http://www.ciadvertising.org/student_account/fall_01/adv392/anuta/promo/mainset.

htm
Current issues in Sales Promotion
The issue of sales promotion has been receiving increasing attention from both advertising and mareting
professionals and academicians. This increase of attention can be e!plained b" two ma#or interrelated factors:
first$ the nature of sales promotions % it brings certain measurable &as opposed to advertising' impact on sales$
which attracts man" mareting managers( it also has been proven b" time to be the effective collection of
techni)ues to increase sales. *owever$ the phenomenon of sales promotion is not studied ver" widel".
+ales promotions e!penditures for most of the companies are increasing$ however with the total promotional
budgets sta"ing relativel" the same it can be assumed that the increase of e!penditures on sales promotion
come at the e!pense of decreasing advertising budgets.
There are several reasons e!plaining this phenomena: Increased brand parity and price sensitivity of
consumer % with more brand choices available to the consumer and with the fact that product differences are
becoming less and less apparent$ consumers are becoming more and more reliant to the price and price
incentives. This goes hand in hand with another reason of increasing sales promotions budget % decreased
brand loyalty. ,onsumers are getting used to the fact that almost alwa"s at least one brand categor" is on sale
or on a sales promotional offer. -nother reason is coming from the routs of corporate culture and the reward
and promotion strateg" within corporations % in the conditions of severe competition there is increasing
pressure on brand managers to show fast results in terms of increased sales and nothing is as effective in
short run as sales promotions to achieve this goal. -nother e!planation has to do with the consumer
responsiveness to money saving options % for e!ample the results of .,* ,onsumer +urve" indicate that on
average /0.0 percent of consumers in 1+ used coupons over the period of 1992%1999. &+himp 1993'. 3ne
more reason for increasing sales promotion importance is that many product categories on the market are in
the mature stage and according to the product life c"cle theor"$ sales promotions are e!tremel" effective in
maturit" stage of the product helping to boost sales. &4lattberg$ .eslin 1990'. 5inall" the reason that is ver"
relevant to highl" competitive marets$ where companies find themselves constantl" fighting for the smallest
piece of maret share % "prisoner's dilemma" spiral % which is ver" similar to a price war situation.
6anufacturers are loced into defensive reactive escalation of sale promotional e!penditures. 7f one compan"
cuts its sales promotions$ it will suffer short%term loss$ chances are that competitors will tae advantage of that$
if the compan" increases its sales promotional e!penditures short term increase of sales might be ver" small
because competitor reacts. &4lattberg$ .eslin 1990'
4ecause of highl" practical importance of sales promotion the number of publications in trade press on sales
promotion has increased dramaticall" over the past decade. *owever the same is not true for academic press.
Though there is a certain increase of articles on the topic in the academic #ournals$ there still are a lot of
potential areas for research that didn8t receive enough attention. The purpose of this paper is to reveal what is
reall" nown and proven about sales promotions$ to s"stemati9e nowledge alread" available$ discuss different
models available in literature and to identif" possible directions of future research. :lease note that this paper
is not intended to discuss the issues relevant to each particular element of sales promotion$ rather it is focused
on the general issues and characteristics shared b" all &or most' of the components.
Uncertain Definitions of Sales Promotions
+"stemati9ation of nowledge on sales promotion 7 believe should start from s"stemati9ing the definitions of
concept. There is lac of conformit" in methodolog" and hence in the definition of what can be considered
sales promotion. &;otler 19/3$ <ev" 19=1$ +himp 1993'. The word "promotion" comes from a <atin word
meaning >to move forward>. +o$ in this case an" tool&s'$ method&s'$ techni)ue &s' that stimulates the growth of
the sales can be considered a part of sales promotion. *owever this is not that simple.
There are number of different definitions focusing on various characteristics of sales promotion. This
diversification as it will be shown later pla"s ver" important role in identif"ing ob#ectives and models for
promotions.
