Fundamentals of Combustion - NPTEL

NPTEL Online - IIT Kanpur
file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture1/main.htm[10/5/2012 11:08:14 AM]

Course Name Fundamental of
Combustion

Department Aerospace
Engineering,
IIT Kanpur

Instructor Dr. D.P. Mishra

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file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture1/1_1a.htm[10/5/2012 11:08:14 AM]

Question can never be silly,
It can be like a beautiful lily,
In the garden of knowledge,
This is still a truth, age after age.
- Dr. D.P. Mishra

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Module 1: Introduction to Combustion
Lecture 1: Introduction

The Lecture Contains:
Introduction to Combustion
What is Combustion?
Combustion Triangle
Applications of Combustion
Contd..

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Introduction to Combustion
Introduction

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Combustion Triangle
Essential conditions for combustion to occur
1. Presence of fuel .
2. Presence of oxidizer (Not essentially oxygen).
3. They must be in right proportions.
4. The proportion will be dictated by flammability limit.
5. Ignition energy.

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Applications of Combustion

Power Plants
Chemical Industries
Domestic Burner
Automobiles

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Contd..

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Lecture 2: What is Fuel and Oxidizer?

What is Fuel and Oxidizer?
Types of Fuels and Oxidizers
Contd..
Characterization of a Gaseous Fuel
Junker's Calorimeter
Liquid Fuels and Oxidizers
Refinery End-Products of Typical Crude Oil

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What is Fuel and Oxidizer?
Electronegativity
The ability of an element to accept or donate electrons.
Amount of pull that one atom exerts on the electron that it is sharing with other atom.
The term electronegativity was coined by Linus Pauling, a Noble Laureate.

Element
Electro-
negativity
Element
Electro-
negativity
Element
Electro-
negativity
F 4 Br 2.8 B 2.0
O 3.5 C,S,I 2.5 Be,Al 1.5
N,Cl 3.0 H,P 2.1 Mg 1.2

Fluorine is having Highest Electronegativity (Most powerful oxidizer).
Oxygen has second highest electronegativity.
Carbon, Hydrogen, Aluminum and Magnesium have Low Electronegativity (Fuels).

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Types of Fuels and Oxidizers
Gaseous Fuel and Oxidizer

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Contd..
Types of Gaseous Fuel and Oxidizer
Sl. No. Fuel Oxidizer Application
1 LPG Air/O
2
Domestic Burner, Furnace
2 Natural Gas (NG) Air/O
2
IC Engines, Furnaces
3 Producer Gas Air/O
2
EC/IC Engines
4 CH
4
, C
3
H
8
, H
2
Air/O
2
EC/IC Engines
5 Biogas Air/O
2
EC/IC Engines, Burners
6 Acetylene Air/O
2
Gas welding, Gas cutting
* EC=External Combustion
IC =Internal Combustion
Composition of Some Gaseous Fuels
Fuel CO
2
O
2
N
2
CO H
2
CH
4
C
2
H
6
C
3
H
8
C
4
H
10
LPG - - - - - - - 70 30
Natural Gas - - 5 - - 90 5 - -
Producer Gas 8 0.1 50 23.2 17.7 1 - - -
Propane - - - - - - 2.2 97.3 0.5
Biogas 33 - 1 - 1 65 - - -

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Characterization of a Gaseous Fuel
Heating Value:
Amount of heat released per unit volume when it undergoes oxidation at normal pressure and
temperature (0.1 MPa and 298 K).
Lower heating value (LHV) amount of heat released by burning 1 kg of fuel assuming the
latent heat of vaporization in the reaction products is not recovered.
Higher heating value (HHV) heating value of the fuel when water is condensed.
is the Latent heat of vaporization of water at 298.15 K
Junker's Calorimeter
(Figure 2.1)

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Determines the heating value of the gaseous fuel.
Fuel and air are burnt in a burner.
Cooling water in the water jacket-absorbs the heat released during combustion.
Heating value- calculated from the water flow rate and rise in temperature.

Liquid Fuels and Oxidizers
Liquid fuel is one of the major energy sources in the transport sector.
Crude oil is formed from organic sources, animals, vegetables which are entrapped in rocks
under high pressure and temperature for million years.
Fuel Oxidizer Application
1 Gasoline Air S.I. Engine, Aircraft Piston Engine
2 HSD Air C.I. Engine
3 Furnace Oil Air Furnaces
4 Kerosene Air
Aircraft, Gas Turbine, Engines
Ramjet, Domestic Burner
5 Alcohols Air I.C. Engine
6
Hydrazine, UDMH, MMH, Liquid
Hydrogen, Triethyl Amine
Liquid O
2
, RFNA (Red
Fuming Nitric Acid)
N
2
O
4
Liquid propellant rocket Engines
7 Hydrogen, Kerocene Air Ramjet/Scramjet

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Refinery End-Products of Typical Crude Oil

Crude oil undergoes several process in the refinery.
Generally separation of petroleum constituents occur in the distillation column.
Constituents of typical crude oil is shown below.

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Lecture 3: Fuels

Bomb Calorimeter
Properties of Liquid Fuels
Properties of Common Liquid Fuels
Solid Fuels and Oxidizers
Contd..

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Lecture 3: Fuels

Bomb Calorimeter
Used to determine the calorific value of the liquid fuel.
Liquid is burnt in the bomb in the presence of oxygen at about 2.5 MPa .
The change in temperature in the water bath provides the calorific value of the fuel.
(Figure 3.2)

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Lecture 3: Fuels

Specific
Gravity
: Ratio of mass density of fuel to mass density of water at the same temperature

Reference temperature for fuel and water: 288.8 K
American Petroleum Institute (API) Scale:

Relation between APISG and HHV:
For
Gasoline
:
For
Kerosene
:
Auto Ignition
Temperature
: The lowest temperature required to make the combustion self sustained without
any external aid

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Lecture 3: Fuels

Flash
Point
: Minimum temperature at which liquid fuel will produce sufficient vapors to form a
flammable mixture with air. Indicates maximum temperature at which liquid fuel can be
stored without any fire hazard.
Fire
Point
: Minimum temperature at which liquid fuel produces sufficient vapors to form a flammable
mixture with air that continuously supports combustion establishing flame instead of just
flashing.
Smoke
Point
: Measure of the tendency of a liquid fuel to produce soot.
Properties of Common Liquid Fuels
Fuel Type
Automotive
Gasoline
Diesel Fuel Methanol Kerosene
ATF
(JP8)
Specific gravity 0.72 - 0.78 0.85 0.796 0.82 0.71
Kinematics viscosity @ 293 K
(m
2
/s)
0.8 X 10
-6
2.5 X 10
-6
0.75 X 10
-6
3.626 X
10
-6
--
Boiling point range (K) @ STP 303 - 576 483 - 508 338 423-473 442
Flash point (K) 230 325 284 311 325
Auto ignition temperature (K) 643 527 737 483 --
Stoichiometric air/fuel by weight 14.7 14.7 6.45 15 15.1
Heat of Vaporization (kJ/kg) 380 375 1185 298.5 --
Lower heating value (MJ/kg) 43.5 45 20.1 45.2 43.3

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Lecture 3: Fuels

Solid Fuels and Oxidizers

Solid Fuels:

(Figure 3.2)

Constituents of Solid Fuel:

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Lecture 3: Fuels

Contd..
Types of Solid Fuels and Oxidizers:
S. No. Fuel Oxidizer Applications
1
Biomass (Wood, Saw Dust, Rice
Husk, Rice Straw, Wheat Straw,
etc)
Air/O
2
Domestic Burner,
Engine With
Producer Gas
2 Coal, Coke, Charcoal do do
3
Special Fuels
Nitrocellulose (NC), HTPB,
CTPB
Nitroglycerine, Ammonium
Perchlorate , Ammonium Nitrate,
Nitrogen Tetraoxide
Solid Propellant
Rocket, Hybrid
Rocket

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Lecture 4: Characterization of Solid Fuels

Oxygen, Water and Ash Content of Certain Solid Fuels
Characterization of Solid Fuels
Various Combustion Modes

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Oxygen, Water and Ash Content of Certain Solid Fuels
Moisture in Solid Fuel:

1. Free
2. Bound water
Fuel moisture content will affect rate of combustion and overall efficiency.
Ash: The inorganic materials, which remain as residue even after complete combustion.

Ash content affects the performance of the combustion system.
Ash content causes fouling of the boilers.

Fuel Oxygen (Dry, Ash-free) Moisture (Ash-free) Ash (Dry)
Wood 40-45% 15-70% 0.1-1.0%
Peat 30-35% 70-90% 0.1-20%
Lignite coal 20-25% 20-30% >5%
Bituminous coal 3-5% 10-5% >5%
Anthracite coal 1-2% 2-4% >5%

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Characterization of Solid Fuels:
Proximate Analysis:
Used to determine the moisture content, volatile matter, fixed carbon and ash content in the
solid fuel.
To determine water content, few grams of fuel is heated around 378 K till it attains constant
weight.
Volatile matter is determined by heating the sample at 1173 K.
Ultimate Analysis:
Used to determine the major elemental composition of the solid fuel.
Nitrogen content is determined by chemical method.
Sulphur content is evaluated by burning the fuel to convert it into SO
4
followed by precipitation
method. Calorific value can be determined by bomb calorimeter.

