihe, contenant quelques-unes de ses
inrentions en gomtrie were ubished. These contain, amongst
others,(a) thefamous Traitdessinusduquartdecercle,whichgave
Leibniztheinsiration forhis discovery ofdierentia cacuus ,(b)
the roof"in the manner of the ancient hiosohers" de l'galit
deslignessiraleetarabolique,and (c), inaLettre m. Hu)gensde
Zulichem, a roofin the manner ofthe modem hiosohers that
"rouettecurveswerebytheirverynatureawayseguatoeises" ,
trueeisesin thecaseofroate, orcurtate,cycoids , andeises
attenedinto straightinesinthecaseofthesimestcycoid.The
" WaIIs rcvscd hs mcmor and pubIshcd Tractatuadcc)cIcidc n ! 55. Hc
ncvcr lorgavc FascaI.
* L' HiatcircdcIarcuIcttc, !0 Octobcr ! 558 , RcitdcI' cxamcn ctdu]ucmcnt
dca critacnvc)acurIcarixrccarubIiqucmcntaur|cau]ctdcIarcuIcttc,
c l'cn vcit quc ccarix n'cntcint tana, arccquccracnnc n'a dcnn Ia
vritabIc acIuticn dcarcbImca, 25 Novcmbcr ! 558 , uitc dc I'hiatcirc dc Ia
rcuIcttc,cI'cn 'vcit|crccdd'unccracnncquia'tait vcuIuattribucrI'invcnticn
dca rcbImca rccaa aur cc au]ct, ! 2Occcmbcr ! 558 , Additicn u Ia auitc dc
I'hiatcirc dc Ia rcuIcttc, 20 January ! 55. ThcIast two wcrc drcctcd aganst thc
Rcv. athcr LaIoucrc, who wasaccuscd byFascaI n|'Hiatcirc dc Ia rcuIcttc ol
havngpIagarzcdRobcrvaI. Ouvrcaccmhtca, pp. ! 4,208,2! ! , 2l 5.
5ccDimcnaicnadcaIincaccurbcadctcutcaIcarcuIcttca,Lcttrcdcm.Dcttcn-
vihc u m. Hu)hcna dc ZuIichcm, Ouvrca ccmhtca, p. J40. t s worth whIc
quotngFascaI nluII : "Wc scc. . . that asthcbascIncolthcrouIcttc boomcs
morcncarIy cqua!tothccrcumlcrcncc olthccrcIc by whch ts gcncratcd, so
thc mnor axs olthccIIpsc to whch t s cquaI dccrcascs wth rcspcct to thc
ma|oraxs,andwhcnthcbascscquaItothccrcumlcrcncc, .c.whcnthcrouIcttc
s smpIc, thc mnor axs ol thc cIIpsc s compIctcIy cImnatcd; and thcn thc
l 42
VbLL bN
subtety,ingenuityandvirtuositydisIayedbyPascai nhistreatises
isdazzIing.WithunrivalledskiIhehandIesthemethodsofboththe
AncientsandtheModerns. HecomeIsone'sadmiration. Huygens,
who was an adet in the methods ofthe "ancients", and never re-
Iishedthoseofthe"moderns"(thatis tosay,theuseofindivisibIes),
nevertheessreroachedhimfor"arathertoodaringmethod,which
dearts toofarfrom geometric exactness", and wrote, "that he is
anxious tobeabIetocaIhimseIfhis ui in asciencewhereheso
greatIyexceIs". However,weshouIdbewrongtocaItheseworksof
Pasca"therst treatise onintegraI caIcuIus",as is oen done, for
exameby
g
miIePicard.!t isundoubtedIytruethatinPascaI'swork
on the rouIette we hnd "fundamentaI resuIts reIating to what geo-
meters nowadays caIIcurviinearintegraIsand doubeintegrasre-
sented in extremcIy ingenious geometrica guise" , and that "it
sumcesforthe urose ofshowingthe ower ofthese methods to
recallthebeautifuItheoremontheeguivaenceofthearcofaroate,
orcurtate,cycoidtothearcofaneIise".!tisguitetrue,as!have
a|readysaid, thatitisveryeasytotransIatePascaI'sreasoningsinto
theanguage oftheinhnitesimacacuus. !tiseguaIytrue, thatin
doing sowe obtain onIy a transIation, and thatPascaI'sreasoning
remains essentially geometric. The "case" of the "characteristic
triangIe"ismostsignihcantinthisresect.!twas"characteristic"for
Leibniz, but not in the Ieast for PascaI , because the Iatter did not
thinkofratio,hethoughtofob]ect ,anditwasforthisreasonthathe
faiIedtomakeLeibniz'sdiscovery,inthesamewaythatsomeyears
beforehefaiedtomakeNewton'sdiscovery.
!havesaidthatPascahandIedthemethods ofthemodernhio-
sohers, thatisto say, thegeometry ofindivisibIes, withunrivaed
virtuosity and originaIity. On the other hand, his interretation of
this method seems to me rather disaointing.PascaIseemsnotto
curvcolthccI!psc (whch scompIctcIy attcncd) s thcsamcas astrahtInc,
namcIy, tsma|oraxs.Hcncc, nthscasc thccurvc olthcrouIcttcsaIsocquaI
toastraht Inc. t waslorthsrcasonthatnlormcdthosctowhomscntths
caIcuIatonthatthccurvcs olrouIcttcswcrcaIways by thcrvcrynaturccquaIto
cIIpscs; and that thc admrabIccquvaIcncc olthc smpIc rouIcttc to a straiht
Inc,asdscovcrcdby MrWrcn,was,sotospcak,onIyanaccdcntaIcquvaIcncc,
rcsuItn lrom thc lact that n ths casc thc cIIpsc s rcduccd to a straht Inc.
To whch M. dc 5Iuzc addcd thcappropratccommcnt, that wc shouId onths
account admrc cvcn morc thc ordcrIncss olnaturc that aI!ows us to dscovcr
that a straht Inc cquaIsacurvc, onIyaltcrwchavc a!rcady a!Iowcd a straht
InctobccquaItoacurvc.5o,nthccascolthcsmpIcrou!cttc,whcrcthcbascs
prcsupposcd cquaI to thccrcumlcrcncc olthccrcIc by whch t s cncratcd, t
happcnsthatthccurvcolthcrouIcttctscquaItoastrahtItnC.
l 4J
NL1Yb Lb L NLbLLNL
haveunderstoodthetruemeaningofCavaieri'sconcets,forwhom
the'indivisibe'eementsofageometricobjecthaveadimensionone
essthantheobject. ForRobervatheindivisibeeementshavethe
samedimensionsastheobject , anditisRoberva'sconcets,which
arenotacorrectinterretationofthoseofCavaieri,thatPascauts
beforeus in a famous assage in the Lettre ^. de Carcari,
"in
ordertoshowthateverythingwhichisrovedbythetrueruesofin-
divisibescanberovedrigorousyasointhemanneroftheancient
hiosohers , and hence that the one method does not dierfrom
the otherexcet in themannerofexosition. Thiscannotbe re-
judiciato reasonabeeoeoncetheyhavebeeninformedofwhat
is meant thereby.
hat8why [a8CaCOntnuc8|1 8hanOthc8tatcnthc8cquctOtc8Ott
tO thcanguagcOndV8Oc8, and tOu8c thc cXptc88On8 lhc sum o/lincs
Ot lhc sum o/ nrcns . . . lhc xum o/ crdinnlcs, whCh u8c 8ccm8 tO Oc un-
gcOmcttCa tO thO8cwhO dO nOt undct8tand thc dOCttnc OndV8Oc8,
and whO magnc thatt8aCtmcagan8tgcOmcttytOcXptc88anatcaOy
annhntcnumOctOnc8. h8 Vcw dctVc8 8Ocy tOmthctaCkOn-
tcgcnCc, Ottmcan8nOthngmOtcthanthc 8um Oan nhntc numOct
OtcCtangc8OtmcdOycaChOtdnatcwthcaChOthc8macquapOttOn8
Othcdamctct, thc8umOwhCh8Ccttanyanatca. . . .
Brie0y,then,Pascawasamathematicianofverygreattaent,who
hadthegoodfortuneintherimeofhisyouthtohavebeenmouded
by,orateasttohavecomeunderthestrongin0uenceof,Desargues ,
andtheifortuneinhismaturitytohavebeenstrongyin0uencedby
Roberval.Hewas,mostdehnitey,oneoftheforemostgeometersof
histime,thoughwecannotacehimonthesamelaneasthethree
mathematicageniusesoftheseventeenthcentury,nameyDescartes,
Desargues and Fermat, ofwhom France has every right to be so
roud.
LetusnowturntoPascathehysicist.Heismuchbetterknownas
such,thanasa mathematician, andfor goodreason. WhereasPas-
ca's mathematica works are now rather dimcutforus tofoow,
' Conccmngthssccmy artcIcmcntoncd on p. I 32, n. I abovc.
5ccLcttrcdcmcn:ieurDettcnviheumcnaieurdeCarcavi,Ouvreaccmktea,
pp. 232 h.
tsdmcuIttomakcanobjctvc|udgcmcntonthcworkolRobcrvaI,whch
s nadcquatcIy known, and partIy unpubIshcd (or Iost). n any casc, t sccms
ccrtanthathcddnotrcachthchrstrank,nsptcohsundcnablctalcnt.Fascal
s dchntcIy lar supcror to hm.
l 44
bLL bN^
the works ofPascal the hysicist are not. Furthermore, they have
been freguently ublished and reublished. Every well-informed
erson knows the fascinating accounts in the Exriences nourelles
touchant le ride and La grande exrience de /'equilibre des liqueurs
(the exeriment at the Puy-de-me). !t has been freguently said,
andrightlyso,thattheyaregemsofscientihcliterature,whereinitis
imossible not to admire the marvellousclarity ofexosition, the
ower of thought, and the skill with which the exeriments are
brought oneaI\erthe other to theattentionofthe reader.
There is somethingmagical in Pascal's style, andthe same ideas
foundin otherauthorsassumea dierentsignicancewhen readin
his works. Threeobscureages ofMersenne, or one ofRoberval,
are reduced by PascaItoten Iines, whchleavethemressionthat
we have something guite dierent. We are temted to invoke the
Boyle-Mariotte Law, and to say that the density ofthought is in-
verselyroortionaltothevolumeorextentofthewrittenword.
I fear, however, that this magic ofstyle somewhat lessens our
criticalfaculties,andreventsus fromexamining Pascal's accounts
invirtue oftheir content. Let ustry to do sowithout bias. We all
know the text ofthe Exriences nourelles touchantle ride. Never-
theless, ! shall take the liberty ofguoting some fragments without
entering into the history ofthe circumstances resonsiblefortheir
ublication.'
bc OCCasOn OtbcsccXpcrmcnts wroteasCa - was tbc OOwng.