1. >+ales promotion consists of a diverse collection of incentive tools$ mostl" short%term designed to stimulate
)uicer and/or greater purchase of a particular product b" consumers or the trade.> &;otler$ 19//'
. >+ales promotion is the direct inducement or incentive to the sales force$ the distributor or the consumer
2
with the primar" ob#ective of creating and immediate sale> &+hult9$ ?obinson 19/2'
!. >+ales promotion is the methods or techni)ues for creating public acceptance of or interest in a product$
usuall" in addition to standard merchandising techni)ues$ such as advertising$ and personal selling( generall"
consisting of the offer of free samples$ gifts made to purchaser etc. &?andom *ouse 1nabridged @ictionar"
19/3'
". >+ales promotion represents those mareting efforts that are supplementar" in nature$ are conducted for a
limited period of time and see to induce bu"ing > &@avis$ 19/1'
b. +ales promotions are all mareting activities that attempt to stimulate to )uic bu"er action or attempt to
promote immediate sales of product> &+himp$ 1993'
-ll those definitions are stressing different aspects of sales promotions and all of them are correct ones. There
are several common characteristics that might be drown out of these definitions. &4lattberg$ .eslin 1990'
#$ Sales promotions are action focused % the emphasis is on consumer to mae some action in a limited
period of time.
%$ Sales promotions are marketing events % the" all happen within mareting strateg" of the compan"/
organi9ation. -s earl" as in 192= researchers were concerned that interaction of the promotions with other
elements of mareting mi! should not be ignored &Angel 192='. 4ecause promotions include so man"
difference tools and mechanisms there is an ongoing threat of viewing sales promotional techni)ues in
isolation from other mareting mi! elements.
C$ Sales promotions are designed to have a direct impact on behavior. 7t is argued in the literature that
while advertising goes through the process of cognition and then influences an action$ promotion is believed to
wor directl" on behavior. -lso$ sales promotion gives e!trinsic reason to bu" a product$ whereas advertising
focuses to internal )ualities or brand e)uit" of the product. - common assumption is that advertising$ word%of%
mouthor the salesperson has infromed the consumer about the product$ while sales promotion gives them
additional reasons to bu".
Taing into account the points discussed above the summari9ed definition of sales promotion can be presented
as follows:
"Sales promotion is an action&focused marketing event whose purpose is to have a direct impact on the
behavior of the firm's customers"' &4lattberg$ .eslin 1990'. 3ne of the aspects that is not reflected in this
operational definition is the short%term effect of promotion$ this issue is still under discussion and will be
addressed later in the paper.
(orms and )b*ectives of sales promotion
There are man" sales promotional techni)ues &and the number is still growing with the development of new
wa"s to reach consumers'$ but the" can apparentl" be reduced to 12 classical and widel" used. The rest of the
techni)ues usuall" include some ind of combination of these 12 most used techni)ues of sales promotion.
1' Sampling % the use of various distribution methods to deliver actual or trail si9e products to consumers with
the purpose to initiate trial.
' Coupons % - promotional device that provides a price%off to consumer upon redeeming the coupon
!' +rade incentives & incentives that are given to retail managers and sales people for performing tass such as
displa"ing merchandise or selling certain lines of merchandise.
"' +rade allowances % deals that are offered to retailers for performing activities in support of manufacturer
brand
0. Price&offs % promotion which entails a reduction in the brand8s regular price.
,' -n. on. and near&packs /and reusable containers$ % speciall" designed pieces that retailers give to
consumers who purchase the promoted product.
3
0' (ree&in the mail premiums & a promotion in which consumers receive premium item from the sponsoring
manufacturer in return for submitting a re)uired number of proofs of purchase.
1' Self&li2uidating premiums % a method where the consumer mails in a stipulated number of proofs of a
purchase along with the fee to cover manufacturer8s costs of shipping and handling of premium item. 5rom
manufacturer8s point of view this form of promotion is cost free$ and therefore the name is self%litigating.