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Various Combustion Modes

Premixed Flame : Fuel and oxidizer are mixed before actual combustion.
Examples: Bunsen burner, LPG Stove
Diffusion Flame : Fuel and oxidizer are mixed in the region where chemical reaction
takes place.
Laminar and Turbulent
Flames
: Based on the flow characteristics; Turbulent flow occurs in practical
combustion devices.

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Lecture 5: Scope of Combustion

Scope of Combustion
Image Sources

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Scope of Combustion
Industrial Process
Thermal energy for process chemical plants, sugar industries, food processing industries are
obtained through combustion.
Iron, steel and other metals are produced from raw materials through combustion.
Heat treatment and annealing of metals.
Rotary kilns are used to produce Portlant cement.

Sugar Industry Food Processing

Process Chemical Plant Steel Plant

(Figure 5.1)

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Transportation
Surface transport vehicles are operated by reciprocating IC Engines
Gas turbine combustors are used widely in air and marine transportation sectors.

(Figure 5.2)

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Power
Generation

Most of the thermal power plants are operated by burning coal.
Recently gas turbine power plants are coming up.
Fluidized Bed Power Plant Coal Power Plant
Biomass Based Power Plant Gas Turbine Power Plant

(Figure 5.3)

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Waste Disposal
Combustion finds application in disposing waste materials.
Incinerators are used to dispose domestic and industrial wastes.
In modern hospitals, incinerators are used to dispose hospital wastes safely.
(Figure 5.4)

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Fire
Sometimes fire causes damage to life and property.
Forest Fire: Damages natural resources and lives.
Structural Fire: Damages property and human lives.
Effective fire breakers should be designed and implemented to avoid fire hazard. By using proper
construction materials, Fire hazard can be minimized. Marine life is very much affected by oil spill
fire.
(Figure 5.5)

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Environmental pollution

Combustion of any fuel produces certain amount of emissions such as smoke, ash, soot, and
other harmful gases.
Major pollution generated in combustion system are CO, CO
2
, NO, NO
2
, SO
2
, ash, etc.
These are due to incomplete combustion and can be minimized by increasing the residence time
of fuel-oxidizer mixture in the combustor.
Sources Particulates
Carbon
Monoxide
Unburnt
Hydrocarbon
Nitrogen
oxides
Sulfur
dioxides
Transportation 7 79 60 15 6
Stationary
Combustion
Systems/Electricity
8 <1 <1 2 69
Industrial Process 23 8 32 13 25
Miscellaneous 62 13 8 70 <1

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Image Sources

Boiler : http://www.heatingoil.com/blog/39971019/
Incinerator : http://www.winderickx.pl/en/msw_municipal_waste_incinerators.php
IC Engine : http://www.engr.colostate.edu/~dga/mech324/handouts/cam_stuff/index.html
Wankel
Engine
:
http://mazda-rx7.org/
Power Plant : http://www.teachengineering.org/view_lesson.php?
url=http://www.teachengineering.org/
collection/cub_/lessons/cub_earth/cub_earth_lesson08.xml
Pulse
Detonation
Engine
:
http://www.seas.ucla.edu/combustion/projects/pulsed_detonation_wave.html
Rocket
Engine
:
http://www.lr.tudelft.nl/live/pagina.jsp?id=56438fe7-95c8-4c02-927c-
82766a35721a&lang=en
Incinerator : http://www.wtert.eu/default.asp?ShowDok=13

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Image Sources

Gas Turbine Engine : http://www.azom.com/details.asp?ArticleID=90
Furnace : http://www.macarthurcoal.com.au/Operations/Products
/MetallurgicalProducts/tabid/96/Default.aspx
Process Chemical
Industry
:
http://www.hasbrouckengineering.com/aroma_engineering.htm
Steel Plant : http://www.forbesmarshall.com/fm_micro/industries.aspx?id=system
Biomass Power
Plant
: http://www.treehugger.com/files/2006/10/tallahassee_flo.php
Gas Turbine Power
Plant
:
http ://www.power-technology.com/
projects/knapsackccgt/knapsackccgt6.html
Fluidized Bed
Power Plant
:
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic-art/1424725/113942/
Schematic-diagram-of-a-fluidized-bed-combustion-boiler
Forest Fire : http://www.cartridgesave.co.uk/news/30-amazing-pictures-of-forest-fires/

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Image Sources
Oil Spill Fire : http://zeroequalsthree.blogspot.com/2010/09/chaos-oil -spill-chaos.html
Structural Fire : http://www.forensicmed.co.uk/pathology/fire-deaths/fire-destruction-of-
bodies/
Dust Explosion : http://www.industrialairsolutions.com/industrial-vacuums/
explosion-proof/explosion-proof-vacuums.htm
Gas Turbine Engine : http://www.ohio.edu/mechanical/thermo/Intro/
Chapt.1_6/gasturbine/gas_turbine.html
Car : http://dodge-sprinter.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/Dodge-Sprinter-
Van-Side-View.jpg
Ambassador Car : http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_rMX3SfIKwNc/TEuA4BHyCSI/AAAAAAAAAQk/
BO7ZOgEVHtQ/s1600/ambassador
Aeroplane : http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-564300/Passenger-jet-makes-
terrifying-10-000ft-climb-dodge-plane-pilot-showing-child.html
Ship : http://www.a1-discount-cruises.com/cruise-ships.htm
IC Engine : http://www.birkey.com/technical -illustration/engine-piston-pin-sketch/

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One who asks a question fearlessly,
For a moment he may feel miserable,
One who dares not to ask questions,
He remains as a fool year after year.

-Dr. D.P.
Mishra

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Module 2: Thermodynamics of Combustion

Introduction
Thermodynamic Properties
Gas Mixture
Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure

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Thermodynamics of Combustion
Introduction

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Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure

Total no of moles, ..
(1)
Dividing by ,

Where, are mole fraction of species A, B,..
Total mass of the mixture,

Dividing by ,

Where, are mass fraction of species A, B, ..
(Figure 6.2)

= Molecular weight of mixture

Also, from ideal gas law,
Substituting in (1),

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Gas Mixture

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Thermodynamic Properties

(Figure 6.1)

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Lecture 7: Thermodynamic Laws

Enthalpy and Internal Energy
Effect of Temperature on Heat Capacity
Thermodynamic Laws
First Law
Second Law

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Enthalpy and Internal Energy
Specific internal energy of the mixture,

Mass specific internal energy of the mixture,

Specific enthalpy ofthe mixture,

Mass specific enthalpy of the mixture,

Enthalpy of a species,

Internal Energy of a species,

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Effect of Temperature on Heat Capacity
Specific heats, and are functions of temperature
for both ideal and real gases
(Figure 7.1)

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Thermodynamic Laws

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First Law of Thermodynamics
First law applied to a closed system:

Where, Heat added to the system (Path Function)
Work done by the system (Path Function)
Total energy change in the system (Point Function)
First law applied to an open system:
Where, Specific enthalpy
Velocity of flow
Height of inlet and outlet port

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Second Law of Thermodynamics
Clausius
inequality:
For any system undergoing a cyclical process, the ratio of the sum of all heat
interactions to its temperature is equal to or less than zero.

Increase in entropy
principle:
Second law of thermodynamics for control
volume:

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Lecture 8: Stoichiometry

Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry Calculation
Thermochemistry

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Stoichiometry

Stoichiometry: The elemental mass balance in a chemical reaction, describing exactly how
much oxidizer has to be supplied for complete combustion of certain amount of
fuel.