AOOut Ourycars agO n1tay a tral was madcwtbagass tuOcOurcct
!Ong, Opcn at Onc cnd and bcrmctCa!!y sca!cd attbcOtbcr. 1twasD!!cd
wtb quCKslVcr, tbc Opcn cndwasCOscd wtb tbc hngcr, OrnsOmc Otbcr
way, and tbcCOscd cnd wasmmcrscdpcrpcndCuary tO a dcptb OtwO
Ortbrcchngcrs ntO mOrc quCKsVcrCOntancdnaVcsschlcdbawtb
quCKsVcr and bawtb watcr. bc Opcn cnd was tbcnunCOVcrcdundcr
tbc quCKsVcr n tbc Vcsscl, wbcrcupOntbc quCKsVcr ntbctuOc cl tO
sOmc cXtcnt, lcaVng an apparcnty cmpty spaCc at tbc tOp O tbc tuOc,
wbst tbcOwcr part Otbc samc tuOcrcmancdhIcd wtb quCKsVcr up
tO a Ccrtan bcgbt. Lnrasng tbctuOcunt tbc Opcnng, wbCb Ormcry
dppcd undcr tbc quCKsVcr n tbc Vcssc, cmcrgcd rOm tbs quCKsVcr
ntO tbc watcr aOOVc, tbc quCKsVcr n tbc tuOc rOsc tO tbc tOp tOgctbcr
wtb sOmc watcr, and tbcsc twO lquds mngcd tOgctbcrntbctuOc, Out
hnaly al tbcquCKsVcrc, andtbctuOcwasctuofwatcr.
bscXpcrmcntOcngrcpOrtcdrOmHOmctOtbcHcV.atbcrmcrscnnc
' 5ccOuvreaccmltea,pp.363h.orthchstoryolvacuum,sccthccxccllcnt
study by Cornclys dcWaard,L'Exrience barcmtrique,aeaantcdenta et aea
alicaticna, Thouars : I 36.
J 43
mMYb Lb L mbHm
Otbc LrdcrOmnm8at ar8, bcrcVcacd t ntanCcn tbcycar .
t wa8 admrcd Oy a tbc sntnnIs and curious, tbrOugb wbOm t bCamc
gcncrayknOwn. caHcdOtrOm m. ctt,ntcndantdc8OtthCatOn8,
apcr8OnmuCbVcr8cdnOclc8-cttrc8,wbObadcarncdOtrOmmcr8cnnc
bm8c. Wc, lc bcur ctt and , Carrcd Out tbc cXpcrmcnt tOgcIbcr at
HOucn n tbc 8amc way tbat t bad Occn dOnc n tay, andCOnhrmcd tn
cVcrypartCuarwbatbadOccnrcpOrtcdrOmtbatCOuntry,wtbOutbaVng
nOtCcd anytbng urtbcr.
TherearetwoomissionsinPasca'saccount. HedoesnotteIIusas
a fact,thatthe "sacantsandcurious" ofParis, who triedtorepeat
TorriceIIi's experiments atParis, did not succeed for the rather im-
portant reasonthatthegIassmakers ofPariswereunabeto suppIy
gIasstubessumcientystrongtosupportthe pressure offourfeetof
mercury.ThegIassmakersofRouenbeingsuperiortothose ofParis,
the "IongbIow-pipe"(tube)orderedfromthembyPierrePetitwas
strongenough. For this reason, Pierre Petit (with Pasca) was the
rst in Fancetosucceedinproducingthe "TorriceIlian" vacuum.
Hedoesnotsay, subseguentIy, thattheexperimentwhich hemade
withPierre Petit, and on which hehad modeIed his own, had the
iIustriousItaiansacantforitsauthor.
ItisratherdimcuttoaccountforthistwofoIdsiIence. Wemight
supposethatPascaI didnotwishtowound, orupset, hisfriends at
ParisbypubIicyprocIaimingtheirfaiIure~ afaiureforwhichthey
were,moreover,innowayresponsibe.Wemightaso suppose,that
he was of the opinion that, having invented and succeeded i n
enough originaI andnoveIexperiments,hehadnoneedtoboastof
havingbeenthe ]rst(withPetit)tosucceedwithanoIdexperiment.
ButwhyconceaIthenameofTorriceIi PascaIwoudnodoubtteI
us,ashetodM. deRibeyre( l 6!uy l 65l),thatatthetime,namey
in l 646 and l 647, hedidnotknowthatthe authoringuestionwas
TorriceIIi , butthathavingafterwardsearnedit, heneverfaied to
acknowedge it. However, itmust beadmitted that this pretended
ignorance is, tosaythe east, rather surprising, seeing that Petit in
hisIettertoChanutdistinctIyreferstotheexperiment"ofTorriceIi",
and that RobervaI, too, in his rst Narration to Desnoyers written
inOctober l 647todefendthe(reIative)priorityofPascaIagainstthe
claims ofMagnitoabsolutepriority, named him guitepIainIy.
ButIetusIeave thatinordertocontinueandcompIetethestory.
` Ouvrea de Blaiae Faacal, cdtcd by Brunschvc-Boutroux, , pp, 323
(Lcttcrol. FctttoA.Lhanut) ,and, . 2l h(1rstNarralicnlromKoDcrv8I
toOcsnoycrs).
l46
VbLL b N
The exeriments made by Petit incoIIaboration with him were i n
themseIves amIysumcienttorefute the traditionaI doctrine ofthe
mossibi|ityor"horror" ofavacuum.Theydidnotsucceed,how-
ever, inersuadingthechamionsoftradition. Afterthe dearture
ofPetit, PascaIdecidedtocarryoutaseriesoffreshexeriments,this
time by himseIf, in order to convince the most increduIous indivi-
duaIs, andnaIIytodestroytheoId, ersistentrejudice.
TheexerimentsofPetitand,evenmoreso,thoseofPascaIexcited
great interest, and brought weII-deserved fame to the Iatter. Inthe
autumnofl 647MersennereceivedaIetterfromWarsawbearingthe
date 24 !uIy in which Pierre Desnoyers, a Frenchman who had
foIIowed Mariede Gonzague thither, broke thenews oftheexeri-
ments "ofa Cauchin by the name ofVaIeriano Magni, who was
rintingaworkonhiIosohy,whereinherovesthatavacuumcan
be found in nature". The receit of this Ietter, together with the
"hiIosohy"ofMagnl'inwhichhecIaimedforhimseIfthegIoryof
havingbeenthersttorovetheexistenceofavacuum,andtohave
seenwithhisowneyesLocumsine/ocato,Corusmotumsuccessirein
racuo, Lumennuhi cororis inhaerens, forced PascaI to ubIish his
Exriences nourehes. For his art, RobervaI sent Desnoyers a
Narration inwhich, besides rotesting againstthecIaims ofMagni,
whomheaccusedofsimIyIagiarizIngTorriceIIi,hegaveanaccount
oftheworkofhis youngfriend.
!nthetitIe ofhisshorttreatise PascaIstatesthattheexeriments
weremade"intubes,syringes,beIIowsandsihonsofvariousIengths
andshaes , withdiversIiguids,suchasguicksiIver,water,wine,oiI,
air, etc. . . . " He states, Iikewise, that his IittIe treatise is onIy an
"abridgement", ut forth in advance "ofa Iarger treatise on the
same subect'. The author's Letter to the Reader informs us that
"circumstancesreventinghimforthetimebeingfromgivingafuII
Treatise inwhichhehasrecordedmanyfreshexerimentsconcern-
" Demcnatratic ccularia lcci aine lccatc, ccrcria aucceaaive mcti in ractio,
luminianulli ccrcriinhaerentia, ctc. Varsavac . [N.O.] (thc "Approbaton" s
datcd I6 JuIy I 64T). Magn compIctcd hs work wth thc ssuc ol Altera ara
Demcnatraticnia cOlaria de caaibilitate ractti. Thc two works wcrc thcn com-
bncd undcrthcttIcAdmirandaderacuc,Varsavac: [N.O.] (I64T).
Thcchargc olpIagarsm putlorwardbyRobcrvaI s anythngbutusthcd.
As lor that madc by FascaI, n hs turn (n hs Icttcrto M. dcRbcyrcdatcd I 6
JuIy I 65I),cIamngthathchad bccn pIagarzcdby Magn, t squtclantastc.
or aII that, Magn n hs rcpIy to thcchargc madcby RobcrvaI acknowIcdgcd
thcrghts olTorrccII, butmantancd hs owncIam toorgnaIty (55cptcmbct
I 648);sccLomcIysdc Waard, op. ct., pp. I25 h.
l 47
mLMYb Lb L mLbLHLmL
ingvacuum,andtheconcIusionshehasdrawntherefrom",'hethere-
forewishestogiveanaccountoftheprincipaIonesinthisabridge-
ment"whichisa previewofthedesignofthecompIetework".
Asa matteroffact "thedesign ofthe compIete work" nowhere
appears in the Exriences nourehes. Undoubtedy the purpose of
the Traitwastoprovethattheeectsattributedtothehorrorofa
vacuumwere in reaIitytobeascribedtothe pressure(orweight)of
the ambient air. Now, the Exriences nourehes compIeteIy ignore
this subject, and are soIeIy devoted to provingthat a vacuum can
exist. This proofis made in two parts. First ofaII "an apparentIy
empty space" is produced, then it is shown that "the apparentIy
empty space is not IIed with any matter known in nature, or
that canbeperceivedbyanyofthe senses". Theconcusion isthat
the space is indeed empty and "destitute of aII matter. . . untiI
the existence of that materiaI which does II the space has been
proved".
The main experiments recorded by PascaI are eight in number.
l . experimentswithasyringe ,2.experimentswithapairofbeIIows ,
3. experiments witha gIass tube46feetIong,4. experiments with a
scaIene siphon havingaIongerimb of5Ofeetanda shorter Iimb of
45feet , 5. experiments with a tube l 5feetIonghIed with waterin
whichastringispaced,andwhichstandsinavesseIfuIIofmercury,
. anotherexperimentwithasyringe,7. and&. twoexperimentswith
asiphonhavingaongerimboflOfeetandashorterimbof9qfeet,
theendsstandingintwovesseIscontainingmercury.TheseextremeIy
ingeniousexperimentsdemonstrated .a.thatnature,farfromoppos-
inganinsuperabIe resistance tothe production ofa vacuum, oers
ony a Iimitedresistance, b. that a force, sIightIy greater than that
with which a coIumn ofwater J l feet high tends to ow down, is
sumcienttoproduceavacuum,and,moreover,thatnatureoersno
moreresistancetotheproductionofahighvacuumthanaIowone ,
c. thatthe atter, once produced, may be increased atwiII without
anyopposition.WeshaIIseIecttwo oftheexperiments,nameIy,the
thirdand fourth, which are themostfamous, where PascateIIs us
thatheusedgIasstubes 46 andeven 5Ofeetinength. Here are the
descriptions.