3' Contests and sweepstakes % a form of consumer oriented promotion in which winners receive pri9es$ cash$
or merchandise.
14' 5efund offers % - cash reimbursement to the consumer b" the manufacturer whose product the consumer
has purchased.
11' %onus packs & A!tra%)uantities of a product that compan" gives to consumers at a regular price.
1' Stamp plans and continuity premiums & t"pe of promotion where the consumer is getting rewarded for
continuos use or repetitive purchase of a product/service$ f.e! fre)uent fl"er programs.
These techni)ues can be trade or consumer oriented.
4ecause sales promotional tools are so varied in form$ no single unified ob#ective can be identified for them.
There are three ma#or contributions of sales promotions that have practical influence of the ob#ectives of
promotion: &;otler 19//'
1' Communication % promotions gain attention and usuall" provide information that ma" lead the consumer to
the product
' -ncentive % the" incorporate some concession$ inducement or contribution designed to represent value to the
receiver
!' -nvitation % promotions include a distinct invitation to engage in the transaction now.
Bithin these three ma#or goals that sales promotion help to accomplish$ specific ob#ectives might be reach of
new users$ reinforcement lo"alt" of old users$ increase product usage$ introduction of new product$ increase
distribution channels$ 3btain trade support and improve or built trade relationship. 5or )uic reference please
see Table 1.
Table 1: +ource: +himp T$ > :romotional 6anagement and 6areting ,ommunications>
C
-s it is mentioned in the beginning of the paper$ the primar" ob#ective is to identif" common traits of sales
promotional techni)ues and not each of its elements separatel". +o$ 78ll proceed taling about the ob#ectives of
sales promotions and what sales promotion can do for the compan" and what it can8t do.
6hat sales promotion can do7 8yth vs' 5eality
This part of the paper organi9ed as following % each point is presented and then anal"9ed in respect of the
research done in that area. 6ost of the points are ver" logical assumptions that an"one in the mareting and
advertising believes in$ however 7 couldn8t trace the research done to #ustif" some of those points$ that is the
reason that several of the issues are #ust mentioned without overview of the research findings in the area. These
are potential white spots of sales promotion and would the research be conducted some of the ver" interesting
findings ma" come out. +ome of this points have been proven practicall" b" the industr". but that ind of
research was be"ond the scope of academic literature review'
Consumer oriented deals
1' Sales promotion can obtain trial of the product'
>7nnovate or @ie> nowada"s ma" be the slogan for man" companies$ especiall" in food and health industr".
This view is reflected in the number of new products introduced "earl"( .ew :roduct .ews reports that in
1990s$ there were 13$2CC introductions with 10$301 introductions coming from food categories. 7n 1999$ the
comparable figure for the food categor" was 9$/1C$ with the highest introductions in condiments$ cand"$
baer" foods$ dair" products$ and beverages. The evidence is clear: retailers are confronted "earl" with large
numbers of introductions in a wide variet" of categories. &@esira#u 2001' 3bviousl" in these conditions one of
the best wa"s to get "our product noticeable to consumer and to mae them switch from other brands is sales
promotions techni)ues.
' Sales promotion can encourage repeat usage of the product or increase product usage by loading
consumers'
The first part of this argument is supported b" .eslin$ Duelich$ *enderson 19/2 % the results of their research
show that acceleration of purchase )uantit" is stronger among heav" users that light users.
!' -nvigorate the use of mature product
"' Sales promotion can affect purchase acceleration % *ere two aspects of purchase acceleration should be
considered % increased )uantit" and decreased interpurchase time. &.eslin$ Duelich$ *enderson 19/2'.
*owever there is a ver" important )uestion % how these two aspects will influence &counteract' each other due
to the stocpiling effect. -s it was shown in the above mentioned research &see also Eupta 19//'$ purchase
acceleration is predominantl" e!hibited in increased purchase )uantities rather than shortened interpurchase
times.