Example:

Mass is conserved
(Figure 8.1)
Lean Mixture:
Quantity of oxidizer > Stoichiometric quantity
Rich Mixture:
Quantity of oxidizer < Stoichiometric quantity

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Stoichiometry Calculation
Problem: Gasoline Dry air Products (10.02% ; 5.62% ; 0.88% ; 83.48% )
Determine (i) A/F Ratio; (ii) Equivalence Ratio; (iii) Stoichiometric Air Used
Solution
Equation: 16.32 ( 3.76 ) 7.37 + 0.65 4.13 61.38 9
((12 8 ) 18)/(16.32(32 (3.76 28))) = 0.05089
Stoichiometric Equation:
12.5( 3.76 ) 8 9 47
((12 8 ) 18)/(12.5(32 (3.76 28))) = 0.06643
Equivalence ratio 0.766
Since <1 ; The mixture is lean
Stoichiometric Air Used:
Stoichiometric air = 100 / = 100/ 0.766 = 130.5%

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Thermochemistry
(Figure 8.2)

Consider the burner as shown below:

(Figure 8.3)
Assumption: (i) Negligible change in K.E. & P.E., (ii) No shaft work

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Thermochemistry
Where, H
R
Total enthalpy of reactants; H
P
Total enthalpy of products

n
iR No of moles of i
th
reactant; n
iP
No of moles of i
th
product
h
iR Enthalpy of formation per unit mole of i
th
reactant
h
iP Enthalpy of formation per unit mole of i
th
product
Standard heat of reaction
Heat of reaction depends on temperature

(Figure 8.4)

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Lecture 9: Heat of Combustion

Heat of combustion
Hess Law

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Heat of Combustion

For the reaction
:
Heat of reaction is
given by
:

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Heat of formation of important species at 25 C and 0.1 MPa
Species Formula State Heat of formation (kJ/mol)
Oxygen O
2
Gas 0
Hydrogen H
2
Gas 0
Hydroxyl OH Gas 42.3
Water H
2
O Gas -242
Water H
2
O Liquid -286
Carbon monoxide CO Gas -110.5
Carbon dioxide CO
2
Gas -394
Methane CH
4
Gas -74.5
Propane C
3
H
8
Gas -103.8
Butane (n) C
4
H
10
Gas -124.7
Kerosene CH
1.842
Liquid -51.6
Nitrogen dioxide NO
2
Gas 33.9
Nitric acid NO Gas 90.4

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Hess Law

Illustration: Determine the heat of reaction for water gas shift reaction

Intermediate
Reactions:

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Lecture 10: Adiabatic Flame Temperature

Adiabatic Flame Temperature
Effect of Equivalence Ratio on Adiabatic Flame Temperature
Effect of Initial Temperature on Adiabatic Flame Temperature
Effect of Pressure on Adiabatic Flame Temperature

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Effect of Equivalence Ratio on Adiabatic Flame Temperature
(Figure 10.1)

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Adiabatic Flame Temperature

Where,

S.W -
K.E -
P.E -
Shaft work
Kinetic Energy
Potential Energy

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Effect of Initial Temperature on Adiabatic Flame Temperature

(Figure 10.2)

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(Figure 10.3)

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System T
u
(K) P (MPa) T
ad
(K)
CH
4
Air 300 0.1 2200
CH
4
- Air 300 2.0 2270
CH
4
- Air 600 2.0 2500
CH
4
- O
2
300 0.1 3030
C
3
H
8
- Air 300 0.1 2278
H
2
- Air 300 0.1 2390
H
2
- O
2
300 0.1 3080
CO - Air 300 0.1 2400

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Lecture 11: Chemical Equilibrium

Chemical Equilibrium
Procedure for Determining Equilibrium composition
Summary

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Chemical Equilibrium

Chemical reaction proceeds in the direction of increasing entropy

If the system is not adiabatic, we have to invoke Gibbs free energy, G
From 1
st
Law,

At constant pressure and temperature,

From 2
nd
Law, of Thermodynamic

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Procedure for Determining Equilibrium Composition
Equilibrium products can be estimated by adopting the following steps
Step 1: Identify probable equilibrium species
Step 2: Identify equilibrium reactions scheme
Step 3: Find out equilibrium constant
Step 4: Strike balance for elemental conservation
Step 5: Strike overall mass conservation
Step 6: Solve all equations by iterative method (Newton- Raphson Method)
For a ideal gas mixture, Gibbs function of i
th
species is given by

-Gibbs function per mole of i
th
species.
-Partial pressure of i
th
species.
-Temperature
-Universal gas constant
Gibbs function for a ideal gas mixture
At equilibrium,
In the above equation, (Since pressure remains constant)

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Consider the reaction

Where, a, b, c and d are stoichiometric coefficients
Change in number of moles of each species is given by,

Substituting above equation in Gibbs function, We can get,

In terms of mole fraction,

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Summary

The basic thermodynamic principles are useful in estimation of properties related to
combustion.
Stoichiometric calculations are useful in estimation of fuel-air requirements for a combustion
process.
Adiabatic flame temperature indicates maximum possible temperature in combustion process.
Thermodynamic relations can be used to relate the change in Gibbs free energy with
equilibrium constant.
Equilibrium composition can be used to calculate adiabatic flame temperature using an
iterative procedure.

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After asking a question about the unknown thing,
Examination of it is a must by own reasoning,
As reasoning is the backbone of everything,
That is the sole objective of all our learning.

-Dr. D.P.
Mishra

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Module 3: Physics of Combustion

Introduction
Laws of Transport Phenomenon

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Physics of Combustion
Introduction

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Laws of Transport Phenomenon
Newton's Law of Viscosity

Two parallel plates-
separated by Y'
Lower plate is fixed
At t< 0; system is at rest
At t=0; upper plate is
moved
Velocity of plate: V
x

(Figure 12.1)

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Newton's Law of Viscosity can be expressed as,
Where, is dynamic viscosity (kg/ms)
dVx/dy is the shear strain rate
-ve sign: momentum flux in the
direction of decreasing velocity

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Fourier's Law of Heat
Conduction
Two parallel plates-
separated by Y'
Lower plate is fixed
At t < 0; two plates are at
the same temperature
At t = 0; upper plate is
suddenly heated (T
1
>T
0
)
Lower plate Maintained
at temperature T
0
(Figure 12.2)

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Fick's Law of Species Diffusion
Two parallel plates-separated by
Y'.
Upper plate is maintained wet.
Lower plate is kept dry
(Dehydrating agent)
Water vapour evaporates at upper
plate
Partial pressure of water vapour is
maintained at saturated vapour
pressure of water
Thus concentration gradient exists
between the
two plates
Mass flux-proportional to
concentration, C
A
inversely
proportional to distance Y

Differential form of Fick's law
(Figure 12.3)
Binary diffusitivity of species A through B

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Lecture 13: Transport properties for gas mixture

Transport properties for gas mixture
Mass conservation equation
Momentum conservation equation

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Transport properties for gas mixture
Viscosity of gas mixture
Wassilijewa equation

Mason and Saxena modification

is the viscosity of the pure component
is the mole fraction of the i
th
component

Thermal Conductivity of gas mixture
Wassilijewa equation

Mason and Saxena modification

is the thermal conductivity of the pure component

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Diffusion Coefficient of any component in a gas mixture
Wilke equation

Where,

is the collision diameter in

is the pressure (Bar)

is the molecular weight of the components

is the collision integral

=Boltzman's constant

=Intermolecular potential

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Mass conservation equation
Principle of mass conservation

------ (1)
Rate of accumulation in fluid element = ------ (2)
Rate of mass in fluid element across face A = ------ (3)
Rate of mass leaving fluid element across face B = ------ (4)
The net efflux in x-direction = ------ (5)
The net efflux in y-direction = ------ (6)

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Substituting (2), (5) and (6) in (1)

Differential form of continuity equation
In vector notation,

Where, is the gradient operator
is the divergence of
For incompressible flow,

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Lecture 14: Momentum conservation equation

Species transport equation

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Rate of momentum accumulation in x-direction =

Rate of momentum accumulation in y-direction =

Momentum in x-direction into fluid element
across face A
=

Momentum in x-direction leaving
the fluid element across face B =
=

Momentum in y-direction entering the fluid
element through face C
=

Momentum in y-direction leaving the fluid
element across face D
=

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Net forces acting on the fluid element in x-
direction =

Net body forces acting in fluid
element in the x-direction
=

Momentum equation for fluid element
in x-direction
=

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Momentum equation for fluid
element in x-direction
=
where, , are components of mass velocity vector in x and y direction and are surface
stresses

Applying Stokes viscosity law, the surface stresses are given by

Momentum equation for
fluid element in x-direction
=

Momentum equation for
fluid element in y-direction
=

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Species transport equation

Rate of accumulation in fluid element=

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Rate of accumulation in fluid element=
Rate of mass of species A into fluid element across face A =
By Taylor's series expansion, the rate of mass
of
species A leaving fluid element across face B
=
Net efflux in x direction =
Net efflux in y direction =
Mass production rate of i
th
species due to chemical reaction =
According to Fick's law,
Species transport equation is given by,

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Lecture 15: Energy transport equation

Energy transport equation
Boundary layer concept

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Energy transport equation

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Heat accumulated in the fluid element =

Amount of heat entering into fluid
element through face A' is given by:

Amount of heat leaving from the fluid
element through face B' is given by:

Net efflux in x direction

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Amount of heat interaction in y-direction through faces C' and D' is

In a fluid element, heat may be absorbed or removed due to chemical reaction

The amount of heat interaction in fluid element per unit area:

By striking out an energy balance, the energy equation for a multi-component reactive system
because.