" Whatprcvcntcd Fasca! lrom pubIshnghs Traitwas thclact thathchad
notyctwrttcnt. 1t was nlact notcomp!ctcdtI! I 65I (sccp. I 3I , n. 2 abovc),
nor was t pubIshcd. Accordngto Iorn Fcrcr "ths trcatsc has bccn !ost, or
rathcr, boausc hc was so lond olbrcvty, hc hmscIlrcduccd t nto two sma!!
trcatscs"onL'qudibredea liqueura andLaeaanteurde lamaaaedel'air.
l4&
bLL bN
J. A ga88 tuOc4cct lOng, wtb Onc cnd Opcn and tbc Otbct bctmct-
Cay 8calcd, 8 hcd wtb watct, OtOcttct 8tI wtb datKtcd wnc8O a8 tO
Oc mOtc ca8y 8ccn, t8 tbcnCO8cd andta8cd 8O a8 tO OcpctpcndCuat
wtb tbc CO8cd cnd attbc OOttOm, and mmct8cd tOa dcptb OaOOut Onc
OOtna Vc88c uOwatct. tbc Opcnng 8 un8tOppcd, tbcwnc a8n
tbc tuOc tO a bcgbt OaOOut JZcct aOOVctbc 8utaCc Otbcwatctn tbc
Vc88cl, cmptc8t8cntO tbcVc88c COntanng tbcwatctwbCbt mngc8
wtb and 8Owy tngc8. bc wnc dctaCbc8 t8crOm tbc tOp Otbc tuOc,
caVng an apparcnty cmpty 8paCc aOOut J cct Ong, Or, wbat COmc8 tO
tbc 8amc tbng, nO 8uO8tanCc appcar8 tO baVc tcpaCcd t. tbc tuOc 8
nCncd, tbcbcgbtOtbcwncntbctuOcOcCOmc8c88 atc8ultOOcng
ttcd,andtbcnt8c8aganunttba8rcaCbcdtbcbcgbtOJZcct. nay,
tbctuOc8nCncdtOa bcgbtOJZcct, tOcCOmc8COmpctcyhcd Oy
8uCKngnwatct cqua namOunt tO tbcwncwbCbbad Occn Ca8t Out , 8O
tbc tuOc nOw appcar8 u Ownc rOm tbc tOp tO aOOut JcctrOm tbc
OOttOm,anduO8gbtyCOOurcdwatctn tbcOwctrcmanng J cct.
4.A 8Cacnc8pbOn,wtb a OngctmOOJcctand a8bOrtcrmO O
4J cct, 8 hcd wtbwatcr, tbc twO Opcn cnd8 atc 8tOppcd and mmct8cd
tO adcptbOaOOut OncOOtntwOVc88c8 uIOwatctn8uCb awaytbat
tbc 8pbOn 8 pctpcndCuat, and tbc watcrcVc n Onc Vc88c 8 hVc cct
bgbcttbantbatntbcOtbct. tbctwOOpcnng8arcun8tOppcdwb8ttbc
8pbOn8ntb8pO8tOn,tbcOngctmOdtaw8 nOwatctrOmtbc8bOttct
mO, nOt, COn8cqucnty, tOmtbcVc88cnwCbt8tand8(COnttarytO tbc
OpnOn OapbO8Opbct8 andatt8an8) , Outtbcwatct a8n OOtb mO8
8tandng n tbc twO Vc88c8 unt t rcaCbc8 tbc 8amc bcgbt a8 n tbc prc-
VOu8 tuOc, mca8utcdrOmtbcwatctcVc ncaCbVc88c. Wbcntbc8pbOn
8 nCncd 8O a8 tO Orng t OcOw tbcbcgbt OaOOut J cct, tbc Ongct
j
mO dtaw8 watct tOm tbc Vc88cl COntanng tbc 8bOttct mO. Ln ta8ng
tbc 8pbOn aOOVctb8 bcgbt, tbcOw OwatctCca8c8, and OOIb lmO8d8-
Cbatgc,caCbntOt8OwnVc88c.Wbcntbc8pbOn8tcOwctcd,tbcwatctn
tbcOngctmO dtaw8 watcttOm tbc 8bOrtct mb a8 OcOrc.
ThedescritionisworthyofPasca.Forthemoment,however,et
us forget that we are deaing with Pasca. Suose we are deaing
with an anonymous text, or onewrittenunder an unInown name.
Woud we not ask ourseves whether the author in question reay
did carry out the exeriments he describes? And whether, having
done them, he described them exactl) and comletel)? Let us ut
these questionstoPasca.
Gass tubes 46 feet ong! they are very dimcut to make, even
today.AthoughRobervaassuresusthattheyweremadewithcon-
summate ski (Roberva, anyhow, says 4O feet), itis very unikey
that seventeenth-century gassmakers, even those of Rouen, were
caabe ofroducing such a thing. Furthermore, it is not an easy
mattertohandeatube l 5 metresong,evenif(onceagain,theinfor-
l49
mMYb Lb L mbLHm
mationisrovidedbyRoberva)theyareattachedt ooes.'Inorder
tocarry out the movements imied in the exeriments ofPasca,
scaoding and hoisting tacke are needed, in short, an industria
instaation much more owerfuI and more comicated than that
normayusedinshiyards,foritismucheasierandsimertoste
a shi's mast than to move, in the manner reguired by Pasca, a
scaenesihonwithaongerimbof5Ofeet. . . . Itisrathersurrising
thatPascagaveneithera descritionnora drawingofthedevices.
WearenotsatishedtoearnfromPascathattheseexerimentscost
himmuchtroubeandexense ,norfromRoberva,thatPascacon-
structedveryingeniouseguiment.Weshoudhavereferred some
detaisofthiseguiment,asweasofthewayinwhichthetubesand
thegreat5O-footsihonweresuccessfuIymade.
Letitbeunderstood,IdonotwanttoinsinuatethatPascadidnot
carry outthe exeriments he describes (orthatRoberva records),
eventhoughthescientihciteratureoftheseventeenthcenturyisfu
ofexeriments thatwere never made. Mersenne, esscreduous in
thesematters thanmosthistorians ofthenineteenth andtwentieth
centuries, very righty cast doubt on the famous exeriments of
Gaieo reatingtothefrecfaofbodiesandtheirmotion onanin-
cined ane. Viviani has reated the exeriment (a made-u story)
thatGaieois aegedtohave madebydroingcannon-basfrom
theeaningtoweratPisa.BoreiinhisoemicwithStefanod' Angei
codyinvokedthe exeriments, theresuts ofwhich, ifhehader-
formedthem,woudhavebeentohisconfusion.AsforPasca him-
sef, the Traitdel'quihbredes hqueurs contains a seriesofexeri-
mentstheimaginarynatureofwhichhasareadybeenrightystressed
byRobertBoye.
There is nothingabnormain a this.AsI haveareadysaid,the
scientihc iterature oftheseventeenthcentury andnotonyofthe
seventeenth century is fuofthesehctitious exeriments , andwe
coud writeaveryinstructive book ontheartayed in scienceby
exeriments that have not been made, and are even imossibe to
make.
Oncemore,IdonotwishtoassertthatPascaIdidnotcarryoutthe
exeriments thathe caims tohavemade. Onthe otherhand, I do
' rst Narraticn u DeaNc)era. RobcrvaI`s Narraticn s lrcqucntIy rchcr n
dctaIs,andcvcn nacts,thanthcExrienceancuvehea.
orcxampIc,thccxpcrmcntwhcrcamansupportsatubc on hsthhwhls!
hoIdnhmscIltwcntylcctabovc thcsurlaccolthc watcr.
I 5O
bLL bN
beIieveIamabIetoassertthathehasnotdescribedthemintheua)
in uhichheer/ormedthem,andhasnotpresentedtheirresuItsin the
ua)thatthe)aeared. He has very dehniteIy conceaIed something
fromus.
Infact,whenGasparoBerti,inspiredbyGaIiIeo'sDiscorsi,carried
outthehrstexperimentonvacuumatRome'- BertiusedaIeadtube
l O metresIongterminatedbyaIargegIasshead-piece,thewhoIebeing
xedtothefaadeofhis house~ itwasestabIished,aspredictedby
GaIiIeo, that the water stopped at a certain Iimitingheight. Some-
thingeIse,too,wasestabIished,nameIy,thatthewaterstartedtoboiI.
ItwasguitenaturaIfor ittodoso,becausetheairdissoIved inthe
waterwas escaping in!he form ofbubbIes. This phenomenon was
ratherembarrassingforthesupportersofvacuum,suchasBertihim-
seIf, whiIstthosewhodeniedavacuumcouId,withsomesembIance
ofreason, cIaim that the space over the water was empty onIy i n
appearance,whereasinfactitwasfuIIofairandwatervapour.
Tne phenomenon of boiIing couId not have faiIed to occur i n
PascaI'stubes.ItwouIdhavebeeninevitabIe.Inl 95O,whenPascaI's
experiment was reproduced at the PaIais de Ia Decouverte, it was
foundthatthewaterboiIed,andrathervioIentIyatthat.Thiswasthe
occasionwhenthedimcuItyofobtainingagIasstube l 5 metresIong
wasreaIized,theattemptwasnaIIyabandoned,andanassembIyof
tubeseach255cmIongwasempIoyedinstead.
CouIdthisphenomenonhaveescapedPascaI'snotice?Ithinknot.
Moreover,toadmitit wouId betopass sentence onPascaItheex-
perimenter. Thephenomenon ofboiIingis notthe onIy remarkabIe
phenomenonthatoccurs in thetube.AsaresuIt ofthepressureset
upbytheair(andthewatervapour)thecoIumnofwaterfaIIs, and
thisfaIIreachesI] metresin24hours.
Butthereissomethingevenbetterthanthis.Inl 647RobervaIhad
notonIyenthusiasticaIIytakenthepartofPascaIagainstMagni,but
aIsohadespousedaIIPascaI'sconcIusions,whichhegaveinhisrst
Narration to Desnoyers (October l 647) where he proered some
detaiIsandampIicationofPascaI'sexperimentsthatwerenotgiven
byPascaIhimseIf.i nI64&hesuddenIyaIteredhismind.Thefactis,
thati nl 647hehimseIfhadmadeveryfewexperiments(withmercury).
" 5ccComc!ysdcWaard,op. ct.,pp.I0Ih.