9' Sales promotion can introduce a new or improved product or different packaging
,' Sales promotion can be used to neutrali:ed competitive advertising or sales promotion
0' -n general sales promotions can built on brand sales more rapidly than advertising' -t was discussed
earlier in this paper sales promotion tend to produce sharp and fast increase in sales of the brand. This however
was opposed b" the issue of short term and long term impact of the promotion$ discussed later on in the paper.
7n addition to that one issue that is worth discussing here is cost /sales ratio for advertising and promotion.
Ampirical stud" has shown that variation in the firm level ratio of advertising and promotion is the function of
maret share$ maret growth rate and the interaction between the two. -nd though replication of the stud" did
not confirm the results of the original research$ this is still considered as one of the possible e!planations of the
variations of the levels of advertising and promotional e!penditures for different companies.
&4alasubramanian$ ;umar 1990$ -ilawadi$ 5arris$ :arr" 199=( 4alasubramanian$ ;umar 199='
+rade oriented Deals
0
3' Sales promotion can obtain feature pricing. displays. and other dealer in&store support
14' Sales promotions can help to increase or reduce trade inventories
11' Sales promotion can help to e;pand distribution'
6hat sales promotions can't do
Consumer oriented deals
1' Sales promotion cannot built brand loyalty or enhance brand image'
Bhile the first part of the statement is now perceived as a!iom$ there are disputes over the fact whether sales
promotions have negative effect on brand e)uit" and brand evaluation. The classic research done b" @obson$
T"bout and +ternal &19=/'argued that use of promotion decrease the brand evaluation. This was supported b"
self%perception theor" % ps"chological model of response to sales promotion suggested b" +aw"er and @icson
&19/C'. *owever the further research on this issue &.eslin and +howmaer 19/9( +cott @avis$ F. 7nman$ <.
6c-llister 1992' shows the absence of the negative effect on the brand evaluations. 7t is actuall" suggested
that with low involvement product categor" promotions might actuall" have positive influence on brand
evaluation +cott @avis$ F. 7nman$ <. 6c-llister 1992'.
' Sales promotion can not reverse a declining sales trend
-ccording to research done probabilit" of repurchase after purchasing on deal will var" according to the t"pe
of sales promotion and the cues that these promotion sent.&+aw"er and @icson 19/C'
!' Sales promotion can not change basic consumer non&acceptance of the product
"' Sales promotion can not compensate for inade2uate levels of consumer advertising
9' Sales promotion cannot overcome product problems in pricing. packaging. 2uality or performance'
Trade
1. +ales promotion cannot compensate for a poorl" trained sales force
2. +ales promotion cannot overcome poor product distribution
3. +ales promotion cannot compensate for a lac of consumer advertising
http<==www'ciadvertising'org=student>account=fall>41=adv!3=anuta=promo=effectiveness'htm
?ffectiveness and success factors of sales promotion
Sales promotions are most effective
1. 3n new brands en#o"ing and improving competitive trend
2. 7n con#unction with a sales drive to increase store distribution
3. Bhen used onl" occasionall"
C. 7n addition to % rather than a replacement of brand advertising.
These four conditions were taen from F.3. :echam8s list from >Bheel of 6areting> published in 19==.
&+huhlt9 19/2'. The real challenge is now to see whether these conditions have changed resulting in sales
promotions being effective in other situations and not effective in those described above over time. .o
research was found not confirm these conditions.
?esearch &based on empirical stud" of most successful sales promotional campaigns' indicates that several
variables are pla"ing a ver" important role in determining the effectiveness of sales promotion. 3ne of the
main correlate of successful promotions is greater sales force support and trade support &*ard" 19/2'.
2
3ther factors that are considered somewhat less important relative to sales force and trade support is incentive
level that that particular promotion gives &*ard" 19/2'.