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Boundary layer concept
Velocity of fluid increases from zero at wall to free stream velocity
Velocity gradients appear near a thin region adjacent to wall

(Figure 15.1)
The thin region adjacent to wall surface is the boundary layer
Wall friction-causes reduction in velocity near the wall
Boundary layer thickness times the free stream velocity

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Lecture 16: Boundary layer solutions

Boundary layer solution
Thermal Boundary layer

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Lecture 16: Boundary layer solution

Approximate solution for steady 2D incompressible flow over a flat plate
Mass conservation

Momentum conservation

By boundary layer approximations,

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By carrying out order of magnitude analysis,
Mass conservation

Momentum conservation

From the above equation, pressure remains constant along y' direction.
Analytical method of Blasius gives exact solution of the above equations.

Relation between B. L. thickness and Re is
Drag coefficient for laminar flow over flat plate:

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Thermal Boundary layer
Free stream temperature
Flat plate temperature
Heat transferred from fluid to
plate
(Figure 16.1)

Thermal boundary layer thickness , Value of y for which

Thermal boundary layer grows with increase in distance from the leading edge

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Local heat flux due to convection,
(Newton's law of cooling)
Local heat flux at the wall,

(Fourier's law of conduction)

Combining there two equations, the convective heat transfer coefficient (h) is given by,

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Using Pohlhausen method, Nusselt number (Nu) can be expressed as
Valid for can be used for most of the gases

For laminar fully developed pipe flow, Valid for constant temperature
For laminar fully developed pipe flow, Valid for constant heat flux

Average Nusselt number for developing
pipe flow,

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Lecture 17: Transport in Turbulent Flow

Transport in Turbulent Flow
Characterization of Turbulent Flow
Turbulent Boundary layer

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Transport in Turbulent Flow
Turbulent Flow:
At high Reynolds and Grashof's
number, the properties, velocity and
temperature exhibits random variation.
Eddies move randomly back and forth
across the adjacent fluid layers.
Turbulence reduces the B.L. thickness.
Enhanced mass, momentum, and
energy transfer rates.

(Figure 17.1)
Where, Time averaged value of
velocity
Fluctuating component of
velocity
Turbulent diffusivity is given by,

(Figure 17.2)

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Characterization of Turbulent Flow
Length scale of Turbulence:
The distance covered by an eddy before it disappears or loses its identity.
Intensity of Turbulence:
Measure of violence of eddies.
Turbulence Intensity:

Length Scales used
in Turbulent Flow:
1. Macroscopic scale, L (Characteristic width of flow)
2. Integral Scale,
3. Taylor micro scale,
4. Kolmogorov length Scale,

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Taylor microscale,
where, is the mean strain rate
Kolmogorov length scale,
Note:
Kolmogorov length scale ( ) is related to integral length scale ( )
( ) - Thickness of the smallest vortex present in turbulent flow
Turbulent Reynolds number based on the length scales
Note: is the characteristic velocity

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Turbulent Boundary layer
Consider 2D steady incompressible turbulent flow over a flat plate,
Momentum equation in x direction is given by,
The term is known as Reynolds stress
Energy equation for turbulent boundary layer is given by,
A simple model for Reynolds stress suggested by Bossinesq,
Similarly,
; where, is the turbulent diffusivity
; where, is the eddy diffusivity

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In analogy to kinetic theory of gases, Prandtl suggested an expression for turbulent diffusivity
Where, is the mixing length, and I is the turbulence intensity
Combining these two equations,
C, is the constant, obtained from the experimental data

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Asking a question is not the end of a thing,
One can assume it to be a humble beginning,
If explored earnestly without bothering,
One can definitely have a happy ending.
-Dr. D.P. Mishra

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Module 4: Chemistry of combustion

Introduction
Basic Reaction Kinetics

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Chemistry of combustion
Introduction
Chemical kinetics:
The specialized branch of physical chemistry dealing with the study of chemical reactions and their
governing factors.

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Basic Reaction Kinetics

Reaction rate:
Rate of decrease of reactant concentration or rate of increase of product concentration. Expressed in
terms of mole/m
3
s
Compact expression for chemical reaction:
Where, and are stoichiometric coefficients of reactants and products.
N is the total number of species
M is the arbitrary specification of all chemical species

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Expressing the reaction using index notation:
Here, N=2

Here, N=3

Note: The above reactions are elementary in nature
Global reactions,
3 bonds have to be broken,
4 bonds have to be formed
Unlikely to occur!!

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Global reactions,

Bimolecular reactions
Reaction between two molecules,

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Lecture 19: Law of Mass Action

Law of Mass Action
Collision Theory
Elementary Reactions

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Law of Mass Action
The rate of reaction, RR of a chemical species is proportional to the product of the concentrations of
the participating chemical species, where each concentration is raised to the power equal to the
corresponding stoichiometric coefficient in the chemical reaction.

Where, is the specific reaction rate or rate coefficient

Note :
-depends on temperature and activation energy and not on concentration. Law of mass action
holds good only for elementary reactions

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Collision Theory
(Figure 19.1)
The colliding molecules must possess higher energy than the mean energy
Boltzman's energy distribution law:
The probability of a molecule possessing the threshold energy, E is proportional to exp

Conditions for chemical reactions to occur:
Suitable molecule must collide with each other
The molecules must collide with proper orientation (Determined by steric factor)
Colliding molecules must possess energy greater than the threshold energy(E).

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From collision theory,

- Collision frequency,
- Steric factor,
- Boltaman's energy probability factor
- Activation energy

(Figure 19.2)
From kinetic theory,
- Average effective collision diameter between molecules A and B,
- Boltaman's constant = 1.381 X 10
-23
J/K
- Reduced mass
Reaction rate
(Pre-exponential Factor)

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The form of equation in previous section is Arrhenius law
Limitations of Arrhenius law:
It cannot simulate combustion process
over wide range of temperature.
Rate law matches experimental data at
high temperature, but not so at low
temperature.
Variation of RR with temperature: (Figure 19.3)
An increase in temperature by 10% for
same activation energy can cause RR
to be enhanced by 250 %
(Figure 19.4)

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Elementary Reactions
If the reaction occurs successfully at molecular level, the reaction is termed as elementary.
Molecularity :
Number of molecules or atoms participating in each reaction leading to product.
1. Unimolecular reaction
2. Bimolecular reaction
3. Trimolecular reaction

Order of Reaction:
Number of molecules or atoms whose concentration would determine the reaction rate.
Example:

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Lecture 20: Order reaction

First Order Reaction
Second Order Reaction
Third Order Reaction
Reverse Reaction
Chain Reaction

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First order reaction,
Consider the first order reaction,

Reaction rate,

Sepataring the variables and integrating,
(Figure 20.1)
First order combustion reactions!

Note : concentration decreases exponentially with time (Refer Fig),
All unimolecular reactions obey first order kinetics!
All first order reactions need not to be unimolecular!!

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Second Order Reaction
Consider the second order bimolecular reaction,
Reaction rate for the above reaction,
General second order reaction
Concentration of species A and B
Reaction rate for the above reaction,

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Multiplying both sides by
Integrating,
Second order combustion reactions!
By applying we will get

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Third Order Reaction
Consider the third order, trimolecular reaction,
RR proportional to third power of concentration of participating species,
Third order combustion reactions !

Reverse Reaction
Chemical reactions may proceed in both forward and reverse directions.
Net rate of consumption of A,
Substituting in the above equation, we will get
By integreting the above equation, we can get
can be estimated from the knowledge of

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Chain Reaction
In reality, combustion process involves several reactions
The overall stoichiometric chemical reaction is unlikely to occur in nature. The elementary reactions
can be classified as;
Chain initiating
Chain branching
Chain carrying
Chain terminating
Chain branching
The ratio of number of free radicals in the product to the reactant > 1
Chain carrying
The ratio of number of free radicals in the product to the reactant = 1
Chain terminating
The ratio of number of free radicals in the product to the reactant < 1

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Lecture 21: Chain Branching Explosion

Chain Branching Explosion
Multistep Reaction Mechanism
Quasi-Steady State Approximation
Partial Equilibrium Approximation (PEA)
Global Kinetics

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Explosion:
Very rapid combustion of fuel and
oxidizer, leading to violent release of
energy.

(Figure 20.2)

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To begin with, stoichiometric mixture of H
2
and
O
2
is kept in a container.
Temperature is increased beyond 773 K.
Result: Very rapid chemical reaction with
explosion.
(Figure 21.1)
Regimes in the explosion chart
1. First limit
2. Second limit
3. Third limit
(Figure 21.2)

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Multistep Reaction Mechanism

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Quasi-Steady State Approximation
Radicals are formed during combustion
Half life period of radicals - Very small
Rate of formation = Rate of destruction

Relate radical concentration with
measurable concentration of other species
Consider the two step chain reaction,
; ;
Reaction rate of the three species,

Initial condition,

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Applying initial condition,
Applying QSSA method to A
2
,

(Figure 21.3)

; ;
; ;
QSSA method predicts the concentration of species especially when

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Partial Equilibrium Approximation (PEA)
PEA expresses concentration of unknown species in terms of known concentrations.
Consider NO formation mechanism,
Reaction Rate (RR) for NO species:

Note 1: O and N
2
concentration are required to determine RR
Note 2: Rate of formation and destruction of O is very high
Difficult to measure the concentration of O!!!