* Thcscphcnomcna- bo!ng,andthcdropn !cvc!olthc!qud- oughttobc
much morc pronounccd n thc casc olwnc than watcr. Aslorthc sphon,
ar-!ockwou!dncvtab!y bclormcdatthctop.
NN J l 5 l
mLMYb Lb L mLbLHLmL
Since then, hehadmade others , and henoticed smaII airbubbIes
rising the whoIe Iength ofthe coIumn ofmercury. Did they come
fromtheairadheringtothewaIIsofthetube,orwasitaircontained
inacomressedstateinthemercuryitseIf?Nomatter! ItwascIear,
inanycase,thattheaarentemtysacecouIdnotbeadmittedto
be identicaI with a reaI vacuum. obervaI, then, in his 5conde
Narration (May l64&), when describing PascaI's exeriments with
waterandwine, addedthatthosewhowereresent(RobervaIhim-
seIfwas not resent at Rouen) had not faiIed to notice the smaII
bubbIesofairrisingtheIengthofthetube,andgettingIargerduring
the rise. The henomenon imIies comressibiIity, and, rice rersa,
an exansion, of air surassing anything that couId ossibIy be
imagined.
ItseemstomethatweareforcedtotheconcIusionthatPascaIhas
notgivenusacomIeteandexactaccountoftheexerimentsthathe
made orimagined. This concIusion throws a singuIar Iighton his
oIemicwiththeRev.FatherNocI ,and,whatismore,considerabIy
modihes the traditionaI view ofPascaI asa shrewd and carefuI ex-
erimenter, which historicaI convention contrasts with the imeni-
tentariorireasonerDescartes.o ! PascaIisnotafaithfuIdisciIe
ofBacon,norisheahrsteditionofBoyIe.
So !thereareairbubbIesinthewater,andeventhemercury.WeII,
isthataII?ItwasofnoconseguenceasfarasPascaIwasconcerned.
He had soweII, socIearIy, imaginedtheexeriments, which he did
(ordidnot)carryout, that hewasabIe withgreat rofoundnessto
seizetheiressentiaIity,nameIy,theinteractionofIiguidsmutuaIIyin
eguiIibrium,forPascaI regarded airasa Iiguid.Itwasagreatity
,thattheIiguidsheused wine,water,oiI,mercurywerenoterJect,
continuous, homogeneousIiguids , thattheycontained air , andthat
thissameairadheredtothe sidesofthe tube. So ! theexanded air
hIIed the"aarentemtysace?True! itwasveryinconvenient ,
but ifwe couId use Iiguids that do not contain any ofit, then the
exerimentwouIdrocIaimtheidentityoftheaarentemtysace
with a true vacuum. For, though PascaI in his concIusions did not
" S.cDettxime Narraticn, Uttvrea de Blaiae Faacal cdtcd by Brunschvcg-
Boutroux, U, p. 328. Ths s an atrocously Il-naturcd rcmark on thc part ol
RobcrvaI.
' Fascal was aIrcadynlulIposscsson olths doctrncn I 5T.Froolslound
nthcLettreuFlcrin Frierdatcd! 5 Iovcmbcr !67dcaIngwththcbaromctrc
cxpcrmcnttobccarrcdoutatthcFuy-dc-Omc;andthclactthathchadatths
samcpcrodconccvcd thccxpcrmcntolavacuum wthnavacuum.
l 52
bLJ bN
formayamrmitsexistence(hedidsoi nhisetterstotheRev.Father
ocandM. LePai||eur), itiscearthathewasfuyconvincedofit.
TheverydehnitiongiveninhisLettreauR.P.Nolissumcientproof,
athoughdoubtesshehadreasontopointoutthatadehnitionisnot
anopinion. andtosay, "Igivesuch anametosucha thing",does
notinprincipeimpyassertionofitsexistence.Ifwe donotbeieve
thatitreayexists,wedo notsay,"Thatwhichwecaemptyspace
is a space having ength, breadth and depth, is motioness, and
capabe of receiving and containing a body ofsimiar ength and
shape .thatiswhatiscaedsolidingeometry,whereonyabstractand
immateria things are considered" . and the Rev. Father Noc,
thoughguity ofa formaerror, was not deceived thereby. Pasca
simpydid notwanttoexpose his batteriesrematurey, in fact, he
keptinreserveacometeTraitwhichwoudprovidethereguired
proof, and atthe same time expain, in accordancewiththetheory
oftheeguiibriumofiguids, thereason whyavacuumisproduced
inthetubes. !nthemeantime,hedid notwanttosowdoubtinthe
mind ofthe ingenuous, who must, on the contrary, beprepared to
acceptfutureproofs , nor didhewanttogiveweaponstohis adver-
saries.
Themostfamous,themostpatheticayfamous,ofhisadversaries
wasincontestabytheRev. FatherNoc,S. !. ,who,aerhavingread
theExriences nourelles, sentPasca a etter inwhichhe defended
thetraditionadoctrinebyamixtureofodargumentsandCartesian
ideas.Hepointedoutthatightistransmittedthroughtheapparenty
emptyspace, and hesuggested that "the apparentyemptyspacein
Torricei`s tubeswas hed with a renedairwhich enters through
the sma pores ofthe gass". !twas unfortunate for him. Pasca's
repy, a masterpiece ofpoished, cutting irony (a precursorofthe
Prorinciales), administered a esson both inmethod and physics to
theVice-provinciaofLaFche.Pasca,amongstotherthings,pro-
testedtotheunucky!esuitthatwearenotacguaintedwiththenature
ofight,andthatthedeh nitionofitgivenbytheRev.Father~ "Light
is a uminary movement ofrays comosed ofucid, that is to say,
uminousbodies~ beingcircuar,meansnothingata ,and,further,
wehavenorighttoassertthatitcanbeproagatedonyinapenum
and not in a vacuum, and, sti further, because an hyothesis ex-
painsahenomenon,wecannotconcudethatthehypothesisistrue,
for the same phenomena are guite abe to receive a mutipicity of
expanations,besidesbeingproducedbythemostdiversecauses.For
l 5J
mLMYb Lb L mLbLHLmL
examIe, ceIestiaI henomena are exIained eguaIIy weII by the
PtoIemaic, the Coernican, orthe Tychonian hyotheses.
TheRev.Fatheroughttohaveketguiet.UnfortunateIyforhim,
butfortunateIyforus,hereIied, anditistothisreIythatweare
indebtedforthedazzIingLettrede Pascal m. LePailleur,' anun-
exceIIedmasterieceofitiIess,ferociousoIemic.TheunIuckyRev.
FatherwasIiteraIIyutonthegriII,turnedoverandinsideout,and
madetoaearerfectIyridicuIous.Thereadercannotrefrainfrom
Iaughing,andheendshisreadingwiththeimressionthatPascaIisa
genius, whiIstthe Rev. Father NocIisacomIetefooI,andthatthe
metahysicaIobectionsheraisedagainstthenotionofavacuum0tc
ust as vaIueIess as his dehnition ofIight, or his exIanation ofthe
riseofmercury(orofwater)inatubethroughtheactionof"mobile
Iightness".
PascaI was most certainIy a genius, and the Rev. Father NocI
eguaIIycertainlywas far frombeing one. There is no doubt about
that,anymorethanthereisaboutthesueriorityofPascal'shysics
overthatofthisunfortunate,behind-the-times,schoIastic.Neverthe-
Iess,whentheIatterwrote ."Thissace, uhichisneither0od,created
being,bod), sirit, substance, orerent, uhichtransmitslight uithout
beingtransarent, uhichresists uithout resistance, uhich isimmorc-
able and)et betakes itsel/uith the tube , uhich is erer)uhere and
nouhere, uhich does crer)thing anddoes notbing, etc. . . " are we
surethatheisunquestionabIyridiculousandstuid?PascaIinhisreIy
evaded"neither0od,norcreatedbeing"ontheretextthat"mysteries
concerningtheDivinityaretoosacredtoberofanedinourdisutes",
asthoughitwereacaseofaguestionofdogmainsteadofaroblem
ofuremetahysics.Hecontinued.
^cilhcr bcd], ncr siril. t s ttuc tbat spaCc s nctbct OOdy nOt spttt,
Out s spaCc. n IKc mannct tmc s nctbct OOdy nOt sptt, Out s tmc,
and as tmc ncVcttbcIcss cXsts, cVcn tbOugb lOcnOncOtbcscthngs, sO
cmptyspaCcCanCcttanIycXsI,wtbOutOcngOttbattcasOnncIbctOOdy,
nOt sptt. ^cilhcr subslnncc, ncr ctcnl. bat s ttuc, OytbcwOtdsub-
slnncc wcmcan tbatwhCbsctbctOOdyOtsptt , Ot, ntbsscnsc, spaCc
wIOcnctbctsuOstanCcnOtcVcnt ,OuttwIIOcspaCc,ntbcsamcwaytbat
tmcOcngnctbctsuOstanCcnOtcVcnt,stmc,OcCauscnOtdct!OcXsl, t
snOtncCcssatytO OcsuOstanCc, orcVcnt.
!s this reaIIy a articuIarIy wonderfuI reIy? !sn't PascaI treating
imortant metahysicaI robIems, which reoccuied the greatest
' nI58.Ouvres comlle:, [ 3TT-I .
I 54
VASCAL 5AVA!T
mindsofhistime,rathercavaIierIy,andwithoutdueconsideration
n anycase, whenwereadaIIthatinGassendi, fromwhomPasca
borrowedit,weunguestionabIyadmireitIess ,andossibIynotataI.
Ontheotherhand,whenwendtheRev.FatherNocI'sobection
in the works ofotherwriters, they do notseem at aI absurd. The
Rev. FathersaysexactythesamethingsasDescartes, Sinozaand
Leibniz, aII ofwhom agreed in denying a vacuum, and who very
seriouslyroounded(asdidNewtonaIso)therobIemofossibIe
reIationshis between God and sace (as understood by PascaI),
whichcannotbeacreatedthing.AIofthem,ofcourse,gavedierent
answers totherobIem, which theytreated most seriousIy.
Eventhe obection, that theassage ofIightthrough an "aar-
entIy emty sace excludes theossibiIity of a "true vacuum, is
hardIyllkeIytobederidedbyus,whenwehnditunderthename of
Huygens.Nordoweconsiderthehysicistsofthenineteenthcentury,
startingwithYoungand FresneI, tobe absurd, whentheyostuIate
a Iuminiferous aether in order to exIain the transmissionofIight
through "aarentIy emty sace", as they didforreasons simiIar
tothoseoftheRev.FatherNocI,whointhisresectmayberegarded
astheirforerunner.ThemagicofthePascalianword is adangerous
thing, which it is dimcult, buttherefore aII the more necessary, to
resistataIIcosts,foritbeguiIesusintoerrorsofhistory, andIeads
us to inustice and indiscretion.