@ow to evaluate effectiveness
3ne of the approaches to evaluate sales promotions recentl" discussed in the literature recentl" is based on the
fact that sales promotion is merel" an alternative element of a compan"8s communication pacage$ so the
e!trapolation of the concepts of communication into the sales promotion sphere is ver" appropriate. -s with
advertising and other forms of media$ promotions spea directl" to the consumer and the ma#or function then
becomes the one of communication. &+ee ob#ectives of sales promotions'. @etermining the effectiveness of a
particular promotion can be a matter of how well the plan communicates with the intended consumer. 7n other
words$ companies can gain a better understanding of their customers and the effectiveness of their promotional
plans b" understanding the communication elements triggered b" their plan. &Eardener$ Trivedi 199/'
8odels = 8easurements of Sales Promotions
-s 7 mentioned in the beginning of m" paper the effects of sales promotion are more measurable than for
e!ample effects of advertising$ especiall" nowada"s with all the scanned data available through retailers. The
possibilit" of measuring to predict sales promotion was first mentioned b" <ee -dler in as earl" as 1923. *e
presents one of the first methods/models of measuring effectiveness of sales promotion$ where he correlates the
ob#ectives of each form of sales promotion with the specific method of measurement. &<ee -dler$ 1923'.
*owever$ surprisingl" enough )uantitative anal"sis of sales promotion activities have not led to the same level
of sophistications that found in advertising decision maing models. The reason for that might be that for a
long time sales promotion was perceived as pla"ing secondar" role to advertising and personal selling( some
earl" definitions of sales promotion presented in the beginning of this paper clearl" indicate that. 7n spite of
this there are several classical models of sales promotion that were developed decade or two ago but are still
used anal"9ing sales promotions.
+he Auehn&5ohlov model
This is the learning brand%switching model that are designed to evaluate promotions in several wa"s % first the"
show who is attracted b" the promotions$ and then separate the ones that have higher pre%purchase probabilit".
The authors also demonstrate how to use the model to stud" the relationship among deal t"pe$ brand$ and
product%to%product repurchases for both new bu"ers and for e!isting customers.
5ao&Binnen 8odel
This model was developed on the base of the franchise%retail environment$ and though it is still not clear
whether the model can be used outside franchise%retailing environment it has number of crucial characteristics.
3ne of the most important characteristics of this model is that is able to deal with multiple simultaneous
promotions and shows how #oint effects of multiple simultaneous promotions can be handled. 7t is the first
model that deals with the #oint competitive effects and the #oint effects of several promotions simultaneousl".
Bittle's %randaid Promotional 8odel
This is part of the 4randaid aggregate mareting model developed b" <ittle. *e actuall" loos at two contracts
% promotional time and promotional response function. The idea behind the model is that when consumers
now that there is a promotion coming the" might postpone the bu"ing of the product.
3ne of the aspects that receives increasing attention in the promotional modeling in promotional e!penditures.
*ow much to spend on sales promotion relative to advertising was the topic of several researches done for the
last 20 "ears.
)ther important considerations in sales promotion
3ne of the areas of sales promotion that are still under discussion and that deserve to be mentioned separatel"
due to its high importance is long&term effects of sales promotion. 6an" "ears it was argued that promotional
activities have onl" short%term effect on sales and brand preferences whereas advertising essentiall" builds on
brand e)uit". *owever some modern research challenges this view. There is some published wor that studies
the long run effects of promotions and advertising.
=
-nother important aspect of sales promotion is customer's attitude towards sales promotional activities.
-gain$ one of the spread conceptions is that consumers reall" the" don8t remember promotional offers$ don8t
understand the effect and benefits of all the promotional activities. .umber of findings in research prove this
case$ for e!ample +cott et all &1992'$ @icson and +aw"er &1990' found that consumers in our stud" appear to
remember information about promotions ver" poorl"$ the" were not able to identif" the depth of the price cuts.
@icson and +aw"er &19/2' suggested number of ps"chological models of consumer response to promotional
activities. The implications of this models give an insight into short%term versus long%term communication
effect of sales promotions. 7n respect to the issue of consumer response a research done b" 5o!$ ?edd" and
?ao 199= should be mentioned. The" studied repetitive promotional stimulus and consumer response to that.