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Step 1:
Assume partial equilibrium for O
2
molecule
Step 2:
Relate O
2
molecule to O by

Equilibrium constant

Reaction Rate (RR) for NO species:

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Global Kinetics

Single step methane combustion:
Overall reaction rate (CH
4
)
Global kinetic scheme for an arbitrary hydrocarbon (C
x
H
y
):
Overall reaction rate (C
x
H
y
)

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One has to pursue questions earnestly,
Like a faithful shadow meticulously,
One should bear questions in mind,
Like a small innocent inquisitive child.
-Dr. D.P. Mishra

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Module 5: Premixed Flame

Introduction
One-dimensional Combustion Wave
Analysis of 1D Flame
Hugoniot Curve...
Laminar Premixed Flame

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Premixed Flame
Introduction
Premixed Flame: Fuel and oxidizer are mixed well at the molecular level before combustion
Examples of premixed flame :
Bunsen burner, LPG domestic burner, SI Engine, Afterburner in jet engine

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One-dimensional Combustion Wave
(Figure 22.1)
(Figure 22.2)
(Figure 22.3)
(Figure 22.4)

s
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Analysis of 1D Flame
Continuity Equation : State Equations:
Momentum Equation :
Energy Equation :

are the density, velocity, pressure and temperature
q is the heat release per unit mass
is the mass fraction of species
heat of formation of species
Combining Continuity and Momentum Equations and expressing them in terms of Mach number,

Rearranging the energy equation, we can get

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Hugoniot Curve ..
Hugoniot Curve :
vs. for a
fixed value of q, inlet pressure ,
and inlet density
Region I: Pressure of burned
gas Pressure
of C-J detonation
wave
Strong detonation
Gasvelocity relative
to wave front is
slowed
to subsonic speed

Pressure and
density increases
significantly
for will be
rarely observed
(Figure 22.5)
Region II: Pressure of burned gas Pressure of
C-J detonation wave Weak detonation
Gas velocity relative to wave front is slowed to subsonic speed
Burned gas velocity > speed of sound at isochoric condition weak
detonation attains infinite velocity
Region III:
In this region Therfore
Hence in this region is imaginary and physically impossible

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Laminar Premixed Flame
(Figure 22.6)
(Figure 22.7)
First laboratory premixed
Glame burner : Invented by
Robert Bunsen in 1855

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Luminous Zone
Flame radiation: 3300 to 4400 A

(Figure 22.8)

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Lecture 23: Structure of 1D Premixed Flame

Structure of 1D Premixed Flame
Laminar Flame Theory
Flame Thickness
Burning Velocity Measurement Methods

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Structure of 1D Premixed Flame
Preheat zone: Negligibly small heat
release
(Figure 23.1)
Certain chemical reactions take
place in this zone
Reaction zone:
most of the chemical energy is
released in the form of heat
Decomposition of fuel takes place,
leading to intermediate radical
formation
Reaction zone is very thin as
compared to the preheat zone.
Temperature gradient and
concentration gradient are high.
Recombination zone:

CO
2
and H
2
O are formed;
No heat release in this zone

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Laminar Flame Theory
Assumptions:
1D, steady, inviscid flow.
Flame is quite thin.
Ignition temperature is very close to flame temperature.
No heat loss including radiation; Adiabatic flame.
Pressure difference across the flame is negligibly small.
Binary diffusion, Fourier and Fick's law are valid.
Unity Lewis number.
Constant transport properties
Mass conservation: (1)
Species conservation: Energy equation:
Fuel: (2)
(5)
Oxidizer: (3) Global reaction mechanism:

Product: (4)
(6)

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Laminar Flame Theory (Contd.)
Heat release due to chemical reaction:
(7)
Now energy equation becomes In the reaction zone,
(8)

Boundary conditions (For preheat zone)

(10)

(11)
Recasted energy equation for
preheat zone,
Rewriting, E.g. (11).
(9) (12)
Heat transfer due to conduction is balanced by
convective heat transfer.

(13)

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Laminar Flame Theory (Contd.)
Combining equations (10) and (13),
(14)

(15)

Also,
Mean fuel burning rate can also be
expressed as,
(16) (19)
Combining equations (15) and (16),
Expression for burning velocity
becomes,
(17)
Mean fuel burning rate per unit volume,
(18)

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Flame Thickness
Ignition temperature can be approximated as
The temperature gradient at the flame surface is

Flame thickness:
(Figure 23.2)
Where,

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Burning Velocity Measurement Methods
(Figure 23.3)
Flame front visualization
Luminous photography
Shadowgraph photography
Schlieren Photography

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Lecture 24: Tube Method

Tube Method
Combustion Bomb Method
Soap Bubble Method
Stationary Flame Method (Bunsen Burner)
Flat Flame Burner
Effect of Equivalence Ratio on S
L

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Tube Method
(Figure 24.1)

Procedure: Combustible mixture is filled in the tube
On ignition at one end, the flame propagates through the tube
Features: Inner dia of tube should be greater than the quenching diameter
The flame is planar in the beginning and curved towards downstream, due to
buoyancy
Natural convection distorts the planar flame front due to difference in densities
Friction at the tube wall is also a reason for parabolic shape of the flame
The burning velocity is given by : Flame front velocity
: Unburnt gas velocity
: Cross-sectional area of tube
: Flame surface area

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Combustion Bomb Method
(Figure 24.2)

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Soap Bubble Method
(Figure 24.3)

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Stationary Flame Method (Bunsen Burner)
(Figure 24.4)

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Flat Flame Burner

(Figure 24.5)

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Effect of Equivalence Ratio on S
L
(Figure 24.6)

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Lecture 25: Effect of Oxygen Concentration on S
L

Effect of Oxygen Concentration on S
L
Effect of Initial Pressure and Temperature on S
L
Effect of Inert Additives
Flame Extinction
Flame Quenching
Simplified Analysis for Quenching Diameter

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L

Effect of Oxygen Concentration on S
L

(Figure 25.1)

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L

Effect of Initial Pressure and Temperature on S
L
This relation is supported by
experimental data
n: Overall order of global chemical
reaction
for HC flames with
for HC flames with
for HC flames with
Pressure index,
For , m is negative,
indicating burning velocity increases
with decreasing pressure
(Figure 25.2)
For , m is
constant, indicating burning velocity is
constant
For , m is positive,
indicating burning velocity decreases
with decrease in initial pressure
(Figure 25.3)

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L

Effect of Inert Additives

(Figure 25.4)

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L

Flame Extinction

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L

Flame Quenching

Fuel Oxidizer SL (cm/s) dq (mm)
CH
4
Air 40 2.5
CH
4
O
2
0.3
C
3
H
8
Air 45 2.0
C
3
H
8
O
2
0.25
C
2
H
2
Air 140 0.8
C
2
H
2
O
2
0.2
CO Air 2.8
H
2
Air 210 0.5
H
2
O
2
0.2

Quenching diameter for various stoichiometric
fuel-oxidizer ratio.

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L

Simplified Analysis for Quenching Diameter
Rate of heat generated per unit volume
Heat generated in flame volume
Heat loss rate due to wall conduction
(Figure 25.5)
Assuming linear temperature distribution in
flame,

Quenching diameter

After simplification,

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Lecture 26: Flammability Limits

Flammability Limits
Effect of Pressure on Limit Mixture
Ignition
Flame Stabilization
Flame Stabilization by Burner Rim
Turbulent Premixed Flame

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Flammability Limits
Instrument to determine flammability
limit
Vertical glass tube of 1.2 m length
and 50 mm ID
(Figure 26.1)

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Effect of Pressure on Limit Mixture
(Figure 26.2)

Fuel Oxidizer Stoichiometry (% Fuel) LFL (%) UFL (%)
Methane Air 9.5 5 15
Ethane Air 5.6 2.8 12.4
Propane Air 5.6 2.1 9.1
CO Air 29.5 12 74.2
Hydrogen Air 29.2 4 74.2

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Ignition
Energy generated in flame = Ensible enthalpy
Mass
Substituting quenching diameter
Substituting flame thickness (Figure 26.3)

Fuel-Air MIE (mJ)
Dependence on pressure Methane-air 0.47
Ethane-air 0.4

Butane-air 0.34

Acetylene-air 0.03

CO-air 0.05

Hydrogen-air 0.02

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Flame Stabilization
Local gas flow velocity = Local burning velocity

(Figure 26.4)
(Figure 26.5)

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Flame Stabilization by Burner Rim
(Figure 26.6)

Stability of flame front near the rim of Bunsen burner

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Turbulent Premixed Flame

(Figure 26.7)

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Lecture 27: Flame Stabilization

Turbulent Flame Regimes
The Borghi Diagram
Turbulent Burning Velocity
Wrinkled Laminar Flame
Distributed Reaction
Flamelet in Eddies

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Reynolds number for turbulent flame: Chemical reaction time:
Chemical reaction time: Damkohler number
If Da >> 1, fast chemistry regime
If Da <<1, fast mixing regime

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The Borghi Diagram
Borghi Diagram
The plot of Da against on a log-
log scale
Depicts various regimes of turbulent
flames
(Figure 27.1)
Weak turbulent flame
Upper region of the Borghi diagram
Wrinkled laminar flame
Region between
and
Chemical reaction takes place in a
thin zone
Flamelets in eddies
Region between upper bold line
and
Distributed reaction regime
Region below
Reaction sheets are distributed in the
turbulent flame surface
This type of combustion can be
established in a well stirred reactor.