\ have gone on Iar too long, and must cIose without being abIe
to discuss La grande exrience de /quilibre des hqueurs (the
exeriment at the Puy-de-Dme), the meticuIous and exact organ-
ization of which remains without guestion worthy of PascaI, and
indisutabIe evidence ofhis exerimentaI genius, even though the
idea of this experiment had been suggested to him by others, i n
part|cularbyDescartes,whoforecastaositiveresut ,orMersenne,
whodoubtedit.NorcanIsayanythingabouttheTraitsde/quilibre
del/queurs, etdelacsanteurdela massedel'air, whichsummarize,
nod.ubtcomletely, theIost Trait du ride,'whichshowPascaIin
afreshIightasanarrangerandsystematizer.
These Traits, infact,containfewreaIlynewideas ,ossibIynone
at aII. In reading them it is easy to detect (as Pierre Boutroux has
done) thesourcesin whichhedeIved, orfromwhich he derived in-
spiration .Stevin,Mersenne,TorricelIi.However,themuItiIicityand
varietyoftheexperimentsdescribed,suchasthatof"avacuumwith-
` Scc . I 3 I , n. 2 and. !48, n. ! abovc.
JJ
NMYb Lb L NbN
na vacuum" , and, ndeed,theadmrabIe ordernwhchthefacts,
reaIasweIIasimaginary,aresetforthandarrangedasafunctionof
onesingIeidea,constitutea workofbriIIiantoriginaIityworthyofa
Iace inthecIassics ofscience. In suort ofthisstatementwe may
mentionmorearticuIarIytheTraitde/quilibredesliqueurswhich
is based ontherinciIeofvirtuaIwork, normustweforgetthe in-
ventionofthehydrauIicress,ahneexamIeofPascaI'stechnoIogi-
caIingenuity.
NevertheIess, the sirit ofsystematization, which is so weI| ex-
emIihedbyPascaIinthese Traits, is notwithoutsomedanger. I n
fact,becausePascaIconsderedaras aIgud,hewasunabIet omakc
acIeardistinctionbetweentheressureofairanditsueight , or,what
isthesamething,acIeardistinctionbetweentheeIasticressureofa
gasandthenon-eIasticressureofaIiguid,andhence to exIain by
theueightoftheairthehenomenaroducedbyitsressure.Thisis
a ratherdimcuIt matter, and thecreditofsuIyingtheex|anation
goestoRobertBoyIe.!twasusuaIatthetimetotreatairasaIiguid
(Descartesregarded airasaverytenuousIiguid), thereby assimi|at-
ing neumatics with hydrostatics. NevertheIess, PascaI did suggest
thatairwascomressibIetoagreaterorIessdegreeinexIanationof
thefactthattheexansonofabIadderwhencarreduamountan
varieswiththeaItitude.
Butthe discussionofaIIthiswou|d reguiresace~ ofwhichthere
isnomore.
!56
ndcx
ACCadcmladcLlmcntO, l 4, TT n. Z
ACCccratlOn,44,5 andn. l , 5 and
nn. ! and Z, and MM. Z and J,
l , J andnn. l -J, , 4 n. J, T,
TJ and n. 4, T4 n. l , T5 n. l ,
T n. ! , 8 | , 84-5, 8T, Z and
it. J, ! n. Z, ! ZJ n. Z, rcsstanCctO,
J and n. , TJ . Scc nlac undcr
mcasurcmcnt
Alr, castlC prcssurc, l Z8-, l 5,
wctgbt, T5 n. 4, ! Z8-, l 5,
acrOdynamlCs, l Z. Scc nlac
mcdlum
Aals, LOmtc d` , nnd Lasscndl`s
cXpcrlmcnts, ! Z-T
ACbcmy, l T, l
AgcOra, ! JZ .
Angcl, btcanO dcgl, nnd BOrcl,
l 5, nnd HlCClOt,4 n. l
ApOOnlOs, ! J4
X ricri rcasOnlng, T5, 88, l 5Z
Aqulnas, btbOmas, ZJ
AraOs, nnd arttbmcttCal trtangc,
l J, nnd wOrKsOJObnbllpOnOs,
Z n. Z
ArCblmcdcs, l 4 and n. J, l T n. J,
4, T, a atOntst, J8 andn. J,
Oc Inaidcntibua, T, nnd alng
OOdlcs, , 8, nnd gcOmctry,
! J4, nnd bcaVlncss O OOdlcs, l ,
, nnd mOdcrn sClcnCc, ZZ and
n. Z, JZ, 8! , l
ArlstOtc: ArlstOtclan COnCcpts,
5 and n. Z, -l , l Z, l 4 l T and
tt. J, ZZ, J n. , J4-8, 4Z, Z nn. Z
and 4, and n. Z, l and n. l ,
l Z mcdlcVa CrltlClsm O,
Z and n. ! , 54 n. J, 8-, nnd
cXpcrlcnCc, rtn. ! and Z, nnd
cXpcrlmcnt, T. Scc nlac undcr
LynamlCs, mOtlOn, byslCs,
atO.
ArltbmctlC, 4l , l J8, arltbmctlCal
trlangc, ! J-T and n. l , arltb-
mcttC prOpOtttOn, 8 and M \ '
TZ, T4
Assaylng, Oasls O, Z N. Z
AstrOnOmy, l , , 8, l Z, ! 8, J4,
Z n. l , 8 andn. J, tnrcattOn!O
pbyslCs, Z and M. l , J8, nnd
mcasurcmcnt O tlmc, l J Scc
nlac undcr Lasscndl
AtOms, l ! ., ! J, atOmsm, ! Z,
atOmlstlC OntOOgy, l Z8. Scc nlac
undcr Lasscndl
AttraCtlOn, OrCc O, ! ., Z, TJ,
Z n. J
AtwOOd, T5 n. Z
AuZOut, l ZT
AVcrrOcs, 54 n. 4
A VtCcnna, translattOn O wOrKs O
JObn blOpOnOs, Z N. Z
BaCOn ranCts, ! T andn. ! , , ! 5Z
BaIlanO, L. B. nnd lsOCbrOnlsm O
pcnduum,T n. l , nnd awOal,
Z n. J, l
BaltsttCs, ! T
BarOmctrlC pbcnOmcna, acc undcr
BOyc, Lasscndl, asCal,
OrrlCcl
BatrOw, saaC, 5
BassOn, nnd atOmlsm, ! Z
BccKmann, saaC, wltb rccrcnCc tO
aCCccratlOn O tbc prO)cCtlc,
J n. l
Bcncdcttl, LlOVanOattlsta, l T n. J,
JZ, 54 n. J, 5T n. Z, 5, 4, , 8,
8 l , nnd LatcO, 4 and n. J,
T-TJ and - Z, T5 n. ! , nnd
aCCclcratlOn, TJ n. 4, nnd bcaVl-
ncssOOOdlcs,l , TJ, nnd mOtlOn
tn a VaCuum, 55. Oitcranrum
l 57
L7
Bcncdcttl, LtOVanOattlsta (ccnl.)
Scculnlicnum tcgatdng altng
OOdlcs, J- , V and n. Z, 7, 74,
, Rcsclulic cmnium tuclidis
rcblcmnlum 4V andn. 4, 7 and
nn. andZ,8,ptcaCcwltbtcgatd
tO aIlng OOdlcs and spcClhC
gtaVlty, 4V-J and n.
BctgsOn, cntl,nnd pbyslCs, rt.Z
B0tlgatd, nnd atOmlsm, ZV
Bctnlc,nnd Lasscndl, V rt. , Z7
BctnOul, J. , V7 n.
Bcttl, LaspatO, nnd VaCuum cX-
pctlmcnt, J
BnOmta tbcOtcm, JJ
BOOgna, HlCClOl`s cXpctlmcnts al
Ottc dcgIl AslncIIl, J1. and
n. 4, 7,CbutCbcsandlOwctsO,
7
BOtcIIl,AOnsO,nnd d`Angcl, J,
nnd asttOnOmy, Z n. nnd
sOund, ZJn. J
BOtkcnau, , wltb tcctcnCc tO
LattcslanpblOsOpbyandsClcnCc,
7 rt. J
BOulaud, smacI, Zslrcncmin
1hilclnicn, ZJ n.
BOutOakl, IlCOas, wtb tcctcnCc
tO asCa, 1 JZrt. Z
BOuttOuX, lcttc, wltb tcctcnCc tO
sCaI, JJ
BOyc, HOOctt, V , V, J, JZ,
J, nnd OatOmcttlC pbcnOmcna,
Z7
BOyIc-matlOttc Law, 4J
Btadwatdlnc, nnd spccd, J4n. J
Btcblct,E.,Jislcirc dc lnhilc:chic
quOtcdwltbtcctcnCctOLcsCattcs
and mOdctn pbyslCs, Zn. Z
BtOunCkct, WlIIlam, NlsCOunt, V7
n.
BtunO, LlOtdanO, , 7, nnd COnCcpt
O lnbnltc LnlVctsc, 8-V, nnd
mOVcmcnt, 8-, ZJ
BtunsCbVlCg, LcOn, wltb tcctcnCc
tO LcsCattcs and tO asCa, JJ
BuOnamlCt,tanCtsCO,utdmcdtcVal
tbcOtlcsOmOtlOn,JJandn. , J
Butldan, Jcan, 7rt. J, 8, ZZ, ZV
Butll, L. A. , Thc Aclnh]sicnl
1cundnlicns c/ Acdcm 1h]sicnl
Scicncc, 4 n. Z
LaOcO, I., nnd awOa,
LaCuus,dlhctcntla, JJ, lnhnltcsl-
ma, JZ, 4J, lntcgta, 4J
LantOt, mOtltz, nnd atltbmctlCal
ttlangc, J
LatCaVl, nnd asCas CyCIOd COm-
pctltlOn, 4., 4Z n. Z, 44
LatdanO, JctOmc, V
LausattOn, Zandn. Z, Causcs and
chcCts, JV. , 8 -Z
LaValctl, BOnaVcntuta, 4, JZ
and n. ! , J4, 44, Sccchio
Uslcric, wltbtcctcnCctOLalcO,
JVand n.
LaVctnl, Z and M. J
Lbanut, A. , . ctlt`s cttct tO, 4
LbasIcs, nnd ptO)cCtlVc mctbOds,
J
LncValct, JaCqucs, wltb tcctcnCc
tO asCa, J
'LasslCa` sClcnCc, 8Vrt.