8arket trends influence on sales promotion
7n 19/= @ouglas *ale" identified 10 trends of the maret that have showed influence of promotional strateg"
of companies. +ome of those trends are valid till now.
1' Promotion Proliferation % there are man" forms and combinations of sales promotions techni)ues that are
being used nowada"s. Their relative importance might change over time but the fact is that the" are growing
both in terms of the mone" spent on them and in variet"$ that includes uses of new media and new forms of
communications.
' Scanned data % nowada"s we possess incredible amount of ver" valuable information obtained via scanners
in the retailing stores. The industr" have the technolog" to trac the purchases$ however it hasn8t reall"
discovered the wa"s to use this data ver" efficient. This definitel" presents a real challenge for future research.
!' Decreasing response time % this wors both for the consumers and for the companies. Bith the improving
communication channels and the increase of the speed of communication process &here one might argue % with
the increase of pace of life in general' consumers are responding faster to the promotional offers$ if the" are
interested. The same principle holds for the competitors8 response. % companies tend to react faster to the
promotional offers of their rival$ decreasing therefore the amount of return on the initial promotional offer of
competitor &see the prisoner8s dilemma8s spiral'.
"' )n&line promotions & Cew challenge
Bhile writing about the sales promotion nowada"s$ one can8t ignore the issue of increasing sales promotional
activities online. This is ver" important and valuable component of dot.com operations. -s indicated in Table 2
,oupons and other t"pe of promotions have ver" important role in driving traffic to the website and in overall
compan"8s operations. There are reasonable amount of research published in the area of online sales
promotion$ however most of them carr" over the same problem as research on sales promotion in general %
research done in the area of sales promotion focus on particular element of promotional mi! % for e!ample
/
online coupons or fre)uent mile programs. Get$ there is a clear need for developing general theoretical base and
models for online promotions.
Potential areas of research
1' Combining attitude data with scanner data< 1nfortunatel" now scanner data lac consumer attitudes data
which is considered to be more stable and long run predictors of choice than are short run mareting activities.
7n this respect two important directions are being developed now. 5irst$ some companies alread" are beginning
to collect attitudinal data from scanner panel members. +econd$ models for combining stated preferences with
revealed preferences are being developed$ this combination of ps"chometric and scanner data will provide
invaluable insights into consumer choice behavior.&Eupta 1993'
' Cross&category analyses: 6ost of the research studies to date$ with a few notable e!ceptions$ have
estimated and validated their models using a single data set. -ccording to Eupta e!tending such anal"ses to
multiple categories will provide at least three benefits. 5irst$ it will establish better generali9abilit" of results
across different product categories. +econd$ it will allow to stud" consumers8 choice of a shopping baset.
Thrid$ such anal"ses will be useful to understand the store choice and traffic issues.
"' )ptimal decisions< The empiricall" based models are primaril" descriptive in nature and though >what%if>
simulations can provide a sense of >good> or >bad> decision strategies$ this is not alwa"s true and as efficient
as we want that to be. +o one of the possible directions of research to develop normative models that use the
results of the descriptive models as the basis to generate optimal mareting mi! decisions. &Eupta 1993'
Bimitations of this review
-s it was mentioned in the beginning of this paper it was intended to be general overview of the academic
literature on sales promotion( it was not focused on an" of the particular techni)ues of sales promotion. That is
the reason that man" of the articles that are focused on some particular techni)ue were not mentioned here. +o
as the follow up of this literature review there should be more done to uncover what we reall" now about the
effectiveness$ application and models for each of the vehicles of sales promotion.
-nother limitation of this paper is that though in some parts of the paper trade promotions are mentioned$ 7
was not particularl" focused on the distinguishing between promotions targeted on consumers and on the trade.
This is another possible direction of the literature review.