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How to measure (S
T
) ?

From the reactant flow rate
is the reactant flow rate
is the time average flame surface area
is the density of unburnt gas

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Wrinkled Laminar Flame
Turbulent burning velocity is given by, (Figure 27.2)

According to Damkohler, for constant laminar
burning velocity

According to Klimov,
Similarly for turbulent flame, According to Calvin and William,

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Distributed Reaction
(Figure 27.3)
Turbulent burning velocity is given by,

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Flamelet in Eddies

(Figure 27.4)
Fuel mass burning rate,
Typically, is root mean square of
fluctuating fuel mass fraction, is the turbulent
kinetic energy per unit.

References
1. D. P. Mishra, Fundamentals of Combustion, PHI leaming, Pvt Ltd., New Delhi, 2010.
2. Stephen R. Turns, An Introduction to Combustion, McGraw Hill Publication, Singapore, 1996.
3. Irvin Glassman, Combustion, Academic Press, New York, 1977.

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Module 6: Diffusion Flame
Lecture 29: Theoretical Analysis

Theoretical Analysis
Theoretical Analysis (Contd.)

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Theoretical Analysis
Consider a 2D diffusion flame,
(Figure 29.1)
Assumptions:
i. 2D steady laminar inviscid flow.
ii. Velocity above the channel is constant everywhere
iii. Fuel and oxidizer react in stoichiometric proportion at the flame surface with infinite reaction
rate (Thin flame approximation).
iv. Binary diffusion between participating species.
v. Mass diffusion is along x-direction only.
vi. Unity Lewis number.
vii. Single step irreversible reaction.
viii. Radiation heat transfer is negligibly small.
ix. Constant thermophysical properties.
x. Mass diffusivity of both fuel and oxidizer are the same.
xi. Buoyancy force is neglected.

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Conservation equations:
Mass conservation:
Using assumption (ii), we can have,
Axial momentum conservation:
Species conservation equation:

Mass fraction of the product can be found from

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By thin flame approximation,

Single step irreversible reaction,
Universal concentration variables,
Rate of fuel transport from the centre to the flame surface is equal to stoichiometric rate of oxidizer
transport.
Let be the mass fraction of the reactant,
Instead of solving two equations (For fuel and oxidizer), we can solve a single equation as given
below,
This analysis is known as the Burke-Schumann's analysis

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Above equation can be converted into a diffusion equation by substituting
Inner wall exists at and outer wall at
The initial and boundary conditions are as follows.
Applying boundary conditions, we obtain a closed form series solution
where, is the non-dimensional mass fraction of the reactant.

The infinite series must have a constant value at the flame surface as given below

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The series solution depends on and
At the burner rim, the series constant (E)
becomes a square wave
When F/A ratio is stoichiometric E becomes zero.
Roper extended the Burke-Schumann model by varying the
velocity to vary along the axial direction.
The flame height is given by,
(Figure 29.2)

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Lecture 30: Mechanism of Soot Formation

Mechanism of Soot Formation
Liquid Fuel Combustion
Processes during droplet combustion
Liquid Fuel Combustion (Contd.)

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Process of soot formation:

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Liquid Fuel Combustion

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Processes during droplet combustion
(Figure 30.1)

Factors affecting the shape of the flame front:
Condition under which combustion takes place!
Zero gravity : Spherical flame front (No buoyancy)
Normal gravity : Elongated (Due to natural convection)
Forced convection condition : Fame aligned with flow
Energy required to vaporize the liquid fuel:

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Assumptions
1. Single droplet in quiescent
atmosphere.
2. Droplet temperature is uniform.
3. Density of liquid fuel much
higher than the gas phase.
4. Fuel is a single component with
no solubility for gases.
5. Flow velocities are assumed to
be low
6. Single step irreversible
reaction! Thin flame
approximation.
7. Constant thermo-physical
properties.
8. Unity Lewis number.
9. Radiation heat transfer is
neglected.
10. No other phase is formed in
the liquid fuel droplet.
(Figure 30.2)

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Lecture 31: Overall mass conservation

Overall mass conservation

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Overall mass conservation:
-----(1)
for all r V - bulk velocity; -gas density

Momentum conservation:

Species conservation:
-----(2)
-----(3)
Single step reaction:
-----(4)
T - Temperature; - energy release rate due to chemical reaction

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Fuel, oxidizer and product can be related to heat release rate as follows
-----(5)

Rearranging,
-----(6)

We can rewrite fuel species conservation equation as,
-----( 7)

Multiply eq.7 by and add by eq.3,
-----( 8)
Here a is the thermal diffusivity

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Using eq.6, eq.8 becomes,
-----(9)

Elimination of the non-linear term simplifies the analysis. This simplification is known as
Schwab- Zeldovich Transformation.

Dividing eq.9 by ,

-----(10)

Heat input required for vaporization of droplet

Mass fraction of species at the surface of the droplet

Conserved variable for oxidizer

`
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General format of all the equations
-----(11)

Boundary conditions
;
Integrating eq.11 twice and applying the boundary conditions,
-----(12)

By applying boundary condition to Eq. 12, We can have,

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The transfer number, B is given by

Values of transfer number, B for some typical fuel:
Combustion in air B Combustion in air B
ISO-Octane 6.41 Kerosene 3.4
Benzene 5.97 Gas oil 2.5
n-Heptane 5.82 Light fuel oil 2.0
Avation gasoline 5.5 Heavy fuel oil 1.7
Automobile gasoline 5.3

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Lecture 32: The Temperature Profile

The Temperature Profile
Droplet Burning Time
Droplet Combustion in Convective Environment

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The Temperature Profile
No oxygen exists in the inner flame region.
No fuel exists in the outer region of flame.
Using the transfer function for fuel and
oxidizer,
Temperature profile for the inner region,
(Figure 32.1)
Rearranging the above equation,

Temperature profile for the outer region,

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Droplet Burning Time
Importance of droplet burning time:
Essential for desining combustion chamber
For complete combustion, residence time > life time
of largest droplet in spray.
Factors dictating residence time of droplet:
Air stream velocity
Droplet velocity
Fuel injection angle
Combustor geometry
Continuity equation at the surface of the droplet: (Figure 32.2)
-------(1)

Droplet mass is evaluated as follows,

-------(2) Where, D is the droplet diameter at any instant

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Droplet Burning Time (Contd.)
Recall,
Burning constant for typical hydrocarbons
-------
(3)
Fuel
k 10
-7
m
2
/s
(Calculated)
k 10
-7
m
2
/s
(Measured)
Ethyl alcohol 9.3 8.1
N-Heptane 14.2 9.7
ISO-Octane 14.4 9.5
Kerosene 9.7 9.6
Benzene 11.2 9.7
Toluene 11.1 6.6
Using (1) & (2) in (3),
-------
(4)
Expressing droplet diameter in
terms of ,

-------
(5)

In this expression, varies linearly with time (See figure 32.3). Slope of the plot is the burning rate
constant, K
-------(6)
Integrating (5) with time,
is law

(Figure 32.3)

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In practical devices, both free and forced convection will prevail,
Flow past the fuel droplet for Re > 20
Front portion of the droplet Boundary layer.
Rear portion Wake region
In practical devices, forced convection is more predominant
Boundary condition at the droplet surface,
-------(1)
Where,
-------(2)
- Convective heat transfer coefficient

Combining the above two expressions,
-------(3)

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Rearranging the above equation,
-------(4)

-------(5)
For high Reynolds number,
-------(6)
For unit Prandtl number, Re >> Pr,
-------(7)

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-------(8)
Then Eq. (7) becomes,

The above expression would not provide accurate prediction
Wake region behind the droplet is not considered here.
For predicting the experimental data, the above expression is modified as,
-------(9)

Under convective condition, laminar droplet burning rate follows

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Lecture 33: Spray Combustion Model