LOCks, 7J and rt. J, VZ n. 4,
mcCbanlCa CIOCk, 8, l , pcn-
duum COCk, V8 and rt. l , J,
andN. Z, , ptcCtstOnClOCk,
mOtlVc Ot lnVcntlOn O, VJ rt. Z,
HOman watctCOCk, V4
LObcn, J. B. , V-Z and rt. 1, nnd
lncttla mOtlOn, n. 4
LOmmOn scnsc, , Z. , 8 , Z ,
ZJ, Z7 , J, J , 7, V.,
LOnlCs,scc undcr Laltcnnd undcr
asCa
LOpctnlCus, 7, , Z n. J, nnd
asttOnOmy, , ZZ, nnd 'CccstlaI
mcCbanlCs`, 8-V
LOsmOs, tbchnltc, -Z, , 8, , ,
Z4-J, dcsttuCtlOnOdcaO, 1 V-Z
LtcmOnlnl, 8, 7rnclnlits dc 1ncdin,
Z n. J
LtcscOtus OAlcXandtta, nnd watct
COCk, V4 . , nnd pump, ZV
l 5&
LL7
LyCOld,V7n. , andn. 4, Z,
4 and n. I cc nlac undcr
uygcn8 undtndcr a8Cal
Lc lpltal, V7n.
LcmOCtltO8, V, J
Lc8atguc8, Lctatd, JJ, 44, und
a8Ca, J4., JV
Lc8Cattc8, Hcnc, , 8, Z , ZJ,
4 , 7J n. J,8 n. Z, Vn. , VZn. J,
J 44, JZ, JJ . , ChataCtctl8tlC8,
4. ., andn. J, Zn. Z, JJ-4,
nDucnCc, 8 and n. , V and
f. , undthc8ClcntlhCtcVOutlOn,
-`. Znd CyClOld, \4, lmagna:y
cxpctlmcnt8, 4, 'lmpctu8, J
f. ! ,lncttla, V, qualty,J8,VaCuum,
28 it. 4, Z . 1rinciin 1hilcac-
hinc, Z. Scc nlac Lattc8lan
phy8lC8 undcr hy8lC8
Lc8nOyct8,lcttc, und' OtlCclan
\aCuum cXpctlmcnt, 41. Scc
nlac ttndcr HOOctVa
LcttOnVlc, AmO8, a8Ca`8 p8cu-
dOnym, 4, 4Z and nn. Z and J
Llggc8, LcOnatd, 1rcncaticnticn
ctcrlnalinc, Z4n. Z
-, hOma8, 1cr)t Ocacriticn c/
thc Cclcatin0 Orbca, Z4n. Z
Luhcm, . , J and n. , 7 n. J, 8,
Z and n. J, ZZ and n. J, J, V
and n. . Lc S]atcrnc du Acndc,
quOtcd, 8n. J
LynamlC8, V., 7 n. J, 8 n. J, J,
J4 it. , J8-V, Z n. Z,VZ, VJ, ,
24, undamcntal aXlOm, 8 .
Atl8tOtclan, Z n. I , Z1., J4
f. , Vn. ',undamcntaaXlOm,
d- , CtltlCl8m8, Z8-JZ, J -Z, JV,
4, 8. Scc nlac 'mpctu8.
Latth, atttaCtlOn O, 1J, ZJ, Z1,
Ccntta pO8ltlOnO, Z4, CcnttcO,
b. , mOVcmcnt O, -\Z, \ Z4-J
LCIp8c8, OmOOn( ZJ-4V), ZZ,O
8un ( Z -J4), ZZ
Lln8tcn, AOcrt, und lmaglnaty
cxpctlmcnt8, 4
LpCutO8, V, Z7, ZV
LuCd, nnd 8paCc, Z, Z8 a8Cal
und, J4
LXaCt 8ClcnCc8, V and n.
LXpctlcnCc, J, J, J, 4 n. , J, 8
and n. Z, J, 84, 8V-V andn.
LXpctlmcnt. lX, J ., and n.
8- V, 4J ., 7J and nn. Z, J, J,
1-8 and n. 4, 8, 8Z-4 and n. ,
8J-8,V- , Z4andn.Z, Z, J-Z
LalcO und, V, VZ and n.4,
VJ-4andn. , V, V8, 8, 4-J,
Z4 n. Z, J mct8cnnc nnd
V7 n. , V8- and n. ,
and n. 2, \ Z, \ 8, \ \ J-\4,
ZJ, 4J-7, J. Scc nlac un-
dcr La88cndl, uygcn8, a8Ca ,
HlCClOll hcOty. cChnlCal dlm-
Cutlc8ln 7thCcntuty, V -J, 8,
, ZJ n. J. maglnaty cXpct-
mcnt8, 4J-, J -Z, J, J and
n. Z, LalcO und4J.,J8andn. ,
Jn. , 1Jandn. , 7, 8Z, 84, Z
alng OOdlc8, ptOOcm O, JV,
4-88, VV- and n. Z, Z, Z4
and n. Z, Z-7. Atl8tOtclan
Vlcw, 4-8, J-J, 4 and n. J J,
8. , 1,74,7J n. , .LawO
a,44,VZ,Scc nlac undcr LalcO.
blmutancOu8 a, 7J, 78-V.
caVlnc88 O OOdlc8, and
nn. ZandJ,Z,4,, 8,7, 7Z,
VZ. Scc nlac undcr mca8utcmcnt
utidundcr bpccd
ctmat, lcttc, 8, JZ, JV, 44,
undCyCOId, 4
Otcntlnc ACadcmy, acc ACCa-
dcmla dc| LlmcntO
La!lcO Lalcl . LhataCtctl8tlC8 O
h8thOught, tX, 8., J4, J8, JJ
n.J, , 8J,V n. , und atOnlC
COnCcpt8, J, JV-4 and n.Z,
4 -4J, OppO8ltlOn tO Atl8tOtc,
\Z, \1, ZZ, J, ma\hcma\lCal
COnCcpt8, J4 and n. J, JJ, J7,
I 59
1 L7
LallcO Lalcl (conl.)
J-4! , nnd lbc sClcnllbC rcVOu-
lOn, l -Z, l Z- ! J, l and n. J,
Z-Z, 8, I l. Znd graVlly, and
n. Z, , Tl-J, spcClbCgraVlly,4,
bcaVlncss O OOdlcs, l and n. Z,
Z, TJ, impclua, J! -Z, lncrlla, Z,
law Oa, 4, and n. 4, 48 n. l ,
4-T, Z-4, ! . andn. J , !JZ,
l Z4, mOllOn, Z-5, T, l ! , l , J,
8l -Z, Z, Onan lnClncdpanc, TT
and n. !, 8, Z, and n. 4. Oc
Actu Grntium, J ! -Z, 5J n. l ,
n. ! , ! n. Z, 8 n. J, T ! and
n. J, TZ-5. Oinlcuc cn thc lwc
rcnlcal a]alcma c/ thc ucrld,
J4-5, JT-4 and n. Z, 4! -J, 5J
n. Z, 54, n. Z, l n. 4, TJ, T8n. 4,
4, ! !4, l Z4 n. Z, ! Z. Oiaccuraca
nnd Ocmcnatrnticna, J and n. Z,
4J, 4 andnn. ! -J, 4T-8, 5Z-4 and
n. 4, 55-, J and n. 5, 4-5
and n. J, , TJ, T5 and n. 4,
T n. ! , TT and n. Z, T8 and
nn. J and4, 8Z-5, 8 n. ! , 8T n. l ,
8 8 and n. l , Z and nn. Z and 4,
4, -T, ! !4, ! 5 ! . Rcapcnac tc thc
1hilcacphicnl txcrcitnticits O
AnlOnlO HOCCO, 4. 1cttcrn n
1rnnccacc 1ncIi, l Z. Scc nlac
undcr Bcncdclll LXpcrmcnl ;
cnduum, lsa
Lac, rcnCb cnglnccr, nnd alng
OOdlcs, ! Z4 n. Z
Lasscndl, lcrrc. LbaraClcrlsllCs,
! l 8, l Z-J, nBucnCc, ! ! 8-l,
l Z, OppOslllOn lO csCarlcs,
! Z. AslrOnOmlCa wOrk, ! ZZ
and n. , ! ZJ and u. ! . LXpcrl-
mcnls, ! ZJ andrt. J, ! Z4 and fl. Z,
l Z-8. Znd alOmlsm, l Z, l ZZ l,
l ZT-J, OarOmclrlC pbcnOmcna,
! ZZ, ! Z8-, lncrlla, ! ZZ, ! ZT;
gbl, ! ZZ, ! J, mcasurcmcnl,
! ZJ andnn. Z andJ, mclapbyslCs,
l 55, mOdcrn8ClcnCc, ! J, sOund,
! J, VaCuum, ! Z. Zitimndtcr-
aicnca, ! Z and rt. J, ! Z! , ! ZT. Oc
mclu imprcaac, !ZT. S]nlnmn,
! Z! , andrt. Z, ! ZJ nrt. Z andJ, ! Z8.
Scc nlac HlVcl
LcOmclry,4, , !4, l -Z, Z8, JT .,
4! , T, l , 5, ! JZ h., ! J, ! J8, O
lndlVlslOcs, ! JZ and u. ! , ! J8 . ,
! 4J-4, gcOmclrlC prOpOrllOn,
8 n. ! , TZ, T4, gcOmclrlCal
CurVcs, l ! l and rt. l , gcOmclrCa
Ianguagc, ! , J4 andn. J, . Scc
nlac undcr Lrcck
LlOcrl, Wllam, 8, !
Lassmakcrs O
]
arls and OI
HOucn, !4, ! 4
LOnZaguc, marlc dc, l4T
LraVlly, 5J, 5, and M. Z, !-Z
and M. ! , J, TT, Z, ! ZT, Ccnlrc
O, ZJ, spcClhC graVlly, 4-
j
,
55 . , , 8, T! -J, !
Lrcck COnCcpllOns, | , J, ! , ! . ,
ZZ, l JZ, gcOmclry, ! J4. Scc nlsc
AlOms
Lrlmadl, IranCcsCO marla. nttd
HlCClOl`s cXpcrlmcnls, l 4 and
. 4, ! 5, ! T l
LrOssmann, . , wllb rccrcnCc lO
BOrkcnau and Larlcslan pblO-
sOpby, ! T n. J
arrlOl, bOmas, ! ZJ
arVcy, Wllam, 8
crlgOnc, nnd arllbmcllCalrlangc,
l J
lpparCbus, nnd ArlslOlclan
dynamlCs, Z .
OOOcs, bOmas, nnd mOdcrn
pbyslCs, !