5inall" third limitation of the paper$ as 7 see that comes from the overall problem spot on sales promotional
research % generali9ation issues. 6an" of the researches cited here done on particular products or product
categor". *owever in most of the cases the authors e!pressed the confidence of possible generali9ation of the
results. 3therwise$ if the results were ver" specific for the product categor" or research conditions$ 7 didn8t
include that in this review.
-ilawadi ;usum$ :aul 5arris and 6ar :arr" >A!plaining Hariations in -dvertising and :romotional
,osts/+ales ?atio: - reanal"sis> Journal of Marketing$ 21 &Fanuar"' pp. 93%92
4alasumbamanian +. and ;umar H. &1990' >-nal"9ing Hariations in -dvertising and :romotional
A!penditures: ;e" ,orrelates in ,onsumer$ 7ndustrial and +ervice 6areting> Journal of Marketing$ 0C
&-pril' pp. 0=%2/
4alasumbamanian +. and ;umar H. &199=' >A!plaining Hariations in -dvertising and :romotional ,osts/+ales
?atio: - reanal"sis> Journal of Marketing$ 21 &Fanuar"' pp. /0%92
@esira#u ?amarao &2001' >.ew :roduct 7ntroductions$ +lotting -llowances$ and ?etailer @iscretion> Journal
of Retailing =1$ 7ssue 3$ &5all' p.330
@icson$ :eter and -lan +aw"er &1990'$ >:oint of :urchase 4ehavior and :rice :erceptions of +upermaret
+hoppers> Journal of Marketing$ 0C &Ful"'$ C2%03
@obson$ Foe$ -lice T"bout$ 4rian +ternal &19=/' >7mpact of @eals and @eals ?etraction on 4rand +witching:>
Journal of Marketing Research$ 10 &5ebruar"' =2%/1
Angel F.5.$ *.E. Bales$ and Barshaw "Promotional strategy" 7rwin 192=
9
Eardener$ Ali9abeth( Trivedi$ 6inashi - communication framewor to evaluate sales promotion strategies.
Journal of Advertising Research$ 6a"/Fun9/$ Hol. 3/ 7ssue 3$ p2=%=2.
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Marketing Research$ 30 &.ovember'$ 7ssue C$ p.3C2%300
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Journal of Marketing Research$ 30 &.ovember'$ 7ssue C$ p022%2C
*ard" E. ;enneth >;e" factors for 6anufacturers8 +ales :romotions in :acaged Eoods> Journal of
Marketing$ 00 &Ful" 19/2'$ 13%23
*ale" @ouglas &19/='$ >Trends that influence +ales :romotion 7ndustr">$ 19/= Nielsen Researcher.
.orthbroo$ 7ll.$ 19/2//=
;otler$ :hilip$ "Marketing Management: Analysis Planning Implementation and !ontrol" 2th ed. Anglewood
,liffs .F: :rentice *all 19//
<ee -dler >+ales :romotion Affectiveness ,an be measured> Journal of Marketing$ 29 &Fanuar" 1923'$ 29%=0
.eslin +cott$ Fohn Duelch$ ,aroline *enderson >,onsumer :romotions and the acceleration of product
purchase.> in Research on Sales Promotion: !ollected Papers$ ed. ;. Foc9$ 6areting +cience 7nstitute 1000
,ambridge 6- 19/C pp. 22%C2
.eslin +cott and ?obert +hoemaer &19/9' >-n alternative e!planation for <ower ?epeat ?ates -fter
:romotional :urchases> Journal of Marketing Research$ 22 &6a"' 200%213
Random "ouse #na$ridged %ictionary &19/3'$ ?andom *ouse .G$ 19/3 second edition
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6- 19/C pp. 1%21
+cott @avis $ F. 7nman and <eigh 6c-llister &1992' >:romotion *as a negative effect on 4rand Avaluations %
3r does itJ -dditional @isconfirming Avidence> Journal of Marketing Research$ 29 &5ebruar"' 1C3% 1C/
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10