Spray Combustion Model

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Assumption:
Steady, 1-D flow, Laminar, inviscid
Mono-dispersed droplets.
Pressure remains constant during
combustion.
Droplets move with same velocity
as that of air.
Vaporization and ignition begins at
x=0.
Mixing and chemical reaction times
are quite small as compared to
droplet vaporization time.
Constant thermophysical
properties.
Dilute spray.
(Figure 33.1)

Stoichiometric fuel-air ratio:
-------(1)
=Density of liquid
= Cross sectional area

= Number of droplets
= Initial diameter

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Number of droplets,
-------(2)
From mass conservation,
-------(3)
- Density of droplet laden air
-------(4)
From above two equations,
-------(5)
Energy equation across the element dx
-------(6)
- Heat release rate

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Simplifying,
-------(7)
Heat release rate per unit volume,
-------(8)
Relationship for quasi -steady state droplet vaporization,
-------(9)
Where, K droplet combustion rate constant that can be experienced as
-------(10)
By using Eqs. (7) , and (10), we can have,
-------(11)

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Droplet diameter will vary by law
-------(12)
Boundary and initial conditions
-------(13)
By using above condition in Eq. 6.11 and integrating it, we can get
-------(14)
Adiabatic flame temperature is given as
-------(15)
By using Eng. (14), we get
-------(16)

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Zone length is given by
-------(17)
Integrating Eq. (17), we can get
-------(18)
Combustion Intensity is given by
-------(19)

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Lecture 34: Solid Fuel Combustion

Solid Fuel Combustion
Theory For Single Coal Combustion

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Factors influencing solid fuel burning
Nature of the solid fuel
Type of application

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(Figure 34.1) (Figure 34.2)

(Figure 34.3)

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1. Burning process is quasi steady.
2. Burning takes place in quiescent, infinite ambient air medium.
3. No interaction with other particles.
4. Effect of natural convection is ignored.
5. Burning is diffusion controlled.
6. Constant thermodynamic properties
7. Unity Lewis number
8. Gaseous species do not enter into gaseous species
9. No radiation heat transfer
10. Ideal gas law

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Mass conservation
--------(1)
Oxidizer species conservation
--------(2)
Energy conservation
--------(3)
Stoichiometric fuel-air ratio
--------(4)
Boundary Conditions:
--------(5)
--------(6)
Combining Eq. 4 and 6,
--------(7)

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Integrating Eq. 2 and applying b.c.,

--------(8)
Integrating the above equation further,
--------(9)
Applying the boundary condition,
--------(10)

increases exponentially with the increase in radius
at the solid surface

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At moderate temperature and for small particle, the oxygen mass fraction at the surface is given by
--------(11)
B is the mass transfer number
--------(12)
The carbon sphere burning rate is also governed by Law
where is the carbon burning constant.

Table: Combustion properties of slid spheres [7]
Fuel
(g/cm
3
)
MW
fuel
B.P
fuel
(C) f B
oxygen
B
air
Aluminium 2.70 27.0 2.467 1.12 1.12 0.26
Boron 2.34 10.8 2.550 0.451 0.451 0.105
Carbon 1.50 12.0 4.827 0.75 0.750 0.174
Carbon 1.50 12.0 4.827 0.375 0.375 0.087
Magnesium 1.74 24.3 1.107 1.107 1.520 0.353
Zirconium 6.44 91.2 3.578 3.578 2.850 0.662

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You can question everything around you,
You may find tangible answers to few,
You can question everything around me,
The answers, I posses are not necessarily mine.
- Dr. D.P. Mishra

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Module 7: Combustion and Environment

Introduction
Air Pollution Sources
Effect of CO Exposure on Human Health[1]

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Combustion and Environment
Introduction

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Major Health Ailments Due to Environmental pollution
(Figure 35.1)

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Air Pollution Sources

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Effect of CO Exposure on Human Health [1]
Source [1] D.P. Mishra Fundamental of Combustion, PHI Learning Rt Ltd., New Delhi, 2008
(Figure 35.2)

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Lecture 36: Atmosphere

Atmosphere
Chemical Emission From Combustion
Chemicals From Combustion (Contd..)

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Atmosphere
Figure 1: Variation of temperature with altitude
(Figure 35.3)

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Atmosphere
Source: http://www.theresilientearth.com/files/images/stratosphere_diagram.jpg
(Figure 36.1)

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Atmosphere (Contd..)
Troposphere
Region where we are living.
Contains 90% of the mass of the atmosphere.
Starts at ground level with 228 K and ends at 18 km (200 K) with 6 K drop in temperature per
km altitude.
Beyond 18 km, temperature rises. This inflection point is called Tropopause.
Tropopause divides troposphere from stratosphere.
Atmospheric boundary layer - 2 km from the ground level.
Combustion byproducts instantly affects this region.
Photochemical chain reaction begin with dissociation of ozone as given below
--------(1)
The atomic oxygen reacts with water vapor to form hydroxyl radical
--------(2)
The OH radical reacts with CO and initiates other chain reactions as below
--------(3)
--------(4)

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The peroxy radicals are recycled to OH by the following reaction:
----------(5)
Cycling of OH and is turned off by several reactions involving OH, and

----------(6)
NO and pair is produced via the following chain reactions.
----------(7)
----------(8)
----------(9)
--------(10)

Concentration of ozone and can also be influenced by non-photolytic reactions during night
time.

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Stratosphere
Region between tropopause (18 km) and stratopause (50 km).
Contains 9.5% of atmospheric mass.
The temperature increases from tropopause (220 K) to stratopause (280 K).
The chemicals from troposphere that are not destroyed are dissociated in this region.
CFC is converted into HF and mixture of CI compounds.
The photochemistry in the stratosphere is strongly affected by ozone layer.
The short wavelength cannot reach below 25 km due to the photochemistry.
This is how we are protected from the harmful UV rays.
Stratospheric column is the major absorber of solar UV between 220 and 320 nm.
Depletion of ozone layer will change the tropospheric chemistry in two ways
i. Lowers the flux of into troposphere
ii. Enhances the production of OH

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Chemical Emission From Combustion
Most of the fossil fuels can be depicted by the following chemical equation
Fuels contain sulphur , oxygen, nitrogen and certain heavy metals.
Air contains large amount of nitrogen.
Combustion process leads to the formation of
The quantities are sufficient enough to affect the quality of atmospheric air.
Total amount of fossil fuel burnt was around 6.2 Gt/Yr.
Another source of pollutant emission from combustion process is the biomass.
Total amount of biomass fuel burnt was around 3 to 5 Gt/Yr.
The combustion conditions for biomass combustion leads to higher emissions.

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Emission of
It has been observed that there is an imbalance in the atmospheric carbon-oxygen cycle.
CO is released directly into the atmosphere by incomplete combustion.
About 40% of CO in the atmosphere is contributed by the burning of fossil fuel.
CO level in southern hemisphere in around 50 ppb and in northern hemisphere it is 120 ppb.
Is the major portions CO produced form combustion?
NO! from the oxidation of methane generated by anaerobic bacteria in swamps and paddies.
Why there is a climate change?
Due to the change in CO
2
level.
Deforestation in recent days is the main cause for the accumulation of CO
2
in the biosphere.
Changes in land used by human beings contribute around 1 Gt(C)/yr CO
2
to atmosphere.
Global carbon cycle involves exchange of atmospheric CO
2
with carbon reservoir in ocean
and biosphere in several time scales.
It has been predicted that the freezing of current emissions would not really solve our problem
immediately.
CO
2
emission does not impact atmospheric chemistry directly but changes the temperature
and circulation, which indirectly changes the chemistry and climate.

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Lecture 37: Major Sources of CO Emission

Major Sources of CO Emission
Chemicals From Combustion
Major Sources of NO Emission
Quantification of Emission
Species Emission and Its Corrected Value

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Major Sources of CO Emission
Source category Emissions (Millions tons per year) %
Gasoline motor vehicles 95.8 36.69
Diesel, aircraft, trains, vessels 5.6 2.14
Off-highway vehicles 9.5 3.64
Coal 0.5 0.19
Fuel oil 0.1 0.038
Natural gas 0.1 0.038
Wood 0.1 0.038
Total stationary sources 0.8 0.30
Total fuel combustion 111.7 42.78
Industrial processes 11.4 4.36
Agricultural burning 13.8 5.28
Solid waste disposal 7.2 2.75
Miscellaneous 4.5 1.72
Total 261.1 100.0

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Chemicals From Combustion
Emission of
NO and are main components producing in troposphere.
The life of these gases are quite short even less than 1 day.
Combustion of fossil fuel is the largest source of .
The quantities are sufficient enough to affect the quality of atmospheric air.
Combustion of fossil fuel is the largest source of around 22 Mt/yr.
Stationary source contribution is around 13 Mt/yr.
Contribution of emission by biomass is quite small.
Due to combustion, there is a four fold increase in the tropospheric .
The major sources of emission and their contributions are depicted in the next section.