OOkc, HOOcrl, ! , ! | | f. Z
umOcrl, lcrrc, nnd asCa, l J
uygcns, Lbrlsllan, nitd ClOCks,
! 8, ! ! andnrt. ! andZ, ! l l , nnd
CyCOld, l 4! , ! 4Z u. Z, l4J, nitd
mcrscnDc, ! J ! , and rt. l , nnd
pcnduum cXpcrlmcnls, l 8- l J,
lsOCbrOnlsm O pcnduum, 8,
T n. l , nnd VaCuum, ! 55. Uutrca
quOlcd, ! 8 n. ! , ! nn. and Z,
! l ! fl. 4, l l Z n. l
| 6O
!OEX
MUygcn8, LOn8tantyn, mct8cnnc`8
lcttct tO, J n. , JJn.
MydtaulC ptc88, J
MydtO8tatlC8, 4,, 8Z-4, Z8, J ,
J,bydtO8tatlCalcqullOtlUm,J
amOlCbu8, nitd latOnlC ldca8, 4
1mclus, V, J, 1n. J, Vn. J,ZZ,
ZV and n. Z, J and n. , J -Z
and n. 4, JJn. Z, J4 n. , 1J rt. 4,
8J .
ncttla, , V, J . , 44n. Z, Z n. 4,
1J rt. , ZZ, Z, u8c Otctm,
Z rt. J, lncttlal ma88, Z, 4n. J,
1J. , lncttlal mOtlOn, n. 4,
scc nlsc undcr mOtlOn
ngOl,scc undcr LallcO
Jc8Ult 8Clcntl8t8, l8t O, 4 n. 4,
nnd cXpctlmcnt8tclatlngtOawO
a), Z, 8. Scc nlsc Ncndc-
llnu8, nnd LaOcO
Kant, mmanucl,nitd 8paCc, Z8 n. J
Kcplct, JObann, J, 1, - Z, 8V,
Z n. J, ZJ and f- , ZJ, nnd
atttaCtlOn, ., nnd dynamlC8,
8 and n. Z, nitd gtavlty, 44 n. 4,
nitd lncttla, , Z nn. J and 4,
nitd ma88 COnCcpt O, Z n. Z.
1h]sicn ccclcstis,
KOytc, AcXandtc,
_
tudcs nliIccn-
ncs, lX, Z and n. , Z n. , JJ,
Z4n. Z, c88ay8 On LallcO, lX
Lalcc ct Lc8Cattc8, 1Jn. J
La Mltc, dc, nnd COnlC8, J
LalOuctc,Jc8ultatbct, 4Zandn. Z
LclOnlz,LOtttlcdWl!hc!m, J8 n. Z,
V1n. , JJ, 4J, JJ, nnd a8Ca,
JJ-
LcOnatdO da NlnCl, l1 n. J, ZV, J
n. 4
Lc allcut, scc tndcr a8Ca
LctOy, Ocscnrtcs sccinl, 1 tt. J
Llgbt, 8, ZZ ., J, JJ-J
LuCtctlu8, ZV
maCb, Ltn8t, nnd lmaglnatycXpctl-
mcnt8, 4J
mantl, N8ctlanO, nnd VaCUum,
4 and rtn. andZ, J
ma88, COnCcpt O, Z and n. Z, 1J,
aCCcctatlOn O al nnd, J and
nn. , J, , 1Vn. . Scc nlsc undcr
ncttla
matbcmatlC8: 'bc gtammat O
8ClcnCc, 4n. , nnd a8ttOnOmy,
J8, nnd a, 44, 1V n. , nnd
buman lntclcCt, 4-4 , nnd "lm-
pctu8`, JZ, nnd mOdctn 8ClcnCc,
1J n. J, nnd pcnduum, 18 n. 4.
matbcmatlCal COnCcptlOn8 and
mctbOd8, 4., V. , J4andn. J,
JJand rt. , J andn. , J1, 4J,
V, , V. Scc nlsc undcr
a8Ca nitd undct latO. matbc-
matlCa pby8lC8, J, J- J, ZZ, JZ,
J4, JJ-4, J. matbcmatlClan8,
typc8 O, JJ-4
mattct,unltyO, Z, ldcntlhcdwltb
8paCc, V-Z
mazzOnl, JaCOpO, autbOt O OOOK
OnlatOandAtl8tOtc,Jandn.
mca8utcmcnt, V and nn. ! and Z,
VJ, LallcO nnd, 1J, VZ-4, aC-
CcctatlOn COn8tant ln al O
OOdlc8, VZ, V4, 1-8, Z, O
tlmc, VJ-4 and n. , VJ- ,
8-Z. lOtcntlnc CuOlt, V4n. J,
'tOyalOOtOatl8,VVandM. J.
Scc nlsc undcr La88cndl
mcCbanlC8, Z, 4, V, JJ, 4Z, ,
ZV, 'Ccc8tlamcCbanlC8`, 8
mcdlClnc, V8 andn. J
mcdlcVa COnCcpt8, , J, J, , V,
ZZ, JJ n. , wltb tcctcnCc tO
alng OOdlc8, J n. . Scc nlsc
BuOnamlCl
mcdlum, tc8l8tanCc O, tO allng
OOdlc8, 41 and n. , JZ- and
n. J, J-1Z,14, 1., 1V andW. ,
8J-1, , tatlO wltb aCCc-
tatlOn, and n. Z, 8
I I
mctCuty, l nOttlCclan tuOc, Z8,
a8Cal`8 cXpctlmcnt wltb, 4J-V,
J-Z
mct8cnnc, matln,41n. J, Z, 4J,
L7
mctscnnc, mattn (ccnl.)
l 55, tnucnCc, l l 8 and n. l ,
"COttcspOndcnCc``wtthBcckmann
and LcsCattcs, J n. l , attstan
PCadcmy O, l J5, wtth tcctcnCc
tO asCaI, l J l and n. l , l JJ it. l ,
l J5, nnd CyCIOtd, l4, nnd pcn-
duIum, 8, T it. l , 8 and rtn. J
and 4, l -Z, l 8 ., l l l , nnd
spccd OaII, 4-5, -l Z, l l Z .
Ccitntn 1h]aicc-Anthcmnticn,
T n. l , 8 rt. 4, l , l l 5- l T, l Jl ,
Jnrmcnic Uttircracllc, 8 and
nit. J and 4, , l l l l J- l 5, Rc-
]cxicitca 1h]aicc-^nthcmntcnc,
l l , l 8. Scc nlac undcr LXpcrt-
mcnt
mOdcrn sCtcnCc, l , J, , 8, l Z,
l -ZZ, 8-] l l , l JZ, usc O
tctm, 8 n. l , mOttOn tn, 4,
OntOIOgyO, l l
mOntcI, auI, wtth tccrcnCc tO
LcsCartcs, l J4
mOtay, H. , Icttct O uygcns tO,
l l l andn. 4
mOttn, cXpcrtmcnts tn tcgatd tO
aIItng OOdtcs, l Z4 n. Z
mOttOn, l , 4, l - l4, Zl , Z-J4,
J8-, TJ and it. 5, l Z, tn
PrtstOtcItan phystCs, 5-8, ZJ-5
anditit. Z andJ, Z andnn. l and
Z, ZT-8, 44 n. Z, 5T n. l , n. J,
8 l , pttnCtpIc O tncrttaI mOttOn,
Z-4, , l 9. LttCuIar mOttOn, Z5
n. J, J l , J4, natuta!, TJ . , t n a
sttatght Itnc, ZT, J4, COnsctvattOn
O, 44 n. Z, T5 n. ! , l Z4, nOt tn
numOcrs, J8, tcIattvt|y O, JJ,
tcststunCc tO, 5 . , TJ, acc nlac
mcdtum. 5cc nlac ACCcIcrattOn,
aIItng OOdtcs, bpccd, nnd undcr
LaItIcO, nnd uttdcr, vaCuum
IaturaI phtIOsOphy, J5, 4
`IaturaIsCtcnCc, l n. l
Iatutc, tX,J l, 8- I., l J .,andit. l ,
l 5, l v ., Z5, J4, J8, 4 n. Z, 4l ,
4J, T5 . , 'naturaIpIaCc, Z4 and
nn. l and Z, Z and n. J, ZJ I.
andn. Z
IavtgattOn, CIOCksnnd, l l andM. l
IcwtOn, btt 1saaC, CharaCtcttsttCs,
l , nnd aCCcIctattOn and atttaC-
ttOn, Z n. J, OtnOmtaI thcOtcm,
l JJ, 'LOsmOs, l n. J, CyCIOtd,
T it. l , l4J, 'tmpctus, JZ n. 4,
Itght, l ZZ, l J, mathcmattCaI
phystCs, l J, mOttOn, Z andn. Z,
l , 5, I7thCcnturyphystCs, l Z,
tcststanCc tO aIItng OOdtcs,
it. 5, spaCc, l 55
IOI,Vcv. athct, acc undcr asCaI
IOmtnaItsts,, l T u. J, I 8, ZZ, Z ii. Z
IumOcrs, mOvcmcnt nnd, J8 .,
44 n. l , sCtcnCc O, 4- l
LOscrvattOn, tX, J, l 8, 8-, l 8
Ltdct, Z4-5
Ltcsmc, ItCOIc, l T fl. J, l 8, ZZ, Z,
Z n. J
LsCtIIattOn, T8 and itit. Z and J, 8
and it. J, Z n. 4, I., l -l ,
l J-5 andn. Z, l l .
LXOtd, nitd mcdtcvaI COnCcpts
tcgatdtngspccdOaIItngOOdtcs,
5 n. l
appOs, nnd Lrcck gcOmctry, l J4
atts, nnd mcdtcvaI COnCcpts tc-
gardtng spccd O aIItng OOdtcs,
5 n. l . 5cc nlac LIassmakcrs
attstans, scc IOmtnaItsts
asCaI, BIatsc, Z, J8 it. Z, l l 8.
LharaCtcrtsttCs, l J I , l JZ f. Z,
l JJ, l JT-, l44 ., l 5Z, l 55-,
cXpcrtmcnts, l Jl , l 45-5Z, l 55-,
acc nlac uy-dc-Lmc. Xnd att,
l 5Z, l 5; OatOmctrtCphcnOmcna,
l Z?, l ZT . , CyCIOtd, l J-4l and
itn. l -J, Lc atIIcur, l 5J . ,
mathcmattCs, l Jl -44, `asCaI`s
hcOrcm, l J5, crc IOI, l Zl ,
l 5Z-5, phystCs, J , l 44-5.