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Major Sources of NO Emission
Source category Emissions (Millions tons per year) %
Gasoline motor vehicles 7.8 17.53
Diesel, Aircraft , trains, ships 2.0 4.49
Off-highway vehicles 1.9 4.27
Coal 3.9 8.76
Fuel oil 1.3 2.92
Natural gas 4.7 10.56
Wood 0.1 0.22
Total fuel combustion 21.7 48.76
Industrial processes 0.2 0.45
Agricultural burning 0.3 0.67
Solid waste disposal 0.4 0.90
Miscellaneous 0.2 0.45
Total 44.5 100

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Emission of Hydrocarbon
Non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC) are short lived and highly reactive.
Oxidization of these hydrocarbons leads to the formation of .
Volatile organic compounds include NMHC as well as oxygenated species such as aldehydes
and alcohols.
These are mainly contributed by gasoline vehicles, solvent evaporation and biomass burning.
These bio-organic hydrocarbons are quite reactive and are usually destroyed within the
boundary layer.
Emission of Sulphur Dioxide and Sulphate Aerosols
Sulphur content of fossil fuels such as coal and oil is in the range of 0.5 2.5 by mass.
Sulphur in the fossil fuel is usually emitted as and leads to the formation of sulphuric
acid.
takes very less time to get converted into sulphate to wet or dry deposition on the earth
surface.
Combustion of fossil fuels contributes significant amount of in troposphere, which is about
80 Mt/yr.

Source SO
2
(Million tons per year)
Fossil fuel 80
Metal smelting 8
Biomass burning 2
Natural sources (Ocean, oil, vegetables) 25

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Quantification of Emission
Emission levels are reported in several different ways while dealing with different devices.
Gas turbine combustors: ppm by volume at 15% O
2
Furnace: ppm at 3% O
2
Automobiles: g/km
Boiler: g/kW
Species emission and its corrected value
Generally combustion system is characterized in terms of level of emissions.
Confusion prevails due to the change in sampling condition
Degree of dilution
Dry or wet condition
If the moisture is removed from the exhaust sample then it will yield dry concentration.
In some situations, it may not be possible to remove moistures, then it is known as wet
concentration.

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Consider a hydrocarbon fuel-air mixture at lean or stoichiometric condition
Wet mole fraction of species is defined as
Dry mole fraction of species is defined as
Carrying out an atom balance for O atom,
Ratio of total number of moles in wet mixture to dry mixture is

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Lecture 38: Species Emission and Its Corrected Value

Emission Control Methods
SO
x
Emission and Its Control

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The oxygen coefficient is given by
OR
The measured concentration of species at given oxygen level can be corrected to a specific
oxygen level as below
In order to assess the emission in a combustor or engine, it is important to define a normalized
indicator of emission level as below,
For combustion of hydrocarbon fuel, the emission index species is given by,

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Best method of reducing emission is to avoid using excess fuel.
Public awareness must be initiated to avoid unwanted burning of fuels.
Eco-friendly combustion devices have to be designed and developed.
Cost effective methods can be devised to treat the combustion products before allowing them
to the atmosphere.

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CO
x
Emission control

Storage in oceans may not be feasible due to non-availability of technology, however, geological
reservoirs are promising options for CO
2
storage.

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Figure: Schematic diagram of a CO
2
capture pilot plant for coal-based power plant
(Figure 38.1)
CO
2
is separated by means of absorption using mono-ethanol amine (MEA).
The plant consists of three parts
i. Absorber,
ii. Regenerator,
iii. Exchanger.
Exhaust gas is cooled to to 40-50C and fed to the absorption tower.
In the absorber, exhaust gas is mixed with mono-ethanol amine (MEA), which captures 90%
of CO
2
in the exhaust gas.
Amine stripper is used in the regenerator, which separates MEA and sends back to amine
absorption tower. This plant captures 1 million CO
2
per hour.

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SO
x
Sulphur is relatively inert and harmless to human beings.
Oxides of sulphur poses serious environmental problem.
Sulphur oxides are corrosive in nature.
Organic fuels such as coal, oil, wood, etc contain some sulphur.
SO is a highly reactive radical and its life time is few milliseconds.
Under fuel rich conditions, in addition to sulphur oxides, hydrogen sulphide, carbonyl sulphide,
and elemental sulphur are formed.
Understanding of the mechanism of sulphur oxides have not evolved to a maturity level.
(Figure 38.2)

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SO
x
Hydrosulphurization method
Effective method of desulphurizing coal and oil fuels.
This method treats fuels in the presence of hydrogen at high pressure and temperature.
Finely grounded coal is mixed with anthracene oil along with hydrogen to produce slurry.
The dissolved coal is passed through a pressure filtration unit in which pyretic sulphur is
removed.
A flash evaporator is used to convert the dissolved coal to low sulphur coal.
(Figure 38.3)

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Lecture 39: Emission and Its Control

SO
x
Forced Oxidation Limestone Wet Scrubber
Zeldovich Mechanism
Fenimore (Prompt) Mechanism
Fuel (N
2
O Intermediate) Mechanism

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SO
x
Gasification method
Sulphur dioxide emission due to burning of coal or fuel oil can be minimized by gasifying
them.
During gasification, coal undergoes partial oxidation resulting in CO and .
Sometimes, and other gases can also be produced during gasification of coal.
In this case, sulphur content gets converted into hydrogen sulphide , which can be removed
by absorption or adsorption method..
In absorption method, gases are scrubbed with alkaline reagent such as sodium carbonate or
ethylamine.
Subsequently elemental sulphur is produced.
In adsorption method, ferric oxide is used to adsorb hydrogen sulphide using fluidized bed
around 400C.

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Forced Oxidation Limestone Wet Scrubber
(Figure 39.1)

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NO
x
Nitrogen in atmosphere forms 8 different oxides during combustion.
The important oxides are NO, .
Is NO harmful to health than ?
is more harmful as compared to NO. By what reaction NO and are formed ?

For any chemical reaction, Gibbs free energy attains a minimum value for a particular
temperature and pressure
Equilibrium constant
Standard Gibbs free energy change
Table: Equilibrium concentration of NO and NO
2

300
7 X 10
-31
1.4 X 10
6
3.4 X 10
-10
2 X 10
-4
500
2.7 X 10
-18
130
7 X 10
-4
0.04
1000
7.5 X 10
-9
0.11 35 1.9
1500
1.07 X 10
-5
0.011 1320 6.8
2000 0.0004 0.0035 8100 13.2
2500 0.0035 0.0018 24000 20.0

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Zeldovich Mechanism
From the above table it is clear that emission can be reduced by decreasing the
temperature.
(Figure 39.2)
Thermal are formed by simple heating of oxygen and nitrogen.
The radical N' can react with to form NO.
Thermal NO contribution is low till 1300 K and beyond which it increases rapidly.
The thermal mechanism consists of the following two chain reactions.
--------(1)
--------(2)
--------(3)

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--------(6) --------(8)
--------(7) --------(9)


Fenimore (Prompt) Mechanism
Prompt mechanism refers to the which are formed very quickly by interaction of active
hydrocarbon species derived from fuel with nitrogen and oxygen.
They are generally not observed in flames of non-hydrocarbon flames.
They cannot be formed by just heating nitrogen with oxygen.
During initial phase of combustion, the radials with carbon atom react with to produce N.
--------(4)
This reaction is the main path which dictates the rate at which radical N' is formed.
The radical N' can also be formed by the following reaction.
--------(5)
When the equivalence ratio is less than 1.2, HCN can be converted to NO as follows,

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Fuel (N
2
O Intermediate) Mechanism
Thermal NO
is quite
small below
1300
o
C
Thermal NO
rises sharply
with
temperature
Both fuel NO
& prompt
NO do not
vary with
temperature
But prompt
NO
increases
marginally
with
temperature.
N
2
O intermediate
mechanism plays a very
important role for NO
control in lean premixed
combustion.
Three steps of N
2
O
intermediate mechanism
are given below;
(Figure 39.3)

Several techniques are devised to control in combustion as described in next section.

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Lecture 40: Combustion Modification Methods

NO
x
Control Technologies
Combustion Modification Methods
Particulate Controls

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NO
x
(Figure 40.1)

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NO
x
(Figure 40.2)

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Low excess air

(Figure 40.3)
Proper comprise between combustion efficiency, CO and emissions have to be arrived before
deciding the excess air.

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Staged Combustion
(Figure 40.4)
Most effective method to control formation.
Upstream burner operates in fuel rich mode.
Additional air is added in the downstream for burning of fuel in stages.
emissions can be reduced by 10 to 40%.

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Flame Cooling
Thermal NO can be controlled by reducing the temperature.
These three methods reduce the peak temperatures.
May lead to the formation of CO.
10 to 15% reduction in NO can be achieved by these methods
(Figure 40.5)

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Particulate Controls

Cyclone and hydro-cyclone separators are also employed to remove particulates.

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