Xdrcaac u l`Xcndcittic 1nriaicnnc,
l J5, taan} pcitr lca ccniquca, l J5,
Ln rnttdc cxpcricncc dc l ` cqttilibrc
Z
L7
asCal, Balsc (ccnl.)
dca liqucura, 4J, JJ, txcricitcca
ncutcllca lcuchnnl lc tidc, 4J,
47-8, J n. Z, JJ, Gcncrnlic
Lcniacclicrtum, JJ, Jialcirc dc
ln rculcllc, 4,Uutrca ccmlclca,
J n. J, J, 1clcalnlum numcri-
cnrum aummn, J7-8, Trnilc dca
ccniquca, J and ri. , JJ,
Trnilc dc l`cquilibrc dca liqucura,
Z8, 48 M. , J, JJ, JJ . ,
Trnilc dc mccnniquc, J , Trnitc
dc ln cannlcur dc ln mnaac lc l'nir,
Z8, 48 H, , JJ, Trnilc du
lrinnlc nrilhmciquc, J7, Trnilc
du tidc, J andrt. Z, 48 andM. ,
JJ
asCa,
_
tlcnnc, J4
cnduum, 4 M. , LalcO nrtd,
7 and t. , 77 and nn. Z and J,
78 and M. 4, 7V-8, VZ and M. 4,
V-7andi. , V8.,J.Scc nlac un-
dcr LOCks, uygcns, mcrscnnc ,
BlCClOl
rlcr,
_
tlcnnc, JJ
, Orln, 48n. , JZt. Z
rlcr, mmc, wltb rccrcnCc tO
asCal, J4
-, margucrltc, wltb rccrcnCc tO
asCa, JV-4
ctlt, lcrrc, nitd cXpcrlmcnt wltb
OrrlCclan tubc, 4-7
cyrcsC, mcrscnncs cttcrs tO, V4
blOpOnOs, JObn, ZZ, ZV and t. Z,
JZ, LOmmcntary On PrlstOtc`s
1h]aicn, wltb rccrcnCc tO ang
OOdlcs, 8 and t. J, V
blOsOpby, J7-8, nnd matbcmatlCs,
4. , nrtd sClcnCc, V
bysCs: PrlstOtclan, J-7, 8, ZZ-J,
andt. Z,Z4-8,JJandtit. andZ,
J-7, 4 JJ. Lartcslan, .,
V-Z, ZV. mcdlcVa, .
mOdcrn, -Z, J., , V-ZZ,
J4.,J7-8,8 , nnctccntbCcntury,
JJ. Znd astrOnOmy, ZandH. ,
J8, nnd gcOmctry, V. Scc nlac
Lasscndl, CbaraCtcrlstlCs, nnd
undcr matbcmatlCs, nnd undcr
asCa, nnd Banda, J. .
Card,
_
mc, nnd asCa, J
lsa, Latbcdral, stOry O LalcO
and Candcabrum ln, V n. Z,
Lcanlng Owcr, stOry OLalcO
nnd, 4J n. Z, J, LnlVcrslty,
LalcO nnd, JJ-.
atO: atOnlC COnCcpts, V, J- J,
4, 4Z, V, acc nlac undcr
LalcO. matbcmatlCs nnd J,
J8h. LppOsltlOn bctwccn atO
andPrlstOtc, JJ ., andn. , J8,
4andn. Z, 4Z, V
"cnlsm`, acc mattcr, ldcntlHcd
wltb spaCc
cnum, alng OOdlcs, ln J , Z,
, 7, 7Z, 7J
ncumatlCs, J,pncumatlCpumps,
7J
OlnCar, cnrl, wltb rccrcnCc tO
csCartcs, J4
OnCcct, nnd prO]cCtlVc mctbOds,
J
Oppcr, K., nnd lmagnary cXpcrl-
mcnts, 4J
Orta, LlamOattlsta, V
rcssurc, Z,acc nlac tndcr Plr
rOCus, nitd atOnlCldcas, 4
rO]cCtlOn,Z-7,Jandn. l , J , JV,
4n.
tOcmy, -7, Z, ZZ
uy-dc-mc, cXpcrlmcnt at, Z7,
J , 4J, JZ u. Z, JJ
ytbagOrcans, JV.
Qualty, J7 ., V andn. Z
Banda, J. ., wtb rccrcnCc tO
COntlnuty ln blstOry O pbysCs,
Z t. J
Bca, tbc, J-8, 4
BauX, acmant dc, J4
BcmlnlsCcnCc, dOCtrlncO,4Z
BcnalssanCc, tbc lOglClans O, Z
n. J , sClcntlHC tbOugbt, ZZ and
nn. Z and J, tcCbnOlOgy, 17 n. J,
nnd atO, 4Z
l 6J
LLA
Hc8t,8tatcO, Z4h., JJandf. J, J4, rtrt. Z and J, 8, 'naturaI 8pccd,
8J. , acc nlac ACCcIcratlOn , NcI-
OCtty, nnd undcr %cr8cnnc
J8
Hbcyrc, %. dc, a8Cal nnd, l 4,
l 47n. Z
HlCClOIl, Llambattl8ta, 47 f. J, l Z,
XImncatttm Acrum, l Z and
rtrt. Z and J, nttd cxpcrlmcnt8
wlth aIIlng bOdlc8, l -7 and
nn. Z-4, l 8, wlth pcnduIum, 7J
rt. J, l Z-7, l l l h. , nnd LOpcrnl-
Cu8 and KcpIcr, l Z n. J
Hlvct, Andrc, Icttcr8rOmLa88cndl,
l Z
HOanncZ, 1uC dc, nnd a8CaI`8
CyCIOld COmpctltlOn, l 4
HObcrvaI, LlIc8-cr8Onnc dc, l l 8,
l Z8, l JZ, l J, l 44 andf. J, l 4J,
nnd CyCIOld, l4andf. l , l 4Zn. Z.
Anrrnticrt tO c8nOycr8, l 4 . ,
and r. Z, l 4-J and n. Z, l Jl -Z
HOCCO, AntOnlO, 4
HOthmann, nnd yChO Brahc, l
HOuIcttc, thc, acc CyCIOld uitdcr
a8CaI
bagrcdO, 4 and tt.
balvatt, 4and H. l
bClcnIlhC rcvOIutlOn O l th and
l 1th Ccnturlc8, l - l 7 and rt. ,
l -Zl and l1. J, 8, l l , l J
blmpIlClu8, nnd Arl8tOtIc, 4 n. l ,
nnd wOrk8 O JOhn hlIOpOnO8,
Z rt. Z
bIuZc, H. . W. BarOn dc, l 4l ,
l 4Z n. J
bOtO, OmlnlCO,nttd mOtlOnOaII,
Jn. l
bOund, l ZJ, l J
bpaCc, J,4, , , JJ., l Zl , l Z, l J4,
gcOmctrlZatlOn O, l -Z, l Z l ,
lmaglnary 8paCc8, l Z7, nnd
mattcr, l l . Scc nIac undcr
LuCIldnitd undcr Kant
bpccd, O aIIlng bOdlc8, 4 n. J,
4-8andrt. l , 4-, J-74,77h. ,
8 l -Z, 84-8, -l Z, l J-8, l ZJ
bplnOZa, BcncdlCt dc, Z8 n. 4, l JJ
btatlC8, JZ, J8
btcvln, nnd arlthmctlCaI trlangIc,
l J, a8CaInnd, l JJ
btlcI, nttd arlthmctlCaI trlangIc, l J
bundlaI, l 4
anncry, . ,J and n. l , l 8, rt. l ,
Acmcirca acicttti/quca quOtcd
wlth rccrcnCc tO dynamlC8, Zl
f. l
artagIla, nnd arlthmctlCaI trlanglc,
l J .
cChnOIOgy, l 7 and rtrt. Z and J.
Scc nIac cChnlCaI dlmCuItlc8
undcr Lxpcrlmcnt
hcOry, tn rcIatlOn tO cxpcrlcnCc
and cxpcrlmcnt, l J, 4J, 7l , 7J-,
8, 8Z and tt. l , , l 8- l Z,
lmaglnatlOn nnd, 88. Scc nIac
'A prlOrl` rca8Onlng
hcrmOdynamlC8, ZJ
hOrndlkc, lynn, Hiatcr] o/ tx-
pcrimctttnl Scicitcc, ZZ n. J
lmc, acc uttdcr %ca8urcmcnt ,
lnhnltc tlmc, l Z
OrrlCcIIl, vangcIl8ta, Z rt. J , nrtd
barOmctrlC cxpcrlmcnt8, l Z7 . ,
nitd CyCIOld, l 4 and n. l , nrtd
gcOmctry, l JZ, Opcrn Uco-
mclricn, wlth rccrcnCc tO vaIuc
O gcOmctry, J and rt. J.
OrrlCcIIlan tubc, l Z8, l JJ, scc
nlac uitdcr %crCury, vaCuum,
l 4-7 and n. Z. a8CaI and, l JJ
raCtlOn, Z
yChOBrahc, 7, l , l Z, l ZZ, l ZJ
Lndcr8tandlng, human, 4-Z
Lnlvcr8c, thc hnltc, Z4, ZJ n. J, Z,
l Z,thclnhnltc,Z,8-, Z, J4 rt. Z
n. Z, ln rcIatlOntOwclght, J l-Z, JJ- NaCuum, Z7-8, J l , J4, 44 n. J, J7,
7 andn. , J8 . , 4and n. J, J and l l H. , l Z7h., l 4J and n. ,
+
LLA
NaCuum (ccnt.)
l 4-7 and n. , l48, l JZ, l JJ-,
mOttOn tn, 4I., Jl I., JJI., J8,
Z I. , , 7,7Z-J, 87, VZ, l
NarrOn, mlChc,undaw8OImOtlOn,
! Z4
NcOClty, OI Ia, lZ, JandN. l , J l ,
44, JZ, n. J, ! Z4; OI 8Ound,
! ZJ andf. J
Ncndclnu8, nnd aw OIIa, l
Vlvlanl, NlnCcnZO, V, V8 f. ! ,
l ZJ n. J , ! J
NOld8, 47 n. 4
Wal8, JOhn, Xrithmcticn in/ni-
tcrum, l J7 n. ! ; nnd CyCIOld
COmpctltlOn, l 4! I. , and n.
Watcr, OOllng, l J l andn. , watct-
ga88 tOmca8urctlmc, l J . , nnd
wtnc, 8J-4andn. , 4V, J M. ,
! JZ. Scc nlac ydrO8tatlC8, nnd
mcdlum
Wclght, acc hcaVlnc88 O OOdlc8
undcr alng OOdlc8, nnd undcr
Ar nnd undcr bpccd
Wrcn, Lhrl8tOphcr, nnd CyCOld,
!4Z and n. J
ZaOarcIa, nnd 8ClcntlhC rcVOuttOn
OI l 7thCcntury, Zl n. J
ZcnO, ranCl8Cu8, nnd HlCClOlt`8
cXpctmcnt8, l 4, n. 4 J, l 8
Zl8c, L., wlth rcIcrcnCc tOattl8an8
OIthc Hcnal88anCc, l 7n. J
l65